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- - THE TWENTY-SECOND
es:

ANNUAL REPORT

AND
pesTRact OF PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

BRIGHTON AND SUSSEX

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

ADOPTED AT A MEETING HELD

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 9th, 1875.

Price ONE SHILLING AND SIXPENCE. °

*

BRIGHTON :

_ PRINTED BY D. O'CONNOR, “GUARDIAN” OFFICE, 34, NORTH STREET.

1875.

THE TWENTY-SECOND

ANNUAL REPORT

AND
fresTRactT OF PROCEED! NGS

OF THE

BRIGHTON AND SUSSEX

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

ADOPTED AT A MEETING HELD

THURSDAY, SHPTEMBER OQth, 1875.

Price ONE SHILLING AND SIXPENCE.

BRIGHTON :

PRINTED BY D. O'CONNOR, ‘‘GUARDIAN” OFFICE, 34, NORTH STREET.

1875.

£,

President:

MR. J. DENNANT.

Wice-Presidents :

MR. HOLLIS, DR. HALL,

MR. BIGGE, MR. T. GLAISYER,
DR. HALLIFAX, MR. T. H. HENNAH,
MR. SIMONDS, MR. F. MERRIFIELD,
MR. PENLEY, MR. HASELWOOD,
MR. GWATKIN, MR. T. B. HORNE,
MR. W. E. C. NOURSE, MR. ALDERMAN COX.

SIR J. CORDY BURROWS,

Treaster :

MR. THOMAS GLAISYER,
12, North Street.

Bommittes :

MR. BENJAMIN LOMAX, MR. G. D. SAWYER,
MR. C. P. SMITH, MR. E. H. WILLETT,
MR. DENNET, MR J. WILLS.

Honorary Secretaries:

MR. T. W. WONFOR, MR. J. C. ONIONS,
38, Buckingham Place. 56, Middle Street.

Honorary Librarian and Burator:

MR. ROBERT GLAISYER,
The Dispensary, Queen’s Road.

At the Twenty-second Annual Meeting of the BricHToN anp
Sussex Naturat History Society, held in the Curator’s Room,
Free Library and Museum, Church Street, September 9th, 1875.

It was RESOLVED,—

That the Report, Abstract of Proceedings, and Treasurer’s
Account, now brought in, be received, adopted, and entered on the
minutes, and printed for circulation as usual.

That the cordial thanks of this Meeting be given to the Honorary
Secretaries, Honorary Treasurer, and Honorary Librarian, for their
labours in preparing the same.

That the following gentlemen be elected as Officers of the Society
for the ensuing year :—President: Mr. Dennant; Treasurer: Mr.
Thomas Glaisyer; Committee: Mr. Benjamin Lomax, Mr. C. P.
Smith, Mr, Dennet, Mr G. D. Sawyer, Mr Ernest H. Willett, and Mr.
J. Wills. Honorary Secretaries: Mr. T. W. Wonfor and Mr. J. C.
Onions; Honorary Librarian and Curator, Mr. R. Glaisyer.

That the sincere thanks of this Meeting be given to the Vice-
Presidents, Treasurer, Committee, Honorary Secretaries, and
Honorary Librarian for their services during the past year.

SPECIAL BUSINESS.

That the following words be inserted in Rule 14 after the word
“evening”: “Except in the months of July and August, during
‘which no meetings will be held;” and that in Rules 4 and 16 the
word “October” be substituted for the word “ September.”

That the Committee appoint sub-Committees to undertake the
several branches indicated in Mr. Wonfor’s paper, read at the
Ordinary Meeting on the 12th of August last.

(Signed) J. EK. HASELWOOD,
Chairman.

It was ALso REsoLveD,—

That the warmest thanks of this Meeting be presented to Mr.
Ald, Cox for his able conduct as President during the past year.

REPORT.

In presenting the Twenty-second Annual Report your Committee
have the pleasure of recording the continued prosperity of the
Society, which has considerably increased in number during the
past year. They regret the loss which the Society has sustained
by the death of two of its Members, viz., Mr. J. Howell and Mr.
G. Scott, the latter one of the Vice-Presidents and Honorary
Librarian, and who had for many years taken an active part in
promoting the prosperity of the Society, and rendered valuable aid
in obtaining the accommodation for the Society at the Free Library

and Museum.

The state of the finances is very satisfactory. The sum of
42 10s. remains in the hands of the Treasurer, after expending

£29 4s. 2d. in the purchase of new books and periodicals.

The following books have been presented to the Society
during the year:— Eleventh Annual Report of the Belfast
Naturalists’ Field Club and Guide to Belfast (from the Society) ;
Report and Proceedings of Eastbourne Natural History Society

(from the Society) ; Journal of the Quekett Club (from the Society) ;

~

[3 |

Annual Report and Proceedings of Maidstone and Mid-Kent
Natural History, Microscopical, and Philosophical Society for 1875
(from the Society); Report of Lewes and East Sussex Natural
History Society (from the Society); Quarterly Reports of Sub-
Wealden Exploration (from the Secretary) ; Remarkable Forms of
Animal Life on the Norwegian Coast, by G. O. Sars (from the
Author) ; Sur les Brachiopodes Tertiares de Belgique, by T. David-
son, F.R.S., F.G.S. (from the Author); on the Trimerellidz, by T.
Davidson, F.R.S., F.G.S., and W. King (from the Authors) ;
Geological Magazine (from Mr. H. Willett); The Glaciation of
the Southern Part of the Lake District, and the Presidential
Address before the Keswick Literary and Scientific Society, by J.
Clifton Ward, F.G.S. (from the Author) ; On the Cephalopoda Bed
and Oolite Sands at Dorset and Somerset, by J. Buckman, F.G.S.
(from the Author) ; Flora of Eastbourne, by F. C. S. Roper, ris.
F.G.S. (from the Author) ; Proceedings of Geologists’ Association
(from the Society). From the Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
U.S.A.: Report of the Society for 1873; Daily Bulletin of
Weather Reports for October and November, 1872; Birds of the
North West; Geological and Geographical Survey of Colorado ;
Geological Survey of Missouri, with Atlas ; List of Elevations West
of the Mississippi River; Cretaceous Flora of the Territories ;
Catalogue of the Publications of the United States Geological

Survey of the Territories.

The following books have been purchased during the year :—
Medical Botany, Woodville ; Missionary Travels and Researches,
Livingstone ; Last Journals of Livingstone, by H. Waller, F.G:S. ;
Contributions to Solar Physics, Lockyer; Text Book of Botany,

Li a

Sachs ; Corals and Coral Islands, J. D. Dana; Log Book of a
Fisherman and Geologist, F. Buckland; Insectivorous Plants,
Darwin ; Memoirs of Sir R. I. Murchison, Geikie; Climate and
Time, Croll; Our Summer Migrants, Harting ; Harvesting Ants
and Trap-door Spiders, Appendix, Moggeridge ; Mineralogy and
Appendix, Dana; Cave Hunting, Boyd Dawkins; On the Microscope,
Carpenter ; Scottish Cryptogamic Flora, Greville ; Episodes of
Insect Life ; Dictionary of Science, Brande and Cox; Heart of

Africa, Schweinfurth.

Periodicals: Entomologist; Entomologists’ Monthly Magazine ;
Geological Magazine; Grevillea; Linnean Society, Transactions
of; Monthly Microscopical Journal; Popular Science Review ;
Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science ; Quarterly Journal of

Science ; Science Gossip ; Zoologist.

The number of volumes in the Library is 858, exclusive of
pamphlets and unbound current periodicals, and your Committee
are pleased to learn that the circulation of books continues to

increase.

A numbered Catalogue of the books belonging to the Society
can be consulted at all times at the Library counter of the Free
Library and Museum, and Members can obtain the Society’s books
on loan on application to the Assistant-Librarian during the hours

the Institution is open.

Your Committee are pleased to hear that the public have
made great use of the Society’s books during the past year, and that
~ the books have not received any damage at the hands of the
public.

ae

During the year the Society’s Microscopical Cabinet, which
now contains 257 slides, has received donations of slides from the

following gentlemen: Mr. T. Curteis and Mr. T. W. Wonfor.

The Conversazione held in the month of February, 25th,’ at
the Royal Pavilion, was very successful, both in the number of
those who were present and in the variety and character of the
entertainment. A detailed account will be found in the pro-

ceedings.

Scarcely any response having been made to the circular
inviting assistance in verifying the fauna and flora of Sussex, as
suggested in Mr. Wonfor’s paper of April roth, 1873, that gentleman
read, on August 12th, this year, a second paper, in which he
suggested a scheme by which the Society might accomplish that
and other objects, and which your Committee hope will meet with

your approval.

The thanks of the Society are due to those gentlemen who
have read papers, exhibited objects, or presented slides for the
cabinet, photographs and drawings for the Society’s album, or

specimens.

The Society is to be congratulated on the increased attendance
at its meetings, the far greater accommodation afforded at the Free
Library and Museum, and the growing interest taken by the

Members in the welfare of the Society.

The Field Excursions since the last report have been as

follows :—September, 1874, Cissbury ; October, Falmer; May, 1875,

[9]

Balcombe ; June, West Grinstead (postponed in consequence of

weather) ; July, Newhaven ; August, West Grinstead.

The Annual Excursion took place on the znd August to
Battle Abbey, and the Sub-Wealden Exploration at Netherfield.

In concluding their Report, your Committee beg to request
the Members to endeavour to promote the prosperity of the
Society by bringing its merits under the notice of their friends, by
contributions of works of Natural History to the Library, of
photographs or drawings of objects of Natural History for the
: album, and of slides for the Microscopical Cabinet, and particularly

Sh

by Reading Papers during the ensuing year.

mootmact ‘OF PROCEEDINGS:

18'74.-5.

SEPTEMBER toth.

ANNUAL MEETING.

The retiring President, Mr. J. H. HASELWooD, before vacating
the chair, said that as it was officially his “last dying speech and
confession,” he asked for their sympathy. First of all, he thanked
very cordially the whole of the Members for the loyalty they had
on all occasions manifested towards him, and for their attendance
at the various meetings. During the year they had shifted from
their old place of meeting into more comfortable quarters, and
this, probably, had attracted more to their meetings.

Future years, he hoped, would find the number still increasing,
for there could be no doubt that it was much more instructive and
enjoyable when the attendances were large than when small.

With regard to the Committee, he was glad to be able to say
that he had never been associated with a body of men between
whom there existed a more kindly feeling. And this was equally
the case with the Secretaries, from whom he had received the
greatest assistance, and who worked together most amicably, their
departments, the scientific and the business, never clashing the one
with the other, or causing any jealousies to arise between them.

“Thee

[il]

While speaking of the Secretaries, there was one point to which he
should like to allude—the statement which was sometimes made
(though it had never been made to him) as to the important and
continuous part played by Mr. Wonfor in the affairs of the Society.
It was said there was too much of Mr. Wonfor; and so, perhaps,
there was in one sense. But this was the fault of the Members
themselves; if they came forward and did their duty better than
they had yet done, there would be no occasion for him to act as a
stop-gap so often as he had to.

Knowing Mr. Wonfor, he was in a position to say that no man
had less desire to monopolise the time of the meetings than he; he
would only be too glad if the other Members came forward and took
their share in the discussions, without falling back so much upon
him. His position, however, was one which must always be
recognised, for the greater portion of the burden of the Society
fell upon his shoulders.

Those Members who, during his period of office, had con-
tributed papers, he now took the opportunity of thanking; and he
was pleased to notice that their efforts had not been confined to the
comparatively small sphere embraced by the Society, but that,
through the medium of the Press, they had been made known to
the public, and had, he believed, in many cases, been extensively
read.

With the Microscopical Members he was, perhaps, more at
home than the others, and he would here hint to them the advisa-
bility of coming out with their instruments more than they did at
the ordinary meetings. To some, perhaps, it might appear that
the results obtained from the Society were not so great as they
might be. But it should always be remembered that the majority
of the Members, being engaged in professions or business, had not
the necessary time at their command to devote to original
research; all they were able to do was to make themselves in some
measure acquainted with the labours of those who devoted the
whole of their time to the advancement of particular studies. And
in doing this they felt all the better, the habits which they thus
acquired proving to be most useful in other walks of life; they
were led to be studious, careful, and exact, and the possession of
these qualities could not but be productive of good results,

[12]

But, it might be said, what had he for them in the shape
of suggestions for the future. He had two suggestions. One was
that papers should occasionally be read, dealing with the elementary
aspect of the subjects of which they treat. Many of them, he was
sure, oftentimes failed to appreciate some of the papers as much as
they would like for the want of elementary knowledge respecting
the particular questions referred to.

The other suggestion was that papers should also be read
occasionally explaining the cant scientific terms now coming into
use; such, for instance as “ The conservation of energy,” “The
correlation of physical forces,” “ Natural selection,” “The survival
of the fittest,’ and ‘ Evolution.” Very frequently these terms
were used as bugbears, for they were often used by persons in a
very random and careless manner, showing that they were really
ignorant of their true meaning. Let him, however, not be mis-
understood ; he did not wish to make these subjects of controversy
—that would be unwise, and would sure to be productive of evil.
On the other hand, papers explaining these terms, and showing in
what sense they were used and understood by the master minds of
the day would, he was quite convinced, be useful to them. Though
the sphere of the society was small, he believed it had been, and
would still continue to be, very useful to the town, helping to elevate
some, at least, of its inhabitants into something higher than they
would have been but for its influence.

It was with great pleasure that he vacated the chair in favour
of such a man as Alderman Cox—one of the ex-Mayors of
Brighton—who, he was sure, would preside over their gatherings
in a manner which he had never been able to attain to.

The President, Mr. Alderman Cox, in taking the chair, said it
was not usual, he was told, for the incoming President to make any
remarks on first taking the chair; but he would take this oppor-
tunity of thanking them for the honour they had done him, and of
saying that if he succeeded in performing the duties of his office as
well as the President who had just retired from the cbair, he should
consider that he had performed them well.

Mr. M. PENtey said he had been asked to propose that a warm
vote of thanks be given to Mr. Haselwood for his able conduct as

ie

[ 13 ]

President during the past year. He did so with the greatest
possible pleasure. He had not been able to attend many of the
meetings, but those that he had, had shown him how well qualified
the ex-President was for the post he had held.

Mr. G. Scorr seconded, observing that he had regarded Mr.
Haselwood’s performance of his duties with the utmost admiration ;
but this was only another instance of the manner in which the
Society got through its labours under the presidency of the most
varied men.

The meeting then resolved itself into an ordinary meeting for
the exhibition of specimens.

Mr. G. Scorr showed some interesting specimens which were
about to be added to the Museum, including a March ichneumon
(Egypt), an Alpine marmot (North Europe), a Coati mondi (South
America), &c.; several rude flint implements which had recently been
discovered in a new district—Pyecombe; and a ray from one of the
fins of the gigantic sunfish recently caught by Mr. Lawler, of the
Brighton Aquarium, off the Sussex Coast. Mr. Scott also exhibited
arough drawing of the fish, and explained its general characteristics.
The fish was supposed to have been the largest caught in British
waters. It weighed 12 cwt. Mr. Scott also showed a spine of the
fish, measuring about 2% feet long.

Mr. F. E. Sawyer showed a specimen of the arundo arenaria,
obtained from the dunes in Holland, where it binds together the
loose sand. Mr. Dennet made some remarks upon the subject,
in the course of which he suggested the use of the pinus maritimus
as a shrub suitable for sea-side gardening.

Mr. C. Cayton showed a good specimen of the jaws and
puddle of an ichthyosawrus, brought from the blue lias formation
at Street, Somersetshire.

Mr. Wonror exhibited some Indian mosquitoes, as well as a
small case vf moths,—the Vapourer O. Antiqua,—the inmates of
which had formed the subjects of a sevies of experiments on the
attraction furnished to the males by the females of the species,

A long discussion followed this exhibition, the question being

as to what particular sense enabled the males to discover the
females when long distances intervened between them.

[ 4 ]

SEPTEMBER 24TH.

MICROSCOPICAL MEETING.—“ POND LIFE.”

Mr. T. W. Wonror announced the receipt from Mr. Curties,
of High Holborn, London,—who is an honorary member,—of
a photograph of a group of thirty-five separate specimens
of British microscopical animals and plants, collected from a
pond at Leytonshire, near London, and drawn from life by Mr.
H. C. Richter. The objects, which had been very beautifully
grouped, were inspected with much interest; and the diagram,
with the accompanying key, rendered the photographs more
valuable. In the absence of Mr. Lomax, who had suggested the
subject of the evening, but who was unfortunately prevented
attending.

The President, Mr. Alderman Cox, asked Mr. Wonfor to in-
troduce the subject for the evening.

Mr. Wonror remarked that he had lately experienced the
truth of an observation made at the last meeting that, although
they might propose to show living objects, the difficulty would be
to get them. Only the evening before he had some hundreds of
specimens of the volvox globator, and he had purposed exhibiting
the rolling, turning, volvox; but he was unable to do so as they had
now disappeared.

A few bottles of specimens from ponds at Lewes and Furze
hill, would, however, be submitted for examination ; and he had also
managed to secure some larve of the English gnat,—in other
words, of a mosquito,—which would doubtless be looked upon with
interest, remembering the discussion which took place at a previous
meeting. The specimens of pond life would be likewise interest-
ing, because of the anxiety manifested at times to know whether
or not certain water was drinkable. Now, the mere fact of finding
certain forms of animal life in water would not necessarily mili-
tate against it for drinking purposes; but if he found in stagnant
or well water certain other forms of animal life, he should begin to
inquire what it was that had filtrated into it.

[ 15 ]

There was before them a sample of water, taken from a well,
to which, for drinking purposes, he should greatly object. There
were in it forms of life of the kind invariably found in water into
which some organic substance, or, in other words, sewage matter,
was filtrating. That being so, and if sewage matter were there,
he should not be surprised if, at some time or another, infectious
disease broke out in the neighbourhood in which the water was
consumed.

Certain forms of animal life were always to be found where
the water was contaminated with sewage matter; in such cases
there was always danger; and, consequently, important lessons
were always to be drawn from examining the forms which the
water contained. In reference to the water supplied by the Cor-
poration of Brighton, there were circumstances connected with it
which rendered it virtually impossible for it to contain organic life.
It was brought up at such a depth from the chalk that, if examined
microscopically when taken from the main, not a trace of organic
life could be observed in it.

The PRESIDENT: Yes; and do not forget the fact that all the
reservoirs have been covered over.

Mr. Wonror: And, besides, it remained such a short time
in the reservoirs after it had been brought up from the chalk.
Examination had proved that the Brighton water was invariably
free from any trace of organic impurity.

The PRESIDENT: Then you prefer the constant service to
intermittent ?

Mr. WonFor replied that he had the constant service at his
own house; and, in continuing, said if all could have their drinking
water drawn direct from the main they would avoid the risk of
having animal life introduced, by water standing in a cistern exposed
more or less to the atmosphere. There were, however, certain
forms of life in pure water which rendered it drinkable. For
instance, the American weed, anacharis, having been thrown into
water at Ditchling, never before drinkable, that water afterwards
became pure and palatable, and was eagerly sought by those
persons living in the neighbourhood.

[ 16 ]

Dr. HaLLirax said it was acknowledged as a general principle
that the growth of vegetables purified the water; and this was
found to be the case even in tanks or globes, where the purity of
either fresh or sea water was preserved by the presence of weeds.

The rapidity of growth of the anacharis weed was then dilated
upon.

Mr. C. F. DENNET enquired whether there was no mineral
substance pumped up with the Brighton water ?

Mr. Wonror replied that there was a quantity of chalk in
solution—he believed about fifteen grains to the gallon.

Mr. GLAISYER said the proportion was about seven grains to
the gallon, as supplied by the Corporation.

Mr. Wonror observed that boiling would to a great extent get
rid of the chalk; or, if the Brighton Corporation would adopt the
plan which used to be a patent, but which was now public property,
the quantity would be reduced to about three grains, the water
would lose what was commonly called its hardness, there would be
a wonderful saving to the ratepayers in soap, and to the house-
holders in connection with their boilers and kitchen ranges.

Mr. DenNET handed in a newspaper paragraph which stated
that Dr. Letheby had come to the conclusion that moderately hard
water was safer and more healthy for drinking than soft water.

Mr. Wonror remarked that, as a matter of fact, absolutely
pure water was not good for drinking.

The meeting then resolved itself into a conversazione for the
exhibition and inspection of the various objects of pond life
which had been brought by Dr. Hallifax, Mr. Wonfor, Mr. J. E.
Haselwood, Mr. T. Glaisyer, Mr. R. Glaisyer, and Mr. G. Nash.
Among the most noticeable were the rotifera exhibited by Dr.
Hallifax.

Mr. Wonror specially drew the attention of the meeting to a
specimen of the Daphnia which was covered with Vorticellae—small
bell-like animals.

The larve of the English gnat, and specimens of impure well
water containing Bacteria, were also shown.

Lea

OcroBER 8th.

ORDINARY MEETING.—MR. BENJAMIN LOMAX ON
“FACTS IN THE CHEMISTRY OF PLANTS.”

Although the chemical changes which the life history of every
plant involved were discussed in most scientific works, and the
number of organic compounds directly obtained from a vegetable
source was recognised by all conversant with our manufactures,
there remained an amount of chemical effect wrought on surround-
ing nature by the agency of plants which altogether escaped
popular notice, and was apt to be under estimated even by the
naturalist. He must leave to those who had better opportunities
than himself the task of adding to their knowledge on this point,
contenting himself with a reference to some facts with which all
were acquainted, but few thought of in this connection, and
trusting to the after discussion for further information. The
evolution of oxygen by plants had been so exhaustively considered
in botanical works that he should merely draw attention to the
amount of work it actually represented. Every human being gave
off, on an average, 154lbs. weight of pure carbon per annum.
Assuming the population of the world at 20,000,000,000, the
wonderful amount of 137 millions and a half of tons of carbon
was expired from human lungs alone in one year. Add to this
the carbon evolved from animals, large, small, and microscopic,
the products of combustion, and the decomposition of organic
matter, and some idea might be formed of the work which plants
had to perform; and which they did so well that the amount of
carbonic acid in the atmosphere was seldom, if ever, perceptibly
increased. i

The deposition of silica on the exterior surface of the culm in
the cereals, sedges, and bamboo, might be, perhaps, regarded as
necessary for the stability of the plant, but the geology of certain
districts must be considerably modified by the change this forma-
tion indicated. Silica was usually found in a coarse, crystalline

Cc

[ 18 J

form, even the typical grain of sand having a very perceptible size
and shape, whereas the siliceous coating of a wheaten straw was
deposited in sufficient quantity to turn the edge of a knife, with
a uniformity and a fineness of division resembling that produced
by the electrotype process. Whether this silica was extracted
from sand, as indicated by the constant presence of reeds and
sedges on the sea shore, or separated from the soluble silicates
everywhere present in arable soil, a curious chemical process must
have taken place, which there was no means of tracing, and the
question was not simplified but rather increased by the fact that
the deposit was not always a powder. Frequently it was crystalline
or needle-shaped, sometimes laminated, as at the nodes of bamboo,
from whence it was collected in considerable quantity under the
name of tabasheer.

Then, again, the importance of the change might be estimated
by the scale on which depositien took place. The horsetails and
reeds yielded in their ashes 97 per cent. of pure silica, the grasses
nearly as much. The diatoms were almost made of silica, and
when it was remembered that the deposit remained unchanged by
burning or natural decomposition, it would readily be conceived
that in this way also plants performed a most important work in
nature. The silica so deposited was puve, and the purification of
salts was one of the most remarkable functions of plants. In the
laboratory, purification was generally performed by crystallising
from a solution, and it was always assumed that a crystal posses-
sing the proper form and colour was a pure specimen of the salt
under examination.

In like manner plants produced various salts in purity, as
those knew who were dicussing the beautiful crystals called
raphides, found in the cells of almost all plants, but especially in
the liliaceee and kindred orders, with the crystals on the leaves of
the deutzia, &c. In this pure form were found the carbonate,
oxalate, phosphate, and sulphate of calcium, and those who weve
curious in the various shapes which crystals of the same compound
assumed, might find fresh field for investigation in the fact that all
the varieties of form common to the bodies mentioned were found
in different plants, but that the same species always presented the
same form and composition of crystal. Whether raphides were

{ 19 ]

useful to plants or not, there could be little doubt that the continual
separation, on so large a scale, of salts in their purest form, must
have a very marked influence on the economy of nature.

Another strange function of plants was the suspension of
odours, disagreeable or otherwise. A peculiarity which, in a less
degree, was shared by other members of the goosefoot family, gave
its specific name to the chenopodiwm vulvaria. Its leaves, when
rubbed, imparted the disgusting odour of putrid salt fish, and
superficial observers had regarded this plant as a contrivance for
creating and diffusing a stench. But this was hardly the case. The
stench was, he believed, antecedent to the plant. The chenopodiwm
was found on the sea shore amongst decaying seaweed, or in heaps
of rubbish, whence nasty smells might reasonably be expected to
issue. The odour, which might otherwise have disgusted or
poisoned the passer by, remained unnoticed when absorbed by the
leaves, and it was not the fault of the goosefoot if we chose to
handle and smell our fingers afterwards. During the exhibition of
the local flora at the Brighton meeting of the British Association,
one of these plants was kept alive for several days, and afterwards
died in the same spot, and he could bear witness that no offensive
smell was ever perceived, except by those who touched. The whole
question of plant odours was an interesting one, as there seemed
no rule or uniformity in them. Thus the Viola odorata and
Viola hirsuta, the Reseda odorata and Reseda lutea, plants so
similar as frequently to be mistaken for each other, differ essen-
tially in this particular. The common Diplotaxis had a flower
scented like the field convolvulus, while its leaves were simply
disgusting. The Silene inflata had the taste and smell of young peas,
while the Poterium sanguisorba smelt of cucumbers, and the Lychnis
vespertina had a sweet odour in the twilight, and none by day.

Another peculiarity in plant economy was the power of
emitting light. A common plant of Tasmania which had the form
of a lettuce, and the pale, leathery appearance like that of a fungus,
or liverwort, glowed at night with a phosphoric luminosity from
every part of its surface. The children cut its leaves into fantastic
forms and hung them in dark rooms. Though this plant was very
abundant, he was unacquainted with its generic name, and did not
know whether to assign it to the Phenogamia or Cryptogamia.

[ 20 ]

The light was bluish, like that of the English glowworm. The Aus-
tralian glowworm shone with a copper coloured radiance. Similar
phenomena had been regarded by Linnzus and others, as indica-
ting an absorption, and subsequent radiation of diffused light, he
might, without committing myself to this theory, point out a
direction in which there seemed room for profitable investigation.
There could be no doubt that light was largely utilized in vegetable
economy. In the absence of light the decomposition of carbonic
acid ceased. The juices of celery and endive changed their
character, and colour was no longer produced. It appeared to him
that we were justified in supposing that these functions were
entirely discharged by light itself, and that the office of the plant
was to expose the tissues under favourable circumstances. If this
were so, an investigation of those conditions ought to enable us to
make light do the same for us. As light produced all shades of
colour in plants, a naturally coloured photograph was a possible
production, and might be ultimately obtained, and as the character
of certain juices was entirely changed by light, we might find out
from plants the secret by which organic compounds, similar in
composition, but different in properties and appearance, might be
interchanged. It would be useless to refer to the countless organic
compounds produced directly by plant organism; to starch,
dextrine, mannite, gum, &c., &c. It was sufficient to remark that
these substances were produced without any visible mechanism,
and under circumstances apparently exactly similar, to show that
in the simplest plant was locked up a secret of chemical manipula-
tion to which at present we had not the slightest clue—but it was
within the scope of his present object to point out as a great
portion of plant work the conversion of gases into solid matter.
Those who had grown mustard and cress upon a piece of wet
flannel knew that a certain quantity of mould was produced. So,
on a larger scale, every plant took its substance from the
atmosphere and laid it finally on the soil, building up daily what
would be cainozoic strata when we ourselves were fossils. The whole
of our linen and canvas was thus woven out of thin air, for the flax
plant, after the thread fibres had been removed from it, presented
the same analysis as the soil from which it was taken.

At the request of the CuarrMAN (Mr. Haselwood), a vote of
thanks was awarded to Mr, Lomax for his instructive paper.

f a J

Mr. Wonror remarked that, although they could not well
separate chemical from physiological or life action, cases cropped
up in which chemical action was seen to be produced without,
apparently, the intervention of life. There was another curious
fact, namely, that while on the one hand there was such a variety
of colour produced by the action of light, the brightest sea weed
was found in the deepest water, and in the darkest caves.

Mr. Dowsett added, the bright sea weed could not be grown
in aquaria, unless the light reached it through a tinted medium.

The CHAIRMAN (Mr. Haselwood) thought this would form an
argument to show tbat colour was not entirely due to light.

Mr. DowseEtt mentioned another strange circumstance; that
lemon, turpentine, and bergamot were chemically the same, yet
emitted different odours. What produced the odours was unknown.

Mr. Dennant directed attention to one practical outcome,
namely, the importance of instructing children in the elements of
science. If, he said, the poor children of large towns knew ever so
little of the importance of maintaining a balance between animal
and vegetable life, their health would be much better than it was.
If they would foster and nurture plants in their neighbourhood,
they would be much happier and stronger than they were without
any kind of foliage.

OcToBER’ 22nd.

MICROSCOPICAL MEETING. — “SECTIONS AND.
SECTION CUTTERS,” BY DR. HALLIFAX,

The CHarrmMan (Mr. J. E. Haselwood) read a letter from Mr.
T. W. Wonfor, who had announced the subject, apologising for his
absence through illness, and called upon Dr, Hallifax, who had
consented to fill up the gap.

Dr. Hatuirax said he much regretted the absence of Mr.
Wonfor, who would have enlightened them upon the subject much
more than he could. His object would be to give them a practical

[ 22 ]

illustration—practical as far as possible—of cuttings for micro-
scopes, and of all the instruments which they had at command, as
well as the mode in which they were employed.

The first and most valuable cutting apparatus which he should
bring before them was the instrument invented by Richard Beck,
which possessed a very fine screw, having 43 turns to the inch, so
that one revolution would lift it a 43rd part of an inch, and a fraction
of a turn would obviously diminish the distance accordingly. The
large head of the screw was so devised that it was divided into
25 parts, so that one was enabled to make a cutting by this
machine of a thousandth part of an inch theoretically, and 500
parts of an inch practically. The plate, too, was remarkably true.

The instrument was invented for the purpose of cutting
wood and sections of vegetable substances of a certain degree of
hardness with a chisel. If, however, the subject were soft, a razor
must be used, and for specimens of this nature he could not say
Beck’s invention was so valuable as it was for hard substances.
He had fixed upon the surface of the machinea piece of plate glass,
—the truest that he could procure,—to avoid friction and to allow
the instrument used for cutting to pass over it more readily, an
idea which would be found to be as correct in practice as it
was in theory. There was another machine sold by Baker, of
Holborn. The operation of the screw was the same, but it was not
finished in the same neat and exact manner, so that it was
impossible to get the same refinement in the sections produced by
it. Mr. Haselwood, he believed, had also brought one of the most
recent inventions, which had the advantage of a refrigerating
apparatus.

Mr. HaseELWwoop explained a section cutting machine known
as Professor Rutherford’s. This was provided with a refrigerator,
which, being filled with ice and salt, solidified the wax or other
substance in which the object cut was “ mounted.” The screw was
a very fine one and was furnished with a spring, which would fix it
at any part of its turnings. There was a difficulty of obtaining a
proper section of very soft substances, such as animal tissue, but
he believed the Germans were able to cut a section clean through a
man’s brain, a very difficult operation.

{ 23 ]

Dr. HALLIFAX said he believed the Germans possessed the
secret of the meaus of obtaining such a section, which they did not
promulgate to the world. The Germans cut such sections for sale,
and did it on a very large scale.

Dr. HALLIFAX next showed the method of preparing soft objects
for cutting, illustrating his remarks by producing a dead wasp,
ulready attached to the cylinder by a mixture of gum and creosote,
which he recommended as a preservative of like specimens, as the
creosote remedied the brittleness of the gum. Wrapping a strip
of paper round the cylinder so that the top edge of the paper was
about on a level with the wasp, he poured melted white wax into this
yeadily made capsule, completely submerging the body of the
insect. When cooled, the wax held the body firmly, a cutting of
the soft body being thus safely made. He also showed another
similar apparatus, the “well” of which, however, was surrounded
by a glass plate, the smoothness of which obviated, as far as
possible, friction with the cutting instrument, which he advised
should be moistened with methylated spirit. He mentioned that
another mode of cutting was to place the object in the hand,
and there was, too, a knife with two blades for cutting purposes,
having a screw by which the two blades were brought together.

Mr. Hasetwoop pointed out that there was a newer invention
—a knife with three blades, so that two sections, showing the con-
tiguity of the parts, might be cut at the same time.

Dr. Hatirrax then said that, in order to procure an accurate
specimen of a minute section, it was necessary to have one side of
the razor ground perfectly flat so that it might come in direct
opposition with the object, and not scoop the object and thus
destroy the specimen.

Mr. Hasetwoop observed that it had been recommended
that the ls army razor should be used, on account of its thin
blade.

It was suggested by a member that the Plantagenet razor was
very useful for such a purpose.

Mr. Hasetwoop further informed the meeting that, with the
use of a new medical instrument, and the ether spray, medical

[ 24 J

men were enabled to take from the body pieces of diseased skin,
so that they might study the various forms of skin disease.

Dr. HALLIrax next exhibited a saucer arranged to facilitate
the placing of cuttings on slides. Very thin sections, if placed
in water, and the slides placed under them and then raised, rarely
retained the desired position. To obviate this he had a small hole
drilled in the bottom of the saucer, which was tightly fitted with a
slip of wood. After the object had been floated into its right
position, the plug was removed, and the water, running gently
away, left the section in its proper place. The drilled hole should
not, however, be too large, otherwise a current would be formed
and destroy the effect of its operation.

At the conclusion of the meeting, the Chairman announced
that the next microscopical meeting was the last of the series this
year, and it was hoped that they would have a microscopical
conversazione, and that members would bring with them the
choicest specimens of their collection.

NOVEMBER 12th.

ORDINARY MEETING.-—“ ON RECENT EXCAVATIONS
AT CISSBURY,” BY MR. ERNEST WILLETT.

Mr. Wonfor had informed them that excavations had been made
at Cissbury during the past summer: indeed, several of the members
had themselves visited the spot; and, on the understanding that a
more detailed account would not be unacceptable to the Brighton
and Sussex Natural History Society, he had arranged a few notes
on the subject into the form of a paper, for the defects and short-
comings of which he must ask their indulgence. Had the site of
the work been other than at Cissbury, it would have been desirable
to have preceded the paper with a description of the locality and
situation of the earthwork, but the spot must be so familiar to
every Sussex man who was interested in ethnology, and the camp
had been so frequently described that, in the absence of fresh
information bearing on the subject, it would be inexpedient to

recapitulate minutely the accounts given by the various archwo-
logical authorities who had treated on the subject. The etymology
of the name had, too, been a wide field for speculation. Camden
in the 16th century, Cartwright, Turner, M. A. Lower in this, had
discussed the question at length, but the result of their several and
combined efforts was, he was afraid, eminently unsatisfactory.
They all attributed it to the “bury ” (or fort) of a Saxon General,
of whose occupation of the camp, or presence within its walls, from
internally derived evidence, we had no proof whatever. He could
not accept the theory, in the absence of all traces possible of
Saxon tenancy; it might be supposed that had the hill been
occupied by a military chief (sufficiently powerful and well known
to give his name to the place) some relics would have been found
in the numerous excavations that had been carried on in and about
Cissbury, of so highly a civilized people as the Anglo-Saxons.
This was the case with the Romans, who, though they were by far
more advanced in the culture of arts and manufactures and
manners of living than our German forefathers, were but tempo-
rarily established in this country, of them we had sufficient
evidence in bones, pottery, coins, &c., to believe that, if indeed they
were not the actual engineers of the Camp, they selected it as an
important post, and held it for some time. With this brief intro-
duction he would proceed at once to the subject more properly
before them, hoping, though far from being sanguine, that future
excavations might reveal a Saxon burial ground, or that a deriva-
tion supported by more patent external evidence might be found
by some one in an unlooked for source. He proposed to divide
his paper into three parts :—

I. To give a description of the pit, the galleries connected
with it, and the material with which they were filled in.

II. To state the reason for which it appeared the pit and
galleries were made, and to describe the various manufactured
articles found, their occurrence and probable uses.

III. To compare the workings with those of similar character
in other parts of the country, and to shortly consider the question
as to who the people were who originated them.

It was difficult, even if it were desirable, to prevent these three

[ 26 ]

questions overlapping and running one into the other, as they were
so intimately connected one with the other.

The pit was rather at the south extremity of the series of
basin-shaped hollows which occupied the south-west corner of the
camp. He had no especial reason for selecting this one in par-
ticular, except that it appeared not to have been previously
disturbed ; it was of an average size, and the depression from the
natural slope of the hill was very slight, only about 16 degrees.

The result of the excavation showed:—First, surface soil,
similar to that in all on this side of the camp, containing chipped
flints, flakes, and broken implements, land and oyster shells,
numerous water-worn pebbles, a few pieces of bone, and fragments
of a coarse pottery. Below this, to a total depth of five feet, came
a layer of small chalk, rubble, and loam, of a yellowish colour, con-
taining a few flint implements, one or two fragments of bone, and
a deposit of charcoal surrounded by calcined chalk. This stratum
seemed to extend beyond the area of the shaft in north, south, and
westerly directions, and was the layer from which Col. Lane Fox,
in his extensive excavations in 1872, obtained the greater number
of the flint implements on which he founded his able treatise, read
before the Society of Antiquaries. Dead land shells also occurred
in this layer, of which by far the greater portion were Cyclostoma
Elegans ; but specimens of Helix nemoralis, and one of the rare
shell H. obvoluta (now almost extinct in Sussex), were also found.
At five feet (the depth at which the solid chalk at the edge of the
pit commenced) the filling-in entirely altered, being composed of a
moist red earth, full of flints worked and unworked, numberless
chippings, a fragment or two of stags’ horns, and several patches
of charcoal. This feruginous deposit was much thicker in the
centre than at the sides; it seemed much trodden and worn, the
implements were mostly huddled together at the centre, but
unworked or merely broken flints occurred all through the layer.

At 10 feet it was replaced by large blocks of pure chalk (in
some cases roughly squared) loosely thrown in, the interstices not
filled up by looser or smaller material. No change was observable
for about three feet, but here, viz., at 15 feet, came a repetition of
the red earth above mentioned, with the same characteristics, but
not so thick as the one above, two feet being the greatest depth at

[ a7 J

the centre and thinning out to six inches towards the circum-
ference, and this did not extend to the sides by 18in. The
remainder of the debris, ‘.e., from 16 feet to the bottom, was pure
chalk, but it differed from the layer above in that the blocks,
though loosely thrown in, had their interstices filled with small
chalk, rubble and loam. Throughout this layer were distributed
the implements, which would hereafter be more fully described,
and with which he concluded the original sinking was done. They
consisted for the most part of the broken pieces of the antlers of the
red deer, showing more or less marks of usage and manufacture,
- four scapulz (shoulder blades) of bos longifrons, and one of the
common pig, one or two flint implements, and a few broken flints.
The thickness of the last deposit made up a total of 20ft. from the
ground, and which was tabulated as follows :—

Surface soil 2ft., chalk rubble 3ft., red earth, &c., 5ft., chalk
blocks 3ft., red earth, &c., 3ft., chalk blocks 4ft., total 20ft. Ata depth
of 17£t. from the surface in the north-west corner he, not altogether
unexpectedly, came upon the mouth of a cave. He said not
altogether unexpectedly, because he had previously seen similar
caves in another pit in the camp, though on a much smaller scale.
And as the workmen proceeded, one by one were displayed to
view the series of eight caves, which constituted the chief interest
in their work. These caves, as could be seen by the ground plan,
yan laterally in all directions, and were filled before the excavation
to within from 1ft. to 2ft. from the top with loose blocks of
chalk partly converted into a kind of stalagmite by being
cemented together by carbonate of lime, derived from the percola-
tion of rainwater through the chalk above; it was exceedingly.
hard, and required a considerable blow to detach the pieces which
jt was necessary to remove, but this hardness was not so observable
at the entrances, and from the mouth, running in a few feet, there
was distributed some red earth, containing a few pieces of bone
and an implement or two. The caverns were of an irregular
height, owing to the yoof giving way more in some places than
in others, but the variation was from three to five feet; the width
of each was undetermined, as in some instances the separation
from one another was merely effected by a barrier of this stalag-
mite, and had it been considered safe to remove this they would
probably have found that, with the exception of a block of chalk

[ 28 ]

left here and there for support to the roof, the whole series was, in
fact, very nearly one large cave, with several openings. This was
not the case in every instance, and where they were enabled to
measure, from side to side, the width of the actual chamber was
about 4ft.

Cave No. 1 was explored to a length of 19ft., at which the solid
chalk was not reached, for the wall there was still composed of
blocks of stalagmite, and on placing a lighted candle to a chink
the effect of a strong draught was observed. Now, on the surface,
at a distance of 20ft., there was an indication of another shaft,
from which he thought it was but natural to conclude that they
communicated one with another. A similar case occurred in No.
6 cave, but there an unimportant difference was observed, for in
this instance they did clear the pit to the solid wall, and a squared
aperture of a few inches was found. If this communicated with
another open sbaft (as it was reasonable to suppose was the case),
it was somewhat strange that it was so small as to preclude the
interchange of anything except words or very little articles
between people stationed on either side. Part of a layer of undis-
turbed flint, of an exceedingly fine quality, lay at the bottom of
the galleries, and several detached pieces occurred all through the
filling up of the caves. Another layer of an inferior quality was to
be seen in the west side of the shaft, at a depth of 10ft., and two
vertical veins cut through the pit, one running N.W. and $.E., the
other nearly due E. and W.; the latter dipped to the south, at an
angle of 63 degrees.

Commencing the second division of the subject, various had
been the suggestions as to the purpose for which these galleries
had been made. A very natural theory, and which seemed to
present itself first to the mind was, that they were dwelling places,
or at least caves of refuge, if not for the whole year, at least for
seasons when the winter storms would render the rude wattle huts
but a poor shelter against the inclement weather; or when
harassed by war, the tribe in possession might have a safe retreat
for the women and children. He did not say that this might not
have been a secondary purpose to which they might have been
applied, but he deemed it highly- improbable primarily that for
either of these purposes they would have gone so deep; and
secondly that, had they done so, that a people even so barbaric as

these inhabitants must have been, should not have left some traces
in pottery, charcoal, remains of bones, of a continued ‘habitation.
Another suggestion was that they were storage barns for grain,
and what valuables they became possessed of, but if so why should
the shafts he filled up again so carefully 2 And how was the entire
absence of anything of the sort accounted for? <A friend of his
from Uambridge suggested that they had been used as smugglers’
eaves; but this supposition could not, he thought, be maintained.
Another explanation must be sought, and he was fully convinced,
in his own mind, that the main purpose in view by the original
excavators of the shaft and galleries “was to obtain a supply of the
flint which occurred at this depth, for the manufacture of the
implements found so abundant on and immediately under the turf,
and of which so many cartloads of chippings could be obtained at
Cissbury.” This theory was not his own, it was suggested nearly
two years ago by Canon Greenwell, who had said for some time
that in his opinion these workings would be discovered, if only one
went deep enough. He at first received it with great incredulity,
and for a long time was not convinced, but as the evidence which
he hoped to adduce was gradually revealed, he could no longer
hold out against it.

The first objection which was urged by everyone unacquainted
' with corroborative evidence, was, “ Why should they go so deep for
flint when they could get it on the surface¥” To this was an-
swered that the flint was much softer and more easily worked when
freshly procured than when it had been dehydrated and weathered
by exposure, and further, this had been so often proved that, at
the manufactory of gun flints, which was still carried on at the
little town of Brandon, in Suffolk, they procure their raw material
at a considerable depth. Thus much for the suggestion. Did the
internal evidence support it? Yes, he thought eminently it did.
In the bottom of cave 6, as before mentioned, existed, only
partially worked out, a layer of fine soft flint which must have
extended over the whole surface occupied by the base of the shaft
and caves. In this layer was ubserved a small hole in which a flint
had once rested in situ, and from which it had been extracted, and
from the numerous minute chippings still in the bed, it was evident
that it was chiselled out. The caves ran in the same line as the
layer of flint, and on the same level, and were filled up just as one

[ 30 ]

would expect them to be if this theory was acceptable, 7.e., in each
cave by the loose blocks that had been detached in working ont
one of the others, which would naturally be thrown in when the
minéral was exhausted, rather than be dragged to the surface.

He must, incidentally, mention a curious fact noticed, viz., the
oceurrence, not exactly, but nearly, in the centre of the base of the
open shaft, of a small cutting, one foot deep and wide, and two
feet long; it was filled by chalk loam, and there was not a trace of
charcoal, or of discoloured chalk, which might have indicated the
presence of a fire. It had been suggested that it might have been
an experiment to see if another layer did not immediately underlie
the one that had been worked out, and, finding this not to be the
case, no further use was made of it. He could account for it in no
other way. Turning to the various manufactured articles found
(consisting mainly of flint implements and bones), and their oceur-
rence and appearances, it would be observed by looking at the
diagram, that the character of the deposit below the level of the
original chalk surface, was divided into four distinct strata, two of
red earth and two of blocks of chalk. As to the relation of the
traces of man’s presence with one and the other, it might be
roughly stated that the worked flints occurred in the red earth, and
the bones were associated with the chalk; this was not absolutely
correct, as there were several minor instances aw contraire, but it
was substantially so.

Taking the bones first, then, they were represented by pieces
of the antlers of the red deer, variously manipulated. There were
in all, the fragments of about ten, more or less, in a poor state of
preservation, much broken, and therefore not showing so plainly
their original shape as some that had been found elsewhere.
There was only one fair example of that, of which he hoped to find
several, viz., the instruments with which we might fancy the
excavation was principally carried on; this was the antler stripped
of all its tines, except the brow tine, which thus formed both a
powerful pick, and, when reversed, a hammer, and was, in fact, the
prototype of the implement (in wood and iron), at present in use
for the same purpose at Brandon. It measured llin., and, though
broken, it was evidently a new tool, as it did not show those marks
of the workman’s hands which were so plainly visible on similar
tools found in other localities, to any extent, the only marks of

-~

{ 31 ]

manufacture being that the brow ridge had been jagged off. Next
this was the remains of a tool manufactured from the top end of
an antler; in this an attempt had been made to sever it by cutting,
but it had been abandoned, possibly a mark of impatient snapping.
The handle in this specimen was much worn, but it was difficult to
determine whether it had been intended for a pick or a drill;
perhaps both, more probably the latter, as it was unusual to find
the picks made from the cup end. Then there were the tines,
which, broken off as they were to enable them to use the pick more
comfortably, became in themselves useful implements. An
example of their use occurred in cave 6, for, in the entrance, there
was a block of chalk partly detached, and the hole bored evidently
by a tine, to prize the block down, was still apparent.

In the pit opened by Mr Tyndall in January, a horn was
found with all the tines broken off, and a hole in the thickest part
for the insertion of a celt; this form, common enough among pre-
historic nations, having been found in the Swiss lake dwellings,
and elsewhere, did not occur in his pit, though at 15ft. they found
a very perfectly fashioned celt, which might have been from one of
these tools, the handle being broken. Associated with these picks
were the fragments of five scapule, for the identification of which
as bos longifrons and pig, he was indebted to the kindness of
Professor Flower, F.R.S., of the College of Surgeons. Their
occurrence with the picks, and the absence of any other bones, was
most singular, and he had suggested that they might have been
shovels, which idea was favoured by the scratchings on them, and
by the fact that in three cases out of the four the large anterior
spine had been cut down; they were very remarkable, and we had
good reason for believing that these bones had not before been
found under the same conditions, and evidently for these uses.
He could hardly apply the same remarks to the smaller one,
though its occurrence alone was curious.

The next things which claimed attention were the flint imple-
ments, and if they were in any way inferior in importance to the
bones in point of rarity, they made up this deficiency by their
abundance. Colonel Fox, in the second of the exhaustive and
admirable papers on the Sussex Hill forts, entered into a long
dissertation on the Cissbury implements, and divided them into
about 15 different types, which were massed into two groups, and

[ 32 ]

sub-divided into about 25, as might be seen by reference to the
before-named paper. He had for simplicity’s sake, divided these
into six groups. Of these 90 stones, be looked upon few as
finished weapons, regarded from an external point of view, but
considered that many were finished as far as the purpose for which
they were intended to be applied, as for instance, the wedges and
hammer stones would not be considered as typical specimens of
neolithic stone art, but when one looked at the two opposite,
namely, the pointed and battered ends of the wedge, and face of
the hammer stone, it was seen how useful they could be in the
hands of a people to whom the use of iron was unknown, in
detaching blocks of chalk. Forty-five (or nearly one half the
whole amount) were rough unfinished cores, i.e., flints which had
been worked more or less, but which did not show, from secondary
chipping, any marks of completion or usage; and these must be
looked upon either as having been found unfit to be manufactured,
by some flaw in the grain of the flint, or, from the incompetence
on the part of the workman, to have been cast aside as spoilt
material, rather than to be archaic types of hatchets or axes of
paleolithic forms.

Then came the wedges to which reference had been made and
the correlative hammers. Of scraper-like objects, 7.e., stones with
one side flat and the other levelled up to it by small chippings,
there were seven. One was made of a very curious flint indeed.
There were in all twelve celts, mostly of the common wide type,
broader at one end than the other. Of their use we could only
speculate, as he was not aware of any of the shape ever having
been found affixed to a handle; they occurred with one or two
exceptions at eight feet. Of the used flakes two were very good,
being worked into the form of knives, and showed evidence of
their use in that capacity, for which they were well adapted.

So much had been previously written on the character of the
Cissbury flints by Colonel Fox, Dr Stevens, and others, that he
should not refer to them at more length than simply to say that,
whilst at work in August, he obtained several good implements
from the surface soil round about the mouth of the pit, some,
indeed, in a high state of finish. Several plainly exhibit Steen-
strupp markings. One thing of interest that turned up was a
piece of hard quartzite, and which had one of its sides polished by

° A Ai Lal POLI GPS ©

L 33 j

friction. This was highly important, in that its presence
suggested that the few pieces of polished stone, which had been
found in and about the camp from time to time, had been ground
on the spot, and not, as had been suggested, that the chipped
flints were polished elsewhere; though he certainly should be glad
to see more extensive proofs that this was the case by the presence
of a grinder’s shop among the many chipping places that were still
left on Cissbury. It was also worthy of remark that with reference
to the dehydration, oxidation, or separation of the silica of the flint,

_ or whatever it was that caused the alteration of colour to flints

exposed on or near the surface on chalk soil, that in the first few
feet all were so patinated to the depth, varying from the thickness
of a sheet of paper to an eighth of an inch, and that the lower
down the shaft they found them the less they were whitened. For
instance, those occurring in the red earth deposit at eight feet were
no more than just. discoloured, whilst the few found at 15 feet, and
below, were as fresh as the day they were fashioned from the
natural sponge. All the stones, however, in the red earth deposits
were covered instead with a crust of carbonate of lime which was
easily detached by water and scraping. It was curious that the
analysis of the two colours of flint had shown no appreciable
difference in degree of silica and lime, as it was only in chalk
districts that this was observed, the implements of the drift type
and others found on sandy soils retaining their original colour to a
high degree. This dehydration took place on the upper surface.

As to the occurrence of these remains at the various levels, the
first two feet presented such appearances as one would expect to
find in other parts of the camp. The chalk rubble deposit also
extended over the part of the camp beyond the area of the shaft,
and was not remarkable for much, except that it contained charcoal
and flint implements. But when they came to the red earth deposits,
they had two very marked periods of the temporary cessation of
the filling in of the shaft ; they both presented such characters as
one would expect to find if these leyels were occupied as flint work-
shops by the tribe who had sunk the shaft after they had nearly or
completely worked out the flint and partly filled it in. They were,
in the first place, trough-shaped, deeper in the centre than at the
sides, and the material appeared to be much trodden ; fragments of
charcoal were observed, and very numerous in both cases were the

E

[3a

rough flints, chippings, and fabricated tools. In the case of the
lower stratum this was further evidenced,-—that all around the sides
of the shaft at this level (viz., 12 feet) were to be seen marks of
abrasion and weathering in the chalk, pitted over with small holes
or weather markings.

In brief, the entire case (sofar as reasoning from circum-
stantial evidence was safe) appeared to be this:—1. The neolithic
tribe who held Cissbury might have excavated the shaft till they
came to the layer of flint; this they worked out to the extent of the
area of the shaft, and, having found by experiment, or being aware
from former experience, that another layer was not to be met with for
some distance, they drove headings in all directions into the chalk,
and worked out the layer horizontally to a certain distance, leaving
here and there a pillar to support the roof. 2. That these galleries
were driven one after another, and not all at the same time, for it
would not be worth while to lift the detached blocks to the top;
and it seems that, when they had raised all the flint they could in
one direction, they filled the first gallery with the débris from a
second,

He had already remarked on the probable conjunction of two
or more pits; this would be naturally advantageous for communi-
cation to those at the base of two approximate shafts, and one was
surprised to find the apertures not larger. When they had worked
out the flint around one shaft as far as they considered it safe, they
sank another, and threw the output of the second shaft into the
first. The implements which had been used and broken in one
place would naturally be left at the bottom, it not being worth
while to carry such away. He could account for the red earth
flint implement deposits by supposing that, when the shafts were
partially filled up with blocks of chalk, they presented a very
favourable place of retreat as workshops during bad weather. It
was much less exposed, and a certain amount of flint might have
been left from the galleries in the shaft for this purpose, “ thus lay-
ing up flint for a rainy day.” Then, in process of time, it became
necessary to do something with the large accumulation of chalk on
the surface, and, it might be supposed that it was thrown into an
open pit, thereby raising its level again, which might again be used
as a protection by the workmen who, though less sheltered than when
deeper, would have less climbing and descent in getting to their

[ 3 ]

posts. There were no steps cut in the sides such as would admit
of being used for ascent, but this would hardly be necessary, as a
rude kind of ladder made of a tree, with its branches cut off about
a foot from their conjunction with the trunk, would answer the
purpose, and, moreover, could be removed from one shaft to
another, as occasion required.

It now remained but to compare these workings with those
found in other parts of the country, and then to consider what
conclusion, as to any date that may be assigned to their use, may be
safely arrived at from the evidence before them. Grime’s Graves,
near Brandon, explered by Canon Greenwell, of which a full
account appeared in the Ethnological Journal of J anuary, 1871,
Buckenham and Eaton in Norfolk, Crayford and Dartford in
Kent, the Spiennes workings in Belgium, and the Penpits in
Wiltshire. Time would allow him to refer only to the first of
these. Considering the similarities and differences between the
Grime’s Graves workings and the Cissbury pit, the former were
found so numerous and the latter so unimportant, that if additional
evidence was wanting to support the “Flint working theory at
Cissbury,” there would be overwhelming testimony. There were
the workings, which were in full swing some thirty centuries ago,
still carried on, and it was a most interesting example of how
natural features, assisted by tradition, might afford the same
employment to succeeding generations in one locality. The flint
at Grime’s Graves lay rather deeper than at Uissbury, being 39ft.
from the surface, instead of 20, though at Brandon, distant only
about a mile to the south-west, this same layer came much nearer
the surface, but it was not there quite of such good quality. The
means of reaching and raising it were the same, viz., sinking
shafts at irregular distances, and driving headings laterally, though
the shaft, which was opened by Mr Greenwell, was found to de-
crease in width from 28ft. to 12ft., instead of being perpendicular,
A layer of inferior flint, called in Suffolk “ wall flint” (for its un-
fitness for flint knapping and therefore used for building purposes),
was met with in both cases, that at Grime’s Graves being 73ft.
above the floor flint; that at Cissbury 10ft. The galleries at
Grime’s Graves seemed to be driven more in straight lines than at
Cissbury, and the connection between the pits effected by larger
openings. One most remarkable occurrence was met with at the

[ 3 ]

end of the first gallery at Grime’s Graves, 21ft. from the mouth,
for the account of which he quoted Canon Greenwell’s own
words :—

“The roof had given way about the middle of the gallery and
blocked up the whole width of it to the roof. On removing this,
and when the end came in view, it was seen that the flint had been
worked out in three places at the end, forming three hollows ex-
tending beyond the chalk face at the end of the gallery. In front
of two of these hollows were laid two picks, the handle of each to-
wards the mouth of the gallery, the tines pointing towards each
other, showing in all probability that they had been used re-
spectively by a right and a left handed man. The day’s work over,
the men had laid down each his tool ready for the next day’s work ;
meanwhile the roof had fallen in and the picks had never
been recovered. I learnt from the workmen that it would
not have been safe to excavate further in that direction,
the chalk at the point being broken up by cracks so as to prevent
the roof from standing firm. It was a most impressive sight, and
one never to be forgotten, to look, after a lapse, it may be, of 3,000
years, upon a piece of work unfinished, with the tools of the work-
men still lying where they had been placed so many centuries ago.
Between the picks was the skull of a bird, but none of the other
bones. These two picks, as was the case with many of those found
elsewhere, had upon them an incrustation of chalk, the surface of
which bore the impression of the workmen’s fingers, the print of
the skin being most apparent. This had been caused by the chalk,
with which the workmen’s hands became coated, being transferred
to the handle of the pick.”

The shaft itself seemed to be filled up at Cissbury with the
débris from another, or even from several, but was not arranged in
definite layers. It varied much from chalk to sand, but at no depth
were the changes sufficiently distinct to measure. It was remark-
able that no pottery was found in either case, for though their pit
did not appear ever to have even been used as a receptacle for
refuse other than chalk and flint, the one opened by Mr. Tyndall
in January last, to which there were no galleries attached, con-
tained a great quantity of bones which appeared to be the remains
of animals used_as food; in this there was also no pottery. As to

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[ 37 ]

the animal remains, the excavating tools made from stag’s horn
were far more numerous in Norfolk. In all, Canon Greenwell
found 79 picks, some very perfect, showing marks of usage, by the
well-worn handles, more plainly than any obtained at Cissbury.
But when other organic relics were examined the principal difference
between the two places were seen. At Grime’s Graves the bones
were entirely from domesticated animals — Bos Longifrons, goat,
sheep, pig, and dog—from which, and the fact that the majority of
the horns of the red deer there found were shed, it was argued that
the race had passed beyond the hunting stage and was verging on
the agricultural; a few fragments of a broken statue carved in
chalk also occurred: The Cissbury bones, such as had been found,
were nearly all feral. Bos Primigenius, otter, and stag were repre-
sented. The two skulls of urus which Mr Tyndall obtained were
as large as any ever found, and it was also the first time the
progenitor of the Chillingham cattle had been found in connection
with neolithic remains in the South of England. Then, in
conclusion, there was the question who were the people who made
these shafts, and when did they live ? and Mr Greenwell had written
so clear a statement of his reasoning thereon, that he could not do
better than read it, as it seemed as applicable to Cissbury as well
as to the locality for which it was written.

“There had been only two periods during which flint of the
quality found there has been quarried as extensively as these
workings imply. One is the age when stone was the material used
in the fabrication of weapons and cutting implements ; the other
and much later one, when it was used in the manufacture of gun-
flints. It is evident that the latter period was not that when these
pits were excavated; for the animal remains alone point to an
earlier one, without taking into consideration the fact that, since
the invention of fire-arms, flint and chalk have never heen quarried
by other tools than those of iron. There remains, then, the period
during which stone was used for weapons and implements. This
period, no doubt, was to a certain extent contemporary with the age
when bronze was also in use for certain articles. But before that
time a pure stone age had prevailed, when no metal, except perhaps
gold, was known. To this early period, the Neolithic, I think these
extensive workings must be referred. The quantity of flint that
has been obtained from the pits (at Grime’s Graves) is so great,

[ea

and the supply of material for implements was so very large, that
it is difficult to understand how operations on a scale so extensive
could have been required when the use of stone must have been to
a great extent superseded by metal. During the time when both
stone and metal were in use, flint was required more for smaller
weapons, such as arrow points, and for articles like scrapers, saws,
and knives, than for larger implements such as hatchets. The
perforated stone axes, which were no doubt in use together with
bronze, are never made of flint. We may regard these workings,
then, as belonging to the neolithic age, when metal was unknown,
but when the grinding and polishing of stone was understood.
The palxolithic age, when flint was most extensively used in the
same district, cannot have been that of the working of these pits;
for, apart from the fact that nearly all the drift implements have
been made from surface flints, and those generally not belonging
to flint of the quality obtained at Grime’s Graves, the greater part
of the animal remains found in the pit do not belong to the fauna
of the drift, nor were any bones of the most characteristic animals
of that period discovered there. (This last sentence must be
somewhat modified when applied to-Cissbury, as some of the
implements found are similar in shape to recognised palwolithic
tools, and the urus also belongs to the drift fauna.) The time
occupied in working the whole series of pits and galleries must
necessarily have been a long one; for, even with a large population,
such extensive operations could not have been undertaken in a
short period. There could scarcely, however, have been a large
population settled in the locality; for such could not have been
supported—the supply of game, large though that may have been,
being quite inadequate to afford food for more than a people of
limited number, and pasturage for domesticated animals being
very scanty and poor. The evidence supplied by the pits them-
selves very strongly supports the view that a long period of time
must have been occupied in quarrying the flint. A single pit,
with its galleries, would afford stone sufficient for the manufacture
of thousands of implements, even allowing for a most lavish and
wasteful expenditure; and when it is considered that the pits
number about 250, some idea may be formed of the enormous
quantity of implements which must have been supplied by the
(Grime’s Graves) workings alone. There is, however, good reason

eS ) a eee

[ 39 ]

for believing that this series of workings is only one out of many
others (in the same district), and if such is the case, imagination
almost fails to conceive the vastness of the supply of material for
the people of the stone age provided by the chalk of Norfolk. But
flint was worked by means of pits in other chalk bearing counties,
besides being obtained on the surface, and in the shape of rolled
pebble on the sea beach ; so that we have to add many other sources
of supply to that of Grime’s Graves and other Norfolk workings.
Taking these facts into consideration, we seem to require a very
extended period for the neolithic age itself, as well as for the time
during which the pits in question were in operation. We have no
certain factor, however, at present, by which to measure that
period.”

This is what Mr Greenwell said, and he was inclined to agree
with him in the main points, and believed we had yet no notion of
the vast extent of flint working that must have gone on in the
different countries where chalk occurred, and of which fresh evidence
would turn up in future years. The evidence already deduced from
observations at both places pointed to a very wide range in time for
their duration, and we had in addition at Cissbury three other
factors, two at the commencement and one at the end, to add on to
the accumulated era. The two carrying us back being lst—The
occurrence of Bos Urus, which was an animal belonging to the
drift fauna ; 2nd, the presence of feral animals, showing that the
people were still not advanced beyond the hunting stage; and 3rd, we
had the invasion of the Romans assvuciated with our British Camp,
bringing us forward to historic times. One question he had omitted,
1.e., whether the pits were coeval, older, or more recent than the vallum
and ditch. He had done this purposely, as he hoped at some future
time to open one of the pits situate without the camp, and he pre-
ferred to wait to see what it had to say on the subject, and what
points of similarity it had to this, before venturing to enter on this
topic. Before sitting down he had two duties to perform :—First
to acknowledge the great kindness and courtesy of Major Wisden,
the owner of Cissbury, for the facilities he had afforded him in
carrying on this work; it was also through his generosity that he
had, on the part of his father, to announce that evening the presenta-
tion to the Museum (as soon as means were forthcoming to
properly display them) of the whole of the relics of human work-

[ 40 J

manship from the pit; secondly, to state that many thanks were
also due to his friend Canon Greenwell, of Durham, for the valuable
suggestions he had from time to time supplied him, and for the
kind permission he had given him freely to use and refer to his
valuable paper on Grime’s Graves. Ifhe could answer a question
on any point that he had not made sufficiently clear he should be
very happy to do so to the best of his ability, and he must thank
them for their patient and courteous attention.

The Prestpent (Mr Alderman Cox) said he thought he
should but express the opinion of everyone in the room if
he said that the paper which Mr. Ernest Willett had read had
been of very great interest, and that their best thanks were due to
him. The trouble taken in the preparation of the paper must have
been very considerable; and he proposed that the best thanks of
the society be tendered to Mr Willett.

Mr. T. W. Wonror thought it the general opinion of those
present that Mr Willett need not have apologised for the paper he
had brought before them. The essay was a most exhaustive one,
and it had, he thought, satisfactorily cleared up the point as to
what was the meaning of these pits and galleries. A good many
had been much puzzled on the subject; but the evidence which Mr
Willett bad adduced, put side by side with that of Canon Green-
well, unmistakeably pointed to the pits having been primarily—
whatever might have been their secondary or subsequent uses—
for the purpose of obtaining the flint necessary to the manufac-
ture of flint implements. One point had especially struck him.
A few weeks ago, certain members of the society were looking
over some of the pits at Cissbury, and they came upon pieces of
partly worked flint when turning over the surface soil. It had been
now explained that the pits were partially filled up and then used
as workshops for making the implements. Some had laughingly
said that it was all very well to try and make them believe that
the flint was used in the manufacture of implements; and that
the flint was of such a character that it would not bear working.
Doubtless, however, the flint found near the surface was that
which had been discarded as useless. Others had argued that they
were merely natural flakes. The piece of sandstone which Mr
Willett had produced bearing a smooth surface was, he thought,

ly Sie

one of the most satisfactory results of the exploration; as it had
evidently been used for grinding purposes.

Mr. Wituetr: And it must have come.a distance of many
hundreds of miles; as there is no stone of the kind near.

Mr. Wonror, continuing, said another extraordinary thing
was the fact that the entrance into one of the pits was found to be
square. Dr. Livingstone had called attention to the fact that the
natives of Africa could not build square, and the circumstance that
these pits were partly constructed square seemed to bear out the
idea that the people using them must have been highly civilized,
while the indication of the presence of feral, rather than domestic,
animals seemed to tend in an opposite direction. Then came the
other point, namely, that Mr. Tyndall’s pit was found to be a kind
of charnel house, in which were strewn bones and what not.
Perhaps, other pits might reveal similar things; and it might be
found that, instead of these being the bones of feral animals, the
people used domestic cattle as well. He believed the bones of
domestic animals were found by Col. Lane Fox ?

Mr. WILLETT: On the surface soil only.

Mr. Wonror hoped they would be able to prove at some time
or other that the pits were the finishing places, and not merely
places where the materials were roughly hewn and then taken
elsewbere for completion as implements. He looked forward with
much interest to this point being cleared up. The experience of
Mr. Willett at Cissbury, coupled with what was discovered at
Grime’s Graves, was, he thought, most satisfactory evidence of
what the pits were primarily used for; though they might, second-
arily, have been used as places of refuge. He felt much indebted
to Mr. Willett for his paper.

Mr. Witert said he should very much have liked Mr Tyndall
to have been present, either to support him or to hear what he had
to say on the subject. Mr. Tyndall’s pit was very much deeper
(30 ft.) than his (Mr. Willett’s): but it was not attached to any
galleries; nor did the layer of flint extend to this pit. Whether
flint was distributed over the whole area he did not know. Any-
how, flint was not found there; and, therefore, the pit might have
been used for throwing in what was found. Mr. Tyndall had some

F

[ 42 J

splendid bones, which were excavated from the pit, including some
large heads of extinct animals.

Mr. Bicce enquired what was the primary object of this
“station?” The idea of some was that it was a military camp.
Mr. Willett’s idea was that it wasa sort of Birmingham for the
manufacture of flint implements. Why did they manufacture flints
in such enormous quantities there when, if they went on to the sea
shore, the flints might be picked out from the escarpments of chalk
in situ instead of burrowing down in the way stated? Was there
anything particular in order to bring the people there? Was the
place a camp, and did the people do these things while in winter
quarters ?

The PREsIDENT: I understand that there was a peculiar kind
of flint.

Mr. WILLETT said he apprehended that the camp was much
later than this flint implement work, the camp being under the
Romans.

Mr. BiecEe: Then, did the people live there; or else, why go
there to get that which they might have obtained much easier, as
one would think, elsewhere ?

Mr. WILLETT supposed the people occupied the hills—they did
not know. There were times, as were believed, when the valleys
round about Cissbury were navigable and uninhabitable, and so the
hills were selected for refuge.

Mr. Biacr: Were there any holes beyond the camp ?

Mr. WILLETT: Many pits existed on the outside of the camp.
Mr. BicGE supposed the camp to be Roman?

Mr. WitteErtT thought British, and under Roman occupation.

Mr. WonFor pointed out, with regard to the remarks of Mr.
Bigge, that, although the chalk cliffs might now be easy of access,
in pre-historic times large masses of: water intervened, and it was
then easier to obtain the flint from the pits.

The PRESIDENT said the natural shape of the hill ran almost

[ 43 ]

smooth, and there was a distinct vallum and ditch. Did Mr. Willett
suppose that the vallum was raised at a later period ?.

Mr. Wi1tetT said he had not examined a pit outside the camp;
and could not say.

The PRESIDENT: Merely, from the natural shape of the ground,
it did not appear that there was sufficient earth dug out from the
ditch to form the vallum.

Mr. Wiu.ett: They may have done that to find the pits.

Mr. C. F. Dennet: How did they account for there being no
sort of cooking utensil in the pits? They must have had some-
thing for cooking their food.

Mr. Wiutett: Their cooking material was charcoal. The only
utensil found had been a piece of chalk. Mr Tyndall, in his pit,
found a piece of chalk, excavated like a cup; and in the Grime’s
Graves four such cups were found. These were supposed to have
been used as floating lamps. It would have been perfectly
impossible to work in the pits without some light ; and the people
might have used large pieces of chalk for pots; but none such were
found, nor of other pottery.

Mr. C. F. DENNET, as one of the members of the society who
visited the pit, thought the people must have had some rule or
~ plummet by which they worked by measure, the walls being quite
smooth. It still puzzled him that, in the excavations of Mr.
Willett and Canon Greenwell, no utensils had been found that
could have been used for eating or drinking.

Mr. WILLETT said Mr. Tyndall, in his pit, found about four
pieces of chalk, bell-shaped, with a hole bored through the top; but
he (Mr. Willett) could not tell what they were for.

Mr G. Scort thought they would not be likely to find cooking
utensils in a chalk pit.

Mr. WILLETT mentioned that no barrows were found at Cissbury
or its neighbourhood. The people must have had chiefs—at least
there was no reason to believe otherwise—but no British barrows
had been found, ;

Ea :

Mr. G. Scott had not known that Mr. Willett was going to
give up the idea that Cissbury was a pre-Romanencampment. He
thought the whole circumstance of the hill, and the throwing up of
the vallum, was distinctly of an earlier period than Roman.

Mr. Wi1tert took it that it was made under the Roman
occupation, but by the British.

Mr. DENNET: It was a nice piece of engineering—whenever
it was done. It was so good that it might have been made not more
than fifty years ago.

Mr. CuayTon said considerable discussion was caused when
the society visited Cissbury as to the origin of certain brown
marks upon the chalk. He understood that Mr. Willett attributed
it to the weather ?

The PRESIDENT said that, having asked for some of the chalk
to be removed that had not previously been disturbed, and having
found the same marks as upon the surface, the conclusion he
arrived at was that the marks were not caused by the weather.
The same marks were, moreover, to be seen in the Hastings sand
and other places.

Mr. Wiuuett: Then it was a matter of fracture rather than
of weather.

Mr. Scott wished to say how much pleasure it afforded him
to be able to congratulate the society on having amongst them
that evening Mr Ernest Willett. He was delighted to welcome
him there as his father’s son, and also as a rising and painstaking
archeologist. It had come to be a kind of fashion to speak of
Brighton as a place of pleasure, with nothing else behind; but he
did not believe this to be so. During his knowledge of Brighton,
the taste for archeology had greatly advanced, and nothing had
given him more delight during the last few years than to find that
Mr. Ernest Willett was studying that subject with much industry
and assiduity. When, on coming to Brighton, he (Mr. Scott) first
presided over that department of science, at a soirée held at the
Pavilion, the gentleman who had previously fulfilled that duty
came to him and said that he “did” archeology very differently
from the way he had “done” it. Indeed, the gentleman frankly

«

[ 45 ]

admitted that he had exhibited a lot of things and then did not
mind how many fibs he told, so long as he made the people laugh.
Mr. Willett, on the present occasion, had not only shown them a
lot of things, but he had said a good deal, which, at all events,
would make them think. He was delighted with the paper,
concerning the general conclusions of which he had no idea until
just hearing them from Mr. Willett. He had personally visited
the hill, but had not descended the pit, as he was alone and found
no workmen near. From what he saw, however, nothing struck
_him so much as the apparently extraordinary industry of the early
people who dug so good a pit so well and with such capital sides
and lateral chambers. He was also much astonished at the filling
up of the pits. What could one imagine to be the object of the
savage in seeking to fill the pits up again? He gathered from Mr.
Willett that he thought there had been a gradual filling up of the
pits; but he was not quite satisfied upon this point.

Mr. WiLtett: They must have got rid of the excavated chalk
in some way.

Mr. G. Scorr mentioned that a gun flint manufactory was
still industriously carried on at Brandon, in Suffolk; the flints
being exported to Spain and to South America for the use of the
Spaniards, to the Arabs, and to some parts of Russia.

Mr. BiecE said the débris excavated from Mr Tyndall’s pit
could be seen from Worthing railway station. What was to be
done with it? Was it to be allowed to remain to puzzle people
3,000 years hence ?

Mr. Wi1teErt said it would remain for the present.

Mr. Payne suggested whether the names of the farms in the
vicinity might not throw some light on the previous condition of
the country round about Cissbury ? For instance, there were
Broadwater and Great Pool farms.

Mr. HaseLwoop said that really the paper which Mr. Ernest
Willett bad read was so exhaustive tbat little remained to be said
on the subject. If he might throw out a practical suggestion it
would be that a Brandon flint napper might be brought to
Cissbury to test the quality of the flints there. In the case of the

ey a]

Brandon pits, there was one layer of flint which could not be used,
und a second which was easily worked. He supposed the flints
found at Cissbury could be worked.

Mr. WiIttetTT said a gentleman acquainted with the subject
(Mr. Franks) had been into the pits with him, and had given his
opinion that the flint at Cissbury was nearly the same, though not
quite so good, as that at Brandon.

THE LATE MR. JAMES HOWELL.

The PRESIDENT intimated that, since the last meeting, Mr.
James Howell, one of the members of the Society, had died. He
would suggest whether it was not the pleasure of the members that
the hon. secretary should be directed to write to the widow,
expressing condolence with her in the loss she had sustained.

Mr. DENNET, in seconding the proposition of the President,
said his attention had been first drawn to the deceased by reading
some interesting newspaper articles which he subsequently learned
had been written by him. A delightful interview that followed—
notwithstanding that it took place in a sick room—was the beginning
of a most agreeable acquaintance; and he warmly endorsed the
proposal to send a letter of condolence to the widow.

NovEMBER 26th.
MICROSCOPICAL MEETING.

This meeting, being a general one, resolved itself into a
conversazione.

The CHAIRMAN (Mr. Haselwood, Vice-President) exhibited a
new microscope made by Browning, the Strand, London, constructed
on the Jackson model, but possessing the peculiarity of the body
and stage being in one, so that no trouble could be experienced in
centreing. He (the Chairman) could not say whether this speciality
was an advantage or otherwise, as he had but recently obtained it,
but its great recommendation was its portability, combined with its
excellence.

is Be

Mr. W. Purtick exhibited Water Spider and Air Tubes of
Cockroach.

Mr. R. GLAISYER, Young Oysters.
Mr. T. GuarsyER, Diatoms, mounted by Moller.

Rev. Mr. Sart, Sea Weed and Marine objects from the Brighton
Aquarium.

DECEMBER toth.
ORDINARY MEETING.—‘SPECIMEN EVENING.”

THE LATE MR. G. SCOTT.

Mr. WonrFor, one of the Hon. Secretaries, said it was with
exceedingly painful feelings he alluded to the sad loss which the
society and the town had sustained in the death of Mr. George
Scott, the Curator of the Free Library and Museum, the honorary
librarian, and a vice-president of the society. His heart had been
thoroughly with them, and in his official capacity this was
particularly manifested by his bringing them into the room in
which their meetings were held, and welcoming their presence there
afew months ago. As an intimate friend, he had always found
him a kind gentleman and a true Christian ; and he did not know
that anything had ever come upon him with such a severe shock as
the intimation of his death. His object in rising at that time was
to propose that the condolence of the society at the loss sustained
by the removal of Mr. Scott from a sphere of useful action should
be conveyed to the relatives of the deceased.

Mr. J. C. Ontons, the other Hon. Sec., seconded the motion,
and, with Mr. J. E. Haselwood, the ex-President, also paid a fittin g
tribute to the memory of their late member.

The Prestprent (Mr. Alderman Cox) and Mr. J. Dennant
likewise spoke in sympathetic terms of the loss; and Mr. Wonfor
read a letter from Mr. C. F. Dennet, conveying an expression. of
that gentleman’s exceeding regret, because of his inability to be
present to state how deeply he felt the loss sustained in the demise

ie

of Mr. Scott, from whom he had received the first kindness he met
with after coming to Brighton.—The proposition was unanimously
agreed to.

Mr. Wonror showed a hard piece of chalk which had
been fuund in an inner wall of the late King’s Head, in West
street, and which there was every reason to believe had been in the
building since its erection, about two hundred years ago. It was
bored through by pholades and other creatures, and was rolled as
if it had been originally taken from the beach. The object in
exhibiting the specimen was two-fold; first, as an illustration of
the use of chalk in Sussex for building purposes, and, secendly, to
show that chalk, exposed to the action of the sea, acquired a
hardness not found in freshly quarried chalk. Many Sussex
edifices were built of chalk, faced with flint or stone, such as Lewes
Priory and Parham House.

The examination of this piece of chalk led to the remark that
gas might be made from chalk; but the President observed that
the only gas which could be got from chalk pure and simple by
itself was carbonic oxide, and Mr. Wonfor stated that if some
hydrocarbon was united with chalk, the streets of Brighton might
be lighted by material from the cliffs.

A piece of the pulp of paper extracted from the sugarcane,
and a sheet of papier-maché used in the formation of stereotype
of the Times newspaper of October 16th, 1873, was exhibited by
Mr. R. Glaisyer.

-In the course of several incidental allusions to aquatic
matters, attention was directed to the inestimable value of
the Aquarium, to the naturalist especially, and the difficulties
which had to be overcome in the preservation of marine life in that
institution, and which appeared to be very little understood by the
public generally. The Hon. Howe Browne, one of the directors of
the Aquarium, who was present, afforded some information under
this head, and assured the meeting that the Aquarium Company
would be ever willing to provide the society with any specimens of
marine life which its members desired to examine and consider, -if
it were in the power of the directors to do so.

For this assurance the President expressed the gratitude of
the society.

e
4

Li8% > ara:

| 49 J

January 14th, 1875.

ORDINARY MEETING.—* ON WINGLESS BIRDS.”—
MR. T. W. WONFOR.

The idea ordinarily associated in the mind with the word
“bird” was that of a creature possessing the power of flight and,
as a matter of consequence, provided with wings. In the north of
England “bird” or “brid” was a term used of any flying thing, so
that a moth, butterfly, or beetle would be equally included under
the term “bird.” Now as there were wingless or brevipennate
insects, the question might arise, are there wingless birds ? in the
usual application of the term. We know that the expressions
“wingless” and “brevipennate” had been applied to some
members of the family Aves, yet still, if we inquired into the
character of those birds which had been so designated we found
that, though we could not in all cases hold that they were flying
creatures, yet no one member of the great family of Aves was
absolutely deprived of wings. They might be merely rudimentary,
as in the case of the Apterix, or changed into flappers or paddles
as seen in the Penguins, but still they were present and corresponded
with the anterior pair of limbs found in all members of the family
possessing the power of flight.

THE APTERIX AUSTRALIS.

It was related that a few years since the skin of a bird brought
home by someone from New Zealand was given to a taxidermist to
set up, and he, taking into consideration the shortness of the wing
and absence of tail, and assuming that it was a penguin, stuffed it
in a sitting posture, with the head and neck arranged after the
manner of the penguins. This bird proved to be the Apterix
Australis, a native of New Zealand, and, for a bird, exhibiting
peculiar features. In addition to an almost want of wing, it pre-
sented a strange appearance, the plumage consisting of long flat
slender lanceolate feathers, each furnished with a soft shining
silken down, for the basal third of their length, and then narrow-
ing rapidly towards the extremity, where they presented the
appearance of single shafts, with hair-like webs on each side. The

G

[ 50 |

quill portion was very small and short, and overlapped by the
down, when the feathers were removed from the skin. Above and
below the eye, at the base of the beak, and on the forehead were
groups or pencils of long whisker-like hairs. As the kiwi, as the
natives called it, was nocturnal in its habits and lived among the
fern beds, boring imto the ground and seeking shelter in deep
excavations, these hairs might serve the same purpose as the
whiskers of the cat ; and supplement the eye, which, unlike that of
the other nocturnal birds, was small. So small was the organ of
vision, while the cornea was very convex, and the olfactory system
so much larger than in other birds, that Professor Owen remarked,
“The nocturnal habits of this bird, combined with the necessity for
a highly developed organ of smell, which chiefly compensates for
the low condition of the organ of vision, produce the most singular
modifications which the skull presents, so that it may be said that
those cavities which in other birds are devoted to the lodgment of
eyes are in the apterix almost exclusively devoted to the nose.” The
nostrils externally were very narrow, very small, avd set on each
side of the tip of the long curved beak, which at this point was
somewhat swollen. The internal olfactory apparatus and the
pituitory surface, on which the olfactory nerve freely ramified, was
complex and extensive. ° Like all the Cursores the legs were very
strong and muscular, the tarsi short and stout, the toes, four in
number, without intervening webs, the three anterior strong and
armed with powerful claws, the hinder one short and terminated
by a sort of spur, with which it was said to defend itself very
vigorously by striking very rapidly, and with great force. The
eggs, for so small a bird, were of great size, and showed the
absurdity of judging of the size of an animal from the size of the
egg. The eggs weighed on an average 143 ounces, while the adult
bird weighed 60 ounces; the proportion being about 1-4th, while
in the common fowl it was 1-48th, and in the case of the ostrich
1-100th; with some animals, such as the alligator and crocodile it
was much less.

GIGANTIC BIRDS.

There are, or, if extinct, were, birds of far more gigantic
proportions, viz., the dinornis and notornis of New Zealand, and
ABpiornis of Madagascar. The Dinornis giganteus stood from 14ft. to
16ft. high. Two portions of bone in the Brighton Museum would quite

[ 51 ]

lead, were other evidence wanting, to the belief that the bird was
not only of gigantic dimensions, but possessed of immense power
of stride. In connection with this bird, it is said that some years
ago a traveller returning from New Zealand, brought with him
a few inches of bone. This was before the days of the gold
discovery; the traveller had heard of the gigantic birds of New
Zealand, and also of Professor Owen, to whom the piece of bone
was presented. It was big enough in diameter to have been the
bone of an ox, but upon examination Professor Owen noticed a
peculiar cancellated structure only found in the bones of birds. A
bird to possess such a bone must have been considerably larger than
an ostrich, He therefore set to work to construct an outline of
the bird. The figure, when produced, caused no small amount of
disbelief and, as some thought, shewed hasty conclusions on Owen’s
part. But, causing enquiries to be made in New Zealand, some
disjointed bones turned up; these were packed up and sent in a
trunk to London; when put together they formed the incomplete
skeleton in the Museum of the College of Surgeons. From 14ft. to
16ft. appeared to be the height assigned to the dinornis giganteus,
the (tibia) legbone measured 2ft. 10in., and the legs to the root of
the tail 6ft. An egg found in the voleanic sand by Mr Walter
Mantel, was so large that he said his hat would serve as an egg-
cup for it. What became of this egg was not known. _ If, as was
asserted by some, the bird was still existing, we might in time
obtain a living specimen, or if the capture of it alive was impossible,
at least the skin and bones.

THE NOTORNIS MANTELLI.

Another brevipennate bird of the same country, the Notornis
Mantelli, was captured alive in the year 1849 by some seal hunters.

“They were ashore in one of the coves of Dusky Bay, the S.W.

extremity of Middle Island, when, observing the footprints of a
large and strange bird in the snow, they followed the trail and at
length came in sight of the birditself. Afteralong chase, in which
their dogs were very much distressed, they came up with and caught
it alive, in a gully behind Resolution Island. They kept it alive on
board their schooner for some days, and then killed and skinned it,
roasting and eating the flesh, which they pronounced delicious.
The skin was procured by Mr W. Mantell, and sent to England.
This bird stood about two feet high, the beak was short and strong,

[ 52]

wings very short and rounded, plumage feeble, legs and feet more
adapted for the land than those of the ordinary rails; plumage
rich purple on neck, breast, and abdomen, back and wings decked
with green and gold, tail scanty and white beneath; beak and legs,
when the bird was alive, bright scarlet.

AN ENORMOUS EGG.

In the Museum was the cast of an egg of enormous size. This
was in reality a fac-simile of an egg of the Hpiornis Maximus (a
supposed extinct bird of Madagascar), in the possession of Mr Dawson
Rowley, of Brighton, who had published a pamphlet upon it. Some
idea of its comparative size might be gathered when it was stated that
it would take 148 fowl’s eggs to equal it. The idea respecting this
egg was that it was laid by a bird of far larger size than the Dinornis,
and, if not still existing in the unexplored parts of Madagascar, that
it had not been extinct more than a couple of centuries. Professor
Owen, speaking of the eggs of this bird, in a paper read before the
Zoological Society in 1852, entitled “Notes on the egg and young
of the Apterix, and on the casts of the eggs and certain bones of
the Aipiornis,” thought it very unscientific to estimate the size of
a bird from the size of its egg, and proceeded to show, first that the
egg of the Apterix might have led to a supposition of its having
been laid by a much larger bird; and secondly, that from a
comparison of the bones, the Mpiornis did not equal in size the
Dinornis Giganteus.

BREVIPENNATE BIRDS.

Little more than 200 years ago there was on the islands of
Mauritius, Bourbon, and Rodiguez sundry brevipennate birds, the
Dodo, Solitaire, &c., in great abundance, and, till recently, only a
head, a couple of feet or so, and a few bones, with some paintings,
were all that remained to tell us of a very interesting group of
brevipennate birds. Much interesting matter respecting these
would be found in a work in their Library, “The Dodo and its
kindred.” The living specimen of the Dodo exhibited in London in
1639 passed into the hands of Tradescant, and, when his museum
was presented to the University of Oxford by Ashmole, it contained
a perfect stuffed dodo. On January 8th, 1755, by an order of the
Vice-Chancellor and his co-trustees, it was ordered to be burnt, the
bead and foot alone escaping destruction. Excavations made in

fF 53 J

1865 in the Mauritius by M. de Bissy, for the purpose of utilising
the soil of a marsh for manure, !ed to the discovery of various bones,
including those of the deer and tortoise. Mr Clark, who had long
had an opinion respecting the possibility of finding bones of the
dodo, told M. de Bissy his views. This led toa systematic ex-
ploration, and the discovery of many bones of that bird, and now,
in the British Museum, might be seen an almost perfect skeleton.

AFRICAN OSTRICHES,

Leaving the region of the comparatively unknown, we came to
well-known examples of wingless or brevipennate birds, all belonging
to the true Cursores; these were the ostriches, the emeu, and the
cassowaries. The best known species was the ostrich, Struthio
Camelus, an inhabitant of the African Continent. This bird, which
had been celebrated since the most remote antiquity, and a dish of
whose brains was an epicurean dish in Old Rome, measured from
six to eight feet in height; its feet consisted of only two toes; the
head and neck were nearly naked, the general plumage very lax, the
quill feathers of the wings and tail remarkable for the length of
their barbs, which, though furnished with barbules, were com-
pletely separated from each other, and formed the well-known
ostrich feathers of commerce. The ostriches lived together in large
flocks, feeding upon grass, grain, wild melons, &c., and, like the
gallinaceous birds, which they resembled in their food, had an
enormous crop and a strong gizard. Ina state of nature it picked
up and swallowed small pebbles; but in confinement it had
swallowed brickbats, knives, old shoes, scraps of wood, tenpenny
nails, bits of iron, and feathers; one went to the length of
swallowing in succession the whole of a brood of young
ducks—whether impelled by normal hunger, a morbid appetite,
or sheer mischief, was an open question. Another tried
to swallow its blanket. The voracity of the ostrich formerly
gave rise to the belief that it fed on iron. The African
ostrich was polygamous and gregarious. The female scratched
a hole in the sand, in which she lay ten or twelve eggs in
an upright position. The male and female both sat upon the eggs
during the night, and this sitting, supplemented by the heat of the
sun, hatched those in the middle of the nest, the outer ones, when
the centre eggs were hard and the young birds nearly hatched,
being quite fit for food; the eggs weighed upon an average 3lbs.,

i ome

and were regarded as great delicacies. Though equal in weight to
twenty-four hen’s eggs, one was not thought enough for a meal,
and in one instance two men finished five eggs in the course of an
afternoon. The approved method of cooking was to place the egg
upright on the fire, and break a hole in the top, through which a
forked stick was forced. This was made to rotate by rubbing with
the hands, and so beat up the contents while cooking.

AMERICAN OSTRICHES.

The American Ostriches contained two species. Rhea
Americana and R. Darwenii, and were scarcely more than half the
size of the African species, from which they also differed in having
the head and neck covered with feathers, and the feet furnished
with three toes. The feathers of the wing and tail, though
elongated, possessed none of the beauty of the African ostrich, and
were only employed in the manufacture of light dusting brooms.
They were very abundant in the large plains of America. The food
consisted mainly of grasses, roots, and other vegetable substances ;
but they would occasionally eat animal food, being known to come
down to the mud banks of the rivers for the purpose of eating the
little fish that had been stranded in the shallows. Darwin, who had
frequent opportunities of observing these birds, had given an
excellent account of their habits. He says:—‘They take the
water readily, and swim across broad and rapid rivers, and even
from island to island in the bays. They swim slowly, with the
greater part of the body immersed, and the neck extended a little
forwards. On two occasions I saw some ostriches swimming across
the Santa Ciruz river, where it was 400 yards wide and the stream
rapid.” It was polygamous; the male bird prepared the nest,
collected the eggs, which were frequently laid by the females at
random on the ground, and performed all the duties of incubation.
Darwin said four or five females had been known to lay in the same
nest, and the male, when sitting, lay so close that he himself nearly
rode over one. At thie time they were very fierce, and had been
known to attack a man on horseback, trying to kick and leap on
him.

THE AUSTRALIAN EMEU.

The Emeu of Australia, Dromaius Nove Hollandie was nearly
as large as the African ostrich, measuring from 5 to 7ft, in height,

[ 3 J

It had three toes on each foot, and these were each furnished with
nearly equal claws. The head and neck were covered with feathers,
the throat being bare, the plumage of the body, closely resembling
long hairs, hung down on each side of the body, from a central line
or parting. These birds, at one time abundant in Australia, were
now becoming extinct, for natives and Europeans were fast thinning
them, the former eating the eggs and hunting down the emeus for
food, but not allowing boys or women to partake of it, the flesh
being reserved for warriors and counsellors. Europeans and settlers
ran it with dogs, trained on purpose, for food, sport, and also for a
valuable oil, of which as much as six or seven quarts were yielded
by asingle emeu. This oil was of a light yellow colour, was used
as an embrocation for bruises or strains, and not readily congealing
or becoming glutinous, was also useful for oiling the locks of fire-
arms. They were monogamous, the male performing the office of
incubation; the nest was made by scooping out a shallow hole in
the ground, in some scrubby spot, and in this depression a variable
number of eggs was laid. Dr. Bennett remarked that “there is
_ always an odd number, some nests having been discovered with
nine, others with eleven, and others with thirteen.” These eggs
were nearly as large as those of the ostrich, but of a dark green
colour, and the young, when first hatched, were elegantly striped
with black and grey. In defending itself it did not kick forward
like the ostvich, but sideways and backwards like a cow.

THE CASSOWARY AND THE MOORUK.

The Cassowaries, of which there were at least two—the
Cassowary proper, Caswarius Guleatus, and the Mooruk, Casuarius
Benettii—were natives of the Eastern Archipelago. The former,
standing 5ft. high, was distinguished by the possession of a peculiar
horny crest or helmet upon the head, by the wings being furnished,
instead of feathers, with about five cylindrical stalks, destitute of
barbs, and by the large size of the claw on the inner toe. The head
and neck were naked and wattled, and of a bright red, variegated
with blue. The rest of the body, which was very stout, was clothed
with long glossy black pendant feathers, more closely resembling
hair than those of the emeu. It fed upon herbs, fruit, and seeds,
and, like the ostrich, swallowed hard substances. The eggs were of
a greenish tint. The eye was fierce and resolute, and the character

[ 56 ]

of the bird was tetchy, and it was apt to take offence without any
apparent provocation. Scarlet cloth excited its ire, and it had a
great antipathy to ragged and dirty persons. The height of the
mooruk was 3ft. to the top of the back, and oft. when standing
erect. The colour was rufous, mixed with black on the back and
hinder portions of the body, and raven black about the neck and
breast; the loose wavy skin of the neck was coloured with irridiscent
tints of bluish purple, pink, and an occassional shade of green;
the feet and legs were large and strong, of a pale ash colour, and
exhibited a peculiarity in the extreme length of the claw of the
inner toe of each foot, it being nearly three times the length of the
claws of the other toes. Instead of the helmet-like protuberance
of the cassowary, it had a horny plate resembling mother-of-pearl
darkened with black lead.

THE PENGUINS.

Another set of birds, if not wingless, should also be mentioned,
these were the Penguins, in which birds the wings were reduced to
a rudimentary character, were destitute of quills, and were covered
with a scaly skin forming flat fin-like paddles, the scales being
rudimentary feathers. In the water, which appeared their natural
element, they used them in swimming and diving. On shore they
used the paddles as anterior legs. From the backward position of
their feet the Penguins could only stand in a very upright
attitude, in which position they might be seen in countless numbers
arranged in as compact a manner and in as regular ranks as a
regiment of soldiers, and classed with the greatest order, the
moulting birds in one place, the young ones in another, the sitting
hens by themselves; the clean birds in another place, &. So
strictly did birds in a similar condition congregate that should a
bird in a moulting state intrude amongst those which were clean,
it was immediately ejected from among them.

THE PLUMAGE OF WINGLESS BIRDS.

Apart from what might be called the absence of wings or
rather the presence of merely rudimentary wings, wingless birds,
leaving possibly the penguin and dodo out of the category, were
distinguished from other birds by certain marked qualities. In all
of them the plumage differed from that of those possessing the
power of flight, the barbs of the feathers being always separate,

L 57 J

and the whole covering approaching very nearly the character of
ths hair of animals. The bones, too, were almost destitute of the
air cells which gave so much lightness to the skeletons of ordinary
birds, and assimilated more closely to mammalian bone. From
the mere rudimentary character of the wings there was an almost
absence of pectoral muscles, and the sternum was reduced to a
simple convex shield without any trace of the keel which in other
birds gave attachment to the powerful pectoral muscles. To
compensate for this deficiency, the great size and muscularity of
the legs rendered the pace of these birds in running very swift. The
pelvis was of a large size, and the two sides of the arch united at
the pubis; this was not the case in other birds. The anterior toes
were strong, either two or three in number, and terminated by
strong nails. The hinder toe, except in the genus Apterix, where
it was rudimentary, was entirely wanting. So strong were the
legs and muscles in the ostrich, that it would knock over a hyena
with a stroke, or rip up a dog with its claw. At bay it had
knocked down, and trampled upon the hunter who had approached
it incautiously.

THE ABODE OF BREVIPENNATE BIRDS

It must have been noticed that all the brevipennate cursores
were confined either to islands or two Southern continents, and
were of great size. How could this be accounted for; and was
there anything to explain the fact? First, as regarded the islands,
it seemed geologically evident that they, comparatively recently in
geological time, formed a part of the great Asio-African Continent
and that, when the separation took place, the ancestors of all these
gigantic and brevipennate birds were shut up in the islands
together with smaller birds, with the same lax plumage and feeble
powers of flight, those only of large size and swiftness of foot escaping
from their natural enemies shut up with them. That a ravenous
and active enemy in a small island would soon cause the extinction
of a small and feeble brevipennate bird was seen by what happened
in the Samoan group of islands. There was a Dodolet, the

— didunculus strigirostris, a pet with the natives, and a connecting

link between the true pigeons and the Dodo. European vessels
touching at these islands left behind them rats, which increased
and multiplied until, like Dick Whittington’s so-called cat of

H

[ 58 J

fable, but not the ship of reality, they introduced the domestic
cat; it not only kept down the rats, but destroyed the didunculus,
which became, as was believed, extinct, until a few months ago
living specimens were found and wrongly described in the journals
as the true Dodo.

THE SILK FOWLS.

Absence of wings and hairiness of plumage was seen under
domestication in what were known as Silk Fowls. The origin was
said to have been from an ordinary pair of Chinese fowls. A single
bird thus clothed was hatched from an egg laid by the hen, the
cause, though determining the variation, being unknown. By a
careful and long-continued selection of the offspring of this fowl
showing the most complete tendency to develope the peculiarity of
feathers, the breed of silky cochins was at length established. It
was well-known to pigeon fanciers that similar laxity of plumage
existed among them. Given therefore a tendency to laxity of
plumage, and but moderate powers of flight, natural selection would
explain on Darwin’s hypothesis, how, as the powers of flight
diminished, only the larger and more powerful would survive, while
the smaller and feebler would easily fall a prey to their natural
enemies, while the use of the legs and disuse of the wings would
also in time produce the swift and strong cursores like the ostrich,
emeu, Xe.

A vote of thanks to Mr Wonfor for his paper was proposed by
the President, Mr Alderman Cox. He thought it was very
fortunate for them that they could have such a stop-gap as they
had. Being personally perfectly ignorant of the subject treated,
the meeting, he said, would understand what a great temptation it
was for him to say much about it. There was a tendency in
human nature to say most about that of which they knew least,
but he would refrain from indulging in this natural propensity by.
merely proposing a vote of thanks in return for the instructive
paper read.—This proposition was heartily responded to.—A_ short
conversation was then engaged in, the Chairman, Mr Moore, Mr
Hennah, Mr Onions, Mr Dowsett, Mr C. W. Wallis, and one or
two others taking an active part in it.

To the Chairman the question suggested itself, whether the
rudimentary organs of brevipennate birds were in progress of

[ 59 J

development into something else, or had been wings and became
reduced through disuse, or had been always stunted.

Darwin’s belief in the second alternative was alluded to by Mr
Wonfor; but in opposition to this, Mr Moore gave the result of his
practical experience in New Zealand. There be had found that
brevipennate birds existed principally on soil roots, and consequently
had-no use for wings.

Mr Dowserr would not allow that there were so great
modifications in nature as Darwin suggested, although he admitted
that there were great modifications, the result of human agency.
Why were the birds mentioned not specially created in a form
adapted to the spheres they occupied ?

Another difficulty in believing Darwin’s theory was referred to
by the Chairman ; this was the density of the bone in the
brevipennate birds, in contrast with the animals themselves.

To meet Darwin half-way, Mr Wonfor suggested that, instead
of admitting that all forms of birds had been developed from a few
types, some acquiring greater powers of flight, and some ceasing to
fly altogether, they might concede that brevipennate birds had all
developed from one type, of which, perhaps, the ostrich or dinornis
was the original.

January 28th.
MICROSCOPICAL MEETING.—“ ROCK SECTIONS.”

The subject was to have been introduced by another gentleman,
but was in his absence introduced by Mr, T. W. Wonfor, the hon.
sec., who, since the last meeting of the society, had been elected
Curator of the Free Library, Museum, and Picture Gallery

After referring to the barrénness of scientific literature upon
the subject, Mr Wonfor proceeded to give a brief but comprehensive
sketch of the rock systems, constituting the crust of the earth, and
explained the characteristics of the three groups, the igneous, the
aqueous, and the organic. Dealing with the latter first, he showed
how at the present time rocks were being built upin the beds of

r 60 ]

the Atlantic, the Pacific, and elsewhere, the component parts of
which were similar to our chalk cliffs, mountain limestone, or coal
formations. The first two were made up of minute organisms, and,
taking into consideration the time necessary to form these rocks,
the age of the earth must be pushed much further back than where
it had been placed by many geologists.

The aqueous rocks bore distinct evidences of having been
formed under water; and in the igneous rocks, more particularly
in granites, minerals were found; while many rocks supposed to
be igneous contained water, glass, stone, and gas cavities.

One stumbling block to independent Microscopical research
amongst rocks was that so much aid was required from the
lapidary’s wheel, and the preparing of specimens for microscopic
inspection thus became an expensive amusement.

The meeting then became a conversazione, when about six
dozen sections, supplied by Mr. Wonfor, were exhibited, by different
gentlemen present amongst the principal being granite, porphyry,
felspar, jasper, obsidian, basalt, pitchstone, quartz, agate, lime-
stone, oolites, chalk, coal, and lignite.

FEBRUARY 14th.

ORDINARY MEETING.—MR. T. DAVIDSON, F.R.S.,
E.G.S., (ON “WHAT IS A. BRACHIOPOD?”

Having been requested by some members of the Brighton
Natural History Society to tell them what a Brachiopod is, he would
endeavour to do so in as brief a manner as so extensive a subject
would admit. All were aware'that it was very often much easier to
put a question than to obtain an entirely satisfactory answer, and
he was consequently sorry to have to begin his few observations on
a very extensive group of organisms by stating that zoologists and
comparative anatomists had not yet entirely agreed as to the exact
position it should occupy among the invertebrate animals. The
first species belonging to the class were imperfectly and quaintly
described and figured by Prince Fabio Columna, as far back as
1606, and for many years were supposed to be referable to the genus

f ory
Anomia of the Lamelli branchiata; but, as was judiciously observed
hy Edward Forbes, “a close examination shows that there is no
relationship between them, but only a resemblance through formal
analogy.” It was during the present century that the class itself

had been worked out and understood, and this had been achieved
only after the most lengthened and persevering researches.

NAME.

The name Brachiopod (an arm, a foot) was proposed for the
class by Cuvier in 1805, and by Dumeril in 1809, and had since been
very generally adopted. Professor King, perhaps rightly, objected
to the term on the grounds that it was a misnomer, for the two
variously curved and cirrated brachial appendages, improperly
designated as arms or feet, were subsequently found not to subserve
the function of locomotive organs. Blainville, in 1824, proposed as
a substitute for Cuvier’s name that of Palliobranchiata (a mantle,
gills), on account of the respiratory system being combined with
the mantle on which the vascular ramifications are distributed.

SHELL.

Before alluding to the position the Brachiopod should occupy
amongst the invertebrata, he might, at once, observe that the
animal was protected by a shell composed of two distinct valves;
and that these valves were always, except in cases of malformation,
equal sided, but not equivalved. The shell was likewise most varied
and beautiful in its endless shapes and variations; in some species
it was semi-transparent, and glassy, in others massive; generally
the shell was from a quarter of an inch to about fonr inches in size,
but in certain species was nearly a foot in breadth by something
less in length, as was the case with Productus Giganteus. The
valves were often very unequal in their respective thickness, as
might be seen in Productus Llangollensis, Davidsonia Verneuilii,
&e., and while the space allotted to the animal was very great in a
number of species it was extremely small in many others. The
outer surface of many of the species presented likewise the most
exquisite sculpture, heightened by brilliant shades, stripes, or spots
of green, red, yellow, and bluish black. The valves had been
distinguished by various names, but those of dorsal and ventral were
in more general use. The ventral one was usually the Jarger; in

[ 62 |

many genera, as Terebratula and Rhynchonella, had a prominent beak
with a circular or otherwise shaped perforation or foramen at, or
near, its extremity, partly completed by one or two plates termed a
deltidium ; through the foramen passed a bundle of muscular fibres
termed a peduncle, and by which the animal was,in many species,
attached to sub-marine objects during at least a portion of its
existence. It was, however, certain, from the admirable researches
of Professor Morse, that the embroyo of some, if not of every
species, swan most actively in every direction and turned abruptly
about; but that, in the fourth stage of its development, it became
attached, the peduncle widening at its end into a sucking disk.
Other species showed no indication of ever having been attached,
while some, that had been fixed by means of a peduncle during a
part of their existence became attached at a more advanced stage
of life, the opening for the peduncle becoming gradually cicatrized.
Lastly, certain forms appeared to have adhered to submarine
objects by a larger or smaller portion of the surface of their ventral
valve, or by spines (Strophalosia) during their entire life. In
external shape the valves were essentially symmetrical, which was
not the case with the Lamellibranchiata, so much so, that certain
Brachiopod shells received the name of Lampides from some early
naturalists, but while such might bear an obscure kind of
resemblance to an antique Etruscan lamp, by far the larger number
in no way resembled one. The valves were also either articulated
by means of two curved teeth developed from the margin of the
larger valve and fitting into sockets in the corresponding part of
the smaller one, or they were unarticulated and kept in place or in
juxtaposition by the means of muscles especially provided for that
purpose.

SHELL STRUCTURE.

The structure of the shell had been shown by Dr Carpenter,
Professor King, and others to be generally distinct from that
of the Lamellibranchiata or Gasteropoda. In some families,
according to Professor King, it consisted of three divisions,
the innermost and middle divisions, which constitute the entire
thickness of the valve, were calcareous, with a prismatic or fibrous
structure ; while the outer division consisted of a very thin
membrane. The innermost and intermediate divisions in some
families were traversed by minute tubular canals, which passed

{ 63 ]

from one surface to the other, for the most part in a vertical
direction, and at tolerably regular intervals; but, just before
terminating near the outer surface of the epidermis, their tubular
orifices suddenly became dilated, the lower half of the canal was
often considerably smaller in diameter than the upper half. The
‘canals were occupied by coecal processes proceeding from the
mantle or fleshy covering of the animal. Their functional nature
was, according to Dr. Carpenter, branchial in their office, and
subservient to respiration; but,as observed by Professor King, the
outer epidermis, which covered their expanded termination, would
seemingly prevent any communication between the surrounding sea
water and the mantle, so that it might be questioned whether they
were at all connected with the respiratory function. In certain
genera, such as Lingula, there were no canals, the shell being found
to consist of flattened prisms of considerable length, and which lay
parallel to one another with great regularity, and at a very acute
angle. The shell substance was also either almost entirely
composed of a horny or of a calcareous substance.

INTERIOR OF. VALVES.

Having described the exterior of the shell, he must add a few
words with respect to the interior. On the imner surface of both
valves several well defined muscular impressions were observable;
these varied considerably in position and shape in different species.
They formed either indentations of greater or lesser size and depth,
or occurred as variously shaped projections. In the Trimerellide
some of the muscles were attached to a massive or vaulted platform
situated in the medio—longitudinal region of the posterior half or
umbonal portion of both valves. In addition to these there existed
in the interior of the dorsal valve, in some genera a variously
modified thin calcified ribbon-shaped lamina or skeleton for the
support mainly of the brachial or labial appendages, and so varied
and constant were these in shape to certain species that this
laminal apophysis had served as one of the chief characters
in the creation of both recent and extinct genera. In certain forms
the lamina was more or less developed, and so bent as to assume the
shape of a loop. The loop was in some genera attached only to the
hinge-plate, as in Terebratula, Waldheimia, &c., in others likewise
so to a central longitudinal plate or septum. In certain families
the apophysis- presented the form of two spiral processes, which

[ 64 J

nearly filled the interior of the shell, the ends of the spires being
either directed outwardly towards the cardinal angles (Spirifer)
or placed horizontally with their apices directed inwards and
towards the centre of the concave surface of the same valve, which
they almost filled, the inner side of the spires were pressed together
and flattened with thin terminations close to each other, near the
centre of the bottom of the shell (Atrypa). In the Rhynchonellide
again it assumed the shape of two short slender curved lamine,
while in many genera, and even families, Productide, &c., there
existed no calcified support for the branchial appendages.

SOFT PARTS OF ANIMAL.

He must very briefly allude to the soft parts of the animal,
but it would require much more time than could be bestowed to
his short lecture, to do anything like justice to so difficult and
complicated a subject. He was, however, truly happy in being
able to inform the society that this important enquiry had been
most ably and successfully elaborated during the last twenty
years, and by some of the most distinguisned anatomists of the
period. To such men as Owen, Huxley, Hancock, Gratiolet, Vogt,
Morse, and others, we were indebted for an extensive series of the
most elaborate and accurate dissections and observations, which
had defined to a very considerable extent, what were the true
characters of the Brachiopod, while some important researches
elaborated by Steenstrup, Lacage-Duthiers, Morse, Dr. Fritz
Miller, Oscar Schmidt, McCrade, Kowalevsky, and others, had
thrown much additional light upon the embiyology, or early stages,
of the groups. Some differences of opinion, it was true, had been,
and were still, entertained with respect to the exact function to be
attributed to certain parts of the animal; but on all essential
questions there was a pretty general agreement. Before describing
the soft parts of the animal, it might be as well to mention that
Brachiopoda had been divided into two great groups by Bronn,
which he termed Apygia and Plewropygia, considering them to be
inadmissible on certain grounds. Professor King substituted the
name Clistenterata for the first group, on account of its including
animals destitute of an anal aperture; and the term Tretenterata
for the second, as it embraced animals provided with this organ.
The former division contained species which had their valves

L 65 |

articulated as Terebratula, Spirifer, Rhynchonella, the latter com-
prised species with non-articulated valves as Lingula discina, ec.
Some very important modifications in the animal were connected
with these two divisions, especially in what related to the muscular
system. According to Morse, the Brachiopod were reproduced by
eggs, generally kidney-shaped and irregular, which were discharged
from the anterior margin of the shell, and dropped just beyond the
pallial membrane, hanging in clusters from the sete. Some
uncertainty had prevailed as to whether there was a male and
femule individual; Lacage-Duthiers and Morse stated that the sexes
were separate and described them as such in Thecidium and Tere-
bratulina, and the French zoologist went so far as to suggest that
a difference was even observable in the shell. Professor Morse
described the embryo of Terebratulina with great minuteness during
its six stages of development. It was divided into two, three, or
four lubes clothed with vibratile cilia; and before becoming
attached, swam or whirled head foremost by means of vibratile
cilia which covered the body.

MANTLE.

Both valves were lined by the delicate membrane, termed the
“pallium,” or mantle; it secreted the shell, and was generally
fringed with horny bristles, or sete. The mantle was composed of
an outer and inner layer, between which were situated blood
channels or lacunes. These arterial trunks and veins corstitute the
vascular system. On certain parts of the surface of the mantle
occurred a vast number of microscopic, flattened, calcareous,
denticulated plates, or spicule, destined, no doubt, to stiffen the
portions that contained them. The digestive organs, viscera, as well
as the muscles, took up only a small place in the contiguity of the
beak, and were separated from the general cavity by a strong
membrane, in the centre of which the mouth is located. The nervous
system consisted of a principal ganglion, of no great size.

BRACHIAL APPENDAGES.

He must next briefly describe those beautiful and singular
organs, eminently characteristic of the Brachiopoda, termed arms,
or more correctly labial, on account of each member being a
prolongation of the lateral portion of the lips or margin of the
mouth; the lamellibranchs, or conchifera, had analagous

[ 66 |

appendages, but very much less developed. They assumed different
shapes in different genera, and were supported, or otherwise, by the
more or less complicated calcified skeleton, already described.
These two long, bent, or spirally convoluted organs, occupied the
larger portion of the cavity of the shell, and were mainly composed
of a membranous tube, fringed on one side with long fiexible cirri.
The brachial appendages occupied, therefore, nearly the entire
pallial cavity, but were not capable of being protruded in those
families and genera in which they were folded upon themselves,
or supported by a calcareous skeleton. In Rbyncbonella,
where the elongated spiral arms were but slightly supported
at their origin by two short projecting calcareous processes,
they could, at the will of the animal, be unrolled, and
protruded to some distance beyond the margins of the shell, and,
when forcibly stretched out, were said to be more than four times
the length of tlie shell, and to support some 3.000 cirri. It must,
however, remain for ever uncertain whether, in those extinct
genera, such as Spirifer and Atrypa, where the spirally coiled fleshy
arms were supported throughout their entire length by a calcified
skeleton, the animal could protude its brachial appendages beyond
the margin of the valves. In some families, Rhynchonellide,
Productide, the arms are spiral and separate, in others, Lingulide,
only at their extremities, and it was almost certain that these
beautiful organs by means of their cirri and the cilia, with which
they were doubtless furnished, were not only instrumental in carry-
ing floating nutrimental particles or minute organisms to the
mouth, but were subservient to the functions of respiration.

MOUTH: HEARTS.

The mouth conducted by a narrow cesophagus to a simple
stomach, which was surrounded by a large granulated liver.
Owen’s “ hearts” had been found to be oviducts, while the true
heart would consist of a pyriform vesicle, appended to the dorsal
surface of the stomach.

MUSCLES.

He must next speak of the muscular system, and as the num-
ber and position of these muscles differed materially in the two
great divisions into which the Brachiopoda had beeu separated, and
to some extent also in the different genera of which each division

[ mm

was composed, it might be desirable to treat the subject under two
different heads in the Clistenterata, of which the genus Terebratula
might be taken as an example, five or six pairs of muscles were
stated by Hancock and others to be connected with the opening
and closing of the valves, or with their attachment to, or movements
upon the peduncle. First of all, the adductors, or occlusors, consisted
of two muscles, which, bifurcating near the centre of the shell
eavity, produced a large quadruple impression on the internal sur-
face of the small valve, and a single divided one towards the centre
of the large or ventral valve. The function of this pair of muscles
was the closing of the valves. Dr. Gratiolet who had likewise de-
scribed with great minuteness, the muscles of the Brachiopoda, in-
formed us that those which close and open the valves were the only
ones known to Pallas, but that he defined their positions and
functions clearly. The same was done by Blainville and Quenstedt.
The next two pairs of muscles had been termed divaricators, or
cardinal muscles, and had for function the opening of the valves.
The divaricators proper were stated by Hancock to arise from the
ventral valve, one on each side, a little in advance of and close to
the occlusors, and after rapidly diminishing in size became attached
to the cardinal process, a space or prominence between the sockets
in the dorsal valve. The accessory divaricators were, according to
the same authority, a pair of small muscles which had their ends
attached to the ventral valve, one on each side of the median line,
a little behind the united basis of the occlusors, and again to the
extreme point of the cardinal process. Two pairs of muscles
appeared to be connected with the peduncle and its limited move-
ments had been minutely described by Hancock as having one of
their extremities attached to this organ. The dorsal adjustors
were attached to the ventral surface of the peduncle and again in-
serted into the hinge plate in the smaller valve. The ventral
adjustors were considered to pass from the inner extremity of the
peduncle and to become attached by one pair of their extremities
to the ventral valve, one on each side of, and a little behind, the
expanded base of the divaricators. The function of these muscles
was not only that of erecting the shell, but also to attach the peduncle
to the shell, and thus effect the steadying of it upon the.peduncle.
Such was the general arrangement of the shell muscles in the divi-

sion comprising the articulated Brachiopoda, allowance being made
t

f 68 ]

for certain unimportant modifications observable in the shells com-
posing the different families and genera thereof. In the Tretenterata,
of which Lingula might be quoted as an example, the myology was
much more complicated, and anatomists had differed considerably
in their respective views concerning the function of some of the
muscles. It would not, however, be possible to discuss the opinions
of Hancock, Vogt, Gratiolet, and others, but he would refer to
and adopt those recently advocated by Professoy King, as
they seemed to carry with them a greater degree of plausibility.
Of shell or valvular muscles, Professor King, made out five pairs
and an odd one. Three pairs were laterals having their members
limited to the sides of the shell; one pair were transmedians, each
member passing across the middle to reverse side of the shell, one
pair had its members confined to the central region; while the odd
muscle occupied the umbonal cavity, and he assumed that the
central and umbonal muscles effected.the direct opening and closing
of the shell ; the laterals enabled the valves to move forward and
backward on each other, while the transmedians allowed the similar
extremities (the rostral) of the valves to turn from each other to the
right or the left on an axis subcentrically situated, that was in the
medio transversed region of the dorsal valve. It was longa matter
in discussion whether the animal could displace its valves sideways
when about to open its shell, but this matter had been set at rest by
Professors Semper and Morse, who actually observed the animal
perform the operation; they mention that it was never done
suddenly or by jerks, as the valves were at first always pushed to
one side several times and back again on each other, at the same
time opening gradually in the transverse direction, till they rested
opposite to each other and widely apart. Those who had not seen the
animal in life, or who did not believe in the possibility of the valves
crossing each other with a slight obliquity, would not consent to
appropriating any of its muscles to that purpose, and consequently
attributed to all the lateral muscles the simple function of keeping
the valves in an oppusite position, or holding them adjusted. They
had not only the observations of Semper and Morse, but the
anatomical investigations of King, to confirm the sliding action or
divarication of the valve of Lingula. In the clistenteratu, where no
such sliding action of the valves was necessary or possible, no
muscles for such an object were required; consequently none took
rise from the lateral portions of the valves as in Lingula, but, in an

[ 69 |

extinct group, the Trimerellidw, which seemed to be somewhat
intermediate in character between the Tretenterata and Clisten-
teruta, certain scars which had been found, appeared to have been
produced by rudimentary lateral muscles, but it was doubtful
(considering the shells are furnished with teeth, though but rudely
developed) that such muscles enabled the valves, as in Lingula,
to move forward and backward upon each other. There were
muscles connected with other portions of the animal, such as the
parietal muscles so strongly defined in the Tretenterata, and dis-
tinctive peculiarities of the Peduncle, &c., but which the limited
. time at his disposal would not allow him to describe.

AFFINITIES OF THE BRACHIOPODA,

It was, however, time that he should say a few words in
connection with the systematic position of the Brachiopoda. As
they were aware, the invertebrata had been grouped into five sub-
kingdoms, namely, the Protozoa, Celenterata, Annuloida, Annulosa,
and Mollusca; and that for many years the Brachiopods had been
considered to constitute a separate class among the mollusca, a view
still maintained by several distinguished naturalists. Subsequently,
the class was removed from the Mollusca proper, and placed along
with the Polyzoa and Tunicata into a division to which the name
Molluscoidea was given. Again, within the last few years, Professors
Kowalevsky and Morse, in several very able memoirs, had strongly

urged that the Brachiopods should be considered to constitute a
separate group among the Annelids, and it must be admitted that
the American and Russian zoologists have clearly shown that
several portions of the animal of the Brachiopod and Amphetrite
presented important characters in common; but, at the sam® time,
as was observed to him by Professor Verrill, almost any invertebrate
group may be anneledelized by overrating certain points of their
affinities; nor could one cast aside many true molluscons characters
presented by the Brachiopod, and, as was justly observed by
Stoliczka, there cannot be, be thought, much doubt as to the true
molluscous character ‘of the Brachiopod and their proper classifica-
tion between the Anomiide of the Pélecypoda, and Saccopoda, and

_ the arm bearing section of the Ciliopoda. The subject in connection

with the systematic position of the Brachiopoda must, therefore, be
left, for the present, as an open question, although he was still in

Lm

favour of the opinion that the class should be considered to
constitute a distinct group among the Molluscoidea.

RANGES OF DEPTH.

All Brachiopoda were inhabitants of the sea, and had been met
with at depths ranging from less than a foot to that of 2,600 fathoms,
between Kerpules Island and Melbourne. (Her Majesty’s Challenger
expedition). Some Lingule lived partly buried in mud; while Pro-
fessor Morse described a species of the genus which he found in
vast numbers “in a sand shoal at low water mark buried just
below the surface of the sand. The peduncle, six times the length
of the shell, was partly encased in a sand tube differing in no
respect from the sand tubes of neighbouring annelids. He
observed (likewise) that Lingula pyramidala had the power of
moving over the sand by the sliding motion of the two valves, using
at the same time the fringes of sete, which swung promptly back
and forth like a galley of oars, leaving a peculiar track in the sand.
In the motion of the sete he noticed the impulse commencing from
behind and running forward. The larger number of species lived,
however, at depths from five to three or four hundred fathoms,
some apparently in the free condition, others attached by their
peduncle to various marine objects, and very often to coral reefs.
Discina had been found attached to stone at low water, and been
dredged from depths ranging from five to nearly 2,000 fathoms
(Discina atlantica). Mr. Jeffreys did not believe that the habitat
of any invertebrate animal was affected by bathymetrical conditions.
Jukes got any number of Waldheimia flavescens while boating in
Australia among the reefs, they were merely washed by the tide,
and he gathered them with his hand like limpets on the shore.
Certain minute forms were found by Mr Jeffreys fixed to seaweeds,
while others adhered by a larger or smaller portion of one of their
valves to submarine rocks, stones, corals, &e.

_ CLASSIFICATION.

It would not be possible on so brief a paper to enter at any
length on the subject relating to the classification of the Brachiopoda.
This important matter would be found fully discussed up to the
-year 1853 in the general introduction to his great work on “ British
Fossil Brachiopoda.” He then published his own views, and which

[a ]

were subsequently very generally adopted both by British and
foreign palzontologists, but he did not omit to impress upon bis
readers that we were not then, nor were we even yet, quite in a
condition to prepare a really complete, permanent, or wholly
satisfactory classification of the numerous species composing the
class. In 1853, he divided the Brachiopoda into eight families,
comprising twenty-four genera and twenty-two sub-genera, but
during the years that had elapsed since 1853 up to the present time
some seventy-two more genera or sub-genera had been proposed,
and of which he published a list in the Sussea Daily News newspaper
for the 20th of August. 1872. Much consideration on his part had
been devoted to the subject, but he felt that in order to place the
known genera and species into their respective families, or into new

ones that would have to be created, much more information would

have to be acquired. The subject was immense, when one had to
grapple with between five and six thousand described species,
varieties, or synonyms. J. Bigsby gave a list of upwards of three
thousand species alone from the paleozoic rocks, and it must likewise
be borne in mind that many of the extinct genera had as yet been
but imperfectly elaborated. The material in hand was, however, so
great that, with time, palzontologists would be able to lay before
the public a complete history of a class, which, as would be shortly
shown, had played an important part in the great life-system of
our globe, from its dawn to the present time. It would be necessary
though, to admit the two great divisions Tretenterata and
Clistenterata into any scheme of classification, although it was
impossible to say whether or not all the extinct genera were
provided or otherwise with an anal aperture. The Tretenterata
comprised the families Lingulide, Discinide, Craniade, and (?)
Trimerellide, Bach of these families was composed of several
genera. The Clistenterata would include the families Terebratulide,
Rhyenchonellide, Spiriferide, Strophomenide and Productide. By
far the larger number of described genera and species would have to
be located in this great division of the Brachiopoda.

DISTRIBUTION IN TIME.
Assuming that they were all acquainted with the geological
divisions into which the crust of this earth had been grouped, he
might at once observe that, as was justly remarked by Barrande,

[ 72 ]

the Trilobites and Brachiopoda occupied the most important place
in the primordial fauna of our globe, and if we excluded the proble-
matical Hozoon canadense from the animal creation. as some
naturalists had done, we should find the Brachiopoda making their
first appearance in the oldest known fossiliferous deposits, for Mr.
Hicks bad obtained undoubted examples of Lingula or Lingulella,
(L. primeva) from the very base of the whole Cambrian series of St.
Davids. They were less numerous during the Permian and Triassic
periods, while they again became abundant, although comparatively
much less numerous, during the Jurassic and Cretaceous times.
In the Tertiary period they had materially decreased in number, and
were represented at the present time by about one hundred species.
But what wonderful changes had been operating during the in-
calculable number of ages in which the creation (?) and extinction
of a large number of genera, and thousands of species, had taken
place, some few only of the first created genera, such as Lingula,
Discina, and Crania, have fought their way and struggled for
existence through the entire sequence of geological times. Many
were destined to a comparatively ephemeral existence, while others
had a greater or lesser prolongation of reproduction. These
remarks led him to give some extracts from a letter which he
received from Darwin as far back as the 26th of April, 1861. In
that letter, that eminent and admirable observer writes, “I do not
know whether you have read my ‘ Origin of Species.’ In that book
I have made the remark, which I apprehend will be universally
admitted, that, as a whole, the fauna of any formation is inter-
mediate in character between that of the formation above and
below. But several really good judges have remarked to me
how desirable it would be that this should be exemplified
and worked out in some detail, and with some single group of
beings. Now, every one will admit that no one in the worid could
do this better than you with Brachiopods. The result migbt turn
out very unfavourable to the views which I hold ; if so, so much the
better for those who are opposed to me. But I am inclined to
suspect that, on the whole, it would be favourable to the notion of
descent with modification. I can hardly doubt that many curious
points would occur to anyone thoroughly instructed in the subject,
who could consider a group of beings under this point of view of
descent with modification. All those forms which have come down

» Sha Rat AN ae

lL 7 |

from an ancient period very slightly modified ought, I think, to be
omitted; and those forms alone considered which have undergone
considerable change at each successive epoch. My fear is whether
the Brachiopods have changed enough. The absolute amount of
difference of the forms in such groups at the opposite extremes of
times ought to be considered; and how far the early forms are
intermediate in character between those which appeared much
later in time. The antiquity of a group is not really diminished,
as some seem to think, because it has transmitted to the present
day closely allied forms. Another point is, how far the succession
of each genus is unbroken from the first time il appeared to its
extinction, with due allowance made for formations poor in fossils.
T cannot but think that an important essay (far more important
than a hundred literary reviews), wight be written by one like
yourself, and without very great labour,’ &c. In several subse-
quently written letters, Darwin reiterated bis suggestion. Hecould
assure them that he had not neglected a request coming from so
eminent a quarter; but he was bound to state that he had found
the subject beset with so many apparently inexplicable difficulties,

that year after year had passed away without his being able to

trace the descent with modification among the Brachiopoda which
the Darwinian Doctrine required. The imperfection (one due, he
believed to our slight acquaintance with the subject) in the geolo-
gical record could not in many cases be doubted, but we had no
right to make capital out of unknown data, we must therefore deal
with facts as we found them, and see how far they would bear upon
the subject under examination. It was quite true that strata at
great distances could not be positively asserted to be, strictly speak-
ing, absolutely contemporaneous, although they might contain the
same animal remains. It was very probable that some species
might have emigrated from the sea bottom on which they originally
lived to some more favourable locality, and become to some extent
modified. No one could seriously doubt that life had continued to
be represented under one form or another ever since it was first
brought into existence. He ‘consequently could not agree with
Deshayes and others who believed in a total extinction of the
animal creation at certain specified periods. Notwithstanding the
theoretical doctrine that had been promulgated with respect to the
origin of species, we were still, and would probably for ever remain,
in the dark, or within the region of suppositions with respect to so

K

[ & J

important a question. In his admirable address to the Belfast
meeting of the British Association, Tyndall observes, “If you ask
me whether there exists the least evidence to prove that any one
form of life can be developed out of matter, without demonstratable
antecedent life, my reply is that evidence, considered perfectly con-
clusive by many, has been adduced, . . . . . but there is in
the true man of science a wish stronger than the wish to have his
beliefs upheld—namely, the wish to have them true ;” and He adds
further on, ‘‘ that these observers will frankly udmit their inability
to point to any satisfactory experimental proof that life can be
developed save from demonstratable antecedent life,” and that the
whole process of evolution is the manifestation of a power absolutely
inscrutable to the intellect of man.

Darwin’s tempting and beautiful theory of descent with modifi-
cation bore a charm that appeared to be almost irresistible, and he
would be the last person to assert that it might not represent the
actual mode of specific development. It wasafar more exalted con-
ception than the idea of constant independent creations, but we were
stopped by a number of questions that seemed to plunge the concep-
tion into a maze of inexplicable, nay mysterious, difficulties; nor had
Darwin, as far as he was aware, said how he supposed the first pri-
mordial form to have been introduced. The theory was at best, as
far as we could at present perceive, with our imperfect state of know-
ledge, but balf the truth, being well enough in many cases between
species and species; for it was evident that many so-termed species
might be nothing more than modifications produced by descent. It»
applied likewise to accidental variations, as between closely allied
genera, yet there was much more than this with respect to which the
Theory seemed insufficient. The strange geological persistency of
certain types such as of Lingula, Discina, Nautilus, &c., seemed also
to bar the, at present, thorough acceptance of such a theory of
general descent with modification,

What did the Brachiopoda tell us upon this question. Taking
the present state of our knowledge as a guide, but admitting at
the same time that any day our conclusions and inductions might
require to be modified from fresh discoveries, let them ascertain
whether they revealed anything to support the Darwinian ideas.
They found that by far the larger number of genera made their
first appearance during the Paleozoic period, and, since then, had

[ % |

been decreasing in number to the present period. They might
leave out of the question the species, for they varied so little that
it was often very difficult to trace really good distinctive characters
between them, it was different with genera as they were, or
should be, founded on much greater and permanent distinctions.
Thus, for example, the family of Spiriferide included genera .
characterised by calcified spiral lamina for the support of the
brachial appendages, and however varied they might be they always
retained the distinctive characters of the group from their first ap-
pearance to their extinction. The Brachiopodist laboured under the
difficulties of not being able to determine what are the simplest, or
which are the highest, families into which either of the two groups
of his favonrite class was divided, so far, then, he was unable to
point out any evidence favouring progressive development in it,
But, confining himself to species he had often before him great
varietal changes, so much so, as to make it difficult for him to
define the species; and it led him to the belief that such groups
were not of independent origin, as was universally thought before
Darwin published his great work on the origin of species. But in
this respect the Brachiopoda revealed nothing more than other
groups of the organic kingdom. All the Productide had their
permanent and constant characters, and so on. It would appear
that the earliest forms among the Brachiopoda are referable to the
division Vretenterata, which included the genera lingulella, lingula,
discina, and obolella. Of these, lingula and discina only had lived
on with but slight modifications in external shape, during the
entire sequence of geological time, and they were still represented
by several species, but in rocks, somewhat later in age, the
Menevian group, or lower lingula flags, there occurs a species of
orthis, the first representative, as far as they were aware, of the
division Clistenterata, but there was not the slightest evidence
that orthis was ever derived from any of the four genera of
Tretenterata above named. Since that period both divisions
continued to be represented, without ever showing a tendency to
pass one into the other. Now, although certain genera, such as
Terebratala, Spirifer, Rynchonella, Crania, Discina, and Lingula,
had enjoyed a very considerable geological existence, and had
varied very little since their first appearance, and might be looked
upon as among the earliest. Brachiopoda, there were genera such
as Stringocephalus, Uncites, Porambonites, Koninchina, &c., which

[ 76 J

made their appearance very suddenly and without any warning,
and disappeared in a similarly abrupt manner, having enjoyed a
comparatively short existence. They were all possessed of such
marked and distinct internal characters that we could not trace
between them and associated or synchronous genera any evidence
of the result of descent with modification, and no imperfections
in geological record would come to our aid to clear away the
difficulty. Therefore, although far from denying the possibility or
probability of the correctness of the Darwinian Theory, we could
not conscientiously affirm that the Brachiopoda, as far as we were
at present acquainted with them, would be of much service in
proving a theory, which, however delightful in its conception, had
still to be made certain by positive and indisputable evidence, and it
was a subject worthy of the continued and serious attention of every
well-informed man of science, for the sublime Creator of the
universe had bestowed on man a thinking mind, therefore, all that
was discovered was legitimate. Science had also this advantage
over theology, that it was continually on the advance, and ever
ready to correct its errors when fresh light or new discoveries make
such necessary. The importance of the study of the Brachiopoda
was very great, when they remembered that they were among the
they first well authenticated indications of life in this world, and that
had continued to be very extensively represented up to the present
time. They were also very abundant and characteristic fossils, by
which rocks at great distances could be identified, and without its
being even necessary for the Palwontologists to visit the district
from whence they were derived, and as we became more intimately
acquainted with their characters, their interest and usefulness was
augmented. They were, as Mantell would have termed them, sure
medals of the creation, with the date of their appearance firmly
stamped upon them, and their distinctive characters so legibly
impressed as to defy misinterpretation.

Mr. Davidson’ resumed his seat amid loud and continued
applause. The paper was illustrated by beautifully designed and
executed diagrams, by Mr Davidson himself, and specimens
illustrating the Brachiopoda were exhibited. A hearty vote of
thanks to Mr Davidson, for the trouble he had taken in the prepara-
tion of the paper read, was proposed by the Chairman, Mr Alderman
Cox, He thought that a more than usually hearty vote bad been

wi

f @]

well-merited. Asking pardon for digressing from the subject
before them, he broached a tender matter by expressing how deeply
he regretted that, for a time, Mr Davidson’s services had heen lost
to the Museum). He, however, hoped that Brighton would still be
favoured with the services of a gentleman whose name was known
wherever the name of geology or science itself was recognised. The
motion was unanimously carried.

The deep regret experienced at the loss of Mr Davidson’s
services to the Museum was about to be further commented upon
by Mr Alderman Mayall, but the Chairman interposed by remarking
that he thought they had better not go into that subject, although
he had been allowed to revert toit. Myr Alderman Mayall then
paid a tribute to the great care with which Mr. Davidson had
investigated science, and asked that gentleman whether, in any of
the dredging expeditions, extinct genera had heen re-discovered.

Mr. Davipson replied that he had had several letters from
the Challenger Expedition, and had seen all the forms discovered
in the course of the other expeditions—he, in fact, had been asked
to describe the Brachiopoda obtained by the Challenger Expedition,
having done so for various expeditions—and not a single extinct
form had been found. In reply to the Chairman, Mr Davidson

further stated that he had 40,000 specimens, from every part of the

world, and fully four-fifths of the known species.

Mr. Wonror observed that the geologic story as told by the
Brachiopoda did not bear out the theory of evolution. Besides the
fact that when the genus disappeared it never reappeared, one could
hardly imagine that Tretenterata with a mouth and anal opening
degenerated into the Clistenterata with a mouth but no anal
opening. In the latter, one aperture had to perform the double
office of mouth and anus, and in the former these functions
were performed by two apertures—an evidently higher type than
the other.

Mr HAsELWoop reminded the meeting that this theory of
evolution was only a working hypothesis, and one of the best which
they had. He also took this opportunity of remarking that they
could not over-estimate the value of such a gentleman as Mr.
Davidson. If the world was to progress, it was by such devotion

Reo

as his, and by that alone; and when a gentleman of his means and
capacity would set apart his valuable life to a seemingly out-of-the-
way subject like this, and proclaim such facts as those to which he
has given utterance that night, no man was more worthy of the
praise and honour of his fellow men.

In answer to Mr Panxuurst, it was pointed out that the
Brachiopoda served a purpose in the animal economy. They con-
stituted food for other animals, and were even eaten by some in
America. Several other gentlemen engaged in the conversation.
At its close, the specimens exhibited by Mr Davidson were ex-
amined with interest.

FEBRARY 25th.
THE ANNUAL SOIREE.

The 4th Annual Soiree was held at the Royal Pavilion, the
whole suite of rooms being engaged for the occasion, and proved
none too large for the gathering of members and their friends,

which numbered between 700 and 800.

The Banqueting Room, two Drawing Rooms, and Saloon
were devoted to a variety of interesting objects, while the Music
Room was converted into a dark room in which short quarter of an
hour lectures, illustrated by the magic lantern, were given at
intervals during the evening.

The exhibition of objects of interest was not only more varied
than on former occasions, but in many cases unique. Inthe North
Drawing Room, the Sub-Wealden Exploration was brought pro-
minently under notice, Mr. Ernest Willett here presiding over cases
in which were shown a number of the latest cores extracted from
the bore hole, as also those which were brought to the surface just
prior to that unfortunate breakdown, with the particulars of which
the public had been already informed through the reports of Mr,
Henry Willett, F.G.S., the Honorary Secretary to the undertaking.
During the evening, the cores were eagerly and studiously scanned.
Close by the Sub-Wealden cores, Mr. Ernest Willett exhibited the
bones and flints which he found during his excavations at the

;
"

[ 79 ]

Cissbury pits, and respecting which he read a paper before the
members of the society.

A fine collection of shells, some of them beautifully marked,
was exhibited by Miss Glaisyer.

In the Saloon, the cases of stuffed birds lent by Mr. H. T. Booth
at once attracted attention. With respect to these, it was, as Mr.
Wonfor remarked in the course of the evening, difficult to tell
where “ Nature ended and Art began.” While the natural features
were well preserved, Art came in to aid in the accurate represen-
tation of the surroundings. The birds exhibited formed part of a
magnificent collection which Mr. Booth has formed. They bad all
been shot by himself and are, eventually, to be place in a permanent
building, which has been erected especially for their reception, on a
piece of ground abutting on the Dyke road. Every bird in the
collection is shown with something of its natural surroundings at
the time of the capture. This has been done by sketching the spot
and afterwards reproducing it by means of modelling. The
mounting is entirely artificial; but is, nevertheless, wonderfully
realistic, and this even in the most minute detail. Regard being
had merely to those cases shown in the Saloon, it might be said
truly that ornithology never found a more artistic and complete
exemplification. Whether one looked upon the owls taken at.
Chiltington, the moor hens obtained on Loch Glyn, in Ross-shire,
or the specimens of the cuckoo, the wagtail, and other members of
the feathery family taken in the vicinity of Brighton, there were
still to be seen the botanical productions peculiar to each, while the
geologist, would find it difficult to discover a defect in the character of
the strata in each case represented. Mr. Booth has made a special
study of the subject; and, no expense being spared, he has, by dint
of great labour, succeeded in getting together the unique collection
of which he is the fortunate possessor. A specimen of the great
African Albatross, together with a pair of splendid lyre-birds,
supplemented Mr. Booth’s collection. These latter were exhibited
in tbe Drawing Boom by the President of the Society (Alderman
A. H. Cox, J.P.)

In the South Drawing Room Mr F. E. Sawyer had a large
collection of meteorological instruments, weather charts, and other
appliances for the study of the atmosphere and its effects.
Apparatus for the analysis of milk, and the detection of adultera-

[ 80 ]

tions in that necessary article, as well as specimens of its affinities,
were shown by Mr. E. Moore, amongst these being some of the
artificial milk used for feeding infants during the siege of Paris.
Close by was placed the tank of the Aquarium Company. Special
arrangements as to lighting, &c., had been made for the exhibition
of its contents; and Mr. Lawler certainly had no unattractive
collection. Here was a specimen of the sea anemone—a double
dianthus—with two mouths, two sets of tentacles, but only one
body! A similar “freak of Nature” bad also happened in regard
to a baby trout, hatched in the Aquarium. Coming from one ova,
it had a veritable Siamese twin appearance; and, as it was carefully
held up to view in a glass bottle, its two heads presented a very
peculiar appearance as they converged to the centre and terminated
ina single tail. A number of tiny salmon were also shown, and
the sea horses in the tank, together with anemones,. tube worms,
zoophytes, madrepores, all gracefully exposed among rock-work and
sea-weed, furnished a noteworthy contribution.

Electrical experiments were provided by Mr J. P. Capon, who
had a powerful battery at work, and the kaleidograph, lent by Mr.
G. Nash, was a never-ceasing source of fascination. Amongst the
more general collections were skeletons of turtles, one of which
before death weighed 80lbs, exhibited by Mr Mutton; sections of
telegraphic cables, including portions of the deep sea cables of 1865
and 1866; curious opium pipe from China, from the Grammar
School Museum; a pipe fish exhibited by Mr W. Saunders, and
other curiosities.

In the Banqueting Room Mr. Dowsett exhibited three fine
cases of beetles; Messrs Wallis and Clayton exhibited an interesting
case in which were an iron Crucifix found in the ruins of Lewes
Priory ; a pipe of the time of Cromwell, antique silver sugar tongs,
spur of the time of Henry VI., dug up in the Queen’s road,
Brighton, mummy beads, mummy charms, a diminutive mummy
crocodile, fossils found in the },)ue lias of Somersetshire, lent by
Mr. C. E. Clayton, including paddles and jaws of the ichthyosaurus.
A model of the link motion of a locomotive, lent by Mr. Mutton, a
capital collection of eggs, and a portion of the jaw of the sperm
whale, some six feet long, with most formidable teeth, from the
Brighton Grammar School Museum, were also in this room. Mr.
Hubert Saunders was a large contributor, and exhibited a dangura,

L sl J

or Himalayan wood axe, and a kookeree, or knife used by the
Ghoorkas, and Arab slippers. Photographs of the natives of
Steamer Point, Aden, and of the Point itself, calabash covers from
Central Africa, flint implements from Cissbury, &c.

Spectroscopes, &e., were exhibited by Messrs. T. Rowley and
Son, as well as a photorama and cuminoscope. Telegraphic
and other apparatus were shown by Mr. Volk. ‘Tree felling
instruments in green stone, used by the natives of New Guinea,
were exhibited by Mr H. Willett. The most interesting table
in the room was that of Mr C. F. Dennet, who has devoted
himself, and with the most encouraging and gratifying results, to
the discovery of substitutes for cotton, silk, &c., and materials for
the manufacture of rope, paper, and other things. He was led to
this by the cotton famine in the last decade and by the reward
offered by the Government; the result being that several growths
which have, up to the present time, been regarded as all but useless
have been utilized and have been found to yield well. Specimens
of China grass, New Zealand flax, and other plants, in various
stages of preparation were shown, and the fact that they are now
finding a ready sale in the market is a satisfactory proof of the
success of the experiment. Hitherto the chief difficulty in dealing
with these products has been the want of a machine which should
properly separate the fibre, and such a machine Mr Dennet has just
managed to secure.

Microscopes, spectroscopes, galvanic batteries, meteorological
and other scientific instruments, were scattered throughout the
rooms.

Amongst those who presided over microscopes were Dr. Corfe,
Dr. Tuthill Massy, Dr. Hallifax, Mr. Haselwood, Mr. W. H. Smith,
Mr. Savage, Mr. Puttick, Mr. Wonfor, Mr. Ryall (Eastbourne), Mr.
Wonfor, ‘jun., Mr. J. Ridge, jun., Mr. G. D. Sawyer, Mr. C.
Hamilton, Mr. T. Glaisyer, Mr Gwatkin, Mr. H. Saunders, jun., Mr.
Lawler, Rev. W. J. Payne, Mr. B. Lomax, Mr. Mills, Mr. H. Lee
(Croydon), Mr. F. E. Sawyer, Mr. Moginie, Quekett, and Mr. T.
Curties (Royal Microscopical Society); the latter gentleman,—an
honorary member,—in addition to supplying a large collection of
tropical microscopical insects, also providing some two hundred

_ mounted objects for the use of members. The special object shown

[ 82 ]

by Mr. Wonfor was a newly-hatched salmon, and by Mr. Lee the
head of the well-known insect, the “ Daddy Long-legs,” beautifully
mounted in glycerine.

Galvanic batteries and electrical] apparatus were exhibited by
Mr. Benjamin Lomax, Mr. J. Capon, Mr. R. Glaisyer, and T. Cooper.

At half-past eight, the PRESIDENT, Mr Alderman Uox, delivered
an inaugural address in the Banqueting Room. It was a rule of
the Natural History Society that, at the annual soirée, the President
and other members should deliver short addresses. For the sake
of the assembly, as well as his own, he was glad to say that ten
minutes was the usual time allotted. He recollected the distinguished
ability of many of the gentlemen who had preceded him in the chair
which he had now the honour of occupying; and he had always
felt it to be somewhat presumptuous in his venturing to accept an
office which was pressed upon him by those who had too favourable
an opinion of his attainments. He knew that their society had
amongst its members nearly all the scientific men in Brighton.
He also knew that on these occasions they were proud of the
company of many young persons and ladies who had not made
natural history their particular pursuit. It was to those he wished
to address his few remarks; for he desired to create in their
minds an intelligent interest in the pursuits of the society and the
specimens of natural history in the museum. He was not going to
trouble his young friends with any technical phrases, but perhaps
in one of the rooms they might have observed lumps of granite.
These were called primary rocks; they were crystaline in their
character, broke like pieces of lump sugar, and when broken showed
no signs of either vegetable or animal life. They were most
durable in their character; but, like everything in creation, they
were subject to change. Jersey was built upon the primary rocks,
and at places might be seen large masses which had become
displaced, and nearer the seashore smaller pieces. As the tide rose
and fell, ebbed and flowed, those pieces were rubbed the one
against the other, and fine sand was formed. After the lapse of
ages, this sand became a sedimentary rock; they were stratified ;

‘they broke into layers, and did not break, like the primary rock,
into crystaline masses.

Some of their pavements were composed of this species of stone,
and most valuable it was for building purposes. He did not allude

{ 83 J

to the Caithness stone, some specimens of which might be seen
near the Post Office. That was mud consolidated by the lapse of

ages, and in which had lived and died myriads of creatures, the oil
from whose bodies gave it that greasy appearance so observable.
Coming toa more recent formation, it would be seen, when passing
through Clayton Tunnel towards London, they came upon a large
expanse of comparatively flatcountry. This was an estuary of thesea,
in which a mighty river once poured its flood and deposited its mud.
This extended over a large district which existed where the English
Channel now was, and could be distinctly seen on the opposite coast.
After passing through the wealden district they came to the north
down, composed, as were the south downs, of chalk. Unquestion-
ably, the north and south downs were connected, and covered the
space where the wealden clay now existed. This chalk extended to
London and beyond; and as all chalk was formed at the bottom of
the sea, it followed that where London now stood the sea once
ebbed and flowed. The hills surrounding Brighton were of chalk,
and the London and Lewes roads were the valley through which
rivers ran. Within their own time they might see some of these
changes. Thirty years ago he visited Offham chalkpits to collect
specimens. Barges for the conveyance of the burnt chalk or
lime were brought to the foot of the hill. Last summer he was
there; and the barges could not approach within half a mile of the
same place; that which was covered by water had become dry land.
Above the chalk the London clay was found. That formation
cropped up in their own neighbourhood, and in it had been found
many plants now grown in tropical regions. He had omitted any
reference to the intermediate strata. Did time allow, he would call
their attention to the carboniferous, in which coal was found—the
vegetable remains of a past time. Buckland said that, in the coal
mines of Bohemia, the most elaborate imitations of living foliage
upon the painted ceilings of Italian palaces, bore no comparison
with the beauteous profusion of extinct vegetable forms with which
the galleries of these instructive coal mines were overhung. The
roof was covered as with a canopy of gorgeous tapestry, enriched
with festoons of most graceful foliage, flung in wild irregular pro-
profusion over every portion of its surface. The effect was
heightened by the contrast of the coal black colour of these
vegetables with the light groundwork of the rock to which they
were attached. The spectator felt himself transported, as if by

[ 84 J

enchantment, into the forests of another world; he beheld
trees, of forms and characters now unknown upon the surface
of the ‘earth, presented to his senses almost in the beauty
of their primeval life; their scaly stems and _ bending
branches, with their delicate apparatus of foliage, were all spread
forth before him, little impaired by a lapse of countless ages, and
bearing faithful records of extinct systems of vegetation which
began and terminated in times of which those relics were the
infallible historians. He had attempted, he knew most feebly, to
describe those physical changes ; he would now briefly remind them
that in accord with those changes different grades of life appeared.
The earlier formations showed but a low order of either animal or
vegetable life, and it was only in the later geological epochs that
they saw the higher order of life, with its higher development and
its more exquisite sensibility to the joys and pains of existence.
Some of their kind friends had brought their microscopes, and they
would show them that the lower order of life had its organization
perfect for the circumstances in which it was placed, and the
various clusters of contrivances showed the power and wisdom of
the Great Creator. The microscope would also show that there
were other worlds beside our own, for it was well said by Channing
that, “whilst the telescope revealed a world in every star, the
microscope revealed a world in every leaf,’ and so minute were some
of the little creatures formed, that no less than 41 millions were
found in a cubic inch of tripoli, or the polishing slate. Millions
and millions of years had elapsed to produce those changes, but how
manifest through all those countless ages were shown the power
and wisdom of God in the works of His creation? One more word
and he had done. Let them not neglect to see the spectroscope.
They would see every gas and liquid examined by it showed its own
lines of colour and coloured liquids, exactly alike to the naked eye,
had a marked difference when subjected to its influence. His task
was done, and he thanked them for the attention with which they
» had listened to him; and if he could induce one person to join the
Society and feel an interest in the contents of the Museum, he
should be more than satisfied. He could assure them they would
meet with enjoyments unalloyed with regrets; and he believed they
would feel as he felt, under deep obligations to those who had
established the Society, and that their warmest thanks were due to
their excellent Hon. Secretaries, Mr. Onions and Mr. Wonfor, who

fF 85 |

had been most active in preparing this intellectual treat for their
enjoyment.

Mr. Wonror then gave a brief epitome of the contents of the
rooms, the object being to direct the attention of visitors to
particular places for particular features. Referring to the tank of
specimens lent by the Aquarium Company, he said that, although
some people out of Brighton sneered at the Aquarium, and said it
did nothing to aid science, those in Brighton knew the Company

‘did everything in their power to aid the progress of science, and,
perhaps, he might, before many months were over, tell them what
he thought the Aquarium had done for the cause of science.

An adjournment was now made to the Music Room, where,
before a large audience,

Mr BE. A. Panxuurst lectured on “The Forms of Water,” his
remarks being illustrated by a magic lantern. He proposed to
consider, for a few moments, water under the three forms in which
it presented itself to us, viz., as a gas, a liquid, and a solid, and he
would commence with the form best known to us—the liquid. Here
they had (referring to a slide exhibited on the screen) a view of a
clear, pellucid lake lying in its solitary beauty among the Sierras
of California: it was the mirror lake of the world—renowned
Yasemite Valley. How marvellously clear it was, how truly it
deserved its name, for not a feature of those hills was in the mirror
slighted. Butzit was not of its beauty that he wished to speak to
them so much as its power. It was strength in repose; it was
power potential, not active. Follow the stream that ran from it
down the valley. Here the giant was enclosed, and in this view of
the Lower Falls they beheld a picture of the work which it had
done and was still doing. For thousands of years it had been
eating away the hills, and in the photograph of the Yasemite
Valley itself—the stream running 6,000 feet beneath the peaks on
either side—they saw what a memorial it had left behind it of the
work it had done. Or if that example of the force of water drew
too much upon their imagination, let them stand on the brink of
Niagara, and gaze at the swirling, surging torrent hurl itself into
the abyss below. The world scarcely furnished a more impressive
spectacle. Whence did these lakes and rivers have their source ?
The answer was, in the rain that falls on the earth. The rain came

-

[ 86 ]

from the clouds; and the clouds, whence did they arise? These
masses of vapour were creatures of the earth, born of the land, the
rivers, and seas. They could not follow them in the passage from
earth to sky, for steam was invisible. By means of - heat
water became an invisible gas. It issued thus from the tea-
kettle, or the chimney, or the lccomotive engine. But, at a
short space from its source, it was condensed by the colder
air, and they had the dust of water as Tyndall called
it, which was somewhat incorrectly termed “steam.” It
was the heat of the sun which caused the water of the earth to
pass into this invisible gaseous form. By reason of its lightness
it rose through the heavier air till it condensed into clouds.
The canopy of clouds that so often hung above might not be very
high. It was his privilege once, during an ascent of Mont Blane, to
be above the clouds, and to see the sun rise on the other side of
them. Even there, the ubiquitous photographer had been. But
the scene, beautiful as it was, could not give them all the glories of
the reality. A sea of vapour threw its fleecy waves around the
rocks at his feet. Far as the eye could reach it stretched its
flocculent billows, and the great black peaks of the surrounding
mountains were set as islands in its midst. The sun, gradually
climbing above the horizon, flooded by degrees the depths of its
ghost-like waves with mystic light, and edged their crests with
silver. But this mass of vapour, if at a greater elevation, would not
fall in rain, but would be congealed to snow.

They had seen lately those white flakes of frozen vapour
coming down in multitudes. How many of them dreamed,
as they fell around, of the beauty of their geometry? Here
were examples of some of the “snow flowers;” they would
observe that each one had six petals, and though the forms
were so various, the number was invariable. In Brighton
the snow did not last long, for the heat soon converted it
into liquid, and as such it found its way into the sea. But on the
summits of the Alps it was not so; there the cold was too great.
Not all the snow that fell was melted, only a portion. Were it to
be piled up from year to year, in a century the Alps would have
nearly 4,000 feet of snow on them. But they would see, by the view
of Monte Rosa, that the great stormy peaks still cropped up above
them. What became of it then? It slid down the sides of the

{ 87 ]

mountains and filled up the valleys. But in doing that a great
change was effected init. They knew that, after walking in the
snow for some time, the bottom of their boots was covered, not
with snow, but with an icy mass. The pressure on their heels had
generally hardened a frozen lump there. They learned the
important fact that pressure could convert snow into ice. It was
soin the Alps. The vast superincumbent masses of snow pressed
that beneath it into the narrow valley, and so formed what was
called a glacier. It was somewhat difficult to describe a glacier,
but they might imagine a huge river winding among the hills, its
surface rugged with the vast waves which a stormy wind had raised
on it, and then imagine that, in a moment, the river was frozen.
The crests of the waves were ridges of ice. The depressions
between them ran down for hundreds of feet. Such was the great
ice river called a glacier. Amongst researches of scientific men
during recent years, few had more interest than those of Agassiz,
Forbes, and recently Tyndall, on the subject of glaciers. To the
works of Pro. Tyndall on the “ Forms of Water,” from which he
had borrowed the title of his lecture, he would refer those wishing
to know what there was to be said on snow and ice. One would
scarcely think such a mass of rigid ice moved, but it had been
proved that it moved just as a river, faster in the middle than at the
sides, faster at the point towards which it bent than that from
which it turned. In fact, a glacier did everything that a river did,
and they had often had melancholy provf of their movement.
Glaciers were the sources of rivers; the Rhine, the Rhone, the
Oregon, and others had their sources in them. The hot summer
melted them as they came down into the narrow valleys. The
water trickled through the cracks, plunged into their crevasses in
hundreds of little cataracts, and at last found a vent at the bottom
of the valley. But the Alps were not the only mountains where
there were glaciers—the stupendous peaks of the Himalayas were
surrounded with them. In the midst of their inaccessible
peaks could be discerned the glittering of the great ice rivers.
How they dug out the valleys and polished the sides of the
mountains between which they moved. How they carried
down to their termination the huge boulders which had fallen
from the mountains upon their surface during their journey,
and, when they melted, left them stranded on the plains. The
hills and valleys of Scotland and Wales still bore marks

[ 88 ]

of the great glaciers which had passed over and along them, and
the “scars of Cumberland and Westmoreland still showed where
the irresistible ice plain had passed along.

In conclusion, he wished to say a word or two more, parti-
cularly with regard to ice. Were it not so common, how
wonderful it would be to see clear liquid water turned to
brittle, crystaline, solid ice. But in England, Nature was not
seen exerting her crystalising power in all its grandeur. If
they wanted the poetry of frost they must go to Russell, Lovell, and
to Emerson, and, looking at such forms, they could well understand
the beauty that had inspired those American poets. But how was
ice builtup? The skaters, hurrying over the glossy surface, little .
thought of the wondrous forms of which every portion was built
up. Still true to her plan, Nature never varied from the hexegon.
Why that necessity so often constrained her, Science could
not answer. Often during the frost preceding Christmas
he had wished for the aid of the photographer to render permanent
the evanescent forms on the windows. ‘Those delicate graceful
forms seemed to rival Nature’s beauty of leaf and flower. They
could think for a moment of the wonderfully complex forces of
which they were built up, of the power, at once impelling and
restraining, that had drawn such a curve, as with a master’s hand,
but they could know nothing of Nature’s method in her artistic
movements. Perchance she would keep the secret always hidden,
or perhaps some day Science would throw open the door, and they
would see the manipulation of the artist, but at present they could
only admire that which was at once nature and art in one,

Mr. T. W. Wonror lectured on “The Life History of an
Insect,” also illustrated by magic lantern views.

Strictly speaking, an insect consisted of three separate and
distinct parts, head, thorax, and abdomen, and possessed six legs
and one or two pairs of wings. The stages through which it passed
were described as egg, larva, chrysalis, and perfect insect; there
were exceptions to this general law, but generally the female laid her
eggs, either in or on the food plant or animal of the future caterpillar
or grub; in some cases she had an instrument by means of which
she pierced the body or substance in which they were placed, and a
wonderful instinct came in play, when, through the stem of a plant,

L 89 |

she was able to deposit her egg in the body of some creature within
the stem. The eggs, and the number laid by an insect, varied froma
few score to some hundreds, were curiously deposited in the majority
of cases on food differing essentially from that of the mother; she
might be honey loving, while the grub was carnivorous; she
might eat nothing during her brief existence, while the
caterpillar would only eat certain plants. She must also guard
against accidents, such as the fall of the leaf and glue, in the
autumn, the eggs from which the larva would escape in the spring,
to the stem of their food plant. All this she did, and much more

besides, with what we, for want of a better name, called unerring
instinct. ' Some insects, like the flesh-fly retained the eggs, which
hatched within themselves, and laid the maggot ready to commence
its work as a scavenger ; others, like the blackbeetle, carried them
in horny cases till the young fry were ready to escape.

The eggs themselves, often very minute, were objects of great
beauty and variety, and though so small, far exceeded in marking
and ornamentation any eggs belonging to any other order of
animals. The shell consisted of three layers, an outer one, tough
and raised, a middle one of non-nucleated cells, and an inner irri-
discent one. Internally, they consisted of a yolk membrane, the
yolk substance, and the germinal vesicle. There was one part of
the egg called the micropyle, or little gate, and some affirmed the
larva eat its way out at this point, but his experience showed that
at that part of the egg to which its head was nearest, the caterpillar
escaped and made its first meal, in many cases off its egg shell.
The eggs of many bird parasites were furnished with a lid which
lifted, and in the case of some, especially the Mallee bird and
black Indian peacock, when moisture fell upon the egg, certain
leaf-like appendages folded back and protected the cover.

The next stage was the Jarva, very voracious, very destruc-
tive, and constantly changing his skin; this stage presented
great variety of markings and colours, sometimes so closely like
the food that inexperienced eyes could not detect them. Some
larvee were covered with hairs and spines, and some of these hairs
possessed the property of inflicting great pain, for their sharp
points penetrated the skin and set up a most irritating annoyance.
Some larve like those of the gnat, mosquito, or whirligig beetle,

M

[ 90 ]

lived in the water, and there, by eating decaying animal and
vegetable matter, kept our streams pure.

When the caterpillar or grub had stored up sufficient fatty
matter, it prepared to enter the next stage of its existence as a
chrysalis. Somespun cocoons, others formed retiring rooms in the
barks of trees so deftly as to defy the scrutiny of an ordinary
eye; others hung down head foremost, or lashed themselves by
silken threads to twigs and branches ; while some buried themselves
in the ground, until the time arrived to burst their bonds and
appear as the perfect insect.

Here, according to the absence or presence of wings, their
number and their nature, insects were classified. There was one
point which often startled, viz., that the great bulk of the insect world
did not in the perfect state, grow. As regarded the perfect insect
there was much of interest,—the compound eye, the antenne,
organs of some sort, but of what naturalists were not agreed, stings,
lancets, tongues,—each and all would take more time than was at
his disposal. Marvellous were their powers of finding out the food
for their young, and most marvellous was the attractive power
possessed by the females of some creatures of drawing up numbers
of the opposite sex from long distances.

A third lecture from Mr. B. Lomax, on “Spectrum Analysis,”
(illustrated by Browning’s Electric Spectroscope) was to have been
given; but, owing to a want of power in the battery which was to
have illuminated the electric lamp, Mr. Lomax had to abandon the
experimental part of his contribution to the entertainment, and
confine himself to a few remarks on the nature of the study.

The rooms throughout were pleasingly embellished with a
variety of rare plants and shrubs, lent by Messrs. Balchin and Nell ;
and, during the evening, light refreshments were dispensed by Mr.
Booth to the company at a counter in the Banqueting Room.

Marcu 11th.
ORDINARY MEETING.
MR. C. F. DENNET ON “VEGETABLE FIBRES.”

It was so much the fashion for the theologian and man of
science to refer back to pre-historic times, men, and things, as a

[ 1 ]

starting point for evidence and precedent of the verity of the
subject on which he spoke, that he feared if he did otherwise he
might be thought out of fashion, presumptuous, and lacking in
reverence for the wisdom of the past. He would, therefore, refer

back to the earliest of time-servers and workers as a fit reference
for a textile fibrous lecture. He found in an edition of the Bible

— Translated according to the ‘ Ebrew and Greeke,’and conferred
with the best translations in divers languages, with most profitable
Annotations upon all hard places, and other things of great im-
portance” (Barker, Printer to the Queen, 1599—276 years ago—
Genesis chap. iii., v. 7,)—it is written, “ Then the eyes of them both
were opened, and they knew they were naked, and they sewed figge
tree leaves together, and made themselves breeches.” This was, he
thought, about the first intimation on record of the utilization of
vegetable fibres. This edition was known amongst old bookworms
as the “ Breeches Bible.” So much by the way of preface to the
paper, which, by request, he was about to read on the anniversary-
day of the first London daily paper, 1702. On the specimens of
vegetable textile fibrons materials now before them—which
attracted so much attention at the recent soirée of the society,
he should try to make the subject to which he had devoted years
of attention, much money, and in which he had found good instrue-
tion and delight, agreeable to them in so far as the limited time at
command for preparation and his feeble talents would permit his
giving them some details respecting their origin, from the rude to
the elaborate product of nature, and he might add, art; shewing
their value and advantage to commerce, manufactures, and man-
kind—developing a new industry—and which had become a source
of wealth as well as a benefit to the whole human family.

RHEA, OR RAMIE.

What was it? A textile fibrous plant, within the last few
years introduced anew from British India to the European world,
and now grown extensively in the southern and western Pacific
States of America. The samples before them showed the whole
process progressively.—1. From the root of the plant. 2. Stalk or
stem. 3. The epidermis'and fibre freed of the wood, gum, resinous,
and glutinous matter. 4, The fibre separated and left in its purity
and strength. Finally—bleached, carded, roved, spun into thread

[ 92 ]

and yarn—woven into goods, dyed in a variety of colours. They
would also observe some specimens of Kurachee hemp, American
black hemp, flax, and jute, which had been treated in the same
way; and some hemp, which he styled cottonised, for spinning, like
cotton. This was much used as a substitute for cotton during the
horrible American war.

China-grass, now well known,in commerce, was a member of the
urtica family. Urtica nivea of Wildenow (differing widely from the
common stinging nettle, wrtiea wrens), the Callooee hemp, Kalmoi
or Ramie of Sumatra, though the fibre was very similar, and forall
practical purposes was identical, was yet a distinct species of wrtica,
obtained from the urtica utilis, urtica tenacissima of Dr. Roxburgh,
and was now making the tour of the world. Thanks to the active
age in which we lived, and the inventive genius of man, we should
soon hear of some further rapid strides in the improved treatment
of cotton and this wonderful fibre.

A French journalist, in 1869, claimed the credit of introducing
to European notice L’Ortie de la Chine, or the White Nettle of
China, for one Father Voisin, a French missionary to the Chinese
Empire, as the first person who made discovery of its practical
utility, and presented it to the attention of the Societé d’acclimata-
tion of Paris, 1844-5. It might be well to correct this impression.
It was known that the wrtica nivea (Boehmeria nivea) had been
utilised for centuries in the Indian and Chinese Empires, where it
was employed for its great strength and beauty—strength for fish-
ing nets; utility and beauty for wearing apparel. ‘“ Kankhura”
or “ Ramy,” of the Islands of Malay Peninsula, to which was given
the name of urtica tenacissima, was introduced in 1803, from
Bencoolen to Caleutta, where it was cultivated at the Botanical
Garden by Dr. Roxburgh, and a considerable quantity of this
species was brought to Great Britain by Captain Joseph Cotton,
The Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and
Commerce, awarded a silver medal to Captain Cotton for its intro-
duction to their notice. The fibre was tested and pronounced of
practical value, but fell into disuse for the want of proper appliances
for manipulating and preparing it for manufacturing purposes.
Cotton, too, at that time was plentiful and cheap, and the cost of
importing the fibre from Jndia told against it.

[ 93 J

The late American war caused a famine in the cotton industrial
worlds, and a want of that staple article, and all other texile fibrous
materials, for the spinner and paper maker, either to be worked
alone oras an admixture with wool, cotton, silk, hemp, flax, &c.,
&c., caused public attention to be turned to anything and everything
which could be produced and made available for either of the uses
mentioned. The fibrous substance now known in commerce are :—
Rhea or ramie, or China grass, Japanese grass, Jute, New Zealand
flax, Bamboo, Aloe, Yucca, Espartero or Spanish grass, Algerian,
Egyptian diss grass, the various palms and canes, the agave or sisal
hemp, oat straw, wheat straw, broom corn, corn-husks, hop vine, &e.,
without saying anything of the utilisation of wood pulp (for paper),
which came prominently into notice, and commanded high prices.
Scientific men and mechanical geniuses taxed their brains and skill
to produce appliances, machinery, or a process to speedily manipu-
late and utilise the best, as well as meanest, of nature’s products,
and to make them available for the use of man :—at first the want
of knowledge of the chemistry of the plant; second, the use and
abuse in the employment of chemicals of the right sort, and in pro-
portionate quantities to a given quantity of material in cleansing
and bleaching, caused much provocation, discouragement, and loss,

Fibres are sensitive, and have an affinity for that whichis bad, like iron,
4 which, in course of treatment, takes to sulphur. It had recently
been truthfully stated that cotton, “if it is saturated with chromic
acid, or with permanganate of potash, and subsequently washed,
although the fibre presents no apparent change, it is found to be
seriously weakened when treated with any alkali.” They had seen
tons of the best flax and hemp injured by unskilled men. Whilst
a resident in France, he learned that the public documents of 1830
in the archives of the French Government were going to destruction,
all arising from the improper use of poor material and the more
imprudent use of chemicals. Mr. Plimsoll might find that the occa-
sion of the loss of more than one good vessel per annum was from
the use of cheap canvas, used-up duck and cordage, the fibre of which
had been partially destroyed by acids. He had to return to his
subject. Success crowned the efforts of some enterprising spirits
—men of great enterprise—whom he could name, and the result
had proved that vegetables fibres had been levelled up from the
lust immensely, and now held their own as staple articles of

é

[ 9% ]

commerce in the great markets of the world, were quoted day by
day, like cotton, flax, hemp, or any of the essentials of life.

For instance, Espartero or Spanish grass, which in 1850 was
little known, and considered of doubtful character, a drug in the
market at 50s. the ton, now commanded eleven or twelve guineas,
if to be had at all. Two hundred thousand tons would probably be
a low estimate for the importation and consumption of “Sparta
Grass” for paper making in 1873-4, On the New World side of
the ocean, the ordinary broom-corn (of carpet brooms) which used
to be plentiful at three to five guineas per ton, was now contracted
for in advance of its growth, at £12 to £15.

If they ran their eye down the Mincing lane produce sales of
almost any day, they would find 1,000, 2,000, or 3,000 bales “sold
on the spot” at prices ranging from £15, £17, £20. Some marks
and brands of jute, the product of good growers, excelling in
quaiity, like Major Hallett’s cereals, commanded premium rates in
advance of arrival. There was no end to the uses to which this
useful fibre was applicable. He had seen thousands and thousands
of bales landed at Boulogne from London to go inland to the
French beehives of industry.

New Zealand flax, Phormiwm Tenax had not made the headway
that several other fibres had. It grew abundantly in all the
districts, and in one place, wild in the woods; the Colony being so
far distant and in a primitive state, they had not given the atten-
tion to it they ought. To get proper machines to manipulate and
render it supple and the readier for manufacturing purposes, Dr.
Featherston, the Agent-General for New Zealand, in London, had
recently furnished his confreres with a quantity, and it was hoped
they would soon have a happy surprise for them, in machines which
would do the work as it ought to be done, and thereby revive a
demand for and use of a very superior fibre for many purposes.

He was sorry to tell them, and it might be no news, that with
so much of good alloted us, also came much of evil; good and evil
ought not to go hand in hand together, but so it was; there were
adulterations in textile manufactured goods, and the officials at
Somerset House ought to have an eye to the adulterators as well as
upon the grocer, baker, and other tradesmen. It required longer
and nicer calculation to produce refined shoddy goods for wearing

[ % J

apparel to cover our bodies than to make wooden nutmegs to tickle
our palates. Look at the glowing announcement (samples
handed round) setting forth “as a well-known fabric, being all wool
weft, and well woven, the shades dyed to suit the prevailing fashion
__ at the leading watering places, and being ingrain colours, they are
perfectly fast.” A chief recommendation seemed to be they were
5 perfectly fast colours! Perhaps the vendor thought his goods
adapted to this watering place on that account? They now had
cheap enough articles. But how good? Paper made of the
meanest old worn out, washed out materials charged with kaoline
or pipe clay and sizing to give it weight. Newspapers for a half-
penny so rotten they would hardly hold together during one
reading and scarcely bear a short mail route. Trousers made of
shoddy and refuse jute yarns—“ guaranteed all pure wool” for 13s,
Japanese silks, full length and width, twelve yards for 12s. 6d.
Silk-rep, “ warranted all pure silk and wool,’—only demi-rep, well
dyed shoddy and jute. Again— Your attention is invited to our
warranted all pure silk stuffs at 1s. 6d. per yard””—which was all
stuff !—puzzling both seller and buyer to show where the silk came
_ in; and in weft, warp, or woof, in most of the very attractive fast-
coloured fashionable goods now filling the shop windows in every
large city or town in the kingdom or on the continent. He believed
_ the continentals had much to answer for; the neighbouring streets
of Bowbells were filled with German and French manufacturers,
agents taking orders by samples, competing with the British
manufacturer—all making haste to be rich. <A recent writer in a
popular journal of large circulation said :—

“Indeed a plea for cheating has been put forward in a popular
print, to the effect that, cheat as much as we may, we do not
altogether succeed. You get up, it might be said, your fine glossy
_ linens, half lime, glaze, and cotton—you produce your showy prints
_ that before they are washed look like fine silk, and after washing

_ like a worn out rag—and you think that you are ‘doing’ the poor
Indian ryot who buys of you, because of the good name of the
_ British merchant. Pshaw! No English matron who ever bored a
_ shopkeeper in choosing goods knows so much as the sly Indian
peasant who can tell the value of a yard of piece goods, even to a
; strain of cotton in the warp or woof. The pleasant fact is that, in
attempting to cheat, we do not cheat, because our opponents are,

[ 9% ]

like the Heathen Chinee in the American poem, a great deal too
sharp for us. We find that these unsophisticated children of the
East, if not so wonderfully wise as we are, have yet a great deal of

‘That low cunning which in fools supplies,
And amply too, the place of being wise.’

Tf we had any just claim to the title, which is sometimes satirically
applied to us, of a Christian nation, we might blush perhaps at
being outdone in roguery by these simple heathens ; as it is, we cry
“Tis a wicked world!’ and put up with our failure.”

There was another quite as an important consideration as the
loss of money in the purchase of bad material, or the discomfort we
suffered. We lived in a trying and changeable climate, and need
to be warmly clad. There was but little warmth in shoddy or jute
goods. Ask any physician if at any:period of his long experience
there ever was a time in which old and young suffered so much from
sciatica, rheumatism, and nervous diseases as now. He attributed
a vast deal of this suffering to the showy but slop-shop material
employed to afford warmth to the body. What would a cotton
spinner say or do if his cook sent to his table to satisfy his appetite
a round of boiled beef served with leeks, apples, and woody
blackberries—with a tart composed of strawberries, onions, and
stringy asparagus? It would be quite as consistent a procedure as
some of the admixtures of fibrous materials he was sending forth
to the world. He found he had diverged from his original intent :
referring back again to the Ramie plant, it was introduced into
America in 1867, had taken kindly to the soil of the Southern States,
which was welladapted to it. The planters propagated itfrom cuttings,
rather than the seed, which was common in India. It grew rapidly,
yielded abundantly to the acre (and return in fibre); grew, indeed,
like a nettle. Its fibre was contained in and protected by its stalk
orstem. No caterpillar,“ army worm,” or insect, could injure it, like
the cotton. It was proved that its culture would afford a great
profit, as it required less labour, less outlay, care, and anxiety than
any other crop. It would bear all the heat that cotton would. In
winter cotton died outright, being entirely killed by the frost, and
must be replanted. amie was only killed down to the ground by
frost, and as soon as the frost was over, the plant put out again. It
was a perenial. Three crops a-year were obtained without re-
planting—the plant would be of great value to the South, if only

\

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Mg: Sa

for ropes, twines, and paper,—but it was too good for such purposes.
When properly treated and bleached the fibre rendered a good test
with the microscope, micrometer, &c., in the course of which the
simple fibre of the Ramie had been compared with that of hemp,
flax, cotton, and silk :—the relative result proved thus, the fibre of
the Ramie was longer and more uniform than all the others, after
that of silk it was stronger, offered greater resistance to traction
and to twisting, napped well, was more elastic than hemp and flax,

‘and even than cotton, which was more flexible in twisting. Ramie,
in these respects, only yielded the palm to siik :—it had all the lust-
~ yous texture of wool or silk, took a sparkling whiteness when
properly bleached; it could be worked into an innumerable variety
of goods of any style or colour. It was a good poor man’s crop, or
alazy man’s crop; labour was easy, culture inexpensive. The
American Government encouraged its culture, as well as Jute,
_ which had been cultured and was now grown extensively. England,
_ France, and Italy, also encouraged its growth by premiums and
awards. It had been tried in France and Italy with success, and
- even in Ireland. It was a hardy plant, and he saw no reason why
the flax of Ireland should not find a competitor in the Ramieas well
_as King Cotton of the South; it required only a small capital to
start a plantation. The subject was worthy of more special atten-
tion than it had hitherto received in a practical way; for, beyond
- doubt, there was yet a prosperous future for the textile fibrous plants
_—more particularly for the Rhea or Ramie, which was fast be-
coming known, and a staple article of commerce, and could be
_ employed for our use and comfort in many ways. For the reason
that we were so far away from commercial and manufacturing
districts, and knew so little of what was going on—excepting from
what we gathered in the papers, which were rather reticent on
‘such matters as he had brought before them—he had given fuller
details than he otherwise should have done, thinking it of interest
to them and the public too. He hoped he had not wearied them.
_ Finally, when we read of the millions and millions of acres of the
world which were employed in the growth of cotton and flax alone, of

N

[ 8 ]

dumb beasts, and from the much hated and abused nettle family
had given us a plant three times a year made up of innumerable
tissues, threads from which were made fabrics to clothe our bodies,
as well as giving us from another resource of the field day by day
our daily bread. And, further, from the very refuse—the straw
—that bore the grain was made a paper for the Bible in which it is
written, “ The heavens declare the glory of God, and the firmament
showeth His handiwork.”

The President, Mr. Alderman Uox, proposed a vote of thanks.
They were sometimes asked what was the good of the Natural
History Society, and he thought the paper they had just beard read
was a very good answer. It was not often that the members of the
society were able to bring before them subjects on which they were so
thoroughly and practically conversant as Mr. Dennet was with the
subject of vegetable fibres. To use an American phrase, Mr. Dennet
had undoubtedly “struck ile,” and no doubt before long Mr. Wonfor
would be at him again for another paper. If Mr. Dennet would
supply them with a series of specimens for the microscope, he
thought a very useful and instructive evening might be spent in the
examination of these fibres. Some of them hardly knew what
shoddy was, and would like to examine it under a glass.

The proposition having been agreed to, Mr. Dennet briefly
acknowledged it, and in doing so gave some further information
with regard to the different kinds of fibres and the uses to which
they could be put. He should be most happy to fall in with the
President’s suggestions, and if they would prove acceptable he
should have great pleasure in handing over a perfect set of specimens
for the Museum.

In reply to Mr. SAunpERS, Mr. DENNET said there was not
nearly so much warmth in fibrous materials as in wool or silk. If,
however, worked up with good wool, such materials would prove
both warm and serviceable.

Mr. Wonror spoke of the efforts which had from time to time
been made to turn sea grass, &c., to account, but without success,
and asked if Mr. Dennet could not tell them something about the
machine which was now being used for separating vegetable fibres,
and which his modesty, perhaps, had kept bim from saying much
about.

[ 9 ]

Mr. DenneT entered into an explanation of the circumstances
which led to his taking up the subject of the utilisation of vegetable
fibre, and referred to the correspondence which had taken place
between Dr. Forbes Watson and himself on the subject. Government
had offered a premium of £5,000 fora machine which would separate
the fibre without injuring it, but this was subsequently withdrawn,
although he now had a machine which would do the work speedily,
cheaply, and well, and at a very much less cost than another
machine which had been brought out for the same purpose.

Aprit 8th.

ORDINARY MEETING.—MR. F. E. SAWYER ON
“THE BIRDS AND MAMMALS OF SUSSEX.”

At a meeting of this society, held about two years ago (on the
16th April, 1873), their excellent Secretary (Mr T. W. Wonfor) read a
paper on “The Verification of the Fauna and Flora of the County
of Sussex.” This was considered by the President and all the
members present one of the most interesting and important papers
ever read before the society. He had therefore been somewhat dis-
appointed at not seeing any actual results from that paper.

Now, he had always thought it to be an especial duty of local
scientific, and literary societies and institutions to develope the
local element to the utmost extent. For instance, to obtain, for
local museums, complete collections illustrating the geology and
the fauna and flora of the district, and, for libraries, complete sets
of the works of all local authors and all books relating to the
district. If this were done, a student of science and literature
4 would know that, on going toa particular place, he could obtain
complete information relative to that district, and an incalculable
impetus would thereby be given to the study of science and lite-
_rature. He had accordingly endeavoured in all previous papers he
had had the honour of reading before the society to confine his
attention to the county of Sussex. This, therefore, coupled with
his disappointment at seeing no results follow Mr. Wonfor’s
admirable paper, had induced him to bring before them the present

fr Oe

subject, in the hope that other members might follow him in
endeavouring fully to work out the suggestions contained in Mr.
Wonfor’s paper.

The mammals of the county were not numerous, and this
would not appear surprising when its geographical position was
considered, and the fact that for nearly 2,000 years the county had
been inhabited by more or less civilised races, and had also been
partially under cultivation. The only list of Sussex Mammals he
could find was that of Dr. Mantell, in the appendix to Horsfield’s
“ History of Lewes,” who enumerated the following :—Common bat,
eared bat, common squirrel, dormouse, brown rat, common mouse,
field mouse, water rat, harvest mouse, hare, rabbit, hedgehog,
common shrew, common mole, poleeat, weasel, badger, fox, and
otter. The latter was stated as being rare, and found on the
banks of the Ouse. This made a total of 19. No mention was
made of the water shrew, stoat, field vole, and meadow vole, which
were found here, or of the wild cat, which, as they had heard at a
recent meeting, was a Sussex Mammal, though Mr Newman, in the
Zoologist for March, 1875, still expressed a doubt whether the wild
cat had ever been obtained in Great Britain, and wished for
complete particulars respecting any alleged occurrence of that
animal, Mr. W. Jeffery, jun., recorded in the Zoologist (p. 9,016),
that an otter was shot in Pagham Harbour, on the 2nd March, 1864,
and also in the same journal (5.5., p. 1,253), that there were otters
at Burton, near Petworth, in the spring of 1868.

The porpoise was also omitted from Dr. Mantell’s list, shoals
of which at times frequented the coast. The appearance of a shoal
was considered a sign of a storm. It was said they came in search
of food, as the following extract from the Meteorological Diary kept
at the Chain Pier, Brighton, showed—* July 4th, 1825. This part of
the Channel has presented a mirror-like appearance, save where the
surface has been rippled by shoals of mackarel, or here and there dis-
turbed by the visible ascent of porpoises, seeking their prey among
these delicious and elegant fish.” It was not very clear from whence
the porpoises came, but bis opinion was that if they were a sign of
storm, that it was in this way; a storm drove away the fish on which
they fed, and they then followed, thus an appearance of porpoises
on this coast would indicate a storm at a distance, and which might

Iolo"

reach this country. It was a common saying that when porpoises
swam to windward, foul weather would ensue within twelve hours.
In an old comedy by Ravenscroft, entitled Canterbury Guests ;
or, A Bargain Broken, we read, “ My heart begins to leap and play
_ like a porpice before a storm.”

Mrs. Merrifield mentioned in her “ Natural History of Brighton ”
that, about the year 1833 or 1834, a large whale, 70 feet in length,
was stranded near the Roedean Gate. On the 13th November, 1865,
a whale (the subject of Mr. Cooke’s picture) was washed ashore
at Pevensey. The Brighton Herald recorded that on the 15th Sep-

tember, 1848, “a shoal of whales, seven or eight in number, was
seen off Brighton, one or two miles off in the direction of Shoreham.
Probably bottled-nosed whales.”

In an interesting paper by Wm. Borrer, Esq., F.L.S., in the
Zoologist for September, 1874, five bats, not mentioned in Dr.
Mantell’s list, were mentioned as found in Sussex. The Barbastelle
(Barbastellus Daubentonii), which Mr. Borrer had taken under the
the thatch of summerhouses at Henfield. Natterer’s Bat (Vespertilio

- Nattereri), of which twelve were found on the 29th June, 1848, on
taking off the ridge tiles off a roof at Cowfold, and on Dec. 4th of

' the same year one was taken from the roof of Cowfold Church. Mr.

Borrer stated that Daubenton’s Bat (V. Daubentonii) had been
taken at Preston, near Brighton. A specimen of the Whiskered
Bat (V. mystacinus) was found on the 5th November, 1848, by Mr.
Borrer’s servant, in his coal cellar, being suspended by the thumbs
and not by the hinder feet, Late in June, 1845, cne of these bats
flew against a man’s white smock frock in the day time, at Lindfield.
The Noctula Bat (V. Noctula) was shot by Mr. Borrer at Henfield,
on 26th September, 1841.

, They might therefore summarise the mammals thus—19 men-

tioned by Dr. Mantell, to which must be added the water shrew,
stoat, field and meadow voles, and wild cat, and the five species of
bats referred to by Mr. Borrer, making a total of 29 land mam-
mals, and of marine mammals there were the porpoise and the
whales which had been stranded, the species of which he did not
know. No doubt the wolf and wild boar were at one time found in
this county, but the former was long since exterminated and the
latter became extinct some time after, He might mention, before

passing to the next branch of his subject, that the county was
celebrated for two breeds of cattle, namely, the Southdown sheep
and the Sussex oxen, but he did not know their origin; and, as it
was probable that they were only improvements of breeds intro-
duced here, they would hardly come within the scope of this paper.

He now arrived at his second subject, the birds of Sussex.
The county, from its maritime position and its proximity to the
continent of Europe had been the resort of a great many species
of birds. One of the earliest of Sussex ornithologists was William
Markwick, Esq., F.L.S., who resided at Catsfield, near Battle, and
between 1768 and 1793 made many observations there respecting
the birds of the county, which were mentioned in White’s “ Natural
History of Selborne.” He also compiled a catalogue of Sussex
birds, which was published in the Transactions of the Linnean
Society. The next was Mr. Thomas Woollgar, who was born in
1761 and died in 1821. He was a contributor to the Gentleman's
Magazine, and to Dr. Smith’s “ English Botany,” His manuscripts
contained records of 180 species of birds which had been seen in
Sussex. He had not seen the lists of either Markwick or Woollgar.

Dr. Mantell, in his Appendix to Horsfield’s “History of
Lewes,” gave a list of Sussex birds, and quoted extensively from
Woollgar; be only enumerated 70 land and 40 water birds—in all,
110. The most complete list was that of A. E. Knox, Esq., which
was given at the end of his “Ornithological Rambles in Sussex,”
one of the most interesting scientific books ever published. Mr.
Knox catalogued 249 Sussex birds. The last edition of his work
appeared in 1856. Since that year, with the exception of a reprint
of Mr. Knox’s list in Mrs. Merrifield’s “ Natural History of
Brighton,” no list had been published. It appeared to him that in
making a new list of Sussex birds, the simplest plan would be to
take Mr. Knox’s list as the basis, and make the necessary additions
thereto. After a careful search, he found that the following birds,
which had been found in the county, must be added. In each case
the place and date and authority were given :—

Iceland falcon (Falco islandicus). One. Mayfield, January,
1845. Ellman, Zoologist, p. 3,233.

Red-footed falcon (F. vespertinus). Rottingdean, 1851.
Sharpe and Dresser, “ Birds of Europe,” part 1. ~

E103"

Tengmalm’s owl (Nyctale tengmalmi). Holmbush Park, near
Horsham, 27th March, 1857. Borrer, Z., p. 5,988.

Woodchat (Lanius rutilus). Preston, 4th May, 1866. Pratt,
SZ. S:S:, 267.

- Black-throated thrush (Turdus atrigularis). Near Lewes, 23rd
December, 1868. Monk, Z., 8.S., p. 1,560. The only one in Great
Britain.

Dipper. (Cinelus aquaticus). Near Rye, November, 1871.
Gurney, Z., §.8., p. 2,848.

Alpine accentor (Accentor Alpinus). Two. Lewes, 26th
December, 1857. Parker, Z., p. 5,958.

Blue-throated warbler ( Cyanecula Biaeiea). Near Worthing,
May, 1853. Stephenson, Z., p. 3,907; near Brighton, September,
1855. Cavaty, Naturalist, 1853, p. 264; Worthing, April, 1858,
Wilson, Z., p. 6,605; Brighton, October, 1862, Pratt, Z., p. 8,281.

Aquatic warbler (Salicaria aquatica). Hove, 19th October,
1853. Proc. Zool. Soc., 1866, p. 210.

Rufous Warbler (Aédon galactotes). Plumpton Bosthill, 16th
September, 1854, Borrer, Z., p. 4,511. Only one other has been |
obtained in Great Britain.

; Grey-headed wagtail (Motacilla neglecta). Near Brighton,
2 27th April, 1861, Pratt, Z., p. 7,709. Also 27th April, 1871, Pratt,
| -Z,, §.8., p. 2,639.

Tawny pipit (Anthus campestris). Brighton, 17th August,

1858, and 24th September, 1864, George Dawson Rowley, Ibis,
_ 1863, p. 37. Four subsequently obtained at Brighton. The only
_ other specimen taken was at Scilly.

4 Richard’s pipit (A. Richardi). Near Brighton, 20th January,
_ 1865, G. D. Rowley, Z., 9,466, and several others taken subsequently
near Brighton.

y Scandinavian Rock pipit (A. rupestris). This was formerly
a supposed to be the water pipit, but E.T. Booth, Esq., who had shot
4 “more of them than any one besides in England, informed him that
the true water pipit had never been obtained in England, and that

[ 104 }

the correct name was Scandinavian Rock pipit. It had also been
called Vinous pipit, and Vinous breasted pipit. Between 16th and
20th March, 1867, Mr. Booth shot ten in the small salt pools at
Portslade, and almost every year since he had shot some at
Portslade and Lancing.

Short-toed lark (Alauda brachydactyla). Near Brighton,
September, 1854, G. D. Rowley. Ibis, 1859, p. 330. Two others
had since been obtained near Brighton.

Siberian lark (A. Sibirica). Near Brighton, autumn, 1869.
Bond, Z., 8.S., 1,984 and 2,022. The only one obtained in Great
Britain.

Shore lark (A. alpestris). Eastbourne, 8th January, 1867. H.
Taylor, in the Field, Z., 8.S., 636. Several otbers had been taken
in the country since.

Little bunting (Emberiza pusilla). Brighton, November, 1864.
Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1864, p. 377. The only one in Great
Britain.

Rustic bunting (Z. rustica). Brighton, 25rd October, 1867.
Gould, Ibis, p. 128.

Serin finch (Fringilla serinus). Brighton, 20th June, 1859.
Bond, Z., p. 7,105. Several since.

Rosy bullfinch (Carpodacus erythrinus). Brighton, September,
1869. Wonfor, Z., 8.S., p. 1,918. Only one other in Great Britain.

Parrot crossbill (Lowia pityopsittacus). Bognor, November,
1859. Z., p. 6,929.

Red-winged starling (dgeleus pheeniceus). Sidlesham, 25th

December, 1863. Jeffery, Z., p. 8,951; also Hove, 21st March,
1866. Monk, S.S., p. 229.

Alpine Swift (Cypselus melba). St. Leonards, October, 1851.
Ellman, Z., p. 3,330.

Pallas’s sand grouse (Syrrhaptes paradoxus). Boxhill, near
Pevensey, 29th May, 1863. Dutton, Z., 8.S., p. 1,098.

American bittern (Ardea minor). Pevensey Marshes, 26th
November, 1867. Dutton, Z., §.S., p. 1,098. :

| 105 J

/

White stork (A. ciconia). Medmary Farm, Selsea, October,
1859. In Chichester Museum. Brighton Herald.

Black-winged stilt (Himantopus candidus). Bosham, December,
1855. Newman, Z., p. 4,946: also Trotton, 17th May, 1859. Knox,
Z., p. 395.

Buff-breasted sandpiper (Tringites rufescens). Sussex Coast,
1843. Bond. Z., p. 148.

Spotted sandpiper (Tringoides macularius). Several near
Brighton. Cavafy, Naturalist, 1854, p. 234: also Eastbourne,
October, 1866. In collection of J. H. Gurney, jun.

Pectoral sandpiper (Tringa maculata). Eastbourne, 1870.
Harting, “ Handbook of British Birds,” p. 141.

Broadbilled sandpiper (T. platyryncha). Shoreham, October,
1845. Borrer, Z., p. 1,394.

Bonaparte’s sandpiper (T. Bonapartii). Eastbourne, November
12th. Bates, Z., S.S. p. 2,442.

Baillon’s crake (Crex Baillonii). Near Eastbourne, 6th August,
1874, Clarke-Kennedy, Z., S.8., p. 4,159.

Bewick’s swan (Cygnus Bewickii). Several near Brighton,
winter, 1860. Erredge’s “ History of Brighton,” p. 152. Mr. Booth
saw some near Norfolk Bridge, Shoreham, during the severe
winter, 1870.

Hooded merganser (Mergus cuculatus). Burton Park, Petworth,
el “ History of British Birds,” vol. iii., p. 387.

3 Whitewinged black tern (Sterna leucoptera). Near Newhaven
male), spring, 1872 or 1873. E. T. Booth, Esq.

Buffon’s skua (Lestris Buffonii). Donnington, near Chichester,

_ October 1873. W. Jeffery, Z., S.S., 3,823.
r. Greater Shearwater (Pufinus major). Picked up dead under
the cliff at Seaford, June, 1854. Formerly in collection of Rey.

_ B.N. Dennis, but now in that of W. Borrer, Esq.

3 Water pipit (Anthus spinoletta). One near Worthing, and on
_ beach near Brighton, August, 1864. Pratt, Z., 9,279. Messrs.

0

[ 106 ]

Pratt inform me that Mr. Dresser has recently identified these as
true water pipits.

Fulmar petrel (Fulmarus glacialis). Brighton. Dead specimen
washed ashore in 1858. Merrifield, ‘“ Natural History of Brighton,”
p. 179.

Wilson’s petrel (Procellavia Wilsoni). Sussex. Bond, Z.,
1843, p. 148. :

This makes a total of 42 species to be added.
The following may be considered doubtful :—

Ross’s gull (Larus Rossii). Pevensey, 1852. Ellman, Z., p.
3,088. Harting, in his list published in 1872, does not mention this
one, and Mr Booth thinks it very doubtful.

Masked gull (ZL. capistratus), Off Brighton, February 25th,
1853. Morris’ “ British Birds.” This gull is said to be a variety
of the blackheaded gull, and is not mentioned in Harting’s list.

White heron. One shot by Mr C. Bull. Horsfield’s “ History
of Lewes.” It is not stated whether this is the great white heron
(ardea alba), and it is doubtful what bird is meant.

Bartram’s sandpiper (Totanus Bartramii). Newhaven, between
1836 and 1840. In the collection of the late Mr. Wille, of Lewes,
at the sale of his collection bought by Mr. John Dutton. Z., p.
9,118. There is much chance of uncertainty in the case of this
specimen.

The Virginian partridge and Californian grouse have been
found, but they were only strays from preserves.

The total in Mr. Knox’s list was 249, to which the 42 before

mentioned being added made 291, which with 4 doubtful, would be
the total of Sussex birds. This was one of the largest totals of any
county in England.

The Sussex birds might be divided into four classes,—extinct,
resident, migratory, and accidental visitors.

Of the first class there were only two :—the chough (or Cornish
red-legged chough) and the great bustard. Of the former, White
said that it could be found at Beachy Head and all along the cliffs

[ 107 ]

on the Sussex coast. Erredge, in his “ History of Brighthelmston,”
said that it was common 60 years ago. The latter had long since
been extinct, Knox mentioned having met with some very old
people who in their younger days had seen flocks of great bustards
on the Downs. The last one shot in Great Britain was in 1803.

The second class, the resident birds, numbered about 60. It
was somewhat difficult to ascertain exactly which were resident and
which were migratory, as some birds partially disappeared at
certain seasons, but this number was probably nearly correct. The
migratory birds (the third class) numbered about 76, might be sub-
‘divided into two classes,—the summer visitors, chiefly singing
birds, and which were smaller and of more delicate form,—and the
winter visitors, mostly aquatic birds, and which were larger and
more hardy.

The summer visitors included most of the Sylviade, Motacillide,
Anthide, and Hirundinide families. Markwick gave the following
dates in connection with their arrival in and departure from
Sussex :—

First seen or heard. Last seen or heard.
Swallow ry April 7—April 27 ee — Nov. 16
Sand Martin... April 8—May 16 Ree Sep. 8
Martin i April 14—May 8 ace ae Dec. 8
Cuckoo Sie April 15—May 3 a me June 28
Nightingale ... April 7 (earliest)
Swift Aug. 11

In 1862 and 1863 Mr. Prince heard the cuckoo at Uckfield on
q April 7th; on April 8th in 1865; and on the 11th in 1850 and

1857. The nightingale had, however, been heard before April 7th,
for Mr. W. Saunders mentioned at the first meeting of this society
i in 1873, that he had seen one in Sussex square, Brighton, on April
Ath, 1871, and on April 6th, 1872. Mr. Monk stated-in the Field,
that on April 13th, 1872, nightingales were “on the beach under
_ the bathing machines, along the whole length of the shore at
Brighton.” J. H. H.in Hone’s “Every Day Book” stated that
on April 5th, 1826, two swallows were seen at Southover, near
Lewes. The hoopoe might also probably be included in the Sussex
_ migratory birds. It arrived in April, and had been obtained in
* September. The hoopoe had twice built in the county—at Park

[ 108 |

End, near Chichester, and at Southwick. Mr. Wonfor also
recorded in the Zoologist, for 1869, that a young hoopoe, evidently
a bird of the year, was shot at Preston.

The winter visitors included the fieldfare, redwing, and several
of the Scolopacide and Anatide families. In connection with
these, Marwick gave the following dates :—

First seen Last seen.
Snipe Mp Sept. 29—Noy. 11 ... $e April 14
Redwing be. Oct. 1—Dec. 18 a be Mar. 21
Woodcock He Oct. 1—Nov. 1 fe rn April 11
Fieldfare arr Oct. 13—Nov. 18 vik is May 1

Morris stated that the woodcocks arrived early in flocks of 20 to 30
near Brighton, and were to be found on the Downs for a short
time amongst the furze. ;

Amongst the accidental visitors was the white-tailed eagle, of
which several immature specimens had been shot. One at Arundel
Park in 1858, one at Windmill Hill, Worthing, in January, 1844, a
bird of the year shot on November 8th, 1868, at Compton Wood,
Firle Park, by Viscount Gage’s keeper, and recorded by Mr.
Wonfor in the Zoologist. The only adult specimen in Sussex was
seen by Wm. Borrer, Esq., between Brighton and Henfield on
January 26th, 1865 (Zoologist, p. 9,465). Markwick in his list of
Sussex birds included the golden eagle (aquila chrysaetos) but Knox
thought that it was incorrect, and that a white-tailed eagle was
seen and mistaken for a golden eagle. In Mantell’s list the golden
eagle was said (on the authority of Woollgar) to be found im the
“ Vicinity of Lewes over the Bray mount. One was killed at
Bexhill a few years ago.” The latter was the one referred to by
Markwick, and was killed before 1795. Several ospreys had been
obtained in the county. The Peregrine falcon was said to breed
at Beachy Head and Newhaven. The rough-legged buzzard and
honey buzzard, and the marsh hen and Montagu’s harriers had
been obtained. The eagle owl was shot at Hurstmonceaux on De-
cember 29th, 1784 (Latham’s “ Synopsis,” Ist supp.) The scops owl
was shot at Shillinglee. In July, 1842, a little owl was on sale ata
poulterer’s in Brighton market, said to have been shot in an orchard
at Sheffield Park. These were the only records of the occurrence
of these three species of owls in Sussex. Several great grey

bs
i
i
2

r 109 |

shrikes and pied flycatchers had been taken. The latter wasa
frequent summer visitor. The golden oriole was of rare occurrence ;
besides those mentioned in Knox, one was shot at Preston by Mr.
Pratt, on May 4th, 1866 (Zoologist, 8.S., p. 267), and one was picked
up dead at Hast Grinstead, May 14th of the same year. Several
specimens of the black redstart had been taken. The fire-crested
regulus was shot near Brighton, January, 1869, (Wonfor, Zoologist,
S.S., 1513), two were shot at St. Leonards on April 9th, 1869
(Zoologist, S.S., 1683). Knox stated the bearded tit had now become
rare. The Bohemian waxwing was shot in January, 1848, at
Newhaven, and others have been obtained in the month of
January. Three wagtails were shot by Mr. Swaysland, at Hove, in
April, 1853. The crested lark was shot at Shoreham, October 20th,
1253. (S. D. Rowley, Ibis, 1864, p. 224). The crossbill had been
seen several times, and it had once nested in the county. Of the
rose coloured pastor, two were shot by a farmer near Brighton, on
August 20th, 1870 (Zoologist, S.S., p. 2,344) One specimen of the
nutcracker had occurred; the bee-eater was shot near Chichester,
May 6th, 1829. The little bustard had once been obtained. The
purple heron was shot at Worthing, on April 28th, 1848. Anadult
male of the little bittern was shot at Runcton, near Chichester, on
April 11th, 1869. The avocet was now rare, Markwick stated that
in bis time it was not uncommon on the coast. The gray phalarope
appeared in unusual numbers in 1866, they began ‘to arrive in the
third week in August, and continued to the second week in October,
and during this period 250 were taken in Sussex! The purple
sandpiper is frequently found at Eastbourne, and Mr. Dutton thinks

itis a regular winter visitor. The Sclavonian grebe was taken in a

garden at Worthing, on March 7th, 1865, (Gurney, Zoologist, p.

q 9,540). The black-throated diver and red-breasted diver have been
a found. The common guillemot and the razor-bill are said to breed
at Beachy Head. Several specimens of the fork-tailed petrel had

been taken after heavy gales in November, and have been picked up
dead on the sea shore.

There were not many proverbs or superstitions in connection
with birds in the county. 1t was said that “the old woman takes
the cuckoo in her basket to Heathfield Fair and there turns it out.”
Heathfield Fair was held on April 14th, and about that day the
cuckoo arrived in Sussex, In White’s “Natural History of

[ 2a]

Selborne” it was stated that ‘The people of Sussex call the missel
bird the storm cock, because it sings early in the spring, in blow-
ing, showery weather.” At Chichester the appearance of a
cormorant on or about the Cathedral was said to presage the death
of one of its dignataries. The Brighton Herald said that, “On
July 29th, 1836, a cormorant appeared on the north wall of the
City and was shot. They have been known to settle on the weather-
cock of the church, being a convenient resting place. It is
remembered by many that a cormorant appeared on the Cathedral
previous to the death of Bishop Ashburnham.”

Since writing the paper he had discovered in the library a list
published by the Eastbourne Natural History Society, which con-
tained the following eleven birds :—Gyr-falcon, goshawk, great
sedge warbler, rock dove, Barbary partridge, harlequin duck, black
guillemot, roseate tern, noddy tern, sooty tern, and Bonapartian
gull. He had, of course, been unable to make enquiries about these
birds, but as regarded the first (the Gyr-falcon) Harting stated that
it had never been obtained in Great Britain. The Eastbourne
Society enumerated 260 birds found in their district.

In conclusion, he had to acknowledge the kindness of W.
Borrer, Esq., E. T. Booth, Esq., and Messrs. Pratt in furnishing
him with information, and particularly to thank Mr. Wonfor for
allowing the birds to be brought out of the Museum to illustrate
bis paper.

The CuarrMAn, Mr. J. E. Haselwood, Vice-President, invited
the meeting to pass a vote of thanks to Mr. Sawyer for his able
paper. He also congratulated Mr. Sawyer upon varying his
professional labours by such study and research as had resulted in
the paper read.

Mr. Wonror reminded the meeting that Mr. Sawyer’s paper
was the first outcome of one he read two years ago; and he was
obliged to Mr. Sawyer for coming forward as he had, and so assisting
in removing the slight from them—the mother society he might
say—that they were behind other societies of the county in making
lists of mammals and birds. He also took this oppertunity of re-
' marking thatof the mammals mentioned by Mr. Sawyer, the Museum
was deplorably deficient, in specimens of the brown rat, black rat,
common mouse, shrews, dormouse, mole, otter, harvest monse,

f mi ]

pole-cat, martin, and water-rat. Of bats there was only one. He
solicited the assistance of members in supplying the deficiency, the
Museum being much resorted to by natural history students.
Before concluding, he threw out a practical suggestion to Mr.
Sawyer, by the adoption of which he might be enabled to compile
a complete and valuable list of the names and particulars of the
birds of Sussex, of which there were a very large number, the
county being favourably situated for the place of arrival and
departure of migratory birds.

Mr. C. F. DENNET also pleaded on behalf of the Museum, and
personally thanked Mr. Sawyer for his paper.

Mr. G. D. Sawyer and others likewise took part in the
discussion.

APRIL 27th.

MICROSCOPICAL MEETING.—MR. T. W. WONFOR
ON “FLEAS.”

In consequence of domestic circumstances, Mr. C. F. Dennet,
who was to have read a paper on “ Vegetable Textile Fibres, micro-
scopically considered,” was unable to be present; and in his
absence,

Mr. T. W. Wonror made some extemporaneous remarks upon
a flea new to science, received since the last meeting, from Mr.
Curties, of Holborn. In a letter received from Mr. Curties he said
“Since I shewed the Ueylon fleas at your soirée, Mr. Westwood has
_ raised them from the pulex and ranks them with the chigoes, and
as I have given the Society specimens of the former I will add to
_ the cabinet the latter; some day I may be able to give you a
portion of the skin; showing the creatures en masse.” Its chief
peculiarity was that it. attached itself to the eyes and neck of
domestic fowls. In some respects it resembled the chigo and in some
_ the common flea, but, unlike the former, did not bury itself in the
body of the animal to which it attached itself. The name
proposed for it, regarding its more prominent habit, was the
sarcopsyllus gallinaceus. As there were specimens of the chigo in
their cabinet, he might explain in what respect this new flea differed

fie |

from them. The chigo was a very dreadful fellow; having a habit
of inserting itself into the skin round abont the nails or any ex-
posed part of the body. When the female wished to lay its eggs,
it inserted its body into the flesh of whatever it attacked. This caused
no irritation at the time; but, soon after, the insect increased
enormously in size, and, unless carefully removed, would cause a
very troublesome ulcer; in more than one case having led to the
amputation of a limb. The negro-women in South America
were exceedingly skilful in removing these fleas with a needle.
Wallis in bis History of St. Domingo reports that a Capuchin
friar, who wished to bring away from that island a colony of chigoes,
permitted them to establish themselves in one of his feet, as a
present to the scientific colleges of Europe, but unfortunately for
the cause of science, the foot mortified, was amputated, and
with its inhabitants was committed to the waves.

Another matter of interest, which had recently come under his
notice, bad been furnished by the Rey. Mr. Aubry, who bad showed
him some specimens illustrative of the “developmental ” theory, in
connection with ticks. That gentleman brought him three
specimens of ticks; the dog tick, red deer tick, and forest-fly. The
first-named were wingless; the red deer ticks had abortive wings,
or wings much resembling what those of the common fly would look
like if snipped with the scissors; whilst the wings of the forest-fly
were fully developed. In every otber respect, as well as in their
habits, all these insects were identical, so that, as far as the wings
were concerned, the Darwinian theory certainly received an extra-
ordinary illustration.

The meeting then became a Conversazione and proceeded to
inspect the various slides of fleas shown by the members.

May 13th.
ORDINARY MEETING.—MR. T. W. WONFOR ON
“THE BRIGHTON AQUARIUM: WHAT IT
HAS DONE FOR SCIENCE.”

It might fairly be said that in no branch of Natural History
was there so much ignorance, even among those who professed a

[218

knowledge, as in that particular department which related to the
life-history of marine life, whether animal or vegetable. There were
plenty of manuals and very admirable treatises on the classification of
marine zoology and botany, and capital works descriptive of the
anatomy and physiology of fish, some of them containing very beau-
tiful drawings of the animals described, but unfortunately they all
dealt with the dead animal. None of them gave, from the actual
observations of the writers, any description of the life-history, for
the simple reason that the authors, from no fault of their own, were
unable to observe the animals they described in the element in
which they “lived, and moved, and had their being.” The wonder
really was that men like Yarrell and others had been able to tellus
so much as they did about some of the habits and peculiarities of
the inhabitants of the deep.

So great was the ignorance of the learned in fish matters, that
it might with the greatest safety be said, that before the Aquarium
in Brighton was opened, it would have been difficult, if not abso-
lutely impossible, to find half-a-dozen men in England, who could
have told them anything of the life-history of the commonest fish
of the sea, or been able, if an Aquarium upon a large scale had been
placed under their charge, to have fed and kept alive half-a-dozen
different kinds of fish. It was perfectly true that books in plenty
had been written about aquaria, and that aquaria on a moderate
scale had been managed, and much knowledge obtained about some
forms of marine life, notably among sea anemones and some of the
mollusca ; but the observations were carried on in glass and stone
jars and bottles, or in aquaria which held at most only a few pails
of sea water or artificial sea water, which some, even now that
aquaria of great size were being constructed, pretended to prefer to
genuine sea water.

As with every undertaking for the advancement of ‘science and
natural history in this country, so with the endeavours to extend our
knowledge of marine zoology, we were not indebted to public, but
private, enterprise. He need scarcely remind them that the
Brighton Aquarium was neither a Governmentinstitution, supported
by a grant from the Treasury, nor yet a branch of the British or
South Kensington Museums, built at the seaside, the better to
enable the officers of those national institutions to become
acquainted with marine zoology and botany, but that it was

P

[ 44

constructed by a private company and was managed by a board of
directors, whose duty to their shareholders was, primarily, to pay
as good a dividend as they possibly could—to do which they must
attract the public to see and admire the fish in the tanks, if possible;
but, if the fish were not in themselves a sufficient attraction, to
induce people by other and extraneous means to visit the Aquarium
—and in the second place to do their best to advance the cause of
Science and Natural History, by enabling naturalists to study
living animals in a manner far nearer to nature and their natural
habits than it was possible to do with land animals, cooped up in
the cages of Zoological Gardens.

He should not have said a word on this subject did he not
know that the most absurd claims had been put forward by some
scientific men, in regard to what they considered the duties of the
Directors of the Brighton Aquarium to them, and also as somewhat
of a reply to others, who affirmed that the management of the
Brighton Aquarium thought more of music than of fish, As long
as any large undertaking was carried on with the idea of making a
profit, so long would it be the duty of the Directors to consider the
best way of making it pay; and that they would make it pay, no
one doubted, provided they encouraged the efforts of their energetic
and novelty seeking Manager and Secretary, Mr. G. Reeves Smith.
No man in England knew better than he how to place before the
pleasure-loving visitors to Brighton an attractive bill of fare, and
were it his purpose to dilate upon the great addition to the attrac-
tions of Brighton such an institution as the Brighton Aquarium
was, he could not too highly estimate the tact, skill, and judgment
displayed by Mr. G. Reeves Smith; but his business rather was
with the scientific than with the popular and attractive features
which had been added to the Aquarium, as to all similar institutions,
such as the Zoological Gardens, the Horticultural Gardens, and the
Crystal Palace. If, while making it pay, science was advanced, the
scientific student, who contributed nothing to its maintenance
beyond the entrance fee paid by the ordinary visitor, ought not to
grumble or complain that they were unable to afford him facilities
for study, which, by-the-bye, he did not obtain even in our National
Gardens or Museums, unless, perchance, he happened to be one of
the staff; but he should the rather rejoice that something was
being done to enlighten mankind on the marvels of the deep. If

a walinge?

f 1 ]

experiments were required to be performed for the special advan-
tage of those who would reap both glory and profit by them, they
could hardly expect the directors of a private company to carry
them out for their especial benefit. If students required facilities
for watching development, or for pursuing histological enquiries,
why did not those of them who were Fellows of the Zoological
Society bring their influence to bear upon the council of that
society, and induce them to fit up tanks and attach to their own
institution an aquarium and laboratories, where observations might
be carried on for and by the fellows of that and kindred societies.
He might add that, while he had not asked for any facility for study
or observation beyond that which any student or visitor could obtain
for himself, while walking through the corridors and watching the
inmates of the tanks, he knew that scientific men of the highest
eminence in their respective departments of science and natural
history had been and were still being supplied with the material
for carrying out and investigating problems of the highest
character in matters relating to embryology, morphology, and
histology.

In the management of the Grand Aquarium, where many
hundred thousands of gallons of water were concerned, one of two
plans bad to be adopted to keep the water in a state conducive to
the health and life of the inmates of the tanks, viz., either a
circulation of water from tank to tank, or a system of aeration of
each individual tank. In some places the former plan had been
tried, especially in the small and easily managed Crystal Palace
Aquarium, but at Brighton there were practical difficulties in the
way of carrying out a perfect system of circulation: consequently
aeration and the isolation of each tank was tried with a marked
success, and with this manifest advantage, that while most of the

_ tanks individually contained as much water as was found in the

whole series of tanks in some aquaria, others were of such enormous
dimensions that they were actually oceanic, when compared with
the tiny table tanks in which a circulation (supplemented by
aeration) was kept up. The first and greatest advantage of
aeration proper over circulation was this, that whatever took place
in any particular tank was confined to it, and could be watched and
observed. So that if animals were hatched out or plants made
their appearance, instead of the doubt as to what they were, or

[ 116 |

whence they came, il was at once known, because, instead of being
all over the Aquarium, and scattered about in every tank, or
probably killed by being carried by the system of circulation into a
dark underground reservoir, they were confined to the one tank in
which they made their appearance. To take a case in point, as an
illustration. A cod-fish spawned in the Brighton Aquarium, the
roe was seen floating on the top of the tank in which the creature
was, and was identified at once. In the system of circulation, on
the other hand, when a similar event happened, roe was found
floating at the top of every tank in that Aquarium, and it was not,
at first, evident to what particular fish it belonged. Another
minor, but still practical, advantage was this—if, as sometimes
happened, a glass was broken and a tank had to be emptied to
enable the necessary repairs to be made, there was comparatively
speaking, no difficulty with aeration, though there might be with
circulation in an Aquarium of such gigantic dimensions.

Having generalised thus much, it might be well to point out a
few of the principal gains to science, through the means of the
Brighton Aquarium. George Ossian Sars, as Mr. Lee, F.LS.,
F.G.8., had informed them, was the first naturalist to observe and
record the fact, in 1865, that the roe of the cod-tribe, as well as that
of the mackarel and other fish, was not deposited, as was believed,
amongst sand and gravel at the bottom of the sea, but floated on
the surface of the water during the whole period of its development.
These observations had been proved correct, over and over again, in
the Brighton Aquarium. The first recorded observations at the
Brighton Aquarium were made in November and December, 1873,
and January 1874, on the spawning of the cod, whiting, and
whiting-pout. The floating of the roe was a most important fact,
because it was a very strong and potent argument against a close
time for deep sea fishing, and for laws interdicting deep sea trawl-
ing, and cut the ground from under the feet of those who would
urge upon the legislature the necessity for a close time, and who
affirmed that very great injury was done to ova by the trawl net. If,
as had been proved, the roe of the gadide and of some otber fishes
floated, trawling could in no respect damage or destroy; moreover,
as it had been found by observation, these fishes were spawning
during several months in the year in one locality, it might reason-
ably be inferred that, like the herring, they were spawning all the

fr

year round on some portion of our coast, consequently the appoint-
ment of a uniform close time would simply he inoperative and
impossible.

The opinion of Aristotle, that the time of incubation of
the eggs of the octopus extended to a period of fifty days,
had been completely confirmed. Eggs, too, of the euttle and squid
had also been hatched out in the Aquarium ; events had also proved
that an often expressed opinion of Mr. H. Lee was correct, that the
octopus did not incubate her eggs in the same sense in which a fowl
hatched her chickens, but that her constant attention was for the
purpose of protecting them from injury and from vegetable and
animal parasites. This Mr. Lee demonstrated by removing some
of her eggs and succeeding in hatching them out away from the
care of the mother. ,

He must at this point record another triumph of Mr. H. Lee’s
ingenuity. He had often found the eggs of dog-fish attached to
Gorgonias by the parent, and hit upon tbe device of imitating the
appearance of gorgonias by fixing birch-broom twigs to stones at
the bottom of the tanks, and then had the very great satisfaction of
seeing the female attach the eggs. This operation entirely set at
rest two questions maintained even up to the week preceding the
observation, viz.—first, that the eggs were fastened by “some
inherent vitality in the tendrils,” like those of the vine; or secondly,
as Mr. F. Buckland supposed, that she fastened them with her
mouth and nose. The time, too, which elapsed between the deposit
of the eggs and the hatching out had been established, viz. six
months; moreover, the fish hatched out in the Brighton Aquarium
were alive by hundreds, and in a very flourishing condition.

It had been found, by Mr. Lee’s observations on the eggs of
the skate, that they differed essentially from those of the dog-fishes,
in that they had a fibrous matter which issued from the body of the
parent in a glutinous condition, and in this state attached itself to
stones, shells, or other substances on which the parent might be
lying, and was thus weighted down, instead of being attached
by tendrils which were not glutinous when they issued. The
arrangement of the glutinous fibres varied considerably in different
species of the Ratide.

; tee

Though the pipefish and hippocampi had been very closely and
carefully watched, the transference of the ova from the female to
the pouch of the male, in which they were hatched, had not been at
present observed. He knew it was Mr. H. Lee’s opinion that this
transference probably took place at night, because, though on several
occasions a gravid female had been closely watched, the transference
had taken place before the morning. A curious mistake made by
Yarrell and others, repeated even in the first edition of the “ Guide
to the Brighton Aquarium,” bad been corrected in the third edition
—viz., that the young fish, after leaving the pouch of the parent,
repaired to it for safety on the approach of danger. He had also
heard and read that if the young were shaken out of the pouch of
the father and he were held in the water, they would swim back to
the pouch. When once the young had left the pouch, they never
returned to it; they swam to the surface, and (for he had watched
them for hours) neither were able nor desired, apparently, to obtain
the supposed protection within the body of their male parent; nay,
up to the time of their extrusion, they were as tightly packed
together as herrings in a barrel. These stories respecting their
supposed habits were among the fables of fish lore handed down
down from one book-maker to another, and which observation of
the habits of the fish while in captivity alone could have refuted.

At one time the larval stages of the crab, lobster, and cray-
fish were thought to be separate and distinct forms of life, and were
known by distinctive names. It had though, for some time, been
known that two of the supposed distinct forms were merely the
young of the crab and lobster, but only within the last few years
was it proved, he believed by M. Coste, that what had been called
- phyllosoma, or glass crabs, were but the larvel state of the sea cray-
fish Pelinurus vulgaris. These facts had been confirmed again and
again, for at times the tanks in the Brighton Aquarium containing
crabs, lobsters, or crayfish had been seen literally swarming with
young crabs, lobsters, and crayfish respectively. Some members of
this society would call to mind the circumstances that, at one of their
microscopical evenings, Mr. H. Lee showed that Bell was right in
asserting that the tail of the young lobster was spatulate, by ex-
hibiting young lobsters with spatulate tails alive under the micro-
scope, a fact respecting which Mr. J. K. Lord expressed his doubts
some time ago in the pages of Science Gossip.

|
;

f ug

One of the greatest triumphs achieved in the Brighton
Aquarium, in his opinion, had been the keeping alive, for five, and
seven months respectively, a porpoise. Nowhere else would it be
possible to keep such an animal alive for as many days. He
believed he was right in saying it had been attempted in other
places before the Brighton Aquarium was opened, but they failed,
because there was nowhere else in the world a tank of such
gigantic dimensions as tank No. 6, which was over 100 feet long
40 feet wide, and held the enormous number of 110,000 gallons of
sea-water. He had heard some ignorant of the difficulties in this
case grumble because porpoises would die; but they forgot it was
no small matter to keep alive even for a week, to say nothing of
months, an animal so swift-moving and so far-travelling as the
porpoise. If any means could be devised of giving a captive
porpoise a sea-bath in the open sea for a few days, then, he believed,
they might succeed in keeping one alive for years.

He considered it no small triumph that, in the case of
migratory fish, like the mackarel and herring, they had been, as it
were, tamed, and shown to the public in shoals. He might safely
affirm that, until the late Mr. J .K. Lord succeeded in keeping alive
within the tanks his one pet mackarel and some herring, the feat
had never been accomplished. Since then, in the Brighton
Aquarium, shoals of these delicate and timid fish had been
successfully exhibited to the public. This was the greater triumph,
because it had been dogmatically asserted that such a thing could
never be accomplished on account of the looseness and conformation
of their scales. Those who had watched the mackarel knew how
enormously they had increased in size; he might add that since they
had been in the tank, more than two years, only one of their
number had died; the same remark applied to the shoal of herring,
while in the case of the shoal of red mullet, not one had up to that

‘time died. He might incidentally mention that, in addition to the

exhibition of shoals, not single specimens, alive, of many of our own
common and familiar fish, illustrious foreign fish had also been
exhibited in the Brighton Aquarium for the first time in England
in captivity, and some creatures exhibited in other places had
spawned; thus the English public had been made familiar with
those strange representatives of the extinct trilobites, the king-crabs
of America, the telescope fish of China, the pretty and elegant

f 120 ]

sterlets of Russia, the mud-fish of Gambia, the boar-fish, and the
axolotls, which last named had twice spawned in the Aquarium.
Very valuable additions to our knowledge of these rare, as well as
of more common fish, had been made, which future writers on fish
matters would do well to note, instead of copying the errors of their
predecessors.

Among other interesting experiments that had been tried in
the Brighton Aquarium, he might mention those on the bearing of
the porpoise in water, while the taming of fish proved that so far
from their shunning man, they might be taught to approach close
to him, some being even so tame as to take their food direct from
his hand. Then there was the fact, which anyone, who felt inclined
to watch the behaviour of the flat fishes, like the sole and plaice,
would soon observe—the rapidity with which they changed colour,
and how closely they assimilated in colour to the nature of the
bottom of the tanks on which they rested; this was so rapid and so
imitative that they might with justice be called the chameleons of
the deep.

As many were aware, he mentioned, at their last soirée but one,
that the Brighton Aquarium had given a sponge new to science ; it
had also been proved, which was unknown before, that some
sponges were annual in their growth, and died at the end of the
year.

He considered, had the Brighton Aquarium done nothing else
for science, it had set an example which every museum throughout
the kingdom, not excepting the Brighton Museum, would do well to
follow, by fitting up microscopes under which the minute anatomy of
marine life had been made familiar to the public, while even the
student of natural history had learnt much through the admirable
slides and preparations of Mr. H. Lee. He hoped the day was not far
distant when a part of the equipment and furniture of every
museum would be the microscope, under which slides, illustrating
the different departments of geology and natural history, would be
shown to the public, who would by this means be educated to an
appreciation of higher and better things.. This naturally led to a
point to which the Directors had, he thought, hardly given
sufficient attention—the formation of a marine museum. It was
true they had very wisely commenced the nucleus with the

| 121 |

exhibition of choice and rare specimens, but they might add
considerably to the interest of the Brighton Aquarium by making
this a far more important feature than it wasat present. He could
speak feelingly in Brighton, and especially in that Institution,
“The Free Library and Museum,” under his charge, of the
liberality with which the Directors had contributed duplicates.
Upstairs, anyone could see “Presented by the Directors of the
Brighton Aquarium,” upon many of the specimens in the cases, and
he was in possession of the information that the same liberalty had
been extended to other museums in the country, which had been
enriched in their natural history departments by the presentation
of duplicate specimens and preparations.

Experience had shown that fish caught with a hook were much
more likely to live than those captured in a net, the wound caused
by the hook in the majority of cases quickly healed, and the animal
seemed none the worse; but the damage inflicted on the scales of
those captured in a net generally proved fatal, and taught the very
important lesson that removing or rubbing the scales of a living
fish was about as safe an experiment as scarifying the cuticle of a
human being with a currycomb; in fact, it would be safer to curry-
comb a man than to brush and scrape the scales of a fish. In
moving, too, some fish, either from the sea or from one tank to
another, they must be lifted in water and not in air.

Few outside the walls of the Brighton Aquarium realised one-
tithe part of the difficulties inherent in such a large Institution,
especially in the way of regulating the temperature, to say nothing
of taming and accustoming wild creatures to captivity and confine-
ment. Some would think all that was necessary was to fill a tank
with sea water, catch the fish, put them in it and feed them; little
imagining that each of these processes involved trouble, and, at
times, failure after failure before success could be obtained. It was
no easy watter to regulate temperature situated as the
Aquarium was ; then the influx of visitors at times, raised
the temper ature within the building considerably above that
of the water in the tanks, when, as a natural consequence,
crack went a pane of glass, the water must be allowed to “ run off,”

_ and the labour of weeks or months was lost or endangered. Evapora-

tion from such large surfaces carried off no inconsiderable ‘portion

Q

[ 122 j

of water, which must not only be replenished, but great judgment
was necessary to preserve the specific gravity of the water, or
mischief would accrue to the fish. Again, the pumping in of fresh
sea water caused a turbidity and milkiness, which must be removed,
for the public was not satisfied unless the water was as clear as
crystal. To accomplish this, a plan was adopted with very marked
success, which originated, he believed, with Mr. H. Lee. Some one,
he rather thought Dr Brehm, mentioned that the mollusca were
great agents in clearing sea water, and the late Mr Lord, just before
the opening of the Brighton Aquarium, tried mussels, but the
difficulty was to know whether any of them had died, and if so, a
greater difficulty was to pick out the defunct ones. Mr. Lee
suggested to him that the mussels should be suspended in nets, but
still there was a difficulty. At last it struck Mv. Lee, when he took
charge, to try oysters instead of mussels, and with a very marked
success. Oysters were still employed in the Brighton Aquarium
for the purpose of clearing the water, and this would explain the
reason why that mollusk might be seen at the bottom of each
marine tank. The capability of clearing the water by the oyster
was not only doubted, but denied, by some. This capability had
been demonstrated in his own presence by seeing sea water
with and without the mollusk; that in which the oysters had been
placed was clear, that without them was turbid. Any member of
the society could easily, at any time, prove the truth of this
experiment for himself, and see with his own eyes how the oyster
cleared the water.

Another difficulty was to find out what was the kind of food
which different fish would take, and then an equal, if not greater,
difficulty, to induce the fish to eat, for not until then could it be
safely affirmed there was a possibility of getting the fish to live.
It had. happened, over and over again, that even when the food was
well known from experience, and fish of the same kind were
thriving on that kind of food, new comers could not be induced to
take the same, or any kind, of food. By observing the way in which
different kinds of fish always took their food—some as soon as it was
dropped into the water, others rising at it, and others taking it
while it was passing by them downwards, others only when it had
fallen to the bottom, some darting rapidly at their food, others
quietly seizing it—a very valuable series of hints for fishermen had

f 123 ]

been acquired. Fallacies, too, respecting the Salmonidz and their
habits had been exploded; in fact, looking to the advantages
derived by science, as many fallacies had been exploded as new facts
acquired.

There was one matter relating to fish to which he hoped the
Directors of the Brighton Aquarium would direct their serious
attention, viz., popularizing, as articles of food, sundry fish which
seldom found their way to table, because, from some unknown cause,
or false prejudice, they were tabooed. There was the pilchard,
seldom found in Brighton or London markets, except at times
under the name of so-called herrings, and yet Cornwall sent millions
of them to the markets of southern Europe; the ray family and
the dog fishes, which were not generally known as articles of food,
might have their name and fame spread abroad and prove to be
worthy of finding their way to the dinner table, if experiments,
such as one of which he had very pleasant recollections, were tried
and shown to be successful. He alluded to that famous fish dinner
at the Aquarium, in January of that year, when the hitherto tabooed
fish, the conger, was served up in sixteen different ways, and
pronounced by those who knew its merits, and by those who, up to

- that time, knew them not—a fine fish. If they could help them to

obtain good supplies, and cheap ones, of fish, as articles of food, they
would become national benefactors.

There was a fine field open to them, and if they failed of
success, yet they would secure the next best thing, the credit of
having tried to obtain it.

He might incidentally allude to the very absurd stories which
had been circulated by some, from what motives he did not trouble
himself to enquire, respecting the unhealthiness and mortality of
the fish in the Brighton Aquarium, as compared with those in the
Crystal Palace Aquarium. He had no intention of drawing
invidious comparisons, nor of attempting to prop up one institution
by decrying another. He held that each should stand or fall on its
own merits; but this, as he should show, he could fearlessly assert,
that it would be difficult to point out any place, where the fish were
more healthy, and the mortality was less, than in the tanks of the
Brighton Aquarium,

[ 124 |

The tanks in the Brighton Aquarium were of such huge
dimensions that two or three fish in one of them appeared as
nothing, and some people had cvolly asserted that there were very
few fish in the Aquarium; now, excluding anemones, which might
be counted by the thousand, crabs, lobsters, prawns, shrimps,
oysters, and all but fish proper, belonging to the class pisces, it
would appear that the tanks of the Brighton Aquarium contained
nearly ten thousand fish. To show that he was not in the least
exaggerating, he might mention.a few of the numbers of particular
fish: thus, he found about a 100 bass, the same number of bream,
300 carp, 50 chub, 50 cod, some of them of enormous size, the same
number of congers (one about 50lbs. weight), 200 dog, fish (in
addition to about 500 hatched on the premises, and rapidly in-
creasing in size), about 500 flat fish, including soles, plaice, &c., 100
gurnards, 40 gray mullett, 100 perch and pike, nearly 40 pipe-fish,
the same number of hippocampi, 40 roach, 17 salmon (seven hatched
last year), besides about 1,500 young char, salmon, and trout, allin a
thriving condition, and hatched out that year. Half a dozen
skate (one 5ft. across), angel fish und rays by the dozen, 1,000
sticklebacks, 150 whiting and whiting pouts, 200 wrasse, together
with herrings, mackarel, tench, and a host beside; and when he
learned by inquiring, at the end of last week, that not one fish had
that week died, only one the week before, and none the week before
that, and that, on an average, one or two a week had been the rule
for some time past, he concluded that, first, the assertion, that
there were a few fish only, would not hold good; and, secondly,
that 50 or even 100 in 10,000 in a year was a low rate of mortality,
not yet attained among human beings. and proved how marvel-
lously healthy fish were, when compared with man. These facts
and figures spoke for themselves, and conclusively upset the fables
mischievously circulated respecting the reputed paucity and
mortality of the fish in the Brighton Aquarium, when compared
with those in other and minor aquaria. There were many other
points of interest to the scientific student, to which he had not had
time to allude, but he knew other members would be glad to hear
that the observations of Henry Lee would soon be given to the
world in a collected form. The public must not expect that fresh
fruits or observations would continue to come before them in such
abundance as during the past year or two, because the scientific
truths, which the commencement of the Aquarium’s existence had

[ 125 j

evolved, would be re-affirmed again and again. Before concluding,

he had to thank the Directors of the Brighton Aquarium for having
done so much, up to this time, for science; might they go forward
and prosper; might their energetic Manager (Mr. G. Reeves Smitb),
go on adding to the attractions of the Aquarium; might their
good friend Mr. Henry Lee add to his laurels, by his observations
of marine life; and might Nurse Lawler, and his staff, efficiently
carry out their arduous task of attending to their water babies;
and might the Brighton Aquarium, the pioneer on so large ascale,
continue to be, as it was, a national institution. (Mr Wonfor
resumed his seat amidst loud and continued applause.)

The Presipent, Mr. Alderman Cox, said he had great
pleasure in proposing that the best thanks of the society be given
to Mr. Wonfor for his able and istructive paper. Mr. Wonfor had,
as they knew, been connected with the society for upwards of
twenty-one years; and though that gentleman had rendered many
‘services to science, he very much questioned whether, on this par-
ticular occasion, he had not rendered the greatest of all, because he
had called the attention of the society—comprising az it did the
leading scientific men of Brighton—to the advantages which they
possessed, and possessed exclusively, in the Brighton Aquarium.

The Hon. Howe Browne said that, perhaps, from no one in
the assembly could it come more gracefully than himself to second
the motion which had been moved from the chair. As a member
of the society, and as one of the Directors of the Brighton
Aquarium, he considered that their best thanks were due to Mr.
Wonfor for the able, interesting, and instructive paper which he
had put before the meeting. He could corroborate all Mr. Wonfor
had said with regard to what the Aquarium had done for science,
and for the education of the people generally, for he knew that
many thousands of persons who, before the establishment of the
institution, had been ignorant of the habits and lives of marine
animals, were now conversant with them. He knew this to be so
in his own case; and from study of the habits of the fish he had
derived the greatest possible benefit and gratification. With re-
gard to the establishment of a museum in connection with the
Aquarium, he could only say that an enlargement of the building

was being carried out, which he hoped would afford them an oppor-

[ 126 ]

tunity of establishing a museum on a good scale; and, for his own
part, he sincerely trusted that opportunity would be ewbraced.

The PRESIDENT invited discussion, especially calling attention
to the presence of Mr. Henry Lee, F.LS., F.G.S., President of the
Croydon Microscopical Society, and the Naturalist attached to the
Brighton Aquarium.

Mr. Henry Lex said the first feeling that arose in his mind,
while listening to the able paper which Mr. Wonfor had just read,
was one of gratitude and gratification that he bad brought forward
the subject; for he confessed that, when hearing and reading
certain statements that were brought under his notice, he some-
times began to wonder whether the Brighton Aquarium was a
failure and asham, the Directors idiots, the Manager a charlatan,
and the Naturalists ignoramuses. But, when he found how the
institution was appreciated by Mr. Wonfor, and his fellow members
of the Brighton and Sussex Natural History Society; as also, when
he marked the approbation it received from the London and
Provincial Press generally, he rested—certainly not entirely
satisfied—but at all events encouraged by what had been done.
Helped on by the Board of Directors, he hoped in the future to
continue and extend the labours of the past. Whatever credit Mr.
Wonfor had been kind enough to bestow upon him, there was
an act of justice due to a gentleman who was now absent. Owing
to the bad work of the contractors, the architect’s original designs,
for the aeration and circulation of the water in the tanks, were not
carried out when the building was completed. It was at first
intended that the system of aeration should be the same as that
adopted at the Crystal Palace; but, in consequence of the construc-
tion of the reservoirs, this was found to be impossible. When the
Aquarium was opened, there was neither aeration nor circulation ;
and, in order to sustain the life of the fish, he oxygenated the water
by exposing it to the full sunlight and promoting the excessive
growth of weed and of mavine alge; and, notwithstanding it was
thought by some that, in so doing, he was raising a Frankenstein,
which, in time, he would be unable to quell, he succeeded, by this
means, in keeping large numbers of fish alive until the new and
present system could be adopted. The credit of the system of
aeration to which Mr. Wonfor had alluded, was due to Mr. Evans,
a former member of the Board of Directors, who had devised the

-
Li
ff

[ 17 ]

apparatus and schemed the plan. It had proved most efficient and
successful, as was evidenced by the fact of the keeping alive of so
delicate a fish as the herring for many months in the Aquarium.
Moreover, the plan was economical. If they had adopted the
principal of circulation, very large pumping power would be
required for such an immense body of water as was contained in
the tanks of the Brighton Aquarium. It had been constantly
remarked, in reference to the system of aeration, that only a small
quantity of air appeared to come in contact with the water; but,
people who thought so, overlooked the fact that, by its means, there
was a continual circulation and absorption; that the bottom water
was being continually brought to the surface; that that which five
minutes before was down below was afterwards passing over the
top, and that the oxygen was, therefore, absorbed from the air
above the surface. So that, in fact, there was a circulation in the
tanks all over the building, which was a most important matter in
the successful keeping of live fish. He might say that a great
many things were being done at the Aquarium of which they were
not aware; and that the Directors were ever most anxious to
advance scientific knowledge. Their desire was to make the insti-
tution as successful in a scientific way as it had become as a place
of amusement. By means of the institution, scientific men were
furnished with objects to enable them to carry on their investiga-
tions ; and, although it would be impossible for a resident Owen or
Huxley to mark everything that transpired within the institution,
some very important facts had been learnt or confirmed. The
problem set by Mr. Wonfor, as to the price of fish, was a most
difficult one; and he thought that, for its solution, he must rather
‘go to the fish market early in the morning, than to the Directors of

_ the Aquarium. It was a difficulty which, in his opinion, rested with

the dealers, rather than upon the supply, of fish. With regard to
the oyster, he believed this mollusc bred as freely now as ever—
bringing forth as many as 800,000 young fry; and, without going
altogether with his friend, Mr Frank Buckland, on the question of
of heat and tranquillity, he certainly thought it necessary that
there should be general warmth in the month of June, in order
that the young oysters might live. But we had cold mights in

a June; and, the climate of England being so variable, he rather

inclined to the belief that oyster culture here would hardly be

a successful, although the reverse was the case in the south of France,

| 128 ]

where the weather was warmer. A brief reference to experiments,
showing the effect of heat and cold upon the young oyster, was
followed by an acknowledgment of many kind efforts to assist the
Aquarium, and by an expression of gratitude, on behalf of the
official staff of the institution, to Mr. Wonfor for preparing the
paper, and to the members of the Press, for assistance kindly
rendered on-all occasions.

Mr. F. C. Dennet expressed his delight at what he had heard ;
and made a few observations with reference to the Boulogne
Aquarium; to the difficulties which had been experienced there;
and to the manner in which similar difficulties had been overcome
at Brighton, by the wisdom of such men as Mr. Lee, Mr. Buckland,
and others.

Mr. Hasetwoop remarked that Mr. Wonfor had shown them
how, when they visited the Aquarium, they might open their eyes,
see and understand. He was only afraid that, as there was a possi-
bility of getting things too cheaply, there was also a probability
that they had got the fruits of fifteen months’ study and attention
too easily. Mr. Lee’s kindness in furnishing live specimens for the
microscopes, on one very memorable occasion in the annals of the
society, bad been very highly appreciated; and he ventured to hope
that they would be again similarly favoured by that gentleman.

Mr. LEE said it was sometimes difficult to obtain certain
specimens from certain tanks, as a sudden disturbance of the water
might cause the death of timid fishes, such as the herring and
mackarel; but he assured the members that, whenever specimens
of special interest could be obtained, he, and the Directors of the
institution, would be ready and willing to present them for exami-
nation. He might also take occasion to confirm what had been
said that it must not be expected that fresh fruits of observations
would continue to come before them in such abundance as during
the last year or two, because the scientific truths, which the
commencement of the Aquarium’s existence had evolved, would
be re-affrmed again and again. Six specimens of the proteus, a
type of amphibious reptile, closely allied to the mudfish, and
brought from the Adelsberg caves, had been deposited in the
Aquarium during the week.

{ 129 ]

After some further conversation, in which the Rey. J. H.
Cross, Mr. O. Fox. Mr. Dennet, and Mr. HasELwoop took part,

Mr. Wonror briefly acknowledged the vote of thanks that
had been passed to him; and, in turn, proposed a hearty vote of
thanks to the Directors of the Aquarium for facilities they had
afforded him in obtaining information, and for the way in which
they had helped the society on various occasions.

Mr. HAsELWOOD seconded.

The Hon. HowEt Browne, in acknowledging the vote, stated
that the Directors would continue to be, as they had at all times
been, willing to afford every assistance to the society in providing
scientific entertainment, or the means of scientific investigation.

May 27th.
MICROSCOPICAL MEETING.—GENERAL EVENING.

The announced paper was on “ Vegetable textile fibres,
microscopically considered,” by Mr. C. F. Dennet. Mr. J. C.
Haselwood, Vice-President, having taken the chair, said he
believed Mr Dennet could not fulfil his engagement, but Mr.
Wonfor would make an explanation on his behalf, and would,
moreover, provide some objects of interest.

Mr. T. W. Wonror said he had received a note from Mr.
Dennet, to say that he was “knocked up and unable to leave his
room,” and, on going to see him, he found he really was seriously ill.
Having to go to London the day before, on business in connection
with the Museum, he made his way round to their good friend, Mr.
- Curties, of High Holborn, and in ten minutes he packed up some
objects which he thought would interest them. Among them were
some transparent mountings, made up out of butterfly scales and
diatoms. These objects, instead of being opaque, were transparent.

Mr. Curties also found him one of the red deer ticks, which, they
would remember, had wings; and he promised them some more
_ specimens of the other species. In addition to these, he enclosed
some mountings by a mounter new to England, namely, Rodig, of

Hamburg, who gained a medal at the Vienna Exhibition of
1873; certainly some of them were very clean preparations. A

[ 130 ]

most remarkable slide was some diatoms from Java, one of
Miiller’s mountings; they were like anumber of vertebrae. Indeed,
there were some very interesting objects, especially good were
those showing the scales of plants, a rhododendron among them
being well worthy of attention. He would like to know if they
desired him to keep his promise and give a paper on fur, wool,
and silk, that day month.—The Chairman said that under the
circumstances in which they were placed by Mr. Dennett’s illness,
he thought it would be desirable.

Three pen and ink sketches, illustrative of the Society’s last
field excursion, were presented by the Rev. J. H. Cross.

The meeting then resolved itself into a Conversazione, when
the objects mentioned, and others, were exhibited by Messrs. J, C.
Haselwood, T. W. Wonfor, F. E. Sawyer, W. Puttick, T. Glaisyer,
and R. Glaisyer.

JUNE roth,

ORDINARY MEETING.—MR. BENJAMIN LOMAX
ON “THE MINOR DISEASES OF PLANTS.”

The subject was one which was not even referred to in the
standard works on Vegetable Physiology, and concerning which he
could give no information that was not supplied from his own
limited powers and opportunities of observations. We were
accustomed to think of plants in one of two conditions—that of
rude health or that of mortal disease. If a plant presented its
normal appearance, performed its functions properly, and attained
its average size, it was a healthy organism. If it was monstrous in
form, stunted in growth, or irregular in the performance of its
functions, it was a diseased plant and would die. So we summed
the matter up, except in those few cases where science had enabled
us to fight successfully against rust or blight, and to restore to full
health an organism that, but for the intervention of human agency,
must have perished. But surely this was a very limited view to
take of the diseases incident to vegetable life. Medical friends
would find both their duties and incomes strangely curtailed if
their practice were limited to fatal maladies. Although Nature

f 13k ]

generally worked her own cure in certain cases, we were glad to
shorten her work by the intervention of medical aid, and the
physicians considered the symptoms as well worth their study. It
was so with the vegetable kingdom. Among the thousands of
plants that lived out their allotted time and ripened, and left
healthy seed behind them, few escaped minor complaints, and the
study of their symptoms, their causes, and the methods of cure
which Nature adopted, could not fail to be of interest to Naturalists.
The more obvious cases of self-cure were those which belonged to
what might be called the surgical department—cutting and
wounding—in the cure of which there was both a likeness anda
difference as regards the animal economy.

When Master Tommy cuts his finger, the blood flows. Here
they had the very means of death presented, for it was from loss
of blood that men died in battle. But, practically, the injury was
trivial—the bleeding stopped from the contraction of the tissues,
the surface blood coagulated and formed a plaster, and in a few
days all trace of the wound was gone. In like manner, when a
branch of a shrub was taken off, whether by the gardener’s knife,
the browsing of animals, or by a gust of wind, the very state of
things that Nature had by all possible means guarded against was
now set up. The delicate inner portions were exposed to the light,
while the sap, which should have flowed in closed channels, was now
suffered to pass freely into the air; and, theoretically, the plant
ought to die, as in fact it would when the injury was extensive, for
not only must exhaustion follow the loss of sap, but the atmosphere
passing into the vessels would cause it to become thick and incapable
of flowing. But this very tendency to inspissation saves the plant.
- The surface sap coagulated so rapidly as at once to exclude the
atmosphere and stop the bleeding, the surface-wood cells hardened,
and the inner layer of what was once sap assumed the form of
cambium. Next year a layer of bark was formed over the wound,
and all that remained was an outward change of form. It must
not, however, be forgotten that in all this there was no interference
_ of what was called “vitality.” The flow of sap was due to dialysis,
the coagulation to evaporation, and there was no appearance of

anything like muscular contraction.

From this point even outward resemblance between animal and
vegetable ceased. The animal] cure was a restoration—a replace-

[ 132 ]

ment; if we cut a notch in our flesh the immediate curative process
was followed by a formation of new flesh which, under favourable
circumstances, continued till the notch had entirely disappeared.
We could not, it was true, in our own complicated organism, grow
a new leg or arm; but the process, as far as it went, was towards
such restoration, and in a lower sphere of animal life, we did
actually find snails reproducing their eyes, crustacea their claws,
lizards their tails, and Holuthuriz their simple digestive apparatus.
In the vegetable world, on the other hand, the notch, or broken
limb, retained its new shape, and simply covered the disfigurement
with bark.

The efforts which Nature made to repair the functional loss
shewed this difference even more decisively. A plant or tree must,
for its necessary sustenance, spread a certain area of leaf surface
to the atmosphere—and when a branch was removed the loss must
be repaired, or the tree would die. How was the deficiency to be
made good? <A plant stood much in the position of a gambler who
had so many cards or counters to dispose of, and who could withhold
them, or apply-them in different manners, but could not play them
twice. Every flowering plant was compelled by the mysterious law
of its nature to develop its buds in a spiral, according to an
unchanging arrangement. Of these buds it might make leaves,
tendrils, thorns, branches, stamens, carpels, petals, or bracts,
as occasion required. It might develop a bud almost ad
infinitum, might change stamens into petals, or spines into
tendrils, or might allow it to remain a bud, but it could
not play its card twice—a bud once destroyed could never
be replaced. Hence, to repair the loss of the amputated
branch, another bud which would otherwise have remained unde-
veloped must take the duty upon itself, and supply the functions of
its deceased brother. It was of this peculiarity that gardeners
took advantage, when, by pruning or nipping off buds, they compelled
trees to assume a different shape, or to push forth lower branches
at the expense of the upper ones. Still, there was, perhaps, no
evidence of “vitality,” for we could regard the diversion of the sap
into the only available channel as a mere mechanical result of the
general law of cell development. But, in the selection of the bud
which was to sprout, a very marked instance of what might be
called “ plant instinct” was shown. Every plant was a carefully

Pee m &.

ban
3
W
x

[ 133 J

balanced fabric, assuming one general direction, whether upright
or recumbent, and bounded by one well defined curve. In an
upright shrub the removal of a branch to the left gave a tendency
to lean to the right. As the original branch could not be replaced,
another on that side must sprout. Owing to the rigid law of general
outline, it was probable that none could be found which was licensed
to carry the same weight, but by a judicious use of two or three,
their respective leverage being taken into account, and some for-
bearance on the part of the buds on the other side, the balance was
generally restored without injury to the outline. Often the main
stem itself bent over somewhat to favour this equilibrium, but in
every case he who set his skill against that of a tree, and tried to
force it out of its time-honoured habits, would find it an opponent
worthy of his steel.

Another form of disease was that which is caused by

- injudicious or improper food. A plant which had injudiciously

swallowed a dose of ink or vermillion would at times get rid of it
by a process of desquamation very curious to witness. Those who
had transplanted a cabbage in very dry weather had seen a little
piece of self-cure. A large quantity of water was usually given in
such cases, and a few large leaves were plastered to the ground.
These leaves were living sacrifices. Times had changed with the
unhappy vegetable—many of its root fibres had remained behind
in its once happy home, and it had no longer the power to nourish
the large number of leaves that looked to it for food. These large
leaves comprehended the necessity, and acted the part of martyrs,
and by their death a sufficient supply of nourishment was left to
meet the wants of the next pair. In this slow death, every cireum-
stance was puzzling. The strange yellow colour which leaves of
every shade assumed, creeping from the point to the stalk, told
the gradual process of the change, and reminded one of mortifica-
tion in the animal frame. A large white dead nettle on the
Rottingdean road, which had produced a continual succession of
flowers for weeks past, had lately found it necessary to perform an
amputation on its own person. He thought, but was not sure,
that some insect damaged the part since affected, a spreading leaf
half way up the great square stem. The tapering point first
showed the yellow tinge, which soon crept along the margin and

gradually covered the whole leaf. It reached the main stem and

[ 134 ]

the leaf with its petiole fell off. He was inclined to think, after
much observation, that the leaf and petiole were not all that were
cast aside, but that the injury extended to the root.

He was forced to the conclusion that the theory is correct
which assumed that every separate bud was connected by a distinct
thread with the root, and that the axis of the plant was really a
mere bundle of separate stalks surrounded by a common epidermis.
The order to which this dead nettle belonged was an instance in
support of this view. The leaves of all labiate plants were opposite,
and each leaf was exactly above that beneath it on the same side,
This was, in fact, a quarternary arrangement, the alternate inter-
nodes being suppressed. According to the theory he had adopted,
the stem consisted of a concentric series of squares, the four bud
threads occupying the corners; and the square stem which was
universal in the labiate, and which was preserved even in the
arrangement of the fruit, was thus fairly accounted for. That
closely allied order, the Scrophularinee, had not the same arrange-
ment of leaves or fruit, and the theory was carried out here by the
stem not being square. Just as in our own species Nature
frequently preserved life at the expense of one faculty, so we found
continually plants which were content to pass an imperfect
existence, at the expense of some one of their natural functions.
The garden rose or pink, given to luxurious living, parts with the
power of propagating his species, and converted his stamens into
petals. The wheat or grape vine infested by parasitic fungi or
insects, lived on till the time of natural decay, but bore no fruit, and
this kind of compromise went on throughout the vegetable kingdom.
When the aphis infested our rose bush, or the blight our cauliflower,
the plant did not generally die, though for our purpose it might be
useless. The flower shed its buds before they burst into bloom,
parted with those organs which were now no longer necessary, as
the peduncle to support the flower and the bracts to shelter it, and
reduced its vital expenditure as much as possible, to preserve its
mere life through the winter. The cauliflower with blight at its
heart, rejected not only the infected leaves, but those surrounding
it, all which must ultimately share the same destruction, and,
abandoning the acquired habits of many generations, developed
anew the long suppressed internodes, and mounted upwards in the
form of its ancestor, the common sea cabbage of our cliffs, with the

[ 135 ]

hope, perhaps, of bearing seed, and scattering it before the greedy
insects had sapped the very foundation of life.

Perhaps the greatest difficulties which the vegetable constitu-
tion had to struggle against were those which arose from improper
or insufficient food. An oak tree grown in a bottle flourished
vigorously for a few seasons till the time came when spoon-diet
must be thrown aside and strong meat must be provided. Oxygen
and hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen, were all present in its air and
water, but the growing tree required more substantial food, silex
and lime, phosphorus and iron; and, if these were not provided, it
was interesting to observe how, for dear life, the little tree gave up
all hope of making “ heart of oak,” and resigned itself to the life of
an invalid, building soft branches and unnaturally large leaves to
make up in starch and gluten for its other deficiencies. The
struggle for life in plants was a long protracted one. If we turned
over with the spade a piece of earth covered with shepherd’s purse
and knot grass, so as to bring the roots upwards, there was sure to
be one branch that was bent so as to point upwards, and this
particular branch took upon itself the functions of a main stem,
deriving its nourishment from the remainder of the plant until
some of the root fibres could come into play again. He had seenin
Australia large trees lying on the ground in a state of decay save
one branch, which had fallen upright and was now developing into
a new tree, and he believed be spoke the result of others experience
as well as his own when he said that there were no flowering plants
or trees which might not, under certain circumstances, become, at
least temporarily, parasites. Everybody must be familiar with that
flaccid, sodden state which plants assumed when deprived for atime
of water; but it might have escaped the observation of many that
the same state was sometimes seen in plants which were well
watered, either artificially or by rain. He had frequently
noticed this in the common chickweed, which, from growing
on roadsides, is much exposed to heat, and he was inclined
to regard it as a disease produced by excessive evaporation.
~The settlement of dust on wet leaves, by stopping healthy
transpiration, often caused diseases which affected the whole
plant, and those who had amused themselves, as he had done,
by painting leaves with varnish and supplying them copiously with
water, would have remarked how long it was before the plant

| 136 ]

recovered the shock its system had suffered. He believed the field
of research he had indicated was a wide and an interesting one, but
if it should not prove so, the necessity which it would impose on its
votaries of watching individual plant-lives with care and accuracy
would at least increase their botanical knowledge, however great it
might previously have been, and would excuse his laying before
them so superficial a paper.

The President, (Mr. Alderman Cox) proposed a vote of thanks
to Mr. Lomax for his interesting paper, and enquired whether he
could assign any reason why, when a new vine shoot was removed,
no sap flowed, whereas, if a previous year’s shoot were removed, the
sap flowed copiously ?

Mr. Lomax replied that such a question revived the old differ-
ence as to whetber sap really did flow. He thought that a copious
discharge of sap was more often met with when the tree produced
a succulent fruit than when otherwise.

Mr. WonFOR commented upon the mysterious fact that, whilst
a plant might live, ordinarily, only fifty years, cuttings made from
it, and planted, also lived the full alloted time, quite outliving the
parent stock; so that thousands of cuttings might now be alive,
the parents of which died years ago.

Previous to the reading of the paper, Mr. F. E. SAwYER briefly
drew attention to some solar halos which he had recently witnessed,
and illustrated his observations by diagrams.

JuNE 24th.

MICROSCOPICAL MEETING.—MR. T. W. WONFOR
ON “HAIR, WOOL, FUR, AND SILK, MICRO-
SCOPICALLY CONSIDERED.”

One of the first objects the possessor of a microscope subjected
to scrutiny wasa human hair; and scores of times, after exhibiting
to some non-microscopical friend some very choice objects, the
question had been asked, “But how does a hair look under the

microscope?” and invariably the querist was disappointed when a
hair was exhibited at his or her request.

[ 137 ]

The popular idea was that a human hair was a hollow cylinder,
that its colour was owing to the presence of a fluid within the
cylinder, and that it grew with roots much in the same way asa
tree. That a hair originated in a bulbous root contained in a
depression in the skin was very certain, but there the analogy
between it and a tree ended. A tree increased by a prolongation of
its stem, through an addition to its cells from the apex, whereas a
hair lengthened by an addition of cells to the basal portion, which
pushed the rest of the hair forward.

Carefully examined under the microscope, a human hair
consisted of three parts, the cuticle, the cortical substance, and the
medullary substance. The cuticle consisted of epithelial cells, lying
over each other like tiles, from one end of the hair to the other.
The ends of the scales stood out from the surface and gave its
outer circumference a jagged appearance. These scales caused the
hair to appear as if there were fine irregular lines crossing its
surface. These scales were a very important part in the economy
of some hairs, because they accounted for the ease with which the
wool or hair of some animals felted. The cortical substance, which
formed the principal, and in some cases the whole, of the shaft,
consisted of closely packed cells in rows, and lying nearly parallel
to the axis of the hair, thus giving to some hairs the appearance as
if striped lengthwise. These cells were so clesely united that only
under the action of concentrated sulphuric acid could they be
separated into spindle-shaped cells.

It was in the cortical substance that the colouring matter,
sometimes diffused through the mass, but generally scattered in
pigment cells, was found. The cortical substance also contained a
number of cavities filled with air. These were most patent in dry
hair, or that from the head of adults or the aged. The medullary
substance generally occupied the centre, when present, because in
woolly hair and that from a new-born child it was absent, also in
some examples, of blonde hair. Some considered the medullary
substance cellular, others thought it was not, but the general
_ opinion inclined to the cellular. It had also been thought to
contain the pigment, but the supposed pigment granules were
minute air-bubbles. The medullary substance was best made out
— in white hair.

8

[ 138 J

What had been said respecting human hair held good generally
in mammalian hair. We found the same three layers, differing,
though, in such a degree that the animal from which the hair came
could be recognized under the microscope. In most animals the
cuticle had larger cells, relatively, than in man; this gave it a toothed
and jagged appearance, well-seen in wool from the sheep. In some
cases, as in the mouse, but more especially in the bat, the cuticular
cells stood out so much as to give the hair.a feathered appearance.
In some animals the great bulk of the hair was formed of the
medullary substance, the cuticle being only a very thin layer.

In comparing the hairs of animals with human hair great care
was necessary, because dog’s hair, when brown, was often very
similar to human, Among the monkeys, some very closely re-
sembled man’s hair, but the air cells were larger and less crowded.
If a collection of hairs from the different orders of mammals were
taken, it would be found that in each order there was great
similarity, but sufficient diversity to enable the microscopist to
predicate the animal from which it had been taken. In some
animals two sorts of hair were found, one long, strong, and more
or less straight, the other long, curly and twisted—to one the name
of fur was given, and to the other the term wool had been applied.
Some animals had only wool, which differed from hair in that the
cuticular cells or scales were looser than in hair. This gave to
wool its value, its property of felting, i.e., of being so interlaced and
entangled by the combined action of heat, pressure, moisture, and
motion, as to form a cloth-like substance. This property was seen
best in the wool of the sheep or that from the rabbit, which latter
when mingled with sheep’s wool, formed the best kind of felt for
hats. The same property which caused wool to felt caused any
woollen material to become closer and thicker by shrinking, either
after exposure to moisture or washing.

In comparing wool from different kinds of sheep, the
greater the number of cuticular cells to the inch the greater its
felting property, hence its greater commercial value. Thus,
Leicester give 1,850 to the inch, Southdown 2,080, Merino 2,400, and
Saxon wool 2,720. This same felting property was found in the
wool from some goats, and differed essentially from goats’ hair, this
was the case with a very fine kind of goat wool called Mohair.

[ 139 ]

If, in the manufacture of any texible fabric, any hair or wool

of an inferior character had been employed the microscope readily
revealed the fact, so that so-called alpaca lustres, supposed to be
‘made of the hair of the American camels, the alpacas, were shown
at times to be made out of goat’s hair. People bought woollen
fabrics, or so-called woollen fabrics, and wondered why they
cockled. The simple explanation was that some vegetable fibre,
of different hygrometic properties from wool, had been mixed with
wool inthe manufacture. The microscope soon revealed both the
nature of the wool and the presence of the woody fibre. The same
might be said of the cheap furs with names not belonging to them.
Genuine sealskin turned out to be rabbit or moukey. The same
might be said of other and equally expensive furs.

He must next say a few words about silk, the production of
caterpillars of different kinds, and emitted from special organs
called the spinning apparatus. Some caterpillars spun but little,
and then only to attach themselves during rest, or moulting, to
their food plant; others spun a small quantity to fix them toa
twig when about to change into the chrysalis, but others manu-
factured a considerable quantity, and with it constructed the
silken cocoon, in which the caterpillar changed to a chrysalis.
Although many caterpillars went through this process, the
cocoons of only a few were utilised in spinning and weaving the
substance called silk. The fibres of which it was composed were
cylindrical or somewhat flattened, without markings of any kind,
and solid. The silk cylinders were coated with a gum-like varnish,
while an analysis showed that silk consisted of fibroine, gelatine,
albumen, wax, yellow colouring matter, resinous and fatty matter,
the colouring matter being absent in white silk. It would be out
of place to enter into the different kinds of silk used in
manufacture, but all possessed similar absence of markings, hence,
the readiness with which the presence or absence of an aduiteration
in a textile fabric could be detected. Japanese silk, or rather
so-called, largely consisted of jute, and a specimen of a said-to-be
pure silk fabric, which, owing to unequal contraction when exposed
to moisture, was suspected to be impure, turned out when examined
under the microscope, to be composed of one-half vegetable fibre
having markings.

All the manuals gave information how to mount hairs, &c., but
the structure of a human hair could be made out by making a

[ 140 ]

section with a razor. After shaving, if the skin was scraped and
the portions of hair found ona razor were washed off with ether, and
placed in a drop ‘of turpentine on a glass slide, sections of human
hair might be readily got. These might be mountedin balsam. A
section of the hair of the pachydermata, especially of the elephant,
presented the appearance of several hairs welded together. Next
to the bat tribe, the most extraordinary hair was that of the
Platypus of Australia.

Mr. Wonror stated, in reply to Mr. H. Saunders, he never
found flint in the substance of the hair. On hair of the elephant
_or pig, or other mammal exposed a good deal, fine particles of
dust might be found, but they did not belong to the substance.
In reminding the meeting that hair, horn, teeth, and claws lasted
longer than the human or animal frame, he also stated that he had
obtained some hair off an Egyptian mummy, and it was perfectly
red. The reason of this colour he could not at first conceive, the
Egyptians not being represented to have been a red-haired race.
but subsequently he came to the conclusion, from inquiry and
examination made, that the redness had resulted from the sub-
stance which had been used to ensure its preservation.

In reference to what had been said with regard to the power
of endurance of the teeth, the PrestprentT (Mr. Alderman Cox),
humorously hinted that the assertion would doubtless be qualified
by the majority present from their own experience.

A conversation, of a very entertaining character, was main-
tained for some time by Mr. C. F. Dennet and Mr. W. Saunders;
and afterwards specimens and sections of hair from various
animals, and vegetable fibres were exhibited under microscopes by
Mr. Haselwood, Mr. Wonfor, Mr. T. Glaisyer, Mr. R. Glaisyer, and
Mr. Puttick.

JUNE 29th.
ANNUAL EXCURSION.
The twenty-first annual excursion of the society was to Battle
Abbey and the Sub-Wealden Boring at Netherfield. The majority

of the party, which numbered in all about fifty persons, left Brighton
by the 7.55 train for St. Leonards; where carriages were waiting

[ 141 }

to convey them to Battle, the object being to pay a visit to the fine
old Abbey, the Duke of Cleveland, the present owner, having
kindly extended the privilege to the Society of allowing its members
and their friends to enter an hour before the general public were
admitted.

Acting as guide to the party, Mr Wonfor (assisted by one of
the gardeners of the Duke) took them into almost every nook
and corner, and fully explained the chief features of the interesting
pile.

Battle Abbey is most closely connected with ournational history,
having been erected by William the Conqueror, in commemoration
of the victory he gained over Harold at the Battle of Hastings,
which decided the fate of the kingdom and completely changed the
whole of its civil and political institutions. The Abbey is erected
on the site of the battle, which gives the name to the town, and in
the grounds still grows an oak, planted on the very spot where
Harold fell. In the oldest documents among the muniments, the
Abbey is called “The Monastery of St. Martin of Bataille;” but
the orthography of the town has undergone many changes. It was
first Battaille, then Bataile, Batayle, Battayl, Battele, Battell,
Battel, and now Battle. What the name of the place was previously
to the Battle of Hastings is unknown; it is uncertain whether it
bore any peculiar appellation, further than that it formed part of
the Hundred of Hailesalted. The privileges enjoyed by the Abbot
were very great, even to baving conferred upon him the Royal
power of pardoning any condemned thief whom he should pass or
meet going toexecution. The Conquerer intended to have endowed
the Monastery with sufficient maintenance for 140 monks, but the
building was not completed at his death, and it does not « sinc
that more than 60 monks were ever on the foundation.

The once sacred edifice is, as a matter of course, nearly
demolished, but much remains to give an idea of its former
magnificence. The gateway, which faces the principal street of the
town, is one of the finest in the kingdom. It is in reality a square
tower, its height being half as high again as its width, with an
octagon turret at each angle. The basement is divided into a
double avenue by clustered columns, the roof being supported by
groined arches, with rooms, two storeys high, over. For a

f 142

monastery, the porch had the extraordinary appendage of a
porteullis, and in the grounds are still standing the ruins of a
guard-room, showing that the Abbey was, at one time, a place of
great importance. The present Abbey shows many specimens of
the styles of architecture in fashion in by-gone ages.

After exploring the vaults of the old Abbey, in some of
which the botanists of the party found seedling hart’s-tongue
ferns in great abundance, the interior of the inhabited portion of
the building was visited. The principal entrance is through a
modern-built Gothic archway, and from the vestibule the great
hall is entered by a pointed arch doorway. This is a very
imposing room, and was originally the Hall of Justice. Its height
is equal to its length, namely, 57 feet; it is 31 feet wide;
and is lighted on one side with a window of seven
lights reaching nearly to the top of the gable, three
large windows being near the entrance. Around the walls,
and high up near the roof, are hung complete suits of armour,
banners, antlers, and other symbols of war and the chase.
Between the wainscoting of the dais (on which there is still the
State chair) and the great south window formerly hung the
enormous picture of the Battle of Hastings—17 feet high and 35 feet
long—which was offered, on loan, not long since to the Corporation
of Brighton. The armour, it was said, included a suit of Guy, Earl
of Warwick. The tapestry alone is worth a visit; and the library
and pictures are very interesting. The vaulted drawing room
attracted considerable attention. This room still retains its
original form. It is believed to be the “locutorium,” a room in
which the monks were allowed to have interviews with their friends;
but its arrangement is considerably altered. The Purbeck marble
columns, Caen stone ribs, and vaulted ceiling of local stone are
painted white and picked out with gold; the spandrils of the arches
forming the sides being filled in with tapestry and mirrors.

On leaving the Abbey, the party adjourned to the Abbey Hotel,
opposite the gate, where they were met by Mr. Henry Willett, who
expressed his regret at not being able to offer them the same hospi-
tality as on the occasion of the Society visiting Findon, some few years

‘since. There he entertained them in his own house, and could doas
he liked, but here he was only a visitor, like themselves. Still, he bid

[ 143 ]

them welcome; and hoped they would partake of whatever the
Hotel afforded, whilst he went on to prepare for their arrival at
Netherfield.

An excellent cold luncheon was spread, and ample justice
having been done it, the carriages were re-entered and a start made
for the Sub-Wealden Explorations, which were reached about two
o’clock. Netherfield is about seven or eight miles from Hastings,
Battle being about mid-way between Hastings and the “ Borings,”
as they are called; and the visit to these proved the most
interesting part of the day’s proceedings. As its name implies,
Netherfield itself lies low; but, after quitting the high-road, the
party went down, down, down, through “ tangled brake and briar,”
till the engine-house of “the borings” was reached. /

A core having been brought up early that morning, the works
were again in full operation; and, as it was found necessary to
lengthen the boring rod whilst there, the whole process was easily
understood; Mr Thornton (the engineer in charge) and Mr. Henry
Willett explaining in the most lucid manner how the auger bored
its way through the earth and brought to the surface the core
which it had cut.

The work is being performed by the Diamond Boring Com-
pany. As a matter of course, the boring is accomplished by the
aid of steam, the driving power being a common portable engine.
The boring machinery is of a simple but very ingenious character ;
in fact, the whole space occupied is only a few feet square. The
depth of the bore was 1,267 feet. The auger is an iron cylinder of
the diameter of the hole to be bored, held in position by two sub-
stantial iron uprights and two cross-beams, through which the
auger (fixed to hollow rods) passes; the rotary motion being given
by means of wheels and a driving band, as seen in ordinary
machinery. To the end of the auger is screwed what is technically
termed a “crown,” but which might be more appropriately called

a “coronet.” It consists of a steel ring, of about 4 inches in width

and half an inch thick; on the outer rim of which is set, in slight
protuberances, half-a-dozen real rough diamonds, a similiar number
being fixed in the inner rim; all set in much the same manner as
the diamonds used by glaziers. Other diamonds are set in the sides
of the crown; but these act only when those in the rim get

’

[ 144 ]

damaged, their function being not to bore, but to prevent the
setting of those which perform the cutting from being worn down
by friction. The diamonds, weighing about two carats each, are of
the value of 24s per carat; consequently, a “crown” is worth about
£40; und the diamonds will bore to a depth of 500 feet before re-
quiring to be re-set. They are set at a slight angle, and, as they
rotate, those on the outer rim cut the hole, whilst those on the
inner rim form the core; the strata through which they pass
rising in a column inside the auger. The top of the auger has
a diminishing socket; that is, it is dome-shaped, into the apex
of which are screwed the boring-rods. These are in lengths
of 3 feet each; and, as the auger descends, so the boring rod is in-
creased in length, by an additional piece being screwed on.
No mechanical pressure is upon the auger, the engine being
required to merely give it the rotary motion, leaving the
weight of the auger and rods to exercise the pressure necessary
for boring. And this is very slight—about 30lbs. only,—but, as the
auger and rods naturally increase in weight as the former goes
deeper, and the latter are added to in number,—at the time of the
visit the weight was between tbree and four tons,—the 30lb. pres-
sure is obtained by counter weights, a balance-beam supporting the
rods at one end, and taking the weights at the other. The crown
of the auger is kept cool by water being pumped to it, the water
returning to the surface after performing the double duty of cool-
ing the crown and rinsing away the debris; its return being effected
by being forced up the inside of the rods by the core rising in the
auger. The flow of water is also an indicator of when the auger
ceases to bore; that is, when it is fully charged with whatever
strata it is boring through. The core of earth rises in the auger
till it reaches the diminishing socket, when it effectually stops the
water rising through the rods, and leaves the crown rotating on the
bottom without cutting, inasmuch as it cannot proceed further in
its downward direction, in consequence of the diminishing socket
resting upon the top of the core. Then comes the process of
drawing the core, and this is a very tedious operation. By revers-
ing the motion of the engine, the boring rods rise instead of
descending, and are unscrewed length by length till the auger
at last makes its appearance. This labour, at the depth of
the boring on the occasion of the visit, occupied about one hour
and a half; the same time being consumed in lowering the auger

[ 45 ]

to recommence work where it had left off. But, how is the core
snapped from its bed, and brought up in the auger? This is done
by a very simple contrivance. A steel wedge, of about nine inches
in length, and an inch and a half wide at the top,—tapering from a
knife-edge at the point, to about half-an-inch thick at the base,—is
fixed inside the auger. As the core rises in the auger, inside of
which it has from one to two inches play, it is pressed on one side
by the wedge; and, being thus thrown out of the upright, readily
snaps asunder, when, resting upon the flanged inside edge of the
crown, it is easily brought to the surface. The auger is 25 feet
long, and brings up about 23 feet of core each time; not all in one
piece, but of various lengths, according to the position in which the
wedge is placed. There is one long piece in the Brighton Museum,
but Mr. Willett showed his visitors a perfect column 7ft. 6in. in
length. As a matter of course, the depth obtained each day varies
with the substance pierced. The limestone has been the hardest,
and the Kimmeridge clay the softest yet found; and the penetra-
tion has varied from a quarter of an inch to two inches and a half
per minute. Numerous difficulties have had to be contended against,
not the least of which has been the fracture of cores caused by
fissures in the strata, when small wedge-like pieces wonld fall
between the core and the inner side of the auger, which, being
gradually choked up, has ceased to rotate round the core itself,
thus giving the boring rods a violent and sudden twist. Another
difficulty met with has been the crumbling of the earth round the
outside of the auger, which has necessitated lining the bore with
tubes, not a very unimportant item in the expenditure. Lining
tubes,—the lengths being screwed and fitted to each other,—had
been put down to a depth of 1,150 feet! the weight of metal alone
being eight tons! and the most successful piece of lining performed
was in putting down 900 feet in 24 hours without an accident.

Some very interesting specimens of the strata gone through—
including one composed entirely of oyster-shells, obtained at a
depth of 1,130 feet,—were shown; and many pieces were brought
away as mementoes of the visit.

Only a few yards from the Sub-Wealden Borings, a shaft has
been sunk by a Company for working, as a commercial speculation,
the gypsum beds which the Exploration Committee discovered; and
a short visit was paid to these works. The sinking of the shaft has

[ 46 ]

reached a depth which brings the works under the Mining Act,
with the clauses of which the Government Inspector had called upon
the Company to comply, such as steening the main opening to the
pit, forming ventilating shafts, &c.; and it is the first work in
Sussex which has ever been brought under the Mining Act. The
gypsum bed bored through by the Exploration Committee is about
50 feet thick, and lies only about 100 feet below the surface. Some
members of the Company suggested putting down a tramway from
the pit te the railway at Battle; but no preparation has yet been
made to construct it; a more prudent idea having, probably, been
mooted and acted upon, viz., the raising of some two or three
thousand tons of the gypsum first, in order that it might be seen
what they had to carry.

The works—both of the Exploration Committee and the
Gypsum Company—lie in a very deep hollow of the wood; so
deep, in fact, that the only thing visible but the works is the blue
sky overhead; and Mr. Willett explained that one great advantage
gained by selecting this site was, that the same stratum was
touched at 1,200 feet which could only have been reached by
boring 3,000 feet in Archer’s Wood, where the boring would have
been at an angle.

There being nearly an hour to spare, the party resolved upon
acting upon Mr. Willett’s suggestion to visit a “petrifying
spring” in the neighbourhood; he undertaking to act as guide.

The visit to the spring took longer than expected; so, rather
later than had been arranged, the party, after partaking, at Mr.
Willett’s invitation, of refreshments at Netherfield Vicarage,
where that gentleman was staying, returned to Hastings by road,
reaching the Swan Hotel, High Street, at a quarter to six, where
they found an excellent repast waiting for them. Mr. Alderman
Cox, the President, presided, Mr. Alderman Mayall and Dr. Ward
occupying the vice-chairs. In consequence of time being so short,
the usual formal speech-making was dispensed with, but the
company did not separate without first drinking the health of the
President, the Hon. Secs., and Mr. Willett, and thanking them for
what they had done for their enjoyment. Hastings was left by
the 7.20 train, and Brighton reached shortly after nine, after a
pleasant day’s outing.

[ 147 J

Jury 8th.

ORDINARY MEETING.—MR. PANKHURST ON
“THE ORES OF IRON.”

The presence of veins of materials in the rocks of the earth
still gave to geology and chemistry some of its most interesting
problems. Whence came all the gold and silver, lead, and iron?
By what agencies were they deposited, and under what conditions,
in the state in which we found them? Why were certain metals
always found associated with the older rocks, others generally with

more recent ones? These were questions which must suggest
themselves to the least observant of travellers, as he journied among
the granitic masses of Cornwall, the bold limestone hills of
Derbyshire, or the gentle uplands of the Yorkshire lias and oolites.
All were acquainted with the now generally accepted theory of the
earth’s origin. Everything tended to show us that it was once
part and parcel of the fiery mass of the sun from whence it was
whirled, itself still a glowing fragment, into an independent
existence of its own. Such being our parentage, it was not strange
to find that we recognised in our parent the qualities which we
ourselves possessed. Of the 64 terrestrial elements, some twenty
had already been discovered in the luminous gases which surrounded
the sun.

And here he must call their attention to the bold and
suggestive line of inquiry recently entered on by Mr. Norman
Lockyer, and which perhaps would eventually answer for us some
of those questions with regard to the metallic veins in the earth’s
crust, with which he commenced his paper. The following was
taken from the inaugural address lately delivered by Mr. Prestwich,
at the University of Oxford :—* If now we turn to the earth’s crust
we find it very generally assumed that the fundamental igneous
rocks which underlie the sedimentary strata, and which formed
1 " originally the outer layers, may be divided into two great masses,
holding generally and on the whole a definite relation one to the
-other—an upper one consisting of granite and other plutonic
rocks, rich in silica, moderate in alumina, and poor in lime, iron,
and magnesia ;*and of a lower mass of basaltic and volcanic rocks
of greater specific gravity, with silica in smaller proportions,

[ 48 ]

alumina in equal, and iron, lime, and magnesia in much larger pro-
portions, with also a great variety of other elements as occasional
constituents; while the denser metals are in larger proportion in
the more central portion of the nucleus. The suggestion of Mr.
Lockyer is that the order follows necessarily from the original
localization of the earths and metals before referred to, by
which the oxygen, silicon, and other metalloids formed, as they
now do in the sun, an outer atmosphere, succeeded by an inner one
consisting in greater part of the alkaline earths and alkalies, then
by a lower one of iron and its associative group of metals, and
finally by an inner nucleus containing the other and denser metals.”

One thing which distinguished iron from all other metals was
its almost universal diffusion through the rocks of the earth. It
was difficult to open our eyes out of doors and not see some tint
which was due to its presence. It was, in fact, the great colouring
matter of nature. It gave the redness to the bricks of which our
houses were built, and the dark purple to the slates of our roofs.
The amber tint of the sands on the sea shore was due to it, and
the ruddy hue of the newly-ploughed field. All the many shades
of yellow, brown, and red, which gave that picturesque tint to the
great rock masses of the earth, were imparted by iron, as well as
the scarlets and crimsons of agate, bloodstone, and cornelia.
Finally, if the red colour of the blood be not entirely due to iron, it
was in some manner intimately associated with it. And yet, not-
withstanding its almost universal diffusion, there were few things
more rare than a specimen of pure iron. A piece of fine pianoforte
wire was as free from impurities as iron was generally made. Thanks,
however, to the kindness of W.C. Roberts, Esq., the Chemist to the
Royal Mint, he had the pleasure of showing them that evening, one
of the very few specimens there were in the world. This was obtained
by electrolysis. On the table they would also see a fine specimen
of a meteor that fell in Mexico, in which the iron was tolerably
pure.

This metal, then, not being known to us native, in what
combinations did it principally present itself to us. Generally
speaking, in union with oxygen. With this gas it combined in
several proportions. The three principal ones were, one of iron and
one of oxygen, two of iron and three of oxygen, and three of iron
and four of oxygen. When a mass of rock contained as much as

————

f 149 |

25 or 30 per cent, of ferric oxide we called it an ore of iron, though
a very poor one, for all metallurgical purposes. These three oxides
differed very largely from one another in many of their properties
and qualities. By a few simple experiments, he could make the
chemistry of this part of the subject clearer to them. The first
oxide was unknown in its free state, but in the precipitate they saw
it in combination with a molecule of water or as a hydrate. In the
tubes he had some very nearly pure iron, which he had prepared
from its oxide by means of hydrogen. The metal was there in a
state of very fine division, He shook it ont on a piece of warm
metal. It took fire instantaneously, and, in burning, became the
oxide known more commonly as rust. The iron had, in fact,
rusted very quickly. In the place of the brilliant metal, we had a
mass of reddish earth. In this solution iron was dissolved in an acid.
The addition of a little alkali would separate the iron from the
acid, and the precipitate was the same oxide as had been produced
by the union of the iron with the oxygen of the air. Once more he
would plunge steel wire into a vessel of oxygen. The iron was now
glowing white hot, and the globule was a compound of iron and
oxygen, in the proportion of three of the metal to four of the gas.
It was very different from the others, being black imstead of red,
and, besides, it was magnetic. But they would, perhaps, ask if these
three oxides formed the basis of all the ores of iron, whence all the
perplexing variety of specimens on the table before them’ The
answer was, these ores differed from one another mainly in the
combinations of the oxides with the elements of water, with carbonic
acid, and with one another.

It would be better, perhaps, to take the specimens in order, and
explain them as he went on, The greenish-grey stone was a
specimen of the celebrated Cleveland iron-stone. It was a protoxide

- of iron combined with carbonic acid. The oyster shell imbedded

in the mass told of its marine formation. It was, in fact, from the

lias. It might give them some little idea of the enormous extent

to which this stone was worked, when he toJd them that, according
to the Government returns, out of the 12,000,000 tons of stone
yaised in Great Britain in 1871, no less than 5,400,000 tons were
from the Cleveland district. It contained about 32 per cent. of
iron. Much of the best Staffordshire ore was also a carbonate, and,

as they would see, resembled in colour, though not in texture, the

[ 150 J

Cleveland. The pretty crystalline variety, called spathic carbonate,
was from the Brendon Hills, in Somerset. It was of great value
for making spiegel-eisen. Lastly, the nodules, stuck in places in
the soft shales of the Yorkshire coast, as if a vessel out at sea had
fired them, instead of cannon balls, were also a carbonate of iron.
Next they came to the beautiful red hematite of Cumberland and
North Lancashire. Of this pure and valuable ore one million tons
were now raised annually in the Cumberland district alone. The
map before them would show them how the hollows and veins in
which it was discovered were scattered over the mountain limestone.
Much of the ore was in a state of fine division, and the kidney-shaped,
fibrous, and crystalline masses were scattered through the softer
earth. It was almost a pure sesquioxide of iron, containing 90 to
98 per cent. of the oxide, or 66 per cent. of the metal. The glittering
particles of micaceous iron were the same substance in the
crystalline form. There was a mass of the crystals from the lava
of Vesuvius, another from a vein of Norwegian quartz, and another
was of the well-known resplendent crystals of the Isle of Elba. They
now came to the brown hematite. The ore was more generally
diffused than the red. The basis of it, however, was the same, the
difference being principally in the proportions in which the
sesquioxide was united with water. The Forest of Dean supplied,
perhaps, the largest quantity of this ore worked in England. It
was also found in Cornwall. Such a specimen as that before them
contained about 86 per cent. of the oxide. The oolites of North-
hamptonshire furnished also large quantities of brown hematite.
The botryoidal mass, the thin shining plates, and the glittering
prisms, were the same substance in a state of crystallization. These
last contained some 11 per cent. of water. Thirdly, and lastly, they
came to those nearly black, or steel grey, ores which, like iron itself,
attracted the magnet and deflected the needle, hence called magnetic
ores. These often contained large quantities of titanic acid. Great
Britain was very poor in these ores, Sweden and Norway very rich.
They were imported in large quantities into England. The best
iron in the world was, perhaps, made from them. They sometimes
contained 72 per cent. of metallic iron.

They now came to the next important part of the subject—in
what manner were those ores of iron deposited in the rocks of the
earth. The vast masses of iron ore in the world occurred in rocks

[ 151 j

of whose aqueous origin there was no doubt. But then they were
met with the fact that iron was insoluble in water, and nearly every
one of its oxides as well. A spring not far from their doors would,
perhaps, help to some extent in solving the problem. He had a
bottleful of the water. It tasted of iron, that showed that the
metal was dissolved in it. But at the bottom of the bottle they
would perceive certain red grains. This was, to all purposes, iron
ore—a red hematite. How was the iron dissolved in the water?
The answer was, by the agency of the carbonic acid contained in it.
When, as in the well, the water came in contact with the atmos-
phere, the carbonic acid escaped and the iron was deposited as a
sesquioxide. Down in the chalk, in the fissures and hollows where
the water came to supply the spring, were, he doubted not, large
deposits of this red oxide. Here they had, he thought, on a small
scale, what, in times gone by, went on on a large one. Look at
that map of the hematite district of Cumberland and Lancashire.
Those red marks on the map told you where were the fissures
and hollows in the mountain limestone, in which the hema-
tite ore was found. The hematite which filled the deposits
resembled a huge chemical precipitate. For the most part, the ore
consisted of minute particles, generally not very firmly connected,
and of a soft nature, in which larger and harder pieces were
imbedded. Where on the map the red marks were thickest,
there the strata had been much dislocated, and _ there,
consequently, the hollows and fissures were more numerous.
Given a carbonate of iron, or carbonic acid, ad libitum, and the
difficulty of accounting for those vast masses of oxide of iron was at
any rate lessened. Yet, although we could not see our way clearly
to account for this enormous quantity of carbonic acid which was
in combination with iron, yet we must remember that this gas
formed a large proportion of primary, secondary, and tertiary rocks.
The lias rock, which furnished nearly one-half of the twelve
-tuillions of tons of iron ore raised in great Britain, was carbonate.
The rich black-band ore of Scotland was also a carbonate. The
Cleveland stone was associated with animal remains, the black-
band with vegetable. Had we any evidence to show us how living
beings could aid in the deposition of iron? Assuredly we had.
He learnt from the official report of the Swedish Chamber of
Commerce that 13,476 tons of lake ore were obtained in 1870. “ This
is found as a deposit at the bottom of shallow lakes, from which it

is dredged up; this peculiar ore is formed by the action of micro-
scopic organisms, which extract the iron from the water in which
it is held in chemical solution; the bottoms of these lakes pertain
to different owners, and are divided into sections, which are
alternately dredged after an interval of some years’ repose, during
which the iron oreagain accumulates.” If so large a quantity of ore
as that stated above could be raised over a small area, and ina
comparatively short space of time, what must be the amount which
huge Jakes and long centuries of repose would afford ?

He would now call their attention to the fine crystals before
them in a mass of quartz from Norway, and tbe same substance in
a block of lava from Vesuvius. They might ask how he reconciled
the crystals in lava with an aqueous theory of deposition. He
answered that Mitscherlich had shown that the substance forming
these crystals had not been subdued by the action of intense heat,
but generated by contact at a high temperature of the vapour of
water and that of sesquichloride of iron. The presence of these
crystals in quartz was strong evidence of the part which water
has played in the genesis of the rock itself. Even the magnetic
oxide which they saw, formed by the union of iron with oxygen,
with the production of an intense heat, could also be obtained from
a solution of iron. The problems, however, connected with his
subject, were still many and perplexing, but the light seemed dawn-
ing on us by degrees; and now that astronomy, geology, and
chemistry, alike brought their forces to bear upon the subject, the
time could not be far distant when we shall see clearly, where now
we but dimly groped our way.

On the motion of the President, Mr. Alderman Cox, a vote of
thanks was accorded to Mr. Pankhurst for his paper, and the
trouble he had taken in illustrating it by experiments.

Before the conversation on the paper was opened, the
CHAIRMAN suggested that, in order to facilitate discussion on
subjects treated before the Society, short syllabuses of the papers
read should be published on the notices convening the meetings. It
was decided that the suggestion should be acted upon, as far as
practicable; that was, that those who could, and had time to, prepare
syllabuses of addresses when they delivered any, should do so, and
the Society would be thankful for them.

_

[ 13 ]

An interesting conversation was then commenced, and carried
on for a considerable time, the Rev. J. H. Cross, Mr. Wonfor, Mr.
W. Saunders, Mr. Sawyer, Mr. F. Phillips, Mr. R. Glaisyer, and
others, taking part in it.

Previous to the reading of the paper, the meeting was informed
by Mr. F. E. Sawyer, that he had found two more mammals since
he read his paper on “ The Birds and Mammals of Sussex,” in April
—namely, Bank vole (arvicola riparia), common in the Weald in
wooded places ; and beach marten (mustela martes), shot in 1826 at
Holmbush, Horsham; making up the total of Sussex mammals to
31.

Mr, SAwveEr also directed attention to a paper read before the
Eastbourne Natural History Society by Mr. Roper, the President,
in which he rather severely criticised his (Mr. Sawyer’s) paper on
“The Mammals and Birds of Sussex.” He prefaced his reply to
the criticism with the explanation that in his paper he gave the
authorities, and the dates and places, relating to the birds mentioned,
while Mr. Roper did not. Notwithstanding this, Mr. Roper found
fault with him for not examining certain books for information
which he had examined; Mr. Roper observed that he had stated
that the Gyr-Falcon was not a British bird, and that he had not
searched the works of Montague, Yarrell, and Selby, which

-wentioned it as such. This he had done, but had also learned that

in two or three museums birds were termed Gyr-Falcons, which
were not so; and that in Harting’s list, published in 1872, and,
therefore, the most recent, the Gyr-Falcon was omitted from the
list of British birds.

The CHAIRMAN characterised indulgence in negative state-
ments, such as those of Mr. Roper, as a very thoughtless practice,
and very false reasoning; and Mr. Wonfor expressed his opinion

that Mr. Sawyer deserved credit for his research and the discovery

he had made with regard to the Gyr-Falcon, and that his reply to

_ Mr. Roper was satisfactory.

[ 154 ]

AUGUST 12th.
ORDINARY MEETING.—MR. T. W. WONFOR ON
“WORK OF THE SOCIETY.”

It would be in the recollection of some of the members of the
Society that in April, 1873, he read a paper before the Society on
the “ Verification of the Fauna and Flora of the County of Sussex,”
in the course of which the following suggestions were made :—

“First, as to the Society collectively—that the Brighton
Society became the conservator and depository of all lists which
might be entrusted to it, from time to time, by its own members,
by other kindred Societies, either in or out of the county, and by
naturalists generally ; the question of publication of such lists, and
in what form, to be determined at some future period, i.e., either by
the Society alone, or by assistance from without.

“Secondly, that it appoint sub-committees, from time to time,
to collate and compare the different lists sent in.

“Thirdly, that it invite the co-operation, in carrying out these
objects, not only of naturalists within the county, but of all who
had been known to work in any particular branch, and especially
to request information respecting new species.

“Next, as to the members individually—that all who had
worked, or were working in any particular branch of Natural His-
tory—should contribute lists, with the approximate localities of all
species of plants or animals they had met, or might meet with, in the
county of Sussex, noting in each case, whether, in their opinion,
the specimens were common, rare, or local, together with any facts
respecting particular districts or localities in the county, in which
each specimen was found, with time of appearance. This would
especially refer to land and fresh-water plants and animals. In
regard to the Marine Flora and Fauna, the times and seasons
when found, should in every case be given, because so little was
absolutely known at present of the times, seasons, and changes of
most marine plants and animals.”

In accordance with a resolution passed at the meeting, the
Committee sent a circular to all societies and known naturalists in

fit Snd |

[ 155 ]

the county, and to those gentlemen out of the county who had been
known to have worked in any particular branch of natural history
in the county. The result up to the present time has been almost
nil, for, except Mr. F. E. Sawyer’s admirable paper on the
“Mammals and Birds of Sussex,” and the Rev. Mr. Bloomfield’s
paper and lists of the Lepidoptera of Guestling, the Committee
had literally received nothing from either the members of this or
any other society. In the meanwhile, Eastbourne had published lists
of the Fauna and Flora of its district, Mr. Roper a separate work
on the Flora of Hastbourne, and the Lewes Society proposed the
publication of lists of their district.

Under these circumstances, he considered it behoved the
society to bestir itself, and see whether some definite plan could
not be adopted by which all the facts known might be brought
together, and so an authentic record be obtained of the Natural
History of the county of Sussex, to which, as the departments
of Meteorology and Paleontology were so intimately connected
with present and past life, these two subjects should be added. The
plan he proposed for the society’s consideration was the appointment
of sub-committees, consisting of three or four gentlemen known to
take an interest in any particular branch, with power to add to
their numbers others, whether in or out of the society, as
corresponding members, each sub-committee reporting periodically
the results of its labours. By this means some definite work
would be accomplished, and, when facts of a sufficiently important
character had been accumulated, steps might be taken for giving to
the world the result of their labours in such a shape as the society
might deem best.

One sub-committee might very fairly take charge of the
Meteorology and Geology of the county. He considered rainfall,
together with atmospheric disturbances, the silting up of the rivers
and the alterations in their channels, would connect meteorology
closely with geology; while the wearing away of the cliffs, the
encroachment of the sea in the one part and its retirimg in another,
_ as physical changes still going on, should receive the due attention
Of this sub-committee, who would also endeavour to make a list of
all fossils reported as found in the county, as well as plans or
sections of any interesting facts brought to light by cuttings or

excavations. The great problem being solved by Mr. H. Willett

[ 156 ]

and the Sub-Wealden Exploration Committee, in the east of the
county, would be a subject for present work; while the magnificent
collection of chalk fossils in the Brighton Museum, made and pre-
sented to the town by Mr. H. Willett, and rightly designated “The
Willett Collection,”—and of which a catalogue was in existence,
would form a nucleus for the formation of a list—and Mantell’s
collection—alas, no longer in the county, but of which information
could be obtained—indicated the direction in which, in his opinion,
a sub-committee taking under its charge the two subjects of
meteorology and geology might very profitably work. The maps
of the county, published by the Survey, and showing the geological
formations, would he of great use to such a committee.

There wes another very important subject which ought to be
entrusted to a separate sub-committee, viz., “The Anthropology
of the County of Sussex,” The functions of the committee would,
he thought, in no way trench upon those of that society whose
annual meeting had been held that day at Lewes, viz., the “ Sussex
Archzological Society,” though some points it might have to con-
sider would be identical with those published in that society’s
collections, which would be of very great service to this committee.

He need scarcely remind the members of the society that many
and different peoples had, at different times, inhabited the county ;
whether under the names of pre-historic Britons, the palwolithic and
neolithic stone-implement-using men, invaders from Gaul, whosettled
on our southern shores, and whose cromlechs or temples, such as
that at Stonehenge, testified to their religious rites and ceremonies.
The so-called god, the “long man” at Wilmington, would be a very
natural subject of inquiry, as to whether it really was what it had
been described, or rather the work of the medieval monks. Good
service had been done by one of their members—Mr Ernest Willett
—by his excavation at Cissbury, the account he gave of which must
be fresh in the memory of the society, who would be glad to hear
his views had been confirmed in a remarkable degree by the excava-
tions of Colonel Lane Fox and others, but still, much more remained
to be done in the county in relation to the period to which Cissbury
as a flint-implement factory, belonged. Then the Romans, with
their four hundred years of occupation, had left many interesting
facts which needed classification and arrangement, so that what
belonged to them, might be separated from the people who preceded

and succeeded them in the occupation of the county. Then there
were the Saxons, different tribes of whom settled in the county and
impressed on it its name, and whose chiefs were rightly or wrongly
credited with giving names to many towns and villages; next they
had the Danes, a very interesting enquiry in connection with whom
might fairly be considered, viz., whether the amber cup upstairs,
the bronze dagger, the stone axe and whetstone found in a barrow
at Hove, were rather the property of a Danish Chief killed and
buried in Hove fields, and not, as had been and was stated, the
weapons and property of a British Chief; and last, though not least,
the Normans, who, like most of the invaders of this island, landed
on the south coast in the county of Sussex, each and all of whom
had left marks and characteristics which ought to be worked out
as a department of Anthropology. If nothing more were done in
this direction, at least what did not at present exist might be
drawn up, viz.,a map of Sussex, similar to that which Mr. Warne
’ has made of the county of Dorset, giving the situation of Druidical

or quasi-Druidical remains, camps, stations, castles, roads, tumuli,

beacons, battle-fields, &c., indicating in each case by different

colours whether they were British, Roman, Saxon, &c., and possibly

out of it might come strength to the hands of those who wished to

a
i
5 [ 157 |
5

conserve our national monuments.

Next came what some might say were more strictly the
functions of a Natural History Society, viz., the Botany and the
Zoology. The first, Botany, ought to have a separate and distinct
Committee, who should undertake both the phenogamic and
eryptogamic flora of the county. The society had published a Moss
Flora, complete as far as our knowledge went when it was published ;
but, by the labours of Messrs Davis and Mitten, additions had been
made to that department. Mr Roper had published the Flora of
Eastbourne this summer, and other gentlemen were writing out
lists of the phenogamous plants. Now, a committee composed of
three or four of their members whom he could name, would be able
to compare, say the London Catalogue, with the labours of others,
_ and add from time to time such, either new or re-discovered plants,
as might from time to time crop up. Perhaps, too, as good a list
of the lichens and alge might be drawn up as of the mosses. One
point he thought this committee should bear in mind. No Flora of
_ the county could be deemed complete which excluded the crypto-
gams.

[ 158 ]

Turning to the subject of Zoology, a little difficulty arose,
because, while the subject naturally divided itself into the verte-
brates and the invertebrates, it would be with the latter that the
greater difficulty would be encountered. Certainly two, possibly
three, sub-committees would be necessary to undertake this work
with anything like satisfaction. Mr. F. E. Sawyer had done so
much to clear the way, by his admirable paper and lists of the
mammals and birds, that very little more than to add new species
and verify recorded ones would have to be done by that section
which took vertebrate zoology. He knew it was foreign to the
subject, but possibly they might include in their labours the
mollusca, i.e., the land and fresh water snails and slugs.

Tf so, then one sub-committee might take the insects and the
spiders, both of which were well represented in the county ; in fact,
few counties of England were so rich in Entomology as the county
of Sussex. There were plenty of entomologists, but the majority
had paid more attention to lepidoptera and coleoptera, but there
were some few gentlemen in Sussex who had devoted considerable
attention to the diptera, &c., and doubtless, their co-operation
might be obtained in so good a work as the verifying and establish-
ing the entomology of the county.

Some might say nothing had been mentioned in respect either
of the Microscopic Fauna and Fauna, nor yet of the Marine, but
the latter would doubtless be taken in hand by the botanists and
zoologists, while it would be a difficult matter to define the limits
of microscopical research. Any way, should the society see fit to
appoint a microscopical sub-committee, the result of their labours
might give an impetus to work with the microscope among those
members of the society who, possessing instruments, did not work
systematically at any branch of enquiry, and who might be stimu-
lated, if a committee took this under its especial care. What he
had briefly stated be considered might fairly be undertaken by the
several committees he had named—viz., Meteorology and Geology ;
Anthropology; Botany; Vertebrate and Invertebrate Zoology. He
threw down these ideas for discussion by the members, and should
the society approve of his suggestions, a modification of them, or
some other plan which would accomplish the same object, he would
endeavour loyally, and to the best of his ability to assist in so good

[ 159 ]

an object as the obtaining a correct record of the Natural History
of the county.

The CHAIRMAN proposed a vote of thanks, remarking that it
was very desirable that they should systematise the society.

Mr. Dennanr regarded the paper as likely to exercise a
wholesome influence over the future work of the society. A large
number of the members were but learners, and he thought the
project was an admirable one for bringing out their powers. It
was quite hopeless to attempt to master all the branches of natural
history, and the best they could do was to form into little
departments for the study of various subjects. It appeared to him
that if this plan were carried out, it would be helpful in every
respect. It would enable their leaders to prosecute their work with
the feeling that they were spending their time and talents to some
real advantage, and the less learned to select a congenial study. He
had often thought how pleasant it would be to work in this manner;
and he knew of no plan so calculated to utilise the whole of the
members. It was desirable that it should be understood that
although accomplished savants were welcome, they were also glad
to have earnest, but comparatively ignorant, workers with them.
The monthly excursions would doubtless be rendered more
interesting and instructive. He fancied it would greatly enhance
_ the enjoyment of them, if some member were appointed to prepare
_and read a short but exhaustive paper on the objects of interest in
the neighbourhood. —

Mr. C. F. DeNNET approved of the suggestion contained in
Mr. Wonfor’s paper, and bore testimony to the value of the society.
They all had an aptitude for some particular pursuit, and it was
_ very important that they should be able to cultivate their respective
_ tastes. He believed, if the plan were followed, it would prove of
great service.

o After a further discussion, in which several members took part,
My. Denner gave notice that, at the annual meeting, he would
_ propose a resolution to the effect that sub-committees be appointed
to undertake the various branches of study indicated in Mr.
~ Wonfor’s paper.

| 160 j

Mr. F. E. Sawyer observed that their studies in anthropology
might induce the Sussex Archeological Society to take more notice
of Brighton, and, perhaps, to hold its next annual meeting there.

AvucGust 26th.
MICROSCOPICAL MEETING.—“ MARINE LIFE.”

The subject announced was “ Marine Life,” but, owing to the
rough weather, no living specimens were forthcoming, and the
members had to content themselves with the slides bearing upon
the subject belonging to the society. Before these were submitted
to view, the honorary secretary (Mr. T. W. Wonfor) stated that
he had received from Mr. T. Curties, Holborn, copies of the
80th and Slst Journals of the Royal United Service Institu-
tion, in which were some beautiful delineations of minute sea-
surface animals in coloured drawings by Mrs. Toynbee, with
instructions to naval officers how to obtain similar collections. Mr.
Wonfor added that either the form of tow net mentioned in
the journal, or that suggested by Mr. Hennah some time since,
might be very usefully employed off the Brighton piers, or
drawn after an ordinary sailing or row boat. Many interesting,
if not new, forms of life would be met with in this way, as well as
the ova of many fishes, which would enable them to watch the

gradual development of life.

After afew remarks from the Chairman (Mr. J. E. Haselwood,
Vice-President), the meeting became a Conversazione, when slides
bearing on Marine Life were examined; among others, specimens of
ooze obtained from the bed of the Atlantic ocean by Dr. Carpenter,

in the Porcupine dredgings.

A very fine grasshopper was also shown by Mr. G. D. Sawyer,
who had caught it the same evening at Cliftonville.

Abbey, H. °
Ardley, W.
Aylen, 8.

Badcock, Dr.
Baldrey, George
Balean, H.

Beavan, J.
Bellingham, C.
Benifold, J. 8.
Bigge, A.

Black, Arthur
Booth, E.

Boxall, W. P.
Bright, E.

Brown, J. H.
Browne, Hon. Howe
Browne, G.
Burford, Rev. F. W.

Busby, R. A.

_ Capon, J.

_ Carpenter, Charles
- Challen, J.

_ Clarke, A.

Clarke, W. T.

Clayton, C. E.

Clowser, J. H.

Cobb, R.

Cobbett, J.

Vi

Burrows, Sir J. Cordy

--—sUIST. OF ~MEMBERS

Brighton and Sussex Hatural History Society,

SEPTEMBER, 1875.

Colling, J. H.
Cooper, T. J.
Corfe, Dr. -
Cox, A.

Cox, A. H.
Creak, A. —
Cross, Rev. J. H.
Curtis, J.
Cutton, T.

D’Alquen, F. M.
Davey, H.
Dawson, Dr.
Day, G. H.
Deane, W.
Dennant, J.
Dennet, C. F.
Dixon, J. L. M.
Dowsett, A.

Eberall, J.

Fisher, A.
Fowler, T.
Fox, O. A.
Friend, Daniel
Friend, D. B.

Glaisyer, J. H.
Glaisyer, R.
Glaisyer, T.

Goss, H.
Gower, H. K.
Gwatkin, J. T.

Hack, D.
Haddock, G. J.
Hadlow, F. V.
Hall, Dr.
Hallett, W. H.
Hallifax, Dr.
Hamblin, E.
Hamilton, C. C.
Harris, E. H.
Hart, E. J.
Haselwood, J. H.
Hauxwell, Dr.
Heald, C. J.
Hennah, T. H.
Henty, W.
Hilton, W.
Hobbs, J.
Holford, F.
Holford, G.
Hollis, Dr.
Hollis, W. M.
Horne, T. B.
Hurst, H.

Image, Rev. J.
Infield, H. J.
Ingle. Dr.
Treland, A.

Jackson, A. W.
Jackson, W.
Jeffcoat, J.
Jeffreys, W., Jun.

Kenyon, J. H.
King, Dr.

[ 162 ]

Knightley, Dr.

Lawler, —

Lee, J. 8.

Lee, W. R.
Leigh, T.
Lethbridge, E. B.
Leuliette, L.
Loader, A.
Lomax, Benjamin
Lomax, O’Bryen
Lucas, A.

Lucas, J. E.

Mahomed, F.
Marshall, E. J.
Massy, Dr. Tuthill
Mayall, J. J. E.
Maydwell, R. L.
Medcalf, E. §.
Merrifield, F.
Merrifield, J.
Millard, W. J. K.
Mills, P.
Mitchell, W. W.
Moore, E.
Morris, J.
Moseley, Rev. T.

Nash, George
Nash, W. H.
Nell, W. T.
Newth, Dr.
Newton, Rev. J.
Nicholls, W. H.
Nourse, W. E, C.

O’Connor, D.
Onions, J. C.

Page, T.

Paine, C.
Pankhurst, E. A.
Parsons, F. C.
Payne, F. W.
Peek, R.

Penley, M.
Phillips, B.

Phillips, F. B. W.

Pinker, H. R.
Pocock, C. J.
Pollard, T.
Pratt, H.
Pugh, Dr.
Puttick, W.

Richards, D.
Ridge, J.

Roper, F. C. 8.
Ross, Dr. .
Rowsell, C. J.
Rutter, Dr.
Sadler, J.H. *
Salt, Rev. F. G.

Saltzmann, F. W.

Saunders, Hubert
Saunders, W.
Savage, W. D.
Sawyer, F. E.
Sawyer, G. D.
Saxby, Mr.
Scott, E.
Shaft, G. T.
Shilbeck, J.
Shillingeford F.
Simonds, T. R.
Smith, C. P.

Smith, Frederick S.

[ 163 ]

Smith, J. P, M.
Smith, T.
Smith, Walter
Smith, W. H.
Stevens, W. G.
Strevens, W. H.
Stride, J. W.

Tainsh, HB. C.
Tatham, G.
Trenchard, J. A.
Tuke, J. K.

Upperton, R., Jun.

Verrall, H.
Verrall, Hugh

Wailes, Dr.
Walker, Captain
Wallis, E. A.
Wallis, M.
Wallis, W. C.
Warden, E.
Ward, S. N.
Waterman, W. H.
Watson, W.
Willett, E. H.
Willett, H.
Williams, H. M.
Wills, James
Wilton, W.
Winter, J. N.
Wonfor, T. W.
Wood, J.

Wood, W. R.
Wood, W. R., Jun.
Woodman, J.

[ 164 J

HONORARY MEMBERS.

Bloomfield, Rev. E. N., Guestling, Hastings.
Clarkson, Rev. G. A., Amberley.

Curties, J., 244, High Holborn, London.
Davie, Dr. W., St. George.

Latham, Dr. K. G., London.

Lee, H., Croydon.

Mitten, William, Hurstpierpoint.

Prince, C. L., Uckfield.

Smith, Professor, Cork.

Stevens, Dr., St. Mary Bourne, Hants.
Ward, J., Clifton, Greata Cottage, Keswick.

[ 165 ]

SOCIETIES ASSOCIATED,

WITH WHICH THE SOCIETY EXCHANGES PUBLICATIONS,

And whose Presidents and Secretaries are ex officio Honorary
Fi /
Members of the Society.

Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club.
Chester Society of Natural Science.
Chichester and West Sussex Natural History Society.
Croydon Microscopical Club.
. Eastbourne Natural History Society.
Folkestone Natural History Society.
Geologists’ Association.
Glasgow Natural History Society.
Lewes and Hast Sussex Natural History Society.
Maidstone and Mid-Kent Natural History Society.
Quekett Microscopical Club.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, U.S.A.

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THE TWENTY-THIRD

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THE TWENTY-THIRD

ANNUAL REPORT
"ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS,

» OF THE

| BRIGHTON AND SUSSEX
NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

ON THURSDAY, OCTOBER 12tu, 1876,

PRICE ONE SHILLING AND SIXPENCE.’

- BRIGHTON :

‘PRINTED BY FLEET AND BISHOP, “HERALD” OFFICE.

1876,
‘

resident
MR. G. D. SAWYER.

Vice-Hresidents :

‘MR. HOLLIS, DR. HALL,
MR. BIGGE, MR. T. GLAISYER,

. HALLIFAX, MR. F. MERRIFIELD,
SIMONDS, MR. HASELWOOD,

. PENLEY, MR. T. B. HORNE,

. GWATKIN, MR. ALDERMAN COX,

. W. E. C. NOURSE, MR, J. DENNANT.

Greasurer :
MR. THOMAS GLAISYER,
12, North Street.

; Committee :

. BENJAMIN LOMAX, MR. J. WILLS, |

. DENNET, MR. ALDERMAN MAYALL,
E. H. WILLETT, MR. A. DOWSETT.

; Honorary Secretaries :
[R. T. W. WONFOR, MR. J. C. ONIONS,
38, Buckingham Place. 56, Middle Street.

Honorary Librarian and @urator:
MR. ROBERT GLAISYER,
The Dispensary, Queen’s Road.

At the Twenty-third Annual Meeting of the BRIGHTON AND
SUSSEX NATURAL HrisTory SOCIETY, held in the Curator’s Room,
Free Library and Museum, Church-street, October 12th, 1876,

IT WAS RESOLVED,-—

That the Report, Abstract of Proceedings, and Treasurer’s Account,
now brought in, be received, adopted, and entered on the minutes, and
printed for circulation as usual.

That the cordial thanks of this Meeting be given to the Honorary
Secretaries, Honorary Treasurer, and Honorary Librarian, for their
labours in preparing the same.

That the following gentlemen be elected as Officers of the Society
for the ensuing year :—President: Mr. G. D. Sawyer ; Treasurer :
Mr. Thomas Glaisyer; Committee: Mr. Benjamin Lomax, Mr.
Dennet, Mr. Ernest H. Willett, Mr. J. Wills, Mr. Alderman Mayall,
and Mr. A. Dowsett. Honorary Secretaries: Mr. T. W. Wonfor and
Mr. J. C. Onions; Honorary Librarian and Curator, Mr. R. Glaisyer.

That the sincere thanks of this Meeting be given to the Vice-
Presidents, Treasurer, Committee, Honorary Secretaries, and
Honorary Librarian, for their services during the past year.

(Signed) JOHN DENNANT,

Chairman.

IT WAS ALSO RESOLVED,—

That the warmest thanks of this Meeting be presented to Mr. J.
Dennant for his able conduct as President during the past year.

REPORT.

In presenting the Twenty-third Annual Report your Committee
have the pleasure of again recording the continued prosperity of
the Society. They deeply regret the loss which the Society has
sustained by the death of two of its Vice-Presidents, viz., Mr. T-
_ Bi. Hennah and Sir J. Cordy Burrows ; the former was one of the
~ earliest Members of the Society, and had always taken a very
active part in promoting its prosperity, and in the diffusion
of scientific knowledge, particularly in those branches of science

a

which depend upon the use of the microscope.

The state of the finances continues to be satisfactory ; the sum

of £4 18s. 4d. remains in the hands of the Treasurer, after
; expending 428 16s. 3d. in the purchase of new kooks and
. periodicals. The number of members has slightly increased during
3 the year. It is also gratifying to the Committee to report that
the Society is becoming much more widely known ; the number of
% similar Societies in correspondence with it, both in this country

and America, has considerably increased.

~

Presentations of the following Books have been received by.

6

the Granitic, Granitoid, and Associated Metamorphic Rocks,
three pamphlets (by J. C. Ward) ; On the Outline of the Flora of
Sussex (by W. B. Hemsley); On Turf Carvings (by Dr. J.
Stevens) ; A Lecture on the Geology of Croydon (by J. Morris) ;
two pamphlets on the Chalk Cliffs of Eastbourne, and of Dorset
and Devon, by W. Whitaker (from their Authors) ; Observations on
the Genus Unio, 7 vols. (by Dr. J. Lea); Materieux pour la
Paleontologie Suisse, by T. J. Pictet, 2 vols. (from Mr. T. David-
son); The Human Race, by L. Figuier (from Mr. C. Paine) ;
Annals of Philosophy, by Thomson and Phillips, 28 vols. (from Mr.
J. H. Glaisyer) ; Two Addresses before the Geological Society of
London, by J. Evans ; Quarterly Journal of Geological Society for
1871; Free Trade (by Cobden Club); Reforme Economique
(1875, 1876); The Coinage of the Ancient Britons (by J. Evans) ;On
Siliceo-fibrous Sponges (by J. S. Bowerbank) ; Geological Record for
1874 (by W. Whitaker) ; On Landslips, by Conybeare and Dawson
(from Mr H. Willett) ; Report of Smithsonian Institution for 1874 ;
on the Zapus Hudsonius and White Tailed Ptarmigan (by Dr. E.
Coues); 2nd Vol. Crustaceous Vertebrata (by E. D. Cope);
Geological Survey of Colorado for 1874 (by F. V. Hayden) ;
Invertebrate Palaeontology (by F. B. Meek); Geometrid Moths,
by A. S. Packard (from F. V. Hayden, Geologist in charge,
Washington, D.C., U.S.A.; Nebraska (by E. A. Curley) and a
Map of the Line (from the Union Pacific Railway Company,
U.S.A.); Memoirs of Peabody Academy of Science; Sixth Annual
Report of ditto ; Check Lists of Ferns of North America, 2 vols. ;
American Naturalists (from Peabody Academy of Science, Salem,
Mass., U.S.A.) ; Annual Reports for 1873, 1874, 1875, of Belfast
Naturalists’ Field Club; Annual Report for 1876 of North

7
Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field Club ; Annual Report for 1875-6
of Chester Society of Natural Science ; Four Parts of Transactions
for 1875-6 of Watford Natural History Society ; Annual Report
and Parts of Journal of Quekett Microscopical Club; Annual
Report for 1875 and Five Numbers of Proceedings of Geologists’
Association ; Two Parts of Proceedings of Natural History Society
of Glasgow ; Annual Reports (10, 11, and 12) of Lewes and East
Sussex Natural History Society ; Annual Reports for 1875-6 of
Eastbourne Natural History Society; Annual Report for 1875
and other Papers of Leeds N aturalists’ Club ; Report for 1875 of
Brighton Free Library and Museum ; Annual Report for 1875-6
of Chichester and West Sussex Natural History Society Four-
teenth Quarterly Report and other Papers of Sub-Wealden Explo-
ration ; Report of Cardiff Naturalists’ Society (from the Secretaries

_ of the Societies).

The following Books have been purchased during the year,
viz. :—Mental Physiology (by Dr. W. B. Carpenter) ; The Octopus
(by H. Lee) ; History of Ferns (by J. Smith) ; Vol. t., Parts 1, 2, 3,
Botany, and Vol. 1., Parts 1, 2, 3, Zoology, and Index to Vols.
26 to 30 of Linnean Society ; Jummoo and Cashmir Districts
(by F. Drew); Geology for Students (by A. H. Green) ;
Animal Parasites (by Van Benenden); Contributions to
Molecular Physics (by J. Tyndall); Climbing Plants (by C.
Darwin) ; Fermentation (by P. Schiitzenberger) ; Notes on Col-
lecting and Preserving Objects (by J. E. Taylor) ; Geology of
England and Wales (by H. B. Woodward) ; The Moon (by E.
Neison); Geographical Distribution of Animals (by A. R. Wallace).
The Geology of Surrey, Petrifactions, Catalogue of Organic

Remains of Sussex; Osteology of the Iguanodon and Hylaeo-

saurus; Fossils; Reptiles of South East of England (by G. Mantell).

The number of the Pooks is now 917, exclusive of unbound
current Periodicals and Pamphlets. The Committee are pleased
to report that the use of books, both by Members and by the
Public in the Reading Room of the Free Library, continues to

increase.

As a new Catalogue was required, the system of arrangement
has been altered, the classification being by subjects, with a list of
the Authors at the end, which plan it is considered will render the
reference to works on a particular subject more convenient.

Members will be able to obtain the new Catalogues on application.

A donation of seven slides, illustrating different varieties of
starch and arrowroot, has been presented to the Society’s Micro-
scopical Cabinet, by Mr. W. H. Smith, and also six slides of
Polycystina, by Mr. Haselwood.

The Conversazione, held on the 29th February, at the Royal
Pavilion, was very successful, a detailed account of it will be found

in the proceedings.

The thanks of the Society are due to those gentlemen who
have read Papers, exhibited objects, or presented specimens or
slides for the cabinet, or photographs or drawings for the Society’s

album.

The Field Excursions since the last Report have been as

follows :—September, 1875, Hayward’s Heath ; October, Worthing ;

4 9
May, 1876, Balcombe ; June, Isfield ; July, Lancing ; August,
i “Steyning ; September, Berwick.

The Annual Excursion took place on the 6th of July to
Petworth.

In concluding their Report, your Committee beg to request’
i. _ the Members to endeavour to promote the prosperity of the Society
4 by bringing its merits under the notice of their friends, by con-
a tributions of works of Natural History to the Library of photo-
# graphs or drawings of objects of Natural History for the album,
and of slides for the Microscopical Cabinet, and particularly by

4 reading ‘Papers during the ensuing year.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

1875-6.

SEPTEMBER 9QTH.

ANNUAL MEETING.--MR. C. POTTER ON “THE
SO-CALLED FOREST BEDS.”

Mr. DENNANT, the President, returned thanks for his election,
and expressed a hope that the progress of the Society during the year
‘just begun would be very real, and that the efforts of the Members
would end in even greater usefulness than hitherto. He also spoke
briefly in favour of very short papers by Members who felt some
diffidence in reading long ones at their ordinary meetings; and
expressed the pleasure he felt in being associated on the Committee
with their two able Hon. Secretaries, than whom they could not find
better were they to search the country through.

Mr. POTTER explained that what he should say would refer
principally to the Cheshire shore, not so much because the beds were
confined to that coast, as because they were seen there to greater
advantage than in any other part of the country. At one time he
believed that the whole of the forestal remains so largely exposed on
the Cheshire shore, and to be found in corresponding beds in nearly
the whole of the marsh lands and river valleys of Great Britain,
Ireland, and in many parts of the North of Europe, germinated, grew,
and decayed, where they were now found; but having accidentally
come upon a small unresinous fir in an undecayed state, underlying
the bole of a large.oak, both of which were firmly embedded in their
surrounding matrix, a doubt at once arose in his mind whether his

II

preconceived opinions were correct. Subsequently, he ascertained that
seldom were two of these trunks to be found lying parailel to each
other, but upon and crossing each other, often at right angles. He
also observed that the roots of the standing butts were as likely to
spread out above these prostrate trunks as below them, and further,
that the standing butts which were embedded in the lower part were
not more than as one to ten of the trunks.

As previous observers appeared now to have noticed these facts,
he determined to examine into and satisfy himself on the subject.
These investigations caused him to change his original opinion ; he
concluded that the whole of the forestal remains found in these beds
drifted from elsewhere. Under any circumstances, the tree-trunks
and boughs must have been covered up where they were now found
by the natural growth and deposition of ee fresh water plants: of
which these beds were formed.

Was it possible to account for these different conditions of sound-
ness, if the fact were excluded that one must have been more decayed
than the other previous to embedding? Strong evidence that the
trees exposed on the surface had not grown and been broken down
where they were now found was afforded by the fact, that of the
hundreds of trees exposed, it was almost impossible to find a prostrate
trunk in such a position near a standing butt as would suggest the
idea that they might have formed one entire tree. Nevertheless, the
smallest roots and branches of these trees were, with their bark and
epidermis, in the most perfect condition preserved in these beds ; and
it should be borne in mind by those who argued that these trees had
lived and died where they were found, that such portions as had
grown above the earth, including trunks, branches, &c., would lie
exposed to the decaying influence of air, moisture, and insects for an
indefinite period of time before they could, from the natural growth
of vegetation from below, and the annual fall of the leaves, &c., from
above, become covered and buried by a vegetable soil.

The tree butts had sunk through water to where they were found,
and the materials of which the beds were made up was gradually
formed by deposition. To his mind one fact was in itself conclusive,
that these trees could not have grown where they were now seen,
The peats being stratified and very finely laminated would give proof
or evidence of the intrusion of a foreign body, and he hesitated not to
assert that it would be impossible for a root in its first stage of growth

12

as a delicate filament to expand with the growth of the tree until it
had attained a diameter of eighteen inches or more and not dispense
with or in any way crush the laminz or stratification above or below.
He believed that it was impossible for a tree, under any circumstances,
to fall where it had grown, and there remain in a comparatively sound
state, whilst a soil derived from the ordinary growth and decay of
vegetation accumulated over it.

SEPTEMBER 23RD.
MICROSCOPICAL MEETING.—“ POND LIFE.”

The President, Mr. J. DENNANT, in the absence of any paper on
the subject of the evening, “ Pond Life,” invited those present who had
brought objects of interest to give an account of them.

Mr. T. W. WONFOR said he had purposed obtaining some
specimens from Lewes, but the weather had been so unfavourable that
he had not been able to do so. He had, however, procured froma
pond on the Furze Hill—which generally proved a fertile source of
supply—what proved, on microscopical examination, to be one of a
very interesting class of creatures, /i/usoria, so-called from the forms
of life found in various infusions. All /zfusorta were at one time sup-
posed to be animals, and Ehrenburg, the great German microscopist,
had taken a red spot which he called the “eye dot” as a mark of their
being so. Many had since been proved to be the early stages of
plants. This particular specimen was known by the name of exg/ena,
and the “ eye dot” was plainly to be seen. Its shape was cylindrical,
and the green nuclei might be observed circulating in its body. Its
form changed as it moved about, and one that he noticed appeared to
have absorbed some particle of some other animal for food. There
was not much doubt that it was a true though very low type of
an animal. The same -pond furnished plenty of cyclops, larve of
gnats, and many vegetable forms.

Mr. T. GLAISYER stated that he had received from a friend an
object picked up from the surface of the sea, some 300 miles from
Singapore, which he had ascertained to be a portion of a vegetable
structure,

!

13

Mr. HASELWOOD observed that he had brought some forms of
life from Hayward’s Heath. From the same place he had carried
away some newts, but they had unfortunately died.

The Meeting then resolved itself into a microscopical one, at
which were exhibited, in addition to the objects already mentioned by
the Members, the following :—

Mr. DENNANT, the President, diatoms and desmids from the
Shoreham marshes ;

Mr. HASELWOOD, a cadis worm and some daphnia ;
Mr. PUTTICK, cyclops, rotiferze, and minute plants ;

Mr, R. GLAISYER, water fleas and wheel bearing animalcuze.

OcToBER 14th.

ORDINARY MEETING.—MR. T. WwW. WONFOR
ON “MANNA.”

“Tn the morning the dew lay round about the host, And when
the dew that lay was gone up, behold, upon the face of the wilderness
there lay a small round thing as small as the hoar frost on the ground.
And when the children of Israel saw it, they said one to another, It
is Manna ; for they wist not what it was.” Over this word manna,
_ and what it was, there had been great differences of opinion. He

_ did not purpose entering into any question of a controversial character,

nor yet to raise any doubt respecting the miraculous production of .
food for the Israelites during their wanderings in the desert ; but to
indicate first what natural productions had at different times been
_ considered to approach in resemblance the nearest to the Scripture
food, and then to show that even now a substance was found, a
_hatural growth, which corresponded with the description given in the
Mosaic account.

But first there was a difference of opinion in regard to the term
Manna; some asserted that, as the word man means ‘‘ what is it?” it
derived its name from the exclamation of surprise uttered when the
_ substance was first seen. It has been urged against this derivation
that the use of the term Manna in the New Testament as a substance

14

militated against this derivation ; but this seemed of little account, for
though a mere exclamation in the first instance, by usage it became a
term applied to a material substance. Others derived the name from
Manah, a gift, others from Minah, to prepare, and others from Munahon,
“provision for a journey.” It seemed to him that the first was the
simplest and most natural derivation, and agreed with the evident
surprise with which the Israelites first saw the (to them) new food.

Those who had written about Manna divided themselves, as it
were, into two groups, viz., those who took it literally to be a substance,
which fell like dew from heaven, z.2., the atmosphere, and those who
considered it a vegetable production or a plant itself’ Among those
who affirmed that the Manna of Holy Writ was a species of con-
densed dew or honey, they had Salmasius, who said that the Manna
of the Israelites was only a species of honey, identical in its nature
with wild honey, which supplied food to St. John in the wilderness
and that the miracle did not consist in the production of any new
substance, but in the abundance and in the regularity in which it was
dispensed for the maintenance of so vast a host.

The idea of Salmasius was sustained by Atlian in his work, De
Natura Animalium, where he described a natural phenomenon in
India. ‘In India, and particularly in the country of the Prasii
(who extended through the richest part of India, from the Ganges
to the Punjaub), it rains liquid honey, which, falling on the
grass and leaves of reed, produces wonderfully rich pasture for
sheep and oxen ; the cattle are driven by the herdsmen to the
spots where they know quantities of this sweet dew have fallen.
The animals enjoy a rich banquet on these pastures, and furnish very
sweet milk. There is no necessity to mix it with honey as the Greeks
do.” Athenzus, quoting from Amyntas, who wrote an Indian
itinerary, says, Amyntas, in his first book, speaking of the honey from
the atmosphere, writes thus : “ They collect it with the leaves, making
it into the form of a Syrian cake ; some make it into the form of a ball ;
and when they wish to enjoy it, breaking off a portion, they melt it in
wooden cups called tabetiz, and after they have passed it through a
sieve, drink it. It is much like diluted honey, though somewhat
sweeter.”

In Italy, especially in Calabria, during periods of excessive heat,
drops of a honey-like substance fall to the ground, and are called by
the inhabitants manna. This substance, of a sweetish glutinous

15

flavour, suddenly appearing on the leaves of plants, was asserted to
stop their growth and act injuriously on the plants. Such leaves were
spoken of as “ Foglie ammanate” (leaves affected by manna). They
used a similar term of grapes which have acquired a peculiar flavour
when covered with the same substance as “ Vino ammanato.”

He would take next the vegetable productions described as
Manna. On this latter subject there were many writers, but one of
them, Buckhardt, in “ Notes on the Bedouins and Waliabys,” when
speaking of Wady-el-Shiekh, to the north of Mt. Serbel, says, “ In
many parts it was thickly overgrown with the tamarisk or farfa. It is
from this ¢avfa that the manna is obtained ; and it is very strange that
the fact should have remained unknown in Europe till M. Seetzin
mentioned it in a brief notice of his tour to Sinai, published in the
Mines del Orient. This substance is called by the Arabs Mann, and
accurately resembles the description of the Manna given in Scripture.
In the month of June it drops from the thorns of the tamarisk upon
the fallen twigs, leaves, and thorns, which always cover the ground
beneath the tree in the natural.state ; the Manna is collected before
sunrise, when it is coagulated, but it dissolves as soon as the sun shines
upon it. The Arabs clear away the leaves, dirt, &c., which adhere to
it, boil it, strain it through a coarse piece of cloth, and put it into
leathern skins ; in this way they preserve it till the following year, and
use it, as they do honey, to pour over their unleavened bread, or to dip
their bread into. I could not learn that they ever made it into cakes
or loaves. The Manna is found only in years when copious rains
have fallen ; sometimes it is not produced at all. I saw none of it
among the Arabs, but I obtained a piece of last year’s produce at the
Convent, where, having been kept in the cool shade and moderate
temperature of that place, it had become quite solid, and formed a
small cake ; it became soft when kept some time in the hand, if placed
in the sun for five minutes ; but when restored to a cool place it
became solid again in a quarter of an hour. In the season at which
the Arabs gather it, it never acquires that degree of hardness which
allows of it being pounded, as the Israelites are said to have done
(Numb. xi. 8.) The colour is dirty yellow, and the piece which I saw
was still mixed with the tamarisk leaves ; its taste is agreeable, some-
what aromatic, and as sweet as honey.”

This ann, or manna, which was said to drop from the Tamarix
mannifera, was said by some not to exude from the tree, but to be

16

formed by an insect which abounded on the tamarisk. Others affirmed
that an insect, a coccus, punctured the tree, that the juice exuded and
dropped on the ground as described, and that the dissolving after sun-
rise was simply the evaporating of the fluid part of the exudation,
There was another substance known by the name of manna, and com-
monly employed in medicine. This was merely a sweet condensed
juice of certain plants, but especially obtained from an ash tree,
fraxinius rotundifolia, a tree indigenous to Italy and the south of
Europe, and found growing abundantly without culture in Calabria,
where collecting manna was a regular trade, commenced about the end
of July.

The gatherers of manna made a horizontal cut in the trunk of the
tree, and on the following day a second cut was made, into which the
point of amaple leaf was fixed, while the stalk part was placed in the
first slit, thus forming a kind of cup to receive the exuding juice.
Sometimes they applied thin straws to the incisions, or pieces of twig,
on which the manna ran as it exuded, and so formed tubular pieces,
which were called Manna in Cannoli, and fetched a higher price than
that collected on leaves. The season for collecting manna was over by
the end of August. At one time, manna from Syria was in request,
but the Calabrian was thought better. In Mexico, a manna was
obtained which seemed to take the place of cheese, while in other
places a manna was eaten much in the same way as honey. There
seemed to be some relationship between these so-called mannas and
some of the sugars obtained by making incisions in the trunks of trees,
notably in the case of sugar maple. It was a well-known fact that the
juices of many trees and plants when made to exude, in a somewhat
similar way, did on the evaporation of the watery particles produce
substances akin to but differing from manna in their qualities and
properties.

In the year 1849, Mr. Giles Munby read a paper before the British
Association at Birmingham, on the “ Botanical Productions of the
Kingdom of Algiers,’ in which he called attention to a lichen,
L. Esculentus or Lecanoru esculenta, as it was now named, which he
considered agreed more nearly than any other substance hitherto dis-
covered with the description of the manna on which the Israelites fed
during their wanderings in the desert. He mentioned that this lichen,
which was found on the sands of the desert, sprung up during the night
much in the same way as mushrooms, That during an expedition to

17

the south of Constantine, the French soldiers made bread of it and

cooked it in various ways, actually subsisting on it for several days. In
. Science Gossip for 1872, at page 60, was given a description of this
: curious plant, specimens of which had been presented to the Museum
| by the gentleman, T. B. W., who furnished the material for that article
; and articles in subsequent numbers, 1872, p. 186; 1873, p. 118 ; and
; 1875, p- 146. From these it appeared Pallas figured and described
. this plant in 1776, and said “it occurs in the very driest limestone of
7 the Tartarian desert, scarcely distinguishable from small stones.

except by the expert.”

The specimens before them were collected at Reboud Djelfa, in
the desert of the Great Atlas Chain, and were about one-fifth the size
of those figured by Pallas. Berkeley mentioned that, lying loose on
the ground without any attachment, it was easily rolled along by the
wind, and sometimes piled together in layers several inches thick, and

that at times being carried up by whirlwinds, it was showered down on
the ground. One such shower fell at Erzeroun during a time of great
scarcity, and afforded very opportune relief to the inhabitants.
Lindley, in his Vegetable Botany, speaking of Z. Esculentus, says “ it
sometimes appears in immense quantities in Persia, Armenia, and
_ Tartary, where they are devoured by the natives, who fancy that they.
must fall from heaven, not knowing how to account for the prodigious
numbers of the plants, of the origin of which they are ignorant.”
Parrot says that “in some districts of Persia they cover the ground to
the depth of five or six inches,” and Eversman, who had an opportunity
_ of studying it, was convinced that even in its earliest stages, the plant
had not the slightest attachment to a grain of sand.

Another fact in connection with Z. Esculenta and L. Affinis was,

that, instead of being produced at uncertain intervals and only during
a few months, it was produced during the whole year. It appeared
_ from an article by Dr. Ruke, reprinted in the Pharmaceutical Journal
for September, 1860, that Z. Esciwlenfa was presented to the Academy
of Sciences in 1828. The lichen was described as being of a fawn
colour, granulated, composed of broken crusts, which had fallen in the
neighbourhood of Mount Ararat, and which a Russian Generai of the
; Persian army had given to M. Thénard, who presented it to the
Academy. It seemed this lichen dried up during the summer in the
_ Mountains, and was transported by the winds to great distances ; this

18

led the inhabitants to say the grain had fallen from heaven. Sucha
shower fell in 1845, in the Crimea, and covered the ground to the
depth of three or four inches, and was used as food by the inhabitants
for several days.

Wherever this lichen occurred in any quantity men and cattle eat
it. In Asia Minor also it soinetimes formed beds several inches thick,
on which not only the sheep were nourished, but a species of bread
was made from it, and consumed by the poor, who regarded it as true
manna sent from Heaven. There was one fact in connection with
lichens generally, all contained nitrogeneous matters and starch, and
many kinds were used as food.

It was often argued, and especially by a writer in the Dictionary
of the Bible, that the manna of Scripture was wholly miraculous, and
not in any respect a product of Nature. All the plants mentioned
did produce the so-called manna for only a few months : but these
lichens might be gathered all the year round. The lichens again were
produced in large quantities, but not, as he states, at the rate of
15,000,000lbs. a week, which quantity might, by Divine agency,
assuming a lichen to have been the manna of Scripture, have been
produced by increasing the growth without depriving the plants of
their character as natural products.

Another difficulty which had puzzled many was the fact that the
manna collected on the sixth day “did not stink” on the Sabbath,
though that collected on other days and kept over did; but it seemed
the injunction, “ Bake that ye will bake zo-day, and seethe that ye will
seethe,” showed how by the process of cooking decomposition was
arrested. He could quite understand that this very lichen, gathered
in large quantities while the dew was on it, and heaped up damp and
moist, would decompose, ferment, and deteriorate. The fact that the
Israelites were supplied with manna for forty years, that a double
quantity fellon the sixth day, and that it ceased when their wandering
ended, placed its production among the miracles of Divine ageney
without taking away from it the character of being a natural pro-
duction, created only when first seen by the children of Israel, and
no longer existing as a part of the scheme of the life of the globe.

Of all the substances hitherto assumed to be the manna of

Scripture, this Z. Esculenta seemed to approach the nearest, in its
being produced all the year round, being round and hard, able to be

19

pounded and converted into bread, appearing in large quantities, as if
from Heaven, while all the others were found only at certain seasons,
and did not in so many respects correspond with that described in
Holy Writ.

The President, Mr. J. DENNANT, proposed a vote of thanks for
the paper, and, in inviting discussion, said that neither religion nor
politics were allowed to be discussed.

Mr. G. D. SAWYER said that thouch religion was not to be dis-
cussed, the Scriptures had been appealed to, and he should like to ask
how, if they accepted the fact that the manna could not be found on
the seventh day, they could still believe that it was a natural produc-

tion. To his mind it was a convincing proof, if they accepted the

fact that it was not found on the seventh day, that it was not a natural
production.

Mr. WONFOR replied by asking Mr Sawyer if he ever went out to
gather mushrooms, because if he had, he must have noticed, that
where none could be found one morning, there would be abundance
the next.

Mr. SAWYER : Every seventh day ?

Mr. WoNFOR said he did not intend to lead to questions of that
kind. It would be equally a miracle to produce a natural substance

in more than its natural abundance, and for longer than its natural

period, as to create an entirely new substance. In the chapter that
contained the account of the manna, was also an account of that
wonderful production of quails. That was one reason why, with all
deference to the opinions of others, and with the most reverent
feeling, he suggested the possibility of a substance already in existence
being produced in double quantity.

Mr. G. D. SAWYER mentioned it with no feeling, but as in a
scientific discussion. He could not take it to bea natural substance
if it could not be found.

Mr. WonFror: It was only recorded that they went out one
Sabbath day and could not find it. It did not say that they ever
“went out again and could not find it.

Mr. C. F. DENNET expressed dies great pleasure he had felt in

: listening to the paper, especially after the proceedings of the week at

the Social Science Congress, It was an agreeable purging of their

20

minds of the intellectual stuff that had been crammed into their
mouths ; and he felt specially delighted, and thanked Mr. Wonfor for
the information he had afforded on the subject.

Mr. DowsETT pointed out that the manna previously found could
not have been the manna eaten by the children of Israel, inasmuch
as it was not nutritious ; and was also slightly purgative.

NOVEMBER 4TH.

ORDINARY MEETING.—DR. HALLIFAX ON “THE
NERVOUS SYSTEM.”

In introducing to the Members for their discussion “The Nervous
System and its Functions,” he would remark that, although the subject
might appear almost a professional one, it was, to his mind, one which
was of great importance to every student of scientific matters.

The knowledge of early physiologists had been very vague and
indefinite with regard to the nervous system, and it had only been
within the last hundred years that any great advancement had been
made on the general observations of those who had in earlier ages
bestowed their attention to the system of nerves with which all the
members of the animal kingdom were endowed, or that the knowledge
that had been gained had been placed before the public in the manner
which it merited.

To Dr. Bell, among others, who had thrown much light on the
functions of the nerves, the greatest praise must be bestowed. But,
though he and other physiologists who had since devoted their time
and talents to the study of this particular branch of physiology had
laid such great results before the scientific students of modern times,
there were yet many problems to be solved, and much to interest the
general observer. The nerves which proceeded from the cerebro-
spinal axis, as it was named, in all the higher forms of animals formed
the wonderful apparatus which by a rare development presented us
with the glorious phenomena of the great minds of a Shakespeare, a
Bacon, or a Newton. ;

2I

The spine was the seat of the motive power of the many passions
which we possessed, some good enough to obtain the approval of
Heaven, and others bad enough to have their origin in “another
place.” These passions, impulses, and emotions were all put in motion
and guided by the action of the nerve trunk, which consisted of a
number of fibres running parallel with each other and the ganglia,

_ or knots which the fibres and nerve cells formed at particular points
in the cerebro-spinal axis. These gazg//a were united in one superior
ganglion, which in the higher animals was situated immediately
beneath the brain, which surmounted it. The nerve cells were called
globular, but, as a matter of fact, the prolongations proceeding from
them made the form stellate,

The ganglia were connected with each vertebra by two distinct
and separate fibres, one of which was named the sentient and the
other the motive nerve. These had two separate, although similar,
functions, and in many respects bore an analogy to the phenomena
presented by the electric telegraph. As in the telegraph, two wires
were required for the efficient performance of the work, so two fibres
were required to sustain the nervous force in its integrity. And as
the telegraphic apparatus required stimulating by a relay of electric

_ batteries, so was the amount of nervous energy supplemented by the
ganglia or knots which occurred at intervals throughout the system.

The simpler the animal in construction, the more simple the

nervous system. For instance, in the case of the ascidians a single

_ ganglion only was required to perform the offices required, and this

single ganglion was typical of the more elaborate nervous system of
the higher animals.

The motions produced by these nerves were quite involuntary, and
must in their consideration be kept quite distinct from the actions in
which the will was brought to bear; the ejection of matter from the
interior of one of the ascidians being precisely the same as the ejection
__ of a crumb or other foreign matter from the throat of a human being,
- for the latter could not help the violent action which naturally took

Place to free the body from the pain and danger attending the lodg-
ment of such foreign matter in the throat. .

In the case of the articulata, the number of geng/iz corresponded
with that of the articulations, so that each segment of an insect was
_ provided with its own ganglion. In the higher animals the ganglia

22

were united at the base of the brain, and thus the whole of the nervous
system was placed in direct connection and communion with the seat
of the intellectual and mental powers. «

At the PRESIDENT’S suggestion, Dr. HALLIFAX consented to
continue the subject at the next ordinary meeting.

NOVEMBER 25TH.

MICROSCOPICAL MEETING.—MR. T. W. WONFOR ON
“ POLYCYSTINA.”

Almost every microscopist possessed a slide or slides marked
“ Barbadoes Earth,” or “ Polycystina,” and many only regarded them
as beautiful and exquisite objects, without, possibly, considering what
they were or what the nature of the organism, whether animal or
vegetable, which originated these beautiful crystal-like forms of almost
every conceivable shape.

If we turned to the manuals on the microscope, we found that
they were the minute siliceous shells of a class of animals, whose living
part or substance consisted of a brownish coloured “ sarcode,” some-
what resembling that met with in the protean animal, the amceba,
“4 little particle,’ as it had been said, “ of apparently homogeneous
jelly, changing itself into a greater variety of forms than the fabled
Proteus, laying hold of its food without members, swallowing it without
a mouth, digesting it without a stomach, appropriating its nutritious
material without absorbent vessels or a circulating system, feeling (if
it has any power to do so) without nerves ; and not only this, but in
many instances forming shelly coverings of a symmetry and complexity
not surpassed by those of any testaceous animals.”

That was actually what the Polycystina accomplished, being mere
lumps of savcode. They spun, or wove, or, at least, formed for them-
selves coverings resembling the most costly and delicate filigree-work,
rivalling in beauty Chinese carvings in ivory, or ancient Peruvian or
modern Indian or Maltese silver filigree, out of a substance less work-
able or ductile, but infinitely more beautifu', than ivory or silver--

—

23

namely, silex, extracted, in some way at present unexplained, either
from their food or the element in which they lived—the sea. These
exquisite habitations were perforated to allow for the extrusion of
the pseudo-podia, as they were called, to be sent out in all directions
to collect whatever was needed for nutriment or continuing the build-
ing up of their habitations.

They were not confined, as was once thought, to fossil forms and
periods, but were to be dredged up living in the Mediterranean, the
North Sea—notably off Cuxhaven—the Pacific, and the Atlantic ; yet,
though the greatest care had been used in drawing them up through
the water, the mere friction or pressure generally caused the pseudo-
podia to shrink and collapse. According to Dr. Carpenter, the sarvode
substance did not always fill the shell, often occupying only the upper
part, and showed a tendency toa regular division into four lobes.
Some of the shells were spheres with smaller spheres like Chinese
balls within them ; these spheres were often connected by radiating
rods, sometimes prolonged into very delicate spines. Some of the
globes had lesser globes attached to them, with ovoid or conical pro-
longations ; others were star-shaped, with the spaces between the rays
filled in with a most beautiful network.

Although they were almost as widely distributed and quite as
varied in their form as the foraminifera, yet they must in past times
geologically have been more numerous, as we found whole rocks com-
posed of their shells, mingled with the siliceous valves of diatoms ;
thus the chalks and marls of Sicily, Greece, and Oran, in Africa, and
the diatomaceous deposits, many feet thick, in Bermuda and Richmond
(Virginia), contained them in great variety ; but the great source of our
supply was from Cambridge and Chimborazo, in the island of Barba-
does, where immense masses of a chalk-like rock were found, composed
almost entirely of the siliceous shells of Polycystina. A supply of this
rock containing most lovely forms, had been sent by their kind friend
and member, Mr. T. Curties, of Holborn, for distribution that evening,
and he had also sent a couple of slides prepared by Topping and Cole,
_ from the same deposit, with a hope that some of the members might
be incited to emulation, and produce slides as good.

Those who wished to prepare the material would find an account

a how best to manipulate it by Mr. Furlong, in the first volume of the

___ “ Miscroscopical Society's Transactions” (new series), or in “ Davis

24

on Microscopic mountings and preparation.” They should be mounted
dry, or in balsam, and viewed as opaque or transparent objects, and
with the spot lens or paraboloid. There was a method of giving them
an enamel-like opacity by burning them on platinum foil, but whatever
method of mounting or illumination was adopted, all who had scen the
Polycystina under the microscope must allow they were very beautiful
and delicately sculptured objects, while the question how the creatures
whose shelis they were, constructed such charming habitations,
remained among the, at present, unsolved problems of Natural History.

The Meeting then became a Conversazione, when some exquisite
and beautiful specimens of Polycystina were exhibited under the
microscope.

DECEMBER 9th.

ORDINARY MEETING.—DR. HALLIFAX ON “ THE
NERVOUS SYSTEM AND ITS FUNCTIONS.”

( Continuation).

Dr. HALLIFAX said, at the last meeting he endeavoured to trace the
different gradations of the nervous system, as they appeared through-
out the series of animals, beginning at the lowest ; and his object was
to show that, as they ascended, the complexity of the nervous system
kept pace with the complexity of the animal organization, and was
not only developed on the introduction of a new organ, but even on
the exaltation of an organ already existing. The insect tribes
approached nearer than any other of the series to the mammalian ;
and, by way of illustration, he would select one of the social insects, a
bee or a wasp, as denoting in its action the exercise of an intelligent
principle. In the higher forms of insects was found the cerebro-spinal
axis, the great central organ, consisting of the spinal cord and the
cerebrum. In man the cord was of great length, proceeding from the
cerebrum down to the lower portion of the frame, sending off, on each
side, throughout the system, thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves. Each

25

two of these nerves were contained in one sheath, although fulfilling
entirely different functions; one at the posterior ministering to the
purposes of sensation, and the other, at the anterior, ministering in
response to the contraction of the corresponding muscles.

Next, they approached that important doctrine which was called
the ‘excito-motor ”—the sensory nerve conveying the impression from
without to the ganglionic matter, which impression was responded to
by a mysterious action in the motor, or those nerves the filaments of
which supplied the muscular system that holds throughout. If they
examined the ventral cord of the higher insects,—so called from being
found in the ventral region,—two cords could be distinctly traced ;
and these were knotted into ganglionic little cells. Going on to the
thorax of insects, to which were fixed the legs and wings, they all knew
the remarkable activity of those limbs,—they found the ganglia agegre-
gating together to provide due energy for them. Advancing: to the
cephalic ganglion, there was a still further enlargement and evolution °
of this nervous matter, it being the neighbourhood of that wonderful
organ, the insect’s eye. It was under the guidance of visual impres-
sions that almost all the movements of insects were performed and
controlled, and thus they would observe how the proportion was kept
up between the ganglionic centre and the organ it supplied,

With regard to this double cord in the insects, it was remarkable
that, in the embryonic stage of the human form, the spinal cord had
also two distinct lines, so that, in the former, they had an element of
what was the commencement of the human spinal cord; while the
sensorium of the human brain corresponded with the cephalic ganglion
of the insect. In insects, the reflex action was automatic, all the
operations going on by virtue of the creature’s structure, without the
interposition of an intelligent principle, the majority of the actions of

the social insects being thus explained.

7 It was the same in the human brain ; but here they had the
_ Superadded organ, the cerebrum, the material instrument of thought

and will; and the degree of intelligence and self control corresponded
__ to the degree of development of that organ. It consisted of the

_ medullary matter, which was invested on its outer surface with a layer
_ of ganglionic cells, called cineritious, the medullary matter itself being
_ composed merely of nerve fibres, connected with the cortical substance
and the sensorium, From the sensgorium radiated fibres going to the

26

convolutions of the brain, these fibres being in two sets ; one carrying
an impression upwards to the cortical substance, the force returning by
the other to the motor part of the sensorium. The cineritious layer
was made up of vascular members by which the great part of the
circulating fluid was conveyed to the cortical substance, and the whole
action of the brain was dependent upon that supply.

As showing the importance of this, it might be mentioned, it had
been established that, although the brain was estimated at a 45th part,
by weight, of the entire body, these arteries, conveying blood to the
cranium for the purposes of the brain, were actually one-fifth of the
whole circulating mass ; and although there were four principal vessels
conveying arterial blood into the cranium, encircling it and branching
off to supply the whole external surface of the brain, they were so
powerful that one was sufficient to keep up the circulation in a subdued
degree.

With regard to the cerebellum, it was little understood ; but the
theory had been propounded that it controlled the reproductive system.
The whole brain was divided into two hemispheres, united by a band,
in order to give them a harmonious co-operation ; and it was a curious
fact that, in some instances, where this connection was greatly deficient,
the person lacked foresight, and was utterly unable to act upon
experience. Before resuming his seat, Dr. Hallifax said the subject he
had endeavoured to deal with was a great and complex one. He had
given a brief outline of what he had thought worthy their consideration,
and he recommended those who sought further information to study
Dr. Carpenter's book on “ Mental Physiology.”

The President, Mr. J. DENNANT, conveyed the best thanks of
the meeting to Dr. Hallifax for his interesting lecture, remarking that
no Member of the Society was so competent to deal with the physiology
of the nervous system as the eminent doctor who had addressed
them.

A discussion followed, in which the ex-President, Alderman Cox,
Mr. J. E. HASELWOOD, Mr. WONFoR, the PRESIDENT, and Mr.
DENNET took part. The interest of it centred in the automatic
action or otherwise of the nervous system, as laid down by Dr. Hallifax,
and opinions varied on the point ; Alderman Cox holding that the
different functions developed a certain mental activity which produced

27

a certain effect on the muscles; while the President expressed his
opinion that problems were often worked out by the brain automatically
and without any mental exertion.

JANUARY 13th.
ORDINARY MEETING.—MR. C. P. SMITH ON “ BEES.”

The bee was an insect consisting of a head, thorax, and abdomen,
united by cylinders which were at times so reduced as to make it
wonderful how the minute nervous cord passing through it was able to
control all the functions of the organs of sensation and motion. The
head was the most important section, and carried the antennz, the
compound eyes, the simple eyes, and the organs of the mouth. The
antennz, or feelers, were variously constructed, being sometimes
straight and at other times curved, or like a string of beads. In a
wild bee the integument of the antennz was of a hexagonal structure.
The antennz had been supposed to be organs of smell and also of
hearing, but this was by no means certain; they were, however, in
constant motion, and were frequently protruded into a flower before the
insect entered, for the purpose, apparently, of ascertaining its fitness.
The fact of a special apparatus for the purpose of cleaning them
would also show that Nature had attached great importance to them.
On each side of the head were the large compound eyes which varied
in the various genera, and consisted of a number of small hexagonal
facets, each one having its own branch of the optic nerve. The use

of these compound eyes was supposed to be the examination of near

objects. On the crown of the head were the three stemata, or
simple eyes, which were supposed to be used for long vision,
as when covered up by a black varnish Réaumur found that the bee
invariably flew straight up, and was lost. The organs of the mouth,
called trophi, were very variable in development in the different
genera, and, when complete, consist of a labrum, or upper lip, a

4 epipharynx, or gullet, which formed the mouth, the labrum, or lower

lip, and an organ called the tongue. Besides these single organs the

_ organs in pairs were the mandibles, the maxille, maxillary palpi, the

labial palpi, and the paraglosse. The labrum was of a horny or

28

leathery consistence, and closed over the organs below it, being
covered when at rest by the mandibles. The gullet was placed close
under the labrum, and was closed by the valve above, beneath which
was a small triangular appendage, which received the honey or food.
The labrum had two joints, one of which carried the maxilla, or lower
jaws, which in a state of rest folded together and formed a sheath for
the lingual apparatus. The tongue was not, as was formerly thought,
tubular, but flat, and when at repose was broader than thick. It could
be lengthened and shortened with great rapidity, thus pushing the
syrup up to the gullet. Réaumur proved that the food always passes
over the surface of the tongue, and not through the aperture which was
thought to exist in it. The thorax was divided into three parts, to the
front of which the front legs were attached. On the tibia of the fore-
legs in all bees was a velum, so named from its resemblance to a little
sail, opposite which, at the base of the palmz, was a deep incision
called the strigilis or currycomb, from the pecten or comb of short stiff
hair which fringed it. This apparatus was for the purpose of cleaning
the antennee, which were drawn through the hollow incision while
being pressed by the velum against the currycomb. In the boring bees
the mandibles do the cutting and excavating work, while the forelegs or
hands were used to clear away the rubbish thus formed ; but by the artizan
becthe forelegs were used like trowels to work up the soft clay into cells.
The bee had the power of locking the wings together in flight by
means of a row of hooks on the inferior wing which caught in a ridge
or ledge in the upper wing, and thus gave the insect a much greater
power of beating the air. On the hinder portion of the thorax were
placed the hind legs, the shank of which in the social bee was dilated,
for the purpose of carrying pollen. The abdomen was often elegantly
coloured, and consisted of six imbricated segments in the female and.
seven in the male. In the artizan bee pollen was conveyed on the
abdomen instead of the hind legs, perhaps because of the narrow
entrances to their nests.

Passing on to the consideration of the honey bee, in particular,
they found the male or drone was distinguished by its more cylindrical
shape, its larger size, and by being more densely hairy all over.
The large compound eyes met at the top of the head and covered
all the side of the face. The abdomen consisted of seven segments,
being thus distinguished from the queen, which had six seg-
ments. ‘The structure of the drone, as of all male bees, incapacitated

29

him from any share in the work of the hive. So far as had, been
ascertained its sole use was to impregnate the young queens, and to
accomplish this end, Nature had been lavish in the production of drones,
about 1000 being produced in each hive during a summer, although, as
seldom more than two swarms departed, but three drones were required
for that purpose. The large eyes of the drone no doubt assisted him in
finding the queen during her nuptial flight, while the greater sweep of the
hinder wings enabled him to rise above her. The large number of
drones was no doubt required by the circumstance of fertilization taking
place high up in the air, and by the great importance of a speedy
return of the queen to the hive, as in the air she was in great fear of
being snapped up by birds, and thus in some cases the entire hive
must perish. The fact of the drones not adding to but diminishing
the honey had induced bee keepers as long ago as Aristotle to use
traps for their exclusion and destruction. The working bees, however,
in the latter end of July, suddenly made up their minds to stop the
consumption of honey by driving out the drones and preventing their
return, so that they perished from want. At the same time, the workers
dragged out and stung to death all drone grubs, being apparently filled
with the utmost fury. During a wet summer, when honey could not
be obtained, the drones were driven out earlier. The queen bee was
the mother of the hive, and was easily distinguished from the other
bees by her size, being much longer and the abdomen being much more
spindle-shaped. Her chief function was to lay eggs ; and this she did
both day and night. The manner in which the eggs were fertilized
was a great mystery, until Dzierzon showed.that there was communica-
ting with the oviduct, through which the eggs passed, a spermatic
reservoir. The fertilization of the queen took place on the wing, and
it appeared probable that it only took place once in life. Two or
three days after impregnation she began to lay ; and if not permitted
to leave the hive she lay all the same, though she only produced
drones. This had been proved by Siebold who kept some virgin
queens caged and found they produced drones only. From observa-
tions and experiments it seemed probable that the queen only laid two
kinds of eggs, viz. : worker and drone, the former being capable by
£ appropriate feeding and management of being developed into queens.

- The queen only laid eggs, leaving the workers to look after them and

_ attend to the young. The other peculiarities of the queen were the
-want of a honey bag, the inability to secret wax, the convex thigh

30

which prevented the gathering of pollen, and the blunt sting that could
not pierce the human hand. It was, therefore, dependent on the
workers for food, which was continually presented to her by at-
tendants who, like true courtiers, never turned their backs on her. The
neuter, or worker, was principally distinguished by its pollen-collecting
apparatus. Though called a neuter, it was in reality an undeveloped
female, and occasionally laid eggs, as previously noticed. Perhaps
the most important organ of the worker was the marvellously compli-
cated muscular tongue with which the honey of flowers was not sucked,
but lapped up, and passed along the grooved surface to the mouth, and
then to the honey bag. The tongue of the hive-bee was twice folded
in repose. The honey was collected from a great number of flowers,
of which the lime, heather, and white clover, were perhaps the princi-
pal. The proboscis of the hive-bee was not long enough to reach the
nectary of the red clover, which was visited by the humble-bee. Asa
great deal of honey was needed to make wax for forming the comb,
means had been adopted to empty the combs and return them to the
hive. Combs were built most rapidly at night, the bees working during
the day at honey collecting. The peculiar structure of the working.
bee could not but be admired in conjunction with its work of cell
building. Their mandibles were endentate and like spoons, and were
so used for strengthening and plastering their work, while the brushes
on the posterior feet and the little auricle enabled the hind legs to
gather up the wax as it was formed, and pass it on to the mouth to be
masticated and moulded by the mandibles. The want of spurs onthe
hind legs (in which the hive-bee differed from the humble-bee), gave a
greater freedom and play to the comb of short stiff bristles at the ex-
treme edge of the shank. Propolis, an adhesive substance, gathered from
the buds of poplar, hollyhock, willow, and other trees, was gathered
and used to strengthen the defences of the hive. Propolis was with
difficulty kneaded into a ball and brought home in the corbiculz, but
it dried so quickly that it was sometimes with difficulty torn by the
bees from the legs of the collector. This substance was indispensable
for filling up cracks and cementing the hive to its floor boards, which
was always done for the sake of keeping out intruders. The eggs of
the bee were of a long oval shape, and being covered with a glutinous
matter stuck to the bottom of the cell. In three or four days they
hatched a little white worm which had fifteen segments, each, except
the head and four terminal ones, supplied with a pair of spiracles. It

31

had no feet, but small knobs existed on each side of the segments,
giving it a slight power of motion. This grub was very voracious, and
was sedulously supplied with food by its nurses. On this food it
throve until in four days it was fully grown and filled the cell. The
worker then sealed over the cell, and the grub spun a cocoon of silk in
which it grew to maturity, which is in twenty-one days. It then burst
the covering of the cell and flew out. The cells for the queens were
four or five in number, and they hung with their mouths downward.
They were four times as large as the others, and much stronger. The
queen grubs were so largely supplied with food, that they were in a
thick bed of jelly, some of which usually remained after hatching.
They arrived at maturity one-third earlier than the others, in conse-
quence of the difference of their food, which also prolonged the life of
the queen to two or three years instead of a few months. The young
queen was jealously guarded by the workers from the queen mother,
and at its nuptial flight the old queen generally left with other bees,
who gorged themselves with honey before departing to seek a new
hive.

Mr. H. Goss asked if a difference in the temperature of the cell
of the queen bee had anything to do with the development of a worker
- into a queen.

Mr, C. P. SMITH did not think it to be the case, and in answer
to further questions from Mr. Goss, he said he did not know that the
vertical position of the cell had anything to do with it; or if the food
given to the queen was different to that given to the workers.

Mr. Goss said he had seen it stated that a queen laid from
70,000 to 80,000 eggs.

Mr. SMITH added that a bee only lived seven or eight weeks
during the summer.

DR. INGLE called attention to the shape of the cells, and said it
had been a mathematical problem as to whether the equilateral
triangle, the hexagonal, or the square shape would waste the least
space, and it had been found that the bee adopted ¢#e one—the
hexagonal.

32

THE DEATH OF Mr. HENNAH.

The CHAIRMAN said it was a painful duty for him to bring before
their notice the death of Mr. Thomas Hennah, one of the Vice-
Presidents. Those who had been members of the Society for some
years would realise the real loss that had fallen upon them. He had
ably sustained the office of President, was at all times a wise
counsellor, and certainly exhibited a mind of no ordinary culture.
He did not think he would be wrong if he said that Mr. Hennah was
one of their best microscopists. He was kind and genial in his
manner, willing at all times to impart to younger members the
knowledge which they sought. He had made himself so completely a
helper in the work of the Society that his loss would be felt by all.
There were very few to take the places of those friends they had lost
lately, and he hoped that when their loss was made known to the
public, men of scientific attainments would consider it their duty to
think of the Society. In conclusion, the Chairman moved the following
resolution :—

“The Brighton and Sussex Natural History Society, deeply
lamenting the loss it has sustained in the death of Mr. T. H. Hennah,
desires to convey to Mrs. Hennah and her family a sincere expression
of sympathy with them in their sad bereavement, and to express a hope
that it may be some solace to them to know that her late husband was
held in the highest esteem and respect by his co-workers in the Society,
who cannot fail to miss in no ordinary way a Member of such con-
spicuous ability and genial character.”

The funeral would take place on the following day. He regretted that
his health would not permit him to be present, but he hoped that as
many Members as could would be present to show their respect to
their old friend.

Mr. WONFOR seconded the resolution, as a personal friend of Mr.
Hennah and his family for more than eighteen years. During the
time he had known them he had always found Mr. Hennah a
man of great kindness and courtesy. His death to him was a great
shock ; and he felt that in losing him they had lost a great support to
the Society. It was he who established the microscopical meetings
which had proved so interesting ; and not only had he done this, but,

. 33

while his health would permit it, he helped to keep up a microscopical
club. Not only was his death a great loss to this Society, but also to
the town at large. There was scarcely a gentleman in the town who
worked with his microscope but was indebted for advice, assistance,
and instruction to Mr. Hennah, who had been always willing and
ready, even though suffering from physical debility, to give information
to the mere tyro equally with the advanced student. All who came
in contact with him could bear witness to his affable and gentlemanly
bearing, and the genial way in which he conveyed information to
others.

JANUARY 27TH.

MICROSCOPICAL MEETING.—“THE ANATOMY OF
THE BEE,” IN ILLUSTRATION OF MR. C. P.
SMITH’S PAPER ON THE BEE, READ AT THE
JANUARY ORDINARY MEETING.

The PRESIDENT (Mr. J. Dennant) said there was no paper to be
read, as Mr, Smith’s paper at the last meeting had almost exhausted

the subject, but as there was neither time noropportunity on that occa-
_ sion to examine the several parts of the bee described by Mr. Smith,
an opportunity would be afforded them that evening of so doing. He
4 believed Mr. Smith and other gentlemen had brought down a number
_ of objects of a very interesting character.

Mr. T. W. WONFOR remarked that he had since the last meet-
_ ing examined the curious bodies in the specimen of American honey
~ shown by Mr. C. F. Dennet, and found they were crystals of honey
sugar. It would be seen by comparing them with crystals of cane
qj ‘sugar how much they differed from it in their mode of crystallization.
‘He found also plenty of pollen grains in the honey, but whether they
were of the orange, on the flowers of which the bees were said to feed,
he had not had the opportunity of verifying. He had also examined

34

the Zsoezes exhibited at the last meeting, and had found both macro-
spores and microspores.

Mr. C. P. SMITH, in reply to the President, said he had brought
down for exhibition the general anatomy of the hive bee, mounted on
one slide, the ovaries of the queen bee, a very uncommon object, in
which the eggs were shown, as well as the sting, the tongues of the
hive and other bees, and the sting of wasp.

Mr. WONFOR said he had the tongues of the humble bee, the
honey bee, and the wasp for comparison, the stings of the wasp and
bee, the latter showing the two serrated stings protruded from the
sheath, the heads of the hive bee and wasp, parasites of bee, and
crystals of honey and sugar.

The meeting then became a conversazione, when the above-
mentioned and other objects illustrating the anatomy of the bee were
exhibited by the President, Messrs. Haselwood, C. P. Smith, E.
Glaisyer, R. Glaisyer, and Wonfor.

FEBRUARY IOTH.

ORDINARY MEETING.—MR. BENJAMIN LOMAX “ON
THE BRANCHING OF TREES.”

The subject of the paper had always possessed the greatest
interest for him, principally, he thought, because he seemed to have it
all to himself. Until the time of Lindley, physiologists appeared to
look upon a tree as a structure composed entirely of a root and
flowers, and though Le Maout, Sachs, and others had lately bestowed
much attention on Taxophylly, the growth of wood, and the develop-
ment of branches from buds, that symmetrical arrangement by which
each tree acquired its marked and unmistakeable character and out-
line, preserved to the finest veining of its leaves, had been
entirely neglected by the botanists, and only remarked on, from an
artistic point of view, by Ruskin, in his “ Modern Painters.”

That the form of a tree was regulated by general laws, independent

:
35

of its minute structure, would seem probable to every naturalist ; and
the Society would be prepared to look with favour upon an explana-
tion which referred it to the composition of two combining or opposing
forces, as in Mechanics and Electricity, even though the way should
not seem clear for pointing out the exact nature of the forces them-
selves. Such an explanation he had to submit. It would account for
every peculiarity in the form of branches and leaves, considered as
such, but it was so entirely independent of the well-known laws which
regulated the formation of wood rings, &c., that it seemed impossible
at present to harmonise the two. If his position were true, they would
ultimately be harmonised. If false, the facts at least were worthy of
_ notice; in any case he claimed for his scheme the consideration due
to lengthened investigations under very favourable circumstances.
For fifteen years he had bestowed pretty constant attention 'to this
subject. He had made some hundreds of measurements in England,
_ Australia, and Peru, on trees of all sizes, from the lilac and alder to the
_ Eucalypti. For this purpose, he had used, successively, a lady’s
_ Measuring tape, a surveyor’s chain, and a theodolite or sextant,
a and on one occasion had allowed himself to be hoisted 120 feet in the
air by a rope drawn over with the help of a bow and arrow, but never
had he found a single instance of departure from the principles
described.

7
4
3

te It was not at every period of a tree’s life that it possessed a
perfect form. During what might be called its childhood the branches
were not yet visible ; in its advanced maturity the true branches were
intermixed with subsidiary limbs, forming no part of the original plan,
and produced by the development of what would have been mere
wigs but for accidents to which he should hereafter refer; while old
age showed us a confused and tangled mass of branches, broken and
‘repaired, or bent in distorted forms to avoid collision with others, or to

ce advantage of some accidental condition. But there was a
e in a tree’s history which might be likened to our own useful

sapling nor the unintelligible luxuriance of the maturer growth,
when the laws to which he had referred might be easily recognised
d fully traced. He had spoken of branches as normal and subsidiary
accidental, and it was necessary that he should justify such a
By way of doing so, he would ask those who had seen

36

trunk or Jarger limbs at the point where a branch left them. He had
had much to do with sawmills, and had seen many such sections cut,
and often one tree, falling beneath his axe, had lighted in the fork of
another and split it to the ground. The appearance then presented was
that presented by the forked twig which a schoolboy split to make his
bird trap.

The wood from bark to bark formed one continued strip of
white, from which the white wood of the branch turned off without
mark of junction, just as rivers were indicated ina map. These are
normal branches. Sometimes, however, a very different appearance
presented itself—a branch was apparently zuser/ed into the trunk,
penetrating only through the outer rings, and surrounded by a kind of
socket. Such limbs had commenced their growth after the branches
above them, and, though produced late in life, had outstripped their
predecessors, partly because nearer the roots, and partly because they
had been deriving their nourishment from the outer and softer layers
of the cambium region, where alone the sap descended in any con-
siderable quantity. It was only of the normal limbs that he should
speak for the present.

A well formed tree, then, consisted of a trunk or trunks, ascending
to a certain distance and there throwing off one or more limbs. These
limbs might be large or small in comparison with the parent stem,
might be opposite or slightly separated, and might turn off at any
angle not exceeding go°, Where the limb turned off the stem was
deflected in the opposite direction. That deflection might be very
slight, but it could always be traced and sometimes was so great as to
render it impossible to tell which of the two or move divisions was to
be regarded as the continuation of the parent stem. The original
pattern thus given was afterwards adhered to, and throughout the
whole structure each branch with its branchlets repeated the same
form of subdivision, so that it might be traced to the minutest ramifi-
cations, and could be seen in the skeleton of the leaves. If, then, we
rightly understood one forking, we understood all, and he proposed to
consider one minutely. There were several points requiring attention,
which might be enumerated as follows :—

1. The size of the limb (i.e., its sectional area),
2. The size of the stem above the joint.
3. The angle at which the limb branches off.

4, The amount of deflection in the stem.
5, The relative length of the previous and succeeding internodes.

37

If his view were correct, all these were connected together by one
common law, so that if one element were given the rest could be
deduced. The required data were the amounts and proportion of two
forces whose nature he did not yet attempt to define, the one tending
to lengthen the stem and its offshoots, the other tending to separate
the wood fibres laterally, the two energies holding much the same
relation to each other as the centrifugal force and that of gravity did
to each other in the planetary system. If the first force predominated,
the tree would be tall and narrow; if the latter, it would be wide-
spreading. The ratio of the two gave a constant fraction, which
might be called the “ co-efficient of ramification,” and from which the
whole outline of the tree might perhaps be calculated, just as a curve
might be traced from its equation.

The size of the first limb was doubtless determined by some in-
herent law, as trees of the same species showed a striking uniformity
in this respect, but he was not able even to imagine its nature. He
knew, however, that the proportion of the limb to the stem once fixed
was preserved throughout, and that every shoot bore the same propor-
tion to its parent as the first branch to the primiiive stem. The size
of the barrel above the limb was far easier of determination. Its
sectional area, added to that of the limb, always gave the sectional
area of the trunk from which they sprung, and this was equally true
where the division was into three or more branches. Thus, if from a
trunk 37in. in circumference two limbs, measuring respectively 18in.
and 12in. round, forked off, the resulting stem would measure 3oin. in
¥ circumference, whether the two branches were at one point or separate,
_ or, in other words, the sum of the squares of 18, 12, and 30 equalled
_ the square of 37, nearly. This law, which held good, without ex-
ception, in every tree and every twig, settled a most important
_ question, showing us that limbs were not off-shoots or lateral growths,
but actual divisions of the stem from which they sprung; and this
being so, we were led to infer that the whole of the leaf stalks on a
tree, if united in one bundle, would make up the thickness of the main
trunk, a conclusion as startling as it was inevitable.

This result might be illustrated by binding together, say, a hun-
' twigs, afterwards dividing them into ten, and these successively
nto fives, twos, and ones. The effect would be, that a fair model of
t tree would be produced, in which the ultimate divisions Donne

38

across, a very different spectacle was produced from that seen in the
cross section of a forest tree. In the latter we saw a series of cor.-
centric rings traversed by radiating lines, known as “ medullary rays ;”
in the former, a collection of circles, which, under extreme com-
pression, might assume the hexagonal form. But this dissimilarity
vanished on closer inspection and a more careful consideration of the
manner in which trees grow. If we surrounded one twig by a circle
of others, and subjected the whole to uniform pressure, we should find
that the outer twigs, if sufficiently compressible, would form one con-
tinued ring, wherein each separate piece had the wedge-form produced
by intersecting radii. Ring after ring might be thus formed, and the
whole section of an aged tree satisfactorily imitated.

It would be noticed that in the fancied model each medullary
wedge was connected with one twig and one only ; and it might be
asked whether he considered such to be the order of actual tree-
growth? To this he answered that his illustration was but an illustra-
tion, and was intended to prove nothing ; but the supposition was quite
possible, though he knew nothing whatever concerning its truth. The
angle of ramification was very uniform in trees of the same species,
and was readily explained on the principle to which he wished to
draw their attention.

Every student of dynamics knew that if two forces acting on or
from one point be graphically represented by two lines of equivalent
length and direction, the diagonal of the parallelogram so indicated
would give the length and direction of their resultant, and wice versd.
So if we knew the longitudinal and lateral forces at any given fork, we
should be able to trace the angle at which each division would leave
the point of separation. As these data were not forthcoming, another
means of investigation must be found. It was manifest that a force
tending to separate any pair of fibres must vary in total amount
directly as the number of fibres present ; and as these together made
up a limb, it followed that the amount of pressure tending to cause
any two limbs to diverge from the original direction would be in direct
proportion to the sectional area ot the limbs themselves. On the
other hand, there was frida facie reason to suppose that which he
hoped to establish by another line of reasoning : that the tendency to
longitudinal extension was at its greatest at the commencement, and
decreased according to the amount of work done, or according to the
distance from the root. On such a supposition we readily deduced a

39

result which agreed exactly with observed fact, namely, that when
two branches of equal size separated, they would have exactly the
. same angle of divergence ; that where one exceeded the other, the
larger would be nearer to, and the smaller farther from, the line of
original direction; and that where the limb was very small in com-
parison with the stem, as in some of our coniferz, the angle of rami-
fication would be indefinitely near to a right angle, and the stem
_ practically perpendicular,

They next came to the question of internodes ; and here they
might with profit refer to the herbaceous plants, which for the most
part diminished them with great regularity, but in addition suppressed
them altogether when any large draught was made on the vital
reserve. Thus we found the lower leaves alternate, the higher
opposite, and those surrounding the ovary verticillate. Such a rule
obtained in forest trees; the internodes ordinarily decreasing so
regularly that the proportion between the length and thickness of any
internode was that of any other in the same tree ; but this regularity
disappeared, and whole internodes were suppressed where any
abnormal necessity required the tree, for the preservation of its
balance, to push out extra branches, or extend branches beyond their
intended length. Without wearying by details that had been very
pleasant to him, he might say that he had never seen a case of ramifi-
cation which could not be explained on the assumption of two com-
_ bining forces, and he did not expect to find one.

Between this humble attempt and the time when each tree should
i have its equation, whence its outline and taxophylly might be pre-
_ dicated, there was a great gulf fixed. If ever such a supposition could
Bie reconciled with the annual succession of rings, it must be by the
_ application of laws not yet enunciated, and many generations might
pass before the connection could be held possible, but till that connec-
tion were established, the likeness of ramification to the most familiar
_ effects of mechanical composition must be held as one of the most
remarkable coincidences in Nature.

He would, in conclusion, remark that any gentleman wishing to
_ pursue the same line of observation must prepare himself for difficulties,
4 The effect of gravity, the reflection of heat from walls and banks, the
presence of water in hot climates, and the alternate loss and recovery
as of balance, supplied a series of complications which must be patiently

40

eliminated before the true law of ramification could be traced; but if
any one, after such reasonable deductions, should fail to find every-
where the same unvyarying proportions mentioned, he must have an
experience widely differing from his own.

The PRESIDENT (Mr. J. ennant), on behalf of those present,
heartily thanked Mr. Lomax for his paper, short, but interesting and
valuable, being original.

The discussion on the paper was opened by Mr. WONFOR pointing
out that the subject had been treated from such a novel aspect, that
difficulty would be experienced in discussing it, and thanking Mr.
Lomax for suggesting ideas which might be considered in the coming
spring.

Mr. G. D. SAWYER and Mr. HASELWOOD followed, the latter
observing that there was a strong tendency to account for biological
facts by mechanical laws. This was not new to them—they had that
theory promulgated before, though not in so practical a form as that
night. But he understood that the gentleman who asserted mechanical
laws as an explanation of biological facts went further than Mr. Lomax
had gone, and, therefore, he advised those present to be cautious in
adopting mechanical laws as accounting for those things, as such an
adoption might carry them further than the application of those laws
to mere vegetable productions. He also asked if the laws laid down
held good to any degree in reference to the downward progress of the
tree as well as the upward—to the ramifications of the roots as to those
of the branches ?

Mr. SAWYER gave instances of the continual variation of the
growth of trees.

Mr. LoMAX replied to Mr. Haselwood that he looked upon
the forces which he had mentioned in his paper as forces of
vitality, which had to give way to the ordinary mechanical laws, and
that he had not studied the downward progress of the tree.

Mr. C. F. DENNET also took part in the discussion.

CURIOUS ARCHITECTURAL SPECIMEN.
Mr. T. W. WONFOR, one of the Hon. Secretaries, brought forward
a large stone block, which, he pointed out, had on one side ecclesiastical
carving common to the thirteenth century, and, on the other, civil

=

4I

carving belonging to the seventeenth century. The block was taken
from a house of Mr. H. Gorringe, at Kingston-on-Sea, while some
alterations were being made, and, being of a rather interesting
character, was forwarded to the Brighton Museum.

IMPOSITION,

Mr. C. F. DENNET submitted specimens of imitations of silk, the
cheapness of which, had they been silk, attracted his attention. The
fabric, however, was almost jute alone, so manufactured as to appear
silk to the untutored eye, and to deceive the touch of an experienced
person.

FEBRUARY 25TH.

MICROSCOPICAL MEETING.—MR. T. W. WONFOR
ON “THE SCALES OF BUTTERFLIES.”

Among insects, scales were not confined to any one group, though
they were found on every member of one division, the Lepidoptera, the
scale-winged, as their name implied, but in connection with microsco-
pical work the scales obtained from certain insects had been, and still
were, favourites with microscopists, very deservedly, because, through
differences of opinion as to the markings on sundry scales, together
with an attempt to resolve those markings, we owed the great improve-
ments made in objectives since the achromatic microscope had been
an instrument of research, and not a mere optical toy,

As all knew, certain scales, such as those from the gnat, Zepisma,
Podura, or Lepidocyrtus, and three or four butterflies, viz. a blue and
a white of English origin, and a couple of gorgeously coloured
_ foreigners, had been employed, along with sundry siliceous valves of
plants named diatoms, as /es¢ objects, and our objectives had been
_ considered up to or below the mark accordingly as they were able or
~ not to resolve certain figured markings, seen by objectives of particular
aperture and magnifying power. Again, to enable these objectives or
others of different aperture and power to resolve the same or other
markings, various adjuncts to the microscope had been devised, such

42

as condensers, prisms, &c. And though many, alas! too many,
microscopists in this country had spent nearly all their time in trying
to see exactly the same things that other men had, or said that they
had, seen, yet within the last few years a very considerable addition
had been made to our knowledge of many physiological facts, as well
as the resolution of diatom and scale markings ; and though we might
not accept all Dr. Royston Piggott’s conclusions, yet had he not
ventilated the subject through his “ vouleaux of beads” and “ green
peas,” we might have gone on plodding in the same steps as those
before us, and accepted one view of an object as a sufficient des¢ of the
power of an objective.

Whatever view was taken of the markings of scales, there seemed
no manner of doubt that the scales of insects were nothing more nor
less than modified hairs, of greater or less thickness, more or less
flattened or cylindrical, according to circumstances and their position
on the body, legs, or wings of the animal on which found. If then we
regarded all scales as only modified hairs, and considered that hazrs
were composed of cells, we might see our way out of the difficulties
into which the learned amongst microscopists had led us, and we
might also understand an wnuder and upper surface, two lamina,
striated surfaces, ribs, and sundry other puzzling terms which had
come into existence when speaking of scales.

Those who had written or spoken about scales and their markings -
within the last few years, were Dr. Royston Piggott, and those who
inclined to his deaded theories on the one hand, among whom must be
included Mr Slack, one of the Secretaries of the Royal Microscopical
Society, and on the other Colonel Woodward, Dr. Maddox, Dr.
Anthony, and Mr. McIntyre. It was with the latter group he felt he
must ally himself, because much, if not all, of the so-called structure
described by Dr. Piggott he believed was purely optical and not
structural.

Primarily, the scales of insects, and specially the /epidopiera
were more or less flattened hairs of a cylindrical or tube-like shape,
inserted by a pedicle, differing in character according to circumstances,
into the wing membrane, on both sides of which they were arranged
in symmetrical rows, like the tiles on the roof of a house. The
majority of those on the wing, or rather the flat part of the wing, were

43

flat, or nearly so ; interspersed among them were others quite hair-like
in their character, and in some cases, to be attended to presently, were
some which were balloon-like in shape and, he believed, were capable
of being inflated like a balloon. He should mention that from six to
eight different kinds, or rather shapes, of scales were found on each
butterfly or moth, and when it was borne in mind how many thousands
of moths and butterflies were known to science, it might be imagined
that, though the varieties were not commensurate in number with the
varieties of the insects themselves, yet the varieties in shape and
markings were very numerous. Anyone devoting a little time and
attention to scales would be well rewarded for his pains, and would
learn far more by comparison than he could possibly glean by study-
ing one or two special scales.

Among other points he would find that the colour of insects was
not always due to what to the eye appeared the colour on the wings ;
a striking illustration of this was seen in the case of the common orange
tip, the green colour on the back of the wings proved on examination —
to be produced by an intermingling of black and yellow scales. Some
certainly owed their colour to pigments, but in a great many it was due
to the incidence of light, for if, while under examination under the
microscope, the stage were rotated, as great a change would be seen
in colour as with some objects under polarised light. Seen as trans-
parent objects, brown seemed the prevailing hue.

Again, if scales were taken from living insects or from those
recently killed, and gently squeezed by pressure on a thin covering
glass, greenish oily particles would be seen to ooze from the pedicle,
leading to the idea that in the living insect there was something like
the circulation of a fluid from the wing membrane. It was certain
they would not require any fluid to repair waste or to accelerate growth,
because they were of full size the instant'the insect escaped from the
chrysalis. There was no growth proper in the scales, any more than
in the wings. The instant the moth or butterfly emerged from the pupa
case, it came forth full-grown, the membranes expanded laterally and
longitudinally, and by so doing the scales of the full size and zz situ
were simply drawn wider and farther apart, but of growth there was
none. This could be seen by cutting open the pupa case just before
the emergence, or taking the wing of a recently emerged insect. This
must be done at once, because in some cases, within ten minutes of

44

the emerging the wings were of full size. There was, therefore, no re-
plenishing of waste nor reparation of parts inthe scales of lepidoptera,
as in the hairs of the mammalia.

Nor could we trace in all scales the cuticular layer, cortical sub-
stance, and medullary substance of such hairs ; we seemed to obtain
a cortical substance, with or without a cuticular layer, and sundry rib-
like strengtheners, which had given rise to the diversity of opinion as
regarded structural markings. There was another curious fact some-
tiraes noticed—viz., that there appeared to be a power on the part of
the insect to raise the rows of the scales as well as to inflate some
scales. He had often found the scales on the wing of a butterfly
caught and killed in flight, not lying flat to the wing membrane, but
raised on it at a more or less acute angle, as though in flight the insect
possessed the power of raising the rows of scales. This might, if we
imagined the power of inflation of the scales as well, give greater
buoyancy to a butterfly or moth in flight. He had every reason to
believe this to be true of some scales ; if so, it would give to the wing
membrane with its nervures a power not accorded to it in Manuals on
Entomology.

It was now twelve years ago he started one afternoon with a
medical friend to look for a certain fern, said to grow about twelve
miles from Brighton. They got out of a train at the Hassock’s Gate
Station, and diverged a little from their course to see whether Veottia
Sprralis (autumn lady’s tresses), the orchis which Darwin watched the
bees fertilizing, by carrying the pollen masses from one flower to
another, was in flower. While searching for this plant, some blue
butterflies got up. His friend and he managed to catch several. This
fact was strongly impressed on his mind, because, after walking nearly
a mile, they retraced their steps to search for a stethoscope, which, in
the eagerness of the chase, had dropped from his friend’s hat when
catching a “blue.”

On the way they both talked over the question of why they had
not been able to find “ battledore” scales on blue butterflies. Was it
they were only on one kind, for though they had both searched for
them on the part described in the Micrographic Dictionary, p. 564,
under Polyommatus, they had neither been able to find them. The
words there run, “ The scales upon the under surface of the wings of

45
P. argiolus and P. argus have been proposed as test objects. They

are of two kinds—one resembling in structure the ordinary scales of
insects, the other of a battledore form.”

What his friend did with his blues he did not know, he (Mr. W) care-
fully removed the scales from the under surface of one of the blues and
found not a single battledore. Having placed a wing upperside down-
wards on a glass slide to enable him to search over the wing, he found,
after a futile and long continued search, that a considerable number of
scales detached from the upper surface of the wing were upon the
glass slide ; focussing down to these he found battledores in plenty,
but not exactly like those figured in the book. He then realised this
fact, that battledores were to be found on the upper surface of the
wings of Polyommatus, or, as it was now called, Lycena alexi zs, differ-
ing in form from those figured as obtained from Z. argtolus. This led
him to try whether he could find “ battledore” scales on other blues
than Z. alexis, the common blue, or Z. argiolus, the azure blue, for to
those unacquainted with such differences among “blues” he should
mention we had, in England, nine different species of “ blues,” such as
the Common, Azure, Clifden, Mazarine, Chalk- hill, Silver-studded,

“large” and “little” blue, and rare “ long tailed” blue.

Through the kindness of an entomological’ friend he secured
examples of nearly all, and, strangely enough, found battledore scales
on the upper surface of both wings in some cases, and not in others,
It turned out that the insects on which he had been unable to find
battledores were females, while those on which he had found them
were males, This caused him to make a critical examination of the
blue family generally, and he then discovered these two facts—
the battledores were found on the upper side of the wings of the males
ondy, and in rows beneath the ordinary scales, and at their intervals of
overlapping. He should mention that, among the blues, the males
only were of a deep blue colour ; the females generally were of a
brownish hue, with a few blue scales, and this might have led to the
assertion that battledore scales were found on the “blues.” It was
true some females adorned themselves with so great a profusion that
they simulated the garb of the males, much in the same way as the
erstwhile “weaker sex” among humanity, since the cry of woman’s
rights had been raised, assumed the get-up and garments of the
“lords of creation,” but on no female, however highly coloured, had
he been able to find “ battledores.”

46

Since then, he had had the opportunity of examining many foreign
and tropical blues, and in each case, even when the female assimilated
closely in colour to the male, only on the male, and invariably on the
upper surface and in rows beneath the ordinary scales, had he found
battledores. As might be expected, these battledores differed in size
and shape—the blade was longer or broader in some than others
relatively, the top was more or less rounded or squared, while the
length of the handle or pedicle varied in length, so that, when two
species of blues resembled each other very closely in their markings,
the shape and size of the battledore might be used as a ready means
of settling species. There were species among the Lyczenidz in which
neither males nor females were “blue” or “bluish” in colour, and,
curiously, among these no single example of male with “ battledores”
had been found. Mr. Watson, who was working on “plumules ” at
the same time he was carrying out his investigations, had had
opportunities of examining some hundreds of species of “ blues” and
“brown” among the Lycznidz, and had never met with “ battledores ”
on any but the “ blue” proper.

He would turn next to another characteristic scale, the “ tasseled,”
described in the “ Micrographic Dictionary” under the head of Pontia,
p. 571, thus—“ The form and structure of certain scales existing upon
the uuder side of the male is curious.” Here, too, as he should show,
the writer had made a slight mistake, instead of wuder they should
read upper, for it was there, and there only, they would find scales
similar to those figured in the “‘ Micrographic Dictionary.” As might
be supposed, having got an inkling from the “ blues,” respecting the
situation of “battledores,” he was not long before he searched the
whites. The first to come under examination were the “large” and
“small” cabbage white Pon?tia, or rather now Preris brassice, and
P. rape, both of which gave on the upper side the characteristic
scales called “ tasseled,” or, as some preferred, “ plumules.” These
scales differed essentially from the “ battledores ” in shape, ornamenta-
tion, markings, and pedicle ; some were long and very slender through-
out, and gradually tapering to a point, others seemed cut short, while
others comparatively broad at the basal end, suddenly narrowed and
terminated either as though cut short or fined off to a slender point ;
all, whatever were their comparative breadth and length had a cup-like
or ball-and-socket termination to the pedicle. At the apex of each
scale was a tasseled fringe of great beauty, from which circumstance

_——

47

they had been called ‘‘tasseled” scales. All our English whites,
together with the orange-tip, possessed these peculiar scales, and if
the great family of Pieridz, which included a vast number of con-
tinental and tropical forms, were examined, they would find the males
invariably possessed a tasseled scale, either of the form of our English
whites and orange-tip, or a modification of these, both as regards the
terminal fringe and the pedicle. He had had opportunities of examin-
ing a good many, but Mr, Watson had enumerated upwards of 200
English and foreign Pieridz examined by him, on which, in every case,
the males, and the males alone, possessed the characteristic scale.

As might be supposed, there were great diversities of size and
form, and which, from what had been said respecting the English
Pieridze, might doubtless be very useful in determining species. One
curious confirmation of the value of these characteristic scales Mr.
Watson drew his attention to in 1868, viz., that two hitherto-believed
different species of Pzerzs turned out to be the male and female of the
same, the one having, and the other being without, the characteristic
scales. They were arranged in rows behind the other scales, as in the
“blues,” but many being long and hair-like, they appeared only as
hairs 27 situ.

The next English family to be noticed was that named Hifparchia:
the common meadow brown A, Fanira had a scale brush-like, taper-
ing like the large white, but differing from it in the markings in the
ribbon-like portion, as well as having a pedicle similar to that possessed
by the “blues.” Investigating this family, he found the same story
told throughout—a distinctive scale, ribbon-like, and tasseled on every
male of the family, but never a scale of such a character on ‘the
females.

In each of the families described there was generally a difference
of wing-markings between the males and females ; occasionally they
_ resembled each other, and some few insects had been found with the
_ wings on one side with the male markings, and on the other side with the
female markings. It would be very curious to find out if, with this
_ assumption of marking, they also on the male marked wings ‘had this
undoubted sex distinction.

_____ There was only one other family of English butterflies possessing,
as far as he had been able to make out, a characteristic scale, and
_ that was the Argynnide or Fritillaries, or, at least, those among them

48

the underside of whose wings was marked by metallic spots. The
male scales were of a very decided character, differing essentially
from those of the Pzerid@, on the one hand, and from the Aipparchie,
which they somewhat resembled, on the other. Some were ofa very
long, narrow, and ribbon-like form, with the tassel at the apex, while
others were shorter and broader. Some, too, like the Hipparchia,
were nearly opaque, except at the apex, while others had the ribbon-
like portion opaque for one-half its length. The position of these
scales on the wing differed from that of any others described, for,
instead of being placed in rows beneath the ordinary scales, they were
situated on the nervures or black veins of the upper surface, and had
mingled with them in some species very peculiar Indian club-shaped
scales or hairs. Mr. Watson, whose opportunities of examination had
been far greater and more extensive than his own, had found
“plumules,” as he calls them, on thirty genera of butterflies, or nearly
600 species. In every case they were found on the male insects
alone.

He consequently drew the inference, a very reasonable one,
that battledores, tasseled scales, or plumules, wherever found, were
characteristic of sex, and that of the male sex. What purpose they
served in the insect economy was not yet clear. Their paucity or
abundance on individuals could not be, as some had suggested, marks
of greater or less virility, because, as had been seen, scales did not
grow with the age of the individual, nor did they find more scales on
one freshly-emerged butterfly than another of the same species. They
might render the males more buoyant on the wing ; but here they were
met by this difficulty, well-known to field entomologists, the females
were more rapid in their movements, in most cases, than the males.

They seemed rather to be the analogues of the beard in man, the
mane in the lion, the comb in the cock, or the more brilliant
plumage of some birds, and, possibly, to insect eyes rendered their
possessors more attractive than the duller-coloured and non-plumuled
sisters of their species.

There were many debated points of structure he scarcely felt
justified in touching on, because he had rather dealt with the scales as
a means of differentialising species or determining sex, and not as tests
for objectives.

49

In obtaining the scales for examination, he had found the best way

to examine a wing was to lay it on a clean slide, then place another
clean slide or covering glass upon it and gently press. | Upon remov-
ing the upper slide or covering glass, plenty of scales would be
obtained in their relative positions. The covering glass could be
mounted, or if a ring of cement was run round the slide, a cover added,
and, when dry, a finishing coat were put on, the slide was ready for the
cabinet. He feared he had been too prolix in his remarks, and
not added any new fact to the store of the members of the Society ;
but if he were able to enlist one to pursue the study of scales of insects,
he should have done his quota towards the use of the microscope as a
means of research, for there were many paths open, besides the beaten
tracks, by which not only, if that was needed as a spur, fame might be
won by the discovery of new facts in physiology, but much pleasure
and interest might be derived by prying into the secrets of Nature
hidden from the unaided eye.

The paper was illustrated by chalk drawings on a blackboard.

A discussion followed, in which Mr, HASELWOOD, Alderman Cox,
Mr. DENNET, and others took part.

The meeting then resolved itself into a conversazione; when
a number of slides, showing the different scales and the wings of
butterflies and moths, were examined under the microscope.

FEBRUARY 29TH.
ANNUAL SOIREE,

The Fifth Annual Soirée was held at the Royal Pavilion with
_ great success, some six hundred members and friends being present.

___ Flowers and plants were judiciously arranged about the rooms,
and in the Corridor the staircases at each end were banked with ever-
greens, whilst the fire-places were filled in and the mantel-pieces
cked with floral adornments, Messrs. Balchin and Nell carrying out
S portion of the arrangements.

5°

In the North and South Drawing Rooms, the Saloon, and
Banqueting Room (where also light refreshments were supplied by Mr.
Booth), various objects of interest were set out for inspection, the
numerous microscopes, and other scientific instruments belonging to
the members of the Society, very appropriately engaging the chief
share of attention. Amongst those exhibiting microscopes were Mr.
S. Aylen, Mr. W. Ardley, Mr. J. Capon, Mr. T. Cooper, Mr. J.
Dennant, Mr. J. Gwatkin, Mr. R. Glaisyer, Mr. E. Glaisyer, Mr. J. E.
Haselwood, Mr. B. Lomax, Mr. Mills, Mr. Moore, Mr. W. Mitchell,
Mr, Moginie (Quekett Club), Mr. G. Nash, Mr. Pankhurst, Mr. W.
Puttick, Mr. H. Saunders, Mr. G. D. Sawyer, Mr. Welch, Mr. T. W.
Wonfor, Mr. T. W. C. Wonfor, Dr. Hallifax, and Dr. Tuthill Massy.
A very conspicuous centre of attraction was a huge case, three yards
long by two yards high, containing a pair of splendid mute swans,
with cygnets, which occupied one side of the Saloon. These noble
birds, which came from the Norfolk Broads, were lent by Mr. E. T.
Booth, the owner of the Dyke-road Museum, and excited much ad-
miration. They were mounted and stuffed by Mr. Savile, in the
short space of one week. The artificial foliage was remarkably
natural, and here and there a close observer could discern snails,
caterpillars, &c., modelled to the life. Arctic birds were exhibited by
Mr. Pratt ; Miss Glaisyer contributing others, and the same lady had
a very fine case of shells on view, some of them being exquisitely
beautiful. A number of “ Eskimo” articles, from Disco Island, where
the Arctic Expedition touched, were shown by Mr. H. Willett, as well
as a number of photographs relative to the search for the North-West
Passage, by Alderman Cox. A curious Indian bow for slinging stones,
an assortment of woods used in manufacture, and a strange weapon,
of ibex horn, from Somali, were shown by Mr. W. Saunders. Consider-
able interest was also manifested in a series of illustrations by Dr.
Corfe, of the hands and feet in animal life, whilst those fond of geology
found scope for investigation in the drawings of, and cores from, the
Sub-Wealden borings (which had just been completed for the
Scientific Exhibition at South Kensington), lent by Mr. H. Willett.

Mr. E. Moore, Corporation Analyst, had a very interesting
assortment of various descriptions of butter and cheese from all parts
of the world; his table being much admired for the very tasteful
manner in which the wares were set forth, Ivy, trailing leaves, moss,
butterflies, and other insects, were skilfully used to adorn the palatable-

OE

EWE EE LUIS ig tt be tos

51

looking ornamental pats of butter, and doubtless in this regard many
ladies got a hint which will not be thrown away. One of the specimens
deserved special mention,—that sent by Miss Hadlow, of Uckfield.
The young lady milked the cow, made the butter, and manufactured
the very pretty basket in which it appeared at the Soirée ; and, what
with tasteful adjuncts in the way of flowers and ferns, she carried off
the first prize in the minds of the numerous critical inspectors. Mr.
H. Bull, of Hurst, also sent a miniature hamper of butter, which looked
all that could be desired.

Superb collections of English and Foreign beetles, were contri-
buted by Mr. Dowsett ; butterflies by Mr. Colling ; and Indian butter-
flies and moths by Mr. Wills, occupied other tables, whilst no one could
fail to appreciate the beautiful skeleton leaves prepared by Miss
Gwatkin, and in the arrangement of which the greatest taste and skill
were manifest. Mr. C. Bellingham’s fine assortment of casts of medals
and cameos attracted considerable attention ; and another great object
of interest was a beautiful shell basket shown by Mr. Cox, that gentle-
man also exhibiting some splendid specimens of the lyre bird.

Electrical instruments of the most approved character were lent
by Mr. Whiting, of the Post office, and many of the company amused
themselves by forwarding messages to each other; whilst electricity
__under another aspect was seen in its application to vacuum tubes, pro-

ducing some beautifully tinted fireworks ; Mr. J. Capon being the
demonstrator. Mr. C. J. Rowsell had his combination graphoscope
and other fine instruments on view, and various other apparatus and
objects of interest, including some excellent photographs shown by Mr.
D. B. Friend, were placed here and there about the. various rooms.

During the evening, the following addresses were delivered in the
Music Room. The first was by the President.

Mr. J. DENNANT said it is usual on these occasions for the Presi-
_ dent-to offer a few informal observations preparatory to the work of
_ the evening. These, I think, are fitting occasions when we may fairly
bring before your notice the work of our Society. I may say, to com-
mence, that we are ina most flourishing condition. Financially, we
are extremely healthy, and the number of our Members is something
over 200. We have an excellent and valuable library of over 900
_ volumes of standard scientific works, and I am glad to say that the
’ library is now used by our townspeople without let or hindrance.

52

During the last year we have hada series of papers of a very valuable
character read before the Society. I propose to mention them, that
you may see the class of subjects which come under our
attention. The first to which I will allude is one delivered last
year by our very eminent townsman, Mr. Davidson, F.R.S. He was
generous enough to make known, through our Society, his original
researches in geology, and he gave us the gist of his observations on
brachiopods, in a paper entitled “What is a Brachiopod?” Mr.
Dennet followed with a paper on “ Vegetable Fibres,” and Mr. F. E.
Sawyer read another on ‘‘ The Birds and Mammals of Sussex.” Our
good and untiring friend Mr. Wonfor discoursed “On the Brighton
Aquarium, and what it has done for Science.” Then came Mr. B.
Lomax with a paper on “The Minor Diseases of Plants,” and Mr.
Pankhurst with one on “ The Ores of Iron.” Next we had a paper
from Mr. Potter “ On the so-called Forest Beds.” Mr. Wonfor, who
always comes in when any of our friends fail us, gave a second paper
on “ Manna ;” and we had a valuable paper read by Dr. Hallifax on
“ The Nervous System and its functions.” This was followed by Mr.
C. P. Smith’s paper “On Bees,” which proved very interesting, and
still another from Mr. B. Lomax on “The Branching of Trees.”

These papers have been so amply reported, that it would be un-
necessary and unwise to detain you further with them, except to
remark that the majority of these papers were considerably in advance
of ordinary merit, and, indeed, would have done credit to any of the
learned Societies of this country. Most of them evinced no inconsi-
derable amount of original research. I think that man has missed a
very important element of happiness in common every day life who
has not cultivated his mind and provided for himself an intelligent and
rational pursuit, such as the study of literature, science, or art. You
who are working hard in your profession or business, pause before you
allow your life to slip away without the study of some subject which will
elevate the taste and lead you out of yourself for the time being, and
provide you with a mental tonic which will brace your mind with fresh
energies for your ordinary pursuits (hear, hear). It isa matter of great
importance that young people should have a knowledge of natural
history or natural science generally. It is a matter for congratulation
that those estimable persons who have undertaken the charge of
educating the young are awaking to a knowledge of this fact. Messrs.
Macmillan have, I notice, recently issued an admirable series of science

53

schoolbooks and science p<imers, so that really a child of ten or twelve,
and of ordinary intelligence, may become acquainted in the most
interesting manner with the elements of science in its various branches.

I venture to express the hope that the occasion of this meeting will

be made of great use for the good of our Society. Although we have a

large number of members, we are anxious to increase them. We are

always happy and willing to receive young men—students who are

just beginning to interest themselves in science. We should also be

glad of a few more men of advanced and cultivated mind, and there

ought to be many of these in such a town as Brighton. Men who

have devoted time and attention to science, and who, having come to

settle here, ought as far as possible to identify themselves with the

town through our Society. In these days of shifting opinions and

progressive intellectual development, it is of the highest importance

that our young men should have their minds trained to exact habits
of thought. I think the study of one or more branches of natural

history one of the best means of cultivating a careful and correct judg-

ment. It is, perhaps, impossible to give oneself to the study of scien-

tific facts without unconsciously acquiring a love of impartiality and

truth. Science is advancing with such strides that it is difficult to keep

pace with the discoveries made from time to time. I would allude in

particular to Mr. Crook’s experiments on the dynamic force of light. He

allows the light to penetrate through a glass vessel under which, zz

vacuo, is suspended a spiral thread of glass, with a small steel weight

attached, and the twisting and untwisting of this spiral thread, as
registered upon the vessel, gives him the measure of the twisting
power exerted. Mr. Crook calculates the power exerted by the sun’s
light is equal to 32 grains in the square foot, 57 tons on the square
mile, or three thousand million tons on the whole earth’s surface.
This enormous repellent force, but for the far more powerful attractive
force of gravitation, would drive the earth off into space. This tre-
_ mendous statement must, however, be accepted with reserve, for it is
_ doubtful whether heat as well as light is not a factor in the experiment.

I should like also to allude to Mr. Proctor’s latest book on “ Our
"Place in the Infinities.” After working on the subject for a long time,
he has come to the conclusion that Sirius, or the dog-star, is a giant sun,
_ with five attendant satellites. He says the latest appearance of Sirius
appears to suggest that in connection with this giant sun, as he terms

54

it—a sun more than a million times as distant from us, 4,000 times as
big as our own sun, and with a disc 300 times as large as ours—there
appear to be certain fixed planets, or, rather, to speak popularly, non-
luminous, already cooled-down suns, on which it is quite within the
possibilities of things that life like that of our tiny planet, though on
an infinitely vaster scale, might exist. These are calculations to make
us ponder and reflect, but being based on mathematical principles,
they are probably calculations which may be accepted. Ladies and
gentlemen, it gives us great pleasure to see you at our Soirée ; but you
will understand things of this kind are not got up without trouble and
expense. Fortunately, we have two matchless Secretaries in Mr.
_Wonfor and Mr. J. C. Onions, and the successful result is mainly due
to their labours, though they have been ably assisted by our good
friend and librarian Mr. R. Glaisyer, and Mr. Saunders. I may say
our Society is in affiliation with those of Lewes, Eastbourne,
Chichester, Croydon, Belfast, Glasgow, and West Kent, with the
Geological Association, and with the Quekett Microscopical Club. We
exchange transactions, and our officers for the time being are ex-officio
members of each of these kindred Societies. This will show that we
are doing our work, and making our way in the interests of science in|
this town. But I am travelling beyond my original intention. I am
to be succeeded by Mr. Merrifield, who will discourse to us “On
1900.” Many have asked me what that may mean. If we ask 1,900
times, echo will answer, “ What?” Perhaps he has made a great
anthropological discovery of 1,900 ancient Britons, whose achieve-
ments he is to celebrate, as Tennyson celebrated those of the gallant
600. I should not be much astonished to find he wants £1,900 for
the new Science and Art Schoo! ; if he did, you would be sure to re-
spond; you could not do better for your own honour or the good of
the town. Mr. Haselwood will read a paper on “Evolution.” The
word need not frighten you, for Mr. Haselwood has read and thought
a great deal about the subject, and has all the ability to talk about it
in an interesting manner. Mr. Mayall promises a lecture on ancient
and modern astronomy contrasted. He has studied the subject for
many years, and may speak with authority upon it. Mr. Moore will
lecture on butter. I am afraid it will prove a painful and disagreeable
subject. Really we do not know what we eat, and I fear he will make
you uncomfortable on the subject of adulteration of butter. I have
been forcibly reminded this evening of the line of Watts, ‘‘ How doth

55

the little busy bee improve each shining hour.” The hour is not
shining, but the bee is busy swarming in an adjacent hive. I am glad
to find it has not affected in any way our gathering this evening. If I
have spoken to you in an informal way, it is because I felt that with
the important lectures before us this evening a more elaborate address
would be beside my duty.

MR. F. MERRIFIELD ON “ NINETEEN HUNDRED.”

It is sometimes good to look backwards. I believe it is often
better to look forward. Each of these views indeed—the retrospective
and the prospective—equally gives rise to a diversity of feelings. In
some persons, the retrospect only calls forth a lament over the good
old times departed, in others it evokes a feeling of contentment with
the advances made; in like manner, the anticipation, while in some
it awakes alarming apprehensions as to the fate of all those institutions
that are most valued, in others it arouses the glowing aspirations that
spring from a contrast between the present and, if I may use an ex-
pression that seems like the name of a tense not known to gram-
marians, “the perfect future.” You know that there have been several
histories of Brighton, the last of them by that wittiest member of the
Aldermanic. body, if the rest will pardon my calling him so, Mr.
Alderman Martin. I propose to give you a few features of the history
of the same place, and to do so, without in any way trespassing on
the ground occupied by the worthy Alderman, or the historians who
have preceded him. I am going to ask you to pass with me at a
bound from 1876 to 1900, and to look at Brighton as it will present
_ itself. This is really history, only seen from the other end ; and it has
_ this advantage over the usual, but inaccurate, form of history, that I
. shall be able to defy all the world to disprove a single word of what I
q shall advance. Any of my hearers may, indeed, disbelieve me, but in
so doing what will he do but earn for himself that most opprobrious
of names, a sceptic ? Imagine me, then, as venerable in appearance
as I may hope to be in 1900, while I give you this sketch of the town
__ as it may appear in that Year of Grace.

J The population, according -to the last quinquennial census, was
157,053. Regency-square is about the centre of the town: it has a
very old fashioned look, and one can plainly see that the pier—built

56

about 40 years since -was no spontaneous growth of that sleepy
looking square ; sleepy and bald, for it still displays a bare expanse of
grass, visited by no one but the gardener who has to mow it, its
monotony unrelieved by a single flower or shrub. It seems there is
one inhabitant who stands out against reform—an old lady, born at a
period when it was thought no part of a parent’s duty to train the
intelligence ; and, therefore, like many “old girls of the period,”
quite inaccessible to reason. The streets of the older part of the town
are mostly too narrow for trees; but, wherever they are not so, the
Municipality has planted them ; and, as a consequence, lines and
clumps of verdure relieve even the most desolate-looking parts of the
town. Where trees would intercept the sea view, lower objects have
been well planted, and are carefully tended ; so that the shrubs, while
not trimmed into unnatural shapes, but breaking into all the variety
of outline that belongs to them by nature, are clothed with foliage
from the very ground ; and the flower beds, though the “ raised pie
and jam tart” patterns have been abandoned, show no unsightly
patches of bare earth. The efforts of the municipal authorities have
been fully seconded by the householders. The architect has come to
own that, however beautiful may be his own creations, these of his
brother professional men are for the most part very ugly, the
difficulties inherent to great expanses of brick and Portland cement
being recognised as so great that, unless considerable expense in
ornament can be afforded, it is nothing but a mistake to make them
such striking objects as to invite attention, and that the best plan is to
call in the nurseryman’s aid to drape them with creeping plants. The
consequence is, that in winter the houses appear to nestle in ivy and
euonymus, glowing here and there with flame-coloured bands of pyra-
canthus,—such as even, 30 years ago, might have been seen, as one
passed by the Railway, on Mr. Gorringe’s house, at Southwick,—
or with the brilliant scarlet of the cotomaster, or the large golden
fruit of the passion flower; while all through the summer and autumn
months they are festooned with Virginia creeper, passion flower, and
honeysuckle, and with clematis of every sort, from the one that
climbs to the top of lofty buildings and covers them in May with
white star-like flowers as freely as it does the deodars on the slopes of
its native mountains, to those more late-flowering kinds which,
throughout the following months, display in succession their sheets of
violet and lilac bloom. .

57

The newer and western part of the town, where the streets were
originally laid out for the planting of trees, is, of course, much the
most beautiful, and architects have discovered that even rather bald
masses of brick and Portland cement may be made agreeable to the
eye when shut off by the shade and greenery of trees and shrubs. As
used to be predicted by the Officer of Health, Dr. Taaffe, who still sur-
vives in a green old age, this abundance of verdure has purified the air
and improved the health of the population, as well as their dispositions.
I remember in my younger days that there was a notion that trees
would not grow in Brighton ; of course, all that was necessary was to
prepare the soil and make a good selection of kinds. I have heard,
too, that thirty years ago, or even less, the local authorities treated the
foot pavements as the concern, not of the people who walked on them,
but of those who lived in the houses opposite, so that it was no uncom-
mon thing to find a street admirably paved except in a single spot a
few yards long where it had two or three inches of soft mud. This is
very much as if a railway were to be considered the affair of the
landowners through whose estates it passed, and any of them was at
liberty to leave an arch of a viaduct unfinished as long as he pleased.
Perhaps you will hardly believe this, but I can assure you not only was
_ the fact so, but, at the time when the practice prevailed, there were
_ plenty of people to justify it and to declare it was the only reasonable
one. |

One of the causes of all the improvements we witness, no doubt,
_ was the change that has taken place in the condition of the people.
_ Thirty years ago one in eighteen of the population of Brighton were
_ paupers. It has now long been recognised that a country may have
_ just as much pauperism and crime as it desires. Perhaps you will
scarcely credit me when I tell you that when I was approaching middle
_age the State had scarcely taken any step towards the prevention of
_ these great evils. Parents were at liberty to allow their children to
tun wild in the streets, growing up in ignorance even of reading,
writing, and arithmetic ; they might even encourage them to beg and
_ train them as thieves, and no questions were asked; and, with the
_ notorious fact that troops of children were allowed to grow up in this
_ way and would almost necessarily become vagabonds and criminals,
"no effort was made by the constituted authorities to reclaim them. Ibe
_ indeed, a crime was committed, or even if those wretched outcasts
_ Made themselves a nuisance to respectable persons by begging for

58

food, then society came down on them with a heavy hand ; the only
notice taken by the State of those who were neglected by their natural
guardians being to punish them when they did that which was the
necessary consequence of the conditions under which they were per-
mitted to live. It was not till 1870 that the principle was recognised
that parents were bound to give their children elementary education,
and that when they were too poor to do so a child’s future was not to
be sacrificed to the desire of its parents for the services of the child in
attending on them, or even on their babies ; and when the obligation
was made a legal one, every sort of obstacle was thrown in the way of .
those who had to enforce it. It was not until five years later that an
Industrial School was established in Sussex, to which children
neglected by their parents, but unconvicted of crime, could be sent.
Can it be wondered at that, in such a state of society, the classes that
held a position affording them comfort and refinement, lived ina state
of chronic apprehension of those below them in the social scale, and —
more especially in some foreign countries, where the circle of enlighten-
ment was a smaller one than in this country, looked on them with a
shuddering alarm such as that with which the luxurious inhabitants of
the Roman Empire regarded the barbarians whom they knew only as
savages and enemies?

I can remeinber, and not so long ago, when there were certain
districts in all our large towns which seemed abandoned to vice, and
which no decent man or woman would traverse without necessity, and
when you could not pass an assemblage of young fellows belonging to
the class of ordinary labourers without the chance of having your ears
assailed by some of the worse words known to our language, used
without reference to the subject matter, and as if it was a positive
pleasure to say what was coarse and ribald. It is scarcely to be
wondered at that the great aim of persons belonging to the classes so
unfortunately situated was to get out of them. This was even thought
a very meritorious object of ambition, and it was no uncommon thing
to hear those who were seeking to make themselves agreeable to an
audience of working men point to a shop counter in the first genera-
tion, a seat in Parliament in the second, and a peerage in the third, as
successive stages in the upward path of virtue. We do not discourage
such efforts to rise in the present day, but certainly reserve our highest
admiration for those who, instead of seeking to escape from evil, pursue
and destroy it. ;

59

As a consequence of this change in public sentiment, we find there
is no class now that is left abandoned to vagabondage or vice.
Drunkenness, as an openly practised vice, is now rare, and if a person
is found committing it two or three times, he is very properly put
under lengthened restraint. Twenty-five years ago there was no such
provision. The same person might be convicted more than twenty
times of drunkenness, and all that the law allowed was to fine the
offender, or send him to prison again fora short term. You will not
_ be surprised to hear that very often half-a-dozen men and women ap-
peared in the dock morning after morning on the charge of being drunk
and disorderly. Most of what are now our Industrial Schools were
_then prisons, in which hardened offenders were employed for hours
every day, in turning a crank which ground nothing, being all the time
maintained at vast expense to the public, who were crushed with rates
and taxes. Our army was then an institution in which the standard of
conduct was popularly considered much lower than that of ordinary
civil occupations ; now, as you know, it is as moral and well-conducted
a body of men as any in England. The theatres were then very
different from what they are now. I can remember when many clergy-
men thought it sinful to go to them; and there is no doubt that,
although they invited the presence of the higher classes, and were con-
siderably patronised by persons of enlightenment and culture, you would
often hear and see things that would have been simply intolerable in
society. This was supposed to be done to please the gallery. Now
that the spirits of brutality and coarseness are exorcised from all ranks
of society, there is no excuse for such things, and they have conse-
quently disappeared, and, as you know by your own daily experience,
_ the stage may be as pure as the drawing-room, or, perhaps, the pulpit,
and I dare say many of you think, much more amusing.

With the general spread of refinement downwards, or rather
anticipating and in great degree causing it, has come a general
_ shortening of the hours of labour—of course, as workmen have become

60

returns of the large number of books circulated from the Public
Library among these classes. The mention of the library reminds me
of a meeting I attended about 4o years ago to adopt the Public
Libraries Act. It soon appeared that the promoters were ina small
minority ; they were hissed and hooted. At length, a spokesman of
the majority appeared who looked the embodiment of his principles ;
‘he uttered a few strong sentences decidedly in accord with his ap-
pearance, and I shall never forget his peroration, which he concluded
amid the rapturous applause of the meeting with the phrase “ Eddica-
tion is a cuss.”

One of the greatest improvements has been in the processes of
voting and elections so frequent in all highly civilized communities.
Formerly the system was so rude that it afforded no security, either for
representation in proportion to the prevalence of opinion, or against
the return of a candidate whose sentiments were opposed to those of
the great majority of the electors—this latter result often happened
when the majority could not at first agree on one candidate out of two
or three offering themselves. My younger hearers have no conception
of the passion imported some years since into political and religious
discussions. Even in politics a large number of persons would
habitually get so excited when they discussed them that they could not
reason at all about them, but only harangued, and assailed with
vituperation, those who did not agree with them. Now, as you know,
people can reason about them as calmly as they do about history or
political economy. The more moderate spirit with which religious
controversies are conducted is probably owing to the discovery made
in recent times, that what thoughtful and excellent people who have
studied the subject agree in is more likely to be true, and, probably,
at this late stage of mankind’s existence, more important than what
they differ about. You know how large and influential is now the body
of those who hold to this principle, and who, so far as they havea
distinctive name at all, call themselves ‘‘ true Catholics.”

A truth which was not much recognised until recently is that no
man can personally enjoy property after he is dead. As aconsequence
persons show a much greater disposition than formerly to make good
use of it while they are living. We do not now call a person
charitable who only leaves his property by will to charitable objects,
because what he thus gives to them he takes, not from himself, but

61

from others. The habit of accumulation was so strong that if a
millionaire presented a park or a costly public building to a populous
town, even when by so doing he did not deprive either himself, or any
of his children, of a single comfort or enjoyment, he was thought to do
an extraordinarily liberal thing. One of the greatest developments of
education during the last quarter of a century has been in the
direction of the cultivation of material and physical sciences. You
will, perhaps, hardly believe that, until long after the middle of the
19th century, scarcely any subjects were studied at the Universities
and Public Schools but the classics, as they were called, z.2., the
language and literature of ancient Greece and Rome, and mathematics,
and nearly all the other schools,—even those, the pupils in which were
intended mostly to be tradesmen or clerks,—followed suit,
you are well aware, science is considered at least
to the older subjects of study,
of science.

Now, as
equal in importance
and every provincial town has its school

I remember the struggle we had to establish ours at Brighton,
I recollect Sir John Mayall—he had not been knighted then—
_ Was one of its most active promoters, It was out of pure
__ liberality that he made what was then thought (and was so at the time)
the handsome gift towards a public object of £100 ; but he had his
reward. He told me as long ago as the year 1890 that it was while
visiting the students at work in the laboratory of the Science School
on the Grand-parade that the process occurred to him by which
f aluminium could be inexpensively extracted from the mud of Shoreham
_ Harbour and converted into teaspoons and other articles of plate.
_ This discovery was the germ of that great Metallic Plate and Furni-
q ture Factory which he has established at La

ncing, an industry that
_ has revolutionised the furniture trade, and has had so large a share

in the development of the “ Liverpool of the South.”

You were kind enough to take with me the leap to A.D, 1900. Will

62

present age, and you are disposed to ask by what right I make these
strictures, let me make answer that I claim none, and that I shall be
the last to deny the impeachment if I am accused of being one who
whilst he—

Shows you the steep and thorny way to heaven,
Himself the primrose path of dalliance treads,
And recks not his own rede.

MR. ALD. MAYALL, M.R.I., F.C.S.. ON ‘‘ASTRONOMY,
ANCIENT AND MODERN, CONTRASTED.”

Man is more content with no intellectual light, than with a little,
and whenever he has been taught to acquire some knowledge to please
others, he generally plods onwards to acquire more to please himself.
“ So far shalt thou go and no farther” is as inapplicable to wisdom as
to the wave. The fruit of the tree of knowledge may stand in the
garden, undesired ; only, so long as it is untouched,—but the moment
it is tasted prohibition is in vain. This has been truthfully designated
“the age of enquiry ;” everything is, oris not. There can, logically
speaking, be no middle path, so far as the things themselves are
concerned ; but only so far as our limited powers of investigation
permit. About the things we know, there can be no doubt; and at
the point where this latter operation begins, our knowledge ends.
Truth is the real object of some, the avowed object of all; but truth
can neither be divided against herself, nor rendered destructive of
herself. As she courts investigation and solicits enquiry, it follows
that her votaries grow with her growth, strengthen with her strength.
What a pity she is little subservient to the interests of party! Oh!
how I should love her if she would stick to my church, and believe as
I do! but, in her pure, unadulterated state, she is as unfit for currency
as pure gold for circulation. Sir Walter Raleigh has observed that he
who follows truth too closely must take care that she does not knock
out his teeth. But the votaries of truth have little to fear from herself,
though much from her pretended friends. Sir John Herschel, speaking
of mental purity, observes, “It is the ‘euphrasy and rue’ with which
we must ‘purge our sight’ before we can receive and contemplate, as

63

they are the lineaments of truth and nature.” In the spirit of meek-
ness, and imbued with these principles, do I submit the present
enquiry,

On all things created there remains the half-effaced image of
Deity—infinite in grand outline, infinite in minute perfection. Nature
is the chart of God, mapping out His attributes. Art is the shadow of
His wisdom ; His own right hand holdeth the first of the golden links
in the chain of causation. That He isin all things is an axiom ; or
else, why this subtle frarae-work of thought ? this power to penetrate
the illimitable past? this thirsting after the boundless future? His law
directeth the path of the comet or the particle of dust. His omni-
science is as creative in the grain of mustard-seed as in that ofa
world. The embarrassment and perplexity I now feel ought to serve
as a hint to authors to know what to do next. Now,most people have
no next. It would have been a consolation if Herschel had not
penetrated so deeply into the philosophy of nebulous matter. With
him, I assert, that the nebula in the sword of Orion is but the nucleus
of a solar system, the crude gatherings of etherial substance; but, in a
moment, Lord Ross smashes me to atoms; he tells me they are
clusters of stars of spheroidal form, at such immeasurable distances,
that their light would have to travel for countless ages to reach this
earth. We are told that solitude made a Cincinnatus, that the wise and
the learned brood over chaos, where thought and emotion first have
birth, that in seclusion’s vale are brought forth the most precious fruits.

I withdraw myself from the busy hum of man. I cannot add that
I will not borrow—the command has been so often broken by my
predecessors ; conscience becomes auricular, and whilst pomposity
and dulness may stammer out a speech that sendeth the wise to sleep,
surely I may be permitted to penetrate the lore of that far-off country
where Herodotus was told that the Choen, or men of learning, in-
formed him that the poles of the earth and the poles of the ecliptic
had formerly coincided, the traditions of whose philosophers reckon
by ages their respective annals; but, without being tedious, and in
order that the twenty minutes may not be too crowded, I will
endeavour to condense the crude notions of men, unguided by the
light of science. How the universe was first produced has ever been
_ a curious speculation and an object of idle solicitude with mankind.

The following theory was the product of Chi-me-ri, an eastern

64

philosopher, of coursé. Reasoning from the little experience he had
been able to collect, he profoundly asserted that the firmament of
heaven was merely a chamber floor, with holes of greater and lesser
magnitude perforated in it and a large flaming fire kept up behind, the
small holes were bored with a bradawl, the larger ones with a gimlet,
and the sun and moon with a faucet-wimble. This theory agitated
nations ; human lives were sacrificed in its support ; hecatombs were
offered unto the gods in testimony of its truth. I am unable to say
how many generations of men it required to outlive this profound
theory, until at last it was hinted that when the tap-hole and bung-hole
of a barrel are once inserted they always maintain their relative
positions, although it was frequently observed that the same law did
not obtain with the tap-hole and bung-hole of the sky, for the moon
often changed places with the sun, and would sometimes set up her
pale face in the east when her brighter companion had hid his charms
in the west. Besides, it was urged that the expense of keeping so
many and such vast fires alight, was so great, that men, however,
began to doubt; cut from the anchorage of Chi-me-ri their bark was
a plaything on the billows of chance, and they began even to blush
that an imposture so great should, for so many ages, have held their
minds in thrall, andentrapped their curiosity ; the temples of Chi-me-ri
then began to thin, and votive offerings were made at the shrines of
Fan-ti-ci.

He still kept up the idea of a chamber-floor to the sky (and we
now know the sun would supply him with deams). But even his
imagination could not supply the fire. He taught that the stars were
brass nails of smaller and larger magnitude, driven into the rafters.
The very large ones were drawer knobs, and the sun and moon patent
reflectors that would have had the power to throw light even into an
election enquiry! Old temples were demolished, new ones erected, in
honour of this clockwork of the brain, but the cup of wisdom was
drained to its dregs, nations ranged themselves under the banners of
Fan-ti-ci. Mystery, the high priest of danger, stultified hope ; man
sought the light of the glow-worm, but scorned that of the sun and
moon. Again, doubt pressed his ugly form to the front, and it was
gravely hinted that the labour of keeping so many brass nails clean,
merely for mankind to look at, was at least an useless one; and,
besides, if the whole of the Bristol-of-Chaldea had been made of one
brick, and the skins of every animal that had ever lived had been

65

tanned, they would not have supplied the leather and polish for the
purpose. The theory fell to the ground from sheer inutility, and the
great soap-bubble was obliged to be blown from another quarter. But,
alas! I am compelled to add, the grown-up children of science
amuse themselves, even now, with theories quite as irrational. They
dive so deep, they descend into darkness, or they soar so high that
they give us no light. Their puffed nonsense bids fair to blow unpuffed
sense out of the field.

To return.—Mankind, after the explosion of this theory of Fan-
ti-ci were unwilling to be led by one teacher ; and, for a time, the
world rolled on in its course, the stars poured forth their light, sunshines
and showers, alternated with cold and heat, sent forth: the wine and
oil of content. But, on the principle that it is always better to meet
danger than to wait for it, the world was dying of inanition, until
Bi-go-tri, a learned philosopher beyond the great wall, gave forth
another idea, taught that the stars were globes of fire, suspended in
_ the firmament of heaven by a chain, the larger ones by a long, and
_ the smaller ones by a short chain; and this theory began to be
_ generally adopted, until it was suggested that the earth must also be
_ suspended by a chain; but as none of our circumnavigators ever dis-

covered such a chain, from Dampier to Cook, and I think I might even
venture as far as Franklin and Parry, doubt, the devil’s vestibule,
again suggested, if there had been such a chain it could not possibly
answer any good purpose. The curious would climb up to heaven for
__ the mere purpose of saying, as travellers now do, “ that they have been
_ there.” The /rzvolous, because they were not wanted, and the dis-
contented to complain, like martyrs, of neglect ; little thinking how
small a fraction there is in their stunted souls to love, how much to
“scorn ! so that the chain would be crowded from top to bottom like an
onion-rope. Besides some unlucky wight, inan unlucky moment, might
take it into his wicked head to cut or file the chain ; and let the earth,
with all her screaming inhabitants, fall ! down ! down! down!! Ah!
4 who knows where? So much for the speculations of what are called

dened into more probable modes of thought, through the multiform
changes in Egypt, Greece, and Rome. The speculation of Zoroaster
¢ transplanted by Bélus among the Assyrians, age and country

66

uncertain ; later than these by Berdsus who first taught the Chaldean
learning to the Greeks, who in their turn founded the principal theories
of the universe that agitated the ancient world. The Pythagorean
theory, 498 B.C., built on the rock of eternal unity, has stood the test
of ages. That the sun is the centre of our solar system, and although
the Ionic school founded by Thales, 600 B.c., comprises the names of
the greatest luminaries of ancient times, the Italic school, founded by
Pythagoras, teught those principles that have received the stamp of
Copernicus, 1543 A.D., of Kepler, 1625, of Galileo, 1643, and our own
immortal Newton, 1727 A.D., the greatest philosopher and most pro-
found astronomer that ever lived. He verified the “ Laws of Kepler,”
and applied his profound analysis of the Principia, to explain the
harmony of revolving masses, and the balance of the planetary
system on the principles of gravity ; so that astronomy has received
the name of the Newtonian system, in honour of his transcendent
genius. Dr. Halley, Dr. Bradley (aberration of light), Maskelyne,
Sir William Herschel, Brinkley, Pearson, Sir Thomas Brisbane, Sir
John Herschel, Sir James South, whose famous instruments, including
the transit instrument with which most of the valuable work has been
performed in the northern hemisphere, are now at work in my
observatory at Lancing. To my late friend Admiral Smyth, the
author of the “ Cycle of Celestial Objects,” he was indebted for some
of the valuable methods of observance he established with so much
labour. Whilst of living men of our own country, he could not pass
over Adams, Airey, Dawes, Hind, Lockyer, and Proctor, each of
whom has added something towards perfecting the profoundest
science with which the intellect of man can ever hope to grapple, and
rendered it so accurate, that now, the smallest deviations in the pre-
cession of the equinoxes will but add another link to the chain of
causation by which our own solar system is held together as part of
the stellar universe.

La Place supposes that, at some very remote period, the solar
atmosphere extended beyond the limits of the farthest planet. The
sun in its primeval state resembled those nebulz described by
Herschel as composed of a bright nucleus, surrounded by nebulosity,
which, as it gradually condensed at the surface of the nucleus, ulti-
mately converted it into a star. Now, supposing such a condensation
took place, it would have been very gradual. Dynamical laws show
how this condensation would increase the sun’s rotation, which again

67

would impart greater centrifugal force to the solar matter of inter-
planetary space, cooling its outer edges and contracting them. This
condensation would separate successive zones of vapour, which, by
mutual attractions of their particles, would form concentric circles
circulating round the sun. These rings would divide into several
Masses and would circulate with nearly equal velocity ; mechanical
considerations show how these masses would assume a spheroidal
form, with their rotatory motions in the same direction, viz., from west
to east, if one of them were of sufficient bulk to unite by its attraction
all the lesser masses of the same zone. It is easy to conceive how
the planetary system has come into being, the sun rotating from west
to east, the planets and their satellites rotating from west to east, and
all nearly in the same plane, the motion of rotation on their respective
axes being in the same direction, and nearly in the same planes, of
_ their motion of projection. The human mind grows dizzy with the
_ thought ! ;
‘ _ The whole solar system, then, with the orbits of the different
_ bodies that compose it, would be circles, whose equators would coincide
_ with the solar equator, and if there had been no disturbing causes, such
as temperature, unequal condensation, chemical constituents to pro-
duce eccentricity of orbits and the deviation of these orbits from the
plane of the equator, there would have been absolute coincidence in
_ them ; but this very deviation is the key by which mathematicians have
_ been able to show the probability of such an origin. The earth, then,
with its attendant satellite may have been thus projected, thus formed
from an incandescent mass ; and, as it is one of the smallest
satellites of the sun, its size being only 1,140,000 part of that
luminary, and the planetary system to which it ‘belongs, although
P 3,000,000,000 of miles in radius, is only one amongst myriads, It
_ depends on the sun, and, therefore, could not have existed before the
sun, much less could it exist before the system to which it belongs,
_ The earth, then, although one of the smallest objects in the universe,
serves as an exponent of the laws by which the whole is governed.
The rays of light streaming in from remote space declare for unity, and
in Many cases for identity, of substance.

One law prevades the universe. Solar spots and solar phenomena

S

are now the objects of such intense interest that physicists of every
country are enlarging our knowledge of the volcanic action of the sun,

638

of magnetic disturbance, and the spectrum analyis of every eruption.
Kirchoff, Huggens, Lockyer, Janson, the late Professor Miller, all
confirm, by the most rigid analysis, the identity of certain metals in a
state of incandescence in our own sun are equally active in Sirius, Alpha-
Lyre, and the principal stars of the heavens, with some additions in
the case of Sirius, which exhibits absorptive lines of metals, of which
we have no corresponding substance in our own solarsystem. Again,
we have in our own solar system examples of the cosmical theory,
now in various stages of progress. All the superior planets, except
Mars, have a number of satellites, and Saturn, in addition, a ring of
vapour, whilst the sun is now known to be, in its outer film, a mass of
gaseous cosmical vapour, and its deep centre one molten mass of
metals, common to the earth itself. The immense magnitude of the
sun is such that a cannon ball, flying at the rate of 480 miles per hour
would take 76 days 19 hours 40 minutes to fly across the sun’s
diameter ; a railway train, at the rate of 500 miles a day, 1,769 days
22 hours 25 minutes to go over a distance equal to the diameter of the
sun, In conclusion, Wolleston affirms that the apparent diameter of
the most brilliant star in the heavens, Sirius, is not more than the
fifteenth part of a second of an arc, but this leaves.a good margin for
the real dimensions of the star, since, at the distance of Sirius, such an
apparent diameter as this would represent a real diameter of 11,000,000
miles, that is, twelve times the diameter of our sun. The sun’s
diameter is 884,967 miles ; Sirius, 10,619,604 miles. Now, the cubical
contents of globular bodies are found by cubing the diameter and
multiplying by 5,236. The masses of globular bodies are to each
other as the cubes of their diameters, this found, divide the greater by
the less, and Sirius will be found to contain a mass of 53,977 times
that of the sun. Similarly, Vega in Lyra would make 75,532 million
earths. The imagination is appalled with such magnitudes, and sinks
helpless into the arms of design.

MR. J. E. HASELWOOD ON “EVOLUTION.”

Anatomists tell us that there are in the human ear certain rudi-
mentary muscles which seem to indicate that at one time in his history

69

man had the power of moving his ears much in the same way that the
horse and many other animals now have, and this opinion is
strengthened by the fact that some few human beings still possess a
slight power over these muscles and_can give a little movement to
their ears either backwards or forwards, and also that here and there
the internal folds of the ear present a point which looks very like
having been the apex of the ear when it assumed a somewhat different
form from that which it now takes. Now supposing for the moment
that what I am about to say is worth hearing (a supposition which I
personally cannot make), it might, considering my weak voice, be an
advantage to you if these rudimentary muscles in your ears were in a
more developed state, so that you might convert your ears into a
trumpet shape and turn them in the direction of my voice. Of course
I exclude all ladies present from any such suggestion, as nothing could
possibly compensate them for the disfigurement which would be occa-
sioned by such an use of their ears.

The fact I have just mentioned is a natural introduction to the
subject upon which I am allowed the privilege of talking to you for
_ ten minutes this evening—that subject is Evolution, and the fact I
have stated is one of those used by the advocates of evolution in
support of their theory. There is no disguising the fact that the
theory of evolution is one full of difficulties, but it is much more full
_ of prejudices, and probably the subject is one about which more is
:. said without the speaker knowing exactly what he is talking about,
_ than upon any other subject which just now is taking up public atten-
tion. It is, however, not my intention in the short space allotted to
_ me here to attempt to set forth all the theory of evolution, indeed, I
% “am not competent so to do, not having devoted sufficient time to its
} study, and probably not having the skill if I had the time to unravel
j _ its mysteries and give anything like a clear and understandable ex-
_ position of the system. I have a much more modest end in view,
Namely, to notice three of its main doctrines, to glance at some of the
_ uses which are being made of the system by some of its advocates,
7 ae to draw a practical conclusion therefrom, having a bearing upon
Esocicty which has invited you here this evening.

_ But before doing this allow me distinctly to say that I do not in-
tend to give any opinion whatever upon the truth or otherwise of
evolution, it would be presumptuous in me to attempt such a thing, I

7O

am a simple enquirer ; to me evolution presents itself as a theory well
worthy of the investigation of every intelligent man. I am only at the
threshold of it, and cannot pretend to be a judge, except in so far as
may be necessary for my personal guidance.

The moot idea of evolution seems to me to be over-production, in
the sense that an enormous number of life germs produced by nature
cannot in the nature of things reach maturity. In the organic
world, wherever we look, we find large numbers of life germs being
constantly produced, the greater proportion of which never can live out
the term of their natural life, and comparatively few of which can live
even long enough to reproduce their kind. The reasons for this
are not far to seek. For one thing there is not usually sufficient food
for them all. Again all are more or less subject to attacks from enemies,
many of them serving as food for a higher organisation than them-
selves; andclimate being also a very destructive influence amongst them.
From these and other subordinate causes arise what the evolutionists
call the struggle for existence—a struggle of terrible appearance, when
looked at apart from its consequences. The effect of this struggle, so
evolutionists say, is that only such of the plants and animals as are the
strongest and healthiest of their kind, and best adapted to their environ-
ment, survive ; and by means, and because of this struggle, the species,
whatever that species may be, is safe from deterioration and brought to
a far higher state of perfection than it would otherwise arrive at.

If Malthus be right, I suppose the time will come when this
delightful state of things will prevail amongst human beings, but, per-
haps some of you will think that as to human beings, the struggle for
existence is already great enough, quite sufficient to induce every
thoughtful man to make the best of himself—physically, mentally, and
morally—and so help to produce the much desired-improvements in
his fellows and descendants without the necessity for the introduction
of the more formidable agencies to which I have alluded.

Working by the side of this “struggle for existence” is another
law, namely, that of inherited qualities. Every living thing seems to
bring forth after its kind-—-one blade of grass is very like another of
the same kind—one sheep is very similar to another. Every gardener
and every farmer knows the tendency of plants and animals to inherit
the good or bad qualities of their respective parents ; hence if a plant
or an animal either inherits or acquires qualities which make it in any

]
;
4
1
;

71

way superior to others of its kind, that plant or animal will in all
probability survive its fellows and transmit those qualities to some of
its descendants, and thus such qualities will be preserved, but whilst
this law of inherited qualities is true as a general statement, it is
qualified by the fact that the descendants of a plant or an animal are
never exactly like their parents—the son although often very like his
father, is never so much so as to be mistaken for him, and this is so in
all living things,—there is a constant variation in character and qualities
in what se2m to us to be subordinate things. Some of these variations
are beneficial to the plant or animal, others are hurtful. Of course the
hurtful ones tend to the destruction of those possessing them, whilst the
_. beneficial ones give their possessors superior advantages in the struggle
for existence, and so by virtue of these two causes--the inheritance of
good qualities with a variation in favour of the individual—the
individual fortunate enough to possess them must of necessity over-
match all others of its kind, and if any of its kind survive, it will be
among the number--there will be, as the evolutionists say, a survival of
the fittest.

These I take it are the main foundations of evolution. There are,
of course, a large number of subsidiary doctrines, and the system as
a system is growing almost every day ; but I think I have stated
. enough for the purpose I have in hand. Now this theory of evolution
seems to be finding favour in the minds of our leading scientific men.
I find Professor Wyville Thompson writing thus in his Depths of the
Sea :—“I do not think that I am speaking too strongly when I say
that there is now scarcely a single competent general naturalist who is
not prépared to accept some form of the doctrine of Evolution.”
_ Again, Professor W. Stanley Jevons, in his Principles of Science,
_ says :—“ The theories of Darwin and Spencer are doubtless not
_ demonstrated ; they are to some extent hypothetical, just as all
_ theories of physical science are to some extent hypothetical and open
_todoubt. But I venture to look upon the theories of evolution and
‘natural selection in their main features as two of the most probable
hypotheses ever proposed, harmonizing and explaining as they do

_ immense numbers of diverse facts. I question whether any scientific
works, since the ‘ Principia’ of Newton, are comparable in importance
with those of Darwin and Spencer, revolutionizing as they do all our

ews of the origin of bodily, mental, moral, and social phenomena.”

Seeing, then, from the testimony of these two competent witnesses

72

how wide an acceptance the theory is receiving, how is it being used ?
By some in a very mild way—merely making the word species a more
pliable word, and using it to cover much more than it did heretofore,
and so simplyfying classification. But others go much further than
this, and make the theory account for all living things (except man) ;
that is, they say that all living things have come from one simple
living germ, which simple living germ, by virtue of the influence of
the laws of evolution, has evolved all the varied forms of things we
see in Nature. Others again shut out the creation of the living germ,
and lay down spontaneous generation as an all-sufficient account of
the origin of life and the laws we have been considering as an
explanation of its variations.

Had this been all I should not have called your attention to this
matter this evening ; it might well have been left to those who take
pleasure therein, but the more advanced disciples make evolution
account for everything, not only man as an animal, but man as a
speaking, reasoning, and moral creature, a view of it which comes
close home to us all, tending, as it does, to sweep away what some of
us hold to be very precious, and which certainly ought not to be parted
with by us without good cause shown. Now seeing that this theory
is so important in its consequences, and is gaining such ground, what
attitude ought we take up with regard to it? It seems to me that it is
one of those things that we cannot simply ignore, that is, if we are
thoughtful men. We want to get at the truth about all these higher
problems dealing with our “whence” and “whether” ; whether we
will or not the time is coming when some thought and attention will
have to be given to the subject ; it is pressing on, its advocates have
just started an able quarterly, the avowed object of which is to base
psychology upon physiology; it comes before us with all the power
and fascination of what it calls, and which to a large extent
undoubtedly are, verifiable facts as its proofs. It will be seen, on
examining it more fully, that a large number of its proofs are drawn
from natural phenomena.

How many of us have a sufficient acquaintance with these things
to be able to understand whether the facts are correctly stated, and
more especially whether the right deductions are made from them? I
fear but few, and I want you to join our Society, and be real workers
therein, as it seems to me extremely desirable that all truthseekers in

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the present day should compel themselves to spare some portion of time
at least to a study of nature and natural phenomena, and especially in
their broader and more philosophic aspects,and thus prepare themselves
to test, consider, and properly weigh the evidence brought forward in
Support of a theory which, if it turn out true, we must, of course,
accept ; but if we can detect mistakes in its facts, or flaws in its
reasonings, we shall most of us be only too glad to hold by the faith of
our fathers and retain beliefs and hopes for here and hereafter, which
have been a source of solace and comfort to the generations that have
preceded us, rather than to let them go the way of worn-out
superstitions.

MR. E. MOORE ON “BUTTER AS A NUTRIMENT:
ITS SOURCES AND ADULTERANTS.”

I suppose that, if the question—* Why do we eat butter?”—were
asked, the natural reply from most persons would be, “ Because we like
it;” and yet, unknown to ourselves, perhaps, we are following the
inexorable Jaw of demand and supply from our bodies in the daily
introduction of fat food necessary for the reparation of the system by
supplying carbon lost through respiration. Anyhow, in some form or
other, it is essential to our physical well-being that some daily modicum
of fat should be presented to our digestive power; and_ butter
fat represents, to by far the larger portion of our population, the

“most natural, as well as the most agreeable, form in which to take it.
- With bread, butter, and milk, an infant, when dissevered from the
natural fount, will grow, forming fat, flesh, and bone. (The brain

____ power, however, has been ascribed to phosphorus by learned scientists

--hence, possibly, the disposition of clever children to suck lucifer
matches—this by the way.) The consumption of butter, then, as an
element of nutrition, is very great, and its cost seems likely each year
_ to become greater. As an article of diet, the value of butter is two-
fold ; first, from its very nature—and I allude essentially to true good
_ butter in contradistinction to the heavily-salted and partly rancid

_ samples ; its palatability recommends it, with a due proportion of starchy

4 food. Secondly, that, as a hydrocarbon its action is considerably more

74

energetic than starch or sugar as an aliment ; and also in the process
of digestion. The pancreatic fluid exercises its special influence in the
utilization of fat food, assisting not only in the transfusion into blood,
but supplying the requisite amount of fat to the different tissues of the
body.

The necessity for fat, varied by climate’and circumstance, is aptly
illustrated in its extremes by the hard-working ploughman, with his
fat pork hunched on bread, in our temperate zone ; the blubber and
oil feeder of the Arctic regions ; and the sparing use of ghee, a
clarified butter used with rice, by the slight Hindoo of the tropics. It
will, however, be borne in mind that both sugar and starch are, in
process of digestion, fat formers ; a fact sufficiently illustrated by Mr.
Banting in his mode of treating extreme obesity.

Butter consists of the fatty portion of cows’ milk, in which it is
suspended in the form of minute globules. The process of creaming
allows the milk to remain undisturbed and separates the layer formed.
By violent agitation, the act of churning breaks up these globules and
a fatty mass results, which invariably contains some casein or curd,
with milk-whey or water. The necessity for rigid cleanliness in the
appliances used is evidenced by the extreme care shown in all well-
kept dairies. Butter varies in colour and flavour ; depending on season,
food, breed, and the health of animals. It is singularly susceptible of
acquiring flavour from extraneous sources. The quality and character
of the food thus exercises a prominent feature in its manufacture, as
much made in those wild districts, where the grazing is essentially
different from our rich meadow land, is almost uneatable to ordinary
palates—its odour and taste being absolutely nauseous. This is shown
more particularly in butter made in the extreme northern portions of
Europe, such as Iceland and Lapland.

The worst feature, perhaps, in cow feeding, is the artificial stimulus
given by the excessive use of partially exhausted brewers’ grains to the
lacteal secretion of the animal. I myself but lately had a sample of
milk brought to me distinctly tasting of castor-oil. The cause was
clearly traced to the use of rancid linseed-oil or cotton-seed cake.
Butter also made from the milk of cows fed largely on recently irrigated
sewage grass speedily acquires rancidity and mal odeur, and will not
keep as fresh butter. But, as the great supply of butter in bulk is a
collection and amalgamation of different herds and small lots of cattle,

75

the particular characteristics of the animals are blended into one,
The marketable value of different brands is maintained evidently
by the care in collection as well as in feeding and manipulation.
The Norman butter-buyer, sitting in the receipt of the pro-
duce of scores of small dairies handed to him on the market day,
selects with an instructed eye and creates half-a-dozen at least
of different value out of the many offered him. In our own county,
the produce of Mr. Bull, of Hurst, ranks special even among good
butters.

The constituents of butter are fat, curd, and whey, with small
quantities of added salt. The amount of water should not exceed
seven or eight per cent. ; and the salt is excessive in fresh butter if
over two or three per cent. An excess of curd in butter produces
a flavour too much like cheese. I have had samples of butter show
an amount of water equal to eighteen per cent. ; the result, not only
of want of due pressing, but of positive addition as a make-weight.
And such butters would yield 70 instead of 80 per cent. of true
butter fat. I may, perhaps, allude to the singularly variable proportion
of butter in the milk of domestic animals ; but this must be taken
apart from the quantity yielded by each. The mare gives 90 grains
to the pint of milk; the ass, 185 ; human, 266; cow, 320; sheep,
513; goat, 568; sow, 583. I am credibly informed that this country
consumes far move butter for each head of the population than any
other. Day by day the fixed habit of life requires that the pat or the
pound should find its place on our table—the weekly consumption
being equal to above five ounces for each individual. And it must be
borne in mind that there are at least four months in the year when
butter producing is infinitely below the butter demand. This used to
_ be met by the large store of preserved and salted butter; but, alas !
pleuro-pneumonia and rinderpest, with an increased daily demand,
have materially reduced this storing. Good salt butter rules high ;

Dorset is a luxury ; and fresh an absolute extravagance. Of late years
considerable exertions have been made by merchants to open fresh
sources of supply. They have sought for, and found, many such,
available only by those marvellous means of transport the age is
remarkable for, and by which one locality is made to supply the needs
of another. I am enabled, by the courtesy of a merchant, to illustrate
samples of butter from many parts, and it will be interesting to know
how far and wide the sources lie. We have butter from America, from -

76

Canada, from Italy, from Sweden, from Denmaak, Spain, and Austria.
It is true of the saying as regards tea and sugar, that the world must
be compassed before the washerwoman can sit down to breakfast ; and
the butter at my table is now nearly as great a traveller. The export
of butter from Denmark to our Indian Empire in tins has become a
large trade. Considered chemically, the fat of butter has a more
complex constitution than most other fats. Its main peculiarity is in
the substance butyrin, to which butter owes most of its peculiar flavour
and smell ; and this it is that distinguishes it from other fats. By
oxydation, it yields butyric acid, remarkable for its strong rancid
odour ; and to the oxydation of this and other elements is due the
tendency of butter to become rancid long before such fats as suet for
instance.

I think when I mention the names of the various substances
occurring in butter, you will be satisfied with its chemical variety.
They are—Palmitin, stearine, olein, butyrin ; with four fatty acids—
Butyric, capronic, caprylic, and capric; the latter being named from
their similarity in odour to that of the goat secretion. In cheese
making, the enclosure in the curd of a proportion of butter fat repre-
sents the difference between a rich and poor cheese—such as Cheddar
and Dutch. In the first place, pains are taken to ensure the presence
of a large proportion of butter ; in the latter, pains are taken by the
thrifty people to exclude it. They market the butter alone, or, as an
admixture. Dutch cheese consists almost entirely of curd, nutritious
enough in its nitrogenous power, but awfully difficult and slow of
digestion—to those unprovided with gizzards. The rapid melting of
butter in the mouth is indicative of a lower melting point than that of
other fats. The clinging sensation of the fat of a half-cold boiled leg
of mutton has been familiar to most of us in our boarding school
dinners, if we were so unfortunate as to be among the last helped. The
different melting points of various fats are—Butter, 35 deg. centrigrade

“scale ; ox fat, 48 deg. ; mutton, 50; lard, 42; tallow, 62; cocoa butter,
35; and butterine, 34.

The last of this list is a creation essentially borr. of our time and
the scarcity of true butter fat. It is sometimes fairly sold for what it
is, for what it is worth ; not unfrequently for what it is not ; and it also
forms a basis of adulteration with butter. Years ago, one heard of
London and Ostend butter. We knew that butter did not grow in

77

London; but, latterly, we have had a better instruction, and the
Thames mud is accredited as the source. Putting such statements on
one side, what is likely to be the truth? All the world over, waste
fats occur, and are collected. The candle, which has now yielded to
the advance of gas and petroleum, used to absorb most of these ; but
now, the exigencies of a butter-requiring public must be supplied in
some form. If it be true that we are ignorant of the precise nature of
many of our beverages, it certainly is true on this butter question. I
have here a sample of butterine. The appearance recommends it ; its
colour is delicate; its spreads smoothly ; and melts lightly in the
mouth ; is nearly tasteless. But its odour is scarcely identical with
that of true butter. Now it must not be supposed that so nearly a
perfect imitation of butter is the result of any crude process, such as
the admixture of beef or mutton suet, and simply a melting and
colouring to pattern. It is more than possible that the original fat from
which this is composed was a waste fat in some repugnant form,
clarified again and again by jets of steam and filtration ; the low
melting point being arrived at by the judicious admixture with it of an
exact proportion of olein, obtained from lard ; and the colouring the
same as that used in most dairies; the mass being eventually beaten
up with rich milk. The one thing requisite to complete it is wanting
—that delicate odour characteristic of real fresh butter.

I have found no adulteration in the low qualities of salt butter other
than an excess of water, and the evil odour acquired by age ; but
there is no doubt that substances of this nature enter largely into the
composition of those highly-prized fresh butters demanded at this
time of the year, when dwellers in cities expect the fields to be green,
and the cows feeding on the fragrant grass of the meadow land, while
they are dry and in the cattle yard. Many cleverly-constructed
compounds, chemically put together, have found their way into the
market ; and, as it will be noticed that the butterine melts at a point
nearly identical with that of butter, to the analyst butter has been a
sore trial. He knew from its many physical characteristics, it was not,
could not, be butter ; but the enquiring mind of the chemist has
brought to perfection a process by which this impostor may be con-
_ victed among others of a like nature. And yet it is only fair to state,
considered purely as nutriment, this substance might and should have
its honest place amongst us at its true and honest price. The fat the
candle does not now burn would be burned with revenue in the human

78

system if the prejudice of idea alone be overcome. And, perchance,
it may yet honourably take its place amongst the many successful
: 1
attempts so many are engaged in—the supply of a wholesome and
cheap food for a struggling population.
It is not given to us by the laws of nature to invent a new animal,
he utilization of such substances in fair and honourable trade as a
food is at least a gain upon its waste in greasing the wheels of a rail-
way waggon.

I will close my ten minutes’ grace with a warning on matters
culinary. It is very desirable to avoid super-heating butter and its
analogous fats ; as in fish frying, bacon frizzling, &c. In the first,
vegetable oils are a far better medium ; in the second, what should be
lightly digested becomes a source of annoyance. The marvellous
assimilative power of cur youthful digestion, that made all things
alike, from the stale penny tart to the over-cooked and dried up
sausage, gives place, as years roll on, to a more critical condition,
necessitating care for our stomachs and some little domestic chemistry
in our kitchens.

MaRcH 9TH.

ORDINARY MEETING.— MR. W. L. WATTS ON
ICELAND, ITS PHYSICAL ASPECTS, CHARAC-
TERISTICS, &c.

The lecture that evening was to be upon Iceland and its physical
characteristics. This island, which was about one-third larger than
Ireland, was situated, as all knew, upon the borders of the Arctic
Circle. Apart from its historical and literary fame, which it was not
his purpose to consider that evening, it was of especial interest to
the geologist and the physical geographer. It lay almost at the
northern extremity of the great volcanic line which skirted the
extreme west of the Old World, extending from the island of Jan-
Mayen in the Arctic Ocean through Iceland, the Feroe Isle, Great
Britain, the Madeiras, the Azores, the Canaries, along the west coast
of Africa, right away down to the Antarctic Island of Tristen del
Cunha, and its equal as a centre of yolcanic activity could alone be

79

found amongst the islands of the Pacific Ocean. The peculiar
manner in which ice and snow were found mixed up with the igneous
productions of its volcanoes imparted a grim beauty to its scenery that
we might travel the whole world over without seeing surpasssed. A
very short sojourn amongst the weird rocks of Iceland aroused that
latent superstition which would lurk in the minds of even the most
materialistic, and while we laughed at the mythological credulity of
the ancient Icelanders we could not help acknowledging that a more
fitting place to create an implicit belief in wraiths and demons could
not possibly be found, from the elf and pixy dancing amongst the
timid flowers whose bright eyes peeped from sheltered rocks in ancient
lava streams, to the hobgoblin and the ghoul moaning and shrieking
and performing their nameless deeds upon blasted peak and barren
mountain-tops, where fire strove with frost.

“This remarkable little island was colonized 1,002 years ago
by Norwegians, though its earliest settlement was involved in some
obscurity. It afterwards became subject to Denmark until the year
before last, when it received its legislative freedom. The Icelanders
were upon the whole a harmless, struggling race, and like most other
nations that had been unable to draw upon the arteries of other
countries for renewed vitality, were encumbered with that contentment
which, however conducive it might be to domestic ease, was fatal to
advancement. The last twelve months, however, had introduced the
element of enterprise which before was only conspicuous by its
absence. This might result from their newly-acquired liberties or the
reflective influence of emigration; at any rate it augured well for
Iceland, whose emigrants had already shewn that the Icelander con-
tained a good deal of the right sort of stuffin his composition. Pre-
eminently perhaps in the Icclander’s character stood love for his
country. It was a remarkable fact that the more barren and unfruitful
a country was, the stronger seemed to be the attachment and love of
the sons of its soil. That trait appeared very strongly in the Ice-
landers’ national song, the first stanza of which runs thus—

** World old Iceland, beloved fosterland,
As long as the ocean girds our shores,
As long as lovers for their sweethearts sigh,
As Jong as the sun shines upon our mountains,
Thy sons shall love thee.”

The climate of Iceland was very uncertain, but it was much

80

milder than might be expected from its latitude. This was doubtless
owing to its insular position, and the influence of the Gulf Stream,
one arm of which washed its southern shore. The summer began in
June, and ended in September, and during those months the climate
was much similar to that of the North of Scotland. The rainfall,
especially in the south of Iceland, was very great during the summer,
but thunderstorms seldom occurred, except in the winter. Upon the
mountains the climate was still more variable, and he had sometimes
experienced a variation of sixty degrees between day and night
upon the snows of the Vatna Joékull, at the height of some
4,000ft. above sea level. But few vegetables could now be
grown in Iceland,—a modicum of potatoes, turnips, radishes, and
cabbages alone eking out a struggling existence against an adverse
climate, and seldom attaining to what we should consider maturity.
The trees of Iceland were mere bushes of birch, willow, and a little
ash, and even these were but rarely met with. The chief exports of
the country were fish, wool, horses, sheep, and Iceland spar ; but it was
to be hoped (now the sulphur mines in the north of Iceland were about
to be worked) that in the course of a year to these might be added
sulphur. The imports were all the necessaries of life and a good many
of its luxuries.

So much for Iceland itself; he would dwell no longer on its
history, people, exports and imports, but forthwith consider its
physical characteristics ; these might be defined as the volcanoes of
Iceland and their product, the hot springs, the Jokulls or ice mountains,
and their effects upon the climate. Iceland contained no fewer than
22 mountains that had been witnessed in active eruption during
historical times. The best known volcano was Hekla. This remark-
able mountain rose directly from a plain that had been devastated by its
repeated eruptions. As the mountain was approached from the north-
west its form appeared to be that of an oblong cone; it was about 20
miles in circumference, and 5,oooft. in height; it was capped by three
smaller cones, the product of recent eruptions. Its craters were all
upon the west and south-west sides, and most of its lava streams had
flowed in that direction. The next best known of the Icelandic
volcanoes was perhaps Katlugia, which had erupted no less than 15
times since the year 900. It now presented nothing but a deep valley
filled with snow, cutting into the very heart of Myrdals Jékull ; it was
one of the largest examples of breached craters in the world. The

| ee ee —

Se a so,

———— ee

81

principal phenomena attending eruptions of this volcano were
stupendous floods of heated water, and the prodigious quantities of sand
ejected. It had, he believed, never been known to produce lava, but
upon the base of the mountain he found numerous ancient lava streams,
proving that at one time Katlugia was no exception to its neighbouring
volcanoes. The floods from Katlugia during eruptions had often
submerged a district of 280 square miles, continuing sometimes for
days, in spite of the rapid outflow to the sea. These floods were
produced not only by the melting of the snow at the time of eruption,
but in all probability by the bursting of large cavities in and beneath the.
mountain, in which water might have been for years accumulating.
This aqueous phenomenon was, however, by no means peculiar to
Katlugia, although it occurred on the largest scale, for during the 13th
and 14th centuries all the volcanoes in the south of Iceland erupted
water.

The most extensive eruption that ever occurred in Europe during
historic times proceeded from the south-west portien of the Vatna,
named the Skaptar Jékull. This volcano had only been known to
have erupted upon that occasion, viz., A.D. 1783, when it produced
two of the most extensive lava streams in Europe, of. which he would
speak presently. The volcanoes which erupted so violently in the
beginning of the present year, and one of which wrought such damage
in the north of Iceland were—The Oskja-gia (or the chasm of the
oval casket) situated in the Dyngjufjoll mountains upon the north of
the Vatna, and a chasm some twelve miles in length which opened
in the Myvatos orcefl (or sandy desert of Myvatos). The first of these
was a triangular crater over five miles in circumference, formed, he
should be inclined to think, by three smaller craters blowing into one
another. It was situated in the south corner of the plain of Askja, in
‘the Dyngjufjoll mountains. This plain was situated at the height of
about 3,000 feet, and was shut in on all sides but one by semi-detached
sections of mountains, many of which had broken out in ancient times,
and by their insignificant lava streams had helped to swell the wide-
spread lava desert of the Odathahraun. The crater of Askja-gia was
bounded on the north by a wall of rock which descended in a sheer
precipice of some 200 feet from the level of the plain of Askja. It was
shut in upon the east and west sides by lofty mountains, some of
which rose to the height of 1,000 feet above the plain of Askja ; they
appeared shorn of their inner faces by the violence of the eruption,

82

forming perpendicular cliffs of great height. These were rapidly
falling in and had formed in several places steep slopes of pumice and
debris, which it was quite possible to descend. All access to the
floor of the crater, however, was prevented by an interior rim
of precipice immediately at the base of these heights. Three
separate lines of fissures, pits and irregular openings, diverged
from the centre of the crater to the south, north-east, and
north-west respectively, and, when he was there, still con-
tinued to erupt vast volumes of steam, a dark granulated fatty
earth, and a little water. It was from this volcano that all the pumice
was ejected which had fallen in a band of ever-extending radii east-
ward from the volcano to the sea-shore, destroying six farms in its
course, and injuring others. Considerable streams of water had
evidently flowed from this crater, and this was the more remarkable,
as it was neither a glacial nor a snow-capped mountain. This water
was probably derived from the melting snows of the Vatna Jékull
which had found its way through the loose and cavernous ground
(principally sand and lava) to the chimney of the volcano, where it had
accumulated. The fissure in the Myvatos orcefl, which he had before
mentioned, opened slightly before the eruption of Oskja-gid ; from it
had flowed a lava stream about 13 miles in length, and varying from
one to three in breadth. The various eruptions from this fissure had
cast up six or seven subconical mounds, one of which he saw in violent
eruption last year; it was then about rsoft. in height. The ground in
the immediate neighbourhood of this crevass was greatly fissured and
dislocated, and an extensive subsidence had taken place around its
southern extremity.

Time would not allow him to dwell any longer upon the volcanoes
of Iceland, and he would only remark that their general characteristic

was lack of height when compared with the volcanoes of other .

countries, and their irregular occurrence. First they broke forth amid
the snows of lofty Jékulls, then from beneath mountains that for ages
had stifled volcanic energy, then in the midst of plains already
desolated by prehistoric eruptions. This eccentric shifting of volcanic
foci was most probably the result of the numerous fissures and cracks
in the superficial rocks of Iceland that had been formed by the
various earthquakes which from time to time had shaken the island
to its very foundations.

He would now briefly consider the products of these volcanoes,

83

which almost entirely constituted the rocks of Iceland, and indeed all
the Icelandic rocks that he had met with had been either igneous in
their origin or derivatives from igneous rocks. They might divide the
productions of the Icelandic volcanoes into two classes. First, those
in whose formation water had played a prominent part—these they
might call the agglomerates or tuffs ; and secondly those which were
entirely of igneous origin, in other words, the lavas. The first of these,
that is the agglomerates, were formed by the bursting of mountain
lakes and the sudden melting of the frozen covering of snow-clad
mountains during periods of volcanic eruptions, which caused an
overwhelming flood of heated water to rush down the mountain’s side.

This, licking up the sands, the fragmentary débris, and whatever
accumulation it might meet with in its course, precipitated itself in a

terribleand heterogeneous avalanche upon the plains below, forming hills

of steaming agglomerate, and filling up whole valleys with aseething paste.

But the mountain streams and atmospheric elements collected together

through the long periods precisely the same constituents as formed the

agglomerate of more terrible manufacture. The mountain stream

brought down grain by grain the sand, the constituents of disinte-

grated rocks, and piece by piece the fragments that had been split off
by the action of the frost from overhanging peaks. The mountain

stream worked slowly, but as surely as the dread avalanche of fire and

water. Thus even in the very home of convulsion we found the

gentle and constant forces of Nature vieing with the terrible, and

showing that the peaceful and sustained efforts of Nature did as

much towards altering the face of the earth-as the most fearful con-

vulsiors ; but as a rule, their effect differed in this way, the peaceful

forces of Nature gave us our beautiful scenery and smiling landscapes,

while the terrible gives us the awful magnificence and grandeur of
desolation so pecular to volcanic scenery.

The second class of Icelandic rocks was the lavas. Thesé occurred
either as stony streams that had flowed from volcanoes, or as pummice,
which had been hurled high into the air, and fallen in a destructive
shower of vesicular cinders. There was another class of lavas, namely,
the glassy variety, or obsidians. These, on account of the extra
amount of silica they contained, and in all probability the different
circumstances attending their cooling, formed a volcanic glass,
occuring in glassy or semi-glassy masses, also as a beautiful vitreous
__ pummice, such as that which was ejected from the volcano of Oskja-gja

84

last year, specimens of which were upon the table before them.
Of the stony streams of lava they had two very good examples ;
first, the huge lava streams which flowed from Skeptar Jékull
in 1783, being 50 miles long and 25 wide, and the other 4o miles in
length and 7 broad, being in some places 500 feet in depth. It had
been computed that the entire mass exceeded in bulk that of Mont
Blanc. This lava was balsatic and highly ferruginous, and impreg-
nated very strongly the waters of the river Eldvatn, which flowed
through it. The second example was the lava stream which had
flowed into the far-famed valley of Thingvilla, wherein the Althing, or
Parliament, of Iceland used to hold their meetings, and the wonderful
rifts of the Almanna-gja and the Raven’s-gja occurred. At some
remote period of the geological history of Iceland a large river of
lava flowed from Mount Skjaldbreith, which was about 30 miles
distant, into the valley of Thingvallir. A crust, of course, soon formed
on the surface, and, upon the cessation of the eruption, the still
liquid lava at the bottom of the stream continued to flow into the
deeper parts of the lake, which occupied the S.E. end of the valley
of Thingvallir, leaving the unsupported crust, which was now of great
thickness, to sink down to the present level of the valley, occasioning
lateral rifts upon either side of the stream—viz., the Almanna-gja on
one side and the Raven’s rift upon the other. The valley of Thing-
vallir was likewise traversed by many smaller fissures and crevasses,
which in many instances enclosed and almost insoculated large masses
of lava ; the Loghsberg, cr “ hill of laws,” was such an island of rock,
and was rendered inaccessible except at one point by deep yawning
crevasses. It was on account of these natural fortifications that it was
chosen as a forum for the ancient Court of Althing, which assembled
there once a year. Such were the monuments of Iceland, which took
the place of the ruined castles and abbeys of other countries,
simply the rude rocks of Nature ennobled by brave deeds of history or
some touching romance of love.

They next came to the hot springs of Iceland. The chief of these,
par excellence, was, of course, the Great Geysir. It had been so often
described and redescribed that it scarcely needed a remark from him.
Professor Forbes calculated its age, from the thickness of siliceous.
scinter which surrounded its basin, at 1,000 years. The Great Geysir
was surrounded by numerous other springs of all temperatures and
sizes, whose deposits differed according to the character of the rocks

85

through which they passed. There were numerous hot springs
scattered about in various parts of Iceland, some of which owed their
existence to earthquakes, which instantaneously called them into
being—in 1339 a hot spring 60 feet in diameter suddenly opened at
Mosfell,--and during the earthquakes which preceded the great
eruption of Skaptar Jokull, in 1783, no less than 35 new hot springs
made their appearance.

He would not dwell longer upon these interesting phenomena, but
turn their attention to the huge ice mountains or Jokulls of Iceland,
which constituted such an important feature in the physical geography of
the country. The principal ones were the Vatna, Arnnafells, Hoss, Langs,
Myrdals, Godalouds, Eyjafjalla, Dranga, and Glamu Jékulls. He would
try and form some idea of by far the largest of these, namely, the Vatna
Jokull, which, until recently, was almost a “terra incognita,” and
until this year had resisted all attempts that had been made to cross it.
It was the very best example that he could lay before them, as it dis-
played all the phenomena of the Icelandic Jékulls on the most exten-
sive scale. The Vatna Jokull was a vast accumulation of volcanoes,
ice, and snow, comprising an area of over 3,000 square miles. It was
for the most part surrounded by a wilderness, formed by the
destructive outbursts of its volcanoes and the constant drifting of the
glacial torrents which flowed from its melting snows. Never should
he forget the aspect of this mighty frozen desert when he assailed it
last June. They had reached the point where the rocks terminated,
and the external snows of the Vatna commenced. As far as the eye
could see was one lifeless, pathless, wilderness of snow, destitute alike
of animal, insect, or floral life; their footsteps gave no sound, and
their very voices seemed strange in this drear solitude, the deathlike
stillness of whose frozen wastes was broken only by the howling of the
storm or the outbursts of a: volcano. This journey across the Vatna
Jokull from the south to the north of Iceland occupied 16 days, twelve
of which were spent amongst the regions of perpetual snow. The
Vatna Jokull and its immediate surroundings constituted the most
lofty portions of Iceland, and he believed the oldest, for they found lava
streams which had flowed from its volcanoes ina state of ruin znd decay
unequalled in any other part of the country ; and, again, they found it
bounded upon the south by sea cliffs that were washed by pre-historic
oceans when many other parts of the island must necessarily have been
under water, unless very serious depressions had taken place since the

86

waters which washed the south outlying hills of the Vatna receded to
their present limit. The Vatna Jokull comprised by far the most
important mountain section in Iceland, anda far greater area was
covered by its snows than could be occupied by the sum of all the
remaining snow-clad mountains in Iceland. As might be supposed,
at least half the river water of Iceland flowed either directly or
indirectly from the Vatna Jokull, either issuing in torrents from the
extremity of its glaciers, or after filtering for long distances through
the loose and cavernous ground, appearing as land springs at a lower
elevation.

The rocks of the Vatna, as far as he had had an opportunity of
judging, were purely and simply the product of this very remarkable
cluster of volcanoes, which had piled up layer after layer of ash, sand,
and agglomerate, until a mountain heap was formed of such a height
that it allowed snow and ice to accumulate upon it to such an extent
as to render the summer’s warmth quite inadequate to remove it.
This vast snow pile then grew of its own accord, and glaciers com-
menced to creep down the sides of the barren mountains upon which
it rested. Volcanoes continued to erupt, but the effect of their fires
upon the accumulating snow must have been purely local and limited
in the extreme, for volcanic productions were the worst possible
conductors of heat, and he should imagine that a lava stream, unless
it were of gigantic proportions, conducted itself beneath the profound
snows of the Vatna, much asa lava stream would beneath the sea,
without producing any very violent commotion. Thus this vast
mountain mass was accumulated, growing with each succeeding
winter and each eruption. The Vatna Joékull rose by a very gradual
slope upon the south, and it was not until more than thirty miles of
snow fields had been traversed that the highest part of the Vatna, viz.,
6,150 feet, could be reached from that direction.

He had at present omitted any mention of the snow line in
Iceland ; this was on account of its variable nature, incidental to local
causes. Thus upon the Vatna we had the snow line much lower upon
its southern than northern slopes, the cause of which he would consider
presently. Of late years the volcanic forces of Iceland appeared to
have retreated to the Vatna Jokull and its immediate neighbourhood,
and volcanic eruptions had been witnessed in force in several directions.
The Krerktjall they found to be smoking and Oskja-gja could only be

87

regarded as a lateral crater of the Vatna, and, he doubted not, had they
been favoured with better weather, he should have found many other
eruptive rents; but so rapid was the accumulation of snow upon the
-Vatna, and so bad a conductor of heat were all volcanic eruptions, that
traces of volcanic eruption were very soon obliterated. As might be
supposed, such a prodigious accuraulation of ice and snow as the Vatna
Jékull produced a very sensible and marked effect upon the climate of
certain parts of Iceland. It had this effect—it deluged the country to
the south of it with rain, and gave to those districts which lie to the
north of it a happier climate than they would otherwise possess. The
snowy heights of the Vatna attracted to themselves the aqueous
vapours which travelled northwards from more southern latitudes,
depositing them upon their broad shoulders in the form of snow and
hail, and refrigerating and drying the vapours which travelled across
their snows, thus rendering the south wind a wet one in the country to
the south of the Vatna and the north wind a dry one, whilst in those
districts which lie to the north of it the reverse was the case. And
since by far the greater part of the aqueous vapours which reached
Iceland was borne thither from the more readily evaporating waters of
southern oceans by that bugbear to travellers in the south of Iceland—
the southerly wind—they saw at once why the snow line was lower
upon the south than the north of the Vatna Jokull. When they
inspected the glaciers which fringed the south of the Vatna Jokull,
they found they had decidedly advanced ; indeed, at one point, so
much so, as to almost destroy communication along that part of the
south shore. Upon the north they found that a huge tongue of glacier
had flowed down full-ten or twelve miles beyond the utmost limit
assigned to it by Gunlaugson some 40 years ago, while the route
traversed by that enterprising man was completely overrun by the ice,
and the traditionary road of the Vatna Jékull’s-vorgr was now amongst
the high snows of the Vatna.

Icelanders, as a rule, were loth to admit the advance of their
glaciers, and vainly appealed to striated rock at much lower altitudes
_ than most of the Icelandic glaciers of the present day, and to moraines
stranded upon the plains beneath some of the principal mountain
sections, but since it was impossible to say when these rocks were
scratched, or even whether the very rocks to whose striz they so
confidently point were not erupted long before Northern Europe and
America disappeared beneath the ice and snow of the earlier glacial

88

period, what was the use of such evidence? The very moraines might
have been produced by the glaciers which had strewn even our own
country with erratic boulders and glacial débris. Again, it was no un-
common thing in Iceland for huge masses of glaciers to slide down the
mountain side during periods of eruption, scratching the harder and
furrowing the softer rocks in their progress, and leaving heaps of
débyis in no way distinguishable from terminal moraines. These facts
were rather startling. True, the glaciers of Iceland might, and, no
doubt, did ebb and flow, but they gained upon the whole, and never
would increase to that extent was not the annual accumulation vastly
in excess of the waste. This might be due to a cycle of unpropitious
seasons. Possibly. But they found this advance of northern glaciers
was not peculiar to Iceland. Dr. Nordinskjold had proved a consider-
able advance in the glaciers of Spitzbergen ; Greenland gave us the
same intelligence. This seemed to point to something more than a
local advance, compensated for by a retreat in other places. It was
too rapid an advance to be accounted for by astronomical causes. But
could not they suggest some comparatively slight physical, changes
which might account for it ?

Granted, that above a certain latitude the earth only received as
much heat during the summer as it did during the winter, and that in
one winter it would accumulate just as much snow and ice as the
summer’s heat would suffice to melt, if it were all employed for that
purpose. Now, they were perfectly aware that snow and ice having
once accumulated, a greater part of the succeeding summer’s heat
would be reflected back into space and not employed in melting the
snow and ice, while the aqueous vapours condensing above it would
screen the snow from solar influence. Thus a new glacial period
would creep upon us, heralding its approach by an advance band of
low temperature of its own production were it not for the warm oceanic
and atmospheric currents, the beneficial influence of which we had
only to look at the varying temperature of many localities in similar
latitudes to appreciate.

A great alteration in temperature and climate would certainly
take place, supposing any variation should occur in the direction of
these currents—in the Gulf Stream, for instance. Supposing that its
waters instead of reaching so far north, were deflected southwards,
then not only would Arctic climates and Arctic ice be less affected by

al

89

it, but the deflected stream would heighten the temperature of the
waters of lower latitudes, and cause an increased evaporation ; conse-
quently there would be an increased condensation upon northern
mountains and Polar shores, and an increased reflection of the succeed-
ing summer’s sun. It was rather a curious fact that less American
driftwood had been brought to the northern shores of Iceland during
late years, and an increased amount had been cast upon its southern
coast. This little fact of course proved nothing in itself; but when
we saw northern glaciers advancing to the extent they had done one
naturally asked the reason. Astronomical causes must be put on one
side, for the glacial advance was too rapid to admit of that solution.
But if northern glaciers continued to advance it would be a matter of

- some interest if we could ascertain whether those mysterious forces

which gave birth to the earthquake and the volcano had wrought any
alteration in the flow of that guardian angel of the north—-the Gulf
Stream.

The Ex-PRESIDENT (Mr. Haselwood) proposed a vote of thanks to
Mr. Watts for his extremely interesting and instructive lecture. As
far as he understood them, his arguments seemed to point to the
probability of another glacial period, though at a future so remote as
hardly to be calculable.

Mr. E. Moore, from what he had gathered from Capt. Burton’s
book, looked upon the difficulties in the way of the transport of
sulphur as almost insuperable. Perhaps Mr. Watts would be kind
enough to tell them what means of transport it was proposed to adopt,
so as to make sulphur an article of commerce.

Mr. W. HENTY supposed the fact of there now being a deficiency
of warmth in Iceland for the growth of corn was due to the increase
of glaciers.

Mr. T. W. WONFOR wished to know whether thunderstorms
were as frequent in the northern parts of the island as in the southern ?

_ Mr Watts’s remarks had cleared up some points in his mind as to the
_ presence of aqueous particles in volcanic products; but he was
surprised to hear that such enormous bodies of water were thrown out

of the volcanoes. He should feel obliged if Mr. Watts would give
some further explanation as to the enormous showers of ash which

go

reached Norway and the Orkneys; and there was room for a few
words more perhaps upon the subject of icebergs and the glacial
epoch.

Mr. G. D. SAWYER hoped Mr. Watts, in his reply, would tell
them a little more than he had done about the inhabitants of the
island.

Mr. DowsETT asked for information as to insect life in the island, "

and he should like to know what was the cause of the Icelanders
emigrating, if they were such lovers of their country.

Mr. WELCH enquired whether the diseases of the country were
similar to those of other cold mountainous countries ?

Mr. WATTS replied to these questions seriatim. The sulphur
mines in the southern part of the island were ina state of hopeless
standstill ; but those in the north might, he thought, be worked so as
_ to- benefit the country and prove remunerative to the. company which
had undertaken to work them. In the present position of the com-
pany, perhaps, it was scarcely advisable that he should say more upon
the subject. Wheat did not grow in the island ; but a kind of wild

oats did, though the grain it yielded was small and hardly worth speak- ~

ing about. With regard to thunderstorms, he believed they occurred in
the north as well as the south of the island, though they were less
frequent in the north than in the south. Although water erupted from
volcanoes in other parts of the world, none of thein threw out anything
like the quantity of water discharged by those in Iceland. It was a
peculiar fact that the ash from the Iceland volcanoes generally went in
the direction of Norway. Insect life he did not know much about ;
but he might say that the mosquitoes were a great nuisance, and that
several districts were named after flies. There was a lake called the
Fly Lake ; it was sometimes covered with flies ; and sometimes there
was not a fly to be seen on it. He had seen the snow blackened with
flies, which had been frozen in their flight. A good many Icelanders
looked upon emigration as something which tended to the good of
their country ; but though fascinated with the luxuries of Europe, and
quite willing to live there, the Icelander generally expressed a hope
that he might die in his native country. Brigham Young was doing his
best to foster emigration to the Salt Lake City, and he had three
missionaries working in the island during the past summer. The

or

principal diseases of the island were leprosy and tape-worms. Mr.
Watts concluded his remarks by an interesting description of some of
the characteristic habits and customs of the people.

The lecture was illustrated by a large map kindly lent for the |
occasion by the Geographical Society, for which a vote of thanks was
accorded to them on the motion of Mr. Wonfor, seconded by Mr.
Dowsett.

MARCH 257TH.

-MICROSCOPICAL MEETING.

The palate of octopus and some young oysters, mounted by Mr.
Henry Lee, were exhibited, the latter showing both shells, as were also
the palate of squid, the ventral fin of dog fish (squalus galeus), and
scales of the rough hound. The palate of the octopus and the palate
of a snail were exhibited to shew the difference between the carni-
vorous teeth of the one and the herbivorous teeth of the other.

Mr. T. W. WoNFOR exhibited blood discs of the conger snake,
which has the largest blood discs at present known; hitherto it was
believed that ‘those of the salamander were the largest and those of the
musk rat the smallest. Attention was called to the fact that the blood
discs differed in form in the different divisions of the vertebrate, and
the admirable photographs by Dr. Hallifax in the Society’s album of -
the blood discs of birds, fish, reptiles, and mammals, all magnified the
same number of diameters, were cited to show how valuable the
a microscope was in determining the nature and differences of blood
stains.

THE LATE SIR CORDY BURROWS.

The PRESIDENT (Mr. J. Dennant) said that since their last meet-
ing they, in company with a large number of their fellow-townsmen,
had followed to their last resting place the remains of their friend and

92

Vice-President, Sir John Cordy Burrows : and it was fit at that, their
first meeting after the event, they should take some notice of it.
Those whose memory would carry them back a quarter of a century
would know perfectly well the value he had been to the town. His
public character and work had doubtless kept him a good deal away
from the meetings of the Society of late years, yet still they were
conscious that he had always a warm interest in its welfare. In fact,
they had only to remember that he was one of the few co-workers of
the immortal Frederick Robertson in the establishment of the
Mechanics’ Institute ; that he also took an active part in the Albion
Rooms Institution and the Athenzeum, and that he had been ever ready
to assist Societies that had for their object the advance of general
education and the cultivation of literature, art, and science, to know
that the Society had, in Sir Cordy Burrows, lost a true friend. Brighton
had been ready to acknowledge it ; it did so a very short time since in
a very tangible manner, and now it had paid a last mark of respect
and given an expression of sympathy with his family by a public
manifestation at his funeral. The resolution he had to move was—

“That the Brighton and Sussex Natural History Society deeply
deplore the loss it had sustained by the death of Sir Cordy
Burrows; and desires to convey to Lady and Mr. Seymour
Burrows their cordial sympathy in their great bereavement.”

Mr. T. W. WONFOR (one of the Hon. Secretaries) said it was with
mournful pleasure that he rose to second that resolution, the more so
that for the whole of the time he had been in Brighton, now three and
twenty years, he had been intimately connected with the deceased in
many works for the improvement of the people. His first connection
with Sir Cordy was in the Albion Rooms, to which the Chairman had
referred. In that Sir Cordy took a very warm interest so long as it
existed ; and when it ceased he was mainly instrumental in keeping
together the books of that Institution, thus forming the nucleus of the
present Free Library. So strongly did some gentlemen feel the
benefit he had conferred on the town by doing that, that five gentle-
men met at the home of one whom he saw present that evening, and
inaugurated that testimonial which grew beyond any thing they at
that time anticipated—a testimonial given to him for his services
rendered to the town. Sir Cordy had always wished and urged that
there should be a Free Library and Museum in the town, and some

ee

93

would recollect a public meeting at which a terrible amount of dis-
satisfaction was expressed on the part of some people at the proposi-
tion. He should never forget, if he lived for a thousand years, the
anger of one man, who wound up a violent speech with this declaration,
“Eddication is a cuss.” They were beaten; but subsequently at
another town meeting they were enabled to carry out all that Sir Cordy
had ardently looked for-—the establishment of a Free Library and
Museum. When elected President of that Society, and when he first
took the chair, he said, “I hope to see your library a part
of the town library; and you established in the rooms of the
Pavilion.” He lived to see that wish fulfilled, for it was during
the chairmanship of Mr. Alderman Abbey, the present Mayor,
that the Institution was opened; and the Chairman met him
one day in the building and said, “ Cannot your Society make appli-
cation for accommodation in the Free Library?” That application
was made, in proper timé it was considered, and one of those who
urged the adoption of the report of his predecessor, was Sir Cordy
Burrows, who lived to see his wish carried out, and when it was
carried out, said, “ Well, we have got the only scientific society where
it ought to be—in the Free Library and Museum.” They were, therefore,
apart from what they might feel individually of Sir Cordy, deeply in-
debted to him for the interest he took in science generally, and the
interest he brought to bear on the establishment of the Society in its
present /ocale. He could go on telling more of what he knew of Sir
Cordy, and the kindnesses he had experienced at his hands, as all
men had who had worked for the advancement of literature and
science, but he must not take up further time, and would simply”
second the motion.

Mr. C. F. DENNET wished to be allowed to say a few words.
_ Perhaps there was no one in that room, or in the town, who had
during the short period of four or five years had more experience of
Sir Cordy in the little ins and outs of life than he had. He came to
Brighton a stranger, and was thrown into the society of Sir Cordy,
who from the first received him kindly, and, to use an American ex-
pression, they had “cottoned” together. From that moment to the
day of his death there was a continuous course of kindness shown to
him by Sir Cordy ; and he was not the only stranger who would be
glad of the opportunity to speak in his praise. Sir Cordy had been
his medical attendant, and when he had been suffering from drooping

94

spirits, consequent on physical debility, Sir Cordy’s cordial shake of
the hand, bright smiling face, and encouraging word, had given him
new life. In such a manner had he carried sunshine into many a sick
room.

Mr. BARCLAY PHILLIPS also spoke highly of the deceased, and
confirmed what Mr. Wonfor had said respecting the origin of the
testimonial. He had no idea when he invited a few of Sir Cordy’s
fellow-workers in the Albion Rooms tc his house to try and
raise a small tribute of esteem for what he had done in saving
the Library to the town, that it would grow to such dimensions
as it had.

The resolution was carried unanimously.

APRIL 14TH.

ORDINARY MEETING.— MR. F. PHILLIPS, B.A.,
BALLIOL COLL., OXFORD, ON “THE TIDES.”

After alluding to the ideas of the Ancients on Tides, and the
maritime discoveries of the 15th and 16th centuries, Mr. PHILLIPS
proceeded—It was reserved for the genius of Newton to give the first
correct explanation of Tides, and to show that they are as much con-
sequences of his great law of universal attraction as the movements
of the planets themselves.

Newton’s theory was first published in his Principia in 1668,
and may be said to have formed the basis of all subsequent
investigations. Physical theories can never represent all the com-
plexities of Nature, but the conclusions deduced from them are none
the less valuable on that account. Let us ever bear this in mind when
considering the subject before us. We shall have to make many sup-
positions as to the earth, the ocean, and the movements of the
heavenly bodies, which are far from being fulfilled in Nature, but
which must be made before we can grapple at all with the problem.

EE

95

We may, if we please, regard our theories as true of an ideal world,
and consider that we are comparing its circumstances with our own.

Let us, then, with Newton, imagine the earth covered with
a deep ocean, of density equal to its own and of uniform depth, and
consider the tides produced in this ocean by the moon. Were every
particle of the earth and ocean attracted by the moon with equal and
parallel forces, it is evident that, all the particles yielding equally to
the influence of these forces, their relative positions would be
unaltered. There would, therefore, be no alteration of the form of the
ocean, and consequently no tides.

The moon attracts each particle of the ocean directly towards
herself, with a force which decreases (according to a fixed law) as the
distance increases; this force accordingly differs both in direction
and magnitude for each particle, but the solid earth is also attracted
by the moon with a certain force ; therefore the difference between the
moon’s attraction on any particle of the ocean and her attraction on
the earth, represents her disturbing force on this particular particle,
this disturbing force being different for different particles.

a Again : every particle of the ocean is also attracted by the earth
and the rest of the ocean, or, in other and more familiar words, it
gravitates or has weight.

These two attractions are equivalent, by the first principles of
- mechanics, to a single attraction, or resultant force, as it is termed.
_ Thus we see that every particle of the surface of the ocean is acted
on by what we may term a resultant force. But that the ocean may

be in equilibrium its surface must be everywhere perpendicular to the
directions of the various resultant forces.

Analysis shews that the form of such a surface is a prolate
spheroid of small eccentricity (with its axis directed to the moon’s
centre).

] In general language, then, we may describe the form of our
theoretical ocean as a slightly elongated sphere.

It is further supposed that at every instant the ocean assumes this
form of equilibrium under the action of the forces animating it at
that moment.

We are now in a position to trace the variations in the depth of
_ the ocean at any spot in the course of a day.

Let PZ be the polar axis of the earth, and A é a B the ocean,
or water spheroid. \

Let us suppose that the moon M is in the plane of the equator,
and that Q is a fixed point on the earth.

When the moon is on the meridian of Q, as in the figure, the
depth of the water is Q /, and it is “ high water.”

Owing to the revolution ot the earth, Q is carried eastward, and
passes under thinner portions of the water spheroid, till six hours
after high water, when it reaches the thinnest part of the shell ; it is
then “ low water ;” the depth then again begins to increase, till twelve _
hours after high water, when Z is at g, andthe depth g/ is equal to
QO F, and it is again high water. The changes during the next twelve
hours are precisely the same as those we have just traced. Thus, in
the course of a day of twenty-four hours, there are two high waters
and two low waters ; and it is further easy to see that the state of the
tide is exactly the same at intervals of 12 hours. These are termed
the “semi diurnal tides.”

Next, suppose that the moon is not in the plane of the equator, so
that the earth’s axis, PZ, is inclined to the axis, A £ a, of the water

_ spheroid. Let Q denote the same fixed point (of observation) on the Ne
earth. Then we see from the figure that the high water, QF,is greater
_ than in the previous case. The height of low water will be the same i‘
as before, for it may be shewn to be equal to BC; it willoccurwhen
the moon sets, which in this case will be more than six hours after po
high water ; the depth will then again increase, till twelve hours Lt
after the first high water there will be a second high water, but, in
this case, much less in height than the first. Similarly the heights of me.
_ the tide at intervals of twelve hours will no longer be equal.

There are thus two high waters of different heights in the course Be 2)
of 24 hours, together with two low waters whose heights are equal.

=
/ Analysis shews that we are to consider the height of the water at ae
- any time as due to the combined action of two tides, viz., the semi-

diurnal tide, whose variations we have already traced, and a diurnal _ :
tide, which vanishes when the moon is in the equator (and thus enables - _
us to investigate the semi-diurnal tide separately). The height of this —
a # diurnal tide is at its maximum when the moon is on the meridian ; pete
by ‘then increases the high water of the semi-diurnal tide. Six hours i. =
_ after it sinks to zero and then does not affect the semi-diurnal tide ;

=e diurnal tide ; a minimum high water being thus produced twelve
Bes ‘hours after the first or maximum wens water.

For the sake of geometrical simplicity, we have spoken of the
th as though revolving within a fixed fluid shell and of the varying
ght of the tide as due to the varying thickness of this shell, as any
‘# "particular place is successively brought under different portions of it.

-

_ But we must now conceive that as the earth rotates the moon is
DS esttinacn, raising the waters of the ocean in a spheroidal shape.
spheroid travels round the earth in one day, thus producing a
at wave or undulation in the surface, and therefore a perpetual
E- oscillation in the height of the water at any particular place.

_ Again, the moon, we know, is not stationary in the heavens, but
is @ motion of its own round the earth from W. to E. in the same

98

direction as the earth’s rotation. In consequence of this motion the
lunar day, that is to say, the interval between two successive transits
of the moon across the meridian, is longer than the mean solar day of
24 hours of the clock. But the lunar day is evidently the interval
between two corresponding high waters; therefore, high water is later
by several minutes of the clock each day,

The action of the sun is similar to that of the moon, but much
less in amount, owing to its greater distance. Were there no moon,
the sun would raise a water spheroid and cause three tides, viz., a
semi-diurnal, a diurnal, and a long period tide, called the solar
semi-annual tide.

Since the oscillation of the ocean surface due to either luminary is
very small in comparison with the earth’s radius, the whole tidal oscil-
lation is the sum of those due to the sun and moon separately.

The amount of the lunar tide is about 2.1 times that of the solar.

At new and full moon, lunar and solar high waters occur together,
and the highest high waters occur ; similarly the lowest low waters
occur at this time: these are the spring tides.

When the moon is in quadrature, that is, when it is half moon,
solar low water occurs at the same time as lunar high water, thus at
this time high water is less than at any other; whilst since solar high
water synchronizes with lunar low water, the highest low waters occur
at this time: these are the zeap tides. Hence the spring tides at
open coast stations are 3.1, and the neap tides only 1.1, each reckoned
in terms of the solar tide.

At new and full moon, when the sun and moon arises syzygy,
actual high water occurs at the time of lunar high water, as we have
just seen, that is when the moon is on the meridian. But in other
positions of the luminaries, the compound luni-solar high water will
not occur when the moon souths, but at some time intermediate
between those of the lunar and solar tides: this deviation being in
advance or in arrear of the lunar tide according as the crown of the
solar tide precedes or follows the crown of the lunar tide: the
maximum advance in the time of high water takes place 44 days after,
and the maximum retardation the same number of days before spring
tide. This is known as the priming and lagging of the tides.

We have hitherto spoken as if the high water due to the sun or

as 2
a
ee a

_ moon occurred at the instant when the luminary crosses the meridian ;

é g _ but, owing to friction and other causes, the axis of the water-spheroid
fags behind the moon or sun, so that lunar or solar high water does
_ not occur when the corresponding luminary crosses the meridian, but
_ after a certain interval of time, which, on a rough average, may be
_ taken as three hours.

We shall find it convenient to imagine the lunar tide as produced
4 4 _ by an imaginary moon, which always crosses the meridian three hours
_ after the real moon ; and, similarly, the solar tide as produced by an
3 imaginary sun, which crosses the meridian three hours after the real
; 4 sun. Thus the axis of the two water spheroids will always be directed
i ‘oa towards these imaginary tide-producing bodies, and our previous ex-
_ planations will be brought into accordance with the fact that high
water in reality occurs about three hours after the moon’s transit
_ across the meridian.

The action of the luminaries being greater as the distance is less,
it follows that the spring tides in the winter, when the sun is at his
_ least distance from the earth, will be rather greater than in the
summer, and the neap tides rather less. The action of the moon also
"a will be greater the nearer she is to her perigee ; thus the greatest tides
_ that can happen are the spring tides, when the moon is in perigee and
: e earth in perihelion ; this explains, at least, partly, the enormous
des which occasionally do such great damage.

_ The diurnal tides have been really found to exist: thus, at
Plymouth, the morning tides in the winter are higher than the

ehring’s Straits this difference between the morning and evening

ides, but it would be tedious at present to pursue it into further detail.

r an essay on the tides, and which in 1740 was adjudged to Daniel

Bet rnouilli, Euler, Maclaurin, and the Jesuit Cavalleri, in whose person

Descartes’ theory of Vortices received its last honours. The others

I adopted Newton’s theory ; Bernouilli treated it analytically, and
om his results deduced rules for the practical calculation of the

. “tides.

: This theory of ‘Newton and Bernouilli, usually known as the

evening, and vice versé in the summer. In some places near

es is so great that there appears to be only one high water in the day,

~ Such in its main outlines is Newton’s celebrated theory of the

ss Eleven years after his death the French Academy offered a prize

ot,

cr

100

equilibrium theory, from its fundamental assumption, is confessedly
inadequate as an explanation of the causes and motions of the tides ;

indeed, Airy goes so far as to style it “a most contemptible theory ”

and “ grossly imperfect.” Nevertheless, it has been of the greatest
value ; for, whilst rejecting the processes on which they are founded,
men of science till recently have agreed in using its results in discus-
sing tidal observations.

With a few exceptions, no continued series of observations were
made on the tides till about a century ago ; but since the progress of
the theory has rendered it able to grapple with masses of observations,
and reduce them to law, it has become necessary to obtain accurate
and multiplied cbservations,

For this purpose a self-registering tide gauge has been in use for
many years past ; its essential features are a vertical narrow cylinder,
sunk to a certain depth, so as to exclude the action of surface waves ;
a float attached to a piston rod working easily within the cylinder,
and communicating a properly proportioned vertical movement to a
tracing pencil; and lastly, a band of paper, which, by suitable
mechanism, is made to travel uniformly past the pencil. A curve is
thus traced on the paper, whose abscissz represent the line, and its
ordinates the height of the tide; a graphical record can thus be
obtained of the tide wave at any port.

Newton and Bernouilli had, as we have seen, considered the ocean
as in equilibrium, at every instant, under the forces animating
it. Thoroughly dissatisfied with this assumption, Laplace
resolved, in 1772, to investigate the *ofions of the ocean, as
caused by the attractions of the earth and heavenly bodies, by the
pressure thence resulting among the particles of water them-

selves, and by the earth’s rotation. He assumed that the earth is

entirely covered by a shallow ocean, of evanescent density, and also
that the depth is equal throughout any particular parallel of latitude.

His ultimate solution shewed him that the oscillation of the ocean
is the sum of oscillations of three kinds, corresponding respectively
to the tides of long period, the diurnal, and the semi-diurnal tides of
the equilibrium theory. The investigations of Laplace constitute what
is known as the dynamical theory of the tides, and would be
sufficient, had he done nothing else, to place him among the greatest
of mathematicians, But the dynamical, notwithstanding its vast

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"superiority over the equilibrium theory, is still but an imperfect
‘representation of the real circumstances of the actual ocean.
__ Accordingly Laplace again attacked the problem from another side.

‘The law of the rise and fall of the sea may be broadly
stated as follows. If we suppose a circle traced on a dock
wall, so that the lower extremity of its vertical diameter may coincide
with low water mark, and the upper extremity with high water mark,
and if we divide its circumference between these points into six equal
_ parts, representing each one hour, then the tide will, as it rises, just cover
_ one of these divisions each hour, and similarly uncover one for each s
hour that it falls. A rule founded on. this is in practical use among a
seamen for finding the alteration produced by the tide in the soundings: fs,

_ marked on the chart. This motion of the water is what is termed a ss
simple harmonic motion. ee

_ ~ Let us suppose that, as the minute hand of a clock travels round E:
the face, a point moves along the vertical diameter, so as always to e “ig
‘keep on the same level as the extremity of the hand. This point then a
will have a simple harmonic motion. Let us suppose the hand and oe
‘the point to start from the figure VI. of the dial: at first, then, the —~__ >

ipward motion of the point will be very slow ; as the hand gets nearer _
to IX. the point will move faster, attaining its greatest speed when the —_— é
hand is at IX. ; its speed will then decrease as the hand goes towards 5
ee, Thus we see that the velocity of a simple harmonic motion is

= te circle on the desk wall in equal lines, its vertical rise in the same
_ time will vary greatly.

se ei!s ator just as the apeaivte One: in space of a man on hos? a

m otion relative to the earth, and of the earth’s motion in space, so . :
May conceive a motion compounded of several simple harmonic
otions.

_ Owing to the varying distances and positions of the sun and moon,
tide-producing forces which they exert are always varying in
ntensity ; for example, the varying distance of the moon from the
produces one variation in her tide-producing force, her varying
_ distance from the equator produces another. Now, Laplace was led
0 conclude, from his mathematical results, that each such periodical
iation in the tide-producing forces causes a corresponding variation

102

in the height of the tide, and that the height of the tide at any port is
the sum of these separate oscillations. This conclusion—almost the
only practical result of the dynamical theory—may be stated thus :
the height of the water at any place is the sum of the heights due to
several simple harmonic motions, whose periods depend on the

motions of the sun and moon. F

Each of these simple harmonic motions may be termed a tidal
constituent, or, for brevity, a tide. To render Clearer this complex
dynamical action, Laplace conceived each of these partial tides as
produced by a corresponding imaginary star moving uniformly in the
plane of the equator.

The periods of these tides being known, their other data are
determined from actual observations by the application of a profound
analysis.

A Committee of the British Association, under the presidency of
Sir William Thompson, is at present engaged in reducing series of
tidal observations made in different parts of the world. One of its
first reports was made at the meeting held in Brighton.

The larger a sea is, the more perceptible must be the phenomena
of the tides. In a fluid mass the impressions which each molecule
receives communicate themselves to the whole mass ; and thus it is
that the action of the sun, which is insensible on an isolated molecule,
produces on the ocean such remarkable effects. The Black Sea and
the Caspian have no tides, and the greatest range of the tide in the
Mediterranean is not more than four feet.

But a sea which is too small for the production of perceptible
tides by the sun and moon, may have derivative tides ; that is to say,
undulations which are excited primarily by the disturbing effect of the
luni-solar tide-wave, and subsequently propagated by mechanical
action among “the particles of water. The tides in the English
Channel are of this nature.

It appears a universal rule throughout the English Channel, that
at any great distance from either shore the tide-current runs up the
Channel nearly three hours after high water, and down the Channel
nearly three hours after low water; and that on the English side of
the Channel, especially opposite the entrances of bays, the direction of
the current revolves in 12 hrs. 20 min. through all the points of the

“—~

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5 SAS I ne hn aia Oa een i
Sree bee Vere eae

103 4
compass, in the same direction as the hands of a watch, the observer’s a
face being directed up the Channel ; and that on the French side they 45.
. _ turn in the opposite direction. Thus, at some distance from shore, As?
we see that the time of high water does not coincide with that of slack. ie
This is well-known to sailors, who term the tide-current which flows P es
_ up Channel for three hours after high water tide and half-tide. ? ?
Nevertheless, they have often noted down the time of slack water as a
that of high water, and thus caused no small confusion and trouble in naa.
the discussion of their observations. <S:
_ The dynamical theory of Laplace gives no explanation of this ye
_ phenomenon ; but the present Astronomer Royal has discussed the j i
mathematical laws of the tides considered as waves propagated through ; BS.
he sea ; and his theory, besides giving similar results to Laplace’s as Bat
_ to diurnal and semi-diurnal tides, explains the tides in rivers, which ag
the other fails to do. “a
‘We have seen that the tides in the Channel are derivative : the rise ‘i ; as

ind fall of the tide at any place is due to an undulation of the surface —
_ which is propagated through the water, by means of comparatively

biz A
Tress
nye

Ag

_ small oscillations of its component particles.

HFS

Let us trace the path of a particle in the surface, which we will
Ippose to start from 4. It will travel round towards B. At B its
) ion will be entirely horizontal and up channel. But C B is the
atest height to which the particle attains. Thus, when it is at B,
water occurs ; the particle continues to move onward, but its
9 diminishes ; thus, as the ae falls, the current continues to

104

flow up Channel for three hours, till the particle gets to C, where for
an instant it has no horizontal motion backwards or forwards ; it is
then slack water. The particle then moves backwards towards D,
and its depth below the level surface, A C increases ; the tide is then
falling, and the tide current flowing down Channel. When the particle
gets to D, it is at its greatest depth, and /ow water occurs. The par-
ticle continues moving on to 4; the tide begins to rise, but the
current still flows down Channel for another three hours, till twelve
lunar hours after starting, the particle returns to 4, and it is again
slack water.

The positions of different particles, in their respective orbits, at
the same time will depend on their distances from the point where the
undulation commences ; thus, particles near this point will have
travelled further round than those which receive their motion later.
If, then, we draw a curve through the positions of the particles at the
same instant, we shall have the form of the wave at that instant.

The interval of time by which high water at any place follows
the transit of the moon on the day of full or new moons, is termed
the Establishment of the Port for that place. This interval is not the
same every day, but is subject to a semi-menstrual inequality ; it is
better, therefore, for scientific purposes to take not the interval on the
day of full or new moon, but the mean of all the intervals between
new and full moon; this is termed by Whewell the Corrected Estab- :
lishment of the Port. ;

Another correction has also to be made, depending on what is
called the “age of the tide.” The tide at London is determined by
the position of the sun and moon 23 days before it occurs; the time
of high water on the day of full moon takes place at two o’clock, but
two hours will not be the Establishment, for it must be calculated for
the position of the moon 23 days before, and is thus found to be rh. 29m.

The correct determination of the Establishment is of the greatest
importance both to navigation and science. By adding the corrected
Establishment to the time of the moon’s transit, we get the time of
high water. This is reduced to Greenwich time, and we thus are able
to compare the time of high water in all parts of the world.

If, therefore, we draw’a curve through all places having high
water at the same instant, we shall have the form of the great tidal

ie wave at that instant. Such a line is called a co-tidal line. The first —

person who attempted to draw these lines was the late Sir John
Lubbock ; but those given in physical maps are due to the researches

ie, travelling westward Capubll the earth in 24 lunar hours, and
-accompanied by another at 12 hours’ distance. There would thus be
24 co-tidal lines, resembling parallels of latitude.

that the tides in the upper parts of the Channel are compound tides
e to the interference of two tides differing by a period of twelve
hours, so that the diurnal elevation due to'the one is balanced by the
_ depression due to the other. The inbend between Beachy Head and
a he Isle of Wight appears to have day tides which run up to
rtsmouth. The range of the tide, that is, the difference between its
heights at low and high ras is 12 or 13 feet from Devonshire to

Dover. %

a peri. 5 Ay in the Enc. Metrop., and Sir W. Thompson’s reports: =
Bras. Other 3 boy i are Mrs. Somerville’s Mechanism of
d Tait’s Natural Philosophy, vol. I. There is an historical notice

Leslie Ellis prefixed to the-De Fluxu et Refluxu Maris of Bacon
Spedding’s Edition.

The diurnal tide is found to exist from the Scilly Isles to Portland |
Bill, but apparently not further east. This shows, in all probability, —

Among the authorities on the subject are Newton’s Principia, — f
ace’s Systtme du Monde and Mecanique Céléste, Young in the oe

Heavens and Connexion of the Physical Sciences, Thompson |

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106

APRIL 27TH.

MICROSCOPICAL MEETING. — MR. W. H. SMITH
ON “STARCH.”

In introducing the starches as a subject for microscopical
examination, he craved the indulgence of those who were well
acquainted with such objects, while he assumed, in accordance
with the wish of some members of the Society, that the meeting
consisted of persons ignorant of the subject. Starch was generally a
more or less glistening white powder, consisting of colourless
transparent granules of various shapes and sizes, usually distinct and
separate, but sometimes united together, forming compound granules.
Schleiden also claimed to have discovered it in an amorphous con-
dition, in the bark of Jamaica sarsaparilla, the seeds of cardamonium
minus, and the stem of carex arenaria; but other observers thought
that this had not been clearly demonstrated. The occurrence of
starch in plants was so universal that its presence was once thought to
be sufficient evidence to determine whether a body should be con-
sidered to belong to the animal or vegetable kingdom, until it was
shown that a body isomeric with starch could be found in certain
animals. It appeared to be of the same value to a plant that fat was
to an animal, or, in other words, it was a store of nourishment laid up
for future use ; hence it was found most abundantly in those plants,
and parts of plants, which were likely to require a large amount of
nourishment in a short time. Thus many plants accumulated starch
in their roots to an enormcus extent before flowering, in order that
they might have support during that important period of their
existence. Carrots, turnips, and radishes were familiar examples of
this kind of plant, whose roots were most fit for use just before flower-
ing, when every cell was gorged with starch granules, but were woody
and useless when the plant had run to seed and the granules, haying
served to support it during its inflorescence, had disappeared.

Starch was composed of carbon, united with the elements of
water, and although all starch had the same chemical composition, yet
every variety was more or less contaminated with some of the peculiar
secretions of the plant from which it was derived, and hence the
superior value of certain starches over others as articles of food. It
would unite with an alkali such as potash, forming a soluble salt, and

CLP Nee lt AMA TR ia ae al

re) - ~

107

could be precipitated by double decomposition fcom its solution, as an
insoluble amylate of lime, baryta, lead, or silver, and thus pure starch
was readily obtained for the purpose of analysis. Being an insoluble
body, starch could be taken up by the juices of the plant in that con-
dition, but when required for use was converted into dextrine and
sugar, which, being soluble substances, could be immediately
employed for the nourishment of the plant. Unlike chloro-
phyll, which would only develope in structures exposed to the light,
starch was always found most abundantly in those parts which were
deep-seated and removed from the light.

_ A fully-formed starch granule usually presented a small rounded
spot called the /Az/m, generally situated at one end, around which were
= grouped a number of concentric lines, which might be made more
evident by careful dessication. This appearance had given rise to a

‘ granule. Some observers maintained that the granule was a true cell
ee filled with a substance which was alike throughout, that the hilum was
an opening into this cell, and that the appearance of lines was caused
a by the unfolding of the walls of the cell. In support of this view Bush
si i gave the following experiment. Saturate a few granules with a strong

with it. On the addition of a small quantity of water the granules
would gradually expand, developing at the same time a frill-like

might then be seen slowly unfolding, and might be traced in many
cases into the rugee of the frill. The granule at length swelled up to
: twenty or thirty times its original bulk, appearing as a flaccid sac,

ther observers considered that the granule was a cell, and
that the Az/um was an opening into it, while the concentric

in nucleus to the outer wall, and varying in density, the outer
4 layer being most compact. In support of this view the fol-
? owing experiment was given. If a little potato starch was
eated on a metal plate to 360 degrees or 390 degrees, and then
a examined after treatment with a little water, the several layers would
_ be found swollen, and by adding an aqueous solution of iodine they
~ would be made to appear with considerable distinctness. Reid
saturated starch granules with glycerine, and placed them while in this”

108

state in contact with water, when endosmotic changes followed, the
less dense liquid being absorbed. After the absorption the grains were
found to have burst in the direction of their axes, the rupture indicating
a membrane that had been corrugated by release from unusual tension;
whilst the covering of the remaining portion of the granule was
visible, in distinct longitudinal wrinkles, from the 42/ downwards.
He submitted that were the corpuscle composed of superposed laminze
only, the addition of water in the manner described ought not to
rupture it, or if this happened, the fracture would be in the direction
of the laminar surfaces and not at right angles to them or their
supposed order, as happened in his experiments. He further held that
the bands or lines observed in starch grains were mere plications of
the outer membrane, because they entirely disappeared on swelling
the corpuscles with any liquid.

Others again considered that the nucleus was a point either solid
or hollow, from which growth proceeded, and that the lines represented
successive deposit on the exterior varying in density, there being no
investing membrane at all. We were accustomed to say that while
the cold water had no action on starch boiling water would break up
its granules and dissolve them, but this seemed to be very doubtful ;
for if one part of starch were boiled with 100 parts of water, the white
colour of the corpuscles would disappear and the whole present a
perfect solution, which would traverse a compact filter. Payen
immersed the bulb of a hyacinth in such a filtered solution, and
succeeded in separating the apparently-dissolved starch ; for there
appeared, as the rootlets absorbed the water, particles of starch
adhering to them, which were turned blue by iodine, whilst a section
of the roots of the bulb gave no indication with this test of the presence
of amylaceous matters. Hence it was evident that the fine capillaries
of the plant, being too small to permit the passage of the particles of
starch, caused their accumulation on the surface.

Starch was also separated from its apparent solution by freezing
and thawing several times, when it was precipitated in flakes, and
could be made into a felt-like substance, which was used in the manu-
facture of certain kinds of cartridges and for other purposes, as a
substitute for paper. It would appear that boiling water did not
dissolve starch granules, but increased their size to an enormous
extent and rendered them transparent. He had seen it stated that

quelin had been able to heat starch granules to 300 degrees in
water, and then regain them in their original form by simple evapo-
ration of the water ; but he should like to see such a granule.

Examined by polarised light the starch granule gave a black
‘f “scr 08s, which changed as the prism was rotated, or when a selenite
late was interposed a coloured cross, on a different coloured ground, and
it then formed one of the prettiest objects that could be exhibited
under the microscope. Starch was obtained by rasping or grinding
roots, &c., and then washing the mass upon a sieve ; by which the torn

ellular tissue was retained, while the starch passed through with the

Insoluble powder. Starch from the grain might be prepared by mixing
; the meal with water to a paste and washing on a sieve; but it was
Seraonly manufactured on a large scale by steeping the material
1 water for a considerable time, when the lactic acids, always
.. under such circumstances from the sugar of the seed, dis-

ian ore easy UF successful process had lately been introduced, in i icoe
We

Bia. the starches which would be exhibited were sago and
~ tapioca, which one saw figured in nearly every work on the microscope,
ut of which he had great difficulty in obtaining samples. The
rticles sold under those names consisted of starches in a partially
ed eiaie, some of the ire having been ead into a Ai

e, and, judging from the appearance of some of the soluble cocoas,
th ere must be a considerable quantity of sago meal in England some-

the tubers of Maranta Arundinacea, formed the ordinary arrowroot of

car ¢ taken in its preparation and the part of the world from which it
can me, that the higher qualities were quoted at fully three times the

. ue of the lower, although obtained from the same plant. East
lian arrowroot yielded by the Rhizomes of Curcuma Angustifolia
| Clencorrhiza, had a very characteristic aupearance and was

quid, and eventually settled down from the latter as a soft white

avery dilute BOI SD of caustic soda, containing about 200 grains of

where. Arrowroot, known as West Indian arrowroot, obtained from

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commerce, the value of which varied so greatly with the amount of — = tie

Ito

generally figured in microscopical works, but it seemed to have disap-

peared from commerce, for he was unable to obtain a sample from.

several of the principal wholesale druggists. But this was not the
case with English arrowroot, which, being only potato starch, was
readily obtained, and sometimes changed its name for that of West
Indian arrowroot. Another curiosity was Portland arrowroot, which
was made in Portland Island, from the root of Arizim Maculatum, and
yet another was Tahita arrowroot, made by the converts of the
missionary, John Williams, from the tubers of Zacca oceanica.
These, then, together with some more common starches, such as those
of peas, beans, wheat, &c., would be exhibited, and he thought he had
said all that he need say concerning starch.

Mr. T. W. Wownror enquired whether much of the disease to
which infants were subject arose from their being fed upon different
foods, consisting principally or altogether of starch, mixed with water
instead of milk?

Mr. SMITH : There was no doubt much illness and even death
had resulted from infants being fed on some so-called cornflowers
mixed with water alone.

The meeting then became a conversazione, when Mr. Smith, Mr.
Wonfor, Mr. Dennant, and Mr. Glaisyer exhibited the various kinds
of starches, provided by Mr. Smith, and shown under polarised light.
They comprised the largest grain of the starch from Caza edulis, the
skin of the potato, ginger presenting starch grains 77 sz¢#, and other
objects mentioned in the paper read. Salep—the root of different
kinds of orchids, used in India instead of arrowroot, and a few years
ago, before the establishment of early coffee-houses in London, sold
under the name of ‘‘ Sallop””—which contained a kind of arrowroot,
was also exhibited.

{
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|

IiL

TITH May.

ORDINARY MEETING.—MR. H. GOSS “ON THE
GENERATION OF INSECTS, ESPECIALLY PAR-
-THENOGENESIS, WITH OBSERVATIONS ON HER-
~ MAPHRODITISM.”

Before proceeding to the main subject of the paper, it would be
necessary to make a few preliminary observations on the nature of

eir classification of the animal kingdom, and the orders into which
ey had been divided.

- Insects were animals having articulated bodies divided into three

2 chief portions, namely, the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. They
_ had three pairs of legs and generally two pairs of wings, and in their
3 perfect state two eyes and two antennz, and they passed through

the perfect or highest state of their existence.

The transformations through which insects passed during the
cle of their existence were four, namely, the egg, the larva, the pupa,
“and the imago or perfect state. These transformations or periods of

cistence differed widely from one another in the various orders of

‘insects. In some orders—for instance, in the Lepidoptera—these
TER

ds of existence in the life of the insect were very distinct, and
ming no one of them did the insect bear any external resemblance to
at which it possessed in another. Sir John Lubbock observed, when

ume, and pass through a period of inaction in which not only is the
hole form of the body altered, not only are legs and wings acquired,
it even the internal organs themselves are almost entirely disintegrated

hoptera—there was not so marked a distinction between the larval,
al, and perfect states, the changes consisting of a gradual increase

( r size and in the acquisition of wings.
ss yey

a In order to explain the position occupied by insects in the animal

"several transformations, called their metamorphoses before attaining.

riting on the subject of metamorphoses, that ‘‘some insects acquire | .
ir full bulk in a form very different from that which they ultimately

reformed.” On the other hand, in some orders—such as the

Ii2

kingdom, it would be necessary to allude to the systems of classification
commenced by our countryman Ray, by Linnzeus, Lrisson, and others,
and finally perfected by Cuvier.

In the “Systema Nature” Linnzeus divided the animal kingdom
into six groups, namely :—1. Quadrupeds ; 2. Birds; 3. Amphibia;
4. Fishes ; 5. Insects ; and 6. Worms.

Subsequently Brisson separated the cetaceous animals (whales
and dolphins) from the fishes and placed them next to the quadrupeds.

Linnzeus subsequently rejected the old division of Quadruped,
and introduced the name of Mammalia, which, as expressing the
manner in which the young of viviparous animals were nourished, as
distinguished from oviparous animals, constituted the great distinction
between the first and subsequent classes of the first division of the
animal creation.

The first four classes, namely, the Mammalia, the Birds, the
Reptiles, and the Fish, were subsequently formed into one great family
of vertebrate animals, and all the lower classes were comprised in a
second family of zuvertebrates.

The arrangement by Linnzeus of the invertebrates into two classes
(the insects and worms) was very imperfect. Cuvier was the first who
reduced the arrangement of the invertebrates to a satisfactory con-
dition. He divided the animal kingdom into four divisions, namely :—
1. Vertebrata ; 2. Mollusca ; 3. Articulata ; 4. Radiata.

The only division to which he should call especial attention was
the third one, as that included the class, the origin and generation of
which was the main subject of the paper.

The third division, called Articulata, was divided into four classes,
namely :—1. Annelida ; 2. Crustacea ; 3. Arachnida ; 4. Insecta.

That portion of the animal kingdom under particular consideration
was, therefore, according to Cuvier’s arrangement, the fourth class of
the third division, ,

Cuvier divided the class Insecta into 12 orders, the principal of
which were :—1. Coleoptera; 2. Orthoptera ; 3. Hemiptera; 4. Neu-
roptera ; 5. Hymenoptera ; 6. Lepidoptera ;'7. Diptera.

Professor Westwood, in his introduction to the modern classifica-

113

_ which were the same as those before mentioned in Cuvier’s arrangement,
with the exception of the order Hemiptera.

+ These orders had also been divided according to the nature of
their metamorphoses, into two groups, namely, Heteromorpha, or, as B
a _ Professor Westwood has described them, “ those in which there is no
resemblance between the parent and the offspring ; and Homomorpha,
or those in which the larva resembles the imago except in the absence
of wings. In the Homomorpha (which include, amongst other orders, ar
the Orthoptera, the Hemiptera, and certain Neuroptera) the body,

_ legs, and antennz are nearly similar in their form to those of the per-
fect insect, but the wings are wanting.”” The Homomorphic insects did

aN Se 3

_ not pass through such distinct changes of form as the Heteromorphic, f
a ‘and were active during all the stages of their existence (except, of aS
- course, the egg state), so that, as explained, there were not, in fact, in ss
all orders of insects four well defined periods of existence, but in . be
many cases the progress of development towards the final stage of ; iy
Z ie eycle of the insect’s existence was gradual and almost imperceptible. : :
The generation of an insect was the commencement of the germ 43 Je

Sx

its existence. After generation the subsequent life of the insect
consisted in development. The first state in which the insect might
_ be said to have an independent existence was the egg. The egg,
% under the requisite conditions of light, air, and heat, produced the ~
“3 larva which attained development by meansof nutriment. The larva
_ fed.voraciously, and after undergoing many changes of skin, attained
a its full size, and then changed into the pupa state, during which it lived _

ipon its own fat. Burmeister says that, “during the pupa state the
~ intestinal canal of the larva shrivels up, and at its expense the organs _
generation are developed.” When the last transformation had ~—
n completed, the perfect insect made its appearance in the highest —
ate of its development. The end of this last stage of its being
appeared to be propagation and the commencement of the cycle of a
new generation.

q
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uv

3 Whilst on this part of the subject, he would read an extract from ~
| paper ‘communicated to the Journal of the Philadelphian Academy
f Natural Sciences by the late Dr. Brackenridge Clemens. In this
per Dr. Clemens says “ Every mature or perfected being has had an
ar terior organic history included in the history of its structural pro-

114

gression froin a collection of simple cells to a natural body possessing
undivided and distinctive characteristics. No one of its states or
conditions constitutes species ; neither the perfect insect, nor the pupa,
nor the larve, nor the ovum fulfil in themselves the conception involved
in this term, but simply represent the various relations the individual
maintains to physical and animated nature, and during the continuance
of which its structural biography is written. The perfect being is the
temporary expression of a thought or conception involved in the series
of actions which constitute in their entirety a special and definite
creation, and in this state has reached the acme of its perfectibility,
a point beyond which it cannot pass; but after a variable period its
organic part is broken up and resolved again into the simple or primary
elements of matter.

“The species, or the thought, however, doesnot cease to exist during”

the process of organic disintegration of the individual, and previously
to its disappearance or death it represents its special organism, or
rather its species, by means of an ovum in which the organic actions
destroyed by the previous representation are recommenced and again
carried through a series of changes or states to the point of its previous
organic perfection, commencing in the simplest organic state and con-
tinually returning to it to renew a series of predetermined special
developments. We have in species a cycle of persistent ceaseless
actions revolving in their narrow humble orbit with all the indications
of design, and with comparatively as much invariability as the great
planets observe in their appointed paths. It is a conception, inasmuch
as from a structureless body or material is evolved a constant pre-
ordained manner, one having a highly coraplicated arrangement of
organs whose actions and functions result in the production of
phenomena known as those of life. The ovum in which the organic
cycle may be said to have its inception is endowed with no fortuitous
or independent impulse of evolution. Up to the period of its maturity
it has formed an integral and necessary part of some pre-existing
natural body. It is, indeed, a component of the organism quite as
much as any other aggregation of specialized cells, and partakes of all
its characteristics of growth. To endow it with this impulse not even
wae procreative act between the male and female organism is absolutely
“~*~ and its specific evolution may be recommenced inde-
rop Ketan S-ohlyanb. extraneous aid and continued to the production of a

Professor West”

i

ee

115
Generation has been divided into two classes,—1. Single or
equivocal generation; and 2. Double generation or propagation.

be _.. Double generation or propagation was of three descriptions,—r.
_ A portion of the old individual might be separated and become an
Bi independent being, which was called propagation by shoots. 2. In
9 the body of the old individual the commencement of a new one might
3 be spontaneously developed, which germen, having attained its
maturity, quitted the maternal sphere and maintained a separate
existence, which was called propagation by germens. 3. The usual
_ method of propagation by the development of the germ by the re-
@ “e ception by the mother by intromission of a peculiar exciting fluid, 4

i The last method of propagation was called sexual. The active
_ individual or portion was called the male, and that upon which it

SS acted, the recipient or germ-forming individual, the female. se
‘Where these two faculties were united in one individual it was te

Ry,

x > then called Hermaphrodite ; an abnormal state of organism to which et.
os he would allude more particularly afterwards. hk,

_ On the subject of single or equivocal generation he had ‘but little - ‘es
4 ‘to say. By means of it only ie very lowest order of organism was
Drirred 3 in that of a particular species of louse, which originated upon
ae and collected in great numbers at particular spots.

— Certain species of acari were also developed in the same

.. z Professor Burmeister says :—“ The second kind of propagation, 5
mere ha at by shoots, has not yet been observed in insects ; it is also perfectly

{ itradictory to the idea of creatures so highly organised as they are. »
4 Some observations, however, seem to confirm the possible development of

wiki 4 .

*y f insects from germens or eggs laid by an unimpregnated female.”

it was of not unfrequent occurrence. This mode of propagation by :
hens constantly and regularly took place in certain genera. In
‘it occurred only occasionally. As a regular mode it was ascribed

wf)

T16

nation, according to De Geer and Bonnet, produced living female
young ones. ‘This spontaneous generation was repeated to the tenth
generation. After this a generation of males and females again made
their appearance.

On this subject he could not do better than quote Professor Von
Siebold, whose work on the subject of Parthenogenesis had been trans-
lated by Mr. W. S. Dallas. Von Siebold says: “It is well-known
that in the Aphides, a sexual generation represented by separate
males and females, is followed by a series of generations only in-
cluding a single form, which proceed from each other in manifold
repetition, without any previous copulation, until after about seven to
eleven such generations a generation of males and females again
makes its appearance.

“ Steenstrup regarded these forms of Aphides, which are capable
of reproduction without the influence of the male generative organs,
and which had been previously looked upon as virgin female Aphides,
as Nurses, and consequently as those members of an animal species
subjected to an alteration of generations which are capable of pro-
ducing young in the asexual state, Those Aphides which bring forth
living young, without a preliminary copulation, are in reality quite
different in their organization from the female Aphides, which lay eggs
capable of development after the act of copulation.

“In the viviparous Aphides those organs, specially from which
the living young are produced, have quite a different form and
organization from the sexual organs of the oviparous Aphides ;
so that in opposition to the ovaries, the products of which (eggs) only
become capable of development by the action of the male semen, we
may with perfect justice indicate the organs as germ stocks, which
are capable of producing young of themselves without the influence
of male fertilizing organs.

“‘ These nurselike viviparous Aphides therefore, which, instead of
ovaries, bear germ stocks in their interior, are also destitute of the
seminal receptacle which occurs universally in the female of insects
and plays an important part in the fecundation of eggs.”

The terms “germ stocks” and “ germ body” had been used to
distinguish the reproductive organs of the viviparous asexual Aphides
from the eggs and ovaries of the oviparous female Aphides.

Thus much on the subject of spontaneous generation of germ

y
4

ae peri . Se aus

117

mode of spontaneous generation by true virgin females. This mode
_ of reproduction had been called by the older naturalists “ Lucina sine
concubita,” and is now generally known as Parthenogenesis.

: Burmeister says “that unimpregnated females lay eggs may be
_ observed in the Bombycidee if, some days after their escape from the
io - pupa case, they be impaled and allowed to die slowly. The females
er the ine hadl ser the same ; but never the butterflies, according

a "This, of course, was known to be the case from the personal obser-
vation of all who had bred any of these insects. It must not be
supposed that these unfertilized ova as a rule produced larve. It was
indeed only very rarely that young were disclosed. As a rule these
eggs were sterile, but the exception to this rule was known as
Parthenogenesis or the generation from ova laid by unimpregnated

or virgin females. Y

according to the observations of such unquestionable authorities as
_ De Geer, Réamur, Bonnet, Schiffer, Miiller, Pallas, Ochsenheimer,
eRe

Roesel, and others, to be of not unfrequent occurrence.

In the Lepidopterous Genus Psyche, not only the Entomologists
ore named had observed it, but many now living could furnish
stimony in support of their statements. He would cite instances

is ir which this mode of generation had been observed.
pice €

Naturalists in 1701 a memoir, relating that he took a brown pupa,
which had spun itself up in a black currant bush, and preserved it

om. it. At the end of July a moth of a yellowish white colour
me caped from it (the moth was not more particularly described). ‘The
moth in a few days laid a great number of eggs and then died. In
pril of the following year, Albrecht again looked after the glass, and

‘ / ee 9 Geet ae Cen, Oe) 0 ee ae nl at
y oe eee eS WA, Te SS re ae re bas SP ea

dies by asexual individuals. He would next allude to the other —

_ The oldest communication on the subject was due to J.T. ‘ a,
brecht, of Hildesheim, who wrote to the Leopoldine Academy of.

ur nder a glass in his summer house to see what moth would be evolved

astonished at finding young black caterpillars in it instead of the

7

118

Querct-folia, related by Bernouilli as having been observed by Pro-

fessor Basler. _ Bernouilli himself observed an instance in Cceruleo-
cephala.

Treviranus observed an instance of the same spontaneous
development in S. Ligustri, Suckow in G. Pzz, and Dr. Nordman in
S. Populi.

Shirach stated that a queen bee would sometimes lay fertile eggs
without copulation with the drone, and that the females produced by
such eggs would again lay productive eggs without having copulated.

Professor Von Siebold had confirmed this statement of Partheno-

genesis in the honey-bee ; and, although originally very sceptical of

the occurrence of this phenomenon in the cases before mentioned,
subsequent observations convinced him that Parthenogenesis con-
stantly occurred in.some of the Tineidz, viz., in the Genus Taleeporia
or, more properly, Solenobia. The two species of Solenobia in which
he observed Parthenogenesis constantly to occur were S. Lichenella
and S. Tviguetrelia. The two species of sac bearers just mentioned
were not, however, the only representatives of true Parthenogenesis ;
an equally striking example of the virgin reproduction of a female
insect was presented by Psyche Helix.

Von Siebold had further established the constant occurrence of
Parthenogenesis in the case of Bomdbya Mori (the silkworm moth).

One more instance he would cite before closing this part of his
subject. He alluded to the Genus Cynips (or the Gall Flies). Of this
_genus some twenty eight species were known, which according to
Hartig were all destitute of males. Hartig was said to have inspected
9,000 or 10,000 of Cy#ips divisa and 3,090 or 4,000 of Cynips Soli
and found no single male amongst them. He even collected C. jolt
for eight years and never obtained anything but females, and he
observed these female Cynipidz proceed to the deposition of their eggs
immediately after their issuing from the galls. A male cynips had,
however, been subsequently discovered. Mr. Frederick Smith, of the
British Museum, the well-known Hymenopterist, writing in the May
number of the Entomologists’ Monthly Magazine for 1869, says,
“through the kindness of Mr. Darwin I have received both sexes of a
species of Cynips ; they were bred from the black oak by Mr. Benjamin
Walsh, the American Hymenopterist. The gall from which the male
and female were obtained is larger than the bullet gall of the oak, so

ea ee

o be an 119
“common in England, being two sitiched or more in diameter. According
to Mr. Walsh’s observations the males are only obtained from those

galls which develop flies early in the season, two months before the
is great autumnal brood appears, the latter all being invariably of the
3 female sex, Following up this we may hope this year to obtain males

of Cynips Lignicola.”

**
}
s
ob
a

__- It will be seen from the instances cited that Parthenogenesis cer-
tainly occurred more generally in the insect world than the few at
_ present discovered examples led us to suppose. Von Siebold was of
4 opinion that it occurs in accordance with determinate laws which had
_ hitherto entirely eluded our observation.

~.
>

In Nature definite objects were probably obtained by it which we
could only comprehend when we should have learnt to know the life
and actions of insects in general more exactly than was at present the
case.

E. . A Before commencing the subject of sexual generation, a few obser-
og _ vations were necessary on Hermaphroditism among insects. It was no
doubt well known that perfect Hermaphrodites amongst animals were
_ found only in the tape worm, many Annelida (for example, the leech
and the earth worm), and the majority of the Mollusca. In insects,
according to present observations, Hermaphroditism was but one-
_ sided, the left side generally exhibiting female forms and organs and
the opposite side male organs.

this subject were made known by Schiffer ; then Scopoli described an

meet s

_-Esyer described a specimen of 7. Crategi, in which the right side

BD Quercus. Capieux saw an Hermaphrodite of .S. Carfind, the left
= wing of which was male, but the right with the rest of the body
female.

: _ Ochsenheimer made a complete list of the Hermaphrodites which,

—
a

_ possessed,

‘He divided all Hermaphrodites into two groups, viz., into perfect,

w |

_ According to Professor Burmeister, the earliest observations on
stance. Communications of this kind then became more numerous.

was ‘male and the left side female. Then Hetthuger a similar ore of —

Pp to his time, had been described, or which he had himself seen or

’ in which one side was perfectly female and the other perfectly male, “4
d into imperfect Hermaphrodites, where the habit of one sex pre- ©

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PRES) Fe

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120

vailed throughout the entire insect, and the forms of the other were,
perceptible in solitary parts. From this list of observed Hermaphro-
dites, made by Ochsenheimer, it appeared that in fourteen out of the
twenty-three instances there cited of true Hermaphrodites, the right
side was male and the left female.

Curiously enough, in the only specimen of a true Hermaphrodite
which he ever saw alive, and which was now in his cabinet, the right
side was female and the left side male, in exception to the general rule.
This Hermaphrodite was a specimen of Gonepteryx Rhamni, and the
greenish white colour of the female (right) wings contrasted very
strongly with the bright sulphur yellow colour of the male (left) wings.

Among the imperfect Hermaphrodites the majority, viz., six out
of eleven in Ochsenheimer’s list, were females, and the minority male
with female characters.

Scopoli seemed to have been of opinion that Hermaphrodites
sufficed to themselves, but subsequent writers on the subject appeared
to think this not to be the case.

It appeared that many of these so-called Hermaphrodites were
really nothing more than monstrosities, because on anatomical in-
spection they were found not to possess perfect female organs in
conjunction with perfect male organs, which must exist to constitute
true natural Hermaphroditism.

In conclusion he would allude to the third and regular method of
generation, which was called sexual. The methods of generation
previously alluded to being of course quite exceptional and abnormal.
Asa rule ail insects were of separate sexes and required the admixture
of both sexes in order.to be fruitful.

The union of the sexes by copulation was followed by the forma~
tion of the egg and the development of the embryo.

The differences of the sexes in size, form, and colour, were very
- striking in most species.

First as to size and form. It might be stated asa rule that the
body of the female was always thicker, larger, and generally more
convex. On the other hand the male was generally slenderer, smaller,
more delicately formed, and provided with longer legs. These
characteristics were particularly noticeable amongst the Coleoptera.

Another point worthy of notice was that the females of certain

a>

Tat

“species were invariably apterous, the males never so. In the Lepidop-
4 tera the females of the two species of the genus Orgyia amongst the
- Bombycidze were invariably apterous. So were the Psychide.
Amongst the Geometrz were the following genera the females of which
were entirely apterous, Phigalia and Myssia, and the following in
which the females were either entirely apterous or possessed wings only
i. _ Partially developed, Hybernia (including five species), Anisopteryx
- and Cheimatobia (two species).

ah,

_ Another peculiarity of sex was that the males of many of the
3 Peeibyces and Geometre had doubly pectinated antenna, whereas
_ those of the females were much less strongly pectinated, or were

. _ merely simple and setiform.

“ag
_ In the Genus Blatta, of the order Orthoptera, the females were
partially apterous.

- The differences of colour in the sexes were also very remarkable.
a rule (to which, however, there were some striking exceptions) the
colours of the male were brighter, more beautiful, and more glittering
_ than those of the female. In the Genus Lyczna, or Poly6mmatus of
the e Lepidoptera, the males were (with two exceptions out of 10 species)
Be beans shades of blue, whereas the females, with two exceptions
(in Argiolus and Arion), were of a dull brown. In Iris, as was well
own, the wings of the male were shot with splendid purple, but the
male was of a dull brown.

Biri One of the most notable exceptions to this rule occurred in Thecla
; Quercus, the males of which were dull purple throughout, whereas the
- fore ‘wings-of the female were enlivened by a patch of brilliant

_ The butterflies copulated about noon in the brightest sunshine.

The crepuscular and nocturnal insects copulated at those times.
copulation the male frequently died from exhaustion.

ms of the eggs lying on the tubes of her ovaries.* -After the de-
elopment of the egg was completed, the period for depositing it

OS: The impregnation of the female produced the development of the :

*
*,

it

122

immature egg. When the egg had been laid a distinct life, that of
the embryo, commenced in it. Externally the egg appeared to consist
of a horny shell, which got hard after exposure to the air. Beneath
the external membrane lay a second and more delicate one, which
formed the case of the fluid contained in the egg. The fluid was the
yolk, which was stated chemically to consist of albumen, animal glue,
yellow fat, and sulphate and phosphate of natron. According to
Suckon’s observations, a small dark spot was formed in the centre of
the originally tolerably clear yolk, which was the sign of the
commencement of the embryo. After a short time the em-
bryo appeared as a half moon shaped body, at the end of
which the head was already perceived. The embryo swam in
a bright green but clear fluid, and was enclosed by two other
membranes besides the shell. Michelotti’s experiments (quoted by
Burmeister) upon the eggs of Z. Dispar and L. Mari had proved that
the eggs during their development decomposed air, viz, imbibed
oxygen and gave out carbonic acid, but only in a temperature of from
15° to 20° (Reaumur). As the embryo increased in size, its external
formation could be seen through the egg shell. Burmeister stated
that the sexual organs might be observed during the last few days of
the embryo period and presented themselves in both sexes as small
knobs.

The commencement of the nervous system consisted of two
extremely delicate, scarcely perceptible filaments, into which the
nervous matter by degrees accumulated. The muscular layers beneath
the skin were also indicated, and particularly the head, with its
mandibles, the legs, and the anal horn.

The matured embryo, in its convoluted position, might imme-
diately before its development into the larval state be seen through
the thin egg shell. After these evolutions the young larva bored its
way through the egg shell, immediately commencing its first and most
important occupation, eating. The first meal was very frequently the
egg shell from which the larva had just emerged.

The President (Mr. J. DENNANT), on behalf of the members of
the Society, thanked Mr. Goss for his paper, and hoped it would not
be the last they would hear from him.

Mr. T. W. WoONFOR mentioned that, in 1869, some female
bullet galls which had been reared in the British Museum were

ua
*
Ar
rs
“

123

Mr. J. E. HASELWOOD said it had been noticed that the aphides
g the summer produced only females for ten generations, but

a Sania. To test this, some had been kept in warm atmo-

- sphere and supplied with plenty of nutrition, the result being that

“g ‘s ould not be completed in one as well as two. It was said that the
aries began to develop before impregnation, and when they reached
2 certain stage, if not impregnated, they decayed.

rave

_ Mr. WoNFOR said there was another point with regard to the

bides. There was a miscroscope slide commonly marked “leaf
sect,” i in consequence of it being covered with leaf-like appendages.
\ hat was merely one form of the maple leaf insect, and which also
ould be found on the sycamore. These peculiar females produced
ze species, one capable of producing their kind exactly alike, and
ae e other incapable of producing its kind.

- ger nination was the rule when the organism was not so developed ;
p> but when it became more complex bi-sexual re-production became
j ‘the tule, the latter having a greater tendency to sustain the form and

Ze give a longer duration of life than the other.
“iia

“A NEW SPINNING JENNY,”

a

is

. Mr. HASELWoopD did not see why all the necessary conditions

7
'

: sen thy

= It was remarked that Darwin had pointed out that uni-sexual

Mr. F. C. DENNET brought before the notice of the meeting a
Machine for spinning cotton that had been invented in America, ~ .
cing it with a statement of the futility of the attempts made i in this ae

NE >

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124

country to check the “ adulteration” of cotton. He claimed for the
“new machine” that it would not only effectually stop any tampering
~ with cotton, but would save half the usual waste, make stronger and
better threads, do away with a great deal of the present costly
machinery, and dispense with a great deal of labour. The machine
was worked on the ground where the cotton was grown, the seed
cotton being spun directly it was culled, so that it could not be
adulterated in any way. He produced some specimens of the cotton
for examination.

The CHAIRMAN observed that no doubt it was a clever invention,
but it was likely to damage the English and Scotch cotton trade.

Mr. F. C. DENNET did not believe it would have that effect, but
would be more likely to improve it, since it would send into the market
a really dond fide article ; a thread far better in every way than that
which could be made from bale cotton.

MAY 25TH, 1876.

MICROSCOPICAL MEETING.—MR. T. W. WONFOR
ON “THE SO-CALLED FUNGUS FOOT OF
INDIA.”

That fungi were able to induce disease was an accepted theory.
Their spores, being very minute, are able to penetrate the pores and
openings on the cuticle of animals and plants, and, having once found a
nidus, to thrive at the expense of the host into which they had insinu-
ated themselves. Nature, though, had fixed a barrier between the
sporule and the organism on which it might settle, and that barrier
was healthy vitality. The vitality might be impaired by disease or
old age, but when this did not exist, it had not, at present, been shown
that the organisms would necessarily succumb to the attack of the
fungus. It had been specially noticed that the less vitalized portions
of plants and animals were subject to and became the prey of fungus
growth. ‘This might especially be seen in the leaves of plants in the
autumn, and on the epidermal tissues, such as the wing covers, and

.

|
}

|
4

.

125

the articular plates of flies and insects, and the branchial plates of
_ fishes ; but though such was the case it remained to be proved that the
animals attacked were in a healthy condition at the time, or whether
the fungus did not the rather follow than produce the disease. In
other words, it was a moot point whether the bodies of insects were
ever attacked’ by fungus growth while the animals were in perfect
sg health. This was a very important matter in considering the nature of
the influence exerted by fumgi in the production and maintenance of
disease.

That the entire bodies of flies, beetles, wasps, bees, moths, and

other insects, when affected by fungus, were found, when examined
after death, permeated in every direction by mycelium, would bea very
significant fact, if we could determine beyond a doubt whether the
; tissues were not diseased before the advent of the fungus.

Since, then, it was by a large number an accepted opinion that

at that a very peculiar form of disease, met with in India, and believed
atthe time to attack omly the feet of some of the natives who went
about with bare feet, should, from a variety of causes, be attributed
to a fungus, the more especially as certain bodies found in amputated
"y _ Tins or in the matter discharged from limbs attacked, resembled and
_ were thought to be the resting spores of a fungus. Moreover, micro-
_ scopic examination and the planting these black particles so as to
enable them to, as was believed, grow, led men of the highest eminence
‘as mycologists to come to the conclusion that the cause of the disease
_ was a fungus, which they believed they had been able to rear from

particles obtained from undoubted cases of the so-called “ Fungus
Foot, ” or “ Madura Foot,” of India.

oe The first person to describe this disease as of vegetable origin
was Dr. H. Vandyke Carter, in 1860; the Rev. M. J. Berkeley
lescribed and figured the fungus in No. X. of the “ Intellectual
bserver,” vol. ii, November, 1862; while Mr, H. J. Carter, F.R.S.,
_ described it in 1862 in the “Linnzan Society’s Journal” and the
igh “6 ‘Annals of Natural History,” and in 1874 Dr. Carter published a
Bonoeraph on “‘ Mycetoma,” or Fungus Disease of India. All these
_and other publications went to prove that a fungus was the cause of
= disease. Dr. Carter had ample opportunities of examining speci-
ye nen. of amputated feet, and matter discharged from affected feet in

fungi induced and did not follow disease, it was not to be wondered

126

India, and separated the disease into two forms—one the d/ack and
the other the Za/e variety ; in addition, there appeared to be an inter-
mediate stage, characterised by the presence of pink granules,

The part affected was more or less distorted, and had numerous
openings communicating with channels of various sizes. The materials
which escaped from these openings contained brownish-black granules
like grains of gunpowder, in one variety, and roe-shaped ones in the
pale variety. The alteration of the tissues and bones caused a greasy
or waxy degeneration to the parts affected. Dr. Carter considered
these black particles the resting spores of a fungus, and the pale an
advanced stage of the disease due to a change—seemingly a degenera-
tion—of the darkened masses.

A series of experiments and observations with the black particles,
when mixed with cotton soil, placed on rice paste or moist ground rice,
both in India and in England, by Dr. Carter and Mr. Berkeley, led
to the conclusion that the cause of the disease was a fungus, to which
the name Chionyphe Carteri was given. The theory of the introduc-
tion was that spores becoming attached to the bare feet of the natives
germinated and sent in through the pores of the skin their mycelial
threads, hence the disease ; but the pink mould or fungus, of which
the black particles were thought to be the resting spores, had been ob-
served to grow without any connection with the black particles, these
black particles being the only substance associated with the malady in
which the existence of fungoid elements had been definitely established.
These particles too were on every occasion found to be unchanged.
Moreover, the pink mould grew just as luxuriantly in connection with
preparations which had been preserved in spirit as in connection with
specimens of the morbid tissues which had not been subjected to the
influence of any preservative fluid.

It was at this stage of the enquiry that Drs. T. B. Lewis and D.
D. Cunningham, who had been appointed special assistants to the
Sanitary Commissioner with the Government of India to conduct an-
enquiry into cholera, were deputed to investigate special diseases, as
well as continuing their cholera enquiry, turned their attention to that
form of disease known as “ Madura Foot” or “Fungus Foot” of
India.

The materials they had for examination were entire preparations
of the «pJer and /ower limbs —for both hands and feet, it turns out,

127
os:

234 are ‘attacked by this peculiar disease—as well as numerous smaller
preparations. They not only closely examined the condition of the
3 _ tissues and the nature of the morbid materials present in the various
q _ forms of the disease, but morbid tissues and products in other diseases
affecting similar parts of the body; they also made various attempts
at cultivating the morbid products as well as the study of the resultant
& _ organisms and the effects of re-agents on them and other vegetable
growths.
‘Inthe pale variety they found the bones were reduced to mere
Pisces of soft fat, the muscular and tendinous structures were well
preserved, but the most careful microscropic examination of all the
_ tissues and materials failed to afford the faintest evidence of the
q _ presence of any fungal or fungoid bodies, or of anything save degenera-
tion of the normal tissues. In a very early stage of this disease,

preservation of the muscles and tendons, less fatty matter, and the
"presence of the dark grains like gunpowder mentioned before. Here,
Bie no trace of fungal or fungoid substances was found in any part of
_ the tissues. Not only were both the pale and dark products subjected
to every possible test with re-agents and failed, save in some vague
2 points of form, to present anything which could suggest their vegetable

ieee Parasitic origin ; but in various cultivation experiments no fungus
: "growth was produced in any material in which the supposed spores
s were planted that was not also produced in some of the same materials

_ matter evidence any tendency to germinate or become altered in any

_ Similar experiments with the pale failed to give positive results ;
in fact, the fungus Chionyphe Carteri is unhesitatingly pronounced not
to cause the disease, and, moreover, that it cannot be developed from
»elements contained in the morbid products.

“In short, the “ Fungus Foot” is a misnomer, and does not owe its

toafungus. This is very important, because up to these ob-
tions, the opinion that the “ Madura Foot” was produced by
s has formed the basis for generalizations as to the supposed
of other diseases.

a in which nothing was planted. Never in any experiment did the black

128

The full reports, with the experiments and subjects operated upon,
will be found in the form of an admirable article in the t1th annual
report of the Sanitary Commissioner with the Government of India,
from the pens of Drs. Lewis and Cunningham, of which he had made
considerable use in the brief exposition of the so-called “ Fungus Foot”
of India.

Various engraved plates were used to illustrate the subject ; and
Mr. Wonfor made considerable quotation from the official report to
which he called attention in his paper. Mr. C. P. M. SMITH, Mr, H. E.
HASELWOOD, the President (Mr. J. DENNANT), and others, took part
in a short discussion which followed the reading. The point specially
discussed was which of these theories was correct—that germs in the
atmosphere attacked highly vitalised organisms, or only organisms in
a low state of vitality or debilitated by disease. At the close, speci-
mens of fungi, supposed to be the cause of disease in plants and
animals, were exhibited under the microscope.

Mr. WONFOR also submitted for examination the hard, earthy
cocoon of a beetle. It had been dug up by Mr. Brown, of Trafalgar-
street, in his garden on the Round Hill Estate, and it had been brought
under the notice of the Society through Mr. Haselwood. The cocoon
contained a larva ; and, as at one end it was partly broken, the insect
could be seen at work, It was placed on a table with the opening to
the light, when the grub was seen to be moving its head about, and
apparently endeavouring to close the opening by taking from the out-
side small particles of earth. This went on for a day and on the
following morning the aperture was found completely closed with a
small piece of flint, obtained from the exterior of the cocoon. The_
question whether or not the extra expenditure of energy and fatty
matter in repairing the cocoon would prevent the full development of
the insect,—-as was often the case where caterpillars had been com-
pelled from accident to make a second cocoon,—awaited solution in
regard to this particular case. The President said the point was so
interesting that he would suggest its reconsideration at another meet-
ing of the Society.

Beret oe ane Leth She ee tote aa eS

129 +

JUNE 18TH.

a ORDINARY MEETING.—MR. F. E. SAWYER, F.M.S.,
At ON “THE EROSION OF THE SUSSEX COAST,

. -WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO GREAT
STORMS WHICH HAVE VISITED tHe COUNTY.”

The present shape of the coast line of Sussex was mainly owing
to the two ranges of hills which traversed the County, and in a lesser
degree to geological causes and to the rivers. One of these—the
“South Downs, which in the western part of the County were about 10

Be Head ; the other—the North Downs, which, passing through Petworth,
4 Peeminated 3 in Fairlight Cliffs. The district situated to the south of the

. South Downs chiefly embraced the Tertiary formations, and it was this

osed of chalk had suffered less denudation than the alluvial plains to
_ its west, and thus the bay had been gradually formed. Another,
2 ‘though smaller bay, extended from Beachy Head to Fairlight Cliffs,
and this owed its origin to similar causes.

- At one time considerable estuaries of the English Channel are
aid to have extended to Lewes and to Bramber, and it was somewhat
difficult to conjecture why these have ceased to exist. In the time of

d probably, therefore, a considerable quantity of water made its exit
* hrough the valleys of the Adur and the Ouse. When, however, the
= forests were cut down the rainfall decreased, and consequently less
3 ‘water flowed down the valleys, and a gradual silting up took place.

He should surmise that this had taken place at the latest by the ca
9, if not much earlier. Hayley, in his “ History of Chichester,”
4 ‘states that in the time of the Romans the Lavant flowed entirely round
oat he City of Chichester, whereas it now flowed round two sides only,
os and that it was probable that the bed of the river was, at an early
: period, diverted by an earthquake shock. He (Mr. Sawyer) was further
inclined to think that since the time of the Romans the whole of
the coast of Sussex west of Beachy Head had been slightly raised
__ by an earthquake shock.

_ There were no very early records of storms on this coast. Tegg’s

miles distant from the sea, terminated in the bold headland of Beachy —

district which had suffered most from the sea. A long but shallow bay ~
sxtended from Selsea Bill to Beachy Head. The latter being com-.

‘the Romans the Weald was covered with large forests and lagoons, —

sh hy

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130
Chronology mentions a “storm on the coast of Kent, Sussex, and
Hampshire, in 566 ;” and a “ Terrible hurricane, at Chichester” was
recorded in 995; but no particulars were known respecting them. The
earliest storm of which any definite account existed occurred on

October Ist, 1250, and was thus described in a manuscript formerly in
the possession of Mr. Thomas Martin, of Winchelsea :—

“The moon being in her prime, the sea passed its accustomed
bounds, flowing twice without ebb, and made so horrible a noise that
it was heard a great distance inland, not without the astonishment of
the oldest man that heard it. Besides this, at dark night, the sea
seemed to be alight and to burn, and the waves to beat with one
another insomuch that it was past the mariners’ skill to save their
ships ; and to omit others, at a place called Huckebourn (Eastbourne)
three noble and famous ships were swallowed up by the violent rising
of the waves and were drowned.” *

Holinshed’s account was somewhat similar :-—

“ On the first day of October (1250) the moon, upon the change,
appearing exceedingly red and swelled, began to show tokens of the
great tempest of wind that followed, which was so huge and mightie,
both by land and sea, that the like had not been lightlie known, and
seldom, or rather never, heard of by men then aliue. The sea, forced
contrarie to his natural course, flowed twice without ebbing, yielding
such a rooring that the same was heard (not without great wonder) a
farre distance from the shore. Moreover, the same sea appeared in
the night to burn, as it had been on fire, and the waves to strive and
fight togither after a maruellous sort, so that the mariners could not
deuise how to save their ships where they laie at anchor, by no cunning
or shift which they could deuise. At Hertbourne, three tall ships
perished without recouerie, besides other smaller vessels. At Win-
chelsey, besides other hurte that was doone, in bridges, mills, breakes,
and banks, there were 300 ae and churches drowned with the oe
rising of the water course.’

This storm diverted the course of the river Rother, which now
entered the sea near Rye, but before the storm had its exit to the east

* Horsfield’s History of Sussex,

131

“4 Gor 1 Dungeness, 12 miles eastward of the present mouth. Camden,
= after treating of Hastings, says ;—
d . jm Hence the shore retires backwards and is followed inwards,
_ being full of windings and creeks, within which stands Winchelsea,
Pi built i in the time of King Edward I., when a more ancient town of the
i same name was quite swallowed up by the raging of the tempestuous
_ ocean, in the year 1250, at which time the face of the earth, both here
and i in the adjoining coast, was much altered.”

4 - Shortly after this storm, and before the town of Winchelsea had
recovered from the injuries it had received, another storm occurred
__ which was described ina Latin memorandum found by Jeakes amongst
__ the Rye records, and thus translated :—

“ Be it remembered, that in the year of our Lord, 1287, in the
ven of St. Agath, the Virgin, was the town of Winchelsea drowned
oe and all the lands between Climesden and the Vocher of Hithe. The
same year was such plenty of corn throughout all the countries of
_ England, Scotland, and Wales, that a quarter of wheat was sold for

_ two ee a

In the year 1292 Pope Nicholas thé Fourth granted the tenths
f all the ecclesiastical benefices in England to Edward I. for six
for defraying the cost of an expedition to the Holy Land, and a
; mplete valuation was accordingly made. About the year 1340 the
= 2 ninths of wool, &c., were granted to Edward III. A careful enquiry
yas made in each parish, and the returns afforded a complete record
f what changes had occurred since Pope Nicholas’s Taxation. These
nquiries were called “ Nonarum Inguisitiones.” From this source we
it that between the years 1292 and 1340 no less than 5,500 acres
in 1 this County were submerged by the sea! The None return for
ie 340 for Brighton (made 1341) says :—

e* Ba “Tr dicunt qd ix ps pdea no respondet nc attinge potest ad taxam
ecclie pdce p eo qd xl acr’ tre submis sunt p mare imppetuu que valuer
nu x1.s,”

whi ich might be thus translated :—

“The same (the jurors) say that the 9th part aforesaid cannot
er nor attain to the taxation of the church aforesaid, for that 40
of land are submerged by the sea for ever, which were worth
r annum 40s.”

ae’
= The return for Hove stated that 150 acres of land were submerged

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132

in that parish worth ro marks a year, and at Aldrington and Middle-
ton 40 acres were inundated. Early in the 14th century (Dallaway)
in his “History of Chichester,” says not many years before 1345.
Pagham Harbour was formed by a sudden irruption of the sea by which
2,700 acres of land were devastated. Inthe year 1432 the inhabitants
of Shoreham petitioned the King for a reduction of their taxes, “ for-
asmuch as by the encroachment of the sea, &c., the number of in-
habitants was reduced from 500 to 36.” “A sudden incursion of the
sea at Rye, in which the water rose 8 or 9 feet in men’s houses at mid-
night” was recorded in 1570. Elliott’s manuscript says :—

“In Elizabeth’s reign the sea in a storm broke through the beach
bank at Bishopstone and formed what is now called the Old Harbour
which was in use till the Newhaven one was made a safer exit. This
may have been the same storm as deepened so materially Rye
Harbour.”

This was the second instance of the course of a Sussex river being
diverted by a storm. Formerly, it might, however, be mentioned, the
mouth of the river Adur shifted from year to year, going gradually
farther eastward towards Brighton, and then back again towards
Shoreham. The following interesting account of a storm on Novem-
ber Ist, 1597, was from the Hastings Corporation Records. The pier
there was destroyed by the sea, and in 1595 the work of re-building it
was begun, but all the works were washed away and a second attempt
made, which, it would be seen, also failed.

* This woorke was with singular industrie and arte brought above
the full, and by all Hollantyde, 1597, were nere finished, viz., XXX foote
high, and C foote at least long, bewtyful to behold, huge, invincible,
and unremovable in the judgment of all the beholders, amounting to a
great charge, whereunto the whole shire and div’s beholders were con-
tributoryes of benevolence, besides the townes great expences. But
behold when men were most secure, and thought the woorke to be per-
petual, on All Saints’ daie, 1597, appeared the mighty force of God,
who with the finger of His hand, at one great and exceeding high
spring tyde, with a south-est wynd, overthrow this huge woorke in less
than a hower to the great terror and adasmt of all beholders, to the
great discredit of the lyke woorke hereafter with the country, and to
he manifest undoing of the town.”

In the following century Brighton suffered severely from the en-

he.
croachments of the sea. Godwin’s rental of the Manor, made in 1665,
“stated that previous to that year no less than 22 tenements under the
_ cliffs were destroyed by the sea, and between 1645 and 1655 frequent
grants of land were made to tenants who had suffered from the inundation,
and in one case a tenant lost eight acres. In 1665 there remained, how-
ever, 113 tenements under the cliff. The next storm which visited the
county was that known as “the Great Storm,” which occurred on
November 27th, 1703. It was one of the most disastrous storms ever
recorded, and indeed some writers had stated that it was the most
Spee storm since the Deluge! Defoe who published a book on
espe storm, says :—

“At Shoram the Market House, an Antient and very strong
ilding, was blown flat to the Ground, and the town shattered.
_ Brighthelmston, being an old built and poor tho’ populous Town, was

_ “The Bishop of Bath and Wells and his lady were killed at
ells, Somersetshire, by a wall, which was blown down, and ‘ the
hop of London’s sister, Lady Penelope Nicholas, was killed in like
nner at Horsley in Sussex, and Sir John Nicholas, her husband,

_ The same book contains the following curious and quaint apie
t — the effects of the storm in a letter to Defoe :—

ar From Medhurst in Sussex, the following Letter is a short
account of the loss of the Lord Montacute there which is extraordinary

« one in and about our Town. I praise God we came off indifferent

e e of them fell on part of the Great Hall, which did considerable
age ; and the Church Steeple of Osborne, half a mile from us, was

hn Mills, a oil pace Tiled Barn.

“Your humble servant,

eviously hurt.’ "—Milner's Gallery of Nature. -

sreat, tho’ abridged in the letter :-— Sir, I received a letter from you,
herein you desire me to give you an account of what damage was —

; the greatest damage we received, was the untiling of houses, and _

ax down at the same time ; and fa Lord had above 500 trees torn >

“Medhurst, Jan. 18, 1703-4. : “JOHN PRINKE.” ~ :

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134

The following was the record of the storm in the Brighton Town-
book :— ;

* Memorand.—November 27th, 1703, there was a very great and
remarkable tempest, which begun after midnight, and continued in its
violence till about eight in the morning, being Saturday. Many houses
__ in town were damnified, two windmills in the east blown over, several
of the church leads turned up, and several vessells belonging to the
town were shipwracked, to the great impoverishment of the place.”

The rain which accompanied the storm appeared to have been
very salt, as would be seen by the following description from the
Philosophical Transactions :—

“ Part of a letter from John Fuller, of Sussex, Esq., concerning
a strange effect of the late great storm in that County.

‘ December 6, 1703.
‘We live Ten Miles off the Sea in a direct line, and yet can
scarce perswade the Country People that the Sea water was blown
thus far, or that during the Tempest the Rain was salt, for all the
Twiggs of the Trees the day after were white, and very salt, as I am
informed almost by every body, tho’ I did not taste them enough
«myself, nor observe it, and that not only upon this Hill where we live
facing the Sea, but in all other places within 14 or 15 miles of the Sea,
as well as in the Valleys between which and the Sea are several very
high Hills, as on the Hills themselves.’”

No doubt Mr. Fuller was unable to make the people believe that
the rain was not salt when they could taste it, and indeed salt rain was
not so very unusual, for it had been observed on several occasions.
Another account of this salt rain was also given in the Philosophical
Transactions, by a clergyman at Lewes :—

“A Physician, travelling soon after the Storm to Ticehyrst, about
20 miles from Lewes, and as far from the Sea, as he rode he pluckt
some tops of Hedges, and chawing, found them Salt. Some Ladies of
Lewes hearing this tasted some Grapes that were still on the Vines,
and they also had the same relish. The Grass on the Downs in his
Parish was so Salt that the Sheep in the morning would not feed until
hunger compelled them, and afterwards drank like Fishes, as the —
‘Shepherds report. This he attributes to Saline Particles driven from
the Sea.”

iagrs

The Gestation of the undercliff town of Brighton, which was

_ Brighthelmstone ” shews : —

> ‘s “ Another dreadful storm reached this town about one o’clock in
the morning, but raged not with its greatest fury till after three, and
then continued with unremitting violence till the hour of eight. It
_ destroyed a great many houses in the town, and blew off most of the
2 church leads. Every habitation under the Cliff was utterly demolished,
and its very site concealed from the owner’s knowledge ee a
ound of beach.”

a . He might then remark that there was a very prevalent idea that
the town of Brighton formerly stood about as far from the shore as the
_ Chain Pier Head was. From a careful study of the plans, Court rolls,
_ &c., he was convinced that this was an erroneous idea, and he thought
that within the historic period the coast line was not more than 200 feet
e - from the present line. Another exploded notion was that the Block
. House stood in the centre of the town. Horsfield stated that in 1734
ee the Gun Garden adjoined the Block House.” | The Burrell MSS.
3 ecorded i in January, 1749—“ By reason of extraordinary high tides the

i 1 the farm lands called Salts, and did considerable damage to the
land adjacent.” On January 30th, 1775, a portion of the Battery at
_ the end of East Street was washed away, and on November 3oth, 1786,

a egan to take steps for sevens further encroachments of the
‘sea. This was the first time in the history of the County that we found
a etod of an attempt to keep back the sea. “ Magna Brittannia”
(put plished i in 1738), says that at a moderate computation the damage
-sust: 1 ined by the town was £40,000. It was found that the tendency
of the tide was to roll the beach from west to east, and it was deter-
mi ed to erect wooden barriers (called groynes) stretching from the

to low water mark. The origin of the term groyne was very

an.

reat Seal, issued briefs by which collections were made in the

Bermenced by this storm, was completed by another storm on August

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are. The inhabitants accordingly, being too poor to provide the ©

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136

various churches and chapels throughout the County for this object.
. About £1,700 was raised, and, aided by local contributions, the town
was protected as far as the Steine.

During the present century much has been done in the way of
groyning, and the coast of Brighton, instead of being washed away,
was advancing farther out to sea, and the concrete groyne opposite the
Clarendon Hotel appeared to have had a very great share in the work
of accumulating the beach to the west of it, which had rendered it
possible to widen the King’s Road once or twice. The effect of the
groynes was somewhat peculiar ; on their western side a great heap
of beach was formed, while on their eastern side the beach was from
10 to 15 feet lower, and on this side the sea rushed up with great
violence. This was specially noticeable in the heavy gale of March
12th, 1876. It might be considered whether this could not be obviated
by making the groyne V-shaped or by putting posts or buttresses on
the eastern side, which would break the force of the waves.

At the present time there seemed to be two weak places on the
coast, viz., at Lancing and beyond Pevensey. He had an impression
that the cause of the special attacks of the sea at these places was
very similar to that of the sea on the eastern sides of groynes. The
neighbouring promontories of Worthing Point and Beachy Head
respectively acted very similarly to the groynes and collected beach on
their western sides, while the sea rushed up on their - eastern
sides.

One of the most destructive storms during the present century
occurred on November 22nd, 1824. A brisk wind sprang up at night
from S.W., and increased all night. Towards daylight of 23rd it
became extremely calm for a short time but increased with the tide. ~
High water was at one p.m., when the gale was tremendous, and it ~
continued without abatement till midnight. At Brighton the platform
of the Chain Pier was washed away and forty-houses between Royal —
Crescent and Kemp Town were washed down. The Arunand the Ouse ©
overflowed their banks. At Littlehampton the sea broke over the —
beach and inundated the fields; the damage between there and Pag-
ham was estimated at £15,000. At Pagham and Sidlesham great
damage—loss £30,000. At Bosham the mud wall, which cost £20,000, —
was washed away, and at Emsworth the tide was three inches higher j
than was ever known. In conclusion, he must apologise for the —

137

a The PRESIDENT (Mr. Dennant), on behalf of the members,
Beyeepked Mr. Sawyer for his admirable paper, and expressed a hope
“that it would lead to an interesting and profitable discussion.

aa Mr. E. WILLETT pointed out that the tendency of eanhquakee
& - was rather to uplift than to sink the coast, but that it was pretty clear
_ from observations which his father was making, and of which he could
P _ hot say more at present, that the coast line of the county was gradually
and very considerably sinking. Allusion was also made to the present
theory of groyning, which he (Mr. Willett) thought was wrong. By
__ adopting it, there was as much wash on the lee side of a groyne as
gt was beach on the windward. If the groynes were made to lean
a little to the south-west, kept very low, built up as the beach accumu-
F inted, and constructed in zig-zag fashion, a natural barrier to the sea
_ would’soon be secured. These were ideas of his father, and had been
~~ successfully enforced elsewhere.

_ Mr. Wonror remarked that it was believed the whole of the
southern coast of England was sinking, and that the time would come
when Brighton and the adjacent dow-lying parts would return to the
5 "sea. This prospect was so alarming to some people that one gentle-
m an whom he knew had determined not to purchase a house on the
_ Brighton Cliff, being convinced that although he should not witness
_the disappearance of the coast-line, his grandchildren might.
_ Encouragement for such a conviction was offered in the fact that with-
‘im the memory of some old people there were two roads from Brighton
to Rottingdean south of the present. The silting up of rivers and
rbours in this part of the country was also referred to; and it was
dicted that cither greater local energy than was at present shown in
<a deavouring to protect the land against the encroachments of the sea
would have to be shown, or Government would have to do something
the matter, or the fears of those to whom allusion had been made
mul prove well grounded.

of currents at work in the English Channel, which had something
to do with the change in the coast-line.

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138

With Mr. Haselwood, Mr. C. F. DENNET agreed, and expressed
his belief that a high, wide, and deep embankment, erected along the
coast between the other side of Worthing and Newhaven, only would
protect the land from the sea.

Mr. E. WILLETT pointed out that the cost of such an embank-
ment would be too much for the town or county to bear, that the
country would not be inclined to take the matter up, and that, pro-
viding a granite wall was built, the sea would in course of time break
through it. The only effectual remedy against the encroachment of the
water was a proper system of groyning.

Mr. WonNrorR referred to the site of old Brighton. His belief,
framed from the examination of old maps, was that it was between the
Pool and West Street.

The CHAIRMAN made an enquiry concerning the rate at which
wind travelled ; and was informed by Mr. F. E. SAwyenr that the rate
varied from seven to eighty-one miles an hour in this country, and one
hundred in India.

Mr. G. D. SAWYER alluded to the position of the Shoreham
Harbour Pier. His belief was that if the Pier ran more to the south-
east than it did the deposit at the Harbour entrance would be a thing
of the past.

In his reply, Mr. F. E. SAWYER agreed with Mr. Willett as‘to the
position and shape of the groynes, adding that they should be erected
in pairs.

DISCOVERY OF ROMAN REMAINS AT PRESTON.

Mr. WONFOR, calling attention to a number of articles on the
table, said that on the hills to the northward of Brighton, Roman and
Romano-British remains, in the shape of urns, coins, fibula, &c., had
from time to time been found. Round Hill-crescent and Wellington-
villas had again and again given Roman coins and Roman pottery,
as well as Romano-British pottery. Between the Ditchling and Lewes-
road, urns and pottery had often been found, while westward, as far as

ee

139

Cambridge-road, a Romano-British urn, containing bones was
found a few years since, and with urns from the Lewes and Ditchling-
toads, might be seen in the Brighton Museum.

It was, therefore, not to be wondered at, that building operations
an extensive scale to the north of the town—as are about to be
My commenced just beyond the Viaduct, on the ground laid out by Mr.
Alderman Ireland and Mr. Councillor W. Wallace Savage—that they
Be Soni bring to light proofs that at a far distant day Romans and
Britons lived and died and buried their dead in what till recently was
‘ but so much land given over to cultivation, and deemed, except in this
respect, virgin land. It was now some three weeks since workmen in
the employ of Messrs. Ireland and Savage, who were engaged in
digging flints, came upon what seemed holes full of flints and broken
e) pieces of chalk, extending some 6ft. or 7ft. down to the Coombe
“rock. These pits, which had evidently been excavated and filled in,
es: about three times the number of flints, and these not rolled
; mes, as the ordinary diggings produced. One day an almost perfect
keleton of a man was found, at about three feet deep below the sur-
se, and then the idea gained ground that they had come upon a

weyard, and that these excavated and filled in pits were graves.
aga was a well known fact that in some countries, at the present
ay, Savage man, to protect the bodies of his departed friends, and to
“ae the wild animals and especially the hyzenas from tearing up and
vouring the bodies, filled in the grave not with earth, but with stones,

4 Be bones of this body were more or less in a very friable condi-
; the skuil, when first found, was nearly perfect, and the teeth, the
‘ ae the human and animal frame to last the longest, were well pre- :
rved. This and the bones of another skeleton, for the portions of
wo human jawbones in the Museum evidently belonged to different
* eople, were what is called secondary burials, z.c., the interment had
been made in a grave already occupied. There was this peculiarity —

nd fiat on their crowns, showing that the teeth were what is called
‘to edge bite, or were ground flat by the nature of the food.

These remains threw no light upon the date of the secondary. :
It might Ee remarked that the almost perfect skeleton was A
1 its feet to the east and its head to the west.

the teeth of onc jaw, viz, molars, canines, and incisors are all

140

of pottery were found of Roman and Romano-British types; around
and among were more bones, and teeth of the horse and wild boar,

‘with a tusk of the latter, burnt clay and charcoal, but no human teeth
or bones. Some of these pieces of pottery he picked out of the graves,
and by the orders of Mr. Alderman Ireland and Mr. Councillor Savage
they were sent to the Museum, whilst strict injunctions were given to
the men, if anything in the shape of pottery or metal were found, to
send them also. It should be mentioned that a portion of the shell of
a river mussel was found amongst the débris, at a depth of six feet.

The graves, for there have been some seven opened, lay nearly
east and west—one grave was double—extended down to the Coombe
rock, and were filled in with angular flints, broken pieces of chalk, and
dark-coloured earth. The flints, some of considerable size, might
have been collected on the surface, but the chalk must have been
brought from some little distance.

Up to this point there was nothing to fix the date, except that the
fragments of pottery were similar to that from the Romano-British
graveyard at Hardham, or the various urns found around Brighton ;
but a well-preserved brass or bronze coin, about the size of a modern
' penny, but nearly double the thickness, proved that the interments
could not be more than 1,700 years old. This coin had been identified
as one of the Empress Lucilla, daughter of the Emperor Marcus
Aurelius and Faustina the younger, whom in her wantonness she
resembled. Lucilla was first married to Lucius Verus, the adopted
brother of Aurelius, who was associated with him in the Empire, and
who died A.D. 169 of apoplexy, while marching against the Marcom-
manni and Quadi, the modern Bohemia and Moravia. Within seven
months of her husband’s death, a woman being deemed during the
Republic infamous who married again under ten months, she married
Claudius Pompeianus.

Upon the death of Aurelius in 180 A.D., Commodus became
Emperor, and, according to Gibbon, it was the act of Lucilla which
made this Emperor a tyrant. In 183 A.D. an attempt was made on
the Emperor’s life ; the plot, as Gibbon says, “had been formed not
in the State, but within the walls of the palace. Lucilla, the Emperor’s
sister, and widow of Lucius Verus, impatient of the second rank, and
jealous of the reigning Empress, had armed the murderer against
her brother’s life. She had not ventured to coramunicate the black —

tinguished merit and unshaken loyalty ; but among the crowd of her
lovers (for she imitated the manners of Faustina) she found men of

punished, first with exile and afterwards with death.” As the bronze
coin of Lucilla was probably struck between 161 and 169 A.D., or not
_ later than 180 A.D., the date of the primary interments could not be
7 et further back than the latter end of the second century, so that these
A graves of Roman or Romano-British origin were not of more remote
antiquity than the beginning of the second century of Roman occupa-
tion, At that time Hollingbury Castle, less than a mile and a half
away, was a Roman fortified camp. The hamlet of modern Preston,
or Priest-town, might have been the site of a Roman village, while the
‘portion of ground just opened and close to the little stream which
emptied itself at that early period into the Pool (the modern Pool
Valley) of early Brighton, might have been a grave yard removed some
) _ distance, as was the custom of our forefathers, from human habitations.

One curious circumstance should be mentioned—the finding a
_ portion of what appears to be a wall composed of flint and mortar,
at a depth of some five or six feet. This, at present, was an unex-
_ plained mystery, unless the monastery, said to belong to Preston, was
situated near this spot. Further excavations might reveal other and
f ‘more certain evidences, but what had been turned up clearly esta-
4 lished the existence of several early graves in an unsuspected place,
x ‘ and confirmed the often-made assertion that the whole island gave
bs. evidence of Roman occupation.

JUNE 22nd. f
MICROSCOPICAL MEETING.

esting, of which were some diatoms and foraminifers dredged up,

irl
’ .

us objects were exhibited; amongst the most novel, if not most —

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ora shark’s tooth. This fact was important, as it indicated that there

142 ae

concluded expedition of the “ Challenger,” and presented to the Town
Museum by Lieut. Carpenter, son of Mr. Charles Carpenter, of
Brunswick-square, who, Mr. Wonfor explained, in introducing the
specimens to the members’ notice, had for some time the charge of
the dredger.

The nodules of manganese dredged up at various depths in
the Pacific were also exhibited. These were of small size,—smaller
than a chestnut, which they resembled in colour ; but he had been
informed by Lieut. Carpenter that they varied in size from that of a
pea to that of a man’s fist, or even larger. When broken up, they
were, in almost every case, found to contain either a portion of bone

were formations going on at the bottom of the ocean about which
geologists were but slightly informed. One tooth, found encrusted in
manganese in this way, measured 4} inches in length ; and he was
given to understand that no sharks having teeth of such size had been
met with in recent times,

In reply to Mr. Dennet, Mr. Wownror said that, having had the
nodules in his possession but a few hours, he was unable to say what
relation the manganese bore to the manganese of commerce.

These nodules might help in explaining how iron nodules
(commonly called thunder-bolts) and flints were formed in the chalk.

The meeting then became a Conversazione.

SEPTEMBER 14th.

ORDINARY MEETING.—MR. E. A. PANKHURST ON —
“SOME OF THE PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH —
THE DEPOSITION AND CRYSTALLIZATION OF
SILICA.” a

The substance, silica, which formed so large a part of the crust of —
the earth, was the oxide of a semi-metallic body, which was called
silicon or silicium. On account of the difficulty of isolating it from its

compounds silicon was one of the curiosities of chemistry. It might be —

Deville has also succeeded
crystallizing silicon in “large beautiful needles of a dark iron-grey
colour, reddish by reflected light.” If this silicon be raised to red
} leat in the presence of oxygen it formed a white pulverulent substance
. silicic oxide. A large quantity of it was on the table before them.

It was to the problems connected with the occurrences of this sub-
a stance in Nature in a state of greater or less purity, to the marvellous
id beautiful forms which it assumed, and to its relations with other
dies with which we find it closely connected, that he desired to call
ir attention that evening. It would be evident that unless we knew

_ The following then were a few which it behoved them well to

nsider. This oxide of silica, natural as well as artificial, was
nsoluble in water either hot or cold. All the acids, with one exception
hydrofluoric), were incapable of dissolving it. If water contained in
solution any alkaline carbonate—such as carbonate of soda or carbonate
Ytash—then this silica was dissolved to a slight extent. Ina hot
lution and under pressure the. quantity dissolved was greater, and
n the liquid was cooled and the pressure removed, the silica was
posited as an opalescent jelly. In aqueous caustic potash or soda it
olved to a large extent. Water which had carbonic acid in
tion, would also dissolve siliceous rocks when under the influence
c considerable pressure. Struve had by this means been able to
imitate many kinds of mineral water. Alkaline chlorides had also
a sc vent effect on silica, though not to a great extent.

_ And here he must beg them to notice the smaller bottle before
n, which contained gelatinous silica. Flint jelly would not, perhaps,
inappropriate name for it, as it was made from a flint. This
lica, united with the elements of water : hydrated silica. It was
y more soluble in all solutions than the white powder from
h all water had been driven. This distinction of solubility also
red in Nature, and the hydrated was termed opal-silica. It was
met with in a crystalline or semi-crystalline form, that which was
a term quartz-silica. The distinction between the two was not
te e, but would serve their purpose for the time. Further, the
-silica was termed also silicic acid. For this reason. If

144

carbonate of soda be melted, and if while in this state powdered flint
be added to it,a slight effervescence was caused : the silica united
with the soda, discharged the carbonic acid, and formed a silicate of
soda.

What now was the bearing of these facts on the silica which was
found dissolved in the water of rivers, springs, and lakes. We are not
surprised to find that the water of Loch Katrine, though its tributaries
might have run for miles over rocks containing from 60 to 70 per cent.
of silica, contained not one part ina million (by weight) of this sub-
stance, while, on the other hand, that from Trafalgar-square, coming
from the chalk and holding in solution alkaline carbonates and
chlorides, contained 13. Bearing in mind that a hot alkaline solution
was capable of dissolving large quantities of silica, we saw how it was
that the mineral waters of Vichy, highly charged with carbonate of
soda, contained 122 parts in a million, that the water of Plombieres
after passing over Roman cement deposited in their efflux ofad.
Having learnt from experience that water charged with carbonic acid
could dissolve silicates, we were not surprised to find that Karls-
brunnen in Silesia, which contained 406 cubit centimetres in a litre of
carbonic acid, should hold dissolved 72 parts in a million of silica.
Knowing that pressure and heat were alike favourable to the solution
of this substance, we learned the cause of the splendid stalagmites of
opal-silica round the Geysers of Iceland, and the terraces of the same
substance, 300 feet high, round those of the Colorado district. Before
them was a fine specimen of this hydrated silica from the great Ice-

landic Geyser.

Although as a rule an analysis of sea-water discovered to them but
a very small proportion of silica among its constituents—seldom
amounting to more than a trace, though in one case (from the English
Channel) it rose to 16 parts in a million—yet the existence of diatoms
in enormous quantities in some parts of the ocean was an important
fact with regard to its presence. It had been found in even large pro-
portions in the ashes of sea-weeds. Those of the common Delesseria
Sanguinea yielding no less than 12 per cent. of this substance. The
fact, however, of siliceous sponges, such as the beautiful Euplectella,
composed wholly of pure silica, growing at the bottom of the sea,
spoke louder than any analysis, as to its being, at any rate in some
places, more perhaps than in others, an important constituent of sea-

a ee

145

water. Professor Wyville Thompson in the cruise off the north coast
of Scotland procured no less than 40 vitreous sponges in one haul of
the dredger.

And now he would call particular attention to some extracts from
a paper by the same distinguished man on “ The Challenger” expedi-
tion (vide ature of December 1oth, 1874). They were doubtless
aware that in the soundings of that expedition the calcareous
Globigerina ooze was found to disappear at an average depth of
_ 1,800 fathoms and to be replaced at greater depths by a red clay made
up principally of silicates of iron and alumina. ‘There seems to be
no room left for doubt that the red clay is essentially the insoluble
residue ; the ash as it were of the calcareous organism which forms the
< Globigerina ooze after the calcareous matter has been by some means
removed. In this ooze siliceous bodies, including the spicules of
} sponges, the spicules and tests of radiolarians, and the frustules of
, 4 diatoms occur in appreciable proportions ; and these also diminish in
_ number, and the more delicate of them disappear in the transition
gs the calcareous ooze to the red clay. All sea-water contains a
certain proportion of free carbonic acid, and Mr. Buchanan believes
_ that he finds it rather in excess in bottom water from great depths. I
; ’ have already alluded to the large quantity of nodules of the peroxide
manganese which were brought up by the trawl from the red clay
¥ Brea on the 13th of March. Any large organic body, such asa shark’s
s tooth, that may happen to bein the ooze is more or less completely
replaced by manganese; and any inorganic body, such as a pebble
4 ora Bere of pumice, is coated with it. . . . At Stzetion 160 the

iss of an orange.” And this they should remember notwithstand-
that the highest analysis of manganese in the ashes of sea-weed
ve only 4 per cent.

since science, like Charity, should begin at home, it behoved them

ially to take them into account. Chemically, flint consisted of
out 97 per cent. of silica, 1 per cent. of alumina and oxide of iron,
ut 2 per cent. of water, and commonly carbonaceous colouring
er. Of silica, a certain (varying) portion was soluble or opal-
. Physically, flint might be briefly defined as a hard, semi-opaque,

146

amorphous variety of silica with conchoidal fracture. It was never
found crystalline or with mammillary or radiate structure. The first
thing which struck an observer in our chalk quarries and cuttings was
that the flint lay in layers. Dr. Mantell accounted for this by sup-
posing that streams of water highly charged with siliceous maiter
streamed at intervals over the bottom of the sea, involving numerous
small organisms, which became fixed in the subtranslucent flint precipi-
tated from it. Although this theory was no longer held, no other
had, as far as he was aware, been propounded satisfactorily to account
for them. Personally he looked to the result of recent expeditions
to throw light on the subject, as showing us the conditions of tempera-
ture, depth of water, &c., which were more favourable to the develop-
ment of siliceous organisms than of calcareous ones.

Professor Thompson says, in the paper from which he before
quoted, “ On the 4th of February the tow-net dragging a few fathoms
below the surface, came up nearly filled with a pale yellow gelatinous
mass. This was found to consist entirely of diatoms.” When full
accounts of “ The Challenger” and Arctic expeditions were published,
they would probably be better able to theorize on these flint-layers.
But now as to the origin of those flints and the singular phenomenon
they presented. We found them of almost all possible shapes, tabular,
spherical, pear-shaped, branched, solid, hollow, stratified. We found
the siliceous substance filling the tests of Echini ; solidified round
pieces of wood, shells, sponges, &c. ,

From the splendid collection of flints which Brighton owed to the
industry and beneficence of Mr. Henry Willett, he had taken the
striking specimens before them to illustrate their growth in all its
singular and interesting phases. Time would not allow him to notice
one-hundredth part of all that was worthy their attention there. He
must confine himself to one or two salient points in their structure.
Take the case of one of those solid spherical nodules which were not
uncommon. Under the microscope a section of flint often presented
to us a mass of siliceous or silicified organisms cemented by siliceous
matter. He quoted the paper of Professor Thompson to show the
power of sea-water to dissolve—and therefore to hold in solution—
carbonate of lime and silex. They would remember also his account
of those nodules of manganese. Had these particles of silica a like
power of forming nodules by aggregation? “I am reminded,” says
Mr. J. E. Taylor (Story of a Piece of Chalk), “ of the way in which the

_ Specimens of these were before them, mostly from his own collection.

147

siliceous material would separate from the limy mud by a process which
goes on in the manufacture of pottery. When the ground flints have

- been reduced to a fine powder, and then mixed with clay in the soft

putty-like condition, there is a tendency in the silica to separate from
the rest and run together into nodules. It was necessary to prevent
ae by constant agitation.”

Here, at anyrate, might be a possible solution of the growth of a
flint nodule. No one could examine a collection of flints without being
struck by the fact that organic matter had been a most active agent in

_ causing the precipitation of silica from its solution and so of determining

the forms of flints. They were well aware what a large part sponges
had borne in their formation. Sponges were generally developed in a
gelatinous matter, and it was an interesting, fact that in an artificially
prepared solution of silica,-one of gelatine immediately brought about
a coagulation of it. Organic substances in their decay evoived
carbonic acid. A few bubbles of this gas passed through a solution
slowly brought about a coagulation. There is no body with which
silica seemed to have so much affinity as a compound of iron.
The red stains in flint bore witness to it. A solution of ferric oxide also

- rapidly precipitated the silica from its solution. Had time not been so

short he should have had great pleasure in showing them some of
these experiments. To the power which silica possessed of replacing
carbonate of lime, and on which Professor Rupert Jones laid so much

stress in the formation of flints, he could not do much more than
' priefly allude. The most interesting problems in the study of these

‘bodies were to be found connected with hollow flints. Here the silica
had been deposited round a more or less perishable or soluble substance,

which, subsequently or contemporaneously with the deposition of the

silica, had been removed. But there was one general Jaw connected with

them, viz.,—that whenever the purer crystalline or semi-crystalline

varieties of silica occurred in connection with flint, they were always
found in the zz¢erior and never on the exterior of it.

-

3 Chalcedony differed from flint but slightly in its chemical consti-

tution, but largely in its structure. It was mammillary, botryoidal,
_ stalactic, with radiating fibrous lines at right angles to the plane of

Baceposition. It generally occurred lining or filling cavities in rocks,

Varieties of it were Beekite, Carnelian, Chrysoprase, Onyx, Agate, &c.

148

He should confine himself, however, to the first and last of them.
The first, Beekite, was interesting as displaying the mammillated
“structure with concentric and semi-concentric rings, and as replacing
to a great extent the limestones on which it was formed. In process
of time the limestone decayed, and a hollow siliceous crust remained.
The Beekites were found in great numbers in the Triassic conglomerate
of Devonshire. Professor Rupert Jones (Proceedings of the Geologists’
Association, Vol. iv., No. 7) traced to a similar cause the origin of the
potato-stones found in the Triassic breccia of Somersetshire. They
had a siliceous geode, the interior of which was lined with quartz
crystals; these last being formed from the siliceous solution which
filled the cavity after the limestone was removed. Some of the most
beautiful masses of chalcedony were those rounded pebbles found on
the Sussex coast, and wrongly termed moss-agates. For, as Professor
Jones remarked, they were not agates, and contained no moss. The
problems connected with them for which he wasted solutions were—
Whence do they come? Are they ever found inthe chalk? How
are they found, in geodes or hollows of flints, or are they independent
concretions? Is the large quantity of oxide of iron associated with
them an accident or a necessity of their existence ?

“ Agates are either solid nodules of chalcedony, usually in more or
less concentric layers, or hollow nodules of the same (geodes) with
crystallised quartz coating the inner surface (druses) or filling the
middle. The central quartz is often amethystine.” Briefly, an agate
was formed in this wise. Take the case of a highly vesicular lava.
The cavities were formed when it was in a fluid or plastic state by the
steam and gases which were developed within it. Most so-called
igneous rocks contained such cavities to a greater or less extent.
Irregular cavities were also formed as the rock contracted in cooling.
Liquids holding silica in solution found a resting place in these hollows
and deposited the silica. By and bye the rock decayed and a banded
mass of chalcedony and quartz crystal was left behind, being more
durable than the rock. In illustration of this process he had brought
some exquisite little agates still zw s#/w, from the basalt of the great
Teesdale dyke.

Among the highly interesting problems connected with these
was the cause of their banded structure. These bands offered unequal
resistance to the solvent powers of hydrofluoric acid and to alkaline

P yitiet fs vis?

eee

149

solutions. They were often concentric, generally curved, seldom in
straight lines ; sometimes in beautiful folds, at others angular like the
bastions of fortifications. Not less varied than their forms were their
_colours, How were we to account for the successive differences in the
molecular constitution of the agatescent matter? A portion of every
agate consisted of soluble or opal silica. Was it the varying strength
or heat of the solution out of which it was formed which caused these
differences of crystalline structure? Was it the intermittence of sup-
ply of fluid injected or infiltrated into the cavities? Dana laid great
stress on this as the cause of banded structure. Mr. Ruskin, in his
beautiful and exquisitely-illustrated memoir on Agates, in the fifth
volume of the Geological Magazine, attached little importance to it.
He saw rather in the agate a battlefield of crystalline energies ; these,
however, modified to some extent by conditions of deposition. And
truly, when we looked at these pisolitic, concentric, and hemispherical
depositions of chalcedony i in the Beekite and marked the circular and
_ semi-circular lines of the agate, and often, too, the tiny nodular
concretion in the centre of these, we could not but allow how much
crystalline energy was involved in the structure of a banded agate.

On the other hand, there were two specimens before them in
which the original orifices of infiltration were still apparent, and in
which, too, it seemed that periods of intermittence in supply, strength, —
chemical constitution, perhaps temperature, of infiltrated or injected
liquid, are strongly marked. In one of them, also, the action of gravity
in determining the direction of the parallel lines seemed undeniable.
The porosity of agates was also remarkable. Most that were met
with, 99 out of every {00, were in some manner coloured. Generally
_ the agate was boiled for some time in a solution of sugar. This being
__ absorbed by it, the stone was put into oil of vitriol—strong sulphuric

_ acid—which decomposed the sugar, and, by depositing the carbon in
the pores of the pebble, gave it the dark colour which was supposed to
be admired. By dyeing them blue, the generally honest Swiss was
enabled to palm off a piece of coloured agate on the unsuspecting
traveller as a genuine bit of lapis lazuli.

Having spoken so much of opal-silica, he could not leave the sub-
__ ject without reference to it in its purest natural form. It might be defined
_ as amorphous translucent silica, with resinous fracture and essential
water. It was never pisolitic or reniform in structure. Distinguished

\

150

also, from other forms of silica by lower specific gravity and greater ©
solubility in solutions of potash. Its beautiful colours resulted from
reflection and refraction of light produced by peculiarities of structure.
There were several examples on the table, differing slightly from each
other in purity, &c. A fine example of precious opal, 7% situ, from
the porphyry of Czernewitza in Hungary, would explain well how it
had been formed by infiltration in cavities much in the same manner
as agates. A box marked Tabasheer was interesting, as containing
specimens of this singular opal, formed in the interior of the stem of
the large Indian bamboo.

And now that he had followed the struggles of silica, as it were, in
‘its way through the world, he had but little time left to devote toa
consideration of the splendour of its builded geometry, the beauty of
its crystalline rest. Various as the forms before them might appear
they were all derived from the six-sided prism terminated by a
hexagonal pyramid. This was the ideal form which, though it seldom
arrived at, it ever sought to gain. Seldom was the impurity so great, the
obstruction so marring, impulse from within so wayward, or limitation
without so repressive, but we could trace some element of that more
perfect form to which, under happier circumstances, we knew it would
have attained. The opacity of some of the crystals was due to the air-
bubbles which had been entangled with them in their rapid crystalliza-
tion. The colour of many of the specimens was owing to oxide of
iron, of others to titanic oxide ; of the beautiful rose-quartz, to manga-
nese. The delicate purple of the amethysts was too evanescent for
satisfactory analysis. As interesting to him as the form and colour
were the substances which we found enclosed in these crystals. Rutile,
mica, hornblende, and epidote were among the most frequent of these
enclosed substances. It was singular that while in chalcedony den-
dritic formations of peroxide of manganese were so often found, they
were rarely met with in rock crystals. They would look in vain among
that case of specimens for dendritic structures such as were
enclosed in the bits of limped and opaque chalcedony. In conclusion,
in writing this paper, he hardly hoped to add to the sum of human
knowledge ; but if he had succeeded in awakening an interest in a
subject, the study of which had been to him a source of infinite
pleasure, he should be more than satisfied.

Throughout, Mr. Pankhurst illustrated his remarks by numerous
and valuable specimens.

151

The PRESIDENT (Mr. Dennant), in thanking Mr. Pankhurst for his
_ very entertaining paper on a vast and interesting subject, said he did
so the more heartily, because it was only ten days ago that he waited
on Mr. Pankhurst, on his return from Switzerland, and besought him
to give them a paper. He was sure, therefore, that the members would
show their appreciation of the way in which the request had been
responded to by amply discussing the subject of the paper read. He
saw several gentlemen present who were fully competent to sustain
such a discussion, for the paper really covered a vast area.

Mr. HENRY WILLETT said he begged personally to express his
great satisfaction and to convey his thanks to Mr. Pankhurst for his
paper. It only showed how sometimes people might live close
together in a large town, and yet not know that they were engaged in
congenial pursuits. He had great pleasure in making Mr. Pankhurst’s
acquaintance, and he hoped and believed that it would ripen into a
friendship. It was curious that he (Mr. Willett) had been groping
about in a field, hoping to ascertain some facts which might throw
light on the interesting subject of how chalk flints were deposited, and
that whilst he had only been able to get together the specimens, Mr.
Pankhurst had, in his laboratory, been enabled to explain many
phenomena which to him were mysteries. He was sure that many
more discoveries would be made on the subject. He had been induced
_ to take up the special subject of flints from having casually picked up.
some specimens which seemed to him rather to bear upon a theory

4 : which, two or three years ago, he should have scouted as an impossi-

bility. He did not now say that it was a fact, but that it might be so.
It was a theory of great interest, and he hoped some members of this
Society would not neglect in their walks abroad to pick up the flints
they saw, and see if any discovery could be made which would throw
light on the matter.

‘

The question was this—Were the flints now in process of
increasing their size? He did not mean to say growing in the
sense that men grew; but he had rather an idea that there’ was
still going on, in the chalk around them, a process by which the
soluble silica disseminated in a mass of chalk,—which varied in

a relative quantity, he was told, from two to four per cent.,—was gradu-
ally being dissolved by rain water, or water charged with carbonic
. acid, or some other chemical product derived from the chalk---in small

52

quantities, no doubt, but still being dissolved, and afterwards re-
deposited around the nodules. He was heretical enough to say it was
possible—nay, that he believed it was a fact, though he-could not
prove it—that many of the nodules they saw were annually getting
larger. He thought there was no one who had ever studied the
fissures filled with tabular flint but must come to the conclusion that
they were of much more recent date than the nodular flints. Fissures
seemed to have been formed by the subsidence of the chalk, and these
fissures seemed to have been apparently filled up by that hard material
called flint. The study of the tabular flints in the neighbourhood
would be a source of great delight, and the student would be also
enabled to gather facts which might tend to throw some light on the
mystery enshrouding their formation, and upon the question as to
whether they were still forming. This was a point about which he
wished to interest the members of the Natural History Society. Were
any facts now to be obtained to tell them whether or not flint is still
forming in the chalk? He believed it was, and although he was not
prepared to prove it, yet he hoped that they might possibly be able to
do so.

Mr. J. E. HASELWOOD : You could not suggest any test? That
is the difficulty, I suppose ?

Mr. WILLETT said he thought the tests must be such as would
commend themselves to each individual mind. He had, in his own
mind, suggested that if any one could get into some subterranean
place, such as the Brighton Waterworks, and if one could extract a
flint, and put a gold or silver thread round it, replace it, and then
examine it after a certain time, they might ascertain if there were any
change. There might, however, be methods in the laboratory, for
reaching the same end, by subjecting a block of chalk (which had been
previously weighed) to the percolation of water, or of different kinds
of water, to see if there were any change produced in that way. He
would suggest, too, that, perhaps, if certain portions of chalk con-
taining portions of tabular flint—which in some cases were to be
found as thin as note paper,—could be placed in the laboratory, and
subjected to the percolation of water, with, perhaps, the addition of
some little weak galvanic or magnetic force, some discovery might be
made. He wished it to be understood that he was quite ignorant ; it
was merely a problem, in the solution of which everyone had the same

153

opportunities as he had ; and it was one in which he wished to excite
an interest. He had himself certainly ascertained that thin fissures in
flint were filled up with a kind of chaldeonic deposit, which was cer-
tainly of a more recent date. Pure blue films of chalcedony were
constantly found in flints.

Mr. W. SAUNDERS said he did not know whether Mr. Pankhurst
had observed that crystals had the power of replacing damaged
angles.

Mr. PANKHURST replied that if the angle of a crystal were broken
off while in the solution in which it had been formed, it rebuilt the
damaged part with the same wonderful straightness and precision of
angle which it originally had. The damage was as completely
obliterated as, in course of time, was a slight cut upon the body.

Mr. F, MERRIFIELD : Will there be a scar left ?

Mr. PANKHURST said that very often no appearance of the re-
building could be noted; but that sometimes there would be where
probably the solutions had differed in power.

Mr. B. Lomax said he remembered that, when at the gold
diggings, it was always a problem, in days past, as to how best to
extract gold and other substances, including silica, from quartz, at the
least possible cost, and with the least possible labour. He was now
anxious to know what form the smooth, hard, and transparent coating
took which covered grassy plants.

Mr. HASELWOOD said that Dr. Carpenter informed them that the
vegetable bark of grasses might be burned away, and that the silica
would then remain in threads.

Mr. C. F. DENNET said silica was a component part of almost
everything in Nature, and was a source of great trouble to the
- manufacturing merchant, who had to get rid of it from the raw
material out of which stuffs and paper were manufactured.

Mr. MERRIFIELD asked—Supposing silica, in the gelatinous form,
found its way into a cavity in sufficient quantity to fill it, when that
which distinguished the gelatinous silica from flint was parted from it
so that nothing but flint remained, what proportion of the ‘cavity would
be represented by flint ?

154
Mr. PANKHURST, in reply, said the question was somewhat indefi-
nite, but he remembered it to have been stated by one authority that

the proportion was about 15 per cent, When that point was reached,
coagulation set in.

SEPTEMBER 28TH.

MICROSCOPICAL MEETING.—‘ POND LIFE.”

Various objects illustrating Pond Life were exhibited by the
President (Mr. J. Dennant), Mr. Haselwood, Mr. R. Glaisyer, and
Mr. E. Glaisyer, but the most interesting were sundry specimens sent
down for exhibition by Mr. T. Curteis, of Holborn, an Hon. Member :
the principal were Argullus, Plumatella Repeus, Stephanoceros, and
Praludicella Ehrenbergii.

LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

Brighton & Sussex Ratural History Society,

Abbey, H.
Ardley, W. .
Aylen, S.

Badcock, Dr.
Balean, H. -
Beavan, J. _
Bellingham, C.
Benifold, J. S.
Bigge, A.
Bishop, J. G.
Black, Arthur.
Booth, E.
_ Boxall, W. P.
Bright, E.
Brown, J. H.
Browne, Hon. Howe
Browne, G.
_ Busby, R. A.

Capon, J.

Carden, J., Jun.
Carpenter, Charles
Challen, J.

Clarke, A.

Clarke, W.T. ~
Clayton, C. E.
Clowser, J. H.
Cobb,R,
Colling, J. W.

eee

OCTOBER, 1876.

Cooper, T. J.
Corfe, Dr.

Cox, A.

Cox, A. H.
Creak, A.

Cross, Rev. J. H.
Curtis, J.

Cutton, T.

D’Alquen, F. M.
Davey, H. ©
Davis, H. C.
Dawson, Dr.
Day, G. H.
Deane, W.
Dennant, J.
Dennet, C. F.
Dowsett, A.
Duguid, I. I.

Eberall, J.

Felton, W.

Fisher, A.

Fowler, T. M.
Fox, O. A.
Friend, Daniel
Friend, D. B.

Glaisyer, J. H.

Glaisyer, R.
Glaisyer, T.
Glaisyer, E.
Goss, H.
Gwatkin, J. T.

Hack, D.
Haddock, G. J.
Hadlow, F. V.
Hall, Dr.

Hall, E. P.
Hallett, W. H.
Hallifax, Dr.
Hamblin, E.
Hamblin, W. T.
Hamilton, C. C.
Harris, E. H.
Hart, E, J.
Haselwood, J. E.
Hauxwell, Dr.
Heald, C. J.
Henty, W.
Hilton, W.
Hoadley, A.
Hobbs, J.
Holder, J. J.
Holford, F.
Holford, G.
Hollis, Dr.
Hollis, W. M.
Holloway, A.
Hurst, H.

Image, Rev, J.
Infield, H. J.
Treland, A.

Jackson, A, W.

Jackson, W.
Jeffcoat, J.
Jeffrey, W., Jun.

Kenyon, yo
King, Dr.
Knightley, Dr.

Lee, J. S.

Lee, W. R.
Leigh, T.
Lethbridge, E. B,
Leuliette, L.
Loader, A.
Lomax, Benjamin
Lomax, O’Brien
Lucas, A.

Lucas, J. E.

Mahomed, F.
Marshall, E. J.
Massy, Dr. Tuthill
Mayall, J. J. E.
Maydwell, R. L.
Medcalf, E. S.
Merrifield, F.
Millard, Dr. W. J. K.
Mills, A.

Mills, P.

Mitchell, W. W.
Moore, E. H.
Morris, J.
Moseley, Rev. T.

Nash, George
Nash, W. H.
Nell, W. T.
Newton, Rey. J.

Nicholls, W. H.
Nourse, W. E. C.

O’Connor, D.
Onions, J. C.

Page, T.

_ Paine, C.
Pankhurst, E. A.
Parsons, F. C,
Patten, A. J.
Penley, M.
Phillips, B.
Phillips, F. B. W.
Pocock, C. J,
Potter, W.
Pratt, H.

Pugh, Dr.
Puttick, W.

Richards, D.
Ridge, J.
Roper, F. C. S.
Ross, Dr.
Rutter, Dr.

Sadler, J. H.
Salt, Rev. F. G.
Saltzmann, F, W.
Saunders, Hubert
Saunders, W.
Savage, W. D.
Savage, W. W.
Sawyer, F. E.
Sawyer, G. D.
Saxby, —

Scott, E.

Shaft, G. T.
Shillingford, F.

157

Simonds, T. R.
Slemen, T.
Smith, C. P.
Smith, Frederick S.
Smith, J. P. M.
Smith, T.
Smith, Walter
Smith, W. H.
Spooner, C. H.
Stevens, W. G.
Strevens, W. H.
Stride, J. W.

Tainsh, E, C.
Thomas, D.
Trenchard, J. A.
Tuke, J. K.

Verrall, Henry
Verrall, Hugh J.

Walker, Captain _
Wallis, E. A.
Wallis, M.
Wallis, W. C.
Warden, E.
Ward, S. N.
Waterman, W. H.
Watson, W.
Welch, — ~
Whatford, W. S.
Whish, Rev. F. H.
Wilkinson, T.
Willett, E. H.
Willett, H.
Williams, H. M.
Wills, James
Wilton, W.

. 158

Winter, J. N. Wood, W. R.
Wonfor, T. W. Wood, W. R., Jun.
Wood, J. Woodman, J.

HONORARY MEMBERS.

Bloomfield, Rev. E. N., Guestling, Hastings,
Clarkson, Rev. G. A., Amberley.

Curteis, J., 244, High Holborn, London.
Davie, Dr. W., St. George.

Latham, Dr. K. G., London.

Lee, H., Croydon.

Mitten, William, Hurstpierpoint.

Prince, C. L., Uckfield.

Smith, Professor, Cork.

Stevens, Dr., St. Mary Bourne, Hants.
Ward, J., Clifton, Greata College, Keswick.

159

SOCIETIES ASSOCIATED,

WITH WHICH THE SOCIETY EXCHANGES PUBLICATIONS,

And whose Presidents and Secretaries are ex-officio Honorary
Members of the Society :—

Belfast Natural History Society.
Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society.
Boston (Mass, U.S.A.) Society of Natural Science.
Cardiff Naturalists’ Society.
Chester Society of Natural Science,
Chichester and West Sussex Natural History Society.
Croydon Microscopical Club.
Eastbourne Natural History Society.
Edinburgh Geological Society.
Folkestone Natural History Society.
Geological Record.
Geologists’ Association.
Glasgow Natural History Society.
Leeds Naturalists’ Club. ;
Lewes and East Sussex Natural History Society.
Maidstone and Mid-Kent Natural History Society.
North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field Club.
Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass., U.S.A.
Quekett Microscopical Club.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, U.S.A.

_ Watford Natural History Society;

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«THE . TWENTY-FOURTH
F f 7 5

’ ANNUAL REPORT ~

ABSTRACT
a ta * OF THE ™

- : -
BRIGHTON AND SUSSEX ; °

a

-
ADOPTED AT A MEETING HELD
-

7 .

OF PROCEEDINGS, —

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

~

i noe 2). PS to

, ON ‘THURSDAY, OCTOBER 1lrx, 1877 2
. * ’ «
* . ' - . ah “s
7 a As i es :

THE TWENTY-FOURTH

ANNUAL REPORT

AND

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS,

OF THE

BRIGHTON AND SUSSEX

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

ADOPTED AT A MEETING HELD

ON THURSDAY, OCTOBER 11ru, 1877.

' PRICE ONE SHILLING AND SIXPENCE.”

Hrighton 5

PRINTED BY H. J. INFIELD, ‘‘SUSSEX DAILY NEWS” OFFICR

1878.

President :
DR. BADCOCK.

Pice-Presidents :

MR. HOLLIS, DR. HALL,
MR. BIGGE, MR. T. GLAISYER,
DR. HALLIFAX, MR. F. MERRIFIELD,
MR. SIMONDS, MR. HASELWOOD,
MR. PENLEY, MR. ALDERMAN COX,
MR. GWATKIN, MR. J. DENNANT,
MR. W. E. C. NOURSE, MR. G. D. SAWYER.
Treasurer :

MR. THOMAS. GLAISYER,
12, North Street.

Committee :

MR. BENJAMIN LOMAX, * MR. J. WILLS,
MR. DENNET, MR. ALD. HALLETT,
MR. E. H. WILLETT, Mk. A. DOWSETT.

Honorary Secretaries :

MR, T. W. WONFOR, MR. J. COLBATCH CLARK,
38, Buckingham Place. 56, Middle Street.

Honorary Bibrarian and Curator :
MR. ROBERT GLAISYER,

The Dispensary, Queen’s Road.

At the Twenty-fourth Annual Meeting of the BRIGHTON AND
Sussex Natura History Society, held in the Curator’s Room,
Free Library and Museum, Church-street, October 11th 1877,

It was RESOLVED,—

That the Report, Abstract of Proceedings, and Treasurer’s
Account, now brought in, be received, adopted, and entered on
the minutes, and printed for circulation as usual.

That the cordial thanks of this Meeting be given to the
Honorary Secretaries, Honorary Treasurer, and Honorary
Librarian, for their labours in preparing the same.

That the following gentlemen be elected as Officers of the
Society for the ensuing year :—President: Dr. Badcock ;
Treasurer: Mr. Thomas Glaisyer; Committee: Mr. Benjamin
Lomax, Mr. Dennet, Mr. Ernest H. Willett, Mr. J. Wills, Mr.
A. Dowsett, and Mr. Alderman Hallett ; Honorary Secretaries :
Mr. T. W. Wonfor and Mr. J, Colbatch Clark ; Honorary Librarian
and Curator, Mr R. Giaisyer.

That the sincere thanks of this Meeting be given to the
Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, Committee, Honorary Secretaries,
and Honorary Librarian, for their services during the past year.

(Signed) GEORGE D. SAWYER,
Chairman.
IT WAS ALSO RESOLVED,—

That the warmest thanks of this Meeting be presented to
Mr. Geo. D. Sawyer for his able conduct as President during the
past year.

REPORT.

_ IN presenting the Twenty-fourth Annual Report, your Committee
have again the pleasure of recording the continued prosperity of
_ the Society.

During the past year, two gentlemen who have been members
of the Society since its formation, have died, and the Committee
deeply regret their loss—Mr, T. B. Horne, who was one of the
7 founders of the Society, one of the first Secretaries, and also
_ Honorary Librarian, and on resigning the Secretaryship in 1858,
"was appointed Honorary Treasurer, which office he filled
‘until 187 4, when he was elected one of the Vice-Presidents of
the Society ; and Mr. F. M. D’Alquen, who took an active part
‘in forming the Society and in supporting it for many years.

The financial condition of the Society is satisfactory. All
its liabilities have been met, and a sum of £13 6s. Gd. has been

i Presentations of the following Books have been received
Be the. year, viz.:— Report of Congrés International

6

d’Anthropologie et d’Archeologie Prehistorique de la Swede, and
five Numbers of the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society
(from Mr. Henry Willett); Index to Vols. 1 to 13, Dr. J. Lea’s
Observations on the Genus Unio (from Mr. Thomas Davidson) ;
Copy of Paper “on certain living and fossil fishes,” by Miss Agnes
Crane, read at an Ordinary Meeting (from the Authoress) ;
Descriptive Catalogue of the Birds in Mr. Booth’s Museum, Dyke
Road (from Mr. Booth) ; Dr. Carpenter on the Microscope (from
Mr. Gwatkin) ; Paper on certain forms of Animal Life off the
Norwegian Coast, by G. Ossian Sars ; Transfusion, &c., by J. W.
Miiller, and Lists of the Insects of Norway, by H. Siebke and
J. P. Scheider (from G. Ossian Sars); On the Brank, by Dr. J.
Stevens (from the Author) ; Account of the Glacier Garden near
Lucerne (from Mr. F. E. Sawyer) ; Report of the Smithsonian
Institution for 1875, Geological Survey of Montana, by Dr. F. V.
Hayden ; Bulletins No. 1 and 2 of the Entomological Commission
of the United States, by Dr. F. V. Hayden; Report on the
Rocky Mountain Locust and other Insects, by Dr. A. S. Packard ;
First, Second, and Third Annual Reports of the Survey of the
Territories and the Survey of Wyoming and the contiguous
Territory, by Dr. F. V. Hayden (from the Department of the
Interior, Washington, U.S.A.) ; Transactions of the Cumberland
Association for the Advancement of Science ; Proceedings of the
Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society; Annual
Report and July, October, January, and April Numbers of
Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association ; Nos. 33 and 34 o
the Journal of Quekett Microscopical Club; Annual Report and
Eighth Vol. of Proceedings of Cardiff Natural History Society 5

?t

7

Report of the School of Mines, Ballarat ; Part 1, Vol. 3, Pro-
ceedings of Natural History Society of Glasgow ; Fifth Annual
Report of Croydon Microscopical Club; Annual Report of North
Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field Club; Sixth Annual Report of
Chester Natural History Society ; Part 1, Vol. 3, Transactions
of Edinburgh Geological Society ; Proceedings of the Eastbourne
Natural History Society; Annual Report of Lewes and East
Sussex Natural History Society.

The Committee desire particularly to record their thanks in
acknowledging the continued liberality of the Government of the
United States of America in forwarding many very valuable
works on the Geography, Geology, and productions in Zoology
an d Botany of several of the States and Territories.

. The following Books have been added by purchase during
the year, viz.:—The Aquarium, its Inhabitants, &c. (by J. E.
I aylor) ; Birds of Europe, 4 vols. (by C. R. Bree); Life of a
cotch Naturalist (by S. Smiles) #Myxomycetes of Great Britain
by M. C. Cooke) ; British Aphides (by G. B. Buckton) ; Ray
ociety Pub.; Vol. XVI., Part 4, Botany; and Vol. XIIL, Part 7 p
so0logy ; Linnean Society ; Wealden and Permian Reptilia (by
. Owen) ; Fossil Brachiopoda (by T. ‘Davidson) ; Carboniferous
oraminifera (by H. B. Brady) ; British Fossil Ligonie (by J.
y : : “aes Bivalves iby S. V. Wood); Carboniferous

8

The number of Books in the Library is now 986, exclusive
of unbound Periodicals and Pamphlets. It is gratifying to the
Committee to report that use of them by the readers in the

Public Free Library has much increased.

A donation of four slides—two of them illustrating Vegetable
Tissue infiltrated with different substances—has been received
from Mr. J, Curteis.

It will he seen from the List (at the end of the Report) of

Societies associated with this Society, and with which publications

are exchanged, that the Society is becoming widely known
throughout this country and also in America, and the Committee
have heard with pleasure that several of the Papers which have
been read in this Society have been considered to be of sufficient
importance to be subsequently read before some of the Scientific

Societies in London.

Your Committee have offered a prize of £5 5s. for the best
collection of Wild Flowers found in the County of Sussex during —
the present year, to be sent in before the end of January next, —
upon certain conditions. They hope this will be the means of
further promoting the study of Botany, and obtaining a good
collection of the Wild Flowers of the County.

The Conversazione was held in the Royal Pavilion on the~

ist of March, and was very successful, a detailed account of ite

will be found in the proceedings.

The Field Excursions since the last Report have been as
follows :—October, 1876, Hassock’s Gate ; May, 1877, Balcombe ;

The Annual Excursion took place on the 5th of July to

Pevensey, Hurstmonceaux, and Hailsham.

The thanks of the Society are due to those gentlemen who

“ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

1877-78.

RR eee eee

Oct. 13TH 1876.
ANNUAL MEETING

The out-going President (Mr. Dennant) said it was custom-
aty for the President when he vacated the chair to offer a few
valedictory remarks, and it was only fair to suppose that having
had twelve months’ experience in the conduct of the Society
he would be in a position to offer some suggestions of a practical
nature with regard to its future. He had, therefore, to ask their
forbearance a few minutes while he endeavoured, in aquiescence
with that custom, to bow himself metaphorically out of that
position to which they did him the honour to elect him a year
ago. He would not weary them by recapitulating the work of the
year, but he might be excused if he summed it up—as he did
with considerable pleasure—as a year of marked success as
regards the character and quality of the papers which had been
submitted to them; and he begged very heartily to thank those
gentlemen who had read papers for their able contributions. To
those kind friends who helped to make the soirée such a success
he also desired to express his sincere thanks. But he would not
be doing his duty if he did not say that the microscopical
meetings during the past year have not been so well attended as —
they should have been.

A certain few staunch friends have been most constant in
attendance with their microscopes, and if a few more mniicro- i
scopists would take the trouble to bring their instruments, for the 7

11

more thorough elucidation of the subjects under investigation, it
would greatly add to the interest and usefulness of these evenings.

He could not retire from the chair without an allusion to the
perfect harmony: that had prevailed during the year—a result due
not only to the good fellowship prevailing among the Members,
_ but to the admirable manner in which the officers carry on the
work of the Society.

When they thought of the untiring zeal of the officers in the
interests of the Society, the many years of service they had
rendered, and the conspicuous ability they brought to their
respective departments of work, they would agree with him that
the Society owed them a deep debt of gratitude, and on his own
account he tendered to Mr. Wonfor and Mr. Onions, the Honorary
Secretaries, and to Mr. R. Glaisyer, the Honorary Curator, his
‘sincere thanks for the kind assistance they had severally given to
him on many occasions during his period of office.

Those who had been long associated with the Society could not
have failed to notice that they were gradually losing, from one
cause or another, the presence of members who had helped in a
marked manner to build up and adorn the Society—enthusiastic
fadents of Natural History—whose places it would be difficult to
A little uneasiness was felt lest the Society from these losses

further losses should so far impoverish the Society as to diminish
force and influence. Numerically they were strong and the

r esembled the tree that had made wood and leaf at the expense
of its fruit. If this be so, the question naturally arose—How
sould the future health and stability of the Society be best insured ?
A reference to the laws of physiology would provide the answer.

12

He referred to the supply of the health producer and sustainer—
the blood. They knew that without a rigid attention to the
laws of hygiene, and a scrupulous obedience to the nutrient
processes, the vis vite failed, and the powers succumbed to a
premature decay. Assimilation must be constantly going on if a
vigorous life was to be enjoyed. And in this Society, as one after
another of its strong supporters was removed, they wanted the
reanimation of young blood.

They had amongst their Members men of more than ordinary
ability and culture, who are comparatively idle with regard to the
work of the Society ; they might help greatly if they would, and
he trusted this reminder to absentees would spur them into
action. But it was to the younger men, and the more recent
Members, that he would chiefly address himself. Some of them
had set an example to the rest by coming to the front with good
and earnest work ; but a considerable number had joined the
Society, he suspected, more with the idea of receiving than of
giving intellectual pleasure and enjoyment. Possibly from their
own standpoint, their self-estimation led them to avoid taking a
public part in the discussions of the Society, but from the Society’s
point of view they may be depriving it of much valuable assistance.
A voluble tongue was but seldom associated with high intelligence,
and might often prove a hindrance rather than a help to scien-
tific discussion, whereas taciturnity in young men was often united
to a precocious wisdom. To their taciturn young friends then he
would say that the Society requires their aid.

Many of those who felt warmly to it, were quite unable to
give it that helpful attention it required ; they were hurried along
by the pressure of busy lives into methods and habits of life which
leave too little energy for scientific investigation, attractive though
it be, and their work must of necessity be of a desultory character.
But to those for whom life appeared a long and hopeful future,
he would say—They had the power, as he hoped they had the
will, of so arranging their spare time as to devote regular portions

13

of it to intellectual recreative study, such as was embraced within
the sphere of the Society’s operations. Such a cultivation of the
mind in early life would supply them with those delightful resources,
for the leisure of later years, when men desire to relinquish their
hold of their ordinary avocations, and when many a man found to
his sorrow that he has few ideas, save those supplied by his ledger
and his cash book.

The occasional but regular study and investigation of one or
more departments of Natural History cannot but impart a healthy
and beneficial tone to the mind, for the man that is dealing with
and marshalling facts for the purpose of arriving at what is an
exact scientific truth, must per force of such mental training,
become a lover of truthfulness. George Eliot very aptly says
that “‘ Science is properly more scrupulous than dogma. Dogma
gives a charter to mistake, but the very breath of Science is a
contest with mistake, and must keep the conscience alive.”

He was not asking them to devote all their spare time to
Science. This would be neither reasonable nor desirable ; neither
was it advisable to give exclusive attention to one subject alone,
be that subject even their source of living. He could not do
better than recommend for their perusal a series of very able -
articles from the pen of Dr. Richardson on “ National Health,”
appearing in Good Words for the last few months, so full of strong

common sense and wisdom.

_ Speaking of the tendency there is of working in grooves, and
attaining what is called perfection in special departments of Art,
Science, and Literature, he says—‘ To some extent this division is
perhaps a necessity, but carried into such minuteness as at present
exists, itis hurtful beyond expression. The ideal of individual
perfection in the performance of the one particular art or craft,

__without diversity of occupation,—that is to say, the devotion ofa

life to a single intent or purpose, is of all exercises the most

ruinous to the vital nervous power. It brings the whole nervous

14

energy into concentration upon special sets of the motor instru-
ments of the body, and before maturity is attained the living
man is transformed into an automatic mechanism, which becomes
so distinctive that no other motion except that which the habit
directs is tolerable. Limitation of view, limitation of knowledge,
of thought, of sympathy, of muscular movement, becomes a second
nature, and leads to dependence of one man on the other and
others, until the perfect master in his own department is a helpless
child so soon as he is out of his narrow sphere.

He hoped that in the remarks he had felt it his duty to
make he had not assumed too preaching atone ; such was farthest
from his intention ; but he was aware that through the kindness
of the Press (to which they were so much indebted for the
admirable reports of their proceedings), his remarks might reach
the eye of some of those absent Members of whom he was thinking
and whose co-operation he was anxious to enlist. But some
might say, “it is all very well to give us this advice, but we are
mere tyros in Science, and we have no companions to lure us to
these pleasant paths, and help us in our feeble efforts.” To such
he would say that he believed there were gentlemen in the Society
who would be willing to help them.

A most valuable suggestion, made some time since by their
esteemed Honorary Secretary, Mr. Wonfor, for the verification of
the fauna and flora of the county, namely, the establishment o¢

_ sections for the study of various subjects, was so far carried out
that they had three departments provided for at present, with a
Chairman and Secretary for each, who were merely waiting for the
co-operation of any Members who might thus wish to specialize
their work. The subjects were entomology, botany, and
vertebrate zoology. And he felt from what he knew of those
gentlemen, that they would be very ready to welcomeany students,
and help them in the acquisition of even elementary knowledge
upon these subjects. He would therefore urge them to enrol
themselves and see what a winter’s work would do to encourage

.
i;
:
L
'

15

them. Sectional work of this kind, successfully carried out, could
not but be a great benefit both to themselves and the Society, and
in a comparatively short time they would find themselves in
the happy position of never having a dearth of papers or
interesting discussion.

In conclusion, he thanked them most warmly for the kind
consideration and attention they had paid to the chair during his
occupation of it. In accepting the honour—one ofthe greatest
honours of his life—he felt that, however incompetent, he ought
not to shrink from doing what appeared to be his duty, and that
he would try and do his best for the Society. He was fully
conscious of having fallen far short of what he would wish to have
done, but he had been sustained throughout by the thought that
they would be generous enough to throw the mantle of charity
over his numerous shortcomings. He, then, with great pleasure,
asked Mr. G. D. Sawyer to assume the presidency of the meeting,
for that gentleman took great interest in the work of the Society,
and had been intimately associated with its management for many
years; and he knew Mr. Sawyer would fulfil the duties of the
office with ability and zeal, and he wished them health to enjoy
its pleasures.

Mr. G. D. SAWYER, the new President took the chair, and
thanked the Members of the Natural History Society very
sincerely for the honour they had done him in asking him to
preside over their meetings during the ensuing year.

He did not hesitate to acknowledge that he considered it a
very high honour to be called to the presidency of a Society
holding such an influential position in the town as the Brighton
and Sussex Natural History Society does. This position has been
a steadily but surely advancing one, and he felt warranted in
affirming that the esteem in which it is held by their fellow
townsmen is second to none, and is still increasing. Month by
month had seen the increase of their roll of Members by the

16

addition of the names of men of active thought and inquiring
mind, bent upon the possession of the advantages they held out
to them. Even that very evening had been no exception to the
rule of steady increase—they had just elected three more new
Members from whose presence and help he trusted they might
find benefit.

The information furnished to Members at their monthly
meetings and miroscopical evenings had continually been of a
most interesting and instructive character and full of pleasant
variety. Andas to their soirees—but one opinion could exist ;
it was acknowledged that they had been a series of splendid
successes. But the very fact that all this was so true only added
to the natural timidity with which one stepped forward at their
bidding to attempt to occupy so prominent a post as that of
President of such a Society ; and he assured them that he felt—
and they would agree with him that he would be quite unfit for
the office if he did not feel—a heavy responsibility pressing upon
him as he yielded to their request and took this duty upon him.

He had delighted, in his quiet, retired position as a private
Member, in listening with increasing enjoyment to the ever fresh
and interesting facts and reasonings brought forward by many of
their very able and efficient Members ; and it would have pleased
him well still to have quietly retained those advantages. But as
it was now their will that he should for a time leave this
enjoyable position of retirement, and take upon himself the very
prominent duty upon which he now entered, he could only
promise that he would fulfil the duties of the office to the best of
his ability, stimulated by the consciousness of the fact that he was
accepting a positon that had been filled with honour by the many
able men that had preceded him in the presidency—some of
whom he had the pleasure of seeing before him—and possessed
by an earnest desire that nothing during his term of office might
occur to tarnish the honour now resting upon it. But he should
feel encouraged by the recollection of the sympathy they always

17

manifested with the efforts of those in office, and the unvarying
kindness with which they had yielded all needful help to them in
carrying out their duties ; and he was sure they would stand by
him in his effort to fulfil those duties. He had also been long
enough among them to know how thoroughly he could rely on
the indefatigable help of their esteemed Secretaries—a host in
themselves! Would that their good friend, Mr. Wonfor, was
entirely restored to his wonted health and vigour. But even
this would, he trusted, prove true at no distant period, and that
they would still have his cheery voice and quick wit animating
them, and his valuable remarks instructing them in their meetings
_as they had so often done in times past.

;
:

If he might make two or three personal remarks he would

“venture to say that it was no new thing for him to be associated

with those who were seeking by patient enquiry to obtain
increased knowledge and elevate the mind.

If they would not smile at him for going back so far into the
past, he would say that as long as thirty-eight years ago he was
connected with a band of young men, meeting every week for
mutual improvement in the offices, and under the presidency of
one of the ablest solicitors of the town—the late Mr. William
Penfold—at which they had each, in rotation, to read an essay.
It might interest them to hear that one of that little band of
students was Mr. Abbey, the now Mayor of the town, and that
he had the pleasure at that time of hearing him read a very
interesting paper on the steam-engine.

His pathway soon afterwards was across the ocean to North
America, and five of the most active years of his life were spent in
the United States with plentiful opportunities of observing the
natural phenomena of that grand country, with all its busy life,
its quick perceptions, and its noble aims. Splendid courses of
lectures on physiology and other scientific subjects were being

18

* great city, and, of course, he did not attempt to resist the strong
attraction that such lectures had upon his mind, but attended
them with great delight and lasting profit. Duty called him back
to his native land, and to his native town of Brighton, and he
soon found congenial’ spirits in the then flourishing Atheneum,
and for many years, until its dissolution, occupied a place on its
Committee, and for a time ‘filled the office of Moderator in its
Discussion Society. e

Simultaneously with his efforts in connection with the Athe-
nzum he was endeavouring to promote the success of the Young
Men’s Christian Association of this town as a member of its
Committee, and was appointed (in conjunction with Mr. Henry
Willett) as a delegate to the International Conference of Young
Men’s Christian Associations that met in Paris in 1855, during the
period of the first French International Exhibition and the visit of
our beloved Queen and Prince Consort to the capital; and last,
though not least, for a period of twelve years he had had the
great privilege of being a Member of their excellent Society, and
in their midst had passed many of the happiest hours of his life,
acquiring information that he was sure had elevated his mind,
and becoming acquainted with the wonders of creative wisdom
that had often led his mind from nature up to nature’s God.

He must be pardoned if he had trespassed on their time
and patience with these purely personal details, as he felt it due
to himself, as well as to them, that he should, as best he could,
justify his position in the presidential chair that night by showing
that it was quite consistent with his whole past history—that
whatever duty presented its claims upon his service in connection
with an inquiry after further knowledge, his one principle had
always been to accept that duty and to try and fulfil it to the best
of his power.

By their help and relying on their kind sympathy, he now q
sat down, promising to do his best to fulfil his duty as President
of their valuable and important Society.

19

Mr. J. E. HASELWooD expressed his pleasure at seeing Mr.
Sawyer in the presidential chair, and proposed a hearty vote of
thanks to Mr. J. Dennant for his able conduct in the chair during
the past year. The Ex-President he highly complimented for his
constant attention to his duties, not being absent from one meet-
ing of the Society during his tenure of office, he believed, and
thereby showing that his heart was with them, and setting a
praiseworthy example to other Members. He heartily wished
that some of these would oftener appear at the meetings of the
_ Society than they did, and not be content with merely reading
_ the newspaper reports of these meetings at home. Much as the
_ Society was indebted to the press for the admirable way in which

it recorded their proceedings, the publicity it gave to them
tended to lessen the attendances at their meciings. This was
- not pleasant to contemplate, for almost always something was
_ eropping up upon which some Member could give the Society
useful information. He, therefore, hoped the example of the’
_ Ex-President—and that which would, no doubt, be set by the
new President—would be followed by many who had in the past
_ been irregular in their attendances.

Concluding, he alluded to the difficulty which a President

_ had to contend with in his endeavours to please every Member,

and to the successful way in which Mr. Dennant had overcome
that difficulty.

Mr. A. Dowsetr seconded the motion, supporting what Mr.

_ Haselwood had said in praise of Mr. Dennant.

The CHAIRMAN also joined most heartily in the commenda-
_ tions accorded Mr. Dennant, and then

The motion was cordially agreed to.

| The Ex-PRESIDENT acknowledged the compliment, assuring
_ the Meeting that the measure of success which had attended his
_ fforts during the past year had been due to the support of the
7 Members, and thanking the Members for that support.

20

This concluded the business of the Annual Meeting, and
there followed an

ORDINARY MONTHLY MEETING.

Mr. A. BiccE presented to the Society, by letter, a painting
of a sheldrake, by the late Prideaux J. Selby, of Turrell House,
Northumberland, the author of “Selby’s British Ornithology,”
who, the donor remarked, was an admirable artist, besides being
a most learned naturalist.

Mr. A. DowsEtr submitted for examination true and false
specimens of the Colorado potato beetle, and explained that the
“false” insect was not injurious to the potato, feeding on some
allied plant. He also pointed out that there was a possibility of
the “true” beetle finding its way to England from America—
where the specimen submitted had been found—by being brought
over the Atlantic in vessels laden with potatoes, especially if the
potatoes were put into the vessels with the haulm of the plant.

The larvee of the insect, being soft like maggots, were not
likely to be brought over the water, as they would scarcely escape
being crushed, either during the loading or unloading of the
vessels. The differences between the “false” and “ true” beetle
were said to be that in the former the two lower black lines
but one on each elytron, or wing-sheath, were united at the
base, while the lines on the wing-sheaths of the “true” beetle
were wholly separate and distinct, and that the “false” beetle
was generally larger, brighter in colour, with fewer markings on
the thorax than the “ true” one.

The President, Mr. G. D. SAWYER, showed a sponge from
the Phillipine Islands, North of Australia (Euplectella Aspergillum).
It, he said, was only the skeleton of the sponge. In its living
state the framework was veiled by a delicate gelatinous tissue.
The texture had been compared to lace.

21
The Rev. J. HANNINGTON exhibited varieties of birds’ eggs...

On behalf of his brother, Colonel Hannington, the Rev. J.
HANNINGTON stated that the house and grounds of the former,
at Hurstpierpoint, would be thrown open on Saturday to-
Members of the Society taking part in the Society’s field
excursion on that day.

OCTOBER, 26TH, 1876.
MICROSCOPICAL MEETING.

Mr. G. D. SAWYER, the President, showed; under the micro-
scope, spinnerettes of spider, vegetable stellar tissue, spicules of
gorgonia—section of skin from leg of an ox, a house fly—palate
of a trochus, &c.

Mr. R, GLAISYER selected diatoms and other fine specimens.

Mr. GLAISYER, in the absence of the Hon. Secretaries, read
an invitation to the Members from Mr. Henry LEE, F.L.S., Con-
sulting Naturalist to the Brighton Aquarium, and the President
_ of the Croydon Microscopical Society, to their annual soiree, on
_ the 29th November. Mr. Lee had, the Chairman said, been a
very kind and obliging Member of the Society, and he hoped that,
consequently, many Members would regard it as a duty to respond
to his invitation. He would take with him a microscope and show
some interesting specimens.

With reference to their next regular meeting, he remarked
- that it happened to be fixed for the evening of the 9th of Novem-
ber—the night on which the next Mayor’s inaugural banquet
_ would take place—and as the Mayor-Elect (Mr. Alderman Lamb)
had been kind enough to invite some of the Members of the
Society to be present on the occasion, he would suggest that the-
regular meeting should be postponed for a week—till the 16th.
November.

It was unanimously agreed to act upon the suggestion.

bo

2
NOVEMBER 16TH.

Mr. B. Lomax, on—

THE CONSTANCY OF CERTAIN NUMBERS IN
NATURE.

The subject of this paper is so different to those which are
generally brought before you as to render some explanation, if not
apology, necessary. In the earlier days of learning everyone
knows how much importance was attached to the recurrence of
particular numbers. The so-called science of Astrology was based
entirely on the cycles in which history had been found to revolve,
according so strangely with those recognised by the astronomer.
The belief in a coming millenium, so interwoven with the history
of the Christian church, seems to have had at first no better
foundation than the continual recurrence of the number seven in
Holy Writ, leading the earlier Jewish writers on theology to
speculate on the possibility of this world’s history being that of a
mighty week, made of “a thousand years for a day,” whose
Sabbath was the millenium. In the field of Natural History, the
uniformity of numbers was insisted upon from Aristotle to Bacon,
who in his “ Novum Organum,” notices the supposed fact of the
serpent family always arranging themselves in four curves. Nor
were the Mathematicans slow to follow the fashion. With the
Arabic numerals. and the .decimal notation came curious
disquisitions on the properties of number nine, the formation of
Magic squares, and the series into which their sums arranged
themselves. In fact, the study of series, arithmetical and
algebraical, is our modern sacrifice at the same altar, and the
results have been of the greatest practical utility. We cannot to-
day pass by as foolish those who in earlier times observed
recurring numbers. Kepler, whose name must ever stand high
on the roll of astronomical fame, was no mathematican, no chemist,
no inventor; he merely observed recurring numbers. Yet
Kepler defined the place of an unseen planet that others were to
discover in the form of a group, and established three laws

23

which Newton afterwards proved mathematically—Newton, who
_ was himself a student of numbers, and wrote much on the cycles
of History as compared with those of Astronomy. Linnzus, too,
was an observer of numbers, and his well known system of
classification is founded strictly on numerical coincidence. The
theory is artificial, but the result is not so, as the following groups
are kept separate :—The Orchidex, the Composit, the Labiate,
the Scrophularine, the Ranunculacee, the Rosacee, the Um-
belliferze, the Cruciferz, the Cyperacee, and the Graminez
With such example before me, I need not fear to seek for constant
numbers in Nature. To me, at least, it appears that what Nature
has thought worth doing, I may well think worth studying. At
any rate, as an old philosopher has said, “Homo sum, nihil
humanum mihi alienum puto,” I may fairly add “I am a
naturalist ; nothing natural is uninteresting to me.”

In following the series of numbers from zero to infinity, we
notice that the prime numbers, or those that contain no active
factors, although they appear to follow no regular series, diminish
rapidly in number. Thus commencing with 1, 2, 3, they drop off
to 5, 7, 11,13, and dwindle down to such rare aves as 31, 37, 41.
In our search we must likewise expect to find the smaller numbers
most constant, and the larger ones rare, absent, or of doubtful
_ value, as being repetitions of their factors.

Naturally we commence with Number One. And here I am
obliged to confess a failure. The Naturalist seems to be in the
position of Hood’s Postman— “He hardly seems to know
there is a Number One.” After very careful thought, I am
unable to find a single item of nature, animal, vegetable, or
mineral, that can claim the place of unity. The seeds of certain
plants are called monocotyledonous, but the case is merely one of
partial abortion, as is proved by the plant being a strictly dual
structure, with stamens and pistils. The Spores of the Cryptogamia
have scarcely a better claim. Wherever the microscope has-

24

reached these little organisms the development of some form of
sexual apparatus, of Archegonia and Antherizia has betrayed the
dual character. If we trace down the animal to his original cell
nucleus, we find an organism continually multiplying itself by
fission—division into two—and thus here we have the same
difficulty in saying that unity is reached. Even the mineral
world fares no better, since all the modern chemists have agreed
to represent the smallest portion of free matter by a molecule
composed of two atoms.

When however we come to the consideration of Number
Two, there is no difficulty in finding examples. All animated
nature is dual. The smallest, simplest animal we know is
symmetrical, having two sides alike. The Pleurobrachia may
be taken as the type of the form of which the Annulosz are built
up; a mere jelly-like ball with two long tentacles, one placed on
each side. Such an animal, having legs instead of tentacles, a
distinct ganglion in the centre, hemal and digestive processes
forms the typical “somite.” A number of these somites joined
together forms an annulose animal, and the junction of three or
more rings into a head or thorax determines the. difference of
Insect, Arachnid, or Ecrustacean. An annulose animal is therefore
a continued multiple of two, and even those organs which are
apparently simple are really dual. Thus the butterfly’s trunk is
composed of two pieces—the bee’s sting has a double, or
symmetrical sheath. The Vertebrata may probably be looked
upon as two annulose structures arranged longitudinally ; the
“one represented by the brain and spinal column, the other by the
ventral portion of the body with the digestive, henal, and
sympathetic nervous processes—but whether this be so or not,
the dual character is distinct throughout. We have two ears,
two eyes, two nostrils; our brain, our heart, our dental arrange-
ments are double, and though this paper is not intended to deal
with metaphysical questions, few will doubt that in the presence
of an involuntary muscular action contrasted with a potent

25

volition, in the combination of a mind that deals with the
conditions of existence interwoven with as it were another mind
capable of abstract thought and creative imagination, we have a
duality corresponding with that of the body. In the vegetable
kingdom, also duality is well represented. Besides the sexual
distinction to which I have already alluded, we have the fact
that ovules are universally produced in pairs. The typical
carpel is, in fact, a pod with two seeds. Sometimes, as in the
filbert, one seed gorges himself to gigantic dimensions at the
expense of his poorer brother, who dwindlesto a husk ; sometimes,
as in the chickweed, the two seeds become as many score ; but
the unripe ovary always tells the same tale of double birth.
The growth of minerals is more obscure, but recent researches
have thrown much light upon the modes in which minerals
crystallize or congeal. Throughout these investigations great
stress is laid upon the law of polarity. To the eye of the modern
philosopher every particle is but a little magnetic needle, having
its poles of attraction and repulsion; and this polarity has been
claimed by Tyndal not only for the particles composing the
crystalline structure of minerals, but even for those of the human
brain itself. I have good authority therefore for saying that even

minerals are dual.

Number Three comes next; the type number of all that
great division of plants known as the Endogens, or Monocoty-
ledons. These plants, comprising every variety of vegetable
production, from the tiny grass to the gigantic cocoa-nut palm,
from the coarse bulrush to the delicate lily of the valley,
differing in all else, unite in this peculiarity that their leaves,
under all their modifications, occur in whorls of three. The
flowers have a calyx of three sepals, a corolla of three petals, one
or two sets of three stamens, and an ovary composed of three
carpels with a trifid stigma. In many of the sedges this
character is extended to the stems, which are triangular. In few
of Nature’s groupings does she show more regularity than in this,

26

yet here we find an exception utterly unexpected and incom-
prehensible. In the large families of the grasses, sedges, and
rushes, the carpels are generally two, and those so well developed
and so regular in their size as not to admit of the supposition of a
suppression of parts, while on the other hand ovaries of three
carpels are often found among the Dicotyledonous plants combined
with flowers whose other parts do not follow the same arrangement.
Besides this striking occurrence of Number Three we find
instances of it in unexpected places, as in the presence of trifid
hairs or trichotomous cymes, and doubtless each instance is re-
plete with instruction could we but trace it. In the Animal
Kingdom three is not a common number, and when met with is
always associated with something strange or exceptional. Such
an instance is the easel-like form of many Crustaceans in their
first stage, which is remarkable not only from its utter dissimi-
larity to any form of the animal, but also from its trenching, as it
were, on the province of mechanics, presenting us with that form
of structure, a hollow pyramid, which has always been held the
most stable of all, in a swimming animal, who has no need of sta-
bility. Again, many of our insects have three eyes, or ocelli,
placed in the form of a triangle, on their foreheads. We can
scarcely realise the necessity for these organs, the insects who
bear them being provided with compound eyes constructed to
cover the whole field of possible vision. If we suppose, as has
been suggested, that the so-called compound eyes are not actually
organs of sight, we are left in the hopeless difficulty of assigning
another use for them, If we look upon the ocelli as merely a
‘reduced copy of the Arachnid type, our perplexities increase. The
spider’s eyes, whether two, six, or eight, are arranged in pairs, and
the suppression of single eyes could not possibly make an equi-
lateral triangle. The ocelli remain a unique and unmistakeable
distinction of the insect tribe. In the Mineral Kingdom we find
occasional trihedral prisms and pyramids, but we rather associate
the Number Three with the axes by reference to which crystalline
forms are classified. Artificial as this arrangement may seem, it

27

is open to question whether the natural formation of a crystal is:
not very similar, and at any rate it is impossible to group solid

forms without a geometry of three dimensions—length, breadth,.
and thickness,

The Number Four is a very important one in Nature.
Amongst animals it suggests the vertebrata. That large class,
differing so entirely from all other animals in their bodily
and ‘shall we say) mental characteristics, are universally distin-
guished by four limbs, expressed or understood, as Euclid says.
In the Land Mammalia, and the lizards, this fact is readily recog-
nised, but becomes somewhat obscure when we find them changed
into wings in the birds, flappers in the turtle, and fins in the fish,
or suppressed altogether as in most snakes. Still a consecutive
observation of vertebrate skeletons will convince the student tha
the vertebrata are essentially four-limbed animals. Bacon’s
observation on snakes comes in well here. It is true that the
gliding snake does form its flexible body into four curves, and at
the alternate junctions of these curves, just, in fact, where our
instinctive habit would place the shoulders and loins, there are
two strong positions which take hold of the ground with more:
force than any other part. Ifa long snake be wounded by a blow
from a cane, it is from one of these places that he raises himself,.
and if he be held in front of a scorching fire these two points of

his body at once project themselves, giving rise to the wide-
spread belief of bushmen and savages, that snakes have short legs
beneath their skin. This number seems nearly peculiar to the
vertebrata, as I find only one other instance of it, namely, in the
Medusz, or jelly fish. These beautiful organisms are marked
with four radiating canals, which were long looked upon as a
mark of distinction between the Discophora, or naked-eyed
Medusz, and the gonophores of the Campanularida. It is how-
ever found in both, and in the “hidden eyed” Medusz, the-
cruciform mark is also very evident. The Number Four is no less
important in the Vegetable Kingdom, where it furnishes a type for
the two widely differing orders, Labiate and Crucifer. In the

28

former the arrangement is fairly uniform. The stem is square, the
stamens are four, and very often the antlers are divided into
lobes so as to form a double cross; the carpels contain four seeds,
which arrange themselves into a perfect square. Yet the corolla
-and calyx are each divided into five lobes. In the Cruciferxe ~
there are four sepals, four petals, four nectaries, and four stamens
-of equal length, but the stems are not square, the carpels
are but two and there is an additional pair of long
stamens; nevertheless the fourfold character is the most
evident mark of these two orders, as also of the Herb Paris, the
Galium Cruciatum, and a few other plants. The mineral world
has no fours, the few tetrahedrons and squares being referable to
he triangular shape.

Five is a number that plays a singular part in Nature.
It is the leaf number of almost all our best known plants
and trees. Most of the Dicotyledonous flowers have five
divisions to their calyx and corolla, their ovaries are mostly
formed of five carpels, and their stamens are some multiple of five.
Generally, too, their leaves are arranged in a spiral in which every
fifth leaf comes on the same perpendicular line. There is no
number more common in our higher plants than this; and
curiously enough, it seems to overleap the boundary and fasten
on those animals which are always considered nearest of kin to
the vegetable world. The Zoanthariac Actinozoa always have
their tentacula in multiples of five, the Dicotyledonous number,
_or three, the Monocotyledonous number. Our common anemones
display on their bases a radiated structure, in which five
conspicuous marks may be observed. The little fresh-water hydra
spreads five tiny tentacles to catch his prey ; the star-fish has five
arms or ten, the double of five. The sea urchin is covered with
five sided plates, arranged in five double zones, radiating from a
mouth furnished with five teeth, which crown a curious five-sided
structure called the “lantern.” The Holothuria,and other kindred
-organisms, repeat, with less accuracy, this division into five radial

29

zones. The number five disappears in the Radiata, to reappear
in the vertebrata. With all the various arrangements for
swimming, running, and climbing, the number of claws on a bird’s
foot varies considerably, and four is a more common number than
five, which, in fact, is only found in domesticated varieties, but
there can be no question as to five being the type number of
fingers and toes in the mammilea. In many cases, as in the
Hoofed Animals, several are wanting, but the number is never
exceeded, and may be looked upon as constant. Number Six is
common enough, but is generally a mere double of three. It is,
however, noticeable as being the sign of that hexagonal form
which is found in the honeycomb, the cellular tissue of some
plants, the crystals of snow, &c. It is fashionable to account for
this form by the mutual pressure of circles, but it is in many cases
deliberately chosen by animals who build under circumstances
where external pressure is impossible. The Number Six is also
remarkable as being that of an insect’s legs, and when we consider
the great difference between the animals forming their class, we
are astonished to find them connected by so uniform a link, and
the more so when we remember that only four wings accompany
them, the number being made good in the Diptera by the presence
of “poisers.” Seven is remarkable as being the constant number
of cervical vertebre in the Mammalia, the two exceptions
being only apparent. When we compare the short neck of the
whale with the long one of the giraffe, and reflect that each is
composed of the same number of bones, we feel that Nature has
gone apparently out of her way to preserve what seems to us
an unimportant point of likeness between animals differing in
in almost those points which we should consider essential. Eight
_ and Ten are numbers representing the limbs of the Arachnida and
a Crustacea respectively, and they are suggestive. In the Centipede,
composed of a large mumber of somites, each with its two legs, its
_ hemal and digestive apparatus, and its central ganglion, we have
_ @ mere line of connected parts, following a head, which, as
_ composed of several rings, indicates a centralization of vital power.

30

In the far superior Crustacea, five rings only support a massive:
head, and the remaining rings only become a mere tail. In the
Arachnida the rings carrying legs are diminished to four, and in
the insects to three, each time with an increase of vitality, and
a higher organization. The next step would take us toa far
superior animal, having only two rings, or four limbs, the
remaining rings being diminished to a tail—to the vertebrates in
short.

The higher prime numbers are not altogether unrepresented
in Nature. Thirteen is the type number of dorsal vertebre in the-
Mammalia. Twenty-two gives its name toa lady-bird having
that number of spots ; but these are mere curiosities. The facts
I have mentioned are not so. The constancy of fives and threes
in flowering plants, of the former number in Hydrozoa, of fours.
in the vertebrate animals, and of twos throughout, point to laws
of which we know nothing. So long as Nature indicates and
emphasises these laws, and so long as we are ignorant of them,
such a paper as mine is not, I submit, out of place in a Society
devoted to the study of Nature in all her phases.

On the conclusion of the paper, the CHAIRMAN briefly .
thanked Mr. Lomax, and a conversation ensued, in which several
of the Members took part.

Tue Deatu oF Mr. T. B. Horne.

Mr T. W. Wonror (the Secretary) said he had an an-
nouncement to make of a rather painful character, death,
which had been busy in their ranks, having removed one
of their four fathers. He used the expression, four fathers,
because the four gentlemen whose photographs appeared in
the Society’s album were really the founders of the Society.
Dr. King, Dr. Turrell, Mr. Arthur Wallis, and Mr. T. B.
Horne, were returning to Brighton in a fly, in 1853, from a
conversazione at Lewes, when the idea of this Society was mooted.
The conversation which took place on the subject resulted in the

31

holding of a meeting, at which Dr. King presided, and this
meeting was the origin of the present Society. Mr. Horne was
_ one of the Secretaries ; the other leaving after a few months, he
_ {Mr. Wonfor) was brought into practical connection with the
_ Society. When Mr. Horne resigned his position, he was

succeeded by Mr. Onions, but Mr. Horne continued his connection

with the Society as Treasurer. Subsequently he left Brighton

and went to reside at Torquay. But the Society, loath to lose

him, pressed him still to continue as Treasurer. This post he

after a time resigned and was then by special vote of the Society

elected a Vice-President, an office he continued to hold until his
- death, on the Sunday or Monday previous. All who knew him,
knew him as a genial, kind-hearted man, who wherever he |
went gathered around him a number of friends. He had a large
_ number of friends in Brighton ; and in Torquay he had also left,
as in Brighton, a great gap. He (Mr. Wonfor) felt strongly
his loss, because Mr. Horne had been a great friend to him in his
_ early residence in Brighton, and gaye him a good deal of advice
and comfort. At starting the Society had very humble ideas
_—simply of taking in a few periodicals, meeting occasionally,
_ reading papers, and having discussions. The meetings were then
held at the Dispensary ; and he might mention as an instance of
their lowly aims that one paper was read at two successive
meetings, the President, who was absent on the first occasion,
wishing to hear it read. Such a circumstance he believed had never
occurred before in connection with any other Society. Since that
time they had grown considerably, and had now about five times
the number of Members ; though he wished some of them would
| show the same amount of energy as the originators of the Society.

5

NOVEMBER 23RD.
MICROSCOPICAL MEETING.
Mr. G. D. SAWYER (the President), Mr, J. E. HASELAVOOD |
‘Mr. T. GuaisyER (the Treasurer), and Mr. R. GLIASYER (the

32

Librarian) exhibited interesting objects under microscopes. Among
those shown by the President were spinnerets of the spider,
effectively seen with the spot lens, and peristomes of funaria ex-
hibited by Mr. Haselwood. Crystals from vapour of coke were
likewise shewn with the polariscope by the President. The
President also reminded the Members that, on Wednesday next,
the annual soirée of the Croydon Microscopical Club would be
held, to which they were invited ; and that the December Micro-
scopical meeting, falling in Christmas week, would not take place.

DECEMBER 14TH, 1876.

; ORDINARY MEETING.

Mr. SAWYER exhibited an interesting specimen brought by
him from the petrifying spring near the sub-Wealden boring at
Netherfield, Battle, which was visited by the Society at their 1874
annual excursion. The specimen gave an excellent idea of the
action of the spring, being an irregular mass of stalactitic shape.
He also showed spec'mens of stone from the Nightingale Valley,
Bristol, one of which was plainly composed of minute shells, the
other showing the presence of zoophytes.

Mr. C. E. CLAYTON showed a tooth .of elephas primogenrus,
dredged up 15 miles off Beachy Head, and thickly incrusted by
marine deposit. Mr. Clayton suggested, in default of the theory
that the specimen had been washed from the elephant bed at
Kemp Town, whether a similar bed might not exist where the
specimen was found? Mr. Clayton also produced what appeared
to be an axe-head of very ancient date, found in the course of
some drainage excavations in Montpelier Place. It was formed
nearly wholly of copper.

Mr. W. SAUNDERS handed round for inspection a portion of a
siliceous sponge known as the blanket sponge, from its flattened
shape and peculiar texture. It was found off the coast of Portugal,
at the great depth of 500 fathoms, being ‘attached to the 1851
electric cable.

33

Mr. W. C. WALLIs showed some polished boulders from the
boulder clay on the Durham coast, upon which appeared scratches
caused by glacial action; and also a number of small bones
(unsorted) found in the glacial drift in the neighbourhood of
Sunderland.

Other minor specimens were exhibited by different Members.

JANUARY 12TH. 1877.

ORDINARY MEETING.—MR. PANKHURST ON SOLAR
PHYSICS, WITH ILLUSTRATIONS BY MEANS OF
THE LIME LIGHT.

“ Are not,” said Newton in his eleventh Query, “the sun and
fixed stars great earths vehemently hot, whose heat is conserved
by the greatness of the bodies, and the mutual action and reaction
between them and the light which they emit ; and whose parts
are kept from fuming away, not only by their fixity, but also by
the vast weight and density of the atmospheres incumbent upon
_ them, and very strongly compressing them and condensing the
_ vapours and exhalations which arise from them?” What answer
_ or answers does science enable us to give to this query at this
time—nearly 200 years after Newton wrote it, and what are the
_ principal facts and observations on which our knowledge of the
‘sun is based? The task which I have imposed on myself to-night
is to give you a short reswmé ot the means by which we have at-
tained to an acquaintance with the nature of the sun’s constitution
which Newton’s imagination, great as it was, can scarcely have pre-
figured. I need, perhaps, scarcely remark that the great ruler of
_ our planetary system, the fountain head of its life and light, isa
huge globe, nearly ninety-two millions of miles from us, eight
hundred and fifty thousand miles in diameter, and that its
volume is one million two-hundred thousand times that of our
globe. It outweighs, too, 750 times the planets which circle
‘rouni it, and its volume with regard to them is represented to
you by the diagram on the screen.

34

Soon after the discovery of the telescope, Fabricius noticed by
its aid a black spot on the sun, which he took at first to be a
terrestial cloud. ‘ My father and I,” he says, “ passed the rest
of the day and the whole of the night in great impatience, trying
to think what this spot might be. But the next day it was still
there. One disappeared, but ten days after it reappeared—it had
gone round the sun.” Galileo also directed his “ optick tube ” to
the sun, and observing carefully the time when a spot disappeared
and when it reappeared, determined thereby the great fact that
the sun revolves on ‘its axis. The period of rotation he de-
termined to be 26 days. Upon the screen is now a beautiful
photograph of the sun’s dise taken on September 20, 1870, by Mr.
Warren de la Rue.

To the early astronomers the nature of a sun spot was a
problem which their small telescopes and poor appliances could
not solve. They were thought to be planets passing over the sun’s
disc ; vast masses of scoriz emitted by the solar volcanoes, &c.
It was not, however, until 1774 that Dr. Wilson, of Glasgow,

demonstrated that the spots were cavities in a luminous envelope. ~

surrounding the sun, which according to him was a dark globe
The appearance which a sun spot presents as it passes round the
limb of the sun, as seen through a large telescope, is now
represented on the screen. First, then, we have determined that
they are cavities in the luminous matter of which the surface of
the sun is mainly composed. Cavities! yes, but of what size?
In 1769 one was visible to the naked eye. Consider what the
size of this must have been when we learn that the smallest spot
observable by a large telescope must be at least as big as Scotland.
In August, 1859, a spot was measured by Newall, which had a
diameter of 58,000 miles, that is, seven times the diameter of the
earth. In June, 1843, a spot was visible nearly 75,000 miles in
diameter. In March, 1858, during an eclipse, the moon passed
over one 107,000 miles across, and in the same year the largest
spot of any on record was visible. It had a breadth of no less than
143,000 miles! Across it 18 globes as large as our earth might

-

35

- have been placed, and a hundred worlds as large as ours hurled
into the abyss, and yet it would not have been filled to the brim.
The photograph now thrown on the scene is a copy of Nasmyth’s
drawing of this vast abyss in the luminous envelope of the sun.
This light-giving general surface of the sun is termed the photo-
sphere ; and before we can rightly understand the nature of a sun
spot we must know something more of this luminous envelope.
I do not speak, remember, of the body of the sun itself, for of
that we know very little, if anything. All that we know about
is the outer coating—the rind, so to speak, of the great orange, its
photosphere and atmosphere. You will observe, then, first of all,
that the suns surface is ragged, uneven, coarsely mottled with
patches of varying brightness,

In the representation of a sun spot now on the screen (after
Nasmyth’s drawing) these smaller patches of light assume some-
what the form of willow leaves. This was the name given them
by, Nasmyth. Other astronomers have designated them by the
words, rice-grains, straws, granules ; and others, failing to see any
likeness to these, have fallen back on the charmingly indefinite’
name of “ things.” Remember, however, that the smallest of
these rice grains must be at least as large as Great Britain. You
will get perhaps a better idea of the general surface of the sun

from this copy of a drawing, by Secchi, which is now before you.
Here also you will see how these willow leaves link themselves to-

.gether and shoot out a huge bridge of light, spanning the vast
abyss, on the edge of which they are so well defined. And now

I think it will be clearer toyou what sun spots are. It is not,

however, quite enough to say that they are cavities in this liquid,

or move probably densely gaseous photosphere. There are still
one or two other points in which they demand attention. They
generally exhibit three shades ofdarkness ; the darknessincreasing
from the general surface till the apparent centre of the spoé is
reached. We have first the penumbra, then the umbra, then the
nucleus. Again, these spots are for ever changing their form.
The photograph now on the screen will give you an idea of the

36

extraordinary changes-which a large spot was seen to undergo in
the course of a few days. It is a remarkable fact, too, concerning
them that they are scarcely ever observed at a greater distance
than thirty-five degrees north or south of the sun’s equator.

Remembering the vast size of these cavities in the photosphere
and their rapid and singular changes, we may get some idea of the
enormous forces which are at work on the sun’s surface. Winds,
storms, cyclones, there must be among these fiery clouds of the
sun. Uprushes of vapour hot from the fiery interior of the sun,
says M. Faye ; downrushes of cooler vapours from the exterior to
the interior, say the English astronomers. Whichever it be (and
all the more recent observations seem to point to the last as the
true explanation), it is certain that these storms partake of the
nature of the spiral storms, cyclones which are so frequent in the

tropics. On the screen is a drawing of a cyclonic sun-spotobserved
by Father Secchi.

We will now pass on to the extraordinary discovery of the
periodicity of sun spots and their connection with terrestial phe-
nomena. About the commencement of this century Herr Schwabe,
of Nassau, set himself to observe diligently the face of the sun.
Hour after hour, day after day, whenever the sun was visible he
scrutinized its changing phenomena. After some years he dis-
covered that there were periods when these spots on the sun’s disc
were greater in number and in magnitude than at other times.
After twelve years of work, he satisfied himself that the period of
maximum and minimum was about eleven years ; six years more
he spent to confirm that truth to himself, and again, thirteen more
to convince mankind. But that labour of thirty-one years estab-
lished the law of the sun-spot period as very nearly 11 years and
a quarter. During the time that Schwabe had been busy ex-
amining the sun at his little observatory at Nassau, General Sabine
had been no less industrious in examining the variations which
the magnetic needle underwent at Kew in consequence of the cur-
rents of electricity which at certain periods thrill through the earth.

37

When the sun-spot period was published, Sabine found the
years of maximum and minimum to correspond almost exactly with
the years of maximum and minimum intensity in the magnetic
storms of the earth. Again, Mr. Meldrum of the Mauritius has
been for years tabulating from the logs of passing vessels the cy-
clones of the Indian ocean. He has found after tabulating these
storms for years that they also are subject to periods of maximum
and minimum, and these correspond with singular exactness to
the sun-spot period. The rainfall at Brisbane and Port Louis and
_ other places has also been shewn to vary with these sun storms.
And I know not how far diseases, blights, famine, and pestilence ;
periods of abundance, of wealth, of poverty, and of depression may
not be found in the future fo be ultimately associated with the
changes which sweep over the surface ofthe sun. Let me now
call your attention to what are termed the facule.

In the copy of the beautiful photograph of the sun’s limb,
taken by Mr. Warren de la Rue, which is now on the screen, you
will observe heaped up masses of light round the spot. These
more brilliant portions of the sun’s surface are what are termed
facule. They may be of all magnitudes, from softly gleaming
_ narrow tracts 1,000 miles long, to continuous complicated and
_ heapy ridges 40,000 miles and more in length, and 1,000 to 4,000
_ miles broad. “The sun’s surface we have learnt is of a cloudy
nature, the light and heat being derived from the solid incandescent
_ particles of which the clouds are composed. For there are changes
; continually going on between the cooler exterior and the interior.
_ The descending current is accompanied by a spot, the ascending
_ one by a facula.” Now, as I have shewn you how far reaching is

the influence of the spots of the sun, so I will give you an instance
kof how far the appearance of a brighter portion may thrill through

_ the universe. Mr. Carrington, whose observatory wasnear Redhill,
writes, “I had secured diagrams of all the groups and detached
‘Spots, and was engaged at the time in counting from a chronometer
nd recording the contact of the spots with the cross wires, when
within the area of the great north group two patches of intensely

38

bright and white light broke out in the middle of the group. I
hastily ran to call some one to witness the exhibition with me, and
on returning, within 60 seconds, was mortified to find that it was
already much changed and enfeebled. In the interval of
five minutes the two spots traversed a space of 35,000 miles. .
Mr. Hodgson, at the same moment, happened to be watching the
sun, and saw the dazzling brilliancy of this outburst of light on
the sun. The magnetic needles at Kew Observatory, it was after-
wards ascertained, at that instant oscillated violently. “ By
degrees,” says Sir J. Herschel, “accounts began to pour in of
great Auroras seen on the nights of those days, not only in these
localities, but at Rome, in the West Indies, and the Tropics, where
they hardly ever appear.” At Melbourne, on the night of Septembe
the 2nd, the greatest Aurora ever seen made its appearance.
These Auroras were accompanied with the electro magnetic dis-
turbances in every part of the world. In many places the tele-
graph wires struck work, had too many private messages of their
own to carry. At Washington, the telegraph men received severe
electric shocks. At a station in Norway, the telegraph apparatus
was set fire to, and at Boston a flame of fire followed the pen of
the instrument.

In 1773, Vassemus, during a total solar eclipse, saw red clouds
floating, as he supposed, in our atmosphere. It was, however,
during the great eclipse of 1842, which Airy, Arago, Baily, Struve,
and others watched with careful scrutiny, that all of them saw with
surprise rose-coloured prominences round the disc of the eclipsed
_ sun. They were described as protuberances resembling mountains,
hloodcoloured streaks of light, masses of rich carmine vividly
bright, slender tongues of fire visible five minutes after the re-
appearance of the sun. On the screen is the copy of the photo-
gcaph taken of the eclipsed sun as seen on December 22nd, 1870-
Now, what are these masses of crimson fire, rising sometimes to a
height of 80,000 miles from the edge of the sun’s disc, surging up
in countless numbers from the glowing matter which surrounds
him? They are up-rushes of the luminous white-hot matter of the

39 f

photosphere, cooled in the space in which they are projected from
a white heat to a red one.

The spectroscope has determined for us their constitution ;
they are almost wholly incandescent hydrogen gas. No grander
example of their magnitude and splendour has been seen, perhaps,
than the one which Major Tennant succeeded in photographing.
We will now throw on the screen a copy of the picture he took.
You see there that enormous column of flame which rises to a
height of 80,000 miles. But the structure of it is also very re-
markable. Before you is now a representation of it on a larger
scale, and the spiral form of it bears witness to the direction of
‘the enormous force which hurled it upwards into the space. You
will remember also the spiral cyclonic form which has been noticed
in the sun-spots. But the forms of these fiery clouds are manifold.
They are for ever changing. They have the tongue-like motion
of a flame swaying backwards and forwards as at a great con-
flagration. Jets rising up as from a fountain, and bending back
again to the sun as in those drawings of them now before you.
Again they transform themselves into semblances of trees and
bushes, and into shapes as fantastical as the widest fancy can
imagine. Of the thousands which Respighi has mapped and
figured, I will but shew you a few as an example of these singular
forms. This portion ofthe sun’s atmosphere has been termed from
the colour which it displays the chromosphere. This we are pre-
vented from seeing except in eclipses, by reason of the strong light
emitted by the sun. But thesun’s atmosphere does not end here.
_ The strange and beautiful light of luminous gas extending far into
space and taking sometimes a strange configuration had been
_ noticed surrounding the eclipsed sun. This more rarified portion
_ of the sun’s atmosphere has been termed the Corona..

___ The five views of the eclipsed sun now on the screen are from
drawings taken in 1851. We can get from them little idea of the
beauty of that brilliant clear halo of white light surrounding the
ark edge of the moon which observers of eclipses are privileged

40

to see. In the next view of the eclipse of 1870, you will see the
rosy prominences of the chromosphere standing out against the
Inminous corona. As seen by Gillman, in 1869, it is described as
an infinitude of fine violet, mauve-coloured, white, and yellowish-
white rays issuing from behind the moon. A copy of Gillman’s
drawing is now before you and youmay, from it, perhaps form
some idea of the splendour of the spectacle. Lastly, I cannot
altogether quit the subject without speaking for a few moments
of the marvellous results of Spectrum Analysis in its application
to Astronomy.

Newton’s speculation as to the sun being a vehemently hot
earth has been so far confirmed that we know that iron, nickel,
manganese, magnesium, cobalt, chromium, sodium, titaniun, and
calcium are present in the vapours of the sun. I will just throw
on the screen the spectrum produced by sunlight, wherein you
may see the well-known dark lines which, first recognised by
Fraunhofer, yielded their secrets to Stokes, Bunsen, and Kirchhoff.
So far, we have not discovered in the sun itself any body not
known as a constituent of the earth. But in the spectrum of the
Aurora, there is a peculiar green light, which is almost the only
light given by the great majority of them, and these coincide
precisely with thethree lines observed in the spectrum of the sun’s
corona.

Now, as Professor Tait remarks (‘‘ Recent Advances in Phy-
sical Science,” p. 151), it is a very singular fact that the terrestrial
substance which gives these lines has not yet been discovered, and
the coincidence of them with the three Aurora lines seems to
promise us wonderful information as to the similarity of the upper
regions of the earth’s atmosphere. In fact, the whole tendency of
modern science is to show us how delicately balanced are the forces,
how wonderfully organised the matter which together constitute
the great universe of which we form apart. The study of the sun
has taught us how a vortex in its luminous sphere, ora flash of
light upon it, may thrill through the whole framework of this world

4]

of ours, affect the fabric of human society, and its last waves ebb
away, as it were, in human hopes and fears. _It tells us how planets
react on the sun, round which they circle, and thus must in no
slight degree cause their influence to be felt on every member of
the system to which they belong. We learn from it (greatest
wonder of all) that the beam of light issuing from worlds, whose
distance is unimaginable, contains within itself marvellous records
of its source ; indications of a history in the past too grand almost
for us to comprehend, and intimations of a future which seem to
us like a prephecy.

The PRESIDENT (Mr. G. D. Sawyer) proposed a vote of
thanks to Mr. Pankhurst.

Dr. Corfe, was pleased to find that Brighton possessed a
gentleman who made the question of solar chemistry his study.
Of course, their friend had only touched lightly upon spectrum
analysis. There was no question but that solar, lunar, and
planetary light were the same, but stellar light was independent,
and the same spectrum was not found in it as in solar. These
were important facts bearing upon the physiology of human nature,
though many disbelieved it. Speaking with regard to lunar
blindness, he said when a man slept in the tropics in the moon-
beams he frequently became moon-blind. There was also a
singular fact about the yellow colour of the sun. They were aware
that the yellow colour predominated in the tropics of the sun, and
as a curious coincidence we had the predominance of yellow flowers
in our own tropics ; and it was a remarkable fact also in chemistry
that the yellow fixed the resin in trees, and they had the gum resin
of the tropics as a proof, whilst the acacias, or minor gums came
from the sub-tropics. The gums in the tropics were an excessive
concentration of hydro-carbon. These were all interestings facts
connected with the physiology of their system.

Mr. J. Haslewood said Mr. Pankhust had spoken of the
stability of the solar system, but his little reading in the matter
led him somewhat to the contrary opinion. There might be

42

stability in a certain sense, but there was an everlasting change
going on. For instance, some few years ago a star of the twelfth
magnitude suddenly and very rapidly rose to a star of the third
magnitude. If there were any planets there they must have had
a fine time of it. There was another remarkable physical phen-
omenon that came from across the Atlantic some months ago.
The question there was “Are we drying up?” Our recent
experience here was somewhat to the contrary. A writer there
said their vapour was gradually passing away, and that some day
they would be high and dry, and they would have no sea or water
of any kind. He should like to have a whole evening devoted
to the spectrum analysis, as he was sure it was a subject to be
made very interesting and instructive.

Mr. B. Phillips said Mr. Pankhurst had shown them in his
interesting paper that the spots on the sun were in all probability
cavities, in its chromosphere and photosphere. But he omitted to
state what seemed to him a most conclusive proof that they were
cavities, for it was said by unbelievers that when the cavity reached
the edge of the sun they ought to see a dent, but they never saw
anything of the sort. That was a difficulty never removed until
the great solar eclipse observed in the north of Spain, on which
occasion photographs were taken, and a dent was distinctly visible.
The great protruberances mentioned by Mr. Pankhurst were
visible not only during an eclipse, but at all times, and he should
like to ask him about that. Speaking with regard to the corona,
he said it was his opinion that it was probably due to the action
of the sun’s light upon our own atmosphere, and not entirely due
to the sun.

JANUARY 21ST.
MICROSCOPICAL MEETING.
The PRESIDENT (Mr. G. D. Sawyer) mentioned among
other matters, that Mr. Curties, of Holborn, had forwarded
to the Society’s cabinet two slides, viz., the Spicule of Gorgonia

Se =

43

and of Gorgonia massibulata. These were afterwards exhibited
under the President’s microscope under the spot lens, and excited
much admiration, not only on account of the natural beauty of
the objects, but also from their peculiar arrangement, they being
so arranged in the mounting that the united spicule presented
the appearance of small sprigs or trees.

Dr. Hallifax then introduced some remarkable specimens of a
curiously cup-shaped fungus. In colour, they were bright scarlet
and gained a heightened beauty from the delicate green mosses
by which they were surrounded on the portions of the tree
branches to which they were attached. Considerable discussion
ensued as to whether these peculiar growths should be classed as
fungi or lichens, as, under microscopical examination, Dr. Hallifax
could not identify their characteristics with those of true lichens.
The specimens were handed to him by Mr. J. T. Whatford, who
received them from a friend residing near Abingdon in Yorkshire,
in which neighbourhood they had been obtained, so that he had
no previous history to guide him in their classification.

Mr. Haselwood pointed out.that they were specimens of
the Pezize, a large group of fungi.

The meeting then became a conversazione, when the President
exhibited, among many other interesting objects, a series of
erystals, including those of bi-chromate of potash, oxalic acid?
nitrate of ammonia, Epsom salts, and sulphate of zinc, which
were shown to great advantage with the polariscope, as were also
some finely-mounted scales of fishes.

Dr. Hallifax exhibited a slide mounted by Mr. d’Alquen,
containing a few hairs from the seed vessels of the common wild
rose, and pointed out their evidently tubular structure and
peculiarly curved general outline.

Mr. Haselwood also exhibited some beautifully-mounted

_ slides, amongst which were especially admired a preparation of
_ the skin of the dogfish, peristomes of Funaria, &e.

44

A cordial vote of thanks was also passed to Mr. Curties for
his presentation of slides to the Society’s microscopical cabinet.

FEBRUARY 8th.

ORDINARY MEETING.—MISS AGNES CRANE ON
CERTAIN GENERA OF LIVING FISH AND THEIR
FOSSIL AFFINITIES.*

Mr. T. W. Wonfor, one of the Honorary Secretaries, then
read Miss Crane’s paper, which was illustrated with tables of
classification and distribution, and with several diagrams, for the
rough execution of which an apology was offered.

On first thoughts, it may seem that the lowest group of
vertebrates, of all the divisions comprised in the animal kingdom,
might be most easily described, and its zoological limits defined ;
but, on examination, the fishes prove to be most curiously. linked
to the invertebrata below and the amphibian reptiles above. In
fact, it is not easy to draw the lines positively between them, and
to say where the true vertebrates begin, or where the piscine
characters are merged in the reptilian.

It is proposed to refer to-night to some of the most aberrant
forms of living fish and their fossil affinities ; then, briefly passing
in review the distribution of the various families in geological time,
to see how far descent with modification is traceable in this class
of vertebrates.

THE LOWEST VERTEBRATE.

It is well known that the lowest vertebrate form is the
anomalous lancelet (Amphiorus lanceolatus), which is found
burrowing in sand banks on our southern shores and in the
Mediterranean. The position which this singular species should
occupy in the animal kingdom has long been a subject of debate

* The writer is much indebted to Dr. Giinther, F.R.S., and Mr. Davies,

F.G.S., of the British Museum, for information kindly imparted, and
facilities and assistance afforded in the examination of specimens.

45

among naturalists. Some, like Agassiz, separate it entirely from all
other fishes, while Haeckel proposes to place it in a distinct division
of the Vertebrata, and Professor Semper removes it from the
vertebrates altogether. But Professors Owen* and Huxleyt, con-
sidering it to possess the rudiments of a skull and brain, with the
elements of a vertebral column, retain it among the fishes, and it
forms the first or lowest orders of their respective systematic
arrangements.

In Aimphioxus, which ranges from one and a half to two inches
in length, the vertebral column is notochordal throughout life, that
is to say, composed of a membraneous rod enclosed in cartilage,
and as there is no enlargement of the skull for the reception of
the brain, the animal tapers nearly equally at either end.
The skin is scaleless, lubricous, and so transparent that the
internal structure is visible, and the eyes are not more fully
developed than in the common leech. The mouth is vertical,
Jawless, and suctorial, and is furnished with vibratile cilia. The
lancelet possesses neither heart nor swimming bladder, and is
without ribs and even rudimentary limbs. In all other fishes
respiration is effected by means of water passing through the
mouth and escaping by the gills, or their equivalents ; in this
species it traverses the whole interior of the animal and escapes
by a special pore on the under surface of the body.

t Professor Goodsir, long ago, called attention to this
peculiar mode of respiration, and noticed the resemblance
between the enlarged phrangeal sac of Amphioxus and that of the
tunicated mollusks or sea-squirts. He considered the lancelet
also as allied to the annulosa, from the simple organization of its
respiratory and circulatory system, and M. Kowaleves’ky has more
recently traced a close affinity between this species and the early
stages of some Ascidians. Thus, in Amphiovus are united

_ * Anatomy of Vertebrates. Vol i.

+ Preliminary Note on the Structure of the Skull and Brain in Amphioxus
lanceolatus. Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1874. No. 157. December.

{ Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Vol. xyv., pl. 11,
p- 259.

46

characters belonging to the Junicates and Annelides, and unex-
pected relations are revealed between the Vertebrata and the
Invertebrata,

Tue Most HIGHLY ORGANISED FISH.

In the Lepidosiren, the highest of all the fishes, we find
an organization of a no less complex nature. The genus was
founded in 1837 by Dr. Natterer for the reception of a singular
animal to which he gave the specific name of paradova, discovered
by him in America, inhabiting the swamps in the vicinity of the
river Amazon. ‘This species, which attains a length of three feet,
the body being eleven times as long as the head, * is now
becoming very rare. In 1839, Professor Owen referred specimens
from the river Gambia of West Africa to the same genus, under
the designation of Lepidosiren annectens, and classed them in a
provisional group between the reptiles and fishes. They are
placed by Professor Huxley in the highest order of his classifica-
tion of fish, namely, the Dipnoi or “double breathers,” and are
popularly known as the mud fishes.

These paradoxical ‘scaled sirens” have well developed
reptilian lungs co-existing with functional internal branchie,
and are capable of living either in the water or out of it. Their
structure and habits are very peculiar. During the rainy season,
the waters of the Gambia overflow its banks, and the mud fish is
carried out of the true bed of the river. When the waters retire
it is left stranded ; then, burrowing in the softened mud, it coils
itself up, keeps open a communication with the air above its nest,
and breathes by means of its modified swimming bladder. It
thus remains inactive till the return of the floods soften the walls
of its cell, when it emerges, and resumes its former habits.
They have been found in a semi-torpid state eighteen inches
below the surface, in situations were the ground is dry and hard
for months in the year, and are dug out by the natives with a
sharp pointed stick and used for food.

* Transactions of the Linnean Society. Vol. xviii.

er

47

A specimen of LZ. annectens has been on exhibition in the
entrance hall of the Brighton Aquarium for more than two years,
It is kept at a regular temperature of 70 degrees, and is in a very
thriving condition, having grown several inches since it has been
in the institution, and thickened proportionately. The animal
generally lies quietly at the bottom of its tank, rising occasionally
to the surface to take in air. It is fed three times weekly on
small pieces of raw beef, which it can be observed to eat in a very
unusual manner. When the food is thrown in, the mud fish
stretches itself leisurely and seizes it, as it comes within reach,
between its sharply formed vomerine teeth. After masticating
it slowly, it throws it out with a quick jerk and, commencing at
the other end, repeats the manceuvre ; it then again rejects it and
subjects it to a third process of mastication before finally
swallowing it. The body of the Lepidosiren is fish-like, and
covered with small cycloid scales, simply constructed. pectoral and
ventral limbs are present, with a dorso-caudal fin. The notochord
is persistent, but the skull is partly bony, partly cartilaginous, and
the costal arches and neural and hemal spines are well ossified ;
thus it forms a link between the bony and cartilaginous types of
fishes. The dentition is composed of a pair of vomerine teeth,
and two molars in each jaw. The heart is three chambered, and
true lungs exist with rudimentary external branchiz and functional
internal ones.

Livine AFFINITIES OF LEPIDOSIREN.

Among living fish, the Lepidosiren is most closely related to
another “dipnoid,” discovered in the rivers of Queensland,
_ Australia, in 1870. This species was at once, with singular ac-
curacy, referred by Mr. Gerard Krefft, the late curator of the
Sidney Museum, to Ceratodus, a genus till-then only known by the
fossil teeth occurringabundantly in Triassic and rarely in “Oolitic”
strata. He also described it “as a gigantic amphibian, and as
allied to Lepidosiren,” the correctness of which determination has
been fully demonstrated by the subsequent minute investigations

48

of Dr Giinther* and Professor Huxley,t who have published
exhaustive memoirs on this subject.

Two species of living Ceratodonts are recognised, one named
after its discoverer, the Hon. William Foster, Ceratodus Fosteri,
and Ceratodus miolepis, distinguishable only by its smaller and less
ornate scales. These fish, known locally as “ flat-heads,” inhabit
the fresh and brackish waters of the Queensland rivers, and “ at
night leave the streams, and go out on the flats, among the reeds
and rushes, subject to tidal influence.” Dr. Giinther is however
of opinion that they do not probably live freely on land, as the
limbs are too flexible and feeble to support the heavy body, and
considers that though they may be occasionally compelled to leave
the water, they could not remain long in a lively condition without
it. The species, which range up to six feet in length and twenty
pounds in weight, appear to feed exclusively on the remains of
plants, Myrtacee and Graminee, taken in a decomposing state.

The body of Ceratodus is covered with large cycloid scales,
and the limbs are structurally identical with those of Lepidosiren,
but the axis and fringe are more dilated, and the fin scales
distinctly visible. The internal skeleton, though of a more cartil-
aginous type, resembles that of the mud fishes, and the skull is
partly osseous. The anterior nasal openings are situated under
the lip, in front of the vomerine teeth, while the posterior pair
are placed in the cavity of the mouth, a little before the maxillary
ones. The dentition is essentially that of Lepidosiren, slightly
modified to suit herbivorous diet, being adapted rather for “ cutting
and crushing ” instead of “ piercing and cutting.” It consists of
a pair of vomerine teeth, and two molars in each jaw, thus proving
the correctness of the views of Pander and Agassiz, who had
assigned that number of dental dates to the fossil forms of the
middle geologic ages. The respiratory organs are twofold, as in
Lepidosiren, but the gills are more developed in Ceratodus, and

* Transactions of the Royal Society 1871.

+ Proceedings Zoological Society, 1876, Part I. Ceratodus Phillipsi Ag.,
Mantell Coll. british Museum, June.

49

_ when inhabiting clear waters the fish probably breathes by them
alone, the true lungs only coming into action when on the mud
_ flats, or living in turbid waters. The shape of the body, the
number, position, and structure of the fins, the elements of the
internal skeleton, and above all the co-existence of a lung with
gills, show how closeis the affinity betweenthe Australian Ceratodus

and the mud fishes of Africa and South America, and although the

former approach less to the amphibian type than the latter, it is
obvious that in a natural classification their place is side by side.

Fossit AFFINITIES OF THE DIPNOI.

Having shown the close connection between the two genera
of living dipnoids, let us now consider the relations of the living
and fossil Ceratodonts. No remains of this genus have as yet been
found in the Tertiary or Cretaceous formations, but the fossil teeth,
of which several varieties are recognisable, possibly the relics of
_ numerous species, occur abundantly in the Triassic beds of Aust
Cliff, near Bristol, and in the Muschelkalk of Germany. They
have also been obtained from strata now determined to be of
Triassic age at Maledi, South of Nagpur, in India, and associated,
_as in Europe, with the reptilian remains Hyperodapedon.

Many of these fossil teeth are much larger than those of the
_ existing species (specimens of one Triassic form measure over two
Inches in length), and must. necessarily have belonged to
- individuals of a gigantic race. The dental plates only have been
found fossil, but the structure of Ceratodus Fosteri indicates that
they alone of a like constructed animal would be susceptible of
preservation in sedimentary strata, and the classification of the

wide a gulf of geological time, though founded on the similarity of
dentition alone, is the only reasonable one, as there is no evidence

50

strata, species occuring in America being identical with those of
the British rocks of contemporaneous age. The dentition of the
Devonian Dipierus is also closely related to that of Ceratodus, as
well as Lepidosiren.

Thus the history of the Dipnoi, an order before the discovery
of the Australian Ceratodus only represented by the mud fishes of
Africa and South America, is carried back to remote geological
ages, and the four living representatives, at present known, are
found to be the survivors of a well defined and characteristic
group of fishes first appearing in the Devonian age. They can be
traced up from Dipterus, through the carboniferus Ctenodus, to the
Jurassic Ceratodonts, and then the link is lost sight of until their
lineal descendants reappear widely distributed on the surface of
the present world. This is but an illustration of the truth that
species which have the greatest vertical range in time have also
the widest geographical distribution, or that a wide distribution
proves the antiquity of the genus. It is certainly a very
significant fact that the group of living fish most closely allied to
the amphibian reptiles should be represented in the Devonian
rocks, long before the most simply constructed amphibians.
appeared on the scene of life in the swamps of the carboniferous
period.

The Dipnoi, as at present constituted, comprises the following
families : Protopterina, Ceratodontina, Ctenododipteride, and possibly
Phaneropleuride. They are closely allied to the Ganoids, and
especially to that sub-order termed, by Professor Huxley, the
Crossopterygide, or “ fringe-finned,” to be presently referred to.
Dr. Giinther, indeed, proposes to unite the dipnoids with the
ganoids, as a distinct family ; but Professor. Huxley _ considers
that, though nearly related to that order, they yet possess many
important differences.

It seems as if the Dipnoi had also some aflinities with the —
group of fishes known as Placoderms, for a most remarkable fossil

fish has recently been discovered in America, the dentition of
which is almost exactly like that of Lepidosiren, except that it is
about one hundred times greater. The genus Dinichthys was
founded by Professor Newberry for the reception of this gigantic
Placoderm, of which two species at least are recognised and
graphically described by him, in Vol. ii. of the State Reports of
the Paleontology of Ohio. They occur in the Huron Shales of
the Upper Devonian series, where they seemed to have pre
_ponderated in number, fragments of over a hundred individuals
haying been detected while the remains of other genera are found
“more rarely in the same horizon.

____ The original specimens of D. Terre/li were destroyed by fire,
7 but fortunately a photograph had been secured from which the
pla tes exhibited were taken. The jaws of this “ terrible fish ” were
each two feet long, the breadth of the head was about three feet,
_and the cranium was composed of massive bony plates, the solid
bone of the occipital portion being three inches in thickness.

| The length of the body is estimated by Professor Newberry
to have been about fifteen feet, and its diameter three. The an-
t erior was protected by huge dorsal and ventral shields, resembling,
in general shape and structure, those of the genus Coccosteus, ren-
dered classic by the pen of the lamented Hugh Miller. Very little
is known with regard to the fins, “about six inches only of an

ger,” having as yet been found, and, from the absence of scales,
it is conjectured that the posterior portion of the body of the
animal was covered with a tough skin, as in Coccosteus, a genus
which possibly protected itself, like the modern sheat fish of the
Ganges, by burrowing in the mud, watching for prey with only its
mail-clad parts exposed. The powerful dentition of Dinichthys is
estive of carnivorous habits, and probably being so heavily
hted by the thick shields encasing its vital organs it would be

“4

It is worthy of notice that the ponderously armed Placoderms

52

had a comparatively short range in time, remains of the group being
only found in the Silurian and Devonian rocks, thus it seems as
though unable to cope in the struggle for existence with the
lighter armed and more active race of ganoids which predominated
in the Devonian waters, they died out, leaving no immediate
descendants.

The vertebral column in the Placoderms was generally car-
tilaginous, a condition considered by some authors as indicative
of a low organization, but as the quantity of bone composing their
external shields was much greater than that forming the internal
skeleton of the existing types of true bony fishes, and as traces of
ossified caudal vertebre have been discovered in one genus they
ought rather to be highly plaed in a systematic classification-
The group is considered by Professor Huxley to form a link
between the Ganoids and the Teleosts, and as having most affinity
with the living plated Siluroid Teleosts of the African rivers.

DISTRIBUTION AND RANGE OF THE PISCINE FAMILIES IN
GEOLOGICAL TIME.

In considering the distribution and range of the various
families in a geological time, we find that authenticated remains
of sharks, Placoderms, and Cephalaspids have been obtained from
the Lower Ludlow Beds of the Upper Silurian rocks of Europe,
but in America it is singular that no fossil fishes have as yet been
discovered before the Devonian epoch, when the relics of numerous.
genera occur abundantly, differing, however, from the European
forms.

This dissimilarity in the fauna is probably owing to the ©
differences existing in the physical geography of the two areas at
the time of the deposition of the series. The Devonian formation
is built up of fresh-water, estuarine and marine strata, each group
characterised by its peculiar forms of life. In the Old Red Sand-

4
#
stone of Scotland and Russia, fresh-water species predominate,
while in the marine limestones of Devonshire, and the Eifel, —

53

fish indicate a shallower marine deposit. The greater part of the

American Devonian, on the contrary, was apparently laid down in
‘an open sea, and thus a monster marine fauna flourished, not so-
generally represented in Europe, but it is interesting to note the
identity of a few species occuring in localities where the beds are:
of similar structure to those of contemporaneous age in Europe.
In both worlds the formation is alike distinguished by the great
preponderance of ganoid over elasmobranchiate fishes.

The condition existing during the formation of the Devonian
‘rocks are well illustrated at the present day by the fresh-water
lakes, mighty rivers, and extended coast line of the African and
American continents, and it is a most suggestive and significant
fact that the genera of living ganoid and dipnoid fishes most re-
sembling the paleozoic forms are now, with two exceptions, found
on those continentsalone. Taking the various orders of Professor
-Huxley’s comprehensive classification in succession, we find that no
traces of the first or lowest order, the Pharyngobranchiui, which
contains only the “ gullet breathing” Jancelet have been found in
afossil state. This is easily accounted for, however, by the soft
and perishable structure of the species, of which no remains could
possibly be preserved in the finest sedimentary strata, and, there-
fore, the non-representation of this lowest form of ichthyic life in
“the records of the rocks ” becomes less remarkable.

Of the cartilaginous Marsipobranchii, comprising the hag fishes

Ss

and lampreys, the horny teeth alone would be susceptible of
preservation, and their absence has been commented on as
negativing the evidence of progressive development among fishes,
as it is obvious the most simply constructed forms should appear
first on the scene of life in order to give place to their more highly

organised descendants.

In 1856, Pander, in his magnificent work on the Silurian and
Devonian fishes of the Russian Baltic Provinces, gave numerous

if — of what he supposed to be the teeth of small sharks, from

54

the Lower Silurian rocks, but these so termed conodonts have not
been accepted as of true ichthyic origin. *Professor Owen retains
only three species as possibly the teeth of fishes, and is of opinion
that the remainder might be either the ornaments of crustaceans,
“or the spines, hooklets, or denticles of naked mollusks or
annelides.” Great numbers of these “ cone teeth ” have recently
been detected in carboniferous strata both in England and
America, and it is suggested that they may be the teeth of
cyclostomous fishes like the hags and lampreys, and thus be the
representatives of the Muarsipo branchii of the ancient Silurian
seas. They seem most to resemble in shape and structure the
teeth of the Myzxinoids, in which the dentition is peculiar, being
composed of one horny conical tooth situated in the roof of the
mouth, with two serrated dental plates on the tongue. It has
been objected that the teeth of living cyclostomous fishes are
horny or chitonous, while the fossil cone teeth are calcareous, but
this applies with equal force to the theory that they are the teeth
of mollusks, as the modern shell fish have siliceous teeth. The
piscine derivation of the conodonts is, however, still a debated
question requiring careful investigation, as it would antedate the
appearance of ichthyic life in geologic history ; but if it cannot
be asserted that they are the teeth of fishes, neither as yet can it
be positively proved that they are not.

The next order, the Elasmobranchii, embraces the sharks, dog
fishes, rays, and Chimeroids. The first of these families has
enjoyed a long range from the Upper Silurian epoch to the
present day, and one genus seems to have varied but slightly, the
Cestracion Phillippi or Port Jackson Shark of Australia, being a
descendant of the old time Cestracionts, a once numerous family
now verging towards extinction. The Chimeroids appeared first
in the Devonian, and live on, but the rays were not represented
until the Jurassic age. The Placoderms, as we have seen, enjoyed
but a transient existence, dying out at the close of the Devonian,

* Ene. Brit., vol. xvii., part 1, Art Paleontology.

55

while the Teleostei, or true bony fishes, which so largely predominate:
‘at the present day, did not appear on the scene of life until the
formation of the Cretaceous rocks.* Seven, or eight, living genera
alone survive of the Ganoidei which prevailed so numerously in
1 alzozoic times, and but one of these, the sturgeon, the least
characteristic of the group, is found in European waters. Two
of the six remaining forms, which are all dwellers in freshwater,
occur in Africa, and four inhabit the lakes and rivers of North
“America. The preservation of the majority of living ganoids in
America is probably owing to the fact that some portions of this
“ancient continent, truly the old world of geologists, have never
been submerged since their upheaval from the first Silurian seas,
thus some representatives of this ancient race of fishes were able
to find a refuge in its bays and rivers, and the chain of descent
has been kept pobre eD from the early ages of the incaleulably
remote past.

The Masks spined, shagreen scaled Acanthodidw, which are
considered by Professor Huxley to link the ganoids to the
a ‘lasmobranchs, range from the Devonian to the Permian rocks.
The “thick toothed” Pyenodonts lived from the coal measures to
the Tertiaries, and are now extinct, while the buckler-headed
c phalespids, like the Placoderms, existed only in Silurian and
D evonian times. The Chondrosteide, to which group the sturgeons
belong, were certainly represented in the Jurassic seas, and
possibly by the gigantic Mucropetalichthys in the Devonian. Amia
cal a, the dog-fish of the American lakes, is the sole member of”
the sub-order Amiade. The Lepiilosteide includes the living bony
es, inhabitants of the rivers of the same continent, and fossil
ns in all the formations reaching back to the Devonian.

a There remains for discussion but the sub-order Crossop-
4 rugide, that important group of fringe-finned ganoids, through

A species of Polyodon allied to the Sturgeon, inhabits the rivers of
Nort hern China.

56

which * Professor Huxley considers the passage from the fishes
to the reptiles took place. All the families of this well-defined
sub-order are characterised by the possession of two dorsal fins,
and by lobate paired fins having a central axis or stem covered
with scales like the body walls, and surrounded by a fringe of fin
rays. Jugular plates always replace the branchiostegal rays, and
the scales are either rhomboidal or cycloidal. The families
Saurodipterini, Glyptodipterini, and Phaneropleurini are restricted
to the Palzozoic rocks. The Caelucanthini range from the Car-
boniferous to the Chalk and the Polypterini, comprising only the
living Polypterus and Calamoichthys of Africa alone represent this
numerous race of fishes at the present day. The genus
Polypterus is remarkable for the unique arrangement of its sub-
divided dorsal fin, and by the possession of a double cellular air
bladder, which most nearly approximates to the true lungs of the
Dipnoi. Tt has least structural affinities with the Calacanths, its
nearest allies in time, and is most closely zoologically related to
the rhomboidal scaled Saurodipterines of the Devonian, from
which it is separated by an enormous gulf of geological time, as
no intermediate links have been discovered.

In the notochordal Phaneroplewrini we find forms which most
closely resemble the acutely lobate finned Lepidosiren. The
shape of the body, number, position, and structure of the fins,
and all the elements of the internal skeleton, exactly foreshadow
those of the mud fishes. Like them Phaneropleuron was covered
with thin cycloidal scales, through which the long and well
ossified ribs show so plainly in the fossil state as to suggest the
name of the genus. The dentition, however, differs from that of
Ceratodus and Lepidosiren, being composed of a row of short
conical teeth in each jaw, and in the absence of the grooved
-dental plates so characteristic of the true dipnoi it is uncertain
whether this family can be associated with the other members of

* Decade X of the Memoirs of the Geological Survey, 1861 (Classification
-of Devonian Fish). ;

57

hat order. The chain of descent is carried on by the Coela-
anthini, the only fringe-finned ganoids occurring in the Mesozoic
rocks. They can be traced up from Coelacanthus in the Car-
boniferous, through Holophagus in the Lias and Undina in the

fossil Crossopterygids have been discovered in Tertiary strata,
but it is the opinion of Professor Huxley that as the rhomboidal
scaled Saurodipterines of the Devonian rocks are now represented
by the living Polypterus, so the stiff-walled lungs of the Lepido-
siren are the homologues of the ossified air bladder of the
Joelacanths, and thus that genus carried up the cycloidal branch
of the Crossopterygids to the present day.

Such, in the abstract, is the life history of fishes, a class
sharacterised, like other divisions of the animal kingdom, by the
extinction of some groups after a brief existence, and by the
persistent endurance of others through untold ages. In the few
genera of living ganoids we have undoubtedly the surviving
le scendants of a numerous and powerful race which prevailed in
the Devonian epoch, and by the discovery of fossil dipnoal forms
the progenitors of Ceratodus and Lepidosiren the Dipnoi are like-.
rise proved to be of ancient lineage.

Moreover, in considering the fact that the early fishes are.
emarkable from a combination of diverse characteristics which

amilies, and of a higher order, we find further evidence that the
neient ganoids formed the parent stock from which the succeeding
shes, amphibians, and reptiles have diverged. In some sauroid
Jevyonian fishes the position and structure of the teeth foreshadow

58

those of the Labrinthodont reptiles, in others the throat is
protected by gular plates, a fashion retained in the Carboniferous
amphibia. Again, in some species the scales are surface pitted,
like the scutes of Crocodiles. While, in the notochordal weak-
limbed amphibians of the coal measures, with minute body scales,
and partly osseous skulls, we cannot fail to recognise structural
peculiarities now found in the swamp-dwelling mud fishes. Thus
in the anomalous “ scaled sirens,” we have the “ persistent type”
of an ancient group of fishes, in which now, as in the old time,
the piscine and amphibian characters are so united as to completely
efface the line of demarcation between the orders, and effectually
link the fishes to the reptiles.

A cordial vote of thanks was awarded to Miss Crane for her
valuable paper. The vote was acknowledged by Mr. Crane ; and
then an examination of the specimens produced in illustration of
the paper, and a conversation respecting the subject of it, was
entered upon, the President, Mr. G. D. Sawyer, Mr. Crane,
Mr. Wonfor, and Mr. Haselwood, taking part, and the latter
suggesting the giving of a few elementary lessons in such sciences
as that of which it treated, in order to better prepare some of
them to appreciate them when discoursed upon.

FEBRUARY 22ND.
MICROSCOPICAL MEETING.—Mr. T. W. WONFOR ON
ARTIFICIAL DIATOMS.

It is well known to chemists that if fluor spar and sulphuric
acid be mixed together in a platinum or leaden vessel, so as to
form a paste, and gentle heat be applied, that fumes of hydrofluoric
acid, which has a great affinity for silica, are given off. Advantage
is taken of this property in the arts to produce etchings on glass.
The operation consists in evenly smearing the surface of the
article to be operated on with a coating of wax or a resinous
compound known as etching ground. On this prepared surface
the design is traced in the ordinary way with a pointed instrument.
‘The glass is then placed, waxed surface downwards, in a shallow

59

yessel of lead or platinum, in which finely powdered fluor spar~
and sulphuric acid have been mixed together into a paste. A
gentle heat being applied, fumes of hydrofluoric acid are given
j off, which, coming in contact with the glass, produce the desired
_ effect in a few minutes. The wax or etching ground is then
washed off with oil of vitriol.

; Again, if equal parts of finely powdered fluor spar and glass,
_ or fine white sand, are mixed together, and water and sulphuric
3 acid added, hydrofluoric acid will be given off as before, but
coming in contact with the silica of the powdered glass or sand
_ the acid will be decomposed, the result being water and a gaseous

_ fluoride of silicium, known by the presence of white fumes ; the
whiteness being caused by the presence of minute particles of
_ silex, arising from the decomposition of the fluoride on coming in

contact with the aqueous vapour of the atmosphere, for it is an

q accepted fact that, if the gaseous fluoride of silicium come in contact

with water, it is itself decomposed, and gives rise to silica and a

double fluoride of silicium and hydrogen called hydrofluor-silicic:
acid.

In the Quarterly Journal of Mier Rcratias Science for April, 1863,

_ there is an abstract of a paper by Max Schultze on “The structure

of the valves of, diatoms, as compared with siliceous pellicles

- produced by the decomposition of fluor silicic acid in moist air.”

r allled “ Artificial Diatoms.”
| ro Bake the Artiflcial Diatoms, desenibed 2 Schultze, a

J ied ely oil flask ; into this put abit a eae ae of
powdered fluor spar, and the same quantity of powdered glass. On
us mixture pour sufficient sulphuric acid to form a thickish paste.
In n the Florence task insert a loose plug of moistened cotton wool.

60

‘The cotton wool, if necessary, can be kept moist by taking another
flask, filling it with water, dipping one end of a lamp cotton into
the water, and allowing the other end to rest on top of the plug
of cotton wool. Fluoride of Silicium, or, as it is now called silicic
fluoride, will slowly rise in fumes from the mixture of fluor spar,
glass, and sulphuric acid, and deposit a portion of the silica in the
form of vesicles, very much resembling in shape sausage skins.
Some of these vesicles, on examination, will be found to be quite
plain, while others will be elegantly marked.

Before attempting to examine the vesicles, it is necessary to
well wash and dry them, otherwise the moisture from them will
corrode the glass of the objective, or damage the brass-work of
the microscope.

They may be examined as opaque objects under a low power
to obtain an idea of the general form and appearance of the vesicles.
They may then be gently crushed on the slide under a thin
-covering glass, and examined with a high power ranging from a
quarter upwards. Some will be found to bear a striking re-
semblance to the valves of diatoms in their marking; while others
will exhibit large (comparatively) round bosses, with smaller bosses
grouped around them. Max Schultze in his article suggested that
the hemispherical and other markings were due to crystallization.
This may possibly be the case. We certainly have examples of
silex depositing itself inform of bosses and knobs, as well as those
peculiar concretions mentioned by Mr. Pankhurst in his paper on
“The Forms of Silica.” We have also noticed similar minute
bosses in pieces of disintegrated Roman glass from the Catacombs.

An interesting discussion followed, in which most of the
Members present joined, after which objects illustrative of the
subject of the paper, including real diatoms, chalcedony, disinteg-
rated glass from the Catacombs, and crystals in glass were shewn
by the President (Mr. G. D. Sawyer) and Messrs. Aylen, Glaisyer,
Haselwood, and Wonfor.

61

Marcu Ist.
THE ANNUAL SOIREE.

The sixth annual soirée in connection with this Society was
held in the Royal Pavilion, and proved a brilliant success. This
soirée is one of the most important events in the year’s history
of the Society, and is always looked forward to as an approaching
pleasure, and afterwards regarded as an occasion on which
thorough enjoyment and interesting instruction were combined.
The sixth soirée was inferior to none of its predecessors in any
re spect, and superior to more than one. A large number of
gentlemen connected with the Society worked indefatigably to
Secure a success, and they must have felt fully repaid by the
esult for all the “pleasurable trouble ” they undertook. The
Magnificent rooms were tastefully decorated with plants and
flowers by Messrs. Balchin and’ N ell, of the Western Road, and
refreshments were supplied by Mr. E. Booth, of East Street, who
laid the tables out in an artistic manner,
satisfaction.

and gave unbounded

On the tables in the several rooms were displayed numerous
nteresting objects of natural history. There were also exhibited
icroscopes, spectroscopes, galvanic batteries, and numerous other
tific instruments. The microscopical subjects were as
ws :-—Mr. Duguid, eel-like forms in vinegar ; Dr. Massy, young
ysters ; Mr. Mills, palate of trochus ; Mr. Welsh, nerve of tooth ;
srs. T. Rowley and Son, young jelly fish and other living

s; Mr. R. Glaisyer, diatomacex ; Mr. Lethbridge, sections
dney and coal ; Mr. B. Lomax, tongue of blow-fly ; Mr. Aylen,
hate of copper ; Mr. Hazelwood, frosted silver EE foe eR "4
Ton! or, skin of the tail of a mouse; Mr. Dennant, pasasite of
ird; Mr. T. W. C, Wonfor, section of pearl; Mr. G. D. Sawyer (the
dent), spicule of gorgonia arranged to form a pattern; Mr.
oo, Gwatkin, section of cat’s tongue ; Mr. W. D. Savage, palate

62

of squid ; Mr. Nash, section of clematis ; and Mr. W. HU. Smith, a
flea. Mr. R. Glaisyer and Mr. Hubert Saunders also displayed
interesting objects of the same class. Among the other exhibits
were vacuum tubes, revolving and shewn by electricity, by Mr.
Capon; automatic spectroscope, showing the original drawing of
Nebula, in Orion, by Mr. H. Pratt; a fine assortment of fossils
from the alluvial deposits of the Thames, British butterilies, by
Mr. T. W. Wonfor; foriegn butterflies, by Mr. J. Wells ; British
and foreign beetles, by Mr. A. Dowsett ; an ingenious invention of
a continuous self-acting railway brake, shown by a model by Dr:
E. D. Smith ; a beautifully carved set of ivory chessmen (Chinese),
by Mr. H. Saunders ; ammonites, by Mr. Dennant ; curiosities of
great age, including an ancient Greek statuette, and a lady’s foot
(mummy) from Memphis, by Mr. W. Saunders ; a choice collection
of shells, by Miss Glaisyer ; a stereoscope, two fine kaleidoscopes,
and some very beautiful pictures of foreign scenery, by Mr. G.
Nash ; peculiar looking Chinese agricultural implements, and
Chinese porcelain tea sets, lent by “the Ven. Archdeacon Grey ;
curiosities of various kinds brought home by Lieutenant Carpenter
from the Challenger Expediton. Mr. Alderman Brigden, J.P.,
exhibited the magnificent sword presented to him during his
mayoralty by the Sultan of Zanzibar, on the occasion of his
Majesty’s visit to Brighton in 1875. Mr. James Ashbury, M.P.,
also lent two splendid Japanese swords. Close to these were some
strange looking objects which attracted considerable attention.
They were Chinese gods and goddesses, together with two Chinese
votive tablets from one of the temples. One of the latter was
presented to a goddess by a high class native for giving him a son
and heir, and the other was given as a testimonial to a doctor, by
the inhabitants of 96 villages, for effecting marvellous cures in
some particular complaint. During the evening highly interesting _
lectures were delivered, and were all well patyonised by the

company.

63

ADDRESS By Mr. G. D. SAWYER, THE PRESIDENT.

When your excellent Secretaries first communicated to me the
wish of your Committee that I should become your President for
_ this year, I confess that I had some nat

ural hesitation in accepting
_ your very flattering invitation. I have been so much more ac-

ggestion would be approved

Society. Nevertheless, my constant
attendance at your meetings during

_ Member, and for seven or eight years as one of your Committee,
_has given me so deep an interest in its proceedings, and I am
always so happy when associated with its Members, that I could
‘hot refuse myself the pleasure. Also (for it is never very difficult
_ to convince one’s self of what one wishes to believe), it seemed to
me that the responsibility of the selection would after all in no
‘Sense rest upon me. And therefore T am here to
you to the sixth annual soirée of our Society,
the Committee to express the hope that you
Pleasant evening’s enjoyment.

the last twelve years as a

-hight to welcome
and in the name of
will have a very

you along some of the pleasant paths

I must show my obedience to discipline by
fielding to the “powers that be,”

croscopic slides, and attractive objects which our kind friends

_ permitted to call attention very briefly to some of the ad-
ages afforded by our Society, that such of you as have not yet
joined our ranks may be induced to do so, and thereby extend our
34 .

ise

64

The essays and papers read before us from month to month
in the past have manifested great talent, and much patient research
on the part of the writers ; and during the discussions that have
followed, facts have been elicited, and opinions have been expressed
that have added materially to the general information, as well as.
to the quick perception of even those who have listened without
joining in the intellectual conflict. A few months since we were
favoured with a paper by Mr. B. Lomax on the “ The Constancy
of Certain Numbers in Nature,” and it proved to be far more
interesting than the title indicated and gave many of us some new
ideas to think about. Soon after that our excellent friend, Mr. E.
A. Pankhurst, favoured us with one of his thoroughly instructive
lectures, taking as his subject, “Solar Physics,” introducing us to
our warm friend, the Sun, and not merely talking about him, but

showing us (by the aid of the lime-light) truthful photographs of

his fine open countenance, and telling us of some of his
eccentricities.

If time permitted I should indeed like to recall a few of the
salient points of his admirable address. I had purposed alluding
to the majestic size of the sun—more than a million times the
size of our earth—to its attractive power, as being seven hundred
and fifty times the weight of all the planets which circle round it
—to the opinions held as to the cause of its light and heat—to
its depressed sun spots and its elevated “ facule”—its bright
corona and rose-coloured protuberances while under eclipse, and
to the enormous space occupied by many of these solar phenomena,
as carefully explained by our lecturer. But I must forbear, and
only say that the importance of the subject matter, the beauty of
the diagrams, and the clearness of their definition left nothing to
be desired ; and I allude the more to this that I may set you
longing to hear the lecture that Mr. Pankhurst has so kindly
promised to give us this evening on “Comets and Nebule,” in
listening to which I can safely promise you a rich treat. At our
ordinary meeting last month, we had the very great pleasure of
listening to a carefully-prepared paper, which had the great.

——

65

additional attraction of having been prepared by a lady. Miss
Crane prepared, and our worthy Secretary, Mr. Wonfor, read this
excellent paper on “Certain Genera of Living Fish and their
Fossil Affinities.” It exhibited great research, and showed an
extensive acquaintance on her part with her subject. To add to
the interest of the address, Miss Crane had personally prepared
a large number of explanatory diagrams, by which the subject
might be very readily understood. Her great talent manifested
in preparing the subject matter of this lecture, and the diagrams
accompanying it, much impressed those who had the privilege of
hearing it; and quickened in them the desire and the hope that
this lady will at some future time favour us with other valuable
contributions to our Society’s usefulness.

These are only a few specimens of the advantages offered in
the opportunity of hearing valuable essays and discussions
thereon. But for being short of time—so “ribbed, cabin’d, and
confined ”—I should have liked to enlarge on the advantages of
the very well-selected and costly library possessed by the Society,
the books from which can be taken by the Members to their own
homes, and there carefully studied. In it will be found the best
text books on chemistry, geology, entomology, pyhsiology, zoology,
and many another “’ology.” The birds, beasts, and fishes are
well represented there, and the microscope has a large amount of
light thrown upon it by the valuable works on the shelves of our
library. Leisure hours may indeed be well and pleasantly
occupied in the study of its contents, for there may be found
ready to hand stores of matter prepared carefully by sages and
philosophers, to acquire which in any other way would quite
overtax the time and the powers of students, although they
might have ever so great sympathy with, and feel ever so great
interest therein. There is a well-prepared catalogue of the
library made up to quite a recent period.

Then the admirable yearly report handed to each of the
Members, and containing a well-digested epitome of the papers

66

read, and the facts elicited during the year, is another advantage
of the Society which is highly worthy of notice, and the
microscopical meetings held every month. What a fund of
instruction and deep interest do these furnish. Even apart from
the higher uses of the microscope in scientific investigation, it has
been well said that the use of the microscope is “one of the most
pleasurable recreations that human ingenuity has devised.”
I strongly recommend it to you all.

And now I must stop, although I have said nothing yet about
our pleasant rambles together in the lanes and meadows—the
woods and pastures of our beautiful country—in our “field
excursions.” These are indeed a priyilege. And last, though
“not least,” our highly popular “annual excursion.’ To under-
stand the delight to be obtained from ‘his you will really have to
come and experience it, for neither my time nor my powers will
enable me to do justice to this part of my subject. And now
permit me to ask if I have established my declaration that the
Natural History Society is worthy of your support. If so, I will
conclude by thanking you for the kind attention with which you
have listened to these few introductory remarks, and ask you to
join with me in very heartily wishing a long career of usefulness
and increasing prosperity to the Brighton and Sussex Natural
History Society.

Shortly after the close of this address Mr. E. A. Pankhurst
delivered a lecture, illustrated with the lime light, on

CoMETS AND NEBUL.

He said: Many of you doubtless saw in the newspapers not
long since a paragraph with the startling heading, “A world in
Flames ;” and truly a world, a sun, did blaze out in fiery
eruption, so intense, so stupendous that the naked eye could
catch the gleams of it across an abyss of space to us immeasurable.
And now that sun is becoming an almost invisible speck even to
our large telescopes. It is quite possible that we saw its last

ading fires, and that it will never again take its place as a star in

67

our heavers. That was but one instance, though a striking one,
of that mutability to which suns and planets are subject as well
as the rocks which form the earth or the weed which grows
in their crevices. This constant “becoming” and passing away
is the law of the existences which people the infinitude of space
above us, no less than of mortality. The question then may be
asked out of what do they arise, and into what do they pass ?
In what faint nebulous matter do suns have their birth, and into
what dust are they at last dissipated.

Science, as yet, cannot answer this with precision, but there
are intimations that at no distant date the problem will be
solved. Ihave taken upon me, therefore, this evening to direct
your attention to the dust and gaseous matter of the universe, and
to the changes which it undergoes. These clouds of luminous
gas or more solid particles we will consider under two aspects,
moving and stationary. When in motion we term them comets,
when at rest nebule. Occasionally the astronomer perceives in
the far away depths of the sky a small, faintly luminous spherical
body. He discovers that it is travelling comparatively slowly
towards the sun. As it nears that great controlling mass
its velocity is accelerated; at the same time it undergoes
extraordinary changes. Jets of luminous cloud are by some
unknown forces evolved from the nucleus and driven back like
jets of steam from a locomotive on its road. These form what we
term the tail. At last a luminous train, attaining perhaps a.
length of one hundred millions of miles, blazes across the sky.
These long filaments of light do not always coalesce with the
main portion of the train. This was the case with the great
comet of 1858. Two successive appearances of that comet are
now on the screen. Those of you who remember it will see but
a faint adumbration of its splendour in the picture now before
you. All comets, however, do not evolve a tail; nor are they
restricted to one. The comet of 1744 had six tails. Their forms
are as singular as manifold. Some have not even a bright nucleus,

though the generality of them are so distinguished. In some the

68

nucleus is of extraordinary brightness, shining with the
brilliancy of a star of the first magnitude. Not only was the
nucleus of the great comet of 1843 visible in broad daylight, but
also a portion of its tail. The comets of 1577, 1680, and 1769
were remarkable for the intensity of the light emitted by the
nucleus. Not less uninteresting than the method by which the
tail of a comet is formed are those changes in the nucleus which
produce the envelopes which surround it. This is well illustrated
by the beautiful drawings of the comet of 1861, now on the
screen. They were made by Mr. Warren de la Rue, on the 2nd
and 3rd of July. Under the sun’s influence, the nucleus peels or
throws off envelopes, as the different layers round an onion peel
off, and these are gradually expelled into the tail. These
successive phases which the comet of 1858 underwent in this
respect are exquisitely delineated by the same accomplished
astronomer. Now, although, as a general rule, comets, as they
approach the sun, become more brilliant, and acquire a luminous
train, yet in the case of Encke’s and Halley’s the tail and coma
decreased. We will throw upon the screen, in illustration of this,
Halley’s comet, as it appeared at an interval of 13 days in 1830.

But still the question remains, whence come these strange
visitors? To what laws are they subject? Whither are they
bound? Of what substances are they formed? The greater
number of those that have been observed belong undoubtedly to
the solar system. They circle in cloud orbits round the centre of
our system, thereto constrained by that bond of gravitation
which controJs the planets. The periods of revolution vary
enormously. Encke’s comet performs its revolution in 3} years,
Halley’s in 76. The period of the comet of 1680 has been
calculated at nearly 9,000 years; that of 1814 at 100,000.
Some again have never returned, and probably will never revisit
our system. They have escaped from our sun’s control, and
plunging into the infinite abysses of space, have fallen within the
sphere of attractions of other suns than ours. They thus may
become wandering messengers as it were, passing from one

69

_ system of sun and planets to another. Encke’s comet, on the
other hand, is getting nearer and nearer the sun with each
‘revolution, and in the course of time must be absorbed in its
fiery mass. The orbit of a comet is vastly more elliptical than
_ that of any planet, at one time approaching the sun, perhaps,
a till the heat it receives from it, as calculated by Sir I. Newton,
must render it 2,000 times hotter than red hot iron, and then
_ passing away into frigid depths of space to an unimaginable
distance. It will not surprise you, then, to learn that while the
__sun’s power, as the comet approaches it, initiates such marvellous
_ changes in its form, as it recedes its light diminishes, and its
Juminous train is absorbed. It becomes again that faintly
luminous spherical body that it first appeared to us. And now
_ the substance of which these strange wanderers are composed—
is it gaseous or of solid particles? Docomets shine by their own
light, or like the planets, by the light reflected from the sun ?
The spectroscope in the hands of Dr. Huggins solved that
problem some years ago. It was found that the nucleus was a
_ glowing incandescent gas. Nay, he can even tell us what gas
was then glowing.

4 The spectra obtained from it was almost identical with that
_ given by a hydro-carbon. Other observers differ slightly in their

conclusion that carbon is present in the bright central portion of
the head of the comet. By the same means it was proved that
the tail shone by reason of the light reflected from the sun.
‘That it was composed therefore of comparatively small particles,
_ which were illuminated by the sun’s rays as a cloud of chalk dust
onasummer’s day. It must not be understood, however, that
‘the particles of which the tail of a comet is formed are as fine as
h particles of dust. Bodies as large asa billiard ball or a brick
would be but as fine dust compared with the enormous dimensions
of such a congeries of them as the tail of Donati’s comet.
hat would happen if the earth were to encounter such atoms in

ts course ? Moving at the enormous velocity that these move

~

70

with, the majority of them would be kindled into flame by
friction against its atmosphere. You have all of you seen such
phenomena, and you have spoken of it as that of falling or
shooting stars. These too, as you are aware, come sometimes in
showers.

Every August and November, and April, the earth passes.
through huge shoals of such moving particles, as they pass
onward in their revolution round the sun. Every 33 years
a swarm of meteoric bodies crosses the orbit of the earth, and
then the sight is not easily forgotten. Some of you may,
perhaps, remember the night of the 14th of November, 1867.
Those who do not will see but a poor picture of its splendours
in the one now on the screen. The earth then passed through
that great system of meteors which must have been at least one
thousand millions of miles in length, and probably a million
miles in width. You begin perhaps to suspect that there is.
a closer connection between shooting stars and comets than you
had anticipated. And, truly, the discovery of the relation
between them is one of the great glories of the astronomical
research of the last few years. It has long been known that
these meteor-systems travelled in very eccentric orbits, just as
comets do, but it was left for Professor Schiaparelli, of Milan, to
show conclusively that the elements of the orbits of two comets,
Biela’s and Temprel’s, were almost absolutely identical.

The exact relation between comets and these streams of
cosmic dust is not established with precision, but they are so
intimately associated that we may regard these showers of
meteors as at least the dissociated granules of that which was
once a comet. Astronomers have determined the paths of more
than one hundred meteor systems. It has been calculated that
more than seven millions of shooting stars or meteors dash into
the earth’s atmosphere every twenty-four hours. The lowest
computation that I have seen puts the comets which belong to
our solar system, that circle round our sun, at seventeen millions.

71

_ What becomes of these vast streams of tiny particles? Whence
come they? Whither do they tend? What use do they subserve
jn the economy of the universe? Time will not serve this
evening for the discussion of all these questions, tempting though
_ they may be. There is still ample room for speculation when our
. positive knowledge is exhausted. It is worthy of remark,
however, that these systems of meteors must be enormously more
_ erowded near the sun than at a distance from him. That a halo
of nebulous light surrounds the sun, which is seen with singularly
- beautiful effect during eclipses. Further, this light is sunlight
reflected from solid particles. Enormous muititudes of these —
_ particles are doubtless drawn within the sphere of his attraction,
and go to increase the light and heat which he dispenses to the
worlds around him.

‘ And now permit me to address myself for a few minutes to
the question—whence come these comets and meteor streams ?
R, Far beyond the limit of the sun’s enormous mass, at an
almost unimaginable distance beyond the orbit of the furthest
planet of our system, there exist masses of nebulous, faintly
luminous matter, scarcely perceptible, even the brightest of
them, to the naked eye. By means of the telescope, however,

not really clusters of stars rendered indistinct by their enormous
distance. As telescopes increased in size and magnifying power
-many of these starmists were resolved into such masses of con-
-gregated suns. The appearance which the celebrated Dumb
Bell nebula in Orion presents when viewed through telescopes of
different powers is now before you. Lastly, behold it as viewed
through the enormous telescope of Lord Rosse, and mark that
at was before but a cloud of light becomes in this an aggre-
gate of a thousand radiant points. Seeing that this was the
alt of viewing these nebulous masses by means of increased
telescopic power, it was thought that by-and-bye all nebule

&

w ould be resolved into stars.

72

But here, too, the spectroscope has come to our aid, and
thus analysing the light from these far distant sources we affirm
that many are really vast cloudy masses of incandescent gas.
Let us look at some of these nebule, and mark their varied and
singular forms, and note some relations between the brilliant
nuclei, and the gaseous matter surrounding them. Before you is.
what is called pur excellence the great nebula of Orion. I cannot
tell you over how many millions of square miles it stretches.
The extent of it is almost unimaginable. In the centre is a
group of seven suns which belong to one system. In their
immediate neighbourhood is a rectangular mass of brilliant
cloud, in which clusters of stars have been discerned, or we will
put it, that in certain points the light is more condensed than in
others. Now it is very certain, that since this nebula was first
discovered in 1656 it has undergone changes in form and in the
brightness of its different parts. As remarkable, perhaps, as this.
nebula in Orion, is the one in Doradus now before you. This
belongs to the class of large, irregular nebule, but still in the
bright annular masses of its central portion we see the evidence.
that its molecules are being marshalled into a definite organiza-
tion. On the outskirts its shapeless cloud-masses seem torn
into streamers and filaments, as if by the force of tempests.
Another remarkable nebula of irregular outline is that in Taurus..
As seen through Lord Rosse’s telescope, it presents the form now
shown to you, resembling, perhaps, a gigantic lobster more than
anything else. The claws and antenne are here star-streams.
But these luminous clouds often take forms much more sym-
metrical than those that have been shown. Who can look at
this beautiful nebula of the Lion, and in the spiral concentric
layers of luminous matter in its centre, and not see the gathering
of a shapeless mass into the first outlines of a definite form.

But it is in what are termed the planetary nebule that we
have this definite form most strikingly presented. Here in this
one, in the constellation Andromeda, we have a_ brilliant
luminous ring with a fringe of cloudy light on its exterior, and

73

_ also in its central portion. In this one of Ursa Major you see
a double crown with two brilliant nuclei and a fringed border.
The nebule we have so far dealt with are, as we know by
_ spectrum analysis, mainly composed of incandescent gas. They
lie, as I have said, far beyond the limits of our solar system.
_ ‘Their distance is incalculable, unimaginable. Great changes have
been proved to take place in them. Scattered over most of them
are brilliant points of light were the gaseous atoms are condensed
_ into masses of intense brilliancy, and doubtless enormous size.

Are these glittering nuclei suns? Do we watch here the
growth of a world-controlling luminary similar to the great centre
_ of our own system? The question is not finally answered. Yet
in the remarkable changes which the nebula surrounding a well-
known star in the constellation Argus seem to favour such a
_ view. In the opinion of the astronomer at Melbourne, the star
increases at the expense of the nebula surrounding it. Far as
these luminous clouds are beyond our system, yet it must be
remembered that the sun himself and the planets that circle round
him are moving through space at an enormous speed. Portions
of these fiery clouds would thus be brought within his influence,
and be forced to revolve round him. A new comet would come
within the ken of the dwellers on this spot of earth, and some
cooled, condensed fragments might find their way to its surface.

The atoms of this light-giving vapour are them-
selves worlds. Here, again, are clusters of suns whose concen-
tra ted light, dimmed by enormous distance, seems to us but a

luminosity. In the cluster in Hercules, here represented,
there must be at least five thousand suns. Many of these were
at one time thought to be clouds of luminous gas, but increased

74

magnifying power has revealed to us the fact that they are
masses of stars. What movements are taking place in these far
off systems we know not. What are marshalling the atoms of
this star-mist, concentrating it here into burning points, dissi-
pating it there into filaments of light ; that we know not. But
this we see, that not even in sun or planet, star or system of
stars, is there anything permanent or abiding. Nebule are no
longer visible now that once were apparent, some have been seen
to increase in brightness and finally disappear. The radiant
points in their centres, once clear enough, are now not to be
found. Rest there is none. The universe is instinct with
energy, with life to the farthest limits of human vision. The
atoms of the luminous cloud condense into stars, stars fall into
streams, and star-streams form into systems. Suns gather and
are again dispersed. Out of.the ruins of old worlds new ones
are built up, as the decaying leaves of autumn minister to the
flowers of spring. Perchance, also, one day we shall learn that
the same law guides the spiral of the nebula and the tendril of
the vine—
** One God, one law, one element,

And one far-off divine event
To which the whole creation moves.”

At half-past nine o’clock, Mr. W. JAGo, the Science Master
at the Brighton School of Art and Science, gave a lecture, illus-
trated with interesting experiments, on

“ PARADOXICAL FLAMES.”

The selection of the title of this address (said Mr. Jago) cost
me much less trouble than the finding of something to say after
the title was selected. One consolation, however, remains—that
with such a “ paradoxical” introduction you will not expect a very
consecutive and orthodox lecture. Plunging at once into the
subject, I would refer to some of the abnormal sources of flame
known ; and one of these which seems the most contradictory is
that which results frem tha action of water on certain substances.

75

_ (Potassium burned in water.) This experiment reminds the lec-
turer of some juvenile experiences of a chemical student, who shall
_ be nameless before this audience: That young gentleman, in the
ardour of his youth, was in the habit of indulging in chemical
_ investigations in the drawing room to the deterioration of furniture

and the general discomforts of the household. After repeated
‘ warnings that this was not to be tolerated, the parental authorities
resolved on confiscating, accordingly, the limited stock of chemicals
_ in the possession of the said young gentleman, and all, as is the
Tule in these cases of the most dangerous character, were seized.
4 Among them was a bottle containing phosphorus ; this happened
~ to be the first, and was thrown in the fire. The result was a con-
_ flagration almost worthy of the pyrotechnist of the Crystal Palace.
- To make assurance doubly sure, the remainder were taken to the
back yard, and the process of throwing down the drain was com-
menced. The lot to be selected for this fate, however, was a
q bottle containing this same substance—potassium—which has been
"brought before your notice to-night. The result of this expedient
needs no comment.

This is a property not only possessed by potassium, other
metals also act similarly ; so also does a.substance known as calcic
phosphide. This has met with a useful application in signalling
at sea, as this substance is the body used in the manufacture of
—Holme’s signal lights. In these cases it is not the water which
B burns, but a chemical action takes place which liberates a_
¢ combustible body, and the heat produced suffices to cause ignition.
‘We find, on the other hand, that certain substances are protected
from combustion while under water, but on rising to the air ignite
spontaneously. As an instance, phosphoretted hydrogen may be
mentioned. The flash of light resulting from each bubble, and
beautiful wreaths of smoke, are especially noticeable. Flame

stituent oxygen ; combustion takes place in other gases, among
them chlorine.

76

Spontaneous combustion of antimony or arsenic may be cited
as an instance. To proceed a step further, we may have light
produced actually under water, as in the action of sulphuric acid,
phosphorus, and potassic chlorate. In theseexperiments, however,
we have not been producing light and flame without something to
burn, neither is it possible for man to do this. One thing, how-
ever, he may do, and that is to carry on his burning at one place
and produce the resultant light and heat in another. As an
instance of this may be mentioned the electric light. Our burning
is carried on in our battery, wherever that may be, and we have
the resulting effects before us on the table. This light requires
no air for its support, and may be shown under water, and further,
may be shown in a vacuum, by means of a Ruhmkorf’s coil and
prepared vacuum tubes.

Ordinarily light and flame are associated together in our ideas ;
this is not necessarily the case. We may have light without flame,
and indeed some of our most intense lights are of this nature.
Tron burns in oxygen with brilliant corruscations, yet here we have
no flame. Flame is produced when a gas is burning ; when, how-
ever, a solid is burnt we have merely a glow, Neither are light
and heat necessary companions in similar proportions. Intense
heat is produced by the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen.
We have, however, but little light ; on now introducing some solid
matter as lime we get a light almost too brilliant to be looked at.
It is self-evident that the heat must thus have been lowered. The
denser a body the greater the light evolved by it at the same
temperature. Tyndall’s researches on Spectrum Analysis have
shown that the majority of the heat rays of the sun, &c., are un_
accompanied by light. One or two other peculiar properties of
flame must now be mertioned. Flames may be made the source
of musical sounds ; a jet of hydrogen burned in a glass tube gives
a clear musical note. Flame may not only be thus utilized as a
source of sound, but it also possesses another more wonderful
property. Under certain conditions it ‘‘ hears” sound, that is in
its own peculiar manner. A flame burning from a pinhole jet

7

77

_droops at a sound almost too faint for ordinary ears. And now I
have another point to introduce.

Various substances have been produced from time to time as
sources of light. We may in fancy travel from the philosopher
of Laputa, mentioned by Gulliver, who attempted to extract
sunbeams from cucumbers, and hermetically seal them up and

store them for future use, to such projects as laying a gas main
across the Atlantic, and thus bringing over our supply from a
natural source. I venture, however, to propose another substitue,
and more, I am quite willing to give the benefit to any person or
persons wishing to speculate. The substance I propose to burn,
is neither more nor less than ordinary atmospheric air. This is
certainly’ sufficiently plentiful and cheap enough to satisfy the
desires of the most economical. Nothing is easier than to cause
ordinary’ air to burn, provided we supply it with a suitable
atmosphere. Such an atmosphere is found in hydrogen or coal
gas. (Jet of air burned in coal gas; description of apparatus).
This experiment is merely a reversal of the ordinary conditions,
and shows us that supposing our atmosphere consisted of coal-
gas or other combustible, air would then be the so-called
combustible body and coal-gis or what-not the supporter of
combustion. Heat and light in these cases are really but the
results of chemical action, and it matters not which substance is
present in greatest quantity, the action is the same. (As an
instance of brilliant combustion the time-honoured experiment of
burning phosphorus in oxygen may be introduced.)

A few words more before conclusion. From the very nature
_ of the subjects now treated, this discourse has necessarily been
abrupt and disjointed. Many phenomena have been referred to,
and time has not permitted their explanation. On behalf of the
institution I have the honour to represent, the Brighton School of
Science and Art, I wish respectfully to urge its claims upon you.
x rere i is peotecly a ae or oe mes knowledge of these

78

essential. The wants of such are amply met in the instruction
there given. To those who see in the observation of Nature’s
wonders and secrets something which makes humanity better,
happier, and wiser, abundant opportunities are offered of studying
and investigating the laws and beauties of physical science. And
to those who love art tor its own sake, and take pleasure in
delineating the beauties of form with which we are surrounded,
means are provided for so doing with all the aids which modern
advancement and knowledge supply, combined with examples of
those miraculous works of art which have made the names of
ancient Greece and Rome immortal.

During the evening an interesting address was delivered by
Mr. BenJAMIN LoMAX on

A Cup oF TEA.

Mr. LoMmAx said that the “cup of tea” was the one
institution about which all the civilized world agreed. The lady
of fashion entertained her friends at a “drum” with a harlequin
“cup of tea;” and the old woman in the almshouses chatted over
the same stimulant. In Australia the bushmen had for breakfast
damper, mutton, and tea; for dinner mutton, tea, and damper ;
and for supper tea, damper, and mutton. When a bushman
travelled he carried tea; if he entered a house he was offered
tea ; and if “at night he sleepless lay” he rose to smoke and take
“a cup of tea.” For all this it was a fact that few knew a good
cup of tea when they tasted it, and still fewer knew how to make
it or even to drink it. Tea, as we had it, was the leaf of a
Chinese shrub. Other countries drank other infusions—coffee.
mate, &c..— but all were chosen for the presence of one
ingredient, called by the chemist, theine.

In England we were content with its weak presence in an
infusion, but other people boiled it out, or ate the tea leaves; a
sure, if unpleasant method of extracting the virtues and vices of
this aromatic principle. The peculiar flavour of tea was due to

79

the presence of a volatile oil, which he proceeded to distil from a
strong tea infusion. The smell and taste of this oil wele in its
concentrated form disagreeable, but unmistakeably fea-like. It
was, in fact, a poison, capable of doing great mischief to stomach
and brain. Another principle in tea was the well-known tannin,
by which the drinkers of strong tea tanned their mucous
membrane. Pouring a solution of an iron salt into tea, he
produced a black liquid, which was, in fact, common ink, and
stated that those delicate ladies who took steel drops on rising,
and breakfasted on tea and toast, were but porcelain ink bottles,
white outside and black within.

The different varieties of tea were not, as was often sup-
posed, the produce of different shrubs, though a delicate kind
called imperial tea, which was never exported, but which he had
drunk and much enjoyed at the house of a mandarin, was grown
from a slightly different variety. The difference between Hyson
and Souchong, Bohea, and Pekoe, was, in fact, that between the
same leaf gathered at different times, or dried in a different
manner. Those who tried to preserve flowers often found that
delicate colours could be fixed by the use of a hot flat iron, and
in like manner the green tea was made to preserve its colour by
rapid drying, while the black was subjected to a more tedious
process. Leaves plucked while young were delicate and juicy,
those of older growth were strong flavoured. Others, as the
Orange Pekoe, contained the flavouring matter of other plants.

We could not say of these varieties that one was better than
the other—it was a question of taste. But adulteration was
another matter. In China tea was often mixed with “ devil’s
dust,” the filthy sweepings of the warehouse. Such tea, allowed
to float in cold water, would contribute sand to the bottom, dust
and wool to the top, and often animalcule to the middle of the
tumbler. High coloured tea, wrapped in a handkerchief and
steeped in warm water, would often dye it blue, showing that
indigo or Prussian blue had been sprinkled over the leaves.

80

Sometimes a drop of ammonia would stain a teacup blue, shew-
ing that the “green tea” was really old tea leaves dried with
copper. Against such adulterations the best safeguard was to
buy of respectable merchants, and to be content to pay accord-
ingly.

In China tea was made in the cup, and drunk without milk
or sugar, but in England we corrected the astringency by milk
and sugar. The idea of substituting cream was, in the lecturer’s
opinion, absurd. The object was to flavor the tea, not to drink
insoluble curds.

It must be remembered that milk could be adulterated even
in the feeding of the cow, and an undue supply of water, with
diminished food, might profit the dairyman, but was
decidedly bad for the cow and for the cup of tea. The sugar
should be crystalline, not necessarily loaf sugar, which dissolves
slowly, but certainly not a coarse brown sugar containing un-
crystallized molasses. The lecturer then explained the process of
preparing sugar, and showed how water could be made to boil at
avery low temperature by creating a vacunm. Thus, he explained,
sugar was allowed to boil without being heated to an extent that
would destroy the crystals, and these crystals when formed were
separated by centifrugal force from the uncrystallized portions.
After making a rough imitation of the mode of preparing candy,
he proceeded to detail the precautions necessary to prevent the
tea from being made weak by want of heat or bitter by too much
heat. The water should boil but not gallop. The tea should be
drawn in the usual manner with a small quantity of boiling
water, and no tea should ever be warmed up after standing on
the leaves, Moreover, the palate should not be spoilt by sweets
or any aromatic taste before drinking tea.

A cup of tea, drunk warm but not hot, was a safe stimulant
to mind and body, often causing food to assimilate, and thus
being indirectly food itself. Much of the evil laid at the door of
this beverage was caused by the foolish habit of drinking very

81 r

‘hot liquids, but tea in excess was very prejudicial. Besides the
mistake—not a slight one—of taking too much fluid into the
system, strong tea, often taken, stimulated the brain to unhealthy
_action, caused want of sleep, or a sleep more active with dreams
than wakefulness itself. He would engage, by the administra-
tion of essence of tea, to render the bravest man too nervous
to sit up at night alone. This, however, was the abuse, not the
use, of tea In wholesome moderation, it cheered the sorrowful,
refreshed the tired, and soothed the afflicted. Our warmest
.affections, our happiest thoughts, were called forth at the tea
table, and, with their permission, he would himself desist from
talking, and refresh himself with a cup of tea.

Marcu 8rTu, 1877.

“ORDINARY MEETING.—MR. HERBERT GOSS, F.LS.,
ON “THE INSECT FAUNA OF THE RECENT AND
TERTIARY PERIODS, AND THE BRITISH AND
FOREIGN FORMATIONS OF THOSE PERIODS
IN WHICH INSECT REMAINS HAVE BEEN
DETECTED” :—

So little has been written in this country on the subject of
Fossil Entomology that I presume that some contributions to our
_ knewledge of it may not be unacceptable.

In this paper I shall endeavour to bring the results of recent
: ‘investigations and researches under the notice of this Society, in
the hope that they may have the effect of directing increased
_attention to an undoubtedly interesting and important branch of
Paleontology, which, until a comparatively recent period, had

received but little notice on the Continents of Europe or America,

and still less in this country. , ;

There can be little doubt of the importance of an
_ .acquaintance with the insect fauna of former times, for when we
_ .consider that insects are inhabitants not only of the air and the

82

land, but also of the water, it is obvious that their remains in a
fossil state must be of the greatest value in assisting us in forming
accurate ideas of the geological conditions of the Earth in
past ages.

The investigations and publications of one of the greatest
living Palzontologists, Professor Heer, of Zurich, have shewn us:
that the study of the remains of insects and a comparison of the:
numerical proportion existing between the Carnivorous and
Herbivorous species of any former period with that existing at
the present day between the same classes in various parts of

the world, will materially assist us in arriving at just conclusions.

as to the nature of the vegetation, and even the climate
prevailing in former Geological epochs. The testimony
of so eminent a Geologist as Sir Charles Lyell to the
usefulness of an acquaintance with fossil insects is too
valuable not to be here quoted. In his “ Elements of Geology’’
Sir Charles observes “ that the characters of many of the insects”
(i.e., the fossil insects of Ciningen) “are so well defined as to
incline us to believe that if this class of the invertebrata were not
so rare and local, they might be more useful than even the plants
and shells, in settling chronological points in Geology.”

The fossil remains of the Vertebrata, the Mollusca, the
Crustacea, and even the Radiata, have all been carefully studied ;.
but notwithstanding the evident importance of fossil Entomology
it is only in comparatively recent times that the msecta have
begun to receive attention. M. Emile Oustalet, after alluding to

the amount of attention bestowed on the other divisions of.

the Animal Kingdom, observes, that although reference had
been made as early as the beginning of the Eighteenth
Century to “ Entomolithes” it was not until 1839 that M.
Brullé, in an inaugural address to the “ Faculté des Sciences
de Paris,” called attention to the interest which might be derived
from the study of Fossil Insects.

It must not, however, be supposed from the foregoing.

—_

83

observations that this branch of Paleontology had received
literally no attention whatever prior to 1839. Reference is made
to fossil insects as long ago as 1700 in Scheuchzer’s “ Herbarium
-diluvianum,” and Linnzus gave the name of “ Entomolithes” to
those petrifications which presented traces or remains of Insects ;
then, in 1726, a book, by Beringer and Hueber, containing
reference to this subject appeared ; this was followed in 1729
by Bromell’s “ Lithographia Suecana ;” in 1742 by the “Historia
‘Succinorum” of Sendelius, and in 1779 by Schréter’s “Lexicon.”

Nothing more worth noticing then appeared on this subject
for about 50 years, when, in 1829, M. Marcel de Serres produced
-a very important work on the fossil invertebrates of the Tertiary
formations of the South of France. In the same year (1829)
a valuable contribution to our knowledge of this branch of
Science was made by the late Mr. John Curtis, in a paper on
‘the “Tertiary |formations of Aix,” by Murchison and Lyell.
The next book worth mentioning, which treated of this subject,
was Bronn’s “ Lethcea Geognostica,” published in 1835.

One of the most valuable works on this branch of Science,
-and which has perhaps more than any other directed the attention
of geologists to its interest and importance, is Professor Heer’s
“‘Die Insecten fauna der Tertiirgebilde von (iningen und von
Radoboj in Croatien,” published in 1847. Professor Heer has
done more for this branch of Science than any. other Paleonto-
logist, and has been justly styled by Signor Massalongo “ the
' Cuvier of fossil Entomology.”

Amongst the names of English investigators of, and writers
-on this subject, the most prominent is that of the Rev. P. B.
Brodie, M.A., F.G.S., who in 1845 produced the only book on fossil
‘insects which has appeared in this country. Several papers on
the subject have also been written by the Rev. F. W. Hope,
F.R.S., Professor Westwood, F.L.S., Dr. Mantell, Dr. Henry
Woodward, F.R.S., Mr. Vernon Woollaston, F.L.S., Mr. Arthur
‘Gardiner Butler, and others.

84

In America some attention has lately been devoted to fossil!
insects by Dr. Dawson, F.R.S., Professor Denton, Dr. Horn, Mr..
Mead, Professor Dana, Mr. Richardson; and especially by that
distinguished Entomologist, Mr. Samuel H. Scudder, to whose
numerous writings, especially his exhaustive essay on “ Fossil
Butterflies,” recently published in the Memoirs of the American
Association for the advancement of Science, constant reference:
will be made throughout this paper.

Among other important contributors to our knowledge of
fossil Entomology must be mentioned Gravenhorst, Charpentier,
Giebel, Carl Von Heyden, Lucas Von Heyden, Saporta, Ehren-
berg, Pictet, Unger, Berendt, Germar, Goldenberg, Boisduval,.
Hagen, Von Miinster, Massalongo, Van Bénéden, Preudhomme de
Borre, Adolphe Brongniart, &c.

I now propose to refer briefly, in the descending order of |
Geological succession, to the various British and Foreign forma-
tions of the Recent and Tertiary Periods in which remains of
insects have been detected, and to enumerate, as far as possible,
the several orders and species to which such remains have
severally been assigned.

Before doing so, it will be desirable to make a few observa-
tions on the probable circumstances under which insects became
embedded in certain strata in which their remains have been dis-
covered.

The estuarine and purely fresh-water formations are, as would
naturally be expected, those in which the remains of insects have
heen found in the greatest quantities, but their remains have also-
been discovered, and in some cases in considerable numbers, in
Marine formations, such as the Stonesfield Slate of England and
the Solenhofen Slate of Bavaria. Their presence in such
formations may be accounted for by supposing them to have
been blown or washed out to sea from some neighbouring
land; or to have been blown into the sea when attempting
to cross it, and then, sinking to the bottom, have become
embedded in the sediments there accumulating.

85

It is well known to all Entomologists that insects migrate in:
vast armies, frequently crossing the sea to effect their purpose.

Pieris Rape (the Common Garden White Butterfly) has been
known to cross the Channel from France to England in a dense
swarm. On this subject an eye witness has written, “Such was”
the density and extent of the cloud formed by the living mass, ’
that it completely obscured the sun from the people on board the \
steamer for many hundreds of yards, while the insects strewed the
decks in all directions.”

Mr. Bates in his book on the “ Amazons” mentions several
instances of the flights of insects over the sea. Swarms of
locusts have been observed many hundreds of miles from land,
and moths, dragon flies, and other insects, have alighted on the
decks of vessels in mid-ocean. The occasional presence of fossil]
insects in Marine formations may be thus accounted for; but
where their remains are detected in any abundance in such
formations, the proximity of dry land at the time of their
deposition may be generally assumed.

Wherever insects have been discovered in a fossil state the-
Coleoptera are generally very numerous. This is easily accounted
for by the hardness of their elytra.

The comparison of existing species of insects with the-
fossilized fauna of the ancient world, and the study of their
Geographical distribution, is one of the most interesting features
in this branch of Science. It is worthy of note that the
insects, even from the older strata (¢.., the Lias) are far
more closely allied to those now in existence than the
rest of the fauna of the Ancient World, and although
some of them cannot be identified with any living types,.
still there is, as Mr, Brodie observes, ‘a much less proportional
difference in this respect than might fairly be expected ; so that
these fossils may be almost said to afford an exception to the
‘usual conclusions which have been derived upon this subject.”

86

It is evident, from a comparison of fossilinsects with existing
-species, that the temperature of Europe has undergone sensible
modifications ; and the distribution of genera, the size of the
specimens, as well as the numerical relations existing between
various groups, indicate the former existence of warmer climates
than those now prevailing in the same parts of Europe.

Professor Heer has noticed that the development of insects
has been influenced by that of the Vegetable Kingdom, certain
species not having appeared prior to the period at which
dicotyledonous plants are supposed to have attained their highest
state of development.

It has been remarked by M. Oustalet that each formation, or
rather each deposit, on the Continent, in which fossil insects
have been detected, is characterised by the prevalence of
some particular family or order. Thus the genus Blatta is
especially well represented in the Lias of Aargua, the
Rhynchophora in the Marls of Aix; the Buprestide in
the quarries of C£ningen; the Anis in the sulphurous marls
of Radoboj; the Termites in the Baltic Amber, &c. This
seems satisfactory evidence that each one of these groups found
in its locality, at the period of its existence, all the essential
requisites for its development.

Ihave a good deal to say on this subject, as well as on that
of the dates of apparition of the various orders of insects on the
Geological horizon. I shall, however, reserve my observations
until the end of the 3rd paper of the series, when having brought
under review the various formations of the Recent, Tertiary,
Secondary, and Primary Periods, in which insect remains have
been discovered, I shall be better able to draw general conclusions
than I am in the introductory portion of the 1st paper.

I will now proceed to notice the various formations in which
fossil insects have been detected, and the orders, families, and
-species, to which such fossils have severally been referred.

87

In every case British Strata and their fossils will be first
described, and then those from the Continents of Europe and
America.

BRITISH STRATA.
RECENT OR Post TERTIARY PERIOD.

One of the most recent deposits in this country, in which
fossil insects have been detected, is that of the brick earth at
Lexden, near Colchester. In a paper on the brick pit at Lexden
in the Geological Society’s Journal, 1863, the Rev. O. Fisher states
that he obtained a number of specimens of Coleoptera from this
locality. These remains he submitted to Mr. T. Vernon
Wollaston, F.L.S. Amongst these remains Mr. Wollaston
identified several elytra of beetles, belonging to the following
genera, viz. :—Cassida, Curculio, Coccinella, Chrysomela, and
Cossyphus. Some of the specimens are referred doubtfully to
Carabide and Buprestide. Mr. Wollaston stated, that with one or
two exceptions, these remains could not be referred to existing
British species.

In the 3rd volume of the Geological Proceedings there is a
paper by Sir Charles Lyell on “The Boulder formation or drift
and associated fresh-water deposits, comprising the Mud Cliffs of
Eastern Norfolk.” This paper contains an account of the
discovery in the Mundsley deposit of the elytra of certain Beetles
especially of the Genus Donacia. Mr. Curtis was of opinion that
in these remains there were two species of Donacia, both possibly
identical with existing British Insects. The same entomologist
has also detected in these fossils the presence of an Elater, an
elytron of one of the Harpalide; also another which he con-
fidently refers to Copris Lunaris, a British Beetle.

Dr. Henry Woodward, F.R.S., has recently shown me the-
elytra of a small species of beetle, which he stated that he-
obtained from the Norfolk Cliffs, near Mundsley, some years ago.

88

FOREIGN STRATA.

The most recent deposits on the Continent of Europe in
which fossil insects have been found are, according to Professor
Heer, the Lignites and clays of Uznach and Diirnten, in Switzer-
land, which he refers to the recent or Post Tertiary period.

M. Brullé records from these deposits a Coleopterous insect
allied to Feronia leucopthalma, another similar to Callidius fennicum,
and an later referable to Elater Gneas.

Professor Heer has thoroughly studied the deposits of Uznach
and of Diirnten, and records from them two species of Donacia,
resembling Donacia discolor, and Donacia Sericea. He says that
their elytra lie by hundreds in some part of the Lignite. Dr.
Heer also describes a species of the genus Hylobius ( H. rugosus 4
allied to Hy obius Pineti, but distinct ; an existing species of the
genus Pterostichus (P. Niger), and two extinct species of Carabide,
viz., C. diluvianus and C. cordicollis.

In the IX. Vol. of the “Bulletins de la Sociéte Geologique
de France” M. Cordier is reported to have communicated to the
Geological Society an extract from a letter addressed to him from
Stockholm, by M. E. Robert, in which the latter stated that he
had found near Elsinore (Denmark), remains of insects, including
Incanide (Cervus lougirostris), Aphodius fossor, two species of
Buprestide, &e.

TERTIARY OR CAINOZOIC PERIOD.

The very few fossil insects recorded from the Tertiary forma-
tions of the United Kingdom is remarkable, especially when com-
- pared with the great number of species described from the foreign
Tertiary formations. No doubt the list of species in this
country will be largely increased when further investigations
have been made. The insignificance of the English list may,
in a great measure, be accounted for by the fact that
in this country the researches and investigations of the
Rev. P. B. Brodie, Professor Edward Forbes, Mr. W. R.

89

Brodie, Messrs. W. and H. Binfield, the Rev. O. Fisher,
Captain Woodley, and others, have principally been in the
Secondary Rocks, especially in the Middle and Lower Purbecks
of the Upper Oolite, and in the Lias ; whereas on the Continent
of Europe as much attention appears to have been bestowed on
the formations of the Tertiary epoch as on those of any other
period ; and besides, on the Continent, investigations have been
carried on for a much longer period and by a far greater number
of persons.
BRITISH STRATA.
MIOCENE.

In the list of fossil insects at the end of Mr. Brodie’s paper
on the “Distribution of Fossil Insects, &c.,” I find recorded
“elytra of two species of beetles from the Miocene formation in
the neighbourhood of Antrim, Ireland.” These beetles are also
mentioned by Professor Judd, F.R.S., in his paper on the
volcanic Rocks of Scotland.

Mr. Pengelley, F.R.S.,in a paper in the Royal Society’s
Proceedings, states that when Professor Heer was in England he
devoted a few days to the deposits of Bovey Tracey, in Devonshire,
and that amongst the remains from these strata he obtained one.
beetle—Buprestes Fulconeri. This insect, observes Mr. Pengelley,
was the first evidence of animal life which had been obtained from
this deposit.

Uprer Eocene.

In the XI. Vol. of “ Nature,” for December, 1874, is a letter
grom a Mr. E. I. A’Court Smith recording the discovery by him,
ni Gurnet Bay, Isle of Wight, “of a bed of insects, flies and
gnats, and the larve and pupe of the latter—the larve in countless
thousands ; also the wings in great numbers of a variety of flies,
butterflies, grasshoppers ; also a wing resembling that of a mole
cricket ; likewise two or three beetles.”

A sample of this collection is at present in the possession of
Dr. Henry Woodward, F.R.S., and by his courtesy I have had an
opportunity of inspecting it.

90

MIDDLE EOCENE.

In the geological proceedings for 1854, Professor Westwood
describes and figures certain Buprestide from the Leaf Beds at
‘Creech, near Corfe, Dorset, belonging to the Bagshot series of the
Middle Eocene; also Llytra of Helopide and Curculionide from
the same forniation.

Mr. J. S. Gardner, F.G.S., has lately discovered remains
of insects at Bournemouth, in the Leaf Beds of the Bagshot
Sands; they consist of Elytra of Coleoptera, wings of gnats and
bees, Diptera, i.e., small and often fragmentary, and some others

unknown.
LOWER EOCENE.

In the list at the end of Mr. Brodie’s last-mentioned paper,
“< Elytra of Coleoptera” are recorded from the Lower Eocene of the
Isle of Wight, but are not named.

Dr. Mantell, in his Geology of the Isle of Wight, mentions
that Mr. Webster has observed traces of Coleopterous “‘ Insects in
the London Clay, near Parkhurst,” Isle of Wight.

FUREIGN STRATA.

On the Continent of Europe, discoveries of insect remains in
the Tertiary Strata have been made chiefly at (iningen in
Switzerland, Radoboj in Cratia, Corent and Menat in Auvergne,
Siebengeberge on the Rhine, Aix in Provence, and at Monte
Bolea in Upper Italy. The remains of many species have also
been detected in Amber from various localities, but especially
from the Amber which the Baltic Sea throws up on the Coast of
Prussia. It is difficult to know to what geological epoch Amber
should be referred. By many geologists it is considered
antediluvian. Sir Henry de la Beche was of opinion that the
Prussian deposits] of Lignite and Amber belong to the Tertiary
rocks, and that its place was probably above the supracretacious
group.

I will now proceed to notice, in descending order, the before-
named Continental localities and the principal species which
have been obtained from them.

91

EUROPEAN STRATA.
Uprrer MIOCENE

The principal deposit of this period in which insect remains-
have been detecetd is the great lacustrine formation of (Eningen
in the Valley of the Rhine, between Constance and Schaffhausen.

The CGiningen Strata consist, according to Lyell, of a series
of Marls and Limestones, many of them thinly laminated, and
which appear to have slowly accumulated in a lake, probably fed
by springs, holding carbonate of lime in solution. The organic
remains have been chiefly derived from two quarries, the lower of
which is about 550 feet above lake Constance, and the upper
quarry is about 150 feet higher.

The insect fauna of CGiningen appears to have been richer
than that now inhabiting any part of Europe. From the beds of
this formation 844 species have been discovered by Professor
Heer, and his diligent researches had, in 1867, brought to light
5,081 specimens, viz. :—

Coleoptera ae Ks ... 2456 specimens.
Neuroptera Be ae ae S882) ee oy
Hymenoptera... are ae 699 =
Diptera S: a bh 310 oa
Hemiptera on tes aac 598 a
Orthoptera in wid Be 131 s
Lepidoptera Ee ba ose 5 5
5081

This number of specimens comprised 844 species, viz. :—

Coleoptera the oe ee 518 species.
Neuroptera 3c oe oh PA fellate:
Hymenoptera, ... ste me 80 ,,
Diptera... Sa ni an 63a,
Hemiptera me ee st 133,
Orthoptera es ad ez 20ers;
Lepidoptra Bs za pe eee
844

In my introductory observations I alluded to the conclusions
which might be arrived at as to the climate and vegetation of a
former epoch from the study of its fossil insects. I will now

92

endeavour to explain, by reference to some of the Ciningen
fossils, the grounds on which such conclusions may be based.

Professor Lacordaire reminds us that insects in general, and
the Coleoptera in particular, may be divided, according to the
nature of their food, into two classes, viz., into Carnivorous species
and Herbivorous species. The proportion which one class bears
to the other varies in different countries, and according to M.
Lacordaire the number of Carnivorous species, in proportion to
the number of Hérbivorous species, gradually decreases as we
_approach the Equator.

M. Oustalet, quoting Lacordaire, states that at the present
day the proportion of Curnivorus species of Coleoptera to the
total number of species of that order in the undermentioned

-countries is as follows, viz. :—
In toe New Wok tp. In rHE OLD WORLD.

In North America : 1 : 4°01 | In Siberia 2 dh ea ere
», South 3 shod deg G58 ,, Europe 2 live 48h
;, Rio Janeiro ro) ene tee ek », Africa > se ose

Now at (Eningen the Carnivorous Coleoptera are to the
total number. of species of that order, in the proportion of
1: 4:62, and to the Herbivorous species of that order, in the pro-
portion of 1 : 3°62; that is, they are rarer in this locality than in
Europe at the present day, although they are much more
numerous than they are at the present day in tropical countries,
especially in South America.

The fact that the Carnivorous species are in such a decided
minority to the total number of species of the order compared
with the proportion existing between the two classes at the
present day, stamps the fossil fauna of (Eningen with even a more
southerly character than one would have expected from the
flora. From this it may be safely assumed that the climate of
this part of Europe during the Upper Miocene period approached
much nearer to that of the Tropics than at the present day ; and
this assumption is materially strengthened by a consideration of
the present Geographical distribution of many of the genera and
-species then inhabiting Giningen.

93

According to Dr. Heer and M. Oustalet the majority of
the Ciningen species belong to genera distributed at the present
«lay over the Old and New World, and these genera are said to
contain nearly two-thirds of the total number of species dis-
covered in these strata. Heer estimates the proportion which
these genera bear to the total number of genera to be 114 to
180. Amongst the other genera, according to M. Oustalet, two
axe not found at the present day out of Africa, two are specially
American. Some are met with both in Africa, Asia, and
America, particularly in the last named country.

A great number of the species of this period are allied to
existing American species. Seventeen genera still inhabit the
Old World ; seven of them, as well as those which are exclusively
European, are still represented at the present day in the
Mediterranean fauna. On the subject of the insect fauna of this
locality Sir Charles Lyell observes:—“Few of the genera of
Insects are extinct, but many of them imply a Geographical
distribution widely different from that now obtaining in the
_ same part of the world.”

On the whole, Dr. Heer found that the results furnished by
an examination of the Insect fauna of (Eningen agreed with those
derived from a study of the flora, although the character of the
flora is more strictly American and more. tropical than that of the
fauna, and induced him to believe that the summer climate of
4Eningen was not tropical, but that the winter climate was
extremely mild.

} To this period (Upper Miocene) Dr. Heer refers certain
strata at Parschliig in Styria, Austria, from which he enumerates
fourteen species of insects, viz :-—

Coleoptera 2 Ait re 7 species
Orthoptera wad wat ea OA.
Neuroptera Tis es,
Hymenoptera Sashes
Diptera Dk ibs

el
re

94

The classical deposits of Senigallia, in the north-east of
Italy, also belong to the Miocene period. These deposits, so:
famous for the quantity of animal and vegetable remains
detected therein, contain, says Signor Mas:alongo, numerous
impressions of insects. It was from these strata that Signor
Procaccini-Ricci obtained a considerable number of species,
which afterwards formed part of the collection of Signor Giuseppe
Scarabelli di Imola.

Signor Massalongo describes two fossil larve of genus.
Libellula, which he states that he found by chance in splitting
open some slabs of stone from this locality. He has named one
species Libellula Eurynome and the other species Libellula Doris.
With this exception I have failed to meet with the description of
any fossil insects from Italian strata of this period,

MippLe MI0cENE.
To this period are referred the Marls of Radaboj in Croatia
which have been productive of a great quantity of insect remains.

Professor Unger was the first author who published (in 1839)
on the fossil insects of this locality a Memoir of any importance,
This was followed, in 1843, by a paper by Von Charpentier (in the
Acta, Acad. Leop. Carrol). Since then Professor Heer has-
thoroughly studied the fossil insect fauna of Radaboj, in which
he has recognised a great number of tropical forms including some:
gigantic Termites.

The insects from this locality comprise the following :—

Coleoptera Se oe oe 42 species.
Orthoptera ey ae ae 13" ste
Neuroptera = LS ies 20 sg
Hymenoptera... = = 83\> 35
Lepidoptera ke ees AM a Soe
Diptera... Le eee 3 3 <a:
Hemiptera a =e = Gi
312

The Coleoptera are rare, but the Ants are represented by
fifty-seven species, of one of which (Formica Occultata) Dr. Heer-
is said to have obtained 594 examples. Sir Charles Lyell observes.

95

of this locality :—“ The insect fauna is very rich, and like the
plants indicates a more trohical climate than do the fossils of
(Eningen. There are ten species of Termites, some of gigantic
size, and large Dragon flies with speckled wings like those of the
Southern States of North America; there are also grasshoppers of
considerable size, and even the Lepidoptera are not unrepresented.”

The first species of this order (£. Atava) was first described
by V«n Charpentier and referred by him to the genus Sphina-
Dr. Heer refers it to the genus Vanessa, but Mr. Scudder
places it in the genus Lugonia, “the position,” he says,
“‘dubiously assigned to it by Kirby im his “Synonymic
Catalogue.”
The genus to which Mr. Scudder refers this fossil is repre-
sented equally in Europe and America.

’
:
;

The second species, Mylothrites Pluto, is described by Heer
and referred by him to the genus Vanessa. It is so described and
figured by Sir Charles Lyell, who observes, “In one instance the
pattern of a butterfly’s wing has escaped obliteration in the
marlstone of Radaboj ; and when we reflect on the remoteness of
_the time from which it has been faithfully transmitted to us, this
fact may inspire the reader with some confidence as to the
reliable nature of the characters with which other insects of a
more durable texture, such as the beetles, may afford for specific
determination.” Mr. W. H. Edwards, of Western Virginia, in
his work on “ American butterflies,” expresses an opinion that this
species ought to have been referred to the genus Argynnis.. I
have carefully examined the species of the genus which Mr.
‘Edwards considers the nearest living representative of the fossil
‘species Pluzo, in the collection of the British Museum, but fail to
trace in it any but a very superficial resemblance to the latter, of
which it is double the size. My friend, Mr. Butler, refers it to the
enus Junonia, but Mr. Scudder states that the new drawing of
the fossil which he has received through his friend, Herr Brunner
Wattenwyl, leaves little doubt that the insect is a Pierid, and

96

belongs to some genera intermediate between Mylothris and

Hebomoia, and he desribes and figures the insect as Df; ylothrites”
Pluto. The remains of this insect are particularly interesting as

belonging to an extinct genus whose nearest living representatives,

according to Scudder, are to be looked for in the genera Mylothris
and Hebomoia, the former of which finds its highest development

in Africa, while the latter is confined to the Indo-Malayan and

Austro-Maylayan regions.

The remains of the third and last species, Pontia Freyeri ave
also described by Heer and Scudder. The genus is a modern one
which is well represented by existing species, especially in the Old
World.

Lower MIOCENE.

From strata referable to the lower Molasse of Switzerland .

Dr, Heer enumerates thirty-three species of insects, viz. :—

Coleoptera FE as ae 26 species.
Neuroptera dete
Hymenoptera rae
Diptera 1 pages
Hemiptera oe ie!

33

The lignites called brown coal in Germany belong for the
most part to this period, and are often rich in insect remains.

The lignites of Rott in Siebengeberge, near Bonn, are the
best known. From these lignites about twenty-nine species of
insects had been recorded by the year 1856, according to Bronn,
Germar, and Giebel. These twenty-nine species were distributed
amongst the undermentioned order as follows, viz :—

Coleoptera fe oe ox 18 species.
Hymenoptera... fa: = 2 es
Lepidoptera ee cis tr 1 eee
Diptera ... aM me aa Duns,
Orthoptera ne a Res ae
Hemiptera a aoe an PE.

og

In 1859 Carl von Heyden described twenty-one additional
species from this locality, viz :—

97

Coleoptera 1 =. a 12 species.
Hemiptera “a tes wes 1 aed
Hymenoptera Dios
Lepidoptera Pr itigy
Diptera iodisye

21

The subsequent investigations of Prof. Heer, Dr. Hagen, and
Herren Carl von Heyden and Lucas von Heyden have raised the
number of species from Siebengeberge to one hundred and eighty,
viz :—

Coleoptera os a 2k 92 species.
Orthoptera Ba Sec 4 a
Neuroptera at e
Hymenoptera
Lepidoptera
Hemiptera
Diptera

i

CLSULS Oo bo

2?

o| &
i=)

It will be noticed that only two Lepidopterous insects are
enumerated from this locality. One of them is a butterfly
described by Carl Von Heyden as Vanessa Vetula. Of this fossil
_ Mr. E. Scudder observes, “Th single fossil represented by Von
Heyden, under the name of Vanessa Vetula, is preserved on a
- greasy, dark brown, thin, and exceedingly fragile sheet of brown
coal, and is likely to become so affected by weathering as to be
almost or quite undistinguishable in the course of time.” Mr.
_ Seudder further observes that Vanessa Vetulais “the only butterfly
_ yet found from the horizon of the Aquitanian or Lower Miocene
and that it is closely related to Thanaos, a genus belonging to the
_ North Temperate Zones of both Hemispheres. The genera ad-
_jacent to Thanaos are said to be purely American, although tropical
or sub-tropical, and therefore this species looks towards sub-
tropical North America for its relatives of the present day.

In the 10th vol. of Meyer and Dunker’s Paleontographica
q (1862), thirty-one further species of insects are described from
the lignites or brown coal of the Rhine and the Rhone, viz :—

98

Coleoptera a ae 33 20 species.

Orthoptera a oe nbs 1 Feopenee

Hymenoptera eae ag 3 nase

Neuroptera i bd

Lepidoptera Ds he

Diptera Te cr
31

Amongst other deposits of brown coal in which fossil
insects have been detected, may be mentioned those of Von
Sieblos, Stischen, and Salzhausen, from which Dr. Hagen, Carl
von Heyden, and Lucas von Heyden describe about 34 species,
including some gigantic Vewroptera.

The total number of species obtained from the lignites of
brown coal amounted by the year 1863, according to Dr. Hagen,
to 103.

Since that date 142 further species have been obtained from
the same deposits, giving us up to the year 1870 a total of 245
species distributed amongst the undermentioned orders as follows:—

Coleoptera Bie A .. 126 species.
Orthoptera ar ke Me Ga
Neuroptera Bes as aes 16, 955
Hymenoptera ave
Lepidoptera
Hemiptera
Diptera

a a
aocwam
.

.

|

b
res
Cu

During the last seven years numerous additions may have
been made to the list, but if they have, I have been unable to find

any record of them.

To this period (Lower Miocene) are referred the fresh-water
formations of Auvergne in Central France. These formations
are in some places, according to Lyell, partly composed of that
remarkable form of limestone, called “ indusial,” from the cases or
Indusix of the Caddis worms or larvae of Phryganea, great heaps.
of which have been encrusted as they lay by carbonate of lime,
and formed into a hard travertin. These Caddis worms are
abundant at the bottom of fresh-water streams and lakes, and
many of the fresh water limestones of this locality are, according

99

to Dr. Mantell, almost wholly composed of these cases,
cemented together by Calcareo Siliceous matter into stone, which
is much employed for building purposes.

“If we consider,” says Mr. Scrope, “that strata of five
or six feet in thickness almost entirely composed of these tubes
(cases) once extended over a district presenting a surface of many
hundred square miles, we may have some idea of the countless
myriads of minute beings which lived and died within the bosom
of that ancient lake.”

Professor Pictet seems to entertain some doubt as to whether
the tubes or cases before mentioned, of which the indusial lime-
stone is in a great measure composed, were formed by larve of
Phryganea or Caddis worms. He says these tubes are much
- thicker than those formed by Phryganea ; the internal cavity is
much smaller, and they are besides much longer, and more
resemble the tubes formed by certain Annelida.

M. Oustalet has recently made a special study of the fossil
insect fauna of Auvergne, and has published on the subject a
most important memoir, only equalled, in my opinion, in
value by Professor Heer’s great work on the insect fauna
of (Eningen and Radoboj.

The places in this part of France in which the majority of
these fossils have been discovered are Corent, Menat, and St.
terand le Puy. From these localities M. Oustalet states that he
has studied not less than one hundred specimens in the collections
of M. M. Lecoq and Fouilhoux, and the Museum of Natural
History at Paris, or collected by himself during his travels in
Auvergne.

These specimens comprise some forty-nine species distributed
amongst the following orders in the following manner, viz. :—

Coleoptera Bi ee is 10 species.

Orthoptera ae te i Pers:

Neuroptera «xs ats By stk

Hymenoptera Yet

Diptera 1

Lepidoptera LaRES
49

100

The entire absence of any Hemiptera from this list is as
remarkable as the extraordinary number of the Diptera.

M. Oustalet observes that this last feature strikes us equally
in the fauna of Radaboj, in that of Aix in Provence, and especially
in that of the lignites of the Rhine, where the two genera Bibio
and Protomyia constitute a large majority.

The Ants which are represented at Radobo} by fifty-seven
species (of one of which alone five hundred specimens have been
discovered) are entirely absent from Corent. The larve of
Libellula are also very rare there, whilst they form entire slabs in
the CEningen deposits.

Next to the Diptera the Coleoptera are the best represented.

The fossil fauna of Auvergne which have been studied by
M.M. Pomel Aymard, Alphonse Milne Edwards, and others, com-
prises both European and South American forms. The Reptiles
in particular are said to have a more decided affinity than animals
of the other classes with South American species of the present day.

The insects, according to M. Oustalet, form no exception to
this rule, and include like the other classes of the fossil fauna of
Auvergne both indigenous and exotic types. Although, perhaps,
the majority of the species are referable to existing European
genera, there are many others whose nearest living allies are now
comprised in the fauna of Brazil.

There seems satisfactory evidence for believing that the land
and fresh-water conditions of Auvergne during the Miocene
period were similar to those existing in Brazil at the present day,
and this evidence is materially strengthened by the fact that
the fossil flora and fauna of the first named place are very similar
to those now existing in the latter.

M. {Oustalet remarks that at Corent, as at Aix and
(Eningen, the Entomological fauna is in character partly American
and partly Mediterranean. From what has been said it may be
fairly assumed this part of France enjoyed, at the commencement
of the Miocene or Middle Tertiary period, a climate only slightly
colder than that of Brazil at the present day.

101

So far as I can ascertain, the most recent discovery of fossil
insects in this part of France has been made by M. Ch. Brongniart, .
who, in the “Bulletins de la Societe Geologique de France” for
last year (1876), describes a new species of a Dipterous insect,
which he has referred to the genus Protomyia and named P. Oustaleti
in recognition of the very important contributions to our know-
ledge of the fossil insect fauna, of France, made by M. Oustalet.

The genus Protomyia, of Heer, observes M. Brongniart,
contains no living representatives, although it wasnumerously
represented during the Tertiary period, nearly 40 species referable
to it having been described by Heer, Von Heyden, and Oustalet.

According to M. Brongniart, this new species was discovered
in the calcareous Marl of the inferior Miocene formation of
Chadrat in Auvergne. It differs from all previously described
species in the distribution of the nervures, and appears most
closely allied to P. Joannis and P. Bucklandi.

Upper EOCENE.

Nowhere in the Continental formations of this period, with
the exception ef Ciningen, have fossil insects been discovered in
greater abundance than at Aix, in Provence. The town of Aix
is situated in the lowest part of adeep valley, the immediate
flanks of which are composed of a thick fresh-water formation
lying unconformably upon strata of Jura Limestone. The
Fresh-water series consists of white and grey calcareous marls
calcareo siliceous grits, and beds of gypsum.

M. Marcel de Serres was the first to make known to the
_ Scientific world the occurrence of insects in these gypseous marls.
In his “Geognosie des terrains tertiaires,” he enumerates

about eighty genera from this locality, comprising the following
viz. :-—

Coleoptera tes we or 20 genera.
Orthoptera es Me A Git 53
Hemiptera a tide bee Whe rosy
Neuroptera as e: ree 33
Hymenoptera... a ote Tees
Lepidoptera ae ae be. 4
Diptera ... es eA. Me 20. ,,

102

The insects included in these genera were said by Marcel de
Serres, to be all of European forms, and to be mostly referable
to species still existing.

A number of insects from this locality (including some 45
species, collected by Murchison and Lyell) were also described by
Mr. Curtis, in 1829. They consisted principally of Diptera,
Hemiptera, and Coleoptera, with a few Hymenoptera, and one
Lepidopterous insect. According to Curtis, several of the beetles
had their wings extended beyond the elytra, as if they had
been flying and had dropped, and a Chrysomela had the elytra
expanded, from which it would appear that it had fallen upon
the water and been drowned. Other insects appear to have been
imbedded whilst in repose or when walking.

Some eight years later, when Bronn published his “ Lethca
Geognostica,” a great number of other genera had been discovered.
in this locality, for in the second volume of the last named work
the following are enumerated :—

Coleoptera ee a As 33 genera.
Orthoptera oe Ss (ORY?
Hymenoptera... ae os OD ts
Neuroptera af: 234 ee Dies;
Hemiptera st fon ber i ee
Diptera... e date

besides the four Lepidoptera mentioned by Marcel de Serres.
By the year 1844, the researches and investigations of the
Rev. F, W. Hope in this locality, had raised the number of genera
enumerated by Marcel de Serres, Curtis, and Bronn, to one
hundred and thirteen, for twenty of which we are indebted to
Mr. Hope.
For some years after the date of Mr. Hope’s paper the fossil
‘insects of Provence, which had for a time attracted a considerable
amount of attention from geologists and Paleontologists, remained
unnoticed. At length, in 1851, Professor Heer commenced to
study them. In addition to the specimens he himself obtained
during his travels in Provence, he was enabled to study those in
the collection of M. Blanchet, of Lausanne, and those collected
by Sir Roderick Murchison, in 1829.

103

M. Oustalet observes that from these fossils, and a comparison
of their species with those found in the strata of (Eningen and
Radoboj, combined with the study of the fossil flora of these
strata, and those of other Swiss and German localities, Professor
Heer was enabled to form most interesting conclusions on the
climate and conditions of life prevailing at that era of the
Tertiary period in different countries of central Europe.

Of the fossil species from the marls of Aix, Dr. Heer
observes that nine have been found at Radoboj, and four at
CEningen, that is to say, that twice as many species are found
at Radoboj in common with Aix than at (Eningen, although this
last locality is much nearer Provence, and possesses a much
richer fauna, and consequently offers many more points of
comparison. Even those species which are not common to both
Radoboj and Aix, but are confined to the last locality, are most
intimately connected with those of the former.

At the time at which Dr. Heer was writing, the exact
geological position of the gypseous marls of Aix had not been
determined, but according to M. Oustalet they were regarded as
contemporary with those of Montmartre belonging to the
Ligurian or upper Eocene.

From his study of the fossil insects of these marls Dr. Heer
was of opinion that their geological position should have been
somewhat higher up nearer the marls of Radoboj in the Miocene
formation. Dr. Heer’s conclusions, derived almost solely from a
study of the fossil insects of the district, have since been to a
great extent confirmed by the majority of geologists who have
subsequently studied this formation, and although the strata
have not been referred to the same periods as the marls of
Radoboj, they have been placed higher up, near to them at the

base of the Miocene period, almost on a level with the sandstone
grit of Fontainebleau. #

M. Marcel de Serres stated, as I have before observed, that
i the majority of the fossil insects of Aix belonged to existing

104

European forms, and he concluded from this that the geological
conditions of Aix during the upper Eocene period were similar to
those of the present day.

This opinion of Marcel de Serres, observes M. Oustalet, is
far from being in all respects confirmed by recent observations,
for whilst admitting that the fossil fauna of Provence contain a
number of types, if not identical, at least closely allied to those
now inhabiting the Mediterranean basin, it also contains several
forms which at the present day are only represented in the South
of Africa, in Asia, and America.

According to the researches of Count Saporta, the fossil
flora of the period has a more southerly character than even the
fauna. From these investigations of the fauna and flora of the
period we may reasonably presume that the climate of Aix, at the
end of the Eocene and commencement of the Miocene period,
more nearly approached that of the tropics than at the present
day.

One of the most remarkable facts connected with the Aix
formations, and which has perhaps served to render them more
interesting to entomologists than any others from which fossil
insects have been obtained, is that of the nine well authenticated
fossil butterflies from the European Tertiary formations, five of
them have been found here. Of these five species the first
discovered and best known to the world at large is Veorinopis
Sepulta, the earliest notice of which is given by Marcel de Serres
in the “ Annales des Sciences Naturelles ” (1828). Mr. Scudder,
who has figured and described the insect, states that the earliest
definite mention of it is given by Duponchel in the “ Bulletin
de la Société Entomologique de France” in the following words,
““M. Duponchel entretient en suite la Société d’un fait extra-
ordinaire et peut-étre entiérement nouveau dans les annales de
la Science, c’est l’existence d’une impression tres remarquable de
Lepidoptere fossile, qui a été trouvée dans une platriére des
environs d’Aix, et acquise par M. de Saporta, &c.”

105

The species was subsequently described and figured by Dr.
Boisduval. Mr. Butler has referred it to the Satyride, and has
described and figured the insect in his “ Lepidoptera Exotica.”

The second butterfly from these formations is described for
the first time by Mr. Scudder as Lethites Reynesii. It does not, in
his opinion, belong to any existing European genus, and he
mentions Muniola Hermione as its nearest ally among living
European types. This fossil was found by Mr. Scudder in the
Museum at Marseilles, and named by him after Dr. Reynes,
director of that establishment. It appears to have been previously
overlooked.

The third butterfly from Aix is described and figured by
Scudder as Coliates Proserpins. It is in the collection of Count
Saporta. It appears to have been discovered in the strata
immediately beneath the calcareous marls of the gypsum quarries,
and is, therefore, the oldest butterfly from the Tertiary formations.

The fourth insect of this order from these deposits is de-
scribed by Professor Heer as “ Thaites Ruminiana,” who observes
of it, “closely allied to the genus Thais, which belongs to the
Mediterranean fauna.” It is in the collection of Professor Heer,
and has been also described and figured by Mr. Scudder.

The remains of the fifth and last butterfly from the tertiaries
of Aix, or, indeed, from any tertiary formation, consists of a
single forewing, which Mr. Scudder refers to some species of a
genus belonging to the Astyci. Mr. Scudder describes the species
as Pamphiietes Abdita. The remains are in the Marseilles
Museum.

It will be noticed that the remains of all the fossil butterflies
at present described have been found at Radoboj, Rott, and Aix,
all belonging to the tertiary formations ; that the remains of
three species belong to the Mayencian, or lower portion of the
Middle Miocene, the remains of one species to the lignite beds of
Rott, belonging to the Agquitanian or upper part of the lower
Miocene, and the remains of the other five species from the

106

calcareous marls (or strata immediately below the same) of the
gypsum quarries of the Ligurian, belonging to the Upper Eocene
formation. It is, as Mr. Scudder observes, rather extraordinary
that the Upper Miocene beds of (iningen which,*if we except
the amber, have furnished almost more insects than all the other
formations of the world together, and which are more recent than
any of those in which butterflies have been found, have yielded
the remains of only one species of Lepidoptera, and none what-
ever of butterilies.

The most recent investigations of the geological strata of
this district and their fossil insects have been made by
M. Oustalet, who, in 1874, published the result of his investiga-
tions in the second part of his ‘Recherches sur les Insectes
fossiles des Terrains Tertiares de la France.” In this most
important work (a copy of which I have had the honour of
receiving from the Author) M. Oustalet has expressed his in-
tention of doing for the insects of Provence what Dr. Heer has
done for those of (Eningen. Some idea of the magnitude of
the labours which M. Oustalet has undertaken may be formed
from the fact that although the work above mentioned contains
some 347 pages, exclusive of 6 plates, the Coleoptera only are
included in it. Of the insects of this order upwards of 80
species referable to 13 families are described and figured.

The Carabidae are represented by 11 species, the Staphylinide
by 19 species, the Curculionide by 33 species, and the Chrysomelide
by 7 species.

With the exception of the learned Zurich Professor, no
other Paleontologist has produced any works on this branch of
science of greater importance than M. Oustalet.

MIDDLE EOcENE.

To this period Sir Charles Lyell refers the marls and lime-
stones of Monte Bolea, near Verona, in Italy. Associated with
these marls and limestones are beds containing lignite and shale,
which have been described by Professor Unger and Signor

107

Massalongo, and referred by them to the same period. M. Marcell
de Serres alludes to the discovery at Monte Bolca, by Scheuchzer,
of some Neuropterous insects of the genus Libellula.

Scheuchzer’s notice of these insects is also alluded to by Signor
Massalongo, who in 1856 described and figured 7 fossil insects
_ from this locality referable to the following orders :—

Coleoptera... on WE 2 species.
Orthoptera i aoe
Neuroptera ag
Diptera, 2)

7

Although so few insects have been found in these deposits
they have been for centuries celebrated for their fossils, especially
Ichthyolites.

AMERICAN STRATA.

RECENT or Post TERTIARY PERIOD.

_ Tam indebted to Mr. R. M. Lachlan, F.R.S., for an extract
from a paper (in the 5th vol. of the ‘Transactions of the
American Entomological Society”) by Dr. G. H. Horn on certain:
Coleopterous remains discovered in cave deposits (belonging to the
Port Pliscene period) at Port Kennedy, Pensylvania. From
these remains Dr. Horn has identified some 10 species of
Coleoptera.

TERTIARY PERIOD.

The earliest discoveries of fossil insect remains from the
American Tertiary formations appear to have been made several
years ago by Professor Denton in shales in Colorado, near the
junction of the Green and White Rivers. They are said to have
been found in two distinct localities sixty miles apart, the speci-
mens in one place differing from those of another, not only
specifically but in their general character. Subsequent investiga-
tions in other parts of the same region have since been made by
_ Mr. F.C. A. Richardson and also by Dr. Hayden. In a letter
to the Editors of the American Naturalist, Mr. Richardson says :
“J discovered and collected the fossil insects on the Green River,

108

in Wyoming Territory, on the line of the Union Pacific Railroad,
some 40 miles this side (east) Salt Lake City, or, to be more pre-
cise, the locality is 5 miles west of Green River City, and on the
Railroad Track. The shale or portion of shale in which the
insects were found runs in a circle from the N.E. to the 8.W., as
if on the border of a small lake. I also noticed that the fish are
not in regular order, as the insects which cover a space about 2
feet wide and form a ring or belt around the lake.”

On the subject of the insects discovered by Mr. Richardson,
Mr. Scuddersays : “ About 100slabs, mostly of very small size, were
brought away ; these contain at least 175 specimens, including in
that number all the reverses. Of these specimens, 35 cannot be
referred with certainty to any subordinate group, since they
consist merely of abdominal segments, or blurred and distorted
fragments, the. affinities of which can only be rudely surmised.
The remainder are referable to nearly 40 species belonging to the
following groups, mainly arranged in the order of numerical

superiority :—
Diptera 66 specimens—13 species.
Coleoptera 52 as 1s
Hymenoptera 5 AA —3 >,
Hemiptera 4 is — 2 55
Orthoptera 4 43 —2 ,;
Neuroptera 2 2, —2 ,,

Quite recently Mr. Scudder has published a description of
two species of Orthopterous insects from the Rocky Mountain
Tertiaries. The first species Mr. Scudder has described as
Homeogamia ventriosus and the latter as Labidura tertiaria.

Since the date of the last mentioned paper, Mr. Scudder has
published detailed descriptions of 31 species of Coleoptera, most of
which were included in those before referred to as having been
found by Professor Denton and Mr. Richardson, and a few others
of which were found by Mr. Mead or by members of the United
States Geol. Survey.

“Tn this paper,” said Mr. Scudder, “are made known the
first fossil Coleoptera from the Tertiaries of the United States ;

Pe ene ts

109

indeed, if we except some doubtful remains in the red sandstone
of the Connecticut Valley, the first distinctively American
Coleoptera from any formation. Two beetles have been figured
by Heer from the Miocene of Northern Greenland, and these are
all that have yet been described from the New World.”

These valuable contributions to our knowledge of the fossil
insects of the American Tertiaries were alluded to by Professor
Westwood in his anniversary address to: the Entomological
Society of London on the 7th February last, who also stated that
Mr. Scudder had published “the descriptions of several fossil
species of Thripside from the North American Tertiaries,
including two new genera, Lithadothrips and Paleothrips.

Mr. Scudder has very recently described several species of
insects obtained by Mr. G. M. Dawson from tertiary beds at
Quesnel, British Columbia. In addition to fragmentary indeter-
minate remains, there are some 24 species distributed among the
undermentioned orders, as follows :—

Coleoptera... — ... as x 1 species.
Neuroptera td pre mA Koy 33
Hymenoptera... ae doe ds 95
Hemiptera... Red 3 ear 1 es
Diptera... an Riad se ENS!
24
AMBER.

Before closing this paper I must say a few words about
amber and the insects which have been detected in it.

Nowhere have fossil insects been found in greater numbers
or in a more beautiful state of preservation than in this “resinous
and bitumenous substance.” By most geologists amber is con-
sidered as antediluvian, but its origin has been the subject of
much dispute. Some ancient writers attributed it to ants, and some
considered it to be of mineral origin, It is now considered by all
authorities to be of vegetable origin, and to have been formed
from the resin which distilled from certain species of fir trees of
the Tertiary epoch, whose fossilized trunks are said to form the
lignite in which it is frequently obtained. Dr. Berendt and

110

M. Goeppert are said to have discovered proofs that the Prussian i

Amber is the product of a fir tree, the species of which is now
extinct. In some cases the leaves of the Conifere have been
found in amber, and although, according to Dr. Berendt, they
appear to differ from all known species, he thinks himself
justified in ascribing them to the genus Pinus.

On this subject the Rev. F. W. Hope, F.R.S., says, “In a
letter lately received from Dr. Berendt he informs me that the
anotomico-microscopical examination of the wood places it beyond
a doubt that the amber was a Pinus; but of what species cannot
be now known, and that Pinus Balsamea approaches nearest to it
in appearance.”

The period during which this species of fir tree existed is
supposed to have been about the commencement of the Tertiary
epoch. The lignites or Brown Coal formed by it are superior to
the Chalk and inferior to the Tertiary and diluvial gravels and
sands of Germany.

Amber is said to be occasionally thrown on the beach of the
East Coasts of England along with masses of jet, and if not torn
from the bed of the sea may be washed from the Baltic, where
there are regular mines of it. It is also abundant on the shores
of Sicily and the Adriatic Sea and also in the beds of lignite or
Brown Coal in Germany, and is occasionally found in Spain and
France. Dr. Berendt states that he is of opinion “that the
geographical focus of the amber wood was at the bottom of the
Baltic.”

The insects at present detected in amber appear to relate to
species extra European, many of them belonging to tropical
climes, while some approach South America and Indian forms,
They do not appear related to any existing species, and are there-
fore probably extinct, and this seems to be the opinion of Germar
Jussieu, De Jean, Hope, Dr. Leach and others, On this
subject the Rev. F. W. Hope says, “The major part of the
insects discovered in amber exhibit a close resemblance to

111

existing species, and can be satisfactorily classed under published
genera. That any of those which are found in amber are identical
with existing species I do not believe, for out of many hundred
specimens, nay, I may say thousands, which have fallen under my
notice, none have yet induced me to change my opinion that they
are otherwise than of the Tertiary period.”

The number of species of the different orders of insects dis-
‘covered in amber, and according to the list at the end of Mr.
Hope’s paper on “ Succinic Insects” and the investigations of
Sendelius, Berendt, Germar, Bronn, Gravenborst, Ehrenberg,
Pictet, and other writers on the subject, is as follows :—

which includes :—

species from Amber, Waa

Mr. Hope also gives a list of

Of the Coleoptera, about 160 species.

,, Hemoptera, as 11 iy
;, | Neuroptera, - 10 3
», Hymenoptera, ;, 25 34
5, Orthoptera, 35 12 3
» Hemiptera, 4, 15 Ri
,, Lepidoptera, ;, 10 by
», Diptera, i. 22,

species from Copal and Auimé,

Coleoptera 9 species.
Hymenoptera 2 A
Hemiptera 1»

12

In his “Fauna der Vorwelt,” Dr. Giebel enumerates 318

Coleoptera 106 species.
Hymenoptera 14 oe
Lepidoptera 3 a
Diptera 141 .
Neuroptera 28 FE
Orthoptera 4 o
Hemiptera 22 35
318

One of the best accounts of the history and origin of amber
is given by Professor Zaddach of Kénigsberg, an abstract of which
in English, appeared in the Quarterly Journal of Science, for April,
1868; and since then the Rey.

P. B. Brodie has written an

112

admirable paper on the subject of amber and the fossil which its
contains, which was read at the March meeting of the Warwick-
shire Naturalists’ Field Club, in 1871.

The lecture was attentively listened to, and heartily
applauded at the close, and, at the request of the PRESIDENT, a
cordial vote of thanks was awarded to Mr. Goss for his paper.
The very patient attention the meeting had given to it proved
that the research which the lecturer had evidently made was
thoroughly appreciated, and they could not but be surprised
at what he had revealed.—Mr. T. W. Wonror (one of the hon.
secretaries) also expressed his gratification at many of the
matters which had been brought to light by Mr. Goss. Mr.
Goss having announced that the lecture he had given would be the
first of a series of three, which he intended to publish as soon as
they were delivered, Mr. B. LomMAx expressed his opinion that
the series would constitute a most important geological volume.
The conversation was continued by Mr. Dennet and Mr.
Dowsett.

MARCH 22ND.
MICROSCOPICAL MEETING.

This being a general evening objects of interest were shown
under microscopes by Mr. G. D. Sawyer, the President, Mr. T.
W. Wonfor, one of the hon. secs., Mr. S. Aylen, and Mr, A.
D. Michael. Mr. Sawyer exhibited, among other things, a
section of stellate tissue, eggs and larve of moth, and elytron
of the diamond beetle ; Mr. Wonfor, larve of the ant lion, a
lobster insect found in melon pits, and two species of the gnat ;
Mr. Aylen, a shaving of the horn of the rhinoceros ; and Mr.
Michael, coralines in fluid, with extended tentacles, and diatoms
in chain. At a meeting of the Committee of the Society, held
previous to the microscopical meeting, it was decided to offer a
prize of five guineas for the best botanical collection in the

113

following orders, made by residents in Brighton, Hove, and
Preston :—Ranunculacee, Papaveracee, Crucifere, Violacex,
Polygalacez, and Caryophyllacee.

APRIL 12TH.

ORDINARY MEETING.—DR. CORFE ON THE STRUC-
TURE AND DINETICAL CURRENTS OF SPONGE-
LETS AND FIBRILS OF ROOTS.

The object of his communication to the Society was to give
publicity to a series of microscopical appearances on the structure:
and dinetical currents of spongelets and fibrils of roots, which,
whilst they confirm the researches of eminent phytologists on
cyclosis in leaves, stems, and hairs, appear to have escaped
attention in this field of life-germs.

If it is asked, “‘ What inscrutable power presides over the
intricate machinery of vegetable and animal life, of elaboration,.
digestion, and assimilation, whether it be in the tiny weed we
tread upon or the colossal form of an elephant?” we reply
unhesitatingly, electrical force—a force which man has recently
enlisted in his service and has so utilised that he conveys his
thoughts in a few seconds to his fellow-men through a space as wide-
apart as the Arctic and Antarctic seas. He would remind them
that the surface of the globe and the bowels of the earth afford
two mighty currents of this force; the one is moving from us on
the eastern side and is at right angles to the magnetic meridian,
or parallel to the equator, and corresponds to the negative pole of
an electro-magnetic battery; the other, on the Western side, is
moving ‘owards us, and answers to the positive pole, and is.
parallel to the straight line which joins the poles. Every
substance above, upon, and below the earth’s surface contributes
its quota to these currents, some so highly that they are styled
“Paramagnetic,” by Farady; others, being feeble, he called
“ Diamagnetic,” and thus the bosom of our globe is one stupendous.

114

-and infinite reservoir of electrical fluid, oxygen in gases, iron in
metals standing highest in the former, hydrogen and potassium
in the latter.

In contemplating the whole cycle of animal life, they were
at once met by wheels within wheels ; thus they had the vascular
cycle within the skull of a mammal; again, that within the liver ;
and another within the kidney—each one differing from and
independent of the other.

Without further preface he would direct their attention to the
dominant cycle and mainspring of the whole fabric—the venous
blood, ere it reaches the pulmonary heart. What was it they
found? <A black, mephitic, used-up mass, not less injurious to
health than the poisonous “choke damp’, of a coal mine. This
fluid must be broken up, and for that end it was intimately
-dispersed over another, or sub-dominant cycle, the air-receiving
cells, of the extent of whose surface they might form some idea
if they could lay down a delicate scarlet thread at the Town Hall
gates, and carry it over the English Channel to Montpelliér, or
two hundred and eighty miles. This re-vitalized fluid returned
to the central hydraulic engine, and from there it was chased
through the whole arterial frame, whose area was computed to
measure double this length of space.

Look at the cycle of alimentation. Here, again, destruction
precedes reorganization. Food was torn to shreds, triturated,
irolled, ground, warmed, moistened, and soaked with kaloid juice,
-and thus chemically dissolved, altered, and at length swallowed,
thence to be subject to another circular churning, alternately with
_a steady longitudinal kneading before it can pass the gatekeeper
of that mysterious vital laboratory, the stomach, into the intestinal
canal, What did they behold after the mass had received some
finishing touches from those factors of special juices—“ bile and
pancreatine?” “White blood!” travelling upward against the
law of gravitation, to supply the mighty engine of the dominant
-cycle with raw material for its work, which was destined to turn

115

out its 150 ozs. of blood per minute, hour after hour, day after
day, down to the hoar hairs of an octogenarian life. Thus—

‘« From dearth to plenty, and from death to life,

Is Nature’s progress when she lectures man

In heavenly truth, evincing as she makes

The grand transition, that their lives and works

A soul in all things, and that soul is God.”

(Winter Walk at Noon. )

No department of physiology affords so great an insight into-
the process of cell formation as the study of the growth of
-spongelets and root fibrils. Here they caught a glimpse of the
minutest speck of protoplasm, passing into the formation of a
primitive cell-wall and cavity ; further on they recognised colour
in it ; chlorophyl was seen in cells five inches distant from the
axis of the stem ; then above this region, granules of gum and
starch appear. A living plant in its rootlets, and a living animal
in its digestive apparatus, each represents a chemical laboratory,
in which compound bodies were analysed or separated into their
component parts, and recompounded into other substances dis-
tinguished as vegetable or animal products. The proteine bases
might be set forth by remembering the German adverb “Noch”
(yet still more). Give to nature this brief alphabet, and four
other metalloids, the initials of which form our English word
“lips,” and she would bring into being an infinity of nitrates,
_ oxides, carbonates, and hydrates of lime

iron, phosphorus (or
potash) and soda (or sulphur). These four proteine elements
were wholly engaged in working up the compounds of binary and
ternary substances, as starch, gum, glucose ; but when a quarter-.
nary body is demanded, she calls into the service a metalloid, and
produces gluten, albumen, either with sulphur or phosphorus, &e.
This tiny, yet stupendous and ever busy world of eddies and of
currents under ground might be better exemplified by putting
before them the effect which was produced by the clashing

together of two elements forming water. If one pound of hydro--
{ gen, a diamagnetic element, was forced into union with eight
q “pounds of the paramagnetic element, oxygen, the mechanical

—."

116

value, according to Faraday, was equal to the raising of 47
millions of pounds one foot high. Or, take the question of
temperature, and the same philosopher has decided that one
degree of heat (centigrade) was given to 8,000 pounds of water
by the chemical union of a pound of carbon with two pounds and
two-thirds of oxygen. Apply this immense force to the changes
within radiculer cell walls, and the cause of a primitive dinesis
was easily grasped and explained.

The mural claws of the common ivy are both in structure
_and in function similar to radicles, and were only thrown out
between the floral axes. They were altogether absent in
those branches which hang loosely in the air. If moistened
with water, they would observe the globules drawn into
their cul-de-sacs by endosmose, chased through the primoidial
-cells lying around the bases of each tuber, whilst these
suckers (he might call them) were seen to be charged with
starchy, gummy, and mineral grains. The tissue of these claws
was analagous to the vasiform structure, where the cells were laid
out end to end, and agreeably to the functions of ducts, they
were seen to contract also at certain intervals on their contents,
The radicles of “sow thistle,” and a whitish rootlet of “Ranunculus
Acris,” presented globules of a transparent fluid, which chased
one another, per saltem, from right to left at the solar margin of
the field, whilst much smaller globules and opaque non-globular
objects were travelling, pari-passu, from left to right, in a distinct
tube, the former only appearing to move between the cell walls
-and tubules. In another rootlet a cell wall was the cause of a
riotous dinetic action, as it struck him, the result of three or four
roitifere, who were leaping and dancing in hilarious movements
_around their compartment. In a third rootlet the solar marginal
-current was most distinct, and could only be considered as the
effect of endosmosis ; no similar motion was observable in the
body of the object. The leaf cells in the “bog-moss” were
known to communicate, by the fact that the rotiferze passed from
-one cell to another, and even formed habitations in them ; so, in

117

this instance, these animalcules might probably break up
surrounding fibrils for the ulterior processes of organization.
‘The radicles of the sow thistle and onion were severally found to
exhibit a beautiful dinesis, especially the latter, where the reti-
formed cells, spiral tubules, dots of light and darker shaded
granules of chlerophyl, with other globules, formed one of the
most lovely pictures he had ever witnessed.

Life, beauty, elegance, and work were simultaneously
displayed on the field. The day after this examination, chlorophyl
gobules in abundance were formed at the extremity of the tap
root of the thistle, measuring five inches from end to the throat
of the stem.

The value of distinguishing these primitive movements by
the special term “ dinesis” is this, that whereas in the ordinary
progression of latex, whether within the laticeferous vessels or in
those of the liber, the flow was regular, and uninterrupted from
the apex of the whole plant to the base, whether they examine a .
leaf or a stem; and so long as this movement was uninfluenced
by injury to the vessels there was no appearance of a check to this
osciliation. The reason was obvious. The uniformly steady
elimination of oxygen, the fixation of carbon, and general
exhalation of aqueous vapour, are processes over which solar heat
and light maintain calm, equal, and unlimited power. But the
ease was otherwise in radical circulation. Nutriment had to be
sought for and selected by the spongioles ; decomposition of
mineral substances by effete gases was performed, and solutions of
these bodies must be accomplished, excretion of used up products
take place, molecules of starch and gum worked up into “raw
material ”—all these important functions were simultaneously
going on within the cell walls of the rootlets. So that whilst. the
microscopical field was calm for a few seconds, the eye was startled
_ with a sudden leap of the current, here and there, an increased

whirl of the whole, then a halt, and again a movement forward,
accompanied ever and anon with a smart or a slight contraction
of the cell itself. These vital actions concurring occasion eddying

118

of the fluid during osmosis, which were not seen in the study of
the currents through leaves, hence the objection to the term cy-
closis as applied to this radiculer eddy. In the attempt he had
made to exhibit some facts in cytogenesis (cell formation), as ob-
served in spongelets, the life history of the individual cell must
form the basis of their study. But as in this research they found
great diversities of operations, so also varied opinions and ex-

planations on the subject had been given, which have tended to

obscure the mode by which nature carried on her work beneath
their feet. The truth was, that in the vegetable life, as in the
animal, the number of dissimilar tissuesand the differences between
them were as decided as the shape of pollen. Endowments
peculiar to certain plants, as for example, the lofty and woody elm,
must necessarily be connected with “ organs,” that was with instru-
mental structures, which were fitted to develop constituents in the
future tree, but which were uncalled for in the growth of the tiny
weed, or elegant pansy Hower. The great desideratum was a
classification of vegetable life-forms, based on the several modes
by which that life begins and is carried on in the cell walls of the
spongelets of cryptogams, endogens, and exogens, whether, in the
first division, the parent cell discharges young cells, as was the case
with “ Achlya prolifera ;’ and whether the gemmiparous repro-
duction of zoophites is typified in the growth of the rootlet of
a monocotyledon ; and lastly, do the higher form of fissiparous or
cell division in exogens bear an analogy to the reproduction of
infusorial animalcules ? The philosopical botanist of the day felt
that the vast forms of which the vegetable kingdom was composed
rested upon a very unsatisfactory foundation, since, as Dr. Car-
penter truly remarks, “there is no one tribe of plants whose in-
ternal structure, and the history of whose development, have been
sufficiently studied to afford the requisite data for a truly scientific
arrangement.” Let him, therefore, urge upon the members of
this Society to pursue the study of the cytogenesis in spongelets
and fibrils as a relaxation in the intervals of the toilsome avocations.
of daily life, which he was convinced would afford an abundant

ee

119

harvest of novelties, and might tend to have further scientific value
to the present obscure system of botanical classification. Before
them were specimens of the interesting facts connected with cell
formatien in spongioles.

The Dialyser was a thin membrane, a gross representative of
the delicate vegetable cell wall; the contents of the tubes indica.
ted the several gummy, saccharine or starchy fluids within these
cells, and the glasses beneath, with their varied mixtures, set forth
the food which nature or art supply to the spongelets and fibres.
In conclusion, what finite mind could do more than hover around
the inscrutable cycle of human embryonic life with its cells and its
cells.) By what means should one set of vessels lay down the
rudiments of bone, another those of muscle, another the elements
of a future brain, to be the seat of an intellectual Milton or a
Shakespeare? How were these deposited so miraculously in the
exact spot where they would:afterwards be required, and this, too,
months ere they would be called into use. Anon, 270 suns have
gone down on this cycle. The hour was come when irresistible
refley force was roused, innate foetal movements coalesce, and ere
another dawn arises upon this world within a world, a new and
independent life is called forth from that original cryptic cell to
add another illustration of nature’s handiwork that she moves in
a glorious series of circles of wheels within wheels.

The Presipent (Mr. G. D. Sawyer) moved a vote of thanks
to Dr. Corfe, who he said in the reading of his paper had brought
many interesting facts together. He was sure that they would
join with him in thanking that gentleman for his efforts and
for his perseverance in reading his paper, notwithstanding his
great difficulty in suffering froma heavy cold.

In the course of aconversation which followed, itwassuggested

by Mr. Wonfor that the subject should be again brought forward
at their next microscopical meeting.

120
APRIL 19TH.

MICROSCOPICAL MEETING.—ROTATION OF CELL
CONTENTS.

Mr. WonFor reminded the members that, at the last meeting,
it was understood that, at this one, members should bring
forward any slides which should illustrate Dr. Corfe’s paper on
“ Dinetical currents in radicles of roots and their analogues.” At
this time of the year, there were some three plants obtainable,
in which cyclosis, or rotation of cell contents, erroneously called
circulation, might be seen to lesser or greater advantage, namely,
the American pond weed, anacharis, the valisneriv, and nitella.

Dr. Corre asked if it had occurred to Mr. Wonfor what
was the motive powers of these actions—not in the stems, or
leaves, or hairs, but in the roots.

Mr. Wonror remarked that they had only heard Dr. Corfe’s:
explanation; they had not had the opportunity of making
observations for themselves, It would, therefore, be premature
to conclude what might be the causes, whatever they might
imagine.

In the course of continued conversation on the subject,

Dr. Corre wondered why railway companies encouraged
vegetation by throwing up embankments, such as that near
Hassock’s Gate, a spot which had given more trouble to the
London, Brighton, and South Coast Railway Company than the
whole line, in consequence of the sinking of the ground.

Mr. WoxrFor remarked that this was a striking instance of
the fact that while they could not get vegetable life in unmoved
chalk, yet if it were moved they would get annuals, then
biennials, and then perennials.

Soon after the conversation gave place to microscopic

investigation.

121

Mr. Wonror exhibited the rotation of cell contents in
two of the plants he had named; and the Rev. J. BEECHENO,
sections of foraminifere from St. Vincent, Zanzibar, the Gulf
Stream, and other parts.

May 10TH.

ORDINARY MEETING.—Masor HALLETT, F.LS., ON
THE LAW OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF CEREALS.

Thave the honour to appear before you, in compliance witha
request from your respected President, that I should read a paper
upon the above subject, which I will endeavour to treat in the
simplest manner possible. Opinions have differed as to the
number of distinct species, but taking wheat as an illustration, no
matter what the number favoured, the opinion has been in the
main, if not altogether, founded upon such distinction as the

following :—
1 Winter and Spring.

2 Bearded and beardless.

3 White, red, or yellow grain.

4 Smooth and rough-chaffed ears.
5 Composite and simple ears.

At the end of the year 1860, Colonel Le Couteur (afterwards
Sir John Le Couteur), of Jersey, sent me a copy of his well-known
work on Wheat, published in 1826, and also two ears of his Belle
Vue Talavera wheat grown in 1860, asking me to experiment
upon them upon my system, but warning me not to plant any of
the grains in the autumn, as it was a “Spring” wheat and could
not endure the winter. Probably nowhere else in the world
could such a verified example of a “Spring” wheat have been
found, for Le Couteur had himself grown it every year and
always as a Spring wheat ever since the year 1834. From one
of these two ears I picked out ten of its grains, and planted
them in a row in my garden in a very exposed situation, on the
_ Ist November, 1861. Nine out of the ten plants from these

122

grains were killed by the severe frost of that winter, but the
other plant remained perfectly healthy and vigorous to the
following harvest. That this was no mere accident, I proved by
planting the produce of this surviving plant the next Autumn,
the whole of the resultant plants proving as hardy as the parent.
I carried on this experiment for 12 years, always planting the
produce of each harvest in the following Autumn ; it was never
once affected even by the intense frosts of Christmas, 1863, and
February, 1864—in fact, it proved a perfect “ Winter” wheat,
although descended from a wheat which, until I received it, had
for nearly thirty years been planted annually, and never otherwise
than as a spring wheat.

I have given this at some length because it seems to have
been always considered that, whatever difference of opinion
might exist as to other distinctions, this, at least, denoted two
distinct species. This is not difficult to understand, for had this
wheat been sown in the usual way in field culture, nine-tenths
would have perished, and thus have simply further demonstrated
that spring wheat cannot be sown successfully as a “ Winter”
wheat, and is, therefore, entirely different. I have proved the
same as to barley. In fact, itis a mere habit of growth, just as
barley from Lapland, which there in two months from sowing
comes to harvest, if sown here, although it does not mature in
in two months, brings with it its habit and matures much
more rapidly than home grown barley. I am aware that J was
not the first to observe that the winter corn can become spring
corn, and vice versa, but it is indisputable that no one had before
observed that the two can be contained together in the same ear.
Not to weary you I will but briefly refer to some of the other
distinctions drawn.

Here it is necessary to state shortly what I shall further on
more fully explain—viz., that a single grain of a cereal, if planted
suitably, produces a plant consisting not of one, but of many ears.
I have found them upon the same plant from «a single grain,

123

whether of wheat or barley, one or more ears bearded while all
the others were beardless; and in the case of wheat, one ear of
the plant red-chaffed while all the rest of the ears had a white
chaff. Again, a white wheat sown on a fresh soil may at once
‘become red. The composite ear is most strikingly different from
all others in appearance, but I have found the ordinary ears
bifurcated and showing a tendency to the composite ear.

This composite ear is what is popularly called “mummy
wheat,” as having been produced from grains of wheat taken out
of mummies. No illusion could be greater, for wheat will not
germinate after it is ten years old. The Pasha of Egypt, a few
years ago, had this question fairly tried by opening several
mummies and planting the grains from them along the banks of
the Nile, with the result which I had confidently predicted, viz :-—
that not a single grain showed any sign of germination. And
here I cannot refrain from giving you an anecdote relating to a
similar question told me by Dr. Hooker, the present President of
the Royal Society, when staying with me. It was this—The

tomb of a Roman soldier had been opened, and lying in a heap
upon the stomach of the body were found some raspberry seeds.
‘These upon being sown grew and produced raspberry plants
quite indistinguishable from the common English raspberry. So
important was this considered that a book was specially published
upon the subject, and was at once accepted as a standard work
upon it. Subsequently Dr. Hooker was appointed by the
Government (I think he said) to investigate the matter, and this
is what upon close inquiry he found. These seeds had been
exhibited on a tray before the learned Societies at Burlington
House, and side by side with them, to show their perfect
resemblance, a tray of the seeds of the ordinary English raspberry.
_ The numerous savans took up portions of the seeds to compare
them, the two of course became mixed, and the wonder was -
_ exploded.

E Now if, as I have endeavoured to show, the characteristics
supposed sufficiently inherent and permanent to distinguish

124

“species” (not varieties) are upon close investigation in fact by no
means invariable, these, to me at least, scarcely furnish sufficient
evidence to preclude the opinion that all known varieties of
wheat may through long periods of time have sprung from one
common origin. In the very limited knowledge, however, to
which even the best of us can attain, it would be presumptuous
to go farther than this. Any speculations, however, as to the
past of our cereals is but of little practical importance, compared
with those as to their possible future, except, indeed, so far as.
they may tend to leave our minds untrammelled in the investiga-
tion.

The practical question then arises, what should all these
differences (and a further, almost infinite number, of minor ones)
teach us? Surely it is this, that here, as universally elsewhere:
throughout Nature, these variations do not take place hap-hazard,.
but follow the greatest principal of law and order manifested in
all the works of the Creator. Such at least was the view I was.
led to take. That some parent grains must once have possessed
different powers of production is evident enough from the
numerous existing varieties, but it was equally evident that each
of these varieties breeds true to itself. This breeding true,
combined with a perpetual tendency to minor variations, seemed
analogous to the case of a breed of animals, which while keeping
always true to the main characteristics of the breed once estab-
lished, yet admitted of almost unlimited further improvement by
means of the lesser variations ; secured (and added up step by
step) through the great principal of inheritance.

I have said the breed once established, because it is a very
singular fact that in establishing the breed of present improved
shorthorn cattle the colour of the originals from which they
sprung was black, while there is no such thing existing at present.
as a black shorthorn, and the number of instances of the nearest
approach to it, a “blue roan,” could probably be counted upon
the fingers of one hand. Did the same thing apply to the cereals ?
Could we similarly improve each variety, and should we be at a.

125

disadvantage compared with, say, cattle in carrying this out? A
cow, for instance, produces one calf at atime. A grain of wheat
planted suitably will produce at harvest several thousands of
grains. If all these grains are of exactly equal powers there is
no advantage in this, but if they differ, then what a choice have
we in each generation compared with that afforded by the single
progeny of a mare, cow, or ewe. That they do differ became at
once apparent upon the very first trial; indeed the produce of no
two of them seemed exactly alike.

How then is the grain of superior productive power to be
ascertained ? Does it depend upon its situation in the ear? It
was suggested in ancient times that the best grains lay in the
middle of the ear. And this is the only instance of any difference
between the grains of the same ear having ever been even suggested
before my own experiments. Mr. Darwin, in his book “On
Animals and Plants under Domestication,” under ‘“ Cerealia,”
chapter ix., page 314, says :—

“As wheat is an annual, we thus see many trifling dif-

ferences in character are inherited through many generations.
Colonel Le Couteur insists strongly on the same fact in his-
persevering and successful attempts to raise new varieties by

selection. He began by choosing the best ears, but soon found
that the grains from the same ear differed, so that he was com-
pelled to select them separately, and each grain generally trans-
mitted its own character.

In a paper, which I had the honour to read before the
British Association, at Exeter, 1869, I said that if Mr. Darwin
really meant by this what the words imply, that Colonel Le
Couteur grew separately, and in competition with each other, the
grains from the same ear, and similarly the progeny of each

generation after generation (as he must have done to find that
each grain of the original transmitted its own character through
many generations) and, in fact, that he had discovered that the
grains of the same ear differed, it was attributing to Le Couteur’

126

some portion, at least, of what I have claimed as a perfectly
original discovery. Now the fact is, that throughout Le
Couteur’s book there is no mention whatever of his having grown
in competition with each other the grains of the same ear, nor
has he once made any allusion which could lead to the supposi-
tion that he ever had the slightest idea that there existed any
difference in their power. In a letter to me from Jersey,
October 15, 1860, Colonel Le Couteur writes :—

“The great leading principle of my experiments was one
which you have so well accomplished—the selection of the most
productive wheat from a single grain, originally taken from the
finest ear—my further test being to discover that most produe-
tive of the finest meal. Necessarily the variety which would
produce the largest quantity of the finest, whitest, and most
nutritious meal, or rather bread, per acre, would be the most
precious. The Belle Vue Talavera is the produce of one grain.”

What Le Couteur did was to raise a stock from a single
grain and keep it pure. He planted the grains of an entire ear of
each of 14 varieties, and compared the produce in quality and
quantity of the different varieties. This was all he did as to selec-
tion, and it has not the slightest bearing upon my own prin-
ciples of selection. Indeed, the result of his labours was to
establish an arrest of development so fixed that I was quite unable
in ten years’ cultivation of his wheat to obtain the slightest
variation in the direction of additional spikelets or of grains,
although in upwards of 70 varieties from all parts of the world
upon which I had experimented I had never once failed to obtain
such increase, and thus I finally rejected, as unavailable for my pur-
poses, that very wheat which was the final best outcome of Le
-Couteur’s experiments. The simple fact was that he started with
a single grain from a fine ear, and afterwards endeavoured to
keep its produce pure, and by the competitive trials of different
varieties, to discover, to quote his own words already given,
‘that variety which would produce the largest quantity of the
finest, whitest, and most nutritious meal.” He never went even

————

127.

so far as to attempt by selection to increase the size of the ear
of any particularly variety, and thus, as in the case of
the Talavera wheat referred to, unconciously, by frequent repeti-
tion fixed it. In 1858, I investigated this question of the grains
differing in relation to their positions in the ear, by planting
the grains of ten ears on a plan, showing exactly the situation in
the ear of every one of its grains. In fact the planting formed a
diagram of the ear.

The results were that situation in the ear does not supply any
indication of the superior grains. Does it depend upon its size ?
So far as I can learn from actual trial, assuredly not. And here-
I am again unfortunate in Mr. Darwin’s reference to this subject,
for in his last new book on “Cross and Self-fertilization of
plants,” chap. ix., page 354, he says :—

“TLoiseleur Deslongchamp (Les Cereales, 1842) was led by
his observations to the extraordinary conclusion that the smaller
grains of cereals produced as fine plants as the large. This con-
clusion, is, however, contradicted by Major Hallett’s great success
in improving wheat by the selection of the finest grains.”

Now here finest clearly means largest, and this, notwith-
standing that I had sent Mr. Darwin a copy of my paper, read at
Exeter, in which the following occurs upon this point :—

“Frequent trials had also been made of the comparative power
of large and small grains with uniformly the same result, viz. :
That in good grains of the same pedigree, neither mere size nor
situation in the ear supplies any indication of the superior grain.”

It also contained the synopsis of the Law of Development,
which will be given again in the present paper, and which defines
accurately the principles of selection upon which I really do pro-
ceed. Of course I am not imputing to Mr. Darwin anything more
than mere inadvertence through the pressure of multifarious.
subjects, but in the works of so great a writer I cannot see with
‘silent equanimity what I really have done ascribed to another,
while I am credited instead with acting upon a principle in which
I have no reason to believe at all.

128

Can the superiority be ascertained by the mere inspection of
the grains? Again,no. Does it depend upon its superior specific
gravity? Here, I think, the true solution would be found if only
we could accurately determine the relative specific gravity of two
grains (very nearly alike) without destroying their powers of germin-
ution, for it is evident that it would be of no avail to discover the
supposed best grain if by discovering we destroyed it, and thus
prevented our proving by actual growth that it was indeed the
best, as supposed. But in fact we cannot at present determine by
any known process the relative specific gravity of two grains of
wheat without destroying their germinating power. Le Couteur,
page 41, says “It will be recollected that, in order to ascertain
the relative specific gravity of each variety of corn, the number of
grains were noted that exactly weighed a scruple.” But of
course, this is not specific gravity. I have roughly tried solutions
of different densities in order to divide a number of grains into
a rough classification of their specific gravities, and by actual
growth to see whether this held good, but without any distinct
result. The fact is, I believe, that the oily nature of the cover-
ing of the grain prevents accurate and absolute contact, and that
thus the accurate measurement of specific gravity by displacement
becomes practically of no value, for it must be borne in mind
that the difference between any two grains must be excessively
minute. My belief is, and has long been, that the specific gravity
of a grain depends upon, or is at least concurrent with, the
amount of gluten it contains ; that the grain containing the most
gluten possesses the greatest power of supporting animal life, and
that this power is identical with that of vegetable growth.

Leaving, however, the domain of speculation I will now turn
to that of practical experiment and its teaching. Before a
Society like your own, I will not treat the subject simply in its
agricultural aspect, but first endeavour to indicate how, step by
step, I was led up to the discovery of the law governing cereal
growth. Here I may, perhaps, be allowed to explain how it was
that I came to take any interest in the matter. I had suffered

129

from an acute disease which the medical men said any sedentary
occupation, such as engineering, would have greatly aggravated,
and my father happening to have a farm in charge of a Scotch
steward, this seemed to offer the very occupation desired. Coming
quite fresh and ignorant to so novel an occupation as wheat-
growing, I became possessed with the idea that large ears would
produce large ears, and finding, after diligent research, that there
was no recorded experience upon the subject, I at once set to
work to study the growth and nature of the wheat plant. I
determined to treat the plant as if it were an entirely new one,
and planted single grains a long way apart, in order to study
their development. Let us then see, by following its growth,
what the nature of the plant is. A grain of wheat planted at a
certain depth below the surface sends up first a single stem, its
rootlets being simultaneously developed. Shortly after this first
stem appears well above the ground it throws out a succession of
new stems; as each of these commences to form, a new rootbud
is developed from its support ; and as these new stems bend down
and grow out horizontally over the surface, the respective new
roots are correspondingly developed beneath it. The process is
called “tillering.” At the proper season it ceases, the stems rise
to a vertical position, develope their ears, and grow upwards to
maturity. The extent to which this tillering may go may be
gathered from the three following facts as to the roots, the stems,
and the ears produced.
1.—In 1862 I had two boxes made—each two feet square
and two feet deep, having a capacity of eight cubic feet in each.
In each I had a living plant of wheat from one single grain. In
order to show at the Battersea Exhibition of the Royal Agricultu-
ral Society the root development, I had a; large portion of one side
of each box made as a door with hinges. Upon these being
opened it was at once seen that the roots completely filled the
_ whole box and the extremities of the rootlets formed at the side of
the box a dense white mass exactly as do those of a plant left too
jong in a flower-pot not sufficiently large for it.

130

2.—As to the extent of the tillering of the stems, I had a
plant of wheat in May which measured (as across the centre of a
wheel laid horizontally) from the extremities of the leaves of the
longest stems 5ft. 6in. in one direction, and 5ft. 4in. the other.
In other words, it covered a circle of nearly six feet in diameter.

_ 8,—I have now in my possession a plant of wheat consisting
of 153 ears produced from a single grain planted the preceding
autumn, and I have had a similar plant of barley with 110 ears
upon it.

Thus far, asto the general nature of the cereals. Let me
now present to you, as fully as the limits of such a paper as this
permits the results of actual experiments extending over more
than 20 years. The first results obtained were from wheat, of
course of unknown lineage ; for, as a matter of fact, there was no
wheat (except Colonel Le Couteur’s which did not come into my
hands until several years afterwards) which could in any degree
be said to have an authenticated lineage, but I obtained the best
example procurable. These first results at once confimed the .
erude original idea with which I started, viz., that large ears would
certainly produced large ears. But they showed more than this
The grains from the same ear (as was afterwards found in Le
Couteur’s wheat before referred to) were not alike in productive
and other powers.

It was this latter fact which deeply impressed my mind as
opening up a field of inquiry at once much wider and more refined
than any I had theretofore imagined. Were these differences
inherent in the very nature of the plants, or were they merely the
reversions of an uncertain bred race to some former ancestors in its
(unknown) lineage? This question could be solved only by
obtaining a cereal with a known recorded lineage. Pursuing then
this branch of inquiry, I found from repeated trials (and it must
be borne in mind that-in this case each trial means a whole year)
that the powers of the grains from the same ear did not become
equalized, in spite of the fact that the ear itself was now known
to be descended from a succession of best grains (known to have

131

been best by having produced the best plants of the year

following), although these differences were unquestionably reduced
in amount. The fact of these differences being thus found in at
least some degree to be reducible by even such a short series of
experiments led me to expect that they might, as the result of a
much more extended series of recorded breeding, be practically
removed, and the whole brought up at least to the standard of
the then best. But extended trials. showed that although still
further reduced in amount these differences. would still exist.
‘The grains of a large ear produced. large ears. as was anticipated,
but one of its grains (now of known lineage) would still produce
larger ears than would any of the other grains of the ear.

The question then presented itself, was this some law of
nature? I took the best plant of the year, picked out the grains
from each of its ears, and planted the grains of each ear in a se-
parate row, but still always with a like result. A new fact now
presented itself to my notice, viz. ; that the ears of any plant were
invariably unequal. Throughout continued observations and ex-
periments extending over more than twenty years, I have found
only three instances recorded in which there were two ears on a
plant containing an equal number of grains, and one of these related
to the Belle Vue Talavera wheat, which must be considered quite
exceptional as to variation. In both the other instances there
was only a low stage of development, the equally finest two ears
of each plant containing but 59 grains and 49 grains respectively.
In every case where the plant presented an ear containing 60 grains
and upwards, the next best ear was of less contents than the finest
one. In 20 such instances taken consecutively and without’
omission from my journal, and referring to seven varieties of wheat,
the average difference between the contents of the first and second
ears was seven and a half grains. The difference in four of these
instances was only one grain, but in other four it amounted to
from 17 to 19 grains. Thus there is on every plant a best ear,
just as there is in every’ear a best grain. Are, then, the best
grains of each ear of the same plant equal? Actual trials showed

132

that they were not only not equal but that there was one superior
to all the others; in other words, among all the grains of the ears
of any plant there is one ultimate best grain. Further on it was
found that this ultimate best grain of any plant lies in its best ear.

Thus, then, we arrive at last at the following asthe law of
development :
1.—Every fully developed plant, whether of wheat, oats, or
barley, presents an ear superior in productive power to any
of the rest on that plant.

2.—Every such plant contains one grain which, upon trial, proves
more productive than any other.

3.—The best grain in a given plant is found in its best ear.

4.—The superior vigour of this grain is transmissible in different
degrees to its progeny.

5.—By repeated careful selection the superiority is accumulated.

6.—The improvement, which is at first rapid, gradually, after a
long series of years, is diminished in amount, and eventually
so far arrested that, practically speaking, a limit to im-
provement in the desired quality is reached.

7.—By still continuing to select, the improvement is maintained
and practically a fixed type is the result.

A “pedigree” cereal, then, is one re-started from a single
grain every year and thus descended from a long line of single
grains each the ultimate best grain of the best plant of its year
actually proved so (in the year following) by planting all the grains
of the plant in competition with each other. Stated otherwise,
the ultimate best grain of its year is proved to be so by its actually
producing the best plant in the year following. In illustration of
these principles of selection, I now give the following results due
to their influence alone—as the kind of seed, the land, and the
system of culture employed were precisely the same for every plant
for four consecutive years ; neither was any manure used, nor any
artificial means of fostering the plants resorted to.

133

TABLE SHOWING THE IMPORTANCE OF EACH ADDITIONAL
GENERATION OF SELECTION.

Number
of ears on
Length Containing finest
Year. inches. grains. _ plant.
1857 ... Original ear .................. CS OE: (ae
1858 ... Finest ear ........... spauiede GHP patie! O's) sey 110
1859 ... Fimest ear ..............c00e00e Ce EOL SLD, Satan BD
1860 ... Ears imperfect from
wet season ......... on aie eee
1861 ... Finest ear ...................- OE it ee Der BD

Thus, by means of repeated selection alone, the length of the
ears has been doubled, their contents nearly trebled, and the
“tillering” power of the seed increased five-fold. I have given
the results obtained in these particular years—1857-1861—because,
being the first years of the series of the wheat with which I
originally commenced, the improvement was, as already stated, more
rapid, but also especially because increased contents of the ears
was in these selections the sole object sought ; whereas, since 1861,
other points besides the increased contents of the ear governed the
selections, and thus the improvement in this particular was not in
the other varieties, even in the first years of each series, so rapid.

I will now give a tabular statement of the results obtained
over a very extended series of years, in which I shall show clearly
that, notwithstanding the unfavourable years which we have lately
gone through, the effect of the repeated annual selection of the
actual best plants for breeding purposes has been to so raise the
normal standard of productiveness that the contents of the original
ears of each variety (those ears the very best, be it always re-
membered, which could be found anywhere) have practically been
doubled, and this, notwithstanding that the wheat was grown
throughout that long period without once having the advantage
which a change of soil gives. The following table shows the in-
creased contents of ear obtained in four varieties of wheat by re-
péated selection continued in one instance for twenty years.

134

Seay Se ee
nee a s =e
sio| £3 | se
Bena 5 2 5A
© en) >
H u s w
Year.| -25 AS As AS
he ile A hee
o 75 OD Ts O é
co) r= ae ra) FS o) a
1857 | 47
1858 | 79
1859 | 91
1860 | 87*
1861 | 123
1862 | 93 60 53
1863 | 97 90 60
1864 | 59 91 69 32
1865 | 92 81 76 39
1866 | 88 110 86 75
1867 | 76 95 87 61
1868 | 98) |121) 106) 82)
1869 | 111 124 113 74
1870 | 106 111 98 81
1871 | 91 89 114 77
1872 | 71 $92)117 | 105/101 ;+ 102) 96/81
1873 | 83 100 78 74
1874 | 92 98} — |104 81
1875 | 90 92 97 80
1876 | 86) 93 103 84

* Supposed ears imperfect from wet season.

oe ___
Total
Contents of the grains.
original earof each variety 47 60 53° 32 =192
at starting.
Average contents of
best ear annually of
each variety 92 105 102 $1 =380
throughout last 9 years J
of series.
The average productive powers of each kind of wheat is here
clearly doubled.

In conclusion I will briefly explain the practical bearing of these
results. The bushel of ordinary wheat containing about 700,000
grains, by the present practice of sowing two bushels of wheat,
nearly one and a half millions of grains are deposited upon an
acre of land. The number of ears produced upon an acre
never equals this, Whether we plant single grains one foot

135

apart each way, or nine inches apart each way (if we plant
them sufficiently early), or whether we sow one bushel, two
bushels, or three bushels per acre, the number of ears produced per
acre is practically the same. In June, 1874, I was on a visit to a
friend farming some 4,000 acres in the Vale of Eversham, who had
two plots of my wheat—the one planted with single grains twelve
inches apart every way (but not early enough), the other with
grains nine inches apart every way. The ears were magnificent,
but everyone talked of it as the “thin” wheat. He was much

astonished upon my telling him that there were as many ears per
acre on the plot planted nine inches apart (the other plot was not
planted soon enough for the greater distance) as he had on any of
his magnificent fields of wheat drilled with one bushel, or with two
bushels, or with three bushels, per acre, if he could show me any
such. He, his son, and I forthwith proceeded to test the matter,
with the following result, which astonished him even more than
the apparent boldness of my original assertion :—

Ears per
1s In. In. square yard.

Single grains planted (too late) et 12x12 gave... 229
” ” ” 9x9 ahi dO
Drilled October 11 ... 1 bush. per acre ue Pater Salleh
” ” pak, ” 2” 9 22 ee 283

“* Coles’ Field” drilled
end of October 2 ,, Bn Ss (ae GS

‘*Dears” drilled

NOV: Soc. -cecusay eis y 2 jo: se 269
4 | 1080
AVEFage:.s ctaseadius 270

or six less per yard than the number produced by single grains
nine inches apart each way. And this does not fully represent
the whole truth, for many of the stems of the thick sown wheat,
credited each with an ear, would fail to produce one at harvest,

while every one of the stems counted upon the single-grain Bie
would produce a fully developed one.

The Agricultural Returns now furnish us with pretty correct
‘information as to the acreage of wheat grown in the United

136

Kingdom, but until within the last few years we have been with-
out this knowledge. Nevertheless, statements have been for more
than a century past confidently made upon this point, and are
often now repeated by those who are considered authorities upon
the subject. The only foundation upon which such statements
rest are an assumed consumption of so many bushels per head, the
returns as to population, the deduction of the known imports, and
the division of the remainder by the number of acres grown in the
United Kingdom—which number of acres was, until the quite
new institution of Agricultural Returns itself, absolutely un-
known.

What value can be attached to such estimates, which are, in
fact, mere guesses? It is sufficient for my present purpose to take
40 bushels per acre as an excellent and thoroughly good crop.
This gives us 28 millions of grains as the produce of one million
ears per acre, or 28 grains only per acre! And this, for the
purposes of my present contention, is putting the case as strongly:
as possible against myself. For if the average crop be taken (as
supposed) at 30 bushels per acre, the number of grains produced
becomes reduced to 21 millions, or only 21 per ear; while if 1?
millions of ears per acre be claimed, the produce per ear can even
upon a crop of 40 bushels amount to only the same. Butif, while
maintaining the number of ears per acre, we double their contents,
this is doubling the crop, and would save annually the sending
out of the country a sum equal to the interest upon the National
Debt ! Beyond the increased contents of the ears produced in fully-
developed plants, the increased size of the grains alone adds 40 or
50 per cent. to the crop. Thus a bushel of fully-developed
pedigree wheat contains 460,000, a bushel of ordinary wheat
700,000 grains. Theretore, in two crops consisting ot precisely
the same number of grains, that from fully-developed plants would
be 70 bushels against 46 bushels, or 2 quarters against 6 quarts
per acre. So in barley the crop would be from this cause alone 7
quarters against 5 quarters per acre.

As this has been in fact a history of my labour in working

137

out this subject, I should be most ungrateful not to acknowledge
the generous support and encouragement given me from the first
by the Press, throughout my own and foreign countries, as also
by several kind friends, and by none more than the late Mr.
Merrifield, when such support and encouragement were especially
welcome ; but I shared, what is, I suppose, the fate of all pioneers,
meeting generally with obstinate prejudice and opposition for
many years, and that, too, from those who should have been the
very first to give me their countenance. However, I went
steadily on upon the magna est veritas principle, and I am happy
to say this has pretty well all died away, and I now reap a
sufficient reward in finding my system officially adopted by the
Governments of other countries and by agriculturists generally,
abroad as well as at home. I thank you for having so patiently
listened to a paper which has grown under my hands much longer,
and, I fear, more tedious, than I had at the outset intended it to
be.

The PresmpENT, Mr. G. D. Sawyer, on behalf of the
meeting, heartily thanked Major Hallett for his paper, one of
the best with which the Society had been favoured for a long
period.—A long and interesting conversation followed.

The PRESIDENT opened it with a few remarks expressive
of the results of his observation of wheat producing, which led
Major Hallett to state that Jethero Tull said that 90 per cent. of
_a square yard of very thickly sown wheat would be missing at
harvest, and to point out that the development on the stems
ceased as soon as the roots became impeded by crowding—as
soon as, in Darwinian phraseology, there was a struggle for
existence.

In reply to Dr. CorFe, the Major remarked that in all his
experiments he had employed no manure, his object being to
ascertain, so far as he could, the relative value of each grain, an
object whose attainment would be defeated if any substance was
used which might tend to the superiority of one growth over
another, by an unequal distribution of that substance.—Mr. C. F.

138

DENNET highly complimented Major Hallett upon the resolution,
courage, and perseverance, which he had exhibited in carrying out
his experiments.

Mr. W. SAUNDERS made a few remarks which induced the
Major to affirm that there was nothing in his system which should
prevent quantity going hand-in-hand with quality. Neither, said
he, in answer to a question from the President, was much time or
labour expended in following out his system as compared with
that usually spent.

Mr. J. HAMBLIN and Mr. J. E. HASELWOOD were among the
other interrogators, and, in reply to the latter, Major HALLETT
assured the meeting that but for selection the inherent power of
the wheat would belost—theavoidance of over-crowding in planting
was insufficient to retain it.

May 247TH.
MICROSCOPICAL MEETING.

The PresipENtT (Mr. G. D. Sawyer) expressed his pleasure
at hearing that one of the hon. secretaries (Mr. T. W. Wonfor)
was still improving in health, and was expected to be enabled to
get out of doors ina few days. He also stated that Mr. John
Mayall, jun., F.R.M.S., had found such difficulty in getting a lens
which was necessary for the elucidation of the subject of the paper
he had intended reading that night, on “The Microscope : its
Modern Development,” that he was compelled to withold that
paper till their next microscopical meeting, which would be held
on the fourth Thursday in June. Under these circumstances the
meeting would resolve itself into a conversazioné, and would
devote itself to the examination of objects under the microscope,
provided by Mr. J. E. Haselwood, Mr. R. Glaisyer, the librarian,
and himself.

139

JUNE 14TH.

MR. H. GOSS, F.L&., F.GS., &., ON “THE INSECT

FAUNA OF THE SECONDARY OR MESOZOIC
PERIOD, AND THE BRITISH AND FOREIGN FOR-
MATIONS IN WHICH THEIR REMAINS HAVE BEEN
DETECTED.”

I do not propose, in this paper, to make any preliminary
observations on the importance of an acquaintance with fossil
entomology, or on the valuable conclusions bearing upon the
geological conditions of the earth in former ages, which may be

arrived at from a study of insect remains. Such observations

as I had to offer on this portion of the subject have already been
made, in the introduction to my first* paper, an acquaintance with
which I shall presume on the part of all hearers and readers of
this, the second, paper of the series.

In the secondary rocks of this country, insects in a fossil
state are well represented. For our knowledge of them we
are indebted mainly to the Rev. P. B. Brodie, M.A., F.G.S.,
who, as I before stated in my first paper, is the author
of the only book on fossil insects which has as yet been

published in this country. In the determination of a large

number of the insects described and figured in this book, as well
as for some very important introductory observations therein, Mr.
Brodie had the great advantage of the assistance of Professor
Westwood, M.A., F.L.S. We are indebted to Mr. Brodie not only
for the very interesting and valuable work before mentioned, but
also for numerous important papers and notices on fossil insects

‘which have, from time to time, appeared in the “ Proceedings of
the Geological Society,” the “Quarterly Journal of the Geological

Society,” the “Annals and Magazine of Natural History,” the
“Proceedings of the Warwickshire Naturalists’ Field Club,” and

elsewhere. Amongst the names of other contributors to our know-

* See paper on ‘‘ The Insect Fauna of the Recent and Tertiary Periods
&c.,” read before the Society on the 8th March, 1877,

140

ledge of the fossil insects of the British formations of this period,
T must not omit to mention those of Professor Buckman, Messrs.
W. R. and H. Binfield, Professor Morris, F.G.S., Dr. Mantell,
F.R.S., Professor Edward Forbes, F.R.S., Mr. W. R. Brodie, Mr.
C. Wilcox, the Rev. O. Fisher, Captain Woodley, the Rev. Dr.
Buckland, F.R.S., the Rev. J. H. Austen, the Rev. E. F. Witts,
Mr. H. E. Strickland, F.G.S., Mr. Arthur Gardiner Butler, F.L.S.,
Mr. S. H. Scudder, Mr. E. T. Higgins, &c.

The British formations of this epoch, in which insect
remains have as yet been discovered in the greatest number,
are the upper series of the Upper Oolite (ie, the Purbecks)
and the Lias. The only other formations of the period
in which they appear to have been yet discovered in this
country are the Hastings sands, and some other subordinate
members of the Wealden system, the Kimmeridge clay of the
Upper Oolite, the Oxford clay of the Middle Oolite, the Forest
Marble, Great Oolite, and Stonesfield Slate of the Lower Oolite ;
and the Rheetic series between the Lias and the Trias. As yet no
remains have been recorded from the British upper cretaceous
system, the upper members of the lower cretaceous, or Neocomian
system, the Portland stone and sand, coral rag, Kelloway rock,
Cornbrash, Fuller’s earth and inferior Oolite, or from the Trias.
It is needless to say that one must not infer that because no insects
have as yet been discovered in these strata, none existed at the
different geological epochs of their deposition. Either they have
been overlooked, or their absence may be accounted for by the fact
that as these formations are of marine origin, the circumstances
attending their deposition were unfavourable to the preservation
of the insects of the period, and that, consequently, we have few or
no traces of them. Although, as I have observed in my first paper,
the presence of insects in marine formations may in some cases
be accounted for by supposing them to have been driven by the
wind into the sea when in its neighbourhood, or when attempting
to cross it, yet, as a rule, where their remains have been detected
in any abundance in decidedly marine formations, this may generally

141

be considered as satisfactory evidence that land was not far distant
at the time they became embedded ; and the abundance of other
terrestial remains, usually accompanying these fossils in marine
formations, leaves but little doubt upon the subject. One notable
exception to this rule is the continental formation known as the
**Solenhofen Slate” of Bavaria (belonging to the Upper Oolite),
in which the remains of insects are said to be mixed up, almost
exclusively, with the débris of the marine animals and plants.
Numerous lacustrine deposits have been discovered in the middle
of the marine formations, constituting the greater part of the
Jurassic system, which are supposed to indicate the situation of
ancient islands. If this supposition be correct, the presence of the
remains of terrestrial animals and plants in marine formations is
easily accounted for.

Before proceeding to review the various strata of the period
in which fossil insects have been detected, I think it may not
be out of place to call attention to the striking difference in the
state of preservation of the insects from English formations to
this period, with that of those from one of the most important of
the foreign formations (i.¢., the Solenhofen Slate). On the
subject of the deposition of the Solenhofen insects, I cannot do
better than quote Dr. Hagen,* who observes, “on comparing the
insects of Solenhofen and Eichstadt with those of England, there
appears, in the first place, a difference which may possibly admit
of interesting inferences ; the insects of the Bavarian strata are
almost universally preserved entire; wings, legs, head and
antenne are in their proper places; most of the Libellule have
their wings expanded. He who has noticed on the sandy shores
of the Baltic how depositions of insects are now taking place, will
admit that the insects of the Solenhofen strata were already dead
when deposited.” The insects would be, as now, driven by the
wind into the sea, thrown on the shore dead or dying, and there

*See a paper read by Dr. Hagen before the Geological Section of the
British Association at Manchester, September, 1861, and see the
Entomologists’ Annual for 1861.

142

gradually covered with sand by the rippling waves. That this
process took place gradually and slowly in the Solenhofen strata,
is evident also from another circumstance, for we frequently find
the cavities of insects, the head, thorax, and body filled up with
regular crystals of calcareous spar. Hence the pressure of the
stratum overlying the insects must have been very slight, when
such delicate parts as the abdominal segments of a dragon fly
could oppose resistance for a sufficient length of time to admit of
the formation of crystals. Naturally there do occur, here and
there, in the Solenhofen strata, impressions of insects obtained in
a different way, which admit of the idea of a very heavy pressure
from the superincumbent strata; yet these specimens are scarce,
and form only a small proportion of the entire number.” Now
the state of preservation of fossil insects from English strata of
this period is, as Dr. Hagen goes on to observe, in strong
contrast to that of the Solenhofen insects. The fossil insects
from English strata are seldom entire, and their remains generally
consist of single wings, or parts of wings. The imperfect con-
dition of the English insects may be accounted for by supposing
that their deposition did not take place gradually and slowly, like
that of the Solenhofen insects, but only after they had for a long
time been tossed about by storms or other commotions, or
remained for years soddening in water. It may seem almost
incredible that such fragile things as the wings of insects should
have been preserved to us at all, except under extremely favour-
able circumstances ; but, according to Dr. Hagen, the wings of
insects are almost indestructible in water, and he states that he
“has kept the wings of dragon flys in water for years without
observing the slightest change in their texture.” On the
Continent of Europe, so far as present researches enable us to
judge, the secondary rocks do not, as a rule, appear to contain
fossil insects in any abundance ; but to this rule the Solenhofen
slate of Bavaria, and the Lias of Schambelen in the Swiss Alps,
form a striking exception. For our knowledge of the fossil
insects of the Solenhofen slate we are indebted chiefly to

a hl

—— =

143 5

Professor Germar,* Count Munster, and Dr. Hagen. To Dr.
Hagen we are especially indebted for making us acquainted with
the numerous gigantic Newroptera obtained from this formation.
To Professor Oswald Heer we owe our knowledge of the fossil
insects from the Lias of the Swiss Alps. This indefatigable

savant, in comparison with whose labours in this particular branch

of science those of other paleontologists sink into comparative
insignificance, has obtained from Schambelen about 2,000
specimens of insects, comprising 143 species. A most interesting
account of these insects and of the strata in which they have
been found is given by Dr. Heer in his Urwelt der Schweiz,” an
English translation of which by Mr. W. S. Dallas, F.L.S., edited
(with some additions) by Mr. J. Heywood, F.R.S., has recently
been- published. With the exception of one insect from the
Swiss carboniferous system and five from the Trias, these insects
from Schambelen are the most ancient in Switzerland, and
consequently possess great interest. Among the names of other
students of, and writers on, the fossil insects of the continental
formations of this period, must be mentioned Schmiedel, Schroter,
Esperm, Van der Linden, Van Buch, Von Meyer, Dr. Geinitz,
Marcel de Serres, Professor Bronn, Professor Pictet, Dr. Giebel,
and Herr Weyenberg. _I will now review, as briefly as possible,
in the descending order of geological succession, the various strata
of this period, in which insect remains have been detected, and the
several orders and species to which such remains have been
referred. The English strata and their remains will be treated of
before proceeding to those of the Continent.

BRITISH STRATA.
FLOWER CRETACEOUS OR NEOCOMIAN.

In the Lower Cretaceous or Neocomian system remains of
insects are extremely rare and confined, so far as present in-
vestigations enable us to judge, to the very lowest members of
Epa RE) © fT oe

* Ueber die Versteinerten: Insecten des Juraschiefers von: Solenhofen,
1837. f

144

the series. The first remains recorded from these strata were
discovered in the neighbourhood of Hastings by Messrs. W. R. and
H. Binfield. They consisted of a few minute elytra and fragments
of Neuropterous wings, and were obtained in the courses of iron-'
stone exposed near low water mark, at a place called the
“ Govers,” near St. Leonards-on-Sea. Above the course of the
ironstone, in a bed of dark coloured shale, many elytra were.
found, as well as traces of wings of Coleoptera, Neuroptera, and
Diptera. A few fragments of Coleopterous elytra have also been
discovered in the Wealden marlstone, from between Tonbridge and
Maidstone, and are mentioned by Dr. Mantell. In the proceedings
of the Geological Society for 1854, Professor Westwood alludes to
the discovery, by Professor Edward Forbes, of some traces of fossil
insects in the Hastings series of the Isle of Wight, and of a few
doubtful specimens, by Mr. W. R. Brodie, in the Wealden series
of Punfield Bay Swanage.

Upper OOLITE.
PURBECK BEps.

In Mr. P. B. Brodie’s valuable and interesting work on
‘The Fossil Insects of the Secondary Rocks of England,” these
beds are referred to the Wealden formation; but modern
geologists are of opinion that in consequence of the organic
remains discovered therein, the Purbeck series has a close affinity
to the Oolitic group. It may, therefore, be considered the newest
or uppermost member of that formation, instead of the oldest or
lowest member of the Wealden formation. The “ Purbeck beds”
are of freshwater origin, and are so named from the Peninsula
of Purbeck in Dorsetshire, in the cliffs of which they were first
studied. These beds are of but limited geographical extent in
Europe, but they are of great geological importance, on account of
the succession of * three distinct sets of fossil remains which
they contain, these again differing from the fossils of the

Dorsetshire Purbecks, by Professor Edward Forbes, British Association,
Edinburgh, 1850.

145

overlying Hastings sands and Weald clay. This series is best
seen at Durdlestone Bay near Swanage, at Lulworth Cove, and
the neighbouring bays between Weymouth and Swanage. The
Purbeck beds were divided by Professor Edward Forbes into the
upper, middle, and lower. It is from the middle and lower
divisions that the greatest quantity of insect remains have been’
‘recorded, These remains have been discovered principally by the
Rev. O. Fisher, Mr. W. R. Brodie, Captain Woodley, Mr. C.
Wilcox, and especially by the Rev. P. B. Brodie, of whom
Professor Westwood observes that, “from his attention having
been especially directed to this branch of the subject, he has been
highly successful in detecting minute fragments of insect remains
in small slabs of stone, which would to a less educated eye have
been passed over as destitute of any traces of ancient animal
life.” *In the “Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society ” for
1846, Mr. Brodie recorded the discovery of a few imperfect’
remains of insects in Purbeck strata, in the neighbourhood of
Swindon, Wilts. A large collection of insect remains, consisting
of one hundred and eighteent small slabs, containing many
specimens, was made by Mr. Brodie from the middle Purbeck of
Durdlestone Bay, Dorsetshire. These remains included elytra,
bodies, and wings referable to Coleoptera, Orthoptera, and Diptera,
and portions of wings of Newropterous insects of doubtful family.
A number of specimens of fossil insects were obtained by the
Rev. O. Fisher from the Ridgway Quarries near Dorchester,
belonging to the lower Purbecks. A large collection of fossil
insects was also obtained by Mr. Wilcox from the Purbeck beds
near Swanage; the collection consisted of some 60 slabs, each
containing a number of remains. Professor Westwood says these
remains included a very extensive series of elytra of Coleoptera,
including Buprestide and Harpalde, also fragments of the wings
of Libellulide, Blattide, Tipulide, &c. A small collection of

* Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society,” 1846, vol. IIL,.
pp. 53-54.
+ ‘Proceedings of the Geological Society,” 1854.

146

insect remains, twenty-two in number, was made by Mr. W. R.
Brodie, of Swanage. Professor Westwood states that these
remains included Elateridw, Helopide, Curculionide, and the wing
of a gigantic Ant, which, in its perfect state, must have measured
at least two inches across the expanded wings ; it is most nearly
allied to some of the exotic forms of which Myrmica is the type
in temperate regions. ‘The discovery of such an insect,” says
Professor Westwood, “is of the highest importance in respect to
the question of the geographical range of the insects embedded in
the lower Purbeck series.” The largest collection of insect
remains from the lower Purbecks was made by the Rev.
P. B. Brodie. “It consisted,” says Professor Westwood, “of
three hundred and fifty small slabs of stone of various sizes.
Upon many of them only a single fragment of an insect occurs ;
but upon a considerable number, the remains are very numerous,
the fragments being crowded together, and often lying one upon
another.” These remains, of course, included quantities of elytra
of Coleoptera, and also wings and wing covers of Newroptera and
Orthoptera, and two wings supposed to be Lepidopterous. The very
fragmentary nature of these insect remains rendered the identifica-
tion of the majority of them a matter of impossibility, but from
Professor Westwood’s paper in the proceedings of the Geological
Society for 1854, and the list of species in Dr. Giebel’s* “Fauna
der Vorwelt” some eighty-six species seem to have been
«determined, viz. :—

Coleoptera... ae ae 3 45 species.
Orthoptera re ie a 1D er
Neuroptera si we! Res 10_=C*=»“;
Hemiptera sae “ee ses 1 A
Diptera... ome ae ae ae
Hymenoptera... by: se Dil sy,
(supposed) Lepidoptera 2 »

‘The two supposed species of Lepidoptera were respectively named,
by Professor Westwood, Cylloniwm Boisdwvatianum, and C.

* Fauna der Vorwelt, pp. 187, 393, and 426.

147
Hewitsonianum. Both species are included by Dr. Giebel in his.
list. On the subject of these supposed remains of Lepidoptera
‘Mr. Scudder observes : “I have not been able to find, even with
Mr. Brodie’s help, the first specimens referred to; but an
examination of the original of the latter proved that while it is
unquestionably an insect it cannot be referred to the Lepidoptera.
As the figure of the first species clearly resembles, in this
particular, the one I have seen, I am forced to the conclusion
that neither of these wings are Lepidopterous. Plainly, the only
reason why a new generic name was appended to these forms, was.
that their remains were too fragmentary to afford the slightest
guess as to what modern genus they might be referred.” All
geologists are, of course, aware that the formation known as the
“ Purbeck Beds” occurs not only in the peninsula of Purbeck in
Dorsetshire, but also in some parts of Wiltshire and Buckingham-
_ shire, and elsewhere. This formation in the vale of Wardour in
Wiltshire, consists, according to Mr. P. B. Brodie, of a series of
clays, white limestones, grits, sandstones, coarse blue limestones,
and fine white slaty limestones. In this last-mentioned limestone,
insect remains have been detected in such abundande, that it has
“been called, both here and in Dorsetshire, the “Insect Limestone.”
‘It is described as being of a somewhat coarse texture, often white
at the edges, and of a blue colour towards the centre, where it
becomes fine grained and harder, and then joins into a thin white
‘slaty limestone, very fine grained and having a laminated structure.
It was chiefly from these strata in the vale of Wardour in Wilts,.
and the vale of Aylesbury in Bucks, that the large collections of
fossil insects were obtained which furnished materials for Brodie’s
“History of the Fossil Insects in the Secondary Rocks of
England,” before referred to. Out of some two hundred and
forty specimens, or parts of specimens, from these formations,.
‘seventy-four * were figured by Professor Westwood in the work
last mentioned. The very fragmentary and imperfect condition

* Introductory observations to Brodie’s ‘‘ Fossil Insects,” by Professor
J. O. Westwood, M.A., F:L.S., &e.

148

-of a great quantity of the insect remains discovered in these
formations rendered it impossible, even for so skilled an entomolo-
gist as Professor Westwood, to determine, in many cases, the
species, or even the orders, to which they belonged. A great
many have, however, been identified, and, according to the lists
given by Mr. Brodie in his “ History of the Fossil Insects in the
Secondary Rocks,” and by Dr. Gliebel in his “ Fauna der Vorwelt”
(Insekten and Spinnen), the following orders are represented by
some sixty-four species, distributed amongst them in the
following proportions, viz. :—

Coleoptera... Ee oe xe 18 species.
Orthoptera ace 38 She 10°
Neuroptera ae Lae ee Oi or
Hemiptera ae 4 re 14 ~=~«C«z
Diptera... oe ac Ed 1s 3

64

The Coleoptera appear to have been very well represented,
-and to have included Buprestide, Carabide, Curculionidae.
Chrysomelide, Elateride, Cantharide, Tenebrionide, and Halophoride,
Professor Westwood also detected amongst the insect remains
from this formation Cercopide, Cimicide, Tipulide, Simulium,
Blatta, Aphis, Acheta, Of the species which have been determined
a large proportion are said to be herbivorous, and as the remains
-of plants are stated to be abundant in this formation, we have
reason for believing that the flora of the period was luxuriant.
Some of the species detected are certainly not herbivorous, but
the number of species which are vegetable feeders implies some
_abundance of carnivorous or predaceous ones. On the subject of
the remains from the Dorsetshire Purbecks, Professor Westwood
observes, “‘ With the exception of the dragon flies, of which there
_are as many as 34 fragments of single wings (from, which however,
it is impossible to affirm either a moderate or tropical climate)
and of a large Ant wing, it is worthy of remark that the whole of
these remains, not fewer than 700 or 800, are those of minute
insects, not more than a fourth or a third of an inch in length.”
Further on inthe same paper hesays, “If we take intoconsideration

149

the small and even minute size of the great majority of the insects,
and, indeed, of the whole of the Coleoptera which have been passed
under review, the idea that we have before us the wreck of an
insect fauna of a temperate region is at once raised ; for, although
it would be rash to assert that a mass of the existing tropical
insects might not be accumulated in which a large quantity of
minute beetles and flies would not be present, yet I cannot conceive
any process either arising from currents of water or chemical disso-
lution of insect matter, which would carry off or destroy the many
gigantic forms of insect life always occurring in the tropics. The
fossils before us show abundant evidence of the presence of numbers
of lignivorous species such as Elateride and Buprestide ; but we
nowhere find amongst them traces of the great Lamellicorn and
Longicorn Beetles. Herbivorous insects also occur in considerable
numbers, but we do not meet with the gigantic Grasshoppers and
Locusts of tropical climates.” Professor Westwood goes on to
observe that the question of by what means such masses of insect
remains could have been brought together, as are found in the
slabs of stone from this formation, is one for Geologists to decide.
Entomologists, however, are aware that sudden inundations, or
the rapid rising of rivers, are sure to bring with them vast numbers
of insects, which are carried away by currents in vast numbers, and
congregated together in masses. It appears, according to Professor
Westwood, that with the exception of the gigantic winged ants
and the wings of monster dragon-flies, that there is a very general
conformity between the insects from the Dorsetshire Purbecks and
those of Wilts and Bucks. There would, however, appear to have
been a great difference in the manner of disposition of the strata
-of the two districts, as evidenced by the remarkable contrast
presented by the state of preservation of the insect fauna of the
Wiltshire Purbecks, and that of the insect fauna of the Dorset
Purbecks. In the former, numbers of specimens are in a fair state
of preservation, while in the Jatter, the remains consist of almost
always of fragments of wings, elytra, or bodies. It appears from
_a careful examination of the fossil insect remains from these for-

150

mations, that the insects of this age are, with a few exceptions,
closely allied to forms now in existence, a result, upon the whole,
as Mr. Brodie observes, “ quite the reverse of that which we are
led to infer from the rest of the fossils of the Secondary Rocks.
Thus while we have in the Purbecks many strange and extinct
races among other divisions of the animal kingdom, the insects
which accompany them are more nearly related to existing genera,
and present, upon the whole, a decidedly European character ;
indeed, the greater part must have been of the inhabitants of a
temperate climate, although some few were adapted to a much
higher temperature. This is the more remarkable because the
colossal saurians, palms, and tree ferns in these strata,
evidently belonged to a hot country. It is true that these
are chiefly confined to the upper division ofthis deposit”
(i.e., the Wealden proper); “but many of the fossils in the
lower or Purbeck beds are equally conclusive in the matter,
as the remains of the Megalosaurus, crocodiles, turtles, and
cycas clearly prove.”
KIMMERIDGE CLAY.

Below the well known Portland stone, so extensively
quarried for building purposes, is a dense bed of sand called the
Portland sand, immediately below which is the Kimmeridge clay.
The Kimmeridge clay is said by Lyell to consist, in great part, of
a bituminous shale, sometimes forming an impure coal several
hundred feet in thickness. At Ringstead, in Dorsetshire,
according to Mr. Brodie, this clay is traversed by a bed of sandy
laminated stone about two feet thick, and this is succeeded by
thick strata of dark coloured shale and clay, containing large
blocks of Septaria, in one of which Mr. Brodie discovered a
striated elytron of a small beetle. With this exception, I find no
record of the discovery of any insect remains from this part of
the Upper Oolite system.

MIDDLE OOLITE.
OxForD CLAY.
The Oxford clay consists principally of laminated beds of

151

blue clay, including in some places, subordinate courses of lime-
stuuc culled Kelloway rock. The only trace of insect remains
from this division of the Oolitic group is the supposed larva of
an insect, found by Mr. J. C. Pearce, near Christian Malford,
which Professor Westwood thought might possibly be referred to
a Libellula. As the Oxford clay is supposed to have been
deposited in a deep sea, remains of insects are hardly to be
expected in it.

LOWER OOLITE.

FOREsT MARBLE.

The forest marble is found immediately below the cornbrash,
and belongs to the upper series of the Lower Oolite. It is said
to be composed chiefly of thin fissile and slaty oolitic limestones,
divided by clays, sometimes by sand and grit. The only record
of the discovery of fossil insects from these strata is made by Mr
P. B. Brodie, who states that in some of the quarries in this
series, at Farleigh, near Bath, he found a few elytra of small
beetles. They are undescribed.

GREAT OOLITE.

In the list of fossil insects at the end of Mr. P. B. Brodie’s
paper on “The Distribution and Correlation of Fossil Insects,”
&c., I find a record of elytra of Coleoptera from the Great Oolite
formation, in the eastern moorlands of Yorkshire. The discovery
of these remains is also alluded to by Dr. Mantell in the “ Medals
of Creation;” by Dr. Buckland in the “Bridgwater Treatise ;”
by Mr. R. C. Taylor, in the III. Vol. of “Loudon’s Magazine of
Natural History ;” and by Messrs. Young and Bird, in their
“Geology of Yorkshire.” In a note at page 379 of the
“ Geological Proceedings for 1854,” reference is made by Professor
Westwood to a fossil insect having been met with by Professor
Morris in the Great Oolite of Lincolnshire.

STONESFIELD SLATE.

The Stonesfield slate lies at the base of the Great Oolite, and
is found chiefly in Oxfordshire and in the Cotteswold Hills,
Gloucestershire, though there are, I believe, similar beds at Ketter-

\ 152

ing, Northamptonshire, and near Stamford, in Lincolnshire. Tt is
described by Lyell as “a slightly oolitic shelly limestone, forming
large lenticular masses, embeded in sand only six feet thick, but
very rich in organic remains.” Mr. Brodie says the (Stonesfield)
slate beds are largely developed in the north east of Gloucester-
shire, and have been traced from Wooton-under-edge to the neigh-
bourhood of Burford. From thence they may be followed in a
more northerly direction, and are well exhibited near Bourton on
the Water, Upper Slaughter, Stow-on-the-Wold ; and on the west
at Eyeford and Maunton to their farthest limit in this direction
at Sevenhampton, six miles east of Cheltenham. The remains of
insects in this formation appear to be almost confined to a few
families of Coleopiera, and they are generally in a very fragmentary
condition, and consequently most difficult to determine. In the
second volume of the “Geological Proceedings,” Dr. Buckland has
described the wing of a large Neuropterous insect from the
Stonesfield slate, which has been named Hemerobioides Giganteus.
In the list at the end of Mr. Brodie’s paper on “The Correlation and
Distribution of Fossil Insects ” before mentioned, another specimen
of a Newropterous insect is mentioned (Libellula Westwoodii) besides
two large wings, referred to the Libellule, which were found at
Eyeford on the Cotswolds by Mr. Brodie. The remains of
Coleoptera from this slate have been referred by Brodie and West-
wood to some seven families, including Buprestide, Curculionidae,
Coccinellida, Prioniide, Blapside, and Pimeliide. By far the most
interesting insect fossil from the Stonefield state is the wing of a
large insect, which Mr. Butler, Professor Westwood, and Mr.
Bates believe to be Lepidopterous. In the proceedings of the
Entomological Society of London, for 1872, we find the
following notice of its exhibition at a meeting of that Society.
“Mr. Butler exhibited a remarkably perfect impression of the
wing of a fossil buttertly in the Stonesfield slate. It appeared to
be most nearly allied to the now existing South American genus
Caligo. Mr. Butler subsequently named the species to which he
referred this fossil Paleontina Oolitica, and described and figured

153

it in his “Lepidoptera Exotica.” I quote his description—
_ “Though a British insect, this species belongs to a group so
completely tropical that I do not hesitate to describe and figure

it in the present work ; its nearest allies are the genera Calligo,
Dasyophthalma, and Brassolis, all three essentially tropical
American genera, LP. Oolitica is especially interesting as being the
oldest fossil butterfly yet discovered ; the most ancient previously
known to science having been found in the Cretaceous series
(white sandstone of Aix la Chapelle)” (this is an error of Mr.
Butler’s ; the insect was found at Aix in Provence, in strata be-
longing to the Upper Eocene period) “whilst the bulk of the
known species are from the lower Miocene beds of Croatia ; it is
also interesting as belonging to the highest family of butterflies
and to a sub-family intermediate in character between two others,

: ) viz., the Satyride and Nymphali, whilst the more recently dis-
covered fossils are referable, with one exception, to the two latter
groups. The nervures appear to have been impregnated with
iron, which will partly account for their well defined condition.”
Mr. Scudder, who states that he carefully examined the
original fossil, considers Mr. Butler to be in error in referring
this wing to a Lepidopterous insect, and is of opinion that it should
be considered Homopterous rather than Lepidopterous, and allied to
Cicada. Mr. Scudder’s opinion is presumedly formed from a
careful study of the neuration of the wing and a comparison of
the neurations of Lepidoptera with those of Cicada. Mr.
Scudder’s views on the subject are given at length in his “ Fossil
Butterflies,” pages 90-95, but time will not permit me to quote
them. Mr. Butler has himself directed my attention to the
neuration of this wing, and also to that of some of the Cicade in
the British Museum Collection, and, from a comparison of the
wing with these insects, I am inclined to agree with Mr. Butler,
who in his view is supported by Professor Westwood and Mr.
Bates. It will be observed that Mr. Butler refers this wing to a
butterfly of a tropical species, which is quite consistent with the
‘general character of the large Neuropterous wings and Bupresti-

154

dean elytra of the Stonefield slate, which is stated by Professor
Westwood to be “ decidedly tropical.” Probably Mr. Scudder is
somewhat prejudiced by the opinion which has, according to M.
Preudhomme de Borre, always prevailed amongst Continental
Naturalists, viz., that the order Lepidoptera was the last created,
and that none existed prior to the Tertiary epoch. I believe that
the same opinion is also held by such English entomologists as
have given the subject their attention. Sir John Lubbock, F.R.S.,
in his “ Origin and Metamorphoses of Insects,” observes, ‘ Well
characterized Orthoptera and Neuwroptera occur as early as the
Devonian strata ; Coleoptera in the coal measures ; Hymenoptera,
Hemiptera and Diptera in the Jurassic; Lepidoptera, on the
contrary, not until the Tertiary.” M. Oustalet appears to form an
exception to Continental Naturalists, in his view of the probable
date of the apparition of the Lepidoptera on the Geological
Horizon. At page 26 of his “Recherches sur les insectes fossiles,”
he gives the Upper Oolite (Epoque de Purbeck) as the period
during which this order first appeared. Since the date of the
discovery of P. Oolitica, another fossil butterfly is stated to have
been discovered in the Stonesfield slate of Oxford. This second
specimen is said to be in the possession of Mr. Parker, of Oxford,
but has not yet, I believe, been figured or described.
Lias AND RHETICS.

The Lias, including therein the Rheetic series, is in this
country the lowest formation of the secondary rocks in which
fossil insects have been detected. It is of great extent in this
country and generally rich in remains. It consists of Argillaceous
limestones, shell, marls, and clays, and is in England divided into
three formations, viz., the Upper, Middle, and Lower, and is for
the most part of marine origin. Sir Charles Lyell states that
some members of the series, especially in the lowest part of it,
have an estuarine character, and must have been formed within
the influence of rivers. In some sections of this formation insect
remains have been detected in such abundance that the beds
containing them have, as in the Purbeck strata, been called the

155

“Insect Limestones.” The remains of insects have been found
chiefly in the lower division of this formation in Gloucestershire,
Worcestershire, Warwickshire, Somersetshire, and on the borders
of Monmouthshire, and a few in Yorkshire. They are generally
in a much more fragmentary condition than those from the
Purbecks, and, although abundant, are less common than in the
latter formation. Mr. Brodie states that he first discovered these
interesting fossils in the immediate neighbourhood of Gloucester.
He also states that some of the beds of limestone in the lowest
division of the Lias, in the vale of Gloucester, abound in insects,
and that beautiful specimens of insect remains, chiefly elytra and
wings, have been found in the Upper Lias at Dumbleton and
Alderton. In this locality (Dumbleton), which is about twelve
miles north-east of Cheltenham, Mr. Brodie obtained from the
Upper Lias shales one nearly perfect Newropterous insect, of which
Professor Westwood says: “It possesses an arrangement of the:
wing veins differing from that of any English species, and also
from any foreign species known to me, but it comes nearest to the
small Libellule forming the genus Diplaz. In the Upper and
Middle portions of the Lower Lias, which are extensively
_ developed in the neighbourhood of Gloucester and Cheltenham,
traces of insects are said to be exceedingly scarce, but at Wainlode
Cliff, on the banks of the Severn, near Gloucester, the insect
_ limestone has produced, according to Mr. Brodie, remains of
_ several genera of Coleoptera, which are not very rare ;, and a few
wings not unlike those of the genus Tipula. With these were
found abdomens of some insects, and larve, apparently of the
-gnat tribe. In insect limestone, to the south-west of Combe Hill,
not far from the last mentioned locality, Mr. Brodie obtained a
great number and variety of insect remains, consisting chiefly of
the elytra of Coleoptera, and a few imperfect, but large, wings of
Tibellule.

At Apperley, near Wainlode Cliff, the remains of insects
have been found in plenty, and many small slabs, three or four
inches square, exhibiting several elytra and. wings, and. a few

156

small beetles. From the insect limestone near the village of
Hasfield, Gloucester, various elytra of Coleoptera and a few
beetles have been obtained. The same formation in the neigh-
bourhood of Forthampton, near Tewkesbury, has also furnished
insect remains similar to those found in the localities before
mentioned. At Strensham, two miles from Dafford Station, and
nine from Evesham, from a bed of insect limestone at the bottom
of a large quarry, numerous remains of insects have been obtained.
Amongst them was found part of the abdomen of a gigantic
species of Libellula, which Mr. Brodie named Libellula Hopei. In
the neighbourhood of Evesham the insect limsetone has produced
numerous remains of insects, the wings and elytra of many of
which are said to be beautifully preserved. In the lower division
of the Lias, in this neighbourhood, Mr. H. E. Strickland
discovered small elytra of Coleoptera and portions of the wings of
Libellula. ‘In the County of Warwickshire,” says Mr. Brodie,
“there is a large extension of the lower Lias in the neighbourhood
of Bidford and Binton. The quarries thereabouts afford some of
the finest sections in this part of the series. The insects are not
confined to one or two comparatively thin seams of limestone, but
occur in several distinct beds, the whole being developed to a
much greater extent than in any part of Gloucestershire hitherto
examined.” From one quarry near Bidford Mr. Brodie obtained
a small species of the family Gryllid~, which he named Gryllus
Bucklandi, in honour of Professor Buckland. In some of the
strata in this neighbourhood (Bidford) the wings of Libellula were
obtained not uncommonly, particularly at a place called the Nook,
where a beautiful specimen was found, which has been described
and figured by Mr. Strickland. Mr. E. T. Higgins obtained from
the Lower Lias or the Rheetics, in the southern parts of Gloucester-
shire and the adjoining county of Somersetshire, in the neighbour-
hood of Bristol, numerous remains of insects. From Aust, near
Bristol, and from Sudbury on the Monmouthshire side of the
Severn, about three miles from Chepstow, the insect limestone and
the landscape stone have afforded a quantity of remains. “In some

i i ae ie

157

slabs the insects were found embedded together in masses, In
one slab Mr. Higgins is said to have detected as many as thirty
small beetles. From the frequency of such delicate creatures as
insects in the “Landscape Stone,” and in another band of
limestone only a few feet higher, some of which are said to be
beautifully preserved, and could not have been long subject to the
action of the waves, Mr. Brodie supposes that this part of the
Lias may have been formed in an estuary, which received the
waters of some neighbouring coasts, and which brought down
the remains of insects and plants. The Coleoptera appear to have
been abundant in the Lias, for out of some three hundred
specimens of insects, or parts of specimens, from this formation,
examined by Professor Westwood, more than one-third were:
referable to this order, and comprised the families Buprestidae,
Elateride, Curculionide, Chrysomelide, Carabide, Telephoride, &c.
Most of the species appear to have been very minute, “never:
equalling,” observes Mr. Westwood, “in size those from the
Stonefield Slate.”
d The other orders represented in this formation are the
Orthogtera, the Neuroptera, the Hemiptera, and the Diptera ;
the minute Diptera and Trichoptera of the Purbecks are said by
Westwood to be absent. The remains of Orthoptera include
Gryllide and Blattide, the Hemiptera include Cicada and Cimez, and
the Neuroptera, Libellula, Agrion, Orthophlebia, Hemerobius, Eshna,
Chauliodes, and Ephemera. Among these various families we have
terrestial and fluviatile genera, which include omniverous,,
_ herbaceous, and predaceous species. A great number of the
families and genera found in the Lias are common both to it and
the Purbecks. The following Lias insects, however, have not, I
believe, been found in the Purbecks, viz, Gyrinus, Laccophilus,.
Berosus, Melolontha, Telephoride,; Gryllide, Agrion, Hemerobius,
Ephemera and Asilus. Although, as a rule, the remains of insects.
from this formation are very imperfect’ and fragmentary, the
detached wings of many Neuropterous insects are said to be
preserved in the greatest perfection, and have the nervures of the:

158

wings beautifully defined, and retaining the original colour, or
rather the spots. The size of the insects, judging from the
remains, appears to have been usually small and indicative, if

taken alone, of a temperate climate. Mr. Brodie observes that,.

“with some rare exceptions (viz.), the gigantic Libellulide,
Termitide, and larger Chanliodes, these insects seem to have
belonged to a temperate climate, and thus they offer, as in
the Purbeck series, a remarkable distinction in the contemporary
forms of animal life, which, both in the Purbecks and Lias,
are chiefly referable to extinct genera, and were most probably
natives of warm latitudes. In one respect, however, they differ
from the Purbeck insects, since they are less closely allied to
European forms, and more nearly to those which now inhabit
North America.” It may be observed that all the numerous
remains of insects from this formation have, with the exception
of a few specimens from the upper division, been obtained from
the lowest division of the Lias, or from the Rheetic series, between
the Lias and the Trias. These remains are very numerous, but
the majority of them were in such a fragmentary condition that
it has been impossible, even for those who have devoted their
especial attention to the subject, to make out the species to which
they belonged. About fifty-six species, however, are stated to
have been determined, which are distributed amongst five orders,
as follows, viz. :—

Coleoptera... Pe es es 29 species.
Meuroptera re Sos ae IZ Aces
Orthoptera ope oes es ae
Hemiptera... ee ae an OY My
(supposed) Diptera... > Feetane

No traces of eee or i ee have been met with,,

and the remains which have been referred to the Diptera are very
doubtful. In concluding this part of my paper, I would observe
that whilst fully appreciating the value of the learning, the
industry, and the research, of the Geologist, which have been the
means of bringing to light these interesting relics of a former
world, the value of the special knowledge and experience of the
Entomologist, must not be forgotten ; and it should be borne in

.
;

159

mind that the learning and skill of Professor Westwood, an

Entomologist of world-wide reputation, was, undoubtedly,

of the greatest assistance in the determination of the species, or:
of the orders, to which they belonged, of many of the specimens

obtained from the Purbecks and the Lias.

FOREIGN STRATA.

: EUROPE.

The Rocks of this period on the Continent, with theexception
of the Solenhofen slate, and the Lias of the Swiss Alps, have not,
as before stated, as yet produced any quantity of insect remains.

CRETACEOUS.

The Cretaceous system has as yet produced but very few fossil
insects. Professor Pictet alludes to some indistinct impression of
insects in the Schists of Glaris. Dr. Geinitz has called attention
to the remains of perforated wood in the upper and lower
greensand, of Saxony, which appear to him to be evidence of the
existence of Longicorn beetles during this epoch. He has referred
the insects, which he believed to have made these perforations, to

the Cerambycide. Professor Pictet further says that M.

Desmoulins found certain elytra of Coleoptera in the chalk marlof
the mountain of St Catherine, near Rouen.
Upper OOLITE.
SOLENHOFEN SLATE.

The most celebrated formation of this period from which
fossil insects have been obtained in any number, is that of the
well known lithographic stone of Solenhofen in Bavaria (before
referred to), belonging to one of the upper divisions of the Oolite.
Of this formation Sir Charles Lyell observes that, « although the

‘number of éestacea in this slate is small and the plants few, and

those all marine, Count Munster had determined no less than 237
species of fossils, including 26 species of insects. These insects,
among which is a Libellula, or dragon fly, must have been blown
out to sea, probably from the same land to which the flying
lizards and other contemporaneous reptiles resorted.” The
oldest account of fossil insects from this formation is found in

160

Schroter’s Lexicon, published in 1779. In a subsequent work
Schroter figured a Lepidopterous insect, which Germar named
Sphinz Schretert. In 1783 Esper refers to the discovery of a
species of Gryllus in the Solenhofen Slate. In 1826 Van der
Linden described a Neuropterous insect from Solenhofen as
Cschna Antiqua. Reference to fossil insects from this locality is
also made by M. Marcel de Serres in 1829, and Bronn, in 1835,
enumerates two genera of Coleoptera, four of Neuroptera, two of
Hymenoptera, and one of Lepidoptera, from the same locality. In
1839 Professor Germar published in the ‘“‘ Nova Acta” of the
Leopoddine Academy, descriptions of 25 species from Solenhofen,
including Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Hymenoptera, Hemiptera, Lepidop-
tera, and Diptera. Several species from this locality were also
described (in 1814) by Count Munster, including a Lepidopterous
insect, which he referred to the Tineina. In his “ Fauna der
Vorwelt” (Insekten and Spinnen), published in 1856, Dr.
Giebel enumerates 26 species from this locality, including :—

Coleoptera... as “ts sa 2 species.
Orthoptera mn Wes we ae
Neuroptera ah ses = = 12a
Hymenoptera... os <> i ane
Hemiptera... ‘ ay aE 4 Toms
Lepidoptera ey; Se ee oe ds
Diptera sag Re eas DA ee
26

Dr. Hagen, who has paid especial attention to the Solenhofen
Neuroptera, describes 24 species in the tenth volume of Meyer’s
Palontographica, published in 1862, and also gives a list of 37
species in the Royal collection in the Academy of Munich. In
Vol. XV. of Meyer’s Paleontographica, published in 1865, Dr.
Hagen described and figured eight further species of Neuwroptera
from the Solenhofen formation. Of the 37 species of Newroptera
in the Munich collection, 27 are said by Dr. Hagan to be dragon
flies, some of which belong to extinct genera, but others to such
_as now live in America and Australia. Dr. Hagan states that
many of the fossil insects from this formation, preserved in the
Munich collection, and the collection of Dr. Crantz, of Bonn, are

ae

161

in-a splendid state of preservation. One-third of the entire
collection are Libellulw, another third consists of Orthoptera (in-
cluding some gigantic Locustw) and Hemiptera (especially givantic
species of Belostoma, Pygolumpas, and Nvpa), and -the remaining
third consists of Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, and Diptera. Out of
450 specimens of fossil insects in the Munich collection, 150 are
Neuroptera, and out of these 136 belong to the Odonata. Dr.
Hagen says that of those not Odonata, six only (comprising four

- species) belong to the Newropfera as restricted by Erichson, viz.,

one species of Corydalis, one Chrysopa,a large Apochrysa,and a
beautiful Nymphes. The last two genera, which do not seem
very remote from Chrysopa, are now found only in the Southern
Hemisphere. Nymples is almost exclusively an Australian genus.
The Qdonata, continues Dr. Hagen, comprise the following, viz.:—

Libellulina ... ss a oe 4 species.
A’schnina ... oP ae es Dee
Gomphina ... be rer pi! TERE
Calopterygina Hes ae Se |i aie
Agrioniana ... a eS

The Gomphide are said to belong principally to species which
come near the genera Petalia, Phenes, and Petalura, of which a
few species occur at the present day in Chili and Australia.. The
fossil Gomphina of Solenhofen are generally very large, and some
are truly gigantic, 4 inches in length, with an expanse of wings of
74 inches. Of the Calopterygina, the group Heterophelbia contains
some of the most gigantic Newroptera, two of them belong to the
largest known Odonata, having an expanse of wing of 73-8 inches,
and bodies 34-4 inches in length. According to M. Oustalet, a
number of specimens from Solenhofen, preserved in the Museum
Tyler at Haarlem, have recently been described by Herr Weyen-
bergh, jun., who has distinguished 74 species, as follows :—

Of the Coleoptera 2 ... 26 species.
», Diptera... a hie er tee
», Orthoptera ve a TORS hs
s, Neuroptera ae A. Ao ge
» Lepidoptera ee B. | ae
74

From a study of the fossil insects from this formation and a com-

162

parison of them with those of England, Dr. Hagen has drawn
two conclusions, viz. :—Firstly, That the two fauna are extremely
closely allied, and that possibly some species occur in both
formations. Secondly, That the fauna of the English and
Bavarian strata are not only quite distinct from the existing
fauna, but also from those of Aix, of the Rhenish peat deposit,
Brown Coal of the Rhine, of CEningen and Radoboj, and from
that of Amber, differing not only in species but in genera.

LIAS.

From the lower marls of the Lias, at Schambelen, in the
Canton of Aagau, in Switzerland, about 2,000 specimens of fossil
insects, comprising 143 species, have been obtained by Professor
Heer. With the exception of one insect from the CarboniferouS
system, and five from the Trias, these are the most ancient
insects of Switzerland. Dr. Heer considers that Schambelen is
the only locality on the Continent in which so large a number of
primeval insects have been preserved to our time. The 143
species are distributed as follows :—

Coleoptera... a. - ... 116 species.
Orthoptera re Vi mah
Neuroptera Bes Lh Bi 95
Hemiptera iF ay <- 1
Hymenoptera... 3 as reas

143

No Lepidoptera or Diptera have as yet been discovered, and
the Hymenoptera are represented only by a single small wing.
The abundance of the Coleoptera may be due to the circumstance
of their hard elytra having been better adapted for preservation,
than the soft wings of most other insects ; but as the delicate
membranous wings of the Termites have been preserved, there
can be but little doubt that if the Diptera and Lepidoptera had
existed at this period, some traces of them would have been dis-
covered. In this deposit the order Coleoptera is represented by
more than four times as many species as all the other orders put
together. The species are referable to some sixteen families,

Of

oe

a
.

EE

Wn Be a *

163

including Carabide, Cryptophagide, Byrrhide, Hytrophilide,
Buprestide, Elateride, Rhyncophora, &c. Certain orders are
entirely unrepresented, including the Longicornes, Coccinelle
(Ladybirds), the Xylophagi, Melasomata and Brachelytra. The
Lamellicornes and Chrysomelinw are poorly represented. The
presence, in large numbers, of those beetles whose larve are wood
feeders, and who in their perfect state are usually found on or
under the bark of trees, is evidence of the existence of woods or
forests during this period. The presence of several genera of
fungus beetles implies the existence of fungi, but as yet none have
been discovered. Of the Byrrhida four species have been found
in this formation; three of them, Byrrhidium, Arenatum, B.
Morio, and B. Troglodytes, are among the most abundant insects
at Schambelen, and as they are all moss feeders, Professor Heer
supposes that the ground and trunks of the trees were more or
less covered with mosses, although no remains of these plants
have been preserved. The leaf-eating beetles are represented by,
amongst other species, two of the family Chrysomelide. The
presence of a small Coprophagous beetle (Aphodiites protogeus ),
so closely resembling the Aphodii which now live on the excre-
ments of cattle, would lead to the presumption of the existence
at that time of mammalia in Switzerland. All the before-named
beetles are herbivarous species. Of the carnivorous beetles we
have 29 species, including Telephoride and Carabide. The water
beetles are represented by some 20 species. The Orthoptera com-
prise three species of cockroaches, three grasshoppers, and one
ear-wig; and the Neuwroptera are represented by 6 species of
Termites (or white ants) and one dragon fly (Libellulide ), Gischna
Hageni, which is larger than any living species. It may be safely
inferred from the richness of the insect fauna that the land must
have been of considerable extent. The Aquatic insects,
especially, afford evidence of this fact. Their numbers are so

great as to imply the presence of a river or large lake, the exist-
‘ence of which in a small island is improbable. Many of the

insects are of large size, but the majority are small, some even

164

smaller than their smallest living relatives of the present day, as
is also the case with the insects of the English Lias. When the
conditions of climate are favourable to a luxuriant growth of
plants and insects, the larger forms of the insect class are
developed, as in tropical America and Asia, but side by side with
these large species thousands of minute species are to be found.
It may be inferred from the general smallness of the Liassic
insects, both from Continental and English strata, that insect life
was not at this period so luxuriant, or capable of producing such
large forms as the tropical world of the present day. The
numerical proportions of the families furnish evidence of a warm
climate. The Buprestide are very numerously represented. Of
the Termites eight tropical forms have been discovered, and the
cockroaches appear, says Heer, more closely allied to those now
inhabiting the Torrid Zone than to those of Switzerland at the
present day.

The only other record which I have been able to find of the
occurrence of insects in this formation on the Continent, is
contained in the second volume of bBronn’s * “Lethea
Geognostica.” At page 210 of that work it is stated that Count
Miinster detected some wings of insects in the Lias of Bayreuth.

Trias, oR Upper NEW RED SANDSTONE.

The Trias or Triple Group is separable on the Continent
into three distinct formations, called the ‘“Keuper,” the
“Muschelkalk,” and the “Bunter Sandstein.” The “ Muschelkalk,”
or Calcaire Coquillier of French geologists, is wanting in this
country. As has before been stated, no traces of insects have as
yet been found in any part of this formation in the United
Kingdom, and until recently none had been recorded from strata

_of this period on the Continent. M. Oustalet, in the first part of
_his “ Recherches sur les insectes fossiles,” published in 1871, says
“« Les insectes fossiles thanquent jusqu’a présent dans le terrain

* Jahrb, 1835, s. 332 and Lethea Geognostica, vol. i., p. 210.

165

pénéen et dans le Trias.” Since this was written, however, five
specimens appear to have been discovered in this formation. In
Mr. Heywood’s edition of Heer’s “Urwelt der Schweiz”
(Primeval Switzerland), it is stated that “in the Keuper Marls of
the Rutihard, Professor Heer has vainly sought for insects, but in
the Black Shales of Vadutz he has found two species of beetles,
viz. :—Glaphyroptera Pterophylli and Curculionites prodronus.”
Furtker on in the same work it is stated, “‘ In the Bunter Sanstein
of Trelitz and Salzmunde three more have been found, Legnophora
Girardi, Chauliodites, Picteti, and Chauliodites Zinckeni.”

AMERICA.
TRIAS.

In the Geological Magazine for May, 1868, Mr. Scudder
mentions one Colcopterous insect from the Trias of the North
American Continent. ‘This is, at present, the only fossil insect
recorded from the secondary rocks of America. With the
“Bunter Sandstein” we arrive at the lowest stratum of the
secondary period, and I am consequently able to bring this paper
to a conciusion. Before this paper is published, lists’ of the
families, genera, and species of the insects detected in the
secondary formations will be added to it, by reference to which
the fullest information respecting the ‘Insect Fauna of the
Secondary Period ® will be obtained,

The PRESIDENT, Mr. G. D. Sawyer, said he was sure it
would be the pleasure of the Meeting, as it was his, to pass
a vote of thanks to their essayist for the very exhaustive

paper he had placed before them. He was hopeful Mr. Goss

would not misunderstand a remark he made on the reading
of the previous paper, so as to think he (the Chairman)
was impatient for him to draw deductions when he had not
yet examined the evidence sufficiently to arrive at his deductions.

166

He took it that those who were close observers would be
of the very greatest importance to them in the investiga-
tion of scientific matters, and that if they would give them the
results of their close investigations, the time would come when
by a comparison of those investigations and of the evidence thus

obtained, they would be able to draw deductions which might be

still more interesting than the facts which had been put before
them that night. He himself had been greatly interesting in
what they had heard. It had not been to him at alldry, but he
had been a little disappointed at the barrenness of the upper
cretaceous white chalk period which we enjoyed so much round
here, that we could not do anything to illustrate the subject
spoken about; but he did not despair that the remains of
insects would be found in that upper cretaceous period for
Great Britain. It would have struck them, as it did him,
that the investigation of the subject of insect remains threw
a light upon other things that they found in very low
periods, such as the lower lias; they could tell what must have
been the surrounding state of things as to the woods, mosses, and
fungi, and so on by finding that insects which must have existed
in those days were obtained, and that they remained even after
the objects on which they had fed had dissappeared entirely.
They could never tell in investigating scientific matters what
light would be thrown on what they were about ; there was very
great encouragement, therefore, to persevere in close observation,
and the record of observations carefully taken was of very great
importance; and that seemed to have been the forte of their
worthy essayist. On their behalf, therefore, he begged to tender
him their hearty thanks for the excellent paper which he had
read,

Mr. Farr asked the lecturer if he had ever examined any of
the deep chalk pits in this neighbourhood.

Mr. Goss observed that the chalk had not produced any-
thing, and he thought it had been pretty well worked. He

; 167

believed a geologist would say there was hardly any strata which
was better worked for fossils of one sort or another than chalk.

The CHAIRMAN thought Mr. Farr would remember that the
objects discovered in the chalk were marine.

Mr. Goss said it was quite exceptional to find insect remains
in marine formations at all. They might be blown into the sea,
or by a strong river washed out in currents into the sea, but as a
rule they did not expect to find them in marine deposits. One of
the most important things which they drew from the study of
insect remains was what the climate of a former period was, and
they might arrive at some knowledge on the subject by consider-
ing the proportion existing between the carnivorous beetles and
the vegetable beetles, because it was well known at the present
day there was a certain ratio existing between those two groups,
which varied according as they come nearer to the equator or
departed further from it. The nearer they came to the equator
the'vegetable beetle got much commoner, and the carnivorous
much more rare. <A great alvantage was derived from the study
of fossil insects, and that was they could arrive at some idea as to
the climate in former times—the climate of Europe, for instance,
in the Miocene period was undoubtedly tropical—and thus they
could do something towards increasing the knowledge “of the
past.

Mr. PENLEY said the lecturer had not made any mention of
the coal formation.

Mr. Goss replied that it was because his paper dealt with
the tertiary and secondary periods only. That subject would be
for a third paper.

The meeting then terminated.

168

JUNE 28TH.
MICROSCOPICAL MEETING.

THE STAINING OF VEGETABLE TISSUES.

The PresiDENT, Mr. G. D. Sawyer, read the following short _

paper, contributed by the other hon. secretary (Mr. T. W.
Wonfor)—explanatory of the objects which were that night to be
exhibited under the microscopes :—

Mr. T. Curtets, of 244, High Holborn, one of our honorary
members, has sent down for the Society’s cabinet some slides to
illustrate the new process of staining vegetable tissues described
in a paper read before the Quekett Society recently, a description
of which method will be published in the next number of the
journal of that Society.

All microscopists know there are great advantages in being
able either to inject or stain animal tissues, because by these
methods of preparation, structures not readily visible or easily
made out without such preparation are brought out with great
distinctness and clearness. Processes for staining vegetable
tissues have been adopted by many microscopists, and one of our
members, Dr. Halifax, some fourteen years since, carried on a
series of experiments in staining vegetable tissues by placing
living portions of plants in solutiuns of various kinds, and, after

some time, varying from a few hours to days, making sections of

the various parts, such as stem, leaves, and flowers, and tracing
the presence of the staining material in the several parts. The
present proccss appears to depend on the use of the aniline dyes,
which, in the case of the diatoms, seem to have the property of
attacking and fixing the endochrome, thus bringing into greater
contrast the silicious valves.

Besides the slide of Zicmophora, mounted by Topping, Mr.
Curteis has been able, through the kindness of Mr. Tatem, of
Reading, to send two slides for the cabinet, further illustrating

ee

169

methods of mounting the delicate diatomaceze on the weed. In
one case the diatoms are put up in saturated salts—in this case
the green colour of the endochrome is preserved. In the other
the specimens are stained with aniline dye, and mounted in
Canala balsam. Unlike the slide mounted by Topping, the
endochrome only is attacked. It will be found from the paper
read before the Quekett that the specimens are first stained with
one colour, which attacks certain parts, and then are dipped in
another solution, which attacks other parts, so producing some
thing of the effect of a part of an organ injected with two
different colours.

After a few conversational remarks on the paper read by the
President, by Mr, J. E. Haselwood and Mr. R. Glaisyer, the
librarian, a letter was read from Mr. C. F. Dennet, having
reference to the statement made by Major Hallett, in his paper on
“ Cereals,” that grain would not germinate after ten years.

In Payson Town, Utah Territory, he said, are six mounds,
Excavations were made last year in some of these, which led to
the discovery of the remains of a people, supposed to be the tribe
of Nephites referred to in the Book of Mormon, who lived 1,400
years ago.

On opening one of the graves, about three pints of wheat
kernels were found, the bulk of which quickly perished on
exposure to the air, but a few kernels in the centre of the heap
looked bright, and retained their freshness. These were carefully
preserved, and last spring (1876) were planted and grew well,
though the field insects seemed determined to devour it. Four-
and-a-half pounds of heads were raised from these few grains—
the produce, which is of the club variety, having very long heads
and holding very large grains, being unlike any other cultivated
in that country. Specimens of the wheat so raised were exhibited
at the meeting.

170

JULY 6TH.
THE ANNUAL EXCURSION.

The most pleasant event of the year in connection with the
Society was participated in by about forty of its members and
several friends. Favoured by weather, which was in every respect
most suitable, the party spent a delightful day, thoroughly enjoying
the trip, which was not easily to be forgotten. It had been de-
cided to visit Pevensey, Hurstmonceux, and Hailsham, places which
were visited by the Society some twenty years ago. The party
left Brighton in two saloon carriages at 11.35 in the morning, and
were met at Pevensey by three brakes, drawn up at the hotel close
by. After a slight, though, nevertheless, acceptable lunch, they
mounted the vehicles, and were driven to the ancient and

-ivy-covered ruins of the Castle. On entering the grounds sur-
rounding the Castle, the visitors seated themselves on the grass,
and listened attentively to the following paper by Mr. G. D.
Sawyer, President of the Society, on

PEVENSEY CASTLE.

Gentlemen, fellow members, and friends of the Brighton
and Sussex Natural History Society,—Your Committee, in the
exercise, as I think, of a wise discretion, have usually arranged
that during our annual excursion in each year we should be invited
to visit one or more of the interesting ancient ruins existing so
plentifully in our county. On this occasion they have selected
Pevensey Castle, a spot second to none in the interest it must
excite in the minds of all imbued with the slightest love of
-archology. JI feel sure that you will desire no apology from me
for asking you to listen for a very short time to a few facts and
opinions connected with this venerable ruin. True, they are quite
accessible to any of you jvho choose to search the volumes issued.
by our excellent Archeological Society of Sussex, and some other
books which I have consulted ; but you may not have had time
to refer to them. I have merely made a selection out of a large

171

mass of matter at disposal, as I greatly desired not to tire your
patience, and I must ask your forbearance if, in my anxiety to
avoid doing so, I have omitted some interesting matters that you
may think I ought to have commented upon. Pevensey is one of
the most thoroughly historical places in Sussex, although now only
. a village ivstead of a flourishing port and town. In the British
_ and Roman periods, and long afterwards, the sea came up the river
Ashbourne to where the Castle now stands, and still higher ; and
so good was the port for landing, that Julius Cesar, according
to Professor Airey, landed here on his first invasion of Britain.
Tam aware that this is disputed by other writers, but I think the
balance of evidence is in favour of this belief. Also, notwith-
standing similar controversy existing on the subject, I think it is
amply proved that this is the site on which the Romans built the
regularly fortified town of Anderida, called also by the Britons
Cer Andred, and by the Saxons Andredceaster. When the
Saxons came to this district, under Ella, they took Anderida, and
totally exterminated the inhabitants. It was afterwards rebuilt,
and became again a place of great importance. The Saxons also
calied it Peofnesea—the Normans Pevensell, since converted into
Pevensey ; and in the dialect,of the country it is now known as
Pemsey.

It is clear that the Romans neglected in this instance the
rectangular arrangement so usual in Roman and Castra, followed
the line of the rising ground, thus producing the irregular, oval,
and island-like form of the enclosure. At this time the southern
and eastern sides doubtless occupied a sort of low cliff, washed at
every tide by the waters of the ocean, or, at least, by a considerable
arm of the sea. A good map of the Castle will be found at page
274 in Vol. VI. of the Sussex Archeological Society’s collections.
It was prepared by Mr. William Figg, F.S.A., at the time of
making the excavations in the Castle in conjunction with the late
Mark Antony Lower. The walls coloured red shew the Roman
portions, while those given in grey represent the medieval
additions. The space inclosed by the walls is said to be about

172

twelve acres. The material of the walls is flint, with sea-sand
mortar of great strength. The joints of the masonry are pointed
with mortar, having for one of its ingredients pounded tile, which
imparts to it that red tint so characteristic of Roman work. From
some excavations carried on in the year 1710, for the purpose of
supplying the town of Pevensey with water from the moat
of the interior (or medieval) castle, by a channel beneath
the Roman walls, it was found that the latter, which
were ten feet thick, had rested upon a foundation consisting
of piles planked over with slabs of an extraordinary sub-
stance. Notwithstanding the length of time they had Jaid in
the earth, the timbers exhibited no symptom of decay. The
external facing-stones at the bottom of the walls have everywhere
been removed for building purposes. For ages Pevensey Castle
served as a quarry for the neighbouring country; and it is
only within the last eighteen or twenty years that this almost
sacrilegious abuse has been discontinued. Nature in general deals
kindly and tenderly with the works of man, but, alas! how few —
architectural remains can be said to have been Leligione patrum
multos servata per annos! Certainly at Pevensey the ravages of
time have been slight compared with those wrought by the hands
of man.

The great entrance, or Decuman Gate, with its strong
weather-worn flanking towers, is the first object that strikes
the eye of the visitor on his approach to the ruins from the
west. Leaving this gateway, and pursuing the external circuit
of thewalls in a northerly direction, we pass three other
towers of similar character. Beyond the third tower, the
walls take a north-easterly direction, having no towers. <A
little distance beyond this the wall has fallen outwards, and
lies in massive fragments, now overgrown with trees. Another
one hundred and fifty feet brings us to one of the most perfectly
preserved towers of the series. This originally measured thirty-
two feet in height, but an addition made to it in the Norman
period raised it to the altitude of fifty-feet. This Norman

Pe ae

173

addition is as base in its masonry as the Roman portion is
excellent. There can be little doubt that this was male use of
as the watch tower. Still following the circuit of the walls by
the high road, passing another tower, and making a sudden curve
to the south-east, we arrive at a tower which must have been
much dilapidated at an early period, and has undergone
extensive repairs, very neatly carried out. A few yards more
bring us to a postern-gate, communicating with a foot-path
crossing the inner area and with the High Street of the town of
Pevensey. Just southwarl of this is another tower, at one
hundred and twenty feet from which the Roman work forms a
junction with the medizval castle. This may be properly called
medizval in preference to Norman, because, although there is no
doubt of a Norman fortress having existed upon the spot,
a considerable portion of the existing remains point to a date
long subsequent to what is recognised as the Norman period,
probably to the days of the earlier Edwards. This medizxval
work is curiously engrafted upon the Roman. There are five
towers of the subsequent era, two in ruins, flanking the great
gateway, which looks nearly due west towards the principal
entrance of the Roman work, from which it is distant three
hundred and fifty feet. The towers are constructed of what is
locally called E’bourne stone, and they have immense loop-holes.

The north-western tower is supposed to have been the residence
of the governor. This Norman and post-Norman work forms an
independent castle complete in all its parts, with the enceinte,
moat, and other usual accessories of a castle of the middle ages,
albeit upon a small scale. The remains of its keep are still
recognisable on the eastern side of the enclosure. The interval
going west between the medizval castle and the Roman gateway,
at which our survey commenced, is precipitous ground, faces the
sea (at a distance of about a mile), and retains upon the surface
few traces of ancient masonry of any kind. Whoever but for one
moment contemplates this structure, with its solid towers and walls
ten or twelve feet thick (presenting much the same appearance

174

where they remain standing as they must have done in the days
of Constantine) and thirty-eight feet high, enclosing an area half-
a-mnile in circumference, will perceive that it had the air of having
been constructed at a time when the conquerors of the world
were extending and consolidating their dominion in Britain.
After the capture of Anlerida by the Saxons under Ella, in the
year 490, they occupied such buildings as they found suitable for
stronzholds, but they built no castle, at least, none of sufficient
strength to have survived till our times. We look, therefore, in
vain amongst the walls of Pevensey for any trace of Saxon
building. Over five hundred years now pass away since Ella’s
capture of the fortress, and then, on the 28th September, 1066
(over seven hundred years ago) William the Conqueror selects
Pevensey as the place of his landing. The words of the Bayeux
tapestry are “ Here Duke William in a great ship crossed the sea
and came to Pevensey.” It is said that he had with him
six hundred vessels. “ Things falling out according to his wishes,
the Duke did not tarry long at Pevensey, but proceeded with his
followers to a certain part not far off called Hastings,” and on the
sixteenth day after his'landing at Pevensey, namely, on October
_ Mth, 1066, he gained his great victory at Battle. In the reign
of William Rufus, Odo, the half-brother of the Conqueror, and
Bishop of Bayeux fled from the vengeance of the King to
Pevensey. He was here besieged in 1088 for six weeks, and
then was only forced to make terms for sheer want of food. In
the twelfth century it was besieged again by King Stephen, and
in 1265 by Simon de Montfort/and the barons. Passing by other
troubles, we come to the year 1399, at which time it was held for
Richard II. against a large force, assembled from the three
counties of Kent, Surrey, and Sussex, and the defence was
bravely conducted by Lady Pelham, in the absence of her Lord,
who was then away in the north with Henry 1V. Within these
walls Edmund Duke of York, Queen Joan of Navarre, and
King James the First of Scotland, were at various times confined
as prisoners. Again omitting much that I had prepared, I must

175

rapidly close these few hastily-gathered and imperfectly-arranged
remarks, merely glancing at the fact that there is the foolish
tradition (so usual with respect to castles near to religious
establishments) that there was a subterraneous passage connecting
this castle with the ancient house in Westham called Priesthawes,
between two and three miles distant, and that the rustic
inhabitants of the neighbourhood were considerably disappointed
when the late Mark Antony Lower proved, by careful excavation,
that the “passage,” so called, which an old inhabitant assured
him he had seen at a few perches distant from the south-west
angle of the great gateway, was merely a large drain. ‘“‘ Why,
sir,’ said one of them to me (says Mr. Lower), ‘so this here
subterreenous passage as we’ve so long heerd an turns out to be
nothin bui a gurt dreen.’”

The party then scrambled over and about the ruins of the
Castle, the interior of which had been taken possession of by
about two hundred and fifty children belonging to the Eastbourne
National-Schools. The large well in the centre of the Castle was
an object of some interest. It was stated by the President that
an attempt had been made to clean it out, and that after getting
to a depth of forty feet the work was deemed too difficult to be
proceeded with ; and it was mentioned by Mr. Alderman Cox
that a number of wolves’ heads were discovered amongst the
débris in the well. In the garden belonging to the house near the
Castle were several of the catapults—large round pieces of rock
—which were also found in the well. Resuming their seats in
the vehicles, the party drove to Hurstmonceux, passing through
the village of Wartling, and pausing a short time to inspect the
interior of the church, which contains several beautiful monu-
meuts of white marble, erected to the memory of members of the
Curteis family, to whom the Castle of Hurstmonceux belongs.
Proceeding on their journey to the Castle, along a road shaded by
trees on either side, the vehicles gradually approached this
remarkable pile of dismantled buildings, the property of Mr.
Herbert Mascall Curteis, of Windmill Hill Place, whose father

176

purchased it for the sum of £65,000 in 1846. Immediately on
enterin + the Castle, permission to visit it having been granted to
the Society by the owner, the Rev. J. H. Cross read a paper,
which, he first explaine|, had no claim whatever to originality,
and which was a résumé in brief of the full accounts to be found
in the books referred to. The following is the paper on

HURSTMONCEUX.

Archeology is not the proper pursuit of a Natural History
Society, but when on a day like this we are paying delightful
obedience to that rule of our Society No. 16, which directs
“that on one day in each year the members, with their friends,
be invite. to join in an excursion to some interesting locality,”
and we find ourselves in a locality so rich in interest as Hurst-
monceux, it is natural and quite legitimate that we should wish
to know something of the venerable remains we have come to see,
so I proceed to make the best use I can of the ten minutes which
the President has assigned me. The Saxon syllable hurst, which
forms the first half of the name, means a forest—Midhurst,
Wodhurst, Hurstpierpoint, and many other names of which
hurst forms a part, may remind us that they occupy a position in
that extensive forest which stretched in ancient times through
Kent, Surrey, and Sussex, and into Hampshire, and was 130
miles long by 30 miles broad—the Silva Anderida of the Romans.
At the time of the earliest record we find the manor in possession
of a priest named Edmer, who is distinguished as owing no feudal
service to a particular lor|, and who “ ipse cum terra potuit ire
quo voluit.” This was in the reign of Edward the Confessor, and
the fact is mentioned in Domesday Book. “Soon after the
Norman invasion it became the see of a noble family called, from
it, de Herst. A descendant of this family was Waleran de Herst,
and he it was who added to his appellation the surname of
Monceux. Whence he derived this surname seems very uncertain,
though there was a Norman family of that name which belonged
to the district of Bayeux. The name Hurstmonceux has been

lary |

locally corrupted into Horsemouncez ; but Aurst has changed into
horse in other instances, as Horsebridge and Horseye in the neigh-
bourhood—and as far back as the time of Henry VIII. it was
spelt as now pronounced. The manor remained in the hands of
the descendants of this Waleran de Herst till the beginning of
tie last century. It is thought that a manor house stood some-
where on the site previcus to the erection of the castle itself, as
some Spanish chestnut trees to the west of the castle seem older
than that building, and antiquarians think they can trace portions
of this more ancient manor house in parts of the present building.

With John de Monceux, who died in the reign of Edward I1.,
died the last of that name who held possession of the estate, and
it then passed into the family of the de Fienes, with whom
it remained till Queen Anne’s reign. A descendant of John de
Fienes, Sir William, died in 1405, and was buried in the Parish
Church, under a monumental slab adorned with a brass, still to
be seen in the church. In 1440, Sir Roger De Fynes, one of the
heroes of Agincourt, erected the present building, at a cost which
was then enormous, but which is very inconsiderable now,
£3,800. It is a splendid instance of early brick building,
and was considered the largest private house in the kingdom.
Sir Roger enlarged the park by adding 600 acres to the domain,
and added to the castle an accessory very rare in Sussex, a
heronry, which still exists. All round it ran a moat, and
entrance to the castle was afforded by a drawbridge. For the
convenience of water to the moat the castle has been placed in a
very low situation, and beauty of view, or even healthfulness of
site, seems to have been quite left out of sight by its projector.
The bricks were probably made by Flemish workmen. They are
very firm in texture and uniform in quality, and still stand,
notwithstanding their exposure for more than four centuries
to the weather and the erosive influence of the sea air, where
violence has not wantonly injured them, without flaw or crack.
Noble avenues of chestnut trees, mingled with a few oaks
and beeches, in ancient times led up to the castle in several

178

directions. Only a few picturesque specimens now remain. The
principal front of the castle looks south, towards the sea.
The steep descent by which it is approached enables the
spectator (says Mr. Venables) to take in the whole form and
proportions of the building in one uninterrupted view, and to
anyone accustomed to the picturesque irregularity of our ancient
castles, the remarkable degree of uniformity displayed in this
will be at once a matter of observation. Each angle of the
castle is strengthened by an octagonal embattled tower, and
a similar tower occupies the centre of the east and west fronts,

To the south rises the noble gateway; on the east front is a most
graceful oriel window, which gave light to the apartment known
as the ladies’ bower. On the west side a corresponding projection
contained the vast oven, twelve feet in diameter. The tower at
the north-west angle contained the reservoir, which supplied water
to the lower part of the castle. This was called the Floodgate
Tower. When the building was intact, its picturesque effect
must have been much increased by the high-pitched roof and the
forest of tall slender chimneys with which it was crowned. In
the reign of Edward IV., Sir Richard Fienes married Joan, the
heiress of Thomas Lord Dacre, and thereafter the descendants of
Joan and her husband were called Lords Dacre of the South, to
distinguish them from the northern branch of the same family.
Thomas, the second Lord Dacre, distinguished himself as a
soldier, and was constable of Calais. After his death, and
in accordance with his will, the monument in the chancel
of the Parish Church was erected. It is a stately monument,
and though it has suffered much from time and other causes, it
is still a very fine specimen of medieval architecture. Under its
richly-fretted canopy repose the effigies of Thomas Lord Dacre
and his son—each clad in complete armour, except the head, which
is bare, and the hands are raised in an attitude of supplication.
His grandson, Thomas, became his successor, and on the arrival
of Anne of Cleves, he, in company with the Duke of Norfolk
and Lord Mountjoye, headed the stately cavaleade which went to

Eo

=

179

meet the Queen expectant. But he was an unfortunate youth.
The atmosphere he had breathed at Hurstmonceux was corrupting
in its evil influence, and he met, through a foolish frolic, a tragical
end. ‘Trespassing with some riotous companions for venison in a
neighbour’s park, an affray took place, in which a gamekeeper
was killed. Lord Dacre and three of his companions were put to
-death for the murder.

The estate afterwards passed, through this unfortunate
nobleman’s sister, Margaret, into the Lennard family,
with whom it remained till the time of Thomas Lord Dacre,
who was made Earl of Sussex by Charles II. He followed
a fashion which was now beginning to prevail, and put sashes
into the windows of the east side. He had the misfortune
to come very young to the dissipated court of Charles IL. (his
father having been one of that small but noble band of peers
who gave his voice against the trial of the King). He received
the questionable honour of becoming the King’s son-in-law,
through his marriage with Lady Ann Fitzroy. He became very
fond of gambling, and his, extravagance was reckless. He must
have spent a large sum on the alterations of Hurstmonceux. He
put oak wainscoting upon the walls in place of the original
tapestry, and the magic chisel of Grinling Gibbons added
rich adornment te it. His extravagance obliged him, however, to
sell the estate, and thus, in 1708, for the first time, it changed
owners by purchase. It then became the property of Councillor
Naylor. His successor was his relative, Dr. Hare, Bishop of
‘Chichester, who left the castle to his son, Francis Naylor. In
1775 it came to his half-brother the Rev. Robert Hare. The
building was then in a state of considerable unrepair, and Mr.
Samuel Wyatt, the architect who spoiled Windsor Castle and
several Cathedrals, surveyed it, and advised that it was expedient
to demolish the interior and employ the materials in building
new walls to the Mansion in the west of the Park. Unhappily,

this was done, and what we see to-day is only the shell of the

structure—the remains of a magnificent pile needlessly destroyed.

180

For, passing over the frail makeshift for the ancient draw bridge
and entering through the wicket gate, by the side of which
in former times a leathern black jack, well replenished: with
ale, used always to stand, we see a few shattered walls, a few
steps of a winding stairs, a broken arch or two, and ruined
foundations overspreading the area, as all that now remains
of what, but sixty-four years ago, was the most perfect example
of a feudal Jord’s mansion in the south of England. The great
hall, chapel, kitchen, and other rooms are still to be made out,
but the grand gateway, with its two towers, eighty-four feet
high, is the best of what now remains. The moat was partly
drained and made into a pleasure garden in the reign of Queen
Elizabeth. Over the porter’s lodge is a chamber known as the
Drummer’s Hall. It is said that formerly loud spirit rappings
were carried on there. The ghost drummer, a figure nine
feet high, was occasionally seen, so runs the tradition, strad dling
along the battlements at a furious rate, and by his nightly tattoos
kept the country round in a state of alarm. If time allowed, it
would be interesting to quote at length from a lively letter of
Horace Walpole’s, in which he gives a graphic description of the
castle as he saw it before its dismantling—the walls standing in
their native brickwood, raised in an age which had not reached the
luxury of whitewash, the porch and cloister so like Eton College,
the delightful carvings by Gibbons, particularly two pheasants—
the Virgin and seven long lean saints, ill done, in the windows—
&c., as well as the account of his journey thither from Tunbridge
Wells, how his woes increase, the roads bad beyond all badness,
the night dark beyond all darkness, the guides frightened beyond
all frightfulness. But time does not allow of all this, I can
only refer you to Vols. IV., X., XIV., XVI., XVIII., XIX. of the
“S. A. C.,” Mr. M. A. Lower’s “Sussex Contributions,” and
Horace Walpole’s own correspondence. If we grieve that we can
no longer look at the building as he saw it, it is, at least, a
beautiful ruin, and time and nature,

** Softening and concealing,
And busy with a hand of healing,”

ie ite

wey St a

ra

181

have given in these ivy-mantled walls a thing of beauty for our
eyes. In 1807 it was bought by Mr. C. R. Kemp, who sold it in
1819 to Mr. J. Gillon, from whom it passed, by purchase, in 1846
to Mr. H. Barrett Curteis, the father of the present owner, Mr.
Herbert Mascall Curteis.

Some time was spent in examining the peculiarities of the
castle and the fine garden at the rear, in which several apple trees,
planted a hundred years ago, still continue to bear fruit. Leaving
the ruins, which are perfect in their beauty—if ruins can be thus
described—the party drove to the heronry near the residence of
the owner of the castle, where a grand panoramic view of the
Weald of Sussex was obtained. The birds, however, were
evidently on the wing, as only one or two were seen by some of
the party, who had a good look at their enormous nests built in
the top branches of some very tall trees. The vehicles were
then driven at a rattling pace towards Hailsham, which was
reached shortly after five o'clock.

Tue DINNER.

An excellent dinner was served at the George Hotel by
Mr. W. Hutchings, to whom great credit is due for the admirable
repast he put upon the table. After the removal of the cloth,
the PRESIDENT, who occupied the chair, spoke in high terms of
the value of the Natural History Society, which had many things
to recommend it. He referred to their scientific meetings
in the Curator’s room, where a vast amount of research, industry,
and scientific “knowledge was evinced by the members; and
to the papers read during the last six months, two or three
of which had been so good that they had been read ‘at similar
meetings in London. He rejoiced in the past work of the
Society, and looked with confidence to the future. He was very
anxious that some of the members who did not take a part
in the meetings would read papers and come amongst them.
They had a library which was filled with splendid books
of reference, which would be invaluable to those who desired

182

to add to their stores of knowledge. Having mentioned that he
had had the honour of representing the Society at Croydon and
Bradford, and that he would represent it at the forthcoming
meeting of the British Association at Plymouth next month, the
PRESIDENT proposed ‘Success to the Brighton Natural History
and resumed his seat amid applause.—The toast was

?

Society,’
heartily drunk.

Mr. ALDERMAN Cox proposed “The health of the
President,” who, he remarked, was entitled to the respect
of the members of the Society, as he filled the post of President
with considerable zeal and ability. The Alderman went on
to point out that the Society taught a man to think, and in that
way it did good service, and led to a vast amount of good.

Mr. SAWYER, in reply, regarded his position as an honourable
-one, and assured the company that he was ready to do anything
he could for the promotion of the Society. In conclusion, he
mentioned that up to the present time he had never failed to be
in his place and punctual at the meetings.

The Rev. J. H. Cross, in proposing ‘The health of the
Vice-Presidents,” took that opportunity of putting himself right
with regard to an observation which he made at a recent meeting
of the Society, reflecting on the theory of Major Hallett, who
read a paper on “The Germination of Wheat.” He (Mr. Cross)
had not heard the paper referred to, and he had no idea that
a remark delivered conversationally—that Major Hallett’s theory
was rubbish—would appear in the next day’s paper. He
therefore begged to state that he had no opinion at all on the
matter, into which he had never gone. He hoped in the future

that their little conversations would not be made too much of by

their kind friends the reporters.

Mr. HAsEtwoop, in acknowledging the compliment, re-
marked that a step into the field of natural history would benefit
man to a great extent, and he appealed to them whether this was

es

183

not manifested in the readiness with which Mr. Cross had put
himself right.

“ The health of the Hon. Secretaries (Messrs. T. W. Wonfor
and J. Colbatch Clark), the Librarian, and Treasurer” was
proposed by Mr. DENNANT, who, referring to the recent illness of
Mr. Wonfor, hoped he would be spared for many years to come.

Mr. Wownror, in returning thanks, humorously referred
to the visit which the Society paid to Hurstmonceux twenty
years ago, when the party walked from Pevensey to Hurst-
monceux and were unable to get any refreshm2nts, and went on
to express a hope that the young members would interest them-
selves in the objects of the Society, and assist him in his pet
scheme of the verification of the fauna and flora of the county.
He thanked the members for their kind expressions of sympathy
during his illness of nine months, and remarked that he had
not only received great sympathy from the members, but-
from the town generally.

Mr. CLARK also responded.

“The Visitors” was proposed by Mr. C. F. DENNET, and
acknowledged by the Rev. C. Puan, who observed that there
could. be no opposition between true religion and true science.

This concluded the post prandial proceedings, which were of
a social character, and the party, after a stroll round the village,
left Hailsham by train, and caught the mail to Brighton at
Polegate Junction, reaching the terminus at half-past ten,
after spending the twenty-third annual excursion under ex-
ceedingly auspicious circumstances.

184
SEPTEMBER £0TH.

ORDINARY MEETING—AN EVENING FOR THE EX-
HIBITION OF SPECIMENS.

Mr. T. W. Wownror exhibited models in wax of the
Colorado beetle in its’ various stages, viz., egg, larva at different
periods, chrysalis, and perfect insect ; and three real beetles, sent
from America in a pill box, whose colour seemed to have
changed either through decomposition, or from the manner in
which they had been killed; and a fourth procured from
_Mr. Dowsett. This led to a conversation on the true colour
of the beetle underneath.

Mr. DowseETt mentioned that nearly all the specimens he
had seen had been yellow underneath with black joints.
Whether the black colour would extend in some specimens
all over the under part of the body he did not know.

Mr. Lomax suggested that the colour might change
according to the food upon which the insect fed.

Mr. WonFor also exhibited a locust sent from Africa
in a letter, and which was still alive when it reached this
country. He had been unable to learn to what species it
belonged, and intended taking it to the Entomological Depart-
ment of the British Museum. It was reported as strange to
that part of Africa where it was found.

Mr. Dowsetr thought it was an Indian species.

Mr. Wonror then called attention to a fine female swallow-
tail butterfly, Papilio Machaon, which had been reared from one
of two caterpillars found by two little boys feeding on the
leaves of the cultivated carrot, in a garden, near the Race Hill,
towards the end of July. The caterpillars were taken to Messrs.
Pratt and Sons. One of the caterpillars died in the process of
transformation, bret the other changed into a chrysalis, and

185

emerged as a handsome female in August, confirming the opinion
that there was an autumn as well as a spring brood.

The question arose how did the caterpillars find their
way to the place where found? Had some enthusiast placed
them there? Had a female escaped from captivity and laid
eggs? This idea was negatived by the fact that P. Machaon did
not brced in captivity ; or had an impregnated female crossed the
channel and deposited her eggs in Sussex? This idea was partly
confirmed by the fact that on the first of the month a swallow-
tail had been taken at Hastings. It was well known that P.
Machaon was found in consilerable numbers in Norfolk and
Cambrilgeshire, and on the Continent. It is reported that
this butterfly was formerly taken in Sussex in the Weald. He
quite expected to hear of other specimens being taken in.
the county next spring.

Mr. Dowsett exhibited a butterfly new to Britain, Thais
Rumina, found in the Brighton Market, probably imported in
the chrysalis from the Continent with fruit, flowers, or vegetables.
At the time of its capture the wings were not quite dry. This
species is found in France, from which country it had probably
been brought in the way named above.

SEPTEMBER 27TH.
MICROSCOPICAL MEETING.

A number of interesting objects were shown by the
Pre-ident, Mr. G. D. Sawyer, Mr. Wonfor, Mr. Glaisyer,
an! others, including a series of four slides showing the absorp-
tion of sulphate of copper by branch of mistletoe, of acetate of
copper by geranium stem, of magenta by stem of mistletoe, and
absorption of magenta by stem of clematis.

186

In the course of conversation, reference was made to
some experiments lately carried on in America by a German lady,
with a view to determine whether the axolotl (one of the family
of reptilia, found in Mexico, some fine specimens of which,
both ordinary and albino, may be seen in the Brighton
Aquarium) was or was not merely a larval form of some other
species (probably the amblystoma).

Mr. WonFor remarked that similar experiments had been
tried in Brighton by Miss Crane, and might have resulted
in a prior discovery by that lady had there been the means
at the Brighton Aquarium of keeping the axolotls in water of a
sufficiently high temperature.

The conversation eventually merged in the consideration of
another form of life, namely, the fertilization of plants,
respecting which Dr. Corre made some observations, and that
gentleman ultimately promised to read a paper on the subject.

Toh Line MEMBERS

OF THE

Brighton & Sussqx Yatural History Sorigty,

OCTOBER 1877.

Abbey, H.
Alger, W.
Andress, W.
Ardley, W.
Aylen, 8.

Badcock, Dr.
Balean, H.
Baseden, W. H.
Bellingham, C.
Benifuld, J. 8. -
Bigge, A.
Bishop, J. G.
Black, Arthur
Booth, E.
Botting, W.
Boxall, W. P.
Bright, E.
Brown, J. H.
Brown, J. E.
Browne, Hon. Howe
Browne, G.

Capon, J.
Carden, J., Jun.

co ee - c iss :

Carpenter, Charles
Caush, D.
Challen, J.
Champion, F. 8.
Clark, J. C.
Clarke, W. T.
Clayton, C. E.
Clowser, T. H.
Cobb, R.

Colling, J. W.
Comlidge, T.
Corfe, Dr.

Cox, A.

Cox, A. H.
Creak, A.

Cross, Rev. J. H.
Curtis, J.
Cutton, T.

Davey, H.
Davis, H. C.
Dawson, Dr.
Deane, W.
Dennant, J.
Dennet, C. F.

Dowsett, A.
Duguid, T. 1.
Duke, F.

Eberall, J.
Edmonds,

Farr, A. R.
Felton, W.
Fisher, A.
Fowler, ‘I. M.
Fox, O. A.
Friend, Daniel
Friend, D. B.

Glaisyer, J. H.
Glaisyer, Kk.
Glaisyer, T.
Glaisyer, E.
Goss, H.
Grant, W.
Gwatkin, J. 'T.

Hack, D.
Haddock, G. J.
Hadlow, F. V.
Hall, Dr.

Hall, E. P.
Hallett, W. H.
Hallifax, Dr.
Hamblin, E.
Hamblin, W. T.
Hamblin, James
Hamilton, C. C.

Hannington, Rev. J.

188

Harris, E. H.
Hart, E. J.
Haselwood, J. E.
Hauxwell, Dr.
Heald, C. J.
Henty, W.
Hilton, W.
Hoadley, A.
Hoadley, E. M.
Hobbs, J.
Holder, J. J.
Holford, F.
Holford, G.
Hollis, Dr.
Hollis, W. M.
Holloway, A.
Hurst, H.

Image, Rev. J.
Infield, H. J.

Jackson, A. W.
Jackson, W.
Jeffcoat, J.
Jeffrey, W., Jun.
Jenner, J. H. A.
Johnson, I. A.

King, Dr.
Knightley, Dr.

Langton, H.
Lee, J. 8.
Lee, W. R.

Leigh, T.

Lethbridge, E. B.
Leuliette, L.
Loader, A.
Lomax, Benjamin
Lomax, O’Brien
Lucas, A.

Lucas, J. E.
Lulham, E. W.

Mahomed, F.
Marchant, W.
Marshall, E. J.
Massy, Dr. Tuthill
Mayall, J. J. E.

~ Medcalf, E. S.
Merrifield, F.
Merry, W.
Michael, A. D.
Millard, Dr. W. J. K.
Miles, Dr. E. 8.
Mills, A.

Mills, P.

Mitchell, W. W.
Morganti, F.
Morris, J.
Moseley, Rey. 'f.

Nash, George
Nash, W.-H.
Nell, W. T.
Newton, Rey. J.
Nichols, W. H.
Nourse, W. E. C.
Norman, S.

189

O’Connor, D.

Paine, C.
Pankhurst, E. A.
Patching, E. B.
Patten, A. J.
Penley, M.
Phillips, B.
Phillips, F. B. W.
Pocock, C. J.
Potter, W.
Pratt, H.
Puttick, W.

Ridge, J.
Rogers, R. 8.
Roper, F. C. 8.
Rose, J.

Ross, Dr. H.
Ross, Douglas
Rowland, C._
Rutter, Dr.
Ryde, M.
Ryde, W.

Sadler, J. H.
Salt, Rev. F. G.
Saltzmann, F. W.
Saunders, Hubert
Saunders, W.
Savage, W. D.
Savage, W. W.

' Sawyer, F. E.

Sawyer, G. D.
Saxby, H.

190 :

Sayers, J. Verrall, Hugh J.
Scott, E.
Shaft, G. T. Wallis, E. A.
Simonds. T. R. Wallis, M.
Slemen, T. Wallis, W. C.
Smith, C. P. Ward, S. N.
Smith, Frederick S. Warden, E.
Smith, J. P. M. Waterman, W. H.
Smith, T. _ Watson, W.
Smith, Walter Welch, J. E.
Smith, W. W. Whatford, W. S.
Smith, U.S. Whish, Rev. F. H.
Smith, B. Wilkinson, T.
Spooner, C. H. Willett, E. H.
Stevens, W. G. Willett, H.
Strevens, W. H. Willisms, H. M.
Stride, J. W. Wills, James
Wilton, W.
Taaffe, Dr. Winter, J. N.
Tainsh, E. C. Wonfor, T. W.
Thomas, D. Wood, J.
Tuke, J. K. Wood, W. R.
Wood, W. R., Jun..
Verrall, Henry Woodman, J.

(PPR PRP IIL OO

HONORARY MEMBERS.
Bloomfield, Rev. E. N., Guestling, Hastings.
Clarkson, Rev. G. A., Amberley.
Curteis, J., 244, High Holborn, London.
Latham, Dr. K. G., London.
Lee, H., Croydon.
Mitten, William, Hurstpierpoint.
Prince, C. L., Uckfield.
Stevens, Dr., St. Mary Bourne, Hants.
Ward, J., Clifton, Greata College, Keswick.

191

SOCIETIES ASSOCIATED,

WITH WHICH THE SOCIETY EXCHANGES PUBLICATIONS,

And whose Presidents and Secretaries are ex-officio Honorary

Members of the Society :—

Bel‘ast Natural History Society.
Belfast Natural History and Philosphical Society.
Boston (Mass. U.S.A.) Society of Natural Science.
Cardiff Naturalists’ Society.

hester Society of Natural Science.
Chichester and West Sussex Natural History Society.
Croydon Microscopical Club.
Department of the Interior, Washington, U.S.A.
Eastbourne Natural History Society.
Edinburgh Geological Society.
Folkestone Natural History Society.
Geological Record.
Geologists’ Association.
Glasgow Natural History Society.
Glasgow Society of Field Naturalists’.
Leeds Naturalists’ Club.
Lewes and East Sussex Natural History Society.
Maidstone and Mid-Kent Natural History Society.
North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field Club.
Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass., U.S.A.
Quekett Microscopical Club.
Royal Society.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, U.S.A.
Société Belge de Microscopie.
Watford Natural History Society.

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BRIGHTON & SUSSEX
NATUBAL HISTORY SOCIETY.
—~urese
jrd August, 1878.
Sir, §

The next Fietp Excursion will take place
on SATURDAY, the roth instant, to BurcEss HI, by the

A train, leaving Brighton-at 1.10 p.m.

We are, Sir,
Yours truly,

T. W. WONFOR,

| Hon. Sees.
JNO. COLBATCH CLARK,|