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THE

ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES

PHILADELPHIA.

PURCHASED.

-Mot to be loaned.

MW1*

9Us "

REPORT

OF TUE

TWENTY-FOURTH MEET! N (.

OF THE

*

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

FOB TIIE

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE;

HELD AT LIVERPOOL IN SEPTEMBER ISM

LONDON:

JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.

1855.

QHi

in

sf. 2.3

PRINTED BY

RICHARD TAYLOR AND WILLIAM
RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.

FRANCIS,

o -±~l O <)

CONTENTS.

Put

Objects and Rules of the Association . xv

Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement . xviii

Table of Council from commencement . XXI

Treasurer’s Account . xxm

Officers and Council . xx*v

Officers of Sectional Committees . xxv

Corresponding Members . xxv*

Report of the Council to the General Committee . xxvi

Report of the Kew Committee . xxvii

Report of the Parliamentary Committee . xlii

Recommendations for Additional Reports and Researches in Science xlvi

Synopsis of Money Grants . xlix

General Statement of Sums paid for Scientific Purposes . I

Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee . . liv

Arrangement of the General Meetings . liv

Address of the President . Iv

REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE.

Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena. Catalogue of
recorded Earthquakes from 1606 b.c. to A.u. 1850 (continued). By

Robert Mallet, C.E., F.R.S., M.R.I.A . ¥ 1

On the Construction and general Use of Efficient Life-Boats. By

Major-General Chesney, R.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. &c . 327

A Third Report (supplementary to two former Reports made to the
British Association 1832 and 1840) on the present state of our know¬
ledge of Radiant HeaL By the Rev. Baden Powell, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S., F.G.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry in the University of

Oxford . 337

a 2

IV

CONTENTS.

Page

On some of the results obtained at the British Colonial Magnetic Obser¬
vatories. By Colonel Edward Sabine, R.A., Treas. & V.P.H.S.,

General Secretary . . . 355

Report of the Committee on Earthquakes, with tlu-ir Proceedings re¬
specting Seismometers constructed under the superintendence of Major
James, R.E. By Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S . .370

On the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Rowers of Plants
growing under different Atmospheric Conditions. — Part II. By J. H.
Gladstone, Ph.D., F.R.S . 373

Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1 853-54. By the Rev.
Baden Powell, M.A., V.P.R.S. &c., Savilian Professor of Geometry

in the University of Oxford . 386

Second Report of the Committee, consisting of the Earl of Rosse, the
Rev. Dr. Robinson, and Professor Phillips, appointed by the
General Committee at Belfast, to draw up a Report on the Physical
Character of the Moon’s Surface, as compared with that of the Earth... 415

On the Application of Water-pressure Machinery. By W. G. Arm¬
strong, F.R.S . . .

On the Equivalency of Starch and Sugar in Food. By J. B. Lawes,
F.R.S., F.C.8.; and J. H. Gilbert, Ph.D., F.C.S . ’ 42i

On the Deviations of the Compass in Wooden and Iron Ships. Bv
Archibald Smith, M.A. .. J

rp . 434

nrteenth Report of a Committee, consisting of Professor Daubeny,

fh' Txn ,°W’ T1 Professor Lindley, appointed to continue
their Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds . 4.39

CONTENTS.

V

NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS

OF

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO TIIE SECTIONS.

MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

Mathematics.

Pur

Mr. Arthur Cayley on the Solution of Cubic and Biquadratic Equation* ... 1

Sir W. R. Hamilton on an Extension of Quaternions . . 1

Light, Heat, Electricity, Magnetism.

M. Babinet on a New Photometer . . . .

Dr. F£lix Bernard’s Note on Indices of the Refraction of Transparent Media
included between two Parallel Faces, and on a Portable Refractomcter. exhi¬
bited to the British Association for the Advancement of Science .

- - Description of a Photometer exhibited to the British

Association for the Advancement of Science .

- — ■ Note on Polarimetry... .

Mr. John W. Brett on the Origin of the Submarine Telegraph and it* Ex¬

tension to India and America . . . . *

Mr. Edward B. Bright on Magneto-Electricity and Underground Wires ... S

M. Dove on an Apparatus for eUiptieally-polnrized Light . '*

- on some Stereoscopic Phenomena .

- on a Method of measuring the Absorption of Polarized Light in

doubly refracting Crystal* . 1"

Rev. J. B. Reade on Photographs of the Moon and of the Sun . h*

Sir John Ross on Errors which maybe occasioned by disregarding the In¬
fluence of Solar or Artificial Light on Magnets . ' -

- on the Deviation of the Magnetic Needle peculiar to Livcqwol 1-

Rev. Dr. Scoresby on Pictorial and Photochromatic Impression* on the Re¬
tina of the Human Eye . . . . . I-

Mr. Archibald Smith on a Graphic Method of Correcting the Deviation* <>f
a Ship’s Compass . ‘ ’

VI

CONTENTS.

P»6'

Professor W. Thomson’s Account of Experimental Researches in Thermo-
Electricity . 13

Professor Tyndall on the Diamagnetic Force . 14

Mr. C. F. Varley on Improvements in Submarine ami Subterranean Tele¬
graph Communications . 17

Captain Ward’s Notice of some Experimental Researches into the Application
of the Voltaic Battery to the Ignition of Gunpowder . 18

Astronomy.

M. Chacornac’s New Observations on Solar Spots and Fieeuhe, and their true
Causes .

Mr. Greg on Meteorolites and Asteroids .

Mr. John IIartnup on the Variation in the Rates of Chronometers .

Mr. W. S. Jacob’s Notes on the British Association Catalogue of Stars .

M Lunar Surface 11 P 8 °n MierometricaJ Photographic Drawings of the
Mr. Daniel Vaughan’s Researches in Meteoric Astronomy .

19

19

20
25

25

26

Tides.

Rev. Dr. Wh EWELL on Mr. Superintendent Baclie’a Tide Observations . 28

Meteorology.

Professor Dovk on tho Distribution of Rain in the Temperate Zone. . 28

r. John D«W. continuation of Remark, on the Climate of South. . . 29

* "»*«"* Snow Crystals, a, seen in

Mr. H. Poo,, on the Meteoroiogy the Albion Mines, . . *

r- J. King Wa OD Allrore Bor«U.s observe,, at St^ZZZZZ 47

Mr. C B Instruments.

D thin Glass Cells for mounting

:

. 4“

CONTENTS.

VII

Pags

Mr. Cornelius Varley on Natural Occurrences that impair the Vision of
good Telescopes . : .

Navigation.

Rev. Dr. Scoresby on the Loss of the ‘Tayleur,’ and the Changes in the

Action of Compasses in Iron Ships .

— — - - Inquiry into the Principles and Measures on which Safety

in the Navigation of Iron Ships may be reasonably looked for .

Mr. J. T. Towson on the Inefficiency of the Aids of Science at present in con¬
nexion with the Compasses of Iron Ships .

General Physics.

Mr. W. Fairbairn on the Density of various Bodies when subjected to enor¬
mous compressing Forces .

M. L. Foucault, Nouvellcs Experiences sur lt» Mouvement de la Terre an
Moyen du Gyroscope . . . . .

Mr. W. Hopkins’s Account of some Experiments on the Effect of Pressure on
the Temperature of Fusion of different Substances .

Mr. W. J. Macouorn Kankine on Formula’ for the Maximum Pressure and
Latent Heat of Vapours .

Professor W. Thomson on Mechanical Antecedents of Motion, Heat, and
Light . .

Mr. William Petrie on the Motion of Fluids ; a remarkable variation in tin-
great Elementary Law of the ratio between Pressure ami Velocity .

Mr. J. J. Watkkston on a Method of Computing the Absolute Volume of the
Ultimate Particles of Liquids .

66

66

67

68
69
63
63

CHEMISTRY.

Professor Thomas Anderson on the Constitution of Meconine and Papave¬
rine, and their Relations to the other Constituents of Opium . 1,1

on the Alkaloids produced during the Destruc¬

tive Distillation of Animal Substances . . . ^

Mr. George Robert Berry on Collodion Negatives . w

Professor F. Crace Calvert on the Physiological Properties of Carbazntic

Acid .

66

on the Action of Gallic and Tannic Acid* on

Iron aud Alumina Mordants . . *'■'

on the Action of Citric, Tartaric and Oxalic-

Acids on Cotton and Flax Fibres under the influence of Dry Heat and
Pressure of Steam . *'•’

Mr. Andrew Crosse on the apparently Mechanical Action accompanvii^-
Electric Transfer . Ml

Mr. J. A. Davies on the Decomposition of Magnesian Limestone at Bro«l»-
worth . r,t'

Dr. Edwards on Collodion Photographs of the Moon’s Surface

VIII

CONTENTS.

Page

M. Ferki^re on Photographs upon Albumen . 67

Mr. David Forbes on the Chemical Examination of some Alloys of Copper
and Zinc . . . . . ' . ‘ ‘ g^

Z7. ~ ~ ~ the Occurrence and Chemical Composition of some

Minerals horn the South of Norway . . . 67

Mr. J. P. Gassiot on the Heating Effects of Secondary Currents . 68

"-SKiraff SM5S2S “ .

Salts... ,'IC p hiorcsecnce exhibited by certain Iron and Platinum

. . . . 68

C°ncentratiou of Alcoho‘ »• Summering’. Experi-

MFiShIMratLTON °n the Results of Experiments on the Preserration of
Q . 69

in theMapplication of PhoEo^aphy &J

poses in the Army anti °Nayy\ °f ni>p,yin8 Photography to War pur-

M, Henry How o» the AfauZZIII H

My. a Kn1 on a Stereoscopic Co8mM.omic ^ . _o

Sugar in Food?..™,1, D'% J' Hl 0lL11"l,T on the Equivalency nf Starch and

— . 70

of estimating. Ammonia and XuZS&g&r* *'

Kn^,r t!“D,i^“a™ of fodinc in thr Mineral. Y’ege' ^
'■■»c;.;,f|:.c!„:„| . of the Phtnnumnn. exhibited hy'ihe

- -"'tor™*** 73

Mr. E. CKN,°I™”°n «f Milk . 74

Mr. David S p ^ te of p<*n*h . . . PrtP^at,on of the Standard

ing the 'inantit^of PhoHnL!U1>POS^ “flueneu of ‘the li' V to' . . 74

Mr. Joseph Si*pm Phorus in Cast Iron Mot- Blast m augment-

Conibustiou of Coid °1' ,he Pro‘1uction of Sulohnl . !"• . '4

Mr. W. Symons on . ^Iphurous Acid Gas from the

Professor J. Tew ? E,ectri®»l Batten- . . 75

Mr. James Tmv *NT °U t,le ^"Cutting of the fc 1 xt . 75

Pounds of the Organic It Jr* Physiological prouei2’NOOr I)ialllon,, . 75

my *• ^AR,N.GT^moC ^d,CRl8-M(,hyle. EthJCSS ^^oftheCom-

Volcmc Action Z™** ' rod'*t™ of Bo^ t f . 76

- - - - - 0n . . . . AcuI •"«! Ammonia by

**> . o« the Effect of Coloured Ml',** . ~ 76

. . . ^ on ll,e Growth of Red

. 77

CONTENTS.

IX

PMt®

Mr. G. Wilson on the Artificial Preparation of Sea-water for Marine Vivaria , ,
Mr. Francis Wrightson on the Sewerage of Manufacturing Towns . 77

GEOLOGY.

Mr. A. Bryson on a curious Structure in the Silurian Slates of Pcebleshirc .

Mr. Robert Chambers on the Great Terrace of Erosion iu Scotland, and it'

Relative Date and Connexion with Glacial Pluenomena .

_ Farther Observations on Glacial Ptucnomena iu

Scotland and the North of England .

Rev. J. G. Gumming on some of the more Recent Changes in the Area of the

Irish Sea . . . . . . .

Mr. John Cunningham on the Submarine Forest, Leasowc .

Sir Philip Egerton on an Ichthyoid Fossil from India . .

Professor Ehrenberg on the Discovery of Microscopic Shells in the Lower

Silurian Rocks . . . . .

Professor Edward Forbes on the Foliation of some Mctainorphic Rock* in

Scotland .

Captain Garden and Mr. W. H. Baily ou the Occurrence of a True Creta¬
ceous Formation in the South of Africa . . . *

Mr. G. B. Greenough on the Geology of India .

Professor Haricness on Crustacean Impressions from the Trias of Dumfries¬
shire . . . . * .

- on the Anthracite Deposits and Vegetable Remain* occur¬
ring in the Lower Silurians of the South of Scotland .

- on Mineral Charcoal .

- on Annelid Tracks from the Representatives of the Mill¬
stone Grits in the County of Clare . . .

Mr. Edward Hull’s Abstract of Paper explanatory of a Geological Section,
extending from the Island of Little Eye across the Peninsula between the
Estuaries of the Dee and Mersey to the East, of Liverpool .

Mr. J. B. Jukes on the One- Inch Map of the Northern Part of the County
Wicklow , geologically coloured . . .

Sir Roderick Impey Murcuihon’h General Observations on the Paleotoic
Rucks of Germany . . . . . . .

Mr. James Nasmyth on the Structure of Lutmr Volcanic Craters .

78

78

7 y

80

81

82

82

82

83

83

80

86

86

86

86

87

87

91

Mr. D. Page on the Subdivisions of the Pulir-ozoic Rocks of Scotland . 'I

ou the Structure and Texture of Stratified Rocks, as a mean* of

determining the Conditions under which they are formed . .

Professor A. C. Ramsay on the former probable existence of Pabrozoic

Glaciers . . . 93

- — - on the thickness of the Ice of the Ancient Glacier*

of North Wales, and other points hearing on the Glaciation of the Country • '-'1

Rev. Professor Adam Sedgwick on the May Hill Sandstone, and the Paliro-

zoic System of England...., . . . '■

Professor John Irwine W iiitty on the Silurian Anthracite of Cavan .

X

CONTENTS.

BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.

Botany.

Mr. T. C. Archer’s Remarks upon some Peculiarities discovered in Liquid

Caoutchouc . .

- on some Materials for making Paper .

Page

96

97

Professor Balfour on the Occurrence in Coal of peculiar Vegetable Organisms
resembling the Sporangia of Lycopodium . 97

Professor George Dickie on Associations of Colour and Relations of Colour
and Form in Plants . 98

Mr. G. Lawson on the Stipular Glands of Rubiaccic . 99

Rev. Professor J. M’Cosil’s Observations on the Morphology of Pines and
Firs . 99

' — some further Observations on the Correspondence

between the Leaf-Venation and Ramification of the Plant . 100

on some Traces of Harmonious Colours in Plants

and the Plumage of Birds . . 101

Ma“r_ATT 0,1 ,some New Mosses, and on recent Additions to the
Muscology or Liverpool . . . . . . . . . ^ j Q2

Mnt™?WELL T.', -,°n shc Avruu{?ement of the Air Canals in the

Nymphicaceae (the Water Lilies) . 102

PrcST REDFEUN °n the Nttture of the Torbanehill and other Varieties of

r""n *h°

102

Mr. James Yates on Stangeria Paradoxa

103

104

Zoology.

PrrcfS2rTK™d°0dSe uf Organ.

Ojauide o' twlm

Mr. Isaac Byerly on the Fauna of Liverpool ...!. .

«■ ,he of 107

los

smooth perpendicular SurfHo™“ ' Wl“* »«■ onahlcd t„ adhere to

. 109

105

106
107

CONTENTS.

XI

Dr. Thomas Laycock on the Physiology of Cells in relation to Consciousness

_ and Adaptive Movements .

Professor Owen on the Anthropoid Apes .

- - on the Anatomy of the Great Ant-eater .

Mr. Robert Patterson’s Exhibition of Living Sea Animals .

Mr. J. Richardson on the Medicinal Leech .

Captain Widdrington on a supposed New Species of Felis .

Professor W. C. Williamson’s Remarks on the British Species of Foraminifera

Pm*

110

111

113

113

113

113

113

Miscellaneous:

Dr. Fowler on Literary and Philosophical Pursuits as conducive to Longevity 1 14

Mr. Robert Warington’s further Memoranda of Observations made in
small Aquaria, in which the Balance between the Animal and Vegetable
Organisms was permanently maintained . 115

Mr. F. Wenham on the Application of Photography to the Delineation of
Microscopic Objects . H”

GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.

Geography.

Captain W. Allen’s Remarks on Levels taken in Jerusalem, with the Aneroid

Barometer . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 ’

Mr. J. Boult on some Sectional Diagrams illustrative of the Changes in the
Bed of the River Mersey and its Approaches . 10

Mr. J. Fergusson on the Site of the Iloly Sepulchre at Jerusalem . 11/

Mr. A. G. Findlay on Arctic and Antarctic Currents, and their Connexion
with the Fate of Sir John Franklin . 1 0

Despatch from Acting-Consul Gabriel to Lord Clarendon, announcing the
arrival of Dr. Livingstou at Loanda, ou the West Coast of Africa .

Captain S. Gale on the shortest Routes to South Australia .

Dr. Mathie Hamilton’s Remarks on the Lake Aulaga and its Drainage in
the Desert of Caranjas, in Bolivia . - . . .

Extracts of a Letter from the Rev, Dr. Livingston to the Rev. Arthur Tidiuan,
D.D., dated Town of Sekelutu, Linyauti, :24th September, 1853 .

Rev. C. G. Nicolay on the Eastern Territory of the Ecuador und the River
Napo . . . . . . .

Extracts of a Letter from the Rev. J. Kebmann to the Rev. II. Venn, dated
Kisaludini (in Rabbai), April 13, . .

Mr. George Rennie’s Hydrographical Remarks on the Improvement of the
Port of Liverpool . . .

Mr. D. Seymour on the Caucasus and Purts of the Crimea .

119

120

120

121

123

123

124

124

- Extracts from the MS, Notes of Travels of Gcnond Fcvm-r

in Central Asia, from Teheran to Herat, Biitkh, Cnmlahar. and along tin
course of the Helraund and round the Lake Sistan .

xii CONTENTS.

Page

Communications on an Australian Expedition, from Capt. Charles Sturt, Dr. J.

W. F. Blundell, and G. S. Wilson, Geologist to the Expedition . 125

Dr. Sutherland on Glaciers in the Arctic Regions . 12fi

Mr. J. Towson on Modifications of Great-Circle Sailing . 126

Mr. J. B. Yates on the Estuary of the River Mersey, and the hazardous and
uncertain Approaches to the Port of Liverpool . 126

Ethnology.

Dr. Blech on South African Languages . 126

Mr. Richard Cull’s Description of Three Esquimaux, lately exhibited in
London . 126

- on the Ethnological Value of the Results of Philological

Inquiry . 126

Mr. William Freund’s Notes on the Etruscan Question

126

Mr. Joseph Barnard Davih on the Forms of the Crania of the Ancient

Britons . 127

Rev. Abraham Hume on the Ethnology of the Liverpool District, with
Notices of the Hoylake Antiquities . . . 129

Mr. James Kennedy on the Lost Tribes of Israel . 129

Dr. R. G. Latham on the non-Russian Populations of Russia in Europe . 129

Mr. T. Wright on the Early Ethnology of Britain . 130

corner „f^sWrcSOm.e.RC“:“::,.S."f.“ E“rl>' P“P>» “

the South-eastern

130

STATISTICS.

“stSMaBjSwir" th'! CaU*“ “tl Comequences of the Preston

Mr. T. B. Lloyd Baker on the Reformation of Offenders .

M, LIa v id Buxton on the CW of the Deaf and Dumb in mi'ZZ" 132

A™ Australia and ,rom BugliA

“on* S

during the ,Mt To, Com in Engird

Her. fc Hume „„ „K Edualtio„ J

CONTENTS.

XIII

*****

Mr. Charles Jellicoe’s Suggestions for improving the present mode of
keeping and stating the National Accounts . 1 • w

Mr. James Knight on the Rise, Progress, and Present Condition of Joint

Stock Banks .

Dr. R. G. Latham on the non-Russian Populations of Russia in Europe . 1

Mr. McNerney’s Statistics of Poor Relief and Movement of Population in the
“ Commercial District ” in the Hundred of "Wirral, Cheshire . •■•••• 14-

Mr. H. E. Michel on the Treatment of abandoned Workings of the Australian
Gold Yields . . . . M2

Mr. William Miller on Decimal Coinage . - . 1 I-

- on the Decimalization of the Tariff . . 1 13

Mr. William Newmarch on the Magnitude and Fluctuation of the Circula¬
tion of Bids of Exchange, IHlti to 1S63. Statement of some of the results
of a further extensive collection of Data . . . . . IfJ

- - Fact* and Statements connected with the Question,

Whether, in consequence of the Discoveries within the last Six Years, the
Exchangeable Value of Gold in this country bus falleu below its former level 1-13

Mr. Theodore W. Rath bone on the different Plans which have been pro¬
posed of Decimal Accounts and Coinage . . . . . 1 13

Colonel Sykes on the Statistics of Nice Maritime . 1 *•'

Mr. R. Valpy on the Progress and Direction of British Exports, and the In¬
fluence thereon of Free Trade and Gold .. . 145

Mr. James Yates on a Method of substituting Francs and Centimes for the
present English Metallic Currency . 14*>

MECHANICS.

Mr. Frederick Bakewell on Telegraphic Communication between England
and America . . . . . 117

Mr. John Chanter Hn the CEconomical Working of Steam Boilers . 117

Mr. William Clay on the huge Fly-wheel lately erected at the Mersey Iron-
Works, Liverpool . . . . . 147

Mr. J. Cunningham on Ventilation of Ships . 1 Is

Mr. W. Day on the (Economical Working of Steam Boilers and Furnaces, b\
the saving of Fuel, with a more speedy command of Steam . 1 -ID

Mr. II. Dircks on the Prevention of Boiler Explosions . HI*

Mr. J. Eldridgk on a New Washing Machine . 1 19

Mr. W. Fairbairn on the Consumption of Fuel and the Prevention of Smoke 1 4!*

- - - - on the Solidification of Bodies under great Pressure ... 141*

Mr. J. Grantham on Cunningham’s Plan for Reefing Topsails . 150

- on Fisher’s Venetian Screw Propeller . 151

Mr. William IIawkks on the Strength of Iron after repented Meltings ... 151
Mr. Andrew Henderson on Ocean Steamers and Clipper Ship*.-. I -

Mr. J. B. Lindsay on some Experiments upon a Telegraph for communimtini’
across Rivers and Sena, without the employment of a submerged Cable 1 *>7

XIV

CONTE NTH.

Mr. J. Nasmyth on a Method of Boring Holes in Rock for Tunneling Pur¬
poses . . .

Mr. Prosser on Unchanged Steam .

Mr. W. J. Macouorn Rankins on the Means of realizing the advantages

of the Air-Engine . . .

Mr. John Scott Russkll on the Progress of Naval Architecture ami Steam
Navigation, iucluding a Notice of the large Ship the Ea-t- ni • team . “ -

gation Company . . . . .

Mr. Saxby on Mechanical Appliances on board Merchant Ship"

Rev. Dr. ScoitiiSRY's Impiin us to the Principles «'“J '

Safety in the Navigation of Iron Ships may he rensonabK l‘X» ‘ 1

Mr. John Sewell on Steam-boiler Explosions ^ ^

Mr. Andrew Smith on the Origin of Wire Rope; its Qualities >"l‘1 1 ^ ^ ^

Professor Stevelly ont.hu Limit of Weight which may suf<’l> 1,1 . .

driven into the Ground . .

Mr. J. Statheu on uu Improved Printing Machine . ^ Water

Mr. J. Thornton’s Report of Experiments on the I' ' ri1’" ' '* * .

and on the Experiments to be made on Centrifugn* 1 u,,,|’s ( Ajt.ti„,<ls of

Mr. J. B. Lawks and Dr. J. II. Gilbert on the Amount* ‘»l. .

Estimating, Ammonia and Nitric Acid in Rain-water . fishery

on the Herring .

Ptgt

157

159

159

160

161

161

162

162

163

163

Mr. W. Russell’s Letter to John Cleghom,
averages of Wick District .

163

164
176

Index I. — To Reports on the State of Science . . s

Index II. To Miscellaneous Communications to tin’ ■~l 1

177

179

ADVERTISEMEnT’ nsible only <« ,he ^

The Editors of the preceding Notices consider theni^lveS
with which the views of the Authors are abstracted.

OBJECTS AND RULES

OF

THE ASSOCIATION.

OBJECTS.

The Association contemplates no interference with the ground occupied by
other Institutions. Its objects are, — To give a stronger impulse and n more
systematic direction to scientific inquiry, — to promote the intercourse of those
who cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire, with one an-
other, and with foreign philosophers, — to obtain a more general uttcntiori to
the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a public kind
which impede its progress.

RULES.

ADMISSION OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES.

All Persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to be¬
come Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to con¬
form to its Rules.

The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical So¬
cieties publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled, in
like manner, to become Members of the Association.

^ie Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committee*, of
Philosophical Institutions, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem¬
bers of the Association.

All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Council
or Managing Committee, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Mem¬
bers of the Association.

Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the General
Committee or Council, to become Life Memhers of the Association, Annual
Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the approval of n General
Meeting.

COMPOSITIONS, SUBSCRIPTIONS, AND PRIVILEGES.

Life Members shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They
pi I ret‘e*ve gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may he pub-
, alter the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the offices
of the Association.

Askhat. Subscribers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds.
■>ud '!' eac1, following year the sum of One Pound. They shall receive
gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission
and lor the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their
nnual buhseription. By omitting to pay tin's Subscription in any particu¬
lar year, Members of this du.ss (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and all
future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association gratis :

ot they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any sub-
sequent i leeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the sum of
n* 1 ound. They are eligible to all the Offices of the Association.

.... SS0CIATfcs for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.

ley s rail not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor In¬
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.

XVI

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.

The Association consists of the following classes : —

1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.

2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on ad¬
mission Ten Pounds as a composition. .

3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to the
payment of One Pound annually. [May resume their Membership after in¬
termission of Annual Payment.]

4. Annual Members admitted in any year since 1859, subject to the pay¬
ment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each following
year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of Annual Pay¬
ment.]

5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.

6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.

And die Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’) price,
according to the following specification, viz. : —

1. Gratis. — Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo¬

sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further
sum of Two Pounds as a llook Subscription, or, since 1845, a
further sum of Five Pounds.

New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a com¬
position.

Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub¬
scription.

2. At reduced or Members' Prices, viz. two-thirds of the Publication

Price. — Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a
composition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a
Book Subscription.

Annual Members, who have intermitted their Annual Subscrip¬
tion.

[Privilege confined to the volume for

Associates for the year,
that year only.]

3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any
of the first seventeen volumes of Transactions of the Associa-
Ml more than 100 copies remain, at one-third of
1 e 1 abdication Price. Application to be made (bv letter) to

rr., . MEETINGS.

mCe' rV °ne »«*• <" longer. The pla

Vio.is Mee S gan i ' Aa,’P0ln:C!’ by ihc Ge"o™l Committee at the pr
eers ofTe Z’ocMol Arr""Se>ne,us for it shall be en.ru,, ed to the OH

Tk. GENERAL COMMITTEE.

Ipl’.ger* t° transact* d'le^usine^s^of'th^As^ *f- WekIof‘he Meeting,

following persons : _ e Association. It shall consist of t

thors Reports in the Transaafow^oF the A P.receding >’Gars* with a
2- Members who hwn Zl , the Association.

which has been printed in its Transacting ,>,apfr \° a PhiIosopJncal Societ
as are taken into consideration at the Spr#*nd 1 re ate> to such suljjec

at the Sectional Meetings of the Associatio

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.

mil

3. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, altogether, not exceed¬
ing three in number, from any Philosophical Society publishing Transactions.

4. Office-bearers for the time being, or Delegates, not exceeding three,
from Philosophical Institutions established in the place of Meeting, or in any
place where the xAssociation has formerly met.

5. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and who
are specially nominated in writing for the meeting of the year by tin. Presi¬
dent and General Secretaries.

6. The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the Sections arc
ex officio members of the General Committee lor the time being.

SECTIONAL COMMITTEES.

The General Committee shall appoint, at each Meeting, Comm it let *, con¬
sisting severally of the Members most conversant with the several branchca
of Science, to advise together for the advancement thereof.

The Committees shall report what subjects of investigation they wool. I
particularly recommend to be prosecuted during the ensuing year, and
brought under consideration at the next Meeting.

The Committees shall recommend Reports on the state and progress of
particular Sciences, to be drawn up from time to time by competent pt nous
for the information of the Annual Meetings.

COMMITTEE Of RECOMMENDATIONS.

The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee, which
shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Ci>nnnitt< «
and report to the General Committee the measures which they would adv it
to be adopted for the advancement of Science.

All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re¬
searches, and Reports on ScientilicSubjects, shall be submitted to the Com¬
mittee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the Get < ral
Committee, unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recom¬
mendations.

LOCAL COMMITTEES.

Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to
assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.

Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those
Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.

OFFICERS.

A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries, and a
Treasurer, shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.

COUNCIL.

In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall l»c
managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. Tin- Council
inay also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of t!u-
Meeting.

PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS.

The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to nwrve
h,s right of property therein.

ACCOUNTS.

The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors
appointed by the Meeting.

1854.

b

PRESIDENTS. VICE-PRESIDENTS, LOCAL SECRETARIES.

i

II. Table showing the Names of Members of the British Association who
have served on the Council in former years.

Acland, Sir Thomas D., Bart., M.P., F.R.S.
Acland, Professor H. W., B.M., F.R.S.
Adamson, John, Esq., F.L.S.

Adams, J. Couch, M.A., F.R.S.

Adare, Edwin, Viscount, M.P., F.R.S.
Ainslie, Rev. Gilbert, D.D., Master of Pem¬
broke Hall, Cambridge.

Airy.G.B., D.C'.L., F.R.S., Astronomer Royal.
Alison, Professor W. P., M.D., F.R.S.E.
Ansted, Professor D. T., M.A., F.R.S.

Argyll, George Douglas, Duke of, F.R.S.
Arnott, Neil, M.D., F.R.S.

Ashburton, William Bingham, Lord, D.C.L.
Babbuge, Charles, Esq., F.R.S.

Babinglon, C. C„ Esq., F.R.S.

Baily, Francis, Esq., F.R.S.

Balfour, Professor John H., M.D.

Barker, George, Esq., F.R.S.

Bell, Professor Thomas, F.L.S. , F.R.S.
Bengough, George, Esq.

Bentham, George, Esq., F.L.S.

Bigge, Charles, Esq,

Blakiston, Peyton, M.D., F.R.S.

Boilenu, Sir John P., Bart., F.R.S.

Boyle, Right Hon. David, Lord Justice-Ge¬
neral, F.R.S. E.

Brand, William, Esq.

Brewster, Sir David, K.H., D.C.L,, I.L.D.,
F.R.S., Principal of the United College of
St. Salvator and St. Leonard, St. Andrews.
Breadalbane, John, Marquis of, K.T., F.R.S.
Brisbane, General Sir Thomas M„ Burt.,
K.C.B., G.C.ll., D.C.L., F.R.S.

Brown, Robert. D.C.L, F.R.S.

Brunei, Sir M. I., F.R.S.

Buckland, Very Rev. William, D.D., Dean of
Westminster, P.It.S.

Burlington, William, Earl of, M.A., F.R.S.,
Chancellor of the University of London.
Bute, John, Marquis of, Ii.T.

Carlisle, George Will. Fred., Earl of, F.R.S.
Carson, Rev. Joseph,

Catheart, Lt,-Gcn., Earl of, K.C.B., F.R.S.fi.
Chalmers, Rev. T„ D.D., late Professor of
Divinity, Edinburgh.

Chance, James, Esq.

Chester, John Graham, D.D., Lord Bishop of.
Christie, Professor S. IE, M.A., Sec. R.S.
Clare, Peter, Esq., F.R.A.S.

Clark, Rev. Prof., M.D., F.R.S. (Cambridge).
Clark. Henry, M.D.

Clark, G. T., Esq.

Clear, William, Esq.

Clerke, Major Shadwell, K.H., R.E., F.R.S.
Clift, William, Esq., F.R.S.

Cobbold, John Chevalier, Esq., M.P.
Colquhoun, J. C„ Esq., M.P.

Conybeare, Very Rev. W. I)., Dean ofLIandafT,
M.A., F.R.S.

Corrie, John, Esq., F.R.S.

Currie, William Wallace, Esq.

Dalton, John, D.C.L., F.R.S,

Danicll, Professor J. F., F.R.S.

Dartmouth, William, Earl of, D.C.L., F R S
Darwin, Charles, Esq., F.R.S.

Daubeny, l’rof. Charles G. B., M.D., F.R.S.
Dc la Beche, Sir Henry T., C.B., F.R.S., Di¬
rector-General of the Geological Survey
of the United Kingdom.

Dillwyn, Lewis W., Esq., F.R.S.

Drinkwatcr, J. E., Esq.

Durham, Edward Maltby, D.D., Lord Bishop
of, F.R.S.

Egerton, Sir Philip de M. Grey, Bart., M.P.,
F.R.S.

Eliot, Lord, M.P.

Ellesmere, Francis, Earl of, P.G.S.
Enniskillen, William, Earl of, D.C.L, F.R.S.
Eetcourt, T. G. B., D.C.L.

Faraday, Professor, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Pilzwilliam, Charles William, Earl, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.

Fleming, W., M.D.

Fletcher, Bell, M.D.

Forbes, Charles, Esq.

Forbes, Professor Edward, F.R S.

Forbes, Professor J. D., F.R.S., Sec. R.S.E.
Fox, Robert Were, Esq., F.R.S.

Frost, Charles, F.S.A.

Gassiot, John P., Esq., F.R.S,

Gilbert, Davies, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Graham, Professor Thomas, M.A., F.R.S.
Gruy, John E., Esq., F.R.S.

Gray, Jonathan, Esq.

Gray, William, jun., Esq.. F.G.S.

Green, Professor Joseph Henry, F.R.S.
Oreenough, G. B., Esq., F.R.S.

Grove, W. R., Esq., F.R.S.

Hiillam, Henry, Esq., M.A., F.R S,

Hamilton, W.J.. Esq., Scc.G.S.

Hamilton, Sir William FL, Astronomer Royal
of Ireland, M.R.I.A.

Hareourt, Rev. William Vernon, M..V, F.R.S.
Hardwicke, Charles Philip, Ear! of, F.R.S.
Harford, J.S., D.C.L., F.R.S.

Harris, Sir W. Snow, F.R.S.

Harrowby, The Ettriof, F.tt.S.

Hatfeild, William, Eeq., F.G.S.

Henslow, Rev. Professor, M.A., F.L.S.

Henry, W. C., M.D., P.R.S.

Henry, Rev. P. 9., D.D., FitiMni of Queen's

College, Belfast.

Herbert, Hon. and Very Rev. William, late
Dean of Manchester, LL.P, F.L.S.
Herseliel.SirJohnF.W., Bart., D.t.l... F.R.S.
Heywood, Sir Bcqjamin, Bart.. l’.lt.S.

Hey wood, James, E*q., M.P., F li -S.

Hill, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G.S.

Hi neks, Rev. Edward, D.D., M.FLLA.
Hodgkin, Thom.'S, M.D.

Ilodgkinson, Professor Eaton, F.R.S.
Hodgson, Joseph, Esq., F.R.S.

Hooker, Sir William J., I.L.D., F.R.S.

Hope, Rev. F. W., M.A., F.R.S.

Hopkins, William, E.-q.. M.A., F.R.S.

Horner, Leonard, Esq., F.R.S., F. ('.*•.
Hovendon, V. F., E*q., NLA.

Hutton, Robert, Esq., F.G.S,

Hutton, William, Etq., I OJ.
lbbetson,Capt,l,.L.Boicaw<n, K.ILF. F.G.S.
Inglis.SirRobert II. Hart., D.C. L., M.l\, P.R.S.
Jameson, Professor R., P.R.S.

JefTreys, John Gwyn, Esq., F.R.S.

Jenyns, Rev. Leonard, F.L.S.

Jerrard, H. B., Esq.

Johnston, Right Hon. William, Lord Prove t
of Edinburgh.

Johnston, Professor J. F. W-, M.A., F.R.S.

Keleher, William, Esq.

Kelland, Rev. Professor P., M.A.

Lankester, Edwin, M.D., F.R.S.

Lansdowne, Henry, Marquis of, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Lardner, Rev. Dr.

Lassell, William, Esq., F.R.S. L. & E.
Latham, R. G., M.D., F.R.S.

Lee, Very Rev. John, D.D., F.R.S. E., Prin¬
cipal of the University of Edinburgh.
Lee, Robert, M.D., F.R.S.

Lefevre, Right Hon. Charles Shaw, Speaker
of the House of Commons.

Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., M.P., F.R.S.
Liddell, Andrew, Esq.

Lindley, Professor John, Ph.D., F.R.S.
Listovvel, The Earl of.

Lloyd, Rev. Bartholomew, D.D., late Provost
of Trinity College, Dublin.

Lloyd, Rev. Professor, D.D., Provost of
Trinity College, Dublin, F.R.S.
Londesborough, Lord, F.R.S.

Lubbock, Sir John W., Bart., M.A., F.R.S.
Ltiby, Rev. Thomas.

Lyell, Sir Charles, M.A., F.R.S.

MacCullagh, Professor, D.C.L., M.It.I.A.
Macfarlane, The Very Rev. Principal.
MacLcay, William Sharp, Esq., F.L.S.
MacNeill, Professor Sir John, F.R.S.
Malcolm, Vice Admiral Sir Charles, K.C.B.
Manchester, J. P. I.ee, D.D., Lord Bishop of.
Meyncll, Thomas, Jun„ Esq., F.L.S.
Middleton, Sir William F. F., Bai't.

Miller, Professor W. A,, M.D., F.R.S.

Miller, Professor W. H., M.A., F.R.S.
Moillet, J. D., Esq.

Moggridge, Matthew, Esq.

Moody, J. Sudleir, Esq.

Moody, T. H. C„ Esq.

Moody, T. F., Esq.

Morley, The Earl of.

Moseley, Rev. Henry, M.A., F.R.S.
Mount-Edgecumbe, Ernest Augustus, Earl of.
Murchison, Sir Roderick I., G.C.St.S., F.R.S.
Neill, Patrick, M.D., F.R.S.E.

Nicol, D., M.D.

N’icol, Rev. J. I'., LL.D.

Northumberland, Hugh, Duke of, K.G., M.A.,
F.R.S.

Northampton, Spencer Joshua Alwyne, Mar¬
quis or, V.P.R.S.

Norwich, Edward Stanley, D.D., F.R.S., late
Lord Bishop of.

Norwich, Samuel Hinds, D.D., Lord Bishop of.
Orinerod, G. W., Esq., F.G.S. *

Orpen, Thomas Herbert, M.D.

Orpen, J.H., LL.D.

Owen, Professor Richard, M.D., F.R.S.
Oxford, Samuel Wilberforce, D.D., * Lord
Bishop of, F.R.S., F.G.S.

Osier, Follett, Esq.

Palmerston, Viscount, G.C.B., M P
Peacock,^ Very^Rcv. George, D.i).,'

p€eVc^8SIr U0bert' Bart- M.P.,
Pcndarves, E., Esq., F.R.S.

vor^o m,a- f-r-s*

Powell, RCV. ProiW, M.A., FRS
Prichard, J. C., M.D., F.R s

Ramsay, Professor W., M.A *

Dean of

Reid, LleuL-Col. Sir William, F.R.S.
Rendleaham, Rt. Hon. Lord, M.P.

Rennie, George, Esq., V.P.11.S.

Rennie, Sir John, F.R.S.

Richardson, Sir John, M.D., F.R.S.

Ritchie, Rev. Professor, LL.D., F.R.S.
Robinson, Rev. J., D.D.

Robinson, Rev. T. R., D.D., Pres.R.I.A.,
F.R.A.S.

Robison, Sir John, late Sec.R.S.Edin.

Roche, James, Esq.

Roget, Peter Stark, M.D., F.R.S.

Ronalds, Francis, F.R.S.

Rosebery, The Earl of, K.T., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Ross, Cnpt. Sir James C., K.N., F.R.S.
Roase, William, Eoil of, M.A., M.R.I.A.,
President of the Royal Society.

Uojlc, Professor John F., M.D., F.R.S.
Russell, J times, Esq.

Russell, J. Scott, Esq., F.R.S.

Sabine, Col. lid ward, U»A„Trcas. & V.P.R.S.
Saunders, William, Esq.. F.G.S.

Sundon, Lord (the present Earl of Harrowby).
Scoresby, Rev. W., D.D., F.R.S.

Sedgwick, ltev. Professor Adam, M. A., F.R.S.
Selby, Prideaux John, E*u., F.R.S.E.

Smith, Lieut. -Colonel C. Hamilton, F.R.S.
Spence, William, Esq., F.R.S.

•Staunton, Sir G. T., Bt.. M.P., D.C.L , F.R.S.
St. David’s, C.Thiriwnll, D.D., Lord Bishop of.
Stevelly, Professor Jnhn, LL.D.

Stokes, Professor G. G., F.R.S.

Strang, John, Esq.

Strickland, Hugh Edwin, Esq., F.R.S.

Sykes, Lieut. -Colonel W, H., F.R.S.
Symonds, B. P., D.D., late Vice-Chancellor of
the University of Oxford.

Talbot, W. H. Fox, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.
Tayler, Rev. John .lame*, B.A.

Taylor, John, Esq,, F.R.S.

Taylor, Richard, Jun„ E*q., F.G.S.
Thompson, William, Esq., F.L.S.

Tindai, Captain, R.N,

Tod, James, Esq., F.R.S.E.

Traill, J. S., M.D.

Turner, Edward, M.D., F.R.S.

Turner, Samuel, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Turner, Rev. W.

Vigors, N. A., D.C.L., F.L.S.

Vivian, J. H., M.P., F.R.S.

Walker, James. R*q., F.R.S.

Walker, Joseph N„ Esq., F.G.S.

Walker, Rev. Robert, M.A., F.R.S.
Warlmrton, Henry, Esq., M.A., M.P., F.R.S.
Washing ton, Captain, R.N.

West, William, Esq., F.R.S.

Western. Thomas Burch, Esq.

WharoclilTf, John Stuatt, Lord, F.R.S.
Wheatstone, Profeasor Charles, F.R.S.

W he well, Rev. William, D.D.. F.R.S., Master
w.„. *’rlnity College, Cambridge.

« | lams, Professor Charles J.B., M.D., F.R.S,

\vui ' \!frv’ frolexsor Robert, M.A., F.R.S.
Wills, Williu1n, Esq,

Winchester. John, Marquis of.
woollcombe, Henry, Esq.. FS.A.

Wrottvdoy, John, Lord, M.A,, Pres. R.S.
Jarrell, William, Esq., F.L S.

Yarborough, The Earl of, D.C.L.

Yates, James, Tisq., M.A., F.R.S.

lates, Joseph Brook*, Esq., F.S.A., F.R.G.S.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

xxiii

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1853-54.

TRUSTEES PERMANENT).

Sir Roderick I. Murchison, G.C.S'.S.,l'.R.S. TheVery Rev. George Peacock, D.D., Dean
John Taylor, Esq., F.R.S. of Ely, F.R.S.

PRESIDENT.

The Earl or Harrowby, F.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

The Lord Wrottf.sley, M.A., Pre*. R.S.,
F.R.A.S.

Sir Philip De Malpas Grey Egehton,
Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S.

Ricitard Owen, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., P.L.S.,
F.G.S., Hunterian Professor of Anatomy
and Physiology in the Royal College of
Surgeons of England.

Rev. William Wnwiux, D.D., Pres.R.S.,
lion. M.R.I.A., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., Master
of Trinity College, and Professor of
Moral Philosophy in the University of
Cambridge.

William Hassell, Esq., F.R.S. L. & E.,
F.R.A.S.

Joseph Brooks Yates, Esq.,F.S.A .F.R.G.S.

PRESIDENT ELECT.

The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.

The Very Rev. Principal M'Taki.anb, D.D. Waiter Crum. Efq„ F.R.S.
Sir William Jardinic, Bt., F.R.S.E., F.L S. ~ ' —

Sir Charles Lyell, M.A., I.L.D., F.R.S.,

Hon. Mem. R.S.Ed., F.L.S., F.G.S.

James Smith, Esq., F.R.S. L. & E., P.G.S..

F.R.G.S., M.W.S.

Ml

Thomas Graham. M.A..F.R.S., Hon. Mem.

R.S.Ed., F.G.S., Master of the Royal Mint.
William Thomson, M.A.. F.R.S. L. & E.,
Profegsor of Natural Philosophy in the
University of Glasgow.

LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT CLASCOW.

John Strang, LL.D., City Chamberlain of Glasgow.

Thomas Anderson, M.A., Regius Professor of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow.
William Gourme, Esq. 1

LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT CLASCOW.

William Ramsay, M.A., Professor of Humanity in the University of Glasgow.

, ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

Arnott, Neil, M.D., F.R.S. IIeywooh, James, Esq., M.P. Powell, Rev. Trof., F.R.S.
lloRNKK, L., Esq., F.R.S.

Hutton, Robert, F.G.S.

Lankkstrr, E., M.D., F.R.S.

Latham, R, G., M.D., F.R.S.

Miller, Prof. W. A., M.D.,

P.R.S.

Milsks, R. M., Esq., M.P.

T, „ . . . , „ ex-officio members of the council.

neral and a,ul Vice-Presidents Elect, the Ge-

dents0ff0miery*an,riz??h^^drr5fzw[tHnnPen< ra^TTrCnSU^eir' ,h® Tn»tees, and the Presi-

1 lU.jy., I«I\

MARINGTON, C. C., F.R.S.
Bell, Prof., Pres.L.S., F.R.S.
Brooke, Charles, Esq.,
B.A., F.R.S. 1

Daubeny, Prof., M.D., F.R.S.
Gasbiot, John P., F.R.S.
Grove, William R., F.R.S.

• onr.LI., m 1 |U1,V 1 .tl.Ua

Royi.k, J. F., M.D., F.R.S.
Stores, Professor, F.R.S.
Sykes. Lt.-Col.W. II., F.R.S.
Titk.W., M.P., F.S.A., F.R.S.
Tooke, T., Esq.. F.R.S.
Wheatstone, Prof., F.R.S.

r , , _ . general SECRETARY

d”"1 rt,S- * V.n.A.S., Woolwich.

John Phillips, Esq., M.A . Y R S ^ n S n V * E„CRETA.RY*

O-Yford’; Mag,i;ienBridg”?OAeforf .Gc0,0«rin lhe Universit-v oi

John Taylor, Eso fur Je~erAL Treasurer.

'■’ S-’ ^ UPP« Thames Street, London.

A. Follett Osier, Esq.

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES.

XXV

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE
LIVERPOOL MEETING.

SECTION A.— MATHEMATICS AND PIIYSIC8.

President. — G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec.R.S., Luc. Prof. Camb.

Vice-Presidents. — Very Rev. The Dean of Ely, F.R.S. ; Rev. Professor Walker

F. R.S.; Rev. Dr. Whewell, F.R.S. ; Rev. Professor Powell, F.R.S.

Secretaries. — Prof. Stevelly, LL.D. ; Prof. John Tyndall, Ph.D., F.R.S. ; Male

G. Puckle, M.A. ; J. llartuup, Esq., F.R.A.S. ; John Welsh, Esq.

SECTION B. - CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY, INCLUDING THEIR APPLICATIONS

TO AGRICULTURE AND THE ARTS.

President. — W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S., Prof. Chera. King’s Coll. Lond.
Vice-Presidents. — Professor M. Faraday, D.C.L., F.R.S. ; Professor Thomas
Graham, F.R.S. ; Professor T. Traill, M.D., F.R.S. E. ; R. Warington, Esq., F.C.S.

Secretaries. — J. Baker Edwards, Ph.D., F.C.S. ; J. H. Gladstone, Ph.D., F.R.S.
David S. Price, Ph.D., F.C.S.

SECTION C. — OEOLOGY.

President. — Edward Forbes, F.R.S., Prof. Nat. Hist. Ed id.

Vice-Presidents. — Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.; Lt.-G'ol. Porllock, F.R.S. ;
James Smith, Esq., F.R.S.; G. D. Greenougb, Esq., F.R.S. j Sir Charles l.villj
F.R.S.

Secretaries— John Cunningham, Esq., F.G.S. ; G. W. Ormerod. M.A., F.G.S. •
J. W. Woodall, B.A. ; Professor Darkness, F.G.S.

SECTION D. - ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY.

President. — Professor Balfour, M.D., F.R.S. E.

Vice-Presidents. — William Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S. ; C. C. Babington Ksq
M.A., F.R.S. ; T. H. Huxley, F.R.S. ; Sir W. Jardinc, Bart., F.R.S.K.

Secretaries, — Edw in Lankeater, M.D., F.R.S. ; Isaac Byerley, Esq., F.L.S.

SECTION E. — GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.

President. — Sir. R. I. Murchison, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.— Sir R. II. luglis, F.ll.S. ; Col. Chesney, F.R.S.; Captain Fitz¬
Roy, F.R.S.; Dr. Conolly, D.C.L.; Dr. Latham, F.R.S.

Secretaries.— Norton Shaw, M.D., See. Roy. Geog. Soc. ; Richard Cull, Esq., Hon.
Sec. Eth. Society ; Dr. Ihnc ; Rev. H. Higgins, M.A.

SECTION F. — STATISTICS.

President . — Thomas Tooke, Esq,, F.R.S.

w?-/,rWen'Sn‘-Hi8^race tllc A^bishop of Dublin ; Colonel Sykes, F.R.S.;
W ilham Brown, Esq., M.P. ; R. Munckton Milnes, Esq., M.P.

Esq.; w. H. Duncan, Esq., M.D. ; J. T.
Danson, Esq. ; Edward Cheshire, Esq.

SECTION O.— MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

President.— John Scott Russell, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.

WiUiam Fftjrbairn, Esq., C.E., F.R.S.; Joseph Loci- . Esq .
Booth JvmeS ?ai!ra-Vih' DSq-' C*K- Kev- Professor Walker, M.A., F.R.S. ; I lenrv

Thoraas Webster* ■*»•• m a:*

ThoS)rEsq~JclE.3 Esq’* C’E- ! John Grantham, Esq., C.E. ; Jamc.

XXVI

REPORT - 1854.

Professor Agassiz,
chusetts.

M. Babinet, Paris.

Dr. A. D. Bache, Philadelphia.
Professor II. von Boguslawski, Breslau.
Mr. P. G. Bond, Cambridge, l IS.

M. Boutigny (d'Evreux).

Professor Bmschmaim, Moscow.
Chevalier Bunsen, Heidelberg.

Prince Charles Bonaparte, Paris.

M. Dc la Ilive, Geneva.

Professor Dove, Berlin.

M. Dufr&ioy, Pat 'is.

Professor Dumas, Paris.

Dr. J. Milne- Ed wards, Paris.

Professor Ehrenberg, Berlin.

Dr. Kisenlohr, Carlsrnhe.

Professor Encke, Berlin.

Dr. A. Errnan, Berlin.

Professor Earn ark, Christiania.

Professor G. Forchhanuner, Copenhagen.
M. Leon Foucault, Paris.

M. Frisiuni, Milan,

Professor Aan Gray, Cambridge, U.S.
Professor Henry, Washington, U.S.
Baron Alexander von Humboldt, Berlin.
M. Jacobi, St. Peters/mrg.

Professor Krcil, Prague.’

M. Kupffer, St. Petersburg.

Dr. Langbcrg, Christiania.

M. Lc Verrier, Paris.

Baron de Selys-Longchamps, Uige.
Dr. Lamont, Munich.

Baron von Liebig, Munich.

Professor Gustav Magnus, Berlin.
Professor Matteucci, Pisa.

Professor von M iddendorff, Si . Petersburg.
M. l'Abbtf Moigno, Paris.

Professor Nilsson, Sweden.

Dr. NT. Nordengsciold, Finland.
Chevalier Plana, Thrui.

M. Quctelet, Brussels.

Professor PI ticker, Bonn.

M. Constant Provost. Paris.

Professor C. Ritter, Berlin.

Professor H. D. Rogers, Philadelphia.
Prolessor W. B. Rogers. Uirginia.
Professor H. Rose, Berlin.

Baron Sen Ben berg, Bohemia.

Dr. Siljestrom, Stockholm.

M. Struve, St. Petersburg.

Dr. S van berg, Stockholm.

Dr. Van dcr Hoevcn, Leyden.

Baron Sartorius von Wultershausen.

M. Pierre Tchihatchef.

Professor Wnrtrnann, Lausanne.

OF TIItECoUNC11' 1853-54, AS PRESENTE
loin, 185™ Committee at Liverpool, Wednesday, Septembe

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Cambridge, Massa-

proTentS TthiJ r "T that, ,nvitatioils to the Association will be
^ °;Vhe r^°, U‘e Univer3ity City of Glasgow:

tliB iKflriJ j!? ° TTty, Co,leSe» Dublin, for 1857, supported by

' Bright^ the tuZ andC^rSUee|!'S EX?™** in ^ ; fJ

bam; and from Hyde in the lsl/of' Wight?' ° Manche,ter'' froi» CJ.elten-

“jttce of the'lfeiri'sl, ^^^tionDga^Pfr^filhln C* Parlia,nentary Com-
Observatory, the Council believe WAha Pnlf6 ,C°mnm!ec of the Kew
these two documents the most satisfactm-v V. 90ne,ul Committee will find in
importance and general usefulness of S/ehSTJ, °f w* i,,crea#inS PubUc
lu the case of the Parlinmr.,.0,.... o . tw“ Association,
selves only as the organ through which thePC°uucil consider them-

ings are presented to the* ?f tl,e last y^s proceed-
Comnuttee, the members of which are aU^ , ^', ln lhe ca8e of Kew
nder the authorization of tlm Council thJ ”embers. of the Council, and act
CrT 'Tbence the authority is derived ’ In ,rCport .ts addressed to the body
Commntce, therefore, the Counci dcL to it to the General

[hefin„TT,,Ce in 5t* cl°siug rToomSatinnXpr^ at ,he pame their
made to If PS,tl0U of the A ssociation wilUdm* ^hey.are Pcrsuaded that if

REPORT OP THE COUNCIL.

XXVII

The Report of the Kew Committee to the Council, signed by J. P. Gassiot,
Esq., Chairman : —

In their Report for the last year your Committee stated that an application
had been made to them by the Hydrographer of the Admiralty for advice
as to the construction of thermometers to be supplied to H.M. Navy, for
the purpose of making meteorological observations at sea, aud that vour Com¬
mittee had undertaken to provide a specimen of the form of instrument
which they might consider most suitable.

When the necessary experiments were completed and a Model Thermo¬
meter constructed, your Committee directed that one should be sent to each of
the Philosophical Instrument Makers who had been supplied with Standard
Thermometers from the Observatory, requesting that they would acquaint
the Committee at what price 9uch instruments could be supplied.

The prices named by Messrs. Negretti aud Zambra and by .Messrs. Ca-
sella and Co. having been ascertained to be the lowest, tin firms were
selected by your Committee as those to whom applications should be made
to furnish such thermometers when required.

The diameter of the spherical bulb of the proposed thermometer is about
tfrths of an inch ; the graduation includes a range of from 10: to 13(>;’ I'ahr. ;
the length of the thermometer is 10^ inches; the brass scale on which the
figures are stamped is raised to nearly the level of the front of the tube,
which is fastened to the scale by two clips. The scale is cut away about
oue inch above the bulb, astop being fixed on the copper case so as to prevent
the kilb touching the bottom of the cup.

Ihe thermometer is constructed of enameled tubing, and the divisions are
etched on t-lic stem with fluoric acid ; the figures are stamped on the brass
scale at every 10th degree, and each instrument is fitted to a japanned copper
case with a cup surrounding the bulb, and has a distinguishing number. The
cost, in consideration of the quantity ordered from the makers at one time, in¬
cluding the case, is 5s. 6d., and without the case 'is. 6d., for each thermometer.

On the 3rd of December 18.53 your Committee requested Colonel Sabine
to inform the Hydrographer of the Admiralty that thermometers according to
the model described could be supplied in any quantities ; a copy of the corre¬
spondence with the Hydrographer, as also with the Board of Trade, is annexed
to this Report.

On the 28 th January 1854 your Committee received an application from
me Smithsonian Institution of the United States, through its agent, Mr.
i- evens, tor specimens of thermometers and barometers for marine u-.\ as

so tor a standard thermometer. Mr. Stevens has since ordered one thousand

ermometers for the use of the United States Navy, five hundred from each
o ie eiore-montioned firms, and fifty marine barometers; the whole of
these instruments, which will he similar to those described in this Report,
will be verified by Mr. Welsh at the Observatory.

. 6 , 1 ‘hernioinetei- will undergo a rigorous examination at the Obsirva-

. *7’ "J a table " ll1 ,n a11 cases be furnished of scale errors, which, on the
Jjo, jjJfSISg ."lth t,lc Instrument-makers, are not to exceed 0'6
e tween 3- and 100 Fahr., nor to vary more than 0°*3 within any 10 . your
Committee consider that for all the purposes intended such th^monir tors
.ns. If o;nd ‘•Jfflcwnttv correct, and being obtainable at a very moderate
f , °I)e \utuvo observations made with such instruments will prove

ut essential practical and scientific value.

On the 27th March, 1854, the Board of Trade addressed a letter to the
nnri'+k1311 ° ^our ^omiidttee requesting their aid in procuring barometers
erinometers for the use of the Mercantile Marine. On the 3rd of

xxviii report — 1854.

April the Chairman replied, stating that the Committee were willing to
superintend the execution of any contract which the Board of Trade might
make for the supply of such instruments, in accordance with the following
resolution of the Committee : —

27th March, 1854-, at a Meeting of the Kew Committee of the British
Association,

Resolved, —

“That in all cases in which the Committee is called upon to assist
either Her Majesty’s or other governments, in the supply of meteoro¬
logical instruments, it is to lie understood as a principle that the contract
for such supply is to be between the government requiring the instru¬
ments and the maker furnishing the same, the contract price in all cases
to cover the cost of verification at Kew.”

A copy of the correspondence with the Board of Trade is attached to this
Report.

Barometers . Your Committee stated in their last year’s Report that in
consequence of Lieut. Maury having requested their advice upon the best
orm of a marine barometer, the subject was under consideration ; after haviug
examined several forms of these instruments submitted for their considera¬
tion, your Committee selected one in which it is believed all the requisites
tor mak.ng observations at sea will be found to have been obtained

at a very moderate cost, combining convenience and accuracy in observing,
With Simplicity and durability in its general construction. * **

I,,, I,, rfreat u"Porta.ncc as to ce,’t»in conditions requisite in a good barometer
ea“s as5'r,v S'n,lee t0 “’"V" ar,io" "** this instrumerif tested by'.ucli

eo.“Litd l,v Mr A1’,1!- co',lmam ’ a"d .»"» «■»» effected by Mr. Welsh (a*
t V * Adie, the nmker), in a voyact; to Lrith ami hark fn

I1'6 “?r°“ "'i th,a illslr"mr"‘ further tested by
trials will be seen hf , he r"n r°“' Cl,annel Clauds : the result, of tbei
Chairma,':- the ,oIlo'vlnS ^dressed by Mr. Welsh to the

« „ “ Kew Observatory, March 25, 1854.

mittee atTefr MeSTn* oTth^S exPre8sed hy tUe Com‘

steamer 1 Clarence ’ for Leith instant> ? sailed the same evening by the

examining the action of three baroStew wide' bvhhf*’ Tk thePorP08e of
were all of the same conefruptmn »„,* i. • 11 ,e nim. Ihcse barometers

degrees, viz. in the proportions of five, tel^and fi|W„COn-lra?ed ln diflVre?t
for the tune occupied by the merourv in ,1 an ,,filteen nnnutes respectively
first placed erect. y ascending to its proper level when

com man dei^ of* th vessel, * ki n dly Tllowml^ u °nbin’ bat Mr* Turn^

Ills mvn cabin, to which we had access during fK SU,peni1 the instruments iu
As the weather in this passage ivastooe i8. ^greater part of the voyage,
the barometers, especially wit li remrd ti 1° a,,ow of a dlcided trial of
^P»UbG’ 7 ,returned on ^ „f the mercury in

which we had engaged a priva 3, On by lhe ‘Leith,’ in

of ,l,e w~’ . - • ■ ZZ rr 2ss; s*

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. XXIX

“1st. Any one of the three barometers is capable of showing at sea the
changes of pressure, with a probable error of about 0 005 inch, or at most
0-007 in.

“ 2nd. The tremor of a steam ship is rather beneficial than otherwise to the
performance of the barometer, and (leaving the pumping out of considera¬
tion) the barometer performs rather better at sea than on land.

“3rd. For such a motion of the ship as must be very common, the
amount of contraction of the tube should be greater than in any of tin-
three barometers employed, say a contraction to 18 or 20 minutes. The
mean amount of pumping from ten observations in the return voyage was,
for the tube contracted to 5 minutes 0-064 in., and for the one contracted
to 10 minutes 0-031 in. ; the greatest observed being for the former O' 13 in.,
and for the latter 0*05 in. In order, therefore, to reduce the pumping so
that the probable error of an observation from this cause may not exceed
OOl in., the contraction should be to 20 minutes at least

“4th. It appears to me very desirable that each ship should be furnished
with two barometers — one for calmer weather and the other for rougher —
the former having the tube contracted to 10 or 12 minutes, and the latter
to about 25 minutes. This would render good observations obtainable in all
stales of the weather; and if occasional comparisons of the two were taken,
would, besides obviating to some extent the inconvenience arising from an
accident to one, afford the means of checking any changes which might occur
in the zero-points of cither instrument. If, however, two barometers cannot
be supplied to each ship, I am disposed at present to think that a contrac¬
tion to about 1.5 or 20 minutes would bo generally the most convenient.

“The mode of suspension and the means of observation adopted in Mr.
Adie’s barometers seem very suitable, the spring of the suspending arm being
quite sufficient. The arm should perhaps be a little longer, say 2 inches more.

“I should mention, that the two steamers were about 700 or 800 tons
burden.

* J. P. Gassiot, Esq., P.R.S., “ I am, yours faithfully,

Chairman of the Kew Committee.” “ J. Welsh.”

“Kew Observatory, May 25, 1851.

“My dear Sin, — In compliance with a wish expressed by the Kew
Committee at their Meeting on May 3rd, 1 proceeded to Southampton on
the 8th instant, and made arrangements for a further trial of the marine
barometers in one of the South Western Kailway Company’s mail steamers
plying to the Island of Jersey. Having been furnished by you w ith a recom¬
mendation from Mr. Tite to the Secretary of the Company's steamers. I was
most readily provided with the best accommodation which could be got in the
ship, and received every attention and assistance from Mr. Balmt, the captain.

“ file principal object contemplated by me in this trial, was the deter¬
mination ol the amount of contraction required in the tube for the prevention,
within convenient limits, of the pumping of the mercury. 1 took with me
five barometers by Adie, all of the same general construction, but differing
in the amount of contraction in the tubes. They were stopped in tho fol¬
lowing proportions — 5, 10, 18, 21 and 35 minutes for the times required for
Uie mercury to sink from the top of the tube to its true height after the
barometer is placed erect.

“ I found, as on the previous trial to Leith, that the first two were not
nearly sufficiently contracted, the amount of pumping being indeed so great
that good observations could not possibly be taken with either. The pump-

XXX

REPORT - 1854.

ing in the third and fourth was much more moderate, the greatest difference
between the extreme readings in either having never been observed to be more
than 0-02 and seldom above (K)15, thus giving 0*01 as the limit of error of
an observation from this cause. The barometer No. 5 showed, of course,
even less oscillation, the extreme readings not differing more than 0-01.
The circumstances under which these numbers were obtained were, I believe,
favourable to a just estimate of the amount of contraction necessary, as there
was both in the passage to Jersey and back a considerable amount of swell,
there having been on the previous day a heavy gale blowing.

“ Considering that the existence of a small quantity of pumping must at all
times be desirable, in order to secure a more free action of the mercury than
if the barometer were suspended quite steadily, I am of opinion that baro¬
metershaving their tubes stopped to about the same extent as in Nos. 3 and 4,
would, ou the whole, be the most generally convenient and accurate, whilst
even a greater degree of contraction would do no great harm. I would, there¬
fore, recommend that the contraction should bo from about 18 to 25 minutes.

‘I have both before this trial and since made a series of comparisons
between the standard by Newman and these barometers. I have found that
all the barometers follow the standard very consistently. There is, how ever,
one circumstance which should be noticed, and which I have before to some
extent mentioned to the Committee. The marine barometer does not act
quite freely when suspended at rest. The standard barometer is always, to
mZlr:eXU^’ *fi advance of the marine barometer; that is, when the
falliiiCT^ S| r,91|fl^’ barometer is below the standard, and when

0*0 FJh. |bov,e ?'■ Ih® am.onnt of ‘his retardation I find to he about
whatever i l»> ,\ W lut V? m‘her singular, it exists to about the same extent
the vromil °i c?"trac,ion ‘he tube, although that has varied in

observed when rh»m ‘ '• retardation, it should be remembered, has been
,ni ,barouictorhaa been left quite rest, a condition
ceive a !£y ever obt«m at ,saa> "bore there will generally bo, I con-
oscillation in the cXmn f ni0ti<,>n to P r«duce a certain small degree of
oscillation at all exists the pSh? 5 un<J_,tlls evident that so long as any
and the reading of the ’inof etlu,hl>r|uni of the mercury will be maintained,
reading of the instrument will show the true barometric pressure.

“ J- “ 1 •* d- «r. >— fcithfcur. .

' . “J. Welsh.

m Jhe barometer as now constructed is thus described by Mr. P. Adie, the

the tube near the raWd"^^^ cSl^b1"’ °’25 in* About 4 inches of
raetmn necessary to prevent inconvenient^ -iV* ?rder to Produce the con-
is first V0SSe ’ I he degree of contraction n ?lojJ nt s,;a frotn ihc motion
*1 , suspended, the mercury requires Hhn *cb* ,,a‘> when the barometer
at, ‘ 1P 4?be to * prop/rK" A '^"ty minutes to fall from

the cistern1; ° j The lower crftffftaET ”r

e cistern, M also contracted Wltf a ' b ’ wh,ch is w ithin the

Se itXtn I* S

“The cistern J5rrly l,0il-fi in ‘he tube ji th/ ^entne deteriorated.

" of the °PPer part of the ci.tern

into

REPORT OP THE COUNCIL.

XXXI

being covered with strong sheep-skin leather firmly fixed by abutting flanges.
This leather has been found to be sufficiently porous to permit the free
action of the air through it, but not to allow the mercury to pass without
considerable pressure, to which it can never from the construction of the
instrument be subjected. The cistern is filled with mercury to such a height
that it can never under any circumstances of temperature or pressure be full,
but always sufficiently so to prevent the lower end of the tube being ever
exposed either during carriage or when in use. This renders any adjust¬
ment of the instrument when being mouuted for observation unnecessary.
The diameter of the cistern is about 1*3 inch. The barometer tube Is pro¬
tected by a cylindrical case of brass, which is screwed firmly to the upper
portion of the iron cistern. The graduation is made on this bra**> tube and
the vernier moved by a rack and pinion, the index being adjusted t<> thu top
of the mercurial column by shutting off the light, as is commonly done in
standard and other good barometers : the vernier reads to 0 002 inch. The
correction for the relative capacities of the tube and cistern (which is usually
applied as a numerical correction varying with the height) is in these instru¬
ments included in the gradualiou of the scale ; the scale being shortened by
the amount of the correction, but divided so as to represent the true measure¬
ments. The correction for capacity is obtained by computation from care¬
fully measured diameters of the tube and cistern. The zero-point of the
scale is determined by comparison with a standard barometer. A thermo¬
meter, whose scale is divided on its stem, and having its bulb within the
encasing brass tube, gives the temperature of the mercury. In making an
observation, it is only necessary to set and read off the vernier, and to not<-
the height of the thermometer. The instrument presents much the appear¬
ance of a mountain barometer: it is suspended in gimbals from a point a
little above the middle of the tube, the rack motion being close to the point
of suspension, so that the hand may rest on the supporting arm. 1 he support¬
ing arm is flat, of hammered brass, thin enough to give the elasticity neces¬
sary to counteract sudden jars, and is equivalent to the spring gimbals usually
employed, while much simpler in its construction .”

The annexed copies of the correspondence with the Hydrographer of the
Admiralty and with the Hoard of Trade, will explain the proceedings of your
Committee as to the proposed supply of these instruments for the use of Her
Majesty’s Navy, as also for the Mercantile Marine of this country. Your
Committee have also communicated with Lieut. Maury, by whose directions
the fifty barometers were ordered from Mr. Adie by Mr. Stevens, for the use
ot the United States Navy, all of which are to be verified at the Observatory.

Standard Barometer. — Your Committee have devoted much attention to
the completion of this instrument, but many casualties have occurred during
the progress of its erection. On the 13th July last Mr. Negretti succeeded
in boiling and erecting a tube of owe inch internal diameter. Considerable
changes were found necessary in the original mounting of the barometer and
cathetometer. These have been .satisfactorily executed at the Observatory,
but the instrument still requires alteration to render its performance, perfect.
The scale ol the cathetometer has been compared with the Kew standard
scale, and found not to require any correction when laid horizontally,
uhen the two scales are compared by observing their relative lengths ver¬
tically by the telescope of the cathetometer, a perceptible error is shown,
involving a correction to the measurements of the cathetometer of -f 0003
inch in a space ot 30 inches. This anomalous error is, it is conceived, due
to faulty construction in the cathetometer, chiefly arising from the difficulty
of making the instrument accurate on the design adopted. It is, therefore,

XXXII

REPORT - 1854.

the intention of your Committee to direct that a new cathetometer should be
constructed in the Observatory on more exact mechanical principles.

The number of instruments now in course of verification, under the
directions of your Committee, is : —

For the U. S. Navy .... 1000 thermometers. 50 barometers.

„ Board of Trade. . 500 ,, 60 „

Definition of the. Boiling-Point of Water. — Your Committee, at the last
meeting of the Association, were requested to furnish a report on the de¬
finition of the boiling-point of water at present adopted in this country for
the thermometric scale. This has already been considered by the Commis¬
sioners appointed by Government to construct Standard Weights and Mea¬
sures, and in the Report they have presented to Government during the
present year, they have defined 212° upon Fahrenheit’s scale to represent
“ the temperature of steam under Laplace's standard atmospheric pressure, or
the atmospheric pressure corresponding to the following number of inches
in the barometric reading, reduced to 32° F., — 29*9218 + 0-0766 X cosine
(2. latitude) + (OOOOOOl 79 x height in feet above the sea).” Your Committee
recommend that, this definition he adopted. In accordance with this defi¬
nition, the standard pressure under which the boiling-point of thermometers
■will have to be determined will bo, —

At 32° P.

Jn Ro,,ldon . 29-905 -f (0-00000179 x height above the sea).

In Dublin . 29-900 „

In Edinburgh . 29-893 „ ”

The small additional correction for the height above the sea level in-
cluded m brackets, may be, however, neglected, being insensible at any
part ot the three towns mentioned.

notboo,aSooked.hei8hla be‘'e 8ive“ are 32° F” “d t,lis correctifiD musl

b^^.^”'^e'S7rTThe Station of standard thermometers has
last meetinrr f e s. *’ .and ~ 1 ,nstrumente have been issued since the

mete"s " ,nLd tn the ASs°c.at,on making a total of 91 standard thermo¬
meters supplied to institutions and individuals.

as ofthermomete^^bv^rnn the errors of barometer as well

structed at the O bi -rvatc^rv an d a .?** 8ta,,dard® al Kew> has been con-
will be given by Mr Wekh ‘ detailed account of the processes employed
Association. ^ * n a 8eP®rate communication to the British

year— For thc°EiS! InSw Compau^ be** examincd d«rin8 the Past
hygrometers, and 4 barometen J ‘for* M?,. t!'®r,nol*\«!te« for 29 of Regnaults
mometerai tor Hobart on thi rrevandrnm Observatory, 8 ther-

«■ Kitts, 5 theiTOomefcers-bfor'th^SvdrnPrinVmct<rrs * for A* M^dleship,
ammeters and 1 barometers- for Sigr£P.\Pr ?f the Admiralty, 16 ther-
6 mountain barometers, 9 aneroid ba S c ldaS 1 n 1 we > >- 93 thermometers,
6 boiling-point thermometers. ' et€rs» *0 ground thermometers, and

the standard weigh^'ma<df.~h^ ,,ave reported last

r. Miller, of King’s College were at \\ ^rt^mS> under the direction of
of Cambridge, for verification and \Tle 1,1 hands of Prof. Miller,
Messrs. Trpughton and Simms, was with the I*6 standar1d scaIe prepared by

*lth the Rev* Mr. Sheepshanks, for com-

REPORT OP THE COUNCIL. XXxiii

parison with the standard bar in his possession. Your Committee beg to
subjoin the following letter, received from Professor Miller : —

“ Cambridge, 27th January, 1854.

“I beg leave to communicate to the Kew Committee the following results
of the comparison of the Kew standard bar : —

“in air temp.65°*6G Falir. (I8°‘7C), pressure 29°'75in. of mercury, reduced
to the temperature of freezing water (755*64- M.M.) by a mean of 80 com¬
parisons, the Kew standard appears to be 0-00085 gr. heavier than | |J (lost
standard troy pound).

“The ratio of the density uf the Kew standard at freezing to the maxi¬
mum density of water is 8-20357 (log. 0*91 4-0030), its vol. at freezing
=volnine of 853*2866 grs. of water at maximum density.

“The density of the Kew standard is different from that which appears
to be the most probable value of the density of the lost standard, conse¬
quently its error, when reduced to vacuum, differs from the error given above.
In vacuo the Kew standard is 0-00655 gr. lighter than the Parliamentary
standard. (Signed) «W. f I. Miller.”

The Rev. Mr. Slieepshatiks, in a communication with Dr. Miller, reports,
as the result of 138 comparisons made at a moan temperature of 40 -78 Fahr.,
that the Kew standard scale is at a temperature of 62° Fahr. 0-00009J Inch
longer than the standard yard. Mr. Sheepshanks proposes to repeat the
comparison at a higher temperature, so as to avoid any uncertainty that may
exist as regards the expansion of the Kew bar.

New Stand for Out-Door Observations with Thermometers. — At the first
meeting of your Committee on 12th November, 1853, they authorize! Mr.
Welsh to prepare a new stand for out-door observations of ihcrmonu tors.
Iliis stand has been erected outside the balustrade wall, at tin- t.,p of the
steps leading to the north entrance of the Observatory. The thermoim-ter*
are placed at a distance of 8 feet from the wait of the house, 1 1 fee t above
the ground, and feet from the nearest part of the balustrade. In this
position there is a free circulation of air in all directions of the wind. The
thermometers are protected from radiation by two cages with Venetian blind
Fides aud^ roofs ; the sides of the cages descending to 6 inches b. low the
bulbs. Ihey are thus quite sheltered from rain, whilst very little interrup-
tionis offered to the free access of the air. The dimensions of the rag<s an¬
as follows: — Thu outer is 6 feet broad, 5 feet deep, and 5 feet high ; the
inner cage is 3 feet broad, 2 feet deep, and 8| feet high, lesv ing a s*pacc
° about 18 inches between the. cages. The bulbs of the thermometers are
about 16 tuohes above the lower portion of the framework, which if quite
open. Doors on the side of the stand next the entrance of the Observatory
are opened when the thermometers are to be observed. The whole of the
stands are painted green inside and out.

1 he stand contains a pair of dry and wet thermometers, graduated at the
nsorvatory ; a maximum thermometer, also constructed at the Observa¬
tory, on the principle proposed many years since by Mr. J. Phillips, the
Assistant General Secretary of the Association, and described by him ir. the
v?l°fme *leport3; a maximum thermometer of the recent construe-
ion i of . Jessrs. Negretti and Zambia; a minimum thermometer, on Huther-
ur » principle, rnadc by Adie of London ; and a Kegnault’s dew-point hy¬
drometer, with a bellows aspirator, also made by Adie: the scales of tin
p5 rwraff)t8> WI*b ^ie exception of Negretti’s maximum thermometer and
Kegnaults hygrometer, are divided on the tubes.

1854-18 ^e^eve<^’ by tbe arrangements above described, a very close ap-

XXXIV

REPORT - 1854.

proximation is made towards the conditions necessary to obtaining the true
temperature of the air. Meteorological observations have been made since
1st January 1854, at 6 and 10 a.m., 2, 6' and 10 p.m.

In respect to the two forms of maximum thermometers now named, it may
be stated that they have both been found to perforin in a very satisfactory
manner; the very ingenious instrument of Messrs. Negretti and Zamira
has one quality, which, as regards durability, places it above every other
form of maximum thermometer, for when onco well constructed, it can
never get out of order ; it is somewhat difficult in construction, and conse¬
quently more costly, but the observer, having first satisfied himself ns to itt
correctness, may ever afterwards use it with confidence, relying that his
register will not be interrupted by any of those annoyances to which he may
have been accustomed in other forms of this instrument. The plan of Mr.
Phillips is most valuable for its extreme simplicity ; it is capabh of greater
delicacy of indication than even Negretti’s, and in the hands of an observer
who treats his instruments with care, will continue to perform very accurately
for probably an indefinite length of time. The only case in which this form
of the instrument might, be found to fail, would probably be in carriage or
when otherwise exposed t.o violence: any thermometer, having an overflow
chamber at the fop of the tube, can be readily converted into a maximum
with the aid of a spirit-lamp, and if the instrument should bv any chance get
out of order, it can as easily be remedied. Any careful observer, who is not
atraid to handle a thermometer, will, it is believed, find this the most conve¬
nient form, of all maximum thermometers. As an instrument for general
use, and HI the hands of persons unskilled or careless in the use of thermo¬
meters, its expediency may however be more doubtful.

SMZ\StJTra/)/!,,\ **egist£r (hc SP«ts on the Sun's Disc.— Colonel
Rested* toahiir^ihn^'0r^CC^ /° Committcp tlmt Sir John I lerscl.el had sug-

Iraphic nietur^ nf t? arrangements being made for a daily pboto-

?ouV CiJmSK *hwinP ,he &c„ it was resolved by

Ms s,:s:& "■ *-*■

“ My dea n Sm t . . , - “32 Harley Street, April 24, 1854.

importance to secure at slm! ° co"s'der *t an object of very considerable
different localities, daiW pZocraS ^ ind°* ■d at more than one, in

to keep up a couaecutive^mirl nJlr ",i '^P^sentations of the sun, with a view

marking out on it, in mf. renee ♦ delineation of the whole disc and the

through its centre, the places, sizes and^rf8^ ^1 the e‘luinoctial passing

I should imagine no very powerful teles*"9 °* t,u: sP°k» there would need
should be equatorially mourned , °Pe ; dmte the contrary : but it

paral cl The imaged bSrli^ f to have a <*** «M*Sn in the

bc formed’ not in the focus of the pa,p<>r (or c'°P°d ionized glass')

lens drawn out somewhat beyond the °^^ct'|ens, but in that of the eve-
ways to the same in variable distance * P°r s,tuation for distinct vision (and
smfmlrf3/ ' this arrangement^ coS^Y."

thrown tfany of mires in S ‘ r n "b )r 'Unified image of the

e teWPOn d,V focusing glass ’Tf ie^n °T °f t,,L‘ obJ^t-glai may bc
cuW o S,PCV liy e“P^yiug a system or!^b0J5.a,,jt“ted kl & eve-end of

°tlm d,Urual ‘notion, gand ‘so Zpol^Z *nd

posed as to divide the field of view

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

XXXV

into squares, say of 5' in the side, the central one crossing the sun’s centre
(or rather as liable to no uncertainty, one of them being a tangent to its
lower or upper limb), the place of each spot on the surface is, ipso facto,
mapped down in reference to the parallel and declination circle and its
distance from the border, and iu size, measurable on a fixed scale.

“ If large spots are to be photographed specially with a view to flic deli¬
neation of their forms and changes, a pretty large object-glass will be re¬
quired, and the whole affair will become a matter of much greater nicety; but
for reading the daily history of the sun, I should imagine a 8-incli object-
glass would be ample,

“ The representations should, if possible, be taken daily and the time care¬
fully noted. As far as possible they should be taken at the same hour each
day, but in this climate a clear interval, occurring when it nmy, had better
be secured early in the day.

“ Three or four observatories in tropical climates, distant several hours in
longitude (suppose three, at 8h distance in longitude), each reading at, or
nearly at noon, would, when the results were assembled, keep up a continual
history of the solar disc.

•• \Vith regard to proper preparations of paper, or the use of collodion. Ac.,
the photographic art is now so much advanced*that no difficulty can arise in
fixing upon fitting preparations, or in the manipulations necessary for multi¬
plying them. But it would be very requisite that many impressions of each
days work should be taken and distributed, and an interchange kept up
among observers.

“ Yours truly,

“J. P. Gassiot, Esq." “ J. F. W; Herschel.”

On the 3rd of May your Committee requested Mr. Warren De la Hue to
ascertain the probuble cost of an apparatus suitable to accomplish the re¬
commendations contained in the preceding letter, and it having been subse¬
quently ascertained by Mr. Do la Hue that the probable cost would nut ex¬
ceed £1.50, your Committee, on the 29th May, resolved that the Chairman
should apply to the Royal Society for that sum from the Donation bund;
the application was made on the 21st of June, and on the 29th of the same
month the Council of the Royal Society acceded thereto; this amount has
been since placed at the disposal of three Members of the Committee, in
order that the apparatus mny be purchased, and certain preliminary experi¬
ments having been made, the instrument is in course of completion by
•Mr, Uoas, optician.

AT^Tvthie T)ltl* *’ovem“or your Committee, on the recommendation of
Mr. IJe la Rue, engaged the services of Robert Beckley, machinist. Mr.WeUh
reports most favourably as to the efficiency of Mr. Beckley’s services, not
on ) in respect to his great ingenuity and accuracy as a workman, but also
as to the interest and intelligence with which he has entered into and assisted
ini in the general work ol the Observatory. He resides with his wife in
the budding, receiving weekly wages of 35s., which sum includes the pay¬
ment to hw wife as housekeeper.

Ground contiguous to the Observatory — In accordance with the remni-
mendation contained in their last Report, your Committee have had several
temews with the Chief Commissioner of Woods, Forests, and Land Re¬
venue, With the view of obtaining tlm temporary use of about two nrr. s of
L a! "nrdmtdy a(J.l°i,,in& Observatory. Your Committ, < ascer-
^ Tn *at 1 lG e.n p,re I)ark round the Observatory was let at a yearly rental,
n ev were informed that it was necessary they should make arrange-

c 2

XXXVI

REPORT - 1854.

rnents with the tenant previous to permission being granted to them to use
the lands; the Honourable Mr. Gore, the Chief Commissioner, at the same
time expressing liis anxious desire to afford every facility to the Committee.

In reply to an application of the Committee, the tenant ofTered the use of
the land at the rate of £20 per acre. Your Committee, feeling they could
not make any reply to such a demand, requested their Chairman, in conjunc- '
tlon with Mr Hutton, to wait on Mr. Gore, who kindly appointed a day to
meet the tenant and the Committee at the Observatory. It was subsequently
arranged that for the present season, viz. until next October, the tenant
should receive at the rate of £7 lOw. per acre, and for the subsequent year I
£10 10s. per acre, at which period his present term with the Crown
expires.

Two acres of the land have been enclosed with a strong wooden paling pre¬
paratory to the erection of a wooden tower, under the superintendence of I
Mr. De la Rue, for mounting the Huygheuian object-glass, as recommended |
by the British Association.

The cost of enclosing the land, the rent to October 1855, as well as the
erection of the wooden tower, will be chiefly defrayed from funds supplied
by the Royal Society for the erection of the iluyghenian telescope, from the
annual Government Grant placed at its disposal: but your Committee earnestly i
recommend that an immediate application should be made by the Councilof
the British Association for the future gratuitous use of this small portion of
the park, which will be found nbsolutelv neeessarv fur mmu nnw r>n fried

By order „/ nK Commit tu.

Jons P. Gassiot,

Chairman.

The Kao Committee in accoimt uoith the British Association.

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REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

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XXXV111

REPORT - 1854.

Correspondence.

(Copy.)

. “ Office of Committee of Privy Council for Trade,

Marine Department, 2/th March 1854.

“ Sir, — I am directed by the Lords of the Committee of I’rivy Council
for Trade, to address you as the Chairman of the Committee nominated by
the British Association for the Advancement of Science to superintend the
Kew Observatory ; and to state that for the purpose of aiding in carrying
into effect the proposed plan of making an extensive record of meteorological
observations. My Lords contemplate that they shall have occasion to provide
fifty barometers and three hundred and eighty thermometers, with both
Fahrenheit and Centigrade Scales, and also one hundred and twenty wet
bulb thermometers similarly graduated.

“ It is of the highest importance that the instruments to ho provided should
be correct, and should bear upon them u stamp indicating that they have
undergone an inspection and have been compared with an approved standard.

My Lords would therefore be greatly obliged if the Committee of the
British Association could uid them with their valuable assistance in accom¬
plishing the purpose they have in view, and they would also bo glad to be
informed whether hydrometers with the graduated scale, and other instru-

lh® r*port of the conference held at Brussels last year,
could be tested at the Observatory.

considt r‘ 1 [Ie3‘ ? me.toe*Pre“ 'heir hope that the Committee will

ct 11 suffloiont for *hc sicp the>'

“I have the honour to be, Sir,

“j p'ra..iAt v „ “ Your obedient Servant,

J* P. Gassiot, Esq. (Signed) “ T. H. Farhbh."

(Copy.)

“ Sm t.. .. , , “ Clapham Common, 3rd April 1854,

inform you thatfor ettCI ^Jarcb I have been directed to

prove of so much ini nortat!nJ?°tA ft)nv.ai.’din£ a matter which is likely to
Kew Committee of the British Al«nIv»?ar,,,niC ir!tcrests o1' 'his country, the
execution of any contracts wwiS**?110!! rirt’ 'lu,te wady to superintend the

-Wr or nf Trad" -y “to f-

nsed for examining Jh u°tem perat ure *orm of thermometers should be

The Committee hfvi prJSJE TZZ- the T’ tl,e «•«! aqueous vapour,
them for the purpose oAakine obsi'r” ?- °f t,le thermometer approved by
divided in Fahrenheit dLZ? LjT *« ; this thermometer is
great inconvenience, and a cousidornHT arc of opinion that very

ro... any attempt to tombl* Utt would result

wn AT ,Uflfru«ent. They are also n/ l-nhcit a,,(1 Centigrade scales on
«A barometer ^ T* a corab»'a‘mn. 1)10,0,1 ^ n° advantaSe whatever
t'up to Leith and back toVondon^ a“d 'tR UctioiJ tested by Mr Welsh in a

ZTT'7 T, slighfalteratiotirli^

Chtnll^o ;fsaUy.t0 ,iave

niencB of h S<>a> ,n order tlmt its ; ,n a “hort cruise m the

II, M. Naw ev ‘ng- 'nay ,>e Judged of. and {‘T* PmnPing, and conve-

Savy experienced in LJ oC„alhm?P there™ % officers la

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

XXXIX

“It is proposed by the Committee that the instruments shall be supplied
at a fixed price, which for the barometer the Committee expect will be about
£3 10*., and for the thermometer not exceeding 6s. each.

“In order to fulfil the conditions necessary to ensure the required accuracy,
the Committee will prepare a memorandum of conditions to which each in¬
strument-maker will be bound to accede in accepting the contract, and the
price will include every expense of verification.

“ On the return of any vessel which may be supplied with these instru¬
ments, the Committee- will lie ready to examine the errors, for which a small
fee will be charged to cover the expense incurred.

“In respect to hydrometers recommended in the Brussels report, the Com¬
mittee suggest for the consideration of the* Board of Trade, whether any ad¬
vantage could be obtained by their general use at sea.

“The Committee suggest that all contracts should be made by the Board
of Trade with the instrument-maker, the prices being first fixed by the Com¬
mittee, and which will include every expense of verification at Ki’w ; and it is
proposed that each instrument shall be stamped with a consecutive number.

“ Should the above arrangements meet the approval of the Board of
Trade, the? Committee will be ready to forward a barometer and thermometer
of the construction which they consider best adapted for the objects intended,
and Mr. Welsh, whose especial duty it will be to compare each instrument
before it is delivered to the Board of Trade, will be happy to wait uu you at
any time you may appoint.

“ I have the honour to be, Sir,

“ Your obedient Servant,

„ m „ (Signed) “ John P. Gassiot.’

To T. H. Farrer, Esq.,

Secretary Marine Department, Board of Trade.”

P.S. Should it be the wish of the Board, the Committee will readily take
into consideration and recommend in a similar manner as they have tin’ other
instruments, a proper hydrometer suitable for ascertaining the specific gra¬
vity of sea water.

(Copy.)

" Office of Committee of Privy Council for Trade,
Marine Department, 6th April,

“ Sir, I am directed by the Lords of the Committee of Privy Council
foT Trade to request you to convey to the Committee of the British Associa¬
tion for conducting experiments at Kcw, their best thanks for the prompt
and satisfactory manner in which the Committee have acceded to their Lord-
ships wishes as expressed in my letter of the 27th ultimo.

1 1 am to state that. My Lords will avail themselves of the proposal of the
Committee, and as it is desirable that no time should be lost in procuring
the instruments in question, they will be obliged if the Committee will send
a specimen of each of the instruments they approve (including an hydro¬
meter) to the Board of 1 rnde.

“ My Lords coincide in the opinion expressed by the Committee that
much inconvenience may in the onset arise from the attempt to combine in
thermometers the Fahrenheit and Centigrade scales, and they would there¬
fore wish that the present supply should have the Fahrenheit scale only.

“J. P. Gassiot, Esq.”

“ I am, Sir,

“Your obedient Servant,

(Signed) “ T. II. Fabrbr.”

xl

REPORT — 1854.

jiiu ji,

thermometers are Messrs. L. P. Casella and Co., 23 Hatton Garden, and
Messrs. Isegretti and Zambra, 11 Hatton Cardi n, to whom the Committee
have addressed letters, copies of which I annex, as also of the replies which
the Committee received, 1

mlT^-if°mn,ittPe are of °ri'lio*1 that the sum of one shilling per thermo-
be n.hui /ov!‘l7 b® t o‘:' V1 v''rilir:i'i"1‘ at Kew, and this sum must therefore
J h l<T,Cr the Board of Trade may accept,
or the earriairo o?rhlI*aa*^eCn mat,C fbo Committee for the cost of packing,
“ The In i vim .i instruments to and from the Observatory for verification,

Adic of the !Se.f'ctt(J fjy the Committee has been constructed by Mr.

sequence of V 1 • ftCt,on Jms b<e" »-‘<’d '>y Mr. Welsh, hut in con-
further trial 1 ii^ n few ,,lnP*"j>V€“lt'n,s» arrangements have been made for a
strument for inspection tSv/he C?'J,imtteu1" l11 be «'oabled to forward the in-

“ The Com i nil ten 8>?kberwilh every information as to its probable cost.

“etcr, suitable for the pufposc 'TukinV' ^ 1,10 ™ns,ruction of ihe h-vdr0*
and on receiving flu. * ’/ f. ,n£ the specific gravity of seawater,

with an e8tirilate"of the cost of! ZVucUoT^ *rW"d * ^

• *■ Farrer, Esq- (Signed)' « John p. GassIOT.”

(Copy.)

“Dear Sir,— At a meetimr of fhn vj* Common, 10th April, 1834.

resolved, that the offer of M^Gutton ^ #,Comn,,ttl’e hdd thU do?’ il was
acres of the land immediately ’cont *?? t5vniPorary use of about Uvo

for Meteorological and Astronomical n , U> 1 16 Observatory, and f0 be used
rate of £l0 10$. per acre* such* r!uf* *PUril°SCS’ sboidd be accepted at the
It » also understood by the Commn? CO,"nien?e froiu 2.5th of last March,
sustained by the cartage of materials Cf* * ‘I*1 <bc an,ount °f any damage
quired by the Committee, is to t for.the erection of any buildings re-
rvn, he< Con,nii,tee will be bound -vJr- Clutton, by whose deci-

bave -flu0 y°" t,leir thanks for th/kind SSt d e<i by th<; Committee to
tronw! yS received theirapDlicaS , Prempt manner in which you
jntr .Up .to°k ”< visiting their ObservA*” Particularly for the personal

o p ecise^ requirements of the Committee ^ PurP0Se ascertain-

“ T° the Hon. culJzv^ bououTst :}rSir> *««« *.■*

(Signed) “ John p. Gassiot.”

“2187. “ Office °f Committee ofprivy Counr’l f t ,

forT^r1 am di»*octed by the I 1 2<5h APli|. K ^ Dcpartmcnt’

the i nciosurea fitMii'lil^ tI,e ^l^of you, of P, i'T Council

“"u“n tb«h twSS. *-*2£

“,0l“ r. Oa55l0t, E „ (sV„ei)3'OUrob«li^‘SCrvant>

7 i . id. Farrer.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

xli

(Copy.)

“ Clapham Common, 2nd June, 1854.

“ Sir,— In reference to my letter of 3rd April, I have now to acquaint
you, that the Committee have decided on the barometer which they con-
eider most applicable for marine observations, one of which I forward for
inspection.

“In selecting the form of marine barometer best adapted to the purpose
ot making observations at sea, the Committee have endeavoured to combine
convenience and ceconomy with accuracy, durability, and simplicity in con¬
struction and adjustments. A barometer which has been constructed by
Mr. Adie appears to them to fulfil those conditions in a satisfactory manner.
Its action at sea has been tested under their superintendence by Mr. Welsh
on two occasions, one on a voyage to Leith and back, anil subsequently to
the island of Jersey. The general conclusion arrived at in those trials is,
that in order to reduce the pumping of the mercury within convenient
limits, it is necessary to have the tube contracted to such an extent that the
mercury will take about twenty minutes to fall from the top of tin- tube to
the height indicating the true pressure of the atmosphere at the time. From
comparisons made at Kew with the standards there, it lias been found that
owing to this contraction in the tube the absolute freedom of' the mercury
is to a small extent interfered with; ns the motion of the mercurv in the
standard barometer is always a little in advance of the rnariue barometer ;
that is, when the mercury is rising, from increasing pressure of the atmo¬
sphere, the marine barometer is a little lower than the standard, ami. mi the
contrary, when the mercury is falling, the marine barometer is a little higher.

J he amount of this retardation is however very small, something less than
PJp.h of an inch, and from its being in opposite directions in a rising and
tailing barometer, will produce no error in the mean height of the barometric
column; it will, however, to some extent mark the smaller changes, such as
the hourly variations. It should lie remarked, however, flint tin. mntinn r,F

(Copy.)

Sir F. Beaufort, F.R.S., Uydrographer,
&c. &c. &c. Admiralty.”

“ Chairman of Kcw Committee,
British Association.”

REPORT - 1854.

xlii

(Copy.)

“ Hydrographic Office, Admiralty, 3rd June, 1854.
“ Dear Sir, — In acknowledging your favour of yesterday's date, I have
to request that you will convey my thanks to the Kcw Committee of the
British Association for that satisfactory communication, and that I am glad
to learn that a marine barometer has at length been constructed which is
likely to fulfil so many useful conditions.

“ In order to carry into immediate execution the suggestions of the Kew
Committee, I would beg the favour of your directing Mr. Adie to supply
this office, without delay, with one of those instruments.

“ I have the honour to be. Sir,

“ Your most obedient Servant,

D „ . . y, . (Signed) “ F. Beaufort,

John P. Gassiot, Esq., Chairman of Kcw Committee* •* Jlv(lrogn»i>l>er.”

Uapham Common. ' * 0 r

(Copy.)

„ “ Office of Committee of Prirv Council for Trade:

Marine Depcrtmaot, &k Iona, 1

for Trad p Lords of the Committee of Privy Council

of the pattern v,fn°W ^ 1 *e rece‘Pt your letter of the 2nd instant, and

tbVBriS tr Up°,n rllicl> Kl " Observatory Committee ol

. ‘ I am rn " aV<! <l0Ci‘ll"J “ “«» >PP)t00bb for marine otoem-
arrangement ™|, »•“ My Lor, Is', n il av.il tlmnselves of the

8c.veraTItrm"ento,ake™0^""“e„e ha?1 b«" 6U *<’°d “ «o make with the
for a supply. as soon as they are prepared to give the order

“ I am, Sir,

“ J. p. Gassiot, Esq " “ Your obed*ent Servant,

4' “T. H. Farrer."

ciation TO TnEPMEEm?!I!RY Committee of the British Asso
The Parlia LD AT Liverpool in September 1S54.

The subjects to which* tfuf nH«nt*Ve bonour to report as follows: —
--heir I ast^ report, are— t,0n tlie Committee has been directed

2nd. The conditions U”provement Navigation.

3rtA 13 ar° n°W be8t°'Ved 00 men °f

i)UDmat°o °J sc‘ence on tlie^nue^H *iave commenced with various eminent

f r^taF06itiUn “f societie. in some cent,,

The Cl? °

... Chairman and Mr tt

Mr. Heywoodk|ent at,d OfflceJTof ' ^ itltervie™ with the President,

House ^Cd nt»°n Several acj^ Trade oa "•» subject, and

reporting that Cr, °S t,1Grco11 ; and the r 3 addressed some remarks to the
of Trade, wi^h°;^®ent have now estSlT wtCCbaVe ^ pleasure in
dations of the R v,Gw of carrying out : a Ied a department in the Board
°yal Society and • r ever.V particular the recommen-
3 Committee, in reference to this

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

xliii

important scheme for improving navigation, and accumulating meteorological
data to an extent far surpassing anything which lias hitherto been attempted.
The Government have also appointed G'apt. Robert FitzRoy, R.N. to be at
the head of this new department, which is in itself a guarantee that it will suc¬
cessfully carry out all the important objects for which it has been established.

Scientific officers of the navy and mercantile marine will now feel assured
that the records of their valuable observations aud surveys will no longer
slumber uegleeted amidst the du*t of offices, but be reduced and rendered
available to science and mankind without any unnecessary delay. Tim -urn
voied for the new department by the House of Commons for the present
year is £3200, but there can be no doubt that this sum will be augmented
in future years, if the expectations that we havo been led to form as to the
inestimable public benefits likely to flow from tire labours of this office shall
be realized.

Captain FitzRoy has since his appointment been employed in superin¬
tending the construction of instruments, printing forms, and selecting agents
at the outports. Some ships will be supplied with instruments in October,
and Captain FitzRoy expects that the new office will be fully organized in
the succeeding month.

The following correspondence relates to the second subject above-men¬
tioned : —

“ Hth March, 1854.

“My Lord, — As Chairman of the Parliamentary Committee of the British
Association appointed for watching over the interests of science, I have been
requested to address you on a subject of great importance to those interests.

" Your lordship is probably not aware, that soon after the accession uf the
late Government to power, Sir Robert lnglis and myself solicited and obtained
an interview with Lord Derby, in which we represented to him that consider¬
able dissatisfaction prevailed among the. cultivators of science generally at the
bad success which had attended certain then recent applications for pensions
to some eminent scientific individuals, which had beeu preferred by the Pre¬
sident of tho Royal Society, aud by subsequent investigations it was ascer¬
tained (and I communicated the fact to Lord Derby by letter dated in April
1852), that since the accession of Her Majesty about thirteen per cent, only
of the annual sum allowed by Parliament to be granted for pensions to
deserving persons had fallen fo the lot of science, a result which naturally
contributed to increase that foeling of dissatisfaction, to which I have already
adverted.

“ It appears that a recent application by Lord Rosso of a similar character
lias been unsuccessful, and that your lordship in declining to accede to it
expressed yourself as follows In order to meet even a small portion of
k nT8 P1 c ern;<* to n,e» l have been compelled to require that poverty
should be the attendant of merit; and that the pension should be as much
the relief of pecuniary distress as the acknowledgment of intellectual attain¬
ments. Lord Rosso could not of course consider a letter from your lord¬
ship on a subject ut vital importance to science in the character of n pri¬
vate communication ; and as that subject had already been referred to the
consideration of our Committee, of which be is an influential member, a copy
ol your lordship s letter was laid before it.

“ Now whatever our individual opinions may be on the merits of the par-
icular ease to which 1 havo alluded, 1 purposely abstain from stating them,
in order that the object of die present address may not be misunderstood, —
that Object being, to represent to your lordship, with all that respect which is
justly due both to yourself and to the high station which you occupy, that the

xliv

REPORT - 1854.

views above expressed as to the disposal of the pension fund, would render
absolutely nugatory, so far as science and its cultivators are concerned, all
the benevolent intentions which Parliament and the country must be supposed
to have entertained in their favour when the provision in question was created.

“That the grant of a pension would be an inappropriate method of recom¬
pensing scientific merit when possessed by those who may be properly termed
rich, I am not disposed to deny ; but if it were hereafter to be understood
that the receipt of a pension from the Crown were full as much the indica¬
tion of absolute poverty, as an acknowledgment of high intellectual attain-
ment, we apprehend that the object of the grant would be hereafter hut ill
attained.

“Had such a view of the intention of Parliament been formallr
announced, the honoured names of Airy and of Owen, of Hamilton anil
Adams, would never have appeared on the pension list; and that small
encouragement to abstract science w hich has hitherto lieen dispensed bv the
m?n°fVerJ ?.Cn k WOnI'1 virtual,y havc been withdrawn;— the bounty of
IndZrj -he CWn rU,d haVC Io«*«l upon in the light of aims,
Dublfc iV ITT** '-V0.U1(I n0t,hav.° oonsentet I to be paraded before the
ciation of thp Considering your lordship’s known appre-

unon a nation wTU’f °, ht*?*r*> «« ^po we may also add of

upon the pZrri; P • PPndS S° e“?nti«»»y for '«* prosperity and even safety
J cannot but\’\nrpL ,mProvemt‘nt m every branch of intellectual exertion,
earnest hope that vour° w!u ^'V" •/|Br n,ul 0,1 that °f my colleagues, our
pensions, and refrain from JT r* reconsider your views of the object of
cannot be otherwise than n . conditions for tlieir enjoyment which

of their pursuit and *““5? B" who >‘ave a %»■ «n m of the dignity
pursuit, and may possibly be considered as tending to degrade it

" To the Earl of Aberdeen, &c.” “ 1 rcniaiD> **, tl WrottesLK,- |

. “MyLord,— The letter t n “ Downing Street, Morcli 29tb, 1854.

in answer to an application fill? * 1 addressed to Lord Kossc in October last,
pension of two hundred a year to p Ve,.ra distinguished scientific men fora
a private explanation of the motive! P?illiP8» wa* intended rather as

tn button of the Civil List p, "c 1 ,a,J P*’»ctieally regulated my dis-
on the subject. But, with the as *ayioS down any fixed principle

and after rally Con,iJeri“l fnr ^Lordship*. CoLi.tte,

q ™ric by me *° Lord R"sik,,o'v that 1 can

farniT^° Pfrsons more or less conner!!?|l ^ POSs‘bIe, to appropriate these Pen-
Sncees ;T>Ut the Vote of the hS2 Seience or lit eriture, or to their

Parn ‘ ,pL‘e general belief that these r;?!"? ”S 't,0u1'! inc,udc a much wider
it is ri-rht *.exc,asivfly for science and lit 1 ,^Kst Pensions were intended by
, “ T& bo clearly “ ^ether hcomct’ aw‘

only8™ Ci?“ n,°‘ esecedtag h-v "1'icl. lie Qaeen was enabled

on thf R„yrf “»* year, .o such persons

by their useful J h C?own, by the perk,, ,™" fi n~e’ or who by their per-
urts, have merited****”6* in fcc‘eDcePancl -ittrlif0 °f du.t^ef. to ,he PubIic- or
gratitude of their « ^ £racious considerat?^ m liferature and the

“it is obvious that^T °f tbe'r sovoreign> and the

pended according to '°l° SUm of £1 200 m* w

appropriated to SPJ!, 1 torms of the Act r.,° tll,^llt v«y easily be ex-
nce and literature. jnr|P *** Porf>on of it being

ec ’ -bis great latitude has occa-

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

xlv

sionally led to the insertion of names in the list which we scarcely might
have expected to find there.

“Nothing would afford me more pleasure than to have the power of dis¬
tributing a sum equal to the amount of all the Civil List Pensions, as an
acknowledgment of scientific merit. There are three or four persons whoso
names I should be most anxious to include in such a distribution ; but under
present circumstances, I am prevented from doing so by want of means.

“On the whole then, and without making any resolution which should
preclude me from exercising a discretion on the subject according t<> the
circumstances of the ease, I am still disposed to think that, as a general rub-,
the practice I have follow ed must be considered as most extensively beneficial.

“I have the honour to be, &cn

“ The Lord Wrottcsley.” “ ABERDEEN.”

As to the third subject above adverted to, the Chairman, with the sanction
of the Committee, has addressed the following question to several distin¬
guished men of science — Whether any and what measures could he adopted
by the Government or the Legislature to improve the position of science and
ot its cultivators in this country? Several answers containing suggestions
of great value and interest have been already received, and when the results
ol the inquiry have been embodied in a report, it will be communicated to
the General Committee.

•Uli. The Royal Society Council having referred the question of the pro¬
posed juxtaposition of scientific societies to your Committee, the Chairman,
together with several members of the Committee, accompanied a deputation
to Sir William Molesworth, the Chief Commissioner of Works (to whom they
had previously sent particulars of the amouut, of accommodation the principal
scientific societies would require), mi the 8th of July last; Sir William Moles-
wortli however stated, that he had no actual authority to make any offer to
the deputation of any part, of the site of Burlington I louse. (1

took place on the various questions Involved in this iiriiui". mi ni, .11
William intimated his opinion, that the societies already occupying apart¬
ments in Somerset House had peculiar claims on the Government, ami would
have a preference in the allocation of the site.

The Chairman availed himself of the opportunity afforded by the discus¬
sion of the Oxford University Bill in the House of Lords, to make some
observations on the neglect of the study of Physical Science at that Univer¬
sity, and it. is indeed much to be regretted that the rewards held out ns an
inducement to the study of science in that University should be so ii*'ignifi-
cam m amouut, and, secondly, that some knowledge at least of the laws and
puBiiomena of nature is not required as a necessary preliminary to adtgree :
these studies are in themselves so attractive to the generality of minds, that
the mere admission within the vestibule of science often leads to a successful
exploration of its inmost recesses ami could the Universities be induced
to adopt Lius suggestion, our public schools would be compelled to teach it,
its ranks would be immediately reinforced by a corps of zealous worshipers;
an an increased demand would arise for professors, whose emoluments
uoii (| furnish an additional stimulus to (he prosecution of these delightful
aud soul-cxaltmg pursuits.

The General Committee will hear with regret that Sir Robert If. Inglu*,
ia\wg retired from Parliament, has ceased to be a Member of thi* Com¬
mittee. i our Committee recommend that Mr. John Hall, M.P. for the
county of Carlow, who is both an old Member of the British Association and
well known as a cultivator of natural science, be appointed to succeed him.

xlvi

REPORT - 1854.

Your Committee cannot take their leave of their late colleague without
an expression of their grateful thanks for the zealous and valuable assistance
which he afforded to them when his cooperation was invited ; and when the
Committee call to mind the various occasions on which he has supported
the interests of science in the legislature, they cannot but consider that by
the retirement of Sir R. II. Inglis from Parliament, science has lost therein a
zealous advocate and a sincere friend.

13th September, 1854. WroTTESLEY.

Recommendations adopted by the General Committee at the
Liverpool Meeting in September 1854.

[When Committees are appointed, the Member first named is regarded ns the Secretary of
the Committee, except there he a specific nomination.!

Involving Grants of Money.

The Committee having had under consideration the Report of the Council
accompanied by the Report, of the Kcw Committee, which describes their Pro¬
ceedings during the past year, have thy satisfaction of expressing their full
W?nT??Ce '!! vicwa and proceedings recorded in those Reports; and
ffrantw!ii^IlGd tJ?at ,to me®t «P«?cial charges in the current year, a large
grant will be required ; resolved— J

maTnhtenancfiSofnll°rr ‘ placod at the disposal of the Council, for the
maintenance of the Establishment at Kew.

Aspect of the°M apP°int0d in 1852 «>r the investigation of the Physical

method of detemiin^n ted to continue his researches as to the best

EiT&k<l= ^ ‘'"d ti,1,E of

a tabulated derawbiffhofSeaJd ?rofQ8sor A. Ramsay be requested to construct
Section; with £1 <w .a.r,ous gwlogical strata, for use in the Geological

That klfio tZ 5 ! m eir r ,sPO«al for the purpose.

E. f 1 of the publication of the late Mr. Hagh

That Dr. LankLTr Cn " n Synonym,.

Committee for drawim'iin Tabl^sV 'If”’ 1'>i‘‘kle’ 0,1,1 Dr- Laycock be a

^Thft^rDaubc i8pg°^ for ,hc m,rpo^g,Strati0n ofPeriodicPh®nomena;

continue their expennipnts^on' \a')d Pr°PfS8<>r Henslow be requested t«
Posa for the purple ” tJ,e of Seeds; with £11 at their dii

Professor Owei
Johnstoi
Report

,,a,a Ur- Lankustcr i„> , ~ «eraeiey, L>r. u. JohnsM

of the . rnert°.f selecting and arianeinc ,^'IOs.tod *° draw- up a Report on t
disnnsa|hf Ce Vngdoms of Nature for nr! s.er,^ of Typical Objects illustrate
That Mr. ,m':p°8e- provincial Museum, ; with 410 at the

thTS8t‘1|m't,,h"t“^“'; IMfaa«Tw!thdl“o°';tin"e thn l,rod*i"S -Potion,

the SJ 1 1™'.‘ or tie, to pro^det lar ‘hA“ d tlfe purpose.

Sir Roderick MurV-"’ b<! re"ewei1. anti of tllc World, f

requires. rchlson, be requested to obtain" ul' Seclio!1 £

otam such a Map as the Sectic

RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE.

xlvii

That the sura of £5 be granted for the purpose of sending out the Eth¬
nological questions, and that Dr. Conolly and Mr. Cull he the Committee
for that purpose.

Applications to Government or Public Institutions.

That application be made by the President and Officers to Her Majesty's
Government for the use, rent-free, of Two Acres of Ground, adjacent to the
Kew Observatory, when the present lease expires, and for the laying on of
Gas for the use of the Establishment.

That application be made to the Master-General of the Ordnance for the
early publication of a Table of the Heights determined by the Trigonometrical
Surveys of the United Kingdom; and that the said Table be accompanied by
a statement of the levels of the sea taken as the base of the observations now
in progress in England, in Scotland, and in Ireland ; of the places where taken ;
and of the reasons for the selection of the same respectively.

That the Dean of Ely, the Astronomer Royal, Sir J. F. VV. Herachc I, Col.
Sabine, Col, Sykes, Mr. Gassiot, Professor Miller, and Mr. llophins, be
appointed a Committee for considering the propriety of repeating the Balloon
Experiments of 1852, and of applying to the Royal Society for the grant of
the necessary funds.

That hi reference- to the Expedition to North Australia, which has been
so long contemplated, and for which a Parliamentary grant was voted last
Session, an application be made to Her Majesty’s Government, that the
arrangements for its prosecution be completed with all convenient despatch;
and that a deputation, consisting of Sir R. Murchison, Dr. Conolly, Dr.
Latham, and Dr. Shaw, be appointed to wait on His Grace the Duke of
Newcastle, to represent the wishes of the Association.

That it is expedient, for the advancement*of our knowledge of Naval
Architecture, that a portion of the intended Museum at Liverpool should be
appropriated to this subject.

That Mr. \Y . l'airbairn, Mr. J. Nasmytli, and Mr. J. "Whitworth, be a Com¬
mittee for taking the necessary steps for instituting an inquiry into the causes
of Boiler Explosions.

That the Earl of Harrowby, the Dean of Ely, Col. Sabine, Prof. Graham,
Mr. W. Fairbairn, and Mr. T. Webster, bo a Committee for the purpose of
taking such steps as may be necessary to render the Patent system of this coun¬
try, and the funds derived from inventors, more efficient and available for the
reward o I meritorious inventors and the advancement, of practical science.

Committee having learnt, in the progress of this Meeting, that
great diflcrences of opinion prevail in the port of Liverpool regarding the
navigation of iron ships, and that great inconvenience and loss have been
experienced in consequence of the errors occasioned in the compass by the
uon o the ship, recommend to the shipowners and other gentlemen inter-

ea m navigation at Liverpool, to form a committee for the purpose of
con&i ering the questiou, and making such representations to Her Majesty's
thej^may^think '<lP’ neccssary> and of offering any suggestions which

That Mr. Henderson and Col. Chesney be a Committee for the purpose
Lifeboats”^ ^ statlstics design, arrangement, and dimensions of

xlviii

report — 1854.

Not Involving Grants of Money or Application to Government.
Parliamentary Committee.

The General Committee are desirous of expressing their thanks to the
Members of the Parliamentary Committee for the valuable services which
they have, rendered to science since the last meeting of the Association: the
establishment of a department of the Board of Trade, under the superin¬
tendence of Captaiu Robert FitzRoy, so well known as a scientific navigator,
for collecting meteorological and other observations at sea, and for promptly
discussing and disseminating the information which they afl'ord, in conjunction
with the corresponding system of Lieut. Maury, which has been in operation
for several years in the United States, is likely to prove of the most importaut
benefit to the interests of navigation and commerce : and the Committee
gladly avail themselves of this opportunity of acknowledging the support
which this great and wise measure has received from the able and perse¬
vering advocacy of Lord Wrottesley and Mr. Janos Hey wood ; and they beg
also to notice with particular satisfaction the important aid which is likely to be
afforded to the successful operation of this system or observations bv the
Observatory at Kcvy, and iU indefatigable superintendent Mr. Welsh. '

Hie Committee sincerely join in the general filing of regret which has ken
expressed at the retirement from Parliament of Sir Robert Harry Inglis, who
was on every occasion ready to throw the influence of his high public and

K m lav?T of t;ver>' PWct which was calculated to advance

the cause of science and humanity,

m^ter/co3j:e“1Uti0”S *"* ttdopted in 10 lhc mil'

?f !'“!rP^iia!5entttr-v Committee who shall not hate
sliall be considered ee?|fg. ^ Committee; for the space of two years,
andthe vaeanev sn nm Wsigned, but shall be eligible for re-election,

non; oac,,n'i„..3„rc diroctcl to | be Tpiff thCS:"“e “ VaCanCiCS

liamentarv Counuittto1'’ ^I,Ie-fo»' Cff,ow* be c'Iectcd a Member of the Par-
ParliaS. mtteC S,r “* ll' ^is, Bart, who has retired from

^ Applications for Reports, fyc.

Chemical Action of the'sohfr l° Cont,nue ^is researches on the

continue tl.ci I' Spec^ve teSrcr1 D‘* £*,adstone> F.R.S., be requested to
anThat°D ^ereon‘ 'eS °n F,ax Fibre and on Solar Radiation,

n6Ti,Af nting on t,le PnjwrcM’ff^i,?® .,ef}u.e_8ted to furnish a report to the
™ rh!atP.rof- WilIi«mBomPh D ,Ci‘l Manufactures in Glasgow.

Chemical Affinity. ’’ eqi»estecl to report on Recent Researches

That Prof. Miller M n k

ThatMrep p'J; ’ ' ’ rCqUeSted t0 rep0rt recent progress of

Sta*rbat Mr rl0Ui,0-lge witl» the* AT *11"* “P & report on the Present

strength oP\vmrba rn bl! reqte5Ld\„ M°?,U8C“ of California.

Tlfat theVCromShtr*ir°n p,ates at different*!?110® h‘S ExPeriraents on tbe
Belfast, and M "ffi! -ec’ listing of Mr teTmpera‘“rc«-

Mr. Will, am Fairbairn, C.F p t! I?** Thomson’ A.M., C.E.,
J'> -tv. is., be requested to continue

RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE.

xlix

their Experiments on the Friction of Discs in Water, and on Centrifugal
Pumps.

That a Committee, consisting of the Earl of Harrowby, Admiral Beechey,
Mr. Joseph Brooks Yates, Mr. Joseph Boult, Sir R. I. Murchison, and Mr.
George Rennie, be appointed to investigate and report upon the effects pro¬
duced upon the channel of the Mersey by the alterations which within the
last fifty years have been made in its banks ; — Mr. Boult to be Secretary of
the Committee.

That Mr. John Scott Russell be requested to prepare a report on the pre¬
sent state of our knowledge of Naval Architecture.

w

Printing of Communications.

That the Paper by Mr. W. G. Armstrong, F.R.S., on Various Applications
of Water-pressure Machinery, be published in exlenso in the Report.

That a Communication by Mr. Follett Osier, entitled “Description of the
Anemometer erected at the Observatory,” with report on the Observations
made therewith, be printed entire in the volume for this year.

Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Objects by the
General Committee at the Liverpool Meeting in Sept. 1854, with the
name of the Member, who alone, or as the First of a Committee , is
entitled to draw for the Money.

Kew Observatory. £

At the disposal of the Council for defraying Expenses . 500

Mathematics and Physics.

Rosse, Earl of. — Physical Aspect of the Moon . 2 5

Geology.

Mallet, Mr. R. — Earthquake Movements . 50

Phillips, Prof* John. — Tabular Views of Strata . . 15

Zoology and Botany.

At the disposal of the Council— For Ornithological Synonyms 100
Lank ester, Dr.— Periodical Phenomena ....... . 10

Dacbeny, Dr — Vitality of Seeds . 11

Henslow, Prof.— Typical Objects for Museums ’ . . . ...” 1 0

Patterson, Mr. R.— Dredging near Belfast . 10

Geography and Ethnology.
Murchison, Sir R — Map of the World.

Coxolly, Dr — Ethnological Queries .....

Grants.... £751

s. d.
0 0

0 0

0 0
0 0

0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0

0 0
O 0

0 o

d

1854.

1

REPORT - 1854.

General Statement of Sums which have been paid on Account of Grants for

Scientific Purposes.

£ s. d.

1834.

Tide Discussions . 20 0 O

1835.

Tide Discussions . 62 0 0

British Fossil Ichthyology... 105 O O

£167 0 0

1836.

Tide Discussions . 163 0 O

British Fossil Ichthyology... 105 0 0
Thermometric Observations,

„ &c\ . 50 0 0

Experiments on long-conti¬
nued Heat .

Lunar Nutation

1837.

Tide Discussions .

Chemical Constants ...

Tides at Bristol .

Meteorology and Subter

- . .

Barometric Observations

Tide Discussions..1.?.38' 9n
and An 1 °bservat»ons

“ruotilT°meter CC™-

Bristol Tides . 41

Growth of Plants . 50

Mud in Rivers . 75

Education Commute; . 3

Heart Experiments!? . S°

Land and Sea I . 5

Subterranean Trrl . 267

Steam-vessels 1 poratu»'e .. 8

Meteorological' 'rill . . 100

Thermometers Com»‘Hee... 31

. v 16

.€956

1

O

13

0

0

0

0

0

6

0

.€434

14

0

1

0

13

6

0

0

12

0

0

0

5

3

• 150

0

0

4

6

. 30

0

18

0

6

€918

14

6

—

£ ».

1839.

Fossil Ichthyology . 110

Meteorological Observations

at Plymouth . 63 10

Mechanism of Waves . 144 -

Bristol Tides . 35 18

Meteorology and Subterra¬
nean Temperate . 21 11

Viti ideation KxpWments ... 9 4

Cast Iron Experiments . 100 0

Railway Constants . 23 7

Land and Sea Level . 274 1

Steam-vessel*' Engines . 100 0

Star* in II istoire Celeste ... 331 18

Stars in Lacuille . 11 0

Stars in K.A.S. Catalogue... 6 16

Arimal Secretions . 10 10

Steam-engines in Cornwall.. 50 0

Atmospheric Air . 16 1

Cast and Wrought Iron . 40 0

Heal on Organic Bodies ... 3 0

Closes on Solar Spectrum ... 22 0
Hourly Meteorological Ob¬
servations, Inverness and

Kingussie . 49 7

Fossil Reptiles . . 118 2

Mining Statistics . 50 0

159517

0 0

1840.

100 0
13 13

1 10
12 10
0 0

0

6

0

3
8
6
0
9

4
12

Lungs Experiments . 8 13

Tide Discussions . 50 0

Land and Seu Level . 6 11

Stars (Histoire Celeste) . 242 10

Stars (Lacaille) . 4 15

Stars (Catalogue) . 264 0

Atmospheric Air . . 15 15

Water on Iron . 10 0

Heat on Organic Bodies .. 7 0

Meteorological Observations 52 17
foreign Scientific Memoirs.. 112 1

Working Population . 100 0

School Statistics . 50 0

Forms of Vessels . 184 7

Chemical and Electrical Phe¬
nomena . 40 0 0

Meteorological Observation's

Twnt ‘‘yniouth . 80 0 6

Magnctical Observations ... 185 13 J

£1546 16 *

GENERAL STATEMENT.

li

£ ». d.

£ s. d.

1841.

Observations on Waves . 30 0 0

Meteorology and Subterra¬
nean Temperature . 8 8 0

Actinometers . 10 0 0

Earthquake Shocks . J7 7 0

Aerid Poisons...... . 6 0 0

Veins and Absorbents . 3 0 0

Mud in Rivers . . . 5 0 0

Marine Zoology . . 15 12 8

Skeleton Maps . 20 0 0

Mountain Barometers . . 6 18 6

Stars (Histoire Celeste). . 185 0 0

Stars (Lacaitle) . 79 5 0

Stars (Nomenclature of) ... 17 19 6

Stars (Catalogue of ) . 40 0 0

Water on Iron . 50 0 0

Meteorological Observations

at Inverness. . . 20 0 0

Meteorological Observations

(reduction of) . 25 0 0

Fossil Reptiles . . 50 o 0

Foreign Memoirs . . 62 0 0

Railway Sections . 38 1 6

Forms of Vessels . 193 12 0

Meteorological Observations

at Plymouth . 55 0 0

Magnetical Observations ... 6l 18 8

Fishes of the Old Red Sand¬
stone . 100 0 0

Tides at Leith . 60 0 0

Anemometer at Edinburgh .. 69 1 10

Tabulating Observations ... 9 6 3

Races of Men.... . 5 0 0

Radiate Animals . 2 0 0

,£1235 10 11

1842.

Dynamometric Instruments 113 11 2

Anoplura Britannia: . 52 12 0

Tides at Bristol . 59 g 0

Cases on Light . 30 14 7

Chronometers...., . 26 17 6

Marine Zoology . . I <• q

British Fossil Mammalia ... 100 0 0

Statistics of Education . . 20 0 0

Marine Steam -vessels’ En-

_ Sines . 28 0 0

Stars (Histoire Ce'ieste) . 59 0 0

Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of) 1 10 0 0

Railway Sections . 161 jq q

British Beiewuitea . 50 0 q

Fossil Reptiles (publication

of Report) . 210 0 n

forms of Vessels . 180 0 0

Galvanic Experiments on

Rocks . 5 8c

Meteorological Expori m en ts
at Plymouth . 68 0 0

Constant Indicator and Dy¬

namometric Instruments.. 90 0 0

Force of Wind . 10 0 0

Light on Growth of Seeds... 8 0 0

Vital Statistics . 50 O O

Vegetative Power of Seeds .. 8 111

Questions on Human Race.. 7 9 0

£Ui9 1 7 8

1843.

Revision of the Nomencla¬
ture of Stars . 2 0 0

Reduction of Stars. British
Association Catalogue ... 25 O 0
Anomalous Tides. Frith of

Forth . 120 0 0

Hourly Meteorological Ob¬
servations atKiugussie and

Inverness . 77 12 8

Meteorological Observations

at Plymouth . 55 O 0

Whewell’s Meteorological
Anemometer at Plymouth 10 0 0

Meteorological Observations,

Osier’s Anemometer at

Plymouth . 20 ct 0

Reduction of Meteorological

Observations . 30 0 0

Meteorological Instruments

and Gratuities . 39 G 0

Construction of Anemometer

at Inverness . 5fi 12 2

Magnetic Co-operation . 10 8 10

Meteorological Recorder for

Kew Observatory . 50 O 0

Action of Gases on Light ... 18 lG 1

Establishment at Kew Ob¬
servatory, Wages, Repairs,

Furniture and Sundries ... 133 4 7

Experiments by Captive Bal¬
loons . 61 S 0

Oxidation of the Rails of

Railways . 20 0 0

Publicatiou of Report on

Fossil Reptiles . 40 0 O

Coloured Drawings of Rail¬
way Sections . 147 IB 3

Registration of Earthquake

Shocks . 30 0 O

Report on Zoological No¬
menclature . 10 0 0

UncoveringLowerRed Sand¬
stone near Manchester ... 4 4 6

Vegetative Power of Seeds... 5 3 8

Marine Testacea (Habits of) 10 0 O

Marine Zoology . 10 O O

Marine. Zoology . 2 I I 11

Preparation of Report on
British Fossil Mammalia.. 100 O O
d 2

lii

REPORT - 1854.

£ 8. d.

Physiological operations of

Medicinal Agents . 20 0 0

Vital Statistics . 36 5 8

Additional Experiments on

the Forms of Vessels . 70 0 0

Additional Experiments on

the Forms of Vessels . 100 0 0

Reduction of Observations

on the Forms of Vessels .. 100 0 0
Morin’s Instrument and Con¬
stant Indicator . G9 14 10

Experiments on the Strength

of Materials . 60 0 0

^1666 10 2

35

100

1844.

Meteorological Observations
at Kingussie and I nverness 1 2
Completing Observations at

Plymouth . 35

Magnetic and Meteorological

Co-operation . 25

Publication of the British
Association Catalogue of

Stars . .

Observations on Tides on the
East coast of Scotland ....

Revision of the Nomencla¬
ture of Stars . 1842 2

Maintaining the Establish¬
ment in Kew Observatory 117
Instruments for Kew Obser¬
vatory . fi6

Influence of Light on Plants 10
Subterraneous Temperature

in Ireland . . 5

Coloured Drawings of RiUL

way Sections . 15

Investigation of Fossil Fishes
of the Lower Tertiarv

Strata . . 3

Registering the Shocks" of

Earthquakes . 1842

Structure of Fossil Shells ...

Radiata and Mollusca of the
Aegean and lied Seas, 1842

Geographical distributions of

Marine Zoology .... iwao
Marine Zoology of Devon

and Cornwall .

Marine Zoology of Corfu ."

Experiments on**the •“ 9 0 3

0 0
0 0

8 4

0 0
0 0

9 6

1? 3

7 3
0 0

0 0

17 6

100 0 0

23

20

100

10

10

11 10
0 0

0 0

10 0

0 0
0 0

Exotic Anoplura . “

Strength of Materials ..W""’
Compietlll(? Experiments on
the Forms of Ships..,.

7 3
0 0
0 0

Inquiries into Asphyxia . 10

Investigations on the inter¬
nal Constitution of Metals 50
Constant Indicator and Mo¬
rin's Instrument, 1842 ■■■ 10

t. d.
0 0

0 0

3 6

^’981 12

1845.

Publication of the British
Association Catalogue of

Stars . 351

Meteorological Observations

at Inverness . 30

Magnetic and Meteorological

Co-operation . 16

Meteorological Instruments

at Edinburgh . . IS

Reduction of Anemomctrical
Observations at Plymouth 25
Electrical Experiments at

Kew Observatory . 43

Maintaining the fcstablish-
rnent in Kew Observatory 149
For Kreil’s Barometrogrspii 25
Gases from Iron Furnaces... 50

The Actinograph . 15

Microscopic Structure of

Shells . 20

Exotic Anoplura . 1843 10

Vitality of Seeds . 1843 2

Vitality of Seeds . 1844 7

Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10
Physiological Action of Me¬
dicines . 20

Statistics of Sickness and

Mortality in York . 20

Earthquake Shocks ...1843 15

14 6
18 11
16 8
11 9

0 0

17 8

15 0
0 0
0 0
0 0

0 0
0 0
0 7
0 0
0 0

0

100 0 0

1846.

British Association Catalogue

of Stars . 1844 21 1

Fossil Fishes of the London

Clay . . 100

Computation of the Gaussian

Constants for 1839 . 5 0

Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 146

Strength of Materials . 60

Researches in Asphvxin . 0

Exanimation of Fossil Shells 10

Vitality of Seeds . 1844 3

Vitality of Seeds . 1845 7

Marine Zoology of Cornwall 1 0
Marine Zoology of Britain... lO

e.xotic Anoplura . 1844 25

Expenses attending Anemo¬
Anemometers’ Repairs!’.’ 3

0

15

GENERAL STATEMENT.

£ a. d.

Atmospheric Waves . 3 3 3

Captive Balloons . 1844 8 19 8

Varieties of the Human

Race . 1844 7 6 3

Statistics of Sickness and
Mortality at York . . 12 0 0

£685 16 0

1847.

Computation of the Gaus¬

sian Constants for 1839... 50 0 0
Habits of Marine Animals... 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Me¬
dicines . 20 0 0

Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0

Atmospheric Waves . . G 9 3

Vitality of Seeds . 4 7 7

Maintaining the Establish¬

ment at Kew Observatory' 107 8 6
.£208 5 4

1848.

Maintaining the Establish¬
ment at ICew Observatory 171 15 11

Atmospheric Waves . 3 10 Q

Vitality of Seeds . 9 ]5 0

Completion of Catalogues of

Stars . 70 0 0

On Colouring Matters . 5 0 0

On Growth of Plants . 15 0 0

.£275 l 8

1849.

Electrical Observations at

Kcw Observatory . 50 0 0

Maintaining Establishment

at ditto . 76 2 5

\ ttality of Seeds . 5 8 1

On Growth of Plants . 5 0 0

Registration of Periodical

Phenomena . . 10 o 0

Bill on account of Anemo-
metrical Observations . 13 9 0

£159 19 6

1850.

Maintaining the Establish¬
ment at Kew Observatory 255 18 0
Transit of Earthquake Waves 50 0 0

Periodical Phenomena . 15 o o

Meteorological Instrument,

Azores . . 25 Q Q

,£'345 18 0

liii

£ *. d.

1851.

Maintaining the Establish¬
ment at Kew Observatory
(includes part of grant in

1849) . 309 2 2

Theory of Heat . 20 I 1

Periodical Phenomena of

Animals and Plants . 5 0 0

Vitality of Seeds . 5 G 4

Influence of Solar Radiation 30 O 0

Ethnological Inquiries . 12 0 0

Researches on Annelida . 10 0 0

.1391 9 7

1852.

Maintaining the Establish¬
ment at Kew Observatory
(including balance of grant

for 1850) . 233 17 8

Experiments on the Conduc¬
tion of Ilent . 5 2 9

Influence of Solar Radiations 20 0 0
Geological Map of Ireland... 15 O O
Researches on the British

Annelida . 10 0 0

Vitality of Seeds . 10 6 2

Strength of Boiler Plates ... 10 O 0

.£'304 6 7

1853.

Maintaining the Establish¬
ment at Kew Observatory 165 0 O

Experiments on the Influence

of Solar Radiation . 15 0 0

Researches on the British

Annelida . 10 0 0

Dredging on the East Coast

of Scotland . 10 0 0

Ethnological Queries . 5 0 0

£205 O 0

1854.

Maintaining the Establish¬
ment at Kew Observatory
(including balance of for¬

mer Grant) . 330 15 4

Investigations on Flax . 11 O O

Effects of Temperature on

Wrought Iron . 10 O 0

Registration of Periodical

Phenomena . 10 O O

British Annelida . 10 0 O

Vitality of Seeds . 5 2 3

Conduction of Heat . 4 2 o

.£380 1 9 7

liv

GENERAL MEETINGS.

Extracts from Resolutions of the General Committee.

Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money for scientific par-
poses have been entrusted, are required to present to each following meeting
of the Association a Report of the progress which has been made; with a
statement of the sums which have been expended, and the balance which re¬
mains disposable on each grant.

Grants of pecuniary aid for scientific purposes from the funds of the Asso¬
ciation expire at the ensuing meeting, unless it shall appear by a Report that
the Recommendations have been acted on, or a continuation of them be
ordered by the General Committee.

Tn each Committee, the Member first named is the pprson entitled to call
on the Treasurer, .John Taylor, Eso., 6 Queen Street Place, Upper Thames
Street, London, for such portion of the sum granted as may from time to
time be required.

In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contemplate
the payment of personal expenses to the Members.

In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua¬
tion of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named shall be
deemed to include, as a part of the amount, the specified balance which may
remain unpaid on the former grant for the same object.

general Meetings.

1W-- ®ePfc* 20th’ at 8 in the Philharmonic Hall, Willi*"

P-ivi nf h 8f^'’ h-R.S., P.G.S., resigned the office of President to th

rlf'iii-oiJi arro'v!,Jr’ h-U-S., who took the Chair at the General Meeting, am
delivered an Address, for which see page lv.

PyW„lh,rl!l)'' Sept, ^st, U Soiree took place in St. George’s Ilall, whe;
Polytmpe ex,“bltcd with Jluhmkorft-s Induction CoilJ and Magnus

Ifyn0 S r.M., in the Concert Room of St. George;

siedogy inSo J Svnl,r,HIXf KRS> Professor of Anatomy and Pby

on AmhropomorphmS A^.°f &Urge°U3 ol‘ K,,Slaud» delivered a Discourse

Hall, Colon ehFd*war d ^V-’ at f, *n l*le Concert Room of St. George;
course on £ Pro^tf T’ Y*lVU,d 'W R.S., delivered a Dis
Or. Tuesda • 7 « IeS€arcl,es “* Terrestrial Magnetism.

Experiments with [hr* R took pluce in St. George’s Hall, when

Experiments with the T°-,e« ",'?re Presented by M. Leon Foucault;

Were explained bv Prnf 1C Abb6 Moigno and M. Duboscq

"onWe^dl °f t,,C MOO"Wer£

the Association was jiel.T ‘<LP,M'> the concluding General Meeting oi
eeedings of the General C«,m.„LGeorsf8 IIal,‘ Liverpool, when the Pro-

P-..poae Vo™ eM^bl'1'16 un*““ fcr •***

Meeting was then adjourned to' Glasgow

- Meumg „ •ppotaod to „kc m WtinaHr, (hc 12l]i Ser(siubcri 1SM_

THE EARL OF HARROWBY, F.Il.S.

Gentlemen of the British Association,

tolvl 1 first. set mLselfi the task of preparing to address you on the
»eforlt,°CC-aSI°n> my !n,,mls<! was.t0 begin with an apology for appearing
he ,Vn;KU !•" S°- pror^nent. ? Potion— Inr assuming apparently a station in
10 ld .°ff sc,ence f°F wh,ch 1 liai1 no pretensions. On second thought*,
houJh itli, ap^rCd.bel,ter“more r08Pectful in fact- b«vi»g consented,
hatf'J r:iC,r,d wlu.ct“ce! to ***** the office-tosayuo more on
*k S* dUlm aS bGSt 1 wi*Ut' Tht* howeve r. I must

(« you, not to expect from mo what you have had from many ufn.y
f i ecessors a Uu|nnous review of the state of Physical Science- a recital
hat I «? , , V.an1°,u3 tnu,nphs, and suggestions for their further extension ;
1 should, in the words of the poet, though in a different sense,

p AI,ure t0 brighter worlds, and point the way.

^lrlJZZ*\el'nZ stator of that rapid and triumphant

f'rid.i, [ p "1,lcl1.’ n’,tla.Jn., ie last fifty ycars- ,jas been extending and
d°ma,nf °f, knavv,et,Se» and planting, as it were, new
; sl«‘ctator -mvtavUner-11 °reu and ‘‘''trodden regions, yet 1 have been only
!':iri wiih the busv ^lT! been lc!9. 'vitU the Properties of matter
*c ri,ue*tJit» nhilna K-S ° ^°n,: aud ^ attempted now to assume for
a‘l Would soon ifpir, ,C f^rb) * am a*raiJ that the awkwardness of my
wlS -e* ll,Vrt: arC! however» points of high and
Reeled and in votr '* i*? a ,™eetulg' like the present, cannot be entirely
11,1 4m matter nnf t<M,:l,ldlp ll'e kindness of friends has supplied me
’r !*Cc TtL iL JV** °f bei,1S to Jour notice! IIow,

°raItl I neglect AsSnrl ?nd in t,ie Sroatest «>aport of the world.

I UrUish me wit h a ^ lerft ^l o^* Tallis has been good enough

h and rJnt ^

“Notes on the present State of Astronomy.

“ $■ _ “ Memorandum by Prof. Challis.

e the Meeting of the British Association last year, four planets and

lvi

REPORT - 1854.

four comets have been discovered. Three of the new planets were found at
Mr. Bishop’s Observatory, two by Mr. Hind, ami one by Mr. Maith. This
last was also discovered the following night at the Oxford Observatory—
another of the many instances presented by astronomy of independent dis¬
coveries made nearly simultaneously. The fourth planet was found at the
Observatory of Bilk, near Diisseldorf, by Mr. It. Luther, an astronomer
distinguished by having already discovered two planets. Of the comet*,
one was discovered at Berlin, two at Gottingen, and the fourth was seen very
generally with the naked eye at the end of last March. None of them have
been identified with preceding comets. The large number of planets and
comets discovered of late years, while it evinces the diligence of astronomer!,
has, at the same time, brought additional labourers into the field of astrono¬
mical science, and contributed materially to its extension. The demand lor
observations created by these discoveries has been met by renewed activity
in existing observatories, and has led to the establishment, by public or
private means, of new observatories. For instance, an observatory was
founded in the course of last year by a private individual at Ohniit/., in
Moravia, and is now actively at work oil this class of observations. Various
such instances have occurred within a few years. In addition to the ad van-
tages just stated, the observations called for by the discovery of new bodies
of the Solar System, have drawn attention to the state of Stellar Astronomy,
and been the means of improving this fundamental part of the science. Be
following arc a few words on the existing state of Stellar Astronomy, so far
as regards catalogues of stars. Subsequently to the formation of the older
catalogues of bright stars, astronomers turned their attention to observations
i nln°nT,T0r °meTJ8° vf Blualler *turs> lo the ninth magnitude inclusive.
tSorf’ Argelander, and Lament are the chief labourers in

lotmerl observations. But these observations, unreduced and uncaki-
SSttr^*On,pfr0Uvo,y °/ im vaIlle- The British Association did
Lalande T r,rS-tn°n0nIPrS 4 r«bming into catalogues the observations of
fished at St P ;■ A CataIo«ue 0,1 of Bessel's Zones has been pub-
Vienna LaiioI?’?5rUrg> T‘ a TtaloSue of Part of Argelander’s Zones at
catalogue ^ bf‘n,‘ ”<*"<** !» pan by himself. The

founded nninlv n/i ttrS’t iPU ) 18 *ie< by tbc ®r4t“b Association in 1815, is
magnitude inclusive ,e,° ( rr f*rta*°8Ue®> but contains also stars to the seventh
of Z at* Z Z °',,y by La,ant,CQr Tacuille. The place,

but as the authorities fbTtL ^l’ co,,!ie<in*l,tly» not uniformly trustworthy;

misled by this circumstance ‘,Plac^ "re Indicated, the astronomer is not
cipally used in the observn*** ,e a^ove a,c the catalogues which are prin¬
ces if obsermioJ 8,nali and of comets. 'This

points of reference. Th* nf ra^> f>1- made by means of stars as fixed
the purpose of finding tin- mil-?! f jCts 14 8tar from a catalogue, either for
that of the star; but from »i, , ; ^ b^)’.0r for comparing its position with
happens that no star is found L "|'Pei'|ect,o,» of the catalogue, it sometimes
unless the star's place has bee n Ho* P a<.:e "'^mated by it, and in most, cases,
MonV-lt U Mt -ofiSS^u ~ '•/ replied meridian observe

planet or comet. J„ catalogue* r/? fir,ia rc*erence of the position of the
right ascension generally depends e UCe^/rom zone observations the star's
and its declination on n linX , " ! * *"'$e transit ac«>ss a single wire,
have begun to feel the n*c °s L of " •"* ?'5s b™S ^e ease, ostLomers

1 • y meridian observations I* °bta*ning afterwards accurate

» e “Nervation. „f tIle ^ by ,h?s sbrimenl, that b,

pmnets and of comets, materials are gradually

ADDRESS.

Ivii

accumulating for the formation of a more accurate and more extensive catalogue
of stars than any hitherto published. The British Association would add greatly
to the benefits it has already conferred on astronomical science, by promoting
thepublication, when sufficient materials can be collected, of ^general catalogue
of all stars (o the ninth magnitude inclusive, which have been rtpeated/g obsetTed
with meridian instruments. The modern sources at present available for such
a work are the reduced and published observations of the Greenwich, Pul-
kowa, Edinburgh, Oxford and Cambridge observatories, and tlu- recently
completed catalogue of 12, (XX) stars observed and reduced by the indefati¬
gable astronomer of Hamburg, Mr, Charles liiunker, together with
numerous incidental determinations of the places of comparison stars in the
Aslronnmische Nachrichlen. To complete the present account of the state
of Stellar Astronomy, mention should In* made of two volumes recently pub¬
lished by Mr. Cooper, containing the approximate places arranged in order
of right ascension of 80,186 elliptic stars front the ninth to the twelfth mag¬
nitude, of which only a very small number bad been previously obsened.
The observations were made with the Markree Equatorial, and' have been
Printed at the expense of Her Majesty’s Government. The determination
of differences of longitude by galvanic signals is an astronomical matter of
great practical importance. T his method, employed first in America, was
introduced into England by the Astronomer Royal, and has been applied to
the determination in succession of the differences of longitude between the
ireenwich Observatory and the observatories of Cambridge, Edinburgh,
Brussels, and Paris. In the first and last instances results have been pub¬
lished which prove the perfect success and accuracy of the method,
-tr. Airy, on recently announcing in the public papers the completion of
ic operation between the Greenwich and Paris observatories, justly remarks
iat such an experiment could not have been made without the assistance
attorned by commercial enterprise and that commercial enterprise is in turn
lonoured by the aid thus rendered to science. In the summer of last year,
fob Encke, following the example set in England, determined successfully
y galvanic signals the difference of longitude between Berlin and Fmnkfort-
°n-die-Maimi. Galvanism lias also been applied to astronomical purpose* in
°thcr ways. I he method of observing transits by the intervention of a gal¬
vanic circuit (just put in practice in America), in which only sight and touch
te employed, and counting is not required, is now in operation at the
reenwich Observatory, it is found to be attended with more labour than
isr u lu. , ’ buf,as free from errors to which the other method

liable, it lays claim to general acceptance. At Greenwich, also, Lhe
haivanic circuit is most usefully employed in maintaining the movement* of
distant sympathetic clocks, and in dropping time signal balk A bull is
opped every day at Deal by a galvanic current from the Royal Observatory,
-line anxiety was felt by astronomers respecting the continuation of that
ost indispensable publication the Asfronomiache Nachrichlen, after the
-cease ot the editor, M. Petersen, in February last. This has been dispelled
y a recent announcement that the King of Denmark has resolved to main-
Ci/ tl a 0bRervQ.tory in connexion with that of the editorship of that

ij *7* ‘he ‘Astronomical Journal,’ nu American publication of the »auie
t mi, undertaken by a young astronomer and mathematician, Mr. Gould, for
especial information of his countrymen, has reached the end of Volume
1Join i »i ’ W 10.l,e^’ be c^odnued. Generally, it may be said of astro-
.• Prefe,lt ,linc» tJiat it is prosecuted zealously and extensively, active
emtions being now more numerous than ever, and that the interests of

lviii

REPORT - 1854.

the science are promoted as well by private enterprise as by the aid of
Governments.

“Cambridge Observatory, Sept. 14, 1854.’' “ J. ChALLIS."

You will have observed that Prof. Challis speaks of the activity of private
enterprise in the cause of astronomy, and can I in this place paw over tit
labours of a Lassc-lls, or the enlightened public spirit of the corporation of
this town, which, stimulated by your visit ill tho year 1*37, has now foriorne
years maintained an excellent and well- provided observatory, under the able
management of Mr. Hartnup, who lias not only conferred great benefits on
the navigation of the place by the regulation of its chronometers, but great
lonour upon the institution by the* general services which he has rendered
to meteorological, as well as astronomical science ? Mr. Hartnups improve-
men & in the chronometer, by which the errors arising from variations of
temperature are either corrected or estimated and allowed for, have been of
A l?,!!,0 ra,r*. 1,1 ,he wonl6 of a Report of the Council of the Royal
win nnnlv'tTo “ Jt is ,0ll,ul experimentally, that when a captain

nometei” i 16 ^ 6- <’°\Te®^ *’or temperature, the performance of chro-

ri,l;(!|h improved ; and in regard to the importance of the subject
further? «t£ ,nterest!? navigation. I would take the liberty of quoting
but loss from fi°re mks !,t sca’ HSninst which no foresight, can provide;
treated asTcrS1^ co,apassos or *ll-iwgulated chronometers should be
efficacy of both Him*1’10* co,,imon sen8e ar>d common care will secure the
to a lLge amou t *l '* !° be ^ that W*

knowledge and a small i>«Car ^ 8acnfico(l f°r a want of n little eleme ntary
neglect the safeguards °f °ur — *

■with °G overnm e in V'ere h?* ** the P?ricxJ of your last fleeting, arrangements
scope of four-feet merinrn^r?®,?Sfi/0ritbc construction ol * reflecting tele-
other Starry phamoniena of m,!>C ' 8l‘oultJ brinff b> bear upon the nebula* and
that to which thev lnd I 80,‘thern hemisphere a far higher power than

hy Sir John Ilerfchel. You will
‘tout, it has not vet |1P!5! , L.eft‘mate Wils not objected to bv the Govern-
aUowanee hr rhe J- eor|ia,Ucn(. Wc must make sow

,‘e. a,b"u.1'8 -v»ur Kcw Commit:

of obsorvatiiiii,_ltJi(! tltermiuni.Lf'.l. ’■’t —J t,J .we 'annus

measures,—^, y are d - I ® ;, ,ar?meter» ™d tho standard weight
general jtl this and in other enuntri **' °[ "‘calculable benefit to science in

hand, f«r verification and ad l l^ t,,is ,,lomcnt they have in their
mete s fur t,le navy 0f the D„C Jl 000 thermometers and 50 ban,-

8unnHpH,neter3 ior our own liuarr! 'nf*'r%S ?ve^ aa 5()f) thermometers and
e\tranrfi-m or',‘nary commerce L;„„ J ,at,e> the instruments which are
also uniw? At thTauS±Un‘* to ** object to error to an

annea.-m('iakr,1,1 Uy thc photogranififnl ° Sir Johl> Hcrschel, they have
of the snots ? 1 ,e. Sun’3 disc, “with a vb>I°S9i- to secnre a daily record of the
tion cun b0 P°ln,,t18 SRrfaco, their nlaces ' ° ascortaining» by a comparison
Council of tbeaRl8he,d bet'v°cn their variat!^ and/ornia> whether any rela-
ia course o/ tn 2' ***** tlM pS S «ad other phenomena! The

completion. Thc W ed tl e funds, and the instrument fr
' Deuut,<ul invention, which seems likely

ADDRESS.

liK

to promote the interests of science in many branches, at least as much as
those of art, is employed, under the able direction of the Committee, and of
Mr. Welsh, the Curator, to record, by a self-acting process, something similar
to that of the anemometer, the variations in the earths magnetism. Hut 1
will not pretend to anticipate the results of the careful and extended study
of this subject by our able associate, Col. Sabine, who has been kind enough
to promise that we shall hear them from his own mouth in one of our
evening meetings. Neither will 1 anticipate the report of my learned and
distinguished predecessor in this chair, Mr. Hopkins, on a subject to which
he called the attention of the Association at its last meeting, and on which,
in conjunction with Mr. Fairbnirn and Mr. Joule, he has been engaged in
a series of experiments : — I allude to the effects of pressure on the tempera*
hire of fusion, — a problem of great importance, as bearing on the internal
condition of our planet.

Atvr ?.ePor.* a Committee of the Institute of France, consisting of
MM. Lionville, Lame and Elic de Beaumont, on the subject of a Theory of
Earthquakes, .has been transmitted to me for the use of the Association,
from a careful discussion of several thousand of these phenomena, which
have been recorded between the years 1801 and 1850, and a comparison „f
the periods at which they occurred with the position of the moon in relation
to the earth, the learned Professor, M. Perrey of Dijon, would infer that eurtl.-
qnakes may possibly be the result of an action of attraction exercised by that
body on the supposed fluid centre of our globe, somewhat similar to that w hicli
she exercises on the waters of the ocean; and the Report of the Committee
of the Institute is so far favourable, that at their instance the Institute have
granted funds to enable the learned Professor to continue his rosea relic*
You will recollect how often the attention of the Association I. us heeri drawn’
to this subject by the observations of Mr. Milne and of Mr. Mallet, which
atter are still going on ; and that the accumulating facts arc still waiting f.»r
a theory to explain them.

— J ain Borry lor thc tightness of my acquaintance with so
captivating as well uh so practical a study. I have nothing to report, save
ha the increasing scarcity of ironstone and coal is driving the practical men
to have greater respect for a science which enables them to form a very

tL .SSrSf® f ch niI,H'rals arc like|y to be found, and to conic

6 ,5 bkc an absolute certainty as to where they are not. When the

Jriiijn|!n,effiri ?°.b? ask,ei1, Vs ^ere a square mile in all the coal-field' of
co^LU rCUp,ed, by the mtm? 01 il* 5000 square miles of vi'iblo
tha LtLho"1mJ,c,1' rcn,ai!JS u,,tuuched ? ” — it is time, indeed, to listen to
a * * l,C^ luu tai,ght,Ud *° ^cccasMIy, in the hands of u Murchi., ... ,

Of Britai,,; fa to to fUrt U!r rCS0UrCe5 f°r th0 ““PP'y of tliis, the life

tn U Iarci'yt^l y°u of the services which Meteorology may be expected
of fcrrr1 Ufr’ Jnd lH'rkaPs there Is no better iuLncVof t.roTlc
hnnorL^i ,0- °‘ faCt8' W t‘»en, selves apparently of small
I; u, and having apparently little connexion with each other.

than the cEl^nf ^ be 'f8? subjcct lo rullt aml ,uw> even to a proverb,
valioi M?! 8 U",dr lrcIldll!roua wave ? Yet, even here, obscr-

M ar c lTn,0n " iMC ,0“° 801”1 "rk *wl for man.

t r n,0re- Y"0 are <l>»‘ ‘l“- American Govern!

Lilt , 50n,n V™1? “,e *'““««« a,lli u"d"- tlm direction of

observat inn a Yr *C° fro"' 11,0 Mercantile vessels or that nation

lemeSr °frc.?rtaiu Pl™»on»n, at sea, such as winds, tides, currents and
P o the ocean ; and that the results, digested into charts and

Jx

REPORT - 1854.

books, have already been the means of adding speed and safety to the
voyages of their merchantmen in an extraordinary degree.

You are aware that application was made to our Government to cooperate
in this great work of common benefit to every mercantile nation, and that
the subject was brought before Parliament by one of our Vice-Presidents,
Lord Wrottesley, in a speech which lie has since published, and which I
would commend to every one's perusal who doubts of the importance of this
branch of science to the interests of commerce and navigation. You are
perhaps not aware that the Government has agreed to the proposal, and has
created a special department for the purpose, in connexion with the Board of
Trade, placing it under the management of perhaps the one man best fitted
to carry it out with energy and success, my. friend Capt. FitzRoy, one not
less known on the banks of the Mersey by old associations, than on the
general fields of maritime science. Conceiving that this was a subject of
special interest to the place of our present Meeting, ami that for such an
object it was desirable us publicly and as widely ns possible to solicit the co¬
operation of all who are connected with the commerce of the country, I have
asked Capt. FitzRoy to communicate to me the present condition of the
question; and he has kindly furnished me, not officially, with the following
memoranda, which, with your permission, I will read:—

4 i Icmorandum It — The maritime commerce of nations having spread over
ttie world to an unprecedented extent, and competition having arrived at such
a point that the value of cargoes and the profits of enterprise depend more
nin ever on the length ami nature of voyages, it has become a question
BfCate8f ,mPort&nco to determine the best tracks for ships to follow,
r L? makt! l!,G Clu,ckest 03 aa the safest passages. The employ
Ih« lvL rIinifrS 10 such n«rabew, the general endeavour to keep as near
ninJland Z of a great circle) as the Intern-

now so nrpraU61/1*! W,d * ,nds l*'11 alluw’ and the improvements in navigation,
able itifnnr mVC ‘■!U,secl a for more precise and readily avail-

2S5? ZITJ* Ti1UVU frequented parts of1 the Ocean. Not only is
arrancement ° 1 , retlu,red» but much more concentration and

SK:':7 valuable, though now scattered, information. Besides
the greater nor/; / ,avo vjf»!dcd to° many results, and have prevented

fromSbeTng SZ . observations hitherto made at sea

points ofSa Ivl mnnt approximations. ‘ It is one of the chief

Where to find i C wiml” i/Ui' T'!1*00*11 BasiI Hell, 1 to know
but, with the moans nt )v 10re to fall in with a favourable current:’

can only be acouired hvl^111 ‘Accessible, the knowledge of such matters
in the greater thoro u t01 R1K actua* experience, excepting only

and ‘f? FT* u hich well known. Wind

great work of the United St lMJ>ls,u'(i ,ale years, chiefly based on the
superintended by Lieut. ^Iaiirv^l I’r' TT”1, at t,ie suggestion of, and
navigators have been enabled to S? stud..vi,,g such charts and directions,
cases as much M ontfimrth i. ^ materially; in many

viously employed. Much had 0n.?'dlird' the distance or time pre-

and cuiTents bv Rennell Cannw a,,<l written about the winds

others; imt general* attention tBe<Bield, Thom, Piddington, and

portant to a maritime count iv r.u ,v.„ . ,a1t,t!a,'t.e(* to the sulfiect, however im-

ADDRESS.

lxi

Parliament, and the first direct result of it was a vote of money for the
purchase of instruments and the discussion of observations. All the valuable
meteorological data which have been collected at the Admiralty, and all that
can be obtained elsewhere, will be tabulated and discussed in Ihi- new
department of the Board of Trade, in addition to the continually accruing
and more exact data to be furnished in future. A very large number of
ships, chiefly American, are now engaged in observations’; stimulated by the
advice, and aided by the documents so liberally furnished by the United
•States Government, at the instance of Lieut. Maury, whose labours have
been incessant. Not only does that Government offer directions uud charts
gratis to American ships, but also to those of our nation, in accordance with
certain easy and just conditions. In this country, the Government, through
the Board of Trade, will supply a certain number of ships which nr.' going
on distant, voyages with ‘abstract logs’ (or meteorological registers ) and
instruments gratis, iu order to assist effectively in carrying out this important
national undertaking. In the preface to a late edition of Johnston a ‘ Wind

and Current Charts,’ published last June. at. Edinburgh, I)r. BuUt *nys, _ ‘ It

has been shown that Lieut. Maury's charts and sailing direction* have
shortened the voyages of American ships by about a third . If the voyage*
of those to and from India were shortened by no more than a tenth, it w ould
secure a saving, in freightage alone, of .£‘250,000 annually. Estimating the
freights ol vessels trading from Europe with distant ports at £*20.000, 000 a
year, a saving of a tenth would be about £2,000,000; and every day that
is lost in bringing the arrangement* for the accomplishment ol Ud.i into
operation occasions a sacrifice to tho shipping interest of uhuut £0000,
without taking any account of tho war navies of tho world.’ It is obvious
that, by making a passage in less time, there is not only a saving ..f c-Mk,isc
to the merchant, the shipowner, and the insurer, but a gnat diminution of
the risk from fatal maladies,— as instead of losing time, if not lives, in
unhealthy localities, heavy rains, or calms with oppressive heat, a ship pro¬
perly uavigated may be speeding on her way under favourable circumstances,
there is no reason of any insuperable naturo why every part of tin- sea
should not be known us well as die land, if not indeed better than the land
generally speaking, because mure accessible and less varied in character.
Changes in the atmosphere, over the ocean as well as on the land, are so
intimately connected with electrical agency (of course including magnetism),
Zlz feamen ar,c '"teretied in such matters, and the facts which they
H5 , T" n vaiuar V° Phu?sf,phers. Meteorological information col-
view— nf l.^,.1JuarLi .of Ira'!e "ill be discussed with the twofold object in
certain “^gators, or making navigation easier, as well ns more

t!nTfnr,i drT 5 acaIlectl0n of accurate and well-digested observa¬
tions for the future use of men of science.

had m V HlJ0“ M wtimate for meteorological expenses

Board of Trad?* 5**? to organize a new branch department at the
«Tcute hldlL l8t °L Au«ust* Capt* "I. »I*|>oin.ed to

Slant Of 4,1,8 referrin! to Dr. Lyon Blayfuir. of (he

Department Art* atuJ t0 Admiral Beechey, of ’tho Marine

and in trm if it «, ° * asM:stancc aa they could render. As soon as register*
S12M Z\™dy' and a,‘ 0®ce prepared, Capt. FiUfioy will bo
exnected that «pVAM| VC| .porso.,,sl' "hose duties he will superintend. It is
SSt! ^ supplied with ‘ abstract log.1 (mrteoro-
XlMa,,d !D6lJ'un*f1D,ii i" October, and that the office will 1M in
the Hvflrnor K °V|e*r- Admiralty have ordered all the records in
j 0 aphical Office to be placed at the disposal of the Board of Trade

lxii

REPORT - 1854.

for a sufficient time. AH other documents to which Government has acres
will be similarly available; and the archives of the India House may likewise
be searched. There will be no want of materials, though not such as would
have been obtained by using better instruments on a systematic plan. Capt.
FitzRoy ventures to think that the documents hitherto published by Lieut
Maury present too much detail to the .sr Oman's eye; that they have nut
been adequately condensed; and therefore nro not, practically, so useful as
is generally supposed. Ilis Instructions or Sailing Directions (the real con¬
densed results o! liis elaborate and indefatigable researches) have effected
the actual benefits obtained by mariners, lb fleeting on this evil, which in¬
creasing information would not tend to diminish, Capt. FitzRoy proposes to
collect all data, reduced ami moaned (or averaged) in a number of conve¬
niently arranged tabular books, from which, ntn subsequent period, diagrams,
charts, and ‘ meteorological dictionaries/ or records, will be compiled, so that,
y timing to the latitude and longitude, all information about that locality
may be obtained at once, and distinctly.”

* cannot doubt that the spirited merchants and shipowners of England will
j e 10 *ol,°™ the example of their brethren in the United States, and
I? ;£T , , T l,eart,esJ aiwistence to a work so useful. Great facilities will
inereE, , 'T .tho. instrument* of tested accuracy; and the

insS £L nf'iS1’" lr 6ctcn*}h° PGU,ne,J which is resulting from the local

fSrSSS«^^“iia/,0n** lamination of masters and mates

ror certificates, will furnish t u m ,,-oh . . . .

the ascertained tpmn D^°,netf ,in forewarning of the coming storm, ami that
her mas e^w fe berP!?r wbich 8,"P *■ traveling, will inform

to hiuftlm miproach of LTT* ‘U CU,Tent <" «"d announce

any other raSlis ^ dangcrous iceberg when it is not discoverable by

other departments 'of Pena*s8‘on> proceed to the consideration of some

tistics, wEraTe umre nonui Ethnography and Sfr

they are by the char-ictor of* e< '|f,t 1 OWn pursuits, which, affected as

dents of his physical and "T"’ V*e UI,certainties of his will, and the acci-
. . . pnjsicai and moral natiirp. and h . .. . .. , . r

reM<>ns, indeed, am one 0th«-rS i“ , , 'Sat<’ ascertain, ror

no part of th0 scheme of Rr;S T e tranche* of study formed at first
about their subsequent admission * ^SSoc,atlon» a*id there was some doubt

they must iutroduee*the spirit nf'ml#16*8? a^ra,tted. The apprehension that
honouraUy disappointed ; and .wup proceedings *‘as been most

• L fff'slature, have- to net from time * *-°’ 1,1 * ,e opacity of a member of
i uir'i? \ Cunnot »ufc °r ,l,c su bject of some of their

ininnr|l furilL<1’ L)y infariuiniranri ^ °de- ,ur the assistance which they
important questions • La " .,ng..an‘I S®!! the Dublin mini! on niflnV

Finanne “.H* 5™P'-’ into “*»«•

the domain nf 0 ,t,ca* Economy, for in«» fIUe®tionsot this nature, such as
Party contention ? And |m,,nCe’ ln somo degree at least, from

can we better contribute to that

ADDRESS.

lxiii

desirable result, than by discussing the carefully collected facts hi a scientific
spirit, on an arena within which no party passion is excited, no party alle¬
giance is acknowledged, no party victory has to he lost or won, and when
men are at liberty to convince and he convinced without risking a charge of
treachery or a change of ministry as the consequence ? But, in (act, these
Studies could not fairly have been excluded from our peripatetic university
u( science. Who shall separate Political altogether from the influences of Phy¬
sical Geography, or Ethnology from Physiology, or the destinies of man upon
tins globe from the study of his physical nature ? By its employment . .f the
doctrine of probabilities, one branch of statistics is brought into immediate
contact with the higher mathematics, and the actuary is thus enabh d to
extract certainty iu the gross out of uncertainty in the detail, and to provide
man with the means of securing himself against some of the wont contin¬
gencies to which Jits life and property are exposed. In fact, statistics them-
selves are the introduction of the principle of induction into the Investigation
ut the affairs of human life ; — an operation which requires the c.xmrbc «>f
at least the same philosophical qualities as other sciences. It is not eunuch
m anv case merely to collect facts and reduce them into a tubular form.
Jhey must be analysed as well as compared; the accompanying circum¬
stances must be studied (winch is more difficult in moral than in material
investigations), that we may he sure that we are calling the same things

iymi t;San,e (Dame9; *’ 'i n-ali,.v f mating of the same facts under the
amt circumstances; and all disturbing influences must be carefully eli¬
minated before any such pure experiment can be got at as can fairly be eon-

SwieMhsn h.V< It?*** ^iCd a Sati,sfaCt0ry cw,c,u«on. In some cases .bis is
SL? fi therS; . 1,1 pe8*rd \° the probabilities of life or health, for
tance, there are, at least, no passions or prejudices, no private iriten-st* at
work to in ter fcr« with the faithful accumulation of the facts, and if tin v be
umerous enough, it might be supposed that their number would he a
caTtinn t0f10n a-g?U1St effect of any partial disturbances. But even here

are dirtuJwntPiA ** WeU **, pxte,,rivtt» knowledge arc required. Them
aic disturbing influences even here, -habits of life, nature of cuiployment
lminigration or emigration, ignorance or misstatement of age, local . ,..«L.ic<’

an SSlifS d; f,re more a,,d 111 ore carefully watched against

fifS? f7JhZ "'0K wd "‘°re °f <*«"•; h gra«;

tofi of A fyf mt 0mlt 10 .”■>«<» the valuable service, of
in our Statistical Section °T|U,,^rrg° €s^d*shed, and who are represented

of ST“ a 1 su“tiow

ranee in all its branches ami’uitii1 !? °,r-C ® JS constantly extvntlnig u -su-

Jation, mortality, and sickness- th^nSh^S interrs,s’ t,.'c la** P«P«-
the greatest importance in o.i-’ y transactions, and what i> of

they hold any branch of inductive science,

are doing for the contingei^^h® *‘thI.£re,8,| P0Untri.es'. ,n facf’ ^‘7
as uncertain, something like whnt aPd.f(!r material* apparently

waves. ° meteorology is doing for the winds and

charity, at once an dtr^ei\proeaU vThcfe«-' °f ®ducation’ of P«u|*ri*n». of
attention to the conditio!! of the neonh^ ' Ct “'l1'. thc fase o{. increasing
•the present ace'-1 Who cun tv , w *|cli so favourably distinguishes

rc-ntl, bc,J Tg’uJ ", °hf ^ SuHm 0f >»"»ra-

Wlhing oflhSirZS ^I,™ '? 1?"'" !,nd "<* l» l

of day some of the ni,* ,0 " 0 athe ,noral drag, and to bring to the light
1 some of the phenomena, U,e monstrous forms of misery and vice

lxiv

REPORT - 1854.

which it holds within its dark recesses ? — and who can look at these things,
no longer matter of conjecture, but ascertained, classed, and tabled, without
haying the desire awakened or strengthened to do something towards reme-
dying the evils thus revealed, and without feeling himself guided and assisted
towards a remedy? Yet here, more than in other eases, should a man suspect
himsel. ; here should he guard himself against hasty conclusions, drawn fnmi
the first, appearance ul the results ; for here are disturbing influences most
busily at work, not only from without, but from within,— not only in the
nature of the facts themselves, but in the feelings, passions, prejudices, habits,
and moral constitution of the observer.

Still the tabling of the facts is of infinite importance. If they disturb, m
ey are sure to do, some feeling, some prejudice, some theory, some convic-
? JG f,hat a,,y l,mv ,bo &ct9 have to be accounted for; further
tnoh SnT W.l. i v 1OVj’ ond aPP‘5ar that no correction is required, the
arid disnnnr,6 l,stakhshed, a“d l*,e hostile theory will, sooner or later, give way
that the tVmtTf f" * \KBe ^course, more than usually important

mature and id . i«8elect(,d for coUecli.nn should be well as are, in their own
that the 1 tr l<? circumstances, likely to be ascertained correctly, and
bias to do TOS .Ca,1?Cti0'! al,,ml11 bL' hands of those who have no

believe ££ tI.,an .laipI* 110 inter(}st *‘.e result: and this was, 1
great statistical w!,T >i V,ew t*",se wbo had the management of our
still studying • but whetlVr^?111 Ul"US °“r,own country, which we are
already become matter of dtoZZ"""* ^ ^ tlliS ^

ever been presen ted19iriU *,d"u. ^ tt!(l ’ 0,,e op fcbe greatest monuments that has
and couditon • coiiini!™! 1°°' as U reco,d oP its °" JI constituent element
inent, acuteness and >. J®on,,nepted °» "ith singular industry, judge-

Nor can 1, while tL 'iI ■ the.( onflueror waa of its surface.

Congress which too^place ft BrUU?11?* aVoi?. ,eftjrring ,0 the Statistical
mainly for its obieet C at, BruMe)f a^°ut tins time last year; which hail
selection of the farts uct ' u nitoraaity- among different nations in the

ing them; without \» ' ; K‘> 9, 0ldd record, und in the manner of record-

n be esta-
iniforniitj’

“■w- «■ ,«•*

remove them. ' es’ tl,at no hammer of the statist is likely to

removed, is j„ itself' of difference, even if they are not
alse conclusions, if jt d(J.g P towurds the object. It at least' prevents
rue ones. It gets rid of sources if pP0V,de tl10. ra«?ans of establishing the
tistin * °u?scertaiiiiug truth T- k* frr°P’ t Vt n 'l Adi of giving the hill

case of criminal sta-

not know' 1,t ,imes or in ditterenf *rat,''e. PrevaI«iCe of different crimes,
TtZ 'mder wha‘ bcads thi iurilC°U;,tnes- ^or this purpose must *e
amounts ™.PaPed array the various ofTen*^ 8t?*,sts °* die times or countries
uZ the “ P™*lty the, w C™ " „ fe,"'C’ "rerecorded; with what

“d *» "l«t rigour, ft-<

, 1 wnich is called , , *

in one counts -I -tho.'' ,s visited bv i,„, 'l“ch m ™««o.

rom time to

assassination iu

in one country is visited by imprison™01' 1,1 ~,e Countl7 is punished

y “ «“>■«, in anotJr “{SSET1, T1S bankraPtey

a ci vil offence. The j u venile offences

ADDRESS.

lxv

which in one country are punished by imprisonment, and swell the criminal
calendar, in another are treated, as they should in many cases be, only as a
subject of compassion and correction, — take no place in the criminal calendar
at all.

Indeed, it is one of the difficulties which beset a large proportion of these
investigations, whether into morals, health, education, or legislation, and
winch must always distinguish them from those which deal either with
matter or defined abstractions, that, as I have said before in using the same
terms, we are otten uncertain whether wo mean the same thing; whether, in
act, when we are using the same denominations, the same weights and
measures are really employed. Such conferences, however, as those of
Brussels tend much to limit the extent of error.

Among the objects which may best occupy the attention of the Statistical
section at the present moment, will be the discussion of a decimal coinage,
amt the statistics of agricultural produce. It is important in regard to both,
mat by previous sifting and discussion not only the best conclusions should
e arrived at, but the subject should be so familiarized to general apprehen¬
sion as to secure the widest co-operation. In regard to a change in the
inage, the interests . and feelings of the lower classes must be especially
'Z ed ; am1, \VJtl1 t,h'3 vie,v> without expressing any ultimate opinion, I
uld recommend to those who are considering the question, the pcru-al of
a pamphlet, fuli of important matter, by the late Mr. Laurie, the work of the
mst liours ol a man ol eminent knowledge and virl

I ; . ~ 8n'do th,i opemuous oi ini! consumer niul tin;

SS "f ,1 *°“W «w* ' “ fl»jr should bo taken and published at
each kin?! y^ar’ ODrC 10 th?1Vring» wording the extent of soil devoted »o
haw,. si i grf'n.‘ a ,act easily ascertained ; the second time as soon as the

sevml LcS' iedi*ran!f)Un?.iSK U,e nmount of t,ie C,'°P> ascertained on
an.mJ ? 61 under difterent circumstances of soil and climate, ami

C ndue proportion as a multiple to the acreage already published.

0*?'™** 1 believe, Tmpractiib/c, at leant

the approximation wWI " n“ ‘ * 01,6 maJce “ vaIatlb,e f’or P»«setlt use ; and
the pu^Jose< wh,c 1 * have suggested would, I conceive, be adequate to

" WhTve SiS'SESif ?? EtUn°S™Pl'y> thew few Sections. I believe,
attractive h ere— wh J * lnterest> none, I imagine, which would be more
Interests of the. pUee nt2Wd TVCry is co,nnected witb lhl‘ immediate

finished work - ami wbm r. MH'K!e 0 raw niaterial, or a new destination for
Js another channel tv>r ii.„ „ei/ oow communication, established and reported,
‘he channels of he^ \I~ ^ ut t,uit “““««*» which, bursting from

* the and percolates every creek and cranny

^niericS^SienL^by1 the Pali °PfninS UP the heart of the South
Jf® traversing and unftimr rh! . Say? 1 h* Amazons, and the Orinoco; that
lf‘e rirer Murray • the loP,“ of Victoria and South Australia by

S°rry to sav, is as vet nil J‘ ^cted CxP,oratlon of North Australia, which, I am
**rmth of dm Association in Pr?jetJ,t’ ,and «iav require some of the fostering
c°veries in South Africa 1 t, » U ,nto ac‘ua* existence ; the wonderful <Us-
^ Central* Africa byCth^TSf? T' **««+-«* ‘he explorations
ftl,d others of the iv ^ ’ ‘ho pictures given us by Capt. Erekitie

% Ze 0f ^Zv10 f°fth^i?landere the South Pacific, passing by
1854. tia,)Sltl°U fr0m the lowest barbarism to a fitness for the

lxvi

REPORT — 1854.

highest European and Christian culture ; those, and a hundred other topics,
awaken an ever-new interest in the mind of the philosopher and statesman,
in the feelings of the Christian and the lover of his kind. What new fields
for science! What new opportunities for wealth and power! What new
openings for good I How important that those who issue from this great
of modern commerce — this more than Tyre of modem times—
should know how to turn them to advantage ! Surely your periodical visits
eie, wit their kindling, stimulating — 1 was going to say contagious — inftu-
ences, are no mean instrument for such a purpose.

be ^or nothing that the heroes of even' branch of science are
_nn. e , l0m many countries within these walls, and are brought intoper-
sonai contact; with the most enterprising and public-spirited of our merchants;
arianfari fan£ua6e. mY distinguished predecessor in this chair, slightly
Jabomtn^ counting-house is thus brought into juxtaposition with the
science fn,| * . 0 ®tudy. Commerce will more than ever be auxiliary to
imn.il! ,m°re tlmU cver t,,c‘ ^Pmate of commerce; and a still

of some minfn W*i be.*,’,V0D to those beneficial influences, which, in spite
state of wnr n11 ’ J°u” 1 .IJeC€98*,'y interruption, occasioned by our present
able globe. * ^°° ^*rov,dence 18 so visibly extending over the whole habit-

thi'y rtmry yearJ'^ *»d *«» necewary to pr«S tl«

steam-boats _ ofnilr^ii a,n a£e ofKas »nd steam— of steam-engines and

of science is no lontre/imef ftC Je8raPy®> a,,<1 photographs— the importance
are far from the foumfS^1 ? °nC?*. H 18 <l truism-^ commonplace. We
example of the monarch th*?/8 ° fhc Boyal Society* when, in spite of the
and even the immort-il it, *i , . Pr0(jee^i,nga were the ridicule of the Court;
a Harvey, a Hooke or n * ^0Uf.,t: t.,e ^a*JOUrs of a Wallis, a Sydenham,

. it is still however wnrt^ ^ H 'W9** ft,r wit *

in science exist or ale bl^u'riafi whether sufficient facilities for education
or other important bodies nwwfiU J/.lr ' “r C40untr>' i a»d whether Government
prosecution. P - sufficient encouragement and reward for its

sriod/tbe a^tenees' P° do,lbfc that, until a very late

ri..-7,nawIedge of science whl.i opportunity of acquiring any, the
teated, iu-ie8pected tea b *t . *Jj*r Poetical or abstract, save from the un-

Univ° - itinurant Jecture? Bchools>or from the casual

- % own univ^S! OvT U,g apj)aratus* what did the

the study of Mar1!081 ob,iSa,i‘»'«. did liUle^W nhW I aeknow,ed^iD 0t£![

rccrivp.i l V^ut ,e*IIatics, as an fvP,„;c„ , physical science. True, that

‘l,urt'’ tbouS|‘ ZTeZt of1re, of !!,C “*"*"f*

the honours nf ti Iu,hu,t- True, that until „ th<" place has ,,ever )'et bl‘e.D
to the Bam « e • 1,0 d,#ter University wem * *°,nPa«ibvdy a recent period.

names no ?n?t?llcte; a"d that the School of xiC,Usive5> ’ or »^ly so, confined
were still too Iv^-0* 8tlcJj a founder j?^wton bas **!dom been without
and not a. exclusively regarded a* *’« But evon there the Mathematics
instrument for the discover^*** ira’,,'ng of the understanding.

y of further truth ; and the fair tree

ADDRESS. Ixyii

of science, planted within the academic courts, though healthy and vigorous,
was somewhat barren of fresh fruit. Such as it had been in the tune of
Newton, such, in a great degree, for a century and a half, at least, it remained.
But to other than mathematical science, I believe I may say at either Uni¬
versity. encouragement there was little or none. If now and then a pro¬
fessor was to be found whose title promised something of the kind, on ap¬
proaching bun you would fiud that his existence was little more thuu nominal;
that his courees were not frequented, even if they were offered,— or if ut all,
only by those who were considered rather as the idle men ; because success
in them was not only no advantage in the University career, but, by the time
which they abstracted from the rewarded studies, was a positive lose and ob¬
struction in the way of the honours and emoluments of the place. So that
n might fairly be said, that ifany advance was made in such sciences, at least in
the Universities of England, it was rather in spite of, than by reason of, the
system pursued in those otherwise useful, noble and magnificent institutions.
In Scotland, indeed, the extended study of medicine, connected as it is with
so maDy other branches of science, together with the less amount of iirti-
hcial forcing into other studies, led naturally to the pursuit of physical
science, aud a Black and a Gregory, a Leslie and a Playfair had no rival
contemporary names at Oxford and Cambridge. The names of a Wlu well
and a Herechel, an Airy, a Challis, aud a Sedgwick, of a Powell and a Dau-
neny, and a Buck land,— alas, that he is only a uame now!— would forbid the
assertion in regurd to more recent times. But what, meanwhile, was the
State doing ? That State which, with its limited population ami territory,
depends not upon the number of its people, but upon the individual valun
ofeacli man,— not upon the number of its acres, but upon their skilful culti¬
vation,— not even upon the resources of its surface, however well developed,
but upon the mines which lurk beneath it,— not even upon its mines, but upon
alt the various aud varying manufactures which these mines give extraor-
uiary facilities lor carrying on \ not even un these manufactures, but on the
extended commerce and navigation, which are necessary to provide the
materials to draw them forth from the remotest corners of the earth, aud to
scud them back with speed, safety, and (economy, in another form and com-
222"’ 1° the vt-ry spots from which they were derived;— in a word,

dependent for the lull development of its agriculture, its mining industry, its

n,l ul1! Urer rnd com®®f7c* UP°" *hc widest extension and the fullest
£ ™ of Chemistry, o! Natural History, of Mineralogy, of Geology, of

thS ^ and Med,anics- What did the State for these

eS.'wi,i ly- a js° "oth“* Thcro was for a time a Board of Lon-
of b’ of enlarging „nd imploving it,-it abolished; a Board

S.eS^n7,Wh,Ch ,t,dr°P|led; a School of Naval Architecture, which, at
it abiilS ? narrow tecouri my, and at the instance of so-called practical men,
Portsmmitl. tr f,Je/rV,,s wefe P1P«™g 5 a School of Naval Instruction at
the bounty . !*?n. a“? lhefe 8l.iU sur.v?ves » g«nt from

at Edinh.. JhT V ^''"7’ c,r 150;- to one at Glasgow, or 304 to one

' T 1° ‘‘y.Brant* of 100/. a year each to four or five
MU Sr 1.7 X ‘I . C °ld of England. Thi» is, a. far a., I

C 4flc ningiuliccnt Statu nf Britain did, until recently, for

f lr Z ' h l,er if '«* weal tb, bar poarr.^ml

we LPE h'.T'P. e«l»tol«r-U dependent. True, one advantage
world winr'HV' ' V! 'K I u worlli all the organized instruction in tiro

despotism could oifer, — “ although no science, fairly worth the

c 2

lxviii

REPORT - 1854.

seven,” — that of security for life and property ; of the free exercise of thought
and action ; of a religion, which does not chain the energies of mind and cha¬
racter, but stimulates and exercises, while it regulates and directs them;
aud, though last, not least, that of a country to be proud of, and to be fond
of, and which every one desires to bequeathe to his posterity better, more
beautiful, and stronger than he found it. And it is by reason of this indirect
influence on national character, that in spite of the more than want of en¬
couragement of science of which our Government has been guilty, England
Las yet to boast of an array of men of science, of workers and discoverers,
if not always of teachers, such as she need not be ashamed to show by the
side of any other country, whatever stimulants or encouragements its Govern-
ment may have supplied.

J3ut, because so much has been done by the spontaneous vigour of the
people’s character and of their political and religious institutions, without
special assistance or encouragement, does it follow that still more would not
be done with those aids? Such, happily, in not the opinion of the present
day,— not the opinion of the Legislature, — not that of our Universities them-
se vs. We do not believe that such difficulties ore an advantage even to thfl
vigour of the plant, still less to its extended propagation; and, accordingly,
individuals, colleges, and, I hope, Governments, are now heartily and honestly
engaged in repairing the deficiencies of centuries, and not only in promoting the
general development of intellect, but especially in directing’ it to the iiclds of
rnnr™' i |l,e facilities for the purpose, already at hand, arc

demand1!8' 1 ?• Chancellor of the Exchequer need not apprehend excessive
TuZt iP°“ 1,8 trea*V';y to n‘«* the case ; though, if they were necessary,
nut *5!. “nwbIe a mant0 withhold them: but such demands are

State tn tha fA ‘.e enc°uragements and assistances already given by the
trained and pvn^ "'l1 t}'e P60!’*1^ *n various shapes; the superior class of

“ nfn 'Zi n n " ,‘“IehCT*' " spreading 'o«r the lnn.l, and rtote

S S id ' r" de«r“.b“n in Phj»i«al science ; the hooka provMcl

same charnetpr ,1 * °Ur S?C,et,es and by individual enterprise having the
between Srie,Ibn ,C Tn.an* morG acknowledged connexion

pages of the Journal ofihp,R1Ce?AW*ngi ltse,f in 8Uel' papers as enrich the
the Department nf f th 0 ftoya Agricultural Society; the establishment of
Trade ;PtheTmiro ycmlTV'f' ’* ?cbonI Maunder the Board of
Charity Commissioner.. ». *1'!°' '* <0 bc fxpoeted, under the action of the
tancous action of 0u»- \ 1 1 t*" fJS 0.lu of our old grammar schools ; thespon-
stimulated “ot s»P^edcd. but facilitated and
which are taking nIace iS3l and such like changes,

by the action of Government * ,e. boso,n of society itself, and partly

education, although noUvISlp if ?r?y Provide such means of scientific
ization, ns wi„, tL • 17 XTS I"'“rl,e, “««»«•' Continual orgao;
°?r wm* in tli at respect and livf g h fash,on> adequately provide for all

Buttm'tf8 in SScriiSJt B0 CHUSe l° ,araent over any consider-

there rewardsTrf prospec^whlthl0^ f°, • niake Usc of these facilities? Are
ion, which will induce men “tow*. tbl*oct emolument or social considera-
be n,8:riCe jhicb baa hitherto in U ar"1 bvc laborious days,

delicti* ? Now, the real' stimni '?r^ds eJ® at least, appeared often to

d ®,ht? °! t ,e Pur*uit itself, and the f-° 8cienoe baa at all times been the
deiul to humanity by PVerv 1 pOUsciousneas of the great services ren-

™waexriw;r m“y

W,U presently advert • t|10v i?"er* 1° the questions of pecuniary
y lave certainly been miserably inade*

ADDRESS.

lxix

quate; but in regard to social consideration, I think there has existed some
misunderstanding. It has been often asserted, and made the subject of
lamentation or complaint, that men of science do not enjoy in this free country
the consideration which they do in some countries less favoured otherwise in
their institutions than ourselves. Mow, if by this it is intended to express
that men of science are not made Knights of the Garter, or Peers of Parlia¬
ment, — that they are not often met with in the haunts of wealth and fashion,
— that they are not called into the councils of their Sovereign, or sent to
represent her in foreign Courts, I admit the fact; but then I doubt whether
these are the natural or fitting objects of ambition to the scientific man : and
if it is intended by the assertion that they are not, as a class of individuals,
appreciated by their fellow-citizens for their genius and honoured for their
services, I cannot so fully admit the fact,. I would ask any of those whose
presence adorns this Meeting, do they not find that their names are a pass¬
port into any society, the proudest of the land ? Whose doors, that are worth
entering, are not open to them ? There arc certain advantages, superficially con¬
sidered, which will always belong to mere wealth or power; but are they such
as the lover of science can bring himself to envy or desire? Wherever he
is known he is honoured— witness in themselves the Meetings or this gn at
Association, and of other kindred bodies, who visit, from time to time, dif¬
ferent quarters of our land: whereis their presencenot hailed, not struggled for?
Where is it not the endeavour of rank and wealth on every such occusiua to do
honour to itself by showing honour generally and personally to those who. by
their successful pursuit of science, have done honour to our own or foreign
lands? If, indeed, there be anything yet wanting in this respect, either in our
people or our Government, the progress of education in science, to which I have
Ivefore alluded, will soon supply it. When the various classes of our population,
hi their schools, their mechanics' institutes, and, not least, in their college s,
are themselves less ignorant of science; when they have learnt to appreciate
its value by personal acquaintance with its truths; there is no fear that those
at whose feet they have sat — whoso names arc familiar to them in association
with so valuable an acquisition— will not receive all due honour and regard.
Whether, or to wlmt extent, the result will be a greater association of science
v ith political position, and how far such association would he advantageous
to either politics or science, is another question. The experience of foreign
countries on this head can hardly be held to he quite satisfactory. I m» not
sure that their men of science have been very successful politicians, or that
sconce itself has profited by the union. Public life, not less than science, a
jealous mistress, and does not well tolerate a known devotion to any other
pursuit. It has besides u science of its own, essential to it, especially in a
rte country,— the knowledge of men ; and this is not always the special gift
,n®D °f science, who deal less with men than with things and thoughts ;
ana lam not sure that the qualities, which fit a man for success in the one
pursuit, are peculiarly advantageous to him in the other. This, however, in
certain, that those who administer the affairs of this country ought at least
° 110 , ,n.k 83 yet do) to know enough of science to appreciate its
ue, and to be acquainted with its wants and with its bearings on the in-
0 soc,(!ty ; but such knowledge, I cannot doubt, will soon become tlio
common appanage of all well-educated men; and when it is so, as I said

ketiu’ " *!*ver» ®,l^er ‘n the position of science itself, or of men of science,
« still wanting, will soon be supplied.

rnfJLaeCe!5r8*e* however, this process, 1 would gladly see a more direct
o ,, .lca^on established between the organs of power and scientific bodies,
oometmng m this respect has already been done by the Parliamentary

Ixx

REPORT - 1854.

Committee of this Association, and the results have been already seen in the
increased attention of Parliament and Government to scientific objects. Still,
however, in regard to science, I must admit that there is one great deficiency;
for often may it be said of science, as was said satirically of virtue by the
poet, laudatur cl a (get, — it is praised and starves. Tin: man of science may
not desire to live luxuriously ; he may not (nor ought he) desire to rival his
neighbours in the follies of equipage and ostentation, which are often,
indeed, rather a burden imposed by the customs of society than an udvantagf
or even a gratification to the parlies themselves; but he must live; and for
the sake ol science itself heoughttobe able to live free from those anxious ears
for the present and the future or from the calls of a profession, which often
beset and burden his laborious career. Why was our Dalton compelled to
waste the powers of such an intellect on private teaching? As a teacher, a
physician, or a clergyman, or more rarely as a partner iu a profitable patent,
such a man may earn a competence, and give to science the hours which can
be spared from his other avocations; and it is indeed astonishing what
results have been the produce of these leavings of a laborious life, — there
leisure hours, if mo they may be called, of men who are engaged iu arduous
duties of another kind. IJut this ought not to be ; and it will not long l>e, I
am confident. It must give way before the extended cultivation of science
i se . he means of occupation in connexion with uur schools and our cot*
Jeges, and our examinations, will increase; and I cannot but hope that a
m* ?.u 00uut,y insist upon her benefactors in science receiving a more
!eet rLh* bo.unty tlian,l‘M hitherto been allotted them, if I recol*

the Ki,ppp ’ r'l1 °O ie } 200/’ w,'ich are annually appropriated in pensions to
bluCFKS of science, literature, and art, a poor pension of#

Portioutl nZfi feU t° ** ]ot t,f «*»»«» : and in former yeirs the dispro*
Literature and* A roma,?W>le. I do not grudge their share to

Science are at * **** 1 c<?n*®fg * cailOot but consider that the labours of
least aneoual elni|St ° eilua va*lle ,(> a nation’s welfare; that they have at
less need of eno ™ uPon ,er 8rat>tude, and I am sure that they stand in no
Nor f *ncou™Senient and support. *

elusive that lbe atud.v °r Science should over become too «-

smother those more ethiS^moreeb tl,ak U *hould 0VerS‘‘0W J'"1

gl'?nth rfi«e Tnuh 0f ™ ^IndArt Cd’ Whi°h UT(>

exercise of thoucht °* ®c‘enc? upon the patient and laborious

ever become the favourite l°°,8ever®* to ^ake it likely that it should

mind of the student is often U<^ *• le many* In Art and Literature the

enjoyment of the banonet '“®Parat,7«*y passive, in a state of almost passive
Science the student must him by others; in the pursuits of

throw up bis oars * r hard for his intellectual fare. He cannot

which his progress is to be made ’ HDd ta^e his lull share in the labour by
„ No1'. when I rem?

our "f)Stei’ a IIll8h Miller, ora°£tedjS L " hewell, and a Herschel, and a
denri aySli can * see reason rij, ,C^ a,,‘, n hundred others, the glory of
racter ,nind oP imagination fJ aI>Prf handing that the study of Science
' Ami ltS 7U>ra| an‘I religious ton f oP £race and beauty, or the cha*
moment th« £dieaand genUemen Th' v °ievati™ refinement.

character of a represen tati vedonp* Once more assuming for a
representative of this great town, I welcome you,

ADDRESS.

lxxi

the British Association, a second time to Liverpool. It is right that you
and Liverpool should have frequent meetings, and should cultivate an inti¬
mate acquaintance. There is no place which can do more for science if she
pleases; none has opportunities so extensive of becoming, by her ships and
commercial agencies, by her enterprising spirit and her connexion with every
soil and climate, the missionary of science, — perhaps in this place I should
rather say the importer of the raw material of facts and observations, — the ex¬
porter of the manufactured results arising from their scientific discussion.
There is no town which owes more to science. Without science can her vessels
stir without danger out of sight of land, or walk the waters independent of
wind or tide? Without science would they have docks to shelter them, rail¬
roads to bring their produce to their docks, telegraphs to announce their
movements, manufactures to freight them to distant lands ? I do not believe
that Liverpool is insensible to her obligations. This magnificent reception
is one evidence of the feeling, — but a stilt better is to be found in her liberal
support to such institutions as the Public Libraries and Museums, as her
Collegiate Institution and her Mechanics' Institute, and above all her mag¬
nificent Observatory.

Again 1 welcome the British Association for the Advancement of Science
to the walls of Liverpool, fully assured as I am of the great benefits, direct
andjndirect, which their presence will confer upon the town, and of the deep
sense which the inhabitants entertain of the honour conferred upon them by
this repeated visit.

Catalogue of recorded Earthquakes from 1606 b.c. to a.d. 1850.

[Continued from Report for 1853, p. 212.]

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA,

3

4

REPORT - 1854

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

5

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REPORT - 1854.

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA,

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REPORT - 1854.

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ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

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ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 27

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ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 37

38

REPORT — 1854

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

39

CO

very violent.

June 14. Leghorn . A slight shock, follow- . Moniteur, 21 Messidor, An.

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42

REPORT — 1854

ON THE FACTS OP EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 43

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

45

40

REPORT — 1854.

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

47

49

REPORT — 1854

E

II ; H

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 5i

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA,

53

54

REPORT — 1854,

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA,

55

der and lightning raged over nearly all Ger¬

many, the whole of the Netherlands, and even
as far as Moscow, accompanied by snow, and

did much damage to buildings in various

places.

56

REPORT — 1854.

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|l

w —

ON THE FACTS OK EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

57

58

REPORT — 1854,

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA,

59

GO

REPORT — 1854

ON TIIE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

61

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

63

ON TIIE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

65

F

70

REPORT — 1854,

ON THE PACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

n

74

REPORT— 1854,

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

75

Fenestrelle. The first Three shocks . At Fenestrelle some arches were injured. At Ditto.

shock was felt also at Pignerol the inhabitants encamped in tents.

PigneroL

Bargn . Moderate . . . . . Ditto.

7*

II 12 DO II V - 1 hiri4

OX TIIE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

11

78

REPORT — 1854.

ON THE FACTS OP EARTHQUAKE PII AS NOMEN A.

79

G

REPORT — 1854,

—

82

I S
a
co CJ
C _rj

r

CJ 5*

s ^

0.0

— 3.

= a

REPORT — 1854,

M

$

1 I
£ ~

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S s

« «

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5 5

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in

5 a « e 5

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: s o « — ** c* Ms

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;

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

85

86

REPORT — 1854,

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felt in Malta, in Africa (thatl

88

REPORT — 1854.

ON TIIE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PH AS NOMEN A

89

u half.

ON TIIE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PII JEN OMEN A.

91

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

93

94

REPORT — 1854

—

■«*

:

ON THE PACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA,

95

90

RRpnniwl

H

98

REPORT — 1854.

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA,

99

e*i

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100

REPORT - 1854

u

£

* %

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3 and 9

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lift

a-es

In

.\.UulcnAmr«um\ In Styr\ft,\H\Uo

—

ON TIIE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 101

1

102 REPORT — 1854.

103

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

'55

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al

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104

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ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

10 5

106

REPORT - 1854,

QQ

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*113

- — — ^ —

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 107

REPORT - 1S54,

i

110

REPORT - 1854,

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA,

111

112

REPORT - 1854,

*"* p 3
A £c/3

. O .

5 1-s.

1 ~ js

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§3 © SO .

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PI iii

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 113

I

=*

114 REPORT - 1854.

"

-

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

115

< 8 P-^-SS-Sa S 32 gj&j g.§!

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B »*B sl^ B*i=aJ 1 11

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fi.

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p o «

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116

HE PORT - 1854.

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

118

REPORT — 1854,

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA,

119

120

REPORT - 1854,

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

121

122

REPORT — 1854.

124 REPORT — 1854.

126

REPORT — 1854,

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 127

128

REPORT - 1854

f

Q

'O <u

g 55 -

1-giS

T3 • u O I O c CJ O

s-a«||i|«5-s

•a j" .•■£ u § «^ >•* gees

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£-S>“gEu-gJ
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2 3 2 W ®

I 1620. Mny 20.l\V„„l„rk.lien,l. Pnm

ON THE PACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

130

REPORT - 1854.

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

131

132

REPORT - 1854

134

REPORT — 1854,

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA,

135

138

REPORT — 1854.

T

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 139

140

UK PORT — 1854

ON TIIE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

SO J

KE

« -3 co

S S a

- --

•’g'W'3

5 p ££s

6 c a co

•S • T
. ® •- >

g • R a
gS^Re.

oO

-3 u.

SSj

= lo

142

REPORT — 1854,

Sc®5

•c s”85

Sc.2 q

_ 0 & H

nh g>-»

grtic®

.9 _ — sn

W-«i 3 .

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

4, and a quarter be¬
fore 6 a.m. The
earth trembled con¬

stantly between

W22. Nov.21. Chili, and at ...

144

REPORT — 1854,

.-■a

2°

Is

II

* 5 s

k u 2
. ** •“
'2

. §Q

£Sg

«e£
’3't 3

0 S

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1

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= i*a c
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b 05 £ e "5
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1? *2 *! 9-° £ *

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1 =

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ON THE FACTS OF EART&QtJAtfE PHENOMENA. 145

1=2

'

146

REPORT — 1854.

148

REPORT — 1854,

150

REPORT — 1854.

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

KM, ^Vvf,

)§:i •

■’■• ■ ’ 1 ' *i-. .'■> 1 ' ’>

ii:

■

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w £ 5

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d

152

REPORT — 1854,

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

153

o o

M a

« a

II

E-H

v o
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5 I

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111

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154

REPORT — 1854.

£

'a

Q

n

&

la

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r3

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CJ -I

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£*£ “
O « OJ

REPORT — 1854.

ON THE FACTS Ofr EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

157

M S

3

jo .a

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158

ItEPQRT— 1854.

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 159

160

REPORT — 1854.

if s mmm

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

161

=* Nil

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162

REPORT — 1854.

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA,

163

164

REPORT — 1854,

ON THE

FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 165

>,~3 o
■o -Q s
&* a-

166

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168

REPORT — 1854

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

169

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ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

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174 REPORT— 1854.

175

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

176

REPORT — 1854.

ON' THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

177

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ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

185

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186

REPORT — 1854,

ON THE PACTS OP EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

187

188

REPORT — 1854,

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ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA,

189

190

REPORT — 1854.

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA,

191

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192

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ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

193

first was vertical,

and lasted 2 secs.,
the second Lori-
zontal, from N. toS.I

294 report — 1854.

ON TIIE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA,

195

196

REPORT — 1854,

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ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 19?

198

REPORT — 1854,

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

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200 REPORT — 1854.

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PH/ENOMENA

201

A

202

REPORT — 1854,

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ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

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ON THE PACTS OP EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

207

208

REPORT — 1854.

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OX THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA,

211

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

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214

REPORT— 1854.

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

215

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

217

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Au earthquake, of 10 ..

seconds’ duration.

At Andrcjewskaja
the direction of the
shocks wasN. to S.,
and tliey recurred
for nine days. At
Tiflis also the di¬
rection was N. to
S., and the motion
lasted 20 secs. At
Fort Boumoi the

« ■ a .m — 0 • *3 J,

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218

REPORT — 1854,

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

219

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ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

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ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 233

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ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA,

235

236

REPORT — 1554,

238

REPORT — 1854,

I

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 239

ON THE FACT8 OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

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246

REPORT — 1854.

ON THE FACTS OP EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

247

248

REPORT — 1854

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ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA,

251

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

253

254

REPORT — 1854,

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

255

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ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

257

258

RErORT — 1854,

OX THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA,

259

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

261

262

REPORT — 1854,

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

263

DomcehilutT there

266

REPORT— 1854.

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA,

267

268

REPORT — 1854,

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

269

270

REPORT— 1854,

ON TIIE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

271

more force at the

same times as be¬

fore, but in the op¬
posite direction, or
from E. to W. In

REPORT— 1854,

2^2

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PH AS MOM ENA.

273

274

REPORT — 1854,

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

275

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA,

279

230

ueport—1854,

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

281

282

REPORT — 1854,

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA,

283

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

285

286

REPORT — 1854,

1

ON THE PACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

287

288

REPORT — 1854.

OX THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA,

289

290

REPORT — 1854

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

291

292

fcEPORT — 1854

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ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

293

294

REPORT — 1854,

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

295

296

REPORT — 1854

T

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

297

298

REPORT — 1854,

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA,

299

300

REPORT— 1854.

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA,

301

302

REPORT — 1854,

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

303

304

REPORT — 1854,

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

305

X

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ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 30 7

308

Report— 1854.

310

REPORT — 1854,

ON THE PACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

311

completely thrown down had to be pulled
down. From San-Jose to Heredia and Ala-
juela the whole country was covered with

312

REPORT — 1854.

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.

313

314

REPORT — 1854.

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA,

315

316

REPORT — 1854,

7

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

319

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320

REPORT— 1854

1

ON THE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA,

321

322

REPORT— 1854,

:

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ON TIIE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

323

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n it. nni)T_ 1 ft^/1

ON TIIE FACTS OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA

325

326

REPORT— 1854.

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF

EFFICIENT LIFE-BOATS. 32/

On the Construction and general Use of Efficient. IJfe-Boats.

By Major-General Chesney, R.A., D.C.L., B.lt.b. tyc.
Compared with ocean steam-navigation, the subject now to be considered
mav seem to claim but an inferior place. Rut when I mention that it em¬
braces the fate of “all who go down to the sea in shin, and who occupy
their business in great waters," I am persuaded that it will not only have the
deepest interest for all who have favoured the Mechanical Section with their
presence, hut it will also, as I hope, be the means of moving a very powerful
lever in support of tbe subject I am about to advocate; for 1 feel assure ,
that, on the double grounds of scientific construction and the cause ot
humanity, ship as well as coast life-boats may fully claim the influential sup¬
port of the British Association ; which may thus be the meaus of inducing
Parliament to provide the funds which are requisite to carry out this grea
national object. ,

At the meeting of the Association in Hull last year, I endcavoure o
show the lamentable deficiency oflife-boats, and the necessity of an improve
construction, as well as of a more extensive organization of these boats.

A committee was uamed in consequence, consisting of Mr. George ennie,
Mr. Blundell, the late Mayor of Hull, Mr. Oldham of that place, Mr. Roberts
«*f Manchester, Mr, Thomson of Belfast, with myself as president, to make
a report on this subject, which I now beg leave to submit to the earnest con¬
sideration of the meeting. I should premise, however, that the present commu¬
nication can scarcely be called a Report upon Life-boats. 1 have not had the
means of making one ; for, owing to the unwillingness of the various lile-
h'*at and shipwreck societies to accept Mr. Richardson s challenge, an es
,he qualities of their life-boaLs against his tubular boat, I have had but little
opportunity of judging of the practical advantages of their boats. y
quirios have however shown how insufficient many of these are. Mj ie
'miBt ,ilus be confined to bringing before the Association the ''“Per^
access, ty of establishing such a number of scientifically-constructed I'fe-boa s
;s nmy be sufficient to keep pace with our greatly-increased cominerct..

* ma|*l^t, that however zeuious the existing Societies may be, nei y

or the Admiralty possess the necessary funds for this purpose,

" > ,b? ^equa.oly provided by Parli.me,,.. But in °'d.er“ JT,
J*ct judiciously and economically, it appears to me most desirabl * »

JPrehmlnary stepi the British Association should recommend i the Gove -
to institute such experiments as will enable tbe public to lo™ a ,S®

I10"/ subject which is beset with difficulties. This necessity will be
!?t,y8hown by a brief enumeration of a few of the appalling fact- cob
„ , ?** by we since our last meeting at Hull ; first glancing at the present state
e coasts of Great Britain and Ireland. . . , . the

lion nfT years a well-organized system of life-boats has exis
lated f# lVerP°°l» the annual cost of about £2000; and the ca e J
liSwl!? contained in the paper in my hand, show that since 1840 the hv
and l belonging to the port of Liverpool have saved 13

give ah6 ^Unn8 ibe same period assisted 312 vessels, which wou p Y
Xl** **°00 tons; and this, at the low estimate ol £10 ' per ton,
mean, n Do less than a sum of £600,000 rescued from the wares by
an euVn(f?U,uin8 tl,at similar advantages would be the result elsewhere,
Hw, i m d System of »'fe-boats along our coasts, as well as for vessels at
goes JJ?7m Poi,lt of expense, be in fact a trifling insurance on tbe c

Tiu, n'c 1 ^ould be saved in consequence. , . -„ifl.

pract,cal and successful efforts made at Liverpool to lessen the cala

328

REPORT — 1854.

initios of the sea, caused the Duke of Northumberland to offer prizes for the
best description of life-boat. This produced many competitors. Butalthough
prizes have been awarded, and boats constructed in accordance with what
was presumed to be the best model, nothing has been established which effi¬
ciently answers the purpose required; and the greater portion of the coasts
of Great Britain and Ireland continue without the means of rescuing our t
intrepid seamen from a watery grave !

On the south coast of England, which is about 3.50 miles from the Land's |
End to the North Foreland, there are but fifteen life-boats stationed; the
eastern and western coasts, however, are better provided, there being forty-
nine for the former, between the Land’s End and Berwick-upon-Tweed, a
distance of 448 miles; and thirty-three boats for tbe latter, a distance of 700
miles; while the eastern coast of Scotland has but six life-boats in all, and
the western only two, the Hebrides and Shetland Islands not having a single
life-boat I There arc five on the eastern coast of Ireland, but not one on its
western shores. So that the Liverpool establishments for the preservation
of life in this respect exceed by two the whole number in Scotland, and are
nearly double those of Ireland.

The recital of only a few of the losses which have occurred since this sub¬
ject was agitated last year, cannot fail to show that it is high time that more
efficient and improved means were adopted to preserve the lives of seafaring
men.

During the gale on the 27th of August 1853, many casualties occurred.

The Brenda, with a cargo of timber from Quebec, was wrecked just below
Beachey Head. Her crew, expecting her to founder, ran her on shore at
Newhaven. No ordinary boat could have lived, says the account, in the
tremendous surf ; but by the rocket apparatus a rope was got out to the
ship, and the crew at length enabled to land, though in a most pitiable con-
flition.

During the same night, the Australia, for Rio from Grimsby, was driven
ashore ofl Shoreham. The life-boat was launched, made her way through

!1 t ri >< I mm nuuf _ _ .1 _ . i ,i

a tremendous surf, and rescued the crew.

A new life-boat was driven on shore oft’ Kimmeridge during this gale,
nothing known of her crew ; and many coasters were seen to founder, to
which no aid could be given for want of efficient life-boats.

About the same date, Aug. 21, the ship Marie, of II 14 tons, from Lima
to England, with guano, foundered at sea ; fortunately her crew was picwa
up by the Spanish barque Maria.

Aug. 24. The Jessie Smith was wrecked in the Orange River, and four
men drowned for want of a Bfe-boat.

kept 25. The schoouer John Laverock, from Glasgow, was wrecked off

IalaJ- . iil h«Lc“ supposed to have perished. v .

CniiTn ' T U! ?s*‘C Wri8ht» packet-ship, from Liverpool to New Yotf.

nf rl?'™™ a,ru Insb "“‘grants, struck on a rock about forty miles south

Fnrtnn T ?,"eA " cather anfl with a thick fog. She began to 6U '*P,d,Jr;
on v n l y !hf Captain Hadfidd, came to her assistance, but **

° * ,ako “8^ o{ her cabin-pass,:, .gers on board ; and she therefore

very dem fa (lT00 P"'CUK assistance Cor tbe Isaac Wriglit,
tbe -team L rl "“tCr " hcn ",e fed her. On the 2nd ofOelober.

»1 b bfawkS S“f'tuU°".SUr,Ctl fTO"> Liverpool in quest of ,he unforlnn*
Sent 27 TW AfT f- 8 Unkn'nvn 10 «l>e writer,
from ijverpool eraiera"‘-sWp Cbarlemont, 1500 ™

trie was hiinchr.fi n f *'* Pa88e“8er8- She struck on Barwcn Heads,
gg was launched, and swamped; the jolly-boat was launched, to convey a

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF EFFICIENT LIFE-DOATS. 320

line on shore, but capsized ; the long-boat was launched, and capsized ; then
the life-boat — it also capsized. A passenger then volunteered to swim on
shore with a rope, which he accomplished ; and having succeeded in recover¬
ing the life-boat, it was slung on the rope, and used as a cradle for landing
the passengers.

Sept. 28. The Annie Jane, from Liverpool, was driven on the Barra
Maud, one of the Hebrides. Her passengers were emigrants for Canada.
Out of 450, 348 men, women, and children were drowned. When off Barra,
a breaker struck on her quarter-deck, and the poop-deck sunk, crushing
200 emigrants. In ten minutes more she went to pieces. About daybreak
the tide ebbed, leaving the fragments of the unfortunate vessel high and dry,
when the survivors, 102 in number, walked on shore.

OcL 18. The Dalhousie, a first-class Jndiaman, was lost off Beachey Head
in a gale of wind. She foundered in 26 fathoms water, and every soul on
board was lost excepting one seaman. Her crew was sixty-one in number,
ami she had twenty first-class passengers on board. Notwithstanding the
gale, many of these doubtless might have been saved, had any of the ships
which were near her possessed an efficient life-boat.

We have such an instance of the preservation of life from shipwreck by
the Budehaven life-boat, which saved the crew of the sloop Margaret, of
Bideford, on the 5th of November.

Nov. 18. The California, emigrant-ship, which left Sligo on the 18th of
September, was wrecked 150 miles off’ Achill. The passengers and crew left
the vessel in three boats, two of which arrived at Duoch and Dagert, having
j'nty persons on board, fifteen of their number having died from exposure
mil suffering. The third boat was never heard of. The California sprang
* “®k> and went down immediately. The Anne Eliza, of 100 ton*, of
"■ Berwick, sailed from Newcastle with coals, about the end of September,
and has not been heard of since. She is supposed to have gone down in the
gale about that time.

The Lady Evelyn, Captain McClellan, from IIong-Kong to San Francisco,
with a cargo of merchandise, 280 Chinese emigrants, and other passengers,
eft Amoy on the 16th of July. On the 19th a gale came on, and she struck
nn a reef known as Richard’s rocks. The long-boat was destroyed by the
a* of the mainmast. About thirty persons remained in the rigging, and
got ashore on spars, &c. the following day. All the others were lost.

Aug. 24. The Meridian, from Gravesend, was wrecked off the island of
msterdam, in the Indian Ocean. She had twenty-six cabin passengers and
tty-eight second cabin passengers on board, with a crew nf fourteen. The
l ap am and two others were lost, but. the rest saved eventually, after enduring
sufferings.

Nov. 29. I he packet-ship E. Z., for New York was lost, with her usual crew
ourteeu passengers. She was struck by a tremendous sea, which carried
®ay everything on deck, and swept overboard thirteen passengers and nine
ue crew. Only five of the whole number were saved.
y U9f- Hie Marshall, a screw-steamer from Hamburg to Hull, was lost at
a i U 11 1 emigrants on board, in addition to her crew of eighteen men

" a va”?a^e cargo- The barque Woodhou.se came in contact with a
„Xrrofl ^umBer, which is supposed to have been the Marshall. Her
sand iTCrC SeeD ^ boats m-ar Kelu Sea, about five miles from New-

Moat, and her boats were picked up in the North Sea by a fishing smack.

A sform, attended with great loss of life, occurred at Tyne-
w I *’ \“e schooner Eliza, of Kirkwall, with eight or nine, men on board,
0s ‘ vessel capsized, and the unfortunate crew clung to the rigging,

REPORT — 1854.

330

and were seen from the shore holding up their hands for assistance. Rockets
could not reach them, and there was only one small life-boat, manned by five
hands, which attempted to reach the vessel. But, before proceeding far, it
tilled, and with difficulty regained the shore. A second attempt was equally
unsuccessful. Indeed it would have been instant death to all in the boat, if
they had dared to approach the wreck with such a life-boat.

Dec. The 11 eindeer also, from Monte Video to England, Captain Jones,
on arriving off Guernsey, the weather being stormy, endeavoured to procure
a pilot to run into the harbour for shelter. Unfortunately no pilot would
venture out, and the Reindeer struck on a sunken rock, and went down. All
hands perished.

About the same date, the crew of a vessel in distress, off Mareden, took to
their boat, which was capsized, and all, six in number, perished within sight
of the people on shore. They were indeed so near, that their gestures were
clearly seen. A line-rocket was thrown to them, but the cartridge, nrouni*
dampness, was insufficient, and there was no life-boat to give aid! Ini
vessel was afterwards towed into the Tyne.

Jan. 23. The Bona Dea struck on a rock, and lay on her broadsi e-
Everything on deck and in the cabins was washed away. The crew manage
to cuL away the main- and mizen-shrouds, and she righted; but every ‘^S
was gone, and they remained lashed to the stump of the mizen-mast, wit ou
food or water, for twelve days and nights. Their Bufferings were most e»-
ful. At length they killed one of their number for food, almost all hav 1I,B
become insane. Vessels passed more than once within three milcsol £ '■ >
but it was not until the 4th of February that they were taken off by e
Cuba, of Sunderland.

T..n OR 1QR4 r1’l, „ 1 _ l _ T Tolanrl. With 652 P®5'

tbe shore, would have been the moans of diminishing, it not ol a og
preventing such a fearful loss of life. Th

Jan. 26. The Olinda struck on the Harry Furlong rocks. J
managed to lower the boats and land the passengers, although a ieM ^
was running. The life-boat was driving to leeward, and could not e
shore.

Feb. 9- The Menai steamer, on approaching Calais during a heavy

was driven ashore close to Fort Rouge. Great exertions were ma(|e |fl
the Calais life- boats afloat, to save the passengers and crew; but0’”
the violence of the gale and the heavy surf, this was a work of g1^
culty One life-boat was at length launched, and pulled towards the s ra
vessel • hilt, nwii.r, ^ ... •. - 1 J ; _ «.U,Ip to ISO'1 10

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF EFFICIENT LIFE-BOATS. 331

Brest. The fate of her crew is unknown ; they are supposed to have attempted
to escape in their boats, of which none remained with the wreck, and which
of course were not life-boats.

April 29. A collision occurred in the Channel, off the Start, between a
Bremen emigrant ship, the Favorite, for Baltimore, with 200 passengers, and
an American vessel, the Hesper, bound to Antwerp. The collision took
place between one and two in the morning. It rained, and there was a
heavy sea running. The captain and five men sprang on board the Hesper
the momeut the collision touk place ; but the heavy sea separated the vessels,
and the Favorite went down with 200 emigrants on board I

The City of Glasgow steamer was lost at sea about the same time. No
intelligence has been received of her passengers or crew, 480 in Humber.

April 24. The Italian steamer the Krcolano, in consequence of the care¬
lessness of her captain, was run into by the Sicilia. Almost all on board
were lost. Sir Robert Peel escaped with difficulty, but considers that many
on board the Ercolano might have been saved if proper means had been
taken.

These calamities., however numerous they may seem, are but a small part
of those which have occurred during the last four years. According to the
casualties compiled from Lloyds list, and laid before* Parliament, there have
happened at sea during that period 12,360 disasters, varying in magnitude
from a total shipwreck to a alight collision. Of these, 204 ships left our
ports, and were never heard of again; 5117 were driven ashore, and, with
their cargoes, either totally or partially lost ; 2665 were collisions, which
drove them into port in a sinking state ; 2295 were wrecked ; 883 foundered ;
679 were abandoned by their crews; 87 burnt by accident; 51 damaged by
ice, &c. The casualties of steam- vessels during the same period of four
years were,— 103 driven ashore, but afterwards Boated again ; 146 cases of
collisions at sea; 17 wrecked; 30 foundered; 15 burnt.; 2 abandoned at
sea; 1 capsized ; 1 never heard of; 7 returned to port in a sinking state.

But it should bo observed, that, with the exception of 64- large vessels
above 700 tons, these losses fell chiefly on the smaller vessels, from 90 to
500 tons, and which were economically sailed ! often weak-handed and badly
commanded. As an approximative loss, founded on the scale of four men
and a hoy to every hundred tons, it would seem tlmt the annual loss of life
reported at Lloyd s, averages about 1250, the gross amount for the last four
years being 4298. The tonnage, supposing the vessels to average 250 tons
each, will give 100,000 tons of shipping lost, which, at £10 per ton, would
he ten millions sterling lost during four years.

Hie fewer accidents to steam-vessels during the same period speaks in
•avour of their safety as compared with sailing vessels.

There cannot be a reasonable doubt, that if the California, the Lady
h<vriyn, the Tayleur, and many others, had been provided with good life¬
boats, such a.» the one now about to be described, which cannot be swamped
under any circumstances, even when sent over the ship’s side so as to enter the
water in a perpendicular instead of a horizontal position, there would have
hpcn an immense saving of life. If, therefore, as in the case of the tubular
construction, a safer boat has been or can be contrived, and that by means
o a better organized system, life may be largely preserved, the means of
feting this humane object deserves, and it is to be hoped will command,

®®Brnest efforts of the British Association.

Hitherto, public bodies, such as the Trinity Board, the National Institution
or preservation of Life from Shipwreck, the Shipwrecked Fishermen
and Mariners’ Royal Benevoleut Society, have acted, and continue to act

332

REPORT — 1854.

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF EFFICIENT LIFE-BOATS. 333

separately in the good cause ; but it is not going too far to express the belief,
that one centralized system would be more advantageous than the whole of
these desultory efforts, and that all the power of the Government is desirable,
and even necessary, in order to work out more efficiently a general plan,
with (as a necessary part) more ample means for the preservation of life
from shipwreck; and since every British seaman contributes something
annually (3</.a year) from his limited earnings for this very purpose, he has a
right to expect that the funds so raised should be turned to the best account.

The momentous question of efficient lib*- boats can only be safely dealt
with after the most patient consideration, founded upon an extensive series
of experiments, both as regards the construction of the boats to be adopted
and tlie encouragement to be given to their crews* As regards the latter, it
may Imre be observed, that the salvage is a reward to those who save part of
a chip’s cargo; but if the chance of the latter be overlooked in order to save
life, there is no pecuniary reward for individuals who make the sacrifice.

1 must now invite the attention of the Association to the peculiar form
of the tubular life-boat, which dates from the year 1830, when a wreck at
Weymouth, and the previous examination of Blanshard’s pontoons, gave rise
to the invention, by Mr. Richardson, of this boat, which has already success¬
fully encountered the sea in almost every form.

I need scarcely observe, that Blanahard's pontoons are divided, both lon¬
gitudinally and transversely, into several compartments by partitions of tin,
both to increase their strength and to prevent them from sinking in the
water in case.of being accidentally perforated in any part. Tulmfar boats
are by no means modem. We have the Hying praam of Anson, the out-
nggei or mosquito boats ol the Cingalese and Malays; and others seen by
myself in Nubia are built upon this principle ; and if water-tight corupart-
nients did not belong to Noah’s Ark itself, they have been actually in use
•or ages in the Chinese boats, and also in Europe in various ways.

But although the Invention of the tubo and water-tight compartments
neither is nor could be claimed in this instance, the adaptation of them to the
construction of a life-boat, as patented, is due to Mr. Richardson, and is a
vnry important practical step towards the object we are so desirous of
obtaining.

kTi* t 4 ll0at waa ^ * have Before said, in 1830; in

X"1 “fj’ce others were constructed, the largest to row twelve oars; and one
*o small, that a child in petticoats was in the habit of rowing it alone at
Jr?? !” thc surf in Pcrfoo* *afety. The subject dropped for years,
in in 1848 Henry Thomas Richardson, Esq., then an officer in the Fourth
tififr ,uurtls> antI 80rj of above-named Mr. Richardson, caused a

hf‘li to bo bu,,t at Manchester.

r hen lhe Duke uf Northumberland offered his prize, Mr. H. T. Richard-
s model was one of those sent in; and although the prize was awarded to

tfECK VlEl* 07 •UCnxaDSOlS'3 TUBULAK LIPS-UOAT.

lhat hpe?^'n^’ S? Persuiufe^ 'vas Be of the superiority of the tubular plan,
incurred the expense of constructing a boat agreeably to fcis plan.

334

REPORT — 1854.

The boat is formed of two tubes of tinned iron, 40 feet in length by 2^ in
diameter, tapering at either end and meeting each other, thus giving the
appearance of sheer. An iron frame-work, securely riveted, unites the whole
into one mass, the tubes having longitudinal bars of iron and hoops within,
and iron keels running from end to end; they are divided into water-tight
compartments, occupied by air-proof bugs; a cork fender surrounds the
whole fabric. The rowers and passengers are placed on a platform above
the frame-work, which is surrounded by a light gunwale, the height of the
rowlocks. A rope passes along under the kelson for the purpose of towing.

UNDER- KEEL OF UICHARDSON’S TUBULAR LIVE-BOAT.

Sliding keels are proposed to be added, to render her more Weatherly.
carries two lug-sails, top-sails and jib; steers, rows, and sails well. This
boat was launched on the 15th of January, 1852, but had scarcely been
twenty-four hours on the Cheshire shore, when she was found to be witlully
damaged by having had holes driven into the different compartments of her
tubes. After repair, she was submitted to the most trying experiments that
could be devised. These were, landing her passengers and crew iii » g»|c
on a lee-shore, and going off again; towing, in stormy weather, behind a
steamer without any one on board, the commander of the steamer having a
carte blanche to upset, swamp, or tear her to pieces if he could. Having
proved in all of them perfectly successful, Mr. H. T. Richardson circulated a
challenge to the Shipwreck and other Societies ; also to upwards of fifty m*-
boat stations on the coast of Britain, but not a boat came out to meet Imu.

However, Mr. Beeching having expressed his readiness to meet her at
Ramsgate with his prize life-boat, the Tubular set sail, and after a perilous

voyage round the Land’s End, and encountering very severe weather on her

way, reached that place on the 22nd of' June, when they found, t° tne|r
extreme surprise, that Mr. Beeching had disposed of his boat; and Uu
Challenger remained, unopposed, the champion of the field.

On her voyage round from Liverpool to Woolwich, the Tubular was, a
Plymouth, subjected to various experiments in the presence of the fort
Admiral, Sir John Ommanney, alongside of the Leander frigate, as the fol¬
lowing extracts from letters will show.

These letters ure from officers then serving in the Leander; their name?
are not given, as their permission has not yet been asked, though it i* he-
heved that they would have no objection “ f think Challenger the only
thing built, at least that I have heard of, deserving the naaie of life b°af-
1 hat she has no capacity to retain water, that she cannot sink or cap12*’
was fully proved alongside the Leander, ’ ' "

immersed it deeper, without in any way
people in her. It is from having so ably
challenge, from her capabilities iu other r
a boat of the same dimensions as one of
sea; and feel convinced many a valuable
a boat belonging to her ; she would also be
beaching troops or field-pieces, and going

when eighty men ud one tune. o .

affecting the safety of the boat *ir
■ fulfilled all the conditions of V*
■espects, that l would willingly tw
our cutters or quarter life-bos1 -1
life would be saved had a ship
i of great service in landing in 8Ul* '
up shallow rivers.” Again write

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF EFFICIENT LIFE-BOATS. 335

another officer “ I witnessed one of the most severe trials possibly could
have been put to any boat in the world, and she behaved admirably when
tried alongside of H. M. ship Leander, June 5, 1852.”

Hitherto it has been found to be impossible to capsize the tubular boat,
because the force of theses passes off and through the two tubes; but if she
were to be upset by auy cause, her buoyancy would be greater than before, and
she would become a safe and manageable raft even bottom upwards, and a trial
wilJ show that she will sail and prove an effective boat even in this position.

Thus it appears that we may hope that a real life-boat has at length been
constructed, but the owners of the Challenger will be the first to condemn
her if it can be proved that she is unworthy of such consideration ; what is
sought is competition with other boats, publicly to prove her worth or worth¬
lessness. And I would also observe, that steam life-boats and steam-ships
might be constructed on the tubular plan, and these would be admirably
calculated for entering shallow ports and lor river-navigation.

An objection has been raised, the only one of which I am aware, that a
boat of this construction would not be durable; but experience has proved
that iron vessels are very lasting ; and if it could be otherwise, I might ask
what is to become of the monster vessel, of which Mr. Scott Russell lias
given us so interesting an account? But on this point I may appeal to the
knowledge and experience of every practical man, who will tell you, better
than 1 can do, whether iron boats are or are not durable. And were they
not so, there are other materials which might be substituted, provided the
tubular principle, as already patented, should be established as the best and
safest construction hitherto devised.

Hut the claims of the tubular life-boat do not by any means rest upon
speculation or opinion, however sound ; for those who are disposed to examine
this interesting question at more length, will find ample proofe of her capa¬
bilities in rowing, sailing, steering, &c., as detailed in * The Cruise of the
Challenger Life-boat from Liverpool to London,’ published by Pickering ;
where it may also be seen that a chivalrous feeling in the cause of humanity
^used the Messrs. Richardson to undergo the privations and hardships of
experiments in the depth of winter, and a long voyage subsequently, in order
j® tcat the good qualities of their boat by competition against any other that
has been built, in the midst of a surf, and under the various circumstances
required to establish the efficiency of a life- boat.

It may be added, in conclusion, that Mr. Richardson has expressed his
readiness to the National Institution for the Preservation of Life from Ship-
"reck, to meet any of their boats for the purpose of a trial, at any time and
place between the Land's End and John O’Groat's house, or on the west
coast of Ireland between Cape Clear and the Causeway* ; and thus to prove
practically whether the Tubular is or is not the best life-boat at present in
save Hfe, as it would undoubtedly be the cheapest construction, if the
cuvalrous object of the inventor should lie accomplished.

Up to this time the challenge of Mr. Richardson has not been accepted.
,ut l',e same object still at heart, of proving that their boat is admirably
opted to save life and be eminently serviceable in the cause of humanity,
s well as showing a great advance in the science of life-boats, the Messrs.

™son have lately built a schooner-yacht to take their life-boat from
' ace to P‘ace> with the express object of competing with any other boat, and

wnrdl°-^‘i pr°P?9ition a let,er received, dated October 7, 1853, ending in these
icsirawT. a,n <*‘rcoteiI respectfully to acquaint you that the Committee do not deem jit
■wirauie to comply with the request.”

(Signed) Rich. Lewis, Secretary.

3 36

REPORT — 1854.

also of seeking opportunities during the coming winter of testing her capa¬
bilities in the great work of saving life, where no other kind of boat can
accomplish this object.

I may mention, that these gentlemen fully intended to have been present
at the Liverpool meeting of the British Association, and up to Saturday,
Sept 23, 1 quite expected their arrival in the Mersey with their schooner (the
Hirnant) and the Tubular. But they have been detained at Southampton
by contrary winds; and Mr. Richardson, Jun., has also met with a serious
accident to his hand, which has prevented him from bringing the Tubular by
rail, as he would otherwise have done. I regret very much that they are not
here to show what she can do.

A very ingenious life-boat has also been built by Mr. Andrew Henderson,
which is now to be seen in the dock, the model of which is at present in
St. George's 1 fall. Other boats have also been contrived. One, in particular,
of India rubber, by Mr. Parrott, somewhat approaching Mr. Richardsons
plan, has attracted much attention. I believe that this boat would be defi¬
cient in the stability necessary to do good service on a lec-shore, but this
is a matter to be tried. It is most desirable that extensive and well-directed
experiments should be made, to ascertain the best kind of life-boats, not only
for ships, but also for encountering the dangers of a lee-shore.

The British Association aims especially at the advancement of truth in
practical no less than in physical science ; in all, in fact, in which we ran
benefit each other arid improve the condition of our fellow-men; and it
is with this conviction that I feel the subject of the discovery of the best
life-boat to be well worthy of the attention and of the best exertions of our
Association.

I hope to see suitable experiments carried on by Government, to ascertain
the best description of life-boat; and I trust, indeed I can scarcely doubt,
that Liverpool will be ready to do its part. The Marine Surveyor of this
port seems to think that it would be but right and proper to build one or
more tubular boats, in order fairly to test the qualities of this kind oflife-
boat in common with those hitherto in use. The next point will be to place
the necessary establishments on those parts of the coasts of Great Britaiu
and Ireland which arc at present quite unprovided with the means of saving
life. I presume that the eoast-gua»-d would furnish many of the crews, and
that the remainder could be provided without much difficulty, since moderate
rewards would be sufficient inducements to our fishermen to undertake tins

' 6 _ couiuiisnmeut of life-boats on a scientific principle.

ON RADIANT IlEAT.

337

A Third Report [supplementary to two former Reports made to the
British Association 1832 and 1840) on the present state of our
knowledge of Radiant Heat. By the Rev. Baden Powell/JO,,
F.R.S., F.R.A.S. , F.G.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry in the
University of Oxford.

Part I.

Having been honoured, for the third time, with a request from the General
Committee to continue my former Reports on the state of our knowledge of
Radiant Heat, from the date of ray last Report, 1840, up to the present time, I
leel bound to explain that tho resolution conveying that request was passed
so long since as the Meeting at York in 1851, ami that it was complied
with on the understanding that the report was not required immediately.
Rut at the present date, being unwilling longer to delay, and finding that
trom the pressure of other avocatious there is little probability of my being
able to complete it, rather than withdraw altogether, I run induced to iisk the
indulgence of the Association for submitting only a portion of such a report.

Pt'diminary remarks.

Before commencing any analysis of recent investigations, it will he neces¬
sary (tor reasons which will become apparent) to take in the first instance a
very brief retrospective glance at certain fundamental distinctions affecting
nie whole subject, long ago pointed out, but too much overlooked by some
writers since. It results from researches pointed out in detail in the two
:7[fiPorb- tha^ the somewhat wide term “radiant heat” several
\ rnct sPec‘ea °f efl,cct have Been Included.

U) file simplest form of radiant heat, and most properly so called, is that
mch arises simply from the cooling of a hot body, and which emanates
cwffu 8 , bodlc8 of ul1 temperatures, from those which are the least
j ““ above Vlat of the surrounding medium, up to the highest incan-
cence °r combustion ; and is distinguished by two properties : —

RriTv 7, cn?y t0 bc absorBed by bodies in proportion to a certain pecu-
(b\A *** Ul tbcir surface, but wholly independent of their colour,
such a* t Utal incaPacity to Pass by direct radiation through many media,
throiml S ' &C'’ tbou®“ transmissible freely through rock-salt and partially
riments ofCMellon^herS’ CalI<><1 diathemanou® media» as found by. the expe-

J }'Ha ^crtain of incandescence other rays , also capable of exciting
the DrISi0 ,e|lven °pffaloT‘ff with the former-, these are distinguished by
(5? ’ d,ffereDt from tl,e former:-

abs°rbeil by bodies in proportion to the darkness
(3 F A °Ur °l 1 'eir abSOrPtiou of light.

°ut tlitni P?wer ' °f transmissibility through all transparent, substances, with-
ccilonrprf m a” tbrou8b colourless media, and in various proportions through
WBredmedia, according to their action on light.

Tins Jp Pawcr °f exciting also the sense of vision , or being luminiferous,
most enninu fi !pe?JeS COe,rists in various Proportions with the first, and is
III f t f ,the ",ost tensely ignited bodies,
heating Jvt ^aPa'0=0U9 to this last species, or identical with it, are the
<*/•); and dta, ‘he wit; characterized by the same properties, (a.), (/3.) and
kind (or Species I )»e<* ^ be,a® totally free from all admixture of the first

* Tbit I

rtiermometer'to'th!! °*>*a'ne^ by exposing together a blackened and a white-washed

1854. lar rayS' first witb> ai,d then without, a thick glass screen: in this

338

REPORT — 1854

When by artificial means the luminiferous rays are analysed, some rays
are found in which great heating power coexists with feeble illuminating
power, but under the same conditions and for the same ray, the heating is
probably directly proportional to the illuminating intensity.

In this way it was that from the distinctions obtained in my original expe¬
riments (1825), I was led to describe generally the communication of heatai
effected in three distinct ways : —

(I.) By conduction (including what some term convection).

(2.) By radiation (in the ordinary sense of the term), or mere cooling ot I

hot body (Species I. above). .

(3.) By the agency of light, whether fYom the sun or flames (Species 11.
and III.).

In the first instance, it was natural to regard these as so many distinct
kinds of physical action producing heat, but more recent researches, espe¬
cially those of Professor Forbes, have enabled us to conuect them hr Hie
simple and uniform analogy supplied by the undulatory hypothesis, It*1-
adopt the hypothesis of uudulatiuns of decreasing lengths, those oMIw
greatest length correspond to the Species I., these continue to be
out as the temperature is raised, or as combustion proceeds more intensely-
along with others of successively less wave-length, until we arrive at
cies II., or those which are of the proper length to affect also the retina w»
the sense of vision ; and at lust the wave-lengths arc too small to pnwJ'ice
either luminiferous or calorific effects; but here they seem to obtain we
maximum of chemical action. But rays of all wave-lengths thus continue
to be given out simultaneously. They all produce or excite heat mwf ^
less when stopped or absorbed ; and this probably dependent, in some
ratio, on the greater wavo-length simply; while the illuminating efiect deptut^
on some peculiar relation to certain wave-lengths only determined b\ sj>i'
physiological conditions of the retina at present unknown. Substances^ ^
are transparent transmit freely rays of the visual wave-lengths, w
course carry with them their heating powers. „

Opake substance!* which are diathermanous transmit in the same"’3)

of the longer wave-lengths, but not those of shorter. ,

The action of the texture of surfaces seems purely median 0n

bably influences the absorption of all rays, but its full effect is pronuc ^
the rays ol longer wave-length ; while that of colour is purely >
applies to rays of luminiferous wave-lengths only. ^

Refraction, polarization, interference, and the like properties ol % _• ,
would be easily' seen, must be accompanied with just such indications “
heating effect as might consist with the modification which the /«# in

respective cases, might undergo. If the light were extinguished
conditions nf i mint ! sutler, . . .1 _ 1 . . M n( miuisc W®1

conditions of polarization or of interference, the heat would of course

pear with it, and the changes of intensity' would be similar; that is, **

portion ol the rays which consists of Species II. ' ..

Ilnis, in a multitude of such cases, these effects might be very, am

dlS?UI/n ri‘ hi(kl‘J,K And, moreover, if they were real . j
mWe for Species (II.), U M ould not follow that they existed for Spec*® ^
yet the wave analogy would render it highly probable; and expend “

ratio" of therise of s,lnn,lest difference in the nbsolnte values, and none

and'often verv great In n*' ° I» the brightest terrestrial rays there W*

coneluionsaftothl ^,£fertnce as well as amount; this constituted the ground^

conclusions as to the heterogeneity of the species of rays in the latter case.

ON RADIANT HEAT.

339

now proved it to be the fact. This constitutes the peculiar value of Prof.
Forbes’s researches. In the instance of lummous bodies, then, all the
combined heterogeneous species of rays undergo these modifications; though
possibly in different degrees, and liable to modifications from the different
nature of the media employed.

Yet many recent researches seem altogether to ignore these distinctions ;
and the “radiant heat” from different sources is commonly spoken of as if
all of one kind, and of which a certain per-centage is stopped, or transmitted,
in particular cases, by the interposition of certain substances ; whereas the
body of rays is heterogeneous , and certain integrant rays only are totally
stopped or totally transmitted in the respective cases, showing not only
quantitative but qualitative differences.

In many researches of this kind the “diathermancy " of bodies is spoken
of, and experiments made to measure it, as if it applied indifferently to all
species of heating rays, and without any reference to the consideration that
for certain species of rays bodies are (Uothermanous simply in proportion as
they are diaphanous to the particular luminous ray in question; while for
other species of rays their diathermaneity follows some totally different, and
yet unknown law. The coufusion of ideas introduced by the adoption of
that term, unqualified by any reference tii this distinction, and applied to
general conclusions respecting “radiant heat,” ought to be sufficiently manifest,
yet has been but little considered. And in cases where the rays transmitted
by a partially diathermanous body are in fact different in kind (agreeably to
'he above distinction) from those stopped, there is an ambiguity in the mode
of expression ; in fact it is not merely a percentage of rays, but an analysis of
. e whole heterogeneous body into more homogeneous or simple elements,
*■ e' ray8 different wave-lengths, or combinations of several such rays.

In my former Report (1832, p. 299), it is mentioned that I had then re¬
peated my original experiment (Phil. Trans. 1825) with u pair of thermo-
eters of a peculiar construction made on purpose, in which very small dif-
erenccs were appreciable; but I did not there state any of the results. As
tention has now been recalled to my original experiment, both by the re¬
petition of it by Mellon! with the thermo-multiplier, and the more recent
, . atory remarks of Knoblauch, and as results obtained in this way

\ notwithstanding the superior claims of the thermal pile) may still possess some
i crest, it may not be irrelevant here briefly to state the results of a set of
serrations which have been lying by me since that period . The instrument
on lhUnlortunately soon afterwards. These observations were made

dish e.ra*Vp an ^r£anf* lflniP ; the thermometers, fixed on one frame at the
a sorI CC r a^oul ^ inches apart, were exposed first with, and then without,
• 0 PMe glass one-eighth of an inch thick. The mode of observation
wh>M,°\Qte ^e.r^*e ll,e thermometer, blackened with China ink, in the time
1 it occupied the white-washed thermometer to rise 1° Fahr.

Screen.

No screen.

Number
of obser¬
vations.

White.

Black.

White.

Black.

0

1

3

I o

1

O

J-6

20

Another set gave the first momentary rise —

0-5

2

1

1*5

5

z 2

340

REPORT — 1854.

A strong and curious confirmation of the heating power derived from
luminiferous rays simply, has been furnished in a tact mentioned to me bv
Dr. Bennett, Professor of Physiology in the University of Edinburgh; viz.
that in the exhibition of anatomical subjects by means of the oxy-hydrogen mi¬
croscope, the light concentrated by a lens, at a few inches distance from the
source, had so energetic an action as to burn up and destroy the specimens
placed in the focus.

On the Theoretical Explanation of some former Experiments.

The experiments of Mellont (of which some general abstracts are given in
my former Report (1840, p. 4)), certainly seem at first sight to present some
anomalous results.

The main question which seems to arise is, whether the effects of heat, as
compared with those of illumination, do not follow such widely discrepan
laws, as to make it difficult to ascribe them to the same set of wares; an
this both with regard to terrestrial and to the solar heat.

To take a single instance : rack salt is said to be analogous, for uem, to
colourless media for light ; alum is described as totally impermeable to
“dark heat,” and partially so to the rays from a lamp, that is,*tina?
wholly impermeable to those rays of the lamp which are identical with • ir ‘
heat" (species J.l in their relation to absorption, according to the texture »
surfaces, and wholly permeable to those (Species II.) w hich are nssocia
with light , and produce this effect in proportion to the absorption of hgut )’
dark coloured surfaces ; or in the language of the wave- theory, wholly im¬
permeable to rays of longer wave-length, and wholly permeable to cava
rays of smaller wave-length. , , ...

In some of Melloni’s experiments, rays from the lamp transmitted
ferent proportions by various screens, and then equalized, were afferwar s
found to be transmitted by alum in similar proportions. This lie uescri
by the expression that “ they possess the diathermancy peculiar to the to-
stances through which they had passed." Yet the fact surely implies none

property communicated to the rays. It merely shows, that as different^ 1 ^
rays out of the compound beam were transmitted in each case by the
screen, alum, though impervious to the lower heating rays (i. e. of lower
frangibility or longer wave-length), is permeable to those higher rays;® 1
diff erent degrees according to their nature-, an effect simply dependent on
heterogeneity of the compound beam from the flame. Again, wi i
ferently coloured glasses peculiar differences of diathermancy were exJ'i 1
with the rays from a lamp, incandescent metal, and the sun ; but no 01
various or anomalous than the absorption of specific rays of light by sue
media. And besides these considerations, it must be borne in mind t
smooth blackened surface is itself unequally absorptive for th ? different W
acting (from its colour) more energetically on those of a refrangibilitv wi
the limits of the visible spectrum, and which affect the eye as rays of Ug -
and more feebly on the rays of lower relrangibility, and which act more en
getically on bodies with reference to the absorptive ktehto of their «rla**
As (according to my experiments) the solar heat is wholly of tha*
which is freely transmitted through all colonibss media along with the l«g
it does not appear that there would be any particular advantage in opera *
on the solar spectrum with a rock-salt prism. Mellon!, however,
a prism found, on interposing a thick screen of water, the most beahng •
(*.c. those towards the red end) intercepted (as they are known to be
water), and tins caused the position of the maximum to be apparently
uglier up the spectrum, even to the position of the green rays. .

On the other hand, many coloured glasses, lie found, absorbed the ra)-

ON RADIANT HEAT.

341

various proportions, yet they left the point of maximum heat unaltered,
i.e. though variously absorptive for the higher rays, they were not of a
nature to stop the lower or most heating rays.

It appears also to be questioned whether the solar beam does not actually
contain some rays of Species I., that is, of wave-lengths greater than any of
the prismatic rays, including the ordinarily invisible extreme red. My ori¬
ginal experiment on this point above referred to may probably be unworthy
of comparison in accuracy with those which may now be made with the
thermo-multiplier.

It would therefore be highly desirable if an experiment on the same prin¬
ciple as mine, viz. a black and a white therraoseope exposed together, first
with and then without a screen, were repeated ou the solar rays, with a
variety of screens, including especially rock salt; with all the increased
accuracy and sensibility now attainable by the use of two thermo multi¬
pliers , by which the differences or identities of ratio in the two c,;ses would
be rendered evident in the most satisfactory manner. It would he also
highly important to make similar observations on the oxy-bydrogen and the
electric light.

The theory of unequal wave-lengths, as the sole explanation of the dif¬
ferent spccic-s of “radiant heat,” whether solar or terrestrial, or in other
words, the identity of the rays which produce alike the sensations of light, of
heat, or other effects, each in some peculiar relation to the wave-length, cer¬
tainly applies in a very satisfactory manner to u largo portion of the pheno¬
mena. There may, indeed, be some minor objections or difficulties; but the
only iormidable outstanding objection seems to arise from a single result,
announced long ago by Melloni, and referred to in my former Report, viz.
|he lact that a certain kind of green glass transmits the solar light in high
intensity while it deprives it of all heating poioer. This anomaly is indeed in
itself so singular as to require very positive authority to substantiate it; and
in M. Melloni's statement there is, as appears to me, a certain degree of
vagueness; and it is not supported by any numerical results, or even any
detailed account of the mode of operating*.

Au alleged isolated luct of so ex traord inary a character has long appeared
to nm to demand a strict re- examination : 1 had hoped that on presenting
this Report, in many other respects so imperfect, I might have been able to
announce the result of such a repetition. Rut, unhappily, a variety of causes
have hitherto prevented me from carrying it into effect.

Theoretical Hcfractkm of Heat.

An important point bearing on the theory, was indicated very shortly after
ic communication of my last Report (1840), in my treatise “ On the Undu-
°7 Theory applied to Dispersion” (1S41). I have there shown (see
PP- i t and 122) that the formula for the refractive index in terms of the wave-
ength deduced from Cauchy's theory, furnishes a striking coincidence with
in™ i°r | 8 ^termination of the index of refraction for a ray of dark heat
rocA salt. The formula in question may be expressed thus, —

fcp~ q(x),+r(t)‘-*c-

cule™ ^ a nle 'n^ex» ^ the wave-length, Ax the small interval of the mole-
tj t ’ a? . V ® constants. From the nature of this formula, it is evident
as A is increased the changes corresponding in the value of /« are very

On the Identity of Light and Heat, Taylor’s Foreign Memoirs, Part III. p. 388.

342

REPORT — 1854.

small ; and when X is very great, or — extremely small, the value of p is

X

susceptible of a limit, which will be

This will represent the physical condition, that as we take rays of successively
greater wave-length, they will be crowded together into one position of re¬
fraction, which will have a bounding or limiting position, beyond which no
ray of however great wave-length can be refracted. This will be different for
each medium, but will in general correspond to a refractive index not greatly
below the index for the extreme red ray, and which is calculated, in my trea¬
tise just referred to, for various media. For rock salt it is a little lower than
Prof. Forbes’s index for dark heat.

The data will be best seen as collected in the following Table*.

Rock salt.

Ray.

Values of p.

Obs. Forbes.

Theory, PowelL

1-558

1*540

1*529

1*527

\ — 000079 .

Dark hot metal .

Limit .

1*528

M. Knoblauch’s Researches.

Among the most important of recent researches on the subject of radiant
heat, are those of M. Knoblauch, Professor of Natural Philosophy in t e
University of Marburg, which arc uot to be surpassed for elaborate esten
and accuracy of detail. They are given in Poggendorff’s ‘Anualen, JW*
and March 1847, and translated in Taylor’s ‘Foreign Scientific Memoirs,
Parts XVIII. & XIX. 1848.

The memoir is of great extent, and is divided into six sections.

Section I. is entitled “On the Passage of Radiant Heat through Diatner-
manous Bodies, with especial regard to the Temperature of the Source ot
Heat"

The author commences with a summary of the results previously obtained,
in which he cites the results of Delaroclie and others, without reference to
the different interpretation which must be put upou them if the experiments
and conclusions just referred to be admitted.

He observes, that, from the experiments of Melloni, rock salt appeal
equally permeable by heating rays of all hinds : from those of Forbes, pre¬
pared rock salt would seem penetrated by heating rays in a greater degree
when the source was at a lower temperature. Here 1 would observe that tae
temperature of the source, as such, manifestly bears no direct proportion to
the degree of luminosity, it being perfectly well known that the temper™*
ot luminosity is very different for different bodies ; and these are also ot very

lS^ofSecfpS pT/ r°SC“"er_e S“i,mitted t0 A. in 1840 and

ON RADIANT HEAT.

343

different illuminating powers. Now as in all cases there are several different
species of heating rays emanating at the same time from the source, some
luminiferous, and some not so, it is in no way a matter of surprise, or an ex¬
ceptional case, that the transmissive power of rock salt, or of any other sub¬
stance, should bear no proportion to the wen-, temperature of the source.

M. Knoblauch, however, instituted an elaborate set of experiments, to
ascertain whether any such relation could be maintained.

The experiments were all conducted by means of the thermo-multiplier,
which in this instance was constructed with especial precautions to eusure
extreme accuracy and sensibility.

M. Knoblauch's first series of experiments included as sources, alcohol
flame, incandescent platinum, hydrogen flame, Argand lamp, of which the
temperatures were in t he order of enumeration, the first being the highest.
The effect of each on the tlicrmo multiplier was observed with the interven¬
tion of a series of screens, coloured glass, alum, mica, colourless glass, calc-
spar, gypsum, &o. The transmitted effects varied of course with the different
screens; but in every instance they were smallest with the first source, and
increased in the order of enumeration, or in the inverse order of the tem¬
peratures. (Table I.)

In this scries the real nature of the results is in fact evident from the
distinctions above drawn. The effect is simply dependent on the light, or
beating power of Species II., mixed no doubt to a certain extent in some cases
with that of Species I.; which last probably does bear a close proportion to
hz temperature of the source, but is in these instance? overruled by the effect
of Species II. being very feebly, or not at all, transmitted by the screens.

In this series also M. Knoblauch found that the transmission through
rock salt was not exactly equal for all the sources, contrary to the assertion
Of Mellon! : the difference, however, is very small.

hi the second series the sources were a vessel of hot water of different
temperatures, from 93° to 212°, the radiating side being in each instance
covered successively with lamp-black, glass, wool, and in each instance the
thermo-multiplier being placed at a greater distance, in the ratio of the in¬
creased temperature, so that the effects of direct radiation were equalized.

each instance then u aeries of screens (the same as before) were inter¬
posed, each screen transmitting a different amount of heat, but the results
with each temperature being found equal. (Table II.)

In the third series the sources were hollow cylinders of iron and of copper
closely surrounding the flame of a lamp, and heated by it to several tempera-
tures, from 284° T. up to u little below redness: in each instance the same
equalization was effected as in Lhe last scries, and the same series of screens
gave varied effects for each screen, but equal effects for each temperature, as
ln the last series. (Table 111.)

lhe fourth series included platinum in successive stages of heat : 1st, dark ;
-nd, just red; 3rd, yellow ; 4th, partly white. In each instance the series of
screens was applied. In the ] at, 2nd and 4th stages of heat these gave uni-
Ofui results, increasing with the heat; hut in the 3rd case, certain screens
j?ve results less than in case 2, while another and smaller number only gave
them (/renter. (Table IV.)

he peculiar, and at first sight, apparently anomalous circumstance, that
P atinum,at astage intermediate between red and white heat, transmits through
tllC 8Cr<‘ens enjoyed rather less heat than when at the lower stage
at ti ' • maJ however be explained, if we suppose that the rays given off
D mtcr|nediate stage are of such a wave-length as to be subject to a
P u lar absorption by these particular screens. He then shows, from the

REPORT — 1854.

344

conditions observed, that the effect of secondary radiation was fully guarded
against.

Hence the author draws the conclusion, “ that the passage of radiant heat
through diathernianous bodies is not in immediate connexion with the tem¬
perature of the source, as w as probable from previous experiments; but is
alone dependent upon the structure of the diathennanons substance, which
is penetrated by certain rays of heat in a greater degree than by others,
whether this occurs at a lower or a higher temperature.’’

In all this there appears nothing to remark, except perhaps the observa¬
tion that previous experiments might make a contrary result probable, which
do. s not appear to be the case, since (ns already observed) the temperature
of luminosity has been long known to be very different for different sub¬
stances. It were to be wished, that when the au thor speaks of “certain rays"
being transmitted, he had more distinctly indicated the species to which they
belong, but which seem to conform to the classification before noticed.

Some further experiments were made on sources of different form and size;
cubes and cylinders of hot water of several magnitudes, small and large
(lames, having successively different screens interposed between them and the
thermoscope. The results were very uniform for all the sources, proving
that the differences in question produced none in the transmission, as indeed
might have been expected. (Table V.)

Section II. is “ On the Heating of Bodies by Radiant Heat"

Here, after observing in general, as a well-known fact, that the effect is
greatly influenced by the structure of the surface, he observes,—

“ More recent experiments by B. Powell and Mellon! have shown that
one and the same body is not uniformly heated by rays of heat emanating
from different sources, which exert the same direct action upou a thermo-
scope coated with lamp-black" (p. 205).

And he details some experiments (Table VI.), showing that with a lamp a
gi eater effect is produced on a surface coated with black paper than one with
carmine, but with dark beat, a less: — a result which might indeed have been
expected from what was well underetood before tire date of the researches
alludtd to, and which it was by no means their object to establish.

A set of experiments (Table VII.) proved that for small thicknesses ol
coating (within the limit of those employed by Leslie and IVJelloni), the
absorption of heat is proportional to the thickness.

ai>°, that “tfle temperature of a body, when the thickness increases, is
» ^t!cm 11 'H diathernianous to the rays transmitted to it.”

JZrZT, '' “°n thc Pr°Pcr,y of Radiating Heat in Bodies," the
Z/Z TV VanT cases i" "hich the state of the surface, as in f

to S,lTth scotched more or less closely, was observed ss

wair.1 (Table VJIJ) rad,at,on’ wLe" the plates were kept heated by boiling

cIu‘sion,;;;n?;;f;im;ntS .whh c,°PPer (Table IX.) confirmed Melloni’s eon-
elusion, that the action is purely mechanical.

crewXh JcLSeL°ffVp<,r;-mente(TabIeX-)> the ^crease of radiation with *«•

loni, that radiation ^ Coaf,,,£ confirms the conclusion of Rurnford and Me *
The neSlt f°mmcncos * certain depth below the surface,
the radiating tiower' erm,<’nt? \vas directed to answer the inquiry,
to a given degree by rAv^fwH! ‘he same body vary according as it is heat
distinctly in the mJLtivl ,I°Ql sources of heat?" The answer

der, and the bodv f* s,ollrces G< Beat being a lamp and a hot cjbn-

with carmineandwUh Ltn ? being fuccessively paper

Uh lamp-black on the absorbing side, and lastly on

ON RADIANT HEAT.

345

both sides: also a plate of charcoal, and carmine spread upon wire-gauze
(Table XI.): and again, using carmine blackened next the thermoscope, and
plain; and black paper coated w'itb lamp-black next the thermoscope, and
plain (Table XII.).

The author thus arrives at the conclusion, “ under those circumstances in
which the same bodies exhibit an unequal absorptive power, their radiating
power is one and the same ; and those differences which have hitherto been
observed when they are not heated to the same extent, are therefore pure
functions of the former, and independent of the latter."

The conclusion, if we understand it rightly, would appear capable of being
more easily stated, and indeed rendered at once obvious, from the distinctions
at first pointed out : whence it is evident, that the rays of Species I. (as before
described) from the cylinder, and those of Species II. from the lamp, will ne¬
cessarily act very unequally according to the texture and colour of the surface.

But when a body has received the radiation, from whatever source, and
converted it into heat of temperature, as in these cases, to an equalized de¬
gree, it will necessarily radiate it again in an equal degree with the same sur¬
face, from whatever species of rays it was originally obtained.

Section IV. is headed, “Comparison of the Meat radiated from different
bodies within a certain range of Temperature."

The author commences by remarking that “all former observations upon
radiation have only related to the quantities of heat emitted by different sub¬
stances at certain temperatures." The object of the present investigation is
to ascertain whether there are any tpialitative differences; or, as the author
expresses it, “whether the heat which radiates from certain bodies, at one
and the same temperature or within certain limits of temperature, is of a
different kind, according as it is emitted by different, bodies, or is excited in
them iu a different way.”

This inquiry was pursued by a series of experiments, in which (1) a ves¬
sel o( water at 212°, and (2) the flame of a lamp, had in contort with them
various adhtf/iemanoits substances, such aa metal, porcelain, leather, wood,
&c., in the heat given out by which the scries of screens gave exactly simi¬
lar scries of effects. As also with the heat from a hollow cylinder of
topper or iron surrounding a flame, but when the direct radiation of the
name was employed, the series of results were in proportions considerably
different. (Tables XIII. to XVI.)

fhe author indeed remarks at the conclusion, that these last differences
?rc . ue to the heat transmitted by the screens, i. e. the heat conveyed by the
uminous rays; as indeed would be manifest according to the views at first
notice*!. b

In another series, (1 ) an adiathermanous body at several temperatures from
, , t0 212*, (2) the flame of a lamp, and (3) a metal cylinder round a flame
pclow 234' \ were severally tried with the same series of screens; the results

CaS(’3 (1) and (3) being found exactly similar, in (2) in a ver^ different
Proportion.

J he same sources were next tried with two screens interposed ; the first
f ng successively, metal with holes, silk, ivory, &c., and each of these com-
Mcd with the several screens of the former series. In all cases the results
^proportional series. (Tables XVII. to XIX.)

oothfir series was conducted with— 1st, a flame, and 2nd, water at 212° ;
ac 1 m succession with a screen used first plain ami then blackened, the
being black glass, lac, ivory, paper, &e. ; the results being always
»s with the blackened surface, very similar in each case, and all less with
toe hot water. (Tqblc XX.) 1

346

REPORT — 1854.

Another set, with a heated mass and with the hand at its natural tempera*
ture for sources, gave similar results with various screens. (Table XXI.)

This, the author says, “disproves the opinion of Forbes, that the heat
emitted by boiling water and the hand must be considered as different." I
am unable to find in what respect Prof. Forbes supposes them different.

At the conclusion of this section the author adverts to two practical in* |
ferences from what has preceded.

(i. ) The fact, that the amount of heat absorbed by a given body is the same,
from whatever source it was derived, is important in regard to the deter¬
mination of specific heats by the calorimeter ; for if the heat absorbed by the
ice were different as it might be derived from different soured, no correct
measure of specific heat would be obtained. That it is not so, ensures the
accuracy of the results so tar as this source of error is concerned.

(ii.) The second application is, that “ these results lead to a nevnuethod of
ascertaining whether any substance transmits rays of beat or not ' (235);
that is, of determining whether any given instance of transmission of heat is

determining whether any given
really due to diathermancy, or is merely secondary radiation.

Thus, to determine whether ivory e.g. is really diathermanous: the source
of heat is a known adiathermanous substance kept heated by a lamp Jy'*1
effect is observed : a known diathermanous screen is then interposed and the
effect again observed* the ivory is then substituted f*oi‘ the adiaiherm3noui
body and the direct effect equalized to the former ; the same screen is then
interposed, but now a greater effect is transmitted. It follows, that part ot
the original heat is transmitted directly by the ivory, along with that radial#
from it ; or the ivori/ is diathermanous . .

Section V., on “ the Comparison of the amount of Heat diffusely reflcctea
by different bodies,” refers to that kind of irregular reflexion, or disp<yll>n
(as it has been sometimes called) of the rays from the roughened, oral
unpolished surfaces of bodies, and which is distinguished from regmar n>
flexion, which is governed by the law of equal angles of reflexion and mo*
deuce, by occurring equally at all angles. And the object is stated by t e
author to be the determination “ whether beat, on diffuse reflexion,
rirnces changes in its properties which distinguish it from that which is”
reflected " (384*).

1 lie heat being incident on a rough surface is of course partly
and radiated again : to guard against, error from confounding this witn
proper reflected heat, various and careful precautions were adopted.

i he author then proceeds to detail the observations, which areofyolu ’
nous extent, and the results recorded in a long series of tables. (la
XXII. to XXXII. inclusive.)

In all this first scries the source employed was an Argand lamp without i--
chimney, and in all eases the mode of operating was similar. ,

1 he unpolished surface under examination was exposed to the rays ol M
amp, at different, distances and at different inclinations, and the direct
noted: the experiment was then repeated with the insertion of a series of
variously diathermanous screens.

arrepfnnU’)8taDCft9 U9€!f* 08 reflectors were extremely varied ; such as b^“

3ES& and difei"e «" «»»* " tom06CBM

ori-'in oMltl'n.1.1186 ran»e substances of animal, vegetable and [nj,]' '
the nercirn, '"^P8"''1- *>»' »U colours and textures, were

% these results, the author observes, “it is placed beyond all doubt, that

ON RADIANT HEAT.

347

heat, on diffuse reflexion, is very differently modified by some bodies to a great
extent, while by others it is unchanged ” (400).

And these results completely confirm the position already advanced, “ that
the transmission of heat through diatherinanous media depends solely upon
die nature of these bodies, by virtue of which they transmit sonic rays more
easily than others " (402).

In a second series the same subject is continued with reference to different
sources of /teat, which were, besides the lamp, platinum at a red heat, the
tlarae of alcohol, and a metallic cylinder heated by being placed over the
dame of a lamp, as before :

(i.) The reflexions were first made from that series of substances which
had displayed the greatest differences in the former instance. The results
are given in a similar tabular form. (Tables XXXIII. to XXXVIII.)

The author’s general conclusion is, “that the modifications which heat
experiences on reflexion arc very considerable in the case of the heat ema¬
nating from an Argand lamp ; that with the heat of red-hot platinum they
diminish •, with the heat of the flame of alcohol they are still less ; and in the
case of the heat emitted by a heated iron cylinder, of whatever temperature
it may be, between 79° and about 234° F., they absolutely vanish" (407).

Or more generally, “the changes undergone by heat on diffuse reflexion
are occasioned both by the nature of the sources of heat and the properties
of the reflecting body ’* ('408).

(ii.) It remained, as the author expresses it, to determine “whether those
surfaces which exert a similar influence on the rays of the Argand lamp, i. e.
which they reflect in such a manner that the heat reflected by the one is
transmitted by the diatherinanous media used for testing in the same propor¬
tion as that reflected by the others, would also reflect the heat from the other
sources, so that the ray3 reflected by them would pass through these sub¬
stances in the same manner” (409).

^results of these experiments are given in detail. (Tables XXXIX. to

1 he question then arose with regard to the explanation of these pheno¬
mena: Are they owing to any change undergone by the rays in permeating
the diatherinanous substances, or were they “ the consequences of a selective
absorption of the reflecting surfaces for certain rays of heat transmitted to
them, as'appeared the most probable view from the experiments of Baden
lowdl aud Mellon! ?” (415)

1 his question the author proceeds to examine by a detailed comparison of
he loregoing results, exhibited in new tabular arrangements of every case.
(Tables XLV. to LI.)

Upon a minute discussion of all these results, the author decides in favour
» “*e 8°coud alternative ; or “ that the changes experienced by heat on dif-
u*; reflexion are merely the result of a selective absorption of the reflecting
surlaces for certain rays of heat, transmitted to them ” (423).

t he author also adverts to some other inferences from these experiments ;
as that, “excepting charcoal and the metals, it cannot be said that any body
e rets heat better or worse than any other, because this relation varies with
«»eh kmtl of radiation.”

. Sa>n : certain bodies of the same colour reflect different kinds of heat,
f a , °l| . different colour the same kind : and this is connected with the

v- -II t“every luminiferous source of heat emits a large number of in-
(V*4) ra^'S’ "kich are susceptible of reflexion and affect the thermal pile ”

Ibese, and some other remarks on the dissimilarity in the diffuse reflexions

318

REPORT — 1854.

of luminiferous and calorific rays, are not perhaps expressed with that clear¬
ness which might be wished.

The subject of Section VI. is “on the Sources of Heat;” which is further
explained to relate to the differences in the nature of the rays, or in general
the heterogeneity of the rays, entitled from one and the same source at the
same time; and the differences in this respect, of different sources.

From the previous experiments the author concludes in general, that “the
variety of the rays of heat emitted is greatest with the Argaud lamp, less
w ith red-hot platinum, still less w hen the flame of alcohol is used, and has
entirely disappeared with the cylinder heated to 212° F." (426).

But he now' proceeds to test and extend such conclusions in another way,
viz. by the differences exhibited by the rays in the different action ofdia-
thermanous bodies upon them, according as they have in the first instance
passed through certain diathermanous bodies, or proceeded direct from the
source. The differences thus exhibited give increasing proofs of hetero¬
geneity.

And one more important, point belonging to this inquiry be investigated,
by platinum heated to successive stages, (lj below 234°, (2) at a red, (3) at
a yellow, and (4) at a white heat; while in each case the heat was reflected
diffusely by various surfaces, and in every instance intercepted by the same
series of screens. (Tables LIf. to LV.)

from these he draws the conclusion, that the differences which the rays
evolved at the successive stages exhibit after diffuse reflexion, ou trans¬
mission through diathermanous media, are in every instance greater at the
singe (4) than at (3); these greater than at (2), and these than at (!)• 0/
in general, that the heat emitted by platinum at these successive stages is
successively more heterogeneous as we advance from the lower to the higher.

Again, with the same body it is not in the mere proportion of the incre^c
of temperature, ns such ; nor in different bodies does it follow any proportio11
to the temperature (as before observed).

1 he author hints generally at the relation between these degrees of hetero¬
geneity and the differences in the nature of the luminous rays emitted ; hut
without laying down any very precise or clearly drawn distinctions as to their
characteristic properties.

T runs mission of Heat through Crystals.

ON RADIANT IIEAT.

349

crystal. When the plane of polarization coincided with the axis, the heat
transmitted was the same in all directions. But when perpendicular to
the axis, the differences before observed in the unpolarized rays, were in¬
creased.

No difference could be detected between the cases when the rays passed
along the axis of the crystals, and the plane of polarization wus respectively
horizontal or vertical.

M. Knoblauch now proceeded to try whether the rays which exhibit
quantitative differences as above, would show qualitative differences in the
same cases; that is, differences in the power of transmission through diather-
manous bodies.

The diathermanous bodies employed for screens were blue, yellow, red
and green glasses.

After transmission through a brown vock crystal, the proportion of rays
penetrating the different screens differed in the two positions, parallel and
perpendicular to the axis, only within errors of observation.

With the rays previously polarized (as before) sensible differences were
observed, the plane of polarization being vertical.

The heat was in all cases greatest through the yellow ami red glasses,
rather less through the blue, and least through the green.

Another set of experiments, in which the plane of polarization was hori¬
zontal, gave no sensible differences.

Rays traversing the crystal along its axis, also exhibit no differences, as
was likewise the case with rays perpendicular to the axis.

With beryl similar observations were repeated ; with blue glass the differ¬
ence is very small, for yellow rather greater: the author infers a real dif¬
ference.

With polarized light and with the plane of polarization vertical, the differ¬
ences are much greater with both glasses.

With the plane horizontal no difference was found.

Common light, passed through two cubes of beryl according as their axes
were parallel or perpendicular to each other, gave great differences with the
yellow and blue glasses, and in an opposite ratio in the respective cases.

W ith tourmaline exactly similar results were obtained in the corresponding

With dichroite also the author says, “so far as the examination extended,
qualitative differences dependent on the direction of transmission have also
boen observed.”

At the conclusion the author makes some observations in explanation of
‘he phaanomena : these may be more briefly and clearly expressed thus: —
file unpolarized rays incident along the axis of the crystals examined or
parallel to it, undergo a certain absorption dependent on the nature of the
crystal ; and this is no further modified, since in this direction there is no
double refraction.

W if the ray be incident perpendicular to the axis, it is divided into two,
oppositely polarized; and these are differently absorbed.

I hut which has its plane of polarization parallel to the axis, has the same
^sorption as along the axis. That which has its plane of polarization per¬
il ‘nilicular to the axis is absorbed more or less than the former, in different
'n different crystals, and for the different component rays,
hen the unpolarized rays are incident, then the result is compounded
these separate effects.

singly 1 ra’VS prcviously Polarizc(l are employed, the effects are displayed

350

REPORT — 1854.

The author considers that these distinctions fully account for the observed
phenomena.

Upon this we may observe, —

The investigation cannot with correctness be called one on the transmis¬
sion of “ radiated heat" in general ; it is restricted to that peculiar form or
case of radiation which is manifested in the solar rays, and proves nothing
as to the radiation from hot bodies, or even that conveyed in the rays from
artificial lights, unless, as iuferred, by analogy. All the differences observed
depend simply on the unequal absorption of the rays of light by the crystals
and the coloured glasses.

Melloni’s recent Experiments.

In the ‘ Comptes Bendas,’ No. JO, p. 4-29, March 6, 1854, Melloni gives
some brief remarks in reply to certain objections raised by MM. Provostaye
and Dcsains against the accuracy of experiments with the thermo-multipHer
on the passage of heat through screens.

lie points out as the sources of discrepancy, the ob/u/ue passage of the revs
through a thick diathermanous screen, which is greater or less according
the distance, and gives different effects of internal reflexion and absorption
in different cases.

To show that the errors objected arise solely from this source, he desc —
a careful repetition of his experiments in which it was guarded against.
The series of experiments included the usual set of sources, viz.

00 The flame of on oiMarap;

(2.) Incandescent plutina kept up by vapour of alcohol;

Id.) Plate of copper heated by lump ;

00 Vessel of hot water.

Equalizing the effects on the thermo-multiplier by changing the distance
and interposing a rock-salt screen, the diminution of effect appeared the
same for the first three sources, but greater for the fourth.

But this last result he contends was simply due to the greater proximit)
of the source, and consequent greater differences of inclination of the ray;,
and when equalized in this respect, the difference in nuestion disappeared, or
might even be reversed.

In the same notice Melloni refers briefly to other results which have bee11
obtained by means of rock salt.

(1.) Jhat with a prism of rock salt the maximum of calorific effect in the
solar spectrum is thrown further from the limit than with other
tnermochroiques.

the radiation from the sun diminishes from the centre to the
r“ ereUCe ;i \,at t,,e radiatio» from the spots is less than from the resle

wLB“„^“tyM;w,-qUa,0ri01 reSi™ °f the *"*" ‘kf

“ t'L'Z t0 ,hat 1 b«« informed that in a wort enti&J

.rtat modi&dtil n°t Jong since published at Naples, AI. Melloni has «*r
trine of the id m f!“T opmions, and seems disposed to assent to the
according st,! ? °f tbe ' “!'a »h'<* produce light and heat, or heat ah*!
.om/of is fo™1"' B,trStor, )vave"iength ; and I, a! explained and r*»fj
more pUiset™;„;!,ffiOUU'C'S' 1 ‘^Kt t0 be «-»• al l**- “ 8'

efforts' tetUT i,,;,'ormcd. Iias b«# led to admit that the cbt*^
teristic of peihaT^e Jer^hs™1' Se‘ °f r“yS’ diff<!ring °"'J "

°lc, the question of the evidence for and against this theory it

ON RADIANT HEAT.

351

one eminently deserving of being fully discussed. I can only pretend in
this imperfect report to have suggested some of the materials which may
assist in forming some judgement on this point.

Analogies of Transmission of Light ami Heat by Waves.

The very important researches of Mr. Joule on heat and the dynamical
theory to which they lead, though referring directly to heat in its action on
bodies as temperature or as latent heat, yet are not without a bearing on the
subject of radiant heat, as has been in some degree pointed out in the excel¬
lent Address of our President of last year. (Report, 1853, p. xlvii.)

Mr. Joule’s theory, though not as such dependent on the wave-theory of
heat, is yet eminently in accordance with it, and so far lends it much sup¬
port If we suppose the temperature of a body to arise from vibrations of
its molecules, such vibrations may be excited in it by the vibrations of an
atherial medium surrounding and penetrating that mass of matter. In this
respect the close analogy with sound is preserved. These vibrations of heat,
however, produce mechanical changes in the constitution of the medium, they
cause it to expand, i. e. they drive its molecules to greater distances apart ;
and when carried to a certain extent, cause a fresh and sudden separation to
alar greater extent; accompanied with anew arrangement of these mole¬
cules, or a change of state in the body from solid to fluid or from fluid to
aeriform. Here the analogy with sound ceases to hold good, except so far
as that a temporary new arrangement of the molecules is occasioned by the
sonorous vibrations. The transmission of luminiferous waves has a velocity,
which, though enormous, is capable of measurement. Whether that of the
longer non-luminil'erous but oaloriforous waves is the same, has not been, I
believe, experimentally verified, but must theoretically be supposed the
same; unless indeed it be only approximately the same for waves within the
Narrow limits of the luminiferous scale, and diverge from that value beyond
‘hose limits.

Again, the passage or process of the vibrations in a body receiving heat
** « to this conduction of heat there does not seem to be anything strictly
analogous in sound. In general, the passage of light through transparent
bodies excites in them no vibrations capable of affecting our eyes with the
sense of light, i. e. the medium docs not become luminous, unless we except
he case of the phosphorescence of fluor-spar and some other bodies after
exposure to light. So far indeed as the transparency is imperfect , and in all
bodies, the vibrations which constitute light are stopped, or changed iu
• a manner that they give rise to vibrations in the body constituting heat,
Ju.*f ^ those longer vibrations do which constitute that species of radiatiou
? I"1 ‘s derived from the mere cooling of a hot body ; but this does not occur
n ransparent bodies. It would seem to be the law, that if a ray, or a series of
wes of the proper length to be luminiferous, impinge on. an opake body,
tey communicate vibrations to its molecules, which again transmit to the
Grounding tether other waves of greater length , which in like manner tra-
f »P>ceand can again excite vibrations in bodies on w hich they impinge ;
./ J ‘rom any source a body have internal r derations of a certain intensity
ether forming wans, or of what lengths, we have no means of deciding),
r . lraDiimit to the surrounding mther vibrations which constitute waves of
^ * greater than u certain given length, via. that which belongs to the
luminiferous rays. II its internal vibrations are increased in
a c<;rt;l'11 P°’nt> >t then acquires the power of communicating
.„„i ( ',.on 'he last) other vibrations to the sether forming waves of other
Ua 6lualler lengths, so as to give rise to light.

352

REPORT — 1854.

Origin of the Solar Heat. Professor W. Thomsons Theory.

Some very important speculations have been brought forward on the source,
and thus bear on the nature , of the solar heat, by Professor Thomson* in
immediate connexion with the theory of Mr. Joule, and on the principle that
the energy of the heat thus emitted must be accompanied by an equivalent
expenditure of mechanical force. On this principle he institutes numerical
calculations; the main results of which, together with a brief exposition of
the principles, may be given as follows: —

The kind of force acting, or the source of solar heat, the author conceives
may be expressed by several hypotheses, each of which he examines:—

I. The supposition of the sun being simply a body intensely heated an

losing its heat by radiation or simple cooling. ,

This he considers quite untenable, as well on theoretical grounds advanc
in some other papers, as oti the simple consideration that if this were t™1'
the sun would be extinguished in a very short time.

II. The hypothesis of chemical action or combustion of any kind.

Supposing one of the combining bodies to be supplied trora any a o

sphere, the products of combustion would be so enormous astochoe
lire, if gaseous, by preventing the access of the air in question, or, i so'
or liquid, by preventing the supply of fuel; and according to the mecnam
theory before mentioned, a numerical calculation shows that the who e m
of the sun could scarcely last 8000 years, without being all consume ,
generating, by its own burning, the heat which is actually emitted, ne <•
if the sun is a fire, the fuel must be supplied from external space. u ^
mass of coal or iron or potassium could not reach the sun from eX
space without generating thousands of times as much heat from its ®0' '
as it could possibly do by its combustion. Combustion is probably, ■
fore, insignificant, if it exists at all, as a source of solar heat. .

III. The hypothesis of meteors Calling into the sun and expending
mechanically, has been started by Mr. Waterstonf, who supposes such
to be attracted and fall directly into the sun from remote extfa-pw11 .
regions. ttti-

The supply of meteoric matter necessary according to this theory', “ ■
mated to amount to such a mass as would cover the sun's surface to a F
of 30 feet in one year. ,, jyj

I he author, however, considers it probable that meteors aC*aa ^
into the sun, not directly from distant spaces, but by the actioa °j.a.r .
ing medium surrounding the sun, which contracts the orbits in which )
arc revolving round lmn. He conceives that these meteors must be mov d
within the limits of the earths orbit, or we should be continually sr
by them ; and that they arc probably the matter of the zodiacal light- ^
It is however quite conceivable that that cloud of small planetary
may once have extended beyond the limits of the earth’s orbit, and ®
,n m*lote periods the earth may have been exposed to such falls ot tn
as to have materially raised its temperature; and hence a possible source
those high temperatures which once existed. ,

But to return to the effects of the resisting medium : owing to its retem»
turn, the approach of these bodies to the sun is gradual, and on tins hyp*
thesis a calculation similar to the former would give the result that
sun must be covered to a depth of GO feet in a year, or a mile in about eig .

P»rt '■ °"

t British Association, Hull Meeting, 1853.

ON RADIANT HEAT.

353

eight years ; which would occasion an increase of 1 " apparent diameter in
40,000 years ; a change of course utterly inappreciable to observation.

The amount of matter thus abstracted by the sun would be equal to the
mass of the earth in about forty-seven years ; but it is quite conceivable that
a quantity of 100 times this amount would not be missed from the zodiacal
light. Thus the sun’s heat might be kept up for 5000 years to come at least.
I his transfer of matter to the sun coming from a source within the earth’s
orbits, would not affect (he conditions of the system, as to the effects of gra-
vitation. °

Some meteors may possibly come direct on the sun from the extra-planet¬
ary spaces, but the quantity of such is probably very small in comparison
with those that have been revolving in approximately circular or elliptic
orbits before falling in.

If we imagine a dark body moving through space and coming into a lo-
rahty abounding with meteors, their impact may raise it to incandescence,
which will cease when it moves out of that space. Thus the author suggests
a possible explanation of variable stars.

(Addition I.) The author gives a calculation of the quantity of matter
necessary to be added Jo the sun, on the extra-planetary hypothesis, and finds
u gives too great an increase of central force to consist with the historical
wnd'tioDs °f the earth’s motion. He concludes the supply must have been
rmiwthm the earths orbit for thousands of years at least
(Addition II.) He shows that the resistance must be very small even close
uicsun, since such light bodies as comets pass through it at perihelion,
hvli'i aItmoTI,crc may be conceived to be carried round in a vortex
K T**’ b,Ut nut moK «!*% a planet n«ulU be at
rplL® J9D,ance* Hence the meteors must long continue to revolve before
tty fJun SUn’ an,t mwsl 80 nmr as 10 1)6 completely evaporated before

h fc, f'f11', ■ hmt}\ Pro(lHCeil> not by solids impinging on the sun , but
(\,\ Trttll0n °f ltw T0tatm9 V(>rtex of evaporated meteoric mailer.
mav Ta '•* Th.° temPGmturc of tlle different parts of the sun’s surface
revolt™ 8reat changes from the eddies and streams occurring in this
streak | raas8, Hence many of the appearances of the solar spots and

oration' a Vi" IV*V‘ ?n the age °f the Bun ” At rate meteoric

incor-

POratl ir 1 / v- true auu* LUC,

iVom rest in°«io nonUlatCtJ’ ^present i station of the sun would be produced
that the Jn ycars’ We mar ,nfer (Bince it; appears very improbable

that the kind a contrary rotation destroyed by meteoric incorporation)

generating Lit Iv "°W g°"lg °’V canm>t have been going on and alone
future up u a !'?, presenl ?'te> fo,‘ more than that period. Vat the
with that of m ‘ r nmSS °f tbe 20(,iacal bght is small, in comparison
planets and «. *e BU°l lom V* Pr°ducing no sensible perturbation on the
The sun’s rlVmayiC ?rC lt,cannot ke^P up the supply for 300,000 years,
possibly vf.ru * l0H mS becn ,by 110 means accurately determined; it may
test the theory0 30 amoun* wb’cb future observations may detect, and thus

84ecUfrSrati0!! # ?,OScly connected with the former and the general
density uhipi. has. een. Pur8U«d by the Bame author, on the probable
, p ^ n u ^signed to the luminiferous and caloriferous aether.

TransactionTof'L Rn°,mi c" *.0n ,?osslMe Densi,y of the Luminiferous Medium,’ &c.,

1854. wtheRoyd Society of Edinburgh, v«l.xii. partl.

o

Density of JEth er.

2 A

354

REPORT — 1854.

This speculation is founded, like the former, on the data furnished by Pou*
illel's researches on the solar radiation, and Joule’s theory of the mechanical
energy equivalent to the effect of heat produced: the calculation turns on
the assumption that the velocity of vibration can only be a small fraction
(probably not one-fiftieth) of the velocity of the propagation of warn, and
from the velocity of vibration we may calculate the density or conversely.

Hence the author conceives that we may assign a limit, ami that a cubic
fool of luminiferous tether , at the distance of the earth from the sun, cannot

contain less than ( , - - * of one pound of matter.

\ 1 5o0 X 1 0 /

With regard to the results of Prof. Thomson, especially when the now
character of some of the reasonings is taken into account, some difference o
opinion may reasonably be expected. There are certainly many const er-
ations involved which might suggest important topics of discussion ; on t
it is not my purpose to enter: I will merely remark, that in all these m
gations the essential point is the expenditure of mechanical energy m pr
vibrations, of whatever kind. The whole question then assumes a more** J
mechanical aspect j — the sure indication that this entire branch of science is
a state of approximation at least towards that stage v^ich characterizes
perfection of any branch of jthysical knowledge, when all its varied p
mens shall be shown to he susceptible of analysis up to simple coiubina
of the elementary laws of force and motion. ,

I would merely add, that in speaking of the effect of the evolution oj « >
there is nothing in Professor Thomson's conclusion which restricts •
any one species of heat; the essential point is the production oi wwa ■
and his results am thus In entire accordance with the theory vvluch
kinds of heating effect to the stoppage or absorption of rays, in fl“ier * 0[
the extinction or destruction of the vibratory motions, constituting r
different wave-lengths, some of which are also within those linnMl* _
to that part of the scale, which renders them capable of affecting, ou ^

with the sensation of vision; — which (as already remarked) consi e .
on all hands seem now tending to show is the most probable hype ie''5
the subject.

Radiation of Heat from the Zodiacal Light and from the Comet of 18^
Some interesting observations on these points are given by M* Matth'®

in the * Comptes ft end Us,' April 184*3 (vol. xvi. p. 68“)- . .,,r.

On the Siylh of March, AT. Matthicsseti placed at the focus of a
mirror of 1 metre diameter, an air -thermometer, which showed a •
dKauu (la ..it _ .. . •*» i.i * .r ilia mirror

above Its indication in other positions, when the axis of the mirror
rected to the zodiacal light. ,a

He next substituted fur the thermometer, a thermo-electric pile with S*
precautions ; which having its condensing cone

Directed to the nucleus of the comet, gave a deviation of
„ the zodiacal light near its summit
„ the zodiacal light at base . . .

» the part of sky over the sun . .

In other directions

On removing the condensing cone to try whether the effect was doe ..
atmospheric causes, he still found towards the base of the zodiacal W
or 3 .

instead of the mirror he next used a flint-glass lens , 56 centim* diau>eter-
16 centim. focal length.

t

10°

12°

3s

0°

J

ON BRITISH COLONIAL MAGNETIC OBSERVATORIES. 355

With the thermo-electric pile as before, this gave,

Directed to zodiacal light, summit . 2°

„ zodiacal light, base . 4°

„ sky over sun ............. 0°

With a tallow candle at 10 metres distance (whether witli the lens is not
stated, but probably with it, as the experiments would not otherwise be com¬
parable),—

With the condensing cone, deviation . 15°.

This, he observes, shows “ combien est miuime la quantite de chaleur
etivoyee par la luwicre zodiacale, et que 1'inHuence de la comete doit etre
reellement imperceptible par notre temperature.”

It was perhaps this somewhat ambiguous sentence which led Humboldt to
represent these experiments as showing no sensible effect due to the zodiacal
light (‘Cosmos,’ Note 98, p. 394, vol. i. Sabine’s translation).

lu the lace of the experiments, however, we must adopt another interpre¬
tation; a„d perhaps what the author means is the distinction between the
ramant heat affectingtlic thermoscope, and the temperature communicated
to the atmosphere ; which are manifestly different things.

ike experiment with the caudle, if made (as seems to he implied) with the
, f ,an important verification of the fact of the heating power belonqinq
® ogld from terrestrial sources.

iJ^^ult wiih the zodiacal light also shows that at least a portion of its
My cooling ^ SpCcieS' a,,d ,l0t dePende,lt 00 to mere loss of heat as a hot

It is, however, but right to add, that indications of such extreme delicacy

too liaUn referred t0’ ha?e been ,ooked upon by some physicists as almost
o liable to uncertainty to be entirely trustworthy.

On som of the results obtained at the British Colonial Mannetic
Colonel Edward Sadine’ v-pjl8-

Nation inf!!? Wl‘ic!1 ,t0®k P,ace at Newcastle in 1838, the British Asso-

ciation in fulfil „ i i'dh-usui, m io,)o, me untisn asso-

i'-Hituted _! , T'r • *he first a,nu,,K8t tJi« objects for which it was originally
scientific • gmilg a stronger impulse and a more systematic direction
thS!S,“reC°mmCn,ded t0 1,er Government the pro-

vaiicenipnt nr*i? eXP®nse ot researches which were required for the ad-
of iDdividli Ini' Scloncetof terrestrial magnetism, but were beyond the means
t.iL h..t to Carfy 0,,t’ 1 he8° researches were of two kinds, having differ-

for which" ,resPect,s connected objects. By one class of observations,
*- - ! ne.aK1 °* naval expeditions to unfrequented parts of the ocean

Was renuirod it . . , . , cxpwuuona to untrequented parts of the ocean

®f thejrlobe’nf dc8Kcd. t0? determine the distribution in different parts
^taction and lirtwi*1*®?611!* forc‘: of t,le eanh In its two manifestations of
n'®de at stationary ac,l.on- % the other class of observations, to be
distant from each mbl? °-r‘? P aC,e< at Point9 0,‘ t,,e earths surface very
toe particularities nf Jod,c,oa% selected, it was proposed to ascertain
Jrar In all fhan?G « found to take place from y

force, bv Ibini. It he le 1,1 tkc direction and intensity of the ma

ear to

’"rce, by whieii 1,1 tllc direction and intensity of the magnetic.

®Dy otie epoch -!e Iua£n.cdc 8tatc of the earth corresponding to

hematic order whirbm^T1 7fuG’ Insensil),y> but with a regularity and sy-
nfest the existence of natural causes as vet unknown

2 a 2

356

REPORT — 1854.

to us, into successive forms of distribution, which, after the lapse of con¬
siderable intervals of time, are found to differ very widely from each other,
This change has received the name of secular change. By this second class
of observations it was also proposed to trace the laws, and, if possible, the
causes, of certain small periodical and other variations, superimposed upon
the mean magnetic state of the globe, which, at the time when the observa¬
tories were undertaken, were generally believed to be in some way or other
connected with the variations in the temperature of the earth or of the air.

For such observatories, our colonial possessions, dispersed as they an’ in
almost all parts of the globe, and presenting almost every variety of climate
suitable for a thorough examination of the supposed connexion between th<
maguetical and meteorological elements, afforded excellent positions ; and it
was believed that amongst our naval and military officers employed for the
protection of the colonies, many might be found possessing the ticcewarr
acquirements and disposition to conduct the observations upon a prescribe
plan, which should be prepared by a Committee of the Royal Society ana
sanctioned by the authority of the President and Council of that body.

I he recommendation thus made to Government by the British Associate,
and strengthened by a similar recommendation from the Royal Society, h*v,D?
been acceded to, measures were at once taken for carrying out both e IK'
of observation; and an appeal was at the same time made, through the pis
authorities, to the governments of the principal nations of Europe and Amcro
to participate in the inquiries by causing magnetic surveys to be ma 1
their respective countries, and by establishing fixed observatories to canj“
for a period of limited duration the same system of observation as that oi «|

in the British Colonies. .

In both departments of inquiry the instruments and methods rW.
the research were for the most part novel. It was to be expected,
tha the exjenenee of the first two or three years would be expended
veahng deficiencies and in Biurirpatimr mndiiientions and improvement •

the research were for me most pai

vool' J *pe.nence of the first two or three years wouiu uu «-r*-n
veahng deficiencies and in suggesting modifications and improvements.

n°l 1,0 until foie were devised and brought into use tl
system ot nhsnrvntl.... _ U r • , . . I .1 ... .....niiinw. A re

edition

.ml o. .L"'”“V'V.W,4° u! *!je Wa* oocieiy wu, in i ^

.forth

e 7 u,llu tneae were devised ana urougm ■

emrmn observation could fairly be considered to commence.

«uiu0n of the instructions of the Huval Society was published "> 11 , f
fwttt3 at the of the British Association at Cambridge

continpio8? a,Utilu,L‘d by special invitation by many of t,ie ( ll<* a forth
a " ., tal observatories which had adopted the British system.) 't0 tt
Ko?ernm!lW^ T*6 to the British Government, and through
nuance of 5? i°ther Pountrio8» to prolong the period for whic

1’hp ni.„. '• observatories was originally sanctioned. .pronin*1

dation, nTU1nU pftrf takpi* by the British Association in
the results ?' Produce^ 'n its members a strong desire to e
before ti!'' 'C ia<* been obtained by their means, and to Jjf vf :u, (four"
in which tl l? a m°re popular form than in the quartos fill? roU„deda
them nrr* le observations themselves, ami elaborate itivestigahoi- . D,^
reasonahlpPn" td' l ,,eir wishes in this respect, which were p

ObservatoriM0'6 com™"nieated to me, as the Superintendent 0 itr8tjan «

the affairs of '* -by my C0,lcaSucs ^ with their

sentation I nnSl. , -Association; and iu accordance witu for ik

present meetine a °°^ at OUr meet*'ig last year at Hull, P nP0btai°^, '
means of the Brit‘71#™ '' ! “ 0,1 SOme of the results which had 1*®% „ to
request howem fVelt T181 ?*«*** Observatories"
the firs moment at w ill r,8l,f t0 state niy ful1 beI,ef

ON BRITISH COLONIAL MAGNETIC OBSERVATORIES. 357

required that no conclusions should be stated but such as were, at the
least, tolerably assured by concurrent evidence drawn from the different
quarters from which corroboration might be sought; and this implied not
alone the completion of processes of reduction to which the observations from
the different observatories must necessarily be submitted, but also the addi¬
tional labour of a coordination of the results obtained in different parts of the
globe. The time, indeed, is yet Far distant at which anything like a complete
view can be taken of what is capable of being elaborated from the immense
mass of materials accumulated in the lust few years ; but it is possible that
the time is arrived when a first and partial report might be made which may
not be altogether unsatisfactory.

1 have said that the request made to me at the Hull meeting was to prepare
a report to be included in the volume containing the record of this year's pro¬
ceedings, and as is usual in such cases, to form the subject of a sectional com¬
munication. It has since beeu stated to me by the gentlemen whose office it
has been to prepare the arrangements for this meeting, that a communication
made to the Association on a subject on which it 1ms taken so strong an
interest, would be preferably made to the members of the different Sections
united at an evening meeting. Now it lias long been the cherished custom
ul (mr Association that its members should undertake cheerfully, and without
hesitation, whatever duties nmy be allotted to them; and however I may rea-
»"iiably distrust my own suitability for so prominent a position as that which
jam placed in, I have been sensible that I could not with propriety decline it.
t would, indeed, ill become your General Secretary to depart himself from
a.u obligation which lie has so frequently urged on others ; and assuredly
here is no one who has had more experience than I have had, that the person
wio does his best to discharge the duty assigned to him may feel sure of
receiving from you the fullest and most considerate indulgence.

n considering then how I might most profitably use the opportunity which
ms een afforded me, I have thought that by confining myself to some one
'ranch ol the inquiry, I might hope to be able to convey, in the time to which

address ol this nature must necessarily he limited, a more satisfactory notion
” i at ‘n progress of accomplishment, than if I were to enter upon a more
x ensive field ; and I have selected as the topic most likely to interest the
unbtTs of the Association generally, t he evidence which wc think we have
mac • e.x's^ence a direct relation between the small periodical
of^gnetic fluctuations which are obviously superimposed upon the mean state
hid 6 i ' 8 maSnet'Hn,» an(f the two other bodies of the solar system, the
ten-pqi'1, i ni0011’ which, if magnetism he a cosmieal and not simply a
relation4 a^enc^’ be expected to afford some indications of such a

di,i°tTencil,S- ^erefore, with the Sun;— the first point to which I will
variat'mnUlpatient'0n 18 l!10 change which is found to take place in the diurnal
inor | hie needle in different months of the year. To make this the
nation0 11 1'3’ PBr^aPf» desirable that 1 should first give you a brief expla-
gUgpe , ,c . rna* variation itself. It was long since observed that a magnet
ofevervih 0rizo,!f:i^-v.’ a compass needle for example, undergoes in the course
four hnn*J f 9o Varia*>n *n !,s direction, returning at the end of the twenty-
MJinetinif.- n , » P09*tl0n which it occupied at their beginning. This is
hours of t|Ca i 'l0r<,fy variation, because the direction varies at the different
cycle in J - *1, an<* sometimes diurnal variation, because its period, or the
there is still'01 i var'a.*'on !S completed, is that of a solar day. Although
fois perindiiUfl taat is obscure in the mode in which the sun may produce
ai fluctuation in the magnetic direction, we are at no loss to re-

358

REPORT - 1854.

cognize the sun as its primary cause, not only from the circumstance that its
cycle or period coincides with that of a solar day, but also from the fact that
the same changes of direction are found to occur at different places on the
globe situated under different meridians, at the same (or very nearly the
same) hours of solar time at each of those places. Thus, for example, in
England, the north or marked end of the needle points to the extreme west
of its daily movement when tho sun is about two hours past the meridian,
and the same thing is found to take place at the same hour of local time over
the whole of Europe, although, as you are all aware, the absolute time cor.
responding to the same solar hour in the eastern and western parts of
Europe is very different. The diurnal variation having thus its character
dependent on and determined by the solar hour , we have this warrant for
regarding the sun as its primary or original cause.

It has also long been known as a general fact that in Europe the amount
of the diurnal variation is greater in summer than in winter, a fact wlueu
found a ready explanation in the prevailing opinion which ascribed the mag¬
netic variations to thermo-electric causes, or to some other less definite
modes of operation of variations of temperature, and which were naturally
supposed to act with greater intensity in summer than In winter, inasmuc
as the diurnal variations of temperature are greatest in summer; yet thea*
were not wanting, even in the last century, observers in England who remand
that the increase of the diurnal variation in summer by no means comci t
with, but considerably preceded, the period of the greatest summer heihW
also the period when the variation oi' teniperaturo in the course of the flay
was greatest. Hut their remarks appear to have hud but little weight in op
position to a favourite hypothesis, and it lias remained for the jar j*101
extensive, more varied and more decisive conclusions derived from the o r
vations of the British Colonial Observatories to generalize the phamomena, J
manifest their utter irreconcilability with the explanations which wou'
ascribe the change in the amount of the diurnal variation in different pa
of the year to local variations of temperature , and to show that the irufl
planation must rather be sought in some more direct action oi the sun on
magnetism of the earth. .

I shall endeavour to make this clear to you by a graphical represc-nia i <■
which will require a few words of preliminary explanation. 1 he part o ^
general phmnomeiion of the diurnal variation to which I desire s]ieei»l ?
dnect your attention, is its alteration in character and amount w ui *■ '
parts of the year and in differeut pnrta of the globe. This part of the y
nomenon admits of being viewed separately ; the mean diurnal variation
the year, the mean in fact of all the months, constituting, as it were, an
or a zero-line, in comparison with which the difference which takes pW#
the diurnal variation in the different mouths may be shown, and the alien »■
may thus bo brought to bear more immediately and more exclusively,
what may be not inappropriately termed the annual variation of the

i lt raaf .b,° s,,own with the greatest simplicity for any!#*11 "
T.i for every month of the year thedilfej^

uml the mn ketwefln the mean diurnal variation of the w ho « .

the alterZn d,!Pf 1 Variation » that particular month ; and by comp**

vors ihE iv , ,Ch. y° fi,,d tn ^ P^ce in tl.e different months a ^

<R.Ktedywftha?te? T‘ eacb otl,er on the surface of the earth, and iWJPj
teinneraturpVI^A eac l lcr 1,1 regard to all those physical chann*^
nositfon "Lh,’Ch arc dependent on and vary with

!ions are dL n t0 test decisively the question whether those ^

° local circumstances, or are the result of some general

ON BRITISH COLONIAL MAGNETIC OBSERVATORIES. 359

affecting in the same way, and to the same amount at the same time stations
thus widely separated and contrasted.

When the lines which thus represent the differences between the mean
diurnal variation in the year, and in each of the months of the year, are
drawn, they are at once seen to separate themselves into two well-charac¬
terized groups, one consisting of the six months when the sun is north of the
equinoctial line, and the other of the six months when he is south of the
equinoctial line. This is found to be the case alike at stations within the
tropics and at stations in the temperate -cone, and not in one hemisphere
only, but in both hemispheres.

In every case the six months from April to September, and the six months
from October to March, forming the two distinct groups, may be repre¬
sented by mean semiannual lines from which the individual months com*
posing the respective groups differ comparatively very slightly, whilst the two
semiannual lines, us compared with each other, exhibit very marked distinctive
characters, particularly at the hours when tbu sun is abovu the horizon ; and
these characters are essentially the same in all the varieties of geographical
position which T have enumerated.

For the purpose of illustrating this remarkable fact, for the knowledge of
which we are entirely indebted to the Colonial Observatories, I have placed
m a diagram * the corresponding phenomena at St. Helena, an island in the
middle of the ocean and within flic tropics, — at Toronto in Canada, in the in¬
terior of a great continent, in 4-3° north latitude, — and (it Hobarton in Van
Diemen Island, in 43° south latitude. The lines in this diagram are in each
rase drawn from five years of hourly observation. The plain or black line di¬
stinguishes in each of these three figures the phenomena of the same period of
th« year, namely the six months from April to September; and the dotted line
the other semiannual period, viz. from October to March. The horizontal line
in each figure is the mean diurnal variation in the year, and the upper side of the
horizontal line corresponds in every case in an easterly, and the lower side
to a westerly deviation from it. In viewing these throe figures, it is scarcely
possible to doubt that they represent substantially fine and the Baiue pbteno-
toonon, The magnitude and the inflections of the curves aro not indeed ab¬
solutely identical, but they approach so near to it, that wc may well suppose
die small differences to be very minor modifications, which may some day
receive their explanation in minor modifying causes.

Now, pliffinoinena so ucarly identical in character and amount, and yet pro¬
duced simultaneously at stations so widely dissimilar in geographical position
jted climatic relations, must have other causes than the very dissimilar varia-
'°iis of temperature which take place at those stations in the course of the year,
ituated in opposite hemispheres, the summer of Toronto is the winter of
obarton, and vice versa ; whilst at St. Helena (in the tropics) the distinction
0 summer and winter almost ceases; the sun being vertical twice in the
J car, viz. in February and November, and the epochs of maximum and qri-
1Im“m °* temperature being very different from those at either of the extra-
ropical stations. The sun's passages of the equator from north to south at
e September equinox, and from south to north at the March equinox, are
viously the approximate epochs of transition from one class of phenomena to
ie other, alike at each of the three stations. The influence of the epoch is the
In®* similar effects are produced, whether the station itself be north or
"it of the equator, and however diverse may bo its climatic or its magnetic
motions. '['fie three stations include a difference of latitude of above 86°,

No* 4RcJro.J,C6,i hom the “ Proceedings of the Royal Society," May 18tb, 1854 (vol.

360

REPORT — 1854.

and a difference of longitude amounting to nearly half the circumference of
the globe. It is difficult to resist the conclusion that an effect so general
and so simultaneously produced points to a direct action of the sun upon
the magnetism of the earth.

Now as to the precise epoch when the phenomena pass from the repre¬
sentation which is given by one of these curves into the very dissimilar phe¬
nomena of the oilier semiannual curve: — The separation of March which h
in the one group from April which is iu the other, and of September in the
one group from October in the other, suffices to point generally to the suns
passage of the equator as the epoch of transition. Hut by taking our mean
representations for shorter and more critical periods than monthly one,
(seeing that the equinoxes occur nearer the middle than the end of their
respective months,) we arc able to press the identification still closer, aud to
ascertain that the mean of the three weeks from the 1st to the 21si of Sep¬
tember, being the three weeks immediately preceding the day ot the .vp-
teraber equinox, scarcely differs sensibly at any hour of the day from the
semiannual mean of the preceding half-year, and consequently that the phe¬
nomena of that semiannual group have undergone no sensible change whtu
a mean is taken corresponding to the tenth or eleventh day before the up

nox. On the other hand, when a mean is taken corresponding to the three
weeks succeeding the day of the equinox, namely the last nine days in Sep¬
tember and the early days of October, of which the mean corresponds to me
10th or Uth day after the equinox, the transition from the character ol
the preceding six months has not only commenced, but has already advanced
very far towards its completion; and by the middle of October is quite com-
plete, as the line corresponding to the middle of October exhibits no trace
whatever of the semiannual characters which ten days before the equuiox
had undergone no modification.

Io recapitulate; — the mean line corresponding to the ten or eleven »)*
beforelhe equinox exhibits no trace whatever of the commpnceroentofacba»gf*
1 he mean line corresponding to ten or eleven days after the equinox exli‘ lb
the change as having commenced, though not yet complete. The mean
corresponding to twenty- five days subsequent to the equinox (viz. the ™
hue for October) exhibits the transition fully completed. Such are the 4
at the September equinox. A similar investigation in the case ol the Ja|(
equinox shows in the same way ho trace of change ten days before the < T l
nox; and the change commenced, hut incomplete, at an equal perioiU
the equinox. Apparently the progress of the change is somewhat w*
ardy in the March than in the September equinox In both "
have the indication that the commencement of the change synchro^;
wnh the equinox, but that a certain interval of time, a few days more orkj
rGt*u‘re(? .for ,lts completion. This appears analogous to the change nW*
is operated in the induced magnetism of a ship, when she changes her r1'
graphical portion and by so doing changes her position also relatively*1
It hudhZneFaUBSf u1”0!1 itt the easc of tl>e ship is the terrestrial magnet^;
beirint. °und that in such cases the induced magnetism ot the > f

tervalVf0 timers ?• ■" f ? chttn8e iu her Position commences; but iWJ*

ronnectld Wit h » <variablV P«“tly with the rapidity and other

the iron she emu *• cb“n8e of position, and partly alsowiththedegreem v
the change is co mnWrl 5US°ePtib.lc of immediate magnetic change)
its inducing cause *. ,nduced magnetism is again u accoid ^

# ' * e have no reason to suppose that the effect o

ibid. 1846, art? xviib nn* su iP, o' l®2,’ i.5^; ibid- 1844, art. vii. pp. 88, 99, and lh'11.

ON BRITISH COLONIAL MAGNETIC OBSERVATORIES. 361

external inducing cause acting on the magnetism of the earth would be dis¬
similar from that which we observe to take place in the iron of a ship.
When the magnetic heterogeneity of the materials at the surface of the
earth is considered, the supposition can scarcely be thought an unreasonable
one, that the change which may be operated in the earth's magnetism by
the sun’s passage of the equator, supposing the sun to have a direct magnetic
influence on the earth, may commence with the epoch of the passage, but
may not be completed until a few days subsequent to it.

The next instance which I shall bring before you, in which a direct action
of the sun appears to furnish a better explanation of the phenomena than an
action operating through the agency of variations of temperature at the par¬
ticular stations, is connected with the earth's greater proximity to the sun in
one part of her aunual orbit than in the opposite part. The orbit being an
ellipse, the perihelion, or nearest approach of the earth to the sun, is in De¬
cember, and the aphelion, or greatest distance from the sun, is in June, the
amount of difference being about one-thirtieth of the mean distance. Now
i! there be any portion of the earth's magnetic force which is derived from
the sun, it would be reasonable to expect that the intensity of that portion of
die magnetic force should be greater in December than in June, and that
this effect should be general over the globe, and exhibited of course in both
hemispheres. It might well have happened, indeed, that the whole effect of
the sun’s magnetic influence might have been so small, that the difference in
the effect due to a fluctuation of not more than one- thirtieth of the mean
distance might have been insensible, or at least too small to be cognizable
hv our instrumental means. It. docs happen, however, that we do find by the
observations that there is a small annual variation in the intensity of the
Magnetic force of the earth, and that it is shown concurrently by the observa¬
tions in both hemispheres, viz. at Toronto and Hobarton, and that this varia¬
tion coincides with the supposition which has been spoken of, being an excess
of the force in both hemispheres in the month of December as compared
"'id) June, and nearly to the same amount iu both hemispheres, viz. about
two-thousandths of the whole magnetic force of the earth. This amount,
though small, is not beyond the competency of the instruments or of the
methods employed to determine it. It is the result at each station of several
years of observation, but the excess in December is also shown when the
whole period from which the mean is derived is broken into smaller portions,
dud this result been obtained in one of the hemispheres only, say, for ex¬
ample, in the northern hemisphere, we might have supposed the increase in
, magnetic force in December to be in some way connected with the
"niters cold in that hemisphere; or if obtained in the southern hemisphere
jl e' a connexion might have been imagined with the summer’s beat; but
be same effect being found to take pluce at the same period of the year
•dike in both hemispheres, notwithstanding their opposite climatic circum¬
stances, seems to remove it from the category of effects which can be
ascribed to local variations of temperature, and to assign it a place amongst
Other concurrent indications of the direct magnetic influence of the sun.

fiat the most remarkable evidence, and the least intelligible upon any other
"apposition than that of a direct magnetic connexion between the sun and
it- earth, is furnished by the knowledge which we have gained through the
ritish Colonial Observatories*, of the existence of a periodical fluctuation in
1C disturbances (or magnetic storms, as they are sometimes called),

* Phil. Trans. 1852, art. viii. pp. 113-124.

362

REPORT — 1854.

which corresponds in a manner and to a degree which can scarcely be ima¬
gined to be accidental, with an analogous fluctuation which recent observa¬
tion has also discovered in those affections or obscurations of the sun's disc
which arc known to us by the name of the solar spots. It is unnecessary
that I should occupy your time by entering into questions much discussed
by philosophers, iu regard to the probable physical nature of these spots; it
will suffice to state the fact, that when the* sun is viewed with a telescope, his
luminous disc is found to be scarcely ever free from dark or ashy-colourcd spots
of irregular and variable outline, appearing 'and disappearing »t uncertain
times, and having no fixed period of duration. They are occasionally, though
rarely', so large as to be visible to the naked eye when the brightness of the
sun is partially veiled by thin clouds or by vapours. Fur several years past
the solar spots have been the subject of cureful daily observation, particularly
in Germany, by which it has been learned that the number of the spot*, and
the space they occupy on the solar disc, vary considerably at different time,
and that the variation is of a character which we can by no means regard as
accidental, since it follows with great regularity a law nf periodical alternate
increase and decrease, continuous and progressive from a minimum to a
maximum in a period which corresponds nearly with five of our yearsfand
from a maximum to a minimum in a period of similar duration. Several such
periods of alternate increase and decrease have now been observed, so as
thoroughly to establish the fact and the regularity of its occurrence, the
spots usually appear in groups, and to give a notion of the magnitude and
the variation of their number at different times, it may be stated that in the
years of minimum the number of distinct groups appearing iu the year '»
usually between thirty and forty; whilst in the.years of maximum the num¬
ber is between 300 and 4-00. The years of maximum, since the solar spots
have been subjected to this careful examination, have been 1828, 1837 am

1848; the years of minimum 1833 and 1843. . ...

Now, before we come to the parallel circumstances of a decennial periodi¬
city in the magnetic disturbances, it may be desirable to premiie a Icj
words of general explanation respecting these phenomena, of which ho
greater part of our knowledge is so recent. When the Colonial Magnp11
Observatories were established in 1840, little more was known of them than
the fact, that at uncertain nud apparently irregular times the magnetic ' me
tion nud force were liable to be affected by seemingly capricious ebaugef
sometimes of very considerable amount, and occasionally succeeding fa|'J
other with great rapidity that these affections took pluee at one and W
same tune in different parts of the continent of Europe;— and that the change*
which they induced in the magnetic direction and force observed wim"1
those limits, were generally simultaneous (in absolute dine), an<itf)8gK«
degree similar. A connexion had also been inferred between the disturb
nnces and tl.e aurora borealis, from the circumstance that auroras of rent¬
able brilliancy had been frequently known to occur at times when
netic instruments wore unusually disturbed. Now, the observations at w
Colon, a| Observatories have, in the first place, extended and rendered

kn°w,^1Ke of t,ie generality of these phenomena. They ha
Z n ! I)arb °f the 6lobe »»ost distant from each other are affe^ \
but tbat when places thus simultaneously af**1
Thn mnsf ^' r^0"1 eaeh ot,,LT’ tl"“ ^ts at each mav be very dl*dmil£
mr ntsT! £ n 1°. COn,P',.rison with the variation of the meteorological^
duration |,n« ^ C, estabbsb ^,e existence of any mutual connexion. 1
rencc extend?. S° keen ,0UI1C* t0 be as apparently uncertain as their »
rence, extending sometimes over three or four successive days withou

ON BRITISH COLONIAL MAGNETIC OBSERVATORIES. 363

intermission. So far they have still appeared to justify the term irre¬
gular which had been originally applied to them. But on a more close
and studious examination, and by adopting a prooess of investigation suit¬
able for the purpose, the frequency with which disturbances of this unex¬
plained character occur, and the aggregate amount of disturbance which
they produce in the different mouths of the solar year and at the different
hours of the solar day, were found to exhibit periodical laws of consistent
and steady recurrence. In the case of the hours, for example, and confining
the attention to a single station on the globe, it was found, by concurrent
results in each of several successive years, that, the greatest amount of dis¬
turbance occurred at a certuin hour, ami the least amount at another certain
hour; and that this was the case both in the direction and the force, though
not at the same hours; aUo, that the disturbances which increase the force
had certain hours of maximum and minimum, and those which diminish the
force certain other hours of maximum and minimum ; and that, in n similar
manner, the disturbances deflecting the needle in one direction Imd their
lixed hours of maximum and minimum, and those detecting the needle in
the opposite direction bad also their own particular hours. It need scarcely
be said that laws which, os may easily be supposed, arc somewhat complicated
in their results, are nut obvious in every disturbance that occurs; but certi¬
tude in respect to the stated regularity of their occurrence is obtained by the
employment of the method which has been so fertile of late years in the
establishment of so many natural laws, viz, the deduction of mean numerical
values from a large body of observations, and the subsequent comparison
of these with the mean values corresponding to distinct parts of the same.
I»y the adoption of this method, the periodical fluctuation of which we are
speaking i» found to take place with great regularity at all the stations
at which the investigation has yet been made. The progressions from the
maxima to the minima and from the minima to the maxima are almost
uniformly continuous in the results, even of each independent year; thus
manifesting an existing connexion between the disturbances and the hours of
solar time. By the same method, a similar periodicity is shown to exist in the
disturbances occurring in the different months which constitute the solar year.

At all the stations where the investigation has hitherto been made, the
disturbances are thus found to manifest periodical laws dependent on the
s'dar hours and the solar mouths. The epochs of the maxima and minima
0 l|ie ‘several phenomena lire not the same at different stations ; and for the
complete elucidation of the subject a greatur number of stations will there-
ore bo required than those at which the examination has yet been made,
ut for our present purpose wo have full and sufficient evidence, that whilst
0,1 le (IIIt‘ hand the disturbances occur from time to time at intervals which
are 1101 marked by any other ordinary terrestrial phenomena with which
"e arc acquainted, they manifest, at the same lime, in their details a sub-
orawiatioii to solar times which shows them to have a connexion of some
ini with the sun. Now, if thin connexion could be traced no further, it
'gut be difficult absolutely to establish, that the effects, which have been
ms described, were notin some way dim to those variations of temperature
card 'n *Un occ.as'ons *** the atmosphere anil ut the surface of the
the I conr|cxion, however, between the frequency and the amount of
to wT’T ai|d tbe^ frequency amt amount of the magnetic disturbances ,

’ lien I now proceed, appears to offer no uncertainty, and to admit of no
’ t1, dus nature; for the most careful investigations by physicists of
of th em,D.0,l.Ce a,l(l e*pe«ence have failed to discover the slightest influence
le variations of the solar spots upon the thermic conditions either of

REPORT — 1854.

364

the atmosphere or of the earth. Until this connexion was observed, do
correspondence whatsoever, though carefully sought, had been found between
any other known phenomena, either cosmical or terrestrial, and the affections
which we perceive to take place with so much regularity and to so great an
extent in the solar disc. On this subject, therefore, 1 am now especially
desirous to put before you the precise amount of the correspondence » iih
the magnetic variations which has been discovered ; since, if it should be
continued by farther experience, it may not unreasonably be expected to
throw an important light on many matters of high scientific imporlance,-
such as the nature of the solar spots themselves, the mode of action by
which magnetic effects are produced by the sun upon the earth, and possibly
even upon the nature of magnetism itself.

The observations employed in the investigation were the hourly observa¬
tions made at two observatories, Toronto and Hobarton, the stations beiiij
in opposite hemispheres and nearly in opposite points of the globe. Tie
observations commenced in the latter part of 1842, and were maintained for
five years, terminating consequently in the latter part of 1848. Every ob¬
servation occurring in these five years which exceeded a certain amount o'
difference from the mean value in the same month and at the same hour, was
considered a disturbed observation, and being separated from the rest, these

constituted the body of disturbed observations, which were made the subject

of examination at each station. By assuming an arbitrary and somewhat
large magnitude as the standard of disturbance, the observations separated
wiiro doubtless less in number than would have been the case had it been
possible to have adopted an absolute criterion; but one and the same mas*
nitude having been preserved as the standard in each of the years, the re/a-
tur frequency and relative aggregate values in the different, years were
obtained, very approximative))* at least, in their just proportions. At esc
station the disturbances were found to increase, both in frequency and in
aggregate values, progressively from 1843 to 1848; the aggregate value o
the disturbances in 1848 being, both at Toronto and Hobarton, about tine
tunes greater than in 1843.' It happened that at the very time WPM*
somewhat laborious investigation had conducted me to this result, I had
^ejne, in the third volume of M. de Humboldt’s ‘ Kosmos/ the results o'
.1. Schwa be s observations of the solar spots from the year 1826 to b- 1
then first made public: for the portion subsequent to 1844, and I wasimmi-
tl lately and most forcibly struck by the coincidence both in period and fp
w-ith the variation announced by him in the frequency and amount of w
spots of which a minimum was also in 1843 and a maximum in 1846. o
hourly series of observations at Toronto having been preceded by a ^
houriy senes in 1841 and 1842, a similar examination was made of tin*
years when it was found that the magnetic disturbances as well as the ^

? 13 jlltreased1 ,n, S0,ng backwards from 1843. A similar examination^
wTch aTl\ '"i, *7 Caj,tain You nghus band, recently my assistant at V ^
the ;s° b ie at St* Helena and at the t&pe of Good Hope, a

he series 0f Z?** .COm"lunicat*d by bin, to the lloVal Society. Tk-
s vc tlmn It T ?,,0n8, from which "suits are derived was less «*■
X H°baPtto» ceasing at the Capem«f "

stations is 1813 ^nn I .f,hc JC£tr of minimum disturbance at both the la! ■
Having thiish?ki.le-,nrrea-e * Pr°gre«s've to the close of the sera*
magnetic variation® '5 ,,ndrc5*lon a connexion between certain of
by the termination a!!d^le solar spots, limited unfortunately in respect

nmrkably'accordant0* **u*e °ubser^tiP"« at the Colonial Observatories burn;

w ithm those limits, it was natural to examine whether .

ON BRITISH, COLONIAL MAGNETIC OBSERVATORIES. 3G5

similarvariation was discernible in other terrestrial magneticvariations, which,
like the disturbances, were regulated by solar hours ; and I had soou the gratifi¬
cation of perceiving that the mean diurnal variation in each year (that of
which I spoke in the early part of this exposition) exhibited a variation in
its amount in different years, which, like the disturbances and the solar
spots, had a decennial period; that the epochs of minimum ami maximum
were also 1843 and 1848; and that in the two broken half-periods, the one
previous to 1843 and the other subsequent to 1848, thu same law of alternate
progressive increase and decrease was manifested. In the conclusion of
which I am now speaking, viz. the decennial fluctuation in the magnitude of
the diurnal variation, I was, without being aware of it, preceded (in one of
the magnetic elements, viz. in the declination) by our associate, M. Lamont,
who had perceived it in the examination of the observations of the same
years made in the Magnetic Observatory at Munich, but to whom it is pro¬
bable that the account, of M. Schwabe's observations of the periodicity of
the solar spots was not then known, for otherwise 1 have little doubt that the
coincidence would have attracted his attention.

From the Munich observations, the years 1843 and 1818 were also found
to be the epochs of minimum and maximum in the magnitude of the diurnal
variation of the declination dependent on the solar hours. 1 have since
ascertained that these are also the years of maximum and minimum of a
periodical fluctuation in the diurnal variation of the inclination of the mag¬
netic needle and of the intensity of the magnetic force of the earth, as well
as of the horizontal direction of the needle, at all the four stations at which
the Colonial Observatories were established.

It is fully admitted, that before so important a fact as that of a correspond¬
ence in period and epoch between affections of the luminous disc or photo¬
sphere of the sun, and magnetic variations observed upon the earth, can
he regarded as positively established, it will require to be confirmed by ob¬
servation of the recurrence of the coincidence in several successive periods.
But so far as the limited duration of the Colonial Observatories has permitted
fho comparison to be made, the coincidence thus brought by their means
into public view, and submitted for a further examination, (which it cannot
•fill to receive,) has been manifested alike by every one. of the magnetic varia¬
tions, which, by their dejiendcnce on solar hours, are traceable to the sun as
their primary cause .

lad the observatories borne no other fruit of an analogous description but
,a '''Inch I have thus brought before you regarding the Sun, they would
*®ve been entitled to the distinction of having at least indicated a coincidence
e ween terrestrial magnetic variations and the phenomena of one of the
eavenly bodies, which coincidence is characterized by the absence of any
^jscoverable corresponding variations of temperature-, or terrestrial affections
-"^.through whose agency or intermediation the magnetic changes
In th K* l>ro^UCl ^' toe evidcnccin regard to the sun docs not stand alone,
j e c?s<- °1 toe Moon also, we have been able to trace unquestionable evi-
den i ex'9ter*cc of a magnetic variation at the surface of the earth,
t,!,}1 Jut,on a c'l»nge in the moon's place relatively to the meridian of the
Piiatelv 0)Serjat'0,) at toe different hours of the day, and therefore appro-
rem r ,?ain. l*‘e ^unar diurnal magnetic variation. I need scarcely
of temriA ^ m l*le <rast; nioon> any supposition of the intermediation

would IV* a-S, , I)ro<lucing cause of the terrestrial magnetic affection
to infpi. 1 F . lo» evcu niore improbable than we appear to have reason
9 mter it to be m the case of the solar spots.

REPORT — 1854.

366

In speaking of the lunar magnetic influence, however, it is proper to pre¬
mise that the Colonial Observatories cannot claim the distinction of having
been the first to make it known ; although it is probable that the knowledge
which has been gained by their means, of the different effects which the
moon's magnetic influence produces in different parts of the earth, cannot but
contribute in a very material degree to that generalization of the phenomena
to which wo must look before we can expect to hare a satisfactory know-
ledge of wlmt the moon's magnetic state is. Without entering into parti¬
culars, for which this would be an unsuitable occasion, I may perhaps see-
ceed in acquainting you by n few words with the method by which another
of our associates, M. Kreil, Director of the Magnetic Observatories, first at
Milan and afterwords at Prague, and now Superintendent of the Magnetics!
and Meteorological Establishments in the Austrian States, succeeded in
tracing the existence of the lunar influence of which >ve nro speaking, and
which, with some modifications, I have also employed for a similar investiga¬
tion of the observations collected at the Colonial Stations. The method,
as employed for the Colonial Observatories, is as follows!— The precise
direction to which the magnet points is observed, ns I have already
noticed, at every hour. These are hours of solar time, and differ from
hours of lunar time, inasmuch as the moon takes, on the average, about
24 hours and 40 minutes of solar time from her passage of the meridian on
one day to her passage of tho meridian at the same place on the next day. A
lunar hour is therefore somewhat longer than a solar hour, and observations
made at regular intervals of Solar time do not exactly correspond toanyregular
scries of lunar hours. But the twenty-four observations made in the coupe
of a solar day may be so arranged that each observation may be placed in 4
tabic under the lunar hour to which it is nearest in point of time; am* i®
this arrangement the greatest error that can take place iu the classification of
the observations, according to their corresponding nearest lunar hour, will not
in any case exceed 30 minutes. If therefore the whole of the hourly obsena-
tions for several years are thus arranged, a mean of the observations at each
lunar hour, taken for each lunation or period of about twonty-eight days, or
for several such periods combined, will show the relative direction of t|>e
magnet at each of the 24 lunar hours, or say at 0 hours when she is ou the
upper meridian, at 12 hours when she is on the meridian below the p#'fj
at 6 hours and 18 hours when she is 90° on either side of the meridian, m
at the intermediate hours when she corresponds to the intermediate hour-
angles. Now when this is done, and the results during several lunations are
grouped together, so that disturbing influences from other causes Pity J*
more effectually counterbalanced, and thereby eliminated, the mflg«<'tl’
direction is found to undergo a regular and systematic change iu the coo*’

enn«h- nf r ^ hav,n* *"<> *POohs of greatest easterly-pointing ^
epochs of greatest westerly-pointing between each two successive pa*ag^
eonti?,? ' 0ver,the meruJ,an of the Station, the change in the direction

t«r.:d:ts“,vo from aie ««*«« * ****•

° < *he difl'erent'° -"lor and lunar ti* *• ^

i„ 5™5£ r f lunar hours must include every varlt'l

upon solar hours h ,9° ar '"urs am* consequently feVery variation depend 'j
after the sohr < C?nif‘K. ctfn,P‘!ns^ted ; or the observations may be u*'
eliminated. 'a varlat,on as well as the larger disturbances have b

worth adverting Pecu!iarities in this lunar diurnal variation which
b even in so general and cursory a notice as the pr®8®11

ON BRITISH COLONIAL MAGNETIC OBSERVATORIES. 3G7

they will probably conduce (with others discoverable by investigations still
in progress) toamore intimate knowledge of the magnetic state of the moon,
and may then receive their explanation.

The two extreme easterly elongations take place at each of the three
stations of Toronto, Hobarton, and St. Helena* (the Cape of Good Hope still
remains to be investigated), at nearly opposite points of the hour-circle, as
do also the two extreme westerly elongations; but at each station the elon¬
gations in the two directions are not of the same amount. At Hobarton and
St Helena, both in the southern hemisphere, the westerly elongations have the
largest values, and at Toronto, in the northern hemisphere, the easterly (speak¬
ing always of the north or marked end of the magnet). The lesser elongations
are in each case about two-thirds of the greater. There is also another well-
marked feature of difference at the different stations* in regard to the lunar
hour at which the extreme east and west elongations occur. At Toronto the
easterly elongation* take place ulmost exactly at the timps of the moon's upper
and lower culmination, and tho westerly elongations at the intermediate lunar
hours of6hand I8h. At Hobarton the westerly elongations occur about two
hours after the upper and lower culmination*, and the easterly elongations
about two hours after the lunar hours of 6h and 18b; whilst, at St. Helena the
westerly elongations occur about two hours before the culminations, and the
easterly extremes about two hours before 6h and 18h. It is, perhaps, from
such differences as these, in the effects produced by the moon's influence at dif¬
ferent points of the globe, that we may most hopefully expect to obtain a more
intimate acquaintance with the moons magnetism, to which they appear to be
ascribable. But before this investigation is entered upon, we have yet to learn
thn corresponding effects produced iu the two other terrestrial magnetic
elements, viz. the inclination and the intensity of the force, by processes
™ necessarily occupy much timp, but are in progress.

I must not, however, omit to notice a very Important fact, viz. that in the
terrestrial magnetic variation occasioned by the moon, there is not the
*yhtcKf trace of the decennial period which is so distinctly marked in all the
venations which are connected with the sun.

In the endeavour which I have thus made to meet the wishes of those who
considered that some account, however necessarily imperfect, ought to be now
given of the progress which has been made in magnetic science, by the aid
o the establishments which were so greatly indebted for their institution to
e British Association, I have confined myself strictly to one branch of the
iquiry, which I selected as being the most likely to interest the greater
mn or o! my auditors. Strictly as I have done this, and carefully as I have
imH0V°|Ure^ t0 88 a* the subject would permit, I still Feel I have
onlv i*1 • Cf ^eman(* 00 J‘our attention than L could have wished. I will
othprWn therofore, in conclusion to remark, that the extension, to

in our ^ ^ tllC solar Ry«tem» ol forces which we perceive to be in action
Porta t°Wn ?anet’. caum,t be regarded otherwise than as one oF the most im-
rMearch^11 ^ cou*1* he hoped for from the prosecution of a scientific

bodiL^f tuaterial su^stanccsi solid, gaseous or liquid, of which the other
those whi .1 ° 80 c Js>'.stem ure composed, whether identical or otherwise with
nor do wa! "C UK ’iU °,Mr °W11 P*anet» we have extremely little knowledge ;
tiou whiMi ^eai t0 >e . 'ke ? to '“crease it by auy means of direct observa-
We cai1 anticipate ; but it is otherwise in respect to the forces

* Phil. Trans. 1853.

368

REPORT — 1854.

which bind the different parts of the solar system together in cosmical con¬
nexion. These open to us a field of research which is the more inviting be¬
cause they appear to be regulated by laws of uniform action to the extreme
limits to which their agency can be traced. It is possible, therefore, that
laws which we may establish by means of phenomena within our own imme¬
diate sphere, may reach and explain the phtenomena of other spheres which
might otherwise appear to us veiled in impenetrable mystery; and in like
manner, laws which we may first devclope by studying them in the mutual
relation which they produce between our own and* other bodies, may possi¬
bly give us an earlier or a more perfect command than we might otherwise
have acquired of their controlling agencies in our own plauet. We have
been long familiar with gravity as a force of this description, and with its
extension to every part of the solar system, not to speak of the regions be¬
yond. We have hitherto known magnetism only as a telluric force, of much

less apparent simplicity than gravity', and greatly' requiring a key to enable

us to apprehend its laws, as well as its purposes in the general ceconomy ®
nature. To improve our knowledge in these respects was the object of t e
Magnetic Observatories. But if, as we appear to have reason to believe, we
are to view magnetism not only as a telluric but also as a cosmic d 'or^'
the interest and importance of our inquiries regarding it must undoubtef }
be viewed as greatly augmented.

Liverpool, Sept. 25, 1854.

Postscript, Sept. 26, 1854.

If our highly valued member, Dr. Lloyd, had not been unfortunately Pr^.
vented by, I trust slight, remains of illness from coming to Liverpool
my own voice and strength had permitted me, I had wished and Purll0se |,|
have added, after the close of the above address, a few words. They "
nave been on the great services rendered by him towards the attain,ne .
the data on which the above results are based ; more especially by t“e ® ^
and important aid given by his ability, skill, and inventive genius (0,
instruments and methods of observation with which our Colonial 0bse ^
ries have worked. A full explanation of these would be far too l°n^:Ufc
n£e<^es3 • suffice it to say', that of the instructions from the C*\. „jj
o t ie Royal Society' which I have referred to, much the greatest I11’’ ;ven
. U?. 0 ’ a,,(* besides this, his kind personal instructions were free/ Liijl

ni ose 0 cers who were the first directors of three out of the four
fnrVhJt °yies‘ ut more than all, it is altogether to him that we are 1,1 r the
Srt n n ?-e,r by 'Thich the variations of the vertical compone?
the deeSf ?av,® been ob*erved, without which the vafl*^

tiinorl n i T and- °f the horizontal force could alone have been full) uld
have tpn n !e Yariat,ons both of the inclination and of the total for*
have been only imperfectly made known to us. _ E. S.

ILLUSTRATIONS OF TIIE ANNUAL VARIATION OF THE DIURNAL VARIATION.

JW/ise.-Meao Semiannual Diurnal Variation, March 22 to September 20. Dotted tine.—' The same, Sept. 22 to March 20.

Fig. 1.— St. Helena.

Fig. 3— Hobarton,

370

REPORT - 1854.

Report of the Committee on Earthquakes , with their Proceedings
respecting Seismometers constructed under the superintendence oj
Major James , R.E. By Col. Portlock, R.E., F.R.S.

It is necessary to precede the brief statement which I am about to make, liy
an equally brief notice of the object which, in the present case, the Com¬
mittee desired to attain, and of the circumstances which had given rise to it
In 1848, at the Swansea Meeting, I brought under the notice of the Com¬
mittee of Section A. the importance of observing and recording the earth¬
quake shocks which are so frequent in the Ionian Islands, and the probabiliir
that the Board of Ordnance would be disposed to assist in such an under¬
taking, if applied to by the Association ; by directing some of the many
scientific officers of Artillery and Engineers stationed in the islands torak<
the inquiries, and by furnishing them with instruments for the purpose. As
at that time Mr. .Mallet was engaged in devising the best mode of making
such observations, the Committee thought it prudent to defer such an appi
cation until the result of his experiments had been made known. TtC
valuable Reports of that most able investigator of earthquake phcenomeni
were presented to the Association ; but as uo definite result had been arrive
at in respect to instruments, I again brought the matter forward in isl¬
and Colonel Sabine and myself were directed to communicate with
Master-General of the Ordnance on the subject. Col. Sabine accordingly
wrote to the Master^ General, and alter consulting Sir J. Burgoyne, Major
James, who had been entrusted with the superintendence of meteorology
instruments, was directed to have a pair of Seismometers constructed. tU
they might be sent to the Ionian Islands. In 1S53 the Earthquake Cod*
mitten was re-established* and I was requested to act as the organ of inter*
communication, in order to offer any necessary suggestions in respect to w
construction of such instruments;— but I must turn for a moment from diesa
proceedings to the object to be attained.

Of the ultimate cause of earthquakes we can only conjecture; but, whether
the result of some impulsive action consequent on the sudden developm^1
ol gaseous matter, or of vapour in a state of high elastic tension, or of
other source of pressure, causing the disruption or rending of the earm-'
strata, it seems now generally admitted that thev are waves of vibra^1-
transmitted through the earth’s crust from the focus of disturbance,
t/iey may be expected to he transmitted in all directions, though tbc cur;
o the wave may be modified by many circumstances, depending on A* f ‘
ferent conditions, as to elasticity, of the transmitting medium ; and will ^
ai ive at the earths surface in such a manner, that the curve of the*8,”
*e cupve. of tl,e ewtlfs surface at ancles varying with t •
JJnii.f nf ?! tlv UJt™:C,inn as regards the centre of the wave curve. At w.
tl^v fnr 16 ?, ,nt^r,ioD* the remaining force of the last vibration

-ral wrtTi,fl!!S Jn, il directJo11 Which may be resolved into two loro

were on fh* other tangential the latter being progressive. *•
propoiL ,1 ' 8 SU.rf“ce’ The progressive component will increase

surface at a morn ' ,'?-rtlCa ’ ^cording as the wave intersects the *r V
niate the nmnoH obKUC anS,e> anU «*• md;m that it is essential to -
estimate the v' between *hese elements in order to determine, or at lea-’
SMwo modl' n- ?f t W foen» of disturbance. In order to effect tie
wave itself as o\hl|,"^|lt ,e. ^"SS^ted : namely, 1st. To measure these ""
both vertically and i1?** * ,e f-art,1’s surface by the amount of displacin'

Jo ri eliSc , late™nY; 2ndly. The transmission of the wave into* 1
more elastic substance, and receiving from it the final shock so as to deter-

ON EARTHQUAKES.

371

mine the intensity of the remaining force. The former has been the system
adopted,— directly, in the mode of solid pendulums, and indirectly, by that
of liquid pendulums, — to use the term of Mr. Mallet, their proposer.

Immediately after the re-appointment of the Committee, I heard from
Major Janies that he had adopted, more from necessity than choice, the
form proposed and adopted by Prof. James Forbes ; and that he had found
it unsatisfactory, as a purely vertical force tended to produce a lateral move¬
ment; and this seems a necessary consequence of a construction which in¬
troduces a flexible spring or wire between the pendulum and its support, —
8i this spring bends, and then, in recovering its straightness, produces a
lateral vibration in the pendulum ; but ns an instrument bad been made, it
appeared prudent to submit the proposition to the Committee, as one of
inquiry, as to the possibility of modifying or improving this specific con¬
struction ; and I offered a suggestion as to a disc of metal, supported on a
conical pillar, and armed with a pointer at top, as a construction which might
avoid the disturbing influence of the vertical component. Prof. J, Forbes
made some slight modifications in this construction; aud wrote that he
thought it might be advantageously adopted for determining uoinc forms of
tli'i possible movements consequent on earthquake disturbance. As such, I
fitnt it to Major James, advising him to use his own discretion, as it would
he better to have two of the first construction of Prof. Forbes, than one of it
and another of the disc pattern. He, however, had two disc Seismometers
constructed, altering, for convenience sake, the mode of suspension, so as to
‘•mule the instrument to mark the angular movement below rather than
wove, us in my suggestion. His proposition to do this 1 also submitted to
several member* of the Committee ; but receiving no suggestions for change,
~-and indeed from Mr. Mullet a reiteration of his former opinion, that no
°.'d pflulum could be of any use,— I saw no reason to interfere further
n 1 the construction; and the instruments arc now before the Section,
all Hi nwking aliy further observations on this part uf the subject. I will
RWy t0 the liquid mode of registration— namely, that proposed by
on!' I • in 1,111 “ Adrairalty Ma»u»l.'' This is by bent tubes, £' diameter,

I . ,)eing vertical and closed, the other horizontal and open, each limb
-“f , ,ut of mercury at the bend. Now, a pointer of cork being

to iT U| U,lt0 die °Pen 0ll,l> a sudden lateral shock would cause the mercury
ispiace the cork, which would thus mark the extent of the movement,
ioili tube? j°iQGl1 together, and facing N.S.E.W., would of course
•ate the part.cufar ilireetion of the shocks. An inverted syphon tube,

vertical *1 P[lncM’le>, Mr. Mallet also suggested for measuring the
br ,10c“' Another instrument, on the same principle, is described, by
Frederie * le mven*'on °f Caeciatore, of Palermo, and is stated by
intonsb* Ar° U! ,avc keen used for determining the direction and
inches L earthquake shocks in Sicily. It is a circular disc of wood, ten
eight LnW .Iai,i<'t?‘j w[,t , H smooth bottom and surrounded by a rim with
grooves Prl°U r0 the rim is a circular wooden projection, with eight
the receiv r&Tonclin& t(> tbe holes, and intended to convey the mercury to
vertical ghr^v°r CU|!f ,f acc^ lJelow them. In this arrangement a purely
vertical and hor'LT t 1 * m,a,rked a si,n>lai‘ quantity in each' cup ; but a
to the more Wo.uld coinl,lioate each other. 1 do not here allude

vatiic batterv 1°! ■ “Si* P' T,sed. Mr. Mallet, with the aid of a gal-
de>erminaiirm ,e ‘f 19 8tl l'u^?uing ins inquiries with a view to the future
appears to bi. 1 lL •n°r° Pfr^ect Instrument; but I will observe, that it
much increase , 1 °P1Dl°n °f several oi the Committee, that the difficulty is
y enueavounng to measure all, or even several, of the

2 b 2

372

REPORT — 1854.

elements of great shocks, by one instrument. It would seem, therefore, wi^
to keep the observations separate ; namely, that for time, by itself; for vertical
direction, and intensity of force in that direction, by itself; and for progressive
direction and intensity, by itself.

Supposing only the time observed, how interesting would be the fact, that
in a long line subject to such frequent disturbances, some were common to
two, some to three places, and so on; and, in like manner, that the place
of greatest disturbance should be found to shift, being, for example, in the
Ionian Islands, at one epoch at Zante, at another at St. Maura, and so on ! At
present only great shocks are noticed, but in such regions many minute shocks
might intervene between them. The vertical and the horizontal intensities,
or the extent of the vibrations in those directions, should also be recorW
or observed separately ; but the real difficulty in any ordinary instrument ’»
to make it record more than one shock without re-adjustment; still, howe'er,
bv making the periods of examination ami adjustment at very short interval*,
there can be little doubt that all great shocks would be very closely register*
The chances of overcoming the difficulties will be greatly increased by keepin;
each function separate ; namely, the shock in its vertical component, tin
shock in its horizontal component, and the time of shock; and by due attend *
to any one of these functions, very much improved systems of registry ^5
be devised. And it is probable even that a fitter method may be discovcm
for determining the intensity by some other means than the angular motion,
even by using solid instruments. I hope, indeed, to obtain some data 1 f
this purpose by means of the vibrations in heavy guns, &c. at\AookjV ‘
not, however, desiring to interrupt in any way the progress of Mr. Mallet i
researches; though it is evident that simple and yet accurate forins ot
instruments, cheap in construction so as to be multiplied for as many phCl1
as possible, and easy of manipulation so as to be trusted to ordinary observers,
are the present desiderata.

The disc instruments constructed by Major James, though conforming 10
the general principle suggested by me, as the organ of the Committee,^
probably deficient in weight, and would, therefore, oppose too little mnj-'
to a severe shock to preserve them from irregular oscillations; but®
defect can be easily remedied, they deserve a practical trial. Majnr
has also had constructed a simple pendulum for the same purpose, f ■
another provided with a weight suspended by a spiral spring surround ;-
the rod of the pendulum, and attached to its upper end, the object of
is to register the vertical aud horizontal movements at the same timf*'-'
mode of determination which had also been suggested by Mr.
These instruments deserve also to be fairly tried, as they will anquesl«oj»M
give valuable information on some, though not on aU, the elements of I •
important subject ; but it is hoped that, hereafter, those who pursue
subject will endeavour to perfect the observations of each element oi
however> forgetting, that it is also desirable so to ho

together, that every shock may be referred to its true epoch.

ON THE INFLUENCE OF SOLAR RADIATION ON PLANTS. 373

On the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants
growing under different Atmospheric Conditions. — Part II.

By J. H. Gladstone, Ph.D ., F.R.S.

Since I laid before the British Association my former Report, some of the
experiments there detailed have been repeated, and the investigation has
been pursued further in the same direction. I have the honour now to
present the results which have been obtained.

The experiments about to be described were conducted, not as before at
Stockwell. but in Tavistock Square, London. The locality was not quite so
favourable to the growth of plants, but they had always the advantage (un¬
less otherwise stated) of Btamliug on tables at the windows of a large upper
room having a south-east aspect, so that they obtained the full benefit of
tlio morning and noonday sun. The apartment was never artificially heated,
hut in the winter time it must have beeu a few degrees higher in temperature
than the external atmosphere.

The coloured bell-glasses described in the previous Report were made use
I am now able to give a more accurate description of what solar rays
"ere actually transmitted by them. The effects of the different glasses on
the prismatic spectrum were as follows: —

Colourless glass. So perceptible difference from the normal spectrum.
tellow glass. The red rays were cut. off, but the line C was just visible
mtlie orange-coloured region. The yellow and green portions of* the spec-
rum were quite natural, except perhaps that they were rather more uniform
in colour than usual; the blue was rather brigbtabove the double line F, but
icre was very little illumination in the portion more refracted, and the violet
rajs were quite unseen. The lines D, E, b, and F were very visible.
tm glass. The spectrum consisted of two luminous spaces, separated by
ro*ul band of perfect darkness. The one was of a red and orange colour,
commencing between B and and apparently cut off by the dark line D.
ic other was faintly illuminated with an olive-green tint, commencing about
ie most intensely yellow part- of the ordinary spectrum, and continuing to
ont (which was barely visible), and then passing into a lilac hue, which
HnesF °ft>’ ^ became imperceptible perhaps a little below the

The spectrum had a very singular appearance, consisting of
MdmKi |ll'iiCt *ura‘nou8 bands. First there wur a reddish band of con-
‘ - me brilliancy, occupying a space beyond that of the least refrangible

vi rv r. ° • V Vls,ble spectrum. This was separated by a dark space from a
) narrow but bright band somewhere near the line B. Its colour was
' \er ‘ro,n any of those of the normal spectrum, but perhaps it
britrhf «ou nc,are9It tlp tbe oranKe' Then, after another dark space, came a
r„t Vw- n“ . Kreater width, just above the line D, which, however,
cut oH' ' ,'PercePbble* l he whole yellow portion of the spectrum was
where ’/i . /ere "as n(l ‘humiliation (ill about midway between E and b,
'dure »i,„ 1 6rfcen suddenly appeared. This passed into a pale green,

about F nn' ,W3S iltle ‘humiliation, but not perfect darkness, till at
to the J J ‘ ??fse bIue appeared, continuing through the region of the violet,
F,mdrJrthe m°1- r.e,ranS>b,e P°rtil'“ of the spectrum. The lines b,
Th^,r vp‘7 hist.net, as well as some about d and H.
ilescriminn l*'* • , tran9n‘‘w«l by the various glasses, confirms the

cuts off livPf V1?,Usly Slven B>eir character, namely, that “The blue glass
y ar the greater portion of the luminous rays, but admits the

374

REPORT— 1854.

chemical rays freely : it may also be considered as interfering much with the
transmission of heat. The red glass, on the contrary, freely admits the calo¬
rific influence, but stops the chemical, whilst, like the blue, it diminishes
greatly the luminous. The yellow again scarcely decreases the illuminating
power of light, but almost destroys its chemical action.”

The series of experiments on hyacinths, which was described in the last
Report, was repeated with additional attention to the effects of partial or
complete darkness. The Inrge colourless, blue, red, and yellow bell-glasses
were employed, together with a partially obscured colourless shade, and a
partially obscured yellow shade ; and another experiment was instituted
under a glass shade placed in u large box, so that the light was completely
excluded, except when for a few moments the lid might be removed for the
purpose of observing the progress of the experiment. As in the preceding
experiment, the bulbs were all of the same description, of a healthy appearance,
and of about the same size. After being weighed, they were placed asbefim
on the top of colourless glasses, filled with pure water, and covered with tnr
large bell-jars. In this case the jars were themselves placed upon the p'f-
forated boards, with the arrangement of tarlatane, &c., mentioned in the
previous paper. The experiments were commenced on December I
each of them was successful ; the results accorded in some points with tlio*
of the former occasion, but in other respects there was considerable dis¬
crepancy. The experiments made in partial or complete obscurity were pr-

haps the most instructive. n

Rootlets begun to appear immediately under the dark shade, ant on ur-
cernber 26th, that Is, after sixteen days, they were found to be 1| W
length. They grew rapidly, and were very numerous. They were U
long, and appeared to have little strength. Under the obscured colour _
and obscured yellow glasses, the rootlets also began to grow W- ^
commg three-quarters of an inch long in a fortnight’s time; whi'etad^
bine and colourless glass exposed to the full power of the light, th
d,t notso qutoMy attain any length, and in the same space of
was scarcely anything observable under the red or yellow glass* ,v
continued to grow under the obscured glasses until the bcgtawjg « '
bruary, but they arrived more rapidly at maturity under the influfi' vC„ri-
white am blue light. Under the red shade the roots never a W
siderable length, but they were stout and strong. Under the yellow had ^
was scarcely any growth below the bulb until near the end of January,

°nSo9tl'agr,,g roots maUp their appearance. This is ^‘So-vl
hv ti 16 1 eCt ,liat was observed during the previous season to P ^
by the coloured glasses. This shows that the development of ^*VufjtT
■ , ,e nlost l *n the absence of all solar radiations ; tlrnt Pn' , .,eri»!
S also favouralde; that the less refrangible rays of the
power to re ard their growth, and that the luminous and calor^ .
peculiar actions of their own. . anv0fti*

As to the haves, little appearance of growth was observable m ■.
hyacinths till December 4Pth, when tlfose under the cdou*^^
those .,n?an.t0 shoot; thHt u«*der the red glass followed very ^
ZZZSr.P.’f" aml tUe Partially and wholly obscured ifgfa
1 1 ’ f-° , °r about tliree weeks (oncer. The leaves grew most r.| Uert|,r
varfous him1 1,0 comparisons of the length of the lca^j, „» ,bf

ia^ZdSS^v?WneC9 be interesting. They.

not one of ff " hen all the plants were m v'Sor0“;cp|an^ ^

attained ££% ^ «”d' ^ “* P

ON THE INFLUENCE OF SOLAR RADIATION ON PLANTS. 375

February 13.

February 21.

March 22.

Under the

colourless glass .

4 inches

6 inches

11 inches

blue „ . .

6

8 „

14

red . .

3 „

5 »

11 ».

yellow „ .

2 „

3

8 ..

obscured colourless glass

3 „

34 „

10 „

obscured vellow ,,

3 „

34 „

12 „

f»

dark glass .

3 „

4 „

10 „

The flower-stalk very nearly kept pace with the leaves. There was a
(treater difference in the periods at which the petals opened than in the
former series of experiments; those under the blue and colourless glasses
took the lead, and those under the partially obscured glasses were the last.
They opened for the most part during the last days of February. Under the
red shade two flowers grew, but they were thin and straggling : the same
was tin; character of the plant that grew in the dark. There were two flower-
*talks under the partially obscured colourless glass; they were never deve¬
loped, however, but were found at the end of March losing their colour and
.coining rotten. The experiments wore terminated on March 22nd, except-
ln8 die two under the partially obscured glasses, which were allowed to con-
"nue Wl the 30th. The respective lengths of the flower-stalks were then, —

Under the colourless glass . 13 inches.

» blue „ . 13 ,»

» red „ . 12'5 „

» yellow „ . 12 „

» obscured colourless glass . 1 »

m obscured yellow „ 10 i,

•» dark H 13 »

hJT hyacinths having been removed from the water in which their roots
tu.n„.)eeJ1 'totoersed, were suffered to dry in the open air ot the room for
twenty-four hours, and were then weighed.

d r tlle colourless glass .

blue

red ” |"|” .

yellow . || HI!” .

obscured colourless giass
obscured yellow
dark glass .

If '

8‘bal weiu|!'i' °/,?'Jsfrv'riS the actual increase of weight, we compare the ori-
follo'ving propVrtS n>Ulb W*th that ot'the Tully developed plant, we obtain the

^nder the colourless glass as . 1000 : 1596.

” „ . ... 1000 : 1708.

” red „ . 1000 ; 1680.

” yellow „ . 1000 : 1395.

” “bscured colourless glass as . 1000 : 1822.

obscured Uow . 1000 . !784.

" dark 1000 : 1579.

Primary weight
of bull).

Fully deve¬
loped plant.

Actual

increase.

936 grs.

862 „

856 „

1009 „

873 „

872 „

763 „

1494 grs.

14 72 „

1 438 „

HOG „
1591 „

155G „
1205 „

558 grs.
610 „

582 „

398 „

718 „

684 „

442 „

3/6

REPORT — 1854.

llns increase m weight in the growing hyacinth is due to the fixation of
water, and not to the decomposition of carbonic acid in the atmosphere ; at
lea^t a smaller bulb which was placed under a colourless shade, and cut off
from the external atmosphere by the edges of the glass dipping into water,
grew and flowered perfectly well ; and when removed from the shade on
i larch 22ud, and dried as the others were, it gave the following weight:—

Primary weight of bulb. Fully developed plant. Actual increase.

6'25 gw. 1 ifj7 grs. 542 grs.

or as 1000 ; 1867,—

a larger proportional increase of weight than in any of the other experi¬
ments, the actual increase being about the same as that of the other plant
which grew under the colourless glass.

The leaves that grew in the dark were perfectly etiolated, excepting just at
trie tips, where they showed the normal green colour gradually shading <iU a*
it descended. The leaves that appeared in the experiments with the obscured
glasses, were somewhat lighter in tint than those growing where the direct
radiance of the sun could find access. The character of the light, under
which the flowers were grown, did not affect their colour at all in the way
that might have been expected. They were all, as on the former occasion,
o an equally deep purple ; even that which grew in complete darkness «•
lumted the same depth of colour in all the petuls, excepting a few of th®
ow or ones. 1 he purple flower under the colourless glass when fading turrn
to red; and this was also the case under the blue and yellow glasses ; bu
he flower under the red glass showed no trace of red colour, even when
W iUlte 8lTe led "P. nor was there any such change in the intense purple
tha appeared where light was excluded. * t ,kl

P2iraen‘s ^ those just detailed, it is difficult to separate jjuj
tj g f*le *J®4et adventitious circumstances from the gemnne
which tva ^ °^Ifc,l)t. However, we may safely remark in the exper*
off* tl»i, vas conducted in perfect obscurity — the rapid and abundant g
I nZlTP t']1’ general healthiness of the plant, the
alteredV •»’ 1 16 Produc^on of the colouring matter of the Bo" > j

6 ,1 ,ts s,d sequent fading. The two experiments performed »

of the ? ?Ptarr' as cloSf,,y '‘Hke as possible, until the last week, when

ofthem ,,e(1, Tl,e fact the chemical rays were cut off ft**
with the nt!adV10 apparent difference. Their backwardness, as conP J
position wbi^r fl°Wers vvas Probably owing to their having been ptaJJ (|).
full li<ri,f pf?/ 'vas somewhat colder than that of those which rec _ .

modified n t 6 ?Un< , tweets of obscurity were observable m ^
plants did T\** tp,e3r both absorbed touch more water than ^
rooj a, d'}nn cteffect 0f thc ** glass in interfering with tb
and in tho r 1 duC'Dg a bat*ly developed plant, was observed bjth
W o? IT:' «Crics °f cxr'orimrnts. Us power of prevent** io

causing !| ‘ is rt-'»r“kablc. The effect of the ycIlo"hf’ ,|,e

absorption of few ?nd straggling, and m

appeared to a. . , Was also noticed in both instances. A»e

PS Z £ ° of the hyacinth. ft,

its production bn i0Ur,".g maltCr of leaves requires the action o j ^

observations hy {w l ^ .lum"lous «•)*• From aua °« ' a' „ Joined

hold good in rJspectVo anU otbers’ the sa,me 1,a5,Scinth ^

other witness aR u? t'.olours of flowers, but the purple hyac

A number of pxn °-' 1 inc^uce us to doubt this too hasty eon -
number of experiments on germination were made during the T

ON THE INFLUENCE OF SOLAR RADIATION ON PLANTS. 377

Tlic seeds experimented on were those of the wheat and the pea; and in
every case both were employed, in order that if there should be a different
effect of light on the monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants, it might
be seen. Seeds of familiar plants and of great commercial importance were
cIium a. as it was supposed a greater degree of interest would naturally attach
to experiments on them, and it might happen that some observations of value
to ilit* agriculturist might be made.

The first series of experiments was made in common air, under the seven
various influences of coloured light and obscurity which have been described
in treating of the hyacinths. The coloured shades were arranged before the
windows, as described above, aud they dipped into plates of water, so that
throughout the experiments they were filled with un unchanged atmosphere,
wturated with moisture. Twelve groins of wheat and twelve peas were
taki n fur each separate experiment, and their weight was noted while they
“•’re still dry. They were placed on bricks within the glass shades, the
bncks standing in the water, so that they were always damp. Another
arrangement was made, similar to that just described in every particular, ex-
'ipt that the seeds were in the open air of the room, without any cover.

the experiments were commenced on April 2 1st. The following is a
. e 0 . the weather, and of the temperature taken in the shade at mid-
tin^ * j l^e *'nie that the various experiments with peas and wheat con-

M

May

April 22.
,, 23.
>. 24.
.. 25.
.. 26.
» 27.
.. 28.
,> 29.
30.
1.
2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.
11.
12.

13.

14.

hen c

|*»'K

cloudy

May J5.

fine

09

do.

10.

variable

65

do.

„ 17.

fine

66

variable

„ 18-

cloudy and wet

61

do.

GO

„ 19.

fine

66

wet

57

„ 20.

do.

67

variable

50

„ 21.

...

do.

50

„ 22.

cloudy and wet

64

„ 23.

fine

65

wet

55

.. 24.

variable

63

variable

„ 25.

line

66

do.

59

„ 26.

do.

67

fine

01

„ 27.

wet

63

variable

63

„ 28.

...

cloudy

00

29.

wet

63

56

„ 30.

do.

63

variable

„ 31.

fine, but cloudy

65

wet

00

fine

66

fine

58

„ 2.

wet

63

cloudy

02

„ 3.

fine

65

fine

00

„ 4.

...

cloudy

64

cloudy

63

05

» 6.

do.

63

h April ofi.u 11 Uie ,wo-

the seven ni,* *U *;;0|>n-seeds were found just beginning to burst
end. puJL Bses’ 'hose under the obscured yellow' being the mot
* under i|,0 e{ Bl‘°'vth whs visible the following day under thatglas

under

end. Po-ST”* ll,ose under the obscured yellow' being me most ad-
1 under n,« e{ ^l0" lh was visible the following day under that glass, and
appear in an 8CUret* c°lourless, and the yellow, though the plume did
‘"rlcsg mill || Ca*e ‘HI the 29th. On May 1st the radicles under the
■>Urp<l colouplo ° 8 , 08 "erG of considerable length, but those under the

^ r,<l wpre longer, while the longest were under

!upe4 colourll i n 29th plumes appeared under the red an

88 {passes, and in the dark. They appeared two days later

378

REPORT — 1854.

under the colourless and the blue, while the seeds under the obscured yellow
had an unhealthy look. On the 4th of May long etiolated leaflets were found
in the dark; under both obscured glasses the wheat had also shot up long
leaves; under the red and yellow glasses there were plumes of 1 or 2
inches in length; while under the colourless and blue they only reached
half an inch. The wheat-plunts under the colourless glass then began to
grow more rapidly, and soon gained the advantage of those under the blue,
and still more of those under the red. On the 8th they measured 3 inches,
while those that had grown in the dark measured 6.

On the 12th the wheat-plants were more fully examined, and drawing* of
them were made. It was then found that under the colourless glass teu of
the twelve seeds hud grown. They presented very uniformly the appearance
given in Plate IV. fig. i, — leaves erect, of a full green colour, from 4 to.'
inches in height, roots long and thin, five in number, taking firm hold of the
brick. They Imd no side rootlets, but were fringed with hairs. Under the
blue glass, the wheat appeared like that under the colourless, but smaller.
Under the rod, ouiy four plants gr ew like fig. 1 , and they were not so regol.u
in form, size, or general aspect as those under the colourless glass. Font
others had grown somewhat like fig. 2, where there was this peculiarity,—
the green stalk had been unable to burst the transparent membranous sbeat .
and had forced itself out in a kind of loop, at that part where the oluat •
sprung out of the seed. The roots were generally flaccid. Under the yellow
glass, the radicles were so strong, and bent so decidedly downwards, that ic.
nosed the seed completely on end ; they were thickly covered with
1 he stalks were short and strung, and generally bent in the manner repuj
rented m fig. 3. Under the obscured colourless glass only seven
germinated: they were all like fig. 4. The leaves were of a P"f °
colour, and had not succeeded in bursting the membranous sheath ; t e -
were very long, Under the obscured yellow glass, the plants wri
greener colour than the preceding; six of them were like fig-* e L
that the leaves were very much taller, perhaps 7 inches high' W ' .

all the p ants were weak, and of a very pule green colour, w® J |ikl.
the radicles had many rootlets branching out from them ; >°“r ^

hg- 5 ; two others were smaller and had second leaves, while othei »

very short in the leaves. .

, ,,uf> plants under the colourless glass continue ^ ^

heakhdy : hairs along the roots became very long and thick. « lef

22nd of May, ramifications of the rootlets began to appear. 1 l‘e P . pm|,-;
the blue did not continue so healthy, imr did those under the rea.
the yellow glass, both the upper plant and the roots continued ' ^
Under the obscured yellow glass and in the dark, the plants also ^
glowing. On the 26th, a more full examination and fresh r g 6.
made. Under the colourless glass there were ten wheat pi®#® *e:r
generally 8 or 10 inches in height. Under the blue
several very tlm, weak plants, only about 2 inches high. L 0f thru'

SanJi T|deVd0|,mC,,t was to the ex,tmt of fig* 7’ 'J1,116 breaking ,l'

p ants. The rest that were growing had not succeeded w b “ ^

the v r,?noU8 8beath, but were contorted ill their efforts to e? I • [gj,;

» tlm'" bad grown like those under the

three others were not so fully developed, while the remaining ° r „n

fiooe X ; "1° «>««* bL*. gi*» «he >■

since May 12th. Under the obscured yellow, 1 found six Pla,,t gla=*
hn/ rh dark> the.P,“nls had grown much as under the obscured J
but they were still longer, weaker, and paler in colour.

ON THE INFLUENCE OF SOLAR RADIATION ON PLANTS. 379

On Juue5tb, the experiments were stopped. The plants under the colour¬
less glass were healthy in every respect, and were of a better green than any
of the others, Under the red glass, one of the plants was found to have
shot up several small leaflets outside the transparent sheath, which it had
been unahle to pierce.

The following table shows the number of seeds of wheat which had put
forth roots, and the average length of the principal roots; and also the
number of seeds from which plants had grown, together with the average
length of the principal leaves.

Roots.

Leaves.

No. of plants.

Length.

No. of plants.

Length.

Colourless .

10

2’5 inches

10

10 inches

Blue . .

6

075 „

6

4 ,,

lied .

8

3'5 „

4

•1 „

Yellow .

7

2 !!

(1

9 „ '

Obscured colourless .

6

3d „

3

2 o

Obscured yellow

i 5

;:ia - }

7

8 „

Dark .

1 2

7

2 5 „ J

3 M

6

13 „

a ue plants were removed from the bricks, spvead out on the table, and
allowed to dry in the air for eighteen hours. The following table shows the
I (/f those which had grown under each of the various conditions of
'ght. The original weight of the twelve corn-seeds was in each instance
grains, giving as the average weight of each seed 0‘66 gr.

i Colourless

| Blue .

Red . .

I Yellow . .

I SS*CUred colourless'
°hjwn«,l yellow ...

|J'r‘nr?s* in we'g,lt of the plants which had grown under the colour-
"uk r f aud tbe yellow glasses, was due, of course, to the fixation of

of Mlh„°r 1 1610 was 00 supply of carbonic acid from the air, and the quantity
ivry triHhjCg W lich the roots could absorb from the bricks ,nUSt lmVe bee“

air or°»umparative exPp>'iuient in which the seeds were exposed to the open
• v, n :n hl,r°?.m lii(l not come to anything. Not one of the seeds succeeded
ditir ever p 1 le tun,c> doubtless because the dry atmosphere preveu e
The mw* snfficieut moisture, . ,

air, wol ?! sod a^out the germinating seeds, or a constant change o
•n t|,i8 si.riPP0brby bave modified these results; yet the conditions observed
ftll! effect J?,i f,xPc'rt merits were thought necessary, in order to have the
^easarit. , ^di'erent sorts of light about the seeds themselves, for a soil
Purees J P'°1duccs Partial, if not total obscurity. The deprivation of other
c‘rtain Du J!,bon* beytiud the cotyledons of the seed itself, also answered
h«i drawn 0,1 exa,uining the results, the following conclusions may

’ ar as wheat is concerned growing under the conditions o

No. of plants
which had
germinated.

Weight.

Average weight
of each.

Average in¬
crease upon
original weight.

10

31 grs.

3-1 grs.

2'4 grs.

0

4 „

O' G6 „

8

4-5 „

0 56 „

-o-i „

7

8 „

11 ».

0*4 „

G

4 ,,

0-60 „

0 „

7

10 „

1-4 „

0'7 ii

7

9 ”

1*3 i,

0-6 ,i

360

REPORT — 1854.

experiment. The abseucc of the chemical rays favours the first growth of
rootlets, and the presence of the luminous rays does not impede it. After¬
wards the opposite effect takes place ; the roots are stopped in their develop¬
ment by the yellow ray much more than by all the rays of the spectrum in
combination. The red or calorific ray is on the whole the most lavourahlr
to the growth of the roots, even more so than the complete absence of all
solar radiations. The shooting forth of the plume is also favoured by the
withdrawal of the chemical rays, esjieciallv just at first; but the full sod
healthy development of leaves requires all the rays of the spectrum, the
luminous being particularly necessary. Several other peculiarities may be
noted ; for instance, the downward tendency' of the roots under the purr,
luminous influence; the comparatively greater development and strength of
the membranous sheath under the calorific agency ; and the late but abundant
growth of side-rootlets, where nil the solar radiations were admitted.

The results of the experiments on wheat recorded in the previous Report,
where there was the presence of soil and change of air, appear to'indirate
still more clearly the beneficial character of the luminous emanations, for
the plants under the yellow shade were found even to excel those which bad
grown in white light, while, as in the experiment just detailed, the cuUmgo
of the luminous ray by the deep blue glass militated greatly against
health of the plants. The protection of the rootlets from the yellow ruy
may be fairly considered an advantage, but a proper series of expennin"
on wheat-aeedH surrounded by earth is still a desideratum. .

We have now to consider the growth of the peas under the different &ji
influences. It has been already stated that twelve peas soaked W water
placed on the bricks along with the wheat seeds, on April 21st-
21th they were found to be swollen and beginning to burst. The sec
the yellow, obscured yellow, ami obscured colourless glasses, were the
rapid in their first development. On the 29th, the plumes began to ni l
under the obscured colourless, yellow, and red shades, and two ) . f

wards under the blue and colourless. The plants under the Vb**"V* tl*
glass appeared very unhealthy. The radicles grew astonishing , [(i>
yellmv glass, and became very long under the red aud °ta=curT , ‘

On May 8th, the plants in complete or partial obscurity were found to
]"ches high ; under the red, 2 inches; under the yellow, not quite so m
whde even on the ] 1th, the plants under the blue had only ^

themselves, and under the colourless class only one seed bad put to
and that was but half an inch in length. J , „a ffere ^

n the 12th they were more fully examined, and drawing |.

Under the colourless glass, the peas resembled fig. 1, Plate

tie first stage ol development, the principal root short an ^0^.
short and thick secondary rootlets, all fringed with hairs. t"d poder^

• »e peas were in a somewhat more advanced stage, like _ sli)i

£d’..ten P,ant8t had grown somewhat like fig. 9,— roots strafe S Tbt
ending towards the light, with many leaflets of a deep green <*> «

shown ■ ,lie ?d,ow fr* were characterized by enormou® d
Ninp f11, l S* 4, which turned away from the light in a VC,T presents
N;ne of those under the obscured coldurless had the appearanc P ^
lLl?;fC f,,grootai lonS succulent weak stalks, and
bit w tl l°bnCUrCfl yell#nv’ plants appeared for the most £ “
had ! " ' r°0ts‘ ,l,c,ug|i two of them, which were nearest

fe noTr T ‘ a ,ikc tha* represented in fig. 5.
theptas had grown like fig. c,— roots irregular, having few sd tf)D
stalks succulent, but tolerably erect, bearimr vellow leaflets. W

ON TIIE INFLUENCE OF SOLAR RADIATION ON PLANTS. 381

the red light continued to grow healthily, some being 6 inches high on the
loth ; under the yellow and obscured yellow, they also grow healthily ; under
the obscured colourless, the stalks were found on the 22nd no longer capable
of supporting themselves. The stalks in the dark were at the same time
erert, and 10 inches in length. On the 26th, the seeds under the colourless
glass were found to have made scarcely any advance since the 12th. Under
the blue, one had grown tall and healthy, but the rest were very small. Under
the red, the plants were growing healthily as on the 12th, but some of them
had attained the height of 9 inches, and bore three or four secondary
branches. Those under the yellow had grown, but did not appear healthy.
Under the obscured colourless glass, the plants had grown since the 12th
about as much as might have been expected from the time, but they were very
weak. Under the obscured yellow glass there were two very similar to, anil
nearly as large as, those under the obscured colourless. 8ix others were ot
the same character, but much smaller; the roots were very short. The plants
in the dark had also grown since the 12th.

On June 5th the experiments were discontinued. The longest pea -plant
under the colourless glass was then only 1*75 inch in length ; the secondary
rootlets were remarkably short and thick. The plants under the blue ap¬
peared the most healthy ; those under the yellow, whether in full *'8 ,
"bscured, showed considerable inclination to send out lateral branches. 1 ie
■terns of the plants in the dark were white, the leaflets were canary-yellow;
liioM' had grown in partial obscurity were also much etiolated. One
i Peas under the obscured yellow had produced a triple stem, and so
tad one of those under the obscured colourless glass, as drawn in fig- 7-

I he average length of the roots ami stalks of those peas which lmd germi-
^ted under the different solar influences is given in the annexed table ;

Colourless
Blue
Red
Yellow

Obscured colourless
^ured yellow

for cirii»lant8i Were removed from the bricks and allowed to dry in the air
had tatr, hours- T»»e following table shows the increase of weight

£?lo“rless ,

Blue

Red
Yellow

gfa Earless
tSS?* yellow ...

Original weight
of 12 peas.

No. of plants
which had
germinated.

Weight.

33 grs.

10

54 grs.

34-5

12

73

30 „

11

47 „

34 „

11

72

10

83

315 „

10

85 „ ;

31-5 ,,

12

150 „

Average in¬
crease of

* Very various.

382

REPORT— 1854.

It being thought that the disproportionate weight of the plants which had
grown in the dark might be partially owing to their not having become
thoroughly air-dried in eighteen hour.'-, on account of their succulent cha¬
racter, they were exposed in the same manner for forty-eight hours. Their
weight was then reduced to 66 grains, whilst those grown under the obscured
colourless (succulent as they were) lost in the same time only 14 grains;
and those under the obscured yellow appeared rather to have gained weight
The increase in weight in those instances must he attributed, as in the caw
of the wheat, to the absorption of water, and it seems to be in almost reverse
ratio to the healthiness of the? plant ; for those under tire red, which had the
best appearance at first, allowed by far the smallest increase iu weight; and
those under the bine, which were afterwards better looking, had not incrca.** J
greatly.

In the comparative i-xperiment made without any glass shade, mic po
began to germinate* on May 23 rd ; this was shortly followed by two others, but
only oiie of the three grew to any size. When measured on June Cth. it'
root was found to be only 0*75 inch long; its stalk had attained a length c-t
4**5 inches; its leaflets were deep given, appearing as healthy as '* ni’J
healthier than, any under the glass shades, and when removed from »
moisture for eighteen hours, it weighed 5'5 grains, showing an increase
2-7 grains on its original weight.

On examining these results we. are led to draw the following conclusion •
as far as peas are. concerned, growing under the conditions ol the expiri
merit. The cutting off of the chemical rays favours the firatgermin#t|lin^
the seed, and this appears to he the principal, if not the only fl'lvmi»r
of the darkness obtained by burying the semis in the soil. The developing
ol roots also requires the absence of the chemical ray, yet it does noth
o the greatest extent when all the solar inlluencc?s art? excluded)
favoured rather tlun otherwise by heat and luminosity. The totfW
ment of the plume also proceeds best, under the same circumsance .

^e,fre l*1(; conditions which produce, a healthy plant: d al ^
radiations be withdrawn. wh«>tlw*r ™iirpiv m- nnlv to a great ex

„ , Srcatly impedes the growth of these plants ,. uD.
shiner68 n ,t ie < xPc,,ment. As peas grow commonly m th
aro p r W°U ,‘ intt'r08ti"K to observe whether the negativa result
from im"1 6 ab8f!nce of 80i> about the roots, from excessive nit ^
dptnr ■ • G 0t)^r caU30, The experiment, however, affords us ,c t(l
tdhoTm!!!g !• "? ^Ue8tion- The chemical Ibree is the most autago ^
ra PM.’ a,ul ‘"“dnosity also militates agBinst it. ^

tion of wh«* 7.V1 . eSect ot',,,e various solar radiations upon ‘“^ck
the o-reat fi:v 'l.t.1 1 10 offect produced upon that of peas, we# c
II* d r !ty bct^e“ them. This was particularly

to .ta„TSrhU‘“?Xperiwcnt- The colouHess and the red
former i-h,, t n"** ,on tlle tabie, and it was curious to no [tLn; o
iormer glass a tall and vigorous crop of corn-plants with a mere

ON THE INFLUENCE OF SOLAR RADIATION ON PLANTS. 383

stunted roots from the peas, while under the other a thick crop of green
spreading plants arose from the germinating peas, but the wheat-plants were
few, straggling, and unhealthy in appearance. When, however, we come to
look more closely into the phenomena, we see certain points of resemblance.
In both cases the cutting off of the chemical rny facilitates in a marked *
manner the process of germination, and that both in reference to the protru¬
sion of die radicles and the evolution of the plume. The unnaturally tall
growth of the stem, and the poor development of leaves in darkness, more or
less complete, is also common to both these specimens of the monocotyle-
donous and dicotyledonous plant. In both cases too, the yellow ray exerted
a repellent influence upon the roots, giving the wheat a downward and the
pea roots a lateral impulse.

The object of employing a partially obscured yellow glass in these experi¬
ments, was to decide if possible the question which has been asked, Does yellow
light stop germination by some specific action or merely by the excess ot light?
Contrary to the experience of some others, who, 1 believe, have experimented
on seeds covered with soil, and on other plants than those employed by me,
d>e yellow light did not interfere at all with germination, in the experiments
just described. In the case of both plants, indeed, it decidedly facilitated the
early development of both the root and the plume. That the yellow ray,
however, has a specific action of its own, is proved by the most cursory
Ranee at the facts already recorded; the yellow and the obscured yellow
give quite different results from those of any of the other glasses.

he diversity between the effect of the same qualities of light upon the
growth the wheat and the pea leads us to suspect at once any gencralisa-
-tu affecting other nlnnta ivliioli It, MV h« rimwn from the observed influence

UUI r\, UllU Hi t*MVr . I 1

le third and fourteenth days. At the former period ne
ie red the plant had attained 4\> times its original size,

384

REPORT — 1S54.

those which flourished in the open air, while those in perfect darkness attained
the greatest height of all. These last plants perished on the eighth day, and
those in the yellow light on the ninth day, while all the others continued to
vegetate. At the end of about five weeks, the plants growing under the red
vessel were 4 inches and 9 lilies in height; under the violet vessel a inches
and 3 lines; under the water vessel 2 inches aud 10 lines, anil 1 inch and 3 linrs
in the open air. With respect to the general appearance of the plants, the
leaves of those which grew in red light were smaller and less smooth than
those of the plants in violet light, or than the leaves of the plants confined
under water, or than the leaves of those which grew in the open air. Ai
to colour, the leaves exposed to yellow light wore at first green and after¬
wards became yellow ; those in red light appeared green and preserved a
tinge of that colour; those in violet light were quite green and their colour
augmented with their age ; while those raised in obscurity possessed ft”
verdure at all." These experiments were repeated on French beans wh'1
nearly similar results, but beyond the observation that “ in proportion as im¬
plants grew in height, in different kinds of light, the number and size of the*
leaves diminished," his attention appears to have been directed only to tin
question of colour*.

Besides the experiments already detailed in this Report, and those on wheat
and Malope trifida described in my former one, I have a lew other obsena
tions on the effect of various qualities of light on the growth of plants rom
the seed, which it may be worth while briefly to record. They wereiMK
on the Co Winsi'a biculur of the florists, and Mignonette. . .

beeds of the ColMmia were sown in garden mould in glasses, sna p
under the colourless, blue, yellow, red, and darkened shades, on a tabic w
tore a window which had a N.W. aspect. 'The perforated boards were
for supporting the glass covers. The experiment was commencec on
6th of July in last year. On the 9th it was found that germinationhiul 'a

p ace under each glass except the yellow, where no plant grewunfiltW :

L ndcr the colourless glass, ihe plants grew and flourished till the 1 8 -

of August, when they all faded and died. Under the blue and red g
they grew well for awhile, but began to droop by the 26th of
under the darkened glass existed rather longer, but they weretal OT
and the eaves did not fairly open. Only three plants germinated Mm
yellow shade ; they were all unhealthy and died before the 26th- , " j

4th, seeds were sown afresh under each glass. Much the same ora
growth was observed. j, J

On October 12th, a hundred seeds of Mignonette were sown m f
seven glasses filled with garden mould. They were placed a ^
an meh below the surface. Six of the glasses were eove'ed
- ' the colourless, blue, red, yellow, obscured colourless, and ^
yt ow s ades, and the seventh was placed in a dark close . xfipKt
o saved that the closet was rather wanner than the room. 1 ^r.

af tnr begtui fir8t t0 germinate in the dark, then under the “ ^

“ few days, they appeared under the red, “ J

nnd the obscured colourlesa glasses. 'toc yellow ray IongreM d- jrJ
y their germination. Those in the dark w* >

J°" °!o; Dtft ,U »l»ut November 1st; the others «*■*&'&» *
orfnn 1 ""ier thc colourless glass, which was found still ah

gieen loaves on December 10th. „ , *

The investigations of many experimenters have shown

* I'rom Ellis’s “Farther Inquiries,” &c.

OX THE INFLUENCE OF SOLAR RADIATION ON PLANTS. 385

necessary in the germination of seeds. The explanation given is that that
dement is required for instituting the action that converts the fecula of the
cotyledon into sugar. It is unquestionable, that in the majority of cases,
plants after the first stage of their growth require a certain supply of car¬
bonic acid, by the decomposition of which they obtain carbon, setting free
oxygen. My brother and I have shown that plants will exist well for a con¬
siderable time in an atmosphere devoid of oxygen, for instance in nitrogen,
hydrogen, coal-gas, or carbonic oxide. In order to see the effects of all
these atmospheric conditions on the germination of wheat and peas, the
following experiments were made during the latter part of May and the be¬
ginning of June.

Six wheat-seeds and six peas were placed on folds of linen floating on
mercury, and covered with a colourless glass jar having a capacity of about
20 cubic inches. The linen preserved the seeds from the mercury, and
jras kept wet by the introduction of a small quantity of water. The jar was
full of atmospheric air, and was placed on the table before the window having
8 S.F.. aspect. After a couple of days or so the peas germinated, and shortly
“towards the wheat. They grew for about a week, and retained a healthy
■ppearance much longer. The experiment was twice performed with similar
results, and showed that the arrangement was applicable to the proposed
wpenments.

A precisely similar arrangement was made in a jar containing 29 cubic
‘“p es of hydrogen gas, and having in it a tube containing pyrogallate of
J® h0 113 absorb any trace of oxygen which might be accidentally
[I erii* In the gas> or might be evolved from the seeds themselves. In four
ba(S |S"0'*en Pfeas had begun to burst. 'They put forth short radicles,
„1 n.° Ph"ue, and in about a week afterwards they were all decaying. The
; 'H 9 10„Wed no appearance whatever of germination. This experiment was
lWT Mnmed with the same result.

N0t r rh arran®^neut was made in a jar filled with carbonic acid.
TJisvdUr 4 ? aPPe.arance was indicated by 'either the wheat or the peas,
m, e' e('» becoming soft and swollen, and emitted a most offensive smell
^removal of the jar.

tion of p!me4-WMdone 1,1 a Jar filled with common air, anti containing a solu-
which i./'iY? P°tash *n entail capsule, so ns to remove any carbonic acid
lul the np 1 u glVRn off by 11^ seeds. In about three days both the wheat
Kr„w for ai» ? . be8ua to burst5 four out of the six of each continued to
the cnrhn.,in°U -j a,,tl remained healthy afterwards. The removal ot

Uut j„ . c aci(l> then, did not affect the germination. I subsequently found
hiquirv inhf P|cnment' 1 had almost, exactly repeated one of Mr. Ellis s in his
of seed/’ y.,.° n cbanSes produced on atmospheric air by the germination
the iar hnii i e en,Pl°yod peas, and satisfied himself that all tho oxygen
The effort ahsorhed by the germinating plants.

®»wjcc of h,„. 0,1 the germination of wheat and peas under the in-

S^es, havim, lfleient scdar radiations was also tried. The small coloured
f*P*rtinem*wL iCaIlacity «f 172 to 177 cubic inches, were employed, and the
' a already ,1 ™ .^‘'dueled like those under the coloured shades which have
?" the 8th hnfi a*iCd* S(-f*ds were placed on the bricks on May 2nd.

b,,t they s’,,1 tlie wheat and the peas had burst under the colourless glass,
dead ~.ecame mouldy, and before the end of the mouth they were
“°t those umliYfi.86^8 untJer the yellow glass ran much the same course;

and b l l!cb,ue glass, though they did not burst till the 11th, gf*

J ,nches. ‘ Th 26th ‘wo of the wheat plants had attained a height ot 4- or
1854. fte experiment was discontinued on June 5th. The plants

386

REPORT — 1854.

were removed from the brick for desiccation, and on the following day the
five of the wheat which had germinated were found to weigh 8 grains,
giving an average of 1*6 grain for each, or an increase of 0*9 grain on the
original weight. All the six peas had germinated and weighed 26 grains,
giving an average of 4*3 grs. for each, or an increase of 1 *6 grain on the
original weight.

Thus far I have proceeded in the investigation. Many interesting in¬
quiries naturally suggest themselves; some have been already alluded to, for
instance, the influence of light upon the colours of flowers; the amount of
exclusion of light effected by the soil ; the different condition of solar in¬
fluences required by wheat or by peas at later periods of their growth ; and
the extension of the observations to other seeds. Other questions might I*
raised, such as, — What character of light promotes best the absorption «
oxygen in germination ? At what period in the growth of a plant doesoxygn
become unnecessary? Is oxygen requisite for the full development of »
bulbous-rooted plant ? Does carbonic acid act specifically in the prevention
of germination, or merely by the exclusion of oxygen? How far does 1 1
rapid development of a plant in an early stage interfere with its heal .
growth at a later period ?

Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1853-54. By the
Baden Powell, M.A., V.P.R.S. §c„ Savilian PrqfessoroJ w
metry in the University of Oxford.

I have once more to lav before the Association n series of rach.°]2j
ions on luminous meteors during the past year, as the kindness o ^
friends, to whom I have been indebted on former occasions, haseii
to collect, together with a few notices from other sources. 1 L y,
par icularize the valuable assistance rendered by the Ilev. J- ■

Fascl, Esq., C. Hillard, Esq, and E. J. Lowe, Esq. The Kgft
tions of the paths or many meteors by Mr. Fasol are remarkable
clearness and accuracy of their execution. . . je bin<W

I deenlv avocations has i still

ouier tnends to science in this work.

Supplement to the Report of 1852-3. On the August Meteors, • ■ ^ ,

rpfm-ndf!l°n t0 the Nervations recorded in the last Report, ^ ”n"in E
. of this periodical phenomenon seems to have been 'velln v given,
whS t?6 f0 l0'';ing deUliIs of continental observations are ’ J i„ tl

Report of kst year. * F91*'*” «" >“ ‘° *

C°o±:r>^° Anoalou, 1853, No. 9, p. 192-
10th Of A G T',er K,ves the hourly maximum of meteors from
10th of August, lor different years" as follows at Paris

'HI 59 1841

1838 M 184-2

1839

1840

62

65

68

1843

1844

80

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 387

1845

85

1850

83

1846

92

1851

71

1847

102

1852

60

1848

113

1853

52

1849

98

Which is thus rapidly declining since 1848.

No. 2.— M. George von Boguslawski. PoggendorfFs Annalen, 1853, No.
10, p. 338,

Maintains the continuance of the August meteor period in opposition to
CoulvierGravier who contends that that maximum has been decreasing since
1848, and that in 1860 it will at the same rate cease to appear altogether.
But his observations were always made at midnight, which M. Boguslawski
observes cannot give a fair average.

Again, these periodic appearances are characterized by having a definite
origin in the heavens. M. lleis has observed three such points; on Aug. 10,
J8A2, he observed out of 32 meteors, 14 originated from Perseus, 8 from
Draco, 6 from the North Pole, and 4 Sporadic.

1853, Aug. 9. — From 10 p.m. to 2 a.m. though the sky was partly clouded
Jft 20 were seen, of which 12 originated in Perseus. The phenomenon was
at Aachen (Aix), Ghent, Munster, Bonn, Brussels, Oxford, Newhaven,
and many other places.

tere is no particular hour at which the maximum takes place. In 1837

ng- 10, the hour of maximum was different at different places, the sky
it /Vi ly dear both in Europe and in the United States. At Paris

2 to 3 PaCe fr°m 11 to 12 ? at Breslau from 1 to 2 a.m.; at Mailand from

In 1838, Aug. 9 and 10 in the United States from 3 to 4 a.m.

1839, Aug. in / at Breslau 1 to 2.
iq>, . ’ lat Frankfort from 12 to 1.

flJo ^Ug* 10> Aix 9 to IB.

‘842, Aug. 9, Aix 10 to II.

” >» 10, „ 11 to 12.

IB,. , » 11> » 12 to 1.

844, Aug. io, „ io to 11.

Bow3M“g;U» » 12 to 1.

August l i !ul • 0 ^en*es Coulvier Gravier’s assertion that from July 26 to
fr°wCoulv- thlrise. Awards the maximum is continuous; as he shows even
of contimii!er^?vier s owu observations, that there is a marked interruption

Be oontf-i ? , sut^en r'8e between the 8th and 9th of August,
to the varvin - n1 tlle niax*n‘oni is very unequal in different years, owing

He refpY- f „ue,JCes of unknown cosrnical causes.
fefl»re .. . Humboldts refutation of Coulvier Gravier’s views as to the

He also nr °yLember Per>°d hi ‘ Comptes Rendus,' No. 29, p» 601.
tinuecl histm-1 i 1 ■ tbe cvhleiice for the August period rests on long-con-
n°w cease. *CU evi<*ei,ce for ages past; it is, therefore, improbable it should

In the'Bmi-?Uetelet on the August Meteors 1853.

* Suable “a?,D8 of tiic Academy of Brussels (vol. xx. No. 9) there occurs
lrJth of : — “ 0° the periodic falling stars of the 9th and

Th ^ 8 ' l853> by M' A‘ Quete,et> ' oI "hich thC fo,lowing ‘S a tranS"
(hc leturn of falling stars has been again verified this year. On

2 c 2

388

REPORT — 1854*

the evening of the 9th one of my assistants, M. Bouvy, counted by himself 57
meteors between half-past nine and midnight, divided as follows:—
From 9.}- to 10, 6 falling stars.

From 10 to 11, 23 ditto.

From 11 to 12, 28 ditto.

The state of the sky was very favourable, excepting during the first half-hour,
the moon being then still above the horizon ; from 10 o’clock until midnight
one single observer obtained on an average 2 5*5 falling stars an hour.

On the evening of the 10tb a larger number of persons joined in the ob¬
servations: two Egyptian Astronomers, M.M. Mahmoud and Ismail, joined
me and my two assistants, MM. Bouvy and Gregoire ; the latter was alum-'-
exclusively occupied in transcribing the observations. Many falling star-
were seen at once by several amongst us, because that part of thebf<wn>
which is visible from the Observatory terrace, only includes two-thirds u
the sky ; the N.W. and N.E. regions arc hidden by buildings, and one part
of the E. by trees ; so that two observers would fully suffice to noteal *
appearances. They occurred thus: —

From 9} to 10, .34 falling stars.

From 10 to 11, 77 ditto.

From 11 to 11}, 18 ditto.

From 11} to 12, 34 ditto. *ninnVlock

The sky continued perfectly clear the whole evening: but until
the presence of the moon would necessarily diminish the nunl“e.r <■ rfi
meteors. From 11} to 12 o’clock, there was but. one observer; wwr ■
by doubling the number (34) counted by him, and only indwiug »c°
vations made after the setting of the moon, we obtain a mean ol wh>"
an hour for two or more observers. _ , ,,,crcass

Just as in preceding years, it seems that the number of meteoi
progressively from the IOth August, thus- . nnlinWjli

Ihe 6th, from 9’1 5 to 1 1*45, with a clear sky, M. Gregoire
meteors, making 10 an hour, rather more than the ordinary averag ^
Ihe 8th, from 9 to 12 o’clock, M. Dutilleul counted 39, although* ^ ^
was generally cloudy, particularly from 9 to 10 o’clock: he ob.tr
average about one-third of the sky ; being 13 meteors an hour.

The 9th, as seen above, produced 25‘5 an hour ; whilst on
singe observer would have been able to count about 41. with a clr*r
lc M. Dutilleul, observing alone from 9 o’clock till 1-.-

- ‘ enable

did not

1 . . VUI, VJU^CIVIllg tllOIJU liuuitf "

a’’iJ et ?ountcd 55 meteors, making 18‘3 an hour,
ihe observations made on the 12th, from 9f to lOh u,u
in. bouvy to count more than 13 in an hour, with a clear sky;8 ^
after (13th), the number observed by M. Gregoire was uudei ,

nary average. 3 b0It

thir n* Kwe f^oup the falling stars according to their brightness,
the following numbers

Aug. 9.

Aug. 10.

15

52

of the 1st mag. and larger.

16

24

of the 2nd.

10

33

of the 3rd.

8

13

18

16

of the 5th and smaller.

25

undetermined.

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 389

About one-third of them left trains, 22 on the -evening of the 9th, and 119
on that of the 10th August. Two meteors on the 9th deserve particularly
to be mentioned ; the first crossed Lyra from the N.E. to the S.W. at
10*1 46,n; it shone like Jupiter, and left a superb train after it. The second,
larger than a star of the first magnitude, appeared at 1 11* 45m 1.5s in Cassio¬
peia, going from N.N.E. to S.S.W. j it was remarkable for the bluish-green
"hade of its train, which lasted for some seconds.

Two others were equally remarkable for their brilliancy on the evening of
the 10th; one, with a reddish train, crossed Andromeda from the S.W. to
the N.E., at 10h 57"' ; the other marked its passage across Aquila, from
the N.E. to the S.W., at 1 1 11 50m 20s, by a trace subtending an arc of more
than 45°.

If we study the general movements of the falling stars from the 8th to the
12th August, we remark the same tendency as formerly to follow' a uniform
direction from the N.E. to the S.W. Referring their trajectorie:1 to parallel
lines passing through the zenith, we have as follows : —

Directions.

Aug.

8.

Aug.

9.

Aug.

10.

Aug.

11.

Aug.

12.

Total.

From

N.

to S .

5

4

20

16

1

46

If

n.n.e.

— S.S.W .

10

17

1

2S

»r

N.E.

— S.W .

13

20

53

3

5

94

»

E.N.E.

— w.s.w. ..

2

1

19

2

1

25

ii

E.

E.S.E.

— w .

1

1

18

7

1

31

if

— W.N.W. ..

1

1

2

if

S.E.

— N.W .

3

1

6

1

11

»i

S.S.E.

— N.N.W. ..

2

2

4

n

S.

— N .

4

6

1

11

H

s.s.w.

— N.N.E .

2

3

8

13

»

S.W.

— N.E .

1

1

2

7

1

12

ii

w.s.w.

— E.N.E .

1

1

1

3

ii

w.

— E .

2

3

3

2

1

11

n

W.N.W

— E.S.E .

1

1

6

8

ii

N.W.

— S.E .

8

9

1

18

i#

r- —

N.N.W,

— S.S.E .

1

3

1

5

Total

39

57

163

40

13

323

of denar/1’ '^"e Pro*on£ the paths of these falling stars beyond their point
We <rount ab°ut two-thirds of those on the first evening, and
k°urho<ifl enU • seconfl, whose centre of emanation was from the neigh-
Obr. . • ^ass'°peia.

stars' In"!!8 n,a^° elsewhere confirm this remarkable appearance of fail¬
le fonlr 9th loth August of this year. , „

and Kc.w uaVgj* a(‘counts have been communicated to us from Ghent, Rome

M- D"prc:, of the nth August, 1853:-“ On the
■ ’‘T. cornnri i i an^ 10th August, and in a completely clear part of the
>al to L ■ ?een lh,‘ N‘N.E. and the S.E/, which might be about
11 ‘wring th0 * 1 observed 29 meteors during the first evening, and 37

cond ; they were distributed as follows : —

390

REPORT — 1854.

Aug. 9th.

Aug.lOth.

From 9» 50m to 10 .

3

2

From 10 to 1 1 .

12

15

From 11 to 12 .

14

20

which gives, on an average, 13’3 meteors an hour on the 9th, and IT on
the 10th; larger numbers than 8, which, according to your estimate, may
be regarded as the average for an ordinary night, with a single ob¬
server.

which

here.

| Amongst the meteors observed on the 9th was one, the appearance of
ich was accompanied by circumstances which I think should be mentiont I
•e.

nere.

“This meteor appeared at 10h 35m, near the head of the Great Bear,
it presented the aspect of a globe of fire, left no train after it, and couK
from its brilliancy and dimensions, be compared with Jupiter: besides thi’. i'
moved with considerable slowness. In the course of its continuation, the
brightness diminished, until it disappeared for an instant, as if completely
hidden by a species of whitish smoke, which proceeded from it at this
moment; after which it reappeared with its primitive brilliancy. ||C
jould have said that the meteor in question was undergoing absolute coin-

Aug. 9th.

Aug. 10th.

From N.

to S .

3 meteors.

1

meteor.

ff

N.N.E.

— S.S.W .

1

If

II

n.e.

— S.W .

9 „

14

»!

II

e.n.e.

— W.S.W. ..

2

If

»

E.

— w .

3 „

3

ff

II

S.E.

— N.W .

2 „

4

ff

II

S.S.E.

— N.N.W. ..

3 „

4

ff

II

S.

— N .

2

II

s.w.

— N.E .

2 „

1

>1

II

\v.

— E .

2 „

1

II

W.N.W.

— E.S.E .

1

II

N.W.

— S.E .

3

2

ff

*1

n.nav.

— S.S.E .

2 „

1

ff

the N ESfn l^eSe two n'ght9 the predominant direction ”

of dWerinc ,eaS*lV- 1 tur”ed 4 attention to the existence of J
between ’ and JUst as in previous appearances, the cen
appeared for, of the 66 meteors observed*
lations ” ear y to diverge from n point between these

appeared to m^ " i ; for* of the 6

lations.” ar ^ *° diverge from a point between

of the United States)' Letter fr°m Mr.

myself here toSnl 5 . % time bcinS hnutef iStt

August, 1853. ^ ® ^°U a rePort of the shooting stars ob^c

was prevenfed.°^UeS<^a^’ August, was so cloudy that all <

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 391

“The night of Wednesday, 10th August, was clear and ca m, and the
moon set before midnight. The observers were Messrs. Bradley, Byman,
Baird and i. We were in the open air, each observer having to look, alter,
as much as possible, one-third of the visible sky. We commenced regular
observations at midnight precisely, and we continued until break ot ay, a
3h 25m. The following table shows the number of shooting stars observed
per hour in each third of the sky. That part of the heavens from which
they darted is mentioned.

Hour.

s.

N.N.W.

E.N.E.

Total.

0 to 1 o'clock in the morning . .

1 to 2 „ „

2 to 3 „ „

3 to 3 25' „ .

48

-12

r,7

2G

27

34

31

7

33

39

31

11

110

115

119

14

“ Besides the 388 meteors mentioned here, we saw about 20 more during
the quarter of an hour preceding midnight; wo rejected 15 or 20 dou u
esses and some escaped us after 3 o’clock, cither from the mornings awn,
or from other causes. No one meteor was written dowfi twice, alt ioug i
several were seen at one time by two or three observers.

“ It must be remarked that the great majority of these falling stats, no
, 8 P^bably than three quarters, moved in trajectories, intersecting very near
the group of stars which form the point of the sword of Perseus i ana dunn0
cur observations, the apparent point of emanation dill not change i s post
bun relatively to the stars. Many of the meteor* left trains, and surpassed
"! brilliancy stars of the first magnitude, whilst some were as brilliant as me
planet Venus.

“Towards 2“ 15% we saw a luminosity unusual, hut yet pale,

!"|rizon ‘n the N.E. This light increased in proportion ns the morning
1 vauced, and was recognised as being the zodiacal light* Itfl oa
omplctely undefined, and from the atmosphere being slightly hazy ,

R'on, it was impossible to describe the phenomenon exactly- ‘ ,

bom the horizon to the N.F.., covering the stars Castor and PoUW» ®"
*achmg up to tbe t aiJI| in front of the neighbourhood ot 0 Aa”gre .

wlipfiUcn; bUt 1,0 cevtftin trace ,,f liSht Wlis P«*°ePtlble *oUth

"II ** interesting to mention (although I do not protend that tbere is any
7 betwcen tliese two phenomena), that there were faint ,aan,f®s^
varH °I lbe,Aurora borealis, on the 11th, towards 2 o clock, and g
l,„l . n,oc °°k in the morning, during about. 15 minutes each i ’ . .
'Rbt d,d not rise higher than from 2° to 5° above the horizon, and entirely
JWs the west of the northern point. „ . t iias

com; ou ®Cc fro,» the above, that the meteoric appearance o g
n.im d raanifcst 'tstdf here this year, but that it is somewhat less.

idl 5"ou Observed in Augi.t 1852, were, without doubt, ess than
would have been, had you observed at later bouts ot tin* mg i •

Fahri '% IjXtract from the Corrispondenza Scientific** th Foma, • • /'

ft Tl.e observations made by the astronomers of he

otJehSn? C®e’ commenced the 28th July, and lasted each evemngd^g
l TtZ ■h0Ur’ betwe‘" 9 mtd 10 O’clock: up to the 6th August the number
' not more than 3.

e 6th and the 8th August, they counted 6.

392

REPORT — 1854.

“ The 9th, from 9h 21"' to 1 1 h 11 two observers counted 37. The fol¬
lowing morning, from 2h 45"' to 31' 15m, one single observer saw 9.

“ The 10th, the sky was covered with light clouds until 10h15m; and from
8h 55m to llh 46m, two observers counted 67 falling stars. Between Sk 3"
and 3h 45m in the morning, they noted 4.

“The 11th, from I0h (im to 10h 53m, they counted 19; but already the
light of the moon prevented their seeing many.

“Most part of the consecutive groups bail generally such directions that
their trajectories cut through the constellations Andromeda, Cassiopeia and
Perseus, but more especially the two latter."

In one of the lute numbers of the Institute, M. Coulvier Gravier gave bis
opinion that the meteoric appearance of August has a tendency to lessen from
year to year. We have thought that, it would be interesting to verify this
assertion, by the observations made since 1837, and which have been com¬
municated to our Academy.

We have calculated, in the following table, the average number of meteors
observed in an hour at Brussels, at Ghent, and at Panna. At Brussels anu
at Parma, the observations have been made each year, under nearly idcntiea
conditions and in the same parts of the heavens; we have only comprise m
these means, those hours when the sky was clear, taking care to double t ie
numbers of observations during the intervals when there was but one ° 1
server. At Client also the numbers are perfectly comparable among em
selves, having been obtained each year by M. Duprez, who explored ol«”
the same part of the sky that is comprised between the N.E. and the • ■
I hese numbers, obtained by one single observer, have been doubled m m
a e to render them fit for comparison with those of other stations, c0"

/ ^ ^^^PJ'i'ieiple which we laid downf , that several observers place

to see the different parts of the shy would count a double number. The
eis thus doubled are marked with an asterisk.

t Bulletin, vol. iii. p. 411.

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 393

In the following table, we have united the results obtained in a great
number of other stations, but for different years.

Years.

I 1837
; 1837

1838
| 1839

1839
, 1839

1810
I 1840

1841
| 1842
j 1842
1 1842
1 1842
I 1842

1842
, 1842

1845
1 1846
I 1847
, 1849
1349
; 1850
1850
1850
1850
1850
1853
1853

Mean number of Meteors from the
8tli to the 12th of August.

Stations.

8th.

9th.

10th.

11th.

12th.

51-4

79-7

Bremen.

Breslau.

Geneva.

Geneva.

Paris Observatory.

Berne.

Collingwood, Kent.

53*0

63-3

450

28*3

52-0*

148-7

370

67-5

72-9

630

107*0

130*5

129*0

81*0

1170

184*0

Guastalla, Burmese States.
New Haven.

Breslau.

77-4

Paris Observatory.

Tours.

50-0*

64-0

Bruges.

27*6*

480*

Dijon.

Aix-la-Chapellc.

Ncustadt, near Vienna.

Aix-la-Chapelle.

Aix-la-Chapellc.

Dijon.

Markree, Ireland,
ltome.

Naples.

New Haven.

Home.

111*3

G6*7

82-0*

50-8

38*0
34* t
80*0*

.

1200*
117 0

80-0*

63-2

119*1

20-3

520*

32.0*

24-4

24*2

.

rIhe nu“l>ers given in these two tables, excepting those furnished for M.

Iv'er Gravier for Paris, continue rather irregular, and though they seem
***** dur'ng the period from 1843 to 184-8, they appear on the con-
t» ..I ° lllc,‘ease during the two or three later years. These results appe
*,n™°reover to° un°ertain to deduce positive conclusions therehom, ye

Gravic ° |US ,tllal they are sufficient to render the assertion of M. Coulvie
u™V|er doubtful.

mail, .tay® wl,ich he gives, the night of the 10th of August 184-2 is only
an,j L-n ^ it* fitara, whilst many more were counted in Paris i se f

It^f^'y ,n aU other localities. . .. on

uho r.i.Ji ! ’ rooreover, be well to know what allowance this scientific m .
gn-aiur T* t l08e Phenomena with so much perseverance, has made 0
of lh«- ||,n Pre8ence clouds during the observations, and the in “
he ll8 ‘t towards the epochs; it would also be well to know whether

Would h* * °r<’( ^,e s,»nie parts of the sky and with the same observers ,
Coi»inarairCC(-Sf ry in sl,ort to have the results perfectly in a condition to be
Wefin . V,th e«ch other.

diat ,1,'ril"0 8aP» iu the numbers of M. Coulvier Gravier; notwithstanding
d°u ol l^e years» and especially in 1844 and 1851, the o se*

have nr m S,frs waa almost entirely impossible. It is to be regret e
iwiu a rj , .'“d an opportunity of seeing the whole ol his work, m orce
m ,dea of the manner in which he has filled up these gaps,
t See the Coraptes Rcndus, vol. xv. no. 9, p. 452.

REPORT — 1854.

394

A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors, made at the Observatory, Stott

Date.

•

Hour.

Appearance
and magnitude.

Brightness
and colour.

Train or sparks.

Velocity er
duration.

1853.
Sept. 6

h m s

7 34 49

Rapid . «J

p.m.

piter.

9 9 10
p.m.

9 26 39
p.m.

9 30 4

1 1

Rapid . — |

Rapid . -J

Rapid . —4

p.m.

9 47 54

Rapid . — n

p.m.

9 50 19
p.m.

9 54 39

Slow . -A

Rapid . -A

p.m.

10 50 2

As bright as *
Lyric and
white.

Slow . ~*|

p.m.

10 55 3

2nd mag .

Train slightly beaded .

Moderate . A

p.m.

11 11 5

Moderate .

p.m.

11 14 22

Rapid . "1

p.m.

11 29 16

Rapid . H

p.m.

11 29 51

Rapid . A

p.m.

11 38 46

ModeraK-'>|

p.m.

11 47 6

Rapid . •‘"l

p.m.

11 49 55

Modera'f ' - "

p.m.

12 10 10

Rapid . "

12 22 25

Moder»!e"' j

12 24 35

Rapid .

12 31 34

1st mag .

Blue

Bright light blae-beaM

Slow--"" I

middle; tMdgJjrJ.
the centi e of this

nous train was about 1

I

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 395
Vicarage, Aylesbury, Bucks. Latitude 51°47f 57f,‘03 N. Longitude 0° 52' 16f,*35 W.

Direction or altitude.

Pram '"'tween £ and » Serpentis,
and went a few degrees from
N.toS.

Prom . Cassiopeia to Polaris.

Prom about % Andromeda, and
»'ut towards Lacerta.

Pram 14 Dclpliini to « Aquilrn

P!rn C N.E. of y Persei, and
»")• about 11° due N.

Pmii between Algol and 3 Pcr-
lnd went u few degrees
•owar.ls Capelin,

* Aquarii to 3 Antinoi ...

r»VLyra’ Passcd E- of «
went to the mouth of the
u *• to i“ Draconis.
j 1 1 °f X Persei, passed
yncis, and vanished near
« l.jncis.

10 v L' xV0.'8' P8,sed through
»<»' nd it ’ an<* van“bed 3°
^•‘oy'tln.Maj .

^fito^tJaMin .

‘ Druconi* to b Draco-

r^^ePoUria and went

belwc™ and
5 Crt \ ft* through
'Vrrw, J”’ *“d "ent a few
* Draconis.

ci*fe,vo,1,ep“ii,u

*• N-

'•'■"from ? .MJnkah’ and

’-'O’igi, x ‘ „.rac'“"s- passed
*»>*. and l‘CT- Do-

; and rr -1 t0 '

Jfjjhliuj aJ* f1Cd bey°nd
few degree, ofthe

General remarks, i Place.

If the J) had been
away, and if had
been dark, it
would have been
of the size and
colour of Jupiter.

It described a wavy
path.

Stone

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid..

Ibid..

Ibid.

Ibid..

Ibid.,

Ibid..

Ibid.,

Ibid.,

Ibid..

Ibid..

Ibid..

Ibid..

Ibid..

The extent of the Ibid..
train was 30°, |
nnd the whole of]
it was visible at
the same time
before the head
vanished.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Observer.

Rev. J. B. Reade.

F.Vnt.Fasel.Esq.

T. Smith, Esq.

Vnt. Fasel, Hq.
and Rev. J. B.
Reade.

Rev. J. B. Reade.

Id. nnd F. Vnt
Fasel, Esq.

Rev. J. B. Reade,

Id .

Id .

Id .

F.Vnt.Fasel.Esq

Id .

Id .

Rev. J. B. Reade.

Id.

Id.

Reference.

396

REPORT — 1854.

Date.

Hour.

Appearance and
magnitude.

Brightness

1 and colour.

Train or sparks.

Velocity or
duration.

1853.
Sept. 6

10

h m s

12 32 14

8 32 39

10 7 52
p.m.

10 14 3

Slow .

* Lvrie, anc
reddish.

Rapid . — -

p.m.

10 19 43
p.m.

10 33 51

Slow .

Rapid . — |

p.m.

10 52 39

Rapid . -

p.m.

11 22 54

Rapid . “4

11 23 5

Rapid . A

p.m.

11 31 21

2nd mag. .

Orange-red ...

Train like a semicircle -

Rapid . •*''

p.m.

11 34 35

Rapid . |

p.m.

11 42 45

Rapid . A

11 45 25

■A -J

Rapid .

11 47 25

Rapid .

11 55 26

Slow .

11 56 11

Rapid .

p.m.

11 58 p.m.

Rapid .

12 2 10

Rap'd . "

12 G 6

Mode**" |

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 397

Direction or altitude.

General remarks.

Place.

Observer.

Reference.

Rev. J. B. Ucadc,

inJ «rnt from E. to W.
from 11 28 Camelopardalis, or
Iff Mow Polaris, and pro-
rtdd about 10° towards X
Vn. Maj.

fna between x and <r Lyra,
and went to i Lyra.

•

Ibid .

F. V. Fasel, Esq.

Id .

Ibid .

Ibid .

Id .

fra* about 2° W. of fi Urs.

Ibid .

Id .

If*,1 . and vanished about 1°
Wow * Urs. Maj.

Aries from N. to S. ...

F. Vnt. Fasel,

r"® ■ Ojhlnchi to within 4°

Ibid .

Esq., and Rev.
J. B. Keadc.

F. V. Fasel, Esq.

_ sf o Ophiuchi.

between n and i Piscium,

Ibid .

Id .

about .rS.w. of n, and
«n to^ Piscium.

Ibid .

id . : .

preceding one ; it. went
.Tj1 * y™. a»«l va-
3° K- Of O

l / :1',n) M 4° 30' N. of «

•uenitD.

'^ between Markab and
.Tf1'1’’ Bn<I Within 7° E. of
awym»r*t°r* described,

fc f* ‘h.® Rlafs 70 S, and
.*:■ -V 2?' ,a. ™rve. like a

h.turminated
u'' ‘‘if WRy between ir and £

passed S. of, Her!

hetw'J? w VaW8hed half way
? and l llerculis.

^oDraconis toSHercuUs

Id .

Id .

Ibid .

F. Vnt. Fasel

Opbluclxi to the horizon.

Ibid .

Esq., and Rev
J. B. Reade.
Rev. J. B. Reade

^Urfsf C,U,todis Me*simn

^^oni,t0<Dmconi8

Id .

Ibid.

F. Vnt. Fasel

Ibid .

Esq.

Rev. J.B. Reade

tliroi'0^ C£»l>ella

Id .

Id .

. .

398

REPORT — 1854.

Date.

1853.
Sept. 11

25

Hour.

h m 8

8 17 32
p.m.

S. M. T.

7 50 4
p.m.

7 48 52
p.m.

7 49 3
p.m.

8 6 28
p.m.

8 41 55
p.m.

8 44 35
p.m.

9 21 40

p.m.

7 11 35
p.m.

Appearance and Brightness

magnitude. and colour.

2nd mag. ,

1st mag.

Yellow ,

Train or sparks.

Velocity of
d oration.

1st mag., ami as
bright as a. Andro-
medre.

3rd mag . .

Red .

Orange* red ...

4th mag.
2nd mag.

Oct. 2

7 17 15
p.m.

7 38 p.m.

7 47 54
p.m.

8 1G 6
p.m.

8 26 36

p.m.

7 43 17
p.m.

4th mag.
4th mag.

1st mag., as large as

Jupiter, and bright¬
er than a. Lyrae.

Yellow .
White .
Orange

Blue .
White .

Orange

Train

Train

Moderate,...

Rapid . i|

Train . . . Moderate .

Train

Train

Train

id . J]

Very rapid »«4

/Moderate . -

.{Rapid . .

3rd mag.
2nd mag.

4th mag.
4 th mag.

5th mag.
1st mag.

White .
Yellow .

Yellow.
Yellow .

A wavy train

art

*

Train

Train

Whitish

Orange

Train .

Beaded train

Rapid

Moderate---'

. . A

Rapid . *

Moderate—-

A CATALOGUE OF

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 399

Direction or altitude.

General remarks.

TVa shout half way between
I l -.ni imil y Cephei, and
rrt,i towards $ Cephei, and
t'brd a little below it.
rra i Draronis, went from W.

| to i„ tml vanished within a

tiVpw S. of r Oracouis.

■e shout 2° W. of it Andro-
“<*»• and went about 10°
lowirdi { Cassiopeia:,

» • fkappa) DraconU to
• y.UJ Draconis.

i w. of \j/ Cassiopeise to
> Caeiopcue.

,r"“ l1 above and E. of _
Andromeda:; passed W. of
Alfrnil), and disappeared at
*<«) Pepui,

£ l|a,f way between «
W a,»l 3 Ijm to C II
Herenlis.

T1 half Wfy between a An-
^niedre and Scheat, to half
^between Markab and

Place.

Stone

Ibid..

Ibid..

Ibid..

Ibid.

l«w r?f Min. to nearly
H ;n ?Lbf wec" 11 32 and
from j , ^;!f'Pnrdfllis.

uf y l,fs Min.

wjj1?*®1 y an<l /3. its

. , °n being N. bv W
within -1° \vl
^beiowjt^uin.

WJu «"dCH2°9

"thro ^ nlld ° Herculis-

^uS^°6cerb-:

The head described
its path in a zig
zag, giving out
sparks at the
same time. The
wind was blow¬
ing al most a gale
from W. by N.

Ibid..

Ibid..

Ibid.

Ibid.

The train was very
bright towards
its commence
inent ; it appear¬
ed to emit sparks
and was visible a
short time after
the head had
accomplished its
course and had
vanished.

Ibid..

Ibid..

Ibid.,

Ibid.,

Ibid..

Ibid.

Observer.

Reference.

F. V. Fasel, Esq.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

400

REPORT — 1854

Date.

Hour.

Appearance and
magnitude.

Brightness
and colour.

Train or sparks.

Velocity or
duration.

1853.

Oct.

S. U. T.

h m s

7 50 37

White .

p.ra.

8 3 51

Red ...

p.m.

8 9 30

creased as it proceeded

I

_ l

p.m.

8 15 21

1st mag .

Moderate —

8 18 51

Very rapid .--4

p.m.

8 23 19

Larger than * Lyrae,
and almost the size
of J npiter.

Very slow

p.m.

8 45 35

2nd mag .

**

Rapid . H

Moderate •-

8 48 40

9 24 3

2nd mag .

Moderate

5

7 6 12

Moderate

p.m.

7 10 22

Moderate • '

p.m.

7 34 57

Moderate A

p.m.

7 35 12

Rapid . "

p.m.

7 43 7

Very s'0* |

p.m.

7 49 58

tU mag .

Rapid . .

7 57 58

st mag .

Mode*'* A

8 4 33

. . j

p.m.

8 40 53

rd mag .

Rapid - ^

8 54 8

nd mag .

Mode*** ' 1

9

6 51 4 2

nd mag .

Moderate •

■ .

p.m.

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 401

Direction or altitude.

Frin 5 1 Tauri Poniatowski to
lui 11 tagus (■ Ophiuchi).

General remarks.

Place.

Observer.

Reference.

Stone

Ibid.

half way between \ Dra- . Ibid.

'* *nd « Cephei, and went
I In • Cephei.

|b«w if \Y, of * Herculis.
betweeo u (upsilonj
a-k! » (t»u) Herculis, and
*1 appeared within 4° beyond

the lut star mentioned.’

' l!"Culis’ and . Ibid..

went to { Herculis.

""■Abont 4° N. by E. of S 1 . [bid.,

unn Poniatowski to « Tauri
Poniatowski.

..„,|"Tni9'0.within3°oflT1'i8 meteor first Ibid,

e »ad » l Dracoius. made its appear¬

ance as a star ol
6th mag., and

gradually in
creased in Size,
but did not start
off in its path
before having at¬
tained to the mag¬
nitude of Jupiter

■ B * kyraa

; ^‘"Wto.Dei:

? l 12 Andro.

> Andromedm.

fciftri ^°6) Ranii p0.

■Ti# s' nd Weiit about 7°
'n% i

" dne to T Ilerculi
rf--i E. to°vJ.0f Draco’ went

sSSiVtt

* Draconis, and

:i;:u 20 *•

ibid...

Ibid...

Cerberi

to a

-’‘esamm to

»^Y-<trc“lU. °f & I)rac0Tii

VtS'uf‘,A,.dremedre tQ

M*i- X. I>

1854.

It appeared very
low.

The head was very
compact.

Ibid.

Ibid.,

Ibid.,

Ibid.,

Ibid..

Ibid..

Ibid.

Ibid..

Ibid..

Ibid..

Ibid..

Ibid..

F. V. Fasel,
Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Rev. J. B. Reade.
Id.

Id.

F. V. Fasel, E

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

2d

402 report — 1854.

Date.

Hour.

Appearance and
magnitude.

Brightness
and colour.

Train or sparks.

Velocity or
duration.

1853.
Oct. 22

h nj s

6 43 17

p.in.

Red .

Rapid .

Red .

Moderate .«J|

6 48 14

6 48 2
p.m.

G 57 37
p.m.

25

25

TT

i i

6 58 2

Moderate . —

p.m.

7 1 2
p.m.

Moderate . —

7 3 32

Moderate..

p.m.

8 4 2

Rapid . |

p.m.

8 15 3

Rapid . ■*"

Nov. 1

p.m.

7 46 8

Rapid .

p.m.

8 42 50

Rapid . i

p.m.

8 47 27

Rapid . " '

2

p.m.

7 43 37

Rapid . ■"

p.m.

7 56 57

Moderate ■•-‘I

p.m.

7 57 57

Rapid . A

p.m.

8 13 58

Moderate-'^

p.m.

8 36 8

Rather &A

Rapid . ""

p.m.

9 3 53

p.m.

9 24 54

Rapid .

3

p.m.

7 22 3

, A

w' J

p.m.

8 8 23

Orauge-red ...

1

p.m.

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 403

Direction or altitude.

General remarks.

Place.

Observer.

Reference.

About D (97) Rami
j jomiferi, and travelled
»b<wt 9° in a direct
towards 3 Ser-

I N (H 4.) Camelopar-
4b to within 3° W. of
k (U 19.) Caraelopar-
bb.

I 8. of « Andromeda; to
43 J'iicium.

I N.W. of u (upsilon)
Il’vrolis, passed between r
«, and vanished 2° N. of
1 Hercnlis.

1 W. of * Piseiinu, and
’ra*1 1,1 o Piscium,

U 30„'V of * Amiarii,
L(l ’ravelled about U° in a
line towards 3 Anti-

bnweon u and /> Draconis,

; ^Ppeared between *
( Horculis.

^•btwoen wand « Herculia,

between f and , and
. : * • Herculia.

ir « . ?DraconiMnd<lw-

C2. wcen r and «

rfpnct>nis to 5° 30'
J\0'y Draconis.

^ to f Aquilae ...
Sl“- •» ■ (iota)

K*6 *Ui||JRL* Caprioorni,

T’l^ofuLbeyondit-

Herculia to
r*>t us ’/ 'icrcuiis.

Stone

ibid..

Ibid..

Ibid...

Ibid .

ibid . .

Ibid .

Ibid.

Ibid..

Ibid.,

Ibid.,

Ibid.,

Ibid.,

Ibid.,

Ibid..

Ibid..

Ibid.,

Ibid.,

Ibid .

Ibid.,

Appeared low . jlbid.,

F. V. Fascl, Esq

Id.

C. V. Oliver, Esq
F. V. Fasel, Esq

Id.

C. V. Oliver, Esq.

F. V. Fasel, Esq.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

2D2

404

REPORT— 1854.

Date.

Hour.

Appearance and
magnitude.

Brightness
and colour.

Train or sparks.

Velocity v
duration.

Red .

as a. Lyra.

Red M

Bipid . -J

Slow; about J a |

comb' dura*

Rapid .

Slow .

Brilliant red

lnstantaaecci J

1st mag. or rather the
size of Jupiter, but
not so bright.

Slow . -4

Moderate....—

Rapid . A

Rapid .

Very rapid

Rapid . A

Moderate..--"

Very rapid A

Slow .

Rapid . A

Very n[^ "j|

4th mag . .

Red

jOng-beaded train .

Rapili . "j

J

Rapid .

4th mag .

Grange . 1

...

Sapid . H

1853.
Nov. 3

19

20

21

22

h m s

8 21 20
p.m.

9 18 5Q

8 17 20

5 57 35
p.m.

6 13 4
p.m.

6 30 19
p.m.

7 18 24

7 9 p.m.

7 10 9
p.m.

7 39 12
p.m.

10 10 19
p.m.

5 47 36
p.m.

5 51 2
p.m.

5 54 43

6 37 54
p.m.

6 48 46
p.m.

7 1 4
p.m.

7 10 31

7 18 46
p.m.

7 9 28

p.m.

9 14 13
p.m.

1

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 405

Direction or altitude.

General remarks.

Place.

Observer.

Reference.

F. V. Fasel, Esq.

Id.

1 lj within 39N.W. of I Aqua-

la

Ibid .

1 1 to about $ Ura. Maj.

ftwi about r W. of 11 22 Ca-

Ibid .

Id.

| wl'-jiar.lalis to about ; Urs.

Id.

Ibid .

Id.

tsppM Bootfe.

f*? ' Ur*- Miu. to within 2°

Ibid .

Id.

L *• > Urs. Min.

Appeared verymuch
like a Roman
candle.

Id.

Id.

•sod vanished within 3° E.
l**Ceti.

r*T *CTP»». passed through
•'®d proceeded about T to-

- rJl,!CJ*ni‘

?. h*lf-w«y between y Del-
l- ‘jVJ i"<1 ? .Cygm, crossed
tftccula ami vanished with-
>i®,.B-Clf«(6)Anseri8.

‘ Aqiuhe ,0 ye ,iear the

Ibid .

Ibid .

Id.

W.Torakyns.Esq

F. V. Fasel, Esq.

Id.

. ®; y • Attfirttmedtc J .

Ibid.

lV 4 or 5° E. of

ab, and vanished within

Wri^^Pegari.

* (*»ppa) to a Draconis .

Ibid

brtwtjri { and v Draconis
‘ l^c-ded about {Pin a

1 L li iJif'H cyg-

b between , and y>

2° E. of

about j to i Pcgasi .

Thid .

Id.

Ibid. ...

W.Tomkyns.Esq

F. V. Fasel, Esq.

Id.

r^Ji '*>* (kippa)

[hid.

•

Id.

>ii^£u,3t&?um*1and
jr^\. 8 towards S

'&&**• passed
l* ’"Hun Jw7' v““lt-
?* *bout r Cvtrni°f ^ *'el'bci.
*f'»>and\8;‘,?aa*e<1 be-

Ibid. ...

Id.

Ibid....

Id.

.

Ibid

Id.

Ibid ..

Id.

406

Report—18$4.

Date.

Hour.

Appearauce and
magnitude.

Brightness
and colour.

Train or sparks.

Velocity sr
duntiK.

1853.
Nov. 22

h m s

9 17 18

Rapid .

p.tn.

9 19 47

Rapid . - 1

23

6 1 36

Slow .

Sept. 23

Oct. 2
25
30

1854.
July 22

23

Aug. 30

Sept. ]

8 3 p.m.

10 28 p.m.
7 13 p.m.
10 12 p.m.

11 10 p.m.

10 35 p.m.

10 30 p.m.

11 4 p.m.

Luminous Meteors observed 1853-51,

. Slow . -4

10 15 p.m.
10 18 p.m.
10 20 p.m.

9 57 p.m.

White .

White

LarRc .

White, bril¬
liant.

Long traiu of spork9 .

Urge .

White ...

Appeared stationary ; ex¬
ploded j throwing off a
great light.

Mo train .

White .

Urge .

sparks.

•

Quick

Slow...

Rapid

Slow...

Slow.-
Rapid •

Slow-

Quick

.A

Sept. 1

Luminous Meteors

, Quick

observed

A t

Oct. 2
Nov. 1
1854.
Feb. 25

13 15

9 52 .

9 to 13 ...

8 16

= 4th mag.*

jof Sirius .

Train . "

•••••••••••••••a**

Slowly •
siowiy-'"

TT

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 407

Direction or altitude.

General remarks.

Place.

Observer.

Reference.

F. V. Fasel, Esq.

between n and £ Draconis and

proceeded about 6° in a direct
bat to y Draconis.

h aa Scheat to about 1° W. ofi

Ibid .

Id.

iPegasi.

f r -M k Capellse to » Aurigae . . .

Ibid .

W.TomkynSjEsq.

tam zenith by • Persei down Divided into two,

by J. King Watts, F.R.G.S., St. Ives, Hunts.

towards North East.

£ ■ PWde* to Eastward .
rT'rt» l'r»a Major to North .
Tr*® hjr» toDelphinus .

1 Lira, pawing Polaris

i [""n Cassiopeia to West

1 7?*cwirse .

^•cygoi

lfc??.P£r>ei to North .

un» Mjnor to West .

lolaris ,0« Ursa Majoris

one portion va¬
nishing several
seconds before
the other.

This was a beauti¬
ful object, and
threw oft'
strong light.

The nucleus
became invisible
several seconds
before the sparks

c“*top«! t. . cy8»i.l.'.!’.'ia‘s,p.p'"e.d:

St. Ives, Hunt¬
ingdonshire.

Ibid..

Ibid..

Ibid..

Ibid..

Ibid..

Ibid..

Ibid,.

Ibid.,

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

J. King Watts.

Id.

Id.

Id.

Id.

b)' E‘ J' Lowe, Esq., F.R.A.S.

5^ "" . . . Scverul meteors ...Ilighfield House A. Lowe, Esq.... E

^‘bdowntoS.E . ,,r, ervatory. | |„

, J. Lowe’s

?^3e.nn the

Ibid.

Ibid.

408

REPORT— 1854

Date.

Hour.

Appearance and
magnitude.

Brightness
and colour.

Train or sparks.

Velocity dr
duration.

1854.
Mar. 4

h m

9 5 .

Small .

Many sparks

-

Slowly . .

30

9 3 .

Apr. 1

10 0 .

Slowly ••••••.mmJ j

0*2* . J I

10

8 12 .

14

8 43 20..

0-3* . J

19

12 3 .

0*2* i

20

8 0 .

Blue .

Slow . A

Aug. 30

8 30 .

White

Verv slow -A

8 30 .

Very slow ..A j

Sept. 13

8 20 .

=3rd mag.*

Very rapid »—

10 50 .

Rapid . A

Rapid . .

. J

Rapid . "• |

17

9 22 .

9 31 .... i

— iUd mag.*

= 6th mag.* . .

White .

10 28 .

= 1st mag .

Yellow..........

Rapid . A

10 3G .

Rap'd .

12 47 ...

Colourless ...

Rapid .

12 48 ...

Rapid . |

2 49 .

= 1st mao-.*

Very r*P‘a

'

1853.
Oct. 28

1854.
April 1

h m s
3 57 p.m,

10 5 p.m.

Same even¬
ing.

Lflrge, £ diameter of Very bright

moon.

Bright meteor

Several smaller me¬
teors, replaced by
the formation of a
white cloud.

Train with prismatic tints,
2° broad and 5 h)flg-

At first full red,
changed to
blue, in¬
creased in
brightness,

& vanished.

MisceBaflC00’

Leaving a strong streak of ^or

light for a second after
disappearance.

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 409

Direction or altitude.

LfeonUlIvi

moved northwards
1° above the Pleiades.
(hvpandiC. down through «

L ***"•

pWJ'VNjlC. down in S.E. to!

•rthk 15° of horizon. Broke
I lato temal fragments.

through 3 Hydra and
13 Canis Minoris. lu-
| r^awd from a point, and
'int when at maximum
tfigtonem into several frag-
! matt.

l'wjendic. down through p
, £jj“I««. Broke into frag-

I’toradic. down from 3 Urs®

Minoru.

•^ia E.8.E. and burst in

,a?X •? ^‘ween p and 3 An-
■Awed*.

V to between 3 and p An-

As light as day

• lUaculis to near « Ser-
p«w«.

^"awards in N.W. . .

rea * Cygni pvpendic. down

'Coron* northwards ..

"JJBS betw““

1 ® Casaiopeiae . .

t.(,war(ls zenith' .

- W? ^cn-Md/S
S and * Ure®

• V?",? acro« the

X0% r Lrs:u

r^. ' t-anum Vcnatico-

^ “ CeU

1 **/»„"* Between 7h and 15h

JC^^weenvaud^Urw there could not
have been less
than 200 meteors.

Obse

General remarks.

Observatory,
Ueeston.
Ibid .

Ibid..

Ibid .

Increased in bright¬
ness.

Many minute me¬
teors.

Place.

E. J. Lowe, Esq.

Ibid .

S. Watson, Esq..

E. J. Lowe, Esq.

Ibid..

Ibid.

Iliglifield House
Observatory.
Ibid .

Nottingham.
Ibid . .

Obser. Beeston .
Highfield House
Observatory

Ibid .

Ibid .

Observer.

E. J. Lowe’s MS.
Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid. .

A. Lowe, Esq....

A. S. H. Lowe,
Esq.

Rev. K. Swann

Ibid.....

Mrs. E. J. Lowe.
E. J. Lowe, Esq.

Ibid .

Ibid .

Ibid . .

Ibul .

Observatory,

Beeston.

Ibid . .

Mrs. E. J- Lowe.
E. J. Lowe, Esq.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Nations.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Reference.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

•of N.

,nce about

S g

*°Wh oftLN';T1,0riz°ntally,
Ke^. Alt. 35 .

Light seen within
doors, and with
candle-light.

Beeston, Milden-
hall, Burnham
and other
places.

Bracondale, Nor¬
wich.

E. J. Lowe, Esq
and several
other observers.

J. Crompton, Esq.

MS. See Appendix
No. IV.

MS. communica¬
tion.

410

REPORT — 1854.

Observations of Meteors, made at Midhurst, by C. Bui,ard, B.A., M.B.M.S, to,

as found in Argelander't Un-

Vo.

183

184

185

186

187

188

189

190

191

192

193

194

195
19<i

197

198

199

200
201
202

203

204

205

206

207

208
2091
210

Date.

1853.
Aug. 10

Hour.

Greenwich
Mean Time

Apparent

Magnitude.

29

Oct. 20
28
Nov. 1

h m s

9 51 45 0 Pegasi . White

9 58 15 0 Pegasi . Blue.

10 7 28 0 Pegasi . Blue.

10 7 30 0 Pegasi . Blue.

10 15 30 /3 Pegasi . Blue.

10 20 00 0 Pegasi . Blue .

10 23 30 '0 Pegasi . I Blue .

10 31 00 k Lyras X 2 ... Blue .

Bright. .yd0*
ness ami c * or

colour. ,l,ra- „ .

txon. It. A.

Mean places for
1840 of A.

10 48 00
10 52 05
10 (1 00
8 42 00
10 28 00

10 38 00

11 20 00
11 30 30
10 9 20

k Arietta . [Blue...

k Arietta . Blue...

* Lyre . Blue...

Arcturus x 4 . . . Red ...

0 Pegasi . . Blue...

White
Blue...
Blue...
Blue...

a L}Ttt!X2 ...

* Lyre— 0-25.

« Lyre .

* Lyric x 4

6 40 26 a Lyre .

9 40 20 a Tituri . .
9 50 56 a Tauri
9 58 50 0 Pegasi . ,

• H 56 ^ Pegasi ...
JO 30 56 ]/3 Pegasi ...
10 40 16 * Lyric x3

Ji 21 f Pegasi
o ^ A Pegasi
]2 f'j 50 j/3 Canis
13 20 41 0 Pegasi

Blue .

Bed .

Bed .

Blue .

Blue .

Blue .

Blue .

8

0-5

0-5

0-25

025

O-20

0-86

0-50

0-50

0-5

Q*S

025

145

0-5

15

0-5

0-25

15

0'5

05

05

05

0*5

025

10

Blue . I 0-5

Blue . 025

Blue . 10

Blue-red. 05

60 42
55 50

325 38
324 46

326 15
344 00
332 30

70 00

312 00
3 56
21 00
200 00
273 00
173 00 j
124 00 I
10 00 1
1 43 |

137 46
70 00 1
318 00
327 00
296 00
88 00
3 00

42 00
293 00
109 40
357 30

Dccl.

Mean piaro fa
1840 of D.

R.A. Ded.

01 26
62 36
10 15

1 57

2 45
20 10
32 12
81 00

20 00
26 00
58 00
56 00
37 30
50 00
50 30
53 30

26 24

75 00
80 25
31 56
12 10

27 00
43 20
64 30

26 30
48 00
8 36
37 50

74 10
46 30
326 30
319 30
321 30
335 30
328 00
95 51

305 00
360 00
2 IS
187 30
266 30
162 00

21 30
333 35

156 00
85 9
[No places aw
given for s"f!j
small meteor*-,1

5 00 <0()0

66 41
58 00;
6#
-0 7
-3 45 1
12 50
22 W
87 W |

boo;
2 55
47*
49 ®
26 00,
58 001

49 SO
14 21 !

72 00 j

87 17

302 00

46 ft1,

Nov. 9th, 10th, 11th and 12th, J shining, no meteor seen.

APPENDIX.

No. L— On a Luminous Beam.

Extracts of two loiters from W. II. Dirt, Esq. to Prof. T°*tlU
L 1,cre described does not strictly come 0*^.

cnees made at thaw'd °k n”'tl’‘,"'s’ 05 from. cert£*-^ S’Uj'*1'

communication hero T ' C0n"L'Ct,0,‘ " „

o tivt f&r1 “" Observation of an interesting

brig ZZ Iff" 7Ai,wt- 11 "M » faint bat very
time. I oceuldl tll“ the Via Lactea, which was very « ,#•
It occupied the south-west portion of he heavens, posset »

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 411
<5

and mean places ofa,b,c
nomelria Nova.

for 184 0, from Stars of Comparison,

Mean places for
1840 of C.

Place of Observation.

RA. Deck

L. from G.

Lat.

tfoo

44 45

*38 30
313 2
118 35
333 21
137 00
171 0O

MS 15
MS 50
350 0(1
170 00
J59 OO
118 00
143 40
28 00
313 40

184 00
*>5 00
30s 00
325 30
204 40
100 00
3 00

30 00
313 00
£>8 20
344 45

65

38

ra

-2

s

56

52

6

-2

56

2

00

-2

56

- 5

20

-2

56

-12

5

—2

56

- 2

11

-2

56

18

45

-2

56

85

15

-2

56

9

42

-.2

56

18

00

-2

56

28

30

-2

56

38

Oft

-2

56

13

30

-2

56

59

30

-2

56

56

20

-2

56

46

00

-2

56

-7

29

-2

56

67

4

-2

56

87

20

-2

56

28

00

-2

56

2

5

-2

56

13

20

-2

56

40

00

-2

56

10

00

-2

56

23

45

-2

56

36

30

-2

56

2

50

-2

56

44

00

-2

56

(blue)

+50 OO OO
+50 OO 00
+50 OO OO
+50 CO 00
+50 OO 00
+50 OO 00
+50 OO 00
+50 OO 00

+50 OO 00
+50 00 OO
+50 OO 00
+50 00 00
+50 00 00
+50 OO 00
+50 OO 00
+50 59 46
+50 59 46

+50 59 46
+50 59 46
+50 59 46
+50 59 46
+50 59 46
+50 59 46
+50 59 46

+50 59 46
+50 59 46
+50 59 46
+50 59 46

Train or sparks. Remarks.

Train of light.

Train of light.

Train.

Train.

Motion very swift, described a very large arc.
]) shining.

Cloudy on the 4th, 5tli, Gth, 7th.

No meteor seen between Hh and 12h.

Number 210 appeared blue, and disappeared
red, thus —

(red)

fef°™*,had its aPex near the planet Saturn, and was inclined to the
talk- Jr a* a^0ut same angle as the equinoctial , in this respect being o-
*istL» kfent frora the zodiacal light. That the phenomenon was of a per-
obtuini.Hharac!er' at least for six days, appears pretty evident from my havl“f

U ned another view of it, though not under such favourable circumstances,

iu Wevemng the 18th, at the same hour, 7 p.m. On the last occasion,
very Hi" ^t'on was concealed bv mist, but the light above the mist w
Via 1 J 8®crn,w«» and the dark space of sky between the faint light and the
PMillri!e?iV<Ty d“linct. The edee was' decidedly rectilinear, and almost
and v pj't ’.the equinoctial, as determined by comparison with the stars a

r l' • t ilTld tllf» fi hnv vfr.nrl.nl hnvAtlfl till* nlrinCt SstUFlK

Argelander’s Uranomctria Nova.

412

REPORT — 1854.

absence of the moon since, in the course of which some very important
features have presented themselves : the apex has very steadily advanced
along the ecliptic, and the phaenomenon has increased in brilliancy with alter¬
nations. When 1 first observed it, the apex coincided with the position of
Saturn ; last evening, the luminous triangle being very distinct, the light
stronger than I had before observed it, and forming a rather conspicuous
object in the west, the apex was observed about 29° V- This progression is
rather less than the sun's daily change of place in the ecliptic. The position
which the phenomenon now occupies may be thus marked out; a line pass¬
ing from 29° V near and to the south of y Pegasi. leaving « PegSad more to
the north than y, and meeting the horizon about one-quarter point north of
VV. by N., will indicate the upper or northern edge. A line drawn from
the apex 29° T near to and to the south of Saturn, will point out the lower
or southern edge. It will be observed from this description, that the mill)
body of the light is seen from this observatory between Saturn and •/ Pfgwi,
and nearly filling that space ; the axis may be described by a line Pass'1^
from 29° Tpnst e and o Piscis, crossing the equinoctial colure at h nnttli
dec., and meeting the equinoctial about 340° At . Such is the general po¬
tion which the luminous triangle now occupies, and it was not very materia y
different on the evening of the 7th. When Mr. Reade observed it, *|C *VI
dently saw a similar appearance to that which I observed, but it wits in a
different position; instead of the upper or northern edge cutting the horiZ"'
at W. by N., the lower or southern edge rose from this point, so that the w 0 ■
body ol light was seen more northerly at Stone by its own breadth ; ,'s
very remarkable: Mr. Read® has sent me a drawing of the triangle. no
winch it appears that the apex was seen between the. stars a Andrometl is
y Pegasi ; the upper edge passed very near but to the north of /> ;
f. anc* the lower very near indeed to « Pegasi. Mr. Reade * 0 •

tions are corroborated by those of Mr. Grace, who saw the phsnomeno
the evening of the 6th; he observed the apex in the square of
Hus large displacement for so small a distance between the. static •

important in tracing out the cause of the phenomenon, and it iw0“l ,«v
desirable to augment the number of stations in March, if (af ll JfJ ' n
absent* e ^ lriHnsle 8hould appear in the early part wheu the

Mr. Birt adds a conjectural suggestion that this beam may be
ance of part of a ring of cosmical matter reflecting the sun * ra)'J ,
the plane of the earth’s orbit at about the same angle as the eq ^
laving its node situated near the first point of Aries, no ^of

rth s path at that point, but approaching it most nearly towar ^ ,ht
Aquarius, or in the beginning of August; tit which time lie point ^
direction of a line from the earth coinciding with the direction ot ^
posed ring, i e. nearly parallel to the equator, will point to the c°"'jtion3>
Cassiopeia through Perseus and Capella. These hypothetical i»nd b,f
th nks, all concur m pointing to this ring of cosmical matter as tn 1 ^

the August star-showers; while similar considerations*
zoaiacal beam, would connect that with the November period.

No. \l.— Extract of a letter from Mr. Easel accompanying his

“ j*ie enclosed observations of luminous meteors were witue^O
myself and the Rev. J.B. Reade; being the continuation o Mb fl0t for
to you in September last. The list is not very extensive, but it

A CATALOGUE OF OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 413

want of a constant and careful look out that so little information has been
gathered. On every clear night the heavenly field has been surveyed for
fiours, having myself been watching from about 7 p.m. to 10 p.m., and some¬
times later. From the beginning of August last to the end of November,
147 meteors only have been registered. This year has been remarkable for
the paucity or shooting stars. I enclose four diagrams (Flutes VI. VII. VIII.
IX.) of the paths of the meteors, with four planispheres, in which the stars
are exhibited as they actually appear with relation to each other in latitude
52J N., at the hour indicated. The diagram Plate XT. shows the paths of 34?
meteors seen in August 1851 and 1852; Plate VI I., the paths of 87 meteors
witnessed in September 1851 and 1852; Plate VIII., the paths of 86 meteors
observed in September and October 1853; Plate IX., the paths of 36 meteors
*wn in November last. In the first two diagrams, the black arrows indicate
tiie meteors seen iu 1851 ; the dotted, those seen iu 1852. In Plate VIII., the
black arrow* indicate the meteors seen in September last, and the dotted
those seen in October. The paths of all the meteors were first laid down
on the planispheres from the point of first appearance to that of extinction,
ami then counterdrawn on the other side. T he numbers against the arrows
indicate the magnitude of the meteors.

"/few. Prof. PotoelL” “ F. Vnt. Fasel.”

No. III.— -Boguslawski' s Researches.

*n Poggtmdorff’s ‘ Annalcn,' (supplementary volume iv.), M. George von
boguslawski has published a paper entitled * Tenth Supplement to Chladni’s
- utalngues of Meteors,' &c.> which he gives as his own first continuation of
nine preceding supplement* by Von Holt* and Kiiiutz, which have appeared in
luccessivepreviouanumborsof Gilbert’s and Poggendorfi’s Annalcn. 1 his paper
contains a considerable collection of notices of remarkable meteoric pbamo-
meun, and it is intended altogether as a prelude to a larger work on the sub-
•lec5* a‘u* includes a brief summary of points there to be treated in detail.

•n these brief notices, omitting the ordinary observations of smaller shooting
rs, he confines his descriptions ohiefiy to the large fire-balls, especially
iiK«e attended by sparks, trains explosions or other remarkable appearances ;

0 dl0*e phenomena, such as the fall of metallic masses, aud especially
! periodical star showers, which present any peculiar features ot interest in

“Physical point of view,

collection will be of peculiar value towards any examination of these
u. t,, h r|k,ng phenomena, which are probably the most calculated to guide
Ti,!0™ Physical theory of their nature. . ,

‘ .tlllf °* his intended work is ' Die Sternschuuppen, feuerkugcln und

lip0!?? In '^rev kosmischen Bedeutung*. , , , ,

Uh ,)s that the catalogue of Chtadni and von Hofi were brought

Lave W ty* Kiinitz. Latterly in most countries similar cata ogues

and ri,.,n/ rUw.r‘ UP: *le instances those of the British Association, Que e >
it ]v9\ , lje catalogue of the latter is from the year 583 to 1123 ; and
c»rled ?r,V ',at from t,u‘ Year 741 for a century, many meteors always oc-
riod, Jcbruary, which Chusles identifies with the present November pe-
toPteorip «\in '' 25 years by means of a displacement of the orbit of these
count of te.ruitU would advance one month further. He gives a short ac-
Quetdet p n<iu? olhcr catalogues, those of Kd. Biot, Alex. Perry, .Herrick,
than to fir °i" nlt3r fi' wvicr, though they refer more to smaller fullmg s

Hi* 1 re* oulls.

^Cteorip'!! sUPPie,uentary catalogue” consists of two divisions ; thefirsto
10 ,,on«. from B.C. to 1835 A.D., includes only authenUcated ac-

414

REPORT— 1854.

counts, with the description and analyses of the masses found. He is an¬
xious to gain some light on the hitherto uncertain point of the nature of ihe
material which has been seen to fail from shooting stars or fire-balls the
second part forms a continuation of the Chladni and IIofF catalogues from
1835 to 1850 (inc.) giving all the accounts lie could find of fire-balls ami
meteoric stones ; and here he avails himself of all the sources of information
lie could meet with, Si (liman's Journal, British Association Catalogue, and
a variety of smaller publications and papers, which it was laborious to
select and arrange.

M. Boguslawski mentions an interesting work of M. F. S. Schweigger, an
introduction to Mythology, as viewed in reference to natural science (Halle
1836), which pressed upon him some interesting considerations upon the sig¬
nification of the “ meteorcu/ius " of the ancients, and of their knowledge of the
meteoric masses : these he will impart iu his future work.

He alludes particularly to the system recommended and pursued by the
British Association, of which an account is given in the Edinb. Phil. Journ..
vol. 1. p. 35“. lie remarks, “ that a general catalogue of all the mcteunc
appearauces on the earth, from which we could derive information as to the
nature of these bodies atul their distribution in time and space, can only *-
obtainable by a uniformity and completeness iu the observations, and tieif
being all communicated to ono central depository, where all single catalogues
may be compared and worked into one.”

No. IV. — Large meteor seen in the daytime. . i

1853, October 28d 3h 57m p.m. This extraordinary meteor moved ne
perpendicularly down, inclining to east. It was first seen as a circular ^
of about half the apparent diameter of the sun, being aecorupunied by a *
of light ; afterwards it increased in size to almost the diameter of the sun,
then burst into fragments, with an explosion. The report of the cxplcwi ' , w
from 1 second to 3 seconds after the meteor had disappeared, anu re*>
distant thunder. The meteor passed over J5° of space, disappearing ^ j
°f N. at an altitude of about 10°, duration 3". ft was very brdharM' J
with a somewhat yellow light. Soon afterwards, near the sPot. , --

cared, a band of prismatic colours was visible, being ‘2 wl e .

. This nhs»nr>tr>n„, . . . l.rlllinnt as a raiUt>0W’

ir at ueeston. * ovednt

Mr, W. Felkin saw the meteor also from Beeston ; he thought ' 'l nt«
first much more obliquely than afterwards. He saw it burst into t n ^
tl.ree different tunes as it moved along. It came from behind one c ^ .
he is positive that it passed beneath a second cloud. [Query, *0Ulu

fragment?— E. J. L.] ' „ mjk; it

J he. llo;v- Henry Evans observed the meteor from Mildenhslh “
was circular, very bright, moved nearly perpendicularly down, *

E., and bearing a stream of light behind it. r T vn„,

From a letter signed H. E. Blyth, and dated Burnham near ■ b> n„r,

dbln tle8cribf‘d as appearing in the NN.W., eras* * for 5 •

drnn, and disappearing m NN.E. at an altitude of from 5° to 10°,

L°M!edn8 u U llroPP^d ncar at hand. i.c. a mile or two oft. ^led*
Mi. B. Huntman from West Retford saw the meteor. » * S. U
comet, almost as bright as the sun. It took a direction almost N-

THE SURFACE OF THE MOON.

415

one or two seconds the luminous appearance vanished, but a black point
seemed to continue falling towards the earth. Mr. Iiuntman went into a field
where he concluded it had fallen, but could not find it. He says there was a
strong smell of sulphur in the field.

The Rev. J. Brooke of Colston Bassett near Bingham saw the meteor from
five miles S. of Lincoln ; it was going in
a northerly direction and passing from S.W.
to N.E. The form was somewhat like the
sketch appended ; when it burst it resem¬
bled a rocket bursting.

Mr. 6. Warriner noticed it from Normanton Hotel near Wakefield ; it ap¬
peared to vanish at an altitude of 20°.

It was seen also at Tunbridge.

From the explosion occurring so soon after disappearance, and from the
meteor passing beneath a cloud, and from black fragments being noticed to
hll, it is probable that the noise hoard hero, was from the first explosion
("lien nearest over head, this would give an altitude of about 14,000 yards),
and that other fragments fell elsewhere. The newspapers describe fragments
8 having been picked up in Hanover. — E. J. Lowe.

Second Report of the Committee , consisting of the Earl of Rosse,
the Rev. Dr. Robinson, and Professor Phillips, appointed by the
general Committed at Belfast , to draw up a Report on the Physical
diameter of the. Moon's Surface, as compared with that of the
Earth.

HE Committee have on this occasion to report that two of the eminent
persons whose co-opcration they had the good fortune to secure, Professor
8 ‘8.and Professor P. Smyth, have sent in communications and drawings,
r cording to the request, of the Committee, and that some steps have been
j *n by of their own members for at least putting in train for further
"e'tess the photographic experiments on the moon, of which some pre-
tion< ii "i°tlCe was del»vered to the Hull Meeting. The new comimimca-
* a uded to will be presented to the Section at this Meeting.

(On behalf of tho Committee) John Phillips.

^icings of different Features of a portion of the Moon's Surface, com-
prmny Plato, the Alps , the Valley of the Alps , and Cassini.

...... » Cambridge Observatory, September 18, 1854.

Hr, , ".!•) , vv*nK8 were made under my direction by my seuior assistant, i Ir.
(her *!! h „ Northumberland Telescope of the Cambridge Observatory,
fr.r the ml*11 sk(?tt:llC(1 al sight, and were taken at various ages of the moon
piano ami ;'°Se ?. obtaining indications of the forms and configuration, both in
which k r° K/’ of t*10 different parts of the portiou of the moon s surface
e°nsiderpii l t n ,l ottod to me for mapping. They are, therefore, only o e
cronitlor , ** PrcT>nratory and auxiliary to a final delineation* A few rni-
thc niit.rrimt‘faures accompany them, ‘it is proposed hereafter to multiply
r'^nectiiirr !i measurcs for the purpose of correcting the drawings, and
a,'er Sen£n k ,toBetl,er> and for reducing all to the same scale. On and
*«, iKfT h im. Mr. Breen made u.e of a th.de of gl»«

nect of which is to take off the glare of strong moonlight, and to

416

REPORT — 1854.

produce a tint by which the distinction between the lighter and darker shade*
on the moon s surf-ice is more perceptible. To my eyes the greenness of the
shade soon vanishes, and the eventual tint is a subdued white. [On re¬
moving the green glass and looking at the moon’s surface, the complemcntan
pm colour is strongly developed.] All the necessary explanation are
given on the card* upon which the drawings are made, and in the note
attached to them. ,

“James Chalus.

“ Interim Report on the 1 Mare Crisium and its Shorn'.”

By Professor C. Piazzi Smyth.

" September, 1854.

, Tbre.e ^ar£e drawings of this lunar region are transmitted herewith, ex-
i biting it under the three different phases of incident light recommended
by the Lunar Committee of the British Association. They are likewise re¬
duced to a mean state of libration, and are on a scale of 98 inches to the
diameter of the body.

Ten original sketches made at the telescope, and on which the above com¬
positions have been framed, are also sent, with notes and explanations, as wvf
flS f eton maP for identification of features and places.

the magnifying power employed, which was the highest possessed, and
un'ortunatdy too much for the indifferent quality of the object-glass, was
?nnffc 20°’ But experience has shown that the power of not less than
iuuu, as recommended by the Committee, with suitable size and qu^
o o nect-glass, would have been in the highest degree advantageous.

/• , ,act,ce and experience brought to view so many decided and interesting
eaturos of colour, that the monochrome proposed was exchanged for Hie
2? T?.S(T b0X ot‘ flours, ground up first with water, but aft***
nns i * ’ n <itter m<Kfo appearing preferable, as white had as often n
put m on black, as black on white! *

pffJ't“ae.(l 80 cfo“e a» the Mare Crisium Is to the limb of the moon, ^
ettects of l.brat.on were found so extensive in altering the perspective, •“
the consequent apparent form of mountains, as well as the shade ol

p0n.!!tHnt a£° °f the moon, that special measures had to be ta
correct for it. 1

‘So extensive a surface as that proposed to

tho nr 1 har,,ly be doue |u»tice to by only one drawing tn e«a

ttepmnmM ncident light,, for when one boundary k
manner n ihado™* of' elevation and depression in the moot b « ^
often verw e..0f,P°8ltf boundary is then beginning to show those p>J".
tion y lverse phenomena which are brought out by a vertica

ti„““ Skater number of the sketches had been ob|ai''cd’ h
I h ' Beer Madler’a map was referred to. The result
£nhi *i°ZCcd,ng great accura<7 a™‘ admirable completely '
hi nPiv fre tPhartl?ula.rs’1 expressed in a certain conventional style; b at * ^
scone £ a,'d ,nccbanic<U features, as they are sc.eU/0 be rf#

in ? ’ th tbey CX,“t “ nature, and in the form they are required ^
Indulged i„.PUrP°9e °f enab,lng any geological speculates to be

for ‘ the shadino* 2?®?11/ .irnP0saib,e for any one map to give
blackness at ti?P vh,Ch 18 latroduced to express the depth ofaC,totln*“|-
dication of 1 ! Pv ’ -°r old lnooiJ> is a‘ once and directly opposed <° ^

full moon CeS8,Ve wh««W» of its internal walls, as revealed

ON TIIE APPLICATION OF WATER-PRESSURE MACHINERY. 417

“In the drawings now presented exactly such u case is offered by the crater
Proclus, whose walls, by the way, are not broken through towards the north,
as shown in the German map.

“Equally difficult is it on any one map, and that on a small scale, to exhibit
how completely the monster craters of Macrobius and Cleomedes, with the
hi"h conical mountains N. and S. of Proclus, and the cliffy and vertically
stratified ranges on the N.W. border of the Mare, disappear under a vertical
illumination,— while then come forth tlu: bright radial markings of Proclus,
and u large ami bright inroad into the Mare, completely altering its contour
*t that part. Moreover, the crater of Proclus, with its internal walls so
brilliant and so sharply defined, then becomes the prominent object of all
tliit region, though with the side light it is least so. Hence Russell's idea
wi'li his Lunar Maps, of keeping one sheet for the pbrenomena of a vertical
light, and another for those of the side light, was good in principle; but the
wall scale lie adopted, and the imperfect execution, render his plates useless
for researches in the present day.

“In conclusion, I have only to add, that of the large drawings,—

No. 1 shows the Marc Crisium at New Moon ;

No. 2 „ „ Full Moon, or a little before,

to show vertical illumina-
tion ;

No. 3 „ „ Old Moon ;

antj that in all of them most attention has been given to the N.W. region,

j*11 the craters there adjacent, while little or nothing has been attempted in

10 re8‘°u between the Mare and the moon’s limb.

« C. P. S ”

On the Application of Water-pressure Machinery.

By W. G. Armstrong, F.R.S.

[A communication ordered to be printed among the Reports.]

",E omP%nient of water pressure as a mechanical agent having recently
, a Sreat and rapid development, I may be permitted to make a

... — j piL'iiminary experiments, 1 succeeded m cataniaming . ~

•ii.- |10 f*Ua? nt Newcastle-upon-Tyne, the hydraulic crane which has termed
^ of what has since been effected. . .

the !crane bolh lifted the weight and swung round in either direction by
!;n0p U.re (’i water, uml was characterized, like all other hydraulic cranes
in in, a' . temarteftble precision and softness of movement, combined

fat rapidity of action!

»x,n r’f,.*l1eri™ent tlms made at Newcastle having proved ®at'sb‘cTto7i’
tin; n.J.'T™18 obtaif)ed an thoritv, through the intervention of Mr. Hartley,
tin: en... ' u.t vey°r of Liverpool, to construct several cranes and hoists upon
Cordit,,,|v l,ri,lcM,l° the Albert Dock in that town, where they were ae-
Tlip , » anil bav« ever since continued in operation.

I)ock u'l i ^ at which these cranes were adopted was Grimsby New
iilad,. ^ a,n 'mP0l,tent step in the advancement of this kind of machinery
to t|l€i ow 1 lc 8u&gestion of Mr. Rondel, who pointed out its applicability
extend 'n^,.antf closing of dock gates and sluices, and instructed me o
1854. l)P‘ICation to those objects. An extensive system of water-pres-

418

REPORT — 1854.

sure machinery was accordingly carried out at that dock, and the result
afforded the first practical demonstration that the pressure of a column of
water could be advantageously applied as a substitute for manual labour,
not merely for the cranage of goods, but also to give safe and rapid effect to
those mechanical operations which are necessary for passing ships through
the entrances of docks.

In all these instances the moving column of water was about 200 feet in
elevation. At Newcastle and Liverpool the supply was derived from the
pipes communicating with the town reservoirs, but at Grimsby a tower was
built for supporting a tank into which water was pumped by a steam-engine,
In the former cases, the fluctuation of pressure, consequent upon the variable
draught from the pipes for the ordinary purposes of consumption, proved i
serious disadvantage; but this objection had no existence at Grimsby, where
the tank upon the tower furnished a separate source of power, undisturbed
by any interfering conditions. Nothing could be more effectual for its pur¬
pose than this tower; but, in the natural course of improvement, I was sub¬
sequently led to the adoption of another form of artificial head, which
possessed the advantage of being applicable, at a comparatively small cost,
in all situations, and of lessening the size of the pipes and hydraulic m*-
cliinery, by affording a pressure of greatly increased intensity.

The apparatus thus substituted for a water tower I named “ the Acrun"‘-
icctor, from the circumstance of its accumulating the power exerted by tin
engine in charging it. The accumulator is, in fact, a reservoir giving pn*
sure by W in, lead of by elevation, and its use, like that of every provt^"
° this kind, is to equalize the strain upon the engine in cases where
quantity of power to be supplied is subject to great and sudden fluctuation^

1 he construction of the accumulator is exhibited in Plate I. fig. 1, and neei-
but little explanation. It consists of a Inrge cast-iron cylinder, fitted wit*
p unger, from which a loaded weight case is suspended, to give pressure to 1
water injected by the engine. The load upon the plunger is usually sue'1,,
to produce a pressure in the cylinder equal to a column of 1500
vation, and the apparatus is made sufficiently capacious to contain ti be 1 1 P
quantity of water which can be drawn from it at once by the simyl to",
action of all the hydraulic machines with which it is connected. w .

e engine pumps more water into the accumulator than passes dire
hydraulic machines, the loaded plunger rises and makes room in d'e *■) , j.

*Tpu8; but when, on the other hand, the supply from the »« V ad
less, tor the moment, than the quantity required, the plunger, with its
escen s and makes up the deficiency out of store. . „ (be

1™ i 1 a9cumu,«tor also serves as a regulator to the engine; for . in
loaded plunger rises to a certain height, it begins to close a tbrottl -
the stcam-p.pe, so as gradually to reduce the speed of the engine^
descent of the plunger again calls for an increased production ol F ]p51|
lhe introduction of the accumulator, which took place in .the J hicb i<
gave a great impulse to the extension of water-pressure machinery. 0f
rr? *' a re?tly aPPl,ed> °r in course of being applied, to the P ^s0 w
aZS hnUfih0Ul aU thc> »reat establishments in London, 2 pi,ed it

extensively 8 °*feQt 1,1 LiverPOol and other places. I I,ave ? jvjr.V11^1,
who ha?/ t°1ra,lvvay purposes, chiefly under the direction of » j„
i °Un! a "“Jltitude of cases, involving Jilting or tractl^|LewPli-

fled at th y ?ade availabl«J- Most of these applications are
fhe loading? T 1,10 G r<jat Western Railway Company w ^ ^ 04
of lnadn 1 f L UnIoading of trucks, the hoisting into warehouses. » d , ^
of loaded trucks from one level to another, the moving of turn-table*

ON THE APPLICATION OP WATER-PRESSURE MACHINERY. 419

hauling of trucks and traversing machines are all performed, or about to be
*o, by means of hydraulic pressure supplied by one central steam-engine with
connected accumulators. Mr. Rendel also, after having successfully adopted
the low-pressure system to the working of the gates and shuttles at Grimsby,
has since applied the high-pressure, or accumulator system, to the same pur¬
poses at other new docks, and a similar adaptation is being made by other
eminent engineers at most of the new docks now in course of construction.

I have also adapted hydraulic machinery to the opening and closing of
•wing-bridges and draw-bridges of large dimensions ; and, in fact, there is
waroi lv any mechanical operation to which human labour has been hitherto
applied as a mere moving power, which may not be efficiently performed by
means of water-pressure emanating from a steam-engine and accumulator.
bv(!ti if hand-labour be retained as the source of the power, the intervention
of an accumulator will in many cases both economise labour and increase
despatch. For example, a pair of heavy dock-gates requires the constant
attendance of a considerable number of men whose labour is only called into
action occasionally, viz. when the gates are being opened or closed. Now,

1 a^cumuIator, charged by hand-pumps, were used, the labour employed
I J0 constant., instead of occasional, and the power collected in the ac¬
cumulator by the continuous process of pumping would be given out in a
concentrated form, and thus the ultimate result would be effected with fewer
,a,i' aaa grater despatch than where manual labour is directly applied.

I , . m °f pumping-engine which I generally use for charging the accu-
i. J 18 represented in Plate 11. fig. ‘2. It consists of a horizontal steam-
Foi-1.1! Cr* W't l *wo force-pumps connected directly with the piston. These
co-pumps are supplied with water from a cistern over the engine-room, into
etur • water discharged by the cranes is generally brought back by a
u-pipe, so that the water is not wasted, but remains continuously in use.
friction ,a ?[essilro representing a column of 1500 feet, the loss of head by
t0 l 1 10 t,lc P'Pes forms so small a deduction from the entire column as
tb0 “,atter of no consideration, and consequently the distance at which
,llav l° ,may.b(i situated from the points where the hydraulic machines
li js js °i little importance, except as regards the cost of the pipe,

each cxiri f' however, >f the pipe be very long, to apply an accumulator at
With rJ01 a’ 80 as c^arge the pipe from both ends.

1 f‘^t adrf j l° the meoha‘'ism of hydraulic cranes, the arrangement which
hjdraulin 6d’ ant*. *iave ever erince adhered to, consists of one or more
ami pull(n!lrtfS?8,i'V't*1 a set °f leaves, used in the inverted order of blocks
front a cunm °P,.- , Purpose of obtaining an extended motion in the chain
c,«u*cter2 ,e y s,lort 8lrolce of the piston. This construction, which
*hich 1 have nea.. y®!! the varieties of the hoisting and hauling machines to
presents on r hydraulic pressure, is exhibited in Plate III. fig- 3, which
'"''rfold. ine these presses with sheaves attached, to multiply the motion
herably [ Cils.?s " here the resistance to be overcome varies very consi¬
der Sep,,,-!, ira y enaP% three such cylinders, with rams or pistons acting
c°rtlin<j to tu* y or COnj°iotly upon the same set of multiplying sheaves, ac-
, In hydJauila“OUDt °f PO"er required.

aho for ,vill£,inCr--the power is applied, not only for lifting the load, but
°r chain oneraK^ * le jib, which latter object is effected by means ol a rack
°ected either »'?? °U ^!e i’aso °f the moveable part of the crane, and con-
a ®team.t.ng| 1 1 a Cylinder and piston having alternate motion, like that of
.jrnate action ^ W,t^ two prewea applied to produce the same effect by

DCe any sensible elasticity in water renders the motions

2 e 2

420

REPORT— 1854.

resulting from its pressure capable of the most perfect control, by means of
the valves which regulate the inlet and outlet passages of the machines; but
this very property, which gives so much certainty of action, tends to cause
shocks and strains to the machinery, by resisting the momentum acquired
by the moving parts. Tuko, for example, the case of an hydraulic crane
swinging round with a load suspended on the jib, the motion being produced
by the water entering on one side of a piston and escaping from tie other.
Under such circumstances, if the water passages be suddenly closed by the
regulating valve, it is obvious that the piston, impelled forward by the mo¬
mentum of the loaded jib, but met by an unyielding body of water deprived
of outlet, would he brought to rest so abruptly, as to cause, in all probability!
the breakage ot the machine. So, ;,!-■> in imwing a heavy weight "'iin
considerable velocity, if the escape-passage he too suddenly closed, a simikir
risk of injury would arise from the abrupt stoppage of the weight, it a
remedy were not provided ; but these liabilities are effectually removed br
applying, in connexion with the water passages to the cylinder, u sma
clack-valve, opening upwards against the pressure into the supply P'l*» 50 u
to permit the pent-up water in Lite cylinder to .be pressed back into the pip1-'
whenever it becomes exposed to a compressive force exceeding the pressure
on the accumulator. By this means all jerks and concussions arc ; avoid J
and a perfect control over the movement of the machine is combined wuu
great softness of action. I(! ,

With regard to the kind of valves used for water-pressure machines, B"'
that ether ift-valvea or slide-valves may be effectually applied, and k P
b ht under heavy pressures, provided that sand be excluded from the
and the valves be made of proper material. , ,, )|vin,

shcavS?SuM'l,0re a more Prolonged movement is required than m ¥ J*
struetfon r0m;ome,lt,y a®**!, • employ rotative machines of various

inenf n S’ • ! ur beavy pressures, such as an accumulator affords, ai • 1
Teenn T ng, ?' lingers. emiuceted with a triple crank, and > '
Pl!nn ‘a r»f.0,nbl;inoe t(> a three-throw plunger pump, is welUdap* L^\
down to /•'? admission and exhaust valves are mUred spindtaPj f(ir
tliat nnv WGlg lts and *eVL'rs» and lifted in proper rotation by can s • ^

renefPeh?L0SeiUp7l a •haft, and these valves rtf fife*

take nl*i 8, 0 ,v‘ate the concussion which would otherwise

The lieKamthc ‘ura of eHch *"*«?. a he frost W

often beenn U "* 'rater'l,l'» 'Siire machinery to be derange J . aV 0b-
serve fir t* n U5t( 83 an objection to its use; and upon this po UM.
whence 1 W experienced any interference from ^c,-

the crmmd 7?*° 113 «**y *

avoidably ’ °r jltm* ;i l,u<Iding ; and secondly, that wbL ' a[er in
frostv wl^h F0Se,f1, aI1 ,isk bJ prevented by letting out the

W hen M 101 wbpnevtT the machines erase working. the pa*

sure r-n .ll m°V,mS P°wer consists of a natural column of 'vatP ’lpVCd f'r

ro[ativeieXCetMl8.250 °r *»* 1 KTS**

in some dear" R|?air cf Under* and pistons, with slide-valv < ^ p

prevent shock at ° ^''^-pressnre engine, but bav,D£ [ a slide-* *
adapted for * turn °r *trt,kc. Plate 11 1. fig* VKE& of +*
are equally armljcahrf aN’arrttU8 "f » onuic, hut the vcbef-c ^ j(l qUev
tion. 1 Tr &£* «^r-prcs>ure engine of
as to aftml c,acks °pen against t ie pressure in tue ; t „p m '

cyl rnlcr when Z*V\ for the "***. which would otherwise be J, , »

ui s,i'g :P “ r st c,°. cs' a,,d Uiu ter ns 01 “p

b p pe, so as to draw m a portion of waste water

ON THE EQUIVALENCY OF STARCH AND SUGAR IX FOOD. 421

small vacancy which would otherwise be left in the cylinder on the closing
of the admission port. About four years ago I constructed four hydraulic
engines upon this principle at Mr. Beaumont’s lead mines in Northumber¬
land, at the instance of Mr. Sopwith, Mr. Beaumont’s well-known agent, and
t»u more have recently been added at the same place. They are used for
crushing ore, for hoisting materials from the mines, for pumping Avater, and
for driving a circular saw and other machinery.

If in progress of time railways should bo generally extended into moun¬
tainous districts, so as to render them accessible for manufacturing purposes,
tile rapid streams which abound in such localities will probably become
valuable sources of motive power, ami a wider field may then be afforded for
the application of water-pressure engines to natural falls.

The object, however, which I have chiefly had in view since I first gave
attention to this subject, has been to provide, in substitution of manual labour,
method of working a multiplicity of machines, intermittent in their action,
I extending over a large area, by means of transmitted power produced
-v a steam-engine and accumulated at one central point. The common
roode of communicating power by shafting could only be applied in cases where
. ® n,|tehincs were collected within a small compass, anil where the accunm-
°f power necessary to meet varying resistance did not exceed that
" "cli a fly-wheel would afford. Compressed or exhausted atr was almost
equally inapplicable to the purposes 1 contemplated, in consequence of the
any objections which its elasticity involves, as well as the liability to leakage,
V'?1 an extended system of pipes and machines, requiting a multitude
li J»°Tts’ Vfdve8>and fitting surfaces, would form an insurmountable difficulty.

“the use of water as a medium of' transmission is free from all these ob-
j atld fitness for the purpose intended is now thoroughly established
) m results which have been obtained.

,'liin »° .IU°St recent specimen to be seen in Liverpool of water-pressure ma*
n '!/’ !IS aPl'hed t° cranage ami hoisting purposes, is that which is now
Iat(,>c°™Pleted at. the Stanley Dock, where the magnificent warehouses
aninL I,lls lcd» a,,d in which this machinery is being fixed, will in themselves
y rePay a visit of inspection.

AWES,

t,te Equivalency of Starch and Sugar in Food. By J- B. hi
F.C.S. ; and J. II. Gilbert, P/t.D., F.C.S.

“On tLAI-eting ?f tl,e Association held at Belfast, we gave, a Paper

Animak” .0n)l10.s‘t‘un of l'oods in relation to Respiration and the Feeding o
that as n, ln W |ich lt was illustrated by reference to numerous experiments,
digestif,]!?1 Ulllt;n*; food -stuffs go, it was the amounts they supplied of tie
'vliic-l, ® «o«*nitrcgenous, rather than those of the nitrogenous constituents,
*c'tfht <,r lJlS P,aril>us measured both the quantity consumed by a given
fro,“a • J""ia! within a given time, and the amount of increase obtained
too by rii. " °* Ble dry substance of the food. It was demonstrated

animil bnH,?!. 8 adduct'd, that much more fat might be stored up in the
°bvioiJs ijJ. !an ex‘5tcd as fatty matter in dm food consumed, and it seemeu
farchy ami ®ny fate the chief source of this produced fat must be the
file invest: SaC-C^a”UG mBier than the nitrogenous constituents of the food.
cl°sc-lv alli«.#i^tl0n now to be recorded might therefore be considered as
P°int*partip„i °1 or rather in continuation of the former line of inquiry, ie
ar y to be illustrated being, the comparative respiratory an

422

REPORT — 1854.

fattening capacities of certain of the predominant non-nitrogenous constitu¬
ents of our current vegetable foods ; namely, as indicated by the title of our
Paper, of Starch and Sugar , which enter so largely into the composition of
such descriptions of food.

Starch undoubtedly constitutes by far the largest proportion of the digest¬
ible non-nitrogeuous matter of tin* complex vegetable substances, such is the
cereal grains, potatoes, &c., used as human food ; and it abounds also largely
in some articles of diet of the lower animals. SugatffOti thBtrthWMMi
although existing to a much smaller extent than Starch in the naturally com¬
bined vegetable diet of Man, yet in one of its forms more especially, it con¬
stitutes an important item in his manufactured vegetable food— and in
another, is a product iu the course of transformation of Starch itself, not only
in some of our methods of preparing starchy matters for the purposes ol foo-i,
but also in the process of its assimilation by the animal economy. Sugar,
moreover, occurs largely in the roots and bulbs which at certain period* ol
the year replace the more starchy vegetable products consumed by tla
animals of the farm at other seasons. And, it has frequently been utjp
that it would be a great boon to the agricultural interest were a consider¬
able portion of the starchy grains used as cattle food, converted by then'®
iug process into a peculiar sugar previous to its being employed as food of
stock. And again, those interested in the growth of cane-sugar have «>n?
desired to obtain the introduction of the lower qualities of that article a.
free, for feeding purposes. In many points of view therefore, both scan i
and economical, it seemed desirable to put to the test of actual esperunw
the comparative respiratory and feeding capacities of Starch and '

lrom the related chemical composition and characters of the subs _
coming under these heads, have hitherto, on theoretical grounds alone,
considered as cqui valcn t. ( ^

llie method adopted to this end was— profiting by the experience ol P
ceding experiments— to apportion to the animals under conlPaf®“v i, 0D|(|
jn severaJ cases, such a fixed amount of highly nitrogenous food M
leave only the requirement for mw-nitrogenous constituents m 8 jn
which, either in the form of Starch, of Sugar, or both, was then aHoj _
any quantity the animals chose to eat them. In another case, .
n0??’ ! ie 8!archy> and tJ|e saccharine foods were each aUowed at* .
nf *ila -e resu^# °f the latter arrangement, a judgement C0UT, amoun‘
ot the sufhciency of the fixed apportionment in the other cases. 8
and composition of the respective foods consumed, and the weight®
aniina s at stated periods, form the data for our conclusions. of.

1 he animals selected for experiment were pigs ; for, owing to tne M ic
tionally small amount of necessarily effete substance, such asvtoot %«ct
their appropriate food as compared with that of tlie grass and
animals, the amount of the dry substance of the food taken repretf^
more nearly in their ease the sum of that in the increase and the L h>>1
expenditure than in that of the latter. And owing to this circus ive j

SJ2! C0®Pwat>vely rapid fattening tendency of these animafc ^
nronorhmi _ _ , . , . ■■

nlnvpH r r~\, vv“7 ul l,HJ a,T substance of the food is, * either ifl
ployed functionally, that is m say, is eliminated from the bod}, re.
the exhtdatfons by the lungs and Vkin or in the solid and
ments, only about 1^ per cent, of the whole serving for the me
substance of the body" Though 2^15 in our former 1 ,

ON THE EQUIVALENCY OF STARCH AND SUGAR IN FOOD. 423

about twice that amount of starchy, saccharine and proteine matter will
directly contribute to the formation of the fifteen parts of the mixed nitro¬
genous and fatty substance of the increase ; it being the two former, namely
the Starch and the Sugar, which chiefly minister to the fatty increase.

The detailed arrangement of the experiment was as follow*: — Twelve
pigs, carefully chosen for general uniformity as to weight and description,
were allotted to four peus, three in each, in such manner, that, as far as possible,
each animal should have its counterpart as to character in each of the other
pens; and so also, that the total weight should be nearly the same in each
pen. These objects were well attained in the allotments to pens 1, 2 and 3,
results of which were to be more closely compared ; but in pen 4, the
animals were somewhat larger in frame and of u more growing character,
ibc following were the weight* of tile animals in each pen when thus allotted
and put up for the experiment : —

Table I. — Weights of the Pigs when put up for experiment (lbs.).

Pig, No.

Pen 1.

Pen 2.

Pen 3.

Pen 4.

1

95

94

98

89

2

79

80

77

87

3

72

73

74

86

Total .

246

247

249

262

allotment as above, each lot was led lor a ween on iw expci*-
j?nn a‘. *°°d before commencing the exact experiment, in order to accustom
•e ammals to their new foods and new situation.
ie foods employed were : —

MitummT as a^0l^ID8 a somewhat concentrated supply of nitrogenous con-

an,f r!?r~as chai'acteristically supplying, besides some nitrogenous starchy

Ofo . a considerable proportion of woody fibre, which, m the case

a Um>nant feeding animals , seems so essential to give bulk to the food.
A,rrc?arse brown Penang sugar.

In 16 Potato'starch " of 'the market. , .

of the fn TT* Table (H.) is given a summary of the results ol analysis
well t.^ere having been always two determinations or more agreeing

011 together m each case.. *

De«cription of
food.

meal
| St*rch . "

Dry matter.

Ash.

Nitrogen.

Inclusive

In dry

In fresh

In dry

of ash.

of ash.

substance-

substance.

substance.

substance.

87-32

8304

4-280

4-901

4-201

4-811

84-12

78-35

5-768

6-856

2-301

2-737

93 60

92-79

0-808

0-862

0193

80-43

80-03

0-396

0-492

0-167

O-208

** ProteiuCpn niore than 1 per cent, of nitrogenous proximate, u recx
March,” an.i ■ l)0und. The Starch, as has been said, was that sold as P° a "
** tlle sugar ? f *° contain very nearly the same amount of n,tr0£,

’ ut au® in its case to the nitrogenous cell-membrane, n

424

REPORT— 1854.

Starch, however, there was nearly 20 per cent, of water, instead of only about
per cent, as in the Sugar.

The next Table (III.) shows the daily allowance per head of each of the
foods which were given in fixed quantity, and also the amounts consumed of
those given ad libitum, during each fortnightly period of the experiment,
which in all extended over ten weeks.

Table III. — Showing the daily allowance, or ad libitum consumption, per
head, of each food during the five separate periods, and the total period
of the experiment.

[Quantities in lbs. and ozs.]

Pens.

Foods — how given.

1st

14 days.

2nd

14 days.

3rd

14 days.

4 th

14 days.

5th

14 days.

Avenge,
10 weeks.

Lentil Meal.

1.

]

2.

•j

Mu fixed quantity .

3 0

3 0

3 0

3 8

3 8

3 3j

4.

J

4 6$

2 10

4 4$

4 13

5 Hi

4 6

Bran.

1.

2.

3.

[ In fixed quantity....

1 0

1 0

0 8

0 4

0 4

0

4.

Ad libitum .

0 Ci

0 4J

0 2|

0 2!

0 li

0 31

.

Sugar and Starch.

Ad libitum, Sugar .,
„ Starch
Sugar . ,
Starch.,
Total

Sugar .

Starch .

Total .

1

n

1

10|

1

10*

1

m

0

14

1

A

0

m

1

u

1

2

«*

1

4 J

2

0

1

0

3r

1

8*

2

13}

feoual ds.il ’ n an< 3’ t,lcu’ t,,ere waB throughout the experune ^
Jdftinn ty,f llown.nce Per head of the lentil-meal and bran respec *
C ^ the in pen 1 had as much Sugar, those in W

to eat i!! thT lu Pcu 3 ns much, both of Sugar and Starch,
each pivpn *^0n 011 °ther hand, lentil-meal, bran, sugm' an 'tj0I1 in tbi*

Pen 48 tWf a ®e?aratc trn»gii, and ad libitum ; from the conw j^t ^
could ’be iud 01 V r naturu^ inclination of the animals fur ^ier| nti|-nieal 1,1
fl oJ S °‘* ; V commencement, the allowance

weviois exnorfn^? 3 ,b*' P" head per day ; this amount being "die ^
afford a duePs..M rt,ralabo.ut that "hick* would, with t he bran t < ^ ofltf
seen that the »,v^° 1,0 ,litrogcnous constituents of food. 0fthe rc
sTectivc foodV f t’ vvh‘®h fixed their own cousin*^ lk»
spectivc food*, took considerably more of the nitrogenous leptd

ON TUB EQUIVALENCY OF STARCH AND SUGAR IN FOOD. 425

the fixed allowance of the other pens; and after the third period, that is, at
the end of six weeks, the fixed allowance of lentil-meal in pens 1, 2, and 3
was increased from 3 lbs. to 3£ lbs. per head per day. In like manner, 1 lb.
of bran per head per day was at first given in the peris 1, 2, and 3 ; but this,
"!i the other hand, was much more than was taken of it by the pigs in pen 4.
The fixed daily ration of bran per head was therefore, after the second period,
mluced from 1 lb. to h lb., and, during the fourth and fifth periods, to £ lb.
1< r head per day. Still even this amount of bran was considerably more
than that taken at will in pen 4. Rut one object of the experiment was
to give a pretty full allowance of the cheaper ami less nutritious bran, in
order to see whether, when mixed with pure digestible proximate principles,
?liC" 88 Sugar and Starch, somewhat more of it could, without disadvantage,
be employed.

In pen 1, where, in addition to the fixed allowance of lentils and bran, a
ugh was kept constantly supplied with Sugar, it is seen that during the first
-"ir periods there was a gradual increase in the quantity of it consumed,—
ic average consumption for the whole ten weeks being nearly 2 lbs. of Sugar
V Per day. This purely non-nitrogenous substance constituted in fact
ou one-third of the total food of the animals, — a range of amount, or
liirnM ,0n °* ^le consumption, sufficiently great to justify a judge-

two \ comparison with that of the Starch, of the relative capacities of the
aniinT StanCCS t0 meet the con»l,,ex demand* of the system of a fattening

f'-od Pn n/l^larcft was given as the purely noil-nitrogenous and ad libitum
Vas ’ at, lhe average consumption of it over the whole period of ten weeks
rijn thai* 2 lbs. 2 oz. per head per day. More, therefore, was

die t,ie Starch than of the Sugar ; but it will presently be seen that

ca^-s ® , l*le dry mbslance of the foods was almost identical in the two

’i'upl'v dpn i ^lcru/ore *IJ<’ apparently larger consumption of Starch was
hi m>n a • .0I1 ‘ts contnining more of water than the Sugar,

a-, in npi ’ in " hich there was the same fixed allowance of lentils and bran
Starch nr i complementary food consisted of both Sugar and

lictuJ nrnm,,.* J ,Se ,w<>» taken together, the average daily consumption per
do1 mixim * ,i f'° a*)oufc lbs. Considerably more, therefore, was eaten of
•■Sect on ‘an °.f eil,ier the Sugar or the Starch when given alone. The
the case of S1,i^!?etlte °** 1,ie miirnal of a certain complexity of diet, even in
lure iii„sfr ' stances having in one sense equal food capacities, is therefore
if hitroppn, ec ’ tllOU«,b owing probably to a somewhat defective proportion
as will 8 COinPOUnds '»i the total food of this pen 3, we have not in this
a corrc<mni!lpSe,i1<'^ *Je seen> the advantage of this increased consumption
food consumeu greQter l*roP°vtion of increttso to the dry substance ot

put t*IG lentil-meal, the bran, the sugar, and the starch vere

' “hl-meal u.a . SeParate trough, considerably more of the highly nitrogenous
d^t With tl,is la^11 t*UU1 *" .an^ 1,10 otl,er eases. And it is remarka le,
'"t of t|le s,, arger co,IPUUlption of lentils, scarcely any free Starch is taken,
““t only the vXX n,ore even than in pen 1, where no free Starch was allowed,
'“['posing that u“’ a? tl,e 0(1 Mitum food. This might be accounted for by
l-1' dm larger 1C *n PPn 4- had a larger and sufficient supply ot stare
[°rtlle4nrlTt,ty,0f le,,‘ils l;‘hcn, and that therefore the system called
be t0 ihr'Uitlan tl,e addition of starch in the free state; and this
°f the nnla»«e t,le result to a physiological requirement, apart from,
Wi*s simply !. le sLon,ach merely. It is, however, much more likely that
y matter of palate and stomach ; for in pen 3, where also both

426

REPORT — 1854.

Sugar and Starch were given, a certain portion of each was mixed with the
limited food, so that all except the free Starch being saccharine, the greater
would be the relish for it, and hence we have much more of Starch consumed
in pen 3 than in pen 4.

But there is another point that should be noticed before leaving the
question of the dieting of the animals. In a previous experiment with
pigs, in which some of them which were fed on food comparatively de¬
fective in mineral matter suffered considerably in health, a mixture uf
coal and wood ashes, superphosphate of lime and common salt was given
with the best effects. It was thought, therefore, that in this case, in
which lentils, sugar, and starch were all somewhat deficient, particularly
in phosphates, a similar mixture might be useful. Accordingly a mixtures
20 lbs. of the ashes, 2£ lbs. superphosphate of lime, and lbs. of common
salt were divided into four parts, ami one of the fourths given to each pw
this amount being distributed over fourteen days. This mineral mixture
always taken with the greatest avidity and relish; so much so, that the amra
would leave their other troughs the moment the fresh supply ot P
within their reach. They were, moreover, upon the whole, very
throughout the experiment, and yielded good rates of increase. ,

In the next Tabic (IV.) is shown the per-centagc proportion o^ ^
food, in which each of the separate articles was consumed during
cessive periods as the experiment progressed.

Table IV. — Pcr-eentage proportion of each food in the total food ^

- • . ! . 1 . , ... - i *i,„ ovnpnmeiii.

Pens.

Foods — how given.

1st

11 days.

2nd

14 days.

3rd

14 days.

4th

14 days.

5th

14 days.

Averfy

I0ff«k!-

Lentil Meal. — -

1.

2.

3.

4.

In fixed quantity ..

»» » .

Ad libitum .

54-90
53-05
52 17
6914

53-16

53-16

46-84

45-64

5362

5316

45-32

62-50

59-39

55-37

47-65

6312

61-89

54-14

52-59

69-77

56'(W

53-82

48-82

02-79

Bran.

1.

2.

3.

4.

In fixed quantity

” ii .

»» „

Ad libitum .

18-30

17-68

17-39

6-69

17-72

17-72

15-61

4-98

8-94

8-86

7-55

2-43

4-24

3-95

3-41

1-87

- - - Sug

ar and Starch.

1.

2.

3.

4.

Ad libitum

If

-1

Sugar .

Starch ...

Sugar .

Starch .

• Total .

Sugar .

Starch .

2679

29-26

15-42

15-01

29-11

29-11

20-44

1710

37-45

3797

2266

24-46

36-36
4068
23 01
25-93

30-43

375-4

47 12

20-07

4-09

45-23

415

31-60

3-47

31 25
3-75

.Total .

24-16

49-38

35-07

"354)0

4-42

3-87

3-76

1-16

19$

10-09

9-15

3-21

ON THE EQUIVALENCY OF STARCH AND SUGAR IN FOOD. 427

Turning first to pen 4, in which all the foods were taken separately and
at will, it is seen that the highly nitrogenous lentils constituted a considerably
larger proportion of the total food in this pen than in either of the others.
The animals first began, pig-like, with an excessive quantity, which seems to
bare amounted for the time to a surfeit; for in the second period they do
not take two-thirds as much as in the first, though afterwards they gradually
increase to the original amount, but taking then considerably less of the also
highly nitrogenous bran than at the commencement. In this pen 4, indeed,
the consumption of bran is at the commencement only about one-third as
peat as in the other pens, and it gradually reduces as the experiment proceeds,
*t amounts to little more than 1 oz. per head per day. Although,
ii- rerorc, so much more of the nitrogenous lentils is consumed in pen 1 than
ir‘ jU"er °* the others, yet it will afterwards be seen, that, taking the lentils
together, the proportion of total nitrogenous constituents in the
. ot pens 1 and 2, especially, is not so much less than in pen 4 as would
» ret sight be assumed from the larger consumption of lentils in the latter;
in' II Ty obserml that this proportion of nitrogenous compounds was
U’ ii °t*1er cases 8t'^ n°tably higher than in the cereal grains.

V1 tegard to the more general indications of this Table (IV.), it may be
allow ii • i 1 'n k)rmer experiments, where fattening animals have been
tion d i aiH* *°'v nitrogenous foods separately and at their own discre-
niirotr SCre 138 ^e.en a vory marked increase in the proportion of the non-
ohvSen-U8uCOnstituenU consumed as the animals matured. This is not 60
ordinR8 't- j Present instance; but in this case the foods were not of an
bistinc? pi and 'vere ouch as to give more scope for the exercise of the
their n„° . , Pa'ato. The result is that those animals which were allowed
and tl . 0 c . 00 a^ the foods, took first an excessive amount of the lentils,
dental ar ?°IJl^ to l*ie ot*,er extreme, of the Sugar ; so that, with this inci-
aiiimal «, lL0re ^an usuu* interference of the palate with a naturally greedy
foi-minlr i° i t,le mere progress of the respiratory requirement and fat-
tlieir fLeiKl(;ncy ^ie animals less clearly indicated in the selection of
In TRh.!Tdin& t0 *ts ult‘«»atc composition,
live-wpiul t * Wc *luve amount of gross food consumed per 100 lbs.
l,|etotaK! • , nimul l^r week during each of the successive periods, and
by the Prn°d °.f tlie cxPoriment ; also the amount of gross increase obtained
Tai l V 8UmPt,on °y ^0 lbs. of food during the same periods.
0f?ncr;70Sh0Win« the rate ofthe consumption of food, and of the production
— — tn weight, during the successive periods of the experiment.

description of the Average weekly consumption of total food, per 100 lbs.
_ live-weight of animal.

/ Dentils .

I bran....;
■{Dentils..

I bran .

(Dentils,.
I bran .

None ..

Sugar ...

Starch ...
Sugar ...
Starch ...
Lentils...
bran ...
Sugar ...
Starch ...

1st

period.
14 days.

2nd
period.
14 days.

3rd

period.
14 days.

4th
period.
14 days.

5th
period.
14 days.

Average
of total
period.

36-2

31-8

279

26-6

23-2

290

37-6

31-9

28*4

28-5

26-5

30-5

j-38-8

36-5

• 32-9

325

26-5

330

i- 41*3

31-8

331

31-9

30-2

326

38-5

330

30-6

29-9

266

31-3

428

REPORT— 1 854.

Table (continued).

Description of the

Gross increase obtained by the consumption of i

.

foods.

100 lbs. of total food.

e

o

In

1st

2nd

3rd

4 th

5th

Average ]

fixed

Ad libitum.

period.

period.

period.

period.

period.

of total |

quantity.

14 days.

11 days.

14 days.

14 days.

14 dars.

period.

i.

Lentils...
bran .

| Sugar ...

266

21 '9

18-3

190

185

20-8

2.

Lentils...

| Starch ...

261

207

17’3

2M

147

19-9

3.

Lentils...
Bran .

Sugar ...
Starch ...

}*4‘8

201

198

16-2

190

19-8

Lentils...

]

4.

None .

Bran ...

Us -3

159

25-3

19-4

206

214

Sugar ...

. Starch...

1

201

Means . 1

25 7

190

20-2

18!)

18-2

Although it has already been seen that a larger amount . n

sumed per head as the pigs increased in weight nnd fathess, yet 1 1 ,
in Table V. that there was a gradual decrease in the quantity cons ^
100 lbs. live-weight of animal, in nil eases from the 1st period to ' . .;i.

tact, during the short space of five fortnightly periods, the amoun .
sumed in proportion to the weights of the animals is pretty un ^ ....

the four pens about one-third less in the fifth period than in i
this decrease in the consumption of food in relation to weight, tncre
same time, as shown in the 2nd division of the table, a considerable
in the amount of gross increase yielded by a given weight of J(0 ,|„t

temng process progresses. Former experiments have lioweve ^ f
as the animal matures, its increase is irmch less aqueous ; 60 arentiJ
the lessened productiveness of the food in gross increase is onij ji ^
tff j . ' • - • • j Indeed, a ca,u

, - ™ vuuuiuBum ui.il me lunuuumu - . „„ :n aCU011

so to speak, that is to say, the amount of them required to keep* of
machine of life, though not so great in proportion to the _ t •}:
animal as it matures, yet continues pretty equally so m p P -j^le r
amount of lood consumed. On the other hand, the increase a j(
he remainder, or that portion of the food not so
be less in gross amount than in the earlier stages of feed,,‘f'cerU
about equal so far ns the storing np of real dry substance 13 f ”^1 ff,
lact, as the fattening proceeds, less gross weight of increase s d flf , «.
given amount of food ; but the quality or food- capacity 'n‘^ . W
vonTti!’ 18 a C0rre8potniing degree the greater. Jo fatJ ffeight *
meat th0 poi!ltat w,lic,i a higher price is obtained for a, ® ' 0f
nmat, is an advantage to the consumer, and not to the prod** 0f the ^
foods Rl6 ne**Jal,'e (VI.) are given the total amounts of jc matter,
mbmrnl Pa’T ely’ and t,lc collective foods, and of the dry orga" c ^
in' each n,att^r’ a"d the nitrogen, contained in them, whf #**

he ?a E? dunnf Vhe tc“ Neeles of the experiment. There . ^ ^

the last column ot the Table the amount if gross increase y*

ON THE EQUIVALENCY OF STARCH AND SUGAR IN FOOD. 429

Table VI — Showing the total amounts of fresh foods, and constituents con¬
sumed, and of increase obtained, during the total period of the experiment.

[Quantities in lbs. and tenths.]

s

c

Foods — how given.

Gross or
fresh
food.

Dry

organic

matter.

Mineral

matter.

Nitrogen

Increase.

Lentil Meal.

1.

1 2.

| Fixed quantity— each .

672

918

558

28-8

28-2

3.

1 4l

dd libitum .

762

39-3

38-6

Bran.

1.

2.

| Fixed quantity — each .

126

99

7-1

2-9

4.

47

37

27

11

Sugar or Starch.

1.

dd libitum,

388}

450}

28GJ

292.1

360}

3601

265}

234

31

0-7

V

1-8

07

‘Sugar . . .

2-3

05

ii

Starch . , .

1-2

0-5

.Total .

578}

499}

3 a

10

4.

410

414

36

0-9

»

Starch .

51

41

0-2

0-1

Total . .

497

455

3-8

H

■ —

Summary. —

Total Food or Increase.

1.

! 2.

t^utils, Bran and Sutrar ..

1 188.J
1248.}
1376}
1462

1017}

1017}

1156}

1251

390

31-9

247

37-0

319

248

n

’* i.

“ >.

Sugar and Starch..

» If ...

39-3

45-8

32-2

406

272

312

investLat^?c,ent,y remarkable fact, in relation to the main object of this
food ill,, f 5n*f|y ,,IC question of the equivalency of Starch and Sugar
^ three piiM in each case, the exueriment extending over eu

‘amount

PUrno.* aT yielded by iL It thus appears, uia* whether for

lrj? to the r ° „“PPortinS the functional actions of the body, or of minister-
!VW iu l>oth o.,IUtl0n of ^crease, — for, as will be seen, the rate of mcreas
“fo'ost absohu?^ — these two substances have, weight for weight, vn u
lute|y identical. But this point will be better seen in the Tables

430

REPORT — 1854.

which next follow, in which are given, not the actual amounts of food or con¬
stituents consumed, and of increase obtained, but the amounts of food and
constituents consumed per 1 00 lbs. lire weight, and the amounts of each which '
were required to produce 100 lbs. of increase ; and the items which are given
in each case are — the fresh substance ; the gross dry matter; the dry organic
matter ; the non-nitrogenous substance ; the nitrogenous (proteine) com-
pounds; the nitrogen and the mineral matter, the latter including only the |
amounts contained in the respective foods, and excluding therefore that given I
in the purely mineral mixture.

Table VII. — Showing the average amount of total food or constituents
consumed, per 100 lbs. live-weight per week.

CO

a

Description of the foods.

Fresh

Gross

dry

matter.

Dry

organic

matter.

Non-

nitro-

Nitro¬

genous

i\

Oi

In fixed
quantity.

Ad libitum.

food.

genous

sub¬

stance.

sub¬

stance.

i

1.

f Lentils .

| Sugar .

290

25-8

24-84

19-93

4-89

0-78

2.

f Lentils .

(.Bran .

i Starch .

30-5

257

24-86

19-96

4-90

0-78

3.

f Lentils .

Sugar
Starch
("Lentils ‘
J Bran

I Sugar
LStarch _

....

330

28-6

27-72

22-88

4-85

0-77

4.

None

325

211-0

28-08

22-38

5-70

0-902

_

31-2

27-3

26-38

21-29

5-09

0-81

S

(Mtf

(T9t

1-024

Mean of 12 previous experiments.
,, 12

24- 84
20-80

25- 27

1915

20-65

19-86

HaVe thcr‘ in TabIe ViL thR average amounts over the "JjjjJjS!
]• experiments, of the various constituents consumed wee 3’^ >’■

ve-we.ght of animal : and at the foot of the Table is SlV/n " lefltsi '=
t aa1*2 particulars in the cases of three previous series of « ■ P jsoD 0f iV
wh'ch there were 1 2, and in the third 5 pens. A cornpa
fattenff °/ tjle8G Fonner experiments, in which there was g ^
uniform^ f°u f ’ " ith t,,at oF the present series, sufficiently^0 ,lt. ft
STto 5V""K "»<■-. f consumption of th. dry

the animal when fed under soffi . . ^gfooc^

ON THE EQUIVALENCY OF STARCH AND SUGAR IN FOOD. 431

Table VIII. — Showing the average amount of total food or constituents
consumed, to produce 100 lbs. of increase .

[Quantities in lbs. and tenths.]

s

i)

1.

2.

3.

4.

Description of the foods.

Fresh

food.

Gross

dry

matter.

Dry

organic

matter.

Non-

nitro-

genous

sub¬

stance.

Nitro¬

genous

sub¬

stance

Nitrogen.

Mineral matter.

In fixed
quantity.

Ad libitum.

1 „

h-

h

480

503

506

468

42;

425

439

417

411-8

410:2

1251

401-8

330-5

329-2

3506

319-8

81- 3

81-0

74-5

82- 0

12-90

12- 85

11-82

13- 01

15-85

15-25

14-51

14-67

]. Bran .

J Lentils .

IBran .

f Lentils .

1 Bran .

None .

f Sugar .

| Starch .

Sugar
Starch
f Lentils '
j Bran

1 Sugar
[ Starch _

Means....

489

427

412-2

332-5

79-7

12-65

15-07

Mean of 12 previous experiments.

583

511

488-3

376-3

111-9

17-77

23-20

.

a ..

562

480

461-2

355-9

909

16-98

18-93

»»

5 „

»}

...

554

458

429-7

386-6

93-1

15-01

28-77

Looking more closely to the figures in Table VII., it is seen, that, except-
® Pe,n 4, the amount of nitrogen or nitrogenous constituents consume
form ^ b3‘ bve-weight per week Avas rather less than in the average o
Ca cr e*Peri°ient8 ; it was however greater than in several of the m 1V1
tuir i t lose f°rmer experiments, especially where the cereal grains con -
IS h,e Chi,!f bulk of the food, as has already been alluded to. In fact,
whl"# die amount of nitrogen consumed in pens 1, 2 and 3, was less
r.a, e.*1Q animals took as much of it as they chose to eat, yet even in
n®, ,"as greater than in the very frequent fattening food ot the pig .

luitlrWi Larloy-irietvl, in which however the proportion ol nitrogen » w

u , .n over diat which is most favourable for the increase of the iat-

a 8 -,>lg: i u.

W,8?10',’-1 ppn 2’ with one-third of the total food Starch, about I $ lb. more

Ih-b 18 c°wumed weekly per 100 lbs. live-weigbt of the animal *n
^"'thoo.third of it Sugar. But we find, that excluding the.no.sture
which there was more in the Starch than the g. >
two Cla '/y organic substance consumed are absolutely ulen *

A 1 i8 "bvioua, then, that the animals having in the two pens only
Ui(.uVMfl tk,|d* as much material in their lentils and bran as

onc-third fC?i! ed fop» tlie further demand, amounting to one- ■a. identical
amoL^? tbe total food, was fulfilled in the respective cases by ldent,c
practical!* • !'' <!‘-v su 'stance of the Sugar and the Starch. These
animal i V^tical iu their capacity of meeting the mixed w
tion 0r b)r non-nitrogenous substance. In pen 3, the week j c
‘on-mtrogenous substance per 100 lbs. live-weigbt is rather g

432

REroRT — 1854.

the food. It
food, more was
case there was
constituents consume

than in pens 1 and 2 ; and it is probable that both Sugar and Starch being
allowed in this pen, the greater variety of food increased the appetite, flirre
was also with this greater consumption of now-nitrogenous substance more
both of actual increase of animal, and of increase for a given weight of ni-
tror/enous substance consumed, though somewhat less of it in proportion both
to the non-nitrogenous substance and to the total dry organic substance ».(
*t may likewise be said of pen 4, that with greater variety in the
vas eaten in relation to the weight of the animal. But 10 t u‘
vas more of the nitrogenous as well as of the non-nitrogenous
. . . consumed ; ami with ibis larger and probably more normal pro¬
portion of the latter to the former, wc have, as is seen in the next a '
(VIII.), a better proportion of gross increase both to the non-m rogc

substance, aud to the total organic substance consumed.

But the amount of food consumed to a given weight ot animal, a»
in Table VII.. represents of course, not only the demands for the '
nance of the animal machine, that is, of the respiratory and couac ^
tions, but also those for the growth and permanent increase ot »® •. juf.
also in Table VIII., the average amount of foods consumed loj' ^ * oft

tion cf 100 lbs. of increase includes also those required tor 1 e ,
and other functional purposes. In our former Paper, however, , rea > ,

it was shown that in the case of a futteuing pig then referred o, J jB
15 per cent, of the dry substance of the food consumed 'ver ‘ .j .sub.
the animal a9 non- aqueous increase ; about 85 per cent, ot or ynidd-
stance of the food of the animal being therefore expired, PeW?' , ’ v be
Although, however, so small a proportion of the food consume ' j
ally stored up in the animal, still a comparison of the amouutso
or constituents consumed to produce n given weight of met jiUctc*-
°t much importance as a measure of the relative feeding qu
articles of diet; and this is the point illustrated in I able •

In this Table (VIII.), comparing first together the ream
we find that not only, as lias been already seen, was the ra . rii*.

of the dry organic substance of the Starch and Sugar exae ^ nt3 ,T«|ui^!
tion.to the weight of the animal, but here it is found that the identic1 :
to yield a given Increase in the weight of the body arc also e« j^ji* ol
for 41 lbs. of total dry substance were required to pro , n onp-tliu-'
increase when one-third of the food was Sugar, and 4104 iw. {l, j<

of it was Starch. The equivalency of the two would seen ^tcdi 51,1
Clearly proved, both for the purpose of the maintenance °J
for that of the increase of the body of a fattening animal. Ag f ^

. - "•» •ncijmreu ^aoios. 111 pen o, wiieru- , nr0noru«-

constituents was about the same as in pens 1 and % bu! ivabout
non- nitrogenous constituents eaten was rather greater ; Q1,{*° * conStiiuc^
were required in pen 4, where the consumption therefor®'

was somewhat greater than in the other eases. Wi! lst js freq111'1 . r

nave shown in other Papers, as our current food-stuffs g<-> ituC1)ts
tiietr now-nitrogenous rather than their nitrogenous cQ“L ve |ia«‘ 1:1

nre.tl,f.,rcombi,,ed respiratory am! feeding capacities,) B
usefully indicated, as also in other cases, the point below
amount of nitrogenous constituents is disadvantageous. gneS to -t,lJ •
.I"„rKClrs“n’ .**. "M™* Of direct «pe.iu.c»t eleariJJ^r^

. ... evtuence or direct espenuic-u. , '-sue®1

that all but identical amounts of the dry substance of C*“ given
£a1rch are *>?th consumed by a given weight of animal
and are required to yield a given weight of increase. The P<»

ON THE EQUIVALENCY OF STARCH AND SUGAR IN FOOD. 433

in feeding value, which from the known chemical relationship of these two
substances lias hitherto been assumed, is now therefore experimentally illus¬
trated, and it probably only varies in point of fact with their slightly varying
per-centages of carbon.

If, then, Cane-Sugar has no higher feeding capacity than Starch, the rela¬
tive prices weight for weight, of the sugar duty free, and of the starchy grains
generally used for feeding purposes, will afford an easy means of estimating
tliv probable economy of the use of the former. At the price, including duty,
"f the coarse Penang sugar used in the experiments, it would cost three or
four times as much as the starchy cereal grains at the present time ; and it
should be remembered, that these would ulso supply a considerable amount
af the needed nitrogenous constituents of food.

These new results too, so far as they can be supposed to apply with nu¬
merical accuracy, considering the difference between cane-sugar and the sac¬
charine matter of malt, are consistent with direct experiments which we
published some time since on the comparative feeding values of malted and
“umaltcd grain. Thus it was shown, that the dry substance of malted and
un malted barley had very nearly equal respiratory and feeding (rapacities.

ub not only is the process of malting attended with considerable expense,
bul 11 was shown in the experiments alluded to, that during the process there
*il® a *08s °[ per cent, of the gross dry substance of the barley, and of 4-
Per cent, of its total nitrogen, even when the malt-dust was included as a
i'fn uc* °f the process, ami supposed to be equally valuable as tood; whilst,
>e malt-dust were excluded, the loss Tor feeding purposes of the dry organic
" wanee of the barley was 10 per ceut., aud that of its nitrogen la^per
in ' ' 11 might be true, that malt and other saccharine matters might serve
*ome degree to give a relish to the food, aud thus induce the animals to
1), nr'cT ' ’ 111 “ fattening ” is always a consideration ; but this incidental

p0"'1* n°t counterbalance much increased cost. Indeed the general
imlt f° is contrary to the conclusion, that any extensive use o

1 >or iecd.ng purposes would be such a boon as has been supposed.
*oier^Pr°Vid Practical equivalency of Starch and Sugar in ioodisalso ot
-onol, Lns 1,as aI,<Jildy i)et‘D alluded to, in reference to some other ot the
»h.Mvn ,ins, t0,wl“c|‘ we have arrived in former papers. Thus it ha* been
bron » ,;ia ,a fatteninS animal assimilates much loss nitrogen than has usual y
fat th?n 1 : aml that it may store up very considerably more

6 ready-fa«me<l in its food ; whilst again this produced fat w
•tances wi'-' I1 ®reat nlea8Ur« formed from the starchy and saccharine su
.'ituen,' Th con*titute so large a proportion of the mm- nitrogenous con-
rabstanppa ,nur staPle vegetable foods. It. is these starchy and sacckari
‘he resoirai in practice serve largely to meet the requiremen s o

, ircuniL,„°rylunction — und tliis it has been show n it is, that under orun y
M duinmT f'^istitu tes to sueh an extent, the measure of the amount of the
lauded by the animal system.

434

REPORT — 1854.

;trono«lfr
change
to M>®*

On the Deviations of the Compass in Wooden and Iron Ships.

By Archibald Smith, M.A.

■ The general character of the deviations of the compasses of 1 ^

northern latitudes is, that the north end of the. needle is drawn ! ^
ships head. But in many, and particularly in iron shipj, , the ch
the deviations is different; in some the north end o . change «

towards the stern, in others towards one side. I hese da ■*» * ,ly

the ship changes her magnetic latitude. In wooden P ) J „e t],eir
diminish as the ship approaches the magnetic equato , . j„

direction when the ship lias passed into a sou theim magnetic 1^.^
iron ships the deviations generally dimmish as the sh p . l P f0ut|,crn

netic equator, but frequently, perhaps generally* increase b
latitudes, so as to retain the same direction to both J,e ' P the iron

The cause of this difference, no doubt, is that in , jn the Ian-
which affects the compass approximates to the conui 10 ’ r0]|ed and

guage of magnetism, is called ,l soft iron," while in ,r®“ * near|y to th«

hammered iron of which they are constructed approach
condition which is called “ hard iron.” annroaches vcfj

In both classes of vessels a great part ot the mague i» magneii-nl

nearly to that of “soft iron,” being induced instantaneous y In iron

of the earth, and changing instantaneously as the vessc .g °otf Ptricilj
vessels, the magnetism which approaches to that ot *lflr 11 ’

speaking, permanent; it is what is called "eub-pennanen y
Royal, and “ retentive" by Dr. Scoresby. It is said by Dr* * ^
when the vessel receives strains or shocks, and it genera y
extent when the vessel changes its magnetic latitude. ^ stained

The general effect of masses of “ soft iron” on the nec J 0f iron of A
with considerable accuracy by considering the action V -n tj,e direc*100
very simple shape, viz. slender bars. A bar of soft, iron „ of tbe «<>*"'
of the dip, or, as it is convenient to call it, the “ hue o \ end attrac

becomes instantly magnetic. Its south (in England, th . r7€nd) attr^ '
the north end of the needle; its north (in England, t e (iiaiiiii^lt5’a0i/
it. If the bar be inclined to the line of force, its magne magnetic*
when at right angles to the line of force, the bar ceases inCreasw>
the inclination of the bar to the line of force he still iu of the new •
end which was north, and which then repelled the nortn
becomes south and attracts it. , . „.rtical Poslti<MlLB.

It follows from this, thut if a bar of 6oft iron be. m , fcUj 0f <he ? •
upper end will in north magnetic latitudes attract the n eartb a

pass-needle. At the magnetic equator the line of *0,rce nutic. i jn

zontal, and there a vertical bar of soft iron will not ^ j°up\ranta 8,1 a
magnetic latitudes the line of force of the earth is incline ^ r^j .then?
those latitudes the upper end of a vertical bar of soft ,ro attraction 0 ^
end of the compass-needle, and attract the south end. needlc lD.. tb6

upper end of such a bar of soft iron on the north end oi t,ie sine°a^e
proportional to the total magnetic intensity multiple . needle be,Uc, ifi,
magnetic inclination. The directive force of the earth on V,ucirlg a de«>
antagonistic force which this attraction overcomes in Pr( g 0f the wf
is proportional to the total intensity multiplied by l”c.c0\ tyr0 f°rceJ’
tion. The deviation produced will be as the ratio of tnes

DEVIATIONS OF THE COMPASS.

435

the sine of the inclination to the cosine of the inclination, or proportional to
the tangent of the inclination. Such a bar, placed in a ship vvitli its upper
end at the same level as the compass, will, as the ship is swung, produce no
deviation when north or south of the compass, will produce a maximum
easterly deviation when east, and a maximum westerly deviation when west
of it, these bearings being always those by the disturbed compass.

If the bar of soft iron be horizontal, and in an east and west position, it is
at right angles to. the line of force, and will produce no effect; i! it be hori¬
zontal and in any other position, its south end will attract the north end of
the compass-needle. If such a bar be placed in a ship frt the same level as
the needle, and directed towards it, then in four positions ns the ship is
viz. when the bar is E., W., N. or S. of the needle, it will produce
do deviation; in the first two positions, because it is not magnetic; in the
tat two, because, though magnetic, it attracts the north end of the needle in
the direction in which it already points. Such a bar will produce a maxi¬
mum easterly deviation when N.E. or 8.W. of the cornpass-ueedle, a maxi¬
mum westerly deviation when S.E. or N.W. of it.

1 he attraction of such a horizontal bar on the needle when a change m
the geographical position takes place, is proportional to the total magnetic
intensity multiplied by the cosine of the inclination ; the directive force oft ie
earth on the needle, which it has to overcome in order to produce a deviation,
w Proportional to the same quantity. The deviation produced is conse-
quenily independent of the force and of the inclination, and is the same in

ail magnetic latitudes. .

t *'''r (>f hard iron magnetized acts on the needle, when there is noc ange
a magnetic latitude, precisely as a vertical bar of soft iron ; that is to say,
,fre aro two opposite positions in which it causes no deviation, an wo
at distances from them of 90° by the disturbed compass, at which
Th* maximum deviations, at the one easterly, at the other westerly.

e.reL ,8’ however, an important difference between the effect o an g
; ,;<1 bar of hard iron and a vertical bar of soft iron when there is » 8

cha?n.et,C latitude- The attraction of the bar of hard iron ^maua.
to ov8l °n a-cha"S° magnetic latitude; the directive force whdutbas
,n.ordep to produce a deviation is proportional to
w„5 u c '“tenmty imdtipiied by the cosine of the inclination, or m oti
i2e(i to l*ie horizontal magnetic intensity. Hence the effect of a 0

horizon! *ard !ron iu causiug deviation is inversely proportioi «

Imii V'agnet'c 'alensity at the place. „.,nd the

iujiiunt °ases 'vl,'fih wo have considered, as the ship is swung r ’
m”«ts eastcprly and of westerly deviations arc exactly equal ; lj,lt “,rag
ptedomii ^ ° N°^ 'ron >nay easily he imagined in which one o
TIhn s and lhat to any extent. . . i uars 0f

•oft iroi 'J'e “uPpo»e two similar and similarly placed horizon

f C " t r1 1 ,i,e «”rss' »"e N- ;v,d s; yitaXS

these two h?*’8' -,‘e °^M!r *yin8 and W. with its L. end N. . . n„
will remain 18 W.! * Produce an easterly deviation, which, as the s |
rbi ain sensibly constant * • c

h°n ofUmV’6 the shaPe position of the iron in a ship, if f[ ^consd-
jer*hle di8ta,W° »xtrome qualities we have mentioned, ia “ i(- the

Aviation 8 a 'Ce Trmu the needle compared to the size of the needle, , i ne

*hipCinf 8mall‘ if 'vo suppose (as is done throughout) tha^tne

tajn of ule „ 0D1.evcn heel, the following formulae for expressing e
^l-atiorm “Sf® in ^muth may be deduced from P^son ^ ^
ri8> See Col. Sabine’s ‘Contributions to Terrestrial Magnet*

436

REPORT — 1854.

pmSS'p.mV- U? : No' vt Phil' Tr' ,844’ p- I17i and N''VI"'

=A+Vb'

+ (c#

tan 04-

tan 0+

P'

0 COS 0

Q'

0 cos 0

^ sin £'
j cos 4:'

-I- D sin 2£'+E cos 2£',

in which 5 represents the deviation, considered positive when the north end
of the compass-needle is drawn towards the east ; 0 the magnetic inclination;
0 the total magnetic force; and £' the azimuth of the ship’s head by the
standard compass (disturbed), reckoned from N. to E.; and A, B, C, D, E
are constants depending on the arrangement of the soft iron in the ship, and
the ship011S<a,lt3 dePcnd'"£ paNly on the soft and partly on the hard iron in

It we consider these terms separately, we see that A may (wise from such
an arrangement of horizontal bars as that last described, or from an index-
enoi in the compass, or from an error in the shore compass.

1 15 1 9,n ^ “ positive, may arise from a vertical bar of soft in1®

p aced etore and below the compass, or abaft and above it.

1 , u .cos ^ C' is positive, may arise from a vertical bar of soft ir»

above it” ^ star'i0a,'tl side and below the compass, or on the port side a 1

0 cos 0 Sin ^ ^ vosJj cos £ must arise from iron having Pern,anfnl

magnetism.

placed ’ '* •?, !a Pos‘t>ve, may arise from a horizontal bar of soft iro®
is noifativ midship section, and cither before or abaft the compa®s- ,
the cnmlfi i may a!'iso from a horizontal liar of soft iron directed tow®

£ . iUt at r'gbt angles to the principal section. 1.^

compass 2h,lfra-ay,ariS^ fmm a horizontal bar of soft iron directed toward ^
being be’foJ IU? !nc<l 4'5° to the bars in the last-mentioned case, ■ ^ ^

positive - anrlTV0 lllC starl)°ard side, or abaft and to tbe P01' s.' i ,idr(
Ff £ is i;e8naf:vbcef0re aud to tht rort side, or abaft and to the starboard -

press ion for ‘n tvhich B' and P', C' and Q' are involved in

in one geosrranP^i Cannot 1,0 separately determined from observa 10
milled fvon ft P.0sition- If ^ey "ere instants, they might ^ fC
might then nro ,!e['®l,ons made in any two geographical posi 1 1 c|iangw
its geoennfie ’i" * -*? c,,anKe which would take jilace when the ship
« S But un fortunately the values of Ff*

If we renm rc‘lia,1ce can be placed on such determinations-
6 represent th* value of the deviation by the simpler formula

isA + Bsin V+C cos4f+Dwii2£' + Ecos2£'#
suggesf themselves ° a,,d C ^present, then the following ^

theAgeM?rp11ical^2?epenr<,en* of the dip and force, and

latitude?; Ld thFs we “i6 ,0 ?m^rvaS^3

A and E being n d to be tIlc ewe, subject to this «b-e tho«gh

U Uei"S ZCneraUy ' cry small, the changes in their value®.

observ

ratio1*5

DEVIATIONS OF THE COMPASS.

437

absolutely small, may be large relatively to their value. The value of D,
which in iron vessels, as might be expected, is generally considerable, is
remarkably permanent in different geographical positions.

In wooden ships, P' and Q' are generally very small ; 15 and C, which are
ernerally the largest coefficients, vary as the tangent of the dip, and the devi¬
ation changes its direction when the ship changes from a northern to a
southern magnetic latitude.

In iron ships, P' and Q' seem to be considerable.

If 15' and C' were small, the part of the deviation depending on 15 and C
*ould vary inversely as the horizontal force. It would therefore he a niini-
'■iinn at the magnetic equator, and would increase as the ship went to a d i -
•'.lrice from it on either side. But even in iron ships the values of 13 and C
•" in to be considerable, except for places in the ship where by accident
II" rc is a compensation of the effects of the soft iron. And it wo consider
'*lp dillercnt combinations which may exist, we shall see how very uncertain
at|V prediction as to the change in the deviations on a change ot magnetic
hlitudo must be.

1 1ms, if in Eugland we have selected a place for the standard compass in
"'m li the deviations are small, this may arise from the magnetism of the soft
lr,’1" counteracting that of the hard iron ; but if so, in southern latitudes they

, conspire, and cause a large deviation. . ...

Again, a place may happen to have been selected for the compass in w men
'[',ro }* « Compensation of the magnetism of the soft iron, arid in which
*" rc-forc the deviation is caused solely by the hard iron. In lids ease, m a

WUthern Intitlldt* the ilcvinlinn irnnlrl tinvn llm 0.1 nl C SHTU Slid BUlOUnt. J

C.

D.

E.

A.

— « » • 1 w

‘SkV/*/10’1852

n •> .. .

o / o l

04 10 11

-3 2 G 25

-2 48 G 52

1 40 7 4

-3 6 3 55

0 7 7 17

-0 12 7 42

1 17 9 18

438

REPORT — 1854.

H.M.S. Herald.

Greenhitlie, May 13, 1852 .

Madeira, June 29 .

St. Vincente, July 22 .

Rio, Sept. 27 .

Cape of Good Hope, Nov. 30 .

St. Paul's Island, Jan. 24, 1853 .

Sydney. Feb. 23 .

Isle of Pines, Sept. 28 .

Sydney, Jan. 3, 1854 .

A.

B.

C.

D.

E.

o /

0 5
-0 8
0 1
-0 20
-0 13
-3 33
-1 22
-1 21
-1 2

O /

2 6

2 5

0 56
-0 13
-1 45
-1 38
-0 52
-0 30
-0 50

o /

-0 7
-0 25
-0 40

0 13

0

0 20
-0 16

0 45
-0 14

O /

0 15
-0 4

0 21

0 48

0 9

0 17

0 17

0 51

0 2

0 / |

-0 4
-0 12
-0 8

0 15 1
-0 17

1 37

0 22

1 1|

H.M. Iron S.V. Vulcan.

Portsmouth, July 1, 1852 .

Simon’s Bay, Feb. 1853 .

-0 13

1 8

-8 47
-16 3

0 43

1 19

3 37

4 15

0 51

II.M. Iron S.V. .Simoom.

-0 7
-1 47

20 7
13 6

—7 18
-2 23

4 33

4 13

-019

Simon’s Bay, Oct. 1853 .

H.M. Iron S.V. Trident.

Greenhitlie, Sept. 8, 1852 .

Rio, Nov. 7, 1852 .

0 2
-0 8

19 36
12 18

-2 43
-1 47

3 33
3 54

1 12

1 56

1 41

0 26
-0 15)

-0 2
010,

0 18 j

— j

0 *

0 6

H.M. Wooden S.V. Virago.
Plymouth, Sept. 1851 .

0 17
-0 15
-0 10

7 38

1 20

0 17

0 53

0 4Q

0 58

Rio, Nov. 1851 .

Valparaiso, Sept. 27, 1852 .

H.M.S. Pandora.

Plymouth, Feb. 1851 .

Auckland, New Zealand, Jan. 1853...

-0 46
-0 42

2 31
-2 22

0 16

0 42

0 38

0 33

■* H.M.S. M dander.

Sheerness, Sept. 1852

Simon’s Bay, March 1853 ....

-0 15
-0 23

1 JO
-2 35

0 30
-0 3

_0 15
-0 10

The following are approximate values of the magnetic eleme
places in question.

Dip.

Tan. Dip-

i _
Hor. force

Greenhitlie .

69 6
61 0

2-6

2-04

1-62

Madeira .

1-8

Porto Grande, St. Vincente .

Rio .

48 0
-13 0
-39 30

11

-0-23

1-20

Tristan d’Acunlia .

_ 0825

l-4b

Simon’s Bay ...

-53 0

_ 1-327

Sydney .

-1-962

7?X# ffSffSWW&iSgPFp®

ON THE VITALITY OF SEEDS.

439

Thirteenth Report of a Committee, consisting of Professor Daubeny,
Professor Henslow, and Professor Lindley, appointed to con¬
tinue their Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds.

The seeds subjected to experiment this year were the oldest of the set pre-

(H’rved for the above purpose in the depot at Oxford, having been gathered
in the years 1834, 1835, 1836, 1837 and 1841, aud, as will be seen by refer¬
ence to the annexed Table, few of them retained their vitality up to the
present date.— September 1 854.

Ninie and Date when gathered.

No.

No. of Seeds of each
Species which vegc
tated at

Time of regelating
in days at

Remarks.

Ox-

ford.

Cam¬

bridge.

Chis¬

wick.

Ox¬

ford.

Cam¬

bridge.

Chis¬

wick.

i . . 1834<

*• Arabia lucida .

2. Hypericum Kalmiannm .

• msiflora llerbcrtiana .

'• « inus Pinea

* „ 1835.

»• Bcrberis Aquifolia .

Euphorbia Latbyris .

'• Giha capitata .

j :• '/pwpbila elegans .

10 *»ii,,CC0U.m Pr°cumbens .

, 1 olcmonium gradlc .

r, . 1836.

: , . .

i;: .

"H'ccoum procimibens .

1C u Pl,1iU8 P°lyphyllus .

'. p"0'"8 angustifoliu ..

19; P'^cena . "i

h) ' 'lla’sl>' (Douglas) ..

21 TurnV 18 Pini,utist ipula .

' ‘^bsretrofracta...

.

24, Sm!Ldnnia Kraudi0°ra .

iV Ch^wculcnta ...

2c £h“c'scrocea .

27 S?0® elegana .

fe. iST .macula,'ira .

sarrflexu°su«n . ::::

Godetiale'pida";;;;; .

^oxr^sp-(r»°ugia8) .

.

. m-

£ . .

.

500

150

125

20

20

25

500

500

50

125

•50

300

200

50

100

1000

100

500

400

50

500

150

200

100

100

500

150

200

500

250

100

600

75

500

25

100

50

5

1

6

6

13

8

440

REPORT — 1854

Name and Date when gathered.

No.

No. of Seeds of each
Species which vege¬
tated at

Time of vegetating
in days at

Remtrlu.

Ox¬

ford.

Cam¬

bridge.

Chis¬

wick.

Ox¬

ford.

Cam¬

bridge.

Chis¬

wick.

1841 (continued).

50

100

200

100

150

100

44. Flax .

150

45. Hemp .

50

46. Kidney-beans .

25

50

100

50

50. Parsnep .

100

51. Peas .

50

52. Rape .

150

300

54. Vetch .

50

55. Wheat .

100

100

57. Antirrhinum ninjua ...

300

58. Calendula pluvialis .

100

59. Collinsia hctcronhvlln

300

6U. Datura Stramonium ...

100

61. Gilia achilhcifolia ...

200

200

62. Lasthenia glabrata. ..'...

63. Ligusticum Levisticum ..

100

64. Ptcoma, mixed varieties .

6o. Verbascum Thapsus

100

500

NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS

OF

miscellaneous communications to the sections.

NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS

OF

miscellaneous communications to the sections.

MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

Mathematics.

On the Solution of Cubic and Biquadratic Equations.
By Arthur Cayley, F.R.S.

On an Extension of Quaternions.

By Sir W. R. Hamilton, LL.V., M.R.I.A. ions which

i *le auth°r showed how, by a slight change in the formula: of sector and

vers ad *lready published, and a slightly different interpretation ^ gpheroid.
r. they became applicable to the investigation of the proper

Moigno presented to the Section a new Ari&mom^' ° he

me by M. T. De Colmar; and as the Abb* spoke English ^.thdjfficu
v A j r°f- Wilson to explain the machine to the Section. inches long

by c :':l7 beautifully executed, consisted of an oblong box, n ’<> • ,| t0 turn

4nd . wide- 0,1 the ^ce, the machine was furnished w>^Zetic scale,

I. a number of small holes, at which the digits ot the c°?im k | nnd which
fiUv4*’ 5’ I' 8»9. made their appearance as the machine ’ but they

ri"Rht t»RVe ftnswcr< In this machine they were eight in , ,» be 5et to the
rt1aji,Mie/*^n^e<^ ,0 any number. To each of these was an 1 . -1V0fy ball to

^ 'noved'fln enlraved ou a 8muU attached vertical 5cale,anda operation to be
tonduetDrlK ?iK lts scale according to certain simple rules, a 1 y draw-

i:,_. Ihe machine varied from addition to multiplication, d t0 view.

Thi« thr.ii sluI,nS bottom of the machine, the machinery w ^ cb)nC 0r dia-
»ranjs R*1 simple, could not be intelligibly explained without they

•*«, "»rt of it — **4 •* 4* cylinder* » *™"Sf“>SWon »

hi- hal.l ;n,glt*' enamelled on a circle at their upper parts, c® ■ m, r0.,nd them
m , {e ^ace ’ w 111,6 by a number of indentations arTMiB® P ' 7 (-ace at the
<■•9. "h'cb ,lre iM>“ w« ~t would be stopped at “ “erf pini„ns .

r,'nnexi0n ^C" ,rig to that at which the index was set ; whil y bftn|(.note ma¬
rine, t0 them something similar to that m the con .^-thus by

1 854. “ 1 addlt>on could bo performed and the result appear on the ^

Q

REPORT — 1854.

turning the handle once, the number itself appeared ; by turning it twice every digit
in it was doubled ; and the result appeared above as twice the number originally wt
and so on with any multiple of the number so set; then by moving the ivory balii
simple multiple of 10 times, 100 times, 1000 times, the number set could be ob¬
tained and added to those previously obtuined, and thus the operation of multij-licat, ,
performed of any number by any number to the extent the machine could give, in
this case up to 99,999,999 or nearly 100,000,000. The Professor then tamplifml
this, by setting a large number and multiplying it by a number which consutrt 0
three digits, lie then explained how the other operations were to be performed,—
showing that the machine could add, subtract, multiply, divide, raise to an intc^r
power, or extract the square or cube root with precision and rapidity. The price,
the machine exhibited was .£*50.

Prof. Wilson then, on the part of the Abb6 Moigno, presented anil explained B>.
binet’s Homalographic Maps. In the maps on Mercator's projection, although tb
relative geographical positions were accurately and simply laid down, yet there »»•
a great distortion, particularly in those lands and seas towards and about the 1> -
regions ; and the same remark was more or less applicable to all the ordinary pr
jections used in maps. Put in those of M. Babinet, by making the principal meridian
in both hemispheres straight lines, and the others, on each sideot them, arc «
ellipses passing through the Polar points, and their ellipticitv varying with n
position by a simple law, the exact harmony and proportion of the several part:, J
and water, countries and places, on the map were correctly preserved when accuia
laid down. M. Moigno presented to the British Association through this see "■
map of the world on this construction.

Light, IIeat, Electricity, Magnetism.

On a New Photometer. By M. Babinet, of Paris.
th™»\ph<?,Te!er C()nsistecl of a tube, at one end of which was a NicoU |
wh,ch the light to be valued is admitted, the radiant or i source J
t n K aCm at/.a Ineasuretl distance. As it passes along the tube the g ^
It then Unrf e °f glass jjlatc3 through which, as it passes, it is polarize al?
its eS PaStSeS 011 and is ™«ived It the eye-pieces ; another tube,

Dlace 57 W’f a Nicol*s pris®. enters the side of this ft* , ,
diIS,Sd-at Th an ang,e as that light admitted from a standard sour
through 13 ,r.e^ected to the eve-piece by the same bundle of paialWei
exact comnl Ch the f°rracr light is refracted. By turning the
oblong slits e[?entary colours can be had from each source, and * * •

crossed nn t whicli the light passes, are made t° cross at the fjg

the distinep frep frorn eitl>cr colour when the light to he jnstrun

as that w) • rh‘Ch glves ^he same intensity to the light which ent f5 0f i!

distances Svh frora the standard. A comparison of the squ kot

distances g.ves the intensity of the light to be valued, in the usual aud*

NlL°n/ntl the ^fraction of Transparent Media inch gj*

%riti*hr<ild FaCes> and 0,1 a Portable Bef lactometer, ed » Fg

for lke Advancement of Science. By
«ehN ard, of Bordeaux. , b, , v

simple meE?ref[a?tion of P>«IW plates and liquids may be measured .

TlZy t th° Slewing principles.:- , nsparent^
with parallel fad! trlv * P^P^'Culaily upon the surface of a

P races traverses it without deviation. ^

the determhation'onbel^r “ndPe a con,m«nication to the Acadeniyof this.Vi'1
not been P,ateS’ but the "W"*0- ^

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

3

2. When the incidence is oblique, the ray refracted in this medium emerges from
it in a direction parallel to that of the incident ray, and the distance included between
ila sc two directions, or the transport, only depends on the angle of incidence, on the
judex of refraction of the refractive medium, and on the thickness of this medium.

From the relation subsisting between these four quantities we may therefore deduce
the index of refraction, if the three others ho known; the incidence may be chosen
it pleasure, the thickness is easily measured, and the transport, the only unknown
quantity, is determined by observation.

Let a be the angle of incidence, p the angle of refraction, c the thickness of the
medium, and n the index of refraction for a ray which traverses the plate J d the
distance sought, then

n_sin« ta etang p+- — — — «

° 2 cos et

sin p

hence

. . / 2 e coset \ 2

«=sm(*V 1-H- — = - >/•

Y2fl sin m — «/

This formula will give », when e being measured and a given, d lias been deter¬
mined experimentally.

file Apparatus which serves for the determination of d is composed—

>• Of a sight Termed by a spiders thread fixed vertically in the interior of a lion-
tom.ii tube; at one extremity of this tube is a diaphragm, through the aperture oj
"'uch the light penetrates into the apparatus ; a lens placed between the sight and
' u‘ 'taphrugui, and capable of motion in the direction of the uxis ol the tube, allows
u>« light received to be conveniently regulated. , . „ . «

- (It u horizontal circle for the determination of the incidences; at ® ’

1 ’circle there is a support which tnav be turned by un alidade traversing the limb
the circle.

Of » telescope furnished with two very fine wire* crossing in the focus of die eye-
,■ "* "Ptic uxis is parallel to tlmt of the tube containing the sight, and it
',|)al,le motion in a direction perpendicular to this axis. The amount of motion
’ un<1 cliecled by means of a mieromctric Bcrew. . . ,

!,J — 'l’he index of the alidade is placed so as to coincide With tne

11 the circle; the telescope is pointed towards the sight, and the la horizontal
UMf?V .tl,e l,ble ia vertically against a frame placed on t he hor *onM

'h- ?PP°rt- 1111(1 hy turning it on its axis, without disarrange - ' ivcd

t *.on which it should retain, which iB Buch thut the sight may P
Tf, !i ,m.tirttl> may be found in a few seconds , , , . „„ nnrfe — a.

^ d' tlle a'‘dade ls turned to an angle a, and then to rjfracted

i,„ , ' ,u*i-'scope so as to point it upon the sight in both positions of t ,

» 4 „ l'1** tfcrJr^n by tho optic axis of the ij-w-gy

from a 7,e'v' 81VCS the value of d. The very trilling error. »hw“ Jg ray3

i. 1V j obliquity of the plato in relation to the direction ot lll(', i tic '\t

„ i^pentated in .he following manner ;-lf the plate be rittty i
**<25 T ,u a5Us 18°n. ‘he distance of the emerging P!‘''u' el ,a) 0^na-
I H , ftVerage of the values thus obtained will give a ^ “‘°* f“P^|lelism

,n ol u 'tanc,‘ s|n,1ght. I have ascertained positively that a w cxactj.

Ill-Jo ii^Xmar 'en Very 8a,u,ible hy tllc *pheroraeter, does not afh

hmu receive either the rays of the solar spectrum, 0* the of white

J suitable absorbents/or i, may be illuminated by

‘In. ,, v^“ftJne average index of refraction of the refractive body is obtain ,

" h - ^vTV,lay bl' mea3Urcd by means of any spherometer. hut in^l.B
*cr**» in tho^wo ^ctannilie the relation between the lengths of

C!cl't to (]L.(rr„ 0 ‘UStrumetita, which is not attended With any di \

:■ 4SSP !hC Va,Ue ^ 4 ‘or a substance of which the «l*£o ’£r^ing
[ T,i.ula. pi - w hnown ; the value of c may then be deduced fr .geometer,
b,t [hrir re|:!tinnUa','.tlty wil1 usually differ from that furnished with the

’ 111,6 nicety v1 Wl11 always enable the values of c and d to be ® P j given
y‘ Ne'-«theless, in order to avoid this correction, M. J • I*”*** e

4

REPORT — 1854.

a very simple disposition to the micrometric part of the apparatus, so that when the
telescope which moves the screw is removed, it readily forms a very delicate sphere-
meter.

By operating in this manner, but with a very imperfect apparatus, I found, for the
indices of refraction of the ordinary ray by plates of quartz of 7 to 8 millimetres in
thicknesa,the numbers 1 '544 1 , 1 '5473, 1 *3490 and 1-5541, which correspond respectively
to the rays D, E,F, G. These numbers do not differ from those given by M.Rudbcrj
by more than ^—jth* at most.

This process may be advantageously employed in researches relative to the indie**
of refraction of liquids ; the mode of operation is so simple that I may dispense with
entering into details upon this subject.

Description of a Photometer exhibited to the British Association for the
Advancement of Science. By Dr, Felix Bernard, Bordeaux.

The photometer which I have the honour to bring before the Association ha* ht'"
exhibited by M, Arago to the Academy of Sciences, at its meeting ot the vtn 1
1853. This instrument, which is principally intended for tlic study of *
rency of bodies, may be very advantageously employed in a great numbero p ^
metric investigations, regarding the illuminating power of luminous o 1 > ^
diffusion of light, and its reflexion from the surfaces of bodies, &e. .s 1,1
particularly the arrangement which I have adopted for ascertaining the
exercised upon light by the action of transparent media. -hedwiti

In this case the anterior portion of the instrument presents u tube m „ | ^
two diaphragms, through which the luminous rays, previously retiderea p rf
menus of a lens, penetrate into the apparatus. At their entrance i n ' ,

the instrument, the rays full perpendicularly upon the middle ot 0f«|ii,*

double prism, formed by the union of two equal, rectangular, isosceles P™" •' ,u
two faces are in the same plane. The bundle formed by these rays ‘ ' f ;
edge of the right dihedral angle of the hypothemtses, is divided into ^ (]wl (
bundles, which are entirely reflected in opposite directions perpeudicu
the incident bundle. At a few centimetres from the axis there are t ^ ^
prisms, by meant of which the rays ore reflected in a direction paia |arjjei!l
farther on the new bundles traverse some Nicole prisms which serve rinJ,etric»l
analyse the light, and by a second arrangement of reflecting prisms sy lurt,-:
the first, these bundles, after passing through the Nicols prisms, ar o ^ ni,
towards one another and reflected upon the hypothenuses of a sew bun(|!e
so as, by their reunion, to reconstitute the primitive bundle. -ve3 at the
traverses a tube forming the ocular portinu of the instrument, ana hi
as though it had never undergone any deviation. „ - om»r0ence of |V

At one extremity of the ocular tube and close to the surface ?! 1 emi t firC11ii
double reflecting prism, there is a diaphragm, the aperture of which*
image upon this surface; this is magnified by a lens. circles by

The rotation of the analysers is measured upon two vertical sem
alidades furnished with verniers. . .

ie apparatus being arranged, that is to say, the extinction bMg ' ^
the verniers are. at zero, the intensity of each half of the circular iiavgV^ !m t
the eye varies in proportion to the square of the sinus of the ang “ m

principal section of llic analyser ; and consequently if one of tl5enl . bundle " ; r
obscure by the interposition of an absorbent medium in the course of u # ,u o-
corresponds with it. it becomes easy t„ estimate its intensity, ttbe ’ 07the^
ITT °f ,be corresponding with the other half, the two par*

have been rendered uniform in tint. , , -!*,*» ^

arriving ,lsht from a strong lamp may he ^

at the ■P|»rtttu*i this light should traverse a system of ab» . cipiJ *
S™* * rrr tlm lhe "^Transmitted may belong to one ot ^
,r. !1O0f ri‘tlC with »hc solar spectrum. It is better,

,ght 0 the spectrum, by receiving on a screen furnished a,J by i<;4
vertical spectrum formed m the usual manner by rays rendered F ‘| therays*"
lens (the principal lines of Fraunhofer should then be seen distinctly) ,

TRANSACTIONS OP THE SECTIONS.

5

bare traversed the slit are received in the apparatus. It is advisable, in this case, to
^lace the diaphragm at the entrance by a system of two lenses forming a colhneator;
die polarization of the parullel rays is then complete.

The light which reaches the eye is sometimes very bright ; it then becomes neces-
ury to deaden it by placing a piece of ground glass before the collineator.

1., studying reflexion or diffusion, or comparing the intensities of two luminous
Muni-*, the entire system of prisma placed in the anterior part of the apparatus is
•rnewed; die arrangement of the two separato bundles, which are afterwards united
In inwuis of the other system of prisms, may be easily understood.

' When the absorption of light is to be determined, Use apparatus may receive some
modifications by which it is simplified. The luminous bundle, before its divisions,
Hit upon a Nicol’s prism which polarize* it, and afterwards upon a bi-rclractive
pn»m which divides it; by moans of an arrangement of reflecting prisms similar o
thp preceding, a circular image, composed of two parts polarized in two rectunguia
pUtie*, is obtained. . . .. ,

The Nicol's polarising prism also serves as an analyser with regard to the igi
•Inch has traversed the birefractive prism ; the rotation of this prism is also measure
by moons of an alidade through which it is put in motion. One of the images in-
erenses in intensity in the proportion of the square of the sinus of the (ingle orme
b> the principal sections of the analyser and of the bi-refractivc prism ; the o
ditrciiMu in the proportion of the square of the cosinus, mid their relation varies
proportion to the square of the tangent of the same angle. . . . , .

Ah indispensable precaution to be taken in these experiments is to place in iro
of "‘v analyser a thick plate of rock crystal parallel to the axis, in such a maflnortnai
principal section m;.y be parallel to that of the analyser. Isiool a prism* cut i
tin- ordinary manner, and inclined in the tubes enclosing them so that they may nm
produce a sensible deviation of the luminous rays, form excellent analysers w
ni’licd with u similar plate, rendering unnecessary any correction with leg-u
1 gallon in the qinmlity of polarized light reflected ut the first surface of t iese P ’
I* tll«y are turned upon their axes. Nicol's prisms cut in the form » g P
‘d'pipvds do not answer the same purpose hero, us they cause too great a tia -1
lb# incident ray, , ,

1 he apparatus which forms the subject of this Note, which wi» constrac^
i '' cr n!'tl8t> M. Duboseq, may be readily adapted to all the preceding j.Jdin"
taking it to pieces. Suppressing some of its component parts, and adding
' . "-refractive prism, the last-mentioned arrangement is produced. oured

'"«?"? of ®* uPParatus it is easy to prove that the absorbent
r„. ''l uu|>' “dlnoiiccs the intensity of the light, the peculiar arrange™; J .

^ protectmgthc eye from the errors which are almost inavitabl, ^prndjeea^y
.r ^UofiutensUy of colour, wlien the spectrum is examined ll'roug . -fo of
ihc ,, C0?8equently nothing to invalidate Newton's opinion as to the » P 7
p amatic colours which is generally adopted by physicist*. , , 0f the

w*** 1 to Sviog. frr i \ v iil

r-lative , Whlch 1 «" cr, gaged, principally in a chemical point of 7 W, bere_

aficr to , ra,*sparen ey 0f bodies to the principal rays of the spectrum , Pt soine

uf the n *aVe l^e *lonour of bringing forward the results of these oxpe
“le meetings of the Association*

Note .

'%&£*«», » v,™;.', ^ fSKSaK jjay.s

R#ri«riil of a?(i05(*ance with very various causes, is subject to a , ^ 8carcely

a".vthin» a» We arc acquainted, but from which we have as J they are

'hied. TUp 1 leir relations with the meteorological phsenomei pruved the

Pvi'tonce in »KeSea,rches of MM. Arago, Babiuet, and Brewster ha ‘ lizing
P"Uri^tions^e ?!®stial *reh of some remarkable points in which t °(0SjtiOn

008 neutralize each other; these physicists have made known 1

6

REPORT — 1854.

of these points and the law of their displacement; the points corresponding with the
maximum of polarization have been studied, and the lines of equal polarization have
been determined in a particular case, but it cannot be denied that much still remains
to be done.

When allowance is made for the accidental circumstances which often introdn:
such great perturbations into the celestial polarization, there should exist, for va h
place of observation, a normal state of polarization, depending exclusively spit the
position of the sun ami local circumstances, which ought to bp characterinblc by
means of polarimetric observations. The following method, founded on the com¬
parison of the intensities uf two images which nre brought to equality under the mo-t
favourable circumstances (i. c. when they are of the same colour and in contact), nrny
be employed in this case with advantage.

Let a and b be the intensities of two polarized bundles of rays, which together at-
equivalent to the partially polarized bundle, the vibrations of the two component
bundles being respectively parallel and perpendicular to that of the polarized I j»ort o -n
of this bundle, the quantity of polarized light therein contained will have the vs "■

or simP,y Inking 1, which is the quantity to be estimated.

Polarimeler, — The luminous bundle, after traversing some narrow dini'hnvgrr1^
arranged in a tube of a length equal to 2$ diameters, falls upon a doubly ram
prism, which produces, by refraction, two images of the opening «l t«e .
diaphragm. A Nicol's analysing prism, cut into the form of a right pa™ie ip Pl
placed in the centre of a fried circle, the axis of which coincides with ,

tube ; nn alidade furnished with n vernier allows the rotation of tins to be m ■ _ ,
Immediately against the terminal diaphragm, there is a cap with an °Pe”J* |irI
millimetres in diameter ; it is this that furnishes the two polarized images,
bears a Soleil's quartz-plate, with two rotations, which serves as a polans^P • ,
position of these two opening* may be changed at pleasure m the
axis of the apparatus. The whole system is enclosed ill a concentric, cR ^ .
nished with a hinge; by this arrangement it may be turned upon
m any position by menu of n screw. The apparatus thus arranged is l
meter-. **

Atmopolarimdcr.- To adapt this instrument for observations on
polarization, it is placed upon a vertical columnar support, standing o * .t„j ,,:j
screw feet. At the upper part of the support there is a horizontal ,'lrertjr»i
with levels and n compass, to furnish the azimuth of the point obse jne the &

semicircle placed towards the upper part of the column serves to de ^
VHtion of this point, and a parallactic circle enables the instruroen
ranged according to the great circles of the sphere. . , j„r obsff**-

To ascertain exactly the angular distance from the sun to the
.a small finder is arranged parallel to the telescope bearing t u.,on

one of its extremities, and at the other a small disc of transparent > ‘ ,
centre of which the shadow of the point of intersection of the two cro».ea
>e row n when the apparatus is directed to the sun*. . , , -rC]e is d'-’f

minp lT klU5 observation, the horizontality of the aamtlUiJ1 ier 0f
mined by mean* of the levels nnd supporting screws of the tripod ; the
verticalcnde bring at zero, the parallactic circle and the *‘J

is dirp hrjf°ntn,J- Wl'«* t*,c orientation of the apparatus ha* J*. uaru-pl»“
lower d d i!'d8 ,he P°’nt of Ihe sky under examination, the dotAM J. n„,.
ho!„vTUP°n lhr UX,'R of l,"‘ 1'olarimeter, and the latter is turned jndif*

t o m™l|rT"y °f C0lorati"n of ,1|L> ,w,) discs corresponding with • JJf0 tbc P1*

of1,n'"1S,n ^Ffpendieularity of the principal section ot the F 1 ■ J )lcp0|»rF‘ ■
when Z “St T1,C W*n"ve cup F. then substituted for that bu! to

difference «rlffen"C1J ,lie int£*nsity of the two images become ct,rtain cV
« with d,? fP^a'3 I1'9" tlu“ Prin««Pa» section of the analyser form** <■ f , -

Wlth tI,at of lk Polarizer; from this it follows that if the pr.nc.pal sec

prcwnte'lE? "f lU9 aP»rflt«5 devoted to the orientation and ^

h-U adlflS h l,n^r-1,"??PmC,,tS as 11 6'eat number of instruments, and
that adopted by Peltier m his modification of Arago's polarimetcr.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

7

polarizer be parallel to the plane of polarization, the relation between the intensities
uf the two bundles transmitted is

a sin3 x=b cos5 a, whence

b . j
— =tg5«;
a

but we have already consequently

&=sins ec, a= cos3 x, a—b cos 2 x.

It is not absolutely necessary that the zero of the circle should correspond exactly
with the azimuth of extinction of one of the two images ; two observations may ne
inade, one on each side of this point, noting the angles, eft, <j> , which corresuo r

die equality of the images ; we then get ac=^^— *

The method just described is evidently applicable to the study of the
of light reflected from the surface of solids and liquids ; the arrangemen o p

nor. In ..I nt nln in rillwliil* OTIV flpfillls nGCCSSlltV'

On the Origin of the Submarine Telegraph and its Extension to India and
America, liy John W. Brett, London.

After claiming for himself and his brother, Mr. Jacob Brett, the honour of be’ g
0I,|y the first inventors, but also the first projectors, of a Sub manne or Oceanic
' ‘S'aph, the author proceeded to give an account ot the difficulties | I _ ,

,7 ““countered in establishing the first submarine telegraph, " cd that

working for three years between France and England ; and MM 1
, lftl1 established the submarine telegraph between England and Belg |J* eci

which had been in operation since the 1st of May 1653 He then ^1^
“I' difficulties he had encountered in laying down the wo*U S bv OO
Med Jernmean in July last,- especially in passing a depth
m0 J 'v .mt lm<l previously been ascertained to exist on the i ro and

FneLa ?°r8ica- 11 * depths encountered between LjKSs the

.,i'd 1111(1 Belgium, did not exceed at their maximum 30 fathom . J
. tUS?* “h'e wus laid down in the Mediterranean at a depth of

prcSKrt’IJ c'ght timcs tlirit °r thl' EngUsh Channel. J^fwSSld encounter
‘r‘ passin^.f tbc 8uhmatine cable would part by the great strain QU(1 more

f artieuln^ lCSe grcal depths ; for which reasons he was strongly .* piovern.

y l,y of the most able, and experienced officers ot ^^'^feigbt
fc‘l« b?£?CfmB““d an<1 uldctl lh* undertaking, to make u dc rc kn0Wn not
t- exceed mdtud3 0f ?orgo,ia tt,ld Capvija, where the *°’j‘”?"B*.lietller he would
m i.H-ur 5 hUt the great ,K"nt' tn bC con8ldc.re.d “# The prudence of

the*. at' ri8*c a total loss of the cable by not doing so. flUeBti0nhe
.kE*”? Mr- nrett said ho fully admitted; but that it ; *** *£ t0 Cor-

***, but ”e,l to solve at once ; for as this telegraph was not * . 8 JJjU greater

dn'ths niu,t lDe to I,,dia‘ to be shortly completed to Africa, ^ ^ expiained

the ^cult e eC°Untercd' 11 WaS ,lccossary t0 tef line had been paid

°ut, as In. i,.rc * encountered in paying it out, when, aftei tl at a depth

’Irvine from 'lHff’ a*0D6 fbe top of a submarine mountain for so ^ e(]ge of a
Pffcipice mf80 l° 200 lat-boms, it suddenlv, as he believes, ca , ny depth

thc 1 arious charts on this route), where it ran out with b

’•bibitp'd tas ,nade in the workshops of M. Pubo<cq, and bw holier

“Utuh Association for the Advancement of Science.

8

REPORT — 1854.

and had the cable been less strong, the whole must, of necessity, have been lost; ud
they were compelled, nevertheless, to anchor by the electric cable all night, to
restore the injury that had occurred ; but he felicitated himself upon the experienn
thus gained from his determination in taking the deepest route, as it had led to many
valuable suggestions necessary to successful operations in great depths; and the •
commander, the Marquis llicci, who up to this time had been in doubt of its »«««•.
then admitted that this kind of cable contained such remarkable elements of strewt
in its form and combination, that he believed only certain improvements to >
necessary (on which we hud been consulting) to lay it down successfully mn it
the greater depths of the Atlautic. Mr. Brett, in conclusion, explained his r«v>t»
for selecting this line to India, ri« Egypt, in preference to the line by the Ini u
peniusula, which would ever he impeded by the jealousies and restrictions of iti
petty States; whereas, to the shores of Africa, the Mediterranean Telegraph p»“‘
through only the States of France unci Sardinia, who had encouraged it bylibml
guarantees, and admitted that all communications in whatever language should pa*
unrestricted through their States. From Africa he stated he had two plans in c *
templation for its extension to Egypt — one, a line dropped in the Mediterranean u.
the shallow line near the coast, and another buried in the sand along the .ihor>-
both of which he was satisfied might be laid secure from derangement of any i
He then concluded with n statement of the labour and attention he had given ■
many years in preparing for the telegraph to America, and of the depth, on i ■|f h
posed line, as recently ascertained by Lieut. Maury, of the United States,
estimates of the weight and cost; and stated that a return of JplOO to
day would give a fair interest on the necessary capital ; that Ins plaf .
several lines of communication ; and that he entirely deprecated the ideao
line of communication, which he believed could not be done.

On

Magneto-Electricity and Underground ff
liy Edward B. Bright, Liverpool.

ovement ot the coil before the poles. The greatest tier
currents occurs when the coil used is electro- magnetic (t.

CO re). nsT.i'

As applied to telegraphic purposes, the iron core of the coil, when at
erves as a keeper to the magnet, though uot actually in contact wi
hen worked by a key attached to the axle, the coil moves treely t ..
e magnet, generating a current with each change of position, (!

to actuate indicators nr ring bells at n distance. This principl e n
system of the Maguetic Telegraph Company ; all other Companies
and America have adopted the galvanic battery. rllirin«r three

generating magnets have remaiued unimpaired in streng bat'--

wnnM ltaut uSC (a period which a dozen consecutive sets of th'^

would have been worn out). The magnetic currents induced can** P f tfCh . -

sub errane t0 a diBtance ofgg0 miles (the greatest extent

ductors in England) without any break or renewal of circuit- .^#4

“f rf*urn <0r currents from underground wires, wh,ch a„j i:-
io Jn L g 0f ?tl-lcr telegraphs, is applied in the magnetic
from lt’ beir's raade tD keep the indicating needles at «

from a distant station. * ^elo^

whtn^1! fealure b underground wires is the small

stone^a p*n!^CtriCl Benaatiou passes through such conductors:
frictional K ,rHn?n.ts on a short length of wire in a room ha , . sUth t®1
Vtnnot h JCCtriCLty PRS9« n°arly 300,000 miles per second. L

fessor WalkerWA pract,cal|y applied or insulated for 'ttjfflfej

l° nrlkerB (Amc7Cft) give the speed of galvanic electricity tn* >«f,V

ducfedPbvTS ^ °nly l6'°00 P« ««»d; while /round ^

ducted by the engineer of the Magnetic Company on an undergrou

TRANSACTIONS OF THE 6ECTIONS. y

miles of gutta percha covered copper wire, show that the voltaic or magnetic impulse
varies in velocity, through such conductors, from 960 to 1700 miles per second,

according to the intensity of the current employed. _

The diminution in velocity, as regards the underground wires, is intimately con -
eectrd with the recoil current recently analysed by Dr. Faraday, and is due to the
oiuWv between such conductors and a Leyden jar, the charge cnnmiunica e
'• log temporarily absorbed by the wire until the moss of copper is saturated with
electricity. Hence a retardation ensues to a less or greater degree as the intensity
rf the current is increased or diminished. . .

From the foregoing I deduce that the upeed with which electricity passes, varies
with the energy (i.e. intensity) of the current employed, and ulso with the nature or
renditions of tiie conductor interposed through which it passes.

I ndergronnd wires are only affected by terrestrial electricity when a now takes

from one district of the earth’s surface to another ; while overground wires
ur also subjected to the action of perturbative currents whenever the electrical
' itnlw * of the atmosphere changes as regards the earth — principally with the rise
w fall of dew, or during aurora borealis.

Fhf ‘ Quarterly Review ’ for June 185-1 contains a most erroneous comparison
i*tween the English and American telegraph charges. The American rate for a
mc***ge of fourteen words between Louisville and Pittsburgh is stated by the
lUwicw ’ to be sixpence halfpennv, whereas, upon reference to the United States
felt-graph Tariff.’ published in April last, the cost of such a message is two
•lulling* and eightpence, while the English charge for a similar communication an
'•(ual distance (between London and Liverpool), prior to the publication of the
K,vuw.’ was two shillings and sixpence. Twenty words might be sent in this
Gantry I’1"' the same amount (two aud sixpence), while in America the charge
would be three shillings and sixpence.

v ll'r' Quarterly Review’ also states that the cost of a message of ten words from
» ew lork to New Orleans is two shillings and sevenpence. Upon referring to the
Ijfrican tariff scale it is found to be ten shillings.

llu-' greater ceconomy claimed by the 'Review' for America does not exist, but
» advantage is on the English side ; and 1 therefore hope that this refutation wi
^ impression so injurious to the system of our country from being generally

atl APP<tralus for clliptically-polarized Light. By M. Dove, Berlin.

pr * ^.of 136 ‘nc‘dent in a plane perpendicular to the edge of an
othrr’, d,,n,ad,rect‘on pa«lle* to the base (or face equally inclined to the two
it, ril7’ llle refracted ray, after being totally reflected at the base, emerge at the
be a ,' !■ tlu? emergent my will be parallel to the incident, and its course may even
I- I r ,,,!inUatl,',u of thfU of the incident ray. If the incident ray be polamed, the
•r, ' , in Wl11 modified by total reflexion. If now two such prisms, of proper
l iru i : ,L “?ounted in a tube, so that their edges are perpendicular, and then ase®
U. c • ,L 1 "! of the lnbe- and one of the prisms be moveable about the axis of
l-n„ ,, ■;;STWn? tube in the direction of the axis will pass through both
fUfi-d Kith th1, ^®v,atlon* whatever be their relative azimuths. It the P',s .
^':‘r,-d ltb:,r,bas;8 perpendicular to each other, il is plain that m case the ray be
roiiud thmitwo of. l,olur 'Nation Will nut be changed ; but if one prism be turned
varieties of ’ tbe e®’ects °f the two total reflexions will conspire. In X

'ithijiit fi.p ?^,L> *ptlcal1y*polarized light, from plane to circular, may be Pr°ducad
eral transport of the ray, which is so inconvenient in 1' resnel s r o

The aui?” *0WC ‘^tercoscoP‘c Phenomena. By M. Dove, Berlin.

,n Co,»en1Ie0ncraSrCi-iefl-v induced to draw the attention of the Section to this subject
lotting, having lJuv‘d Brewster, who he greatly regretted was not a
,bc author hnHS ; enied .al tbe Belfast Meeting the soundness of the explanation
tb* metallic |,ufVen tlle cetu«« of the appearance of those bodies which ex i

Ustre' T his he considered to arise from the superficial layers of par-

10

REroRT — 1854.

tides being highly, though still imperfectly transparent, and permitting the inferior
layers to be seen through them. This effect we see produced when many watch-
glasses are laid in a heap, or when a plate of transparent mica or talc being heated
red-hot is thus separatedinto multitudes of thin layers, each of which, of inconceivable
thinness, is found to bo highly transparent, while the entire plate assumes the lusnc
of a plate of silver. This explanation receives a very striking confirmation from the
stereoscopic phenomena which he now drew attention to. He then presented to
the Section and described a very simple and portable modification of file stereoscope,
consisting of two lenticular prisms mounted inn frame like a double eye-glass. L|«m
examining with this two diagrams, drawn one for the right, the other for the Iclt nr.
with lines suited to give 1.1m idea when viewed together of a pyramid, cube, cone, of
other mathematical solid, but the lines on one drawn on a white ground, the other
on a dark or coloured ground, on viewing them together the solid appeared with th*
metallic lustre. The author termed it " Glance.” This, he conceived, demonstrated
his original idea to be correct.

On a Method of measuring the Absorption of Polarized Light in doubly n
feuding Crystals. By M. Dove, Berlin

deli*

is sufficient to combine with the crystal a plate of glass, or a pile of p»* * . u
inclined until it exactly compensates the polarizing power of the cm a . ^

known by the complete disappearance of the figures in the unannealea g
angle of inclination affords data for the determination of the ratio sought.

M. Duboscq then presented to the Section philosophic apparatus fo h phor
projection on a screen to a large auditory all the phenomena ol . meeting
was requested to permit Prof. Stokes to exhibit and explain at the eveu b
the apparatus, and to show with it the leading phenomena of Pe® •

On Photographs of the Moon and of the Sun.

By the llev. J. B. It bade, M.A., F.B ^- ^ (o

The author recounts in the first place the prominent results °*' ®e.'CV>9 succt‘i
obtain photographic pictures of celestial bodies, previous to i r. oWn nb-

m 1851, and then proceeds to plueuomeua which have fallen
servation. ( „bjch illustraW

“ The two daguerreotypes of the moon, an original and a com1, - .ter pjctu*
this paper, will be examined with some interest by the Section. jnAmfrl1*

produced by the moon herself, in the focus of Bond's refractor, was u ^ ^ 5CBrtrlv
It possesses a very remarkable, but latent sharpness, which, nowc 8 sn>"--

visffile to the eye, that to ascribe to it this character mav aimos B cf it »
1 he proof of its having such a property is furnished by ’the ben “ obtain'1 J

the same size, which mv friend, the Royal Astronomer for jj^clf,

throwing strong sunlight upon the moon’s daguerreotype P‘cl thfl c0nju£^ 1 ''
obtaining a reverse solar impression of it in a common camera, ^ ^ ®oo ■
being equal. The tones of grey and yellow which mark the acre ^
become, when handled by the sun, fine 'contrasts of black and though

chain round the portion of the Marc Imbriurn, is finely g'ven P details in
lost requires a stretch of the mind's eye to discover some ot ^ cfj»trt -

al. I he well-known ray of light from Menelaus passing tur 6 iftUn%
dare Seremtatis, is another point of striking contrast in said tha£ ‘ ,
as the outline of the shadows in several of the craters. “ “ ; gmVtb. ^ ’
llosse was much interested with this happy experiment by ProfJSthe
tended to solve a question which had often occurred to him in th*9 1*

bcnehcial use of penetrating sunlight under such circumstances ; “

almost
ginal
the Mare
well as the

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

11

o' view, it is well worthy of being recorded. Two Calotype examples of seleno-
;r»|ihy form additional illustrations of this paper. The small moon, fastened on a
inner of the larger picture, was taken by Mr. Henry Pollock with a double com¬
bination of short focus, and in less than a second. The bright point of Tycho,

■ \:«h on so small u scale, is well marked at the top of this minute Calotype, and
i h-jv-s to which 1 have already referred, give their more sombre reflection at the
Mtiim. This is chiefly of interest as showing the decided energy of a power which
s furaier years was supposed to be absent.

Tin- more important drawing is a large positive picUne of the full moon, nearly
*‘oc inches in diameter, and therefore on a scale of about ’250 miles to the inch, of
stick the negative was taken, on the 6th of September, in the focus of the * Craig
•-•'.''ujie,* at Wandsworth, whose diameter is 24 inches and focal length 77 feet, —
n.'i when I state that it is the first attempt, it will be received, notwithstanding
cm*'« imperfections of manipulation, which are not conceulcd by artificial tinting,
i Hep iu the right direction. All the mure important features of the moon's sur-
oc" will be discovered by those who are familiar with their telescopic appearance,
i tin- portion of the eastern hemisphere admits of interesting comparison with the
• '. i daguerreotype copy already described. We find in both, and with almost equal
-mctnc>b, the Mare Crisium with the bright surrounding country which separates
' ,r -m the Mure Free und it at is and Mare Trnnnuillitatis to the south and west,— the

' rit' 1 \lPllo|rtlt>- mUl, iL. .. I 1 I .« a I _ miln.l fllO

r,i| ’-v “Je‘ we have t,ie bright Aristarchus, Kepler, C opernicus, and lycno,

1 a'- streams of molten lava extending over the southern hemisphere; but owing
p ' °f ^11 moon, the craters and mountains are not relieved by shadows.

, , 'I'?! °/-r x*!uauro of the collodion negative was thirty-five seconds; but it is
_ J.vchn and the brighter portions are overworked. In the absence also
irJ<|UM0rir’ mounliu?' perfect steadiness could not in the first instance be
' , r‘ ”rav»tt applied a micrometer screw to the eye end t»f the telescope,
•- niuHc, , Wlt 1 a w‘nc« handle, and when the moon was on the meridian this
V : ““Amount to an equatorial motion for the space of thirty-five seconds.
•' (1 . c , across an aperture iu u slip of wood was placed close behind a

,ui) ■ “e" ,n the focus of the telescope, and Mr. Gravatt found that by humming
r 'hmialivT ur,n ^le handle of the micrometer so steadily as to keep Aristarchus
"'uated th* o!eC er Ml'- Prout* who prepared the collodion surface, unfortunately
tiiis,. 0fu. .. C?.n“s to° loudly for ' the man at the wheel,’ and hence arose a little
l,f ''M'ojurp a1'Ue1ss' which was afterwards prevented hy mv attending to the time
' b,-‘ imiil ?eai °f Mr‘ Prout- Collodion pictures of the moon, as well defined
“irrely anvil, i!’ * g,rou,lJ Slass> and taken through nil her phases, would leave
' W-Rla«s iu-if to ,i0 desired in consequence of the magnifying power of the
^umei. and Mature experiments will be directed by Mr. Craig into this

■' ‘n a mum „• 1 'd1 °f September, we renewed our attempt when the moon

! 'ttea»g P°»ltian ; hut an undetected source of error, and the

' ^ I,rocurin» a ■ thc‘ f°8 when the moon was on the meridian, prevented us
" ( 11 Stained h,CCe8Sful QpSat‘ve. Moreover, the true photogenic focus has not
i n. n . J Di Weans o1f kiiIhIvg.. 1 .tato Iuiwpvi'I'. that the

' >i‘'H 1,1 ita conff8C,°pC* thnngli confcssedlv admitting of improvement in figure,
i ’ Priced at a , VVer lhp fuint«it points of light. That so large an object-
uu! 1,0 »o much disadvantage bv hand, and unt machine polished.

| Vatt. to take il " 1 lu ^th, the morning following, l endeavoured, wirn
[-t . .. ‘“Weeded hv an * SUn on l*le meridian, and on the same scale as the moon ;
v Wottlcd chara »n8lantar,CQU# operatiun in exhibiting, in the negative, the
ac ei °f the surface which is usually brought out by high mag-

12

REPORT — 1854.

nifying power. Dr. Diamond, who printed the positive of the moon, found the m.-,
picture, however, rather overdone for transferring. — It will be necessary, therefurr,
either to use collodion and nitrate of silver simply, without any or but little senH-
tive solution, or else to pass the sun's rays through some coloured glass, which w II
partially retard their energy. A series of pictures of the spots on the sun, sni;
as of the general surface, may then be successfully obtained ; and hence il is not to"
much to anticipate some accession to our knowledge of the physical character of
both our great luminaries by means of this gigantic telescope, which Dr. Diamond
enables me to exhibit photographically to the Section.

Oil Errors which may be occasioned by disregarding the Influence of Sola
or Artificial Light on Magnets. By Sir John ltoss.

On the Deviation of the Magnetic Needle peculiar to Liverpool
By Sir John Hobs.

rhe author stated that his attentiun has for some time been caljed to tbr fact ^
ships sailing from the port of Liverpool, after having been swung in the Mov.
obtain the amount of deviations, that immediately on their proceeding ou
voyage it was found that the deviation observed in' the Mersey was meorreo, am.
there have been lamentable instances of shipwreck attributed to this cau-' 1
occurred to him that this untoward circumstance is very easily explained.
Mersey is not a locality eligible for ascertaining the true deviation of the n»P ‘
needle, the ships being in a position between establishments in which large
of iron are deposited, which must have an influence on the magnetic needle M
*vwo1 1011011 of swinging the ship, while the embarkation of passengers w-u^
°ra^1t llDg c,se subsequent to that process, cannot but huve
a ^a[ac and dangerous result to the observations. rIo o.-rac ) v
ltioTedS nth,at th0 Pr ent of swinging the ship in the \ * l

ill t! ’ and'. m 0r^cl' to obtain a verification or a correction of result ^
hmfJ f ' 18 ProP°s,-(I to place oft the sandhills of Rockland (neur the Koc , - ,

PKt 2’otW0 P°lts or btuc(»ns, true nort h and south of each other, in tb* I*
steerin inear tk‘ red buo>' of the Rock Channel, when the paf Ju0^
can llpShabou‘tn"-‘ west' or west-north-west, by compass. W hen thf» f,..:
a verifirm-°U6kr11i0One' f,ue norfh of dU?h (both being south of bjlin:
differ^ t 0*n ,hp deviafion that was observed in the Mersey, or the
the com.6 t0 bn ,talien int0 considers tlutl or account on that PttV 1 -

of thSofw’W l ljesh0Wn' fVom which a calculation may be
Sa rriand if' Arthur on, two other posts were erected^ #vr
the exact' ^ 0,1 passing them, when in one with each other, u

variadon on .1U“t0f ** dw®°“ eilher in thc incrcftse °r ton the

DoCTt of t^ hC C°Ur8e of the ®hip, keeping in mind that 'tw'UnMdur ^
of Lizard f ‘ f°,raPass that the observations will be made. Posts P . Jot »
lt^dbSthr W0Uld he “«.,«l. and also on the magnetic •’

denoting tbf 9 deDUtinS t,le north or south bearings, end **
that is SrhP “agllct|t' meridian, should be painted of different f® . thf
rneridnn .V n ^ should be red ' while the latter, *ho* JJ “vehflr.^

Placed on thpU d ^•cl‘01UL,re<l- Great Ormshead and Holyhead should h
bound. h ’ Wh'ch Wou,d be o^ervablc to ships both outward an

n ^*ctofjal a*d Photochromatic Impressions on th e *f.

Eye. By the Rev. William Scorjmby, D.D.,

which preseanrtedftd',With much »>»«*««■ of detail, the jygjj,

a moir,entarvl, ?,Se,Ves to him after gazing fixedly for b feW^
objects _ such^as T '■ a. ni>nute) on transparent, luminous or s an | '

in'the ^cloudt £ within a T' *£££**

, &c. On closing the eyes, gently, with

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

13

u when gazing, the image or picture was seen, or, as the author expressed it,
■ photographed on the retina.” He described the variety of results from different
drgrm uf transmitted light, and times of gazing, and modes of regulating the light
prod rating the eyeball, both as related to the colours elicited and the number and
injure of the photochromatic changes. Pictures of a window were retained for
•0 hour, whilst breakfast was taken and other objects pursued. By means of
iurbal black screens, pictures were composed nut of different portions of an illumi-
'-s‘ed object, and curious dislocated representations of a statuette, &c.» or multiple
f.urr.i were obtained ; and of the sun more than a hundred pictures, with differences
/ colour, were seen at once with the closed eyes. The applications of the experi-
1 eats lo the examination of the interior of the eye, in ensea of amaurosis, &c., were
"r< important. The entire series of phenomena would be more than our space
•uuld permit us to describe in detail, as given by the author ; but experience shows
•1st thi'T vary in their general character in different individuals ; and even the same
itoiviuil finds them different, especially as to the succeeding series of photochro-
«nhc changes, at different periods of life.

On a Graphic Method of Correcting the Deviations of a Ship's Compass.
By Archibald Smith, M.A., F.R.S.E.

Account of Experimental Researches in Thermo-Electricity.

By Professor W. Thomson, M.A. F.R.S.

The experiments described in this paper have been made for the purpose of con-
mas: thv investigation of various branches of the subject commenced in researches,
l iich an account was published in the * Proceedings of the Royal Society ’ for
Jn °ne class of experiments, thermo-electric inversions, of the kind first
fr xnv W" £ *>ro^' f'u,n,n‘nK> were sought for between various pairs of metals ; and
'■‘.H.ITTm va.ri?tiona of order in the thermo-electric series were found. The
^ "K table exhibits the results of observations to determine the neutral points
‘ urnn'i! ?iMe81n whic^ thermo-electric inversions had been ascertained. The first
, -cir.r. n , he temPe*&ture, Centigrade, at which the two metals opposite are thermo-
fr,„„ ' oeutra1 to one another, and the latter metal is that which pastes the other

' » towards antimony as the temperature rises : —

P Copper.

P , — Brass.

P j— Lead.

P j— Tin.

Iron — Cadmium.
Iron — Silver.
Iron— Copper.

*~l2'2^Cnt — ®rass- (51 Cent. •

— 1-5 ” ** 1 — Cadmium. 9!) „

8-2 " 1 Silver. 121 „ .

3G " pi— Zinc. 130

38 . . P a— head. 102-5 „ .

U . P 3— Brass. 237 „ .

U ” \ 2— 'Tin. 280 „ .

p p " ■••• Lead — Brass.

i|8cr very m!,rl!!nn,e ^Uee different specimens of platinum wire, which have been found
It als y an<^ COnstanl,y 'n dieir thermo-electric qualities.

! ' “dver, at L !!'!** *)rass becomes neutral to copper, and copper becomes neutral

and !fh,6h ^mpernture, estimated at from 800° to 1400° Cent., in the
' oh»mlr m 7o°U to 1000° in the latter. A diagram, showing the results
IT'1** *t d.ffere„r"ns’ anrl orders of the different metals in the thermo-electric
i. llT'rt‘. of dJmperaturc*. was exhibited to the Section. In other experiments
. * 15 found thaPietli‘at'ori 0,1 thermo-electric qualities of iron were tested.
,.fc!er ‘he itiflue' 0tJ1 8o^ iron Wire, longitudinally magnetized when actually
■ ,J"‘i,ry*aV.nil® of a, galvanic helix, and steel magnetized permanently in an
• ,,<luc^d1 exhibit v?°V? [rom the magnetic influence by which the magnetic state
,’74,hermo.eiPrr«r7 decided thermo-electric effects of the magnetization: m each
' c"u*d be nrodnn. <jun!e1nt 'n m^tal homogeneous except as regards niagnetiza-
*° maLetiS greal facility; the current being always from unmag-
( through the hot junctions. It is intended to continue the

14

REPORT — 1851.

experiments to ascertain the effects of transverse magnetization on portions of i
circuit of soft iron or of steel wire ; and to test differences of thermo-electi
properties in different directions in a magnetized mass, which the author ant e
pated from certain considerations more fully explained in a theoretical paper on

thermo-electricity in crystals recently communicated to the Royal Society of bl n-

burgh. Experiments on the effects of temporary and permanent strains, byteww. I
and by either lateral or longitudinal compression, on various metals were descntH
The thermo-electric effects of temporary tension in the cases of cupper «tkI im
which had been communicated by the author to the Royal Society in May (,,an‘' '•
current from stretched to unstretehed through hot, in copper, and from mitre t '
to stretched through hot, in iron), were verified by means of a new form o
tus so simple that he hoped to be able with great ease to test the correspo.v.-
property for a great variety of metals. In those two cases the permanen
electric effects of permanent extension by drawing the wires through a P j
which had been discovered by Magnus, were the reverse of temporary ^
temporary extension discovered by the author of the present paper. ^ I

electric effects produced by permanent lateral compression, always ‘ ^

with those of permanent longitudinal extension, were tested in *“eca? _cr ’p, |
cadmium, and lead, and were found to be the same as in the case 0 PIV ^ j
current was from unstrained to strained through hot in each case. ^ .... I
results agreed, while others appeared at variance, with what roig ,eW,

pected from Magnus’s careful experiments; but os the aatbor, lectnC cff.
cycle of experiments which he proposed to make on the tnpr • ^ -otl
either tempoiary or permanent, of longitudinal extensions, lac. aQV ia” •'
longitudinal compressions, and lateral extensions, he refraine
remarks on the present occasion.

opinion in a series of memoirs recently published in Poggenaomj »n«b
affirms that diamagnetic bodies possess a polarity the same as a this couo'r
deavours to bring the phenomena into harmony with this vie • .p|inia5on, nC
°n the contrary, we have Prof. Faraday, and it was behoved, n 0„ the I*;
of whom are prepared to admit the existence of any polarity f .j,e difficult'
of diamagnetic bodies. These divergences were a sufficient prooi
the subject, and the necessity of caution in dealing with it, . _sCCndic?
thought it well to commence with the fundamental phwnomcu » n£f (0 ci; -
them to the more complicated, to endeavour to obtain, by stri _prtaiu bodu-- -
ment. a clear insight as to the real nature of that force by iwh“?_,|)Criments IU‘ ,
repdled by the poles of a magnet. From an extensive senes of M ^ ^
with different bodies, and under the most diverse circumstance-, ,e {o(tc a*
a few which clearly exhibited the law according to which to* "S' tbe rep®1*- '

ments when the strength of the repelling magnet is increased. ^ then ^ r ,

of a diamagnetic body dependent on any coustant property of - |)Ut it i=
pulsion must be simply proportional to the strength of the y franc* •

oy the concurrent testimony of experiments carried on in ^ focre*-*’^

England, that for a wide range of magnetic power, the repu .* u inevi,*bl>' l'
he square ot the strength of the influencing magnet. This a(onS oD the K
conclusion that the repulsion of a diamagnetic body depends, n « » diilnisf ,, ,
il»PefrKUng Ta but uP°a ,he joint action of the magnet ^ 1*

piece of bismuth, for example in the presence of the magnet, u , , !Lrjes, and r, ,
15 wwlk5i[0f<alc"crnc"t* 'vhich voiles as the magnetic strength' wl„t^ ,
°JZh,Cf the- sub4tttncc ia repelled. The next question to he dec ■ ^ab|cS s r .
state of excitement evoked by one pole, in a diamagnetic t**? \ »

an opposite quality to repel it. To decide this, two cores of ^ toge,lu'r"r.> ,
that the two semi -cylindrical ends of the cores could be PjacC ‘C "ht portion^'
to form a single cylinder of the same diameter as that of the st»ig« I

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

15

cores. The cores being placed in suitable helices, could be so excited that the con -
1-uous poles were of the same or of opposite names. A bar of bismuth was freely
impended, so that both poles could act upon it simultaneously. When the cores
ucre excited, so that the poles were alike, the bismuth was repelled; when the poles
•<r uf different names, the bismuth bar remained motionless; all action upon it
*. nmiulled. This experiment coufircns those of Reich, and proves that the con-
> n, whatever it may be, which is evoked by one magnetic pole is neutralized by
V other, that each particular pole evokes a condition peculiar to itself ; and here
' obtain the first glimpse of the dual nature of the force under consideration. The
vt prirtion of the inquiry treated of the deportment of diamagnetic bodies when
*rtid upon, first, by the magnet alone; secondly, by the electric current alone;
x®! thirdly, by the current and the magnet combined. When wc speak of the de-
,• "ticent of bismuth in any one of the coses mentioned, no exact meaning can be
•''ii i.i il to the phrase unless it be first strictly defined in what direction, as to the
l,,UK ■ "f crystallization, the mass has been cut. A har of bismuth, in which the
■'iUnw “t principal cleavage are parallel to the length of the bar, and acted upon by
niaguct alone, will set itself perpendicular to the magnetic lines of force. A
" d»* contrary, in which the planes of cleavage are transverse, will set itself
I1 d!H to the solid lines. Thu former bar Professor Tyndall calls a normal dia-
"uii in; bar; the latter an abnormal one. The most perfect antithesis is observed
1 ' *■ <nses between the deportment of the normal diamagnetic bar and a bar of soft
!!' ’ lae hirers which cause a deflection of the former from right to left produce a
, Knium l®tter from left to right. If the former take up a position of equili-
'!!° lmtn south- west to north-east, the position taken by the latter will be from
• ; r *° nortl,-w^t ; and throughout the whole experiments the same oppo-
■ C1!8*1? '9 ®x^*bilcd. By mechanical means, an abnormal magnetic bar was
i al l 8 i f vvllich sot lt5 length nt right angles to the line joining the poles.

"j',nal diamagnetic bar shows throughout a deportment precisely antithetical
the ibnorml v°rnia' m.uSnet|c one; hut when wc compare the normal magnetic with
!>,. j,.. . a diamagnetic, or the normal diamagnetic with the abnormal magnetic,

■ 'hence of , 15 ln al1 cases Perfectly alike. It is evident, therefore, that unless the
1 1 "O' n;*laTre,bc fttten‘lvd to, the greatest errors aud the most inaccurate con-
'3 U.r loacnpH 6 nj 011 l*u‘ deportment both of magnetic and diamagnetic bodies
• "n|itir,n u,u: i )Ut tbc thing which chiefly concerns us here is the strong pre-
' >«•! in mnlh .• iCXIieriracnt8 justify, that whatever be the nature of the influence
’ Ul influence rEv'®* 111 actioa of currents, of magnets, or of both combined ;

’ i,rtnient of V 1 le 8arae natur®> but antithetical in its manner of distribution, the
' c|earerTagI]etJ0 bodies is to be referred. The next section of the inquiry
pUtvfi that th 10 “ to the nature of diamagnetic action. Two helices were

iron cores which fitted into thorn were about
' .'1‘ touched ,i *” Cc,tlt,f llJ centre ; the helices were at opposite sides of the plane
' 111 't a bismutV k sr°/.tl‘e cores. A helix of copper wire was introduced, and
' 8tt»pendcd r1 *unB iU,d four-tenths of an inch in diameter was

' ’ f A current h • thu ends of the bar "era opposite to those of the soft iron
[ 1 1 ■' the current If g Stnt throuSh the helix, if the bismuth bar within it wereex-
lf If in the Wa8 Pr°babla that the nature of the excitcmeut would mani-

rcpelledbv tb T mwed ,n a certain direction, the ends of the diamagnetic
r':vcrscd, the “eeIectr‘>- magnets; when the current flowing through the helix
, ''tained when ?Ue. C,'da 've|,c at traded by the magnets. The same effect
f i Was reversed "n" of rcv.e*‘sing the helix current, the polarity of the two
! t‘I*t they were n r c”a,Parlng the deflections with those of soft iron, it was
• I, ,‘; ‘ir"n bar to Eu ctly, antithetical. The excitement which caused the ends
' l a. ^citement caused the ends of the bismuth bar to be repelled,

ct , . "Jll>uth bar to } , cai,sed the ends of the iron bar to be repelled caused those

l°j.“ wbfttp.ll ,ir;i^t,ed. ^11 these experiments point irresistibly to the
f'.'icc |,e. ' ‘^dilution opr*!! • ,dVal tHSgnetic distribution in iron may be. aprecisely
Nw forCe but ft, 1,1 "l8muth,— or, in other words, that the diamagnetic
bat the polarity is the reverse of magnetic polarity. If,

16

REPORT— 1854.

however, this be true, the bismuth bar, when the current circulates round it, muc
have its two ends in different states ; but if in different states, then if we mak. tl »
two poles acting upon the ends of the bar alike, we ought to have attraction «t
end, and repulsion at the other, — the result of their opposing actions being that the
bar must remain undetected. This experiment has been made, and the rr*«lt .•
in perfect accordance with the conclusion just expressed; when both msiM ■-
poles are of the same name they completely neutralize each other. Follow me up u •
inductive reasoning, it is easy to see thut if what has been stated be correct, win •<
bring two magnets, with poles of the same name, to bear upon the two end* I *
bismuth bar, the direction of the force emanating from the two poles bring the «*'. ! 1
the repulsion of one end and the attraction of the other, instead of. as in tin' mm*
disposition, neutralizing each other, ought to constitute a mechanical couple i n m
ing to deflect the bar ; and if two other like poles, but of opposite name* o a
former two, he caused to act upon the bar, the force of deflection ougr. -
increased. In this form the experiment was made before the Section. *

magnets were made U6e of ; the two poles to the left were of the ssnie
the two to the right were of the opposite quality. The result coincided w ' ^
author's anticipations, and the bar was promptly deflected. lhr*e
without any exception, are all corroborative i.f tiic view, that diamagn' r
possess a polarity opposed to that of magnetic bodies, — but they d" ,
the physical theory of Weber is correct. Indeed, it**s scarcely possible t m 1 1
thesis can stand in opposition to the experimental evidence which can
to bear against, it. One consequence of the truly beautiful tlu-ory referr ^
when the particles of a diamagnetic body are caused to approach each " c ■ (
of their approximation will be to enfeeble the magnetic action wong
approach. This view is controverted by experiment, which proves . j ,
mation of diamagnetic particles has un effect precisely opposite to tna
the theory.

Professor Tyndall exhibited experiments toshow some Peculiarity , -

Field. The Professor showed that a piece of soft iron suspended bctvvi _ ^

ol an electro-magnet set its longest horizontal dimension from pole# «« , ...

netism of the cores being sufficient to produce theeffect. This is tlw ^

rnent of magnetic bodies, hut. it is by no means universal. By mec 1 j M, ,• ■
pressure for example, the structure of a magnetic body can be so action*^ !
shortest horizontal dimension sets from |K)le. Prof. Tyndall exlu 1 a bM|,
kind where the body operated on was compressed magnetic dust- jj ^ ^ . ,

opposing tendencies were at work, — the tendency due to length, w , (jlC |jn« r
the length axial ; and the tendency due to structure, which snug " . ,v»> I 1

pendicular to the length axial. Between the flat poles the latter ..-action o< 1
dominant, but between pointed poles this was not the case ; here H n of ,,;I5 •
ends of the magnetic mass by the points constituted a mechanical ^ j t0 dr*“ ; |

s rength to overcome the directive tendency which was due to strut. • oUt of ^

mass into the axial line. But in raising or lowering the body ,jje djj.trK ’

Bphere of this local attraction, by bringing it into a position ,

of the magnetic field resembled that existing between the Hat ’ p|,.vr.^ f

the axial position and turned into the equatorial- The complwn«,“ it **
were exhibited by diamagnetic bodies. A normal bar of bismuths this tub''ir .
angles to the line joining the poles; hut Prof. Tyndall exhibited a oar ^ ^ -

which set between the flat poles exactly as a magnetic body. r, it f"n ,

between the points set equatorial. On raising it or lowering it. » of to<
W„eqaa!°Lnal P°‘Uion ai»'1 axial. In this case the local Jg*-* thus
between the points caused the bar to set equatorial, the influence f o <rf
,r,'na mg °,ver,.the influence of structure ; but removed fr“® “()Sieb*r'’
Tt|n,?e •ir‘‘ft,ve tende«cy of the mass triumphed, and « _ the pl»*
Tlie b*r.,n th'« was cut with its length at right an„ Ji lam*.

most eminent deavage of the b.smuth :-it is a proved fact. thattha*P
nolJ UCj,CK °f ,0r?‘ is ar,nulk'd- always set at right angles to J *
poles, and hence where they are transverse to the length, *»**&<>

1 hese phenomena were examined in a great number of cases ; bars

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

17

§ubitances possessing a directive tendency, and it was so arranged that the directive
tradcncv due to structure was always opposed to the influence of length; between
the points the former tendency succumbed to the latter, while between the flat poles,
r.r above and below the points, the former was triumphant. It is amusing to observe
tie strife of these two tendencies in substances possessing a strong directive action.
A |>l*t* of crystallized carbonate of iron, when properly suspended, will wrench itself
•ptMBiiiicalljr from one position into the other, nnd find rest nowhere. The simple
L * winch governs all these actions is, that if the body, cut as above, be diatnag-
r-' T, its length sets equatorial between the points, but above and below them axial.
1 "l‘l- b 'dv be magnetic, it sets axial between the points, above and below equatorial.
'I' ihe rotation of a magnetic body, on being removed from between the points,
» tl*4rs ftom axial to equatorial ; while the corresponding rotation of a diamagnetic
'• -i » always from equatorial to axial. The deportment of wood in the magnetic
next described. Nearly sixty specimens examined by Prof. Tyndall were all
; all of them were repelled by the poles of the magnet ; cubes of each,
suspended with the woody fibre horizontal, set, between the excited poles, with
'.b;t [nrpendicular to the line which unites the poles. Thinking that wood, on
- 'imtof ns structure, would exhibit those directive phenomena which had beende-
ii nteu in the case of the bodies mentioned at the commencement, bars were
1 I. mm nearly forty kinds of wood, the fibre being at right angles to the length
i . ar ’ 10 the centre of the space, between two flat poles, all those bars set their
f* r i\ » v'n *° P°*e.‘ Prof. Tyndall afterwards observed the remarkable

' hirtih h°mre0U3 ^magnetic bodies did the same. Bars of sulphur, of 6alt
-f t'l °rn’ 0 ^ x* other diamagnetic substances, when suspended in the cen¬
ts ^ia_H_naPace1 between two flat poles, set their lengths from pole to pole. Now,
k'vexMt* ~°“lea always take up the position of weakest force, it was proved by
iw.-.L ira.ents> “nd corroborated bv others not cited here, that the line mining

filial of which ° lo,00 m'*e9 *n length, and showed an enlarged diagram, the
f‘ t“of ferroevan^38 fWtl electric currents themselves decomposing solu-

w^satumioH^ >pl 0 P°tassium and nitrate of ammonia, with which the paper

2

18

REPORT — 1854.

battery hjwe been found sufficient to work from Manchester to London. He added,
• ' advantages over the needle systems are, — it requires only one wire, gives t
p n e record of all communication, requires but one-fourth the power to actuate
i and is not interrupted by a comparatively defective insulation. It gains these
vantages ; 1st. By discharging the line-wire between every movt of the by.
n . Gravity aiding electricity in making the relay contact, thns using the »un
instead of the diflerencc of the forces. 3rd. The sliding action of the relay fontiri,
y rubbing oft the thin film of air, gives sure und instant contact with a very mull
amount of battery power, 4 th. It will work through a very considerable amount "I
ea age from one wire to the other, because there is a current always flowni
_ nrougb the wire, rendering this apparatus peculiarly adapted for wires suspend
in tne air and which leak from one to the other in damp weather, the surfaces"
tne intended insulators becoming coated with moisture.1'

Alter dismissing the mechanical difficulties of laving a cable between Knglwd and
America, he stated, " I have come to the following conclusions 1st. Ifawirecw d
e suspended in an unbounded non-conductor or atmosphere with uo conductmj
o°dy near it, the transmission of an electric current through it would be insrantA-
neous no matter what the length of wire. 2nd. The approach of any conducM.f
body to this wire would (by induction) reduce the speed of the transmission *
snown m the 1500-mile experiment. 3rd. In the case of a wire coated with a non¬
conducting substance (such as gutta pcrcha), the induction decreases in the Mat
proportion as the thickness of the coating is increased. 4th. The conducting I»‘ff
fare '' lre 1S 1D proportiou to its Bubstiuice, the induction in proportion to it* *«'■

calcu,ated the dimensions of a cable 3000 miles in length, which woj|
diameTr lWeS'-flV£: Words P" minute. " A copper wire one-sixth of an ;
found p,nnoi°M W'!h 8utta pereha to the depth of nearly halt an inch, * ■
3000 milps- t iy aiCf °[my apparatus of transmitting twenty-five words per
of an inrli in a- WOIt tl0 n,'dinarv telegraphs the copper wire must, lie thre -

b°th by"

Notice of some Experimental Ecsearches into the Application of
Mattery to the Ignition of Gunpowder. By Capt. Ward, M.L-

ForSationIdrhaVing bccn rel«Mt«d by Sir John Burgayne,

batter v for m’ilibin^ °Ut SonD,f e*Peritnents for determining the best rn ^

Ohm 'WlwS 5 pU,rP° -ea' h« nia(le himself fully acquainted vvith h a"

JEtoPSSi 0t,hcrs' and> verifying many of their

parison of ^ le bases for his own inquiries. After a m ■ ,, be'

zinc and platinum battleri1®8» he adopted a Grove s battery, the so1^ f'Sheffo*1
ascertained that .iT1 the.l,f*u,d n«tric acid and dilute sulphuric and. ' j“
aa regards work fni®’ °nlj' 2 incht‘» ^uare, were, perhaps, the most » pf ,
pairsf which xviih .' C09t‘ Thes" Granges in small elementary batten
wide, and 4 inches d? conta,,"°B box. occupy a space of only 7 ,*J^£?tteri5f »P*b
of ignitire- tnm * d/lP' so that eight or nine of these elementary for md ?*r

rurpo ' *£SSZ' t" ,hf *'<*** ■“*-■*» «wr ?>«* rcffdbv ” 1
carrying out ld,,l.franBed ai * «P«* of V 2" by 1' 4 or

form Of batten- Und e*P©«ally in determining the rcI®! weCOnduf!lf

wires ia S; ‘ Pf^y modification of the battery or of rf :

needle of tho ordinary0 Ca, or,hc vtlcct« Capt. Ward found that tb d ^ fot tfr
estimation of different g!l|vunoraetcre was so great as to render i currcnli; *n

he therefore constructed* JV** dectrorae,nc force in ?uch, .PJ^e i< en»W|dt01£
terposeone, two, or mml °‘y aitnP,c instrument, by which & “ aBd. »*•

this instrument, in ai3!lLP,ccw. of th,n platinum wire in the ci . Vteraune -t

relative force ofanv hart<!!.»tl0n w,r*1 *5rof- Wheatstone’s rheostat,

the calorific effect Lhibited’rJtf !‘uell,aV,ie resistance of the P.!‘lt,nU^ese '
d on the fusion of the platinum wire.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

19

ire now preparing for publication in the Professional Papers of the Corps of En-
cmrcra, and are, in fact, going through the press; but Lieut. -Col. Portlock thought
' desirable to make known to the Section these first labours of a most talented young
officer, who has been already appointed to the responsible post of Master of the
Australian Mint. He was first recommended by Major-Gen. Lewis as a person
highly fitted to conduct the electrical experiments, and commenced them under Ins
erection at Portsmouth; but he soon passed far beyond the simple experiments
'nen projected, and has rendered his resear ches not only valuable as a scientific work,
ut important as an example of assiduous study and careful experiment to his brother
officers.

Astronomy.

AW Observations on Solar Spots and Fatcidce, and their true Causes.

Ihj M. Chacornac, ( Communicated hy the Abbe Moigno.)

M- -hacornac considers the solid body of the suu to be surrounded with a

• Jii.nous envelope extending to a short distance, as well as by nu atmosphere which

* 'Otn parts, or those next to the luminous envelope and body of the sun, is very
! detached clouds or other bodies floating in this atmosphere when they are
- 'i enough to float outside and bevond the luminous envelope, constitute spots, and

shown to be capable of exhibiting all their usual phenomena ; while those
"c are dense enough to descend into the luminous atmosphere constituted uecuIec ;
Jse 0Wer •till were hidden from view by the brilliancy of the luminous envelope.

On Metenrolites and Asteroids. By Mr. Greg.
trrmight forward some circumstances in connexion with those bodies, not
AfhJJ ' JQtawUn favour of the theory that they are identical in nature and origin.

Mr f - 80raL" argurncnts against the theory of the atmospheric origin of aerolites,

"•urirf nr0(.p„.i„, . . _ .... , - 1 .... . i „k»ainp,I m ana-

n hll,. ; September, 17 ; Uctober, 14; «ovemwwi‘»> ~~~
unportant thbf 89 * S‘v'n8 Rn average of 16*0 for each month. The mo

thoember ^ 0 n°^lce is the small number of aerolites registered for the moot _
krc.tr twt. .n a.n,lary' anfl the comparatively large number for June and July ,

!>ut 19 'Stances of falls, the latter two 37, or almost double.
li*vintr Ik'f !7eso Rorolites, or meteorolites, belong to the system of the Aste-
ct*taialv jL2?tv?Wrtf0» wbose mean distance is superior to the earth s orbit, it
' ' her »3!5nab ? fc0 co°clude thut it is when the earth i» furthest from the sun,
' f| *1 would reuM lbat tlu' meeting with aerolites is rendered most probable. This is
' ' 1 lju'imuv ..n t0 l'e tiie case, for the earth is at her greatest distance from

" Months shnn „ ? s'd(!8 of the summer solstice, t. e. in June and July, precis y
: * >Q1 E"*mber e moat abundant in aerolites. Mr. Greg then referred to a
':v-. M , vLorilptos Rend us,’ in which there is a paper by Le Veirier on th
‘f " r-t»ry‘i)iamff Ve*'"e1r shows by calculation that the sum of the mass of the
^ also Eft ? C,allud steroids cannot exceed one-fourth of the earth s mass
.^".oeatly J,K*ble llmt their mean mass or system is at its perihelion, and
- " thaearth, at the time when the earth herself is on the side of

* i tits would appear again confirmatory of the theory'

b -- would appear to be also

1 1 are the . wuum appear again confirm,

7/fti ““Wfcr* or the asteroids. There .. - . . , ..

*- Uteroidg hav°^^ ol ano,her kind. It has been supposed that some ofui^

, Dl,ljoritv of (7° lrreSu'ar and angular surfaces, which is precisely the case wi
specific J?*s2rete?ric 8fa»e* which fall to die earth. Again, taking the
•^idonce °f ReroUtes at 3-0 (they vary from 17 to S'9), further in-

Rfforded as to their position wi'th regard to distance from the sun,

2*

20

REPORT — 1854.

and, taking water as I ’0, the following table shows the relative densities of ittml
of the planetary bodies, following the order of their distances from the sun : .M
cury, 15*7 ; Venus, 5‘9 ; Earth, 5*6 ; Mars, 5'2; Aerolites, 3*0; Asteroids
Jupiter, 1*4. Another circumstance relating to aerolites which was alluded to bt
Mr. Greg, was the periodicity of those bodies, and he mentioned more particularly i:
19th of May, 29th of November, 13th of December, 15th to 19th of February, i&i
26th of July, as being aeroliUc epochs, aerolite falls having been recorded on the f«*
lowing days February 3. 10, 10,13, 15, 15, 15, 18, 18, 18,19, 19,25, 27,2: ; M-
9. 10, 17, 17.17.18, 19, 19. 20, 22, 26,26,27,28; July 3, 3, 4.7, 8, 12,14, !M*.
22, 24, 24, 26, 26, 26, 30 ; November 5, 7. 11, 13, 17, 20, 23, 25,27, *9, ».«?•«
30, 30; December 1 1, 13, 13, 13, 13, 13, 11, 25, 28. In referring, however, u<
epochs most remarkable for the periodical displays of luminous meteors, a* 5
ber and August 9lh to 14th days, Mr. Greg observed that the number of a <
recorded as fulling on those davs is remarkably small, indeed under the
the year, for onto!’ 1G5 falls (tlin day as well as month of fall being known ‘
four have fallen between the 9th and Nth dap of August and Novonher. ••
aerolitic and (luminous) meteoric epochs also would appear to differ,*1 ■
ception of the 29th of November. From this circumstance it scans j,rolf
aerolites, and the majority of luminous meteors (especially periodic and con io
ones), are resolvable into separate classes ; and in corroboration of *|||S 1 ,■

mentioned, that, while the number of aerolites whose falls have been rcco
about equally divided fur the first; as for the second half of the year. th» '» ' ■
from being the case with luminous meteors, by far the larger numbers o ^
observed during the second half of the year, viz. from July to Decemner.
then, wc consider aerolites as belonging to asteroids, with orbits 5 w ■
earth s, and partaking of the nature of true though minute planet?, ,

luminous meteors may be considered as having characters more in (
comets. It has been shown by several astronomers, as Olmsted, 1 16 . ’ rth\ i
others, that the majority of periodic meteors have orbits inferior kjnct
then- perihelia near the planet Mercury. Mr, Greg concluded, after n ;,
observations in favour of the self-luminosity of meteors, by lU:

of their having a nature less dense than that of aerolites, but denser
comets, and that it ia not improbable they have a fluid or viscid nature.

On the Variation in the Rates of Chronometers.

By Joiiv Hartnup, R.R.A.S., Liverpool.

At the meeting Of the British Association in this town in e t],e 1 ■*;

that body, on the subject of a nautical observatory, was re* _ Memoii*1^
Council, and referred to u special Committee. It in stated brought '*
among the various objects of interesting inquiry which have 1 fflincrci»i 1
the British Association at their visit tu this large and enterprising the*.'. '
is e condition of nautical astronomy in the merchant service - ^ 0(|it'<
cation of which is decidedly the most important to mankind. ,js gCjCBCt
property which iB annually caused by a defective knowledge 0r erectinS *
astonish, were it publicly known." After urging the importance or ^ *1
ticaJ observatory, the objects of such an establishment in a !wr f jirflnoniftrr\'
be the accurate knowledge of Liverpool time, and the care ^ sUic
n port, so that a captain when he sails may receive his chron , k;

their error and rate, which at present he cannot do. In this the i* ^ -

of ‘hsparagmg the chronometer-makers of Liverpool. ^inin*

* J ,‘|I* Lou<1°»'the times obtained from celebrated makers have "

nndnrS W,° mm“tes might have caused a wreck." I have f**

avi^Hnnh ‘r lhat h°1,eB 'vcre entertained of an irnp^'^Uing- ^;. ,
having recourse to more accurate means of rating an b &

Messrs™ crnpl0.ycd in merchant service. In “cC“

the memorial the corporation established ahrst-raR »

ofihrnnnmSr' ^ "0W operation, so far as regards^ * l

of chronometers, for nearly ten years; and the very active ^

Association in the recommendation of its establishments at its fir

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

21

loads rae to hope that an equal degree of interest will betaken at this, its second visit,
m the results of our labours. As regards the purely scientific department, the obser-
vations have for the most part been printed, and the liberality of the corporation in
applying the observatory with the magnificent instruments with which these obser-
vaiims were made, will, I doubt not, be highly appreciated by the distinguished
v ibiin now in this town. There is, however, one department of the observatory to
*hich public attention has not been directed so fully us, I think, its importance de-
mtvi'4 — I allude to the rating and testing of chronometers 5 this being, moreover,
the main object for which the observatory was established. In the Memorial from
“‘■idi I have quoted, it is stated that a captain could not at that time obtain the cor¬
net error and rate of his chronometer, in consequence of the time not being accurately
niuwii. Since the establishment of the observator y, this deficiency has been removed ;
t ic arrangements for obtaining nnd carrying on’ the time ore su complete that no
"Hailde error can possibly arise in that way. Having accomplished this object, our
|,Unru>n has been directed to further improvements; and the exquisite arrangements
' ncli we possess for testing time-keepers, have led us to the discovery of a source
1 ' trgr» which chronometers employed in the merchant service are subject, the
",-|r^ince of attending to which 1 will endeavour to explain. To enable the mariner
I 1,1 . . 'nn?itude at sea by the chronometer, he is furnished with its daily gain or
' . ich is called its rate. The practice almost universally adopted has been to
; granted that this rate is uniform during the voyage. Chronometers are sup-
Midv i°, coraPensated for the changes of temperature to which they must ncces-
* JL’ lxll0s’Pd at sea in different latitudes, and captains are instructed to use the
Plovrd in ilf 8 cl‘raates- Now, we are prepared to show that, for chronometers era-
Pvrsturo t e ®erchant service, the average change of rate caused by changing the tern-
r,,!„ />Dl to b’b° Fabr. is seven secon-ls a day. Hence, if we ascertain the
Ceratu . f 0met<'r on 8^orc w«th the most scrupulous degree of accuracy, in a
brnupms . aru' ’hi* chronometer be aftei wards taken to sea and exposed to
' ''itawi'chT1 000 tni tlie ghort Period of eighteen days, the nccumulated.error on
nunm,.. n,.jlnic' according to the above-named average, will be upwards of two
mi-; in r’ 0X1 eiror of two minutes it is stated in the Memorial before referred to

modi ;n n;n-a .W|?c . This variation of rate, from change of temperature, differs so
Hunt in J! time-keepers, that without a trial no idea can be formed of its
comr„|..d fay particular chronometer. In order to show this more clearly, we have
Bhaueuof woMaofthe observatory, three tables; each table shows the

I -fftturo to ru eaL’h oi one hundred chronometers, caused by changing the tern-
( t , cxtc«t named in the respective headings. Notwithstanding the great
tiad that . 0Wn )y tbt‘ tables to have been produced by change of temperature),

' orii;inhi nilietcen cases out of twenty the original rales return the instant that
twenty* it j ' f,''m|]e!'uturp is ^stored. On' an average of about One chronometer m
chance nr that the rate changes iu the most capricious manner with almost
? 1 r'Xt. s of Eiirl»ei?perature * nntl an examination of our records will show that the
y placed on ..acllroaometetB are equally uncertain,— no dependence whatever can
■£ tho taki ”’i 'm perfect time-keepers have necessarily been rejected in

n. 1 " > were ,U ln olliei' respects the chronometers were taken ill succession
■ 'fcfiinnSJivi®! lhc observatory. They arc arranged in the order of change
Just tlif. tbe chronometer which gained the most, and ending with that
ingiog the inn,08 ' *n 'lul>le I » the average change in the daily rate caused by
U'Qomcter fro111 4<)° to tiO° is r,"'ij7 j taking the two extremes, one

i?,P*nthiiX.or1],JiUl aJr«l Rained 15" 3, and one lost 72"*2 a day, by changing the
1 1 gaining. »i„ ' ,10 average change of rule of the first ten in the hundred is

^ V* in th„ averagc or the second ten is 0”'3 losing; aud the average of the
-?i ** Dint. „ •* 18 29"*8 losing. There are fifteen chronometers in which the

'• more than v ,.u 8 losiuK- There are fifteen chronometers m ™

. ,rc dian b" and 1 u,n<^ *US9 than 5" a day, and there are six in winch the loss is

'jr three clirnnC8S l, <J" a day » so thn't ia quite |>oasiblo for a captain to have
. '/,'aa’lt[1j8 loni,it<!,rr}etei?’,a^ °** which might place the ship in nearly the same longi-
I .n"ur* in tWo ‘!R misbt, notwithstanding, by the accumulated errors of the chro-
1 r* Tables 1 1 rG? he wrong to an amount sufficient to place the ship m

hire fron| q , • a»d III. show the change of rate caused by changing the tem-
10 80 and from 50° to 80° respectively ; the variations, it will be

22

REPORT — 1854.

seen, were much greater in the low than in the high temperatures. It appear!, u
before stated, that about 5 per cent, of the chronometers which have passed through
the observatory are altogether unfit to be used for nautical purposes. With the menu
which we possess fortesting, there is no difficulty in detecting such chronometers in
a trial of two or three weeks. With regard to the remaining 95 per cent,, it appears
that very great dependence may be placed on them if we take into consideration th
change of rate due to change of temperature. Unfortunately, we have no record n
the temperature to which the chronometers that have passed through the obwmton
have been exposed during the voyage j but we find that the average of the
of chronometers employed in the North American trade agrees with the rate* of tic
same chronometers on shore in a temperature of about 60°, and that the average of tU
sea rates of chronometers which have been exposed to a tropical cliraute daring ereii
part of the voyage, agrees with the rates of the same chronometers on »hore ;r i
temperature of about 80°. The regularity with which we find this to take pi** "
such as to leave no doubt as to the advantage which an intelligent navigator wom
derive by correcting the rate of an imperfectly compensated chronometer for chur
of temperature when the voyage is long and the climate changeable. Ui'-Jj-'
however, have never been instructed to do this ; such a method of proceeding -
no part of their education; and even in the examination which all ore now coinpt
to undergo before they take the commaud of a ship, their attention!* not even o’1
to the possibility of the rates of chronometers being affected by change of
llie rates, as before stated, arc assumed to be uniform in nil climate*. Tk 1
owners of the 300 chronometers, the variable rates of which arc shown in t e
were made acquainted with this imperfection for the first time when they*™
chronometers to the Liverpool Observatory. I am not aware of the ellsttnJ* .
other establishment in the world in which captains of merchant *hip* canob
information relative to the variation of the rates of their chronometer* 10 *
emperatures. Attention appears to have been exclusively directed to 1
vnrEmiCc m.eans of det0Cm ' 11 the rate. Now, our records show that it* ^

j q„°p !'a,c canted by chnnging the temperature bo small a <1 ..

Jf F«hrenheit, is very mSeh greater than the probable error a *

' ® r.om a,iy imperfection in our astronomical means of determinmg ■ ^

JET- tbef mte t0 affected by no other cause, the variation arising J
llarr 18 s,) 8rCat> that unless we take it. into account, the
thf* bffr aUCi s,ea'rafL' mu8t be the result of mere accidental coincidence. Qndpn ^
Ihl Z f t0 bf thc Professional raters make themselves acq ” ,

Sra?? °f thc V8rious chronometers which pass through their htt**, j:
Bea ratl ia Sh°re‘ T™ to them * The «««» of this variation between ^
of vnrinV8 8tDera .7 ftUPl)08ed not. to be known. The duty of Ending o ,j;y
and discussing the sea- and shore-rate* »«“£***.
of temnpr * ratCr' and caPtaiu8 are kept in ignorance of its existence , ^ Lb

ra£Tri mTM anr ti,uc be caS ofthe chronometer dWJJJ ct,:
there cannor irpt?’D; barters do occasionally

captains Ti? * d,°ubt ; and lfc » quite certain that they might be amide - rf ^
chronometers8 U1T C ac,ll,aint:£'d with the variation of rate pecatuu- *2* c**!**
Ration Wift,’r°r Jy “a*fra removing the fault by effecting a wore P® obfe:at^
provided wirh tfpect to tbc former method, our records show that he«rb'- :
O f ™te Z t hi necewary aPParatus, it is quite practicable to •***»£+» ;
makinirfh 0 change of temperature, and to supply captains wi 1

■bM bin VVi,1‘ "*«nl to to. latter, the Miration ofebtof™'1 b,„ bt '

patented ? tbe sul)j<?ct fur tuanv years; numerous me^°dbv thf P-S

lished rates of H^i t0 effcct a more Perfect ‘compensation, and.^e.nnuailFfo,l:-
tliat three fourtl, cbroaometer8» which arc now sent to Greenwich rrr

are ^ have some improvement a*** ^

tables which I now ‘ . , neetl only to appeal to the res tbo5e c^' .
Acting the compLSn aZo«'S Jiy W t^ouwTcT T& t***' ‘

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

23

by makers of applying their improvements to chronometers intended for the navy,
U,1 not applying them to those intended for the merchant service, lias doubtless
wucn from the knowledge, that in the former they would be tested at the Greenwich
Observatory previous to their being purchased ; while in the latter, captains and those
Aouttn purchase chronometers have, till lately, had no means of testing them, or
miking themselves acquainted with the advantage of any improvement in the com-
pnuation ; and now that this great boon is offered them in Liverpool, through the
I totality of the corporation, the advantage to be derived from it is so little u“de*'_

• ■‘-<1 that but comparatively few avail themselves of it. If some method could be
«n *«l of disseminating knowledge on this subject amongst captains, shipowners,
iinl underwriters — all of whom arc deeply interested iu a quick and spcuio passage
-”i«ly some means would be taken for testing all chronometers in those tempe-
hdu** to which ships are liable to be exposed at sea previous to their being placed
'• die hands of captains. By so doing, navigation would be greatly facilitated and
tendered much more secure ; and the beat method of accomplishing this object is,
1 think, a subject well-worthy of the consideration of the British Association ; for it

* il be fouud that we are in possession of most undoubted evidence that the rates of
tamnometers now employed in the merchant service are so much affected by change
” lf,»perature as to render them very unsafe, and even dangerous instruments, in

_ of captains who are unacquainted with the facts which I have so im-
developed in this brief notice. We therefore entertain the hope that more
llf U(nt and systematic efforts will speedily be made to diffuse the requisite mforma-
m amongst ail those who are personally or otherwise interested in these important
1 . *• which I have now presumed to bring under the uotice of the British As-
“oalion.

Table I.

Showing the change in the daily rate of each of 100 Chronometers, caused by
changing the temperature from 60 to 40 degrees.

Refer¬
ence No.

Increase of

gaining-rate

ny changing
the tempera,
turc from 60
o 40 degrees.

Refer¬
ence No.

Increase of
gaining-rate
by changing
the tempera¬
ture from Go
bo 40 degrees.

Refer¬
ence No.

Increase of
gaining-ratc
by changing
the tempera¬
ture from Gu
to 40 degrees.

Refer¬
ence No.

Increase of
enining-rate
by changing
the tempera¬
ture from GO

U, 40 degrees.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20
21

22

23

24

25

+15-3

13-1

8*1

7-9

7-8
• 5-4

4.4

3-8

3-2

1-9

1-0

0-6

0-3

+ 0-1
- 0-8

10

H

1-2

1-4

1*5

1-6

1-7

1-9

1-9
- 1‘9

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39
! 40

41

42

43

44

45

I 46

47
! 48
| 49

50

•

-1-9

20

2-2

2-3

2-3

2-3

2-4

2-4

2-9

2-9

2- 9

3- 0

30

31

31

3*1

3-2

3-2

3-3

3-3

3-3

3*4

3-5

3-7

-3-7

51

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

GO

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

s

-3-7

3- 8

4- 0

4*1

4'2

4-3

4-3

4-3

4*5

4-5

4-5

4*6

4-6

4-8

4-8

4-9

4- 9

5- 0

5-1

5*3

5-3

5-8

6*0

6*1

-6*1

7G

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99
100

- 6*2

6- 3

C-5

6-8

7- 0

7- 3

8*1

8*2

8*5

8'6

8- 7

8-8

90

9'0

9’1

9- 6

10-8

111

12-0

21- 5

22- 7
28-1
45-2
651

-72-2

Average change of daily rate 6*97 seconds.

24

REPORT— 1854,

Table II.— Showing the change in the daily rate of each of 100 Chronometers,

Refer¬
ence No

Increase of
gaimiig-rnte
by changing
the tempera¬
ture from 60
to 80 degrees.

Refer¬
ence No

Increase of

1 puning-iute
by changing
the tempera¬
ture from On
to 80 degrees

Refer¬
ence No

Iucrcosc of
gaining-rnte
by changing
the tempera¬
ture from 60
to 80 degrees

i Refer¬
ence No

Increase of
pining- rale
by changing
the tempera¬
ture from ft)
to 60 degrees

1

s

+ 131

26

8

— 1*2

1 51

8

— 1*9

76

- 30

71

27

1-2

52

21

77

3-0

G'2

28

1-2

53

21

78

3-0

5*5

29

1*3

1 54

21

79

3-2

5

4-8

30

1-3

| 55

21

80

3-3

4-1

31

1-3

1 56

22

81

3-3

7

38

32

1-3

! 57

2-2

82

3-3

3-8

33

1*4

58

2-3

83

3-5

9

3-5

34

1*5

59

2-3

84

3-6

3-4 |

35

1*5

60

2-3

85

3-6

31 !

36

1*6

61

2*3

86

3-7

31 l

37

1*6

62

2-3

87

3-7

26

38

1*6

63

2-4

88

3-7

2-4

39

1*6

61

2-5

89

3-8

15

2-0 1

40

1*6

65

2-6

90

3-8

1-9 1

41

1*7

66

2-6

91

3-9

1-5 |

42

1*7

67

2-6

92

4-0

1’3 |!

43

1*8

68

2-6

93

41 1

1*3

44

1 8

69

2-7

94

4-1

+ H

45

1*8

70

2-7

95

4-2

— 0'G |'

46

1*9

71

2-8

96

4-6

0-7 ||

47

1*9

72

28

97

4-7

•18

1*9

73

2-9

98

5-3

49

19

74

2-9

99

5-5

11 II

50

-1*9

75

-3*0

100

-120 J

. .. - in the daily rate of each of 100 Chronometer

-SH!gg_py changing the temperature from 60 to 80 degrees.

Refer¬
ence No

Increase of
gaining-rnlc
by changing
the tempera",
tore from so
to 80 degrees

| Refer¬

ence No

Increase of
gaining-rato
by changing
the tempera¬
ture from So
to 80 degrees

Refer¬
ence No

Increase of
gaining-rnte
by changing
tho tempera¬
ture from 50
to 80 degrees

Refer¬
ence No

1

2

+14*2

26

+2-4

51

1

-f 0-3

76

3

27

23

52

0-2

77

4

5*8

28

2-2

53

401

78

5

21

54

00

79

6

2-0

55

-0-1

80

7

20

56

0-2

81

8

20

57

0-3

82

9

33

19

53

04

83

10

1*9

59

0-4

84

11

1-8

60

05

85

12

36

1*6

61

06

86

13

3-3

1*6

62

0-6

87

14

15

3-3

3*3

39

1*5

1*5

63

G4

0-7

0-8

88

89

16

3-2

1*5

63

0-8

90

17

3-0

1*5

66

10

91

18

30

1*2

07

1*3

92

19

20

29

2-7

41

10

0-8

68

69

1*4

1*5

93

94

21

2-6

0-8

70

1*6

95

22

2-5

0-7

71

1*7

96

23

2-4

0-5

72

1-9

97

24

2-4

0*5

73

20

98

25

+ 2-4

50 |

0-5

+0-4

74

75

20

-2-0 !

99

100

Increase of
gnining-ratc
by changing
the tempera¬
ture from 50
to 80 degrees

-2-0

20

2-1

21

21

2-1

2-3

2-6

27

2- 7
2-8
2-8
2-8

29

30

31
33
35

3- 6
3-6

3- 8

4- 3

4- 7

5- 5
-8-5

>1

transactions of the sections.

25

Notes on the British Association Catalogue of Stars.

By W. S. Jacob, Director of the Madras Observatory.

The catalogue of 8377 stars published by the Association in 1845, though com¬
piled from the best data available at the time, is, as regards the places of many
touihern stars, erroneous, owing to the imperfect nalut e of the data, especially those
depending on Lacaille and Brisbane.

A thorough revision of the catalogue was therefore commenced at Madras in 1849,
end completed in 1853, by observing, in most cases, at least three times with both
'•aiuit ami mural circle, every number to which any doubt attached between the
N. I'. D. 40° and 156°, and in a few cases a little beyond these limits.

The subsidiary catalogue thus formed has been printed in tbe last volume of
Madras Observations,' which should etc now have been on its way to the India
fienw.

Hie general results of the revision may be briefly stated as follows -I nail, 1503
timbers were examined; of these the undermentioned 55 were missing, viz.: —

186
278
434
534

60 1 dup. of 596?

642
931
935
969
2018
2686
3233

3328 dup. of 3323 ?

340]

3454
3461
3482
3535
3586

Twelve &73«

uumbers marked as Nebulee were examined, viz. : —

_ -n

3707 dup. of 3706 ?

4399

4569

4983

5025

5162

5241 dup. of 5247 ?
5349 dup. of 5350?
5415
5482
5491
5524
5662
5665
5672
5685
5707
5725
5738

5741

5770 dup. of 5772?

5816 dup. of 5815?

5849

5923

5928

6542

6725

6770

6775

6898

6917

7203 dup. of 7210?
7214 dup. of 7225?
7467 dup. of 7466?
7576 dup. of 7575 ?
8042

2511

3692

5300

2766

3914

5470

3247

4485

6201

3547

5040

7457

- WcuouMo 1° ^hwtera of small stars, 5 of which contained a star sufficiently
fining 7 Wpr Ratified, and were therefore included in the catalogue; but e
^ Pl«c!/0f u lnec08sily omitted. J , ,.ff

?ln the 11. A°Vw? nun,bc,'s were recorded; 71 of which were found to differ
' 1 th(; differs! gUe )y more lhan 2’ of It- A., or 10" of P. L>.,and 29 more in
gross SJL 7“ betvvcon l' and 2'. Of these 17 are accounted for as

■ above S lltt-IC8’ 6uch as lm &c. of R.A., or 10' &c. of P. D-

■ K i3 in gencraU ^10!’8' the agreement of the observed places with lb° Cala"

do8e' QUli ^ the cases of those stars which depend upon
‘e ^perm i- “ y.80‘

^>rds moat!,f?ii8ne*i in tlie Catalogue have been in some cases confirmed ;
^fitful. Z?.?f the southern stars, they have been cither negated or ren-
■^ations. “e Question must therefore stand over to be decided by future

,, 1 of 0! an(i Photographic Drawings of the Lunar Surface.

Z author Jo,,N Phillips, M.A., F.R.S.] F.G.S.

1,and hiinjgip nt?(i ^win^a of parts of tbe moon by Prof. Challis, Prof* •
' l)h°tographic representations from his own telescope, and the

26

REPORT — 1854.

achromatic of the Liverpool Observatory— and other light pictures commumca'.. 1
for the occasion by Dr. Lee and Mr. Nasmyth. He called attention in particular
to three large drawings of the Mare Crisium, after sunrise on that part of the lunu
surface, at mid-day on the same, and before sunset, executed by Frof. Smyth; and
to diagrams of Plato and the regions around it by Prof. Challis. In commenting
on the results of the labours of the Committee during the past year. Prof. Phillip*
drew attention to the methods employed by Prof. Smyth and Prof. Challis which
combined instrumental measures, eye sketches, and finished deatgna, and presented
the varied aspects of the lunar surface, depending on the angle of illumination which
had been expressly indicated by the Committee. lie remarked on the continually
growing exactness with which the telescope was applied to the delineation nf the
lunar scenery, which, to inferior instruments appearing smooth and even, rcvww
itself to more powerful scrutiny as altogether uneven, mostly rugged land, deep!
cut by chasms, and soaring into angular pinnacles. The so-called .seas, under
scrutiny, appear destitute of water, add their surface, under low angles of ibci «
light, becomes roughened with little points and minute craters, or undulated ‘
winding ridges of very small elevation, comparable to the gravel ridges o a
and Scandinavia. On the question thus and in other ways raised for discu--. ^
whether the moon, now devoid of water on the face she presents to us, con-'
traces of ancient watery movement, Prof. Phillips called attention to tkc ' J

straight rifts and winding “ Killen,” as the Germans call them, which, »
telescopes only, reveal themselves in many tracts of the lunar land. ne
Marc Nubium, is really a fault line, 45 miles long, the vertical moveraen g ^
at one end than the other — others cross several craters diametrical) ;
rugged ravines-many only a few hundred feet across. And turning to
the mountain which, in connexion with Mare TIumorum, had been a .
self for his survey, he described its long encircling wall, broken tlirougn ja

Mare Humorum, duplicate in one part, crossed by three deep narro u

another, and partly interrupted by u great, oval craterifurra lii;

broken down ordeficient on the side against the great crater of Gw*”01*
concentrating to, or diverging from, the smaller cratcriform append^-
but only with good instruments, many branching ridges and ho1 m0Un!a
are towards the small crater, and whose extremities reach to\va nntter pourri
m the middle of Gassendi. If these are branching tracts ol V0,caI‘ , ' t0 »)|u'^
°ut from the smaller crater, their slope will be from it ; if , i.ap5 cao -

action, their slope will be towards it; and this is a test wWc P ^cbfil

accurately applied in this situation, by carefully delineating the s
in morning and evening from the lofty walls of the crater. ^54, 8nd !'

In speaking of the progress made by himself since the light-p'!rui7*

t^e.i^'0rnmit:tee an<^ Liverpool Photographic Society in obta 6 ieration ol
of the moon, lie remarked as of good augury, in his own case, the 31"

process, so that 30" were now more than sufficient for a 2-mc P . :verpool
were employed in 1853 on a picture only H inch across- The JbeW
graphers had novr obtained many good pictures, and had been s
ments by daylight. ’ * ' . Ohotogr*pb? J

Attention was further called to the augmented blackness in r brigbtnr^

certain shadows of the moon, and the fidelity with which the _ cjrcuni5tBDC,'.!i

the mountains and radiating light spaces were rendered in JJf®, fleCtingP01,tr *
unportance, as likely to lead hereafter to some good idea of the
° *ler peculiarities of the lunar surface.

Hesearchcs in Meteoric Astronomy- _ v

By Daniel Vaughan, Cincinnati, Onut. 0 inion tb';.
Astronomical observations have lately furnished grounds i°r there'll-
planets do not revolve in an absolute vucuum, and that they can > brj0gs u> _
ln the‘r l'rescnt condition. Every return of EncTkf,£inwhat more
£!£!»£* rare medium disseminated through space ; but I thi orbits0^
indications of this subtle fluid may be derived from its effects on th IotrJ^
meteors which are now recognized as members of the s°lar s£^ostaina^
any fluid with tho same rapidity, spheres of different magnitude

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

2 7

tion of velocity inversely proportional to their densities and their diameters ; and the
orbits which they might describe around the sun, in such circumstances, should
change in a corresponding degree. If an eight-inch iron ball moved in the path the
earth now describes, there should be a greater reduction in the magnitude of its
orbit after two years, thau the earth’s orbit could experience in one million centuries.
Very unall meteors or shooting stars are, therefore, extremely sensitive to effects of
» resitting medium j and they seem well calculated to serve as a test of the per¬
fection of the vacuum in the celestial spaces.

This delicate tost would be unavailable were it not for the translatory motion of

• ur system, and the great eccentricity of the orbits which meteors describe. When-
nrr the size or density of these bodies is so email that they are much more sensitive
in the resistance of the medium than they arc to planetary attraction, the planes of
their orbits must be gradually brought into u coincidence with the track which the
mu describes through space. The transverse axes of their orbits will nlso tend to
*»'uhh' a determinate position. If their velocity be impeded by the medium while
tW nnproaeli tire sun, the lines of apsides will advance in the direction of their
wbital motions ; but this apsidal change will be reversed by any similar impediment
Much they may receive while retiring from the central luminary. These opposite
nt«ti neutralize one another when the transverse axes of the meteoric orbits are per¬
pendicular to the line of the sun’s translatory motion. By this arrangement also

• C u , “Ce "f the medium in diminishing gravity on one side of transverse axes
| "uld become just adequate to counterbalance the effects arising from its augraen-
thl'nd' > P*Titt ou opposite side. The orbits of the smallest meteors must,

Mworc, have their transverse u\es, in most cases, located near a plane perpendi-
>uhT i .j sun'3 *rack- In their perihelia these bodies must necessarily move,

. s“fK‘ direction as the sun, or take an opposite course. In the former
iadiff or“lta should continually diminish in eccentricity, and finally become
^bin S t lhe wmtro1 l^e Medium on their position : in the latter case, their
, coine n‘°te eccentric, and have their transverse axes confined to a
'““‘led range.

«ribcY\lT'|Ce °f planotary attraction ou orbits of this character is much circum-

• |jn’ , j can °aly change the position of their planes by turning them about
‘Iwubl ..u- e. ®0‘ar rn°tion. If the planets all moved in the ecliptic, their action
lil'psia whirb 16 ► nn® ia!-° this plauG the transverse axes of most of the
ul, Im mp m(jteorfl describe j and this change would be permanent, not periodi-
t vjjt jjQ- D8e 8'varTn8i°f these small bodies should, therefore, be congregated into
ecliptic abouf cm” r ® *n the direction of the sun’s motion, and intersecting the

mav nccoi nTfv . in space to which he is advancing. In this manner
<*n the' loth of a if * 1e or'B!n of the meteoric zone, through which the earth passes
•iTangement i# fUSU8t‘ Is evident that the action of the planets in causing this
wb«ti h i„ retroar "10re effective when the motion of the meteors is direct than
r‘ 'narknble unne ®rat e ’ and> for this and another reason previously noticed, no
^ipti, p auce °f shooting stars could be expected in the opposite part of

'-Tibfr, ftceuY to ®tara which sometimes occur on the 12th and 13th of

' one ins* iinti-lfi Cftj° * 1c c*istpn™ of another meteoric zone perpendicular
**^1 influence of etJ>, an,‘ ,CJ the ecliptic; and its origin may be ascribed to the
in vvliicii la nets m deflecting meteors occupying this region from the
'August, secnis hi „^*lc 7-OUG which the earth crosses on the 8th and 10th

IL’ the earth nu..°n ft{n ^ar ^lc larScr collection of these small and light bodies ;
'hfil U1 passes thrnmvl. 4-1,.. ...... a .... i • • . • , • ’

— «, belii-vp tl.o *1 ‘ meteors encircling tne sun. l here is also

Potion of t**10 lullumeral,le host of meteors in this zone reflect a
»u? ' l°t 1 can reeard ,t’riIar ray». and thus cause the phenomenon of the Zodiacal
.Wee. l u... . *B*rd these bodies ns eternally self-luminous while wandering in

place that the light which they emit on visiting

»Wn

Bote’S from the ElacH U‘at the >‘ght which they emit on visiting

u°d that ^hr.toPrCS3UIC- ,mpart to t,U! ,uci,proiJb atmosphere
^‘^cUouca!^ atmosphere by the sun's

28

REPORT— 1854.

Tides.

On Mr. Superintendent Baches Tide Observations.

By the Rev. William Wiiewell, D.D., F.R.S.

In the earlier port of my researches of the tides, of which an account lias been
given to the British Association on various occasions, I had to speak principally c«f
the accessions made to our knowledge of that subject ; but in recent years I have
more than once made remarks before this Section on our ignorance of the same subject,
— meaning by that, that there is much knowledge which we naturally wish fur, and
which is within our reach ; but which we have not obtained and arc not obtninin.'.
The views which I have there given are further illustrated by the results of the tide
observations made by the American Coaet Survey under Superintendent Ilachc. One
of the prominent points of our ignorance is, the nature of the movement of the water
which produces the oceanic tides. Whrn the progress of the tides on different con'!*
was represented by cotidul lines, it was found these lines mude a very acute angle with
the coasts which they met, and that the cotidal lines crossing the ocean were very
convex. Hie great series of tide observations made on the coast of Europe and
America in 1835 and 183(5, made this feature, the acuteness of the angle made by th*
lines with the coast, stronger still. 'Hie results of Mr. Bache's observations nukr
the cotidal lines on the coast of North America still more nearly parallel t" tl.t
coasts. From this arises a great difficulty in drawing any cotidal lines
oceans, ami indeed a doubt whether cotidal lines are proper modes of representing
oceanic tides; though, doubtless, they are the best way of combining and reprwenhnj
our observations of littoral tides. The result in, that we are led to consider whether
the oceanic tides may not be produced by a great oscillation of the ocean, the littora
tides being derived from them, ami propagated by cotidal lines like wavwalmu
canals. [ I hi* view was proposed by Capt. Fit/.Roy as well as by Dr.
several years ago.] In what, manner the ocean really moves, to produce the tides,
not likely ever to be maria mo m*>in ho n-nsirnte parties nun

, '‘7 mou UUIW UUI IV

.v iwo nuuwii me existence of the diurnal tide on the coast of California, »• 1,11
«i.; .eX,C<?i and i other l,lMcs * «md >t will lead to tide tables of the Andean
now ,? •' 60,0n « Pushed. Mr. Bachc, after encountering some difHcnltics, h
now obtained sufficient means of pursuing his survey, and is doing so with gr>
energy and success. a 3

ivlETEOROLOGY.

On the Distribution of Bain in the Temperate Zones.

By Professor Dove, Berlin,

nnJm!ifU?0r' afte,r.givine a brief account of the manner in which rains are
the nsrpn Prcvai 111 tbc Torrid Zone, and the causes which produced - t
the ascending currents at the heated equatorial region, then proceeded to po»J

ftSyyt ?(‘nor*l ami local, which ga?e rise to a differ^ *

™ r r,bUlr Qf rBin in the Temperate Zones, but showed that there ^
s milal o i.lt9 0lr milldle continents, as in Russia and America. «ben
sim1laJS^nCn°fe:i?Be‘- 8Uch prevailed in the Torrid Zone.
circumstanef T «• m ‘ '■ mentioned several places in the Ghauts m j that
SSESS? » Vh0*« noKiceil b>- Prof. Dove, could be observed. ^

«rctcfDd!^c™f,o^L™ ■" 'it™"* °r ,w,i ^

.alitiea 5f *, ST* »?£&

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

29

Continuation of Remarks on the Climate of Southampton.

By John Drew, Ph.D., F.R.A.S.

This communication was in continuation of a paper printed in full in the 'Report
of the British Association for 1851 and it likewise embraced general observations
oo subjects connected with practical meteorology. The tables, which have been
pihlisbed, contain the results of observations taken three times daily through the
jw/s 1 848, 1849, 1850. These now presented continue the series by observations
Mde once a day, viz. at- 9 a.m., for 1851, 1852, 1853. The same care has been
nun in observing, reducing, and recording, and the same instruments have been
c -d throughout, except that for the last six months ot 1853, the observations of
<>t. Cameron, R.E., recorded at the Ordnance Map Office, Southampton, have
b«n substituted, his own barometer having been out of order. The author having
k>aoil that the mean temperature derived from the 9 a.m., 3 p.m., and 9 p.m. ob-
wnationa indiscriminately, agreed fairly, after the application of corrections for
tody range with that deduced from

~ of 1 nuu-+M,)M> of min. ^ mont)lIy CurTCCtion ^ in ,hc Greenwich oWmtloiu-

tadiscontinuedthe two later daily observations for the last three years, as mean results
rrre a" dial he aimed at ; and after having tested his results by various comparisons,

, f”’® fu'ly persuaded that the mean state of the atmosphere, as regards pressure,
t'npvrature, and moUture, has now been determined for Southampton with such an
^'Proximate accuracy that for that end alone no further observations arc required. 1 he
:“b°r then proceeds to comment on each of the five tables. Table I. contains the mean
^Asurea fl)r each month of the three years,— li e maximum with the date of its
^urrvnce, the minimum with the date of its occurrence, and the monthly range
q ’’cParat(-’ columns. Table II. gives the mean temperature for each month from the
*7**’. Nervations, — the mean of the maxima, the mean of the minima, the adopted
• or calculated from both), the highest reading for the month and its date, the
i-inf' °r °*e ra0nth and its date, and the monthly range. The author calls
iiiiri|l|IU/° veT near Accordance of the two ractnods ot deducing the mean
.I ' uiy temperature, and adds, that among other testa to which he subjected lus
t*,i, *“ ■ ’ 18 a formula of Mr. Glaislier’s, by which that element is supposed to
kvnm far an>‘ place in England, the mean temperature at Greenwich being
7 Jh«. for the five years from 1849 to 1853, is 49°*4. The formula is
level If ,1 5~latitudc of place) X0o,9— 0-00345 X height of place in feet above the
nuoiijprs ril ®?a=m<;an temperature of the place. This, bv substitution of the
^OoSfiKUUftr 10 Southampton, becomes 40Ol4 + (5l°-fi-5O°-9) x0c‘9-0-00345
'ta‘lucf.,1 r,. a nur°her nearly identical with the mean temperature of Southampton,
and of ,/ om the best observations. Table III. contains indications of the dry bulb,
the dc,|: W*t bulb thermometers for each month of the three years, the difference,
author rem Tew1l10lnt' thc degree of humidity, and the amount of cloud. I he
latently tbat the degree of humidity at Southampton appears to be con-

appear* r 6r ,n tbat °f Greenwich throughout the entire series of three years,
1 P from following comparison

Greenwich , .
Southampton

1851. 1852. >853.

0787 . 0791 . 0 814

0-823 . 0-834 . 0’849

He a|so o, Difference . +0-036 . 0-043 . 0*035

*n,l York IiIm °.n tbe anomalies which exist in the degrees of humidity of Stone
*nland Places), as given in the Registrar- General s Quartci y
eem8 incomprehensible. Here is the comparison. Meanfor

Greenwich 1851 • l««. »a»3. T1,r“J“rs-

gNhampton-. 0.82;J */; 0.^4 0-S49 0-835

York . . °’S39 . 0-821 0-868 . 0 843

Table iv . °‘805 . 0-844 0-888 °’846

• records the number of days of each month during which the wind blew

30

REPORT — 1854.

from each of the eight principal point9 of the compass, and the mean force for each
month. The author remarks that observers at several stations must either use very
wrong estimates of the force of the wind, or their scale of comparison must differ
altogether from that furnished by Dr. Lind’s wind-gauge. The discrepancy is so
great between several of those he found recorded in the Registrar-General's Report
and his own, that he was nearly induced to reject his own in toto as worthless, till
he became re-assured by finding great accordance between his own and those of
Greenwich. He then shows that, according to the directions given by the Comnutw
of Physics of the Royal Society, if we form an estimate for five places which he
selects" from the Report for the first quarter of 1852, violent storms must have blown
the entire time at all these places. At Southampton, the average pressure " '■

wind is something less than 2 lb. on the square foot. Table V. is a continuation o
Table VI., published in the Report for 1851. It contains a comparative view of w
climates of Falmouth, the most southern town in England ; Stone, near Avles Hm
an inland place about the middle of the southern portion of England; torn, i ■
and far to the north; and Southampton, near the coast, but more she e
Falmouth. Such comparisons as these the author considers most valuft *•
valuable communication is also accompanied by an exemplar sheet for tne
March 1854, to show the manner in which the observations arc made, »
recorded. All the observed facts ore recorded in black ink ; all the rcuuc
deductions from the fact3 in blue.

Photogenic Drawings of Snow Crystals , as seen in January < ^

By James Glaisher, F.R.S. . ^

This collection includes between 20 and 30 varieties, and was t®IfUn,e
a morning’s observation ou January 1st, 1854, with a temperature o
figures, though minute, and observed under n lens of very moderate PoWe • Ton.
a high degree of crystalline formation, and great harmony of arnaepnen •
perature of air at 9 a.m. 23°. DifFerence'of wet- and dry-bulb, o •&.

during day, 31°-5. Min. temp, during day, 21°*2. Wind north.
copies of the drawings made by Mr. Glaisher were presented to the meeu 6 •

Photographs

Examination of the Storms which have visited England and
the years 1852, 1853, and 1854, with reference to the Theory oj
Storms. By John 13. Nevins, M.D., Liverpool. fo|.

Doubts having been started whether or not the rotatory character o s
lowed them into high latitudes, the author was led to examine the A or pot
of storms in England and Ireland for these three years, to ascertain tjo0 from
they partook of the characters of cyclones, viz. having a progressive^ bgd ,
the west and south towards the east" nod north, at the same time tna ^ watch
revolving motion or whirl in the opposite direction to that of the “* rCcordd
m these latitudes. The observations examined by the author were J'‘os 8„d at
in Armagh by Dr. Robinson, at the Liverpool Observatory by M** , c-|ty of t1"'

he Royal Exchange, London. Those made in Armagh register c'omp®3,

wind m miles for every hour, and the course to the nearest po»ut 0 , the coo^

IhoBe m Liverpool also register the velocity in miles for each hour, _;ster t--'
to the nearest two point* of the compass ; whilst those marie in Loniio ^ w tv
force of the wind in pounds upon n square foot, and the course ot rnarkcti l*3
nearest two points. Progressive motion of these storms was clea ) storm-*
shown in detail in a table) by the arrival of the leading phases of tne ^Ir;
in succession, first at the most westward ly, and then more and m r ^ A
intervals from Armagh to Liverpool varying from one to t've Armagh' lfc
commencement and the height of the stem invariably arrived first * ho*;
at Liverpool, then at London, after distinct intervals. It in some
e er, terminated in London before it had so terminated in Liverpoo .

-- -1W 1 .

* Mr. daisher has »ince continued his observation?, in the winter afj
published many drawing, of extremely varied forms in «he * llluslraied
Drawings of Arctic snow crystals may he consulted in Scoresby s * Voyages.

1854-55. f1

London

Jit*

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS

31

characters of the storms examined were also shown to be clearly marked in a second
table. A third showed distinctly that the directions in which the wind was blowing
at the same instant at each of these distant localities were different ; and the differ¬
ence the author showed in this third table was not unlike what should result from
■t' revolving character of the general disturbance of the air. So fnr the theory of
mlones seemed to be borne out by facts. Hut. the author showed that, on obaer-
' n.; the changes of the wind at any one of the stntions during the progress of a
•'' •ai. the recorded facts are at variance with any uniform progressive motion which
conceived. He also showed, that from the commencement of the storm to its
h ;lil occupied a much shorter time than from its height to its cessation; the latter
aln7»l bring frequently more than twice the length of the former ; and this he
■ offered to be inconsistent with the supposition of their being cyclones. On
, Thole, the author concluded that in these high latitudes storms or masses of air
• ■ progress in a uniform order from west to east, and that the changes in the course
1 x wind during a storm indicate more or less of a curved direction; but that
y? changes are inconsistent with any uniform rotatory character ; and that,
]M»ing from the observations of these three years, the law of cyclones does not
ua m fte storms which visit the British Islands.

Table I.

1852.

Jan. 3, 4,

I ^agh .,,,

hwtpooi";;;;

London

, ,J‘n- 8, 0, 10.

^agh .

'"pool ....
London

I Lite

Tool

; L°odon

'£>>• .

, trpooi
London

&ST
fe1 •••::

P >853. .

ASb-25«26.

Ll,eTooi";;;;;'
Lo«don .

test'*

Commencement.

2 a.m. Jan. 3 .

10 a.m. Jan. 3 .

3-9 a.m. Jan. 3 .

3 a.m. Jan. 8 .

4 a.m. Jau. 8 .

8-U a.m. Jan. 8

Wind high all the 15th,
hut nearly uniform;
began to increase
steadily at 11 P.M.
Feb. 15.

10 a.m. Feb. 10 .

U A.m. Feb. 10 .

Could scarel y be
1 P.M. Dec. 24 ...... |

12 i‘-M. Dec. 24 . . J

a11 afternoon of

<i4th.

Wind all day Dec. 20...

J® P'M- Dec. 20 .

w«t recorded ....

Height.

11, 12 A.M. Jan. 3 .

9, 10 p.M. Jan. 3, and
again 5-9 a.m. Jan. 4.
10 a.m. to 2 p.m. Jan. 3,
and again 10 P.M. to
2 a.m. Jan. 4.

1, 2 P.M. Jan. 8 .

3-7 A.M. Jan. 9 .

12 p.m. Jan. 8, and
2 a.m. Jan. 9.

7-9 P.M. Feb. 16 ..

7-10 p.m. Feb. 10, and
continuing with little
abatement till noon
Fob. 18.

1 1 p.m. Feb. 10 .

called n storm.

3, 4 A.M. Dec. 25 ....

5, 6 a.M. Dec. 25 ....
3-0 a.m. Dec. 25 ....

® P-M. Feb. 25
0 P-M. Feb. 25

2 a.m. peb. 20
1 A-M. Mar 31

5-7 a.m. Dec. 27 .

9-11 a.m. Dec. 27 .

10 a.m. Dec. 27 .

5, 0 a.m. Feb. 26 .

12 Noon to 2 p.m. Feb.
26.

11 a.m. to 2 p.m. Feb.
26.

11, 12 p.m. Mar. 31 ...

Termination.

10 A.M. Jan. 4.
9 p.m. Jan. 4.

5 a.m. Jan. 4.

5, 6, 7, 8 r.M. Jan. 9.

8 a.m. Jan. 10.

— A.M. Jan. 10.

Falling 10 p.m. Feb. 17,
and then nearly uni¬
form till 2 p.m. Feb.
18 — over.

4 A.M. Feb. 19.

Not recorded.

1 1 a.m. Dec. 25.
3-5 P.M. Dec._25.
1 p.m. Dec. 25.

6-8 P.M. Dec. 27.
9 p.m. Dec. 27.

7 p.m. Dec. 27.

6 P.M. Feb. 26.

7 a.m. Feb. 27.

Record terminating
suddenly at 3 p.m
Feb. 26.

Wind high, but nearly
uniform, lor many
hours, from 8 p.m. Apr.
1 to 6 p.m. Apr. 2,
when it was over.

32

REPORT— 1854.

Table I. ( continued .)

1853.

Mar.31,Apr.l,2.

Liverpool .

London .

Commencement.

Height.

Termination.

8 a.m. to 4 P.M. Mar. 31

9 a.m. to Noon Apr. 1 .

10 P.M. Apr. 2.

— A.M. Apr. 2.

V P.M. Sept. 25.

7-11 P.M. Sept. 26.
Not recorded.

3 P.M. Jan. 26.

0 p.m. Jan. 26.
rument.

5 A.u. to 3 P.M. Feb. IL
5 a.m. Feb. 19.

Not recorded, but aba¬
ting a.m. Feb. 18.

Sept. 25, 20.
Armagh . .

Liverpool . .

London .

Several hours p.m. Sept.
24.

9 a.m. Sept. 25 .

3, 4 A. st. or 1 1, 12 A.M.
Sept. 23.

5-1 1 p.m. Sept. 25 .

1854. — Jan. 26.

Armagh .

Liverpool .

London .

Feb. 17, 18, 19.

Armagh .

Liverpool .

London .

— P.M. Jan. 25 . .

5 a.m. Jan. 26 .

No wind u

— p.m. Feb. 10 .

1 a.m. Feb. 17 .

1 A.M. Feb. 17 .

n

10, 1 1 A.M. Jan. 20 ...
fleeting the pressure inst

7-9 A.m. Feb. 17 .

7 p.m. Feb. 17 to 4 a.m.
Feb. 18.

0-10 p.m. Feb. 17 .

Table II. — Changes in the Direction of the Wii

w by s j

n\v.
w.

x , 1852. — January 3, 4.

Armagh . swbywj saw; sbyw; saw; swbyw; wswj wbys; wsw; *w by w '

wsw ; ew ; wnw j nw.

Liverpool ... saw ; a; saw; 8W, wsw; wnw; w; wnw, «

LOndon . 6W> W*WS SW, saw; sw ; saw; wsw, wnw;

Armagh. 88W! ,. sbyvv. J’ J .10' ssw . swbys; waw; nw by-i

Uver^' «. -

London ...... a ; saw; gw; wsw; wsw; s, ssw; wsw.

Armooh . February 15, 10, 17, 18. .

J,’ w; 'vbV«! W, wsw; wbys; w; w by n ; w; wbys; *wby

nwbys: w, w by n ; w; wbys; W; wbys; wnw; nwbyw; "1

Livc,pool ... w; wnw; w; wnw; w; wnw; w; wnw; nw ; wnw; w> ffn
«, wnw; nw, nnw ; n.

London . sw ; ssw.

* . December 24, 25.

Liverpool . • Ie-byS! SS° 5 8wby8! W8W > n,,w5 wsw 5 swbyW! S'f’

London ....I; ssw’. w; wsw.

iz&rzzi V, - •*

L™d'»' . “i.sj,™:

Armagh .. sw . ,853- — February 25, 26.

"nw; ’nwbywTby 5 W by s ! w ’> wbyni wnw 5 wb**

Liverpool ... yy *

London . Wnw r 8W '' W8W ; w 5 wmv 5 "w ' nnW ! w‘

• «W ; sw • wsw ; ssw ; WSW J w.

Armagh .... SP . March 31 ; April 1. . „ ,

e- ebvs- • U* sse ’ sc by s ; se by e ; sse ; se by s ; se J
began at sw bv’ w 'J * ’ thcn ll,ere was almost a calm for three hour*
Liverpool ... sse^ se- « *’ WSW’ W b>’ 3» and wsw. lil1 lhe storm waS ° '

t0nd°“ . Commencement not recorded j^se ; * s* ' »w; sw ; wsw.

s; s*bJ'

wnw;

33

TRANSACTION'S OF THE SECTIONS.

Table II. ( continued .)

September 25, 26.

Armagh . sby e ; s ; s by \v ; ssw j sw by w ; wsw ; sw by w ; w by 8 ; nw.

Liverpool ... sse ; w; wnw ; nw j nnw; nw ; nnw ; nw ; nnw ; nw j "nw J

nwj wnw.

London . sse ; 8 ; ssw ; sw ; wsw ; w ; wsw. Conclusion not recorded.

1S54. — January 26.

Armagh . wsw ; sw by w ; sw ; wsw ; sw by w ; w by 8 ; w ; w by n ; wnw ; w.

Li'trpool ... sw; ssw; w; wnw.

kndon . ssw ; sw ; wsw ; sw ; wsw ; wnw ; w ; wsw ; sw j s.

February 17, 18, 19.

Armi?h . wnw; wbyn; wbys; wsw; w by n ; wnw; nw by w ; nw ; nwbynj

nnw,

Litrrpool ... w ; wsw; w; wnw; nw ; wnw; nw ; wnw; nnw; n.

“n,lon . sw ; wsw ; w ; wnw.

Taiile III, — Diversity of Wind at same houre in the Three Stations for the December
Storms, 1852.

Dec. 24. P.M.

Dec. 25.— a.m.

|w 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

L,.r j . SSE SEby8 SSE swbvs ... WSW NNW wsw sw by w ...

. ■pool... SSE ■ _ ..... wqw ... w ...

. ssw

ssw sw WSW

Slh .

is?.::

1,J" Dec. 26.

***don ...

SSE

uSl .

cr-

9

10

11

...

...

SW

w

wsw

WSW

P.M.

11 12

1

s sby w

s

... s

...

A.M.

10

11

12

12

Dec. 27.— A.M.

8 9

ssw sw

Not recorded.

T

AB,‘E IV-~-Amount of Wind preceding and following the Height of Storms.

_ Before. After.

1852. January 3 . 632 Miles . 39 1

— January 8 . 640 „ 969

February 15 ...976 „ . 193G

December 24 ...156 „ . 313

• vt/tuary i imVI U ,,

— December 24 ...156 „

,77 December 26 ...430 „ .

1853. February 25 ...120 „ 532

— March 31 . 473 „ 959

.77 September 25 ...284 „

S54- January 26 . 61 „

February 17 ...725 „

406

532

959

780

144

951

7381

1854,

4794

3

34

REroRT— 1854.

Mr. F. Osler gave a description, with drawings, of his Anemometer and Rain.
Gauge at the Liverpool Observatory, combining successive and important improve-
ments upon his original instrument, which he introduced in Liverpool at the meeting
of the British Association in 1837, with a Report of the recorded observations.

On the Meteorology of Hnggnte, Yorkshire Wolds.

By the Rev. T. Rankin. M.A.

The author has for many successive years annually furnished to the Association
detailed reports of meteorological observations recorded by himself. The present
gave the tabulated results ; the observations being taken at 9 a.m. and 2 p.n., in *
northern shaded nspect. The tables were — 1, of the thermometer, showing, for the
year, monthly means of the maximum, minimum, difference, lowest range and
greatest range;— 2, of the barometer 3, winds; — 4, character of weather;— 5.
rain ; — G, hygrometer. These were accompanied by observations, drawing attention
to the days and amount of the most remarkable phenomena under each head : ale',
notes of the Great November Wave of Aurora? Boreales and thunder-storms; «<•
such a comparison with the recorded observations at other less elevated stations a*
led the author to the conclusion, — "That the range of the thermometer decrease*
as the elevation of the locality above the level of the sea increases."

The Meteorology of Nice Maritime for J85S. By Col. Sykes, F.R-R
Nice is situated in latitude 43° 41 '17 N. and longitude 4° 56’-22 E. of Pa'|!
I be meteorological observations were taken by Moil. Teywderc, a French gfn tn> •
in the Maison Tiranty, with u northern aspect, at hd elevation of 5 9 'Of.
the ground, and 715’lG feet above the sea level. Mon. Tcvssierc hnd hisin^trumm
compared with a standard set introduced into the * ICcole de Commerce in >*”•
Temperature. —The. coldest month in 1353-54 at sunrise was February, "
then December, 4 13' 1 3, and then March. In January the temperature did - .

once to the freezing point, and in Februnrv uulv twice. The mean tempi J I
February was 42° 55, 0f December 44° 85, and of March 4(V74. On the m pn
20th snow fell to the depth of a fool, and on the 7th, sih, and 13 h
thc^ne.ghbouring hills, while none fell in Nice. The hottest month WW A ,.-
' 4 a ^ July 72u,6i, but the maximum height of the thermometer 5 •
on the 3rd September.

Ronge temperature.— The range of the thermometer, annual, inonlhlv, of •
wasnevergreat. Then, can minimum daily range was in December 8°‘3b, and
mum to m ,„aliroum ,’„st g, ,ny Me day was ou ft.*****,

in thp V 1 16 greatL'f,t Jaily range in the cold months was 15°*48- The j*.
. , ^*°'r nm9?0 h3, and the absolute range was from 28 ‘60 on , ctfi.

pr/’ °°e J,b thc 3r«l Septcmber=G2° 26, but this was an ejjggg jLl.i-
litv in th'le ^ “ atm*P,ier*'— Like the temperature, there is cons' Ti <

hty in the movement of the barometer, partaking, in fact, of a trofutakharaj ^ d
Wfta 30"*393 for nearly three days, 2fltli, ^th.wd ^
W ouP'- r34 ? bul ,Ile Wghe«t in 1553 was 3O3'107 on the 1st Kcbrfli>rr

•'Qo-m-lndlAat!0n ° the bttromeler was at 2 p.m. and sunset on the ! ®Lurf thff
ftire 8ar®e,on thc IWb February, thc extreme range of pie

onlv toha ■ 8 'nn Tie cxtreme range for ten years, 1633 to 184->

llannJif"' ‘P Mtremc monthly range was in January l ' If52 diog O’F 1
and inf a X ’T**—™* «*«y roige was very limited, rarely
Smmpir dWl’"tonn " n™ amounted to 0 393. In the snimWJ J

vSZZE&n? iur to8c,b'r- The ptc5SU" ’ »■

13l! ud for te!‘ y™rs at Genoa 29788 m. relation to

Dosition of flip JJie annual curve of pressure shows, ns in I«ul^ . t soud'-*’
position of he sun in the ecliptic ; being greatest when the sun is fa»®*JL at GO0*
£*& *»»»*« a, the sun^come^nor L Ten years’ observations-

Show this feature in a marked manner annually.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

35

Daily tides;— At Nice also, although the hours of observation were unfavourable,
the daily oscillations, with two maxima and two minima, for convenience called at¬
mospheric tides, were discoverable. The Genoa records show the same in every
month.

,,^1‘r!:~^*easureraents °f rainfall were nut made by Mons. TeyBsierc in 1853, but
Wilkins in his book says the fall in winter is 3 to 7 in., spring 3 to 8 in.,
uimer 2 to 7 in., and autumn 6 to 18 in., and the mean fall for the year 24 in. ;
* ajunmoi in any one year 41 in., and a minimum 15 in. In 1853, in I486 ob-
viranons, rain fell 1GG times, the maxima being 32 times iu May and 27 times in
'«'iber; the sky was clear 930 times, overcast 309 times only, haze 14, fogs 3,
13 5 ^un(ler, hail, or snow 26 times.

The most remarkable feature is the paucity of the winds from southerly
-Wip* ln 1390 observations it blew from the south only 31 times, S.E. 57,
a frt,' i 139, N.W. 168, so that northerly points give 508 winds,

t ^yiutholy only 257. The east wind blew 124 times, and the west only 66

£' Observations were not made for electricity.

1 fereu .a0?)|e y sis shows that the meteorology of Nice and Genoa, and by

; °* ^!e “Maritime Alps, presents some features common to a tropical

KWiern{ eomParativeIy equable pressure, aud limited range of atmospheric pressure,

■ annnui l'mPl'ratui'e. and small range of the thermometer whether daily, monthly,
winw' 00 exc,e!iS °f I10*1 in the summer, no great depression of temperature in
uncoU(^e(l gky for weeks together; violent winds and tempests rare,
-dure ■ ther* atm°®Ph®re being a characteristic, aud added to all this, perennial
c.-hly ConT • w?uld tbns appear to be a combination of physical circumstances
.livtCr .lD the PeDPle to freedom from formidable diseases, and more espe-
lV>* [|lnt ,U|'S the respiratory organs ; nevertheless the official medical returns
toy other cane ea , from the diseases of these organs far exceed the deaths from
,Q from aimif’ ,l)0t CSS at ^‘ce Hlan at Geneva ftI1j Turin, and exceed the propor-
ar diseases of the respiratory organs in Eondon.

it JJl *teteorolo9y °fthe Albion Mines, Nova Scotia. By H. Poom-
,tl'1 NnrmT Q,'.e 6ilUated ‘0 the county of I’ictou and province of Nova
^-rnwich. Th„.WlCtt' lat. 45° 34' 30" north, and long. 62° 42 west from
-"itliclv 4tJ£W are upon the western side of the East river, which Hows m a
lr into the h«i0n fr.°m itB MUW in the. St. Mary's mountains until it empties
‘-a,c'Jn(iuent nr°\T ha,'boul‘ of Pictou, which is ono of the most eastern harbours
If* sea is !i' / ‘^orth America, and opening into the Golf of St. Lawrence,
not mor« a ab°Ut ten ,,lllcs- with some rising land intervening, but pio-
250 feet hiSh* The ground rises moderately on aU aides
ah*o bran£ 6XC?P; 111 the direction of the river, which at this point spreads
,, <u'fiicc of S' Qlld fu, m9 an interval of rich soil of about half a node in breadth.

J nr small siS *ttrroundinff country is very undulating, being Intersected >y
t, ‘ «oi i in tl -"WM (often dry in summer) running in every direction.

J’1 “pop L '“ediate v,cinity of the mines i« of a loamy clay, * * “

i. Iq *t a Benprai|Ilt,U,i s^alt;9 tying below, and which dip i» » aor|^" A
ni,>tiug wi ,h Sfr»l angle nf 19°. several thick seams of coal it below and
:^'Ur^ <-TtipBai5 , sllale5 ! "’bile the limestone formation underlying tie coal
l aical n,ile to the south-west of the mines, and g^J***-

1‘ave | '' ,0n of c°nical lulls to the surface of the country- Pines and
-1 ‘"tCTrui^d rt lD Preva,l>ng forest trees upon the uplands, w»th buch an
ami f T S°!nc 1,arta ; whill> 1***“ hemlocks have marked the hues of
: i,fid a* hJdi,!W e ms have grown upon the interval between the foiksot
tin- couni } Q,ly ot *be clearances extend one mile back from the Jan
clim“?_ryf“^ay be eousit'eftd as almost in its primeval torest state a

of UiB country. , , , '

*<ght hoi?? 4S, 'M' 30‘» north, we enjoy the tun's influence w the shortest
^7 minut^ f°rty minutes» and in the longest days during fifteen hours

3*

36

tlEPont— i8o4.

The mean temperature of the earth at this latitude is theoretically Calculated at
58° *, but from the mean daily observations for ten years taken twice a-day, or the
two extremes of night by a self- registering thermometer, and by actual observation
at noon, it is found to be 41°'94 at the mines, or 16° colder than theoretically esti¬
mated, owing chiefly to its position on the east side of the continent, and to the
cooling influence of the sea breezes during the summer months.

The mean temperature of the year is found to vary in different years to the eitcnt
of 3£°, but the observations have not been extended through a sufficient number oi
years to know whether the fluctuations are periodical or not.

159° have been observed under the full influence of the sun’s rays, and 40 hdov
zero were observed at the bottom of the coal pit (230 feet deep) when the thermo¬
meter on the surfnee registered 22°. . ■

The greatest heat that has been observed in the shade G feet above tue groun
was 98°, and the greatest cold 22° below zero, giving an extreme range of I- •
By dividing the vear into two parts at the mean temperature of 42 , c
190 days of warm and 175 days of cold weather; the mean temperature crow,
that line on an average of ten years on the 1st day of May and oth ay o . 1
vember. .

If we divide the year into four seasons, and assume winter to continue - ^
daily mean is below 32°, spring and autumn to last while the daily me
below and above the annual mean, or from 32° to 52°, and call
the daily mean is above 52°, we shall then have the average length oi in
follows: — . .

Spring 32° to 52° from 27th March to 31st May . days‘

Summer all above 52° from 1st June to 24 th Sept . 1 * "

Autumn 32° to 52° from 25th Sept, to 26th Nov. ...... J>3 "

Winter all below 32° from 27th Nov. to 26th March. ..12^ ••

366

uantitf
<

The mean temperature has varied during ten years only 3J o ^ ^ 0f or„

certainly very inconsiderable when we compare by sensation tn«- ffbok

hour of the day with another, yet capable, when added or subtiac however, tw
year, of producing a decided difference in the seasons. We nius n . sunirr.;j
hastily connect with a low mcun the idea of a cold winter, or tna gCajont'f

With a high one. 'lhe heat is added or taken away sometimes throogboot
quarter of a year, sometimes in another ; and again occasionally a ^ 0f puH
the year, as will be more distinctly seen by an examination ot pfritoi«

temperature^; or it may be caused bv the difference between the • e0ffurth‘f
of day and night, which I consider an important deviation, and dese

inquiry, as it affects vegetation. . „ „„mn,enced at

lhe registry of the weather at these mines was originally ci ners so ttej
request of Admiral Owen, and accordingly published in the Ph«J w.ind, wi*
he might compare our weather, and more particularly the course m lb*

tlie register kept by the surveying party on board H.M. steamer _ #t
Bay of I'undy ; it was afterwards forwarded to the Smithsonian 0ther part‘ 1
logton to be incorporated along with the numerous registers kept ' of yean-
the continent of North America ; and having now been kept *p*" . tbc,'cfn}(3

it is hoped that the following tables and summary of some facts

may be of interest to the friends of meteorology. . ne London' 'f

It is proper here tu acknowledge that Howard's ‘Chniat comp**’ -
suggested the plan of the greatest part of the work ; -corded by*1

climatic phenomena on the east side of North America with those r . Uw,n it

on the opposite side of the Atlantic or on the west coast of Europe,

been

pared’

ch lef inducement for doing so. , an rornpar- M

hJLl3AU> be rcSreUecl that the instruments used have not .*1 “tej to be

T8; md therefore corrections have been «tte®P^ fcy the “fj
n? f hl n!, h| Q0mCt,0n, of the ^metrical readings for temperaW^. 1 ^
of the Royal Society of London. This barometer, with thermometer

* Brewster’s formula, 8 1 3 Cos Lat. _

T These Tables are not published in the present Repm1-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

37

bunc in a sitting-room at 120 feet above the level of the sea ; it is graduated from
a died point, and the mercury is enclosed in a kid cup.

Two thermometers, self-registering for night, aie hung 6 feet from the ground on
the siiie of the house exposed to a N.E. direction, hut protected from the N.W.
••nils by a dump of trees at a few yards distance; another registering thermometer
• placed upon the ground and exposed to the full action of the atmosphere, and
i! ' difference in its readings at night from the other thermometers placed on the
i iu« was shown in a Table.

Hu rain is measured by a 12-inch diameter funnel-shaped tin pipe, where 1 inch
' ttie funnel reads as 9 inches of the float-rod ; the snow is received into a pail of
depth and 8 inches in diameter, suspended by a double ling like a ship’s
; '«(|w1 so that no snow-drift falls into it. and the melted snow is measured in the
-gauge.

Ik' force of the wind has been measured during 1852, to a certain extent, by a
'Jchinc haying a board of 1 foot (made to face the direct action of the wind)
against aspring which marked the force in pounds of pressure. The clear-
»ky. velocity of clouds, aad also the direction of the different currents,
V Iran observations made with the naked eye at different times in the day. Other
"spheric phenomena have been recorded where it was thought that they might
10 Elucidating changes or modifications in the climate,
ur winter begins by the temperature on the 27th November, and continues 120
"r/ or “Early one-third of the whole year. The mean temperature of the season

I dd the montbs of December, January, and February, but for the whole
'"i*tkn l Teau ten»perature is 22°-<)15. The hottest day during the ten years
lt j * (h January 1843, when the thermometer did not fall below 42° at night

the daV» or a racan of 88°-a. The coldest day was the 19th
nil j W lCn ‘he thermometer at night marked — 1 5° and did not rise above
The ,n?’,°r Vliean of “I l°-5 ; greatest cold -22° on 7th January 1851.
titan,. -r,‘ of the barometer is 29-6903 ins-, being ’0497 in. below that of
Win • on llie columu is greatest in this sensou ; the highest, 30-757 ins.,

f - February 1849, and the lowest, 28-410 ins., on 3 1st December 1848.
■njy range ,8 2-125 ins.

II TUif-rlv*™?, Tail from soulh to west and west to north during December, while
N.L ;,r;!T Preva>l 'n January and February. Upon the mornings of greatest

thp winJ generally blows from tho S.S.W. The average
1 r- It on!??* *? 8now' is 1 1‘52«2 ins.; of which nearly A ins. fa I m Decem-
‘-Vctiv a ed four timea during the ten recorded winters, whilst there is

'Vhia thp frr'! ,)asse.a hut there is lightning or thunder once. .

' '- ‘’'host wi»? s.etVn lt generally conlinues steady for a length of time* T
JJ* n chig* with a breuk from 3rd December 1848 to 22nd March 1849, or
’ ^ Trom 24tl vthe **°eption of a rain storm on the 12th February, there was
lro-t OTilrao iVCmb.er 1851 lmlil tl,p 21st April 1852, or 142 days. The shortest
1 ’ ,:u ro of thi'fln m ,8UCcca9i°n in the winter of 1844-45. During the con-
'-;vUii0tl , f ‘ros,s the ground is generally covered with snow, so that the
' :"rh enable thftf * °f tlle S1*88** do not suffer, and good roads are made upon i t
^rely (i».. mer anil lumberer to enrrv their produce easily to market. iog

. — *«y seen . n, ' —*'* lumberer to carry their produce easily l -

rMJ‘ which wnrt atraoaPhere is generally dry and bracing, and there are >u
_ ';J. and aro ic^ t,non ar« unable to work out of doors ; people expect it to be
*7/ 'bier the dad in woollens ; and it is remarked that the more steady

,l 'Cr^>ionallv n JT 1S’ , more healthv nre the inhabitants. ,

of an \n 'u ^aw win uncase the trees, fcc., sometimes nearly to the

; weight hm\and thon the fruit trees are apt to have their branches broken

v- «u graconf, * 19 a n,agnificent sight to see the forest or even a single tree

Ll I.curve« beneath its crystal load, anil reflecting the rays of the

"n every n • ■ IJ'-‘nea

V1*. from the ir.*!, ?,tl1 ad ‘he prismatic hues of the rainbow,
a to tbe 31 8t December 1843. . . f.n

y.~'xt.v-six dnv« °in t le 2" March according to the temperature ; its
i; .. mean nf ’•dunnS which the medium temperature is elevated from

12 i the SUn°fftb? u°rmal season is 37°'44, but for the sixty-six days it »
“ cftctln8 by his approach an advance of ll^-lOS upon the mean

The sun was not

i ration
32° to

38

REPORT — 1854.

temperature of the winter. The temperature increases very regularly about 10*
each month from l'ebruary to June, contrary to the sudden starts to which it n
Bubject in Britain. The easterly winds prevail in April and May, which keeps the
weather cold, and sometimes a foot of snow falls; but in general there are fewer
days of rain, and less falls in April than in any other month.

n'.shts are frosty ; the mean temperature at night in April bnn«
27 ‘037, while May is as low as 370,63 ; this greatly retards vegetation, Rllhourh
the sun has great, power; the average heut in the daytime in April Being 40 ■-•4, and
ID i ^ 28,i‘ on *he 1st April, the thermometer marked 3° below,

and on the 2nd 2“ beluw zero; this very unnsual degree of cold was followed by»
fading 1 m *,nC weftther w*th northerly winds, and very little snow ur nuo

can height of the barometer for the normal spring is 297067 ini., being
J104 inch above the winter. The extreme elevations and depressions of the colun.ii
go o in great measure during the season, and by the end of spring the rasp- u
con racted to about 14 inch. Mean range of the season TCtiS inch.

the wind is easterly for one third of the time, which is in a great measure dm i.r
to the large bodies c.f floating ice off in the Gulf of St. Lawrence ; ao that altheurfi
the westerly winds blow generally during the nights mid early in the morning, 5*
i is almost sure to shift round towards tiie N.E. us soon as the nun raises the t. m-
perature, or about ten o’cloek in the morning.

6 avcra8t‘ r»;n is 9’94J9 ins. ; the showers nre generally heavy and not of l"rt
continuance, while tho evaporation is excessive; so that in a few hours altcrwarb
inc ana is in 30ml order for the farmer to proceed in sowing his crops,
tin-o JslV bcg,ns on 1st of June and lasts for 116-day* according to the tempo*-
} u ^^ temperature of 6°- 187, the whole 117 day* being above 62' i t -
tho 118 Pt™‘0n tho northern hemisphere an ndvunce of 18°'7& uI’lV

(iT-W ®,nPerfthiru o| the spring. The temperature of the normal summer •»
700.5 * . . ,nc(l,Ur" pf the twenty-four horns rises during tho season from j-

The rnpn 11 * ^ arns, *Sai" ljy the close to the former level on the 24th Septem r-
the temb nr ,,1L’ralUre ?f,Ju’y ^ August do not differ from each other more b*
one mnmina w ^or ^our years out of the ten there was a slight ln» ’

are four ftJ? ■ moath of July as Well ns August, while upon an avcrng>' Ir-

frost in pvor 8 'V n,g1hf8 *^une au<l five in September, bo that frequently the
»roat m every month of the year.

•Oll^inph^K ^lcigLt of t,lp barometer for the normal summer is 20-718O ini.. ,r
oi l 3 inch above the vernal mean.

whilehern8;? is l'°T in. In England the least range is in the mouth 0
Of an :nrt, t.?xcfL‘‘lB tljt‘ mean range of both June and August by nearly one-
this »cLon arierLea,t bein« l'°03 *"■ in June. The predominating ^

durimrThP f !'0Uth to WCBt ! hut still nne-tliird of the time the wind b'°
than a lnil ZL™*' ^ t0 cn8t or fr™ east to soulh ; but (hi* cannot l* *

irk in get^aulw^t^r *9 *hoW" by ^

theTyearmean ins- leas falling in June than in any other tuoo^

the^niea'n 'tprnn'”8 »°n ^ 251,1 °f September, and lasta onlv sixty- three days 01
15 4 S43 Tpi" i^ fi* R *e*in helow 32°. 'Hie mean temperature of
perature of i* the nmntha of summer, but the «*•* ,'**

P Tho ° ,e .81.xt>’-three day* la 43°-04. , • ,,be

highest avera^p* d/ °f ^ l,aronn.ter for the normal autumn is 297-10 ins-» lC-
The wruKli7gh.°Ut Xh* > ^ the extreme range 2’ 1 02 in*. . w
north. ^°r two -thirds of this season from south to west an

as ^ar^Mnt?^!'1! °f V*'" is l3'52G ‘ *"»•> October being ourwetW*^
is a good deal of tine aS * s,l°wers arc heavy and not of long confirm*®* ^ .
the mid of October cirP|iaBflnt- 'vcat,lcr at ** of 1 <be >'ear' par,"C o «

right of clear sunnr 3 eS,nUlug uf N«vember, when there are ten days or ^
.1.°.. ... f .ar Bunny davs With the tcmnprMnro rn*hnr „Wp the mean,

mght of clear sunny days «. h thl rayvmwr’ KDeP iae v iU
*hort period is usually called %nJSSSStfmt

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

39

The dews are frequently very heavy at this season, so much so that the quantity
precipitated in one night in the rain-gauge has often measured the one or two thou-
undth part of an inch. . .

The mean height of the barometer, as deduced from the observations taken during
[wiuil of ten years, is 2971377 ins. at un altitude of 120 feet above the level of
tk*ta.

In a general Table* were exhibited the greatest and leftist elevations of the baro-
fcrtci m each month for the ten years 18-13 to 1852. To the maximum heights of
: h u-ar was annexed the mark X and to the minimum 0. Of the yearly maxima,

< greatest (lumber, or one-half, occur in the first two months, and the rest ut the

■ i A the year, with one exception in April. Six of the yearly minima occur in the
f' two mouths of the year ; the other four minima occur in the beginning of the

f. Tima there are five months (May to September) iu which the barometer visits
t '^r extreme of its yearly variation, while the higher and lower annual extremes
»t chiefly dm product of what constitutes the winter at this station.

Another Table*, drawn from the results of the preceding one, serves for more easy
'•titicc The average of the third column, or the medium between the average
and depressions, is seven hundredths of an inch below the mean height
‘ ‘i"1 dimate (29 71377 ins.), the reason of which is that the depressions occupy
ler space of time than the elevations; inconsequence, a less proportion of
"'T? cumes into an average founded on daily results.

* avorage annual range U 1*944 in.; the range varies in different years about
-tenths of na inch.

, n.8 ^Yatibtt >Q ten years appears to have been 30757 ins. " corrected”

| 7th February 1849; the day was introduced by a moderate N.N.E. breeze,

' - -J!; ij 1 -T1 fog ia tlie mo» ning ; the temperature was i° below zero during the
ad s'f’ 111 u s*'J°d nt 35° at. noon ; the day was very fiuc, with a few cirrus
■V,l*i(u<jT> l West- ^'*le liext h‘S^p3t was 30 763 ins. "corrected” on the 2nd
’ when the wind had also prevailed for three days from the N.E., but
. IK..,,, 1|?m,tbe smith at the time of the extreme runge. The temperature had
. ■' 'o. iu, , UWT 3° helow zero on the night preceding the 1st, and 2° below
• l„, •»„.? p' the tomperaturt* was only 23° at noun on the 1st, and 32’ at noon
iQ'i on th-'o ,”8 at Bunrian on tho 1st; cirrus clouds from S.W. ou both days,
The h,a'° rou,ul b'Jth the sun and moon. , ,

1 " Ur d.K dfPf®S8,on in ten years occurred on 3rd November 1851, when the
„n?!i T t0 28 ' 505 in3- at 12 f.m. ; there was fog in the evening, with
1 ‘ .tiir,.\vi"1R1 0 1 at 10 P,M* « the wind was u fresh breeze from the S.W.; the
m.Uje, ut , out of doors at 9 r.jt. Howard’s observation in England, that
' ‘u knotv,. t'G ls Produced . very suddenly, is not borne out here; it has often
r " hive rf*8e °l ^ nbout an inch within twenty- four hours, mid the two
i«,o .Li rred with‘m a few days of each other; while in February and
T ’ly. _r|-r ‘ aro|neter never fell below 30 ins. for seventeen days iu succession.
Tn- »iiT -a g ®,®n annuiil depth of ruin is 44,9t576 ins. for ten years ; the greatest
> ‘-ar following115 ’ , In8 »» ISIS, and the least quantity, 32-921 ins., being in
^"trxrv t q g‘ °r 184 0-

‘ •; r| * arm and ab8em'd connexion in England between a wet and cold season,
latest nr.'/ 8Uch affinity appears to connect them at this station;

f “ above it,!! T l°f rain ,e,l in 1848, when the mean temperature was 43 -2,
4l- wlillB tbo cb-ioat vear was IS 49, when the mean tempera-

„ l1'- latest,?! 8 bclow the mean.

i.^e least qu-.,*! 11! lull in any one month was 10*58 ins. in October 1843,

■ in May 1840.

jrr«:ttH>.s r .,ne g^atest quantity falls in the month of October, confirming
1 futil ‘he hrooU al A !frVatlona of tllG Indians, who say that the frost never sets
t, „ ,rjft an averai;e h ast quantity of rain falls in the month of June.

t *5 during the ni .hr'08 °Q d(lys iu each year, and twice as often in the day-

Thjgg ^ *

• u inclte, aUvp0!iP"*'*isllt,'d *'< the present Report.

l!b0Te th» average *6 avora8e falling in the first quarter, when the mean temperature

40

RE POUT— 1854.

In August 1848 it rained 6*328 ins. in four days, and J850, September 8th, it
rained 3*955 ins. in twenty-four hours; the storm in both instances blowing from
N.W. to N. and N.E.

With regard to the proportions of rain in the former and latter half of the year,
they stood thus by the average : —

For the first six months, January to June, 187465 ins. ; for the latter six monthi.
July to December, 25*8568 ins. The sums uf the mean tempernture of those l»"
portions thus divided are 208*97 ius. and 291*70, being nearly ouc-tbird higher in
the latter half of the year.

If we divide the circle in another place we shall have a very different result.
From the fourth to the ninth month (April to September) the average tain
amounts to 18*1572 ins., from the tenth to the third month (October to March1
26*4461 ins. Now the sum of the mean temperatures of the first six month" in
this series, or the summer half-year, is 331*51, and that of the remaining »u
months, or winter half-year, 172*16. Here the relative quantities of rain renum
about the same, while the temperatures are reversed.

In Howard's 'Climate of London/ the driest month in the year is March l.
February 2, April 3, May 4, June 6, September 6, Januury 7, Augusts, ^
9, October 10, July II, November 1 2 ; while at the Albion Mines June is 1 » A pni -
May 3, September 4, July 5, February 6, January 7, March 8, Augusts, •''uun
ber 10, December 11, October 12.

January. — The sun in the middle of this month continues about 9 hours cr

G minutes above the horizon. The temperature rises in the day, on an average'
ten years, to 25°*46, and falls in the night to 12°*18 ; the difference, 13°'28, ttpf'-
senting the mean effect of the sun's rays for the month, may be termed the to*
variation of the temperature. ,

The mean temperature of the month is 18°*84 ; but this mean has a range '

1 in ten years, which may be termed the lunar variation of the tcmp*'ra
The warmest year was 1843, when the winds prevailed from the S.W. ; and
coldest was 1851, when the winds prevailed from the N.W. and N.E. i

fall- this month risea oo on average of ten years to 30*35h ' '"J-

falls to 28*9012 ms.; Hu, mean range is therefore 1*4503 in. ; but the cxlrtv
range in ten years is 2*01 2 ins. The mean height fur the month is 29*605* “ ‘

? prevailing winds are the class from west to north; the overag
jears being north to east 3*8, east to south 4*4, south to west 7*4. west ton »r‘h l (| .
nnmh j ram 01, snow at 3 feet from the earth is 3*3814 im-» ?

number of days upon which it falls averages 5 nights and 1 1 days, or a total ^

henvip fa 3 u,,.on m avprage of 13 days, and a mean depth of Iff- 1 |„

fhe fiS BtT^ i0 1844' it snowed 2 ft. 9 ins. on a level m
n ?“*rt °f#the Wi,lter *now is very drv, and it takes 17 ms. of am*

to make 1 of water. } 1 . frefjiw

noinP-°° “verage, 29 nights have constantly the temperature below e ,j
frostav^litoi n^h,s an<l 1 day full below the zero-point. The mean d?,^.

Frur., g„ ?23 T the *rcate8t number, 8*25, being in 185 1 , and the least,

Mean of “gt!* of da>' in the middle of the month about lOhou

or ir vSo * ‘ h.C“o by day 28°*075, of greatest cold by night 10° 95 .
or ®o|ar vanation, 17°*i25, ;#lios

130Mr*PerafUre °f thc monlh ; difference in the mean or from *-

N w • Tl?nnCn yearS WCre 1848 nrld 1850' when thc wind8, m the T>oV '
east. * ’ d 16 caldcst ypar was 1849, when the wind prevailed from ^

l'4?0einsr0TufttranfgnS °" * Tnean *om 30’365 ins* tn 28*905

the month is 29*6866 iS8.ranSe m tCn exte,,ds t0 2'1/4 ^

bJng^onht ar° tl,e c,a» to north ; the avertg^ j.

The mean mbfn ' to *outh 4'9’ sout}l t0 "est 6'9’ w'e ^eon4^
and 9 days, or a totalTf ^3 tKo W.^‘2673 T” fa"inS °D “

The snow WiVnTi ,, 3. _throu«h the month.

The snow fallu nn 1 .1 ",rou8n the month.

Wies, 8to™ wM „ !S‘S RSSTi

depth of 2 ft. I ta’

IV

two days

TRANSACTIONS OF T1IE SECTIONS.

-11

There are 27 nights of frost upon an average, while 77 nights go below zero; and
m three years there was one day on which the temperature kept below zero all day.
The mean degrees of frost average 600 ; the greatest number, 870, in 1849, and the
least. 433, being in 1850. .

Minim. — Length of day in this month nveruges 11 hours 42 minutes. Mean or
pratwt heat by day 36“' 135, of greatest cold by night 170,S5 ; difference, or solar
"nation, 180,285. . .

Mean temperature of the month 2G°-{tS ; difference in the mean or lunar variation
'■ The warmest year was 1840, and the coldest year was 1847, when the winds
prvailed from the west to north. ,

1 hr barometer ranges on a mean from 30'282 ins. to 28‘9lG ins.— dilterence
1 -fid ius. ; but the full range in ten years extends to 1776 in. Mean height for
iw month is 29-672 ios.

. Jfl prevailing w inds are the class from west to north : the average of ten years
‘-mg north to east 5-5, east to south 5*5, south to west 7, west to north 13 0.

'he mem rain or melted snow is 4'39G3 ins., falling on an average on 4 nights

* ni° daP» or a total of 14 through the month. .

be snow falls on 11 days upon an average, and a mean depth of 2 ft. 1? in-
'■ nrvml storm was in 1850, when it snowed 16 ius. in three days. 1 here are

• mgbts of frost upon an average, while 2'8 nights go below zero. The mean
; J*w of frost average 453 ; tire greatest number, 557, hi 1849, and the least, 338,
'os? in 1846.

, f of d“>' in tbe middle of the month 1 3 hours 22 minutes. Mean

^ da>' 46°'24‘ o{ greatest cold by night 27° 63 ; difference, or solar

^ Mean temperature of the month 36°-88 ; difference in the mean or lunar variation
warmest year was 1843, and the coldest 1850; in the former the wind
tbc flouth to west, and in the latter from north to east.

I« ,LT,rtr ranScs 0,1 a mean from 30'2703 to 29 0248 ins.- difference l 2ol5
ft 297022 H,8range extcnds to 1-871 in ten years. Mean height lor the ruont

w'nd3 are the class from west to north ; the average tca?.earS
lKS,40 east 7 <’ east to south 3'5, south to west 7'4, west to north 11 4.

8 4y* ™n,01' melted snow is 2-650 ins., fulling on an average on 4 nights a

Thu 'snow fen °f 12 ,la>’s trough the month. , n, • , The

Wiest**r. ^ 8 on 7 days upon an average, and a mean depth of 9i

Thtre ar/?/08,1",1862' when it snowed 121 in*. tw0 da>'8*. , .. wpni helow

-n Mights frost upon an average, and in 1844 two mg ,

the least qo f" degrecs of fr°st arc 105 ; the greatest number, 2->7, 'n 1850‘

M ay ’ being in 1846.

of ,hc middle day is about 14 hours 38 minutes. The i tero-
t0 59°’28> Md fulfil by night to 37-63 , the solar variation is

rj ^ni£rD£'ratul'e of the month 48°-44— difference in the mean or lunar variation
' : and ihP "‘u 1 ******* l846, when the winds prevailed from lhe“?“ t

H-e b»roLH° dcSt yDar was f 849, when the winds prevailed from north •

rang0s 011 ™ average from 30*1507 to 29*2!9° ms, ; the me^

' ."uJSSjyin but the full range in ten years is 1-947. Mean height for

Hie i)»p , •». *9 ins.

aurtb'tiM8 T',Uds arc tbc tlasft from west t0 nor,b i 1,117 average of Jears
. > mean r, 881 7’G* cast to aouth 6-4, south to west T9, west to north 9 l-
,Vi ^ day* 0?ar/n'd.ed snow is 285)76 ins., falling on an average on 4 ^ night
>e. and a r!°lnl °‘ through the month. The snow falls on 9 days on an
; 4 ins in an ,dcPtl1 °r 1 inch. The heaviest storm was in 1844' wb.^

‘ - one day. There are ten nights of frost upon an average, giving

The greatest number, 58, were in 1843, and the least

1 * fell 0Dpe.ln 1848.

of l’XE — U-nai'k montb in 1850, and once in 1852. . M

W&°f day '0 the middle of the month is 15 hours 20 minutes.
tation^ 23°-3(j ^ day d9°'99, of greatest cold by night 46 '63 ; differen ,

42

REPORT — 1854.

Mean temperature of the month 580,29; difference in the mean lunar variation
7°'4. The warmest year was 1847, when the wind prevailed from the cast to south;
and the coldest year was 1351, when the wind prevailed from north to cast.

The barometer ranges on a mean from 30-0871 to 29‘2GOO ins.— difference -8271;
but the full range extends to 1*063 in ten years. Mean height for the month is
29-6739 ins.

The prevailing winds are the class from south to west ; the avernge of ten years
being north to east “-fl, east to south 5*4, south to west 9'4, west to north 77.

The mean min is 2 1539 ins., falling on rn average on 4*5 nights and 9‘4 days, or
a total of 14 days through the month-

No snow falls in this month, and there are upon an average 3*8 nights of frost,
but only* occasionally, censing the thermometer on the house to fall below 32°, #nd
giving a mean of 2°*15 of frost.

Hail fell once in this month in 1844, and once in 1848.

July.— Length of the middle day about 15 hours. Mean highest temperature by
day 77o,80, mean lowest by night 54° 92. Solar variation 22*88.

Mean temperature of the month 630,94 ; difference in the mean lunar variation
6°-8. The warmest year was 1849, when the wind prevailed from the south to west;
and the coldest year 1851, when the wind prevailed from south to west.

The barometer ranges on a mean from 30*0662 to 29 3094 ins.— difference 75GS;
but the full range extends to 1*162 in ten venrs. Mean height for the montn
29-7104 ins.

Ihe prevailing winds are the class south to west ; the average of ten years being
no,p^ to Pa9t 5’?> east to south 5 2, south to west 14. west to north 5‘9.

1 he mean rain is 3*0210 ins., falling on an average of 5 nights and 9‘C day5' 0
a total of 15 days through the month. , . , ,lMf

No snow tails In this month, and on an average there arc -6 nights of frost,
not causing the thermometer on the house to fall below 32°.

Hail tell once m this month in 1814. ,. w

August.— Length of the middle day about 13 hours BO minutes. Meanijgn -
temperature by day 76°-34, mean lowest by night 55-39. Solar influence 20 ^
ro., .rite,?,,erntUrcHf thB month fl5°*85 ; difference in the mean lunar var
; /he h,ott«* year was 1843, when the wind prevailed from the S.W.;
coldest year I860, when the wind prevailed from north to east and south to ea.

half the month.

, , Jhft bfT nmcter rR"SC3 on n mean from 30*1206 to 29*3872 ins.— differenced 3 .•
-,U ran8* ftttcnds to 1-096 in ten years. Mean height for the m
29 7699 inB. 1

. .™e Preva'lmg winds are the class from south to west ; tbe average of ten }’*«»
e ng north to oast 6, east to south 6*4, south to west 10-6, west to north 8.
nndJoT" rm" fnr thii month ia 4-4299 ins., falling on an average A*,

in fm.r c ya’ °r * foto1 (>f 14 through the mouth; In 1848 it rained 6 328
in four succcssjve days. 3 * , hu,

n t r fn?W |n month, and on an average there are 0-5 nights ol r°8 '
H»?l ?‘nS U,e ^PnnWBetcr on the house to fall below 32°.

once month in 1843, and again in 1851. . . llteB The

hn?tnMUER' '■ 10 Ntf* 0,“ the middle dav is about 12 hours 20 »«" j >.,,5.

mT mPan r,!,e9 t0 C5°-64 «nd falls to 40*59, making a solar variation0!,^

temperature of the month 56° 09 : difference in the mean 1“*« ^ 17

IJ; *h® hott-.ht year was 1846, when the wind prevailed from sooth0 ^

data C 8t year 1843’ whcn tbc wind Prevai,cd fr0,n (

thcTmonthanre.mpCr,JtUre 0f niKhts in to* month correspond very nearly to those 0
The bam™JUDP’ b0t tbe d“y9 ftverage 4-5 colder. _ r„nCC

but^the6 fuir?anVr^7amcan fr°m 30-1617 to 29 1381 in.9\^?the month *
29 7671 ins. S extends to 1*530 iu ten years. Mean height lor the

r">“ »»«• <° north; the averagc of WT** btii!
Tl^mc^rn ’ 8outh south to west 10, west to north 9 7- njs],is

inla.fiT80 ra ?r tus month w 3-0048 ins., falling on an average on 3 jgtf
and 8 6 days, or a total of 12'4 throughout the month8 On the 8th Septcmbc

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

43

il rained 3'955 ins. in 24 hours, causing a great freshet in the rivers, which did
much damage by carrying away several bridges.

A little snow fell once in this month in 1851, and on an average there are live
nights of frost, giving 3°’9 mean of frost.

Hail fell once in this month .in 1840, 1851, and 1852.

October. — The middle day in this month has the suu for 10 hours 48 minutes.
The mean of greatest heat by day is 53°*882, and of greatest cold by night 88 -526 ;
tic wlar variation 15°-356. '

Mean temperature for the month 4G0,34 ; difference in the mean lunar variation
1 <• The hottest year was 1851. when the wind prevailed from south to west 1j
days ; and the coldest year was 1847, when the wind prevailed from the north to
l| days, and south to west 12 days. _

Hie barometer ranges on a mean from 30-3173 ins. to 29'012l ms.— difference
l;3032 in-l but the full range extends to 1-924 in. iu ten years. Mean height lor
tic month 29-7657 ins. , . .

Tic prevailing winds are from south to north ■, the average of ten years being
to east 5'3, east to south 57, south to west 102, west to north 9‘8 days.

[he mean rain for this month is 57760 ins., falling on an average on 5 8 nights
Ul,i 97 days, or a total of 15 5 throughout the month. In 1843 it rained 10' j8 ms.

011 20 days during this month. , . .. ..

^inetinu-s as much as 3 ins. of snow fall during two or three days in this montn,
“7 doCs not remain long on the ground. On an average there are 10-4 nights oi
lr«J, giving 35*-3 of frost. J

'ail fell Qnce in {bis |Unnth in 1S44 184C| ,g48| 1849, 1851 and 18;»2.

flER-~The le»«th of the middle day is 9 hoars 26 minutes, or half an hour
m i • ^ ,n London. The average temperature rises to 42 ‘25, and falls to •

iff Volar wiwion of ll°-90. , - f- n

lO^ ?Lnip,erature of the month 36*27 ; difference in the mean lunar variation
rhe hottest year was 1849, when the wind prevailed from west to
tip,. anil,lhe coldest year was 1843, when the wind prevailed for 13 day
r;ture nf rtv’ atl<l 12 dfty3 from north to east and east to south. T lje n
“iflhilm !tS raonth corresponds with April, but the days arc 4 colder, and
7* . °ii* 3 warmer.

about 3° warmer 1 *

i-m.b^ter ^gca on a mean from 30-2686 to 28-8229

1%** J»W' mnge extends to 2-032 ins. in ten years. Mean height for the
h- 8 08/3 ins, . *.1- i

ewt whitfs are westward ly; the nvernge of ten year-9 teing nortl

The t0 80Uth 4'C)> south to west 10-3, west to north 1 *‘8' ni

'•« .4-7456 mv falling on

, i . LU'o imintu is mg„ iumu& «...

'lavs’ nl3’8’ °r u tot“l of* 10-9 throughout the month, asu* ^ , • in

Kvj- hut it Kmg 9* "lA- "m depth. The greatest storm vis»l£ i » • averyage
thiTp are oo-o ' •n?t re™>n ou the ground. It hailed once m 1850. On an averag

. giviiS MT* of.fro*V

iu . «jjShts

Snow falls generally on

inutes. The average

0'-cr.Mr,p ot '‘‘Oat, giving 127"'5 or frost.

^“I'watur. ~rhe lonS,h the middle day is 8 hours 40 n.inu«- . ~f

“> W-m. «, id full. It, 1S-M, •i.tikiiig '““Lar

'■*'»» i,.7 for the month 21" 21 , .hflerei.ee ufo th=J ^ the

fo "Ml ip T “ yeM I84‘- ,1 ,1,1 nind prevailed 13

UV! from west to ' *' d t3,c c°l<le8t yeap was 1851, when the P

-f ‘ ^5^7mM|rf,ng('S otl R mcan from 30-3433 to 287499 in8 ' ^J^eafestde-

I'^sion, 28-4iothe ful1 rauge ext«»^8 t0 2 081 iD8- ten for the month is

3.'68«5 in, ' °ccum'd in tl”8 month in 1848. Mean he.ght for me mo

3 '7, ' nS w i uds are westwordly. The average for ten years is north to

The »■ *' south to West 10 8, west to north 12-5. niehts

ani1 12'2 r!av aiU fur tllls ,,,ontl‘ '* 4’8795 ins., falling on an average
; S,‘°w fa||’ or a of 17-G throughout the month. - t gtorm was

“ '*«, ™ 13 day., averaging 2 ft. 2j in». The g«^t storm ^

^htb, Q 18 ,n«- fell in 12 hour*, ft generally hails once or

m averagc there are 28 nights of frost, giving 428 7 °nr

44

REPORT — 1854,

Table of Meteorological Means for Ten Years, at the Albion Mines, NovaScolia,Nortk

120 feet above llicw.

Jan.

Feb.

March.

April.

May.

Thermometer, mean of two extremes

18-84

19-52

26-98

36-90

48-44

Thermometer, at noon .

25 466

28-075

36135

46-240

59-287

Thermometer, at night .

12180

10-955

17-850

27-637

37-630

Barometer, at noon . . .

29-6958

29-6866

29-6720

297022

29-7459

Nights of rain or snow .

5-1

4

4

4-3

4

Days of rain or snow . .

11

9

10

H-3

95

Quantity of rain or melted snow . .

3-3814

32673

4-3963

20500

2-8976

Days of snow .

12-1

10-5

11-5

6-7

1-9

Quantity of snow in inches .

20-86

18 54

24-90

9 33

1-25

Days of wind from N. to E .

3-8

4-2

5-5

77

7'6

Days of wind from E. to S .

4 4

49

5-5

35

64

Days of wind from S. to W .

7-4

6-9

7

7-4

79

Days of wind from W. to N .

15-4

12 3

13

11-4

91

Days clear, or w ithout clouds ....
Days cloudy .

•4

•2

1-2

•4

27

252

27

24 -6

286

Days overcast, or without blue sky

4

2-8

3-8

4 2

2

27-2

28-3

24-3

10 7

Nights below zero .

67

7-7

2-8

•2

Degrees of frost below 32 degrees. .
Lightning and thunder .

623

•4

6004

•1

153

•5

164-8

•3

1-3

June.

r:« b

5889
fi'l'iWfl
46-630 5«
89-K739
45 51

94 ><

21539 W,

29

1

3-«

215

37

i

Climate of the Albion Mines, Nova Scotia, North Ame

cooH

Station.

Latitude

North.

° a

Name of place.

American

Continent.

Long.

■a-s

•H

Jan.

Feb.

March.

April.

May-

_

Albion Mines . .

N. Scoria ..

o / /7

43 34 80

/

02 42 W.

120

0

18-84

19-62

28-98

36-90

48-44

44 39 0

63 38W.

25

40

..

20

19

51-6

Charlotte Town. .

P. E. Island

46 12 o

63 0W.

17-9

23-5

27-8

37-O

Fredericton ....

N. Brunswick

45 5? 0

66 45\V.

17

24

33

40

37

Canada ....

45 31 0

73 25W.

30-98

45-82

60-49

15*01

19'22

46-25

Ft. McKiuack . .

Lake Huron

45 51 0

85 Q5W.

728

20-13

15-76

26-09

37-66

European

Continent.
France ....

45 32 0

4 53 E.

36-28

38-98

55-63

63-93

63-29

45 38 0

13 46 E.

38-26

39-45

44-87

52-93

Milan .

9 11 E.

720

4588

54-66

64 09

63-39

15 26 0

20

38'98

46-15

5473

TRANSACTIONS OF TIIE SECTION'S

45

America. Latitude 45° 34' 30" North ; Longitude 62° 42' West from Greenwich.
6 f«t from the ground.

46

RE pout— 1854,

Albion Mines, Nova Scotia.

Daily Mean Temperature for 11 years.

1

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

2d

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

*9

30

31

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apri

) Slay

I

I June

| Jul)

1

• Aug. Sept

Oct

Ncv.

Dec

8 fed ilx*« I
ground in '
abide. W.K.J

o

22*5f

180(

22-03

20-5g

20 04

20-36

20-72

24'45

1959

24 04

20-77

18- 54

1977

23- 83

20-77

20-77

18-95

18-50

12-91

11-04

16-95

14-63

14-68

19- 04

24- 27

24-68

16-50

12-50

18-54

21-86

3-25

o

13-2

16-15

21- 54

22- 33

24-81

24-04

24-04

21-45

19- 22

20- 54

21- 31

31- 59

15- 18

10-27

19-54

13-72

19-67

18- 63

16- 18

17-22

19- 50

19- 95
23-09 |

32- 41 |

20- 41

21- 45

21-68

16-72

20-50

2°-6fl

21-27

20-81

1936

21- 09

20-54

22- 32

25- 22

29 91

23- 22

24- 32

24 00

26- 41

29- 27

25- 17

23-27

27- 32

26- 63

28- 91 (
28-45 I

32-54 !
C0-45

28-18 j

“t‘7« j

30- 50

32- 09 |
85-09

33- 68

31- 81

35-01

34- 64

0

33-81

30- 50

32-86

31- 95

35- 73

31-01

36- 43

38-27

3873

35-03

35- 82

34-01

S5-45

3/-01)

87-63

36- 54

86-08

31-80

87-30

33-6:1

41-50

41*12

40-59

10-01

C3-54

39"9I

0-03

J1‘00

2-00

0-95

0

11-36

15-00

43-36

43-fii

43*45

45- 59

T-27

49- 69

48-05

46- 9*
i,-m;

•17-59

43-50

•19-05

50- 23
53-09 !
53-41 !

-19-40 J

10-41 !

61*00

49*04

-9-89

84-82

61-23

51- 97

51-45

51-18

19 01

51-26

51-41

9'59

49'DO

52-32

65-11

56-59
Sff-Ofl
| M 77

51-27

50-32

56-00

66- 91

56-41

52-94

43*04

afl-13

67- BJ

5?-IS

56-86

09-77

0.8-73

6-1-04

62-41

02-11

03-04

01-41

02-41

»9-77

}0‘50

1-18

1-41

3-13

...

60 -4

60-6

60-6

62-16

64- 77

65- 13

63-55

64 18

6.V59

60-41

68- 91

6/-50

07-13

00-27

00-41

60-72

67-95

69- 72

06-82

69- 13

70- 08

72-82

71- 77

67-32

65-45

in-45

04-03

04-08

84-23

84-91

8/'32

O

6 9-7
69-1
67-8

G7-4

677

6r>-8f

fl3-2a

6C-o

67- 41

68- 73

68-00

6764

04-/7

67-09

66-41

62-00

04*88

61- 04

64-22

62- 04

6 1- 36

62- 77

63- 91

(52-36

68*66

62- 39

62-82

63- 41

63- 50

64- 41

53 86

1 0

J OO’OO

j 80-77

( 63-09

1 61-18
, 61-50

1 59-91

1 63-45

j 61-86

57-61

55- 45

57-64

57-18

56- 31

54 76

54- 50

5418

63-00

53- 2/

36-00

55- 00

99-41

54- 86

62-36

52-45

50- 10

40-04

51- 00

40-41

51-32

51-68

....

0

50-00

4/-77

49-82

48- 23

49- 41

49-63

4713

I/-82

41-36

48-00

4/-91

47-26

51-00

48*86

45- 50

43- 59

44- 22

46- 50

40'63

46-86

43- 54

44- 64

18-10

41-86

11 '05

13-50

3-50

204

0-59

1-32

1-86

0

42-13

44 05

1 1-22

4.V54

40-27

40-50

37-09

ao-gi

33 82

37-IJ

35-54

33- GO

34- 00

32-36

32-64

32-00

34- 18

36-32

36-45

3fi-0O

35 73

35- 09

31 82

35-63

3273

31-68

90-45

29-32

25-00

28-04

0

27-4

*8-1

27- r

30'50

32*8(1

26-32

20-2/

2759

26-82

28- 36

26-41

23- 18

24- 00

20-68

2495

28 73

26-45

28-05

21- 23

23-50

2100

12-68

10-41

22- 50

81-11

21-66

18-33

20*50

26-32

13- 95

14- 41

Month!; 1
Mein.

10-U

1000

27-11

37- 37*

48'58

38- lrt

6610

65 10

56011

46-282

35-588

24-17

A)"41-

42-0786

J

9-85 J

9-90

27-41

1

7-3/8

8-58

3-142

6-io j

5-19

56-05.1

6-282

5*588

4-47

_

L. J ^ *"»•■ % W. J. Macquom Hakk.se, C* ^

131 days, at two” noints^' '2 Wcre ro"de daily and simultaneously,

200 feet in elevation cm .’i,, 2- mi,es from p«cli other, and differing ^
The lower gauge desili ?0rt,lrWC9t »»°Pe«*fthe Pentland Hills, near Ed nj>
the chain of summits of the hi Ss l°° feet ab°ve.the se,a’ af-d So feet »

the sea, and 1A mile from the chainhnfh'sherBaUg.^dpSlgtl,ated ^HatGdurinf
ine c,lai° of summits, The total ram-fall at u u

TRANSACTIONS OP THE SECTIONS.

47

period of observation exceeded that at H in the ratio of 1 \ to 1 . For short periods
of rainy weather, of from two to eleven days, the ratio deviated from this average
value in a somewhat irregular manner, showing, however, a tendency to increase on
the approach of winter ; for periods of a calendar month the deviations from the
wan ratio were much smaller. To throw some light on the question, whether the
puller depth of rain-fall at G, as compared with II, was chiefly owing to the higher
attrition of the ground, or to the greater proximity to the summits of the hills, the
of rain-fall at these points was compared with the depth as published by Mr.
'■imore, at the Glencorse Reservoir, on the south-past, side of the range, at a
r : nt designated bv F, only 30 feet higher than H, but almost surrounded by the
■ighest summits oi' the chain. Notwithstanding the lower level of F as compared
*^G, the rain-fall at F was somewhat the greater; a fact which seems to indicate
*k< the vicinity of high summits has a greater influence ttmn mere elevation. The
ptpngs of the flow of the streams bv Mr- Heardmore near F, and by the author
■'■'V f«, show that the rain-fall nearer the .summits than these points must have
greater still. The rain-fall at H exceeded that at a point in the immediate
Vicinity of Edinburgh, 230 feet above the sea, in the ratio of I to 1*26.

On Aurora Borea/es observed at St. Ives . By J. King Watts.

On

Instruments.

“» fasy Method of making thin Glass Cells for mounting Microscopic
Objects in Fluid. Ihj C. Brooke, M.A. , F.li.S.

ftttifn. 'Jffbihty of thin glass cells, compared with cells consisting of a r‘tlS0^
1 , imvl lVarni? .‘ laiJ 0,1 the slide by a brush, is well known to microscopists ; but
IV *» Ul-Jlcrtf> somewhat difficult uf construction, and therefore expensive,
'•♦t*,*,, w, wode of mnkiug them consists in clamping the, piecc^ uf t[lc

pieces are
two steadying-pins. One
has a narrow raised rim.

. de 01 making them consists in ckunping the piece or nuu
L :,--s Alms °r gun-mctul, having each a cylindrical hole, but one o

: '"pcd bv .u °r °'05 im'h ^rger in diameter tlmn the other, llw
-f tl'" "nn'r,«n,i° SCr5 Ws’ t.lle 'lu,es being kept concentric by
•'uto'iin-,, s?faces is gl’Ound very flat, and the other - —

» “On and u„ f de' Cuverctl with very thin leather surrounding the hole, to tusure
:"'1' ftides of tl°rm l,rcssure Hound the intended aperture. After scratching™

;i'Cl u>ttybI^Ci,8 ,ass rcvealf tJ l,y “ic 1‘oles with a writing diamond, the circular

pushed out without any risk of cracking the remainder of the glass.

' Counc uZf1!!0 {^“wings of Meteorological Instruments adopted by die

P.fi.l yt J Ule Iird'tsh Meteorological Society. By John Lee,

fbtse a .

u'ennnie,,Ph0t°8raPh:4* taker‘ by Mrs. Glnisher, were of the standard J

staud» and l " Wot and dry hull)' and other meteorological instruments

^ietv 'l'i1'rQ?ee,ments’ as w«*d ‘Old recommended by the British Mjteor°lo-
V) London* 1ni i‘ ari* Barometers arc those made by Mr. Burrow, o
4ai“bra, ,8nd the several thermometers and their stands by Messis. Ncgre
8 80 Bie rain-gauge constructed by Mr. Glaisbcr.

’The stae(- ^ °f Manufacturing Cylindrical Lenses. By Piok Sturm.
£f years°-!!f^ wJl'chtlu* science of optics has passed since Ruler s discovery,
^;,Dflhe svstfm°’f°if the Pri«cipIoi< of achromatism, have not proved theinfal
^lindrU fhf8phcric“1 fur purposea. I now, However, call

"llb BUc’h norfta.- Ien8es ground by machinery, invented by myself, v>

i r Section that I humbly hope they may be the means of opening

baro-

with

48

REPORT — 1S54.

new field to science. In the first place, that the cylindrical principle, in general, is
superior to the spherical, will appear from the circumstance, that a perfectlvcvlindiical
lens is free from the defects of spherical aberration, and that the opposite rectangular
planes combine in forming ellipses in their intersections, and consequently show a
greater precision, distinctness and luminousness, and less contraction of dimeniiona ;
they therefore admit of enlarged visual angles. The cylindrical system, moreovif,
renders it practicable to form curves of all kinds, for instance, paraboles, hyperboles,
ellipses, &c., which is impracticable in the spherical system. In the second plan-,
tbe aforementioned machine is so constructed that every lens, even for spectacle,
«PPfYs icentrcd> s*nce the cross lines of the two planes pass through the middle,
whilst the centralization of spherical object-lenses is, as known, very difficult ami
imperfect. This defect arises both in the best spherical and cylindrical lenses from
their being hitherto ground by hand; tile im perfection becoming more evident In
the latter than the grossest defects in the former ; and this doubtless is the icasim
why science has not bestowed more attention ou cylindrical lenses. No one would
expect the formation ol a perfectly circular cone without tbe instrumentality of a
turning lathe ; and, in like manner, what the turning lathe is to this or other artklrt
to be finely rounded, the machine I wish to introduce is for optical lenses; hence, tw,
the advantage of the perfectness of its productions, and also the rapidity of tbe
manufacturing process. In the third place, in order to prove the better preservation
of the eyes by the use of cylindrical lenses than by the spherical, it is only neasnary
to observe that two cylindrical planes, intersecting each other at right angle*, h»"j
the effect of neutralizing the defect of spherical aberration ; whilst two parol '
spherical planes produce the effect of doubling the imperfection : moreover, wewvd
uly to advert to the structure of the eye in man and other animals, which « not
spherical, nor achromatic, and is nevertheless free from the defect of aberration:-'!
Snnrr. ; m cJl,ptic 8hape* which hl creation appears to predominate, as for «•
SSil i the planetayy orbits, in magnetic currents. &c. And, since the effect of •
eve HlinwBenS *^froac ies tbut °f an ellipse, and since, moreover, an optically disca*
that fl rTrf f8t, f B[HQte/ dePartme from the spherical form, it is equally apparej1
tnkl ,, l!5e Cy,'IU riC Iens w the best adapted as the passage of the rays not on
; , c in abotrt the centre, but on evc-y point of the surface, thus effecting
quab,e and perfectly regular distribution of light on all points.

On Natural Occurrences that impair the Vision of good Telescopes.
By Cornelius Varlee.

res!iu isTr*™ CTrkr Ulat pverything moving on the earth causes vibrations :
the verv h«. • k°* *0tJ ^ne be known till high magnifying proven their exis ^

2 lacSi « t brr°J Sta,,ds C0im7 them to the telescope. He stated a
wSabom?T '% *he V™* on Bromley Common, he heard,
mSIf off. thrir dSr S2 *• second, a one- horse cart ; third , a stage coach
met in revere dl8tanc<?9 n,ld approach were indicated. '1 hese he b

Which wauf^A- !r?m tlleir differi»B speed. This proved tremor-
inferred the earth' powers* ftnd from the number of greater causes h j
means of insnllo BUrf8CC t0 be rarely o. never free from such. He
rubber under thrm ? S.° aslJtu nvoid tbcm : — First, cushions of wool or | |jf!l

has been done r v**- ®econd» supporting the telescope by pulley 1 nlJjtL. in¬
capable of rerpiuT ^cwtQ1,ians **4 success), such blocks and ropes beiog A ^.p

mSst perfect trT“ittin« ^ratioi or tremors, and

from tK SSl and fhr h,8h “orthern support of polar axes

might be made real rlk^S? aPward«» hut heavy top bars leaning 6^.^ tie
sea roaring all crniwSSS °r .daD,Pe»‘s- Sounds of all sorts, percussion-, gUD(j,
and impair their npcf lbratl0ns that act on the materials of both teleecnp

Thi3 tiling affect, al, aSSjRS e“S '%£**»*

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

49

the definition of high powers, if we did not remove as much as possible above all
twh interferences as fogs, sounds and the like. From his own observations at the
height of 600 feet, the fogs began rapidly to disappear, and to afford much clearer
vision through the atmosphere.

Navigation.

On the Loss of the ‘ Tayleur and the Changes in the Action of Compasses
in Iron Ships. By the Rev. W. Scoresby, D.D., F.R.S. Sfc.

There were perhaps few subjects, he said, of more practical consideration and
^i'ortance than the one which lie had the honour of submitting to the bection on
that occasion ; and if of more importance and consideration in one p ace in
^'ther, he might say the port of Liverpool ought to stand pre-eminent in respect
'he consideration due to compass guidance in iron ships. .

importance of determining not merely the principles which occation tne
>nnl development of the magnetic condition in iron ships, hut also of deter nu g

11 principles upon which changes in that development would take place, >' •
proportionate to the extent to which iron was employed m the cona^Rchon
wl* navigating the ocean; and so great had been the increase m the adoptiODM
: ; “ ,a "‘“ferial for ship-building, that in raudY ports where they were««U6t^ed
, Jodd a large number of vessels, it would be found that nine-tenths ot ™ves
/r,'"n" were entirely vessels of iron. I Ic did not know but thatprc-cminence ot pro
ia might exist here ; but, at all events, the application of iron as a
'rtrd „uCIlD sbiPa was rapidly increasing. There were certain P” P oge
■ with the navigation of iron ships which were universally admitt ■ •

’ a m rre; lbat iron» being more especially disposed to the magtie > ^

material, of course, calculated above all others to disturb the ect | j
_ ^ on board the ship. Again, it was also admitted, that there weredifficulbea
■ l,w navigation of iron _ * n»i of the original or pnninr ,

i"''iUv in ocenncid as mysterious— changes wun-u , t0 bH very

r 1 ascrrtn-garid t0T8b'PB whosc magnetic condition had been »«1'P ' ))e was

■ ■ d to lTed' 11 would bc the leading objects of the
: - Condi?! e’ to 'Endeavour to develope the principles on which b V g an(] cj,._

• stances ir.°.n, sbiPs was distributed, arid to show the ’ mcj,ancho|y case
'lf 'Tavlpn^ *bl.cb clm'igcs must necessarily take place. Th nect with

' Cinoral |Ur apordcd an example of the most impressive i“od . nnaht not
4S 0 aanng of tbls important subject. A. many of the Sec two ■
^til^'Sj^c'rcumstences connected with the wreck, he would sketch y

- 11 ; shin . Tessa,7 t0 carry on the subject. Liverpool on

n,!j-*’dtiy ,i o;leur> a new vessel . bound to Australia, sailed t burthen,

! W'ny nf tbe Prcsent year- SheW!lSl?heSa"clpas-

1 r- altouDii anf &bu bad on board about 458 passengers, , , on 0I

!v -neatest*!* * <»««l ..f 528 ,»«»., She loft l£. ^

-u iu ft map, wmen ne saw .

Course "0f5E'Vl1' *QW8on» ami which illustrated the positions ne \l‘"'t|u,r ; and
■°u* eight o’ ci PaPLT.]— ■ On Friday she encountered very Y ^ gfBt time
^rtained tliatth,0" ^ f,j|,owinB (Saturday) morning i tw ass(,£. There
.1 rt' three co Cre 'vaa a material difference between the P . One of

;i,^C2arlS°in b0ard’ bllt be wouUI 0Dl>' rfC'v°„tWbe LSS'i a"d tbe

c/r the helmsman, and was the one by which he jg cai|ed,

by - be ,nizer>ma»t. Both of these compasses had bee ■ , j bcen

2>,*W52fieat “■***»* flo tbat iM1,c

. ' ',10t have changed or differed from each othen

1854. P455uear the helmsman, the captain had the idea firmly .inpressea v

50

REPORT — 1854.

his mind that he was sailing fairly down, almost mid-channel ; at all events, in a
good position for navigating the Irish Channel. The other compass indicated a
difference of about two points. The captain, however, judging from certain indi¬
cations which he had noticed previously, assumed that the wheel compass was the
correct one. In the course of a few hours — about half-past eleven o’clock on the
same morning — the wind having increased, and a heavy sea setting up the Channel)
the ship made rather a rapid progress, when they came suddenly in sight of land on
the lee beam, in such a position that there was necessarily a great difficulty— in
this case (according to the measures pursued) an insurmountable difficulty- in
avoiding the land. An attempt was made to wear the ship round. This failed, and
then an attempt was made to use the anchors to bring her up. Both the ctlda
snapped on the occasion, and the ship was then left helpless, driving broadside upim
the rocks of Lambny Island. The result was the fearful catastrophe with which
most persons were acquainted; namely, the loss of about 290 lives. Outol 10°
females who were in the ship only three escaped upon that melancholy occasion.
Investigation iuto the cause of the accident was nuturall)' suggested, und the Board
of Trade instituted inquiries in two departments; one by means of Capt.
ot the Navy, the other by means of the Marine Board of Liverpool, of which . I-
Imvson was the Secretary. Capt. Walker, in his Report, ascribed tho loss of > *e
Tayleur’ to the captain’s supposition that the compass by the helm wa-. corf
The Local Marine Board came to a conclusion which he would notice by an cHra*1
from their Report. After stating that Capt. Noble had given very great
to the ascertaining of the correctness of his compasses ami verifying their act*0®'
different occasions, they proceeded in their Report to say that " notwlth»tan<m
these precautions, it appears to this Board that the ‘ Tayleur’ was brought into u.c
dangerous position in which the wreck took place through the deviation of tin’.'1
passes, the cause of which they (the Marine Board) hud been unable to detcrmm>-
Board colled particular attention to the fact, " that numerous instance* '

1 brought under their consideration of compasses having proved greatly
IwiS lJth Wv0llcn fl,ld ships in the navigating of the Irish <^anncJ,?^„
on, it continued, was not accounted for by any theory hitherto propo

proposed to show that there were principles which no ^
2“ !' bu.t» he woaUl say, demonstrably established the leading pnnop«»

in°K tbc original development of the magnetism of non »h‘Ps ' t

must tim ^Ut !}k€WjBe tlu* circumstances under which changes in that de P .

P1**- Thi« subject was brought by him before theMjJ *
eL,r?J r"^ Association at Oxford? in 1847, when he rend a paper, gfjj
S3 “!Tta y and BiuHtrativeiy that the adjustment of the compasses of id P ,hf
Permanent magnets was not only delusive, but calculated to becom
£ *,°L8t ?ri°u» danger. And if the opinions given by Capt. W^r and
and thr,LMar'T Board were •'-rue— if there was a relation between th,s5“^?hc
compasses 9|midbnCU °f the compasses— then it would be easy to »bo" ‘flAl the
captain corrected or adjusted by means of permanent affn ^ ^ ^

better tayleur ' would hove been abundantly warned, and theref

*eS*a* the miHy of th° shiP' UV virtue Of

the indnctivA f fl°r Wfd known» not merely that iron become magnetic
w of the earth, but. J he had elicited and ** JJfc,

that the mal^J*** l82°* in communications to the Royal Society of ^ by

mechanical ^tlMn developed could be augmented, controled, or eg0.

muniStinn f n ‘ on these principles, he had shown , » **

instabilitv nAt t lC ^ ee^ng. Dt tbe British Association in 18*7» j^ci
that the nlan Jr* magnftlc distribution in ships built of iron ; and th tbc

wtLSnhPtfcf-Wn?*mP' or ndjuat.ing. the compasses on board
gerous tl0IX °f 8teel tuagn°to. must be delusive and might be extr .

r’d»n*

compas^esm^aT '"^Particularly referred to, that of the ‘ Tayleur, ^

2S3 abty^

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

51

tough in this instance the direction of operation of the adjusting magnets was hut
incidental, the effect, so far as the authorized reports may guide us, was fatal so
''it had there been no adjusting magnets the captain would have been guarded
ininst the delusion that he was making a fair course down the Channel, and would
Wt been in a very different position as to safety.

Tn magnetic condition of iron ships and the circumstances under which the cniei
- mity of their magnetic action was developed, could be well illustrated by a few
i ninenti with an iron bar — as first, showing the simple effects of the earth s
■luttion, and secondly, the augmenting or changing influence of mechanical
irate. Thus, an iron bar, entirely neutral as to its molecular magnetism, as
>' J*o by its being devoid of influence when placed horizontally, in an east and west
>. near a compass, became strongly magnetic when placed upright, or proximately
11 but its polarity was reversed by turning it with the contrary end downwards,
1>j ‘i again became neutral when laid on the horizontal east and west line. II the
" ■ l);ir, however, while held in an upright position, or inclined in the axial
‘Ui jn ol the earth’s magnetism, were subjected to percussion or other mechanical
-ccf, not only did its magnetism become much more powerful than that of simple
•--'ion, but it strongly exhibited its augmented polarity, when placed in the east
**• equatorial position, and, however it might be moved about and swung
r jj-MU polarity remained the same.

proved these two propositions by experiment. Dr, Scoresby went on to
. r*-y them to the case of iron ships, and to point out that, in consequence of the
, Action to which the material was exposed while the ships were in course
■ |On,tnictioD, it became as intensely magnetic as it was possible for malleable iron
i Ja's ““Panted magnetism, however, was not permanent or fixed, but,
r> I went circumstances, as to the relative directions of the ship’s magnetism
i*. D' . ear^> was easily changeable, and liable necessarily to be changed.
_ , ‘‘S'letisin developed by mechanical violence conld be readily neutralized, or
1 to.’ tu .a. PruPer change uf conditions, by other processes of mechanical
ihU8> l/ bar of iron magnetized by hammering were held in tlic reverse
I that in which the magnetism had been developed, and again ham-

--«i,'r,iS*Pv0lalnt5r'would lint only be altered, but reversed. Again, after well
' rtk „?!„ m a ve|"tical position, let it be quietly reversed, the lower end,

. „ im-tonf hammered, now being upwards, and let one of its extremities be
. , » • nted to a delicate compass : the deviating influence in this ease would be

<t .L|| te(l,t0 a delicate compass ; the deviating influence in this case would be
mj „ a few degrees only, from the influence of the earth s magne ism

- ion the Wgmented magnetism of the bar. It. while held in this

n to flv rnS b,0W were s'tuck on the bar with a hammer, the needle would be
• tiin-H Unrlas 11 by mrigic. and settle at a point of deviation perhaps four or
V* rln,Kreut “ before. • . ,

1 'l|tLi0t a‘Jotlle1, experiment which he was in the habit of showing wit
' ^ wasSn0 lron' t0 elucidate the phttinomcoa of mechanical vtbrahoiis or
Ui(l (I.! more rc'nark aide. Here be should employ ft couple of thin iron
•' r»l, that 7K0n!^h other, — and it would be seen, when their condition was
a*;™ .“S11 held close to the compass, horizontally cant afld west, there

1 aotinn ...i , tu me compass, normoniuiiv

whatever on thc need|e. But artcr holdimr the plates upright and

" 1 tiflLrrr sli8ht,y« or diking them with the hand, or merely g»v
‘ V'J" found5 » 18uC' anfl theu presenting them us before to the c°tnpn*s,
rn"rd le. 0 have become very strongly magnetic, thc end wbiCh

north pole of thc needle. Reversing the position of

* fur,uerlv re!5i- uPri8ht» let the vibratory action be repeated, and
m ... ?. "spMhn* u,;ii u„ e i. .. : .i . ...i. RroeatiDK

the

' ,rT»crlvrPn,ii- npfght. Jet the vibratory action be repeaieu,

,rVflry action '!‘,nf "'I11 novv he found to attract the north pole. Repeating the

ZS*** bM l.nri*ontaIly

, ■'SneUsm *"v F'«wm were uem horizontally *m

a|l a5J? d «.** founi1* on bringing tho plates to the test, to have disap-

having gone.

■ lcet ohifTti,.., , ™,npMB Having gone. . ...

Qa J?08 which might be probably offered against the application of his
an«‘ “nail bars to the case of iron ships, he had made
i.. i .."mica i r, ... .. . ... ... ... . eli ms were

r>. , "‘s on rr.ii \ • a,u«m oars iu uie cast- oi *»•«■ r ..

ihatc-s. of the same kind as those of which ships were
' ^ coinrji - ha(i ascertained that the magnetism in these also was chat g -
&ble llke that in bar iron, under the requisite change of position, by

4*

52

REPORT — 1854.

vibratory or percussive action. He had also made experiments on a portion of a
plate cut out of the side of a ship recently built, with effects exactly similar. The
general results of his experiments went to the establishing of the fact, that, besides
the two denominations of magnetism ordinarily received, that of simple terrestrial
induction and that of permanent independent magnetism, there was another deno¬
mination corresponding with neither; not being absolutely controllable, like tl.e
former, by terrestrial influences, nor capable, like the latter, of resisting all kind*
and modes of mechanical violence. To this third denomination he hud given ita
name of Retentive Mayve/imn.

Dr. Scoresby then exhibited experiments with three sets of plates, two of iron and
one of steel, for the illustrating of these several qualities of magnetism:— 1. 'Hint of
simple terrestrial induction by iron plntes free from polarity, which became lim¬
netic or changed their magnetism according to the position in which they were held.
2. Retentive magnetism, as illustrated by similar plates, which bad been previously
magnetized by bending and blows, — such magnetism appearing as if permanent
when the plates were moved about, without being vibrated or bent. And Srdlr.
Permanent magnetism, as illustrated by an elastic steel plate, which, howewr
violently it was bent or struck or vibrated, or in whatever position, still l’rT,ir*c1
its magnetism unaltered. Now this retentive magnetism was the quality which b*'
been prevalently considered us permanent ; which, he was prepared to show, m
by experiments on iron and facts of experience, was by no means a fixed qua 1
On the contrary, the long continued vibration of a ship under steam, and mud'
so the straining of a ship in a heavy sea, under the circumstance when the tem: ■>«
induction might be acting in a very different direction from the original axial po arr-
ties of the Bhip, would be sufficient to change the direction of the magne'isni or
gmally developed in the course of her construction. Hence much would d<Tr ‘ •
in respect of the mechanical action of the sea, on the position in which the Hip
been built, or on the direction of her polar axis prior to such mechanical fon.

In the case of the -Tay leu r/ when he first hoard of the catastrophe, and bad *
the evidence, he had stated to souie friends at Torquay, that lie would venture ^
pi edict that she hud boon built with her head easterly or north-easter y. .
found, on inquiry, she had been built with lier head north- cast. Here, then.
precise circumstances for expecting a change in the ship’s magnetic
Having been built with her head to the north-east, she had a ctrt»i;<f|
distribution accordingly, and when die began to strain, with her head * (0

.t distribution was necessarily changed, and the first effect of it wa o ^
produce a great difference in the two compasses adjusted by fixed magnets- ^
captain had been aware of the changes which might, and roost probably woow. ^
place when the ship began to strain in a different position from that in « . ^

j®. J.een he had known that the compasses, having so large fU;,>

hLoil00 as 60 * rai8l’t vary as much as two, or three, or even four points,''?
v ■n°wn, of course, that he must place no reliance upon them. ,e9 Onf

werp 'hb'i l 1 C<?rnlms6e5 wcre Of no use, because, under certain circum got

32 i ab,C £ change. They should be, and were, of great use for aU
Twp ihn WIShe? to ,ml,ri'88 «pon them was, that by attempting to *

able influence by a permanent influence, they were liable to produce an«S8
of erior. It was most important, therefore, for safety in navigating ' ‘h hani;C n-1

, . • , , ' MiinuiiftiH, UIVlClUItTi IMI CttU M lkJ

that captains should be made aware of the liability of the compasoes to*?^
so to mislead th«n; that they should know the circumstances undtr * {

accordance with uutural laws regulating and applying the fart,‘ 8tcbfoI ■'
nnnZ’ "T WOit likely to «CCUr; that thev should be Jto

JESTl f0f ‘)etcrn,ini,‘tr the true magnetic direction with refer* a*
a sTSrfr by ob*crv?,,on* of the sun and stars; and that by
in 1820? ITT” ul?ft (on the phm he. Dr. Scoresby, had suggested#
miiht haw y.r!Qm tbc deviating influence of the body of the ship “£-,*»**
courl A «H», small altown^ces. *'«*&*»*

anidied he nr c An<! Wlb the precautions and means such ^,ct of <flP‘

pEL Guidance InthlZ d,-d not doubt but tbat the difficx*1;1^
pass guidance, th avi«Bl,on of iron ships, might be mainly and prac

transactions of the sections.

53

The general experimental results and the principles sought to be elucidated,
were illustrated by a variety of references to actual cases of co p 6

iron ships.

fa Inquiry into the Principles and Measures on which Safety in the
Suvigation of Iron Ships mat/ he reasonably looked for. Uy t te e
W.Scoresbv, D.l)., F.P.S., Corr. Memb. Institute oj l ranee, Qc.

Thi? paper, interspersed with numerous illustrat've allusion?, was in substance as
' lw*:— His time, Dr. Scoresbv remarked, was so limited in Ins paper on it o
'■ hr ‘Tayleur/that he was obliged to leave off in the most critical position. e la
i- out the disease, but was obliged to hasten to a conclusion with scarcely a
Vri of consolation, or being able to offer any remedial advice. The result was,
,ut a gallant officer then present said to him, “Why, vou have upset all our plans;

) * hare told us compasses cannot be trusted. How are our iron ships to L’e navi-
Show us the remedy! ' Thorn'll he, Dr. Scoreshy. did not admit the
R’lOttitiility to give a remedy, it would be his object lu endeavour to point out ine
• *? circumstances under which we may expect a fair measure of accuracy m
guidance, and the circumstances to he watched againBt most eminently
‘■Mated to produce compass changes. But before entering on these points, ne
‘‘inportaut to revert, brieflv, to the leading principles developed in Ins long-niaae
croons on the magnetism in iron, with reference to the compass action un.l its
la hon ships. And this lie was the more encouraged to do, because of the
'** fh,,n8c which hnd taken place in his position, as the suggoster ami promoter oj
“ TDi^C l,h™°™na in this department, since his first paper on the subject
t. ,'a lot'ie British Association nt Oxford in 1847- ...

"ow most gratifying to find, from the paper of Mr. Archibald Smith, a gen-
,r..ernt a mathematician, and having all the records of Ucr Majesty s
■ ,'JJ u con‘passes, at command, that every essential principle, for which lie had
ns. 10 the principles which affect the development and changes in
■ Mr w£"ou.tUl*»* Emitted aud supported. These principles, so a pp ^
-J (so far as he correctly understood his papei) be

1 ™a8neti^ra of iron ships in its action on the compass, wayberepre-

*. -r.wic It iiinCr,ICa a“d a horizontal iron or magnetic bar swinging round ,p
« iSuri ' 1*™:: " xvhich -Dr. Scoresbv, had adopted some years a go,

2. Tlnt’ri>S We la9'n his publication of * Magnetieal Investigations, j .

,|,!ch hy haciang.?r *n t,ie raa8netic distribution and compass uctinn

SW/ " hicli\akc phice in a ship's magnetism by clj a ^ clre^t r i a~l
Metier, tlle duc‘ influence, theoretically assumed, g gb ,g
“Itriiuemg inferred from the Admiralty observations winch his, •* ;n

6,111 to cu' . 'sfactorily elucidated as a necessary consequence of
t *' Thai ut,'“rCK.arf to the denomination of retentive magnetism.

,n i ! ■' .art‘l "'fluonces in a ship, derived from the varieties of forraM p

t0 the compass) of n articular musses of iron, winch »>a> act as

5 ! “™ coraPaas) of particular

£ pf'an of correcting the deviation of iron ships region!

***•*»«, the ormr°r ,nufaa VoVne^> is unsafe, and in going to BOUtUer b

11 or straining of the iron materials of a ship will tend, especially

v/.'.That it to alter the magnetic action on the comp ;-',|;,trihUtion,

“ifk ultimato?vlreSllmeto <-'ffoc't the entire changes in a ship s magn ■

« eneC‘, it J ma7* in regions distant from the place of building, , ^ pr

“Id#d* a11 particulars' embodied and ,

r-v'u^ by Sr8?,0-niB' and now admitted and confirmed (as h® Scoreaby»s)

’-•'.I?' aim1 thevvff' iea,VCB nolhin8 of rpal oBJ^11011 lo establishment

u- ,im,'03ition nf m 6 f'f the rcsulta Pla,uly 8°' hc Bclmves, to the those

•U '‘Ctl in the accuracy of which he has long endeavoured to con a,,

1UaUti«,cL„ lftlon ofiron ships, that the niaguetisiuofsuch ship® * .

’ Chan9^hle ; the most enduring, or apparently fixed, being of a descr p

54

report — 1854.

tion, changeable under severe straining and mechanical violence, 'which he has
denominated retentive magnetism.

Only one particular, that he is aware of, in Mr. Smith’s exposition, remains at all
inaccordant with his (Dr. Scoresby’s) conclusions ; and that is the retaining, in the
dase of two iron ships which have been swung at the Cape, of the deviation m its
original direction. But this fact in so limited an experience cau prove little ; ami
even that to which it seems to point, — the existence of an apparent quality of per¬
manent magnetism, admits, he believes, of a simple (probable) explanation, namely,
that the intense development of retentive magnetism in some heavy ranges o
upright iron, such as the stern-post, &c., had not encountered sufficient mechauica
violence to invert or obliterate their original polarity. ,

The circumstances under which the greatest magnetic and compass
might be expected were then noticed. I . In new ships first encountering r y
straining or rolling by the sea. Illustrated case, the 'Taylcur.’ 2. In snips g
rally when first put on a voyage to a very different region. 3. In ships mngruu g
on one course and then suddenly changing their direction. Cases of tne r •
passing Cape Finisterre, other ships passing Cape Bon, and numerous ships ro 8
the Cape of Good Hope — probably the ' Birkenhead.' 4. In ships procce mg ^
the southern hemisphere. Coses numerous. 5. Stroke of the sea. '8se
' Ottawa.' 6. Stroke of lightning. Cose of the 'Bold Buccleugh.

On the other hand, no large changes may be expected under these circu ^
— 1. In iron ships long in use, and ordinarily pursuing the same voyage
temperate zone of the northern hemisphere ; because the extreme or,g|na 5(ia^
as occasioned by the oblique position of the ship’s magnetic polar axis, g
down into a medium or normal position, out of which it is less liable to
2. Hence in ships trading in our home channels or about our own coos ’ ecl<j
ing the Atlantic in parallels not very much lower, the liability to new 0
changes greatly diminishes. In such cases nn intelligent captain o • n6o(lUg
changes of deviation in all his progress, outward and homewar » ^

the particular allowances and corrections, will generally be able to lun >
course with considerable confidence.

.Ui uusci viug over me uui warns tor am puuiues, -- steering; or

2. The avoidance of masses of iron in the immediate vicinity ot t (or else*

other compass. 3. A reference compass aloft placed on the nnzcii i ret]Ucing

where), clear of iron chains and iron work, as high ns may be requisi . ()|1,
the deviation to an unimportant quantity. This was the plan, an h t],c extent
(happily a practical and simple one) the author believes could ever re a wrt
of the evil ; a plan wluch he had himself adopted and recommence in

placed before the public (Voyage of Researches and Discoveries in urt. _
the year 1823. 4. Care in selection of compasses to have e . j)V the
Ihe author’s improvement*. unfortunately but slightly adopted, excep *

Navy, had, since tlie year 1839 or 1840, trebled the ordinary power oi setlu|oUtly
needle, and rendered its endurance all but permanent. 5. Captains s . . the

avail themselves of opportunities of testing their compasses, ana t;on, !'•
deviations on the courses steered, by azimuths and other modes of oes » ^ uf

Captains should be specially informed nnd instructed on the 'liBbility w

magnetism influencing the disturbing action of iron ships, ana i ion, ,s i
compass changes. For here, in addition to the ordinary dangers " *tant U>at
peculiar source of error and misguidance, respecting which it is nioa
the captain should never be thrown off his guard. m=tances °n^cr

In the course of his remarks. Dr. Scoreshy said that the circum d3
which the 'Taylcur' had been built, as to the position of her “nttiug 1° Sl*’
N.h. and the vident straining and rolling she endured soon P o0nt, a5.^
with her head ui a direction nearly opposite, or westerly, would fu reniarkat l
believed, on principles he had long maintained aud asserted, for tn
change tn that unfortunate ship's compasses.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

55

On the Inefficient of the Aids of Science at present in connexion with tlie
Compaws of Iron Ships . By J. T. Towson, Secretary to the Local

Marine Board, Liverpool. , ,

In the name of the merchants and shipowners of Liverpool, he implored the
attention of the Section to this important subject, in the hope and belief that the
mfinbers should respond to that appeal, they would be able, before the next Meet-
iic, to confer the benefit they smlgnt, not on their account alone, noi in consi er -
t of the vast amount of property involved, but for the sake of the vast amount ot
Idfiixn life which was continually being jeopardized aud lost. They- matte
tvqaest in the belief that the compasses of iron vesse ls, if aided by all the appliances
vhirh science at present afforded, and adjusted and managed by the most talented
!’"!!viduals whom owners could engage, were still unworthy of confidence.

Dr. Scoreshy had correctly arranged magnets in three classes, permanent, re-
tmtiVe, aud inductive. The term “ retentive" ought, in his opiniou, to receive tne
‘ Action of the Section. The Rev. Doctor had relieved him from a great amount ot
wfficulty in expressing his opinions on ihe subject. He did not dissent from any-
V* "*at he had said ; but he wished to point out what he believed to be another
viircc nf error in connexion with compasses, deserving their serious consideration.

He alluded to the change that took place in the inductive magnetism of a ship when
7 over. In 1846, Mr. Walker, the Queen's Harbour-master at Plymouth,
";’^ned the permission of the Admiralty to examine the compasses of the ‘Recruit
■D llE,pling i and the result was. that the error from this canse was found to
wiuunt tu nearly one-half the maximum error experienced when on an even beam.

, ‘ be'lev.ct* tbat many of the errors in compasses on board both wood and iron
’r». which neither the mariner nor the compass-adjuster could account ,or>waa
•; 7 altnbnted to '* heeling." iu the only six cases in which he had been able to
information of the heeling of iron slims, it had been shown that considerable
li 0/3 nr>stn from this cause ; bat these, of course, were not sufficient to esta-
g.i.v} '**>'?• He thought, however, that the disastrous loss of the ' layleur
of*J 1"’i8,hly have arisen from this cause, All t.hc tables of deviation* of compasses
whu, iL u h.R(! lieeled bad the maximum amount of error, arising from heeling,
Iht ism. l • P 8 head waa directed within two or three points of the magnetic pole ,

1 1 caw* t,le l>0‘nt ol' no-deviation when the ship’s beam was horizonta .

*.ht JS'tS? ®0rtJ pole of the compass had been drawn towards tJic point to which
“-it Lheelcd' Hesides collateral means adopted for correcting the compass, the
kMn 6,„uTtr.Sln 1130 for that purpose : Cant. Johnson's system of swinging the
•ml thed\?U allne the re8ults, which was exclusively employed in the Ho>’al

wEVmer R°yal'8 method of compensating the compasses by means ot
C«pt. J0L “c,1 w?8 alrnost exclusively resorted to in this port, i he obj
*»y. Hill S J,lan was> that the corrections were liable to be employed the wrong
bad co"vin2Tnce in the examination of about 2000 masters of merchant vessels
Meucviu b.im of tbe soundness of that objection. There was ft 8

tlia ^T l00 t0 corae t0 a wr0f»B concloaiou on the subject. Ihe manner
1,1 ! Aviations indicated that the north end of the needle was drawn

1 :"i, it m’. a<1 carne to the conclusion, that if lii.s compass had a westerly '
rr8Jh ar,iiear Pla'^8e1Hu object bearing mirth to appear westerly, whereas 1‘ .

lb? Huyal Navi’ 4' an‘1 he hatl known the same mistake made onboard *bips in
***. that the • ' niost. formidable objection to the Astronomer Roya y
var)’ in I»et,C P°Ie» of the compensating magnets were liable to change o
*'• H -established ? ’Theoretically, this appeared probable; but h

bediL „ fact,to ’Unstrate it. The change of retentive magnetism, deviation
***#» commoi ,d Jhe. chause produced by going to the other hemisphere, were
?*!* 5£il°tb°th ^tems: ThB grJtit evil, which in his opinion was .con-
^nation. co,nP«Jaation, was that it concealed the amount, of orig

v'^of hUr never ract witl> a captain who could tell him the origin
;?«»•> of herlrpa8s if tllU3 corrected. In the case of the "layleur, the de
. l M ’bero ever l, ’’l08 CotnPa8a was 60°, of her compass before the jnuentnas -
5? ; Jackal > n9Ta , -R Caae in the Royal Navy ? Lieut. Pasco, when aPP.om.te*
Si,0n°ftheAd 84°.' WBS ^satisfied with a deviation of *25°, and '
Dma“° d°ubt tV,? ‘ra ty to have the compass replaced, when it was reduced to 18 ,
if they kn mas*ers of merchant vessels on this point would be q y
ew "what the real amount of original error was.

56

REPORT— 1854.

General Physics.

On the Density of various Bodies when subjected to enormous compressing
Forces. By YV. Fairbairn, C.E., F.R.S.

The author briefly explained the apparatus which lie made use of. ami gave a
sketch, ot the results at which be had arrived ; but as these were almost entirely
given in tables, we are unable to detail them without the aid of these, which are to.',
vo uminous for insertion in full. Among other matters of extreme general interest,
V? „ that' ,'"8k1cs ™«8e common pressures of 7000 lbs. to the square inch, and
n non . SU?h M Uscd 10 Mr- Hopkins's experiments, he had applied pressures of
°,°00 lba. and 90,000 lbs. to the square inch, or what would be equivalent to the
weig 1 of a column of water over 33 miles in height. Under this enormous pressure,
clay and some other substances hud acquired all the density, consistency, and hard-
ness ol some of our hardest und densest rocks.

Nouvelles Experiences sur le Mouvcmtnt Je fa Terre au Moyen du Gyroscope.
By M. h. Foucault, Paris.

1 'n[Vl“thor1 sf>0*{e. '.r‘ french, but very distinctly, and the apparatus was so simple,
Beautiful, and exquisitely constructed, that the experiments all perfectly succeeded,
anu fully interpreted the author’s meaning as he proceeded. The gyroscope is*
massive ring of brass connected with a steel axis by a thinner plate'of the tame
e a , a turned bonutilully smooth, und most accurately centred and balanced; in
o er words, the axis was made to pass accurately through the centre of gravity, and
nvU y to the plane of rotation of the entire mass. On tins

f. . “ ®ma } bul 8tout pinion, which served, when thu instrument was placed

k^a Sl fr“m°’ Contai.ning a train of stout clock-work, turned by a handle

clock work ''V nu, ®*Cccdingly rapid rotatory motion on its axis. But to tires
b? Uetachecl from it instantly. This rcvolvmg

Ki: about a inches Wide, and four of them were mounted in frames*
;^dl,nty' . r,lt‘ ,lrst was mounted in a ring, attached to a hollow sheath,

Sid belli Stn the telB aod ** plntol to nppoar on the outside, so that n

while the ,n„h° ' °V,r gras,Hd firm,y i'> the hand, if the pinion were not touched,
this n r IBf*TO raPit]Iy revolving without disturbing that motion. >
proof of* UiTdon. of gyroscope, the author afforded to the audience a sens, b
Swn wia ?f n^r L ,W,th whicb a revolving mass endeavours to maintain its

ami hamUnf i- “ "‘fh'6 rotatiou i *'» upon setting it into rapid rotatory motion.
?es sted i ‘"L n»0Um th0 r°orl,‘ Person that held it found himself forcibly

or ui oVjown n TPl'° !Um il rouud in his fingers, to the right hand or left
Suw? suScJ £*! h“d\if be swu'ig it round ; so that the idea was ^
will of its^own and JhicT”1? ’ lmt thcre wa® something living withur which h
second modification » ‘ al,Wfys opposed your will to change its position, [>
335d Sfth SSiETS**11 »■» suspended it, a stout ring, which was £
placed in a .m3?S2 S'*' bke thc ™g of the girubal. These axles could he
on a piece of smooth?. ^ ?ood bushed with brass. This small frame, when p
ho^on wtochT i^, CuU,d be tor.K-d freely round by turning the P*c««
sufficient to cw. i iff n ? '0°S ah the BJ^ope was not revolving, friction beg
rapidly retoSr n t ° 1° t0rn with ,ba but, when the gyroscope ! «■*

Which it rested^ SO • °U at|cmPtcd to turn the frame, by turning the boar
rotaUon did * endeavour to maintain its own

scojrc it’was susocude,??0'^^11!0 fr,clion- In the third modification of thegj
scope proper and the f° cxtlu's‘toly constructed that both the 1 g)

freely when placed in an/Slf® R-,nibatls wcro accurately balanced, so as ^
showcrl THAtt .In,a7 P°-*ition in relation to the earth. Bv this the au'

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

57

toning round in the gimbals, so as to bring its axis to coincide with the new axis
tou endeavoured to give it, with a life-like precision, and always so as to make its
oun direction of revolution be the same as that of the slightest turn you impart to
it. Having thus demonstrated the necessary effect of combining one rotatory motion
*/.h another, he then proceeded to demonstrate palpably that the earth's revolving
cj.ju affected the gyroscope in precisely a similar way. Having, by the screw
sijwtments, brought the gyroscope, in gimbals, to a very exact balance, it remained
hid in any position when not revolving. But, rapid rotatory motion having been
rmmitnicated to the gyroscope mass ns soon as the gimbal supports are placed on
e.and, you see the entire apparatus, slowly at first, bat at length more rapidly,
utn iiself round, nor ever settle until the axis, on which the gyroscope is revolving,
*ruScs ifcdf parallel to the terrestrial axis, in such n sense as to make the direction
m die revolving gyroscope to be the same ns that of the whole earth. He next .showed
■m. the determination with which it did this was sufficient to control the entire
v.-ru i f the instrument, though that amounted to several poands; for, taking the
Syrocopc, from the side of the ring of which a small steel wire projected,
in a hook, the wire coincided with the prolongation of the axis of the gvro-
u 01 coarse, when not made to revolve, the hook, if placed in a little agate cup
toP of a stand, would permit the instrument, bv its weight, to fall instantly,
.„7JD M the suPPort of the hand was taken from it. But, upon imparting to it
ir- rutn*ory motion, it stood up even beyond the horizontal position, so as to
of rotation nearly to the same inclination to the hori/.un as the oris of
: wu^e ihe whole acquired a slow rotatory motion round the point of the

i S0,steaJ-V waa its equilibrium while moving thus, that a string being
liirivM er,^ebook and both ends brought together in tile hand, the whole nug
VT„ . y, t“e cor<l off the stand and carried revolving steadily about the room.
f-WridJ ,notion of the earth scnsiblv, he placed the gimbal gyroscope

l‘U S W b-v a flnc silk fibre in a stand with the lower steel point of its sup-
* -"imp.! "i ai.'.a8ute CUP ; along light pointer projecting from the ring can le
wltirt.u'V llcb H^^cd over a graduated card arch of a circle placed conce -
index 'lhR Eyofcope ; upon imparting rapid rotatory motion to the gyroscop
11 f tatiun 88 SGien a* tbo eart-h moved to point out the relative motion of the p
'nt of tj! Sf!y m tbe ; the law of the motion being also the same as

“‘rtioD and |, pendulum experiment. Lastly, he set the ring gyro P

qle ’’y lacing a small pointed piece of brass at the end of the axle on tl
tii? floor hnnwent WL>nt ‘m mediately through all the evolutions of a boy s j

’ hUmni'ug meanwhile loudly also.

An A*comt
r‘J I’usion

Bef,

Of some Experiments on the Effect of Pressure on the Temperature
fltf m °J different Substances. By W‘. Hopkins, M.A.,

L ‘ Cr"at obhlnr'1"18 to give an account of these experiments, Mr. Hopkins stated
‘"■-tanre, he uSr..ffOn0,f” Mr- Fairbairn for the promptitude with which, in ^
*ince afford To *lls assistance and cooperation, and the manner m g

^^HhuSJ V ilid of h»s great practical knowledge and the ample means

nlso ht efeTtentr fford* for cun<lucting experiments of this ‘ "atUJ* ibe the
J'^tus whioh6^ "hhgations to Mr. Joule, lie then proceeded to d b

’r''3' been VISotl mid the causes of the successive fe'lurC9' ’ J

devised and constructed which was

V ‘Colt7 luid belf“r u BUhstnnces sufficiently fusible to be experimented on. u ^
ln a ruetal t„i D .a$Ccrt*Mning the moment when the substance en >
uT A small bccame but it had been overcome by the Mlnvmg V

' °f ab°nt a oP"1li0u "f ‘he substance was pul into a Brass tube open at one .end.
X t,1(i of * , X an iach ^ diameter, and was then molted. » *£■

firal V'l"c1' the Lw Ucedlc Wiva inserted in it to the depth of a,,out b‘ hccomin°-
c25[ fixe<l in it b?,anC0 Wsis left to cool and solidify, the needle pLmbe

U^t'hcatinu ‘ •„ 10 tube was then screwed on to the extremity ol. sub_

^l^rinfented1 tt Vertk'ul c>'linder filled with oil, the tube conJjTLisg the
d on, and the magnetized needle being also vertical.

58

REPORT— -1854.

substance at its upper end within the needle projecting downwards from it. This
tube was also surrounded by a bath filled with oil, the surface of which just covered
the upper end of the tube. A powerful lever acted on a piston carefully packed and
fitting accurately into the vertical cylinder just mentioned, and the pressure thus
applied to the oil, filling the cylinder and the tubes, was communicated to the sub¬
stance at the upper end of the vertical tube. The substance was then gradually and
slowly heated by heating the oil in the ball), the temperature of which was known
by a thermometer with its boll immersed in it. The temperature was thus increased
till the needle dropped down from the top of the tube. To ascertain the exact instant
when this took place, a small compass was so placed near the top of the tube con¬
taining the magnetized needle, that the needle of the compass was deflected about
90° from its nntural position, its return to which was the signal that the magnetiad
needle had fallen, and the substance melted. The temperature of the bath at that
instant gave the temperature of liquefaction.

The following ore some of tire results obtained

Substances experimented
upon.

Pressure in lb*, to the
square inch.

Temperature Fahr. at which it
liquedcd.

Spermaceti .

0

7790

11,880

o

124

O

140

0

176-5

Wax .

0

7790

11,880

148-5

166-5

176-5

Sulphur .

0

7790

11,880

255

275-5

285

Stearine .

0

7790

11,880

138

155

165

course wnen the weight 0 was on the piston, the substance was unner
spheric pressure, or about 15 lbs. to the square inch; the pressure of 779°
per square inch was that at which the Britannia Bridge had been raised. J'rj
Hopkins had also tried the metallic alloys which fuse at law temperatures, but
not detected any elevation of fusing temperature required by increasing the pressun-,
relied upo cxPer‘raeut3 required to be repeated and confirmed before they coul

Ot*^?ormvlai for the Maximum Pressure and Latent Heat of Vapour*- HjJ
VV ilham John Macquokn Ranking, C.E., F.K.SS. Land, tf

■ y

„1.Thr5Uthor> ,roa80n'Qg from the supposition that the pressure exerted by » K'P
-lts vaPour- when in contact with each other, is the result o
pansive elasticity in the vapour, balanced by an attractive force which tends
rnniens-e ,h,° surfacc of the liquid or solid, many years since arrived*

temnPMif" that ,t,le law connecting the maximum pressure of a vaP°uf Jlbv
the follo\v[ngVfOU l^ Pro^a^ty be found to be represented to a near approxi

log P=A-5_g_&c. ;

F

MiTthpr T denotes the temperature racusured from the absolute zero of the I1 ,,
P the maximum pressure; and A, B, C, *c.. constants to

The tn . ,0ra/!XPCn’uental data for each substance. . ffl0rnetef

■m lhe raost Prohabie position of the absolute zero of the perfect gas therm

274° for the Centigrade scale,

Havimr ... 4dl0,2 for Fahrenheit's scale. nrr«ur«

steam usinJthrtil! 0rmulu ,n M- Rcgnaulfs experiments on theP^^
expedmentfl dam hT with three constants A. B, C, determined fru® !
SBTSSiS A T\ th° rcsult3 of experiment and calculation
with M Ste* he Wl-0lc Cxtcnt of the experiments. The same was ^ ^
ZrL oily * e*l>erimcuts on the vapour of mercury, using a form8*8

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

59

Formula; of three terms for alcohol and rather and of ‘two terms
ind petroleum, were found to represent the results of Dr. r P - ti,c
these fluids as closely as could be expected from the degree p

These investigations were published in the 'Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal

for July 1849* , , . .1

M. llegnault having recently published an extensive series of expenmen s on i le
pressures of the vapours of aether, sulphuret of carbon, alcohol, essence P
•i'*» and chloroform (Comptes Rendus, 14th August 1S54J, t he author - P!
r,nnul;e of the land proposed by him, of three terms, to these expenm *

Krsent paper states the results of these investigations, and gives a ta e o ' ,

Dms in the formula; far the pressures of the vapours of the nve Uuii s a f ’
'.octther with those for water and mercury, formerly determined, J he .

*«r and mercury are slightly modified to adapt them to the position .

l-’t‘ zero now considered most probable, that lormerly adopt© >y
•“dug been 0-6 of a Centigrade degree lower ; but this modification causes no p
hnlly appreciable alteration in the computed pressures*. ne

The degree of closeness of the agreement of the formula; wi h -
'«periment, corresponds in a remarkable manner with the degree ofponty Utwmcn,

»** ***•<*. «» fl-d. fobutari. is??”;

sther above that temperature ; for essence of turpentine (which u g
io cealar change by boiling), the formula is not applicable brfow - 70J

for chloroform (which it is impossible to obtain absolutely Pureh
-'ji igradc ; but above these temperatures the agreement is very sat‘®,ac
'^ author shows that, although the densities of the vapours of the seven i fluids
red to are known only by conjecture, the formulae lor them maximu p

^ord the means of computing for each fluid the function r being the mechanical

°.f tlle latent heat of evaporation at any given temperature of so mneb
i ' fS 15 “ecesaary t0 in the state of vapour, a space greater than it mis

h<IUld Btnte by unity of volume t-

On Mechanical Antecedents of Motion, I feat, and Light.

By Professor W. Thomson, M.A., F.RS.

r|‘!(hiiuica[I)mUn'Ca','<Jn Was °Penetl with some general explanation^ t^e

*a‘m& forin\ner6'i’ antl the termB which have been introduced Q up 0f
^tlies, h~ler which il Is manifested. Any piece of S' °lUotioUVithout
^tcrnai „ . 0r connected, which either is in motion, or can g‘ . 0f motion

Mvb caT ance* huawhat *9 culled mechanical energy. ^,e ^energy of a
"dynamical energy" or "actual energy. filled

^Ciaiylem at,,re9t' in virtue of which it can get into the

1;I,1 of a sL"ei5-’- ihe author showed the use of these te >^ i various

l lr**ttatinn» °A mer9y> and conversions and transformations ® . Aas potential

1 'irgv. 9tone at a height, or an elevated reservoir of ' actnal -energy

it , hc st°ne be let full, its potential energy is converted ^ at the

entirely as the actual energy of ^ to
f",t on th/ii* 8t,rikps* and is transformed into heat at the m channel, its

''■■'•ntinl eneSr„°vni If the water flow down by a gradual r rding to an
^jniiable ls gradually converted into heat by fluid fnc > ago,

^tCfcrymade by Mr. Joule of Manchester the

, ed t0 greatest reform that physical science has cxperiencea

fciTll*,bIir£|e,CLC0,,ftanta I® published in llie Philosophical 1JI * UlnSSTof Vapours
I ? lhcir hiU heei1 »ucce«afUUv applied to the computation of ‘',c . of Edinburgh,

bruary i9th"i85r or evnPorori°n- >" ■ rc°d to ihe B°y<a }

GO

REPORT — 1854.

days of Newton. From that discovery, it may be concluded with certainty flat
heat is not matter, but some kind of motion among the particles of matter; a con¬
clusion established, it is true, by Sir Humphrey Davy and Count Rumfordatthe
end of last century, but ignored by even the highest scientific men during a perial
of more than forty years, Mr. Joule, by a series of well-planned and executed
experiments, ascertained that a pound of water would have its temperature
increased by 1° (Fahrenheit) if it kept all the heat that would be generated by to
descent through 772 feet; that is, the “ actual" or " dynamical’’ enemy of a
much heat as raises the temperature of a pound of water 1° is au exact eijuiralfc:
for the potential energy of a pound of matter 772 feet above the ground. Mr.
Joule also fully established the relations of equivalence among the energis if
chemical affinity, of heat, of combination, or of combustion, of electrical current
in the galvanic battery, of electrical currents in magneto-electric machine-, a
engines worked by galvanism, and of ull the varied and interchangeable mani¬
festations of calorific action and mechanical force which accompany them. Tte*
researches, with the theory of animal heat and motion in relation to the hi! -
combustion of the food, and the theory of the phenomena presented by shown?
slats, clue to the same penetrating investigation, have afforded to the author of fix
present communication the chief groundwork for his speculations.

I lie beat emitted by animals, and the mechanical effects which they produce.
transformations ol the energy of chemical affinity with which the food consume! :
them combines with the oxygen they inhale. The heat, sound, and mechanic
effects produced by the explosion of gunpowder are, all together, equivalent:.!;'
energy of chemical affinity between the different substances of which gunpowfcra
composed. The potential energy of war is contained in the stores of gonpoKto
and food brought into the field. The gunpowder carried by artillery and info*
cuntam, all the potential energy ordinarily brought into action by those two an :
ni.tonf 87V,Ce* i,l'e raon'8 food', and the forage for the horses, contain the stum*
sailo^ Ifl'nergy dra'v\ulK)n in a charge of cavalry. Artillerymen, foot sold.*,
bv which* till6™ ]Vlt • t,heir enS*nes# guns, swords, are only means and appi-“\
dSected to CI‘Crg-v contained in the stores of gunpowder and feou-

The hPnt * 1 lc. )low8t by which the desired effects are produced.

e heat and mechanical actions of animals are transformations of the poten .*

animals and Can grow in tbe dark, are nourished bv organic food _

vegetables mf *1, °r^ 0X- Sen aQd exhale carbonic acid like animals, all 1
mutter from grcatcr .part of their substance, certainly all their combu^; •

the air and soil ,f,fomP°81t'0n of carbonic acid and water, absorbed by ,lie® : ;

The

tie*

decomposition* i« V* tep8ratio0 °f carbon and of hydrogen from oxygen in
those elements hi ?nepB®tic effect, equivalent to the heat of recombinate
and the subseoS5.nV busl,on 0r otherwise. The beautiful discovery of ft**-'
and otLrs lX1lTe5,rches of Senncbier. De Saussure, Sir Humphrey
carbonic acid onlv t '! llu‘te certain that those decompositions ol vra
the greenhl, 1 rP’aee naturally in the day time, and that light
ditin'n, without wbirb'fK01" tbe SUn or frotn aD artificial source, is an essential ^
it is the dynamienl . K- are never effected. There cannot be a doubt r
forcing the nartielc^Af^ ?*" tbe luminiferous vibrations which is here jj
which they are »,ttrn ,c5r^°.n, and hydrogen away from those of oxygen,
motion. n?c redur* ' T^w,lh •«* Powerful affinities; and that lumun^;
thus called into brinif extent exactly equivalent to the potenti .

foliage is to ml S, 'Vtether or not the coilness of green fields ^.
j» put out of expiate riff ° C.Xtcnt ^ue to this cause, it is quite certain that* n ^ _
just as much heat neither n ^ ln the SroVV<h of plants in any locahtv. an
growth of any period of fi”‘0re nor le**> emitted from fires in which ( the j- »
Ancient vegetation derived it° ls buCned- Coal, composed as it is of the
fires then give us heat and i:i?f*te?tial euergV from the light of distent ag •

Our coal fires and n a mnif • Which haa &n got from the sun a

6a& laraP3 l)nnS out for our present comfort beat and 1#*

TRANSACTIONS OF TIIE SECTIONS.

61

primeval sun which have lain dormant as potential energy beneath seas and moun¬
tains for countless ages.

We must look then to the sun as the source from which the mechanical energy
of all the motions and heat of living creatures, and all the motion, heat, and light
derived from fires and artificial flames is supplied. The natural motions of air and
water derive their energy partly, no doubt, from the sun's heat, but partly also from
the earth’s rotary motion and' the relative motions and mutual farces between the
earth, moon, and sun. If we except the heat, derivable from the combustion of
native sulphur, and of meteoric iron, every kind of motion (heat and light included)
that takes place naturally, or that can be called into existence through man’s
directing powers on this earth, derives its mechanical energy either from tile sun’s
heat or from motions and forces among bodies of the solar system.

In a speculation recently communicated to the Roj'hI Society of Edinburgh, the
author has shown that the sun’s heat is probably due to friction iu the atmosphere
between bis surface and a vortex of vapours, fed externally by the evaporation of
small planets, in a region of very high temperature round the sun, which they reach
by gradual spiral paths, and falling in torrents of meteoric rain, down from the
luminous atmosphere of intense resistance, to the sun’s surface.

A continuation of the inquiry raises the question, from what source do the
planets, large and small, derive the mechanical energy of their motions? This is a
question, to the answering of which mechanical reasoning may legitimately be
applied: for we know that from age to age the potential energy of the mutual
gravitation of those bodies is gradually expended, hall in augmenting their motions,
ami hulf in generating heat; and we may trace this kind of action either backwards
or forwards ; backwards for a million of million of year's with as little presumption
as forwards for a siugle day. If we trace them forwards, we find that the end of
this world as a habitation for man, or for any living creature or plant at present
existing in it, is mechanically inevitable ; and if wc trace them backwards according
to Ihe laws of matter and motion, certainly fulfilled in all the actions of nature
which we have been allowed to observe, we find that a time must have been when
the earth, with no sun to illuminate it, the other bodies known to us as planets,
and the countless smaller planetary masses at present seen as the zodiacal light,
must have been indefinitely remote from one another and from all other solids in
space. AH such conclusion's are subject to limitations, as we do not know at what
moment a creation of matter or energv may have given a beginning, beyond which
mechanical speculations cannot lead us. If in purely mechanical science we are
ever liable to forget this limitation, we ought to be reminded of it by considering
that purely mechanical reasoning shows a time when the earth must lave ee“
tenantless ■ and teaches uh that our own bodies, as well as all living plants and
animals, and all fossil organic remains, arc organized forms of matter to which
science can point no antecedent except the Will of a Creator, a truth amply con¬
firmed by the evidence of geological history. Hut if duty impressed with this
limitation to the certainty of all speculations regarding the future and p rc-historical
periods of the past, we may legitimately push them into endless futurity, ana we
ran be stopped by no barrier of past time, without ascertaining at some finite epocli
a state of matter derivable from no antecedent by natural laws. Although we can
conceive of 6uch a state of all matter, or of the matter within any limited space,
and have cases of it in the arbitrary distributions of temperature, prescribed as
'’initial” in the theory of the conduction of heat (see* Cambridge Mathematical
Journal, vol. iv. 1843), yet we have no indications whatever or natural instances ol
it, and in the present state of science we may look for mechanical antecedents to
every natural state of matter which we either know or can conceive at any past
epoch however remote.

It is by tracing backwards the motions which are at present observed, according
to the known laws of motion and beat, with no limit as to time, that the author
arrives at the conclusion that the bodies now constituting our solar system have

* " Note on some point* in ihc Theory of Heal,” a short article in which it was shown how
to te»t the age of a distribution of heat, by applying a certain criterion of convergence to i s
expression in the infinite series characteristic of the external circumstances of the bo y in
which it is given.

62

REPORT — 1854.

been at infinitely greater distances from one another in space than they are now.
He remarked that the nebular theop', as ordinarily stated, assuming as it does a
previously gaseous state of matter, is not only untrue, but the reverse of the truth,
according to the views now brought forward, since these show evaporation as a
necessary consequence of heat generated by collisions and friction, and the genera!
past and present tendency of matter is seen to be the conglomeration of solids
and liquids accompanied by a gradual increase of the quantity of gaseous fluid
occupying space.

Prof. Helmholtz, in a most interesting popular lecture on transformations of
natural lorces, delivered on the 7th of February last at Konigsberg, has estimated
that, if the particles at present constituting the sun’s mass have been drawn
together by mutual gravitation, from a state of infinite diffusion, as supposed in the
nebular theory, not however a gaseous state, as ordinarily supposed, but a state in
w nch the particles exercise no mutual action except that of gravitation, the whole
neat generated must have amounted to about 28,000,000 thermal units Centigrade
per pound of t he sun s mass. This estimate would not, as the author of the present
paper shows, require any change, whether we assume, as the antecedent condition of
u so ar mass, a state of infinite diffusion, or a state of aggregation in solid masses

any (intensions small compared with his present dimensions, and separated from
”.e ^no e*". al comparatively great distances ; provided always there has been no
f linn ''ll m<> V01,1 aui0DS them except what is generated bv mutual gravitation. If,
author' 0 6 tnJlSS ol tbe sun bas grown by the process which, according to the
• S„ ,leor>' °* sohu' heat ( certain as regards a part, whether or not it may be
aujrmnnti ° acc°unt ,or the whole of the radiation of solar heat), we know to be
at present, there must have been generated, in the whole process of
nboiit 20 nnn nnn*' <,uailt,ty °f heat stated above ; a quantity which amounts to
aoIr SpTr tunes ns much as is at present radiated off in one year. Toe
off’ imniedintrlv on8| ?r believing that this heat must have been nearly all radiated
the con atom pi'nf-o i Cin® Seneratcd, and that enough of it has not been retained in
U drawn ° t0 be the store from wtfch the heat at present radiated

in the ra^'at'on is supplied chiefly from a store of heat contained

meteors which linvo'rnTi1,3^^ t!ler.e or generated mechanically by the impact ot
improbable. ai en ln during remote periods of past time, appears very

plying heat *n all probability be some agency continually sop-

»u"n; and that nrrPi!f?*att f ,le loss constantly experienced by radiation from the
the mechanical J as tae author has shown elsewhere, can be no other than

sun to rest on bis surface'” asses coming from a state of very rapid motion round Utf

rest and at great'tlisfnn^^0? a s-'stern of solid bodies, large and small, initially3]
by the resistance their s.frotn one another, may, by their mutual gravitations, aa
rated from them bvtbo h° “lu.st experience in the gaseous atmosphere, evapo*
a state of motion heat nn!i °r t,le‘r collisions after a vast period of time, come
system and the stars Th0 * analogous to the present condition of our so*

different systems startino- f °ri®iri rotatory motion is explained by showing
frnrj rotatory motions witl°n\re8t influence one another so as to acquire con-
by the whole. Any svslen °. &n' aSSregate of rotatory momentum being acquire]
mass, after having thus -°r ,grouP beginning to concentrate round one princ'P"
it, in a certain sta"-e of n,ilirC( a m°nientum of rotatory motion, will acquire m
° ncement, just such approximately circular motions

be the ene^gy^f g^Iihadon 2fcl?-,,0t* as the nebular theory has led some to suppose it «?'
since without Increased pressure any conflnued condensation of the sun’s present >«*•
place ; and the heat emitted in r’nn 'S °nIy by cooling that any condensation can be ts '•'?
°n tn<* specific heat of tliP e^uence of condensation by cooling, would depend tnt.
and pressure, and might ffn- e mass in its actual circumstances of tempera

temperature and pressures) be urn. , "e know of the properties of matter at such '.

the work done by gravity on the than» equal to, or less than the thennal equivakn
7 lue contracting body.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

63

those of the planets, the particles of the zodiacal light and the satellites of our solar
system, and such rotatory motions as the central and other masses are known to
have, all chiefly in one direction.

In considering the question whether all the heat and motion existing in matter
have their origin in that action by which their amount is at present being increased,
it is shown that, unless their entire actual energy exceeds a certain definite limit,
namely, the value of the whole potential energy of gravitation that would be spent
in drawing all the particles of matter from a state of infinite diffusion into their
present positions, it is quite possible they may be so produced ; or that the potential
entry/ of gravitation may he in reality the ultimate created antecedent of all the motion,
heat, and light at present in the universe.

On the Motion of Fluids ; a remarkable variation in the great Elementary

Law of the ratio between Pressure and Velocity. By William Petrie,

Woolwich.

One of the most universally recognised laws of the flow of fluids is, that the
velocity of flow through an aperture from or to a containing vessel varies as the
square root nf the pressure, and this law is evidently a necessary corollary from
the first principles of dynamics.

The present paper is to call attention to the fact, that when the passage through
which the fluid (as air or water) is forced, consists of a single check, such as a
mple hole, the above law holds precisely true ; yet when the passage consists of an
indefinitely numerous consecutive series of checks, such as a tube containing sand,
the velocity of flow varies in the direct arithmetical, ratio of the pressure ; and that
in the intermediate cases of a few consecutive checks being placed to retard the flow
uf the fluid, the law seems to follow various intermediate ratios accordingly. For
the rase of about 30 consecutive chocks causes the law of variation of velocity to be
06 the J power of the pressure.

Whether this important law be altogether new or not, the author feels it to be
ino.st perplexing ; it being, apparently, contrary to the most indubitable deductions
from the above-named great elementary law. For it is to be observed that it is no
question regarding the absolute velocity of (low through the checking passage, under
a certain pressure of fluid; that might well be regarded as incalculable, and not
Accurately amenuble to any discoverable rules in such u practically complex dyna¬
mic11' condition as the flow of air or of a liquid through a mass ot sand. But the
question regards the effect uf a simple variation of pressure, ceteris paribus, in which
TWiatiou, therefore, all the directions and counteractions of currents, however
complex, must remain relatively precisely the same, the velocities of all being
necessarily affected in precisely the same ratio. The subject has many ramifications
J "flnch the author hopes in some degree to follow up.

On u Method of Computing the Absolute Volume of the Ultimate Particles of
Liquids. Jiy J. J. Watersten.

!“ paper certain theoretical views regarding the mutual action of particles of
l iquid, especially near its free surface, were brought forward, according to which a
nation between the IaU ..r heat of its vapour and the contractile tendency of its
surface was established in terms of the dimensions of its atoms, supposed by the
I” , ^ to kHinite. Experiments on the forms and dimensions of drops of water,
u the bearing of water in capillary tubes, exhibited by diagrams traced from pho-
cr»pns, were described, from which thecapillary tension of a free surface of water
estimated. A comparison of this result with data regarding the mechanical
'Ptt °* steam afforded by M. Regmullt and Mr. Joule by experiment, led the
C0°clusion that the number of atoms in a cubic inch of water is about
q a o the cube of 216,000,000 ; or, that there are only as many atoms of water
mass of the liqujj equal in volume to a billiard ball, as there are of such volumes
the whole bulk of the earth.

and tl u" between the capillary tensions of different liquids, their atomic weights,
c latent heats of their vapours, was shown to follow from the theory ; aQd it

64

REPORT — 1854.

was pointed out that, as far as experiment gives data for judging, this relation
appears to be fulfilled in the comparative conditions of water and alcohol.

CHEMISTRY.

On the Constitution of Meconine and Papaverine, mid their Relations to tii
other Constituents of Opium. By Thomas Anderson, it MX, Prof a ■
of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow.

Tin: author commenced by referring to the opinion often expressed by dim -
that where several well-marked crystalline compounds are met with in the si*
plant, some definite chemical relation must exist between them. But even in tii -
cases — as for instance in that of quinine and cinchonine, where the formula? of '
substances are very simply related — the conversion of one into the other lias not Ura
successful. In the course of the author's investigation of the opium compmimk
had obtained a product of decomposition of narcotine, which he called opian ■
J lie result of the experiments now detailed showed that this substance is idrf
with the meconine which Combe found naturally existing in opium. The an:1
having thus made the first step towards the simplification of the complex chem -
"f opium, concluded by pointing out the relations subsisting among its other coa>:
t uents ; and expressed the opinion that these could not be fortuitous, but pointed
the possibility of further simplifications.

°» the Alkaloids produced during the Destructive Distillation of Am
■Substances. By Thomas Anderson. M.D., Professor of Cherniy *
the University of Glasgow.

vofflC1? n?,ai'!(l l!!e dt5tai,a of Dr. Anderson’s most recent researches ou w
to thi> nir-'<!l';IS, ° . '*d>e s He gave a description of a new base, collidine, belong. :
substances l'.el s‘‘rR's' nild ;i 8ct of experiments which established the fact that t'.^
. lothe class of nitrvle bases. Ethylo-piridiue and ethylo-piw-

uesciibed, mid their decompositions explained.

were

^ °U°dion Negatives. By George Robert Berry, Liverpool.

requisite iTmifV, *° b,,'ebe?n a gfent difficulty with many operators in obtaining
satisfnctorv nc'6ntl,vc collodion proof that shall by the after-priming > -

lowed, tlu'" author nfir1’0' ,mPrc,5sions. Selecting from (lie formula; general'} j
strengthen in the „rnn * .?aPcr„aI,P,,ed chloride of gold to the negatives he desire
priulucc n/e 0f°,,e S'™ to an ounce of water; and if this d;dr->

the proof a solution 1 \ •“!' 8<*cr wa8h«ng away the excess of chloride, floated
to 1 ox. of water It - llde °f ammonium, varying in strength from 3 to 10 •r ‘'
transmitted liolit "li..rod,,„ niCflns> impressions so feeble as to he hardly visit-- •
ing. ()„c diflicnltv n-n, ™Pfl. de °/ yielding satisfactory results when used tor f* ‘
I... *.. Darned — the coll ndfnn film at 'all Fonder while niN*

auilflPBtU'l » it ?IU W *» "W” - •

becomes so easily ^isnuIISd'f^IT1!6 C°1,lod‘°” at a11 ,!mcs tender while

. . . — ^ i fiom the glass plate after the application of an) 11

t IIP flDnm'pU; - _ r . . r i . -• _ _ _ tlm ftvrfiC

J 1 I AJITI

•-tri iigtheninc nrocessoi »i, f«*‘® «*►« — - ~.

and not tin- rule Tl.;- „i 1 i ° nc<lll,8,t,x,n °f » perfect ne-cative was the exttf*
to dry after In-inc dovelnneV0 le may hie easily surmounted by allowing the photefrs
of v,;,:ln> B„d ,1, v« S' aVd *Xe<* cith*r V cyanide of potassium or hvposu ;
period of time he MiVeh- t'/"^ ^ 1 10 113 ua^ Wfl> - " The photograph may then -
"iuin process olwm-vin » honed by repeating the gold and stdpbide of nni -
stimuli for ,1 ’ Si Writ of wine instead of water as the £

sti muli for the ™„h! o. i 1 • j reLt,',cd spirit of wine instead of water as the in-
the collodion film, and amlth^" T,le tenacity of the varnish ensures the ;
h'tind that l>v tho use Cr S®0.1 varnish completes the profess. Thei • ;

prolonged in' the camera ll?) aC,ld "? his Bi,Ver bath the tirae »!' exposure iv,o n
and by this means he L, l('le|l|,evchipcd pictures proved of extraordinary ln^- (

provided always that the eoIUr *“nes bec,tl able to produce satisfactorv ne^

3 the collodions employed be not made sensitive by iodideor t-

TRANSACTIONS OP THE SECTIONS.

63

raide of ammonium. It is true that a portion of gallnte of silver soon precipitates, but
silver solutions of moderate strength always retain in solution a portion of the preci¬
pitant; and this fact lias been made use of by the author, Mr. Thomas and some
others, by adding excess of moist iodide of silver to a new silver bath, to obviate the
tendency it has to dissolve out the film of iodide of silver on the collodion plate..
When using a bromide as the sensitizing agent, bromide of calcium lias been found
most effective ; the nitrate of lime resulting from its decomposition in the silver bath
having no detrimental action. The formula is as follows bromide of calcium,

4 grains; dissolve in spirit of wine 2 drachms; add rectified ittber G drachms, gun
cotton quan. guff. The silver bath used must be GO grains to the ounce. The bro-
m.ied collodion is tolerably rapid, mid, unlike most others, improves by age, even
hejond n twelvemonth. The author lias used the following formula with a simple
30-grain silver bath, and has obtained in all the varying conditions of light, whether
of news or portraits, any amount of vigour desired: — The collodion : Take pure
fcdide of potassium, any quantity ; triturate this in a glass raortnr with spirit of wine,
Jl over proof, Until the spirit is unable to dissolve more of the iodide. Tukc of this
solution ;j parts ; sulphuric ccthor, free from acid, 5 parts ; mix and dissolve in it gun
cotton, to form u tough and rather thick film. The developing agent is, pyro-gallic
“cid, 2 grains; glacial acetic acid, 20 drops; spirit of wine, l drachm; watev to make
»p 1 oz.

On the Physiological Proper tic* of Curbazctic Acid.

By Professor F. Crack Calvert.

Hie author stated that lie had supplied some of this acid to Dr. Bell, Physician to
the Royal Infirmary, Manchester, wiio had cured several cases of intermittent fever
whit, He also said that he Bliould be very happy to furnish any physician with a
iff" 9uantity of this substance, so that its real medical value might be ascertained.
After describing the process by which puve carlmzotic could be procured from carbolic
he impressed upon the Meeting the value of the pure acid as a yellow dye for

0a the Action of Gallic and Tannic Acids on Iron and Alumina Mordants.
By Professor F. Crack Calvert.

fhe author drew the following conclusions from the facts contained in his commu-
nication 1st. That there can be no doubt that tannic acid is the matter in tanning
whstances which produces black with iron mordants. 2ticlly. That the reason of gal-
‘c ac‘d producing no black dye is, that it reduces the peroxide of iron in the mordant,
wiling a colourless and soluble gallnte of protoxide of iron. 3r(lly. That gallic add
“ the property of dissolving hydrate of alumina, and also of separating alumina
mordants from the cloth on which they are fixed. 4thly. That the reason of extracts
,*n,l,ng matter losing their dyeing properties is, that the tannin is transformed into
n' IC.flc , , "hilly. That gallic ucid possesses the property of dissolving iron, and
'u' a.VE c'ajm to the character of atmc add ; whilst tannin, not having this action,
bim to ho in reality a nentrul substance, fithly. lie also found that 2 to
•- ft impure carbolic add added to extracts of tunning matters, such as those of
JWch, quercitron hark, &c., completely prevented for several months the transfor-
„r. l01’ °' *be tannin which they contained into gallic acid, and thus rendered tannin
e«racts commercially useful.

r,.f -Action of Citric, Tartaric and Oxalic Acids on Cotton and Flax
tores under the influence of Dry Heat and Pressure of Steam. Bip
Professor F. Crace Calvert.

'las observed that when two to four parts of these acids are dissolved in
'vard l*0. ,Water» and linen or cotton dipped into the solution obtained, and after-
Ihe tenant * r ?ie ^Gy, on exposure to certain temperatures, completely destroy
1854 * ' °l t"e ™re‘ Pbis action of organic acids is interesting when it is known

66

REPORT— 1854.

tliat it takes place even at the low temperature of 180°, 212° and 260° Falir. He
also ftmnd that cotton and flax fibres, when prepared as above and (lien submitted to
the influence of steam of three lbs. pressure, were destroyed.

On the apparently Mechanical Action accompanying Electric Transfer.
By Andrew Crosse.

The author found, by electrifying a sovereign positively in close contact with »
piece of carbonate of lime, under nitric acid diluted with fifty times its quantity of
water, that a portion of the milled edge of the coin was struck off in pieces, some of
which were large enough to retain the milled edge upon them distinctly. The voluic
action was kept up for fifty hours ; and at the expiration of that time the coin hod
iost three grains in weight; and a ground glass rod that used to keep the coin in con*
toct with the limestone was permanently gilded ; and this took place at the positive
e' ".h0 weight of the portions removed from the coin exactly corresponded with
he deficiency. The solution being tested contained nitrate of lime, but uo gold i t
copper. He likewise found, on repeating this experiment with sulphuric acid, similarly
diluted the voltaic action being kept up for ninety hours — that six grains of
were removed from the edge of the coin; and the pieces broken off weighed the >»nif.
i AtnP .°t gains being placed on the edges of the jar containing the dilute acid, ar J
Halt an inch above its surface, am! in a line with the electric current, had its to*"
part covered with crystals of sulphate of lime, each one of which was at rigid nu;‘ '
to the electric current. The friction of the carbonic acid gas, liberated from that part
m contact with the coin, was apparently the mechanical cause o v.t
removat of the edges. The author stated that ho had tried various experiments tot"
SITS?0”!"1* Voltaic electricity upon different substances, which in his opinion
P ie effects of the mechanical action accompanying electric transfer.

On the Decomposition of Magnesian Limestone at Brodsicorth.

By J. A. Davies.

°n Collodion Photographs of the Moons Surface. By Dr. Edwards.

thej°>»mcncemont of the present year, the Liverpool Photographic Society,
A * ?ng 4 ie. !/nl,ortnnce of tiiis object, and the interest felt in it by the ‘
Hartmmof.f Ir • lllst \ncotinfr requested Mr. J. A. Forrest, its Secretary, Mr -
SSZtf*" ,‘!Verl'Oil Observatory, and the author, to act as a committee M
tlu> nfJ* ° llogruph9 of the moon by the Liverpool telescope, and to lav them ^
,r:rnM^ of thc This Committee have produced aji-

nrcsen ' reS w4 variable WWCCM, and some of the most perfect copies
mounting aJVVUn$‘ ^l'e telescope is furnished with an excellent eq ^
lias a for^'l I CJ°cl/Work mol*on of great firmnesa and steadiness. The o J ^
=£?*£** * a,,0Ut l2* 4ccL and a small camera-box being substituted fj ^

oJdiWvmi! *aS received upon the ground glass, nr prepared Hate, i , ,

be about p;«,h»n»r' n,,,ch fruitless labour, the chemical focus was dl?C 0.-fT-

corrected *“ i,,eh h^d llia» of the visual one, thc glass

nearly cninmA***9?' ,n. ro*P<?cl to its actinic focus. This we have since f .
with the 0Yiwfn Wf if ti"? °f f°C1’ the several lenses is duly a .

once accnrw^ir*5* °f roft'ssor Phillips ami other labourers iu the same held- ^ ^
at first 'difficult C0l,rBe answers for all subsequent experimen • ,.c

to Si mS rfS.deCtfe Whether wont of sharpness of outline observed ™ ,

Aave been obfaMlwS? °r ,mPerfect ,bcusi»g» and the. ,no8t f^J^additio"
to the elock mnif. “V % continual motion of Mr. Hartnup'a steady hand m ^
piece of good *V8 °)e ,vas kt,j't on ihe finder with a.,nlCI ™iut fn tii«

field without nrn»«.h»^i whlc.h *ie couIfl maintain the position of a given po

Sir bd if2Eu # Tial!on' A"d> when the nrnon is

accurately^ 5 ^ **“ above the only mode of following her

The author described the chemicals used.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

67

These pictures have been since copied and enlarged in the camera by transmitted
li|ht ; and, for this purpose, those developed with the iron have been preferred. The
excellence of the pictures for transmitted light, whether in copying or illuminating by
^ lantern, seems to be governed by their tone of colour rather than their upparcut
cecity. Mr. M'Innes has been very successful in copying and enlarging these pictures
hr (lie lantern.

fJn Photographs upon Albumen. By M. Ferrikre. Communicated by the
Abbe Moigno.

hiring the reading of this paper a number of very large and beautiful photo-
Siwed raW1U^3 were exh*bited, as illustrative of the excellence of the process

°nMe Chemical Examination of some AUou * of Copper and Zinc.
By David Forbes, F.G.S.,' A.'l.C.E.

these were submit ♦liT t • . nieP .Vcll‘,w» of a crystalline texture,
"•'""ds of examination C.he*™ca t'Xunm*atmn, and the results, ns well ns the

* reduced to powSJwm h° ,l110^' wl,ich wa* 80 bri,tlc «8 to

^ Which wwia doselv -0U"d C?nMBl of C0PPpr l^l.und zinc 53-19 per

; ' *Mch, on the comrl PIn'OX,matC t0 tbc du',ni,-'‘‘ ‘^mula Cu. Zn,.. ’1 he yel-

fl'per and 43.09 Su.?*8 ,l0t !U n11 brit,lt' was f°n»d contain 50*91 per

werc evKlv°dy-r‘,nfi WUb M t°rmnU < ZoV ■» ,bat
v, alloys reproduced 4ll mJ j c«rnpomnls. Specimens were ttien shown

* jj *«• fan. to the fact *AS?'V Uf n,etfl,i • “d Pnrt>cular

' '*®t. lind iw.* ... . act, that a white alloy riinlninino 11 u tr.

' “clkt'e rosearchei nl1.il ® °}'s wt're ,nvftrinbIy described us yellow; and
, M(J?'8Por cent, and nnwnv i 0^" n'cmiu,lie(J b>' b"" containing from ns little
' *,l'p peculiarity of t{? ?a,WtTe fou,u’ ,JC "f a decided, or even dark a allow
V-:..Ia ,d “PPear to make i riniai,*silv«*y appearance of the white

’ bul 110 experiment shull y app 1 j,lbe t0 tbe manufacture of reflectors or
cuts nail been made on this point.

Tb. ^onvS^TL CornP™iHon of some Minerals ft

^ commenced \ 7 ***m' F G S ' AJ'CE'

rrom the

m fenced Z , J'ORH,cs> KGJS- AJ-aR

^>Su!Dfniti°and eyenitic'rocks'of lb ** P0** °f °ccum'nce <* various
; ''^cou, Eai-a,,c« of hydrous Il l “"'h'Wost const of Norway, and on
Jjjjcted 1 He then n«s..31S . . m rock9 wh,ch «* generally regarded

tSSr,"" ~sasz

H^tbc«nSi'fe,lsPar» oud u,icn .I . ,be m.norulogical constituents of
it was Si SK * bear to tbc development of the

ofthes; g' , st 111 nearly all caiesadi^! d,‘^rcc> Wllb toa‘c particular
, lb8tuncC8 appeared at the point decomposed

C mad* Ct “nd su™«"dinV the

Ben‘ Of the •*£n°PW, ■ -

•«JwssH3S«iS

5*

68

Report — 1854.

although In these cases no corresponding radial structure of the matrix was found io
exist. Alter having entered into this subject ut some length and drawn the attention
of the section to these points of what may be termed “ Geological Mineralogy," the
study of which was insisted upon as of great importance in elucidating the formation
of minerals in nature, the author proceeded to the chemical examination of tin*
minerals, specimens of which were shown, and the results as well as the methods of
chemical analysis employed in the examination of several of these minerals were
detailed.

Several new minerals were shown, which lmd been examiued and named, and which
were found to contain some of tho rarer metals and earths, and the properties of
these bodies somewhat commented upon.

On the Heating Effects of Secondary Currents. By J. P. Gassiot, F.R.S.

In January last Mr, Gassiot communicated to the editor of the Philosophical
Magazine ah account of experiments made with RuhmkoWTs induction coil, a»d
alluded to the fact, that the heating effect, which had already been noticed by M«*°n.
took place in the contrary direction to that which is produced iu the primary current.
Which heating effect had been observed as far hack as 1838. Since January l«»h
Mr. Gassiot has hud several forms of apparatus constructed for the purpose o' > ■
serving the pluenomonu of secondary discharge in relation to its heating effects —
,l , discharge of the secondary current takes place in air the negative jemum
(which in these experiments was of plutina wire) became heated, L'. IftwHir'
are sealed into small f thermoineter'l straight tuhii.tr. neither terminal BPprars tn no

wlitni. . 1 UL 1,1 an« ones tne piatmn wiretexcepi*iu»“> ,iiC

Tere<1 wil,‘ « minute black deposit. A t this terminal, whenj^M
How • 18 ,niu e’ a mitthte but hrilliunt spark appeals, from which the e ec f i[.

know, if Patflbt,imt} nnd brilliancy. The negative is at first covered with the

*■»« Vn,il !t »*«»»« red-hot; no deposit appears to remain « »

exhau •tedV»m,,,U ’ ‘i al* 1,le experiments made with closed glass tubes, the
exhausted by means of an a»i-p„mp.

0,1 a Methof f Analysis applicable to the Quantitative Estimation offfl*
and Acetic Acids. By J. H. Gladstone, Ph.D., F.R-S- #
vervI,l«M?m°d p.ropo^,,J consisted in distilling the substance to be onaksed ^
stilinte in °f su P^ur,c nc‘*l >» a retort, and in collecting the c°". )W(j;!v

converted infnT er.COIIt‘!,ni'1'’ water nnd carbonate of baryta, 't he 'ICI L\ntrf
processes V 80 f* l^e amount of which can be estimated bj rjment

were described*1" T? precnutioh8 requisite for the proper conducting °nhe ^P ] I ( r
vet as bei, e Jr" ,f0Ce*9 Emitted, not W 'involving any new P™cJf lWd
to be c-S,t bAv CUy 1H'CUrat0 n'ethod’ but as one which the author bad
ercoming one of the difficulties in practical analysis-

On the Fluorescence exhibited by certain Iron and Platinum Salts-
■/ ‘b Gladstone, Ph.D., F.R.S.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

GO

On the Concentration of Alcohol in Sommcring’s Experiments.

By Professor Graham, F.R.S.

The author stated that when an open vessel is filled with a mixture of alcohol an d
wermd exposed to the air, tlic alcohol goes off first and leaves the water; but if, as in
t imiering'8 experiments, a bladder be completely filled with dilute alcohol, the liquid
vll decrease in bulk, and the water pass through the membrane, leaving a much
or jKr-ccntoge of alcohol in the bladder. Sbmniering describes the action of
"• 'laane to be improved by coating it with isinglass. Prof. Graham removed the
t : Tibranc entirely, aud made use of u septum of gelatin itself. Cotton calico wa*
-i KVenl times with a solution of isinglass and ullowed to dry. A retentive
thus prepared, in which alcohol in different states of dilution trai placed,

, ‘'P1 100° and 12° Fahr. fur twenty-four hours. Evaporation took place,

*orh waniniformly attended by concentration of the spirit: —

180 grammes of alcohol 0*860 gave ISO grins, of O’Su l
„ „ 0*860 gave 116 „ of 0*832

180 » „ 0*880 gave 1 -16 „ of 0*871

180 0*900 gave 154

of 0*888

nil!! Un'i £Pa*'n nlone acted exactly like the coats of bladder. Further,
mu.m waioU i i Sdatin (isinglass) placed in alcohol 0*86.) increased 11 per
rt, >x nn Hn, I’fli at lile same t,n’° lowered the gravity of the spirit to 0 857. There
Cliferous fid, ’ ,lierG‘0le» that gelatin per te separates wnter from alcohol, and the
1 aluorbeil !PS Hosscss the same property. In the bladder experiment, the water
bin» constnnil/ l° evaporates from the outer surface, and its place

concentred 1Ct* ^r0m l'le ^'*ute alcohol within, the litter comes to be

Results of Experiments on the Preservation of Fresh Meat .

This inn, • G. Ham! LTO.V, F. C.S.

i inquiry w

!«•* Wu-liMi, “n^e,tH^0U "'ith a view of discovering a method hy
.. ncloting pieces nf) Fef • sta,t‘ bom South America. The experiments

£

which beef
were made

, 0Sin8 pieces of beef ' i , um America, ......

v.‘"8 g®*e* cli lorih *v j 1 P8 containing one, or n mixture of two or more of the
'•“<iile of iiitr0een 2ft oyavogsti, nitrogen, ammonia, carbonic acid) carbonicoxide,
f 'Tautioi, r 1 these, the last two only possessed the power of retarding
^ "cek* was found * i piecn >n contact with carbonic oxide for the space of
, i'r'5en Is ®npiib|eof .... 0 . l,cvtcctly fresh, and of n fine red colour. Binoxide of

[ 1 l‘inc the beef ietVSei^in^ lroin putrefaction for at least five months, during
by t|1Q { ' *?* Its nntl»al colour ami consistence. When meat that had
r_,.L Wat,'e flavour ip rr°CM8 wus cooked hy roasting, it was found to possess a
length Of timn°ri filing, the ebullition must be continued for a

8 oi time than is necessary for fresh meat.

Hint*

on the M - -

&2}nt difficult subjects in the application o

C,ence> % Sa.mli;;. Migklev. F.G.s"f.L\S. "

if

photography had
* displayed by
, pathology and
valuable aid

:stn,iJT“IS 01 ,.uuurul unjicts were of importance,

• r ^itl IS-rtsht hi his closi’t" H ! >c ''Pp'icathm of stereoscopic prin-

ll,r Flora ;‘,‘a *">"*'* ^‘unt Luos, or

Sys,«7 ««» mSm“^ ”*?!• “W-ining.mi^o-

-■Tiff* » t0I«SemcMa^;int ^ g m r^^Sfillomhinted

70

REPORT — 1854.

of thin coloured glasses in front of the lens, and thus prevent one part being over¬
done before another had impressed Itself on the plate.

ns °f applying Photography to War purposes in the Army
'Navy. By Samuel Hiohley, F.G.S. , F.C.S.

On the Means

and, __ _ _ _ _ _

A field camera, with all requisite apparatus, mounted on a large pair of wheels,
which, together with the handle, formed the tripod stand, arranged to be rapidly
moved from point to point and be managed by one person, was described; together
with a naval camera suspended by gimbals on a tripod stand, with counterpoise wright
and compensating focusing movement, to render it as independent aa possible of the
ship s motion ; the object of both being to report, by means of pictures, the position
of troops, forts, or other military works.

On the Hyposulphites of the. Organic Alkalies. By Henry How.

Mr. How had succeeded in obtaining the hyposulphites of the organic alkalies by
digesting them with sulphide of ammonium in open flasks. They are a very remark-
able class of compounds, sparingly soluble in water, and highly crystullizablc. Those
strychnine and codeine are extremely beautiful compounds.

On a /Stereoscopic Cosmorumic Lens, designed by G. Knight.

This is a modification of the instrument invented by Sir David Brewster. The im¬
provement consists in employing, in place of the two small semi-lenses, one large one,
w men is rendered stereoscopic by cutting an ordinary plano-convex lens m »«'»
removing more or less of the opposite outer diameters, and then transposing the piece*
lu • TS"".'1 centre 0f thc iens becomes the two sides, and the outer edge* com*
t % in . e mu*(*le- The advantages obtained by this arrangement is an increase
laciti y lor viewing as ono tho double pictures. Only one adjustment is necessary
double picture V‘Z’ i“CMlwin* or diminishing tho distance between the lens and ta.

On the Equivalency of Starch awl Sugar i\
By J. B. Law as, F.C.S. , and Dr. J. H. Gilbe

BERT, F.C.S.

of, and Methods of estimating. Ammonia and Nitric Add
r. By J. B. La WES, F.C.S., and Dr. J. H. Gilbert,

it in rain « , vrcul observed its presence in the Seine; and in 1825 Brandes
subioet na if" ^‘n,c l*,at time much more minute attention bad been pa-
andJ ° n* i° tf'° PrL‘»c,»c*of nitric acid in meteoric and other waters-

monin caS" *“!? V^Aav]y called attention to the influence which

xT llu; «*»«pberrf must have upon the growth ofpI«J«-jn
considpmW T id'dosopbers pointed out the occurrence of nitric aci -
de^: form, °*'C which lie examined ; especially Am***

hM «Ifi0 “ nitric add in See*

labours KnlS8 1!*'1! &"d 1,1 the Sou,h (lf Ireland- But it is to the more
nations of thi ^ Sai , tllnl wc ar" indebted for our most elaborate quanU^e *^
of qua, timUv! » ‘.n rni" other waters; and M. Barrnl
the fSn wn er iS'Tn0"8 *,f b,.'tb ‘be nitric acid and the am.iu.ma con
It was chiellv wi,|Cl. c- at ^ari5» during several consecutive months, tj,(
authors had entonvl * Vlewto Hie agricidtural hearings of the stibjec ,
authois had entered upon the same field of investigation ; but the object

TRANSACTIONS OF THIS SECTIONS.

71

'ff-ent paper was rather to discuss the methods of analysis, than to rely with con¬
duce on the conclusions to which we might be led, by the more direct application
'i the results yet obtained, to the solution of the several important scientific and
pocticil questions, upon which they bore. Tables were exhibited, showing the
wimratal results obtained in the estimation of ammonia in rain-water, by several
' rent methods, In the first instance, they hud distilled very large amounts (from
I '. tn J00 pounds o* more) of rain-water, to which a little caustic potash was
f- ' uuiy added, and repeated the distillation, collecting in each case about half the
~"t put into the retort, until the whole was reduced to a convenient bulk for
vtWr concentration ill an open vessel. This was then evaporated, with a known
• ■ant c-f sulphuric acid, to a given vulumc; mid measured portions of this final
!**»(* were then neutralized by a standard alkaline solution, in the usual manner
quid analysis. This method the authors conceived gave very good results ; but it
^ ten abandoned from the great practical inconvenience and frequent breakage,
in uctrug distillations in glass, on so large a settle. They had next adopted a
-jim substantially the same as that of M. Bou'singault, in which generally not
■ m one litre of water was operated upon. By this method, exceedingly minute
ttaiiarw'000*8 , mrnon'a c°uhl he determined, and iu careful hands very valuable
it.*!? ;j.e.re,u"3 m'ght be obtained. It appeared, however, that in relation to the
- ■ n ’ 8ra°unt of ammonia contained in a litre of rain, or other waters, the
T ' authors I TtT g/Uer*ll>’ n°f *es3 ibatj •! ur Tt per cent, of such total amount.

of water* iic - 'n l^e'r more recent experiments, operated upon several
tehl thus hrm!\t * brs* ’n3tui]ce < reducing it by successive distillations to one half,
''-Hired nrmvHc °.a convenient amount, lor final distillation — and the testing of
1 ■ uiodilicuiinn '°"?1 amounts of the product uecording to Boussiuganlt's method.
**» considered tn'I • t le autbors found M, Boussingault had himself suggested,
• than anv nf »t ImPartdnti and more applicable to this delicate subject of
Dctliod 0f iar ,i° .„ars 3'et “tempted. However, results obtained by their
‘ u process ahnLwi « •* l^c *‘^c °f those by Boussiuganlt's single distil-

,i on*|derable coincidence; such as to give confidence in the

tapirs of *£-»* * *"'■ WpdgBof ' linati ms in nle in mrmthly

•'••at.'. .. 01 “tevam which frit ... . . . . _ _ '

■ pwt of ammonia U W u m,1. at Rothanstet during more than a year, gave
1 n*ade by Bonsai,. ,\lon of rain-water; the average of many clcterinma-
11111 ; whilst the U ;.at ^tebfrauenberg in Alsace was nbout four-fifths of this
h d*. a? much fts 3 or 4 atla,,8» both of M. Barrel and M. Boussingault, nt Baris
' u interesting too te , !• ’ or, even ni°re, of ammonia per million of rain-water.

•“tHhors had obtained !? li6’ 1 . * dlc variations in the amount of ammonia which
tl nn**fon with the renilt 10 ,ra,n °f different but entire months, when considered
'lib!!?.' character* of ft,* cm* .<imou,,tx of the fall, the direction of the wind, and
5' Bousainttault ,'Teat ,Wer® perfectly consistent in kind with the re-
WJ?®61*0* Iho wafer “ ■Peci«l •xammalions of rain falling under different
the nL^d0W?1 ** fcg». The process adopted by the nu-
* *■ “>vcral tjnil,s , acid, was, to ovaporate the rain-water with an alkaline

r'c-.ef 8\v\(,,itr°8en bv DnnWfla’ t0 W<i^ l',c so,id residue, and determine its
*'■! :hL „ '“'some 0f thu i. j05* v°R'me-inothod of combustion with oxide of

*f?ly with rat|*er nitric acid R«;ii 10 f°v the determination of small quantities of
l-uions J4"^ence, all the r«* n great desideratum. They hesitated therefore to

!' * 4ich 5Sav«ew to the solution* nf* J?!*Viin1c,i'. ,0 tl,e di*cu«*ion of lhp important
a°pcd further , 1 °f wb,cb tbc investigation had been undertaken,
sr-eanr„_ er to prosecute. A* ... ...... — ...... ,u . . . .

*n£ !5e i>er.

4'"", »nd"Xr‘centage a»iniw*!rcciltp' . n general result, however, it would
P*> other fc thcr® hud been K'ncrall-V ,eM in roin of thunder-

'I"5icaSd,,ueme<1to hehicreai?^ V °.f lho of nitric acid,

t‘> Caeid.Wa tl)at *ke ammmt ?r d-I1,,derlho ",fll,cnc« of storms. The results
T IZZ lZVV‘\h], <l bv r»i»» wAtor in the form of
ES of pli°,d0U>t tlS nLtri'W. °xis,ed as “mn,on“i ^d, since
frdmJr.tVlrtqe of the nitrotJ? 1td :‘'5 m?nure* greatly enhanced the
Tery impon- .lL! atmosphere in i V '^ aon.ta,nedi *,,e amount of nitrogen
nP°rtant influence 'em vegetation!11 aCid’ murt bc consid"cd to

n

REPORT— 185 4.

Note on the Presence of Lead in Hydrochloric and Nitric Acids.

By Stevenson Macadam, Ph.J)., F.C.S.

In the course of some analyses made with the view of determining, if possible, tlx
presence of lend in animal organisms, the author saw reason to suspect that the ncidi
employed by him might contain lead. On testing these— which were the purest to
be purchased from manufacturer? — small but very distinct indications of lend were
obtained. In commercial or impure specimens of hydrochloric and nitric acids, tho
lead is much more abundant. The importance of such a discovery in reference to
searching for metallic poisons iij organized tissues is so great, that the author would
caution analytical chemists against the use of the acids for such purposes without
previously testing them for lead.

On the Distribution of Iodine in the Mineral, Vegetable , and Animal King¬
doms. By Stevenson Macadam, Ph.D., F.C.S.

The author stated, that an experiment where 100,000 cubic feet of air w«e
analysed ; a second, where 80 gallons of rain water were examined; and s third,
wncre jo gallons of snow-water were tested, having failed to exhibit tho minuud
cc o iodine, ho was satisfied that other and more carefully conducted experiments
umn those advanced hy Cliatin and his adherents were required before the statement
• j presence of iodine in appreciable quantity in our atmosphere could be ad-
. raln w?ter a|'pours free from iodine, vet some spring and n'or
bm nb niidTi" " trnCi'„ 100 gnUons of the water forced into the houses of EJm-
tiiv- i i ere Usc'J for (lomc*tic purposes, the author discovered ft minute qu^>-
coniab tb . ol°,CCm'.' ?B Wdl 88 mai''ne plnnts and animals, have been long known to
tions of its IKnt 111 tiu^s,1'0!1* Terrestrial plnnts have more lately shown nulici-
lareo ntmd.Ip ° ■ ^ ‘at'n aU(l the author havo published separate list*
from nddiivrr n 6 IC P^11*8, In examining plants and animals, the author refrain*
he was not^iwnr ,cIn<'cnt lor fJia purpose of more immediately fixing the iodiur. »»
lime cndanirnnW o nlY ” Jic^ Woul(l huve been serviceable, wltliout at the same
the nrcsenrf «?!*** 0.<*,,llI!:fl,0,, that substance. In this, the present researches on
Dublishod c\ !" Pjn,lla Olid animals dilfrrs from any other which have bee

don and dm., u n"d ?,*lcr„a drenched their plnnts with potash previous to i inancr*-
w hicl, tbnv *h . *lc,a,1^lop docs not question the presence of iodine in the few plan
one ^ cammed, yet ho docs not consider the process followed by them 1 6°°“

or eh amber ° carefil n lhc.V Wt,re simply charred in a large covered iron cruc'b^

ground to nnwrl* ' ^ to » low red heat. On cooling, the charred mow

2# f Which dissolved onfall the soluble salts, ai
liquidate drvne«J loiW« which the plant contained. On cvnporaUng d

alcohol heated' r;it* J*?0^ quantity of saline matte r was left, which w as treated «
small quantity nf ^m!1 evaPoratcd to dryness, and ultimately dissolved ut a vffJ
hydrocCc T' V"* w*» « starch, nitmte of potass*, vA

• • ' . weeding in this wav, the author demonstrated the presence

" vxs p'“nt3» many of which are edible. Potatoes, wheat, baric •

hydrochloric1!^ WR}?r‘ I*118 liquid was tested with starch, nitrate of potass*, #c
iodine in unward« , r<'Cce<J,nfi in tbis wav, the author demonstrated the presence
oats beans’ Plan,s» many of which are edible. Potatoes, wheat, baric j

ivstt-m l^e f0(>d of animals necessitates its introduction i into th*

In every instance but ono'mi ^**1 *“** ,llc tlofr' ,lie FS> the cow, the horse, and mtt£

In the horse, however, the Iuni"?;!. ! V'3' parf uf lh° 1a,{i."?al wdt '-bf

muscle, were examined and /„!$’ ’ ,!c?r,> T,c'en> D,ul kidneys, ^

cow, and common cm,’ £to7in iodine'

’ riaitu Hr a similar manner, gave a like affirmative r

TRANSACTIONS Ol*' TUK SUCTIONS.

73

Although not wishing to be considered as giving a positive opinion on the chemical
{edition in which iodine exists in vegetable and animal matter, the author thinks it
vainrhile to notice, that, notwithstanding the MIM U«Otm8Di being followed, ho
loled to find any iodine in new and fresh eggs, whilst in rottl »WJf distinct

,aoiity was detected. Now, whilst it is quite passible, find indeed probable, that
wme slight and unknown cause, the iodine in the fresh egg* might have
ouad, yet the author could not help speculating so far an to nay, that the iodine in
-» frah egg may exist in the free condition, or at least, not in combination with a
and that when the egg rots, the sulphuretted hydrogen produced may convert
& .dine into hydriodic aria, which in the presence of the free soda of the egg will
«me iodide of sodium, a substance very nmak less volatile than iodine itself
c > parage of iodine from the annual don of

ut kiiiior, With no expectation of a successful result, hut wishing to be able to
^Knperiincntnlly on tiie tul ft bjit, Hmr rebi a U /or for

during which time (about fifty hours) ute air inspired and expin l must
tome m coutset with the starch. No blue or even rose tint was imparled to the
^ A4'! ““wore no iodine had left the system by that road. Other experiments
itanu mi Clv 6 C0mP0',nds form no exception to the general rule, and accura¬
cy er?'Jlle ‘natters in their passage from the aniniuh.

*,»""“■! derives wluit iodine it requires from the plant, the latter in its
WwaiitiL ' •! tmns 'ts suPllly I*rotn the soil: direct experiments a e still wanting
rncL' 3 PleB^"ce tlicre, but the fact of its beiug uniformly a constituent of
vitrjnuxt ,iecessi talcs, that when these arc present in or applied to n soil, the
r0lisUo a greater or less extent, contain iodhte.

Cuuaeef the Phenomena exhibited by the Geyscrt of Iceland.
present J . ™B0M Macadam, Ph\l)., F.C.S.

^dttl (o though specially bearing on the Iceland (irysers, is also

•-■tnowle(igeofti ®a.c,0,1,|diu California. The former arc singled out, because
j’Mu.tly regarding 'MITIC'V',M extensive, and tto are in a portion to speak more
; W®iion\p(]a )n r ' ^ causo ,or force which mav be urged in explanation of them.

Willi „ accounted tor live ix'i'n.I.M,..! ,.e l,nt ■<>,,) ulnnm nrn.

if, ^ru exists in conn Jr 6 ■ .c Phenomena in question, tlie author assumes
floor of which is f . 1 t-nch geyser, a subterranean chamber of large
or ne#l. tj|G° a i roundish form, anti at a temperature of not less than
■* ni!^8 of 'Vl|ti,r1 l,v 1 , 'S'*0 flre fissures communicating with springs or

fjti or tube wliich »» a»a„.\ • 0 J!,tcr mn.Y be allowed to flow into the chamber;

1,e«r the lowest l. t,"H 0,ivit.v to the surface cf the earth, taking its

* * ti,,?Un,c* (*»« other w2LI 1 .° * chamber. \\ i into details, the

siphon, thn of rS.°U S‘‘.Vam have done) that this tube has the form
‘^0ft],o0"Ser*|mb, nKo11n.:„°r cr 'imb °t which eomniunicntes with the chamber,
' f ‘•ntv ^'4cr‘ hi the nnf n l0rtUou® coUWl*i “t length forms the exit or emission

"’here, fro- ®0U|,*B cf events. Water finA. . . t.f ll... fie. lire, into

tt*t«*tcb?Polled

<>82
fcss""*

^>'8er. I„ ft.- f “ lor»«°n8 cotilSr, at length forms the exit or emission
Vherc, from the V: eve,,t*:» Water tinds access by the fissures into

“"'polled to ncm, I’ 1 temperature of the matter it falls upon, it is im-
-ing 205“7 F. •pi e * ie spheroidal condition, its temperature while in
cavity t]lat 'f!_ water gradually accumulates, till at lust so much lias

-4dal«,<?vity that t},,, w,lter gradually accumulates, till at lust so much has
water hi fl,,or co,> htngor keep the liquid in the

^ in it, !ll -v raist-d to rn os' pC1Ue,JcIc to»clies the stony surface ; its temperature
und"'2i .jf to the Z,r , ,7 , r8r 'Unities of steam are croner.itcd. This

J<Siniti S', ul f® encounters water lodged in the

ji.^e®Us«'t Bcdt°thelioilii,t, r.n,Cr P°r,*ohK 1 f steam are condensed, till

when _!i ■ steam, , •

for itself Tl n * *"\r it from the exit pipe.

8cvcr,i' ' J *le author ev) r/ jmmnder of ll,c s,e'in‘ escapes with a sound
1 Sci'sers niioht Shi Ll!d SC,veral din grams illustrative of the forms
e suPP0!'ed to present. He considered it quite

0

n

REPORT — 1854.

probable that some points in their arrangement might require to be altered, and what
he wished specially to impress on the Association was, that the spheroidal condition
of water afforded a means of accounting for the occurrence of the intermittent hot-
springs generally denominated Geysers.

On the Presence of Lead in Hydrochloric and Nitric Acids.

By Stevenson Macadam, Ph.D., F.C.S.

In the course of some anulysos, made with the view of determining, if possible, the
presence of lead in animal organisms, the author saw reason to suspect that the acids
employed by him might contain lead. On testing these, which were the purest to
be purchased from the manufacturers, small but very distinct indications of lead were
obtained. In commercial or impure specimens of hydrochloric and nitric nciih, th*
lead is much more abundant. The importance of such a discovery in reference to
searching for metallic poisons in organized tissues is so great, that the author would
caution analytical chemists against the use of the acids for such purposes, without
previously testing them for lead.

On the Preservation of Milk. By the Abbe Moigno.
lliis was a description of the process invented by M. Mabbru, which consist* in
expelling the air und gases from milk by heating it in tinned or glazed iron cylinder*
to a temperature of 217°, in an atmosphere of steam.

v , / , 9,'Bt uuu M. was uiereioie necussswj

„ . , 1 uc u* rimy believed this was owing to its containing manganat*
Ln. Jita/nU| P8S compound than the first-named salt, and that they b

ound t hat a solntion prepared either from crystals of the pure permanganate of pd"
mnnLn i metlu"1 «r Gregory,— care being taken in this case that the whole of '
manganate waa converted into the pcr-salt- would remain unaltered during a Pg»J
J,y TniU.'% 1 "T n,so showed that the method at present adopted for fi»nl
in dard of such « solution, by dissolving iron-wire in hydrochloric acid, WJJ

I ' T”® mu,l> fr««a the reducing action exerted by the impurities in the «">
this purposermaDgUUntC ’ an<* ^lat was necessary to employ pure peroxide of iro

I he} gave several other details connected with the employment of this test.

On the supposed influence of the Hot-Blast in augmenting the quantity of
Phosphorus m Cast Iron. By David S. Price, Ph.D., F.C.S.

whicli consist! a' *>R,C.E communicated a paper on a new method of
bownoS rnl'aUyi of th.e following ‘-To the alkali under earning*
carbonic acid tb» ° normn] solution of oxalic acid is added, and alter exp“ tjflrd
“Eon alni! PXC°”of,thc OXi«lio ««<! is determined by means of a
alkalies the imnnrir' ^ ,.t lls n,ct*10(l when applied to the testing of con’
as the impurities esl'matcd and the alkali indirectly, and

the valuation of tb '.anu^ ^ far the smaller proportion of the coiumercia • b

.hi, SCtM g po',cr “ mm A -d *

TRANSACTIONS OP THE SECTIONS.

75

Mr. Sims exhibited specimens of borate oflime, anil stated that the nucleus of some
of ihe pieces consisted of magnesian limestone ; that they were also sometimes
coated with crystals of nitrate of soda, chloride of sodium, glauherite and iodide of
t.xlium. The presence of iodine was demonstrated.

0* Me Production of Sulphurous Acid Gas from the Combustion of Coal.
By Joseph Spence.

1 I author questioned the great benefit likely tu be derived from the abolition of
smoke nuisance. The imperfect combustion of fuel, as carried on at present, only
mo on annoying deposit of carbon, and this Mr. Spence regarded us a healthy
the more complete burning of the fuel, this carbon would be oxidised into
ewwrrnc acid, a poisonous gas, and the sulphur at present escaping combustion would
jsurnto sulphurous acid, tic instanced the smoke-consuming movement in Man¬
's! m i °*lscrve^ diat vegetation in the neighbourhood was being destroyed,
t, .1 1 10 t !e .vcr-v muc^ ^argor quantity of carbonic and sulphurous acids which were
*! ™ >nto the atmosphere.

c/ldi^on ensued when this paper was finished, and Mr. Lowe remarked
"nrjm'i?! Partle® who did not admire smoke might obviate the inconvenience by
'g gas coke, as was done in tire noble hall where they were assembled.

llith 0,1 U ?leW Electrical Battery. By W. Svmons.
“naturc'lfm.tf^'^L ^ ®>'mons was composed of a series of plates made of
* found in .i,„ pupercha» Bees'-wax, and shell-lac. A description of this battery will
® the Ph«maceutical Journal for July of the present year.

On the Rebutting of the Koh-i-.Voor Diamond.

At (he mect.n h,J Professor J. Ten xa n r, F. G. S.

'' ’'® diamond cm°,i j8 Association at Belfast, the author gave some account

fN|,,t,a,1,l on this oeoniiT?1 the remarkable changes w hich it had under-

form and cloavn™* some interesting diagrams illustrating the cry-

drawing attention t mi p 8 d,amond. Mr. Tennant now introduced tin* subject
‘ ’ “ow reduced }»• ™o.°nTKl weight of thu diamond, compared with its present
, l- 1(1 the hiatft-,/ _p > an<l oho to its rnineralogical appearances. With
rllnv..., , l0rJ °f this UXlrnowti’ii'i . . l... . i.. 1.-J

. . previously enjoyed by ...„ »uu..v, w.

■ - Vu' umniond WaB ti, “st ,ILmd3er "f foreign valuable stones, and probably the

Ul which that ilinnf nii°it nhrnctive in that valuable collection. The rough
When tilr,Ulltl , ^eetI cub however, had di sap noin ted many who
• i-i. . Iailli hut when thr.8!**11 Sh°"0 0,1 'l at noon-day the stone appeared pecu-
4-uh,' C„e ,"f glass. 'j’liis n,nr'TP.im' WnH du"> n I'ad n3‘ rely the appearance of a
,r'Je tho lnind, Lt 11 ln,ft vpr)' unfavourable position, nnd caused
;• la the ,0 Runjeet SinolBe,lti.eme" u lo il* «n I hen tic it j This diamond
0p .,,sl('ai of Eastern „ , '* WJ»° uxiHiUy wore it upon his left arm, accord-

‘l|"kyL Majssly'g ftl,d tT,c original mounting was now in the

]"MV, g made of it l,v >C sl,olle lH'r^cctly Agreed with the drawing

^ ^'"ct c 0\bornt?. who K’ ,,1 and n'so 'vith the account given of it by the

^ ofdCntf, * Ver>; J!“* of the Court

L|U"^d hv|.f mp'e white, wearing , " u'!'as i'I||ld an*1 a cripple ulso) sat arrayed
S* of di^Wm cf„Up0n ^ arm "" Kol»-i-Noor diamond, and sur-

'"* W'-i.k ur?' 0MA’"*- *»*■• w» in the

dJ* ^ p2*5?ted ul">n various C‘r^pli'"' tORe,hcr wi,h '"'mcrous other
Clift1 and *,le nobles w-enmn ^°ft ?- 1,i,r"CM* AU *uthentic accounU

AuctifJU0> file !1.o'0r*e of Runjeet Sir dccora,,"B 'heir homes in this

and li?t,h‘(,ll-i-^o<'r beirm ,? ”1“* <,,',c,’rated wid> diamonds valued at
i» the p.^r, the IIOI \ pummel of the

East Indies, and M- ^ P- ,ad f* dUmood sent to them for in-
n 3 drawings agreed with the appearance

16

REPORT— 1854.

of the diamond on ils arrival in this country. Mr. Tennant then stated that in 1853
he had given in a report as to the cutting of the Koh-i-Noor diamond; and after
producing various models, Her Majesty fixed upon the present form, by which the
widest spread of brilliancy was obtained. When the diamond was exhibited at the
Crystal Palace it weighed 18G carats; its present weight, reduced by cutting, i» only
102-jJg. carats. 'I he Persian diamond weighed 130 carats, and the great Russian
diamond 193 carats. After giving a description of the method of cutting dinroomi*.
and the plan adopted for cutting the Koh-i-Noor, lie observed that the lair Puke of
Wellington had been an interested spectator of the operation, and was a freipiMit
Visitor during its progress. Jt was finished in September 1832, and occupied thirty-
eight days in cutting. Diamonds were usually reduced to one-hnlf their weight in
cutting; and he gave the exact weight of the Koh-i-Noor, in order t>i correct various
erroneous statements which had been published on the subject. Hie finest diamond
m France weighed 139 carats, and had cost £130,000; it wna called the Regent, or
Pitt Diamond. Toavrive at an estimate of the value of the Koh-i-Noor, the suilmr
stated, that it was only requisite to multiply 102 (it* weiglit) by 102, and then by 8,
which would give £83,232 as its value. This rulo would not apply tn stones having
defects, as instanced in the celebrated " Naasuek" diamond, for which the Host liidia
Company refused .£30,000, and yet this stone, when submitted to public ntictinn,
fetched hole more than £7000. The Koh-i-Noor is of the purest water. The liiithor
stated, that in order to test u real diamond, and distinguish between that and n tops*,
it was necessary tu try it with sapphire (No 9 in hardness), which would marl a
topaz, but would not penetrate a diamond. He was sorry tn find that so little atten¬
tion had been paid to the means of testing diamonds ; and instanced a ring which
was recently purchased in Regent Street, London, for £'200, which proved to he two
P‘*0®8 .rot* Fr)’sU>V " ith an intermediate insertion of coloured glass. In ninny
'' nte«‘ng-placcs thu gentry wero imposed upon by parties selling pieces ofghw,
winch they represented to be sapphires picked up on the beach.

°ntlte Physiolor/wal Properties of' some of the. Compounds of the Organic
Radicals— Methyk, Etfnjle, and Atnyle. By James Tuknbuii., U-D.

C01'ltrieneed by saying, that considering the vast number of new com*
Lp„ nVi J?VllC< ,f,f I,fttc h wee surprising that so few of real value should hn'C

,i , j.c jy lncdical nu n to their stores of remedies. The progress of tlicrapeoftr ,
r? elow compared with the advance of organic chemistry.

_ c Vur d«v by the discovery of a new and most valuable class °f 3b’c,.

and „„;!r etlC*‘ **le edi ct* of the narcotic and antipcriodic alkaloids, morp

ana quinine. were . i ■ . . . . 1 . ...umn n»t

one of he n' fi.T" f-VfUn' throw srno light on this subject. AlreaV

tios like ouininp ur'"f’' *'n8 been found by Dr. Simpson to possess antipcriodic Pr FT
alluded to - «»,. T^J'^rfogfcal properties of the pure hydrocarbons were

Br„m, of the stn,cd to act as local and general stimulnn s,

demonstrated h i|0llc llad keen ^un tl to possess anasthetic properties, ns had

fo fc-i »"a b>

On the Production of Borucic Acid and Ammonia by Volcanic Action-
T, , R- W a k inotok, B. C. S.

situated a W ^1’ m!l "* 1 8‘‘ 1 “ ?e"d ^ visited the island called ▼*£

is 2000 fecTLa t” mle,8 11,or!,« of Sicily. The height of the mountain Vole*"®
covered with n wt 'f >f ,,1C pmer "00 feet. The sides of this depression .

TRANSACTION'S OF THE SECTIONS.

' 77

wted with sal-ammoniac, and the author considers that it exists originally beneath
tit surface as a nitride of boron. When steam is passed over this compound at a
»xleriite red beat, it is completely converted into boracic acid and ammonia, which
wfor the most part volatilized with the aqueous vapours. This theory of the fur¬
cation of boracic acid was considered by the author substantiated by the analysis of
tb slag beneath and the snow-like mass above. The former contained nitride of
keron, and the latter boracic acid and ammonin:al salts.

On the Effect of Coloured Media on the Growth of lied Alow.
By R. Warington, F.C.S.

On the Artificial Preparation of Sea-water for Marine Vivaria.

^ By G. Wilson, M.D.

•'th(l^w|Wa8rxTCr*t*C,'sin.on a con,mHn ication made by Mr. Gossc, and contained
rmlovodoM S°i , "f.1^ H istory Guiding liimself In Scliucitzer's analysis, Gosse
• °"r' e °f sodium, sulphate of magnesia, chlcrrtne of magnesium and chloride

■ n 0 a m,Xed aqueous solution flf tin s • -all-. ( fosse introduced various

Ucuirn sjj: . nine, Buijniair ill mm , |iiKmj>uaic «u mm*, nuui me

‘'■-■^nre fni.n,i’i 10au'^ an<l bromine— should not lie absent. n< these latter snb-

:-1c4fire fniin/l i • orormne— Biintun not lie anseill, ns these inner suo-

Ac medium .V T- \,le t plants and animals; nnd it i* therefore plainly evident
'‘•-'•e, quite nonaihlftW»i . -t lC^ *'V0 m,K1't to contain the same substances. It is, of
1 iu>l« might flimt.t , m U s‘nS*L' aquarium the death of a certain portion of the
’•^eri; nil(j j„ yV calcareous salts, ,Vc. for the growth nnd preservation of their
^{3> bromide* x. *n®?nev tbe death nf a given number of plants might liberate
^’Pants of the’fim. °r l1' e vc*tnainiler. But this destruction of pail of the

‘r"H is calcnreim 'l*"1 , r ^l0 P' cservation of the other part might be easily
TV'5’ and many lim ♦ carbonates and fluorides occur together in shells,
tlie bottom _? ,,onos' T»«o arrangement of fragments of such culrnreous
I'iccea of in. t r a<lUftcium would supply nemo of the missing ingredients ;
“finder. ’* 0c ftnd a few grains of an iodide or bromide would afford the

On the Sewerage, of Manufacturing Towns.

analysi, ~ ^ tuancis Wrightson, J*h.D.

)ils made bv TV xxr ■ ,

formed near ' VVri£‘,tson of a natural deposit from the sewerage of
Wiy a]« abseiice of all *C on\bouchnrc of several sewers opening into the Rea,
h lojcj,] 3 "1* phosphates 1 |llm,)niacal salts, and the scarcity of phosphates, pnrticu-
"•pWei 'ro,,i also of at 1 10 aanic l'ma the presence of a large quantity of
•4 "■ .These inetnlli/.,nCi CoPPer> ar)d other metals in the state of oxides and

' generated u i \n l'lc sowers absorb the sulphuretted hydrogen

vdv p . _ t° promote the 1, * Vegetable and animal matter, nnd doubtless

>U.rrCent-ofniw:a th ^u’ t0'vn- The deposit contained when dried
° l*° or tV,° Proto»de of0;,. ,0t .n,® a,IVnon'a) and 3\r> of earthy phosphates ; but

l0rrKjrnti01. fee llf;r cent. ’m. U> uai“es *iuc, copper, ami other metals to the extent
a,'d other bodion ; uul,,°r hoped these facts would not be lost sight of by
n crested in (economizing town sewerage.

7&

REPORT— 1854.

GEOLOGY.

On a curious Structure in the Silurian Slates of Peebleshire.

By A. Bryson, F.S.A. Scot.

Mr. Bryson exhibited spccimons*f'rom the slates of Peebleshire, being very remark -
able convoluted markings, which he at first referred to impressions of Graplolila
jyteolu of Hark ness. The depth of these convolutions, however, rendered the sup¬
position inadmissible. The only other method of accounting for these appearances
was by supposing them worn tracts filled up by matter deposited in them of a different
molecular arrangement from the surrounding matrix.

\r V,rof- J^CKMAN wnttnqnicated a notice of two elephants' tusks found in the Stroud
Valley, Gloucester, The largest was slightly curved, 10 feet long, 5 feet in circum-
tercnce, and 1 font 6 inches in its greatest diameter; the other tusk was curved
to a greater extent. Remains of rhinoceros and hippopotamus were found in the
same gravel. 1 1 r

ShdU co,nim>t‘icated u Notice of Land, Freshwater and Marine

banks of l e A ^ S8,Hri?ht Malvern, 100 lcet deep, in sinking a well on ih.
the well.niiilr ' ° Worcestershire. According to Mr. J. Faulkner,

n bed of T?. P",ln£ trough many gravel beds, the upper mixed with nun
frarrmentu n? llJt® ' wn8 niet with, from 2 to 4 feet thick, containing teeth #"d
bottom w-u fbt"*? °r der '* ‘‘*cP^ant> rhinoceros, hippopotamus, boar, &c. .At the
and fresh ‘“I ?.Jer of sal!(1y mud, with freshwater shells and rushes. The 1:111,1
Limncca (1 u’l’t WPrC, e*,8ting British species of the genera Pupa, Surciiita,
Phidium C4 Ol'*j"iosa), Ancylus, Folvata (2 *p-), Bithinia, Cfda 1 nl.'

were PecLnr /' ",cu'in£ BenttotolaUum in great abundance); the marine d>e
ments c? ^ (young), Men (fragment , pg*

from any known” eiif W 10 k’ nnd tw° minute, undetermined bivalves, quite dis,tin •
MgSla? whhZ^r rf-ltnt or i" l,ie One is an A A arte, very flat and tn

aomewhat.hnsl^ "W*6 Gautd* Pacifca’ <■ «• Ad. The other is a
S conce ntne IF/ L\ C0,UMb*{'*, with . deeply- cut lunula as in Op*, be^ng
these were exhibited^*' ^ *uddenly changing into radiating ribs. Drawing*

0nctein?J°“! T7n? °f Erosion ™ Scotland, and its Behtire Date and

j,\ Q $ Wlt^ Glactt>l Phenomena . By Robert Ch ambers, FM.SE*

tyC. * r. -

Clyde", tho Ida n d *'o nhn n c,u ”.u s> nt 20 to 30 feet above the sea, along 1*,e.^u{^

the east coast of SedSSf "'tU T' 'll ®J,d C?a*t ?f A#, hilt is less remarkabl ^
west coast tlm lulU ™, u Bhclls found on it are all of recent species. ,
well-defined rectanJnln*^ * fT Bn,°othlv to the present bcacli, broken on!) J
less than fo™ a ^

is perforated by monyMre. L?? ■ Vertical difl' often 40 fev* HLr whA*

fantastic masses of harder rockT so,“et"”ea *utigb with overhanging st®?*f’wraei
ia considered to indicate the sea? ^®afi0,'n]1 'y .rise UP from the platform. Till *,
e Sca 8 actton during a much longer time than the p

79

TRANSACTIONS OP THE SECTIONS.

Web has existed, and to have been formed at a period of some comparative peolo-
fid antiquity. On the north-west coast of Arran the ancient sea-clift is •>() to l
!;< t high ; and the opening of Glen Iovsa is tilled to a considerable height with ter-
of detritus. The lower part of this detritus is composed of blue clnv and small
iKvon boulders : over it is a bed of eoutafftm) Btld then filM MUI0. °OW> Of
detritus has been throwu over on tho face of the cliff itself, showing it* origin to
httbso posterior to the incising action of the sea, by which the terrncc was formed,
nm'ace of the drift is not less than MO feet above (he sea-lcvcl, and it i« consi-
:o be the product of a glacier once filling Glen Iorsa. The coarse sand and
•"■•rd indicate periods at which the land occupied different level* nnd the sea pctie-
‘"iinl into the valley ; thus it becomes clear that the date of tlie terrace of erosion
1 uiit-rior to the period of sub-ac rial glaciers, and that this again has been followed
■ an immersion ; a succession of events requiring a great length of time.

' Observations on Glacial Pluenome/vi in Scotland and the North of
England. By Robert Chambers, F.R.S.F., F.G.S. <5r c.

Jl* author referred to his former attempt to establish a distinction between an
Morm 1 °l’jration of ice over the surface of Scotland, by which the boulder clay
^tned, and a more recent presence of valley glaciers’ in the chief uiountain-
"‘•Ak eTL"S,aB 'ts monument a looser and coarser detritus, like the moraines of
tL f lh<! . r BUPposed to have taken place without the presence of the
W’1*' tke fica or witli ico covering so lni;;e a surface as not to allow
tn ’ }y'*\ 28 the west coast of Northern Greenland, Dr. Kink has shown
'Ll cottt e, vasl thickness is coutiuuully advancing from the interior to

iBS ‘ here f^hing Off i„ icebergs. '

4wv»d in mvCi trl,e moraines, or suh-acrial glacial deposits, have been
’■filial morain° ° l le vadey.a ot’ Ben Mncdui, Aberdeenshire, where conspicuous
^ l*o apan _a8 lJCC^uy nt rariou« stages; in Glen Denrg four of these ucctir, a mile
‘'rin 1700 fe7f i 1ei8, ol onu t,f them is MO feet, the bottom of the valley being
^ also a rem-ivt \°iVe .®ca. In the valley of the Doc, the lateral vale of Muick
'J3* Aberfelflv * * sevius of moraines at a much lower level. In the T'uy valley
^tG*rtliCiwil UOt m°re l,mn :J0° feet “hove the sea, there is moraine matter; and
: * “thw extttnri iire1aomo moi'c recent terminal moraines of the same glacier. These
'''v ^pa‘:llCfectWl mt Sectors have been in Scotland, wherever tho moun-

,! 'T1N mountain# S,co.ttisl1 moraines ia connected with shallow recesses of the more
Qu‘w«rd i«mbeing placed in froI»t of (hem, us if masses of snow had gathered
V r l of tl a« °?f ,0ok place, earn ing coarse detritus for a few hundred
V ' , 5°nfine Lool.o to?1818 in Bcnmore Coiguch, near Ullapool, mid the moraines
'^Wjjaf , hovral and liramly ore of the same class. Loch Skeen, Dum-
y L ^ feet. In f-Z anathcr such moraine, the hills being 2(300 feet high, and the
^riLpjIUS; hut there i ° ? recess to the westward arc other lines and humps

W? f 2 gate iu a Jji *» lVe *aler haring escaped by a passage still as clearly
•* rran, 5g f , . • A similar recess-moraine occurs in the valley of Loch
In ,1 lllc ,pce»s U ae?, • °i l,he Bea' a Writing in length, with un opening in the
fci‘v !ak« district „!• p y n morass.

acli°n >n Uie TK;.i ' n° and the author had obtained additional evidence of
*hlcdi!!nai'ri|isei which !°Cro VadeJr. "here it enter* the cross valley below the Pass
l-l e desC(.mtit"m?cU, wit1' ’he Grasmere valley. There is a remark-
1W *e t,e train of ] ,E C lid side, about 30 feet hiuh, its surface bristled with
•oiul Va% ■ furthaJ5!1 11,18 a g'oeier 300 or 100 feet deep, coming clown the
^The down arc other heaps of detritus along with rounded and

n'„0l"|Lin sS;,-'fT,ns C11 'ho (wo sets of glacial phenomena were made at
' ’-'d, ^GOO tVpt *j . n> wkich rises from a base 1100 feet above the sea to

i. a, ^‘i* away tn ih ls comJ,OE‘ d of quartz rock. It is abrupt to the weafc-
fast»a,°iUt H^'Way nn'L0Ca,St i. t lc toP °« the ridge is thickly strewn with loose
’’ there are exair, i a „ ve ,tke 'evel of Fcrragon, the highest mountain to
nples of striated surfaces, and others within a few hundred

80

REPORT — 1854.

feet of the summit; the direction in both instances being west 30° north, or the same
as that of the mountain ridge. About 800 feet below the summit u block of granite
was found, and other foreign blocks were noticed in several places. These fact*
show that the whole mass ot this lofty hill has been involved in the general glacial
action. 1 he detritus of the neighbouring valleys is of the kind produced by sub-aerial
glaciers; but at the Pass called White Bridge, the surr.mit-lcvc! cast of Schichnlliwi,
there is a deep bed of true boillder clay with many worn and striated blocks; it lie*
out ot the way of valley gluciers, und has escaped removal by their agency.

Mr. Charlf.swokth exhibited and described severul new vertebrate fossils:—!.
Vertebra, supposed to be cetacean, from upper green sand of Cambridge, in the
cabinets of the ttev. T. Image und Mr. Heed, of York. Their structure was extremely
dense, and the end? marked with radiating grooves as in mammalian vertebra-,
which have lost their epiphyses. The bodies of theae vertebra were depressed,
giving an elliptical section, and on the dorsal surface was u ridge instead of the usual
spinal canal. The vascular foramina were large. 2. Part of tho lower jaw of a new
mammal ( Stereognathus oulUicus, Ch.) from the Stones field slate, In the cabinet of
the Rev. J. Dennis, of Bury. This was the fifth quadruped of the Stonetlirld
and must have bemi twice the size of any of the others. The specimen was part ot
the centre ot one division of the lower jaw ; its curvature was very slight, and the
concavity below. The section, where it was broken across, war rectangular, and a*
wide as deep. The surface presented no trace of sutures or vascular lines. 'Ihrre
teeth remained, uceupyilig half the length of the fragment, and one of these bad 111
similar cusps arranged in two rows. 3. The skull of n new mammal, named PkUr
c/uerops Ricliarftimu (Cb.) from the London play of Herne Bay ; about the n» of
^yrocotheriurn, but Quito distinct, having very prominent zygomatic process
f ‘ ° ' '1 niolni' ‘Seth being furnished with one large tubercle occupying

two- hirds °f the surface, and several small complicated tubercles inside. 4. I tit* -
ZZI JX : h‘>- a now specie., in the Museum of the Yorkshire Philosophy

between the sockets Wy cIo‘e^ crowded, leaving only a slender bony partition

On some of the more Recent Changes in the Area of the
Rg the Rev. J. (}. Cummino, M.A., F.O.S,

v’J'xe Rev. j. COMWlfQ M.A., I.C.s.

M^.11 in *ha relative level of land and arm, indicated in the We*

neJind r T ,7 exleilde«l ‘o the surrounding coasts of Britain and Ireland. J "

fslflnrl i le boulf.cr "'as marked by a cold climate and the subsidence of lb-
3oTaliondnf,.,r-0,1Ud,!,g C0,:lsts ,0 the ‘‘Stent Of at least 1000 feet ; ami, during d***
) 5 feet ahnvp h Countri'» ,berc «n interval, when the hind was stationary "l 0 . *
d^v form nl PTU- levcl- T‘te Nca'bed of the great drift gravel was then
rom’idhm comm; r"81.'’0 ,trecIes* PIai», connecting the Isle of Man with the
the second elonbn', nn'l 1,1 that time United to the Continent. Tht i

became an ,n *" FUt Irish stag (Cerrus

“e found in Wr “ °f lhe ,b,e of ^ " Ulx other animals whose

plain. The ni ul I .'c.sbwate,‘ marls occupying basin-shaped depressions in the* _
fati0„’ an,i ':'«nsand the plains i hem selves were afterwards covered with g*
dmitm the .aLV 0ccMpled with beds of pent, containing forest trees; b j

drift gravel m t‘l *l'a " as quietly eating hack its Way into the lcrr f

KH?ldC0fMnn became iL.lntod and the further
Sml sometifi Tled' CM» of drift gravel occur on all the coasts.®

The form of the ,P^ll,8 the hard rocks, at others retiring a little distance ‘J* .
south of the Isle nf\r ’ll> ' iaM<1 ,be Renter waste of the pleistocene deposits

and its higher levrf ‘i^rovlTl the aelion uf lI,e was c 1 11 e fvoin, J,’6 high c--t

modern tides, alone tl,J who J> ‘S® 'rater-worn caves, above the g j{

indicated by the mibhier^d p s"utlicni western shores. A still kterc g
grown after the formation 01‘ many parts of the coast, winch aPPea • „ by

which the bed rf ,h? TS°[ gruvel teire' a ir«5r7 fSS-S

took place during tLhistoJfe i"CC more ,aid <Irk 'Vh,cll,er l.heJaS b

ok period i* a question yet to be determined.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

81

On the Submarine Forest , Leasowe. By John Cunningham, F.G.S.

A section of the strata of the alluvium to the depth of 5G feet was exhibited in the
Wowing descending order, viz. —

Jj'irsl boring on the Marsh.

Surface.

Vi

Sand.

Pent in which the trunks of trees are imbedded.

Stiff blue day in which the trees grew.

ed clay intermixed with turf at top, below with blue veins and sand veins.

Quicksand p

enetrated to the deptli of 4 feet only.

Wiori

D it 8 feet under the surface level of the Marsh outside of the base of
embankment.

J clay mixed witl* M»e veins and sand.

art.Clay W'th 6a,1(l becJs from 2 to 3 i

inches thick, and from 5 to 7 feet

*<*» »iVniblCL'd a bd'ief ^ a.nd 10013 °f large trees being found below low-water
u.:,/., *'.orrnbyJ an,} ,n a subsidence of the shore at Leasowe, the opposite

lfll>6nftnefln Uclion simih!Try i°f t.1'e MerstT has ,flkon P,nce from deeply -
1 . m .L^'doice of those n) 01 to vv,bnl 13 mow going on in the south of Sweden.
‘r-;'d 1" l ie rocks at Now ”£t!s rc,om‘d to be due to deeply-seated subterranean
! ;hi Mil.i,!’., !•* nli0 Hilbre Island IIOi’u' !!lf: " ’l11*0 wa-v to l'10 S(llltb ol' >h>' f'pacc
< ‘"me. i“e <orest. all eoinno ofT I ' bn? ,be la,,LM' immediately adjacent
' 'idi n,. ^?e uPsymnnthv L'.i lbe I,l'w red sandstone, would have niani-
1 in any „f \\t ' ‘ , >e arof» «"dcr the depressing influence, but no

' '-d while, on tl,G r * ’"'.v maintain the same elevation they

bo rpj eeJ within the InstVl sborc9 °djncont are known to have

^ eri'e(l to some other " 7 :Vear*' *10 Cfui*o this subsidence must

kntitipK reCp j 0Perut,Mg agent or agents than to subterranean

';>»ltoS°r- PfOVe t licfr Ip!!! *upcriuttndencr, of the strata in the alluvium
•iv" a very conlidernn” ily 1° Wfttor* bein8 composed of sand and

55 ,n^iS fVlUl0*' of the tidal r U* dl'pt '-

- D»"Df tl|eiilllape for the Water a'n![enUj02 lbc pdges of the strata prepares s
^ Oneui,! Js. and the hydraulic 5“"^ r,,m u,idemeath the clay during the
‘>>0 PT!^Urc “f,ll\e «utcr « >dgh« level •

bed ne' 8tC' underneath the clay beds ; hence the s

in

sub-

ll te-x,i - “eu near j|( * * u,c SU0,

^lefled6l?CSle 'Matter, ,‘e^uhe nb° grow> ,c,Prther with the cuper-
i before rcd,2;?nr?l mS ^ ,,f ,1,'“ W;,U r lon^er than
>84 f|°'v Water nderini»ed, and consem*^ 1,6 surface and descend conformably,

sequently become submerged even under

6

82

REPORT — 1854.

Abrasion of the surface of the shore takes place also to a considerable extent by
the alternate frosts and thaws that occur during the winter months.

The submarine forest on the Formby shore is supposed to be due to the same
causes that operate at Leasowe.

A section was shown of Oidston Marsh, which for^s a continuation of the flat
shore at Leasowe, having also the remains of an ancient forest imbedded ill pest m a
similar manner. The levels taken of the surface upon which trees now grow in the
S.E. corner of the marsh, and of the surface upon which the roots of the ancient trw*
exist, prove the difference to be only IS inches, i. c. the surface upon which tin
living trees now grow is 1 8 inches higher only than the surface upon which the
forest trees flourished, and therefore Mr. Cunningham conceived that forest tin*
could flourish aB luxuriantly on the present surface of the marsh us those of the
ancient forest.

Mr. Cunningham had entered into some speculations ns to whether the cxtcimv*
flat lands on both sides of the estuary were encroachments of the land upon the
how far those encroachments extended, or whether the whole of the flut land* virr
not simultaneously elevated to their present level. These questions, although
esting and intimately connected with the subject of tho submarine forest, were *
for future consideration.

On an Ichthyoid Fossil from India. By Sir Philip Eoerton, Bart.

Sir Philip Egorton stated the results of his examination of what had been sent t
the Section as “ a fossil tooth from India," by Mr. Oldham. From the examination
he had made, lie was convinced that the organism was not u tooth, but a dors* sc* 1
ot some large ganoid fish, the species of which had not yet been ascertained.

On the Discovery of Microscopic Shells in the Lower Silurian Bock- By
Prof. Lhrevbero. ( Communicated by Leonard Horner* I'-B-o.)

ie *ninute grains of greensand, which arc characteristic of many rocks, n
different nature from the green earth often met with iri concretionary masses. ■
former, from the glauconie of the Paris calcaire nromer to the azoic Lower . i •
greensand near Petersburg, appears to consist of green opalescent casts of roly
lamia, composed of a hydrosilicate of iron. The cretaceous greensands of Log
contain, unmistakeably, these stony casts. In the calcaire grosswr and num
limestones occur beautifully preserved and perfect examples of

. '/f " , a' Orammostoma and Alveolina. In the Lower Silurian green

cas o detached cells of Tettularia and Nodosaria were found.

On the.

Foliation of some Metamorphic Bocks in Scotland.

By Professor Edward Forbes, F.B.S.

.»JV?S.?fgreaJ tywrtttiCe to geologists to distinguish between lamination, clea^
■line ° IO,j * 16 * rst re,l,ltcd from original planes of deposition ; the sec
super mduced stmeture, dividing rocks into h.tnime of similar constitution, not
SlfnL fj-j* lxnw of Lidding; thirdlv, foliation was the division of
wiTw w °f different mineral condition. Cleavage had been attributed by 1«»- ^
WMr n t0 ck’ctrical action; by Mr. Sorby, to a mechanical ' icJ

te. or ,i.o mcc;hanical and chemical influence. The

2

in

■Inf.. _ _ J . . cnemicai mnuence. * , „„m£uii

attributed To ° ,,f.muu'ral constituents into distinct layers, had been * h

considi i t®m.Varr?,,,enctio,l of different constitution;

duo to the

^reed with fl, JIOuKamC vkw 1,88 maintained by Mr. Sharpe,

Kir*?, lit. “ * "Verind—I 5™=— •-

The author tlien referred to examples of foliated structure ; in a roadddeqjjjj ^
at Cnanlanch, near the bead of Loch Lomond, where the metamorphic b®*

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

83

Kt distorted, and exhibits distinct lines of bedding, of a pale blue colour, caused by
' ; presence of iron; also lines of different mineral matter, the lamina* frequently
■ ;ncd round nuclei ; and dark lines of crystals of calcareous spar produced, perhaps,
the me la morph ism of bands of fossils. In the upper part of the quarry the lime-
*°7 becomes foliated witli^mica, — the foliation being at first parallel with the
Wing, then becomes wavy and contorted, is affected by small faults, and contains
"'.:i ul cilcareous spar, and at length passes into a mica slate. At Ben Os there is
hand in the mica slate, which, having the same strike with the C'rian-
bed*, nay eventually prove a guide in unravelling the structure of the country,
l ' ti ** ** :nverarnon tliere >a a bod of porphyritic trap in mica slate, and the
inju on the sides °f the trap is conformable, four miles from Invorarnon, in a
,• • 0 “"P) which seuds large and small veins into the mica slate, there is evidence
1, -,-,' T‘ f".l,at,®n having taken place, following the sinnl! veins of trap. Near
in—i;, mica slate is foliated and contorted ; uml a bed of c&lcarcou-i grit cuts
r~..r 0I^ “wturlnng the relatious of the curves and lamin®. In n slate

)|r. Sh.in.P ,v' ,v! 6 ^0 latl0n accords in the main with the cleavage, as observed by
Udsj uf J ,e corresponding district; hut whilst the foliation curves round the
> Uij rook.nre i-LVS^aljuts aga‘U8t them, foliation bus also been noticed in
l^Iorbe bahsbur-v Crag8-

rj,htinct fromnfU^e^’ ** tbat foliation was a superinduced structure; 2, that it
:: a-menou- 4 ♦w'v®0’ **’ that it was not of mechanical origin, but a chemical
> i a it was, perhaps, induced by more than one agency.

B'i C'inf<r^ a r^'rue Cretaceous Formation in the South of Africa.
!'-C; p | ' ARDEM un(l W. H. Baily, of the School of Mines.

' ,lT- Kraus? tb»t llu‘ 8,‘Pposcd

stint,!, LS'y ; but

cretaceous rocks discovered in South Africa

y, - !‘mum conteiSn^'^i’ D,u t,mt ‘ ,l"1 111,1 ,uuntl in Natal an

“eeii described hv vt, DS truv cretaceous fossils. The species were new, and

^ 4 a,S&, &^urc< -» •*“ .

exhibited of tmmonites , Jiaculites,

ft”?™' By G- n' 0»w»oooH, F.K.S., F.G.S.

t ii L°Jner'st°ne of morlntJ8 ^e,Port b)’ observing, that the study "f organic remains
],- • karat from |^C8„ gcO‘°gy, and that much more of the history of the earth
« definite suerr *ru,n, tbV n,,ture and properties of inorganic matter,
r.lorl’ n'atlon coutaininn i*,88U’n ol !n'neral masses can no longer be maintained :

■ ui Tlio afma i°W,n ^an^Stmlps, cla.vs and limestones, regularly or irre-

piKn, nv ,e same countw j caa,1Bea >ts mineral character in different countries,
v :nitilp ll'oriic rock I'lJv 80tTK*times “n tllL' quarry. By contact with an

; transformation” *'ck ?U1 often ‘>c 80 di*gtti*ed «■ to defy

'T in'l'licS i'"to •"M’hle sanditt! ‘US “}° tydian stone, Jurassic limestone into

sssr 11 is *°

r 4 ^kblv10118 0,1 tndin, is r<>ck, which occupies both the northern and

Iw1'^ |eLm?ny secondary bed/srin^1. U?y one’ but ra‘1,cr of nU pP0,:Ils !

■ °Wa are CHsli»r.n * i w'81 1,1 tlial country os jet undiscovered.

' T Crt the ad t nhi: and NeP"k ,h* coast of Guscrat, and a
-,,,1 ,Jf'7vrfi«i?hlC !,'Vqs Illustrated f,v "T >7’ 1 1C ,ol,°" *“3 is n Vur>’ al)*tract
Uit'jT the y. ^egur 0r Cottm r ° a‘?° coloureJ maP of the whole country : —

of trap-tuff, resembling Nile
ft" ?f the | ,ailk« the tftblc'lan,i of thc ceded districts

KMW ICCan> but li K rn b,,1, ,r dll— covering almost the entire
a«<l ca^?UCrct^navy obsorve.I i„ tin- Koukan. 1. contains no

aadtb?,eH<'f tbc beds bi nfin”?08?!'8 lo 1,10 trav<,,dn of Italy, filling
,aa«-e recent be, U 1,1 Bonts the Mastodon hive been

^ Cliuname’ ?nd largely in the°nlilin fl?*ment8 of pottery. It is used as a
m- a local name for pr^“ctlon of lin'G-

an argillaceous limestone used for building in

6«

84

REPORT— 1854.

Bengal, Beliar, Benares, &c., occurs in nodules in the alluvium, which at Calcutta
is 500 to 600 feet thick. Near Benares it contains fragments of freshwater shell*,
bouth of Madras, a dark clay abounds in marine shells used for lime-burning in pre¬
ference to the beach shells, as freer from salt.

Laterite, or brick stone, of Buchanan, resembles the trass of the Rhine anil the
l i pen no and lhutzolana of Italy, It extends to Malacca, Siam, Sumatra, Sinner*,
c. It caps the loftiest summits of the Eastern and Western (ihauts, and Jim ««

bottomed. Caverns are not uncommon in this rock. At 'J'mvnncorc ore belli of
black clay and lignite, 50 and 00 feet thick, in the Uteri te clifls.

/ liocene ana Miocene.' — In the salt range of the Punjaub, the uppermost bid con-
auis bones of elephant, hors*', o.\, great untelopc, lmcna, &c„ and tuny be
to be a continuation of the Sevulik formation. Oil tlic plain between the Briti**'
erritory and lhibet is a boulder-deposit, containing bones of Hippotlierium, Klnne-
ceros, Llephant, and various Ruminants; Bones of the Mastodon and other niamnub

lw luuse or al1Cppy. Wa,or i uiHamcs describes b clay wiui wi.---*
like London clay, met with in sinking a well north of Gogo; it was reached »»*»
teet and not passed through at 356 feet. Clay, with shells genetically like th‘*; 1
the London basin, has been found on the banks of the Iruwadi, in Binnnli. Sil«'»~
shells were found by Voysey, between two layers of trap in the Decent.. Krngmenu
“^hactroua stone, containing sand and freshwater shells (ot the ' fr'" r
and Cliam \CV>'!eat ^nl0’ Livmea, Pfa/sti, Paludinn, and remain* of y/’ •

Sicliel Hills* U ° °U IK 6,1 tangled in the trap, or scattered over its surface, u

tabtZ7Sar^ encir"'le ‘he Persian Gulf, follow the chain of Elborus and ■
desceml th/If111 r*»ch tl,c mountains of Caubul, and the Western l«m» k
Hass flfrlin o S, f'nan *h«»> a,'d follow that of Hula to the mouth of the I"' ; ■
ChmanooS tl!e Uank tlf Himalaya to the confluence of the Gangr,

cliistan to past’ ,ave heen traced along 25° or 26° in longitude, from (

Cu tet to the nofth of Cuahn * " of CulcutU' und over 12° latil,ulc from tbeR

extenth from nPl'car that n branch from the muin body

the Deccan J t a'?'? .,h* b««* * ‘he Persian Gulf. The cretaceous be '

wore nronnnnl by Newbold in 1840. The fossils of

hl \ wt- F«beg Ncoco.nian, — those of Verdschellnm andTn^

. i„ . n At rvnt-hianv roiisi<ien“

I „ — , me icruanes, — vnniru ru,

these irenprn n,K"pCC,es of Vulu,a 1 it was inferred by Prof
the greensand „nd 1<Mr ."f}pcaranf;c earliest in the Eastern sea*. Bocks j

and °soft white Kentish rag, were observed by Dr. Jack in

Borneo! Cha,k w,th ,J5«*»ni at Bencoolen. Cretaceous bods also <**«'

■hfe?.," rock (Movie, 0- Th.

careous slate in h ”U,U V* hy Copt. Grant, consisting of slaty cb) -
varieties of yviSfeSS T*’ f ,.rminB hills capped with sandstone,

Oolitic coni 9 Ti /'• ■dmmondet tlereeui, &c. m , rQtear<h

but it may perliaiJh r*‘ a,Sv® position of the Indian coal has hitherto baffl^ grflu-

w»y «£Crs L ,hc Bnn ln catoi, t-

cations. crywhere intersected with dykes, slip*, and

Sb-a^^fc-SX* .1,0 part of lie Himalaya «■*<£?£

Several thousand fret in tlnckn 'IT I?1 a!t'3 l’ara,lel w,th *!,c S ^“ijactf

made up of fragments of slmll. ’ tbe nPPer portion being in some p brl,h
and fuller's e!?th /£ ' L°f rambling *^»££bM

tnese are soft dark shales, with hard nodules

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

85

Ainnonites and Belemnites of the age of the Oxford clay; the Amtnomtic rock
•'obably extended to the eastern part of Nepaul. They occur at an elevation of
from IS, 000 to 19,000 feet, and are held in superstitious estimation by the nntivos.

Tlie Oolitic series forms an important element in the rocks of eastern Afghanistan
' 1 Northern India. It is known to extend from Cutch on the south along the whole
- • of hills that flank the Indus, and it forms the scarp of the table-land of Afghnn-
35 hr as the salt range in the upper Punjnub. Oolitic rocks have liccu observed
'•:ie the route to Cmibnl and to the north of that city. North of the great snowy
ir-0''t the Himalaya they follow the southern border of the table-land of Thibet.

n ™ Rajfiiiotana a number of peculiar marble* occur, of which the Taj Mahal
- 'be palaces of Jodpoor, Sec. are built. Amongst these i* i hnuacheUi or opaline
' inarblo, probably of Jurassic age; white, granular marbles are found in the
y 3,,d are also metamorphic and of partial occurrence.

•cmafaUU8 K<^S BJ’Psum occ‘ur in the Madras Presidency, but their relations are

fjil* iiir0!"! S*ndst.one (iolconda is a move or less compact breccia, red and
"fnimii*001 , ‘ls.oxa®* age unknown. Salt springs occasionally bnak
• ,ie Ea', tone or its vicinity, With the subjacent limestone, it covers large
hi?)i)v-iii .r** i IZon*{d btyers; blit at the edge of the plains ofCuddapah it rises
' he dinri„!n! S.trata bnmediatfly upon granite. Traces of coal are raid to exist
b'ljiddi,. 1 8ttnasto,,e ^.W. of Nagpoor, and abundantly along tlic valley of the

V l11 iwtlv p" HmUr^Wnn tbc character of the roul is slaty, The genera of
,r orcur m nip ‘n®, ’’ sorne Australian, some peculiar. Of the English genera
yffrit, L coa Measures, viz. Sp httlOphyllum, Pott cites, Catamites , and Pe-
Ao*ie of Daceitn t. r, i

Irnn dean ii bc<m ascertained by Messrs. 1 1 islop and Hunter that

chiefly feL p, * le " °steni Ghauts rests on n sandstone, with vegetable
, '^pti.rls ami 1 1 cc®P*prf *t Cyclapteris, Spluiiopleris, Kquisetites, many species
’ '!■ At Godaverv nr.'L K,icjtroria Judica, which also characterize* the Burdwan

flower oolite nr It 8 ton,,t tbe ^''piitotus Deccdlieuxis referred by Sir P. Egerton
i Tm] . Vj nils,

, fr '* roftti-red to im!'eSlonCT'^01* "Mvl. The sandstone of the Bandnir hills and
“3l "lay be ti-BnoJ aJWat;on’ According to Mr. James Ilardie, the New Bed
With the sab n ljOU£ 1 lbo Baralpur northward through Delhi, and there
JJ (o'v«rds Cutcl, _ , sypsu‘» bt :iiiiig rocks in Lahore, Moultan, &c., south-
^ , 11 of Centrsil to Persia, forming a zone round the great elevated

Ve<l l*v Clint c'.’ 'i scPar“fing it from the primary. Muschelkalk has
' -f , ,c, of St rvJ^’ ,lor,b °f the vallev of Niti, Himalaya. The fossils
'\u ! Mongmp an' but the species are all distinct. Twenty-five species
r Choiutrl //\ d , of,,ll'rn Ctratiles, (Jouiatites, Ammonites, Spirifera,

Pholadomya.

co!' 1 10 ,lottom (,f |K* rgnn’1' remains collected bv Dr. Fleming in the limc-
ST*"* °f ,he snlt ranSc» Himalaya, include

Pro-

C“

« rej1)?0 ’’J'eliim am/ u!!!^0, , * *ll> ubb‘f supply of salt is derived from the range
M i?'1 W,ll> rock Hu ?<U,S- *™rdil!g i , Dr. Andrew Fleming, the gyp-
, ■""8 the n W*1' iignite* in’i tS ^ *i'u Ver.v brtse the section, beneath the bitu-
it tVoil‘a" roek* ' ..cai ‘,0,'1h-'tGiw limestone; and lie assigns it a place
;:>inou* of l'“-‘ HimaliDa C'Tr,i°M Fure rock salt and salt springs occur in
’^'abound infaS ,m*1,at.nre 1,olitVl-(l to be Eocene strata. 'I he
? hag bil.p ru<s' !",ni wb‘cb *b‘m ** prepared exactly ns at

‘■'ifuk ° generations v.. <• parried on by the ancestors of those now engnged
. 881 8 lavc ^L‘eq found in the saliferous beds of the

fl:'1>'TuotJhj'tea' ch u v n ^teH 5t ic^ o f 1 1 li 1 a 1 sw"1 aff°ra n?a,,,y formi of Tnlobites-

ftCt pwh^ jr di ^ ’huiiar to ui°sc

86

REPORT— 1854.

On Crustacean Impressions from the Trias of Dumfriesshire.

By Professor Harkness, F.G.S.

It was well known that footprints of reptiles were abundant in the New Red Sand¬
stone of Dumfries. Those now exhibited were compared to leech-bites in form, and
were believed to be left by crustaceans. They came from an upper bed of sandstone,
quarried at Corse Hill, north of Annan, The layers were sometimes ripple-marked
and channeled as if by rills of fresh water trickling over a shore.

On the Anthracite Deposits and Vegetable Remains occurring in the Lo\c<r
Silurians of the South of Scotland. By Prof. Harkness, F.G.S.

These strata form the high land south of the Firths of Forth nnd Clyde, ami have
‘general inclination to the N.N.AV. The highest beds tire on the northern side of
the range ; and consist, near Girvan, of limestone and sandstone, with fossils of the
-Llandeilo rocks. To the southward, fossils arc ru re; but near the lowest part ot the
series, at Glenkiln, uioc miles from Dumfries, organic remains are found in bcdi f
anthracite, resting on tfiOO feet of unfossiliferous purple and grey ennditoni* snd
shales. The fossils ore Graptalites Sagittarius, Dipfot/rupsU* priitis, and D ■ ran,'-1*' ;
biphonotretu micula occurs with the Graptolites in a thin bed of black shale at ths
base of the anthracitic beds. At Dufl-Kinncl, crustaceans of the genus DilkyrMt jrii
have been found. These fossils do not account fur the carbonaceous matter in >-,r
black shales, but indications of u fuooids " have been found ; and it is supposed that
nutch of the hydrocarbon of these beds has been lost through the influence of merits'
meal forces. I ueoids of the non era Pala/ochorda and Chondrites ore found in the
rtpp e-marked flags of a much higher part of the series, north of New Galloway,
unaccompamcd by anthracite, but associated with a zoophyte ( Proto-wrgulom )
r cks ot Annelids. The anthracitic bods wore supposed to have derived Uicir car-
Donaceous matter from sca-wceda floating like the gulf-weed of the present day.

or a
beds
been

On Mineral Charcoal. By Professor Harkness, F.G.S.

This substance occurs in the form of n black pulverulent silky-looking subsist**.

most all descriptions of coal, but is must abundant in 1

BtonV iaS?-‘? ;Nf°Va Sc'"lift W£'H as in Great 15 ri tain. At Sanquhar, the c“ln»'
stone coal, which has a roof ljf fin, indurAtl.(i daV( indicating tranquil water, conU '
iwJ , chfcoah w hi 1st in the “ Creepy coal,’ ‘ which has a flaggy roof,1'
SS1 l8 fbuj^ant-. Microscopically examined, the charcoal appears to con**»«

r i ? g audiilar tissues ; tho fibrous parts especially resemble the texture o

C alamodendra of the Lancashire coal-measures.

On Annelid Tracks from the Representatives of the Millstone Grits » &
Lounh, oj Clare. By Professor Harkness, F.G.S.

loDedinri,nllar rkin^ regurded fay the outhor as tracks of Annelids are best
KhannonCeT 4* which occur at Kilrush and Ki kee, north J

crenated mW eJrbav° l*K' form of meandering tracks, halt nninebaer ’ .

he ^m ?' 7 ,Tl? Crtlal liw‘ With cross-lines between, apparently ■"«
Slow gtbe t Lt k‘ ^ organs of locomotion. In the darM^
as on the snrfi. ^ *ln,H0V,s' |>ut rarely crenated, and occur on the lami ■
terminate unJj' "I'r °°^ ike hUed-up burrows of marine worm?, and so
terminate upwards at funnel-shaped depressions.

Geological Sun^^B^,

thafn rnfles at' 8 which Was Plotted to a natural sca,e’ S

man u miles at 8 mcl.es to tbe mile, with a datura line of 1000 feet below the

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

87

„f high-water mark, Mr. Hull went on to remark that the new red sandstone from
•Jit base of the red marls downwards consisted in this neighbourhood of four well-
marked subdivisions, which are arranged under the following heads:

1st. Waterstones.

2nd. Upper soft red and variegated sandstone.

3rd. Coarse red sandstone and conglomerate.

4th. Lower soft red and variegated sandstone.

!' has been demonstrated by the work of the Government Geological Surveyor*,
these four subdivisions are constant along the borders of Wales, from the Mersey
th* MaUerns, and extend thence into the central districts, where, though one
a more of the subdivisions are occasionally absent, yet the struta which do occur
''nvs present lithological characters by means of which they can he arranged under
«'ia of these subdivisions. Through the knowledge obtained from this classifica-
|Wi nearly all the fault's affect in- ill thert ON a gnat abundance,

been laid down on the maps of the Geological Survey, mid their amount of
<* «Hinn can generally he calculated. Ou the section, nine faults, the direction*
approximated due north and south, were drawn ; and their amount of down-
| ar.vintT from 1050 feet to 80 feet, was marked ; and the total thickness of the
sandstone from the base of the marls was stated to be from MOO to 1500
Ilf'31™1 between Liverpool and Chester. In the border counties, the
UntiT St JUIlter) ttMa*n8 its maximum thickness. In the shires of Nottingham,
•oitiril I 8n<* Jjeicester> tl,c 2nd and 4Ui members of the scries arc very thin,
tnd the whole formation is represented by the 2nd member,
iXi' ftel c°arse pebbly sandstone or quartsosc conglomerate, from 100 to

fatten ell? Conglomerate beds and Waterstones form two conglomcritic

*• RedS^T8 10r‘/'<!m ’ a,,(l from the huso of the Waterstones downwards,
'i !.,ut -V. j B,'dstune might be (OMhbn] us a great deposit of soft variegated sand
(’oarsw ’ two "wiy ''ipuil portions by sandstones of a harder
- :lj‘ history generally congloim ritic ; the whole presenting four a-ras

^litions ot sen r,rw. Red San”stone in England, during which similar physical
“PPlicatinn ttria,mu'nta>ned at alternate periods.

districts , ?.Wo,r^ oxecuied by the Geological Survey in the New Rod Sand-
below the JX W" Pmpoae*, Mr. Hull stated that we are now able to tell the
‘k aftquainted 'v,1>ch the base of the Now Red extends, so that we were

Ability of *hos<‘ localities where (cteicri* paribus ) there was the greatest

?,r''nK tne favour- if ° i at mo^ewlte depths. Observations were then made con-
■r" Winga fm. a lea n« unfavourable circumstances to be taken into consideration,
’•odificationa nnxl wer.e.PVoPosc<l in areas occupied hv the Now lied Sandstone, and

or absence of Permian and upper
.',ria?«innitoftheBh-it a*jao'u,° necessity of having an accurate knowledge of the
'Jfttoce» in anv ,a a around areas occupied by productive Coal Measures, in order

y SUch ut,dcrlakingr was strongly Vrgcd.

ThtQjQ J _ .

YlT Northern Part of the County Wicklow , geologically

> ^ke» Btated % J* B‘ Jv™> FM S" F G S'

4. tT*4?1 Public &ihBidata were "" l«'d down on the great six-inch map, and
’’Putbic rocks ents* „ recommended the adoption of shades of lake for
’ green for the hornblendic series.

8.

Kn

ited several sections in the neighbourhood of Liverpool.

•>, Sir 071 Palaozoic Rocks of Germany.

*>.c.^ ws.

was stated to be the general outline of
ered by Prof. J. Morris and himself to the Geological

88

REPORT — 1864.

I u : ,V8IC'U,ef .obJect beinS t0 extc"ll the fourteenth chanter of hi
recently published work Silurta, on the Primeval Succession in Germany.

Q1 render his views clear, lle exhibited a large tabular view in which the order of
superposition of nil the sedimentary rocks of Germany was given, from the Imuit
..wn .^®u™cke' 1,1 which no fossils have been detected, through an nsccmling
^1,una> Devonian, Carboniferous ami Permian rocks; the latter overlaid
uy the Irias or lowest group of the tncaogoic or secondary rocks.

*j!Vv!!rZ U:‘rr!]n,K''H Te'narhablo Work, the ‘ Basain Silurien de Bohim. ' hr
p c ie‘ r,c. .v how a vast pile of unfostUiferous schistose rocks was auceccdo!
rwul aguc.bJri" rba .V hatantlmr termed hi«‘ Zone Primordial*/ with its Trih.l it. •,

, •Vo_ ca “!!(l Drthidre (the equivalent of the Lingula lings of North Wnlcs <*
f,.\)‘nA /” ur,im ,ocks ot the Geological Surveyors of Britain), and how that «»•
Rn.v t / an . ^normotta mass of schists, coarse grits and quartzites, referred ly
mrronde from its fossils to the age of the great mass of Lower Silurian (LUndcio
and arndoc), as originally published in the ‘ Silurian System/

", ■ )\y. c™t5r,*t1,« n-prescnlutivas of the Upper Silurian known in Germany
j1v, i. . ns district of bohemia, where a considerable1 thickness of shale and mounn J
mvd T,' A® Wen lock and Ludlow formation of Itritnin. Several,

’ , “e >vpucio3 which in England are typical of the one and the other of tli. *'-
• ' 111 ,B the same Bohemian Led; i. e. Ludlow rock forms ore mixed up " ! ]

In ti l “ 8t‘]'tun' ^‘d'pying the place of our Wenlock shale.
oaenniSr Jr 1 bbrmgecwald and in the parts of Saxony to lliv cast of it, '•
u ^,°1‘ u, l7°,ni a,Brcilt unfuB»iliferoQs base (chloritrc wild ouarttosc grniiwsrl.r
trellini-iii „.C^Ce.l|Ci ^ ! ie Dower Silurian, described as such by Gcinitz, Richter, fr ¬
aud Trili.liitn0^ . 1 r nat.,V0 pcologinte, becntHO it is charged with Nfireile*, Grnptoli:- •
fosaiU S ’ lnch.U,,V? °9!W>a Buchii, with Trinuclei, Orth ides and other S*ihiri‘n
enumerated tK^°UV 8*ato with some limestones und shale. Willi the '

Lower Sil»rin,. QiIcfntbng series stops; there being no trace of Upper Silurian. 1“'
and chiellv h« »f al« aic. lbl‘re llt mice covered trunsgressively by lire PevnM";
theHhiS limestone (Kramenzel stein

M. Riclur-p 16 fltlpr ' ?eks contain a remarkable number of plants, discovered *•>

l/noer. '.ei^ l,ecuhur forms, and which arc about to be described by r"

feroug 'strsM ,.-C l,l,l'.moi,ntfd by a considerable expansion of the Lower Corboni|
known in detwnii*' *J,,cnce°US» brown and yellowish sandstones, with piling ‘
ducti of sneir i° thllt.nZc- . Near Hof this group contains limestones with
Sedgwick and dieouthor '** '®"tu'n ant* France, as formerly pointed out by D1-

undidatioii's^nta ^ower Carhoitiferous rocks have been subjected to the »"'•
extremity ,!f «i 55?., fct^cctb' conformable to each other, and in the soutlicrnin
fi»IJ™iw;.!lfih,0l;,,f-'rnral‘1 ™> seen l. be olscuptlr seperaleJ turn fl» ■“>
with nmnernu, " composed of grey sandstone anil schist, which, c 1,1 -

veryS ZfiTTr* "• efw» Wotted, to « .moll cstest, «£•

land. 53 °^,bo Botlie-todtc Hagen de, or Lower Red Sandstone <*

Bohemia and ^u'^u*°rocn,tirc^ deficient in the unfoasiliferous bottom
exhibited in each 0f |',,Ber'vald, and also of the great development of LW'r (

Sedgwick and t L t?* Jr** nl<h,m"'nr> r0ckB of rhC Srt- th*
year 1828 and ifio- f p*ftmincd together on two
lion, tfe » dislocated, a

WSII often converv.i T Se.l,,as,it?j have undergone ; the schists ar.o
The author, bowin' .1 lo ma&s,ve “ ‘ homstnne " around the chief masses

group, or Rhenish grnuwa’3e o^’h n kc,ief' ,1,at al1 tUe Tt ?***
upwards through the 0mnnns' ftnm l,‘c Spirifer ”r fly

tuenia limestone, are tlmr ac 1 s'at^s and liilel limestone, t<> *he Dppe . ^
often in tlm d«M&«31f!!r>,,V and ,hat «re *»«*'*** S SS^
Be chen ; whilst in one truer _ rif‘,J-v o^ers containing the well-known P° ^ o(- t

dark limestone with charaeterW^ e°f tb‘s Dower Carboniferous ngj- L ‘ parin'11
characteristic fossils of carboniferous age. Hie cottP

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

89

iliich has been worked out in some detail by M. Adolphe Homer, who i. still occu¬
pied in that labour and in completing a map of this highly complicated tract, was in
» general sense approved of. But in a future communication, the author and his
companion Prif. Morris, will endeavour to show, in relation to one of the opinions <>f
M Homer, that in reality all the strata in the Harz, including the Wistful) «ch slates,
‘i) be found I to occupy the same relative position bs in the region of tin- Rhine,
oie chief object of Sir R, Murchison in revisiting the Harz region wan to deter*
if certain rocks in its eastern extremity, which have bren laid down ;m<l
a* 8ilurian by M. Adolphe Homer, are really of that age: he reminded his
'tor* Ihfit it was just in this tract that Prof. Sedgwick and thr author himself
‘- vpaieii hneen years ago that the oldest rock* of the chain would b> found. 'J'he
V Bwr l“e fC3sl,s which decide the case is (hie to M. Ja -che of Klsinbtirg, and
i*u , ° Magdespning. In qm small baa of limeatone (not exceeding 10 feet
Jmirr i j- BU"°,r^*nalc t,J ’1R* slates on. the N.K. flank of the mountains, the
•iiJ'r.JV uncovered fossils of the genera Or/hit, Terebrntuh, /.■; <r.,n, Spi-
rrihhtes, &•<.■., few of which IK British Specie*, tin. ugh OlheV*
^'ipuermn » e-i^ *deflhfied with Bohemian fossils described by Bnrnuule from
•iicbeL ' ma" staSef- At Magdesjirung the limestone subordinate to a great
*clai,d ,}„,^rkVch:*t and flagstone was formerly alluded to by Prof. Sedg-
fjKTinitC8. ,h *n their hurried vide dele tod no organic remains except

*C' Ly M.'/inJL, •Y W,*re aware *hat Trilubites hod been found there many years
Vi di«Vr lym,,' '' ng to the mineral aspect of these schists and limestones
•»b» of which nr *n ’he Harz, and judging from the fossil*, the greater

’■** mthor beliovps^ ,tj'P0S more “icient than those of ony known Devonian rock,
Vnj>U at several nik t Sratuwacke around Hnrzgerode, in which limestones
*^f^Kdonthe Rnmn lo iCe3 besides, may be referred to tlic uppermost Silurian,

U«TJ ,1.:. ame ,evel US one of flip hhrluwl Kl.-Iiroa i,f \t H i, 1„ Tl... Il..„

M,

£rfy5de"tifi«l bv'ilu>K T hnind that the Wissen bach and Caub slates bad been
‘.'"icnia! haa i.„„, ro hmidberger through a communiiv of fossils, and
with the Ki-n?U,U "i* 1 typ'dina schists of Nassau; thus identifying
le8i°n is ono vStuf °!' ^‘’stpl.alia. The most striking new'dis-

• sandstorm w- l , '^onmn l ocks, consisting of ascending

rgc nlanlal7r:,hn^ slnU‘s hlifel limestone, See. In these
"Pon the I wi; UI7MtV ,mvc bcrn discovered, and ns they
’•M the P* “?*• ,Uan rocK ’hoy are considered to be of the Lower

ftTi- * frniinn tv >1

fr 2V5fi> ‘"li'1 Thii,inPcvwald, Sir Roderick then

/'itit-d ,1, ^he-todto lie«». , /lH'ml,y to tin? enormous thickness of their
frit; ,W <>f sup„oS tll( ,e Low,,r.!u,‘l Snndstonp of England). He
frilly dSST1 us fo'md^at Whiu nf,Prec,nWc “>no«n« of coal occurs in this
»H J««tnCf matrix, mill 1 ‘ lm‘"nu a»d other places being in r

^dsTl.^esof ^.e,U'‘^y beneath all tl.c red rock.

beneath all tl.c red rocks Vtlmuglf "1“ ^3
tfr CL?** * SicirirS"_,n..MlT divisions of the Uotho^todte

Vrmian

in

^fribed 7 "* wl‘ich, in Sax .vi n> ,'18K’nB uf lhc “ Rothe-todtc
W, On a s,Ucl‘ by Outbid- ’ , ' i' V •*'”** afl"rdvd the remarkable Permian
CP,<Vh°,b^ hnnd,^ Ttlr °mVlt iM ,lwil 4 Pernnscl.e SvstJ in
u fr0*1 a borina ol‘ about !lcur *»«ch, these ud n>, k« have

at «< * 0 re n ,’b * , l” 11 ‘‘ 11 1 ,ff ", ,rnit‘ ('f “»d at

^ingfflp? 2ll°0fOot more Th^f U'.‘r 7.'‘ph*mer«te summits, has
gtlleCarbonifcroUs series C ‘0l° ln this Uwtr 1{cd Sandstone,

90

REPORT — 1854.

The characteristic plants of this rock, as seen at Kifhauser and Eisenach, aw
silicified Psaronites. The uppermost beds of the Rothe-todte, of a greyish ami light
colour (“grau liegende ” and “ weiss liegende are exposed in natural sections on
the N.E. flank of the Thuringerwald, where they are surmouutcd by bituminous
schists and the Kupfer Schiefer with its fossil fishes.

The Zechstein offers in its details nil those mineral and zoological distinction*
which have been pointed ont in the works of Sedgwick and King, tbc one on the
Magnesian Limestone, the other on the Permian fossils of England; the principal
distinction in Germany consisting of enormous interpolated masses of gypsum. Sir
Roderick then explained why, in proposing the word Permian, be had further in¬
cluded in this group a certain portion of schistose and partly calcareous red rocks
which everywhere overlie the Zechstein or Magnesian limestone, and often con-
stitute ridges separated from the “ Bunter Sandstein,” properly so called, or base of
tho Trias. In this way lie considered the Permian (which in Russia, whence b#
derived the name, lias mottled copper sandstones with plants and conglomerate' f»r
above the Zechstein) to ho an under Trias; the Zechutoin limestone being placed
between two red formations.

1 hough only indirectly connected with the object of this communication, the
tabular view exhibited the chief divisions of the true German Tria* or base °f * '
secondary rocks with its profusion of largo Saurians ; attention being specially calW
to the entire change of animal life in passing from tho Permian or uppermost 11
zoic into this lowest Mesozoic or secondary rock, though tho one was perfectly con¬
formable to the other: in other words, he demonstrated how, in the long lapse 0
time, the primeval creatures had dwindled away and finally expired, to be succco c<
by entirely new creations. .

In tho rnniMo nf UU. _ o:_ t> - i-.j-i. _i__ _ 11-3 ntlention tO

recently
many m

order of the rocks above the

correctly inserted. The only desideratum is mat tno uerman uu»mui ; •
thereto the distinctions of Azoic, Silurian, Devonian and Lower Carboniferous. •
which natural divisions are included in his older and younger ‘Graiwacw.

In sneaking generally (,r the Carboniferous rocks of the Continent, hir Hod j ^
exposed to the Section new plates of n work by the able Belgian palfeotitologw'. • ■
Koninck, illustrating nil the forms of shells which have recently beep discover
the Lmboniferous limestone and shale at Bleiberg in the Carinthnui A<P\

® *° the circumstance of Prof. Sedgwick and himself having, twenty-five

if I?1 ™ent,°n*d BC"»c striking species of large Product! well known » ^

fou.nd “ that locality ; but the Belgian Professor has much

.« ie wor^ nhoiit to be published at Vienna, which records the rtina!jf i ,j-g

_ : *. ... , .1 _ or ntl> . 1,1 *

tenons arc marnea, ana cveryming . .

coal, and all the stages of the secondary roc ' .

desideratum is that the German author shouia ppr
in c;;t, nnd Power Carboniferous ,

mrine animals. ° *

thaVihf /uri,her8tat0d* that »«mann von Meyer has collected
ril l lrr of ,l,e coal of Saarbruck is as true a Labyrmthodon' ■.** ,
ZSSOX the 1 nM* S‘|- Roderick also adverted to a very curious br

M riihSf lfeir-Uu T*8 of w,"‘fG and pink muschelkalk to the n'lrtholll J
which » lW* Morris and h/mself visited with that palioontt.ljP*^

seen in iw f ch“aeleri8lic of the Muschelkalk, contains form* neie

seen m that formation. mildly

call^atTon,?1'? Up?M tho 8Pread of tin* Trias through Europe, the &

co^rvof irn M10 l £tter reived from M. dc Vcrneuil, aunomtetng^^

Tile coma M'lschelkalk in several parts of Spain, accompanied by own
J&TSSrr ,l'nni,mted with a general resume, in which
inserted the mnin*^0 *^1> ,0 ° rougbly coloured map of Germany Sa'°nJr

mid Bohemia °Fthe P&ewoic rocks of the Rhenish ft"*** Hsrt,
N ThSwJh the prevalent strike from N.E. to S.W., whilst » d* S(]u.

rian to Lower finn‘i 16 "e««»gebirg0, deposits of the same age, ’ ^r>\\V.
rfan to Lower Carboniferous inclusive, had been wrenched into a transverse or

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

91

ind SE. direction, accompanied by extraordinary metamorphism occasioned by tho
inimaon of granites, porphyries, and other eruptive agents.

Sir R. I. Murchison exhibited a slab of Old Red Sandstone, sent by his old friend
«id coadjutor the Rev. T. T. Lewis, the chief contributor to the elucidation of Siluria,
*ho bad lately discovered rippled surfaces and trails of animals in the Old Red
'h'drione of Puddlestone, near Leominster. The tracks were of two kinds, one act
f'rtups produced by a mollusc, the other by a crustacean.

On the Structure of Lunar Volcanic Craters.

By James Nasmyth, F.B.A.S.

’oleano Copernicus
with central cones

Ibu communication was illustrated by a model of the lunar vc
*' * ' l?Pa[" Sijnpelius ; each of which consists of a plateau, wUl.v»

untied bv a ring-shaped elevation, exhibiting concentric ridges or terraces.
.i'J7ari'™nswere suPP08Cd to have been formed by the ncrnmulBtion of

^ tu u tiv i* uccii h » I ii it ti u> inf ummiuiiuiou oi

1 • =reat energy to various distances, according to the intensity <>f

”,L ?l™° r,se t0 concer‘tric ridges, or terraces of deposition, which arc often
Wnh,!™3’ onVV!thiu odier. Besides these, there are other terraces,
<H? of.c,rcl?9» within the principal rings, which were attributed to

’’ iin v TS:, t iese in most instances correspond to notches in the edge of
' * •-i> the which they have slipped, and thrir dehris has rolled over the plateau,
*a i-niptive action" centr£d cone W!W attributed to the laHt expiring efforts of

Vt- ^'a^vth7nlrnWll,C-> follmved tllQ fading of his paper on the above subject,
^''Wi^rr„77atn'1- 7 7 “very long course of most

^ ,h«t no active 1Vaturc. reflection thereon, that he is convinced and satis-
' ;"illtr* volcanic upiiJ , UCtI?? f,JCWts 11 u"' on ,he surfrt<;<' of the moon; that he
7;^1 stirfuceof a ,,h 'P through sad con-

' ^ nil pianos ii .ilL f 8°m<; Por£°? of t,n' )'ot remaining molten matter
'’’n ii oily nhont ■ nd ?°fimal c<.ond,tion consisted ; that ns the nu» of the

condition is in thn , i 7 SUtdl mames planets cool down from an original
'n must have become _U ,Vfi. rat,o of their mass divided by their surface, the
t ?' a"* h* active t'Scaido e\and ''onst,1,,|nted planet ages sooner than the
. ;,;r'‘a5(>ns he considers vol^ '8V° lerrn,nalod F^portionably sooner ; that for
O'10 of time all acti 5t,1C ndum as an expiring phenomenon, and that in
' long »itice done in the mooii"0™ W‘ cuase ou t,)c earth, as he is satisfied they

CttZ! Zl °{thC PalfEozoic Rocks °f Scotland. By D. Page.

I -« the « o|() 1V8e stl‘ata, and the frl*..!'! ! U,l?ct.orm,uod »«pwposiUon and

c *¥rouks °f Scotland seem^ k ? of suc 1 £dlw810n« m published works as,
^'"•IviSVf^ntferous system Bmbl'’0l1,K t0 ‘l"' L°Wor Sil,nian;" “'I'" old red
^WcroL1 rock ”‘7 each uUur;” a'id more

II fiotn their® tl,oueht. must arise ,.in ° r s‘ °t-l«ml admit of no subdivision." Such

■''tU to the only with tl7 ? I’l-' t'0 1”ut0‘l observations of the writers,

l ^ taken 'd twe,lfcy or thirtv \mnr V ''V -^notions of Scottish rocks, n*
;"lfn«mui 7 "V™ the Scottish C T‘ ,n' «** directed attention to several
u ^1 ,et l.he 8°Uth, he pasaedwwfc1^ (Jr?ml,itms 0T» «« north to the

determined Si T’l * ate* an,d old ?re)' wackc grits,

. in

riu,d

L 0UP3. which in .1° ld ,red sandstone, as thuf h i h‘lher‘° c,ossed with the
h« ln the absence of bet C£Z ?¥*«•*«* three

terms, he would designate, •• Lower or

92

REPORT— 1854.

grey group,” the “ Middle or red group,” and the “ Upper or yellow group." TV
grey group consisted of laminated flagstones and rusty-coloured sandstones, with occs-
sional beds of carbonaceous shales. The second group consisted of red and chocolate-
coloured sandstones and conglomerates, with beds of cornstone or concretionary lime¬
stones ; and the upper group of thick-bedded yellow sandstones and variegated marl*.
The lower and middle groups w ere typically developed in Forfar and Fife, the upper
group especially in Fifeshire. In some of the Conglomerates (which were simply cun-

trrni'nl ntnl i ,.1 •! 1 .1 i < • i u ' ''I., t la *

in the
liich

solidatcd grovel anq shinglej there were, he thought, evidences of *riec drift ’
smoothed and scratched boulders, particularly in their peculiar aggregation, »"..■>
was strictly analogous to the piling up of shingle and gravel and clays on the Arctic
shores, us described bv Delta and other Arctic vovagers. Palfflotitolwgicwlly, the lower
or grey group wns characterized by abundant terrestrial vegetation, by Jchthvolitw, a*
the Cheiracantluis, Ostcolepis and other spirit -finned fishes described by Prof. .Agassi*,
and by crustacean remains, ns those of tno Fierygotus ami other undcicrilwd ic mI -
ey'ed genera. The red group was entirely void of vegetables, ntid characterized mure
especially by the Ofiphalaspis, CoccoBteu- and other bony-cased fishes; mil the tipper
or yellow group by such fishes as the Holoptycliius, Platt giiatlius, and other ordinary
tinned fishes. With regard to the carboniferous system, as developed in Scotland, no
proposed to divide it into three or four great groups:— 1st, “ Tint lower co.d-mca-
sures;" 2nd, “The mountain limestone j" 3rd, “The millstone grit;" and, h",
I he upper or true coal-measures.” The lower group, minera logically speaking,
consisted of thick white bedded sandstone (Craig! oil?) and St. Andrew’*) beds of arc
i- ’ thin scams of coal, and peculiar beds of freshwater or estuary limestone
tins limestone being thick and compact as at BnrdiclialWe and Burntisland; or Hon,
and entirely composed of shells, as in the east of F jfeshire. The mountain hmeV.oiu-,
noil'- 1 not 80 fully developed us in Derbyshire and Yorkshire, was yet characterize.!
by the same mnrm2 (basils, viz. corals, testacen, and fi Aw. The millstone gnt ««
^d>J^P(Cr/e}: J'r 0Velni’l‘d ; bul t’te ‘rue or upper coal-measures were fully deve '»pej
nrnl imr8 8^f,0ffrt,UCnl of snnddone*, fire-clays, shales, cools, ironstonej

In.- .L- P ,i 1T8toncs n,jt containing t ncrinites or murine fossils. Pal.xou ologt«J
s one ht ,V ", ^°UP WlH Wdl off by the marine beds of the vc flow -

«one beneath and the mountain marine limestone above. Us ovgm iz«t-»';

I “ Z «tUBry “Wler, and, though containing many of the same vcfictab!« »
mm. o.: r ■nU'UMl,'Cflj 1,0 ‘''ought they indicated frequent specific distinctions. J
2£. r°^ ",aB 1,1150 w,'ll defined, whether ill its shales or
enoET ,C'Vr s!rirtly 'naril,u in character, and not to be mistaken;

The mSbl1- ‘ Pn",Uctu<S Terchrntiilic, Spirifc-r, &c., midoccasionul lnM*
shells jiiidf “"d upper coal-measures, though containing bands o( a”1.
StSnmr 1 T . °fl 'e M^alic.1,,h>»- principally characterized I*

Heftrictiim , .ri0’^fn‘*» Cidainitfs, and other plants which mark all tiue co i
some « ‘ ’8er ‘mi<i , tlKo flbove described, he avoided the ](1

S whic]' nl'fearefl to belong to the Penman; hr^^

car/joni('erou* ° T' ’ 11 1 l'ust* tke following subdivision of thejdd red "w,lds . flIf_
I irm ^ ; L upper coal measure; ->•

middle or "S? T *nt S '• lwwe'- l'°al-measurv8. Dreo»i*n : l ’ppCr

i rid group; lower, or grey erouu Adootin® the maxim that the

te,".?* •',.«« ™',i,C fti.*., Mr. ’ffi*

red sandstone on!j0l.,| by the adoption of the “ Yellow group j

British deposits ^ ** ^owcr c°ah measures” into the published classi

On the Structure and Tenure of Stratified Itochs, as a means of d, term"*
te Cot^^ns under which they are formed. By D- Page-

Thurso.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

93

Mr. J. Price invited attention to the* geology of a Little ili-lri l. of CltbonllWwi
limestone, at Llysfaen and Penmaen Rhos, near Abergele. The drift here itMiimrtl
fcur distinct appearances : — 1st, flattish boulders of tntflaceouo MOdtttQI, will
tatalte, were strewn over the surface of the elevated sheep pastures ; 2nd, the slopes
li,arda the sea were thickly covered with drift, cumposed of native limestone in u
rat-ltouldercd state, often scored with parallel lines, the fragment s being sometimes
' . s across; 3rd, drift of very smooth pebbles of limestone, in a matrix of highly
faiuiimted lime gravel ; 4th, a gravel pit at Tyn-yeoed contained mnr ♦ra-Mind
twij'k f1^ pebbles like the present beach : one of the pebbles bad bet n per-
* • Chona. There were also lumps of clay stuck over with pebble*. This
P to non three-quarters of a mile inland, and 300 or loo feet above 0, a level.

On the former probable existence of Pahrozoic Glaciers.

By Professor A. C. Ramsay, F.li.S.

• ^ Am I molten

" ^aabthc r:T°"> 1 l!,t V ,r

w inotl prTt’'t°fit K- g,"bt) S,,1C0 the formation of the oldest r»'ilitVroua

„• nner words, the internal hem of the pi Itne' * — ■* *■“ — 13_.: -

dthin any of the known geoh
deal in its characters. 'The C

lK,t'" l'ro""i"icvd faj Dr. Hooker in
' - 'I'U.e, „r jin! o„|'.;Uy ? clinwie; and if the \ni.u nit . Nautili,

**""« lena than oiU i ' latitudes realty lived in

^^Tatlier Til bt‘ ‘lfcrrod 1,5 I'-'V'iral

t r«ded to show 3ei!CLd!mVd.Cirt‘CU Pr0dui1'1 hy V He

y « during a pan of thep® •'at g “T” M,ml ice,n'1*' 1,11,1 '•listed in those

^7 *ffe Pfobable traces of tho"*'1011 <^0-' ’’ nl!‘ ,hat «W -ccon.larv rock.

K‘ UC,W>”S in *ome of ll'“ Inds of the Hunter

deyIoP°? in centi-al counties of Imglnnd,
i*jfe J wMch, neat- KiivilU ‘ 8 ,Call'nroous "> the

•4 •:,),)Ve1l^o higl.es i or . h ■. 'f" ,v- ; -- ••..n -Unn. I . About

V: a n,.;,s-' 1,1 . . . hri

V Hie JW8 and sandstones^ v.v .■ . • w»i.viu, wmen is again sue -

fcmS81Cal Survey in the pJ',3tc<?Ptl,,« a hagment of the stem of a tree (mind
[] ,ld 1(1 these rocks in th ° cacftrt‘ou* conglomerate, no IV rtnian fossils hare

" ?*?? “ Above the lVrmian

5, ^V],jte ai^ ' Uetn divided as follows : —

3 j^Pper variegated SSd"!°ne,/Wilh.il,U‘,,itritification of marl.

I ^arsc saudftono „ ' , ne (,nos,1.v brick red).

{ ^°*« variegated 8a »‘,d pebble be, Is.

Tl , '• Permian. b »andstonc (mostly brick. red • ).

L'"1 \i.il!ip0id

*■ 01 Knvillp w 0r Hcwdley t|K.v If ’ ... a,*d in an isolated patch

*2»S Utc Sl°r ^rshir J.' Zl oc2T tW ^-measures; i„ the nelghLir-
P«rmwn li VV : p - »« *« », and

‘ *C* Th'-y vary in LlS f‘""> l ‘">t Hills to

* found * . fro,“ *b°«‘ '00 to Rut) ftet ac-

f7,n ll" 1Vr»‘- "* '• d- lower

% ’ A^ley, and £ S^w. at,d1 S u L'T' ,,lcar Kuvil1-' >‘t from

jssaiO T** .

iyMrEiiuii

ta,n’ V0‘- H. Par, • SeC h,s w^k in the « Memoir, of the Geo.

94

REPORT— 1854.

'T aCC0Ullt* that tl,ey wcrc ^moi from the waste of rock.
neiehbourinl li!« f rf, T’0’' ,and lower New Red Sandstones of these or of
the^Caml)n'5n * V ^n |ll^e^°g|cul structure they can generally be identified with
Sek?£ Zt f r °{nthe fong>».vnds, and the Lower Silurian slate, and igneous
shire’ Tl’,pV °'°r ',e t^‘e®e between the Stiper stones and Chirburyin Montgomery*
to the iX ^Tn,U.' 3 Wde,u‘d ^eof fine red marl. p?obably atmlogoi.
insist iuiLSSL dc^‘ T,ig deluded fragments and block.

fel8‘0ne >,orRh-vr-v’ fckPatJ‘!a ash- ribboned .late,
black •»lntfi nnt i SheUe, quartz rock, purple and green sandstone nnd *bit*,
the sto. el ’aJ J ““dstoneannd limestones containing Silurian fossils. Very few of
ZTL. :rou,,ded* Many of them are angular, most of them are sub-
THpv a™ tVn ?i '°sf, surfaces cmnmon in fragments found in mornin *.

un to 4 ri„.Li!Ue,'"ly '^b-poli^ljed and occasionally scratched. They arc of nil siin
have° traveller? To If ««•• fio«‘ thcLongmynd dist.icr, in place, tin y

now in their »v- ensJ *'% tttllw, and there is evidence from the outcrop* that rrm
miles in di-m. j*gmi;'i,.ary f,atc' they occupy an area of from twenty-fire to thirty-five
Ilnd tliev fnrn T " *! L t^ero *# perhaps much more concealed beneath the bid Ike.
and there ;« T ^3e8C^e8 would probably have been rounded by the ware*,

marine Z3. mT 57 souncl P™* they were scattered abroad by great
by tidal cnn-,.i °CaS " . J u?d to ore in diameter are not moved along wa bottom*

in straight .con*,derm£ their size, angularity, polish, occnsion.il scratching*

author fipHnw ' !r r8 Para^t'I lines, and nlso the matrix that enclose, them, the
rose in tl»p „„*■ !Qi ,lc-v„ wfr<: deposited from icebergs, derived from glacier, that
The Lun.rmv*i(Un anf ° 1 !“ Lo,|gtoyJldH nnd the overlying Lower .Silurian stratn.
tweon tho rnlnni U-re UUT Vn -P feet above the sen, hut on their eastern side be-
downthrow on tlm"* * ^'“ breccia*, there is in the great ( 'Lurch Strctton fault *

Haps ilStheVi iZ1 ,0, abrt 1?00 fkt‘ Thfs » a‘ “» l)art- fln'! 'T

Of the Lunemvn.l i-. 'i ‘ at<i tha“ t,le New Red Sandstone, 8t» that the relative level*
the latter wore deposited * 10 breccias were not the same as nt present when

first, in a DarfnfTl!!!1! act’on occur in the Hunter sandstone on two horizon*;

part ol tho pebble bed9 neftr BeW(Ij (No> 3, and ,u,cr at t|ie base of thr

uictstoiies (No. 5) between Stournort and the Ahberleys.

tho paucity of or™.'l/,^ear tbat .t*ie phenomena above described arc connected with
the Hunter sandstone0 remains a iarg° part of our Permian strata and in part o

points "bearing ^ f** °f tJle Ancient Glaciers of North Wales, and other
Ham say, F.IiS1 ** (jlaciatiou °f the Country. By Professor A- C-
ITIlG

Of North " Vale! Sflhf ?'? opaper was *° l,rove that the ice of the grea,c.r
Francon. &c. IZ r !" l3?° ** thick; that the valleys of Llanbens. N*a'
inferred by observation.^ Purely filled with ice at least of that thickness. I hi*
of the Swiss glacier* l°gous to those by which it has been shown that th*
observations were m1H0S.r”.,ini»r^’ .°f mut'h greater thickness than at present. •

a»d acratchincs wrr. " '1]' .(^dio s sympiesometer. The directions of the gre
bottom of the valley. "mPPcd by compass, and tlicir heights above ■

Jfi* journal of the (ienln^iJlV o^-' ^'.e ail(lior has previously shown in fl.Paj^or!i5

the Journal of the tieidoM "V ^,t> ai,thor has previously shown in a PaP5^',
^’ales since the ground L? Soc!°^’« that there were two sets of glaciers in * '

acale, and it was probnbK n»Td Pre*ont F(',lc,'al ro1"’- Thc ,5,st TVnlS

perhaps nt the very thi.o »{,! i°l,<,cl1 ,llaf tll(1 icc attained its greatest thteka

grander scale **?*££? Jf ?!»*• «nd Himalayan glaciers were on a mwj
the groovings, passed straight M tlm Pcriod. Wales, the glacier* * proved vy
b P stray ht acros, the tributary valleys of the Pass ofLlanber.. W

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

95

iiaght of about 1300 feet above the bottom of the main valley. Similar pluenomena

* • nbsorred in Nant-Francon and elsewhere ill Wales. In the case ol the ass of
liubcris the ice and snow must have been more than COO feet thick at the top of
+• l’ii“ to give the necessary inclination for the How of the ice down the valley, lor

1 v> • it watershed at the top of the Pass is only about 1000 feet above the sea

- *tcrcas the highest parallel groovings that follow the course of the main valley
k-VniWn are about 1(300 feet above the level of the sea. The country was sub-

• r'ndy depressed to a depth of about 21100 feet, the cold still continuing, and glucicrs
‘•uiiller wale passed out to sea, and round the coasts marine moraines were de-

f "1. further out at sea, on Moel Try tun and in other places, marine deposits
' ' didli were formed either contemporaneously with these marine moraines, or

- ’ubwquent oscillations of level bv the re-arrangement of the moraine matter.
L'.'mi! the last emergence of the land the moraine-drift was cleared out of several

! • PK*tWiV#lley8 seco,)d *et °f large glaciers (Nant-Francou, Llanberia),

^ "■-‘its the drift still remains damming up many of the mountain lakes. These
tucicrs gradually decreased in size, evidence of which may he found in the
ll,nt occur in the valleys at ditier ont levels. In Cwm Glas in the Pus* of

- ns, there are several left by a retiring glacier, some of them arranged conecn-
J W; 'n tt“Qther, and this glacier finally disappeared in the highest recesses

*?|ln'.mcdiately north of the ridge of Crib-goch. The groovings made by
p ! nil L® , w ottcn Pasa across those made by the greater preceding glaciers.

1 «tn IJ”* ,re(|ucntly form the dams of lakes, *and the roches moutonnes of the
••' "1 the i* ■ *tr*wed with rochet perehfs which they have left. In the higher

- ""••iit Va"eys d*e grooves converge towards the hollow*, in the manner
-• C cxllectt'd from the ice pressing or flowing downwurds to feed the main

■'-'iiJ«Unf^i1SleSea many places exhibits the effects of ice. Large tracts
' pnrittrtd hv u ’ P°'ls*lecli grooved and scratched, and in spite of the rougli-
' Iwinc )>? 8U“ae^nent waste, the general form of the ground gives the idea
' L| mo~^e,l by ice. The groovings generally run from 25° to 30°

f ‘ The direction f? ^ sidos an<* aPImreI‘tl y over hills several hundred feet
| nf ti,e S( n .ot t“ese furrows seems to have no connexion with the mountain
‘ in the i0. . 0l' range. It has been customary to refer these and similar
‘ •‘’•hi? natisfuctory^8 t0 icebergs. This solution does not appear

Iju al\fhU Sandstone, and the Pahcozoic System of England .

JUk Hev- P™f®or Adam Sbdowick, F.R.S., F.G.S.*

, JJ* Rer \y c '

^•‘'a'SSLe*“bitfd some fossil remains of fishes from the Old Red
me and the carboniferous limestone of Tortwortli.

INE

n Ie ^durian Anti • '

ri|| ‘TyJ LL.D nfCj[e ?•(. Cavan, discovered by Professor John Iuwini
. °9y to the /)„/';■ lTin' Mining and Civil Engineer, Professor o

Wh^. « m Chemical Society.

f*- ,.y\IVtrpcl lhe VOcb 'n the district about Kilnalcck where the culm

a,n^ that b bi d }e Apwer, Pal{cozoie formntion, and not to the true coal
^ vni; . r,y-*late, havin' Ti at,t'iracite occurs there about 4 feet in thickness, in
*'ri* V.o ‘l/'hout 370 _ f “e »atne strike and dip as the accompanying rocks.
L " hii I* described *’y l,,ie tnu‘ mcridinn, and the dip' soul h-east-

N* K *** in ScoS V. r° ?f U;° locnlitr’ “ml 8,tttcd *h« a bed of

A^,,v,r HlZZUon in Ireland grayWackc a,8°* whl^‘ hc supposes to be a con-

* 'nTftfo^nd ifwr?' CU,rn at tUe meetin& of the British

hraci*ih Cavan s a nlnlW(- ty flruP!’oses * h more than probable
# 18 “ Pro<luction of the bed in Scotland, which extends

** Philos‘>Pbical Magazine for October 1854.

96

REPORT— 1854.

h! f 1 ? bt ' fn, the,V'. t,,rrsn thc counties of Down, Armagh and Monaghan.
He further stated that tins culm, following the strike of the rocks to the N.K. ntid
a. ., may be expected to be found in twenty-two other townlands which he named,
fie aesmbed the tnal made for this culm, and illustrated the description with suit-
‘f L,LaSraU1f1i- * !■“' 11 was l,y analysis that this cubit contuins 7761 percent.

anon, °f 'viler ttud 18-IJI of as!i, and no hitumen ; by another nnnlyth uf
a specimen taken from u greater depth in thc pit, it was found to contain only T2S
’ i * ,?l l ,'*Te? ,or ordiwwy domestic purposes, but is excellent for burning
J neks, or drying inalt, when mixed with a small portion of bituminous coal
Ir ° t^nstc jt. When tnado red it gives out u powerful heat, ond continue*
a gie.i vrigth of lime. It is found nUu most eflicient for smith*' work. A* a
s’,ocuIallon> t'lp working of this bed ought to pay well in thc county of Cavan.
... . ls maca under cultivation, and in which linn; 1ms a wonderfully fertilising

! , 0,1 *, ' “V1 lms in 0,1 sli,t0 countries, and where fuel is .,t present tro

.cf B.< °.° ,r f°r ■Ml* hut t* very limited burning of limestone, although that
c is nbnudnnt in several parts of ina enmity. Coals from Troon, by a circuitou*
and expensn-e carriage, cost at Cavan 27*. » ton and upwards.

Il, ? 1 ,! wenJ into much detail, describing the mode of working he would
to 51! I,tl i n< * wb*cb -S|;j,,ds nearly vertical, and entered into calculation*

almv *vuiau we expenses of working should be deducted, lie iw**"

nrolmhniiwU *'? “Wires exist in the gruuwackc formation in Cavan, there is s grr*«
!rnna n 'oy, u ,c culm, 'Vl11 b‘‘ f,nir“l other localities in the county, in a dirrett*
discos of,1 t rrJ st,'ik?> “ 'vt|l as in it ; and concluded by stating that the
exist Rtrnnml "8 T' 11 formation where it was supposed least likd?

kino do m i,fQ. n8,"H °P,n1‘on> that coal and many valuable minerals exist in jhi*
mav vet Iu> aiKiC| ul,hnown to the proprietors of the soil, and lie hopes they
overed, and rendered a fruitful source of commerce in the country-

in Section I)""'3™ exbib'tcd « restoration of Zamites gigas, described more fully

botany and zoology.

BoTAJiY.

tmarhs upon some Peculiarities discovered ill Liquid Caotdchouc.
Tnw antt. By T*C. Archer, Liverpool.

rubber. ^/ordiina**1** l'1’ had discovered the cause of the black colour in in
black colour was °P,nJOD# which had been copied from book to book, 1
bv the natives in th »5-t0 tle hottlcs. and other forma of thc material. being

Peculiar ^o»;,v t'irrv f lheir 6 <»»«•<*•

black colour In’ , e lcJ* ,gbt acfs ul,on 't very powerfully, and l’r0(!“ ^ .is
mbbcMn white I*. tU*' M'- Archer exhibited specimens of tog***

trying experiment.. n* 'I^18 b(luil1 had been imported for the Purr?' |

received an addition <V « ?** n< receiving brilliant colours, and it had .p;
it* liquidity and urcvlmi ?ei,qUld an,monia* probably for thc PulT0^*f JJfJJuu
caoutchouc resembles J d*v“n,pOS'Ll"D‘ ln co,our an<1 consistency tl
of light, become ui njl tbls in white glass bottles had, by ?fnlliditi
are unimpaired • whereat 81bm» whilst the interior whiteness and '^Mth

retains its orie’inal rt ' u 8,,D,lar sample of the material in a green g

to thc action Mf* Arcbpr thought this pecnltar. SUSC&-

chouc from the west of not*cc- Be exhibited a speameQ . ^

superior character. *** Africa, the quality of which is evidently

at the inaitonce^of0 the BoSd of S? °e <Iiagram9 of Plants* which he fc#d

ru oi trade, for educational purposes.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 97

On some Materials for malting Paper. By T. C. Archer, Liverpool .

The author remarks that Dr. Royle had brought under notice the fibrous materials
<t India, and he seemed sanguine they would prove useful in making so necessary «
■i' '*al as paper. From his own examination* ht»Vre*6l* he th ' rials

■'(.i *.« harsh, and required too much labour to reduce them to a pulp sufficiently fine
KtMking the ordinary letter-paper. Most vegetable fibre* could be modi into paper,
- ! ll'r^ore. ^ere was no fear as to the supply of materials for the courser kinds.

• preitnt difficulty was to supply paper for printing and writing upon. Thi, paper
•Si-jrfd to be extremely white, and smooth in texture. All materials from the Kast
•j w^trtbowwrf.wem destitute of that roughness of surface in the cells re-
V* ° ®|enaclous pulp, and when broken up they resembled straw, rather than
°f*'nen rags broken to pieces. There wnn China grass, plantain
w * { u. • , e oP f^e PaPer mulberry, and the aloe fibre. These and other
Uii'l £LeTned' and they aPpeared perfectly smooth, hair-like tubes. I otton,
''btl cells 1 ,,t",use' an<? on,y after use, had both rough surfaces on their indi-
it'ctuh ahniiU an ‘mPIJrlant point that cellular tissue used for paper

•UMufjitachintfite ir* ^kcrent surface, rather than a strong fibre, which had the
XaigunaUd InK f!0,t? neiSttbuuringfibtcs,and allowed the pulptobethoroughly
'^•Ka. He believed ftSrtF10 th° Iildies'lle suggested they should go to South
' -ibundantlv H h "5 u mIatcrials nf a proper kind for paper coul.I be procured
v‘*!‘ichhewtttah, enSrt ut led.t',.this ^inclusion by receiving a single sample of
'■ ^ cut some : C0US be ia unllTniled quantities . In those countries, the

'• W| lh^ the Smo of *ke .ra0r° lu?uriantly thc>' Erewup. He was totally unable
' ,j J see bv the ,aH th,at was thc onl-v specimen he had seen. They

I*''-”-* of cotton tl,ls w,w a Stable material, possessing all the

>”• ^acMndlvid^l ’dn ad PI''T " to !l *fcm.c3pic exa-

•' !'"|,'r:'tura required t " 'V ' ,“n ' "“rl,l<v’ this he thought was
l,,,|(J-gecl to tile TR ant, had ^ ® ■W* of H«

-V, thought from the o»lmhyr « nCT,*an'1 WEl" ncar,y allied to the Lace- hark
/- i o0tl 0tht‘r natural DrodncK^ !l?fi,SoUtl 14 ArnPr,ca- from the grasses of the an van -
could be deriSid frr 1 / ?at Cr°^tlnent* morc tabic material, could be
,ThC OUr UMt-rs when stripped

Brazils, wo ld also yield a useful material. The material came

'i^Pn^rfVe9Htile Organisms resembling the

v!rir,w»ticdthTmT;. ^,rofoR8or Balfod«> fm.sm.

^cluJ1^ d“l*uteB had occur?er?88’|0niha-d rpcent,y taken i',aco 0,1 the subject of
^ * d®fin^o«S a^?,^h,fh^D.many "'stances, depended chiefly on

*t» of S 18 a r°<* variously const tm t,°.th^(rown v,ieW8 to microscopic struc-
-Jalt. ame coal-bed It t U ln d',Tmut ’ocahties and even in different
S ^ regard ?gar,,H ’ha ‘lnantitira of ash and carbona-

in a11 Dr‘ Half,mr "*at >*did not

Siian iff*** ^Voody S •' nCOn,fero!13 ^opd. No doubt in some in-
^deiSeCoal- Rut cven the, R ar5le and dot- could be seen, us in
II. such P.°|Sltive|y deciding the nhmt to .of punctated tissue must not always
• sup|,0, | P^nts us DHtnun /r! \ ,0 coniferous, for the same structure

/‘>ifi* ^ t0beconi(^S.c nod /«.*««». .floridanum. Many

*Uch as ore seen in 1 vcTn'f’ plUe<1 n»d modification’s

•.r;"w».di;'lK“na rsrn?u vt-vi v-'mh w-

'■ Wr<;,nere cell! n °nd3 °f woody vessels n.B, f°Ur 8ta,cd ,hat thc circular

of the present day. resinous matter might be allied

7

98

REPORT— 1854.

On Associations of Colour and Relations of Colour and Form in Plants.
Bv Professor n RO h r. ir Fltr-irnr HT 71 TiolfnO

w.wu.o, oucu, III met, la the foundation of Prof. Harvey's ciawncw"". " “
divides them into red, green and olive. Among the red there are many which
a red-purple hue, and among the olive rot a few are vellciw-green. Red &1"1 L" " ’
are complementary, and red-purple and ydlow-grucn stand in the same rvlato
mong mosses we find the red or red-purple peristome associated with the rr - 1
KIT;!"*" caFsu|p- u"*1 the same is true of their stems and leaves. In to™"*
plants the associations of certain colours are so numerous, that it is uiinccc - v ;.

mr?/ry morL' Ulu,‘ mention a few examples. In the leaves of ('‘If
fret no, ,? n"" B i‘ ani1 r™*°ria Regia wc find red or red-purple
^eDenthwf n°^"?v°U1t.4- .. I lu' a,‘nil‘ is Hue Of the pitcher-like organs of . arr.i •
common' wd £)lS1chld,u- the flower similar associations of various kind •;
red ^ Liirl6 Dc"I11not wpeot to find in a corolla or any other organ the prim '■
Vellow ha« 0VV* i°r ^ Uj ni"* red> associated and in contact. The red has gm - ^
rarest _ m *)UrR e' and the blue hua orange associated. Of the primaries. . _

vellnw^ T8 fu t,cnoi«iuated being, in fact, blue-purples- 1" die /

JSZS^nt hcDce the wry general diffusion of purple of various deyn
undors.InH lTpk 5ClnS.of 8tich general occurrence in the flower, we cm
cases seem >c UVJ ‘a the most common colour of pollen : w,n)C1,** -

cTM r°nfirm> ; ir> tbe turn-cap lily, for example, the red P°"^ *K.:
in that of gre^“ fi,nni°ots. The colour of the flower may have in co I .

iis bte at PnrtS' 3S stL‘m- l«r, &c. Sometimes the associated eokj»»*£

green sSL?™ t,me- Thp bmd* of a ripe fig is red-purple, the onU.de -
St SSS T 11 »T.llow eorol!. is succeeded by a purple fruit- B

to intensity ^ B,,d general correctly admitted to have a dir«t

Thi pin -hnl Ur 10 orS*''»*>' «PP»rs not to be nectary
dZtZ i^ZZr‘ r? reci*ivc tht> ©t at some part or other. « order »T
and in the tinn ^ °f co our observed in the coats of seeds, in the ifttcrio ,

yellow and . * * «**"■»*■«» organs. In conclusion-1- The pn-"g£

irimL nrr, i ' ** ^nerul,>' be seen in some part of the plant.
some other nnrt'" **7 ^*rt of the plant, its complement will u*oal ily > j j,
found in nnM?r°r *0rae Pcriod or other of the development of the I'l#" ' • lliUf
5K£P fe" In the animal kingdom similar association*

»h, ' SfitjS ”d, present many dbvinut exam,. I- , We n . * ; .

fined to the flowpr ” ?>teor an,, farm < 0ml ,he remarks nre, for tb*. P , g. ;y
colour is uniformly di f "i '* »In re£u,ar polypetalous and gantopeta1 \na bflC-*l

unifoni iSns£2 aHOT1 ! that “ to the f*iece3 th,e "^££5 0

this occur in PHmJlSlJ* |faV*- W,ch 2° ',f,ual ProP0r,,on °nf ‘“SL^Cnicif***
Rosace*, Cactacca-, &c u'8??’ Er»a«*' pentianOT, I irrrfP*

distribution of colour Tho ^J2’, fm‘"ul,lr,t>' ol coro,,a '! a35l - l,Tied in ***

size and colour u*i .l od<? ^°be of tbe corolla in such is mc.?t • tjj* (xW
lobe ; when there nrc-^w there ‘9 0,l,y colour, it is usually more 'n“**he odd M*’
o, one of them is very generally confined to

*L

|i*

hj«e

«r.

or

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

99

Sometimes, when only one colour is present, ami of uniform intensity in all the
[wes, the odd lobe has spots, or streaks of white. The odd lobe, therefore, in
crtgular flowers, is distinguished from the others not merely by size, form and
tuition, but also by its colour. Papilionacese, Labinta*, Scrophularincte. 8cc. are
omples. In some cases, as Gloxinia, Achimcnes, Rhododendron, &e., in which
-tiuhrity of flower is less marked, the two pieces on each side of the add lobe
?*rtak? of its character as regards colour. In some thalamitloroui Kxo-
. e.!*ri5oniun?, Tropseolum, vKscnlus), &c„ with irregularity of flower, owing
i \ d'fferen« in the size of the pieces, the largest arc most highly coloured.
wh'nfMufv lOI7P8fl°, corolIa >n the same inflorescence often present differ.

bat al1 of thc same form have the same colour. The Comim-ota* are
n^in . . tber°are two colourH, the flowers of thc centre have one colour and
tactht other 'colour^' ' Thp^fi of the circumference also agree in this respect* hut
•wthedong in SfV The ?.rst 1&WB Ptcva1* «« monocotyledons as well as in
tratrire, shape and ifSTr caI^ an(l, coru,,h generally resemble each ether in
" «ooeotvlSms fli-in<S°?.r ^S?\ fhe ,*w t,f !he contrasts is therefore simpler
b|*u^» three and 1,n d‘®otyle^?ns. The former may be symbolized by the
ZJ It ““"bers in .he flower; ’the latter by thc

> 05) figure c(irr’o8non«tUi>hht‘ °r beia* the Prcvnlcnt numbers. Sim-
‘ -^'butyaf colour anil If 7 *** s»“pkr contrast of colour in the one, while greater

tlirect rc,ation h‘ lht' «thcr. *
dicotyledons* un* ti ^™Tmrt',thert/.ha8 bc‘e[‘ progressive increase of
.^•'vith greater nK,mi5enceh,^9(Pp°C :‘ . Al?0nS thein "v lin(1 floral

nuP‘ial dress*’ oPf the nW i« v f?nn .ftnd colnur- atul »«cli prominence of

Jf * wllicl> have aSned ?heLPm«i'S il.rcaturo,of «I»ectee belonging to natural
lt their raaximura ,n roan * epoch, and are characteristic

V 5?? YoSsT tS! to the adornment of an African dress, exhibited by

^ ** produced1 •Pecl“ of closely resembling
prouuct known under the name of Job’s Tears.

Sr's GlTdS °fRubiacca2- B'J G- Lawsok.
<•5^ out by Dr WeddelllloM> ^ mtferPetiolar 8,lPul(’9 of Rubia-
have regarded this ni' 7 T®’ * f W years a6° l)r- Weddell
*^S°f!he 0t^r teSVi nk “ fea U-' i °l 8tructurc “f iotlv limited to
^SS ?$«*** plants vid I nt '. tion*,Bta chiefly of arborescent
conclusion, that the bo eftlM°Ua *!arka ; but Mr* Dawson's ohser-
,lrder, g*®' ™a8t therefore be reMrdftd glands are eijually pre.

OOfflf Q, _ — . -

f3£*W £.«■* «rf Fir,.
toleft,and Pmesaad firs ■ , .Co8H> ^L.D., Belfast

Molh« «t Proc^i^°ft^«^rf^*PTO*djDg fron

u r*gnt , these by their intersec

100

REPORT — 1854.

tion give a series of rhomboidal figures on the surface of the cone ; ami on measuring
the angles of these figures they were found to be (approximately) 120° above an<l
below, and 60° at the sides. The scars of the fallen leaves also form two set* of
spirals on the branch, and these by their intersection also produce regular rhomboid*.
Each of the sets of spirals on the cone and branch is composed of several spirals
which may be called threads. The number of threads on any given set of spiral* is
always one or other of the following (the usual numbers in Phyllotaxis), 1. 2, 3, 5.
8, 13, 21, 34, &c., in which scale every succeeding number is made up by thr
addition of the two preceding ; this holds true of all the Comferte. The, number* of
threads of the two opposite sets of Bpirals are always contiguous ones in the abovr
scale ; thus if the number of the one be 5, that of the other must be 3 or 8. Thr
number of threads in the spirals seems definite for every species. There seems a,*°
to be a regularity in the number of turns round the axis taken by the spiml* m
ascending from the base to the apex of the cone. He (Dr. M'Coab) had observes
that the expanded cones are often types of tire particular specie* of tree on which
they grow, and he illustrated this by examples.

Some further Observations on the Correspondence between the Lcaf- Vfnnhon
and Ramification of the. Plant. Tin the Rev. Professor J. M’Cosib TL. •
Belfast.

The author set out with referring to previous observationsof liis.of which an ahstrad
will be found hi the Sectional Reports for 1852. The correspondence may
illustrated under two general heads 1st. Between the disposition of the bran
on their axis, and that of the veins on the midrib, or other veins from which >
spring. In trees where the loaf has no leaf-stalk, the tree is feathered from
ground ; and, on the other hand, when the leaf has a leaf-stalk, the tree has i a i
unbranched trunk. It had been objected that the beech leaf has no •ea,‘rf . .
whereas the tree has often an unbranched axis. This objection he had been I
answer to the satisfaction of the gentleman who urged it. It is cuatomoij in I
ing out beeches to strip off the lower branches, and cut over the axis, and hence
form which the plant often assumes in lawns; but the beech, when unjun ^
cattle and not drawn up bv being planted in the heart of a wood, is [ea ||f
branched from the base. This may be seen from its mode of growth in h g : .
would have it to be understood, however, that this correspondence does no' j n
!?at, . .e. trc.c aml lcflf necessarily assume precisely the same shape. •’ an,|
e leaf ia pinnate, there is no correspondence between the form of the ■ |n
he form of the tree. He was inclined to think that wlu-n the lent n P>"" ■}*' ^
the ash and monntum ash, the tree is decomposite; that is, instead “[""jLjrb,
on? mam axis from top to bottom, it sends off in a scattered way branch after
nl thn " 18 °8t- 2nd- The branch goes off from its axis at much the
ntahn iCin f.°.e8.0ir from the midrib or lateral vein. There was little b»vc

establishing this m plants with woody structure, or in herbaceous pl*»ts' | ,2
L!^i i inC V ar", not a ,,u re flower- stalk. The only exceptions wbicft

1 in plants with true branches were those with decurrent leaves, such ^
Ie “c ™*?rn antl« seems to be affected bv the decurrency of the J* ‘^cfc
&rad,ffi«n «*tBbli«hing the correspondence in herbaceous P1®0*** t,r
mther have no branch, or in which it is difficult to say whether wc have a “ yr*,ii
rw&korl?f-!te,k * tlie more so as botanists had not
m iml'li to distinguish between branch and peduncle. He had found I rt>
be nl lr ieSV'rV8 f° herbaceous plants, to distinguish between 'vbat'ific.v

tion 1,n.mar>’ and 8econdary angle, both of venation and

lateral veins ^ primary angle, that made by the main branches ifSServ*i°*
ZilS *“ p •'ennd.ry, that ma* bv the tester branches ■ ****

1»* *™>* in many cases, that

ancle of this leaf 5f's,a k g°es off corresponds, not to the primary. . ms**

Sfi *» W ™ * ** °r » •»— °f

101

TRANSACTIONS OK THE SECTIONS.

On ionic Traces of Harmonious Colours in Plants and the Plumage of Birds.

By the Rev. Professor J. M’Cosh, LL.D., Belfast.

The Professor set out with remarking, that he had been convinced for several
itjfi past that the colours of plants would be found in beautilul accordance with
u'a of harmonious colours, and that he hud enunciated the doctrine in u paper
-d before the Natural History Society of Belfast in May 1853. In his reading since
L-i! Jale he had discovered that there were beautiful glimpses of this truth in the
■ "zj* of several colourists such as Field, though as tar as he knew, tin subject had
,Jt pursued botanical ly, or introduced into botanical works in this country.
iir further acknowledged that since that time he had received assistance from his
^«$uc Ur. Dickie, who has been prosecuting the subject in a more scientific
r-i«iicr. He then proceeded to give the results of his own observations. Taking
V di rue secondary colours, green, purple, and orange, he allowed that when

colour* are found in nature, they have often Hie corresponding harmonious
a'-'ljr# "‘juxtaposition;—

-in'miiiiuj with Bed and Ih’wt. '! In.-, is t'„. lu-r-t < ii.ii, i v in

' ^Uble kingdom. Harmonizing with the green leaves of plants we have often
lower* ami red fruit. The eve delights tu see the red berries peeping forth from
r -rren foliage of the mountain-ash or holly. Not unfrequintly, also, the green
, Pm” w',.h the red or russet of tile young stems and leaf-stalks.

jfh/i Yellow or Citrine. This is the second most common
Jl'1- ' *-u ^ar as he had been able to observe, pui pic of 1 .-rious shades and hues
rt»l- purple where there is a preponderance of red, and blue-purple where
^aMin^reP>K^8raDCe ^ue“" 16 tkc moat common colour of the petals of plants.
U pellet, „ we ^av<; often u yellow heart in the plant ; very often the anthers
Mn,i.SIJ i v ow* ^ is interesting to notice, that according to the htic of the
d,JWEr j e hUG of the contrasted yellow. Thus, in the potato aud bitter-sweet,
“'t™ are red-yellow, while in the garden
' -i'W tu.. i ou^cr l'm °f the corolla is red-nurnle and the heart is creenish-

‘t ii found in 0n}iin9 u'^' Blue and Olive. This harmony is less frequent,
* L ay i,genea: Uat«re . Plants with a blue llower have often orange anthers, and
it extreme, an 01'a«ge flower and an olive involucre. He had

102

REPORT — 1854.

On some New Mosses, and on recent Additions to the Muscology of Liverpool
By F. P. Marratt.

On the Arrangement of the Air Canals in the Nymphaacees (the Water Lilies).

By Maxwell T. Masters, Lecturer on Botany in St. George' s Hospital.

As the result of bis examination of the air canals in tho leaf-stalks and flower-
stalks of various species of Nymphn.*aceip,IVlr. Masters divided them into three principal
groups, as follows : — 1. Where the arrangement of the air canals is similar in petiole
and peduncle, there being four central canals, surrounded by smaller tubes. L'nder
this group he included Nympha-n odorata, minor, alba, nitida, and yijjnirn~ ^\
which belong to tho section Castalia. 2. Where with an arrangement of the petiolar
air tubes similar to that just mentioned in the first group, there is n concentric
arrangement of the peduncular air tubes, there being a number of largo canal* placed
around the central axis of the flower-stalk, and encircled by one or more rows
smaller tubes, each row containing, however, twice as many tubes ns that imme¬
diately interior to it. Of the species enumerated the following belonged to this
group : Nymphaa c/ernlea and cyanea , belonging to the section Cyanea; Ay> nphirs
Mexxcana and micrantha , belonging to the section Castalia. 3. The third group m-
durles those species in the petioles of which there are two large senii-ovnte canal*,
and in which the arrangement of the peduncular air tubes is of the same concentric
character as had been described in the second group. The species in which tm»
disposition occurs are all comprised in the section Lotus. They ar e— Ay"/'"™
rubra, Lotus dvntata, dentate major, and Devoniana. The author thinks that altbougn
there are many species of Nymphmn not alluded to in his remarks, yet it may be '»lf f
assumed that the disposition of their air canals is subject t.o one or other of the fore¬
going modifications ; and with reference to the difference of opinion as to whetn r
many of the so-called species of Nymphcea are to be regarded ns such, or mere y *-
varieties, he observes that if the arrangement of the air canals is of lit tie value**
evidence of the latter view, at least it cannot be adduced in support of the former.

nf 5hlaIing® °f T0US marine animals were exhibited by the Rev. *- W®*- °Je
of the drawings illustrated the young state of the common starfish (Umtcr •

On the Nature of the Torbanehill and other Varieties of Coal.

By Professor Redfern, M.D., Aberdeen.

h21recenflfvrn i?*,duced .th<s subject by remarking, that the great interest
Gillcsnie f °"’C3 *ts origin to the practical question raised in tl»eJ

for their own tl* ' ra’Jier thah to investigations into the characters of coa P ^
applS in o?H n •. v Ic ?toted hiB conviction that the term "coal/ as ■»£*,
the construction Ilri *» efficiently understood for ull commercial purl

tionofcoalZJi &C- aud diffeh-n.es of opinion as to the scientific

author then noL Z to interfere with the popular acceptation of that •
that of 'n niw °“fc ,thot the geological position of the Torbanch.il coah-
of coals to S ]\° Prod«ced Dr Fyfc’s tables of the chemical co«P^
of coals in tbe Torbanehill coal contains all the chemical =

teins nothin 5ar?c Proportions as in some of them, and

the Torbanehill C^i '* ,not ^ound >n coals. He produced specimens t

"Wlieoliirr' “nd il Is full or fos,iI plant.
inclined and Bin* l,c[“re<t sur faces he showed numerous angular fac , iirgtr

fossfla Ly ofl n £ hat M Wel1 89 ,arEe Portions of the 0U?“Ltf a

lens. A^these foi * «*°daced b>' ve89cls of P,antS b>’ £* ¥

the coni, and it,;. ' ? ha\c a smnlar microscopical structure to the farts art ®

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

103

ffMented by a block of wood in any coal whatever; whilst those presented by the
ijrbanehili coal are exactly the same in kind as those of other coals, though dd ' '*
in degree. Microscopical sections taken horizontally and vertically alway*
in'ir in the same manner as the surfaces of cubicul blocks. All vertical sect ion* are
n: in the Torbanehill and other coals; all horizontal section* arc alike, but
' different in all these coals from vertical sections. The striated appearance
' iul sections is therefore not. due to cORl btkg flbtOUl likl wood, but t” it*
~inir, which a vertical section cuts across as one would cut through tin leave* of
' tot. The author denied in tola the correctness of two important statement*
“k in a paper recently published by the Microscopical Society of London, and
■Rued in opposition totkeee, that horizontal ud w alaecti - fl
-I c»l are never alike, but differ like those of other coals ; alao, that coal ami
' ■! m-r ;u widely as a laminar uiul a flbfl URfl

^L-'ucnod and systematic description of the various microscopical appenranc
“*•**■8 these by coloured drawings and *ttli-picturc#. He pointed out that
',r -;:;w hill and other coals are in great pm' mi rOQI dl d f I Kit tl d ;• I How

separated by dack matter made up chiefly of vegetable tissues in a frag-
^ - un state. There are also several other bodies, -uch ns 'pop-*, &c., show n on
■^inn 1 examination ; but it is important to bear in mind, that whatever be
trpretation of the microscopical appearance# in the Torbanehill c-t.nl, there is
*” ah dJf f C“ar.act!r Prc*cnted by it which is not found in other coal*. The author
•umtirm ri'tQ' i ,nv®fct*gation8, tlmt coal, Cancel coal especially, is the result of
m«Cr *1 .o’ l3mtegratioci, and chemicnl changes taking place in a mass of vegetable
bit-bog aPProacL to which at present is that presented by a my fluid

're,,e sL? that in geological position, rliemica! ami histulopical cha-
' beiue morp°va?n 1 1'^ p0a*.'8 otbor Lanoel coals ; and that it differs (mi:, them
^formation of coke *°r production of gas, and consequently less valuable for

f/ie Granule nP)er'lnents made on the Influence of Coloured Class on

%\Z f ‘ Sea' w"ler' % “OBE“T tv.\H.M.i«>, r.c.s.

^ich\vasS!nn^jnfdllllltt^ r°d sea-planta grew best in case.*, the light supplied
T'-’-n confervoid ornna° l3Uss “lrou6^ green coloured glass, and tlmt the brown and
u growths were thus destroyed.

'f the Y„ria°n °'C-i gipas from the Lower Sandstone and Slui/e
C°^’ n» V'-ofasor W. (’. W.LLI AM80N. F.F.S.,

Tljp flnj-l.

p^'ps. 'The CTffis .1>y \'cr,mi,llS t0 t,u’ notice* by Young and Bird. Prof,
'■tvy'di* I,p lV,n" '•••• ^n,t l’1’ . ?ura "f Mr. James Yates in connexion with
Mb

. I'tl'yas. IleiVinn / I • , , . . ra "l Mr. James Yater in connexion with

it as rescm^iniP ,Tn<t , 118 Vlwa of lhv structure ami habit of the plant,
^:>theCe3- h,C °l0n^Ud cy«“*We«l stems of Cyan, nrclnalis,
v.’.m btcIruQ<*U buds ibn K ^^cephalarto3 horridun. He then described

tvhicli i/arts fronds or leaves, and their connexion with the

r( 0 living Cycads m c*^*bited specimens, and in which the emend resem.

01 the mfloreSeonrVrry °.bvi0Ua- lU: ^eu dwelt at some length on the
two disiinrt^f UMd Ut ^un8W,c^ the Yorkshire coast, of which
»Uac l^riform manner tu‘ Dne a curious scaly axis, prolonged in a

tl!jn Pfr^n slln5 of oblon'w a ter lmrt ^as 1,con invested by u cortical sub-

w^.cularly to the axis. This por-
A second ty,fe conR?», hafia* Pri,l,ab|y been the anther iferoti* portion of
4* 2? and Sn 21^ “ ""“"T* dl8C* "'»«<* has evidently terminated
or each ? fft ’ f Ml*"* circle of radiating bracts. On
i,J|Iittnl o.ltUl?80n supposed t..»v \ ■ ,ructs atc two 6mil'l oblong depressions, which
ftoQglj nJ11 groat uncertain* ,aVe °uPPorled two ovule# ; but, at the same time,
rjeadean 6 nMuerical coi ro nr. \ ,esPectinii lbc exact physiology of these portions ;

^C0^and the der ‘he8e ovule*, as usually seen in the
P sions on the surface of the bracts, seems to indicate

104

HE POUT — 1854.

thatPIhnnti M f h ?'! ai!SeaJ“,£ °* l,arls- The result of the investigation show*
has 'v^v ii , . F a l '1 01 th? l,lant is that (,f 11 true Cycad, its inflorescence
«'dely diverged from any known type of that variable class, and, conse-

the nlnnt c™ utm“* ““t'011 13 necessar.v «a determining the general nature of
often the ” a Im Cd Poril?n* °f the or8ani9nD- The elementary materials are
and^nexn n! r thf-rC“nt a,ul fuSB'1 for,as ! but, being differently distributed, new

» con^^_0cc”"to8' °f ",hldi «“ *

On Stangeria Paradoxa. By James Yates, Esq., M.A., FJLS.

ob 2Sffria/Jr“**fl ‘S " trfongmg to the natural order of Cijcads, and ua»

ae.U to Fnmn W ySW ag0 Vlcinity of Fort N**taJ. At first only leaves were

from Thn. lP'Tmhlci tl,03C °f cer'ain Wa* of ferns, and differed ewen-
fer,/ nn i f e. 0 known C vends. Hence the new plant was regarded as a
from !?»»„? ST ft? r, \C gT* Lomaria- > >» the year 1851, however, a plant came
after Professor Hal (' K T'i ,jo( a 11 ic ,C* ardi‘n withn stem as well as leaves, and won
distinctive rln.-> '■> °ur \i. ‘1|in uirs ‘ rt‘tolvet* “ co,,f- They agreed exactly in their
and beimr d^i 'L P' K l,1G an<J ColIe* of all the known genera of Cycads;

“n«mcd8nfW tu'ncf t0 • •Io%r t0, this .uut.ul'ul order, the new genus Stangeria wh
The 9inm euterpri»ing and meritorious L)r. Stanger, then resident nt Natal,
shot and !U,fl‘ y r?cn,yc» ,liat f>(' the West Indian genus Zama. It is

luberelcR ti, ’ <uV'rrd W|,h a brown cuticle, and marked by parallel bunds and
have been jLav^ 0«%' 'rated M the bases of leaves, the scars of which

cylinder ofVoody n8 ^ BlC,n ,,as °nlar8e(1- The section exhibits a single

nl th oug U *t f, 0° v t'r na t ion cc^ ft oin that of ferns by its vernation. For,
is circulate. The vmmn i„ r Adder s-tongue ia plicate, that of ull dorsiferous fern*
are also coiled mi In tv ° a/e>'1' is coiled up, and, if pinnate, its leaflets

the blade, which i f.,1.1 Y<W//' * 1 IL’ ,eaf'9lalk rises erect and much longer than
stalk ns on n hinge’ mi til' h rr '! nnJ. gradnnlly riacH, turning on the top of the
angle, in which '.cllt *° *ar back ns to irmkc with the stalk nil obtuse

continuous with the midril>7r 'ii,”8! ,n other known Cycads the stalk is

forms n uniform curJi without^ 0i‘f’ *? tl,at tl,e w,l0,l‘ le"r- ''"Coding the stalk,
increases so us to Ser hi ? L *V Afi ,Im! hhde 1,1 thc ,crtf 2f*SW£

double along its own lUni aPParcttt> 11 18 found that every Icuilet is folded

and that all the leaflets llc.l,i'f,pr surfaces of the two halves being in contact;

nation. In this ri-si,,«^i it, r are Hl'P'ird to one anotlier with au imbricate ver-
plant. ' rtToru Stangeria resembles a rose, an ash, or a leguminous

for the original' luLuke^Mm ce.Hdin}y resembles that of Lomaria, so as to account
ienflet sends off nervurot -irVi^ 10 ,<^ent*tv of these genera. The midrib of the
these very shortly bifurra»« ' Istancc of nbout a rnilliinefro from each other;
bifurcation; all thru !‘0,nt! °f them become dichotomous by a second

which arc directed, at in i!„.° 'n 8l,,T?,ur«s* "'Inch are seen along each margin, and
whole margin of the igCiMIS ^antia, towards tha apex of the leaflet, fnc

indentations of the icrratirw.. f„!j”TOcd b-v.a nervure, which coincides with all the
cate ncrvurcs. The serrsfn,- 1d c,OInnil|nicates with the midrib through the bifur-
of the leaflet uneven fn Ait. arC Jrrp8ular fn their size, so as to render the margin
and Zamia. So far ns jS . fln nDalogy is perceptible between Slang#'*

d*ewhere in ferns. ^ veads, the venation is peculiar, and is only met with

•’ aoincwbot triMicuLr P0s>rion of the leaflets, the form of the whole leaf

ing sonic of the ferns. ' With Ik !" ' r,‘slH‘ct ,r0‘« all other Cycads, and approach'
little towards the bo.M* the („*»,« a flP',on of 01,0 "r two pairs, which are tun»c<l
on short petioles and nt riuht an, . ' are tile largest and longest, and are ; P,8C
length as they approndi the ibm f!?i. tC*i ‘ millrib. The upper leaflets dimmish »
the apex. The petioles of the ^ !ca^ an^ are directed more and more l0,rar ,
the leaf upwards, until thev nrp ?«• U I1000'*11, shorter and shorter from ‘he has"
respects the lower margin, and this* W* ^ le"ilcts becou,e sessile so far

* ’ UU ,h,s low" margin is decurrent. The midrib of the

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

105

dole leal' terminates in a single leaflet, which consequently forms the apex of the
of The leaflets in the oldest plant which I have seen arc twenty-seven in number;
•' ik young plant or seedling they are four. Instead of the bright glossy green
d other ('reads, the leaf of Stangeriu is pale green and does not shine. The form
leaflets is oblong-lanceolate and acuminate.

Tw following account of the male cone is taken from a plant now (September
•-it in flower at Kew : it bears two cones, each growing upright on n short thick
^.. Scales not peltate; the external MUftott (MUO-glV rn, /.cage-

cone is pointed at the apex, between 1 and 5 centimetres long, and
m being very much smaller, bears a close analogy to the cone of the genus

he nut, or seed, ig nearly orbicular, and 1-5 centimetre in diameter.

‘ iiliHrate this communication, Mr. J. Yates exhibited a drawing of Stang<ria
recent specimens of different parts of the plant ; a mule cone of Dioon
jja' a hving specimen of a Lomaria. For previous descriptions lie referred to
' 0Brna* °J Botany, Aug. 1853, and Scemanu, Bouplamlia, Feb. 1851, p. 44.

Zoology.

Occurrence in the Infusoria of peculiar Organs resembling Thread-
[Dan jm Celts. By Professor ALLMAN, F.R.S.
mttgipg ttoilogtaph by Cohn on the PanniKCciuin Bumarin . tins author

-■ * reality m v j la which the whole surface of the animalcule is covered

in the living animal would lead
' cp! on the trU v opinion on the fact, that when the animal is allowed
he believe tn!° lt *9 seen *u bristle w*th long rigid filaments,

. ^|i‘.»ridinnccor0| e t“e.ci*'ci ^en for the first time become visible in their entire
^totiger than ,,.uU.Ce,Wlt*' this view, he figures tile animal covered with cilia very
. > n in his remark ki mBre inspection of the living Paramtpcium would justify.

; ;['n of Cohn who h 0rIc 0tl development of the Infusoria, refers to this
rfl'-like processed ■'r* however, he believes to be in error in supposing the long
‘he living u° • dead animalcule to represent the natural length of the
lengthen J u1n‘ntR'us> nn the contrary, that these processes are the cilia
\ * '^sarnenhiem, Un<“r ,cxter«al influence's, and he states that he has wit-
in(luCe it bv aWe,i0n 111 many other infusoria, in which lie has always been
^ theni8L,ive L ,lC nPPhcation of strong noetic acid, when the cilia suddenly
£llic recently en„aJ^e nr loui' times their original length.

Vq aa*f,r*a fcuett, Kh r a m PXamin.'n8 the structure of a nearly allied animalcule,
la great p'rofuRin *.®rcen variety of which was developed during the present
»* - ,Rn ^Pearanee !!* a.sn!n^ P°ud in the county of Kssex, Dr. Allman wit-
• ' r?'ne clear to bii ?hy 8,rni,nr to that described bv Cohn and Stein, hut it
is now satisfi “lcdermat» naturalists had erred in their explanation
the filaments in question have nothing whatever
T,b?n jjjwia. peculiar and very remarkable organs hitherto undescribed

Vu,fiybe betcct^! U tpf r‘ UI1(h'r a sufficiently high power, minute fusiform
ftybvT.?1'* transnarp,., ' *>' lruhedded in its walls’ These bodies are perfectly
Nrt^J.^tnesaed atU.e Wf7 a,° a!,out thc r*rroth of nn inch long. They
jSvjrrtL™* °atlinc of 5,e ,na.rf?ln* "where they are seen to be arranged perpen-
w wj tx,retafe tmnen ° an,raalcule, hut on the surface turned towards the
s ^it Pf,n.c beneath *h. arenc7 un‘l want of colour renders it necessary to crush

>*l"'ll.r Dm08* '"“tetobiEKI 11 ' ' P ■" onl the I'ules

W L ,{!°ie8 *<> give tl.o * K’ fu*lform bodies into view. To these bodies
!LCSe k he an'malcul “e of tri^»U.

•’ °f tire when subiootl?'— ^rce ,r?m annoyance, the trichocysts undergo
bounding water to ^xterna| irritation, as occurs during thc drying
» or the application of acetic acid, or other chemical

106

REPORT — 1854.

irritant, or the too forcible action of the compression, they become suddenly trans¬
formed into long filaments which are projected from all parts of the surface of the
animalcule. . ,

The rapidity with which this remarkable change is effected, joined with the great
minuteness and transparency of the object, renders it extremely difficult to follow it,
and for a long time the author could uuly satisfy himself of the fact .that the fusi¬
form bodies were suddenly replaced by the projected filaments. After ccintmu
observation, however, he at last succeeded in witnessing the principal step* m *
evolution of the filament. . .

It is not difficult, by rapidly crushing the animalcule, to force nut some o
trichocysts in an unchanged state. If the eye be now fixed on one of the iso a
trichocysts, it will in all probability be seen, after the lapse of a few sccon »
become all at once changed, with a peculiar jerk, as if by the sudden release 0 s
previous state of tension, into a little spherical body. In this condition it wi P •
bably remain for two or three seconds, mid then a spiral filament wi
rapidly evolved fiom the spherule, apparently by the rupture of a u,t,™br“'lc n
had previously confined it, the filament unrolling itself so quickly that t
scarcely follow it, until it ultimately lies straight and rigid ou the field 10
scope, looking like a very fine and long acicular crystal. .

This remarkable body when completely evolved consists of two l'^rtl°n ’ _ ;1(c
spiculum-like portion acutely pointed at one end, and continuous at tne PI ,
end with the second portion, which is iri the form of a fine flexible filament, * ^

half the length of the spiculum ; this second portion is generally seen .

angle on the first. The form of these bodies is best observed m such as i .
away towards the margin of the drop of wuter and arc there left dry y q( a

porated fluid. Many of theta, however, merely presented the aPPe. , com.
simple, long, fusiform spiculum, a condition probably depending on tfiei L a
plete evolution. , 0(

The resemblance of the organs now described to the well-known
the polypes and certain other lower members of the animal kingdom is .
That they are entirely homologous, however, with these bodies we <j?”I gtruC.
assert ; their origin at least appears different j for if we admit the uniceiiu of
ture of the infusoria, wc have the triclu/cyste apparently developed in tne £aiC
the cell- wall, instead of being produced in special cells, as we know to
with the thread-cells of the polypus.

On the Application of Cyanide of Potassium to hiding Insects for the C
By G. Bovdler Buckton.

The author observed that little or no information was to be obtained
on Entomology with reference to killing insects intended for fn ture ex- . ^curo-

After noticing the remarkable manner in which some of tlwQrthoP"** UD|jt-
ptcra are capable of resisting the action of sulphurous acid, and cow . t
ness of that substance for such a purpose, it was stated that the desire g moot
be conveniently effected in many eases, by subjecting the living . like0fd

atmosphere at a high temperature. A suitable apparatus was describeci. ^ UlC
to a diving-bell of thin nnd well-annealed glass, having an inner fining . a pin.
top, of cork, upon which the specimen to be operated upon may be lx j

Suffocation quickly ensues on plunging the hell-mouth downwards u»w
water at or near its boiling-point. , ilVlJroc)',lII‘c

After noticing the certain and rapid manner in which the vapour _.D pij-
acid acts on insect life, and objecting to its common use from *t’s.'?re r n0ta5^iofll
sonous and volatile properties, it wan further stated that cyanide o >£|u,nl.--
posscsses similar useful properties without corresponding disadvantag • ^turf-
have been long aware of the peculiar change of this substance, r coo-
mto hydrocyanic acid, ammonia and other products, and as the ai r jtjo0 on
tains aqueous vapour, the salt slowly undergoes the same deCOinP"uu|e, a**!
exposure at ordinary temperatures. The requisite apparatus W very * r flprr.
consists of a wide-mouthed jar of glass, fitted with a brass cap MW'** pot»*-
turo capable of being closed pretty accurately with a slide. The cyanic

107

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

rod, in coarse lumps, is placed under a false bottom of blottiDg-papj#r, wWch
serves the double purpose of absorbing the moisture arising from the deliquescent
nature of the salt, and is also permeable to the air. A small g us ,
frrriag an insect from the net to the aperture of the instrument, completes t ho
ippmtus, which may be carried into the fields. An insect usualh dus in . 1^

■t r*ac varying from forty seconds to two minutes ; but in the larger ”
ml Lepidoptera a longer treatment is desirable, to provide against the possibility o
twudtatiou. , ,

Us author considered that the cyanide possessed many advantages over ciubhcd
hori leaves, -which cannot always oe obtained. The salt, now so extensively used
rMbe irt3, is inexpensive and may be kept for any length of time in stoppered bottles,
«>i ii thus available abroad. The instrument, ulso, is always ready, for a charge
’I thirty or forty grains will keep up a poisonous atmosphere for a month or longer
vflbrmt renewal.

i -ingular instance of resistance to the action of the cyanide was then exemplified,
ituprcgnated female of the Burnet sphinx {Anthrowa I'ilipcndvla ) wa* placed in
nistrument in company with the spectre moth (Mormo JlfaNni). Hie large
r^ct was dead in less than two minutes, but the P.urnct was comparatively lively
toe expiration of fourteen hours. It is worthy of note, that oviposition did
until •deration of the insect from confinement, possibly showing a
oa the part of the insect that such an atmosphere was fatal to the larvae
* excluded from the egg or injurious to the vitality of the egg itself. As both
* Hr/a and imago of Tinea pellionelk were experimentally proved to be incapable
bn s 1 S the acdoH of tlle vapour from the cyanide, a suggestion was made, that
,|3tuffei1 6l,ecitnens of natural history might be freed from moth by sub-

The r ^ Fauna of Liverpool. By Isaac Byisrlv.

AaoiiJt^K^ anima'3 was ve‘T complete, and comprised some remarkable forms.
Jhlfitofl ie*e be mentioned the following : — 1. The bottlehead { Uyperoodon
‘..rny beak, f the.8toraach of two of the specimens captured great numbers of the
kerning ot cuttle-fishes were found, ami tliesc were impacted one in another,
'•nmnstratei !{,nUou.3 row- 2* Trachinus viper a. In this fish, Mr. Byerly had
*■ ImioMim, 7 existence of a poisonous secretion at. the base of its spines.
Ki. 4 ”Pa™^cs, the rarest species of British newt, had been taken near Liver-
Wngfiah .ny Af l*le rarer British fishes had occurred on the coast,— as the opah
"Shinto Moll n8'itSey Morr»^ the Turpedu n oldlis. 5. Many species of Nudi-
Mliahed but 'Uma lad bce“ taken j and one species, Antiopa hyalina, is not vet
0,1 these a a*>Pear !u rl''° forthcoming part of Messrs. Aider and Hancock’s
*** noted • Bn,iaD|lma u* d' occurrence of Naciiluca miliar is in large numbers
°f the anecip. 8 r then gave the water a rose-colour. The following is a
rA l9G ; R,.nt:i°. c, 6!’eat section of the animal kingdoms — Mammalia, 41 ;
,, ' ^hinodenmt8’ V ’ ^ahes, 100 j Molluscs, 185 ; Crustacea, 71 ; Lepidoptera,
’ •’^tlvir. a’ Acalephse, 14 j Zoophytes, 68 ; Sponges, 5: about 1400

Ur >, u*dred and Forty Species of Shells from Mazatlan.
author ent /• 1 ’ Carpenter, L.A., Warrington.

by C. Br\r comPar‘SQn between them and the shells of Panama (as
C^UootbariLr aud other places. A very large proportion of the Ma-
tfe* fr ^ari8°n of tins ah ii n ^c''crih'‘d, all such results will be open to correction.
Aatu^ble fact th,^ C° c"c!ed ^ Mr. Nuttall on the Calil'urniati coast shows
^Ub. i'1 !’• altlu,ugh theaf. .scarCel ■ Rny aPecicB wt common to that coast and to
1,1 ‘Pecian'1’ a!:car!ite accounllf aJc pneia"y calle(i " Californian." The importance
M to . A'ities, was n i !de ^aunas- “Ot only of zoological provinces, but
‘entitle inquirip,* 1 uPon> and it was suggested that very valuable

uid be given by the formation of separate collections

108

REPORT — 1854.

belonging to different faunas. A beginning had been made in Liverpool bv the
present of a series of Mazatlan shells to the Free Museum (by Mr. G. Ilulse),—
winch was exhibited to the Section. If merchants, captains," and sailors would
exert themselves to obtain similar collections, not only the inhabitants of Liverpool,
but the scientific world generally, would bo much indebted to them.

On the Development of the Embryo of Purpura lapillus.

By Professor W. B. Caupxkter, M.D., F.R.S.

The flask-shaped capsule formed by these animals contains from 500 to 600 vitel¬
line oodies, having the appearance of eggs; yet only from about 12 to 30 embryos
are produced, each of these having from 20 to’ 30 times the bulk of the ovum from
which it sprang; so that the material contained in the original mass of eggs must
in some way or other have been appropriated bv the comparatively few embryos
winch are thus developed at its expense. By MM. Korea and Danielssen, who had
previously examined into this subject, it was affirmed that, after the segmentation
oi tne v itellinc bodies mto from about 1 2 tn 16 divisions, the whole of them coalesced
mto one conglomerate mass, which afterwards subdivided into pedunculate frag-
.mrt8,\f°nt‘TI,g “ ,urBer or smaller number of the original yulk-aegmcnts, every
one of these fragments becoming an embryo. J)r. Carpenter stated, however, that
IwT Vi^lrVatl0D* had k’d him tQ entirely different view of the process; and
rnSnU! "'T confi<lwcc in the correctness of his interpretation of it. since it

wus obvious, from hia mvHnrvotmpc' • n s ...... ii. . u .. .j kn/j ()ip uiiiior*

Ue> llutl llunae|f examined so large a number of capsules, in which •
merati f x‘r°f small free embryos presented themselves before the conglo*
generated inrin,f ^Ju* ova, that he could not doubt that they are

between their twr™ '!/ ^iieae embryos very soon come to possess a mouth

its interior n „ ?Cll,atcd l,,be8* ™d lends, by a wide .esophagus, ciliated m

the g<lstric cawity- The embryos then attach themselves to

which it is cnmnii^t*ffia9? • and by tlxe action of these cilia, the small segments of
by them ifJ^i^ dmcn down into their interior, which is soon distended
embryos’ mav l? SUJ be °Peilcd shortly after the conglomeration bus token place,
- somTLiLfo,0,1,dattacrd la the yolk-moss, presenting various gradations of
JSk, and hav^nv!}1 flt,lc f"Pr th“» *»•« ^ embryos seen in a previous

vi.ms y contabed - S |a1Bi,,f ,‘Uttntit5' o{ >'olk «*pe, -added to that which they
formed embryo thoTiwh*! 0thc” *ua-v k^c already acquired the bulk of the »
however tin "mill n' presenting no advance in development. Even in these
u,g, to be imbSfi f’i01 ufk'm',,<J from original ovum, may be shown (by crush*
Thus, then the 2 1 ?°1accf9fiory > ,llk thus derived from the conglomerate m**
tained in the oridnalTL' i' Vd°ped fro,n a “nail number of the egg-like bodies «n-
owii evolution, the material act1“H.l,>' eat UP» though at a very eariy stage of
ditional supply or X - MPP|Mal V the rest; and if they do not obtain *»!*
developing only the eiliatSn1 lnsufIicicnt amount of it, they become abor >,
these abortive embrv ns W"* with or * the foot : one or more*

The bodies which, iESjSSf *° b° T* wiUl iu thc cal,?uIe near ,tS ^ Car¬
penter was inclined tn coalesce into the conglomerate mass, U •

inclined to consider as imperfectly fertilized ova

°n some Points connected with the Natural History of the Azores.

After ei vimr „ J 1 Pof*“or E* fOKBES, FJLS.

the continent of toeanffc V,eWB on tlie geological relation of the

of Mollosca made bv his r »» proceeded to make some remarks on a co
species Of UasteCrl l f,end Mr' ^‘Andrew. Amongst them were forjHg
of Cephalopoda. Of n ®Pecips of Lamcllibranchiate Mollusca, and £ne spOj
only one species wi Si in were "‘"able to the Lusitanian

Islands. There was n ijHt „i America, and this was found also rn the
of these were peculiar but °f f ifteen species of land Mollusca; °ne;.
Fauna. 1 bUt tbe belonged to the West Atlantic or Losi^

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

109

On the Vascular System of the Lower Annulosa.

By T. H. Huxlky, F.H.S.

Under the term Lower Annulosa the author included the Annelida, the l.chino-
innata, the Trematoda, the Turbellaria and the Rolifera, — in all <>t which there
t peculiar system of vessels, which have hitherto been universally regarded as
’ "^-vascular system. Without cun i.li-i in tin ■ i

^ ?«tion to be fully demonstrated, the author said, that he had to olTVr very
l*nnf reasons for regarding the prevalent notion SB 1 vaacular

the higher An nulusa and of tin- MoUtMC® if In all CS8M anon 01 I® -
part of the common cavity of the body. The iluid which it contains is a
•tpucnlated fluid ; the propulsive organ, if any special heart exist, is a ContfMS
, comiceted by valvular apertures with that common cavity. Now, although
■jlght be incorrect to say that the vascular of the lower Annelida is inva-

'? distinguished by characters the opposite nf these, still there can be no question
^ , as a general rule, such is the case; and this circumstance is alone sufficient to
pave doubts as to the homology of the two systems. Hut these doubts are
FnrJiUu1 i 1 nGd'w^ei1 we take into consideration certain facts, which the author
atqjj.j “? la7 hefore the Section. In tin Rotifer* tl ere is a system of vessels,
"^rviliran a contraetile vesicle, opening externally, from which canals, containing
*ttC • *,a5S lnto bot,V. In certain Di stomata, such as Arpidogaater
t 6 *s a system of vessels of essentially similar character ; but the
^hUr th°3e ^atera* trunks which coine oflf directly from the contractile
tidily dCntrresu,ar rhythmical contractions. The smaller branches arc all
tfcvetorynr ’ inotbcr Distomatu the lateral trunks appear to be converted into
Girdle* bn?1 j8?*8 ?re of minute granules ; they remain eminently con-

^ nwvnf (torn eir connexion with the system of smaller ramified vessels ceases to
'*» system - ^*Van Bcucden ami others have shown, they still form

somoitmn the :i: o no ,0»ger to be found in the smaller ramified vessels,
■Wt in the mi CS.Van.1 . C(* altogether; at others, being discoverable only here and
'■i fascular SJ t ultimate terminations of these vessels. In certain Ncmntoidea
a couple of lateral contractile vessels, altogether
’^is no douhtrt CGn?mUnicatiugi by a small aperture, with the exterior. Now,

* ^ratorv an 1 VD nI1 tVcse caSl'9* tllfi "vascular system" is physiologically
'Waonts the L, P?™aPs* urinary system; while the common cavity of the body
f^ioorhyuehus n ’Va8Ca^ar 8>'8tc™ of the Mollusca and Articulata. However,
f "fiatoij or d:J)08BCSsrs 11 vascular system of the same nature ns that of a
rA8'.nS; thus f t0n!at0U5 worm, but presenting no cilia, and having no external
‘.bribed, an,i a closed vascular system, homologous with those previously

/!* a very (.a„vtt0ri'1o lmm them only in the fact of its closure. Hut from hence
author st t i transition to the vascular system of the Annelida;

r ational reasons , L’°uviction, based not only upon these, but upon many
’ 3' ln fact, nniv it « eSe 80*Cfcllod blood-vessels and those of the Echinodermata,

. .'^niof th'c n ];. Ile fina' term of a series, of which the so-called water-vascular
1.'° really nothin ct?nat,t.utC9 the ccirumnnctfrocnt. If, however, these vessels
r i'"ajr«a, \yjjjj .8 to “0 with the proper blood- vascular system of the higher
the ami, S-Vstem o{ organ* are they homologous t In answer to this
which tut* e^.b*8 belief, that they correspond with the tracheae of
95 in the lar v ? s‘m'lar* extensive, ramified distribution, and, in some

,c '* the LibcTlnlicirt*, constitute as completely closed a system

1 ,c»«ela.

^ «< p,

A..,. nUarS<«j-

Insects am enabtid to ad/irrr to Smooth Perpendi-
thr ,v amhQr to k Urfaccs' Tty Thomas Inman, M.D. , Liverpool.

by wliiol^ ,S/J.rvcy .°^ the whole subject, and pointed out that there were
Kr^Wfmrvf Wus effected:— 1. by hooks, which were used when

*CrJ0,r' hairs exc*m nCR*’ *u lllL> grasses; 2. by suckers, which were perfectly
'rhich * which was^ U ™ar6’nal fringe to keep the dust out; 3. by an adhesive
'vere attach ,sPreat^ over an immense number of microscopic hairs, each of
e to a large llap, and had a distended terminal development.

110

REPORT — 1854.

»«*■"«• ,to foun(l *n every foot, but they were not uniformly accompanied
either by suckers or adhesive bosses. The last were by far the most frequent, the
former were very rare. In some very few instances, hooks, suckers, and adhesive
naps were present.

Dr. Inman rclntcd the particulars of a case of partial Albinoism in a black man,
Illustrated with photographic representations of the individual thus affected. The
white spots on the man’s body were observed to become darker during the hotter
parts of the year.

, „Pr‘ k A N K ester called attention to Mr. Woollaston's recently- published work on
he Insects of the Madeira Islands,’ a copy of which was exhibited to the Sec-
tion. This work had been produced by the author with great labour nod at a great
expense, and was one of those works for which science is indebted to the patient
and seir-denjong labours of their authors. He also called the attention of the Section
o he magnificent colletion of insects, especially Colcoptcra, made by the late Mr.
Molly, or Hi versif y, near Liverpool, and which his son had thrown open to the
inspection of the Members of the British Association.

On the Physiology of Cells in relation to Consciousness and Adaptive Mo™-
meats. By Thomas Laycock, M.D., York.

Dr. Laycock communicated some of the views he entertained as to the rclntiom
. 3 *° 'consciousness, and to the adaptation to a definite object manifested in the

lovements and functions of organisms. Th..*,. ..i.m, ..... vr.rir.nctv internreted

of u » ycocK communicated some of the views he entertained r

“ 3 t0 'consciousness, and to the adaptation to a definite object mamiestea m u,v
£ f 0< fUnrt.,nnB of wganfeiua. These phenomena are variously interpreted

^ ^asciouHnegs. While, on the one hand, it was a firmly established
selves nftr„mrit0r^ ll!Ml no' sensation, although they adapted tlicra-
TddSd Kovrn. eXqT‘t0 9kill‘ t0 eternal circumstances, of which Dr. Laycock
tho otl‘W. it was an equally fixed doctrine that the
Now all these ,",ect#') wcr<! as susceptible of pain os man lmnsclf.

lower animHl . ' 1 7‘~0n. tnc « was an equally fixed doctrine mat u

Now all these aK'"13 t' y' ,M,Cct#) *«<-' as susceptible of pain os man lmnself.
ultimate “omeIlllLwri! manifested in the highest degree .n th*

wlulher tlie o,^,! °f ftnllnfltc(tl namely, the microscopic cell; and yet

evolved from if * ° w“s unicellular, or composed of groups of individual cells, or
cludinir that f,nraon,lal there did not appear the slightest ground for con-
th« Tm‘. ciduwed with consciousness; it followed, therefore, that

IVC phenomena were the result, of a force inherent in them,

«*»

but distinct from mTudl’1'^ |lh!CQorQena WCre the result of a force inherent

I nO OhtiPA a .1 . ,

it distinct from mind.

tvolwl"™*^? lJHn?,re c higllcr orgflni»ms, whether vegetable nr animal, being

tainment o/.he 6,aitn f tbpir whole vital activity being directed*

h„ “tee object as that aimed at in cell action/ viz. the well-being and
follows ‘bat in these that object may be aimed at

ZZTolS:: J*5e“bjft M,th^t aimed at in Cdl act'ion/viz. the well-being
whcdly mdeLndeoSv JfSi' j5t,foU°,u 8 ,hat in these that object may be am»
with vccftabli- nn,nJ[ [ thewill or the consciousness. Such appears to be the
plants and even ?hn ’ but' to dctermine the presence or absence of these i
It mav be arirued^b, 0".cr ai"teals, is necessarily levond the reach of observation.
■KiltaSP from analogy, that they tnly possess a sense of p easo^

that grand scheme BU<lh 2" cn,iuwmcnt would be entirely compatible*

SStKe XTgcd adaptation upon which all organisms and the entire

nail,3 w&h;C?„Ti?eUt8-,h0W that h » * l«ant very doubtful whether they &
&o£n Lnninsi°?i^et^f supplied to them to admin* « ■»

instruments (UhiatrahJiv ^ ,nuTcat ■*fHI which they display in the use of' 1
constructs iti hc/l^i^nf1' accuracy with which the domestic b«

have £ e^’nhcCc^QnalcvII)* ^*8^ serve as some proof of the pleasure they n>.f

.he of v.,**., vr satfESs? # jysreftr • *

TRANSACTIONS OF THU SECTIONS.

Ill

»m irritated, or swim away if thrown into water. Hence the conclusion, that the
nils of the vesicular neurine act under given circumstances as adaptively and yet as
mnsciously as in the lowest forms of animal and vegetable life.

Dr. Laycock then extended these views to the cells constituting the vesicular neurine
rf the human brain ; and argued that it might fairly be inferred, both it priori and
iro observation, that their endowments and inodes of action were not inferior to
^of the vesicular neurine in insects. It fallowed, therefore, that they also
*4' let adaptively and in accordance with their assigned functions independently
1 me will or^ consciousness of the individual. To this automatic action (the link
man's spiritual nature and the external world) Dr. Laycock referred the
i^oomcna of mesmerism, electro-biology, spirit-rapping, &c., and expressed his
^"'jction that the derangement of the intellect which those phenomena implied
Jl , 'e altogether harmless, hut might lead, and, indeed, had led to permanent
to the brain.

several rare animals from the Museum of Natural History

^ °« t,ie Anthropoid Apes. By Professor Owen, M.D., B.R.S.*.

:lr Richest ' ai'er known species of those large tail-less Ape*, which form

“T^aeh to^0-11*1 • r orc!cr (Quadrumann), and consequently make the nearest

*le determined the true zoological characters of the known orangs
• vif the * aS ,nan'fested by adult specimens ; pointed out the relative proxi-
‘^nctions that°S ^ c^‘mPanzee9 to the human species ; and indicated the leading
kqor then eatp ®!Parate the most anthropoid of those apes from man. The l’ro-
^Itbe deerop? uP(?n *be subject of the varieties of the human species, and de-
"'ificationa ofdn l i tb° racca differed from each other in colour, stature, and
^''Hies, and nrn ° s, ,etan> He entered upon a disquisition of the causes of these
' -tific character^6 1 1 it0 c“xa,n'iu' bow far any of the known causes which modify
lrtewcr approach t 12 Vlve operated so as to produce in the chimpanzees or orangs
^ Wntc characters f « Uinan character than they actually present. He pointed
. Gorilla Ane T*i?- v ^eleton °f the np‘‘. e. 'J- the great supernrhital ridge in

G!l5tHof byanv 21lch.cr)uld not. have been produced by the habitual action of
"MS chaLe in°ti * °Wn tnfluence that , operating upon successive generations,
Sn teeth, the r 'C ,ma nnd proportions of bones. The equable length Of the
,!«Ual d'i fferen °n^0ln ltan r absence of any intcivnl in the dental series, and of
and unnlfplvi t le development of particular teeth, were affirmed to be
.■j, to state, " at | e Hl>t’r't’c peculiarities of mau. " Teeth," the Professor pro-
us t e?st.BUch ns consist of the ordinary dentine of mammals, arc
Pressure unft +k^U0Ilce^ in t^cir Krowt'1 by the action of neighbouring
ft- *» 7 are protrude I* i tir bonT sockets may affect the direction of their growth
•ftlT1 nf limited nmi'i 1 n?t 8ppcific proportions and forma of the crowns
Ut,. .m?’c Tronic," '^terminate growth. The crown of the great canine tooth
1° female Jt?n u ,,'’5nn to be calcified when it* diet was precisely the
l !* growth nmror ii botb SPXe3 Her ived their sustcimme from the mother’s
5da. 'a<‘ a,lvanced *n « , a°d Waa ^Hnost completed befure the sexual develop-
% *®rche wIiImI, .ry5 to establish those differences of habits, of force, of rnus-
•■'iilori is in fi,^VRr , characterize the two sexes. 'Hie whole crown of

^ce* i ® Predecessor • cn'c'dpd before it cuts the gum or displaces its small
j 'ck it is tri’ i, e •'vT2*Eon '* prepared prior to the development of the
»h3 cb#rftcter ^ *s 1 hc-reforc a structure foreordained, a pre-

‘^nuldj 0nP can as lie ,t ,TnPanwe,.hy which it is made physically superior to
f°1_ncc'vt ila development to be a* result of external
** sWr» teRtes< or thn „?C< • ‘K.tbe mUsr,dar actions, as the development of the
j3anrofnep?ratiag the nr«i!riR',, difference In the time of disappearance of

, ' e knowc tauo,^ "fr X' - ar* from thl’ raax'llary bone, was not explicable
« ,i, affeclmB such character.

of the Council at the General Anniversary Meeting of the

112

REPORT — 1854.

There was not any other character than those founded upon the development* of
bone for the attachment of muscles, which was known to be subject to change through
the operation of external causes ; nine-tenths therefore of the differences, especially
those very striking ones manifested by the pelvis and pelvic extremities, which Prof.
Owen had cited in his 'Memoirs on the Orangs and Chimpanzees,’ published in the
Zoological Transactions, as distinguishing the great chimpanzee' from the human
species, must stand in contravention of the hypothesis of transmutation and pmgrv'*-
ive development, until the supporters of that hypothesis arc enabled to adduce the
facts aud cases which demonstrate the conditions of the modifications of such
characters.

There was the same kind of difficulty in accounting for the distinctive character*
of the d ifferent species of the orangs nod the chimpanzees, ns for those more marked
distinctions, that remove both kinds of apes from man. And with regard to thr
number of the known species, Prof. Owen remarked, it i* not without interest
to observe, that as the generic forma of the Quiulruinanu nppronch the Himnimui
order, they are represented by fewer species. The gibbons ( Ilylobatcs ) scarcely
number more than half-a-dozen species ; the orangs (bithi-cun) have hut twospi'c"'*,
or at most three; the chimpanzees (Troglodytes) arc represented by two species.

ihe unity of the human species is demonstrated by the constancy of those
osteological and dental characters to which the attention is more particularly
irccted in the investigation of the corresponding characters in the* higher Quadra-
mana. Man is the sole species of his genua— the sole representative of his order
he has no nearer physical relations with the brute-kind than those which arise oat
‘‘Unguiculat te,r,S ^ ^ toSPt^e1' the great group of placental mammalia, called

nail1 ,c"nc!usion- the Professor briefly recounted the facts at present satisfactorily
?r 1 respectmg the antiquity of the Quudrumami and of man upon tin
had be, n u Cnrl1' A ,ho tinu: '"f 'he demise of Cuvier, in 1*32. no evidence
these Tn?. J ^ °f fr,Sail Quad.umnna, and the Baron supposed that boll
that*™ re B?nrm wt're of very recent introduction. Soon after the low «»
mana win “n8*r«ctor of extinct species, evidence with regard to the fossil Qua‘ . '
Suffolk ini- ,,nd f;°rn d'ff,-ri'nt quarters. In the oldest (eocene) tertiary deposit* <
ex!lt^;(, ,Pr nC'“4 °f Juws and " ere found, that unerringly indicated the former
sampdl? |a,f C!“ 01 raonkey the genua Macacnx [Macacu* eomra.v). Aboo thj
SSSSaSI -ry dep05iU5 f,c."n lhc Himalayan tnountaias gave fu rthcr evidence "f

found rr>m i A3 ’ iLS^rag'tH. and some other parts of the skeleton, having
i5 . ow ?£ f!l petnfied. ami referable to tl.o genus called SmMpilk**. wb^j
remains nfi ^‘p Asiatic Continent. Dr' Lund discovered in Brazil j

in si7e • tbeD ,|Xhn? f,at5frhinL> monkey, surpassing any known Cebus °r

POcuHrer to South America. Lastly, in the « ^
proving that ntMA WU °f ^ranct!* Wi‘* discovered a fragment of the • f.
have existed lM!.riot! 8<)tnc Species of the long -armed ape (//ytoMf*)

sited layers of A* ^*s,l human remains have been found in the regularly

Human bones i,"' °! ‘hr divisions (not even the pliocene) of the tertiary^
as deserted mi *** jCCn fou,,<1 *n doubtful positions, geologically canadereA
t“nnSrund^l?|d/aV<‘¥’ in the detritus1 at the bottom of cliffs ; brt g*£
doubted fosriU nf Md d*r,ta» Participating in the mineral characters of jb
concretps 5 r ‘‘A’ dePoait3‘ The petrified Negro skeletons in the calcaro-
reference hraWUa.v,a Up° a,c of ^mpamtively recent origin- Thus, therefore.^
latest aa he is the human species, and to the fact of man ’ . - ,

of God’s Wort, h'fihest, of nil animal forms upon our planet, the mterp j

°ool □giioela, "S' h*’ ■**«>'"> “> “» « T SS

successive races of «„?’* ,"ord' °f t,1c nature of the creative acts by * ^

know, that as the eviS."1^* 7***- into bcin& we «6noraut' f Re Creator,

so the modifications of tl? A Un',ty °f ,,Ian testifies to the oneness of tb® thc

beneficence of the dcigiwr ‘A <iiffL'rPnt n“>dea ?- f* Ztl Lent il

prehensible nR n,ln. > r‘ 1 h05e 3,ructure3, moreover, which are at prese

prfnd|}*c an<Ta^fni^tl0DR *°- n 9Pecia> ™d, are made comprehensible on ^

instances* where the p“rp,03e tS ?^“led *n relation to human intelligence, • £bc
instances where the analogy of humanly invented machines fails to exp**

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

113

itractore of a divinely created organ, such organ docs not exist in vain, if its truer
wraprehension in relation to the Divine idea lead rational beings to a better con-
"f°? °f their own origin and Creator. The discourse was illustrated by drawings
ml diagrams of the principal external and osteological characters of the different
ip«ie8 of orangs and chimpanzees, and of the different varieties of the humau race.

On the Anatomy of the Great Ant-eater. By Professor Owen, M.D., F.R.S.

Exhibition of Living Sea Animals. By Robert Patterson, Belfast.

were chiefly 8Pecies of Jelly-fishes, caught by Mr. Price, of
fnhead' 0ne of the species was the Cydippe pilous.

fa bait ti?!°N e,x^L'b'tie<1 specimens of Priapulus caudal us, procured while (begin g
^“Ced L1! ank ^ Bolywood, County Down. A s othet specimens had
that this “ r. Precisely simdar circumstances. Mr. Patterson thought it pro-
fyposed. pCCies waa less rare in certain localities than had been previously

The ^‘e Leech. By J. Riciiardson, Hull.

and save^n'shffj! & la‘Be number °f the cocoous or egg- cases of the medicinal
short account of the development of the young leech in the

ovum.

***«* Species ofFeli,. By Capt. W iddrinctos, F.R.S.

Z!h‘ Srilis,‘ Species of Foraminifira.
j,'° ’ W,lUAM*0!!- MmcLur.

whicU nT'rT to t1^le *al3(urrs of his predecessors. Walker figured 22
till, rt?at,dedn0new DTIM k kj-V Montague 3. r» species, 18 being true ones ;
V Published 12 a„m, ’ , *• divided Montagues forms into 8 genera ; Dr. Mac-
J?or *ias now oSffannCW f°rma' <)f wl,ich but 2 werc *mw to Montague.

A* Bill

. . a vast number of varieties,
specific rank, whenevpr varieties,

. . . J:“<g ,s“' . h varieties

the extra-

* r , 1 u,*OllP(l O . *- 11 oiwiHUtm O IUI u

QffiP°?d ncw of which but

on RPecicji* ond

'C'tt^were founrl'f Jiy“ Ual f°rms to sl'vci,ic rank, whenever

>eiMr»5*!} 113 belonging to C0Dncclal bY intermediate links, such

which difflen c} . L#ft®e Bpec!cs- 11(1 thon illustrated the extra-
.^VFhiu Mr°1?1 the genera T n Was compatible with specific identity, by speci-
•^ion ^.individuals of uom^' hnd Cristellarin, and concluded

** ^ consTant TT marvellous tendency

S 8howu to enter So 1 typ,Cftl characteristics. Three primary
v^us fora ^-eon8i&ting of a trim K composition of the Fornminifera:— 1st The
ir^c .wm‘nai 2ndgThe Porcelh,£>I‘l VlU,l'OU' carbo,mtc ul' ''me. with usually
in 0. ace°Us, mainly con,.; l, nQU*. white, opake, and rarely foramioated ;
^5frdev^l^^S?Vf, a&Sloracrated grains oY sand. Irre!
xa4‘ ob8t-nationParoU3 generation amonS6.^ ani! a fcw l,ullcatiu' evidences of the
lheir disWbu^onTntt* S°v u,ncalcified pointed out.

lull “uthor ani 8orne facts which wifi » ' BrU‘#h coasts- But- * ">ce the paper

y ^"-'ty, tWdnDf,.- Can»cnter, abouftJ m°,C fuUy cIuc,datcd '« the joint work

0utlme will suffice fo lt{£ amon88t the publications of the

114

REPORT — 1854.

Miscbllanous.

On Literary and Philosophical Pursuits as conducive to Longevity.

By Dr. Fowler, M.D., F.R.S.

While young and amusing myself with translating and re- translating some
passages in Cicero, my attention was much arrested by the following, in his essay
Be Senectute, " Mane tit ingenia senibus, modo permaneant studia et industria." My
past experience has satisfied me as to the certainty of the fact. But it has not been
till lately that I have been able to find a physiological explanation of it.

All the functions of the mind are affected by corresponding functions of the body,
and it is by the circulation in the minute arteries of our organs of brain, senses, kt.,
that they are kept in a sensitive and active state. After the nerves of a frog s l*'*t
had been divided some weeks, its muscles contracted feebly when zinc and silver
were in contact with the crural nerve and each other ; but when I brushed the akin
ao as to produce a slight redness, both sensibility and contractility were restored-
Now, the effect of thinking has an effect on the blood-vessels analogous to brushing,
in 80 far as it accelerates the circulation of the blood through them. Any one
has attended blood-letting must have observed that the stream is accelerated by un>
exciting thoughts, and blushing in attributable to a like acceleration. So, too, is *c
inllamed appearance of the features expressive of anger. But our conceptions, a *''■
are vivid in proportion to the accelerated flow of blood through the brain, med“ j
oblongata, and organs of sense. Now, there is not only an accelerated flow ol ' '
in the brain while we are thinking, inducing more vivid conception?, but there “
retransmission from such conceptions to the functional parts appropriated t" aC 1
accordance with such conception. The sufficient ratio for this process seem- " "
t° keep all sound part* of our organs in a state of functional efficiency, “00*° ^.
such as are unsound. Of this the restoration of Cretins to flense and bealtli. o.
rational treatment of body and mind, supplies a satisfactory example.

lo ensure such uninterrupted recurrence of hopeful conception* ns may rctrtnan
a continued supply of pure blood to all the structures of the body employ*1
thinking, pure air, water, and exercise are essential. I cannot but attribute ui,
Continuance of my own faculties mainly to frenurnt washing the whole Mir
my head, neck, and face with cold water, yellow soap, and a large nail bru. • •

this aU the sentient extremities of the fifth pair of nerves arc kept free from pj*
oy the imbibition of water, revivified by the arteries accompanying them, a ^
a direct and free communication is kept up bet ween the brain and all the orp .
sense, so that our observations mav be made with accuracy, and result In c'
Abiding conceptions. These will constitute the materials of some worthy P
and furnish occupations to the mind, and be a resource to withdraw v» from *
daily cares which so often and needlessly perplex us; for the mind rmuwrt »
time be occupied by two objects of sense/ or two conceptions, the abiding resum
past Impressions. ^

,,£r° ar|JCar9,t0 havc hod this in his thoughts, and, like Bvitm, ^

1 words are tlnngB,M since they excite conception, — the chief thing pui

a 1 artists, orators, and both scientific and literary men are most convers • ,

. - - ..r..v.,vt, wiiue leading the odes or eicgy u» ‘ .inal

f&» °f S^ak;Paare. How could a Garrick or a Siddons have given oM,rc.d ,„!l
the characters thev represented but from conceptions excited by wool* • * jor.

assm that they derive more real pleasure from i th< ^
b.y tbe words of Shakspearc read in solitude than when they jert > m
> vC n,a‘cbIws art £f a Siddons or a Garrick. But this
Jjjjl l?"5 *fect of a quicker circulation, the revivifying of be, ■»

cular excitability, the sources of health. Why r If the purpose or this J ^
reason seems to indicate, a school in which such habits of intelligence areforro j£ „
prepare the mind for some more advanced state of existence, on this hypotb* b#„
explicaole why such urgent curiosity to know, and to know by doing, sh°ul

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

115

j«n given ; and when known, why so impatient to desire to communicate to
Kbere; for there are often states of ardent excitement, and the acceleration is
nntlr in accordance with the excited state of the mi ml. The restoration ol An
and the garrison of Breda, from scurvy by hope, and from ague by the con-
in; hope inspired by charms, supply proof of the salatary effects of a moderately
ocittd circulation induced by hope.

DnWmPl1?Ef8i0N.dleSCribed a P,an of treating Aquavivaria adopted by Dr. Ball, of
r which urwac^fM^it success,u*' consisted of a blowing apparatus,

^oramon^fr of1)elfowst.ta PerC^a ^ tat° ** b°tt0m "f VU‘ *

Sola, Observations made in small Aquaria, in which the
a mnuined /?> ,f 1 Organitmt teat permammtiy

The f ' RoBBnT Wariugtos* J’.C.S.

*"“• A?anfedSacrnf1.v.ran,Ia relatLHl to experiments made in a freshwater aqua-
the animal and ^~PJJn*R,u:ncy 01 thf! hnhuice capable offing established
phytophagous Mo^f^b M°,^IIS-n8by th,: mtrodaction of ll“' "ahr.snnil

f®.r‘ Wanqgton stated that the same water in which
p^Utme, several fish livint.111^^ '?art1‘ IS49' ,ins becn inconstant nse up to the
L' ' '^'irand in Iiealtliv a constant t-v mi ! itttrbnacc, and that it is now

- c -,,ia“ lar hrst PerioJ of its befftg employed. Again,

Stealthily in it inS wit? W “T8 “ *W*U' l,lant of gratis

hatching and rearing leW “rmd "Rttr‘‘80ad» as scavengers, he had suc-
fR " ^ transferred to ^ l JR** tr?uL ^hen the fish was able to swim
an*»oyance. it Wn* imn l f' m '1"'1’ Co(ntaininS wveral minnow., when,
n for .. < - ^uid be

* .'.g fix) .“TO, whenever h,i ummeLion ot life was brought aboi

1 ri' • lv.' 0,ztd r>n them tc,lded t<?r,tacul!» were^touched by tlio swim

’*5 te'80 VVere t("'n from fheir n ’ v* ^ ?‘UainR H 8r«at of «rt itntioi

*to££* of retreat* IK °“ ' tlM? gT wr of lh* «"

ihe next S8eri ’ n consequence tho mischief was continunll

* obtOTMion, mod

£ri®eot with He had hurl nroaresi 1 ° tho*° rpftd at a former meetin

lot*, u»e Of a the Ua* ofvegetaHon ,., I un,a Perfectiy transparent nn

tin, n n,l‘d to expose a iv’ i 1 K-‘ COntinual movements, cause

»>. K *••***,** tint*

i'uble to ii 5 Plicate equilibrium d ll,e °*yp«matiou of the watt
<y^ mSltdi8tQ,iL,cd by v" y Sht^rf n,ainUUni^ a healthy 'ccit
^ is a* low d b* "2hCaU^ 5 T dld b* cor

^or hne c'ab tr£ to require hm' m marmc d«»Mns as ai

r'atl0n°f the natur^rbiw't^r upward, of fixe year

18 of the va«-«ous animated tenant

8*

116

REPORT — 1854.

adopted, consisted in a four-sided vessel, having the back gradually sloping up-
• wards from the bottom, at an angle of 45 to 50 degrees, and the consequently
widened top sloping slightly downwards, and its covering glass resting on the upper
part of the back. The bottom, therefore, became necessarily narrow. The front,
for the purpose of observation, and the top for the admission of light, were to be of
glass, the back, ends, and bottom being constructed of slate ; the whole fixed in ■
stout framework. The sloping back was covered with light rock -work, extending to
a short distance above the water line.

On the Application of Photography to the Delineation of Microscopic Objects .

By F. Wenham.

The author described the process which he had adopted, and exhibited photogra¬
phic pictures of magnified objects, which were remarkable for the accuracy with
which the details of the object magnified were represented.

GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.

Geography.

Some Remarks onJcvels taken in Jerusalem, with the Aneroid Barometer.

By Capt. W. Ai.len, R.N., P.R.S., F.R.G.S.

Thb authenticity of the traditions that were supposed to have fixed the site* ^
the Holy l laces in Jerusalem, remained unquestioned during nearly f>IIecn c '
tunes. In this inquiring age, not onlv have grave doubts arisen on the subject,
therds a dmposit'on in some travellers, who have carcfullv examined the locnlit 1 ;

tl'a,ll!l,J,.ls altogether ; so much are they thought to beatvarian
T. P abll"J‘ a“,t* the results of their examinations. .. .

? 'SCU881:"' chiefly turns on the line of direction which the second
• s a<j llJP time of the Crucifixion, is supposed to have taken ; x ,

n Hnhwha. '.he J°W8 <lid not bury their dead within the walls, and there isp*
wi?o|y VVrit t lat Golgotha was outside. , . tlon

lyofpal authority for tracing this line is to be found in the descnP*"L
the etty by the historian Josephus, which unfortunately is vague in «°rae rt5*
so tf at arguments may be drawn from it for both sides of the controversy.
thlt Z 1 h • n -Wal of l,ie » now certainly outside the Church ofihe Sep*"*
the oup *5* timc of Empemr Constantine, and by hit orders; but «Jj*

was restnrpH k** mootcd* the ndvocates for the traditions say tha bul|!

after l£?ri l 110 c"“l?ers, on the ruins of that of Agrippa, which j£.n

the line nf rheir opponents, ou the contrary, affirm this t0

2, n , f he uecond wall j which, if true, would Wing the supposed bulged

"SteStS? » s”h it cannot bo .ho true eite! ,

the general question, j

COmm.ninn.n- * ,,DOk 1,1 ^ hand* U,l(1 W®9 a59*81611 - , 7

not t* cara.c to lh° conclusion that the remains we were able

not justify his assumption. . . 0f

the eroum? n|eDtS t tbc controversialists have been taken from exa?l*,-orfort ;
the pHndnaPl fca?,f he W. But Jerusalem was built on a very
the vast acrnmn'i “re8 of which are observable at the present day. no^
their outlines. atl°n °f t^hbish, from the ruins of many ages, which ha

the consideration ^dTnUte^to^blran

within .he present *£&£& of to ^

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

117

tosa, and in the Church of the Sepulchre, which, if not perfectly accurate, may be
awful at all events, in default of a more correct method of levelling, to call attention
to this important element in the discussion. The following refer to the Temple

irca:—

Ihcrt is a small rise near the Governor's gate of . 9'G feet.

The point where the Via Dolorosa crosses the upper part of the

Val Tyroptean is below' the Temple area . — 27‘ >»

At the crossiug of the Via Dolorosa with the street leading to

the Damascus gate above T. A . + 38*5 „

The pavement of the Church of the Sepulchre . 07‘5 ,.

At the crossing of the Via Dolorosa with I’atriarch-street . 115 „

The highest point at the N.W. corner of the city . . 203 „

Tlifeit appears there is a rapid slope fron the N.W. corner of the hill on which
^ eity IS built, down to the valley of the Tyroptcnn of about one in six or seven.

I re ,ae second wall, to have excluded the traditionary site of Golgotha, must
tarried along the brow of the hill, in such a manner, as to have left a steep
wl*ilc within the city would have been in a deep hollow, and would
^ so contracted at this part as not to have afforded sufficient space for the
Titus Inu “tUac sa*d t° Two been assembled in the city at the time of its capture

i in/ncp ™ag'ne ^nw» eufh itn admirable site for fortification, an

HOOv- P q s*louil1 h«vc hern left outside of the wall at a distance of
r:*rst ia . r fi • 1 ncelycl would unquestionably have rendered the west the
, j" U’c Clty> which would not have been overlooked by assailants, who,
iit the w=u UTS a,t?cked from the north, where the want of natural defences really
f » .b “ ,'hat the vulnerable.

tie city m(lsf | aon’ 1 Tuiuk that the commanding eminence at the N.W. corner of
ave "een included in any scheme of fortification of Jerusalem.

Sume Sectjional diagrams illustrative of the Changes in the Bed of the
lver Mersey and its Approaches. Bg J. Boult*.

e Site of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. By J. Feugusson.

'c owr/ Antarctic Currents, and their Connexion with the Fate of
■Mlusion ohn Fmnk>*n. By A. (J. Find l a y, F.jR. G.S.
filling the cuitV0 -l ^ortner paper, read tu the Association at Hull last year,
IluiUght some r * °r t'*IG ^lantic and Pacific Oceans, in the latter of which it
J_J| y t'xistC(] in t],., e,llurea were described. It was shown that a great simi-
tfi the tropics wi.: 'jvc,ne|ft9- °f the two oceans, a system of westerly drifts be-
*°utk from the pn„*r 011 toiriving at the western side of each ocean turned north
‘oath n.. ,ee(luator on each si, i. „,,.i . _ i . . . ...n..,

- "UIQ me Pnnaf . - "'.’‘t.tii ,MUU k uvu uuuii luj uni hdi tu

tf they passLj . r <m eacl* a‘flp of it, and recurving when beyond lat. 30° north
eastward, and re-entering their course on the eastern sides,
''id (l,"reSi°u.s were Jrculat°ry system. In the present paper it was shown how
Bi>irt , ta<i poles, and w‘^‘ movements, and how tropical warmth

It zones. ^ co° mB €®iCta of the extreme climates were brought into

“O' S* ^°'Vs ft°'u west'tf11 S0U^K‘ln edge of the southern connecting current,
’fiudj' a^yB,em of south p?*1 ,a">UIU* ft"* globe between tin* latitudes of 40° and
t>y ffie t,,e8e south-east ‘ r,lls is found impelled by the prevailing north-west
lT'»cof States FxniV s "L^e trr‘rr(l st®P by step from the observations made
rl‘- a'n,arrLl'|S!'lltl- Weddell f.xl,ctli,ion* Sir James Ross, Dalle ay, D’Urville,
tuaile feature of t h,. ' Vl !k'i s’ “c.arl.v around the Antarctic Circle, showing
♦ * ,y'Var(h an impeneuatlo -0lVf .tl,c 8U1.fa« waters below 55“ and 65* S.
hT^,t*e for1'01'16® °f this ' ^ ,cy Earner, which encircles the South Pole at the

lnvestigapon. *S because the subject has been referred to a Com-

118

REPORT— 1854.

rate of from 10 to 25 miles a day. On the illustrative diagram the course of this
warmer water was marked by red lines. It was afterwards shown that the return
of this water was by subsurface or submarine currents setting to the north-east, and
were marked blue lines.

The nature of the enormous magnitude of the antarctic ices, which offer a perfect
contrast to those uf the North Pole, was explained. This enormous collection
around the South Pole is purely the result of atmospheric deposition, ami i*
remarkable as lying to the south of the greatest area of ocean water on the earth's
surface, and over which the winds pass towards it; but from the fact of all mu n-
tnes m south latitude having arid climates, and those in the north the reverse, this
was another evidence that the evaporation of the northern hemisphere is deposited
in the south, and vice verstt.

One fact analogous to those observed in the North Atlantic Ocean,— of dust, once
supposed to be volcanic, but proved to be microscopic Crustacea, wiu cited ai
occurring near to thu antarctic circle, and also adding n confirmation of the theory
or the atmospheric circulation. Tho face of the icy harrier, consisting of cliff* ele¬
vated from 150 to 210 feet above the sea level, perfectly Wall* faced, and extending
continuously for hundreds of miles, was an evidence that ocean currents did not
penetrate that circle, which we only know from ita external edge. These table-topped
harriers were the result of surface deposition, and, being above 1000 Ibet thick, were
or sufficient solidity tube protruded bodily do wmvai (Is from the interior lands, which
might consist of mountains of solid ice of sufficient inclination seawards to allow the
set of the stratified upper portions to glide downwards, bearing on their under *ur-
faces immense quantities nf earth and detached rocks.

,r . ,ns1ic?ct With in such large quantities is the result of the breaking up
th,I im r 1 C S tnl,lc-t,’IMie<l *wtri», and from the face of the cliffe. and not formed on
mine, sea, which maintained u comparatively high temperature. Thi* high
tho «o,irh!re'Va* ,rriu^lt by the south-east current previously alluded tons setting from
which u- U1! '.•0r,‘T Uf th.e *outl1 connecting current, and the rates and duration of
Arriving th ’be examples cited at from ten to twenty-five miles per day.

but little mov° ^nCQ,°/ltlll‘ '7 barrier this current was lost, close under it there being
atancc iLTl«r * " vvh,u being a drift to the tcnluwd,- a nrcum-

outlet ;* ni! ki ,aJ lms b'-pn related north of Siberia. On the surface, then, no
f?r •,lle waters’ but the drilling of the immense tabular bergs,
or ratlu^n nr r/h ’ ftnd, n,i,,R 2,).° f,!ct oul <>>0 water, was a proof of a northern
from tw*iv«. f h'rUT y ftCt' which by different observations wa» considered to m° '
Z 2 2 f ?j«hlwn milw> l»r day when free from tho barrier. The mm of
the SouS Pn/ ' 0Ceftn* or 3°"‘5' "-os observed by Cnpt. Sir James Ross to encircle
9 ItlCftn lati,U(U> of 56° 26' south. On this circle the temperature
and ?• Mrhw *° bottom, and was connected with these surface

belna thus ,U0Vlng m opposing directions. The icebergs and drift

dritAdds it* rn°ri' ^•“P'rete climates, disappear, and the north-

2™5f i, J th ° ,the currents, which strike the western shore. . of ft*

X o; AMcnfn T"‘B, ftorthw,ird form the Peruvian current, and against the west
coast of Africa forming the cool South African current

brought* into'eonn^'* ^ »»*»»*«»«» of the antarctic climate were attempered,

SsHa4“ as ss.-is.'s: sas

psrfcct'contraat ^ oXof ihings exists; in many point*.

ice), was an evirlon . *S?C, ?a8,n not being a sea of perpetual ice (or one solid m
and that there '.VT** l,ervioa* to ‘bo in flu prices ofmore t««mf*erateclims

w"d SliiSCLttS ™ ™ a lha‘ were at work for renewing.*

rent through Sehrinv W lat *be *bort summer docs not dissolve. T

151. L thfjanrni ft^.an nff"et of which tl,e author first described- '0

M ahown toT „“ •** B,n,,lar in ">p Pacific to the Gulf-stream in the

. snown to he an unimntirtnr.fr . . . . 1. ..... „«rr..w strait, atm

—was shown to U:.1' B"m,ar m ‘be Pacific to the Gulf-stream mtn«
therefore was Quite i,,...! ani'np!,rla,‘t O'^thcrly get through the narrow t
Q t inadequate to produce any marked effect on the polar i

strait,

ices.

The

TRANSACTIONS OP THE SECTIONS.

119

• MB

- body of warm water passed between Greenland, or rather Iceland, and Norway,
tl was an offset to the north-cast of a portion of the Gulf-stream. The mode of

- ’drift was explained by a diagram of the winds in lat. >7 V’ north, long. 32 i” west,
-■rived from Commander Maury’s observations, but which showed some impcrfec-
'niiii the recording or arrangement. In this the great prevalence of the south-west
••w the north-east winds was clearly seen ; and to this was owing the drift, which
trira England and Iceland habitable, and enters the Arctic Basin, as has Imi ii de-
•T ‘.d. The course of this stream was thrn traced step by step, eastward, till it

into Baffin’s Buy or north of Greenland, between it and Spitsbergen, whence,
-•“-jgioutim-ards, it joined the southerly set down Baffin's Bay, across the hanks of
' ^m.dland, transporting the deeply- mimmid ben:- iuto the warm waters of the
R<nicml Gulf-stream, and then, turuiug to the south-west, between the Gulf-
*-j«m aud the coast, it was lost as a surface current ot Cape Hattera*.
u/tl 6 t*ic.n’ a3 we" 113 hi the south, the circulatory system is apparent,

" eat” P°rt'011 of tile Waters of the ocean visits, hy turns, every portion of

'•d'TinU John Franklin was next brought forward as a collateral subject.

-1 .u ; that the statement that two deserted and dismantled ships, seen

jilt,,,. i..n , “orth edge of the Newfoundland Banks on April 20, last, was
I-'dmi’anrT'T . ^ wh*ch l,c had uo doubt, they were the unfortunate

f«tiM vhngi. ?ror’ ^*1C PorI"ect consistency of the story u« related by the different

- 'uprohahilii60 r °n^ ,never been shaken by the strictest investigation, and
mdiuion tii»s ,lot nny Whaling-ships remaining perfect for many years, led to the

from the nn-rp? C°U ? be 1)0 Qther*

'•h nirrent out nf r «0. rvat,*onB’ waa sh°wn that there was n constant set of
that an floatin i r 8 ■ ^ and the inlets connected with it to the southward,
*->olvc, would be l 'a i '“eluding the ices which the •uraim r's heat would not
or f'ni°..!ho. r™ regions south of Labnulor and

:'d«l the latter n '• f°rCt:tI °u to its shores. The strict but fruitless search pre-
•^wded wi,;Plnion- Supposing then I hat tlm * Erebus' and 'Terror’ had
^Considered *t0D V^auueI and penny Strnit, as was then fully believed, it
Smith’* grv.f I?0381*3!® that they, being abandoned, might he aguin drifted
pin the ice a ttiA . °f round Greenland into the position of the de-erted vessels
. faster ii^nA much more easy of belief if they had not passed beyond
^“goiie Cte?g ' . ,tt0 possibility o( such a circumstance was held from the
being cauaiir ac ®xr J""'®8 Ro*8 out of Lancaster Sound j of the
1 [j" the io"e . ? .I1” forced out of the water in 1837, and remaining 118 days
n “"'.drifted’ io (K?irn., 11 cajst's cited by Dr. Scorcsby, one of which, a Dutch ship
.'•Important still ?lles. to the suutluvard in 108 days and still preserved; and
fir r,'1- the piece' Y ,*lc’ Gunnell Expedition out of Barrow’s Strait,

86 lithe south oti i b°nl 8 nmat nni* R boats awning stanchion, picked up by
-r T ;'JQ the Franklin ifCOa8v^ Wollaston Lund, was confidently believed to be a
1, *7 stated. Expedition, and would entirely agree with what had been

^nvI'Ce the^ifb; JjT* &resorit . expeditions returned without gaining nny

“"hghtbc takpn .» * r?mam '>'iro“ded in mystery, and the explanations
the only Bolution of this painful enigma,

frnm -

^ QrHtxil o/l)fJ,lf^onSUt *iARRIKr' to Lord Cl A UK moon, announcing
'WL^rd.-l ha've STON Lnanda' on the Wcst Coast of Africa.
?Utl«»%iorng8f0n* who in acquainting your lordship that the Rev.

« °LexP'oring th irum lle CaP« Good Hope, in May 1852, for the
? Coa^t^ with Le most &hprn,Africa’ arrivcd ftt thlH Ph.cc on the

fewhera LftT®®1 Ulc n-ieridiTnVnfe \TUUn<^’ travcmd the ,nU‘r'"r of

[theYan.i a*tude, i\ir , ■ . ‘ na -3 and 26 of east longitude, as fur as Q°

CUF'Skt* ly'k 8 ia the cen*t?e of th<?°ttrred ^u" > lt;ht ,nDnths the country
* ^letu th’’ Wllerehe appears to ?°nUnt'ut: between the parallel- of 14° anil
’ e paramount chief and Vie ,ecn rccc‘ved in the most amiable manner
chief, and during that time he seems to have laboured

120

REPORT — 1854.

diligently in propagating the Gospel and attaining a knowledge of the country and
its inhabitants. He started from the capital of Seketu, on the margins of the River
Chole, in lat. 18° 17' south, and long. 23° 49' east, in November 1853, accompanied
by seventy-seven of the natives, and a sufficient number of oxen for the journey,
which he obtained from that chief. Ascending thence one of the branches of the
river Yambczc, which flows through a portion of the Gnlcmdu country, he pro¬
ceeded westward, and entered within the limits of this province at Casaange, in
lat. 9° 37' 30" south, and long. 17^' 43' east, having experienced considerable oh.
structions from the native tribes with whom became in contact as he approached
the Portuguese territory. From Cas&nnge he followed a direct course to Loamla,
and travelled through some of the most important Portuguese settlements in the
interior of Angolu, receiving every facility from the Portuguese authorities through
whose jurisdiction lie passed. The adventures and discoveries of this enterprising and
energetic traveller will doubtless be laid before the public in due Lime; but I hasten to
report to your Lordship the interesting fact of his arrival at this place, feeling
assured that it will be gratifying to you to hear of the movements of a gentleman,
who. notwithstanding all the dangers and difficulties which surrounded him in
travelling amongst a people who had never aeon r Kuropeau before, and treading nn
grounds the knowledge nnd true position of which had been hitherto wholly un¬
known, has, by his own personal exertions nnd dauntless courage, done so much tn
enlarge the hounds of geographical science. I have the honour to enclose herewith
the official bulletin of this province, containing a short announcement of the arrival of
Mr. Uvmgston,^ a translation of which I also beg to subjoin. -Mr. Livingston ’*
Health has, I am extremely sorry to say, suffered severely since his arrival at this
pace; but he, notwithstanding, seems resolved to proceed on another tour of di»*
“B lll!; 8tate of his health nnd other circumstances will permit. 1

now m.iin i 1>l)?lliur "“tia/hetion he has learnt since his arrival here of the effort*
dnofl!m ng,!! Cl,n!>oand«-r Bedingfidd, of Her Majesty’s steam- vessel Plato, to
course nf wtWCouMe with the chiefs of the Congo, because in the

Uranao r* VI I™' K h.c cr0sfie‘l th<‘ river Casai, flowing N.N.E. and N.E.. and the
■ XrSnrJ ri°« 'll5 u “orth’. which are reported by the Portuguese traders '"
well Deonlcd *<• "‘I ^ '“t^ligent natives, after watering an immense extent of
Livin -snm 1 rntr?,,1° for,n* by Hieir junction, the River Zairo or Congo. Mr.

Conan th,.r,Y’ lhnt if legitimate commerce were once established in tb

checked t h m 1 1 U bS <H!CV of‘ Probability that the slave-trade would he effectually
necked throughout the whole extent of that country. I have, &c.

„ , , •• Edmunp Gabbi*1-

Luanda, June 22, 1854.”

On the Shortest Routes to South Australia. By Capt. S. Gale.

Remarks on the IMe Aulaga and its Drainage in the Desert of Cara»j «
By Mathis Hamilton, M.D., Glasgoxo.

portion oKhe G?elt v5ftCd by 3 diaSram of ** «*hor’s route across the t so. .then
and the snow Sv?' ,7“"^ 0r ****** of Bolivia, between the eastern Cord.Mcr
than 1(1,000 feet 0n which lwo niSbta were

irf ng (rm **■» °n «•*« a.^. in a *****

to the valley oMdm M *C * seven men and thirty-eight mule.-, dee

the AndetCingabn?!!^’ **,dl ?" ***** ■ bounded by a ridge or spur o

which runs south - it c?*t,JrP base a stream called the river of the 1

long, and ** * &ifi£

The valley extends smith edgc of water-worn rocks about 10° fe , , (

which is formed by the bifmcltk.n ^rfmjuationuf thc ritlSc' showi"®U c0nSlfl»
) e uuurcation of the eastern from the western coruu*

TRANSACTIONS OF TJIK SECTIONS.

121

«hich was distinctly seen by Dr. Hamilton while doubling the ridge on the "th of
.Vonmber; on the 8th a river flowing from the south was passed, which at that
jj!c was only a few paces wide ; but judging from an expanse of alluvial mud, that
‘•rtara during the rainy season must be as broad there as the Thames nt Hampton
t'ourt, and discharges much water into the southern extremity of l.akc Aulaga, or
t'i.’Jfi.r. the furze-bush or whin lake. It is so named from a stunted prickly
•W>, a species of the Ul>\r /'»<•<,/ ,-ria of UnnwWt Vhich gTOWl DCU the lake.
Tl-.t shrub and the dried droppings of the Alpacu tribe is the only sort of fuel ob-
‘• U m this desert. Lake Aulaga extends about sixty English miles from north to
“L with an average breadth of fifteen, hut towards its southern margin it is
«*Wn Spanish leagues, or twenty miles acmes from east to west, and on the
' J- it receives the surplus water of the Great Lake TiticaAa, which lias only one
jw, th? Disaguadera, or drain, w hich runs a course of 200 miles to Lake Aulaga.

. , w?tfr if discharged from TiticaAa into the Aulaga at all times of the year, but
nuny season there, from January till March inclusive, the quantity is
ka \ d'3tanee hY this route, from' the valley of the Marquis to the moun-
/-y '* a*l0ut 250 mdC3» which required eight days, ns the mules were

“ ,hlrty quintals of silver. Myriads of Llamas and Alpacas were seen,
Mjin not Gained except at a few spots in holes which have been dug to
hoy. falls during the rains. On the 10th of November the

’’ated on ^ °f , ('amaiea vras passed, which consisted of about fifty huts,
IV Cerate i °i>i;' 01! wllose summit grew a row- of the Cactus Peruviana.

at l^e d‘stance between Potosi and Andaraarca is about sixty-
oari j,, «\a,u‘ fron) ^at village to Tacnn eightv-four leagues. The only language
**! whirh it ainarca ** tbc Ayamura, which is more euphonous than the Quichua,
Qo the lith n, . ' :'ld‘ans ‘n Potosi and generally in Bolivia and Pern.

i> was earri.Hi^' ° ^aVe nollcc that water would nut be found at night, so
'■"s' travel n a* UJ0Urn°y forty miles for the men, and on the 1 2th, after five
' '' 11 is one crossc<1» the water being good and Mowing to the r outh-

* '-f 13th the ftnnw dra,ns °f Lake Aulaga, termination unknown ; on the morn-
in tln; inurnov pCaPPe.^ mountain* of the western Andes were seen Ibr the first
roen were sulfc/0™ tl,e "iterior, and was a welcome spectacle, tor both mules
travel from., ‘nE aiuch from want of fond and water, and were still eight
<uth-we4t mu! {I * 1 ta'3 da>’ another river was pnssed, it also flowing towards
[[' l*fir and fjonri ' ISta?t nb°ut thirty miles from that of yesterday. 'Hie water
‘*'b with^ ’mav,ng on° and a half or two miles an hour, over saud and
*® mid-chaimoi ° a ,ut foot, and the depth such that a long-legged mule,
.. h' ; nameless riVP>. wa® a,J0Ve the knees in water.

ti,* k'fiticaAa. Th, ♦ 1’!'Inc!lm' ‘bain of Lake Aulaga, and through it, of the
: v, *; ^on in those P| er”11“Htio,n of this stream is still a mystery, though during
v. r, v» western Onwfsn ' M **8 10,18 much water is conveyed through its channel
' -'iiViiT1^ it8 dtime-shanr eira‘ • t,>t: ,4kh* thp P,otcnu °f Bahama was reached,
^ open air Hl«?Ur?rn^ 2™* utl<1er snow, where the party passed the
• Though a count!*. abou! fifty milts from the place where the river was
;l_,. ' )et not a creaturn /c numb®r uf Llama* and Alpacas were seen In the
b.tc* An,1°muren cLu^I 0tJi?r ki“d wa3 observed ; and excepting those
* *“ka, which hv’il, ' OUr , l,u,in beings were seen on the journey from
r> ’ ) U,e unhsual route that was taken, is about 450 miles.

G“lr(ictx - _ ____

cli’ Pr‘ I;ivin*5»lutl lu the llcv- Arthur

lA,"J,lUti' &P****'. 1853.

‘-ad

**ir»

the ohgta i . UKiON ohaw.

t0Anrds ^ ^ o t r y °of Sebi 0 Ku,ru,nnn werc removed, w
iiH-Sr|f the people were then iSffe,ill,|1 ‘ l,w,thin "l:c ll, Lri1' of latitude
f S&SJSSf FEJ*? , except of

!^with aI, i* P« reaching ti>: “ ll l j?1 of tmiL'- but. through the coodness

'4

nt.

;ru^th alWK ^ caching this n,l,L:- ,,,u* through the goodness

Uieir chiefs °ldemonst rations of ipip hcl" of thc Makololo, wc were
We ®barS on [he Hvmc 'n'i' ,h°>’ arc •““•‘"■"ed to bestow
e river called everywhere Lceambye, at the

122

REPORT — 1854.

village of Sekhosi, our fleet consisting of thirty-three canoes, and our company of
about 160 men. From the bend at Katima-molelo up to the commencement of the
Barotsey valley, the country is covered by forest and tsetse. Many villages of
Banyeti, a poor but industrious people, are situated on both of them. They are
expert as hunters of hippopotami and other animals, and cultivate grain extensively.
Passing beyond these parts, the high banks seem to leave the river nod stretch away
to the N.N.E. and N.N.W. until between twenty and thirty mile--, apart ; the inter¬
vening space, 100 miles in length, is the Barotsey country, and this is annually inun¬
dated, as Lower Egypt is by the Nile. The valley is covered with coarse succulent
grasses, which are the pasturage of large herds of cattle during a portiou of the year.
There are many villages of Mukololo in the valley. I have not put down nil that I
visited, and many were seen in the distance; but there are no large towns. The
reasons are, the mounds on which alone towns and villages are built are all small,
and the people require to live separate on ucenuot of being rich in cattle. Naride,
the capital of the Barotsey country, does not contain 1000 inhabitants. Wc went
north till we came to the junction of Leeba or Londa with the main stream l.eeam-
bye, in 14° 11' south hit., aud found Uic country presenting the same characteristics
as I have described. On returning towards Nurielc, I went to the eustern ridge in
order to examine that, and sec thu establishment of ft merchant from the furthest
inlaud station of the Portuguese, opposite Benguela. A stockade had been erected,
aud a flagstaff for the Portuguese banner planted. The houses of the merchant and
some bastards were in tha West African style. The owner, whom I hud previously
seen at Linyanti, was absent; but his servants did their utmost to show me kind¬
ness. When my boatmen prepared my lied outside, they insisted on my occupying
their master’s coach; and l never felt so grateful in my life for a warm shelter, for
I was in the cold stage of one of the intermittents, which continued to plague me
after the fever. 1 thought of going westward in company with this merchant, hut
the sight of gangs of poor wretches in chains at the stockude induced me to resolve
to proceed alone. I have not, 1 am sorry to confess, discovered a healthy locality.
The whole of the enuutry of Sebituane is unhealthy. The current of the river is
rapid as far as we went, and showed wc must have been ou an elevated table-land ;
yet the inundatiuns cause the fever to prevail very extensively. I am at a loss what
to do, but will not give up the case as hopeless. Shame upon us missionaries it wc
are to be outdone by slave-traders 1 I met Arabs from Zanguebar, subjects of the
Itnaum of Muscat, who had been quite across the continent. They wrote Arabic
readily in my note-hook, and boldly avowed that Muhummcd was the greatest of nu
the prophets. But for the destruction of my celestial map by the Boers, I migh
have determined the longitude hy occoltationa alone, they being much more to be
depended on than the common method of lunar distances. If, then, I am right, w*
are nearer the west than the east coast. Nariele is in 23° cast, and the confluence
” **«b» or LoDda n?t much more. I have not bad time to work out the long»-

t i i , . . *<» nine, a win ue an cue

because, though farther, many English live there. 1 go on horse-
back. w aggon-travcUmg being reported impossible, on account of forests and nume¬

rous rivers.

The Portuguese are carried in hummocks hung on poles— two slave*
carry a man— but it does not look well. The Portuguese maps arc all constructed
[nhabitatb7 reT’ 8n dependence can be placed upon them. Many tribes
“ m,°rc °r kaa accustomed to the visits of strangers. ™
greatest difficulty, 1 apprehend, is that of making our objects understood. TheI
languages bear a close affinity to the Barotsey dialect • but this I was compelled to
the ' Bats iTt*' Th? C0.Untr,y.iD tlu‘ direction of Mosioatunya has high mountain-.
Heabhv C0T?' 13 ,a hi8,» table-land, without trees Except along the nj*

Healthv spots may be found m both of these • but in neither did I feel it my duty to
trave!, because the vicinity of MosiltkaUe renders it impossible for Makololo or any
S,: 2r,;hCrC- A £>XEd among the Matibefe

which would change the present aspect of affairs.”

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

123

On the Eastern Territory of the Ecuador and the River Napo.

By the Rev. C. G. Nicola y, F.R.G.S.

The object of this paper was to show the commercial value of this territory to
Crc.it Eritaiu, and its accessibility by the river Maranon ami the Napo. It stated
the upperwaters of the Napo are auriferous, especially the Arapuno, Auzupi,
Afuncti, sad the Payaniiiii, tlm latter Ik- in/ hy fai lie nde >t j the ( M l tod NtpO
sb'jqmiing in gold, which is found not only in auriferous sands, but is situ in
- fe quantities. The vegetable productions of the country were also stated to bo
*’4t ‘"[table, comprising cinnamon, from which it was originally named cnnelos,
Miu* *’ cocoa’ tQbacco, rice, indigo, vanilla, and the agave or pita now shown
fid f' . e tu be 80 va^uable in manufactures. Seventeen villages of domiciliated
‘iiw were enumerated, who were said to be of industrious habits, docile and
r ' numbenug 0350 ; the wild Iudiaus very numerous, but not dangerous.
Ua'iW-5' " l'cb w‘b of steam communication at present, ure the Napo,

cpu,'., Ui :uraray.and Pastaza j and the head of this navigation is connected by a
ath,. co,ltlDuation of an old road of the Inca’s, extending from the Pastaza
outh-west, to the Coca on the south-east.

AW* 'f U frurn the Rev. J. Hebinann to the Rev. II. Venn, dated
, U( m \ln Babbai), April 13, 1854. Communicated by Dr. Shaw.

^f-yMrhltJo1uPiarct°ry 'vorb mi’ntioned above, which I have been engaged in this
bags, w’hirh I x hr3t I”euti.on the gathering of a vocubulnry of the Kiniussa lan-
betongs tu thp c?rr.‘e<* to tbe *e,tor M» 1 heed scarcely say, that it also

v,t 'ft met winT; ^outh African family of languages. Sounds which we have
*bich 1 WchnH0l5er^ia rtf are. "Pf" an‘l " P8*" or ** bs,M fur the latter of
:i",ui"to«ir6miM r My informant is n slave from Mom has, who

-r ‘‘tally discovered «.i 1 n * ^new anything about his origin, which 1 rather acci-
:,TH|*ge dialect fin i ■ be, b,m oucc aP*»k to one of Ins fcllow-scrvanta in a
T^'oce of iiitfimati(mnl^Ul, ^’»* was tcdd tbnt be Wfta an M’liiassn, who, in conae-
"‘I'f’Bvra, who sold ^hi^X,.,ed‘.Uo^ f°r slnvc-catching, was seized by a tribe called
10 Iifl Come Anm i tu,1'1 ^le_ Wamaruvi, and these, to Sualnli idave merchants,
i llJd Ibo), .7V, „ bu, \u, 9mal1 island bulouging to Mozambique, ami on the maps
,nte (in ulTupiiv,?’ 'V Uf 1 WWs reached after two months’ travelling at a very
,';‘e-!"»rchttntR from X^T unb' the time is wanted), ho was at last bought by
U* " I,0W a man of ' "V Ihia h? thinks hnPPenc<l a1juut ten years ago, while

^aze can therefn™? Urty year“ of nP0, ibc remembrance of his country and
c*lb ^utnpaiHic h.., >0, We suPP°»ed to be very distinct. Hts native territory
v ., k®. is called Ninn^8 'vtst.!,rQIn the lake which, by tho tribes who live on
21’ Nmu*), of which the Suahelis evidently made

u a 8r*fcies Of palm o(a!,L< V* p0 ver)' to the lake in search of mi a (pi. of
toui’V0 buy cotton wh!L h-U kavt‘8 01 wlueh tbl' waives make mats, bags, &c.f

which ^Uivy weave a

'* *££?**% their euns ^tiling. os also their heads, brass

.iHfcse, who seem to have ^ fu,ds 111 lhc,r language), they buy from
Hula " and ]Umk5ma“ 00 gre*1 dislancc ll0n' them.

the name gS»„aUv " f UrtaRUfe arc callpd bV ‘hem •« Waki-
“'‘'at. thfL' F|ot« tbutR,,j...t ‘ A.8 v‘irJ h) the Last Africans tu Europeans is
M ‘Utaet frte side cannot be seen |“k,c * bnnks* he UBod ‘o come to from hia
^•y mc A H')!' b«ats are however' “ boat. starting at day bleak will reach it
for Mardvi FoJl()W'ng the margin on?. fr?v,dad with ruddeis. wherefore they
R /‘"v days uTrcShh ' ' * lUe 80uth* through the territory

^ptTS^thT^: grBfUally Ul tiU, ns my i Z

S; k«ow that { * fxtl>nt to the n?r£L L‘ht ^ N?lhln C!dl of ^“P1* the
8818 much broader tViilK.^|ld ^ 8 countrymen have uu idea. They
to St0® fonrmg " ,slwl,1‘ them; so much so, that

1Sa*ol to he pvi ring islands for tishinp ' n*e-8,g *5 °f tbe bank», arid therefore

uuung the hot season quite calm.

124

REPORT — 1854.

"When my informant spoke of the cold in his country, he described the water as
getting a hard crust during the night, which of course can be nothing else but ice,
called ' kungu ’ in their language. This, however, is only found in small collections
of standing water (and never in the lake Niassa). The Wakiao (not Wahiau) arc
spread on the eastern banks of the lake ; to the south and south-west are the
Wamaravi; and north from these the Wakamtunda, of whom the Wukuinpnndi find
Wapogdra are only subdivisions. The name Mariivi, which in older maps is given
as the name of the lake, I had never heard before from a native. Salimini, my in¬
formant, never applied it to the lake, hut to a largo territory bordering upon it, and
in part forming its south-western bunks. Tile occupants are called Wamaravi; and
these, together with the Wakamtunda, and perhaps still the other tribes, are, by the
Suahelis on the const generally, comprised under the common name Waniassa. The
Wakamanga, whom, on the map of 1S50, I have placed to the east of the lake, we,
according to Salimini, to be placed even to the west of the Wakamtunda, to whom
they stand in the same relation ns the Wakambn to the Wanika. He also mentioned
a large river to the south of his country, which he called Tern bn, and the P*®pw
living on its banks Watemha. Temba may lie identical with Tembo, about half •
degree south of Ibo (Ul'bu). [Sec W. Keblc's map of Africa, published fortne
Christian Knowledge Society.] In the vicinity of the Watcmba arc the Wanzunsh
who, from an abundance of iron in their country, seem to be the principal lac *
smiths among all the tribes around. On being applied to tor hoes by people " >
have come from a distance, with a cow or goat for their barter, they will work all m
night at their fires.”

Hydrographical Remarks on the Improvement of the Port of Liverpool.
By George Rennie, F.R.S.

•Seymour.

one summer

On the Caucasus and Parts of the Crimea, By D
Mr. Seymour passed through the Crimea nine years ago, and spent one sumnur
there ; in Circassia he spent three years, and visited it at two different tunes oe .
and after a long journey in Persia and India. 'Hie Crimen contains row ‘ ™cc
peop e; amongst whom are the Tartars, the great bulk of the popu|ati°n, {
Creeks, many remaining of the old Greek colonies established there; also an a .
colony of Jews, near Simpheropol ; and lastly, the Russians, who had gone
great numbers sinn> tlm . about the yt

there m
ear J78*-

great numbers since the country came into their possession, about the y .
He referred to Pcrekop, which," ho said, was n cold climate, little culti ’ ,

containing hardly any Russian population. The steppes and plain3 were ® uJ)ti|
he Downs in Wiltshire. Thence there were slopes all along the co • r
approaching Siraphcropol, near the centre of the island, and scarcely .

landmark to intercept the view. The plains then rise gradually on fPP yjj,

Simpheropol, where the mountains are visible, and there are little undu'*'“gUDded
« tr passing that town. It js a pretty Russian town, with good houses, jMlUt
by woods, and is principally inhabited by Russians. To the Bonth-^b
forty miles, is Balaklavn, where there is a beautiful remnant of old Mown®
lecture, the palace of the old Khan of the Crimea; near that, id the moon
the colony of the Jews before alluded to. They are that section «1 the J ,
rejected the interpolation of the Talmud. Leaving Balaklava, he visited
kAi contrasting the southern with the northern portion of the coun . C* |
he described as being different in their climate and general character/-- . «i
, ■tT: 1 aun.c chain of hills which rise from the sea in a most deligh
«h.ch the rich Russians come and spend the summer. With regard to .

'*l.a P}?cc destitute of attraction in respect to climate and other c,r^ thc clouds
m winter the cold was extreme, arisi ng from certain winds, and in summer *Jt 0f the
ZT SUdl ** bl m,(Jer ^ almost uninhabitable. The southern ^
n. iT, , rrom thc effecta of these winds. There "as good veg

on the slopes of the hilU, and the vine grew in large quantities. I* ** 1 ffiief
Kertch that a portion of the wine produced there As sold in Europe as an
kind ox port and sherry. All

Mr. Seymour afterwards returned to Simpheropol through the mountains.

TRANSACTIONS OP TIIE SECTIONS.

125

lie southern parts of the Crimea are covered with stone tumuli and other remnants
of successive generations of Greeks who had lived there at a very remote period.
After describing Kertch, a new place, now one of great resort and much frequented
by shipping, he crossed the straits which divide the sea of Azof from the Black Sea ;
-=was the Cimmerian Bosphorus, where the ancients placed the entrance to the
Vernal regions. The general geography of that part of the world had altered much
uceit was mentioned by the ancient Greek geographers, and there were now no
l-uishing cities, temples, or monuments. After glancing at some of the ancient
bditions connected with the localities he had visited, he directed attention to the
“vntiy lying on the shores of the Black Sffltq tU Wt, v.lm h WM >\ti mdy
Vaatilul, and rich in vegetation, bearing a strong resemblance to the coast of
lolabar . The southern shore of the Caucasus was also one of tbo*e favoured
^nons for the growth of shrubs and plants, and considered extremely fertile. All
-it country now occupied by the Russians, with the twelve forts, all of which had
^ f^iloned, except Anapa, those on the lower southern range of the Caucasus,

' ‘he lower ridges of mountains, as far as Georgia, were inhabited by the people
'o'vn as the Circassians. After trncing tire differcut raers of the Caucasus, and
•'Wing tneir origin, the speaker referred to the power of Russia io that country,
^ ID^ s^e ohIv possessed the ground on which the forts were built, and
(It r : LCU'ly *a Stewing sufficient food tn support life. The forts on the
t-.il all ° i ^aL'k ?ea were reserved as a sort of Norfolk Island for the army,
short n8K ere^ 03 too quick in the march of progress were sent to finish
t> «,k^Ar^n,ins ^c'r existence in that country. Such was the mortality, that
^seldo be renewed in about five years. Those who went

mti) t)|Py°^arne iaek a6H,n> and the regiments were not relieved, but left there

orn oS3,!^Lt,Ci n ima(*e by Russia to gain the confidence of the Circa^ians, and
’frts to the V' 6Sl ni bcei1 sen*; Rlere by the Emperor to induce them to become con-
'hicribinir th.w^ h;‘t hitherto those attempts had been unsuco-wful. After

Sour referred tHt Black Sea Cossacks, commencing at Kamarne, Mr. Sey-

^'ch, he said r • h'l'l'tulT fa that three ti cm, more especwkll) the steppes,

“nato product- 1 ntainea a rich loamy soil, only requiring cultivation by the band of
tofitinnal stall- an , *UXUr.'ank cups. In Circassia the Cossacks were kept in a
'-ft, and if nnv i ann ljy t’lcir enemies the Circassians ; they were always on the
0l*terial; this L atl®'.?r nPP®Wed they placed a torch to some straw of combustible
'• 4o°0 men tlgnal *»nvcying the intelligence down the line, by which 3000
lie Cm t i fcUeQmonei1 whcn tllc Circassians were likely to surprise

. '-‘“"'i avmv in tKn n ° i-jinimiuy on i.ne men, u» save nis lile. The

JJ°Oa men • but •> .. aVcasu8* whuu he (Mr. Seymour) was there in 18-lG, was

u,n part being conrSXiw th,em1 "ere nUva-V9 to thc north of the Caucasus, the
& concentrated to the left of Stavropol.

fyyrZmn °f General l?cvricr in Central Asia ,

//e/'«w niandtourrflirxc.' Cand(thnr- and "long the course of thc
round the Luke Sistan. By D. Seymour.

- —

JR'r

Zfl*dui

jDr. J.w Australian Expedition , from Cant. Citar
Ca ifion. * ' I-ondell, and G. S. Wilson, Geologist to

^ue^outh^from th^i^8* • °bservation' that *ere is a
Had. Those0" Whidi thpre w Vlctor,a river- He crossed. wh™, »h.

iRLES

the

TI great

He crossed, when there, a

^Wry \vlSefl,l>laces were the lowestVnd station, and another plain covered with

>■••7 is «?““•* <» -S. nS.'zf 7"ld r ; “"f ,he eeu™' -'-I- «f the
contemnil, ? 1 buiug to the west he „«£ P, ac^f frerluently became covered with
"“Pl-W expsaitioBToKi.!,^. where did those water, accumulate f
Perhaps let us know whether there was any

126

REPORT — 1854.

communication between the Swan River and the interior. Capt. Sturt think* that
a rich country will probably be found in the north, judging from the flight of sonic
birds, and the vicinity of hills, between lat. 16° and 20°, and long. 120° ami 1333.
Dr. Blundell’s communication spoke of the necessity of any expedition proceeding
from the north.

On Glaciers in the Arctic Regions. By Dr. Sutherland.

On Modifications of Great-Circle Sailing. By J. Towson.

On the Estuary of the River Mersey , and the hazardous and uncertain
Approaches to the Port of Liverpool. By J. B. Yates, M.A., F.S.A.*

Ethnology.

On South African Languages. By Dr. Blech.

A Description of Three Esquimaux , lately exhibited in London.
By Richard Cull, Hon. Sec. Eth. Soc.

On the Ethnological Value of the Results of Philological Inquiry.
By Richard Cull, Hon. Sec. Eth. Soc.

Notes on the Etruscan Question. By William Freund, LL.D.
Communicated bu Rir.riAHn fm.i., Hon. Sec. Eth. Soc.

r-p.f TrPl,to' gave me copies of prints of . r > a bras*

i's. Ltinc lithographs of the antiquities were exhioiteu.j

mlttee for special investigation.

till* paper la omitted, became the subject litw been

referred to iCo"*-

127

TRANSACTIONS OP THE SECTIONS.

P«H> IUUUU IU 10^0, UU LUC lim w ' J. | \- | i;

r. deposited in Count Giovanelli’s museum. 2. A brass figure, found in the Vnl <U
NAn, near Meran, is in the Trento Museum. There is a remarkable tradition
o the Grisons of the immigration of the Etruscans into the country. It is thus
rested by Campbell, in his ‘ History of the Orison* —When. in the summer of
i.' '4. Sienna was occupied by Peter Strozzic, in the name of the ting of r ranee,
ttd was besieged bv Papal and Florentine troops, tin? king of France demanded
k«l the Orisons 3600 men lor his army. This contingent was to go to the relief
f Siinna. The Grisons, however, expected hut little success from this plan ; lor,
1 t-v the remotest times, there was a deeply-rooted belief that any expedition which
-''isol the descendants of the old Rluetians to cross the Po into Etruria would be
ttijcky, because the Etruriau territory was their ancestors’ home, from which they
^ hren expelled, and that the proposed expedition would be much more unlucky,
* ’was to be undertaken for the French, whose ancestors, the Gauls, had displaced
’ old Etruscans, and occupied the country as long as Gallic tribes remained in
t1, tence. The National Assembly at Davos declined to raise the contingent, and
^ l*ie French ambassador as a reason the above statement.

On the Forms of the Crania of the Ancient Britons.

By Joseph Barnard Davis, M.R.C.S. JEng.y F.SA.

Btl!”! lt?mar*cs are chiefly founded upon the skull of an ancient Brigantian (?)

derived from the Green-Gate Hill Bairow, near Pickering, and belonging to the
fer?nje i>en,'1^•,, An observant eye is able to discriminate between natives of the dif-
’!>' tan" r°Vin?cs sarae country, therefore a more comprehensive investigation of

^8 C8nft"e^ace an<! head will lead to reliable conclusions respecting their specific
•':tnomp exte’“lR<* observation, by keeping close to the teachings of the physical
inj antij,' yH!111 regarding the information to be derived from history, philology
!W hlustrative and accessory, we may hope to obtain more
w.jjct • r concm*ive knowledge. In explanation of the uncertainty in which the
Present involved, it may be remarked — 1. Data A«w brm inadequate.
‘hichare 0,!8ctt’ ^0UE'as and Moure almost wholly disregarded osseous remains.
Outers, ir'en rmw mofs,% rendered valueless by the want of instruction in barrow-
1*1 lmmatU'Jm ? 8carClty of authentic data, observations hftVl been disconnected

rml. -p.'f' "• Study has been too much separated from that of human skulls in
little notH, 5.U^ m.°.re 1X8 an antiquarian than anatomical or ethnological inquiry.

128

REPORT — 1854.

diversity of form amongst the crania of even one people, extensive observation mill's
us to perceive the general characteristic marks which appertain to them. These usually
exist, and when duly elaborated, impart stability to our views. 2. If we regard the
unity or diversity of origiu of the human race as one of the arcana of nature, en¬
shrouded in primaeval obscurity, whether wholly impenetrable or not, we are con-
strained to admit that marked dissimilarities ham existed from the most remote permit.
This must be regarded ns one of the established pustulates of our science, without
which it could have no sure foundation. 3. Another equally essential is the law of
permanence of ethnic forms ; that the characters impressed upon races arc not train-
mutable, but constant. This law has been the subject of much controversy, but the
facts adduced against it appeal1 too dubious, unimportant and few to shake its sta¬
bility ; a stability uniform with that observed in all the other divisions of nature,
and not to be successfully assailed by the hypothesis of development.

The best course to be pursued in the study of the ancient British skull i» to
determine the normal form, and then to ascertain the usual deviations from [ll ’"**
simple method, which has been employed in the elucidation of other natural objects,
will reduce the subject to ns great order as it admits of, and render description *n
delineation easy to be understood. A knowledge of the general character of me
British skull is not to be obtained from the examination of those belonging to <>“*
tribe only, but from a comparative investigation of crania derived from many. n
this view, it is believed the Green-Gate- Hill Barrow skull exhibits the true 'W,,r
form of the ancient British cranium. Its most marked distinctive features are, >
shortness of the face, which is, at the same time, rugged with elevations ami im¬
pressions, the indications of wild passions operating on the muscles of express >
zygomatic arches not uuusually expanded ; the nose short, projecting at »»»*
too great to be graceful; immediately above its root rises an abrupt Pr0,,|l^J
occasioned by the largo frontal sinuses, which passes on the sides into thc er
superciliary ridges, and produces a deep depression between the nose and fore »
giving to the profile a savage character ; the osseous case for the brain upon
whole not large, rather than small ; the occipito-fronlal diameter somewhat c *
traded, and parietal diameter good. It ranges with the orthognathic cram,
those having upright jaws, and inclines to the brochy -cephalic division. , y
the uncivilized character, but from the mass of the brain it has evident
to a capable savage, possessed of power, and fitted to profit by contact witu me
other races. wc

Having thus enumerated the chief peculiarities of the typical British cranium,
may advert to its leading aberrant forms, which admit of being arranged in a s i
intelligible method. They will be easily understood as the abbreviated, or " '
brachy. cephalic ; the elongated, or dolicho-cephalic t the elevated, or, to con, 1
terms, the aero-cephalic j and the expanded, or plat y -cephalic. Notwit * -

these aberrant forms, the whole Berics bears the impress of so many similar
as to show that it constitute* one natural group. The dolicho-ccjrholic ha* u
supposed to indicate an " Allophylian ” or " pre-Celtic " race, but it may pmB J
e regarded as more properly a family peculiarity in some cases, am! acci . c
others in which it has been met with in tLe same Barrow, and in a position
the interment to be equally ancient, with a ealvutium of the normal form •
has been laid upon the circumstance Lhat it has occurred in Chambered .
resembling the famous one or New Grange. The best iuformed antiquaries*^
to these Barrows an extremely earlv date ; but that they have altogether p ^
simpler and ruder sepulchral cairns, and were erected by a distinct autec |ttej
ppear to stand in need of much confirmatory evidence before they can
with tolerable confidence. i corpof'*1

thre sePulc|>ral Barrows of our native land we find the invaluiMj

®.nc,ei?t race* especially the bony casket which contained the ^
r£v ll°nslftWcn racn in all ages; and, if these relics be carefcgr^t

Britons rCaS°n t0 h°pe We may learn much more of thc cthnology of th

TRANSACTIONS OP THE SECTIONS.

129

Oh the Ethnology of the Liverpool District, with Notices of the Hoj/laJtc
Antiquities. By the Rev. Abraham Hume, D.C.L., LL.D., Liverpool.
I'he author noticed, first, the physical features of the district, remarking that,
f'im the extent of forest and marshy ground, the proportion actually inhabited was
tu<a»rsfivejy limited. This was mainly along the sea-coast and river margins, ns
'■ 1.x* in villages, and along leading lines of road. Great part of the huudred of
, ’raN was uninhabited, and in Lancashire, the low-lying district to the north of
tnvvn. In the Roman times, the Brigantines inhabited Lancashire, and the
' %'navii Cheshire. Afterwards, the Saxons dispossessed both; and in S‘j4 the
®£'Z(;d Chester, but were expelled by Alfred, and forced to retreat through
• rth Wales. The names of places arc interesting, as Inch and Llondegan, words
rJm *jnc>c'd British, and Mackorlicld in Lancashire. The last word was
;/ /wily Maeshir, or the Long Field, but the Saxons not understanding it, added

I, ! p 7 The Banish names of places lie along the water-side, as Pensby,

. j. rankby, Greasby, Kirkby (West), Kirkby in Wallcy (Wallasey), Kirkdalc,
'•Vr.irK Tne Saxon names are found further inland, ns Bebington,

l ' urcti,U|iton, Everton, Litherland, Thornton. Mersey.Tranmere.andBoIton-
r. K.Vr . , a ^r°-rman ,orm » "'Bile Up-IIrillnnd. Down- Holland, and Pilling.
t,., ancicnt condition of the district. The principal illustration, how-

II, Jy|.L e * i es °t population which had [tossed over the district, consisted of the
•!,v iTiibrn r ,{l Bdow high-water mark, near Leasowe Lighthouse. In size
r<yefrDmrt lloral,y wely object from n needle to an anchor; in antiquity they
^“'Prchend o m°St P.r‘ro’tlve periods to the time of George the Third ; in art, they

of wwy variety, from the most simple aid for human conveniences, u[t to
Sion, the ■l?tlSuC ’ntc'rcst* They illustrate the pro-historic, the Celtic, the
tirse andbeonl r e Isnrman «n*l mcdiaval periods, but especially the Saxon
‘Oiportanf rl' 1 Bn happens that Hoy lake was a line of communication, near
' '"»e into sr,,, :Z,°rs am 1 when Chester began to decline as a port, it rose for a

I ^"Vater level „d Ti”**' Nefu'ly 3000 acres of land in llidstui. Marsh nrr below

11 *wcnt awn,. , , sea tr‘es t0 recover its own again. An entire village has
l7; L again toian n<t , ®ca'heach has exhibited various aspects from 1771 to

II and hnm ,.aUtl present time. The objects consisted of celts, objects

'■ !,'H needle pn« 'CaiS *ur ant* shafts, pheons, keys, ti&hJiooke, spoons,

fibula? nlfw 8lm*rest, crosses, rings in great variety, scissors, buckles,
a comb’ ” U ct9J bones> coins whole, halved and quartered, seals, palmers’

'J"^eit Collection^ a ax!10!1'1’ &c* Tho wholc of lhem were exhibited with the
"cction on Wednesday evening, the 27th.

0/1 lh 1081 Tribes of Israel. By James K ennedy, LL.D.

°a tke non‘Rus8ian Populations of Russia in Europe.

, r° the pre8ent 1 R- G. Latham, Mb., F.R.S.

*llere*a are lUSd the nil mh6 muJe jn flie Statistical Section is tho comply,
that i t,leir names and rln aad distribution of the tribes under notice,

\yr ^"Jpted here. c,aa3»ftcation. The general view of their history is all

{* °?r consideration the recent settlers or colo-

l, ?l,i,"uriL0[tlle J"ws and (L^!8Clfu!l?lnillly ,al,?n* thou8h now naturalized,

r,‘l that thS klnSdoma, &c _ iVattnrl 3 populations of the frontiers of the

1, SgHte remaining rwm ?!actuttn*> Bulgarians, &c. 1 laving done this we

<Sz j* ur great ^

Tart2tmunli' of ttMMtantinoi L J-'S 7hosP ,ftnSuage akin to the

tJ-jThc gratia,, • ’ °ngM“l graphical area being Inde-

9

130

REPORT — 1854.

If we compare the tables laid before the Statistical Section with a map of Russia,
we shall see the distribution of the different members of these diflerent groups
over the governments ; and find, —

a. That the Ugrians lie north and west ;

b. The Turks south aud east ; the

c. Sarmatians west — the Slavonians being south rather than north, the Lilnuaiuau
north rather than south.

The Ugrian populations, at present, are central, but in the southern parts discon¬
tinuous in their area, and separated from each other — fragmentary so to say. I*11'
hypothesis in respect to the original character of the Turk, Sarmatian, and Ugrum
areas, and the history of the encroachments, runquests. migrations, and m-
placements by which it has since been modified, is that, with a Ugrian population
in the centre, the Turks moved from south and east to north and West, and ^arinn-
tians from west to cast ; the effect of these movements being to break up inW
fragments the Ugrian area, one which, upon evidence too lengthy for exhibition, an
reasonably be extended as far west as the Dnieper, and as far south as the nc g *
bourhood of the Black Sea. _

On the Early Ethnology of Britain. By T. Wright, M.A., F.S.A.

On some Remains of an Early People in the South-eastern Corner of
Yorkshire. By T. Wright, M.A., F.S.A .

STATISTICS.

On the Causes and
Henry Ashworth
of Commerce.

Consequences of the Preston Strike , 1853 to 185 £
th, P.S.S., Vice-President of the Manchester Cham

The Preston strike of operative cotton-spinners and weavers began August
and lasted till the beginning of Mav 1854, a period of thirty-eight wccK3_t
originated in a demand preferred bv the work-people for an advance of lup ' of
°J“. 1 rates> °f was°s tbeu being paid in the town. It was alleged in I P ,tll.r
this demand, that the rates of wages in Preston were generally lower thar > ® ..

towns, and that the employers, when compelled to reduce the wages of tliei _
people m 1847, hod given a promise to raise them on the arrival of “ Wi.n ,
The masters, on the other hand, usserted that the rates of wages in I w .
all thmgs considered, equal to those paid in other towns ; that no an icb P )U
een given ; and that n considerable advance bail already taken p mllStcn.
wages paid in 1847. Notwithstanding these objections on the part of
the demands of the work-people were generally conceded, only four fir®8

refus.ng at the time the strike began. * nn lrffan)C,

In these circumstances, the immediate cause of the strike, or, as ^toon, ^
the lock-out, was the inaubordination of the work-people- E |!tnD«
concession, they grew more exacting and imperious in their demands, { ^

became a necessity of self-defence. In several establishments the .

employer was at on end ; he had no power cither to dismiss or retain
the dictation of the men in matters vitally affecting his interests, and .Purrs'
t?,hl® °*n jurisdict ion, was supreme. To meet these evils, the ^

nr' Wh,ch had n<* ‘'een in active operation for several
remn1nP^ilT*o[:0,WU9 i,<8Ued tl,at thc “iUs would be closed on a g'nwi*

remain closed till the work-people were prepared tu resume employ®® the

£ e„8“d friendly spirit. fn OcSbir. moSt of the hands
spinning and weaving establishments in the town, amounting to a

out of employ ; they were organized and drilled bv leaders from, 1 0, the
plan, extending throughout the whole of Lancashire, and embracing ®“n-

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

131

principal towns in other parts of the kingdom, was systematized for obtaining
pttuniary support ; the grossest intimidation was practised towards all who refused
to join them, and work-people from other places who came to seek employment in
Preston, were induced by bribery or threats to leave the town. The masters
rjjj^quently offered to open their mills at the some rates of wages ns were paid
Wore the commencement of the strike. In January 1854, other manufacturers, in
wons parts of the country, came to the help of the Preston employers, und the
Mistcra’ Defence Fund” was established. After various unsuccessful attempts at
Nation, the strike came to an end in May 1854, the masters' terras being
oahersally submitted to by the work-people.

following statistics illustrate the leading questions involved in the contest,
tint, to elucidate the general question of an employer’s ability to raise the wages
,, bli "'^people, we give, in decimal proportions, the elements which enter into
|.^JT0^act'on °f a single piece of cotton goods of the current manufacture of
n “Q. and of the market value of eight shillings and fourpencc, or 100 pence : —

Th' matenal, cotton* with the waste of manufacture . 56 per cent.

. or the use of mills and premises ; the charges for wear
°^- steam-engines, mill-shafting, machinery’, &c. ; the
other 1 , !n coak f°r fuel, flour for sizing yam, oil, tallow, and
with (fn ?0IDo3 ■ travelling expenses, rates and taxes, together
tnuJc K ln*erest on capital and the manufacturer’s profits on

!lt labour Ccc°unt, or wages of operatives . 25

This | • 100

DrvntiVK sbQWS that an advance of 10 per cent, on the wages of the

l] -Stem!, i!rl,nc.r,ease tlle COst of the above piece of goods from 100 to 102 1.
I per cent, to A* • market pHce for thc aam« fell from 100 to 95, adding
^ ^ make un ' ,clcncy» anrl increasing the sum which the employer would
^ of the io mo 111 °!;.er to lncet the demands of the operative to 7|. to be paid

lu order i[ieKd f?r rent: &c’

Jtich an advancp [ , '■;? eluc'(iatu the. ability or non-ability of the musters to give
‘n,l that thpir n,!„,Ve WI up pose that a manufacturer employs 1000 work-people,
■->», a-week T ^ earninSH' children und adults together, amount to from 10s.
*'w*d to each inrl-61- Cent‘ on tbe ,ar6er su'« would give uu increase of Is. 6d.
* *Hl suIlpose 2™“* °J au aggregate of i'3900 a-year. Towards meeting this
which rpmni nma,^ture r to retrench .1’ 1 000 a-year in personal expenses,
P°n a capital of i I'd ooi m,lkc u differcncc 0f 2 1 percent, un the interest due
*>» therefore , fff un a,i™n?e of 10 Pcr «cnt- on the wages of his work-
u (Mowing flgureswiii pQya,b,u lnve9l!nctlt of that targe amount of capital,
.^"y carried on with f*?ow T,SUCial "nportance of the Preston trade, which
,n this countiv 1. 1 “* quaui">' of tea imported and left for con-

‘S 58.66o.ooo 185 f ,965,000 lbs. ; in 1852, 54,724,600 lbs. ;

Lft10,0 of the United KbS?8* u threC ycara- 55.849*, 200 lbs. ; or, the
■'>!& two pbm«u Oi to ™ch

l t2’' 92’4G°’ Towards this large sum we

£'wko<JO, are gunnfiTl °nthe V‘Uuc ?f P >500,000, two-thirds of
Jutfe/J1?* than a third of ♦hS ” *7 , rcstou, which therefore supplies con-
5t°A’ reekfPfe8t°" maaufilcturer urnd!!1*11 v°b °* ** Unitcd Kingdom with tea.
^ l?'Ug tach P^ce rit arS eS h,?.10'°00 P^ces of cloth a-week, and

^Ption „feJ?Ulation of London 2 afifc t0 the,vaV1C of -^**1.000

:t ndta r ^k,To^“Daa4r'

a!?thetea^h2L3con^mSeda

132

REPORT — 1854.

China, valued above at £ 1 ,000,000 annually. We have seen that 19 percent. i»
the proportion of the value of a piece of cloth which has to bear a host of incidental
expenses, and also supply the profits of the manufacturer. That proportion of
£ 1 ,000,000 is i? 190,000. From this deduct, first, the interest due on the fired
capital employed in producing manufactures of that value. The capital sunk in the
establishments of the associated masters of Preston is estimated at £'1,000.000,
four-fifths of which, or .£800,000, ruay be set down as due to the China trade.
Considering the uncertainty of trade operations, and the possibility of print urea-
sionnl loss, 71 per cent, is a rate of interest not more than equitable on that amount
of capital. We have therefore to deduct .{.'95,000 from .£1 90, 000, leaving an opud
sum, from which we have to deduct nil the other expenses mentioned above.
which, perhaps, 4 per cent, is u moderate allowance. From .£.‘95,000 wi l>a,r
therefore again tu deduct .£'40,000, which leaves .£'55,000 as clear profit. Ltd d"*
sum, instead of going wholly to capital, be divided between capital and lab**or. w t
shall thus have £‘27,500 to divide among the work-people, — probably 17*000 in
number, — which gives them 7jtf. per week, uot much more than 5 per cent, on
their present amount of wages. Thus partnership Would destroy capital withent
enriching labour, and in time render labour worthless by exhausting the fund ou
of which alone it can be employed.

The pecuniary results of the strike arc exhibited in the following calculations:—
Capital sunk in iliu establishments of the associated manufacturers of

Preston . . £1,000,00"

Estimated trading loss to the employers . . . £50,000

Loss by depreciation, interest and’ other contingencies, for

thirty-six weeks . . . G7.000

Unavoidable expenses in wages, fuel and other items, during

the strike . 28,000

Loss in working machinery without adequate number, and

with inferior description of hands . 20,000 ,cr,oon

Loss of wages to the operatives during the strike . 250'00°

Ix)ss of the contributors to the strike fund, whose contributions became

nbortive by the failure of the strike : —

Blackburn . £30.000

Stockport . 10,000

Preston . 7,000

Ashton, Hyde, Glossop and Staleybridge . 10,500

Over Darwen . . 4,000

All other places and trades . 35,500 g7,000

Estimated loss of profits to shopkeepers and innkeepers . £ll i250

estimated loss to carriers, railway companies, dressers, sizers,

mechanics, and other auxiliary occupations . 10,000 $\tiS0

• ~ ^ ^

^>533,250

Total loss to the community by the Preston strike .

On the Reformation of Offenders. By T. 13. Lloyd Bakeb. ^

The author strongly recommeuded reformatories instead of prisons, nf*r

the salutary effects of a reformatory established in the county of Gloucesi .
Cheltenham.

The Census of the Deaf and. Dumb in 1851. By David BoxtoH, Pn'tcilJ
of the Liverpool School for the Deaf and Dumb*- ^

Enumerations of the deaf and dumb have been frequently made. in.sc.,jfr flCCOaot
pean countries, and ia the United States. The first time that any similar a
was taken in this country was at the census of 1851. The general results ar 6

t * ^ pai>er ** Pul,,i,hed in ejtcniu in the Journal of the Statistical Society of Lo
June I8a5.

TRANSACTION'S OF THE SECTIONS.

133

(1) in the Education Returns, and (2) in the Population Tables ; but while the lnttcr
we on the whole very satisfactory, and likely to be exceedingly useful, the former
ire grossly inaccurate, and calculated to be as injurious ns they nrc unjust. They
'1- not correctly state either how much money is raised for the education of the
■Island dumb, or how many schools are .supported, or how many pupils me
minified in them. Only a laborious comparison with the Population Tables will
i y*M the information necessary for an accurate estimate. The Education Tables
r ;ort nine institutions in England, and two in Scotland but they omit altogether
-'•in the account, the Asylum in London, the Institutions of Birmingham and
•o!«r, a School at Rugby, the Institutions of Glasgow ami Aberdeen, and the Deaf
ui Dumb department in Donaldson's Hospital, Edinburgh : yet from rvt ly one of
Jhetj returns must have been received; for all, without exception, arc included in the
dilation Tables. Thus, it is discovered that there were not nine, but thirteen
. England, which contained, not 392 pupils, but 816; and that Scotland
- institutions instead of two, which contained, not 89 inmates, but 250. The
'' rtulmns in the United Kingdom contain at present 1-401 pupils, and from their
‘^■raencement they have educated about 6900. Tabular statements wore read,
. 'j-ni^ the numbers of the deaf and dumb, and their proportion to the general
-r11 atian, m Great Britain and Ireland, the United States, France, and Prussia,
,,,*? in. particular districts of these countries. The numbers actually under
| ® l0n ln 183L being compared with all who were of the eligible age, showed

school in Ireland, 50 per cent, in England and Wales, and "0 per
>!*ri» i p Taking the whole deaf and dumb populations, Ireland educates
■ r„ tin ' ,,, na‘ per cent., England ami Wales nearly 8 per cent., Scotland
Isstjtntion ^lf ccnb' and the United States nearly 12 per cent. There arc 200
faults nr"5 wor*d; a conlm v 6g0 thttt W08 HOt one. All the practical

| farmer ve2ttr4!i are the work of the centennial period 1754 to 1851. In the
boas which h6 <irSt/UStllUt'on waa f°Unded ; and it is the establishment of lostitu-
as mac*e the work of instruction permanent and progressive.

^,c Supply of Gold from Australia and from English Rocks.
Tfy John Calvert.

Ifcv *\'n 'CCi G°0,l and Iiad Times on Committals to Prison.

Uev.Zr? Had Times on Committals to Prison. Eg the

Preston*** E.D., Chaplain to the County House of Correction,

jlaus. More tl|CCn n J10Pldar opinion, that committals to prison increase in bad
^opposite Z ,i l-ty ycara* observation of committals in North Lancashire lead
^V'n anl committal"0 .5l011" ll? *'<nu m<ll,iary yews ending June 1824, the average
* Tear nf disti-re^ioni1^ ’ 'n tbc t>rosporou9 1825, the committals were 177 ; in
J7,tlieywcr 1B*6> they w< ve 172 ; and, in the year of reviving prosperity,

, ■‘•fifths of whom » U l8:!r,~37 a 3tl ,k<-‘ ln Preston threw 9000 hands out of work,
**se of y0Untr ‘•‘re under 19 years old. The consequent* idleness caused nn
l. 7> ^ 1840 n but.t,lc aggregate committals were less by 59 than those

.. ,1, 'intended by seditif1"^ J?u -Ice vvns pstabUshed. In 1842-43 great distress ex -

out *l 1 *'j« aumt» ... . . . . . in mi- • lesion

of coimitSlTf6 °»UIoor r,?liof- VnunR otlendcrs increased,
annual h1'8 to ll"> sessions 2?* "a*. 7 IIP.r ccnt* bc!ow that of tlu- preceding year.
JurtJfr d“ril>g the four* «rood »hr<o, liUtl ycars* 184<* to 1S48. areragwf 332

^nes averS iS'l P 3tK)' Su,nroary committal.

*ork -rfn y^s, endin^JulJ iarf ,^ £urlns ,lu‘ «ood ti,neA 1249. In the
•un.ma' rhe corainitiaU to twJf'4' r Ufl‘)n *lnke threw 18,(>00 hands out
totals Of all daises ,w0ns ****&, of females decreased.

Committals of all kinds in the six
P with the six months preceding, decreased 32 per

134

REPORT — 1854.

cent. Of 8500 young persons (under 21) out of employ, only 86 were committed to
prison. During the strike, the lessened expenditure in public and beer-houses was
a trifle more than .£1000 per week.

The general conclusions from the above are, that hard times may add a few cases
to the calendars, and that good times greatly tend to increase summary convictions.
The increase to the sessions consists of the young, thrown into idleness; the in¬
crease of summary cases arises from the intemperance encouraged by high wages.

On the Fluctuations in the Herring Fisheries.

By John Ci.eghorn, Wick.

The author had his attention culled to this subject by the notorious fact, that
districts once prominent for their fishing stations ore so no longer, and that fluctua¬
tions in the produce of this fishery form a striking feature in its history, and
never been satisfactorily accounted for. The assigned causes for the decay of fishing
districts, and for thu fluctuations in the produce of the fishery, he found were mora
as well as physical, and the physical were generally as untenable as the moral, and
the whole a jumble of contradiction. .

To ascertuin if there was a uniform law governing the whole, and what that law
was, he tried to make himself acquainted with the natural history of the H«mng-
From the reports of the Board of Fisheries, and from other sources, lie endeavours
to ascertain if there was unything like uniformity in the rise and fall of station*.
in the fluctuations to which the fisheries arc subject. The result of hi* iDvcstig*
tions are— ..... ^

I. That the herring is not migratory, but a native of the waters in wnicn i
found : that within very narrow limits races exist distinct in size, quality, ai
time of spawning, and always maintain their distinctive features : that in co
gregating for spawning the herring is brought within the scope of those agen * ' . .
ployed for their capture, and those agents he found are, 10,974 boat5'. ,V. t
Bcamcn, employing 81,934,330 square yards of netting, an extent of netting «
would cover an area of 26| square miles, or, if extended lineally, would rcacti
miles.

II. He found, that about twenty-five years ago the extent of netting was far
than that now used, and the produce of the fisheries nearly as great as at l,rcsc ‘ ’ .
that the increase of the herrings taken bears no proportion to the extended new

III. In the rise and fall of stations, he saw in the statistics a steady *®cre
their produce up to a culminating point, then violent fluctuations, and nnai
tmction.

IV- .. He found that the races nearest the large seats of population, and in the
accessible waters, have first disappeared ; and that in districts where ,the
rapid, as among islands, and in lochs, where the fishing-grounds arc c,r*unV
the fishmgs arc precarious nnd short-lived ; while on the other hand, exteos ^
boards, having slack tide*, with little accommodation for boats, were surer,
longer continuance as fishing districts. ,

from these premise* he concludes, that the extinction of districts as

flucIua,'ona 'n the fisheries generally, are imputable to /"Tl 3 j,,nf
n hat we are now doing for the cast coast fisheries what has already ,ts0Cu*
for those on the west const: that, therefore, the attention of the British j,
tion. and through it the Government, should be called to the subject,
arrangements may be adopted as will make the Herring Fisheries a perennial **
of wealth to the nation.

°n the Current Price ami the Cost Price of Corn in England dtin>'9 *

last Ten } cars, as illustrating the Value of Agricultural Statistics.

John Towne Danson. J ^

I,apw wa* to 8how the extent of the fluctuations of U* ’JJJ.

as compared wiU. the co*/ price of corn, and particularly of wheat, and their

.. ron *?je caP,tai employed in agriculture. f ;mportr‘i

JnTr?nG ? U!"8 of I,rice8« and the Board of Trade returns of >njP°.d
grain, Mr. Danson had formed a series of tables, showing the prices actual >

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

135

to the producer for the produce of each harvest since that of 1843, the apparent
fluctuations of supply and demand, and the total sums paid (by the consumers) for
British grain in each year. The most striking result obtained is apparent in the
following figures : —

Total sums estimated to have been received by the British producers
of wheat in each of the last eleven harvest years.

1843- 44 . £38,953,000 1849-50 . {.'27,517,000

1844- 45 ....... 43,910,000 1850-51 . 24,063,000

1845- 46 . 41,6 7 2,000 1 851-52 . 26,936,000

1846- 47 . 50,989,000 1852-53 30,195,000

1847- 48 . 37,647,000 1 8 53-54 . 34,864,000

1848- 49 . 30,009,000

After tracing this fluctuation of the returns in the business of grain-growing in
1*6 to the absence of a mercantile spirit among the growers, and pointing out how,

'a "ther occupations, such obstacles as those of adverse seasons, and the irregularity
r ^dividual action, are frequently overcome, Mr. Danson suggested the use of a
"l!|nd system of agricultural statistics as likely to be quite as useful to the farmer as
lj 'he consumers of his produce — saving the former from uncertainty in the invest-
neuiof his capital as much as the latter from the distressing alternations of glut
scarcity.

decimal Coinage and Accounts, showing the impracticability of the franc
oi' lenpcnny unit. By Jacob A. Fiuanklin.

®u^0r commenced by stating that the advocates of the penny integer delude
-niselves by assuming that the proposed “ English franc” or lenpcnny piece, would
yv ~®lzewith the French franc, or that the proposed " English dollar," 5 francs or
The fC|.Wo^ harmonize with the U.S. dollar.

•'•into ifi? r are ^le exact legal weights of flue bullion assigned by the respective
0 England, France, and America, to the values named : —

French 5/h American Dollar. English 50 pence.

nni,i 8rs- I gr3. I 8rs-

22-401795^^. 23‘22 23-542001tVb1b

S|lver.. 347-22783 | 345-5591 | 330-3636^,

between these weights ami values are such ns to render it imprac-
“'“ninal eo' * i Were l100681' to palm r>tf, internationally, the inferior coin for its
r,||“pletc en rent' ^®Yert1ielesB, the closer the approximation— stopping short of
fraud Pi-m. v— lb*2 1CSH would be the protection of ordinary persons against
Ki,X'*n«™Won incalculable. .

I, 1 ,r‘verac ? ‘hat the actual par of cxchauge (bullion against bullion) is, for gold,

“ ’ivert o„r „ j j Q that of silver; and supposing it were honest ami expedient to
r':p-'li,redaWai f a?da.r<l. cven t*11’11- except n convention -money be concerted and
H^^intenfaf i r 'n several countries (like the Conventions Munt:e of Ger-
“'-Hcring inerd^i • CXfban6CH would be more tedious to calculate between moneys

All dfcijr(,t - *n a thousand, thau between those differing 1 in 10.

Pl'Ortiong of con ^ . simplicity of decimal accounts, and to abolish the com-

t"Jnfl and the .P0U , arithmetic ; but it is found that wc cannot preserve both the
a® relation bornf.0**^" «_ ^or a I108*' cogent reasons we elect to retain the pound.
wv!’y- . Shall wi.rulo 1, po.Uml by tbc intervening shilling can be expressed dcci-
i “cl‘ 's not decimni|!lri ,otb ,tbp poun<l and the shilling far the sake of the penny,
^‘forward 24 nr “P1'®581*1'® in eitlrcr of the other denominations ; and write

J, Vhc contest irJ T^ai1 of 1 d*uun,i) f

?crt!,D availab'c. whetW tl?ked' thf!1 all1exisling coin9 °f circulation might, as such,
might still F pound or the penny be the unit of account. The cop-

SS?!» « *» «? wr-*mu4. whii. a. .man Z

ere |0n Wo"ld circulate rn more valuabl,‘ °r alloy (perhaps silver, copper and
decimal8-1? cho°se between y 5 half-shilling ; and so enable the public

coinage. tbe tvs0 methods of harmonizing decimal accounts and

136

REPORT — 1854.

On the Laws of the Currency, as exemplified in the Circulation of Country
Bank Notes in Enqland since the passinq of the Act of 1844. By J. W.
Gilbart, F.B.S.'

The author commences by observing, that it is a gratifying circumstance that
questions relating to the currency are no longer connected with party politics, but
are now regarded as presenting topics for scientific investigation, and he believed,
that by no science can they he more clearly and successfully investigated than by the
science of statistics.

The inquiries in this paper are limited to that portion of our currency which
consists of notes issued by country bankers, and are considered chiefly in reference
to those fluctuations in the amount of their circulation, which have occurred since
the passing of the Act of 1644.

The Charter of the Rank of England was subject to renewal iu the year 1841, and
in that year was passed an Act of Parliament “ to regulate the issue of bank notes,
and for giving to the Governor and Company of the Rank of England certain privi¬
leges for a limited period.”

The charges against the country circulation had been, that it was unsac,
excessive, and ill-regulated. The Act of 1844 dealt chiefly with the second of these
accusations.

According to the provisions of this Act, no new hank .of issue was permitted to >e
established in the United Kingdom, and the maximum amount of notes which cac
existing bank of issue might issue upon an average of four weeks, should, after t ie
10th October, 1844, be the average amount of the notes in circulation during c
twelve weeks ending the 27th April, 1844 ; that returns should be made to govern¬
ment of the average amount of notes in circulation during each week, and if, upon
an average of four weeks, the amount in circulation exceeded the authorized amount,
the bank should be subject to a penalty equal to the amount, of that excess; U>«
if uny existing bank not lmvir.g more than six partners should increase the numb-
of partners to more than six. it should lose the privilege of issue j that, if any t*o
anks should unite, so ns to increase their number beyond six, they shall lose
right of issue ; and if any banker shall become bankrupt, or cense to carlTon ,
business of a banker, or cease to issue notes, it shall not be lawful for such banker
ut any time thereafter tu issue any such notes. , .. ;i| .

. c charge of being unsafe the Act did not meddle with, except so far as him 1 P
ie issues of each bank, »ml it;..,, _ i.„.,i. ,.r mnv be regarded as

■i tl uKiiu hi c-ngianu. in mu iuuuiu w,

/'i o i?n^C. caAnt !ato operation, the amount of gold in the Bank o. ~~p-

£}ati!?9i™7 * °" l,be 23rd of October. I84“, the amount of gold was

rircnli.HnnW ”° corr,'»ponding reduction in the amount of c°

1852, the gold had advanced to W'.Wffi
not thrmfo Perm,ttcd the country circulation no corresponding expansion.
rr f0 c,aprr 10 1,ave bt>™ the object of the Act, that the country bankers
Tbl Zl thc’r, Tcs b v the amount of gold in the Bank of England.

the Act in some respects from those of 1845, passed
reference to the banks of .Scotland ami Ireland. npni|ly

eoual d hank exceed its authorized issue, it would «n«rapcn£j

it antiorl iU °f ,he CXCCM bl*t in Scotland and Ireland a bank may
There k on SUe' £°v,?.cd * * ** coffers an amount of gold equal to this ,exc&

FirnKn,! „n 1 TXh,Vr (iil,cri’,lco in the laws of 1844 and 1845, with rfren*
mav uni^ »n?inC0,lani1 ,and Ireland and Scotland two banks of.

bink. on^1 i"norci,&h,w,c ci,cu'Mi0\ jd

lation of nne i °\, ,lC® ^ more than six partners, should unite,

Ireland or Se„?Lfh °f these would he lost. Unions of bwj- '» ^

Ireland or Scotland are not very likclv, nor oerhans desirable. The banks are Ws*

SSS.a aS K 5Tta1' “"d C1^y the ^publm* confidence. In

beneficial Y. t • T s‘"ul1 Union among them wouW J

1845 rdv!*' • ‘C waywardness of legislation, that the Acts of

184o give facilities to unions in Ireland and Scotland, and restrict them m k»S

TRANSACTIONS OF TI1E SECTIONS.

137

There is another difference between England and Ireland. If any banks cease to
issue, the Bank of England may extend her issue to two-thirds of the amount with¬
draw. In a similar case, the Bank of Ireland may extend her issues to the whole
Mount thus withdrawn — Why this difference? we do not know.

' Waiter of the Bank of England at the termination of twelve

smiths' notice, which may be given by the Government, at any time after the 1st
. Df August next. It is not the object of this paper to examine any of the enact*
nents of the Act. of 1344 that have a reference to the Bank of England. But when
w subject is Brought under consideration, mean* should be employed to obtain
‘jmc modification of those clauses that have n reference to the country banks. The
country circulation should be preserved in its integrity — should be rendered capable
'‘ expansion, so as to meet the demands of a more numerous population, higher
nuT*’ i increased taxation, — its issue should be regulated by the demands of
.^!icultUre in respective districts in which the banks arc established,
blunges be rcndcied as much as possible free from the operation of the foreign

!,u'actui? *?iat *n.1S4 4, when the country circulation had greatly declined, we took
drcul.itin *^cu a, lun of *'1C then existing country notes, and made it a maximum
^iucwl ih’. ao ‘"UTangement which necessarily, from the fear of incurring penalties,
mj*iunim t amo.Unt actual circulation below the maximum. We apply this
If. then °,f circulat'°a that fluctuated very much in different parts of the year.
Augnst' plow tile maximum in April, we necessarily fall much lower in

upon every *a'a maximum among 277 hanks, and impose heavy penalties

‘*lsl tencls'to°”{i ^ S'la" cxceed his portion of the maximum, — a circumstance
,Qtocv Us iga UC61 further the actual circulation. No one is forbidden to
1 'r(k can hGS,,C aS|- ow a* ho phrases j and if be abandon* it altogether, only two-
"P111* tlio unD|f'^ 1Lt*’ aud 'bat by permission of the Government ; and then only
'“•tiling by theCa 1011 a bank whose head-qilnrlcrs are in London, who is to get
^dured bv ih °^er£llloni and whose issues are governed by lawn which have been

by the country bankers to

be inapplicable to the operations of n local

currency ^ Luuncry

to .,*10 requirements of domestic industry. This maximum
C‘!'lr*' we not nil CC i : ’ 'v***^e those banks that previously issued Bank of England
'Mowed to be CR)„Kr i ° r08urno their own circulation, and no new bank of issue is
,"rh«l issue in li, . The result of this arrangement has been, that an au-
‘"'W2,460 andih ! i « ,.S53, is now reduced to an authorized issue of

rrQ hulow 0 hftt tire actual circulation is generally helow .-£'7,000,000, and has
compelled tn ’. wh‘le every bunker, in certain seasons of the year, has
,ch attend pU(m u h t vo ‘38Uc nl his notes, lest he incur those enormous penalties
*•» «deavott|S t aCCKlcntal violation of the Act.

■L?4rd to thp . • 0 rein°ve these inconveniences, we would be governed bv a

."n,J||g the modifier.!', 30 IS‘l E and attempt only to correct its practical evils.

’ ■'I'fciHi consideration”8 ljL‘ 8nggeated, perhaps the following may deserve

).. ,r J^eks should n.,, i 'at. the present maximum which applies to an average of
oL ,,iriried agreemivil- *?,,an ,aVcrnl?e of twelve months ; — that all the banks who

liic drf • (whether *nCc taken place, should be redistributed among the
htljum , ncy has taken nlnITSLDt,.‘89U‘nB or n°n- issuing), in the district in which
fixed am,* allowi“K the existing ^ .ado**t tll£! enactments of Scotland and
,JtBjtehea°ant’ htovided they hUL^n ,ua"c to fxtcn‘1 thdr issues beyond their

‘3aS*W?«SL‘?^'ta‘ th<' ,'™‘1 the

r‘ thl^ iniro 111 and can ll ”WM 5 ,BVd 03 Bant of h’ngland notes are a

[‘•ring ian.c^’ he placed u»on an ’l t0 go,d u,,OD demand, they might

S°,d;-that banks of issue, not
“cy m,;.,. ",tvi1 “¥*««« their fixed inw in the same
^Ue»ithSaU?D be madnSrni‘rrPaVtnerS to a ?"*** number than six ; and

her banks that have taken nW8' as 1° ,Dclude a11 un,ons of banks of
nave taken place s.ncc the year 1814 ; and further, that

138

REPORT — 1854.

we adopt the law of Scotland and Ireland by allowing two or more banks of issue,
whatever may be the number of their partners, to unite and to retain the united
amount of issue of all the united banks. With reference to the issue of notes under
£5, we think that is a question for the consideration of statesmen, and its adoption
must depend upon the political circumstances of the country. As long as Australia
can supply us with gold sufficient to meet our foreign requirements and to main¬
tain our domestic currency, probably we had better remain as we are. At the same
time it may be useful to know, that, in case of necessity, we have here a magazine
from which we may draw a large supply of the sinews of war.

On the Education of the Poor in Liverpool.
By the Rev. A. Hume, D.C.L., LL.D., F.S.A.

Suggestions for improving the present mode of keeping and stating the
National Accounts. By Chaki.es Jelmcoe, Fellow of the Statistical
Society.

The object of this paperwas to showthc many inconveniences arising from the mode
in which the national accounts arc at present stated, and to suggest a more accurate
one, by means of which those inconveniences would be got rid '>f, and many real
advantages obtained. It was pointed out, for instance, that bond fide purchase*
were on all occasions blended with ordinary expenditure, and thus not only ^cra
the annual expenses of the country improperly exaggerated, but the purchase*
tbcmsclves, from the nature of the arrangement, altogether lost, sight of in a yew ,)r
two, and thus any check upon a revenue arising from them also foregone, B
argued that it a proper statement were annually made of the national assets am
liabilities, in which a due record was contained of ull the items of the Pr0Pt'rt-'
belonging to the country as well ns its *• indebtedness,’' materials would be in a
yearn at band which would afford at one view a complete insight into the financial
condition of the country, and give the menus of judging with comparative ease 01
the propriety and feasibility of such projects for its improvement ns might at
time be brought forward. The returns from the Treasury, under Mr. Wilson*
superintendence, were more carefully got up of late years than formerly, but uw)
Were without connexion or coherence. It was shown how this defect migh _
remedied, and how these returns might be condensed into the smallest corop -
without any sacrifice of the minutest details.

0,1 f/ie Rise> Progress , and Present Condition of Joint. Stock Banks.

By Jambs Knight. ,

®uthor “minced by glancing at the origin of the Rank of England, -
lrC5Tr^rcnt Period* since the passing of the Bank Charter Act m
> nTh.e cluef object was to exhibit the rise and progress of the several
25, n 3, Jrry"'$ on business in the Metropolis; viz. the London and JJ *
miMtcr Bank (Mtabl. shed in 1834); the London Joint Stock, in 1S3« s the 0
ifi-m. 8?,9;nllle Commercial Bank, in 1841; the London and Count).
f), ' V. a.nd the Royal British Bank, in 1849. The resources of these *

uf™ ?f Plication (June, 1854), in the aggregate 372« pr°F “V d
j.® ®Jare?' at*d representing capital " subscribed ” £12,604, «

6 to lifn £2»767.0.15. Deposits, £25,250,171, and the dividends ranS

,r Per ccnt-* three of the banks paving 10 per cent., one 14 Per c ' ,.vC
analv-fipaer Cent' ^ divisions 'of the quinquennial periods con,j\.. to

int0 ,he ratios of deposits to paid-up capiUl Pf^S
paid-up capital, and reserved funds to paid-up capital. At the end of the -c
J ondor^Lifl wra^l°^ reserved fund to paid-up capital was, in the case joint
Hlluk*8-353, and to deposits, 3'0 10 ; in the^don^.
in the f onrlnn d i ?• pcr Ce,,t‘ ; in «>« Union Bank, 1 1*813 and l’< M
Bank ^ ,3'208 and 1-948 per cent.; and in the Comm

Bank, Ij 318 and 3 370 per cent, respectively. In the third quinquennial P

139

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

these ratios were folly sustained . The dividends of the London Joint Stock U nion
aid London and County Banks showed an increase of 2 per cent.. 9 per cent., no
3 per cent, respectively. .

Br the returns published to the most recent date, viz. 30 June, 18o- , ic

•'Wposits" to "paid-up capital'1 was 689-247 per cent, in the London and W cst-

ainxM Bank ; 972-934 percent, in the London Joint Stork ; 1602 -OS1 per cent, in
itH I'nion Bank, and 421-969 percent, in tin- Commercial Bank. 1 Ik London and
Jjty Bank was, on 31st December, 1853, £‘i6G’995, and tin- Royal British,
1610-570 per cent. The reserved fund of the London and Westminster Bank was
£123,307 ; of the London Joint Stock, £153,549 ; and of the Union Bnnk, £120,000.

htter increased from £50,000 to £120,000, by the appropriation of 170,000,
*~rtd from premiums on the issue of unallotted shares, at £>S> premium. 1 he
/nets of the shares were as follow : — ■

.£'20 paid. . Price <£'40.

. .£20 premium

10 ,, • . ,,

27.

. 17

10 „ „

28.

. 18

20 . »

32.

. 12 „

20 ,, . . „

35.

. 15 „

5 . „

5.

. par.

i ulury statement ot the ‘ Ulearing system, anu suiuc
and Unlimited Liability,” concluded the paper.

On the non- Russian Populations of Russia in Eurojte.
Communicated by It. U. Latham, M.D., F.R.S.

[from the Transactions of the Royal Geographical Society of St. Petersburg.]
natiyp g°jlnien* uPonthc following table (which gives the distribution of the various
'"oildUt11 ktU^‘zeJ. PuPu'ations of European Russia over the different Govern -
soil ,° ,c ‘°uad in the abstract for Section E., before which the geographical
V'ew subject was laid.

U reaj to e^wo papers are complementary to each other, nnd may ndvantugeously

!• UGRIANS.

***•>*

^Archangel , 28g

Of Perm Vo9*k-

0,^»8«od ,m“d-

Of St p , Pod.

' letersburg.

15,617

0f Vitebsk ^honians.

.

e»th™usburs .

0,|t»rland

633,496

'"m» CLicnandV .

2,074

Auramoiset.

OfNovogorod . 31

St. Petersburg . 29,344

Savakot. 29,375

Of St. Petersburg . 42,979

Izhor.

Of St. Petersburg . 17,800

Karelians.

Of Archangel . 11,228

Novogorod . 27,076

Olonets . 43,810

St. Petersburg . 3,660

Tambov . ?

Tver . 84,638

Yaroslav . 1,283

Ziranians. 171,695

Of Archangel . 6,958

Vologda . 64,007

Permians. 70,965

OfViatka . 4,599

Perm . 47,605

52,204

140

RETORT— 1854.

Votiaks.

OfViatka . 181,270

Kazan . 5,500

Orenburg . ?

Samar . ?

Of Simbirsk . 67,730

Stauropol . 96,037

Tauris . 275,822

Tambov . 10,640

Besemaniavs. 186,770

Of Viatka . 4,545

Tahermis.

OfViatka . 75,450

1,284,234

Karakalpdkt.

Orenberg . 1

Kazan . 71,375

Kostroma . 3,357

Nizhnigorod . 4,330

Orenburg . 2,626

60

Trukhmen (Turcomans).

Perm . 7,933

Mordvins. 105,076

Of Astrakhan . 43

Kazan . 14,867

Tauris, . . . 450

7,321

Khivans.

“nza . 106,025

Samar . 74,910

Simbirsk . n« nr. q

215

Bashkirs.

1 nurus .

n,r nl.m-cr . 332,358

lambov . ar am

Srm . . 40,746

Li . r::::::.:::::: .

Tahuvaah. 480,241

OfViatka . j*

392,072

Mcshtsheriaks.

Saratov"' . 29A™

Penn...::::::::::::: . v;;

Sbabirsk . .

Saratov .

429,952

II. TURKS*.

nr ST'?? (ao calM hy th* ftnwii).

. ^

Viatka . .

Grodno . \Z\\\ .

79,94 1

Kirgiz. M000

Of Astrakhan . 82>uw

III. SARMATIANS.
(lithuawic DHANCH.)

Of Vilna . .

Kazan . . ,„a

' . . 2,338

Ko.no . . 3os-^

. 568,794

Minsk . .

Orenburg . Jf/'88

Penza . .

716.886

Lets. i*o 497

Podolia . 1/’-'1

ix°\n° . 401.939

Rinzan . ’ , _*r

nuriann . 318,672

Samar . nt’ni'l

Saratov . ,, r”i~^

* This include* the Nogay*.

872,167

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

141

S ARM ATI AN S.

(SLAVONIC BRANCH.)

• Bulgarians.

Of Bessarabia . 64,736

Tauris . 1,234

Kherson . 11,132

Servians. <7,10-2

Of Bessarabia . 89

Ekaterinoslav . 858

Kherson . 436

„ Poles. 1>383

Of Astrakhan . ?

Bessarabia . 733

Voihynia . 150,000

"""to? . 82,689

Ekaterinoslav . 8,000

Kiev .

Kovno .

Knrland . .

Livonia .

Minsk . "" .

Mohilev .

Orenburg

. ! . 100,000

^•letersburg . in un

Saratov . ° .

Stauropol .

Kherson . .

^sthonia .. '

100,000

?

12,888

3,213

?

?

?

19,149

?

?

850

13

(WA, 1V’ RUMANYOS. 477,536
0fBc8^biaUN9 AN° M0LDAVIAN8-)
41;s58

V. MONGOLS. 498,469

VII. ARMENIANS.

Of Astrakhan . 5,27*

Bessarabia . 2,353

Ekaterinoslav . 14,931

St. Petersburg .

Stauropol . 9,000

Tauris . :*.9°0

Kherson . 1 >99°

VIII. GERMANS. 37,070
Germans Proper (Deutsche).

Spread over the whole empire, and
to be found in different propor¬
tions in every one of the Govern¬

ments. Total number . 376,000

Swedes.

Of Kurland . 7

Livonia . 425

St. Petersburg . 6,156

Kherson . 168

Esthonia . . . 4,7 1 4

11,470

IX. DIOSCURIANS.

Georgians.

Of Astrakhan . 290

Stauropol . . 710

Iron (Osit). 1'000

Of Stauropol . 1,650

Circassians.

Of Don Kosaks . 130

Sainar . ?

Simbirsk . 45?

X. PERSIANS. 175 ?
Kuzzilbash.

Of Astrakhan . . 460

Samar . . . . . 186

°f^rakhan KAUm,k#-

Kosaks . 87,050

Orenburg . 20,591

Samar ,, . . . ?

Saratov . ?

Stauropol . 692

. 10,223

Sarts ( Bokharians ).

Of Astrakhan .

Orenburg .

XI. INDIANS.

Of Astrakhan .

XII. ALBANIANS.

646

?

?

10

(ARNAVT, SK1P1TAU.)

“'itrrtbj1, GREEKS.

119,162

Of Bessarabia .

*'«sarabia.. . ™

>ia.:,av .

XIV. JEWS.

Talmudic .

Of Bessarabia .

46,773

Vitebsk .

Volhynia .

1 Viatka .

1,328

250

42,380

69.397

47,649

195,030

58

142

REPORT — 1854.

Of Grodno . 99,592

Ekaterinoslav . 0,139

Kiev . 103,326

Kovno . 82,664

Kurland . 23,486

Livonia . 532

Minsk . 88,880

Mohilev . 83,715

Podolia . 150,485

Poltava . 1G.140

Tauris . 4,110

Kherson . 22,424

Tshernigov . 18,400

1,054,407

Karait.

Of Vilna . 424

Volhynia . 320

Kovno . 337

Tauris . 4,198

Kherson . . 446

5,725

XV. TSIGANI.
(gipsies.)

Spread over the whole empire, and
to be found in different propor¬
tions in every one of the Govern¬
ments. Total number . 48,247

Statistics of Poor Relief and Movement of Population in the “ Commercial
District" in the Hundred of Wirral , Cheshire. By Mr. McNehney.
Communicated by Sir .T. P. Soileau, Part, J'.R.S . *

The population of that portion of the Hundred of Wirral called the Commercial
District, and to which the statistics refer, is 39,143 (1851) ; the nationalities, or the
proportion of persons belonging to the respective countries, arc is as follows:—

English . 31,624

Irish . 6,0/8

Scotch . . . 1,441

pCr8°n8 who bccamc chargeable (i.e. received relief) during the

\ Liirs ! —

.nglish 1090, or 1 m 29 in proportion to English population,
nsi 1441, or 1 in 4.| in proportion to Irish population,
cotcu 38, or 1 in 38 in proportion to Scotch population.
thc *°9° I'f-rsti'is Eiry/M who became chargeable, 281 had acquired a settle¬
ment; 213 had resided in the district 5 years without receiving relief; and 596 had
not acquired a settlement, or resided 5 years without relief. , ..

o.o 1 1 14.V Pcr9on® Iri*h who became chargeable, 39 had acquired a settlemen .
48 had resided 5 years without receiving relief; and 1154 had not gained n settle-
rvr u resuled 5 without relief.

. 3-8, P,ercsons ticolch who became chargeable, 12 had acquired a settlement;

of rhesf(ip?i 5 I'ears, without receiving relief; and 13 had not gained a settlement,
or resided 5 years without relief.

and thePe£it0ni°f Uu;di“trict (Commercial) was, in 1841, 17,038 ; 1851, 39,H3i
a r i l?°P?lation for 1 854. 45,774.

Area of the district in acres, 4862.

On the Treatment of abandoned Workings of the Australian Gold Fields.
By II. E. Michel, B.A.

j-, Decimal Coinage,

y W ii. liam Miller, Cashier of the Bank of England.
unonCMrVai3n!,a-Cl*y in ^.Mowy Article of the "Times” newspaper a critiasm
to all^ aZL\lT1'l, et*.in which ^ writer falls into the error com«»of
suDoosini? tint treV for keepmg our accounts in pence instead of p?u“ '||.

ff ffitennenS » ra “C *TaCC are otlual to other- The>’ beg'D y ^

r • ^ i_ * and then reason as if it rcallv were such. , . u

clewlvTnderstSnd1 °r a rcmotc rraction more than 91*

clearly understood. In matters relating to money, the phrase " near enough for

TRANSACTIONS OF THE BECTIONS.

143

practical purposes” will not do; the moneys of accoun ,)e cqUai lo the

♦tatistical advantage to result. Two [coins, as measures ’ , . ... ^

nine, must be equal to one another. A thousand tenpences • about £•>

thousand francs are i£39 12*. Uid. (or thereabouts,), tang a ° £1“'“

* a value of £40. A thousand tenpences and a thousand francs are, t .

qial to the same, and therefore not equal to one another. .

Ihe writer referred to states, that " by preserving the penny from .hsturbance. I t
of all other coins would be retained.” That is true ; but what beco
*cimal system} „ . .

Must I keep my accounts in pence, and decimals ot a penny ? or must 1 go c o
bptnee decimally, and then begin to divide into tarthings (

Must I keep my accounts in pence, and pay them in pounds ?

Must I receive pounds, and record them in pence ?

If they would retain the present coinage, all those questions must be answered m
a* affirmative. . ,

Why do we want a decimal coinage ? Because we want decimal accounts ; and
** ivish to keep our coinage and our money of account identical as they arc at pre-
and not to have a sum in " reduction” to do every time we pay and receive
money,

If we arc to have a totally new coinage, let it be stated broadly. Let us import
. f Fr«“ch franc at once, and then we shall not have a single coin the same. It is
'TO'. there might be some small confusion amongst ourselves, some slight difficulty
JJ connecting the statistics of the past with the future ; but we should be in harmony

IUl France> and perhaps it is thought that that would fully compensate.

Ow the Decimalization of the Tariff. By William Miller.

Communicated by Robert R. R. Moore.

^ and Fluctuation of the Circulation of Bills of Exchange, 1816 to
n ?• ^ment of some of the results of a further extensive collection of
aa‘ % William New march, E.S.S.

°flf S/atments connected with the Question , Whether , in consequence of
in ,rn,eries the fast Six Years, the Exchangeable Value of Gold

">'* Country has fallen below its former Level. By W. Newmarch.

di*coveri8^0iV*n® ^le immense increase in the metallic currency which the recent
not )la(i 5® caused, he gave it as his decided opinion that those discoveries had

001 had n it aus'-o, ne gave it as ms ueciocu opinion uim muse uuuivui
level, cxro^t • caU8inf? the exchangeable value of gold to fall below its former
°f the court ,lrectly > aml that in this respect the commerce and general trade
tad been nUZ . „ Reived great bcnelits, and the social condition of the community
°ccn materially improved.

W different Platts which have been proposed of Decimal Accounts and
Tk Coinage. By Theodore W. Rathbone.

all aerounL?Vantages of t,li* By9tem» of invariable progression by the number ten
the inn’ ^ 80 8®nerally admitted and so easily established, that with little
Pr(>ceedinB*Ufr^ifR^ cntereil uPon 08 to the simplest, soundest, and best mode
^authority ° a “e many that have been suggested and recommended upon

[tapdse of news'll0 twelve in number, besides several, brought forward in the
propose,1 8 ami name3» whilst, in reality, identically tlie 3ame as had been

introducing the widest range of figures in accounts, and being of necessity

444

HE POUT — 1854.

only decimal in their steps from the highest to tile lowest of their four moneys of
account, but in reality millesimal, and therefore necessarily requiring four columns
of figures and moneys of account, in all accounts of even one pound in amount.

The scheme of this description proposed in the Report of the Committee of the
House of Commons, dividing the pound sterling into mils, with intermediate decimal
terras called cents and florin*,— the scheme of M r. I lead lam and Mr. Davidson, dividing
a new pound of 80s. lOrf. into 1000 farthings, with intermediate decimal steps.— the
scheme of “A Haired Merchant," — of n Correspondent of the " Economist'’ and
" Glasgow Citizen" — with various attempted modifications — me all shown to be alike
bad and vicious in form, inconvenient, injurious and imjust, if noL wholly imprac¬
ticable in operation, most unnecessarily destructive of our present moneys of account
and familiar coins,— in short, unsound" in principle, and mischievous in result.

The suggestions for getting over these fatal objections are found to be alike incfilc-
tive and unjust, und such as neither have, nor are ever likely to have, the sanction of
Parliament. Whatever variety of schemes, arid under whatever new nnmes and
altered forms, and whether four, three, or two denominations arc adopted, this
millesimal division, by means of decimal steps of the highest money of account, mvit
ever involve the same results.

2nd. The second class comprise the various schemes which surrender and abandon
the pound as a money of account, and adopt a lower ruling integer or unit. Iher
are the scheme proposed by Mr. W. T. Thomson, of the Standard Insurance Office,
Edinburgh, to the Institute of Actuaries, adopting ten shillings ns the highest money
of account, and thus, by decimal steps, briuging out halves of the proposed money i
o( the Committee, — a scheme shown to involve more than all the preceding objec¬
tions, with only slight advantages gnined in (wo minor points ; the two schemes
adopting 2s. and is. ns the highest moneys of account— only in fact the plans of
the Committee s Hcport and Mr. Thomson's, without their highest terms, the pouml
and the ten shillings, or ducat ; and the three, now well-known, and moat exten¬
sively and beneficially introduced, decimnl systems of Kurope and American-founded
on the dollar, equal to about Jive times 10, or fit) d. Rnylish, the /loriu to twice tenpvw'
and the franc to just nbout Hid. present English currency. Notwithstanding that the
lint oj these adopted our own penny ns its foundation, and the consequent biciM)
and simplicity of the transition from our pounds, shillings, and pence iuto the
present American decimal currency, an examination of the principles nod prnctic-i
results of the brench monetary' system, with its smaller unit, shows its vust and in¬
structive superiority to cvitv other yet introduced,— but at the same time the u
impracticability and inexpediency of our adopting the proposition of Mr. James Yite*.
to introduce, intact and without modification, their beautiful *' systbne metrique.

3rd. Wc are thus brought by a process of exhaustion, arising out of the unwar¬
rantably injurious effects, and indeed impracticability of every other scheme vvlia
ever, to modes of proceeding little more than permissive, but affording, nlm>
without perceptible change ur inconvenience of any description, AM- we scck-a l’urC
and perfect decimal avateiii of accounts, entirely suited irt results to cvcrv obj •
social and rommomul n*\A . ■ • . -*...winrd of vfliutr

dence of the Cumnuttce of the House Df Commons, with reference io a vW
sounder, and more comprehensive mode of proceeding ’—absolutely requires notin' .
more than to substitute ten pence as the money of account instead of twclvcpencc
by rendering the former instead of the latter the lequt form of account in t*
country. I he important results of this were explained, and its further
mere, at advantages (discovered and established by the late Mr. James Laurie), shorn;
ES?' “ “«“un‘ ^ last valuable work, completed on his death-bed-

heat ions of this last scheme were suggested by Dr. John Edward Gray, of the Bn -
Museum, and by Mr. Minasi.

Concluding observations were made on the other arrangements which might bene¬
ficially accompany this scheme on its introduction into this country, together
anticipations of tfce grand world-wide results to which it would ultimately lead-

TRANSACTIONS OF TI1E SECTIONS.

145

The Statistics of Nice Maritime. lit/ Col. Sykes, T.R.S.

The author gives a rapid analysis of the ancient and modern history of Nice,
i its physical and geological features, — of its botany, and zoology in their various
touches; pointing out such products as arc of (Economical application*. I he
Mcnulogy from four daily observations is elaborately treated in considering its
'isii'ni lo local diseases and the public health; in consequence also of ib having
tropical features, v, bich ten years’ observations at Gem i give in .1 1
Mrtcdlhrin. In connexion with the meteorology, the official Hospital Returns of
> Svdinian Government show that diseases of the respiratory organs at Nice,
^.ioa, anil Turin, in frequency and fatality, equal those of Great Biitaio,— -but
’'t inflammatory action of the bowels i* also a characteristic of the country. T he
• 'or diows the mortality in the Civil, Military, and Foundling Hospitals.

"Ic population of Nice is stated to have increased from 27,000 in 1823 to 99,811
u 1 which rose to 36,804 in I84S. Old person! appear to have diminished in
llt-WMind young persons to have increased. From the local returns there would
^ ' nr to V about one marriage to 123 souls, one birth to 28 souls, and one death
•'•IM souls in the town, and one death to 30*9 souls in the rural districts. The

(.jt •« , -n- •»“- agency ui me unrmii-iiic \i icmu/ «n« **■'- - ■-

L , ‘i ’ ‘litvc promulgated seventy-four octavo pages of regulations for the
'. -1 , |,u!icc and the interior administration of the town, some of which

iy!nJ[a,toJf1 'vith advantage by the towns of states in a higher position than
r nre V , uudlor Sive3 the budget of receipts and disbursements. In the
• lie m £lun':s promotion of education and the fine urts, highly creditable
j tJnca?!nC,?^o^* military defences, the medical establishments, the state
•-'dmont s a ®ardioia, the learned professions at Nice, the newspaper press in
respjft to’ th occ*C£‘nsl‘ca* establishments arc noticed it

Sn succession.

With

Tries from r umotmt of instruction in the Sardinian states, the capacity to read
" from 1 f p6r, cent* at Nuovo in the Isle of Sardinia to 4 per cent, at Turin,

*. . * tCfflmA In f\ Vt ■ • rl 1 .4 t’ . . II. . 1., t,. 0*1 m I 1 1 rv Ini 11.I *»f*

# - *"• 111 u.t* itm: ui uuiuiim* * . . . . •

'’-•nency *Th u* ).n,a hundred at Sasaari in Sardinia to 22 in the hundred at
nit Jf.v^ .^Sardinian states have four times the proportion of bishops to France.

;ium ; M times the proportion of Canons to
im.

'• tUVc n fin, ,1 1 ftiavL* iiji

W and raV hc Portion of Belgium ; 1
faeaninl’a Jh tl!ne.8 Ul® proportion to Belgium.

J/ ",J* havlhn- f u 18 6l‘" Un^ur|ed at Nice in consecrated ground, in consequence
1 -t, and th la*oti **be sacrament in dying. Nice sends two members to I'arlia-
l?pp. 10 rePresentative system of l’iedmont has that of Great Britain for its

' ^ [iricij'b' flvc,s a hst of prices comparing 1841 with 1854, in which it is shown
*' 'ite in the vance(l. It is stated that 777 families of 14 nationalities w intered
«y, WpijrV*-' ,DHr 1852-53, and the paper concludes with an account of the
?'!‘Cr •'U'guea ifu- mcasures» which are of the French decimal systems, and the
in‘l prejudir a s-V3tL-ln could have been accepted by a comparatively igno-
Jl",ar attempt in Engi^j* "KIC wou*d lje bttle difficulty "in ensuring success in a

Tkt p

uence thereon of

SS Uni^ ^ircction of British Exports, and the I»jl
■* tec J 'rude llUll finh! Tin If V VI I • V

the

-a,h3 “^knts; kingdom llicre are 121 families, 2231 species, and 151

f in'iL*C'1 w'Hi its nalriij n1*® Rlvcn ’he principal genera n:ul species. 212 species of
*' ,.e llP the iiqmke, . nume*. arc n,<il wi*1‘ between Genoa and Nice, and freshwater

iJ^tUwar* i;,w .'r!- ’ ■ Matlj °f H»® molloaca are highly prixed
1884. llan,es* The nu« , ,rds are numerous, amounting to 343 species, these having
mammals are those common to Central Europe.

10

REPORT — 1854.

14 6

or nearly 93 per cent. Those to foreign countries rose from . £34, 4 3 1,000 to
.£57,950,000 in the same period ; and those to British possessions abroad from
£16,974,000 to <£22,756,000. Further, in 1840; the proportion sent to European
countries was 57 percent., and in 1853 only 42 percent, of the whole; while North
America, which took 20 per cent, of the whole in 1840, took in 1853 no less than
33 per cent. To the United States alone our exports were, on au average of the
years 1842-45, only .£23,623,000; and in the years 1850-53 no less than
.£69,481,000. The general conclusions suggested by the author may be stated ns
follows : — That the average increase during the period has been larger to foreign
countries than to British possessions. That our exports have averaged the propor¬
tions of about two-thirds to foreign countries, und onc-third to the British posses¬
sions. That, with foreign countries in different parts of the world, the order of in¬
crease lias been to North America, South America and Europe, and of Northern,
Central and Southern Europe; the rate of increase being highest in the southern
division. That with the British possessions the order uf increase may be arranged
to Australia, Cape of Good Hope, North American colonies, and the East Indies ;
and, finally, that to the United States and the other corn- growing countries, except¬
ing only Russia, our exports have increased with our imports of corn. One fac
noticed by the author seems extremely rcmurkable, namely, that for twenty years an
upwards after the war which terminated in 1815, the declared value of our exports
did not increase, but continued very much the same year after year, and those ya ucs
were much less than they had been for fourteen years up to the termination o
the war.

On a Method of substituting Francs and Centimes for the present Engli «
Metallic Currency , By James Yates, M.A-, F.R.S.

Assuming the superior excellence of the French monetary system, the author
endeavoured to remove the objection which has been urged against this, ana ai
other decimal methods on account of the supposed time required for effecting
change from the present English system, — an objection which has been supp0«“
be fatal to every improvement of the kind . He proposed that the transition shouw o
carried out through the instrumentality of a paper currency, consisting of now.
representing the value of a franc, and of all the higher coins ; that persons 8
receive these notes in exchange for all the existing English coins, and that m >
minute difference arising from the impossibility of rendering every purchase oi co
exact, even to the fraction of a centime, should be settled to the advantage o “
person who offers the old coius, so that lie would be certain to receive Ins aue,
more than his due. The author thought, that the promissory notes, thus destine
call in the old coinage, might be issued in a month, and that to cash them wo
require a much longer time, but need not exceed twelve months at the utraos • •
the process advanced, the lowest notes would shortly be superseded by the m
currency.

Our silver coinage, as he observed, ami offered to prove by weighing
specimens, is already, in regard to the quantity of silver which it contains, mori^

to be used in the way which he recommended than in any other, probably -
part of the shillings now current being of the weight of not more than at) I
number of francs. He proposed, therefore, that these, having been stamp
certify their recall, should be sent into circulation as francs ; also, since a s '
proportion of the existing silver coins will soon be reduced by wearing to the &
of francs, and others will not repay the expense of recoining, he inferred tha 7
e greater part of the current silver coinage would be ready for im media
the proposed system. ’ ^

He suggested that the whole of the copper coinage, consisting ol tokens 1
below their assigned value, might continue to be used until it is worn oub ^
possible minute deficiency in value having been made good to the ^ t0

through the intervention of the paper currency. The gold, he observed, oug
pass at its intrinsic value, which should be determined upon, as well as the VW
Bilver, and made known by Act of Parliament and other methods. hu„daiit

The author recommended that no time should he lust in issuing an ao

147

TRANSACTIONS OF TUB SECTIONS.

supply of the two lowest coins in the proposed scries, viz. centimes and two-centime
pieces ; and for centimes he proposed the form of the Chinese cash, for the »» c °
distinction and more general convenience in all small transactions. He sliowcc ie
F»at advantages of such a speedy Issue of centio ofrlpg thfi M* W I QSCWS

fptum, a3 well as in introducing the coins of higher denominations.

Mr. Yates concluded in these words : — .. ,

"If such a plan as that which I have now endeavoured to delineate shall be
*i-[led, nine- tenths of the quantity of pieces, mid a far larger proportion of the
•want of our present coinage, in both assigned and intrinsic value, will remain in
.vcnlation, and will be known to a great extent by the same denominations. 1 Icncc
/appears probable, that the prices both of labour and of commodities will undergo
j le,i derangement than might have been expected ; for, although the same
'dominations will be applied to some silver coins of a little lower value, yet the
kpreciation occurring, at least in the most common cases, in equal proportion in
fqvd to all objects and all transactions, it appears not unlikely that the disturbance
endant on the change may be almost imperceptible.”

J‘ ^ates’s communication is published at full length in the Assurance Magazine
m Journal of the Institute of Actuaries, No. XVIII. p. 146-151.

MECHANICS.

V" Telegraphic Communication between England and America.
i(r jj By Frederick Hakijwell.

Pr°poscd to effect such a communication by employing a single
lron'v‘re sufficiently strong to be self-protective, and to be insulated
;*rn. P^rcha or other non-conducting substances, covered with tarred hempen
le readily ! a WI1 e> it was stated, might from its comparative lightness and flexibility
»ou|d y fetched across tho Atlantic, and at a cost of £ 100,000. A single wire
Stannic r • instancc °t least, be sufficient to supply the want of telegraphic

• ^ultv tbe telegraph were kept iu constant work. He alluded to the

l :rftu8h an • • 1 d reccntly been discovered in transmitting telegraphic signals
V-ickly been,!-6 d w're immerBpd in water, and to the means that had almost as
8,ltm expert <lGVl8e? for overcoming the unforeseen obstacle. He expressed a con-
thev that Blloul(1 Other difllculties arise in prosecuting such an enter-
°uld also be as readily vanquished.

Tlic J^‘COnonfca^ Working of Steam Boilers. By John Chanter.

^■Wa fo,°th?plailled t'le construction nf his furnace with moveable reciprocating
'jf danse gre > Prpvpntion of “ clinkers.” As a proof of the advantage of the use
work fitated that some of these furnneos which had been in

■f °nly Six mnnrt,WO ^ears vemfl,n >° good condition, . whilst ordinary furnace-bars
*J.'e half the u i i^e 4epth of coal on the bars need not, it was said, be
"**!• Tables iii other furnaces; and there is consequently a saving

a proof of this, and of other advantages, were appended.

9 Ply~whecl lately erected at the Mersey Iron- Works, Liverpool.
JP1* object of th' . Wili.iam Clay, Liverpool.

usiQ;i:h'el ,1s r,eSullde tile Bpeed of a large boiler-plate train of
I,, roj[.a°tioyance by breakin W*iee*’ aB ’8 generally done, which so often causes

linear 'j Qtller worH^t^6'0 IS,a certn'n liinit to lbe speed at Which the rolls should
e<l With the rolling ?u*^Jer revolutions made by the rolls arc very few as
g ot other descriptions of iron; and it was therefore neces-

10*

REPORT — 1854.

148

sary in ft mill where direct action was required, that a fly-wheel should be constructed
of sufficient size and weight to have, with a small number of revolutions, sufficient
momentum to overcome the ordinary shocks of rolling large plates of iron. This
could only be done by increasing the diameter of the wheel to such an extent that
the rim should have the requisite momentum or velocity of so many feet per minute.
With this view a wheel has been made of 35 feet diameter, and weighing about 60
tons, 24 tons of which is disposed in the rim, which is intended to run with a velo¬
city of about 4500 feet per minute, at about thirty-eight revolutions.

Mr. Clay produced and explained the model of a machine used for rolling ta|>cr
iron, by which an iron bar may be rolled of any length and tapered to any required
degree. The principle of the action of the machine consists in allowing one of the
rollers to rise in its bearings by hydraulic pressure. A valve, regulated by a fine
•crew, permits the water to escape, and thus, as the operation proceeds, the rollers
become more and more separated, and the iron bar less flattened. By regulating
the valve, so as to nllow of greater or less escape of the water, the degree of tapering
can be very accurately adjusted. _

Mr. Cullky explained the plans adopted for the transmission of time-signals
through the electric telegraph wires in connexion with the Observatory at (Greenwich.

On Ventilation of Ships. Bp J. Cunningham, C.E., F.G.S.

It is an acknowledged fact by all men practically conversant with the general
condition of emigrant ships, as regards ventilation, that the means presently adopter!
t«. effect that important condition are very defective, if not altogether inadequate.
In h .t v.( itbcr, in calms nnd stormy weather, on board emigrant ships, where so
many human brines nre usually crowded together, and in spuces proportionally less
than are allowed for the commonest lodging-houses, the wnnt of such means u
rOrct n thorough ventilation is painfully and often fatally experienced by the poor
emigrants. Many instances of those fatal effects might be given from the want oi
•och means.

The means now employed for ventilating, not only emigrant ships, but even the
br*t- appointed mcn-of-wnr or government ships, appear quite inadequate to i
that great desideratum, nnd it may be safely asserted, that without motive power a
thorough system of ventilation cannot be carried out on board ships of any class.

By the application of this power a constant and most effective method of ventua-
tmn can at ail time* ho carried on. In combination with it also is a simple procc**
of disinfecting a ship, should an infectious distemper break out, in a most effective
mann;r- The plan of the engine shown is calculated nt tlirec-horse power,
and sufficient to ventilate thoroughly a ship of 1500 tons burthen, containing w*
hundred persons, mid to afford to each person three cubic feet of pure
minute. Hus supply is effected by two fans, as shown, performing 150 revolutions
m a minute, thereby forcing the air down the main air-shaft to the side trunk Hoc-,
whirl, extend along each side of the vessel. Small branch flues to the cabins i an**
other part* of the ship requiring ventilation are joined into the main trunk Hue--
ha, li is provided w ith sliding or revolving ventilators to regulate the requisite »®°
of »upply. I he vessel at the top of the section is for disinfccling or for cooliog
atmosphere. J he tank at bottom is charged with water containing the disinfcciir.B
fluid, and the truncated cone, which we term a spravor, is inverted with 'tssm
rnd into the fluid ; its upper end spreads out as shown, and is perforated. >
vev. l rotates rapidly, and the fluid by the centrifugal force is drawn up and ttW*.
i ut in spray, through which the air must pass into the fanners, thus becoming
pr, gnat «1 in its passage with the disinfecting material, such as the chloride or »
or oi hme. In like manner the air could be readily and rapidly cooled to a Io
p, •• of temperature by placing in the tank a moderate quantity of ice. This may
applied in the tropics or when required. ••

The cost of providing a steam-engine, boiler and apparatus complete,
flu**, 4c., for a ship of 1500 tons burthen, similar to the plans now exhibited, «

149

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

estimate at between .£450 to ,£500. The quantity of fuel required 1 to keep the
engine at work night and clay for a hundred days would be a jou - • .

In addition to the process of ventilation, we propose also to ndupt t ie cn^"C ’°
'•vend other purposes, such as the loading and discharging of the vessel, lifting t e
whom, puraping the ship and supplying water to the water-closets , and fo c c .u -
•ng the decks. Further, it is proposed to apply the waste steam io the pu 1
cooking.

On the (Economical Working of Sinara Boilers and /• n nieces, by the saving
of Fuel, unlh a more speedy command of Steam. Jig \\ • Hay, London.

first patent of this description of furnace had all moving bars, put in motion
. w?eral cranks, levers, &c., and though found to be a great improvement upon
J'atMjnary bars, were liable to derangement in the hands of careless stokers. 1 lie
’"ether improvements consist in the simple use of toothed or serrated liars, with
'MKfrs, supported by brackets in tubular, and by boxes under round, waggon, or
c,lier shaped boilers, pans, &e. On the rockers, moving serrated bars are placed, so
* to wurk alternately between fixed serrated bars. By use of a hand-lever, the
!l,ikCr easily effects a movement of the reciprocating bars, and at once cleans the
«"rc surface of the fir,- -.rate from du-l and small coders, thereby p« eventing the
'Nation of clinkers to a great extent, and the burning away of the bars, while fresh
ir passes more freely between the bars, causing a more pcrtect and brisk combus-
l^e foci, and consequently rendering it possible to have a better fire with a
' °f fuel, and to generate steam more quickly.

On the Prevention of Boiler Explosions. By II. Dikcks.

Ba[h(: plan ,V|r- Bircks proposed is to have a pipe leading from a cistern of cold
keM ,Pass fhrougl, the boiler, whilst the stopcock that opens the passage is to be
JihU08Cd a chain within the boiler, and in which chain one link is made of

metal.

On a New Washing Machine, By J. Eldhidge.

On the Consumption of Fuel and the Prevent ion of Smoke.

^ By W. Faiiibaihn, C.E., F.ft.S.

Phidi ,tbaim «PWned the principles on which the perfect combustion of fuel de-
meani air- his opinion that bv proper attention and by the adoption of tlie

fright lip Jr , *no'vn and practised, the issuing of smoke from steam-boiler furnaces
baiter • prevented. The great secret is to have sufficient capacity in the

fori. aiu| 7 11 the boilers had double their usual capacity, the perfect combustion of the
Werred tn ?.l’scrlUOntl>% the prevention of smoke, might he readily accomplished, lie
,s a oifficienr0- j aftl‘cn®*np furnaces of the Cornish mines to prove that when there
"•entto A ,uducement to the proprietors by the saving of expense, and of incite-
special by competition, the emission of smoke is prevented without

r;,r,1^vvhi,Krlan8Cnu'nt to produce that effect. Mr. Fairbairn then described a
H It cons’ . c°nceivwl ottered great facilities for the more perfect combustion of
i’tlnS mixed t'S Si°f two furnapes united into one, the gases issuing from the coals
ir,dgo of (L„ .8®“ier in a single chamber and then passed in a heated state over the
hre‘ liars clean fmalC' 'vherc the>' !irC! ‘Suited. Bv this means, and by keeping the
n mr the admission’ of air, the combustion was rendered very complete.

On t/ie Solidification of Bodies under great Pressure.

..This nape . % W. Fairbairn, C.E., F.R.S.

'•'natlf, the results of a portion of the experiments conducted by

an?1 °f hinds nf a and Mr. Joule, at the request of the Association, and by
t*uH, Mr H one 1C° f°r tluit PurP°se by the ltoyal Society. At the last meeting
pmns alluded to these experiments, and then explained the nature

150

REPORT — 1854.

of the apparatus invented by Mr. Fairbairn for submitting the substances to be
operated on to the enormous pressure of 90,000 lbs. on the square inch. In these
inquiries the objects kept in view were, to ascertain the exact laws which govern the
cohesive strength of bodies in their present physical condition, and how far a know-
ledge of those laws may conduce to the reduction of the* metals and their subsequent
solidification under circumstances whereby increased strength and density may be
obtained. The experiments commenced with spermaceti, bars of which were cast
and left to solidify at the sume temperature, but under different pressures. When
pressure was applied to these bars, the one that sustained u pressure of 40,793 lbs.
carried 7*52 lbs. per square inch more weight than one submitted to a pressure of
6421 lbs., the ratio being in favour of the more strongly compressed bar, in its power
of resistance to a tensile strain, as 1 to ‘876. It appeared from these experiments,
that bodies when solidified under pressure have not only their densities grratly
increased, hut their molecular structure is also materially affected, so as to increase
their adhesive power. Still further to elucidate the subject, cubeB of exactly one
inch were cnrefully prepared and loaded with weights till they were crushed. The
first cube, solidified under a pressure of 6421 lbs., was crushed with 213 lbs. Tm ww
then operated on, a qunntity of pure tin being melted nnd then allowed to solidify!
first at the pressure of the atmosphere, and afterwards at a pressure of 908 llw. on
the square inch. The same quantity taken from the same ingot was subsequently
submitted to a pressure of 5698 lbs. on the same inch. The bars, after being solidi¬
fied and allowed to cool for upwards of fourteen hours, were subjected to the u»ut
tests of tensile strains. From these experiments there was derived, as nearly a*
possible, the same law or measure of strength in regard to the effects of pressure M
obtained from the experiments on spermaceti ; for with the same pressures of 90S *•
and 5698 lbs. upon the square inch, the breaking weights were 4053lbs. and 5737 •-
or in the ratio of 1 to '706, being an increase of nearly one-third on the crystnlliioi
metal when solidified under about six times the pressure. From these facta Mr.
Fairbairn observed, it is evident that the power of bodies to resist strain is Kffnll7
increased when solidified under pressure ; and he said he considered it highly
bable that the time is not fur distant when the resisting powers of metals, as w
a- their densities, may be increased to such an extent as to ensure not only
security, but greater (economy by solidification under pressure. Ho said h* .
borne out in these views by the fact, that the specific gravities of the bodies experi¬
mented on were increased in a given ratio to the pressure. Spermaceti solidin
under a pressure of 908 lbs. on the square inch hurl a specific gravity of 0-9HW*
whilst that solidified under a pressure of 5698 lbs. had its specific gravity increwru
to 0 95495. The specific gravity of tin, solidified under a pressure of 908 lbs-,
”'3063 ; and that solidified under a pressure of 5698 lbs. was 7‘3154, wine g
•0091 as the increased density from pressure. There arc further experiment*
progress to determine the law that governs this increase of specific gravity, ana
determine the conducting powers of bodies solidified under severe pressure, ^xp'
nments have also been made on such substances as clay, charcoal, and dine
kinds of timber. I'rom the experiments on powdered dry clay, it appeared
Ur of that substance 3* inches long and 1} inch diameter, after being bommataw ^
the cylinder, so as to become slightly consolidated, was reduced m bulk wit
pressure of 9940 lbs. on the square inch to 2 958 ; with a pressure of o*.J ” .
to 2’3; with 76,084 lbs. to 2' 288 ; and with a pressure of 97*588 lhs. to 2 19J 1

Mr. Omox exhibited the model of a machine intended to prevent accident^
mines. This contrivance consists in having a spiral inclined plane passing
the outside of the perpendicular shaft of a mine, by which plane the n,,n*T'
ascend and descend without the necessity of being lowered in baskets down

On Cunningham'* Plan for Reefing Topsails. By J. Grantham, CS

This plan consist* of an arrangement by which the yard-arm '5ma^L0fibe
round as it is lowered by a pulley fixed to the mast, and the slit in the centre j#
ki.I through which the rope passes, to effect that movement of the vara- a
dosed by a sail-cloth valve that preserves the action of the sail intact.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

151

On Fisher’s Venetian Screw Propeller. By J. Grantham, C.E.

The object of this propeller is to prevent the retardation which occurs in an
ordinary screw propeller, bv the tendency to produce a vacuum at the ac o
W* of tlie propeller. To effect this, Mr. Fisher makes si its in the blades to alio v
'■h water to pass through, and thus to supply the place of the fluid which is
toward as the screw turns round. These slits give the propeller somewhat the
ifprtrance of a Venetian blind, and hence its name. Mr. Grantham Bald the pro-
I'disT had been tried in the Birkenhead Docks with good effect.

Mr. Jon\ Grantham described his plan for a high-level railway for the Livcrpoo
“DC^. A model on an extensive scale of the proposed railway was placed in the
l,r-u Hall, and was one of the objects of attraction during the meeting of the Asso-
'-iViii. The railway is proposed to he placed on the east side of the whole me of
It is to consist of iron framework, supporting two platforms,— the lower,
v: ' four lines of rails, to be about 52 feet, wide and 20 feet above the present
entirely for goods; and an upper platform, with two lines of rails, exclusively
' Hunger*. As the present length of the Liverpool Docks is four miles, and
10 » short time be extended to five miles, the necessity of some improved means
convey^,.,; a|ong the docks ig becoming more and more urgent, and the facilities
-<h such a railway would present for the shipment of goods without the risk of
, "7 thev are now exposed was strongly enforced by Mr. Grantham. It
‘ ■ J1"?* Hint the railway should be ultimately placed in connexion with the other
^ Liverpool* bo that goods may be conveyed direct to the docks without

^ cj reloaded. The cost of such a railway is estimated at .£.’250,000 a mile, and
*"rorri passenger traffic alone, it is calculated, would be amply reraune-
fcjjjl * whlbt. the quay space gained by the platforms of the railway would be
> cqual m value to the whole outlay.

■rn, 'S&& adjusted compass, supported by vulcanized india-rubber springs,
{ «nibited by Mr. Guay ; the object of which was to prevent the action of the
ei"g influenced by the motion of the ship.

11 Strength of Iron after repeated Meltings. By William Hawkes.

[In a letter to the Assistant General Secretary .]

„ East Foundry, Birmingham,

l«mcUpS,R’ Sept. 23, 1854.

trnvgtl) _» Tou an account, of some experiments that I have had made upon the
'U*\, ” ; ‘ron as derived from repeated meltings. I did not commence upon
ha* HQ.6?1? 1,11 a(ter the Hull Report of the 23rd Meeting was in my hands.
Nil i r< , rae time enough to complete the experiments upon the Hot-blast
The £;j^0rbyns Hall iron. F F

rr Sht. j j as l?eIted in an ordinary pot furnace, the pot holding about 70 lbs.
niid there? 8'VRn only the strength of the stronger of the two bars which 1 had
taken onlvtt ,n niakin5 the comparison with Mr. Fairbairn’s experiments I
of a. • ae strongest of the three bars. I have in each case tested the
°0' ' lor... w-.,h fk°V?. tlle P>I5 bY having it filed down to l inch square, which was
*hu Corbtft h ESlmton iron.

P**' uielting hun a*k near Dudley, No. 1 (pig), was more of the No. 2 quality, but
***** became wh'* 'tas. n°t until the thirteenth melting that the outside of the
‘1' . *lght pmt kj. j . e» the interior heing light grey, and in the fourteenth melting
•i'r lameter in the *Gav*nlf a grey core of about three-quarters of an inch

ln-.c,fl|,teenUi m.i«I , , Indeed it assumed very much the appearance of the bar
* iron Waa „ B °f the Eglinton iron, exhibited at Hull last year. The Cor¬
eas quite fluid at the twenty-ninth melting.

152

REPORT — 1854.

3 ft. Bar, 1 in. sq.
Blaenavon Iron.
Strong bright forge.

Pig before melting, 845.

3 ft. Bar, 1 in. sq.
Corbyns Hall, near Dudley.
Hot-blast Mine No. 1.

Pig before melting, 693.

Mr.Fairbairn'sExperiments on
No. 3 Ilot-blast Eglinlon,
the bars being 4 ft. 6 in.

Melting 1

1 ” 2

3

» 4

„ &

„ 6
„ 7

i „ ®

,, 9

„ io
., 11
„ 12
„ 13
„ 14

„ 15
,. 16
,, 17
„ 18
„ 19
„ 20
„ 21
„ 22
„ 23

White with 1 704
brown core J 794

811

. 740

.. 704

. 621

. 854

. 974

. 621

. 1026

.. 834

. G49

. 789

Faulty bur ..

. G96

. 929

Bar faulty...
. 861

. 1051

. 721

... 1166

. 920

Fracture light grey,
with white, ring outside 801

Faulty bar . .

. 565

Corbyns Hall (continued).

Melting . . g53

:: ar,::::: . 2

. . 1

Pot broke.

” . 956 ,

;; . .

Blaenavon strong bright forge fracture of pig of the ordinary light grey crystalh
structure of hard forge pigs.— At the first melting it became white, with a brown'
greyish core in the middle, of about * in. diameter. The fractures of all We otn
meltings were white, but for the three or four last meltings the iron became soi >
and would file; it had also lost its silvery whiteness and became of a more nu
colour.

I eee by a memorandum I have found, that I tested this iron in 1821, when t f
strength was logo lbs. for a 3-ft. bar. |b

It is only in the third melting that the original strength of this pig iron, 8 •’

u obtained, viz. 8( IG lb»., while in the No. 1 Hot-bla9t Mine pig, the strc!!f
winch was only GOi lbs., it increases to 749 lbs. in the first, melting. VoU * i iron
that I arrive at the same maximum strength in the twclftli melting of the .

that Mr. Hurbairn did; the Corbyna Hall rising from 749 lbs. to 1166 lbs.,
Eghnton from 7 1 4 lbs. to 1060 lbs. in the twelfth meltings. The roaxunm” streng
of the Blaenavon u at the nineteenth melting. . the

At the twenty-third melting the pot broke, and ranch of the iron ran mm
ash-pit, but that which remained in the pot ran out quite fiuid, but set immei
About 22 lbs. weight of coke was used to each melting, taking about one
The weight put on the bars at each time was 2i lbs. I have added the weight®!
bars and f rds the weight of the pigs, in all the weights given, which was tne
breaking weight. 6

W. HaWKBS.

On Ocean Steamers and Clipper Ships.

By Andrew Henderson, A.I.C.E . -de

Speed, size and proportions.— Considering actual experience at sea theoniyg ^
in the application of science to the improvement of our shipping, the auth
some years laboured to obtain a record (in the archives of the Institute of C«"
gmeers) of the size, proportions, and form of steam-vessels, as well as th

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

153

actnllv realized on the several seas traversed by our steamers. An abstract of the
molt 'was exhibited in a tabular form, showing the comparative tonnage, bulk,
iwnsions, displacement and resistance, and other particulars, ot vessels built or
feigned for the various services and seas to which navigation is extent mg.

By reference to these results, and the diagram of the midship section, an approxi-
estimate may be made of their relative form, resistance, bulk, or capabl i \ or
•mating the ocean. In the upper lines of the table were found the tonnage,
iomsions and proportions of mast of the curliest ocenn steamers constructed by
r^-nent builders, with the actual speed realized by them on mail service, some ex-
'r-ine over six years, and all over many thousand miles. This information, from
“Soil returns between 1845 and 1851, shows thut on an aggregate of 1,2< 1,000
the realized speed only averaged 7‘945 knots per hour in the Mediterranean
ud Indian Seas. The general average of the earliest steamers on the West Indian
"*was even below' this, while the earlier vessels placed on Mr.Cunard's line realized
1 knots.

As to the relative speed of different vessels, it was seen in the last column that the
fcD?th of the live steamers that realized 850 knots per hour averaged less than six
7* their breadth, whilst those that realized less than 7*&t* hoots averaged upwards
' wn times their breadth. The form being as important to speed as the propor-
•Mne midship sections of several of these were given in the diagrams. Ihree on
-hand side— the - Great Western,* * Precursor.’ and * India/— may br con-
,1 .rt., type Of the original large ocean steamers built on the Avon and Clyde ;
2 James,’* Oriental/ and * Hindostan’ representing those huilt on the Iharaea
. ersey- hi the absence of actual sections, the form of the latter, and other
3'. ,na>' lje approximated to by reference to the columns of the table, by which
be**a that these timber steamers have all extremely flat floors and straight
atm'ofK T of coasiderable depth. The diagrams as well as the tables show the
jO* breadth to depth and length, and the ratio of displacement to area of section,

'Huru lhird.and two- thirds the height of deck, affording a lair criterion of
The aJlc and resiat®nce of different vessels.

1 a# sectinn, «.<■ ... . . ... .. r« .. .... _ ,eio ‘ Pre-

rarsor at ^.e ' hireat Western/ built by Mr. Patterson i

I439 Napier in 1841, and the ‘ Comprehensive/ design*

bring R'SQ *0— at similarity in form and rise of floor, their pr

in 1838, the

designed by the author in
c imilarity in form and riBe of floor, their proportion of length
thr^ :3 b‘08- and fi-71 breadths respectively j the relative tonnage of these
their len!Jer9 ,bcinB 1242, M?(i, and 2015 tuns by the old law, a* deduced from
Criterion 60 ‘„and breadth, without reference to the depth, thereby affording no
The ,nrnn'eir.re*at*ve bulk or displacement. . .

to and W m°<;0 ,rePresents a class of very large paddle steamers, built of oak tim¬
'd. knot. 8rrPuank>8' with great steam power, for the West India mail service, of
^»^/e1M0,ent'’ for the same service, is built of three thicknesses of plank,
j. t0 nghtness and speed. It is well known that some of these very long
*n,Jrmou8. Pr°Ved deficient in strength, and that their consumption of coal is

aQd 'Arabia’ represent the improved North American mail steamers of
Vs52 av»P,,i | cy are built of timber, and their average speed in fifty-four voyages
D| 'Aralii- • ra,'ler more than lOi knots an hour. The ratio of length to breadth
^crably nir^ and 0,ber tirQher vessels is about 7*00 breadths, but they have con -
2400 ton riSe.0^ door and finer lines than the earlier vessels, their size being
°.ld or builder*a measurement. ,

llr** 1)81^ ' N Sttan'er ' Arctic’ represents the class of vessels known as Collins s
are all bulb <■ • k ftnd Liverpool ; they are said to have averaged eleven knots,
^ of the Cunaol pluib®r °f very heavy scantling. Their tonnage is^greater^than

and
53 by

excellent sea-boat.

breadVl ~* "1C tiec“l,ar lonn of the ' tire at mitain shows a very flat floor
, , with a rise from floor to main breadth, and rounded home side

a* fV, 1 a * »utu su'diiit isi, nave u. jhujiu

» “7 mtter, the broadest, being spoken of as an

"ith tke breadth8* ‘i, Pec?r,ar T°rm of the ‘ Great Britain’
iJ/1* light d a rise from floor to main breadth, anu rounueu uumc

to breadth ' °* Wa^cr » the tonuage is about 3400 tons, and her ratio of
is 5’78. The lareest and loncrest vessel vet constructed is the

154

REPORT — 1854.

' Himalaya,' built on the Thames by Mr. Mare, for the Peninsular and Oriental
Company, measuring 3528 tons, and haviug a ratio of length to breadth of 7'4 1 j
her length is 341 feet, and her breadth 46 feet. Although of great length, the water
lines at bow and stern are so sharp and fine, that the buoyancy or resistance to the
sea is thrown nearer the centre than in shorter or fuller ships.

It will be.seen by the midship section that her rise of floor is very great, with a
straight side of moderate depth ; and she 1ms realized the highest speed between
England and the Mediterranean. The * Bengal,' ‘ Argo,' and ' Victoria,’ are three
large screw steamers, of recent construction ; they measure respectively 2180, 1840,
and 1834 tons; their ratio uf length to hreadth is 7‘6l, fi’20, and G'85, ami were
built by Messrs. Tod and M'Gregor, Messrs. Mure, and Messrs. Scott Russell and
Co. respectively.

A return of the services and voyages of vessels will give the only true account of
speed realized ; but if accompanied by the dimensions, proportions, displacements,
&c., in the tabular form, and diagram of midship section, much valuable information
will be diffused, bearing on the more important, questions of relative strength and
seaworthiness.

The term "clipper ship” is applicable to all vessels in which speed is made the
primary object. Acting on this principle, in 1831 Mr. Henderson built the clipper

* Wutcrwitch’ (a model was placed on the table) so sharp and shallow, as to Btow a
cargo of only one-half the 380 tous registered ; while carrying the sails of a 500 ton
Bhip, having a numerous crew to man her efficiently, experience proved her very long
masts and square yards were within the limits of safety. The ship being still em¬
ployed in the China trade, though twice twelve years old, is evidence of her being
Bafoly built, rigged, and well-proportioned ns a sailing clipper, her length being 375
times her breadth. In 1842 he built the ‘ Kelpie,’ of the sumo tonnage register, hut
increased the length to four breadths, with less rise of floor, as shown in model ana
diagram of midship section.

There being some thirty English clippers between India and China, several Ame¬
rican clippers were built to compete with them, of much larger tonnage and greater
length. I heir success induced the extension of the clipper principle into the China,

* j l^-'rnin' and trade, for which the iron shipbuilders of Englan

andthe timber shipbuilders of America are alike competitors.

I he Americans have very large ships ; the ' Great Republic' may be cited as an
instance : her tonnage was 4535 tons, length 325 feet, and her breadth 53 teet; Iter
ratio to length C-13 breadths. She was unfortunately burnt when ready for sea,
that no practical experience has resulted from this enterprise. The sides of tnc
Great Republic' are three times as thick as those of the ' Bengal.’ an iron steamer

Very large vessels— their seaworthiness.-Thc Report of the Directors °ftl*
Eastern Steam Navigation Company states the dimensions and power of tbf>r
intended ship to be ns follows length, 680 feet; breadth. 83 feet ; depth. ,58 *****
7, -IVm p0(J,d,l7 ; t,lc engines of a nominal horse-power of 26°° bo _
Calculated by the old law, the tonnage of this vessel would be 22,912 tons,
twice the length of the ' Himalaya/ and nearly a furlong or cable in length-
Holy \\ nt records that Noah’s Ark, launched on the waters of the flood
years before Christ, was 300 cubits long, 50 cubits broad, and 30 cubits deep, »
proportional length being six times the breadth, and the depth 6-10ths of the bread! •
Hy oid law, the tonnage of Noah’s Ark was 1 1,905 tons, and calculated on
mate, her external bulk would be about 1,580,277 cubic feet ; the ship t>ullt 2 .

« Alexandria, bv Ptolemmus Philopater, 6445 tons ; while that of
de?'£nCd by Mr- Bn*nel» and building by Mr. Scott Russell, wottW

K.t’wtff11 raUc tolk- '*< “ 8'19- °r e‘6ht Md

Comfort Promised in this vessel building on the ljgj
. l-f ♦ •/ g° ^“/Cofpubl‘c attention, but little consideration has been P “ .

the subject of tts seeunty heavy seas, its capabilities for navigation, and the effect

TRANSACTIONS OF THE 8ECTIONS.

155

an ocean wave on a vessel of such extraordinary length. 1 1 is true that such n ' ‘ ‘ *

may often cross the Atlantic without encountering such a sea as would endangf i h r.

Henderson affirms that he has seen waves of a height of 50 feet, Rom crest
to hollow, and argues that it is impossible fora vessel of this length and proportion t
U lipt under command in snch u sea should any accident happen to her mac uner\ .

Toe investigations of Dr. Scoresby show that the elevation of the Atlantic waves
hard gale was as much as 43 feet. Others estimate the mean elevation nt
»f«t, with a length of lfio feet, and a velocity of 30 miles per hour. W c may tlicrc-
estimate the usual gales in the Atlantic as producing u wave 25 feet in height
«d!00 feet long. The author doubts the capacity of such a ship under such pres-
•ures, and cites examples of this in three American steamers, the ' Pro me, the
Vanderbilt/ and the ‘ San Francisco.’ The former was lost ; the Vanderbilt fell
'nil \hc trough of the sea, and was struck by a wave which carried away all her
Wwarka, made a clean sweep of her deck-houses, and put out all her fires. The
',:u Francisco, a large steamer, bound to California, caught in a north-west gale in
w Gulf-stream, being disabled got into the trough of the sea; she became per-
unmanageable, and part of the crew and 150 passengers were washed off her,

I decks actually being stave in, they having no command over her when under sail
5«dq. This difficulty may be obviated by the ship being provided with a rudder nt
«em as well as the stern, and by having before the after rudder, and above the
frew shaft, a steering puddle or three-armed paddle across the stern, the wheel being
•wo-thirds its diameter above water, to be worked by a ten-horse engine.

DfiRcrtptive ftfcaaurmvnt for 'Tonnage.

j ft R“ Act passed in 1830, aud amended in 1845. a rule was adopted, based on the
diviy v ' “““rcwwrtof eleven breadths and four depths, taken at three sections, the
In iRin°ieav1il's tbe registered tonnage.

Antr l“e tonnage Committee, including Mr. Parsons and Mr. Moorsom, ship-
f)rd BrtTk ^ mercantile captains, reported “that the equitable basis charges
tD«a and ,®“t’ 1,arbour» and other dues, was that of the entire cubical contents
inj cu!; eternally to the height of the upper deck by the use of diagrams of sections
M I M ot ar<-'U8.’’

<&£**** Pr°Poaed n, mode of computing the internal capacity without the aid
n Wore p'8 °r ?uives °f ureas, aud of ascertaining the tonnage by dividing by 100
termed | 1 ttvenieut. In May 1850, the author transmitted to the Board of Trade a
'"lit mj p'an; showing that the mode of external measurement and computing the
capicitv. i‘n,tllc bl11 of 1850, is equally applicable to ascertaining the internal
>*Uy aj ’ “Ul1 tbat by one measurement, taken either externally as in bill, or inter-
[nPH k ')y Mr’ Moorsom, both the external bulk and internal space could
To meet tk • meaas ol~ transverse sections and curves of areas.

^wr-buii* y lnetlUfl,'itiea of light, goods and dead-weight cargoes, and those of
L n- ‘he Rdv 'fa aTul ,rou vessels, it was then proposed, ami still advocated, to com-
of 18' ()^ eternal measurement, recommended by the Tonnage Com-
^opted itiAnrilT^- P1® iatfrna^ measurement proposed by Mr. Moorsom and
r'f the eitwiml I u’ ,u tbe b*U to come into operation in 1855, by taking the mean
b9tWeen tiiut.pfL. aiul internal space in cubic feet, thus forming an average
tonaacc *2^ iron B^‘P9* belli curgu and dead weight, as tlic basis of
^vrrifti bulk ,, ’ 7. * "inage Committee in 1840 ascertained, by measuring the

to the^'lb C0.uteHta of many vessels, that the ratio of old, or builder’s,
'^adopted ,iU , ?.r displacement tu upper deck was 27-100ths. The factor -27

. b,U 15S* b!U ot'

^nuag0 baaed on .pta 100 ni the divisor of the internal capacity for the register
to-6* f'»r external _e Iul°rnal space only, instead of which it is proposed that the
jj'i’ftibg Bin boforpa>UretUen^ should be Oilded to the 20th clause of the Merchant
Ilrn r?thfi °f the rn . T'h8 iato °Pcr*tion in May 1855. A factor of 30, 31, or
in Produce a rm/U* JU * an^ 8Pace could he fixed for each 500 tons, so that it
f.* thus armr^!* cr ^unnage a little below the old law or builder’s measure-
eitl IC Practieabilitv „flI^ate tbc ru*L‘ or tonnage used by foreigners.

eternally or‘ inter mPutl.n8 both bulk and space from one measurement, taken
nally, is exemplified by the diagram of midship section of a

156

REPORT — 1854.

steamer of 350 ton9 O.M., on paper ruled to a scale, having each distance written
and marked on the horizontal scale at its height. From a diagram through these
marks, the eye can detect any error in the measurements or in the curves of areas,
and their correction may be secured, on their computation being written on the
certificate of survey.

The following dimensions, particulars space and displacement are to be recorded
on register, and the seven forms of transfer, mortgage, &c., in bill : —

Length of weather deck at its medium height . 138 '9 feet.

Depth from deck to rabbit in keel . 17 2 feet.

External bulk to medium height of deck . 34*612 cubic feet.

Internal space to under side of deck ... 23,010 ratio to bulk, *665
Cubical contents of hull, including lower deck, 1 1 ,602 ratio to space, ’504
Mean of external bulk and internal space, cubic feet 28,81 1-f- 35=825 tons.
Do. do. X factor *30- Register, 246 94-100 tons.

Length between perpendiculars nt rabbits in 1 f T tn 55

stem and stern post, 2-Srda height, 1 33 feet l ratio of i „ ”?£ ,!, ' 07

Breadth nt ditto, 24 feet . 7. . J { DePth to breadth °7

Displacement immersed to upper deck . 938 tons, 18*4 high.

Ditto to load water linn or 2-3rds height . 533 „ 12 4 „

Ditto light water line or 1 -3rd height . 159 „ 6’2 „

Area ot midship section, height of deck . . . 346 square feet.

Ditto ditto 2-3rds, height of deck . 288 „

Ditto ditto l-3rd, height of deck . 69

T he strength of vessels, so far as regards their safety, may also be ascertained by
recording on the certificate of Burvev a specification 'in detail of the materials n»
Bhown m the certificate survey of the 3fiO-ton vessel, from which the weight of the
bull of a timber ship is estimated to be 184 tons, that of iron 138 tons. The exact
space occupied by the hull can be measured by setting off the thickness of timber and
plank nn.l iron nt measured sections on u .scale, which not only shows the disposition
•f 1 atm a I and strength, but enables the surveyor or owner, from one measurement,
fnrmT1 * .bQ? thc n,crnal bn,k and internal space ; the former affording in¬
formation as to form, proportions, and dead-weight cargo carried ; thn latter, thecnp*-
«hnw°rf lghVg°kdfl' llu'“' <liffl'rence being the cubic contents of thc hull, as shown
■WU o 1°' “ rn,r°r |J0 1 1 cubic its ratio to the internal spare heme

one-thTrd Ha ^ * thatof ttn iron vcssd is only -367. or the hull little more than

loo a— n<!,,,,,t8 H'e i,ltt,rnal apace as the basis of registered tonnage, using

Jr'VZP WS.,ch ft of th* same dimensions and bulk would I*

moreecmitahle l 8 'f bui,t of li™b^. blIt 263 tons if built of iron. As much
interna? snieo' ' » P7T0,cd to substitute for this the mean of the external bn

ScLt ST or * XfT T01™**- Thc «»»* vessel built of timber on Lloyd*

,hl',r rr?

TmdeTn Mr‘ again addressed to the Board of

and the addhionnf it*' the reorganization of the Tonnage Commit^

WM to^m«i ffW?bCT*.COnnectCtl with shipping and with scientific societies,

In December ftnd 1,10 improvement of the Mercantile Marine.

apnlication «-nl J! i 3‘. ,waa di8CUss<d the Institution of Civil Engineers, sod

j;

"do,,,cd- ,M,fad

loom in' whi ch^wo*!^ H’"* p*Plflined the construction of a new kind °f [ P°we/

oZr. We 2v7„?«r,kS V in!° * f™“. one brine above*.

“"<< Stealer <econo„^i„ ““S °rC mCr

TRANSACTIONS OF T1IE SECTIONS.

157

Oa mne Experiments upon a Telegraph for communicating curw Fiver,
and Seas, without the employment of a submerged Cable.

By l B. Lindsay. ( Communicated by Rich. B. Grantham,

Mr. Lindsay's proposition or invention consists in communicating intelligence
L-'oagh rivers and seas without the U3e of a submerged cable. tue

^ experiment was tried on a small scale in the middle of last me .nth across the
n*--'kin at Portsmouth, in the presence of Capt. Beattie, Ro)» I L g *

'd.-T engineering officers : the distance w«9 530 feet. 1 lie next an tance

i>rtu were made across the entrance to the harbour at 1 ortsmout 1,
kingfiOO yards and the other 1380 yards. . , . • i t,.

He placed along upon each shore a copper wire, to both ends d whteh he
''wW a sheet of copper, one pair of these sheets being opposite to , lc 0t^r P^
‘,r.G the shore. All the other four sheets were immersed m the water, but ’ they
not isolated. Upon one line of wire the battery was placed, and upon iue
r.Wi the telegraph ; and upon the battery being brought into action, the neei <-»

K *n motion on the opposite shore. , . ,

Mr. Lindsay considers that the distance between the copper plates on each shore
*<J be equal to the sum of the two widths across the river or sea at the plates ,
7 ,l.v increasing Uie strength of the battery, or enlarging the area of tnc coppe
' i:«, the plates can be brought nearer to each other.

I" Ihe last experiments the distance across two of the plates was 811,1 J to
‘rb, and the other distance 1380 yards. Oiie of the plates was laid at Blockhouse

•rt, and the nthor nf iVir. »u,a.l tnnmi. of RnlUrnnrt.

r i- 'iv-wiy, uiui mu

me of comnnmicatiou.

. , fR’ is, besides the conw

- 'V l,c‘s'aes tIlu copper of the ships, the iron chains by which the floating
!i,;.^'V!rawn across the Harbour ; and still, with all these incitements to draw oft
"”db tnC flu'lc1' there was »o interruption of the current in its course to the

these experiments, Mr. Un.lsav believes tot there U
"H«oriL^y '“Clothe employment of this kind of telegraph; and it he had the
l.' L 'lty- be would not fear to extend it across much wider spaces than haxe
Thr^ bec" attempted.

*I"llWdfPe!l.ments ^at intelligence can be transmitted across rivers and seas,

1 ' a i) In Jo 18 k,"ld of t^’legrapdi may bo used for communicating across rivers in popu-
lf iiuon n3,rhefL‘ ,here may be large numbers of vessels passing und repassing ; but
ir.PM . j.,1? 'argev scale, ueross seas from one kingdom to another, a vast miprove-
1. ■!.!,. tu ' 1C ttttaiucil as compared with the present system by submerged cables,
naul' accidents, and probubly undergoing a vast amount oi depreciation.

ft; !:’ M<Derm°tt explained a new railway brake, which is brought into action
c pressure of the steam in the boiler. ’

0/i a Method of Boring Holes in Rock for Tunneling Purposes
jn{^ Hy J. Nasmyth, P.lt.S.

With tea mot^°d of boring holes for blasting, by striking t
pucd the «V?" “a,nmers, a great portion of the edict is lost by w
!? ^nvei-t thp*w ia” *>ur‘ overcome this defect, Mr. N . . .

Jv “'S-box riv*10 a piston-rod, to work in an air-tight cylinder through a
Pressure of A mt‘ans, when the piston in drawn to the end of the cylinder.
Hie atmosphere will force it back again with accumulating velocity,

at the cud of the
hat is commonly

158

REPORT — 1854.

and the blow struck will have much greater effect. Mechanical contrivances might
be introduced for changing the shape and the directions of the penetrating point.
Jt was suggested in the discussion that ensued, that a similar effect might be more
readily produced by the employment of vulcanized india-rubber springs. Mr.
Nasmyth observed that any clastic medium would answer the purpose; but air
suggested itself as affording greater extent of spring.

r. Nasmyth explained a plan for destroying ships by means of a marine
or ar fixed at the bow of a strongly built vessel to be propelled by steam-power.
He proposed to place in the how of the vessel, and projecting about 2 feet beyond
i , a case large enough to contain about six hundredweight of gunpowder. A per¬
cussion ball was to be inserted at the back of the reservoir of gunpowder to explode
at the instant that it struck against the ship to be destroyed. The mortar vessel
blocks Of timber, eo strongly us to be able itself to resist the
e . of the explosion, which would completely destroy the enemy’s ship. Such h
“E"" r™>p{ar' " stated, could be amply manned by " three brave fellow*/'
i Vv, °U f X secured from danger by the strength of the ship and its recoil, and
,,y °n f,c^l>y|uK positions least exposed to injury, even should the explosion do
damage to the parts nearest to it.

. ■ nff-*r,uTTU < C4Cn.IPI !l lightning Conductor for Chimneys, which he con-
nun ti 1 mofe l,e,*Vct ln*ulntion, and is therefore safer than those in common
holdfast. C Practlce is the conductor outside the chimney by metal

damnaed’he *”eans' during severe thunder-storms, chimneys are often

brie k It? Hi points of attachment and displacing the

metal ‘rod iVsusn,„ Hn i i Xlng •tJ"i condllct'J*' recommended bv Mr. Nasmyth, the
on tho to , A SSK, *5° of the chimney by branching supports five, I

”eveX?niured oSS? ?r ^ kind had P™»d efficient in storms which had
usual manner An e D no'Khbourhood that were protected in the

plan*. ’ An “perience of eighteen years had tested the superiority of the

adopted rai,Way signals, which he considered might be

engine-driver One n?*uf0r offl:c.tinB communication between the guard ami the
S whUtle fixeS . hT 'Vh,cU he *aid Wft’ «* Chinese origin, consisted of a
made a shrill Bound r *?°v 8tlck' ^hich when thrown rapidly through the air,
it from a pistol He ffu* •’ ^.Orton 8ai‘J» the best mean= of propulsion was to fire
whS he Cd the whisM with great success ; for the engineer,

the steam-whistle * *>aB6ln8 ovcr h*8 head, responded immediately by sounding

Ugh tning'conducmri ^ i ntr^erf faLl ” f°r h,i* °Pini,,n' “W that be bad no ol.jccdo.i to
duclor attached to tl.c- 0r v il* "?„WC, as °"tslde nf building*. The lightning con
the column • he would I . \ k * pillar u fi*ed outside, to the great disfigurement of
bad, unless '.SsreTe , ontint r‘ A" near the conductor.*

Instance of damage d-me ij 2.1"' , eonduction to the ground. lie jnendoned 'bf
nine having panned from ii. g,1,ho,t*c in consequence of part of die discharge of light

a ‘l16 ,,na',ttrhcd ,ead « ,hC

safely rnn l«d tetwJn tS!? 0/' by ,W MechanW Section wM, how far they could
ducontinuou* scries of such minir^1 n,SIructurc ; for if it were done partially,
being di, placed by the elecmV l u fiUitc,'inKi- ‘here would be great danger of the s‘un -
taken th.« they aSSim s,lch '“tenlng* are used, oft should be
Some persons conreived that a!ld/T,t'1 tJ'.c earlh hY “ continuous metallic condu •

building by gin*. i,.,, -n ,‘h 1 desirable to insulate the conductor from the wah ,
could be ?eS“cd frnm ^ A. distance to which the

compared with the distance ihrnn^i^ Interposed insulator was altogether imigni
clouds to the earth. On beta* afked wh* i! 'G ,ightnin* n",5t P®** in * discharge Iroi ^
copper rod, .Pro f. Faraday JL m ** .whc,hcr « flat strip of copper was not better tbs _

substance and quality of the metal «»*ih"Pe °f 1,10 c'>nd,,ctor >* hmoatwial, provide
/ meiui ore the santc.— [Note by Editob.]

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

159

On Unchanged Steam. By Mr. Piiosser.

The author explained and commented or. the plan adopted in the ‘Arctic’ steam-
packet, of giving additional heat to the steam on its passage to the cylinders by
nposing it more directly to the action of heat.

& Means of realising the advantages of the A ir - Engine. By W i r.LI A M
John Macquobn Rankin e. Civil Engineer, F.R.SS. Land, Edin. SfC.

Ilia paper consists of four sections. In the first are explained the two funda¬
mental laws of the mechanical action of heat, and their application to determine the
®aency of theoretically perfect engines, working between given limits of tempera¬
te; and it is shown that, as the efficiency increases with the distance between
thsT |im[t\and 115 lt 's easy to employ air with safety at temperatures fur exceeding
a the pressure of saturated steam would cease to be safe and manageable,
fl|/ua(!l'rai,ni theoretical efficiency' of air-engines, consistent with safety, is much
»l wi >1 n. ^ 8^-<mgines ; for example, nl the teraperuture of 650° Fahr.,
tom 'air a'r*enS',ie has been successfully worked, the pressure of saturated
^ on square inch, while that of air is optional, being regulated
lathe B|ty at Which the «r is employed.

yEinesl 8C<f SeCCiori l^e var‘ous causes of waste of heat and power in steam-
anc* actua' efficiency of steam-engines is compared with their
rca “®°retical efficiency, and also with the maximum actual efficiency which
jtniohio “ , y ?e supposed to be attainable in the steam-engine by means of any
CTd'amcal ‘mPr°vements.

imlit v J eing are Mutates of the consumption of bituminous coal of a specified
r&e-^r Per hour.—

tenm “.oretically perfect engine, working between such limits of

2, For a dm “S aie U8Uftl iu steam. engines . . l‘861bs.

extent °ubc‘achng steam-engine improved to the utmost probable

*• Fora weilV"; . . . 2-50 »

Btinm 'cr'118tructed and properly worked ordinary double-acting

, 111 CSd 8? 0,1 an . . . . 4-oo „

'• la«ilipd jn sectlou the causes of waste of heat and power in uir-engines are
^cier>cies uf ,/nanncr analogous to that upplied to steam-engines, and the actual
■*"- been ohtr °5V>reV'OUa ft‘ ‘'-engines us to which satisfactory experimental data
Sli.,'li.ns'5 «**!"'• and F.ricsson’s engine of 1852, are
Ur°l‘ hmits of t 1<; ”**c‘enc*es of theoretically perfect engines working between the
^^mptioo 0f em?eia':uie' the results being as follows, so far aa they relate to the
coal of the specified quality, per horse-power per hour ; —

Consumption of a

Si;.]- , Actual consumption. theoretically

K; DS B engine Pcrfctt engine.

^'seneina^p';;: . 2’20lbs. O’fJlbs.

Jt i» thug ])rov fl8°2 . 2'80lbs.* 0'82!bs.

realhe ai'Aern11 &n ail'-engine has actually been made to work successfully,
fc.*“Ps« and, in pa..f nomy °.f Fuel considerably superior to that of ordinary steam-
tonvy 0f T. surpBsstng the utmost limit to which it is probable that the

■tot engine as fiSSt->am*ensine8 can ewr be brought,
lay rjle to get out of i. lm l)l ove' I, was compact in its dimensions, easily worked,
’‘ere „ m*engine ■ Ktil/n *’ :uu* consumed less oil, and required fewer repairs than
la great as to in l|° atJvailtagcs shown by that engine over steam-engines

a iong-tiipd UCe ,firoctlca) rae1' to overcome their natural repugnance
bnu* ^ Flricsson'a m°tuod for a new one. Another circumstance caused
"'ere by some ^''gme8 lo racet with neglect from scientific men, namely,
» r, ’"o'c popu|n.. . sons represented as instances of power created out of

'^2VUCl C01'Uedi commonly called “ the perpetual , notion."

^tplied' Pfr hour, lc,w?.>S°" ° e',‘ST -WM a,'lhrQc>te. at the rate of 1*37 lb. per in-
utoinj,la. y.1*5, td reduce it .l8,,1" 1 r°.'' I,0rton'!' computation. This quantity is here
*n ‘be other calrnia.- 1C ®qu,va'ent quantity of bituminous coal of the quality
«‘i.uiauons of this paper.

160

REPORT— 1854.

It is shown that Stirling's air-engine, as compared with a theoretically perfect
air-engine, wasted two-thirds of its fuel, and Ericsson's somewhat more.

Two obvious and powerful causes of that waste of fuel are traced, —

1. Deficiency in extent of heating surface ;

2. The communication of heat from the furnace to the working air, at those
periods of the stroke when it is not performing work.

The necessary conclusion is, that the more completely we remove those two causes
of waste of fuel, the more nearly shall we approximate to the theoretical extent of
the oecanomy of the air-engine, an extent far exceeding that to which the economy
of the steam-engine is restricted; and the more fully, in short, shall we accomplish
that which has hitherto beeq vwv imperfectly done; »>. iirai.izk Ttltc advantages
or run air-engine. [These first three sections have been published in the Edin¬
burgh Philosophical Journal for January 1855.]

^ I he fourth sectiun describes the improved nir-engine of Messrs. James Robert
Napier and W. J. Macquorn Ranking, in this engine the heating surface is in¬
creased to any required extent by means of tubes employed in a peculiar manner,
ihc waste ol heat, from its communication to the air at improper periods of the
stroke, is prevented hy a sort of plunger, or combination of plungers, called the
Heat -screen, which prevents any access of the air to the heating surface, except
when it is in the act of expauding, and ao performing work. The engine may be
made ol the same size with a steam-engine of the same power, or smaller, according
to the degree of condensation at which the air it employed.

Independently ot the amount, and value of the saving of fuel which will result
from the introduction of the air-engine, it possesses the important and incontestable
advantage, that even should an ut- receiver burst (which is very unlikely), the ex¬
plosion would be harmless, for its force would not be felt beyond the limits of the
engine itselt, and hot air does uot scald

Rbi® presented a sketch of the plan of ventilating St. George’s Ilall ; and
at the conclusion of the sitting he accompanied the members over the building to
show the arrangements.

On

"\r'r l,'°yrc('s pf Naval Architecture and Steam Navigation, including &
notice of the large Ship of the Eastern. Steam Navigation Company. M
John Scott Russell, C.E., F.Il.S.

Ru.ssc11 ^plained the elementary principles which guide the construction of
slaps, and condemned the legislative restrictions which, till within the last twenty
?PJl,ira*i°n "f those principles. The old " sea chests/’ "Inch
S M rlh a vicw to RV0itl the taxation imposed on ships that were no
xvindwnrHn«»ain *l,aPw' posseted neither the requisite properties of stability

rdr Wre w7’ *,ow 5 Ihcy were built solely with a View to hold the
nullities of n CR|rfit' Wllb'n u K‘ven superficies, without regard to the oth
building fnr j!!!?' ,n M“nKling and piratical vessels the true principle of »b»P
.... . i°’ qumng speed, had however been long introduced before the su d
Hn h,™ P.b.y.-h,C ?T'sh A"ociati«n. and the wave principle of construction had
r ,neo ne?ab U,rd 7 on a large scale. A fi»* c

Uir rounU how. is now generally admitted to be the b«t .
bodv nf n ! nr he #1,aPe the water line, it had hern found that length of the
for the nnr?ihJ *7 ?***? '> P****g' through the water, by allowing a longer one
Sdv ,he 1 01,1 to ^parate. A ship with a tine concave bow. a log

the water IS,1?”1** y rMod stern, Mr. Russell said, cleaves its passage thro'g
nUs notTfti r T,‘U*Wg a wave in front to obstruct its course. No stcam_ h l
a creat exnoml,^' T 111,1 bc ProP*» ^ at a speed of sixteen miles an hour with®
fa£3«f to he ; i:,ul 100 fret is the shortest length for a ship that i

illustration of tv ‘ . at ^tgll a speed as twenty-four miles au hour.
onTat^n^h^ [“K" Wtt3 »n«*tio«id that the ‘Himalaya/ which » 365 flg
long, attains the greatest speed for the power employed of anv merchant ship- J

"T l‘0TO™! the bu’Kwm met’ with the
not being able to find wood of sufficient size for the requisite strength, since no

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

1G1

means have yet been invented of joining pieces of wood together so as to give them
the same strength as the whole timber. This want of material of sufficient size
*as supplied by using iron, for the joints can be made as strongly ns the whole
r'ate, or plates of metal of any required size can be rolled for the purpose. 1 his
’•lity of increasing the size of the material is the principal advantage derived from
•5* tse of iron, which affords facilities far COMtrttCtil g ships of nny si/c ; and 't is
( t-at material that the great ship, now building in London for the Eastern Steam
nllrrt. P,...,. _ ’ » - 1- - _ .»Ar| M.. rmiinllmpntpfl Mr. Hr unci

function of large iron ships; and he alluded to the torcoonmgs ui ui*n*u-i u..
■^r occasions, when the ‘Great Western' and the ‘Great Britain’ were built,

' ‘kb forebodings events had shown to bi groundless; anti he felt confident that
lD similar forebodings which some people had expressed of the still larger ship
u" being built would be equally fallacious. Mr. Bussell said he wished it how¬
-to be understood, that he did not reconnnen.l the general adoption of such large
**ze the ships ought to be suited to the traffic and the distance ; but
P°lnt be contended for was, that it is only by employing very large ships that
^ ^-navigation to distant parts of the globe can be profitably carried on. A
•••an-ahip to Australia, if it were not large enough to carry sufficient tend for the
had to take in a supply over and over again, and at each station the cost of

ai, i Was “HCWfWed by conveying it. to the different stations. Under such disad-
kwa 68 n° frcigbt could pay the cost of conveyance ; and in order to remove them,

« necessary to build a ship of sufficient size to carry a supply of fuel for the

t, ; - 0ut anti back again, or equal to circumnavigating the globe. An extremely

"'ranee was another of the characters which the large ship now building would
,.|nr- ‘ 6? as to enable it to move through the water with the greatest attainable
^Pfcted'Iw a 'nodarate amount of steam power. With these advantage* it was
tii,e j at the ship would accomplish the voyage to Australia in thirty or thirty-
indwoulu It: Wou|'1 easily carry 6000 tons, besides its requisite quantity of coal,
til, 3 ana In° exccl,ent accommodation for 500 first-class passengers, COO secoml-
:"-tdth of u ° third-class passengers. It would be 6/5 feet long, 85 feet in
lrurill in .. beatt!‘ “fid Go feet deep; aud though so large that St. George's Mall is
the smallest size that could do the work required with

(economy.

Mechanical Appliances on board Merchant Ships. By Mr. Saxby.

Principles and Measures on which Safety in the Navigation
h. g may be reasonably looked for. By the Rev. Dr. Scores by.

r,,nipass5cs <bv\u^ded bis previous communications on the deviations of ships'
^iiAriencjne , ? "'lienee of the masses of iron in iron ships, and said, that after
a Bcnt|(,Ca °PP0sition, his views had been fully confirmed by Mr. Archibald
, I*r>ucipies. ,man 'yh° had at command all the records of her Majesty’s ships.
J; ^at the ™WLl.ch 1,0 contended were

W avettic^T 'roa Bbips in its action on the compass may be repre-
ijl' ^>at chanppa ,a i a horizontal bar swinging round a compass.

^ bj^ce. ° * m *he magnetic distribution and compass action in iron ships do

>i ^attherc8ea8rta-7lacc 'Q a ship’s magnetism by changes of magnetic latitude,
^'ntivelvt 1 , u‘?ncC3 in a ship derived from the varieties of form and
5 ^correctives ° comPas*) of particular masses of iron which may act as

^■aiid in c°rreeting the deviation in iron ship* by fixed magnets is

alter u, '•be twis'ti,,° 90u, ern regions aggravates the error.

7 Tv ^“gnetic net15 !'n< spraining of the iron materials of a ship will tend to

Oj8*’ whilst chanlr th° COm‘,as8 : and‘

1854. ar,ly i' rennir^eSf-are not nnfrequently rapid on occasion of blows from the
. es time to effect the changes in a ship’s magnetic action.

11

REPORT— 1854.

162

Dr. Scoresby said, the results of these principles establish the propositions for
•which he has long contended, that the magnetism of all iron ships is changeable;
and that the iron ships in which the least changes may be expected to occur are those
which have been long in use ordinarily pursuing the same course, and those not
making voyages further south than the Mediterranean. In such circumstances, an
intelligent captain, by observing the changes that take place, may generall)

confidence in his compasses. The suggestions which Dr. Scoresby made lor mo¬
nishing the danger arising from deviations are,— that a standard azimuth compass
be placed on a pedestal on deck where a position of smallest deviation may be oun i
that a compass be placed at the masthead for reference to correct errors ; an 1
care be taken on the selection of compasses to have ample directive force in <■
needle. _

On Steam-boiler Explosions. By John Sewell, Assoc. C.E.

On the Origin of Wire Hope ; its Qualities and (Economy •

By Andrew Smith, London.

In the year 1848, the British Navy had in commission only 3/fl ships of
clas9 ; at the present time there ore in commission more than double that ‘
The expense fpr hempen rope standing rigging for the above number <Hjmipa t c
rope being at the rate of about £40 per ton) amounted to about .11 14,‘ • .
that time patent wire rope was .£'60 per ton; but in consequence ol wire roPL )(ii.
more than twice as strong for the same weight of hempen rope, the cos ^
standing rigging of the above number of ships, made of wire rope,
about £80,000, thus showing a saving of about £'28,000 for one outfit ot c ^
Navy at that time ; but now hempen rope is about £'60 per ton, instead ot, ,
then, in 1848, £40 per ton. The Royal Navy is now supplied with wiie roP® <■
rate of £'40 per ton. Now, as that supply is more than doubled in C(’n^‘11*
the great increase of the Royal Navy, and as hempen rope is now about £» F b|e
the same number of shifts would cost £228,060; and as there ia more tlinii
the number of ships in commission at this time, ami us the price of hemp® j •
has doubled also, and if there had been no wire rope, the Royal Navy „
cost the country for one outfit of standing rigging £914,640 now i ‘ 3<

that as wire rope is only £40 per ton, instead of £60, us it was in the 7“ 1(iillh-
the saving now effected by the invention of wire rope, as applied t0 taU.. ioU>
rigging of the Royal Navy, is about £457,320 for one outfit, without tax b
account that it is much mure lasting or durable. Speaking from tbe “ ore
experience, which is nearly twenty years, it may be taken us three tiro ^
durable ; in fact, unlike hemp, the 'older the wire is the stronger it !??“■*- rpp<(
•hipa in the Royal Navy Lave, been fitted from fifteen to sixteen yeaisvvitft w - ^

and it is now as good as when first put over the masthead. Hempen rop ^
Royal Navy is fitted every three years, or every time that the ships are P , wj{j,
mission ; iu the port of Liverpool a great number uf vessels have been . morC
tins rope about fifteen years ; consequently if it is admitted to be three urn ^
lasting or durable than hempen rope, there would be a saving effected m . l0
missione. or nine years, fur the standing rigging of the Royal Navy, amo ^ ^
the sum of £1,371,960. The uicrcliant service is using quite a* uiuc n raj|\vay*'
important manufacture as the Royal Navy ; and its application for mines,
submarine-telegraph cables, &c., is very great. There are at this time a ° e
different establishments for producing this important and now staple manm ^ fiv>
Great Britain ; and if the average produce at each establishment be ^50

tons per day, they make 100 tons per day. If the average price be taxe
per ton, this will amount to upwards of £1,500,000 sterling per annum-
wire rope is now very extensively used for lightning conductors, and was nrs
duced for the purpose by the author of this paper.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

163

On the Limit of Weight which may safely he laid on a Pile driven into the
Ground. By Professor Stevelly, LL.D Belfast.

The force which resists the penetration of a pile may, under very peculiar circum-
^ces, diminish as the pile is driven downwards ; but for the most part it increases,
“J generally towards the last strokes it receives from the ram the increase is very
raaidcrable. A simple test for this was pointed out by the author, vu. after the
keen driven as deep as intended, letting the ram descend on it from a less
•rot than the previous stroke, and carefully comparing the two distances it has
»ui thus driven. If the resistance increase, then the actual load the pile can bear
' nut be less than what it would be if the resistance were strictly uniform which
experienced as it penetrated. This last force admits of a very simple calcu-
, which, therefore, a most certain limit to the load ur dead weight that
•is without its sinking further may he obtained. The author

K!nt™ out the two dynamic principles on which the calculation was founded :

3 ?ovinS mass* W, strikes another W at rest with the velocity v, then
velocity, after impact,

lWt W+W'

^itanrp .raov'n8 with the velocity v', is stopped by a uniformly acting
!,vt . «tat resistance can be compared with the weight that gives the velocity
•e.u'^re of th* i ^ principle that the force or resistance is proportional to the
frrtc act. . e velocity gained or destroyed, divided by the space through which the
^braic rtpaiPlf 01 lake ** away- The following practical rule is, then, a simple
«tn in tong • w°v ^rontl t^ese two principles, bet W denote the weight of the
wid decimal’ r tae w!3'S*lt; o1’ the pile in tons and decimals ; h, the height in feet
^‘roala of ! /°? ^ich the ram is let fall un the final stroke ; d, the depth in
of bad (in tnn the last stroke causes the pile to penetrate. L, the limit

tons) that may with safety be laid on the pile, shall then be,—

L = W. ( ■ W . ft) ;

, [w+w> U

» » ana a, can all be had by actual weighing and measurement.

Gn an improved Printing Machine. By J. Stather.

Mr, J m

which means tfi' a communication "On an Iron Floating Graving Dock
e 8“'P8 to be repaired are raised by caissons of a peculiar shape.

^ ^eport of p

^xPerimen/^fe>imeniS on ^ie Fr*ct‘on of Discs in Water and on the
o oe made on Centrifugal Pumps. By J. Thornton.

11*

REPORT — 1854.

lG*4

APPENDIX.

On the Amounts of, and Methods of Estimating, Ammonia and Nitric
Acid in Rain-water.

By J. B. Lawes,F.R.£., F.C.8.; and Dr. J. II. Gilbert, F.C.S.

[The following Paper, containing the numerical results relating to ammonia —but not thw
referring to nitric acid, which the authors exclude, after reserving them for re-euim-
nation since the Liverpool Meeting — is given as supplement to the ubstract at pp. 70, 71,
and is added by direction of the Council.]

I he character and amount of the extraneous matters in rain-water arc
questions ol interest in so many points of view, that little apology need br
made for recording, under the auspices of the British Association, any addi¬
tional information on that subject. Of all such extraneous matters, the
ammonia and nitric acid arc of importance in the most numerous aspects.
Thus, their existence in the atmosphere, from which they are washed by the
rain, is primarily dependent., largely at least, on the emanations from the
surface ol the earth, resulting more or less directlv from the decompositio*’
or combustion of animal and vegetable substances, "a ml the transformation ol
the animal substance by the vital process. Their amounts therefore mu>t wj
greater or less in the lower strata of the atmosphere, according to the I"™1
prevalence of animal life and other causes, whilst the relative amount*™
the two, especially in the higher strata of the atmosphere, will he dependent
on its meteoric or electrical condition. Again, whatever may be their H>urf*
or amount, or their proportion to each other in the atmosphere itself, the
amounts of them which are carried down in rain tuul the minor nqu<ou«
depositions from the atmosphere in any given locality, over any fixed pen'*
or time, or according to other circumstances, must he of interest nt once tf
a sanitary, a meteorological, and in an agricultural point of view.

it is to Cavendish that we are indebted for the observation, that ammom
ak, n*,t?u aC,d nrc fonnG<1 when humid air is submitted to voltaic action*
ammonia * ?Im,nfnccnK;1>t tile present century, Dc Saussure detected
Bf.n" ?‘ ,!n at,no*phere. A few years later, Chevreul observed its Pri
lint limfl " T"e: and ‘n Brandes detected it in rain-water. * 1,1 .

lun In ,1 „ 'C1 “or* 'T'!te attention has been paid to this subject, an
Boussinw-i |.P[Csp,ICfi vl ,l,tric acid in rain and other waters. Bicbi#
arnmnni? -'V'*, I^^'cularlyr called attention to the influence which t >
nantT n ^T r0"" from the atmosphere must have upon the growth ^

E trin iJ ?Jd,the. fornicr of tJ,ese philosophers pointed out the occurrence

-nrErnlK als?ll,“ “ T9iderab,e nuu*ber of rain-watcra which he «•«**
soVo. A t'nt ‘ 10Sei tbuiulor-stornis ; though to the amount "f n“^
nL fouml ** '*«*** *i«le importance. Dr. II- Bence Jo"* h*

and in the so^S Vlmlwd.1'10 ra'" Whlch ,eU in Vari°"S partS °

for^uVmmt*0, IU°rt‘ rccent ,abours of Boussingault that we are indcMjj
otheE wa !Z. 9“°'?''™"* estimations of the ammonia in

of the nitric n J ' P,?rf£d has made a series of quantitative deternn
Pant cuZ “ 7e as thc ammonia, contained in the rain winch
I ans dm ing several consecutive months in 1851. Our own object '«
entering upon thc same field of inquiry, was chiefly with a view to ‘h

AMMONIA AND NITRIC ACID IN RAIN-WATER.

165

agricultural bearings of the subject. But the conduct of an investigation
involving at once the treatment of large bulks of material and the determi-
nations in them of infinitesimally small amounts "I the substances sought
far, is attended with many practical difficulties: and the scope and object of
>W present paper is rather to discuss the methods of analysis, than to rely
Mill confidence on the conclusions to which we might be led by the direct
application of the numerical results yet obtained, to the solution of the
wtral important scientific and practical questions upon which they bear.

In the Tables which follow arc given the results obtained in the estimation
ammonia in rain-water by several different methods. In the first instance,
'try large amounts (from 100 to MOO lbs. or more) of rain-water, to which a
“**lc caustic potash was previously added, were distilled, and the distillation
m me product repeated, collecting ill each case about one-half the amount
pnt into the retort, until the whole was reduced to a convenient hulk for
''irther treatment. This was then evaporated in an open vessel, with a known
*n">unt of sulphuric acid to a given volume. Measured portions of this acid
pi'wluctwere then neutralized by a standard alkaline solution, in the usual
■Winer of liquid analysis. This process we designate as “ Method 1.”
nf e 8y8tein of graduation adopted throughout the experiments was that
m‘P ems, this being generally employed in water analyses in Great Britain,
jj, 1(1 centimetres and litres are generally ndopted abroad, it may facilitate

°* tbose accustomed to the latter measures, to state, that the
dp,,- Vs 0(lua' t0 7 grains of water at 60°; that 1000 septems is equal to a
Nlon 0l/(0r' !b,; 10,000 Septems consequently are equal to 1 imperial

j 'c centimetre, on the other hand, is equal to 1 gramme, or
''M to 1 i- grains; and 1000 cubic centimetres, or grammes, are

L’urelv . l-10’ Consequently, for the purposes of a general conception

11 fitro'to yin oei)limctre may be considered as equal to 2|th septems, and
girt< the decigalltms or lbs. avoirdupois. W'c^ shall, however, always
i> precisr°Unl0t Hmmonia found in one million parts of rain-water, which
'^WOOnn c.T.llVa^cnt to the scale of milligrammes of ammonia per litre
Si u| t ’ j 'uiUigrammes) of water, as adopted by MM. Barral, Boussin-
^4o7i x S< Th? 8»lpburie acid used in the determinations made by
( 0llc-tfcnth"nS at '* ^.° strength, 1000 septems of which contain 50*1 grains
’^liquid n '5. Combining number) of the dry acid ; 1 sept cm, therefore, of
^ noutraii^ co,,fa‘nd 0*0501 grain of the dry acid, and is equivalent to
Pius's numb .IOIf0* ® grain of ammonia, which is =TTi.inntl‘ Ber-

^'n8 (oue-tentl u amrao^’a< The acid was prepared by dissolving 66*73
•'l'tenus, „r „ , . combining number) of pure carbonate of soda in 1000
dilute 2S,BalIon’ of Stilled water at 60°, and then making a pre-
MUal alblimet,- , exacl,.V ^ same strength, volume for volume, by the
* *oluti0ns *Ca * nnd, from this acid at 10°, the standard caustic

“1 is exactlv i'Ver<i raa^e °1' a like strength, in a similar manner. The above
tli .11 ^le !• wh^ ^f611^ lbe str<?T1gth of Peligot’s acid,
th". ai,!,n°nia hv tl ■ «c • m'VS* artJ 8*ven tl'e re?uIts of the determinations of
I ? ra*u which fpii'9- a 1 >” the mixed sample for each month, of

atii° (lUai»tities Dn 10 , rc*l» April, May, June, July and August of 1853.
acrnU.,lts Elected -rit ^ .Ul,on Wero one*lmlf or one-fourth of the total
area (+3-.56 squareafeot)UOnlh *" & rain*^auSe ol' exactly y^th of an

166

REPORT — 1854.

Table I.

Method 1. — The Rain twice distilled to }ths with a little caustic alkali, and
the second distillate evaporated with sulphuric acid to the measure of
1000 septems. (Year 1853.)

Months.

lbs. of rain
distilled.

Septems ol
sulphuric
acid at 1 0°
added to
second
distillate.

Septems of
alkali at 10
to neutralize
1 00 septems
of concen¬
trated acid
product.

Difference
= septems
ammonia a
| 10° in 100
septems acir
product.

Grains of
ammonia In
| rain-water
■ taken.

Ammonia
per million
of

rain-water.

March . . .

267-2

300 |

17-5

17-5

12-5 1
12-5 J

2-681

1-433

April .

109-6

400 j

35-5

35-5

4-5 1
4-5 f

0-965

0-812

May .

95-2

300 |

25-5

25-5

45 1
4-5 j

0-965

1 448

June .

175-2

700 |

62-0

620

80 1
80 /

1-716

1-399

July .

2180

500 j

43-5

43-6

6-5 1
6-5 f

1-394

0 935

August . . .

167-9

400

35-5

4-5

I

0-965

0-821

It is seen that the smallest quantity of water submitted to distillation in
this senes of experiments was about 95 lbs., and that the largest was about
i 7 Recond d>»ti|late of 4ths of the amount nut into a retort of

g ass with a little caustic alkali, the quantities of sulphuric acid at 10 g|Ven
c10!",'m 3 worp “dde'l* and the whole was then evaporated to the measure
of 10°0 septems at 60°. One-tenth of this, or 100 septems, after being
coloured by a given measure of infusion of litmus carefully freed from excess
of alka h was then tested with n caustic alkali solution, also at 10°. It*»
invariably round, that, with liquids of this degree of concentration, the deter-
munition could be made to a single drop of the test alkali. This would g'vc
a maximum range of error of about T'nth, or 2 per cent, of the whole am-
C°"tumed !" water, dependent on the manipulation of the test
1 , ?us stllla luestion whether there might not be some source

would “T"'"* with M- iioussingault that the w hole of the arninon'S

vouhl be obtained in a «,|1S distillate, or in supposing that there would be JO
loss either of ammoma or of acid, in the evaporation of the acidulated <h-
■ e ,n ?Pen Ves5eJB- Ry the comparison which will presently be »ia Ll
however, between the above determinations by Method I, and others in
specimens of the same waters by Method 2. which in fact is that adopted by
* “Uil1 ■**" tl>at there was probably no error due to

lame dU, aUSl:S*lUSt »n fact we conceive rhat the method of

stilUte tn ]at,-°n* " 1 h fil|t'#<’quent acidulation and concentration ot the
Sllllate to a riven a..-, , , .fmn? test

rnndnet.no d;..;n .• ^convenience, and irequeni b

whkV'is obtained by MettoJ*;

Which is substantially that of \I. Boussinga.dt. M. Boussingaults pr“;«*
in submitting to a single distillation, generally not more than 1

Which is
consists in

AMMONIA AND NITRIC ACID IN RAIN-WATER.

167

•bout 35i ounces) of water, and collecting and testing by the alkalimetrical
method, two or more successive fifths or tenths of the product. or 11s
■'Jrpose M. Boussingault uses a test acid little more than £th the strengtli ot
wr acid at 10°, and only JUth the strength of the test acid ot M. 1 eltgot.

Nb test alkaline solution, again, is not quite ^rd the strength, volume tor
-ilume, or his test acid. In practice he finds that the limit ot error in tie
'-*nf this dilute alkaline solution is about 0*2 cub. cent, measures of it, equa
to about 0*083 milligramme, equal to 0*0005 grain of ammonia. This, equal to
1 '"“tjitayth of a grain only, is certainly a surprisingly small actual amount
'ammonia to determine by analysis; hut when it is considered, that in the
entity of water operated upon by M. Boussingault, there is seldom 1 mil-
'Sfarnme=0‘0i54 grain of ammonia, it is obvious that an error ot on y
^ milligramme, or 0-005 grain, however small in actual amount, is still
n«iilerable in relation to the whole to be estimated, amounting in the case
Opposed to about »UJi or aird per cent. But when we further consider, that
t4,tal amount of ammonia in a litre of water is frequently considerably less
in » milligramme, and also that this total amount, whatever it may be, is
T- fur testing into two or more separate portions of the distillate, it is
. !ou* tllat the minimum range of error, especially in the testing of the
'* “!r Portions, must bo very considerable indeed in proportion to ita whole
uut. We have however 1 had the privilege of witnessing the conduct of
)j |>.rocess in the hands both of M. Boussingault and of his able assistant
I(iTU|Z,ea»'.atltl certainly with surprising uniformity of result.

Nil able IL are given the actual results of experiments in the Rothainsted
•nbrnfi I?‘ whicb 60 ounces, instead of only 1 litre, were generally
^ distillation ; ami although the greatest care was taken, it must
•■flminn pi these first results of uii practised hands, neither was the
»( l“e ammonia in the successive portions of the distillate so uniform
Limoni! If „experimen*3 M- Boussingault, nor were the total amounts ot

lislip,! i0Un(1 >n duplicate specimens of water so coincident as could be
point I,’.* . t,lt must be clearly understood, that attention is called to this
M.p, ,‘Vn he leii«t with the view of depreciating the admirable labours of
wb‘cb wc arc satisfied have been conducted with the ntmos
knr,el. whicI> tire process is capable, but it seems desirable to point out
tareful bc ^ proportional error in less constantly practised or less

Pic.-ptini!''!' *J(? mont,oned, that in our conduct of this Method 2, ill all cases
*-lhc month oF April, a test acid of 1° strength only was em-
‘"■ireo «L laVs t0 say. ^tli the strength of that used previously, and it was
•llmli, on y about fills the strength of Boussingault’s acid. I ho test
*1-1 aftBMuaJ other hand, was, for the rain of the first four months, at 1 ,
U,fc *arnc at °«ly 1° strength, which latter is very nearly identically
!‘r a semen,? ?ed b> Boussingault. We sought to measure too to a *th
bf|ior, wi.j i° ”*e stronger, and J a septem of the weaker alkaline test-
^ aninl0i,h * .rosPPct'v‘ily represented 0034 milligramme, or 0’00054 grain
• B«u * • wt MehtleWly the same degree of accuracy as that attained
^tnino ot.SSinSft«lt in measuring to 0*2 cub. cent, of his alkali =0‘0iS milli-
i*^s ,narkpi|aim°,1'a* The fractional distillates were collected in small
til|e(j acc°rdmg to the quantity to be collected, each of which,
^Un' nivasur • Corkc<l. UI' unfit fire series was ready for testing. An
with th„ j. P.i1Pe distilled water was then put into a te6t-glass side by
V? acid as » '^bHates, and to it was added the same measure oflitmus
^'valent of ti * 16 ra*n products. This being neutralized with its exact
re test-alkali, furnished a guide as to the tint to be aimed

lOO

REPORT — 1854.

at in the other testings, which were then performed as rapidly as possible,
to prevent the absorption of carbonic acid from the atmosphere. It was
found by numerous trials, that this adoption of a standard — and com¬
pared with the method of M. Bnussiugault somewhat more permanent point
of coloration — gave us greater uniformity of result in duplicate experiments
with liquids of known strength, than that of taking the point of first perfect
diffusion of blue colour throughout the liquid, as adopted by Boussingault ;
and the test-liquors were therefore arranged accordingly. It. should he
added, that the rapid diffusion of the alkali through the liquid was favoured
by increasing its specific gravity by the addition of neutral sulphate of
potash as employed by M. IJoussingault for that purpose.

Table II.

Method 2. — By the single distillation of small quantities of water (with
alkali), and testing successive portions of the distillate according to
Boussingault.

Year 1853.

Months.

April

May

June

July

August ...•

September

October . . .

November

December

a

a

|

1

A

Ounces

of

rain-

water.

Scptem* of Ammonia al 1° In portion*

of distillate.

Ammonia
ner j
million |
rain¬
water.

l«l

tenth.

and
tenth,
or let
tilth.

3rd

tenth.

tth
tenth,
or 2nd
firth.

5th

tenth.

6th
tenth,
or 3rd
fifth.

Total.

J l

30

4 0

10

50

jll-817

l 2

30

40

10

50

r i

30

•f*

4-5

20

10

7-5

1

60

7'0

30

20

20

140

1 1-225

L 3

60

80

4 0

2-0

20

16 0

J a

1

60

75

2-5

1-5

1-5

10

HO

1144

1

60

6 0

2-5

20

10

10

1 1*5

0-9.19

1

60

4-5

1-5

15

10

1-0

0-5

1 0-0

.0-851 ;

2

60

5 0

175

15

1-5

10

1075

3

60

4-75

2:0

15

1-25

10

10-5

1

60

4-5

20

10

0-5

00

80

2

60

4-5

1-5

1-0

1-5

1 •*;

10 0

.0735 '

3

60

4-75

20

1-5

HI

0-5

075

4

60

5- 0

1 75

10

0-5

0-5

0-5

875

5

60

4-75

15

10

075

85

60

4-75

1-5

0-75

0-5

0-5

80

.0 688

2

60

4 -5

2-25

1-5

075

075

075

60

4 0

1 25

10

0-75

05

75

*

60

60

50

6 0

1-5

20

1 25
125

0-75

075

0-5

0-5

0-0

10-5

.0-8«3

f ?

60

60

1 25

15

05

100

60

12-75

325

2-0

10

10

200

JH514

l| 2

1,0

12-5

3-5

15

10

10

105

lW.s u? t0 . , figures of the Table it may be mentioned, that M-
Boussmgault found that each successive tenth of the distillate contained
nmml n-aa,nn‘0I“a °! J of its Predecessor, and that, the whole appreciable
JET,; 8°nemlly, °ontaine,l the first four or five tenths. It is seen
fractional l,J U*'! proportional diminution of the ammonia in the

aUh.m"h wcS J : ’V0* "di bolIie °«*t iu the figures of our Table; and
n "° Ca“ tlie of this actual relationship w »

* *Pritii> j’ct »* would seem that in practice

f r N'"' can we be much surprised at the difference in

i ummoniil "idicated in the “total” column in cases of duph-

cati. analyses, when we remember that each total is the sum of the amounts

169

AMMONIA AND NITRIC ACID IN RAIN-WATER.

obtained in four or five separate testings, in each of which the
error of observation is 0*25 of a septen. of ammonia at 1 , and that u
requires considerable practice, and some dexterity and accuracy o o s
ration, to avoid a greater range of error. Upon tlic whole, then, consu en g
'tat in operating upon only a single litre of rain-water, the minimum eiror o
"bservation, if any, will even with the most perfect manipulation genera >
•mount to 3 or 4 per cent, of the total ammonia contained in the water, and
further, that in any but the most practised and skilful hands the error may
1* much more than that supposed — indeed more than multiplied by the
lumber of testings— we were led to abandon this second method also, not¬
withstanding its very obvious advantages so far as convenience and rapidity
lri‘ concerned. These, objections will of course apply with still greater
We when rains containing less than tlu- average amount of ammonia arc
'['‘•rated upon, and especially in the ease, of the waters of springs and rivers,
^average amouut of ammonia in which would seem, according to M.
boussingault, to be very considerably less than iri any rain-waters.

hi subsequent experiments. th«.n-l«»iv. wi- adopted th.- phm 1,1 "[’''rating
qion several litres of water in the first instance, reducing the bulk by suc-
?*!** distillations to one-half, until thus brought to a convenient, amount
*ur final distillation, and subsequent testing of measured proportional amounts
0 urn distillate in the manner described in reference to Methods. Ibis
0 ification, we have since observed, was suggested by M. Boussingault
fi?T \ j1 would seem he did not generally adopt it. In the next lablc
ar(! given the results obtained by Ibis Method 3, in which 3, 6, or
" • _°f the rain-water were first operated upon, these quantities, as the

be, being reduced to 24 ounces by successive distillations as
farr a*,0vc' This product was then finally distilled, and the distillate
mnr?!r illt0 quarters, the first three of which were separately super-
ilkah t to‘th the test-acid at 1°» and subsequently neutralized by the test-

» , Tablk III.

' e hod S — Distillations to one-half, until reduced to 24 ounces, redistilled,
_ and successive quarters tested.

year 1854.

Experiments.

lbs. of

Scptem9 of ammonia at 1°

in

Ammonia

per

million

rain-water.

Months.

rain-water

taken.

1st

quarter.

2nd

quarter.

3rd

quarter.

Total.

January |
February/

March... ^
April* |

May ...J

1

2

1

2

1

1

2

1

2

6

6

3

3

3

12

12

12

12

12- 5

13- 5

6-5

6-7.5

8-25

34 50
35-25
16-5
10-25

125

0’75

1-5

1-5

0-75

1- 75

2- 25
1-25
1(H)

1*5

10

1-25

1-00

0-25

1*0

10

10

075

15-25

15-25

0-25

0-25

025

37- 25

38- 50
18-75
1S00

} 0-779

| 0 945
0-945
j 0-967

J- 0-469

Water.

Tenths.

Total.

per

million.

FT -

1st.

2nd.

3rd.

4th.

5th.

1 'iOozs.

9-0

1-5

0-5

0-5

0 5 | 12 0 | 0-980

* April checked by Method 2.

170

REPORT — 1854.

A glance at the columns of detail of this Table clearly illustrates the fact
pointed out by M. Boussingault, upon which this method of determining the
ammonia in rain and other waters is based, namely, that in the case of very
dilute solutions of the volatile alkali, nearly the whole of it passps over in the
first portions of the distillate. Wo observe, however, that even where the
“ total amount ol ammonia obtained from duplicate specimens of water is
the same, or very nearly so, still the quantities determined in the correspond¬
ing fractional parts do not always agree so well. This would seem to indi¬
cate that the discrepancy is due to irregulurity in the distillation, rather than
to error of observation in the testing. It ia true, that this method of suc¬
cessive distillations is much more tedious and troublesome than the method
ol small single distillations preferred by M. Boussingault ; ami even with it,
it would appear, as in one or two cases in Table III., that the difference
between the amounts of ammonia determined in duplicate specimens of rain-
water, may in practice be nearly as great in proportion to the whole, as that
which is assumed to he a not necessarily exceeded range of orror in tin;
method of small single distillations. Upon the whole, however, we consider
the modification involved in this Methods, to be practically very important,
and that this form of the process of estimation by distillation is much more
applicable to this delicate subject of inquiry than either of those which we
have previously adopted.

Before leaving the question of method , it may lie well to enumerate the
calculated minimum proportions of error by the different methods, supposing
r”}‘ 1,1 * et“°ds2and3 equally with Method 1, this error would necessarily

y occl‘r ®n.oe 1,1 a fotal estimation. This however is not the case ; for it is
r r:rVn ?-raCtT,U n,'i«ht tend ^ the same direction in the estin.a-
. h \\ Ik- , !i ^ distillate. It is on the other hand of course pos-

fractiong ^ ,?rror’ 1 ,lcx'8t®d> might be counterbalanced among the several

nrod^r«f^inA and supposing one-tenth of the concentrated acid
nf fl,.. , 00 ll,rCS 0 water to be finally tested, this would, on the average

0-] r.iq orU° f f<.'UU! *u ra'u at Kothamsted, contain 10 milligr-—
tier of ,?, .!! ?[ an,llllnnia. Assuming also, as was found in the prac-
the arid i l |t0r’ thal t‘,e degree of accuracy easily attainable in the use of
of ainn.,1, * ? nt kSt ,irlUord at indicated 0*2 niilligr.=U*00Sl g™"

ccnt of U l i ra',KC 0f error woald obviously amount to tfk, or 2 per
be borne in lo a"*nioma contained in the product tested : and it should
difficult v w,“r(K ‘f far as the Minffw as concerned, there was no
together • ,l.. .Vi" "lj,uiriui8 duplicate estimations which agreed absolutely

practice than ihnt lcanioaut error in a scries was certainly nol more in
as before , The difficulty with this method however was,

vessels. the manag0fIjent of such large distillations in gla-4®

posed to be di.t,lat jf Vr’ I,0,,R»>nfiault, 0*033 milligr. of ammonia are sup-
Tlie uverie . *.nd tll<! arru,,‘nt of water operated upon to be 1 h'rr*

HotliamaiefH °L atnn,or,ia in I litre of the rains collected at

error w ould dT • UV V" *'gr., or 0*0154- grain ; so that the minimum limit o
The aveSi0^'0^ V3 P" <*"*• of the whole amount in such a case,
the rain ^the^n^* ^ °f amrnonia I»?r litre found by M. Boussingault in
mhiimmu enlT T**? ',OCa Dot exc^J milligr.; in which case the
rather more »i,„n a * ' lluatin8 to 0*033 milligr. would amount to 0
amount of aniuioni*Pft*S2’ °f t,1U who,e* 1,1 the water of rivers, the average
per litre • umm u l • \ ®0rdmg to M. Boussingault, was not quite 0*2 nll^'8 *
P hire, upon which, determining only to the same amount as before, the

»

AMMONIA AND NITRIC ACID IN RAIN-WATER.

171

error might be between *th and |th, or about 16*5 per cent of the whole.
In spring-water, again, M. Boussingault found genera y ) * . j

much ammonia as in rivers; in which therefore the smallest error in the de

termination in 1 litre only, would amount to about sid o ie " >0 1 • _

According to Method S again, assuming that ltMbs. of 1 ntor (-about
litres) were used, this, taking the average composition ut the Uothumstea
fains, would contain about 54 milUgr. of ammonia; ami determining as wc
calculated to do, to 0034 mifligr., the minimum error would thus be About
r^th, or about 0*> per cent, of the whole. The probability of accuracy
therefore, so far as the process of liquid testing w roucerm'd. would be
greatly in favour of the third method, that of successive distillations.

At the foot of Table III., however, is given the determination oi ammonia in
‘he rain of April 1851, according to Method % which indicates by the method
of small single distillation 098 ammonia per million of water, by the Hide ot
W67, as obtained by the method of successive distillations; figures which
filicide sufficiently to give confidence at least in the approximative truth ol
*e results obtained by the two methods. This brings us to a further con-
wderation of the proportions of ammonia found in the rains collected at
nothamsted by the different methods, and of the actual amounts contained in
•he water which fell over a given area in different seasons ; and also to a com-
Prison of our own results with those obtained by other experimenters in
oth«r localities.

Ante IV.— Showing the proportion of ammonia per million rain-water,
and the lbs. of ammonia in the monthly rain per acre, in different locali-
hosand seasons, determined by different experimenters, and by different
methods.

Ammonia per million rain-water.

lbs. of ammonia per acre.

Months.

Paris.

Leib-

fraun-

berg.

Rothamated.

Paris.

Rotbamsted.

1851.

1852.

1853.

1854.

1851.

1853.

1854.

February
March '
April,

. '

'One..

I illy

Aujnst

sys

^ctober

2«mber

Mean

Barral.

loussin-

gault.

Moth. 1.

Ueth. 2.

Meth. 3.

Barral.

Meth. l.|

Meth. 2.

Meth. 3.

0-779

0-945

0-32

0-20

1-440

0-812

1-448

1-399

0-935

0-945

077

Oil

0624

0-445

0-435

0-817

1-225

1-144

0-939

0-851

0-967*

0-469

055

0-55

107

095

0-55

0-47

0-88

096

0 11
0-46

298

1-494

0-821

075

0-55

0-57

3-84

0-745

0-785

0688

0-808

1614

1-00

.i„,a

0 33

1 os

0-721

0-51

0-57

117

0-45

1*34

! 0-37

8-38

1 0-15

•! 340

0-744

1142

0-979

0-821

081

0-74

054

024

By Method 2, 0 980.

172

REPORT — 1854.

In Table IV. are given, —

The amounts of ammonia per million, in the rain which fell at Paris
during several consecutive months of 1851, as determined by M. Barra);

1 he proportions determined by M. Boussirigault in the open country in
Alsace, during several months of 1852;

1 he proportions in the rain which fell at Rotliamstcd during several months
of 185:1, in several rases determined both by Methods 1 and 2; also in that
of several months of 1854 determined by Method 3.

And in the second division of the Table, —

I he actual amounts of ammonia in lbs., contained in the rain which fell
over the area ot anlmperial acre, in the case of each of the months experi¬
mented upon by M. Harral at Paris, and by ourselves at Rotbamsted.

Comparing together the determinations of the ammonia per million of the
rains collected at Kotliamsled in April, May, June, July, ami August 1853,
made by both the Methods 1 and 2 — in the one ease dealing with hundred* of
lbs. ot rain-water, and in the other with only 30 or 00 ounces of it — the coin¬
cidences arc »udl as to lead to the conclusion, that such discrepancies as there
are, are due to manipulative ditlicultics and irregularities, rather than to
erroneous principles inherent in the methods themselves. In the determina-
lions for Muy and June, those made by Method 2 are indeed notubly below
those made by Method 1. Hut the obvious deviation from the regularity in
the proportion of the ammonia found in tlm different fractional portion# of
t ie distillate, as scon in the detail of the determinations given in Table II.,
compared with that supposed by M. Boussingault to be so uniform, would
! «rcatlT owtodeuee in the estimations made by Method 1. Confidence
!" tlu‘ ^'ner.al I’nnciple* of the various methods is, however, again afforded
if ™mPar,*°n ‘he determination made in the rain of April by Method 3,
Til .1 "T ® m ll!*\san,r: water by Method 2 as given at the foot of the

”... ; t '®, fonner 6,vl,,g 0-967, and the latter 0*980 parts of ammonia per
million of the water. 1

1 rusting, then, u* we may do, in the general approximative truth of the
result* obtained, we find, that taking all the determinations in the monthly
min collected at, Rot ha mated given in this Table, and which apply to that of
oi neen separate but consecutive month*, the average amount of ammonia

LlrTu- 7*C y™/W,rt iH a mim°n °f ** The average of Boas-

• ^n,,lal,0t'i m lhc °l)en country of Alsace, am! extending over

u LTv n , 18;V2’ fro,n May to October inclusive, is seen to be as

ti^of\F°n “blV,h’?f the •mount found at Rotbamsted. The esti.ua-
2?" *' ‘ r'lhe o^er hand, in the rain collected at Paris during

? °f 185,*rrora August to December inclusive, gi™

an .i rerege of nearly 3-$ parts of ammonia in a million of rain-water; and,

* experiments, M. Iloussingnult has found the ammonia in the
rain at Pans to be a* great as that observed bv M. Barrel. There can be
no doubt, therefore o| the influence of a large city teeming with animal lift,
Unn of rl combustion 0| various kinds is so enormous, upon the propor*

Sf it whiM^Ti “ 1,,ea®bienk atmosphere, and consequently on the amount
of it which will be washed down in the rain.

ainoVnt Of" nTer’ •°TCr’ Iocn,ity> •tricily so speaking, influences the actual
‘ nLa I™1" surfacc emanations or otherwise, in otherwise

of ir in a^vpn0»'l,ry’ " *,lil1 a <lMeBtion ^ut in reference to the proportion
tho vll-iafb.nrvvi j'1 '!• rU‘?,.it is at a,,y ri,te interesting to observe, that

i; rent but entire m Tk °Uu^ In tbe a,nou,‘t of the ammonia in rain of di^
rnnrmnfc of considered '» connexion with the registered
amounts of the fall, the direction of the wind, and the general characters of

AMMONIA AND NITRIC ACID IN RAIN-WATER.

173

the weather, are perfectly consistent in kind with the results obtained by M.
Boussingault in his special examinations of rain falling unclei c 1 ere 11 c
Constances, of the water of dews, of fogs, &c. Thus, M. Boussmgaul
always found a very obvious connexion between the amount of rain wmen
fell in individual showers, and the prnjtortion of ammonia in the water co -
lected; there being more ammonia per million of the water the less the
amount of the fall. There was also much more ammonia at the commence¬
ment of a shower than at the end of it, and after a drought than in continu¬
ously rainy weather; though a comparatively short cessation of the rain was
sufficient again notably to increase the proportion in the water collected. In
<he water of dews and fogs, again, he found the proportion of ammonia was
very high.

from the above facts it would seem, that the proportion of ammonia
found in the aqueous deposits from the atmosphere was greatly dependent
on thi> amount of those deposits ; or, in other words, on the degree in which
they diluted the soluble matters brought down by them from the atmosphere,
turning now more directly to the evidence of our own figures in reference
to these points, it is at once obvious, that the period ot the year has of itsell
40 direct influence on the proportion of ammonia in the. rain; for we find
tow this is three times as great in the water of May 1853 as in that of May
•>1; the proportion found in the latter being the lowest, and that in the
fonner nearly the highest, in our entire series of experiments. And that this
directly due in great part merely to dilution, is obvious from the fact,
whilst there was comparatively little difference in the actual amount of
ttnmonia brought down over a given area in the two eases, yet with the
“to proportion of ammonia in the rain of May 1851, the fall was nearly'
JWw times as great as in May 1858. The largest proportion of ammonia
'ottghout the entire series was, however, in December 1853; and here it

m , seei1 m the second division of the J able, very neany me smallest
6(,ri un'0l'nt of ammonia washed from the atmosphere of any ease in our
thatw b arin8 >n mind these facts, it will be only what would be expected,
Slid e, highest proportion of ammonia with prevailing northerly

ttnIrrfrly winds, and the lowest with prevailing southerly ami westerly
latter 81nce die former arc generally coincident with a low, and the
Vain!! hisu. of rain, any supposed material influence ol the

aa,0Uh. ®yhe wind might probably much more properly be referred to the
In th° . "dl* or in other words, to the degree of dilution,
total fnfl maV,)er’ **»ice with storms we have frequently a considerable

toimionia 0rina*’Q"» or emanation, or the slow or rapid condensation of
“*''1, is n MP°n dm lessening of its amount by its conversion into nitric
careful c°n otlc.<! obvious on the face of the figures of the Table. Still, a
the diff erUl'OU owr notes as to the general character of the w eather
AOWBonju in^M 1 taken in connexion both with the proportion of

“own at (jar. 'vate»* collected, and with the total amount of it brought
prevalei, GrGUp Stason8 over a given area of land, seems to indicate that
"to amou^ Cr • bunder-storms has not of itself the tendency to increase
0 mtrogen brought down in the form of ammonia. And, even

■

174

REPORT — 1854.

supposing that the frequent occurrence of storms during the w armer months
were found to be coincident with a large actual deposition of ammonia, it
might still be a question whether such a result were not dependent on other
characters of the season, or the conditions of the lower strata of the atmo¬
sphere, and their connexion with the surface, rather than upon those of the
higher strata, or the circumstances more directly leading to the development
of the storms. At any rate it is worthy of remark, that in the month of
May 1854, which was characterized by the occurrence of many, and sotno
very heavy thunder-storms, and by three times the fall of rain of the cor¬
responding month of 1853, we have still a less total deposition of ammonia
over a given area, than in either May 1853, or in the average of the other
mouths, the rain of which was experimented upon: and, with regard to the
influence, on the other hand, of the minor aqueous depositions upon the
amount of ammonia deposited, our notes and figures do not show any increase
in the actual amount of ammonia so deposited, which could be attributed to
them irrespectively or other circumstances, but rather that their more direct
effect is upon the proportion of the ammonia to the generally less actual
amount of water, as already pointed out. But, whilst the proportion of
ammonia per million of the water collected is thus seen to depend more on
the mere amount of the fall than ou the period of the year, it must obviously
at the same time be mainly influenced by the total uinouut of ammonia
actually brought down over a given area; and this again would seem to
have tittle direct or uniform connexion, either with the amount of the fall, or
with the period of thu year merely. Thus, as already stated, with three times
as much ram in May ia.54 as in May 1853, wc have nearly the same, or even
™ ' if98 tota. »"‘n°n,a deposited, with the larger fall: nnd again, com-
nf March and April 1853 with those of the same months

amnnnf < ,• l0ug « true that in these cases we have the larger total
th.r i aT°r, brought (l(nv" with the larger fall of rain, it is seen that
n* nwJ? »® Man* 1854 only one-seventh, and in April 1851- only one-fifth,
month * «*C| deposited over a given area as in the corresponding

.i .*.° ' • It* then, as above alluded to, upon other circumstances

tnan either the amount of the fall or the period of the year, that the amount
oi ammoma brought down by the aqueous deposits from the atmosphere
mainly depends. 1

r..lT,?«i,ng l°- tthe ,.nore.',ire<;t application of the figures to an important agn-
nur^n^0,,Sld.‘’ra|10"’ '! ,nay be stated that the amount of nitrbgen which
Bnl.r-r^n /i“er "ho?*d WM brou§ht down in actual solution from the atmo-
XhnM 6 °rUJ °[amwon^ was adequate to supply but a small proportion
1ag? ann«al amount of it contained in the produce of a continuously
of til p n- ° ground* We ,uust seek therefore for some other source
rain sni in8,? °UI U,""a,luretl croPs- than that which is brought down in
ammonal . jjf h*.1"0' aqueous deposits from the atmosphere, in the form of
soil or of'tl p ’i" \tl0|Ut hcf enteriu8 into the question of the power ot the
com nl iniU f ? themselves, to take up the ammonia or other nitrogenous
beZou^h? dr°m 'e 1a,ni08|jher's independently of the amounts which would
for sunnolfrVl1 ? d,r*? *olution water, there seems to be good ground
more liber-d^nn*!1- anoJ, ,er comP°und of nitrogen, namely nitric acid, is a
ev^amrniaTelr °f mtr°ge0 t0 *'*'"» atmospheric -urce, than

detected1 nil’ri^ ■!£! becn.alreariy mentioned, various experimenters have
we to*bt«l fnr^d » ^ in rain*water« yet it is to M. Barral that we

which couhl ll , quantitative estimations of nitric acid in rain-water
which could lead to the supposition, that this is probably an important

AMMONIA AND NITRIC ACID IN RAIN-WATER.

175

natural or climatic source of supply of nitrogen available for the growth ol
plants: and scanty as it yet is, still our daily increasing knowledge as to
the occurrence and properties of ozone tends to enhance the probability of
well a view. It was hence a chief object of this investigation to determine
'Ur quantities of the nitric acid as well as of the ammonia, in the rains col¬
lated at Rothamsted. and to estimate from these the sum of the nitrogen
•applied by both, in relation to the average amount of it yielded in our
^manured crops. Unfortunately, however, in consequence of the ditficulties
winnected with the quantitative estimation of very small amounts of nitric
arid, and especially owing to the existence of nitrogenous impurity in some
of the re-agents employed, though in proportions which for many purposes of
dialysis would be immaterial, tin* results arrived at on this head ure by no
nituns satisfactory or conclusive, or such as to justify a record of the nu me¬
ntal results obtained.

lire process adopted was as follows. Large quantities of the rain-water
"’tre evap°rated with an alkaline carbonate several times to dryness, and the
^‘d res'due was carefully collected and weighed after drying at 212". The
jjer'^age of nitrogen in this solid matter was then sought to be deter¬
ged by Dumas’ direct-volume method of combustion with oxide of copper.
•ot only, however, were the results of duplicate analyses much more clis-
^Tant than fheyshould have been, but the actual amounts of nitrogen indi-
!o | "ere in some cases so exceedingly high, that suspicion was raised as
Hie .T"1? die re-agents employed; and it afterwards appeared, that
fr °xltJe °' C0PPer» which bad been prepared from the nitrate, was not free
iniHei°r')0i S 0 n*tro8en which yielded it up in the combustion. Hut
°** l*IR errwr which may have arisen from this cause, it must
racy J' • • die Prticcss itself is not well calculated to attain the accu-
V1 Sl)ch an investigation ; and in fuel, that an accurate method
is uill tetei'miuation of small quantities of nitrogen, or rather of nitric acid,
^ great desideratum.

[luHeric'^eat’t'Hln‘ for the reasons stated, we refrain from recording the
a.Ves.uh8 yet obtained in regard to the amount of nitric acid in the
general in j^In^ • *}or can we with full confidence vely even upon their
to ti,e elUfl'l?Ut.l0ns’ jn tlie discussion of the important questions, with a view
which we ' ni'T 0t wl,lch dm investigation was chiefly undertaken, and to
cautionary 8 1 ! I0PR to recur on Honi,‘ future occasion. After these pre-
Uur nitric 0 ^Sei’vationft, however, we may mention, that if the. indications of
whilst the i)CU l'etetnuuations maybe trusted at ull.it would appear that
«f thuiul "Ce,lta^e am* actun' amount of ammonia might be less in the
^tric acid t!r'|,or,ns> and when there is a large fall of rain, the amount of
•torms. The^* 10 °lher lian,1> is probably increased under the influence of
°/ 'utrogen j.«CSU, *°° would further lead to the conclusion, that the amount
“Sbly great0'1® u ^own hy the rain in the form of nitric acid, was con-
P°hit again b • fn so deposited in the form of ammonia. On this
Resting L U i Wlthoat relying confidently on the indication, it may still be
°'Tn in the ran>Sei(-Vl'i’ ^,a.t with the very small amount of ammonia brought
e*ainirlcd ft° l*ie winter and spring months of 1 853-54-, so far as they
J"10 acid result' ^, 'T. °h were succeeded by such an abundant harvest, the
^ n Usual ’ ,u8 them as they stand, show a much higher amount

iu ^ Tables i« «!' « • in fluestiou. It is true, that a study of uur Meteor-
I climatic to show that other and more obvious and mea-

firesn^^^ion sin lll,ans ,,laterially conduced to such a favourable result,
aiu? ^ eQhance tl>pCe tlier® can he no doubt, that nitrates, applied as manures,
Ditriom°-Unt °f nitm^r° 1 1 °* P^ants hy virtue of the nitrogen they contain,
ac*d, must be c** rTou8ht down from the atmosphere, in the form of
onsidered to have an important influence on vegetation.

17 G

RETORT — 1854.

Herring Fishery averages of Wick District.

Letter to John Cleyhom, Esq.

Office for the Fisheries,

Wick, 2nd July, 1855.

Sir, — As desired in your note of to-day, I bog to give you the Herring
Fishery averages of Wick District for the seven years ending 1854, in juxta¬
position with those for the seven years ending 1824 (the earliest year thus
embraced being the first in which the records of this Office exhibit the num¬
ber of boats employed).

In regard to the netting by which the averages of those periods respect¬
ively were obtained, I find that the average size of a boat’s train in the years
1818-24 was about one-half of the average size of that in the years 184H-54.

As you are anxious to have this information with the least possible delay,
it is fortunate that, your paper on the “Fluctuations in the Herring Fisheries"
had induced me, with the view of acquainting myself as thoroughly as pos¬
sible with the history of the fishery of this important district, to make the
necessary investigation and calculations previously.

I am, Sir, your most obedient Servant,

W. Russell.

Wick District Fishery Averages referred to.

Year.

Number of
bou»,

Average per
bout.

Year.

Number of
boats.

Average per
boat.

1818

482

Crana.

13G

1818

822

Crans.

131

1819

009

133

1849

800

160

1820

601

148

1850

804

121

1821

595

123

1851

1000

130}

1822

595

91

1852

1020

91}

1823

555

123

1853

1002

134

1824

625

123}

1854

936

115

INDEX I.

TO

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

OBJECTS and Rules of the Association,

tanes °f meeting, with names
Memh C,erS/rom commencement, xviii.
niC(^rs . Council from commence-

Officers Tr JCo.UUcil>Xxiv.

curiwnnlr ' ect'°,nal Committees, xxv.

CPuf pmgM,emberB' xxvi-
at 1 ivpi-n°Uinci to ^cneml Commutes

&35SSL

Committee, xxvii.

^StSf10? ploptctl ,by Ge™r

grants JmA Liverpool, involvu

xlvii • nMnt °.r Public institution
or ann|lnVlnvolv,nK grants of mono

J^ins S n Qovernmem, *lviii.
gating of p ReP°'^. &c. xlviii.
SynaP«s of^Tutlicaliona, xlix.

CS^c^~£ir‘,,p'roi,ri*"

Kum- i,aid on a

i '-ojnmit*e., i: ulut,°ns of the Gener
“rrau~... ’ ll',•

^N'ss bv'thn^T^1 raeet*ng8, liv
^ ytheEarl of Harrowby, Iv

Qf'vater-I)r( ' -) °* J*e applica
insure machinery, 417.
^(W.Rv

S^vski m ? Um,°0U3 beam, 4

<dP^oU)a.4l8re“arkablem

Challis (Rev. Prof.), drawings of different
features of a portion of the moon's
surface, comprising Plato, the Alps,
the valley of the Alps, and Cassini,
415.

Chesney (Major-Gen.) on the construc¬
tion and general use of efficient life¬
boats, 327.

Comet of 1843, radiation of heat from
the, 954.

Crystals, transmission of heat through,
348.

Daubeny (Prof.), thirteenth report on the
growth and vitality of seeds, 439.

Earthquake phenomena, third report on
the facts of, 1 .

Earthquakes, catalogue of recorded, from
1606 n.c. to a.d. 1850, 2; report of
the committee on, 370.

Easel (F, Vnt.), observations of luminous
meteurs, 412.

Food, on the equivalency of starch and
sugar in, 421.

Gilbert (J. H.) on the equivalency of
starch and sugar in food, 421.

Gladstone (J. 11) on the influence of the
Bolar radiations on the vital powers of
plants growing under different atmo¬
spheric conditions, 373.

Heat, third report on the present state
of our knowledge of radiant, 337 ;
theoretical refraction of, 341 ; trans¬
mission of, through crystals, 348 ; ana¬
logies of transmission of light and, by
12

178

INDEX I.

waves, 351; origin of the solar, 352;
radiation of, from the zodiacal light
and from the comet of 1843, 354.

Henslow (Prof.), thirteenth report on the
growth and vitality of seeds, 439.

James (Major), proceedings respecting
seismometers constructed under the
superintendence of, 370.

Knoblauch (M.), on his researches on
radiant heat, 342.

Lawes (J. B.) on the equivalency of
starch and sugar in food, 421.

Life-boats, on the construction and ge¬
neral use of efficient, 327.

Light, analogies of transmission of, and
heat by waves, 351 ; radiation of heat
from the zodiacal, 354.

Liodlcy (Prof.), thirteenth report on the
growth and vitality of seeds, 430.

Lo\ve(E. J.), luminous meteors observed
in 1853-64, by, 40G.

Magnetic observatories, on sonic of the
results obtained ut the British Colonial,
355.

Mallet (Robert), third report on the facts
of earthquake plueuomenn, 1.

Mare Criaium and its shores, on the.
416.

Melloni (M.), bis recent experiments on
radiant heat, 350.

Meteors, on luminous, 386, 412; on
those of August 1853, ib. j catalogue
of, made at Observatory, Stone Vica¬
rage, Aylesbury, 394 ; at St. Ives, 406 ;
at Mighlield Mouse Observatory, ib. ;
at Midhurst, 410.

Midhurst, observations of meteors made
at, 410.

Moon's surface, on the physical charac¬
ter of the, 415; drawings of different
features of a portion of the, ib.

Phillips (Proiessor), second report on the
physical character of the moon's sur¬
face, as compared with that of the
earth, 415.

Plants, on the influence of solar radia¬
tion on, 373.

Portlock (Colonel), report on earth¬
quakes, with their proceedings respect¬
ing seismometers constructed under the
superintendence of Major James, 370.

Powell (Rev. Baden), third report on the
present stale of our knowledge of ra¬
diant heat, 337 ; seventh report on
observations of luminous meteors,
1853-54, 386 ; letterto, from Mr. Birt,
on a luminous beam, 410; letter to.
from Mr. Fusel, on luminous meteors,
412.

Robinson (Rev. Dr.), second report or»
the physical character of the moon s
surface, as compared with that of the
earth, 415. .

llosse (the Earl of), second report on the
physical character of the moon’s sur¬
face, as compared with that of the
earth, 415.

Sabine (Colonel Edward) on some of the
results obtained nt the British Colonial
magnetic observatories, 355.

Seeds, on the growth and vitality of, 4 JJ-

Seismometers, on, 37*L

Ships, on the deviations of the compass
iu wooden and iron, 434. .

Smith (Archibald) on the deviation oi
i he compass in wooden and iron ships,

Smyth (Prof. C. Piazzi) on the " Mare
Crisium and its shores,” 410.

Solar radiation on plants, on the inn
ence of, 373. .

Starch and sugar in food, on the eq
lencv of, 421.

Thomson (Prof. W.) on solar heat, 352-

Water-pressure machinery, on the appl>
cation of, 417. , •

Watts (J. King), catalogue of Iu®J,0gt®
meteors observed in 1853-54, a
Ives, Hunts, 406.

Zodiacal light, radiation of heat from
the, 354.

INDEX II.

TO

miscellaneous communications to the

SECTIONS.

AciDS: —physiological properties of
carbazotie, 65 ; action of gullic an <1 tan-
un 'ro'! a.n<* alumina mordants, ib. ;
cnh ° ?f1ric’ tnrtaHc, and oxalic, on
^on and flax fibres,*^.; on a method
analysis applicable to the qunntita-
estmmt,°n of nitric ami acetic, 08;
!r“nc' ">rain-Watcr, 70, 101 ; on the
Lri nc.® 0 T4 in Hydrochloric and
bv *„}»'• 00 l,ie production of'borucic,
Aftf. 0,canic action , 70.

ccou,°f l*'e °.cclln'elUe of n true creta-
ai. L •t“:n in “‘e "owtH of, 88;
loai-j. arnv.a* Dr. Livingston at

AftieJlt11 t le \cst coast "f. «19.

flf)_ ss* 0n lhe adornment of an,

5t::>agf8- south, i26.

advantmJ °n il? meHn* °f realizing the

ca¬
nton, ji'0°n a Case °f partial, in a black

,e“roWv^/!‘| N,JVa Scotia, on the me-
Iogicftl^ '5’ * ,a'->le ofmeteoro-

dln'^of tEe S'tCV:iaV‘S UtU,c> 44 *

. r«ure fov „ ’ ’ dni,y ""-’a" tenitw-

AlbmneV0" el®Ve« years, -16. 1

Alcoll°l, in‘th?°to8raPlls uP°n- 67 ■

^Jsss^Ssr^""-

Apc, ‘ le Hyposulphites of the or-

Al^l5^n°'ill,1PW Tethod of« 74-

dostn.ctivo Jj'f’„P,r°duct;d during the
Aif^ces, (i| 'Hatton of animal sub-

levels taken in W
■ln®“ (Pruf l nn^roid Harometcr, 1 16.
blfUSOrin of nrA'r occurrence in the

Al^‘l^Sirln5.OTg“ns

mari"e teWaenwte“aion of the sub-
P °» 7 ; on telegraphic

communication between England and,

H7u

Ammonia, on the aniounts of, and me¬
thods of estimating, in rain-water, 70,
161 ; on the production of, by volcanic
action, 76.

Amyle, on the physiological properties
of, 76.

Anderson (Dr.) on the alkaloids produced
during the destructive distillation of
nnitnnl substances, 61 ; on the consti¬
tution of meconine and papaverine, and
their relations to the other constituents
of opium, ib.

Anemometer nt the Liverpool observatory,
on the, 34.

Animal substances, on the alkaloids pro¬
duced during the destructive distilla¬
tion of, 61.

Animals, on drawings of various marine,

102.

Annelid tracks, on, 86.

Amiulosa, on the vascular system of the
lower, 109.

Ant-eater, on the anatomy of the great,
113.

Anthracite, on the deposits in the lower
Silurians of the south of Scotland, 86 ;
on the Silurian, of Cavan, 95.

Antiquities, notices of the Hoylake, 129.

Apes, on the anthropoid, 111.

Aquaria, observations made in small, 115.

Aquavivaria, on a plan of aerating, adopt¬
ed by Dr. Ball, 115,

Archer (T. C.) on some peculiarities dis¬
covered in liquid caoutchouc, 96 ; on
some materials for making paper, 97.

Architecture, naval, on the progress of.
160.

Arctic and antarctic currents, and their
connexion with the fate of Sir John
Franklin, 117.

Arctic regions, on glaciers in the, 126.

Arithmometer, on a new, 1.

Ashworth (Henry) on the causes and
consequences of the Preston strike,
1853 to 1854, 130.

12*

180

INDEX II.

Asia, central, extracts from the MS. notes
of travels of General Fevrier in, 125.

Asteroids, on, 19.

Astronomy, 19; meteoric, 2G.

Atmopolarimeter, on a, G.

Aulnga, on the luke, and its drainage in
the desert of Cnranjns, in Iioliviu, 120.

Aurora" boreales seen ut St. Ives, 47.

Australia, on the shortest routes to, 120;
on the supply of gold from, 133.

Australian expedition, communications on
an, 125.

Australian gold-fields, on the treatment of
abandoned workings of the, 142.

Azores, on some points connected with
tho natural history of the, l OS.

Babinet'* homalogrnpliic maps, on, 2.

Babinet (M.) on a new photometer, 2.

line ho'* tide observations, tho Rev. W.
Whewell on, 28.

linker ( 1 . B. Lloyd) on the reformation
of offenders, 132.

Bukewell (Frederick) on telegraphic com¬
munication between England and
America, 147.

Balfour (Ur.) on the occurrence in coal of
peculiar vegetable organisms resem-
blmg the sporangiu of Lycopodium, 97.

mil (Dr.), on a plan of aerating aqiin-
vi varia adopted l.y, 115.

Bank note*, country, on the laws of the
currency, as exemplified in the circula-

1*844° 130 Ku8,U,ld’ ®incc tl,c Act wf

Banks, joint stock, on the rise, progress,
and present condition of, 138.

Barometer, on levels taken in Jerusalem
with the aneroid, 11G.

Bernard (Dr. Felix) o» indices of the re¬
fraction of transparent media, included
between two parallel Tacos, and on a
portable refractomcter, 2 ; on a photo-
meter, 4 ; on polariinctrv, ib.

Berry (George Robert) 'on collodion
negatives, 64.

Bills of exchange, magnitude and fluctua-
tiou of the circulation of, 143.

Birds, on some trace* of harmonious co¬
lours in, 101.

Blech (Dr.) on South African languages.

Blundell (Dr. J. W. F.) on an Austral!
expedition, 125.

Bodies, on the density of various, wh
subjected to enormous pressing ford
58 i on thc solidification of, under gre
pressure, 149.

Boiler explosions, on the prevention ,

Bolivia, on the lake Aulaga, and its drain¬
age in the desert of Caranjas, in, 120.

Botany, 9G.

Boult (J.), diagrams illustrative of the
changes in the bed of the river Mersey
and its approaches, 1 17.

| Brett (J. W.) on the origin of the sub¬
marine telegraph, and its extension to
India and America, 7.

Bright (Edward H.) rm magnetic electricity
anil underground wires, 8.

Britain, on the early ethnology of, 130.

British Association Catalogue of Star*,
notes on the, 25.

British Meteorological Society, on photo¬
graphic drawings of meteorological in¬
struments adopted by the Council of
the, 47.

Britons, on the forms of the crania of the

ancient, 127.

Brodswnrlli, on the decomposition of mag¬
nesian limestone at, 06.

Brooke (C.) on an easy method of making
thin glass cells for mounungmicroscopic
objects in fluid, 47.

Bryson (A.) on a curious structure in the
Silurian slates of Peebleahire, 78.

Burkinan (Prof.) on two elephants' tusks
found in the Stroud Valley, Gloucester,
78; on coal depositain West Virginia, !/'.

Burkton (G. Bowdler) on the application
of cyanide of potassium to killing in¬
sects for the cabinet, 106.

Buxton (David) on the census of the deaf
and dumb in 1851, 132.

Byoily (Isaac) on the fauna of Liverpool,
107.

Calculating machine, on a new, 1.

Calvert (Prof. F. C.) on the physiological
properties of corbazotic acid, 65; on
the action of gallic und tannic acid* on
iron and alumina mordants, ib.-, on l[,e
action of citric, tartaric, and oxiihc
acids on cotton and flax fibres under
the influence of dry heat and pressure
of steam, 05.

Calvert (John) on the supply of gold front
Australia and from English rocks, 133.

Caoutchouc, on some peculiarities disco¬
vered in liquid, 96.

Carpenter (P. P.) on land, fresh water,
and marine shells obtained in sinkmg
a well on the banks of the Avon. 78 ;
list of four hundred and tbrty species o

shells from Mnzutlan, 107.

Carpenter (Dr. W. B.) on the development
of the embryo of Purpura lapilhis, 10' •

Caucasus, on the, and parts of the Crimea,

INDEX II.

181

Cavan, on the Silurian anthracite of, 95.
Cayley (Arthur) on the solution of cubic
and biquadratic equations, 1.

Cells, on the physiology of, 1 10.
Chacomac(M.)on solar spots and fjmila),

'•till ilwiiu tvno /iniipnn 1 O

and their true causes, 19.

Chambers (Robert) on the great terrace of
erosion in Scotland, anti its relative
date and connexion with glacial plue-
nomena, 78; further observations on
glacial plnenomen a in Scotland and the
north of England, 79.

Chanter (John) on the (economical work¬
ing of steam boilers, 147.

Cliarcon!, on mineral, 8G.

I tarles worth (Edward) on several new
vertebrate fossils, SO.

Chemistry, 61.

Cheshire, statistics of poor relief and
movement of population in the com¬
mercial district in the hundred of

Wirral, 142.

imneys, on a lightning conductor for,

108,

Chronometers, 0n the variation in the
rates of, 20.

arc’ °'.1 annelid tracks from the repre-
smitatives of the millstone grits in the
county of, 86.

an J°lni) on the effect of good
133 l'lnes on C0lun“ttal8 t0 prison,

C11 W'Hatn) on the large fly-wheel
V.J , at l'ie Mersey Iron-works, Li-
folili * 1 ^ ’ 0,1 a machine used for
Off* ‘»pev iron, ih.

• n) 011 tho fluctuations in

%wtv55Ffii8hwleB» 13 '• 17fi-

Coa? ‘® ,0/ Southampton, on the, 29.
pu' iv le Production of sulphurous acid
d t o r?.' c,>»>hustion or, 75; on
S2"V" .'Vcs‘ Vii-rinin, 78;
ereanisn? ,CC in’ °fp°euliar vegctu
Lvconnd? resen,kling the sporangia

J_Y>P°dmm, 07; on the „r .

Lvcnn.a- tne sporangia

Torff u m’ 97,5 0,1 tlu} natHpc of 1

Coina»p ^’L anc* otlicrvarietiesof, ll
diffaren?” .dcC,rn^> 13:>* > ‘2; on i

Darnnf „i . ’ i on i

Posed of ftp'-8 '' ’‘c^ Itave been p
tollodinn CC.,ma acc°unt9 and, It;

CoC n T ^ on* «*•

^^our a5 S,f,°n".of’Iond rplalil
«°rne trnceg or0.rm m P,ant8» ^
he SL .1 ha‘‘mon.ou81 in plat

, **»4 the „ii. narmonioua, in

Cbrnpas8, bi‘‘ds i 101.

iug the ,1 a £™P^*C method of enrr

>3 i

dm» .j«r 0) ''e action of, in

Wnps, p) . ”,e action of, m

^ofsci'e,,0,1! , '"efficiency of
^ith the of;? a in comic

’ iron ships, 55.

Copper, on the chemical examination of
some alloys of, and zinc, 67 .

Corn, on the current price und the cost
price of, in England, during the lust
ten years, 134.

Cotton libre, on the action of citric, tar¬
taric, and oxalic acids on, 65. .

Crania of the ancient Britons, on the forms
of the. 127.

Craters, on the structure of ltmar volca¬
nic, 91.

Cretaceous formation, on the occurrence
of a true, in the South of Africa, 82.

Crimea, on parts of the, 124.

Crosse (Andrew) on the apparently me¬
chanical action accompanying electric
transfer, 66.

Crystals, on measuring the absorption of
polarized light in doubly refracting, 1 0 ;
photogenic drawings of snow, seen in
Jan. 1851, 30.

Crustacean impressions from the trias of
Dumfries-shtre, on, 86.

Cull (liichard) on the ethnological value
of the results of philological inquiry,
126; description of three Esquimaux
lately exhibited in London, ib.

Clllloy (Mr.) on the transmission of time-
signals through the electric telegraph
wires in connexion with the observatory
at Greenwich, 148.

Cumming (Rev. J. G.) on some of the
more recent changes in the nrea of the
Irish Sea, 80.

Cunningham (John) on the submarine
forest, Leasowe, 81 ; on ventilation of
ships, 148; plan for reefing topsails,
150.

Currency, on the laws of the, 136 ; on a
method of substituting francs and cen¬
times for the present English metallic
currency, 146.

Currents, on the beating effects of secon¬
dary, 68.

Danson (John Townc) on the current
price and the cost price of corn in Eng¬
land during the last ten years, as illus¬
trating the value of agricultural statis¬
tics, 134.

Davies (J. A.) on the decomposition of
magnesian limestone at Brodsworth, 66.

Davis (Joseph Barnard) on the forms of
the crania of the ancient Britons, 127.

Day ( W.) on the {economical working of
steam-boilers and furnaces, by the
saving of fuel, with a more speedy

, command of steam, 149.

Deaf and dumb, census of the, in 1851,
132.

182

INDEX II.

De Colmar (M. T.) on a new arithmo¬
meter, or calculating machine, 1 .

Dec and Mersey, on a geological section
from the island of Little Eye across
the' peninsula between the estuaries of
the, 86.

Diamagnetic force, on the, 14.

Dickie ( Dr.) on associations of colour and
relations of colour and form in plants,
98.

Dircks (II.) on the prevention of boiler
explosions, 149.

Dock, on an iron floating graving, 16.3.

Dove (M.) on some stereoscopic plucuo-
ntena, 9 ; on nn apparatus for elliptic
cully-polarized light, ih. ; on a method
of measuring the absorption of polar¬
ized light in doubly refracting crystals,
10; on the distribution of ruin in the
temperate zones, 28.

Drew (John) on the climate of South¬
ampton, 29.

Dubosca (M.) on un apparatus for show¬
ing all the phenomena of light. 10.

Dumfries-shirc, on crustacean impressions
from the trins of, 8(1.

Earth, experiments on the movement of
the, by means of the gyroscope, 60.
Ecuador, on the eastern territory of the.
123. '

Edwards (Dr.) on collodion photographs
of the moon’s surface, 66.

Egcrton (Sir Philip) on an ichthyoid
fossil from India, 82.

Ehrcnberg (Prof.) on the discovery of
microscopic shells in the lower Silurian
rocks, 82.

Eldridge (J.) on a new washing machine,
140. °

Electric transfer, on lire apparently me¬
chanical action accompanying, 66.

Electrical battery, on a new*, 75.

Electricity, 2.

Elephants- tusks found in the Stroud
V alley, Gloucester, on, 78.

England, on the palnozoic system of, 95 ;
on the current price and the cost price
of corn in, during the last ten years,
134 ; on telegraphic communication
between America and, 147.

Equations, on the solution of cubic and

^ biquadratic, 1.

Erosion, on the great terrace of, in Scot¬
land, and its relative date and con¬
nexion with glacial phamonicna, 78.

Esquimaux, description of three, exhi¬
bited in London, 126.

Ethnological value of the results of phi¬
lological inquiry, on the, 126.

Ethnology, 126 ; of the Liverpool di¬
strict, 129; on the early, of Britain, 180.

Ethyle, on the physiological properties of,
76.

Etruscan question, notes on the, 12G.

Eye, on pictorial and pliotochromatio im¬
pressions on the retina of the human,
12.

FWiilm, on, 19.

Pairbairn (VV.) on the density of various
bodies when subjected to enormous
compressing forces, 56; on the con¬
sumption of fuel and the prevention of
smoke, 149; on the solidification of
bodies under great pressure, ib.

Fauna of Liverpool, on the, 107.

Falls, on a supposed new species of, 1 13.

Fergltsson (J.) on the site of the Holy
Sepulchre nt Jerusalem, 117.

Ferrifire (M.) on photographs upon nl-
bumcn, 67.

Fevrier (General), extract from the MS.
notes of travels of, in Central Asia,
125.

Findlay (A. G.) on arctic and antarctic
currents, and their connexion with the

fate of Sir John Franklin, 117-

Firs, on the morphology of, 09.

Fisher’s Venetian screw propeller, on,

lfll. . ,

Fisheries, on the fluctuations in the
herring, 134, 176.

Flax fibre, on the action of citric, tartaric
and oxalic acids on, 65.

Fluids, on the motion of, 63.

Foliation, on the, of some metamorphic
rocks in Scotland, 82.

Food, on the equivalency of starch and
sugar in, 70. .

Foraminifern, on the British specie* ot,
113.

Forbes (David) on the chemical exami¬
nation of some alloys of copper and
zinc, 67 ; on the occurrence and che¬
mical composition of some minerals
from the south of Norway, ib- ,

Forbes (Prof. Edward) on tlie foliation o
some metamorphic rocks in Scotland,
82; on some points connected with the
Natural History of the Azores, 108.

Forest, submarine, of Leasowe, on the,
81.

Fossils, on several new vertebrate, 80,
on ichthyoid, from India, 82.

Foucault (M. L.), nmivelles experiences
*ur lo mouvement de la terre au moyen
du gyroscope, 56. . . «

Fowler (Dr.) on literary and philosophic
pursuits as conducive to longevity, 1 * •

INDEX II.

183

Franklin (Sir John), on arctic and ant¬
arctic currents, and their connexion
with the fate of, 117.

Franklin (Jacob A.) on decimal coinage
and accounts, showing the impractica¬
bility of the franc or tenpenny unit,
135.

Glaisher (James), photogenic drawings
of snow crystals, as seen in Jan. loo*,
30. ,

Glass, on the influence of coloured, on
the growth of plants in sea water, 103.
Glass cells, on an easy method of making
thin, for mounting microscopic objects

Freund (Dr. W.) on the Etruscan ques¬
tion, 126.

Fuel, on the oeconomical working of
Utom-boilers and furnaces, by saving
of, 149 ; on the consumption of, ib.

Furnaces, on the (Economical working of,
by the saving of fuel, 119.

™,on of diflerent substances, on the
effect^ of pressure on the temperature

fly-wheel, on the large, lately erected at
the Mersey Iron Works, 147.

(Edmund), letter to Lord Cla-
rendon on the arrival of Dr. Liviug-
. ston at Loanda, 110.

Bc S.) on the shortest routes to

»omh Australia, 1 20.

*r 1,1 apt-) on the occurrence of a
rle cretaceous formation in the south
"> Africa, 83.

'a*' ; ,nn production of sulphurous
Clasv'1 ! 1 , 1 tle oombuation of coal, 75.
j • F ) on the heating effects of
^ondary currents, 68.
pT-'Pliy, 1 10.

Germ’78’ uf 83.

Q palaeozoic rocks of, 87.

0 Iceland, on the cause of the

(aCS:",a “hibi'ct» l>y «>'■. w-

hrevont ' • mkchine intended to
a,IWt f!aiv?P,itR V1 »»‘nea, ISO.
rencv ' 011 tbo laws of the cur-

in circulation

the rin * !'V ,wte8 England sinct

©Hint l nct of lKI4>

Of star,. 1 ‘ , •' 0,1 equivalency

anSS,«Tar V1 food‘ 70 5 ,bl

aintnont- ' “ni‘ methods of estimating
7o, 161 Hlld n,lr'c nc'd in rain water

eroshml‘(U oe"B' on ,*je Krcut terrac
“ Scotland, and its rclativ

G^CnZUfeX,OD with’ 7a*

of pala.n- • "lrmer probable existonc
’he jCc ■p11'’ !, ! I <*n the thickness c
»4; in tU J16 ancient, of N. Walt.

i2c.

*•* amdicaiil • 0,,1 a method of «n«b
•nation (,r . ° t lQ quantitative est

?•» ‘heflao. ‘ nc 0lld acetic acids, GS

'",U*»JrlaUmrXbit6“d’,),0,!rl“i

in fluid, 47. ..

Gold, on the simply of. from Australia
and from English rocks. 133 ; on the
treatment of abandoned workings ot
the Australian gold fields, 142 ; ex¬
changeable value of, in this country, it
it has fallen below its former level,
owing to the discoveries within the last
six years, 143; on the influence of.
on the progress atid direction of IJritisn
exports, 145. ,

Graham (Prof.) on the concentration of
alcohol in Sdmmering’B experiments,

09. . , . i

Grantham (J.) on Cunningham » plan
for reefing topsails, 150; on Fishers
Venetian screw propeller, 151 ; on a
high-level railway for the Liverpool
docks, ib. . _ . .i

Gray (Mr.) on vulcanized india-rubber
springs to adjust the compass, to pre¬
vent the action of the needle being in¬
fluenced by the motion of the ship,

G reenough (G. B.) on the geology of
India, 83. „ , . .,

Greg (Mr.) on meteorolites and asteroids,

Grits, millstone, on annelid tracks from

the representatives of the, in the couuty
of Clare, 80. „ . . ..

Gunpowder, on the application of the
voltaic battery to the ignition o , 18.
Gyroscope, surle moiivemcnt de la terre
uu moyen du, 56.

Hamilton (Sir W. R.) on an extension of

quaternions, 1. .... A

Hamilton (Dr.) on the lake Artlaga and
its drainage in the desert ot Cavanjas,
in Bolivia, 120.

Hamilton (G.) on the result of experi¬
ment* on the preservation of fresh
meat, 89.

Darkness (Prof.) on crustacean impres¬
sions from the trias of Duinlnes-shire,
86; on annelid tracks from the re¬
presentatives of the millstone grits in
the comity of Clare, i&-; on mineral
charcoal, ib. on the anthracite deposits
and vegetable remains occurring in the
lower Silurians of the south of Scot¬
land, ib.

184

INDEX II.

Hartnup (John) on the variation in the
rates of chronometers, 20.

Hawkes (William) on the strength of iron
after repeated melting!1, 151.

Ileat, 2 ; on mechanical antecedents of,
59.

Henderson (Andrew) on ocean steamers
and clipper ships, 152.

Henslow (I’rof.) on the adornment of on
African dress, 99.

Herring fisheries, on the fluctuations in
the. 13-1, 170.

Highley (Samuel) on the management of
■onto difficult subjects in the applica¬
tion of photography to science, (>9 ; on
the means of applying photography to
wnr purposes in ihc army mid navy.

70.

Holy Sepulchre nt Jerusalem, on the site
of the, 117.

Hopkins (W.) on the effect of pressure
on the temperature of fusion of differ¬
ent substance*, 67.

How (Henry) on the hyposulphites of
the organic alkalies, 70.

Hoy lake antinulth*, notices of the, 129.

H negate, on tho meteorology of, ,‘M.

Hull (lid«ard) on a geological section,
from the island of Little Eye across tho

Kninsula between the estuaries of the
•c, and Mersey to the cast of Liver¬
pool, 86.

Hume (Key. Abraham) on the ethnology
ot the Liverpool district, with notices
of the Hoy lake antiquities, 129, on
the education of the poor in Liverpool,
loo,

Huxley (T. H.) on the vascular system of
the lower annulosa, 109.

Hyposulphites, on the, of the organic al¬
kalies, 70.

Iceland, on the cause of the phenomena
exhibited by the geysers of, 73.

Ice of the anrient glaciers of North Wales,
on the thickness of the, 9-1.

India, on the extension of the submarine
telegraph to, 7 ; on an ichthyoid fossil
from, 82 ; on the geology of, 83.
Infusoria, on the occurrence in the, of
peculiar organs resembling thread-cells,

Inman (Dr. T.) on tbo power by which
insects are enabled lo adhere to smooth
perpendicular surface*, 109; on a case
^partial Albinoism in a black man,

Insects, on the application of cyanide of
potassium to killing, for the cabinet,
106 ; on the power by which they are

enabled to adhere to smooth perpen¬
dicular surfaces, 109.

Instruments, microscopic and other, 47.
Iodine, on the distribution of, in the mi¬
neral, vegetable and animal kingdoms,
72.

Irish Sea, on some of the more recent
changes in the area of the, 80.

Iron, on the action of gallic mid tannic
acids on mordant*, 65 ; on the esti¬
mation of, by the method of Margue¬
rite, 71 ; on the supposed influence of
the hut-blast in augmenting the quan¬
tity of phosphorus in cast, ib. ; on a
machine used for rolling taper, 147 ;
on the strength of, after repeated
melting*, 151.

Israel, on the lost tribes of, 120.

Jacob (W. S.) on the British Association
Cat.ilogun of Stars, 25.

Jellicoe (Charles) on improving the pre¬
sent mode or keeping und stating tho
nutional accounts, 138.

Jerusalem, on levels taken in, with the
aneroid barometer, 116 ; on the site of
the Holy Sepulchre at, 1 17.

Jukes (J. 11.) on the onc-incli map of the
northern part of the County Wicklow,
geologically coloured, 87.

Kennedy (James) on the lost tribes of
Israel, 129.

Keogh (Mr.) on a new kind of power-

loom, 156. ,

Kisahidini, letter from the Rev. J. «‘™-
inann lo the Rev. II. Venn, from, 123.
Knight (James) on the rise, progress,
and present condition of joint stock
banks, 138.

Knight (G.) on a stereoscopic cosmo-
ramic lens, designed by, 70.

Knipe (S.) on geological sections in the
neighbourhood of Liverpool, 87.
Koh-i-noor diamond, on the recutting o
the, 75.

Languages, on South African, 126.
Lankcster (Dr.) on Wollaston’s '• Insect*
of the Madeira Islands," and “ Melly *
collection of Insects," 110.

Latham (Dr. It. G.) on the non-Russian
populations of Russia in Europe, 129, 139-
La wes (J, B.) on the equivalency o
starch and sugar in food, 70; on the
omountsof, and methods of estimating,
ammonia and nitric acid in rain-water,
70, 164. f

Lawson (G.) on the stipular glands o
Rubiaccie, 99.

INDEX II.

185

Laycock (Dr.) on the physiology of cells
in relation to consciousness and adap¬
tive movements, 110.

Lead, on the presence of, in hydrochloric
and nitric acids, 72.

Leaf-venation and ramification oftlic- plant,
usitlie correspondence between the, 100.
Leasowc, on the submarine forest of, 81 .
L*c(Dr.) on photographic drawings of
meteorological instruments adopted by
the Council of the British Meteorolo¬
gical Society, 47.
l«ch, on the medicinal, 113.
kiis. on a stereoscopic cofimoramic, 70.
“ns«, on a method of manufacturing
cylindrical, 47.

Lewis (Rev. T. T.) on a slab of old red
sandstone from Puddles! one, near Leo¬
minster, 91.

^ght, 2 ; on an apparatus for elliptically-
polarizcd, 9 ; on measuring the nbsorp-
‘ton of polarized, in doubly refracting
cfystuls, 10; on an apparatus for sliow-
ln8 all the phenomena of, ib. ; on
errors which may bo occasioned by dis¬
carding the influence of solar or arti-
Cla‘> 011 magnets, 1 2 ; on mechanical
.antecedents of, 59.

'^gn‘n8 conductor for chimney?, on a,
borate of, 75.

'■icutone, on the decomposition of, at
I [° swor‘li, OG ; on Carboniferous, at
' ystnen and Pen moon Rlios, near
uJS*’ i *>n fossil remains of
wohI fr°rm tko carbonfferoua, of Tort-

0TI BO,ne experiments
a„ a. ll' °8raph for communicating
int. - riiVers an<* seasi without employ-
Linufa! bmcr8cd cable, 157.
alwftln*011 a,mctbod of computing the
tides *5, 63 Ume °f thu ultimn,c Pnr-

nufenepa? ** ‘)cvialion of ‘be mug.
Hcii". d e P^culinv to. 12 ; on several
on recent'* i .nf“'obbourhood of, 87;
of, loo. additions to the muscology

^raplnrcal°rp,?e.faU,m ,of’ 107 5 bydro-
of t)le “ nJ,wk* 011 the improvement
and uncR« 2* » °n ‘be hazardous
of, 126 . " “PPfoaches to the port

district „> tL. et*®olo?y of ‘be
,,lc l"»or ’inUno0n lhe education of
..railway fQr ,u I !l h,8h lovcl
Wi-‘8non erV ,dock8 °‘> b'1-
boauda on S' 00 tke orrivftl of’ ®t

Ho ; l0’n‘’ ‘hc "Ml coast of Africa,
Inan> from ithe Rev* Arthur Tid-
’ 0m Sekele‘u, Linyanti, 121.

Lonnda, on the west coast of Africa, on
the arrival of I)r. Livingston at, 110.
Longevity, on literary and philosophical
pursuits as conducive to, 114.

Loom, on n new kind of power, 156.

Lunar surface, on micrometrical and pho¬
tographic drawings of the, 23.

Lun nr volcanic craters, on the structure

of, 91- . .

Lycopodium, on the occurrence »n coni ot
peculiar vegetable orgnnisms resem¬
bling the sporangia of, 97.

Macadam (Stevenson) on the distribution
of iodine in the mineral, vegetable and
animal kingdoms, 72; on the presence
of lead in hydrochloric and nitric acids,
ib. : on the cause of the phenomena
exhibited by the Geysers of Iceland,

Magnetic field, on some peculiarities of
the, 1G. .

Magnetic needle, on the deviation of the,
peculiar to Liverpool, 12.

Magnetism, 2.

Magneto-electricity, and underground
wires, on, 8.

Magnets, on errors which may be occa¬
sioned by disregarding the influence of
solar or artificial light in, 12.

Maps, on Babinct’s homalographic, 2.
Marratt (F. P.) on some new mosses,
and on recent additions to the musco¬
logy of Liverpool, 102.

Masters (Maxwell T.) on the arrange¬
ment of tho air-canals in the Nym-
pha*acc£c (water-lilies), 102.
Mathematics, 1.

Muzatlnu, on four hundred and forty
species of shells front, 107.

M'Cosh (llcv. Prof.) on the morphology
of pines and fits, 99; on the corre¬
spondence between the leaf-venation
and ramification of the plant, 100; on
some traces of harmonious colours in
plants and the plumage of birds, 101.
MeDermott (Mr.) on a new mil way
brake, 157-

McNemey (Mr.), statistics of poor relief
and movement of population in the
“commercial district" in the hundred
of Wjrral, Cheshire, 142.

Meat, on the results of experiments on
the preservation of fresh, 69.
Mechanics, 147.

Meconine, on the constitution of, G4.

M i.'tl in, on indices of the refraction of
transparent, included between two
parallel faces, 2.

Mersey, and its approaches, diagrams

186

INDEX II.

illustrative of the changes in the bed
of the, 117; on the estuary of the
river, 126; on the large fly-wheel
lately erected at the iron works, 147.
Meteoric astronomy, on, 26.

Meleorolites, on, 19.

Meteorological instruments, on photo¬
graphic drawings of, adopted by the
Council of the British Meteorological
Society, 47.

Meteorology, 28; of Huggate, 34; of
Nice Maritime fur 1853, ib. ; of the
Albion Mines, Nova Scotia, 35.
Mcthyle, on the physiological properties
of, 76.

Michel (H. E.) on the treatment of
abandoned workings of the Australian
gold fields, 214.

Microscopic objects in fluid, on an easy
method of making thin gluss cells for
mounting, 47.

Milk, on the preservation of, 74.

Miller (William) on decimal coinage,
142; on the decimalization of the
tariff, 143.

Minerals from the south of Norway, ou
the occurrence and chemical composi¬
tion of some, 67,

Mines, on the meteorology of the Albion,
in Nova Scotin, 35; on a machine in¬
tended to prevent accidents in, 150.
Moigno (Abbe) on u new arithmometer,

1 ; on Babinet'B honmlographic maps,

2 > 0,1 preservation of milk, 71.
Moon, on photographs of the, 10.

Mqon s surface, on collodion photographs
of the, 66. ** r

Moore (Mr.) on rare animals in the
Museum of Natural History in Liver¬
pool, 111.

Mordants, on the action of gallic and
tannic acids on irou and alumina, 66.
Mortar, marine, on destroying shins by
means of a, 158. 1 3

Mosses, on some new, 102.

Motion, on mechanical antecedents of*

Murchison (Sir R. I.) on the palmozoic
rocks of Germany, 87 ; on a slab of
old red sandstone from Puddiestone
near Leominster, 91.

Muscology of Liverpool, on recent addi¬
tions to the, 102.

Napo, on the eastern territory of the
Ecuador nnd the river, 123.

Nasmyth (James) on the structure of
unar volcanic craters, 91 ; on a me¬
thod of boring holes in rock for tunnel¬
ing purposes, 157; on destroying ships

by means of a marine mortar, 158; on
a lightning conductor for chimneys,
ib.

National accounts, suggestions for im¬
proving the present mode of keeping
and stating the, 138.

Navigation, 49 ; on the progress of steam,

169.

Newnmrih (William), magnitude and
(hictuatiun of the circulation of hills of
exchange, 1816 to 1853, 143; fads
and statements connected with the
question, — whether, in consequence of
the discoveries within the last six years,
the exchangeable value of gold in this
country has fallen below its former
level, 143.

Ncvins (Dr. J. B.) on the storms which
have visited Englaud and Ireland
during 1852, 1853, and 1854, with
reference to (lie theory of rotatory
storms, 30.

Nice Maritime, on the meteorology of,
tor 1853, 34 ; tho BtutistieB of, 115.
Nicholson (E, C.) on the estimation of
iron by tho method of Marguerite, and
on the preparation of the standard solu¬
tion oF permanganate ofpotush, 71.
Nicolay (Rev. C. ( i .) on the eastern ter¬
ritory of the Ecuador and the river
Napo, 123.

Norton (Copt. J.) on tome railway signals,
158.

Norwny, on the occurrence and chemical
composition of sonic minerals from the
t south of, 67.

Nova Scotia, on the meteorology of the
Albion mines in, 35.

Nymphieacea?, on the arrangement of the

air-canals in the, 102.

Offenders, on the reformation of, 132.
Opium, on tho relntion of meconine und
papaverine to the other constituents of,
64.

Osier (F.) on his anemometer and rain-
gauge at the Liverpool Observatory, 34.
Owen ( Prof.) on the anthropoid apes, 111;
on tlie anatomy of the great ant-eater.

■o-

the

Pago (D.) on the subdivision of the pal®
zoic rocks of Scotland, 91 ; on “•*
structure anti texture of stratified rocks,
as a means of determining the condi¬
tions under which they are formed, 9-.

Papaverine, on the constitution of, 64-

Paper, on some materials for making,
97.

Patterson (Robert) on Priapulus cau-

INDEX II.

187

datus, 113 ;• on living sea animals, ib. ;
on a plan of aerating aquavivaria
adopted by Dr. Ball, 115.

Peach (Mr.) on specimens of old red
tamlatone from Gallows Hill, near
Thurso, 92.

Peebleshire, on a curious structure in the
Silurian slates of, 78.

Petrie (William) on the motion of fluids;
1 remarkable variation in the great
dementary law of the ratio between
pressure and velocity. 63.
ijlips (John) on micrometrical and
Photographic drawings of the lunar
»urface, 25.

Philoiogical inquiry, on the ethnological
value of the results of, 126.

th i01 supposed influence of
e hot-blast in augmenting the quan-
JJ of. in cast-iron, 74.

“tography : — on photographs of the
oon anj the sun, 10 ; on drawings of
« e lunar surface. 25; on drawings of
eteorologteal instruments adopted by
u_ : °u»cU of the British Meteorological
cullnV' l'lc vnoon's surface, on

ion, (JO; upua albumen, 67; on
i4l ifn^ement wwe difficult sub-
jjo. 11 le *PpHc#tiun of, to science,
min,,0” 1° moans of apply ing, to war
fE- ■", «» «.y ami navy, 70,
i 1!,'llcllllon i,r' *o tlic dolinca-

pg“c». 56. ’

ill of weig*»‘ which may

p,gr°und, 103 d 00 a’ tlnv'en int0 the

mo,'!>l>ology of. 90.
latioi,. of S°fIa,lons of colour, and re-
the corlSr ttnd form in, 98; on
venation ' * '’,ll( l'IK'L' between tile leaf-
*°ine tL rTl!lcalioi‘ of> 100; on

»>i, 101 • . “*r,n unions colours

fcla*i on tlm te Ul?U8nce of coloured
., I US, growth of, in sea- water,

»r-a.6.
hT °".4.

p ‘"l*ion Mi!!'1 tlJ.c meteorology of the
°°r'oafteSN?-VaSw)ti«.35.
pM, l38. 1Catl°" or in Liver-

?.0vem”;,tWaStifM °fll’oov relief> «‘"d

Slot” 1,1 tl,D “commercial

p^hire, J52 tl,e hundred of Wirral,

tePar,lti0n of the Bedard

5SU,I», on ,b iUlg,anatc of. 74.

he aPphcation of cyanide

of, to killing insects for the cabinet,

106.

Pressure, on the effect of, on the tem¬
perature of fusion of different sub¬
stances, 37.

Preston strike in 1853 to 1854, on the
causes and consequences of the, 130.

Priapulus caudatus, on, 113.

Price (Dr. A. P.) on a new method of
alkalimetry, 74.

Price (Davia S.) on the estimation of
iron by the method of Marguerite, and
some notes on the preparation of the
standard solution of permanganate of
potnsb, 71 ; ou the supposed influence
of the hot-blnit in augmentmg the
quantity of phosphorus in cast iron, ib.

Price (J.) on carboniferous limestone, at
Llysfaen and Peuimten llhos, near
Abergele, 93.

Price (Rev. — ), on drawings of various
marine animals, 1 02.

Printing machine, on an improved, 163.

Prison, on the effect of good and bad
times on committals to, 133.

Propeller, on Fisher's Venetian Bcrew,
151.

Prosser (Mr.) on unchanged stenm, 159.

Pumps, experiments to be made on cen¬
trifugal, 163.

Purpura lupillus, on the development of
the embryo of, 108.

Quaternions, on an extension of, 1.

Railway, on a high level, for the Liver¬
pool Docks, 151.

Railway-signals, on, 158.

Rain, on the distribution of, in the tem¬
perate zones, 28.

Rain-fall, on some simultaneous observa¬
tions of, nt different points on the same
mountain range, 46.

Raiu-gauge at the Liverpool Observatory,
on the, 34.

Rain-water, on ammonia and nitric acid
iu, 70, 164.

Ramsay (Prof. A. C.) on the former pro¬
bable existence of paheozoic glaciers,
93 ; on the thickness of the ice of the
ancient glaciers of North Wales, and
other points bearing on the glaciation
of the country, 94.

Rankin (Rev. T.) on the meteorology of
iluggate, 34.

Rankine (W. J. Macquorn) on some si¬
multaneous observations of rain-fall at
different points on the *iune mountain
range, 46; on formula for the maximum
pressure and latent heat of vapours,

188

INDEX II.

58 ; on the means of realizing the ad¬
vantages of the air-engine, 159.
Ratlibone (Theodore W.) on the different
plans which have been proposed of de¬
cimal accounts and coinage, 143.
Reade (Rev. J. B.) on photographs of
the moon and of the sun, 10.

Rcbmann (the Rev. J.), letter from, to
the Rev, H. Venn, from Kisnludini
(in Rabbai), 123.

Redfern (l)r.) on the nature of the Tor-
banehill and other varieties of coal,
102.

Refractometer, on a portable, 2.
ltcid (Dr.) on the plan of ventilating St.
George's Hall, 159.

Rennie (George), hydrographical remurks
on the improvement of the port of
Liverpool, 124.

Richardson (J.) on the medicinal leech,
113.

Rocks, on the foliation of sonic meta-
morphic, in Scotland, 82; on the dis¬
covery of microscopic shells in the lower
Silurian, il >. ; on the pulivozoic, of
Germany, 87 j on the subdivisions uf
the palaeozoic, of Scotland, 91 ; on the
structure and texture of stratified, 92 ;
on the supply of gold from English,
133 ; on a method of boring holes in,
for tunneling purposes, 157.

Rope, on the origin of wire, 162.

Ross (Sir John) on the deviation of tho
magnetic needle peculiar to Liverpool,

1 2 ; on errors which may he occasioned
by disregarding the influence of solar
or artificial light in magnets, ib.
Rubiacca*, on the stipulftr glands of, 99.
Russell (John Scott) on the progress of
naval architecture and steam naviga¬
tion, including a notice of the large
ship of the Eastern Steam Navigation
Company, 100.

Russell (W.), letter to J. (.’leghorn on the
herring fisheries of Wick district, 176.
Russia in Europe, on the non- Russian
populations of, 129, 139.

Sailing, on modifications of grcat-circlc,
126.

Salts, on the fluorescence exhibited by cer¬
tain iron nnd platinum, G8.

Sandstone, on a slab of old red, from
Puddlestonc, near Leominster, 91 ; on
specimens of old red, from (j allows
Hill, near Thurso, 92; on fossil re¬
mains of fishes from the old red, „f
Herefordshire, 95; on the May Hill
ib. ; on V. a mites gigua from the, and
shale of the Yorkshire coust, 103.

Saxby (Mr.) on mechanical appliances
on board merchant ships, 161.
Scoresby (Rev. W.) on pictorial and pho-
tochromatic impressions on the retina
of the human eye, 12; on the loss of
the “ Tayleur,” und the changes in the
action of compasses in iron ships, 49;
an inquiry into the principles and mea¬
sures on which safety in the navigation
of iron ships may be reasonably looked
for, 53, 161.

Scotland, on the great terrace of erosion
in, 78 ; further observations on glacial
phumomenn in, nnd the north of Eng¬
land, 79 ; on the foliation of some
mctamorphic rocks in, 82; on the an¬
thracite deposits and vegetable re¬
mains in the lower Silurians of the
south of, 80 ; on the subdivisions of tho
pnlxozoic rocks of, 91 .

Screw propoller, on Fisher’s Venetian,
151.

Sea animals, on living, 113.

Sea-water, on the artificial preparation of,
for marine vivaria, 77 ; on the influ¬
ence of coloured glass on the growth
of plants in, 103.

Sedgwick (Rev. Prof.) on the May Hm
sandstone, nnd the palmozoic system of
Englund, 05.

Sekeletu, letter from the Rev. Dr. Li¬
vingston from, 121.

Sewell (John) on steam-boiler explosions,
162.

Sewerage of manufacturing towns, on the,
77.

Seymour (D.) on the Caucasus and parts
of the Crimea, 124 ; on the MS. notes
of travels of General Fevrier in central
Asia, 125.

Shells, land, freshwater and marine, ob¬
tained in sinking a well on the bonks
of the Avon, 78 ; on the discovery °f
microscopic, in the lower Silurian
rocks, 82 ; on four hundred and forty
species of, from Mazatlan, 107.

Ship’s compass, on a graphic method of
correcting the deviations of a, 13.

Ships, on the changes in the action ot
compasses in iron, 49 ; on the prim
ciples und measures on which safety
in the navigation of iron, may be rea¬
sonably looked for, 53, 1.61; on t'1®
inefficiency of the aids of science a
present in connexion with the com¬
passes of iron, 55 ; on ventilation of,
148; on clipper, 152; on destroying!
by means of a marine mortar, 158 ; on
mechanical appliances on board mer¬
chant, 161.

INDEX II.

189

Sims (Mr.) on borate of lime, 75.

Slites, Silurian, of Peebleshire, on a curi¬
ous structure in the, 78.

^mith (A.) on a graphic method of cor-
tecting the deviations of a ship’s corn-
pay, 13; on the origin of wire-rope,
Equalities and (economy, 162.
inoke, on jhe prevention of, 149.
W.cryslals, photogenic drawings of,
<oen in Jau. 1854, 30.

War spots, on, 19.

Shuttering's experiments, on the con- I
wntration of alcohol in, 69.
witbanipton, on the climate of, 29.

• nc* i. Joseph) on the production of j

. phurous ac'd gas from the coinhus- '
lion of coal, 75.

Nigeria paradoxa, on, 104.
l” :j!' equivalency of, and sugar !

!IQtes 011 the British Association !
catalogue of, 25.

_llT . w1) on an improved printing
machine, 163. V 1

Si!!'"’ 011 UUc,|anged, 159.

,,r i4». »®D tbe oeconomical working

|J * ' 0“ “>e (economical working of,
°ffuel, with a more speedy
of| |60,ld of 3team, 149 ; on explosions I

160 Uav'Sa^0,,i ot» the progress of, |

SteS°PC cl'amoramic lens, on n, 70.
Stcvelfy fffr,norne,,a» 011 some, 9.
whil lnj0f,) °'l tlu‘ limit of weight
driven in, f,iS8fe^ be laid on a l)ile '

lU“ r1"1

CMff" at, 47.

helana 7 .h,lV0 visited England and
onlff^g 1852,1853, and 1854,

Sl«l'u, rp p

. hiring Cvij., ,°V jn<dhod of manufac-
8tun *■= cyhnd"cnl lenses, -17.

Su^|PdilCi'nU5lllrICS) UU an Australian

s/" *»S, 7oI etll,iva,e,,cy of st&rch ami,

jj^giuns, 126 ' Sectors in the arctic

°P t,H‘ meteorology of
S°fNi«eS h °r,1S5:J' ;{1; statistics

s^onds alT\v’ 1

ma>iis of «.,i' 0n. some fossil re¬

plan of venti-

of Hereffft!i,|1-,lie ol<1 reJ s“«d-

^E£**V1 and thc carb'1-

mest0»e of Tortworth, 95.

Symons (W.) on a new electrical battery,
75.

Tariff, on the decimalization of the, 143.

Tayleur, on tlio loss of the ship, 49.

Taylor (J.) on an iron flouting graving
dock, 163.

Telegraph, on the origin of the sub¬
marine, and its extension to India and
America, 7 ; on improvements in sub¬
inurine and sublet runcan, communica¬
tion, 17 ; on communication between
England and America, 147; on some
experiments upon a, for communicating
across rivers and seas, 157.

Telescopes, on natural occurrences that
impuir the vision of, 48.

Temperature of fusion of different sub¬
stances, on the effect of pressure on, 57.

Tennant ( Prof. J.) on the re-cutting of the
Koh-i-noor diamond, 75.

Terre, sur Ic mouvement de ln,au moyen
du gyroscope, 50.

Thermo-electricity, experimental re¬
searches in, 13.

Thomson (Prof. W.), experimental re¬
searches in thermo-electricity, 13 ; on
mechanical antecedents of motion, heat
mid light, 59.

Thornton (J.) on the friction of discs in
water and on the experiments to be
made on centrifugal pumps, 163.

Thread-cells, on the occurrence in the
infusoria of peeuliur organs resembling,
105.

Tide observations, on, 28.

Tillman (Rev. Arthur), letter from the
llev. Dr. Livingston, from Sekeletu,
Linyanti, 121.

Time-signals, on the transmission of,
through the electric telegraph wires iu
connexion with Greenwich Observa¬
tory, 148.

Topsails, on Cunningham’s plan for reef¬
ing, 150.

Torbanehill coal, on the nature of the,

102.

( Tow sou ( J. T.) on the inefficiency of the
aids of science at present in connexion
with thc compasses of iron ships, 55; on
modifications of great-civclcsailing, 1 26.

Trias of Dumfrics-shirc, on crustacean im¬
pressions from thc, 86.

Turnbull (Dr. James) on the physiological
properties of some of the compounds of
the organic radicals — methyle, ethyle,
and amyle, 76.

Tyndall (Professor) on the diamagnetic
force, 1 4 ; on some peculiarities of the
magnetic held, 16.

190

INDEX II.

Valpy (R.), progress and direction of Bri¬
tish exports, and the influence thereon
of free trade and gold, H5.

Vapours, on formula: for the maximum
pressure and latent heat of, 58.

Varley (C. F.) on improvements in sub¬
marine and subterranean telegraph
communication, 17.

Varley (Cornelius) on natural occurrences
that impair the vision of good tele¬
scopes, 48.

Vaughan (Daniel) on meteoric astronomy,

Vegetable remains in the lower Silurians
of the south of Scotland, on the, 88.

Venn (the Her. H.), letter from tho Rev.
J. Rebnrann to, from Kisnludini, 12.1.

Virginia, West, on coni deposits in, 78.

Vivaria, marine, on the artificial prepara¬
tion of sea-water for, 77.

Volcanic action, on the production of
borncic acid and ammonia by, 70.

Voltaic battery, on the triplication of the,
to the ignition of gunpowder, 18.

Wales, North, on the thickness of tho ice
of the ancient glnricra of, 01.

Wnrd (Cant.) on the application of the
voltaic battery to the ignition of gun¬
powder, 18.

Warington (It.) on the production of bo-
racic acid and ammonia by volcanic
action, 70; on the c fleet of coloured
media ««» the growth of red Alga-, 77 ;
on the influence of coloured glass on
the growth of plants insea-water, 103;
observations made in small aquaria, in
which the balance between the animal
and vegetable organisms was pernm-
nently maintained, llfi.

Washing machine, on n new, 140.

Water, report of experiments on the fric¬
tion of discs in, 163.

Water-lilies, on the arrangement of the
air-can.il* in the, 102.

Watersten (J. J.) on a method of com- 1
puting the absolute volume of the ulti¬
mate particles of liquids, 63.

Walts (J. King) on mironc bortalci ob¬
served at St. Ives, 47.

Wenham (F.) on the application of pho¬
tography to the delineation of micro¬
scopic objects, 116.

Whcwell (Rev. W.) on Mr. Superinten¬
dent Bnche’s tide observations, 28.
Whitty (Prof. J.), on the Silurian anthra¬
cite of Cavan, discovered by, 95.
Wicklow, on the one-inch map of the
northern port of the county, geologi¬
cally coloured, 87.

Widdringtou (Copt.) on a supposed new
species of Folia, 113.

Williamson (Prof. W. C.) on the restora¬
tion of Zarnitcs gigas from the lower
red sandstone and shale of the York¬
shire coast, 1 03 ; on the British species
«f Fornminifera, 1 13.

Wilson (Prof ) on a new arithmometer, 1 ;

on Babinct's honmlogrnphic maps, 2.
Wilson (Dr. G.) on the artificial prepara¬
tion of sea-water for marine vivaria, 77.
Wilson (G. S.) on an Australian expedi¬
tion, 125.

Wire-rope, on the origin of, 162.

Wires, on magneto, electricity and under¬
ground, 8.

Wright (T.) on the early ethnology of
Britain, 110; on some remains of an
curlv people in the south-eastern corner
of Y orkshire, 130.

Wrightson (Francis) on the sewerage of
manufacturing towns, 77.

Yates (James) on Stangerin paradoxa,
104; on n method of substituting: francs
and centimes for the present English
metallic currency, 148.

Yates (J. B.) on the estuary of the river
Mersey, and the hazardous and uncer¬
tain approaches to the port of Liverpool,
r 126.

Yorkshire, on Zamites gigas from the
lower sandstone and shale of the coast,
103; on some remains of an early
people iu the south-eastern corner of,
130; statistics, ib.

Zamites gigas from the lower sandstone
and shale of the Y'orkshire coast, on,
103.

Zinc, on the chemical examination of
some alloys of copper and, 67.

Zoues, on the distribution of rain in the
temperate, 28.

Zoology, 105.

List of those Members of the British Association for the Advancement
of Science to whom Copies of this Volume [for 1854] are supplied
gratuitously, in conformity with the Regulations adopted >y e
General Committee. [See jrp. xv. & xvi.]

HONORARY MEMBER.

HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS, PRINCE ALBERT OF SAXE-COBURG AND.GOTIIA.

LIFE MEMBERS.

Adair, Lt.-Col. Robert A.Shafto, F.R.S.,

M.P., 7 Audley Square, London.

Adam, Walter, M.D.

Adanis, J0h„ Couch, M.A., D.C.L.,
r.R.S., F.R.A.S., Pembroke College,

Cambridge.

Ainsworth, Thomas, The Flush, Egremont,

Cumberland.

an>, William, FrickleyHall near Don¬
caster.

Alexander, WiHinm Maxwell, Southbarr,

* JUiley.

Allecock, Samuel, Llualtuimo Place near

Manchester.

n11’ AVilliam J. C. , Secretary to the
a \vn. *'uat Academical Institution;

Alii, t ,n?tun Pl!U'r’ lMftwt.

Anll!hrr‘aB’ °*hftWwlck Hall, York,
j. ‘ ’ Hemy, Watkinson Hall, Oven-

a1 hfv HaBfox.

Hldge 0' "’ A-i Park House, Stour-
■Andrews, Th M>U ) F R g M#R ! A j
•Ml5cnt of' »«“1 Professor ufChe-
Ansted y Belfast.

17 Mi Thomas, M.A., F.R.S.,

SauaJi , ,eHter Street, Manchester
Ann t 1 Lo»fou.

' Ct StlVGe0r«e‘ V 23 Wi,8on

Artiiistr j Squure, London.

Leeds sl»'ingfiehl Mount near

GrovJ^ci "Main, M.A., 2G Campden
Ashton Tu ei|*lnKton, London.

^Alanchesnlf,^’ 7 1 Moalpy Street,

near p,gerton Mall, Turton

^j°. Jobn^n8.*’ t:°lhi»in, Bristol,
i^gton. ’ Noel House, Ken-

' •S., F.S.A., H archills, Leeds.

hornet

i, 'd i ester Square, London.

Babington, Charles Cardale, M. A., I' -R.S.,
(Local Treasurer), St. John’s College,
Cambridge.

Backhouse, John Church, Blackwell, Dar¬
lington.

Baddclev, Cant. Fred. H., R.E., Ceylon.
Bain, Richard, Gwennap near Truro.
Bainbridge, Robert Walton, Middleton
House near Barnard Castle, Durham.
Baker, William, G3Gloucester Place, Hyde
Park, London.

Baldwin, the lion. Robert, H.M. Attor¬
ney-General, Spadina, Co. York, upper
Canada.

Balfour, John Hutton, M.D., Professor of
Botany in the University ot Edinburgh,
F.R.S.E., F.L.S. ; 2 Bellevue Crescent,
Edinburgh.

Ball, John, M.R.I.A., 85 Stephen’s Green,
Dublin.

Ball, William, Rydall, Amblesule, West¬
moreland.

Barbour, Robert, PortlandSt., Manchester.
Barclay, Joseph Gurney, Walthamstow,
Essex.

Bnrucs, Thomas, M.D., F.R.S.E., Carlisle.
Barnett, Richard, 2 Avon Place, Emscote,
Warwickshire.

Burton, John, Bank of Ireland, Dublin.
Bashforth, Francis, M.A., St. John s Col¬
lege, Cambridge.

Bateman, J osonh, LLD„ F .11. A.S., Start-
fnrlh llall, Barnard Castle.

Bayldon, John, Lcndal, York.

Bayley, George, The Terrace, Camber¬
well, London.

Beamish, Richard, F.R.S.

Beatson, William, Rotherham.

Belcher, Capt. Sir Kdw., R.N., F.R.A.S.,
22 Thurlue Square, Ercunnton, London.
Belcombe, Henry Stephens, M.D., Minster
Yard, York.

Bcnnoch, Francis, Blackheath Park, Kent.
Bergin, Thomas Francis, M.R.I.A., 49

^ «,uuw... Westland Row, Dublin.

^ M*LSy-£*?curacY in Name, and Residence* of the Members may be communicated to
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2

MEMBERS TO WHOM

Berryman, William Richard, <> Tamar
Terrace, Stoke, Devon port.

Bickerdike, Rev. John, M.A., Leeds.

Binyon, Alfred, Mayfield, Manchester.

Binyon, Thomas, St. Ann’s Square, Man¬
chester.

Bird, William, 9 South Castle Street, Li- i
verpool.

Birks, Rev. Thomas RnwHon, Kelshnll !
Rectory, Royston.

Birley, Richard, Upper Brook Street,
Manchester.

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and n0CEEDlNGS OF the FIRST and SECOND MEETINGS, at York

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*~PmfTpNTh 1 *>r°f‘ on die Progress of Astronomy ; — J. W. Lubbock, on the Tides;
of t|,e gcj°r es' UJ* die Present State of Meteorology ; — Prof. Powell, on the Present State
on the plenCe °* ^n{dant Heat, Prof. Camming, on Thermo-Electricity ; — Sir I). Brewster,
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Review °n l,ie Recent Progress and Present State of Geology \ — Dr. Prichard's

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P sition of the Objects and Plan of the Association, &c.

OF THE THIRD MEETING at Cambridge, 1833,

Liiidfjy oi^s -~*1 vorccdings of the Meeting; — John Taylor, on Mil
*,emi-,p g , mlosophjr of Botany; — Dr. llenrv, on the Physiology o
®®«h;_R“Brl,0W'«njhe Strength of Materials ~ ' ■ '

Jennie , , "b, on the Arm I vtii-al Theon

Mineral Veins ; — Dr.
,.t . gy of the Nervous Sy-
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‘wnnte, on it WI. l,,c ""aiyunii Theory of Hydrostatics and Hydrodynamics; —
ranches of Analysis C* ** U *,rnric*1 ^nlf'neci ing» Part I. ; — Rev. G. Peacock, on certain

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History, Anatomy, Physiology, and History of Science.

PROCEEDINGS of the FOURTH MEETING, at Edinburgh, 1834,
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Contents : — H. G. Rogers, on the Geology of North America ; — Dr. C. Henry, on the
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Hydraulics, Part II.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, and Recommendations of the Association
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PROCEEDINGS of the FIFTH MEETING, at Dublin, 1835, Pub¬
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Contents Rev. W. Whewell, on the Recent Progress and Present Condition of the
Mathematical Theories of electricity, Magnet ism, and Heat; — A. Quetelet, Aper^u de
I'Etat nctuel des Sciences MathC-mntiqucs che* les Beiges ;— Cnpt. E. Sabine, on the Pluc-
nnmena of Terrestrial Magnetism.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Sir W. Hamilton’s Address, and Re¬
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PROCEEDINGS of the SIXTH MEETING, at Bristol, 1836, Pub¬
lished at 1 2s.

Cont ents : — Prof. Dnubeny, on the Present State of our Knowledge with respect to Mine¬
ral and Thermal Waters Major E. Sabine, on the Direction and Intensity of the Terrestrial
Magnetic Force in Scotland; — J. Richardson, on North American Zoology ; — Rev. J. Challis,
on the Mathematical Theory of Fluids;— J. T. Mackny, a Comparative View of the more
remarkable Plants which characterize the neighbourhood of Dublin .and Edinburgh, and the
South west of Scotland, &c. ; — ,1. T, Mackay, Comparative Geographical Notices of the
more remarkable Plants wliir.Ii characterize Scotland and In land ;— Report ofthe London Sub-
Committee of the Medical Section on the Motions and Sounds ofthe Heart Second Report
"r"ic .Dublin Sub-Committee on the Nations and Sounds of the Heart ; — Report of the Dublin
Committee on the Pathology of the Drain and Nervous System J. W. Lubbock, Account

'I,e Rccel,,‘ Dincii mil, uf Observations oftl.e Tides ;— Rev. B. Powell, on determining the
Refractive I ..dices lor the Standard Rays oftl.e Solar Spectrum in various media ;— Dr. Hodgkin,
on the Communication between the Arteries and Absorbents;— Prof. Phillips, Report of Experi¬
ment, on Subterranean Temperature Prof. Hamilton, on the Validity of a Method recently
proposed by G. B. Jerrard.for Transforming am! Resolving Equations of Elevated Degrees.

Together with the Transactions ofthe Sections, Prof. Haubcny’s Address, and Recommen¬
dations of the Association and Its Committees.

io 1/r^C7EEI?ING^ 0F THE SEVENTH MEETING, at Liverpool, 1837,
Published at IQs. Gd.

r..?.°|KTEN|T8 V“;MT *7 S*bi,'c' on the Varialion* Ihe Magnetic Intensity observed at dif-
' i.tCV' W- »•,!«.«. IW vnriou. of Pri„,mg f«-

Prof -r Tlmm.u • ■U,b0Lk’ 0,1 ",e <*f Observations ofthe Tides

Cold'amMIrn ’"w,,en ,hc Composition of Cast Iron produced by the

bMhl ar^w/ch R* 0l n;°nV.°" ‘l'« Determination of the Constant ol Nutation

Vri anl.T 0l^ T ^VrK- W* FoX- E*P«lme..t. on the Electricity of Metallic
^onofiluT^T? 0 ? M.nesi-Provhional Repo,, of the Committee ofthe Medical
ilT lln J -Wunation, appointed to investigate the Composition of Secretions, and

he Sv i ’ ReM> Rl'l'or« from the Committee for inquiring into

mittt of ,1 e B i h 0fx*fC, To®" B,Kl>' :-Sccn,ld R*F"r< of the London Sub-Com-

P ^ Scc'Lon’ °» Motions and Sounds of the Heart

Lt Col Svk^’ e, , J'“r Kt,ow|edgcin ^ard to Dimorphous Bodies

outward’ Air, on the Plan of Mr. V"j ^£hout communication witlithe

-£ss;& ^ - — nda*

PROCEEDINGS of the EIGHTH MEETING, at Newcastle, 1838,
Published at 1 5s.

Contents : — Rev. W. Whewell, Account of a Level Line, measured from the Bristol Chan¬
nel to the English Channel, by Mr. Bunt; — Report on the Discussions of Tides, prepared
under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell; — W. S. Harris, Account of the Progress and
State of the Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ; — Major E. Sabine, on the Magnetic
Isoclinal and Isodynarnic Lines in the British Islands ; — D. Lardncr, I.L.D., on the Determi¬
nation of the Mean Numerical Values of Railway Constants; — R. Mallet, First Report upon
Experiments upon the Action of Sea and River Water upon Cast and Wrought Iron ; — R.
Mallet, on the Action of a Heat of 212° Fahr., when long continued, on Inorganic and Or¬
ganic Substances,

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison's Address, ami Recommen¬
dations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS of the NINTH MEETING, at Birmingham, 1839,
Published at 13s. 6d.

Contents: — Rev. B. Powell, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of Refractive
Indices, for the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in different media; — Report on the Ap¬
plication of the Sum assigned for Tide Calculations to Rev. W. Whewell, in a Letter from T. G.
Bunt, Esq. ; — H. L-. Pattinson, on some galvanic Experiments to determine the Existence or
Non-Existence of Electrical Currents among Stratified Rocks, particularly those of the Moun-
j?',n Limestone formation, constituting the Lend Measures of Alston Moor; — Sir D. Brewster,
Reports respecting the tw o series of Hourly Meteorological Observations kept in Scotland ; —
Report on the subject of a series of Resolution* nil up led by the British Association at their
Meeting in August 1838, at Newcastle ; — R. Owen, Report on British Fossil Reptiles; — E.
Forbes, Report on the Distribution of pulntonlferous Mollusca in the British Isles; — W. S.
Harris, Third Report on the Progress of the Hourly Meteorological Register at the Plymouth

Dockyard. ’

Together with the Transactions of the Section*, Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt's Address, and
Kecorametulations of the Association and it* Committees.

PROCEEDINGS of the TENTH

Published at 1 5s.

MEETING, at Glasgow, 1810,

licit TEN™ : — ^ev' Keport on the recent Progress of discovery relative to Radiant

n ’ 1SUPi;,flent?'7 *0 a former Report on the same subject inserted in the first volume of the
he Rri,ish Association fur the Advancement of Science ; — J. D. Forbes, Supple-
nuw ; ry RTrt Meteorology ;—W. S. Harris, Report on Prof. Whewell** Anemometer,
Loud" °Peral")n at Plymouth ; — Report on " The Motions and Sounds of the Heart,” by the
• miUe<? 0f l,ie Br5,isl* Association, for 1839-40 ;— Prof. Scbdnbein, an Account of
"'ater'1 h*'? E1®c,l0-Chemi8try [ — R. Mallet, Second Report upon the Action of Air and
WmjJt er <?csl1 or sa,t» c|e*r or foul, and at various temperatures, upon Cast Iron,
peratifrp. i ! — " ‘ Fox’ KlT<"'t 0,1 some Observations on Subterranean Tcm-

and IfiJo i n ‘ o !pr* Uel,or‘ on tbe Observation* recorded during the years 1837, 1838, 1839
minjtham V ' reS»iering Anemometer erected at the Philosophical Institution, Re¬

servation,,' v . U* ,*WSter' Report respecting the two Series of Hourly Meteorological Ob-
Thomnsnn n *l 1,,Vc1rn08S and Kingussie, from Nov. 1st, 1838 to Nov. 1st, 1839;— W
^torkSSS “• ,l aVsVa Vf,,rcland: Div* P^tebruta C. J. B. Williams, M.D.,
Report ofSRES; °n ‘he, 1 tyaWoW1of thc Kung* and Air-Tube* ;— Rev. J. S. Henslow,
Together *s,i lx 11 ,hc l fe*ervulion ol Animal and Vegetable Substance*.

jSLSSiTfi; Sr*1 “** E- **«-••

^Sms.V1 ELEVENTH MEETING. Plymouth,

°" thc, Jresent *,ate of °"r Theoretical and Experimental
T*O.Bunt,Rel!ort^1“[^nduc‘,"n,of Hca,^G- L- Houpcll, M.D., Report on Poisons —
Roas. Report onthTnie?* f ^ T J T!?Wd*r lhe«»*"ft*o"ofthc Rev.W. Whewell ;

?*!• Whewell ;-l! sD| r°ni 1"}° Observation*, under the direction of the
tl'T ,he Pa« year — Renmtnf "Pr ‘ ,h°.WOrk,nB of Whewell** Anemometer at Plymouth
ln8 tlic scientifie^n .port of n Committee appointed for the purpose of *unerinto>.d

i&Z"****™*™* sh.el,

li

a Committee on the Preservation of Vegetative Powers in Seeds Dr. Hodgkin, on Inquiries
into the Races of Man Report of the Committee appointed to report how Ur the Desiderata
in oar knowledge of the Condition of the Upper Strata of the Atmosphere may be supplied by
means of Ascents in Balloons or otherwise, to ascertain the probable expense of such Expert -
ments and to draw up Direction, for Observers in such circumstances R. Owen, , Report
on British Fossil Reptiles i— Reports on the Determination of the Mean Value of Railway
Constants:— D. Lardner, LL.D., Second and concluding Report on the Determination of the
Mean Value of Railway Constants ; — E. Woods, Report on Railway Constants Report of a
Committee on the Construction of a Constant Indicator for Steam-Engines.

Together with the T fractions of the Sections, Prof. WhewelTs Address, and Recommen¬
dations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or the TWELFTH MEETING, at Manchester,
1812, Published at 10s. 6d.

Contents : — Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the co-operation of the British
Association in the System of .Simultaneous Mngncticnl and Meteorological Observations;

J, Richardson, M.D., Report on the present State of the Ichthyology of New Zealand;

W. S. Harris, Report on the Progress (if Meteorological Observations at Plymouth becon
Report of a Committee appointed to make Experiments on the Growth and Vitality' of Seeds:
— C. Vignolca, Report uf tlm Committee on Railway Sections ; —Report of the Committee
for the Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substance* [ — Lyon Playfair, M.D., Austrsc^
of Prof, Liebig's Report on " Organic Chemistry applied to Physiology and Pathology ;

R. Owen, Report on the Brill. h Fossil Mammalia, Part I.;— R. Hunt, Researches on tne
Influence of Light on the Germination of Seed, and the Growth of Plant* ; — L. Agassi*, Kcpor
on the Fossil Fishes of the Devonian System or Old [ted Sandstone : — W. Fairbaurn, p*
pendix to a Report on the Strength ond other Properties of Cast Iron obtained front the Ho
and Cold Blast; — U. Milne, Report of the Committee for registering Shocks of Earthquakes
in Great Britain ; — Report of a Committee on the Construction of a Constant Indicator for Steam-
Engine*, and for the determination of the Velocity of the Piston of the Self-acting Engine a
different period* of the Stroke ; — J. S. Russell, Report of a Committee on the form of Ships:
— Report of a Committee appointed " to consider of the rules by which the Nomenclature of
Zoology may be established on a uniform and permanent basis ; ” — Report of a Committee on
the Vital Statistics of large Towns in Scotland ; — Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress
in Special Re.earclios entrusted to Committees and Individuals.

Together with the Trsn.aclions of the Sections, Lord Francis Egerton’s Address, and Re¬
commendation* of the Asiocistion and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS ok the THIRTEENTH MEETING, at Cork,
1843, Published at 12s.

Contests -. — Robert Mallet, Third Report upon thr Action of Air and Water, whether
fre»h or salt, clrar or foul, and of Various Temperatures, upon Cost Iron, Wrought Iren an
Steel; — Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the co-operation of the British As¬
sociation in the Syrian of Siuiulutieou* Magnetics) and Meteorological Observation* t— -,r
J. P. W. Ilcrschcl, Bart., Report of the Committee appointed for the Redaction of Meteoro¬
logical Observation*; — Report of the Committee appointed for Experiments on Steam-
Engine*; — Report of the Committee appointed to continue their Experiment* on the Vitality
of Seed.;— J. S. Ruuel I, Report of a Series of Observation* ou the Tides of the Frith of
Forth and the Etui Coast of Scotland; — J. S. Russell, Nultre of a Report of the Committee
on the Form of Ship* J, Blake, Report on the Physiological Action of Medicines Repot*
of the Committee on Zoological Nomenclature ; — Report of the Committee for Registering
the Shock* of Earthquake*, and making such Meteorological Observations as may appear 10
them desirable p— Report of the Committee for conducting Experiments with Captive Balloons;
—Prof. WheaUtonc. Appendix to thr Report;— Report of the Committee for the Translation
and Publication of Foreign Scientific Memoir*;— C. W. Peach, on the Habits of the Marine
Teitace* ; — E. Forhc, Report on the Motlusca and Radiata of die zF.gean Sea, and on their
distribution, considered a* hearing on Geology ;— L. Agassiz, Synoptical Table of Britisti
Fov.il Flahe*. arranged in the order of the Geological Formations;— R. Owen, Report on the
British Fossil Mammalia, Part II. ;— E. W. Binney, Report on the excavation made at 1 e
junction of the Lower New R«d Sandstone with the Coal Measures at Collyhurst;—
Thompson, Repotr on thr Fauna of Ireland: Div. liwertebrata ; — Provisional Reports,
Notice* of Progress In Special Researches entrusted to Committees ami Individuals.

Together with the Transaction* of the Sections, liurl of Rosm’s Address, and Recommen¬
dation* of the Association and it* Committees.

PROCEEDINGS of the FOURTEENTH MEETING, at York, 1844,
Published at £ 1 .

Contents: — W. B. Carpenter, on the Microscopic Structure of Shells; — J. Alder and A.
Hancock, Report on the British Nudibranchiate Mollnsca; — R. Hunt, Researches on the
Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants; — Report of a
Committee appointed by the British Association in 1840, for revising the Nomenclature of the
Stars; — Ll-CoI. Sabine, on the Meteorology of Toronto in Canada;— J. Blackwnl I, Report
on some recent researches into the Structure, Function* and (Economy of the A rant idea
made in Great Britain; — Earl of Rosxe, on the Construction of large Reflecting Telescopes;
— Rov, W. V. ITarcourt, Report on a Gas Furnace for Experiments on Vltrlfaction and other
Applications of High Heat in the Laboratory; — Report of the Committee for Registering
Earthquake Shocks in Scotland ; — Report of a Committee for Experiment* on Steam-Engines ;
■“Report of the Committee to investigate the Varieties of the Human Race; — Fourth Report
“l a Committee appointed to continue their Experiments un the Vitality of Seed*; — W. Fair-
bairn, on the Consumption of Fuel and the prevention of Smoko;— P. Ronalds, Report con¬
cerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kcw ; — Sixth Report of the Committee
appointed to conduct the Co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simulla-
neous Magnelical and Meteorological Observations; — Prof. Forchhamincr on the influence
of Fucoidul Plants upon the Formations of the Earth, on Metnmarphism In general, and par¬
ticularly the Metamorphosis of the Scandinavian Alum Slate;— H. E. Strickland, Report on
“e recent Progress and present Stale of Ornithology ;— T. Oldham, Report of Committee
^pointed to conduct Observations on Subterranean Temperature in Ireland; — Prof. Owen,
ofr-*e Extinct Mammals of Australia, with descriptions of certaiu Fossils indicative
p , existence in that Continent of large Marsupial Representatives of the Order

a pf erra?la ' — Harris, Report on the working of Whewell and Oder's Anemometers
jriyniouth, for the years 1841, 1842, 1813;— VV. It! Dirt, Report on Atmospheric Waves;

8 R„, RePort sur ,es Poissons Foasiles dc t’Argilc dc Londres, with translation ; — J.

* " 1 Report on Waves; — Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special Re-

ches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.

:llh th®1’taiw»ctiona of the Sections, Dean of lily’s Address, and Recvmmenda-
ns 01 ‘“c Association and its Committees.

jffiSKifa ™E FIFTEENTU MEETING’ 01 Cambrid«e-

BS?»hTAl2w Se,,*nt^ RGPort of 11 Committee appointed to conduct the Co-operation of the
lions •— I, pis 1 ,e Sy*tcm ol' Simultaneous Magneticul and Meteorological Observa-
on the PI,;';”,: . ll,'ntc> 0,1 s,mK' p°inta in the Meteorology of Bombay J. Blake, Report
'R. Iliinf n °8‘Ca Act!on 0 Medicines Dr. Von Boguslawski, on the Comet of 1843;
the Influ ‘KTri?'.tlle Actiuograph ; — Prof. Schiinbein, on Osone;— Prof. Erman, on
Remvteriiui. u,°i , l!“n, upon Thermo-Electricity; — Baron Senftenbcrg, on the Self-
W- R. Biri j o 8ICal 1 nstruuionts employed in the Observatory at Scnftcnberg
»ent Extern „r°cd - P?r£ on. Atmospheric Waves ; — G. R. Porter, on the Progress and Pre-
Report on the rMV,ng8 iBa'ikr in ,tllC Unitcd Kingdom; — Prof. Bunsen and Dr. Playfair,

«f Iron- _ T)r n- ,eb ^ vcd f",in H-on Furnaces, with reference to the Theory of Smelting

Report of the Cornin’, dS°U’ U5p0"‘ ,he. ldlthyology of the Sens of China and Japan ;—

i^blcs ; — Fifth tin ‘Rc Heglstrstion of Periodical Phamomcnn of Animals nnd Veee-

Together with fh t ° C.omn'illri! on the Vitality of Seeds Appendix, &c.

^mendations of L a ’,SaC,I-,’nB °f "'e Soc,ions> Sir J- W- Handier. Address, and Re-
uons o| the Association and it* Committee*.

T"E SIXTEENTH MEETING, at Southampton,

, C°KTentb

‘■ '.'graph ; — R, llunl Vfli»« « i t ,i " Medicines K. Hunt, Report on the Ac-
'K on the Recent IwHl, "a I“' "cn,c,e ',ftLi«Ilt ‘,n *>>c Growth 0r Plants;— R. L.
l urches o„ Sea Water -—A £,,“*** !_~l ™f; 1 orchhaitimcr. on Comparative Analytical
WVTG-U' IVter' the Pr«222"iI2 ’(he. Cillrula,i“" Constants for

Cf in Great BrimS^W r W probable '""'re Condition of the

J.Phiu"0"’ R«P“rt on the Arcip.„'V' r,'Ird Report on Atmospheric Waves;—

tirP&V» AhcmoSlry Lj ' of »‘c Vertebw. Skeleton j—
T^gethe^Sr ? Al,niheric Waves " P C^slallit.e Slags j-Addcnd;. to

Co,n««Cndu,ions of'tiVAsSSand iu CommiUees" *' L Murchison’s Addre88- *»d He-

14*

PROCEEDINGS or tub SEVENTEENTH MEETING, at Oxford,
1847, Published at 18$.

Contents Prof. Langberg, on the Specific Gravity of Sulphuric Acid at different de¬
gree* of dilution, and on the relation which exists between the Development of Heat and the
coincident contraction of Volume in Sulphuric Acid when mixed with Water; — R. Hunt,
Researches on the Influence of the Solar Rays on the Growth of Plants ; — R. Mallet, on
the Fact* of Earthquake Ptncnomcna ; — Prof. Nilsson, on the Primitive Inhabitant* of Scan¬
dinavia; — W. Hopkins. Report on the Geological Theories of Elevation and Earthquake*;
— Dr. W. H. Carpenter, Report on the Mferoacopic Structure uf Shells; — Rev. W. Whewell and
Sir Janie* C. Rox*, Hcport upon the Recommendation of an Expedition for the purpose of
completing our knowledge of the Tides; — Dr. Schunck, on Colouring Matters Seventh Re¬
port of the Committee on the Vitality of Seed#;-— J. Glynn, on the Turbine or Horisontal
Water-Wheel of France and Germany; — Dr. Ft. G. Latham, oh the preset, I state and recent
progress of Ethnographies! Philology ; — Dr. J. C. Prichard, on the various methods of Research
which contribute to the Advancement of Ethnology, and of the relation* of that Science to
other branches of Knowledge; — Dr. C. C. J. Bunsen, on the results of the recent Egyptian
researches in reference to Asiatic and African Ethnology, and the Classification of Languages;
— Dr. C. Meyer, on the Importance of the Study of the Celtic Language a# exhibited by the
Modern Celtic Dialect* still extant; — Dr. Max Muller, on the Rclutinn of the Bengali to the
Arian and Aboriginal Languages of India; — W. It. Birt, Fourth Report on Atmospheric
Waves; — Prof. W. H. Dove, Temperature Tables; with Introductory Remarks by LieuL-Col.
E. Sabine; — A. Ernianand II. Petersen, Third Report on the Calculation of the Gaussian Con¬
stants for I82!>.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Robert Harry Inglis's Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS of the EIGHTEENTH MEETING, at Swansea,
1 848, Published at Os.

Content# ; — Rev. Prof. Puwcll, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors; —

J. Glynn, on Wnter-pr. . . Engines ;— H. A. Smith, on the Alrohd Water of Towns;— Eighth

R. port of Committer on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds;— W. U. Birt, Fifth Report on At-
mmphrnr Wave# E. Schunck, on Colouring Matter*;— J. p. Rudd, tin the advantageous use
m*(!c of the gaseous escape from the Blast Furnaces at the Vstalyfem Iron Works;— R. Hunt,
Report of progress in the investigation of the Action of Carbonic Arid on the Growth of
Plants allied to tho>c of the Coal Formations ; — Prof. H. W. Dove, Supplement, to the Tem¬
perature T able* printed in the Report of the British Association for 1 847 ; — Remarks by l’rof.
Dov.- on his recently constructed Maps of the Monthly Isothermal Lines of the Globe, and on
some of the principal Conclusions in regard to Climatology deductble from them ; with an in¬
troductory Notice by Lt-C'oL E. Sabine; — Dr. Dnubcny, on the progress of the investigation
on the Influence of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Ferns;— J. Phillip#, Noticd of further
progress in Anemomctrical Researches; — Mr. Mallet's Letter to the Assistant-General Secre-
tary ; A. Erman, Second Report on the Gaussian Constants; — Report of a Committee
relative to the expediency of recommending the continuance of the Toronto Magnetical and
Meteorolog, cal Observatory until December 1850.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Marquis of Northampton’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS op the NINETEENTH MEETING, at Birmingham,
1849, Published at 10*.

Content# —Rev Prof. Towell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;— Earl
of Rossc. Notice ot Nebulae lately olirerved in the Six-feet Reflector —Prof. Daubeny, on the
Influence of Carbonic Acid Gas on the health of Plants, Specially or those allied to the Fossil
Remain, found ns the C oal Formation Dr. Andrew#, Report on the Heat of Combination ;
— Report of the Committee on the Registration of the Periodic Phenomena of Plants and
Animals;— NmUi Report of Committee on Experiment* on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds;
7P- i10"* concerning ,hc Observatory of lire- British Association at Kew, from

Aug. 9, 1848 to Sept. 13, ***#!— R. Mallet, Report on the Experimental Inquiry on Railway
Bar Corrosion ;— M. R. Birt, Report on the Discussion ot the Electrical Observations at Kew.

Together with (ha Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. T. R. Robinson’* Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

niE TWENTIETH MEETING, at Edinburgh,

PROCEEDINGS of
1850, Published at 15s.

Contests: — R Molls, Firs. Repos. .he F.c»of I
Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors, . »,(1|„oroi01,ictti observations taken
mm BHtU. Wild. ,-T. C. H«, » »"^r |S^R. Hun., on

«St. Michael's from tlie 1st of January, 1840 t Radiations; — Tenth

the present Stale of nnr Knowledge of the Chemical Action the Solar Qen.

Report of Committee on F.xperitnenU on .the ; Growth and a^^;tS^rn,“\e Ob-
Rriggs, Report on the Aboriginal Tribes of ,MjJ“ ' R jJ t| P investigation of British
lervatory of the British Association at kew ;-L. Forte-, Report on t,cl" nutribution and
Marine Zoology b> means of the Dredge ;-R. MacAndrew. Notes on ‘he L>. .iribullon ana
Range in depth of Mollusca and other Matine An^, observed on the » pr^J gtatc of

tugal, Barbary, Malta, and Southern Italy in 1849 . *\ro ‘ P,.rindie*l Phenomena of

our Knowledge of the Freshwater Polyxoa -.-Registration of the I ir odteal P b»noj e
Plants and A^oah {-Suggestions to Astronomers for the Observetton of the lotal Lcl.psc

of.hu Si, D„U1 llrcw.iec’i AMrc, ...1 Recum-
nicmlations of the Association and its Committee*.

PROCEEDINGS of the TWENTY-FIKST MEETING, at Ipswich,
1851, Published at 16s. 6 d.

Contents :-Rev. Prof. Powell, on Observations of Luminous J*

port of Committee on Experiments on the Growth anti Vitality o • ' ' . ’ ,

'he Climate of Southampton Dr. It. A. Smith, on the Air and W ater of lowns. Action of
Porous Strata, Water anil Organic Matter ;-Report of the Cotnm.ttee appointed o consider
tl>e probable Effects in an (Economical and Physical Point of V iew ®f *e °

picnl Forests;— A. llenfrcy, on the Reproduction and supposed Existence of Sexual Organ

'n the Higher Cryptogumous Plants;— Dr. Dauheny. on the Nomenclature of OjSJjJJ? _

pounds ; — Rev. Dr. Donaldson, on two unsolved Problems in Indo-Qennan htlology ,

»*• T. Williams, Report on the British Annelida, -B. Mallet, Second Report on ^JacU of
Earthquake Phcenomcna ; — Letter from Prof. Henry, u. Col. Sabine, on the System of Meteoro¬
logical Observations proposed to be established in the United Slates Col. Sabine, Report
un lbe Kew Magnetos rapha ; — J. Welsh, Report on the Performance of hi* three Magneto-
pphs during the Experimental Trial at the Kew Observatory;— K Ronslds, Report concern-
‘"B the Observatory of the Brilish Association at Kew, from September 12, 1850, to July 31,
1851; — Ordnance Survey of Scotland. ...... , „

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Professor Airy s Address, and Recom¬
mendations of the Association nnd its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS ok tiie TWENTY-SECOND MEETING, at Bel-
*ast> 1852, Published at 15*‘.

Contents:— R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facta of Earthquake Phenomena;—' Twelfth
report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds; Rev. Prof.
•jOwellj Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1851-52;— Dr. Gladstone, on the In-
,en!* of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants A Manual of Ethnological
‘nquiry Col, Sykes, Mean Temperature of the Day, nnd Monthly Fall of Rain, at 127 Sta-
noiu under the Bengal Presidency Prof. J. D. Forbes, on Experiments on the Laws of the
'-induction of Heat ;— R. Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations;— Dr. Hodges,
on the Composition and (Economy of the Flax Plant W. Thompson, on the Freshwater
o S ,es of Ulster ; — W. Thompson, Supplementary Report on the Fauna of Ireland ; — W. \Y ills,
and n Meteorol°gy °f Birmingham;— J. Thomson, on the Vortex- Water- Wheel ;— J. B. Lawcs
AnimaU Gllbert| °" lhe ComPosil,on of Foods in relation to Respiration and the Feeding of

rnend^e-tber Wlt'' *',c Transactions of the Sections, Colonel Sabine’s Address, and Recom-
ations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS of the TWENTY-THIRD MEETING, at Hull,
1853, Pttblished at 10*. 6d.

Contents: — Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1852-53 ;
— James Oldham, on the Physical Features of the Humber ; — James Oldham, on the Rise,
Progress, and Present Position of Steam Navigation in Hull; — William Fairbairn, Experi¬
mental Researches to determine the Strength of Locomotive Boilers, and the causes which
lead to Explosion; — J. J. Sylvester, Provisional Report on the Theory of Determinants ; —
Professor Hodges, M.D., Report on the Oases evolved in Steeping Flax, and on the Composition
and (Economy of the Flax Plnnt; — Thirteenth Repnrt of Committee on Experiments on the
Growth and Vitality of Srcds; — Robert Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations;
— John P. Bell, M.D., Observations on the Character and Measurements of Degradation of the
Yorkshire Coast; First Report of Committee on the Phvsical Character of the Moon’s Sur¬
face, as compared with that of the Earth K. Mallet', Provisional Report on Earthquake
Wave-Transits; nnd on Scismometrlcul Instruments,— William Fairbairn, on the Mechanical
Properties of Metals as derived from repeated Meltings, exhibiting the maximum point of
strength and the causes of deterioration [—Robert Mallei, Third Report on the Facts of Earth¬
quake Phenomena (concluded).

'2‘l^Bepart Bril.Aftoc J.854- PLATE I .

Meet.

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Guides far J)?

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Report JJf-u. Afrac . JB5 ■! PLATE 111.

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The dark arrows indicate the Meteors seen in Auqust 1851. the dotted ■ ones those seen in Auxntst 1B5Z-. and the

The dark arrows indicate the Meteors seen in Sept " ISM, the dotted ones those seen in SeptT 1852; and the numbers
an a in si them , indicate the maanitude of the Meteors.

77/e upper 7/i’///fsp7/ere or' the Yfen n//s at etqj/t. o'clock //> t/ie evcnr/ief , sfiowinp 06 Meteors ohserveci
champ the months of September &■ October 28£o at the Observatory .Stone-.

them indicate the maanitude oi the Meteors .

The number? noainst the arrows ui.ln.it. the magnitude of the Meteor