a
4 ieee . SP ; ‘ 5 Ee ‘ . ; 5 ie

eel
bated
se
ie
~ oe fa
ee : : ~
SSIS mated Spo, ee ind

=

ore

rots a ; RY
45
¢ Sikes on

1g Oe Sons =~
fe ig Serer ae

. ve ne

: +
oat
if

a
;
ay
“«
oa
=

REPORT

OF THE

_ SEVENTY-EIGHTH MEETING OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

_ FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE
fy et

‘a
4

Sa 7 |
2 KS)

i\¥

oy
YRaL Hiss

DUBLIN

SEPTEMBER 1908

LONDON
MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET
r 1909

-_— | eet :
of the Associaticn: Burlington House, London, W.

- eet):
“

er Me «*
te PRINTED BY — icy
SPOTTISWOODE AND CO. LID., LONDON

Aas ] >? * ‘
COLCHESTER AND ETON

*
>. *

ae ns

CONTENTS,

Semana ated
Page
(PRRICERS AND COUNCIL, 1908-1909 .........ceccsessrcscacvesecrerocesevnvncesedene XXxi
ROPES OF THE ERETISH A SHOCTATIONs soccccsesccssoccesetaeraaseeeasceasscntres vee XXXIii

Tabies: PAst AnnvAL MEETINGS:

Places and Dates, Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Local Secretaries xlix
Trustees and General Officers

Sr sae SEO BO ep oUn GAC ECOL OB Onr CER one ©:
Sectional Presidents and Secretaries ............ccecseceeee eens Seucasis Ixvi
Chairmen and Secretaries of Conferences of Delegates ............... Ixxxvii
BiveningDiscOurses:. <2. i.ccccasscesceaseccstoese sa banc vets cc bins cath aseneetse lxxxviii
Lectures to the Operative Classes...... Wee temev otek. oF GLE DACP EL Aaditowbae xcll
ENTPOUCHECES ANC ARCCOLPES ateass trons cusstcssraceuacdebessonsaueae vote Stare xciv
Analysis of Attendances .............. Piniacatecctercse ac ena. Meet wes . XCvi
Grants of Money for Scientific Purposes ...........cccccc0ce ceceeeeeuens xevii

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL TO THE GENERAL Commirresx, 1907-1908 ... exx

GENERAL TREASURER’s Account, 1907-1908

ee eee pew eA ne 0 sddiieceonare ORLY,

DUBLIN MEETING, 1908:

ADDRESS BY THE PResIDENT, Francis Darwin, MA., LL.D., F.B.S.......

General Meetings ............... shits stan neisanaaabscndcaenedsetatea-\<> see so CRKVL
Sectional Officers.......... erased sors ee Midtoatdetet shad Panueas aes saeenees even ORK Vil
BM GHGECHEMOE PIPICUAL GS. ac yn gsunaienasen ag asaxtpencaeesteh euatorcce. ons, CXXyili
Committee of Recommendations ...............cseccseeseneess exci: exxvili

Research Committees ........... spc ee ane etna ncuiacasley ataeG tee eee jasiare CXXIX
Coramunications ordered to be printed im ertenso ......cccceecccuceeee CXXXIX

Resolutions and Recommendations referred 10 the Courcil ......... Cxxxix
Synopsis of Grants of Money......

3
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE .....e..ecccccesececcces SAS ERSRGORN veaceeee ns 3l
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS ...... SSRs a cnc w Ss SIO OR EES 579
BYENING DISCOUBSES ......056..sssccnesccnderenies aa ocfdlde cab nh uae ceeenetesieas 945
Lith) Qo <i: OSCE RIC ST ASSOCOD AERC CMIIOMACRE RE ARAM fae Bar als Sh a Mean 951
List or Meunurs, Kc. ,,............ LOOT A RA eT SEE Pi ate nor voeesh«s 93 pp

A2

iv CONTENTS.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Page

Experiments for improving the Construction of Practical Standards for
Electrical Measurements.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Lord
RayzercH (Chairman), Dr. R. T. GuazeBroox (Secretary), Professors
W. E. Ayrton, J. Perry, W. G. Apams, and G. Carry Foster, Sir
Oxiver J. Lopat, Dr. A. Mumueap, Sir W. H. Prezocr, Professors
A. Scuuster, J. A. Fremine, and J. J. THomsoy, Dr. W. N, Suaw,
Dr. J. T. Borromiey, Rev. T. C. Firzpatrick, Dr. G. JousTONE STONEY,
Professor S. P. THomprson, Mr. J. RENNIE, Principal E. H. Grirrirus,
Sir A. W. Riicxsr, Professor H. L. CALLENDAR, and Messrs. G. MaTTHEY,
AP: Trorrer, T. Mature, and I, E. SMITH «5 ...<scnes onineran os

Apprnprx I,—On the Secular Changes of the Standards of Resistance
at the National Physical Laboratory. By F. E. Sutra, A.R.C.Sce.

Apprnpix IJ.—Specifications for the Practical Realisation of the
Definitions of the International Ohm and International Ampére,
and Instructions for the Preparation of the Weston Cadmium
Gell ie eaccis) sieves oie le siotoleiaievese sis cate lstehcic iy o(ola ate tet een en taeecats a4

Magnetic Observations at Falmouth Observatory.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Sir W. H. Prezcr (Chairman), Dr. R. T. GLAZzEBROOK
(Secretary), Professor W. G. Apams, Dr. Coren, Captain CREAx, Mr. W. L.
Fox, Sir A. W. Ricxrr, and Professor SCHUSTER .........s+e+s0s- =

Geodetic Arc in Africa.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir GrorGE
Darwin (Chairman), Sir Davrp Gixu (Secretary), Major C. F. Cuosz, and
Sir GrorcEe TAUBMAN GoLDI£, appointed to co-operate in the measure-
ment of a further portion of the Geodetic Are of Meridian North of Lake
Tanganyika. (Drawn up by the Chairman)..............sssseenecees

Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Lord McLaren (Chairman), Professor Crum Brown (Secre-
tary), Sir Joun Murray, Professor F. W. Dyson, and Mr. R. T. OMonp..

The further Tabulation of Bessel Functions.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor M. J. M. Hitz (Chairman), Dr. L. N. G. Fiton
(Secretary), and Professor ALFRED LODGE ........s0eseeeeeesesceess

Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere by means of Kites in co-operation
with a Committee of the Royal Meteorological Society.—Seventh Report
of the Committee, consisting of Dr. W. N. SHaw (Chairman), Mr. W. H.
Divzs (Secretary), Mr. D. AncuiBatp, Mr. C. VERNon Boys, Dr. R. T.
GuLAzEBROOK, Dr. H. R. Mitt, Professor A. ScHusTER, and Dr. W.
Warson. (Drawn up by the Secretary) ........cccccecccsessssecee

The Captive Balloon at the Howard Estate Kite Station. By J. E.
POA ROD WN EU Seiiies sleleve cuales oSicrerets ABI oot Bean occ av. ce eensere

31

34

51

55

56

58

58

59

59

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

-V

Page

Seismological Investigations.—Thirteenth Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor H. H. Turner (Chairman), Dr. J. MILNE (Secretary),
Dr. T. G. Bonney, Mr. C. Vernon Boys, Sir Groraz Darwin, Mr.
Horace Darwin, Major L. Darwin, Professor J. A. Ewrne, Dr. R. T.
GLAzEBROOK, Mr. M. H. Gray, Professor J. W. Jupp, Professor C. G.
Kwort, Professor R. Mretpona, Mr. R. D. OLtpHAM, Professor J. Perry,
Mr. W. E. PtummeEr, Professor J. H. Poyntine, Mr. CLEMENT Rerp, and
Mr. Netson Ricuarpson. (Drawn up by the Secretary) ............

MOISE TS LEN OUCH). icke aie Sybie oie ehtsiaes SRR CTE Povaneyo Soi foreisils savas a) oelah oie galavlers
MIE ILOS OL Sua LONG eisienye).tas cio SIO Reae iieios cos ele chas ate babs k's

III. On the Orientation of an Instrument with regard to the Building
hay \ylaliel Rar pals] 0) POEL | Sahin areca tice odln.c b CEO DOE eee

hue cho Large Marthquakes for 1907 wy... cece cuss sce cecveenes
VY. After-shocks of the Jamaica Earthquake, January 14,1907 ...

VI. On the Dissipation of Earthquake Motion as measured by Ampli-
Ui ere G ID ie OE care c Oc mat POC ODU SE OSOC GROG aCmicr ost

VII. On the Direction in which Earthquake Motion is most freely pro-
TERRES Het cic, AME OO ONO ROS OF cor ec oO HOOnRC GORE Renee

VIII. A Catalogue of Destructive Earthquakes ..............00e008
IX. On a Seismogram obtained in London on October 16, 1907
X. Map of the World. By R. D. OLDHAM ..........ceccnsedeves
XI. A Catalogue of Chinese Earthquakes. By Surnosu Hirota

Dynamic Isomerism.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
H. E. Armstrone (Chairman), Dr. T. M. Lowry (Secretary), Professor
SypneEy Youne, Dr. C. H. Duscu, Dr. J. J. Dopsre, Dr. M. O. Forster,
and Dr. A. Lapwortu. (Drawn up by the Secretary) ................

The Transformation of Aromatic Nitroamines and Allied Substances, and
its Relation to Substitution in Benzene Derivatives. — Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor F. S. Kiprrne (Chairman), Professor
K. J. P. Orton (Secretary), Dr. S. Runemany, Dr. A. Larworrn, and
EL ESINUINE LS or. Matoic Qc tthe wd Sakis ds o> owas cd erence & bs C8 cw halen

Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Sir H. E. Roscoz (Chairman), Dr MarsHaLy Warts
(Secretary), Sir Norman Lockyer, Professors Sir James Dewar, G. D.
Livzine, A. Scuuster, W. N. Harriry, and Wotcorr Gips, Sir W. DE
W. Asyey, and Dr. W. E. ApEnry, appointed to prepare a New Series of
Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements ...............00%

Colloid Chemistry. By H. R. Procrer, M.Sc. .........cccceccsuceeeee

The Study of Hydro-aromatic Substances.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Dr. E. Divers (Chairman), Professor A. W. Crosstey (Secretary),
Professor W. H. Prrxry, Dr. M. O. Forstsr, and Dr. H. R. LE Sueur ..

The Excavation of Critical Sections in the Paleozoic Rocks of Wales and
the West of England.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
C. Lapwortu (Chairman), Mr. G. W. Frannstpzs (Secretary), Mr. J.
Lomas, Dr. J. E. Marr, Professor W. W. Warts, and Mr. G. W. Wiu-
PSNI Mot obete ts pateusdecnyecey ever siete tal eleleta nie ate ev ateerr nea alee ack one celeb avahtars seuatssoiere

On some Excavations in the Cambrian Rocks of Comley, Shropshire,
Mie By EH. SeConsoLn, WiGiSiG ni. easiness diewnveleds wvebieds

112

115

119
201

221

231

23]

vi CONTENTS.

Page
Erratic Blocks of the British Isles.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor P. F, Krnpaty (Chairman), Dr. A..R. DwErryHouss (Secre-
tary), Dr. T. G. Bonney, Mr. F. M. Burton, Mr. F. W. Harmmr, Rev.
S. N. Harrison, Dr. J. Horne, Mr. J. Lomas, Professor W. J. SoLias,
and Messrs. J. W. Staruer, R. H. TippErman, and W. T. Tucker, ap-
pointed to investigate the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles, and to take

measures for their preservation. (Drawn up by the Secretary) ........ 242

Photographs of Geological Interest.—Sixteenth Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor J. Gurkir (Chairman), Professor W. W. Warts
(Secretary), Dr. TI. ANpERsoN, Mr. G. Brnauey, Dr. T. G. Bonney, Mr.

H. Coats, Mr. C. V. Croox, Professor E. J. Garwoop, Messrs. W. Gray,
W. J. Harrison, R. Kipsron, and A. 8. Rerp, Professor 8. H. RryNoLDs,
Dr. J. J. H. Tea, and Messrs. R. WeLcu, W. WHITAKER, and H. B.
Woopwarp (Drawn up by the Secretary) .........0.cceeeeenceers 245

Faunal Succession in the Carboniferous Limestone (Avonian) of the British
Isles.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor J. W. GrEGory
(Chairman), Dr. A. Vaueuan (Secretary), Dr. WuErtron Hryp, and
Professor W. W. Warts, appointed to enable Dr. A. VAUGHAN to continue
his Researches thereon. (Drawn up by the Secretary) ..........0.0065 267

Investigation of the Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the British Isles.—
Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. A. HERDMAN
(Chairman), Mr. J. Lomas (Secretary), Professor W. W. Warts, Professor
P. F. Kenpatt, Professor A. C. Sewarp, Messrs. H. C. Brastzy, E. T.
Newron, and W. A. E. Ussuer, and Dr. A. SmirH Woopwarp. (Drawn
ap Woy, COE Reeretaryy) oc ostats « <vacwininiasn le want inpmuataah AIG aps wien pasta’ wel Mee eae 269

Report on Tracks of Invertebrates, Casts of Plants, &c., and Markings
of uncertain origin from the Lower Keuper. Part I. By H. C.

BERBLEW GV as. Ca Pee Mawes «cite nie Cee ee the ee 269
List of British Triassic Fossils in the Warwick Museum. By H. A.
ELSON aie’ oc S SUG Sans alg Fee oreo e, Is essere le ee il ee .. 274

Bibliographical Notes on the Flora and Fauna of the Trias, 1826-76.
By As Bi HORWOOD ih i6s cs,» ta 6 uF ate ord ph 830 277

Composition and Origin of the Crystalline Rocks of Anglesey.—Third Report
of the Committee, consisting of Mr. A. Harker (Chairman), Mr. E.
GREENLY (Secretary), Mr. J. Lomas, Dr. C. A. Martny, and Professor
Io dlad et Ono on oo updensaeesTuu onto A eCway LONE E 3 Srp he Sirsa tase 283

Investigation of the pre-Devonian Rocks of the Mendips and the Bristol
Area.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. H. B. WoopwarpD
(Chairman), Professor S. H. Rrynoups (Secretary), Dr. C. Luoyp Morean,
and Rev. H. H. Winwoop. (Drawn up by the Secretary) ............ 286

Topographical and Geological Terms used locally in South Africa.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. W. Lampiucy (Chairman), Dr.
F. H. Hatcn (Secretary), Dr. G. CorstoRPHINe, and Messrs. A. Du Torr,
A. P. Hatt, G. Kynaston, F. P. MEnneELL, and A. R. Rogers, appointed
to determine the precise Significance of Topographical and Geological
Terms used locally in South Africa. (Drawn up by the Secretary) .... 291

Investigation of the Fossiliferous Drift Deposits at Kirmington, Lincolnshire,
and at various localities in the East Riding of Yorkshire.—Interim Report
of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. W. Lamprtuau (Chairman), Mr.
J. W. Sraruer (Secretary), Dr. Tempest ANDERSON, Professor J. W.
Carr, Rev. W. Lowrr Carter, Dr. A. R. DwerrynHouss, Mr. F. W.
Harmer, Mr. J. H. Howarru, Rev. W: Jounson, Professor P. F. Ken-
DALL, and Messrs. G. W. B. Macrurk, E. T. Newton, H. M. Puarnaver,
CLEMENT REID, and THom4s SHEPPARD. (Drawn up by the Secretary) 296

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, vil

: Page
Index Generum et Specierum Animalium.—Report of ‘the Committee, con-
sisting of Dr. Henry Woopwarp (Chairman), Dr. F, A. BaruEr (Secre-
tary), Dr. P. L. Sctatzr, Rev. T. R. R. Stessine, Dr. W. E. Hoye,
Hon. WALTER RoruscuHiup, and Lord WALSINGHAM ....-.+eeeereee 297

Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor S. J. Hickson (Chairman), Rev. T. R. R.
Srepsine (Secretary), Professors Sir E. Ray LAnKEsTeER, A. SEDGWICK,

and W. C. McInrosu, and Mr. G. P. BIDDER .... peeve eeeeeeeeees 207
Report of Mr. Ricoanp H. WHITEHOUSE ......--seeeeeeeereerees 297
Report of Mr, C. C. DOBELL....... 0. eee cree e ener e eee e ee eeees . 298

Experiments in Inheritance.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor W. A. Herpman (Chairman), Mr. Dovetas LAvuriz (Secre-
tary), Mr. R. C. Puynert, and Dr. H. W. Marrerr Tis. (Drawn up
by the Secretary) ....... cece cece c eee eect nent eee t ene eeaeraeees 298

APPENDIX.—Matings involving Yellow Mice .......s.e.eeeeees .. 30l

The Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.—EKighteenth Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Dr. F. Du Canz Gopman (Chairman), Mr. Davip
Suarp (Secretary), Professor S. J. Hickson, Dr. P. L. Sctater, and Mr.

BS INGCeATE ALL SWETEED © ace roay cusssical seoveilia/eialenscshere area s'ejerevsyele Wave's erstiale sis aie 6 301

The Fauna of the Lakes of Central Tasmania.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor G. C. BourNnz (Chairman), Mr. J. J. Listmr (Secre-
tary), and Sir E. Ray Lanxuster, appointed to assist Mr. G. W. Smitx
to proceed to Tasmania to study the Anatomy and Development of
Anaspides, and to investigate the Fauna of the Lakes of Central Tasmania 302

Occupation of a Table at the Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor A. Denpy (Chairman and Secretary),
Sir E. Ray Lanxester, Professor A. SEDGwIcK, and Professor SYDNEY
PIOUS erate ties iraiiecceis) ele, sis oneiwielele: sob sUea ev Olas, sla eee latars eles ee lare's 6 304

Experiments on the Development of the Frog.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor G. C. Bournr (Chairman), Dr. J. W. JENKINSON
(Secretary), and Professor 8. J. Hickson. (Drawn up by the Secretary) 304

Investigations in the Indian Ocean.—Third Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Sir Joun Murray (Chairman), Mr. J. Stantey GARDINER
(Secretary), Captain E. W. Creax, Professors W. A. HERpDMAN, 8. J.
Hickson, and J. W. Jupp, Mr. J. J. Lister, Dr. H. R. Mit, and Dr. D.
SHARP, appointed to carry on an Expedition to investigate the Indian
Ocean between India and South Africa in view of a possible land connec-
tion, to examine the deep submerged banks, the Nazareth, and Saya de

« Malha, and also the distribution of marine animals .............0000- 305

The Exploration of Prince Charles Foreland, Spitsbergen.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Mr. G. G. Cutsnoitm (Chairman), Dr. W. 8.
Bruce (Secretary), and Major W. L. Forses. (Drawn up by the Secre-
GSI) 5.0: Goel’ Spon OOO CC HOE hoc HEIEOEE OME aes cot bck an Str ac Omens 306

The Investigation of the Oscillations of the Level of the Land in the Medi-
terranean Basin.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. D. G.
Hoaarru (Chairman), Mr. R. T. Ginruer (Secretary), and Drs. T. G.
Bonney, F. H. Guintemarp, J. S. Kettre, and H. R, Minn .......... 308

vill CONTENTS.

Page
Gaseous Explosions.—First Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir
W. H. Pretce (Chairman), Mr. Duaatp CLERK and Professor BERTRAM
Hopkinson (Joint Secretaries), Professors BonE, BuRSTALL, CALLENDAR,
Coxsrr, DaLtBy, Dixon, HELE-SHAW, SMITHELLS, and W. Watson, Dr.
Harker, Lieut.-Colonel Hotprn, Dr. Petavet, and Captain SANKEY,
appointed for the Investigation of Gaseous Explosions, with special

TELErONce tO; LemMperaiure . Lcileisaisc «= /elsleteislele stein cheslalee i inis Ax tee ES 308

ApprENnDIx.—The Deviation of Actual Gases from the Ideal State and
the Experimental Errors in the Determination of their Specific
Heats. By Professor H. L. CaLnenpar, F.R.S..............- 334

Megalithic Remains in the British Isles.—Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Professor W. RipGeway (Chairman), Dr. G. A. AupEN (Secre-
tary), Dr. H. A. AupEN, Mr. G. L. Gommn, Professor J. L. Myrzs, and
Mr. F. W. RupLEr, appointed to report on the best means of registering
and classifying systematically Megalithic Remains in the British Isles ., 341

Notes and Queries in Anthropology.—Interim Report of the Committee,
consisting of Mr. C. H. Reap (Chairman), Professor J. L. Myrus (Secre-
tary), Professor D. J. CunnrineHam, Mr. E. N. Fattamn, Dr. A. C.
Happov, Mr. T. A. Joycr, Dr. C. S. Myrrs, and Dr. W. H. R. Rivers,
appointed to prepare a new edition of Notes and Queries in Anthropology 342

Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain,—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor J. L. Myrus (Chairman), Professor R. C. BosANQUET
(Secretary), Sir Epwarp BraBroor, Dr. T. Asnsy, Mr. D. G. Hogartu,
and Professor W. RipcEway, appointed to co-operate with Local Com-
mittees in Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain ...............4.- 342

AppENDIx A.—Report on Plant Remains found in Excavations on
the Roman Site at Caerwent, 1907. By ArrHur H. LyeLt .. 343

AppENnDIx B.—Report of Work on pre-Roman and Natural History
Remains atiGorbridee, LOOT—OS ts) <\eisielets stcleete ets ce ereiatetaiereitte ae 343

Archeological and Ethnographical Researches in Crete.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Sir Jonn Evans (Chairman), Professor J. L.
Myres (Secretary), Professor R. C. Bosanquet, Dr. A. J. Evans, Mr.

D. G. Hocarrtu, Professor A. Macatister, and Professor W. Ripcpway 344

Archeological and Ethnological Investigations in Sardinia.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Mr. D. G. Hocarru (Chairman), Professor R. C.
BosanQuet (Secretary), Dr. T. Aspy, Dr. W. L. H. Duckworrtn, Pro-
aen50F J. L, Nyane,and. Dr. WC, GHETHIATE © o.040..+jes £0535 SR eee 350

Anthropometric Investigation in the British Isles.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor D. J. CunnrncHam (Chairman), Mr. J.
Gray (Secretary), Dr. A. C. Happon, Dr. C. S. Myrrs, Professors J. L.
Myres and A. F. Drxon, Mr. E. N. Fatiaize, Sir Epwarp BRraBRook,

Mr. G. L. Gomme, Dr. F. C. Sorussa, Professor G. D. THann, Dr. W.
McDovecatt, Professor M. E. Sapter, Major H. J. M. Bust, Fleet-
Surgeon G. T. Continawoop, and Dr J. KERR ........ce00cccesesves 351

The Age of Stone Circles.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr.
C. H. Reap (Chairman), Mr. H. Batrour (Secretary), Lord AveBuRY,
Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr. A. J. Evans, Dr. R. Munro, Professor Boyp
Dawextns, and Mr. A. L. Lewis, appointed to conduct Explorations with
the object of ascertaining the Age of Stone Circles ................0- 400

The Avebury Excavations, 1908. By H. Sr. Gzorgz Gray ...... 401

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. ix

Page
The Lake Village at Glastonbury.—Tenth Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Dr. R. Munro (Chairman), Professor W. Boyp Dawkins (Secre-
tary), Dr. ArtHUR J. Evans, Mr. Henry Batrour, Mr. C. H. Reap,
and Mr. A. Butter. (Drawn up by Mr. ArgtHur BULLEID and Mr. H.
Pe MORGE GRAY) lots coe hie tise a latte tie ees cas wed eer ieee ees 414

Anthropological Photographs.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr.
C. H. Reap (Chairman), Mr. H. S. Kryesrorp (Secretary), Dr. T. Asupy,
Dr. G. A. AUDEN, Mr. H. Batrour, Mr. E. N. Fatuaize, Dr. A. C. Happon,
Mr. E. Sipney Harrianp, Mr. E. Heawoop, Professor J. L. Myrzs, and
Professor FirypERS PETRIE, appointed for the Collection, Preservation,
and Systematic Registration of Photographs of Anthropological Interest.
Urata) Dyathonseceebamyy)p sols <iaislsiela\ol eis © wcccmleveletetatahdinlelals «nie aieiaiaisio|sieis 419

The ‘ Metabolic Balance Sheet’ of the Individual Tissues.—Final Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor Gorcu (Chairman), Mr. J. BarcRorr
(Secretary), Professor EH. H. Startxye, and Professor T. G. BRODIE.....,.. 436

The Ductless Glands.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
ScHirer (Chairman), Professor SwaLe Vincent (Secretary), Professor
A. B. Macattum, Dr. L. E. Saorz, and Mrs. W. H. Toomeson. (Drawn up
PVRUMO I SECLODATIG) ee etal ole ore/nhclere erara Pete eel eel ciclayecivenPe wield via) es alors, «(sic siels 440

The Effect of Climate upon Health and Disease.—Third Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Sir LAuDER Brunton (Chairman), Mr. J. Barcrort,
and Lieut.-Col. R. J. 8. Smreson (Secretaries), Colonel Sir D. Bruce, Dr. 8, G.
CAMPBELL, Sir Kenna Franks, Professor J. G. McKrnpriox, Sir A.
MrrcHett, Dr. C. F. K. Murray, Dr. C. Porter, Professor G. Suus Woop-
HEAD, and the Heads of the Schools of Tropical Medicine of Liverpool,
Pondon and Wdimburoh. seas. Mires is. eee ee oa the nee ae ee mee bette 442

The Conditions of Health essential to the carrying on of the Work of In-
struction in Schools.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
SHERRINGTON (Chairman), Mr. E. Warre WaLttis (Secretary), Sir E>DwarD
BRABROOK, Dr, C, W. Kuvmriys, Professor L, C. Mratt, Miss A. J. Cooper,
nee EBERT NU ILEUAMG Ye aia ecaicle ic alae sia civha.sie djeiee doa g= «apy oe > reece 458

The Electrical Phenomena and Metabolism of Arwm spadices.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor A. D. WALLER (Chairman), Miss SANDERS
(Secretary), Professor Gorcu, and Professor FARMER,,.......++++7+0+0++ 463

Fatigue. By Witiam McDouaatt, M.A., MB. ..,...ccecceeececeeecceees 479

Body Metabolism in Cancer.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Pro-
fessor C. 8. SHERRINGTON (Chairman) and Dr. 8. M. Coprman (Secretary).
Pereamerapi ly ane Secretary) s.r sis.ese ees os sec es teen ewe recede aes 489

Studies of Marsh Vegetation.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr.
__ F. F. Braceman (Chairman), Mr. A. G. Tanstey (Secretary), Professor
eee Se WARD and Mrs AW. FIGS 2. ou. a scccssebenccecaeaucesameccta 492
The Structure of Fossil Plants.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Dr. D. H. Scorr (Chairman), Professor F. W. Otiver (Secretary), Mr. E.
NEWELL ARBER, and Professors A. C. SewarD and F. E. WEISS.......... 493

Sequence of Plant Remains.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor J. B. Farmer (Chairman), Professor R. J. Harvey Grsson
(Secretary), Dr. J. Horne, Dr. Marr, Mr. Clement Ret, and Mr. Francis
J. Lewis, appointed to examine the Sequence of Plant Remains in the Peat
Deposits of Teesdale and Stainmore (Cumberland and Westmorland) and
the Western portion of Iceland ...,,... BA NS Sect Heeee #9 493

x CONTENTS,

Page

Research on South African Cycads and on Welwitschia.—Second Interim
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. C. Ssewarp (Chairman),
Mr. R. P. Grecory (Secretary), Dr, D. H. Scorr, and Dr. W. H. Lane.... 494

Studies most suitable for Elementary Schools.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Sir Pattre Maanus (Chairman), Mr. W. M. HELuzr (Secretary),
Sir W. pz W. Asnny, Mr. R. H. Apie, Professor H. EK, ARMstrone, Miss
L. J. Cuarke, Miss A, J. Cooper, Mr. Grorcze FLEtcHErR, Professor R. A.
GreEcory, Principal Grirrirus, Mr. A. D. Hatt, Dr. A. J. HERBERTSON,
Dr. C. W. Kuvoins, Professor L. C. Mratt, Professor J. Perry, Sir H. R.
Rercuer, Mr. H, Ricuarpson, Mrs. W, N. Suaw, Professor A. SMrrHELLs,
Dr. Luoyp Snapz, and Professor W. W. Watts, appointed to report upon
the course of Experimental, Observational, and Practical Studies most
suitable tor, Rlementary Sahools; «onc. seer es+ teeters cers ytpewinws 490

Introductory Statement by Sir Pamir Macnvs, M.P..........0e yee 495
Report of Sub-Committee on Elementary Experimental Science .... 501

Apprenprx A.—Syllabus of Work in Elementary Experimental
SSGLEMGD cians te er artge Giswneloversinis’ oie saat e aiutptetn aa aamne ere 510

- B.—Syllabus for Girls’ Schools. Domestic Science........ 515

Fs C.—Contracted Scheme ot Work for Small Schools where
the upper classes are grouped for instruction in this
Rea ib eae reas ec reteeenty yeti Tn hs) oh he ee fans acelglasbal an 519

mi D.—List of Apparatus for Elementary Science Course .... 522

Changes affecting Secondary Education.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Sir Pump Maanvs (Chairman), Professor H. E. ARMstRone (Secretary),
Sir Witu1AmM BousFiE.p, Dr. 8. H. Butcuer, Sir Henry Craik, Principal
GrirFirus, Sir HorAcr PiunKert, and Professor M. E. SapiEr, appointed
to take notice of, and report upon Changes in, Regulations—whether
Legislative, Administrative, or made by Local Authorities—affecting
Socondaby HARCALOM se sacle see ee cee eee Nome este wees pale eee 525

Curricula of Secondary Schools.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Sir Ottver Lopes (Chairman), Mr. C. M. Stuart (Secretary), Professor
H. E. Armstrong, Mr. G. F. Danrett, Mr. W. D. Eaaar, Professor J. J.
Finpiay, Dr. H. B. Gray, Professor R. A. GrEGorY, Principal Grirrirus,
Sir Wrti1am Hucearns, Mr. O. H. Latter, Sir Poitier Magnus, Professor
H. A. Miers, Mr. T. E. Pace, Professor J. Perry, Mr. Hvau Ricuarpson,
Professor M. E. Sapier, and Mr. A. E. Suretey, appointed to consider
and advise as to the Curricula of Secondary Schools ; in the first instance,
the Curricula of Boys’ Schools ; and to consider through a Sub-Committee
the question of the Sequence of Studies in the Science Section of the
CrP 8 SSNs lesa Elise, Silat, Ueto cute ake hha hs 3h Ss A 526

The Sequence of Studies in the Science Section of the Curriculum.—
Report of the Sub-Committee, consisting of Professor R. A.
Grecory (Chairman), Mr. G. F. Danrett (Secretary), Mr. W. D. —
Eacar, Mr. O. H. Latrer, Mr. HueH Ricuarpson, and Mr.

GC. Me Strode ier each ne she eee ee oe eee 526

Corresponding Societies Committee.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Mr. W. Wuiraker (Chairman), Mr. F. W. Rupizr (Secretary), Rev.
J. O. Bevan, Sir Epwarp Braproox, Dr. Horacr T. Brown, Dr.
J. G. Garson, Principal E. H. Grirrrrus, Mr. T. V. Hotmus, Mr. J.
Hopxinson, Professor R. Metpona, Dr. H. R. Miuz, Mr. C. H. Reap, Rey.
T. R. R. Sresprne, Professor W. W. Warts, and the PrestpEnr and
GENERAL Orricers. (Drawn up by the Secretary)

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, al

Page

Report of the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies
held at Dublin, September 3 and 8, 1908 ................00eeeeeees 538
Address by the Chairman, Professor H. A. Mrurs, F.R.S. ............ 540

Sanctuaries for our Native Flora and Fauna. By Mrs. Mary Hopson 547

On Detailed Natural History Surveys of Restricted Areas, an im-
portant work suitable for Local Societies. By Professor G. H.

OLS EERS OSOR een oagin.cre tac SCeR a 550
The Advisability of Re-stocking Haunts whence Fauna and Flora have

PeeDisappeared. » By HenRy DAVEY cj. fv chictesisiees oie es vane elawaces 550

List of Corresponding Societies, 1908-1909 .......... ccc cee ee eee 552

Catalogue of the more important Papers published by the Corresponding
Societies during the year ending May 31, 1908............0cceeees 557

xli CONTENTS.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

[An asterisk * indicates that the title only is given. The mark + indicates the same,
but with a reference to the Journal or Newspaper in which it is published in extenso. |

Section AA—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 3. Page
Address by W. N. Suaw, Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S., President of the Section .. 579
1. Discussion on the Isothermal Layer of the Atmosphere .............. 591

(i) Theodolite Observations of Balloons penetrating the Isothermal
ever. eBy; Cid Mes CAN Wie rstcstohoje ssl ieha erie ofe + 90 he ietelvns aianalane 593

(ii) The Warm Stratum in the Atmosphere at Heights exceeding Hight
Miles in the United States. By Professor A. LAWRENCE Rotcu 594

2. Report on the Measurement of the Geodetic Arc in Africa (p. 56) ...... 594
3. Seventh Report on the Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere by
TERS OLeINTLES(IO9) Were -ieletsteratstamalcrale aleus ie abet le elclalels. vie oletaletel= Waitin 594
4. Report on the Magnetic Observations at Falmouth Observatory
AGO MEDED lore aeets late oeen era cclredatalinvenclaatat clarke Meron wietlerevela\ete nasal otal sale tiatemy att 594
5. Report of the Committee on Electrical Standards (p. 31) ............ 594
6. Report on Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis (p. 58) .......... 594

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
*Joint Discussion with Sections B and Gon Gaseous Explosions .......... 595

: DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS.
¥. Report on Bessel Functions (p. 68) isis. isccesass save caver nena 695

2. The Asymptotic Expansions of Bessel Functions. By J. W. Nicwotaans

IDiSGsygIBeAn s2sie eters © HOD TALC OO aGo moro Corde atC: . 595
3. On Sir W. R. Hamilton’s Fluctuating Functions. By E. W. Hozsox,

Oz Les WE Beier stove a rieve aires ais. vie cin atalanciaia w elsip tis = ehetptelinvedhiall ». 597
4. On the Law of Equipartition of Energy between Correlated acini

IBY. N. EL ABUBBURY. PHO Sau et iiiccc cs ie thTe as tears eye Sao ee 598
5. The Complementary Theorem. By Professor J. C. Frmnps.......... .. 699

6. *The Genesis of Elliptic Functions. By Roprerr RussELL .......... 601

DEPARTMENT CF GENERAL Puysics.
1. Do the Radio-active Gases eae | plans to the Argon Series ?

By: Sir, Wii ame Rae aes sar Bsa Hakeass: is cli eteie cites etuclai sleet 60]
2. On the Number and Absorption of the 8 ae emitted by Radium.
By W. MAKOWEE baicked op oe ce tons 00s seabed eevee ane 601

3. *The Rate of hae of Helium from Radium. By Sir Jamis
Dewar, F.RB.S. Gate yiryieleleveire slnloteronststtatetelatelot ye ithe rdsinks vee circa ee

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. Xlii

DEPARTMENT OF CosmicaL Puysics (Astronomy),

Page
1. Report of the Seismological Committee (p. 56)..........0000cceneees 602
2. A Generalised Instrument. By Sir Ropurr Batt, F.R.S. .......... 602
3. A New Form of Divided Object Glass Telescope. By Sir Howarp
LRU BSP BNE Ber cetscey oan ota avasetats ai iatcigueioverclis ois. eVavel sso.ed'e Prarie hand Od « 6 603
4. The New Spectroheliograph for the Madrid Observatory. By Sir
iO WARD CRIB RY AHR Se Mttaistetom antcheral stops « cisvelovs elbicbelaee. d-ote afelereis o.6 603

5, On the Relation between Intensity of Light, Time of Exposure, and
Photographic Action. By Professor H. H. Turner, D.Sc., F.R.S... 604

6. Systematic Motion of the Stars. By Professor F, W. Dyson, F.R.S... 604:

7. The Reflecting Telescope and its Suitability for Physical Research.
By SirsklowARD GRUBBH HAR Ga sea, serena nde rece tare once 9 G05

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
Discussion on the Theory of Wave-motion, opened by Professor Horacu
IGANG ES HAE Ns ty stares aisyorsee es aeseauoreus¥sts “ahs Sate, Gastateviniinsatto Aree vince Pon SPAN S vend 605
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS.

1. Linear Vector Functions. By Sir Roperr Bat, F.R.S.............0. 611

8. On the Ether Stress of Gravitation. By Professor F. Purszr, F.T.C.D. 613
4, Conservative Systems of Prescribed Trajectories. By Professor E.

POP EPUTE PRY IANS le hedge cr ede ohana Beare aie ce RIS & pal bis o dod Wie Wks eso, igs 8 614
5. Factorisation of the A.P.F. of N=(y"+1). By Liout.-Colonel ALLAN
CUNNINGHAM, R.E. .,... pep Vel corer he etalk ci sntaie: aipiis alate gi te ovotg hiss ray aidan 615
6, An Elementary Discussion of Schlafli’s Double-six. By Professor A. C.

DP EXCNGMS OSU EL u Sirelmn scccicae cite omc re ee elon 616
7. On the Logarithmic Case in Linear Differential Equations. * By Pro-

POSSOU TC UO USONs SCM HE, cvelirejaisre se emcalac deste tee oe ot 617

DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL Purysics.
1. A New Three-Colour Camera. By Sir W. pE W. Asney, K.C.B.,

TISUIM SO) eg Saree ine Re Ai od aes aeRO At 9 ge 618

2. On the Measurement of Large Inductances containing Iron. By
Sir Ottver Lopas, F.R.S., and BENJAMIN DAVIES .............. 620

3. A Remarkable Feature in the Splash of a Rough Sphere. By Pro-
fesdore AGM VV ORTHINGTON:, C25,,.1H Re. - cisco sectowrcieldte secre as 621

4. Analogy between Absorption from Solutions and Aqueous Condensation
on Surfaces. By Professor F. T. Trouton, D.Sc., F.R.S. .......... 621

5. On the Effect of Pressure on the Boiling-point of Sulphur. By Dr. J. A.
; PUAR RMR AIH Es SHXTON > siete va hes vale ovis chine wins cies ehh ook 621

6. On the Photometric Standard of the National Physical Laboratory.
Pay batapren ). GUAZMERGOK, FP ORLG-. oss c's ness. a'vasieesled'seeweca nis 623

7. An Improved Dry Daniell Pile. By Joun Brown, F.R.S. ............ 623

Xv

CONTENTS,

DEPARTMENT OF CosmMICAL Puysics.

Page
1. Is our Climate Changing ? By Sir Joun W. Moors, M.A., M.D....... 623
2. A Comparison of the Changes in the Temperature of the Waters of
the North Atlantic and in the eran of at Trade Winds. By
Commander M. W, C. Hepworra, C.B., R.N.R...... cece cece wees 625
8. Temperature Conditions in Scottish cas ‘By a M. WEDDERBURN,
TE Sh] Ouachita na REM E EHO OIL cuinrorcrbanebatiicnmrorion opera . 626
4. The Constants of the Lunar Libration. By F. J. M. Srrarron ...... 626
5. Investigations on the Electrical State of the Upper Atmosphere.
By W. Maxower, Marcaret Waits, and EK, MARSDEN .....,...4- . 627
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS.
1. *Applications of Quaternions to Problems in Physical Optics. By
professors TAWA CON WANG (en sie lle cicises sa ene ters ikea asta ee rene 627
2. *On a Generalisation of the Question in Probabilities known as ‘ Le
Scrutin de Ballotage.’ By Major P. A. MacManon, F.R.S. ...... 627
3. On Conformal Transformations of a Space of Four Dimensions and
their Application to Geometrical Optics. By H. BATEMAN ........ 627
4. On the Extension of Optical Ideas to General Electromagnetic Fields.
iby (Paotessor.« Da WiHUETA RIOR, (SCD NOEs. vccsslc «lelefele)<syseus wie 629
5. *Distribution of Electricity on a Moving Sphere. By Professor A. W.
(COSA EO Race SD OGaED sou 6c.5 Cnr Upto ere pra o T1ck 629
6. The Theory of Solids moving in an Incompressible Fluid. By Pro-
FEESOL MBE URSHR MS LN OAD es cidinve oelsheie dieeed Se. ok San abn ae eee 629
7. On the Analysis of Projection. By Professor R. W. Genes, M.A.,,..., 632
DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL Puysics.
1

. The Grating Spectrum of Radium Emanation. By T, Royns, M.Sc. .. 635
. *Photographs of Arc Spectra of Metals under Pressure. By Dr. W. G.

. ASuggestion with regard to the Meaning of Valency. By H. BaremMan 634
. *Secondary Radiation. By Professor J. A. McCLELLANpD

SS eat 635

. *The Scintillations of Zinc Sulphide. By Professor E. RuTrHERFORD,
Beis aa ene S ed re rus oe eww ale | sch wd ie olaidtsjede, 0.0/4.5 ins yin Pe 635

. A Determination of the Rate of Evolution of Heat by Pitchblende.
BySH GRACE de POOLM |; sass. « -pag min sae ome Ae ve eens aaeee ae 635

AO TTRRUHEID a ogsiw gsc siyelere ns Geiser 20's efelaicw 4 b'amia gale notable 636
Beeandax Effects in the Echelon Spectroscope. By H. Sransrrexp,
said ea Saja aa hae ainfeansetelgih eels ATIEY a. che Rin cin see Seiad CSTE 636
: ae Experiments on the Constitution of the Electric Spark. By
Ls RONDE MISC, spies sce atec late 9 de ner geiche eae ae WOR aie Sean 637
DEPARTMENT OF CosmicAaL Puysics.
. On New Methods of obtaining the Spectra of Flames. By G. A.
TAMBA RCH MEG SC. tu o's +s 6 sie a's clas nctapie te =n eee url 638
. Polar Lines in Arc Spectra. By Dr. W. G. DurFIEtp .............. . 638

. *The Zeeman Effect in Sun-spots. By Professor J. Larmor, Sec.R.S. .. 639

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. XV

Page

4. On the possible Existence of Steam in the Regions of Sun-spots. By
REV ee rp CORTES, 1 Sac) a5 (Hive Ase sc MMMrorenstsre, ovéie ere) tle aieieleleiaelese ales 639

5. Sun-spots and Solar Temperature. By Professor E. T. Wuirraker,
SCL a PEER eset ct cdstat here tiara elsist hace betshatetetcte! abo'at al vtel atatale’otelala ate eles ce 640

6. Recent Researches on the cause of Seiches. By E. M. WEDDERBURN,
LIIRESHIDE So mintideand eae Ba GoSeOd Be UADNES CDE BI GE rae Irae a cern 640

7. Difference of Temperature in the Upper Atmosphere between Equatorial
and Polar Regions. By L. TrIssERENc DE Bort ................ 641

8. Note on the Manchester ‘ Ballons-Sondes’ Ascents. By W. A. Har-
OTIS ER Ot able dicing 6p car edo bat co ROUSS OO URGE 0 HOUU ADiar Mime 42

9. The Results of the ‘ Ballons-Sondes’ Ascents in the British Isles
during the International Week, July 27-August 1, 1908. By J. 8.

Pa HA dee yd sear bie 20) Sea herp rcee TT e a ou Biadeial mys Can She Shgyequ Sewrnraysi area's 642
10. *Observations of Currents in the Upper Air of Egypt and the Sudan.
By Captainvly Gs Ons aH BGe. ia lyads Gaveiecapeslels Baysiaeclote a vispels sco,0's 644

11. An Apparatus for illustrating, by Intermittent Vision, the Surface
Movement of Air in Travelling Storms. By R. G. K. Lemprszrt,
MAME MMe eae Celu ieee v5 aiecarnla Wate clermierssieatics clara wate as as <ce 6 644

12. *On the Asymmetrical Character of Whirlwinds. By Pau Duranpin.. 644

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.

1. Changes of Atmospheric Density in Storms. By J. 1. Crate, M.A. .... 644
2, The Meteorology of the Winter Quarters of the ‘ Discovery,’ 1902-1904.
SCN a SAAW at. Guticcs tact cescipasthececestswdbebees 3 645.
3, Results of some Physical Observations taken on the National Antarctic
Expedition, 1902-1904. By L. C. BeRNACCHT ...............005 645
4, On the possible Connection between Earthquakes and Great Waves
in Distant Places. By Rev. H. V. Ginn, S.J...... eee ec eee neces 647
6. Some Particulars of the British Association Storm of 1908. By Dr.
AWWA Nice EU SayVNPR Ecce cf reet sc cyaysis drarabates earsuavai/s. see tolaieve 'averaie) Caus & Sie acon 647

6. *The Great Snowstorm of April 25,1908. By Miss C. O. Stevens .... 647

7. On the Velocity of the Reducing Action of Electrolytic Hydrogen
on Arsenious and Arsenic Acids when liberated from the surface of
different elements. By W. THOMSON ........ccccccsscscccceess 647

Section B.X— CHEMISTRY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 3,
Address by Professor F. 8. Kippine, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., President of

the Section bee eteee bebe Seer tebe sete beste bbe obs be bt steko bebe ses 649
1. *Synthetical Experiments in the Terpene Series. By Professor W. H.
POLRBEIN EIR: oxcidea cds s die awtociien esos: MapRs a's Rec kfaywveyay 661
2. The Preparation of Camphor from Turpentine Oil. By Dr. C. Weizmann 661
3. *Brazilin and Hematoxylin. By R. RoBINSON ..........: Cape nei 661
4. *The Dynamic Isomerism of Oxymethylene Camphor Derivatives.
By Professor W. J: Porn, F.R.S., and JOHN READ ....sessseeeee 661

5. Benzyl Sulphoxide: a possible Examplo of Tautomerism. By J. A.
EmyTHE, Ph:D., D.Se. . A ea ee ee ee re ee 661

xvi CONTENTS.

Page

6. The Action of Halogens upon Aromatic Hydrazines. By Ff. D. Cuarra-
WAY, DiSe:, BURG. (ic ness «ce» © aleisioisle o's sities ole em 0\eisieis sian alaieintals 662

7. Some Reactions of Dichloro Urea. By F. D. Cuartaway, D.Sce.,
RRS Pe se iocclcces ce comes case hinjelereyeetetone, «6.2 3)+1s. lal ajo (ors anna 663
8. Report on Dynamic Isomerism (p. 112) .... 0+. seer seer er eeereeeeees 665

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
*Discussion on the Nature of Chemical Change. Opened by Professor
FL. OH). ATiMSTRONG, ERIS. |. otis o.o-0 010 «00 ore elute o che 0!e]alsis a ]miMieiateionsze the 665

1. Note on a Volatile Compound of Cobalt with Carbon Monoxide. By
Dr. Lupwie Mond, F.R.S., Dr. Huryrich Hirtz, and M. Datton

COWADR Pa alee Waid opera's stale ciclolas, onayavere «(ww teteiaietale etelala enna 665
9. *The Structure of the Open Chain Hydrocarbons. By Professor W. J.

Ports, F.R.S., and Wint1aM BaRLow, F.RB.S. .......00secewcccoee 667
3. The Dynamics of Chemical Action and the Meaning of Valency. By

FS BA TEMAIN) foiete/e)eneters 7 Srateto ale ata e's) #:etaveislehareteie lente’) © (10's [ekelamnaneenmn Tea 667
4. Colloid Chemistry. By H. R. Procrur, M.Sc. (p. 201) ...........+6. 667
5. The Influence of Colloids and Colloid Suspensions on the siete

of Carbon Dioxide in Water. By Dr. Atex. FINDLAY....... es

6. The Density of Liquids at Low Temperatures. By Dr. J. Piven 668
7. The Work of Two Irish Chemists, Bryan Higgins and William Higgins.

By-Dr.vA, MEDpR ume so. cat eben. ys ¢ aseate avs dic cle sie eames . 668

8. The Action of the Enzymes of Malt on Ungerminated Cereals. By
JULIAN Li: Baxnr, HEC. and Hei. EB. Hunton 2. eesareerecet © 670

9. The Preparation of Pure Maltose. By Jutian L. Baxer, F.I.C.,
GG WW. DAN Sate g coiaesa ee ore) ote cease 6 eal area teroheeheras See eee 671
*Joint Discussion with Sections A and G on Gaseous Explosions ...... ve + (Ou

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.

1. *The Inactive Gases. By Sir Wittism RamsAy, K.C.B., F.RS. ...... 672
2. Lithium in Radio-active Minerals. By Professor W. N. Harriey,

DiS W RAS. ia. wee cA nde ee slale sigs See> vielen eee soeseves 672
3. *The Liquefaction of Helium. By Dr. KAMMERLINGH ONNES ........ 673
4. *Anticipations and Experiments on the Liquefaction of Helium. By
Sir Jamms Duwar, RS... 20s... sceee ates sae ssp 673
5. A Demonstration on the Rapid Electro-analytical Separation of Metals.
By ir. Hiyey J. S.SAND : ss esis co ons sent a aaa Selena
6. *Studies on the Electro-deposition of Metals. By W. E. Huauss and
ree ME PP RR KING «cy. Sac te meri ae ae Beevece PN noe oil
7. Transparent Silver and other Metallic Films. By Professor THomas
MGR NMB MESH 35 ose,» di. asfqsersie's oa cy oa Tio gere 674
8. eT 2 Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements
Pp SOOO Oe VO 8 oso 8 ein 8 wee ee 6s 66 0 SF ws © 6) wwe 6) ule ee mh) Bea freve

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
1. Discussion on Problems of Fermentation +

(i) The Factors which influence the Rate of Alcoholic Fermentation.
By Artuur Stator, Ph.D.,, D.Se TERM MMI eM oc. Ge cvtridebe, ee

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. Xvii

Page

9. *The Selective Permeability of certain Seeds. By Professor ADRIAN

LLG, CGR REG EG OIE MO RRODOIES See SCGIOE . .Retcisinicsisnae 3a deme eee ae 67

3. The Production of Ammonia from Atmospheric Nitrogen by means
of Peat. By H.C. Wottrreck, Ph.D. ..... con enon entet sote afertvare

MMIII ODODE CAT) cia/s)ciciolejtieiaia’ #1 «ols = oie) s) a\s/4)e ole 00's 616,04. e 8 de aie 8s
5. Report on the Study of Hydro-aromatic Substances (p. 221) ........

6. Report on the Transformation of Aromatic Nitroamines and allied
Substances, and its Relation to Substitution in Benzene Derivatives

tgs dn eee: eS. ae Kh oe vg ote

7. *Interim Report on the Study of Isomorphous Sulphonic Derivatives
TE UGC vas ng BO ODT OC OC LO GRGO ODT OO Goble Lito colo te Once OOr We

Section C.—GEOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.

Address by Professor Joun Jory, Sc.D., F.R.S., President of the Section ..

1. *The Geology of the Dublin District. By Professor GRENVILLE A. J.
ME, COI REI Ge Hse Ge euest Fe cn Lebo are ot oh sharey eg treretore «.atictecehs ropmicha 0. «Viel stale arate Avavepevacshs

2. On the Cave of Castlepook, near Doneraile, co. Cork. By R.J. Ussuer,
H. J. Seymour, E. T. Newton, and R. F.ScHarrr ..............

3. Probable Cretaceous and Cainozoic Outliers off the Coast of co. Kerry.
By Professor GRENVILLE A. J. COLE, F.G.8..... 6... cece eee eee ees

4. On a Section of the Lower Coal Measures at Emerald Pit, Dungannon.
Ree Ge EOMON icky hens EGS ciate ona eo anv em Upinsdsenesintaee

5. *On the Raised Beeches of the Liffey Valley. By G. H. Kryanan

~ FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.

1. *On the Igneous Rocks of the Outer Blasket Islands. By Professor
SURG ERVe Mus Euawy et iP isis.siotsrer ciel ahat stakes aelepelctel eve exe Ca ere vie n ictalclee ated sid.c

2. The Laterite and Bauxite Zone of North-East Ireland. By Professor
Se ACN VEPIOPAS eliyy COLIN UG Se, ota is.6 oisra wtie.cclacierO-s 0 srelvas ccs c bo

3. The Igneous and Associated Sedimentary Rocks of the Tourmakeady
District, co. Mayo. By C. I. Garpinrer and Professor S. H. Rry-
RORIADI Vines ieiauuis sata! s\s isle) see (6\e' sie iapw's)eie ce wivracelela eles cleo ocd't Mia ole tee ferac s: sea

4. The Lower Paleozoic Rocks around Killary Harbour, co. Galway,
and co. Mayo. By R. G. Carruruers and H. B. Murr

5. Notes on the Petrography of Egypt. By W. F. Hume, D.Sc...........

6. The Chemical Composition and Optical Characters of Dolomite Crystals
from Algeria. By A. Hutouinson, M.A., Ph.D..............0005

. A Protractor for constructing Stereographic and Gnomonic Projections
of the Sphere. By A. Hutcuinson, M.A., Ph.D. ................

. Notes on the Microscopical Structure of the Derbyshire Limestones.
By H. H. Annotp-Brmmosr, Sc.D., F.G.S..........ccacecccecees

- *On the Occurrence of Native Iron in the Deccan Basalt. By Professor
IR Hetate si icles ei hin bs rie eC ck oe ee SeOb4s Clos eee

10. The Tourmaline Rocks of Cwm Dwythwe, near Llanberis (North
Wales). By W. G. FEaRNSIDES, M.A. ....... cece ccc ccc ceee

11. Note on the Occurrence of (so-called) Cave Pearls. By Haroip
BRODBIOK, M.A, ..cssesvsiys

8, a

see eee eee eee

On Wea ah

CCH dooce rdberedbdvnervesveses bee

675
676

. 677

697

697

697

698

. 699

699

699

699

699
700

701

702

703

704

xVili CONTENTS.

12.

13.

Page

The Derivation of Sand and Clay from Granite. By Professor W.
Boyp DAWKINS, D.Sc., FRB. 2... cece cece cette rece ce cceeeesens
*Interim Report on the Microscopical and Chemical Composition of
Charnwood Rocks......sscscccccecrccescscrsnvseveees sane airiets

705

705

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.

. Glacial Erosion in North Wales. By Professor W. M. Davis ........ 705

2. The Duration and Direction of Large Earthquakes. By Dr. Joun

or

~I

10.

wile

Minn, B.S: ics eseteevawe eee seets sv ouns ives 0s vest nie 706

. Report on the Excavation of Critical Sections in the Paleozoic Rocks

of Wales and the West of England (p. 231) ......ceceeeceeeeecs 706

. The Soufriére of St. Vincent: the Changes subsequent to the Eruption

of 1902. By Dr. Tempest ANDERSON, F.G.8. .......eeeeeeeeees 706

. Recent Earth Movements within the Basin of the Laurentian Lakes.

By Professor W. H. HOBBS ...... sess eee een ee eteetnnees 707

. Report of the Geological Photographs Committee (p. 245) ....+.0+0++5 707
. Report on the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles (p. 242) ......+++4.. 707
. Note on Casts of Dinosaurian Footprints in the Lower Oolite at

Whitby. By Harotp Bropricn, M.A. .......... AEP ar ing niees 707

. Sixth Report on the Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the British Isles

Oy ee mene Sere ey ain ajtauicebtalites 708
Report on the Faunal Succession in the Carboniferous Limestone
(Avonian) of the British Isles (p. 267) .......... did ai «lara dank Seed . 708

Dopplerite from Sluggan Bog, co. Antrim. By R. WzLcH .......... 708

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.

Discussion on Mountain Building .........cccseeeensereeee aieceils eainacent AOE

te

to

~

Ce

6.

~I

%

©

10.
iM

12.

Third Report on the Crystalline Rocks of Anglesey (p. 283) ......... er fH
On the Finding of Silurian Beds in Kent. By W. Wuiraxer, F.R.S. .. 7il

On a Case of Thrust and Crush Brecciation in the Magnesian Limestone,
co. Durham. By Davip Wootacort, D.Se., F.G.8S. ......... coe SUL

Well-water Supply of the North-Eastern Sudan. By G. W. Grapnam 712
*Contemporancous Erosion in the Lower Series of Coal Measures of
the Bristol’Coal-feld, “By H- (BOUTON ys (2 00 +/5et sisretl as eee 713
Report on the pre-Devonian Beds of the Mendips and the Bristol
Area (pr 286) vase aiasuve.sssse%1+ «ole oetoiels Caterer eee te Pe sume (ld

. On a Fossil Reptile with a Trunk from the Upper Karroo Rocks of

Cape Colony. By Professor H. G. Spunmy, F.R.S. .............. 719

On Distinctions in Dentition between the Fossil Reptilia classed as
Cynodontia and Gomphodontia. By Professor H. G. Srntey, F.R.S. 714

Report on the Fossiliferous Drift Deposits at Kirmington, Lincolnshire,
Ge. (pe QBBN Teva au wna ne oe cee eee ee ee aa 714

Se Report on the Correlation and Age of South African Strata,
we.
Cee eee ee we eee eee enters esseeeseesceeere Ce 714

Report on Topographical and Geological Terms used locally in South
AFVIGG!(D. 2OO)m sake iets sles « cce'tia ote: Vester ereee apne rescore 7c!

*Report on the Exact Significance of Local Terms .iscsssssesevesees V14

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, xix

Section D.—ZOOLOGY,

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.
Page
Address by S. F. Hanmer, M.A., Se.D., F.R.S., President of the Section.... 715
1. The Migratory Movements of certain Shore-Birds as observed on the
Dublin Coast. By C. J. PATTEN, Sc.D. 1... cece eee eee eee eee 731

2. A Biological Expedition to the Birket el Qurun, Fayum Province of
Egypt. By W. A. Cunnryeton, B.A., Ph.D., and C. L. BouLENGER,
B.

sete ay cca nice apae sei easieO sale site eis weit 732

8. On the Distribution of Irish Freshwater Mites (Hydrarachnida).
By d. N. HALBERT 4.0.2... eee eee etree cece n cn eeeeeceees 732

4. On some Arctic and Antarctic Collembola. By Professor GrorcE H.
MNUSEHIADUERY DC. pVis Ey MAS oe cre ne sorcicine ales elers # selene alesis aa siae 733

5. On Diaposematism, or the Interchange of Characters between Dis-
tasteful Forms. By F. A. Dixy, M.A., M.D. ......--eeeeee eens 733

A cs RVers Heese Serhene athe NaeLs «a oxslepbahere S\Giaiaye o's jeisiege 734

7. *Some of the chief Mimetic Combinations among South American Butter-
flies. By J.C. MOULTON. ....seeee eee n eect eee eeeneeeeneeneees 734

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.

1. An Inquiry into the Feeding Habits of British Birds. By C. Gorpon
Thai WLS EN SA come Teton tbe odind Gn he a OGn anne eae mmr in pire 734

2. On the Abuses resulting from the Strict Application of the Rule of
Priority in Zoological Nomenclature, and on the means of protecting

well-established Names. By G. A. Bounencer, F.R.S. .......... 735
3. The Vascular System of Stylodrilus. By RowLaND SOUTHERN ...... 736
4. {Giant Nerve Cells and Fibres. By Dr. J. H. ASHworTH ............ 736
5. The Respiration of Land Isopods. By Ernest Ewart Unwin ...... 736
6. Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station, Naples
BT ait ae tat R Rais Be vie hlu le Se stayen Pale Sdialeb late vinlnaie scape sees 737
7. Report on the Index Animalium (p. 297) ........-....ese seen ee eens 737
8. Report on Experiments in Inheritance (p. 298) ......-.... sees eee 737
9. Report on the Fauna of the Lakes of Central Tasmania (p. 302) ...... 737
10. Eighteenth Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands (p. 301) .. 737
11. *Interim Report on Zoology Organisation ...........eeeeeee ee eeee 737
12. Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Marine Laboratory,
: Beir erie ee AN CPN YI = cSarata ciao en chars ehetate san ofa win alu as wes otulore' viv ere 1. 738

13. Report on Experiments on the Development of the Frog (p. 304) .... 738
14. A Recent Visit to the Ceylon Pearl Banks. By Professor W. A. Herp-

AN, WoW. Scr sees neva teas de cteu es 525s fee uw chine Uh ae we ws 738
15. *Wild Ancestors of the Domestic Horse. By Professor J. Cossar
IDNA LALLA Se SA SCOR GATISS BORREGO CIGOInICDIIEL moe h teehee 738

a2

xx CONTENTS.
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
i Page
Joint Discussion with Section K on Determination of Sex. Opened by L.
WONCANTMR MIA, © |. Po ahs Secale Sale sreloieinio wre = oer en hae aire 1ao
1. *The Early Development of the Marsupialia. By Professor J. P. Hin 739

2, The Gastrulation and Formation of Layers in Amphioxus. By Pro-
fessor E. W. MACBRIDE, F.BR.S. oo ,cceceeeeneecececcessenncece 739
3. *The Evolution of Fishes. By Dr. A. SmrrH Woopwarp, F.R,S, .,., 740

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8,
Joint Meeting with Section I :—

1. Binomics of Tsetse Flies. By R. NEWSTEAD ...........eee eee 741
2. Cultures of Amcebe. By J. W. W. Srepuens, M.D. ............ 741

3. The Action of Atoxyl and allied Compounds in vivo and vitro.
By Dr. M. NIBRENSTEIN 2.0... sees eee e eee cere eee e eee eeees 742

4. The Morphology of Piroplasma canis. By Dr. A. Brerni and
1 DEEL E hasnt] ees opp on aOt aan Doo GODo a cuon orca nbt rome 742
5. *The Pharmacological Treatment of Trypanosomiasis. By Pro- * —
HESS OLE: MIGOR MyerrcrcPoreta sisicrclats oreracetss cveleiaeersteRyenetas Sota e gp aeNey = 743

6. The Life-history of Trypanosomes in relation to the Diseases
they produce. By J. E. S. Moorz and Dr. A. BREINL ...... 743

7, Hzmatozoa from some Ceylon Reptiles. By Murtet Rozertson,
NBA Meets 25 5 ARO rCS SO Gann arian GOD TOM Ire he 743

8. On the Structure of Dendrosoma radians. By Professor SypNry J.
Hickson, M.A., F.R.S., and J. T. WADSWORTH ..........++++00- 744

9. *On some Points connected with the Vertebrate Alimentary Canal, more
particularly in that of the Higher Mammalia. By Professor

INT XCAN DMR GH IRASIOI: Sere tote s< cre clelatseleicheroe eletete/e\lerele chehe ial umnnisn a ain 744
10. The Maxilla and Palatine in the Mammalia. By Professor Ricwarp

JON ANDERSONs CVI Ss UMA I oa). le atefelae atolelniotle. crate aeieiate a aiaie atl 744
11. The Epiphyses of Long Bones (chiefly in Sauropsids). By Professor

RERIECANDERSON: MCDoM VEGAS ccs cxstedeusGts slorgls bevesechehetelsnereiniies a Rites 745
12. *The Development of Littorina littorea. By W. M. Tarrersatt .... 746

13. The Digestive Enzymes of Invertebrates. By Dr. HerBertE. Roar .. 746

Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.

Address by Major E. H. H111s, C.M.G., R.E., President of the Section .... 748

1. The Physiographic Subdivisions of the Appalachian Mountain System,
and their Effects upon Settlement and History. By Professor

W.M. Davis ..... Bi ys ORM Seta cen eleu NNR cte cals Mi chee eke CNG: Rae 761

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.

1. School Geography as a Mental Discipline. By Professor R.A.GREGORY 762

2. The Geographical Study of Mediterranean Man, considered as an
Element in a ‘ Classical Education.’ By Professor Joun L. Myrzs,

A CBee cee, (4 ba a San NAA NISIRR is eS) IAW bee 763

i)

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. Xxi

Page
[3. Scientific Results of the Voyage of the ‘Scotia.’ By Wittiam §.

’ (Bruce, LL.D., F.R.S.B. .. 0. ccc cece cmc cece ses eessecnscanenes 764
' 4, The Northward Expansion of Canada. By W. L. Grant .......... 765
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 7

1. New Instruments for Travellers and Surveyors. By E. A. REEvEs,
PAE VEC se ate a ctet acetate) ei ciovartielei ctedshsVerstd eral’ sl avers) cieicisie\n.« aleisleneisie tials, 310» 766

2. Notes on the Cartography of the Counties of England and Wales.
By HERBERT GEORGE FORDHAM ....... cece cece cece cece eens 768

3. The Longitudinal Section of the River Nile. By Captain H. G. Lyons,
PEON By ee Ee ERS cus ci sicle toaris ucasasiere aves fear va svsisiaust@iecseeteustevienertials apni alel s% oe 768

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.

1. A Journey into the Primeval Forests of Tropical Peru. By L. C. Brr-
WAGCLIE- ho po ddbeboroncobedun de nunias puoDoone obo dbs dpuadne aon 769

2. Unique Experiences at the Birth of a Volcano. By Rev. GrorGE
IDTREORE pp onto Se dctnontarma coor ds boidoomo po nIDURCUDDEnOOUnOr 770

3. Report on the Exploration of Prince Charles Foreland, Spitsbergen
(mcOG ee crea creraci ee wiaiucie touctaeaine certains « sleteisters inate ese are ie 770
4. The Marble Arch Caves in co. Fermanagh. By Haroip Broprick, M.A. 770
5. Mitchelstown Cave. By Dr. C. A. Hin, M.A., M.B. ............006. 771
6. Third Report on Investigations in the Indian Ocean (p. 305) .......... 772

7. Report on the Oscillations of the Level of the Land in the Mediterranean
Tape (jd) BE) Na OR coe bob Od GOAN Ot Ory OOUEOA OO ORCS BOR arne cor 772

Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.

Address by W. M. Acwortu, M.A., President of the Section. ............ 773

1. The needed Reform in the Assessment of Railways for Local Taxation.
eh. CONEY NE EV OWS MA oi enw wies ays acecs «6 teehee aessiclses 784
2. Nationalisation of Irish Railways. By J. O'CONNOR... ........0.0005 784

3. On certain Peculiarities of Small Duties on Imports and Exports. By
Professor F. Y. EDGEWORTH, D.C.L. 20... . ccc ccc cece eee 786

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
1. The Financial Side of Irish Land Purchase. By Professor C. F.

SASTAB TE Acs Salas Do) ™ aavsle tata cree cre ce etre hk eo eete en Nore olds 786

. The Housing of the Working Classes in Ireland. By N. J. Synnorr .. 787
. The Depopulation of Ireland. By Ropert H. Murray, M.A......... 788
. The Economic Ideal and its Application to Countries or Nations.

By Professor Epwrn Cannan, M.A., LL.D. 2... eee ees 789

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 1.

. *Interim Report on the Amount of Gold Coinage in Circulation in the

REET eee. eis conf acs cs team heer tae tee es 789

. International Agreements on Labour Legislation. By Professor

eR MEER | 5's. Be rask opie Wks od 5 ose eww’ cata amtila de slater 790

XX CONTENTS.

Page

8. Proposals for an Economic Survey of the United Kingdom. By
FEGN RY: W MIAGROSDY, BAS vs! sc0)s «5 er oicieteiels hatte ele jofaele Miaveyegds|s 791
4, Industrial Evolution in the Cutlery Industry. By G. I. H. Luoyp, M.A. 792
5. Trade Unionism in the Tinplate Industry. By J. H. Jones, M.A. .... 793

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8,

Joint Meeting with the Agricultural Sub-section :—
1. Social aa of Agricultural Co-operation. By J. GranamM BRooks,
M.A La f

clas a's elelelele @(e ee s)e00 we 6 see ue a's 8 6b © Wb 6) SMS a, ete) e Wee uae ieee (PLS

2. The Pet ane lopioe Aspect of Agrarian Reform in Ireland. By Mortrz

JOLITS BONN ME: DA ses fesse ee aiaes ee 5 tome si vieceneis berets, waite 795
8. The Productivity of English Agriculturists. By Professor JaMEs

WVITISON; UMMA TBS Ga nein net c sic s eisiaveyalers le «nie cle lvle'e/ elon) eia/aualaiarelapale”= 795
4. Economic and Statistical Investigation in Agriculture. By W. G. 8.

PATVAISy VIVA fa tste halle Fevate/s Ps etetors weds fale fore a 1b ol foyelem fee vv ls wie oh abapaerelas 796

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9. |

*Discussion on Instruction in Universities as a Preparation for Commerce
AIC EBUISINORS LATO Miarcvercsal visual cs ole asetais iets’ excise eysjeleieieiele qreis a ewe ale Fae 0-6 796

SUB-SECTION OF AGRICULTURE.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.
Address by Right Hon. Sir Honacz PLUNKETT, K.C.V.O., F.R.S., Chairman 796

1. *Irish Soil Maps. By Professor GRENVILLE CoLE, F.G.S. ........-- 804
2. Electricity in Agriculture. By Sir Otrver Lopes, F.R.S...........-. 804
3. Agricultural Education. By J. R. CAMPBELL, SES Sa ee sorene aroun remeats 804
4. *Agricultural Education for Business and for Knowledge. By Dr.
CARROLL. DUN EAM. 7 Secareiae! «ic telduais ose! afais ies: spoxeXele iain) fo, elaivus wae @inansere 805

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.

1. *Discussion on Breeding and the Relation of Modern Theories of Heredity

to the Problems of the Stock Raiser.........0sssceceeseeeee 806
(i) *The Application of the Mendelian Theory to Practical Problems.
By Professor W. BATESON, F.R.S. ....... eee eee eee eens 806
(ii) *Experimental Breeding Farms. By W. Hears, F.R.S. ........ 806
(iii) *Mendelism and the Elucidation of Live Stock History. By
Professors). WEUSON). a sis cousssrs snjessle ious +) sie, alc) oie ob =( anal 806
2, Some Irish Experiments on Warble-flies. By Professor Guo. H.
CARPENTHR BSc, MORAL Ar eerste ers tticissle'e fle cle ee eoevels ey ole State 807

3. Barley Growing and Selection in Ireland. By Hrrpert Hunter, B.Se. 807

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
1. Small Holdings: Some Considerations on their Successful Establishment.
By Mrs. L. WILKINS ....... esse cece cece e cece teen ence seen eaee 807
2. *The Small Holdings Problem. By CuristoPHER TURNER .......... 808
3. *The Management of Small Holdings. By F. ImpEy ........+..:- . 808

TRANSACTIONS -OF THE SECTIONS, XX11

4. *Letters from Small Holders. By W. Breaca THOMAS ..............
5. *The Economic Importance of judicious Tree Planting for Shelter by
FE AMONELSs | Slee OOO TUNER Aes col MEM iesso sys sie sce ee he cc ees ewe

6. *A Method of Registering the Colours of Animals. By Major Barrerr
ELSMIUTONS fod acon ot CAC ie rare Coe REANT A: Ais eae

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.

Joint Meeting with Section F (p. 794) vreereererereseees Fate cichlids eres

Section G.—ENGINEERING.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.

Address by Ducatp Cumrk, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., President of the Section ..
Recent Advances in Steam Turbines. By Grmratp Sroney, B.E., M.I.C.E.,
M

rie eevee errereoreroe rere reer eere ereere core eee eee ee overee ao

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 4,
*Joint Discussion with Sections A and B on Gaseous Explosions.......,..

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
1, The Utilisation of Peat for making Gas or Charcoal with Recovery of

808

809

By-Products. By Captain H. Riaui Sankey, R.E., M.Inst.C.E. 824
2. Producer Gas. By J. Emerson Dowson, M.Inst.C.E. ............4, 825
3. {Suction Gas Producers. By P. W. ROBSON ............eeeeueers - 826
4. The Study of Breakages. By Wattrer RosEnuatn, B.A., B.C.E. .... 826
5. {The Electrical Conductivity of certain Light Aldtitnisin Alloys as
affected by Exposure to London Atmosphere, By E. Witson ,... 827
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
1, The Laws of Flight. By F. W. LANCHESTER ...........ccceeeeeee . 827
2. {The Causes of Wear in Motor Vehicle Machinery. By F.H.Royce.... 829
3. Clock-driving Mechanism of Equatorials. By Sir Howarp Grusp,
GSES S5 SCRA Se Cone Oe ae eet eae Ney See ae 829
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
1. Experiments on Rotating Discs. By J. Brown, F.R.S., and Maurice
Ree RENE Se teiae nates acre tnt ue cet hee st © mee OREO 830
2. {General Urban and Inter-urban RS ni and Railless Electric
Traction. By F. Dovetas Fox, M.Inst.C.B. 2.0.2.0... ccc cece cece ‘830

3. The Strength of Solid Cylindrical Round- Ended Columns. By Pro-

TESSOn. Wie By Wimmty,, MiAs, DiSGi 6. oc. 0s cose. PT Ct ee ee . 830

XXIV CONTENTS,

Section H.—_ANTHROPOLOGY.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.

Page
Address by Professor Witt1am RipcEway, M.A., LL.D., Litt,D., F.B.A.,
President of “the Section... 5.5 v.. 5-4." yes eeiansinia Ju fon) eae 832
1. The History of Mummification in Egypt. By Professor G. ELuiot
RSRETIOH aM OVE Phe HBR sn as ease ole pixcvatelite Wiest aaron pe 847
2. A Sequence of Egyptian Stone Implements. By C.T. CuRRELLY...... 848
3. The Veddas. By C. G. Smniamann, M.D............ccccecsceescees 848
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 4,
1. Anthropological nee in Egypt. By Professor G. Exxior Smrru,
MIEN, MEDD: SEG eae ches oyna Coe tes cules er NUNS sa Ore eee 849
2. Rajputs and ee By W. CROOKE) Bia ie i. os os nse ae wlateereters 850
8. Ona Collection of Dinka Laws and Customs. By E. Sipney Hartianp 850
4. Four Weeks in New Britain. By Miss B. PutLen-Burry ............ 850
5. The Northern Mound Builders of North America, By Grorar Bryce,
| 131 BO DPA EG US ee ee aneg OA e AE aretbe cr res reese 2m 851
6. Prehistoric Archzology in Japan. By N. Gorpon Munro .......... 852
7. Some Ancient Stone Implement Sites in South Africa—their bearing on
the Problem of the Antiquity of Man. By Rev. W. A. Apams, B.A, 852
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
1. Report on Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain (p. 342)............ 853
2. Recent Excavations at Roman Chester. By Dr. R. Newsrrap...... 853
3. Some Remarks on the Irish Horse and its Early History. By Dr. R. F.
SCHARYR ©. y5:¢ sar 5 sheltiate eld thera intel ove ere eietiavomuetel aie ities SR Sere ae 853
4. The Distribution of Gold Lunule. By Grorar Corrry, M.A......... 854
5. A Leather Shield found in co. Longford. By E. C. R. Armstrona.... 854
6. The Survival of La Tene Ornament in some Celtic Penannular Brooches.
By Guononm Commey, MA. oA ec s'en niu oe s ace nico 5's stewie Ring iy a 854
7. Note on the Tara Brooch. By Grorcr Correy, M.A. .............. 854
8. The Origin of Irish Motes. By Gopparp H. Orprn, B.A. .......... 854
9. On certain Changes in the Lateral Wall of the Cranium due to Muscular
Development. By Professor J. Symrveton, M.D., F.R.S. ........ 855
10. *The Development and Adult Form of the Human Brain. By Pro-
fessor A. -MRASER >. 1s sinaer cick see te nes Oa tee ecoh eae 856
11. The Significance of the so-called Accessory Dental Masses sometimes
found in the Upper Jawbones. By Professor A. Francis Dixon .. 856
12. Who Built the British Stone Circles? By J. Gray, B.Sc. ............ 856
13. Report on Anthropometric Investigation in the British Isles (p. 351) .. 857

. Report on Archeological and Ethnographical Researches in Crete

(ps BEd) “Te rc nee eer toes Seore ae od wns ae 857

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. XXV

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8,
Page

1. Excavations at Caerwent, Monmouthshire, on the Site of the Romano-
British City of Venta Silurum, in 1907-08. By T. Asupy, M.A.,
[DSIRE | Sood} Gout oltn Oo OC oANOC OOO UDO OH Coa Rae OG Met Has mame 857

2. The Work of the Liverpool Committee for Excavation and Research
in Wales and the Marches. By Professor Joun L. Myrzs, M.A. .. 857

3. Excavations at Caerleon, Monmouthshire. By H. G. Evetyn-Wuirr.. 858

4. Neolithic Culture in North Greece. By J. P. Droop, B.A.........,... 858

5. The Excavations of the British School at Athens at the Sanctuary of
Artemis Orthia at Sparta. By M.S. THompson, B.A. ............ 859

6. Report on Archeological and Ethnological Investigations in Sardinia
MUD SAD)) Pessoa clerarerrerctevarere tata cradate clerstat NE CNG perenne see ciel sorerels el 860

7. The Sculptured Stones of Norway and their relation to some British
Monuments. By Dr. HAaAKON SCHETELIG .......,...cccceeccece 860

8. The Four Principal Aqueducts of the City of Rome in Classical Times.
Spar SEE Ng Ae PADS Mpc ataralerx cis oe ek b.ei6 a ale Mees Ste ee ade 860

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9,

1. Notes on an Ancient Land Surface in a River Terrace at Ipswich and
on Paleoliths from a Gravel Pit in the Valley of the Lark. By
Gs AN UNA s EER ARDY o's ome, fet. eh Seah ek ete See dae eee 861

2. Report on the Age of Stone Circles (p. 400) ..........cccceeeeceeees 861

3. Tenth Report on the Lake Village at Glastonbury (p. 414) .......... 862

4. Report on the Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration
of Photographs of Anthropological Interest (p. 419) ............ 862

5. Cup- and Ring-markings. By Rev. H. J. Duxryrretp AsTLey, M.A.,

EN uae ara 5 aft chelate AAS ACS SD oe Vice eNO les Od ORE eee 862

6. Report on Classifying and Registering Megalithic Remains in the
Er NEH COL ax suis ./ostetriass <itkeaiesentan cle Mite dan Seek 862

7. On the Classification of the Megalithic and analogous Prehistoric
Remains of Great Britain and Ireland. By GzorcE CLINCH ...... 862

8. Report on the Preparation of a New Edition of Notes and Queries in
Pee RENO IV DAD) haces osetia ant oboifhe, Got, wuaharsbshitid «hase.ove bh diese 862

9. Perforated Stone Hammers and Axes. By W. J. KNowLus.......... 863

Section I.—PHYSIOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.
Address by J. S. Hatpanr, M.D., F.R.S., President of the Section ........ 864

1. *Proprio-ceptive Reflexes of the Limb. By Professor C. 8S. SHERRINGTON,

ee RR tical le A crore riatslartnsi etace raga choi essiarsade 8,6. wie SaNk aeee ae 871

2. Final Report on the ‘Metabolic Balance Sheet’ of the Individual
PEMD VP IASG)I Sis ak oh eaatuciaie te sates clone aCe a atc 871

3. Report on the Effect of Climate upon Health and Disease (p.442) .... 871

4

5

- The Physics of High Altitudes in relation to Climate and Health.
Pelican C.GnannamM M.D. 18 2e. ae Pe ene 87]

- Report on the Ductless Glands (p. 440) ........cecceeeceue Leitiyteysee ie

XxXv1 CONTENTS.

. *Certain Factors in the Glomerular Secretion of the Kidneys. By

Professor Ay By MAcATHUM HeRiSs sete. sone es 2ae..tviok olin tse: 871

. *Surface Tension as a Factor in the Distribution of Salts inside the Living

Cell’ By Professor A, B, Macatnum, PR.S2. 26s... sees eeces aces 872

. The Prevention of Deaths under Anesthetics. By Fruprric W.

Fimwrrr vc O. VM Asy Wel cc ot gestae at cce come caine Semen. 872

. Is Alcohol a Food of Muscle? A Comparison of Chloroform, Ether,

and Alcohol. By Professor A, D. WALLER, F.B.S. wo ccc seers eee

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.

. Discussion on Mental and Muscular Fatigue :—

(i) Fatigue. By Dr. W. MacDouGALt (p. 479) .....ccceeeeeees 873
(i) Biatigues GBy Professor 1 sei gMirrROVi cides ccs ele aa gatacens 873
(iii) Some Aspects of Mental Fatigue. By H. Sackvittz Lawson 874

. The Interpretation of the Results obtained from the Study of Cerebral

Localisation in the Prosimie. By Professor W. H. Witson and
‘Professor (G: ,.HEHIOT) SMITH; MH EN. St beiisisiote's o'e:als «eles vieieie sis sii awe are 875

. The Localisation of the Human Cerebral Cortex. By Professor

GAULLION: SMITH eH sEvsSeyc.c s slvcciadstasie’s iat cr eroece @ pee e ee seas 5 bene 876

. *On certain Features of Retinal Photo-electro Phenomena. By Pro-

fessor FRANCIS GOTOH: EL HUS:. cieeeien cite oatowle cise arses eeenadasc 876

. Colour-blindness and Colour-perception. By F. W. Epripcn-Green,

M.D SSR GIS. promepesieicnie cisteteiomercrel susie ee oie che ote sian seatemteys s, thaave 876

. Report on the Electrical Phenomena and Metabolism of Arum spadices

(B. 263) 0 cee ete ee Reis. 1 eee Fre 877

. The Constitution of Lecithin and other Phosphatives. By Dr. Huan

MAGLI EN ett orcn Sloe ee eee ee ee ee aCe elon 877

. The Gastro-intestinal Ganglionic. Nervous System. By Sir James

GRANT KCUMIGINe tircare celeaie coh crete s Pea er SA Re Rie etree emis 878

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.

*Discussion on Instruction of School Teachers in Physiology and Hygiene.

1.

Opened by Professor C. S. SHERRINGTON, F.R.S. ...... sc eee eee
Report on the Conditions of Health essential to the Carrying-on of
the Work of Instruction in Schools (p. 458) 2.2... 0... c eee e eee eens 878
. On Amyloid. By Professor A. KOSSEL ........0.eee sce e eee eeeeeeee 878
. The Relationship of the Pyloric to the Fundic Part of the Stomach. By
Dr. Br, aC AE ARIES eta acel seat sree pie ojala leis) in viet 6 sipis\oheTotnlelpia eatels 875
. Isolation of a Physiologically Active Substance from Peptone. By
FP. O BaBLcIsONs Ms Diet teria cee arate ote Seine dete tea ne Oe eee 879
. The Hemo-renal Index. By Dr. Dawson TURNER.........-+0eee00e 881
. Osmotic Growths. By Dr. DAWSON TURNER .......5-eeeeeseeeenes 881
. Report on Body Metabolism in Cancer (p. 489) .......05-- sees cease 881

. Further Observations on a previously undescribed Tract in the Spinal

Cord. By Drs Werth AGIAN « wieraastel gis clams eioa rete Ce ae 881
Demonstration of the Cells and Tracts concerned in Paralysis and
Recovery from Paralysis. By Dr. W. PaGE May ..... .ceeeeseee 881

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. XXVil

Page

10. *The Action of Two Sera on a Carcinoma occurring in Mice. By C. E.
IVVAUGSIIH,: coals iala c ctctesspnnttactal a ctetete: MMM palahclelehela, + sleceieinwiealelesesoes 882

11. The Biological Method of Differentiating Blood-stains. By Professor
Hid. MOWEENEY, MeAs, MUD oo oe foie e cliecee clots tecuucee cee 882

12. The Action of Acid and Alkali on the Growth and Division of Animal
and Vegetable Cells. By Professor B. Moors and Dr. H. E. Roar.. 883

13. *Changes in the Prinitary after Thyroidectomy. By Dr. P. T. Hrrrina 883

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.

Joint Meeting with Section D (p. 741) .... cece cece ene e eee een n en eeeee 883
*A Review of the Tuberculosis Crusade in Ireland. By Sir Roserr E.
IMUA TRIES ONE 15.1. tararatshatorete Winiuielolslelernleleleielerr ele clelslvitieleiene glalelslela o's sereis 883

Section K.—BOTANY.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.

Address by F. F. Buacxmay, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., President of the Section.. 884
1. The Influence of Living Cells on the Transpiration Current. By
9

Protessory Hs Ele) DEON Ge HAES. Gey cxars seus s.a/a matereinps co ale wisleesios oe 0 = 01
2. The Death-rate of Bacteria under the Action of Disinfectants. By

Miss HaRRintre CHICK, D.Sc. ..... cc cece cece cee e eee c cents 901
3. *The Death-rate of Cells of Higher Plants in Fatal Conditions. By

Miss Nora Darwin and Dr. BLAcKMAN, F.B.S...........020e eee 902
4. Colour Changes in Flowers produced by controlling Insolation. By

Colonel HEIE (RiawSoOn, Cubic Rebiin.cncieco ote otis oletdlviiole sterxeve/a's iste.el Slee. 902
5. The Mechanical and Electrical Response of Plants. By Professor

EO ABOSHMCaUDr, eA ML) Gey crete aie ec teen ae ia atthe cuts sinciolepe'® < 903
6. *The Mechanism of Mitosis. By W. L. BALLS..........00 eee seers 904
7. *A perfectly Fertile Species-hybrid showing Segregation. By Dr.

Pom EP ROS We: cies scaval ate. sl slerets clotal aueiclalevereletsielsa<sele akoiny wis a ialole aiege aia) t)5/6/0 904
8. *The Natural Crossing of the Cotton Plant. By W. L. Batts ........ 904

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
1. *Photo-chemical Action in the Test-tube and the Leaf. By Dr. F. F.

TERA rEnita IDL S halls Bop phn one oO Oo Or Ginn Oh iota cin ac nn caiooe 904
2. On Increase in Dry Weight as a Measure of Assimilation. By D.

BIRT IVACVO Ess oie tenccei nj cis ciexaies sheers (sdete: #) Gl susha slays Sjecerele a.ale wyeceve est ene 905
3. The Factors influencing Photosynthesis in Water Plants. By A. M.

FS MITER VIIA caer ay tut cal yale afi etetteis aiehatehe cre Moyoyeh =. ' Jo e-p. akesn) evaliersyiocsyyivalnie 906
4. The Carbohydrates of the Snowdrop Leaf and their bearing on the

First Sugar of Photosynthesis. By Jon Parkin, M.A. .......... 907
5. *The Time Factor in Assimilation. By J. M. F. Drummonp, M.A. .... 908
6. The Woodlands of Southern England. By A. G. Tanstry, M.A....... 908

7.. The Woodlands of Northern England. By C. E. Moss, D.Sc. ........ 908

SXVill CONTENTS,

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.

Page
Joint Discussion with Section D on the Determination of Sex (p. 738).....- 909
1. The Optical Behaviour of the Epidermal Cells of Leaves. By HARoLD
WWWAGTORS HRS I FERS acres cles oteve orca aleve te ard a eie ater isco Shave levees eae aa 90)
2. The Contractile Roots of the Aroid Sauromatum guttatum. By
Mrs: 2D SEE SCOTT, sMsLiSs. ~olecteveteers erdiels cle seis aioe sralel cys otehn ots naan 910
3. Evaporation in relation to the Stratification of Marsh Vegetation.
By, Professor RoE OYAPP, MOAT cis ccseicieleya © ole ceejeleve is icle nls sie >| <ieielatere 911
4. *Report on the Registration of Botanical Photographs. ............-- 911
5. Report on the Structure of Fossil Plants (p. 493)........seseeeeeeees 911
6. Report on Studies of Marsh Vegetation (p. 492) ..........-seeeeeee 911
7. Interim Report on the Sequence of Plant Remains in the Peat Deposits
Of Veesdale; (ec: (ps 493) b ean amiercieree mii sstctecn sreseveleleipre asl e-e sts etetene 911
8. Second Interim Report on Research on South African Cycads and
on. Welwitsehia (go. 494), cerca tres oie eteteleia' a clave eicle stole ve © slalom clahate 911
9. *A Plant Animal. By Professor F. W. K@mBLE ...:........-000000 911
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
1. The Origin of Dicotyledons. By W. C. WORSDELL..........+e0see0s 911
2. A Note on the Morphology of Endosperm. By Professor H. H. W.
PEARSON, So.D.)°. etapa eet Nese eee a eee lees Clem eee ee ee 914
3. The Primary Wood of Lepidodendron and Stigmaria. By Professor
PK: Wars, 1.8044 (16552 age ere Saadeee Aches 2 teat oe enemies 914

4. On Bensonites fusiformis, sp. nov., a Fossil associated with Stauwropteris
burntislandica, P. Bertrand, and on the Sporangia of the latter.

By Mrs. D. A. Soorr, sBiiS., 25 wc once cee tetiaes Sie eee ee pee 915
5. The Structure of Sigillaria scutellata, Brongn. By E. A. NEweELu
ARBuR, MA. and Huge HY? SHoMAS,B2Al tons aslo asta tees) seis 915
6. nae on the Life History of Hematococcus /acustris By M. WILSON, 4
ISOs Ueda Nitto areusremnin ere cielo OMe crake eretaietaleittts ore etruninie versie sie meia taney aaiate 16

Section L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.

Address by Professor L. C. Mratt, D.Sc., F.R.S., President of the Section.. 917

1. *The Outlook: A Grand Experiment in Education. By Professor
H.W. ARMSTRONG! ORME Nce os w'sc7e «ore. + errs sisiovese efieroieis cle osha etomIpnS 927

2. Education under a Local Authority. By R. Buam, M.A., B.Sc. ...... 927

3. Special Schools for the Physically Defective and the Mentally Deficient.
By) Misch Mi: SBURGWEN 0 yiciece sfss soars tie vse a veleluolalo cient etetteis) oie’ s . 929

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. XXIx

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 4,
Page
1, Report on Studies most suitable for Elementary Schools (with Intro-
ductory Statement by Sir Pattie Maanus (p. 495)) ...........00. 930

2. Discussion on Education in relation to Rural Life :—
(i) Education in relation to Rural Life. By L. C. Mratn, D.Sc., F.R.S. 930
(ii) School Gardens. By Miss Lin1an J. Cuarxsn, B.Sc., F.L.S. ...... 931

(iii) The Problem of Rural Education in Irish Primary Schools.
By the highh Rov: Des MOLMy. | ..02 0s eyed ven ne held. bt 932

(iv) Rural Education. By GEORGE FLETCHER ...........ccceceees 932

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.

1, Discussion on Education in Ireland :—

(i) Character and Educational Efficiency. By T. P. Gm.......... 933
(ii) The Correlation of Primary, Secondary, and University Education
in Ireland. By Professor Bensamryn Moors, M.A., D.Sc....... 934
2. Discussion on Training in Teaching :—
Ror eay WEIGH. 2E. PEMATN a via cn’s os ccsePeae saa ass Gad caewRrade cee 935
fr Gy Ca snins MACGREGOR dsc soaps c2Kere ive shedinew ries news 937

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.

1. Report on the Curricula of Secondary Schools (p. 526)............0005 938
2. *Discussion on (a) Note-taking and Reports on Work ; (b) Clear Speaking
AN CM GACIN OPA TOU Ser. crud sta, cyere Hele aeolian ble sittareate bias cid oti 939
3. Discussion on Types of Education and their relative Values :—
(i) Acquirement in Education. By Dr. G. ArcHpatn Rep ........ 939

(ii) Influence of Mental Values of Types of Education. By Professor
Bigice CULVER WELLS MsAbuers conto a0 a atid a che uie lac ote eee ahentes 940

4. Discussion on Experimental Studies in Education :—
(i) Experimental Studies in Education. By Professor J. A. GREEN .. 941

(ii) Scientific Method in the Study of Education. By Professor
J. J. Finpuay, M.A., Ph.D., and P. Sanpirorp, M.Sc. ........ 942

5. Report on Changes affecting Secondary Education (p. 525)............ 944

he ae

XxX CONTENTS.

EVENING DISCOURSES,

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 4. :
Page

Halley’s Comet. By Professor H. H. Turnzr, D.Sc., F.R.S. .......ee ees 945
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.

The Colorado Canyon. By Professor W. M. DAVIS .........00eeeeeeees 948

TESIGE- 0 JOG ROOST Sc Cath Ci MERCI oa OED DET icy Cen CE REISS Career rye cS 951

LIST OF PLATES.

Puatess J. to IV.

Illustrating the Report on Seismological Investigations.

Puates V. AnpD VI.

Illustrating the Report on the Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the British Isles.

Prats VII.

Illustrating Professor Horace Lams’s Paper on the Theory of Wave-motion.

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1908-1909.

PATRON.
HIS MAJESTY THE KING.

VICE=PATRON FOR THE MEETING AT WINNIPEG.
His EXcELLENcy THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF THE DOMINION OF CANADA,

PRESIDENT.
FRANCIS DARWIN, M.A. M.B., LL.D., D.S¢,, F.R.S,

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

The Right Hon. Alderman GERALD O’REILLY, Lord
Mayor of Dublin.

The Right Hon. Sir SAMUEL WALKER, Bart, Lord |

Chancellor of Ireland.

The Right Hon. AUGUSTINE BIRRELL, M.P., Chief
Secretary to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland.

The Right Hon. the Hari or Meath, K.P., His
Majesty’s Lieutenant for the County of Dublin.

The Right Hon. LorD OASTLETOWN OF UPPER
Ossory, K.P., Ohancellor of the Royal University
of Ireland.

ANTHONY TRAILL, M.D., LL.D., Provost of Trinity
College, Dublin.

The Very Rey. WiLLIAM DELANY, LL.D., President
of University College, Dublin.

ame ene Hon. Viscount IyeAGH, K.P., LL.D.,

F.R.S,

The Rigbt Hon. Lord ArpiLAUN, D.L., LL.D.,
President of the Royal Dublin Society.

Francis A. TarLeron, LL.D., President of the
Royal Irish Academy.

The Right Hon. Mr. Justice MapDEN, M.A.,
LL.D., Vice-Chancellor of the University of
Dublin.

Sic CHRISTOPHER Nixon, Bart., M.D., LL.D.,
Vice-Chancellor of the Royal University of
Ireland,

T. W. RussRyy, M.P., Vice-President of the
Department of Agriculture and Technical
Instruction in Ireland,

PRESIDENT ELECT.
Professor Sir J. J. THomson, Se.D., D.Sc. P.R.S.

VICE=PRESIDENTS ELECT,

The Right Hon. Lonp SrrarscoNA AND Moun
Roya, G.O.M.G., F.R.S.

The Right Hon. Sir Wirrip Laurier, G.C.M.G,,
D.C.L., Premier of the Dominion of Canada.

His Hon, the LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR OF THE PRO-
VINCE OF MANITOBA.

Tbe Hon, the PREMIER OF THE PROVINCE OF MANI-
TOBA.

His Hon. the LikvTENANT-GOVERNOR OF THE PRO-
VINCE OF SASKATCHEWAN,

The Hon, the PREMIER OF THE PROVINCE OF SAs-
KATCHEWAN.

His Hon. the Linu TENANT-GOVERNOR OF THE PRO-
VINCE OF ALBERTA.

The Hon. the PREMIER OF THE PROVINCE OF
ALBERTA.

His Hon. the LizgurENANT-GOVERNOR OF THE PRo-
VINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.

The Hon. the PREMIER OF THE PROVINCE OF
BRITISH COLUMBIA,

GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor JouN Perry, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.

Major P. A, MAcManon, R.A., D.Se,, F.R.S.

Professor W. A. Hernan, D.Sc., F.R.S,

ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
Ankruun Sitya WuITE, Burlington House, London, W.

CHIEF CLERK AND ASSISTANT TREASURER,
H. O. Strwanrpson, Burlington House, London, W.

LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MBETING AT WINNI EG,
JouHN AIRD,

LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT WINNIPEG,

G. N. Bst.
W. SANFORD EVANS,

|

Professor M. A. PsRKER, B.Sc.
Professor SWALE VINCEN’, M.D,

[P.T.0,

XXXll

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL.

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

ABNEY, Sir W., K.O.B., F.R.S.
ANDERSON, TEMPEST, M.D., D.&
Bourne, Professor G. O., D: Se.
Bow Ley, A. L., M.A.
BRABROOK, Sir “EDWARD, O.B.

HAu., A. D., M.A.

HARTLAND, E. SIDNEY, F.S.A.
HAWKSLEY, O., M.Inst. 0. E.
Hoearra, D. G., M.A,
McKENDRICK, Professor J. G., F.R.S.

Brown, Dr. Horace T., F.R.S. MITcHELL, Dr, P. CHALMERS, F.R.S,

BRUNTON, Sir LAUDER, Bart., F.R.S. PouLTON, "Professor E. B., F. R. Ss.
CLOSE, Major C. F., R.E., O.M.G. PRAIN, Lieut. -Colonel D., 50 I.E., F.R.S,
ORAIGIE, Major P. G., C.B, SHERRINGTON, Profess 0. &, F.R.S,

sor
Dyson, Professor F. W.F RS. SHIPLEY, Dr. A. E., F.R.S.
ForsyTH, Professor A. R., F.R.S. Turton, Dr. A. E. H., F.R.S.
GLAZEBROOK, Dr. R. T., F.R.S. Watts, Professor W. » F.R.S.

Woopwakp, Dr. A, SMITH, F.R.S.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

The Trustees, past Presidents of the Association, the President and Vice-Presidents for the year, the

President and Vice-Presidents Elect, past and present General Treastrets and General Secretaries, past-

Assistant General Secretaries, and the Local Treasurers and Local Secretaries for the ensuing Annual
Meeting.

TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

The Right Hon. Lord AvEBurY, D.OC.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L8.
The Right Hon. Lord RAYLEIGH, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., I'.R.S., F.R.A.S,
Sir ARTHUR W. RUCKER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S,

PAST PRESIDENTS OF THE ASSOCIATION.

Sit Joseph D. Elooker,G.C.S.I. Sir Archibald Geikie, K.O B., | Sir James Dewar, LL.D,, F.R.S,
Lord Avebury, D.C.L., F.R.S. Pres.R.S. | Sir Norman enh K, ae! F.B.S,
Lurd Rayleigh, D.C.L., F.R.S-. Lord Lister, D,O.L., F.R.S. Arthur J. Balfour, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir H. E. Rosvoe, D.C.L., F.R.S Sir William Crookes, F.R.S. Sir George Darwin, K.C.B., F.R.S.
Sir William Huggins, K.O.B., | Sir W. Turhér, K.O.B., F.R.S. Sir E.Ray Lankester,K.0.B.,F.R.S.
F.RB.S. Sir A. W. Riicker, D.&c., F.R.S. Sir David Gill, K.C.B., F.R.S.

PAST GENERAL OFFIOERS OF THE ASSOCIATION.

F, Galton, D.O.L., F.R.8. A. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S. Dr. D. H. Scott, M.A., F.R.8,
P. L. Sclater, Ph.D., F.R.S, Sir A. W. Riicker, D.Sc., F.R.8, Dr. G. Carey Foster, F.R.8.
Prof. T.G. Bonney, D.Se., F.R.S. | Prof. E. A. Schiifer, F.R.S. Dr. J. G. Garson.

AUDITORS,

Sir Edward Brabrook, C.B, | Professor H. McLeod, F.R.8.

RULES OF

THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

[Adopted by the General Committee at Leicester, 1907.]

— 10

Cuaprer I.

Objects and Constitution.

1. The objects of the British Association for the Advance-
ment of Science are: To give a stronger impulse and a more
systematic direction to scientific inquiry ; to promote the
intercourse of those who cultivate Science in different parts
of the British Empire with one another and with foreign
philosophers ; to obtain more general attention for the objects
of Science and the removal of any disadvantages of a public
kind which impede its progress.

The Association contemplates no invasion of the ground
occupied by other Institutions.

2. The Association shail consist of Members, Associates,
and Honorary Corresponding Members.

The governing body of the Association shall be a General
Committee, constituted as hereinafter set forth; and its
affairs shall be directed by a Council and conducted by
General Officers appointed by that Committee.

3. The Association shall meet annually, for one week or
longer, and at such other times as the General Committee
may appoint. The place of each Annual Meeting shall be
determined by the General Committee not less than two years
in advance ; and the arrangements for these meetings shall
be entrusted to the Officers of the Association.

Cuaprér II.
The General Committee.

1. The General Committee shall be constituted of the
following persons :

(i) Permanent Members—

(a) Past and present Members of the Council, and past

and present Presidents of the Sections.
1908,

Objects.

Constitution.

Annual
Meetings,

Constitution.

XXXIV RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

(b) Members who, by the publication of works or
papers, have furthered the advancement of know-
ledge in any of those departments which are
assigned to the Sections of the Association.

(ii) Zemporary Members—

(a) Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections,

(6) Honorary Corresponding Members, foreign repre-
sentatives, and other persons specially invited
or nominated by the Council or General Officers.

(c) Delegates nominated by the Affiliated Societies.

(d) Delegates—not exceeding altogether three in
number—from Scientific Institutions established
at the place of meeting.

Admission. 2. The decision of the Council on the qualifications and
claims of any Member of the Association to be placed on the
General Committee shall be final.

(i) Claims for admission as a Permanent Member must
be lodged with the Assistant Secretary at least one
month before the Annual Meeting.

(ii) Claims for admission as a Temporary Member may be
sent to the Assistant Secretary at any time before or
during the Annual Meeting.

Meetings. 3. The General Committee shall meet twice at least during
‘ every Annual Meeting. In the interval between two Annual
Meetings, it shall be competent for the Council at any time

to summon a meeting of the General Committee.

Functions. 4, The General Committee shall
(i) Receive and consider the report of the Council.
(ii) Elect a Committee of Recommendations.
(iii) Receive and consider the report of the Committee of
Recommendations.
(iv) Determine the place of the Annual Meeting not less
than two years in advance.
(v) Determine the date of the next Annual Meeting.
(vi) Elect the President and Vice-Presidents, Local Trea-
surer and Local Secretaries for the next Annual
Meeting.
(vii) Elect Ordinary Members of Council.
(viii) Appoint General Officers.
(ix) Appoint Auditors.
(x) Elect the officers of the Conference of Delegates.

(xi) Receive any notice of motion for the next Annual
Meeting.

COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS, XXXV

Cuapter III.
Committee of Recommendations.

1. The ex officio Members of the Committee of Recom-
mendations are the President and Vice-Presidents of the
Association and the President of each Section at the Annual
Meeting, the General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the
Trustees, and the Presidents of the Association in former years

An Ordinary Member of the Committee for each Section
shall be nominated by the Committee of that Section.

Tf the President of a Section be unable to attend a meeting
of the Committee of Recommendations, the Sectional Com-
mittee may appoint a Vice-President, or some other member
of the Committee, to attend in his place, due notice of such
appointment being sent to the Assistant Secretary.

2, Every recommendation made under Chapter IV. and
every resolution on a scientific subject, which may be sub-
mitted to the Association by any Sectional Committee, or by
the Conference of Delegates, or otherwise than by the Council
of the Association, shall be submitted to the Committee of
Recommendations. If the Committee of Recommendations
approve such recommendation, they shall transmit it to the
General Committee ; and no recommendation shall be con-
sidered by the General Committee that is not so transmitted.

Every recommendation adopted by the General Committee
shall, if it involve action on the part of the Association, be
transmitted to the Council ; and the Council shall take such
action as may be needful to give effect to it, and shall report
to the General Committee not later than the next Annual
Meeting.

Every proposal for establishing a new Section or Sub-
Section, for altering the title of a Section, or for any other
change in the constitutional forms or fundamental rules of
the Association, shall be referred to the Committee of Recom-
mendations for their consideration and report.

3. The Committee of Recommendations shall assemble,
for the despatch of business, on the Monday of the Annual
Meeting, and, if necessary, on the following day. Their
Report must be submitted to the General Committee on the
last day of the Annual Meeting. ** ;

Constitution.

Functions.

Procedure.

Procedure.

Constitution.

Proposals by
Sectional
Committees.

Tenure.

Reports.

XXXV1 RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

CuHaprer IV.
Research Committees.

1. Every proposal for special research, or for a grant of
money in aid of special research, which is made in any
Section, shall be considered by the Committee of that Section ;
and, if such proposal be approved, it shall be referred to the
Committee of Recommendations.

In consequence of any such proposal, a Sectional Com-
mittee may recommend the appointment of a Research
Committee, composed of Members of the Association, to
conduct research or administer a grant in aid of research,
and in any case to report thereon to the Association ; and the
Committee of Recommendations may include such recom-
mendation in their report to the General Committee.

2. Every appointment of a Research Committee shall be
proposed at a meeting of the Sectional Committee and adopted
at a subsequent meeting. The Sectional Committee shall
settle the terms of reference and suitable Members to serve
on it, which must be as small as is consistent with its efficient
working ; and shall nominate a Chairman and a Secretary.
Such Research Committee, if appointed, shall have power to
add to their numbers.

3. The Sectional Committee shall state in their recommen-
dation whether a grant of money be desired for the purposes
of any Research Committee, and shall estimate the amount
required.

All proposals sanctioned by a Sectional Committee shall
be forwarded by the Recorder to the Assistant Secretary not
later than noon on the Monday of the Annual Meeting for
presentation to the Committee of Recommendations.

4. Research Committees are appointed for one year only.
If the work of a Research Committee cannot be completed
in that year, application may be made through a Sectional
Committee at the next Annual Meeting for reappointment,
with or without a grant—or a further grant—of money.

5. Every Research Committee shall present a Report,
whether interim or final, at the Annual Meeting next after
that at which it was appointed or reappointed. Interim
Reports, whether intended for publication or not, must be sub-
mitted in writing. Each Sectional Committee shall ascertain
whether a Report has been made by each Research Committee

RESEARCH COMMITTEE. XXXVIL

appointed on their recommendation, and shall report to the
Committee of Recommendations on or before the Monday of
the Annual Meeting.

6. In each Research Committee to which a grant of money
has been made, the Chairman is the only person entitled to call
on the General Treasurer for such portion of the sum granted
as from time to time may be required.

Grants of money sanctioned at the Annual Meeting
expire on June 30 following. The General Treasurer is not
authorised, after that date, to allow any claims on account of
such grants.

The Chairman of a Research Committee must, before
the Annual Meeting next following the appointment of
the Research Committee, forward to the General Treasurer
a statement of the sums that have been received and ex-
pended, together with vouchers. The Chairman must then
either return the balance of the grant, if any, which remains
unexpended, or, if further expenditure be contemplated, apply
for leave to retain the balance.

When application is made for a Committee to be re-
appointed, and to retain the balance of a former grant, and
also to receive a further grant, the amount of such further
grant is to be estimated as being sufficient, together with
the balance proposed to be retained, to make up the amount
desired.

In making grants of money to Research Committees, the
Association does not contemplate the payment of personal
expenses to the Members.

A Research Committee, whether or not in receipt of a
grant, shall not raise money, in the name or under the auspices
of the Association, without special permission from the General
Committee.

7. Members and Committees entrusted with sums of money
for collecting specimens of any description shall include in their
Reports particulars thereof, and shall reserve the specimens
thus obtained for disposal, as the Council may direct.

Committees are required to furnish a list of any ap-
paratus which may have been purchased out of a grant made
by the Association, and to state whether the apparatus is
likely to be useful for continuing the research in question or
for other specific purposes.

All instruments, drawings, papers, and other property of
the Association, when not in actual use by a Committee, shall
be deposited at the Office of the Association.

GRANTS.
(a) Drawn by
Chairman.

(6) Expire on
June 30.

(c) Accounts,
and balance
in hand.

(d) Addi-
tional Grants.

(e) Caveat.

Disposal of
specimens,
apparatus,

ke.

XXXVill RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

CHAPTER V.
The Council.

Constitution. 1. The Council shall consist of ex officio Members and of
Ordinary Members elected annually by the General Com-
mittee.

(i) The ew officio Members are—the Trustees, past Presi-
dents of the Association, the President and Vice-
Presidents for the year, the President and Vice-
Presidents Elect, past and present General Treasurers
and General Secretaries, past Assistant General
Secretaries, and the Local Treasurers and Local
Secretaries for the ensuing Annual Meeting.

(ii) The Ordinary Members shall not exceed twenty-five in
number. Of these, not more than twenty shall have
served on the Council as Ordinary Members in the
previous year.

Functions, 2. The Council shall have authority to act, in the name and
on behalf of the Association, in all matters which do not con-
flict with the functions of the General Committee.

Tn the interval between two Annual Meetings, the Council
shall manage the affairs of the Association and may fill up
vacancies among the General and other Officers, until the next
Annual Meeting.

The Council shall hold such meetings as they may think
fit, and shall in any case meet on the first day of the Annual
Meeting, in order to complete and adopt the Annual Report,
and to consider other matters to be brought before the General
Committee.

The Council shall nominate for election by the General
Committee, at each Annual Meeting, a President and General
Officers of the Association.

Suggestions for the Presidency shall be considered by the
Council at the Meeting in February, and the names selected
shall be issued with the summonses to the Council Meeting in
March, when the nomination shall be made from the names
on the list.

The Council shall have power to appoint and dismiss
such paid officers as may be necessary to carry on the work
of the Association, on such terms as they may from time to
time determine.

THE COUNCIL, XXX1X

3. Election to the Council shall take place at the same Elections.
time as that of the Officers of the Association,

(i) At each Annual Election, the following Ordinary
Members of the Council shall be ineligible for re-
election in the ensuing year :

(a) Three of the Members who have served for the
longest consecutive period, and

(6) Two of the Members who, being resident in or near
London, have attended the least number of meet-
ings during the past year.

Nevertheless, it shall be competent for the Council, by
an unanimous vote, to reverse the proportion in the
order of retirement above set forth.

(ii) The Council shall submit to the General Committee
in their Annual Report, the names of twenty-three
Members of the Association whom they recommend for
election as Members of Council.

(iii) Two Members shall be elected by the General Com-
mittee, without nomination by the Council ; and this
election shall be at the same meeting as that at which the
election of the other Members of the Council takes place.

Any member of the General Committee may propose
another member thereof for election as one of these two
members of Council, and, if only two are so proposed,
they shall be declared elected ; but, if more than two are
so proposed, the election shall be by show of hands,
nnless five members at least require it to be by ballot.

Cuaprer VI.
The President, General Officers, and Staff.

1. The President assumes office on the first day of the The Presi-
Annual. Meeting, when he delivers a Presidential Address, ¢"t
He resigns office at the next Annual Meeting, when he
inducts his successor into the Chair.
The President shall preside at all meetings of the Associa-
tion or of its Council and Committees which he attends in his
capacity as President. In his absence, he shall be represented
by a Vice-President or past President of the Association.
2. The General Officers of the Association are the Genera] General
Treasurer and the General Secretaries. aren

The General
Treasurer.

The General
Secretaries.

The Assistant
Secretary.

Assistant
Treasurer.

Financial
Statements,

xl RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

It shall be competent for the General Officers to act, in
the name of the Association, in any matter of urgency which
cannot be brought under the consideration of the Council ;
and they shall report such action to the Council at the next
meeting.

3. The General Treasurer shall be responsible to the
General Committee and the Council for the financial affairs
of the Association.

4. The General Secretaries shall control the general
organisation and administration, and shall be responsible to
the General Committee and the Council for conducting the
correspondence and for the general routine of the work of
the Association, excepting that which relates to Finance.

5. The Assistant Secretary shall hold office during the
pleasure of the Council. Ue shall act under the direction
of the General Secretaries, and in their absence shall repre-.
sent them. He shall also act on the directions which may
be given him by the General Treasurer in that part of his
duties which relates to the finances of the Association.

The Assistant Secretary shall be charged, subject as afore-
said: (i) with the general organising and editorial work, and
with the administrative business of the Association ; (ii) with
the control and direction of the Office and of all persons
therein employed ; and (iii) with the execution of Standing
Orders or of the directions given him by the General Officers
and Council. He shall act as Secretary, and take Minutes, at
the meetings of the Council, and at all meetings of Com-
mittees of the Council, of the Committee of Recommendations,
and of the General Committee.

6. The General Treasurer may depute one of the Staff, as
Assistant Treasurer, to carry on, under his direction, the
routine work of the duties of his office.

The Assistant Treasurer shall be charged with the issue of
Membership Tickets, the payment of Grants, and such other
work as may be delegated to him.

CuaptTer VII.

Finance.

1. The General Treasurer, or Assistant Treasurer, shall
receive and acknowledge all sums of money paid to the
Association. He shall submit, at each meeting of the
Council, an interim statement of his Account; and, after

FINANCE xli

June 30 in each year, he shall prepare and submit to the
General Committee a balance-sheet of the Funds of the
Association.

2. The Accounts of the Association shall be audited,
annually, by Auditors appointed by the General Committee.

3. The General Treasurer shall make all ordinary pay-
ments authorised by the General Committee or by the
Council.

4. The General Treasurer is empowered to draw on
the account of the Association, and to invest on its behalf,
part or all of the balance standing at any time to the credit
of the Association in the books of the Bank of England,
either in Exchequer Bills or in any other temporary invest-
ment, and to change, sell, or otherwise deal with such tem-
porary investment as may seem to him desirable.

5. In the event of the General Treasurer being unable,
from illness or any other cause, to exercise the functions of
his office, the President of the Association for the time being
and one of the General Secretaries shal] be jointly empowered
to sign cheques on behalf of the Association.

Cuapter VIII.
The Annual Meetings.

1. Local Committees shall be formed to assist the General
Officers in making arrangements for the Annual Meeting, and
shall have power to add to their number.

2. The General Committee shall appoint, on the recom-

_ mendation of the Local Reception or Executive Committee for

the ensuing Annual Meeting, a Local Treasurer or Treasurers
and two or more Local Sesretation who shall rank as officers
of the Association, and shall consult with the General Officers
and the Assistant Secretary as to the local arrangements
necessary for the conduct of the meeting. The Local Diese s
shall be empowered to enrol Members and Associates, and to
receive subscriptions.

3. The Local Committees and Sub-Committees shall under-
take the local organisation, and shall have power to act in the
name of the Association in all matters pertaining to the local
arrangements for the Annual Meeting other than the work of
the Sections.

Audit,

Expenditure,

Investments,

Cheques.

Local Offi-
cers and
Committees

Functions,

THE
SECTIONS.

Sectional
Officers,

Roonis,

SECTIONAL

COMMITTEES,

Constitution,

Privilege of
Old Members.

Daily
Co-optation.

xlii RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

CuHaptTer IX.
The Work of the Sections.

1. The scientific work of the Association shall be trans-
acted under such Sections as shall be constituted from time
to time by the General Committee.

Tt shall be competent for any Section, if authorised by the
Council for the time being, to form a Sub-Section for the
purpose of dealing separately with any group of communica-
tions addressed to that Section.

2. There shall be in each Section a President, two or
more Vice-Presidents, and two or more Secretaries. They
shall be appointed by the Council, for each Annual Meet-
ing in advance, and shall act as the Officers of the Section
from the date of their appointment until the appoint-
ment of their successors in office for the ensuing Annual
Meeting,

Of the Seeretaries, one shall act as Recorder of the Section,
and one shall be resident in the locality where the Annual
Meeting is held.

3. The Section Rooms and the approaches thereto shall
not be used for any notices, exhibitions, or other purposes
than those of the Association.

4, The work of each Section shall be conducted by a
Sectional Committee, which shall consist of the following :—

(i) The Officers of the Section during their term of office.

(ii) All past Presidents of that Section.

(iii) Such other Members of the Association, present at
any Annual Meeting, as the Sectional Committee,
thus constituted, may co-opt for the period of the
meeting :

Provided always that—

(a) Any Member of the Association who has served on
the Committee of any Section in any previous year,
and who has intimated his intention of being present
at the Annual Meeting, is eligible as a member of
that Committee at their first meeting.

(b) A Sectional Committee may co-opt members, as above
set forth, at any time during the Annual Meeting,
and shall publish daily a revised list of the members.

—S

=. |” °°

THE WORK OF THE SECTIONS. xlili

(c) A Sectional Committee may, at any time during the
Annual Meeting, appoint not more than three persons
present at the meeting to be Vice-Presidents of the
Section, in addition to those previously appointed
by the Council.

5. The chief executive officers of a Section shall be the
President and the Recorder. They shall have power to act on
behalf of the Section in any matter of urgency which cannot
be brought before the consideration of the Sectional Com-
mittee ; and they shall report such action to the Sectional
Committee at its next meeting.

The President (or, in his absence, one of the Vice-Presi-
dents) shall preside at all meetings of the Sectional Committee
or of the Section. His ruling shall be absolute on all points
of order that may arise.

The Recorder shall be responsible for the punctual trans-
mission to the Assistant Secretary of the daily programme of
his Section, of the recommendations adopted by the Sectional
Committee, of the printed returns, abstracts, reports, or papers
appertaining to the proceedings of his Section at the Annual
Meeting, and for the correspondence and minutes of the
Sectional Committee.

6. The Sectional Committee shall nominate, before the
close of the Annual Meeting, not more than six of its own
members to be members of an Organising Committee, with
the officers to be subsequently appointed by the Council, and
past Presidents of the Section, from the close of the Annual
Meeting until the conclusion of its meeting on the first day of
the ensuing Annual Meeting.

Each Organising Committee shall hold such Meetings as
are deemed necessary by its President for the organisation
of the ensuing Sectional proceedings, and shall hold a meeting
on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting : to nominate
members of the Sectional Committee, to confirm the Pro-
visional Programme of the Section, and to report to the
Sectional Committee.

Each Sectional Committee shall meet daily, unless other-
wise determined, during the Annual Meeting: to co-opt
members, to complete the arrangements for the next day, and
to take into consideration any suggestion for the advance-
ment of Science that may be offered by a member, or may
arise out of the proceedings of the Section.

No paper shall be read in any Section until it has been
accepted by the Sectional Committee and entered as accepted
on its Minutes.

Additional
Vice-Presi-
dents.

EXECUTIVE
FUNCTIONS

Of President.

And of
Recorder,

Organising
Committee.

Sectional
Committee.

Papers and
Reports.

Recommen-
dations.

Publication.

Copyright,

xliv RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Any report or paper read in any one Section may be read
also in any other Section.

No paper or abstract of a paper shall be printed in the
Annual Report of the Association unless the manuscript has
been received by the Recorder of the Section before the close
of the Annual Meeting.

It shall be within the competence of the Sectional Com-
mittee to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Annual Meetings, as published in the Annual Reports of the
Association, and the communications made to the Section at
its current meetings, for the purpose of selecting definite
objects of research, in the promotion of which individual or
concerted action may be usefully employed ; and, further, to
take into consideration those branches or aspects of knowledge
on the state and progress of which reports are required: to
make recommendations and nominate individuals or Research
Committees to whom the preparation of such reports, or the task
of research, may be entrusted, discriminating as to whether,
and in what respects, these objects may be usefully advanced
by the appropriation of money from the funds of the Associa-
tion, whether by reference to local authorities, public institu-
tions, or Departments of His Majesty’s Government. The
appointment of such Research Committees shall be made in
accordance with the provisions of Chapter IV.

No proposal arising out of the proceedings of any Section
shall be referred to the Committee of Recommendations unless
it shall have received the sanction of the Sectional Com-
mittee,

7. Papers ordered to be printed in extenso shall not be
included in the Annual Report, if published elsewhere prior
to the issue of the Annual Report in volume form. Reports
of Research Committees shall not be published elsewhere
than in the Annual Report without the express sanction of
the Council.

8. The copyright of papers ordered by the General Com-
mittee to be printed in extenso in the Annual Report shall
be vested in the authors; and the copyright of the reports
of Research Committees appointed by the General Committee
shall be vested in the Association,

ADMISSION OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES, xlv

CHAPTER X.
Admission of Members and Associates.

1. No technical qualification shall be required on the
part of an applicant for admission as a Member or as an
Associate of the British Association; but the Council is
empowered, in the event of special circumstances arising, to
impose suitable conditions and restrictions in this respect.

* Every person admitted as a Member or an Associate
shall conform to the Rules and Regulations of the Association,
any infringement of which on his part may render him liable
to exclusion by the Council, who have also authority, if they
think it necessary, to withhold from any person the privilege
of attending any Annual Meeting or to cancel a ticket of
admission already issued.

It shall be competent for the General Officers to act, in
the name of the Council, on any occasion of urgency which
cannot be brought under the consideration of the Council ;
and they shall report such action to the Council at the next
Meeting.

2. All Members are eligible to any office in the Association.

(i) Every Life Member shall pay, on admission, the sum
of Ten Pounds.

Life Members shall receive gratis the Annual
Reports of the Association.

(ii) Every Annual Member shall pay, on admission, the
sum of Two Pounds, and in any subsequent year
the sum of One Pound.

Annual Members shall receive gratis the Report
of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay,
without intermission, their annual subscription. An
Annual Member who omits to subscribe for any
particular year shall lose for that and all future
years the privilege of receiving the Annual Reports
of the Association gratis. He, however, may resume
his other privileges as a Member at any subsequent
Annual Meeting by paying om each such occasion
the sum of One Pound.

(iii) Every Associate for a year shall pay, on admission,
the sum of One Pound.

* Amended by the General Committee at Dublin, 1908.

Applications,

Obligations,

Conditions
and Privileges
of Member-
ship.

Correspond-
ing Members

Annual Sub-
scriptions,

The Annual
Report.

AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES.

ASSOCIATED
SOCIETIES.

xlvi RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Associates shall not receive the Annual Report
gratuitously. They shall not be eligible to serve on
any Committee, nor be qualified to hold any office in
the Association.

(iv) Ladies may become Members or Associates on the
same terms as gentlemen, or can obtain a Lady’s
Ticket (transferable to ladies only) on the payment *
of One Pound.

3. Corresponding Members may be appointed by the
General Committee, on the nomination of the Council. They
shall be entitled to all the privileges of Membership.

4, Subscriptions are payable at or before the Annual
Meeting. Annual Members not attending the meeting may
make payment at any time before the close of the financial
oe on June 30 of the following year.

. The Annual Report of the Association shall be forwarded

gr “is to individuals and institutions entitled to receive it.

Annual Members whose subscriptions, have. been inter-
mitted shall be entitled to purchase the Annual Report
at two-thirds of the publication price ; and Associates for a
year shall be entitled to purchase, at the’’same price, the
volume for that year.

Volumes not claimed within two years of the date’ of
publication can only be issued by direction of the Council.

Cuarter XI.
Corresponding Societies: Conference of Delegates.
Corresponding Societies are constituted as follows :

1. (i) Any Society which undertakes local scientific inves-
tigation and publishes the results may become a
Society affiliated to the British Association.

Each Affiliated Society may appoint a Delegate,
who must be or become ja Member of the Associa-
tion and must attend the meetings of the Conference
of Delegates. He shall be ex officio a Member of
the General Committee.

(ii) Any Society formed for the purpose of encouraging
the study of Science, which has existed for three
years and numbers not fewer than fifty members,
may become a Society associated with the British
Association.

—— a

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES : CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES, xlvii

Each Associated Society shall have the right
to appoint a Delegate to attend the Annual Con-
ference. Such Delegates must be or become either
Members or Associates of the British Association,
and shall have all the rights of Delegates appointed
by the Affiliated Societies, except that of member-
ship of the General Committee.

2. Application may be made by any Society to be placed
on the list of Corresponding Societies. Such application must
be addressed to the Assistant Secretary on or before the Ist of
June preceding the Annual Meeting at which it is intended
it should be considered, and must, in the case of Societies
desiring to be affiliated, be accompanied by specimens of the
publications of the results of local scientific investigations
recently undertaken by the Society.

3. A Corresponding Societies Committee shall be an-
nually nominated by the Council and appointed hy the
General Committee, for the purpose of keeping themselves
generally informed of the work of the Corresponding Socie-
ties and of superintending the preparation of a list of the
papers published by the Affiliated Societies. This Com-
mittee shall make an Annual Report to the Council, and
shall suggest such additions or changes in the list of Corre-
sponding Societies as they may consider desirable.

(i) Each Corresponding Society shall forward every year
to the Assistant Secretary of the Association, on or
before June 1, such particulars in regard to the
Society as may be required for the information of
the Corresponding Societies Committee.

(ii) There shall be inserted in the Annual Report of the
Association a list of the papers published by the
Corresponding Societies during the preceding
twelve months which contain the results of local
scientific work conducted by them—those papers
only being included which refer to subjects coming
under the cognisance of one or other of the several
Sections of the Association.

4, The Delegates of Corresponding Societies shall consti-
tute a Conference, of which the Chairman, Vice-Chairman,
and Secretary or Secretaries shall be nominated annually by
the Council and appointed by the General Committee. The
members of the Corresponding Societies Committee shall be
ex officio members of the Conference.

(i) The Conference of Delegates shall be summoned by
the Secretaries to hold one or more meetings during

Applications,

CORRE=
SPONDING
SOCIETIES
COMMITTEES.

Procedure.

CONFERENCE
OF DELE-
GATES.

Procedure and
Functions,

Alterations,

xlviii RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

each Annual Meeting of the Association, and
shall be empowered to invite any Member or
Associate to take part in the discussions.

(ii) The Conference of Delegates shall be empowered to
submit Resolutions to the Committee of Recom-
mendations for their consideration, and for report
to the General Commititec.

(iii) The Sectional Committees of the Association shall be
requested to transmit to the Secretaries of the
Conference of Delegates copies of any recommenda-
tions to be made to the General Committee bearing
on matters in which the co-operation of Corre-
sponding Societies is desirable. It shall be com-
petent for the Secretaries of the Conference of
Delegates to invite the authors of such recom-
mendations to attend the meetings of the Conference
in order to give verbal explanations of their objects
and of the precise way in which they desire these
to be carried into effect.

(iv) It shall be the duty of the Delegates to make
themselves familiar with the purport of the several
recommendations brought before the Conference, in
order that they may be able to bring such recom-
mendations adequately before their respective
Societies.

(v) The Conference may also discuss propositions
regarding the promotion of more systematic ob-
servation and plans of operation, and of greater

; uniformity in the method of publishing results.

Cuaprer XII,

Amendments and New Rules.

Any alterations in the Rules, and any amendments
or new Rules that may be proposed by the Council or
individual Members, shall be notified to the General Com-
mittee on the first day of the Annual Meeting, and referred
forthwith to the Committee of Recommendations ; and, on the
report of that Committee, shall be submitted for approval at
the last meeting of the General Committee.

PLACES AND DATES OF PAST MEETINGS, &C.

See HEP e eee ee ee ee ee eeeeeeee aUBlIEIOV [edyourrg “soy AIA OTL,
Sia “bsq ‘a1109 ujor ‘a'q ‘WosaIqoy “YL “AeY ea,
soeeereoesrqnoulpled jo [1vq eu ‘uojduleyy1ON JO sinbivy_ ayy,

“bs ‘191SO 9491107

‘sa “bsy ‘uosspoy ydesor
‘aw “bsg ‘aoystyeig uopsog
‘SW “bag Texeg e51005

} “6281 ‘9g qsndny ‘AVHONINUIE
"sr VW" “ Heme eee eee rr ew eeseesseressseeseeese Ce ‘
SW “WW ‘aoysuyor 1ossajorg CUSRaCE “bsg ‘Aqqeg uyor “uo “geet ‘og IsnSny “ANKJ-NO-WIISVOMEN

07 “SU “VW ‘LUMOOUVH NONUHA “A “ATW OL

Q

"SH “bsq *u0jqn AL “UM PRP eee ee etree sees eeeeeeetes ‘OR Sova ir ‘ qinoo1e x UOL1d A *M AY ouL " : aed
comp “gray “bag ‘MOSMIEPY UGOp | cerreeseceeeeeeteerereeoeenes ewrgng Couarer ErEyaNC 40 GOMsie obey | OF SOU “SU GNVIUANOHLYON 40 HAOd OWL

*joodzaary ‘aoryn}
-Tysuy [voy ‘serg “bsq ‘19xTB AA “N Wdesor
*bsq ‘alting eoR][e AA “UA
‘GH 'W ‘tery, 1osseyorg

“LEST ‘TT taqmiaydag “100duHATT
ee ira * uopuoryT jo AGZIsIOAIU ayy jo I0T[90

-ueyp “S'D'd “S'U'd ‘NOLONITUOG JO THVA aL

See eee a eee ee ae Sere Me MOU Nee aoe
ee eee eee eter eee eee ee “g'b'ar ‘ ‘sr S ‘qeg ‘uoytesg Aery ep dirad 41S
‘Sw TO’ “bsg ‘aoe uyor “sD “S"1'd ‘Wolzon Jo doystg ay.

‘ovary ‘arvaq Aon "CM “AIT *9e9T ‘2% ysnsNy “IoLsIug

‘bsg ‘uapusaoy “a “A Ow }
BO CORR N "SU ‘uojdmeqqs0N jo smbavyy oy) “Sd “TO'd “ANAOGSNVI JO SINOUVN ULL

' ’ ‘SW “ae “bsg ‘preqoud ‘0 *L
‘on “S'U'd “a'W ‘Aueqneq aosseyorg J ****

“om ‘puslery

“SAT Wi DAOYT AORPOTOLT "AGI )) izive scab cemciesteeeeasle see's an'seic
Jo [wkoy ‘uosy ‘MOTWeH "YH “AM IIS

nthe Terence snes res ess 2Om SSW TOMO "AL nay
Wiebe a eee eee aa eeu eeeeereeseencuuearer QTE UMOJUBLIXG FUNOSIA feet eter eeeseeeres cer CEOTT LSOAOUd ‘ANY OL

"ars" 00g “Tosmour uyOP 113} beeen eee ee deceeeeeeeseeneneeee esse eeeees sry SLOSUIGON “MY ‘T Ea | FES A hamasny Reger sen re 8

. bempeoaye dr Saenz & CORPO Re eRe HHH EH EH OH EEE EH EE EEE EEE EES, Secueapeg ©
oR OS Wl “SW ‘Sodio osseyorg OF SU ASM PBC US (orog “gow ‘ANVASIUG TIVOQOGOVN ‘L UIs

SD WOR ODEICOIADIGUR OBC Aa.) ve Loy Iowm0U01sy Sonny “bsq ‘£ty ‘aps spa’ al Sora Wh ‘YOIMDCHS WVGV ‘ANU UL

"ony? ‘ . .
SW TOMO “M a} do oe eve slsinas sislecivecesenves nsise seas ‘sr “POra “Ese, “wouter aor} ‘geet ‘og oun ‘aoaIuaKvo
“sla” “WW ‘MolsueH Jossejorg *Aoy

“op “Sad “VW ‘TeAog 1ossayorg “aoe | Peer ee ee ee er eeeeeeeeeseees "08 ‘T0939 "sold Secunge “TPMT AA “Mm “aout *ZESL 6L aune fauorxO
‘ON “ard “CW Auaqneg lossajorg Ce ee rere ese serseseeseseee ‘OR COS WL Sorry ‘JoysMolg PIAxc ars J ‘ow Soma Sony “ad ‘aNVINONA “M “ADU PUL

SOAS WT “VW “SATU TOSSOJOTT | oe sccccevecccaccccecce scenes beqeaye g bays cs "LEI ‘1% taquiaydeg ‘uuOX
soy “beg “unt ser Seadoo SOU “SU “VW “anooreH WouIE A *M “AST { nom “gpd “sad “TO ‘NOLIN INQOOSIA

"S3lYVLASYOSS 1V9071 “SLN3SOGISSYd—35IA "SLNAGISSad

‘uounpunogT s7v UWLOLL ‘sarunjalaagY JDIOT pUD ‘BzUWAprISALJ-9004
‘equapwag yn ‘uounwossy ysywg ay fo buraopr fo sang pup soonjpq ay2 Suranvys 39D],

1908-

——= CULO eee le

PLACES AND DATES OF PAST MEETINGS.

“Sad “O' ‘aysurtuysoM Jo Uva aug “AoY AI0A ONT, ‘PIOJXO “LIST ‘ez aunp ‘av0rxo

* & ‘ .
Cee ee ene poco te oe | 30 ASTOATUA OM TOF “CIN TOC “bse “GMOS [waXME “A SUMOGT fetter et+t8++ +++“ pLOIY JOAIBIOALUD US 2OF ‘aw

"SW CV ‘10X18 DESO aie ieista de relafeleicia'sie'cicnivuiteie's se cre
SW VN OAM Poqoy “Avy AYISIOAIU 049 JO LOT[aOUVGD-a0rA au) “Swad “TOC “tG ‘SITDNI AWUVH LYAdOU IS

nee “WW ‘Tosog Jorg ‘aay oy, = “sud “aw ‘Auaqneq ee
seeres “sear “ployxO Jo doysig ploy eq “S'u'd ‘essoy Jo [Iq oN,

"SW TeMog Tosseyorg *Aoy on, ‘SW “CW “waaio Aossojorg
eee ee ee ee ‘SW ‘plojxO jo doystg p10'_y aq
‘SU “TOG “a'W “Weg ‘uoyUNEAg “J a51005 rg “SES “OL 29qQutoidag ‘NOTANYAEIOS

Tiiibrreressspssrsssssssss*5 “QW ‘arAgjoT Megs soteyy ‘woH 4q StH [ StU “S'4S'0'D ‘NOSIHOWAN APANI MOIMACOU UIS
Tettstess sayy uoqsiomed JtmMoostA = "TO" ‘UOLINQUSY p10T

se eeeeryg “YysnoOGIvz JO [AVY ULL, *ToysayourA, JO siubieyy ay,

“bsg ‘Apoow *0 *H “LL ee ee ees
"GW “beg ‘yre[9 Arua

SI “WW ‘paqsuy Tosseyjor gy ed “SUA “Tord Wh “Ds Diving ‘g 3) *CPRQT LF i eune ‘TpanIAan YO

‘Sa “Wn “bsg ‘sarydoy urea, ) setts ttt ttt qe ‘aysury “p *Aey ‘ad ‘meyer “¢ ace | seston “Sr “Wed ‘THHOSUSH ‘Aa NHOC WIS
seeeeeeececeeess TOUMON Jo doysig onL, ‘asOIMprvy Jo [AVG oy,
, “bsg “qsoQ\ TEI SPOOR EERE EEE OEE “SU “qmoorv yA “A * AA “ACY
SW "a'r ‘£qsaioog “M "ANT Se ice Vana RGR od de eT “mrord “Dsq ‘Kepvrv iy jevqory “PFST "92 qaquraydag *MuOX ‘
‘ST “bsg “Teuseyy svu0yy, | “Sa “CHM “TOIsMorg plavad Ug “AW ‘ATOM qrengg ayor uop omy, [ **8* gy “(ATq Jo uvaq) ‘G'a “MOODVHd “D “ABW aL
‘S'O'a “bsw “preyqey wre ) tet stp Sygedsopy yuNOOSTA SW Urey az [eg é

“Dag ‘xealO “UAL

“bsg “AeyaTey, UEITTE AL

“BIIQU ‘OL WT “Wosreg ‘sor *Aay
“WW ‘41124099 UyoOLr Iossoyorg

“SPST ‘LT ysusny xu0D

Fee ee ener eees everenr cor T MOITTIUIVET “IT * A or
Wile cL MOS TULG ET SEs cA OLS | fo alareinlsin/e a alelein wal stalaiaiareicieieia ‘SW ‘ASSOU AO TUVH uz

*orupy yUNOOSTA. “PMO! JO [eq IGT,

ee en en a i

“Sd “bsq ‘pooaAoy somer
Teme “Dsop ‘Suri, yt “AL
‘SV Wa “bsg ‘erv[p 030g

Pe ee or ee eeseee ee aadnes abate Maat cos Naame hf 9 ‘poom fap, urmelueg a1g
eee ‘Ss wal “CN “Ds ‘1a AL ie) “A "SU aa Ni “YOLMS pag ‘v "AO
‘OR STA Qeqiay “MACY puv uo "sya T'O'a “bsg ‘uoqeg uyor

"GFST “eg OUNL “UTISTHONVIV
seececvsocerer SOW ‘NOLUGDE SIONVUE GUOT 4L

ae ee ‘SUT “Wh *JOLMSpeg rossayorg “ADIT auL

OO ee ir i ‘aa ‘mosuTqory "37 “a

‘bsg “unt ‘20;Aey, prvyony

“bsg ‘XO ota AA QtOqox | ..

‘S'Td ‘qgrag woqture vp . ais siovels/ereib sisisiiciucele's
‘S'W'a “bsq ‘siuiey Moug * A,

eee ee ee ee eee "7718 ‘puto . . I
ARAN Ra ee Rane ie aS cs ne *IPST ‘6% Aine SHLAOWATT

sess eer Gort pAO'T “Sopsoyy Jo eq eys,) OW “SUA “VIAMAHA\ HOSSaAOUd “ATT ML

. ‘
ican Men "+++ aquino3pq-quMoyy Jo [IVT oy, "Sd “qaeg ‘oueqstg “TT “JIS } “NFST ‘LT taqmoqdag ‘Moosv1p
“bsq ‘Teppry #orpay ) SW “Wasa prawd ng "W'S" ‘Yoomeery proy pexouop-soluyy | tees gy ‘ANV@IVAVEUE JO SIAOUVIC OTL

*SalYVLSYORS 1VO0O1 "SLN3GISSYd=30I1A SIN5G'saud

li

PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES,

W'S Wa “bs ‘Tesse'T wernt

; “espliqurep fa50][09 Aquat, “pegT ‘On xoqui0} dog “rocanmAry
JO Josey "SD WIWH “WOH ‘S'ud * CC “TOMOT A LOSsajo.rT CASHIN saree ale wie aittele ee nuceeates ; ,
Tereteeneeretesees toed PST “SW “CTT “CW "U9AO 10882j01g SU ‘ACMOWUVEH: JO. TUVA ML oO
sreeress coon OOM “ae “jeg ‘uoqsesgq Sor) sudivyy op dytyd us
ee ‘SVU bis i “ht *S9[SOFJOL AL pao] oul

‘a'w ‘ bsq ‘uvmuy semoyq rt
‘SU “AW “bsg ‘aosuryorq ydesor

fee sieiainl eS aTe RMU O STATS} bwroe 7 “osm ‘soqek syoorg ydoxey

VOC eere eee eee eee eee ee er)

er | “onTy ‘sayAg *TOO~qnevy
tees Ayatoog TIT PUL “IT [MH ot} JO “serg “W's “bse “sory sajreyp
“omy WI Womspeg Jorg aay = ‘SU Tp’ ‘Avpeaey rossojoig
stress sored “YSNOLOGsapuoy] PLOT "SW ‘a[stavg Jo prey oy

“gsuy

SOUL [IN *serg “bsg ‘sqoovr jeqjeq
*AqaTOOY "TY

WIM DA OW “bsg ‘tedoop Arua

TD ‘auoqsivoyy AA TOssajorgy
tf “Daw ‘soueds TBE

oi

"egy *) caqmez dog “TIA
Se a a ee ad + £ga1009 “Td “Quwup ‘serg
“spd “sud'a “WRN “bsa ‘SNINGOH WVITTIM

Levee eesenedesnenee egeponreg urerier “Bory “CC TOSUIGQOU HT “I. “AGH bs
“EGR ‘1 taqmaqdog ‘asvatat
TTRe Pee eee eee eee eee ee ee * AQ91003 Tesory 949 }0 ‘TA
Ry svar, ‘AwyyIV eLoy ‘ANIGVS GUVMGT IANOTIOO

“UOSTILMA “d “MA TOSsejorg
WN “bsg “895,10 WeLTEAL
“Dsgy “WeTTV “ “Lf “AN

eee eee eee qsevypod ‘asaT[0D 3,uvant) ‘sold “ad ‘£109 FT Sg ai “AT
seseecseresecsrelsnsveseoeeress ewer “GC ‘SHOUTH DIBADG “AO
cee ee ee eee ee eee ae ee ara Oke nee Se CTT ‘aqoog Bl oq *y Aruay Ig
wit St Aoehtet ‘assoyy JO [IBY OUT

Seem ee ee ee ee ee ewer ewer eeseseee es

sereeesee Crrry ‘AT[AAOIS LOSsaJOIg “S'W'd “sayxoys "9 “D a)

Si

pile
Wa “LO'd ‘woppystaug Jo [weg oy,

“Bag ‘Teppra anmpay e8x00H } MPA 'UOIIPPUE “A A WPAN TS SU 9ave “nealtoe “A WUOL AIS
“bsg ‘surg watt be
‘SV'U'a “bsg ‘Avy sopreyp

“test ‘2 Aine “HOLMSayT
sreecectscccrsiers zt” clinenac hegre saneessiMeaamnOn
“osy “SW “TO'd “bs ‘AUIV TIHaGdla TOI

V'W ‘Mojsuay 1ossejorg *Aoyy
SP eee eee ee ew eee eee ee ee eee Oe acsengsiy ‘WH ‘SJOIMSpay Tossejord “oy
tte e**-TOIMION JO doysig paoy oy.L ‘AIT “Wvysoppuey Pi0'T on.

‘Tswa'A “as ROBT icts Akos Bey Oe “ysIUqUIpA JO

APISIOATU YY) 004 Jo pedrung “q's'y'd’ A “qq ‘aay uyor ‘aay A109 A OY, "OesT ‘Tz Aline ‘HDUnENIGG

Dea i s" WU “solg Gis ATs ci ry: fey a “qieg ‘ ouvqsiig ‘WW seuloyy, ag [earauey) weet eee eee eee As olerais e's) o/sisel seu STAN OTOL aS “premoo'yT
seeeeees sos ‘(Telouey-a01qsup prlorT) ohog pravd “woH 4usiy ouL, \ 49 PUB IO4TATBS °49 JO 9FaT10H poz 949 JO [ediourtg

“a'S'W “bsg ‘por, sour

*ryT ic ise nt “CW ‘mojeg IOssoJorg
“ees ‘WS Wa

‘SWaA VW ‘puryjoy tossayorg “sory

steteereececceevecses seg gre 008 “O'all B2qI0T "df OssajoIg _

ee ‘Sw “Toa Tes) ‘£19Q9803T yo peGuC A ouL
‘HSU “A' OM “4re0N9eO Jo [req ou
te eeeeecencceeceveeses UZINGUIpH JO ISOAOIg PAO'T 2y} “NOH ISH out

“TSU SW “ATT “AW: ‘UALSMAUE GIAVC UIS-

Ta “bso ‘gumosuey 981005 ; ee "bsg ‘ UIO4SOA\ "a a, "rw “Dsi *ploqqon 7a)

“beg ‘sounyg sourep (‘SW VWCSHTA “Jord “Ae "SW OTT AM “toysaiorg, pravd Is

‘CH “bsg ‘1oqO}OL.T Teg ( oe re ee ed ee ie “Su rod ‘kBpereyT IOSsajolg “GFRT “ar joquieydec ‘WV RONIWUI
I o ste teeserereseres conn pag Soar “WT “bsy ‘UIMaBg seleyy, are eyes sere ongiey °
er ee arent | seeeeeeeee scvarer Opn MTN “HUE poor jeqoy Ag ‘woH WsTYy ony | SVC “VIWW “d'C “NOSNIGOU “HL “ATU ONL
. DOGO) Si 2G SISTED Koysoqj0LM\ PlO'L aL *£QMOLTIB A, Jo [Bq OUL

mote gl nea

“Sura “bsg ‘aaory “WAL “SW “bsg ‘udaqid *A\ SEAorT “S¥SI ‘G IsNSNY ‘VASNYMS

SoCo nee ence Ronni: of g ‘qepuvyyt yo uBaq Oyj “Ady AIOA OU. Cece ce ee rece ee ee es cesar eececconees, ‘amp ‘Aga100g [eso
Sev eececcesseceenerercegy ‘sold “S'U'a “Ooeg VL OM WL “H AIS 94} JO JuOpIserd ‘NOLANVHLUON a GO SIODUVNN UL.

ttre teeeeeesenrcure gy QIBpy JUNOOSTA “LN ‘eng jo smmbivyy on,L

— se == © - _ s ™ = ail

‘ah “bsg ‘Toorn *
“beg ‘espisZ0yy Moyqyeyy

S,plavq "49 Jo doysig pro'y on. ‘Sad “dW “bsg “UBTATA “Hf

PLACES AND DATES OF PAST MEETINGS.

li

‘S'T'd “an “bsg ‘uoqsetjoy 05.1005

‘SOU “A'S ‘TOON “Lf Iosseyorg

eee eee eee Be . “SOW Bia tls at § “OWT “aig “Ch ‘kueqneq IOSSajoIg
~e ? 2 “*** proFxO “Yomnyo ysiayO Jo uvad “CC ‘TePPII “DH *H “Aey AIO A ONL
*s'0 rf Cv “bsg Taw 93.1005) eee eee eee eee ee eee ee ed ‘Sud “q'q ‘pl0jxo jo doysig pi0'_. ouL
'S'O'd “WW “bsq ‘a9}aIS *s "f *H “sow wd “Sad “VW “de ‘assoy Jo [req on

pieje'S nie piajeip.65,0/©,sia/siuin'b) 9 Wiainiele ein pis'* Wleels\e'em oloiy nies sie [as py sree Ce Scekerii et

, *O98T ‘Lz oUNL ‘ax0IxXO
“SVU “SUA “VW ‘APISALLOUM AHOT 24H.

=plofxOQ Jo JUVUIINAYT PIOT “S'H'a “'T'O'C ‘WSnosqire JO ONG OUT
PLOFXO JO Aqis19aTUy oY9 JO AO[TeoURGD-201A ““T'O'C ‘ouMeL “yf *AoY OU,
PAOFXO JO “ALUN 944 JO AOTJooUBYO ““"T'O'd “"O'd “HH ‘Aquod Jo [reg OL

= yo Ayun09 2y3 Jo TeUeAUOD “S'H “a'TT *bsq ‘uosm0yy, *

| ‘SVU S Wa “VW ‘UpUodiossojorg ‘S'U"d “A W‘puvpoy =

Wee ce ccee se eeeeseecessssses aa

T°

ad “WW ‘4n001eH “A “AM “ACY ONL
41S'0'D “aostyoanyy *] YOMlepoy Ig
BE 0}
W‘

iy

“bsg ‘ou “a Uyor

d=
‘sr as ak °° a‘
“WW ‘I91[Nq Iosseyorg .

"E98 ‘PT 1oqmieydog ‘nagauary
*“LHOSNOO HONIYd AHL SSHNHDIH 'IVAOU SIH

eo re

be

co ccceneeceveeceneese tees egurr “Cd ‘MOsUIqoY "If “ZL ‘ACY OU
A

a

‘Ss’
So iy a‘ ‘HX ‘TeysMoIg plavq Jig
AWW eg ‘PqoseH “AA “A UYOL aS
weapreqy Jo A410 a} JO SOAOIA PLOT OUT,
“sad “LH ‘ Sits Tolga tal ‘uoepreqy JO [Tey ONL
a‘

Di
theese ee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeceeerssuesecuarer Gunes pUOMIGOY JO ONC OL,

treteeerseseeseses sgt gt Sa°T oT O'd “beg ‘Saul UoFTOUOTH "Z\
Tete eeeeeeeeeeeeee eounig 6 vi! “Desay ua

Mone Ue ee ap ae aeons ** espraqurep “es0T100, AQIUITT, JO 1o\seypy
“sv ° ‘spd £ Vr AO ‘Sw “ad ‘TeMeTM *M ‘AC OTL
‘Sw ne "qaeg ‘uoy1esq Aory sedjeyy op diyg mg

"S81 2% Joqtmyyang ‘Samay
Creseereeeseeesoteey STIMOSHN USM 9m JO S919
-yredeq A109STH TREN. an4 jo guopuojzurzodng * "SOU
‘oTa “swaa “TO'd “GW “bsq ‘NHAO CUVHOIY-

“V'W “*bsy ‘uos]IM seu0T Ty,
‘S'O'u “bsg ‘paw soxdg
“V'd ‘SHOuTH semoyT ‘acy

aA WW ‘souled °L “W “UO 4USIe OUL
“spa “a WW ‘Wortepopy yunoostA PIOT ONL

SHO ORO ee ee ee eee eee sees eeeeesseees eee eee

*S'u'a ‘e[sveq uo] pro'y on,

SE SO S@s' ad SV Tae Sar “bsg ‘aw preqory
miuieia ayes eoeee "s" Wa “a" gis "ay ‘MoOo1eT [2UOTOD-"4nerT
pureed] yo Tefoxy 1emt0u0148y ‘ ‘Ss’ VuUd "art “os Tore “YW UIT IIS

seo eeeees Cee eee eeeeees

*a'TT “bsg “yooouey wospieN *M
"COL “F911 r Tosseyorg “sey
*bsq ‘03004 "g ApunyT

“1G8T ‘9g NOY ‘NTIANg
Ba sjarara,nisseTazsic icine elaleteamawislesetete VITLA “TSW
“sma “Tod “aa ‘AXOTI ATUHAWOH “ATU UL,

"Ts" unqna ‘more JOrYO ploy OUT,

tteteeeeeeeceeeeees niruory JO LOT[eoUvyD PIO'T ayL,
**“Opryeleyy ep 4oq eT, P10'T ‘alep[IM Jo smnbieyy ouL
urqng ‘adeT[0p Ayrat41y, Jo ysoaorg oyT,
trtseseeeeeeeesees unang jososeyy ploy 04} “UO 4USTY eq,
“bsg ‘Tasny sem gor “VW “es019 STOUBLT “ANY on “Ds “Toye pAor'T YorMIeg seumoyT,
"S'd'd “bsg ‘ysturveg preyory
“V'u ‘uosurqoy “4dup

*gagT ‘9 ysndny ‘WVHNALIGHO
ee" e*nJOJXO JO AqIsIaAIU) eY9 UI AUBIOg Jo 1Osseyorg
“saad “G11 “aw “bsa ‘ANAGNVG ‘d “D) SATUVHO

isa a “TO'd “s'3s'0'H “Wostgomnyy *] YoMepoy IS

eineisi¢is 1o3slig pur 1oyseon0T;9 yo doystg poy oq,

{ ‘SY “SU “efong jo eq on
|: POSTE eon nage ag dF og ‘dosmm0T J, WITT 1ossejorg

asresvee.? “9Ury Tekoy 044 Jo Josey “Sy “VW “bsq ‘weyery semoyy,
o's “bsg “unig 19ye “Sad "Sad “bse “ugrmg sour

*bsq ‘ormoxy urenytM
"A'W ‘wosiepuy semoy 7, 10ssejorg
‘a'TT “bsg ‘duvy4g ugor

*eggT ‘eT toqmaydeg ‘MODSVIp
ewe ee ee eas CS [= ls ae g ta £4 Ie 6 ‘TeAT sopleyqo ag seer eeeeer eons "SO aris Gn: & ‘TTADUV 10 aTy0aa ouLL
POOP OES P ee ee eter ee ee eee ee ee eeeEee OSU “qed ‘oulprer WNIT TIg

se eeeeereceveeereceveveseecoscre ‘OUBpIBjOV [Bdloulig *Aoy A19A OTL P

saluvlayoas WV907 "SLNSGISSYd-3OIA "SLNZ2O0IS3Sud

zere

hia

PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES.

eens eeetee RI Te W ‘SUBATT sorIeqo *AONT ond *bsq ‘sousyp Ny, a
ie did ae ise bh “Dag “12180 "ad "dW “DSA ‘plepeoyos we
sreeeseess sony ‘AateppV “A ‘0 ‘UOH 945ry OL
os 10480010 M yo doystg ploy 049 “ANY IWS OUT,
aaa At: AC gs Wa “TO'a “VW ‘A01s09901M PLOT “WOH 94ST ONL
tp dapat MA JO JUBUSYNATT-prO'T ‘u09[9994T pIO'T ‘UH IUSIY OTT,
BECO. SETH Sa[ DENY A jo JUvUEINaTT-p1OT ‘YSIeT ploy ‘MOH IYSy oy,
eee e eee twee ee ee eee eee eee en wees Aatpudy jo eq oy ‘u0H qs au
aIYSpIOyeyY JO yUBUSMeLyT-pIOT ‘plEpyory JO [VY 944 “UOH IUSIY ONL

*aggt ‘9 eqmiaydeg ‘KVHONINUIC
**** DIO}XO Jo APISIOAIU) 99 UT £3009) Jo 1ossajolg

‘bag ‘urepequieyD hae uyor
“Sor “Sud “ATT “VW “bsq ‘gdITIHd NHOL

“yw ‘hog “d “1 ‘AO OTL
‘Sul “VW “bsg “unt ‘smeqqeyy ale

page OR: CVS “S'O'd “Sa “dW “bsg “OFnL "A
seeesess Ue JO UOOvVaPyOIY 949 e[qvroueA OTT,
visiwnaranwe eanwowe weave tet necator <r nme SHEE ERE et
SnaonseW ee'Prnwei valu rsnoedtisdrwatar rete Tie RTE anh ee MERTEN
Se ** MOSTON [1eq ‘WOH IUSIY ou,
Pee Pee uyea fo SMb1By_ 09 OIAON SOW ONL
wisccu atare’ areilatd aaiote Hatolelnals ajeca aN oljuiols sacieleeie velete areata «+ aaTqs9e8

-INM10g JOIUBUINAT'T-ps0T ‘AIBLIO pUB YIOH Jo [Teq oy} “UOH Fysty OU

“VW ‘POOmUI “HH *A0Y ONL
“bsg ‘StABC "Hl *O
"SO “beg ‘ar00W *O

"POST ‘PL reqmeydeg “Hive
monary “TOE “WW “Wed ‘IIGAT SHTUVHO UIS

See eee meme ene wees ee eranesesee ‘SV Ca "C'g ‘AoNTeAoyO e[dwoy, *aey
Rede meee eee e teers eres eeeeseeeee Sein ry sreoulsu
SUIUTY JO o9NqIWsUy UAEyIION 949 JO JuUOpIsorgT ee ‘bsg pooM sBlOyoOIN,
eee ee ee ewe ee ee eeeeee aTISBOMEN JO tox “*bsyq ‘ Te UBITJAO'T OBEST
Bee eee OP Ree ne BBA TBO LOU EE 2 UsUIITET § *bsq * LOTABI, qsny
eee e eee ee wesw er ones ‘yOu “SH ‘ ‘"To'd § ‘a'1T ‘TaA'T Sapte O IIs
Seem eres weer nearer erases eser eee Wht‘ “qaeq ‘avAqoAery, ‘0 10918@M IIS

*bsq ‘ureyqdv[o *O “11
*bsq ‘quny *H snqysnsny
“bsg ‘eIq0N *V

"E98T ‘9 4SUSNY ‘HXAT,-NO-WILSVOMAN
eee eee rene StL On 6 “Ott uy: ale) ‘ONOULSNUV “mM uis

PTeTRERERURER ERE "S'D'd “S"t'd “sq ‘stopuvs “WM
ig erased) #5 “TOsUPIIC "H stouely ‘rw “bsg ‘Ae AA “T

=< “sa ‘ "aT “beg WITeQITe,.T TST M,

= 7 : ee Oe meee re ee eee eeeee ee ee "SU "009 “*'T'O* fowl ‘Sax019 9) *4) LOssejolg

WwW ‘BIBLIO T WN ‘Ay ogy |e pesoy zommouoysy “sa ‘ "TO'd “V" pi “bsg ‘Airy “a "9 *ZORT ‘T 100900 ‘HNaTUANVO

Vn BULBATT “Cf *H Iossejorg Seer ee ‘Sw ‘VW ‘sqreqo "praayoun|*"t*' Comer eee seer reese aresseeeee asplaquivy jo £418
‘S'la Se heime snvinie ties resect aldol wit “NOM Spas Tossajorg "AeY Oy, { -19ATUQ ety ur Kydosotyd Tequemedxg pus YerinyeN jo

esprqurey ‘ 2891109 Aqrurqy, JO Joqse yn ‘Sr TOC ‘Tomo MAA AO OWL | TOssajorg weruosyour “Sad “VN ‘SITILA “HAY OUD
tee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeees Kir yo Uva “C'd ‘MIM pooy) AaATe_L *aay £10\. our |

seeeeees oSpriquiep Jo APISIAATUD 24} JO LO[[OOUBYO-201A OF "ACY a)

ee ee ee, ee le We ‘suBpY ‘OL |
“Sud “WW ‘uoyuIqug "DO Aossayorg

eee cece cccecceccececces "10" SUr' WK ‘Su “Dsq ‘WaIOMgATT AA Ydeso ¢
treseereeeeees erQasaT Ht “WIE WL “SW ‘wosupyspoH “A 10ss9jo1q
EIEN 0 Sart A ee Liadhteerscr ne
-y'r ‘ooosoy “At “Hr xossozoxg | {UUN,/208, UU NT ‘sor “SU “OTT “beg, ‘omor wooed some
VN “bsg ‘omosumy mqqry x dances Lanvancakasted siniis eee a "LI “bso *Aoyzeg SUMOU "LOST ‘F Toquioydog “UaISTHONVIN
E sees SE TO “CTT “bse ‘NUIVEULVA NVITT

‘DEG “PION POYTV ] ees secre cess
‘sD ° “bs ra i lah Nc tehadle dO gl eg | ‘SaaS “‘qavg ‘poomAay uturelueg Jig
Vig “bsg ‘onyqsiqred ‘dW | .... eee ‘SO “Sa “rw “ued “‘aoqzedq Aory sedyeyy ep diptud ag
i eee ee PECL IL te “ara f “CC ‘roysoyouryy jo doysig pio'y ou.L

eaeeeee ‘gO'U'd “T'O'a ‘ ‘a’ ‘Aaqueys pr0'T ou
siaavivesebvans Swaeaieuen saleremer sahara iad aaa jo [leq 2

. = ee es ee, Ra 4 a ‘ ms _ —————

PLACES AND DATES OF PAST MEETINGS.

liv

A a) 3 “3 “Db: ‘ ie
‘ST OS VW “DSU OMOT “f PIVADT ooo. ccc scence ccc ee ee OUTAON JO DHOUSHSIH, “OSH AGM “OD “L

B dioie\aia/aieisisisieia'<isini1/ 922)2) 8,0 Snct oe “Tord “Ont “Ds ‘otnor “qd sour

INSEE 'ora “are ea ‘anowant ay ndosoe 218 | “os8t “PE xoqmondog “ro0araA07

eee tte eeeeeeeees per Gros QUOISPRLD “AM ‘UOH WSN "35 Meo SW “C11 ‘APTIXON ‘ ‘“L wOSsasoud

“Wesd ‘oun “Vv "Iq "AOW
“WWW ‘suis3ty *H Alay *Aoy
*bsq ‘WOsTLIey preursayy
“doqstued “M “Ae

isis \sisis\s/si9 Siplavie oss fesse cle sists se en wired WS “Dbsq *oLUTT ‘our

se seseeceeeses To “neg ‘mojasy AeTy) svayey ep dmg ig
ESAsisales sis.c(s.c2 eine ain eres SOryy ‘kqaaqy jo Ler ay “uo Dhipsjare au

OO tt OO OCOD O SEO COC ET rater § “bsq *xoW ato M qreqoy
tt eeereceeeeceseeeeerscurrey Gomer GC “bsp ‘eyuedivy ‘q WEE
PTO TO IO Sh GEO aN a ih “Ong ‘SuuMog uygor aig
tees om Garay ogg “gang ‘o004}ION *H P1OpEig Ig woH qqsny eu,
tee eeeeeeetreueeesteaeeesseeeessss TIOAQT JO [IU OU} ‘UOH JUS OGL

“UBALITY “ty AO OGL
*bsq ‘SuliMog "Dp uyor
‘SV Wa “bsg ‘Sila “Ss Arey

d (8981 ‘ST Wsnsny “WALANG
“usd “TO ‘SHMOLS “9 TOUOUD WOSsHAOUd

Shee eeeeeecececeenesevevscesccovsssvesereesreharr ToMIysig SVU,

§ cisio(aividi sieeve sieie ceiewesver seu eece sees neers saseeeeeseh assess ORE TY

-WBH Jo AZISIOAT ayy uy ArqeuI0a ue MOUOIISY JO IOSSasOL,

Wey jo APISTOATUA), 89 UF AT, DP 4SV J fOr senor spi naueny “ROwAnON

sect ee ence ee eneeeentareeesstesesscceeseeenesesrcurer

“Sw “To'd “a “bsa “‘UMOOH NOLIVG Haasor

"‘[[2MOH Spurpy uoURH *AdIT
"Ww ‘uojdmor1g ydesor "Ay
‘aidursrjeq preuog “aq

Uvapumoy “Syed “Sw “1TO'd “WW “bsg ‘suupy youop uyor
CC "SO “TT SSS att @ “qed ‘yooqqu’ Ty, uyor Ig
sees oSpriquizg jo AjIsIaaluy oy4 Ul ASO[OVS) JO Ossajorg UvIpIVA

-poom “ow “SOU “SW “AIT “VW SPLAspeg wepy “acy en
ee eeee SW “q1eq ‘nuaTlog raya uyor dig

ee “ona “Ty “Th “bsg ‘oq Te. xOq 'H 4

*'** STOPION JO JUvMeZNeTT-prOT “104SedI0'T Jo [LV ty “OH 4q Sy om,

S10 paztug ey} jo [ediouug “Sua “aT “bsg ‘seqiog *q somur
Bedeate ars R Ra POE Ea oa cas Grea eee ee eae Saidaisueeecnisee qsana
-uIpy Jo Azisdeatupy ayy Jo yedjouug “SYA “'T'O'C “AeysMorg pracq Ig

seen

*bsq ‘WosIepuy Youre
“bsg ‘d80,y oyeyT urysny uyor
*bsq “unl ‘uosrzepueyy “fp

"LOST “F Aequteydog ‘eHaNaT
Boe ee gS Palme Beene eT STOR
DN HOOUINNNG JO ANNG FHL AOVUD SIH

eletel siniaiataiesate\ae o's /weleheietates/pi\s sts te see Tee ee eS AtE ey TECH Gy plaeg ag
om CSO oS Wd CTT Cg O'N “qaug “wostyomyy *T yortapoy sty
dain ties eaeion sual ouieerruelevre utils tent tate t Race ibe aig
Lx ‘pareaury pso'y aug ‘UO IWSIy ony,
r-bebeveanceenevenien os ov os'sbet te arrmre a6 TAREE BGA HOTT aqate atte

sees **smorpuy “49 Jo AgIsIoAtUy ‘predoayT “4g pues IOZBA[LE “4g Jo |

ee) "STA Tat at “TK “Dsor “IayooH ydasor
“"quIyy eng JO 1o4se ““S'U a “bsq ‘meyer semoyy,

———s
ot

See

|
os

a

i=}

1

o

> . € re . .

VN Get. Wa fe AOU OL J “9O8T ‘Zo ISNANY ‘IWVWHONIELON
“d'W ‘uostued “a “f UO IUSTE ONL (SMa OW “O'O “bsa ‘MAOUD “U NVITIIA
* ITYSUIVYSUIZION JO JUBUEINELT-pio07T ‘todjaq piloyT “uoy 4qSy oy,

* @IIYSIO4SVdIeT JO JUBUAINaI'T-p1o0T ‘puvyyny Jo eynq aq} sv1y sip
ever onmsAqtaq JO WUvooqNor]-pajo7T ‘aitysuoAeg JO ayN 94} sowIyH SIL

‘S2INVLEYOAS 1V¥OO7 ‘SLNAGISDYd-391A ‘SUNZOISSYa

*WOs}aqoy “Ag

ne ‘SV wa “Saad “bs “pur” qessny =|

lv

eee eeeee sete: iT Coa iT “at “ABSULB YL 70) ‘Vv LOSsajorg
"9181 ‘9 toquieqgdag ‘MODSVID

‘CW “CTT “GN ‘SMAYANV SVNWOHL WOSSHA0ud

*bsy ‘yOrreyy “Ce
“bs ‘ourByeiy somes
"SOWA ‘opp pA “AC

SO CUO CUC TA LEO UD LEIS iO OG aii Gownar T “beg ‘sun0 x some
Oe ‘aS Wa AE A | “Ont “CW ‘TOsumOUT, uaTTY IOSSOJOIG

‘TSU SW a TOE “ATT VW “Uosmog Ty, WIM IIs 1Osseyorg
Sete eee eee ee “a W We Bh iits d TTOMXB]L SUL We aug
Poe ee MOSSVpy) JO JSOAOL p1o'y aug BrOvSmclinh

“oso CMS Wa “SW “ATT “Le ‘IASty Jo oynd eu9 eovIH SIH

beg emaeL 7 HOF 08 os ne 0 o/s eineideisin ove eisemeK eT Sort iy Soa “ny ‘roquad.e9 "TM AC

‘SOU
“yg “bsq “tequediegQ 4uvyt “MM

"earl ‘ez qysusuy “OLS
yO “SU “TO asUL WN ‘MVHSYMVH NHOL UIs=

‘SOW CSW CATT “aoe ‘uosurpawny "9 Atuey tg yereuep-1oley
Foe Eee A ennEaSOate does Pieces rpientr ap casement

a=" cd
sa sow CaN “MO “weg ej00TIION "A PlOYViS US “UoH FUSty OUT
eee eee ee ee ‘SO acer ty ‘arond jo eg a4 UO WSN ant

eee eee ewe eee SSD mitt G ‘smorpuy “Id “IU, Id "ADIT au.
Pee eee ee "Lt “qreg QORTIVM PAVIPONY Ig.
Pe Sw ‘assoy jo [rey omg “uo qusny oun
teeeeeeseeeeee soupy SrTO'C UOTPISHUUG JO [IVE OT} “UOH WSL ONL

“bsy “TRIOUTS “IT,
“TO “TOT “H 1osseyorg
*bsq ‘qreag sngrenh “A

‘SST GL ysnsuy “IsvaTag
sreecourdy “CIT TO ITVONAL ‘f WOSSHsOud

“oar “Toa ‘sda osseyorg «“S"ua T'O'd ““bsqr “Gossey “aC
“SHOUT “Sara “AVeysyABy ayo L ATS “paojpeag, JO tov OUT,
eee ee ee ee ee) ‘lw *19qSIOWT “ol “M ‘UO IS1y O“L

“e181 ‘LT toquioydag ‘auodavugd
Fes us Lacgrnnneadia ends Oech at ia eed Coat oT
‘Gud ‘NOSWVITIIM “MA UAONVXUTV wossHsoud

*bsq ‘aosdmoyy, eed

__ Daa ‘PaMppoy pawyorey
‘a’a Toqdueg "Wp “AOU OL, COCO UG OOOO <5 i: | “TO” *qoyy sno poy ‘uoHy qysny oud
eee weer ee ee eee ee ts iso BO ‘assory jo [1ViT aug ‘uo qusny ouL

PTReUREREE Tee eee ‘sO “SW “Dbst ‘stopusg !

serrate gy “rT ot ‘sao TOSsajOId "SW “MosuIqoy “Aq “AST OTT,

eee ee eee eee ee "rH nts Gat & Bano if “TW “q7red ‘yooqqu’y uyor amg
eee eee eee ee "SD "TO" “Oy ‘QaSuOANT jo eynd oq} a0vly) SIH
treeeees rpg “org “HM ‘puoumpory Jo ayNq ey} sovlyH StH
te eeeeeres sexTOTION JO OYUN OY} BOVIF) SIE *xessng Jo

AyuM0N oy4 JO FUBUOMO!T-p1OT ‘ToysoyoryH Jo [req oy} "MOH ISA OUL

“bsg “999A Arde
"TWD Ad “Aeu OU
"bsg ‘1oquediup soley

*ZIST ‘PT gsnSny ‘NoLHSIUg
orld CSW “COTTON “bse “UGLNGdYVO “A M.

siaeroinigywieleistp\nfv/etela eiuretal metoce:ojsrwi= a iery = cesT Soup “beg OIM4sorg ydesor
eee ee es sT a “Sy oag “a TT ‘fodreys ‘|

sissisisioe ecvenye a “TW “oO ‘rey hel uoAT Id

"TLSI ‘2 ysnsdny ‘HpunaNiag ;
weet ee ew ee ete wetter eee eee eH OE EE TSU ACSW
“G71 “VW ‘NOSNOHL WVITTIIM WIS YOSSHOuUd

“Swid “T'O'd “S98'0'D “F'O'M “qre_ “WosTyoIN *T YOMOpoy aS

80 ass S000 85 se pp ss vin. s.e\e\e.0 = n\eins eins sie mois eke Rslin\We/siels Ree} pet recy

‘aS “bsg “yormreyy “cl *L

“TSW “AW ‘umMoig wndip “y Jossejorg
-UIpA Jo AqIstoatTuy 919 Jo yedroung “yw “qareq “quBIH JopueXeTY IIS

**puypyoog Jo [wlouepy-oosue pIO'T “CTT ‘sIsUT Uyor “UOT INSTY OUT

eee eee ee eee qsimquipy jo ys0A01g ploy eyd uo quant ou.

eee eee ee teense “Si “pod “pT ‘yonopoong yo ayudg O14 00B.1 SIH

PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES.

PORE eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee 2) Bc she: a & ant any ‘MOJ[V_ Tossajorg \
: ‘SU ‘Sa TO" “CW ‘uostsitgg a:

F

2 —_ -*
ee i a

PLACES AND DATES OF PAST MEETINGS.

lvi

Sess pu “sr “saa aad “wn “bsg ‘4810s denny and
Steere eee ee esse ee semoroeT Mgr Morar SW TY ‘YOIMISatg 10ssaJO1g
se bsy ‘Teq1og *S epee *AVAING VOUBUPAO 9}
"G88T* ¢¢ ysnsny ‘NoLanVHLAOg
ieeceentsennne SEAN ASHING AVEDA? “TO SUL
“SOU “SUd “a'TT “Toa “bea ‘SNUNHIS “A 'O

*bsq ‘salty StIz10;¢
“bsg ‘OTANOT OT "H UYOL4 00... ccs se ccceneseaceees
K ‘ wea fy | ete sone oua jo quomyst|qeisz
PSH ‘9ooHTIeL “V "ALO | jwormoyg oy3 Jo sown “s'O'eA “SHA “a'O “beg ‘PAV “V “a
eee eee ee ee eee et eee Agresrmapy ayy 07 saydeaz

“SOUT “SWUA SW “MOM ‘suvag *f “A Ig ureydep
tite eteeeeeeeneeeeeteneresseodtiay-JUnOW PLOT] aq} “UOH ISIY OWL

i Oh
veelaieh hia UNC eee OE sr “ore "CW “bsg ‘uosmony, UoITy
Owasso “Ss” “q'O'"sSUL WW ‘Mvysyaey uyor Ig
"O'C “ WW ‘823098 “ “O TOssajorg “I8st' Ts qsnany ‘ ORS
aialas 9.0. s.ole\a bie\p/alviocsielaleiein theeeee scene Sguy garg
ad

‘SUa “ATT TOC “a “94¥g “MOOMANT NHOL UIs

‘os'a “ay ‘*bsq ‘uossepuy ysedua 7,

“WW ‘Sulepy SBmoys, *Aoy “WW ‘dA0Id "WY “AA Ig "GOR oUL

3A gam

‘CTT CW ‘weMITY Jossajorg

Biate ee “VW AviN Woovapyory ae[qvioue A IT,

rete eeeeenes ecumearag § "saa ' "T’O'd ‘uoyysnoY ploy ‘uoH 4ySsIY on,

eee eee rere rr rrr 10 K Jo rode plovyT 049 ‘UO AUS ONT,

te eeeeeseereeseeeeeessecure yr Hd HIOK JO dOysiquory 943 soVly STH

USOT SD “svar, § ‘ST “Sed aT “bsg ‘shorgor Usay “fc "OS8T ‘gz snsny ‘vasXvMg

eee ewww eee eee ee eee ee SOU “ST aS ‘dW “bsg ‘ ast TI Ty bib tad artnet hee ak pelos SOLO OTY OAL. (0) (YF

DET; HOPAIG) GOULG Ls) e/sicit.si\sisr we: sininis'» ejcieie'n'sieiaiaisie ‘SD “aw “bsq ‘uerarA Aossny *H | [vorovwrg jo unesnyy e494 Jo pus ‘wopsury peqytug 044

SOT a Ud “Ds WesTOPL AK ||) egies csieiiaaiesicizielsinieie sien ‘sad ‘ Li ORM W ‘Paory “WAM AIS ‘uoH oT, | Jo AdAmng [worsofoay oy4 Jo [B1laUed)-IOJOOIICE “G*H' TA

Se eee ew ar eeer er ee eeee seer esses eeeeeeees BOSTIBMG jo 10ABW OUT, CSL a § “OTT “Dsq ‘XVSNVUL FIAWOUO AGTUAGNV

seeeeeeeeeereseeseeseeseesseseess Cosiap JO [TUG ol} WOH IUSY OWL,

ee eee ee eee eeeee (a9[9NO se4seyT) “bsg *areqqiag, "H "M
SPW ‘OPTOUIVY A JO [Leg O49 “WOH US LL

“68ST ‘0S JsUSsNY ‘aIMMaGHy
Aman eee eee oy cgay "o'T “Sold “Wl w
‘TSW A'S wa “ATTN ‘NVNTTIV ‘£ ‘DP UOSSaAOUd

*bsq ‘ssow “a ‘*¢
"3'D'd
“sir “a'1T “bsg ‘Aqrog u0z119 “H

soe SOW “YM WVNLAZIT [eg ous “UOH FUSE SUL
$ yw og wu ‘ a" TI WH “D's ‘errysuoasg jo ayn ej} eoB1H SIH

hak WIUen ‘ueseH.O tesa | “UOH 4Sry OUT ‘VIAN
“SV “Sad “TO'd “vd ‘essoy JO [ey en} “UO WSN OL
Ey “s ‘D" ‘a * ak: a* aR 0° a USTs AUG JO [AVY OYA “HOH FUSIY OUT
“oy ‘u1001eqy JO eYNC ey sovV1H SI
*e***s unqua ‘edaT[op AqIuIIy, JO ySOAoIg OY,
sreeseeees ungnd jo 10AByy ploy oy} “WOH F4SIY OUL

"a'W ‘wosIeF1g “4H Iussojorg
"aT ‘“*bsq ‘poomszon ugor

‘bsq ‘gon somes

‘SW “VW ‘led “Ss “Y 1osseyorg

“*SIST ‘PL 4susny ‘xrianq
ne ire Ae Tig ae ea SOW COW Wa OST
‘a1’ Tod “WN “bsa “ACOOMSILLOdS WVITIOM.

eee eee

oinlaieia.eie\s.¢ole/eisieiee:d eleeinuissiesies) eeverpeiy Sony “Dew ‘aqyeg souedg selreqO

st eeeeeeeeeceses sourey Gm Sway “bs ‘apnoly UIA
Wr “OTT “WH “beg ‘apoomstqqodg TABI,
** “WOM ‘ployOVI_ pioyT “UOH Sty OUT
Seen w ween eereeneseeres *eqummospy-junOy, jo [vq 04} mCvsmwesjorg euL

‘SaluVLayoas 1V907 "SLNACISSYd~-391A *“SLN3ZO0/Saud

“LIST ‘ST ysuany ‘HLNOWATY
paggaystaccamenscesyttsscctesy ants cs arte ie
“sau “AIT “GW ‘NOSHOHL NATIV WOssauoud

“bsg ‘pr0joqzIG M Woz TUIe yy
“bsg ‘ersnbg went
“bs ‘SWepy WITT

PS Fa SSS Se

lvii

PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES,

“beg “q2eH “f sopTeO
“S'D'a “CTT ‘£0NS8019 *M “H “AY
*bsy ‘oye[savy weqieg *¢

(ase

‘WN ‘Oldtg * 1ossajorg
"SOU AN“ VN “bsg ‘resv1q snduy
WH “bsg ‘arquo0ip "M “¢

"aN “bsq ‘orm M
“bsq ‘wosmeAaqg “OD “Ss

“bsg ‘pavary "Ss
*bsq ‘Aesmey “Vy "I
“bsg ‘uosaeg "gq ‘gs

“bsg ‘STIIIM °M “\L
*m0Uur9A “1d
“bsg ‘sila “Hf

SVU LSU "SW OC'TT “VW ‘tosmogy, WeITITA Ig Lossejorq

Ce se ereseessoses somnrer Hogg ‘OSIM ‘M “H ‘AST a

+/s{6\sip.eis\s\eis|oia.e.8inie/¢ @jo/0/e/e(e)t/a/0/sisialsizieieicieiisialcinicicial sos LOK HABA AY AOS,

OSieln/o ciniaeinaiesisnicesuqnieiel eCeryerr “say “os'q ‘UaPII, “V “AA Lossazoig

ee eeee stress sees ecurr song “CQeqyT “TOT CWW ‘sax0I9 “4D ‘4 IOSsajo1g *988T 1 qoquieydeg ‘SNVHONINUTG

ee eeeeee trereeeess ss UrpysUrulag Jo 10k “bsy ‘neouryszey seu0yy, '619)9\e(s{@00)sia\s\sibiz)aie/s/ieininininiviaisiel GT RITTEL) ‘(woz m0 yy ‘AqISI108
Neti A ON se "sq ‘19489010 M JO doystq pio'T 049 “Ad qusiy ond, | -t7p TIHD°W jo ACTEOUENG BON pus [ediung nt coe &

** ellysployeys 3o SU BUeT ese ead *£01899401 MA pioy ‘UOH ITY OUL| “SU “ATT “VW “ONO ‘NOSMVC WVITTIM '£ UIS
ene e meee entree ee senses yWTO'H 10410N ploy ‘UOH YSN OU,

“OIIYSHOIMIBM JO JURUAYNEIT-pIOT “TOG ‘YSIO'T ploy ‘uoH 4USTY OU

‘arlysdorggs JO yUBMEyNe!]-pi0T ‘paoyprag Jo [Avy oy, “MOH ASTYOUL

“SD “SZ ALE G “STA “Swd “a TT “TOMOLT “H °M_ A0ssojorg
aretaioisharsiavesore; SleletiitansayalecalsTalnais/etafelptexa(eta’erelotera viaysipiaiatarernteves waap1aqy Jo
Aqisioata, 0179 JO JoyaouvyD-201 TA “a'a ‘ord Iediourtg ‘aay AIVA OTT,
muvee nia ivioipiaiereitiotersialate)eisisie\bia'e te eeee errs HaapIady
jo Aqiss0ata val out jo 10,09%T *@ Tz “WW “bsq ‘ureg JopuexeTy *CSgI ‘6 Joqmoejdag ‘Nazauaay

eee erate eee ee “SOU a: sae: at 6 “SW “@1t “and
Peep Uaapreqy Jo AID 043 Jo ysoaorg priory “bey ‘saougyeyy souve | “AW “A O'M “MIVEAVId NOAT UIS ‘NOH LHOIY UL
Sent e eee e eras ence as eeeeee eset eneeseaeareeeete ce aGuurinred HMareT
“a TET ma fe W ‘se1evojeg puv plOjMvIM JO [IVY 94} “MOH WYSIY YL
pies sams Cees sie never evnctense eb seeenarecies ++ “aatysmaeps0q'y
jo yuBvneyNsl'T-p” eles art ‘usepieqy JO [1vq ey} ‘UO ISIN ONL,
ee ee ee ey usepi0qy JO AqIsIoatuy) 944 JO
roTTa0ueYH “T'O'd © OM ‘Topr0yH pue puomyory Jo oxnq oy} 9081 SI

eee eerseeeeeees some Gury os'a “VN “bsg ‘quny 4119049 seul0yy
Pee ware eeer esses enee ‘a's'0'u'1' "T'0"a* "aw “bsq ‘uoyssury “HA
sO’ ‘ “saad “a "TT ‘ ‘aud * “A tf La os “an ‘puv[ {us y prsapy IOSsIJOIg

cece seereesvccenes sreseeenseseeeseeermgoaneyy Iq ‘UOH OUL spanyt ene SiieacraRURGT

"TEI! 1100 “touog “VV 8 @OReOf PHO bodes Jo" tomepoer “SOW SMa SA CTT
rere ee er *yoddn sopreyy aig ‘uo ey] jo: “ila : fi
oe seeds casebodvud fl Sungoreh geuO Saaree ea SEEM SHE eo” “VA HOMER VE CHO ‘NOR atte ene
OR PT SC “AIT “a WO “BAe WOAT Ig “WOH 44S1Y OU

“Q°1T “T0'd “A's ‘Pleuopoey Jopuvxely ugor Ig ‘WOR 44SIY OU.L
te Cony “Hy O'D ‘epeuuy Jo [elouep-0UIeAOH ou} AouaT[ooxy STH,

PeiSlei Sinise eG SM a8. ele rse Oa “S” WT “q" TT “qq Ud ‘eo0s0y “a ° H ossojolg

AQISIOATUL) 811001 LA 843 JO JopTeouByD-901 Aa’ TT “bsy*poomusery’» “¢ "SSSI ‘61 Jeqmoydeg ‘LuoaHLAOg

eT eS ( 9 Sere an ‘a'TT ‘ “W'w ‘ “ONO ‘uosmeq *M ‘f [edioung COSTE POOH eee ee esplquivy jo AqIsIaAIMUE) OY} Uy

jo MIOUR SEO | Sr OU SMO: WISI OUT SVU SO]JVUIOTVWY GING JO Iossajoig Uvi1e[pes “S*V'U'd’ A
“sar “aT ‘sex woTeEr pus PAOJMBIO JO [IVT 04} ‘MOH FUSIY ONL | “SUA “ATI TO’ “VW “DSH ‘AWIAVO UOHLUV

esd “S'td “O'1T “Vv ‘Aqieq Jo [leg ong “uOH 74STY OL

PLACES AND DATES OF PAST MEETINGS,

lviil

f

sete emma ee pissin eccevenece sven Salud ‘IOUT HIV sopreyH US
eee teen “To osu TL “SO “oma “TOE “qe ‘19a UvIqjMoT T mg
Oe peaysoqyvp) jo 104e PY 9Y9 Tnydiqsr0 Ay ey,
od 919SBOMON jo 10ABy_ OT} [NJAIysSsO AM, QUsiy eu ‘ . . *
; seetes sarg ‘ueyang jo AzIsr0AluyQ ey i ueply mM yj “ACY 419A OL | se eeee 69st ‘TT aquiagdos oon Sa se one tl
“VW OTVALIOPY uvaioH of Aossayor, eo “att “TW . a[AOV uyor “uoy{ qs aah
“sora “Os' ‘uospog sdyiiNd “d lossqjorg\ snp SEIT “TO'd “9°0 ‘BuoNsMIALY p1OT “uO IATA og, | WAT ont JO syueuyzedoq A108 TeINgEN Oy
sisseseseserseesennqeg [qsvoMmON Jo dousig pIOT OU ‘aay INA ou T | 70 PIG (ST “STA “SZ eld “SOWA “SC
teen e ee eeeeee ce eeerenee + = -YOMSMAAVY JO [ABH og “NOH AUS oy, | ATT “AO “UTMOTA AUNAH NVITIIM UOSHAAOUs
see mieyIng jo yuBvUaNAalyT-ploT ‘ueyIndg JO [req ey “WOH qu sry ou
seseeeeeceevederteerereeeenerse*=pUBTOQUINyWON Jo JUBUAqNry
“ploy “ATT “TOC “OW ‘PUBjroquinyzION Jo eyN oy} COvVAH STH |

OO ORO EEE OHHH EEE Ee "Ta “a'r “bsg ‘qomnypy wore
eee ee eee ee ee ee re ee "TW “a'O ‘atane’yT "gq “yf [auojop
Come meee ee eter ee ee Me wees reer eeeerseeeese ‘a’ W “bsg ‘esnoyopo “Ya
oa Cees eee era ca te Cone mpie kiss ssi BR slals Semrecy MTs De OULe CT ht
SRNR M DOC OOUALE OUI ICO "Ta “ae “bsy ‘W0y3uv'y-2105 *g "MA
"S'O'd “ST “SU 099 “OTT “a “VT 10980,7 [OVO 1ossajorg
x ‘ a < ee ee ee "SOW “OTL “Wh ‘pleyomolg pieu0e’] “AOY aauL ‘ ‘ ‘
suena Pras se Sirseeseeeeeeeesreeeten even Gag Jo UooREpyOTY at]9 a[qusae A ou, senator de duvevee RCO oe Fo pee
eer tree eee eee tee . . bee . *) ry be, . ‘01 . .
| SOA “SW “TOT WO ledv VY AUS (eo opod TITMNVEE “f MOIUMGHAL IS

sete eeenane

. ‘ .

Bog, Org crn ak "++ Joqstag Jo LoAUPY OU} [NJATISION UST OUT,
tteereeeeeeeesouqugr Jo TOU 04} MNJAINSIO AL ISTH OU,
ee ee ‘aa ‘UOUTIC yo doysig, oO} “Ad q3NT oud
‘CC ‘STAM PUL YI Jo doystg provy oN} ‘AON IUBTY PUL “WOH WUAY oUL
oR eee eee eee eee ee ee wg jo ssonbivyy 949 ‘UOH SOW OUT,

Coane renee dvenesdesseoeressatecaccaerasceesessberegsacressos gag

-IOM0G JO JULUOINoV']T-psloyT ‘A1AIAQ PUB YON JO [AVY Oy} “MOR FYSTY on,

wena pistaisie/@.¢/n(cim' © \ele\s alm eeerieny oa f “bsq ‘poom fayy I9AIIO |
ee ee ee BO ae tel SCOT it GE “a'r “bsq ‘aoJ4usV SBUl0G,L
Toe eP eee eee eee ee eee eee ees “UW “an fow'g *sq10qoy ULVITTT AA. ag
‘SOW as ani 4 ‘Zunox ‘H “VW dossajorg | *****"** TOC eT eee eee eee eee) adap SUaMGQ 043 JO qediug auL
‘Sud “os'a srettesseesceseecces SQISIBAIT(] BINOJOTA AY} JO IO[[OOUBYH-91A SUL | “JSST ‘Te JsnSny “UMLSHHONV AY
“an “Wh ‘TeqsrepL soul A rossajorg + eee eee Oe eee pa1ojyeg jo IOLVIV aud Tnydryss0 Ay USI ou gn Sislelsiaisicieieecineiaieiy.e:elpisiels\=)sis/eeineeciee a g.emie.® Heim Cre TTA:
‘og’ “bsg ‘mosurydoxy sopregg | oot ttt ttt tt aoqsoqoueyg Jo roAeyy ON INJAIYSIOM BUSTY OUL | “Sw “aa “AIT “TO'd “a W ‘HONSOU HW “A IS
"OSA 'S'T'a “bsg ‘Avpuavy “pe PoP eP eee eee eee eee eee ee ey paojyes jo doysig ey} “acy JUS onL
CEO SIOOR CNEL Ga 1 ‘laqsoyouryy jo doysig. ploy ON} “ALY qusiy ouL
SOW OSU COT T OW “DM ‘Agro JO [eq ON} “UOT FUSIY OU
mien be tccsrtseviesanble sles ss eacp es Seisieiisiueisieeess aislunnicsenuntarsiy
Pee aeueant OTT eV “DM ‘atrysuoaed Jo end ey ew STH
“S3lYVLayNOeS TvVOO7 "SLN3SGISSYd-JZ5IA "SINAGISS2¢d

; o ‘sod “TSU “oud “a1 “Tod “Deg ‘ono y,00serq some)

lix

PaST PRESIDENTS, ViCE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES.

“wy ‘touuey, pAO'T “M “A AOssojorg
‘OTA “S'0'd “os'a “bsq ‘uosatyyy *M "W

se teee

‘Sra “a W “bsg ‘mosuvy “AAA
"SY09g “WT “10980,7 [aVyoryy TOssajorg
eee ee ee ee D eee eee ee ey ‘a'r ‘Xourny, uyor 11g

shes sary OAOID "YM dig ‘uoH FUSTY OUT

barr fauiaiiriay xa ee ee ee weysunqON Jo 10AKW OWL “8681 ‘eT raquiaydag ‘NVHONELLON
sta ENT SR ccc ae a SerG En Re MOERIRTIMOT Praeaaat apwerrcommeruee see paogxg Jo ATSI0Aq
“OSL ‘SOANOIO “WI LOSSAJOIT “"** g[qsBomoayy JO YN 944 QOVIH STH / ay} Ut AdoOIsht{q Jo Jossajorg “ASU “SA “T'O'
"77" puslyzog Jo ound ou} 80BIN SIH | “A'IT “G'W “VW ‘NOSUMONVS NOGUNE 'S “f "UC
«ade aadieein oaheh Oelsere Sole trmeiee ate aspraquieg Jo
Aqysioayan 944 Jo Ao[JaouUBYH “Hy ‘alTysuOANq JO aang 94} 9081) SIFT
Pee die catale Gaeaietat ye Natta ausvaforstalayahesfans ay tleywicvemtele ears aga axyya

-WeYSAIWON JO JULUAMaV]-proT ‘suvqry “yg Jo eyNC a} eoBIH SIH

Seen 39" sord ‘ TSW “SU COW ‘UMOrg wnIpD “Vy Iossejorg
gia ee eS DN ey aren Eee
“ \S finyp orem OST “Sy yy OUIMT, WITT JIG tossejorg r
‘TST sie ‘CSU SOA “CW “Wesvpovyy svisNO AS 1088} |... .seseeeeee does Sune ER a ee
“agg “Wh “be ‘atATLO query gst" adie lavaiele o)eisiolsinitisieie 0,08 T Oa “TS'OM AML WII IIS redrou1rg mE Lem 2 6c Saaeea hie et a] 1} S
‘Sd “CSU “WOU W F SU SSW SOTT “A'0 ‘PEUOpoENE "V “H “f MOR ISTH OME | POT gag sod “oer SPAN “SOT CLs
chy ae Ea rnraeie Sateen thea Meee eo erosOU ay Re oy “WORE aus ote | SH O88 LOr “OST “ATT ‘AIHITD CIVAIHORV ¥IS
eee eee ee ee ee ‘L's ‘aviq4oy Jo ssonbisyq oq} ‘UO qS0W >uUL , P , ’
te eeseeeeeeeeeeeeeee se Sinquipy JO ISOAVIG POT oY} COR qusry ouL
‘s'y'sald “TSU “SWoassog “os'C “ATT MED Preaory ais
z wee eeee i eseeeeee SZ “qiegq ‘uATaMayT ‘a‘L ‘rus
eeaa Pen

‘SOU A “SW “ae oo ‘qiuploqy ploy “UoH FQSTy OT | “1681 ‘61 ysusny ‘TaIduvo

see see reeese Peete ree nee .

avsoper], PIO UH WS OL SOOO UUGOO CO OUUU OOO OUOUUUOGRIEL: iat: Gi g ‘u0y ‘ ‘SVU

Pee e reer rere rene rerers sreeeseesenenees

PSSLAASE Rls aa tay Reise Maren secon eS See (ae LL “SUd “CU “CTT “TOE “Pst ‘SNIODOH NVITTIM
‘swoos “OTT “TOC “WH, “WrMter POT ‘MoH 05TH ONL

Cesc teeeeece ++ «rey faqng Jo ssanbieyy 04} ‘WOH ASOW OL,

: puvjezy Jo samouorsy [whoy “SVN “SUA “ATT ed 92000 i
** gII[SUvSIOWMELH JO JULUOINELT-ploT “AOSpULM PLOT “MOR FUSIY OTT

WL ‘Wileqieg Merpuy IIg
ote rts :gpeeT JO aodvpy OUT,
TOUSUL “441eg ‘uosyry seme Ig

Og" ‘SI[OYIIIAS *Y Tossojorg

ete eee ek 1D omc aes” a1) GRIP COR EI" OU EO weer ennee penrs W ‘mosyoR er TOM ‘u0oH qqsny anh O68T ‘g raquisydag ‘ Saua'y
BO ae ee coadir doapaa SWAT COTT “aud “aoe ‘Hered uokT 11g “WOH AMBRE ONL fone en OWT NUCH “SOd'd Sed
RECO E ON None “Tard ‘uodny yo doqsig p1oy ay sou INSTT oUL | “Osa “T'O'd “AO “THAV SALSAOAV MOLUAGAUA UIs

teeecereceeesees “SO OM CACHIIMZINT [eH OU} “COM FUSIY OUT
‘SW “HTO “I's'0'p “pa ‘aodry jo ssanbivy_ ey} ‘WOH 4S0W eT
SOW “SW “ATT “VW “DM ‘eayqsaosag Jo ayn 0G} BoVIH STH

PLACES AND DATES OF PAST MEETINGS.

Ix

“bsg ‘WOSITITM “8 *f
'S'O'd “bey ‘AOHTR A “OH “9
“Ud “ay ‘wn[eoeyy “g "Vy aossajorg

‘Dear “HUTTE “ST “AA
‘S'Tu “bsq ‘uosdmoy.y *O ovesy
“SW ‘Weupiay “VY "MM Iossejorg

“bsg ‘AOIPIN “a "HL
OS'd ‘WIT “V'a “bsg ‘y9n090N *V ‘Sg
*bsq ‘uosjomeyH “HD

‘WH “bs aseN ‘H ‘a
“VA “Dsop ‘gonad "* “4)
“WH “bsg ‘eumog ‘9 yaaqiry

“SSlYVLAYOaS 1vO07

Z Jo AqISIOATUN 94 JOMapIserg “CTT V'W ‘WopuoT ‘f 10ssezoIT

oe ere eee ey BS ak: ‘aSpISIOATT “VY 1Ossojorg

| “sow Ww “bsg “ploqqoo *L xMAT “S'S WW ‘ulared "HD =

** oqUOIOT, Jo 1oABPY eQT, ‘SU “O'N'O ‘Wosmeq wei IIs
Tet treaetedeceeseeseereteeeceereucueureerereseees©+ @DBqBO JOf

JomoIssIMMOD YSIH “ATT “O'W'O'D ‘UMS *¥ PIBUOG AIS ‘WOH eNL
eee meee eee “ant oe: Gre) “ONWOD “qieg ‘raddny, saTieyp ug ‘u0H euL
“**"**O11B3UQ JO BOUIAOIg 04} 1OJ UOWVONPY Jo JeqystUIp o44 ‘GO eq

“L681 ‘ST ysusny ‘oLNouOT,
eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee ee "g'N)'099"10,7 “WS
“Su'seerl “C's “G11 °TO' “GON ‘SNVAR NHOL UIS

seeeeeeeeceeeess O118j0O JO BONTAOIg 943 JO Jaimelg ey} ‘WOH eu,
**O118JUQ JO <ULAOIg 94} JO 1oUI9AO H-JURUqNATT 943 InoUOH sty
stnvaretsseensenesererertvosesecasersateee, BOBMU ZO HOFEFUOT

ong Jo IOSIUI oMIT “HY W'O'D “IeUNVT PWIA JIS “UoH euL
‘HSU “sh “ATT “T0'd “O'A'0'D ‘UIAley pr0T “oH 3N3IY OUL
eee ‘Sua . T'0'a “Wh *q3re[ dey pio'Ty ‘m0 sus euL
miniastsascncrkanne #” Munem aus GUTupMe] Ban IM PERRI

“AOD “D'W'O'D ‘Usepseqy jo [Avg 944 “UOR WW SIY 943 Aouepjeoxg sty

* ere ww enews eee ewe ee "1d" die “beg “Keus] “A AP

* eee ee ee ee Ones te ee Te th ee el * SH YOOID “MM é
tettteeeeeseeseeesseeeececeeerensrsees ecprin “bsg Moquyey “Ad | “9681 ‘9T Jequiaydeg “IooaumaArT

oodzeary ‘aZaljop sqisraarag Jo edtoutsg garter ee ee reer eees Aqayoog [ekoy aq Jo

ee errs

ee ry

sr eeeerseeseccurr “TO ‘eoosoy *Y AUeH Ig} WepIsag “CTT “TO'd “ied ‘UMLSIT Hdwsor UIs
: tteeeeeascnterteente sap ‘DOOMIOT “HM JIS
sITYSBOUVT Jo yUBUAINEI'T-pAoT “Hy ‘UOJag Jo [IBY 94 “MOH IWSIy on,
** Joodseary jo 10<eRY PIOT “GOH ‘Aquaq Jo [wy oN} “MOH WStY ONL

‘Suu “T'0'd ‘puypyavg “a Id "sad “T'O'a “348g ‘sax01g “DH JIS
oP ee ed qormsdy jo 1040 yy “bs “qa\41Bg ‘H Wid
WB[se[PUSY POT “WOH SY oy “W'S AyUGeA prory uo 4YS3ty OGL,
ssereee* Gouusd] Jo prwaaqg ysiq “Vy 4psmy pro] ‘uo I SY oq,
“ees XOssy JO JuBUaNe!]-ployT “Sg y"oag ‘YstolAvyY pszo0'yT “aOR WY IN oy,
SOOO eee ee eee eee espliqumey jo Azs19A 1

94} JO PIBMAS YS “SU “ATT “wWeysursyeM POT UOH 4ySty oT,
ieee eee eee es yloyns yo Azun0pH

aq} JO JUBUEINaLT-plzoy “W"]_ ‘[OFsFIG JO sinbrvyY 9g} “uoH ysoW OT,

fv 7tttese* K1QQMI0ay JO JOssajorg UBITIANS “S*y-y ‘oyseAlAg “f *L :

"GEST ‘TT Aequieqdag ‘HOIMSsal ;
oe e eee ee ee eee eee ee ees ‘SD “Sowa “ord ‘a’ IT
*“TO'd “HON ‘NOLIVON SVIDONOG UIS NIVLdvoO

“eeeess "989109 s[nOg [TV JO UoplwA\ “'T'O'C ‘uosuy "yy *M JIS
ee ee ee ee er rie ies *plOJXQ JO 10LB auL "681 *9 qsugny¥ ‘auorxo

Tr reeeeese ss *pIOJXO JO APISIOATUL) O49 JO LO[[AOUBYH-2d1A BY} “ACY cys, ,*PIOJXO Jo AzIstaatuy 9yy Jo soTaoueyO “Sy “T'O'A

weet seen sees" *9 W'8edd “'T0'd “UrAley poy “uoH 34SIY OL / “OM ‘AUOASITIVS 0 SLOOUVN AHL ‘NOH LSON o4%
OITYSUIBY.S THONG Jo IUBUEWNayyT-p1Oy] “plIosyAOY pAOTT "UOH FUSIY oyL,

ee ee ee ey ‘a’a ‘plojyxo yo doysig: ploy out "ACY qqary euL

ee) SUM “TO'a “oy ‘Araqasoy jo [eq Elepy “m0 qq ay aud

Sette ee neta eeeceeeeea reer er ieeueteseuttereeereeee OITISHIOT

JO juBUOINeIT-ployT “O*A “G'O'H ‘esvjueM pIOT ‘uO 4qsIY eyL

Tee hee ene eedeseecseeeeeteeeeerseeeeeeuessese*DIOIXG) JO AQUNOD

ary JO pUBOINeIT-p1oT “H'WW'O'D ‘Aassae Jo Avg oy} “WOH FYSTY Og,

“SLN3GIS3SYd-35IA *SLNAGISS4d]

Ixi

PAST FRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES,

if we ee eee eee ee eeeeee a bet Ok 6 “ord “ant “an ‘payor uyor IOS3@JOIT )
eee eee ee ‘a1 “bsq ‘s1psuy uyor
weer tere eee Me ION FI eg ya ia Cae “Dell ‘ygimg RC) Re: § somes
eee ee ee ee eweeee oe. ‘Sua “T'T'O “OOM ‘I9A4 -M094] 9814 J, “L “M 1g
tt teeeeeseseeeeeeeeeeeers: sourer Cory SOG “lyleD plEqyaiy 41g
TSU “os'd ‘aeo[oe Ty snu3zeyy IOSsejorg wees eeeeee eee ee ewww ee ‘SUA “1'0'a “soy ‘aIQON, MaIpUuy 11g
“a'W ‘sun0xX ugor azossajorg-} ois.ie'e's TE “AW “NV ‘PMXB-SOIpAYNS |[emxeW ugor sg
‘a'S'a'a “1'a "a'17 SOIMIV IT ‘a “cag SOOTHE EEE EH HEE HEHEHE EE OE EEE HED AMOSSB[H JO

Aysroatan 943 Jo yedioutg “qT T “a'a ‘£41039 yA0qieH “yf *Aey £10 A,
*eeeese* MOSSBIH JO I8OAOIG P1OT 94} ‘UO 243 “bsq ‘afoysiqo jenmeg
srrrseourd “GIT “T'0'd “O'A'0'D ‘Ula[eY PLOT oy} “UOH 4qS1y oT,
eee eee ee eee eee eee rnd “aQ11 ‘poomsya41q poy euy “uo qqsIy eu.
[ER ABO DOBBS AIEOU Ig phy on ‘mossvyy jo [eq a3 ‘u0H quay ou

“LO6T ‘TT Jequiaqdeg ‘MoDEV'Ip :
‘Br'0ag “OSC “G'1'1 “VW ‘AAMOOU “MV HOSSTAOUd

seeeeees ogra VEIN "OQ "] zossajorg
oe eee eee eee eee ee ee ee i Ajpisiaatu
BIIOIOIA 94} JO AOT[aouRYyD-s01A “GQ 94VT ‘uOWZuIpog “N edioulrg
ee | "S'E'seig “SU a “q"og ‘adiogy, “a ay "Id
*. eee eee ewes "S'y"009 “os'd “WW ‘Teyony “M ‘Vv IOSsajoIg
eee eee eee eee ee ee oe 'S'D'd “T'Or8U WwW ‘aluuig sapuexo[ Vy 1g
verses pol pelg ‘Jouvyy 9} JO ploy ‘rayqug ‘A “H “GOR ONT,
SUISORT OOD OUIGHOUIOG Hen (order hes 20) Iokeyy aya diq=10M SIH
Wteeeeeeeeeeeeeeees UIUQSBRY PAO UO Iq3NY OU
‘dd ‘uodry Jo doysig psoT oyy ‘aay qqSKy enL,
syd “T'0'd “T'S'0'D “OH ‘UodTyY Jo sInbavyY O49 “MOH ysopy ay,
sree “OTT “T'0'd “HH ‘eqystosa Jo eyNq a4 sovIH SIA
piovsiejo(cisie cisigie)Sicie/s)eisieleleis: sreje eit ie.eieieie clsiein lela siaisies GELATO jo Sutpry
489M 24} JO JUBUAINE!]-prIOT ‘YSnoaqavog Jo [IVY aq} “MOM aYUSIY eq,

Se ee

*bsy ‘susAeqg HOwopeay
‘dc “bsq “q900mMeq “AE
“bsg ‘snqooeg uepsmey.

“006T ‘¢ Joqmme4dog ‘auoaavug
seabiinuae mae e vetae TOP ‘SW “aTl “TO
Sd “AN YUINYOL AVIVA WIS WOSsHAOud

—§!_ _—

eee eee eases "SVU "B01 oon iT “ant “WH WIA Ieq ‘H 9) Iossajolgq
eee ee ee "SU “ao MW ‘teAGO0T UBUIION "f 11g
srreeeesKnqiaquey jo uvag “Sy “A'd ‘Teaaeg “wy “gq “Aoy AIO A OTT,
eee eee eee ee | "TW ‘sul snoq-sioyxV¥ “y ‘u0H qs ou,
“qOLIq8IC U19Iseq-YINOg ey} Sulpuemmoy jersuex-1oleyy ou,
NEE ee OTL URGE COIS FOO ILUOLIS Ey paCOe ONAL MELINE,
esd “TOE “vw “oy ‘Amasieg yo sinbaey 043 ‘woH so eUL,
Sie sieinle sisinis) gsiuie/t es icy ‘£anqi040eQ jo doysiquory PAO'T 943 901 STH

“668T “ET Toquioqdeg ‘uaAOg
ric eager ac ae 2 "SU ‘dag “alt "TO'A
“CK “a0 “UNISOL IMVHOIN UIS WOSsHAoUd

“VW “bsg ‘AinqoTpued “H “A
‘d'O “b3q ‘1oHO0u yy W0WSeIIOM “7

* “iT “W'S Sony “ant “og'a ‘fauu0g » oh IOSsejolg
| ee ee nis: On: & “ant “CW “bsq ‘soppog ugor
seeeereess 1oqslig JO S1ainque A JuBqoIEW JO AyaI00g 1} Jo ToysBIY OUT,

i i iy joys ‘adaT[09 AqisqeatuQ Jo jedtoug eu,
vreeeeeeeses Toqstig Jo 10ABqy OY [NJdIysIOM FUSTY OUT,
ee ee eeeeee "SU “Cit “Toa “qaeq ‘Tjeauerg “le “a Ig
“WS “SU d “TOC ‘Aad preapy tig woH aU IY ONL,

UiseressS'!!"@q ‘joqstig Jo doysiq prory ayy “sey 9ate OU
seee Rid Sain Ae 8 Sid ae oe ‘SHU “Sa ‘atong jo [4B oy “UO quay ouL

"a “beg ‘s19S0y meiq10g

"9681 ‘2 Joqmosdag ‘Io1siug
‘ae “bsg ‘eaT anyj1y

sreeeeceeeceee “SOA “SU ‘SHMCOUD WVITIIA HIS.

PLACES AND DATES OF PAST MEETINGS.

Ixii

POOR Pete ee eee beer eens sdpiiqmup jo qoLvy Aqgndeq “Dew ‘Sunox ‘H “a
** TounoD Aquno,) ATs Jo a[sy ey4 Jo uvMIIEYD “bsy ‘ugrep_ Ydosor
AyunoD aiysosplqme) ayy jo uvmaeyO “bsqy ‘mosuaqdays 412Gox
srteeesceess ssoSpuquuy jo 1oAByy “CCW “bs uogZTeq oAAYSseqO “AL
** sspuquiey ‘adaijon weyUMeN Jo [edioulrg ‘HOIMSpig “sayy
F , serees) AQUIITT, JO daysey_ “q'a “lyn nsvquojzy "HY ‘AoW AI9A OT
"WIT “bs PvayoHT A "T “ol oH ip Ce aspliqueyp ‘asaT[op sven? jo quapiselg
- oa eval “Ds AVUUIAS *S / pur AystoaTUy Oy} Jo AoTaouvgqO-29!1A “Q'C ‘OsVqO “H “A “ACH aU,’ “POGT “ZT ISNSnY “ADAG UANVO
Sw “VW “Dagl ‘premes (OWE Sd “OTT “T0'd “O'A‘0') ‘MIATA prO'T “MOH INST oy, }'"""" YBanquipy Jo Aqis19aIN1 249 Jo JOoOUBTD “SW
‘VW “bs ‘aosu1qoqn yy ‘Vv eee ee we eee ‘SU a a ina tad “Tod ‘ys tayAny pi0oy .

UO FASUT ONL, “TW ‘aati Toa ‘y "POW CN Py
"Ta “bs mities) | ‘Ss eee eee ee See ene aces ee POR DIGULEL) jo Ayisroatu T T0'a DOMTVEA Lf v NOH LHOd WL

aug JO prwmoqs WIA “Sy “a TTT WUySTIS|BAA POT “WOH FU SIY OL,
DeWine (sit “Paap ss icesiea tari kro doystg paory ory *Aaxy 443 OU
. Teme rene ee weet eee eens aatysuops uyany a
pue orysespuqmuy Jo Buays ws “Ta “Ww “bsq ‘wH mq a
*amlysasplqurey Jo yuvuaqnery poy “qT “bsiy ‘IaAoyoog Japuvxayy
. ee ee ry aspuqurep jo Ajisd9Aluy ony

jo qoyjaounyg “Sw “ATT “py ‘oarysuoaeg Jo ayn ayy eoury SI

(SS Nines Ain digieine)sie:0 0/0 sien inie viele a eieieis ain s.aisie

| vr bene Site “bsg “Tepunte PIeA\ SezTVqO }

se eeeeee * “ate “bsg ‘yoraqs}rvog sepret9,

* teen bs ‘q04seH Ty i = sayauqg
jaodqqnos 103 "a" Ww “OH “bsg ‘TBA TeqsaUW “H
“tees ssqzadyynog jo 10oAByy “bsg ‘yoraqstawog "TL, “aL
COCO Ode caereaecceceoueseebicevescceee vanehevspane AysioaTag,
“bsg ‘gquaaep qsourg +p) VOOHA 8 go TOTP BTD-2OLA JOrmraray “bare tuosntydor, PARTY
WN “bsw ‘yorporg plorey at ad) : MAH , eeeers ss TOPSOIL “VY 251005) JIG [-***
‘Sw “TO “aT Saud “v'd ‘aoosoy Aruey 11g
**uLoggey JO [1g aq} “MOR FqSIY OGL
5 ** MOqJag JO [IVY oy} “UO FUSTY OUT,
POOH Ba Eee EE SEH HOHE HEE EE EE EE See eee sEe eee reseeeee Ayistoata |

“£061 “6 Aoquiazdag ‘ny0aHLNOS,
ee ees aouvA,. 8p 9N9N8U],1 ap quupiods
21100 “SU “ATT “0M ‘UMAMOOT NVWUON UIS

| BILOJOTA OT} JO AOT[EoUBTO “CTT “Hy ‘Adouadg [avy oy} “WOH 9qSty OUT,
‘sw “CTT “LM ‘sedivo[eg puv plojaMBig Jo [avy oy} ‘UOF AUSIY on,
L ee ee ee ee ‘Tow ‘Oy *Kqiaq. jo Rance Elep) “u0H qusny aqJ

hearer eeeeene

"G’'W ‘Wlaypey 1939q Iossajorg )
‘SW “VW “Aojsoyuey Avy “Wf Jossejorg
4sPjlag ‘aHal[op susan? Jo yuapisarg ony,
teceeeeese** asuiiag JO IOARTY pao'y ou, |
OW “pug QaeagT sngaent well M Ig |

tere weeeee

Fejela)sie sine s ales vise * SeenIrT(T SIE [OUls HBO) - MOH qs aL
‘Sw “coq

“TO'C “ay ‘assoxy JO [VA oq} “MOH 4YSIY OL,
** Pg ‘Aanqsayyeys Jo [ey aq} “WOH 4UsIy et,
| yo Aqunop ony jo quenoqnery “WH “javq ‘uaz Suuory slouvay Ig |
| 48By[aq Jo Aq1O aq JoJULUAQNArT “WH “Hy ‘ALapuopuoyy jo sinbavyy oy,

"ZOGT ‘OT Jaquuagdesg ‘isvaIag :
Suu Osa “a1 “WW ‘UVAUG save UOSSTIOUd

ee ee ee aa ary eee eee e eee eee eee

eee wees [esou0g jo |
(Aqun0p aq yo queuoqaryT “WH “DM ‘W10o1aqy Jo ayn ayy evry st)

“SLN3AGIS3SYd-JOIA

“SSINV.LEYSSS 1V907

“SLN3O0ISSud

fee

Ixiii

Seen een eee enneseeneeeeennes AUTO RTO H EE EE TE HE EHO E REE S® @HRPERESEHESS EDR L SH EEE HERES

"* Kya100g
[vorqdosoyigg pue Arnot X0q80018'T AN} JO. JuapIsary ‘SIT Jaoqaoyzy
Toat Rue esgeness spemey én ape annie caer hear ea ey UReeRenaMear a eenvn cee ae tia Wet sUTUEATe
0) edroutag “Sa “aT “os'q ‘a8poT szoalo ag
‘aq ‘193s001eT Jo doysig aq} ‘Aey yOSNy ay,
‘a'a ‘ysno10q1079¢ jo doysig pro'y 919 *Aayy 4ysny oy,

“AO AHL
‘D'O'NSUL'W ‘Wos[0D pasty

(L06T “te Aine “wansaoraT
O°) ‘OMOH [WG O49 “MOF, ITT On, “OSU On “Sra “ATT “OM ‘ITID GIAVa TIS"
“qaesiq jo LUG any ‘UuOR WSN oq,
** Taysaore'yT Jo rode * ‘a’f Spoom prveapy tg
AINIS1A4SO0TA'T JO WiIsyS U3TH * "Td “a' fe ‘qsaysieq preyony
OITS104S90I0'T JO JUBUIDINAL'T pPAO'T ‘puvyyny Jo syn 9y4 soeLy SIT

"ddIVUMOIY Wosteydayg urYO, c *Aqo100g Teorydos
“ONT OLTYSHIOR OY} Jo quaprsarg “OS” “ah “wos1apuy qsadwmay,
rath vedeenhs Yad aqip's aa09H Mg ‘qaeg ‘Tes WNT IIS
OM “CTO D “V'S'0'D ‘YoorGaM pszo9T “MOF AUS OUT, “906 ‘I ysnsny ‘N10
“qSIIQ WILT “St 'O “Su “q: TT ors o'a ‘Aanqaay. ploy ‘uoyT qs SLefis || eeRe bots Bb toa Loo * WMASUPL TSE a9 JO spur
suaaviy Atuay \ ***"* "TO'd “a'a ‘uodry jo doysig pxoTy O13 “AdY JUST oT, }-qavdaq A1o,sSI PL TwANgeYT 019 Jo AOJIOIIC “SVT “SATA
PRR Ta SEE eas « ENTE CESS GG BEM TAA GUSTY OUD, ‘Swua “ISA *CTT “WN ‘UALSAMNVI AVY “A UOSSTAOUE
a Web yo Ssonbivp, 944 “WOR, 4SOP, ONT,
dITGSYIOX JO Pigg ysry oy,
* yO jo IoLB PACT 9q9 “UOF 4YSNT Oty,
“WH “T0'a aa @ ‘Y10X Jo doysiqyory oyy eowrH sty

seresereeerese OfPMBING JO 1OLePY OTL
seeeseseeecees KaTIAQUITY JO AOABY IU T,

serreesereees wrIojaIg JO 1OAB aU,
*TIaqMOJWOT_ JO OAV UT,
*BINnQzzAwUIIOJO1g JO 10OLV_ ONT,
See hy "=" qeqan¢ Jo JOMBT OUT,

*(Sinqsouueyor)
aaTIND “AM ‘(uaey advo) ‘aad “WN -
4Qslqony "A “L—sanuwjawag “uozT eorydosopig.d 949 JO JUapIserg ot,
‘SW “PL O'N WD Peg s—ununyyD i ** Sinqsauuvyor jo 10Avyw oy,

— pw fy tereeseeeees crmor, adug Jo roduyy on, “T'O'FSUL' WH “Aouneyy a1opoary,

yynoy of aazjumog Bbuysguvbug youjuag\*** Anoop ody ‘tomou0syY “WH “SW a “A'TT “A'O'e ‘TIED PIAtq ag
“PULTAOY “iT be eke Ce) ak WI “areg ‘ay Twoqayy *L “A septego ag “"BISOPOUY
SUOSINO “HT “AMA UsJayINog Jo AOPWIYSIUIMIpY “HW'O'M ‘WOU “HM JIS aAnouoy sty "COOL ‘EL ysn3uy ‘vornay wWrAog
my bunqsauunyor PPrreeee er tier reer rr errr ere errr err re rere Aa0jog JOAN asueio ‘J0UIIA0N) "SW “odd “OTT wy ‘NIMUVG "HH 3) wOSsaAOUL
*V'IV ‘1098199 "TAL ~queuaynary ° “YW OM ‘suepy- PIOODH *¢ "HE ag soley, AouayooxG sty
‘souop ado a of Ap Uvexirensohanrensne rata jeeasuery, ‘lousaa0-4uvN04
"a'C “QUITT "UA *A0rT onary Se) Ww" oy ‘SoIMvT INTAIV Ig ‘aoy oyy uregdeo AouaToox stpT
“TOULT “WT *¢ vee Peo cecc taoveurneaosesadvsageddd wteseterteeet® Teae KT JO JOU
"I'L ‘ENV “fe i Arua Tg yauojop Aoualjaoxy siz

“A'S Ud “oS'a ‘oryqwog *O “f Jossajorgq . Auopog adep jo z0u190A05
—unoy adnp “OTT oD ‘osuryoqnH- mai T JOCM US “WOH ou9 Aouayooxgy sty

Bote ak cece re PEPE ee ELE REL etn Ea Poet poe “-BOLITY UIt0g OJ
JamorsstmU109) TSI avy 5) WO'D “a'O'p ‘UT prx0'T “WOR 43137 oT,

vests Pea Ce ety. ir eteetreeress BOLT EW GGNOG LO} LIUOTSUCOY
WSIH “LIV'O'D “otsz0g[ag Jo [LU oq] “WOH FYSNE ot} AoUal[aoxg SIE

PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES,

—_— (SY hh. _oOMmEEES

PLACES AND DATES OF PAST MEETINGS, &C.

lxiv

Cas eeeeee Petre reared Ceeneeneseee

“ puvpary ur Wopons4suT Teormqoay, puw )
aangNo1s y jo queuiqiedeq any JO QUOpIserg-201A “dK ‘TSSNY “ML
Saainrestehaniaass sxcacsasecestieena seteseritedvensteversteessoe=s DuBIgay JO AqISA9ATU()
Tesoy any JO AoTJa0UBTTD-901 AST Hate WW “31eg ‘doxIN Jaqdoys11qoO ag
Rennie pipheneossaipencacanepncs api ayn Jo yIstaatug
949 JO Jo[jaouvqQ-a1A “Q'TT “WW ‘uappryy sonsne “ATT “WOH qqary |

= Lurapeoy ystay [esoy, ay Jo quepIsatg “CTT ‘uoja[IBy, Ye SIOUBLy i

“WWW ‘HAUL “HM Tossasorg

‘G'W “Os ‘wosdmoyy, “HM Jossajorg |
‘df ‘oBstIN WT ae

‘ATI WHeID OW ydesor

purer] jo rool O 1esoy
‘£10880 aaddy jo UMOPTISYO PLOT "UOT qs

“+ pujar] Jo 3uBmay
“nayT PAOT ey 07 esioana yao “ant [Pig auysusny “uoR wan
‘puvlar] JO JoTJaouRyO PLOT “avg “aye A\ JentUg Ig ‘MOH WITT
(ever oniqnug jo z0Ae AW pxoy ‘ATOY,O plviey usunaply ‘uoR IA

“SMYVLAYOSS 1V9071 “SLN3GISSYd* JOIA

: "8061 ‘Z Toquteydag * NITANG
‘SWAT a “WW ‘NIMUVE SIONVUE

"SLI. 3qisaud

“a

xv

TRUSTEES AND GENERAL OFFICERS, 1831-1908.

TRUSTEES.

1832-70 oo KR. I. MuRCHISON (Bart.),
E.RBS.

1832-62 JOHN TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.S.
1832-39 C. BABBAGE, Esq., ¥.B.5.,
1839-44 F’. BAILy, Esq., E.R.S.
1844-58 Rev. G. PEACOCK, F.R.S.
1858-82 General E. SABINE, F.RS.
1862-81 Sir P. Egerton, Bart., F.R.S.

1872 Sir J. LUBBOCK, Bart. (now Lord
AVEBURY), F.R.S.

1881-83 W. SporriswoopDE, Esq., Pres.
RS.

1883 Lord RAYLEIGH, F,R.S.

1883-98 Sir Lyon (afterwards
PLAYFAIR, F.R.S.

Prof, (Sir) A. W. RUCKER, F.R.S.

Lord)
1898

GENERAL TREASURERS.

1831 JONATHAN GRAY, Esq.

1832-62 JOHN TAYLOR, Esq,, F.R.5.
1862-74 W. SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., F.RS.
1874-91 Prof. A. W. WILLIAMSON, F.R.S.

1891-98 Prof. (Sir) A. W. Ricker,
F.RS

| 1898-1904 Prof. G. C. Fosrar, F.B.S,

1904 Prof. JOHN PERRY, F.R.S.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.

1832-35 Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT,

RS.
1835-36 Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT,
¥.R.5., and F, Bary, Esq.,
F.RB.S.
1836-37 Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT,
¥.R.S., and R. I, MurRcuHIson,
Esq., F.R.S.
1837-39 R. I. MuRcHIsSon, Esq., F.R.S.,
and Rey. G. PEAcocK, F.R.S.
1839-4b Sir R. I. Murcuison, F.R.S.,
and Major E. SABINE, F.R.S.
1845-50 Lieut.-Colonel E SABINE, F.R.S.
1850-52 General EK. SABINE, F.R.S.,, and
J.¥F. Royse, Esq., F.R.S.
1852-53 J. F. Rove, Esq., F.R.S.
1853-59 General E. SABINE, F.R.S.
1859-61 Prof. R. WALKER, F.R.S.
1861-62 W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S.
1862-63 W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S., and
Prof. J. PHILLIPS, F.R.S.
1863-65 W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S., and
F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S.
1865-66 F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S.
1866-68 F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S., and
Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.R.S.

1868-71 Dr. T. A. Higst, F.R.S., and Dr,
T. THOMSON, F.R.S.
1871-72 Dr.T. THoMson,F.R.S.,and Capt.
DOUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.
1872-76 Capt. D. Gauton, F.R.S., and
Dr. MICHAEL Fostmr, F.R.S.
1876-81 Capt. D. GALTON, ¥.R.5., and
Dr. P. L, SCLATER, F.B.S.
1881-82 Capt. D. GALTON, F.R.S., and
brof. F. M. BALFour, F.R.S.
1882-83 Capt. DoUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.
1883-95 Sir DouUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.,
and A. G. VERNON HARCOURT,

Es sq., F.R.S.
1895-97 A.'G. VERNON Harcourt, ae
F.R.S., and Prof, E.

ScHATER, E.R.S.
1897- {ow SCHAFER, F.R.S., and Sir
1900 W.C.ROBERTS-AUSTEN,F.R.S.
1900-02 Sir W. C. ROBERTS-AUSTEN,
¥.B.8., and Dr. D. H. Scort,
F.B.S.
1902-03 Dr. D. H. Scort, F.R.S., and
MajorP. A.MacMaAnon, F.R.8,
Major P. A. MACMAnon, F.R.S.,
and Prof. W. A. HERDMAN,
F.R.S.

1903

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARIES.

1831

JOHN PHILLIPS, Esq., Secretary.
1832

Prof. J. D. Forpxs, Acting
Secretary.

1832-62 Prof. JOHN PHILLIPS, F.R.S,

1862-78 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A.

1878-80 J. E. H. Gorpon, Esq., B.A.,

Assistant Secretary.

1881 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Acting

Secretary.

1908,

1881-85 Prof. T. G. Bonnny, F.RB.S.,

Secretary.

1885-90 A. T, ATCHISON, Esq., M.A.,
Secretary.

1890 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Acting
Secretary.

1890-1902 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A,

1902-04 J. G. GARSON, Hsq., M.D.

1904 A. SILVA Wutre, Esq., Assistant
Secretary.

d

xvi

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association.

Date and Place

|
: | :
Presidents | Secretaries

1832.
1833.
1834.

1835.
1836.
1837.
1838.

1840,

1841.
1842.

1843.
1844.
1845.
1846.
1847.

1848.

MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, I.—MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS.

Oxford. a. Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.| Rev. H. Coddington.
Cambridge |Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......| Prof. Forbes.
Edinburgh |Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S. Prof. Forbes, Prof. Lloyd.
SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
Dublin...... |Rev. Dr. Robinson .......... .-|Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof,
Wheatstone.
Bristol...... Rev. William Whewell, F.R.S. Prof. Forbes, W. S. Harris, F. W.
| Jerrard.
Liverpool... Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. veces We S. Harris, Rev. Prof. Powell,
|_ Prof. Stevelly.
Newcastle Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart. ,| Rev, Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine,
F.R.S. | Prof. Stevelly.
1839, Birmingham Rev. Prof. Whewell, F.R.5.. . J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof.
“a Stevelly.
Glasgow ... Prof. Forbes, F.R.S...........+. Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly,
Arch. Smith.
Plymouth — Rev. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.S. ...... Prof. Stevelly.
Manchester Very Rev. G. Peacock, D.D., Prof. M‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev.
F.R.S. W. Scoresby.
Conk... .:+3| Prof. M‘Culloch, M.R.I.A. ... J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly.
WiOrkcesivcces |The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. ... Rev. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly.
Cambridge The Very Rev. the Dean of Rev. H. Goodwin, Prof. Stevelly,
Ely. | G. G. Stokes.
Southamp- ‘Sir John F. W. Herschel, John Drew, Dr. Stevelly, G. G,
ton. | Bart. FR.S. Stokes.
Oxford ....3: tev. Prof. Powell, M.A., Rev. H. Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G.
F.R.S. Stokes.
Swansea ... Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S. ...... Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes,
Birmingham William Hopkins, F.R.5....... Prof. Stevelly, G, G. Stokes, W,

1849.
1850.
1851,
1852,
1853.
. Liverpool... ee G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec. J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof,

Ridout Wills.
Edinburgh Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S., W.J.Macquorn Rankine,Prof.Smyth,

Sec. R.S.E. | Prof. Stevelly, Prof.G. G. Stokes.
Ipswich ... Rev. W. Whewell, D.D., $.Jackson, W. J.Macquorn Rankine,
1, HRS. | Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
Belfast...... Prof. W. Thomson, M.A., Prof. Dixon, W, J. Macquorn Ran-
| E.RB.S., F.R.8.E. | kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndall.
1S Avi ae se The Very Rev. the Dean of B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt,
| Ely, F.B.S. | Prof. Stevelly, J. Welsh.

S. | Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Welsh.

. Glasgow ... Rev. Prof. Kelland, M.A., Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D. Gray, Prof,

F.RB.S., F.R.S.E. | Tyndall.

. Cheltenham) Rev. R. Walker, M.A., F.R.S. C. Brooke, Rev. T. A. Southwood,

| Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull.

. Dublin. =... ‘Rev, T. R. Robinson, D.D., Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A.

| F.B.S., M.R.LA. _ Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
| Prof. Stevelly.
,ueeds t:.28 ‘Rev. W. Whewell, D.D., Rev. S. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy,

V.P.R.S. Prof. Stevelly, H.J.S.Smith, Prof,
Tyndall.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

lxvii

Date and Place

1859. Aberdeen... |'The Earl of Rosse,

Presidents

M.A., K.P.,
F.R.S.

1860. Oxford...... Rev. B. Price, M.A., F.B.S....
1861. Manchester|G. B. Airy, M.A. D.C.L.,
F.B.S8.

1862. Cambridge |Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A.,
F.R.S.

1863. Newcastle |Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,

C.E., F.R.S.
1864. Bath......... Prof. Cayley, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.
1865. Birmingham | W. Spottiswoode,M.A.,F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.
1866. Nottingham) Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
1867. Dundee ...| Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L.,
E.RBS.
1868. Norwich ...|Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D.,|
F.RB.S.
1869. Exeter...... |Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D..,|
E.R.S. 3
1870. Liverpool...|\J. Clerk Maxwell, M.A.,
LL.D., F.B.S.
1871, Edinburgh | Prof. P. G. Tait, F.R.S.E. .
1872. Brighton...) W. De La Rue, D.C.L., F.R.S.
-1873. Bradford ...| Prof. H. J. S. Smith, F.R.S. .
1874. Belfast...... Rev. Prof. J. H. Jellett, M.A.,
M.R.LA.
- 1875. Bristol...... Prof. Balfour Stewart, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
1876. Glasgow ...|Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,|
D.C.L., F.R.S. |
1877. Plymouth... |Prof,G.C. Foster, B.A., F.R.S.,|
: Pres. Physical Soc.
' 1878. Dublin..... |Rev. Prof. Salmon, D.D.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.
1879. Sheffield ...|George Johnstone Stoney,|
M.A., F.B.S.
- 1880. Swansea ...| Prof. W. Grylls Adams, M.A.,
E.B.S.
mlssi; York..:...ii. Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.4A.,|
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
1882. Southamp- | Rt. Hon. Prof. Lord Rayleigh, |
‘ ton. M.A., F.R.S. |
1883. Southport | Prof.O.Henrici, Ph.D., F.R.S.
1884. Montreal ...|Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,|
. LL.D., D.C.L., F.B.S. |
- 1885, Aberdeen,..|Prof. G. Chrystal; M.A.,
#.R.S.B, |

Secretaries

J. P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H.
J.S. Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. G. C. Bell, Rev. T. Rennison,
Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. Ss.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Rev.N.Ferrers, Prof.Fuller, F.Jenkin,
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. C. T, Whitley.

Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rev. G.
Buckle, Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G.
8. Mathews, Prof. H. J. S. Smith
J. M. Wilson.

Fleeming Jenkin,Prof.H.J.S. Smith,
Rey. 8S. N. Swann.

Rev. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster,
Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan.

Prof. G. C. Foster, Rey. R. Harley,
R. B. Hayward.

Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward,
W. K. Clifford,

Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford,
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen
Whitworth.

>

: | Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley,

Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D.
Everett, Rev. R. Harley.

Prof. W. K. Clifford, J. W.L.Glaisher,
Prof. A. S. Herschel, G. F. Rodwell.

Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof, Forbes,
J. W. L. Glaisher, Prof. A. S.
Herschel.

J. W. L. Glaisher, Prof. Herschel,
Randal Nixon, J. Perry, G. F.
Rodwell.

Prof. W. F. Barrett, J.W.L. Glaisher,
C. T. Hudson, G. F. Rodwell.

Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. G. Forbes, J. W. L. Glaisher,
T. Muir.

Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
J. W. L. Glaisher, F. G. Landon.

Prof. J. Casey, G. F. Fitzgerald, J.
W. L. Glaisher, Dr. O. J. Lodge.

A. H. Allen, J. W. L. Glaisher, Dr.
O. J, Lodge, D. MacAlister.

W. KE. Ayrton, J. W. L. Glaisher,
Dr. O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister,
Prof. W. E. Ayrton, Dr. 0. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Rev. W. Routh.

W. M. Hicks, Dr. O. J. Lodge, D.
MacAlister, Rev. G. Richardson.
W. M. Hicks, Prof. O. J. Lodge;
D. MacAlister, Prof. R. C. Rowe.
C. Carpmael, W. M. Hicks, A. John-
son, O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof,
W. M. Hicks, Prof, W. Ingram.

a3

Ixvili

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place

Presidents

Secretaries

1886. Birmingham
1887. Manchester
1888. Bath

1889. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
1890. Leeds

1891. Cardiff......
1892. Edinburgh
1893. Nottingham
1894. Oxford......

1895. Ipswich
1896. Liverpool...
1897. Toronto ...
1898. Bristol

1899. Dover

1900. Bradford ...
1901. Glasgow

1902 Belfast

weeeee

1903. Southport

1904. Cambridge

1905. SouthAfrica
1906. York.........

1907. Leicester ...

1908. Dublin

eeeeee

soa ELOte WV

...| Major P. A. MacMahon, F.R.S._

Prof. G. H. Darwin, M.A.,)
LL.D., F.R.S.

Prof. Sir R. 8. Ball, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.

‘Prof. G. F. Fitzgerald, M.A.,’
F.RB.S.

Capt. W. de W. Abney, C.B.,
R.E., F.B.S. |

|J. W. L. Glaisher, Sc.D.,
F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S. |

Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc.,
LL.D., F.R.S.

'Prof.. A. Schuster,

| F.R.S., F.R.A.S. |

R. T. Glazebrook, M.A., F.R.S.

Ph.D.,

Prof.A.W.Riicker, M.A.,F.R.S.

M. Hicks, M.A.,
¥.R.S.
Prof. J. J. Thomson, M.A.,

D.Se., F.2.S.

Prof. A. R. Forsyth, M.A.,
F.R.S.

Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S....

| Prof. J. H. Poynting, F.R.S.'

Dr. J. Larmor, F.R.S.—Dep.
of Astronomy, Dr. A. A.
Common, F.R.S.

—Dep. of Astronomy, Prof.

H. H. Turner, F.RB.S.

‘Prof. J. Purser, LL.D.,M.R.1.A. |

| —Dep. of Astronomy, Prof.

| A. Schuster, F.R.S.

C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.—Dep.

| of Astronomy and Meteor-

ology,Dr.W.N. Shaw,F.R.S

Prof. H. Lamb, F.R.S.—Swb- |
Section of Astronomy and
Cosmical Physics, Sir J.|
Eliot, K.C.I.E., F.R.S.

Prof. A. R. Forsyth, M.A.,
F.R.S.

Principal E. H.Griffiths, F.R:S. |

‘Prof. A. E. H. Love, M.A.,
) SESRIS:

'Dr. W. N. Shaw, F.B.S. ......

y

R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
J. H. Poynting, W. N. Shaw.

R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
H. Lamb, W. N. Shaw.

R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A.
Lodge, W. N. Shaw.

R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A.
Lodge, W. N. Shaw, H. Stroud.
R. T. Glazebrook, Prof. A. Lodge,

W.N. Shaw, Prof. W. Stroud.

R. E. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof. A.
Lodge, Prof. A. Il. Selby.

Rh. E. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof. A.
Lodge, Dr. W. Peddie.

W. T. A. Emtage, J. Larmor, Prof.
A. Lodge, Dr. W. Peddie.

Prof. W. H. Heaton, Prof. A. Lodge,
J. Walker.

Prof. W. H. Heaton, Prof. A. Lodge,
G. T. Walker, W. Watson.

Prof. W. H. Heaton, J. L. Howard,
Prof. A. Lodge, G. T. Walker, W.
Watson.

Prof. W. H. Heaton, J. C. Gla-
shan, J. L. Howard, Prof. J. C.
McLennan.

A. P. Chattock, J. L. Howard,
C. H. Lees, W. Watson, E. T.
Whittaker.

J. L. Howard, C. H. Lees, W. Wat-
son, K. 'T. Whittaker.

P. H. Cowell, A. Fowler, C. H. Lees,
C. J. L. Wagstaffe, W. Watson,
E. T. Whittaker.

H.S. Carslaw, C.H. Lees, W. Stewart,
Prof. L. R. Wilberforce.

H..8. Carslaw, A. RB. Hinks» A,
Larmor, C. H. Lees, Prof. W. B.
Morton, A. W. Porter.

D. E. Benson, A. R. Hinks, R. W.
H. T. Hudson, Dr. C. H. Lees, J.
Loton, A. W. Porter.

A. R. Hinks, R. W. H. T. Hudson,
Dr. C. H. Lees, Dr. W. J.S. Lock-
yer, A: W. Porter, W-.:C._\D.
Whetham.

A. R. Hinks, §. 8. Hough, R. T. A.
Innes, J. H. Jeans, Dr. C. H,
Lees.

Dr. L. N. G. Filon, Dr. J. A. Harker,
A. R. Hinks, Prof. A. W. Porter,
H. Dennis Taylor.

E. E. Brooks, Dr. L. N. G. Filon,
Dr. J. A. Harker, A. R. Hinks,
Prof. A. W. Porter.

Dr. W. G. Duffield, Dr. L. N. G.
Filon, E. Gold, Prof. J. A,
McClelland, Prof. A. W. Porter,
Prof, E. T. Whittaker.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

lxix

——

Date and Place

Presidents

:

Secretaries

1832. Oxford......
1833. Cambridge
1834. Edinburgh

. Dublin
. Bristol

1835
1836

1837. Liverpool...)

1838 Newcastle
1839. Birmingham |
1840. Glasgow

1841. Plymouth... |
1842. Manchester
1843.
_ 1844.

1845, Cambridge

1846, Southamp-
ton.
1847, Oxford......
1848. Swansea
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich ...
1852. Belfast......
1853. Hull

1854. Liverpool |

1855. Glasgow ...
1856. Cheltenham |

1857. Dublin

1858. Leeds

1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford

186]. Manchester |
1862. Cambridge

1863. Newcastle

1864, Bath

'W. Odling, M.B., F.R.S

CHEMICAL SCIENCE.

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, Il.—CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY.

John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Dr. Hope

se eteereereeesscesesasessss

James F. W. Johnston.
Prof. Miller.
Mr. Johnston, Dr. Christison.

SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.

Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S. ......
Rey. Prof. Cumming

Michael Faraday, F.R.S.......
Rev. William Whewell,F.R.S.

Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. ......

.../ Dr. Thomas Thomson, F.R.S.

Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S.
John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof, Apjohn, M.R.I.A
Prof. T. Graham, F.K.5.......

sewecrees

Rey. Prof. Cumming

en eeneree

Michael Faraday, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Rev. W. V. Harcourt, M.A.,

F.R.S.

...| Richard Phillips, F.RB.S. ......
John Percy, M.D., F.RB.S....... |

Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E. ...
Prof. Thomas Graham, F.R.8.
Thomas Andrews, M.D.,F.R.5.

‘Prof, J. F. W. Johnston, M.A.,

F.R.S.
Prof. W, A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.5.

'Dr. Lyon Playfair,C.B.,F.R.5.

Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. ...

‘Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F-.R.S.,|

M.R.LA.

Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., |

D.C.L.
Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S.

Prof. B, C. Brodie, F.R.S......

Prof. W.A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. W.H. Miller, M.A.,F.R.S;

Dr. Alex. W. Williamson,
F.R.S.

eueeeee

Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston.

Dr. Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Hera-
path.

Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr.
Reynolds.

Prof. Miller, H. L. Pattinson, Thomas
Richardson.

'Dr. Golding Bird, Dr. J. B. Melson.

|Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr. T. Clark,
Dr. L. Playfair.

J. Prideaux, R. Hunt, W. M. Tweedy.

| Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J, Graham.

R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny.

Dr. L. Playfair, HE. Solly, T. H.
Barker.

R. Hunt, J. P. Joule, Prof, Miller,
i. Solly.

Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall.

B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof, Solly.

T. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T, Williams.

R. Hunt, G. Shaw.

'Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson.

|T. J. Pearsall, W. S. Ward.

'Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof.
Ronalds.

H. S. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J.
Pearsall.

Dr. Edwards, Dr. Gladstone, Dr.
Price.

‘Prof, Frankland, Dr. H. EK. Roscce,

J. Horsley, P. J. Worsley, Prof.
Voelcker.

Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul-
livan.

Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey-
nolds.

J. S. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D.
Liveing, Dr. Odling.

A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing, .
A. B. Northcote.

A, Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing.

H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof.
Roscoe.

Prof, Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C.
Stevenson,

A. V. Harcourt, Prof. Liveing, R,
Biggs.

lxx

"PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF IHE SECTIONS,

Date and Place

Presidents

1865, Birmingham

1866.
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874,
1875.
1876.
1877.
"1878,
1879.
1880.

1881.
1882.

1883.
1884.
1885.

1886

1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894.

Nottingham |

Dundee

Norwich
Exeter ......
Livetpool..
Edinburgh
Brighton ...

Bradford...

Glasgow ...
Plymouth.
Dublin......
Sheffield ...
Swansea ...
Southamp-
ton,
Southport

Montreal ...

Aberdeen...

. Birmingham

Manchester

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds

Edinburgh
Nottingham
Oxford

see ELOL.

-|Prof: H.

Prof. W. A. Miller,
V.P.R.S.

H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S.

T. Anderson, M.D.,

¥.R.S.E.

..-|Prof, HE. Frankland, F:R.8.

Dr. H. Debus; F.R.S.

E. Roscoe, B.A.
F.RB:S,

Prof. T. Andrews, M.D.,F.R.S.
Dr. J.. H. Gladstone, F.R.S...
Prof. W. J. Russell, F.R.S..

M.D.,

Secretaries

A. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof.
Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills.

\J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J.

| Russell, J. White.

A. Crum Brown, Prof. G. D. Liveing,
W. J. Russell,

‘Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. Rus-

| sell, F. Sutton.

..-/Prof, A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J.

Russell, Dr. Atkinson.

, Ptof. A. Crum Brown, A. E. Fletcher,

| Dr. W. J. Russell.
J. Y. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, T.
E. Thorpe.

-|Dr. Mills, W. Chandler Roberts, Dr.

| W.J. Russell, Dr. T. Wood.

-. Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Mills, W. Chand-

ler Roberts, Dr. Thorpe.

Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D., ‘Dr. T. Cranstoun Charles, W. Chand-

F.R.S.B.
A. G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A.,
F.R.S.
W. H. Perkin, F.R.S,

+0/| ERASE DCL NH Htaceccnanttessess

Prof. Maxwell Simpson, M.D.
F.R.S.
Prof. Dewar, M.A., F.R.S.

Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph.D.,|

F.R.S.
Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S.
Prof. G. D. Liveing, M.A.,

F.R.S.

Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S.

Prof. Sir H. E. Roscoe, Ph.D., |

LL.D., F.R.S.

Prof. H. E. Armstrong, Ph.D.,

F.R.S., Sec. C.S.
W. Crookes, F.R.S., V.P.C.S.
Dr. E. Schunck, F.R.S.

Prof. W. A. Tilden,
FE.B.S:, V.P.C.S8.

Sir I. Lowthian Bell,
D.C.L., F.R.S.

Prof. T. E. Thorpe, B.Sc.,
Ph.D., F.R.S., Treas. C.S.
Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen

C.B., F.R.S.

D.Sc.

Bart.

seeeee

Prof. H. McLeod;¥.R.8....... |

Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds,
M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.

ler Roberts, Prof. Thorpe.
‘Dr. H. KE, Armstrong, W. Chandler
Roberts, W. A. Tilden.

|W. Dittmar, W. Chandler Roberts,

J. M. Thomson, W. A. Tilden.
Dr. Oxland, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson.

»|W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thom-

son, Dr. C. R. Tichborne, T. Wills.

..|H. 8. Bell, W. Chandler Roberts,

J. M. Thomson.
P. P. Bedson, H. B. Dixon, W. R. E.
| Hodgkinson, J. M. Thomson.
P. P. Bedson, H. B. Dixon, T. Gough.
P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
J. L. Notter.

.. Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B,

Dixon, H. Forster Morley.

Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,

| T. McFarlane, Prof. W. H. Pike.

Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,

| H. Forster Morley, Dr. W. J.

Simpson.

\P. P. Bedson, H. B. Dixon, H. F. Mor-

| ley,W.W. J. Nicol, C. J. Woodward.

‘Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. Forster
Morley, W. Thomson.

, Prof. H. B. Dixon, H. Forster Morley,

R. E. Moyle, W. W. J. Nicol.

, H. Forster Morley, D. H. Nagel, W.

W. J. Nicol, H. L. Pattinson, jun.
C. H. Bothamley, H. Forster Morley,
D. H. Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.

, C. H, Bothamley, H. Forster Morley,

W. W. J. Nicol, G. S. Turpin.

J. Gibson, H. Forster Morley, D. H.
Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.

J. B. Coleman, M. J. R. Dunstan,
D. H. Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.

Prof. H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S.'A. Colefax, W. W. Fisher, Arthur

|

Harden, H. Forster Morley.

Date and Place
|

1895.

1896.
1897.

1898.
1899.

1900.

1901.
1902.
1903.

1904.

1905.
1906.

1907.

1908.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Ixxi

Ipswich

Liverpool...
Toronto
Bristol

Bradford ...
Glasgow ...
Belfast......

Southport

Cambridge

SouthAfrica

Leicester ...

Dublin

seneee

Presidents

Secretaries

SECTION B (continwed).—CHEMISTRY.

Dr. Ludwig Mond, F.R.S. ...

.| Prof. W. Ramsay, F.R.S.......

Prof. F. R. Japp, F.B.S. ......

Horace T. Brown, F.R.S.......

Prof. W. H. Perkin, F.R.S. ...

Prof. Percy F. Frankland,
¥.R.S.

Prof. E. Divers, F.RB.S........4+

Prof. W. N. Hartley, D.S8c.,

F.RS.
Prof. Sydney Young, F.R.S....

George T. Beilby

sere eenerecenee

Prof. Wyndham R. Dunstan,
F.R.S.

Prof. A. Smithells, F.R.S. ...

|Prof. F. S. Kipping, F.R.S. ...

.|Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S. ......|E. H. Fison, Arthur Harden, C. A.

Kohn, J. W. Rodger.

| Arthur Harden, C. A. Kohn.

Prof. W. H. Ellis, A. Harden, C. A.
Kohn, Prof. R. F. Ruttan.

C. A. Kohn, F. W. Stoddart, T. K.
Rose.

A. D. Hall, C. A. Kéhn, T. K. Rose,
Prof. W. P. Wynne.

W. M. Gardner, F. 8. Kipping, W.
J. Pope, T. K. Rose.

W. CC. Anderson, G. G. Henderson,
W. J. Pope, T. K. Rose.

R. F. Blake, M. O. Forster, Prof.
G. G. Henderson, Prof. W. J. Pope.

Dr. M. O. Forster, Prof. G. G. Hen-
derson, J. Ohm, Prof. W. J. Pope.

Dr. M. O. Forster, Prof. G. G. Hen-
derson, Dr. H. O. Jones, Prof. W.
J. Pope.

W. A. Caldecott, Dr. M. O. Forster,
Prof. G. G. Henderson, C. F. Juritz.

Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Prof. A. W.
Crossley, 8. H. Davies, Prof. W. J.
Pope.

Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Prof. A. W.

| Crossley, J. H. Hawthorn, Dr.
F. M. Perkin.

Dr. HK. F. Armstrong, Dr. A. McKen-
zie, Dr. F. M. Perkin, Dr. J. H.

Pollock.

GEOLOGICAL (anv, unr, 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, III.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

1832.

1833. Cambridge.|/G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. ...
1834. Edinburgh .| Prof. Jameson

1835.
1836.

1837.

1838.

Oxford

Dublin
Bristol

Liverpool...

Newcastle.,

1839. Birmingham

1840.
1841.
1842,
1843.

Glasgow ...
Plymouth...
Manchester

Cork .,,.ss000

|R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.

....../J0hn Taylor.
...|W. Lonsdale, John Phillips.

|J. Phillips, T. J. Torrie, Rev. J. Yates.

SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

/R. J. Griffith
/Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—
Geog.,R.1.Murchison,F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.—
Geog.,G.B.Greenough,F.R.S.
CG. Lyell, F.B.S., V.P.G.S.—
Geography, Lord Prudhoe.
Rey. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—
Geog.,G.B.Greenough,F.R.S.
Charles Lyell, F.R.S.— Geog.,
G. B. Greenough, F.R.S.
H. I. De la Beche, F.R.S. ...

seme een eeereseseeees

R. I. Murchison, F.R.8. ......

Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie.

William Sanders, 8. Stutchbury,
T. J. Torrie.

Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.— G¥eo-
graphy, Capt. H. M. Denham, R.N.

W.C. Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock.—
Geography, Capt. Washington.

George Lloyd, M.D., H. E. Strick
land, Charles Darwin.

W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, H. Murray,
H. E. Strickland, J. Scoular.

W. J. Hamilton, Edward Moore, M.D.,
R. Hutton.

E. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R.
Lloyd, H. E, Strickland.

Richard E, Griffith, F.R.S....|F. M. Jennings, H. E. Strickland.

lxxii

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS,

Date and Place

1844.
1845.

1846.
1847.
1848.

Cambridge.

Southamp-
ton.

Presidents

Henry Warburton, Pres. G. 8.

Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A.
F.B.S.
Leonard Horner, F.R.S. ......

Swansea... Sir H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S.

1849.Birmingham ) Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S.......
|

1850.

1851.
1852.

1853.
1854.

1855.
1856.
1857.
1858.

1859

1860.
1861.

1862
1863

1864.

1865
1866

1867
1868

1869
1870
1871
1872
1873

Edinburgh!

eee

Ipswich
Belfast

seeeee

Tobit es hoe
Liverpool..

Glasgow ...
Cheltenham

Dublin

Leeds ......
. Aberdeen...

Oxford......
Manchester
. Cambridge
Newcastle

. Birmingham
. Nottingham

. Dundee
. Norwich

PVHXGbET arcane
. Liverpool...
. Edinburgh
. Brighton...
. Bradford ...

4

Sir Roderick I. Murchison,
F.R.S.

SECTION © (continued)
William Hopkins,M.A.,F.R.S.

Lieut.-Col.
F.R.S.
Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.........
Prof. Edward Forbes, F.R.S.

Portlock, R.E.,

Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S....
Prof, A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S....

The Lord Talbot de Malahide

William Hopkins,M.A., F.R.S.

Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.

Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S...

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S.

Prof. Warington W. Smyth,
F.RB.S., F.G.S,

Prof. J. Phillips,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart.,
K.C.B., F.R.S.

Prof. A. C. Ramsay, LL.D.,
F.R.S.

DL

.| Archibald Geikie, F.B.S.......|
..{R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,

F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. R. Harkness, F.R.S.,
F.G,8.

Sir Philipde M.Grey Egerton,
Bart., M.P., F.R.S.

Prof. A. Geikie, F.R.8., F.G.S.

R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. J. Phillips, F.R.S. ......

Secretaries

Prof. Ansted, E. H. Bunbury.

Rev. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay,
Rev. W. Thorp.

|Robert A. Austen, Dr. J. H. Norton,
Prof. Oldham, Dr. C. T. Beke.

Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C,
Ramsay, J. Ruskin.

S.Benson, Prof.Oldham, Prof.Ramsay

\J. B. Jukes, Prof. Oldham, A. C.
Ramsay.

A. Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller,
Prof, Nicol.

1

-— GEOLOGY.

C. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod,
Searles Wood.

James Bryce, James MacAdam,
Prof. M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol.
Prof, Harkness, William Lawton.
John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness,
G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall.
J. Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof. Nicol.
Rev. P. B. Brodie, Rev. R. Hep-
worth, Edward Hull, J. Scougall,
T. Wright.

Prof. Harkness, G. Sanders, R. H.
Scott.

Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, E. W. Shaw.

Prof. Harkness, Rev. J. Longmuir,
H. C. Sorby.

Prof. Harkness, E. Hull, J. W.
Woodall.
Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T.
Rupert Jones, G. W. Ormerod.
Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert
Jones, H. C. Sorby.

E. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H. C.
Sorby, Thomas Sopwith.

W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C,
Sorby, W. Pengelly.

Rev. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rev. E.
Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly.

R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil-
son, G. H. Wright.
KE. Hull, W. Pengelly, H. Woodward.
Rey. O. Fisher, Rev. J. Gunn, W.
Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins,
Rev. H. H. Winwood.

W. Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood,
W. Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Morton.

R. Etheridge, J. Geikie, T. McKenny
Hughes, L. C. Miall.

L. C. Miall, George Scott, William
Topley, Henry Woodward.

L.C. Miall,R.H.Tiddeman,W.Topley,

} Geography was constituted a separate Section, see page Ixxix.

Date and Place

i

PRESIDENTS AND SEORETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. Ixxil
Presidents Secretaries
Prof. Hull, M.A., F.RB.S.,|F. Drew, L. C. Miall, R. G. Symes,

1874. Belfast

1875. Bristol
1876. Glasgow ...

1877. Plymouth...
1878. Dublin......
1879. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea ...
1881. York.........
1882. Southamp-
ton.

1883. Southport

1884. Montreal ...
1885. Aberdeen...
1886. Birmingham
1887. Manchester
1888. Bath

ee eeeeaee

1889. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
1890. Leeds

aeteee

1891. Cardiff
1892. Edinburgh
1893. Nottingham
1894, Oxford......

1895. Ipswich

1896. Liverpool...
1897. Toronto

1898. Bristol

seneee

1899. Dover

aeeeee

1900. Bradford ...

1901. Glasgow ...
1902, Belfast

1903. Southport

1904. Cambridge | Aubrey Strahan, F.R.S. .....

F.G.S.
Dr. T. Wright, F.R.S.E., F.G.S.
Prof. John Young, M.D.......

W. Pengelly, F.R.S., F.G.S.

John Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S.
F.S.A., F.G.S.

Prof, P. M. Duncan, F.R.S.

H. C, Sorby, F.R.S., F.G.S....

A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.5.,
F.G.S.

R. Etheridge, F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. W. C. Williamson,
LL.D., F.R.S.
W.T. Blanford, F.R.S., Sec.

Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc.,
LL.D., F.RB.S., F.G.S.

Henry Woodward, LL.D.,

- E.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. J. Geikie, LL.D., D.C.L.,

F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. A. H. Green, M.A,,
F.RB.S., F.G.S.

iProf. T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S.,

F.G.S.

Prof. C, Lapworth, LL.D.,
F.RB.S., F.G.S.

J. J. H. Teall, M.A., F.B.S.,
F.G.S,

L. Fletcher, M.A., F.R.S.

W. Whitaker, B.A., F.R.S. ...
J. E.. Marr, M.A., F.R.S.......

...|Dr. G. M. Dawson, C.M.G.,

F.R.S.
W. H. Huddleston, F.R.S......

Sir Archibald Geikie, F.R.S.
Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S.

John Horne, F.R.S. .

Lieut.-Gen. C, A. McMahon,
F.RB.S.

Prof, W. W. Watts,
M.Sc.

M.A.,

1905, SouthAfrica | Prof. H. A. Miers, M.A., D.Sc.,

E.R.S,

G.S.
Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., Sec. |
G.S

R. H. Tiddeman.

L. C. Miall, E. B. Tawney, W. Topley.

J. Armstrong, F. W. Rudler, W,
Topley.

Dr. Le Neve Foster, R. H. Tidde-
man, W. Topley.

E. T. Hardman, Prof. J, O’Reilly,
R. H. Tiddeman.

W. Topley, G. Blake Walker.

W. Topley, W. Whitaker.

J. E. Clark, W. Keeping, W. Topley,
‘W. Whitaker.

T. W. Shore, W. Topley, E. West-
lake, W. Whitaker.

R. Betley, C. E. De Rance, W. Top-
ley, W. Whitaker.

F. Adams, Prof, E. W. Claypole, W.
Topley, W. Whitaker.

C. E. De Rance, J. Horne, J. J. H.
Teall, W. Topley.

iW. J. Harrison, J. J. H. Teall, W.
Topley, W. W. Watts.

J. E. Marr, J. J. H. Teall, W. Top-
ley, W. W. Watts.

Prof G. A. Lebour, W. Topley, W.
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.

Prof. G. A. Lebour, J. E. Marr, W.
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.

J. E. Bedford, Dr. F. H. Hatch, J.
E. Marr, W. W. Watts.

|W. Galloway, J. E. Marr, Clement

Reid, W. W. Watts.

'H. M. Cadell, J. E. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.

J. W. Carr, J. HE. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.

.|F. A. Bather, A. Harker, Clement

Reid, W. W. Watts.

F. A. Bather, G. W. Lamplugh, H.
A. Miers, Clement Reid.

J. Lomas, Prof. H. A. Miers, C. Reid.

Prof. A. P. Coleman, G. W. Lamp-
lugh, Prof. H. A. Miers.

.|G. W. Lamplugh, Prof. H. A. Miers,

H. Pentecost.
J. W. Gregory, G. W. Lamplugh,
Capt. McDakin, Prof. H. A. Miers.

.|H. L. Bowman, Rev. W. L. Carter,

G. W. Lamplugh, H. W. Monckton.

..|H. L. Bowman, H. W. Monckton.

H. L. Bowman, H. W. Monckton,
J. St. J. Phillips, H. J. Seymour.
H. L. Bowman, Rev. W. L. Carter,

J. Lomas, H. W. Monckton.

.|H. L. Bowman, Rev. W. L. Carter,

J. Lomas, H. Woods.

'H. L. Bowman, J. Lomas, Dr. Molen-

graaff, Prof. A. Young, Prof. R. B,
Young.

Ixxiv PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place Presidents Secretaries

PBOGs VOLK... «ances G. W. Lamplugh, F.R.S.......]H. L. Bowman, Rev. W. L. Carter,
Rev. W. Johnson, J. Lomas.
1907. Leicester ...| Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S....|Dr. F. W. Bennett, Rev. W. L. Carter,
Prof. T. Groom, J. Lomas.
1908. Dublin...... Prof. John Joly, F.R.S. ......|Rev. W. L. Carter, J. Lomas, Prof.
| S. H. Reynolds, H. J. Seymour.

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, I1V.—ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY.

LS OXTONG cc. cas Rev. P. B. Duncan, F.G.S. ...| Rev. Prof. J. 8. Henslow.
1833. Cambridge!) Rev. W. L. P. Garnons, F.L.8. C. C. Babington, D. Don.
1834, Edinburgh. Prof. Graham............ssseees W. Yarrell, Prof. Burnett.

q SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.
1835. Dublin...... Dy PAVPAULIN AT nce saan penseas ee ome J. Curtis, Dr. Litton.

1836. Bristol...... Rev. Prof. Henslow ............ J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr, Riley, 8.
| Rootsey.

1837. Liverpool...|W. S. MacLeay............ses0 |C. C. Babington, Rev. L, Jenyns, W.
| Swainson.

1838. Newcastle |Sir W. Jardine, Bart. ......... J. E. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen,

|| Dr. Richardson.

1839. Birmingham | Prof. Owen, F.R.S. ............| EH. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson.
1840. Glasgow .../Sir W. J. Hooker, LL,D.......| Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat-
terson.

1841. Plymouth...| John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S./J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson.
1842. Manchester | Hon. and Very Rev. W. Her-| Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A.

| bert, LL.D., F.L.S. Turner.

Hea o MOON sacseecas | William Thompson, F.L.S....|G. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, R.
| | Patterson.

Ose: York. ...c320- | Very Rev. the Dean of Man-| Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King,
| chester. Dr. Lankester.

1845. Cambridge | Rey. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S...,| Dr. Lankester, T, VY, Wollaston,
1846, Southamp- |Sir J. Richardson, M.D., | Dr. Lankester, T, V. Wollaston, H,

ton. | ERS: | Wooldridge.
1847. Oxford....,.|H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.R.S.; Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T, V.
| Wollaston,

SECTION D (continued).—zOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY.

[For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Sub-
sections and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see p. Ixxviii.]

1848. Swansea ...|L. W. Dillwyn, F.R.S..........]Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A. Hen-
: frey, Dr. Lankester.
1849. Birmingham | William Spence, F.R.S. ......|Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell.
1850. Edinburgh | Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S.,F.R.S8.E.| Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan-
4 kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan.
1861. Ipswich ...|Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A.,|Prof. Aliman, F. W. Johnston, Dr. B,

F.R.S. Lankester.
1852. Belfast...... W. \Opilbyacv.cleestscoagescceches Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr,
Edwin Lankester.
1853. Hull......... C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.) Robert Harrison, Dr. EK. Lankester.

‘ At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a Repprate Committee
for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. xxviii.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place

lxxv

Presidents Secretaries

1854. Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow ...
1856, Cheltenham

1857. Dublin
1858; Leeds ....

1859. Aberdeen...

1860. Oxford
1861.

1862. Cambridge

1863. Newcastle

1864. Bath..

1865. Birming-

ham !

1866. Nottingham

1867. Dundee

1868. Norwich

1869, Exeter

Co

1870. Liverpool...

1871. Edinburgh .

1872. Brighton ...

97873. Bradford ...

Manchester

cbeaeeee

| Rev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S.

Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S.... Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester.
Rey. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E. William Keddie, Dr. E. Lankester:
Thornas Bell, F.R.S., Pres.L.S. Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman,
Dr. E. Lankester.
Prof, W. H. Harvey, M.D., Prof. J.R.Kinahan, Dr. E. Lankestet,
F.R:S. | Robert Patterson, Dr. W. H. Steele.
C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.|Henty Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E:
Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
Sit W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E. Prof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester,
| Dr. Ogilvy. ;
W.S. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P;
L. Sclater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
Prof. C. C. Babington, F.R.S. Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr,
P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Prof. Huxley, HIR.S.2 3.5.06 Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....| Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H.
B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.
. H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T.
Stainton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
.| Dr. J. Anthony, Rev. C. Clarke, Rev.
H. B. Tristram, Dr. BE. P. Wright.

Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S....

Dr, John E. Gray, F.R.S.

T. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S.

SECTION D (continued ).—BIOLOGY.

Prof. Huxley, F.R.S.—Dep.;Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H.
of Physiol., Prof. Humphry,| 8B. Tristram, W. Turner, EK. B.

| HE.R.S.—Dep.of Anthropol.,| Tylor, Dr. E. P. Wright.

| A. R. Wallace.

. Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. B.S.

—Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,

George Busk, M.D., F.R.S.

C. Spence Bate, Dr. S. Cobbold, Dr.
M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rev.
H. B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner.

Dr. T. S. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr.
M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H. T.
Stainton, Rey. Dr. H. B. Tristram,
Dr. E. P. Wright.

Dror iss Gobbold, Prof. M. Foster,
E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tris-
tram.

Dr. T. S. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans,
Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H.
T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram,
Foster, M.D., F.L.8.—Dep.| C. Staniland Wake, HE. Ray Lan-
of Ethno., J. Evans, F.R.S. | kester.

Prof. Allen Thomson, M.D.,|Dr. T. R. Fraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Bot. and, HE. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
Zool.,Prof.WyvilleThomson,| H.T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,, Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne
Prof. W. Turner, M.D. King.

Sir J. Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S.—| Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, H. T. Stainton,
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,| Prof. Lawson, F. W. Rudler, J. H.
Dr. Burdon Sanderson,) Lamprey, Dr. Gamgee, EH. Ray
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,, Lankester, Dr. Pye-Smith.

Col. A. Lane Fox, F.G.8. |

Prof. Allman, F'.R.S.—Dep. of
Anat.and Physiol.,Prof, Ru-
therford, M.D.— Dep. of An-
thropol., Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S.

—Dep. of Physiology, W
) H. Flower, F.R.S.

;George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.8.

| —WDep. of "Bot. and Zool.,

C. Spence Bate, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Ethno., E. B. Tylor.
| Prof.G. Rolleston, M.A., M.D.,
F.R.S., F.L.S.—Dep. of
Anat. and Physiol., Prof. M.

Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. Lawson,
R. M‘Lachlan, Dr. Pye-Smith, E.
Ray Lankester, F. W. Rudler, J.
H. Lamprey.

1 The title of Section D was changed to Biology.

Ixxvi

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place

Presidents

Secretaries

1874. Belfast.....,

1875, Bristol

1876. Glasgow ...

1877. Plymouth...

1878, Dublin

1879. Sheffield ...

1880.

1881.

1882,

1883.

1884.

1885.

1886.

1887.

Swansea ...

Southamp-

ton.

Southport

Montreal ',,.
Aberdeen...

Birmingham

Manchester

Prof. Redfern, M.D.—Dep. of
Zool. and Bot., Dr. Hooker,
C.B.,Pres.R.S.—Dep. of An-
throp., Sir W. R. Wilde,
M.D.

Anat. and Physiol., Prof.

Cleland, F.R.S.—Dep. of|
Anth.,Prof.Rolleston,F.R.S5. |
A. Russel Wallace, F.L.8.—|

Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,
Prof. A. Newton, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Dr. J. G. McKendrick.

J. Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Prof. Macalister.—Dep. of
Anthropol.,F.Galton,F.R.S.

Apseoe Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anthropol., Prof,
Huxley, Sec. R.S.—Dep.

of Anat. and Physiol., R.
McDonnell, M.D., F.R.S.
Prof. St. George Mivart,
F.R.S.-—Dep. of Anthropol.,
E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S.
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-

siol., Dr. Pye-Smith.

A.C. L. Giinther, ¥.R.8.—Dep.
of Anat. 5 Physiol., F. M.
Balfour, FR S.—Dep. of
Anthropol., ¥. W. Rudler.

R. Owen, F.R.S.—Dep. of An-
thropol., Prof. W.H. Flower,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anat. and
Physiol., Prof. J. 8. Burdon
Sanderson, F.R.S.

Prof. A. Gamgee, M.D., F.R.S.
— Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,
Prof. M. A. Lawson, F.L.S.
—Dep. of Anthropol., Prof.
W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.

Prof. E. Ray Lankester, M.A.,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
W. Pengelly, F.R.S.

eeeeene

Prof. H. N. Moseley, M.A.,
F.R.S.

Prof. W.C. M‘Intosh, M.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.

W. Carruthers, Pres. L.S.,
E.R.S., F.G.S.

| Prof. A. Newton, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.L.S8., V.P:Z.8.

P, L. Sclater, F.R.S.— Dep. of |

|

W.T. Thiselton- Dyer, R. O. Cunning»
ham, Dr. J. J. Charles, Dr. P. H.
Pye-Smith, J. J. Murphy, F, W.
Rudler.

E. R. Alston, Dr. McKendrick, Prof,
W. R. M‘Nab, Dr. Martyn, F. W.
Rudler, Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith, Dr.
W. Spencer.

R. Alston, Hyde Clarke, Dr.
Knox, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Dr.
Muirhead, Prof. Morrison Wat-
son,

E.

KE. R. Alston, F. Brent, Dr. D. J.
Cunningham, Dr. C. A. Hingston,
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, J. B. Rowe,
F. W. Rudler.

Dr. R. J. Harvey, Dr. T. Hayden,
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Prof. J. M.
Purser, J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler.

Arthur Jackson, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler, Prof.
Schafer.

G. W. Bloxam, John Priestley,
Howard Saunders, Adam Sedg-
wick,

G. W. Bloxam, W. A. Forbes, Rev.
W. C. Hey, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
W. North, John Priestley, Howard
Saunders, H. E. Spencer.

G. W. Bloxam, W. Heape, J. B.
Nias, Howard Saunders, A. Sedg-
wick, T. W. Shore, jun.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. G. J. Haslam,
W. Heape, W. Hurst, Prof. A. M.
Marshall, Howard Saunders, Dr.
G. A. Woods.

Prof. W. Osler, Howard Saunders,
A. Sedgwick, Prof. R. R. Wright.

W. Heape, J. McGregor-Robertson,
J. Duncan Matthews, Howard
Saunders, H. Marshall Ward.

Prof. T. W. Bridge, W. Heape, Prof.
W. Hillhouse, W. L. Sclater, Prof,
H. Marshall Ward.

C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, 8. F. Har-

mer, W. Heape, W. L. Sclater,
Prof. H. Marshall Ward.

! Anthropology was made a separate Section, see p. lxxxv.

Date and Place

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Ixxvii

Presidents

Secretaries

1888. Bath

1889.

1890. Leeds

1891.

1892. Edinburgh |
1893. Nottingham!

1894, Oxford? ...
|

1895.
1896.
1897.
1898.

1899.
1900.

1901.
1902.

1903.

1904.

1905.
1906.

1907.
1908.

sew eeeeee)

Newcastle -|

upon-Tyne

Cardiff ......

|W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, C.M.G.,

F.RB.S., F.L.S.

Prof. J. 8. Burdon Sanderson,
M.A., M.D., F.R.S.

Prof. A. Milnes Marshall,
M.A., M.D., D.Sce., F.R.S.

Francis Darwin, M.A., M.B.,
F.R.S., F.L.S.

Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D.,
F.R.S., F.R.S.E.

Rev. Canon H. B. Tristram,
M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.

Prof. I. Bayley Balfour, M.A.,,|
E.R.S.

Ipswich
Liverpool...
Toronto ...

Bristol......

Dover ......
Bradford ...

Glasgow ...
Belfast

seeeee

Southport
Cambridge

SouthAfrica

Leicester ...

Dublin

SECTION D (continued).

...|Prof, W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.

Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S. ...
Prof. L. C. Miall, F.R.S. ......
Prof. W. F. R. Weldon, F.R.S.

Adam Sedgwick, F.R.S. ......
Dr. R. H. Traquair, F.R.S. ...

Prof. J. Cossar Ewart, F.R.S.
Prof. G. B. Howes, F.R.S. ...

Prof. 8. J. Hickson, F.R.S....

William Bateson, F.R.S......./

G. A. Boulenger, F.B.S. ......

J. J. Lister, FAR.S. ........s008

|Dr. W. E. Hoyle, M.A....... wee

Dr. S. F. Harmer, F.R.S.......

F, E. Beddard, S. F. Harmer, Prof.
H. Marshall Ward, W. Gardiner,
Prof. W. D. Halliburton,

C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, 8. F. Har-
mer, Prof. T. Oliver, Prof. H. Mar-
shall Ward.

8. F. Harmer, Prof. W. A. Herdman,
S. J. Hickson, F. W. Oliver, H.
Wager, H. Marshall Ward.

F. E. Beddard, Prof. W. A. Herdman,
Dr. 8. J. Hickson, G. Murray, Prof.
W.N. Parker, H. Wager.

G. Brook, Prof. W. A. Herdman, G.
Murray, W. Stirling, H. Wager.
G. C. Bourne, J. B. Farmer, Prof.
W. A, Herdman, 8. J. Hickson,

W. B. Ransom, W. L. Sclater.

W. W. Benhan, Prof. J. B. Farmer,
Prof. W. A. Herdman, Prof. S. J.
Hickson, G. Murray, W. L. Sclater,

— ZOOLOGY.

'G. C. Bourne, H. Brown, W. E,

Hoyle, W. L. Sclater.

H. O. Forbes, W. Garstang, W. E.
Hoyte.

W. Garstang, W. E. Hoyle, Prof.
E. E. Prince.

Prof. R. Boyce, W. Garstang, Dr.
A. J. Harrison, W. E. Hoyle.

W. Garstang, J. Graham Kerr.

W. Garstang, J. G. Kerr, T.
Taylor, Swale Vincent.

J. G. Kerr, J. Rankin, J. Y. Simpson.

Prof. J. G. Kerr, R. Patterson, J. Y.
Simpson.

Dr. J. H. Ashworth, J. Barcroft, A,
Quayle, lr. J. Y. Simpson, Dr.
H. W. M. Tims.

Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster,
Prof. J. Y. Simpson, Dr. H. W. M.
Tims.

Dr. Pakes, Dr. Purcell, Dr. H. W. M.
Tims, Prof. J. Y. Simpson.

Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster,
Oxley Grabham, Dr. H. W. M.
Tims.

Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster,
K. E. Lowe, Dr. H. W. M. Tims.
Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster,
Prof. A. Fraser, Dr, H. W. M,

|

He

Tims,

1 Physiology was made a separate Section, see p. Ixxxvi.
? The title of Section D was changed to Zoology.

Ixxviii PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place | Presidents Secretaries

ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, V.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

1833. Cambridge | Dr. J. Haviland.................. Dr. H. J. H. Bond, Mr. G. E. Paget.

1834. Edinburgh | Dr. Abercrombie ............... Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson.
SECTION E (UNTIL 1847).—ANATOMY AND MEDICINE.

1835. Dublin ...... Dr. J. C. Pritchard: .02...2.:..% Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart.

1836. Bristol ....,. Dr. P. M. Roget, F.R.S. ......| Dr. Symonds.

1837. Liverpool...) Prof. W. Clark, M.D. ......... Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long,

Dr. J. R. W. Vose.

1838. Newcastle |T. E. Headlam, M.D. ......... T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose.

1839. Birmingham John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S....|Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland.

1840. Glasgow ...|James Watson, M.D. ......... Dr.J. Brown, Prof, Couper, Prof. Reid.

SECTION E.—PHYSIOLOGY.

(1841. Plymouth... P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S. |J. Butter, J. Fuge, R. S. Sargent.
1842. Manchester | Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S.| Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. S. Sargent.

1843. Cork ......... Sir James Pitcairn, M.D. ...| Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.

1844. York......... J. C. Pritchard, M.D. ......... I. Erichsen, Dr. R. S. Sargent.

1845. Cambridge Prof. J. Haviland, M.D. ...... Dr. R. 8. Sargent, Dr. Webster.

1846. Southamp- | Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ...|C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sar-
ton. gent.

1847. Oxford! ... | Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.R.S. ......|T. K. Chambers, W. P. Ormerod.

PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.

"1850. Edinburgh | Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E.
1855. Glasgow ...|Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S. | Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers,

L857 PDublin ..c... Prof. R. Harrison, M.D. ...... Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern,

1858. Leeds ...... Sir B. Brodie, Bart., F.R.S. |C. G. Wheelhouse.

1859. Aberdeen...| Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.S.| Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern.

1860. Oxford...... Prof.G.Rolleston,M.D.,F.L.S. | Dr. R. M‘Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith.

1861. Manchester | Dr. John Davy, F.R.S........,.| Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith.

1862. Cambridge |G. E. Paget, M.D................ G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith.

1863. Newcastle | Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R:S.|Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner.

864, Bath .:......: Dr. Edward Smith, F.R.S. J. S. Bartram, Dr. W. Turner.

1865. Birming- Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D., Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop;
ham 2 | E.R-S. | Oliver Pembleton, Dr. W. Tutnet.

GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES.

[For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section C,
p- 1xxi.]

ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.

DroJ..€: Pritehard’ ..s2st.e.s Dr. King.

Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A. ...|Prof. Buckley.

SER ae aston ytnneatek acca st dee eet ena G. Grant Francis.
Sather hone teMeboeabe sts cane cceeancen Dr. R. G. Latham.
Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm! Daniel Wilson.

1846.Southampton
1847. Oxford ......
1848.Swansea ...
1849, Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh

‘ Sections D and E were incorporated under the name of ‘Section D—Zoology
and Botany, including Physiology’ (see p: Ixxiv), Section E, being then vacant;
was assigned in 1851 to Geography,

2 Vide note on page Ixxiy,

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place

18565.
1856.
1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863.
1864.
1865.

1866.

1867.
1868.

1869.
1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.

1874.

1875.

1876.
1877,

. Ipswich
. Belfast

Presidents

Ixxix

Secretaries

. Liverpool...

Glasgow ...
Cheltenham

Aberdeen...
Oxford......
Manchester
Cambridge

Newcastle

sneeseree

Birming-
ham.

Nottingham |

Dundee

Norwich .

Liverpool...
Edinburgh

Brighton ...
Bradford ...

eeneee

Glasgow ...
Plymouth...

SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.

.|Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.8.,

Pres, R.G.S.

Col. Chesney, R.A., D.C.L.,
F.R.S.

R. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S.

F.R.S.

Sir J. Richardson,

F.R.S.

Col. Sir H. C. Rawlinson,
K.C.B.

Rev. Dr. J. Henthorn Todd,
Pres.R.LA.

Sir R. 1. Murchison, G.C.St.8.,
F.RB.S.

Rear - Admiral Sir James

| Qlerk Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S.

M.D.,

Francis Galton, F.B.S..........

Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,
F.RB.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,
F.R.S.

Major-General Sir H. Raw-

LL.D.

|
|

.|Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,|

F.R.S.
John Crawfurd, F.R.S.......... |

linson, M.P., K.C.B., F.B.S. |
Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart.,|H. W. Bates, Rev. E. T. Cusins, R.

R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr:
Norton Shaw.

R. Cull, E. MacAdam, Dr. Norton

Shaw.
Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr.

Norton Shaw.

Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr.
Ihne, Dr. Norton Shaw.

Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr.
Norton Shaw.

R. Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H.
Rumsey, Dr. Norton Shaw.

R. Cull, S. Ferguson, Dr. R. R.
Madden, Dr. Norton Shaw.

R. Cull, F. Galton, P. O’Callaghan,
Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright.

Richard Cull, Prof.Geddes, Dr. Nor:
ton Shaw.

R.

Sir R. I, Murchison, D.C.L., Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C.

Lempriére, Dr. Norton Shaw.

Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Nore
ton Shaw, W. Spottiswoode.

J.W.Clarke, Rev. J.Glover, Dr. Hunt,
Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright.

|C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield,
C. R. Markham, R. 8. Watson.

‘AL. W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt.

R. M. Murchison, T. Wright.
H. W. Bates, S. Evans, G. Jabet,
C. R. Markham, Thomas Wright.

H, Major, Clements R. Markham,
D. W. Nash, T. Wright.

H. W. Bates, Cyril Graham, C. R.

| Markham, 8. J. Mackie, R. Sturrock,

Capt. G. H. Richards, R.N., T. Baines, H. W. Bates, Clements R.
R.S. |

Markham, T. Wright.

SECTION E (contimued).—GHOGRAPHY.

Sir Bartle Frere,
LL.D., F.R.G.S.
Sir R.I. Murchison, Bt.,K.C.B.,

LL.D., D.C.L., F.B.S., F.G.S.
Colonel Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S.

Francis Galton, F.R.S..........
Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B.

Major Wilson, R.E., F.R.S.,
¥.R.G.S.

Lieut. - General Strachey,
R.E., C.8.1., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.

Capt. Evans, C.B., F.R.S.......

Adm. Sir E. Ommanney, C.B.

K.C.B.,

|

\H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham,

J. H. Thomas.

|H.W.Bates, David Buxton, Albert J.

Mott, Clements R. Markham.

A. Buchan, A. Keith Johnston, Cle-
ments R. Markham, J. H. Thomas.

H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Rev. J. Newton, J. H. Thomas.

H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Clements R. Markham.

E.G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye, J. H.
Thomas. -

H. W. Bates, HE. C. Rye, F.
Tackett.

H. W. Bates, EH. C. Rye, R. O. Wood.

H. W. Bates, F’, E. Fox, H, C. Rye.

F,

Ixxx

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS,

es ee a

Date and Place

1878.
1879,
1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.

1885

1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894.
1895.
1896.
1897.
1898.
1899.
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.

1904.
1905.

1906.

evoeee

Sheffield ...

Swangea ...

Southamp-
ton.
Southport

Montreal ...

. Aberdeen...

seneeeeee

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds

Cardiff ......
Edinburgh

Nottingham
Oxford......
Ipswich ...
Liverpool.
Toronto

Bristol

stones

Bradford .
Glasgow ...
Belfast ...

Southport

Cambridge

SouthAfrica

---|J. Scott Keltie, LL.D. ........

-- | Sir

Presidents

son, LL.D.,F.R.S., F.
F.R.S., Sec. R.G.S.
C.B., K.C.M.G., R.A., F.R.S.

C.B., F.B.S.

Sir R. Temple, Bart., G.C.S.L.,
F.R.G.S

Lieut. “Col. H. H. Godwin-
Austen, F.R.S.

Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy, C.B.,
K.C.M.G., F.B.8.,V.P.R.G.S.

Gen. J. T. Walker, C.B., R.E.,
LL.D., F.B.8.

Maj.-Gen. Sir. F. J. Goldsmid,
KO:S81.:C.B., EERIGS:

Col. Sir C. Warren, R.E.,
G.C.M.G., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.

Col. Sir C. W. Wilson, R.E.,
K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.

Col. Sir F. de Winton,
K.C.M.G., C.B., F.R.G.S.

Lieut.-Col. Sir R. Lambert
Playfair, K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S.

E.S.8.
Prof, J. Geikie, D.C.L., F.R.S.,
V.P.R.Scot.G.S.
H. Seebohm, Sec. B.S8., F.L.S.
¥.Z.S.
Capt. W. J. L. Wharton, R.N.,
F.R.S.
J. Mackinder,
F.R.G.S.

H. M.A.,

.-| Major L. Darwin, Sec. R.G.S.

Col. G. Earl Church, F.R.G.S.

Sir John Murray, F.R.S. ......

George §. Robertson,
K.C.8.1.

Dr. H.R. Mill) ER GiSi as

Sir T. H. Holdich, K.C.B.

Capt. E. W. Creak, R.N., C.B.,
FBS.

Douglas W. Freshfield...... "CF

Adm, Sir W. J. L. ee
R.N., K.C.B., F.B.S

Rt. Hon. Sir George Goldie,

| K.C.M.G., E.B.S.

E. G. Ravenstein, F.R.G.S.,

Secretaries

Prof, Sir C. Wyville Thom-|John Coles, E. C. Rye.

Clements R. Markham, a = H. W. Bates, C. E. D. Black, E. C.
Lieut.-Gen., Sir J. H. Lefroy, nw Bates, E. C. Rye,

Sir J.D: Hooker, K.CS.L, J. W. Barry, H. W. Bates.

E. G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye.
John Coles, E. G. Ravenstein, E. C,

Rye.

Rey.Abbé Laflamme, J.S. O’Halloran,
E. G. Ravenstein, J. F. Torrance.

J.S Keltie, J. 8. O'Halloran, E. G.
Ravenstein, Kev. G. A. Smith.

F. T. S. Houghton, J. S. Keltie,
E. G. Ravenstein.

Rev. L. C. Casartelli, J. S. Keltie,
H. J. Mackinder, E. G. Ravenstein.

J. S. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, E. G.
Ravenstein.

J. S. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, R.
Sulivan, A. Silva White.

A. Barker, John Coles, J. 8. Keltie,
A. Silva White.

John Coles, J. 8. Keltie, H. J. Mac-
kinder, A. Silva White, Dr. Yeats.

J. G. Bartholomew, John Coles, J. S.
Keltie, A. Silva White.

»|Col. F. Bailey, John Coles, H. O.

Forbes, Dr. H. R, Mill.

John Coles, W. S. Dalgleish, H. N.
Dickson, Dr. H. R. Mill.

John Coles, H. N. Dickson, Dr. H.
R. Mill, W. A. Taylor.

Col. F. Bailey, H. N. Dickson, Dr.
H. R. Mill, E. C. DuB. Phillips.

.|Col. F. Bailey, Capt. Deville, Dr.

H. R. Mill, J. B. Tyrrell.
H.N. Dickson, Dr. H. R. Mill, H. C.
‘Trapnell.
H. N. Dickson, Dr. H. O. Forbes,
Dr. H. R. Mill.
H. N. Dickson, E. Heawood, E. R.
Wethey.

-|H. N. Dickson, E. Heawood, G.

Sandeman, A. C. Turner.

...|G. G@. Chisholm, E. Heawood, Dr.

A.J, Herbertson, Dr. J. A. Lindsay.

E. Heawood, Dr. ‘A. J. Herbertson,
E. A. Reeves, Capt. J. C. Under-
wood,

E. Heawood, Dr. A. J. Herbertson,
H. Y. Oldham, E. A. Reeves.

A. H. Cornish-Bowden, F. Flowers,
Dr. A. J. Herbertson, H. Y. Old-

ham
ae Heawood, Dr. A. J. Herbertson,

E. A. Reeves, G. Yeld,

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

lxxxi

Date and Place

Presidents

|

Secretaries

1907. Leicester ...|George G. Chisholm, M.A. AAT Heawood, O. J. R. Howarth,

E. A. Reeves, T. Walker.

1908. Dublin...... Major E. H. Hills, C.M.G.,|W. F. Bailey, W. J. Barton, O. J. Rt.
R.E. Howarth, E. A. Reeves.
STATISTICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VI.—STATISTICS,
1833. Cambridge | Prof. Babbage, F.R.S. .........)J. E. Drinkwater.

1834, Edinburgh |

1835. Dublin
1836. Bristol

eeeeer

1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle
1839. Birming-
ham.
1840. Glasgow ..
1841. Plymouth...
1842, Manchester

1843. Cork
1844. York

1845, Cambridge
1846. Sottthamp-

ton.
1847, Oxford......

1848. Swansea .,.
1849. Birming-

ham.
1850. Edinburgh

1851. Ipswich ...
1852, Belfast......
1853. Hull
1854. Liverpool...

1855. Glasgow ...

Sir Charles Lemon, Bart....... |

Dr, Cleland, C. Hope Maclean.

SECTION F.—S8TATISTICS.

‘Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ......
Sir Chas. Lemon, Bart., F.R.S.

Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon

steeerees

Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. .........
Henry Hallam, F.R.S..........

.|Lord Sandon, M.P., F.R.8.

Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S.......
G. W. Wood, M.P., F.L.S. ...
Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. ...

Lieut.- Col. Sykes, F-.R.S.,
F.L.S.

Rt. Hon. the Earl] Fitzwilliam

Gee Porter, WeRie ccscaccecses

Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S.

J. H. Vivian, M.P., F.R.S. ...
Rt. Hon, Lord Lyttelton

Very Rev. Dr. John Lee,
V.P.B.S.E.

Sir John P. Boileau, Bart. .../

His Grace the Archbishop of|
Dublin.

James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S. |

Thomas Tooke, F.R.S. ......... |

R. Monckton Milnes, M.P....
'

W. Greg, Prof. Longfield.

Rey. J. KE Bromby, C. B. Fripp.
James Heywood.

W. R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.

W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W.R. Wood.

¥’, Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.

C. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W.
Rawson.

Rev. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, R.
W. Rawson.

| Rev. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr.
W. C. Tayler.

Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.

J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Lay-
cock,

J. Fletcher, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr. W.
C. Tayler, Rev. T, L. Shapcott.
‘Rev. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G,

P. Neison.

|J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede.

Dr. Finch, Prof, Hancock, F. P. G
Neison.

| Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J.
Stark.

J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock.

Prof, Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James
MacAdam, jun.

Edward Cheshire, W. Newmarch.

E. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H.
Duncan, W. Newmarch.

J. A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New-
march, Prof. R. H. Walsh,

SECTION F (continwed).—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

18656, Cheltenham

1857. Dublin......

1858. Leeds .......

1859, Aberdeen...
1908.

Rt. Hon, Lord Stanley, M.P.

His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin, M.R.1LA.
Edward Baines ..1...ssssesssees

Col. sykes, M.P., E.RS: a w.

|

Rev. C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr.
W. N. Hancock, W. Newmarch, W.
M. Tartt.

Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W.
Newmarch.

T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, 8. Brown,
Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang:
Prof. Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A. M.

Smith, Dr. John Strang.

is}

Ixxxii

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS:

)

Date and Place | Presidents Secretaries
1860. Oxford...... | Nassau W. Senior, M.A. ...... Edmund Macrory, W. Newmarch,
| Prof. J. E. T. Rogers.
1861. Manchester | William Newmarch, F.R.S....| David Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie,
| E. Macrory, Prof. J. E. T. Rogers.
1862. Cambridge | Edwin Chadwick, C.B. ........ H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory.
1863. Newcastle .| William Tite, M.P., F.R.S....;T. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory,
| Frederick Purdy, James Potts.
1864. Bath......... |W. Farr, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.|E. Macrory, E. T. Payne, F. Purdy,
1865, Birming- | Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D.,|G. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston,
ham. (2 aMeP: E. Macrory. ,
1866. Nottingham Prof. J. E. T. Rogers..........+. R. Birkin, jun., Prof. Leone Levi, E:
| Macrory.
1867. Dundee ..... M. E. Grant-Duff, M.P. .......| Prof. Leone Levi, E. Macrory, A. J.
Warden.
1868. Norwich....| Samuel Brown ........esseeeeeee Rev. W.C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi.
1869. Exeter...... Rt.Hon. Sir Stafford H. North-|E. Macrory, F. Purdy, C. T. D.
cote, Bart., C.B., M.P. Acland.
1870. Liverpool... Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A.|Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, EH. Macrory,

1873. Bradford ... Rt. Hon. W. I. Forster, M.P.
1874, Belfast...... ord OAMGran --iicsseses servers |
1875. Bristol...... | James Heywood, M.A., ¥.R.5., |

. Edinburgh

3, Glasgow

. Plymouth... Rt. Hon. the Earl Fortescue
. Dublin
. Sheffield ... G. Shaw Lefevre, M.P., Pres. |

Brighton ... Prof. Henry Fawcett, M.P. ...

Pres. 5.5.
... Sir George Campbell, K.C.8.1., |
| MP;

J. Miles Moss.

\J. G. Fitch, James Meikle.

J. G. Fitch, Barclay Phillips.

J. G, Fitch, Swire Smith.

Prof. Donnell, F. P. Feliows, Hans
MacMordie,

F, P. Fellows, T. G. P. Hallett, EK.
Macrory.

A. M‘Neel Caird, T.G.P. Hallett, Dr.
W. Neilson Hancock, Dr. W.
Jack,

W. F. Collier, P. Hallett, J. T. Pim.

Prof. J. K. Ingram, LL.D. ... |

seeeee

8.5. |
1880. Swansea ... G. W. Hastings, M.P...........}
USS1. Worksci. cs. Rt. Hon. M. E. Grant- Duff, |
M.A., F.BR.S. |
1882. Southamp- |Rt. Hon. G. Sclater-Booth,

. Southport

M.P., F.R.S.

ton. ; |
| R. H. Inglis Palgrave, F.R.5. |

1884. Montreal .., Sir Richard Temple, Bart.,
| G.C.8.1, C.1.H., F.R.G.S. |
1885. Aberdeen...’ Prof. H. Sidgwick, LL.D.,|
Litt.D.
1886. Birming- J. B. Martin, M.A., F.S.S. ...
ham. |
1887. Manchester! Robert Giffen, LL.D.,V.P.5.S. |
1888. Bath......... Rt. Hon. Lord Bramwell, |
| DL.D., EBS.
1889. Newcastle- |Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, M.A.,
upon-Tyne| F.8.8,.
1890. Leeds ...... Prof, A. Marshall, M.A., F.5.5.
|
1891

. Cardiff . .+| Prof. W. Cunningham, D.D.,

D.Sc., 1.8.8.

|

W. J. Hancock, C. Molloy, J. T. Pim.

Prof. Adamson, R. E. Leader, C.
Molloy.

N. A. Humphreys, C. Molloy.

C. Molloy, W. W. Morrell, J. F.
Moss.

G. Baden-Powell, Prof. H. 8. Fox-
well, A. Milnes, C. Molloy.

Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. 8.
Foxwell, J. N. Keynes, C. Molloy.

Prof. H.S. Foxwell, J. S$. McLennan,
Prof. J. Watson.

Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. S.
Foxwell, C. McCombie, J. F.
Moss.

F. F. Barham, Rev. W. Cunningham,
Prof. H. 8. Foxwell, J. F. Moss.
Rev. W. Cunningham, F. Y. Edge-
worth, T. H. Elliott, C. Hughes,

J. E. C. Munro, G. H. Sargant.

Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, T. H. Elliott,
H. S. Foxwell, L. L. F. R. Price.

Rev. Dr. Cunningham, T. H. Elliott,
¥. B. Jevons, L. L. F. R. Price.

W. A. Brigg, Rev. Dr. Cunningham,
T. H. Elliott, Prof. J. E. C. Munro,
L. L. F. R. Price.

Prof. J. Brough, E. Cannan, Prof.
EK. C. K. Gonner, H. Ll. Smith,
Prof, W. R. Sorley.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

lxxxili

Date and Place

Presidents |

Secretaries

1892.
1893.

1894.
1895.
1896.

1897.
1898.

1899.
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.

1906.

1907.

1908.

1836.
1837.
1838.
1839.

1840,

1841.

1842.

1843.
1844.
1845.
1846,

“1847,

Rdinburgh

Nottingham |

Ipswich ...
Liverpool...

Toronto
Bristol .

Dover ......
Bradford ...
Glasgow ...
Belfast

Southport
Cambridge

SouthAfrica

Leicester...

Dublin......

...| Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, M.A.
«..-'d. Bonar, M.A., LL.D.......... |

.|E. Cannan, M.A., LL.D.

Hon. Sir C. Ww. “Fremantle,
K.C.B.

Prof. J. 8. Nicholson, D.Sc.,.
F.S.8.

Prof. C. F. Bastable, M.A.,

| F.S.S.

|L. L. Price, M.A. ....0

‘Rt. Hon. L. Courtney, M.P....|

BH Higes, WEBS oc ..cscescseces

Major P. G. Craigie, V.P.8.S.
Sir R. Giffen, K.C.B., F.R.S.

EK. W. Brabrook, C.B.
Prof. Wm. Smart, LL.D.......

Rev. W. Cunningham, D.D.,
D.Sc.

|A. L. Bowley, M.A. .........005 |

Prof. W. J. Ashley, M.A.......
W. M. Acworth, M.A. ......... |

Sub-section of Agriculture—_|
Rt. Hon. Sir H. Plunkett. |

.|E. Cannan, Prof. E. C.

Prof. J. Brough, J. R. Findlay, Prof.

EK. C. K. Gonner,
L. L. F. R. Price.
Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, H. de B.
Gibbins, J. A. H. Green, H. Higgs,

L. L. F. R. Price.

H. Higgs

|. Cannan, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner,

W. A.S. Hewins, H. Higgs.

K. Gonner,
H. Higgs.

E. Cannan, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner,
W.A.S. Hewins, H. Higgs.

KE. Cannan, H. Higgs, Prof. A. Shortt.

E. Cannan, Prof. A. W. Flux, H.
Higgs, W. HE. Tanner.
A. L. Bowley, E. Cannan, Prof. A.
W. Flux, Rev. G. Sarson.
A. L. Bowley, E. Cannan,
Chapman, F. Hooper.

W. W. Blackie, A. L. Bowley, HE.
Cannan, S. J. Se Ree

A. L. Bowley, Prof. 8. J. Chapman,
Dr. A. Duffin

A. L. Bowley, Prof. 8. J. Chapman,
Dr. B. W. Ginsburg, G. Lloyd.

Ss. J.

\J. E. Bidwell, A. L. Bowley, Prof

8. J. Chapman, Dr. B. W. Ginsburg.

'R. 4 Ababrelton, A. L. Bowley, Prof.

H. E. S. Fremantle, H. O. Mere-
dith.

Prof. 8. J. Chapman, D. H. Mac-
gregor, H. O. Meredith, B. S.
Rowntree.

Prof. S.J. Chapman, D. H. Macgregor,
H. O. Meredith, T. S. Taylor.

W.G S§S. Adams, Prof. 8. J. Chap-
man, Prof. D. H. Macgregor, H. 0.
Meredith.

A. D. Hall, Prof. J. Percival, J. H.
BHesule ys Prof. J. Wilson.

SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

Bristol
Liverpool...
Newcastle
Birming-
ham.
Glasgow ....

Plymouth...
Manchester

ee eeeeeee

Cambridge

Southamp-
ton

Oxford......

Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Rev. Dr. Robinson ............
Charles Babbage, F.R.S.......
Prof. Willis, F.R.S., and Robt.
Stephenson.
Sir John Robinson ...........6
John Taylor, F.R.S. .......00...
Rev. Prof. Willis, F.R.S. ......!

Prof. J. Macneill, M.R.I.A....
John Taylor, F.R.S. .........05.
George Rennie, F.R.S..........
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.

Rev. Prof, Walker, M.A.,F.R.S.

T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West.

|Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.

R. Hawthorn, C. Vignoles, T. Webster.

|W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, T.

Webster.

| J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tod,

C. Vignoles.
Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster.
J. F. Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J,
Thomson, Charles Vignoles.
James Thomson, Robert Mallet.
Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
Rev. W. T. Kingsley.
William Betts, jun., Charles Manby.

J. Glynn, R. A. Le Mesurier.
e2

lxxxiv

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS,

Date and Place

Secretaries

1848,
1849.
1850.
1851.
1852.

1853.
1854.

1855.
1856.
1857.

1858.
1859.

1860.
1861.

1862,
1863.

1864.
1865.

1866.
1867.
1868.

1869.
1870.

1871.
1872.

1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.

1880.
1881.

1882.

1883.
1884.

Swansea ...|

Birmingham
Edinburgh

Ipswich
Belfast

Hull
Liverpool...

Glasgow ...
Cheltenham

Leeds ......
Aberdeen..

Oxford

Manchester

Cambridge.
Newcastle .

Birming-
ham.

Nottingham

Dundee

seeeee

Exeter
Liverpool...

Edinburgh

Brighton ...
Bradford ...
Belfast

Bristol

Glasgow

Plymouth... |

Dublin

Sheffield ..

Swansea ...

Southamp-
ton.

Southport .

Montreal...

. G. P. Bidder, C.E., F.R.G.S.

... | C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S. ......

Presidents
lRev. Prof.Walker, M.A..F.R.S
Robt. Stephenson, M.P.,F.R.S.
Rev. R. Robinson ......-.0+se00e
| William Cubitt, F.B.S..........

John Walker, C.H., LL.D.,
F.R.S.

William Fairbairn, F.R.S. ..

John Scott Russell, F.R.S. ...

W. J. M. Rankine, F.R.S.
George Rennie, F.R.S. ........
‘Rt. Hon. the Earl of Rosse,
|. OH RS:

William Fairbairn, F.R.S....
- Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.

‘Prof, W.J.Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
(JF. Bateman, CiK., F.RS:..

William Fairbairn, F.R.S. ...
' Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.

|J. Hawkshaw, F.R.S.

Sir W. G. Armstrong, iy, D;,
F.R.S.

Thomas Hawksley, V.P. Inst.
C.E., F.G.S.

Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.

C. W. Siemens, F.R.S..
' Chas. B. Vignoles, C.E., F. R. 8. |

| Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S. |
'K, J. Bramwell, C.K,

'W. H. Barlow, F.B.S. we...

‘Prof. James Thomson, LL.D.,!
C.E., F.R.S.E.
W. Froude, C.E., M.A., F.R.S.

Edward Woods, C.E.

ee eeeneee

‘Edward Easton, C.E. .........

.' J. Robinson, Pres. Inst. Mech.
Eng.

lJ. Abernethy, HERES He vedecess

‘Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.

John Fowler, C.E., F.G.S.

J. Brunlees, Pres.Inst.C.E. ...

.|R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struvé.

Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall.
Dr. Lees, David Stephenson.
John Head, Charles Manby.

‘John F. Bateman, C. B. Hancock,

Charles Manby, James Tl omson.

.|J. Oldham, J. Thomson, W.S. Ward.

\J. Grantham, J. Oldham, J. Thom-
son.

...|L. Hill, W. Ramsay, J. Thomson.
.|C. Atherton, B. Jones, H. M. Jeffery.

‘Prof. Downing, W.T. Doyne, A. Tate,
James Thomson, Henry Wright.

J. C. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright.
'R. Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H.

Wright.
P. Le Neve Foster, Rey. F. Harrison,
Henry Wright.

'P. Le Neve Foster, John Robinson,

H. Wright.

|W. M. Fawcett, P. Le Neve Foster,
'P. Le Neve Foster, P. Westmacott,

J. F. Spencer

..|P. Le Neve Foster, Robert Pitt.

\P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea,
W. P. Marshall, Walter May.

P. Le Neve Foster, J. F, Iselin,
M. O. Tarbotton.

P. Le Neve Foster, John P, Smith,
W. W. Urquhart.

P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin,
C. Manby, W. Smith. ~

.|P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman.

H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster,
T. King, J. N. Shoolbred.

H. Bauerman, A. Leslie, J. P. Smith,

H. M. Brunel, P. Le Neve Foster,
J.G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.

. C.Barlow,H.Bauerman.E.H.Carbutt,

J. C. Hawkshaw, J. N. Shoolbred.

A. T. Atchison, J. N.Shoolbred, John
Smyth, jun.

W. R. Browne, H. M. Brunel, J. G.
Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.

W. Bottomley, jun., W. J. Millar,
J. N. Shoolbred, J. P. Smith.

A. T. Atchison, Dr. Merrifield, J. N.
Shoolbred.

A. T. Atchison, R. G. Symes, H. T.
Wood.

A. T. Atchison, Emerson Bainbridge,
H. T. Wood.

A. T. Atchison, H. T. Wood.

A. T. Atchison, J, F. Stephenson,
H. T. Wood.

A. T. Atchison," F. Churton, H. T.
Wood.

A. T. Atchison,"K. Rigg, H. T. Wood.

‘Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S.,
| V.P.Inst.C.E. |

A. T. Atchison, W. B. Dawson, J.
Kennedy, H. T. Wood.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place

1885.
1886.
1887.
1888,
1889.
1890.
1391.
1892.
1893.
1894,
1895.
1896.
1897.
1898.
1899.
1900.

1901.
1902,
1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
1907.

1908.

1884.
1885.

1886.
1887.

|

Presidents

Secretaries

Aberdeen...

Birming-
ham.

Manchester |

Bath

senna neee

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.
Leeds

Cardiff .....
Edinburgh
Nottingham
Oxford......
Ipswich
Liverpool...

Toronto ...

Bristol

Bradford !

Glasgow ...
Belfast...
Southport
Cambridge
SouthAfrica
WORK. ..ceese

Leicester...

Dublin......

Montreal...

«| Prof, Lak. Vernon-Harcourt,

B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E. .........

Sir J. N. Douglass, M.Inst.
C.K.

Prof. Osborne Reynolds, M.A.,

LL.D., F.RB.5.

. HH: Preece,

M.Inst.C.F.

W. Anderson, M.Inst.C.E. ...'

W F.B.S.,

Capt. A. Noble, C.B., F.R.S.,
¥.R.A.S. |
T. Forster Brown, M.Inst.C.E.

Prof. W. C.
M.Inst.C.E.

Jeremiah Head, M.Inst C.E.,
¥.C.S.

Prof. A. B. W. Kennedy,
F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.

Unwin, F.2S.,

M.A., M.Inst.C.E.
Sir Douglas Fox, V.P.Inst.C. H.

G. F. Deacon, M.Inst.C.E. ...
Sir J. Wolfe-Barry, K.C.B.,|

F.R.S.
Sir W. White, K.C.B., F.R.S. |

Sir Alex. R. Binnie, M.Inst..
C.E.

SECTION G.—ENGI

|R. E. Crompton, M.Inst.C.E.
Prof. J. Perry, F.R.S. .........
C. Hawksley, M.Inst.C.E. ..

|Hon. C. A. Parsons, F.R.S...

Col. Sir C. Scott-Moncrieff,
G.C.S.1., K.C-M.G., R.E.
J. A. Ewing, E.R.S. .......0006-

Prof. Silvanus P, Thompson,
¥.R.S.
Dugald Clerk, F.R.S. ......+

A. T. Atchison, F. G. Ogilvie, K.
Rigg, J. N. Shoolbred.

C. W. Cooke, J. Kenward, W. B.
Marshall, E. Rigg.

C. F. Budenberg, W. B. Marshall,
E. Rigg.

C. W. Cooke, W. B.
Rigg, P. K. Stothert.

C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, Hon.
C. A. Parsons, E. Rigg.

BE. K. Clark, C. W. Cooke, W. B.

Marshall, E. Rigg.
W. Cooke, Prof. A. C. Elliott,

W. B. Marshall, E. Rigg.

C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, W. C.
Popplewell, E. Rigg.

Marshall, E.

C.

|C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, E.

Rigg, H. Talbot.

Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke,
W. B. Marshall, Rev. F. J. Smith.

Prof. I, Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke.
W. B. Marshall, P. G. M. Stoney,

Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke,
S. Dunkerley, W. B. Marshall.

Prof. I. Hudson Beare, Prof. Callen-
dar, W. A. Price.

Prof. T. H. Beare, Prof. J. Munro,
H. W. Pearson, W. A. Price.

Prof. T. H. Beare, W. A. Price, H.
E. Stilgoe.

Prof. T. H. Beare, C. F. Charnock,
Prof. S. Dunkerley, W. A. Price.

NEERING.

H. Bamford, W.E. Dalby, W. A. Price.
M. Barr, W. A. Price, J. Wylie.

.| Prof. W. E. Dalby, W. ‘I. Maccall,

W. A. Price.

.|J. B. Peace, W. T. Maccall, W. A.

Price.

W. 'T. Maccall, W. B. Marshall, Prof.
H. Payne, E. Williams.

W. 'T. Maccall, W. A. Price, J. Trif-
fit.

Prof. E. G. Coker, A. C. Harris,
W. A. Price, H. E. Wimperis.

Prof. E. G. Coker, Dr. W. E. Lilly,
W. A. Price, H. E. Wimperis.

SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

i
ane

E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.B.S.

G. W. Bloxam, W. Hurst.

Aberdeen...| Francis Galton, M.A., F.R.S. G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W.

Birming-
ham.
Manchester

|

Sir G. Campbell, K.C.S.I.,.
M.P., D.C.L.; F.R.G.S. |

| Prof. A. H. Sayce, M.A.

Hurst, Dr. A. Macgregor.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W.
Hurst, Dr. R. Saundby.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
A. M. Paterson.

1 The title of Section G was changed to Engineering.

lxxxvi

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place |

Presidents

Secretaries

1888. Bath......... |Lieut.-General Pitt-Rivers,|G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, J.
DO, HERS: | Harris Stone.
1889. Newcastle- | Prof. Sir W. Turner, M.B.,!G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
upon-Tyne, LL.D., F.R.S. | RR. Morison, Dr. R. Howden,
1890. Leeds ...... 'Dr. J. Evans, Treas. R.S., G. W. Bloxam, Dr. C. M. Chadwick,
| E.S.A., F.LS., F.G.S8. | Dr. J. G. Garson.
1891. Cardiff ...... oe ¥. Max Miiller, M.A. ...;G. W. Bloxam, Prof. R. Howden, H.
Ling Roth, EK. Seward.
1892. Edinburgh ‘Prof A. Macalister, M.A., G.W. Bloxam, Dr. D. Hepburn, Prof.
| M.D., F.R.S. | R. Howden, H. Ling Roth.
1893. Nottingham| Dr. R. Munro, M.A. F.R.S.E.|G. W. Bloxam, Rev. T. W. Davies,
| | Prof. R. Howden, F. B. Jevons,
| J. L. Myres.
1894. Oxford... .| Sir W. H. Flower, K.C. B., H. Balfour, Dr. J. G.Garson, H. Ling
it E.R.S. Roth.
1895. Ipswich ... Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie, J. L. Myres, Rev. J. J. Raven, H.
| D.C.L. | Ling Roth.
1896. Liverpool... Arthur J. Evans, F.8.A. ......|Prof. A. C. Haddon, J. L. Myres,
Prof. A. M. Paterson.
18927. Toronto ...|\Sir W. Turner, F.R.S. . .... A. F. Chamberlain, H. O. Forbes,
| Prof. A. C. Haddon, J. L. Myres.
1898. Bristol...... 'K. W. Brabrook, C.B. . ...| H.Balfour, J. L. Myres, G. Parker.
1899, Dover ...... Oh Read, FSA. 'H.Balfour, W. H. East, Prof. A. C.
Haddon, J. L. Myres.
1900. Bradford .... Prof. John Rhys, M.A.......... |Rev. E. Armitage, H. Balfour, W.
Crooke, J. L. Myres.
1901. Glasgow ... Prof. D. J. Cunningham, W. Crooke, Prof. A. F. Dixon, J. F.
| ERIS: | Gemmill, J. L. Myres.
1902. Belfast . Dr. A. C, Haddon, F.R.S. ...|R. Campbell, Prof. A. F. Dixon,
J. L. Myres.
1903. Southport Prof. J. Symington, F.R.S....!E. N. Fallaize, H. §. Kingsford,
| K. M. Littler, J. L. Myres.
1904. Cambridge |H. Balfour, M.A. ..........0000. |W. L. H. Duckworth, E. N. Fallaize,
| H.S. Kingsford, J. L. Myres.
1905. SouthAfrica| Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S. ...|A. R. Brown, A. von Dessauer, E. S.
| | Hartland.
TOG. Yorks. ..a--.« 'E. Sidney Hartland, F.S.A....|Dr. G. A. Auden, E. N. Fallaize,
- H. 8. Kingsford, Dr. F. C. Shrub-
sall.
1907. Leicester ...|D. G. Hogarth, M.A............. \C. J. Billson, E. N. Fallaize, H. S.
| Kingsford, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
1908. Dublin...... Prof. W. Ridgeway, M.A. ...|E. N. Fallaize, H. 8. Kingsford, Dr.
| F.C. Shrubsall, L. E. Steele.
SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY (including ExperImEenTAL
PATHOLOGY AND EXPERIMENTAL PsycHoLoey).
1894. Oxford...... ‘Prof. E. A. Schafer, F.R.S.,| Prof. F. Gotch, Dr. J. 8. Haldane,
M.R.C.S. M. 8. Pembrey.
1896. Liverpool... Dr. W. H. Gaskell, F.R.S. ...| Prof. R.Boyce, Prof. C.S.Sherrington.
1897. Toronto ... ‘Prof. Michael Foster, ERS. Prof. R. Boyce, Prof. C. S. Sherring-
ton, Dr. L. E. Shore.
1899. Dover ...... J. N. Langley, F.R.S. ........./ Dr. Howden, Dr. L. E. Shore, Dr. E.
| Starling.
1901. Glasgow ... Prof.J.G.McKendrick, F.R.S.,W. B. Brodie, W. A. Osborne, Prof.
W. iH. Thompson.
1902. Belfast... ‘Prof, W.. 43 Coiba Barcroft, Dr. W. A. Osborne, Dr.

F.R.S.

C. Shaw.

Date and Place )

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Ixxxvii

Presidents

1904.

Cambridge

1905. SouthAfrica

1906. }

1907.
1908.

1895.
1896.

1897.
1898.
1899.
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.

1904.

1905.
1906.
1907.
1908.

1901.
1902.
1903.

1904,
1905.
1906.

Prof. C. S. Sherrington, F.R.S.
Col. D. Bruce, C.B., F.R.S. ...

Secretaries

J. Barcroft, Prof. T. G. Brodie, Dr.
L. E. Shore.

J. Barcroft, Dr. Baumann, Dr. Mac-
kenzie, Dr. G. W. Robertson, Dr.
Stanwell.

J. Barcroft, Dr. J. M. Hamill, Prof.
J. 8. Macdonald, Dr. D. S. Long.

| Dr. N. H. Alcock, J. Barcroft, Prof

J. S. Macdonald, Dr. A. Warner.

Prof. D, J. Coffey, Dr. P. T. Herring
Prof. J. S. Macdonald, Dr. H. E.
Roaf.

A. C. Seward, Prof. F. E. Weiss.

Prof. Harvey Gibson, A. C. Seward,

Prof. F, EH. Weiss.
Prof. J. B. Farmer, E. C. Jeffrey,
A. C. Seward, Prof. F. E. Weiss.

...|A.C, Seward, H. Wager, J. W. White.

G. Dowker, A. C. Seward, H. Wager.

A. C. Seward, H. Wager, W. West.

D. T. Gwynne-Vaughan, G. F. Scott-
Elliot, A. C. Seward, H. Wager.

A. G. Tansley, Rev. C. H. Waddell,
H. Wager, R. H. Yapp.

H. Ball, A. G. Tansley, H. Wager,
R. H. Yapp.

‘Dr. F, F. Blackman, A. G. Tansley,

H. Wager, T. B. Wood, R. H. Yapp,

R. P. Gregory, Dr. M :rloth, Prof.
Pearson, Prof. R. H. app.

Dr. A. Burtt, R. P. Gregory, Prof.
A. G. Tansley, Prof. R. H. Yapp.
W. Bell, R. P. Gregory, Prof. A. G.

Tansley, Prof. R. H. Yapp.
Prof. H. H. Dixon, R. P. Gregory,
A. G, Tansley, Prof. R. H, Yapp.

R. A. Gregory, W, M. Heller, R. Y.
Howie, C. W.
H. L. Withers.

Prof. R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller,
R. M. Jones, Dr. ©. W. Kimmins,
Prof. H. L. Withers.

Prof. R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller,
Dr. C. W. Kimmins, Dr. H. L.
Snape.

Kimmins, Prof,

.|J. H. Flather, Prof. R. A. Gregory,

W. M. Heller, Dr. C. W. Kimmins.
A.D. Hall, Prof, Hele-Shaw, Dr. C. W.
Kimmins, J. R. Whitton.

York......... |Prof, F. Gotch, F.R.S..........
Leicester...) Dr. A. D. Waller, F.R.S. ......
Dublin...... Dr. J. Scott Haldane, F.R.S.
\
SECTION K.—BOTANY.
Ipswich ...|W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, F.R.S,
Liverpool...| Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S. ......
Toronto ...|Prof. Marshall Ward, F.R.S.
Bristol......| Prof, F. O. Bower, F.B.S.
Dover ...... |Sir George King, F.R.S. ......
Bradford ...| Prof. §. H. Vines, F.R.S.......
Glasgow ...| Prof. I. B. Balfour, F.H.S. ...
Belfast .| Prof, J. R. Green, F.R.S.......
Southport |A. C. Seward, F.R.S. .......0.
Cambridge |Francis Darwin, F.R.S. ......
| Sub-section of Agriculture—
Dr. W. Somerville.
SouthAfrica! Harold Wager, F.R.S. .........
WOrkKe.c. case Prof. F. W. Oliver, F.R.S. ...
Leicester ...| Prof. J. B. Farmer, F.R.S. ...
Dublin ...:.. Dr. F. F, Blackman, F.R.S....
SECTION L—EDUCATIONAJ, SCIENCE.
Glasgow ...|Sir John EK. Gorst, F.R.S. ...|
Belfast ...| Prof. H. H. Armstrong, ERS.
Southport |Sir W. de W. Abney, K.C.B.,
F.RS.
Cambridge | Bishop of Hereford, D.D.
SouthAfrica} Prof. Sir R. C. Jebb, D.C.L.,
M.P.
Work ictente

peek M. E. Sadler, LL.D, ..

.|Prof. R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller,

Hugh Richardson.

Ixxxviii PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS,

Date and Place Presidents Secretaries

1907. Leicester... Sir Philip Magnus, M.P. ......)W. D. Eggar, Prof. R. A. Gregory,
J. S. Laver, Hugh Richardson.
1908. Dublin .,..., 'Prof. L. C, Miall, F.R.S. ......| Prof. E. P. Culverwell, W. D. Eggar,
d George Fletcher, Prof. R. A.
Gregory, Hugh Richardson,

CHAIRMEN AND SECRETARIES OF THE CONFERENCES OF
DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Date and Piace | Chairmen Secretaries
1885. Aberdeen...! Francis Galton, F.R.S.......... Prof. Meldola.

1886. Birmingham Prof. A. W. Williamson,F.R.S.| Prof. Meldola, Lys eee
1887. Manchester | Prof.W.Boyd Dawkins,F.R.S.) Prof. Meldola, F.R.S.

1888. Bath......... | John Evans, F.R.S. .......0008- Prof. Meldola, F.R.S.
1889. Newcastle- | Francis Galton, F.R.S.......... Prof. G. A. Lebour.
upon-Tyne)
1890. Leeds ...... |G. J. Symons, F.R.S. .........| Prof. Meldola, F.R.S.
1891. Cardiff ...... |G. J. Symons, F.R.S. ......00 Prof. Meldola, F.R.S.
1892, Edinburgh | Prof. Meldola, F.R.S. ......... T. V. Holmes.
1893. Nottingham Dr. (Gi Garson) -sescecscsecanes T. V. Holmes.
1894. Oxford...... Prof. Meldola, F.R.S. .........|T. V. Holmes.
1895. Ipswich ...|G. J. Symons, F.R.S. .........|T. V. Holmes.
1896. Liverpool... Dr. J. G. Garson ..s.ccsseeseeee T. V. Holmes.
1897. Toronto ...|Prof. Meldola, F.R.S. .........|J. Hopkinson. “
1898. Bristol ...... |W. Whitaker, F.R.S. ......... T. V. Holmes.
1899: Dover ...... Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, F.R.S.|T. V. Holmes,
1900. Bradford ...| Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S. ...|T. V. Holmes.
1901. Glasgow ...|F. W. Rudler, F.G.S. ........./Dr. J. G. Garson, A. Somerville,
1902 Belfast...... | Prof. W. W. Watts, F.G.S. . ../E. J. Bles.
1903. Southport |W. Whitaker, F.R.S. ......... F. W. Rudler.
1904. Cambridge | Prof. E. H. Griffiths, F.R.8. | F. W. Rudler,
1905. London ...'Dr. A. Smith Woodward,| F. W. Rudler.
F.R.S.
WSO0GS York. .i2..¢. 'Sir Edward Brabrook, C.B....| F. W. Rudler.
1907. Leicester ...|H. J. Mackinder, M.A.......... F. W. Rudler, 1.8.0,
1908. Dublin...... | Prof. H. A. Miers, F.R.S......, HW ok eD): Stebbing.

EVENING DISCOURSES.

Date and Place Lecturer Subject of Discourse
= :
1842. Manchester | Charles Vignoles, F.R.S...... |The Principles and Construction of
Atmospherie Railways.
Sin Mele brunelon.csvedadtesstes ‘The Thames Tunnel.
a Le Mr ChisOn .-fes-ceschedeer ss The Geology of Russia.
T8435 Cork «2.00500. Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S....... 'The Dinornis of New Zealand.
Prof. E. Forbes, F. R.S.. . The Distribution of Animal Life in
the Aigean Sea.
Dr VRODINSOM s. sha sveeccace~2 9 |The Earl of Rosse’s Telescope.
Naa MOLKiasscss 0) Charles Lyell, F.R.S. ........./Geology of North America.
|Dr. Falconer, F.B.S........ ..... The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik
4 | Hills in India,

Date and Place

1845. Cambridge

EVENING DISCOURSES. )xxxix

Lecturer Subject of Discourse

G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron.Royal/| Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism.
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ....../Geology of Russia.

1846. Southamp- | Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S, ...| Fossil Mammaliaof the British Isles.
ton. Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .........| Valley and Delta of the Mississippi.
W. R. Grove, F.RB.S.........0.4+ Properties of the ExplosiveSubstance
discovered by Dr. Schénbein; also
some Researches of his own on the
Decomposition of Water by Heat.
1847. Oxford..,..., Rev. Prof, B. Powell, F.R.S. | Shooting Stars.
Prof, M, Faraday, F.R.S.......| Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno-
mena.
Hugh E. Strickland, F.G.S....| The Dodo (Didus ineptus).
1848. Swansea ...' John Percy, M.D., F.R.S......./| Metallurgical Operations of Swansea
and its Neighbourhood.
W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S....| Recent Microscopical Discoveries,
1849. Birming- | Dr. Faraday, F.R.S............. Mr. Gassiot’s Battery.
ham. Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.|/Transit of different Weights with
varying Velocities on Railways.
1850. Edinburgh |Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D.,'Passage of the Blood through the
F.R.S.E. minute vessels of Animals in con-
nection with Nutrition.
Dr. Mantell, F.R.S. .........005 Extinct Birds of New Zealand.
1851. Ipswich ...! Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S, | Distinction between Plants and Ani-
mals, and their Changes of Form.
G. B. Airy, F.R.S.,Astronomer|Total Solar Eclipse of July 28,
Royal 1851.
1852. Belfast...... Prof. G. G, Stokes, D.C.L.,' Recent Discoveries in the properties
| F.R.S. of Light.
Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S.| Recent Discovery of Rock-salt at
| Carrickfergus, and geological and
practical considerations connected
with it.
1863. Hull......... Some peculiar Phenomena in the

Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.,
F.G.S.

Robert Hunt, F.R.S.............,
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
Col, E. Sabine, V.P.R.S. ......!

1854. Liverpool...

1855.

Glasgow ...|Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. |

Lieut.-Col. H. Rawlinson

1856. Cheltenham Col. Sir H. Rawlinson

W. R. Grove, F.R.S. .........05
Dublin......| Prof. W. Thomson, F.R.S, ...
Rev. Dr. Livingstone, D.C.L.

1857.

1858. Leeds ...... Prof, J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
1859. Aberdeen.,.|Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L....

Rev. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. ...

Geology and Physical Geography
of Yorkshire.

The present state of Photography.

Anthropomorphous Apes.

Progress of Researches in Terrestrial
Magnetism.

Characters of Species.

.| Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities

and Ethnology.

Recent Discoveries in Assyria and
Babylonia, with the results of
Cuneiform Research up to the
present time.

.|Correlation of Physical Forces.

The Atlantic Telegraph.

Recent Discoveries in Africa,

The Ironstones of Yorkshire.

The Fossil Mammalia of Australia.

Geology of the Northern Highlands.

Electrical Discharges in highly
rarefied Media.

1860. Oxford......| Rev. Prof. Walker, F.R.S. ...| Physical Constitution of the Sun.
Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N.| Arctic Discovery.
1861. Manchester] Prof.W.A. Miller, M.A.,F.R.S.|Spectrum Analysis.

1862.

G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron. Royal/The late Eclipse of the Sun.
Cambridge | Prof. Tyndall, LL.D., ¥.R.S. ; The Forms and Action of Water.
Prof, Odling, F.R.S.............| Organic Chemistry.

XC

EVENING DISCOURSES.

Date and Place

Lecturer

Subject of Discourse

1863.

1864.
1865.

Newcastle

BAG eecs cee

Birming-
ham.

1866. Nottingham

1867.

1868.

1869.

1870.

1871.

1872.

1873.
1874.

1875.
1876.
1877.

1878.

1879.
1880.
1881.

Dundee......

Norwich ...

Exeter

Liverpool...

Edinburgh

Brighton ...

Bradford ...

Bristol ......

Glasgow ...

Plymouth...

Dublin

sees

Sheffield ...

Swansea ...

Prof. Williamson, F.R.S.....

James Glaisher, F.R.S.........
Prof. Roscoe, F.R.S. .<.....c0css

| Dr. Livingstone, F.R.S. ...
J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S..........

William Huggins, F.R.S.....

Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S.......
Archibald Geikie, F.R.S.......

Alexander Herschel, F.R.A.S.
J. Fergusson, F.R.S...........

|Dr. W. Odling, F.R.S..........|
' Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.
| J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S....

' Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.
| Prof, W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
| LEDaai Rs.

HAs Abel abilvaSsscsane Nines

BE. B. Tylor, F.R.S. .se-s.cesees

Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B.,
F.R.S.
Prof. Wis Bes Giiiiord svc, ccceesss
‘Prof. W. C. Williamson, F.R.S.
Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S.
Sir John Lubbock, Bart.,M.P.,
F.R.S.
Prof; Huxley Hoh: eesscetss
W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S,
¥. J. Bramwell, F.R.S.......... |
Prof. Tait, F.R.S.B. F Scape
| Sir Wyville Thomson, ¥. R. S.
W. Warington Smyth, M.A.,
F.R.S. |
Prof. Odling; FR.Ss..0.. 0.00. |
G. J. Romanes, F.LS..........
Profs Dewar; EGRiSitess+sceuves

|W. Crookes, F.R.S. .......000.
| Prof. HE. Ray Lankester, F.R.S.
| Prof.W.Boyd Dawkins, F’.R.5. |
Francis Galton, F.R.S..........

Prof. Huxley, Sec. B.S.

|W. Spottiswoode, Pres. R.S....

| Degeneration.

.|The Chemistry of the Galvanic

Battery considered in relation
to Dynamics.

The Balloon Ascents made for the
British Association.

The Chemical Action of Light.

.|Recent Travels in Africa.

Probabilities as to the position and
extent of the Coal-measures be-
neath the red rocks of the Mid-
land Counties.

..|The Results of Spectrum Analysis

applied to Heavenly Bodies.

Insular Floras.

The Geological Origin of the present
Scenery of Scotland.

The present state of Knowledge re-
garding Meteors and Meteorites.

.|Archeology of the early Buddhist

Monuments.

Reverse Chemical Actions.

Vesuvius.

The Physical Constitution of the
Stars and Nebule.

The Scientific Use of the Imagi-
nation.

Stream-lines and Waves, in connec-
tion with Naval Architecture.

Some Recent Investigations and Ap-
plications of Explosive Agents.

The Relation of Primitive to Modern
Civilisation.

Insect Metamorphosis.

The Aims and Instruments of Scien-
tific Thought.

Coal.and Coal Plants.

Molecules.

Common Wild Flowers considered
in relation to Insects.

The Hypothesis that Animals are
Automata, and its History.

The Colours of Polarised Light.

Railway Safety Appliances,

.| Force.

The ‘ Challenger’ Expedition.

Physical Phenomena connected with
the Mines of Cornwalland Devon.

The New Element, Gallium.

Animal Intelligence.

Dissociation, or Modern Ideas of
Chemical Action.

Radiant Matter.

Primeval Man.

Mental Imagery.

The Rise and Progress of Paléon-
tology.

The Electric Discharge its Forms
and its Functions.

1882.
1883.

1884.

1885.

1886.
1887.
1888.

1889.

1890.

1891.

1892.
1893.

1894.

1895.

1896.
1897.

1898,
1899.
1900.
1901.

1902.
1903.

EVENING DISCOURSES.

xci

Subject of Discourse

Date and Place Lecturer
Southamp- | Prof.SirWm. Thomson, F.R.S.
ton. Prof. H. N. Moseley, F.R.S.
Southport | Prof. R. S. Ball, F.R.6. ......

| Prof. J. G. McKendrick. ......
Montreal...) Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc. ......
Rey. W. H. Dallinger, F.R.S.
Aberdeen...| Prof. W. G. Adams, F.R.S....
\John Murray, F.R.S.E..........
Birming- |A. W. Riicker, M.A., F.R.S.
ham. Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D....
Manchester | Prof. H. B. Dixon, F’.R.S.
Col. Sir F. de Winton .........
Bath......... | Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S. ...
|Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.S8c.,
| ERS.
Newcastle- Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,
upon-Tyne| F.R.S.
| Walter Gardiner, M.A.........
Leeds ...... E. B. Poulton, M.A., F.R.S....
Prof. C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.
Cardiff ...... | Prof. L. C. Miall, ¥.L.8., F.G.S8.
Prof. A. W.Riicker,M.A.,F.R.S.
Edinburgh’ | Prof. A. M. Marshall, F.R.S.
| Prof. J.A. Ewing, M.A., F.B.S.
Nottingham | Prof. A. Smithells, B.Sc.
Oxford...... J. W. Gregory, D.Sc., F.G.S.
| Prof. J.Shield Nicholson, M.A.
Ipswich ...| Prof. 8. P. Thompson, F.R.S.
|Prof. Percy F. Frankland,
| B.R.S.
Liverpool...| Dr. F. Elgar, F.B.S. .........4+4
| Prof. Flinders Petrie, D.C.L.
Toronto ...| Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,
E.B.S.
J. Milne; (BUR Sta. aceetiseteac ane
Bristol...... Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S. .....
Herbert Jackson .............++
Dover ...... Prof. Charles Richet............
Prof. J. Fleming, F.R.S. ......
Bradford ...' Prof. F. Gotch, F.R.S..........
| Prof. W. Stroud. ........ss0..0.
Glasgow ... Prof. W. Ramsay, F.R.S.......
(BR. Datwin, F.RAS. .......00. cee
Belfast ... Prof. J. J. Thomson, F.R.S....
| Prof. W. F. R. Weldon, F.R.S.
Southport |Dr. R. Munro ................

POOR ee nem e temas eeeene

Tides.

Pelagic Life.

Recent Researches on the Distance
of the Sun.

Galvanic and Animal Electricity.

Dust.

The Modern Microscope in Re-
searches on the Least and Lowest
Forms of Life.

The Electric Light and Atmospheric
Absorption.

The Great Ocean Basins.

Soap Bubbles.

The Sense of Hearing.

.|The Rate of Explosions in Gases.

Explorations in Central Africa.

The Electrical Transmission of Power.

The Foundation Stones of the Earth’s
Crust.

The Hardening and Tempering of
Steel. ,

How Plants maintain themselves in
the Struggle for Existence.

Mimicry.

Quartz Fibres and their Applications.

Some ‘Difficulties in the Life of
Aquatic Insects.

Electrical Stress.

Pedigrees.

Magnetic Induction.

Flame.

'Prof. Victor Horsley, F.R.S.|The Discovery of the Physiology of

the Nervous System.

Experiences and _ Prospects
African Exploration.

Historical Progress and Ideal So-
cialism.

Magnetism in Rotation.

The Work of Pasteur and its various
Developments. ~

Safety in Ships.

Man before Writing.

Canada’s Metals.

of

Earthquakes and Volcanoes.

Funafuti: the Study of a Coral Island.

Phosphorescence.

La vibration nerveuse.

TheCentenary of the ElectricCurrent.

Animal Electricity.

Range Finders.

The Inert Constituents
Atmosphere.

The Movements of Plants.

Becquerel Rays and Radio-activity.

Inheritance.

Man as Artist and Sportsman in the
Palzolithic Period.

The Old Chalk Sea, and some of its

of the

Teachings.

xCil

EVENING DISCOURSES.

Date and Place

Lecturer

Subject of Discourse

1904.
1905.

Cape Town

Durban

Cambridge

South
Africa:

Pietermaritz-
burg
Johannesburg

Pretoria

...| Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S. ..

Prof. G. H. Darwin, F.R.S....
Prof. H. F. Osborn

weeeeeeweeee

|C. Vernon Boys, URES: 4 scene

... Douglas W. Freshfield.........

Prof. W. A. Herdman, ¥.R.S.
Col) D. Bruce; C:B:, BeR:S¢2...
H. T. Ferrar
Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S...
ProfJy OFA molds, sc cccces sa

Bloemfontein. Ac Re Banks sic acscccsceencsiens
Kimberley .|Sir Wm. Crookes, F.R.S.......
Profi PBA BOClCY fore senctesiets
Bulawayo ...|D. Randall-MaclTver ............
DOG otk: t..0c2 | Dr, Tempest Anderson.........
|Dr. A. D. Waller, F.R.S. ......
107. Leicester...) W. Duddell, F.R.S. ....000ee
‘Dr. HP AGMIIKEY,<c0vccedsacneowess

1908. Dublin...... 'Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S.

|Prof. W. M. Davis.

'Ripple- Marks and Sand-Dunes.
Paleontological Discoveries in the
Rocky Mountains.

. W. J. Burchell's Discoveries in South

Africa.

Some Surface Actions of Fluids,

'The Mountains of the Old World.

|Marine Biology.

‘Sleeping Sickness.

|The Cruise of the ‘ Discovery.’

. Lhe Distribution of Power.

‘| Steel as an Igneous Rock.

Fly-borne Diseases: Malaria, Sleep-
ing Sickness, &c.

‘The Milky Way and the Clouds of
Magellan.

Diamonds.

The Bearing of Engineering on
Mining.

The Ruins of Rhodesia.

Volcanoes.

The Electrical Signs of Life, and
their Abolition by Chloroform.

The Ark and the Spark in Radio-tele-

| graphy.

Recent Developments in the Theory

| of Mimicry.
. Halley’s Comet.

The Lessons of the Colorado Canyon.

LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES.

Date and Place

1868.

1869.

1870.
1872.
1873.
1874,
1875.
1876,

1877.

1879.
1880.
1881.

1882.
1883.

1884.
1885.

Exeter ......

Liverpool...

Brighton ... |

Bradford ...|C. W. Siemens, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Belfast ...... Werot.|Odlings WARIS... .cc-..0nses
IBTistalees.e.4 Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.
Glasgow ...| Commander Cameron, C.B....|
cer: IWalitwhetGCCe ry pecc.ssasceessassae |
Sheffield ...)W. BE. Ayrton .1......0..s0000-
Swansea ... H. Seebohm, F.Z.S.

York iiteee Prof. Osborne Reynolds,

E.R.S.
Southamp- | John Evans, D.C.L.,Treas. B.S.
ton.

Southport | Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S. ...
Montreal ...| Prof. R. 8. Ball, F.R.S..........
Aberdcen...|H. B. Dixon, M.A; ......0030)2

Lecturer

| Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D.,F.R.S.

asi POL Serene LL.D., i. R. 5.

SirJohn Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S.
W.Spottiswoode, LL.D.,F.R.S.

Subject of Lecture
Matter and Force.

cc Piece of Chalk.

. The modes of detecting the Com-
position of the Sun and other
Heavenly Bodies by the Spectrum.

Savages.

Sunshine, Sea, and Sky

Fuel.

|The Discovery of Oxygen.

A Piece of Limestone.

A Journey through Africa.

Telegraphy and the Telephone,

Electricity as a Motive Powe.

.. The North-East Passage.

Raindrops, Hailstones, and Snow-
flakes.

Unwritten History, and how to
read it.

' Talking by Electricity—Telephones,

Comets.

|The Nature of Explosions.

LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES.

xciil

Date and Place

1886. Birmingham

1887.
1888.
1889.

1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894,
1895.
1896.
1897.
1898.

1900.
1901.

1902.
1903.

1904.
1906.
1907.
1908.

Manchester
Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds
Cardiff ......
Edinburgh
Nottingham
Oxford......
Ipswich ...
Liverpool...
Toronto
Bristol

eoeeee

Bradford ...
Glasgow

Belfast......
Southport

Cambridge

Work? ..55....
Leicester...
Dublin

...|Dr. H, O. Forbes

Lecturer

Subject of Lecture

Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,
F.RB.S.

Prof. G. Forbes, F.R.S._ ......

SirJohn Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S.

B. Baker, M.Inst.C.H. .........

Prof. J. Perry, D.Sc., F.R.S.

Prof. S. P. Thompson, F.R.S.
Prof. C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.
Prof. Vivian B. Lewes.........
Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S.
Drs AGeEl. sHISOW see ax ceplesricdnans
Prof, J. A. Fleming, F.R.S....

Cee ee eee erneee

Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S. ...

Prof. S. P. Thompson, F.R.S.

...|H. J. Mackinder, M.A..........

Prof. L. C. Miall, F.R.S. ......
Drs Je oN LCUGs acden sedans ona
Dr. J. E. Marr, F.R.S. .........
Prof. S. P. Thompson, F.R.S.
Prof. H. A. Miers, F.R.S.......
Dr. A. E. H. Tutton, F.R.S.

The Colours of Metals and their
Alloys.

Electric Lighting.

The Customs of Savage Races.

The Forth Bridge.

Spinning Tops.

Electricity in Mining.
Electric Spark Photographs,
Spontaneous Combustion.

...|Geologies and Deluges.

Colour.

The Earth a Great Magnet.

New Guinea.

The ways in which Animals Warn
their Enemies and Signal to their
Friends.

Electricity in the Industries,

The Movements of Men by Land
and Sea.

Gnats and Mosquitoes.

Martinique and St. Vincent: the
Eruptions of 1902.

The Forms of Mountains.

The Manufacture of Light.

The Growth of a Crystal.

The Crystallisation of Water.

xciv

ATTENDANCES AND RECEIPTS AT ANNUAL MEETINGS,

Table showing the Attendances and Receipts

Date of Meeting Where held Presidents oe | hile
TER SIE ey eee [ad 0) 0 See EPP ....| Viscount Milton, D.O.L.. F.R.S. ......

1832, June 19......) Oxford ...... ...| The Rev. W. Buckland, F.R.S. S|

1833, June 25.,,..., Cambridge .| The Rev. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S. |

1834, Sept. 8 ......) Edinburgh .| Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.O.L., F. RS. |||

1835, Aug.10......) Dublin ...... .| The Rey. Provost Lloyd,LL.D., F.R.S.!

1836, Aug. 22. Bristol .., .| The Marquis of Lansdowne, F.R.S..

1837, Sept. 11..
1838, Aug. 10......
1839, Aug. 26......
1840, Sept. 17......
1841, July 20 ......
1842, June 23.,....
1843, Aug. 17......
1844, Sept. 26 .
1845, June 19.
1846, Sept. 10

1847, June 23 .
1848, Aug.9 .
1849, Sept. 12.
1850, July 21 .....
1851, July 2.........
1852, Sept. 1

1853, Sept. 3

1854, Sept. 20
1855, Sept. 12
1856, Aug. 6

1857, Aug. 26
1858, Sept. 22
1859, Sept. 14
1860, June 27
1861, Sept. 4

1862, Oct. 1

1863, Aug. 26
1864, Sept. 13
1865, Sept. 6

1866, Aug. 22..,...
1867, Sept.4 ......
1868, Aug. 19......
1869, Aug. 18 ..,...
1870, Sept. 14......
1871, Aug. 2

1872, Aug. 14
1873, Sept. 17 .
1874, Aug. 19.
1875, Aug. 25
1876, Sept. 6

1877, Aug. 15......
1878, Aug. 14......
1879, Aug. 20
1880, Aug. 25.
1881, Aug. 31,
1882, Aug. 23 .
1883, Sept. 19.
1884, Aug. 27
1885, Sept. 9

1886, Sept. 1

1887, Aug. 31......
1888, Sept. 5 ......
1889, Sept. 11
1890, Sept.3 ......
1891, Aug. 19......
1892, Aug.3 .
1893, Sept. 13.
1894, Aug. 8

1895, Sept. 11
1896, Sept. 16
1897, Aug. 18
1898, Sept.7 ......
1899, Sept.13......
1900, Sept. 5

1901, Sept. 11
1902, Sept. 10.
1903, Sept. 9 .

.| York

..| Southampton
=} Oxford, >...
.., Swansea
..| Birmingham
.| Edinburgh

.| Swansea

1904, Aug, 17......! Cambridge.....
1905, Aug. 15..,..,,, South Africa
1906, Aug.1 ..,... 1 OPK 3. eee epee wi
1907, July 31 ...... Leicester

1908, a 5 oot A ' Dublin .....

* Ladies were nut admitted by y purchased tickets until 1843,

Liverpool
Newcastle-on-Ty:
Birmingham

Glasgow.........
Plymouth ..,
Manchester
Cork

Cambridge

Liverpool
Glasgow...

Aberdeen
Oxford ......

Manchester ..
Cambridge ..,..........
Newcastle-on-Tyne...

NEES AES

Birmingham.,
Nottingham .,
Dundee ,.,...
Norwich
Exeter ......
Liverpool ..
Edinburgh
Brighton ..,
Bradford
Belfast ...
Bristol ...
Glasgow

Plymouth ...
Dublin ..,
Sheffield...

VOLK! .caectenes
Southampton
Southport ..
Montreal .,
Aberdeen .....
Birmingham
Manchester ..
Bath

Edinburgh
Nottingham ..
Oxford

Southport 2

‘| The Duke of Northumberland,

.| The Marquis of Breadalbane,
.| The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.
.| The Lord Francis Egerton, FE,
.| The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. ....

‘| Sir Robert H. ‘Inglis, em ERS.
.| TheMarquis ofNorthampton, Pres.

‘| Sir David Brewster, K.H., F.RS.......

..| William Hopkins, F.R.S............
.| The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S.

"| Richard Owen, M.D., D.O.L., F.R.

..| The Lord Wrottesley, M.A., Perce ier |
.| William Fairbairn, LL.D., FR, Ss.

B.,
.| Sir Oharles Lyell, Bart., M.A.,
.D.
“Se.

“| William R. Gpve, Q.0., F.R
.| The Duke of Buccleuch, K.0 BF.

A a
..| Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.O.L., F

..| Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D., i
..| Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D.
.| Dr. W. B. Carpenter, FRS. .

.| Sir John Hawkshaw, FR.

..| Prof. A. Thomson, M.D.
..| W. Spottiswoode, M.A.
..| Prof. G. J. Allman, M.
.| A. O. Ramsay, LL.D,

..| Dr. O. W. Siemens FR
..| Prof. A. Cayley, D.O.L. R.S

..| Prof. Lord Rayleigh, F. Rs en
..| Sir Lyon Playfair, K.O.B., FR. te
..| Sir J. W. Dawson, O.M.G., F.R.

.| Sir H. E. Roscoe, D. 0.

"| Sir A. Geikie, LL.D. FERS.

..| The Marquis of Salisbury,K.G.,
..| Sir Douglas Galton, K.C.B., F.
..| Sir Joseph Lister, Bart., Pres.
..| Sir John Evans, K.C.B., B. R.S. .
..| Sir W. Orookes, F.R.S, ..............0. 45
3 Sir Michael an rar ) Sec.R.S....

PA Prof. J. “Dewar, LLD., Fl
..| Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C. B..
..| Rt. Hon, A. J. Balfour, M.P.,
.| Prof. G. H. Darwin, LL.D.,

ss Prof. E. Bey Pee
.. Sir David Gill, K.C.B., F.
. Dr. Francis Darwin, PRS

The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S...
The Rey. W. Vernon Harcourt,

The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D.. F.

G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal, F.R.S.)
Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S.

The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. ..
Prof. 0. G. B. Daubeny, M.D.,
The Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., F.R.S. ......

H.R.H. The Prince Consort

The Rev. Professor Willis,M.A.F. 8.|

SirWilliam G, Armstrong,O.
Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL

Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.

s PRE

Prof. A. W. Williamson, F. ‘co

Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D. SERS.
Ss.

RS,

Prof. T. Andrews, M.D.,

ae
. F
RS.

BA mb:

Sir John Lubbock, Ba

Ge!

oy F.R. .
Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.RB.S. ..........
Prof. W. H. Flower, O.B., F.R.S.
Sir F. A. Abel, O.B., F.R.S.
Dr. W. Huggins, F.R.S.

HE

L.

allot Telatal sta

169 65
303 169
109 |} Ss (8
296 150
313 36
241 | 10
314 18
149 3
297 2
235 9
172 8
164 10
141 13
238 «| «83
194 33
182 | ~—(o4
936 «|| (15
922 «| 42
184 27
286 21
321 113
239 15
203 36
287 40
292 | 44
iy =| 3s
196 18
204 21
314 39
246 28
245 36
212 27
162 13
939 «6| 36
231 | 35
173 19
201 | 18
184 16
144 ll
279 28
178 17
203 | 60
235 «=| ~=«(30
2950 |~ 18
314 25
498 | 86
266 36
277 20
259 21
189 24
280 14
201 7
327 21
214 13
330 31
120 8
281 19
296 20
267 13
310 37
243 21
250 21
419 32
115 40
322 10
276 19
294 24

} Tickets of Admission to Sections only,

:
:

ATTENDANCES AND RECEIPTS-AT ANNUAL MEETINGS. xcv

Amount
Old New 4 Grants |
Annual | Annual ae Ladies /Foreigners| Total ee for Scientific) Year
Members | Members Me ae zg Purposes
as 25 a: = = 353 = = | 1831
aos = — = = oe = = | 1832
i = = = = = 900 = = | 1833
= = = — = 1298 = £20 0 0} 1834
= = = _ = = = 167 0 0 1835
— = = — = 1350 _ 435 0 0| 1836
— = — _ = 1840 mens 922 12 6 1837
as = = 1100* = 2400 = 932 2 2 1838
= = = — | 84 1438 = 1595 11 0 1839
= = = _ 40 1353 = 1546 16 4 1840
46 317 = 60* = 891 a 1235 10 11 1841
15 376 33 331* 28 1315 = 144917 8 1842
71 185 = 160 = = = 1565 10 2 1843
45 190 oF 260 = = = 98112 8) 1844
94 22 407 172 35 1079 cs 831 9 9| 1845
65 39 270 196 36 857 = 68516 0} 1846
197 40 495 203 53 1320 = 208 5 4 1847
54 25 376 197 15 g19 |£707 0 0| 275 1 8 1848
93 33 447 237 22 1071 963 0 0} 15919 6 1849
128 . 42 510 273 44 1241 1085 0 0] 34518 0| 1850
61 47 244 141 37 710 620 0 O}| 391 9 7 1851
63 60 510 292 9 1108 | 1085 0 0| 304 6 7 1852
56 57 367 236 6 876 903 0 0] 205 0 0 1853
121 121 765 524 10 1802 1882 0 0! 38019 7 1854
142 101 , 1094 543 26 2133 | 2311 0 0] 48016 4| 1855
104 48 412 346 9 1115 1098 0 0| 73413 9) 1856
156 * 190 ” 900 569 26 2022 | 2015 0 0} 50715 4) 1857
11 91 710 509 13 1698 1931 0 0| 61818 2 1858
125 179 1206 $21 _ 22 2564 | 2782 0 O| 68411 1 1889
: 177 59 636 463 47 1689 1604 0 0] 76619 6 | 1860
; 184 125 1589 791 15 3138 | 3944 0 0] 1111 5 10 1861
150 57 433 242 25 1161 1089 0 0| 129316 6 1862
1 154 209 1704 1004 25 333 3640 0 0] 1608 3 10 1863
182 103 1119 1058 13 2802 | 2965 0 0] 128915 8| 1864
: 215 149 766 508 23 1997 | 22297 0 0 | 1591 7 10 1865
218 105 960 771 11 2303 | 2469 0 0] 175013 4 1866
193 118 1163 raat 7 2444 | 2613 0 0] 1739 4 0 1867
| 296 117 720 682 45t 2004 | 2042 0 0] 1940 0 0 1868
229 > 107 678 600 7 1856 1931 0 0| 1622 0 0 1869
| 303 195 1103 910 14 2878 | 3096 0 0] 1572 0 0 1870
311 eer 976 754 21 2463 «=| 2575 0 0| 1472 2 6 1871
280 80 937 912 43 2533 «| 2649 0 0] 1285 0 0 1872
237 99 796 601 11 1983 | 2120 0 0| 1685 0 0 1873
232 85 817 630 12 1951 1979 0 0| 115116 0} 1874
307 93 884 672 17 2248 +#| 2397 0 0] 960 0 0 1875
331 185 1265 712 25 2774 +=+| 3023 0 0]1092 4 2] 1876
238 . 59 446 283 lL 1229 | 1268 0 0| 1128 9 7 1877
290 93 1285 674 17 2578 | 2615 0 0] 72516 6 1878
239 ‘74 529 349 13 1404 | 1425 0 0 | 108011 11! 1879
171 4l 389 147 12 915 | 899 0 0| 731 7 7 1880
313 176 1230 514 24 2557 | 2689 0 0| 476 8 Lj 1881
253 79 516 189 21 1253 1286 0 0|1126 111] 1882
330 323 952 841 | 5 2714 +| 3369 0 0| 1083 3 3} 1883
317 219: 826 74 |\26&60H.$) 1777 1855 0 0|1173 4 0} 1884
332 122 1053 447 6 2203 2256 0 0| 1385 0 0 1885
428 179 1067 429 11 2453 «| 2532 0 0| 995 0 6 1886
510 244 1985 493 92 3838 | 4336 0 0| 118618 0 1887
399 100 | 639 509 | 12 1984 | 2107 0 0| 1511 0 5 1888
412 113 1024 679 «| Qk 2437 | 2441 0 0/1417 O11 1889
368 92 680 334 12 1775 |1776 0 0| 78916 8 1890
341 152 672 107 35 1497 | 1664 0 0] 102910 0} 1891
? 413 141 733 439 50 2070 +} 2007 0 0| 86410 0} 1892
328 57 773 268 7 1661 1653 0 0} 90715 6| 1893
435 69 941 | 451 77 2321 2175 0 0} 58315 6 1894
290 31 493 261 22 1324 | 1236 0 0| 97715 5 1895. |
383 139 || 1384 873 41 3181 3228 0 0| 1104 6 1 1896
286 125 682 100 41 1362 | 1398 0 0| 105910 8 1897
327 96 1051 639 33 2446 | 2399 0 0| 1212 0 0 1898
324 . 68 + 548 120 27 1403 | 1328 0 0| 143014 2] 1899
Sa 45 801 _| 482 9 1915 | 1801 0 0| 107210 0 1900
374 131 794 246 20 1912 | 2046 0 0| 945 0 0] 1901
_ 314 86 647 305 6 1620 | 1644 0 0} 947 0 0 1902
319 90 688 365 21 1754 +| 1762 0 0| 84513 2 1903
449 113 1338 317 121 2789 «| 2650 0 0| 88718 11 1904
- 93797 All 430 -181 16 2130 2422 0 0] 928 2 2 1905
356 93 817 sn |) oe 1972 | 1811 0 0| 882 0 9 1906
339 61 659 951 | 42 | 41647 1561 0 0| 757 12 10 1907
465 12 1166 222 14 2297 | 2317 0 0| 115718 8] 1908

. } Including Ladies. § Fellows ofthe American Association weread mitted as Hon. Members for this Meeting
{ Including 848 Members of the South African Association.

x¢vi

ANALYSIS OF ATTENDANCES AT THE ANNUAL
MEETINGS, 1831-1906.

[The total attendances for the years 1832, 1839, 1843, and 1844
are unknown. |

Average attendance at 72 Meetings : 1855,

Average
Attendance
Average attendance at 5 Meetings beginning during June, between
1833 and 1860 . . - 1260
Average attendance at 3 Meetings beginning during July ly, between
1841 and 1851 . . 947
Average attendance at 28 Meetings beginning duri ing ‘August, between
1836 and 1906 . . 1978*
Average attendance at 34 Meetings ‘beginning during September
between 1831 and 1903 - 1933

Attendance at 1 Meeting held i in Oc tober, Ca rmbridge, 1862 ; 2 ~26L
Se
Meetings beginning during August and September.

Average attendance at—

4 Meetings beginning during the 1st week in August ( 1st- 7th) . 1905

5 ” ” ” » 2nd 4, 4 » ( 8th-l4th) , 2130

8 ” ” ” jm ay) ay » (15th-21st) . 1761t
11 . a - ,, 4th "js “0 y. (22nd-slst) yy eeuue

Average attendance at—
ae Meetings beginning during the Ist week in September( 1st- 7th). 2082

” ” ” re Zant Sis ” ( 8th-14th). 1860
8 5 * ie eae, pote » (15th-21st). 2206
2 ” ” » » 4th 4, 4 » (22nd-30th). 1025

Meetings beginning during June, July, and October.
Attendance at 1 Meeting (1845, June 19) beginning during the 3rd

week in June (15th-21st) . 1079
Average attendance at 4 Meetings beginning during the 4th week i in

June (22nd-30th) : 1306
Attendance at 1 Meeting (1851, ‘July 2) beginning during the Ist

week in July (1st-7th) . 710
Average attendance at 2 Meetings beginning during the 3rd week in

July (15th-21st) ; 1066
Attendance at 1 Meeting (1862, October 1) beginning ‘during the Ist

week in October (1st-7th) . . . . . . . oe SUTGT

* Average attendance at 29 Meetings, including South Africa, 1905 (August 15-
September 1); 1983.

t Average attendance at 9 Meetings, including South Africa, 1905 (August 15-
eptember 1): 1802,

GRANTS OF MONEY.

XCVli

General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of
Grants for Scientific Purposes.

1834,
£ ved
Tide Discussions ......+ Sesstese 20 0 0
Sa eaeatananeten

1835
Tide DiscussionS ........+ssse++ 62 0 0
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0
#167 UO O

1836
Tide Discussions .........s0008+ 163 0 0
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0

Thermometric Observations,

BEGIN welnsctssecccrscancevessstesss 50 0 0
Experiments on Long-con-

tinted Heat ........seeecseeee 1750
Rain-gauges ...ccccecseees seoces 913° 0
Refraction Experiments ...... 15 0 0
Lunar Nutation.............000+ 60 0 0
Thermometers .......0eesseeeeee 15 6 0

£435 0 O

sciea es Wes

1837.

Tide Discussions .......ssses0+ 284 1 0
Chemical Constants ........... P24 13" 6
Lunar Nutation..............6086 TO or GO
Observations on Waves ...... 100 12 0
Hides.at Bristol ......-..-........ 150 0 0
Meteorology and Subterra-

nean Temperature............ 93 3 0
Vitrification Experiments 150 0 0
Heart Experiments ............ 8 4 6
Barometric Observations ...... 30 0 0
BRAPOIMCLECTS cccecsencsccsseccsceses’s 1118 6

£922 12 6
Z peat
1838.
Tide Discussions ...........066 29 OP eO
British Fossil Fishes............ 100 0 O
Meteorological Observations

and Anemometer (construc-

UTGTE)) = Rescorecde sucddcannenoseer 100 0 0
Cast Iron (Strength of) ...... 60 0 0
Animal and Vegetable Sub-

stances (Preservation of)... 19 1 10
Railway Constants ............ 41 12 10
Bristol Tides ............ Canteee.28 OU) OO
Growth of Plants .............55 Tor Ort
tein’ Rivers’) s....<2.c.ccecescs 3.6 6
Education Committee ......... 50 0 0
Heart Experiments ....... acer OM Hom 0)
Land and Sea Level........... ODO Sea
Steam-vessels..............ssse008 100 0 0
Meteorological Committee 319) 5

£932 2 2

1908,

1839.

£ os. a
| Fossil Ichthyology ........+00 TOO +0

Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth, &¢. .........00. 63 10 0
Mechanism of Waves ......... 144 2 0
Bristol Tides ......sescecsseeeeeee 35 18 6

Meteorology and Subterra-
| nean Temperature............ 21 11 O
| Vitrification Experiments ... 9 4 U
Cast-iron Experiments......... 103 OT
Railway Constants ......... ERIS TO.
| Land and Sea Level............ PA Pie es
Steam-vessels’ Engines ...... 100 O 4
Stars in Histoire Céleste ...... i Ls O
Stars (Lacaille) ..........0+..0608 ESO" 6
Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue 166 16 0
Animal Secretions.........+0+.+. 10 10 6
Steam Engines in Cornwall... 50 0 O
Atmospheric Air .........eeeeee LGrele =O
Cast and Wrought Iron ...... 40 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... Oro
Gases on Solar Spectrum...... Za 10-0

Hourly Meteorological Ob-

servations, Inverness and
TeiaeO RENE: Ss ooshunpseacaconaceot 497 8
Fossil Reptiles ..,.....scseeeseee 118 2 9
Mining Statistics ............06 50 0 0
£1595 11 O
ee

1840.

| Bristol Tides <2... cs.0.cscseevses 100 0 9
Subterranean Temperature... 13813 6
Heart Experiments .........+ sels O
Lungs Experiments .......+.++. 813 0
Tide Discussions .......s.e0e0ee 50 0 0
Land and Sea Level...... oes 611 J
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 242 10 0
Stars (lacaille) .......cssesenssee 415 0
Stars (Catalogue) ......ceeceeeee 264 0 O
Atmospheric Air .....eceseeeeee 15 15 0
WateronsIrong coedeceescssanses 100700
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... er Om'O
Meteorological Observations. 52 17 6
Foreign Scientific Memoirs... 112 1 6
Working Population ...........+ 100 0 O
School Statistics ...........66+ 50 0 0
Forms of Vessels .........000008 184 7 0

Chemical and Electrical Phe-
MOMEHA) vscnvecevecuces«ccarsems 40 0 0

Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth ........ccecsesese 80 0 0
Magnetical Observations...... 185 13 9
£1546 16 4

xcviii

1841.
iS Sasvie
Observations on Waves ...... 30 0
Meteorology and Subterra-

nean Temperature ..........- 8 8
Actinometers .......... dueswese are LO: 0
Earthquake Shocks .....0...+e. U7e 17,
CLIC (POISONS arveceteveasns «sees 60
Veins and Absorbents ......... 3 0
MIMGGNGRIVETS J cissecdaoseosesse 5 0
Marine Zoology .........se+0++ 15 12
Skeleton Maps .......-.sseeeeee 20 0
Mountain Barometers ......... 6 18
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 185 0
Stars (Lacaille),...ccscassssrs ry he
Stars (Nomenclature of)....... 17 19
Stars (Catalogue of) ............ 40 0
Water on Iron ....... “coneepen C 50 O
Meteorological Observations

BUMUTAVOTIICSS) “sarccasnsadenasnae 20 0
Meteorological Observations

@eductionOf) F..<occaspasces 25 0
Fossil Reptiles ....... iaasads oid 50 O
Foreign Memoirs ..........0..+. 62 0
Railway Sections .............. 1 WO8 Rl
Forms of Vessels .......s0ss00+s 193 12
Meteorological Observations

AME LYINOWGE ps. sesatecuesneoene 55 0 0
Magnetical Observations...... 6118 8
Fishes of the Old Red Sand-

SLONC AE be snn cp cravetemse sens eee LOOE 10526
Tides atieith 1... <c.ss<peeets 50 0 ¢
Anemometer at Edinburgh... 69 1 10
Tabulating Observations ...... he (Se 33}
Races of Men.....:...000 Masti DOO
Radiate Animals ........ eee fe WeeO)

£1235 10 11

comer ae ee

1842,

Dynamometric Instruments.. 113 11 2
Anoplura Britanniz ............ 52 12 0
TIES AteBTIBLOl eeseeousenc seceee BO Tor O
Gases'on Light comnsrasceotenses 30 14 7
Chronometers...¢..cc01.s..0ss0ee 26) ier6
Marine Zoology..........cesecees ey pesO
British Fossil Mammalia...... 100 0 0
Statistics of Education......... 20 0 0
Marine Steam-vessels’ En-

SINCST sss nenseveereamnncerires 28 0 0
Stars (Histoire Céleste) vasveeeaon) 0) 20
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of)... 110 0 0
Railway Sections .............. : Gt 10 0
British Belemnites ............ 50 0 0
Fossil Reptiles (publication

of Report) sis .ceeeeeeeenetsees 210 0 0
Forms of Vessels ........ Snare, 180 0 0
Galvanic Experiments on

Rocks ....... cvascsensad dae etant 5 8 6
Meteorological Experiments

omPlymouth "sc... ccseetssseees 68 0 0
Constant Indicator and Dyna-

mometric Instruments ...... 90°0 0

Seocoo S cSoecceonaacooocos oo

GENERAL STATEMENT.

Br8. «tbe
Force Of Wind \..ssrcssrrieeseee 10 0 0
Light on Growth of Seeds ... 8 O O
Vital Statistics. ............+06 pO) sl)
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 8 1 11
Questions on Human Race... 7 9 O
£1449 17 8
1843.
Revision of the Nomenclature
(PRS Mis beepeticacoecen Ascunr ote- 21 10) 30
Reduction of Stars, British
Association Catalogue ...... 25 0 0
Anomalous Tides, Firth of
Horthiiee..: sassasenanqeaesresee 120 0 0
Hourly Meteorological ‘Obser-
vations at Kingussie and
UMVERNESS] ease seedtackessaeetene 7712 8
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth Reaisiieey aemeese 55 0 0
Whewell’s Met eorological Ane-
mometer at Plymouth ...... 10 0 O
Meteorological Observations,
Osler’s Anemometer at Ply-
THOUL Mica spesicsvecscastssepeasenes 20 0-0
Reduction of Meteorological
Observations .......2....s0088 swOL OO
Meteorological Instruments
and Gratuities ...... pak sahias 39 6 +O
Construction of Anemometer
at TINVerness ....0.secssees conse (Geet
Magnetic Co-operation......... 10 8 10
Meteorological Recorder for
Kew Observatory ............ 50 0 0
Action of Gases on Light...... 18 16 1
Establishment at Kew Ob-
servatory, Wages, Repairs,
Furniture, and Sundries... 1383 4 7
| Experiments by Captive Bal-
ROQU Side agns vase steees Sener 81 8 0
Oxidation of the Rails “of
RAILWAYS: ocss sas enue selexciagee’s 20°10 0
| Publication of Report on
Fossil Reptiles ..,......-...+. 40 0 0
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
way Sections .....:.cssccersens 14718 3
Registration of Earthquake
BHOGKSic.casuast ates aieveaneass 30 0 O
Report on Zoological Nomen-
Gl AtONGs 7 <naseses taepse mee aneanee 1050: +0
Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
stone near Manchester ...... 4 4 6
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 5 3 8
Marine Testacea (Habits of). 10 0 0
Marine Zoology .......csssessve ») LOROA0
Marine Zoology ........... Preettre es dics 1
Preparation of Report on Bri-
tish Fossil Mammalia ...... 100 0 0
Physiological Operations of
Medicinal Agents ............ 20 0 O
Vital Statistics ......... neces 5 8

Gr se
Additional Experiments on

the Forms of Vessels ...... 70 0 0)
Additional Experiments on

the Forms of Vessels ...... 100 0 0
Reduction of Experiments on

the Forms of Vessels ...... 100 0 0}
Morin’s Instrument and Con- |

stant Indicator ............... 69 14 10
Experiments on the Strength

Gi Materials j..icccssccsseoues 60 0 0

£1565 10 2
Senate tei
1844.
Meteorological Observations

at Kingussie and Inverness 12 0 0
Completing Observations at

HSU IMIGUEN) ven cceeeccessencececs 35 0 0
Magnetic and Meteorological

Co-operation ..........0..ceeee 25 8 4
Publication of the British

Association Catalogue of

STE S Se aiaoorecticacse a ace Ors 35 0 0
Observations on Tides on the

East Coast of Scotland 100 0 0
Revision of the Nomenclature

Be SEALS. [oc gaeescsceinnc onde 1842 2 9 6
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observa-

REA Meeisreten ajaleslaielnwelsiceraaaccion e 117 17: 3
Instruments for Kew Obser-

WALOLY csisevessenvarsecesesnacese 56 7B
Influence of Light on Plants 10 0 0
Subterraneous Temperature

in Ireland .. .... Poeaer er bascen 5 0 0
Coloured Drawings of Rail-

way Sections ...............00 1517 6
Investigation of Fossil Fishes

of the Lower Tertiary Strata 100 0 0
Registering the Shocks of

Earthquakes ..... Sends 1842 23 11 10
Structure of Fossil Shells...... 20 0 0
Radiata and Mollusca of the

Aigean and Red Seas 1842 100 0 0
Geographical Distributions of

Marine Zoology ......... 1842 010 0
Marine Zoology of Devon and

BoOrnwalll- secs. ccccescssdvcseeees 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Corfu ...... 10 0 0
‘Experiments on the Vitality

BESNIECUS 2205205. Mod avbieeees 9 0 0
Experiments on the Vitality

EISCCOS + sisssssasccecscces 1842 & 7 8
Exotic Anoplura. ............4.. 15 0 0
Strength of Materials ......... 100 0 0
Completing Experiments on

the Forms of Ships ......... 100 0 0
Inquiries into Asphyxia ......... 10 0 0
Investigations on the Internal

Constitution of Metals ...... 50 0 0
Constant Indicator and Mo-

rin’s Instrument...... ..1842 10 0 O

£981 12 8

GRANTS OF MONEY.

XC1x
1845,
tee. a
Publication of the British As-

sociation Catalogue of Stars 351 14 6
Meteorological Observations

at Inverness ..........sseesees 30 18 11
Magnetic and Meteorological

Co-operation ............c0e00e 1616 8
Meteorological Instruments

at Edinburgh............ ...00+ 18 ll 9
Reduction of Anemometrical

Observations at Plymouth 25 0 0
Electrical Experiments at

Kew Observatory ............ 43.17 8
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 149 15 0
For Kreil’s Barometrograph 25 0 0
Gases from Jron Furnaces ... 50 0 O
The Actinograph ............... 15 0 0
Microscopic Structure of

hells. vic csaseedecs totes nets cee 20 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ......... 1843.10 0 O
Vitality of Seeds ........ Let3) 25.07
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 7 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall... 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medi-

GINS -sasca-acsceecenetvarscea 20; 0) 0
Statistics of Sickness and

Mortality in York ............ 20 0 0
Earthquake Shocks ...... 1843 15 14 8

Sool) 19) 9
1846.
British Association Catalogue
OVENS epscnoed ccc ooo 1844 211 15 O
Fossil Fishes of the London
Olalyyrenens ceseerenecespeccsates 100 0 0
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1829 ......... 50 0 0
Maintaining the LEstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory... 146 16 7
Strength of Materials ......... 60 0 O
| Researches in Asphyxia ...... 616 2
| Examination of Fossil Shells 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 21510
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1845 712 3
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0
| Marine Zoology of Britain ... 10 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ......... 1844 25 0 0
Expenses attending Anemo-
FTTEULELS h gnaniedochracectr foe epende Lit 6
Anemometers’ Repairs ......... 2 3 6
Atmospheric Waves ............ 3.3 3
Captive Balloons ......... 1844 819 8
Varieties of the Human Race
1844 7 6 3

Statistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York............ 12 0 O
£685 16 0
ee

£2

Cc GENERAL STATEMENT.

® wwSS co &

|
:

1847.
& Ss.
Computation of the Gaussian

Constants for 1829 ......... 50 0
Habits of Marine Animals ... 10 0
Physiological Action of Medi-

CIES) os serecdercvessssuevess1 es 20 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0
Atmospheric Waves .........+++ 69
Vitality of Seeds .............06 4 7
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 107 8

£208 5 4
1848.
Maintaining the LEstablish- |

ment at Kew Observatory 171 15 11
Atmospheric Waves .......+.+.- 310 9 |
Vitality of Seeds «.........-..... 915 0
Completion of Catalogue of

RIGA Bere higree ress cannsenascedss 10'0.20
On Colouring Matters ......... 5 0 O
On Growth of Plants *..:....... 16 (0) °0

£276 1 8
1849.
Electrical Observations at

Kew Observatory ..........5 50 0 O
Maintaining the Establish-

ment ab Aitto ........5c0000 can O pian ao
Vitality of Seeds ............... ee top al
On Growth of Plants ...... .. D TOG
Registration of Periodical

IPHENOMEHAcwecsccsescestexsony 10 0 0
Bill on Account of Anemo-

metrical Observations ...... 13) 9.10

#169 19° 6
1850.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 255 18
Transit of Karthquake Waves 50 0
Periodical Phenomena ......... 15 0
Meteorological Instruments,

ZONES cuasiseaet eden aueanonates Pe etn)

£345 18
1851.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory

(includes part of grant in

SAD) swicccesessessueusyrsterate 309 2 2
Theory of Heat ..:..ccce.cssessee PAO) iB eal
Periodical Phenomena of Ani-

mals and Plants............ 56 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ............... 5 6 4
Influence of Solar Radiation 30 0 O
Ethnological Inquiries ...... peor dle OK)
Researches on Annelida ...... 10 0 0

ssa 2) 4

1852.
£3. d
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory

(including balance of grant

for’ 1850) 5. sve rsacteveness teat - 23317 8
| itecperimenta on the Conduc-

tion of Heat!’ ..cis .csreseeeees 5 Wie
Influence of Solar Radiations 20 0 0
Geological Map of Ireland... 15 0 0
Researches on the British An-

NCLCA ss -ecpcpdaceseresseaanee pO Ono
Vitality of Seeds ...........«0 >; 20) 16:52
Strength of Boiler Plates...... 10 0 0

£304 6 7
1853.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 165 0 0
Experiments on the Influence

of Solar Radiation............ 1 0 0
Researches on the British

ATIMELIMA wcnateesrennests eset 10 0 0
Dredging on the East ‘Coast

DL Scotland... 2:2 aaeeoeteee 10 0 0
Ethnological Queries ..,...... OT O0

£205 We
1854.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory

CGneluding balance of

former grant)......... sooreeeee 330 15 4
Investigations on Flax......... LI 10.0
Effects of Temperature on

Wrought: Iron s7.s.s.sce. snes ses 10 0 0
Registration of Periodical

Phenomena.............. OCTEEY. 10 0 O
British Annelida ...... scheeaes 00% 0
Vitality of Seeds .............. s Boe SS
Jonduction of Heat........ Seater 4 2-0

£380 19 7
On ene a
1855.

Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 425 0 0
| Earthquake Movements ...... 1Oi20%°O
| Physical Aspect of the Moon 11 8 5

Vitality of Seeds .............0 10+ 711
Map of the World............... 15 0 0
Ethnological Queries ......... 5 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 4 0 0
£180 16 4

1856.

Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observa-

igpaee.e £75 0 0
186B ss... £500 0 0} eh a

GRANTS OF MONEY.

; £ 3. d.
Strickland’s Ornithological

SYNONYMS ...scsseeeeeeseesees 0 0
Dredging and Dredging

FOr ........ecseeeeeceseeneoere Spise 0
Chemical Action of Light ... 20 0 0
Strength of Iron Plates ...... 10 0 0
Registration of Periodical

Phenomena,.......eseeeeeeeeeee 10: -0) 0
Propagation of Salmon......... NG) eu)

£734 13 9
1857.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 350 0
Earthquake Wave Experi-

MENES .......ccsersessessecerees 40 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 10 0
Dredging on the West Coast

Of Scotland ..........c0ceeceeee 10 0
Investigations into the Mol-

lusca of California ......... 10 0
Experiments on Flax ......... 5 0
Natural History of Mada-

ASCAD veccec seco Secevesecasccese 20 0
Researches on British Anne-

LEE. soe SSCS BE eco OPE OBCRCHS 25 0
Report on Natural Products

imported into Liverpool... 10 0
Artificial Propagation of Sal-

MON cccssaceescassecsvevecesserses 10 0
Temperature of Mines......... 7 8
Thermometers for Subterra-

nean Observations............ 5 7
Life-boats .......ceccecescseeeeers 5 0

£507 15
1858.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experi-

RPEM US se eckasdosecesinyereseee sens 25 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast
+ Of Scotland...,...ccesscoveseers 10 0 O
Dredging near Dublin......... 5 0 0
Vitality of Seed ......ssseeeeee 5 5 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 1813 2
Report on the British Anne-

MGA cdecascee wodsvese saceaesdov 25 0 0

Experiments on the produc-

tion of Heat by Motion in
L0G reshecrigebaebeeepaec opepetne 20 0 0

Report on the Natural Pro-

ducts imported into Scot-
BANG pasecetcvcevsscadscnssescsenn0 10 0 0
£618 18 2

1859,
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Dredging near Dublin......... 15 0 0

.

©

SS: ds
Osteology of Birds .......+. aot G0) Oa)
Irish Tunicata .....sscscocesseee 5 0 O
Manure Experiments ......... 20 0 0
British Medusidee ...........0+06 & On'0
Dredging Committee ......... 5 0 0
Steam-vessels’Performance... 5 O O

Marine Fauna of South and
West of Ireland............006 10 0 0
Photographic Chemistry ...... 10 0 0
Lanarkshire Fossils .........+6 20 0 1
Balloon Ascents.......cccccccsers 39 11 O
£684 11 1

1860.

Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 500 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 16 6
Dredging in Dublin Bay...... 15 0
Inquiry into the Performance

of Steam-vessels .........-0. 124 0
Explorations in the Yellow

Sandstone of Dura Den 20 0
Chemico-mechanical Analysis

of Rocks and Minerals...... 25 0
Researches on the Growth of

TRIBES cogdeanedanudticanossnapetih 10 0
Researches on the Solubility

Gig OALUS) cennueenpes aedestcceeses 30 0
Researcheson theConstituents

of Manures’ <.....0.s:sses0ees 25 0
Balance of Captive Balloon

ACCOUMUS tenses ccadeccseceereses 1 13

£766 19
1861.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory.. 500 0
Earthquake Experiments...... 25 0
Dredging North and Kast

Coasts of Scotland ......... 23 0
Dredging Committee :——

1860...... LOO OW ™ 0
USGI secant £22 0 OF
| Excavations at Dura Den...... 20 0
Solubility of Salts ............ 20 0
Steam-vessel Performance ... 150 0
Fossils of Lesmahagow ...... 15 0
Explorations at Uriconium... £0 0
Chemical Alloys .......0seeseee 20 0
Classified Index to the Trans-

ACULOUS sees ce seandeeasearsesser 100 0
Dredging in the Mersey and

DGC iienerscecencrecsechusvnnanme 5 0
Dip Circle ......sscccecesssseneees 30 0
Photoheliographic Observa-

LONG tee cee ccs sctecee eds tasteast 50 0
Prison Diet, .....<cocs-ssrdeveeoses 20 0
Gauging of Water............00+ 10 0
Alpine Ascents .........sesseeee eral tt
Constituents of Manures...... 25 0

#1111 5 1

a j=) i) i) o o o ooo

— =)

o

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Cll
1862.
Bas as
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 500 0
Patent Maws <..v.cc-.,esseeseses. 21 6
Molluscaof N.-W. of America 10 0
Natural History by Mercantile

Marine) \i.s<<..<>- eieteoueecenn's 5 0
Tidal Observations ............ 25 0
Photoheliometer at Kew ...... 40 0
Photographic Pictures of the

SLD), SancanedeBdsgodbanbocatoneaad 150 0
Rocks of Donegal.............+ 25 0
Dredging Durham and North-

umberland Coasts ............ 25 0. 0

Jonnection of Storms ......... 20 0 0
Dredging North-east Coast

OL PSCOUANG! Seccmeasacnhesae 6; 9) 6
Ravages of Teredo .........+.. pte ae
Standards of Electrical Re-

SINbANGE!<. ceessscc-neseametenaas D0 050
Railway Accidents ........... 00.30
Balloon Committee ...........- 200 0 0
Dredging Dublin Bay ......... 10) 1050
Dredging the Mersey ........ 5 O O
Prison (Dietie .vctes aecdeecsenetaens 20 0 0
Gauging of Water.............+ 1210 0O
Steamships’ Performance...... 150 0 0

Thermo-electriec Currents ... 5

£1293 16— 6

0

1863.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory... 600
Balloon Committee deficiency 70
Balloon Ascents (other ex-

DELISES)) Milcecseneines sess wcecvene 25
Entozoa ........+. Seceiseinv cls veclesmel 25
Coal Wossils onc. s.crrdsoss scceke 20
Herrings........ “pened eso 1)
Granites of Donegal............ 5
BrisoniDiet aievcce:sesdcenposnset 20
Vertical Atmospheric Move-

TIVOTUGS sentence naieleaiste eeleies le atrets 13
Dredging Shetland ............ 50
Dredging North-east Coast of

Scoblandys.avecneseeedtevet aarre 25
Dredging Nor thumberland

and) Dinhamiaeceserce+-- cece seen iy)
Dredging Committee superin-

EN CENCE Galcresescccwdents nese 10
Steamship Performance ...... 100
Balloon Committee ...... coone. 200
Carbon under pressure......... 10
Volcanic Temperature ......... 100
Bromide of Ammonium ...... 8
Electrical Standards............ 100
Electrical Construction and

Distribution. .......-c00cseeee 40
Luminous Meteors .......... 17
Kew Additional eee for

Photoheliograph ............ 100

So So. 5: coocoocoo coco

oe OFS oe:cr1eo 1S:

o

_
=)

(SPS? ye aor ifs)

So Seo oro ooo

oo oooocoo oo

GENERAL STATEMENT.

£ 8. d.
Thermo-electricity agcosen 145 0 0
Analysis of Rocks ............ 8 0 0
| Ely dxoida.spessrserecssr sce seetess 10 0 0
£1608 3 10
1864.
| Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory... 600 O O
Coal Fossils ..... Bence 60° Seance 2 OU) LOMO
Vertical Atmospheric Move-

MMCHUES! aa accssoeteseean snnieas satis 20 0 O
Dredging, Shetland ........... aio O00
Dredging, Northumberland... 25 0 O
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 O
Carbon under pressure ..... oO RONG
Standards of Electric Re-

SISHANICE sapaaecgens-ersens renee 100 0 O
Analysis of Rocks ........... SPO 2 OFtO
HiyGroida “Senessssesees nope sooth BLOM eG)
Askham is Gili ;erecesseneres tee DO O10)
Nitrite of Amyle ............... 10 0 0

| Nomenclature Committee ... 5 O 9

| Rain-Pauges seecosesesssspuere ao LOSERS
Cast-iron Investigation ...... 20 0 0
Tidal Observations in the

Humber ..... panaccesarioa sade oa Oo) 700:
Specttal HAayss..ccorss-sceaetaceae 45 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 20 0 0

£1289 15 8
1865.
| Maintaining the Establish-
| ment at Kew Observatory. 600

Balloon Committee ...... sapere li 0)
ELV ONO tenet. eceseceestesspannece 13
Hal-Pances f.ccrssnteadesnessss 30

Tidal Observations in “the
lehibiil oer) Pet prorncs ces 3c SeaRELE 6
Hexylic Compounds ...,..... ee
Amyl Compounds .........++++. 20
irish Vlora a. cessenece ARE eee 25
American Mollusca ............ 3
Organic ACIS 22) cre sce-cressee 20
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 10
P BUM PLONUS ioc. cccn+n ane canceapscacas 50
| Electrical Standards............ 100
| Malta Caves Researches ...... 30
Oyster Breeding ........5-..09 25
Gibraltar Caves Researches... 150
Kent’s Hole Excavations...... 100
Moon’s Surface Observations 35
Marine Fauna .....-.0+..+. cates ee
Dredging Aberdeenshire ...... 25
Dredging Channel Islands ... 50
Zoological Nomenclature...... 5

Resistance of Floating Bodies
In Water: ..ccsca,tetde scecsees 100

| Bath Waters Analysis .........
Luminous Meteors ............ 40

ao
=

ooo cooec“e|ec|ce|ecoooscooowm oosoSo

ooco

—
ooo ooccecece|coooecoocso

£1591 7 10

1866.

Maintaining the Establish-

GRANTS OF MONEY.

ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Lunar Committee ..........006 . 6413 4
Balloon Committee ............ 50 0 0
Metrical Committee........... 50 0 0
British Rainfall ..........0...06+ 50 0 0
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 16 0 0
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-bed ... 15 0 0
Luminous Meteors ...... ++ 50 0 0
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 20 0 0
Chemical Constitution of

Cast Tron ...cc.seseesseeeeeee 50 0 0
Amyl Compounds ........ Fate coe Oo! 0
Electrical Standards........... . 100 0 0
Malta Caves Exploration...... 30 0 0
Kent’s Hole Exploration ...... 200 0 0
Marine Fauna, &c., Devon

and Cornwall...... Pests sls . 25 0-0
DredgingAberdeenshireCoast 25 0 0
Dredging Hebrides Coast 50 0 0
Dredging the Mersey ......... 5 0 0
Resistance of Floating Bodies

MIAO WVALEL cance soswswniensssssre 50 0 O
Polycyanides of Organic Radi-

Pel deesccctnasifestccweasscaes ea 29-\Our®
Rigor Mortis ....... cccaseereneeee 10 1Or8.0
Trish Annelida .. ....s..ssessees 15 0 0
Catalogue of Crania...........+ 50 0 0
Didine Birds of Mascarene

HRIATIGA s.ccocsencessscecnse roe, BOEEOD.O
Typical Crania Researches . 30 0 0
Palestine Exploration Fund... .. 100 0 0

“£1750 13 4
1867.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 600 0
Meteorological Instruments,

IPAIESHING:......s.0c0cressee Saaco, al) AW)
Lunar Committee ............... 120 0
Metrical Committee........... oO
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 100 0
Palestine Explorations......... 50 O
Insect Fauna, Palestine ...... 30 0
British Rainfall................0. 50 0
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 25 0
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-bed... 25 0
Luminous Meteors ......... aan ROOT TO
Bournemouth, &c., Leaf-beds 30 0
Dredging Shetland ....ces.. 75 0
Steamship Reports Condensa-

tion ...... “peAbanCoeCE BeNCORCROE . 100 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0
Ethyl and Methyl Series...... 25 0
Fossil Crustacea........ “tehapos splay T5240)
Sound under Water ...........- 24 4
North Greenland Fauna ...... 75 0

Do. Plant Beds 100 0O

Iron and Steel Manufacture... 25 0
Patent Laws ....cccccssscscceeees 30 0
£1739 4

coooocoococo ecoocoooococeo f=)

1868.

Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory... 609
Lunar Committee ........0..+++s 120
Metrical Committee ............ 50
Zoological Record.............+. 100
Kent’s Hole Explorations...... 150
Steamship Performances ...... 100
British Rainfall...............06« 50
Luminous Meteors .........06. 50
Organic ACIAS .....,.....es0e0se 60
Fossil Crustacea .....sseessseee 25
Methyl Series.........--+seeeeeee 25
Mercury and Bile . bape 72
Organic Remains ‘in ““Lime-

storie Rocks vovosen Street 25
Scottish Harthquakes ......... 20
Fauna, Devon and Cornwall.. 30
British Fossil Carols........+... 50
Bagshot Leaf-beds ........+0 50
Greenland Explorations ...... 100
Fossil Flora ....... Seas ae 213)
Tidal Observations ............ 100

‘Underground Temperature ... 50

Spectroscopic Investigations

cil

0

of Animal Substances ...... 5

| Secondary Reptiles, &c. ...... 30
British Marine Invertebrate

WVANIRG 2 ote sie cislob vine eneetaaente . 100

£1940

0

1869.

Maintaining the LEstablish-

ment at; Kew Observatory .. 600

| Lunar Committee ...........5 Res PEDO

Metrical Committee............ 25

Zoological Record...........+4+ 100
Committee on Gases in Deep-

well Water........... sonaghss np. edb)

British Rainfall..........-...0+0s 50
‘Thermal Conductivity of Iron,

Loh Pre pb Bat orere coco DORCEDE 30
Kent’s Hole Explorations weshen 150
Steamship Performances...... 30
Chemical Constitution of

Cast Tr0m.ee....cccoessesseesoees 80
Tron and Steel Manufacture... 100
Methyl Series..........s0ssseeeees 30
Organic Remains in Lime-

stone Rocks ...........0606+ Lan GLO

| Earthquakes in Scotland...... 10
British Fossil Corals............ 50
Bagshot Leaf-beds .........+++ 30
MoOssil Hora... .cccccscosneserss 25
Tidal Observations ........+«+ 100
Underground Temperature .. 30
Spectroscopic Investigations

of Animal Substances ...... 5
Organic Acids........... Sei aisais 12
Kiltorcan Fossils ....,.......... 20

ooo ooocooce ooo ooo oo coco

cooo

osm oo

~

ooo oocecseo ooo

¢
C1V

£ 3. d.
Chemical Constitution and

Physiological Action Rela-

Ty Last Te scicocaeeenansnasba Sendond tp 1030:
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0 0
Utilisation of Sewage ......... 10:50" 70
Products of Digestion ,........ 10 0 0

£1622 0 0
1870.

Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 600

Metrical Committee ............ 25
Zoological Record..,........ eee LOO

Committee on Marine Fauna 20
Ears in Fishes

ee ee er

0
0
0
0)
0

Chemical Nature of Cast
Theo) il a Sopsmapeseoonspceb sconce: oD 80 0
Luminous Meteors...........000 30 0
Heat in the Blood.............++ 15 0
BritisheRainfall.., stecsssd0r=se0e 100 0

Thermal Conductivity of
NON, ‘RGCswes we ctisisldvaivaclesskx seis 20 0
British Fossil Corals ......... 50 0
Kent’s Hole Explorations 150 O
Scottish Earthquakes ......... 4 0
Bagshot Leaf-beds ...........- 15 0
Mossi Hora: soys..n eon te sewers 25 0
Tidal Observations .........46 .100 O
Underground Temperature... 50 0
Kiltorcan Quarries Fossils ... 20 0
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0
Utilisation of Sewage ......... 50 0
Organic ChemicalCompounds 30 0
Onny River Sediment ........... 3 0

Mechanical Equivalent of
HCAHE reste teuratescncteess oh 50 0
£1572 O

1871.

Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 600
Monthly Reports of Progress

in Chemistnycewwes-sesecas cee 100
Metrical Committee ............ 25
Zoological Record............... 100
Thermal Equivalents of the

Oxides of Chlorine ......... 10
Tidal Observation............... 100
HOSS OTA Ws. esccesaccmeaseeres 125
Luminous Meteors............... 30
British Fossil Corals............ 25
Heat in the Blood............. ah re Uf
British Rainfall............ sense 50
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150
Fossil Crustacea ..sccscssseseee 25
Methyl Compounds .,......... veeeO
Tyunar Objects cicsessesseneseree 20

coooowooooco oso Oo

ole oococococoeoco ooco oooco

ocooocoosccoceco ooo (=)

GENERAL STATEMENT,

£ s. a.
Fossil Coral Sections, for

Photographic Wi.s.,<1:-09. 20 0) 10
Bagshot Leaf-beds ............ 20 0 O
Moab Explorations .,.......+6+ 100 0 0
Gaussian Constants .......+++0. 40 0 0

£1472 2 6
1872.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 300 0 9
Metrical Committee ............ 715 0 0
Zoological Record ...........000+ 100 0 O
Tidal Committee ............... 200 0 0
Carboniferous Corals ........ . 25 0 0
Organic Chemical Compounds 25 0 0
Exploration of Moab ........ - 100 0 0
Terato-embryological Inqui-

RES senate ievoilenGvecassccsweceenme 10 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Luminous Meteors ....... race PROMO LSO
Heat in the Blood....... scucoase Umi
Fossil Crustacea .,......eseeses 25.00
Yossil Elephants of Malta... 25 0 0
Lunar Objects ....... doncttina ssc 20 0 0
Inverse Wave-lengths ........ 3 ORONO
British hatte, yer. we eeteone se 100 0 0
Poisonous Substances Anta-

POMISHIS ceensecseanceenaeeser eK Oe)
Essential Oils, Chemical Con-

StiiNtION; Kes \..-seevesndssssenss SOMO NO
Mathematical Tables saitalvinels 50) 0! 0
Thermal Conductivity of Me-

EU as ectarte telson elves eevee ita ota 25 0 0

£1285 0 0

1873.

Zoological Record.........s0+0 100 0 0
Chemistry Record........ saatens 2 OOMEO EO
Tidal Committe........ rataeke aye 400 0 0
Sewage Committee ............ 100 0 O
Kent’s Cavern Exploration ... 150 0 0
Carboniferous Corals ....... 25 0 0
Fossil Elephants ............+ eo 2omOsG
Wave-lengths.......... Wiecocsesees 150 0 0
British Rainfall..............06 . 100 0 0
Hssential\Ous... scsscaeccecaseas 30 0 O
Mathematical Tables ....... «» 100, 40150
Gaussian Constants............ sx, LOWLOL NO
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25 0 0
Underground Temperature... 150 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Fossil Flora, Ireland......... ¢o. p2010). 20
Timber Denudation and Rain-

fall . Atticecetesenntacaersemeds so, 20, OO
Luminous Meteors..,.......006+ » 30! OF 0

£1685 0 0

GRANTS OF MONEY,

1874,

£ 3. d.
Zoological Record ......+++ sse30 100° 0: 0
Chemistry Record..........0+0+ 100 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 100 0 O
Elliptic Functions...........+++ 100 0 O
Lightning Conductors......... 10 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of

TROCKS) caccscescnsetavenerssescees 10 0 0
Anthropological Instructions 50 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150 0 0
Tuminous Meteors .......-.06 30 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... tbe 107
British Rainfall.............000++ 100 0 0
Essential Oils............ssseeveee 10 0 0
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Mauritius Meteorology ...... 100 0 O
Magnetisation of Iron ......... 20 0 O
Marine OrganismsS............--. 30 0 0
Fossils, North-West of Scot-

PAT esiedsexavseseseaaseneeneseve 210 0
Physiological Action of Light 20 0 0
Trades Unions .......+.ssseeeeee 25 0 0
Mountain Limestone Corals 25 0 0
Erratic Blocks ..........ssseeeee 10 0 0
Dredging, Durham and York-

shire CoastS ...ccccsessseseees 28 5 0
High Temperature of Bodies 30 0 0
Siemens’s Pyrometer ......... 3 6 0
Labyrinthodonts of Coal-

MECASUTES. cee sseneeeeeeeeeeneene 715 0

£1151 16 O

1875.

Elliptic Functions ..........+. 100 0 O
Magnetisation of Iron ......... 20 0 0
British Rainfall ............0000 120 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Chemistry Record......... ..... 100 0 0
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0
Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric Acid...........0605 LOMO 0
Isometric Cresols ..........2.++ 20 0 0
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 15 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Development of Myxinoid

Js lR@)S) eadeibbapenooboseeenoesceeog 20 0 0
Zoological Record..........-.++ 100 0 0O
Instructions for Travellers... 20 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ........ 5 FAD WO 0)
Palestine Exploration ......... 100 0 0

£960 0 0

1876.
Printing MathematicalTables 159 4 2
British Rainfall 100 0 0
BTS UAW sonsae.=¢acslewocesenssse ey an)
Tide Calculating Machine ... 200 0 0
Specific Volyme of Liquids,,, 25 0 0

°
<4

£ 8s. da.
Tsomeric Cresols ......sseeeees , 10 0 0
| Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-

rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-

ACCHATC.....cseseceecerserneeesees 5 0 0
Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric Acid.........-++++8 13 0 0
Exploration of Victoria Cave 100 0 0
Geological Record..........:++ 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Thermal Conductivities of

Rocks” ..deaccceecsascessesncve sss 10 0 0
Underground Waters .......++ LOMIOE 0
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 110 0
Zoological Record.......ee++ 100 0 0
Close Time .........sccceeseeeeeees bye:037,0
Physiological Action of

SOUNG). ...cccccscsceccsess sasees 25 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 75 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 15 0 0
Physical Characters of Inha-

bitants of British Isles...... 1315 0
Measuring Speed of Ships ... 10 0 0
Effect of Propeller on turning

of Steam-vessels .........++. 5. 0..0

£1092 4 2
1877.
Liquid Carbonic Acid in

INETMOTAI Se see net velon slswseua conven 20 0 0
Elliptic Functions ............ 250 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of

ROCKS i eacesdsacconersosacsarasa3 ala Deedee
Zoological Record...........++ 100 0 O
Kent’s Cavern .....scccersseceee 100 0 0
Zoological Station at Naples 75 0 O
Luminous Meteors .......+.-. 30 0 O
Elasticity of Wires ........06 - 100 0 O
Dipterocarper, Report on ... 20 0 0
Mechanical Equivalent of

18 (ihe Soeeceacsonee connae eeesee 35 0 O
Double Compounds of Cobalt

andeNiekelcen.<sessasns=sehens 8 0 0
Underground Temperature... 50 0 O
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 100 0 O
Underground Waters in New ;

Red Sandstone .......s.s.s006 10 0 0
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-

rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-

ACetAte ......ssscerescvccsecere 10 0 0
British Earthworks ............ 25 0 0
Atmospheric Electricity in

Wale sees aceeanaednacess ska 15 0 0
Development of Light from

Qoal-ZAas ...ccccecccccecsecaseces 20 0 0
Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric Acid............... 118 0
Geological Record...........++ ee LOOS ORO
Anthropometric Committee 34 0 O

| Physiological Action of Phos-

phoric ACiq, &C..,sceseeseecees Tb... O

£1128 9 7
a

evi

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1878. £ 8d
£ 38. d. | Specific Inductive Capacity

Exploration of Settle Caves 100 0 0 of Sprengel Vacuum......... 40 0 0
Geological Record..,..........++ 100 0 0 | Tables of Sun-heat Co-

Investigation of Pulse Pheno- CHICLENIS cass cssanacesmeneenee 30 0 0
mena by means of Siphon Datum Level of the Ordnance

IRECOLUEY vaca cussssieiivsoses 10 0 0 | SUTVEY .eseeeseseeeeeeeeeeeseesene 10 0 0
Zoological Station at Naples 75 0 0 | Tables of Fundamental In-
Investigation of Underground variants of Algebraic Forms 36 14 9

Woahetiic. ...(hatievescs oxaeaies 15 0 © | Atmospheric Electricity Ob-
Transmission of Electrical servations in Madeira serene 1b. 0 0

Impulses through Nerve Instrument for Detecting

GRICE... .2..0asedeceanen. fon 30 0 0 | _ Fire-damp in Mines ......... 22 0 0
Calculation of Factor Table Instruments for Measuring

for Fourth Million ......... 100 0 © | the Speed of Ships ......... 17 1 8
Anthropometric Committee... 66 0 © | Tidal Observations in the
Composition and Structure of English Channel. ccssscaneres 10 0 O

less-known Alkaloids ...... 25 0 0 Pa
Exploration of Kent’s Cavern 50 0 0 #1080 11 11
Zoological Record .. > 100):0) 40
Fermanagh Caves “‘Explora-

TON fads ac t-cesanobaete uaeene- hex 1 00
Thermal Conductivity of 1880.

ROCKS .....seesseseeseeseereeees 416 6 | New Formof High Insulation
Luminous Meteors.........++.++4 10 0 0 TE GY ence ndestvosndaseegnastemen 10 0 0
Ancient Earthworks ............ 25 0 0 Underground Temperature... 10 0 0

£725 16 6 | Determination of the Me-
aati 8. chanical Equivalent of
Heat... tacessuacavaeces ssn 8 5» 10
Elasticity of Wires ............ 50 0 O
Luminous Meteors ..........4. 30-.0 0
1879. Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30 0 0
Table at the Zoological Fundamental Invariants ...... Sib. 0

Station, Naples ............... 75 © 0 | Laws of Water Friction ...... 20 0 0
Miocene Flora of the Basalt Specific Inductive Capacity

of the North of Ireland 207 10. 0 of Sprengel Vacuum......... 20 0 0
Illustrations for a Monograph Completion of Tables of Sun-

on the Mammoth ...,........ 17 00 heat Coefficients ............ 50 0 O
Record of Zoological Litera- Instrument for Detection of

UMMC esse succhosstescececcceecteme 100 0 0 Fire-damp in Mines ......... 10 0 0
Composition and Structure of Inductive Capacity of Crystals

less-known Alkaloids ...... Bb 0.6 and Paraffines .....0-0..s0e ca ae (
Exploration of Caves in Report on Carboniferous

BOrneo. tht debe sere 50 0 O POLY 208. catctasstocncccscspenutee Tis 0-..0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0 | Caves of South Ireland ...... 10 0 0
Record of the Progress of Viviparous Nature of Ichthyo-

Geology: ic.c.sneee eee 100 0 O SAMVUNS wt cses use sdadaeacsnenoeree 10 0 0
Fermanagh CavesExploration 5 0 0 | Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 50 0 O
Electrolysis of Metallic Sotu- Geological Record............... 100 0 0

tions and Solutions of Miocene Flora of the Basalt

Compound Salts...........26. 25 0 0 of North Ireland ............ 15 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 50 0 0 | Underground Waters of Per-

Natural History of Socotra... 100 0 0 mian Formations ............ DONO
Calculation of Factor Tables Record of Zoological Litera-

for 5th and 6th Millions .;. 150 0 0 GIEEC emia anmenn cossn dey es coax bee - 100 0 0
Underground Waters............ 10 0 Q | Table at Zoological Station
Steering of Screw Steamers... 10 0 0 at Naples sania 75 0 0
Improvements in Astrono- Investigation of the Geology

mical ‘Clocks’ ‘7... 0s 30 10) 20 and Zoology of Mexico...... 60 0 0
Marine Zoology of South Anthropometry <:-.....sss-snesss 50 0 0

NBER pidvannnce seeceecsee ettee 20 0 0 | Patent Laws oi eeeeeeee 5 0 0
Determination of Mechanical

Equivalent of Heat ......... 1215 6 heel i

ie

1881.

Lunar Disturbance of Gravit 'f
Underground Temperature ..
Blectrical Standards............
High Insulation Key............
Tidal Observations ........++
Specific Refractions ............
Fossil Polyzoa .....esseeeeeeeeee
Underground Waters .........
Earthquakes in Japan .........
Tertiary Flora ..............+00+
Scottish Zoological Station ...
Naples Zoological Station
Natural History of Socotra .
Anthropological Notes and
MUTETICS So ccccccodcscecenes cece
Zoological Record..............
Weights and Heights of
Human Beings ..........+5++-

1882.

fxploration of Central Africa 100 0 0

Fundamental Invariants of
Algebraical Forms .........
Standards for Electrical
Measurements ....-...-.000++
Calibration of Mercurial Ther-
TMOMEHETS ....ceceeeseesccecees
Wave-length Tables of Spec-
tra of Elements...........+...
Photographing Ultra-violet
Spark Spectra .......ec.ee0-.
Geological Record...............
Earthquake Phenomena of
MADAM cen ecs-coce-ccaveneesnces
Conversion of Sedimentary
Materials into Metamorphic
ESE Ceeiceinchacoodeseecenc mores
Fossil Plants of Halifax ......
Geological Map of Europe ...
Circulation of Underground
WWHLCES ©. caconspepscasesanseencess
Tertiary Flora of North of
LL SLEVEG | ashes peootheageecencecs:
British Polyzoa .......sssessesses
Exploration of Caves of South
Gertreland ~ ccc cccccscesansans-n
Exploration of Raygill Fissure
Naples Zoological Station .
Albuminoid Substances of
BENIN cesccstyactecasasssccereas
Elimination of Nitrogen by
Bodily Exercise..............+
Migration of Birds ............
Natural History of Socotra...
Natural History of Timor-laut
Record of Zoological Litera-
LEST S) 5 Shaaaseec anes cack Aednaee

SC © cooescooouUcocoScO®”
So CS coocoscOoHccoceso®

Sire 2 Oe One Sie oS

Oo ocSoS:o

SSS SSO, Oy SoS oo
hehe So oo) oS oC 'S oo o ooo

ye
i"

GRANTS OF MONEY.

1883.

Meteorological Observations
ONDE NEVIS isc1.-ss05seeeace=
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
WaLIVERseeheateunciiest= =i eps sopaes
Earthquake Phenomena of
UAPARNM fametcexksscnncsuese 0
Fossil Plants of Halifax......
British Fossil Polyzoa .........
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palo-
ZOIC ROCKS ....ccsssceesseeeeses
Erosion of Sea-coast of Eng-
land and Wales .......¢+...++.
Circulation of Underground
Widens. < /ecueseacescncieniterttent
Geological Record..........++++.
Exploration of Caves in South
Gleleelaniy ccctsescesetessencesc=

Zoological Literature Record 100

Migration of Birds ............
Zoological Station at Naples
Scottish Zoological Station...
Elimination of Nitrogen by
Bodily Exercise.............+
Exploration of Mount Kili-
WHAcED NO. sarceraareesepensraien

| Investigation of Loughton

(Oc teeecenrcord EEMUcore crepe
Natural History of Timor-laut 50
Screw GaUPeSivres.c.sccaesne asfst

1884,

Meteorological Observations

evii

0
0 O
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
3.3
0 0
0 0
O10
0 0

ws |
we

On) BEN INGVIS) seccvessscassasss 0 0
Collecting and Investigating
Meteoric Dust...............08- 0 0
Meteorological Observatory at
CHE SHOW sss cccasenases <P s0< o 0
| Tidal Observations............... 0 0
Ultra Violet Spark Spectra ... 4 0
Earthquake Phenomena of
SPPANY foe nas seceaeessaceiaacobe 0 0
Fossil Plants of Halifax ...... 0 0
Wossil PolyZ0a.. ccincc.cscansstdecene 0 0
Erratic Blocks of England ... 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzo-
ZOWC BOCK Sesaans cacbien tout dele’ 0 0
Circulation of Underground
AWAD SYS ReRP Dececeerr na eer teen 0 0
| International Geological Map 0 0
Bibliography of Groups of
Invertebrata ......00...++»000 0 0
Natura] History of Timor-laut 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 0 0
Exploration of Mount Kili-
ma-njaro, Hast Africa ...... 0 0
Migration of Birds............... 0 0
Coagulation of Blood............ 0 0
Zoological Literature Record 100 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 0 0
£1173 4 «0

cVil GEN
1885.
£
Synoptic Chart of Indian
OCCA a c.crecsdseceseaceseney << 50
Reduction of Tidal Observa-
HOES) sd daceeces condo tee eaeondec 10
Calculating Tables in Theory
OLSEN DENS ross cceessses sean viene 100
Meteorological Observations
on Ben Nevis ......secsssse0ee 50
Meteoric Dust .......:..0e0s0+0» 70
Vapour Pressures, &e., of Salt
SIOLOUIONS ranean acdseseumeoncstans 25
Physical Constants of Solu-
P1OUScccasneceacrcstne sss sbeeactes 20
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu
VEL Site etss clai'siasisblstelewiieisiesiatlate 25
Raygill Fissure ......2s0:0..s0sss 15
Earthquake Phenomena of
APA aes ecenavasaecteegeeeaens 70
Fossil Phyllopoda of Paleozoic
ROCKS... aeeasteen seeecknekeoees 25
Fossil Plants of British Ter-
tiary and Secondary Beds... 50
Geological Record .............++ 50
Circulation of Underground
WVLCIS er cc oceesaastupepeaseecnes 10
Naples Zoological Station ... 100
Zoological Literature Record. 100
Migration of Birds ............ 30
Exploration of Mount Kilima-
MUJAT Ormeaecacdeees sce sesmntconwans 25
Recent PolyZoa ....0..++0scceesss 10
Granton Biological Station ... 100

Biological Stations on Coasts

of United Kingdom .........
Exploration of New Guinea... 200
Exploration of Mount Roraima 100

£1385
1886.

Electrical Standards............ 40
Solar Radiation)..scsssscte.«sssa 9
Tidal Observations ............ 50
Magnetic Observations......... 10
Observations on Ben Nevis... 100
Physical and Chemical Bear-

ings of Electrolysis ......... 20
Chemical Nomenclature ...... 5
Fossil Plants of British Ter-

tiary and Secondary Beds... 20
Caves in North Wales ......... 25
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

WV LURa scree chs orcs eereenertererer 30
Geological Record............... 100
Palzozoic Phyllopoda ......... 15
Zoological Literature Record. 100
Granton Biological Station... 75
Naples Zoological Station...... 50
Researches in Food-Fishes and

Invertebrata at St. Andrews 75

_

o oocooo o898F OOo ooo[°o°Se

|olooco SCCcoteoCc oo Oo Ses Sens iS Isom coe omom

o oooocoo CO O'S) SS SoS

eset be
| Migration of Birds csicsseseee 30 0 0
Secretion of Urine,.........+.+4¢ 110; 10) <0
fixploration of New Guinea... 150 0 0
| Regulation of Wages under
Sliding Scales .....,.....2+0+ 10 0 0
Prehistoric Race in Greek
UslandSivssccwsscnsesssduenseaees 20 0 0
North-Western Tribes of Ca-
NACAcsavceres (eeneneclin senate 50 0 0
£995 0 6
1887.
Solar Radiation ............s0s+ 18 10 0
| Hlectrolysis........cccescococssave 30 0 0
| Ben Nevis Observatory......... 7 0 0
Standards of Light (1886
PTAND) cass vvase aeseeesensaenen 20 0 0
Standards of Light (1887
STAD) Paste -eucpecaseeceenne teeta LOORD
Harmonic Analysis of Tidal
Observations! ...7.s.0-»ss--cse 145 0 0
Magnetic Observations......... 267-2) 0
Electrical Standards .. covey COUN OEeO
| Silent Discharge of Electr icity 20° 0 0
| Absorption Spectra .........646 40 0 0
Nature of Solution ............ 20 0 0
Influence of Silicon on Steel 30 0 O
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
VATS as cosas coho ch asain eann 20,°°0' 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan
(USS8Glorant)) icreesccecseess ees 50 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan
(CUSSTcrant)) scceersteacctenss 50 0 0
Cae Gwyn Cave, N. Wales ... 20 0 O
Erratic BIOCKS> Cscsccssecnseorsss 10 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda ............0++ 20 0 0
Coal Plants of Halifax........ 25 0 0
Microscopic Structure of the
Rocks of Anglesey............ Oo Us 9)
Exploration of the Eocene
Beds of the Isleof Wight... 20 0 0
Underground Waters ........+ 5 0 0
‘Manure’ Gravelsof Wexford 10 0 0
Provincial Museums Reports 5 O 0
Lymphatic System ............ Zon 0) 0
Naples Biological Station 100 0 O
Plymouth Biological Station 50 0 0
Granton Biological Station... 75 0 0
Zoological Record .........++0++5 100 0 O
Wloraol China vs...dsserenscoese 75 0 0
| Flora and Fauna of the
CaMEYoOONs ........seeereeee cee Soe OO
Migration of Birds ............ 30 0 0
Bathy-hypsographical Map of
BYITISHMISICS ee enceccrseseevs 160
Regulation of Wages ......... 10 0 0
Prehistoric Race of Greek
TSTANGSteesececectacesooetenensn 20 0 0
Racial Photographs, Egyptian 20 0 0
£1186 18 0

ERAL STATEMENT.

————

GRANTS OF MONEY.

1888.
£
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 150
Electrical Standards............ 2
Magnetic Observations......... 15
Standards of Light ............ 79
Electrolysis ......c.scsssseeeeees 30
Uniform Nomenclature in
MIGCCHANICS «2. .ccccceccecceceess 10
Silent Discharge of Elec-
EMCEE Nate dascexte- acess cosnes res 9

Properties of Solutions ...... 25
Influence of Silicon on Steel 20
Methods of Teaching Chemis-
TAY oetiob soSedanccuer saber “near 10
Isomeric Naphthalene Deriva-
MIME Neteicaia acess tcaracescceq= aes 25
Action of Light on Hydracids 20
Sea Beach near Bridlington... 20
Geological Record .............4 50
Manure Gravels of Wexford... 10
Erosion of Sea Coasts ......... 10
Underground Waters ......... 5
Palzontographical Society ... 50
Pliocene Fauna of St. Erth... 50
Carboniferous Flora of Lan-
cashire and West Yorkshire 25
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
THLE Gecoc@sboegestptadnosasonseas 20
Zoology and Botany of West
IPGHIGS wacessacccsscnscnccvcsscass 100
Flora of Bahamas .......0.....+. 100
Development of Fishes—st.
FAHOREWS)<c-0ctccccseseacesrac-n 50
Marine Laboratory, Plymouth 100
Migration of Birds ............ 30
Flora of China ..,...........006 75
Naples Zoological Station ... 100
Lymphatic System ............ 25
Biological Station at Granton 50
Peradeniya Botanical Station 60

Development of Teleostei ... 15
Depth of Frozen Soil in Polar

f=) onoacoc?

ote "oS so “cco oc ococeoco. co «So oo SHoqoooo co oo o°o =

x

aio oo o ooo cooooocoeco oo So So ooocococoo i) ooo oc oworReo:

BRED IGUS acdscrcaceeescnsspacsnae 5
. Precious Metals in Circulation 20
Value of Monetary Standard 10
Effect of Occupations on Phy-
sical Development............ 25
North-Western Tribes of
BRANIAUL IN coe cet ndtnn: C<aascan0e 100
Prehistoric Race in Greek
BSIANGS:,ccscacorascesccrsss teens 20
£1511
4889,
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 50
Electrical Standards............ 75
IMNECtPOLYSIS.i2:.:coccscetsscsccseee 20
Surface Water femperature... 30
Silent Discharge of Electricity
ON Oxygen ......5..secseccssees 6

se Oooo

o oooceo

cix

£ s.d.
Methods of teaching Chemis-

OEY Gorarccsasaededaactsdddloss decd 10 0 0
Action of Light on Hydracids 10 0 0
Geological Record............0 80 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan 25 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

WilliSeestasnesece ase teccitessits cee ass 20 0 0
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 20 0 O
Higher Eocene Beds of Isle of

Wight siscdcccdsnacsccccescvcessct 15 0 0
West Indian Explorations ... 100 0 0
Hiora, of Chinaits.ccerendescstees 25 0 0
Naples Zoological Station 100 0 0
Physiology of Lymphatic

DY SHEML As cocascansnnccnver ataas 25 0 O
Experiments with a Tow-net 5 16 3
Natural History of Friendly

ESIANGS wccacascsceteesdetceerenc 100 0 0
Geology and Geography of

Atlas Range’ ...0..sscsdoseer 100 0 O
Action of Waves and Currents

In’ HSHUARIES, .is...ssesackonees 100 0 O
North-Western Tribes of

Canada 5 ccs sunaslenctebanetns 150 0 0
Nomad ‘Tribes of Asia Minor 30 0 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 20 0 0
Marine Biological Asscciation 200 0 0
‘ Baths Committee,’ Bath.. ... 100 0 O

£1417 011
1890.
Electrical Standards............ 1217 0
Mlechrolysis *”.0.Scecere vse jac 06 Ta Vey
Electro-optics...........,...0000e oy DUNO) 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 25 0 0
Volcanic and Seismological

Phenomena of Japan ...... 75 0 0
Pellian Equation Tables ...... 15 0 0
Properties of Solutions ...... 10 0 0
International Standard forthe

Analysis of Iron and Steel 10 0 0
Influence of the Silent Dis-

charge of Electricity on

OXY PONT ye ctosseenusecn teenies 20) 50
Methods ofteachingChemistry 10 0 0
Recording Results of Water

ANGUY SIN: socctasss coee ce tessea re 410
Oxidation of Hydracids in

SONUWSHG css sscuosverehs oss Lace 15 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

WiUSTvacwnunslasocsercresesvnecacas 20 0 O
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 10 0 0
Circulation of Underground

IWiAECTS peasect, mceaseomer, bee 5 0 0
Excavations at Oldbury Hill 15 0 0
Cretaceous Polyzoa ............ 10 0 0
Geological Photographs ...... CALL
Lias Beds of Northampton... 25 0 0
Botanical Station at Perade-

DULY Areesves waenesaash aves oceseec 25 0 0

cx GENERAL STATEMENT.

Experiments with a Tow-
TEL ceccececceccceecseecerseseeees
Naples Zoological Station
Zoology and Botany of the
West India Islands .........
Marine Biological Association
Action of Waves and Currents
in Estuaries ........++-sseeeee
Graphic Methods in Mechani-
Cal SCIenCe .........eeeeeeeseree
Anthropometric Calculations
Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor
Corresponding Societies ......

£799 16

So oo ow

=

0
0
0
8

1891.
Ben Nevis Observatory........+

Electrical Standards............ 10

Hlectrolysis........0.2+ssesseeseees
Seismological Phenomena of
MAPA parewanese-deaveners-c0sea0
Temperatures of Lakes.........
Photographs of Meteorological
PHeENOMENA........2-eeeeeceeeee
Discharge of Electricity from
POINTS. .s. cc cerseeacssrnassenwses
Ultra Violet Rays of Solar
Spectrum ......seeesessceecees
International Standard for
Analysis of Iron and Steel...
Isomeric Naphthalene Deriva-
TIVES ....0.cccccescseenescereerense
Formation of Haloids .........
Action of Light on Dyes ......
Geological Record...........+04+
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
VANIS Was sosSnarcemsinveate seas
Fossil Phyllopoda............++
Photographs of Geological
Interest ....s.cccccesccasseeens
Lias of Northamptonshire ...
Registration of -Lype-Speci-
mens of British Fossils......
Investigation of Elbolton Cave
Botanical Station at Pera-
GeNIY a 45 5c. sees en Re dinodemas i
Experiments with a Tow-net
Marine Biological Association
Disappearance of Native

PIES 61 i apie eniocdcto-anaadecne
Action of Waves and Currents
Dn Stuaries @2.-.cncens<secnose
Anthropometric Calculations
New Edition of ‘ Anthropo-
logical Notes and Queries’
North - Western Tribes of
(CENA V6 ENS Sinneagradeanchet s-00r oc
Corresponding Societies ......

£1029 10

os cece

It | oo coco >) o o Oo

Oo

oo, Oo oS

oo ooo

ooo

a OSes

| Shell-bearing Deposits at

| Eurypterids of the Pentland

Naples Zoological Station ... 100
Marine Biological Association 17 1
Deep-sea Tow-net ...........+0++ 40
Fauna of Sandwich Islands... 100
Zoology and Botany of West

1892.
: 8,
Observations on Ben Nevis... 50 0
Photographsof Meteorological
PhenOMENA.....02..scesseseesers 15 0
Pellian Equation Tables ...... 10 0
Discharge of Electricity from
POUWGGS 6s vne wpe nice s ooease omeneeer 50 0
| Seismological Phenomena of
J APA, con eeeeie seer ea ae rece 100
Formation of Haloids ......... 12 0
Properties of Solutions ...... 10 0
Action of Light on Dyed
COLOUTS .....cesereneccasnoenens 10 0
Erratic Blocks .......... eee 16 0
| Photographs of Geological
| SMOLNtCResbses: oss eeeens.< peoreontscce 20 0
Underground Waters ........ 29 BO. G
Investigation of Elbolton
CaVeresc.eccs seatasteua ewan eae 25 0
Excavations at Oldbury Hill 10 0
Cretaceous Polyzoa ........0.0+ 10 O
0
0
0
0
India Wslandsise... «nnessnanaaes 100 O
Climatology and Hydrography
of Tropical Africa ......... «. 50 0
Anthropometric Laboratory... 5 0
| Anthropological Notes and
QUETIES! Angox.'ong one eer aeons 20 0
Prehistoric Remains in Ma-
shonaland ........sss0000. Breer rll | ie (6)
North-Western ‘Tribes of
(Canada Wiescacasaes css semeneaes 100 0
Corresponding Societies ..... s. 2b 0:
£864 10
a
1893.
Electrical Standards............ 25
Observations on Ben Nevis... 150
Mathematical Tables ......... 15
| Intensity of Solar Radiation 2
| Magnetic Work at the Tal-
mouth Observatory ......... 26
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
WALVIES es piecne sane vstecrcaieane 20
BiLabIG DIGCKS cs csscscnessene 10
| Fossil Phyllopoda............... 5
Underground Waters ......... 5

Clava, Chapelhall, &e. ...... 20

ASN Ggevewessy sot) eswaiemnaeeraiee + 710
Naples Zoological Station ... 100
Marine Biological Association, 30
Fauna of Sandwich Islands 100
Zoology and Botany of West

Inde Uslands)s; <<. c<as.chens ges 50

So oooo coc oooo oc wmode

Seeorre «Oo oo 1S co 6 o'o'S:' O° *610» 'OSe (SOs «Oo 16'o o*

oe opeo a cooo o& acoso's

GRANTS OF MONEY,

: Ga $s Ge
Exploration of Irish Sea ...... 30 0 0
Physiological Action of

Oxygen in Asphyxia......... 20 0 0
Index of Genera and Species

DEEAMIREIGIN) fo ayecseserscesecseee 20 0 0
Exploration of Karakoram

IMTOUMEAINIS! o.5ec sere ensevacseses 50 0, 0
Scottish Place-names ......... 7 UY
Climatology and Hydro-

graphy of Tropical Africa 50 0 0
Economic Training ............ aS 0
Anthropometric Laboratory 5 0 0
Exploration in Abyssinia...... 25 0 0
North-Western ‘Tribes of

OANA cadeddee dass cancsadacs 100 0 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 30) 20570

£907 15 6
mere S | wield Bes
1894.
Electrical Standards............ 25 0
Photographs of Meteorological

PHENOMENA. § pa: sinsscdecee-scese 10 0
Tables of Mathematical Func-

“SES: “cosndecseoce goveccedene ears 15 0
Intensity of Solar Radiation 5 5 6
Wave-length Tables... 10° “0, 0
Action of Light upon ‘Dyed

RIGHTS Mecceddccsanctesccinereess 5 0 0
Erratic BlocKS .......ecssseeeees 155.0. 40
Fossil Phyllopoda ............... biAOs 0
Shell-bearing Deposits at

MLR A OE Crile asics scieweansei dose 20 0 0
Eurypterids of the Pentland

BATS atsacsseecssssqeacmsecnsyses bLLOm0
New Sections of Stonestield 3

“TRIAS. CaseAsacondugo: snterecaseos 14 0 0
Observations on LEarth-tre-

THIRD “eppofascesesbsecdercnoncae 50 0 0
Exploration of Calf- Hole
RUC chew cnn decsesduacincds sotto 5. 0. 50
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0
Marine Biological Association 5 0 0
Zoology of the Sandwich

MENS ac pasion cadssepsee si 100 0 0
Zoology of the Irish Sea ...... 40 0 O
Structure and Function of the

Mammalian Heart............ 10 0 0
Exploration in Abyssinia 30 0 0
Economic Training ............ 910 0
Anthropometric Laboratory

(3210 0 5 0 0
Ethnographical Survey ...... 10 0 0
The Lake Village at Glaston-

BIE. cccnsdasees ete deuec dec ese 40 0 0
Anthropometrical Measure-

ments in Schools ............ 5) 10/00
Mental and Physical Condi-

tion of Children............... 20 0 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 25 0 0

£583 15 6

0
0 |
0
6

1895.
£ 8. d.
Electrical Standards..........., 5 0 0
Photographs of Meteorological
PReNOMECNAtercecoesncceess ess 10 0 0
Harth Tremors . .........c-se.+s 75 0 O
Abstracts of Physical Papers 100 0 0
Reduction of Magnetic Obser-
vations made at Falmouth
Observatory ....ccsccsceseeees 50 0 O
Comparison of Magnetic Stan-
GEARS Eo Seber -occhcheconciceeepqnee 25 0 0
Meteorological Observations
OV Ben NCVis soniteeeendetewisi e's 50 0 O
Wave-length Tables of the
Spectra of the Elements... 10 0 0
Action of Light upon Dyed
Coloursy esessedtaedadadddcess Se orl
Formation of Haloids from
Pure Materials ............... 20 0 O
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
VAULV OR: 3.0 wen ebceliecideienctate 30 0 0
| Electrolytic Quantitative An-
ALVSIS) ccc cudeer sate ree dawacn te 30700
| Erratic Blocks .........ssee.vee. 10 0 0
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ... ..... 5.0 O
Photographs of Geological In-
GELESHY «. jcvcecssatwars deoe scenes 10 0 0
Shell-bearing Deposits at
Clava; estate At eee iene ede 10 0 0
Eurypterids of the Pentland
15 DUD CE Greeapposcier a seodocee acceee 3.0 0
New Sections of Stonesfield
Blate® iy mee ested sanceneaes 50 FOMO
| Exploration of Calf Hole Cave 10 0 0
Nature and Probable Age of
| High-level Flint-drifts ...... 10 0 0
| Tableatthe Zoological Station
at Naples iano tthe 100 0 0
Table at the Biological Labo-
ratory, Plymouth ........... 15 0 0
Zoology, Botany, and Geology
of the Irish Sea............... 35 9 4
, Zoology and Botany of the
| West India Islands ......... 50 0 0
Index of Genera and Species
off Animalss: sss cesteotietes: 50 0 0
' | Climatologyof Tropical Africa 5 0 0
Exploration of Hadramut 50 0 0
_ Calibration and Comparison of
| Measuring Instruments 25 0 0
_ Anthropometric Measure-
| ments in Schools ............ BPO O
| Lake Village at Glastonbury 30 0 0
| Exploration of a Kitchen-
midden at Hastings ......... 10)-<0" «0
Ethnographical Survey ...... 10.70" 0
Physiological Applications of
tlie Phonograph............... 25 0 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 30 0 0
£977 15 5
ee Se

GENERAL STATEMENT.

cxil
1896.
&. d.
Photographs of Meteorologi-

cal Phenomena, ..........e.eee 15 0 10
Seismological Observations... 80 0 0
Abstracts of Physical Papers 100 0 0
Calculation of certain Inte-

OTAlSsccasceseaensadaenenesorscrecss 10 0 0
Uniformity of Size of Pages of

Transactions, &C. .....e.s.00e PU
Wave-length Tables of the

Spectra of the Elements . 10 0 0
Action of Light upon Dyed

COLOUTS <0... 06s. eenrcecceserenie Pe: ieee!
Electrolytic Quantitative Ana-

AV SIS decency scssetcnoseorces aster 10 0 O
The Carbohydrates of Barley

SULA Wiese nscst creek epeckceeeener 50 0 0
Reprinting Discussion on the

Relation of Agriculture to

SGIONCE). sscnersencvecteeatecrae. 5 0 0
Mirratic BlOCKS) scsre-sessesssesc 10 0 0
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 5 0 20
Shell-bearing Deposits at

CHAVA KG: oc0s-cocsssccs cacegne 10 0 O
Eurypterids of the Pentland

Glisceersscnessstpssseoseteren sass 20 0
Investigation of a Coral Reef

by Boring and Sounding... 10 0 0
Examination of Locality where

the Cetiosaurus in the Ox-

ford Museum was found... 25 0 0
Paleolithic Depositsat Hoxne 25 0 0
Fauna of Singapore Caves ... 40 0 0
Age and Relation of Rocks

near Moreseat, Aberdeen id) (OU,
Table at the Zoological Sta-

tion at Naples .........cse0e 100 0 O
Table at the Biological Labo-

ratory, Plymouth ........066+ 15 0 0
Zoology, Botany, and Geology

of the Irish Sea ........ssscas 50 0 0
Zoology of the Sandwich Is-

LANG S ercesewecesneeeenessakeaee 100 0 O
African Lake Fauna........+.+. 100 0 0
Oysters under Normal and

Abnormal Environment ... 40 0 0
Climatology of TropicalAfrica 10 0 0
Calibrationand Comparison of

Measuring Instruments...... 20 0 0
Small Screw Gauge ..........4. 105500
North-Western Tribes of

Canada Weasccees sensusieerse sean 100 0 0
Lake Village at Glastonbury. 30 0 0
Ethnographical Survey......... 40 0 0
Mental and Physical Condi-

tion of Children..............+ 10,0 0
Physiological Applications of

the Phonograph............00« 25 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

PUULLC Oise cves cncnaecuencsese seams 30 0 0

£1104 6 1
al

1897.
£3. d.
Mathematical Tables ......... 25 0 O
Seismological Observations... 100 0 0
Abstracts of Physical Papers 100 0 O
Calculation of certain In-
teoTals sap oneaessencunevaees secre 10 0 0
Electrolysis and Electro-
CHEMISUTY: ore, sees aeceueecsnee 50 0 O
Electrolytic Quantitative Ana-
LYSIS'.55 cvestensstsssaeeseaeneee nl 10 0 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
VALIVES.00..c0csecccocandcerenu sss 50 0 0
Hrratic Blocks ...:c..scesesssess 10 0 0
Photographs of Geological
IMGerest Kewcesssaecnesee eae 15 0 0
Remains of the Irish Elk in
the Isle of Man ...........0 15 0 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tion, Naples) ........sscsaserss 100 0 O
Table at the Biological La-
boratory, Plymouth ......... 910 8
Zoological Bibliography and
Publication..procs--csssese.sese De OG
Index Generum et Specierum
Animalinm\ sr:ss.cecessasesseea 100 0 0
Zoology and Botany of the
West India Islands ......... 40 0 0
The Details of Observa-
tions on the Migration of
ISILON ic sacesveseoeweseneese creer 40 0 0
Climatology of Tropical
SET IGA ctecneseneccscesbanss sesame 20 0 0
Ethnographical Survey......... 40 0 0
Mental and Physical Condi-
tion of Children..............+ 10 0 0
Silchester Excavation ......... 20 0 0
Investigation of Changes as-
sociated with the Func-
tional Activity of Nerve
Cells and their pope
HEXtNSIONS!....:-sscenrenvasesee 180 0 0
Oysters and Typhoid ......... 30 0 0
Physiological Applications of
the Phonograph............+++ 15 0.0
Physiological Effects of Pep-
tone and its Precursors...... 200" 0
| Fertilisation in Pheophycee 20 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-
TNLULCE onen-nacsteneonssenssuvopie 250-0
£1069 10 | 10 8
1898.
Electrical Standards....., ..... 75 0 0
Seismological Observations... 75 0 0
Abstracts of Physical Papers 100 0 0
Calculation of certain In-
leprals'....:tituckcsaszeasnoctteaess 10 0 0
Electrolysisand Electro-chem-
Shy, saeueassesoescessemesseeameas 35 0 0
Meteorological Observatory at
Montreal......... ae cosveashivers WaOUMEO! 20)

GRANTS OF MONEY.

£ os. d.
Wave-length Tables of the

Spectra of the Elements... 20 0 0
Action of Light upon Dyed

COlOULS ......c.sececcicccscsers 8 0 0
Erratic Blocks .....:...ssssseee- 5 0 0
Investigation of a Coral Reef 40 0 0
Photographs of Geological

PETIOLES ness ccncccsechcesssscees 10 0 0
Life-zones in British Car-

boniferous Rocks ..........++ 15 0 0
Pleistocene Fauna and Flora

PONOAVAGA ...0.200--cccnecns seh 20 0 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-

BION, NaADlES S..c 0.0 7 -ceecsscns 100 0 0
Table at the Biological La-

boratory, Plymouth ......... 14 0 0
Index Generum et Specierum

MAMIMALIUM .....-00sccc-cesceves 100 0 Ls
Healthy and Unhealthy Oys-

GETS 2 ...2:cccoccccescsscenecences 30 0 O
Climatology of Tropical Africa 10 0 O
State Monopolies in other

Countries — ..........ccccceeeee 150) 0)
Small Screw Gauge ............ 20 0 0
North-Western Tribes of

CANAGA. ......0ecceccssccvessseens 75 0 0
Lake Village at Glastonbury 3710 0
Silchester Excavation ......... 421010
EthnologicalSurveyof Canada 75 0 0
Anthropology and Natural

History of Torres Straits... 125 0 0
Investigation of Changes asso-

ciated with the Functional

Activity of Nerve Cells and

their Peripheral Extensions 100 0 0
Fertilisation in Pheophycee 15 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

1 HI. cose Shretiapenpenepeoeecee 25 0- 0

£1212 0 ( 0
1899.
Electrical Standards......, Sf 2b ONO
Seismological Observations... 65 14 8
Science Abstracts ............... 100 0 0
Heat of Combination of Metals

PEEBAULOVS Zades vce vegecvcidesenness 20 0 O
Radiation ina Magnetic Field 50 0 0
Calculation of certain In-

REPAEGIS | Scucosndevcndespensd«sennse 10 0 0
Action of Light upon Dyed

SEE AHUS 0 beng exnrsteoeapas ens 419 6
Relation between Absorption

Spectra and Constitution of

Organic Substances ......... 50 0 O
Erratic Blocks ...........s00000 15 0 0
Photographs of Geological

MPCLESb ceecccassneccsocspecousse 10--0.0
Remains of Irish Elk in the

MSIE LOL Matiscscnscctacee vers «+6 15 0 0
Pleistocene Flora and Fauna

PMRW ANAC | ssc cerecasccceciarecn 30 0 0

CX
Se Sots
Records of Disappearing Drift
Section at Moel Tryfaen... 5 0 O
Ty Newydd Caves........-...0+ 40 0 0
Ossiferous Caves at Uphill... 30 0 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tion, Naples: ..c.c-.ccesceoeee. 100 0 0
Table at the Biological La-
boratory, Plymouth ......... 20 0 0
Index Generum et Specierum
AnimalivM(......csiccessecveees 100 0 O
Migration of Birds ...:......:. 15 0 0
Apparatus for Keeping wae
tic Organisms under Definite
Physical Conditions ......... 15 0 0
Plankton and Physical Con-
ditions of the English Chan-
nel during 1899...........006 100 0 0
Exploration of Sokotra ...... 35 0 0
Lake Village at Glastonbury 50 0 0
Silchester Excavation ......... 10 0 0
Ethnological Survey ofCanada 35 0 O
New Edition of ‘ Anthropolo-
gical Notes and Queries’. 40 0 0
Age of Stone Circles..........., 20 0 0
Physiological Effects of Pep-
LO) Gia Anmonanocamsencae cuecrSod cor 30 0 0
Electrical Changes accom-
panying Discharge of Res-
piratory Centres............... 20 0 0
Intluence of Drugs upon the
Vascular Nervous System... 10 0 O
Histological Changes in Nerve
Cellsiicssessctsecstearscacnceacrs 20 0 0
Micro-chemistry of Cells ...... 40 0 0
Histology of Suprarenal Cap-
BUNGE Un coceardeccee copes ooauc 2070! 0
Comparative Histology of
Cerebral Cortex ..........e000. 1Ostor 0
Fertilisation in Phyeeophycee 20 0 O
Assimilation in Plants......... 20 0 0
Zoological and Botanical Pub-
INGOT, we Sasnsnnctiodoscdsaeccnbe 5 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-
MENA > Roriosa rigsdocno-oonscnnta 25 0 0
£1430 14 2
1900.
Electrical Standards............ 25 0 0
Seismological Observations... 60 0 0
Radiation ina Magnetic Field 25 0 O
Meteorological Observatory at
Montredle see ven-convectesecretss 20) 0)-0
Tables of Mathematical Func-
GIONS ieleceche- eV es atebieop cenene sue 76 0 0
Relation between Absorption
Spectra and Constitution
of Organic Bodies......... ee ORT O- iO
| Wave-length Tables............ Beworro
| Electrolytic Quantitative
AMIANYSiS:;.c.505cnteeete Beaehes so 0" 0

xiv

£3. a.
isomorphous Sulphonic De-
rivatives of Benzene......... 200) “0
The Nature of Alloys ......... 30 0 0
Photographs of Geological
UNECE Ac. iesccsecscversssaveees 10 0 0
Remains of Elk in the Isle of
WAN asa dUaswaseteoneretonssassnss 1b O10
Pleistocene Fauna and Flora
In| Canada's. csctesenccsseses ces 10 0 O
Movements of Underground
Waters of Craven ............ 40 0 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-
GION, NAPICS ive ecsevsecconece O07 20)-0
Table at the Biological La-
boratory, Plymouth ......... 20 0 0
Index Generum et Specierum
Amimalivimijsc.cscsssssevesssoet 50 0 0
Migration of Birds ..........4 L602
Plankton and Physical Con-
ditions of the English
@hanneleviercscseceeeetseeccee 40 0 0
Zoology of the Sandwich
NSUHTGH, yar dvaaesseesseyees= cere 100 0 O
Coral Reefs of the Indian
REQION: a nasatsdeevesnateoers 30 0 0
Physical and Chemical Con-
‘stants of Sea-Water ......... 100 0 0
Future Dealings in Raw
PrOGuUCe \..:.ccs¥esscesscbecsece 210 0
Silchester Excavation ......... 100) 0
Ethnological Survey of
CANAGH Weascesueeesteeresseeeee 50 0 0
New Edition of ‘ Anthropo-
logical Notes and Queries’ 40 0 0
Photographs of Anthropo-
logical Interest ........+.+.00+ 10 0 O
Mental and Physical Condi-
tion of Children in Schools 5 0 O
Ethnography of the Malay
Peninsula) <ccscccescecececceose 25 0 0
Physiological Effects of Pep-
MONE Ge. -aseeaverteechuvsreker sees 20 0 0
Comparative Histology of
Suprarenal Capsules......... 20 0 0
Comparative Histology of
Cerebral Cortex.........0.00: 5 0 0
Electrical Changes in Mam-
malian Nerves ....... mae ee One 20 0 0
Vascular Supply of Secreting
GIanGS.f 5.5 cccliarexssascsesteeeh 10 0 0
Fertilisation in Pheophyceer 20 0 0
Corresponding SocietiesCom. 20 0 0
£1072 10 0
1901.
Electrical Standards ......... 45 0 0
Seismological Observations... 75 0 0
Wave-length Tables............ 414 0
Isomorphous Sulphonic De-
rivatives of Benzene ...... 35 0 0

GENERAL STATEMENT.

ba ds
Life-zones in British Car-~
| boniferous Rocks ........+++« 20 0 0
Underground Water of North-
west Yorkshire ......cescsoee. 50 0 0
Exploration of Irish Caves... 15 0 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tion, Naples. ...20.....000..cer 100 0 0
Table at the Biological La-
boratory, Plymouth ......... 20 0 0
Index Generum et Specierum
Animalium........ Ben s-f 3536 75 0 0
Migration of Birds ..........++ 10 0 0
| Terrestrial Surface Waves ... 5 O O
| Changes of Land-level in the
Phlegrean Vields............ 50 0 0
Legislation regulating Wo-
men’s LabOur.........coseeoses 15 0 0
Small Screw Gauge............ 45 0 0
| Resistance of Road Vehicles
LO EYACUIONS ccevaxopsmaveaserse F520)" 0
Silchester Excavation ......... 10 0 0
Ethnological Survey of
le Ganiads, css sebcsnvranermsaae sae 30 0 0
| Anthropological Teaching ... 5 0 0
Exploration in Crete ......... 145 0 0
| Physiological Effects of Pep-
Hi} GONG sa ccstecdscccdeacsedersteccmes 30 0 0
| Chemistry of Bone Marrow... 5 15 11
| Suprarenal Capsules in the
Ha&DDIty.esssewdsccncsdsehhexraeer 5 0 0
Fertilisation in Pheophycee 15 0 O
| Morphology, Ecology, and
Taxonomy of Podoste-
NACE, ,cavnassevahoesteateres ses 20 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-
INIGUCE... ceassoupegheveder sweetest 15 0 0
£920 9 11
1902.
Electrical Standards............ 40 0 0
Seismological Observations... 35 O 0
Investigation of the Upper
Atmosphere by means of
WRIUES ~ Joe vcchacsdears ciesesessere 7% 0 0
Magnetic Observations at Fal-
MMOUUR <.sececnsurercerseetreteees 80 0 0

Relation between Absorption
Spectra and Organic Sub-

SUANCES *riccteoceeceocssdackees 20
Wave-length Tables ............ 5
Life-zones in British Car-

boniferous Rocks ............ 10

Exploration of Irish Caves... 45
Table at the Zoological

oS oS =o 5o'S. - Soi
o co = “9:6 “S'S

Station, Naples ............... 100
Index Generum et Specierum

Animalium..cis.Accssccereesse 100
Migration of Birds ............ 15
Structure of Coral Reefs of

Indian Oceanis... ssscres00» 50

.

Compound Ascidians of the
Clyde Area .........eseeeeeeeees
Terrestrial Surface Waves ...
Legislation regulating Wo-
men’s Labour........-.-.ss0+
Small Screw Gauge ............
Resistance of Road Vehicles
to Traction.........c.cccsessaee
Ethnological Survey of
Canada ......crecesseneecsceoes
Age of Stone Circles............
Exploration in Crete............
Anthropometric Investigation
of Native Egyptian Soldiers
Excavations on the Roman
Site at Gelligaer ............
Changes in Hemoglobin ......
Work of Mammalian Heart
under Influence of Drugs...
Investigation of the Cyano-
PHYcese ......eceeseeeeeeeeeeees
Reciprocal Influence of Uni-
versities and Schools ......
Conditions of Health essen-
tial to carrying on Work in
Schools ......ccccsececcseseees
Corresponding Societies Com-
Mitte’ ......ccccsveeceeeseseeeers

£947 0 0

1903.

Electrical Standards............
Seismological Observations...
Investigation of the Upper
Atmosphere by means of
MOE stceanesana seas eaper seas ac
Magnetic Observations at Fal-
MMOUED .....2..ccocevecssscececres
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-
StANCES .....,cececcsevesececese
Erratic Blocks ...........sceeee+
Exploration of Irish Caves ...
Underground Waters of North-
west Yorkshire ..............-
Life-zones in British Car-
boniferous Rocks ............
Geological Photographs ......
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tion at Naples ......s.0...06-
Index Generum et Specierum
Animalium ..........s0ceeeeeees
Tidal Bore, Sea Waves, and
BRE HOR Marner sapaccicsssscs sans
Scottish National Antarctic
PMXCOIEION :.ssececsesecsreveere
Legislation affecting Women’s
PAUOULiacetnacnecscactccscecccs

oOo co coo 8

o te Ge oo i=) ooo (pena) = phe BTS}

So oe Co oo o ooc

oo

oo fo) ooo °° oO

Noo Oo o fo) fo) oo (=) SS.) =". o

woe fa =) f=) i)

—_

GRANTS OF MONEY.

Anthropometric Investigation
Anthropometry of the Todas
and other Tribes of Southern
THGIAM .ceassaerceeses Cogent

Investigation of the Cyano-
PHYCOL .occcecercesesncvscveses
Respiration of Plants .........
Conditions of Health essential
for School Instruction ......

Corresponding Societies Com. 20
£845 13

1904.

Seismological Observations...
Investigation of the Upper
Atmosphere by means of
HESIWGEE sasscunioacbads, oranenasetne
Magnetic Observations at
WMANMNOUUH Ye oeccecenseresseecess
Wave-length Tables of Spectra
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-
SEANCES Liccscceecsecescceeccans
Erratic Blocks ...........0.es0es
Life-zones in British Car-
boniferous Rocks ............
Fauna and Flora of the Trias
Investigation of Fossiliferous
10 Or 25 ehegeScocoseec net ccoansus

| Table at the Zoological Sta-

ion, Naplesai....ccseconaaaean
Index Generum et Specierum
AA Tee TTAT assis cen sean Shes eae

| Development in the Frog......
| Researches on the Higher

@LNstacea: vases. csteesss aeveres

_ British and Foreign Statistics

of International Trade......

| Resistance of Road Vehicles

TOLETACKION Tw cccccscstant ss
Researches in Crete ............

| Researches in Glastonbury

Lake Village ..............000.
Anthropometric Investigation
of Egyptian Troops .........
Excavations on Roman Sites
ray IBTEMIE YUE! — Gaschaocernendcped oo

Metabolism of Individual
WPISSTICS se ciesieatcioelo.colniavie(lalse lain
Botanical Photographs.........
Respiration of Plants... .. reece
Experimental Studies in
Heredity :2...cccscswascecseesese
Corresponding Societies Com-
INIGTES ...cccsceccctsevsstecreress

wloo Cfo SCS FSF

i=) coo °o i=) oo o o oo oo oo So
oo o o oo o o oo oo oo f=)

Oxvi

1905.
£ 8. a.
Electrical Standards............ 40 0 0
Seismological Observations... 40 0 0
Investigation of the Upper

Atmosphere by means of

[GIGS Sahaarios ons -aecodapengaen 40 0
Magnetic Observations at Fal-

TROUUN Ew seenacweascesisechascece 50 0
Wave-length Tables of Spec-

HE a Soqgqubnaceunarpnosncoposodse 5 0
Study of Hydro-aromatic

Substances ............ erty dan
Dynamic Isomerism ..........6 20 0
Aromatic Nitramines ......... 25 0
Faunaand Flora of the British

SETA Ss tevecacesmen maesereees 10 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-

ion, Naplesivasrcstessaee=>ses 100 0
Index Generum et Specierum

PATTIE Tee neces sees 75 0
Development of the Frog 10 0
Investigations in the Indian

OCGaTias: scar tas sesrscassceassens 150 0
Trade Statistics .............s0006 4 4
Researches in Crete .........-<« 75 0
Anthropometric Investiga-

tions on Egyptian Troops... 10 0
Excavations on Roman Sites

In! BIItAIN , ...a-0ceseasseaeterse 10 0
AnthropometricInvestigations 10 0
Age of Stone Circles............ 30 0
The State of Solution of Pro-

GOIGS'S. orc -aaasyiabe cies Seeman 20 0
Metabolism of Individual

SISSUES? woz. cac- seus saceetorere 30 0
Ductless Glands.............. seo eek
Botanical Photographs...... Spon, eBteLLZ
Physiology of Heredity......... 35 0
Structure of Fossil Plants 50 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

mittee....... i edutesisseseiton etna 20 0

£928 2 2
1906.
Electrical Standards............ 25 0 0
Seismological Observations... 40 0 0
Magnetic Observations at Fal-

MOU sau .deaeanoasseeeeeniee 50 0 0
Magnetic Survey of South

ATTICA +. 55 cesketeeeee eon 99 12 6
Wave-length Tablesof Spectra 6 0 O
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-

SUANCES. 2c. ozsesdeseteeruerneeete 25 0 0
Aromatic Nitramines ......... 10 0 0
Faunaand Flora of the British

BIVARBRha'S a steice eves ct vweieeen ec ) teveslal
Crystalline Rocksof Anglesey 30 0 0

GENERAL STATEMENT,

Table at the eegere Sta-

tac)
&

NX
:

tion Naples <ciccsscacase sense - 100 0 0
Index ‘Animalium | sewasteotadaes + ata O='0
Development of the Frog...... 10 0 0
Higher Crustacea .......0....+8 1b 202.0
Freshwater Fishes of South

APVICA.s.ccckbseseesaunedeeesetes 50 0 0
Rainfall and Lake ‘and River

Wischareees.cacessetsess ose 2a LOL LONRO
Excavations in Crete ........ - 100 0 0
Lake Village at Glastonbury 40 0 0
Excavations on Roman Sites

in ‘Britain’ 25., useseceee eee 30) 10.4.0
AnthropometricInvestigations

in the British Isles ......... 30 0 0
State of Solution of Proteids 20 0 O
Metabolism of Individual

TisSues: Soviccduescsneecerwester 20 0 0
Effect of Climate upon Health

and. Diseasestseasncees eee 20 0 0
Research on South African

Cy cads'..ias.aszceuseeaes veces 1419 4
Peat Moss Deposits ............ 25 0 0
Studies suitable for Elemen-

tany, Schoolsi << ..0-<scssesesees 3) x5t G00
Corresponding Societies Com-

INLUGtEC ss sdaeverecscns eseseenes uC OMOMEO

£882 0 9
1907.
Electrical Standards ........ « OOO
Seismological Observations... 40 0 0
Magnetic Observations at

Malimouth) %s.<scssccecssoeeeue 40 0 0
Magnetic Survey “of South

APTICAN, wadcccase ceo eee yi owe ame 63
Wave-length Tables’ of

SDECLIAN Rear easans cressastnnais 10.0 30
Study of Hydro - aromatic

Sulbbstances)<.ccccscesssseccceed 30 0 O
Dynamic Isomerism............ 30 0 0
Life Zones in British Car-

boniferous Rocks ............ 10 0 O
Krratic Blocks ...........6... 10 0 O
Fauna and Flora of British

TLYIAS Siacassavescesarsacs aaatema We 10: .0 -0
Faunal Succession in the Car-

boniferous Limestone of

South-West England ..... s, oO) 0
Correlation and Age of South

African Strata, &e. ......... 10.01 GO
Table at the Zoological

Station, Naples........ ...... 100 0 0
Index Animalium ............... 11 040)
Development of the Sexual

CEUs sccrastarecnstyctecraee i he
Oscillations of the Land Level

in the Mediterranean Basin 50 0 O
Gold Coinage in Circulation

in the United Kingdom .. iat (ae §

GRANTS OF MONEY,

£8. d.
Anthropometric Investiga-
tions in the British Isles... 10 0 0
Metabolism of Individual
MUI NHHCHMitnagavaseses'sdeasiines se 45 0 0
The Ductless Glands ......... 25 0 O
Effect of Climate upon Health
AVG DVISCASC! (5.502. coecscnecse 55 0 0
Physiology of Heredity ...... 30 0 O
Research of South African
BABAR te tens Acmaktesasas oaeiinads 35 0 0
Botanical Photographs......... 5 0 0
Structure of Fossil Plants... 5 O O
Marsh Vegetation.............0+ 15 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-
RHAULUC tonnes ssnicesassier os setes sis 16 14 1
£757 12 10

‘=

1908.

Seismological Observations ...
Further Tabulation of Bessel
HGMICEIONS, oii sac sceecrvaysaiense
Investigation of Upper Atmo-
sphere by means of Kites...
Meteorological Observations
on Ben Nevis

Pee eee ane eee seneee

seen

Wave-length Tables of Spectra
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-
BERILCES en a uviccbigewoccsesinsnneces
Dynamic Isomerism ............
Transformation of Aromatic
Nitramines ..........ccccecceess
Erratic Blocks ..........s0se000s
Fauna and Flora of British
EIS cs caine scscscvsceecesnsess
Faunal Succession in the Car-
boniferous Limestone in the
British Isles

ee eee e ee eereareee

40

fn
OL

i)
or

bt
ow
oo
(=) oo o.0'o o oOo. &

10
30
40
30
17 16
10 0
10 0

ac oc Se=) fo) i=) °

l=)

CxvVll

£ 8. da.

Pre-Devonian Rocks......+++..+ lo 0 O
Exact Significance of Local

MUSIRENTCL Syfaccoassucecconeccenenoen 5 0 0
Composition of Charnwood

ROCK Sieaccrcsneanseeovsdeweneses 10 0 0
Table at the Zoological Station

at Naples.........scscssssseeeres 100 0 0
Index Animalium ..........004+. to. OO
Hereditary Experiments ...... 10 0 0
Fauna of Lakes of Central

Tasmanian les sssausescussndes> 40 0 0
Investigations in the Indian

O) COAT Mecananwcuecesestacess tans 50 0 0
Exploration in Spitsbergen... 30 0 O
Gold Coinage in Circulation

in the United Kingdom....., Bina (we
Electrical Standards ......... 50 0 O
Glastonbury Lake Village .... 30 0 O
Excavations on Roman Sites

nN Tati ibe) ¢ pe soacedpr opcece rode 15 0 0
Age of Stone Circles............ 50 0 O
Anthropological Notes and

QUCTIES; \ cavesevessorssscattersue 40 0 O
Metabolism of Individual

MASSUGSteatemersis ceveeestedct sess 40 0 0
The Ductless Glands............ 13 14 8
Effect of Climate upon Health

ANG Disease... .csecreeeveesere 35 0 OU
Body Metabolism in Cancer... 30 0 0
Electrical Phenomena and

Metabolism of Azvwum spa-

CRREED © Bre eceor Cache a ach Pork: 10 0 0
Marsh Vegetation ............... 15 0 0
Succession of Plant Remains 18 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

MUELEE) <225 en eonse Spor tag pore 25 0 O

£1157 18 8

exvili REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

Report of the Council, 1907-1908.

I. The Council have adopted the following ResoLutions :—

(i) “The President and Council of the British Association desire to
express their profound regret at the death of Lorp Ketvin;
O.M., G.C.V.O., D.C.L:, LL.D., F.R.S., &c., and to place on
record their sense of the great services he rendered to the
Association in important offices. They recall that he was
President of the Association in 1871 at Edinburgh, and was
President of Section A on no fewer than five occasions. His
constant attendance at the Meetings and the leading part he
was in the habit of taking in the proceedings of Section A
will always be remembered. His loss, indeed, seems to be
irreparable,

“The President and Council furthermore desire to express their
sympathy with Lady Kelvin and other members of the family
in their bereavement.”

(ii) “The President and Council of the British Association desire to
express their deep regret at the death of Sir Joun Evans,
K.C.B.; D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., and to record their high appre:
ciation of the services he rendered to the Association as a
member of the Council during a long period of years, as
President of the Association in 1897, and as a Sectional
President in 1878 and in 1890.

“The President and Council furthermore desire to express their
sincere sympathy with Lady Evans and the family in their
bereavement.”

(iii) “The President and Council of the British Association desire to
express their deep regret at the death of the Earl of Rosse,
Chancellor of the University of Dublin, and to offer their
sincere sympathy with the Countess of Rosse and the family
in their bereavement.”

Sir David Gill, President, represented the Association at the DArwin-
WALLACE CELEBRATION on July 1 by the Linnean Society of London.

Mr. Francis Darwin, F.R.S., President-Elect, will represent the
Association at the commemoration next year by the University of Cam-
bridge of the centenary of Charles Darwin’s birth.

II. Proressor J. J. THomson, F.R.S., has been unanimously nomi-
nated by the Council to fill the office of President of the Association
for 1909 (Winnipeg Meeting).

III. The following Nominations are made by the Council :—

(i) As an additional Vice-President of the Association for the
Dublin Meeting : Right Hon. Augustine Birrell, M.P. ; and
as Local Secretary, John Mulligan, in place of Charles E.
Martin, deceased.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. CX1X

(ii) Professor H. A. Miers, F.R.S., Chairman, Professor Grenville
Cole, Vice-Chairman, and W. P. D. Stebbing, Secretary, of
the CoNFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES
to be held at Dublin.

(iii) Members of the Corresponding Societies Committee for the ensuing
year: Chairman, Mr. W. Whitaker ; Secretary, Mr. W. P. D.
Stebbing ; Rev. J. O. Bevan, Sir Edward Brabrook, Dr. J. G.
Garson, Principal E. H. Griffiths, Mr. T. V. Holmes, Mr.
J. Hopkinson, Professor R. Meldola, Dr. H. R. Mill, Mr.
F. W. Rudler, Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, and the President and
General Officers of the Association.

IV. A Report has been received from the CorRESPONDING SOCIETIES
CommiTTEF, together with the list of Corresponding Societies and the
titles of the more important Papers, especially of those referring to local
scientific investigations, published by the Societies during the year ending
May 31, 1908.

V. The following REsoxution, referred to the Council by the General
Committee at Leicester, has been considered and acted upon :—

From Sections L and H jointly.

“That, in view of the national importance of obtaining data on the
question of physical deterioration, this Association urges upon
the Government the pressing necessity of instituting, in con-
nection with the medical inspection of school children, a
system of periodic measurement which will provide definite
information on their physical condition and development.”

A Committee, consisting of Sir Edward Brabrook, Mr. Sidney Hart-
land, and Professor D. J. Cunningham, was appointed to report on this

proposal ; and the following has been received and adopted by the
Council :—

“Your Committee, appointed to consider and report on the joint
Resolution from Sections L and H at the Leicester Meeting,
report as follows :—

“(i) The memorial referred to in the Resolution was presented to the
Board of Education ; and since then a Minute has been issued
by that Board recommending a system of anthropometric
observation of the children in Elementary Schools.

“ (ii) Your Committee consider that the Minute concedes as much as
the Board could reasonably be expected to have adopted as a
preliminary and experimental measure ; and that, therefore,
no further action on the part of the Council is at the present
time called for.”

_ VI. A Resoxvrtioy, referred to the Council by the General Committee
at Leicester, has been received

From the Conference of Delegates :—

That it is desirable (1) to obtain information as to the present
state of things in Britain in connection with Photo Survey
work ; (2) to publish instructions or give advice for the

CXX REPORT OF THE COUNCIL,

execution of a scientific Photographic Survey ; and (3) to
endeavour to found, or promote, a Photo-Record of the town
and district in which the British Association holds its Annual
Meeting.”

This Resolution was remitted to the Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee for consideration and report to the Council; and the proposal in
regard to promoting a photo-record of the city and district in which the
Association holds its Annual Meeting was forwarded to the Dublin
Executive Committee for their consideration. It is understood that the
Local Committee will act upon this suggestion.

The report of the Corresponding Societies Committee on this subject
is contained in their Annual Report to the Council.

VIT. The Resolution by the Committee of Section D, remitted to the
Council by the General Committee at Leicester, was considered; and the
Council resolved that no action be taken.

VIII. A proposed new Rvs, referred to the Council by the General
Committee at Leicester for consideration and report, to the effect that the
Council shall have power to remove a Member or Associate for conduct
tending to bring the Association into disrepute, has been considered,

A Committee, consisting of Sir Edward Brabrook, Dr. Carey Foster,
Dr. Chalmers Mitchell, and the General Officers, was appointed to draft a
Rule for the consideration of the Council ; and the following Report has
been received and adopted :—

‘“‘The Committee appointed by the Council to draft a new Rule,
giving the Council powers of ejection from the Association,
recommend the addition of the following words to the con-
cluding paragraph of Chapter X. (1) of the Rules—namely,
after the word ‘exclusion’ to add :

«|. . by the Council, who have also authority, if they
think it necessary, to withhold from any person the
privilege of attending any Annual Meeting or to cancel
a ticket of admission already issued.”

In accordance with this suggestion the Council recommend that the
second paragraph of Rule 1, Chapter X., as amended in the above
Report, be sanctioned by the General Committee to read as follows :—

“Every person admitted as a Member or an Associate shall con-
form to the Rules and Regulations of the Association, any
infringement of which on his part may render him liable to
exclusion by the Council, who have also authority, if they
think it necessary, to withhold from any person the privilege
of attending any Annual Meeting or to cancel a ticket of
admission already issued.”

IX. The Council have authorised Section F (Economic Science and
Statistics) to form a SuB-Secrion For AGricuLTuRE for the Dublin Meeting,
with a Chairman, Vice-Chairmen, and Secretariat to deal with its trans-
actions,

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. CXXx1

X. The Council have received the following communication, proposing
the constitution of a Section for AsrRonomy aND CosmicaL Puysics :—

10 MORETON GARDENS, 8.W,
December 31, 1907,

To Sir Davin Git, K.C,B,, F.R.S., President,

Dear Sir Davin Git,

The signatories of this letter are those who have acted as
Chairmen of the Sub-Section of Section A for Astronomy and Cosmical
Physics. Our purpose is to ask you to bring before the Association a
proposal for the constitution of a separate Section for the group of
Sciences included in the title “ Astronomy and Cosmical Physics.”

2. The ground for our request is that the applications of Mathematics
and Physics in Astronomy, Geodesy, Meteorology, Terrestrial Magnetism,
Atmospheric Electricity, and Seismology, together with the treatment of
those subjects from the point of view of the organisation and collection
of observations of natural phenomena, attract papers sufficient in number
and importance to deserve a separate Section,

3. The separation of these subjects from Mathematics and Experi-
mental Physics would have the further advantage that more time would
be found for the newer developments of those subjects the discussion of
which is now unduly restricted. .

4. Under existing conditions there is not time to deal with the papers
on Astronomy and Meteorology prepared for the Meetings, and no
encouragement can be offered to the comparatively few students of the
other observational Sciences associated with Mathematics and Physics,
to bring the progress in their subjects to the notice of the Association.
In consequence, these subjects lose the advantage of the discussion of
questions at a Meeting of the Association, and the important influence
of a Sectional Committee in matters of organisation and co-operation,

5. For a number of years a Sub-Section for Astronomy and Cosmical
Physics was formed, but it has been discontinued since the Meeting at
Cambridge in 1904. It is not necessary to consider here the reasons for
this suspension, which originated perhaps with the difficulties of manag-
ing a SubSection during the expeditional Session of 1905 to the Cape.
But the reasons are certainly not connected with any ill-success of the
experiment tried. There was always plenty of work for the Sub-Section,
and, in the interval, there has been noteworthy progress, especially on
the lines of international co-operation, in the observational Sciences.
Consequently, the remedy for the congestion of business in Section A,
which met with general acceptance up to 1904, is no longer adequate. A
separate Section for the observational Sciences to which Mathematics
and Physics are applied has become necessary.

6. In common with all students of Mathematics and Physics, we recog-
nise the advantage of the opportunity which is afforded by the Meetings
of the British Association for the students of a particular branch of
Science to keep in touch with the progress in allied branches and with
the developments of Mathematics and Experimental Physics. The

CXXll REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

advantage is, however, only nominal when the discussion of questions has
to be so rigorously curtailed that the proceedings are only intelligible
to those who are already expert in the particular questions. The
restriction of the consideration of Sciences of wide scope to a day, or
half a day, discourages the attendance of Members of the Association
interested in those Sciences. The influence of the Association would be
made more effective and more beneficial, both directly and indirectly, by
the rearrangement which we wish to propose. Nothing short of that
rearrangement would provide for the adequate representation and discus-
sion of the questions which form the subject of papers before the Section
or of proposals before the Sectional Committee.

We are, dear Sir David Gill,
Yours faithfully,

(Signed) ARTHUR SCHUSTER,
i H. H. Turner.
_ W. N. SHaw.
ie Jonn Etior,

The Council resolved, without prejudice, to remit this proposal to
the Organising Committee of Section A, for their consideration and
advice.

XI. The following Invitation from SueErrietp for the year 1910
will be presented to the General Committee at Dublin, and be supported
by a joint deputation representing the City Council and Sheffield
University :—

January 24, 1908.

Dear Str,—We are directed by the Sheffield City Council and the
Sheffield University to cordially extend to the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, through its Executive Council, an invitation
to hold its Annual Meeting in Sheffield in the year 1910.

Sheffield has an estimated population of 463,222. In addition to
the University, the Mappin Art Gallery, and several museums, there is
the Ruskin Museum at Meersbrook Park. The city is noted for its great
steel, iron, and kindred industries, where armour plates, silver and
electro plate, cutlery, and other goods are manufactured.

It is scarcely necessary to add that, should the invitation be
accepted, every effort will be made by the representative life of the city
to make the Meeting an unqualified success.

Pray be good enough to bring this invitation before your Executive
Council, and at your convenience acquaint us with their decision.

We are, Yours faithfully,

(Signed) Harry P. Marsnu, Lord Mayor.
is Norroik, Chancellor of the University of
Sheffield.

XII. The following Invitation from PorrsmoutH for the year 1911
will be presented to the General Committee at Dublin, and be supported
by a deputation representing the Town of Portsmouth :—

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. Cxxill

June 1, 1908.
Sir,—I am instructed by the Corporation of Portsmouth to invite the
British Association for the Advancement of Science to hold their Annual
Meeting at Portsmouth in 1911.
A Local Committee will be appointed in order to make all necessary
arrangements, if the invitation can be accepted by the Association.

I am, Sir,
Your obedient Servant, .
(Signed) A, Hetiarp, Zown Clerk.

XIII. The Council have received reports from the General Treasurer
during the past year. His Accounts from July 1, 1907, to June 30, 1908;
have been audited, and are presented to the General Committee.

XIV. In accordance with the Regulations, the retiring Members of
the Councin are: by seniority—Professor D. J. Cunningham and Dr.
A. C. Haddon ; by least attendance— Professor J: N. Langley, C. Vernon
Boys, and Professor Wyndham Dunstan.

The Council recommend the re-election of the other ordinary Members;
with the addition of those whose names are distinguished by an asterisk
in the following list, leaving two vacancies to be filled up by the General
Committee :—

Abney, Sir W., K.C.B., F.R.S. Hartland, E. Sidney, F.S.A.

Anderson, Tempest, M.D., D.Sc. Hawksley, C., M.Inst.C.H.

Bourne, Professor G. C., D.Sc. | Hogarth, D. G., M.A.

Bowley, A. L., M.A. | McKendrick, Professor J. G., F.R.S.

Brabrook, Sir Edward, C.B. | Mitchell, Dr. P. Chalmers, F R.S.

Brown, Dr. Horace T., F.R.S. | Poulton, Professor HK. B., F.R.8.
«Brunton, Sir Lauder, Bart., Sc.D., F.R.S. Prain, Lieut.-Colonel D., C.1.E., F.R.S.
*Close, Major C.¥., R.E., O.M.G. Sherrington, Professor C. 8., F.R.S.

Dyson, Professor F. W., F.R.S. | Shipley, A. K., F.R.S.

Forsyth, Professor A. R., F.R.S. | *Tutton, Dr. A. E. H., F.B.S.

Glazebrook, Dr. R. T., F.R.S. | Watts, Professor W. W., F.R.S.

Woodward, Dr. A. Smith, F.R.S.

XV. The General Officers have been nominated by the Council for
reappointment.

XVI. The Council recommend that, on the occasion of the Meeting of
the Association at Winnipeg, the President, Vice- Presidents, and Officers of
the AMERICAN AssocraTIoN FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE be invited
to attend as honorary Members for the year ; and, further, that all Fellows
and Members of the American Association be admitted Members of the
British Association on the same terms as old Annual Members—namely,
on payment of 1/., without the contribution of an admission fee, and
with the additional privilege of receiving a free copy of the Report of the
Meeting.

XVII. The following have been admitted as Members of the GENERAL
CoMMITTEE :—

Auden, Dr. G. A. Hill, Mr. Arthur W.
Bernacchi, Mr. L. C. Porter, Professor J. B.
Boeddicker, Dr. Otto. Reid, Dr. Archdall.
Boulton, Dr. W. 8. Stansfield, Mr. Herbert.
Crooke, Mr. William. Young, Dr. George.

Fraser, Miss Helen. | Young, Dr. W. H.

CXXIV

GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT.

Dr.

1907-1908.

JOHN

——__—___—5

THE GENERAL ‘TREASURER’S ACCOUNT,

RECEIPTS.
£ 8 de
Balance brought forward ...ssscsecseeneees epacneaseccneanmcuccnarin: -. 2362 18 6
Life Compositions (including Transfers) ..... cencusenesee-cacte sas 419) 40° 10
New Annual Members’ Subscriptions .......ec...sesseeveee “eapsono 264 0 0
Annual SUPSCLIPHIONS, ...;0s-.52+s+escvevnssesesaeunecucoreuess cess eenis 637 0 0
Daleor Adsociates (ICkebS . sy .ascracveeme aecenessiccatcsnadiaceatecetene 653 0 0
Salerofadios “MUCKes:. nasessecsslensvcpecsscuiseneatecensentestteseeeaten 251 0 0
WalevGiUDLCGALIONS "sy s,cetsuararceceeancseeesetecensscesehascener teem 190 19 7
Dividend ion CoOnsolsi.. csenssvases one's svsasecsecnnsacene Cameeeeaeeceneenen 154 8 4
Dividend on India 3 per Cents. ..0...c.-ssescraseronssoee seaieeenieleseee 102 12 0
Great Indian Peninsula Railway ‘ B’ Annuity...................0. Pe ae Wi}
Interest On Deposit sr sccccescssereseseen Poet perecanos jae tianselestsaeh ee 20 9 O
Unexpended Balances returned :— £ te:
Researches im'Crete. \..0cccacscssseevraspesacens tos OO OO
Life Zones in British Carboniferous Rocks... 5.159
Effect of Climate upon Health and Disease 4 4 5
ET TANI UGLOCKS) decuw occerocnsaeaeosaavsesasaneeetintee 17 16 6
Faunal Succession in the Carboniferous
Limestone of South-West England ......... 113 6
Correlation and Age of South African Strata 716 9
a Pee (or Ut:

ae af
Re
a :
Lean
wee
ee
Pe
as POEs ee 8 oe ee
£5167 9 7
Investments.

£ s. d.

2% per Cent. Consolidated Stock ............04 6501 10 5

India 3 per Cent. Stock ....... Fedor bonpanacbonawon 3600 0 0

£73 Great Indian Peninsula Railway ‘B’
AMMMIGY (COB) wienessaeaseesscnccses ree Seee emcees 1493 6 6

11,594 16 11
Sir Frederick Bramwell’s Gift :—
2} per Cent. Self-cumulating Consolidated
SHOCK Si eeccdeamuceseasdsvecsevues sesgdesnemeenaeh 65 6 1

£11,660 3 0

PERRY, General Treasurer,

GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. CXXV

from July 1, 1907, to June 30, 1908. Cr.
1907-1908. PAYMENTS,
£ a. ds
Rent and Office Expenses ..... esatoasos Noite ancscsecceaeveversecsee! 9614
Salaries, &c. .......... ade eta tisithaacdents sce Spaskese dat Oo) sais ct:
PMINEING | BINGINGUNGS. 2c. cece sb decassesecsaceses ous sacsenie ccteaes came AON et
Expenses of Leicester Meeting ...... se daesidead) fuaeacnaves saeuemanaass 140 8 2
Purchase of £73 Great Indian Peninsula Railway ‘ B’ Annuity 1493 6 6
Payment of Grants made at Leicester : £ sd.
Seismological Observations............... ation stars saree 40 0 0
Further Tabulation of Bessel Functions ..............- 1 0 0
Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere by means of
REN, ciniclatahdosciclaa «peleme diet a's 6 oe Baltacmate eras s (25,0. 0
Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis ........... Ape 2D; 401 70:
Geodetic Arc in Africa....... Sinisiata.elsistaleie'aiets’els -. 200 0 0
Wave-length Tables of Spectra ..... - oy, 20: 0.10,
Study of Hydro-Aromatic Substances . sevseccecse 30 0 0
YNAMICHBOMETISM Fiso sin; ss sins se ealomon daae pees aede 40 0 U0
Transformation of Aromatic Nitramines ............. a ou
PER ALIC IBIOCES ie tres statats oicicie Sislae sate aia, comdasia(aae By Be, 17 16 6
Fauna and Flora of British Trias ...............0.08 aries LOMO 0)
Faunal Succession in the Carboniferous Limestone in
the British Isles . ......... Sole Heltrote aaa bales mite atte 10 0 0
Pre-Devonian Rocks............... avoey Jain. Oy LO
Exact Significance of Local Terms ..... aoe eo OO
Composition of Charnwood Rocks ... ............2... 10 0 0
Table at the Zoological Station at Naples .............. 100 0 0
Index Animalium ....... mr evdve sintutalah=\eleiaisio's\n/e/eiele/aieterec sar 80710" 0
Hereditary Mxperiments .. 25.c/ascuecclsinesclsciessse vao 10 0.0
Fauna of Lakes of Central Tasmania .......... essence 420 10) °Q
Investigations in the Indian Ocean..............+ 50 0 0
Exploration in Spitsbergen ..... Rgsalaia siping é a/aleaaturaie 30 0 0
Gold Coinage in Circulation in the United Kingdom ay ae
Electrical Standards..............+. eae ens tiececdess 5 0. 0
Glastonbury Lake Village ..............6. Slasta)eca/ alee - 380 0 0
Excayations on Roman Sites in Britain........ seeccece 10 O80
Age of Stone Circles........ .. aaaoacn SAC aapAcdgad - 50 0 0
Anthropological Notes and Queries .......... AReids sine 40° 0 0
Metabolism of Individual Tissues......... 0 0
The Ductless Glands...... Sip ied lnin(aia niin Saisie alesse 4 8
Effect of Climate upon Health and Disease 00
Body Metabolism in Cancer ..............c00005 rats 0 0
Electrical Phenomena and Metabolism of Arum Spadices 0 0
Marsh Vegetation ............ ag dalelelvelee'sie sawed tacisesent kD OVO
Succession of Plant Remains ............... Belew nace ies cay) AS. dO 40
Corresponding Societies Committee .........0.0-eeeee 25 0 0

———— 115718 8

£4648 12 2
Balance at Bank of England (Western £

Suid,
Branch) ..... ieasesaenesaes Seccaae Meee ak eee eee Ade 664 2 8
Add Cheque not credited ............08 ceseseees A TTA
565 2 8
Less Cheques not presented.es...ccccccsesesseeeeee 45 5 0
51917 8
Less Petty Cash overspent .........ese000e08 actere LOS
_618 17 5
£5167 9 7
—____—3

I have examined the above Account with the Books and Vouchers of the Associa-
tion, and certify the same to be correct. I have also verificd the Balance at the
Bankers, and have ascertained that the Investments are registered in the names
of the Trustees.

Approved— W. B. KEEN, Chartered Accountant,

HERBERT McLEop, spot July 28, 1908,
EDWARD eehees | Auditors,

CXXVi GENERAL MEETINGS.

General Meetings at Dublin.

On Wednesday, September 2, at 8.30 p.m., in the Great Hall of the
Royal University, Sir David Gill, K.C.B., F.R.S., resigned the office of
President to Mr. Francis Darwin, M.B., LL.D., F.R.S., who took the
Chair and delivered an Address, for which see p. 3.

On Thursday, September 3, at 8 P.m., a Conversazione was held at
Leinster House.

On Friday, September 4, at 8.30 p.m., in the Great Hall of the
Royal University, Professor H. H. Turner, F.R.S., delivered a Discourse
on ‘ Halley’s Comet.’

On Monday, September 7, at 8.30 p.m., in the Great Hall of the Royal
University, Professor W. M. Davis delivered a Discourse on ‘The Lessons
of the Colorado Canyon.’

On Tuesday, September 8, a Garden Party was given by the Local
Committee in the Gardens of the Royal Zoological Society.

On Wednesday, September 9, at 3 p.m., the concluding General
Meeting was held in the Royal University Buildings, when the following
Resolutions were adopted :—

1. That a cordial vote of thanks be given to the Lord Mayor and
Corporation of the City of Dublin for the reception which they have
accorded to the British Association.

2. That a cordial vote of thanks be given (i) to the Provost and
Senior Fellows of Trinity College and to the Senate of the Royal Univer-
sity of Ireland ; (ii) to the governing bodies of the public institutions
which have granted the use of their buildings for sectional proceedings ;
and (iii) to the authorities of the schools and works thrown open to the
inspection of the members of the Association.

3. That a cordial vote of thanks be given to the Local Executive
Officers and Committees for the admirable arrangements made for the
meetings.

4. That the grateful thanks of the Association be given to the citizens
of Dublin for the generous hospitality shown to its members on the
occasion of this meeting.

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT
THE DUBLIN MEETING.

SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE,

President —Dr. W.N. Shaw, F.R.S. Vice-Prestdents.—Prof. W. I. Barrett,
F.R.S.; Prof. W.S. Burnside, F.T.C.D.; Prof.C. H. Lees, F.R.S.; Prof. A. E. H.
Love, F.R.S.; Prof. F. Purser, F.T.C.D.; Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S. Secretaries.
—Prof. A. W. Porter, B.Se. (Recorder); Dr. W. Geoffrey Duffield; Dr. L. N. G.
Filon; E. Gold, M.A.; Prof. J. A. McClelland; Prof. E. T. Whittaker, F.R.S.

SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY.

President —Prof. F. 8. Kipping, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Sir Charles A.
Cameron, M.D.; Prof. W Ncel Hartley, F.R.S.; Prof. A. Smithells, F.R.S.;
Prof. Sydney Young, F'.ii.8. Secretartes.—Dr. E. F. Armstrong (Recorder); Dr.
Alex. McKenzie; Dr. t’. \!. Perkin; Dr. James H. Pollok.

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. exxvii

SECTION C.—GEOLOGY,

President.—Prof. John Joly, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents—Prof. Grenville A. Cole;
Prof. W. M. Davis; Sir A. Geikie, K.C.B., Sec. R.S.; Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S.;
A. Smith Woodward, F.R.S. Secretaries—J. Lomas (Recorder) ; Rev. W. Lower
Carter, M.A.; Prof. 8S. H. Reynolds, M.A.; H. J. Seymour, B.A.

SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY.

President.—Dr. 8. F. Harmer, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents—Dr. W. E. Hoyle
Prof. A. A. W. Hubrecht; Prof. E. W. MacBride, F.R.S.; Dr. R. F. Scharff ;
A. E. Shipley, F.R.S. Seeretaries.—H. W. Marett Tims, M.D. (Recorder); J. H.
Ashworth, D.Sc.; L. Doncaster, M.A.; Prof. Alex. Fraser, M.B.

SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY.

President.—Major EH. H. Hills; C.M.G., R.E. Vice-Presidents—J. Bolton ;
Major C. F. Close, R.E.,C.M.G.; Major Leonard Darwin, R.E.; Prof. W. M.
Davis; Rev. W. Spotswood Green, C.B., M.A.; Dr. A. J. Herbertson ; Captain
H. G. Lyons, R.E., F.R.S. Secretaries —O. J. R. Howarth, M.A. ( Recorder’) ;
W. F. Bailey, C.B.; W. J. Barton, B.A.; E. A. Reeves.

SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

President —W. M. Acworth. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. W.J. Ashley; Prof.
C. F. Bastable; Sir H. Llewellyn Smith, K.C.B. Secretaries.—Prof. 8. J. Chap-
man, M.A. (Recorder); W.G.S. Adams, M.A.; Prof. D. H. Macgregor, M.A. ;
H. O. Meredith.

SUB-SECTION.—-AGRICULTURKE,

Chairman.—Right Hon. Sir Horace Plunkett, K.C.V.O., F.R.S. Vice-Chair-
men.—Prof. J. R. Campbell, F.R.S.E.; Major P. G. Craigie, C.B.; Colonel N.
Everard; David Houston; Prof. F. Keeble. Secretaries—A. D. Hall, M.A.
(Recorder); Prof. J. Percival, M.A.; J. H. Priestley, B.Sc.; Prof. James
Wilson, M.A.

SECTION G.—ENGINEERING.

President—Dugald Clerk, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents—Sir Charles Douglas
Fox; Sir Howard Grubb, F.R.S.; Charles Hawksley ; Bindon B. Stoney, I’.R.S. ;
Prof, Silvanus P, Thompson, F.R.S. Secretaries—W. A. Price, M.A. ( Recorder’) ;
Prof. E. G. Coker, D.Sc.; Dr. W. E. Lilly, Se.D.; H. E. Wimperis, M.A.

SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.,

President —Prof. William Ridgeway, F.B.A. Vice-Presidents. — George
Coffey, M.A.; Prof. A. Francis Dixon, Se.D.; D. G. Hogarth, M.A.; Prof. J. L.
Myres, M.A.; Prof. George Sigerson, M.D. Seeretaries.—E. N. Fallaize, B.A.
(Recorder); H.S. Kingsford, M.A.; F.C. Shrubsall, M.A., M.D.; Laurence E.
Steele, M.A.

SECTION I.— PHYSIOLOGY.

President.—Dr. John Scott Haldane, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents—Sir Rubert
Boyce, F.R.S.; Prof. A. B. Macallum, F.R.S.; Prof. E. J. McWeeney, M.D.;
Prof. J. M. Purser, M.D. ; Prof. C.S. Sherrington, F.R.S. ; Prof. W. H. Thompson;
Dr. A. D. Waller, F.R.S. Secretartes.— Herbert ‘EK. Roaf, M.D. (Recorder) ; Prof.
Denis J. Coffey, M.B.; P. T. Herring, M.D. ;. Prof. J. S. Macdonald, B.A.

CXXVIli OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES,

SECTION K,—BOTANY.

President.—Dr. F. F Blackman, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—D. H. Scott, F.R.S. ;
Prof. A. C. Seward, F.R.S. Sceretartes—A. G. Tansley, M.A. (Recorder) ;
Prof. Henry H. Dixon, F.R.S.; R. P. Gregory, M.A.; Prof. R. H. Yapp, M.A.

SECTION L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

President.—Prof. L. C. Miall, F.R.S. Vice-Prestdents.—It. Blair; Very Rev.
William Delany, LL.D.; Rev. Dr, H. Evans; Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S.; Sir
Philip Magnus, M.P.; A. Traill, M.D. Secretaries —Prof. It. A. Gregory
(Recorder); Prof. E. P. Culverwell, M.A.; W. D. Eggar, M.A; George I'letcher,
F.G.S.; Hugh Richardson, M.A.

CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING
SOCIETIES.

Chairman.—Prof. TH, A. Miers, F.R.S. Vice- Chatrman.—Prof, Grenyille Cole.
Secretary W. P. D. Stebbing.

COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS.

The President and Vice-Presidents of the Aasociation; the General Secretaries ;
the General Treasurer; the Trustees; the Presidents of the Association in
former years; Dr. W. N. Shaw; Dr. R. T. Glazebrook ; Prof. F.S. Kipping,
Dr. E. F. Armstrong; Prof. John Joly; J. Lomas; Dr. 8. F. Harmer; Dr.
W.H. Marett Tims; Major E. H. Hills; 0. J. R. Howarth ; W. M. Acworth ;
Prof. S. J. Chapman; Dugald Clerk; W. A. Price; Prof. W. Ridgeway ;
E.N. Fallaize; Dr. J. Scott; Haldane; Prof. F, Gotch; Dr. F. F. Blackman ;
A. G. Tansley ; Prof. L. C. Miall; Prof. R. A. Gregory; Prof. H. A. Miers ;
and Prof. G. A. J. Cole.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES, CXXIxX

RESEARCH COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL CoMmMITTER

AT THE DuBLIN MEETING: SEPTEMBER 1908.

1. Recewing Grants of Money.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Members of Committee Grants

Section AA—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

Seismological Observations.

To co-operate with the Royal
Meteorological Society in the
Investigation of the Upper At-
mosphere by means of Kites.

To co-operate with the Committee
of the Falmouth Observatory
in their Magnetic Observations.

To aid the work of Establishing
a Solar Observatory in Australia.

Chairman.—Professor H H.Turner.

Secretary.—-Dr. J. Milne.

Dr. T. G. Bonney, Mr. C. V.
Boys, Sir George Darwin, Mr.
Horace Darwin, Major L Dar-
win, Professor J. A. Ewing,
Mea Mo Ee \Gray, Dri Rect
Glazebrook, Professors J. W.
Judd, C. G. Knott, and R.
Meldola, Mr. R. D. Oldham,
Professor J. Perry, Mr. W.
E. Plummer, Professor J. H.
Poynting, Mr. Clement Reid,
and Mr. Nelson Richardson.

Chairman.—Dr. W. N. Shaw.

Secretary.—Mr. W. H. Dines.

Mr. D. Archibald, Mr. C. Vernon
Boys, Dr. R. T. Glazebrook, Dr.

- H. R. Mill, Professor J. E.
Petavel, Dr. A. Schuster, and
Dr.‘W. Watson,

Chairman.—Sir W. H. Preece.

Seerctary.—Dr. R. 'T. Glazebrook.

Professor W. G. Adams, Captain
Creak, Mr. W. L. Fox, Professor
A. Schuster, Sir A. W. Riicker,
and Dr. Charles Chree.

Chairman.—Sir David Gill.

Secretary.—Dr. W. G. Duffield.

Dr. W. J. 5S. Lockyer, Mr. F.
McClean, and Professors A.
Schuster and H. H Turner.

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.

Preparing a new Series of Wave-
length Tables of os Spectra
of the Elements.

1908.

Chairman.—Sir H. E. Roscoe.

Seceretary.—Dr. Marshall Watts

Sir Norman Lockyer, Professors
Sir J. Dewar, G. D. Liveing, A
Schuster, W. N. Hartley, and
Wolcott Gibbs, Sir W. de W.
Abney, and Dr. W. E. Adeney.

£
60

10

50

50

10

h

. d,
0

8
0

00

00

00

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Members of Committee

The Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-
stances.

Dynamic Isomerism.

The Transformation of Aromatic
Nitramines and allied sub-
stances, and its relation to Sub-
stitution in Benzene Deriva- |
tives.

Electroanalysis.

i
|
|

Chairman —Professor E. Divers.

Secretary.—Professor A. W. Cross-
ley.

Professor W. H. Perkin, Dr. M. O.
Forster, and Dr. Le Sueur.

Chairman.—Professor H, E Arm-
strong.

Secretary.—Dr. 'T. M. Lowry.

Professor Sydney Young, Dr. Desch
Dr. J. J. Dobbie, Dr. A. Lap-
worth, and Dr. M. O. Forster.

Chairman.—Professor F. 5. Kip-
ping.

Secretary.—Professor K.J.P.Orton.

Dr.S. Ruhemann, Dr. A. Lapworth,
and Dr. J. T. Hewitt.

Chairman.—Professor F. 8. Kip-
ping.

Secretary.—Dr. ¥. M. Perkin.

Dr. G. T. Beilby, Dr. T. M. Lowry,
Professor W. J. Pope, and Mr.
H. J. 8. Sand.

Section C.—GEOLOGY.

To investigate the Erratic Blocks
of the British Isles, and to take
measures for their preservation.

To report upon the Fauna and
Flora of the Trias of the British
Isles.

To investigate the Fossiliferous
Drift Deposits at Kirmington,
Lincolnshire, and at various
localities in the East Riding
of Yorkshire.

To enable Mr. E. Greenly to com-
plete his Researches on the
Composition and Origin of the
Crystalline Rocks of Anglesey.

Chairman.—Mr. R. H. Tiddeman.

Seeretary.—Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse.

Dr. T.G. Bonney, Mr. F. M. Burton,
Mr. F. W. Harmer, Rev. 8. N.
Harrison, Dr. J. Horne, Mr. J.
Lomas, Professor W. J. Sollas,
and Messrs. J. W. Stather and
W. T. Tucker.

Chairman.—Professor W. A. Herd-
man,

Seerctary.—Mr. J. Lomas.

Mr. H. C. Beasley, Mr. E. T.
Newton, Professor A. C. Seward,
Mr. W. A. E. Ussher, Professor
W. W. Watts, and Dr. A. Smith
Woodward.

Chairman.—Mr.G W, Lamplugh.

Secretary.—Mr. J. W. Stather.

Dr. Tempest Anderson, Professor
J. W. Carr, Rev. W. Lower
Carter, Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse,
Mr. F. W. Harmer, Mr. J. H.
Howarth, Kev. W. Johnson, and
Messrs. G. W. B. Macturk,
E. T. Newton, H. M. Platnauer,
Clement Reid, and T. Sheppard.

Chairman.—Myr. A. Harker.

Secretary.—Mr. E. Greenly.

Mr. J. Lomas, Dr. C. A. Matley,
and Professor K. J. P. Orton.

$]

10

30

12

ll

00

00

00

00

00

00

00

British Isles.

British Trias.

Naples.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES. CXXX1
‘1. Recewing Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation, or Purpose | Members of Committee Grants
eden Ge
To enable Dr. A. Vaughan to | Chairman.—Professor J. W. Gre- 10 00
continue his Researches on the gory.
Faunal Succession in the Car- | Secretary.—Dr. A. Vaughan.
boniferous Limestone in the | Dr. Wheelton Hind and Professor |
W. W. Watts.
To excavate Critical Sections in | Chairman.—Professor C. Lap- | 15 0 0 |
the Paleozoic Rocks of Wales worth.
and the West of England. Secretary.—Mr. W. G. Fearnsides.
Mr. J. Lomas, Dr. J. E. Marr, Pro-
fessor W. W. Watts, and Mr.
G. W. Williams.
To investigate the Microscopical | Chairman. — Professor W. W. 2 00
and Chemical Composition of Watts.
Charnwood Rocks. Secretary.—Dr. 'T. T. Groom.
Dr. F. P. Bennett, Mr. C. Fox-
Strangways, and Dr. Stracey.
The Investigalion of Igneous and | Chairman. — Professor W. W.| 20 0 0
Associated Rocks of Glensaul Watts
and Lough Nafovey Areas, Cos.: | Secretary.—Professor 8. H. Rey-
Mayo and Galway. nolds.
Messrs. H. B. Muff and C. I.
Gardiner.
To investigate the Ancient Salt | Chairman.—Professor J. Joly. 50 00
Lakes and other Desert Phe- | Seeretary.—J. Lomas.
nomena at Biskra, Algeria, | Mr. Allorge, Dr. A. Hutchinson,
in particular relation to the and Professors Sollasand W. W.
Watts.
Secrion D.—ZOOLOGY-
To aid competent Investigators | Chairman.—Professor 8. J. Hick- | 75 00
selected by the Committee to son.
carry on definite pieces of work | Secretary.—Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing.
at the Zoological Station at | Sir E. Ray Lankester, Professor
A. Sedgwick, Professor W. C.
McIntosh, Dr. 8. F. Harmer,
and Mr. G. P. Bidder
Compilation of an Index Generum | Chairman:—Dr. H. Woodward. 75 00
et Specierum Animalium. Secretary.—Dr. F. A. Bather.
Dr. P. L. Sclater, Rev. T. R. R.
Stebbing, Dr. W. E. Hoyle, the
Hon. Walter Rothschild, and
Lord Walsingham.
To enable Mr. Laurie to conduct | Chairman.— Professor W. A.| 10 00

Experiments in Inheritance.

| Mr.

Herdman.
Secretary.— Mr. Douglas Laurie.
R. C. Punnett and Dr,
H. W. Marett Tims,

CXXXil

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Members of Committee

Grants

To investigate the Feeding Habits | Chatrman.—Dr. A. HE. Shipley.

of British Birds by a study of
the contents of the crops and
gizzards of both adults and
nestlings, and by the collation |

of observational evidence, with |
the object of obtaining precise
knowledge as to the economic
status of many of our commoner

birds affecting rural science.

Secretary.—Mr. C. Gordon Hewitt.

Messrs. J. N. Halbert, Robert
Newstead, A. G. L. Rogers, and
F. V. Theobald.

Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.

To carry on an Expedition to | Chairman.—Sir John Murray.

investigate the Indian Ocean
between India and South Africa
in view of a possible land con-
nection, to examine the deep
submerged banks, the Nazareth
and Saya de Malha, and also the
distribution of Marine Animals.

The Quantity and Composition of
Rainfall, and of Lake and River
Discharge.

Secretary.—Mr. J. Stanley Gar-
diner.

Captain E. W. Creak, Professors |

W. A. Herdman, §. J. Hickson,
and J. W. Judd, Mr. J. J. Lister,
Dr. H. R. Mill, and Dr. David
Sharp.

Chairman.—Sir John Murray.

Secretarvies.—Professor A. B. Mac-
allum and Dr. A. J. Herbertson.

Professor W. M. Davis, Professor
P. F. Frankland, Mr. A. D. Hall,
Mr. N. F. Mackenzie, Mr. E.H. V.
Melville, Dr. H. R. Mill, Pro-
fessor A. Penck, Mr. A. Strahan,
and Mr. W. Whitaker.

£
5

10

Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

The Amount of Gold Coinage in |
Circulation in the United King-
dom.

The Amount and Distribution of
Income (other than Wages) be-
low the Income-tax exemption
limit in the United Kingdom.

Chairman.—Mx. R. H. Inglis Pal-
grave.

Secretary.—My. H. Stanley Jevons.

Professor Edgeworth and Messrs.
A.L. Bowley andD.H. Macgregor.

Chairman.—Professor E. Cannan.

Secretary.—Professor A. L. Bow-
ley.

Messrs. W. G. S. Adams and A. B.
Clark and Professors F. Y. Edge-
worth and H. B. Lees Smith.

Section G.—ENGINEERING.

The Investigation of Gaseous Ex-
plosions, with special reference
to Temperature.

Chairman.—Sir W. H. Preece.

Secretaries.—Mr. Dugald Clerk
and Professor B. Hopkinson.

Professors W. A. Bone, F. W.-Bur-
stall, H. L. Callendar, E. G.
Coker, W. E. Dalby, and H. B.
Dixon, Drs. R. T. Glazebrook,
J. A. Harker, and H. 8. Hele-
Shaw, Colonel H. C. L. Holden,
Mr. J. E. Petavel, Captain H.
Riall Sankey, and Profesors A.
Smithells and W. Watson.

|

6

~_
or

S.
0

d.
0

00

00

00

00

00

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

1. Recewing Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Members of Committee

CXXXIll

| Grants

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

To investigate the Lake Villages
in the neighbourhood of Glas-
tonbury in connection with a
Committee of the Somerset
Archeological
History Society..

To co-operate with Local Com-

mittees in Excavations on
Roman Sites in Britain.

To conduct Explorations with the

object of ascertaining the Age |

of Stone Circles.

To prepare a New Edition of Notes
and Queries in Anthropology.

To conduct Archeological and |

Ethnological Researches in

Crete.

and Natural |

Chairman.—Dr. R. Munro.

Secretary.—Professor W. Boyd
Dawkins.

Professor W. Ridgeway and Messrs. |
Arthur J. Evans, C. H. Read, |
H. Balfour, and A. Bulleid.

Chairman.— Professor J. L. Myres.

| Secretary.—Professor R. C. Bosan-

quet.
Sir Edward Brabrook, Dr. T. |
Ashby, Mr. D. G. Hogarth, and |
Professors W. Ridgeway and |
W. Boyd Dawkins.

Chairman —Mry. C. H. Read.

Secretary.—Mr. H. Balfour.

Lord Avebury, Professor W. Ridge-
way, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr. A. J.

|
Evans, Dr. R. Munro, Professor |
Boyd Dawkins, and Mr. A. L. |
Lewis.

| Chairman.—Myr. C. H. Read.

Secretary.—Professor J, L. Myres.

Professor D. J. Cunningham, Mr.
H.N. Fallaize, Dr. A. C. Haddon,
Mr. T. A. Joyce, and Drs. C. S.
Myers, W. H. R. Rivers, C. G.

Seligmann, and F. C. Shrubsall. |

Chairman.—Mr. D. G. Hogarth.

Secretary.—Professor J. L. Myres.

Professor R. C. Bosanquet, Dr.
W. L. H. Duckworth, Dr. A. J,
Evans, Professor A. Macalister,
and Professor W. Ridgeway.

Srotion I.—PHYSIOLOGY.

The Ductless Glands.

Body Metabolism in Cancer.

The Electrical Phenomena and
Metabolism of Arwm Spadices.

| Professor

| Chairman.—Professor Schiifer.
Seeretary—Professor Swale Vin- |

cent.

Professor A. B. Macallum, Dr. L. E. |

Shore, and Mrs.W. H. Thompson.

Chairman.—Professor C. S, Sher-
rington.

| Secretary.—Dr. 8. M. Copeman.

Chairman.—ProfessorA. D. Waller. |

Secretary.—Miss Sandars,
Gotch and Professor
Farmer.

i
|

ott

57

30

40

20

10

00;

00}

00

00

00

09

00

CXXXIV

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Members of Committee

To aid competent Investigators
selected by the Committee to
carry on definite pieces of work |
at the Zoological Station at |
Naples.

Reflex Muscular Rhythm.

To acquire further knowledge,
Clinical and Experimental, con-
cerning Anzesthetics, especially
chloroform, ether, and alcohol,
with special reference to deaths
by, or during, anesthesia, and
their possible diminution.

Tissue Metabolism, for the inves- |
tigation of the Metabolism of |
Special Organs.

Mental and Muscular Fatigue.

SECTION

The Structure of Fossil Plants.

To carry out the scheme for the |
Registration of Negatives of
Botanical Photographs.

The Experimental of |

Study
Heredity.

The investigation of Symbiosis
between Turbellarian Worms
and Algze,

A Botanical, Zoological, and Geo-
logical Survey of Clare Island.

Chairman.—-Professor 8. J. Hick-
son.

Seeretary.—Rev.T. R. R. Stebbing.

Sir EK. Ray Lankester, Professor
A. Sedgwick, Professor W. C. |
McIntosh, Dr. S. F. Harmer, |
and Mr. G. P. Bidder.

Chairman.—Dr. A. D. Waller.
Secretary.—Miss Buchanan.

Chairman.—Dr. A. D. Waller.
Secretary.—Dyr. Hewitt.
Sir Frederick Treves.

Chairman.—Professor E. H. Star-
ling.

Secretaries.—Professor
Brodie.

Dr. J. S. Haldane.

WirawWe

Chairman.—Professor C, S. Sher- |
rington.

Secretary.— Dr. W. MacDougall. |

Professor J. S. MacDonald and |
Mr. H. Sackville Lawson.

K.—BOTANY.

Chairman.—Dr. D. H. Scott.

Secretary.—Professor F.W. Oliver.

Mr. E. Newell Arber and Professors
A. C. Seward and F, E. Weiss.

Chairman.— Professor F. W. Oliver,

Secretary.—Professor F. E. Weiss.

Dr. W. G. Smith, Mr. A. G. Tansley, |
Dr. T. W. Woodhead, and Pro-
fessor R. H. Yapp.

Chairman.—My. Francis Darwin.
Secretary.—Mr. A. G. Tansley.
Professors Bateson and Keeble.
Chaiyman.— Dr. F. F. Blackman.
Seeretary.— Professor F. EK. Weiss.
Professors Keeble and Nuttall.

Chairman.— Professor T. Johnson.

Secretary.—Mr. R. Lloyd Praeger, |

Professor Grenville Cole, Dr.
Scharff, and Mr. A. G. Tansley.

Grants
eS. hs
25 00)
10 00
25.0 0
20 00}
40 00
p00
10 00
30 00
10 00
65 00 |

RESEARCH COMMITTEES. CXXXV

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continucd.

|
Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Members of Committee Grants

Section L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

To report upon the Course of Ex- | Chairman.—Sir Philip Magnus.
perimental, Observational, and | Secretary.—Mr. W. M. Heller.
Practical Studies most suitable | Sir W. de W. Abney, Mr. R. H.
for Elementary Schools. Adie, Professor H. E. Arm-

strong, Miss L. J. Clarke, Miss

| A.J. Cooper, Mr. George Flet-
| cher, Professor R. A. Gregory,

Principal Griffiths, Mr. A. D.

Hall, Dr. A. J. Herbertson, Dr.

C. W. Kimmins, Professor L. C.

Miall, Professor J. Perry, Mrs.

W.N. Shaw, Professor A. Smith-

ells, Dr. Lloyd Snape, Sir H. R.

Reichel, Mr. H. Richardson, and

Professor W. W. Watts.

To consider and to advise as to | Chairman.—Sir Oliver Lodge. 5 00
the Curricula of Secondary | Seeretary.—Mr. C. M. Stuart.
Schools. Professor H. E. Armstrong, Mr.

G. F. Daniell, Mr. W. D. Eggar,

Professor J. J. Findlay, Dr.

Gray, Professor R. A. Gregory,

Principal Griffiths, Sir W.

Huggins, Mr. O. H. Latter, Sir

Philip Magnus, Professor H. A.

Miers, Mr. T. E. Page, Professor

J. Perry, Mr. Hugh Richardson,

Professor M. E. Sadler, and

Dr, A. KE, Shipley.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Corresponding Societies Com- | Chairman.—Mr. W. Whitaker. 21 00
mittee for the preparation of | Secretary.—Mr. W.P. D. Stebbing.
their Report. | Rev. J. O. Bevan, Sir Edward

Brabrook, Dr. J. G. Garson,

Principal EK. H. Griffiths, Mr. T.

V. Holmes, Mr. J. Hopkinson, |

Professor R. Meldola, Dr. H. R. |

Mill, Mr. F. W. Rudler, Rev.

T. R. R. Stebbing, and the

President and Gencral Officers

of the Association.

CXX\Vi RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

2. Not receiving Grants of Money.
g ey

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Members of Committee

Section AA—-MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

Making Experiments for improving | Chairman.—Lord Rayleigh.

the Construction of Practical Stan- Secretary.—Dr. R. T. Glazebrook.

dards for use in Electrical Measure-. Professors W. E. Ayrton, J. Perry, W. G.

ments. Adams, and G. Carey Foster, Sir Oliver
| Lodge, Dr. A. Muirhead, Sir W. H
| Preece, Professor A. Schuster, Dr.
lier eA Fleming, Professor J. J. Thom-
| son, Dr. W. N. Shaw, Dr. J. T. Bot-
tomley, Rev. T. C. Fitzpatrick, Dr. G.
Johnstone Stoney, Professor 8. P.
Thompson, Mr. J. Rennie, Principal
E. H. Griffiths, Sir Arthur Riicker,
Professor H. L. Callendar, and Messrs.
G. Matthey, A. P. Trotter, T. Mather,
and F. E. Smith.

To continue the Magnetic Survey of | Chairman.—Sir David Gill.
South Africa commenced by Pro- | Sec7etary.—Professor J. C. Beattie.
fessors Beattie and Morrison. Mr. 8. 8. Hough, Professor Morrison, and
Professor A. Schuster.

To carry out a further portion of the | Chairman.—Sir George Darwin.
Geodetic Are of Meridian North of | Secretary.—Sir David Gill.

Lake Tanganyika. Major Close and Sir George Goldie.
The further Tabulation of Bessel Func- | Chairman.—Professor M. J. M. Hill.
tions. Secretary.—Dr. L. N. G. Filon.
Professor Alfred Lodge and Mr. J. W.
Nicholson.

To report upon the provision for the Chairman.—Sir Arthur Riicker.
Study of Astronomy, Meteorology Sveretary.—Professor A. E. H. Love.
(including Atmospheric Electricity), | Sir Oliver Lodge, Professors C. G. Knott,
and Geophysics in the Universities KE. Rutherford, A. Schuster, J. J.
of the British Empire. Thomson, and E. T. Whittaker, Drs.
W. G. Duffield and G. T. Walker, and
Mr. R. T. A. Innes

To report on the present state of our | Messrs. E. Gold and W. A. Harwood.
Knowledge of the Upper Atmosphere
as obtained by the use of Kites,

Balloons, and Pilot Balloons.

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.

The Study of Isomorphous Sulphonic | Chairman.—Professor H. A. Miers.
Derivatives of Benzene, | Secretary.— Professor H. E. Armstrong.
| Professors W. P. Wynne and W. J. Pope.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

CXXXVil

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Members of Committee

Section C.—GROLOGY.

The Collection, Preservation, and Sys-
tematic Registration of Photographs
of Geological Interest.

To investigate and report on the Corre- |

lation and Age of South African
Strata and on the question of a Uni-
form Stratigraphical Nomenclature.

To determine the precise Significance |
of Topographical and Geological
Terms used locally in South Africa.

Section D.—ZOOLOGY.

To continue the Investigation of the
Zoology of the Sandwich Islands,
with power to co-operate with the
Committee appointed for the purpose
by the Royal Society, and to avail
themselves of such assistance in their
investigations as may be offered by
the Hawaiian Government or the

_ Trustees of the Museum at Honolulu.
The Committee to have power to dis-
pose of specimens where advisable.

|

To summon meetings in London or else- |
where for the consideration of mat-
ters affecting the interests of Zoology
or Zoologists, and to obtain by corre-
spondence the opinion of Zoologists |

on matters of a similar kind, with |
power to raise by subscription from |
each Zoologist a sum of money for |
defraying current expenses of the |
Organisation.

To nominate competent naturalists
to perform definite pieces of work at
the Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.

| Secretary.—Professor 8. J. Hickson.

Chairman.—Professor J. Geikie.

Secretaries —Professors W. W. Wattsand
S. H. Reynolds.

Dr. T. Anderson, Mr. G. Bingley, Dr.
T. G. Bonney, Mr. H. Coates, Mr. C. V.
Crook, Professor EH. J.- Garwood,
Messrs. W. Gray, R. Kidston, and A. 8.
Reid, Dr. J. J. H. Teall, and Messrs.
R. Welch, W. Whitaker, and H. B.
Woodward.

Chairman.—Professor J. W. Gregory.

Secretary.—Professor A. Young.

Mr. W. Anderson, Professor R. Broom,
Dr. G. S. Corstorpbine, Mr. Walcot
Gibson, Dr. F. H. Hatch, Mr. T. H.
Holland, Mr. H. Kynaston, Mr. F. P.
Mennell, Dr. Molengraaff, Mr. A. J. C.
Molyneux, Mr. A. W. Rogers, Mr.
E. H. L. Schwarz, and Professor R. B.
Young.

Chairman.—Mr. G. W. Lamplugh.

Secretary.—Dr. F. H. Hatch.

Dr. G. Corstorphine and Messrs. A. Du
Toit, A. P. Hall, G..Kynaston, F. P.
Mennell, and A. W. Rogers.

Chairman.—Dr. F. Du Cane Godman.

Secretary.—Dr. David Sharp.

Professor 8. J. Hickson, Dr. P. L. Sclater,
and Mr. Edgar A. Smith.

Chairman.—Sir E. Ray Lankester.

Professors G. C. Bourne, T. W. Bridge,
J. Cossar Ewart, M. Hartog, W. A.
Herdman, and J. Graham Kerr, Mr.
O. H. Latter, Professor Minchin, Dr.
P. C. Mitchell, Professors C. Lloyd
Morgan, E. B. Poulton, and A. Sedg-
wick, Mr. A. E. Shipley, and Rey.
T. R. R. Stebbing. \

Chairman and Seeretary.—Professor A.
Dendy.

Sir E. Ray Lankester, Professor A. Sedg-
wick, and Professor Sydney H. Vines. !

CXXXVIiL

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

2. Not receiving Grants of Money-—continued.

Members of Committee

tinue his Researches on the Influence

Development of the Frog.

The Collection, Preservation, and
Systematic Registration of Photo-
graphs of Anthropological Interest.

To organise Anthropometric Investiga-
tion in the British Isles.

To conduct Archeological and Ethno-
logical Investigations in Sardinia.

To report upon Arctreological Investi-
gations in British Kast Africa,

To establish a system of measuring
Mental Characters.

To excavate Neolithic Sites in Northern
Greece.

The Effect of Climate upon Health
and Disease.

| To take notice of, and report upon
changes in, Regulations—whether
Legislative, Administrative, or made
by Local Authorities — affecting
Secondary Hducation.

To enable Dr. J. W. Jenkinson to con-

of Salt and other Solutions on the |

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

| Dr. T. Ashby, Dr. G, A. Auden, Mr. H.

| Seeretary.—Dr. A. C. Haddon.

Srcrion I.— PHYSIOLOGY.

Section L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE,

Chairman.—Professor G. C. Bourne.
Secretary.—Dr. J. W. Jenkinson.
Professor 8. J. Hickson.

Chairman.—Mxr. C. H. Read.
Seerctary.—My. H. 8. Kingsford.

Balfour, Mr. E. N. Fallaize, Dr. H, O. |
Forbes, Dr. A.C. Haddon, Mr.E.S.Hart-
land, Mr. E. Heawood, Professor J, L.
Myres, and Professor Flinders Petrie.

Chairman.—Professor D. J. Cunningham.
Secretary.—Mr. J. Gray.
Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.

Chairman.— Mr. D. G. Hogarth.

Seerctary.—Professor R. C. Bosanquet.

Dr. T. Ashby, Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth,
Professor J. LL. Myres, and Dr. F. C.
Shrubsall.

Chairman,—Mr. D, G. Hogarth.

Mr. H. Balfour, Mr. C. T. Currelly, Dr.
H. O. Forbes, and Professor J. L. Myres.

Chairman.—Professor D. J.Cunningham.

Secretary.— My. J. Gray.

Miss Cooper and Drs. W. McDougall,
C. S. Myers, W. H. R. Rivers, W. G.
Smith, and Spearman.

Chairman.—Professor W. Ridgeway.
Secretary.—Professor J. L. Myres.
Mr, J. P. Droop and Mr, D. G. Hogarth.

Chairman.—Sir T. Lauder Brunton.

Secretary.—Mr. J. Barcroft and Lieut.-
Col. Simpson.

Colonel Sir D. Bruce, Dr. 8. G. Camp-
bell, Sir Kendal Franks, Professor
J. G. McKendrick, Sir A, Mitchell, Dr.
C. F. K. Murray, Dr. Porter, Dr. J. L.
Todd, Professor Sims Woodhead, Sir
A. E. Wright, and the Heads of the
Tropical Schools of Liverpool, London,
and Edinburgh.

Chairman.—Sir Philip Magnus.

Secretary.—Professor H. E. Armstrong.

Sir William Bousfield, Mr. S. H. Butcher,
Sir Henry Craik, Principal Griffiths,
Sir Horace Plunkett, and Professor
M. E. Sadler.

7 ae

RESEARCH COMMITTEES. CXXX1X

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose | Members of Committee
: BILLARD Ley 18

The Conditions of Health essential to | Chairman.—Professor CO. 8, Sherrington.
the carrying on of the work of In- Secretary.—Mr. B. White Wallis.
struction in Schools. Sir E. Brabrook, Dr. C. W. Kimmins,

Professor L. C. Miall, Miss A. J.
Cooper, and Dr. Ethel Williams.

|

To inquire into and report upon the | Chairman.—Professor J. J. Findlay.

methods and results of research into | Secretary—Professor J. A. Green.

the Mental and Physical Factors | Professors J. Adams and KE. P. Culver-

involved in Education. | well, Mr. G. F. Daniell, Miss B. Foxley,
| Professor R. A. Gregory, Dr. C. W.
| Kimmins, Miss Major, Dr. T. P. Nunn,
| Dr. Spearman, Miss L. Edna Walter,
| and Dr. F. Warner.

Communications ordered to be printed in extenso.

The Theory of Wave-motion, by Professor Horace Lamb, and the Discussion
thereon,

Colloid Chemistry. By Professor H. R. Procter.

Fatigue: By Dr. MacDougall.

Resolutions referred to the Cowncil for consideration, and, if desirable,
for action.

From Sections A and E jointly.

That the Council should approach the Board of Agriculture with a view of
ascertaining whether it is not possible for the Director-General of the Ordnance
Survey of Great Britain and Ireland to undertake the remeasurement of the two
principal arcs (meridional and longitudinal) as part of the current work of his
Department.

From Section A.

That the Committee of Section A has received with interest information respect-
ing the Meteorological and Astronomical Observatory at Bulawayo, and desires the
Council to inform the Chartered Company of the importance from the scientific

oint of view attached to the continuance of the observations, and to express the
hope that the Chartered Company will see its way to continue its financial support
to the Observatory.
From Section D.

That the Council be requested to communicate a Resolution of Section D relating
to Zoological Nomenclature to the International Commission on Nomenclature and
to certain British scientific societies.

From Section H, supported by Section E

That the Council of the British Association be requested to lend their support to
the project for an Imperial Bureau of Anthropology set on foot by the Royal
Anthropological Institute. A memorial in favour of the scheme has already been
numerously signed by distinguished Indian and Colonial administrators, heads and
Parliamentary representatives of universities, principals of university colleges,
anthropologists, directors of steamship companies, leading manufacturers and
heads of other mercantile enterprises; and it will be presented to the Chancellor
of the Exchequer in the coming session of Parliament by a deputation composed of
some of the chief signatories.

ex RESOLUTIONS REFERRED TO THE COUNCIL.

From Section L.

1, That, in the opinion of this Committee, it is desirable that the Committee of
Recommendations should meet on Tuesday afternoon with a view to the considera-
tion of the papers recommended by Sectional Committees to be printed in eatenso in
the Annual Report.

2. That 1,000 reprints of the Report presented this year upon Practical Studies
in Elementary Schools, with the introduction prepared by Sir Philip Magnus, be
supplied to the Secretary of the Committee for distribution.

3. That 500 reprints of the Report presented this year upon the Sequence of
Science Studies in Secondary Schools be supplied to the Secretary of the Sub-
Committee for distribution.

From the Conference of Delegates.

The Conference desires to represent to the Committee of Recommendations that
whenever a Committee of the British Association enters upon a local investigation
notice should be given to any local scientific or archeological society, so as to
enable that society to offer any co-operation that may be desirable.

Recommendations referred to the Council for consideration, and, if
desirable, for action.

1, That the following Committees be authorised to receive contributions from
sources other than the Association :—

(i) ‘To conduct Explorations with a view to ascertaining the Age of Stone
Circles.’ (Section H.)
(ii) ‘On the Effect of Climate upon Health and Disease.’ (Section I.)

2. That the Committee of Section G be authorised to publish the Report of their
Committee on Gaseous Explosions, presented to and read before the Section on
September 4, in such public journals as may seem desirable, in view of the purpose
for which they are appointed.

3. That the Council be requested to consider the recommendation of the Com-
mittee of Section H, requesting them to direct that the Report of the Anthropo-
metric Committee be printed in the annual volume in full, with the addition of the
illustrations from the blocks in the possession of the Association, which are an
integral part of the Report.

4. That the Council be requested to consider a Resolution by the Committee of
Section A, recommending that the Reports of the Electrical Standards Committee
from 1862 be reprinted, after careful editing, and published as a memorial to the
late Lord Kelvin.

SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY.

Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated for Scientific Purposes by the
General Committee at the Dublin Meeting, September 1908.
Names of Members entitled to call on the General Treasurer for the

Grants are prefixed to the respective Research Committees.
Mathematical and Physical Science.

*Turner, Professor H. H.—Seismological Observations .........

*Shaw, Dr. W.N. —Investigation of the ee oe
by means of Kites .........

*Preece, Sir W. H.— Magnetic Obsse ane te taiisetlae

Gill, Sir David —Establishing a Solar Observatory fe
Australis. 2. ..ce0cecr FUE Sone CUR RC ieee tener aa et Aree Meee

Chemistry.

*Roscoe, Sir H. E.—Wave-length Tables of Spectra .. :

*Divers, Professor E.—-Study of Hydro-aromatic Substances

* Armstrong, Professor H. E.—Dynamic Isomerism ......

*Kipping, Professor F. S.—Transformation of Aromatic Nitro-
amines .......

Kipping, Professor F. 8. Electroanalysis ...

Geology.

*Tiddeman, R. H.—Erratic Blocks ......
*Herdman, Professor W. A.—Fauna and F lora of ‘British Trias
*Lamplugh, G. W.—Fossiliferous Drift Deposits ............
*Harker, Dr. A.—Crystalline Rocks of Anglesey ..
*Gregory, Professor J. W.—Faunal Succession in “the Car-
boniferous Limestone in the British Isles...
*Lapworth, Professor C.-—Palozoic Rocks of Wales ‘and the
West of England... :
*Watts, Professor W. W. —Composition of Charnwood Rocks
_ Watts, Professor W. W.—Igneous and Associated Rocks of
Glensaul, &c. ...... Neeeep scott en wate
Joly, Professor J. —Investigations at Bikes ; “Sore

Zoology.
*Hickson, Professor 8S. J.—Table at the Zoological Station at
Naples .....)..... ates ees
*Woodward, Dr. H. = Triden., ‘Animalinin », rf Rathes
*Herdman, Digte nor W. A.—Hereditary Experiments. waa sehen
Shipley, Dr. A. E.—Feeding Habits of British Birds

ste eeeeee

Oo. coo. Sof
oOo coo Of

oo ooo
(=>\ (o>) ooo

oo oo Oo [S)io a) (>)

oo oo i=) oo°oo°o

o| Sooo
ool MK)

Married forward: |. x:ssdcsecw eo iss sas Cid 25s Cee LOL

* Neappointed.

exlii SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY.

£
Brouplit forward .o,<c,.....00-ns caemaeat bana eo oe ea
Geography.
*Murray, Sir John—Investigations in the Indian Ocean ...... 35
*Murray, Sir John + Rainfall and Lake and River Discharge 10
Economic Science and Statistics.
*Palgrave, R. H. sea e S Coinage in Circulation in the
United Kingdom.. 6
Cannan, Professor E. ‘Amount Aa Distribution ‘of ‘Tnoome
below the Income-tax Exemption Limit .................. 15
Engineering.
Preece, Sir W. H.—Gaseous Explosions ............ 0.000. .00008 75
Anthropology.
*Munro, Dr. R.—Lake Village in the neighbourhood of Glas-
CORDULY | oie -c..0nca5 beeen eT E ce h ecm aUeeai tian uoeatees 5
*Myres, Professor J. L.—Excavations on Roman Sites in
Britain .. a abies 5
*Read, C. H —Age ‘of ‘Stone Circles pain ara bae teate ctitce dc Roan tROEER 30
*Read, C. H. — Anthropological Notes and Queries ............ 40
*Hogarth, D. G.—Researches in Crete................ccececeseee ees 70
Physiology.
*Schafer, Professor E. A.—The Ductless Glands ..,............ 35
*Sherrington, Professor C. 8.—Body Metabolism in Cancer... 20
*Waller, Dr. A. D.—Electrical Phenomena and Metabolism
of “AvwiniSpatlices” dio .2s tenagan tie eetten ast igss ei esos onde 10
*Hickson, Professor 8. J.—Table at the Zoological Station at
Naples Lektueds er 25
Waller, Dr. A. D.—Reflex Muscular Rhythm . hey tae 10
Waller, Professor A. D.—Anesthetics ............ccecceceeuee as 25
Starling, Professor E. H.—Tissue Metabolism .. 20
Sherrington, Professor C. 8.—Mental and Muscular Fatigue 40
Botany.
*Scott, Dr. D. H.—Structure of Fossil Plants..................... 5
*Oliver, Professor F. W.—Botanical Photographs ............... 10
Darwin, Dr. F.—Experimental Study of Heredity ............ 30
Blackman, Dr. F. F. “Gee between Turbellarian Worms
and Algz., é 10
Johnson, Professor T.—Surve ey ‘of Clare Island . 65
Carried forward ......cs6..sc0+scsseeesaeescsssesessv £1160

* NReappointed.

eis
(8)
0 0
0 0
0 0
00
0 0

oooo S
ooo S (=)

ooococo So (==,
oooco So oo

SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY. exlili

£ s. d.

PrGw ent CG WAL feo. fcnace svar setna te eeedantee sss cance ALGO’ 0: 0
Education.

*Magnus, Sir P.—Studies suitable for Elementary Schools ... 5 0 0

*Lodge, Sir Oliver.—Curricula of Secondary Schools ......... 5 0 0

Corresponding Societies Committee.

*Whitaker, W.—For Preparation of Report ................... 21 0 0

Terkel). Sorento see O20
* Reappointed.

Annual Meetings, 1909, 1910, and 1911.

The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1909 will be held at
Winnipeg, Canada, commencing August 25 ; in 1910 at Sheffield, and in
1911 at Portsmouth.

=

i

oat

[Sige

(

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

ADDRESS
BY

FRANCIS DARWIN, M.A., Pa.D., LL.D., F.B.S.,

PRESIDENT.

BerorE entering on the subject of my Address, I may be allowed to
refer to the loss which the British Association has sustained in the death
of Lord Kelvin. He joined the Association in 1847, and had been for
more than fifty years a familiar figure at our meetings. This is not the
occasion to speak of his work in the world or of what he was to his
friends, but rather of his influence on those who were personally un-
known to him. It seems to me characteristic of him that something of
his vigour and of his personal charm was felt far beyond the circle of his
intimate associates, and many men and women who never exchanged a
word with Lord Kelvin, and are in outer darkness as to his researches,
will miss his genial presence and feel themselves the poorer to-day. By
the death of Sir John Evans the Association is deprived of another
faithful friend. He presided at Toronto in 1897, and since he joined
the Association in 1861 had been a regular attendant at our meetings.
The absence of his cheerful personality and the loss of his wise counsels
will be widely felt.

May I be permitted one other digression before I come to my subject ?
There has not been a Botanical President of the British Association since
the Norwich meeting forty years ago, when Sir Joseph Hooker was in
the chair, and in ‘eloquent and felicitous words’ (to quote my father’s
letter) spoke in defence of the doctrine of evolution. I am sure that
every member of this Association will be glad to be reminded that Sir
Joseph Hooker is, happily, still working at the subject that his lifelong
labours have so greatly advanced, and of which he has long been recognised
as the honoured chief and leader.

You will perhaps expect me to give a retrospect of the progress of
evolution during the fifty years that have elapsed since July 1, 1858, when
the doctrine of the origin of species by means of natural selection was

B2

4 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS,

made known to the world in the words of Mr. Darwin and Mr. Wallace.
This would be a gigantic task, for which I am quite unfitted. It seems
to me, moreover, that the first duty of your President is to speak on
matters to which his own researches have contributed. My work—such
as it is—deals with the movements of plants, and it is with this subject
that I shall begin. I want to give you a general idea of how the changes
going on in the environment act as stimuli and compel plants to execute
certain movements. Then I shall show that what is true of those tem-
porary changes of shape we describe as movements is also true of the
permanent alterations known as morphological.

I shall insist that, if the study of movement includes the problem of
stimulus and reaction, morphological change must be investigated from
the same point of view. In fact, that these two departments of inquiry
must be classed together, and this, as we shall see, has some important
results—namely, that the dim beginnings of habit or unconscious memory
that we find in the movements of plants and animals must find a place
in morphology ; and inasmuch as a striking instance of correlated mor-
phological changes is to be found in the development of the adult from
the ovum, I shall take this ontogenetic series and attempt to show you
that here also something equivalent to memory or habit reigns.

Many attempts have been made to connect in this way the phenomena
of memory and inheritance, and I shall ask you to listen to one more
such attempt, even though I am forced to appear as a champion of what
some of you consider a lost cause—the doctrine of the inheritance of
acquired characters,

Movement.

In his book on ‘The Power of Movement in Plants’ (1880)! my
father wrote that ‘it is impossible not to be struck with the resemblance
between the foregoing movements of plants and many of the actions
performed unconsciously by the lower animals.’ In the previous year
Sachs? had in like manner called attention to the essential resemblance
between the irritability of plants and animals. I give these statements
first because of their simplicity and directness ; but it must not be for-
gotten that before this Pfeffer* had begun to lay down the principles
of what is now known as Reizphysiologie, or the physiology of stimulus,
tor which he and his pupils have done so much.

The words of Darwin which I have quoted afford an example of the
way in which science returns to the obvious. Here we find revived, in a
rational form, the point of view of the child or of the writer of fairy
stories. We do not go so far as the child ; we know that flowers do not
talk or walk; but the fact that plants must be classed with animals as
regards their manner of reaction to stimuli has now become almost a

en oe ay (se 2 Arbeiten, ii. 1879, p. 282.
3 Osmotische Untersuchungen, 1877, p. 202.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 5
commonplace of physiology, And inasmuch as we ourselves ate animals,
this conception gives us a certain insight into the reactions of plants
which we should not otherwise possess. This is, I allow, a very dangerous
tendency, leading to anthropomorphism, one of the seven deadly sins of
science. Nevertheless, it is one that must be used unless the great mass
of knowledge accumulated by psychologists is to be forbidden ground to
the physiologist.

Jennings! has admirably expressed the point of view from which we
ought to deal with the behaviour of the simpler organisms. He points
out that we must study their movements in a strictly objective manner :
that the same point of view must be applied to man, and that any
resemblances between the two sets of phenomena are not only an allowable
but a necessary aid to research.

What, then, are the essential characters of stimuli and of the reactions
which they call forth in living organisms? Pfeffer has stated this in the
most objective way. An organism is a machine which can be set going
by touching a spring or trigger of some kind ; a machine in which energy
can be set free by some kind of releasing mechanism. Here we have
a model of at least some of the features of reaction to stimulation.

The energy of the cause is generally out of all proportion to the
effect, 7.¢., a small stimulus produces a big reaction. The specific
character of the result depends on the structure of the machine rather
than on the character of the stimulus. The trigger of a gun may be
pulled in a variety of different ways without affecting the character of
the explosion. Just in the same way a plant may be made to curve by
altering its angle to the vertical, by lateral illumination, by chemical
agency, and so forth ; the curvature is of the same nature in all cases,
the release-action differs. One of those chains of wooden bricks in which
each knocks over the next may be set in action by a touch, by throw-
ing a ball, by an erring dog, in short by anything that upsets the
equilibrium of brick No. 1; but the really important part of the game,
the way in which the wave of falling bricks passes like a prairie fire
round a group of Noah’s Ark animals, or by a bridge over its own dead
body and returns to the starting-point, &c.—these are the result of the
magnificent structure of the thing as a whole, and the upset of brick
No. 1 seems a small thing in comparison.

For myself I see no reason why the term séimlus should not be
used in relation to the action of mechanisms in general; but by a
convention which it is well to respect, stimulation is confined to the
protoplasmic machinery of living organisms.

The want of proportion between the stimulus and the reply, or, as it
has been expressed, the unexpectedness of the result of a given stimulus,
is a striking feature in the phenomena of reaction. That this should be
so need not surprise us. We can, as a rule, only know the stimulus and

1 The Behavior of the Lower Organisms, 1904, p, 124.

6 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

the response, while the intermediate processes of the mechanism are
hidden in the secret life of protoplasm. We might, however, have
guessed that big changes would result from small stimuli, since it is clear
that the success of an organism in the world must depend partly at least
on its being highly sensitive to changes in its surroundings. This is the
adaptive side of the fundamental fact that living protoplasm is a highly
unstable body. Here I may say one word about the adaptation as
treated in the Origin of Species. It is the present fashion to minimise
or deny altogether the importance of natural selection. I do not propose
to enter into this subject ; 1 am convinced that the inherent strength of
the doctrine will insure its final victory over the present anti-Darwinian
stream of criticism. From the Darwinian point of view it would be a
remarkable fact if the reactions of organisms to natural stimuli were
not adaptive. That they should be so, as they undoubtedly are, is not
surprising. But just now I only call attention to the adaptive character
of reactions from a descriptive point of view.

Hitherto I have implied the existence of a general character in
stimulation without actually naming it ; I mean the indirectness of the
result. This is the point of view of Dutrochet, who in 1824 said that
the environment suggests but does not directly cause the reaction. It
is not easy to make clear in a few words the conception of indirectness.
Pfeffer | employs the word induction, and holds that external stimuli act
by producing internal change, such changes being the link between
stimulus and reaction. It may seem, at first sight, that we do not gain
much by this supposition ; but since these changes may be more or less
enduring, we gain at least the conception of after effect as a quality of
stimulation. What are known as spontaneous actions must be considered
as due to internal changes of unknown origin.

It may be said that in speaking of the ‘ indirectness’ of the response
to stimuli we are merely expressing in other words the conception of
release-action ; that the explosion of a machine is an indirect reply to
the touch on the trigger. ‘This is doubtless true, but we possibly lose
something if we attempt to compress the whole problem into the truism
that the organism behaves as it does because it has a certain structure.
The quality of indirectness is far more characteristic of an organism than
of a machine, and to keep it in mind is more illuminating than a slavish
adherence to the analogy of a machine. The reaction of an organism
depends on its past history ; but, it may be answered, this is also true of a
machine the action of which depends on how it was made, and in a less
degree on the treatment it has received during use. But in living things
this last feature in behaviour is far more striking, and in the higher
organisms past experience is all-important in deciding the response to
stimulus. The organism is a plastic machine profoundly affected in struc-
ture by its own action, and the unknown process intervening between

' Physiology, Engl. edit., i. p. 11,

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 7

stimulus and reaction (on which the indirectness of the response depends)
must have the fullest value allowed it as a characteristic of living
creatures.

For the zoological side of biology a view similar to that of Pfeffer has
been clearly stated by Jennings! in his admirable studies on the beha-
viour of infusoria, rotifers, &c. He advances strong arguments against
the theories of Loeb and others, according to which the stimulus acts
directly on the organs of movement ; a point of view which was formerly
held by botanists, but has since given place to the conception of the
stimulation acting on the organism as a whole. Unfortunately for
botanists these movements are by the zoologists called trupisms, and are
thus liable to be confused with the geotropism, heliotropism, &c., of plants:
to these movements, which are not considered by botanists to be due to
direct action of stimuli, Loeb’s assumptions do not seem to be applicable.

Jennings’s position is that we must take into consideration what he
calls ‘physiological state, 7.¢., “the varying internal physiological conditions
of the organism, as distinguished from permanent anatomical conditions.” ’
Though he does not claim novelty for his view, I am not aware that it has
ever been so well stated. External stimuli are supposed to act by altering
this physiological state ; that is, the organism is temporarily transformed
into what, judged by its reactions, is practically a different creature.

This may be illustrated by the behaviour of Stentor, one of the fixed
infusoria.? If a fine jet of water is directed against the disc of the
creature, it contracts ‘like a flash’ into its tube. In about half a minute
it expands again and the cilia resume their activity. Now we cause the
current to act again upon the disc. This time the Stentor does not con-
tract, which proves that the animal has been in some way changed by the
first stimulus. This is a simple example of ‘ physiological state.’ When
the Stentor was at rest, before it received the first current of water,
it was in state 1, the stimulus changed state 1 into state 2, to which
contraction is the reaction. When again stimulated it passed into
state 3, which does not produce contraction.

We cannot prove that the contraction which occurred when the
Stentor was first stimulated was due to a change of state. But it is a
fair deduction from the result of the whole experiment, for after the
original reaction the creature is undoubtedly in a changed state, since it
no longer reacts in the same way to a repetition of the original stimulus.

Jennings points out that, as in the case of plants, spontaneous acts
are brought about when the physiological state is changed by unknown
causes, whereas in other cases we cun point to an external agency by
which the same result is effected.

1H. §. Jennings, Contributions to the Study of the Behavior of the Lower
Organisms. Carnegie Institution, 1904, p. 111.
2 Jennings, Behavior of the Lower Organisms, 1906, p. 170,

8 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS,

Morphological Changes,

Let us pass on to the consideration of the permanent or morphological
changes and the stimuli by which they are produced, a subject to which,
in recent years, many workers have devoted themselves. I need only
mention the names of Véchting, Goebel, and Klebs among botanists, and
those of Loeb, Herbst, and Driesch among zoologists, to remind you of
the type of research to which I refer.

These morphological alterations produced by changes in environment
have been brought under the rubric of reaction to stimulation, and must
be considered as essentially similar to the class of temporary movements
of which I have spoken.

The very first stage in development may be determined by a purely
external stimulus. Thus the position of the first cell-wall in the develop-
ing spore of Hgwisetwm is determined by the direction of incident light.!
In the same way the direction of light settles the plane of symmetry of
Marchantia as it develops from the gemma.” But the more interesting
cases are those where the presence or absence of a stimulus makes an
elaborate structural difference in the organism. Thus, as Stahl? has shown,
beech leaves developed in the deep shade of the middle of the tree are so
different in structure from leaves grown in full sunlight that they would
unhesitatingly be described as belonging to different species. Another
well-known case is the development of the scale-leaves on the rhizome of *
Circea into the foliage leaves under the action of light.‘

The power which the experimenter has over the lower plants is shown
by Klebs, who kept Saprolegnia mixta, a fungus found on dead flies, in
uninterrupted vegetative growth for six years; while by removing a
fragment of the plant and cultivating it in other conditions the repro-
ductive organs could at any time be made to appear.°

Chlamydomonas media, a unicellular green alga, when grown in a
0-4 per cent. nutrient solution continues to increase by simple division,
but conjugating gametes are formed in a few days if the plant is placed
in pure water and kept in bright light.6 Numberless other cases could
be given of the regulation of form in the lower organisms. Thus Sporo-
dinia grown on peptone-gelatine produces sporangiferous hypha, but on
sugar zygotes are formed. Again, Protosiphon botryoides, if grown on
damp clay, can most readily be made to produce spores by tranference to
water either in light or in darkness. But for the same plant cultivated in
Knop’s solution the end can best be obtained by placing the culture in the
dark.’ Still these instances of the regulation of reproduction are not
so interesting from our point of view as some of Klebs’ later results.*
Thus he has shown that the colour of the flower of Campanula trachelium

' Stahl, Ber. d. Bot. Ges., 1885, p. 334. ° Pfeffer, in Sachs’ Arbeiten, i. p. 92.
8 Jenaische Zeitschr., 1883, p. 162. * Goebel in Bot. Zeitung, 1880.

5 Willhiirliche Entwick., p. 27. ® Klebs, Bedingungen, 1896, p. 430.

? Biol, Centralbl. 1904, pp. 451-3. § Jalirh. f. wiss, Bot,, xiii. 1906, p. 162.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS, 9

can be changed from blue to white and back again to blue by varying the
conditions under which the plant is cultivated. Again, with Sempervivum !
he has been able to produce striking results—e.., the formation of
apetalous flowers with one instead of two rows of stamens. Diminution
in the number of stamens is a common occurrence in his experimental
plants, and absolute loss of these organs also occurs. Many other
abnormalities were induced, both in the stamens and in other parts of the
flowers.

There is nothing new in the character of these facts ;? what has
been brought to light (principally by the work of Klebs) is the degree
to which ontogeny is controllable. We are so much in the habit of
thinking of the stable element in ontogeny that the work of Klebs
strikes us with something of a shock. Most people would allow that
change of form is ultimately referable to changed conditions, but many of
us were not prepared to learn the great importance of external stimuli
in ontogeny.

Klebs begins by assuming that every species has a definite specific
structure, which he compares to chemical character. Just as a substance
such as sulphur may assume different forms under different treatment,
so he assumes that the specific structure of a plant has certain poten-
tialitices which may be brought to light by appropriate stimuli. He
divides the agencies affecting the structure into external and internal
conditions, the external being supposed to act by causing alterations in
the internal conditions.

It will be seen that the scheme is broadly the same as that of Pfeffer
for the case of the movement and other temporary reactions. The internal
conditions of Klebs correspond also to the ‘ physiological state’ of Jennings.

From what has gone before, it will be seen that the current con-
ception of stimulus* is practically identical whether we look at the

1 Abhandl. Naturforsch. Ges. zu Halle, xxv., 1906, pp. 31, 34, &e.

? See the great collection of facts illustrating the ‘ direct and definite action of
the external conditions of life’ in Variation of Animals and Plants, ii. 271.

* With regard to the terminology of stimulation, I believe that it would greatly
simplify matters if our classification of causal conditions could be based on the
relation of the nucleus to the rest of the cell. But our knowledge does not at present
allow of more than a tentative statement of such a scheme. It is now widely be-
lieved that the nucleus is the bearer of the qualities transmitted from generation to
generation, and the regulator of ontogeny. May we not therefore consider it probable
that the nucleus plays in the cell the part of a central nervous system? In plants
there is evidence that the ectoplasm is the sensitive region, and, in fact, plays the
part of the cell’s sense-organ. The change that occurs in the growth of a cell, as
a response to stimulus, would on this scheme be a reflex action dependent for its
character on the structure of the nucleus. The ‘indirectness’ of stimulation would
then depend on the reception by the nucleus of the excitation set up in the ectoplasm,
and the secondary excitation reflected from the nucleus, leading to certain changes
in the growth of the cell.

If the nucleus be the bearer of the past history of the individual, the scheme here
sketched would accord with the adaptive character of normal reactions and would

10 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS,

phenomena of movement or those of structure. If this is allowable—
and the weight of evidence is strongly in its favour—a conclusion of
some interest follows,

If we reconsider what I have called the indirectness of stimulation, we
shall see that it has a wider bearing than is at first obvious. The ‘internal
condition’ or ‘physiological state’ is a factor in the regulation of the
organism’s action, and it is a factor which owes its character to external
agencies which may no longer exist.

The fact that stimuli are not momentary in effect but leave a trace of
themselves on the organism is in fact the physical basis of the phenomena
grouped under memory in its widest sense as indicating that action is
regulated by past experience. Jennings! remarks: ‘In the higher
animals, and especially in man, the essential features in behaviour depend
very largely on the history of the individual ; in other words, upon the
present physiological condition of the individual, as determined by the
stimuli it has received and the reactions it has performed. But in this
respect the higher animals do not differ in principle, but only in degree,
from the lower organisms. . . .’. I venture to believe that this is true
of plants as well as of animals, and that it is further broadly true not
only of physiological behaviour, but of the changes that are classed as
morphological.

Semon in his interesting book, Die Mmeme,? has used the word
Engram for the trace or record of a stimulus left on the organism. In
this sense we may say that the internal conditions of Pfeffer, the
physiological states of Jennings, and the internal conditions of Klebs
are, broadly speaking, Engrams. The authors of these theories may
perhaps object to this sweeping statement, but I venture to think it is
broadly true.

The fact that in some cases we recognise the chemical or physical
character of the internal conditions does not by any means prevent our
ascribing a mnemic memory-like character to them, since they remain
causal agencies built up by external conditions which have, or may have,
ceased to exist. Memory will be none the less memory when we know
something of the chemistry and physics of its neural concomitant.

fall into line with what we know of the regulation of actions in the higher organisms.
Pfeffer (Physiology of Plants, Eng. trans., iii. 10) has briefly discussed the possibility
of thus considering the nucleus as a reflex centre, and has pointed out difficulties in
the way of accepting such a view as universally holding good. Delage (L’Hérédité,
2nd edit., 1903, p. 88) gives a good summary of the evidence which induces him
to deny the mastery of the cell by the nucleus. Driesch, however (Analytische
Theorie der organischen Entwicklung, 1894, p. 81), gives reasons for believing that
the cytoplasm is the receptive region, while the nucleus is responsible for the
reaction, and it is on this that he bases his earlier theory of ontogeny.

' P, 124 (1904).

* Die Mneme, als erhaltendes Prinzip im Wechsel des organischen Geschehens,
von Richard Semon, 1 Anflage, Leipzig 1904, 2° Auflage, 1908. It is a pleasure
to express my indebtedness to this work, as well as for the suggestions and criticisms
which I owe to Professor Semon personally,

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS, 11

Habit illustrated by Movement.

In order to make my meaning plain as to the existence of a mnemic
factor in the life of plants, I shall for the moment leave the morphological
side of life and give an instance of habitual movement.

Sleeping plants are those in which the leaves assume at night a
position markedly different from that shown by day. Thus the leaflets
of the scarlet-runner (Phaseolus) are more or less horizontal by day and
sink down at night. This change of position is known to be produced
by the alternation of day and night. But this statement by no means
exhausts the interest of the phenomenon. A sensitive photographic
plate behaves differently in light and darkness ; and so does a radiometer,
which spins by day and rests at night.

If a sleeping-plant is placed in a dark room after it has gone to sleep
at night, it will be found next morning in the light-position, and will
again assume the nocturnal position as evening comes on. We haye, in
fact, what seems to be a habit built by the alternation of day and night.
The plant normally drops its leaves at the stimulus of darkness and
raises them at the stimulus of light. But here we see the leaves rising
and falling in the absence of the accustomed stimulation. Since this
change of position is not due to external conditions it must be the result
of the internal conditions which habitually accompany the movement.
This is the characteristic par excellence of habit—namely, a capacity,
acquired by repetition, of reacting to a fraction of the original environ-
ment. We may express it in simpler language. When a series of actions
are compelled to follow each other by applying a series of stimuli
they become organically tied together, or associated, and follow each
other automatically, even when the whole series of stimuli are not
acting. Thus in the formation of habit post hoc comes to be equivalent
to propter hoc. Action B automatically follows action A, because it has
repeatedly been compelled to follow it.

This may be compared with Herbert Spencer’s! description of an
imaginary case, that of a simple aquatic animal which contracts its
tentacles on their being touched by a fish or a bit of seaweed washed
against it. If such a creature is also sensitive to light the circumstances
under which contraction takes place will be made up of two stimuli—
those of light and of contact—following each other in rapid succession.
And, according to the above statement of the essential character of
associative habit, it will result that the light-stimulus alone may suflice,
and the animal will contract without being touched.

Jennings” has shown that the basis of memory by association exists in
so low an organism as the infusorian Stentor. When the animal is stimu-
lated by a jet of water containing carmine in suspension, a physiological
state A is produced, which, however, does not immediately lead to a visible

' Psychology, 2nd edit., 1870, vol. i. p. 435.
* Behavior of the Lower Organisms, 1906, p. 289,

12 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS.

reaction. As the carmine stimulus is continued or repeated, state B is pro-
duced, to which the Stentor reacts by bending to one side. After several
repetitions of the stimulus, state C is produced, to which the animal
responds by reversing its ciliary movement, and C finally passes into D,
which results in the Stentor contracting into its tube. The important
thing is that after many repetitions of the above treatment the organism
‘contracts at once as soon as the carmine comes in contact with it.’ In
other words, states B and C are apparently omitted, and A passes directly
into D, .c., into the state which gives contraction as a reaction. Thus we
have in an infusorian a case of short-circuiting precisely like the case
which has been quoted from Herbert Spencer as illustrating associa-
tion. But Jennings’ case has the advantage of being based on actual
observation. He generalises the result as the ‘law of the resolution
of physiological states’ in the following words: ‘The resolution of one
physiological state into another becomes easier and more rapid after it
has taken place a number of times.’ He goes on to point out that the
operation of this law is seen in the higher organisms, ‘in the pheno-
mena which we commonly call memory, association, habit-formation, and
learning.’

In spite of this evidence of mnemic power in the simplest of organisms,
objections will no doubt be made to the statement that association of
engrams can occur in piants,

Pfeffer, whose authority none can question, accounts for the behaviour
of sleeping plants principally on the more general ground that when any
movement occurs in a plant there is a tendency for it to be followed by a
reversal—a swing of the physiological pendulum in the other direction.
Pfeffer ! compares it to a released spring which makes several alternate
movements before it settles down to equilibrium. But the fact that the
return movements occur at the same time-intervals as the stimuli is
obviously the striking feature of the case. If the pendulum-like swing
always tended to occur naturally in a twelve hours’ rhythm it would be a
different matter. But Pfetfer has shown that a rhythm of six hours can
equally well be built up, And the experiments of Miss Pertz and myself?
show that a half-hourly or quarter-hourly rhythm can be produced by
alternate geotropic stimulation.

We are indebted to Keeble? for an interesting case of appdrent habit
among the lower animals. Convoluta roscoffensis, a minute wormlike
creature found on the coast of Brittany, leads a life dependent on the ebb
and flow of the sea. When the tide is out the Convoluta come to the
surface, showing themselves in large green patches. As the rising tide
begins to cover them they sink down into safer quarters. The remarkable
fact is that when kept in an aquarium, and therefore removed from tidal

1 See Pfeffer, Abhandl. K. Stichs. Ges., Bd. xxx. 1907. It is impossible to co
justice to Pfeffer’s point of view in the above brief statement.

2 Annals of Botany, 1892 and 1903,

* Gamble and Keeble, 9, J. Mic. Science, xlvii. p. 401,

‘

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 13

action, they continue for a short time to perform rhythmic movements in
time with the tide.

Let us take a human habit, for instance that of a man who goes a
walk every day and turns back at a given mile-post. This becomes
habitual, so that he reverses his walk automatically when the limit is
reached. It is no explanation of the fact that the stimulus which makes
him start from home includes his return—-that he has a mental return-
ticket. Such explanation does not account for the point at which he
turns, which as a matter of fact is the result of association. In the same
way a man who goes to sleep will ultimately wake ; but the fact that he
wakes at four in the morning depends on a habit built up by his being
compelled to rise daily at that time. Even those who will deny that
anything like association can occur in plants cannot deny that in the
continuance of the nyctitropic rhythm in constant conditions we have, in
plants, something which has general character of habit, z.e., a rhythmic
action depending on a rhythmic stimulus that has ceased to exist.

On the other hand, many will object that even the simplest form of
association implies a nervous system. With regard to this objection
it must be remembered that plants have two at least of the qualities
characteristic of animals—namely, extreme sensitiveness to certain agencies
and the power of transmitting stimuli from one part to another of the
plant body. It is true that there is no central nervous system, nothing
but a complex system of nuclei; but these have some of the qualities of
nerve cells, while intercommunicating protoplasmic threads may play the
part of nerves. Spencer! bases the power of association on the fact that
every discharge conveyed by a nerve ‘leaves it in a state for conveying
a subsequent like discharge with less resistance.’ Is it not possible that
the same thing may be as true of plants as it apparently is of infusoria ?
We have seen reasons to suppose that the ‘internal conditions’ or
‘physiological states’ in plants are of the nature of engrams, or residual
effects of external stimuli, and such engrams may become associated in
the same way.

There is likely to be another objection to my assumption that a simple
form of associated action occurs in plants—namely, that association
implies consciousness. It is impossible to know whether or not plants
are conscious ; but it is consistent with the doctrine of continuity that
in all living things there is something psychic, and if we accept this point
of view we must believe that in plants there exists a faint copy of what
we know as consciousness in ourselves.?

I am told by psychologists that I must define my point of view. I
am accused of occupying that unscientific position known as ‘sitting on
the fence.’ It is said that, like other biologists, I try to pick out what
suits my purpose from two opposite schools of thought—the psychological
and the physiological.

' Psychology, 2nd edit., vol. i. p. 615.
2 See James Ward, Naturalism and Agnosticism, vol. i., Lecture X,

14 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

What I claim is that, as regards reaction to environment, a plant and
a man must be placed in the same great class, in spite of the obvious
fact that as regards complexity of behaviour the difference between them
is enormous. I am nota psychologist, and I am not bound to give an
opinion as to how far the occurrence of definite actions in response to
stimulus is a physiological and how far a psychological problem. I am
told that I have no right to assume the neural series of changes to be the
cause of the psychological series, though I am allowed to say that neural
changes are the universal concomitants of psychological change, This
seems to me, in my ignorance, an unsatisfactory position. I find myself
obliged to believe that the mnemic quality in all living things (which
is proved to exist by direct experiment) must depend on the physical
changes in protoplasm, and that it is therefore permissible to use these
changes as a notation in which the phenomena of habit may be expressed.

Habit illustrated by Morphology.

We have hitherto been considering the mnemic quality of movements ;
but, as I have attempted to show, morphological changes are reactions to
stimulation of the same kind as these temporary changes. It is indeed
from the morphological reactions of living things that the most striking
cases of habit are, in my opinion, to be found.

The development of the individual from the germ-cell takes place by a
series of stages of cell-division and growth, each stage apparently serving
as a stimulus to the next, each unit following its predecessor like the
movements linked together in an habitual action performed by an animal,

My view is that the rhythm of ontogeny is actually and literally a
habit. It undoubtedly has the feature which I have described as pre-
eminently characteristic of habit, viz., an automatic quality which is
seen in the performance of a series of actions in the absence of the com-
plete series of stimuli to which they (the stages of ontogeny) were originally
due. This is the chief point on which I wish to insist—I mean that the
resemblance between ontogeny and habit is not merely superficial, but
deeply seated. It was with this conclusion in view that I dwelt, at
the risk of being tedious, on the fact that memory has its place in the
morphological as well as in the temporary reactions of living things,
It cannot be denied that the ontogenetic rhythm has the two qualities
observable in habit—namely, a certain degree of fixity or automaticity,
and also a certain variability. A habit is not irrevocably fixed, but may
be altered in various ways. Parts of it may be forgotten or new links
may be added to it. In ontogeny the fixity is especially observable in
the earlier, the variability in the later, stages. Mr. Darwin has pointed
out that ‘on the view that species are only strongly marked and fixed
varieties, we might expect often to find them still continuing to vary in
those parts of their structure which have varied within a moderately
recent period,’ These remarks are in explanation of the ‘ notorious’ fact

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS, 15

that specific are more variable than generic characters—a fact for which it
is ‘almost superfluous to adduce evidence.’! This, again, is what we find
in habit: take the case of a man who, from his youth up, has daily
repeated a certain form of words. If in middle life an addition is made
to the formula, he will find the recently acquired part more liable to vary
than the rest.

Again, there is the wonderful fact that, as the ovum develops into
the perfect organism, it passes through a series of changes which are
believed to represent the successive forms through which its ancestors
passed in the process of evolution. This is precisely paralleled by our
own experience of memory, for it often happens that we cannot reproduce
the last learned verse of a poem without repeating the earlier part ; each
verse is suggested by the previous one and acts as a stimulus for the
next. The blurred and imperfect character of the ontogenetic version
of the phylogenetic series may at least remind us of the tendency to
abbreviate by omission what we have learned by heart.

In all bi-sexual organisms the ontogenetic rhythm of the offspring is
a combination of the rhythms of its parents. This may or may not be
visible in the offspring ; thus in the crossing of two varieties the mongrel
assumes the character of the prepotent parent. Or the offspring may
show a blend of both parental characters. Semon? uses as a model the
two versions of Goethe’s poem—

{ Waldern, horest du, keinen Hauch.’

fee allen Gipteln, ist Rub, in allen | Wipfeln, spiirest du, kaum einen Hauch.’

One of these terminations will generally be prepotent, probably the one
that was heard first or heard most often. But the cause of such pre-
potency may be as obscure as the corresponding occurrence in the forma-
tion of mongrels. We can only say that in some persons the word ‘allen’
releases the word ‘ Waldern,’ while in others it leads up to ‘ Wipfeln.’
Again, a mixture of the terminations may occur leading to such a mongre!

- form as: ‘in allen Waldern hérest du kaum einen Hauch,.’ The same

thing is true of music; aman with an imperfect memory easily interpolates
in &@ melody a bar that belongs elsewhere. In the case of memory the

¥ introduction of alink from one mental rhythm into another can only occur

when the two series are closely similar, and this may remind us of the
difficulty of making a cross between distantly related forms.

Enough has been said to show that there is a resemblance between
the two rhythms of development and of memory ; and that there is at
least a prima facie case for believing them to be essentially similar. It
will be seen that my view is the same as that of Hering, which is
generally described as the identification of memory and inheritance.3

' Origin of Species, 6th edits, p. 122.
® Die Mneme, 2nd edit.; pp. 147, 221, 303, 345,
* Everyone who deals with this subject must take his stand on the foundation

~ laid by Hering in his celebrated address given at Vienna in 1870 and reprinted in

No. 148 of Ostwald’s Beakt Klassiker. The passage quoted (p. 16) is from Samuel

16 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

Hering says that ‘between the me of to-day and the me of yestet’
day lie night and sleep, abysses of unconsciousness ; nor is there any
bridge but memory with which to span them.’ And in the same way
he claims that the abyss between two generations is bridged by the
unconscious memory that resides in the germ cells. It is also the same
as that of Semon and to a great extent as that of Rignano.' I, however,
prefer at the moment to limit myself to asserting the identity of ontogeny
and habit, or, more generally, to the assertion in Semon’s phraseology,
that ontogeny is a mnemic phenomenon.

Evolution, in its modern sense, depends on a change in the onto-
genetic rhythm. This is obvious, since if this rhythm is absolutely fixed,
a species can never give rise to varieties. This being so, we have to ask
in what ways the ontogenetic rhythm can be altered. An habitual action,
for instance, a trick learned by a dog, may be altered by adding new
accomplishments ; at first the animal will persist in finishing his per-
formance at the old place, but at last the extended trick will be bonded
into a rhythm of actions as fixed as was the original simpler performance.
May we not believe that this is what has occurred in evolution ?

We know from experiment that a plant may be altered in form by
causes acting on it during the progress of development. Thus a beech
tree may be made to develop different forms of leaves by exposing it to
sunshine or to shade. The ontogeny is different in the two cases, and
what is of special interest is, that there exist shade-loving plants in
which a structure similar to that of the shaded beech-leaf is apparently
typical of the species, but on this point it is necessary to speak with
caution. In the same way Goebel points out that in some orchids the
assimilating roots take on a flattened form when exposed to sunlight, but
in others this morphological change has become automatic, and occurs
even in darkness.”

Such cases suggest at least the possibility of varieties arising as
changes in or additions to the later stages of ontogeny. This is, briefly
given, the epigenetic point of view,

But there is another way of looking at the matter—namely, that
upheld by Galton and Weismann. According to this view ontogeny can
only be changed by a fundamental upset of the whole system—namely,
by an alteration occurring in its first stage, the germ cell, and this view
is now very generally accepted.

The same type of change may conceivably occur in memory or habit :
that is, the rhythm as a whole may be altered by some cause acting on
the nerve-centres connected with the earlier links of the series. The

Butler’s translation of Hering in Unconscious Memory, 1880, p. 110. Butler had
previously elaborated the view that ‘we are one person with our ancestors’ in his
entertaining book Life and Habit, 1878, and this was written in ignorance of
Hering’s views.

1 Sur la transmissibilité des caractéres acquis, Paris, 1906.

® Goebel’s Organography of Plants, part ii. p, 285,

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. Aly,

analdgy is not exact, but such an imaginary case is at least of a different
type from a change in habit consisting in the addition of a new link or
the alteration of one of the latest formed links, If we were as ignorant
of the growth of human actions as we are of variation, we might have a
school of naturalists asserting that all changes in habit originate in the
earliest link of the series. But we know that this is not the case. On the
other hand, I fully admit that the structure of an ovum may in this way
be altered, and give rise to a variation which may be the starting-point of
a new species.

But how can a new species originate according to an epigenetic theory ¢
How can a change in the latter stages of ontogeny produce a permanent
alteration in the germ-cells ? Our answer to this question will depend on
our views of the structure of the germ-cells. According to the mnemic
theory they have the quality which is found in the highest perfection
in nerve-cells, but is at the same time a character of all living matter—
namely, the power of retaining the residual effects of former stimuli and
of giving forth or reproducing under certain conditions an echo of the
original stimulus. In Semon’s phraseology germ-cells must, like nerve-cells,
contain engrams, and these engrams must be (like nerve-engrams) bonded
together by association, so that they come into action one after another in
a certain order automatically, 7.¢., in the absence of the original stimuli.

This seems to me the strength of the mnemic theory—namely, that it
accounts for the preformed character of germ-cells by the building up in
them of an organised series of engrams. But if this view has its strength,
it has also its weakness. Routine can only be built up by repetition, but
each stage in ontogeny occurs only once in a lifetime. Therefore if
ontogeny is a routine each generation must be mnemically connected
with the next. This can only be possible if the germ-cells are, as it
were, in telegraphic communication with the whole body of the organism ;
so that as ontogeny is changed by the addition of new characters, new
engrams are added to the germ-cell.

Thus in fact the mnemic theory of development depends on the
possibility of what is known as somatic inheritance or the inheritance
of acquired characters. This is obvious to all those familiar with the
subject, but to others it may not be so clear. Somatic inheritance is
popularly interesting in relation to the possible inherited effects of educa-
tion, or of mutilations, or of the effects of use and disuse. It is forgotten
that it may be, as I have tried to show, an integral part of ali evolutionary
development.

Weismann’s Theory.
Everyone must allow that if Weismann’s theory of inheritance is
accepted we cannot admit the possibility of somatic inheritance. This

may be made clear to those unfamiliar with the subject by an illustration
taken from the economy of an ant’s nest or beehive. The queen! on

1 Nor do the drones share the activity of the workers,

1908, c

18 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

whom depends the future of the race is cut off from all active experience
of life: she is a mere reproducing machine, housed, fed, and protected by
the workers. But these, on whom falls the burden of the struggle for
life and the experience of the world generally, are sterile, and take no
direct share in the reproduction of the species. The queen represents
Weismann’s germ-plasm, the workers are the body or soma. Now
imagine the colony exposed to some injurious change in environment ;
the salvation of the species will depend on whether or no an improved
pattern of worker can be produced. This depends on the occurrence of
appropriate variations, so that the queen bee and the drones, on whom
this depends, are of central importance. On the other hand any change
occurring in the workers—for instance, increased skill due to practice in
doing their work or changes in their structure due to external conditions—
cannot possibly be inherited, since workers are absolutely cut off from the
reproduction of the race. According to Weismann, there is precisely the
same bar to the inheritance of somatic change.

The racial or phyletic life of all organisms is conceived by him as
a series of germ-cells whose activity is limited to varying, and whose
survival in any generation depends on the production of a successful soma
or body capable of housing, protecting, and feeding the germ-cell. Most
people would a priori declare that a community where experience and
action are separated must fail, But the bee’s nest, which must be
allowed to be something more than an illustration of Weismann’s theory,
proves the contrary.

It is clear that there must be war to the knife between the theory
of Weismann and that of the somatists—to coin a name for those who
believe in the inheritance of acquired characters. A few illustrations
may be given of the strength of Weismann’s position. Some trick or
trivial habit appears in two successive generations, and the son is said to
inherit it from his father, But this is not necessarily a case of somatic
inheritance, since according to Weismann the germ-plasm of both father
and son contained the potentiality of the habit in question. If we keep
constantly in view Weismann’s theory of continuity, the facts which are
supposed to prove somatic inheritance cease to be decisive.

Weismann has also shown by means of his hypothesis of ‘ simultaneous
stimulation’! the unconyincingness of a certain type of experiment.
Thus Fischer showed that when chrysalids of Arctia caja are subjected to
low temperature a certain number of them produce dark-coloured insects ;
and further that these moths mated together yield dark-coloured offspring.
This has been held to prove somatic inheritance, but Weismann points
out that it is explicable by the low temperature having an identical effect
on the colour-determinants existing in the wing-rudiments of the pupa,
and on the same determinants occurring in the germ-cells.

It does not seem to me worth while to go in detail into the evi-

1 I borrow this convenient expression from Plate’s excellent book, Ueber die
Bedeutung des Darwin'schen Sclectionsprincips, 1903; p. 81,

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 19

dence by which somatists strive to prove their point, because I do not
know of any facts which are really decisive. That is to say, that though
they are explicable as due to somatic inheritance, they never seem to me
absolutely inexplicable on Weismann’s hypothesis. But, as already pointed
out, it is not necessary to look for special facts and experiments, since if
the mnemic theory of ontogeny is accepted the development of every
organism in the world depends on somatic inheritance.

I fully acknowledge the strength of Weismann’s position ; I acknow-
ledge also most fully that it requires a stronger man than myself to meet
that trained and well-tried fighter. Nevertheless, I shall venture on a
few remarks. It must be remembered that, as Romanes! pointed out,
Weismann has greatly strengthened his theory of heredity by giving up
the absolute stability and perpetual continuity of germ-plasm. Germ plasm
is no longer that mysterious entity, immortal and self-contained, which
used to suggest a physical soul. It is no longer the aristocrat it was
when its only activity was dependent on its protozoan ancestors, when it
reigned absolutely aloof from its contemporary subjects. The germ-plasm
theory of to-day is liberalised, though it is not so democratic as its brother
sovereign Pangenesis, who reigns, or used to reign, by an elaborate system
of proportional representation. But in spite of the skill and energy
devoted to its improvement by its distinguished author, Weismannism
fails, in my opinion, to be a satisfactory theory of evolution.

All such theories must account for two things which are parts of a
single process but may logically be considered separately : (i) The fact
of ontogeny, namely, that the ovum has the capacity of developing into a
certain more or less predetermined form ; (ii) The fact of heredity—the
circumstance that this form is approximately the same as that of the
parent.

The doctrine of pangenesis accounts for heredity, since the germ-cells
are imagined as made up of gemmules representing all parts of the adult ;
but it does not account for ontogeny, because there seems to me no
sufficient reason why the gemmules should become active in a predeter-
mined order unless, indeed, we allow that they do so by habit, and then
the doctrine of pangenesis becomes a variant of the mnemic theory.

The strength of Weismann’s theory lies in its explanation of heredity.
According to the doctrine of continuity, a fragment of the germ-plasm is,
as it were, put on one side and saved up to make the germ-cell of the new
generation, so that the germ-cells of two successive generations are made
of the same material. This again depends on Weismann’s belief that
when the ovum divides, the two daughter cells are not identical; that in
fact the fundamental difference between soma and germ-cells begins at
this point. But this is precisely where many naturalists whose
observations are worthy of all respect differ from him. Weismann’s
theory is therefore threatened at the very foundation.

} An Examination of Weismann, 18938, pp. 169, 170.

30 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS.

Even if we allow Weismann’s method of providing for the identity
between the germ-cell of two successive generations, there remains, as
above indicated, a greater problem—namely, that of ontogeny. We no
longer look at the potentiality of a germ-cell as Caliban looked on Setebos,
as something essentially incomprehensible ruling the future in an un-
known way—‘ just choosing so.’ If the modern germ-cell is to have
a poetic analogue it must be compared to a Pandora’s box of architectonic
sprites which are let loose in definite order, each serving as a master
builder for a prescribed stage of ontogeny. Weismann’s view of the
mechanism by which his determinants—the architectonic sprites—come
into action in due order is, I assume, satisfactory to many, but I confess
that I find it difficult to grasp. The orderly distribution of determinants
depends primarily on their arrangement in the ids, where they are held
together by ‘ vital affinities.’ They are guided to the cells on which they
are to act by differential divisions, in each of which the determinants are
sorted into two unequal lots, They then become active, 7.c., break up into
biophores, partly under the influence of liberating stimuli and partly by
an automatic process. Finaliy the biophores communicate a ‘ definite
vital force’ to the appropriate cells.'_ This may be a description of what
happens ; but inasinuch as it fails to connect the process of ontogeny
with physiological processes of which we have definite knowledge, it does
not to me seem a convincing explanation.

For myself I can only say that I am not satisfied with Weismann’s
theory of heredity or of ontogeny. As regards the first, I incline to deny
the distinction between germ and soma, to insist on the plain facts that
the soma is continuous with the germ-cell, and that the somatic cells
may have the same reproductive qualities as the germ-cells (as is proved
by the facts of regeneration) ; that, in fact, the germ-cell is merely a
specialised somatic cell and has the essential qualities of the soma. With —
regard to ontogeny, I have already pointed out that Weismann does not
seem to explain its automatic character.

The Mnemic Theory.

If the mnemic theory is compared with Weismann’s views it is
clear that it is strong precisely where these are weakest—namely, in
giving a coherent theory of the rhythm of development. It also bears
comparison with all theories in which the conception of determinants
occurs. Why should we make elaborate theories of hypothetical deter-
minants to account for the potentialities lying hidden in the germ-cell,
and neglect the only determinants of whose existence we have positive
knowledge (though we do not know their precise nature)? We know
positively that by making a dog sit up and then giving him a biscuit we
build up something in his brain in consequence of which a biscuit becomes
the stimulus to the act of sitting. The mnemic theory assumes that the

‘The Evolution Theory, Eng. trans., i, 373 et seq.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 91

determinants of morphological change are of the same type as the
structural alteration wrought in the dog’s brain.

The mnemic theory—at any rate that form of it held by Semon
and by myself—agrees with the current view, viz., that the nucleus
is the centre of development, or, in Semon’s phraseology, that the
nucleus contains the engrams in which lies the secret of the ontogenetic
rhythm. But the mode of action of the mnemic nucleus is com-
pletely different from that of Weismann. He assumes that the nucleus
is disintegrated in the course of development by the dropping from it
of the determinants which regulate the manner of growth of successive
groups of cells. But if the potentiality of the germ nucleus depends on
the presence of engrams, if, in fact, its function is comparable to that of
a nerve-centre, its capacity is not diminished by action ; it does not cast
out engrams from its substance as Weismann’s nucleus is assumed to
drop armies of determinants. The engrams are but cut deeper into the
records, and more closely bonded one with the next. The nucleus, con-
sidered as a machine, does not lose its component parts in the course
of use. We shall see later on that the nuclei of the whole body may,
on the mnemic theory, be believed to become alike. The fact that
the mnemic theory allows the nucleus to retain its repeating or repro-
ductive or mnemic quality supplies the element of continuity. The
germ-cell divides and its daughter cells form the tissues of the embryo,
and in this process the original nucleus has given rise to a group of
nuclei ; these, however, have not lost their engrams, but retain the
potentiality of the parent nucleus. We need not therefore postulate the
special form of continuity which is characteristic of Weismann’s theory.

We may say, therefore, that the mnemic hypothesis harmonises with
the facts of heredity and ontogeny. But the real difficulties remain to
be considered, and these, I confess, are of a terrifying magnitude.

The first difficulty is the question how the changes arising in the soma
are, so to speak, telegraphed to the germ-cells. Hering allows that such
communication must at first seem highly mysterious! He then proceeds
to shoW how by the essential unity and yet extreme ramification of the
nervous system ‘all parts of the body are so connected that what happens
in one echoes through the rest, so that from the disturbance occurring in
any part some notification, faint though it may be, is conveyed to the
most distant parts of the body.’

A similar explanation is given by Niigeli. He supposes that adaptive,
in contradistinction to organic, characters are produced by external
causes ; and since these characters are hereditary there must be com-
munication between the seat of adaptation and the germ-cells. This
telegraphic effect is supposed to be effected by the network of idioplasm
which traverses the body, in the case of plants by the intercellular proto-
plasmic threads.

' KE, Hering in Ostwald’s Alassiker der exakten Wissenschaften, No. 148, p.14;
see also §, Butler’s translation in Unconscious Memory, p. 119.

bo
bo

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS.

Semon faces the difliculty boldly. When a new character appears in
the body of an organism, in response to changing environment, Semon
assumes that a new engram is added to the nuclei in the part affected ;
and that, further, the disturbance tends to spread to all the nuclei of the
body (including those of the germ-cells), and to produce in them the same
change, In plants the flow must be conceived as travelling by intercellular
plasmic threads, but in animals primarily by nerve-trunks. Thus the
reproductive elements must be considered as having in some degree the
character of nerve-cells. So that, for instance, if we are to believe that
an individual habit may be inherited and appear as an instinct, the
repetition of the habit will not merely mean changes in the central nervous
system, but also corresponding changes in the germ-cells, These will be,
according to Semon, excessively faint in comparison to the nerve-engrams,
and can only be made efficient by prolonged action. Semon lays great
stress on the slowness of the process of building up efficient engrams in
the germ-cells.

Weismann! speaks of the impossibility of germinal engrams being
formed in this way. He objects that nerve-currents can only differ from
each other in intensity, and therefore there can be no communication
of potentialities to the germ-cell. He holds it to be impossible that
somatic changes should be telegraphed to the germ-cell and be re-
produced ontogenetically—a process which he compares to a telegram
despatched in German and arriving in Chinese. According to Semon ?
what radiates from the point of stimulation in the soma is the primary
excitation set up in the somatic cells ; if this is so, the radiating influence
will produce the same effect on all the nuclei of the organism. My
own point of view is the following. In a plant (as already pointed out)
the ectoplasm may be compared to the sense-organ of the cell, and the
primary excitation of the cell will be a change in the ectoplasm ; but
since cells are connected by ectoplasmic threads the primary excitation
will spread and produce in other cells a faint copy of the engram im-
pressed on the somatic cells originally stimulated. But in all these
assumptions we are met by the question to which Weismann hag called
attention—namely, whether nervous impulses can differ from one another
in quality?* The general opinion of physiologists is undoubtedly to the
opposite effect—namely, that all nervous impulses are identical in quality.
But there are notable exceptions: for instance, Hering,‘ who strongly

' Weismann, The Evolution Theory, 1904, vol. ii. p. 63; also his Richard Semon's
‘Mneme’ und die Vererbung ermorbener Higenschaften, in the Archiv fiir Rassen-
und Gesellschafts- Biologie, 1906. Semon has replied in the same journal for 1907.

* Semon, Mneme, ed. i. p. 142, does not, however, consider it proved that the
nucleus is necessarily the smallest element in which the whole inheritance resides.
He refers especially to the regeneration of sections of Stentor which contain mere
fragments of the nucleus.

* T use this word in the ordinary sense without reference to what is known as
modality.

* Zur Theorie der Nerventhitigheit, Ahkademische Vortrag, 1898 (Veit, Leipzig),

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 23
supports what may be called the qualitative theory. I am not competent
to form an opinion on the subject, but I confess to being impressed by
Hering’s argument that the nerve-cell and nerve-fibre, as parts of one
individual (the neuron), must have a common irritability. "On the other
hand there is striking evidence, in Langley’s ' experiments on the cross-
grafting of efferent nerves, that here at least nerve impulses are inter-
changeable and therefore identicalin quality. The state of knowledge as
regards afferent nerves is, however, more favourable to my point of view.
For the difficulties that meet the physiologist—especially as regards the
nerves of smell and hearing—are so great that it has been found simpler
to assume differences in impulse-quality, rather than attempt an explana-
tion of the facts on the other hypothesis.’

On the whole it may be said that, although the trend of physiological
opinion is against the general existence of qualitative differences in nerve-
impulses, yet the question cannot be said to be settled either one way or
the other. :

Another obvious difficulty is to imagine how within a single cell the
engrams or potentialities of a number of actions can be locked up. We ~
can only answer that the nucleus is admittedly very complex in structure.
It may be added (but this not an answer) that in this respect it claims no
more than its neighbours ; it need not be more complex than Weismann’s
germ-plasm. One conceivable simplification seems to be in the direction
of the pangenes of De Vries. He imagines that these heritage units are
relatively small in number, and that they produce complex results by
combination, not by each being responsible for a minute fraction of
the total result. They may be compared to the letters of the alphabet
which by combination make an infinity of words.‘ Nageli® held a
similar view. ‘To understand heredity,’ he wrote, ‘we do not need a
special independent symbol for every difference conditioned by space,
time, or quality, but a substance which can represent every possible com-
bination of differences by the fitting together of a limited number of
elements, and which can be transformed by permutations into other com-
binations.’ He applied (Joc. cit., p. 59) the idea of a combination of
symbols to the telegraphic quality of his idioplasm. He suggests that as
the nerves convey the most varied perceptions of external objects to the
central nervous system, and there create a coherent picture, so it is not
impossible that the idioplasm may convey a combination of its local altera-
tions to other parts of the organism.

Another theory of simplified telegraphy between soma and germ-cell

' Proc. R. Soc., 1904, p. 99. Journal of Physiology, xxiii. p. 240, and Xxxi,
p. 365.
* See Nagel, Handbuch der Physiologic des Menschen, iii. (1905), pp. 1-15.
3 De Vries, Intracellular Pangenesis, p. 7.
‘I take this comparison from Lotsy’s account of De Vries’ theory. Lotsy,
Torlesungen tiber Deszendenztheorien, 1906, i. p. 98.
* Nageli’s Abstammungslehre, 1884, p. 73.

24 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

is given by Rignano,' I regret that the space at my command does not
permit me to give a full account of his interesting speculation on somatic
inheritance. It resembles the theories of Hering, Butler, and Semon in
postulating a°quality of living things, which is the basis both of memory
and inheritance. But it differs from them in seeking for a physical
explanation or model of what is common to the two. He compares the
nucleus to an electric accumulator which in its discharge gives out the
same sort of energy that it has received. How far this is an allowable
parallel I am not prepared to say, and in what follows I have given
Rignano’s results in biological terms. What interests me is the con-
clusion that the impulse conveyed to the nucleus of the germ-cell is, as
far as results are concerned, the external stimulus. Thus, if a somatic
cell (A) is induced by an external] stimulus (S) acting on the nucleus to
assume a new manner of development, a disturbance spreads through the
organism, so that finally the nuclei of the germ-cells are altered in a
similar manner. When the cellular descendants of the germ-cells reach
the same stage of ontogeny as that in which the original stimulation
occurred, a stiraulus comes into action equivalent to 8 as regards the
results it is capable of producing. So that the change originally wrought
in cell A by the actual stimulus S is now reproduced by what may be
called an inherited stimulus. But when A was originally affected other
cells, B, C, D, may have reacted to S by various forms of growth. And
therefore when during the development of the altered germ-cell some-
thing equivalent to S comes into play, there will be induced, not merely
the original change in the development of A, but also the changes which
were originally induced in the growth of B, C, D. Thus, according to
Rignano, the germ-nucleus releases a number of developmental processes,
each of which would, according to Weismann, require a separate deter-
minant,

If the view here given is accepted, we must take a new view of
Weismann’s cases of simultaneous stimulation, i.e., cases like Fischer’s
experiments on Arctia caja, which he does not allow to be somatic
inheritance. If we are right in saying that, the original excitation of
the soma is transferred to the germ-cell, and it does not matter whether
the stimulus is transferred by ‘telegraphy,’ or whether a given cause,
e.g., @ low temperature, acts simultaneously on soma and germ-cell. In
both cases we have a given alteration produced in the nuclei of the
soma and the germ-cell. Nageli used the word telegraphy to mean a
dynamic form of transference, but he did not exclude the possibility of
the same effect being produced by the movement of chemical substances,
and went so far as to suggest that the sieve tubes might convey such

stimuli in plants. In any case this point of view? deserves carefui
consideration.

1 For what is here given I am partly indebted to Signor Rignano’s letters,
% See Semon, Archiv f, Ragsen- und Gesellschafts- Biologie, 1907, p, 99,

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 25

Still another code of communication seems to me to be at least con-
ceivable. One of the most obvious characteristics of animal life is the
guidance of the organism by certain groups of stimuli, producing either a
movement of seeking (positive reaction!) or one of avoidance (negative
reaction). Taking the latter as being the simplest, we find that in
the lowest as in the highest organisms a given reaction follows each
one of a number of diverse conditions which have nothing in common
save that they are broadly harmful in character. We withdraw our
hands from a heated body, a prick, a corrosive substance, or an electric
shock. The interesting point is that it is left to the organism to discover
by the method of trial and error the best means of dealing with a sub-
injurious stimulus. May we not therefore say that the existence of
pleasure and pain simplifies inheritance? It certainly renders unnecessary
a great deal of detailed inheritance. The innumerable appropriate move-
ments performed by animals are broadly the same as those of their
parents, but they are not necessarily inherited in every detail ; they are
rather the unavoidable outcome of hereditary but unspecialised sensitive-
ness. It is as though heredity were arranged on a code-system instead of
by separate signals for every movement of the organism.

It may be said that in individual life the penalty of failure is pain,
but that the penalty for failure in ontogenetic morphology is death. But
it is only because pain is the shadow cast by Death as he approaches
that it is of value to the organism. Death would be still the penalty of
creatures that had not acquired this sensitiveness to the edge of danger.
Is it not possible that the sensitiveness to external agencies by which
structural ontogeny is undoubtedly guided may have a similar quality,
and that morphological variations may also be reactions to the edge of
danger. But this is a point of view I cannot now enter upon.

It may be objected that the inheritance of anything so complex as
an instinct is difficult to conceive on the mnemic theory. Yetit is impos-
sible to avoid suspecting that at least some instincts originate in indi-
vidual acquirements, since they are continuous with habits gained in the
lifetime of the organism. Thus the tendency to peck at any small object
is undoubtedly inherited ; the power of distinguishing suitable from un-
suitable objects is gained by experience. It may be said that the engrams
concerned in the pecking instinct cannot conceivably be transferred from
the central nervous system to the nucleus of the germ-cells. To this I
might answer that this is not more inconceivable than Weismann’s
assumption that the germ-cell chances to be so altered that the young
chicken pecks instinctively. Let us consider another case of what
appears to be an hereditary movement. Take, for instance, the case of a
young dog, who in fighting bites his own lips. The pain thus produced
will induce him to tuck up his lips out of harm’s way. This protective
movement will become firmly associated with, not only the act of fighting,

) See Jennings, Behaviar of the Lower Organisms,

26 PRESIDENT’S. ADDRESS.

but with the remembrance of it, and will show itself in the familiar snarl
of the angry dog. This movement is now, I presume, hereditary in dogs,
and is so strongly inherited by ourselves (from simian ancestors) that
a lifting of the corner of the upper lip is a recognised signal of adverse
feeling. Is it really conceivable that the original snarl is due to that
unspecialised stimulus we call pain, whereas the inherited snarl is due to
fortuitous upsets of the determinants in the germ-cell ?

I am well aware that many other objections may be advanced against
the views I advocate.’ To take a single instance, there are many cases
where we should expect somatic inheritance, but where we look in vain
for it. This difficulty, and others equally important, must for the present
be passed over. Nor shall I say anything more as to the possible means
of communication between the soma and the germ-cells. To me it seems
conceivable that some such telegraphy is possible. But I shall hardly
wonder if a majority of my hearers decide that the available evidence in
its favour is both weak and fantastic. Nor can I wonder. that, apart
from the problem of mechanism, the existence of somatic inheritance is
denied for want of evidence. But I must once more insist that, accord-
ing to the mnemic hypothesis, somatic inheritance lies at the root of all
evolution. Life is a gigantic experiment which the opposing schools
interpret in opposite ways. I hope that in this dispute both sides will
seek out and welcome decisive results. My own conviction in favour of
somatic inheritance rests primarily on the automatic element in ontogeny.
It seems to me certain that in development we have an actual instance of
habit. If this is so, somatic inheritance must be a vera causa. Nor does
it seem impossible that memory should rule the plasmic link which connects
successive generations—the true miracle of the camel passing through the
eye of a needle—since, as I have tried to show, the reactions of living
things to their surroundings exhibit in the plainest way the universal
presence of a mnemic factor.

We may fix our eyes on phylogeny and regard the living world as a
great chain of forms, each of which has learned something of which its
predecessors were ignorant ; or we may attend rather to ontogeny, where
the lessons learned become in part automatic. But we must remember
that the distinction between phylogeny and ontogeny is an artificial one,
and that routine and acquisition are blended in life.

The great engine of natural selection is taunted nowadays, as it was
fifty years ago, with being merely a negative power. I venture to think
that the mnemic hypothesis of evolution makes the positive value of
natural selection more obvious. If evolution is a process of drilling
organisms into habits, the elimination of those that cannot learn is an

' This subject is dealt with in a very interesting manner in Professor James
Ward’s forthcoming lectures on the Realm of Ends. Also in his article on
Mechanism and Morals in the Hibbert Journal, October 1905, p. 92; and in his
article on Psychology in the Encyclopedia Britannica, 1886, vol. xx. p. 44,

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS, 27

integral part of the process, and is no less real because it is carried out
_ by a self-acting system. It is surely a positive gain to the harmony of
the universe that the discordant strings should break. But natural
_ selection does more than this ; and just as a trainer insists on his per-
_ forming dogs accommodating themselves to conditions of increasing com-
plexity, so does natural selection pass on its pupils from one set of
conditions to other and wore elaborate tests, insisting that they shall
_ endlessly repeat what they have learned and forcing them to learn some-
thing new. Natural selection attains in a blind, mechanical way the ends
_ gained by a human breeder ; and by an extension of the same metaphor
_ it may be said to have the power of a trainer—of an automatic master
_ with endless patience and all time at his disposal.

rm atie

pees

ont

=

REPORTS

ON THE

STATE OF SCIENCE.

i

REPORTS

STATE OF SCIENCE.
ia
:

Hxperiments for improving the Construction of Practical Standards for
Electrical Measwrements.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Lord Ray.eieu (Chairman), Dr. R. T. GLazEBRooK (Secretary),
Professors W. E. Ayrton, J. Perry, W.G. Apams, and G. CaREY
Foster, Sir OLiver J. Lopce, Dr. A. Murra,” Slips Ws yA,
PREECE, Professors A. ScHUSTER, J. A. FLEemiInG, and J. J.
Taomson, Dr. W. N. Saaw, Dr. J. T. Borromury, Rey. T. C.
Firzpatrick, Dr. G. JOHNSTONE STONEY, Professor §. P.
Tompson, Mr. J. Rennie, Principal H. H. Grirrirus, Sir A. W.

- Ricker, Professor H. L. CaLLenpar, and Messrs. G. Matruey,
A. P. Trorrer, T. Matuer, and F, HE. Smita.

APPENDIX PAGE
I. On the Secular Changes of the Standards of Resistance at the National
] Physical Laboratory. By F. EH. SMITH, A.R.C.Sc. (Lrom the National
Physical Laboratory) . 34
; ata Specifications for the Practical Realisation of the Definitions of the Inter-
national Ohm and International Ampere, and Instructions for the
Preparation of the Weston Cadmium Cell. (From the National
Physical Laboratory) 5 , 3 : - : > 51

‘Tur Committee desire in the first me to record their deep sense of
the loss they have sustained by the death of Lord Kelvin. He was an
original member of the Committee appointed at Cambridge, October 3,
‘1862, and he continued his active interest in their work up to the end.
His name will always be associated with the establishment of the
‘absolute system of electrical measurement and with the determination
of the absolute units. The Reports of the Committee from 1862 onwards
contain a large amount of valuable information in a form which is not
generally very accessible—the reprint of the earlier reports, issued under

he editorship of Fleeming Jenkin in 1873, is out of print—and the
Committee suggest that their reports from 1862 up to the present time
“might be reprinted as a memorial to Lord Kelvin. The present time is
_in other respects specially suitable for such a reissue, for it is hoped that
_ the proposed International Congress, to. be held in London in October,

32 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

will settle in ‘w definite manner the few matters relating to the funda-
mental units which are still outstanding, and will organise a method
whereby a close agreement may be maintained among the electrical
standards in use throughout the world.

The electrical measurements of certain of the fundamental units,
which have been in progress for some time at the National Physical
Laboratory, have been brought to a conclusion, and the results
published in three papers in the ‘Philosophical Transactions’ of the
Royal Society.

1. ‘A New Current Weigher and a Determination of the Electromotive Force
of the Normal Weston Cadmium Cell.’ By Professor W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S., and T.
Mather, F.R.S., Central Technical College, London; and F. E. Smith, A.R.C.Sc.,
National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Phil. T’rans., A, vol. 207, pp. 463-549.

2. ‘On the Normal Weston Cadmium Cell.” By F. E. Smith, Phil. Trans, A,
vol. 207, pp. 393--420.

3. ‘On a Comparison of many forms of Silver Voltameters.’ By F. E. Smith;
and ‘A Determination of the Electrochemical Equivalent of Silver’ By F.E. Smith
and T. Mather, F.R.S., Phil. Trans., A, vol. 207, pp. 546-581.

‘The Chemistry of the Silver Voltameter.’ By F. E. Smith and T. M.
Lowry, D.Sc., Phil. Trans., A, vol. 207, pp. 581-599.

From the first of these it appears that to a very high degree of
aceuracy the electromotive force of the Weston cadmium cell, as set up
at the National Physical Laboratory, when expressed in’ terms of the
ampere (107! C.G.S. units of current) and the international ohm is
1:0183, at a temperature of 17° C.

The second Paper deals with the preparation of the Weston cadmium
cell, and contains a comparison between cells set up at the Laboratory
and others constructed elsewhere, the general conclusion being that cells
can be prepared by different persons in different countries which will
agree in E.M.F. to 1 or 2 parts in 100,000.

In the third Paper there is given an account of a comparison of some
six forms of silver voltameters, and it is shown that the silver deposited
by a current of one ampere in all these various forms is the same if
proper precautions are taken, and amounts to

1:11827 milligramme per second.

After this work was completed a comparison was made by Messrs.
T. Mather and F. E. Smith, by the kindness of Mr. Trotter, between the
ampere standard of the Board of Trade and the ampere as realised by the
new Ayrton Jones balance at the National Physical Laboratory. The
comparison, an account of which appears in the ‘Proceedings of the
Royal Society,’ A, vol. 80, 1908, was very satisfactory.

It was found that the Board of Trade ampere will deposit silver at the
rate of 1:1179, milligramme per second, a value which is nearly identical
with the number 1:1179, given by Lord Rayleigh and Mrs. Sidgwick in
1884. Indirectly the E.M.F. of the normal Weston cadmium cell was
found to be 1:0187, Board of Trade volts at 17° C., the Board of Trade
volt being defined as the potential difference between the terminals of a
resistance of 1 Board of Trade ohm when 1 Board of Trade ampere is
passing through it.

During the year the ten mercury standards at the National Physical
Laboratory have again been set up and intercompared. An account of
this work appears in an Appendix by Mr. F. E. Smith, the value
ef the international ohm, as realised by the mean of the ten tubes, being

ON PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 935

taken as unit. The following table gives the values of the individual
tubes as found in 1903 and 1907 :—

Mercury TA es a = ae Difference value
Standard 19038 1907 1907-1908
M 0-97170, 0:97169, | —0,

P 1:000388, 100042, | +3,
T 1:00019, 1:00020, +1,
U 0°97349, 0:97348, —0,
Vv 1:00137, | 1:00137, | —0,
x 100106, 100106, | —0,
Y 1:00026, 100026, —0,
Z 1:00130, 1:00129, -0,
G | 1-00105, 100104, | —0,
SS) 1:00097, | 100097, / - 0,

Except in the case of Tube P, where there is an apparent change of
3 to 4 parts in 100,000, the differences are negligible.

Mr. Smith has also compared with the mercury tubes a large series of
wire standard resistances, including those made by Matthiessen and
Hockin for the B. A. Committee in 1865-67, and various other old
standards kindly lent to the Committee by their owners for the purpose.
The general conclusion is that all the original coils except D and E,
which are made of platinum, have changed appreciably since they were
constructed, though since 1888, during a period of twenty years, for which
the coils have been very carefully watched, the changes also in A, B, C, H,
and Flat have been small. F and G have, however, in the same period
changed considerably.

Resistance at 16°-0 in terms of the original B.A. unit (1867).

Maximum |

| |
Coil | Material 1867 | 1876 . 1879-81 1888 | 1908 Change
| | Pt Ir 1:00000 | 1:00077 | 1:00056 1:00147 | 100122 | 0:00147

A

B | Pt. Ir, | 100029 100121 | 1:00080 1:00104 1-00098 | 0-00092
C | Au. Ag. | 1:00050 100141 | 1°00101 | 1:00146 1:00173 | 0:001238
D
EK

Pt. | 100092 | 1:00092 | 1:00092 | 1:00092 | 1:00092 | 0:00000

a PE. 100152 1-00152 | 1:00152 | 1:00152 | 1:00152 | 0-00000
meme | Pt. Ag at — | 100016 | 100072 | 100160 | 0-00144
G | Pt. Ag. | 1:00022 | 1:00030 099982 | 100025 100175 | 0-:00193

| HH | Pt.Ag. | 100020) — | — 100042 1-00044 | 0-00024
Flat | Pt. Ag. — | — | 100079 , 1:00120 1:00125 | 0-00046

The mean resistance of 6 other platinum-silver coils, first measured in
1888, appears to have increased since that time by 14 parts in 100,000 ;
and 5 more platinum-silver coils, first measured in 1894-7, have now a
greater mean value by 8 parts in 100,000.

It would appear also that in many of the variable coils the changes
have occurred mainly, if not entirely, at the soft-soldered joints, and with
a view of testing this the’ Committee have authorised the Secretary to
open and examine one of the coils.

A comparison, given in the Appendix, has also been made of all the
eg resistances in the possession of the Standards Department of

;. D

34 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

the Laboratory. The behaviour of the various coils is somewhat different ;
while some have been very constant, others appear to have changed con-
siderably.

At the Conference on Electrical Units, held at the Reichsanstalt in
1905, it was suggested that the Jena glass 59’” was, from its good elastic
properties, the best glass to employ for mercury resistances, and accord-
ingly efforts have been made to get some suitable tubes. Five tubes of
16’” have recently been secured, after great difficulty, which will probably
do for standards. Tubes of 59’’ have not yet been obtained: the
difficulty of drawing them is a serious obstacle to their use.

A number of tubes of French glass, ‘verre dur,’ are also on order.

Progress has also been made during the year in the design of the
Lorenz apparatus, to be given by the Drapers’ Company, and the manu-
facture of the bed and the heavy-metal work has been entrusted to Messrs.
Armstrong, Whitworth & Co., who have kindly undertaken it. The
marble cylinders required have been delivered at the National Physical
Laboratory.

Preparations for the holding of an International Congress on Electrical
Units in London in October next are well advanced.

Specifications dealing with the international ohm, the international
ampere, and the Weston cadmium cell, which have been prepared at the
National Physical Laboratory after consultation with other workers to
serve as a basis of discussion at the Congress, are given in the Appendix
with a view of making them known.

The grant of 50/. made to the Committee at Leicester has been spent
in great part in the purchase of materials for the Weston cells and the
silver voltameter research and in obtaining suitable tubes for use for
standards of resistance.

The balance now in hand is 1/. Os. 4d., and the Committee recommend
that they be allowed to retain this for the purpose of continuing the
experiments now in progress.

The Committee therefore recommend that their Reports from 1862
onwards be reprinted, after careful editing, as a memorial to Lord Kelvin,
and that they be reappointed, with a grant of 100/. in addition to the above
unexpended balance, for the purpose of undertaking this work and con-
tinuing their researches on the standards ; that Lord Rayleigh be Chairman
and Dr. R, T. Glazebrook Secretary.

APPENDIX I.

On the Secular Changes of the Standards of Resistance at the National
Physical Laboratory. By F. E. Surru, A.R.C.Sce.

(rom the National Physical Laboratory.)

Tt has long been known that many resistance coils of platinum-silver,
of manganin, and of other resistance alloys do not keep constant in
resistance. The causes of the changes may lie in some alteration in
structure of the alloy, of some change in strain, of surface action, of
faulty joints, or, as suggested by Dr. Rosa, they may lie in the insulating
medium.

ON PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS, 30

The question of the permanence of manganin standards has been
discussed recently by Messrs. Rosa and Babcock! and by Drs. Jaeger
and Lindeck,* and it seemed desirable to bring together all the informa-
tion available regarding the changes which have taken place in the coils
of the Association, and of others which have from time to time been
compared with them.

At the National Physical Laboratory the primary standards of resistance
are of mercury, and the secondary standards are of platinum, platinum-
iridium, gold-silver, platinum-silver, and of manganin. It will be shown
that the mercury standards have kept constant, that the platinum coils
have probably kept constant, that the platinum-iridium, gold-silver, and
a few of the platinum-silver coils have changed considerably, while other
platinum-silver coils have kept very nearly constant. Of the manganin
colis a few have kept very nearly constant, but most of them have
increased in resistance.

The platinum, platinum-iridium, and some of the gold-silver and pla-
tinum-silver coils are the property of the Association, and many of them
were first compared by Matthiessen and Hockin in 1865-7. Most of the
manganin standards were constructed by O. Wolff, Berlin, but four were
built by Mr. Melsom at the National Physical Laboratory. These
standards vary in nominal value from one-thousandth of an ohm to
10,000 ohms.

The method of comparing resistances has been dealt with in a previous
Report,’ and for the purposes of this communication it will be sufficient tc
state that, on all occasions when mercury standards were erected, the
resistance coils were measured in terms of the mean unit represented by the
mercury columns, with a probable error of about 5 parts in 1,000,000.
In the intervals between the comparisons with mercury standards the
values of the coils in international ohms were at times uncertain within
1 to 2 parts in 100,000, but the relative values of the unit coils of man-
ganin with potential leads could at all times be determined with an error
not greater than about 2 parts in 10,000,000, and the one-thousandth
ohm and 10,000 ohms manganin standards could in general be measured
in terms of the unit coils within about 5 parts in 1,000,000. In the
intervals between the erections of the mercury tubes a very careful survey
of the history of the coils was often necessary to determine the most prob.
able changes in the coils, and a slight readjustment of the values allotted
to the coils was sometimes made when the mercury standards were next
employed. The probable error of the resistance values assigned to the
manganin standards on any date is almost certainly less than 1 part in
100,000.

Mercury Standards of Resistance.

The mercury standards of resistance are 10 in number, and were con-
structed in 1902-3. ‘The mean international ohm as realised by the ten
standards is taken as the unit, and each tube is measured in terms of it.

1 The Electrician, June 14, 1907, and November 15, 1907,
2 Thid., August 2, 1907.
3 B.A. Report, Section A, 1906.
D2

56 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

In practice two manganin coils act as intermediaries. The measured
values in 1903 and 1907 are given in the following table :—

TABLE I.

Giving the Values of the Mercury Standards in 1903 and 1907,

Value in Mean International Ohms |

Mercury AM. a pet Difference
Standard | 1908 1907 1907-19038
|
M 0:97170, 0:97169, —0,
P 1:000388, 1:00042, +3, |
T 1:00019, 1:00020, +1,
U 0:97349, 0°97348, —0,
| Vv 1:00137, 1:00137, —0,
x 100106, 100106, —0,
| Y 1:00026, 1:00026, — 0,
| Z 1-00130, 100129, —0,
G 1:00105, 1:00104, —0,
ie S 100097, 1:00097, —0,

With the exception of P the relative values of the standards have kept
remarkably constant, and in the case of P the increase in resistance may
be apparent only, for only in 1907 has an increase been noted. It is
thought that a very thin film of grease may be coating a portion of the
inner wall of the tube. As the tubes M, G, and S are of French verre
dur, and the remainder of Jena 16'” glass, there is justification for
assuming the constancy of the standards. It is of interest to state that
the relative values of the French mercury standards in 1885 and 1905, and
of the mercury standards of the Reichsanstalt in 1893 and 1904, are also
in very good agreement.

Wire Standards of Platinum, Platinum-Iridium, Gold-Silver, and
Platinum-Silver,

The original coils of the Association are six in number: two are of
platinum, two of platinum-iridium, one of gold-silver, and one of platinum-
silver. They were compared together by Messrs. Matthiessen and Hockin
in 1865-67, by Messrs. Chrystal and Saunder in 1876, by Dr. Fleming in
1879-81, by Dr. Glazebrook and Mr. Fitzpatrick in 1887-88, and by the
author in 1908. In addition to these six coils, Messrs. Chrystal and
Saunder examined a platinum-silver coil marked No. 29 F, and also a coil
known as Flat, while measurements of another platinum-silver coil H are
given in the Report for 1888. These coils—in all, 9—have remained in
charge of the Secretary.

In a report to the Association in 1888 Dr. Glazebrook discussed the
probable changes which had taken place in the coils since 1867, and
changes in the platinum-silver coils only are discussed in the Reports for
1892 and 1903. In 1865-67 the probable error of the comparisons appears
to have been of that order which would be introduced by an error in the
temperature of the coils of about 0°°1 C. In 1888 and 1903 the error of
the comparisons corrresponds with an error in the temperature of the coils of
a little less than 0°] C., and in 1908 the error has been reduced so as to

ON PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 37

correspond with about 0°:02 C. - All of the coils are surrounded by paraflin
wax, and it is only by maintaining a constant temperature for many hours
that very accurate observations can be made. The scale of temperature
employed for the 1908 measurements is the hydrogen scale ; that used for
previous observations is almost certainly the Kew glass scale. Dr. J. A.
Harker has recently shown! that the difference between these two scales
is negligibly small ; hence we may assume that the same scale of tempera-
ture has been used throughout.

The present method of comparing the coils is by substitution in one
arm of a Wheatstone shunt bridge, of which the other three arms
consist of manganin resistances. The high-temperature coefficient coils
are kept in a room remaining constant in temperature to 0°-01 C. over
several days, and the temperature does not differ from 16°-0 C. by more
than 0°-5 C. About 16 measurements, spread over several days, are
made of each coil, and the value at 16°-0 C. is deduced from these
measurements. During 1908 approximate values for the temperature
coefficients of resistance of the coils have been obtained by varying the
temperature from 14° to 17° C. These values are given in Tables ITI.
and IX.

In 1867 the temperatures are given at which the coils were 1 B.A.
unit, and this procedure was in part followed in 1876, 1879, and 1888.
The unit of 1867 was, however, probably different to those of 1876,
1879, and 1888. Messrs. Chrystal and Saunder (1876) assumed one of
the coils (B) to have remained constant between 1867 and 1876, and
expressed the values of the other coils in terms of it. The unit, in terms
of which the measurements of 1879-81 were made, is the mean B.A.
unit as indicated by Fleming on his chart ; it is supposed to represent
the mean of the resistances of the six coils A, B, C, D, E, G at the tem-
peratures at which they were originally correct. It is this unit which
was used by Lord Rayleigh in his work on the ohm, and by Dr.
Glazebrook since about 1880, and it has been closely adhered to in all
measurements made by the Committee since that date.

A close examination of the chart at the present day shows that
the mean of the values of the six coils is really about 0°99985 unit ;
hence if this interpretation be accepted, the mean B.A. unit is really
15 parts in 100,000 less than the unit which has been taken since
1880 ; but it has not been thought wise to attempt any correction on
this score, except in the compilation of Table III. At times a sudden
change in a coil has been recorded, as in 1888, when Dr. Glazebrook
reported that F had suddenly risen in value by 0:00048 B.A. unit,’ and
that Flat had fallen by 1 part in 10,000. Similar changes may have been
observed when the coils were comparatively new, and it is possible that a
slightly variable coil was disregarded, or a correction applied because
of it, when the chart summarising the observations for 1879-81 was
constructed.

The chart gives the values of the coils from 0° C. to 25° C., and the
graphs are such that the value of a coil can be read with an error not
greater than 3 parts in 100,000, which is equivalent to a change in tem-
perature of 0°-1 C. of a platinum-silver coil. The resistances of the coils ©
at various temperatures as given by the chart are given in Table II.
1 Proc, R.S., A, vol. 78. 2 B.A. Report, 1888.

8 Phil, Trans., A, 1888, p. 364.

38 REPORTS ON THE STATE @F SCIENCE.
Taste II.
Giving the Values of the Coils in 1879-81, from Fleming's Chart.
Temperature at which bt da ms, soot Value of coil, from
Coil coil was stated to be a Fleming’s chart
correct in 1867 cc at 16°0C. |
in 1867
A 16-0 C 100011 100011
B 158 100006 1:00035
C 15°3 1:00007 1 00056
D 15:7 0-99960 1:00052
E 15:7 100010 1:00102
F _ — 0:99971
G 15:2 0:99916 0:99937
Flat — — 1-:06034

If we tentatively adopt as the B.A. unit at any date the exact mean
of the resistances of the coils A, B, C, D, E, G at the temperatures at
which they were originally said to be equal, the values of the coils at
16°°0 C. in 1867, 1876, 1879-81, 1888, and 1908 are as given in
Table III. This table has been very easy to compile, because only the
differences between the resistances of the coils at the various dates, and
their temperature coefficients, were required. ,

In all the tables of this Appendix the values of high-temperature
coefficient coils are given within |] part in 100,000 ; but as the errors of
observation must often have exceeded the change in resistance corre-
sponding with a change in temperature of a coil of 0°-05 to 0°-1 C., too
much significance must not be attached to an apparent change in resist-
ance, corresponding with a difference in temperature of a coil of a tenth of
a degree.

It is clear that changes of very considerable magnitude have taken

Tasre III.

In this table it is assumed that the B.A. unit is equal to the mean of the coils
A, B, C, D, E, G at the temperatures at which they were found by Hockin
in 1867 to be correct, and that this mean has not altered.

Values at 16°0 C.

| Approx. | |
| Tempera- | |
Coil | Material ture Co- | 1867 1876 | 1879-81| 1888 1892 | 1903 1908
| | efficient |
| (1908) |
| A Pt. Ir. | 0°€0148 |1:00000 1-00021 | 1:00026 | 1-00083 — — 100034
B Pt. Tr. 000148 | 1:00029 1:f0065 | 1-:00050 | 1:00040 —_ — 100010
Cc Au. Ag. 0°00070 | 1:00050 1:00085 | 1:00071 | 1:00082 — — 100085
ae DD Pt. 0°00312 | 1:00092 1-00036 | 1:00067 | 1:00028 — — 100004
| # Pt. | 0°00314 100091" 1:00099 | 1:00117 | 1:00088 —_ == 1:00064
| F Pt. Ag. | 0:00027 — — 0°99986 | 1:00008 | 1:09051 1:00083 | 1:00072
G | Pt. Ag. 0:00028 | 1:00022 0:99974 | 0:99952 | 0:99961 | 0:99925 | 0°99975 1:00087
| H | Pt. Ag. | 000028 | 1:00020 _— — 0'99978 | 0°99943 | 099976 | 0:99956
| Plat | Pt. Ag. | 000027 — — 1:00049 | 1:00056 | 1:00033 100050 1:00037
Mean of |
A, B, C,D, E, G= |100047 1:00047 | 1:00047 | 1:00047 — | ae 1:00047

* For a note as to this value see p. 39,

ON PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS, 59

place, and the task before us is to select the most constant and the most
variable coils. In all such cases a table of difference values is most
helpful. Table IV. gives such values for the six coils A, B, C, D, E, G
in 1 x 10~-° B.A. units at 16°-0 C.

We conclude from the differences given in column 7 and the tempera-
tures given in the last column of Table IV. that B and E have possibly
remained constant during the period 1867-1908 and that C and D are
next in order of constancy. The coils D and E have remained relatively
constant since 1876,

Dr. Glazebrook in 1888 measured the B.A. unit in terms of the
specific resistance of mercury, and found that the value of the resistance
of a column of mercury, 1 metre long, 1 sq. mm. in section, at 0° C. was

0°95352 B.A. unit.
For the purposes of the comparison, Dr. Glazebrook used the two coils F
and G, and their values are given by him as
F=0:99807 B.A.U. at 10°C.
G=099718 44 LO;

These values were taken from Fleming’s chart, and when corrected to
16° C. they are practically identical with those recorded in Table II., as
they should be. Flat was also used (0:99857 B.A.U, at 10°C.), but
observations during the two years preceding 1888 showed that it was

TaBLe IV.
Difference Values in 1x 10-5 B.A. Units.

| The Difference!
| in Column 7
. | | is equivalent
Maximum | to an Uncer-
| Difference tainty of
Coil 1867 | 1876 | 1879-81 1888 1908 between | Temperature
| | Difference | of the Coil
| Values with the
| Largest Tem-
| | | perature Co-
. _| efficient of
Bee og gd) bg 43 24 87 O6C.
A-—C —50 | —64 —45 1 - 51 65 0:4
A-D —92 | -15 —41 55 30 147 05
A-E —-91 | —78 —91 -— 5 —30 86 0:3
A-—G --22 47 74 122”) <= 53 175 1:2
B-—C —21 | —20 —21 —42 —75 55 0-4
B-D —63 | 29 —17 12 6 92 0:3
B-E —62 | —34 — 67 —48 — 54 33 011
B-G 7 91 98 79 —T7 175 1:2
C-D —42 | 49 4 54 81 123 0-4
C_-—k —41 —14 —46 — 6 21 67 0-2
C-—G 28 11] 119 121 — 2 123 18
D-E 1* — 63 —50 —60 | —60 64 0:2
D-G 70 62 115 67 —83 198 06
E-G 69 125 165 127 —23 188 0-6

* Hockin (1867 Report) gives the temperatures at which D and E were correct
in 1865, 1866, and 1867. From the values given by him it appears that the difference
D—E was —59 x 10-> B.A.U. at 16°0 C. in 1865, —59x 10-® in 1866, and 1 in 1867.
These differences, taken in conjunction with those given in the above table, make
it practically certain that the difference given for 1867 is incorrect, anc should be
replaced by a difference of the order — 60.

4.0 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

relatively lower than when examined by Dr. Fleming, and its value was
not, therefore, taken from the chart.

In 1908 the individual coils were compared with the new mercury
standards set up at the N.P.L. and their values found in terms of mer-
cury. If we assume that the mean value of the coils A, B, C, D, E, G,
is the same as when Fleming’s chart was constructed, we obtain as the
resistance of 1 metre of mercury, 1 sq. mm. in section, at 0° C., the value

0:95333 B.A.U.,

an alteration of 20 parts in 100,000 since 1888.

If, on the other hand, we suppose that the mercury units set up in
1908 agree exactly with those constructed in 1888, then the mean value
of the six coils in question has altered by 0:00020 B.A.U. At the
present date, assuming as found in 1888, the resistance of 1 metre of
mercury, 1 sq. mm. in section, at 0° C. to be 0:°95352 B,A.U., the indi-
vidual coils have the values given in Table V., column 3.

TABLE V.
Values of Coils at 16°°0C. ir 1888 and 1908 obtained from comparison with
Mercury Tubes, assuming the Resistance of 1 Metre of Mercury to be
095352 B.A. Unit.

Value in 1888 at Time of
Coil | Determination of Specific Resistance Value in 1908

of Mercury *
A 1:00068 1:00042
B 1:00025 1:00018
C 1:00067 1:00093
D 1:00013 1:00012 |
E 1:00073 1:00072
K 0-99970 1-00080
G 0:99936 100095
iI 0:99963 0:99964

| Flat 100023 100045

not exactly at 0° C., and an error of about 4 parts in 100,000 was probably intro-
duced because of this. No correction on this score has, however, been applied, as
the magnitude of the error is only of the same order as the probable error of the
observations.

The apparent changes in resistance of the coils, together with the
alterations in temperature of the coils necessary to produce equal
changes in the resistance, are given in Table VI.

Tasie VI.
Coil | Resistance of Coil in 1908 minus | Change equivalent to !
Resistance of Coil in 1888 Difference of Temperature of
je}
A —26x 10-5 B.A.U. 0°18 C.
B --7 0:05
Cc +26 0:37
D —1 0:00
q ~1 0:00
F +110 4-0
i +159 Hy f
| I | +] 0:03

ON PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR.ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS, 41

From Tables V. and VI. it appears to be practically certain that tho
coils B, D, E, and H have the same resistance in 1908 as they had in
1888. The agreement of the values for D and E is very remarkable, for
the temperatures at which these coils were believed to be correct in 1888
are stated to the nearest tenth of a degree only ; an apparent change in
resistance of 15 parts in 100,000 would, therefore, have been negligible.
With respect to G, it has risen by over 1] part in 1,000 during the past
5 years and Flat changed by 17 parts in 100,000 in 1902.! The fluctu-
ations in the value of H are believed to have amounted to about 1 part in
10,000 during the period 1888-1908.”

Of the four coils B, D, E, H, apparently constant for the period 1888-
1908, we have already concluded from the differences given in Table IV.
that B, D, and E have remained approximately constant since 1867.
One of the coils D-E, appears, from Table IV., to have changed in the
interval 1867-1876, and the apparent change corresponds with the change
resulting when one of the coils is lowered 0°-2C. in temperature. It is,
however, practically certain that the change is only apparent. The tem-
peratures at which the platinum coils were stated to be correct in 1865,
1866, and 1867 are given by Mr. Hockin in the Report for 1867, They
are as follows :

1 BAU. at 15°7C, January 7, 1865

Coil No, 35 (D).4 1 oe) ap LSC. August; )).18,.1865
1 15°7C, February 10, 1867

1 a » 15°95 C. January 7, 1865
Coil No. 36 (E).< 1 » >», 15%5C. August 18, 1866
1 » » 15°7C, February 10, 1867

In the Report for 1888 the temperature coefficient of D is given as
0:00308 B.A. Unit, and of E as 000302 B.A. Unit. These values agree
closely with those given in Table III., and they have been used in the
compilation of the following complete list of the difference values (D-E)
which now deserves attention :

D-E = —59 x10-> BA.U. at 16°0C. Year 1865
” = --59 ” ” 9 ” 1866
3 = 1 % ee a » 1867
” = — 63 3 ” ” ” 1876
” = —50 ” ” ” ” 1879-81
db = —60 A + 7 » 1888
” = —60 ” ” ” ” 1908

_ The conclusion is obvious. The original difference between the coils
was approximately 60 x10~* B.A. unit and has remained constant ever
since. There is little doubt that the difference recorded for 1867 is
incorrect ; it may easily happen that there is a difference of 0°:2C.
between the apparent and true temperatures of a coil embedded in paraftin
wax, and such a difference would completely explain the 1867 result.

This conclusion necessitates a revision of the difference values in
Table IV. The corrections are easily made, for the differences A-E,
nt C-E and E-G should be respectively equal to the differences A—D,

—D, &e.

We believe that the two platinum coils have remained constant in
resistance since 1867, and that the values in 1867, 1879-81, 1888, and
1908 of these and other coils in terms of the original B.A. unit (1867)
are as follows :

' Brit, Assoc. Rep., 1903, _ 2 * fhid.

42 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

TaBLe VII.

Resistances at 16°-0 C. in terms of the original B.A. Unit (1867).
(Values obtained through the two Platinum Coils D, E.)

| 4
| Coil | Material | 1867 1876 | 1879-81 | 1888 1908 Si pone
A Pt. Ir. | 1:00000 | 100077 /1-00056 | 1-00147 | 1o01a2 | 147 x 10-5 B.A.U.
B Pt. Ir. | 100029 | 100121 100080 | 1:00104 | 1:00098 | 92 si |
C Au. Ag. | 1:00050 | 100141 | 100101 | 1-00146 | 100173 | 123 3
D Pt. | 1:00092 | 100092 | 1:00092 | 1-00092 | 1:00092 | 0 i) |
E | Pt. | 100152 | 100152 | 100152 | 1:00152 | 100152 | 0 4
Bey eB Ae ee — 100016 | 1-00072 | 1:00160 | 144 ; /
G Pt. Ag. | 100022 100080 0:99982 | 1:00025 | 1:00175 | 198 i!
H | Pt. Ag. | 1:000200/ — | —_ | 1:00042 | 1:00044 | 24 ‘
Flat | Pt. Age |) = — | 100079 | 100120 | 1:00125 | 46 3

From Tables IV. and VII. it is clear that the maximum number of
coils which can have kept constant is two, and if the platinum coils have
not remained constant then one only of the other coils can have done so.
Since D and E are of pure platinum, and not of an alloy, it is probable
that these would change least.

If our conclusions are correct, the results are not only of some value
as showing the changes which may take place in the resistance of certain
alloys when embedded in paraffin wax, but they are also of value because
the coils link together so many determinations of the ohm in absolute
measure and of the specific resistance of mercury. It is not convenient
to collect the various determinations here, but as an instance of the
uses to which the data given in this Appendix might be put we take
Lord Rayleigh’s and Mrs. Sidgwick’s determination in 1881! of the
specific resistance of mercury. It was found that 0°95412 B.A. unit was
equal in resistance to a column of mercury 100 cm. long, 1 sq. mm. in
section, at 0° C. Now in Lord Rayleigh’s experiments the terminals of
the mercury standards were not at 0°C., but at 5° or 6° C., and it was
shown by Dr. Glazebrook? in 1888 that an error of about 0-00024 was
almost certainly introduced because of this. If we apply a correction of
this amount, Lord Rayleigh’s value becomes 0:95388 B.A. unit as the
resistance of 100 cm. of mercury at 0° C. The coils F and Flat were used
in the 1881 determination, and the values of these coils were taken from
Fleming’s chart. They were therefore :

F=0°99971 B.A. unit at 16°°0 C. (From Table II.)
Flat = 1:00034 B.A. unit at 16°°0 C. (From Table II.)

From Lord Rayleigh’s observations, therefore,

F at 16°-0 C.=0:99971/0:95388 = 104:805 cm. mercury ; and
Flat at 16°-0 C. = 1-00034/0:95388 = 104-871 cm. mercury.

At the present time (1908)

F at 16°0 C. = 104959 cm. mercury ; and
Flat at 16°-0 C.=104:922 cm. mercury.

Using the 1908 values and the changes in F and Flat, recorded in
Table VIT., we conclude that in 1881

F at 16°-0 C, was equivalent to 104-808 cm. mercury ; and
Flat at 16°°0 C. was equivalent to 104°874 cm. mercury.

1 Phil. Trans., vol. 174, p. 173.
® Tbid,, A, 1888, pp. 375-6.

ON PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. AS

The difference from the values given by Lord Rayleigh is 3 parts in
100,000, which is less than the probable error of the observations. We
conclude, therefore, that the determination of Lord Rayleigh and Mrs,
Sidgwick in 1881 is in excellent agreement with that made at the
National Physical Laboratory in 1908, and this latter has already been
shown to agree with that made by Dr. Glazebrook in 1888.

The following is now a very useful summary. The values of the
coils in centimetres of mercury in 1881, 1888, and 1908 are given in
Table VIII.

TasLe VIII.

Giving the Values at 16°°0 C. of certain Coils in cm. of Mercury in 1881, 1888,
and 1908 obtained from comparisons with Mercury Standards.

|

} 1881 |
Benes peeenl ea L i ee Be 1908
ord Rayleigh’s De- Values at time of Dr. :
epmiintion of the | Glazebrook’s Deter- D Naloee eer j Maxi
Coil |Specific Resistance of mination. F, G, an etermined through AxUanTD
Me fay host) N.P.L. Mercury | Difference
ercury. F and Flat) Flat were used; for Standards’ at
were used; for Rela-| Relative Values of 'R re
tive Values of Coils , Coils see Table V. ped sie)
see Table VII.
em, em, cm. cm. |
A 104°847 104°946 104 918 0-071
B 104°872 104:90L 104 893 0:029
C 104°894 104°945 104:972 0-078
D 104°885 104°888 104°887 0-003
E 104:948 | 104:951 1014-950 0-003 |
F 104°805 104°8435 104°959 0-154 |
G 104°769 104:807 104°974 0°205
H — 104:836 104:837 0-001 |
Flat 104:871 104:898 104:922 0-051

The preceding comparison strengthens the conclusions already arrived
at respecting the most constant coils. From Table VIII., D and E have
apparently kept constant in resistance since 1881, while H appears to
have remained constant since 1888.

It is of some importance to note that in 1892 the ratio of the B.A,
unit to the ohm was accepted as being

1 ohm=1°'01358 B.A. unit,

this being based on the values

100 cm. mercury = 0'9535 B.A. unit.
106°3 cm. mercury = 1 ohm.

Other Platinum-Silver and Gold-Silver Coils.

Tn addition to the platinum-silver coils, F, G, H, and Flat, originally
constructed to represent the B.A. unit at a particular temperature, there
are three other platinum-silver coils, numbered 3715 (Nalder Brothers)
and 269 and 270 (Elliott Brothers), made to represent the ohm=1-01358
B.A. unit. There are also two 10-ohm platinum-silver coils, numbered
288 and 289 (Elliott Brothers). All these coils are the property of the
Association, and they were extensively used from 1888 to 1903 for the
standardising of other coils. From the results of observations recorded
in the Report for 1903 it appears that from 1894 to 1903 Nos. 3715 and

AA, REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

270 remained constant in resistance, and that from 1897 tu 1903, 28#
and 289 remained constant. In 1903 the N.P.L. mercury standards of
resistance were constructed, and since then the mercury standards have
been taken as constant, and the resistances of all coils expressed by
means of them. The B.A. unit (as obtained from all the platinum-
silver coils, taking the values given in 1888 as correct, and applying
corrections for estimated changes in the coils) was in 1903 found to
be equal to 1/1:01367 international ohm. Accepting this ratio for the
time being, the resistances at 16°-0 C. of certain coils, compared in 1888,
1894, 1897, 1903, and 1908, are given in the following table :—

Tasie IX,

Resistance

Material Approx. | Maximum
Coil | of Con- Temp, Co- eae SSS | Difference
struction | efficient 1888 1894 {| 1897 | 1903 1908 |(Parts in 100,000)
*3715 | Pt. Ag. 0:00030 — 1:00050 | — | 1:00050 1:00057 7
*269 5 0°00029 — 100070 — , 1:00089 1:00089 19
*270 5 0°000382 — 1:00006 — | 1:00006' 1:00003 | 3
*288 5 0°0030 —_— — 10°0060 |10'0060 10°0056 | 4
*289 =) 0°0026 _ 10°0026 10:0026 10°0031 | 5
64 | 0°000383 | 0°99976 — SNe ie NOOO TH 11
19 Au. Ag. 0°00071 0°99928 | — _ _— 0°99937 | 14
68(H)| Pt. Ag. 0:00029 |0:999099 | — | — = 0°99932 23
SI Geld = 0°00028 | 0:99927 | —— a. _ 0°99941 | 14
3b4 ‘Au. Ag. 0:00071 | 0:99980 | — _ — — 1°00006. 26
3 | Pt. Ag. 00081 9:9956 | — — — 9:9965 7
Noe aire 00083 | 9:9941 | — = — | 9:9964 | 23
10C.F.T, | “n 00080 = 99934 _ _— — | 9:9940 | 6

* The resistances of these coils are given in ohms (1 ohm=1'01358 B.A.U.). The remain-
ing coils have their resistances given in B.A. units.

For the loan of coil No. 64 we are indebted to Professor Trouton, of
University College ; originally this coil was in the possession of Professor
Carey Foster. For the loan of the coils numbered 19, 68 (H), 1 C.F.T.,
34, 3, 4, and 10 C.F.T. we are indebted to Mr. H. A. Taylor, of Victoria
Street, London. We tender our hearty thanks to Professor Trouton and
Mr. Taylor. All the coils, excepting 19 and 34, are of platinum-silver ;
19 and 34 are of gold-silver.

In Table TX. maximum differences of the order 1 to 5 parts in
100,000 may probably be neglected if this maximum difference does not
occur in the period 1903-1908. In 1903 and 1908 the errors of observa-
tion were very small, and a recorded difference of 1 or 2 parts in
100,000 must be taken as indicating a true change in the resistance of a
coil. The method of measuring a very small change in resistance will be
made clear in the next section on manganin coils.

The most constant coils appear to be 270, 288, 289, 10 C.F.T., 3, and
3715. Of these six resistances two only are unit coils; the remainder
are coils of 10 ohms each. In Table IX. the values of eight unit coils
and of five 10-ohm coils are tabulated, and of the latter four have kept
nearly constant. This fact is important, as it points to the changes of
resistance being largely due to actions at the soft-soldered joints, and
not entirely, if at all, to the action of paraffin wax (possibly acid) on
platinum-silver. In addition, part of the changes may be due to change
in structure of the alloy.

The values at 16°-0 C. of the coils A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H and Flat, in-

a a i! i a Oe, a ee

ON PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. Ad

terms of the unit of resistance employed for the purposes of Table IX.
are approximately

A = 1:00050 F = 1:00088
B = 1:00026 G = 1:00103
C = 1:00101 He =) 0799972
D = 1:00020 Flat = 1:00053
E = 1:00080

Manganin Standards of Resistance.

The manganin standards of the National Physical Laboratory are in
constant use and have proved of very great value. They not only facilitate
electrical measurements, but they bring them to a far higher degree of
accuracy than was formerly attainable. Nevertheless, the variations in
these resistances have if many cases been a source of trouble, and attempts
have been made, and are being continued, to construct standard coils of
manganin which shall remain practically constant in resistance.

Since 1903 the manganin standards have been intercompared at least
four times every year, and the probable changes have been deduced from
occasional comparisons with mercury standards and from tables of dif-
ference values, due regard being also paid to the past history of the coils.
As an example of the comparisons we take the case of seven l-ohm coils
which were intercompared in January, April, July, and October 1906,
The observed differences are given in Table X,

TABLE X.

| Differences in 1 x 10-5 ohm at 17°0 C,

Coils eee ree
Jan. 1906 | April 1906 | July 1906 — Oct.1906 yam
1690-780 6°82 6°87 7:05 B03) ie
MO90-2351 | 217 | 235 2-04 1-47 0:88
1690-2483. 0-26 | 0°48 0:26 —0'30 0-78
1690-381 | —5:80 — 6-05 — 5:97 — 6-27 047 |
1690-L:17 15°63 13-41 12-69 11:80 28a.

1690-L:18 16°69 16:05 15°54 14:92 1:67

Any one of these differences was not obtained from a single observa-
tion, but is the mean of six differences. All possible combinations of the

- seven coils were taken—2]1 in all—and the differences observed. From

these 21 observations six values resulted for the difference between any
two of the coils; it is the mean of these six values which is recorded.
The temperature during the observations was very nearly 17°-0C, and
the differences were corrected to 17° C. before taking the mean.

An analysis of the figures given in Table X. indicates that the coils
L17 and L'18 probably changed most during 1906, and that the other
five coils changed by amounts less than 3 parts in 1,000,000 from J anuary
to July 1906. From July to October the difference 1690-780 changed
by an appreciable amount and the differences in the values for J uly and
October, viz. :

1690— 780 Change = 112x10~ ohm.

1690 — 2351 Ss = aay et ae
1690 — 2483 ees Sine
1690 — 381 ee

indicate that 1690 probably fell in resistance in this period by about
6 parts in 1,000,000, and 780 rose by about 5 parts in 1,000,000. The

46 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

= JAN! JAN. Eo. WAN JAN JAN
03 1903 04 1904 ‘Os 1905 ‘068 1906 ‘07 1907 ‘08 190

er SUR eee ret
Fa

1! OHM ss!

|OHM 2483

ENS ues
ie lat

—>» 110000 <—
ie)
Pa
4
i
N

°

=

z
®

Sal
ae

—> 1'*10000 <—

CHAR? I: Showing the Variations in Resistance of Manganin Standard Coils of
Nominal Values, 1 Ohm, 10 Ohms, and 100 Ohms.

—¥ 1fo000 <—

ON PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 47

JAN JAN JAN aes art JAN ae AN JAN
‘03 1903 ‘04 1904 05 1905 ° ‘oO 1906 ‘o7 1907 ‘08 1908

6

BAH

— > 110000 <~—~—

CuHarT II: Showing the Variations in Resistance of Manganin Star dards of
Nominal Values, 0:001, 0:01, 0°1 Ohm, and 1,000 and 10,600 Ohms,

CO

48 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

otlier suiall changes are difficult to assign and are possibly due to variable
liumidity. The errors in the differences recorded are certainly less than
1 x 10° ohm.

The above is only part of the analysis of the differences which is in
general made. Comparisons with coils other than units are also often
desirable, but need not be dealt with here.

Table XI. gives the resistance of a number of manganin coils in the
October of each year from 1903 to 1907, and charts Nos. 1 and’2 show
the complete changes in most of the coils from March 19Q3 to June 1908.
In Table XI. the resistances are given in the same month of each year
in order to eliminate from the table (as much as possible) the effects of
humidity on the resistances of the coils.

Resistances L'19, 2448, and 2449 were placed in atmospheres of vary-
ing humidities in the interval October 1907—April 1908, and hence the
curves for these coils are not continued on the charts after January
1908,

TMiBnn ol.

Resistaneces in International Ohms at 17°:0 C.

Resistance Nominal | ,, | , ee : F 4
Standard Value Oct, 1903 Oct. 1904 Oct. 1905 | Oct. 1906 Oct. 1907
O.W. 2196 | 0:001 ohm — 0:00099996, 0°00099997, 000100000,, 000100014,
O.W, 2493 5 — 0:00100000,, 0:00100001, 0:00100001,) 0:00100001,,
| |
O.W. 2200| 0:01 ohm _ | 0:0100014, | 0°0100016, | 0:0100020, | 0-0100041, |
O.W. 2492 | 3 — 0°0100011, | 0°0100011, | 0°0100009, | 0°0100009, |
| | | |
O.W. 2352 | 01 ohm 0°099998. 0°099998,, 0°099998, 0°099998, — 0°0999995
O.W, 2484 an _ | 07100009, 0'100011, | 0100011, | O°100017, |
|
O.W. 1690 | Tohm | 1:00004, | 1:00002, 1:00002, | 1:00002, | 1:00000,
O.W. 780 55 | 099993, | 099994, | 0°99994) | 0°99996, 0'999965
O.W. 381 | 5 | 100009, | 1:00009, 100008, | 100008; | 1°00009,
O.W. 2483 Ee 1:00000, | 1:00000, 1:00002, | 1:00002, 1:00008;,
O.W, 2351 ” | 0:99999, | 0°99998, | 1.00000, 100001, 1:00002,
ay 55 0°99985., | 0:99986, 0°99987,, 0°999903 099992, |
L'18 rs 0°99984, | 0°99985, 099985. 0'99988., 0'99989,
| |
O.W. 738 | 10 ohms | 99987, | 9°9987, 99986, 9°9985.3 9°99875
O.W. 1698 . | 1070000; —, 100002, 100001, 1000023 10°0004,
19 - | = 9°9995, $9997, 9°9998; 10°0003,
E20 | + — | “9:9995- 99996 99999. 99999,
| |
O.W. 739 100 ohms 99°999,; | 99999, 99°999,; 99°999,, 99:999,,
O.W. 2450 ~ | 99°9955 100000, , 100°004, 100°009, | = 100°013,
O.W. 740 | 1000 ohms | 1000°15-; | 1000°17, | 1000°21, 100024, | 1000°26;
O.W, 2449 | 1000°01, | 1000°24, | 1000°49, 1000°66, -1000°81,
| | |
O | 10002°4, | 10003°5, 10003°8, | 10003°74

.W. 2448 10C00 ohms 10000°2,

At first limiting our attention to the unit coils, we see from the charts
that these have varied during the past five years by the following
amounts :—

ON PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS, 49

Taste XII.

| Difference Value.

| Maximum Change in Resist-

| aia |
| Coil | ance in 5 years | Resistance in 1908 minus Resistance in 1903
| £ Ss sav }
1690 37x10 ohm —3-7 x 10-$ obm
730 | 46 % 46 ,,
2361 78 " -—02 =,,
2483 4-4 Kn | Se was
381 2°6 <i ees
L:17 10°2 € Dist. 4;
L18 88 ” | 88 ”
6:0 3 / Mean = +42 ,,

If we neglect L:17 and L'15 the mean value of the other five coils
is 2-2 x 10° ohms greater in 1908 than in 1903,

Apart from the cause of these changes, it is interesting to form some
idea of what interpretation of the differences might reasonably have been
applied if mercury standards had not been the master standards. If the
mean value of the seven coils had been taken as remaining constant, the
error in five years would have amounted to 4:2 parts in 100,000. A com-
parison with coils of nominal values differing from unity might, however,
be made, and such might largely influence the result.

The maximum changes which have taken place in the other resistance
standards and the difference values (1908-1903 values) are given in
Table XIIT.

TasLe XIII.

Maximum 1908 Value
Resistance Nominal Change since minus Mean Difference.
Standard Value 1903. 1903 Value. | Parts in 100,000
Parts in 100,000 | Parts in 100,000
O.W. 2196 0:001 ohm 22-4 22°4 | Rt
O.W. 2493 0001 ,, 2:0 18 J
O.W. 2200 001 33°0 33:0 i) .
O.W. 2492 ool} 19 0-2 es
O.W. 2352 01 j 2-0 lt i
O.W. 2484 a 8-0 8-0 \ aE AL
O.W. 738 10 ohms 2-2 17
O.W. 1693 pate 80 72 le
L:19 nC peas 110 9-6* i
L:20 10 G 8-3 7°6*
OW. 739 ion? 4), 12 =10 wien ae
O.W. 2450 100% .48; 180 18-0 J A
O.W. 740 1000 eI 11:8 11-4 ;
O.W. 2449 1000. 89-4 89-4 \ +504 |
O.W. 2448 10000 fe 40:0 868 +368
Mean difference value (1908-1903 values) = +16°5 parts in 100,000.
Mean difference value (1908-1903 values) including the unit coils = +12°6 parts
‘ in 100,000.
* These are the difference values (1908-]904 values), rf
1908, EB

50 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

The mean difference in the values of all the manganin coils for 1908
and 1903 is 12°6 parts in 100,000. The oldest coils are 381 (seventeen
years old), 780, 738, 739, and 740 (thirteen years old), and 1693 and
1690 (eight years old), the ages being approximate only. The remainder
of the coils are from five to six years old.

The most constant coils belonging to various groups are :—

381-—most constant of the unit coils.

738 “ S 10 ohms coils.
739 “ as 100 ae
740 5 +5 1,000 ,,

In general, therefore, the older the coil the more constant does it
appear to be.

With reference to the sudden changes in resistance, as shown by the
curve for 2351 in 1903, of 381 in 1904-5, and of L'20 in 1906, we can
offer no complete explanation ; but it is possible that variable humidity of
the surrounding medium, such as might arise from the presence of a
small quantity of moisture in the insulating oil, was responsible for part
of these changes. :

The breaks in the curves for 2483, 2351, L:17, L'18, 1693, and 2484
are due to these coils being away from the National Physical Laboratory ;
they were being compared with the wire standards of the Reichsanstalt.

The increase in resistance of No. 2449 is phenomenal. The daily
rate of change for 1906 is over four parts in 10,000,000; that is, in
about twenty-two days the coil changed in resistance by about one part
in 100,000. In April 1907 we attempted to measure the change from
day to day, and for this purpose we compared 2449 and 740 every
working day for four weeks. The results obtained are as follows :—

Day of Observation . 5 1 3 5 8 10 12 15 17
ok:

Peon \ 5205 52°16 52°30 62:36 5225 62:30 62°55 52°65

Day of Observation . 19 22 24 26 29

Difference (2449-740)

ats | 52-76 52:95 53:00 53°00 65315

The change was, therefore, a very gradual one, and easily detected.
It is of interest to note that the rate of change for the last six months of
1907 is less than that for 1903-6.

The possible causes of the changes in the manganin resistances may
be classified under the following heads :—

. Change in structure of the alloy.

. Surface action.

. Humidity effect. :

. Change in the soldered joints connecting the wires of high-
resistance coils to the current leads.

Change at the junctions of the potential leads with the
resistance standard.

He Co bo ee

=

Only the first of these appears to fully explain the gradual rise in
resistance. Causes 2 and 4 would have an inappreciable effect on very
low resistances ; yet some of these—e.g. 2196—have changed by con-
siderable amounts. Cause No. 5 would have no effect on high-resistance
‘coils, since these are not provided with potential leads ; but Table XIII.
shows that all of the high-resistance coils have changed. Cause No. 3
produces in general a cyclic change, and, while being without doubt a

a A a ea. eee ee

ON PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 51

cause of variation, it cannot be modified to explain all the gradual
increases in resistance, owing to the negligible effect of humidity on very
low-resistance standards. Cause No. 1 appears, therefore, to have been
the chief agent in the cases we have considered.

It is necessary, however, that we should say something about other
manganin coils. In 1903 the resistances were measured of some manganin
coils (1 to 5,000 ohms) in a box by R. W. Paul, London. The coils
could not readily be immersed in oil, and the measurements were
therefore uncertain to about 1 part in 100,000. The resistances were
again measured in 1904, 1906, and December 1907. The maximum
change in the resistance of any coil is 5 parts in 100,000, while the
mean increase in resistance during 1903-7 is 4 parts in 100,000.

Tn 1902, and again in 1907, the resistances were measured of some
manganin coils (1 to 10,000 ohms) in box No. 1723 by O. Wolff, Berlin.
The maximum change in resistance during the period 1902-8 is about
6 parts in 100,000, and a few of the coils have kept practically constant.
Many manganin coils in other boxes are known, however, to have
changed very considerably.

Tt will be seen that of the manganin standards we have examinea
some have kept remarkably constant, while others are practically useless
as standards. It must not be concluded, however, that all manganin
resistances are subject to such changes. Drs. Jaeger and Lindeck have
shown that the manganin standards of the Reichsanstalt keep very
constant, and the manganin coils at the Bureau of Standards also appear
to be of a fairly constant type, though subject to considerable cyclic
changes owing to variable atmospheric humidity. The manganin
standards reported on in this Appendix comprise every standard resistance
of manganin in use in the Standards Department of the National

Physical Lahoratory,

APPENDIX II.

Specifications for the Practical Realisation of the Definitions of the Inter-
national Ohm and International Ampere, and Instructions for the
Preparation of the Weston Cadmium Cell.

(From the National Physical Laboratory.)

The following specifications have been prepared after consultation
with various authorities, and will form a basis for discussion at the
forthcoming Congress on Electric Units in London. They have not
been authoritatively adopted, and are subject to amendment.

In the last Report specifications for the realisation of the inter-
national ampere and for the construction of the cadmium cell were
given, the processes of preparation, &c., being described with considerable
detail. These specifications appeal to a much wider circle than the
present ones, for the latter are intended mainly to serve as a guide to the
standardising institutions of the various countries in order to obtain, as
far as possible, complete agreement in the units of electric measurements.
Certain instructions, such as the purification of mercury, have therefore
been omitted, but all which is thought to be essential for an exact repro-
duction of conditions is still included, Instructions for the erection of
mercury standards have not previously been issued.

. E2

52 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

The International Ohin.

The international ohm shall be equal to the resistance offered to an
unvarying electric current by a column of mercury at the temperature of
melting ice, 14-4521 grammes in mass, of a constant cross sectional area,
and of 106°300 centimetres in length, arranged in accordance with the
following specification.

The column of mercury shall be of circular section, or nearly so, and
shall be contained in a tube of suitable glass which has been carefully
annealed. The tube shall be straight to the eye, and the maximum
variation in its area of cross section shall not exceed 2 parts in 100. The
tube is to be carefully calibrated, and the correction for its conicality
determined.

In determining the weight of mercury contained by the tube when
filled at the temperature of melting ice, the column of mercury is to be
bounded by planes at the terminal cross sections of the tube. The tube
should not be unduly heated, and it should be filled with mercury by
exhaustion of air.

The axial length of the tube should be measured at 0° C. if possible,
otherwise the coefficient of expansion of the glass should be determined
and the axial length of the tube at 0° C. calculated from axial measure-
ments made very near to that temperature. To facilitate measurements
of the axial length, the ends of the tube should be ground very slightly
convex.

For the electrical measurements the ends of the tube are to be
connected to spherical bulbs of glass, the ends of the tube forming,
approximately, portions of the internal spherical surfaces of the bulbs.
Each bulb is to be provided with current and potential leads, the point
of entry of the former being at the opposite end of a diameter of the bulb
from an end of the tube. The potential Jead shall be situated in a
plane midway between the point of entry of the current Jead and the
end of the tube, and at right angles to the line connecting them.

Contact with the mercury shall be made by means of platinum
wires.

The diameter of a bulb is to be from 30 to 33 times the diameter
of that end of the tube to which it is connected.

If Lis the axial length in centimetres of the mercury column con-
tained by the tube at 0° C., W the weight of the column in grammes, and
c the correction for the conicality of the tube, the resistance of the
column at 0° C. is

Seah ee oad
(106-300)? W

= 0:001278982 c = international ohms.

When the spherical bulbs are fitted to the ends of the tube and the
whole filled with mercury, if 7 is the mean radius of the tube and 7, 7,,
the mean radii in centimetres of the terminal sections, the resistance at
0° C. between the potential leads is ;

TL? (“ a -)
0:001278982 WE Go 0:80r? \ 7, 72 / ;international ohms,

d

ON PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS, 5s

correct to 1 per cent. of the added resistance
L ”, + 12\)*
0-001278982 4, { 0-8 0r (“1-7”) |
W Tit. ji)
* The end correction factor is given in these formula as 0-80: this Value is.
however, subject to amendment.

The electrical measurements are to be carried out at 0° C., the tube and
spherical vessels being surrounded by melting ice and about 15 centi-
metres below the upper surface of the ice. The connecting wires employed
for the current and potential leads must be thin, the flow of heat through
them to the mercury being insuflicient to warm the mercury so as to
produce appreciable error.

The insulation resistance between the mercury column and the ice
surrounding the tube must not be less than 10,000,000 ohms.

The current employed in comparing the mercury resistance with other
resistances shall be limited by the condition that the mercury shall not
be warmed sufficiently to produce appreciable error.

The mean of at least five tubes must be taken to determine the value
of the mercury unit.

The mean of at least three fillings shall be taken as the value of the
resistance of a tube.

Specification for the Practical Application of the Definition of the
International Ampere.

Conditions under which silver is to be deposited to measure currents
from 0°5 to 8 amperes:—

The solution shall consist of from 15 parts to 25 parts by weight of
pure crystallised silver nitrate in 100 parts of distilled water free from
chlorine. It shall be used for one determination of current only.

In cases in which it is desired to measure a current of about 1 ampere
the anode shall consist of a disc or plate of pure silver about 60 square
centimetres in area and 3 or 4 millimetres in thickness. It is supported
by a silver rod riveted through its centre. The anode shall be inserted
into a cup of filter paper separately supported.

The kathode shall consist of a platinum bowl about 10 centimetres in
diameter and 7 centimetres in depth.

About 300 cubic centimetres of the silver-nitrate solution are to be
placed in the kathode bowl, and the anode is to be supported near the top
of the solution and is to be just covered by it. Not more than from 7 to
10 grammes of silver should be deposited.

(For the measurement of smaller currents, say from } to + ampere, a
bowl holding about 60 cubic centimetres of solution may be used, the
anode being proportionately reduced in size and from 2 to 3 grammes of
silver being deposited.)

The deposit should be rinsed with distilled water free from chlorine
until the addition of a drop of neutral solution of sodium chloride in water,
to the wash water, produces no milkiness. The kathode bowl is then
nearly filled with distilled water and left for at least three hours ; it should
_ be rinsed three times, the last of these wash waters remaining in the bowl
for ten minutes. This: last wash water should give no milkiness when
added to a neutral solution of sodium chloride in water. The deposit is

54 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

to be dried in an electric oven at a temperature of about 160° C. ; it is
placed in a desiccator to cool, and is afterwards weighed.

The mass of the deposit, expressed in grammes, divided by the number
of seconds during which the current has been passed and by 0-:001118,
gives the mean current in amperes,

Preparation of the Weston Cadmium Standard Cell.

The cell has mercury for its positive electrode, and an amalgam con-
sisting of from 12 to 12°5 parts by weight of cadmium in 100 parts of the
amalgam for its negative electrode. The electrolyte consists of a saturated
solution of cadmium sulphate, and solid cadmium sulphate is contained
within the cell. A paste, consisting of solid mercurous sulphate, mercury,
and solid cadmium sulphate, rests on the positive electrode.

For the positive electrode, pure distilled mercury should be used.

The amalgam may be made either by electrodeposition or by mechani-
cal mixing. It should be fused and freed from oxide by washing with
dilute sulphuric acid.

For the preparation of the cadmium sulphate crystals and solution,
commercially pure recrystallised cadmium sulphate should be dissolved in
pure distilled water so as to form a clear saturated solution. Evaporation
at about 35° C. is then allowed to proceed, when crystals separate from
the solution. The crystals are washed with successive smali quantities of
distilled water, and part of them is dissoived in distilled water to form
a saturated solution. The solution should be neutral to congo red.

The mercurous sulphate should be quite pure, and its crystals should
not be so small as to have an abnormal solubility or so large as to be in-
efficient as a depolariser. The following is an example of a method for
preparing the salt satisfactorily :—

Add 15 cubic centimetres of pure strong nitric acid to 100 grammes of
pure mercury, and place on one side until the action is over or nearly over.
Transfer the mercurous nitrate thus formed, together with the excess of
mercury, to a beaker containing about 200 cubic centimetres of dilute nitric
acid (1 volume of acid to about 40 volumes of water); a clear solution
should result. Prepare about 1 litre of dilute sulphuric acid (1 volume of
acid to 3 of water), and while the mixture is hot add the acid mercurous
nitrate solution to it. The solution should be added as a very fine stream
from the narrow orifice of a pipette, and the mixture violently agitated
during the mixing. Mercurous sulphate is precipitated. Decant the hot
clear liquid and wash the precipitate twice by decantation with dilute sul-
phuric acid (1 volume of acid to 6 of water). The precipitate should then
be filtered and washed three times with dilute sulphuric acid (1 to 6), and
afterwards 6 or 7 times with saturated cadmium sulphate solution to
remove the acid. The mercurous sulphate should then be flooded with
saturated cadmium sulphate solution and left for one hour, after which the
solution is tested with congo red paper. In general no acid will be
detected, and if so the mercurous sulphate is ready for use.

To set up the cell the H form of vessel is the most convenient. The
platinum wires inside the vessel should be amalgamated by passing an
electric current to each in turn through an acid solution of mercurous
nitrate. The vessel must afterwards be washed out twice with dilute
nitric acid and several times with distilled water ; it must be free from
stains and scrupulously clean ; it is dried by the application of heat. The

ON PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 5D

amalgam is fused and its surface flooded with very dilute sulphuric acid ;
sufficient of it to cover the amalgamated platinum wire completely should
then be introduced into one of the limbs of the H vessel. To free from
acid the amalgam may be remelted and washed with distilled water. Into
the other limb of the vessel sufficient mercury is introduced to cover the
amalgamated platinum wire completely. Then the paste, finely powdered
crystals of cadmium sulphate, and saturated cadmium sulphate solution
are added in the order named and the cell sealed.

Its electromotive force at 20° C. is 1-018, volt.

The electromotive force at any other temperature (¢) may be obtained
from the equation :—

E,=1-018,—0:000038 (¢—20)—0-00000065 (¢—20)’,
the limits of temperature being—(these have not yet been fixed).

Magnetic Observations at Falmouth Observatory.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Sir W. H. Pregce (Chairman), Dr. R. T.
GLAZEBROOK (Secretary), Professor W. G. Apams, Dr. CHREE,
Captain Creaxk, Mr. W. L, Fox, Sir A. W. Ricker, and Professor
SCHUSTER,

THE results of the magnetic observations at the Falmouth Observatory
have been published in the Annual Report of the National Physical
Laboratory, as well as in that of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic

Society.
The mean values of the magnetic elements for the year 1907 were :—
Declination . : : kG pO EW
Horizontal Force ; . 0°18799 C.GS.
Vertical Force . : . 0°43330 C.G.S,
Inclination . 5 : -y OG", oat IN:

The Observatory has been inspected by Mr. T. W. Baker, who found
the instruments recording satisfactorily. He also took some absolute
observations, which accorded well with those taken by Mr. Kitto.

The Committee are informed that the observatory at Eskdalemuir has
only commenced work during the current year, so that comparative
results are not yet available, while the disturbances due to electric
traction in the neighbourhood of London have a natural tendency to
increase. The maintenance of magnetic work at Falmouth in full
efficiency has thus lost none of its importance. It is most desirable to
secure this for at least another year, and the Committee ask for
reappointment, with a grant of 50/.

56 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

Geodetic Are in Africa.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir
GEORGE Darwin (Chairman), Sir Davin Gru (Secretary), Major
C. F. CLosr, and Sir GEORGE TAUBMAN GOLDIE, appointed to
co-operate in the Measurement of a further portion of the Geodetic
Are of Meridian North of Lake Tanganyika. (Drawn up by the

Chairman.)

On May 7, 1907, Sir David Gill, Sir George Goldie, and Sir George
Darwin wrote a joint letter to the Secretary of State for the Colonies
suggesting that advantage should be taken of the presence of a Boundary
Commission in Uganda to measure a further portion of the are of
meridian of the 30th degree of east longitude, and offering, on behalf of
the Royal Society, the Royal Geographical Society, the Royal Astro-
nomical Society, and the British Association, to contribute the sum of
1,000/. towards the cost of the work.

This Committee was appointed at the meeting of the Association held
at Leicester.

On August 5 and August 20 the Secretary of State wrote to Sir David
Gill agreeing to the proposal, and offering the post of skilled observer to
Mr. G, T. McCaw.

On September 4 the Foreign Office suggested to the Government of
the Congo Free State the desirability of their co-operation. This was
agreed to on December 13, and that Government agreed further to send
and pay for a skilled observer, namely, M. Dehalu, of Liége.

It was agreed that the whole operation of measuring the are should
be under the joint control of the Boundary Commissioners.

Technical instructions were handed to Mr, McCaw on his departure
from England, and he arrived at Toro, a point on the arc, on March 14,
1908, having with him all his instruments. He was joined by M. Dehalu
at Toro on April 16, 1908. ©

The state of the work, as described in letters from Colonel Bright,
the officer in charge of the Boundary Commission, and from Mr. McCaw
on May 9, was as follows :—

The arc-measuring party consists of Captain Jack, R.E.; Mr.
McCaw ; two British non-commissioned officers ; one Belgian officer ; and
M. Dehalu. ;

The preliminary reconnaissance of the arc from Lake Albert to 1° of
S. latitude had been completed by the Commission. The final recon-
naissance of two figures had been completed and six stations had been
built. The base had been selected and marked and observations at one
station had been completed.

On the annexed map the portion of the survey, for which the stations
are built and the corresponding triangles measured, are shown with firm
oe The proposed triangles for the rest of the arc are shown in dotted

ines.

The information contained in this report has heen furnished by the
War Office through Major C. F. Close, R.K.

GEODETIC ARC IN AFRICA.

ALBERT
NYANZA

PROGRESS ON Arc uP To 9!" May [908.
(2296F7)

(M observat ons fipished
Stations, buift

Stations proposed.

ALBERT EDWARD
NYANZA

J Bartholomew. & Co Edm?

or [014 Inches to 32 Miles
ee LS

1
2,000,000
10 20

Se ae eee

58 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Lord MCLAREN (Chairman), Professor Crum Brown
(Secretary), Sir JoHN Murray, Professor F. W. Dyson, and Mr.
R. T, Omonp.

SincE the closing of the Ben Nevis Observatories in October 1904 the
Committee has directed its attention to the completion of the publication
of the meteorological observations made at the observatories. The obser-
vations from the opening of the observatories, 1883, to the end of 1897,
have been published in extenso in volumes xxxiv., xlii., and xliii. of the
‘Transactions’ of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. The records down to
the end of 1900 are in type, and the printing of those of the remaining
years is being proceeded with.

The British Association last year gave a grant of 25/. to assist the
publication of these records. This has been wholly expended in printing.
This sum and grants received from other sources have provided sufficient
funds to ensure the publication in the ‘Transactions’ of the Royal Society
of Edinburgh of all the hourly observations made at the Ben Nevis
Observatories, and of certain discussions of these observations made by
the late Dr. Buchan, Mr. R. T. Omond, and others.

The arrangements for the publication of the final volume of obser-
vations having now been completed, the Committee do not desire
reappointment.

The further Tabulation of Bessel Functions.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor M. J. M. Hitt (Chairman), Dr. L. N. G.
FILon (Secretary), and Professor ALFRED LopGE.

FURTHER progress has been made this year with the calculations. The
values of log sin a and thence of a have been worked out for n=3, 13,
25, ... 6} (the notation being identical with the one employed in last year’s

Report). Values of log ? where k=}(4n?—1), have also been calculated.

These were found to give a sequence suitable for interpolation, The
accuracy of the results have been tested from the formula

Sec. (a, ae a a,,) =R,R,,,1.

The work, however, is not sufficiently advanced for the tables to be
printed. As the greater part of the work will now be done by members
of the Committee personally, the necessity for a grant disappears, and
the Committee therefore ask for reappointment without a grant.

INVESTIGATION OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE BY KITES. 59

Inwestigation of the Upper Atmosphere by means of Kites in co-opera-
tion with a Committee of the Royal Meteorological Society.— Seventh
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. W. N. Saaw (Chairman),
Mr. W. H. Dives (Secretary), Mr. D. AncurpaLp, Mr. C. VERNON
Boys, Dr. R. T. Guazesroox, Dr. H. R. Mitt, Professor A.
Scuuster, and Dr. W. Watson. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

MeeEtines of the Joint Committee were held in the rooms of the
Royal Meteorological Society on October 16, 1907, and January 22 and
May 5, 1908.

During the year the Committee arranged with Captain Ley that
he should send up registering balloons on some of the days appointed
by the International Committee, more particularly during the period
July 27 to August 1, 1908, and also that he should continue the
investigation on the direction and velocity of the upper currents by
the method devised by himself, which requires only one theodolite.

Captain Ley has carried out a valuable series of observations, and
the results will be published in due course.

The grant of 25/7. made last year by the Association has been
allotted to the Howard Estate Station, at Glossop Moor, for the purpose
of supplementing the observations made there by means of a captive
balloon, and a report on the subject by Professor Petavel is appended.

The Committee ask for reappointment and for a grant of 25/,

The Captive Balloon at the Howard Estate Kite Station.
By J. E. Peravet, £.2.S.

The funds granted by the British Association Committee and by
the Royal Meteorological Society have been used to erect the necessary
gasometer and generating plant at Glossop.

The gasometer, of some 250 cubic feet capacity, is arranged so that
by a manipulation of the counterweights the pressure can be varied, and
the gas passed out into the balloon or drawn back from it as may be
required.

Rubber balloons are used having a capacity of some 200 cubic feet.
These are filled whenever the wind proves insufficient to raise a kite, and
are sent up usually at sunset. The height reached varies from 5,000 feet
above sea level in a calm to 1,500 feet or 2,000 feet in a light breeze.
Fine steel wire, weighing 4 lb. per mile and having a breaking strain of
50 Ib., is used for the ascent.

Up to the present an ordinary Dines kite meteorograph has been
employed.

The balloon is deflated and the gas drawn back into the gasometer
each evening.

At present some thirty ascents have been made, which are of consider-
able value, as they maintain the continuity of the observations on days
on which it is not possible to send up a kite.

The apparatus has also been used by Captain Ley and others for pilot-
balloon ascents.

60 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

Seismological Investigations.—Thirteenth Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor H. H. Turner (Chairman), Dr. J. MILNE
(Secretary), Dr. T. G. Bonney, Mr. C. Vernon Boys, Sir
GEORGE Darwin, Mr. Horace Darwin, Major L. Darwin, Professor
J. A. Ewine, Dr. R. T. GLAzEBRoox, Mr. M. H. Gray, Professor
J. W. Jupp, Professor C. G. Knorr, Professor R. MreLpoua, Mr.
R. D. OLpHaM, Professor J. Perry, Mr. W. E. Plummer, Professor
J. H. Poynting, Mr. CLEMENT REID, and Mr. NELSON RICHARDSON.
(Drawn up by the Secretary.)

[PLATES I.-1V.]

ConvTENTS.

PAGE

I, General Notes on Stations and Registers. Relationship to the Interna-
tional Seismological Association. Nen Installations. Catalogue of

Earthquake Literature. Time Signals . ° 60
II. Sites of Stations . : : : 5 ; : b ; ; ; . 62
III. On the Orientation of an Instrument with regard to the Building in which

itis placed. - 63

IV. Lhe Large Earthquakes of 1907 . ' : ; 63

V. After-shocks of the Jamaica Larthquake, January 14, 1907 : ‘ . Gt
VI. The Dissipation of Earthquake Motion as measured by Amplitude and

Duration ; “ 5 : : : . : : ; 5 a 10g;

VII. On the Direction Earthquake Motion is most freely prvpagated . 3 ik:

VIII. A Catalogue of Destructive Earthquakes. : ; : : : » | 18

IX. On aw Seismogram obtained in London on October 16, 1907 . é : 2 OL

X. Map of the World. Ly R.D.OLDHAM : : ; : ; . 82
XI. A Catalogue of Chinese Earthquakes. By SHINOBU HIROTA . i . 82

T. General Notes.

For assistance in the compilation of this report and earthquake registers,
together with general services rendered in the laboratory, my thanks are
due to Mr. 8. Hirota, Mr. J. H. Burgess, and Mr. H. C. O’Neill. For
financial support, which extends to the observatory at Bidston, I have
to thank the Royal Society, the British Association, the administrators
of the Gray Fund, and Mr. Richard Cooke. The Committee ask to be
reappointed and for a grant of 60/.—J. Mir. ;

Siegisters.— During the past year the registers issued are contained
in Circulars Nos. 16 and 17. They refer to Shide, Kew, Bidston, Edin-
burgh, Paisley, Haslemere, San Fernando, Malta, Cape of Good Hope,
Azores, Calcutta, Bombay, Kodaikanal, Batavia, Cairo, Trinidad, Toronto
Victoria, B.C., Perth, Sydney, Christchurch, Lima, Irkutsk, Beirit,
Cordova, Baltimore, and Honolulu. }

Records have not yet been received from Melbourne and Arequipa,
while registers from Philadelphia, Mexico, Wellington, and Mauritius
should be brought up to date.

The Sydney Register for August 1906, Circular 16, omits any reference

—_—--

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS, 61

to the disturbance which on the 17th of that month destroyed Valparaiso.
The omission is due to the fact that the original seismogram had been
loaned to the International Seismological Association, and was not
returned in time for publication in its right place. It, however, appears
in Circular 17.

In other cases also the International Seismological Association have
communicated directly with stations which for some years past have
kindly co-operated with the British Association, The result has been
that serious inconvenience has been experienced. In connection with this
attention may be drawn to the following resolution of the Council of the
Royal Society of London, dated December 6, 1906 :—

‘ Resolved—That the Council are of opinion that no change should be
made in the practice whereby all seismological reports and observations
for the United Kingdom are collected and transmitted by Professor Milne.’

It is fully recognised that every station which has kindly given assist-
ance to the British Association Seismological Committee is an independent
unit, and will therefore act upon such lines as seem best fitted to advance
seismological investigation.

All circulars issued by the British Association Committee are sent
not only to co-operating stations, but to others who express a wish to
receive them. It has been thought advisable, however, not to send original
seismograms anywhere by post, since on several occasions these have been
lost. As far as possible photographic copies are sent to those who desire
them.

Instruments.—In January and February 1907 two single-boom instru-
ments were despatched to Capt. H. G. Lyons, Director-General Survey
Department, Egypt. Each gives an open diagram (similar to Plate I1.),
and is oriented at right angles—one recording N.S. motion and the other
E.W. motion. The station is at Helwan, near Cairo.

On January 21 a similar instrument was forwarded to W. G. Davis,
Esq., Director of the Argentine Meteorological Observatory at Buencs
Ayres. In October a fourth instrument, also giving an open diagram, was
despatched to the order of the Ayent-General for South Australia, to
Adelaide.

In May 1908 a single-boom instrument was forwarded for the Cosego
del Servicio Geografico, Madrid ; while in June a twin-boom seismograph
was constructed to be used by the National Physical Laboratory in their
new station at Eskdalemuir, South Scotland.

Catalogues.—Considerable time has been spent in cataloguing the
papers and books which relate to earthquake phenomena. Those in the
English language have been completed, and Mr. O'Neill is now engaged
upon those in foreign languages.

Time Signals.—The clock which gives us the time for the instruments
at Shide is regulated by a Greenwich signal which is sent daily to all
chief post offices throughout Great Britain. From time to time this
signal, which is not visible to the public, is kindly given to me by the
officials at the General Post Office at Newport. This involves a
journey of two miles. To avoid this, and to assure greater accuracy, an
attempt was made to obtain this signal at Shide. With this object
in view the Astronomer-Royal, and subsequently the Council of the
British Association, wrote to the Postmaster-General. It was pointed
out that the observatory at Shide ‘has been of universal interest and of
recognised public importance, This station serves as a centre for stations

62 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

in many of our colonies and in foreign countries. Many of these
foreign and colonial stations were established as the direct result of the
action taken by the Foreign Office, the Colonial Office, and the India
Office, whose assistance was given partly on the ground that the object
in view was considered to be of practical value to her late Majesty’s
Government. The Royal Observatory at Greenwich, and other observa-
tories, refer to Professor Milne in matters of earthquake phenomena ;
and his observations throw light upon certain cable interruptions, indi-
cating the times when “regulators” and other instruments found in
observatories may have been disturbed. But, for the precise rectification
of these observations, it will be highly desirable for Professor Milne tc
receive time signals. Inasmuch as the observations made at Shide and
the co-operating stations, directly or indirectly are of assistance to several
Government departments, the Council of the British Association desire
to urge you to authorise the transmission of the time signal to Professor
Milne, not as a member of the public, but as an official carrying out
observations which are of service to the State.’ From the General Post
Office the matter was referred to the Lords Commissioners of the
Treasury. When it was found that the only condition under which
the signal could be obtained was ‘the usual rental terms,’ the rental for
the wire being 22/. per annum, under an agreement for five years,
together with the payment for installation, which was very high, the cor-
respondence closed.

II, Sites of Stations.

Perth, Western Australia..—The instrument is established at the
observatory, which is situated on a hill 200 feet high quite away
from the city. The building stands in the middle of a reserve of
11 acres and the traftic is slight. About a quarter of a mile away
there is an electric tram. The seismograph is mounted on a concrete
pedestal, and the clockwork on a marble slab on the top of solid
brickwork, the whole being embedded in the concrete floor of the
basement of the dome building, The character of the soil all round
Perth is loose sand, which transmits vibrations only too well. Mr. Cooke,
the Government Astronomer, says, ‘We have had a lot of trouble and
have taken rather unusual precautions to get rid of these vibrations in our
transit house, but without any great success.’ The Perth Mint authorities
have had practically to give up their standard weighings owing to the
impossibility of obtaining sufficient stability for their balances. They
are right in the centre of the town. The sand seems to be in a state of
perpetual quiver, and it is impossible to keep mercury steady—unless in
an amalgamated trough—on any of our piers.

Lima.—The observatory is in the Exhibition Gardens, one mile south
of the cathedral. Long. 79° 21’ 5-2 W. of Paris. Lat. 12° 3’ 5-8
south. Lima is built on a gently sloping plain formed of ejecta from
Rimak during recent times. It is bounded on three sides by foot-hills
or spurs of the Andes. Formation is gravel and conglomerate resting
on andesites. Distance from sea, 4 miles ; height, 400 feet ; slope to the
sea, 1} per cent. ; foundations for the pillar and table are stone and
cement to a depth of 10 feet. The boom runs north to south, the
clock-box being at the south end—Mr. H. Hopr-Jones, Geographical
Society, Lima.

1 Also see B.A. Reports, 1905, p. 84; 1906, p. 93; 1907, p. 87.

British Association, 78th Report, Dublin, 1908, The Large Earthquakes of 1907. PLATR 1

Origins for 1907 are indicated by their BA. Shide Register number. Earthquake districts are indicated A, B, ©, dtc., and the number of Earthquakes since 1899 which
originated from these 18 expressed in largo

THE WORLD

on >
z
MERCATORS PROJECTION. 4OR THE MOST PART THESE
WERE SHALL EARTNQUAN
L aN zie (QUAKES

Tilustrating the Report on Sersmological Investigations,

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS, 63

TIL. On the Orientation of an Instrument with regard to the Building in
which it is placed,

At Shide, in the Isle of Wight, one portion of the observatory runs
east and west. It has two north and south cross-walls ; it is therefore
very much more stiff in an east and west direction, or along its length,
_ than in a direction at right angles. Storms generally strike the building
_ from the south or south-west—that is to say, in the direction it is most
_ likely to yield. In the building there are two very heavy horizontal
_ pendulums, one of which points to the south and the other towards the
east. At the time of strong winds, or even in light gales the latter
1 pendulum, even in spite of damping arrangements, responds to wind
_ impacts from the south or south-west. It does this to such an extent-
_ that during stormy weather it is useless as a recorder of earthquakes. I
_ may add, the building is very solidly constructed ; the support for the
pendulum is a heavy mass of concrete entirely free from the foundation
of the building. The pendulum which points north, south, or end on to
the direction from which gusts of wind come, remains quite steady even
during the heaviest of storms. Both pendulums are attached to the same
_ support, which is a lamp-post embedded in the concrete foundation already

mentioned.

IV. The Large Earthquakes of 1907.

On the accompanying map (Plate I.) we find the origins of large earth-
‘quakes which have occurred during 1907 indicated by their numbers as
given in the Shide Register. The accuracy of the position of an origin which
is indicated by the position of a number greatly varies, and is naturally
dependent upon the data available for its determination. In certain
instances a number only means that a particular disturbance originated
within a certain district. For the year 1907 we see that certain of these
districts were entirely free from megaseismic disturbances. The area which
‘Suffered the greatest disturbance was district F. This and its Himalayan
continuation is one where irregularities of surface contour are pronounced,
and it is therefore a district in which seismic instability should be ex-
pected. The following table gives the number of large earthquakes which
have occurred in the principal earthquake-producing regions since

“2

1899 1900 1901 1902 1908 1904 190519061907 Total. Ratio to D.
ss ‘

a a DE IMUTSt Oma Ea ape ho RD: Meaghan Tg
‘East |B. ee en Oa at 49 23
SE 8 ARO eg g.0rgeah Og Vo a Oia age)! bE
g Peeeinan errr tS). iat kp oOo MH B29 91 oto
| Total Set one ts Te 1s Poy 6. 19. 14. 798
Se Te Be Og gigs giigy gor gy ogg
Bf “1 ae gy) Del goa 29% Bo VElMaa 464! 9g: 14g
Bs od cal) oso6 81 61261410) 90 16 24 95,129 64
.
- ue ee Dose Easy he nes Sri —T — a = ete
Total . 30 16 27 46 41 928 40° 58 38 318
, — — — _-_ lhl —— —_ — —_ ——
Grand total. . 61 36 45 63 64 28 46 66 52 461

The first four districts are on the eastern side of the Pacific and in the
Caribbean Sea, while the last three refer to the western side of the Pacific

64. REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

and the Himalayan ridges. ‘The totals for these groups of districts show
that the greatest seismic activity has been on the Asiatic side of the Pacific
Ocean, particularly in the East Indian Archipelago, The least disturbed
district has been the west side of South America. Another feature of
interest shown by these totals is that from the year 1902 they rise and fall
together ; that is to say, seismic frequency on the two sides of the Pacific
has fluctuated similarly. From this we may infer that seismic frequency
in a district is not entirely governed by local influences, but largely by
influences which extend over very large areas. As illustrative of these
latter influences attention may be called to the redistribution of surface
materials by ocean currents, or to stresses which may accompany unusual
changes in the path followed by the pole of our earth.

V. After-shocks of the Jamaica Earthquake, January 14, 1907.

Tn an official report, No. 33a, on the earthquake of January 14, 1907,
by Maxwell Hall, the time given for the commencement of the main dis-
turbance is 3.29 p.m. (Jamaica time). The difference in longitude between
Kingston and England is equivalent to 5h. 7m., and the time which
large waves would take to travel between these places or 67° would be
43m. The time at which this particular phase of motion would be
recorded in England would approximately be 21h. 19m. (G.M.T.)
Inasmuch as Mr. Maxwell Hall’s time refers to an observation made at
Chapleton, and not at Kingston, we should expect the arrival of waves
in England to be one or two minutes earlier than the time we have just
given, and as a matter of fact they were recorded at the Isle of Wight at
21h. 17m. During the night of the 14th and 15th, we learn from the
same report that 15 shocks were counted at Kingston. The times at which
these occurred are not given, but as they appear to have been noted by
persons out of doors we regard them as the more violent members of
a rouch larger series. In the Isle of Wight small disturbances were
recorded on the 14th at 23.40, 23.45, 23.52, and on the 15th at 0.2, 0.22,
0.32, 0.41, 0.43, and 0.45. We cannot say with certainty that these had
their origin in the West Indies ; it is, however, extremely likely that
this is the case. With regard to many of the shocks in Jamaica, the
times of which are given by Mr. Maxwell Hall, the case is different.
Between January 14, 7.5 p.m., and July 5, 2.10 p.m. (Jamaica time), 148
disturbances were recorded. Corresponding to 51 of these a seismograph
in the Isle of Wight shows groups of tiny tremors, each of which was
recorded at practically 43 minutes after a shock in Jamaica. The con-
clusion therefore is that the tremor groups represent after-shocks which
have been sufficiently intense to traverse a distance greater than the
width of the Atlantic. They do not appear to have been recorded at
Strassburg, Gottingen, or Laibach, although the distance of these places
is but little greater than the distance to the Isle of Wight. As this is
the first time that a series of after-shocks has been recorded so far from
their origin, and as the records of the same illustrate the high sensibility
of the Milne horizontal pendulum, I give a list of these movements.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

A fier-shocks of the Earthquake at Jamaica, which were recoi'ded
in England, January 14, 1907.

Oe are ee —Time
: : when Shoe when a Disturbance
he Jamaica Time should reach was recorded in
England England
2. January 14 8.3 P.M. | January 15, 1.538 1.52
3: $5 9.2 P.M. | 2.52 2.53
4 S 10.0 P.M. | 3.50 3.39 and 3.51
5. ‘5 ELIS P.M, | 55 5.4
6. January 15 140:A.M. | 7.30 7.25, 7.40
ie 5 3.0 A.M, 8.50 8.45 to 8.50
g, a 3.30 A.M. 9.20 9.19
9, “ 6.0 A.M. 11.50 11.45
10. - 10:0 A.M. 15.50 15.45
ll. 3 11.25 A.M. | 17.15 17.14
12. - 11.58 A.M. 17.48 18.12
13. January 16 2.55 A.M. *| 8.45 8.45 to 8.57
14. January 17 1130 A.M. | 17.20 17.19
15. January 18 11.30 A.M. 17.20 17.20
16. January 19 3.0 A.M. 8.50 8.50
17. ee 9.30 A.M. 15.20 15.22
18. 33 10.50 A.M. 16.40 16.35
19. January 21 6.0 P.M. 23.50 23.45
20. January 28 4.33 A.M. 10.23 19.18
Pile he 8-0 A.M. 13.50 13.53
22. January 30 T21 AM. | 13 13.11
23. A 8.20 A.M. 14.10 14.11
24. February 4 4.0 A.M. 9.50 9.45
25, e 7.0 AM. 12.50 12.55
26. February 5 1.30 A.M. 7.20 Alt
97, i 5.15 AM. 11.5 11.15
28. i. 10.59 P.M. February 6, 4.49 4.38
29. February 6 2.55 aM. §.45 8 to 9
30. February 10 12.20 A.M, 6.10 6.10
31 pe 2.0 P.M. 19.50 19.48
82. Februcry 11 5.30 P.M. 23.20 23.22
33. Februcry 22 6.15 P.M. | February 23, 0.5 0.5
34. February 28 7.40 A.M. 13.30 13.35
35. March 1 4.15 AM. 10.5 10.7
36. March 8 4.15 AM, 10.5 10.4
37. March9 . 5.45 A.M. 11.35 11.30
38. March 11. 1.50 A.M 7 40 TAQ
39. March 14. 11.0 P.M. March 15, 4.50 4.53
40. March 17. 6.30 A.M. 12.20 12.15
41. oy P 7.45 P.M. March 18, 1.35 1.20
42. March 19. 6.10 A.M, 12:0 12.7
43. March 27. 8,55 A.M. 14.45 14.40
44. March 28 . 8.30 A.M, 14.20 14.25
45. April 16 7.0 A.M, 12.50 12.58
46. May 1 3.45 P.M. 21.35 21.25
he eae P 8.30 P.M. May 2, 2.20 2.20
48. May3 11.10 A.M. 17.0 17.2
49, June 13 1.18 AM. 7.8 7.1
50. June 16 11.0 A.M. 16.50 16.56
51. July 1 5.10 A.M. 11.0 11.1
52. July 5 2.10 P.M. 20.0 20.3

The decay in seismic activity, as indicated by a decrease in the frequency of
after-shocls, is shown by the left-hand curves in fig. 1.

1908,

F

66 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Fie. 1.
After-shocks of the Jamaica Earthquake, January 14, 1907.

14 ISJAN. 19 24 29 3FEB. é 13 7)
I = After-shocks in Jamaica.
If = After-shocks which reached Great Britain.
Ill = Mean time intervals between after-shocks in Jamaica.

The Time Intervals between After-shocks.

As we recede from the primary shock the intervals between the after-
shocks ought to become greater and greater, the increase in time interval
indicating the nearness of approach to complete settlement. But in
taking means of the intervals, as pointed out by Mr, O’Neill, a grave
error may creep in by reckoning the means over arbitrary periods. In
this way, to reckon the mean interval between the shocks for each day,
three days, or each week, may or may not give any satisfactory result. It is
mere chance in either case. Butif we take the intervals over a sufticiently
long period, and take means at points where the intervals have appreciably
increased, we stand to obtain a result which more nearly approaches a true
statement of the case. Thus means were first taken from day to day
between January 14 and February 17, and the daily means worked out
as follows: lh. 19m., 2h. 3lm., 5h. 20m., 5h. 1lm., 3h. 11m., 2h. 41m.,
4h. 48m., 6h. 21m., 3h. 38m., 5h. Om., 11h. 51m., 19h. 30m., 10h. 52m.,
18h. 40m., 14h. 10m., 6h. 38m., 18h. 18m., 28h. Om., 23h. 55m., 24h. 10m.,
13h. 57m., Th. 10m., 8h. 28m., 35h. 8m., 6h. 5m., 82h. 40m. Now it will
be noticed that there are appreciable increases on the 17th, when the
mean becomes about 5 hours. Another occurs on the 21st, when the
interval has reached 6h. 21m. On the 25th it has become 19h. 30m., on
the 31st, 28h. Om., on February 6, 35h. 8m., and on the 11th, 82h. 40m.

If, then, we take means at these points we obtain results as follows,
which show a constant increase in the time intervals as the distance from
the primary shock increases.

Between January 14 and January 17, for 24 intervals, the mean is 3h. 10m.

” ” 17 ” 21, ” 27 ” ” 3h. 48m.
” ” 21 ” 25, » 12 ” ” 7h. 2im.
” ” 25 ” él, ” 15 ” ” 12h. 3m.
- » 8land February 6, ,, 14 a a 14h. 46m.
» February 6 * MiG ao oe 2 re 46h. 52m,

The right-hand curve in fig. 1 shows the rate at which the intervals
between after-shocks increased and seismic stability was approached. This
curve, which should be the inverse of the upper curve in the left-hand side
of the figure, is now shown, I believe, for the first time.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 67

VI. On the Dissipation of Earthquake Motion as measured by
Amplitude and Duration.

In order to obtain some idea of the manner in which a very large
earthquake approaches extinction as it radiates, a comparison has been
made of the amplitude and duration of motion of twenty-two large earth-
quakes, as recorded by instruments installed at varying distances from
megaseismic origins.

The first question which arises relates to the comparability of the
records. The instruments which give the records here used are, for the
most part, the type adopted by the British Association—viz., Milne hori-
zontal pendulums. A single record of a world-shaking earthquake from
one of these instruments or from any other instruments would by two
observers be interpreted for amplitude in a similar manner. For duration,
however, this would not necessarily be the case. An examination of the
film by one observer might make the duration a few minutes longer or
shorter than that determined by another observer. Again, two similar
and similarly adjusted instruments beneath the same roof may yield
records showing slight differences, particularly with regard to duration.
A complexity of factors conspire to render seismograms obtained from
what we regard as similar, similarly adjusted, and similarly installed
seismographs not strictly comparable. They are, however, to a certain
extent comparable, and an estimate of this comparability may be obtained
by an examination of aseries of teleseismograms obtained from instruments
installed over an area like that of Great Britain, each part of which is
practically at the same distance from all very distant origins. In Britain
we have stations at Shide (Isle of Wight), Kew, Bidston (near Liverpool),
and at Edinburgh, each of which is provided with British Association
pendulums. The foundations at these places are respectively chalk,
alluvium, red sandstone, and voleanic rock. The records for amplitudes
for earthquakes with distant origins have been as follows.1

Amplitudes.—For seventeen large earthquakes the average amplitudes
measured in millimetres were as follows: Shide, 2:1; Bidston, 1-4 ; Edin-
burgh, 1:4; and Kew, 1:5. Three of these are distinctly comparable.

1. Decrease in Amplitude.

As illustrative of the decrease in amplitude six large earthquakes have
been selected from the catalogue of earthquakes recorded in the Antarctic
regions in the years 1902-3. This catalogue is now being published. The
dates and origins of the selected disturbances are the first six given on
page 72. At distances varying between 30° and 165° from the above
origins, records were made of each of these earthquakes at many stations.
The actual number of observations are given on page72. The instruments
used were in all cases Milne horizontal pendulums. The amplitudes in
millimetres in relation to distances from origins measured in‘degrees are
shown in tig. 2. The small figures on a curve indicate the number of
stations at or near given distances from an origin which were used to com-
pute an indicated amplitude ; thus for earthquake No. I., at a distance of
25° from its origin, one station gave an amplitude of 5°3 mm. At about
50° the average amplitude for four stations was 3mm., &e.

‘See Brit. Assoc. Reports for 1901, p. 48, and 1903, p, 82.

68 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Fig. 2.
Curves of Amplitude from Milne HP.

ALK! ee
WEEE
AMEE
ANTE
een

LENE

HUT
CNET ELE
AUNT LEAR ETT
ARH AL
LN ay

S

i)

&

Pid//imelres.
~

O12345678 910 1213 14 1516 17 180°
Degrees tn tens.
Curves for earthquakes I., IT., III., and V. show that up to a certain

distance from an origin, amplitude is inversely proportional to distance.
After this the curves for amplitude rapidly become less steep and

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 69

tend to be asymptotic to the ordinate for distance. The distance from
an origin at which a curve tends to be asymptotic is apparently dependent
upon the intensity of the originating impulse, which may be estimated by
the magnitude of the records near to an origin and the distance at which
effects of the impulse have been recorded.

The rapid decrease in amplitude shown in the curves is probably in
large measure due to the spreading out of the waves as they approach
their equatorial region, and also to frictional resistance. An estimate of
this latter factor has been made by Dr. C. G. Knott. The data on which
the estimate is based will be found in the chapter on Seismic Radiations
in his forthcoming work on the Physics of Earthquake Phenomena. By
a comparison of the maximum amplitudes of the records of an earthquake
produced ai any one station, as the tremors have passed through the
minor arc or through the major are connecting the epicentre with the
station, he found that, in virtue of viscosity of the material, the amplitude
of the Large Waves is cut down to half its amount at a distance of 41°2.

Observations which indicate that certain earthquakes, although not
recorded in their quadrantal region, but may be recordable in antipodean
regions, suggest that the curves we have given would, if continued, have
a slight rise upwards.!

2. Changes in Duration.

An indication of the value which may be placed upon a set of similar
instruments as recorders of the duration of earthquakes which have
originated at great distances, the following figures are quoted from
the British Association Reports in 1901, p. 47; 1903, p. 82. For
cwenty-four large earthquakes recorded at Shide, Edinburgh, Bidston, and
Kew, the total durations were respectively 1,493, 1,516, 1,464, and 1,371
minutes. The average durations of these earthquakes were therefore 62,
63, 61, and 57 minutes. These figures show that although the instru-
ments at these stations were installed upon very different foundations,
already described, the records they yielded were in close accordance.
They also tend to confirm the idea I have frequently expressed—viz., that
with megaseismic movements the crust of the world noves much in the same
way as a raft does upon the ocean. All parts of it, whether alluvium or
crystalline, respond to forced oscillations. For a small earthquake, by
which is meant one which only disturbs a small area, the result is dif-
ferent. In this case stations in close proximity to each other may yield
records of duration and amplitude which, amongst other things, depend
upon the nature of the strata upon which the instruments have been
installed. If a list is made of the duration of local shocks, and this is com-
bined with a list giving the duration of teleseismic movements, it would
appear that the duration of earthquakes increases with the distances of their
origins. Such a result, however, is based upon records which are hardly
comparable—one is a vibration of the earth’s crust, whilst the other, to a
great extent at least, appears to be due to a mass movement in the mate-
rial beneath the crust. Attention was drawn to this in a British Associa-
tion Report, 1892, pp. 225-227. In that report I expressed the view that
both types of disturbance as they radiated exhibited a duration which
became less and less. Now that we have many records of durations for
given large earthquakes, which were obtained at widely separated stations,

1 Proc. Roy. Soc., Vol. A76, 1905, p, 293

70 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

the statement made nine years ago, so far as it relates to megaseisms,
requires modification. In many instances it appeared that as a given
world-shaking earthquake travelled away from its origin, there had
been an increase in its duration. The matter seems to be of sufficient
interest to demand close examination. This was undertaken by Mr. H.C.
O’Neill, and the results at which he arrived are as follows :—

‘The difficulty in attacking this problem plainly emerged when a num-
ber of earthquakes had been plotted on squared paper, with distance and
duration as ordinates and abscisse respectively. It is known that
earthquake motion starts from (what may be regarded as) a point, and
that it communicates its motion to distant parts of the earth’s surface.
At times the intensity of the shock is not sufficient to send waves as far
as the antipodes of the centrum. We have therefore a point whence the
motion starts anda point beyond which it is not recorded ; and as the latter
has zero duration, it seems probable that the former has the maximum dura-
tion, and that the durations grow less as they approach the zero position.
It was with the object of testing this inference that the investigation was
commenced. The “ Katalog der im Jahre 1904 Registrierten Seismischen
Sto6rungen,” published by the Central Bureau of the International Seis-
mological Association, offered the material ready made. Twenty-six
earthquakes were taken from Liste A, giving 991 observations in all.
Several of these were plotted on squared paper, but the curves were too
irregular to yield any satisfactory conclusion, and an attempt to delete
the most irregular observations offered too much opening to unconscious
selection. Professor Pearson’s method! for deriving correlation between
two variables was therefore selected in order to avoid this. But it was
necessary to secure a large number of comparable observations. Taking
the mean of all the observed durations for a given earthquake, it is clear
that the durations of different earthquakes are not comparable as they
stand. The means for several earthquakes (in minutes) were 1087,
94:13, 56°66, 52°42, 86°96, 67°62, 29-11, 49-62, 93:0, 199-2 ; and these
show with sufficient clearness the point suggested. Some method was
therefore required to obtain figures that should be more or less indepen-
dent of any given earthquake. The readiest and simplest method that
seemed to achieve this (suggested by Professor Pearson) is as follows:
if « be the duration of a given earthquake at a given distance d, and if
& be the mean of all the observed durations for the same earthquake,
then the new duration character X at the given distance d is given by

x—Z Jaa |

& z
Since —1 is common to all, it may be neglected for calculating the corre-

lation when X for distanced =*. The 991 observations treated by this
method were then arranged for correlation, when the result was ‘06, with
the probable error + -02, This means that if 1 represents perfect corre-
lation and 0 complete absence of it, then ‘06 represents the degree of
correlation between distance and duration. And the result is to be
interpreted as showing that the correlation is very smal], but may be
just significant, as it is three times the probable error; or, that the,

* A good account of this method and the nature of problems it is designed to
treat is to be found in Frequency Curves and Correlation, by W. Palin Elderton.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 7]

variants are sufficiently numerous to render a larger correlation non-
emergent.

«A tabulated list was then made of the stations which stood out, on
the curves plotted originally, as abnormal—zi.e., those that stood at the
head of very steep gradients when the points representing the observations
were joined ; such observations represented in numbers 2 to 4%. A list
of these showed that the results from six stations were consistently abnor-
mal at whatever distance from the origin they might be situated in different
earthquakes. These stations were Irkutsk, Taschkent, Dorpat, Niko-
laiev, Potsdam, and Hamburg, and they were accordingly deleted as
representing a negligible variant. The curves were not much improved
by this treatment, however, and so the correlation was re-calculated.
This time thirty-one earthquakes were taken from Liste A in the
Katalog, six from “ Earthquakes and other Earth Movements recorded in
the Antarctic Regions, 1902-3” (Royal Society—in press), and the Great
Indian Earthquake of 1905 from Part II. of the report (Earthquake
Investigation Committee, Tokyo, 1907). These gave 1,029 observations
in all, and the correlation came out as ‘10, with the probable error + -02,
a more significant correlation.’

The next step in the investigations was to plot the duration of a given
earthquake as recorded at stations situated at different distances from an
origin upon squared paper. This was done for twenty-two disturbances,
the distances of stations from origins varying from between 20° and 160°.
The resulting curves or figures were, as might be expected, serrated in
appearance (see dotted line, tig. 3), but still the greater number of them
suggested that duration increased as the distance from the origin increased.

Hie. 3:
(hrs.

nT
150 ia TTT
EVeOee

O1L2345 678910 12 13 14 150°
Degrees in tens.

No. 1, March 28, 1902. Shide List, No. 601.
Origin Banda. Nineteen observations.

When a number of stations at approximately the same distance from an
origin were taken in groups and a mean time for each group was plotted
against a mean distance an increase of duration with distance became
more pronounced. The general trend or approximate curves for the first
twelve of these figures is shown in fig. 4. The meaning of line No. L.,
for example, is that this earthquake at a distance of 25° from its origin
had a duration of 135 minutes, while at 130° distant the duration was
about 178 minutes. It is identical with the thick line shown in fig. 3.
These durations are those indicated on seismograms pus the time taken
for preliminary tremors to travel from an origin to the observing stations.
Whether this correction is or is not necessary, because it is small, its
effect upon the general result is small also. For four of the earthquakes,

72 - REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Nos. II., IIL., XI., and XIT., the duration at the commencement and at
the end of the movement is practically the same. It cannot be said to
be less. For the remainder the duration at the end is distinctly greater
than near the beginning. The greatest duration has generally been in
regions lying between 70° and 110° from an origin; that is to say, in
a quadrantal region where amplitude is least and approaches a constan'
value.

, The following is a list of the twelve earthquakes employed, with their
origins and the number of observations which were used in determining
each curve :—

No. Date Shide No. / Origin Bhs beara:
| |
1 March 28, 1902 601 | Banda | 19
2 May 2, 1902 | 607 | N.E. Japan | 8
3 | May 8, 1902 609 | N.of Philippines | 13
4 Sept. 22, 1902 641 | Guam 22
5 Sept. 23, 1902 642 | Guatemala | 20
6 Nov. 21, 1902 659 | Formosa 24
hea *7 Jan. 20, 1904 | 806 | Costa Rica (2) | 35
| 8 | March 19,1904 | Bee Me oe Te we a) 26
| 9 | March 31, 1904 832 | 95° R. 40°N, 35
10 | = April 4, 1904 S34)» \.00128°, Wade N, 28
11 =| April 5, 1904 835.1] , 102° ER, 30° N. 27
12 | 5, Ames 9ah190% 884 | Philippines 43

For Nos. 1-6 only records from Milne instruments were employed.
For the remainder the records were obtaincd from stations for the most
part employing Milne instruments, but not in all cases. One explanation

Fig. 4.
Duration of Selected Earthquakes in relation to Distance.

is Le
200 El
a
450 ae
ee
/00 mee
9Ee
i
é ga
7 7
S
= O
SS aera Sco SS SS oS en aoe ee
Degrees. a

for the observations which have been made upon amplitude and duration
is that at the time of a very large earthquake the material inside our
earth is moved as a whole,

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 73

Tig. 5 indicates that the mean duration of an earthquake increases
with the distance to which it is propagated. This in turn is dependent

Fig. 5.

Mean Duration of several Earthquakes and the Distance they have travelled.

857 | 884.

ihe numbers| refer \to
fhe |\Shide | Register.

upon the intensity of the initial impulse, Fig. 4 leads to similar
conclusions,

TIS
Minutes.

74 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

VII. On the Direction in which Earthquake Motion is most freely
propagated.

We frequently see the isoseists of an earthquake in the form of
ellipses, which indicate that motion of a given intensity has been propa-
gated farthest in a particular direction. In a discussion of earthquakes
observed in the Antarctic regions, see ‘ Proceedings, Royal Society,’ Vol.
A76, 1905, p. 293, I showed that certain large earthquakes had travelled
round the world in bands, the length of which had their greatest exten-
sion from their origins in particular directions. The object of the present
note is to show that certain large earthquakes with approximately known
origins in the Northern Hemisphere have been recordable at a greater
distance measured towards the west than towards the east. Also the
distance to which the motion extended across and to the south of the
equator was less than the distance to which it travelled east or west in
the Northern Hemisphere. The phase of motion here referred to is that of
the large waves which travel to greater distances than their precursors.
This particular phase has a practically constant speed, whether its path
is across the alluvial plains of Asia, the granites of North America, or
beneath an ocean. The crust of the world is apparently influenced by
movement in a medium which it covers. The number of earthquakes
considered has been seventy-four, and they are designated by their Shide
number given in the registers published by the British Association. Their
origins were in one of the following three districts :—

District No. 1 is south of the Caucasus, approximately 40° N. lat. and
45° E. long. The earthquakes considered are 588, 595, 598, 704, 705,
7136, 948, 1,077, 952, and 1,351.

District No, 2 is north of Eastern India, approximately 80° E. long.
and 30° N. lat. The earthquakes considered are 618, 6136, 663, 626,
640, 644, 662, 632, 653, 676, 696, 692, 689, 793c, 720, 684, 679, 832,
833, 982, 1,070, 1,052, 1,036, 1,038, 963, 9,835, 1,0445, 1,320, 1,293,
1,184, 1,133, 1,240, 1,208, 1,135, 1,264, 1,167, 1,129, 1,153, 1,468, and
1,475.

District No. 3 is east coast of Japan and north of the Philippines,
approximately 130° E. long. and 30° N. lat. The earthquakes considered
are 899, 8966, 935, 1,150, 857, 963, 1,166, 1,145, 1,387, 861, 859, 860, 863,
1,111, 1,266, 858, 903, 1,010, 1,274, 1,116, 1,130, 1,163, 1,386, and
862.

In the following three tables which refer to these districts we find in
the successive columns—1st, the names of stations where earthquakes were
recorded ; 2nd, the approximate distance of a station from an origin;
3rd, the number of earthquakes which we should expect to have been
recorded ; 4th, the number of earthquakes which were actually recorded ;
5th, the percentage of possible records. Stations the names of which are
printed in italics are in the Southern Hemisphere.

In Great Britain there are five stations, and therefore the opportunities
for obtaining records have been greater than they were at isolated stations.
This partly may explain the high percentage of records obtained in
Britain. But if we reduce the number of records obtained in Britain to
the number obtained at San Fernando in Spain, where there is only one
instrument, the general result is but little altered. A similar remark
applies to India, where there are three stations. In New Zealand there
are two stations. In Manila the instrument is not of the Milne type.

Station

Beirut

Cairo 4 :
British stations
San Fernando .
Indian stations
Irkutsk
Mauritius
Japan

Batavia

Cape Torn
Toronto
Victoria
Australia .
Honolulu .
Cordova .

New Zealand

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

District No. 1, South of the Caucasus.

75

; Possible Actual | Percentage of
Distance Records Records Heocidls
re)
10 4 4 100
16 ff 2 28
32 10 10 100
38 10 8 80
38 10 6 60
44 9 5 55
60 7 2 28
72 9 0) 0
74 10 2 20
75 10 3 30
80 10 + 40
88 10 4 40
98 10 2 20
Ty fe 2 28
125 10 2 20
135 10 2 20

_ District No. 2, North of Eastern India.

3 : Possible Actual Percentage of
Station Distance Records Records Radavel
°
Indian stations 12 40 38 95
Irkutsk 28 38 35 92
Beirut 36 23 16 69
Manila 38 17 11 61
Cairo 40 33 1 50
_ Batavia 45 40 30 75
Japan 50 32 14 45
Mauritius 55 31 14 45
British stations 62 40 39 ai
San Fernando . 70 40 25 62
Australia. 70 40 ile 42
Cape Tonn 85 39 16 41
Victoria, B.C. . 95 40 24 60
Toronto 100 40 21 52
Honolulu. 105 26 16 66
New Zealand 105 36 5 14
Cordova 155 28 Ti 24
District No. 3, Japan and the Philippines.
‘ ‘ Possible Actual Percentage of
Station Distance Records Records loris
°
Irkutsk 30 22 17 77
Batavia : 40 21 1l 52
Indian stations 45 24 18 75
Honolulu . 60 24 17 71
Australia. 60 24 13 54
Victoria, B.C. . 72 24 12 50
Mauritius 75 24 (i 29
Beirut. 78 22 14 64
New Zealand 82 24 4 17
British stations 88 24 24 100
Toronto 4 98 24 I6y 6% 53
San Fernando . 100 24 17 71
Cape Town 120 24 7 29
Cordova 165 24 5 21

76 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

From the above three tables, if we omit Batavia, it being near the
Equator, we obtain the following results :—

In District. No. 1 the five stations in the Southern Hemisphere have
an average distance from an origin of 98°, and the average number
of records has been 23 per cent. The remaining nine stations in the
Northern Hemisphere had an average distance of 51°, while the average
percentage of their records is 59.

For District No. 2 the average distance from an origin for five
southern stations was 94°, and the average percentage of records was 33.
The corresponding figures for the eleven northern stations are 58° and
68 per cent.

For District No. 3 the figures for the five southern stations are 100°
and 30 per cent. The corresponding tigures for the eight northern stations
are 71° and 70 per cent.

The averages for the three districts taken together are for the
southern stations 97° distance and 39 per cent. of records, while for the
Northern Hemisphere we get 60° and 66 per cent.

When looking at the above three tables it must be remembered that
amplitude of motion decreases rapidly with distance from an origin, and
therefore too much stress should not be put upon the fact that stations in
the Southern Hemisphere were at greater distances from origins than those
in the Northern Hemisphere. On p. 77 we compare stations in the two
hemispheres which are at equal distances from origins.

Comparison of Records obtained from Stations lying to the West of Oriyirs with
those which lie to the East. The Stations compared are approaimately at the
same Distance from the Origins considered.

District No. 1.

Stations to West. | Stations to East.
; Dis- Percentage | Dis- Percentage
Station tance of Records | Station tance of Records
San Fernando . . 38 80 | India Pe Se 60
Toronto : ; . 80 40 Batavia ; : a 20
Victoria . ; . 80 40 Honolulu. 3 Be LNs) 28
Average . : . 69 53 Average . . “ 99 36

District No. 2.

Beirut . : P rat 69 Mauritius . . . 38 61
Cairo . 4 ‘ m0 50 | Japan . 5 , san 45
Average . “ . 38 59 Average . : ; 44 53

District No. 3.

Beirut) -<habae Se. 98 64 Victoria . . . 72 50
San Fernando . . 100 “il Toronto . P . 98 53
tan Fernando , LOO 71 Victoria : F Ske 50

Average , F 1. 98 69 Average . 5 GS 51

The general average for the three districts combined is for the
western stations a distance of 66° and 60 per cent. of -records ; whilst
for the eastern stations the distance is also 66°, but the number of
records fall to 46 per cent,

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS, 77

These figures, whether taken collectively or as entries for any pair of
stations, apparently indicate that earthquake motion is propagated more
freely towards the west than it is to the east.

Comparison of Records obtained from Stations in the Northern Hemisphere with
those obtained in the Southern Hemisphere, All Stations which are compared
are at approvimately the same distance from the Origins considered,

District No. 1.

Stations in Southern Hemisphere. Stations in Northern Hemisphere.

Dis- Percentage | Dis- Percentage

Station tance of Records Station tance of Records
Cape Town . - on) 30 Toronto. F . 80 40
: ; Victoria. ‘ . 88 40
Australia. ; - - 20 Witt 5 38 40
Cordova. : , 125 20 Honolulu. : alas 28
New Zealard . . 135 20 Honolulu . «115 28
Average . g . 108 22 Average . : ATi 34

District No. 2.

Mauritius . ‘ gt: 45 Japan . : ‘ » 50 45

: +) San Fernando . 7) £0 62
Australia. : i 10 42 Victoria _. : . 95 60
Cape Town. . . 85 41 EHonolnluse eine anne lOS 66

j " Toronto : : . 100 52
New Zealand ‘ . 105 14 Victoria § 3 . 95 60
Average . - pie 70.0 35 Average . 3 . 86 57

District No, 3.

Australia . - a0 54 Honolulu. 2 Py Gli
Victoria é - Saher 50

Mauritius . ; x to 29 Victoria . : ene, 50
Beirut . : ; Pee Tits) 64

New Zealand. . 82 17 Beirut . : i day i. 64
: British stations . . 88 100
Cape Town . ¢ . 120 29 San Fernando . . 100 71
Average . : = 88 32 Average . ; Pats 68

If we take an average for the above three districts we get for the
Southern Hemisphere an average distance of 90°, with an average per-
centage of records of 29 percent. For the Northern Hemisphere the
corresponding figures are 87° and 53 per cent.

General Conclusions.

The General Conclusions are, jirst, that a greater percentage of earth-
quakes travel farther west, or against the motion of the earth, than they
do towards the east ; and second, that the range of recorded motion across
the Equator to the south is shorter than it is towards the east or west.

In any hypothesis to explain these observations we should bear in

mind that the direction in which a given earthquake travels farthest will

involve, amongst others, the following considerations :—
1. What was the direction in which a given initial impulse was

fs flelivered ? If the seventy-five carthauakes we have discussed all

78 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

originated from faults which ran north and south and haded to the west,
which, however, is not likely, we should have a complete explanation of
what has been noted.

2. Has the direction in which a primary impulse was delivered been
southwards towards the Equator, or in the direction of the latitude of its
origin %

%. Have the wave paths been sub-oceanic or sub-continental? In the
first case we have a ‘ tapping off’ of energy by a layer of water, and in the
second by a layer of air.

4, The wave movement we are considering has been recorded upon the
upper surface of the crust of our earth. To what depth beneath this
covering does this movement extend? Are we dealing with a movement
which is merely superficial or one which extends to a considerable depth
in the material beneath the crust? Are the factors which govern wave
speed within our earth the same in all directions ?

VIII. A Catalogue of Destructive Earthquakes.
(Still in preparation.)

The catalogue to which I wish to draw attention only refers to earth-
quakes which have caused structural damage. The earthquakes which
are marked I. are those which have had an intensity sufficient to crack
walls or break chimneys. This implies that the acceleration or rapidity
of change of motion may have been about 1,000 mm. per second, and
the destructivity has usually been confined to a single town or village.
Those which are marked II. have had a destructivity so far in excess of
Class I. that a few buildings have fallen. For this class the acceleration
may be about 1,500 mm. per second, and the area may be represented
by a radius of twenty miles. Class III. refers to earthquakes which
have destroyed towns or caused widespread disasters. Although these
earthquakes have occasionally been local, it is usually found they have
been severe 50 or 60 miles round their origin and have produced effects
similar to those of Class I. at distances of 200 or 300 miles. It is
clear this classification is imperfect ; certain earthquakes under Class IT.
might be included in Class ITJ., whilst others under the head of Class I,
might be included in Class II. It is, however, probable there are few
mistakes about the entries in Class III. Earthquakes which have been
described as slight or feeble, which have wakened up a few people, which
have even rattled or broken a few windows, moved furniture, or have been
simply described as being very violent, are altogether excluded from the
catalogue.

The object of compiling a register of this sort is that it will be more
uniform in its character and more nearly up to date than its predecessors,
If we turn to large earthquake catalogues which have hitherto been pub-
lished, as, for instance, those of Mallet and Perrey, in the first place we
notice that the material they contain is very heterogeneous in character,
and the heterogeneity is variable in different periods. The earlier records
they give refer to earthquakes which have devastated districts, or to
Class ITI., whilst as we approach modern times equivalent disturbances
are eclipsed by a large number of tremors which have not been sufficiently
intense to be included even in Class I. Another factor which tends to
disturb the uniformity of the older earthquake registers is the fact that
the entries in the same increase in number with the spread of civilisation.
For example, records of earthquakes greatly increased about 100 years

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 79

DESTRUCTIVE EARTHQUAKES.

I. These have cracked walls or shattered
chimneys. Acceleration 1,000 mm. per
sec. per sec.

II. Destructivity exceeds Class I. Acceleration
1,500 mm. per sec. per sec.

TII. Have destroyed towns and caused wide-
spread disaster.

2 1200 1300 1400 (500° 1/600 1700 1800
YEARS

1900

30 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

after the discovery of the two Americas. To this we may add that it has
only been of late years that the records of certain countries with an ancient
civilisation have become accessible to us. Up to the year 1850 Europe
imagined that in Japan there were from one to six earthquakes per year.
Now we know there are at least 1,000. We also know that the Japanese
have for a long time past published ‘Jishin-Nendaiki,’ or earthquake
calendars, which give records of very destructive earthquakes since
extremely early times.

As an illustration of the difference between the new catalogue and
the one published by Mallet, who endeavoured to exclude from his
registers very small disturbances—such as ‘ after-shocks’—I find that
between 1800 and 1808, which are years taken at random, Mallet
gives 407 entries, but of these only thirty-seven are stated to have pro-
duced structural damage. All other large catalogues appear to be of the
same nature. Large earthquakes which have announced changes of geo-
logical importance in the earth’s crust stand side by side with great
numbers of seismic trivialities, many of which may not even have rattled
a window. ‘To give each unit in such collections an equal value, and this
has frequently been the case, would not for many analyses lead to satis-
factory results. For example, the old catalogues when taken en bloc,
could hardly be expected to give us accurate information about the distri-
bution of seismic energy in time.

The sources from which material has been obtained to form the present
catalogue are various. From A.p. 15 to 1842 I am indebted to Mallet’s
catalogues, from that date to 1864 I have in great measure relied upon
Alex. Perrey. Some of his writings, however, appear to be only in MS.,
and therefore have not been accessible. To obtain records of the last
forty-three years, however, has been a matter of considerable difficulty.
Appeals to daily journals like the ‘Times’ have proved to be very disap-
pointing. For example, the records of large earthquakes in the ‘Times ’
fur 1855 and 1864 were respectively five and one, while references to
foreign journals and the Transactions of learned societies show that very
destructive earthquakes occurred in each of those years from twenty-seven
to thirty times.

If this catalogue proves to have more homogeneity in its character
than its predecessors, it is to be hoped that analyses of the same will
lead to more definite results than have bitherto been obtained from
earthquake statistics.

An addition to this work is a Catalogue of Chinese Earthquakes. It
has been compiled by my assistant, Mr. Shinobu Hirota, and, so far as I
am aware, it is the most important collection of records relating to
earthquakes in China which have appeared in a European language.

As an illustration, and also as an introduction to analyses which
may be made from a catalogue of destructive earthquakes, I give the
following :—

On the Seismicity in Europe and adjacent Countries between the Years
A.D. 1000 and 1850.

The subjoined table shows the number of very destructive earth-
quakes which have been recorded between a.p. 1000 and 1850. The
grouping is in periods of fifty years. Under the heading marked ITI.
we have the number of exceedingly destructive earthquakes, the records

ey
j
|
|
| 4
|
4 ~ di -
; onan nn
| : ;
la , : “
E ;
| .
| . 4
j : $
re
im rs f ;
Ff

So:

—t

4

>
:

wr

ants

Pa

b 1905. (Prate IT.

10 PM “QUIETNESS AT NIGHT” it PM.

“VIBRATIONS DUE TO MACHINERY’

——
1

wont i lrsvirannaratenrnnnwars iin pecromineeeey
+ op 2m OCTOBER 16 1907 on SPM.

ORIGIN PROBABLY W.COAST OF S AMERICA
———_——_

EARTHQUAKE RECORDED AT CORNWALL ROAG, SOUTH TOTTENHAM. OCTOBER 1907.
(THE FIRST EVER RECORDED IN LONDON.)

Illustrating the Report on Seismological Investigations

be ed

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS, 81

of which it is assumed have not been lost to history or tradition. In the
next column we find the sum of earthquakes of values III. and IL,
whilst in the last column is given the sum of earthquakes having an
intensity of Classes III., II., and I. The destructivities of Classes I.,
IL., and III. have already been defined.

| —— III. | Heth, 4 |S Re
1000-1050 . 2) 6 7
1050-1100 . 0 ; 9
1100-1150 . 1 3 8
1150-1200 . 6 12 13
1200-1250 . 1 5 | 7
1250-1300 . 3 6 7
1300-1350 . 3 10 12 |
1350-1400 . 3 10 11
1400-1450 . 2 8 18
1450-1500 . 2 8 14
1500-1550 . 3 7 16
1550-1600 . 2 7 16
1600-1650 . 3 12 | 25
1650-1700 . 10 31 49
OS an 15 43 70
ETHIE Stes ek) stacy. «| 17 87 169
Ee ee | 30 90 202

These figures are also shown as three curves (fig. 6). An inspection
of these will show that they have a striking similarity. Between the
years 1150 and 1250 each indicates an increase in seismic activity during
that period. The next increase commences about the year 1650, since
which records even of the most destructive type of earthquake have
during successive periods each of fifty years rapidly increased in number.
Inasmuch as all these records refer to a European area, it is difficult to
imagine that the great increase in numbers from the middle of the
seventeenth century should be accounted for by a sudden stimulus to keep
better records from that pericd. Earthquakes of Class III. may be
regarded as events of historical importance ; and, if this is so, it would
seem that records of the very destructive disturbances between a.p. 1300
and 1600 should approximate in their correctness to those which occurred
subsequently to the latter date. My own idea is that about 1650 there
was a very marked increase in seismic and, I may add, volcanic activity.
Whether this has any connection with the observations of geologists or
those who study magnetics ur other branches of earth physics must be left
for their consideration.

IX. On a Seismogram obtained in London on October 16, 1907.

The accompanying seismogram, Plate II., was recorded in the engineer-
ing workshops of Mr. R. W. Munro, South Tottenham, where an instru-
ment had been set up for examination before shipping for South Australia.
Vibrations due to machinery are marked, while at night the instrument
yielded a fairly straight line. This steadiness at night, notwithstanding
casual traffic, suggests that a seismograph might find a sufficiently steady
site in a London square or park. The seismograph is identical with those
first adopted by the British Association, the record-receiving surface,
however, instead of only moving at 60 mm. per hour now moves at four

1908. a

82 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

times that rate.. Because the paper is on a cylinder and not used as a
band, about half the quantity of fiim is employed, an open scale is
obtained, and in many cases, owing to the absence of halation due to
long exposure, the Shide Registers, as published by the British Asso-
ciation, show that earlier commencements are obtained. With the
present receiver, it is distinctly the most satisfactory instrument with
which I have had any experience. Its value as a recorder of minute
tremors is indicated on p. 64. For a description of the instrument see
Britich Association Report, 1904, p. 44.

X. Map of the World. By R. D. OLpHam.

The accompanying map of the world, Plate III., was made by Mr.
R. D. Oldham for certain purposes of his own, but as it was thought
it might be of general use to seismologists we have, with his consent,
added it to this report. Mr. Gldham describes the map as follows :—

‘The map is constructed on the zenithal projection, with Greenwich
as the centre. All great circles passing through the centre of the map
are represented by straight lines, and equal distances measured along
these great circles on the surface of the earth by equal radial distances
on the map. Meridians and parallels of longitude and latitude are
drawn at intervals of 15°, and intervals between the concentric circles
represent intervals of 15° of arc, or an average linear distance of 900
nautical miles, or 1,667 kilometres. For convenience, and to avoid
excessive distortion, the whole surface of the earth is divided into two
hemispheres ; in the one, distances are to be measured directly from the
centre outwards, in the other they are measured from the circumference
inwards, and added to the length of the radius~of the map. This
represents one quarter of the circumference of the giobe. The direction
of the straight line drawn from any point to the centre of the map
gives the azimuth of the great circle at Greenwich. The map may also be
used for obtaining the distance between any two points situated on the
same great circle with each other and Greenwich, but cannot be used
with accuracy for measurements between two points not so situated.

‘Though constructed to Greenwich as a centre, it can be used with
sufficient accuracy for many purposes for any place in the British Isles
or the nearer parts of Europe.’

XI. A Catalogue of Chinese Earthquakes. By Suinosu Hirota,

In May 1839 Ed. Biot presented to the Académie des Sciences a
‘Catalogue Général des tremblements de terre, affaissements et souléve-
ments de montagnes, observés en Chine depuis le temps anciens jusqu’aé
nos jours.’ This was published in the ‘ Annales de Chimie et de Physique,’
tome ii. 1841, p. 372. Ic contains references to about 480 earthquakes.
In the twenty-ninth volume of the Reports_of the Imperial Earthquake
Investigation Committee, 1899, Dr. F. Omori gives a Catalogue of
Chinese Earthquakes. It is printed in Chinese ideographs, and the
characters he uses are apparently those in the works from which he
quotes. Both M. Biot and Dr. Omori quote from the Chinese author
Ma-touan-lin, who made a catalogue of earthquakes and the historical
annals called Thoung-kien-khang-mou. Dr. Omori has also referred to
other Chinese histories. By combiniug these two catalogues one result
is that the 480 entries in M. Biot’s catalogue is now extended to 889,

: s
o/P i - ee ae :
YE UpCers Mi
CRO eg XS
DNA eer 4

ao: SE

~

IN. ;
By, TBA ,
TIX PK

NY

0
a ae Olrol
Bearings e: Z Map of the World | roles
: ay

represent Intervals

from Greenwich Showing

Distance and Direction
from

Iilssiraling she! Report an BSolemblogical. Investigations, Greenwich.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 83

the greater number of which are to be found in the catalogue of Dr.
Omori. The 324 which are common to both, and which refer to the same
events, we should expect to find strictly identical, but this is not the case.
For example, the names of provinces and places are frequently different.
In certain instances this has apparently resulted from the use of old
names rather than modern ones. This difficulty was not overcome until
we received from Japan a series of fourteen maps which show the various
changes which have taken place with regard to the provinces and the
names of places since very early times. Another striking difference
between these two catalogues is the differences in dates. The dates I
prefer to use are those given by Dr. Omori. The reason for doing this is
that in Japan we are familiar with the Chinese lunar chronological system,
and also that tables have been compiled which give the European equi-
valent of Chinese dates. In cases where differences in dates have exceeded
a few days both dates have been given. The first date is a translation of
ideographs used by Dr. Omori.

Mallet, in his large catalogue of earthquakes published by the British
Association in 1852, 1853, and 1854, makes but few references to seismic
disturbances in China. When we think of the enormous labour he spent
upon the collection of statistics relating to this work, it is difficult to
understand how the registers brought together by Biot had escaped his
attention.

In the ‘ Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles,’ April 1899,
F. de Montessus de Ballore gives us a general description of the distribu-
tion of seismic activity in China. However, he does not give usa catalogue
of earthquakes. The map which accompanies his paper is based upon the
records of Biot and a catalogue by Mouchketoff and Orloff of the earth-
quakes in the Russian Empire. In the ‘Trans. Seis. Soc. Japan,’ vol. x.
1887, there is a short Paper on earthquakes in China by Dr. Macgowan.
Unfortunately Dr. Macgowan’s list of earthquakes was nearly all destroyed
by fire, and therefore he is only able to speak in general terms. One
curious remark about tremors which were experienced in Chekiang,
Kiangsu, and in the western regions is that they are followed by the
appearance on the ground of substances which in Chinese books are styled
‘ white hairs several inches in length, like horse-tail hair.’ Dr. Macgowan’s
impression is that the regions where these appear are all, or nearly all, in
alluvial valleys.

Crystallisation of exhalations may be curious, but in making this
translation I have met with notes which are equally remarkable. In the
fourteenth century the names of two towns, Pingyang and Taiyuan, were
changed to Chinning and Chining. This alteration was made by imperial
decree with the hope that earthquakes, which had so frequently visited
these places, would, as the result of the change, be reduced in their
numbers.

In addition to the translation a map has been drawn, on which earth-
quake centres are indicated. From this we see that earthquakes have
been most frequent in the north of Peking, the extreme north of Kansu,
along the course of Hoang-Ho, where it divides the provinces of Honan,
Shensi, and Shansi, around Nanking, on the coast of Fu-Kiang, and in
the centres of Yunnan and Ssuchuan. The high frequency along the
Hoang-Ho, particularly at its two great bends, which are respectively
near to the Peling Mountains and the Ala Shan Mountains, suggests that
the sudden changes in the trend of a valley may be connected with

G2

84,

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

rock-folding, which from time to time has been accompanied with rock-
No records are given for the extreme west of China or for

fracture.

Mongolia. In all probability this means that these districts were in past
time as sparsely inhabited as they are at present. We now know that
‘to the west of China, in Tibet, large earthquakes occur very frequently.
I believe this to be the first time that anything approaching a complete
catalogue of Chinese earthquakes has appeared in a European language,

26

27
28

YAR.
B.C.
1820
1155
618
5oT
523
519
492
466
233

193
186
175
143
131

88

72
70

68

16
46

Jan.

Jan.

Feb.
May.
June.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct. 12.

April 17.

July 23.

: Nov. 10.

March
Oct,

Catalogue of Chinese Earthquakes.

2B =statement in Bios’s ‘Catalogue,’ The names of provinces are in ¢talics.

Mount Taishan, Chinan, Shantung. Shock.
Fenghsiang Fu, Shensi.

Ditto

Ditto

Ditto

Ditto

Ditto

Taiyuan Fu, Shansi. It lasted seven days, ¢nd many killed.

Earthquake.

Great earthquake, Lunghsi, Kungchang Fu, Kansw. More
than four hundred houses were destroyed.

A great earthquake took place at Wutu, south-east of Lunghsi
Kungchang Fu, Kansu. The face of a mountain slipped
down and about 760 people were killed.

Earthquake.

Earthquake.

Earthquake at Chengho, Chienning Fu, Fuhhien. Many
people killed.

Earthquake.

South of Yellow River, Honan Fu, Honan.

A great earthquake teok place from Honan Fu, Honan, to
Pebhai in Laichou Fu, Shantung. Forty-nine piefectures
were damaged. More than six thousand killed.

A great earthquake, Lunghsi, Kungchang Fu, Kansw, in which
many castle walls, temples, and houses were destroyed;
about six thousand people were killed. ;

Earthquake.

Great earthquake at Lunghsi, Kungchang Fu, Aansu, and
Loyang, Honan Fu, Honan. Many castle wallsand temples
were destroyed and many people were killed.

Earthquake.

Earthquake.

Earthquake.

Earthquake.

A great earthquake took place at Kienwei, in Chiating Fu
Ssuchuan. ‘Two mountains were displaced and the rocks
fell into the river and changed its course. The ground did
not come to rest for 21 days, and there were 124 shocks.
Many castles, temples, and houses were destroyed, and
about thirteen people were killed.

Earthquake in the Imperial City, Changan (now Heian)
Shensi, and the northern district. It destroyed more than
thirty castle walls, and 415 people were killed.

Earthquake Hsian Fu, Shensi.

Earthquake in forty-two counties. Most damage was done at
Nanyang, Honan; the ground opened and water burst out
from the fissures, and many people were killed (B, 42
earthquakes), ed Bi | ol =

69

Date
AD,
76 April 25
92 Aug. &
93 April 7
95 Nov. 8
96
97 April 7
107
108. -
110 Jan. 11
110 April 14
111 Feb. 1
113. Feb. 5
113
114
315 Dee. 11
116 March
117 Jan. 17
117 Feb.
118
119 March 9.
119 Winter.
120
121 Oct. 8.
122 June 21
122 Oct. 23.
123
124
125
128
133 June 18.
136 Feb. 18,
137 May.
137 Jec. 21.
138 Teb, 28.
138 Jxne 2.
139 April2?
140 April 2.
144 Feb.
144 Oct. 24.
147 May 26.
147 Oct. 31.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS, 85

5. Earthquake at Tungping (Taian Fu), Shanyang, now Ye~chou

Fu, Shantwng.
Earthquake in thirteen counties and towns.
Harthquake at Lungbsi, Kungchang Fu, Aansu.
Earthquake at the Imperial City, Loyang, Honan Fn, Honan.
Yiyang, Honan Fu, Honan.
Earthquake at Lunghsi, Kungchang Fu, Kaneu.
Righteen counties and towns shaken (B, 18 earthquakes).
Twelve counties were shaken (B, 12 earthquakes).
Nine counties were shaken.

. Four counties were shaken.
Ten counties were shaken. (Date given by Biot is slightly
different.)
18 counties were shaken.
18 ditto.
15 ditto (B, 15 earthquakes).
10 ditto,
10 ditto.
9 ditto.
3 ditto (B, 13 earthquakes).
14 ‘ditto.

Earthquake at the Imperial City, Loyang, Honan Fu, Honan.
It was felt over forty-two counties; the ground was
cracked, many castle walls and houses were destroyed and
many killed.

Eight counties were shaken.

Twenty-three counties were shaken.

Thirty-five counties were shaken and towns damaged. The
land was cracked, many castle walls and houses were
damaged, and many people were killed.

Earthquake at the Imperial City, Loyang, Honan Fu, Honan,
and in thirteen counties.

An earthquake in twenty-seven counties, and towns were
shaken.

Earthquake at the Imperial City, Honan Fu, TTonan, and
in thirty-two counties (B, 32 earthquakes).

Earthquake at the Imperial City, Honan Fu, Honan, and in
twenty-three counties (B, 23 earthquakes).

Earthquake at the Imperial City, Honan Fu, Honan, and in
sixteen counties (B, 16 earthquakes).

Earthquake at the Imperial City and Hanyang, now Fuchiang,
Kanchang Fu, Kansu. At Hanyang great damage was
done, and many people were killed and water burst out
from the ground.

Earthquake at Imperial City, Loyang, Honan Fu, TTonan.

Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.

Earthquake at Imperial City and Chinching, fLanchou Fu,
Lunghsi, Kungchang Fu, Kansu. Many castle walls and
houses were destroyed and many people were killed.

At the Imperial City, Loyang, Honan Fu, Honan.

Ditto.
Ditto.

A great earthquake took place at Liangchou Fu, Kansu, and
six neighbouring districts ; the ground did not come to rest
from October last year to April this year, about 180 days.
The land opened and mountains were displaced; many
houses were destroyed and many people were killed.

Earthquake at Imperial City, Loyang, Honan Fu, Honan.

Ditto.
Ditto.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

DATE.
AD.
149 Oct. 31.-
149 Noy. 11
151 Dec. 23
152 Feb.
152 Dec. 11.
154 March 4
156
156 Aug.
156 Dee.
161
162 June 21
165 Nov. 4.
167
171 April 3.
173 «July.
177. Nov,
178 Mar. 26.
178 May 10.
179 April.
180 Jan.
191 July 30
194 July 6.
225
234 Dec.
237 June.
237 July.
239 Feb.
241 Dec.
242 Aug. 31
243 Jan.
245 Mar. 31
248
263
264
269 May 18.
271 April 3.
276 Aug. 28.
278 July 16.
278 Aug. 2.
281 Mar. 15.
284 April.
285 Aug.
285 Sept. 9.
286 March.

Earthquake.

Earthquake. Same year fourth moon there were several
earthquakes at six places.

Earthquake at the Imperial City, Loyang, Honan Fu, Honan.

Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.

Earthquake,

Hotung (now Pingyang Fu, Puchou Fu), Shansi.

Earthquake at the Imperial City, Loyang, Honan Fu, Honan.

Loyang, HJonan, Fenghsiang Fu, Shensi, and Liangchou Fu,

Kansu. ‘ :

Earthquake at the Imperial City, Loyang, Honan Fu, Honan.

Ditto.

Pingyu, Loyung (now Honan Fu), Honan, Kaoping, Tsechou
Fu, Shansi.

Earthquake in Hotung, Pingyang Fu, Puchou Fu, Shansi.

Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.

Earthquake at the Imperial City, Loyang, Honan Fu, Honan.

A great earthquake at Chiuchuan, in Kanchou Fu, Kansw.
The ground did not come to rest until spring next year.
There were about eighty shocks. Water burst out from the
ground, many houses were destroyed, and many people were
killed.

Rarthquake.

Ditto. .
[Between the years 195 and 225 no records were kept
on account of the great Rebellion.]

Chiangtung (Nanking), Kiangsu.

Loyang (Honan Fu), Honan. Many houses were destroyed.

Chiangtung (now Nanking), Kiangsw.

Loyang (Honan Fu), Honan, and Nanking. Many houses were
destroyed.

Two earthquakes.

Nanan, Kungchang, Kansu.

Ditto.

Wei district, Changte Fu, Honan (northern part of).

Nanan, Kungchang Fu, Aansw.

Chiangtung (Nanking), Kiangsu.

Shu (Chengtu), Ssuchuan.

Earthquake at Shu, comprising the west part of Ssuchwan. It
was the Imperial residence. Now forming Chengtu.

Earthquake.

Earthquake, Loyang, Honan Fu, Honan.

Honan Fu, Honan; Hotung (comprising Puchou Fn, Ping-
ting, Chiang, Ho, and Chieh) and Pingyang Fu, Shansi
(B, July 6).

Earthquake at Yinping Fu (now Lungan Fu), Sswchuan, and
Kuangwu, Ninghsia Fu, Kansw.

Earthquake at Yinping Fu (now Lungan Fu), Sswchuan.

Harthquake at Huainan (now Ho), Taiping Fu, Anhwi, and
Tanyang (comprising Chenchiang Fu, Kiangsu, and Anhui).

Earthquake at the Imperial City, Loyang, Honan Fu, Honan.

Earthquake, Nanyung Fu, Honan.

Nanking, Kiangsu.

A violent earthquake took place at Chushih (now Chengtu Fu,
Chiating Fu), and Yinping, Lungan Fu, Ssuchuan. There
was a great landslip, and many houses were destroyed. At
Yingping a dam was destroyed.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 87

DATE
A.D.
286 Aug.
286 Sept.
287 June
227
287 Aug.
288 Feb.
288 June7
288 July-Aug
288 Oct.
289 Jan.
290 Oct. 6
291 Jan.
291 Jan. 18
294 March
294 June
294 Sept.
294 Nov
294 Dec
295 Jan
295 June
295 July.
296 Mar. 12
298 Feb.
302 Jan
303 Dec.
304 Jan
309 Nov.
310 May.
314 May 6
315 July 23
318 May.
319 Jan.
319 June
320 May.
327 March
327 April
327 May 13
332 April.

Earthquake at Kienwei and Nanan, in Chiating Fu, Ssuchuan.

Earthquake at the Imperial City, Loyang (now Honan Fu),
Honan.

Earthquake at Kienan, Chienning Fu, Fuhhien.

Earthquake at Yinping, Lungan Fu, Ssuchuan.

Earthquake at Tanyang (comprising Chenchiang Fu, Kiangsu,
and Taiping Fu, Anhwi).

Earthquake at Kueichi (comprising Chehkiang, see Shaoh-
sing Fu, the south of Anhwi, and the north of Fuhkien),
Tanyang, Taiping, Anhui, and Wuhsing (now Huchou Fu),
Chehkiang.

Earthquake at Changsha Fu, Hunan, Nanhai, Canton, Kuang-
chou Fu, and eight neighbouring districts, Kuangtung.

g Earthquake. Four more shocks, and three of them accom-

panied by noise.
Earthquake at Linho, Pingle Fu, Auangsi.
Ditto.

Earthquake in Tanyang, Taiping Fu, Anhui.

; Ditto.

Earthquake at Loyang (now Honan Fu), Honan (B, 292,
January 18).

Earthquake at Liaotung, Shinghing, Shangku, Hsuanhui Fu,
north of Chihli, and Shangyang, in Chingchou Fu, Hupeh.
Earthquake at Shu, Chengtu Fu (comprising west part of
Ssuchuan). A mountain was shaken down, water burst out

from the ground, and many people were killed.

Earthquake at Shangku, Hsuanhua Fu (comprising the north
part of Chihii). ‘The ground was fissured and water burst
out from the cracks, and about 100 people were killed.

Earthquake at the Imperial City, Loyang (now Honan Fu),
Honan.

EKarthquake at Kaifeng and Nanyang, Kia. The whole of
Honan.

Earthquake at the Imperial City, Loyang, Honan.

Earthquake.

Earthquake at Chincheng, in Lanchou Fu, Aansw.

Earthquake.

Earthquake at Ching, in Hochien Fu, Chihli, and Chenchou
Fu, Hunan (B, March 6),

Harthquake,

Ditto.
Ditto.

Earthquake at Hsiangyang and Chingchou, Hupeh.

Earthquake in Yenchou, Shantung, and Hsian Fu, Shenst.

Earthquake.

Earthquake at Changan, in Hsian Fu, Shensi.

Earthquake at Hsiping, in Juning Fu, Honan. Water burst
out. Same time at Kungchang Fu, Kansu, and Wuchang”
Fu, Hupeh.

A great earthquake at Luling, in Chian Fu, Yuchang (literary
name of Kiangsi), Wuchang, ahd Hsiling (now Yichang
Fu), Hupeh. A mountain shattered and water burst out.

Earthquake at Chishan, in Taiyuan Fu, Shansi, Great land-
slip, and many people killed.

Earthquake at Tanyang, in Chenchiang Fu; Wu, in Suchou
Fu; Tsinling (now Changchou Fu), Kiangsu.

Earthquake at Chiangling , Chingchou Fu, Hupeh.

Earthquake at Yichou, comprising parts Yunnan and Lungan
Fu, Ssuchuan.

Yuchou (now forming Taiping Fu, Anhui).

Kueichi, comprising Huchou, Chehkiang (Shaohsing), Taiping
Fu, Anhui, and the north of Fuhkien.

DATE.

AD.
334
345

347
347

May 14.

Aug. 10.

Jan.
Feb,
Oct.
Nov. 18.
Feb, 17
Oct. 1.

Feb. 28.

May j2.
June 3.
Dec.
Sept.
May 24.
May 19.

April 23.

March.
Nov, 24.
Nov. 19.

March 1.

Aug.

May 13.

July 6.
July 22.
April 2.
Aug.

Feb. 6.

July 14.
Jan. 26.
Jan. 30.
Mar. 27.
May 25.
Oct. 10.
Mar. 1.

Nov. 7.
Feb, 10.

Jan.-Ap.
April 25.

Aug. 6.
May.
Aug. 10.
May 27.
Aug. 23,

June

Aug.

Jan.
Feb.

Jan.
Feb.
Noy.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Kueichi, comprising Chehkiang, the south of Anhui, and the
north of Fuhkien.

Earthquake, Loyang, Honan Fu, Honan,

Ditto.
Earthquake, Kengcheng, Puchou Fu, Shansi.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.

At the Imperial City, Kienyeh or Nanking (now Chiangning),
Kiangsu, accompanied by a noise like thunder.

Earthquake with a noise like thunder. Hens and pheasants
cried before the earthquake..

Earthquake.

Ditto.
Ditto.

Liangchou Fu, Kansu.

Earthquake.

Yangchou Fu, Atangsu. Water became muddy in ponds,
which overflowed.

Kiangling, Chingchou Fu, Hupeh (B, March 29).

Liangchou, Kansu. Water burst out.

Ancheng (now Chian Fu), Aiangsi.

Earthquake,

Ditto.
Liangchou, Aansu. A mountain slipped down.
Earthquake.

Ditto.

Ditto.

Ditto.

At the Imperial City, Pingcheng, Taiyuan Fu, Shansi, and
Nanking.

Earthquake.

Ditto,

Ditto.

Ditto.
Earthquake (B, March 2).
Earthquake.

Ditto.

Earthquake. A noise was heard.

Earthquake.

Hsunyang (now Chiuchiang Fu), Aiangsi. With a noise like
thunder.

Nankang Fu and Luling, in Chian Fu, Kiangsi. Shocks
occurred four times a day.

Earthquake.

Ditto (B, Sept. 10).
Imperial City, Nanking, Kiangsu.
Earthquake.

Ditto.

Earthquake, with a noise like thunder. Most damage was
done at Yencbou, in Lu, comprising the south part of
Shantung.

Earthquake.

Ditto.

Earthquakes night and day till next year. Many small houses
were Cestroyed.

Kienyeh, now Chiangning Fu, Kiangsw.

Kienkang, in Chiangning Fu, Kiangsu. Present name is
Nanking (the Imperial City),

Earthquake, Nanking, Kiangsw.

Farthquake, Kienkang, Kiangsu (now Chiangning).

Ditto.

DATE.
A.D.
537 Dec.
541 March.
543 Feb.
546 Jan.
549 May.
558 June.
563
572 Nov.
573
587 March,
594 June.
600 Dec. 16.
602 April.
619 Nov.
624 July.
633 Nov. 30.
638 Feb. 15.
646 Nov. 8.
649 Sept. 15,
649 Sept. 17.
650 Jan. 5.
650 May 9.
650 May 19.
650 July 1%.
651 Nov.
652 Jan. 8.
677 Feb, 29.
680 Nov. 9.
682 Nov. 13.
686 Sept.
687 Aug. 29.
688 Aug. 6.
688 Sept. 16.
694 May 7.
70h July 2.
706
710 July 2,
712 Feb. 18.
729 May 21.
734 Mar. 24.
738 April 23.
756

Dec. 1.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 89

Earthquake, Kienkang, Kiangsu (now Chiangning).
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto,

Kienkang, two earthquakes,

Earthquake at Kienkang, Kiangsu (now Cuiangning),

Pinglieh, Chengte Fu, Chihli.

Earthquake, Pingchou, now Shansi (see ‘ Taiyuan Fu’).

Liangchou Iu, Kansu. Many castles and houses destroyed.

Earthquake.

[Biot says from the year 402 to 587 civil war interfered
with keeping of registers. ]

The Imperial City, Changan, Hsian Fu, Shensi.

All China was shaken.-

Chiyung (now Fenghsiang Fu), Shenst.

Imperial City, Changan, Hsian Fu, Shensi.

Tsunchou (now Changyang), in Wuchang Fu, Hupeh. Ground
slipped down from mountains and a river overflowed.

Imperial City, Changan, Hsian Fu, Shensi.

Sung and 'I'sung, Lungan Fu, Ssuchwan. Many houses
destroyed. (One book gives the date as the 22nd_)

Lingchou, Ninghsia, Aansw. It made a noise like thunder.
(One book gives the date as the 15th.)

Hotung, comprising Puchou Fu, Pingling, Chiang-Ho, Chieh,
Shanst. Most damage occurred at Puchou; more than fifty
people killed. (One book gives the date as Aug. 1st.)

Earthquake, ditto, (One book gives the date as the 3rd.)

Ditto,
Ditto,
Ditto.
Earthquake, Made a noise like thunder.
Ditto.

Tinghsiang, Hsin, Shanst.

Imperial City, Changan, Hsian, Shens? (B, April 25).

Earthquake, ditto.

Ditto.

Hsingfeng, Kanchou Fu, Kansu (B, earthquake?). Mountain
displaced and water rose to a height of 20 feet.

Imperial City, Changan, Hsian, Shensi (B, Oct. 25),

Ditto,

Shentu,

Changchou Fu, Aiangsw.

Yangchou Fu, Changchou Fu, Jun (now Chenchiang), and
Suchou Fu in Kiangsu. These places are at opposite sides
of the river Yangtsze.

Chiennan and six other districts, Sswchwan. Chiennan is now
called Chentu.

Yengchou Fu, Aiangsu (B, June 28).

Pingyang Fu, Fenchou Fu, Chiang, in Shansi. Many houses
destroyed, and more than a hundred people killed.

Earthquake and thunderstorm at Lantien, Hsian, Shensi. A
mountain was displaced.

Chinchou (now Kungchang), Aansu. The shock was followed
by many loud noises; many houses were destroyed, and
about four thousand people were killed.

Imperial City, Changan, Hsian Fu, Shenst.

Hohsi (north-west of Ninghsia Fu, Kans), Changyeb, in
Kanchou, and Chiuchuan (now Suchou Fu), Kansu. It was
followed by a loud noise. The greatest damage occurred
at Changyeh and Chiuchuan, where many houses were
destroyed, and many people lost their lives. The ground ,
did not come to rest until March, 747

DATE.

AD.

767 Dee. 25
768 May
finn

780 May 17.
782 July 31.
783 May 27.
783 July 3.
786 June 25
788 Jan. 13
788 Feb. 16
788 Feb. 17
— Feb.18
788 Mar. 4
788 Mar. 7
788 Mar. 11
788 Mar. 14
788 Mar. 15
788 Mar. 16
788 Mar. 18
788 Mar. 20
788 Mar. 21
788 April 1
788 April 20
788 April 25
788 May 6.
788 May 7.
788 July 1.
788 July 2.
788 Sept. 27.
788 Oct. 3.
792
793 May 31.
794 May 13.
794 May 18.
797 Aug. 12.
812 Sept.
814 April 5.
815 Nov.
816 Mar. 23.
820 Jan.
828 Feb. 7
833 July 12.
835 April 15.
836 Feb. 28.
837 Feb. 10.
839 Dec.
842 Mar. 17.
843 Feb. 13.
844 Jan. 16

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Imperial City, Changan, Hsian Fu, Shensi. Motion was from
N.E., and a Jond noise was repeated three times.

Imperial City, Changan, Hsian Fu, Shensi (B, July 2).

In the Tingho Circuit, Chihli. The greatest damage was at
Tzulu, in Paoting Fu, and Ningchin. The land was fissured,
and sand and water were ejected. Many houses were
destroyed and many people were killed. The ground did
not come to rest for many days.

Imperial City, Changan, Hsian, Shensi.

Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto. (B, June.)
Ditto.

Tungtu (mow Honan Fu), Shan, in Honan, and Pu, in Hsi,
Shansi.

Imperial City.

The whole of China was shaken, but the most damage was
done at Kin, in Hunan, and Fang, in Yunyang Fu, Hupeh.
A mountain was displaced, the ground opened, and water
gushed forth, many houses were destroyed, and people
lived in the open air until movement had ceased.

Imperial City. (B, Feb. 13,14, 29; also March 1,3, 6, 7, and 8.)

The whole of China. The Imperial City was destroyed.
(B, March. 17; 18; 29; April: 16, 215) May i2ya3ue also
June 27 and 28.)

The Imperial City. The shocks were followed by noise like
thunder.

Imperial City.

Earthquake.

Imperial City and neighbouring districts. Most damage was
done at Hochung Fu (Puchou Fu), Shansi, and Kuannei,
Shensi. Many of the castle walls and houses were destroyed.
The ground opened and water burst forth,

Imperial City.

Ditto,
Ditto.

Imperial City. Many trees fell down.

Suichou, Lichiang Fu, Yunnan. During a day and night there
were more than eighty shocks. There was a landslip thirty
Chinese miles (about ten miles) in length, and more than a
hundred people were killed.

Imperial City, Changan, Hsian, Shensi.

Imperial City (B, April 12).

Imperial City, Changan (B, March 13).

Imperial City, Changan.

Imperial City, Changan (B, August 4).

Imperial City, Changan. Many tiles shaken down from roofs.

Imperial City.

Imperial City (also a slight shock in old Tungshu).

Imperial City.

Sung and Po, now forming Honan Fu, Honan (B, 843, March 8.)

Imperial City, Changan, Hsian Fu, Shensi.

Earthquake.

No.
294

295
296
297

298

299
300

301:

302
303
304
305

306
307

308
809

310

311

a a

312
313
314
315

316

317
318

319
320
321
322
323
324
325

DATE.
A.D.
849 Oct. 24.
858 Oct. 13.
860 May
865 Dec.
867 Feb. 23.
872 May 15.
876 July 18.
876 July
876 Dec.
877 Aug. 7.
879 March.
883
886 Spring.
887 Jan.
895 . April 11.
924 Dec.
925 Dec. 18.
928 July
932 July
932 Sept.
932 Dec.
949 May 9.
953 Nov
965
996 Oct.
999 Oct.
1001 Sept.
1003 Feb.
1004 Feb. 10.
1004 Feb. 17.
1004 Feb. 21.
1004 Feb, 27.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 91

Shangtu (also called Luanching), Chihli, also Chenwu,
Kueihuacheng, Soping Fu, Shansi, Hosi (now Chaoyi), in
Hsian Fu, Tiente, Lingwu in Hsienyang and Yenhsia,
Shensi. Many houses destroyed and many people killed
(B, 848, Oct. 26).

Taiyuan in Chinning, Shans?.

Shangtu, Chihli.

Chin, Chiang in Hotung (Taiyuan Fu), Shansi... Many houses
destroyed; the ground was cracked and water came forth.
Hochung, Puchou Fu, Chin and Chiang, Taiyuan Fu, in Shansi.

Many houses destroyed and many people killed.

Chetung and Chesi, Hangchou Fu, Chehkiang.

Hsiungchou in Paoting Fu, Chihli. The town was destroyed ;
a landslip took place, many people were killed, and shocks

« continued for four months.

Puchou, Tsaechou fu, Shangtung.

Imperial City, Changen, Hsian Fu, Shensi. Shocks were
accompanied by sounds.

Hsingchou in Paoting Fu, Chihli.

Imperial City. Followed by a loud noise like thunder. A
mountain was displaced and water burst out at Lantien in
Hsian Fu, Shensi.

Chinchou, Taiyuan Fu, Shansi. It was followed by a noise like
thunder, :

Chengtu in Sswehuan. Many shocks during a single month.

Weichou, comprising the lower part of Shansi (Puchou Fu)
and part of Honan.

Hotung, now Shansi (Puchou Fu, Pingyang Fu).

Chenchou, Kuangtung.

Wei (now Changyin), Honan Fu, Honan; Po in Tungchang,
Shangtung ; Hsuchou Fu, Kiangsu; Su in Fengyang Fu,
Anhui.

Cheng in Kaifeng Fu, Honan.

Taiyuan in Shansi. The ground did not come to rest until the
27th, and there were twenty shocks.

Chin (now Kungchang), Kansw.

Imperial City, Kaifeng, Honan.

Yuting (now Yungping Fu), Tsuang in Tientsin Fu, Shen in
Chinho, and Pei in Kuangping Fu, Chihli. Most damage
was done at Yuting.

Wei (now Changyin), Shangte Fu, Lo (Honan Fu), Honan,
and Hsing (now Shunte Fu), Chikii. Most damage at
Weichou. There were about fifteen shocks, and the ground
did not come to rest for several days.

Imperial City, Kaifeng Fu, Honan.

Tung (now Tzutung), Paoning Fu, Sswchuan ; Kuansi forming
Shensi (Hsian); Ling in Ninghsia Fu, Kansw; Hsia
(Puchou), forming Lower Shansi(Pingyang Fu), Huan and
Ching in Chingyang Fu, Kansu. Many castle walls and
houses were destroyed.

Changchou Fu, containing the cities of Wuchin and Yanghu
in Kiangsu. Many military stations and houses were
destroyed.

Chingchou (now Chingyung), Kansu.

Yichou, comprising parts of Yunnan and Ssuchuan (Chengtu
Fu).

Imperial City, Kaifeng, Honan.

Ditto.

Imperial City, Kaifeng, Human. Many houses badly shaken,
and there was a great noise.

Chichou, comprising Chihli (Chengting), Shansi, and part of
Honan and Manehuria.

“DATE,

A.D.
1004 March.
1004 April.
1004° May 23.
1004 June.
1cO4t Dec 22.
1004 Dec. 23.
1007 Sept. 12.
1007 Sept. 15.
1009 April.
1011 July.
1011 August.
1022 March.
1027 May 12.
1029 Dec. 5.
1037 Dec.
1088 Jan.
1038 Mar. 7.
1088 Dec.
1039 Jan. 5.
1043 «June 19.
1043 June 24.
1045 Sept. 3.
1045 Sept. 9.
1046 Feb. 12.
1046 April 24.
1046 June 17,
1047 Nov. 20.
1050 Dec. 6.
1056 Jan. 4.
1057
1060 June 8.
1067
1067 Oct. 10.
1068 Aug. 20,
1068 Aug, 21.
1068 Aug. 27.
1068

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

Yizhou, comprising parts of Yunnan and Ssuchuan (Chengtu),
Lichou in Linan Fu, Yunnan, and Yachou in Ssuchuan.

Chingchou Fu, Hupeh.

Yingchou (now Hochien Fu), Chihli.

Chingchou Fu, Hupeh. Shocks were repeated several times.

Jihnan (now called Yuenan), Zongking. The shock extended
to the Imperial City, Kaifeng, Honan.

Shibchou, Wenchou Fu, Chehkiang.

Yichou, comprising parts of Yunnan and Ssuchuan (Chengtu).

Weichou (now called Kungchang) and Wating, Pingliang Fu,
Kansu. During the day there were four shocks.

Taichou, north part of Shansi.

Changchou and Meichou, Ningyuan Fu, Ssuchuan.

Chengching (now called Chingting) in Chingho, Chihli. Over-
turned walls. :

Liao, Ying, in Tatung Fu, and Yuan, in Chiang, Shansi.
Many houses were destroyed.

Taichou in Yangchou Fu, Kiangsu, and Hsin, Shansi.

Imperial City, Kaifeng Fu, 7Zonan (B, Nov. 29).

Taichonu, Pingchou (Taiyuan Fu), and Asinchou. These places
are in the north part of Shansi. The greatest damage was
done at Hsinchou, where 19,742 people were killed, 5,655
were wounded, and more than 50,000 cattle were killed. At
Taichou 759 people were killed, and at Pingchou 1,890
people killed (B, Jan. 24, 1038).

Imperial City, Kaifeng, Honan. (One bcok gives date as
Dec. 1037.)

Tai, Ping and Hsinchou, Shansi. Thisis where the earthquake
took place in Decembex 1037.

Hsinchou, Shansi.

Imperial City, Kaifeng Fu, Honan.

Hsinchou, Shansi. Followed by a loud noise.

Hsinchou, Shansi.

Kuangchou or Cantong Fu, Kuangtung.

Kingnan and Yochou, Hunan.

Chingchou Fu, Shantung (B, April 6).

Tengchou Fu, Shantung. A mountain was displaced and
there was a noise in the sea.

Imperial City, Kaifeng Fu, Zoran.

Ayang and Hsuchou, Honan.

Hsiuchou, Chian, Aiangsi. A loud noise like thunder came
from the north-west.

Chiahsing Fu, Chehkiang.

Hsiungchou in Paoting Fu and Pachou in Shuntien Fu, Chihii.
The greatest damage was at Yuchou in the northern part of
Hsiungchou. More than twenty or thirty thousand people
were killed.

Imperial City, Kaifeng Fu, Honan.

Chuanchou, Changchou, Chienchou, Shaown, Hsinghuachun, in
Fuhhkien, and Chaochou Fu, in Auangtung. Most damage
was done at Chaochou Fu: the ground opened, water burst
forth, and many people were killed.

Imperial City, Kaifeng F'n, onan.

Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.

Hui and Tunga in Yunchou (now calied Tungping), Taian Fu,
Shantung. Shocks were repeated all day; a violent earth-
quake occurred at Tsangchou, Chingchih and Mochou,
Hochian Fu, Chitli,and Hopei in Honan, comprising Chante
Fu, Weihui Fu, and Huaiching Fu. Many castle walls and
houses were destroyed and many people killed.

No.
363

364
365
366
367
368

369

370
371
372

373
374

375
376
377
378

379
380
381
382
383
384
385

386

387
388

389

390
391

392
393
894

395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402

403
404

DATE

A.D.
1068
1068 Sept. 3
1068 Dec. 29
1069 Jan. 6
1069 Jan. 20
1069 Jan, 24
1069 Jan.
1072 Nov. 3
1085 June 14
1087 April 10
1089 Spring
1092 Nov. 7
1092 Nov. 8
1095 Jan. 13
1095 Nov.
1095
1096 April 9
1096 Oct. 17
1097 Aug. 4
1098 Aug. 31
1099 Feb. 27
1099 Aug. 28
1100 June 19
1102 Jan. 23
1122
1124 Feb.
1125 Sept. 6.
1128 Feb. 22.
11334 Sept. 9.
1134
1135 June,
1136 July 16.
1137
1137 Aug. 21,
1141 Jan. 23.
1144 Nov. 30,
1154 Mar. 17.
1155 May 5.
1158 Sept. 28.
1160 April 7.
1161 April 23.
1162 Sept. 1,

yo)
Os

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

Yiyang in the Chansha Fu, Hunan. A mountain was displaced
with a loud noise.

Mochou, Hochien Fu, Chihli. Accompanied with loud noise.

Imperial City, Kaifeng, Honan; also at Mochou, Chihli.

Yingchou, Hsuchou Fu, Ssuchuan.

Chichou in Chingho, Paoting Fu, Chihii.

Tsungchou in Tientsin Fu, Chihli. Muddy water burst out
from the ground, bringing with it wood, nuts, shells, &c.

Chaochou Fu, Kuangtung. Shocks were repeated more than
ten times in the day, and the ground did not come to rest
for more than six months.

Hua, Tungchou Fu, Shensi.

4, Imperial City, Kaifeng, Honan.
. Taichou, northern part of Shansi. The shock was followed

by a loud noise.

Shensi, comprising part of Shensi and Kansw (see Hsian Fu) ;
also Hopei, Huaching Fu, in Honan. ,

Lanchou, Cheniung, Pingliang Fu, in Kansu; also Yunghsing
(now called Hsian Fu), Shenst.

Huanchou, Chingyang Fu, Aansu.

Taiyuan Fu in Shansi.

Honan Fu, Honan.

Suchou Fu, Avangsu. Shocks were repeated many times from
summer to autumn.

Chiennan and Tungchuan (now called Chengtu Fu, Ssuehuan).

Chuchou, Anhui, and Yichou, Shantung.

Taiyuan Ku, Shansi. It was followed by a loud noise

. There was an earthquake which lasted a long time.

Enchou in Tungchang Fu, Shantung.

. Taiyuan Fu, Shansi.

Ditto.

Chin, Hsi, Tai, Lan, Kelan, Paote, Ningwu, in Taiyuan Fu,
Shanst; Shih (now Wupao) and Weisheng, Suite Fu,
Shensi. These places are on opposite sides of the valley,
through which the Yellow River runs in a north-south
direction. Shocks were repeated day and night, and many
castle walls and houses were destroyed and many people
were killed.

Hsingchou in Paoting, Chihli.

Imperial City, Kaifeng, Honan. The ground did not come to
rest for several days. Shocks were followed by aloud noise.

In the Hsiho Circuit, in the northern part of Kansu. Most
damage done wasat Lunchou. The ground sank to a depth
of 40 or 60 feet, and several hundred houses and people
were buried.

Changan, the prefectural city of Hsian Fu, Shensi.

Pingchiang, Yochou Fu, Hunan. Most damage was done at
Huchou (B, Oct. 12).

Hsingtu, in Chenting Fu, Chihli.

Chengtu Fu, Ssuchuan.

Yuhang, Hangchou Fu, Chehhkiang. Sheck was followed by
loud noise like thunder.

Earthquake.

Imperial City, Kaifeng, Honan,

Ditto,
Ditto.

Earthquake.

Earthquake (B, April 28),

Earthquake.

Hotung (Puchou and Pingyang), Shansi, and Tungchon Fu,
Shensi.

Ditto.
Ditto (B, Aug, 23),

94

No.
405
406
407
408

409
410
411
412

413
414
415
416
417
418
419

420
421

DATE.

A.D.
1163 July 24.
1163 Nov. 24.
1164 March.
1165 Aug. 14.
1165 Aug. 16.
1166 Oct. 9.
1167 Nov. 6.
1169 Jan. 31.
1175 Jan. 16.
1180 June 16.
1183 Jan. 8.
1184 Jan. 27.
1185 June 14.
1187 June 15.
1195 April 10.
1195 Sept.
1200 July 15.
1200 Oct.
1200 Dec. 19.
1200 Dec. 26.
1209 Dec. 11.
1209 Dec. 23.
1210 Mar. 31.
1213 May.
1213 July 3.
1216 Mar. 26.
1217 Mar, 28.
1219 June 9.
1219 June.
1219 July.
1220 July 30.
1221 Feb. 10.
1221 June ll.
1223 Oct. 1.
1241 Jan. 16.
1242 Feb. 25.
1255

1270

1274 Oct. 23.
1284 Oct. 19.
1289 Feb. 4.
1290 Mar. 28.
1290 Mar. 31.
1290 Sept. 27.
1291 Sept.
1295 Aprill1l.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Earthquake.
Ditto.

Imperial City, Kaifeng, Honan.

Imperial City, Kaifeng, Honan. Accompanied by a loud
noise.

Imperial City, Kaifeng, Honan.

Ditto.

Earthquake.

Shihchou, Suiting Fu, Ssuchuan. The movement continued
for three days, and was accompanied by sounds. The tiles
fell from many roofs.

Imperial City, Kaifeng, Honan.

Ditto.
Earthquake, Kaifeng, Honan.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Earthquake, Kaifeng, Honan, accompanied by a thunder-
storm. The Palace gate was damaged.
Imperial City, Kaifeng, Honan.
Ditto.

Earthquake in North-East China (Shangtu 7).
Ditto.
Ditto.

Pingyang Fu, Shansi. The motion was from north-west, and
was followed by a loud noise.

In the same district. The greatest damage was at Fashan in
Pingyang Fu. Many castles and houses were destroyed aud
many people were killed.

Heavy shock in the same district. Movement did not cease
until the end of September. The shocks were accompanied
with noise.

Hsingtu.

Yenchou Fu, Chehkiang (B, June 26),

East Hsichuan, Hsining Fu, Aansu. The ground did not
come to rest for four days.

Imperial City, Kaifeng Fu, Honan.

Pingliang and Chenjung in Pingliang Fu, Kansu. It was
accompanied by aloud noise and followed by a dust storm,
which made the whole day dark The damage was so
great that it was impossible to find out how many houses
had been destroyed and how many people had been killed.

Imperial City, Kaifeng, Honan.

Hsichuan, Hsining, Kansw.

Earthquake.

Earthquake and thunderstorm.

Hsichuan, Hsining Fu, Kansu.

Earthquake.

Ditto.
Ditto.

Shu (the literary name of Ssuchuan), Chengtu Fu.

Chiating Fu (now Sungpan), Lungan Fu, Ssuchuan.

Imperial City, Tatu (now Peking).

Peking.

Earthquake, Peking.

Chuanchou Fu, Puhkien.

Earthquake, Chuanchou Fu, Puhkien.

Shangtu (also called Luanking), Chihli, and Wuping, Ting-
chou Fu, Fuhhkien. At Wuping 100,000 people were killed.

Pingyang Fu, Shansi. Eighteen thousand houses wero
destroyed.

Earthquake.

|
|
|
.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 95

Date.

No. A.D.

451 1302 Dec. 29. Yunnan Fu, Yunnan. The ground did not come to rest for

q several days.

452 1302 Dec. Ditto.

453 1303 Sept. Pingyang Fu, Taiyuan Fu, Shansi. The land opened, and

: water and sand came out of the fissures; 10U,000 houses
were destroyed and many people were killed. A landslip,
more than ten Chinese miles in length, took place. This
was at Chaoching in Pingyang Fu. At Hsukou, Chi, and
Pingcbon, in Taiyuan Fu, the ground opened and water
burst out to form a stream. At Pingchou the north castle
wall was destroyed for the length of one Chinese mile; on
the east side it was destroyed for a length of 200 feet. At
Pingyang Fu the ground did not come to rest until
February 1304. (& Chinese = 1 English mile.)

1304 Feb. Pingyang Fu, Shansi. Many houses were destroyed.

1305 May. Tatung Fu, Shansi. It was accompanied with a noise like
thunder, and 5,800 houses were destroyed and 1,400 people
were killed. At Huaijen in Tatung Fu water burst out at
two places to form lakes, and was black in colour: one of
these lakes had an area of 18 pu (240 pu=lacre) and a
depth of 115 feet ; the other was 66 pu and 10 feet in depth.

1305 Junel18. Pingyang Fu and Taiyuan Fu, Shkansi. In order to stop the
continually occurring earthquakes the Government ordered
the names Pingyang and Tai) uan to be changed to Chinning
and Chining.

1305 Dec. 2. Tatung Fu, Shansi.

1805 Dec. Earthquake.

1306 Jan. The shocks still continued at Chinning and Chining. They
apparently commenced in 1303.

1306 May12. Kaicheng, Yenan Fu, Shensi.

1307 Sept.15. Kaicheng, Yenan Fu, Shensi.

1308 July 6. Ningyuan district in the Lunghsi of Kungchang, Kansw.
Also there was a great earthquake in Wumeng in Chactung
Fu, Yunnan. There were six heavy shocks in three days.

1308 Sept. Puchou, Shansi.

1308 Oct. 30. Puchou, Shansi, and Ling, in Ninghsia Fu, Kansu.

1310 Jan. 22. Yangchu in Taiyuan Fu, Shansi. The shock was followed by
a great noise.

1311 Jan.3. Chining (Pingyang), Shanst.

1311 April24. Ninghsia, Kansw.

1211 Aug.6. Kanchou Fu in Kanliang, Kansu. There was a noise like
thunder and a hurricane.

1311 Sept.16. Ninghsia, Kansw.

1313 July. Imperial City, Peking, Chihli (B, June 24),

1313 July3. Imperial City, Peking, Chihli.

1313 July. Ditto.

1313 July 22. Ditto.

1314 Mar.8. Taning, Hsi, Shansi.

1314 May 23. Taning, Hsi, Shansi. Followed by noise.

1314 Sept.14. Piengliang (now Kaifeng), Chih (now Wuchih), in Huaiching
Fu, Wuan, in Chante Fu, Honan (B, Oct. 5).

1315 Jan.2.° Taning in Hsi, Shansi, accompanied by a noise like thunder.

1316 Aug. Chining and Chinning, Skansi. Accompanied by a noise like
thunder (B, Oct. 7).

1316 Nov. 6. Honan Fu, Honan.

1317 Feb.13. Chining, Shansi. Accompanied by a noise.

1317 Sept. 11. Ditto.

1317 Oct.9. Lingpei (outside the great wall to the north of Kansw).
Shocks were repeated for three days.

1318 Feb. 21. Earthquake, Yichou, Liaotung, Shinghing.

1318 Mar.12. Honing in Lingpei, Kansw.

1318 April27. Teching in Chaoching Fu, Kuangtung (B, June 18).

y

96

No,
486
487
488

489

490
491

492
493
494
495
496

497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507

508
509

510
BLL
512

513
514

515
516
517
518

519
520

521
522

523
524
525

Date

AD.
1322 Nov.17
1322 Dec. 25
1324 Jan. 1,
1326 Jan. 19
1327 April 5
1327 Aug.
1327 Sept. 30
1328 Aug. 14
1328 Sept. 1
1328 Nov. 24
1331 May.
1332 May 4.
1332 June.
1332 Sept. 2
1332 Oct.
1333 May.
1333 June.
1333 Sept.
1333 Dec. 28
1333 Dec.
1334 May.
1331 Sept. 22
1335 Dec.17
1336 Jan. 21
1336
1336 Mars 9.
1337 Sept. 17
1337. Sept. 18
1338
1338 July.
1338 Aug. 10
1338 Ang.
1338 Sept. 6
1341 March
1342 June 7
1343 Janel.
1313 March
1313 Dec.
1344 Aug. 9
1344 Sept.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Earthquake, Peking.
Ditto.

Fengyuan (row Changan) in Hsian Fu, Shensi. Accompanied
by a noise.

Ninghsia, Kansu. Accompanied by sound. Shccks repeated
three times.

Honing in Lingpei, Kansu. Accompanied by loud noise.

Tungwei in Kungehang Fu, Kansv. A mountain was dis-
placed. At Tiaomen the shock made a great noise. On
the same day there was also a shock at Fenghsiang Iu and
Hsingyuan, Hanchung Fu, Shensi ; Chentu, Ssuchuan ; Shen-
chou and Chiangling in Chingchou, Hupeh.

Ninghsia, Kansw.

Earthquake, Kansw.

Taning, Hsi, Shansi.

Taning, Hsi, Skansi (B, 14th)

In the Chih district (now Wuchih) in Huaiching Fu, 7/onan,
and- Chenting Fu, Chihli. ‘The ground shook continuously
fur more than a month.

Liaotung, or Liaoyang, Shinghing.

Pcking.

Lunghsi, Kungchang, Kansw.

Earthquake.

Taning, Hsi, Shansi.

Imperial City, Peking. Accomyanied by sound.

Lunghsi in Kungchang, Kansvu.

Hsunshan district in Anching Fu, Anhui.

Leping and Tehsing districts, in Jaochou Fu, Aiangs?.

Hsingchou, now forming Chi, Shuntien Fu, Chihli.

. Imperial City, Peking. A cock crowed before the earthquake

commenced. A mountain disappeared, and where it stood
a lake was formed, the area of which was a hundred square
miles. Many people were killed.

Hsingkuo, Wuchang Fu, Hupeh.

Anching, Anhui. The most damage was done in Susung,
Taihu, Hsunshan districts. At the same time there was an
earthquake at Luchou in Anhui, Chichou, Huangchou Fu,
Hupeh. .

Jaochou, Aiengsi.

Susung, Anching, Anhui.

. Imcerial City, Peking. Many houses were destroyed, and

many people and cattle were killed at Shunchou, near
Shunyi, Lungching, Huailai, Hsuante (now Isuanhua),
Chihli.

. Imperial City, Peking.

Paoan, Hsuanhua Fu, Chikli, ani Usinchang in Juichou Fu,
Kiangsi.

Hsinchou, Shuntien Fv, Chiili. Mount Ling was displaced.

Paoanchou, Hsuanhua Fu, Chihii.

A mountain was displaced at Kungchang, Kansu.

Imperial City, Peking. Shocks occurred two or three times
during the day. -

Pingliang (now Kaifeng), Honan.

Pingchin in Chining (now Taiyuar.), Shansi, Accompanied
by a loud noise like thunder. Land opened and many
houses were thrown out of the vertical.

Imperial City, Peking.

Chunchou (now Yu), Hsincheng and Mi in Kaifeng Fu,
Honan.

Chiaochou, Kaomi, Laichou Fu, Shantung.

Wenchou Fu, Chehhiang.

Chu and Mingyin in Yichou Fu, Shantung.

No.
526

527

528
529

530
531
532

633
634

535
636
537
538

539

540
641

DATE.
A.D

1345 Jan.
1345 June.
1346 Jan.
1346 March.
1346 April.
1346 Sept.
1347 March.
1347 April.
1347 June
1347 July 12.
1349 July
1350 Nov.
1351 May 22.
1351 Sept.
1352
1352 April
1353
1354 May
1354 Aug.
1354 Dec.
1354 Dec.
1355 Jan.
1355 Aug. 9.
1356 Spring.
1356 July
1358 Mar. 25.
1358 June
1359 Feb.
1360 April
1362 April
1363 Feb. 3.
1365 Oct.
1366 April.
1366 July.
1366 Aug.
1366

1908,

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS,

=)
~I

Tungping, Tunga in Taian Fu, Yangku in Yenchou Fu,
Pingyin, Chinan Fu, Shantung, and Hanyang, Hupeh.

At four districts in Chichou, Shuntien Fu, Chihli, and Tung-
ping, Taian Fu, in Shantung.

Chenchiang Fu, Aiangsu, and Chinan Fu, Shantung.

Yitu, Changle, Shoukuang in Chingchou Fu, Peihai in
Weichou, and Chiaochou in Laichou Fu, Shantung.

Kaoyuan in Chingchou Fu, Shantung. Many houses were
destroyed. é

Shaowu Fu, Muhkien. Next day drum-like sounds were heard
in the ground, and also in the following night.

Yitu, Lintsu, Linchu in Chingchou Fu, Changyi of Weichou,
Kaomi of Chiaochou in Laichou Fu, and Tichou of Chinan
Fu, Shantung.

Tungping, Tunga in Taian Fu, Yanka in Yenchou Fu, Pingyin
in Chinan Fu, Shantung.

Lintzu, Chingchou Fu, Shantwng. The ground did not come
to rest for several days; at Hotung (Puchou, Pingvang),
Shansi, the ground was fissured and water burst forth ;
many houses were destroyed and many people killed.

Tanyang, Chenchiang Fu, Kiangs».

Taichou Fu, Chehhiang.

Hsukao in Taiyuan Fu, Shansi.

Fen, Hsin, Wenshui, Pingchin, Yutzu, and Shouyang, in
Taiyuan Fu, Yushe of Liao in Chinning (now Pingyang Fu,
Shansi), and Honeij, Hsiuwu, Menchou, in Huaiching Fu,
Honan. The shock was followed by a noise like thunder;
many houses were destroyed and many people killed and
wounded.

Kungan, Sungtsu, Chehchiang, Chingchou Fu, Hsia (now
Yichang Fu), and Chingmen, Chengtien Fu (now Anlu Fu),
Hupeh.

Lingshih in Ho (Pingyang Fu), Shanst.

Shensi (the provinces comprise part of Aansw, the north-west
part of Ssuchuan, and the present Shensi). Most damage
was done at Chuanglang Tinghsi in Liangchou Fu, Ching-
ning in Pingliang Fu, and Huichou (now Huan) in Chingyang,
Kansu. Many houses were destroyed; a mountain was
moved and a valley filled up.

Chuanglang, Liangchou Fu, Tingsi, Kungchang Fu, Chingning,
Pingliang Fu, and Huichou, Lanchou Fu, Sunsu.

Chiebhsiu, Fenchou Fu, Shansi. Water burst out.

Hsiaoyi, Fenchou Fu, Shansi.

Ningkuo, Chingte in Ningkuo Fu, Anhui.

Haichou in Huaian Fu, Kiangsu.

Shaohsing Fu, Chehhiong.

Paote in Chining (now Taiyuan Fu), Shansi.

Chichou (Shuntien Fu) and four other districts in Chihli. The
ground did not come to rest for ten days.

Leichou Fu, Kuantung.

Linchou in Chinning (Taiyuan Fu), Shansi.

Yitu in Chingchou, Shantung.

Chingyuan in Chuchou Fu, Chehhiang.

Shunchang in Yenping Fu in Muhkien.

Nanhsiung, Kuanjgtung.

Taichou Fu, Chehkiang.

Hsinghua Fa, Fuhkkien. With a noise like thunder.

Haichou in Huaian Fu, Aiangsu. With a noise like thunder.

Chiebhsiu in Fenchou Fu, Shansi.

Hsin, Lin, Shih in Hsukao of Taiyuan and Hsiaoyi, Pingyao ip
Fenchou, Shansi. Many people were killed,

Kung, Honan Fu, Honan. A mountain was displaced,

Il

98

No.
562
563
56t
565

566
567
568

569
570

571

572
573
574
575
576

577
578
579
580

581
582
583
584
585
586

587
588
589
590
591
592
593

594

595
596
597
598
599
600
601
602
603
60t
605

606
€07

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Chinan, Shantung.

Fuhchou, Fuhkien.

Fuhchou, /uhkien. With a noise like thunder.

Wenshui, Hsukao in Taiyuan Fu, Hsiaoyi, Chiehhsiu in Fenchou
Fu, Paote of Linchou, Shihlou of Shi, Shanst and Shensi
(comprising Shenst and Kansu) (see Hsian Fu, Shenst).

Shensi, now represented by Shensi and Kansu (see Hsian).

Kungchang, Lintao, and Chingyang, Kansu.

Tsangwu in Wuchou Fu, Hochou, Kungcheng and Lishan
(now Yungan in Pingle Fu), Kuangsi.

Yangchu, Taiyuan Fu, Shansi.

The Imperial City, Nanking, Kiangsu. Sixteen people were
killed.

. Hsukao, Taiyuan Fu, Shansi. The ground did not come to

rest for three days, and loud noises came from the. north-
west.

. Yangchu, Taiyuan Fu, Shansi.

Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.

Yangchu, Taiyuan Fu, Shansi. The shocks were repeated
seven times during the year; the ground did not come to
rest for eight years.

Imperial City, Nanking (now Chiangning), Kiangsu.

Ditto.

Ninghsia in north Kansw. It destroyed many castle walls.

Fubchou Fu, Muhkien, Kuangchou Fu or Canton, Kuangtung,
and Hochou, Lanchou Fu, Kansu.

Yunnan Fu, Yunnan.

Ditto.

Chinan, Shantung.

Imperial City, Nanking, Kiangsu.

Peking, Taiyuan Fu, Shansi, Ninghsia, in Kansu.

Imperial City, Nanking, Chinan Fu, Shantung, and Kaifeng Fu,
Honan.

. Imperial City, Nanking.

Ditto.
Peking.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Nanking.
Livan, Luchou Fu, Anhui, and Nanking, where the ground
did not come to rest for seven days; there were about
forty-two shocks.

. Imperial City, Peking. The motion was from south-east to

north-west, and there was a loud noise.
Nanking. Shocks occurred ten times in a day.
Nanking.
Peking and Nanking.
Nanking.
Ditto.

. Imperial City, Peking.

Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.

Chuanglang in Liangchou Fu, Kansu. The ground did not
come to rest from October to the end of November; there
were about twenty shocks; castle walls and houses were
destroyed and many people were killed.

Imperial City, Peking.

Ditto.

No.
608
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619

620
621

622

623
624
625
626

627
628
629
630
631
632

633

634
635

636

637

638

639
640
641
642

~ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 99

DATE.

A.D,
1452
1454 Nov, 21.
1457 Nov. 11.
1465 Feb.
1465 May 12.
1465. May 12.
1467
1467 June 28.
1468 Sept. 1.
1469 Jan. 3.
1470 Jan. 18.
1470 Feb. 18.
1470
1474 May 23.
1474 Dec. 3.
1476 Feb. 10.
1476 Nov. 6.
1477 ‘Feb. 22.
1477. Mar. 28.
1477 May 22.
1477 Oct. 25.
1478 July
1478 Aug.
1480 June
1480 Sept. 23.
1481 Mar. 19.
148L June 30.
1481 July 6.
1484 Feb. 7.
1484 June 4.
1485 Mar. 15.
1485 Mar. 26.
1485 April 5.
1485 April 8.
1485 April 13,

Nanking.

Imperial City, Peking. Accompanied by a loud noise; motion
north-west to south-east,

Nanking.

Hsiangyang Fu, Hupeh.

Tiaochou, Tientsin Fu, Chihli. The ground did not come to
rest for twenty-two days.

A strong earthquake also occurred in Chengtu Fu, Ssuchuan,
and shocks were repeated 375 times.

Earthquake.

Hsuanhua Fu, Chihili, and Tatung Fu, Shansi. There was
also a strong earthquake at Sochou in Soping Fu and
Weiyuen, Shansi; many people were wounded.

Imperial City, Peking. Accompanied with sound.

In Hukuang. This province comprises Changsha Fu, Hunan,
and Wuchang Fu, Hupeh.

Juning Fu. Honan, Wuchung Fu, Hanyang Fu, Hupeh, aud
Yochou Fu in Hunan.

Honanand Hukuang comprising Hunanand Hupeh (Wuchang).

Hukuang, Wuchang, Huyeh.

Hoching in Lichiang Fu, Yunnan. Shocks were repeated
ieee times ; many houses were destroyed and many people
killed.

Tashaching in Lingchou, Chingyang Fu, AKansw. It made a
noise like thunder: shocks were repeated day and night,
and many houses were destroyed.

Nanking, Kiangsu.

Imperial City, Peking.

Fenyang and Linbuai, Anhwi. Accompanied by sound.

Lintao and Kungchang in Kansu. It destroyed many castle
walls.

Kanchou, Ninghsia, Liangchou, Aansu, Yulin, Shensi, and
Yichou in Shangtung. The greatest damage was done at
Ninghsia and Kanchou, where the ground was cracked and
the castle walls were damaged in eighty places.

Imperial City, Peking. Shocks were repeated three times
during the day.

Taiping Fu, Kuangsi. Shocks were repeated seven times
during the day, and the ground was moving until the end
of August.

Chengtu, Sswehuan. Many houses destroyed and many people
were killed.

Changle, Fuchou Fu, Fuhkien.

Yuehsui in Ningyuan Fu, Sswchvan. Shocks were repeated
seven times during the day, and it was several days before
the ground came to rest.

Nanking, Huaian Fu, Yangchou Fu, Kiangsu, Fengyang Fu,
Luchou Fu, Hochiu, Ymgchou Fu, Andwi, Yenchou Fu,
Shantung, and Honan Fu in Honan.

Tsunhua and Suchou, Shuntian Fu, Chihli.

Another earthquake at the same places, and Yungping Fu,
Chihli, Liaotung, and Shingking. Shocks repeated three
times during the day.

Imperial City, Peking, Yungping, Hsuenhua, Chihdi, and Liao-
tung. Most damage was done at Hsuenhua; many castles
destroyed and many people killed.

Taichou, Shansi. Shocks were repeated seven times.

Taian Fu, Shantung.

Ditto. Four days later the shock was repeated,

Earthquake,

Ditto.
Ditto,
H2

671

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

DATE,
ALD:
1185 May 25.
1485 June 4.
1485 July 4.
1485 Oct. 23.
1185 Dec. 3.
1486 July 29,
1486 Oct. 15.
1488 Sept. 25.
1488 Oct. 1.
148 Jan. 12.
1489 June 10.
1491 Jan. 30.
1491 July 21-
1491 Sept. 23.
1493 March.
1493 May 4.
1494 April 3.
1495 April 20.
1495 Oct.11-18.
1495 Nov. 8.
1495 Nov. 10.
1495
1496
1497 Feb. 27.
1497 July 13.
1497
1500 Aug. 21.
1500 Nov. 28.
1501 Jan, 29,

Kuyuan in Pingliang Fu; Lanho,Tao, and Min, in Kungchang
Fu, Kansv. The shock was followed by a loud noise.

Chichou, Shuntien Fu, Tsunhua, in Chihli. The shock was
followed by a loud noise, and the ground did not come to
rest for several days. Many castle walls and houses were
destroyed,

Imperial City, Peking.

Lienchou, Kuangtung ; and Wuchou, Kuangsi. Shocks were
repeated many times, and the ground did not come to rest
for sixteen days.

Imperial City, Peking.

Ningchiang, in Hanchung Fu, and Paochi, in Fengsiang Fu,
Shensi. At Ningchiang the ground was cracked for a length
of 60 to 100 feet. At Paochi there was a crack three
Chinese miles in length and 10 feet wide.

Chengtu Fu, Ssuchwan. Shocks were repeated seven or eight
times during the day and continued until the day follow-
ing: they made a noise like thunder.

Han, Mou, Chengtu Fu, Sswchwan. ‘Thirty-seven houses were
damaged and many people were killed.

A landslip took place at Hsuanhua Fu, Chihli: it was
150 yards Jong, 10 feet wide, and 3 feet in depth. A
narrow footpath was elevated in tke middle of the river
Sta. It was one foot above the surface of the water and
70 yards in length.

Chengtu Fu in Ssuchuan. Shocks were repeated many times
for three days.

Chengtu Fu, Ssuchwan. Shocks were repeated for three
days and noises were heard.

Imperial City, Peking.

Ditto.

Nanking, Huaian, and Yangchou Fu, Kiangsu.

Ninghsia, Kansu. Shocks were repeated twenty times in
three years.

Kaifeng Fu, Weihui, Honan, Tungchang Fu, Shantung.

Chuching Fu, Yunnan. Many houses destroyed and many
people killed. Also at Peking and Nanking. The shocks
were repeated six times during the year.

Ninghsia, Kansu. Shocks occurred twelve times, and were
followed by loud noise. Walls and houses were damaged,
and many people were wounded.

Annan, Hsingyi Fu, Kueichou. There were twelve shocks.

Haichou, Kiangsu.

Ditto.

Nanking.

Peking and Nanking.

Imperial City, Peking, and Taiyuan Fu, Shansi.

Haifeng in Wuting Fu, Shantung. Shocks were followed by
a loud noise and continued for several days.

Chenting Fu (now forming Chengting) in Chinho, Chihii;
Taiyuan Fu, Tunlin, in Luan Fu, Shansi; Yulin Fu, Shensi;
Chenfan in Liangchou Fu, Lingchou, Ninghsia Fu, Kansw.
The greatest damage was at Tunlin, where tiles fell from
the roofs.

Imperial City, Peking. :

Peking, Nanking, and Fengyang, Anhui.

Yenan, Tung, Hua, Hsingyang, Chaoyi, Changan, in Hsian
Fu, Tungkuang, in Tungchou Fu, Hsientung, Finghsiang
Fu, Shensi; Chingyang, Kansu. The greatest damage was
done at Chaoyi and Hsiengtung, where castle walls and
houses were cestroyed and people were killed. Fissures
were formed, from which water flowed to form a small

693

694

Dare.
AWD.
1501 Feb. 26
1501 Mar. 14
1501 Oct. 20
1501 Dec. 6
1502 Oct. 27
1502 Oct. 27
1502 Dec. 4
1502 Dec. 7.
1503 Mar. 31
1505 July 21
1505 Oct. 19
1505 Oct. 20
1505 Oct. 27.
1506 Mar. 27
t 29
1506 May 6.
1506 Sept. 7.
1507 Novy. 14.
1509 June 5.
1509 June 5,
1510 May.
1511 Nov. 27.
1511 Dec. 12.
1612 June 3.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 101

river. Movement continued for several months. Hach shock
was followed by aloud noise. A strong earthquake also
occurred at Yungning, Lushi, in Shan Fu, Honan; Ping-
yang and Anyi, Jungho, in Puchou Fu, and Puchou,
Shansi.

Puchou Fu, Hsinghua Fu, Chuanchou Fu, and Changchou Fu,
Fuhhien.

Puchov, Shansi. Shocks were repeated twenty-nine times
and the ground did not come to rest until the middle of
next month.

In the province of Aweichou. Shocks were repeated three
times.

Nanking.

Nanking, Hsuchou Fu, Kiangsu; Taming Fu, Shunte Fu,
Chihli; Chinan, Tunchang, Yenchou, aud Puchou in
Tsaochou Fu, Shantung. ‘The greatest damage was at
Puchou, where the ground was cracked and water burst
fcrth. More than one hundred people were killed.

Kaifeng Fu, Changte Fu, Honan; Pingyang Fu, Tsechou Fu,

and Luan Fu, Shansi.

So, Tai, Ying, Shanyin, Yangchu, and Mayi, Tatung Fu,
Shansi. The earthquake made a loud noise.

Nanking.

Ditto.

Ninghsia, Kansu. The shock was followed by a loud noise;
many castles and houses were thrown out of the vertical.
Hangchou Fu, Chiahsing Fu, Shaohsing Fu, and Ningpo Fu,

Chehkiang. The shock was followed by a loud noise.

Nanking, Suchou Fu, Sunchiang Fu, Changchon Fu, Chen-
chiang Fu, Huaian Fu, Yangchou Fu, and Tung, Kiangsu;
Ningkuo Fu and Hochou, Taiping Fu, Anhui.

Puchou, Chieh, .Chiang, Shansi; Hsuanhua Fu, Chihli.
Greatest damage occurred at Anyi in Chieh and Wan-
chuan in Hsuanhua Fu, Chihli; many houses destroyed
and many people killed.

Hoyang in Tungchou Fu, Shensi. Shocks were repeated
more than ten times, and each was followed by a loud noise
like thunder.

Yunnan Fu, Yunnan. The ground did not come to rest for
three or four days; many houses were destroyed and many
people were killed.

Aoshanwei, Laichou Fu, Shantung. Many castle walls were
damaged; there were many shocks, and each was fcllowed
by a loud noise; the ground did not come to rest until
December. Altogether there were about forty-five shocks.

Anchou, Hsinhsingchou, Yunnan Fu, Yunnan. Many people
were killed. The ground did not come to rest for three
days.

Wuchang Fu, Hupeh. The shock was followed by a loud
noise and lightning.

Chuhsiung Fu, Yunnan. The ground did not come to rest for
three days; there were about five shocks.

Chuhsiung Fu, Yunnan. Movement continued for thirteen
days.

Tengchuan, Tali Fu, Chienchuan, and Hoching, Lichiang Fu,
Yunnan, The greatest damage was done at Chienchuan
and Hoching, where many people were killed and many
houses destroyed.

Imperial City, Peking, Paoting Fu, Hochien Fu, and eight
districts and three towns in Chihli, and Wuting Fu in
Shantung. In three days there were nineteen shocks.

Chuhsiung Fu, Yunnan. There were many shocks, each of
which was followed by a noise like thunder.

r~)

102 REPORTS: ON THE STATE OF SOILENGE.

Date.

AD.

695 1512 Oct. 17... Tengchung (now. Tengyuen) in. Yungchang Fa, Yunnan.
Movement continued for three days; red water came out
from the ground; many castle walls and houses were
destroyed and many people were killed.

695 1514 Jan.9. Chengtu Fu, Chungching Fu, Tuagchuan Fu, Ssuchuan.

697 1514 July15. Fengyang Fu, Anhui. Followed by. a loud noise: :

698 1514 Sept.15. Peking.

699 1514 Oct.3. © Hsuchou Fu, Ssuchwan, Taiyuan Fu, and Tatung Fu, Shans.
Shock followed by a loud noise.

700 1515 June 27, Yunnan Fu, Chaochou in Tali Fu and Yungning (now
Nanning), Chuching Fu, Yunnan. For more than a month,
twenty or thirty shocks occurred each day ; the ground was
cracked and water burst out; the damage was so great that
it was impossible to find out how many houses had been
destroyed or how many people had been killed.

TOL 1515 Oct.10. Tali Fu, Yunnan.

702 1515 Oct. 29. Ditto.

703 1516 Sept.25. Nanking (forming the present Anhui and Kiangsw) on
Wuchang Fa in Hupeh.

704 1517 Jan.15. Chuhsiung Fu, Tali Fu, Menghua, and issctrae Yunnan.’

705 1517 May19. Yukan, Fengcheng in Fuchou Fu, and Chuanhsi Fu, Kiansi-+;
Chinhsiang, Chinning Fu, Shantung; Hangchou Fu,
Crehkiang. The ground did not come to rest until the
end of August, and there were about fifteen shocks.

706 1517 July 22. Hosi, Hsio, Tunghai, in Linan Fu and Hsinhsing, Chengchiang.
Fu, Yunnan. Many houses and castles were destroyed, and
many people were killed.

707 1517 Oct. 21. Chinan, Chingchou, Laichou, and Tengchou Fu, Shantung.

708 1517 At Chuanchou Fu, Huhkien. The ground did not come to rest

from February to June; at Chinhua, Chehkiang, the move-

ment lasted from February to July.

Chao, Tengchou, Langchiung, in Tali Fu, and Menghua,

710 1518 Dec. 10. Yunnan.

711 1518 Dec. 19.

712 1519 Mar. 23. Imperial City, Peking.

713 1519 - Oct.18. Hsuanhua Fu, Changping, in Shuntien Fu, and Kaiping, Chihli.

714 1519 Oct. 28. Fuchou Fu, Hsingchou Fu, Chuanchou Fu, Fuhkien.

715 1520 April 5. Anning, Yunnan Fu, Hoching, Lichiang Fu, Yaoin Chuhsiung
Fu, Pinchuan in Tali Fu, and Menghua, Yunnan. The
greatest damage occurred at Menghua. Many castles and
houses were destroyed and many people were killed.

716 1520 Aug. 28. Chingtung Fu, Yunnan. The whole district was damaged
and the shocks were followed by a loud noise.

717 1520 Sept.1. Chinan, Tungchang, Shantung, and Kaifeng, Honan.

718 1523 Jan. Nanking (comprising the present Anhui and Kiangsu), Shan-
tung ; Honan, and Hsian Fu, Shensi.

719 1523 Aug. 24. Tinghai and many neighbouring districts in Chehhiang. Many’
buildings were destroyed.

720 1524 Feb. 12. Peking, Nanking; Honan Fu, Honan; Chinan, Shantung;
Taiyuan, Shansi; and Hsian, Shenst.

721 1524 Feb. 27. Sachou Fu, Changchou Fu, Kiangsu, and Nanking.

722 1525 Sept. 13. Hsuchou Fu, Kiangsu; Fenyang, Anhui; Huaiching and

’ Kaifeng, Honan. The shock was followed by a loud noise. :

723 1525 Oct. 12. Ditto. ’

724 1526 May 3l. Yungchang Fu, Tengchung Fu (now Tengyueh), Yunnan, and
Annan, Kueichou. Accompanied by sound. i

709 1518 July |

725 1526 June 9, Ditto.
726 1527 Nov. 27. Imperial City, Peking.
727 1533 Sept. 25. Ditto.

728 1536 Nov.1. Imperial City, Peking, and many Beieneine districts.
Followed by a loud noise.
729 1537 Oct. Yunnan Fu, Yunnan.
30 1539 Aug. 19, Linan Fuand Chuhsiung Fu, Yunnan, and Pingle Fo, Kuangsi.

No.
731
732
733
734

735
736

737
738

739
740
741
742

743
744
745

746
TAT

718
749

750

751
752
183

754
755
756

757

758
759
760

761
762

DATE.

A.D.

1540 May 25.
1542 Nov. 14.
1542 Dec. 26.
1543 April 14.
1543 May 19.
1544 April 3.
1548 Aug. 18.
1548 Sept. 22.
1551 Oct. 10.
1552 Mar. 16.
1552 March.
1555 Feb. 3.
1558 Feb. 9.
1558 April 27.
1558 June 16.
1658 July 3.
1558 Nov. 22.
1558 Nov. 28.
1558 Dec. 4.
1559 Ang. 25.
1560 May.
1561 Mar. 3.
1561 Aug. 16.
1562 Feb, 24.
1566 Feb. 1.
1568 April 11.
1568 May 5.
1568 May LO.
1568 May 12.
1569 Dec. 28.
1570 May 15.
1571 July 3.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 108

Taochou, Kungchang, and Kansu (present Kanchou), Aansvw.

Pingyang, Shansi; Kuyuan, Pingling Fu, Ninghsia Fu, an
Taochou, Kansu. Followed by a loud noise.

Kungchang Fu, Kuyuan, Pingling Fu, Kansu; Hsian Fu and
Fenghsiang Fu, Shensi.

Taiyuan Fu, Shansi. The ground did not come to rest for ten
days, and shocks were followed by a loud noise.

Fuchou, Changchou, Chuanchou, and Hsinghua Fu, Fuhkien.

Taiyuan, Shansi. The ground did not come to rest for ten
days ; the shocks were followed by a loud noise.

Imperial City, Peking, Shuntien Fu, and Paoting Fu, Chihii.

Imperial City, Peking, Tengchou Fu, Shantung; Kuangning
in Chaoching Fu, Kuangtung.

Imperial City, Peking. Shocks followed by a loud noise.

Fengyang Fu, Anhui. Shock followed bya loud noise.

Taiyuan Fu, Shansi. Shock followed by a loud noise.

Shansi, Shensi,and Honan. Followed by a noise like thunder.
The greatest damage was doneat Weinan, Chaoyi, Sanyuan,
in Hsian Fu, Huachou, Tungchou Fa, Shensi; Puchou Fu,
Shansi. A mountain was displaced and a new mountain
was formed on level ground. The land was fissured and
water burst forth to form a small pond in which were
many small fish. Many houses were destroyed and about
830,000 people were killed. Shocks were repeated several
times each day and the ground did not come to rest for
several days (B, 1556, January).

Shensi.

Changping, Shuntien Fu, Chihli.

Puchou Fu, Shansi. The ground did not come to rest for
three days, and each shock was followed by a loud noise.

Ditto.

Huachou, Tungchou Fu, Shensi. Each shock was followed

by a loud noise.
Ditto.

Huachou, Tungchou Fu, Shensi. Many houses were destroyed.

Nanking, Kiangsu. Followed by a loud noise.

Chiahsing Fu, Huchou Fu, Chehkiang. Many fish jumped
out of the river.

Shantan in Kanchou Fu, Aansuw. Many houses and castles
were damaged.

Taiyuan Fu, Tatung Fu, Shansi; Yulin Fu, Shensi; Ninghsia
Fu and Kuyuan in Pingling Fu, Kansu. The greatest
damage was done at Ninghsia and Kuyuan. Many houses
were destroyed, and many people lost their lives,

Imperial City, Peking, Ninghsia and Hosi, Kansw.

Fuchou, Hsinghua, and Chuanchou, Pwhhien.

Hsian Fu, Hanchung Fu, Shensi; Chingyang Fu, Ninghsia,
Kansu; Puchou Fu, Avyi, Shansi; also Yunyang, Hupeh.
Imperial City, Peking, Leting, Yungping Fu, Chihli;

Tengchou, Shantung; Shunching, Ssuchuan. The greatest
damage occurred at Leting. At two places the land opened
for a length of 30 feet and water burst out of the cracks.

The Castle of Ningyuen, in Ssuchuan, was destroyed.

Huaiching Fu, Nanyang Fu, Juning Fu, Honan, and Ninghsia,
Kansu.

Fenghsiang Fu, Hsian Fu, Shensi; Pingling Fu, Chingyang
Fu, Kansu. Many castles and houses were destroyed and
many people were killed.

Imperial City, Peking.

Ditto.

Imperial City, Peking. Shocks repeated three times during

the day.

104

No.
763
764

DATE,

AD.
1573 Sept. 7.
1574 Mar. 21.
1575 Feb.
1575 June 19.
1575 June.
1575 Aug. 7.
1575 Nov. 5.
1575 Nov. 15.
1575 Nov. 27.
1576 Mar. 26.
1576 Mar. 27.
1577 Mar. 22.
VS7t. Mar 23:
1579 Aug, 18,
1580 July 7.
1580 Sept. 16.
1581 May 27.
1583 Feb, 27.
1584 Mar. 3].
1584 June 27.
1685 | Feb: 7.
1585 April 6.
1585 Sept. 4.
1586 May 27.
1587 April 10.
1587 June.
1588 July 1.
1589 Aug, 24.
1590 July 7.
1590 Aug.
1591 April 27.
1591 Nov. 21.
1595 July 2.
1596 Jan, 24,
1596 Dee.
1597 Feb. 17.
159% Oct..22
1597 “OctaG:
1598 Feb. 5.
1598 Feb. 6.
1598 Feb. 7.
1598 Sept. 24.
1599 Sept. 13.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

Chingchou Fu, Hupeh.
Changting in Tingchou Fu, Puhkien. The land was cracked
and many houses and people were buried.
Hukuang (comprising the present provinces of Hunan and
Hupeh) and Kiangsi.
Hsiangyang Fu, Yunyang Fu, Hupeh, and Nanyang in Hunan.
There was a movement for three days.
Hsinyang, Juning, Honan.
Fuchou Fu, Tingchou Fu, Changchou Fn, Puhkien, and
Haiyung, Chaochou Fu, Kuangtung.
Imperial City.
Ditto.
Minchou in Kungchang Fu, Aansu. Shocks were repeated
many times during the day,
Su and Liaotung, Shinghing.
Ditto.
Tengyueh in Yungchang Fu, Yunnan. During the day there
were twenty shocks.
The same district. A landslip took place; a mountain was
displaced ; water burst out ; many people were killed.
Imperial City, Peking.
Tsunhua, Yungping Fu, Chikli. Vor a week there were many
shocks every day.
Chingping, Pinglu, Pingyang Fu, Skansi. A thousand yards
of the castle wall were destroyed.
Yuchou in Hsuanhua Fu, Chili; Tatung Fu and neighbouring
districts in Shansi. It was followed by a loud noise;
Chengtien Fu (now Anlu Fu), Hupeh.
Imperial City, Peking.
Ditto,
Huaian Fu, Yangchou Fu, Chiangning Fu, Aiangsu, and
Luchou, Anhui.
Shanyin in Tatung Fu, Shansi.
Imperial City, Peking.
Ditto.
Kaifeng, Changte, Weihui, and Huaiching Fu, Honan. Three
shocks during the day,
Taiyuan Fu, Shansi.
Imperial City, Peking.
Hangchou Fu, Wenchou Fu, Shaohsing Fu, Chehkiang.
Kanchou and Lintao, Kansu. The damage was great, and it
is impossible to estimate the same. Very many peo le
were killed.
Fuchou Fu, Fuhkhien. Very many shocks,
Changpingchou in Shuntien Fu, Chili.
Sbantan in Kanchou Fu, Kansu.
Imperial City.
Hsian Fu, in Shensi, where the shock was followed by a loud
noise.
Fuchan, Puhhien.
Ssuchuan in Liaotang, Shinghing. The ground was moviog
for three days.
Liaoyang and Kuangning, Shingking. Water burst out of the
ground, and it did not cease for three days.
Imperial City, Peking, and neighbouring districts.
Ditto.
Ninghsia, Aansvw.
Changle in Yichang, Hupeh. There was a landslip 20 yard
in depth. .
Imperial City. It was followed by a loud noise.
Chengtien, Aniu Fu, Mienyang, in Hanyang Fu, Huveh;
Yochou Fu, Hunan.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 105

i

No.
- $06 1600 Mar. 18. Imperial City, Peking. The shocks were from north-east to
south-west, and were repeated twice.

807 1602 May 30. Shunghsiang in Anlu Fu, Hupeh. Many houses were
destroyed.

808 1602 July 2. Imperial City, Peking.

809 1604 Oct. 25. Kungchang Fu, Kansw; Lechuan, Hsian Fu, Shensi; Paiyang
in Kuanghsin Fu, Kiangsi; Wu in Suchou, Aiangsu. The
shocks were repeated ten times in the day; many houses were
destroyed and many people were killed. At Paiyang the
ground opened for a length of ten yards and water burst
out.

810 1605 July 14, Luchuan in Yulin, Kuangsi. The shock was followed by a
loud noise, city walls and houses were destroyed, and many
were killed.

€11 1605 Nov.6, Imperial City, Peking, The motion was from north-east to
south-west.

812 1606 July 23. Taiyuan Fu, Shansi.

813 1607 Sept. 16. Sungpan, Lungan Fu, Mou, Wenchou, Sswchuan. The ground
moved for several days.

814 1608 Mar. 27. Imperial City, Peking. ‘

815 1608 Aug. 23. Ditto.

816 1609 July 13. Kanchou Fu, Aansw. Many city walls and houses were
destroyed, and about 840 people were killed. At Tungkuan,
Shaohsing Fu, Chehkiang, the land opened fora length of
870 li (about 310 miles).

817 1612 Mar. 12. Tali, Wuting, and Chuching Fu, Yunnan Fu, Yunnan.

818 1612 Mar.13. Yunnan Fo and Chuching Fu, Yunnan.

819 1612 July 5. Yunnan Fu and Chuching Fu, Yunnan. Many houses were
destroyed.

820 1614 Oct. 24. Taiyuan Fu, Shansi, and Honan Fu, Honan.

821 1615 Mar.1. Yangchou Fu, Kiangsu, and Langshan (now Changyang),
Yichang Fu, Hupeh. In Langshan a temple was thrown
out of the vertical.

822 1615 Aug. 24. Chuhsiang Fu, Yunnan. The shock was followed by a loud
noise and people were frightened.

823 1615 Dec.8. Imperial City, Peking.

824 1616 May Hsinfeng Fu, Chenchiang Fu, Kiangsu. The ground did not
come to rest for twenty-eight days.

825 1617 Junel4. Fengyang Fu, Anhui.

826 1617 June 15. Ditto.

827 1618 Aug.15. Imperial City, Peking.

828 1618 Nov.17. Imperial City, Peking, Shenchih, Ningwu Fu, and seventeen
other districts in Shansi.

829 1620 Mar.5. Yunnan Fu, Yurnan; Chaoching Fu, Huichou, Kuangtung, and
Wuchang, and the whole of Hupch.

830 1622 Mar.18. Tungchang, Shantwng; Honan Fu, Honan; and Haining,
Hangchou Fu, Chehkiang.

831 1622 April17. Tungchang and eight other districts in Shantung. Many
people were killed and many houses destroyed ; the move-
ment did not ccase for three days.

832 1622 Oc‘. 25. Lungte and neighbouring districts in Pingliang, Kanswu. It
destroyed the city walls for a length of 30,000 yards; abont
11,800 houses were damaged and about 12,000 people were
killed or wounded.

833 1622 Dec. 13. Hsian, Shensi.

834 1623 April 30. Imperial City, Peking.

835 1623 Oct. 18. Ditto.

836 1623 Dec. 23. Yunnan Fu, Yunnan.

837 1624 Feb.10. Nanking and six other districts. The greatest damage was
at Yangchou Fu, Kiangsu.

838 1624 Feb. 11. Imperial City, Peking.

839 1624 Mar. 31. Suchou. Shuntien Fu, and Yungping Fu, Chihdi.

106 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

840 1624 April17. Leting in Yungping Tu and the neighbouring district of
Chihli. The land opened and water burst out: it rose to
a height of one foot.

841 1624 April 18. Ditto.

842 1624 April 21. Ditto.

843 1624 April 23. Leting in Yungping Fu. There were three shocks in one
day,

844 1624 July 20. Paoting Fu, Chihli. City walls and houses were destroyed
and many people were killed.

845 1624 Sept. 15. Shensi (Hsian).

846 1625 Jan. 31. Nanking.

847 1626 June 28. Taming and Kuangping, Chihli; Tungchang Fu, Shantung;
Honan Fu, Honan; and Pingyang, Shansi. The ground did
not come to rest for several months: the damage was so
great that it was impossible to find out how many houses
were destroyed and how many people were killed.

848 1626 Aug. 22. Honan.

849 1626 Oct. 24. Fuchou, Fuhkien.

850 1627 Feb. 17. Ninghsia, Kansu. A stone temple fell and killed many priests.

851 1627 Another shock at Nanking.

852 1627 Ninghsia. The shocks were followed by a loud noise; the
ground did not come to rest for several months; there
were about one hundred shocks; many buildings were
destroyed and many people were killed.

853 1627 Nov. 27. Nanking. The motion was from north-west to south-east,
and it was followed by a loud noise.

854 1628 Oct.7. Imperial City, Peking.

855 1630 Oct. 27. Nanking.

856 1631 July 22. Lintao and Kungchang, Kansu. Many houses were destroyed
and many people and cattle were killed.

857 1632 June 17. Nanking and Chengtu, Ssuchuan.

858 1632 Nov. 4. Shansi (Taiyuan).

859 1632 Dec. 31. Yunnan (Yunnan).

860 -1633 Aug. 12. Shensi (Hsian).

861 1635 Shansi (Taiyuan).

862 1636 April 28. KFuhkien (Fuchou).

-863 1637 Jan. 31. Nanking, Kiangsu.

864 1637 Sept.5. Yunnan.

865 1637 Dec.7. Chengtu, Ssuchuan.

866 1638 Jan. Hsian Fu, Shensi. The ground did not come to rest for
several months.

867 1638 Aug. 10. Liaotung, Shinghking.

868 1639 Mar.9. Imperial City, Peking.

869 1640 Dec. 23. Nanking.

870 1641 April 12. Fuhkien (Fuchou).

871 1641 May 30. Changsha, Hunan, and Hupeh (Wuchang).

872 1641 June 22. Kansu (Kungchang).

873 1641 July 9. Fuhhkien (Fuchou).

874 1641 Oct. 25. Ssuchuan (Chengtu).

875 1642 Junel5. Kuangchou, Kuangtwng, and Pingle, Kuangsi.

876 1642 Aug. 22. Shansi (Taiyuan).

877 1643 Oct. Fengyang in Anhui.

878 1643 Dec. 16. Shantung (Chinan).

879 1644 Feb.8. Fengyang in Anhui.

880 1644 Feb. 9. Kwangtung (Kuangchou).

881 1644 Mar.5. Nanking.

882 1676 July. Peking and Tungchou (comprising Tung, Tsunhua, and Yung-
ping), Chihli. Three thousand two hundred and fifty
people were killed and the earthquake lasted three months.

883 1720 Junell. 9.45 A.M.,at west of Peking. The castle Chacheng destroyed ;

’ one thousand people were killed. Shocks continued twenty
days. 27%

“a

Se? ee oe

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 107

884 1730 Sept. 30. Peking. About one thousand people were killed and shocks

continued until October 8. :
885 1817 Jan.28. 3 A.M., Macao (Aomen) Kuangtung. Two shocks: it was
. strong at fifty leagues from Macao. .
886 1824 Jan.2.° Macao. Slight. J
887 1824 Aug. 14. Canton; Kuangtung. Great destruction and many lives lost.
888 1834 Yunnan Fu, Yunnan. The whole city was destroyed.
889 1834 June 28-July 19. Changte Fu, Honan, and on the boundaries of three
provinces, Kuangping Fu, Taming. Fa, Chihli, Pingyang
Fu, Shansi, and Tungchang Fu, Shantung. About forty
thousand people were killed; ten thousand houses were
destroved.

The Distribution of Earthquake Destructivity in China.

~ “In the following tables the numbers correspond to the numbers in the
preceding catalogue. If a disturbance was severe at several places its
number appears after several names. The earthquakes which are said to
have shaken the whole of China took place between the years A.D. 600

and 788. At this time the Imperial City was Changan (present Hsian in

Shensi). The province of Yunnan was not then included in China.
Imperial cities referred to were as follow :—

Changan, Hsian, Shensi, 206 B.c. to A.D. 25 and A.D. 589 to 907.
Honan (Loyang), Honan, A.D. 26 to 194 and 222 to 265.

Chengtu, Ssuchuan, A.D. 221 to 263. :

Nanking, Kiangsu, A.D. 222 to 277 and 317 to 589 and 1268 to 1425.
Taiyuan, Shansi, A.D. 386 to 535.

Kaifeng, Honan, a.D. 907 to 1278.

Peking, Chibli, A.D. 1260 to 1368 and 1425 to present time.

Earthquakes at Unknown Places. (91 Entries.)

_ 9,12, 13, 15, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 30, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47,
49, 50, 51, 53, 70, 71, 76, 90, 91, 96, 104, 133, 135, 137, 138, 139, 142, 160, 161, 162,
163, 165, 170, 171, 173, 174, 175, 176, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182,.183, 184, 185, 186, 189,
190, 192, 193, 195, 196. 197, 212, 235, 275, 298, 382, 395, 399, 400, 401, 411, 435, 436,
428, 438, 439, 440, 450, 458, 481, 500, 614, 640, 641, 642—total, 91. :

Earthquakes which Shook the Whole of China. (18 Entries.)

214, 255, 266, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271,
272—total, 18. ‘

Anhui. (33 Entries.) _

Anching (lat. 30° 32’, long. 117° 07’), 504, 509, 511—total, 3.
Chu (lat. 32° 15’, long. 118° 20’), 380—total, 1. :
_ Fengyang (lat. 32° 54’, long. 117° 35’), 310, 625, 633, 670, 697, 722, 723, 740, 825,
826, 877, 879 —total, 12. Jefe j
Luchou (Jat. 31° 50’, long. 117° 15’), 509, 593, 633, 783—total, 4. 255 ;
Ningkuo (lat. 30° 50’, long. 118° 41’), 545, 683—total, 2.
pv taiing (lat. 31° 18’, long. 118° 21’), 109, 118, 119, 124, 125, 150, 151, 152, 683—
19. ‘
Yingchou (lat. 32° 23’, long. 116° 30’), 633, 683—total, 2.

Chehhiang. (30 Entries.)

Chiahsing (lat. 30° 48’, long. 120° 43’), 354, 682, 751— total, 3.

Chinhna (lat, 29° 11’,-long. 110° 61"), 708—total, 1.

Chuchou (lat. 28° 26’, long. 119° 57’), 553—total, 1. - #
Hangchou (lat. 30° 12’, long. 120° 12’), 299, 394, 682, 705, 790, 830—total, 6. -

108 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Huchou (lat. 30° 48’, long. 120° 3’), 119, 151, 152, 751—total, 4.

Ningpo (lat. 29° 49’, long. 121° 35’), 682—total, 1.

Shaohsing (lat. 29° 56’, long 120° 39’), 119, 151, 152, 547, 682, 790, 816 —total, 7.
Taichou (lat. 28° 54', long. 121° 06’), 536, 556—total, 2.

Tinghai (Jat. 30° 01’, long. 122° 14’), 719—total, 1.

Wenchou (lat. 22° 47', long. 120° 45’), 331, 524, 790 —total, 3.

Yenchou (lat, 29° 27’, long. 119° 35’), 429—total, 1.

Chikli. (161 Entries.)

Chengte (lat. 40° 59’, long. 117° 59’), 209—total, 1.

Chengting (lat. 37° 38’, long. 115° 42’), 325, 336, 392, 496, 668—total, 5

Hochien (lat. 38° 33’, long. 116° 00’), 136, 328, 362, 364, 365, 693—total, 6.

Hsuanhua (lat. 40° 29’, long. 116° 03’), 127, 129, 512, 514, 516, 615, 636, 651, 684,
713, 779—total, 11.

Kuangping (lat. 36° 46’, long. 114° 55’), 515, 847, 889—total, 3.

Paoting (lat. 38° 53’, long. 115° 36’), 247, 300, 403, 355, 367, 387, 693, 737, 844 —
total, 9.

Shangtu (lat. 42° 15’, long. 116° 11’), 294, 296, 422, 423, 424, 448—total, 6.

Shunte (lat. 37° 07’, long. 114° 39’), 316, 676—total, 2.

Tsunhua (Jat. 40° 11’, long. 117° 53’), 634, 635, 644—total, 3.

Shuntien, Peking (lat 39° 57’, long. 116° 29’), 355, 443, 444, 445, 470, 471, 472,
473, 486, 487, 498, 502, 506, 507, 512, 513, 515, 518, 521, 527, 649, 585, 589, 590, 591,
594, 597, 600, 601, 602, 603, 604, 606, 607, 609, 616, 624, 628, 634, 635, 636, 644, 645,
647, 654, 655, 659, 665, 666, 669, 670, 693, 698, 712, 713, 720, 726, 727, 728, 737, 738,
739, 744, 754, 757, 760, 761, 762, 769, 770, 776, 781, 782, 785, 786, 789, 793, 800, 801,
804, 806, 808, 811, 814, 815, 823, 827, 828, 834, 835, 838, 839, 854, 868, $82, 883, 884
—total, 97.

Taming (lat, 36° 21’, long. 115° 22’), 676, 847, 889—total, 3.

Tientsin (lat. 39° 07’, long. 117° 11’), 315. 362, 368, 612—total, 4.

Yungping (lat. 39° 50’, long. 118° 50’), 315, 635, 636, 757, 777, 839, 840, 841, 842,
843, 882—total, 11.

Fuhkien, (42 Entries.)

Changchou (lat. 24° 31’, long. 117° 43”), 357, 672, 735, 768—total, 4.

Chienning (lat. 27° 04’, long. 118° 25’), 14, 116, 357—total, 3.

Chuanchou (lat. 24° 56’, long. 118° 51’), 357, 446, 447, 672, 708, 714, 735, 755—
total, 8.

Fubchou (lat. 26° 03’, long. 119° 25’), 563, 564, 580, 631, 672, 714, 735, 755, 768,
792, 797, 849, 862, 870, 873—total, 15.

Hsinghua (lat. 26° 25’, long. 119° 17’), 350, 557, 672, 714, 735, 765—total, 6.

Shaowu (lat. 27° 22’, long. 117° 33’). 357, 531—total, 2.

‘Tingchou (lat. 25° 45’, long. 116° 30’), 448, 764, 768—total, 3.

Yenping (lat. 26° 38’, long. 118° 18’), 654—total, 1.

Honan. (1288 Entries.)

Changte (lat. 36° 07’, long. 114° 30’), 99, 316, 362, 476, 677, 787, 847, 889---
total, 8.

Honan (lat. 34° 43’, long. 112° 28’), 16, 17, 20, 32, 33, 48, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58,
59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 67, 68, 69, 72, 73, 74, 75, 78, 79, 80, $1, 82, 88, 98, 95, 105,
106, 110, 115, 126, 130, 132, 153, 154, 253, 291, 307, 310, 316, 377, 479, 561, 633, 718,
720, 742, 820, 830, 847, 848—total, 59.

Hsu (lat. 34° 06’, long. 114° 00’), 352—total, 1.

Huaiching (lat. 35° 07’, long. 113° 00’), 362, 373, 476, 496, 538, 722, 723; 758,
787— total, 9. :

Juning (lat. 33° 01’, long. 114° 21’), 144, 618, 758, 767— total, 4.

Kaifeng (lat. 34° 57’, long. 114° 33’), 131, 311, 314, 317, 322, 323, 324, 330, 339,
341, 344, 351, 356, 358, 359, 360, 361, 365, 371, 388, 396, 397, 398, 407, 408, 409, 410,
413, 414, 415, 416, 417, 418, 419, 420, 421, 431, 433, 476, 519, 522, 658, 677, 717, 722,
723, 787—total, 47.

Nanyang (lat. 58° 07’, long. 112° 34’), 28, 111, 181, 758, 766—total, 5.

Shan (lat. 3£° 45’, long. 111° 03’), 258, 671— total, 2.

Weihui (lat. 35° 25’, long. 114° 16’), 362, 658, 787— total, 3.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 109

flunan, (21 Entries.)

Changsha (lat, 28° 12’, long, 112° 47’), 120, 121, 363, 617, 619, 620, 765, 871—
total, 8.

Chenchon (lat. 28° 22’, long. 110° 09’), 136—total, 1.

Hengchou (lat. 26° 55’, long. 112° 23’), 255, 256, 257, 268, 259, 260, 261, 262—
total, 8.

Yochon (lat. 29° 18’, long, 113° 02’), 348, 391, 618, 805—total, 4.

Hupeh. (47 Entries.)

Anlu (lat. 31° 07’, long. 112° 39’), 539, 780, 805, 807—total, 4.

Chingchou (lat. 30° 27’, long. 112° 05’), 127, 140, 148, 167, 327, 329, 491, 539,
763—total, 9.

Hanyang (lat. 32° 32’, long. 114° 14’), 526, 618, 805—total, 3.

Hsiangyang (lat. 32° 06’, long. 113° 05’), 140, 611, 766—total, 3.

Huangchonu (lat. 30° 26’, long. 114° 54’), 509— total, 1.

Wuchang (lat. 30° 33’, long. 114° 27’), 144, 145, 217, 508, 617, 618, 619, 620, 689,
703, 765, 829, 871 total, 13.

Yichang (Jat. 30° 49’, long. 111° 10’), 145, 539, 803, 821—total, 4.

Yunyang (lat. 32° 49’, long. 110° 52’), 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 756,
766—total, 10.

Kansu. (117 Entries.)
Chingyung (lat. 36° 03’, long. 107° 43’), 318, 320, 375, 541, 567, 622, 671, 756,

_ 759—total, 9.

Hosi (lat. 39 00’, long. 106° 00’), near Ninghsia, 244, 754total, 2.

Hsining (lat. 36° 39’, long. 101° 48’), 480, 434, 437— total, 3.

Kanchou (lat. 39° 00’, Jong. 100° 56’), 89, 232, 244, 468, 627, 721, 752, 791, 794,
816—total, 10.

Kungchang (lat. 34° 56’, long. 104° 44’), 10, 11, 18, 20, 31, 34, 57, 62, 97, 98,
100, 144, 242, 313, 333, 462, 491, 499, 503, 517, 542, 566, 567, 626, 648, 731, 732, 733,
771, 809, 856, 872—total, 32.

Lanchou (lat. 36° 08’, long. 103° 55’), 62, 134, 374, 389, 542, 580—total, 6.

Liangchou (lat. 37° 59’, long. 102° 48’), 66, 79, 164, 168, 172, 211, 541, 542, 605;
627, 668—total, 11. A

' Lintao (lat. 39° 40’, long. 98° 20’), 567, 626, 791, 856—total, 4.

Lingpei (lat. 42° 00’, long. 99° 00’), 482, 484, 490—total, 3.

Ninghsia (lat. 38° 33’, long. 106° 08’), 107, 220, 318, 464, 467, 469, 489, 492, 493,
579, 585, 627, 657, 660, 668, €81, 732, 753, 754, 756, 758, 802, 850, 852—total, 24.

Pingliang (lat. 35° 35’, long. 106° 41’), 333, 374, 432, 541, 542, 643, 732, 733, 753,
759, 832-—total, 11. ;

Suchou (lat. 39° 46’, long. 99° 07’), 237, 244—total 2.

Kiangst. (16 Entries.)

Chian (lat. 27° 02’, long. 115° 05’), 145, 169, 188, 353—tota!, 4.
Chiuchiang (lat. 29° 42’, long. 116° 08’), 187, 188, 765—-total, 3.
Chuanhbsi (lat. 27° 34’, long. 118° 28’), 705—total, 1.

Fuchou (lat. 27° 56’, long. 116° 18’), 705—total, 1.

Jaochou (lat, 28° 59’, long. 116° 46’), 505, 510—total, 2.
Juichou (lat. 28° 25’, long. 115° 14’), 514—total, 1.

Kuanghsin (lat. 28° 28’, long. 118° 06’), 809—total, 1.
Nankang (lat, 29° 23’, long. 116° 10’), 188, 675, 676—total, 3.

Kiangsu, (107 Entries.)

Changchou (lat, 31° 47’, long. 119° 56’), 147, 236, 319, 683, 721—total, 5.

Chenchiang (lat. 32° 10’, long, 119° 21’), 109, 118, 119, 124, 125, 147, 237, 528
585, 683, 824—total, 11. oa

Chiangning (Nanking) (lat. 32° 05’, long. 118° 47’), 92, 94, 95, 101, 112, 118, 159
177, 191, 198, 199, 200, 20], 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 570, 577, 578, 584, 586,

110 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

587, 588, 592, 595, 596, 597, 598, 599, 608, 610, 623, 633, 656, 659, 664, 665, 670, 673,
674, 679, 680, 683, 703, 718, 720, 721, 750, 783, 837, 846, 851, 853, 855, 857, 863, 869,
881—total, 62.

Haichou (lat. 34° 29’, long. 119° 27’), 662, 663—total, 2.

Hsuchou (lat. 34° 11’, long. 117° 32’), 310, 676, 722, 723—total, 4.

Huaian (lat. 33° 25’, long. 119° 22’), 546, 558, 633, 656, 683, 783—total, 6.

Suchou (lat. 31° 28’, long. 120° 44’), 147, 237, 378, 688, 721, 809—total, 6.

Sungchiang (lat. 31° 03’, long. 121° 15’), 683—total, 1.

Yangchou (lat. 32° 21’, long. 119° 15’), 166, 237, 239, 338, 633, 656, 683, 783, 821,
837—tota], 10.

Kuangst. (9 Entries.)

Pingle (lat. 24° 8’, long. 111° 17’), 122, 123, 568, 730, 875— total, 5.
Taiping (lat. 22° 25’, long. 107° 07’), 629—total, 1.

Wuchou (lat. 23° 29’, long. 110° 51’), 568, 646—total, 2.

Yulin (lat. 22° 43’, long. 109° 45’), 8190—total, 1.

Kuangtung. (20 Entries.)

Chaoching (lat. 23° 05’, long. 112° 30’), 485, 738, 829— total, 3.

.Chaochou (lat, 23° 34’, long. 116° 36’), 357, 369, 768—total, 3.

Chenchou (lat. 24° 40’, long. 116° 30’), 309—total, 1.

Huichou (lat. 23° 02', long. 114° 13’), 829—total, 1.

Kuangchonu (lat. 23° 08’, long. 111° 17’), 120, 121, 347, 580, 875, 880, 887—total, 7.
Leichou (lat. 20° 52’, long. 109° 40’), 550—total, 1.

Lienchou (lat. 21° 39’, long. 108° 59’), 646—total, 1.

Macao, or Aomen (lat, 22° 12’, long. 113° 30’) 885, 886—total, 2

Nanhsiung (lat. 25° 26’, long. 113° 52’), 555—total, 1.

Kueichou. (4 Entries.)
Hsingyi (lat. 25° 15’, long. 106° 00’), 661, 674, 724, 725— total, 4.

Shansi. (182 Entries.)

Chiang (lat. 35° 37’, long. 111° 29’), 240, 297, 298, 337, 684—total, 5.

Fenchou (lat. 37° 19’, long. 111° 41’), 240, 538, 543, 544, 559, 560, 565— total, 7.

Hsi (lat. 36° 40’, long. 110° 56’), 253, 474, 475, 477, 494, 495, 501, 565—total, 8.

Hsin (lat. 38° 26’, Jong. 112° 43’), 228, 338, 340, 342, 343, 345, 346, 538, 560—
total, 9.

Luan (lat. 36° 07’, long. 113° 13’), 668, 677— total, 2.

Ningwu (lat. 39° 15’, long. 112° 00’), 828—total, 1.

Pingyang (lat. 36° 06’, Jong. 111° 33’), 77, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 106, 221, 222, 223,
224, 225, 226, 227, 240, 308, 318, 402, 403, 404, 405, 406, 425, 426, 427, 449, 453, 454,
456, 459, 466, 478, 534, 538, 540, 671, 677, 732, 778, 847, 889—total, 41.

Puchou (lat. 34° 54’, long. 100° 15’), 77, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 106, 155, 156, 157, 158,
221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 253, 276, 298, 307, 308, 318, 402, 408, 404, 405, 406,
463, 464, 534, 671, 673, 684, 742, 745, 746, 756—total, 39.

Soping (lat. 40° 10’, long. 112° 13"), 294, 615—tctal, 2.

Tatung (lat. 39° 39’, long. 113° 14’), 337, 455, 457, 615, 678, 699, 753, 779, 784—
total, 9.

Taichou (lat. 39° 06’. long. 112° 58’), 334, 340, 342, 372, 386, 637— total, 6.

Taiyuan (lat. 37° 54’, long. 112° 31’), 8, 146, 177, 210, 295, 297, 298, 305, 312,
340, 342, 376, 381, 384, 385, 386, 453, 456, 459, 465, 478, 480, 520, 537, 538, 548, 551,
560, 565, 569, 571, 572, 573, 574, 575, 576, 585, 666, 668, 699, 720, 734, 736, 741, 753,
788, 812, 820, 858, 861, 876—total, 51.

Tsechonu (lat. 35° 30’, long. 112° 50’), 82, 677— total, 2.

Shantung. (61 Entries.)

Chinan (lat. 36° 40’, long. 117° 1’), 1, 526, 528, 532, 533, 562, 583, 586, 707, 717,
718, 720, 878—total, 13.
Chining (lat. 36° 50’, long. 116° 58’), 705— total, 1,

British Association, 78th Report, Dublin, 1908.
Puate [V

FENGTIEN
t

ON

Chingehou (lat. 6:
total, 7.
Laicbou (lat. 37° 10
‘Taian (Iat. $6 10'.1
‘Tengebou (lat.
‘Taaochou (iat
‘Tangchang (Ist,
as9 total, 9.
Wuting (lat. 37
Yencliou (lat
Yichou (lat. 35°

Fengbsiang (lat. &
733, 750 —total, 14.
Hanebung (Ii
Heian (Jat. 34° 17
3 32

\ore moues)
Dior veltor”

Saite (

Tungehoa (Jat. 34
741, 748, T49—total,
Yenan (lat. 46° 4
Yulin (lat 98° 18

Fengtien (lat. 41
Liaotung, or Ch
773, 798, 799, 867—

Chengta (lat. 3
326, 332, 993,
Chiating (lat. 2
Hsuchon (‘at. 2
Lungan (lat, 3:
total, 8.
‘Mon (Int. 81° 4
Paoning (1°. 3
Ningyuan (lat
Shunching (lat
Chungching (1
Salting (lat. 31
‘Tapgobuan (Ia

Jibnan (Jat, 2!

Ohactung (lat
Chengebiang
Chingtong (ls
Obobsinng (ls

OF CHINA

Chuching (Int

The Pre of Clase Ade

Necmmrnle lndiente Naw er ‘Cmcerphical Mildew 60=
ate lod od Eatin LI 0 a 0 Lichiang (lat.
ter Frovioas ar endertned thee 8} 9 Dicey Lan LAO) oe inna (lat, 2
mo we Ko Mooghua (lat

Fee

a a ee

Illustrating the Report on Seismological Investigatic
ions,

108 ie

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 111

_ Chingchou (lat. 36° 44’, long. 118° 44’), 349, 529, 530, 532, 534, 552, 707—
total, 7. :
~ Laichou (lat. 37° 10’, long. 126° 10’), 17, 523, 529, 532, 687, 707— total, 6.

_ Taian (lat. 36° 10’, long. 117° 15’), 29, 362, 526, 527, 533, 638, 639—total, 7.
r Tengchou (lat. 37° 45’, long. 120° 42"), 350, 707, 738, 757—total, 4.
_ Tsaochou (lat, 35° 20’, long. 115° 35’), 301, 676—total, 2.
_ Tungchang (lat. 36° 37’, long. 116° 12’), 310, 383, 658, 676, 717, 830, 831, 847,
889 —total, 9.
-Wuting (Jat. 37° 32’, long. 117° 41’), 667, 693—total, 2.
Yenchou (lat. 35° 47’, long. 116° 59’), 29, 141, 194, 526, 533, 633, 676—total, 7.
Yichou (lat. 35° 15’, long. 118° 35’), 380, 525, 627 total, 3.

Shensi. (108 Entries.)

Fenghsiang (lat. 34° 35’, long. 107° 50’), 2, 3, 4,5, 6, 7, 79, 215, 491, 648, 671,
733, 759—total, 13. ;
Hanchung (lat. 32° 56’, long. 107° 12'), 491, 648, 756—total, 3.

Hsian (lat. 34° 17’, long. 108° 58’), 26, 27, 141, 143, 213, 216, 218, 229, 230, 231,
283, 234, 241, 243, 245, 246, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 254, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268,
, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288,
289, 290, 292, 294, 302, 304, 318, 373, 374, 390, 488, 565, 566, 671, 718, 720, 733, 742,
743, 756, 759, 796, 809, 833, 845, 860, 866—total, 74.

_ Suite (lat. 37° 38’, long. 110° 03’), 386—total, 1.
Tungchou (lat. 34° 50’, long. 109° 51’), 370, £02, 403, 404, 405, 406, 671, 685, 742,
, 748, 749—total, 12. 2
_ Yenan (lat. 36° 42’, long. 109° 28'),. 460, 461—total, 2.
Yulin (lat 38° 18’, long. 109° 33’), 627, 668, 753—total, 3.

‘
4

Shingking. (11 Entries.)

' Fengtien (lat. 41° 10’, long. 123° 27’), 799—1total, 1.
‘Liaotung, or Chinchou (lat. 41 06’, long. 121° 18’), 127, 483, 497, 635, 636, 772,
798, 799, 867— total, 10.

Ssuchuan. (47 Entries.)

Chengtu (lat. 30° 41’, long. 103° 11’), 102, 103, 107, 108, 113, 128, 238, 306, 321,
§, 332, 379, 393, 441, 491, 613, 630, 649, 650, 652, 653, 696, 857, 865, 874—total, 25.
_ Chiating (lat. 29° 28’, long. 103° 55’), 25, 113, 114, 442—total, 4.
____Hsuchou (Jat. 28° 38’, long. 104° 46’), 366, 699—total, 2.
eeneesn (lat. 32° 33’, long. 103° 36’), 107, 108, 113, 117, 149, 219, 442, 813—

Mon (lat. 31° 40’, long. 106° 15’), 813—total, 1.

Paoning (lat. 31° 32’, long. 105° 59’), 318—total, 1.

Ningyuan (lat. 27° 50’, long. 102° 12’), 335, 632—total, 2.

- Shunching (lat. 30° 49’, long. 106° 08’), 757— total, 1.
Chungching (lat 29° 42’, long. 106° 42’), 696—total, 1

Suiting (lat. 31° 27’, long. 107° 51’), 412 —total, 1.

‘ Tungchuan (lat. 31° 9’, long. 105° 11’), 696—total, 1.

,

. Tongking, (1 Entry.)
- Jihnan (lat. 24° 26’, long. 108° 25’), 330.

; . Yunnan. (64 Entries.)
Chaotung (lat. 27° 20’, long. 103° 50’), 462—total, 1.

Chengchiang (lat. 24° 42’, long. 103° 04’), 706 —total, 1.
Chingtung (lat. 24° 31’, long. 101° 4’), 704, 716—total, 2.

4 Chuhsiung (lat. 25° 06’, long. 101° 43”), 690, 691, 694, 704, 715, 730, 822—total, 7.
- Chuching (lat. 25° 32’, long. 103° 50’), 659, 700, 817, 818, 819—total, 5.
Lichiang (lat. 26° 52’, long. 100° 27’), 281, 621, 692, 715—total, 4.

Linan (lat. 24° 18’, long. 103° 5’), 326, 706, 730—total, 3.
Menghua (lat. 25° 18’, long. 100° 30’ , 704, 709, 710, 711, 715—total, 5.

1 be REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

Tali (lat. 75° 44’, long. 100° 22’), 692, 700, 701, 702, 701, 709, 710, 711, 715, 817,
818, 819—total, 11. :

Wuting (lat. 25° 32’, long. 102° 33’), 817, 818, $19—total, 3.

Yunnan (lat. 25° 06’, long. 102° 52’), 451, 452, 581, 582, 686, 688, 700, 715, 729,
817, 818, 819, 829, 836, 859, 864, 888—total, 17.

Yungchang (lat. 25° 05’, long. 99° 26’), 695, 724, 725, 774, 775—-total, 5.

Monthly and Seasonal Distribution of Earthquakes.

Cold Season

Warm Season oe
on
ae 23
Spring | Summer Autumn Winter A x Total |
] | l | ; ; = 9 |
|Mar.| April] May June | July Aug. Sept.| Oct.| Nov. Dee. Jan. Feb. iP
=| ee SS oe) |S ae. cS eee ee = js | 0? 3
73 | 66 | 72 65 | 67 | 67 66 | 62 | 60 | 63 | 68 | 77 | 76 | 889
216 ) 199 1 188 ) Z10 a ee |
—_—-- ~~" / ——_
415 398 A i

Denamic Isomerism.— Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
H. HE. Armstrone (Chairman), Dr. T. M. Lowry (Secretary), Pro-
fessor SypNEY Youne, Dr. C. H. Descu, Dr. J. J. Doss, Dr.
M. O. Forster, and Dr. A. LarwortH. (Drawn up by the

Secretary.)

A.—Sincr the appearance of the last report the experiments on the
influence of acids, bases, and salts in accelerating isomeric change in
solutions of nitrocamphor have been completed and published.!

B.—CaRBONYL CHLORIDE AS AN AGENT FOR ARRESTING IsoMERIC
CHANGE.

The most important feature of the year’s work has been the discovery
of a group of agents by means of which the isomeric change of nitro-
camphor can be retarded or completely arrested. As long ago as 1899 2
it was observed that solutions of nitrocamphor in chloroform bekaved in
an abnormal manner in that isomeric change was sometimes arrested
during a period of one or two weeks and then abruptly started by some
slight change of conditions, ¢g., by transferring the solution from a flask
to a polarimeter tube.

The abnormal properties of this solvent were again noticed in the
recent experiments on the influence of acids and bases. The basie
chloroform solutions showed a marked decrease of activity when kept
for a few days, whilst dilution produced a loss of catalytic power out of

1 Lowry and Magson, ‘The Influence of Nitrocamphor on the Mutarotation of
Nitrocamphor,’ Trans. Chem. Soc., 1908, 93, 107-119
2 Lowry, Trans. Chem. Soc., 1899, 75, 211,

ON DYNAMIC ISOMERISM. 113

all proportion to the decreased concentration of the base. In one
extreme case the isomeric change in a solution to which a trace of
piperidine had been added practically ceased at the end of a fortnight,
although the final condition of equilibrium had not by any means been
reached. The more concentrated acid solutions produced an acceleration
of isomeric change, but a retardation was noticed when smaller concentra-
tions were used : in one case the rotatory power of the solution remained
absolutely constant during a period of twenty-four days.

The earliest observations of arrested isomeric change had led to the
conclusion that in non-oxygenated solvents the change was conditioned
by the presence of a third substance, probably a basic impurity. The
retardation produced by the acid chloroform solutions could not be
attributed to mere neutralisation, since an acceleration was observed
when benzene was used as the solvent. It was noticed, however, that
the chloroform solutions acquired a pungent and unpleasant odour,
which was ultimately traced to the formation of carbonyl chloride by
oxidation of the chloroform CHCl, + O=COCI,+ HCl; to this substance
the curious behaviour of the chloroform solutions was undoubtedly due.

The action of the chloride probably depends on its power of converting
ammonia and bases such as piperidine into neutral carbamides

COCI, + 2NH,=—2HCl+CO(NH,),
COCI, + 2NC,H, ,=2HCl+CO(NC;H,,)-.

It was found that the chloride was capable of retarding or arresting the
isomeric change of nitrocamphor dissolved in benzene or in ether, and
that acetyl chloride produced a similar effect in benzene and in carbon
disulphide. Phenyl-carbimide did not retard the isomeric change of
nitrocamphor dissolved in benzene, and acetyl chloride proved inefficient
when added to a solution in acetic acid. In the latter case it is probable
that the solvent has itself a catalytic action, and this may also be true
when water and alcohol are used. The bearing of these observations
on the problem of chemical change has been discussed elsewhere.'

C.— RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND IsoMERIO
CHANGE,

As the result of a series of experiments on the absorption spectra of
substances of the ethyl aceto-acetate group, Baly and Desch ? were led
to the conclusion that there was a close relationship between the
absorption bands which appeared in the spectra of some of these com-
pounds and the property which they possess of undergoing reversible
isomeric change. In view of the importance of this hypothesis in
relation to the subject of dynamic isomerism it was thought to be
desirable to test it in the case of a number of optically active
compounds. These have the advantage that many of them can be
crystallised out in a pure enolic or in a pure ketonic form, that it is
possible by means of polarimetric observations to determine the actual
velocity with which they undergo isomeric change, and that in a number

1 Trans. Chem. Soc., 1908, $3, 119-132.
2 Lbid., 1804, 85, 1029; 1905, 87, 766,
1908. i

114 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

of cases the proportions in which the isomerides are in equilibrium can be
determined by means of solubility measurements. Photographs have
therefore been taken of the absorption spectra of the majority of the
camphor-derivatives which have formed the subject of previous investiga-
tions, and we are now in a position to summarise the principal results
that have been obtained.

Ilalogen-derivatives of Camphor.

(1) The camphor band observed by Baly and by Hartley at a concen-
tration of N|10 practically disappears when the concentration of the
alcoholic solution is reduced to N|100 (thickness of liquid 250 to 2:5 mm.),
but can be restored by the addition of alkali. 3-Bromocamphor,

?

at a concentration of N|1(0O behaves in the same way as camphor.
(2) a-Chlerocamphor and a-bromocamphor at a concentration of N|100

show a band in the same position (t 3400) as the camphor band.

The band is eliminated when the second a-position is occupied by
bromine or by a nitro group, but remains unaffected when the halogen is
introduced in the /5 or in the = position.

(3) No marked change in persistence is produced by the addition of
alkali to a-chlorocamphor, a-bromocamphor, or their 8 and z bromo-
derivatives. AJl these compounds are quite stable when alone, but
undergo isomeric change rapidly in presence of a small proportion of
alkali. It is therefore evident that in this case at least there is no
direct quantitative relationship between the velocity of isomeric change
and the persistence of the absorption band.

Nitro-derwatives.

(4) Nitrocamphane shows no absorption band, whether the solution
be prepared by dissolving the crystals of the normal form or by adding
acid to the sodium salt of the pseudo form. Even in presence of ten
equivalents of alkali no definite band is developed. It is therefore clear
that dynamic isomerism, even of a well-pronounced type, is not neces-
sarily associated with the production of a band.

(5) Nitrocamphor dissolved in alcohol shows a shallow band at
1

a 3000 ; it differs in position from that produced by bromocamphor—

a result that is in accord with the view, consistently advocated, that the
mobile hydrogen atom in this compound wanders to the nitro and not
to the carbonyl group. The band disappears in the a-chloro and a-bromo
derivatives, and also in the anhydride derived from the pseudo form by
loss of water; its occurrence appears, therefore, to be limited by the same
conditions as those which determine the occurrence of isomeric change.
(6) In marked contrast with the behaviour of the —CHX:CO—
compounds described above, the nitrocamphor band is enormously inten-

ON DYNAMIC ISOMEKISM, 115

sified by the addition of alkalies. This result is, perhaps, associated in
some way with the fact that nitrocamphor forms a stable sodium salt
whilst bromocamphor does not.

(7) Camphory! oxime—the isomer of nitrocamphor—resembles it in
giving a very intense band in presence of alkalies, although the head of

the band occurs at a considerably smaller wave-length ( 3650). The

band does not appear in solutions of the oxime alone, and is not given by
the acetyl derivative. Camphoric anhydride, the parent-substance from
which the oxime is derived, is very diactinic and shows no band.

Sulphonic-derivatives of Camphor.

(8) and z sulphonic derivatives containing the group
CHX
YSOyC HC |
CoO

usually show an absorption band, but this does not appear in camphor.
f-sulphonamide and some of its derivatives. The replacement of both
a-hydrogen atoms by halogens causes the band to disappear.

D.—CAMPHORCARBOXYLIC ACID.

Investigations of the mutarotation phenomena and absorption spectra
of ;camphorcarboxylic acid and its derivatives are in progress, but as the
work is not yet complete it is proposed to reserve the discussion for a
subsequent report.

The Transformation of Aromatic Nitroamines and Allied Substances,
and its Relation to Substitution in Benzene Derivatives.—Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor F. 8. Kippine (Chairman),
Professor K. J. P. Orron (Secretary), Dr. S. RuHEMANN, Dr, A.
LapwortH, and Dr. J. T. HEwitT.

¥ I. Transformation of Nitroaminobenzenes into Nitroanilines.

(With W. W. Reep, M.Sc, A.L.C.)

Tue investigation of the transformation of 2-4-dichloro-1-nitroamino-
benzene into 2 : 4-dichloro-6-nitroaniline, reported on last year (Reports,
1907, p. 101) has been continued.

Transformation of the Crystalline Nitroamine.

The object of the new experiments on the transformation of the
erystalline* nitroamine was to determine with greater accuracy the
limiting value of the pressure of the gaseous catalyst, below which no
transformation occurred. The method employed was substantially that

described in last year’s report, but more elaborate methods were used
: : ao ; 12

116 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

for determining the partial pressure of the reagent, hydrogen chloride.
The form of the experimental tube was so modified that, after the change
had occurred (or failed to occur), the tube could be opened, attached to
a Sprengel pump, and its exact volume measured by collecting the air
filling it at a given temperature and pressure. The hydrogen chloride
was introduced as dilute standardised solutions, known weights of which
were used, A series of such experiments has shown that at 13° the
hydrogen chloride must be at a pressure of 14 mm. of mercury for a
change to take place.

Transformation of the Nitroamine in Solution.

Tnasmuch as the nitroamine is colourless, whilst the nitroaniline is
intensely coloured, the change can be quantitatively followed by com-
paring the colour of the solution, during the course of the transformation,
with that of standard solutions of the nitroaniline. The method is
exceedingly delicate ; with practice it is easy to detect the difference
in tint between 49 and 50 c.c. of a solution of nitroaniline containing
0:000225 gram in 100 c.c, when the tint of these volumes is compared
in columns 12 cm. in length; that is, 000225 milligram of the aniline
can be measured.

The low solubility of the nitroaniline (100 cc. at 14° dissolve
0:0022 gram) allows only of the use of solutions of the nitroamine
containing 0:003 gram per 100 c.c. in these experiments.

The measurements of the speed of transformation show that the
reaction is one cf the first order. The change into the nitroaniline
is accompanied by a conversion (reduction) of the nitroamine into
diazonium salt to the extent of 30 per cent. This fact only permits of
the determination of an apparent value of the velocity coefficient.

(i) Solvent.—The only solvents which could be used were water, acetic
acid, or mixtures of these. Alcohol and acetone, which are solvents of
the catalysts, react with the nitroamine.

As the proportion of the acetic acid in the solvent is increased
the rate of change slowly rises until, with 74 per cent. acetic acid,
the rate is double that in pure water. But the use of higher concentra-
tions of acetic acid is followed by a rapid rise in the speed of the
change, which in glacial acetic acid is several hundred times as great as
in water.

(ii) Nature of the Acid (Catalyst).—The efficacy of acids as catalysts
in this transformation is roughly in the order of their activities as
measured by other reactions, Nevertheless, chloric and perchloric acids
appear to bring about the change twice as rapidly as hydrochloric acid,
although they are somewhat less active as catalytic accelerators in
hydrolyses, &e. The reduction of the nitroamine to diazo-compound is,
however, much less in the case of these acids, a fact which may account
for the more rapid formation of nitroaniline.

Hydrobromic and hydriodic acids reduce the nitroamine ; the former
reacts quantitatively according to the equation,

Ar.NH.NO,+3HBr=Ar,N,Br;+2H,0,

the diazonium perbromide crystallising out when acetic acid is the
solvent. Hydriodic acid carries the reduction further.

ON THE TRANSFORMATION OF AROMATIC NITROAMINES, IMF

(iii) Concentration of the Acid.—The effect of the concentration of
the acid catalyst on the rate of change has been carefully tested with
several acids both in aqueous and acetic acid solution.

In aqueous solution the rate is proportional to the square of the
concentration of the acid—that is, on doubling the concentration of
the acid the velocity is quadrupled.

Tn acetic acid solution this proportionality does not hold, the increase
of velocity being less for given increases of concentration of acid. For
example, the ratio of the velocity coefficients for N/10 and N/20 H,SO,
in glacial acetic acid at 25° is Ayjy : Ayo = 2°14 instead of 4.

(iv) Effect of Lemperature.— Within a range of temperature of 0-35°
the products of the transformation of the nitroamine were not modified.

When the nitroamine was melted under water or other solvents, a more
profound decomposition was observed accompanied by oxidation of the
benzene nucleus.

In aqueous solution the rate of the transformation was greatly
increased by a rise of temperature. At 25° the rate of change is
approximately thirty times as great as at 0° ; the ratio of the velocity
coefficients, when 2N HCl is the catalyst, at 25° and 35°C. is
ky5° : k-5°=0-002488 /0-:00108=2°3,

Experiments on Nitroaminobenzene, C;,H;.NH.NO,,

A number of preliminary experiments have been made with the
unsubstituted nitroaminobenzene. In its main features the molecular
rearrangement of this nitroamine resembles that of its dichloro-
derivative, but it is complicated by the simultaneous formation of
both o- and p-nitroaniline —

Nu,
NO,
NH.NO,
_a
S
NU,
PS
No,

Experiment has shown that the latter is only formed to the extent of
some 10 per cent., but the difference in the intensity of the colours
of the solutions of the nitroanilines has so far made any accurate
measurement of the rate of change impossible by the method above
described. Under like conditions (temperature and concentration of
catalyst) the velocity is about one and a half times greater in the case
of the unsubstituted than with the dichloro-compound ; in glacial
acetic acid, however, the change was roughly ten times as rapid.

Reduction to the diazo-compound also takes place, and since in this
case the diazo-compound is unstable, the subsequent decomposition intro-
duces another factor, which prevents quantitative measurements of the
velocity.

118 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

The views expressed in last year’s report are confirmed by these more
extended observations. The most simple interpretation of the facts seem
to be that the catalyst (the acid) and the nitroamine form an additive
compound, which alone is capable of molecular rearrangement.

For what reason the speed of the transformation should be proportional
to the second power of the concentration of the acid is not very obvious.
Blanksma! observed that the rate of the analogous transformation of
acetylchloroaminobenzene into p-chloroacetanilide bore the same relation
to the concentration of the hydrogen chloride, which is the only catalytic
accelerator of this change. Acree? has suggested that the existence of
the additive compound of the chloroamine and the catalyst is conditioned
by the equilivrium : Ar.NClAc, HC]? Ar. NCl.Ac+ H’ + Cl’, when the
concentration of the complex would depend on the square of the concen-
tration of the acid. That the ratios of the accelerating effects of hydro-
chloric, nitric, and sulphuric acids, Ayce : kayo, : tx,s0, = 1: 1: 2/3, are
approximately in the ratio of their ionisation in normal solutions is in
harmony with this view.

IL. The Wandering of Bromine in the Transformation of Nitroamino-
bromobenzenes.

(With C. Pearson, B.Sc.)

In the transformation of 2 : 6-dibromo-1-nitroaminobenzene, in all
circumstances when such a change will take place, we have observed
a remarkable rearrangement of the points of attachment of the sub-
stituting groups. *

NH,
Br Br
as I
NH.NO, ea
Br Br NO,
~ NA,
pieabead NO,
II
Br

Not only is the normal product, 2 : 6-dibromo-4-nitroaniline, I, in
which the nitro group passes to the vacant para-position formed, but
also 2: 4-dibromo-6-nitroaniline, II. In the production of the latter
compound, the migrating nitro group displaces one ortho-placed bromine
atom, which then becomes attached to the para-carbon atom.

The direct nitration of 2 : 6-dibromoacetanilide is not accompanied
by any such rearrangement; the nitro group only enters the para-
position.

1 Recueil des Trav. Chim., 1903, 22, 290.
2 Amer. Chem. Jour., 1907, 88, 258.

Are Spectrum | Spark Spectrum | Reduction to
Wave-length __| Wave-length | acuum | Oscillation
____ ESTs Intensity) ieee Mi intensrty, a fy avathe
Riitten and | Exner and ote | Exner and aad z ug "aK
Morsch Haschek ema Haschek fobaraeher A+ ne
5780-858 I | 1:58 | 4:7 | 17293°8
76°908 (te hn | \L57) 5, | 73056
5699-417 | <1 | 1:55 | 48 | 17540-9
88°338 i, < 1 | ” ” 75:0
65°054 5 ob 4 1s 17647°3
46:077 4 hea - 17706°6
40°364 1 eae 5 24:5
20°845 1 | Hea (ay Ss) eS 86°1
5599-581 1 eee 4:9 17853°6
48°356 Sage | iia! e 18018°5
197113 pres is % 18114:0
01:084 <i] 1:50 | 5:0 73°2
| 5499-691 bi yin. @| ILS go na 17:8
95-004 | 1 Bp . 93°3
90°231 i ne as a 18209°2
61-498 tee AAO Th 3, 18305:0
58°584 Poll Delt AALS Pras 14:8
35°471 i! 148 | ,, 92:7
19°353 i hee ” ” 18447°4
02743 | 3 a aN ag
5854-855 Pa | 146 | 5-1 | 18669-4
49-764 Nd? 1 | aT 435 87:3
49-283 Sa ? | ie | - f 89-0
43-719 | Weed | * a. 18708°8
36°552 | oe | | Get en ie 33°6
5295°153 | in | | 145 | 53 | 1880-0
18°825 1 | Wagi lee: ta ae ae 19156°2
12°873 | 1 | 142 Ms 78:1
5163-780 <1 | | 1-41 | 53 | 19360-4
56-590 | <1 | | ” ” 87°4

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, 119

Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Klements.—Report of the

Committee, consisting of Sir H. E. Roscor (Chairman), Dr. Mar-
SHALL Watts (Secretary), Sir Norman Lockyer, Professors Sir.
James Dewar, G. D. Livernc, A. Scouster, W. N. Hart Ley,
and Woucort Gipss, Sir W. pE W. Apney, and Dr. W. E. ADENEY,
appointed to prepare a New Series of Wave-length Tables of the
Spectra of the Elements.

TANTALUM.

Riitten and Morsch, ‘ Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Photographie,’ iii. 181
(1905).

Exner and Haschek, ‘Sitzungsber. kais. Akad. Wissensch. Wien,’ evii. (1Ia.),
p. 813.

Exner and Haschek, ‘ Wellenlingen-Tabellen der Fogenspektren der Elemente.’

120 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

TANTALUM—continued.

Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum

| Reduction to
Ie Vacuum Oscillati
Wave-length . | Wave-length =| scillation
¢ oj | Intensity Intensity) ———— pad
| and: "i and | in Vacuo
Riitten and | Exner and 4 | Exner and : } iB
Morsch Haschek Soe et Haschek Character A+ A
5153°592 <23) | 141°] 53 19393°6
47°847 <1 ” ” 19420°3
43°853 <1 Paes - 35:4
36°639 2 | aude a 62:7
15:986 if 1:40 | 5:4 19541:2
5087°657 i! 1oe39 a0 5s 19650°0
68:033 La |W? ] | 3 a 19726°1
43°451 1 1:38 Bs 19822-2
37°819 1 = sf 44:5
37°532 2 i temeas = 45:6
4936°555 1 | 1°35 | 5:6 20251°4
26°153 1 NE, er, 94-2
21:397 | 1 ” ” 20313°8
04°946 ail 1:34 - 82:0
4884-085 1 ti ahs » | 20469-1
52-298 1 E3o: | Ont 20603°1
46026 { 1 (Pee > 29°8
32°337 1 1°32 - 88:2
25°571 1 sae Ngee 20717°2
19-685 1 55° ieee 42°5
12-908 4 erect. 71:8
4781-100 2 13k 4) 53 20909°9
69°143 1 [33 99 62:3
58°222 1 1:30 35 21010°4
40-288 | i A " 90:0
30°237 | il ” ” 21134°8
23°018 | 1 1-29 ry 67:1
4708°49 1 oe mee 21232°4
01:404 1 KY tea 5:9 61:2
4692-036 aa / 128 | ,, | 213eG
85-398 In | 4685°37 1 opal 371
84-980 | In 59 0 38°9
82-041 ae 82°12 1 . » 52°3
| | 75°76 2 ” | ” 81-0
i2a0 || 2 | ee 96°8
69-309 Nd? hele | Me >eee Aiea 21410°5
j 67:45 | tae A|) Past ale ees 191
66-45 | 2 a eis 23:4
| 64:05 2 “ 5 34:7
61-253 In | lta 47°6
4913 | 2 | 1-27 x 21503°5
33°112 4633°18 In) a dss 6-0 776
tte aoOlo2. Wl 2 ie s 89:8
19-689 19°66 3 Jamas “A 21640°6
16°39 1 | 1226 5 55-9
06:99 | 5 a or 21700°1
02-352 1 | - oS 21:9
01:557 In | | 7" aH 25°8
| 00°46 | 1 a oD 31:0
4583-267 In | ” ” 21812°5
458186 | 2 Bm | Sa 19-2
80-886 In | 1:25 os 23°8
79:7 / In see. es 29°5
75°05 1 ters. es 51°6
74-496 457448 Hy 74:52 1 2” 33 543

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS,

TANTALUM—continued,

A | Arc Spectrum Spark Spectrum Rediotiga-tp
| Wave-length . | Wave-length , Vacuum | Oscillation
Intensity Entenaty Peony
| Riitten and | Exner and nas Exner and isl Bp hae ee
Morsch Haschek Chere Haschek bamacker| baat a
| 4573-484 1 1:25 | 60 | 21859-2
4573°31 3 | oecy re 60:0
66-034 4566-02 4 | aS 5s 94-9
. 64:77 2 1 330 (Ord 21900°9
; 61:678 1 | ais comet 15°6
59°629 1 aa fs eae 25°5
56°509 56°53 2 PF eee lh ge 40°5
: 54°28 1 | ” ” 51°3
] 54:09 | 1 Sym nas 52:2
; 53°893 53°87n 1 | \, sca Fe 53°2
; 52-115 52°13 4n 9 os 61°7
| 47:922 1 | a > 82:0
47°33 Ine 5] ppl 35 84:8
: | | 47:00 | 3 aver |e oe oc 86°4
: 30:966 30°98 5 31:00 | 1 1-24 - 22064°2
| | Spe tae oan aaa eae 79:2
i 27:°692 27°68 2n | as ~ 80:2,
; 243 | Ine The as Hn 96°8
OB-6 1) 3 lbh so hae | cakias 22100°1
21°203 21:27 3n “e i 11:7
11°613 11°66 2n ” a 58°8
I 11-25 2n ree aires 60°7
117133 11°16 10 es | 61°2
09-416 | 09°46 2n | 3 FA 69-7
| 08°65 In x Ep 73°5
| 03°26 1 1S el eee 22200°0
00:0 In 5 a 1671
4493-2 1b aoe Ge 49°6
4473-683 4473°70 In 72°75 1 9 ” 223466
| 71:50 1 ” ” 57°7
69°95 | 1 sei ie Las 65°4
6442 | 1 P283)> oa “I 93-0
64:30 | 1 neem lt Soca 93:7
60°6 1b Engel Sas 22412°3
59°944 59:99 2n ame. Gad 15°5
| 57°60 1 eee vile es 27°4
5700 | 1 Poa (eee 30°4
50°890 50°95 In | fees alae 61:1
47°31 3 Hee ee teas 79°3
46°35 In St isa 84:0
41-905 41:93 3n el ee 22506°6
) Wpei4 = | «| (41:22 3n Fa (Mc 10-1
; 37°38 2 Eee let se 29°6
‘ 33°159 1 1:21 | 63 51:0
30°611 30°61 In stun glass 64:0
29°62 In Psa 69:0
27°5 In Sse rss 79'8
; 26°87 1 Roam Sina 83:0
25-256 25°16 In fob Ee 915
20°82 In = 39 22614:0
19-729 19°73 2 ” ” 19°5
19-63 2 “ a 20°0
15°868 15:90 4 15:97 1 so Pipltomss 39°71
11°72 1 sree oae 60°6
10°41 2 V dhsgaay ti cas 67:3

122 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

TANTALUM—continued.
Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Bedaakionsus
Wave-length ., | Wave-length 4 Vacgums Oscillation
F Intensity Intensity| ________| Frequency
Riitten and | Exner and co Exner and ion 1 in Vacuo
Worsih Haschek Character Tuscbek Character) A+ I
4402-644 Nd 4402°70 4 4402°8 lb 1-21 | 63 22707°2
4398-606 4398°65 3 | “¢ 28:1
4392993 | 1 1:20 s 57°5
88°55 1 a ~ 80:3
86°223 86°25 4 86°25 In ay % 92:3
85°1 In 35 “ 98-2
78°965 78:99 3 ” ” 22830°1
18141} 1 tae $3 34:4
75°289 75°30 2n eee, es 49-3
69-657 Nd 69°51 1 Paras = 79:2
68°64 2 re (4 84:0
68°18 1 * = 86-4
64:973 65-00 2n > * 22903°2
62-171 In = es 17:9
60-965 61-01 2n ” ” 24:2
60:1 lb 1:19 “ 28°8
55°257 55:27 In Fife ig 25 54°3
ols0 | 2 55) mall By 72°6
49:26 | 1 PA is 86:0
48°88 1 sed avicdas 88-0
40:55" +)" “Bln, || h'teeeen ae wee 23005°6
44-438 Ti? 44°47 In eee 11°5
43:06 ~3=61 tie, | eee 18°8
abby. 4, 2 + 55 79°9
29°745 29°80 |. In 3 $ 89°5
27OG) | Le 4 49 - 23101:3
26°50 | 2 - = 07:0
22°897 22°93 In | ” | ” 26-2
18-966 18°99 ‘In | Sees, 47:2
14-696 14:7] 2n 12°63 1 fess ss 70:2
11:50 3 lahizs 6 81:3
| 2 » 87-4
03-116 03°10 In 09°72 1 eae; a 97-0
01-25 In Ti 01-17 4 » | 9 -| 232326
00°70 In Ti 00°72 1 = Fr 45°5
4299-76 4 b 5 50°7
98°83" | 1 s = 55°6
96°34 | 1 “f 6-5 69-1
95°30 | 1 5 3 72-1
92°59 1 + “A 89°5
92:23 1 = =P 89-4
91:37 1 A a 96-1
89°55 3 i a 23306-0
87°15 2 “ 3 19-0
4286-549 4286°55 2n 86°4 Ib & &e 22°3
ian 83°17 2 Be 40°7
Sea 80°76 | 1 neh aa bene 53°8
80-606 80°65 2 | ¥ % 54°6
19°65 3). in “5 a 59-9
79°189 79°20 4 | eee = 62:4
77°66 1 29 ” 70°8
on ; 74:95 In 35 9s 85:6
e 70°87 2 A » | 284179
c i 62:8 tn ass o 19:3
68-380 Nd | 68°43 2n » ” 21-4

——— oo

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 125

TANTALUM—continued.

Arc Spectrum Spark Spectrum |

OE ee ee

Reduction to
: acuum | Oscillation
peer enath Patensily Waneleneth Intensity) = se pa hape
Riitten and | Exner and ae Exner and eee us eg |
| Morsch Haschek ase Haschek Character, A+ A
} bs Baer.
4266°18 2 117 | 65 | 23433-7
62-22 3 Rae ale eos 54-4
| 55°58 2, os 3 92:1
54°81 1 Hs es 96:3
| 54:49 1 z PS 98-1
53°11 In er 6°6 23505°6
49-60 1 pe es ar 25:0
46°42 1 bi segs *» 42°6
4245445 | 4245-48 3n 45°43 ) | an ae 48-0
| 42°8 lb 1:16 3 62:7
39°45 In = % 81:4
38:0 In 3 a) :
32°12 1 2 ’ 23622°2
30°46 1 ey; 3 31:5
29°98 | 2 3 B 34°2
29:29 | 3 Sretiy, o 38°0
28°734 28°78 3n | He zs 41:0
27°86 1 | > ” 46:0
18:09 | 3 ns x 23700-
1490 | 2. 5 An 18°8
1786 fl ee fe % or 311
12-20 1 Fe A 34:0
| 08:30 | 1 3 iD 56:0
06-563 06-54 4 % 9 65:8
06:029 06:01 10 06:03 1 99 9 68°8
05°46 5 1:15 ”? 72:0
01°67 2 » “p 93°5
f 4199-02 1 2 6:7 23808°4
98°65 q 2” ’ 10°5
Sor82— 7 “p a 26°5
95°25 4 fe i 29°8
92°22 4 = * 47:0
91:05 6 ; ~h 59°7
86°28 | 1 ny = 80°8
i 84:60 2 ame ” 90°4
81:50 | 1 » ” 23907°2
4181:302 Sa 4181°36 4 81°32 | 1 ” 2 08-2
81-042 81:05 In | | 33 Y 10°8
| 79:99 1 heeea Fr 16°8
79°55 lb eerce re 19°3
78-062 78:08 4 78:04 1 een Pe 27:8
77-60 1 PP ” 30°5
77103 77-15 1 T71 In .” ” 33°2
75°344 75°40 3 75:3 | In , 9 43°2
74-48 1 A 9 48-4
74:08 1 ef Hs 50°7
”» 9 63°0
71:94 1 69-70 1 ” ” 758
68°28 g NE: en 84:0
67°861 67°85 In peel ee 86-4
66-00 1 3 oH 9771
64°80 8 3 “= 24004:1
63°82 8 3 09°7
62:9 lb a 5 15:0
61°35 In ES ee 24:0

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

TANTALUM—continued.

Are Spectrum

Wave-length

Riitten and | Exner and
Morsch Haschek
4160°100 4160°10
58-202 58°25
56°395 56°46
50°891 50.93
48051 48°03
36'347 36°32
29°567 29°55
28°00 28°05
24:97
10:05
05°166 05°17
04°341 04°39
01:437
01-06
4097°325 4097-35
91-383 91°41

Intensity
and
Character

2n
2n
2n

2n

co

Nee

2n

Spark Spectrum

Reduction to

Wave-length ’ Yacutes Oscillation

Intensity Frequency

Exner and Be in Vacuo

Hasshele Character) A+ a

1:14 | 67 | 24030-2
415815 | 1 PM ae hs ogo
” ” 52°4

52°70 3 ” ” | 74:0
52°20 1 ” ” | 76'9
| ” ” | 84:4

50°26 4 ” ” | 88:2
49°36 1 Med ee 93:4
48°89 oe ees 96-0
48-05 2 | sp 3b ees
47°35 2 pegs o 05:0
46-68 1 ” ” 08:9
43°35 2 | = 3 283
42°42 1 ” ” 33°7
39°91 8 he er 483
39°56 3 | ” ” 50°4
38°6 1b ji ss ” 56:0
37°29 7 fh eae 63°6
36°35 1 i 38 ” 69-2
35°6 In ' ” ” 73°5
34:77 2 | ” 9 78°3
31-7 lb ” ” 96'3
310 3b o.a| 24200°4
30°10 4 i lI 30h | 05:7
29°59 4 ” | ” 08°8
28°2 2b ” | ” 17'8
271 In ” ” 23°3
26°4 In | ” ” 27°4
25°75 In } ” ” 31:2
25°45 In Pe = 330
” ” 35°8

24:03 10 ect (ass 41:3
22°98 1 ae ad nae 47°5
19-41 4 ” ” 68°5
17-05 3 ” ” 82:4
14-11 2 ” ” 99°8
he 1 : » | 24310-4
1 0 1 ” ” 18:0
10°50 1 ” ” 21:1
”» ”» 23°8

06:36 1 ” ” 45:7
05°21 1 ” ” §2°3
04-40 2n as - 57-4
” ” 74:9

01:12 10 ase 33 77-0
00°56 3 = a 801
4099°24 2 - 6-9 87°9
98°40 1 ” | ” 92-9
” | ” 99-2

Hee 1 » | o» | 244064
95° 1 Ss 3 08-6
94:25 1b et ae 176
93°25 b= Webra 23-6
” ” 34:7

90°36 1 A A 40:8

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

TANTALUM— continued.

5

12

Arc Spectrum Spark Spectrum Rodundiiomto
Wave-length _ | Wave-length : hn i Oscillation
lanes Intensity ge coe
Riitten and | Exner and es Exner and an ae uf apa era
Morsch Haschek ORE Haschek ee eee | rN
2 a x

408680 1 112) 69 24462°1

4085-901 4089-95 1 ” ” 67°5

85°6 In $ 3 69°3

85:03 2 5 = 727

84°35 1 5 717'8

81:40 1 * 94°5

79°89 3 Nb? 79°92 12 ” > 24503°5

79°358 79°31 2 79°4 In ” ” 06°9

77:23 1 Sp PS 19-6

"eR. 76:09 1 .

76-039 { bie 4 \ wat 26-7

73°28 1 a5 e 43°3

73°17 In = pe 44:0

72°89 1 s sit 45°7

71:15 1 55 ay | 56:2

68°40 1 33 3 72°'8

68:080 | 68:06 6n 68:06 1 ” ” 74:8

67°418 67°36 3 67°35 2 ” % 79:0

66°30 1 s 55 85°5

64:98 1 Sabine | naa 93°5

64:739 64:76 5 64:76 | 1 st eee 94:8

64:27 1 ee Pe 97°8

62:960 62°98 1 ae ipiel a 24605-6

| 62:20” 2 ers 10°3

61-528 61°53 5 6157". | 2 ell aie 14:3

60°96 2 cts a 178

60°50 1 A 5 20°6

59°85 1 3 ~ 24°5

59°65 1 a > 25°8

59:10 2 Nb? 59°12 15 ” ” 29:0

58-618 58°65 2n ” ” 319

58°32 In ce Ke 33°8

| 57°10 1 te 53 35°2

| 55:53 In 55:33 In oa | 93 51°4

54°57 1 54°6 In 1-11 | 9 56°6

51°68 1 Ac ee 74:2

49°88 1 ee chu) 85°1

48°76 In os E55 91°9

44:88 1 ei eaer 24715°6

43°30 In paid Ieee 25°3

42°71 1 sy el lhast 28°9

41-204 41°21 2n 41°1” 1 Se % 38-1

41-025 | 41:06 3n ” ” 39°1

40:7” 1 iF 41-2

39°748 39°77 In 39°68 3r ee x 47°2

39°23 1 ao Jenin ae 50:2

37°8 1b Fri eer 59-0

36:070 36:05 In 36°05 1 ” ” 69:7

35°25 1 ” ” 74:6

33'36 2 % 74 86:2

32°67 5 ” ” 90:5

31°5 In ” ” 97°7

30101 30:10 3 30°13 1 » ” 24806°2

28°12 1 a “ 18°5

27°46 1 ” 22°6

126 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

TANTALUM—continued.

1
Are Spectrum | Spark Spectrum Rdentonte
Wave-length | Wave- length | Vacuum | Oscillation
_|Intensity | ee Hrequemey|
Riitten and | Exner and | and, | Exner and ite in Vacuo |
Morsch Haschek ieaoreag | Haschek inc iat a
4027091 | 402709 | 5 | 402710 | 1 111 | 7:0 | 248248
26rolew|) Nog n= m 28-4
24-71 1 ea ee 395
| 23-40 In is n 47-6
| | 23°30 1 » » 48-2
| | / 22°5 In 2 3 53-2 |
| 17°68 1 ” ” 83-0
15:382 1540 | 2n 1:10 = 97:2
13°48 1 | lene p 24909:0
13-327 13-39 In 13-41 2 53 5 09-7
12-298 12-26 In 12-30 OA Be Mond lt = 16-4 |
| 08-43 ie bie = 40-4
| 07-273 07°38 1 %9 ” 47:3
06-982 06-99 4 07:00 1 Ee is 49°3
03°889 03°85 3 as * 68°8
01:3 lb 5 fe! 85°
00°77 2 - 88-1
3999-411 3999-44 4 3999°35 2 55 Le 96:7
96-295 96°32 4 96°34 1 3 A 25015°9
92°65 ln A Pe 38°9
| 91-87 1 SS 3 43°8
91:3 In > ee 47°
90°58 |; 1 ae = 51:9
88°856 88°85 | 2 88°83 1 55 a5 62°38 |
| S530 els at a0 3 66°2
| 84-011 84-02 1 a 9 93:2
| 82-054 S211 | 3 82°15 1 ss | oo oh, een
81-19 1 81°17 1 So cites eT
80°65 2 = _ 14-4
79-390 79:43 "|. «20 =| 79-50 1 A a 22:1
| 78:90 1 ss x 25°5
78°09 1 a 3 30°6
76°80 1 as x 38°8
76°67 1 E 39°6
7a80° >) ol | 1:09 - 57°7
| 7269 2 ae) Ee 64:8
72:04 | 2 - - 68-9
70°79 | 1 me A 76°8
70°237 70°25 3 70°25 | 1 x seal 80°3
66°40 5 ss 3 25204:7
65°85 3 if >» Lee
59-90 Ny = = 46:1
59-48 1 {ates a 48:7
| 55°82 2n | s T2tn 72:0
54°47 [WO 9 | .. || 80°6
53-2 | 2 : >| denne
| D250 a 2 “3 38 93°2
52-290 52°31 2 | | ” ”? 94:5
49:6) ) 2ne |) S 33 25311°8
47:90 1 ig ee “ 22:7
| 4767 | 1 99 9 24:2
| 43:80 | 3 ” : ” 49-1
42°40 In ! | | 99 ” 58:1
| 41:41 | 2 uf - 64:4

38°71 | 2n ag: oy 81°8

3

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 127

TANTALUM—continucd.

Are Spectrum

Spark Spectrum

Wave-length

Wave-length

Intensity
Riitten and | Exner and ae Exner and
Morsch Haschek Conracter Haschek
3937°951 3937°39 2n 3938°10
: 37°56
36°70 In 36°60
36°18
35°60
32:0
31:056 31°10 ye
30°00
29°7
29°44
26°54 1 26°76
25°41 1 25°38
25°14
_— 23°112 23°08 2n
. 22°919 22°94 2n
22°60 1 22°55
20°95
19°85
19°61 1
19°30
19°18
18°638 18°66 3 18°76
14°83
13°62 In 13°64
13°16
12°61 1
12°30 1
09°50 In 09-76
09-071 1 0911
; 08:08 In
07°40
05°77
04°33
04.06 1
00°68 1 00°68
3898°902 3898-95 1
- 3898°65
98°41
96°05
94°17
93°86
93:23 In
91°43
90°49
89°8
86°20
85°82
85:697 85°65 1
85°54
85°322 85°37 2n
83:28
79°50
79°05
77-67

Intensity | ____

an |
Character

Se a

orem BR Reece wre

Reduction to
Vacuum

|
AE =| =
| A

Oscillation

—| Frequency

in Vacuo

25386°3
89-2

128

REPORTS ON THE STATE Of SCIENCE,

TANTALUM—continued.

Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Bcduetiaaan i
Vacuum a
Wave-length __ | Wave-length : Oscillation
oe | appl a |
Riitten and | Exner and a Exner and a oe ol geet |
Morsch | Hegchek (oo acchee | ChaRHCher AGriaiaee
| | 3877-11 1 1:07 | 7:3 25785'1
: 75°88 2 matin All copes 93:3
| | 75°55 1 eats ie? 95:6
3873°037 | 1 bes: 25812:2
71°32 In 7. 23.7
70°80 In se if, 27-1
| 68:06 2 a Z 45:5
66-4 lb ;; z= 56°5
65:17 2n =. cs 64:8
64-50 1 Re _ 69:3
64:02 1 im =) 72°6
| 63°52 2 oe aoe 75'8
| 63°20 2n 5% 5 78:0
62:7 3b PP | Pe 81:
| 59-09 3 5 5 25905°5
57:247 2 57°3 In 3 rf 14:2
” ” | 17°9
56-1 2b 1:06 Pea | 26:
55°60 2 ps ae) 29:0
55:30 1 2 oe 31:0
| 54°9 In eA mS 14:
53°73 1 “3 = 41°6
53°53 ] “a ‘ 42:9
48°16 1 5 > 791 |
| 46:02 2 és ay 93°6
44-21 1 5 » | 26005:8
| 42-83 1 is Ed 15-2 |
41:95 In ss “3 21:1 |
39°17 1 es ee 40:0 |
| 37°18 1 awake 53:5
| 36°87 1 53 ela mans 55°6
36°56 1 = so aael 57:7
| 36-08 1 Fee ey | 61:0 |
35°30 2 eal ae 66:3
33°939 383390 3n 33°87 3 SALaS| #299. 768
3200 | 6 nh ee 88°7
31:3 In Ay Anes 93°5
30°13 1 53) 261013
29-06 1 sy a 08:8
| | 28°37 2n 55 3 13-4
| 27°15 1 - 35 21:8 |
25°02 4 i oo i ee
23°712 oS ohh 45°3
21°95, | 12 53, le escent 57°4
20:878 20°99 2 Pa alle Ps 64:3
19-00 5 aac 77°6
15°64 3 1:05 | 7: 26200°5
15°333 In ” | ” 02°6
11-18 3 ata es 31:2
10°65 4 motes wihs 34:9
06°35 1 rape Rate 64:5
04:90 4 | Ae 74:5
04:02 4 aah tials 80:6
03°10 5 Bah. Sh 86-9
01:45 2 * 3 98°3

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 129

TANTALUM—continued.

Arc Spectrum

Spark Spectrum Rhddetiu G6 |
Wave-length .,.| Wave-length : Vacuum Oscillation
Intensity ay z a ey
Riitten and | Exner and an | Exner and a 1 TD) VAG:
Morsch Haschek es Haschek |Chaxacter| ar art a
| 5% = a —— = am sail a ar ee en ben | | aaa = r=
| 380130 | 2 105 7-4 | 262994
01:17 1 3 » | 26300°3
3798°26 | 6 “ * 20°4
3797°535 1 ao 2 25:5
| 96:99 1 i | 29-2
96°72 1 a = SiG > |
96°65 In s “ei 316 |
95°73 In “i ae 38-0 |
94-546 | 379450 sn 94-62 | 1 | A 461 |
92°142 24 92077 |) 62°8
91°36 | 6 E ; 68°4
89°63 1 ; - 80°4
88°474 In ties * — 885
87306 | 87°30 3C? 87-20 | 5 : » (2 96:9 |
86°38 1 Pb°? | 3 26403°1
86:182 Ti? 1 r ss 04-4 |
85-407 | 85°49 2 Fs BA 95 |
84:399 | 84:41 2 84°41 1 x * 168
84:02 2 aes . 195 |
83-909 30? 84:00 | 1 ‘ = 20:0 |
| 83:1 | In Tr) ” 26°
| | B2cOe he Ar Al es ne 29°5 |
82096 | | ee 32:9 |
; | Sui. |) 24 = r 39-4
A 80°64 1 | a6 4 43°2
79:7 Ib a if 49°7 |
79°33 In - th 52°3 |
778 In ss 5 63°
7440 | In ive A 65°8
77-22 In Ae 2 67-1
| 75°58 ] 104 | -,, 78-6
74°58 1 a as 85°6
| 73°30 1 IK ek an | 94:6
TACOS yA 2 Bale Mbeya 26503°8
70°87” tae wil eaubit | 116 |
70°38 1 lakes Peal 15-0
| 70°12 1 =A 34 16-9
69°28 1 Wee &: aac 22°8
68-445 68-37 2 ess ee. | 28-9
66-27 2 A 44-0
Gsoum Wiaoee le mea te Bide |
64-26 1 pea ool, |
. | 63°63 He Alas i 62:6 |
61-555 61-47 2 61-45 SUT age _ 176 |
) 61:3 iba coal eae a 79°
) 60-9 eal lee ¥ De
59°892C? 1 59°69 5 a By 89-7
| 59°41 2n ; : 92-4
| 55°88 2 “A eS 26617°4
55-221 | 55°25 1 ” ” 22°0
54639 1 54-65 1 3 A 26-2
| H 53°30 2 3 en 35°7
63:03 Ti 1 53-00 2 % ee 37-7
| 51:77 101) ed bebe A 46-6
Sage |b in): || es ems 1 49:
1908,

REPORTS

ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

TANTALUM-~- continued.

Are Spectrum

Spark Spectrum

| Wave-length

Intensity:
d
| Riitten and | Exner and BA
| Morsech | Haschek Character
| 3750-322 375035 sd] |
50-003 S000" 4] 2S 1]
| | |
| |
| 41-21 Ti er!
|
|
|
39-93 Nb?) t
37-231 In
36-92 2
|
| 31-097 | 3115 2
| 29-95 Ti
| | 2637Nb?, 1
25632, 1
24-939 2405 9 |, 4
23-197 23:24 | 1
| | |
| | 90-59. “| 4
| 20-105 Fe ? |
lane .
1400 | 1
13-324 |
13:17 Nb? 2
| |
| 3698-00 tweed |
| |
|3695°523. | «(95°55 =| In
| 94-685 94-65. | 2
| '
| DSB LST. |. S08 Bore bade
| 92-799 | 92-80 1
|
| 91-55 In
| 89879 | 89-90 2
87-608 | 87°63 2 a
86979 | 86-26 1 Nd’
86°373 86°36 a
|
83-25 ea

Reduction to

Wave-length Vieguae Oscillation
> ate Intensity | Frequency
Exner and |, oad | Xr | LB in Vacuo
Hasohele ‘Character | 35 | =

3750-75 In 1:04 | 75 | 26653°8
” ” | 56°8

+ - 59-2

48-69 1 5; x 68°5
44-15 2 i 3 26700°8
42°56 Br ie vig] 12-2
41-18 2 1 4 21-9
40-99 3 ; , 23°4
40°90 3 ~ ; 24:0
40°11 | 38 § : 29:7
39°95 | 5 - ag 30°9
y a 50°3

36°90 1 | 1:03 x 52-5
B220 «| at 1 Ge 86:3
” ” | 94°1

29-97 1 ha » | 26802°5
2739 | 1 » | 76 | | 208
26°40 5 3 . 28-0
254 | In 3 35 33°5
= s 38:4

23°61 1 5 a 48:1
Ae a 50°9

21°72 | 1 ‘ oS 616
20°63 | 713 - Fr 69°7
” ” 73°4.

17°68 1 * wal 90-9
17-25 8 2 ae 94:0
13°95 3 3 o 26917°7

| 33 or) | 22-4.

13-20 6r ; 3 234
11:93 1 : + 32°5
11-49 2 = “ 35-7
10°61 1 iy ” 42-1
06°35 In s “ 73:1
04:29 | 71 i 88-1
04:07 1 3 Ps 89:7
03°34 1 if a 95:0
3698°01 4 a3 » | 270340
96-06 3 | 1:02 PS 48-2

| 9 ” 52.1

94:8 IL : : 58-4
93°55 1 : ; 67-6

; x 69-3

fe , 72:1

92-1 Ib : 2 77°
91°36 | 1 : - 82-1
agate eb || 93°5

89-20 1, eee ap faent OR at
88°85 : 1 ies PP 27101-1
88°15” 5 ore g5 Pree 06:3

te 48 e 10-2

(esse leew 14-9

hecieke, Doameel SOR 19-4

§3°69 Gear [a ssn la 39:0

| | 42-9

a

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMEN'ts. 131

TANTALUM—continued.

Are peer | Spark Spectrum Reduction to

ie + oa x4 Vacuum

. Wave-length Intensity, Wave-length Teitensit el bideas. ieoutner
- Riitten and | Exner and lcketdetar Exner and i Riis ee mene
Morsch Haschek Haschek A

| 3681-85 aia Sete erg. (yaT1eoG
- : { 3681 42 In} | | :
3681-388 10 81-23 ged | | aS 56:1
| YS ONY eee ea Me aye 79°5

7705 | In | Vit) am ae pw da eg MS
75°276 Yr ee as eee » | 27201:0

meceo, | 74-08. | 1 eae ele 4 Nl ei sa] ce vA
| mon. | 73:4 omega ae 15°

vy i io ee 71:7 InPbe}! ee

69-88 1 it ae i Ae

‘ota 69°15 2 a Wie 46:9

68-77 1 fe x 49-4

68-49 in Ks z: BLS

68°38 1 Lies i Ay figs Bee

67-90 1 ; f 571

67-22 In®* >| 67-22 1 ; 44 60-9

67-09 In : g 62°1

66-72 In | 66-70 1 ; aio) GaaF

| 64:83 4 ¥ ’ 18-7

| 63-80 1 by » | ». 864

62-47 2 62-48 1 s 96-2

62-23 1 ; 98-1

61°84 | 2 61-9 In : » 27300°9

| 60-51 3 si 10-9

| 59°73 | 6 : 16-7

58:93 son 58-9 Se ap : 92-7

5765 | 2 _ Lol 32-2

57-42 ~~ InSa? 57-3. |- Ib e 33°8

5704. | 1 non ii 36°38

56-09 1 ‘ . 43-9

53°98 | od aes ; 60-0

53:58 1 fa , 62-9

52°56 1 Ve 3 70°4

| 51-32 a ie : 79-6

50°93 1 f 82-6

50-01 2 . 89'5

45-07 1 3 27426°6

43-5 In d 38°

42-81Ti 2 42-82 2 Pe cot 43°6

4220 | 10 Pv a ae NS est 48-2

| 40°78 1 : f 59-0

_ 39°73 6 Pb? ,, i 669

| 39°47 L eS ig ae 68°8

) 39°17 1 kale a8 71-0

38-91 Paap 73-0

37-98 2 80-0

| 37°70 1 82:1

37:58 Tn : P 83:0

| g560T: 2 Aoi aP ea |: 98-0

34-60 2 f 27505°5

33-94 In 33°85 In k: l -10°7

33°46 2 i ; 14-2
33°2 Ib 16:

31-613 Fe? 1 i , 28-2
| 30°75 1 . a 347

|

132 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.
TANTALUM—continued.
| Are Seite Spark Spectrum "aa dee te
7 3 eee iia Vacuum
Oscillation |
Wave. eclongth saree | he ag sa tae ————— egeeney)
and an | in Vacuo
} Riitten a Exner and | Exner and as
| Morsch | Seaenh ake eect Haschak apicite| A+ |
3629- 6 In SP LOL 7s 27543-
| 3628-881 3628°85 In 28°81 1 pda ees 49-2
28-30 1 : _ 53°3
27-188 27°20 1 ets mh 61°7
26°757 26-78 9 26°73 3 1 ae ee, | 65-0
25°87 1 e | 71°8
257512 25°39 1 25°32 1 _ a 75:8
24°25 In sr re 84:1
21-16 1 ‘p at 27607°6
19°83 4 3 a 17°8
19°54 2 19-62 rage: hae ¥ 19:8
17-475 17°45 1 15°66 1 1:00 ey 35°9
14°94 1 eer - 56:2
13°60.\0 “los Tees = 65-4.
1S 22. lee in % 68°3
11-284 11:29 2 ; ; 83:2
10:3; | “ib s K 87-
10°12 In . “ 92:1
09°485 09°30 1 1 ; a 97°7
09-011 08-90 2 5 ” 27701:1
07-557 07°53 7 07°54 2 ¥ eS 11-9
05:487 Cr? > See 27°7
05°14 1 - el 30-4
04-673 | In Ant 34-0
02659 | 02°63 1 02°70 3 FA | 49-4
00°85 In 01°34 1 t 55 61:6
3599-78 1 + -P gh lore
99-45 1 A - 74:2
“3097: 014 3597-02 In © 2 93-0
95-795 95-79 3 95°79 1 aA | 27802°5
94:13 | 3 Somat 15°3
9, [93°88 In : :
93-644 Cr?) { Sean i O07 94 eat Pie 18-9
| 93:10 In thes : 23-2
92-6388 | 92:67 In Ves. : 26-7
| 92-32 Wyoaiiet a os 29°3
92-038 92-05 aol 1s m 31-4
91-665 | | ” ” 34:3
91-504 Fe? In 91°40 1 5 ” 35°2
90-522 | 90°50 Cy?| 3 | ae a 43:3
| | 89-50 3 #3 A 511
| 89:23 3 - bs 53-2
| 88°15 | In oF pe 61°6
86-435 | 86°46 | 2 ” ” 67-1
| | 85:11 vd : = 85:2
| 84-67 1 a :, 88-7
| §4°38 2 84°35 1 3; o 90:9
84:078 C? pope ll os a 93-3
| | 82°52 | > 27905-4
81-987* 82:00 1 FA x 09°5
80-391 80-42 Nb?;} 2 80°45 | 6 xs a 21-8
79-233 79-215 | 2 79:10.) > dns i oP) | ee nee
1 7882 | 1 | so! i de meee

* 3581:994 La, 81:991 Sa, 81:979 Nd.

/
|
|
|

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 133

TANTALUM—continued,

|

| Are Spectrum | Boeck Spec um |.Heaination te |
a h / Vacuum | Oscillation |
| Wave-lengt In tea Wave- length we length | 1. tensity jaseaueney
A and | |
Riitten and | Exner aa Ch Exner and fi i | is '
Morsch Haschek | id Haschek Character 2 | A |
1 | 3577-86 |-1 0:99 | 79 | 279418
| 77:00 | 1 lekays 6 48:5
| 76:00 5 Fe 56°3
3574-482 Nd? 1 ee 68-2
73°574 3573°59 3 3 ne ue
| 73°10 | In Sere eer ;
7296 | In Pbityres.cs | 35 80°1
| h263\ | 1 Set | to 82:7
72-004 7201 | 2 | . zs “ 87-6
71-389 Fe? eae a! | 33 * 92-4
70°259 Fe? 1 | | ” ” cers
| 69°64 | 1 55 ‘1
68°89 | 1 5 12-0
68°65 i *5 = 13:9
| 68-20 1 es rial 17-4
66-873 66:39 | 4 66°88 1 5p 93 27:8
| | 65°78 20 ; $9 364
| 63-76 2 % 29 52°3
63°64 2 - 30 53°3
59°74 2 5 Ht | 84:0
58-034 58-08 | 2n- | is RS a at
56°77 1 % | 28107-5
55°85 | 1 Peel lee sto: 8 14:8
eas 5481 | ¢ aot petatly Wibae
54°494 5450 | In 54-69 1 5 tel 25:5
53°576 53-57 | In | = 95 a
| 52°14 1 5 9 44-
51:31 | In » | 80 | “60-6
50°63 2 Bt fe 56:0
| 49°45 1 5 5a 65-4
49-207 49:16 | 2 49-24 1 - e 67:3
2 48°28 1 = 5 74:7
47°87 1 a6 5 77-9
44°81 3 92 > 28202°3
44:17 3 se steel 07-4
43°15 1 “6 : 15:5
42°75 ln an ee ere 18°5
42-054 42-02 2 42°03 1 in hod 24-4
40-965 40°93 2n 41°11 4 Sse os cats
39°78 1 Prades :
37°78 3 O;O Belts. 58:3
_ 37-649 3760 | 1 37:60 4 5 a4 59°6
36°43 2 3 tt al ee
35°808 In ” ” 4:
35°514 35°50 2n 35°47 6 ” | » 76°6
34°704 34°66 1 ; Be eeg eae a
34:35 2n ee a ives f
33°83 1 * oat 89-9
32°353 32°33 1 aoc a) cau cs
31-735 31°72 3 31°77 1 Bays tS gath tal 06-6
29:03 1 sic: | okisat nt 28-4.
28-739 28°71 2 28°65 In » ” 31-1
27°212 27°20 2 27°23 1 & inet 43:0
23°399 2330 | In g37g0" | I ken | elit pee
S085 jo im || 5 » | 945

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

Are Spectrum

TANTALUM— continued.

Spark Spectrum

a Reduction to |

Vacuum

|

Wave-length .. | Wave-length el Oscillation
a: ee koe | Intensity) ___| Intensity; — pee bra)
Riitten and Exner and and | Exner and and | 1 ae cuneene a
Morsch Haschek penren es) Haschek ae i tia A | A
} |

3520°595 3520°60 | In 352066 | 1 0:98 | 80 | 283961
20-274 1 22h aes ere ier 99-1
19:971 i 19°73 1 B » | 28402°3

| 1760 | In 17°82 3 zs | 19-6

| 17°20 1 A zeta 23-7

17°02 1 NS aM 25-2

15580 15°57 1 15°59 4 e i 37-0
13-764 13°76 2 [en Bs 515
11-174 | 11-20 8 11-20 1 “ Bp. 72:3
10°47 5 9 | Seem 78-1

| 08-09 Pam eee get he 97:4

0703 | 1 1s as. | Cpnpenl2B5080

05-312 0532 | 2 05-28 1 it, (eae 20:2
05-105 0510 | 3 ete oes
04-011 0400 | 38 | 0405 | 1 e Pte 30°5

| 03°35 | In sf 36-1

03-018 03-02 2 03-05 1 - ol 38°6
02648 02°65 2 E is 41°7
02124 | 0213 1 | 53 2 Se aoe

| 00°10 | In r) ” | 62°56

| 349879 | 2 097 | » | 73-2

3498003 | 3497-98 5 ry et 79:7
| | O72 i Tb 3 * 86-1

| 96:37 2 a ‘5 93-0

93°841 Fe? 93-60 tv. - ce 28614-7
91-069 91-10 2 / 91-18 2 a re 36-0
90-717 90-76 | 1 | x i, 3971

| 89:23 2 ie 61°5

88-996 88:99 | 1 88-96 2 . 3 53°6
87:533* 87°53 il | 4, 5 65-5
86-825 86°83 1 | is PY 71:2
86:17 1 | - : 76°7

84-767 84-77 1 84:80 | In “, z 88-1
8495 | 2 i rs 92°5

| 83-16 In : » | 287015

81:3 In i aie 17:

80-640 80°67 erent 80-69 2 is ss 22:0

) | | 80-40 i is e 24-2
| 79°580 79:59 | 1 79°75” 4 5 53 30:3
| | 78-90 3 a a 36°6
77-586 Tre le 2 77-60 1 5 _ 47:4
77°356 17°35 2 77:38 1 Ti eS eos 49:4
14:45 In 744 | Ib * | 73°4

74034 74:05 1 Tel eb 5 ase 76:7
73-464 73:48 1 3 “ 81°5
72976 73-00 1 73°20 S. Hiss ” | 84°6
72-680 72°67 2 jae ake 88-2

| 71:3 lb | ss re 99°6
| 70°47 in-25)) on | 8-2 | 28806°3
69°59 i tek: ees 13°6

67°03 1 Se fee? 34-9

65°50 In a ant a 47-7

| 63-912 63°94 4 63°94 } 2 2 ” { 60°8

* 3487-548 Yb, 87-547 Sa.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Are Spectrum

Wave-length

Exner and Character

Riitten and |
Morsch hee
| | 3463-04
58°65
53-52
3453-041 53-11
50°528 50°53
49-046 49-03
47-429 47-42
: 47-04
47-004 irae
46-051 46-03
45+82
| -45:662 45°65 °
45-220 45-22
| 44-820 44-81
| 44-199 44-21

» 40-746
40-385 40-38

39-180
2 f 38°63
38 oe | 38-44
| 87-50
| 37-20

|
36138 36-13
34-639 34-64
32:77
31-054 31-08
| 29-46

|
26855 26-88

26-337
24-578 24-55

| |
21-95

-| Eatonsity

In

In

moo eho 29
~

|

TANTALUM—continued.

Bpagk Seepcue

| Wave- fone | |
wae He | Intensity) -
and

Exner AeA |
erate ical

- 3463-20 l
62-75 In
59-88 In
56-6 In
55-03 2
54-85 1
52-47 1
51:8 In
50-89 1
48-83 In
48°36 1
47-01 1
44-45 i
42-9 in
40-06 1
39-1 In

138-55 1
See La

|
37°05 In
36°16 In
32:87 5
31:07 2
29°17 l
27°57 1
26-71 4
25-98 l
25°59 | 4
23°88 1
22°95 | In
2086 | 1

135

Reduction to |

| Vacuum
| a ge
a
|
0:97 | 8:2
” >
9
99
0-96
*
1 oss
aah 8
=
F
”
:
99
ad .
% 2
> >
”
;
>
”
, 23
? >
99> 29
> ”
> ”
°° 3:9
25 2?
99 | ”
” ”
& 8°3
”? ”
> >
> 3?
39 99
’ 9
> >?
’ »
a2 99
9° ”)
5) 99
9 99
” ”

| Oscillation

__| Frequency

| in Vacuo

68-2

| 290025

10°6
12:5

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

TANTALUM—continued.

Are Spectrum

oe Heel Me Reduction to |
Wave-length .. | Wave-length | : ech | Oscillation
wre rasenees Pi, ee rae peerias = | one pe
Riitten and | Exner and ae Exner and ee he aD ROHS,
Morsch | Haschek pans S Haschek ee | A
3419°856 | 3419-84 2 0:96 | $3 29232°8
19°677 | 19-64 2n a tee 34-4
18°382 | 18°44 1 oS ” 45°1
17153 | 17°15 2 ES “5 55:8
| 3416°13 In 0:95 ‘ 64:7
15°996 15:99 ] 9 ” 65-7
15°392 15°39 | 1 15°40 1 As ” 70°9
14°259 UE: il 14°25 1 ss “A 80°6
13°77 1 ¥ ” 84:8
13032 13°03 2 13:07 3 Pet hes 91-1
11°842 11°84 1 ” ” 29301°4
09°34 2 - 33 22:9
08°82 3 : os 27°4
08°52 ] 5 aA 30:0
07-069 07:09 4 07:09 1 5 i 42°3
06-810 06°79 2 06°81 1 a = 44-7
06°30 1 93 = 49:1
05°56 1 |) ee es 55-4
| 04:31 1 a s5:8 66:2
03-11 1 03°15 In c ° 76°4
01:98 if As be 86°3
| 33999 | In fa . 29404:
3398°449 3398-43 3 98°45 | 1 As ” 16:9
97:556 | 97°55 1 1) eae = 24-6
96°55 | In 3 8-4 33°2
96:05 | 1 i ; 37°6
| 95°13 | 1 [eee sa 45°5
94:76 1 94°77 | 1 e * 48°7
92°47 2 bs Be 68°6
92°11 Z hs ae a 718
88°952 | 88°95 1 89-0 In “ 99-2
88-464 88°46 1 88°45 In ; z, 29503°5
87°96 Lt / 87°95 1 cf ” 07°9
87-561 | 87°59 1 x *: 11°2
87°367 | 87°36 1 S659 ||) 2 ” ss 13:0
85°176 | 85°20 3 85°18 l ” ’ 32-1
83°975 | 83°92 2 9 » 42°9
83°03 | 1 es a 50°9
82-068 82:11 1 | 5 2 59-1
81-05 1 s* 3 68-2
80°745 80°78 1 ” ” 70°7
80°55 1 : ‘ 73°0
80-44 1 Ti | a 73°5
80°20 1 We ” 756
79-641 79°65 3 ! 79°61 1 a5 a 80°6
| | 79°47 1 5 82:0
Fis o40) eal pee Tp = 3 92°3
77°88 In | 0:94 96-0
76-614 76°61 2 “ 33 29607°1
767180 76:17 3 76:20 1 99 ” 10°8
} 7503 | 1 i hea 20-0
74:37 In 5 93 26°8
74:064 74-15 | ” ” 29°1
72°95 72:8 In a a, 39-2
71-663 | 71°66 5 71°65 1 ia | 50°6

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF

Bate Spectrum

THE SPECTRA OF

TANTALUM—continued.

Spark Spectrum

THE

ELEMENTS, 137

| Reduction to

Vacuum
Wave- lenath ; | wraiy e- es :
__|Intensity |_ __|Intensity | —
Riitten and | Exner and Pe Exner wad ae ; ew lod
Morsch Haschek Character ice | rN
| tgpyieas | 1 0-94 | 8-4
3369°972 3369-99 1 | “A %
69-408 69°40 2 | 4 *
69°30 2b : :
68-869 68:87 1 nd Mee
68-570 68°55 In 68°50 In ed ee
67:64 steel ee
67:07 1 eS ie
66-811 66°79 1 aa ell eaees
65-71 1 Seal, ss
657154 65:15 | fs ”
63°74 | 5 fe
62-646 62°65 2 cn :
61:769 61°78 3 x oi
61:07 In 3 8°5
59-101 59-11 2 seria ss
58-651 58-62 4 5852 | 3 “Shae (RE
56-752 56°75 2 of a
56°154 56°15 1 : 9
55°718 53°71 1 | 5 :
54°83 | 2 : ;
52°631 52:66 I 2 ”
51:637 51°66 3 / Bills ies
51:104 51-11 2 49-51 | 4 a | =
48:40 | 1 ig lah
47°19 1 | a APIs
47-01 | 1 ” ”
46°88 1 Sateen lhe ata>
45-233 45°24 1 Pea | ee
44-10 2 coll ares
43°85 1 43°83 2 ae
43°597 43-60 a ;
43°53 | - 5;
42:02 2Ti 42:10 | 3 oe »
41-74 2 a a
406 | In mee
40°035 40°02 3 | 40:05 1 Ae Sele Witte
38°612 38°60 2 093 | .,
37:908 37:93 2 | | ” >
35°35 . 1 =r, oi
33°24 1 | ” ”
32°933 32°95 ] F 3
32°792 32°84 1 3273 | Ib x a
32°537 32°55 2 32°3 InMg?) .,, 9
31:138 31:12 3 | 31:16 2 “0 os
29-03 1 | Fy ”
28-42 In | ¥ =
28-065 28:06 1 ” ”»
27-560 26°76 I ” 29
25°865 25:87 1 ” “a
248 | In Fey MiBRs Ho:
24-1 In Fin ee
22-12 1 ” | ”?
20-98 1 ” ”

| Oscillation |
Frequency |
in Vacuo

29652°2
65-4
70-4
71-4
751
78-0
86-0
91-0
3-4
29703-0
07-9
20-4
30°1
37-8
43-9
61:3
65:8
82-2
87-5
91-4
99-3
298188
27-6
(32-4

| 46-6
56-5

92-7
30103-0

138 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

TANTALUM—continued.

| Are Spectrum | Spark Spectrum | Wodusiion te
a. ee ta ome Yo | Pi ee ee an: SV GLCdINanIS ea See Pan
| Wave-length | Wave-length Oscillation
Peis : eee iaeesdy fa Breqnenggy
here. an | and | in Vacuo |
| Rilton and | Tver ed “cyaracter, Tapered lonsracter a+ | 2
| | -esere-76 | 1 0-93 | 86 | 301141
3319-61 In 5 ahGuileiecs 15-4
3319°559 dl | ae 15:9
19°38 1 aaxcl aaa 175
1931059) Fr > 20:0
18°968 | 18-99 5 USES7 | * sate) as 21:2
18-662 18-66 2 iat tip carat 24:0
18-036 18-04 5 18°10 1 ” » | 29°5
15°37 ] : etl 53:9
| 12°75 1 A apes 778
11-259 | 11:30 9 L258 4) 2 FA “5 91°3
09°905 09-94 2 ope Nees 30203-6
osi9 | I 22). az WRC
07:23 1 S18 ope 26°2
05:50 | 1 6 i Sh 34:9
05°78 | 1 $51 ss 41-4
05°48 M | ” . ” 44°2
05:27 i A tall | shel 46-1
04°97 In 43 = 48:9
04499 04:54 | 2 | SraehI ico 53-0
04163 | 04:20 2 ee ee 56-0
03°50 In pee eet | 62°3
02-892 02°91 u nae Ce ieee 67:8
02°023 02°05 1 VUE 7 ej) ea bat PA ee 78°8
3299892 3299-91 2 32993 | Ib 0°92 | ape | 95°3
99°41 1 Par he 99°8
96°16 if ee A Mec 30329°7
95°451 95:49)>) "S 3° 361
94:87 In | ae Ia 41°6
94:55 | 9 1 meh bail oe | 44°6
94-058 94:09 | 2 a 504 at 49-7
92-627 92°64 | 2 3; ee 62:2
| 92°20 2 5 oe 66-2
92-069 92°04 | 1 | % | VAS
91:17 is re + 757
90°00 | In FP AS | 86°5
| 88-02 1 a » 380404°8
87:42 | In rE 8°7 10°3
85:81 In O5'80) ele Sete ie es 25°2
85°26 In | a5 02 | aaos eae 30°3
84:79 >> a1 | s Ep 35:0
| 83-63 3 7 eae 45°4
80-991 80°99 | 2 80°95 1 ” ” 70-0
| 80°82 ii Cr eee 715
80-1 lb Bs as 78:0
79°404 79°36 2 79°38 1 + eS 84:9
77°80 1 7 99°6
77°32 1 rf Ss 30504:0
76°013 76°02 In % ¥ 16-2
75:802 75°76 2 75°78 1 a oF 18-4
75041 75°02 3 75°02 1 rf = 25°4
74:487 74:57 1 ” ] ” 29°6
73°202 | 73°25 2 73°22 l a ay 42:0
72°37 In es ee 50°2
WE26° 7) a 4 bees od 54:3

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 159

TANTALUM—continued.

Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum

|
| Reduction to
Wave-length : / Wave-length é nd cin Oscillation
: Bi: grees snail iy requ |
Riitten and | Exner and and | Exner and |qp etar| ea i eae
Morsch Haschek ont Haschek rea | SM EN
9269-283 326926] | 0-92 | 7 | 305791
67-00 ow! . ‘ » | 306004
65-736 65°68 I | rf “c 12:5 |
65-462 65°50 et | e . 14:7
| 3264-77 1 3 = 21:3
64209 64:25 1 | | PD A: 26-4
63-889 | 63°91 2 “ “ 29°5
| - 63°51 | 3 3 3 33°2
63°14 In) ‘3 33 36°6
60°73 3 - 4 59°3
60°332 60°34 2 60:35 4) in nt 3. 63:0
60-001 60°02 2 | epi 55 66-0
59-761 130 (a CUD | 5 69°4
58-333 Beate te | $$ - 81-7
57-98 | 1 5 85-2
56°863 6690 | 1 | SOG 35 95°5
54-98 In PA ie 30713°4
/ | 54-20 3 $3 » 20°8
53-258 bar29)- |. 8 | » ” 29°5
| 53:08 1 S|! Ses 31-4
51-78 1 Be BETS 43-6 |
Pic 4 ia ean 51-5 In Bama |" 33 46-2 |
51-398 ” _ 47:2
50°493 50°52 2 Gi FP 55:6
49°68 1 5 e 63-5) 7 ||
48-638 48-65 2 | 49-10 1 vader - 68:0) ||
| 47°69 2) Cu?) 55 3 733 |
47:05 1 | ae 5 82:3 |
45-510 45°41 1 73 88-4
43°50 1 ass . 30803°5
42-955 42:98 | 3 as R 22-1
42-176 42:19 | 3 42°15 Tae ih eee ni 27-2
_ 41-059 4109 | 3 41-12 1 \, eat Fs 34:6
. ” ” 45:0
40-098 4013 | 2 | _ Fe 54°3
S20 eae 5 Fr 72°5
37-980 a799 "| 2 Bye: iene) * 3 74:9
36°71 2 Ti 536-515 1) 2 3 3 87:7
34-806 34:81 2 3465 | 2Ti #3 Fe 30904:9
32°41] 1 Fe # 27:9
31:80 In x 33°7
30°996 31-01 3 3 41:3
30°020 29°95 2 3 50-1
. 29°70 1 ¢ 53°8
29°344 29-34 2 | 29°36 1 » 57-2
27-444 27:44 2 ; % 75:5
26-979 27:00. | 2n 1 wife; 3 79°8
26-45 | 1 | [Sits : 85°0
25-62 5 ree aN 93-0
23:954 23-98 4 | 23-97 1 3! F 31008°9
| 23°50 1 4 13-4
21-442 21°46 2 i 3 331
20-20 In 0°90 | 5, 45-2
19-701 19°73 1 ” ” 49°8

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

TANTALUM—continued.

Are Spectrum

Wave-length

Riitten and | Exner and

Morsch

3217-041

08-721

07-970
06°500
05°095

02-085
00-582
3198-777
96-494
95-390

92-369

91-265
89°844

84-656
82-688
81-810
81-068

79609

78:373 | |
78°278 ||

78-042
76-410

73°700

72-980
70-404
68-365
68°276
67-641

66°541
63-948
63-648

63°232
62°835

Haschek

|
Intensity

|

| Wave-length

| an
Character Exner and

chek

Spark Spectrum

| Intensity

an
iCharacter A+

3217-04
16°27
16-09

14:00
09:97
08°74
08°30
07°95
06°49
05°10
03°86

02-08
00°59
3198-79
96°50
95°40
95-09
95°00

92°35

91:29
89°80

88°55
84:66

82-70
81 82
81-08

79°65
78°31"

78°04
76°40

73°69

73°00
70°40
68°36
68°30
67-65
66°83
66°51
63°95
63°64
63°55
63°22
62-85
62°76

me 0

bobo bo me ee tO

eet ed fd pd hed et

i)

He bo bo

Lod we ih =

SSNS SOA ilo al

321771

15°72

06-50
05-14

03-50

3195-11
94°50

91-59
91-25

89:45
87:57
84°36
81:02

80°42
79°6

75°97
73°35

63-50

1b

to bo

Vacuum

| Reduction to

0-90 88

2?

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

8-9

cy)

|

| 31075°7

83:0

53°8

i)

—
SER2SSxe8
Oe Wwe = Ph Ob

|

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 141
TANTALUM—continucd.
| Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Réduction to |
| Wave-length _ Wave-length Ms or Oscillation |
1. ae | Intensity _ (intensity |= = Breda mey |
Riitten and | Exner and ne Exner and pad mk, res mae ae
Morsch Haschek oe Haschek sg ais edge i |
3161-548 | 316155 | 1 089 90 316211
597141 59°16 1 3159-0 Ib * 45-1
58-042 58-06 2 = 3 5671
57-769 57-77 1 , > 58-9
56°883 56°85 2 is ee 68-0
) 55-60 1 ; r 80°7
55°361 55°36 2 a a 831
54-572 54-60 1 a si 90-9
54-05 In $5 . 96°3
53:25 | In Bs » | 31704-3
5264 | In s; ae 10-4
52:10 In 52:2 1b - ie 15-9
50-967 50°98 | 1 ” E 27-2
| 48-142 48-14 | 2 . 8 . 55°8
‘ 47-482 | 47-49 | 2 | Ss Hy 62-4
. 46°87 In A 9-1 68°5
| 45°52 2 ss A 82:1
43-042 4565 |. (2) — | 24 » | B1807-1
| 41:53 tr, 0-88 |, 22:5
; 38-588 3860 1 Ke eS 523
37°538 37-56 1 3 ae 62:9
35:999 35:99 2 2 78°7
34-009 34-03 1 ; - 98°8
33-672 33-68 1 : 35, 631902:3
32-756 32°77 3 ; . 11:6
31:36 In ss - 25:9
30-90 In 30-90 3 > x 30°6
30-682 30-70 3 < % 32°7
30391 30°43 1 ss * 35°6
30-053 30-09 2 Ss iS 39-1
29-654 29-68 2 ' a 43-2
29-226 29°25 1 47-5
27-859 27-90 3 61-4
27:6 2n a 64-3
25-073 25-10 3 ; bia 90:0
21-001 | 21-06 1 ; os 32031°3
19-692 19-70 1 ; * 453
17-545 17°52 2 eee 67:5
| 15-972 15°95 2 | ia) a a 83°7
| 13-996 14-00 2 » | 92 | 32103°8
7. | 10:93 In Beeb ee saa lc 35'S
. | 10:22 In hares yM 42:9
07-89 In lates Sn 67:0
07°311 07°32 2 | as a 72:9
04:519 04°54 1 m » | 232901-8
03°353 03°37 4 7 : 13-9
| 01817 01:84 1 3 : 29°8
01:110 01:15 | 2n 087 |. 37-1
3095-498 | 3095:50 | 3 } > | ” 95°8
| | 94:28 | In | 3094-30 3 “s . | 32308-4
93-965 93-98 diz: | Ce see 11:7
OI, |b 930 Ib BC ieay etal?
| 92546 92:54 rates ae | £266
| 92151 92:19 bss Pog ee { 30°5
88°11 PA Wied 88-0 1b ret a | 73-1

142 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

TANTALUM—continued.

Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum | Hedastion ko
Marpdonate . | Wave-length i bs | Oscillation
Intensity Intensity — | Frequeney
Riitten and Exner and oD. Exner and aad > eee | a acu
Morsch ~| Haschek cea Haschek oo ee | ox
3087°855 | 3087-85 | Baby | 087 9:2 323758
87-624. 87:61 | 2 re al 78:2
85°630 85°64 2 es nied 99-0
82-543 82:57 0 - a | | 4, | OB |°B2431°3
| 30823 | Ib Al?| ©;, » [ee BAO
81-950 | 81:95 | 2 Bs rel 37:7
80-088 80:08 | 2 # sa 573
79°67 1 i i 61:7
[~) 7o40°] 4 f ; 64-6
78335 78:34 | 2 | ; » 75°8
77-334 | Tad tl) 28 : | 86-4
| | 76°96 1 ke 83 z 90°3
76-483 76°50 1 us i 95°3
75-429 75°39 1 | y 32506-7
73°495 73°52 l bs ; 26°8
Slt | 1 Bi 31-0
73-451 7248 | 1 bones 3 37-9
| 70°66 | 1 | Pe ete i 57-0
| | 69°9 Ab!) see 35; ol ODO
69°342 | 6932 | 4 : * 7 (UO
66-876 66°87 1 ts ~ 97:2
, 64°7 1b % ie 32620°3
63:988 | 64-00 1 64-0 lb a 2 27°8
63-667 | 63°69 3 35 : 31:2
| 63°24. In 0°86 ; 35°9
60-385 60°40 3 Z 66:2
58°748 58-76 2 3 83:7
57:36 1 98:7
57-206 57°27 In 32700°0
56-715 56°73 l 5 3 05°5
. 55:7 1b ? Be 16:4
54-914 54-93 l bs Ree 24:8
52-026 | 52-02 I | 94 55°8
50°204 | 50-20 2 3 75°3
49-661 49-63 4 - 81:3
48:970 | 48-92 3 35 88°8
48-384 48:35 In F 95:0
46:058 46-05 2 - 3 32820-0
44:87 im: 0 ees he 32-7
44-033 | 44-01 1 in os 41:9
| 42:56 In oh 57°6
42-147 4216 3 s 62:1
41-095 41-06 1 . 73°7
40°858 40:80 1 es 76°4
40°570 40:57 l es - 79°2
ae 39-9 In x os ae
fe » | 32910"
sra07 | oi aa | asetel 12:3
36-401 36°36 1 Be 245
/ | _ 32°88 1 |. a i 62-6
30-401 | 3038 | 1 |; Sis 2, | ae
29-648 | 29°65 | J . 97:7
28-895 28°87 2 33006+1
28-51 1 os 10:1
27-608 27-6 iidee | | {ea i | 20-0

:

ee si cha al i el ba

y

ra

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS,

TANTALUM—continued.

Arc Spectrum

le

ane Spectra

| Reduction to

a itera 2 i ie ee x. Vacuum
Wave-length ; Wave: lanath ;
eee ee? Fat
Riitten and | Exner and | ae | Exner and ee q { is
Morsch Haschek Cheimever Haschek Character, A * fear
3025-280 3025°26 2 | 0°86 | 9°5
3024:85 ny 1) a
24-388 24°36 Teen 5 eas ”
24°21 1 | “A ”
22-90 In ” | ”
22°40 1 0°85 | ”
21-187 1 | ae dal ae
20-761 1 FR f
20-619 1 | s
19-779 19-76 | {See ;
16°473 16°49 ul a ;
12°653 12°62 5 12°65 In PS a
11-989 12-00 4 5 Fi
il: 230 ap Ea | 3 ” ”
10°952 10°92 2 » ”
06-680 06°63 1 7 ”
05-10 In | .” ”
05:024 05:04 1 ai cf
04-246 04°26 1 ss »
02:10 1 ” ”
01:657 01°65 1 an %
01:25 1 ”
01-060 np
2999-48 1 2994-90 1 Silene
2994-559 E> 110-0
91-358 91°34 1 ‘ 5 | ss
90- 5 2 | ” | ”
89-612 89°56 2 lees [aber ©
89-164 89:15 1 : ”
88: 694 88°65 2 > ”
86-928 86°89 2 2 ”
86°52 1 ” 2
86°165 Sete hateas
84-469 84°45 1 mantel vise
81°325 81°32 1 ‘ ‘ . 0°84 7
80°8 | ” >
80-02 1 pet ;
Potoh ce WP os
78°871 78°85 2 Roeeee
78°305 78°27 1 - : 9
tiie Phd 39
76896 76°86 1 | = ”
76-382 76°31 1 Hfeara3 ,
76°21 1 ” ”
75°678 75°66 2 hesciss >
74:67 1 ; 5 ears >
74:2 Z 99 ”
73°358 : PP ”
72-20 9° os
70:026 70:00 1 . 9°7
'69°582 69°58 2 ” ”
68°40 din ” >
66-041 66:03 2 ” ”
65-669 65°66 3 SO ee
65-284 e526 | 4 |

143

in Vacuo

rs
33045° 4
50°0
55-2,
57:0
Wi3
76°8
90°1
94-7
96°3
33105°6
41°7
84:0
ae
99-6
| 33202°8
50°0
67°3
68:0
76-6
33300°5
05°5
10°0
12:1
30°2
82°4
33420°1
30:2
39°S
44:6
50:1
69°8
74:2
78-2
97-3
33532°6
37°8
ps lay-2
56°6
60°3
66-7

|
33607 6

Oscillation |
_| Frequency

|

144 — REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

_ TANTALUM—continued.

Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Redubtion
E, av: ; Vacuum : 5
“ = Oscillation
: ieee cs aa Intensity ipve-lbueie Tox heresy |e ae ce |
Riitten and Exner and an | Exner and a de pepe
Morsch Haschek Cae Haschek (Bbanacter Me | ALM
| | |
2964-033 2964-04 1 ) | 0-84) 9:7 | 33728-
63-440 63:43 | 3 jhe # 34:9
63-190 63:19 | 1 aS < 37-7
57-994 58:00 1 53 : 96-9
57°720 B72 1+ oo ices. “ 33801°1
56-974 57:00 In 2956-98 a is 9 08°5
55-583 55°56 | 1 | ieee 53 24-7
54-060 ie. ai |. 2 42-0
53°683 53:65 | 3 , e 46°5
53:120 53-10 2 3 52:9
52-034 52:05 | 3 legs f 65°2
1 5101 3. ell re Pr 77-0
47-028 47-01 2 47-00 1 a Ke 33923-0
46-0 Ib ‘ a 34:6
45:80 1 Mf a 36:9
43:89 1 (he 9:8 58-9
42-249 42:25 2 | 0°83 | 55 77:8
41-656 41°68 In 4161 San ee 5 84:7
} al 41:48 1 id 2 86:7
40326 40°31 3 a » | 34000°1
40:223 40-20 2 a o 01°3
39-384 39-36 2 i * 111
38°541 38-56 1 a A 20:6
34-960 34-95 1 - een 62:3
33-666 33-67 3 z ah 77-2
32-798 32-79 2 #5 Me 87:4
31:55 1 hae 3 34101°8
S10) a) ° s 07-1
27-91 3 a Sonn 44-2
26-569 26-55 1 x ot 60-0
25°769 25°75 | 1 ms — 69-3
25-334 25-32) 3 x «i 74:4
22-97 In 5 | gp se B4202:0
19-098 19-06 1 19-07 1 ‘3 9-9 47°5
17-217 17-21 1 17-18 i 53 5 69-2
15-605 15°57 2 - a a 88-5
15-449 15-44 2 _ G 90-2
15-06 1 . 94-7
14-240 14-22 2 = 34304:5
13-560 13°56 la % vi 125
13°45 In i : 13°8
11:88 9 ¥, 4 32:2
10°71 2 fs A 46:0
09-024 09-02 2 09-05 In :; ve 65'8
| | 08-39 2 3 sh 734
05:354 05°35 or 05:40 1 nn ee 34409°3
04-193 04:20 eae Hy O82 oe 23:0
02-131 02°17 Saal ie Bt | 47:3
01°159 01-18 il | a a 58:9
00:858 00-88 lta. #4 w Pear 62°5
00-473 00-48 Ope Obl Seagal sake 69-2
2899-154 2899-16 2 | 2899-39 2 9 | 81-9
98-512 98-54 1 | | il later 90°4
= i 97-94 2 2 ss 97-4
95-209 | 95-22 ] | 10-0

34529°8

WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

TANTALUM—continued.

Are Spectrum

Wave-length
| Riitten and Exner and
Morsch Haschek
| 2894-275 2894-28
| 92-07
91-954 91-95
91-148 91°15
90-414 | 90°40
89-485 89-48
|
85526 | 85°52
82-444 | 82:45
81343 | 81°34
80123 80°12
719°847 79°85
| 79°60
) 79°18
79:06
17°795 TTT
76-224 76:20
75-023
74-652 74-60
74:277 74:26
73-666 73°67
73-466 73°47
72-929
71-522 71°51
68°759 68°74
67-48
66-26
65°44
64-609 64-60
62-116 62°10
61-223 61-22
60°999 61:01
58-542 58-54
57-386 57°37
56°81
52°46
51-090 51-09
50-597 50°59
49-935 49-90
48-630 48°58
43/159 Ky 48-14
46-934 Ky 46°85
| 45457 45:44
44°859 44-85
44-561 44°55
44347 | 44°34
1908,

Intensity

Wave-length |

and

Character Exner and

Haschek

2890-47

be CO
|
_—
yy
5

88-96 1
83:31 | 3
81-9
. 8089 1

mee bo bet C1 0 et he DO bbe
or
(2)
or
“I

i=]

role bo
~
i
x
KX
to

Spark Spectrum

Intensity] —
| and

il A+

Reduction to |

Vacuum

145

|

Oscillation |

Frequency
in Vacuo

i}

146 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

TaNt TALUM—continued.

Are Spectrum Spark Gnathan: shi Radaution to |
: Vacuum | Oscillation
Wave-length Bacay) ‘|Swave: lenges oe : | Frequency
(Rittten and |G a4 and E a | ond raters ce nal i_ el
utten ani xner an xner an
Morsch | Haschek pra Haschek lpciaaeas Riel | Nee?
9842-914 2842-91 2 2842-73 ey 081 | 102 35165:8
| 41°25 2 ” ” 85°6
40°526 40:50 1 40:5 In iy . 94:7
38-36 1 | 38-3 lb ‘3 es 35221°4
38-051 38-04 if | is y 25'3
| 35-20 1 zi x 60-7
34-515 34-50 1 és - 693
33-744 33-74 2 33°3 1b as % 73:3
32-807 32°81 ie.) be y 90:5 |
29-90 we | a re 35326°7 |
28-679 28-68 Cre 28°63 1 = 3 49:2 |
27:70 td. } 27°6 In a: a3 54:2
27-272 27°26 1 3 3 59°6
7” | ” 61:1
26-339 2629 | 1 2715 | 1 | Sf pee
24-945 | 24-92 | 1 0-380, 89-0
22-155 yo el a | » | 103 | 35423-2
19-464 19:46 | 1 2%, weal 575
17°818 17°59 | : | BIO
17°195 17:17 2 17:16 2 ay ih 85:9 |
| | 16-80 1 ‘ .. a?
15°214 15:20) |= 1 3 Pe | 355111
15-097 1513 | 1 M4 bial 123
14900 14:90 | 1 | 5 el 14:9
14:40 1 | 14-42)| te ¥ al 21°1
| 11:83 1 # 5 53:7
11-015 11-03 1 : 10-99 1 x 64:1
06-677 06°68 2 a Es 35619-0
06-403 06°40 2 45 “s 22°4
04-950 1 * 4 41:0
03-9 In a ic 54
02-82 3 Me *| pee ua, 68°1
02-166 O21) We 42 02:1 =| 1a Pb.) can jee 76:3 |
10-259 st M 88-0
00-691 0066 1 ef HH 95-4 |
2798-493 | 279850 | 1 " 10-4 | 35723°1 |
97-858 97°87 3 eer den 31:2 |
96-658 9666 1 | hy] 46:5 |
96-435 96-45 2 ccna epee | 49-3
95°65 | 4 Mg?) ,. af 595
93-98 1 O22 |. ol iS 3 804
95-008 pa | " 33 67-6
93-15 1 re e 915
92-081 £1 ~ x 35805:2
91-90 1 2 e 07:5
91-763 91:30 | 1 it sf 08-9
91-475 91:49 | 2 91-49 1 < ~ 12:8
90-806 90°83 eee | sake sane 21:4
89:838 | - A et 34:0
88-388 | 88-40 1 ie 3 a 52:5
87-789 | S779n irs | 95 a 60:3
86:89 | 1 | ees FY 71-9
85-073 85-06 2 | 85:06 | 1 | o79' | 45 | 95-4
51-448 81-49 1 3 a 359418
so46 1 a 1 9087 1-3 aia bss 54-0

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, 147

Are Spectrum

TANTALUM—continued.

Spark Spectrum

Wave-length

Riitten and
Morsch

2779-180

75-968
75°475
75222

74984

61-769
58-403

52-598
52-410

49-946
48-883
47-366
46°778

43-695
42-508
41-270

39-368
37-429
36-350

33°094
32-079

27-872
27-549

21-916
~~ 20°984
20844

19119
18-478

{

Exner and
Haschek

2779-20

75°99
75°46
75°22

75°00
68-17

63°46
61:78
59°16
58-40
52°60
52°40
50°42
49-90
48°85
47°22
46°87
46-76

43°65
41°25
39°35

36°32
35°34

33°00
32°15
27°85
27°51
25°52

21°91
20°84

18°45

|
|

Intensity
an
Character Bence

1

2

1

1 2875-20
71:9
71:50

In 68°24
66°05
65°43
63°75

2 63°50

3 |

1 59-1
58°9

2 58°45
54°67
53°17

3 52°59

1

In 50°5

2 49-93

2 48°89

1

In

1

2745°85
45°40
45°07

1

1

1
40°31

2 39°34

1

1 35°34
33°37

In

In
30°45

2

5:

In 25°55
23°98
23°77
22-12

1
21-03

2
20°4
20-0
19°12

I {

/ 17-74

Wave-length

Intensity
and
Character

in
In

os

Reduction to |

Vacuum
ee
A+ Xr
0-79 | 10°4
” ”
PP 10°5
’ 78
3° >
i! +
, oa
> ”
A »
39 ”
“ a
- :
% A
ce ~
i} 39
5 An
> ””
“ a
bs 10°6
:
43
4
i
-
:
+
0-78 :
” >
9? ”
“6 -
: ;
j
+
9
>

| Oscillation
| Frequency

in Vacuo

36012°9
19°5

36520-0
34:6

|

859713 |

148 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

TANTALUM—continued.

Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum

Reduction to
Vacuum E 2
Wave-length Wave-length Oscillation
ft Intensity Intensity |— —_—__>_ = Frequency
| Riitten and Exner and an Exner and and i gl =i in Vacuo
Morsch | Haschek mannan Haschek Character) Af A
: | ae |

| | 2717-43 | In | 0-78 | 10-7 | 36788-8
2717-269 | 2717-25 2 | LS eo eae 911
| 16°75 2 ” ” 98:0

| 16-00 1 Me » | 36808-1

15-45 1 “ post 15°6

14-756 14-75 3 14-80 1 53 . 24:8
10°88 I 5 5 TUT

10-213 10:22 2 10-28 1 3 3 86-4
09-363 09:36 2 09-38 2 55 5 98-3
07:99 1 5 5s 36917°1

06-773 06-78 | 2 » mi) | (eda6
06-58 1 ” ” 36°3

04-396 04-40 1 04-44 | #1 * 5 65°9
03-141 03-16 1 es 10°8 83:1
: 02:89 1 023 | In 3 » 86-6
02-64 1 ca Paty 90-1

02°31 1 ” ” 94-6

00-28 l - » | 370224

2699-00 1 eri | | 40-0

2698-376 2698-37 2 98-4 | In e en 48°6
97:21 | 3 i = 64:5

96:390 | 96-90 1 = s 68:9
| 95:85 | 1 95-7 | Ib iz as 83-2

95-60 2 | % e 86:7

94-836 fs x 97-2
94-603 | | | 94:63 | 2 : - 37100°3
93-434 | 93-46 | 1 im 5 16-3
92-475 | 92-49 aa ee ; ; , as
91-376 91-40 2 | . ‘ 44-7
89-35 1 BOs cH eae 6 « 72:7

8650 1 - » | 37212°3

85-235 | 85-24 4 85:25 3 ad . 29°8
$4:343 | 84:37 2 84-40 1 5 - 41:9
949 81-99 i - i 5:2
30-726 80°79 2 80°75 1 sell oy $21
807130 | 80-17 2 a0'17~|. 2 % 37300°5
| Tee" ls sah 109 19-2

77:30 | 1 sx elt Pick 33:2

15954 | 75°90 3 7599 | 3 coment Wie 58°6
ToTO8 2 | 90-4

72-6l wip ol 7261 | 1Mni| ,, cs 37405°7

| 7204 wie 2 cut a | sy

71-696 T1i5* |] | 55 Fs oe
| | 71:40 | Uf ” ” 22

| 69°70 1 6965 . as 46:8

68°675 | 68-72 2 68°69 | 1 ” ” 60°6
68°130 | 68°18 1 * + 68:2
/ 67°86 1 °: " 72:3

| 67-40 1 f § 78:8

| | 67-20 In sf 81:6

65°70 ear, 65-68 1 55 - 37503°8

65°34 1 a aN. Ba 07:8

64:31 1 SY he 22-3

68 1 ede ila 30-1

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

TANTALUM —continued.

149

Are Spectrum

| Riitten and
Morsch

2662-164
61-932
61-402

57°300
56°651

53°356

47:560
46°862
46°439
46-280

43-941

36°965
36°742
36°131
35650

33°595

24-180

15-745
15°564

11:426
09-092
08-711
08-258

Wave-length

| Exner and

Haschek

2662°18
61-99
61°45
59°51
58°96

57-40
56-69

53°36
51°34
47°56
46°88
46°45
46°32
45-20
44:67
43°97

38°76

36°99
36°75
36:02
35°66

30°63

25°56
24:23

15°77
15°56
15°38

12°74
11°46
09°10
08-71
08°33
07°95

Spark Spectrum

Reduction to

Intensity
and

Cobo & Oe Se Dee

=]

i=]

Be eee

—_

Ls Wwe bb

—
~
i=)

[alll aol

Character

| Wave-length | ’
|e ete | Intensity)

Exner and
Haschek

2663°20

61°42
59°48
58°93
58°16

56°65
56°16
54°50
53°35
51:27
47°55

46°34
45°17
44°65

42°32
41°13
38°70
38:20
38°05
36-98

35°64
33°86
33°25
32°62
32°37
30°65
28:9

27°51

23°08
20°53

14-2
12°72

09-08
08-72

07:93
06°55
06:26
05:19
04:90
04°65

and

|

|

Character;

In

iow

ee
—

Vacuum
|
ete m7
0-77 10:9
”? ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
”” ”
PY}
”» ”
” ”
” 39
0-76 =11°0
9 ”
”° ”
” ”
LE) ”
” ”
9? ”
” %9
” ”
” ”
9° ?
> ”
99 ”
” 29
3”) ”
”> bed
3”? 3°
”? 29
” 9?
99 2”
> ”
” 33
” LB]
4 111
”? +P]
”? 39
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”?
” ”
” ”
” >
” ”
” ”
” ’
0-75

11-2

Oscillation

_| Frequency

in Vacuo |
37537°
52-4

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

TANTALUM—continued.

Spark Spectrum

Are Spectrum
Wave-length | ?
baad ____|Intensity
Riitten and | Exner and pad a
| Morsch Haschek |Charactex
2603°95 1
2603585 03°60 2
02°476 02°49 1
01°150 01:16 1
00-84 1
00-210 00°25 1
2599-478 a
96-718
| 2596°55 2
96°23 1
95:68 2
95°337 95°36 2
94°35 2 |
93°645 93-80 2 Mn |
93-172 93°20 2 |
|
| 89°89 1
| 85-99 In
85°75 in
84:810 | 84°82 if
84°61 1
84°15 1
80-262 80°27 1
79-713 79°75 1
77°876 - 77°90 1
77°456 77°46 2 |
75°598 75°57 I
74511 74°50 il
73°882 73°91 ]
73°637 73°66 i |
71°562 71:61 il
| 69°24 1
63°82 | 1
| 62°20 1
60-865 | 60°77 1
59-256 59-54 i]

Wave-lengih

Exner and
Haschek

2603:°57
03-06
01-40
01°13
00-82
00°26

2599-0

96°55
96:26
95°67
95°37
94°82
94°35
93°78

92-66
92-23
91:05
89-90
88°97

84:58
84:10
81°65
80°68

79°12
78°30

77°42
76°52
76°13

74:94

73°23
71°51
71°41
69°20
68-10
65°51
64-90

60°72
59-96
59°49

Reduction to |

cone | Oscillation
Intensity Frequency
and 1 in Vacuo
Character} A+ =——
| A
0-75 11:2 38392-
2 | ” ' ” 97-4
1 aS a 38405°1
1 ” ” 14-2
1 or x 33-4
1 2 ” 38°1
1 ” ” 46°8
> ; 58°1
lb . 1 65-1
99:0
2 e, as 38501°4
1 “ = 06-0
1 ” 2 14-4
1 ” ” 19-2
1 ” 271
1 ” ” 34-1
2 5 Be 43°71
” ” 51°4
1 9 x 59-2
nS Piss a 65°6
2 [Pies 99 83°5
A .5 es 38600°4
In 5 ss 14:2
| 99 11°3 58°6
| % 99 62:3
Ret ee 76-2
1 | 9 A 79°5
3 Pr 5 86°5
In <3 at 38725°1
1] > : 38:2
- x 44°4
” ? 52:4
1 is 61°6
1 39 ; 74:0
25 : 80-1
2 a : 86°8
1 35 : 38800°7
1 35 = 06-0
a 14°8
1 a 24°5
“5 311
:, 40°3
» < 44:0
1 Sy ; 50°3
1 ” : 75°6
1 ” ” 77-9
J 34 38911°0
1 s5°. 11-4 27°9
1 | ” ” 67°4
1 | Or74. | "5, 76°5
| 9 = 82:9
fed ae 39017°6
1 / ” | ” 39:1
1 5° ase) 51-7
] ” ” 58-4

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, 151

TANTALUM—continued.

Are Spectrum

Wave-length

| Intensity

Riitten and aon pea and
Morsch decal eae hey)
2557-80 1
56°60 1
«B63 1
55:01 I
54:73 2
51°84 1
2551-281 51:27 ‘
51°20 il
49-471 49-46 1
46-86 1
45°56 1
3803
32-23 | 1
|
| |
26°557 26-56 1
26°49 1
26°14 1
13°23 In
12-76 1
07°585 07:55 | 1
04557 04.45 | #1
0209 | 1

| Spark Spectrum
|

Wave-length |
Exner and
Haschek

| 2558°40

| 58:0

| 57°75

| 57:00

| 56°56

| 55°70

54:95
| 54:67 |
53°58 |
53°20 |
51°79
51:46

and

Character)

:
| Reduction to |

Vacuum

Intensity

Nik

1
| A

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

mr |

a DD DD eR Oe

| 0-74

”

11-4 | 390755

—
_
OU

81-6
85:1
96-9
39103°3
16°8
25°5
27°8
32°1

40014+4.

a2 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

TANTALUM—continued.

| 2s | eng eae

Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum | |
; |

Reduction to |

|
|
|

Way elaieth | | Wave-length ae Yacunas Oscillation
¥ avs Sees eed eee —_____ eeeaey,
oe an an in acuo
SHforsch | “Hascnok Coiled Tersay [Obeacter, a+ |
|
pores ee esi
249207 | 1 | 2492-22 | 1 | 0-43 | 118 | 40112°7
| 92-12 1 Pie pee re
90°58 1 90°34 1 - i 414
88-78 2 88-74 2 ie ‘ 68-8
88-23 In d 3 174 |
87-69 1 86-1
85-03 Pelt 84-98 1 id » | 40229°6 |
| Ree). in| |! ene 475
| 83:35 | In aes 56-4 |
aes aon ae 79°7 |
80-00 ,) une » 40310-8
78°33 |) ae 38-0
| Mae |e i |. Bes
76-76 1 | 76°71 1 Se pe kG 63-8
| 75°36 1 & - 86-2
74°71 — “ f 96:9
7320 | 1 | 73°17 1 - » | 40421°8
| 73°0 In 3 me 25°
71-01 2 |e [es 2 57-4
| 70-95 2 a _ 58:3
| 69-43 1 0-72 | 3 83-3
| 68-45 Dh 2 99°3
67°45 In | 67-41 1 = » | 405161
67-09 1 63°85 1 Z sol. ee
621 | In ip = 03:8
61:08 | In r 20-7
60-03 | Sa ape 12) 37-9 |
58°17 aa We Z 68-1
57-55 Qnr |. - 78-9
54:70 | In 5 3] 40726°2
53-97 In Je 38-3
| 51-90 1 pm eet 72-7 |
50°4 In Bs reas | 97-7
4950 | 1 perl oo | OBL
| 44:7 2n i rial 92°38
44-20 | In 44-19 1 3 » 40901°3
| 43-90 1 » | 1211 O61
43-45 1 4 » | a6
42°74 1 8 » | S65
42-29 oe oy | eae
41:90 | 1 is ie 39-6
41-40 1 ‘5 2 48-0
40:10 1 ‘a i 69°8
39:87 1 is if 15°7
38-73 In if a 92:8
38-23 1 % » | 41001-2
37-80 In . = 08-5
37-48 ln 2 pres 13°9
/ 36-56 1 re It ee 29-4
36-00 1 ugha ee 38-8
35-2 2b ee 52:3
33°86 1 . e. 74:9
33-65 In | 33°63 1 a 78-6
32775" ee 3275 {| 2 = Pa 93°6
S1°11..2l alee eae | 411214

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 153

TANTALUM—continued.

Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum Bedaation ko any
s Vacuum Oscillation |
mem hee ese ig gd aoe Intensity Frequency |
0 SI. an retry aes | in Vacuo
Riitten and Exner and Exner and , 1
Morsch Haschek Parra Haschek tailed Bal | Ny 4
a = -_ S| Sa ee | eee
24303 | In | 0-72 | 121 | 411351 |
2429-74 I 29°75 1 lees «| 44:5 |
OAD V jin (aa s ie 48°3 |
. 28:08 | 1 a 12-2 72°6
/ | 27:70 1 | ne x 79:0
26°92 In Ss Eee | 92°3
| 25-98" 1 _ = 41208°2
23-55 Be Siac ses | 49°6
21:96 2 | O-71 Saal 76°7
18-78 2 “i », | 413509
| | 17°94 1 > es 45°3
17°40 1 3 54°6
| 16-99 1 17-02 2n : Bye eat
| 16:27 1 3 s i3°9
15:28 1 15°30 1 ; » 90°7
| 14-58 In ; » | 414029
14-01 In ; 12°6
12°56 1 ; 12:3 37-4 |
| 08°33 1 7 41510°3 |
| 05-97 1 = 51:0
05-44 1 6071 |
03:77 1 % ; 89-0
02°23 1 02°22 1 be - 416146 |
00:71 2 00-70 3 ‘A 3 42:1
. 00-02 1 f FA 54:0
2398-58 1 s 79:0
89°62 1 » | 12-4 | 41835°3 |
89:18 1 0 Be Be 42°6
88-4 Tbe a 56°6
87:59 1 is 3 70°8
2387°17 1 87°16 3 ; 78°3
| 84-43 1 : Be 41926°3
| 83°82 1 | 93 3771
| 81:63 In 81-66 2 12°5 753
81:26 In 81:24 2 Es 82-2
78°40 lly, Bk a 42032°6
76°49 2 | aise ae 66-4
74-03 In | 0-70 | ,, | 421100
| 72°86 In | s 3 30°7
71-12 1 i Pes 61-7
70°88 1 53 ns 65-9
| 70°05 In 55 Be 80°7
69°40 1 a = 92°3
67°33 line =] 12°6 | 42222-1
65°29 1 , . 65°6
64:34 1 64°35 | 2 3 $2°4
57:02 1 ae 42414-2
56°15 1 a i 29°5
55°67 1 38°2
54:10 | 1 + ) 1237 66-4
53°92 J ” ” 69°6 |
52-98 1 7. 3 86-6 |
52°48 ] ch 95°6
| 52:07 1 55 ok 425030
49:33 | In Fs 5 52-6

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

TANTALUM—continued.

Are Spectrum

Wave-length

Intensity

| Riitten and
Morsch

Exner and au
Edaohek Character

Exner and

Haschek

Wave-length ;
Intensity

2332°30 1
32°14 1

2347-09
46-60
46°15
43°7
42-62
41°73
41-02
40°13
38°73
38°3
35°83
34:97
34-22
32°22
32°10
24°35
24°22
24:07
19-20
16°16
15°54
14-98
13°40
12°73
11°30
09°35
08°61
04:88
03°58
03-00
02°32
02-20
01-57
00-92
00°42

2299-06
98-20
96-90
95-80
92°65
92-28
90-49
89°25
87°36
85°35
85:10
84:48
83°25
83°10
82-26
81-61
80°60
75°74
75°28

74:25

an
Character

el

WM el ea OS Mee dN

5

Ll cel el cell el el SS el el el |

i
6B

_
5

Spark Spectrum

Vacuum

eal

Act ehee
/ | A

(=>)
1
oO
—_
~ bb
i

| Reduction to

|
|

Oscillation
Frequency

in Vacuo

425932

— 42602-1

10:3

|

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, 155

| Are Spectrum

Spark Spectrum

TANTALUM—continued.

| Wave Length

Riitten and
Morsch

Exner and
Haschek

| Intensity
| ani |
\Character

aschek
2273°73
72°70
71°95
71-03
70-28
69°67
69:30
65°67
62°39
61:70
61-50
60°65
59-65
58°78
56°57
558
52:31
50°85

Wave-length

Intensity
| and
ae and Character »+

n
D
n

2
n

n

1
1
1
J
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
In
]

n
n

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1b
iL
1

1
In
1

0-68

Reduction to
Vacuum

Oscillation

__ Frequency |
in Vacuo |

13°3

~

~

43967°3
87-2

79°3
45799°8

156

Are Spectrum

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

ZIRCONIUM.

Exner and Haschek, ‘ Sitzungsb. kais. Akad. Wiss. Wien,’ cvii. Abth. Ila. p. 825.
Exner and Haschek, ‘ Wellenlingen Tabellen der Bogensp. der Elemente.’

Rowland and Harrison, ‘Astroph. J.,’ vii. p. 376 (1898).
Demarcay, ‘ Spectres Electriques’ (1895).
Lohse, ‘ Astroph. J.,’ vi. p. 112 (1897).

Spark Spectrum

Wayvye-length

Wave-length Inten-
of ae sity
Rowland | Exner a Exner
and and eaeter and
Harrison | Haschek | Haschek
4934-236 | 1
4806-047 1
4788°853 1
85-094 1
72-489 2
62-947 1
39°651 ul
32:507 1
19-291 In
17-795 In
12-087 1
10-252 3
07-954 In
4688-625 | 4688-63 | 5
87-975 88:00 9
84-44 | 1
83-596 23°62 2
67-318 67°34 In
61-962 In
59-70 1
57-799 57°83 | 2
44-986 45:00 | 2n | 4645-01
40-294 40°30 In 40°31
38°05
34:87
34:143 34:17 8 34:20
29°227 1 29°33
27:90
26°60 | 3 26°62
25°60
22-90

Lohse

4633°91
29°12

| 26°42

21°53

Inten-
sity
and

Cha-
racter

OWS FPONNNNWwANWNW wh

whe

5

a

eed lad

=|

Reduction to

Vacuum
Aa ee
A
1:35: | 5:6
1°33 | 5:7
1°32 r
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
1:31 30
”> >
*p 5°8
1:30 55
” ”
” 9
” ”
1°29 Bs
” ”
” >
> ”
> ”
95. of D9
” eed

Oscillation |
Frequency
in Vacuo

20261-0

55°
213223
25-2
24°
41-4
45:2
21419-6
40°
44-2
54°7
63-4
21520-
22-7
41:
44-4
54-9
69-6
73/1
93°
95-9
216021
05:
08-4
128
23-4
31-9

et CR

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Are Spectrum

Inten-

In

In

to

oo Or

Wave-length |
Rowland | Exner
and and
Harrison | Haschek |
:

4614-096 |
| 4610-27
09-40 |
| ,
| 04-60
'
4590°691 4590-72
| 90°34 |
| 94-41 |
82-449 82-49
| | 76°38 |
75-69
74-646
65°599 65-64
62-30
58-87
58186 58-22
55670 55°70
55°30
|
54-185 .
54-111 )
53153 «53-19 |
50-271
43-261 42-40
40°17
| |
35-90

35'887

ZLRCONIUM—continued.

Spark Spectrum

Wave-length
Exner lp :
and | omar: Lohse
Haschek | gay
4621-0
4620-10 |
| 15:0
14:20 | 4614-07 |
13°55 |
10°30 |
10-00 |
09°45 | 09°8
09°32 |
04°59 04:9 04°49
02°80 = 03°3 02°70
02°20
4596°39
4590-73 | 4591:1 90°66
90°35
85:9
85°13
84°44 |
84-1
82°50 82°2 82°50
76°37 |
1578 75:8 (ae:
74:78 | 74:78
zee 72°24
70:9
65°70 | 65°5 65°64
64:0 | 64:04
62°33 62°35
58°90 |
58°25 | 58°23
56°46 |
55:74 | 55:63
55°30 55:3 55°30
54:29 54°24
53°9
53°25 53°23
52°58
50°9
50°2
49°81*;
48-98*
48:1 |
44-89*
42°49 42°4 42°37
40°19 40°11
38:9
37°8 |
36:00 = 35°6 35°98 |
| 35:00*
33-88 3419 |

CO Oe

Inten-
sity |
and |
Cha-

| racter

‘=|

=
=)

B

=]

Vacuum
la
RE eS
| A
|
129) je
” ”>
” ”>
» ’
. ae
” ”
” ”
1:26 | 6:0
”” >
” >
’ ””
” ”>
> ”
”»
”
os
9) 3
” ”
>) ”
9 ”
12855 se
” ”
s? 3”?
’ 9
’ >
”> ”
5 6-1
> >
“5 5:
”» ”
33
3’?
”>
“n
”
a
»
”> ,
”
” >
”
7
”
1:24

* Titanium 4549°80, 4548-98, 4544°88, 4534-95.

1

o7

| Reduction to |

Oscillation |

Frequency

| in Vacuo

{

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

ZIRCONIUM—continued.

Are Spectrum

Wave-length

Exner

and
Haschek

Rowland
and
Harrison

|

4526-275
4524-11
» 23°31

07-260 07-32 /

4497-149 4497-16
5-598 |
| 95-14
94-560 |
91°74
90-402
85°57
82-180
80:95
70-698 70-72.
70-461 70°46 |
69-664
68-95
68-364 68:38
67-054 | 67-07
61°37

| Spark Spectrum
= x ee ee ——| Reduction to
| Vacuum
Inten Wave-length Inten-
sity | ne sity,
Cha Exner Demar. | ot r | 1
racter | Beane cay | Lohse racter i | A
| 4533-4 4533-48 | In | 1:24 61
| 31°35 2 ” | ”
| 28:2 | In ” ,
/ leeks Pig e a S
In 26°32 | 26°33 | ath ss 6
1 24°10 | 1 | ie ”
1 23°33 | | 1 | ” ”
2°17 | 23-00%), i ae a
| 2 | ” i ”
22°2 | In | ” ”
| 20°49 2 a's ”
| 19°10 | 1 honey 5
| | 18:26*|" 2 ees “S
16-03 1 ” ”
15°62 | 1 ” ”
13-56 ing No yy 99
13:08 | fe D298 good eestor ”
7 07:39 4507-2 | 07:33 | 3 5% he
04:3! | 04:23 | In 1:23 5
04:07 |. In 35 a
01:7 | Ib “ ”
01:47* 2 ” ”
00:9 | | In . ”
4499-2 | | Ib 7 Stee
5 | 97:27 4497-3 | 4497-22 | OF | eee ses
1 95°76 | 95-69. |. 2 ri a
1 5 “~
3 94:78 94:8 94:75 | 8 on »
1 | 91°78 +O) EY frm ” >
In | 90°47 90°53 | In 3 »
| 89°38 | 2 ” ”
| 88°55 2 ’ ”
Thole piers 's)=7 fil 86:2 85:76 2 ” »
84-4Pt? 84:45 | 2n ”
82:72 | 82°56) 1 3
In 82-28 | | 2 ” ”
| { 81:7 §1:°58 | 2 ” oe
J | 81:00 | 80:95 | 1 os AS
| 78-66 (ees | 3 +:
| ‘75:48 [taped a 4.
| a | 8 SS gh eee
4 70°80 | 70°72 5 =p am
2 = S10:b2 2 o5) i seas
In | 69°75 69°70 In Fg sac
2 | 68°98 1 1-22 =
| | 68°69 & ” Se
2 68°42 | Reef > ”
3 67:12 | 67-1 67°13:|. 2 os ne
66-62 } : | 1 ” 2
| 64:35 | | 1 , mf
8 | (61:50! °61:2 6144! 5 | ¥

* Titanium 4523°00, 4518-25, 4501-46,

Oscillation
|Frequency
in Vacuo

o
~_

_

te el

a ee ee

——

(MATTIAS

ie tld

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 159
ZIRCONIUM—continued.
Arc Spectrum Spark Spectrum |
— —— ——- | Reduction to
| Vacuum ahha
Wave-length Inten- Wavye-length Inten- | Oscillation
_ Se sity _| sity, ______—s| Frequency
Rowland | Exner ~ Exner aoe 1 re Ate
aod | and ee \ ana |Demar-| yohse |VO8 | A+ oa
Harrison | Haschek ater Haschek ‘%°Y ee | “
_ o> ca | eee | ha =
4460-930 | 1 | 1:22! 6:2 | 22410-7
60°495 | 4460-52 3 4460-57 | 4460°57 2 + | 12°6 |
59°19 | 2 59-22 | | 1 15, ylot ARES 19°4
58:04 1 | | | one iN ees 25:2
57562 57:58 | 4 dT71 4457-5 | 5766 5 (deere oe ae 27°3
56°438 56°44 | 2 56°50 | 56°50-} 2 =| (Ch 2 3371
55°574 = 5560 | 2 5564 | be LOO COO AN uel: 2 5s bs 374
54-939 54:97 5 55:08: | -552I- |). 5500+) 3Ca?! © ,, . 40°5
| ) 53°89% 0.5 sibel aes 46:1
53°52*| 2 Fr, 48:0
5L-12*| 2 er a 60°1
50°46 3 50°49 50°6 50°49 | 2 gi: 63°3
49°10 1 49-14 49°31 | 2 ” 5 69°8
48:18 1 if “a 74:9
| 47-34 | In i x, 79:2
| 46:59 1 “5 ae 82:9
44°74 1 ”» ” 92°3
| 44-46*| 1 44:53 her ll * 5 93°5
H 43°98 | 2 él 3 96°1
43°17 5 43°31 43°4 43°25 | 10 ” ” 99°9
| 42°67 1 42-70 | 1 ech yee 22502-7
40°60 | 3 40°80 406 | 40°72) 5 ” » 12°8
38°19 3 38°23 38°33 | 2 Oe el ek 25°2
37°8P \t? td eA 27°5
36910 | 36:89] In 36-94. | 37:09 | 1 Sea 318
36°55 ela! ao Lars 33°8
35-986 36°00 In 36°16 | 1 sat anions 36-4
35°7 In eral ae 38-2
31:629 31:63 | 4 31°70 31:9 31:74 | 3 a3 6°3 58°5
31:25 1 31:30 1 Pr ” 60°6
30°1P t? 1 1:21 a 66°5
29°55 DOs oie Nag dite = INE has 5 69°4
29245 | 29:24 | 2 29-28 29°34 | 2Call _,, 70'8
27°383 | 27°42 3 27°44 27°5 BiceAG | Sse sk 3 80-2
| 2672641, Im? |% ,, a 86-1
22°97 | 1 a5 2A 22602°9
21:22 1 i . 11°8
20°598 | 20°61 4 20°70 | 20-4 20°65 | 3 = i 14:9
19°50 I rp a 20°7
18°40 1 $5 . 26°3
17:6 2n ska tied: 30°4
16-10 1 oes rane 38-1
14675 1470) 3 14:80 14°75 | 4r sorerntieys 45:1
14-449 14-29 2n 14:37 14:4 | Ae - ss 47:0
13-20 | 4 13-28 | 13:0 | 13:24) 3 * 52°8
12°10 1 12°15 1 + 5 58°5
11°78 1 11°83 11-6 ec ; ; 60:2
09°79 | 1 09:82 bet € 4 70-4
; 08°54 | 4 08°50 hI Varo, 17:0
04:98 |. sf < 95:3
03-482 03°50! 2n 03°67 03°63 | 5 ” 3» | 22702°6 ;

* Titanium 445391, 4453-52, 4451-53, 4444-0, 4426-20.

160

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

ZIRCONIUM—continued,

Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum
Wave-length athens Wave-length
hiefel sity E
Rowland | Exner eee Exner |
and and | ee and Demar- | Lohse
Harrison | Haschek | |Haschek| $®Y
|4403°13 | 2 | 4403:16 | 4403°3 |
4401-491 | 0152) 1 | 01°57 4401°54
|} 0104 | 1 | O1-10 |
00375 | 0040) 3 | 00-45 00:42
439960 1 | 4399-62 4399-7
| 97-2
95:40 | 3 | 95:42 |
| | 4395:22*
4395076 | 95:10, 3 95-14 |
94:67 | 2 94:73
91-7 | 91-12
| 90°68
| 90:33) 1 90:36 |
89:756 | 89°75; In 89°81 | §9-72
88:65 | 1 88:72
86°63 | 1 86-70
84:53
| 844
| 83:35 |
| 83-20 |
79:909 | 79:°91' 7 | 8012] 80-1! 79-98
715°7
73-213 | 73°26) 2 73:28 73:27
e7270red 72°73
71-0889) “71-14 (6 oemaT | FE Fe ty
| 68-7
| 68-1 |
66°581 | 66:63, 5 66°69 | 66:8 | 66-63
| | 64°50
| | 64°30
6214 1 62-19 :
| 61:00) 5 61-01 60°9 61:07
60-437 | 4
59862 | 59°91 7 | 60:05! 602) 60-01
Bi 59°47 | 1
58880 | 58°92 3 58:95 | 59:01
| | 56-6 |
| 55:7
54:08 | L | 5408 | S44 |
| 50°71 |
49:09 | 2 | 49-10
48019 | 45:03 Sr | 4815 | 48-3 8:22
47°53 | 47-47
47-479 | 47-42’) Qn 47-42
47°359 l
46651 | 46:67 | 2 46°70 46°81
| ~45:90
4571 | 1 45:69 |
| 46°13 | dias } | 45°32
43527 | 43551 In | 48-59 | 43-69

* Titanium 4396°19,

Reduction to
Vacuum
Inten- Oscillation
Siby, —/MaUeh testi’ Frequency
and in Vacuo
Cha- 1
racter | A+ | iy
1’ | 1-21 | 68° | 22704-7
2 ” ” 131
hee - 15°4
2 7 18-9
1 ’ ” 23:0
6 x; 35°
2 ; 44-7
5 ’ » 45°7
2 S : 46°3
I | ” ” 48°4
2Th?) 1:20 < 66°9
Oey Naat “ 69:2
ae ae as 71-0
2 | ”° 9) 74:0
2 * a 796
1 = a 90°1
In : is 22801:2
In us 01°8
1 4 “e 07°3
1 ; 5 08'1
10 9) % 25°1
1b a “ 47-2
1 , ” 60:0
1 =f a 62°8
7 ” ” 70°9
hn Wee 6-4 84:
In “3 = 87:
3r : 3 94-5
In : a9 22905°7
Trey, aa - 06°8
1 =e In 18-0
3 +5 24-0
| os Pa; Oi
10Gr ” 29:2
/ ’ ” 32°1
Dh 5 ae 3 35:1
EBL lee 47:
1b 53 ‘5 52:
USS Set 5 60°6
ry | 33 78:4
L eel a 86:9
2) : 53 91:9
In ; 55 95:3
1 ; 5 956
, a 96°1
2 9 > 99°5
In ” ”? 23003°8
1 2 04:6
In ”” ” 06-4
1 16-1

ON WAVE~LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 161

ZIRCONIUM—continued.

Arc Spectrum Spark Spectrum —
— Reduction to
Vacuum pate
Wave-length Taten= Wave-length Inten Oscillation
eae sity | AY ater sity |__——=———S—S_—s| Frequency
and and in Vacuo
Rowland | Exner Cha. | Exner cane Ghat 1
and and acter neue 3 Lohse | acter| At a
Harrison | Haschek Haschek| 6°Y
4343°170 4343-20 | 2 4343-23 4343°39 2 119 | 6-4 23017°8
42°82 1 42°80 1 ” ” 20-2
42°366 42°40 In 42°42 | 42-50 2 ” » 22:2
41:258 41°31 6r 41°40 | 4341-7 41°32 4 Py =F 28-0
40°64 In 40-7 In + nf 31-7
39°70 1 39°80 39°74 3Gr?},, Ae 36-4
39°29 1 ” | ” 38°8
37°751 37°80 1 37°90 38°2 37°91 4 shy ess 41:2
36°89 1 36°87 36°9 In a S 51:7
36-473 In 36°54 36°55 | InCe?, ,, i. 53°6
36°26 1 36°30 1 » As 54:8
34:9 In % Ap 62°2
33°390 33°45 | 2 33°59 33°7 33°46 7 Slay eure 69°8
29-695 29°72 2 29°76 29°81 2 Pe ai 89-6
27°65 1 ” 5 23100°8
25°564 25:60 | 4 25°62 25°8 25°63 4 ” ” 11:8
24°156 24:20 3 24°24 24:2 24°17 2 ” ” 19:3
23°81 2 oe ar 21:3
23°15 1 23°19 1 ” ” 24°8
22°81 21a?) .,, - 26:7
22°50 1 ” % 28°4
21:63 In 21-62 1 ~ 3 33:0
21-298 21:34 | 2 21°35 21:28 2 »” . 34:7
211 1 : is 36:
20°9 In ”» » 36°9
| : 19-6 19-82 In es be 42-7
19-175 19:22 | 2 19°24 19-21 1 ” ” 46:0
17°435 17°48 | 4 17°57 175 17°47 6 1:18 #4 55-2
15°10*} 5 5 nA 68-0
14°12 1 14:17 1 ” ” 73:2
13-0 13-08 2 + 5 78°9
12-354 12-40 1 12°47 12°38 2 FP af 82:5
11:02 LEE eliirsa “1, 90-0
09-944 09:98 2 09-99 09:96 2Ce?) « ,, a 95°6
09°36 1 » x 98-9
09°25 1 09-20 09-4 4 ” % 99-6
09°11 1 09°11 3 ” ” 23200°2
68°13 1 29 6-5 05-4
07-60 1 07-62 1 or 3 08-2
07:39 | 1 07°42 1 2 a 09-2
06°79 1 06-4 1b or =e] 12°6
06-048 1 06:04*/ 3 ” ” 166
05-817 04:89 | 4 04:92 05-0 04°82 | 4 op % 17-9
» » 23°0
03°60 1 03-60 1 39 ¢ 29:9
03-005 03°10 | 5 03°12 03-1 02°99 | 5 9 ‘9 32°8
02°76 1 02°80 | , 1 ” ” 34:3
02°00 | 2 02-10 02-1 01:96 | 5 ” ”» 38-4
: 01°75 2 ” » 39°9
01:2 01:21 In FP a 42°8
00-696 00°73 In 00°76 00°66 | 2 ” ” 45:5
* Titanium 431512, 4306-04.
1908. M

and

89-284
86-634

85°373
82-326
77°487

74-884
73°643

68141

66853

65-041 |

64°14]

61°553
61°331

58171

91-470

90-332 |

56-575 |

53-690 |

|

| Harrison | H

|
|

| 94-914 |

Are Spectrum

Wave-length

and
aschek

4296-927 4296-92

95°38

94°99 |

Bowland | Exner |

94°65 |

93°31
91°57

91-40

90°38
89°32
86-67

85°41
84:92

~ 82°36

80°50
77°52
76°88
74°91
73°69

72-42

68°20

67:46

66-90
65°95

65°05
64:20
62°13
61°63
61:35
60°95

58°22

56-60
56°18
55°50

53°71

* Titanium 4298°89, 4295:93, 429119, 4286°19, 4263-31.

|

|
}

|

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

ZIRCONIUM—continued.

Spark Specbrum

Reduction to |

| Vacuum | AL
| Inten- | Wave-length Inten- Oscillation
sity | sity et ae Brequeney
aS | Fick ae 72 ; in Vacuo |
a- e Demar- | Cha- |
racter | py Laie cay Aohse racter | ** | ne
| 4300-04 2 118 | 65 | .23249-1
4298-80* 2 = . 55:8
| 4297-00 | 4297-1 6 a Se 65°5
2 96:86 2Ce?]_,, oh 66-7
1 95:5 | 95-98% 2 . = 72-7
6 95-08 94:98 | 5 Pe es 76-7
1 94-67 hes al he % 78-2
2 93°41 | 93°38 | 95:35 | 5 * Ni 85°3
92-1 3 55 * 92-
3 91-54 91:53 | 3 3 Z 95-2
3 | 91°38 hard ‘ - 96-0
| 91-:20*, 2 os | 97-0
In |) 9041 90°45 2 7 a 23301-4
| 89:8] 89-94] 1Ce? - 03:8
In | 89-45 | 89-33 | 2 a 06°5
87°54 | 2 e 16°9
2n 86-78 | 87:1] 86-71) 3 ae 21:5
86:20* 2 ; e 24-2
2n | 85:44 85°7| 85-46 | InCe?] _,, ce 28-4
1 84-95 1 a s 31-1
8 82:53 82:8] 82:33! 8 oH g 45-0
1 80:51 1 1-17 1 eae
2 77:60 | 77:8 | 77°50 | S8Th?] ,, 3 715
3 76-91 7686 | 2 s = 75:0
3 74:95 74:92 | 2Cr?| ,, 3 85:8
4 73°80 | 74:1| 73:68 | 5 ~ i 92-4
73-07 | 1 4 3; 95:9
1 72°48 | 1 : x 99°3
70:37 | 1 i sf 23410:7
69-90 1 5 ¥ 13-2
69-40 a ae - 16-0
5 68°22 68:4] 6819) 5 em a 22-6 |
1 67-55 1 < 3 26-4
67:2 C 2b a 28-1
1 66-96 66:97 | 2 i 3 29°6
1 3 34°9
| 65:17 65:2| 65:13) 2 2 39:3
Pes | 2 39-9
In | 64-23 | 64:33 2 33 44-4
1 ) 63-36% 2 ad 45-2
o; 61°65 6167) 2 4 58-7
2 61-42) 61:5| 61-47 3 ; i 60-0
1 3 re 62-4
5 58-31 | 58:5] 5822) 7 55, Rees 17-4
See 57:3 1 » ies 82-6
3 56:66 | #667 | 2 = 3 86:3
1 56-26 | | bi Ms Cres v0
1 55°55 (iil i) ee) 92°4 |
| 543 | 54:55) 3Cr?] ,, re 97:7 |
3 | 53°76 | 53°76 | 2 ie 43 235023
| 50°89 | 1 OR xe eee oe

ee ee

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 163

ZIRCON1IUM—continued.

Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum
Wave-length Inten Wave-length
at :
Rowland | Exner Exner
and an a an apa Lohse
Harrison | Haschek | Haschek! %8Y
| | 4249-55
(4248-38 1 |
| | 46°50 |
| 46°65
44°4
43°71 1 43°74 |
42°78 1 42°83
42°20 In .
4241°803 41°83 6 41°98 4242-1 | 4241-99
41:319 41°37 6 41-50 | | 41-41
40°454 40°52 8r 40°59 40°6 | 40°57
39°428 39°49 9r 39°58 39-7 | 39°60
BT Gre
37°554.| 37:59 | 2 37:57
| 36°71 3 36°81 | 36°83 | 36°89
| 36°37
367190 36°21 4 36°23 ©
34°755 34°79 3 34:89 | 351) 34:90
32°67 In 32°64
32°25 1 32°2
31°755 31°79 2 31:88 31:88
31-683 4
30°33 In 30°37
27:880 | 27°94 | 10 27-98 28°3 27°99
| 26°58 il 26°58
| 25°70 2 25°67 | 25-7
25°40 1 25°40 |
24°85 2 24°8
24°41 2 24°42 24-5 |
22°61 1 22-67 22°6 |
20°81 2 20°30 20°6 |
20°08 |
18°60 3 18°60 | 18:7
17°45 | 17-1
15°95 | 16-1
15°50 |
14°58
14°05 5 14:3 14:15
13°45 |
12.79 12°95
12°17 12:2 | 12°17
| 12-06 3 |
11°50 | | 11°58
sees ST
10°87 | | 10-92
10°50 |
09:13 | 4 09-21 | 09-4 | 09:23
03°30 |
06:20 , 06:2 | 06-20
05-00 |
01:63 6 01:69 O18. O1-71
4199-24 6 4199°30 4199-5 4199-34
| | 98:5 | 98-2 |

Inten-
sity
and

Cha-
racter

AAR WNORNWwWawFral

~
(=)

b

Bad eg a ea a ces

—
KH OID we OF whe

|
|
|

| dele

Reduction to
Vacuum

______| Frequency

|
Nels. Nes
r

6°6

| 23525°3

Oscillation

in Vacuo

31°8
42:2
47-4
54°

57-6
62-7
66:1
67-7
70°5
75°3
81-0
91-0

| 238068

74:6
93°4

12-2
M 2

- 164: REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

ZIRSONIUM—continued.

Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum
Ss Reduction to |
Wave-length tens Wave-length atone Tecua Oscillation
ta SBP sity 3 : 1 Gsity’ )| So 2 cece peuser
Rowland |} Exner as Exner | pemar- | Che. baw mero
and Bn) Se ator ||| sand Lohse 4 eni|tAs ale
Harrison | Haschek | Haschek, %°Y x
4197-95 In | 115 | 67 | 23814-4
96°50 4196°6 |4196:43 | 3Ce?) ,, ” 22:9
4196:297 3 96°32 | u ” ” 23°8
94:°925 |4194:95 | 4 95:00 | 95-1 95:00 | 5 oS ” 31:4
94°66 1 a x 33°1
94-163 2 94°20 94°23.) 2 = - 35°8
92°30 1 x a 46°5
91-947 1 92:03 | 919 | 92-01} 2 +9 » 48°3
91-650 2 91-75 | 91:77 | 3 rf » 49°9
87-69 | 5 87:80 87-7 87°67 | 6 ” ” 72°6
87°30 1 ss ” 75:0
86°834 2 86°89 87:0 | 86:83 | 6Ce? ,, et | 776
86°25 1 os Fi 81-0
84°62 | 1 - | 90°3
83°472 83°49 | 4 83°51 83°5 83°43 | 3 » ” 96°9
82-722 | 5 82-75 In 6 “ 23901-0
81:09 | 3n 81°13 | In ss a 10-4
79-964 3 80-08 80-2 79°93 | 8 oF ce 16:8
77°75 In od BS 29°6
74:56 1 AS 9 47°9
73°36 1 + + 54°8
71°625 3 71:65 | 716) 71:63 | 30U? “6 < 64-7
70°75 In + 5° 69-8
69°503 | 1 69°55 69:6 69°49 | 2 = ke | 76-9
68°90 | In 1-14 ae | 80°4
68°40 | In a as 83°3
67°88 In > aan} 86:3
67°30 | In 5 ss 89-6
66°509 66:58 | 4 66°60 66°6 66°51 5 % “ 93-9
65:80 In 5S + 98°3
65°55 In R - 99:7
63°98 In + 5 24008°8
63°6 | In 4 5 11:0
62-60 | 1 ” ” 16°7
61°352 61-40 | 6 61-48 | 61-4 61:45 | 9 “te » 23°5
60°06 | 1 | $ of 31-4
59°77 1 oy ” 32:9
59°10 1 “f ”» 37-0
57:93 1 » 9 43°7
56°383 56°40 | 6 56-49 56-7 56°49 | 8 » *» 52°3
55:30 | 1 a e 58°9
53°96 53°8 1 ” ” 66-7
52°793 52°83 | 4 52°87 52°9 52:89 | 3La? ,, + 73:2
52°46 | 2n 4 + 75-4
51:123 51:18 | 4 Bieese)) O10 USISTSo a7 ¥ » 82-9
49-443 49°35 | 8 49-43 | 496 | 49-45 | 14 Fo ” 93-1
| 47°94 | 2 5 an 24101°7
47°53 1 Pe 6:8 03-9
46:038 In | | 46°12 In of f 12°4
45°30 In ” | ” 16:9
43°39 | 43:4 1 | oe ladies 28-0 |
40-161 2 40°18 40°5 40°22 | 2b sites s|etcss 46-7
37-20 Mies, 64:1

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 165

ZIRCONIUM—continued.

Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum
Reduction to
Wave-length Tnten- | Wave-length Tnten- ee Oscillation
sity | [atige (tes a: oes Frequency
Rowland | Exner ao Exner = 1 ae
and and eae an | Demar-| Tohse ae A+ = ag
Harrison | Haschek Haschek / cay
_ - - - | | —_— —— |- =
(4135°830 | 4185°86 | 4 | 4135-85 | 4135:9 |4135°88 | 2 114 | 68 24172-0
34°46 34-4 2 a Pr 80:2
33°91 | 1 ” ” 83-4
| 33°16 | 33°19 | InCe?] ,, e 87:7
32°14 32:2 1 % ” 93-7
» 31:50 | 1 > > 97-5
30°63 1 PIS. || 5s 242026
28°127 1 28°08 | 28:0 28508) | 2Vi3) ce sau aletas 175
23°53 | 23-7 1 eee 44:3
22-70 il ? ” 49:1
21:87 1 a 39 54:0
21-603 21°61 | 5 21-68 21:8 21-5o) | OCet ln ” 55°5
20°311 1 20°38 20°32 | 2 Son eg 63:1
20:00 | 2 19-99 19-9 19:92 |. 2Ce?| _, ” 64:7
19°38 | 2 =: » 68-7
14°55 2 ” ” 97-2
13°117 1 33 af 24305°7
12°84 | 2 “ 99 07:3
11-7 12719 | 2 ” ” 11-1
10-803 1 10°84 10°85 | 2 » ” 19-2
| 10-197 1 10-29 | 101] 10-19] 3 33 %» 22-8
| 08-546 08:55 | 3 08-60 08°5 OS 59 |, orn. ere 32°5
| 07-692 07°69 | 3 07°75 07:7 07°73 | 3 » ” 37°6
03°5 1 fc as 62:6
02°7 1b 3 ~ 67-4
4099-460 | 4099-47 | 2 4099-50 | 4099-3 | 4099-52 | 2 ‘3 6-9 86-4
96-783 96°77 | 2 96°80 96°5 96°85 | 4 93 SS 24402°4
96°33 1 - * 05-2
94-418 94:45 | 2 94:42 94:3 94-48 | 2 a a 16-4
93-313 93°32 | 2 93°32 | 93°40 | 2 1°12 es 23-0
| 90-945 90°98 | 3 91-00 90-97 he ” ” 37:2
90-664 90°69 | 5 90-70 90-7 90-68 | J 6 vid Un ere 38°9
88°34 | 1 88-3 In es | ; 52-9
87-838 87°85 | 2 87°88 87:8 87°88 | 2 : ” 55°8
85-840 85°83 | 3 85°89 85-9 85°91 | 4 , ” 67°7
_ 84-452 84:47 | 3 84:50 | 84:3 84:48 | 3 zoe line aa 76:0
83:241 | 83:25 | 2 83:29 | 83:0 Fo shal leied 2 Chad i mea aa eh 83°3
82-441 82°46 | 2 82°45 | 82°51 2 ”» ” 88-2
81:98 | 2 os 90-9
81:361 81:40 | 10 81:48 | 81:3 81°38 | 7 »» ” 94:5
80°64 1 = a 99-1
80°3 In 35 ¥ 24501°1
78°457 78:48 | 4 78°49 78-1 78°51 3 ” ” 12-0
77-201 2 77°27 77:25 | 3 re a 19-5
76-678 76°70 | 3 76°70 76°6 76°74 | 3 ” ” 22-7
75°20 7514) 4 os 4 32-0
75-072 75710 | 4 75:09 74:9 4 ” ” 32°4
72-842 72°89 | 9 72:90 72°8 72°89 | 7 ” ” 45:7
71:242 71:25 | 2 71-30 70:9 71:26 | 3 » ” 55°5
69-73 1 fe 64:8
68°872 68°87 | 2 68-90 68°8 68:93 | 2Ce%) ,, er 69°8
3 68°10 | 1 | ” ” 74:6
| 65:37 | 1 + . 911

166 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

ZIRCONIUM—continued.

Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum
eS 3 a iS Reduction to
Vacuum aes:

Wavye-length | Inten- Waye-length Inten- Oscillation
NEP Be Nees rei SY - : So eiathy > |< eens eres Frequency
Rowland | Exner and Exner | | rei 1 i Meroe

and and - and | Demar-) Lohse Bhat a

Harrison | Haschek as Haschek, S*Y | neuer :

as | : See ae wes ae = =
4064°303 | 4064-34 id 4064-38 4064-1 4064:31 | 7 1:12} 6:9 24597°4
63°49 In 63°47 1 A 24602°6
62°83 ] 5 A 06°5
61-678 61:70 | 4 61°70 | 61°5 61:66 | 4 ’ ” 13°5
60-730 60°75 | 2 60°78 60°72 2 ; » 19-1
60-4 = ’ ” 21-2
60°32 | 2 P ” PA yf
60°233 60°25 | 2 60:25" 1 ” 22°2
59°37 | In 93 “ 27°5
58-771 58°83 2 58°78 | 584 | 58°80 | 2 > ” 30°9
| 58°30 | 1 = = 34:0
57-984. 2 57°94 2 ” ” 36:0
56°655 56°65 i 56°65 56.60 | 2 % 1S 44:0
55°851 55°88 | 4 55°90 55°6 | 55°84 | 5 os d 48°7
55°173 55:20 |. 5 55°20 54:9 | 55:16 | 5 Lept eS §2°9
54°581 54:60 | 3 54:60 | 54°54 | 2 ” ; 56°6
53°3 In x 64°4
52:9 | In) |e ir 66°8
50°67 3 ” 70 80°3
50°467 50°51 3 50°52 | 50-4; 50°46 i soy bel! ase 81-4
49°716 5 | | ¥5 es 86-1
48°813 48°80 6 48:93 | 48-7 | 48-78 9 » x 91:5
48°15 | | true le a 95-6
45-972 | 46-26 | 2 463 | | iin ose | 247081
45°758 45°78 | 5 45:90 | 45:6 | 45:92 8Ce?] _,, oe 09:7
44-73 | 5 44:80 | 44-6 | 4476] 4 : : 163
43°722 43°71 5 43:80 | 43:5 43°78 | 4 ” ” 22°5
42°373 42°39 | 3 42:49 | 42:1 | 42:45] 3 ” ” 30°6
41-789 41:80 | 2 41:90 | 41:7 41°82 | 2 9 99 34:3
40°388 40:40 | 2 40°49 | 40°3 40°46 3 ” ’ 42°8
39:7. |. ote lb “A “3 48°5
38°35 In - He 55°6
36-70 1 3 99 65:7
36-039 36°03 | 5 36°10 359 3610) 4 + ef 69°6
35°01 1 Fr) 55 76:1
34:231 34:24 | 3 34:30 34:0 | 34°34 | 3 a ‘ 80°6
33°8 | In re ae 83°5
32°211 In 32°] | 32°25 2 » » 93-2
32°197 4 | sy 4 93°4
31:497 1 31:57 hoes) ee Oar tars os 97-4
3k: 4 1 a 24800°1
30°87 2 30°87 | | 2 01:5
30-188 30°20 | 4 30°26 | | 30°21 3 ; ; 05-5
39°821 29°81 5 29°88 29°8 | 29°85 af > ° 07:9
29°08 | 4 Oe ao |) 2 98OT] ad ; 121
28-099 3 ” ” 18-6
27°350 27°35 5 27-40 | 27-2 27°42 | 5 ss 7 23:0
25-060 25:07 5 25°16 | 25°13 3 3 A 37:1
24-8835 24:57 3 24-70 24:9 24°66 | 8 rr ” 40-0
24:14) 5 24:20 24-1 24:20 5 es == 42°8
23°45 1 23°47 1 Bp 3 47°2
23-20 ] 23-22 | 1 ” , 48°]
| | 22:6 | In me 51:9

se ee. :S—C<;C

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

ZJRCONIUM—continued.

167

Arc Spectrum Spark Spectrum
— ; Reduction to
Vacuum
Waye-length nten: Wave-length Tnten- Oscillation
i BUGS ea eee nd oe us sILy | ____|Frequency
u and and | in Vacuo
Rowland | Exner | Qha- Exner Danny rete 1
and and aye an Lohse | 5 octer a
Harrison | Haschek Haschek| SY |
| 4021-15 | | In | 1-11 | 7-0 | 24861-5
4020:44 i 20°51 | 4020°6 | 1 : =r 65:7
4018-520 18°50 2 18:60 18:4 |4018°56 | 5 a ” 717-6
18-25 | 1 / : 79°5
17:49 | | 2n x = 84-2
1710 | 3 17:16 17:0 4 a me 86°4
16:10 | 1 5 > 92°8
13°99 | 1 1:10 M4 24905-9
12°395 12°41 4 12°48 | 12:2 | 4 * Fe 15°6
10:96 | 10:7 | 1 As A 24:8
09°54 1 09°56 09:0 | 1 » » 33°5
07-73 4 07:80 07°6 4 ‘ oe 44-6
05-00 2n 05-02 2n 3 = 61:7
04°8 4 $5 63-0
04.54 2 04°51 2 o oh 64°8
03°22 3 03°28 03-2 | 3 ee Mulla ipl 72:6
02°69 | 3 02°68 | 2 ay eee 76-1
01-33 2 01°37 | 1 Sear in mee 84:5
01°23 2 01°21 O1'1 | 2 : a 85:3
3999-09 3 3999-18 | 3999-1 14 s 98°3
98°81 1 F A 25000°4
96-98 | 1 “ i 11:8
94:26 1 5 + 28°8
93°23 1 i »” 35°3
92°59 In 92-6 2n # as 39°3
92°18 In 92-2 | In : ss 41-9
3991-268 91°25 6 91:31 91:3 14 ; oa 47°5
89°62 3 89°65 89°5 3 ; s 57°8
89°39 2 89°39 89°5 | 3 Ps, ve 59-4
88-79 2 88°80 88'8 | 2 = Ss 63-1
88°31 | | 1 4 ay 66-2
87°95 1 87°94. | 1 Pe, | 68°5
874 | | In ss F 71:9
86-95 J 86-96 86-7 il s rh 74:9
86°22 1 5 is 79°3
84:87 3 84:90 84:8 3 Fe fe 87°7
84°15 | 1 i ee 92°3
83°45 | 1 re 96°8
82-304 82-28 2 82°30 | 2 a tl) eee 25104-0
82°20 82-0 3 aS peer 04:7
81:726 81:70 | Sn 81°79 | 81:7 4 eles 07°6
19°7 In BS “3 20°4
79-374 3 79°50 | In BS 22°1
78°85 2 78°86 78:7 2 * 25'8
78:37 1 78°35 | 2 d ae 28-9
77-60 3 77°60 776 3 + oa tl 33°7
77°421 77°48 2 Be Lf 34'8
76°34 1 76°30 76:2 1 Be ” 41°8
75-434 75°43 4 75°47 15°3 4 1-09 47°3
| 74-97 1 A ¥3 50°3 |
74:3 | In or ve 54-6
73°63 | 10 73°68 | 73:7 5 Pe _ 58°7
73°549 72°46 | 2 72°43 | 724 2 4 eee 59°8

168 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

ZIRCONIUM—continued.

Are Spectrum ' Spark Spectrum
=. OEEEs ‘ | Reduction to
Wave-length isade Wave-length interes vom Oscillation
: sity sik |e Frequency
Rowland | Exner on Hieiae ete ees 1 aig cs
and and | ne and | Demar- Lohse ary A+ |=
Harrison | Haschek Bae Haschek | cay Joe x
3971-00 | In | 1:09] 7:1 | 251755
| 68°61Ca 2 =. 2 90°6
396839 | 4 — 68:39 3968-4 6 > . 92-0
| 6681] 5 | 66-80 | 3 P| | 95908-1
| 3966-417 In | | i - 04°6
| 65-07 | 1 ‘a “e 13-1
63:85 | 2b | 63:90 63-8 2n ~e $5 20:7
| 62-4 | In a a 30°1
| 6be71 | 61:75 6 99 - 345
| 60°82 | . i a « 40-2
68-354 | 58:34| 6 | 58:39! 58-6 14 A as 55'S
57°53 | 1 | 57-50 | 1 = * 61:3
56-93 | 1 | 56-90 2 i ad 65°1
) | 55-94 | 1 % 2 71:2
| 5e75 | 1 | 55-79 | In * = 72:2
| | | 54-4 1 a * 81-1
53:00 | In | 53°00} 52:8 | 1 A 3 90-0
| 51:96 | 1 s + 96-7
51-46 | In 51:45 | 51-4 1 He _ 99-9
| 49°7 49-2 | 1b a pf 25311-2
| 47-4 | 1 * = 25°9
46:96 1 es * 28°8
| 46-4 46°3 | lb 3f i 32:0
46-2 | 1b A * 33°6
45°5 | lb * ss 381
45-2 | 1b 7 ne 40-1
44°14 1 Bs ai 46°93
42:95 | 1 42:96 | 1 Ss as 54:5
| 42-09 ) 3 ‘ ae 60°1
41-9 5 - es 61:3
41-758 | 41°76 | 3 41°75 | | 3 : Ss 62:2
40°78 | | 1 a a 68-5
39°38 | 39-7 | 1b zs 75°1
38-9 | 1b A a 80°6
38-3 | lb u s 84:5
36191 | 36:21] 2 | 36:28) 361 | 4 108-3; 97°8
34919 | 34:93 | 3 34:99 | 4 hs pA 25406-1
34-254 | 3427] 3 | 3439! 34:5 | 6 Wf $3 10-2
| 33°8 Ca 3 i 3 13-5
| $336] 1 33°34 2 a Pe 16-4
| 32-52 | In , os 21:8
| 31°55 | 31-7 In ‘, es 28-0
| | 31:07 | In ‘¢ * 31:2
29666 29-71 | 8 29:71 | 29:8 7 i“ ie 40°1
| 27-59} 2 27°60 | 27:2 2 4 ef 53°7
26:90 | 1b 26-96 2n = x 58-0
| 25°8 ) In 33 oy 65°3
| 25-03 | 1 25-02 1 > ps 70°4
24:05 2 3 :. 77-0
| | 23:65 | 23-7 1 i “4 79°3
: | 23-27 | 1 " 3 81:7
| 22-51 | 1 > “1 86-7
| 91-998 | 21:99] 5 21:99 | 21:8 5 + » 90-2

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 169

ZiRcoNIuM—continued.

Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum
—___— — Reduction to
| Vacuum feats
Wave-length | Tnten- Wayvye-length Tnten: Oscillation |
sity sae Seis a _| sity |___——_—s| Frequency
and and | in Vacuo
epiand ee Gna pee baeaat! ae Gi. 1
an ani ; an 2 ohse | A+ =
Harrison | Haschek Boe: Haschek| ‘®Y maete? aS
3921-17 | 1 | 108 | 7-2 | 25495-4
| 20°35 | 1 oc | 25500°7
| | 18-25 |3918°3 1 » | 9» 14-4
17°63 1 ade ee he x 18-4
| 3916°77 16°80 16°8 2 Oy tiabess 23°9
3916-067 1610 | 5 16°16 16-2 8 BAW oS 28-2
14:59 14°3 6 lets 38°3
12:3 Ragweed a lh en 53-2
11°5 8 % 5 58-4
09-1 In 44 he 74:0
08°25 08-4 In as 79°6
07:9 hie Ee si) ss, 81:9
06°30 06°3 hed > As 92°4
03-92 lewd ah Las 25608-0
01:64 | 4 01-70 01:8 In s a 22-7
00°649 5 00°71 00:9. | 6 % 5 29-2
00:08 1 “ 3 gare
3898° 6 1 3898-72 1 a Fi 42°3
| 98-07 | 98-1 2 fi 46-4
3897°798 97°80 | 1 97°82 2 a a 48°8
96-664 96°67 | 2 96°73 96°9 3 1:07 5 55'5
94-52 1 oO Bs 69°8
94:00"; 93:9 | 2 ‘5 35 eee
92°66 1 * - 82:1
92-161 92°14 | In 92°19 2 ”» ” 85°3
91-516 91°53 | 5 91°61 91:6 6 eel fore 89-4
90°49 | 10 90°58 90°5 7 Pen ghey 96-1
89°62 1 My »» | 25702°1
89°47 1 se) Alpe 03-1
85°53 | 6 85°61 85:8 7 eye ial) ealboe 28°9
82:20 82:3 6 es 0 51:3
81:2 1 as . 57:9
1 79:20: | 72 79°21 | 3879-2 4 of ” 71:2
| TURAL 3 77°78 isa 7 Pre ee 80°6
. 74°56 74:6 1 2 » | 25802°4
72-4 1 io Fd 16°5
; 4 67:2 1 ” ” | 51-2
64:57 | 64-6 6 ms S 68'S |
64:01 | 3 64:12 64-1 u 9 ” 72:2
q 61:2 1 “ Pinal 91-4
55°61 55:7 3 1:06 c 25928°9
53°30 53:4 3 ne 5 44:5
52°60 1 re 35 49-2
ue 49-41 | 3 49-48 49°5 6 Se aia pee 70°5
48-83 In wl tie ae 74:7
47-13; 3 47:22 47°2 6 Foy ails 433 85°8
45:1 1 33 : 99-8
43°30 43°3 9 Pr » 26012-0
38°49 38°5 iy s 44:6
7 36:98 372 12 x) eh 54:9
| 36°12 | 4 36°18 36:3 5 33 53 60°5
‘ 34:00 | 34-1 2 op ye 75°1
| B24 1 ep S 86:0

170 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

ZIRCONIUM—continued.

Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum
— Reduction to
Wave-length | taten-| Wave-length ee iiaps es
pig eite eke sity sity |_ : pie ae
an and | in Yacuo
Harrison | Haschek packer Haschek| ¢®Y packet | | a

38315 l 1:06 7:3 | 260921

30°9 1 F ed 96-2

29:3 1 a2 » | 26107-1

3827°65 | 27-6 3 2 = 18:4

| 27°40 : 2 7 bins Mal 20°1
| 25:91 | 256 3 fat | 30°3
| 24-90 2 Re a oes 37:2

24-55 2 rs . 39°6

23°7 | 2 ” ” 45-4

382253 | 3 | 22-60 | 22:7 | 6 ede 53-1
20-9 hae i : 64:5

| 20:00 | 20-0 1 a sol th Seon

| 18-90 1 = he ee

| 18-0 9 a 7:4 84-3

| 17°80 6 ” ” | 85:7
| 16°86 |- 17:0 | 2 5 92°1
| 15°18 | 15°3 | 3 ¥6 » | 262087
| 1415 | 144 1 - salen 10°8

09°35 | 10-0 | pee * a ea

08-38 | 08:8 | evar * ai tn

07°55 | 07-7 bes 3 ar, | Pia
| | O65 | 2 ; ; 63-4
| | O15 | 3 98-0
00°91 | 6 3 » 26302-2

3796-71 |3797°1 |..9 A fe 31:2

93-53 2 a “4 53:3
| 92:55 | 92-7 | 4 | 105]. 30°1

379153 | 4 | 91:60 | 91:8 | 6 baba eres e \ 67-0
90°13 | 90:5 | 1 el Eee 76-9

888 a seta 86-2

| 87-4 | Ds lars 95-9

| 86°80 / 6 , ; 26400°
| 85°5 2 . a 09-2
| 84-8 5 3 - 14:1
82:97 | 83-4 5 : 3 26.9

82:48 | 22-7 | 4 is 30°3

81:80 ) 1 f . 35-0
80°71| 8 | 80-78 | 81-1 | 6 Fe s 42-4. |
‘7782 1 zs ~ 62:9

| 3617 In 1:04 of 74:5

75°61 In ror y | 78°4

74-75 1 - iat 84-4

74-25 1 ie fa 87-9

73°7 In e = 91:8

| 72:29 | 72-6 6 : 9 sf CBOOLNT

‘ 71-53 1 75 06-9

| 68:05 | 68-3 3 a din 31-4

6685 | 4 | 66:99 | 67:3 10 a 39°3
65°33 ee! ; 50°6

452) 4 | 6460/ 64:9 I- 6 : : 56-0
62°70 | ai AN Seca 69-2
| 6116) 61:4 | 2n 3, |e, 800 |

| 593 ims | Gy Me ae 93-2

ON WAVE-LENGTH ‘TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

ZIRCONIUM—continued.

Are Spectrum

Spark Spectrum

Wave-length Wave-length
Rowland | Exner Exner
and and and | Demar-
Harrison | Haschek Haschek | %®Y
3758-40
57:99 | 3758°2
57:10
56-42 56°7
54°95
| 54°25
| 3751-79 51°85 52°0
| 50°87 51:0
48°07
46°18 46°4
45°16
44:7
44-2
42-4
42-0
40°50
39°95
39°6 39°3
38°32 38°3
37°55 37°54 37°6
36°70
35°75
33°93
33°48
31:50 31°4
30°61
29-98*| 29-7
28°83
27°90 27°7
26°80 26°9
24°94 24°8
24:2 24°2
23°40
22°8
21°86
19°45
19-02 18°5
17°94 17°5
17°18
16°23 16°23 16-2
14°92 14°99 14°8
14°29 14:30 14:0
13°13
12°15
11°85
11:2
09°51 09°4
06°80 06°79 06°6
05-70
05°58
05-0

* Titanium 3729°97.

| Inten-
sity

nN gl ae a CM a a rel a ela

toe
5

171

Reduction to

Vacuum

a
At | 5

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

26599°6
26602°5

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

ZIRCONIUM—continued.

Are Spectrum

Spark Spectrum

' Inten-

Wave-length
sien ‘ __| sity
Rowland ; Exner Pete
and and aes
| Harrison | Haschek
3698-32 3
3697:°603 97-63 2
96-430 1
91-530 8
80-674 80°53 4
74-859 74:84 3
71:410 71:40 2
68°55 ]
63°784 63°79 8
61:33 3
58-290 In
57:00 2

f Bu 3701-1.

Wave-length

and |Demat-| Tohse
Haschek | %°Y
3703: 1
03-0
02°05
01°30
13701-1t
00°82
3699-90 | 3699°5
98°41 98-4
97°70 97°5
94°6
94-00 93°8
92°75
87:22 87-4
84:1
83°6$
82°81
82°32 82°2
80°54
79°80
79°10 79-0
75°90
74:98 74:8
72°81 72°6
71:49 Ales
69-2
68°69 68°6
67°53 67°6
67:20
65:98
65°51
65°20
63°81 63°8
62°32 62°2
61°49 4 6
61:40 | }
61:10
58°7 |
58°5 |
57°4
57:01
55°72 55°8
55:1 |
538.5
52-9
51°65 51°5 |
50°90 50°7
49°30 |
48°55

t Rh 3701-1.

| Reduction to.
| Vacuum
| Inten- Oscillation
| "sity, | |e2oe ls seaee aeee Brequency,
and | | in Vacuo
Cha-| 4 can 1s
racter Xx
1 1-03) oigh 26992°4
Ib | » » 97-5
In ” ” 27004°5
2 ” ” 09°9
2 » 9 11-4
In ” ” 13°4
1 ” ” 20°2
11 » ” 31:3
5 | 102) , 36-6
” a 45°5
2n ” ” 58°9
3n ” ” 63°3
1 ”° ” 72°5
” | ’ 81-4
u » | oo» | 271181
1b ” ” 36° 1
2 ” aed 39-7
2 ” | ” 45°5
2 ” ” 49°]
1 ” ” 61:9
a ” ” 67°7
7 ” ” 72-9
I ” ” 96°5
| 10 : 3 Wat20ay
2 r ” 19°3
9 ” ” 29°6
In » » 46-2
6 ” | ” 50°5
2 ” ” 58-6
2 ” ” 61:1
1 ” ” 70-1
1 ” ” 73°6
1 ” ” 75:9
7 ” ” 86°4
6 ” ” 97°4
fo | os » | 27303°6
\3 ”» x 04-3
” ” 04:8
2 ” ” 06°5
In ” ” 24°4
In ” ” 27°5
u 101 |» 34:1
1 ” ” 371
5 | ” ” 46°7
1 ” , 513
1 ” ” 63°3
1 ” ” ook
3 ” ” Hits
6 ” ” 82°8
1 ” ” | 94°8
bie » | » | 274004

§ Pb 3683°6.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 173

ZIRCONIUM—continucd.
P hs Bpeciram “Snark Bpecuum
ee —-- _——_ | -—— Sate Ses SS Reduction to |
Wave-length rere Wave-length Inten- pecs \Oscillation
’ arb Biby. eel iV ge, aa Frequency
| a and | 4 and | in Vacuo
Rowland | Ener sates a Demar-| tohse wl ae | eae
Harrison | Haschek racter | Haschek SY ogee a
| 3647-08 1 | 101] 7-7 | 274115
45°04 | Hae Dh eos AS 26°8
44-54 3644-4 Hag 2 mr leon 30-6
40°67 | 1 re 3 59-8
3638-83 | 1 38°87 | 1 ” 78 73°4
| 3636-601 36°57 | 2 36°69 36:3 6 5 x 90:3
: 34-298 34-28 | 3 34:33 34-1 4 . ” 27507°6
33°70 33°5 Ul ie - 12-3
32°52 1 Sr ies 21:3
32°23 1 So) legs 23:5
31-64 1 » 3 28-0
30:169 | 30:20 | 2 30°30 30-1 6 Saal boos 38:7
29-20 2 3 “i 46°5
28-8* 4 6) as 49°5
27:7 In Fr ap 57°9
26:6 In fe FF, 66-6
25°57 1 i at 74:1
| 24-005 | 24-02] 6 24-10 | 238 6 . a 85-7
22-0 ae ea » | 276013
21°65 21°5 2n 3 7 03°9
20-08 1 “ ty 15-9
18-96 2 s. * 24-4
18°61 18°3 2 93 SS 27-1
17:02 1 1:00 Aa 39°3
16:90 1 “ Ao 40:2
14:925 14:92 | 5 15:09 14:9 10 Be ‘3 54-9
13°84 | 2 13°88 13°6 2 3 - 63°4
13°247 13°26 | 4 13°30 13°1 7 » ”» 68-0
12°61 12-4 2 oF 7 730
12°042 12:05 | 2 12°13 12-0 10 Pe Fp 771
09:8 09:8 lb = Fs 94:6
08°47 1 mn e 27704:'8
07:50 eee 07:60 07°3 7 ” ” 118
06-06 i cA 3 23°3
05-6 1b se 5 26:8
04-92 05:0 1 *t a 32°71
| 03°95 In ” 35 39°5
02°97 il 3) abso 47:1
02°57 1 52) aahgbuss 50-2
~ 01°331 COMER (aie 01:40 01:2 7 + + 59:4
00°11 00°0 | 7 et hal estas 69-1
3599°55 | 3599-4 2 * 5 73-4
99:2 | | In as aed 76:9 |
| 97:60 97-6 | iy ssh nlf kas 88°5 |
96°45 | | To Wis sehaaticaseae. Al 97:4
| 94°35 | Li Salers | 7:9 27813°5 |
93°80 | 1 ’ | ” 179 }
93°31 93:2 1 Pre ie 21°6
91°87 | 1 cs re 32°7
90-8 | AT I rec = 41:0
| | | 88-96 | 2 } «88 5 | 55°3 |

“ir an 8,

174

REPORTS

ZIRCONIUM—continued.

Spark Spectrum

| Are Spectrum

Wave-length

Exner
and
| Harrison

an
Haschek

|

| 3588-07

| 86°40

77°68
| 76°95
| 75:91
| 73°24

3572-606 72-60

69-00

66°25
65°50

59°10
58-944

56-744 56°75

52°12
50°61
49-90

52-093 |

47°82

42°75 |

Inten- |
sity |

and
Cha-

racter

On er ob

bo

bo Or

He He OF

ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

-| Reduction to

Wave-length | Tnten- pedis Oscillation’
sity Frequency
a | and ) P in Vacuo
Demavr- | Chee ee
Hanchek ay | Tohse | racter A
|
3588°51 | 3588°3 | 3 1:00 | 79 27878°8
88°19 88:0 | 6 Fe cn 61°6
87°12 | eel Ei a ne 69°6
86°42 86°3 6 3. Joanne 751
85-70 1 oat Seas 80-7
82°30 82-0 os Te es 27907°1
81°36 1 ree (a 14°4
80°65 80°8 1 Pal Che 20°0
80°11 | 1 35 oF 24-2
78:40 | 78:4 aie - ae 37°5
77°74 77:7 3 0:99 *” 42°9
77:10 76°9 10 3 o> 48°3
75°89 758 3 5 > 57-1
73°30 73°1 | 4 a “i 77°7
72-70 72-6 12 ” ” 82-6
70°25 1 ” ” 28001°3
69°50 1 ‘, 3 07:2
69°18 feel Pe sa Pe 09:7
69°03 69-0 3 = oa 10:0
68°32 | 68:3 yc 55 ok 16°5
67-46 Pea L hy Sy 23°2
66°30 66°2 16 it n 32°6
65°61 65°5 6 Tig! | fee 38°2
64:33 64:2 1 elke 47°7
63°9 In Be a ee 49:0
63-1 1 is - 55°0
62°66 eal * ay 61-0
6181 61-8 t 2 4 -: 67-7
61°37 rel 55 = 71:2
60-9 {el a s 74:9
60°37 a! - i 79°1
59°13 59°3 tee? = = 89-0
” ” 90°3
56°89 56-9 13 Saad ae 28107°3
5°70 55:3 ia! pete! Mes 16:0
54°31 54:3 fie a5 ‘ 27°0
53°54 53°5 | UF 35 a 33:0
52°91 Be x » 38-0
52°20 52°2 | 10 a 35 44-2
50°67 50°7 | 4 +} 8-0 55°9
49-90 50-0 5n ES o 61°8
49-73 3 at? lao ee 63:1
48°60 48°8 3n ey Pomel (pn 72:1
47:90 48-2 3 reg tee, 78:0
46:3 1b Syicel ae 90-4
42°87 43:1 | 10 9 ” 28218-2
40°05 Koeed | cs 5 40-2
39:17 39-6 3 Maer aes 47-2
38°31 1 See feha. 54:1
oD 2 0-98 Hay 61-0
37-11) 37-1 3 _ e 63-7
36°8 In . a 66:1
35°67 | 36-1 | 2 35 - 751

:
: |

oa

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 175

ZIRCONIUM—e ontinued.

Are Spectrum

Wave-length
Rowland | Exner
and and

Harrison | Haschek
3535°31 |

33°37

30°37

25°95

3519-736 19°75
10-60

09°49

05°813 05°83
05°582 05°66
01-65

01°53
3499-727 3499-74 |
96:343 96:38 |
84-98C

83°679 | 83-68

mn 83-16

82-949 | 82:95

81:300 | 81:30

80-55

79°54

79°17

epee Seoenon

bo 5 5 ed We eS ee ia to

Inten- Wave-length inten baie Oscillation |
sity | sity Frequency |

an Tfiniar a ; in Vacuo

Cha Demar- a =

racter Fe ae cay Lohse mater: A+ x

2 3535-30 |3535°5 2 0-98 | 8-0 28278°1

3 33°35 33°8 | 4 ae + 93°7

31:00 31-5 6 ” ” 283126

2n 30°35 30°8 3 9 ; 17-7
30°17 2 ” ” 19-2

27°58 28°2 6 ” ’ 40-0

2 26-00 26°5 6 5§2°9

24-69 | 1 tr 63°3

24°38 1 a x 65°8

23-78 | ] : 4 70°6

23°20 | ul er - 75°3

22°35 | | 1 6 82:1

21-01 | 21-6 | 4 ” ” 92-9

20°45 | 20°5 5) ” ” 97°4

7 19°80 | 3) ; e 28403-0
18°9 | In cr 79 10-0

18°4 | In a3 - 14-0

17°56 1 5 20°8

14°79 | 14:4 3 Ae + 43°2

12°81 2 a > 59°2

12°50 1 = ‘ 61:7

11-70 | 11:7 2 ” ” 68-2

2 10°61 10°9 4 ’ ” Heel

3 09:48 | 10-0 3 ” 8-1 86:1
08-7 3 oe “2 92°5

07°80 3 = as 99°8

07:3 3 ’ ” 28503°9

06:66 06-9 2 ” ” 09-1

06°23 2 oa 3 12°6

4 05°88 4 x 4 15:7
2 05-67 - 5 3 S 17-4
03°3 03-4 In 3 2 36-0

02-2 02-2 In Bk 5 45°4

1 01:67 01:9 1 9 ” 49°8
1 01°50 1 ” | ” 51-0

00°31 3 Ac 43 60°8

1 3499-78 4 er 7 65:4

98-00 | | 8 0:97 ” 79-7

97°21 1 = ” 86-1

9 96-40 | 20 oF a 93-0

94-3 lb 3 a 28609-9

93°46 1 At - 16°8

92°8 In a 5 22°2

87:1 In a > 69-0

85°48 | 3 e a 82-4

1] 84:8 In es ; 86°5

3r 83°70 7 ss % 97-1

2 83:17 | 1 f. 99 28701°4

3 82°96 1 af “5 03°2

4r 81-36 10 = a 16°6

2 80°59 3 *F os 22°8

4r 79°58 10 33 Ai 312
2 79°19 | 3 ooll.oe 34:3 |

176 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

ZIRCONIUM—continuced.

Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum
- - sa Reduction to
| Wave-length | Inten- Waye-length Inten- bbe Chelllation
sit | sity requenc
ore Oeremmertckacsc
towland | Exner | qj, | Exner Denne Ghia. 1
and | and leas and ; Lohse tart oece ——
Harrison | Haschek Haschek| %®Y / ee a
| 3478929 | 347894 | 3 0:97 | 8-1 28736°2
78:64 | 1 |3478-68 | ee 38-6
78°455 78°45 | 2 78°45 2 2 ” 40°3
is In 6 45:7
61 thoes es a 59'8
75°60 Pee \, 63-9
73°05 1 73°02 1 | 99 ” 85:1
72°53 1 $5 a 89-4
71-329 wise | 4 W131 4 ” ” 99°4
70°10 if 70°10 3 a 8:2 28809°4
69°25 1 69°18 1 » ” 16°8
66-6 In i 5a aa
65°76 1 65°76 1 33 Sel 45:5
| 65:3 Ib |\"ss) 7 et 49°3
| 63°166 63°16 | 3 63°23 12 »» ” 67:0
61:80*| 1 st Me See 78:5
| 61°244 61°25 3 61:22 2 33 ae 83-2
| 60°10 3 + Pl 9 91-7
| 69-083 59:08 2 59°10 5 =e * 28901°2
| 57-715 57°71 3 57°75 ) 6 0:96 Be 12°6
| 57:340 57°34 | 2 57°30 | 1 ap a5 15°9
56°056 56°06 | 3 56°02 2 ny 5 26°7
54°71 1 54°71 3 ss ny 37°8
53677, 1 * an 465
50:07 1 50°08 1 » ” 76°9
47-514 A750 | 4 47-45 3 i Py 98°5
46-770 46-75 | 3 46°71 2 + " 29004°7
| 42-72 1 Me a 38°6
41°8 In M + 46-4
41°12 | if “5 ss 52:1
40-77 | 2 40°70 | | 1 al ies :; 55°3
40°59 | 2 40°54 | 2 7 * 56°8
38°381 38°41 i 38°39 15 9 ” 75°2
37-291 37°27 3 37°30 4 55 Es 84°6
349 lb = 5 29104-7
34:05 1 34:08 4 5 a 11°8
32°56 1 32°59 4 ‘ 8:3 24°3
31°74 1 pularal 3 ss a 316
30°683 30°70 | 4 30°73 10 ” ” 40°3
30°46 1 BS e 42°3
27-23 2 - - 69°8
24-978 24°95 | 2 25°02 3 - ‘i 89-0
24:0 2b A 3 97°3
21°6 In 5 s 29217°8
21:05 1 Bs 7 22°5
19°813 19:78 | 2 19°76 1 ¥. es 33°3
19°24 1 19°22 3 * ae 38:0
16°80 1 0°95 of 59°5
14:89 2 14:87 6 ” ” 75°5
14:816 14:82 | 2 ” Poet 75:8

* Ni 3461°80. ¢ Co 3453-67.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 177
7

ZIRCONIUM— continued.

j

: Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum

vias es * = = —| Reduction to
2 Vacuum
Wave-length tens Wayvye-length | Inten- Oscillation
sity fea NOT ar) oS ee pie Satay
in Vacuo
| Rowland | Exner am Exner D aie rT
} and and | yecter | __and emar-| “Lohse pe cee aac =e
Harrison | Haschek Haschek| ®Y
. 3413-50 | 1 |8413-55 = 0:95 | 8:3 apne
} 12:0 1 ” ” H
|3410-405 | 10-41] 5 10-44 8 4: as 13-6
10°366 = Ny 14°]
08-90 OS hs a ae 26:0
| 08235 | 08-20] 4 08-23 Breil. 853 % 32:5
07:627 In | ” ” 37°7
| 04-987 04:98] 4 05:03 Gea is, yi 60:3
| 03840 | 03-83 | 2 03-89 4 alee 70:2
03-011 | 03:02 | 3 03-10 4 | > 3 th
02°68 1 ” ” 5
01:95 1 01:94 1 ” | ” 86-6
3399-94 | 1 |3399-95 De | seal des 294039
99:50 | 3 99°51 4 » | oo 07-7
3398-997 7 (ome A 12-1
98-08 | 1 98-10 CN ee Pe - 20-0
96-78 | 1 96-71 3 5 * 316
96-468 | 96-48] 4 96°51 3 Ns © 33°9
94:70 | 1 94-79 2 3 8-4 pat
94-389 1 i 5 ;
93:268 | 93:26] 5 93-30 4 bs 1 61:6
92°378 | 92:14 | 10 92-20 15 9 * 70°6
89-95 1 ez a 90:6
88°371 | 88-45] 6 88-49 5 * . 29504:3
88-802 | 88-03} 5 88:07 oo pees 3 07-2
85:95 | 1 a £ 25-4
85-40 1 ” ” 30-2
83 06 1 84:8 | lb | ” ” eas
iB | | ” ” 0"
80:060 | 80°10] 1 80-07 ery a 76-7
4 78:47 1 78°47 3 , ” 90:8
‘77-585 | 77°57 | 3 77-61 3 0:94 | ,, 98°5
76395 | 76-42] 3 16-42 3 53 - 29608-8
74:87 | 3 74-89 aa Ie, - 22:3
73:57 | 2 73°61 sak he A nee hi
73°05 1 ” ”
70°85 2 70°73 1 ” ” 58-2
69:44 | 1 69:42 2 m i" 70°2
68:80 | 1 % i 79'8
67:98 | 2 68-01 ate = 83°6
63:99 | 2 64:00 3 * ne 29718:2
62:87 | 1 62:77 “er Na x 28-5
62:1 Ine; > pee
61°35 In j ” ”
60°64 | 2 60°61 Tl SES 47-9
60:14} 2 60:20 4 . x 51:9
57-43 | 3 57°48 min | S 76:0
56-24 | 4 56:28 2 4; of 86-6
54:55 | 2 54-59 Sth ass fs 29801-6
53-783 | 53:80 | 2 53-80 RT aay 2 08:5
r a 53°3 lb ” ” 12°8
PAD a | 1 ” ” 22°6
51:4 i 1b ” ” 29°8

178

Are Spectrum

ZIRCONIUM—continued.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Wave-length | Inten-
sits | sity
Rowland |. Exner | ae

and and racter
Harrison | Haschek
3344-917 |3344-:95 5

40°614 | 40-72 6
38:545 | 38:55 5
38:07 | 1
34-744 | 34-75 | 5
34:382 | 34:40 | 5
33°70 | 1
32:90 | 1
26-544 1
25:95 | 2
25:59 | 1
|
23°114 | 23:16 5
22-47 | 1

19148 | 1918 5

18642 | 18:67) 3

16325 | 1635 | 1

14-615 | 1465) 5

13832 | 13:85 | 4

11-482 | 11:53) 2

10024 | 10:07 2

06-411 | 06:59 | 6

05°32) 4

02°81 | 1

329655 | 1

3288-935 | 8882 4
87-40 | 1

86-025 | 86:03 | 2

84:827 | 84:85 | 7

82:969 | 82-98t 2

82°39 1
81:85 | 1
80-600 | | In
79399 | 79-42! 7
|
75°30 | i
73168 73:23 6
72°333 | 72°38 5

Wave-length

and
Haschek

| 3350°75
| 45:00
44-00
40°80
38°61
38-07
34:81
34-49
33°75
32°88
32-08
29:0

27°85
27:05

24:30

23-21*
21°51
21-0
19°19
18-70
16-35
14-70*
1389
13-02
1153
10-10
06-48
05°33
02-89
3296-59
95-20
88-99
88-52
87:46
86-01
84-89
83-09

81:5
80-92

79°45 |
79°03
76°55
75°80
75:28
74:13
73°22
72°39

* Ti 3323°10, 3314°60.

Spark Spectrum

- — Reduction to

| Vacuum

_Inten-
sity

1

CU eR BD NO |

i

op

PSS TRO TCO) aS G0 TS OOS) C0 CSAC | a RS

fom

t Ni 3282-98.

|
|

Oscillation,
Frequency
in Vacuo

29835°6

87:3

ne
-

&
**
*

ON WAVE-LENG'TH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 179

__ ZIRCONIUM continued.

tir : Speetrum Spark Spectrum
rd ; Reduction to
Wave-length Titans Wave-length Tata veo Oscillation
. sity |__ pte s(t Bila jae ae ee
Rowland | Exner Rois Exner D . Cpe 1 ees
and am racter | _ ota | Dohse’ -| saoter | _** Te
Harrison | Haschek Haschek) S°Y | baa x
3271-27 24 3271°30 | 3 0:92 | 87 3056073
3269-788 69°81 a 69°81 | i es » 74:2
64945 64°98 3 64:96 | 2 % ” 30619°6
60-240 | 60°25 3 60°24 | ] ” ” 63-9
59°4 | Ib 0-91 FE) 71:8
57°8 | Ib ” ” 86°9
56°67 | Wg. Z oy q 97-5
56°11 at a a 30702°8
55°4 | | In » » 09°5
54°40 I 54°42 1 FP) » 18°8
53°81 1 ” ” 24°5
50°563 50°55 5 50°62 | 4 ; 8:8 54-9
47°672 | 1 47-67 | Sp oe ” > 82:4
44-108 | 44:13] 1 44-10 | bak a , | 308163
| 4229] 1 42:32 | 3 ; z 33-4
41-171 = 41-18 5 41°26 4 2 ” 43°9
| 37°66 1 > > ed
| 36°75 | 2 HF os 86-4
1 36°26 | 1 : 55 91-1
35-874 . 8 94-8
| 34°94 1 hf , 30903°7
34240 34°26 5» | '34s24 | 2 _ 7 10°3
) soa i oI | “ > 19°6
31°85 4 |. 31:89 4 Fe, ae 33°0
30°0 Ib . > 51:0
28°922 | 28-95 5 29-00 | 4 ; ” 60°9
| 24:04 1 re 7 31008°2
22-65 Betsy / » = 215
22°19 | 3 ef 26:0
20:80 j; 1 0°90 fogs 39-4
18°84 als - 58°3
14306 =:14'31 5 14°40 | 4 : 8-9 31101-7
12-962 | 12°96 2 13°01 ee 5 “a 149
12:68 1 - 17°8
127123 | 12°14) 4 12°17 eres 7 | 22:9
rhe 11:10 jel ” sg 4 33:1
087432 08°42 2 | 08:42 ered Et) he 59-0
05016 05-01 2S 1 9705:05 | 1 33 Beil 92-1
04:473 3. | 04:50 ] - 97°3
| 00:79 1 31233°4
| 3199°55 | In 5s is 45°5
| 97:2 In S Gt 68°5
190992 1 96:9 Te is » 72:9
94536 | 1 lies $5 94-4
‘ 94:27 1 97-1
ay | 93:18 1] 31307'8
92-012 (319204 | 5 | 92-11 3 18-9
91/328 91°35 5 91:31 1 , 26:0
kG | 84:2 Ib 96°2
82'953 83°01 4 83:08 4; ) 31407'8
$2:038 82°10 | 4 82°15 3 , 16-9
81°69 | 2 81:79 3 | @&d bel <lyeOrd:
S171 | 8 81-17 Sy ho aes 1% 26D: |
N: 2

180 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

ZIRCONIUM—continued.

Arc Spectrum i Spark Spectrum Rbanecnnen
| Vacuum
Wave-length Tmtone Wave-length |Inten-} ____ Oscillation
sity | i 4 a sity | i Frequency
a Arai Tena ly in Vacuo
powiand Haney Ghee mae made re Cha- «lx 1 ==
Harrison | Haschek racter| Haschek| ¢@Y | mygher |
3178193 |3178°18 4 | 3178-30 Vata 1 || 0°89 | 9:0 31455- i
| 77-00 ] | ” | ” 67: 2
| 75°8 1b | ” ” 79-1
| 74:9 pel oe Recerca be es 88:1
| 72:3 | Tb, | ” | ” 31513: 9
66°837 1 66°79 he GORY des: 68°5
66°375 66°40 4 66°48 | 2 ” ” 72-4
66-064 66°10 6 66°17 | 3 ” ” 75:4
65-558 65-60 4 65°68 | 2 ” ” 80°4
64-411 | 6445 7 | 64-54 3 x » 91:9
61-12 Ir 99 ” 31625°4
59°26 1 3 33 44-0
57-932 | 57:95! 5 | 57-94 1 : mt 57:2
57-096 57°13 5 57-19 2 ” ” 65:2
55°780 55°80 5 55:90 3 ” % 78°4
49-925 hive 49-98 1 ” ” 31737: 4
| 49-4 lb x 43:0
48-92 2 | ” 47°9
39°94 3 39-96 ] 0°88 9-1 31838°5
38°764 38°81 | 7 38°88 | 4 ns a3 50:0
37:072 37:09 | 4 37:08 SI) eet ” 67°6
34:85 | 34:85 Lelie » 90-3
33°584 33-625). toe in moos | 4 ” ” 31902°7
33°324 . 05°9
327166 32°21 5 32°22 1 ” ” 17:3
31:25 3 31°23 li ” ” Qi-1
30°75 In ” ” 32:1
30°20 1 oa) 0 es 37°7
29°854 29-90 i 29°96 4 Hus al er 40°7
29-275 29°33 7 29°38 4 79 pl aoa 46°6
28°95 1 28°96 il aap pub kiss 50°5
26-010 26°07 7 26°10 3 +5) 1 80-0
25°308 20°30 3 25°33 2 gf 87°5
22°12 1 less a 32020°4
20°851 20:90 6 20°90 1 ” ” 33°1
19-320 1 hoWees rs 49-2
16°8 | 1b ” ”» 751
15°85 1 15°86 1 3 a 84:8
14:15 ikea ee 3 9-2 32102°3
13°65 , 1 Nil S50. Notas 07-4
Ibis 30 | 1 | | ” ” 31:7
10-971 | 3 11:00; 6 11:02 1 ” 99 35°8
10-645 aa {ria| ” ” 37-4
09-444 | 09:25 | In 09:27 ge # mF ™) 62*]
08:50 A 2 | ” ” 60°7
06°674 06°72 + 7 06-79 | 4 ” % 79-0
: 3099- 81i 1 | by. ites 32250°8
3099-324 | 99- 39 a 3099-42 | 28 G87 8 “—-5D13
95°95 | 2 ” » 91-1
95-435 | 1 ae pert] 96:4
95-174 95-22 6 | 95:29 | (SHS: SR oe | 98-6
94-908 | 94-94. 2 | ” | ” 32301-°7
93:46 | 1 cs it ik 17-1

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 181

ZIRCONIUM—continued.

Are Spectrum

Spark Spectrum

Reduction to

| Vacuum
Wave-length Inten- Wave-length 'Inten
ay a
Rowland | Exner Cha Exner D | Chu. 1
and and and Matai \eTahise.) .| At Sa
Harrison | Haschek racter | Haschek| $Y Oe s

3092-41 i 0:87 | 9:2

90:57 | 2 | ” ”

89-14 1 | ” ”

86°57 1 3086-57 feat ” ”

3085-461 85°49 | 2 85°5 jee ” ”
75°72 | 1 ” 9°3

73°05 | 1 » ”

72-238 In ” ”

68-91 1 ”? ”

68-2 | lb ” ”

65313 | 65:34 3 65-34 had i 55

64°746 64°85 3 64°78 ed: ” ”
63:74 | 1 63-8 elo 0h 3

61-449 61:46 3 61-49 1 0°86 a
60°218 60:24 | 4 60°24 1 ” ”

: 57°34 RA 57°37 lane ” ”

57°15 1 ” ”

54:927 54°98 7 55:00 | 4 ”? ”?
52:95 | 1 9 9-4

52°16 1 ” ”

50°91 1 ” ”

50°50 1 ” ”

49-45 Pe ” ”

48-94 1 ” ”

48°51 1 48°45 | In ” ”

48°38 1 ”» ”
45-95 Ps | ” ”
44-23 il 44°3 In ” ”

' 43°37 1 ” ”
36°60 | 3 ”» ”
| 36°51 | 3 36-57 | 3 » ”
31-04 3 31:04 2 ” ”

29-65 5 29-63 | 1 ” ”

28°17 3 28°18 3 ” ”

27°75 1 | ” ”

26°3 | 1b ” ”

25-73 | 1 25°87 ra 19 ”
25-29 | 1 25:25 In 9 95

24-85 In ” ”?

21:3 | ib 0°85 ”

20°74 Py | ” ”

20°59 | 3 20°53 | 2 ” ”

19°96 3 19-96 1 ” ”

18°40 Ir 18-6 lb ” ”

16-90 In ” ”

14-56 1 ” ”

13°45 2 13°44 1 ” ”

4 13-01 1 ” ”

J 11-90 6 11°88 1 ” ”
10°01 1 if ” ”

ry 09°71 1 ” ”

¥ 08-24 1 ” ”

f 05°62 2 05-6 | 1b ” ”

Oscillation

Frequency!
in Vacuo

| 3298-0.

473

182

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

ZIRCONIUM— continued.

Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum | )
——— | ——. Reduction to |
| | | | Vacuum
Wave-length ‘Inten- | Wave-length Inten- | Oscillation
eins ab Rk ETT EN FR et SD z sity —_———| Frequency
Rowland | Exner | aan Exner | pem “ tha: | sa Vnee
and | racter |. 22d | nae Lohse | sacter| “Tt hee
Harrison aS ~|Haschek| %#Y ‘
3005°50 2 085 95 | 33262°8
03°88 3 3003-88 2 “ Seba | 80:8
00°8 1b » | 5 | Sddal40
| 2999-66 1 | a a 27°6
98-60 1 29986 | lb ss 35 ries
98°46 I 53 + “
91°55 1 91°52 In 35 9-6 | 334180
90-26 1 | ” | ear
| 89-0 | In i Pat =| 46:0
| 87:87 In 87:93 1 2 3s 58:7
| 85:52) 4 85°53 1 9 ” 85:5
he SHSTE. 1 3 81-18 2 0°84), 83534:3
80:97 1 By 53 36°5
79:30 | 3 79°35 | | 2 es 5 55:0
78:18 | 3 78-21 | | Ps i 9 67°8
76°73 | 2 76-76 | | 2 “ ¥ 84-1
7600 1 76-00 | | 1 Res Lee aly eee
73°80 | 1 a3) tele ee mete
6076 | 3 69:77 | 3 » | $7 | 63-0
« be | ” | |
69°31 | 2 | SA hols jen 68:2
69-08 3 69°10 | 3 Wee bs eg (i
64:99 ] 43 | ef. 33717°2
64:68 | 1 64:7 | In ay bees 20-7
62:82 3 62:81 | | | 9 iy eee a eee
61-00 3 | | | ” ” | i
55:90 | 3 55°92 | |-3 a 53 33820°8
54:33 1 = oF 38°9
53°46 | 1 oor 48°9
52°36 | 2 52°40 foul sp eee 61:3
51-60 | 3 51:66 | 2 ¥ Be 69:9
50°80 1 | | | ” ” 79°4
49:07 | 3 49-12 | (ee teas 99-0
45:56 | J 45°56 | ae! a 9°8 er
40°85 J | 7 bs i
37°85 | 1] 37:88 eal 0-83 | ,, | 340287
36-41 | 3 | 36:42 | 1 a 45:3
8471 | 3 | 34-73 | 1 Ks ie 65:0
31:25 In = $5 34105°3
29:70 | 1 of is; 23°4
20:10") 3 | 2716 4 4 5 53°4
2°74 | Al.) WOR | In » " 69°6
24715) 2 | 4-75 | 1 - is 81-1
23°99) 10 | Be e 34200:0
I8:37/\- 13). | 1839 3 boc | eee 55°9
i a ee Ce ae. | a 74:8
16°60; 2 | | | Ree eee 76:7
16°33 | 1 | |. 5s ‘5 79°9
4 16°10) 3 (| °: 16-12 3 # a 82°5
| 10°36 1 {| 90-40 In a vy 34350°0
08-05 In Be i 77-4
07-51 | 1 07°50 1 aa) as 83:8
05°35 | 2 | 05:32 Roh) SS eee 34409°5

Oe

Are Spectrum

Wave-length

Rowland
and an
Harrison | Haschek

2904-90

Exner

04:54 |

| 04:42
| 03°67
02-40
| 01-95
01°75
| 2898-84
98-40

92°39
89°53
88°15

84°55

| 83-92
| 82-22
| 80-95

| 77°65

76°10
72°65

66°50
65°73
65°21
61-82

56°18
54°55

52°10

69°93 |

60:97 |
58°10 |

|
|

wo LO a lll ol _ me re bO elt cell ell cell oll oe ol

om

bo ell ell and — ee be

me eb OO bo bo

——

|
|

|

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

ZIRCONIUM—continued.

Spark Spectrum

Reduction to

Wave-length

an
Haschek

Exner

2903-75
02-40
01:97
10-74 |

2898-85

95:45 |
92:0 |
89°54 |
88°16 |
868

84:2
83°93
82°23

77°69
76°60

74:3
72-68
69°94 |
69°26

65°77
65°28
61°85
61-1
59°7

56°21
54:55
53°8
52°11
51°40
50°75
49°30
48-62
48°28 |
46°27 —
44°75
43°64
39°41 |
38°13
37°32

36°28
34:48
34-01

Demar-
gay |

Lohse

Vacuum

racter

Leet 5 SN oll ell OB

Nom bo

| |
|Oscillation
| Prequency
| in Vacuo

| 34414°7

15:2
| 25326°3 |

184

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

ZIRCONIUM—continued.

Are Spectrum

Spark Spectrum

Wave-length Inten- Wavye-length
| nity » —
Rowland | Exner pm Exner
and | and oe) and peer Lohse
Harrison | Haschek Haschek| %8Y
2828-00 |
| | 2827-65 1 27°64 |
| 25°69 3 25°65
| 24-44
22-79
21°69 i
20°34 1 20°32
19°66 1 19*4
18°85 3 18°81
15°62 1
15:02 3 15-00
11:05 2 11°01
09°53
| 08-28 1 08°25
08-0
07°23
06-90 1 | 06-80
2799:25 1 2799-27 |
98°85
97°01 2 97-02
95-20 1
93-51 1
92°15 1
90-26 1 90°27
89°85
89°6
86:98 1 87°1
86:00 |
83°67 1 83°68 |
Tipe)
76-7
75:38 |
| 74:27 2 74:28
73°47 |
/ 68-86 2 | 68-88 |
63°12 Pot
62:01 I) R62 -01
60°2
59°59 I
58°92 3 58°91
54°33 1 54°30
53°3
52°67
52°32 3 52°32
51:05 I. 51:03
50°50 |
49-94
49°40
48-90
47-02 |
45°97 3 45°99 |
44°55 |
42°65 3 42°70

Tnten-

| sity

and
Cha-
racter

oO =e
a

i=]

bo DO DD Re et et 0 et
5 lo

Reduction to
Vacuum

| Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
|

| 35350°5

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 185

ZIRCONIUM—continued.

Arc Spectrum

Spark Spectrum

Wave-length Inten-
sity
and

Se | Sa | coe

Harrison | Haschek manien

2741°65 2
40°60 1
40°46 1
37°95 1
34°92 3
32°80 | 3
27:14 1
26°60 | 3
25°57 1
22°69 3
20°44 1
18°37 1
17-60 1
14:35 | 2
12°51 2
11°60 | 2
09°43 1
06-25”, 1
r 00-22 | 3
2699-71 2
95-55 1
94°16 2
93°65 2
93-02 1
92°73 1
89-55 1
87°85 1
81-86 1
78°72 3
70:09 1
69°56 1
67:90 | 2

| Reduction to |

Vacuum
Wave-length Inten- Oscillation
ay | Peegienny,
an cur
Ener Demar- Cha- as bs sien a
and Lohse | recter| ** n
Haschek; ‘*Y p
2741-61 eae 0°78 | 10-6 36464-0 |
40:60 | pe 99 | 178 |
40°47 he 2, F eaAeuse an 79°6
39°8 | In =p 5 88°4
38°84 i a oa AS 36501°2
38°46 1 oat alere'ssh 06°3
ag ORE PP ao
35°91 3 eRe Merv 40°3
34:99 3 » |» 53°71
32°80 Se lense - 81°9
30:00 he “- » | 86619°4
28°64 | | 1 ” ” 37°7
27:01 | he 1 of 10-7 58-6
26°61 4 sa ies 64-9
25°52 | 1 sr sheet Lee aoe
22-71 1 YY phils beucd 36717°5
21°48 |e 3 alts. 34:0
20°46 | 3 ” ” 47°9 |
20-14 es: ast Itt 52-1
| ” i > | 76:0
ass » 86:8
15°85 Sele os >» | 36810-2
14°32 Skee [Ne a5 el 30-7
12°50 | 3 | ” ” 55°6
11-60 TA iso k SiN: 68:9 |
[Gelicoe et seers 97-4
09°13 1 teks | 36901°5
06-48 1h ey es ” 39-2
04:80 1b of a 60°6 |
03°40 In a 35 79:8
01-2 1b is 10°8 | 37009-8
00-29 | | 4 . if 22-7
2699-70 | ea ee oF al 30°3
98°47 SC ey py | 47-2
95-53 2 ro 87:5
94°16 3 39 An 37106°5
93°62 | 3 + Fi 13°8
| eG cA 22:5 |
92-71 | pare 7 = 26-4
92:11 | ery AL op 34°8
90-63 | | ata eee o 55°2
89-56 a2 ES Sy 70°1
” ” 93:7
86-42 | | 4 F » | 37213-5
83°46 | | J pe or 54°65
82:31 | | 5 * a 70°5
81°88 RoI 9 9 76°6 |
78°78 | 5 . 109 | 37319-9 |
75°6 | Ib AS 3 63-9
71:06 2 ss = 37427°4
” el 41-0
69°53 | 2 rill ret 48-7
67°89 [ez xs a 728

186 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

ZIRCONIUM—continueéd.

Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum
= su fa —_____________.______} Reduction to
| Vacuum

Wave-length Inten- | Wave-length / Inten- Oscillation

— zig, 3. 2 Ua tae | sity ne
Rowland | Exner | Las | Exner 'D 3 ane j | Sieteor

and =; and |i ceter |. 22 ee "|, LORS 1416 teed ot | |
Harrison Haschek | | Haschek | by ca Lem Lie |

| | 2665-23 1 0-77 | 10-9 | 37509-3
| | | 64:40 | 4 eS ee 21:0
62-58 | 1 is 3 46°6
61-98 | 1 z _ 55-1
2658-80 1 ” ” 37600°0 |

) 56°58 | 4 < - 31:5

5048 | 1 50°45 2 0:76 | 11:0 | 37718-2
| 47-91) 1 ool Lae 546 |
| 47°34 2 Ee i; 62:8 |
| | 43-90 5 . 5 37811:9
| ao 1 43°46 | 1 Fs ‘ 17:9
| | 42-6 | lb 3 ; 30°5 |
| | 41-48 | 2 ea: 46-6
39:19 | 2 39°17 | 3 - 4 796

38-78 1 . ‘ 85°3

35°54 1 < ”» 37931°9

34:39 2 > 48-4

30:97 | 2 30-99 4 < 11-1 97°6

30°55 1 | . 38003°8

28°32 4 : ij 36-0

27-04 1 ; i 54:6

26°52 | 1 26°51 | 1 ; = 62-2

22°85 | A (Ss, ye 38115°4

21-34 | 2 ‘ 37°3
20°70 | 8 ; 5 46°6 |

19-29 | In 5 ” 67°5

18-48 | 1 79:0

16-06 | In 4 j 382143

15°65 In : 20:3

13°70 1 99 + 48°8

197 | 1 k ; 69°8

11°99 1 : 74:2

09°53 1 09-80 2 0°75 5 38308-0

08°72 In ea 11-2 | 21°8

07:08 1 ef ail 45°9

06-43 1 ~ vay 555

04-93 In ” 33 775

04°30 In as ya 86-9

00°45 In |. os... OY a ieeadtoet

2599-45 1 ” ” 58°5

93-78 5 : > 38542°6

2589°15 | 1 89:13 3 vs : 38611°6

83°74! 1 F 11:3 92:9

83°50 | 1 | (83°49 | er 55. 1, erat 96-0

| | 74:03 | 1 e za 38838°3

71°52 | 3 | 71:50 | 8 bef ite 76-4

68:96 2 68-99 | fen7 ote 38914:7

6772 2 | 673 5 | (ab | 336

67°54; 1 aulv ane 36-4

67:19 1 67°18 2 a < 41:8

58°15 In 0-74 4, -—-- 39079°3

51°60 ee i » | 391812

5086 2 50°86 Kessel ee ee | 91-1

Rowland | Exner

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 187

Wave-length

Are Spectrum

and

Harrison | Haschek

ZIRCONLUM—-continued.

Spark Spectrum

and

Inten-
sity

Wave-length

2550°64
42°22
39°74

32°57
32°52

04:07

2457:05
49:95

42°10

19°51

05°61

2387-26
84-25

ee

_ pe

—

2542-21
35-28 |

32°60

22-03
17-00
13°15
12°81
12-20
09-25
04:10

2496-61

| Lohse

____| Reduction to

Inten- |

_| sity |

| and |

Cha-

|
| racter

i

el

Bate De et ee ee et et et

=]

EM eT rah = TN et Ae la oe

5

BO ee DD BD ND et ae feet fat
BB

Vacuum
ee
1 my
ee te
0-74 | 11-4
so WAL
» | 116
0-731 vs
” ”
SO hates
” 9
sol pg
0-72 | 11-9
AR es
| 120
hetee:
tba tae
.” | ””
| 182
O7L.f oe
| 128
3° ”
2? | ””
| B64

(Oscillation

= Frequency)

in Vacuo |
|

39194°1

mo
=e

=)
we bo
Now
om bo

aS
o
—_
f—)
to
oo

716-6 |
| 419205 |.

188

ZIRCONUIM—continued.

Are Spectrum

Spark Spectrum

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Reduction to

Wave-length | Inten- Wayvye-length Inten- Yoor Oscillation

| sity sity 4 pee

ae ere | an Exner Teena oa A 1 Fiteeee.

an an and 5 ohse ? =>
Harrison Haschek | cis Haschek| %®Y racter | ** x

2383°62 | 1 0-71 | 12:4 | 41940:

82°71 1 oe 12°5 56°5

ae] | abt | ee
| | 80°4 In * 5 42097:
2374:54 , 1 ee 5 42100°9
Wsi5 | 2 53 ee 14:9

73°26 | 1 ” ” 23°6

73°04 1 73°02 2 0:70 “ 27°7

70:27 In FE: ES 76°8

63°97 ep e 12:6 | 42289°1

61:87 1 3 fe 42326°7
| 59°2 lb 5 55 75°

57°52 1 57°50 4 ns ” 42405:0

53°29 1 a AEE f 81:0

51°77 Da nets 3 42508°5

51°28 ae ak ” 17:3

51:02 1 a ah 22:0

47°50 1 Bs ys 85°8

47°23 1 os 33 90°7

42°45 In 5 te TV7

36°58 | In Ae 12°8 | 42784°8
31:6 lb ee “6 42876-

30°44 3 - 3 97°5

24°89 3 0°69 53 42900-0

24-60 1 - 12°9 | 43015-2

22°58 1 - = 42-7

22-00 1 yp = 53-4

17°33 3 33 AS 43140-2

13°53 1 ae 13:0 | 43211-:0

08°18 | 2 a 5 43311:2

03°18 | 1 33 . 43405°2
01°6 In - es 35°

| | 2296-96C 3 we ied =
95°59 | 3 a ae 48:

2294-18 | 1 94:14 | 3 5: f 159

91-25 1 91-22 | 3 9 % 43631°5

| 86°73 | 3 55 13:2 | 43717-4

| 80:43 1 33 % 43838°2

77°27 1 0°68 ay 99-0
765 In o 5 43914:

27°88 In 0°67 | 13-7 | 44972-0

2163°81 3 0°66 | 14:2 | 46200°6

38°70 | In ey 14:4 | 46743-0

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

—p. 1085.

LANTHANUM.

189

‘ Exner and Haschek, ‘Sitzungsb. kais. Akad. Wiss. Wien,’ cviii. Abth, Ila.

Exner and Haschek, ‘ Wellenliingen Tabellen der Bogenspektren der Elemente.’
Rowland and Harrison, ‘ Astroph. J.’ vii. p. 387 (1898).
. Lohse, ‘ Astroph. J.’ vi. p. 106 (1897); ‘Berlin Akad.’ (1897).
, Wolff, ‘Zs. wissensch. Phot.’ iii. p. 395,
Kellner, ‘ Das Lanthanspektrum,’ Inaug. Diss. Bonn (1904),
Kayser, ‘ Abh. Berl, Akad.’

K—Observed also by Kellner.

Ky—Observed also by Kayser.

Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum
Reduction to
Wave-length Inten- Wayve-length Tntene Veegur Oscillation
sity sity | _———————sd| Frequency
and and | in Vacuo
| Rowland Exner _ | Exner
and Wolff and | a and Lohse ees At+ ie
Harrison Haschek | *°"®" | Haschek | sagets | A
5930-330 1 162 | 46 | 16857-9
5874:941 In | | 1:60 oF 17016°8
74:200 In | as oy: 19-0
63-902 2 | rs = 48-9
55°792 I | ” ”» 72°5
48-584 In 1:59 4: 93°6
45243 In en oA 17103°3
29-929 In 3 4:7 48-2
24-037 1 | aS ec 65:5
22°185 1 ce bn 71:0
08-524 2 | 1:58 Ge IP alizealiie!
05-984 2 jets a 18°9
5795°785 4 |» a 52°1
91-539 4 Nless a 61-9
89-438 6 “C aS 68-1
69°545 5 | 1:57 oF 27°7
69-285 5 ap co 17328°5
62-044 | 5762-040 6 ” ” 50°3
44:625 44-619 | 6 oe » | 17402-9
*s 43-136 | 2r _ S| 07:4
40°871 40°862 6 1°56 se ai] 14:3
35°159 35°152 2n | ” yar} | 31:6
| & 27°481 3 ry “ed 55:0
| 20-223 20-222 2n / as 48 77:0
14-736 2n 3 93-8
14230 3 re a 95-4
12°612 5 Et s 17500°3 |
| 3 11‘014 2n ES be kr 05:2
03-530 03-470 1 he oe al 28:3
| 02:765 | 2 iy ess cr 30°5
01:352 2n i ae be 34:9 |
00-448 | 3n “4 aK 37°7 |
5699-584 *| 3n ” ” 40°3 |
96-400 6 ne el 5071 |
90-615 | In Er ce 68:0 |
83-897 In ” F 88-8 |

REPORTS ON

LANTHANUM— continued.

THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum
Reduction to
Wave-length fee Wave-length Iinten= Leah Oscillation
jee ee Pee On, agit gto lh Selhiyg CME pity”) 22 ee Frequency
and and in Vacuo
| Rowland Exner | qp,. | Exner Cha- 1
and Wolff and eat on and Lohse | yacter A+ ar
Harrison Haschek Haschek :

5682-446 In 1:55 | 4:8 17593°3
5671°765 | 71-753 3 53 » | 17626°4
| '70°190 In =f PP 313

67°801 In _ = 38:1

64-786 In 1°54 ae 48-1

61°587 In 3 bs 58°3

57 ‘940 57 ‘927 5 ” ” 69°5
| 56°786 2 ” ” 731

55:059 2r 7% 5 94°]

48-444 10 a 95 99°2

39°491 6 ss P 17727°3

32°213 6 As “ -50°2

| 31-423 8 3 = 52:7

13-074 in 1°53 “A 17810°7

10°765 In » ea 18:1

5591-705 1 5 4:9 78°7

5588°558 88544 KK 6 1°52 3 88°8

82°168 In - » | LI9126

78:218 In ” ” 22°0

70°586 2 3 5 46:5

68-674 68°674 IX 6 Fi ” 52°8

677140 3 * “ 57:6

65-931 65°935 K 4 s He 6L5

65:660 65'632 5 55 ” 62°5

62-760 In : 71:8

45°132 45°136 3 151 E 18028:9

41°472 7 a rf 40°8

35°889 35°889 K | 5 = 580

32°261 3 “5 ; 70°9

30°095 4 - 6 78:0

26-730 2n . el 89:0

24°615 2n fc » «| 95-9

17°562 17°563 K 4 P » | Suro

15°502 15:493 5 | hance 25°8

| 07-550 In 1:50 ee 52°0

06°211 K 6 3 FP 56°4

04021 04:013 K 6 + 50 63°5

02°878 02°861 3 5 ot et 67°3

02°465 02°449 3 5 ee. 68:7

91°559 01°545 K 9 35 75:0

| : 5498:907 2n fe ; 80-4

5493°656 93°654 K + P “we | 97°8

| 91:277 91:252 3 PA 31 | 18205°7

_— 87:014 In ss ay 199

82-474 | 82-465 K 5 3 si 35:0

80°940 80-916 2n I sens S 40+]

75°450 75°358 5 | 1-49 "ah 58°5

| 67°113 4 BA at 86'2

64574 | 64-568 K 4 Pe ‘ 94:7

58°887 58-876 2 4 % 18313°7
55351 | 65°340 K 8r 3 3 25:2 7

| 37-748 3 1-48 4 816

|| 22°312 2 9 0 37°3

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

LANTHANUM—continued.

Arc Spectrum

Wave-length

et as ee eee ee

Rowland :
and Wolff
Harrison
5415°873
5381-168 | 5381-187 K
80-214
77°265 77:290 K
. 66:077
59-911
58-044 58-060
40°836 40°879 K
23°745
20°335
07-715
04-187
03-708 03°727 K
02°793 02-813 K
02°135 02-159 K
5290°988 | 5291-010 K
87°596
79°303
76°586
71°337 71°359 K
59-539 59°549 K
58-019
53°621
40°981
39°716
38°277
34°435 34:445 K
12°014 26°362
12°037 K
| 04293 04321
5488°371 | 5188-374 K
84:063
83-664 83°584 K.
79°275
77453 77-471 K
74015
73°065
67°958
64°197
63°768 63°787 K
58°846 58°863 K
57°582 57°612 K
56-888 56°910 K
45°582 45°594 K
| ; 35°621
23°149 23°160 K
[ 21:040
14°723 14°732 K
09-290
06°395 06:414 K
s 03°310
5096:799
90:733

Spark Spectrum pare’:
—~ | eres 2e : =— tats sae to
| acuum
Tate Wave-length Inten- f
yee sity Blips oe
| Exner at Exner ane : 1 |
and | sacter |. and Lohse | yacter| ** ae
Haschek Haschek
3 1:48 | 5:0
4 re) ”
| 93
3 | ”
2 | = 5:1
1 146
3n | 2 ”
| 3 A a9
9 1-45 ;
] | = ,
2 if
3 x
4 5
5 Nike a2
6 emer 23
4 | °° 9?
In 1-44 ;
2 x
3 ce
4 $3
3 9
1 cote |
5 bed
3 1-43
OA aa
In “=
5 3
2 ” ?
8 1-42 7
5 “a 5°3
8 3 be
4 Se a
7n ”
2 | ee Ss
6 | 1:41 a
3 ” >
2 3°
3 ” ”
In C?| * B
3 FP 3
i Pe >
3 3s a
3 | * €
4 s si
ln 1-40 ”
6 . >
2 me o
6 | 5-4
Ip ” ”
4 9 39
In ” / ”
In 1:39 ; ”
1

18359-2

19]

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo |

78:2
815 |
91:7
18630°5
61:9
58:4
18718°5
78-7
80-7
18835°4
47°9
49°6
52°7
55:1
94°8

| 66-4

| 89-7
196148
38:1 |

192 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

LANTHANUM—continued.
a ee ee ee eee

Arc Spectrum Spark Spectrum
= Reduction to
Wavye-length Inten- Wave-length | Inten- bie Oscillation
~ eRe A its sity é we | sity ___|Frequency
and and in Vacuo
Rowland Exner | Ghg. | Exner Ghia. - 1
and Wolft and racten and Lohse | Ricien At x-
Harrison Haschek Haschek
5080°384 In 1:39 | 5-4 19678:2
79°546 In = He 81:4
79°119 In ” ” 83:1
72-295 In ” 2 19709°4
68-040 2 ” ” 26°1
6063:097 63-070 2n 1:38 ” 45°5
56°628 56°628 3 Pe ” 70°6
50°734 60°737 3n ” ” 93°7
48-182 - + 19803°7
47051 | 47-043 3n ” ” 08-2
19-685 2n 1:37 | 5°5 19916°1
02°305 02-282 2n ao: We as 85°4
01-979 01°960 2n ” ” 19986°5
4999°642 | 4999-641 K 8 39 ” 95:9
96°974 2 ost bees 20006°6
94°821 In ” ” 15°2
94-024 3 a 7 18-4
91°452 91°436 K 4 ” ” 28°8
87:059 86°989 K 6 1:36 7 46°9
85-089 In =f 4 54:3
78096 2 a s 82°5
70°566 70°552 K 5 s z 20112°9
68°757 In re : 20°2
64:982 1 or Fs 35°65
56°230 In 4 rr 711
52°238 §2°213 3 A-35'Aies 87°4
49°947 49°940 Kk 5 ss kes 96°8
46-602 5 55 x 20210°4
46:004 1 * < 12:9
35°773 2 a 56 54°6
35°003 34°999 K t 55 2 57°8
25°553 1 ; a: 96°7
21-979 21°952 K 7 oe > 20311°5
217149 21-129 K 7 ” ” 14:9
16°780 In 1°34 ni 32°9
05:294 2 oy: ta ROS 80°5
02-037 3 x. QS 94:1
00-096 00:085 K 7 °° 20402°2
4894-414 In 5 cies 25:9
87-780 2n son hes 53°8
86°990 In xe eee 569
79-020 3 Pit 5 90°3
70°734 2 1°33 oe 20525°2
69:077 In ” ” 31°8
4861:081| 61°:062 K 6 > 5-7 65°9
55°110 3 cs Bs 91:2
51°000 50°978 3n Pe AS 20608°5
50°772 50°742 3n a oo 09°6
43°452 In ae pS 40°7
40°203 40°183 4 1°32 ns 54°6
39°697 39°689 4 vy | Pa, 56°8
30°682 2 a 54 95'3
27°031 3 eee) ae 20710°9

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES oF THE sPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 193

Hy

LANTHANUM-~ continucd.
| Arc Spectrum Spark Spectrnm
— - —— —| Reduction to
Wave-length Inten- Wave-length Tete Vacuum oempetin |
: : requency
BUY doh) nto sity in Vacuo |
and and
Rowland Exner | gpa. | Exner ia 1
and Wolff and racter | __ and Lohse | acter | &+ ap
Harrison | Haschek Haschek
4824-239 | 4824-220 K 7 Its Payer 29723°0
17°333 2r + » 52°7 |
09°690 5 ” ” 85°7
09°183 09°182 K 6 a ” 87'9
04°219 04:218 K 6 131 » 20809°3
00°426 3 ” ” 25'8
: 00°178 3 ” ” 26°9
4796°862 | 4796°864 3n 9 » 41°2
94:749 2n 9 % 50°4
92°644 In 99 » 59°6
91°570 1 PB % 64:3
80°734 In ” 58 20911°5
80°082 3 ” ” 14:3
75°339 2 ” ” 35°1
70°629 5 2 ” 55'8
67:073 67°085 K 6 PP) 9 71-4
59°890 In 1°30 3 210031
58°586 In ” ”» 08'8
57°744 In x 29 12°6
57°342 In 43 29 14:3
57°147 In 2 PP) 15:2
53°305 In ” ” 32:2
53-000 In e ” 33°5
52°561 2 » ” 35°5
50°593 5 ” ” 44:2
48°911 48°897 K 6 % % 51:7
43°273 43°255 K 9 cr ” 76°7
42°289 In 93 ” 811
40°433 8 a ” 89°3
39°961 3 99 ” 91-4
37°494 In 99 » 21102°4
33°978 3 = 93 18:0
: 29°273 In 1:29 29 39°1
28°594 28°555 K 8 ve ” 42°3
24°565 K 5 ” 2» 60°2
23°862 3 a 2 63°3
20°827 In Pr ” 76°9
20°081 8 F + 80°3
19°212 In 3 3 84°2
17-743 5 “ = $0°8
16°704 Pe ” 95°4
16594 K 5n 95:9
16°631 In of 73 21200°3
14°307 3 5 re 06°2
13081 8 of »» 11-7
08°350 6 ” “n 3371
03429 03°446 K 3 39 59 55°1
02-809 In 9 ” 58-0
| 4699-811 | 4699-796 K 2n ”» ” 71:6
92-680 92°681 K 6 | 4692:67 3 a ” 213039
91:364 91344 K 4 1:28 ig 09:9
88-824 In oa os 21°4
71:994 | 72-005 K 1|4672-00 3 72:00 ) | 3 2 % 8:2
1908,

194

LANTHANUM—continued.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

Are Spectrum

Spark Spectrum

—— Reduction to
Wave-length Tethers Wave-length atane Mga St
ay sity
Rowland © Exner _ Exner and
and | Wolff and oat and Lohse hao | ae Ee
Harrison Haschek Haschek a
4669-080 | 4669-097 K | 4669-09 4 4669-10 3 1:28 | 59
63-943 | 63:°972 K 63°95 A 63°97 4 S "
62°678 _ 62°718 K 62°69 5 62°73 3 - +
| 60°907 2C? 35 x
55°667 55°714 K 55°67 Goa, Pop 6 33 3
| 52-290 K 52°30 1 | 1:27 >
50°528 2 = an
48°844 K 48°78 San a BS
47:°673 2? | 47°64 i 9s *
46°542 1 $3 J
45-488 K 45°44 4 | 45°46 1 " -"
36°603 In | 36°60 In os 6:0
20:054 20°059 K 20°02 3 20:06 | 4619-93 5 ss *
15:240 Ky 2n : 1-26 ms
13°557 13°576 13°53 5 13°60 13°54 4 af =
05:951 05-962 05°95 3 05:99 06:00 2 Ve %
05-268 ins % Bs
04-410 Ky In - -
02-213 02-20 2n | a ee
4596°353 2 “i 5
81°383 Ky 2n | en sy
4580-245 80°249 K | 4580-25 5 4580°28 | 4580°37 3 1-25 ”
75059 75073 K 75°03 7 75°08 75°05 4 Ay »
71:144 Ky 2n re Pa
70°215 70-210 K 70°20 5 70°28 70°33 J 95 =
68-094 68-095 K 68-07 5 68°15 68-20 In 3 “
65-023 Ky 65-03 2 35 x6
59-467 K 59°46 4 59°51 59°57 2 . 671
58-660 58°650 K 58°62 7 58°66 58°72 4 cs ‘
52°677 Ky 52°65 2n = 35
50-956 507948 50°95 2n - -
50°337 50°333 Ky In % ”%
49-679 49-682 K 49-67 5 AS 3
41:953 41°95 2 1:24 %
30°755 Ky In - 5
26-293 26-287 K 26°27 6 26°30 26°33 5 ¥ =
25°466 25°480 K 25°45 4 25°45 25°50 4 3 55
22-544 22-550 K 22°55 tp 22°61 22°62 8 3 a
01-761 K 01°73 2n 1-23 =
00-411 K 00°36 | 4 00-4 In 3 6
4499-223 | 4499-240 K | 4499-20 2 4499-0 In + 3
94°869 K 94°85 3 5 6:2
93-986 Ky 2 me =
93-308 93°26 3 i
91-951 Ky 91:90 | 2Y? “ fe
86°244 K 86°19 3 fe .
79-990 Ky 79°96 2 "3 3
74-716 Ky 3 ” ”
74-232 Ky In ” ”
69-144 K 69:15 3 ; P
55-965 55°985 K 55°97 5 55°99 | 4456-07 2 1-22 ”
55°402 Ky 2n ” ”
54-018 Ky 2n ” ”

Oscillation)

21411°5
35°1

22105-2
22207°5
14:2
20:0
41-4
458
49-2
56:2
84:3
22315°4
416
44-0
69-4
22435°4
38°5
45-4

ON WAVE-LENGTH 'TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 195
LANTHANUM—continued.
Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum
: ‘Reduction to |
Wave-length | Inten- Wave-length | Inten- | Nepenee Oscillation
ce a ee TSE GR ape Bae ea OS) 5 al ae ES gies ea
| in Vacuo
eeriend Ee cee one ee ae a / wl 1
an 0. an an ohse | | =
Harrison Haschek | Haschek pol ¥
| i}
4452°327 | 4452-338 K 4452-34 5 | 1:22) 6:2 | 22453:9 |
45°289 Ky 2003 Ps a! 89°5 |
44-369 K 44:37 2n | ” ” 94-2 |
: 44-119 Ky In | % ” 95°4 |
: 42-839 K 42°80 3 ” » | 22502°0°)
40-902 In 33 al 11:7 |
37-086 2 | asta 3l-1 |
36:013 K 35°98 3n (4436-02 | 4436-11 1 3 2» | 36°5 |
35°392 In 35°29 1 tiga , 40-0 |
35°139 4. | He os fat 41-0
33°121 Ky | 33°15 33°22 aa ee, By i] 51:0
32-296° In ” ” | 55°5
30:075 30°064 K 30:09 12 30°11 30°26 SP Be 63 | 66-4 |
27°741 27°750 K 27°73 6n 27°73 27°84 5 | 99 ” 78°5 |
| 25°598 In 25°73 So it ae 55 ” 89-2
24-082 24-080 K 24-06 4 24-08 24°18 In ” ” 97:2
| 23°354 In 23°37 23°42 In Py ” 22600°8
19-329 19-328 K 19-27 3 19°30 19°42 | 2 os ” 21°6
B 17:276 In ” ” 32:1 |
13-612 In | 33 “S 50°9 |
11°379 11°382 Ky 2 11°45 1155) In a > 62:0 |
| 03-195 Ky 3 | | 2 » 22704-5
02°825 K 02°82 3n | ee A 06:4
4397-207 In | i abe 35-1 |
| 96-958 2n ” ” | 36°7
. 96-477 K Ky Qn | eeu, lsloses
93°778 K Ky 3 | 1:20 | 53°2 |
90-060 K 4390:05 Si * eet 72°5
4385°364 85°380 K Ky 85:34 | 4 | 4385-37 | 4385-45 3 ” ale] 96°7
83-624 83-62 4n 83°62 83°70 | 6 ” %» 22805-7
; 80°721 K 80°70 3 Pe a3 21-0
} 79°421 In } 3 Bait 278
78°274 78-280 K 78°23 7n 78:24 78:04 3 3 renal 34:1
68-071 In A 6-4 87:0
64°845 K 64°80 6 | 64:85 Ce | 3 a * 22904-0
63°221 63-2361 Ky 3 63°25 GS San ech Lae Apr 2 12-2
: 61:024 1 | | 93 ” 24:0
60°649 2n Ti? 4 | 26-0
58°085 Ky 2- me Wik ss Ss 39°5
>| * 64972 K 54°96 | 4 ' ; 1:19 Cy 55°9
54-565 54:570 K 54°56 7: | 84:54 54°64 6-- 3 | 58-0 |
=: 53°987 ede oss ae ret 61:0 |
2 40°898 K 40:90 3 i 99 »» | 23030°3
| 40°105 Ky 40-09 1 ie » | 34°5
- 39°600 K 39°60 In : oe Piast 37-2 |
38°25 ae brag Soe Peal 44-4
P ee ; 37°95 In 3 » | 460
.85°134 35°135 K 35°13 5 35°18 35°27.) 5 ” » | 60°8 |
33°934 33°933 K 33°98 | 15 33-97 34:08 | 12 7 3 | 67°1 |
22°673 K 22-69 6 ; 6 2 9 | 281274
18825 ] 22/19 18:90 | 1:18 | 47°38 |
16-076 | 16-068 K 16-08 | 4 1604 | 1612) 1 ! ,, » | 628
11°902 K 11°99 So | | lo» ow | i B52 |

196 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

LANTHANUM— continued.

Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum
Bed = == = Reduction to
Wave-length intent Wave-length Tatone Yeotre ‘Oscillation |
A 4 Vere es sity ne Pall _| sity |__| requency |
| Howland meee | Hone a Exner ak aut, = 4 in Vacuo
an te) an an ohse |, ——
Harrison Haschek cine Haschek | en A
| = peeres ee : Ve ae ae
4306:160 K | 4306-16 3n 1:18 | 6:5 23216-
4302-699 02°689 K In 4302°70 1 » ” 34:7
| 00°782 00°606 K 00°59 3 4300°59 00°62 3 by ” 45°6 |
4296-210 | 4296-213 K | 4296-23 9 4296:21 | 4296-25 | Tr ” ” 69-7
87:128 87:137 K 87°10 8 87:09 87:12 | 15 ” ” 23319°2
83°180 1 1 » ’ 406
82-560 2 82:23 A ” 44:9
80-418 80:429 K 80°43 4 80-44 80°45 2 ur br fe 55°6
75-797 75802 K 75°81 4 75°80 75°82 4 PY ” 80:9
74:27 6 ”? > 89:3
69-662 K 69°64 6 69°65 10 oc ” 23414°6
63°742 63°750 K 63°75 6 63°73 63°76 7 * ” 47-1
62-510 K 62°51 3 9 ” 53°8
57:086 K 57:06 3 - - 83-7
54:504 1 a5 = 97°9
507144 50°170 K 50°14 4 50°22 50°26 5 is 6-6 23521°8
38°543 38°558 K 38°55 | 15 38°57 38°67 9 1:16 » 86:2
31:107 31:122 K 31:11 4 31:10 31°26 | 5 3 . 23627°7
26°898 6 27°03 6 »» ” 51:0
17°733 17:716 K 17°70 6 17:70 17°85 8 ” ” 23702°8
| 15-683 2 15°85 2 Pr = 13°9
| 04:218 04:195 K 04:18 5 04:20 04:26 4r 115 : 79:1
4196°710 K_ | 4196-70 9 4196°74 | 4196-69 8 os 6:7 23821°5
pees \ 1 94°57 | 9453| 2Qnr! ,, | ,, 338
92-501 92-507 K 92-49 6 92°50 92°47 6. EES ” 45°5
87-472 K 87°47 6 87:49 Lt as ” 74:0
77°634 K 77°65 3 a ra 23930-2
| 72-467 K 72°48 3 = = 59°9
71:878 Ky 2n 71:88 1 3S % 63°3
| 71-257 71-27 2 » ” 66°9
| 63°461 63°50 3 63°50 In 114 - 24011-6
61°44 2 Fr B 23°5
60:408 K 4 60°43 1 9 ” 29°3
57-6538 K 57°68 1 % ” 44:3
| 54-120 2 ” ” 65-8
| 62-915 K 52°94 4 52°97 52-99 5 v2, ~ [eles 72°65
§2-119 52-108 kK 52°14 2 52°17 52°17 9 ” | ” 76°2
| 44-092 44°10 2n 44:07 1 sot ok (MAGES 24124-0
| 41-872 41-871 K 41-92 9 41:90 41°95 8 99 “99 36°5
| 37°182 K 37:25 3 37°21 1 39, 2h |thaaes 64°]
| 33°5 1b :. SS 85°8
32°7 | lb S5 By 90-5
| 1923-394 23°379 K 23°38 8 23°39 23°46 | 20r UGH TS ae a 24245°0
17°836 K 17°85 an" | 55, sues 7178
13°55 Ubini|ees 5: 24303°1
| 09-965 K 09°95 2 ” ” 24:3
09°641 K 09°65 In + a E- 26-2
05-026 05:029 K 05-04 5) | (05:07 05:07 1 % ss 53°5
4099-678 | 4099°695 K_ | 4099-70 6 4099-71 | 4099-73 ah ”» ” 85-0
95-278 3 » 6-9 24411°5
90-920 4 | a NB 37-5

LANTHANUM—continued.

Are Spectrum

Spark Spectrum

Wavye-length [Inten-| | Wave-length
_| sity ay
Rowland Exner ie Exner
and Wolff and acter and Lohse
Harrison Haschek Haschek |
4090-547 1
90-167 Te) 4
89-752 | 4089-767 K 4089-75 1 | 4089°76 4089-85
86-848 86-866 K 86°86 | 10 | 86:90 86:97
79°327 K 79:32 | 3 79°37 79°47
78-890 1
77°856 77°96
77-503 | 77-487 K 77-50 | 10 W751 77°58
76-845 | 76-853 76-87 | 3 76-89 | 76-97
67°519 | 67-547 K 67:56 | 6 67-52 67°61
65715 | 65-734 K 65°75 | 3 65°75 65°82
64:922 , 64939 K 64:95 | 4 64:94 64:99
63°735 | Poa
62:888 | In
60:459 60°476 K 60°50 | 5 60°52 60°51
59°633 |
In 58°30
| 60:217 | 50:241K 50°24; 5 50°25 50°27
| 45°962 | 10 4601
| 43:070 43:066 K 43:04 | 8 43°18 43°11
37°371 K 37:26 | 4 37°35 37°44
36°974 In
36°747 K In 36°74 36°78
35878 In 35°90
35°328 ln
31°847 31848 K S85) | 7 31:86 31-88
26:013 26:038 K 26:01 5 26-03 26-08
25-786 3
23-999 4
23°717 23°734 K 23:74 | 3 23°72 23°79
15°531 15°557 K 15°52 | 4 15°56 15°44
13-535 il
13°399 1
07°82
| 3995-903 | 3995-911 K 3995°90 | 10 oer ae
4-67
88-669 88-668 K 88°69 | 10 88-66
81°55
79°3
66°3 Nd?
62:3 |
53°827 53°82 1
53°2
49-256 49-240 K 49-27 | 12 49°22
36°351 36°367 K 36:35 | 6 36°40
29°359 K 29°34 | 8 29-40
27°709 K 27:69 | 3 27:72 |
21-684 K 21°69 | 8 21°71 |
16-053 16186 K Ky 16:16 | 7 16°21 |
| 10952 Ky 2
| O02717K | 02-72) 2
| | 3898-743 K /3898°84 | 2

--—s

4

Inten- |
sity |

and

Cha- |
racter |

~_
— i
Oo

be be > bb bo

_

_—
me OO Te

mb
Lr]

_
eS)

moo

{ WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Reduction to

Vacuum
x eH
A
113 | 6:9
Pia,

i

197

O

i

| 24439°7

v1}

scillation

Frequency

n Vacuo |

42:0.

44:3

61:6
24506°5 |

09°6 |

OO
Tan)

>
~~)
5S

198 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

LANVHANUM—continued.

ores a = ~ aces ee

Are Spectrum Spark Spectrum |
= ba == = Reduction to
Wave-length Inten-| Wave-length Tmtene oe Oscillation |

tes iS : Lee gfe bed PeRIEY sity |___—=——————s| Frequency
idersiits (aoe Ip OE a eee in Vacuo |
eeelead Stas por | Gha- tree a Cha- = 1
an to) an. an ohse at 5 }
Harrison / Hasachek | T@¢ter Haschek zee r

| 3895°801 3895'80 | 3 1:07 | 73 | 25661-4

3886-495 86°464 K 86°50 | 8 3886°51 15 2 ” 25722°8

83°955 2 ” ” 39°7

71-764 K 71:30 | 8 71°89 20 a re 25820°4

64°67 Sig |e PS 68:1

55-60 3 1:06 ce 25929-0

49-167 K 49:14) 7 49-20 10 + sail 72:3

46°784 “6 35 bul 88-5

46°15 | 2 46:16 3 ES A 92-7

4)°831 K 40°88 | 6 40°92 5 FS cr. 26028-4

38°42 | 2 | “e = 45:1

35°24 | 2 35°29 5 of eal 66°5

32°46 | 2n me He) 85°6

08-89 | 2 1:05 | 7:4 26248-0

: 05°57 1 a spent 69:9

3794:916 K | 3794-90 | 10 3794-99 | 50 oa » | 26343°5

3793-904 7 > Fe De 50:7
90-953 90°967 K 90:99T Ps 91-02 50 » 2 | 71:0
87°31 2 FS seal 96°6

84:945 84:95 | 2 84:95 2 “ “ 26413:0

84:02 1 BS rr 19-5

83-67 1 * “5 22:0

80-823 K 80°84 | 3 80°85 SUD iis ” 41:8

80-70 2 “" as 42°7

79°88 1 a Fp 48°5

73°8 2b 1-04 - 91-1

73°30 2 3 5 94:5

66°76 1 “5 26540°5

59-217 59-227 K 59°22 | 8 59°33 20 zs “ 93°6

| 48-2 1b oe _ 26672-0

36:6 2nr} 1:03 5 267548

35-988 3 36°02 1 ” ” 59-1

35-001 3 “ 66:3

. 31-6 In “A 7 90°7

25-199 K 25°21 | 2 25°24 3 AS 76 | 26836°5

24:921 a “6 38-7

15°675 K 15°66 | 6 15°67 t 7 a 26905-5

15014 K 15°02 | 5 15:03 3 Ay * 10-1

13-696 K 13-69 | 6 13°71 6 ~ “ 19-7

05-968 K 05°94 | 5 06-02 5 "i os 75:9

04-660 04°65 | 4r “5 “s 85-5

01°945 1 01:9 nr or. oe 27005°2

01:47 1 ay 3 08:7

3699-684 1 Ee 9 ” 21:7

; 3694:25 Inr]} 1:02 se. 61:5
3€80-048 a 7°77 | 27165°8
727147 72164 K | 3672-13 | 2 65:5 Ib ” ” 27224:3
Si 62-220 K 62°24 | 2 62°24 3 “ * 98-0
58:7 ln ‘A Ay 27324-4

50°313 60°328 K 50°38 | 4 50°31 4 1:01 By ge 8771

- 49°661 49-663 49°69 | 4 49-66 1 1 Py * 92:0
45°547 45°561 K 45°58 | 5 45°57 8 ” » | 27422-9

—— ae

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 199

LANTHANUM—continued.

Are Spectrum

Spark Spectrum

Wave-length Inten Wave-length
sity és
Rowland Exner fo Exner
and Wolff and eee and Lohse
Harrison Haschek Haschek
2641-675 | 3641-677 K | 3641-69 4 3641°8
37°303 K 37°30 3 37°45
36°819 K 36°80 2
28-980 K 28°97 3 29-00
21-893 In 21°96
13-249 K 13°24 2
12-496 K 12°50 1 12°53
10°5
| 09°4
01-201 K 01-19 1 01°20
3593°443 2
81:994 K 2 3582-0
80°3
791
3574:565 | 74:561 KK | 3574-57 4 74:60
66°254
63-943
60°726
; 07°88
57-396 57°40 2
53°732
50-962 K 50-98 1 50°98
45:095 3 45:0
37-626
34-713
30-805 30°79 i 30°80
28-726
17°26
14-191 14-209 K 14:20 3
13-050 13-064 13-07 3 13:06
10-121 10°133 K 10°14 3 10°13
3480-750 3480°77 1 F
3461°327 61:331 K 61:30 2
53°312 53°311 K 53°30 3 3453°32
52-330 52-354 K 52°33 3 52°35
50°785 50°79 ii
11°95
04-653 04:61 1
| 3397-882 1
88:735 3388-70 3
81°556 81°55 1
3381-046 81:024 K 81:10 8 | 3381°10
76°472 76°451 K 76°48 3 76°45
: 62-167 K 62°17 1
57°603 57°62 1
49°945
44:05 | 44-682 K 44°74 vi 44°71
| 42°356 K 42°38 3
37630 §=©37°611 K 37°66 7 37°67
O7T-:115 K 07-15 1 07:05 |
03°29 5

03241 03-239 K

%
02°26

Inten-
sity
and

Cha-
racter

2b
3

a)

ae

~| Reduction to

Vacuum
re ay eee
A
EO i-7
5 73
” ”
> ”
1:00 “8
” 79
” ”
099 | |.
” ”
” ”»>
9 ”?
re 8-0
0-98 | |.
” ”
”» ”
” 8-1
0:97 a
ae 8-2
0:96 a
” ”
0-95 8:3
” ”
” >
a 8-4
0-94
os 8:5
” ”?
”» ”»
” ”
0-93 =
” 8-6

, Oscillatioz
‘Frequency
in Vacuo

| 27452-1
84°7
88:8
27548°1
27601°8
68°1
73°6
89-2
97-6
27760°7
27820°7
27909°6
22°8

29421:8
63°8

n
Ls)
es)

REFORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

LANTHANUM—continued.

2471-999

Inten-
sity
| and
Cha-

racter

4
3
4

m bobo

—

Se ell Seal el 1°)
PE

5

—_
~
=

Are Spectrum. Spark Spectrum
Wave-length Inten | Wave-length
sity
| Rowland | Exner | ane Exner |
[ao enh Wolff and | radkor and Lohse
Harrison Haschek | | Haschek
3265°795 | 3265-792 K 3265°81 | 5 |3265:79
49-48] 49-483 K 49:50 | 4 49:49
47-159 4715-1. >|
45:250 45-248 K 45:26 | 5 | 45-24 |
36°671
35'763 eek att oe! |
15:935 15°929 K 15°94 | 2
3193°130 K 319315 | 2 3193-09 |
85°505 In
84-087 In
79888 79°91 In
79°46 In
767103 76088 7611 1
71°79 |
48-648
42-831 42-880 K 42-91 2 42°99 |
09-544 K 09:55 | 3
08-568 08°57 | 2
04-702 | 04702K | 04-70] 3 04-76 |
| 3096-124 13096715 | 1
| 109294K | 2
2963-036 Ky 1
50°615 K Ky + 2950-70
2899-861 In |
93-185 K 4 2893-20
85-249 K 4 85:25
80°743 K 2 80°85
63-056 2
59°842 2
56°001 K 3 56-0
48-445 Ls 4
15°450 Ky Ins
08-468 K Ky | 2808-48 | 6 | 08-46
| 2798:645 K 2 2798-65
96-468 Ky Ses,
_ 91-60
80-336 Ky 3° 1 s80:3
29-987 Ky 2
2695-59
85-1
Dice” —S2°5
2677°988
73°03
' 2660-51 1
| 61:78
10:128 K 10°43 | 2b | 10-46
2596-20
60:50
| 19°31
2487°65 |
76-80
} 72:0

Reduction to |

Vacuum

Rete

~| in Vacuo

|

| }
. Oscillation
| Frequency)

- 30611-7
-30765°3
87°4

| 30805°5 ©
| 87-1
95'8
31086-2
31308-4
83-3
97°3
31438°5
42-9

76-1
315189

i)
—_
1
S
~

| 32289-1 |

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, 201

LANTHANUM—continued,

Are Spectrum | Spark Spectrum
—— — - | Reduction to
Wave-length Fest etal es cram ol cea ae Ad” eT
ae mL | sity sity i pai tA8 aay
l | | in
i Rowland | Exner ao) | Exner | ae 1 aa
Pi’and | Wolff and | vacter|..20d _ | Lohse taper 17
Harrison | Haschek | c Haschek 5,
i ) 2399-73 | In O71 12:3 41659-0
79°49 10 125 42013°3
| | 28°87 1 0°70 | 128 | 42926:5
. | 19°55 | 1 0-69 | 1299 43098-9 |
17:90 | 1 5 “5 43129°6
| 2297-85 | 7 | ,, | 131 | 435068 |
56°80 1 | 0°68 | 13:4 | 44297-1
2. | 0-67 | 18°38 | 451101

| 16°12

Colloid Chemistry. By H. R. Procrer, M.Sc.

[Ordered by the General Committee to ke printed in extenso.]

Mopeen colloidal chemistry may be said to begin with the work of
Graham about 1861, though the colloids had long been known to
chemists, and Faraday! had prepared and described colloidal gold
solutions. Graham first pointed out the radical differences between
the colloid and crystalloid state, and introduced most of the nomenclature
: bow in use, such as ‘sol’ and ‘gel’ for the apparent solution and the
precipitate or jelly, and distinguished their various liquid media by the
prefixes ‘hydro-,’ ‘alco-,’ &e. It would be impossible to refer in detail
| to the various workers who have since contributed to its advance, but
the following may be mentioned as marking distinct steps in its progress.
Wiedemann ” showed that the absorption of water by solid colloids is in
its earlier stages accompanied by considerable evolution of heat, actual
solution and the fusion of jellies by absorption, while in gelatinisation
heat is evolved. He later published researches on electrical osmose and
cataphoresis which have important beuirings on colloidal theory. The
work of Van Bemmelen, 1888 e¢ seq., on colloidal jellies and precipitates
is of permanent value, and his theory of the network or cellular structure
of jellies has been very generally accepted by later workers, though, in
your reporter’s opinion, on insufficient evidence. In 1889 M. Carey Lea
published extensive researches on ‘allotropic’ (colloidal) silver,’ and in
1892 Picton and Linder’s work on ‘Solution and Pseudo-solution’ + opened
new ideas on the nature of colloidal solution, and perhaps of solution
in genera]. In 1893 Siedentopf and. Zsigmondy, building on the earlier
work of Tyndall on the scattering and polarisation of light by non-
homogeneous media, invented the ultra-microscope, in which, by a special
_ form of dark-ground illumination, particles which were much too small
3 to give an actual microscopic image were rendered visible as points of

1 Phil. Trans., i. 1857, pp. 145-152; Phil. Mag. (4), 14, 401-417, 512-539,
* Verh. d. physik. Ges. zu Berlin, 1884, p. 44.

% Silliman’s Jour. (3), 87, 476-491, 38, 47-50, 1889,

+ Chem. News and Jour, Ch. Soc,, 1892,

4

202 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

light. By this means the suspended matter in many colloid solutions
has been rendered visible and the number and size of the colloid particles
estimated.

Since sodium and potassium chlorides have been obtained in colloidal
form in organic solvents, it is no longer possible to distinguish between
colloid and crystalloid substances, but only between the colloid and
crystalloid state. In the typical crystalloid solution of an electrolyte
the dissolved body is separated into its molecules, and to a large extent
into individual ions, while in the colloid sol the units of distribution are
either large and often conjugated molecules or more frequently minute
particles composed of many molecules united by cohesive attraction.
Whether there is in principle any clear line dividing these conditions,
or whether they do not rather shade off into each other by insensible
gradations is very doubtful, but in typical cases the distinction is
sufficiently marked. As osmotic pressure, and all its attendant effects
are proportional to the mwmber of the dissolved molecules, and therefore,
for a given quantity of substance inversely to the mass of the molecules
or particles, these physical effects are almost absent in the colloid sol,
and in most cases diffusion, lowering of freezing point, raising of boiling-
point, and a fortiori electric conductivity which demands ionic dissocia-
tion are barely, if at all, perceptible, and may perhaps be attributable
to the traces of electrolyte which appear essential at least to inorganic
colloid solution. In the cases of many organic colloids of known high
molecular weight, boiling- and freezing-point determinations have yielded
numbers not inconsistent with the view that the particles are actual
single molecules. While crystalloid bodies can usually only be separated
from solution by evaporation or freezing of the solvent, or by chemical
changes, colloid sols are unstable, and liable, either spontaneously or
through very slight disturbing causes—such as the addition of an
electrolyte, change of temperature, or concentration—to separate into an
amorphous precipitate, or ‘ gel,’ and the practically pure solvent. While
crystalloid solutions are optically homogeneous, all colloid sols exhibit,
in a greater or less degree, the ‘Tyndall effect’ of scattering and polarising
light, and, in most, minute suspended particles may be detected by the
ultra-microscope. The relation of colloid sols to mechanical suspensions
of very finely divided solids and to emulsions of immiscible liquids is a
very close one, and may depend merely on the size of the particles.
Many sols are visibly opalescent, but those with very small particles
may be perfectly transparent, and metallic sols are often deeply coloured ;
gold sols vary from deep red to bluish violet.

The organic colloid sols differ in many respects from the inorganic,
often approaching very closely to true solutions ; and being usually
bodies of high molecular weight, and little subject to electrolytic
dissociation, their true solutions would necessarily possess many of the
properties associated with colloids. It is in fact by no means impossible
that very large molecules or molecular aggregates may disperse and
polarise light, and may even be made visible by the ultra-microscope.
Organic sols are usually more stable than inorganic, and are flocculated
or precipitated by different causes, so that it will be appropriate to defer
their consideration till after that of the simpler and better investigated
inorganic, or, as they are sometimes called, ‘suspension ’ colloids.

Inorganic colloid sols are invariably suspensions of very finely

divided substances in media in which they are extremely insoluble,’

COLLOID CHEMISTRY. 503

Von Weimat'n! has shown that even the most definitely crystalloid
bodies may be obtained in colloidal or gelatinised solution if produced
in solutions in which they are very insoluble. An ordinary pre-
cipitate, such as barium sulphate, is at first formed by the combination
of the ions in very minute crystal elements which are sufficiently soluble
in water rapidly to unite to form crystals, which gradually increase in
size by absorbing the smaller crystal elements. It is well known in
ordinary analytica! work that such precipitates will pass at first through
any filter, but gradually become filterable by the effect of time and
warmth. If, however, their insolubility is sufiiciently increased by large
excess of a common ion, or by effecting the combination in a medium,
such as methyl alcohol, in which sulphates are extremely insoluble, the
molecules cannot coalesce in the crystalline form, and a colloidal sol
results. Even sodium and potassium chlorides have been obtained in
colloidal form by the double decomposition of their organic compounds
in organic media in which the salts were sufficiently insoluble.

Though inorganic sols are precipitated by the addition of an electro-
lyte, the presence of free dissociated ions in small quantity seems
essential to their formation and existence. If a solution of ferric chloride
be dialysed through a colloid membrane into water, the hydrochloric acid
formed by hydrolysis passes out into the water, leaving the ferric oxide
in the dialyser as a colloid sol, and this goes on till the sol is prac-
tically free from chlorine, but if absolutely the last traces are removed,
the ferric oxide flocculates and precipitates. Conversely, many oxide or
hydroxide sols may be obtained by washing the precipitated hydroxide
sufficiently free from electrolytes, or the precipitated and washed hydroxide
may be redissolved by boiling with a very small quantity of neutral sait
or free acid, when the precipitate will gradually pass into colloidal solu-
tion. This process (peptisation, Andtzung) has been extended to the
colloidal solution of mechanically finely powdered oxides by the agency
of small quantities of acids or salts, and has been employed by Kuézel?
to bring many metallic oxides into the plastic condition requisite for the
formation of the so-called ‘ colloid’ electric-lamp filaments, now rapidly
superseding the carbon fibre. Colloid sols are frequently formed by
the free dilution of salts liable to hydrolytic dissociation, and especially
salts of weak organic acids which from their low electrolytic dissociation
do not readily cause precipitation. Even ferric chloride at a dilution of
1 : 125000 is completely dissociated in the cold in twenty-four hours, and
much stronger solutions suffer partial dissociation, especially on heating.
This is the cause of the darkened colour of hot ferric solutions. Acetates
are still more readily hydrolysed, and especially by boiling, by which the
_ free acetic acid is volatilised. Many solutions of hydroxides in alkalies
are colloidal, but those in ammonia are usually true complex salts. Colloidal
sulutions are obtained of sulphides of metals of which the oxides, like those
of arsenic and antimony, are soluble in water, by precipitation with H,S,
only water and the sulphide being formed in the reaction ; and metallic
sols of gold, silver, platinum, and other noble metals are formed by reduc-
_ tion of their dilute solutions, particularly with organic reducing agents.

Many sols may also be made by precipitation in presence of organic

1 Z. Ch. u. Ind. d. Kolloide, ii, 1907, p. 76.
2 D. R. P. Ammeld, 12g. K. 30900 of Dec. 12, 1905,

204. REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

‘protective colloids’ which prevent precipitation by electrolytes. Thus
silver halides may be obtained in colloidal solution in presence of gelatine,
a fact of great importance in photographic-plate making. An interesting
point is that in many cases the nature of a sol may be changed by
oxidation, reduction, or chemical substitution without destroying its
colloidal character.

An important method of producing metallic sols is that of Bredig,!
which differs in many respects from those just described. He employs
the metal as cathode of an electric arc formed under water, which forms
a sol with the particles projected from the cathode. Svedberg? has
applied the same method to the production of so!s in ether, isobutyl
alcohol, and other organic liquids, and of carbon, silicon, sulphur, and
phosphorus in water.’ Bredig and Haber‘ have also shown that under
certain conditions sols can be produced by electrolysis, especially in
alkaline solution.

The ultra-microscope of Siedentopf and Zsigmondy® has rendered
many details of colloid sols accessible to direct observation. In its
original and most complete form it consists of a rectangular cell on the
stage of the microscope, through the side of which a powerful horizontal
beam of light is concentrated by appropriate lenses and adjustable slits ;
but several other types have been constructed for special purposes. No
light can reach the observer but that from the brilliantly illuminated
particles, which are thus rendered visible irrespective of size, as stars are
visible to the naked eye on which the most powerful telescope can raise
no measurable disc. As the fie!d of view, and the vertical thickness of
the beam can be accurately measured, it is possible to count the visible
particles in a given volume of liquid, and as the total concentration is
known, their weight (and on certain assumptions as to form, their size),
can be calculated. While the diameter of the smallest particles which
could be seen by ordinary illumination, even with a magnifying power
of 2250 diameters, is about 140 pu (mm.x10~°) Zsigmondy has ob-
served particles in gold sols of from 20 to 80 yp (submicrons) while still
smaller particles (amicrons) exist, which scatter and polarise light, but
cannot be separately distinguished. Zsigmondy estimates the size of the
smaller of these amicrons as from 1‘7 to 3 jj (0°0000017 to 0-000003 mm.).
Ostwald" gives the probable size of a hydrogen molecule of molecular
weight 2 as about 0°16 yy. As organic substances certainly exist having
a molecular weight of several thousand, it seems quite probable that
some of them may be visible to the ultra-microscope. Vanino and
Hartl7 have shown that if a small quantity of a ready-formed gold sol
be added to a solution of a gold salt and a reducing agent, the colloid
particles act as nuclei for the reducing gold. It is thus possible to build
up amicrons to sub-microns which can be seen and counted. Some similar
action takes place in gold ruby glass, which has been shown by Zsigmondy
to owe its colour to colloid gold particles, but which is sometimes colour-
less until, by reheating, the gold germs have been allowed to grow by
absorbing amicrons or reducing gold salts.

1 Z. f. Angew. Ch., 1898, 951-954; Z. f. LHilektr., 1898, 4, 514-516.
* Rer., 1905, 88, 3616-3620,

® Trid., 1906, 39, 1713. 4 Ibid., 1898, $1, 1741.

5 Zur Erkenntniss der Kolicide, Jena, 1905.

® Gruniiriss, p. 82.

* Ber., 1906, 39, 1696 -1700,

COLLOID CHEMISTRY. : 205

Other metallic and inorganic sols appear to contain particles of the
same order of magnitude as the gold sols, but different sols vary con-
siderably, and any sol contains a mixture of particles of various sizes.

As seen by the ultra-microscope, the particles are not at rest, but in
constant rapid vibrating movement, and, according to Zsigmondy, gold
particles have also a translatory motion. This vibration, which certainly
plays its part in the physics of colloid sols, is identical with the
Brownian or pedetic motion common to all minute particles suspended in
liquid, but more marked in the ultra-microscopic, since it increases
inversely with the size of the particles. This motion increases with
temperature and diminishes with increased viscosity of the liquid, but is
permanent and unaffected by time, or apparently by the exclusion of
radiant heat and light. All theories therefore which ascribe the energy
involved to outside influences would seem to be excluded, but it must be
remarked that it is impossible to observe the phenomenon without light,
and, ultra-microscopically, without light of a very intense character, so
that the view suggested by Regnauld ‘ that it was due to the warming of
the particles by radiant heat cannot perhaps even yet be entirely ignored.
Sir W. Ramsay ? suggested that the motion was directly due to the heat-
vibration of the water-molecules, though he thought it necessary to
assume highly complex water-molecules to account for the disturbance of
the much heavier solid particles. Einstein? and Smoluchowski* have
discussed the phenomenon mathematically from two entirely different
physical standpoints, and have reached results which not only show a
scarcely expected concordance with each other, but a close relation to
observed facts. The experimental work of Svedberg’ also strongly
supports this view, so that, without presuming to discuss the mathe-
matical evidence, it appears that a strong case is made out for regarding
the motion as a dirs ct consequence and evidence of the kinetic theory of
heat. It may be remarked that if external sources of energy can be
excluded, heat-motion seems the only available cause, since all the energy
involved in overcoming internal friction of the liquid is converted into
diffused heat, which in a space of uniform temperoture cannot be
ret:ansformed into any othe: form of energy.

If an electric current of sufficient strength be passed through an
aqueous electrolysable solution in which the anode and cathode are
separated by a diaphragm of porous earthenware, the liquid will pass
through the latter towards the cathode till a certain equilibrium
pressure is established. The phenomenon is known as ‘electrical osmose ’
ov ‘cataphoresis.’ Although observed by Reuss in 1809, the subject was
first. systematically investigated by Wiedemann.® He showed that, with
uniform difference of pressure, the quantity of liquid which passed
through the diaphragm was proportional to the current-strength and in-
dependent of the area or thickness of the porous plate ; and the pressure
attained, when equilibrium was reached, to the potential ditterence
between the two sides of the diaphragm. Quincke,’ substituting a

1 J. d. Pharm. (8), 1857, 34, 141. 2 Chom. News, 1892, 66, 90.
® Ann. Phys. (4), 1905, 17, 549-560 ; and 1906, 19, 2.

4 Thid. (4), 1906, 17, 756-780.

5 Ark. for Kemr, Min. och Geol., 1907, 2, Nr 29 and 34. ote

® Ann. Phys. (2), 1852, 87, 321; and Die Lehre der Elektrizitiét, 1893, Ba. 1,
993-1019. 3 ;

"7 Ann, Phys. (2), 1861, 118, 513-598,

206 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

capillary tube for the diaphragm, confirmed these laws, and showed
further that the equilibrium-pressure increased with diminished bore
and relatively increased surface of the capillary ; and that not only the
pressure, but the direction of the flow were dependent on the nature of
the material of the capillary and the liquid employed ; oil of turpentine
flowing to the anode in a glass capillary, and in the reverse direction in
one lined with sulphur. It is obvious, therefore, that the action is
between the surface of the liquid carrying the electric current and that
of the capillary, and that if the liquid were fixed and the capillary
surface free to move, it would be carried in the opposite direction to
the flow of the liquid. This will be the case with suspended particles ;
and it has long been observed that these are carried in one or other
direction according to their material and that of the liquid, most sub-
stances moving toward the anode in water and the cathode in turpentine,
with a velocity proportional to the current-strength, but independent
of their distance from each other, and of the electromotive force.
Quincke assumed that the particles possessed electrical charges different
from the liquid, and usually negative as compared with aqueous solutions ;
so that in a current the — particles would tend to move to a region of
higher + potential, that is, towards the anode. The relation of these
facts to the contact-theory and to the phenomena of frictional electricity
is obvious ; a stream of liquid forced through a capillary of different
potential would necessarily give rise to an electric current if furnished
with appropriate conductors.

Helmholtz supported and somewhat amplified the hypothesis of
Quincke.! According to him, the limiting surfaces of two bodies of
opposite electric character form a ‘double layer’ (Doppelschicht) ; the
+ charge of the one layer exactly equalling the — charge of the other,
and thus exerting no outside effect. Under the influence of a fall of
potential the liquid layer tends to move over the other, and by friction
communicates its motion-to the adjacent liquid. -Billitzer? supposes
that the liquid coating of the double layer communicates its charge by
diffusion to the remainder of the liquid, and, as this charge is constantly
renewed by contact-action, both liquid and particles assume permanent
charges, so that the latter behave, in a certain sense, like free ions.
It is possible, or indeed likely, that the particles owe their original
charges to the actual attachment of free ions by their residual affinities.
It is not necessary to suppose, or even probable, that when two or more
atoms unite to form a molecule their affinities are quantitatively saturated,
but merely that, under the conditions, the residual affinity is insufficient
to attach another atom. Under these circumstances it is likely that a
mass of molecules may be able to hold additional ions in a way probably
identical with what is known as ‘adsorption’; and these ions will affect-
the charge of the-mass. The bearing of this on the phenomena of
flocculation will be referred to later. : i ‘

The phenomenon of electric cataphoresis was first studied with fine.
mechanical suspensions, and has been employed technically for clearing —
turbid liquids, and more recently for drying pasty mixtures, such as
alizarine paste or ground: peat; currents of high potential being. used.
It is, however, very marked in colloid sols, and closely simulates actual

1 Ann. Phys. (3), 1879, 7, 337.
® Wien, Ber.; 1903, 112, 95-189.

15> “ee. <

COLLOID CHEMISTRY. 907

electrolysis. Spring,'! Lottermoser,? and others give the following lists as
to the behaviour of particles in aqueous sols :—-

Wander to Kathode. | Wander to Anode.
+ } _
Metallic hydro-oxides generally. Colloidal metals.
Methyl! violet. Metallic sulphides.
Methylene blue. Silver halides.
Magdala red. Sulphur.
Titanic acid. Selenium.
Aniline blue,
Indigo.
Kosin.
Fuchsin,
Mastic.

Many organic colloids, and some mineral ones (e.g., silicic acid),
wander to the anode in alkaline and the cathode in acid solution, while
certain neutral substances in water, and many others in suitable mixtures
of water and alcohol, are electrically indifferent. Definite charge in
relation to the medium is not therefore essential to the colloid state,
though it appears to be so to electrolytic flocculation.

From what has just been said, it may be concluded that colloidal
solutions must possess a sort of pseudo-electrolytic conductivity ; but if
this is the case, the amount is so slight that it is difficult to decide
whether it depends on the colloid particles or on the residual traces of
electrolyte, from which it is impossible to free the sols, as it but slightly
exceeds that of the purest attainable water. Undoubtedly the particles
do carry charges ; but the charges are small, and the motion slow, and
the number of moving particles very small compared with the ions in an
ordinary electrolyte. It is also uncertain whether the particles are
actually discharged at the electrodes, though occasionally particles appear
to be repelled trom both poles, and to collect in the middle of the
liquid, which may be due to those which have reached the electrode
and received a contrary charge wandering backwards, and encountering
and attracting originally charged particles proceeding in the opposite
direction.

All inorganic sols are flocculated and precipitated by the addition of

electrolytes, though they vary in sensitiveness. Organic sols are much

less sensitive in this respect, but are frequently flocculated by the
addition of organic solvents such as ether or alcohol, to which inorganic
sols are usually indifferent. The precipitate is usually termed the ‘ gel,’
but the term must not be confounded with ‘jelly’ to which many of the
gels are but distantly related. Gels may be ‘reversible,’ and may readily
return to the sol state on restoring the original conditions, such as
removing the added electrolytes ; but frequently they are ‘irreversible,’
that is, the sols cannot be restored without going through the often
complicated operations by which they were originally produced.

While the phenomenon of flocculation is apparently similar in in-
organic and organic sols, it probably often differs rather widely in its
causes, that of inorganic sols being closely connected with the electric
eharges of the particles ; while in organic sols, osmotic effects which will
be best discussed in connection with the properties of jellies, have

! Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg. (3), 1898, 85, 780,
2 Anorganische Kolloide, p. 76.

508 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

probably 4 préponderating influence. Organic sols which have réceived
definite charges usually behave with electrolytes like the inorganic.

Spring has pointed out that ‘coagulation’ (flocculation and precipi-
tation) takes place in two stages, though both may proceed simulta-
neously. In the first, the particles flocculate or adhere in larger
aggregates ; and in the second, these precipitate or settle under the
influence of gravity. The rapidity of this second stage is much in-
fluenced by the size and density of the aggregates and the viscosity of the
liquid, while the first stage is more clearly marked by the beginning of
turbidity or opalescence, and, though not usually instantaneous, is better
suited to observation.

Numerous experiments have shown that in order to produce floc-
culation, the concentration of the electrolyte must reach a certain
minimum value (‘Schwellenwert’), which varies with the electrolyte and
the sol from a mere trace to a considerable amount.

Below this value, lapse of time produces no change, but, once it is
passed, the sol is rapidly or slowly precipitated. In each case that ion of
the electrolyte which has the opposite charge to the particles of the sol,
has the determining effect, which increases rapidly with its valency. It
has been stated that with divalent and trivalent ions it is proportional to
the square and cube of that of monovalent, and Wetham! has shown
that such a relation can be accounted for on the theory of probabilities
with certain assumptions as to the electric charge required for coagu-
lation ; but the agreement of the observed numbers with each other
and with those required by theory is not sufficiently close to make such
speculation of much importance. It is also evident that the proportion
will vary with the numerical value assumed for the monovalent ion.
Perhaps more important is the observation of Hardy ? that the specific
conductivities (ionic dissociation) of acid solutions exerting equivalent
coagulating powers on negative and of alkaline on positive colloids are
approximate constants; while acid solutions on positive and alkaline
solutions on negative colloids have very varied values. This probably
simply means that free H and free OH ions each have constant precipi-
tating values for the colloids of opposite sign, while the acid and basic
ions act according to their nature and valency.

It has been stated by Spring* and others that the superior influence
of polyvalent ions was not due directly to their valency, but to the usually
greater hydrolytic dissociation of their salts, and, though this has been
contradicted, it is not probable that the different ionic concentration
produced by hydrolysis is without influence. Jordis‘4 considers that the
collcid state and its phenomena are due to complex chemical compounds.

When a colloid sol is precipitated by an electrolyte the resultant
gel always contains a small and apparently definite quantity of the
precipitating ion of opposite sign to the particles, which cannot be removed
by washing without restoring the gel to the sol condition, or destroying
its colloidal character. This quantity is proportional to the equivalent
weight of the precipitating ion, and may, in many cases, be substituted

1 Phil. Mag., 1899 (5), 48, 474-77.

2 Proc. Roy. Soc., 1899, 66, 110=125.

% Rec. Trav. chim. Pays-Bas, 1900, 19, 204-236.

* Z. f. Elektr , 1904, 10, 509-518 ; Sitzungsber. d. phys..med. Soc. Erlangen, 1904,
36, 47-107; Z f. Elektrotech,, 1904, 10, 509-518; and Katiter, 7 anorg. Ch., 1903, 35,
16-22,

CoLLoib Cttemist’RY, 209

by another ion of the same sign by washing with the appropriate salt.!
In each case an equivalent quantity of the non-precipitating ion is set
free, and in the case of the stronger acids and bases may be estimated in
the residual liquid by titration. These phenomena are not contined to
inorganic colloids, but are very marked in many organic colloid precipita:
tions, and apparently the same laws hold good in many pseudo-solutions,
such as that of clay or of gum mastic in water, which are generally dis-
tinguished as mere mechanical suspensions. The phenomenon of the
retention of a portion of the precipitating ion with the precipitate is well
known in many ionic reactions, and is usually termed ‘co-precipitation ’
or ‘adsorption.’ It is in fact common to all bodies of largely extended
surfaces and to jellies, though the question whether in the last case the
action is surface, or extends throughout the substance, must be discussed
later. Even with solids, this is still, to a certain extent, an open ques-
tion. Davis? has shown that in the absorption of iodine by carbon, an
equilibrium is established with the surface action in 2 few hours, but that
a further absorption goes on for weeks or months, which he considers due
to solid solution. The quantity of absorbed or adsorbed substance varies
with the concentration of the solution with which it is in equilibrium,
relatively more being taken from weak than from stronger solutions.
The laws by which it is governed show close relations to those of solu-
tion-equilibria, and the phenomenon might perhaps be not improperly
described as surface-solution. If a body be brought in contact with two
immiscible solvents, it distributes itself between them in a ratio which,
so long as its molecular condition is the same in both solvents, is, in
accordance with Henry’s law, a constant fraction dependent on its rela-
tive solution-pressure in the two solvents ; or if C, and C, be its concentra-
tion in the solvents a and } and f) a constant, ©,=£C,. If, however, its
molecular weight in the solvent ) is m times as great as in a, the equation
1

takes the form C,= C,". Written in a general form, where x is the
weight of the absorbed substance and m that of the absorbent, while C,

1
. . . 5 x rant
is the concentration of the solution, the equation becomes = =O, == 60/73

where ( and p are constants to be determined experimentally, and repre-

sents very approximately most adsorption-equilibria ; but it is evident
that p cannot represent the molecular weight in the ordinary sense, since
it is seldom a whole number, and usually indicates greater complexity in
the solvent than in the adsorbent, which is impossible, when, as in the
case of most electrolytes in very dilute solutions, the dissolved body is

! Linder and Picton, Jour. Chem. Svc., 1895, 67, C3.

2 Trans. Ch. Soc., 1907, 91, 1666-1683.

* The exponential character of a curve of experiitchtal results is casily tested
by plotting the logs, either natural or common, If the logs of the equation

a 1

C, = ac? be taken, we obtain log C,=log B + (10g Cy x 4) Hence, if we plot the

experimental logarithmic concentrations of the solution as abscisse and those of

absorbed substance as ordinates, we shall, if the reaction is rigidly exponential, obtain

a straight line, of which the slope (tangent) is —, and which cuts the vertical line,
p

passing through the origin log C,=0 (or C}=1) at log B. It must not be forgotten
in plotting logarithms that in fractional numbers the indices are —, while the
mantissee are always +. Exponential curves rise rapidly at first, but afterwards
much more slowly and approximate to a straight line.

8. P

210 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

not merely tiionomolecular, but almost wholly ionised.'! The exact
physical significance of » therefore remains to be determined, but where

rr

é yeh es, : : d
the case is one of surface-action | is obviously an arbitrary expression,
\

which is proportional for any one adsorbent in a uniform state of division,
but gives no indication of the absolute surface involved. Even if the
surface is molecular, as it probably is in jellies, we have little knowledge
of the complexity of the molecules. it can hardly be doubted that
adsorption is dependent on the same forces as solution, as it is obviously
selective and influenced by the chemical relations of the adsorbed and
adsorbing substances, and in some cases is a preliminary to actual chemical
combination.

Freundlich’ has suggested a somewhat different empirical formula from
that given above for expressing adsorption, the so-called A formula, in
which \ for a given original concentration of the adsorbed soiution is
constant and independent of the quantity of adsorbent, and takes the place
of (> in the simple equation expressing Henry’s law. If, however,
the concentration of the solution (7.e., the relation of the dissolved sub-

; 1
; - : a\ ——
stance a to the volume of the solution v) is varied, A=a ae where

a and 7 are constants dependent only on temperature and the nature of
the dissolved substance. This formula has been severely criticised by
Bain,’? who shows that in some cases it leads to quite anomalous results.
Freundlich adopts the view of Lagergreen,! that adsorption is due to
surface-tension, and points out that a dissolved body which lowers the
surface-tension between solution and solid must become concentrated on
that surface. ‘l'hat this is an actual factor in adsorption admits of nu
doubt ; but our knowledge is not yet suflicient to enable us to calculate
its magnitude ; and it would seem to imply that adsorption was inde-
pendent of any direct relation between the adsorbed and adsorbing body,
which does not appear to be the case. It may be, however, that chemical
relations between the solid and the dissolved substance influence the
tensions of the solid-liquid surface, and so affect the results.

Inorganic sols are frequently coagulated by freeziug or evaporation,
and this is often realiy due to the traces of electrolytes always present in
the sols, which become concentrated in the remaining liquid till they
reach the minimum necessary for flocculation.

Colloid sols are not only flocculated by ions but by other sols of oppo-
site churge, the two colloids precipitating together in a way which closely
simulates an ionic reaction ; and many precipitations usually considered
chemical, such as those of tannin and gelatiue, tannin and basic colours,
and basic with acid colours are of this character. If the two sols are
present in exactly the right proportions the precipitatiun 1s complete, aud
the precipitate of almost constant comp sition ; buat if one be in excess
neither is completely precipitated. Probably in this case, as in floceu-
lation by electrolytes, there is a minimum coucentration below which pre-
cipitation does not take place.

The cause of this minimum concentration being needed is not clear,

1 Cp. Walker and Appleyard, Z'irans. Uh. Soc., 13896, 69, 1334.

2 «Ueber die Absorption in Losungen,’ Habilitativnsschrift, Leipzig, 1906.

3 Trans. Ch. Soc., 1907, 91, 1683.

4 Bihang t. Scenska Vet. Ak. Handi., 1899, 24, IL, Nr. 4,49; Z phys. Ch., 1900
82, 174, 175.

a

——— eee

COLLOID CHEMISTRY. 211

but it seems to indicate a certain initial resistance which must be broken
down, and which is probably connected with the surface-tension between
the particles and the liquid, or possibly with the stability of the electrical
double layer, with which the surface: tension is closely connected, as shown
by the work of Quincke and Lippmann. The resistance to electrolytes
is somewhat affected by the rate at which they are added, being greater
when the addition is slow or in small quantities than when the necessary
amount is added at once.

It can hardly be doubted that flocculation, whether by added electro-
lytes or by other colloids, is dependent on the neutralisation of the charges
of the particles. In the case of electrolytes, the ions of which the charges
are much greater than those of the particles, probably act as nuclei round
which a number of particles are aggregated. The greater efficiency of
polyvalent ions may thus depend on the larger aggregates which their
larger charges are able to neutralise, and which naturally fall sooner
under the influence of gravity and of cohesive attraction. As the
particles probably owe their charges to attached ions, both Hocculation
and adsorption are in a sense chemical reactions. As one ion probably
neutralises many particles, the quantity carried down with the gel is
relatively very small.

The action of ‘ protective ’ colloids has been already mentioned, and is
usually most marked in the effect of organic colloids on inorganic sols, but
certain inorganic sols have also protective effect. Biltz! found that
zirconium hydroxide exerted a protective action on gold sols even stronger
than that of gelatine ; and Ruer,? that zirconium and ferric sols contain-
ing traces of chlorine gave no precipitate with silver nitrate, the silver
chloride remaining in colloida] solution. Kuspert has also produced gold
and silver sols by reduction in presence of silica jelly. The efficiency of
protective colloids extends to both positive and negative sols, though
usually in different degrees, and is marked in a large number of organic
colloids, many of which, it may be remarked, are amphoteric, and take
different charges according to the acidity or alkalinity of the medium.
Thus gelatine and its peptones are among the most powerful with regard
to gold sols, less than 1 mgr. being sufficient to protect a litre of gold sol
from precipitation by salt, while 80 mgr. were required to exert an equal
protective effect on a (much more concentrated) As,S, sol. Most other
colloids are less powerful in their effects, 10-20 mgr. of egg albumen, a
somewhat larger amount of gum arabic, and from 0-6 to 2 grm. of dextrine

or starch being required to produce on gold sol an equal effeet to ] mgr.

of gelatine. Zsigmondy * has taken advantage of this ditference of effect
for the detection and identification of colloids in mixtures. He calls the
number of mgr. of a colloid required to protect 10 c.c. of a stable gold sol
containing 0:0053-0:0058 per cent. of gold from the precipitating action
of 1 c.c. of a 10 per cent. salt solution the ‘ gold-value’ of the colloid.

The cause of protective action is not fully explained. It is not due to
the viscosity of the colloid, since the effect is produced by quantities too
small to have any appreciable influence either on the viscosity of the
liquid or on the pedetic motion. Neither does it appear due to direct
influence on the charges of the particles, since many collo:ds protect both
positive and negative sols. It is more probably due to an actual coating
of the particles of the sol with the protective substance. Bechhold 4

) Ber., 1902, 85, 4431-8, 2 Z. anorg. Ch., 1905, 48, 85-93.
® Z. anal. Ch., 1902, 40, 697-719. * Z. phys. Ch., 1904, 48, 385-423.
; P2

212 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

ascribes this to surface-tension. Quincke ! has shown that in a system of
immiscible liquids A, B, and C, if the sum of the surface-tensions between
A—B and B—C is less than that between A—C, B must spread between
A and OC, forming an intermediate layer. Bechhold shows numerically
that this is the case in the system mastic-gelatine-water, and that the
mastic particles must therefore become coated with gelatine, which acts
as a protective colloid t> a mastic suspension. It is obvious that as the
gelatine-coated particles have greater attraction for water and less for each
other as compared with mastic, they will have less tendency to coalesce.
It may also be suggested that the gelatine may form a permanent double
layer in the electric sense, which will render the neutralisation of the
particles by oppositely charged ions difficult or impossible.

Platinum and gold sols exert a strong catalytic influence similar to
that of platinum black and spongy platinum, decomposing hydrogen
peroxide, causing combination of oxygen and hydrogen, and other similar
effects. These seem merely due to the extended surface and very fine
division of the metals, and belong rather to the general theory of catalysis
than to that of the colloid state. Metallic sols have, however, been
styled ‘inorganic ferments’ from the analogy of their action to that of
the catalases, which are also colloidal, and which bring about similar
reactions. Like them the action of the metallic sols is favoured by
warmth, and in the case of hydrogen peroxide by small additions
of alkali, while larger quantities slow or prevent it. In both cases
certain substances, such as hydrogen sulphide and cyanide, exert a

i sonous’ or inhibitory effect on the catalyst, which if slight is slowly
recovered from. It is doubtful, however, if the resemblance is more than
analogy.

The colour of metallic hydrosols is often intense, and varies with their
condition, and especially on approaching flocculation ; that of silver from
dark brown to brown-violet, changing to deep green before flocculation.
Goid hydrosols vary from intense red to blue-violet, taking the latter tint
before precipitation by electrolytes, though some blue-gold sols are stable.
The change of colour does not depend on the average size of the particles,
but apparently on their aggregation. Kirchner and Zsigmondy ” found
that a red-gold sol rendered stable by gelatine becomes blue on evapora-
tion to dryness, and under the microscope shows intensely coloured masses
of many submicrons in a colourless medium. On moistening or redissolving
these become again distributed, and the red colour is restored. Planck *
has shown that the light absorbed by small particles, which act as ‘ optical
resonators’ to the electro-magnetic light-wave, must become redder and
that transmitted bluer as they approach each other. Seen in the ultra-
microscope the gold particles usually reflect yellow light.

It has been noted that the precipitated gels of inorganic coiloids are,
in the opinion of the writer, not identical in structure with the true
organic jellies, but at least in many cases they possess strong points of
resemblance, and from their fine state of division retain many colloidal
properties, most marked, of course, when they are reversible. They
usually retain a portion of water with great obstinacy, so that it has often
been misteken for water of true chemical hydration. In some cases,
however, the gels are probably true hydrates, which retain additional
water by their surface-attraction. Van Bemmelen, Biitschli, and others

1 Ann, Phys. (3), 1888, 35, 580-642. * Dbid. (4), 1901, 15, 873-595,
% Thid, (4), 1990, 1, 69-122.

toes

COLLOID CHEMISTRY. 913

have assitmed various netted, cellular, and micellar structures in gela-
tinous gels, and to a certain extent these must have a real existence,
though the extension of the theory to the true organic jellies is of doubtful
validity. Von Weimarn! has shown that gelatinous precipitates are
obtained when concentrated solutions of crystalloids are mixed which
react with each other to produce a compound which is very insoluble in
the liquid ; as, for instance, when concentrated solutions of barium thio-
cyanate and manganese sulphate are shaken together. These ‘jellies’
may even be perfectly clear and transparent, and consist of drops of
one or other solution, surrounded by a thin film of practically colloidal
precipitate, which prevents coalescence and further reaction with the
surrounding liquid. A very similar effect has been observed by the writer
when a concentrated solution of calcium phosphate in hydrochloric acid
is mixed with strong ammonia, when the mixture, though smelling
strongly of ammonia, may yet contain acid calcium phosphate in excess,
which is only slowly decomposed by the diffusion of ammonia into the
isolated droplets.2. The colloid particles are necessarily extremely insoluble
in their media, and whenever precipitation occurs by the mixture of a
precipitating solution the gel will be likely to take such cellular forms,
the dimensions of which will depend on the conditions of precipitation.
In other cases where the precipitation is more gradual the particles will
still adhere to loose amorphoys masses, presenting a very large surface to
the liquid, and it is probable that where dilute colloid solutions coagulate
in which the surface-tension between the particles and water is con-
siderable they will cohere to a more or less molecular network, which
will contract in order to Jessen surface and tear into flocculent masses,
entangling and carrying down with them, as albumen does, all suspended
particles in the liquid. Biitschli? found that many gels showed network
’ structures under the microscope with magnifications of about 2,000 diams.
when suitably treated, and detected similar structure in gelatine when
hardened with alcohol or chromic acid ; but as the unhardened gelatine
appeared quite structureless it is very probable that the cavities were
produced by the hardening process, and it may be noted that gelatine
rapidly hardened by dehydrating agents is always more or less opaque and
non-homogeneous.

The drying of gels is a continuous process, proceeding rapidly at first
with vapour pressures not materially below that of water, but gradually
becoming slower, and the vapour-pressure lower as dryness is approached.
Owing to the structure of the gel some time (days or weeks) is required
for the mass to reach equilibrium with any definite vapour-pressure.
The curve of vapour-pressures as compared with gradually diminishing
percentage of water, though continuous, is not always regular, and
does not appear to be exponential, and the process is usually irre-
versible with inorganic gels, or at least partially so, indicating a per-
manent change of state, though in some cases it may be connected with

' Z. Ch. u. Ind. d. Kolloide, 1907, ii. 76.

* Cp. p 2 of reprint. Von Weimarn holds that the sole difference between the
colloid and cry stalloid condition lies in the extreme insolubility of the minute crystal-
line elements first formed, which prevents thcir uniting to form larger crystals, ard
cofsiders that all matter is potentially crystalline.

_ 3% Untersuchungen tiber mikroskop’sche Schdiume und das Protoplasma, Leipzig,
1892; Verh. des naturh.-meu. Vereins zu Heidelberg, N.2”, 1892, 5, 28-41, 42-43;
1894, 5, 89-102, 230-292; 1896, 5, 457-472,

214 REPORTS ON THE STATE Of SCIENCE.

surface-tension, as in that of swollen gelatine drying in saturated watet.
vapour, which will be mentioned later. Silica-jelly, which was very fully
investigated by Van Bemmelen,' may be taken as an example. The fresh
gel was dried at a temperature of 15°, at which water has a vapour-
pressure,of 12-7 mm., in a series of exsiccators containing sulphuric acid
diluted to known vapour-pressures, until equilibrium was established.
The fall of vapour-pressure was at first very gradual, but became more
marked at 11 mm. when a water-content of 3:7 was reached. (It is not
clear from the diagram whether this is 5-7 mols. per mol. of SiO, or
37 grm. per grm., but probably the former.) At a pressure of about
5 mm. and a water-content of about 1:5 the gel, which had previously
been transparent, became opalescent, and finally porcelain-white, and the
curve ran horizontally, that is, the vapour-pressure remained constant
until a water-content of 1 was reached. This constant pressure indi-
cates some change, chemical or physical, which takes place at this
pressure, and if the proportions are molecular, might correspond to the
decomposition of a definite hydrate (SiO,),OH, with a vapour-pressure
- of 5 mm., or to a change of form to one with lessened attraction for
water. The opacity would also correspond to some definite change, as
during the horizontality of the curve the gel would be a non-homo-
geneous mixture of the two substances or two forms. Below 5 mm.
the gel again becomes homogeneous and transparent. Van Bemmelen
supposes that during the change a further coagulation takes place with
contraction of the gel and the production of air-spaces. Up to this
point the curve is irreversible, that is, the gel will not absorb moisture
in the same way, but only a much lessened quantity in saturated water-
vapour. Probably in the earlier part of the curve the surface-tension
between the water and silica is different from its surface-attraction for
water-vapour, and the change indicated by the opaque state is not
likely to be a reversible one. Below 4 or 5 mm. pressure the drying
is a reversible one, and of the character common to all porous or finely
divided substances. The drying of ferric hydroxide is very similar in
character, but has no marked horizontal in its curve, which is throughout
irreversible. From some, perhaps rather fanciful, resemblance of the
curves produced to those caused by the hysteresis or ‘lag’ in the magneti-
sation and demagnetisation of iron, the phenomenon has been described
by that name. It produces some curious consequences, of which space
does not permit discussion.

Most organic colloids seem to differ somewhat widely from the inor-
ganic sols and gels which have been described, and in many cases their
solutions, though possessing colloidal properties, approximate closely to
what we should anticipate of true solutions of bodies of the high mole-
cular weights which many of them are known to possess. They present
more analogy to emulsions of immiscible liquids which become more
miscible at higher temperatures than to suspensions of solid particles
like the metallic sols, and have hence been called ‘emulsion colloids.’
Their sols usually show the Tyndall effect, and frequently, but not
always, submicrons are visible to the ultra-microscope ; but both may
disappear with rise of temperature or the addition of a ‘common
solvent,’ They are not usually sensitive to small additions of an electro- .

r 1-Z, anorg. Ch., 1896, 18, 233-256,

COLLOID CHEMISTRY. 915

lyte, and when ‘salted out’ by larger quantities the effect seems often
more osmotic than electrical. In some cases, however, when the colloid
has acquired a definite positive or negative (ionic) charge it becomes
much more sensitive to electrolytes, and where organic sols mutually
precipitate each other, the presence of a trace of electrolytes is probably
essential to communicate the necessary charges. It is stated that gela-
tine free from inorganic constituents only gives a slight opalescence with
tannin, and in ordinary cases the rapidity and completeness of the
precipitation are much increased by the presence of salts.

Many aqueous organic colloid solutions are flocculated by additions of
alcohol, ether, &c., and, conversely, alcoholic by addition of water, which
have usually no action on inorganic sols. These effects are probably
purely osmotic and dependent on the solubility of the substance in the
different media, but such additions often change the electrical charge of
the solvent.

In most cases organic sols are simply viscous liquids which on con-
centration become more and more viscous till they reach a practically
solid form without any break of continuity; but others, usually by
change of temperature, pass into the semi-solid state known as jelly.
This solidification generally occurs with comparative suddenness, and is
sometimes irreversible, but usually jellies have pretty definite melting-
points at or slightly lower than their points of solidification, and varying
only slightly with the concentration of the solution, but, like the melting-
points of fats, not reaching their full value till some time after apparent
solidification. Like crystallisation also, the change to the solid form is
accompanied by evolution of heat, and liquefaction by its absorption.

Conversely, organic colloids in the solid form are capable of absorbing

water or some other solvent, sometimes passing back without break to
the viscous condition, but often reaching a maximum absorption and
retaining the jelly state. Gelatine, for instance, dissolves direct to a
viscous solution at temperatures above 25° or 30°, but swells to a jelly at
lower ones, which melts if the temperatore is raised. Cellulose and
many of its derivatives and many animal and vegetable tissues swell,
but do not dissolve without hydrolysis or other chemical change, and may
be viewed as irreversible jellies. Thus dyeing, tanning, and many other
industries may be regarded as branches of colloidal chemistry.
_. The absorption of the solvent is accompanied by swelling or increase
of volume, but especially in thé early stages by marked contraction of
the sum of the volumes of solvent and colloid, and considerable evolution
of heat ; and, conversely, in dehydration heat is absorbed. Consequently
cold promotes swelling (as distinguished from solution), and heat has the
opposite effect, though in dilute jellies, which can usually only be sub-
jected to a small range of temperature, these effects are not very marked,
and are often masked by other influences such as bacterial fermentation.
As an illustration, it may be mentioned that gelatine is most rapidly and
satisfactorily dissolved for culinary purposes by sweiling in cold water,
which may be thrown away with the dissolved impurities, and then by
melting the swollen jelly by setting the vessel in hot water.

The absorption of water-vapour by most solid organic colloids is a
cyclical and reversible process, the colloid returning by evaporation to its
original condition, and it therefore follows that Clausius’ equations can
he applied in this case as well as in the expansion of hodies by heat.

216 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Rodewald! has done this in the case of starch, and ha3 calculated from
the results its internal pressure, which was found to vary from 2073
kilos. per sq. cm. in dry starch to 561 kilos. in starch fully saturated with
aqueous vapour. He also calculated from its vapour-pressure its mole-
cular weight in the solid form as 4570, closely corresponding to twenty-
seven times the empirical formula C;H,,O;. ‘This is interesting as
derived in a different way frora the molecular weight determinations in
liquids. The method is obviously applicable to other solid colloids.

The pressures exerted in the early stages of colloid swelling are very
large, though they become almost inappreciable as the maximum is
approached. The ancient use of dry wood wedges subsequently moistened
is an instance of this, and it may be mentioned that stones of the
trilithon at Baalbec in Syria, weighing over 1,000 tons, have obviously
been split in this way. The effect has usually been ascribed to capillary
contraction, but a little consideration will show that capillarity cannot
produce expansive effects. A pile of thin plates (e.g., cover-glasses on the
microscope stage) will be compressed and not expanded if water is allowed
to be drawn between them by capillarity. The effect is necessarily mole-
cular and osmotic, the liquid getting within the sphere of molecular
attractions, and so sustaining and liberating for expansion a portion of the
enormous internal pressures which have just been mentioned (in the case
of starch some 1,500 atmospheres).

The point of maximum swelling, whether in liquid or vapour, is
obviously a definite equilibrium which is reached when the attraction of
the colloid for the liquid or vapour is balanced by the internal attractions
of the colloid and the liquid in themselves. The liquid and the colloid
are in complete osmotic equilibrium, and consequently, according to a
well-known law, are both in equilibrium with the vapour. P. von
Schroeder ? draws attention to an apparent exception to this law, which
is of considerable importance, and for which he was unable to offer a
satisfactory explanation. He found that agar and gelatine jellies swelled
to a considerably larger extent when immersed in water than they did in
saturated aqueous vapour, and that when the jelly, saturated by im-
mersion, was suspended in saturated vapour it dried till it was again
in equilibrium with the vapour; thus evidencing a greater vapour-
pressure than the liquid water with which it was in osmotic equilibrium.
He found, however, that when the jelly was swollen with an N/100000
solution of a sulphate instead of water, no contraction, but slight further
swelling, occurred ; while an N/1000000 solution diminished but did not
prevent the evaporation. As the N/10° solution may be assumed to be
completely ionised it will contain three gram-ions in 2 x 108 ¢.c., and at
0° C. will exert an osmotic pressure of 340 dynes per cm.?._ This would
involve work of 340 ergs per gram of water removed, and would cor-
respond to raising a gram of water only 0-344 cm. in height, but Von
Schroeder took special precautions to avoid difference in level. If,
however, a portion of water is removed from the mass, the surface is
extended and work is done (on the assumption of spherical form) of
370 ergs per gram. The surface-tension is less, and the osmotic pressure
greater, at laboratory temperature (about 365 dynes at 20°), so that the

1 Z. f. Phys. Ch., 1897, 24, 193; and Untersuchungen yber die Quellung dev
Starke, Lepsius and Fischer, Leipzig, 1896, “
* Lbid., 1903, 45, 75-117,

COLLOID CHEMISTRY. 217

energy of surface-tension agrees well with that found to produce the
effect, and is a sufficient cause. The figures are perhaps less important
as explaining an apparent anomaly than as illustrating the smallness of
the forces involved in considerable changes of volume near the maximum
swelling. The relation of surface-tension to the drying of gels consisting
of aggregates of particles, as that of silica, may be here again referred to.
If the common tension between the surfaces of the particles is less than
that of water itself, as in gels is necessarily the case, they will retain a
large amount of water by surface-attraction, the vapour-pressure of which
will be equal to or somewhat less than that of liquid water according to the
tenuity of the film. As the water is removed by evaporation the particles
will cohere by their mutual attraction, and if this cohesive attraction is
greater than the difference between the tension of water and that of the
common surface, or, in other words, than the difference between the
attraction of the particles for water and the attraction of water for itself,
water will not again spread between the particles, and the drying will be
irreversible as in the earlier stages of the silica jelly.

The rate of absorption of liquid by solid colloids has been studied
by Hofmeister» and more recently by Pauli (Pascheles).2 The latter
showed, both mathematically and by experiment on agar and gelatine,
that if Q be the degree of swelling and M its mass, the rate of swelling
oe at any given time is equal to (M—Q)C, the difference between the
actual and the maximum swelling multiplied by a constant, which
varies with the material and probably with the temperature. This
is a law common to many chemical and physical changes, but compli-
cated in this case by the constantly increasing thickness of the swelling
colloid. For very thin plates, where this can be neglected, and
between the times ¢ and ¢, and the swelling Q and Q, the constant
C= = = ln. 1a , and for agar is about 9°5 x 10%.

a Sey

The swelling of gelatine jelly is much influenced by acids and alkalies,
both of which largely increase alike its amount and its rapidity. The action
of neutral salts on swelling, as regards gelatine, has been investigated by
Hofmeister ;* their effect on melting and gelatinising temperatures by
Pauli, and on viscosity by von Schroeder All these effects are prac-
tically parallel ; salts which lessen swelling raise the melting-point of
jellies and increase the viscosity of the sols. The effect seems an
additive one in which anions and cations take part, but no definite laws
have been established. The order of the salts investigated, placing these
first which most raise the melting-point, is sulphates, citrates, tartratcs,
acetates, water, chlorides, chlorates, nitrates, bromides, iodides as anions ;
and K, Ca, Na, Sr, and Mg as cations ; those placed before watcr
raising, and those after it lowering, the melting-point. Whether the same
order applies to other colloids than gelatine is uncertain, but no doubt
the effects depend to a considerable extent on the specific affinities of sait
and colloid.

The swelling, though mainly an osmotic effect, is influenced by the
solid cohesion of the jelly, and there can be little doubt that at the
moment of setting a network is formed, whether molecular or coarser,

) Archiv f. exp. Path, und Pharm., 1890, 27, 395-413. 2 Thid., 1895, 36, 100.
§ Thid., 1891, 28, 210-238, * Pfluger, Archip, 1898, 71, 1-24,

218 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

which remains intact during the existence of the jelly. Experiments
made by the writer show that the volume of the jelly at the moment of
setting has considerable effect on the maximum of swelling, though con-
centrated jellies after drying swell in water to more, and dilute to less,
than their original volume. A solution originally containing 23 grm. of
water reabsorbed 14:5 grm., one of 11 grm. 7°8 grm, and one of 5 grm.
6 grm. per grm. of dry gelatine. Jf weak jellies are mechanically squeezed
a considerable amount of liquid, mostly water, can be expressed, and this
has been used as an argument for the cellular (two-phased) structure of
jellies. It is obvious, however, that near the swelling maximum this
must be possible in any case, since it has been already shown that con-
siderable changes of volume can be produced by changes of osmotic pres-
sure equivalent to less than 1 cm. of water.

The phenomenon of ‘semipermeability’ is frequently exhibited by
colloid gels and jellies. and, in fact, all the usual semipermeable mem.
branes are colloidal. Just as solids will dissolve in one solvent, and not
in another, so jellies are selective in the liquids which they will absorb.
Tndiarubber will absorb hydrocarbons but not water ; gelatine and agar,
water but not hydrocarbons or aleohol ; and the process of transfusion in
a semipermeable membrane is not one of mere mechanical filtration of a
finer order, but of absorption and solution on one side of the membrane,
and solution and diffusion on the other, and is intimately connected with
the chemical character of the membrane and with its ionic charge.
Colloid jellies or membranes are usually impermeable to other colloids,
while most dissolved salts diffuse in them with nearly the same rapidity
as in pure water, though they are sometimes semipervious to those
containing a common ion. In dilute jellies, however, some diffusion of
finely divided colloids takes place; and Bechhold! has used dilute jellies
(under pressure, supported on coarser media) for the fractional filtration
of colloid solutions. Gelatine and gelatinous membranes are semi-
permeable to alcohol, which exerts considerable osmotic pressure in a
gelatine-lined cell, and jelly is easily dehydrated in absolute alcohol till
it contains less than its own weight of water, very little alcohol diffusing
into the jelly. On the other hand, if aleohol is mixed with a warm gela-
tine solution in insufficient quantity to cause precipitation and is allowed
to set, the jelly will show much more than its normal maximum swelling
when immersed in water, from the osmotic pressure of the contained
alcohol which cannot escape. This observation proves clearly that the
contraction is not due to any chemical action of the alcohol, but to simple
osmotic causes. If alcohol in sufficient quantity be added to a warm and
ungelatinised solution of gelatine, it causes separation of the latter, first
as a milky liquid, which rapidly flocculates, and, if stirred, coheres into
a solid mass, thus showing all the usual phenomena of coagulation, from
what are obviously purely osmotic causes. Similar effects occur with
gums, dextrine, and most other water-soluble colloids. With egg-
albumen the coagulation is irreversible, but in most cases re-solution
takes place on again substituting water. .

Dilute acids and alkalies greatly raise the maximum swelling of gelatine
and all gelatinous animal tissues such as skin. French gelatine with a
maximum absorption of seven to eight times its weight of water will absorb
over fifty times in hydrochloric acid of 0:003 grm.-mol. per litre, at about

' Vortr. 78. Vers, 7. Naturf. uv, Aerzte, Stuttgart, 1906,

COLLOID CHEMISTRY, 219

which concentration the swelling reaches a maximum, falling gradually
to below twenty times at 0-4 grm.-mol. per litre, much beyond which the
experiment cannot be carried because of solution of the jelly in the acid.
Similar effects occur with all other acids which the writer has investigated
in which a sufficient concentration can be employed without causing solu-
tion. The concentration of the ac‘d in the swollen jelly is always greater
than in the external solution, increasing (in the case of gelatine at least)
somewhat rapidly at first, before the maximum of swelling is reached, and
later remaining nearly constant at 0-002 or 0-003 mol. per litre above
the outside solution ; while the total quantity of absorbed acid per grm.
of gelatine increases by a law very approximately exponential. The
whole of the hydrochloric acid can be estimated by titration with caustic
alkali in presence of phenolphthalein, but only a portion with methyl
orange, showing that one part of the acid exists in a less ionised state
than the remainder. The swollen jelly can no longer be dehydrated by
absolute alcohol, showing that the osmotic pressure of water into the jelly
is now greater than that into the alcohol, but a part of the acid, approxi-
mately corresponding to that estimated by methy! orange, can be removed
by repeated treatment with alcohol. The jelly is still pervious to acid and
salt solutions, though probably to a less extent than neutral jelly, and it
is obvious that one portion of the acid exists in some sort of combination
with the jelly, while another is merely osmotically absorbed. 1t is clear
that no definite conclusions can be drawn until in some way these portions
can be distinguished ; and as a first approximation (obviously not quite
correct) it was assumed that the acid absorbed in swelling was of the same
concentration as that of the outer solution, the less ionised and more con-
stant portion, which may be called ‘fixed acid,’ being ascertained by sub-
tracting the calculated value of the acid in the absorbed liquid from the
total found in the jelly. The result showed that the ‘ fixed acid’ rapidly
reached a maximum coincident with the concentration of maximum
swelling, after which it remained approximately constant, a slight down-
ward curve being probably due to the inaccuracy of the assumption that
the strength of the absorbed solution was equal to that outside, or, what
amounts to the same thing, that the whole of the water in the jelly was
present as absorbed outer solution. With a small correction in this sense
the amount of ‘fixed acid’ obtained in this way closely corresponds to
that not estimated by phenolphthalein, and incapable of being washed
out by alcohol. From inspection of the curves it is obvious that that
of total acid per grm. of gelatine is of an exponential type, but it is com-
pounded of that of ‘fixed acid’ the character of which strongly suggests
chemical combination somewhat complicated by dissociation or hydrolysis ;
and of the curve of swelling, which after its maximum is reached, is
of a hyperbolic character. If, as is probable from the empirical formula,
the molecular weight of gelatine is about 1800, or its multiple, it
would roughly correspond to the fixation of two mols. of HCl by one of
gelatine.

The action of salts on unacidified gelatine has been mentioned, and
common salt causes a small increase of swelling as compared with water,
and even saturated solutions have no dehydrating effect. If, however,
salt is added to jelly swollen with hydrochloric acid, swelling is imme-
diately reduced, aud very powerful dehydration comparable with that of
absolute alcohol is obtained by saturated salt solutions in presence of the
amount of acid necessary to the maximum swelling effect, At the same

220 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

time the total acid in the jelly is diminished, but the ‘fixed acid’ is
gradually, though not iargely, increased. It is probable that if the con-
centration of the hydrochloric acid could be increased to an equal extent
to that of the salt without causing solution an equal dehydration would
he produced, and it is difficult to resist the conclusion that the swelling
is due to the chlorine ion in the acid gelatine, and is ostnotically
repressed by the increase of the same ion in the solution. Other acids
with their neutral salts produce similar effects. The fact that similar
dehydration is produced by other acids, ¢.g., sulphuric, in conjunction with
sodium chloride, and probably with other salts, does not contradict the
conclusion that it is the common anion which is operative, since in the
case suggested an equilibrium of sodium and gelatine sulphates and sodium
and gelatine chlorides would result. The cause of the general swelling
effect of acids must, however, in some way be intimately connected with
their common H ion, and that of alkalies, which is equally powerful,
with the hydroxyl ion, The alkaline swelling is not repressed by sodium
chloride, even when caused by sodium hydrate, but is repressed by
sufficient concentration of the hydroxyl ion in the outer solution. The
above are the summarised results of a research on which the writer has
been some time engaged, and which he hopes shortly to publish with a
more detailed discussion of the operating causes. It may be remarked
that the dehydration of acidified gelatinous tissues has an important
technical application in the preservation of sheep pelts by ‘pickling’
with salt and sulphuric acid, and its bearing on mineral tannages in
which saJt is employed with alums and other compounds of acid reaction
is very obvious. As gelatine is decidedly amphoteric, and is known
to be capable of decomposing many salts in solution, it is quite pos-
sible that some of the complicated effects of unacidified salt solutions
which have been referred to may be due to partial absorption of the
acid of the salt and the osmotic effect of the remainder on the compound
formed.

Space will not allow of any detailed discussion of the coagulation of
the various albumins by heat and precipitating agents, which, important
as they are from the physiological aspect, have not yet yielded many facts
which can be explained on general principles. Albumins, carefully freed
from electrolytes by dialysis, are electrically neutral and incompletely
coagulated by heat or by those precipitants which do not at the same time
communicate an electrical charge. The addition of a trace of acid which
gives a positive charge renders them liable to complete coagulation by
heat and much more sensitive to the action of electrolytes ; but larger
quantities of acid, perhaps by producing soluble acid-albumins, prevent
coagulation. Traces of alkalies which give a negative charge have a
similar effect, though the precipitation is usually less complete, and excess
again prevents or lessens precipitation. Coagulation by heat is usually-
irreversible, and so also that by alcohol, though zymases are precipitated
by the latter in a reversible (soluble) form. Salts of the heavy metals,
even in small quantities, produce irreversible coagulation, very possibly
connected with combination, or colloidal precipitation with a colloidal
compound of the metal. Excess of the precipitant frequently prevents
precipitation, probably by the formation of new complex compounds.
Possibly there may be some connection between these phenomena and
the irreversible (tanning) effects of some metallic solutions on gelatinous
tissues, These solutions are usually of ‘basic salts’ containing metallic

COLLOID CHEMISTRY. 221

oxides colloidally dissolved. Precipitations of albumins by alkali salts,
especially in neutral solution, are generally reversible.!

The relations of colloid chemistry to technology can here only be
briefly alluded to. The industries of indiarubber, gutta-percha, gums,
dextrine, glue and gelatine, and cellulose derivatives are of course all
colloidal, and it is probable that many reactions which have been
described as chemical may really be those of absorption compounds.
Tanning and dyeing are particularly concerned with the mutual precipi-
tation of colloids and that by inorganic reagents, and in these industries
also the distinction between physical and chemical reactions in any given
case is one of extreme difficulty, which is much accentuated by the want
of any method for the separation of colloids comparable with erystallisa-
tion, or even fractional distillation.

Among industries with inorganic colloids may be mentioned the com-
paratively new one of the manufacture of colloid fibres for electric glow-
lamps from difficultly fusible metals, and both earthenware and agricul-
ture are largely dependent on the properties of colloidal suspensions.
Glass manufacture is also a colloid industry, and coloured glasses solid
colloidal solutions ; and modern pigments are largely colloidal precipitates
and colour-lakes.

In conclusion it is only right to acknowledge indebtedness to the
excellent work of Dr. Arthur Miller, ‘Allgemeine Chemie der Kolloide,’ ”
with its extensive bibliography ; and to the ‘ Zeitschrift fiir Chemie und
Industrie der Kolloide,’ edited by Dr. Wolfgang Ostwald, without which
the preparation of such a report would have been extremely laborious.
Owing to the very numerous and often somewhat inaccessible journals in
which important work has appeared, it has been necessary in many cases
to trust to abstracts, and it is possible that from this cause full justice
has not been done to some authors.

The Study of Hydro-aromatic Substances—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. EK. Divers (Chairman), Professor A. W. CROSSLEY
(Secretary), Professor W. H. Perkin, Dr. M. O. Forster, and
Dr. H. R. Le Suecr.

1 : J-Dimethyl-A"-dihydrobenzene and 1 : 1-dimethyl-A**-dihydro-
benzene.*—An account of the preparation of 1 ; 1-dimethyl-A*‘-dihydro-
benzene (II) by the reduction of 3 : 5-dichloro-1 : 1-dimethyl-A?*-dihy-
drobenzene (I) with sodium in moist ethereal solution appeared in 1902.4

CH=CCl CH=CH
CMe oH = CMe CH.
CH,.cc1Y CH, .CHF
(D dT)

Shortly after the publication of this work, Harries and Antoni >
expressed doubt, not only as to the constitution but also as to the com-
position of this hydrocarbon. Their criticisms were, in part, answered

' The work of Cohnheim, Chemie der Diweisskirper, 1904, and of Pauli and Siro
in the Beitr. z. Chem. Phys. und Path. from 1903 onwards seems specially worthy
of attention. ? J. A. Barth, Leipzig, 1907.

3 Crossley and Renouf, J.C.S., 1908, 98, 629.

* Crossley and Le Sueur, J.C.S., 1902, 81, 821, 5 Annalen, 1903, 328, 88.

222, REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE

at the time,! but it was considered desirable to try to prepare the sub-
stance by another method, in the hope that a comparison of the two
specimens of the hydrocarbon would throw further light on the proolem.
This has now been done, with the result that the correctness of the
earlier experiments and deductions are completely confirmed, allowing
the following conclusions to be arrived at :—

1. The dimethyldihydrobenzene described by Crossley and Le Sueur
is 1 : 1-dimethyl-\*“dihydrobenzene, containing as impurity a very small
amount of some oxygenated substance, probably a methoxy- compound.

2. The hydrocarbon described in this report (dimethyldihydro-
benzene C and R),? and prepared by the elimination of two molecules
of hydrogen bromide from dibromodimethylhexahydrobenzene, is a mix-
ture, in approximately equal quantities, of pure 1 : 1-dimethyl-A**-di-
hydrobenzene and pure | : 1-dimethyl-A*’-dihydrobenzene.

The starting-point in the synthesis was again dimethyldihydroresorcin
(III), which was first converted into its ethyl ether (I[V),* and this by
reduction with sodium in absolute ethyl-alcoholic solution into 3-hydroxy-
5-ethoxy-1 : 1-dimethylhexahydrobenzene (V) :—

CH,—-co CH,— CO
CMe< cu CMe cu
CH,.C(OHY \cu,.c(oEt)7
(111) (IV)
cree HOH,

Me, OF).
\cu,,CH(OEt)~
(V)

The ethoxy- compound gives with fuming hydrobromic acid dibromo-
dimethylhexahydrobenzene (V1), which when treated with quinoline
loses readily and completely two molecules of hydrogen bromide, with
formation of dimethyldihydrobenzene, and this reaction takes place in
two ways, giving rise to 1 ; 1-dimethyl-A**-dihydrobenzene (VII), or
to 1 :; 1-dimethyl A**-dihydrobenzene (VIII) : in approximately equal
amounts.

: CH, CHBn
CMe, :
“\CH,.CHBr%
(VD
v Vy

CH—cH CH : CH

CMe,Z cx CMe, cu,
\cu,. cH "Non: cH” *
(VII) (VIII)

1 Ber., 1903, 36, 2692.

2 To avoid confusion as far as possible, the hydrocarbon described in this
report, which is a mixture of pure 1 : 1-dimethyl-A*4 dibydrobenzene and of
pure 1 : 1-dimethyl-A**-dihydrobenzene, is referred to as dimethyldihydrobenzene
(C and R), the 1 : 1-dimethyl-A*4-dihydrobenzene, prepared by Crossley and
Le Sueur, as dimethyldihydrobenzene (C and §S), and the supposed 1 : 1-dimethyl-
4*5-dihydrobenzene of Harries and Antoni (Jog, cit.) as dimethyldihydrobenzene
(H and A).

$ J.C.8., 1899, 75, 775.

ON 'THE STUDY ok HYDRO=AROMATIC SUBSI'ANCES,

The following is a tabulated comparison of the properties of this
hydrocarbon with those of the dimethyldihydrobenzene prepared by

Crossley and Le Sueur :—

Dimethyldihydrobenzenes

223

(C and S) (C and RB)
- : = : tee see
DSR ay ee Liye | 111:2°
| Sp. gr. at 15°/15° | 08153 0-8147
| Index of refraction . 14548 | 1:4535
Molecular refraction | 60217 | 607251
Magnetic rotation - | 11-024 | 10°450
| Colour with H,SO, . . | Blood-red turning to | Blood-red turning to
violet -purple violet-purple
Fuming Hbr , ° Monohydrobromide, b. p. | Monohydrobromide, b. p.
90°5°/36 mm, 83°/20 mm.
Dihydrobromide, b. p.
137°/25 mm.
| Bromine . : Dibromide, unstable Dibromide, unstable
| | liquid liquid
Tetrabromide, m. p. 102°
/ NOCI 5 “ | Nitrosochloride, m, p. | Nitrosochloride, m. _ p.
| Voy BBLS 121°

Nitrating mixture
Oxidation products .

Oxidation products
monohydrobromide

. No definite product

of

| B8-dimethylglutaric acid,

as-dimethylsuccinic acid
as-dimethylsuccinic acid,

lactone of a-hydroxy-B8-

Trinitro-o-xylenes, mm. p.
71° and 115°
as-dimethylsuccinic acid,
dimethylmalonic acid
as-dimethylsuccinie acid,
AB-dimethylglutaric acid,
lactone of o-hydroxy-BB-

dimethylglutaric acid dimethylglutaric acid

From the above table the most important chemicai properties of
dimethyl-A?*4-dibhydrobenzene and dimethyl-A*-dihydrobenzene would
appear to be :—

1: 1-Dimethyl1-A?+4-dihydrobenzene

1: 1-Dimethy]-A?+°-dihydrobenzene

|
Hycrobromide, C,H,,Br, b. p. 83°/20 mm. | Hydrobromide, C,H, ,Br,, b. p. 1379/26 mm. |
Nitrosochloride, m. p. 121° No nitrosocbloride isolated
| Dibromide, C,H,, Br,, unstable liquid Tetrabromide, C,H,,Br,, m. p. 102°
No nitro-derivatives obtainable Trinitro-o-xylenes, m, p. 71° and 115°
| Osidation product, as-dimethylsuccinic | Oxidation product, dimethylmalonic
acid acid

The criticisms of Harries and Antoni (loc. cit.) may then be replied to
as follows.

In the first place, these authors consider that the analyses given by
Crossley and Le Sueur (ibid.) are midway between those for a dimethyl- °
dihydro- and a dimethyitetrahydro-benzene. The mean of the two analy-
ses quoted gave C=88'30 and H=11:27, and it is obvious from the

Calculated Calculated
Difference CsHy, Found CgHy> Difference
+ 1:03 87:27 C = 85°30 88 83 — 058
— 1:46 12°73 H = 11:27 lil + 016

annexed comparison that the numbers do not lie midway between the

9594, REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

calculated figures, the differences in those found and calculated for CH ,,
being very large, and the errors in the wrong direction ; for as a rule
carbon is found too low and hydrogen too high and not vice versa.
Moreover, if any appreciable quantity of dimethyltetrahydrobenzene had
been present it could hardly have escaped Getection, as on oxidation it
would have yielded £)3-dimethyladipic acid, which presents no difficulty of
isolation or identification.

If the above quoted figures for dimethyldihydrobenzene (C and S) are
examined, it will be found that they add up to 99-57 ; and it is considered
most probable that the discrepancy is due to oxygen present in the form
of traces of a methoxy- compound.

Another suggestion made by Harries and Antoni is that dimethyl-
dihydrobenzene (C and 8) is not a true dihydrobenzene but contains a
trimethylene ring as represented in formula IX. Altogether apart
from the probable incapability of existence of such a body, it may be

CH: CCl cCH=C
CMex | cH eee) gee pest
H,. CCl

mentioned that the magnetic rotation of the hydrocarbon would have
at once proved the presence of a trimethylene ring, and, morcover,
there is now evidence that the same dimethyldihydrobenzene is produced
by the reduction of dichlorodimethyldibydrobenzene, and by the removal
of the elements of hydrogen bromide from dibromodimethylhexahydro-
benzene.
CH : CH

CMe on

CH, .CHY

CI: Co} CH,. CLBr
CMe.< Scu Clot Soa,
\og,. CHBr”

This can only be explained if the substance be designated 1 : 1-di-
methyl-A***-dihydrobenzene, and hence the possibility of a trimethylene
ring being present in the hydrocarbon is precluded.

The whole question is further complicated by the fact that Harries
and Antoni prepared a hydrocarbon, which they believed to be 1 : 1-di-
methyl-A®*’-dihydrobenzene also from dimethyldibydroresorcin as a
starting-point ; but, unfortunately, no information is given as to any
derivatives which would enable a comparison to be made with the hydro-
carbon having that undoubted structure described in this report ; and it
would appear that the present evidence is insufficient definitely to
establish the constitution of Harries and Antoni’s hydrocarbon. The
single piece of evidence on which the supposed constitution of this latter
substance is based is oxidation, whereby oxalic, a succinic, and malonic
acids were obtained, none of which bodies afford any direct proof that
the hydrocarbon contained the gem-dimethy] group.

Nor is there any apparent reason for supposing that the elimination
of ammonia from the cyclic diamine would take place in one way and one
way only. Harries and Antoni have themselves shown that, when the
phosphate of diaminohexahydrobenzene (X) is submitted to dry distilla-

ON THE STUDY OF HYDRO-AROMATIC SUBSTANCES, 995

tion, ammonia is evolved in both of the possible directions, giving rise to
a mixture of A’**-dihydrobenzene (XI) and A’‘*‘-dihydrobenzene (XI1)

CH : CH CH, .CH(NH,)
cH > ae ae Noun 7S
*\cH :CHZ ” Nu, .CH(NH,)~
(XI) (X)
CH: CH, |
cue ote
*\cH, . CH”
(XII)

and they therefore conclude that ‘the gem-dimethyl group influences the
position taken up by the double bonds,’

Jou. CHINE)

CH : CH
CMe, Fiore ath GMa e Sou,.
\cH,. CH(NH,)%

“\cH : CH

If this is so, why does it not influence the position of the double
bonds when hydrogen bromide is eliminated from dibromodimethy]-
hexahydrobenzene? For this is a reaction strictly analogous to the

CH.

CH
CMe,f Sony. /aeamee Neg,
\cH: cH” ” Nou, .CHBr% ”
CH : CH vee
CMe CH «&
“\cH,. CBY

reaction used by Harries and Antoni, and yet it takes place in both
ways, giving rise to a mixture of the two possible hydrocarbons in equal
amounts. The presence of the gem-dimethyl group certainly does not
exercise any apparent influence in this case, nor in the position of the
double bond formed when 3-bromo-] : 1-dimethylhexahydrobenzene loses
the elements of hydrogen bromide.!

Harries and Antoni state that 2 grams of their dimethyldihydro-
benzene gave, on treatment with a nitrating mixture, 0:6 gram of
- trinitro-m-xylene, which might be regarded as a proof that dimethyl-

dihydrobenzene (H and A) does not contain the gem-dimethyl group, for
though many cases of the wandering of a methyl group in derivatives of
gem-dimethyldihydroresorcin have been recorded,” no single instance has
been observed in which a methyl group has wandered into anything
but an ortho- position. Moreover, dimethyldihydrobenzene (C and R)
undoubtedly contains dimethyl - .*°-dihydrobenzene, and under the
influence of a nitrating mixture it is this hydrocarbon which is converted
into the two possible trinitro-o-xylenes.

Recent Work on Hydro-aromatic Substances.

Hydrocarbons. — Methylenecyclohexane (I) has been submitted to
detailed investigation by Faworsky and Borgmann,? who conclude that
the hydrocarbons of this supposed constitution, previously described by
Sabatier, Wallach, and Zelinsky and Gutt, are in reality mixtures of
methylenecyclohexane and 1: methyl-—1!-tetrahydrobenzene (II). Fer
the preparation of the pure hydrocarbon cyclohexylcarbinol, obtained by

' 7.C.3,, 1906, 89, 1556. 2 Ibid., 1904, 85, 264; 1906, 89, 875.
* Ber., 1907, 40, 4863.
1908, Q

996 REPORTS GN THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

the Grignard reaction from bromohexahydrobenzene, was converted into
the corresponding iodide, and this latter body heated with aleoholic. potash.

CH, CH, CH, cH,
H,C / ; CH, HC : ) CH, H,C CH, 11,0 ( \ cH,
etal one H,C K Zou H,C CH, H,¢ | / Fe
S=cH, . CH, “OH . CH,OH CH . CHO
qd) (i) aul) av)

Methylenecyclohexane absorbs two atoms of bromine, and the resulting
dibromide gives, on warming with 10 per cent. potassium carbonate
solution, the glycol having formula IIT. When treated with very dilute
sulphuric acid this glycol gives an aldehyde (IV), which can also be
obtained directly from the dibromide by treatment with lead oxide and
water. These facts conclusively prove the constitution of the dibromide
and of the hydrocarbon.

Methylenecyclohexane is unaltered on boiling with quinoline, but is
converted by a mixture of quinoline and quinoline-hydriodide into the
isomeric methyltetrahydrobenzene (II). This fact would account for the
hydrocarbon obtained by Zelinsky and Gutt from the iodide of cyclo-
hexylearbinol by heating with quinoline, being a mixture of the two
isomerides.

Auwers! has shown that the alcohols V and VI, prepared from the
ketone VII by Grignard’s reaction, lose water to give unstable inter-
mediate products, which readily pass into benzene derivatives. These
reactions

Cll, CHCl, CH, CHCl, CH, . CHC),
Ae yeenA or
( ) (|
he WG \Z
Il Ja® of
O HU CH, HO 4), 46H. 40H
(V11) (VY) CV. ge

have been very fully investigated, and are described in detail in this
lengthy memoir. The hydroaromatic alcohols V and VI and their homo-
logues are not very stable substances, and many, if not all, exist in two
modifications, probably due to cis- and trans-isomerism. The above-
mentioned intermediate products are considered to be alkylidenedihydro-
benzenes,

CH, CHCl, CH, CHCl,
we :
AS BFA
pact ane abe-vnsteifead
was
TN Ng

OH, »@H, UH,

the general chemical and physical properties of which substances ag

' Annalen, 1907, 352, 219, 273, 288,

ON THE STUDY OF HYDRO-AROMATIC SUBSTANCES. 227

discussed, compared with other closely related compounds, and shown to
support the above conclusions as to their constitution.

Ketohexahydrobenzene is acted on by dry hydrogen chloride! to give
a substance having the formula C,,H,,OCl, which loses the elements of
hydrogen chloride to give cyclohexene-2-cyclohexanone.

O
SN
ie
os

When this dicyclic ketone is reduced it yields the corresponding saturated
alcohol, and this, by treatment with hydrogen iodide, the fully hydro-
genised dicyclohexyl C,H,,.C,H)).

Alcohols.— Aromatie quinones? give, when treated with hydrogen in
presence of reduced nickel, a variety of products, the nature of which
depends largely on the reaction temperature; if moderately low the
dihydric alcohols of the hexahydrobenzene series are formed.

Monohydric alcohols may be obtained * by the action of various alkyl
magnesium iodides on ethyl hexahydrobenzoate. The latter is readily
prepared by treating cyclohexylmagnesium iodide with carbon dioxide._

Ketones.—The action of light on ketohexahydrobenzene and the three
isomeric ketomethylhexahydrobenzenes has been studied by Ciamician
and Silber, who find that the ring is broken with production of a fatty
acid containing the same number of carbon atoms together with the
corresponding unsaturated aldehyde.

Not only ketohexahydrobenzene itself,? but also a number of other
simple ring ketones, such as ketomethyl- and ketomethylisopropylhexa-
hydrobenzene are found to be capable of reacting in the enolic form.°

The influence of a very reactive agent, for example acetic anhydride,
is necessary to bring about the change and the resulting acetates are
converted on saponification into the original ketones.

Homologues of ketohexahydrobenzene may be prepared? by the slow
distillation of the anhydrides of substituted pimelic acids.

Ketohexahydrobenzene and the three isomeric ketomethylhexahydro-
benzenes condense with ethyl a-chloropropionate® in presence of sodium
ethoxide, to the corresponding glycidic esters, the product in the first
case having the formula

No —0.c000,8,.
Ee

O CH,.

On saponification these esters give free acids, which decompose on
distillation in a vacuum giving hexahydroacetophenone or its homologues.
This latter ketone is, however, best prepared ® by treating the magnesium
compound of cyclohexyliodide with acetaldehyde, and oxidising the

! Wallach, Per., 1907, 40, 70.
* Sabatier and Mailhe, Compt. rend., 1908, 146, 457.
* Hell and Schall, Bev., 1907, 40, 4162. 4 Reports, 1907, 110.
5 Ber., 1908, 41, 1071. 6 Mannich and Hiinen, Ber. 1908, 41, 564.
7 Blanc, Compt rend., 1907, 144, 1356. * Darzens, Compt. vend., 1907, 144, 1123,
* Hell and Schall, Ber., 1907, 40, 4162.

Q 2

228 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

resulting methylcyclohexylcarbinol C,;H,,.CHOH.CH, with chromic
acid.

In the preparation of ketones by elimination of carbon dioxide from
ketocarboxylic acids K6tz' finds that the reaction takes place readily in
the case of 1-ketohexahydrobenzene-2-carboxylic acid, but it does not
proceed at all with acids and less readily with alkalis, as the hydrogen
atom marked with a x is replaced by methyl, ethyl, or isopropyl.

CH, CH,
H.C / \ CH, H.C 7 \ CH;
| > |
uc |! co Ya eae
C Wa é H, SA co
UH.COOH CH,
x

1- keto-3-methyl-A?-tetrahydrobenzene 2

CH CCH,
oCy” Neg:

Su ativan

CH, CH,

exists In two isomeric forms, which must have the same structure, as on
oxidation with potassium permanganate both yield y-acetobutyric acid.
The molecular refraction would lead to the conclusion that both are
doubly unsaturated alcohols and not ketonic in nature. Chemically the
two forms are identical except in their behaviour towards ferric chloride,
when the one gives a pale wine-red colour, whereas the other becomes
violet. The present data do not suffice to explain this case of isomerism.

Dimethyldihydroresorcin (I) reacts towards nitrous acid as a di-

C(CH,), C(CH,), C(CH,),
H.C 7 \ CH, WLC “ \ CH, H.C 7 \ CH,
bs |
| |
' Ge 1 1 H ® N: ‘~
Hoe 7 co oc \ } co ON:C C=NOH
CH U=N.OH G=N.OH
(1) (11) (III)

ketone,’ for the resulting isonitrosodimethyldihydroresorcin (II) reacts
with two molecular proportions of hydroxylamine to give a compound of
formula IIT. Oxides of nitrogen convert dimethyldihydroresorcin into
the nitro- derivative (IV), which substance, on reduction, yields an amine,

C(CH,), C(CH,);
H,C e CH H,0 A CH,
| Ini
oct }'co oc C—\
Si NO, a vas
(LV) (V)

and this gives with nitrous acid a compound whose constitution may be
represented by formula V. The relation of colour to constitution in

' Annalen, 1907, 357, 192. 2 Rabe, Ber., 1907, 40, 2482.
3 Haas, J.C.8., 1907, $1, 1433,

ON THE STUDY OF HYDRO-AROMATIC SUBSTANCES. 229

these compounds is somewhat striking. Thus, while dimethyldihydro-
resorcin. ;

Bey
oc CO
ire
CH,
is colourless, isonitrosodimethyldihydroresorcin

erat
oc CO
Ne
C:N.OH
is yellow; its potassium and ferrous salts are deep blue, and its ammo-
nium salt violet : the monoxime

Pets
oc C:N.0H
Sf
C : N.OH

is colourless, but dissolves in alkalis to a yellow solution, and gives with
ferrous sulphate a deep azure blue. The dioxime

HO.N ;: d é > N.OH
Date
C :N.OH
on the other hand, is greyish pink, but gives a yellow solution in caustic
alkalis, and produces with ferrous sulphate a violet colour. Replace-
ment of one of the carbonyl oxygen atoms in isonitrosodimethyldihydro-

resorcin by the imino group

fata
oc C:NH

as
C:N.OH

changes the colour from yellow to deep violet ; the potassium salt of
this compound is magenta, while the ferrous salt is deep blue.

Acids.—A number of carboxylic acids of the hydroaromatic series
have been synthesised by Wallach! by condensing cyclic ketones with
ethyl bromoacetate. The hydroxyl group in the resulting esters is
replaced by bromine through the agency of hydrogen bromide, and the
halogen free acids obtained by treatment with zinc and acetic acid.

oN, 7 no ga

i eee es han arr

2X NF

CO Rage Seana CH.CH,.COOH
\CH, COOH ‘CH,.COOH

Skita? concludes from a study of ethyl 4-amino-2 : 6 : 6-trimethyl-
hexahydrobenzene - 1 - carboxylate, prepared from ethyl isophorone-
carboxylate, that hydroaromatic amino- acids show cis-trans-isomerism ;
that they are similar in their chemical behaviour to the aliphatic amino-
acids, and also physiologically, in that they possess the property of pro-
ducing local anesthesia.

Amines.—Gutt* has prepared hexahydrobenzylamine and the five

' Cent. Blatt., 1907, ii, 52. 2 Ber. 1907, 40, 4167. 8 Tbid., 1907, 40, 2061.

230 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

theoretically possible aminomethylhexahydrobenzenes, which are easily
characterised by the melting-points of their benzoyl derivatives.. The-
preparation is realised as follows :—

CH, CH, CH, CH,
ras
HOH CHC] CO, H. .CO.NH,
/ CHO ke GG; \_/ CH.COOH \_/ CH.CO.NH,

On treatment with bromine in presence of sodium methoxide the
amide gives a urethane, which on distillation with lime yields the amine.

Aromatic from Hydro-aromatic Substances.—Kétz and Gétz! have
studied the action of chlorine or bromine on hydroxyhexahydrobenzene
and on hexahydrosalicylic acid, and have isolated a number of products
intermediate between the fully saturated hydro-aromatic bodies and the
corresponding aromatic derivatives. An indication of the course of the
various reactions may be gleaned from the following scheme :—

CH, CH,
H,C / \ CH, H,C 7 CH,
+ Br, > | + Br, >
H.C CHOH HC co
atin 4 ig, Shake
CH, CH,
CH, CH,
H.C ¢ \ CH, H,C “ \ OH,
| - HBr => |
HC
H.C | } co i / 00
CHBr CH
CH CU, aad gt
Ho 7 cH H,c “ \ CH
| < |
|
He \ ) GOH BrHC co
CH CHBr

Reference may also be made to the following papers, which contain
a description of many interesting hydro-aromatic substances: ‘ Hydro-
aromatic Sulphur Compounds,’? ‘Hydrophthalic Acids,’* ‘Synthesis of
Alcohols of the Hexahydrobenzene Series,’* ‘ Derivatives of Phenyleyclo-
hexane,’> ‘ Hexahydrobenzaldehyde.’ ©

1 Annalen, 1908, 358, 183.

2 Borsche and Lange, Ber., 1907, 40, 2220,

3 Abati, J.C.S. Abst., 1907, 1, 419, 420.

4 Sabatier and Mailhe, Ann. Chim. Phys., 1907 (8), 10, 527.
5 Kursanow, J.C.S. Abst., 1907, 1, 599.

6 Zelinsky and Gutt, Ber., 1907, 40, 3050, 3055.

ON EXCAVATIONS IN THE PAL#OZOIC ROCKS OF WALES, &c. 231

The Excavation of Critical Sections in the Palceozoic Rocks of Wales
and the West of England.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor C. LapwortH (Chairman), Mr. G. W. FEARNSIDES
(Secretary), Mr. J. Lomas, Dr. J. E. Marr, Professor W. W.
Warts, and Mr. G. W. WILLIAMS.

On some Excavations in the Cambrian Rocks of Comley, Shropshire, 1907.
By HK. 8. Copsorp, £.G.S.

Tue locality of Comley has long been classical in geology as the only
place in Shropshire where Lower, Middle, and (so-called) Upper Cambrian
rocks, occurring in juxtaposition, are all known to yield fossils.

The chief point of interest has been the little Quarry of Comley, in
which both the characteristic genera of Trilobites of the Lower and
Middle divisions of the Cambrian system—namely, Olenellus and Para-
doxides— occur in close association.

These rocks of the Comley district were first claimed as Cambrian by
Dr. Chas Callaway ' in 1878, and paralleled by him with the Hollybush
sandstone of the Malvern district.

In 1888 Professor Lapworth announced ? the discovery of an Olenellus
(O. Callaver, Lapw.) from the band of purplish-red calcareous sand-
_ stone of the Comley Quarry, which band has become generally known
among English geologists as the Olenellus Limestone band of Comley,
or, locally, the Olenellus Limestone.

In 1891 Lapworth described and figured the Olenellus,’ and at the
_ same time announced his discovery of a Paradoxides (which he named
P. Groomii) from the conglomerates and limestones overlying the
Olenellus Limestone in the same quarry.

Although it was thus well known that both Lower and Middle
Cambrian rocks were present in the locality, the line between them had
not hitherto been exactly determined.

The Cambrian formations of the Comley area hitherto recognised are
as follows :—

III. Upper Cambrian Shales, so called (the Shineton Shales of
Callaway, op. cit.).

II. The Comley Sandstone of Lapworth, op. cit., divisible into a
lower and an upper portion, the latter representing parts of the Middle
Cambrian, and the former parts of the Lower Cambrian of other regions.

I. The Wrekin Quartzite of Callaway at the base.

The excavations described in this report have been confined to the
Comley Sandstone Series above mentioned.

The geology of the Comley area presents considerable difliculties
owing to the obscure and faulted nature of the ground. It will be seen
from , the.accompanying sketch-map that the main mass of the area
under description is occupied by the Comley Sandstone Series. This
_is underlain to the west by the Wrekin Quartzite, but the only fairly

Callaway, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxiv. 1878, p. 759.
* Lapworth, Geol. Mag., December 3, vol. v. 1888, p. 484,
¥ {bid,, you. viii. 1891, p. 529,

232 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

consecutive section hitherto known has been a thickness of about 30 feet
of Comley Sandstone exposed in the Quarry itself, which has been worked
at frequent intervals for more than thirty years for the extraction of
road stone.

There are, however, many patches of Lower and Middle Cambrian
rocks to be seen in the Comley area, but they are isolated, and the

v Lidtle
¢° Caradoc
Stam mak

stratigraphical relationships and lithological details of such beds as have
hitherto yielded fossils have necessarily remained undetermined for want
of sufficient evidence,

Professor Lapworth has mapped the area, and has freely shown his
maps to myself and others, but the results of his investigations are as
yet unpublished.

ON EXCAVATIONS IN THE PALHOZOIC ROCKS OF WALES, &C. 233

Fairly large collections of fossils have been made from Comley, but
many of the species appear to be new to Britain or are as yet unde-
scribed. It is impossible, therefore, to give complete lists.

Dr. Callaway quotes! from the Quarry ‘a minute roundish Lingula,
Kutorgina cingulata, Bill., and Serpulites fistula, Holl.’

Professor Lapworth quotes * as associated with his Olenellus Callavei
in the Olenellus Limestone ‘ Xutorgina cingulata, Bill., Linnarsonia
sagittalis, Walcott, Hyolithellus, cf. H. micans, Walcott, and Ellipto-
cephalus sp.’; and from the beds yielding his Paradoxides Groomii
‘forms of Ptychoparia, Obolella, and Protospongia.’

In 1892 Mr. Rhodes collected largely in the area for H.M. Geolo-
gical Survey under the direction of Professor Lapworth, and _ his
specimens are still under examination. Numerous other geologists,
including myself, have collected fossils from the Quarry and neighbour-
hood, obtaining them to a large extent from loose blocks of material, and
it is often difficult, or even impossible, to assign the specimens to their
respective lithological horizons.

Being desirous of establishing the exact horizon of some specimens of
Microdiscus lobatus, Hall, which I had collected from a spot that was
pointed out to me by Mr. Rhodes in 1892, situated in the tields about
200 yards south of the Quarry, which species was being described, among
others, by Mr. Philip Lake in his Monograph on the Cambrian Trilo-
bites, I commenced an excavation, in June 1907, at the spot in question,
and exposed a series of grey limestones (which had not hitherto been
recognised in the Quarry) lying just above, and conformably with the
Olenellus Limestone.

Professor Lapworth, being interested, kindly contributed to the pre-
liminary expenses, and considered it most desirable to extend the
excavations, if possible, to several other critical spots in the area.
Subsequently, on the appointment of the Geological Excavation Com-
mittee, Section C, at the Leicester meeting of the British Association,
a grant was awarded by the Committee for the purpose of carrying out
these excavations, and the present report summarises the results of this
work down to the present time (June 1908).

DESCRIPTION OF THE EXCAVATIONS.

The positions of the excavations already carried out are shown on the
accompanying sketch map. They are of two kinds :—

(a) Transverse excavations, numbered | to 5 on the map, and indi-
cated by short thickened lines. These are trenches for the purpose of
ascertaining the sequence of the strata above or below known exposures
of rock. They are cut through the soil and subsoil (where the depth is
not excessive) to solid rock, and allow of the observation of the lithological
characters of the various layers, and in some cases of the collection of
fossils.

(6) Vertical excavations or trial holes, numbered 6 to 19 on map,
put down to ascertain the nature of any solid rock existing between

* Op. jam cit.

® Op. jam cit. p. 532; also ‘The aoe of S. Shropshire,’ Lapworth and Watts,
Proc. Geol. Assoc., Feiidon, 1894, p. 310

3 Pal. Soe., vol. Ixi. 1907, ‘Cambrian Trilobites, p. 32,

234 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

known natural exposures and the feasibility or otherwise of opening up
additional transverse sections. ;

Note.—The letters distinguishing the various beds on the following
pages are only applicable in each case to the individual sections under
description, and are not to be taken as implying correlation of strata.
The names employed are either existing appellations for strata or groups
of strata in use among geologists, or new names now proposed for adoption.
The latter, where used for the first time, are given with quotation marks,
The beds are in all cases described in descending order. i

No. 1. The Comley Quarry Section.

The rocks described in Part I. are those of the eastern portion of the
Quarry enclosure, and have long been exposed by the ordinary quarrying
operations carried out for the extraction of road metal.

The rocks described in Part II. are those of the western portion of
the Quarry enclosure as laid bare for the first time by the present exca-
vations and by the clearing away of débris and overgrowth from an old
disused quarry face.

' All the strata have an approximately N. and S. strike, with an
easterly dip of about 70°:

Owing to the working back of the Quarry face and some faulting the
section now to be seen is not quite the same as it was formerly.

Part I. Rocks previously exposed by the ordinary Quarrying Operations.
East End of Section :—
a. The Comley ‘ Quarry Ridge Grits,’ with Paradoxides.

a, Brownish, coarse, quartzose Grits with much glauconite and, in

places, becoming conglomeratic. Bedding planes, ill-defined,

at 2 to 3 feet intervals (top not seen) : : : : 2 2A
a, Conglomeratic bed, becoming calcareous at the base, with a matrix

quite similar to that of the grits above (a,), but containing

(i) pebbles, (ii) rather large subangular to angular blocks of

rocks derived from the beds below, and (iii) very many black

or brown lumps of phosphatic material . ° ¢ c 3.0

The included materials comprise :—

(i) pebbles, more or less rounded, of quartz and of igneous rocks, one
of which compares very closely with the ‘ granitoidite’ of the
Cardington Hill voleanic group.

(ii) lenticular pieces of limestone, some of which exactly corre-
spond with the ‘French Grey Limstone’ bed d below, and
have, in the quarry, or in Section No. 2 (see page 236), or in
intervening natural exposures, yielded many fragments of
Olenellus referred to O. (Holmia) Callavei, Lapw.; Anomocare —
(Agraulos in the sense used by Walcott), a pustulate species
not yet identified; Zinnarsonia and other Brachiopods; and-
subangular to angular pieces of greenish and yellowish mica--
ceous sandstone very similar to beds f below.

(iii) black or brown lumps of phosphatic material, which are very
irregular in shape, often weathered out so as to form cavities ;
they may be contemporaneous with the formation of the bed _

Where very calcareous the matrix of the conglomerate is of a pinkish
grey colour very similar to that of the ‘French Grey Lime-

ON EXCAVATIONS IN THE PALZOZOIC ROCKS OF WALES, &c, 235

Ft. In,
stone’ bed @ below, but usually showing an admixture of
glauconite grains and earthy matter not found in that bed.

It is from the grey portions of the bed that I have collected
fragments of a large Paradoxides referable, with doubt, to
P. Groomii, Lapw.

b. The Black Limestone (Callaway and Lapworth) :—

A very dark rock with rounded quartz grains, much glauconite, and
abundant black lumps of phosphatic material. ‘This bed
is sometimes found soldered to the overlying conglomerate
(a), especially in the deeper parts of the Quarry. Near the
surface it is, or was (for it is nearly all quarried away at the
higher levels), separated from it by clayey matter.
: Maximum thickness 0 9
Hyolithus fistula (?), Salterella (perhaps 2 species) and
Brachiopods.

c.! Grey Limestone and Fault rock . : ; F ‘ eta aie
d. The ‘ French Grey Limestone’ :—

A pinkish grey compact limestone becoming purple or red in

places and crowded with fossil fragments, which are shown

upon the yellowish weathered surfaces, without glauconite or
phosphatic inclusions - 3 ; : : ; - : tO
Aristozoe, cf. A. rotundata, Walcott, and Brachiopods.

e. The Olenellus Limestone :—

A red and green deposit, sandy as a rule and almost shaley in the
upper part, but becoming very calcareous in certain layers, from
the presence of nodules of compact sandy limestone the
weathered surfaces of which exhibit abundant fragments of
Olenellus . : ¢ - about

The fossils detected include Olenellus (Holmia) Callavei, Lapw.;
Anomocare sp.; Agraulos, possibly two species; Microdiscus
sp., cf. M. Helena, Walcott; Hyolithus sp., probably nov. ;
HZ. socialis, Linnrs , Linnarsonia and other Brachiopods.

J. The ‘ Lower Comley Sandstone’ :—

J, Soft red and green micaceous sandstone, with sandy shales in
thin layers . ; ¢ 3 : a A m : ; £50

iw)
for)

Part II.— Rocks exposed by the new excavation.

7, Green and rusty micaceous sandstones, being the downward
continuation of f,, in beds 1 to 3 feet thick, with at least
three separate layers (situated at 7, 11, and 14 feet below
the base of the Olenellus Limestone), exhibiting rusty spots
weathering out into cavities . : ° . . : c

f, Green micaceous sandstone rather softer in texture than e,,
weathering brown, in thin beds 1 to 2 inches thick (base not
seen , 7 . . . : : : : : . ZO 70

Total thickness observed 5 7 keu O

West End of Section.

NoTE.—Similar sandstones to the above (/) are traceable at intervals along the
roadside for a distance of twenty yards south-westerly from the end of the
excavation, indicating (if there is no repetition and the dip remains constant) a
further downward thickness of the sandstone on the E. and W.-line of section of
about 40 feet.

} The rock marked c probably represents some portions of the ‘Grey Limestones
of Section No. 2, p. 6, but is a good deal crushed by strike faulting.

256 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

No. 2.—Excavation and Section in fields 200 yards south of
the Comley Quarry.

At this spot there was an old cutting overgrown with grass in a little
knoll near the southern termination of the Quarry Ridge (see map).
It showed protruding bosses of grit and conglomerate similar to those
seen in the Quarry, together with loose angular pieces of grey or purplish
limestone.

I had one side of this cutting cleared of soil, and prolonged the
section thus obtained in both directions by a new trenching excavation.
The beds have a strike approximately north and south, and dip to the
east at an angle of about 65°.

The old cutting and the new trenches are not quite at right angles
to the strike, but allowance for this has been made in taking the
measurements.

Last End of Section,
a. The Quarry Ridge Shales :—-

Comminuted pale greenish grey shale, including (in the lower part
of its section) a band of hard glauconitic grit 3 inches thick,
striking parallel with the beds below. The base of this shale
group not seen owing to the presence of a fault running
nearly parallel with the strike and hading easterly. The
thickness of this group may be as much as 200 or 300 feet . 10 0

Ft. In.

b, The Quarry Ridge Grits :—

b, Grit broken into angular fragments, say
b, Well-bedded grit . :
b, Conglomeratic grit with black fngey material about the
middle and at the base. 12 0
These grits and conglomerates agree "precisely with those
of the Quarry (a, a, Section No. 1).

c. The Black Limestone :—

The upper half of this shows a dark grey sandy matrix with many
black phosphatic lumps; the lower half has less of the
phosphatic material . - ; c ‘ . : 1 0
Hyolithus fistula, Holl. (2).

coo
o

d. The ‘ Grey Limestones’ :—

A series of fossiliferous limestones varying in colour from a reddish
purple through greenish grey to pale grey.
d, A pale grey limestone very full of fossil fragments : ; ; 0 3
Fossils :—Protolenus sp.; Microdiscus lobatus, Hall; M. sp., of
medium size and having a punctate test.; I/. sp., somewhat
intermediate between the two; Hyolithus, cf. H. corneelus,
Hoim.; H, fistula, Holl. (?), and Brachiopods.

d. A reddish purple limestone becoming pale grey in places. | 0 6

Fossils are very plentiful :—Aicrodiscus lobatus, Hall; M.
speciosus, Ford; Anomocare (Agraulos of Mathew and Wal-
cott), cf. A. strenuus, var. nasutus, Walcott; A. sp.,, with
glabella furrows transverse; A. sp.,, with glabella furrows
directed backwards; A. sp,, a smaller form, with front
margin reflexed and glabella almost keeled; Hyolithus
Jistuld, Holl.(2); HW. sp., cf. H. lenticularis, Welut + HY. Sp.;
Helenia (?) sp. nov. and Brachiopods.

d, A dark grey limestone with many phosphatic lumps, some
glauconite, and having purple and green patches of colour. ieee (0)
[Fossils more fragmentary, not yet separately collected. ]
d, A greenish grey rock with plentiful black phosphatic lumps ' On9.
[Fossils fragmentary, not yet separately collected. ]

e. The French Grey Limestone :—

A pale pinkish grey limestone in two bands, each about 3 inches
thick, with a few pieces of dark phosphatic material : ‘ 0 6
There are some patches of this limestone which have a granular or
sandy aspect, and the colour is then greenish.
Anomocare vel Agraulos sp., a very pustulate form; fragments of
Olenellus sp. and Brachiopods.

J. The Olenellus Limestone :—

Immediately below the French grey limestone the cutting showed
some red sandy clay, and embedded in this material there
protruded from the bottom of the excavation some nodules of
red sandy limestone characteristic of the Olenellus Limestone,
as seen in the Comley Quarry, and yielding fragments of
Olenellus and Microdiscus sp.
Total thickness of red material . - - ‘ 2 6

g. The Lower Comley Sandstone :—

g, Greenish soft sandstone or sandy shale, ef. bed /,. Section
No. 1 (base not seen) d : - ‘ 5 ; : L 0

Some 12 feet beyond the end of the trench a trial hole (No. 6 on
map) was excavated disclosing —

gz, Green sandsione, cf. beds 7, Section No. 1.

West End of the Section.

Note.—About 30 feet east from the eastern end of the Trench a trial-lole (No. 7
on map) was sunk at the site of an old saw-pit, disciosing comminuted pale grey
shale exactly like that of bed a, Section 2, above.

At a further distance of about 60 feet in the same direction another trial-hole
(No. 8 on map) was sunk near the Comley Brook. This disclosed clayey material
similar to that found above the shale in Trial-hole No.7, but having in it some
angular pieces of brownish green, flaggy, glauconitic grit, with small quartz pebbles,
No dip or strike could be determined here.

Excavation No. 3.—North End of Dairy Hill, about 200 yards
south-east of the Comley Quarry.

I made this excavation for the purpose of ascertaining the structure
of Dairy Hill. Professor Lapworth had mapped it as a dome, and had
found fragments both of the Olenellus Limestone and of the Quarry
Ridge grits in the surface of an old lane, which curves round the north
end of Dairy Hill (see map), but it was uncertain if they were in situ.
Holes were made in the south bank of the lane, which is here about
8 feet high, and disclosed plentiful nodules of the Olenellus Lime-
stone and of a green standstone referable to the Lower Comley Sand-
stone (beds / ot the Quarry) beneath it. The Quarry Ridge grit (the
conglomeratic portion) is traceable along the road surface in a curved line
more or less parallel to the contour of Dairy Hill, and the whole of the
beds dip north,

238 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

It is obvious that the lane has at this point cut well into the northern
end of a dome of the Quarry Ridge grits and has just reached the
Olenellus Limestone and the Lower Comley Sandstone below it. I
found no traces of any of the French Grey, Grey, or Black Lime-
stones in this excavation ; further excavations are necessary before
their apparent absence can be accounted for.

The Olenellus Limestone in the bed and bank of the road yielded
fragments of Olenellus having characteristics of 0. (Holmia) Callavei,
Lapw., and Linnarsonia.

Excavation No. 4.—North Spur of Little Caradoc, 200 yards west-
south-west of the Comley Quarry.

The object of this excavation was to open up asection of the lowest
beds of the Lower Comley Sandstone and to ascertain the character of their
junction with the underlying Wrekin Quartzite below. The Quartzite is
known to wrap round the eastern side of Little Caradoc Hill, and there
are traces of it in this northern spur. There are also at this poinv
some natural exposures of greenish micaceous sandstone, not unlike the
Comley Sandstone of the Quarry, and of a coarse- grained dolerite which,
higher up the hill, intervenes between the Quartzite and the core of Pre.
Cambrian rocks.

Two trenches were opened in a piece of uncultivated ground west of
the Comley Quarry, and separated from it by nearly 200 yards of culti-
vated land showing no exposure of solid rock.

One of these trenches was continued east, as far as circumstances
allowed, into the arable field ; the other was carried west, to find the
Quartzite and fix its point of contact with the dolerite.

Some of the beds in the first trench could be exactly matched in the
second, and the sections displayed in both are given below as one con-
tinuous whole.

The beds dip west, but as they are, in all probability, inverted,
the section is described from east to west, as representing the descending
order of the beds.

a. Lower Comley Sandstone.
Ft. In.
2, Fine-grained greenish micaceous sandstones in compact, or ;
flaggy, or rubbly beds, dipping about 50° westwards, and
var)ing a good dealin hardness. - About 30 0
Yielding Hyolithus sp. near A. tenuistriata, Linn.
a, Fine grit with well-rounded grains, 2 inches.
Sandy clay, 4 inches.
Very-dark coarse grit with some dark green grains (?) glauconite,
2 inches.
Bluish-grey calcareous grit weathering to a dark incoherent sand-
rock, 12 inches.
Grey clayey shale, 6 inches,
'. Rib of hard fine-grained micaceous sandstone, 18 inches.

Sandy clay, 12 inches - J Total thickness of a, 5 0
a, Fine-grained greenish flaggy micaceous sandstones r 15 0
a, Hard greenish micaceous sandstones in more compact beds dip-

ping westerly at about 50° é 12 0
a, Much harder brownish micaceous sandstone having a more quart:
zite-like aspect . : . : : : : 3 zat
: es
‘otal thickness of sandstones seen : . : . 66 0

ON HXCAVATIONS IN THE PALAIOZOIG ROCKS OF WaLEs, &c. 239

Interval of about 20 feet, in which no rock showed at the botiom of
the trench,

b. The ‘ Wrekin Quartzite.’

b, Broken angular fragments of fine-grained Quartzite, mtich brec-
ciated, the cracks only partially filled : , about 4 0
b, Bottom of trench showing no bedded rock but much clayey
material with fragments of Quartzite flags 1 to 2 inches thick,
representing a thickness of . ; about 10
b, Coarse granular Quartzite, much broken and weathered i in places
to a dark incoherent grit . : baat 4
b, Well-bedded coarse-grained Quartzite, dipping west at about §5°
underlain by a clay-parting 4 : LO
b, Compact glistening fine-grained Quart zite and clay- -parting . : 0 6
b, Compact glistening fine-grained Quartzite and clay-parting . 0 6
b, Coarse-grained white Quartzite, weathering in places to a dark
incoherent quartz grit ; 5 ; : : : ° : 2 6

Total thickness of Quartzite seen . 5 ° ¢ aut 22,6

Possible Fault :—

c. Dolerite, weathered or sheared into small lenticles 4 to 4 inch
thick and much decomposed, becoming rather more compact
at a distance of 2 feet from the Quartzite.

This Section is of interest as showing :—

A. The general nature of the higher beds of the Wrekin Quartzite with their
varying thicknesses and clayey partings ;

B. A continuous section of about 66 feet of the Lower Comley Sandstone,
with the occurrence in it of a Hyolithus and some calcareous gritty
bands and shales;

C. Acertain amount of graduation from beds with a thoroughly quartzite
facies to those of the sandstone facies.

It is uncertain whether the 20 feet interval between the two forma-
tions represents a fault or not. The subsoil at this point is a very loose
sandy gravel (probably glacial), and it was considered unsafe to deepen
the narrow trench sufficiently to find solid rock.

Excavation No. 5.—Hill House Ridge, North End.

At the northern extremity of Hill House Ridge (see map) a small
quarry was opened some ten or fifteen years ago for the purpose of
extracting stone for rough walling from two strong beds of grey grit,
beneath which lies a band of dark brown incoherent grit. In this dark
grit 1 had previously found some casts of fragments of trilobites.

In order to endeavour if possible to fix the position of these grits in
the general Comley Series, I had trenches cut crossing the strike of the
beds to east and west of the little quarry.

The section thus exposed divides itself into three parts: (1) The
trench east of the quarry ; (2) The quarry itself; and (3) The trench
west of the quarry.

940 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,
East End of the Section: —

Part I.—Trench East of the Little Quarry.
a. ‘ Hull House Shales’ :—

a, Sandy shale much disturbed; dip and thickness unknown ., ong bs °C
Probable Fault :—
b. * Hill House Grits’ :—

b, Rough, brown, glauconitic grits, flaggy in places and occasionally
almost conglomeratic from the presence of inclusions of
shaley material; dip 55° East . : about 12 6
Ptychoparia (2) sp., and many fragments of Trilobites.

Part Il.—The Hill House Ridge Quarry itself.

b, Quartzose grits, almost white, and with little etn dip

about 45° East . ; . ° 7 0

b, Dark-brown incoherent grit with trilobite fragments : : ° 0 6
b, Brown quartzose glauconite grit . . . 3 . 5 0

Part IIl.—TZrench West of the Quarry.

b, Soft dark conglomeratic ae with ee See 3 0-
b, Greenish quartzose grit . . : : ° 3 0
b, Black flaggy grit . ‘ . F : ; ° : 0 6
b, Dark grits, incoherent in places A ; ; : : . 6 6
43 0

c. ‘Hill House Flags’ :—

ec, Black flaggy grit; dip about 30° to the East . 5 : 0 4
c, Dark sandy and calcareous material with much phosphate 1 6

Dorypyge sp.
Paradowides (1); Hyolithus fistula (2), Holl., and Brachiopods

c, Black calcareous flaggy grits, 1 inch and 3 inches thick ; dip about
10° to the east. Base not seen ts) of Detain) femeeeea

Total thickness seen in section about . smi: 10

West End of the Section.

So far as surface features show, the deposit lying next below these Hill House
Flags appears to be the upward extension of the Quarry Ridge Shales seen in
Excavation No. 2, but there is every probability that the junction is a faulted
one, and that the sequence is not complete. A trial-hole (No. 17) put down
12 yards west of the end of the section near the fence failed to reach solid rock.

Trial-holes Nos. 14, 15, 16 on map (see below, p 241) are in strata which appear
to belong to the Hill House Shales, and indicate a considerable thickness of these
beds.

Vertical Excavations ov Trial Holes.

Nos. 8, 9, 11, 17, 18, 19 disclosed no solid rock.

No. 10, at the top of Dairy Hill, showed broken grits referable, with
doubt, to the Quarry Ridge Grits, with indications of nearly horizontal
bedding.

No. 12 consisted of clearing away some of the débris in an old quarry

—

_

ON EXCAVATIONS IN THE PALHOZOIC ROCKS OF WALES, &c. 241

tiear the south fence of the Dairy Hill field in order to ascertain the

dip of the beds.
It showed the following vertical section of beds lying nearly

horizontally :—

Ft. In
a, A coarse somewhat conglomeratic bed of grit or sandstone with
rusty coloured blotches and greeniSh earthy patches : ve OME
b. Micaceous green flaggy sandstone . : : : 4 ‘ OMS
e. a ». but more compact and rather coarser . : af Oued
d. Micaceous sandstone with rusty spots; cf. beds f of Excavation
No.1. Bfise notseen . : . . . . . ar 0

The general aspect of these beds recalls those found below the
Olenellus Limestone of the Comley Quarry.

Nos. 13, 14, 15, 16, were sunk on the northern slopes of Hill
House Ridge to ascertain the nature of the shales there apparently
overlying the Hill House Grits, and to localise the exact position of a
fault mapped by Professor Lapworth.

No. 13, near the Comley Brook, exhibits beds of grit and shale dipping
to the south-west at about 45°.

Nos. 14, 15, 16, showed shales often gritty and micaceous with
included bands of harder shale and grit, all with a nearly vertical dip
and a north and south strike.

It is clear that the fault in question lies between Nos. 13 and 14.

REsvuLts,

Previous to the time when these excavations were commenced it was
well known to geologists that in the Comley area the Wrekin Quartzite
underlay the Comley Sandstone Series; that in this Sandstone series
occurred a fossiliferous group of strata of no great vertical thickness,
which was partly exposed in the Comley Quarry ; and also that the
lower beds of this Quarry group yielded the Olene/lus fauna and its
higher beds, Paradowides ; but the precise line of stratigraphical demarca-
tion between the two sets of strata yielding the older fauna and those
yielding the younger fauna, even within this little fossiliferous group,
remained undetermined. And, although it was known that both above and
below the beds exposed in the quarry there occurred a comparatively great
thickness of strata belonging to the local Comley Sandstone Series, that
series remained undivided owing to the paucity of natural sections.

The results of these excavations enable us for the first time to fix
almost exactly the local stratigraphical line of division between the Lower
and Upper Comley Series, and to give details as to the sequence and
characteristics of the various lithological bands in the fossil-bearing
group for some distance above and below that line, and thus permit of
the fixation of the true stratigraphical horizons of the fossils which have
been at various times collected from these beds, or from loose fragments
derived from them.

Again, although it cannot be claimed that these excavations have
furnished a sufficiency of evidence to enable geologists to distinguish all the
local members of the Comley Sandstone Series, they have supplied a large
amount of additional testimony in support of the view that not only is the
series as a whole separable into two main divisions—an upper and a lower
ied distinguishable by their fossils—but that each of the two divisions

1908. R

a—_ =
S

242 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE:

will in time prove capable of subdivision into recognisable stratigraphical
sub-groups.

As matters now stand it would appear that the components of the
Comley Series, as developed in this little area, may be somewhat as
follows :—

1. Tar Lower Comtey Serres, whose lowest beds graduate upwards
from the Wrekin Quartzite below, through an unknown thickness of
Lower Comley Sandstone, into the fossiliferous Olenellus group at the
top (some 5 or 6 feet in total thickness, and composed in ascending order
of (1) the Olenellus Limestone, the French Grey Limestone, and the Grey
Limestones). The affinities of the Black Limestone have yet to be deter-
mined.

2. Tar Upper Comtry Sertes.—The lowest group of this consists
of the Quarry Ridge Grits (some 24 feet in thickness), made up of
a lower conglomeratic Zone with the Paradowides fauna and a higher
gritty zone with few fossils. These Quarry Ridge Grits are apparently
succeeded by a thick band of shales, the Quarry Lidge Shales. Still
higher in the succession comes the Hill House Group, made up of the °
Hill House Flags below, the Hili House Grits in the middle, and the Hill
House Shales above.

While the original object with which these excavations were com-
menced—i.e., the fixation of the relative systematic positions of the
lithological zones which have already yielded fossils in the Comley Quarry
and its immediate neighbourhood—has been attained, nevertheless the
stratigraphical succession of the component lithological zones of the Comley
Series as a whole is as yet far from being established ; and, bearing in mind
the fact that in this Comley area the Cambrian strata of Shropshire are
known to be far more fossiliferous than elsewhere, it is most desirable
that the work shall be continued.

Throughout these investigations I have had repeated help and
encouragement from Professor Lapworth, which I gratefully acknowledge.

I am also much indebted to Mr. Philip Lake for help in the
determinations of the Trilobites, and to Professor Theodore Groom for a
report on the Hyolithide, «e.

Erratic Blocks of the British Isles.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor P. F. KENDALL (Chairman), Dr. A. R. Dwerrry-
HOUSE (Secretary), Dr. T. G. Bonney, Mr. F. M. Burton, Mr.
F. W. Harmer, Rev. 8S. N. Harrison, Dr. J. Horne, Mr. J.
Lomas, Professor W. J. Souuas, and Messrs. J. W. STaTHER,
R. H. Tippeman, and W.'T. Tucker, appointed to investigate tie
Erratic Blocks of the British Isles, and to take measures for thetr
preservation. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Reported by Professor Kenpaui, M.Sc., F.GS. -

Robin Hood’s Bay.—In the spring of the present year three boulders
of Shap granite were exposed in the cliffs near Stoup Beck. Two were
large, well-worn blocks, about 2 to 3 feet long ; the third not more than
8 inches long. One of the larger still remains in sitw. It lies in undis-
turbed boulder clay 20 feet above high-water mark, exactly 100 yards

ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 243

south of Stoup Beck. The long axis is directed about N. 30° W., and
the southern end is slightly raised, in which respect it resembles the great
majority of the large boulders in the same deposit.

The base of the boulder is about 4 feet below an ill-defined junction,
between a dark bluish-brown boulder clay, very heavily charged with
stones and traversed by shear planes, often much contorted, and an upper
paler dun clay with fewer stones. It May be that the differences of
aspect are due to differences in exposure to spray.

The lower clay was examined carefully to discover with what group-
ing of erratics the Shap granite boulders were associated, and every stone
of obviously foreign derivation was scrutinised especially with the object
of ascertaining whether the porphyrites of the Cheviot type and Grey-
wacke sandstones, such as occur in the Tweed Valley above Melrose,
were present in such numbers as to identify the boulder clay with the
beds forming the highest members of the Glacial Series in many parts of
the coast tract of Yorkshire.

Porphyrites formed the predominant element of the foreign stones,
but they were mainly of a very dark-purple tint ; while the red por-
phyrites that preponderate in the Cheviots were represented by few
examples. The Greywacke sandstone, including a perfectly angular
slab 2 feet in length, did not resemble any type that I have seen in the
Tweed Valley.

Decomposed melaphyres with amygdaloids were common ; basalts and
dolerites less so. Two pebbles of trachyte were found and one pebble of
rhomb porphyry. Three flints (not of Yorkshire type), one small pebble
of granite, a granophyre (possibly Buttermere), one piece each of Brockram
and Old Red sandstone, some Carboniferous limestone, and Magnesian
limestone completed the series of certainly foreign stones.

OE local, or possibly local, rocks the following were observed :—

Sandstones from the Estuarine Series (these constituted nearly the
whole of the large blocks and many of the smaller stones).

Equisetum stem.

Harpoceras bifrons.

Jet (abundant),

Middle Lias ironstone.

Lower Lias shale and limestone.

Gryphea incurva.

. Oxynoticeras cxynotum.
Gypsum (a lump as large as a cricket-ball).

Reported by Mr. THomas SHEPPARD, F.G.S.

From Withernsea.—A boulder of black flint containing a specimen of
Belemnites lanceolatus.

Black flints of this type have long been known in the glacial beds
of the Yorkshire coast, and B. lanceolatus has been collected in large
numbers ; but this observation shows them to have a common origin.

As neither the black flints nor B. Janceo/atus is known in the British
chalk, it is concluded that these have probably been derived from an
outcrop beneath or beyond the North Sea.

From Dimlington.— A rounded boulder of quartz-rhomb-porphyry,!
a rock only once previously recorded, viz. from Burstwick.

See Harker, Proc. Yorks Geol. Soc., vol. xiii. pt. ii. pp. 279; 281.
R2

244, REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Reported by Mr. J. W. Sraruer, [.G.S.

At Aldborough in Holderness (observed by Mr. Charles Thompson,
B.Sc.) a mass of Speeton clay, 12 feet x7 feet x 1 foot 6 inches, embedded
in the boulder clay of the beach, The bedding is still intact, and the
contained fossils uncrushed.

The full extent of the boulder could not be seen, as it dipped towards
the cliff.

The following fossils were noted :—

Exogyra sinuata.

Belemmites subquadratus,

Astarte senecta.

Also numerous ammonites, ail belonging to the zone D,.!

The only other recorded case of a transported mass of Speeton clay
is at Flamborough Head, immediately below tho lighthouse, though
Speeton fossils are very common in the drifts of this coast.

The distance from Speeton to Aldborough is between 20 and 25
miles,

Reported by Mr. H. Currin.

From a cutting on the South Yorkshire Joint Railway at Stainton
Woodhouse, two miles west of Tickhill.

Carboniferous limestone, 6 inches x 5 inches x 4 inches, together with
smaller pebbles of the same rock and of grit.

Also a boulder of a dark grey rhyolite with large masses of iron
pyrites, probably from the Borrowdale Series,

Reported by Mr. J. Witrrip Jackson.

A large boulder of Shap granite from Troughbarrow Quarry, near
Silverdale, Lancashire,

Reported by Mr. F. W. Harmer, F.G.S.

A number of small chips collected by Mr. Harmer from boulders
found in the Norwich brick-earth were forwarded by Mr. Harmer. Of
these thin sections have been prepared, and have been examined petro-
logically by the Secretary.

They include a number of holocrystalline acid rocks, including both
biotite and muscovite-biotite granites, which it has been impossible to
identify up to the present.

Dolerites are represented hy two types: one of these (five specimens)
is without olivine, and has been identified with the Whin Sill, The
other type is olivine-bearing, and has not as yet been identified.

The collection also included Carboniferous limestone, with fora-
minifera and other small fossils, two pebbles of porphyrite of the
Cheviot type, and a quartz hornblende schist, probably Scandinavian.

From the Cromer Clay.—Here, again, was found a number of granites
not as yet identified.

Whin Sill was represented by eight specimens.

Olivine dolerites, similar to those from the Norwich brick-earth, also
occurred here.

AA porphyrite of Cheviot type was also found.
Several quartz-hornblende-schists, bearing a strong resemblance to,

) Lamplugh, ‘On Speeton Clay,’ Q.7.GS., xlv. 575-616,

ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. QAS

that from the Norwich brick-earth, occurred, together with a coarse
granite with zircon, and a much decomposed ~elexolite syenite, all
probably Scandinavian.

A fine-grained basalt, identical with one from the Norwich brick-
earth.

It is hoped that it may be possible t6 identify the remainder of these
rocks and to give a fuller report on the boulder contents of the East
Anglian drifts in the next report.

Photographs of Geological Interest.—Siwteenth Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor J. GEikig (Chairman), Professor
W. W. Warts (Secretary), Dr. T. ANDERSON, Mr. G. BiNGLEY,
Dr. T. G. Bonney, Mr. H. Coates, Mr. C. V. Crook, Professor
EK. J. Garwoop, Messrs. W. Gray, W. J. Harrison, R. Kipsron,
and A. S. Ret, Professor 8S. H. Reynoups, Dr. J. J. H. Tear,
and Messrs. R. WetcH, W. WuairakeEr, and H. B. Woopwarp.
(Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Since the issue of the last Report in 1904 about 600 photographs have
been received for the national collection, Of these 503 have been re-
gistered, bringing the total number in the collection to 4,817, and the
yearly average to 253.

The annexed geographical scheme gives the distribution of these
photographs among the counties. Two English, one Welsh, seven
Scottish, and eleven Irish counties are still unrepresented. Somerset,
Kent, Yorkshire, and Bute head the list for the year, and the number
from the counties of Lincoln, Brecknock, Merioneth,: and Fife receive
large proportionate increments.

Several of the groups are of exceptional interest. Professor Reynolds
sends some excellent studies of rock-structures, due to earth-movement,
from Devonshire, some very clear examples of unconformity from Glouces -
tershire, and a large series of views from Somerset. The same contri-
butor gives a beautiful group of photographs showing the weathering
of igneous rocks from the outposts of Cader Idris, and a number of
volcanic studies from Arran,

Mr. Bingley contributes many photographs of the Triassic footprints
from Storeton Quarry, in Cheshire ; a considerable group, mainly illus-
trating glacial phenomena, from Lincolnshire; and a series of inland
and coastal views in Yorkshire. He also sends several interesting views
taken in Derbyshire and Durham.

Special mention should be made of a particularly important and most
carefully taken set of prints illustrating the ‘nailbournes’ of Elham and
Petham in Kent. In both sets corresponding pairs of views were taken
from the same point, one to illustrate the bournes in the flow of the
winter 1903-4, and the other the dry state after cessation of this flow in
the following summer. These valuable sets, taken by Mr. Buckingham,
show how very important the registration of transitory phenomena by
photography can be, as in no other way is it possible to secure such a
satisfactory and telling record of these remarkable springs. Mankind is
so forgetful of them that in some cases houses, roads, and other works are
censtructed in the path of the intermittent flows. Mr. Buckingham has

24.6 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

also collected a series of important facts relating to former flows of these
bournes, as well as to the flows of 1903-4.

Counties

ENGLAND—

Cheshire .
Cornwall .
Derbyshire
Devonshire
Durham . 5
Gloucestershire
Hampshire
Heretordshire .
Kent
Lancashire
Leicestershire .
Lincolnshire
Norfo}k

Northamptonshire .

Northumberland
Shropshire
Somersetshire .
Staffordshire
Suffolk

Surrey

Sussex
Westmorland .
Yorkshire
Others , F

Total .

WALES—

Brecknock
| Carnarvonshire
Merionethshire
Montgomeryshire
| Radnorshire
| Others , ;

Total .
CHANNEL ISLANDS
IsLE OF MAN a

ScoTLAND—

Argyllshire .
Bute z
Fifeshire .
Inverness-shire
Others .

Total .

Previous Additions
Collection (1908) “Tete
69 12 81
67 21 88
45 2 65
180 26 206
136 9 145
67 17 84
47 4 51
1 gat 2
112 43 155
77 3 80
148 15 163
6 27 33
110 9 119
18 1 19
73 5 78
55 g 63
78 44 122
53 1 54
45 2 47
53 11 69
12 6 18
82 5 87
847 41 888
337 -— 337
2723 331 3054
8 29 37
106 3 109
19 33 52
11 2 13
20 1 21
127 — 127
291 68 359
38 — 38
61 — 61
23 9 32
6 40 46
43 21 64
138 9 147
249 — 249
459 79 538

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 24.7

5 Previous Additions
Counties | Collection (1908) Total
—- Jit
IRELAND— |

Antrim . : : ‘ | 278 9 287

i baer ea aay 2 16

Cork : ; 2 oH 21 | 2 23

Donegal i z ; 7) 50 4 be

Dublin. F d . Ae! 42 | 2 4

Galway . 4 . F a 29 . 4 33

Others. : : : z 213 —_ | 213

opal OR at Seie i 646 23 669

Rock STRUCTURES, &c, .| 96 2 98

Summary, |

ENGLAND . : ; . il 2723 331 3054
WALES s “ - : : 201 68 359 ]

CHANNEL [ISLAND , , : 88 = 38

IstEor MAN, 3 : ‘ 61 = 61

SCOTLAND . . ‘ ‘ 4 459 79 538

IRELAND. F 5 é : 646 23 669

Rock STRUCTURES, Kc... F 96 2 98

otal sae passant 2 4314 | —-508 Wedge O31

Mr. Buckingham also contributes a photograph of the cliffs of
St. Margaret’s Bay before the great rock-fall of January 1905, and
several others taken after that fall.

At my request Mr. Hodson, of Loughborough, kindly took a large
series of beautiful photographs of the Blackbrook Valley in Charnwood
Forest. This valley is of exceptional interest, because it is the unique
example in the Forest of a Triassic valley out of which the Triassic material
has been almost completely scooped. It therefore differs in landscape
character from any other valley in the Forest, and indeed in the eastern
part of England ; but its special features have now been lost, as it is
submerged under the reservoir of the Loughborough waterworks con-
structed by Mr. Hodson. Unhappily Mr. Hodson died shortly after he
had completed this work, and his many contributions to the collection
will be much treasured.

A serious loss to the Committee is caused by the death of one of its
most active members, Mr. W. Jerome Harrison, who may be styled the
pioneer of geological photography and also of systematic photographic
survey work. The collection contains some hundreds of specimens of his
work, and the Comuittee still hold a considerable series of photographs
in Suffolk, which only need indexing to be incorporated in the collection.
It was at the York meeting of the Association that Mr. Harrison
brought before the Conference of Delegates an important paper on ‘The
Desirability of Promoting County Photographic Surveys,’ one outcome of
which has been the attempt to collect and exhibit a set of scientific
photographs each year illustrating the district in which the Association
meets. An admirable example of such a collection was exhibited at
Publin during the current meeting,

248 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Mr. J. G. Goodchild, also a member of the Committee since 1893, was
removed by death in 1906.

Other contributions include a beautiful set of photographs of granite
si'ls, raised beaches, and other phenomena in Cornwall taken by Messrs.
G. V. and H. Preston, who send also some prints taken in Staffa ;
a series of photographs taken in connexion with the excursion of the
British Association along the Cromer coast in 1904 by Mr. G. Hastings ;
several photographs taken in Surrey by Mr. Baldock and Mr. Robarts ;
an interesting set of miniature denudation phenomena taken at Bexhill
by Dr. Horace Brown ; and some important photographs taken in Skye
by Mr. R. F. Gwinnell and Mr. J. A. Smythe.

Lastly the Committee would give special mention to the set of
photographs, mostly of waterfalls and related phenomena in Brecknock,
by Miss F. Neale, described and classified by Mr. F. T. Howard ; photo-
graphs taken in Ireland by Mr. R. Welch, Mr. Cleland, and Miss
Andrews ; and a careful selection of his instructive photographs of
volcanic and allied phenomena taken by Mr. A. 8. Reid in Fifeshire.

To all these gentlemen and ladies the thanks of the Committee are
due, and to the list they would also like to add the following for photo-
graphs given or help rendered :—Mr. E. A. N. Arber, Professor J. W.
Carr, Mr. J. Carver, Mr. E. 8S. Cobbold, Mr. F. G. Collins, Mr. L. H.
Cooke, Mr. A. K. Coomaraswamy, Mr. H. Divers, Mr. C. H. B. Epps,
Mr. Friendship, Professor E. J. Garwood, Mr. F. Greenwood, Mr. J.
Hopkinson, Mr. J. W. Jackson, Miss M. 8. Johnston, Mr. A. T. Metcalfe,
Mr. G. W. Moore, Mr. H. Pickles, Mr. R. H. Rastall, Mr. C. Davies
Sherborn, Mr. W. E. Smith, Mr. J. A. Smythe, Mr. F. 8, Snell, Mr. W.
Whitaker, Dr, D. Woolacott, and Mr. A. Young.

A certain demand still exists for the published series, and, as each order
yields a small profit, the balance of the Committee stands at 125/. 10s. 1d.
after current expenses of mounting and storing have been paid.

It has not been found possible hitherto to proceed with the publication
of the contemplated second issue, but it is proposed to begin work upon
it at once, and next year’s Report will probably record the publication of
the first series.

A selection from the first published issue has been exhibited at the
Science Section of the Franco-British Exhibition, and has received the
award of a Diploma of Honour.

No important additions have been made to the duplicate series.
This series has been exhibited by Mr. Whitaker at several scientific
societies, including the Tunbridge Wells Natural History Society, the
Battersea Field Club, the Hertfordshire Natural History Society, the
Selborne Society (Hampstead Branch), and the Croydon Eelectic
Society.

Applications by Local Societies for the loan of the Duplicate Collection
of prints or slides should be made to the Secretary. A descriptive account
can be lent. The carriage and the making good of any damage to slides
or prints are the only expenses to be borne by the borrowing society.

The Committee recommend that they be reappointed, without a grant,
and that Professor J. Geikie be reappointed Chairman, and Professor
W. W. Watts and Professor 8S. H. Reynolds he appointed joint
Secretaries,

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 249

SIXTEENTH LIST OF GEOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS.
From Avcust 12, 1904, tro Aucust 22, 1908.

This is a list of the geological photographs which have been rezeived
and registered by the Secretary of the Committee since the publication
of the last Report.

Contributors are asked to affix the registered numbers, as given below,
to their negatives for convenience of future reference. Their own
numbers are added in order to enable them to do so.

* indicates that photographs and slides may be purchased from the
donors or obtained through the address given with the series.

Copies of other photographs desired can, in most instances, be obtained
from the photographer direct, or from the officers of the local society under
whose auspices the photograph was taken. The cost at which copies
may be obtained depends on the size of the print and on local circumstances,
over which the Committee have no control.

The Committee do nof assume the copyright of any photographs in-
cluded in this list. Inquiries respecting photographs, and applications for
permission to reproduce them, should be addressed to the photographers
direct.

Copies of photographs should be sent wnmouwnted to
Professor 8. H. Rrynomps,

University College, Bristol,
accompanied by descriptions written on a form prepared for the purpose,
copies of which may be obtained from him.

The size of photographs is indicated as follows :—

L= Lantern size. 1/1 =Whole-plate.
1/4 = Quarter-plate, 10/8 =10 inches by 8.
1/2 = Half-plate. 12/10=12 inches by 10, &c.
; E, signifies Enlargements,
List
ACCESSIONS IN 1904 TO 1998.
ENGLAND.

CuEsHIRE.— Photographed by Goprrey Bineiey, Thorniehurst,
Headingley, Leeds. 1/2.

Regd.

No.

4298 (7290) Storeton Quarries. . . Fossil Footprints. 1906.
4299 (7291) an : : i :
4300 (7287) x : : * 5

4301 (7288) F perl. 4 i,
4302 (7289) is OMe, :, .
4303 (7296) od iy sh ae é ‘
4304 (7299) tak :s :
4305 (7293) . : " a
4306 (7294) i aah ‘ 4
4307 (7298) e es " .
4308 (7295) . wae ‘ e
4309 (7297) - ah i F

250

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

CorNnwaLL.—* Photographed by G. V., R. H., and Harotp Preston,

Alverne House, Penzance.

Regd

No.

4310 ( ) Trewavas Head, Mount’s
Bay.

4311 ( ) Trewavas Head, Mount’s
Bay.

4312 ( ) Trewavas Head, Mount’s
Bay.

4313 ( ) Trewavas Head, Mount’s
Bay.

4314 ( ) Trewavas Head, Mount’s
Bay.

4315 ( ) Gurnard’s Head, Zennor.

#316 ( =) ” ”

4317 (10) St. Loy Cove, St. Buryan.

4318 (9) vs ”»

4319 ($) ” ” Lo

4320 (11) Perranuthnoe, Mount’s Bay.

4321 (1) Gwithian Cliffs, St. Ives Bay.
4322 (2) ” ”
4323 (3) ” ”
4324 (1) 2 ”
4325 (7) » ”
4326 (5) > ”
4327 (6) 5 ”

* Photcgraphed by F. GrEENwoop, 5 Sé. Mary’s Gate, Rochdale. 1/2

4328 (224) Porth, near Newquay :
4329 (225) Fistral Bay, near New-
quay.

1/4,

Granite veins in slate. 1905.

Hornblende rock and slaty felspar rock ?

Raised beach and water-worn granite.
1906.

Raised beach and water-worn granite.
1906.

Raised beach and water-worn granite.
1906.

Earth cliffs, encroached on by sea. 1906.

Karth cliffs and raised beach. 1906.

Raised beach and consolidated sand.
1906.

Detached mass of consolidated sand,
resting on Devonian slate. 1906.

Contorted and faulted Devonian slate.
1906.

Contorted Lower Devonian slate. 1906.

” ” ”

ia

Blowing-hole. 1905.
Raised beach. 1905.

Photographed by i. H. Cooxr, Imperial College of Science and

Technology, S.W.

4330 ( ) Tywarnhaile Mine,

Redruth.

5/4.

near Junction of two lodes,

DeERBYSHIRE.— Photographed by J. W. Jackson, Manchester Museum,

Victoria University, Manchester.

4331 (71) Quarry in Bradwell Dale

1/4.

Peculiar erosion in Carboniferous Lime-
stone. 1905.

Photographed by T. U. Simonson, and presented by A. YounG,

45 Hastings Road, Millhouses, Sheffield.

4332 ( ) Froggatt Edge, near
Chatsworth.
4799 ( ) The Eagle Stone, Curbar

Edge, Baslow,

1/2.

Weathered Millstone Grit. 1904.

” ” ”

=
i

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST.

251

Photographed by Goprrey Binavry, Thorniehurst, Headingley,

4349

Leeds.

(7319) The Winnats, near Castle-
ton.
(7328) Ravenstor, Miller’s Dale .

(7329) % 4

(7330) Old Marble Quarry, Tides-
well Dale.

(7332) Opposite Old Marble
Quarry, Tideswell Dale.

(7333) Opposite Old Marble
Quarry, Tideswell Dale.

(7334) Opposite Old Marble
Quarry, Tideswell Dale.

(73385) Opposite OJd Marble
Quarry, Tideswell Dale.

(7339) Black Rocks, near Crom-
ford.

(7340) Black Rocks, near Crom-
ford.

(7345) Shothouse Spring, near
Grange Mills.

(7347) Grange Mills, near Crom-
ford.

(7349) Longcliffe
Brassington.
(7350) Longeliffe
Brassington.
(7352) Longcliffe
Brassington.
(7353) Longcliffe
Brassington.
(7354) Mam Tor, near Castleton.

Sandpit, near
Sandpit, near
Sandpit, near

Sandpit, near

r/2.

Gorge in Carboniferous Limestone. 1906.

Carboniferous Limestone and Toadstone.
1906.

Carboniferous Limestone resting on Toad-
stone. 1906,

Spheroidal structure in Dolerite. 1906.

Laminated Carboniferous Limestone
under sill. 1906.

Corals in Carboniferous Limestone. 1906.

Fault in Carboniferous Limestone. 1906.
Intrusive Dolerite above Carboniferous
Limestone. 1906.

Weathered Millstone Grit. 1906.

Bedded tuff. 1906.

Spheroidal structure in volcanic ‘neck.’
1906.

Large pocket of sand in Carboniferous
Limestone. 1906.

Large pocket of sand in Carboniferous
Limestone. 1906.

Large pocket of sand in Carboniferous
Limestone. 1906.

Large. pocket of sand in Carboniferous
Limestone. 1906.

Yoredale shales. 1906.

Devonsuire.— Photographed by Professor 8. H. Rrynoups, University

4350
4351
4352
4353
4354
4355
4356
4357
43538
4359

4360
4361

4362

College, Bristol.
(1) Bathing Place, Ilfracombe. .

(2) ” 1
(3) ” ”
(4) ” »
(1) ” ”
(8) ” ”
(9) » »

(5) Hele Bay, near Ilfracombe. .

(6) Quarry, a little W. of Combe
Martin on the _ Ilfracombe
road.

(10) E. of Bathing Place, Ifra-
combe.

(11) Rillage Point, Ilfracombe .

(12) ” »

(13) Haggington Beach, Ilfra-
combe.

1/2 and 1/4.
Contorted limestone bands. 1903.

” ” ”

” ” ”
Cleaved and contorted grit band, 1903.
Contorted and disrupted quartz veins.
1903.

Contorted and disrupted quartz veins.
1903.

Contorted and disrupted quartz veins.
1903.

Contorted limestone band.

Contorted limestone bands.

1903.
1903.

Anticline in cleaved Devonian. 1903.

Marine erosion of jointed Devonian. 1903.

Quartz veins in parallel joints in Devo-
nian, 1903.

Joint and bedding caves. 1903,

Be, REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Regd.

No.

4363 (14) Saunton. . : ‘Head’ on consolidated blown-sand in
which sea-caves have been excavated.
1903.

4364 (15) > : ; : . Consolidated blown-sand. 1903.

4365 (16) .. : : : . False bedding and conglomerate layer in

: raised beach, or consolidated blown-

sand. 1903.

4366 (17) “F : i : . Consolidated blown- sands resting on
Pilton Beds. 1903.

4367 (18) Hs : ; : . Consolidated blown-sands resting on
Pilton Beds, 1903.

4368 (19) ” - : : . Large granite boulder underlying con-
solidated blown-sands. 1903.

4369 (20) 5 : < j . ‘Drag of the hill.’ 1903.

4370 (21) Combe Martin Harbour. . Crumpling of slates by ‘drag of the
nile E903:

Photographed by R. H. Rasrary, W.A., Christ's College,
Cambridge. 1/4.
4371 ( ) Combe Martin : . Folded grit in well-cleaved slate. 1903.
4372 ( ) Cliffs W. of Budleigh Sal- Pebble-beds and sandstone. 1903.

terton.

Photographed by Mr. FriENDsHI1P and presented by E. A. NEwELL ARBER,
Trinity College, Cambridge. 1/1.

4373 ( ) Broadbench Cove, N.ofWel- Contorted shales and sandstones, Upper
combe Mouth. Carboniferous. 1906.

Photographed by F. G. Cotuns, Daisy Mount, Polsloe Road, Exeter,
and presented by C. Davins SHErBorN. 1/4.

4374 (1) Posbury Quarry. Junction of agglomerate with compact
rock. 1905.
4375 (2) ,, 5; Weathered face of agglomerate. 1905.

DuruaM.—Photographed by GopFrey BinGLeY, Thornichurst, Headingley,
Leeds. 1/2 and 1/4.

4790 (6891) Above High Force, Tees- Whin sill on altered limestone. 1905.
dale

4791 (6893) Widdy Bank, Teesdale. Mica-trap dyke. 1905.

4792 (6894) Cauldron Snout, Teesdale. Whin sill. 1905.

4793 (6895) Falcon Clints, Teesdale. Whin sill on basement beds of Carboni-

; ferous Limestone. 1905.

4794 (6896) As Whin sill on basement beds of Carboni-

ferous Limestone. 1905.

Photographed by H. Pickurs, The Modern School, Leeds. 1/1.
4795 ( )Quarry,nearHudeshopeBeck. Drift over Carboniferous Limestone.
1905.

Photcgraphed by Dr. D. Woouacorr, Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-
Tyne. 1/2.

4796 ( ) Claxheugh, 2 miles from Landslip in Magnesian Limestone, resting
Sunderland. on Yellow Sands. 1905.

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. Dede)

Photographed by J, A. Suytur, Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-

Regd.

Tyne.

1/4.

No. , ;
4797 (24a) Coast, nr Whitburn Collicry. Stack of partly brecciated Magnesian

4798

(24b) Coast, $ mile 8. of Whit-
burn Colliery.

Limestone. 1904.
Flat-topped sea-caves in Magnesian Lime-
stone. 1904.

GLOUCESTERSHIRE.— Photographed by Professor 8S. H. Reynoxps, University

4376
4377
4378
4379
4380
4381
4382
4383
4384

43385
4386

4387
4338
4339

4390
4391

Photographed by Miss M. 8. Jounston, Hazelwood, Wimbledon Hill.

4392

College, Bristol.

(1) Lilliput Cutting, Chipping
Sodbury.

(2) Lilliput Cutting, Chipping
Sodbury.

( ) East end
Tunnel.

( ) Cutting W. of Chipping
Sodbury Station.

( ) Cutting W. of Chipping
Sodbury Station.

(5) Shirehampton.

(6) ee

(7) “A ‘

(9) ”

(10) -
(11) Sa

(72) Westleton Quarry, Chipping
Campden.

(73) Westleton Quarry, Chipping
Campden.

(69) Wick Rocks, near Warmley.

(70) ” ”

(71) ” ”

of Sodbury

( ) Bredon
Tewkesbury.

Station, near

1/4 and 1/2.

Weathered concretionary beds in Car-
boniferous Limestone, $2. 1903.

Weathered concretionary beds in Car-
boniferous Limestone, 82. 1903.

Forest marble over Great Oolite. 1902.

Upper Rhetic and Lower Lias. 1902.

Rheetic Shale on eroded Old Red Sana-
stone. 1902.

Syncline in Old Red Sandstone. 1905.

Keuper on Old Red Sandstone. 1905.

Disturbed Old Red Sandstone covered by
Keuper. 1905.

Faulted Keuper unconformably on Old
Red Sandstone. 1905.

Syncline in Old Red Sandstone. 1905.

Disturbed Old Red Sandstone overlain by
Keuper. 1905.

Annelid borings in L. Freestone. 1901.
Annelid borings in L. Freestone. 1904.
Highly ochreous Keuper Marl. 1904.

Coal-seam Millstone Grit. 1904.
Mammillated top of Millstone Grit. 1904.

1/4

Northern Drift on Lias Clay. 1904.

Hampsuire.—Photographed by C. H. B. Epps, W.A., 95 Upper Tulse

4394

4395

Hill, SW.
4393 (1152) Chalk Pit, near Hensting

Farm, near Owslebury.

(1153) Chalk Pit, near Hensting
Farm, near Owlesbury.

(1154) Chalk Pit, near Hensting

Farm, near Owlesbury.

1/2.
Radiating joints in chalk, round gravel
filling underground watercourse,
1905.
Cylindrical, transverse,
joints in chalk. 1905.
Radiating joints in chalk.

and radiating

1905.

Photographed by J. A. Smytne, Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-

4396

Tyne.
(24c) Blackgang Chine, Isle of
Wight.

1/4.

Lower Greensand. 1903,

HEREFORDSHIRE.—Dhotographed by J. Hopkinson, Westwood,

Watford.

1/4.

4397 (19) Mocktree Hill Quarry, near Fault in Aymestry Limestone. 190.

Leintwardine.

=

254 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Kent.—Photographed by C. C. Buckincuam, 108 High Street,
Godalming. 1/2.

ved

oO.

4398 (130) Elham Nailbourne, near Well Chapel Springs; seldom dry. 1904.
Bekesbourne

4399 (131) Elham Nailbourne, near Springs at usual head of Lesser Stour.
Bekesbourne. 1904.

4400 (132) Elham Nailbourne, near Bourne flowing. Jan. 1904.
Bekesbourne.

4401 (133) Elham Nailbourne, near Same view; bourne dry. Dec. 1904.
Bekesbourne.

4402 (134) Elham Nailbourne, near Bourne flowing. Jan. 1904.
Bekesbourne.

4403 (135) Elham Nailboumne, near Same view; bourne dry. Dec. 1904.
Bekesbourne.

4404} (136) Elham Nailbourne, near Bourne flowing. Jan. 1904.
Bekesbourne.

4405§ (137) Elham Nailbourne, near Same view; bourne dry. Jan. 1905.
Bekeshourne.

4406} (138) Elham Nailbourne, near Bourne flowing. Jan. 1901.
Bekesbourne.

44079 (139) Elham Naiibourne, near Same view; bourne dry. June 1905.

Bekesbourne.
4408 (140) Elham Nailbourne, near The Lake, Bourne Park. Jan. 1904.

Bekesbourne.
4409 (142) Elbham Nailbourne, near Nailbourne flowing into lake. Jan. 1904.

Bekesbourne.

4410 (143) Elham Nailbourne, near Same view; bourne dry. Jan. 1905.
Bekesbourne.

4411 (144) Elbam Nailbourne, Bourne Cold Bath Spring; flowing. Jan. 1904.

Park.
4412 (145) Elham Nailbourne, Bourne Same view; bourne dry. Feb. 1905.

Park.
4413 (146) Elham Nailbourne, near Spring in Bourne Park. June 1904.

Bishopsourne.
4414 (147) Elham Nailbourne, near Same view; bourne dry. Dec. 1904.

Bishopsbourne.

4415 (148) Elham Nailbourne, near Cessation of flow. June 1904.
Bishopsbourne.

4416 (149) Elham Nailbourne, at Bourne flowing. Jan. 1904.
Barham.

4417 (150) Elham Nailbourne at Same view; bourne dry. Jan. 1905.
Barham.

4418 (151) Elham Nailbourne at Bourne flowing. Jan. 1904.
Barham.

4419 (152) Elham Nailbourne at Same view; bourne dry. Jan. 1905.
Barham.

4420 (153) Elham Nailbourne : Bourne flowing. Jan. 1904.

4421 (154) Klham Nailbourne ‘ Same view ; bourne dry. March 1905. _

4422 (155) Elham Nailbourne,Barham., Water issuing in roadway. May 1901.
4423 (156) Elham Nailbourne, South Bourne flowing. Jan. 1904.
Barham.

4424 (157) Elham Nailbourne, South Same view; bourne dry. March 1905.
Barham.
4425 (158) Elham Nailbourne, Lym- Springs in higher part of valley. June?
inge.
4426 (159) Petham Nailbourne. Usual saturation level, Skalmsford Street
June? .

+ Photographed by F. 8. Snel!, 8 Gu Idhall Street, Canterbury.
§ Photographed by W. E. Smith, 11 Broad Street, Canterbury.
4| Photographed by H. Divers, Burgate Street, Canterbury.

ON PHOTOGRAPHS Of GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 25

Beet.

oO.

4427 (160) Petham Nailbourne . Hollow at Perry Farm ; reached by bourne
in 1892 and 1897. Jutie 1904.

4428 (161) 3 ; . Flowing along road. March 1904.

4429 (162) eS . Same road dry. July 1904.

44301 (163) ” : . 100 yards from source. March 1904,

4431 (164) 3 ‘ . Same view; bourne dry. July 1904.

4432 (165) 43 . . Source of 1904 flow; flowing. June 1904.

44335 (166) 6 Same view; bourne dry. Nov, 1904.

4434 (167) 9 Source of 1904 flow. March 1904.

4435 (168) ee Same view; bourne dry. June 1905.

4436 (173) St. Margaret’s Bay Before cliff-fall. Jan. 1905. (Copy of
old photograph.)

44371 (174) F ; After cliff-fall. Jan. 1905.

4438 (175) 5 ‘ Gap caused by cliff-fall. Jan. 1905.

4439 (176) » ” ” ”

4440 (177) re Cliff-fall and débris. Jan. 1905.

LancasHirE.—Photographed by J. W. Jackson, Manchester Museum,
Victoria University, Manchester. 1/4.
4441 (114) Silverdale Shore Tidal bore in River Kent.

1905.
4442 (165) ” Hrosion of ‘ Salt-marsh.’

1905.

* Photographed by F. Greenwoop, 5 St. Mary’s Gate, Rochdale.

4443 (54) Fairies’ Chapel, Healey Stream erosion. 1897.
Dell, Rochdale.

1/2.

LEICESTERSHIRE.-—DPhotographed by the late G. Hopson, M.Inst.C.E.,

4444
4445
4446
4447
4448
4449
4450
4451
4452
4453
4454
4455
4456
4457
4458

(11) Blackbrook Valley, Charn-

wood Forest.

(10) Blackbrook Valley,

wood Forest.
(9) Blackbrook
wood Forest.
(8) Blackbrook
wood Forest.
(7) Blackbrook
wood Forest.
(4) Blackbrook
wood Forest.
(2) Blackbrook
wood Forest.
(3) Blackbrook
wood Forest.
(1) Blackbrook
wood Forest.
(5) Blackbrook
wood Forest.
(6) Blackbrook
wood Forest.
(2) Blackbrook
wood Forest.
( ) Blackbrook
wood Forest.
(3) Blackbrook
wood Forest.

Valley,
Valley,
Valley,
Valley,
Valley,
Valley,
Valley,
Valley,
Valley,
Valley,

Valley,

Loughborough. 10/8.
From near the Oaks Church. 1904.

Charn- Moult Hill. 1904.

Charn- Moult Hill and One Barrow. 1904.

Charn- One Barrow Quarry. 1904.

Charn- Site of reservoirdam. 1904.

Charn- Old canaldam. 1900,

Charn- View up valley from old canal dam.
1899.

Charn- View down valley from old canal dam.
1899. ;

Charn- Looking up valley at old canal dam.
1899.

Charn- Looking up valley at old canal dam.
1900.

Charn- Looking up valley at site of old canal
dam, just removed. 71901.

Charn- East trench fordam. 1902.

Charn- The reservoir dam from west. 1904.

Charn- Quarry north of the dam (Blackbrook

Valley,

(1) One Barrow Quarry, Black-

brook.

Grits). 1904.

Grit in Blackbrook beds. 1904.

+ Those marked thus by F. §. Snell, 8 Guildhall Street, Canterbury,
§ Photographed by W. EH. Smith, 11 Broad Street, Canterbury,

256

LincoLNsHiRE.—Photographed by
Headingley,
Regd.
No.

4459 (6733) Beesby Top, near Wold
Newton.

(6735) Wold Newton Valley,
from Beesby Top end.

(6736) Wold Newton Valley

(6739) Hatcliffe . : : :

(6746) Deepdale Firs, Thorganby.

(6777) Deepdale Firs, Berwell,
near Louth.

(6771) Bully Hill, near Tathwell.

(6778) Orgath Valley, near Tath-
well.

(6774) Orgath Valley, near Tath-
well.

(6749) Hubbard’s Valley, Louth .

(6780) Great Covert Valley,
Walmsgate, near Louth.

(6781) Great Covert Valley,
Walmsgate, near Louth.

(6747) Chalk-pit, Boswell,
Elkington.

(6754) Gravel-pit, Welton Dale,
S Eikington, Louth.

(6755) Sand-pit, South Elkington
Hall

N.

($758) Clay-pit, Charles Street,
Louth.

(6759) Chalk-pit, Grimsby Road,
Louth.

(6760) W. end Witheall Tunnel,
G.N.R., 8. side.

(6761) W. end Withcall Tunnel,
G.N.R., N. side.

(6763) Sand-pit, Donnington-on-
Bain.

(6764) Cutting on G.N.R., near
Donnington-on-Bain.

(6765) Cutting on GN.R, near
Donnington-on- Bain.

(6772) Gravel. pit, Orgarth Farm,
Tathwell.

(6785) E. of North Willingham .

(6786) Clay-pit, Market Rasen .

(6787) Fi}

” -

4484 (6788) Claxby, near Market

Rasen.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Goprrey Binctey, Vhor'intehurst,

Leeds. 1/2.
Glacial overflow valley. 1905.
Glacial dry valley. 1905.
Dry glacial valley. 1905.
Glacial dry valley. 1905.
” ”
” ”
River Ludd. 1905.
Glacial dry valley. 1905.

” ”

Upper Chalk. 1905.

Chalky and decalcified gravels covered
by boulder-clay. 1905.

Current-bedded gravel, chalky gravel,
and sands. 1905.

Two glacial clays separated by sand and
gravel. 1905.

Lower Chalk, with pink bands at base.
1905.

Lower Chalk, on Red Chalk. 1905.

Red chalk and Carstone. 1905.

Spilsby Sand and Claxby Ironstone. 1905

Spilsby Sandstone. 1905.

” ”

Pocket of boulder-clay in gravel. 1905.
Tealby Limestone. 1905.

Lower Kimeridge Clay and blown sand.
inne ‘Kimeridge Clay and blown sand.
ena top of Spilsby Sandstone.

Norrork.— Photographed by G. Hastinas, 15 Oak Lane, Bradjord.
1/2 and 1/4.

Cromer Cliffs .

A
>»
is)
ie)
an a aa a a

)
)
)
) ”
)
)
)

Fine contortion in Drift. 1904.
Small contortions in Drift. 1904.
Chalk boulders in contorted Drift. 1904.
Augen of sand in boulder-clay. 1904.
Boulder-clay in sand. 1904.
Lines of flint in chalk-boulder.
Effect of wind on drifting sand,

1904.
1904.

be

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. ee

Regd

No. :
4492 ( ) Cromer Cliffs , 4 . Fan deltas on Trimingham Beach. 1904.
4493 ( ) 5 ; ; . Contorted Drift resting on Chalk Head-

Jand. 1904.

| NorraumBERLAND.—Photographed by J. A. Suyrur, Arntstrong College,
Newcastle-on-Tyne. 1/4.
4496 (24L) Bamburgh Castle . . Whin sill overstepping Bernician sand-

stones. 1904. ¢
4497 (24M) Dunstanburgh é . Whin sill resting on baked shale. 1904.

4498 (24N) Cullernose Point . . Whinsilland Bernician limestoties. 1904,
4499 (24 0) The Lakes, near Bardon Whin sill escarpment. 1903.
Mill.

4500 (2tP) $8. of Cullernose Point . Reversed fault shifted by normal fault.
1904.

NorringHamsuire.—Photographed by Professor J. W. Carr, University
College, Nottingham. 1/2.

4501 ( ) Gilt Hill, N.W. of Kim- Faults in coal-seam,
berley.

Suropsuire.-—Pholographed by Professor 8S. H. Ruynoups, University
College, Bristol. 1/4.

4502 (24) The Stiperstones. ‘ . Two of the Quartzite crags, 1904.
4503 (25) ” . . One of the Quartzite crags. 1904.
4504 (26) 9

. . ” se] 2)
4505 (27) Weo Edge. . ' . . Aymestry Limestone escarpment. 1904,

Photographed by E. 8. Copsonp, Watling House, Church Stretton. 1/2.

4506 ( ) CaerCaradoc. . : . Brecciated red rocks. 1905.

4507 ( ) Caer Caradoc, ‘Cave of Joints and amygdules in rhyolite. 1905.
Caractacus.’

4508 ( ) 800 yards N.B. of Church Small faults in Drift sand covered by
Stretton Station. stony clay. 1905.

Photographed by J. Hopkinson, Weetwood, Watford. 1/4.
4509 (18) Quarry, Titterstone Clee WDolerite below Coal Measures. 1904,
Hill.

Somerset.— Photographed by Goprrey Binatny, Thornichurst,
Headingley, Leeds. 1/2.

4510 (7247) Cheddar. . ‘ ‘ . Carboniferous Limestone cliffs. 1906,
4511 (7250) ” ‘ : : :

4512 (7251) * ‘ : F
4513 (7257) a) : ' ’
4514 (7259) % \ ‘
4515 (7252) :
4516 (7255) . ' ’ :
4517 (7258) ” : : ;

Photographed by Professor 8, H. Reynoups, University College,
Bristol. 1/2 and 1/4.

4518 (05, 63) Wookey. r : » Mouth of Wookey Cave. 1905.

4519 (05,62) , . ; . . Hyznaden. 1905.

4520 (06,9) Cheddar. ’ - Rock fall. Feb. 4, 1906.

4521 (06, 10) ” < Mi L -) ” ” ”

SESS, Ontos) snr -
08.

” ” ”

wa

Regd.

No.

4523 (06,12) Cheddar

4524 (06,13) ,, :

4525 (06,14) ,,

4526 (06,15) ,,

4527 (06,16) _,, : ; . :

4528 (05,12) 8. of Battery Point,
Portishead.

4529 (05,13) 8. of Battery Point,
Portishead.

4530 (05,14) 8S. of Battery Point,
Portishead.

4531 (05,16) 8. of Battery Point,
Portishead.

4532 (05,1) Coast N. of Walton,
Clevedon.

4533 (05,2) Coast N. of Walton,
Clevedon.

4534 (05,2x) Coast N. of Walton,
Clevedon.

4535 (05,3) Coast N. of Walton,
Clevedon.

4536 (05,4) Coast N. of Walton,
Clevedon.

4537 ( +) Coast S. of Black Nore,
Portishead.

4538 (06,1) Coast S. of Black Nore,
Portishead.

4539 (06,2) Coast 8. of Black Nore,
Portishead.

4540 (06,3) Near Black Nore, Portis-
head.

4541 (96,4) Coast S. of Black Nore,
Portishead.

4542 (06,5) Coast 8. of Black Nore,
Portishead,

4543 (06,6) Coast 8. of Black Nore,
Portishead.

4544 (06,7) Near Black Nore, Portis-
head.

4545 (61) Vallis, near Frome. .

4546 (62) Hs 3

4547 (63) i .

4548 (64) i 5 ae

4549 (65) Holwell, near Frome.

4550 ( ) Quarry E. of Worle Hill,
Weston-super- Mare.

4551 (66) -Moon’s Hill, Stoke Lane,
Mendips.

4552 (67) Sunnyhill Quarry, Stoke
Lane, Mendips.

4553 (68) Sunnyhill Quarry, Stoke

Lane, Mendips.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

Rock fall. Feb. 4, 1906.

” ” ”

” ” ”
Outflow of stream. 1906.

Folds in lower beds of Carboniferous
Limestone (K,). 1905.

Folds: in lower beds of Carbonifercus
Limestone (K,). 1905.

Folds in lower beds of Carboniferous
Limestone (K,). 1905.

Folds in lower beds of Carboniferous
Limestone (K,). 1905.

Dolomitic Conglomerate resting uncon-
formably on Old Red Sandstone. 1905.

Dolomitic Conglomerate resting uncon-
formably on Old Red Sandstone. 1905.

Dolomitic Conglomerate resting uncon-
formably on Old Red Sandstone. 1905.

Dolomitic Conglomerate resting uncon-
formably on Old Red Sandstone. 1905.

Current-bedding in Old Red Sandstone.
1905.

Current-bedding in Old Red Sandstone.
1906.

Current-bedding in Old Red Sandstone.
1906.

Current-bedding in Old Red Sandstone.
1906. -

Undercut cliff of
glomerate. 1906.

Dolomitic Conglomerate, unconformably
on Old Red Sandstone. 1906.

Dolomitic Conglomerate, unconformably
on Old Red Sandstone. 1906.

Dolomitic Conglomerate, unconformably
on Old Red Sandstone. 1906.

Cliff of Dolomitic Conglomerate.

Dolomitic Con-

1906.

Ragstones (Inferior Oolite), unconform-
able on Carboniferous Limestone. 1904.

Ragstones (Inferior Oolite), unconform-
able on Carboniferous Limestone. 1904.

Ragstones (Inferior Oolite), unconform-
able on Carboniferous Limestone. 1904.

Ragstones (Inferior Oolite), unconform-
able on Carboniferous Limestone. 1904.

Triassic material filling fissures in Car-
boniferous Limestone. 1904.

Folded Carboniferous Limestone, Semi-
nula zone.

Quarry in pyroxene andesite. 1904.

Volcanic series. 1904.

” ”

SrarrorpsHIRE.— Photographed by J. T. Stopss, Dunelm, Basford Park

Stoke-on-Trent.

1/2

4554 (=) Weston Sprink, near Long- Marine band and hematite band in Coak

ton,

Measures,

bo
or
co

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST.

SuFFOLK.— Photographed by James Carver, Unthank Road,
Norwich. 1/2.

Regd

No.

4494 ( ) Pakefield, near Lowestoft. . Destruction of cliffs by sea. 1903.
4495 ( ) Lowestoft. : : - Destruction of sea-wall. 1903.

Surrey.—Photographed by J. H. Batpock, Overdale, St. Leonards
Read, Croydon. 1/2.

4555 (04, 63) Honor Oak . Landslip from N.E. 1904.

4556 (04, 66) és : ‘ . Landslip from near §.W. end. 1904.

4557 (04, 67) a . : . Effect of hedge on slipping of London
Clay. 1904.

4558 (04, 64) 5) , - . Landslip, S.W. end. 1904.

4559 (04, 65) Fr : : . Effect of landslip on house entrance.
1904.

Photographed by N. F. Rosarts, 23 Oliver Grove, South
Norwood. 1/4.

4560 (688) Brickfield N. of Cheam Junction of Woolwich and eS Beds

Church. with Thanet Sands. 1907.

4561 (689) Brickfield N. of Cheam Junction of Woolwich and eaine Beds
Church. with Thanet Sands. 1907.

4562 (690) Brickfield N. of Cheam Junction of Woolwich and Reading Beds
Church. with Thanet Sands. 1907.

4563 (691) Springclose Brickfield, 25 feet of Reading Beds. 1907.
Cheam.

4564 (692) Springclose Brickfield, 53 *
Cheam.

4565 (693) Springclose Brickfield, % As
Cheam.

SussEx.—Photographed by Dr. Horace T. Brown, F.R.S
52 Nevern Square, S.W. 5/4.

4566 ( ) Bexhill. . ; 2 . Erosion of water-gullies in bed of clay.
4567 ( ) ~ 3 ; : = Brosion of water-gullies in bed of clay.
4568 ( ) , : : : : Pe ah of water-gullies in bed of clay.
4569 ( ) ,; ; : : j Bae, of water-gullies in bed of clay.
4570 ( ) iy : : , 5 Brosion of water-gullies in bed of clay.

Photographed by G. W. Moorz, Dornton Road, Croydon. Contributed
by W. WHITAKER, FLRS. 1/4.

4571 ( ») Hridge Park. . ‘ . Open joint in Tunbridge Wells Sand.
1905.

WESTMORLAND.— Photographed by Professor E. J. Garwoop, I.A.,
University College, London. 1/1.

4572 (2) Vale of Eden. - . . Weathered quartz veins in Penrith Sand-
stone.

4573 (3) x : , . Weathered quartz veins in Penrith Sand-
stone.

4576 (1) Hilton Beck, near Appleby. . Waterfall over Magnesian Limestone.
§2

260

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Photographed by Goprrey Binetey, Thorniehurst, Headingley,

Regd,

Leeds,

No.
4574 (6500) Arnside
4575 (6501) ss

1/2.

Folded Carboniferous Limestone. 1904.

9 ” ”

Yorxksuire,—Photographed by GoprreyY Bineey, Thorniehurst,

4577
4578
4579
4580
4581
4582
4583
4584
4585
45386
4587
45838
4589
4590

4591
4592

4593
4594
4595
4596
4597
4598
4599
4600
4601
4602
4603

4604
4605

4606

Headingley, Leeds.

(6959) North side of Castle Hill,
Scarborough.

(6962) South side of Castle Hill,
Scarborough,

(7887) Marine Drive, Castle Hill,
Scarborough.

(7388) Marine Drive, Castle Hill,
Scarborough.

(6648) Gravel-pit, Middleton on
the Wolds.

(6650) Holme Dale, near Middle-
ton on the Wolds.

(6651) Holme Dale, near Middle-
ton on the Wolds.

(7355) Sand-pit, Deighton, York

(7356) 5

(6547) Ganister Quarry,
wood Valley, Leeds.

(4658) Ganister Quarry, Mean-
wood Valley, Leeds.

(6705) Ganister Quarry, Mean-
wood Valley, Leeds.
(6645) Ganister Quarry,
wood Valley, Leeds.
(6889) High Force, Teesdale

Mean -

Mean-

(6890)

(6892) Widdybank, near Pencil
Mill, Upper Teesdale.

(6897) Thistle Green, Cronkley
Fell, Teesdale.

(6898) Thistle Green, Cronkley
Fell, Teesdale.

(A) Buttertubs Pass, Hawes
to Swaledale.

(B) Buttertubs Pass, Hawes
to Swaledale.
(C) Buttertubs
to Swaledale.
(D) Buttertubs Pass, Hawes

to Swaledale.
(E) Near Keld, Swaledale
(7012) Trollers Gill ,
(7014)
(7015) Near rollers Gill
(6902) Near Wemmergill, Lune-
dale.
(6994) Angram, Upper Nidderdale
(6998),

Pass, Hawes

(7000) Goydon Pot, RK.
above Lofthouse.

Nida,

1/2.

Corallian Beds. 1905.

Middle Corallian Beds. 1905.

Oxford Clay and Corallian Beds. 1906,

” ” ”

Moraine gravels and sands. 1904.

Glacial dry valley. 1905.

” ” ”

Section in moraine. 1906.

” ” 379
Folds in Ganister. 1904.

” ” ”

Folds in Ganister. 1905.

Stigmarian root. 1904.

Whin sill in Carboniferous Limestone.
1905.

Looking down stream. 1945.

Ordovician Rocks. 1905.

Saccharoid limestone, resting on Whin
Sill. 1905.

Saccharoid limestone,
Sill. 1905.

Chasm in Carboniferous Limestone. 1906.

resting on Whin

Fault in Yoredale Beds. 1406.

Gorge in Carboniferous Limestone. 1906.

Formation of delta. 1906. ‘3

Dry glacial overflow valley. 1905.

Yoredale shales and limestones. 1906.

Folding and faulting of basement Yore-
dale Beds. 1906.

Entrance to ‘Pot.’ 1906.

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST.

(7004) Nidd Head, below Loft-

house.

(6991) Lolley Scar Quarry, near

Ramsgill, Nidderdale.

(6993) Limley,UpperNidderdale.
(7006) Greenhow Quarry, near

(7007) Greenhow Quarry,

Pateley Bridge.
near
Pateley Bridge.

(6845) Hambleton Quarry, near

Bolton Abbey Station.

(6846) Hambleton Quarry, near

Bolton Abbey Station.

261

Issue of water from Manchester Pot and
Goydon Pot. 1906.
Upper Yoredale series. 1906.
1906.
1906.

Upper Yoredale limestone.
Carboniferous Limestone.

” ” ”

Folded Yoredale limestone. 105.

Photographed by G. H. Ropwett, Brooklyn Villa, New Manston, near

4614

¢

Leeds.

) Mulgrave Castle Inn, 15
mile N. of Whitby.

1/2.
Destroyed by sea about 1885 or L886.
1883

Photographed by Professor E. J. Garwoon, M.A., University College,

London. 1/1.
4615 (4) Scalber, near Settle. ‘Knoll-reefs, Craven fault, and Lower
Scar Limestone.
4616 (5) Pa + * Knoll-reefs, Craven fault, and Lower
Scar Limestone.
Photographed by ¥. Gremnwoop, 5 St. Mary’s Gate, Rochdale. 1/2.
4617 (12) Hell Hole, Heptonstall 1902,
WALES.

Brecknock.—Photographed by Miss F. Nuaun, Lynwood Park Road,

4618
4619
4620
4621
4622

4623
4624
4625
4626
4627
4628

CON, GS LE ON TES

7 NR = Wl ey Co

Penarth.

) Middle Clyngwyn Falls, 23
miles from Pont Neath Fychan.
) Middle Clyngwyn Falls, 23
miles from Pont Neath Fychan.
) Upper Clyngwyn Falls, 23
miles from Pont Neath Fychan.
) Clyngwyn Falls .
) Lower Clyngwyn Falls,
Mellte River.

) Ciihepste Falls, 3 miles N.E.
from Pont Neath Fychan.

) Caer Howel, on R. Hepste,
3 miles from Pont Neath
Fychan.

) Hepste Falls :

) Pwll-y-Rhyd, 4 miles 'N. of
Pont Neath Fychan.

) Cwm Pwll-y-Rhyd

) ” ”

1/4. Described by ¥. T. How ARD, J.A.

Falls due to faulting. 1901.

1901. (?)

Falls due to faulting of M. shales of
Millstone Grit against pebbly grit. (’)

Upper part of Middle Falls, due to fault-
ing. 1902.

Due to faulting, which brings shales of
Millstone Grit against the pebbly grits.
1901.

Falls due to Clyngwyn fault,

Falls due to faulting.

1902.

Dry flood-course of underground river.
1904.

1902,

Due to Clyngwyn fault.
Carboniferous

Chasm along joints in
Limestone. 1904.
Chasm due to strong joints crossing

stream atright angle. 1904.
Gorge following strong joint in Carboni-
ferous Limestone, 1901.

262 REPORTS ON THE

Regd.
No.

4629 ( ) Cwm Pwll-y-Rhyd.

4630 ( ) Ystradfellte. . .

4631 ( ) 2 mile 8. of Ystradfellte.

4632 ( )1 mile 8. of Ystradfellte,
19 miles from Brecon.

4633 ( ) Ysgwd-yr-Hira, 3 miles from
Pont Neath Fychan.

4634 ( ) Ysgwd-yr-Hira, 3 miles from
Pont Neath Fychan.

4635 ( ) Afon Llia, 23 miles N. of
Ystradfellte.

4636 ( ) Ysgwd Gwladys, 4 mile N.
of Pont Neath Fychan.

4637 ( ) Nant-y-Moch, 17 miles N.
of Neath.

4638 ( ) Nant-y-Moch, 17 miles N.
of Neath.

4639 ( ) Ysgwd Gwladys.

4640 ( ) 4mileS. of Ystradfellte

4641 ( ) Pwlldu,3 miles N. of Pont
Neath Fychan.

4642 ( ) Sychnant Ravine, Pont
Neath Fychan.

4643 ( ) Sychnant Ravine, Pont
Neath Fychan.

4644 ( ) Sychnant Ravine, Pont
Neath Fychan.

4645 ( ) Craig-y-Dinas, 1 mile from
Pont Neath Fychan.

4646 ( ) Craig-y-Dinas, 1 mile from

Pont Neath Fychan.

STATE OF SCIENCE,

Jointed Carboniferous Limestone. 1904.
R.Mellte entering underground channel. (?)

” ” ” »”

Outlet of underground stream in Carboni-
ferous Limestone. 1904.

Falls due to shale bed in Millstone Grit.
1902.

Falls due to shale bed in Millstone Grit.
1902.

Falls due to hard bands in Old Red
Sandstone. 1901.

Waterfall due to 12-foot grit in middle
shales of Millstone Grit. 1904.

Falls due to hard bands in Old Red
Sandstone. 1902.

Dip valley in Old Red Sandstone. 1902.

Thin grit in shale division of Millstone

Grit. 1902.
Gorge of R. Mellte in Carboniferous
Limestone. (?)

Bedded Carboniferous Limestone along
fault course. 1902.

Carboniferous Limestone almost vertical.
1902.

Flood course of Sychnant Brook. 1902.

Line of fault. 1902.
Carboniferous Limestone near overthrust.
1902

Curved Carboniferous Limestone. 1902.

CARNARVONSHIRE.—Photographed by C. H. B. Epps, M.A., 95 Upper

Tulse Hill, S.W.

4647 (87) Wood below road from Pen-
morfa to Brynkir, near large
road-metal pit.

Photographed by L. H. Cooxs,

5/3.
Transgression of sill across slaty beds,
1902.

Imperial College of Science and

Technology, S.W. 5/4.

4648 ( ) Aberllyn Mine, Llanrwst. .

Stalactites grown in six years.

Photographed by Messrs. Friru & Co. ; presented by Professor

W. W. Warts.

4649 Lianberis.

ivi.

Slate Quarries.

MERIONETHSHIRE.—Photographed by Professor S. H. RryNnoups,

University College, Bristol.

4650
4651
4652
4653
4654
4655
4656

(81) Mynydd-y-Gader, Dolgelly.
(32)

(33)
(34)
(35)
(36)
(37)

1/4.
Weathered nodular rhyolite.

”

1902.

” ”

” ”

Banded rhyolite. 1902.

”

”

29

”

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 263

pet.

oO.

4657 (38) Mynydd-y-Gader, Dolgelly. Banded rhyolite. 1902.

4658 (39) 5 a Weathered tuff. 1902.

4659 (40) ¥ a: Weathered coarse tuff. 1902.

4660 (41) a i. Coarse tuff. 1902.

4661 (43) ” ” »

4662 (42) 5 ” ”

4663 (44) » 9 ” 3

4664 (45) ” ” ” ”

4665 (29) 7 - Frost-weathering of diabase. 1902.

4666 (30) 3” ” ” ” ”

4668 (46) i *: Veins in diabase. 1902.

4669 (47) ” ” ” ”

4670 (48) End of vein in diabase. 1902.

4671 (49) S.of western end, Mynyda- Relations of bedding and cleavage in
y-Gader. grits and slates. 1902.

4672 (50) S.slopes, Mynydd-y-Gader. Erratic block. 1902.

4673 (51) Mynydd-y-Gader : Erratic of diabase on rhyolite. 1902.

4674 (52) +s : . Erratic of diabase. 1902.

4675 (53) i ‘ . Erratic resting on coarse tuff. 1902.

4676 (55) » : . Erratic. 1902.

4677 On + 3 . Glaciation of tuff and greenstone. 1902.

4678 (56 . Glaciated country. 1902.

4679 Gn W. of Graig, Dolgelly . Roche moutonnée, 1902.

4680 (58) ” ” ' ” ”

4681 (59) ” ” GS . ” ”

4682 (60) “5 “hia , 35 3

Photographed by PicroriaAL Stationrry Co. and presented by Professor
W. W. Warts.

4667 ( ) Cader Idris. Colour photograph of main cliff over
Llyn-y-Gader.

MonTGomERYsHIRE.—Photographed by Professor 8. H. Reynoups,
University College, Bristol. 1/4.

4683 (23) Corndon, from the E. Undercut and overcut sides. 1904.
4684 (22) Corndon from the S.E. Undercut side of Laccolite. 1904.

RADNORSHIRE.—Photographed by Professor 8S. H. Reynoips, University
College, Bristol. 1/4.
4685 (28) Llandrindod . : . Large erratic. 1904.

SCOTLAND.

ARGYLLSHIRE.—Photographed by A. T. Mercatre, Southwell, Notts. 1/4.

4686 (G.S. 1) Carsaig, Mull. : . Jurassic rocks capped by basalt. 1904.
4687 (G.S. 2) Ross of Mull. : . Wave-worn granite. 1904.
4688 (G.S. 4) Near Salen, Mull. « Granophyre Hills, 1904.

* Photographed by Haroup Preston, Alverne House, Penzance. 5/3.

4690 ( ) Staffa, from Fingal’s Cave. Columnar basalt. 1905.
4691 ( ) Fingal’s Cave, Staffa. ‘ »
4692 ( ») » a ile |

264

Regd,

5

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

Photographed by J. A. SmytuHeE, Armstrong College,
Newcastle-on-Tyne, 1/4,

No.
4693 (24G) Near top of Ben More, Pale lavas and dolerites. 1903}.

Mull.

4694 (24H) Looking 8. from Chrea-

4695

gah Mhor, Mull.
(24 1) Loch na Keal, Mull.

1903,

Glaciated basalt, 1903.

Bure.—Photographed by Professor 8S. H. Reynoups, University College,

4699
4700

4701
4702
4703
4704
4705
4706
4707
4708
4709
4710
4711

4712
4713
4714

4715
4716
4717
4718
4719
4720

4721

4722
4723
4724
4725
4726
4727
4728
4729
4730
4731

4732

4733
4734
4735
4736
4737
4738

Bristol.

1/4.

Isle of Arran.

(31) Head of Loch Ranza .
(32) Tormore .

(80) Near Corriegilis.

(81) 2 miles 8. of Corrie.

(41) Tormore Shore. .

(42) 8. of Corriegills Point.

(43) ”

(44)

(73) 14 m S$. of Corrie.

(74) North of Corrie,

(76) Shore 8. of Sannox.

(77) Just south of Corrie. :

(78) Near mouth of Corriegills
Stream.

(72) Near top of Goatfell.

(69)

(33) Shore 2 m. 3 of Corrie.

(35) Drumadoon Point.

(34) S. of Drumadoon Point.
(37) Drumadoon Point. : :
(39) N.W. of Corriegills Point. .
(40) Claughlands Point, Lamlash.
(84) Shore N. of Corrie.

(85) Shore 300 yards N. of Corrie

(45) Largybeg Point. .

(46) ”
(47) #
(48) ”
(62) Kildonan.
(63) ”

(64)

(50) Tormore.

(53) South of Brodick.

(51) Between Lrodick and Cor-
riegills.

~ (54) 3 mile §. of Brodick Pier.
5

(52) 1 mile §. of Brodick Pier. .
(55) N. end of Lamlash Bay.
(56) Shore near Corriegills.

(57) Kildonan. .

(58) S. of Brodick Pier.

(60) Largybege Point,

100-foot beach terrace. 1906.

Raised shore platform, old sea-cliff and
caves. 1906.

Old sea-cave in Trias. 19€6.

Old sea-cave in Trias. 1906,

Pitchstone dyke. 1906.

Weathered surface of pitchstone. 1906,

Pitchstone intrusion in Trias. 1906.

Small granite erratics. 1906.

Large granite erratics. 1906,

Two large granite erratics on Trias, 190¢

Large granite erratic. 1906.

Granite boulder. 1906,

Weathering of granite, 1906.

Dolomitisation along joints in Trias,
1906.

Sill of columnar quartz-porphyry. 1906,

Sand dune. 1906.

Quartz-porpbyry sill in Trias. 1906.

Platy jointing in felsite. 1906.

Weathering of dolerite. 1906.

Weathered block of Old Red Sandstone
conglomerate. 1906.

Pillow structure in Lower Carboniferous
lava. 1906.

Dyke, seen from the north. 1906.

Dyke, seen from the south. 1906.

Dyke on shore, seen from above. 1906,

Dyke, seen from below, 1906.

Basalt dyke. 1906.

Large dyke. 1906.

” ”
Dyke forming gully. 1906.
” ”

rd ”

Wide gully determined by weathering of
dyke. 1906.

Small dyke in Trias. 1905.

Upstanding dyke. 1906.

Small dyke gully in Trias. 15)06,

Basalt dyke in Trias. 1906.

Dyke in Trias. 1906.

Two small dykes... 104

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 265

FiresHire£.-—Photographed by A. 8. Rup, I.A., Trinity College,

Glenalmond, N.B.

1/2.

Broken anticline Carboniferous lime-
stones and shales. 1905.

Small agglomerate ‘neck’ in plan on
beach. 1905.

Small agglomerate ‘neck’ in plan on
beach. 1905.

‘White trap’ dyke in carbonaceous shale.
1905.

Dyke in agglomerate of ‘neck.* 1905,

Agglomerate in smal] ‘neck.’ 1905.

Dyke passing through carbonaceous
shales and forming ‘white trap’ sill.
1905,

Dyke passing through carbonaceous
shales and forming ‘ white trap’ sill.
1905.

‘White trap’ sill. 1905,

Coarse agglomerate of volcanic ‘neck.’
1905.

Dyke of columnar basalt in agglomerate
of ‘neck.’ 1905.

Volcanic ‘neck.’ 1905.

Coarse volcanic agglomerate. 1905.

” ” ” cr]

Alternations of basalt, agglomerate, ash,
and shale. 1905.

‘River terraces.’ 1905.

Fault in plan on beach. 1905.

Junction of amygdaloidal basalt, with
shales and limestones. 1905.

Limestones in Carboniferous Limestone
series. 1905.

False-bedded sandstone. 1905,

Photographed by Professor 8. H. Reynoups, University College,

ee

0.

4739 (K.C. 35) Cliff W. of St. Monans

4740 (K.C. 50) Shore below Newark
Castle.

4741 (K.C. 49) Shore below Newark
Castle.

4742 (K.C. 36) 300 yards HK. of Mo-
nans Castle.

4743 (K.C. 37) Near Ardross Castle,
EK. of Elie.

4744 (K.C. 38) Near Ardross Castle,
E. of Elie.

4745 (K.0.32) Dodhead Quarry,
Burntisland.

4746 (K.C. 6) Dodhead Quarry, Burnt-
island.

4747 (K.C. 8) Dodhead Quarry, Burnt-
island . ‘ ‘ : ,

4748 (K.C. 19) E.endofBinnof Burnt-
island.

4749 (K.C. 20) Central part of Binn of
Burntisland.

4750 (K.C. 25) Binn of Burntisland.

4751 (K.C.12) E. end of Kingswood
Craig.

4752 (KC. 22) E. endof Kingswood
Craig.

4753 (K.C.15) Kingswood Craig, be-
tween Kinghorn and Burnt-
island.

4754 (K.C.10) Shore E. of Burntisland.

4755 (K.C. 17) Shore between King-
horn and Kirkcaldy.

4756 (K.C. 16) 3 mile E. of Kinghorn.

4757 (K.C. 1) Shore by Seafield, Kirk-
caldy.

4758 (K.C. 4) Seafield Castle, S. of
Kirkcaldy.

Bristol.

4759 (A 38) Shore, Kinghorn

1/4.

Ejected volcanic block in Carboniferoys
strata. 1902.

INVERNESS-SHIRE.—Photographed by J. A. Suyrun, Armstrong College,

Neweastle-on-Tyne.

4760 (24 J) Cuchullin Hills, Skye
4761 (24 K) Red Hills, from Beinn an
Dubhaich, Skye,

1/4.

Outline of hills due to weathering. 1903.
Granophyre. 1903. )

266 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

Photographed by R. F. GwinnEvt, B.Sc., Imperial College of Science and

Technology,
Regd.

No.

4762 (22,06) Ben Suardal, near Broad-
ford, Skye.

4763 (21,06) 8. of Burial Ground, Kil-
christ, near Broadford, Skye.

4764 (13,06) Near Loch Ashik, Broad-
ford, Skye.

Photographed by A. T. Mretcaure, Southwell, Notts.

4689 (G.S.5) Isle of Rum.

S.W. 1/4.

‘Grikes ’ in Durness Limestone (metamor-
phosed). 1906.

Dyke of porphyritic basalt. 1906.

Roches moutonnées in Torridon Sand-
stone. 1906.

1/4.

Gabbro, &e., Hills. 1904.

Photographed by J. A. SmytTHE, Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne.. 1/4.

4696 (24D) Laig Bay, Higg

Weathered basalt in Jurassic rocks. 1903.
Undercut cliff in °Jurassic sandstone.
19038.

Tops of columns of pitchstone, 1903.

AND.

* AnTRIM.—Photographed by R. Weicu, W.R.1.A., Lonsdale Street,

4697 (24 E) ” s
4698 (24 F) Top of Sgurr of Higg
IREL
Belfast.
4765 (562) Slemish .
4766 (51102) North Star Dyke. j
4767 (606) Carrickmore Point, Fair
Head.
4768 (608) Carrickmore Point, Fair
Head.
4769 (11108) Carey River, Ballycastle.
4770 el 1107) ” ” ”

Photographed by Miss Mary K.
Belfast.

4771 (71) Near Ballintoy.

4772 (72)
4773 (73)

” ”

” ”

1/1.

‘Volcanic neck.’ 1907.

Entrance to oldcoal-mine. 1907.

Coal shales in Carboniferous sandstones.
1907.

Coal shales in Carboniferous sandstones.
1907.

Lower Carboniferous sandstones.

1907.

” ” ”

ANDREWS, 12 College Gardens,

1/4.

Raised beach, with caves and stacks of
basalt. 1907.

Sea-stacks of basalt.

”

1907.

” ”

*CLARE.—Photographed by R. Wxxcu, M.R.I.A., Lonsdale Street,

Belfast.
4774

4775 (11151) The Birren, N.W. Clare.

(11129) Black Head

1/1.
Carboniferous Limestone ‘pavement.’
1907.
Carboniferous Limestone ‘pavement.’

*CorK.—Photographed by R. WEtcu, M.R.I.A., Lonsdale Street,

Belfast,

4776 (2512) Rostellan Inlet, Cork
Harbour,

4777 (1339) Rostellan Inlet,
Harbour.

Cork

pik

Partly submerged cromlech. 1907.

u ” 33 Pid

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 267

*Donncat.—Photographed by R. Wuuicu, M.R.I.A., Lonsdale Street,
Belfast. 1/1.

Regd.
oO.

4778 (1434) Pollen Bay, Ballyliffan, ‘Calcreted’ xolian shelly sands. 1908.
Inishowen.

4779 (1435) Pollen Bay, Ballyliffan, Fy, 3 3 a Fe
Inishowen.

4780 (5206) Pollen Bay Dunes. . . Natural arch in consolidated xolian shelly

sands. 1908.
4781 (11166) ,, ee $9 : . Ridge of ‘calcreted’ sand. 1908.

*Dusiin.—Photographed by R. Wetcu, V.R.I.A., Lonsdale Street,
Belfast. 1/1.

4782 (1669) Broad Bay,Lambay Island. Cliffs of Old Red Sandstone. 1906.
4783 (1668) North Cliffs, Lambay. . 73 ne x "

Gatway.—Photographed by A. McI. Ctetanp, Green Road, Knock,
Belfast. 1/2.

4784 (C11) Mushroom Rocks, near Eroded Carboniferous Limestone. 1904.
Maycullen.

4785 (C12) Mushroom Rocks, near 6 i F
Maycullen.

4786 (C13) Mushroom Rocks, Bally- 7 “ - i
quirke Lough.

4787 (C14) Mushroom Rocks, Bally- 93 a = \
quirke Lough.

Rock Structures, &c.—Photographed by Goprrey Bineatey, Thornie-
hurst, Headingley, Leeds. 1/2.

4788 (6838) Withernsea. . , . Glaciated boulder, 1905.
4789 (6839) “f . : . ” ” ”

Faunal Succession in the Carboniferous Limestone (Avonian) of the
British Isles.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
J. W. Gregory (Chairman), Dr. A, VauaHan (Secretary),
Dr, WHEELTON Hinp, and Professor W. W. Watts, appointed
to enable Dr. A. VauGuan to continue his Researches thereon.
(Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Tue following work has been carried out :—

Il.—Faunal Work in connection with Dr. C, A. Maitley’s Concluding
Account of the Rush-Skerries Sequence.

The results of this investigation were presented to the Geological
Society in March of this year and are published in the August number
of the ‘ Quarterly Journal.’

The interrelation of the Cyathawonia- and Posidonomya-phases with
each other and with the normal Clisiophyllid development of the Upper
Avonian is herein discussed, and the possibility of constructing three
parallel zonal scales corresponding to these three bathymetric faunas is
adumbrated.

In matters of local stratigraphy it is pointed out that the horizon of
the Rush Slates and Conglomerates is not yet satisfactorily determined,

268 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

and it is hoped that further information will be forthcoming as a result
of the visit of the British Association to Dublin.

Owing to the large demands made by the Trish work upon my leisure,
the publication of an account of the Avonian Sequence in the Gower
peninsula, which was carried out in collaboration with Mr. E. E. L. Dixon
in the summer of 1905, is again deferred.

11.—Eaxamination of Material submitted for Identification by other
Workers on Lower Carboniferous Rocks.

The wide application of the zonal sequence determined for the
South-Western Province is strikingly exhibited, and the satisfactory
correlation of phasal developments is already in view.

II1.—Mr. Edward Greenly has collected a fine series of fossils from
the Lower Carboniferous Rocks of Anglesey, and has kindly allowed me
to draw up an account of the faunal succession from his material.
This account will be published shortly in connection with Mr. Greenly’s
description of the Rock Sequence.

The points of main interest are :—

(a) Zonal.—The possibility of subdividing D, by mutational species
of Lonsdalia and Diphyphyllum.

(b) Stratigraphical —The age of the basal Carboniferous in Anglesey.

IV.—Paleontology.
1) Notes published in Dr. Matley’s Loughshinny paper.
2) Investigations of the inter-relation of the genera
(a) Spiriferina and Syringothyris.
(b) Orthotetes and Derbya.
The results will be published as occasion offers.

(3) Study of the Corals included under Caninia cylindrica in my
Bristol paper, and of some allied forms recently discovered.

(
(

This work is being carried out in collaboration with Mr. R. G.
Carruthers, and will be included in his general revision of the Carboni-
ferous Corals,

The grant for this year has been expended on the cutting and
photographing of Coral Slices.

For determination of horizon from Corals the satisfactory comparison
of new material with the zonal types already accumulated demands—

(1) The cutting of transverse slices from the adult corallum.
(2) The photographing of the slices on an enlarged scale.
(8) The comparison of these photographs with those of the types.

By this method the misleading effects of difference of matrix are almost
completely eliminated.

In view of the important investigations now being carried out
in widely distant areas by numerous workers in Avonian Rocks, and in
the probability that my services may be of use in identification or con-
firmation, I venture to suggest the continuance of this Committee for yet
another year, with « further grant-of 10/,

ON THE FAUNAL SUCCESSION IN’ THE CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. 269

In collaboration with Dr. Matley, I hope to complete the account of
our work on the Carboniference Sequence at Malahide (Co. Dublin), and
to make further progress with the correlation of the Lower Carboniferous
Rocks of Fife.

Investigation of the Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the British Isles.—
Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. A
HerpMan (Chairman), Mr. J. Lomas (Secretary), Professor W. W"
Warts, Professor P. F. KENDALL, Professor A. C. SEwarD, Messrs’
H. C. Beastey, HE. T. Newton, and W. A. EH. UssHer, and
Dr. A. Smirh Woopwarp. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

[PLATES V. and VI,]

Tue work of the Committee during the past year has been mainly
concerned with an attempt to unravel and classify some of the curious
tracks and markings—organic and inorganic—so frequently found
associated with footprint-bearing slabs in the Triassic rocks. As
many of these are in soft marl and cannot be preserved, advantage
has been taken of a large exposure of marl made at Storeton in the
latter part of 1907 and the early months of 1908.

Two marl bands which in former excavations were separated by
3 or 4 feet of sandstone have coalesced in the north portion of the
quarry now being worked. This probably means that the shores of the
lake or pool in which the marls were deposited have been reached.

Under these conditions a new set of phenomena appear, mainly
characterised by tracks and burrows of invertebrates, plant remains,
and curious markings simulating organic forms.

In the present Report Mr. H. C. Beasley describes some of these
forms, and he hopes to complete his investigations in time for next
year’s Report.

Mr. H. A. Allen also contributes a list of the Triassic fossils in the
Warwick Museum, and Mr. A. R. Horwood supplements the Biblio-
graphical Notes contained in the last Report.

Some Rhynchosauroid skulls from Grinshill have lately been acquired
by the Manchester Museum which show details of anatomical structure
not hitherto observed. These are now under examination, and the
Committee hopes to include a full description of them next year.

Report on Tracks of Invertebrates, Casts of Plants, dc., and Markings
of uncertain origin from the Lower Keuper. Part I. By H. C.
BEASLEY.

The sandstones and marls of the Lower Keuper frequently show
a great variety of superficial markings which, whilst bearing no
resemblance to the footprints of vertebrates, may give us some informa-
tion regarding the invertebrate fauna and thie flora as well as some
indication of their physical surroundings.

Besides these there are markings due to movements in the rock itself
during and subsequent to its consolidation.

The first requirement is the division of the markings due to organisms
from those due to purely physical causes. Here we are met by two chief

270 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

difficulties. We have to deal with natural casts giving the outward form
only and no trace of internal structure, and secondly we find that purely
physical causes give rise to forms closely resembling those attributable
to organisms.

It is evident that a study of the tracks of recent animals is a most
essential preliminary. Here the work of Professors Nathorst and Hughes
will be of great assistance; both these authors give descriptions and
carefully drawn and photographed figures of actual tracks of known
animals. !

It will be found, however, that the record of a few score of species
will cover but a small part of the variety of tracks, and it will readily
be seen that the varying circumstances under which the tracks were
produced must greatly modify their form.

In the meantime a record of some of the fossil tracks and other
markings found in the Trias, more or less systematically arranged, may
be of use.

The forms that are readily identified may be divided into tracks of
animals and casts of plants, and markings evidently inorganic which
may be classed together as such and subdivided according to their
resemblance to forms which we may now observe in course of production,
such as stream courses, rain pittings, ripples, &c.

But between these principal groups we shall have to deal with a
number of forms of very doubtful origin, simulating organic forms or
markings possibly attributable to organisms, also with a number of
forms whose origin is very uncertain, but which do not simulate any
known organic forms. We shall then have

Organic.— Tracks of invertebrates.
Casts of plants.

”
Of Doubtful Origin.—Markings simulating plant forms.
” ” ” ” animal ” 2
Parallel or concentric lines, fillets or -ridges.
Lines, &c., neither parallel nor concentric.

Inorganie.— Rain pittings, and similar forms.

Ripple marks.

Wrinkles and other irregular markings possibly
due to movements in the rock itself,

Pseudomorphs.

Markings of Organic Origin.

Tracks of Invertebrates.—The most common of these are sinuous
markings in relief about 2 mm. or more in width, roughly semicircular
in each section, with a slight groove on each side (indicating a ridge in the
original track). The windings are frequent and intricate. They are often
referred to as ‘annelide tracks,’ but the tracks of recent worms are com-
paratively free from short turns, and these bear more resemblance to the
tracks of small Gasteropods, so frequent between tide-marks on a muddy

«On some Tracks of Invertebrates, &c., and their Paleontological Bearing,’
by A. G. Nathorst, Kon. Svenzka Vet. Akad. Handlingar, Band 18, No. 7,
December 30, 1880.

‘On some Tracks of Terrestrial and Freshwater Animals by Professor T. McK.
Hughes, Quart. Journ. Geol, Soc., vol. xl. p. 178.

ON THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF THE TRIAS OF THE BRITISH ISLES, 271

shore. The beaded markings that are often seen in Gasteropod tracks
would hardly be visible on these small tracks, and would certainly not be
preserved in the sandstone cast.! Small cylindrical projections are often
found in the underside of the beds of sandstone, which may possibly be
casts of worm-burrows, but no connection has been found between them
and the tracks above described.

In the underlying clay there are sometimes found horizontal lines of
small cylinders of sandstone about 3 mm. thick and of varying length,
mostly from 2 to 3 cm., and looking like strings of elongated beads.
These appear to be casts of horizontal burrows. As they are not
attached in any way to the overlying bed of sandstone they are usually
lost as the clay wears away. No connection has been seen between these
and the vertical projections mentioned above, nor with the horizontal
burrows sometimes seen in the overlying bed of sandstone.

On the upper surface of the sandstone in two instances (one at
Storeton, another at Frodsham) are small horizontal tunnels, the roof
forming a ridge on the surface, but it is often broken in, leaving the
lower part of the tunnel as a groove. In accounting for some similar
markings in a bed of fine-grained sandstone in the Carboniferous Lime-
stone, Mr. Albany Hancock has described the superficial burrows of a
small amphipod,” which was identified as Kréyera arenaria. Both the
fossil and the recent burrows bear a great resemblance to those in our
Keuper Sandstone.

We occasionally find on the upper surface of the beds of sandstone
small heaps of rod-like bodies each about 5 mm. broad and from
2 to 10 em. long, which look like worm castings ; they are, however,
nearly straight, and not bent and twisted like the castings of both land
and marine worms as usually seen ; but it should be noted that where
such castings are ejected under shallow water they are more or less
straight, and do not form the convolutions usually found in worm
castings.

No connection has been clearly traced between the castings and any
burrows.

We have no help from fossil remains in this investigation. The
remains of the worms themselves we could hardly expect to be pre-
served ; and, on the other hand, the absence of any remains of the hard
parts of amphipoda or any other crustaceans in the Keuper sandstones
is, we know, no proof of their non-existence.

At present no opportunity of comparing the track of the only
invertebrate whose remains are present—Hstheria—with the fossil
markings has presented itself.

Tracks apparently formed by the appendages of some invertebrate
have been found on the upper surface of a bed of yellowish, soft, fine-
grained sandstone at Storeton. The track consists of two irregular but
approximately parallel rows, about 1 cm. apart, of small crescentic trans-
verse pits alternating with slight ridges apparently connected with the
convex margin of the pits, as if caused by the backward pressure of a -
foot. The breadth across the crescents varies from 1:5 to 2 mm. The

Nathorst, op. cét. plate vii. fig. 1,‘ Tracks of Montacuta bidentata. For Fossil
Track see Trias Committee's Report, 1904, plate viii.

? «Remarks on Certain Vermiform Fossils found in the Mountain Limestone
Districts of the North of England, by Albany Hancock. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.
vol. ii, 3rd Series, 1858, p. 443.

272 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

distance from the convex border of one pit to that of the next varies
greatly, but is generally somewhere near 2 mm. It will be readily
understood that, owing to the comparative coarseness of the material
and the slightness of the impressions, any measurement of such small
objects can only be approximate—several series of tracks are 12 cm.
or more in length, and often several series are found within a few
inches of each other. There is no doubt that they are actual prints
(not casts). One specimen is in the Natural History Museum (T. 235)
and several others are in private collections, but they all came from the
same place, and were found within a short time of each other (Plate V.,
fig. 1).

2 Though very like the tracks of small shore-crabs, they more nearly
resemble the tracks of the Chetopod Wychia cirrosa, described and
figured by Nathorst,'! which, however, does not show the crescentic form
so clearly.

The rarity of remains of plants in the Lower Keuper is well known,
and the few there are are but fragmentary. The absence of carbonaceous
matter, and their being preserved only as casts, entirely precludes any
knowledge of their internal structure. There can, however, be little
doubt that a series of casts resembling those of fragments of Equisetiform
plants really represent the remains of a Triassic flora. They may be
described as much flattened, cylindrical stems, generally about 1 or 2 cm.
in width, crossed at intervals in many specimens by serrated joints or
nodes, and sometimes associated with narrow leaves (Plate V., fig. 2).
One specimen from Storeton in the Liverpool Museum has its upper
termination clearly preserved. It is figured by Mr. G. H. Morton in his
‘Geology of Liverpool,’ and named by him Hguisetum keuperina. The
late Mr. F. M. Webb examined it for Mr. Morton and described it as
‘the upper portion of an Equisetum, but without any remains of fructifi-
cation ; the stem is simple, sulcate grooves 13 lines in breadth. The
teeth of the sheaths are triangular, measuring when perfect 14 lines in
length.? The other fragments from Storeton and elsewhere so entirely
agree with this that it is fairly safe to consider them as casts of plants.
A large group of such fragmentary remains has quite recently been found
at Storeton, and is now in the Liverpool Museum.

Some markings on a slab at Warwick,’ if plants at all, may possibly
represent plants of the same character. The flattened stem is two
or three times the width of those from Cheshire. There are no nodes
on the lengths preserved, the longitudinal ribs are separated by a flat
surface several times their width. The whole stem narrows slightly
towards one end, which has the appearance of being crushed and frayed,
all the ribs being continued as separate rods and bending in different
directions. The sides of the main stem are fringed with markings
resembling leaflets. There are other similar markings on the same
slab. There are no definite footprints on this slab. There is another
very similar marking on a slab with footprints, probably from the Upper
Keuper Sandstone at Shrewley, also in the Warwick Museum.

A much more perfect example of what appears to represent something
very similar is on a slab in the Natural History Museum (R. 730), from

1 Op. cit. plate ix. fig. 2.

2 Morton's Geology of Liverpool, 2nd edition, p. 115, plate xii.

* «Slab of Keuper Sandstone with impressions of plants upon it from Coten End
Quarry, 1872,’ Warwick Museum.

British Association, T8th Report, Dublin, 1908. [PLATE

FIG. 2.

Illustrating the Report on the Investigation of the Fauna and Flora of the
Trias of the British Isles.

ON THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF THE TRIAS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 273

Storeton ;! it is accompanied on one side by two Cheirotheroid prints,
and numerous other prints are on the stone (the whole in relief). It is
about 90 cm. long by 4 to 5 cm. broad ; the ribs are close together, and
in the more perfect portion of the fossil are each covered by a row of
scutes or scales. The other end of the fossil seems rather narrower and
to have been crushed and the rods separated as in the Warwick fossil.

Tt has been suggested that this represents the tail of some large
reptile ; the relative position of the footprints does not favour this, and
it would seem unwise to give any opinion here as to the nature of this

_ or the Warwick fossil.

Markings of uncertain origin simulating Organic Forms.

Plant Forms.—The commonest of these are in the form of branching
stems bordered by small leaflets and often marked with longitudinal
grooves and ridges.

The whole of these features are seldom combined on one specimen,
but they are so associated that there is little doubt of their being all due
to one cause.

A good example of a branching form fringed with leaflets is on a
slab, No. 7, in the Bootle Museum (Plate VI., fig. 1). Another block of
stone in an old quarry at Runcorn has what resembles a root-stem, about
6 inches broad and several feet in length, fringed along one border with
small rootlets at about right angles to its axis.

» Both these are in relief, and a little examination shows the probability
of their being natural casts of stream courses of shallow water, such as
may be seen in formation wherever a broad shallow sheet of water is
passing over a very gently sloping surface of fine material. The forma-
tion of the grooves and ridges has also been noticed and of markings
similar to leaf scars; in the latter case, however, the scars were of
organic origin, being due to some animal, probably a crustacean, taking
advantage of the rather deeper water to follow the retreating tide and
with its appendages making regular markings along the narrow channel.
In the natural cast formed on the under surface of a succeeding deposit
the stream course would be represented by a ridge with what might be
easily mistaken for scars or scales upon it.

The pseudo-leaflets are the beginning of channels of small tributary
streamlets, and a combination of ridges and flutings on the main course
with the border of tributary streamlets has been observed on more than
one occasion.

The instances given have been drawn from the seashore between
tide-marks of which we know nothing in the Trias, but exactly the
Same action would take place where a shallow current of fresh water
flowed over a similar surface; in fact it has been seen to take place
under fresh-water conditions such as are perfectly compatible with what
we know of the Lower Keuper.

Other branching forms are free from leaflets or ridges, but have a
roughened surface and the semblance of knots and stumps of broken-off
branches, simulating portions of our recent trees. A careful examination
shows that they are not really plant remains, although their origin is
very uncertain.

* For figure of this, see Morton, Geolegy of Country around Liverpool, Appendix,
p. 300, Plate XXII. : 3 J

1908. T

bo
J
ee

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

The supposed fucoids of which lithographs were published in Liverpool
about 1837-1841! were very probably casts of stream courses. It is
unfortunate that the originals are not to be found, unless the branching
form in the Bootle Museum be a portion of one, neither is the original
of Dictyophyllum crassinervium figured in Murchison’s ‘Silurian System ’?
accessible.

A very singular marking, bearing a distant resemblance to a mass of
coarse fibre, has been noticed in relief on the underside of several slabs
from Storeton.* It consists of a patch of fine sharp ridges, or ruga,
curved or waved, seldom rectilinear, tending to lie in one direction but
occasionally crossed by others.

Such markings occur most frequently in irregular patches of a few
inches area, but in some cases they take the form of groups of truncated
oval masses in low relief. The ovals vary slightly in size in each group,
but they measure about 10 cm. by 6 cm. and rise in the centre about
1 cm. above the general surface of the stone. The ridges are roughly
triangular in section and from 1 mm, to 3 mm. in width. They are
arranged with a certain symmetry on each side the long axis of the oval,
the broadest part of each ridge is nearest the round end of the oval, of’
which the margin is clearly defined ; the finer extremities of the ridges
seem to diverge somewhat at the truncated end, and there is no defined
margin. The. ridges are rather irregularly disposed, being in some cases
in actual contact and in others 50 mm. apart. The ovals “themselves are
grouped irregularly, generally more or less overlapping one another. One
group is large enough nearly to cover a surface 50 em. by 35 €m.
(Plate VI., fig. 2).

In another instance there is an irregular mass covering several
square feet of surface with no defined “arrangement of ridges and
no definite margin. Adjoining it there is a single oval similar “to those
described, but rather larger. On the same slab are sundry other smaller
patches and a great variety of footprints.

It is at present impossible to judge whether these markings be of
animal, vegetable, or inorganic origin.

Description of Plates.
PLATE V, Fig. 1.—Invertebrate Tracks from North Quarry, Storeton. One-third
natural size. (In J. Lomas’s Collection.)
PLATE V, Fie. 2.—Natural casts of Fragments of Plants from Flaybrick, Birken-
head; in relief. (In H. C. Beasley’s Collection.)

Puate VI, Fic. 1.—Natural casts of Stream Courses simulating plant forms,
probably from Storeton. (No. 7 in Bootle Museum Collection.) By kiud
permission of the Bootle Museum Authorities.

PLATE VI, Fia. 2.—Group of oval patches of Matted Ruge from Storeton ; in low
relief. (In H. C. Beasiey’s Collection.)

List of British Triassic Fossils in the Warwick Museum.
By H. A. Aven,

The Warwick Museum possesses the greater part of the Labyrintho-
donts found in this country. The specimens were obtained from the
neighbourhood of Warwick, and were presented by Dr. Lloyd, Mr.

1 See Proc. Liv. Geol. Soc., vol. ix. p. 286, for description of lithographs.

2 Part L, p. 43. Also Lindley and Hutton, Fossil Plora, vol. iii. plate 201.
3 See 1904 Report, Plate VIII., for two small patches.

British Association, 78th Report, Dublin, 1908. [Prats VI.

FIG. 2.

Illustrating the Report on the Investigation of the Fauna and Flora of the
Trias of the British Isles.

ON THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF THE TRIAS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 275

J. W. Kirshaw, the Rev. P. B. Brodie, and others. Several of these
fragmentary remains have been described by Owen, Huxley, and Dr.
Miall in the various memoirs mentioned below. In addition to the
specimens included in the following list the Museum contains a large
number of undetermined fragments of Triassic amphibia and reptilia.
The originals of the mandibles described by Owen as Labyrinthodon
Jaeger, from Guy’s Cliff, appear to have been lost, or were destroyed in
making the casts from which the figures were drawn.

Dr, Fr. von Huene, in the course of an examination of the verte-
brates of the district, found that the rocks near Kenilworth contain
Triassic reptiles ; consequently, it is considered advisable to include a few
specimens from strata which were first regarded as of Bunter and then
of Permian age, in case a revision of the map prove the Trias to extend
over a portion of the area now mapped as Permian. Specimens from the
Rhetic are not included in this list. The footprints contained in the
Museum were recorded by Mr. Beasley in the Reports for the years 1905
and 1906.

PLANT.
Name. Formation. Locality.
Breea eulassoides, Caulerpites oblonga, C. Permian? . Meriden.

triangularis. These specimens are men-
tioned, without description, in ‘ The Geol.
Warwickshire Coalfield’ (‘Mem. Geol.
Surv.’), 1859, p. 32.

Dadoxylon ? and a large series of fragments Permian? . Allesley.
of tree-trunks. z
Plant remains (indeterminable) . ‘ . Keuper. . Shrewley and
Rowington.
MOLLUSCA.
Impressions of mollusca referred to Wucula, Keuper . Shrewley.
Pholadomya, and Thracia.
CRUSTACEA.
Estheria minuta (Alberti) . ; - . Keuper . . Shrewley.
r PISCES.
Acrodus? keuperinus (Murch. and Str.), Keuper . . Shrewley and
teeth and dorsal fin-spines. Rowington.

Dietyopyge superstes (Eg.), fragment of fish.
Semi-onotus brodiei Newt., imperfect fish.

AMPHIBIA,

Dasyceps bucklandi (Lloyd). Type, skull. Permian? . Kenilworth.
Described as Labyrinthodon bucklandi by
T. Lloyd, ‘Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1849,’

p. 56. Figured as Dasyceps by T. H.
Huxley, ‘ Warwickshire Coalfield’ (‘Mem.
Geol. Surv.’), 1859, pp. 52-56.

Diadetognathus varvicensis, Miall. Type. Keuper . . Coten End,
Portions of mandibles and teeth de- Warwick.
scribed by Dr. L. C. Miall, ‘ Quart. Journ.

Geol. Soc.,’ vol. xxx., 1874, Pl. XXVIL.,

f. 3a, b, p. 425; Pl. XXVIIL, figs. 1, 2,

pp. 424 and 427. Cranial bones, figured

by R. Owen, ‘Trans. Geol. Soc.,’ Ser. 2, -
vol. vi., 1842, Pl. XLVI, figs. 6, 7, p. 538,

as Labyrinthodon pachygnathus, are with

some hesitation referred to this species. —

T 2

bo

REPORTS ON

THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

AMPHIBIA—continued.

Name.

Labyrinthodon leptognathus, Owen. Type.
Fragments of upper jaw and mandible
described by R. Owen, ‘Trans. Geol.
Soc.,’ Ser. 2, vol. vi. 1842, Pl. XLIII.,
figs. 1-3, p, 516; Pl. XLIV., figs. 7-9,
p. 521.

Labyrinthodon, undetermined bone of.
Figured by R. Owen, loc. cit., Pl. XLIIL,
figs. 12, 13.

Mastodonsawrus giganteus (Jaeger). Frag-
ment of jaw with teeth, figured by R.
Owen, ‘ Trans. Geol. Soc.,’ Ser. 2, vol. vi.,
Pl. XLIV., figs. 4-6, p. 537. Thoracic
plate described by Dr. L. C. Miall,
‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ vol. xxx., 1874,
f. 2, pp. 429, 430; also fragments of
thoracic plates.

Mastodonsawrus pachygnathus (Owen)
Type. Portions of upper and lower jaws
described as Labyrinthodon by R. Owen,
‘Trans. Geol. Soc.,’ Ser. 2, vol. vi. 1842,
Pl. XLIIL, figs. 4-12, p. 526. Pl. XLIV.,
figs. 1-3, p. 526, refigured by Dr. L.C. Miall,
‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ vol. xxx., 1874,
Pl. XXVLI, figs. 4a, b. Bone from the
orbital region described by Dr. L. C.
Miall, loc. cit., Pl. XXVL., fig. la, p. 418;
portions of mandibles, Pl. XXVL,f. 3a, b,
p. 422; portions of skull, Pl. XXVII.
figs. la, b, 2, pp. 419, 421.

Mastodonsaurus, sp. Portion of skull de-
scribed by Dr. L. C. Miall, ‘Quart, Journ.
Geol. Soc.,’ vol. xxx., 1874, Pl. XXVI.,
f. 2a—c, p. 421.

Mastodonsaurus? Portion of skull de-
scribed by Dr. L. ©. Miall, ‘ Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc.,’ vol. xxx., 1874, Pl. XXVII,
f. 4a, b, p. 433.

REPTILIA.

Cladyodon lloydi, Owen. Tooth, figured as
Megatosaurus ? by Murchison and Strick-
land, ‘Trans. Geol. Soc.,’ Ser. 2, vol. v.,
1840, Pl. XXVIII., f. 6, 8, p. 344.

Hyperodapedon gordoni, Huxley. Palato-
maxillary bones.

Rhombopholis scutulata (Owen). Portions
of skeleton and a dermal scute, figured by
R. Owen, ‘Trans. Geol. Soc.,’ Ser. 2,
vol. vi., Pl. XLVI, figs. 1-5, as Labyrintho-
don (Anisopus) scutulatus.

Thecodontosaurus antiquus, Morris. Ver-
tebre figured as Labyrinthodon pachy-
gnathus by R. Owen, ‘ Trans. Geol. Soc.,’
Ser. 2, vol. vi, 1842, Pl. XLV.,, figs. 1-8,
p. 532. Three sacral vertebree figured by
T. H. Huxley, ‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’
vol, xxvi., 1869, Pl. III., £. 9, p. 46.

Thecodontosawus cylindrodon (Riley and
Stutch.). Figured by R. Owen, ‘Trans.
Geol. Soc.,’ Ser. 2, vol. v., Pl. XXVIII,
f.9, p. 343.

Formation.
Keuper

Lower Keuper

Lower Keuper

Lower Keuper

Keuper .

Keuper .

Lower Keuper

Lower Keuper

Lower Keuper

Lower Keuper

Kenper .

. Coten

Locality

End,
Warwick.

Coten End,
Warwick.

Warwick.

Warwick,

Warwick.

Blakedown
Hill, War-
wick,

Coten End,
Warwick.

Coten End,
Warwick, ©
Warwick.

Warwick.

Leamington.

to
“I
bat

ON THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF THE TRIAS OF THE BRITISH ISLES.

REPTTLTA—continued.

Name. Formation. Locality.
Thecodontosaurus sp. A dorsal vertebra Lower Keuper Coten End,
described by T. H. Huxley, loc. cit., p. 47; Warwick.

left ischium ; right ilium, figured by RK.
Owen, Joc. cit., Pl. XLY., figs. 16, 17,
p. 533.
Genus? Episternal bone, figured by R. Lower Keuper Warwick.

Owen, ‘ Trans. Geol. Soc ,’ Ser. 2, vol. vi.,
1842, Pl. XLV., figs. 9,10, p. 524; coprolite,
Pl. XLYV., f.19; femur, Pl. XLV., f. 18,
p. 535; humerus, Pl. XLY., figs. 11-15,

p. 533.
Tooth of a saurian, figured by Murchison Keuper . . Coten End,
and Strickland, ‘ Trans. Geol. Soc.,’ Ser. 2, Warwick,

vol. v., 1840, Pl. XXVIIL., f. 8, p. 344.
‘Bone of a fish,’ figured by Murchison and Permian? . # mile north-

Strickland, ‘Trans. Geol. Soc.,’ Ser. 2, west of
yol. v., 1840, Pl. XXVIII., f. 5, p. 348. Coventry.

Bibliographical Notes on the Flora and Fauna of the Trias, 1826-76.
By A. R. Horwoon, Leicester Corporation Musewm.

In the Report for 1907 some notes were given upon the flora and
fauna of some of the Midland counties. The following summary is
supplementary to that account, and includes recorded plant or animal
remains from different areas cited in the works enumerated in the
Bibliography appended, from 1826-76. Later records are mainly
incorporated in previous Reports, and the same remark applies to the
remaining works recording Triassic sections, fossils, &c. These will be
found chiefly as footnotes to Reports I.-V., 1903-07.

Notes Additional on the Flora and Fauna of the Trias in Leicestershire, Notts,
Warwickshire, Worcestershire, Staffordshire, Cheshire, Lancashire, Dumfries,
Elgin, and Somersetshire.

(Numbers in parentheses in last column refer to number of work in Bibliography on pp, 281 and 282.)

Genera and Species | Formation Locality Reference
+ PLANTA.
THALLOPHYTA,
Fucoidal impressions : . | Upper Keuper sand- | Finwood Green, War- | (23) p. 42.

stone wickshire
Mcois . , o | JREUDEL . . | Shrewley, Warwick- | (30) p. 121.
shire
PreK (Moruya,
Liquisetales.
Uquisetites arenaceus, Brongn, . | Upper Keuper sand- | Pendock, Worcester- | (20) p. 451.
stone shire
(@) 4, sp.(amder Calamites) | Keuper. ; . | Shrewley, Warwick- | (31) p. 97.
shire
i 5! 55 Upper Keuper sand- | Rowington,Warwick- | (21) p. 375.
stone shire
QGYMNOSPERALE, |
Conifere. |
Voltzia sp. . : ° ° .| Keuper . - .| Shrewley, Warwick- | (31) p. 97.
} shire
as +... . | Upper Keuper sand- | Rowington,Warwick- | (21) p. 375.
stone shire j ‘

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Notes, Additional—continued.

|

‘Fruits of plants (?)’

‘Plants (various)’ . 5

”

0

*Plants’ .

[Dictyophyllum

crassinervium,

L. and H,]

”

” ”
[Echinostachys oblonga,

”

Brongn.)

”

ff Walchia h upnoides, Brongn.] .

”

2

INVERTEBRATA,

ANNELIDA OR CRUSTACEA,
*Annelide holes and tracks’ ,

‘ Worm-tracks’ . . °

ORUSTACEA,

Estheria minuta (Alberti)

Mo.Luusca.

‘Cast of bivalve shell’ .

VERTEBRATA,
Piscxs.

GCOS SDs carl owes le

Acrodus keuperinus (M.& 8.) .

minimus, Ag. ‘ .

sp. “ct

sp. ay Bee Aye

sp. (fragments of teeth
and spines)
noy.sp. (fide Egerton)

Dictyopyge superstes (Eg.) , °

|
es

Upper Keuper sand-
stone

‘New Red - sand-
stone’

Trias ° = i

Lower rine sand-
stone
Keuper ’ . :

Trias .

| Keuper . :

Lower Keuper sand-

stone

” ” ”

Lower Keuper sand-
stone
Keuper ° . .
Upper Keuper sand-
stone

” ” ”

” ” ”

3 ” E]
Keuper' . .

Lower Keuper . .
Upper Keuper sand-
stone

Keuper . .

Upper Keuper. .

” ” e

Upper Keuper sand-
stones and marls
Upper Keuper sand-
stone

Keuper ® .

| Tunnel, Malvern

Shrewley, aire

Rowington, Warwick-
shire

Shrewley, Warwick-
shire

North Curry, Somer-
setshire

Rowington, | a

Clarence Dock, Liver- |

pool
Liverpool . .

aS ° . .
Bromsgrove, Worces-
tershire
Ombersley,
tershire
Shrewley . .

Warwickshire
Shrewley . z

Worces-

Brewood, Penkridge,
Worcestershire
Weston Oliff, Notts. .

Burge Hill, Worces-
tershire

Shelsey, Worcester-
shire
Rowington, Fin-

wood Green, War- -

wickshire

Wells
Ruihston, Somerset-
shire

North Ourry . .

Stoke St. Mary. . |

Rowington & Shrew-
ley, Warwickshire

Burge Hill, Worces-
tershire

Ruibston, Somerset-
shire

Shrewley, Warwick-
shire

” ” I

Pendock, Worcester-
shire

Tunnel,
Wells

Pendock, Worcester-
shire

Shrewley, Warwick-
shire

Malvern

Genera and Species Formation Locality Reference

PLANT A—cont. |

INCERTZ SEDIS. |
*Calix of unknown plant’ P | Keuper . ‘ 5 SD Warwick- | (31) p. 97.

: shire
‘Calyces of some flowering Lower Keuper sand- | Rowington,Warwick- | (22) p. 166.
| plant’ | stone shire ;
‘Cast of the flower ofa plant’. | Keuper ,. 6 . | Western Point, (31) p. 97.
| ‘ Cheshire

‘Fruit of an unknown plant’. | 5 Leicester . (31) p. 97.

(30) p. 121 and
(21) p. 375.

(22) p. 166.
(31) p. 97.
(26) p. 484,
(3) pp. 135-7,
Pl. CCI.
(13) p. 193,
(19) p. 7.
(13) p. 193;
(19) p. 8.
(30) p. 70.

(31) p. 97.

. | (19) p. 24,
. | (31) p. 97.

(30) p. 71.
(30) p. 91.

| (30) p. 90.
| (28) pp. 57-8,

(23) p. 42,
| (27) p. 153.
(29) p. 468.

| Ibid.
(33) p. 374,

|
(30) p. 121.

(30) p. 90.

(29) p. 468,

(31) p. 97.
ee
(30) p. 120.
(25) p. 163.

(20) pp. 450-1.

(30) pp. 5, 121
(1) p97

and

ON THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF THE TRIAS OF THE BRITISH ISLES.

Notes, Additional—continued.

279

Genera and Species

Formation

Locality

Reference

VERTEBRATA—cOnl.
INCERT SEDIS.
‘Serrated teeth of Belodon’

* Leptodus (?) sp... '

* Lophodus palatal tooth, spine’
‘Jaw offish’ . .
*Fish-teeth ’ 5 E ° .

*Cutting-teeth of a shark;
palatal teeth ; group ina jaw; |
very rare’

‘Traces of fish-scales’ fs A

‘Ichthyodorulites’ and ‘ osseous
remains’

‘TIehthyodorulites of a Cestra-
ciont’

‘Shagreen on skin of a Cestra-
ciont’

* Large mailed fish’ . i |

AMPHIBIA,
Masiodonsaurus giganteus,
Jaeger
(?) » 9
(2) *9 :
(?) ” ”
(?) » ”
» pachygnathus (Owen)
(?) » »
(?) ”
() ” 2
@) » © |
(?) ” ”
() ” 3
” Sp.
Labyrinthodon leptognathus
(Owen) |
” ”
” ” !
Diadetognathus “varvicensis,
Miall.

Doubifully Labyrinthodont,
not distinct from the above.

or |

Cladyodon Lloydii, Owen . °

‘Labyrinthodon Pima? Owen.
” * scutulatus’

”»

” .

| Lower Keuper

Upper Keuper sand-

stone

” ”

Keuper ae .
Trias . . .

Upper Keuper
stone

” ”

Keuper . .

Upper Keuper sand-
stone
Upper Keuper
stone
Keuper. .

sand-

” e

Lower Keuper sand-
stone

”

Lower Keuper sand-
stone

Keuper , . .
Lower Keuper .
” ”
Keuper .
Trias . . .

Trias .

sand-
stone

Lower Keuper
stone

Keuper . .

sand-

2 . .
Trias . = :

” . . . .

Lower Keuper . .

»”
Trias . .

Lower Keuper zand-
stone

Kenuper . °

* | Shrewley,

: ' Coten End

| .
| Rowington

Ruibston, Somerset-
shire
Shrewley, Warwick-

shire

» ” °
Coventry Warwick-
shire

”

Finwood Green, War-
wickshire

Rowington, Shrewley,
Warwickshire

North Curry, Somer-
setshire
Pendock, Worcester-
shire
War-
| wick-
shire

Rewington,

”

Coten End, Warwick- |

shire
Guy’s Cliff

Warwick . e ;
Cubbington, Warvrick-
shire

Leamington ,,
Coten End

Warwickshire . . |
Leamington, War-
wickshire
ET Cubbington A : |
' Coten End, Cubbing-
ton
Blakedown . .
Coten End. p °
Warwickshire . .
{ Warwick,
Leamington

Shrewley, Warwicks. |

Coten End

”
»”

{ Coten End,
Leamington

Warwick .

Leamington
Warwick. . ’

Leamington,
Warwickshire

Fe p. 121,
Re) D. ba (19) p. 350,
23)

(29) p. 468.

(30) p. 120.
(31) p. 97.
(4) Pl. XXVIIL. fig. 5:)

(19) p. 346.
(21) p. 374.
(23) p. 42,

(30) p. 121.

(29) p. 486.

(20) pp. 450-1.
(21) p. 374.
(30) p. 121.
(80) p. 121.

(32) p. 430.

(6) p.197 ; (7) p. 188:
(9) p. 506, &c.: (19) |
p. 348

(23) p. “40,

(30) p. 88.

(30) p. 120. |
(32) pp. 418, 419, 421,|
422; Plates XXVI-'
XXVILI. |
(6) fig. 63 A and 64B
in part; (9) p. 516,
&e.; (19) p. 530,
(23) p. 40.

| (80) p. 6.

' pp. 120-1. |
(31) p. 97.

| (32) p. 433.

(6) p. 207 ; (9) p.516 |
e.; (19) p. 348, }

(23) p. 40.

| (30) p. 120.

(31) p. 97.
(32) p. 425.
(32) p. 425.

(4) Pl. XXVIII. 6;
(6) p. 268 (7); (19)
p- 348; (30) p. 6;
| (31) p. 97.

| (30) p. 121,

(30)

|

p. 4

| | (30) p. 6

280

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

Notes, Additional—continued.

Genera and Species Formation | Locality Reference
| Ene tae < — ee
| VERTEBRATA—cont. |
Amphibia—cont. |
‘Labyrinthodon scutulatus, Owen | Lower Keuper . .| Leamington . (30) P. Brg (31) p. sy
s ventricosus ,, .»| Trias. . . «| Coten Ind, Warwicks, tite 5 &e,
(19) D- 380.
ry ss . - | Lower Keuper sand- | Warwick . “ - | (23) p, 40.
stone
Leamington rg
3 a A Keuper a 5 { Warwick ’ } (30) p. 6.
Cubbi
i * . «| Lower Keuper . eee } (30) p. 121.
Rs yy . Keuper - | Coten End. ° (31) p. 97,
af sp ° ‘ ’ i 5 ; . | Flaybrick, Oheshire . - | (30) p. 6,
. - ‘ . « | Lower Keuper sand- | Daresbury as «| (30) p. 6
stone
Preston Bagot,
” ” . ’ ” ” ” | Rowington, (30) p. 90. |
Warwickshire |
” ” | ” , Warwick,
5 “5 . . is = * Leek Wooton (30)_p. 121. |
” ” . . Upper Keuper sand- uihston, Somersets.| (29) p. 468. |
stone |
REPTILIA.

”

| ”

| Mhynchosaurus sp. «

”

Batrichnus lvellii, Jara.

| Slagonolepis Robertsoni (Ag.) -
‘Imperfect rib-bone’ . A

FOOrPRINTS.

4 2 5 4
Cheirotherium Kaupii (Owen) .
SD; Ex :

sp. ;
sp.
sp.

* Steps of Batrachian on ripple-
marked Sandstone ’

Chelonoid and other Footprints |

from Dumfries.

Actibatis triassce, Jard. . s

stricklandi, Hark.

.

Chelaspodos jardinii, Hark. .
Chelichnus ambiguus, Jard. ,

duncani, Morris

gigas, Tard. .

obliquus, Hark. :
plagiostopus, Jari, .
plancus, Hayter, A
titan, Jard, :

PETIAR Gy e's
Upper Keuper
stone

Keuper

| Trias r

Keuper

> ”
Trias .

Keuper

Upper Keuper
stone

Upper Keuper .

Trias .

sand-

;

Findrassie . .

North Ourry, Somer-
setshire

Flaybrick Hill,
Weston Point,
Daresbury,
Lymm, Cheshire,
Liverpool

Warwickshire,
Staffordshire,
Cheshire

f Rowington,

Shrewley
Warwickshire .

———e—O

i _ Lymm, Cheshire

Storeton 35
. , Lymm 5)
' Annan, Dumfries.
Flaybrick Hill,
Weston Point,
Daresbury,
Lymm, = Liver-
pool

a3 | Watwinkathine, Staf-

sand-

fordshire, Oheshire
Rowington, Shrewley
Witley Green, near
Preston Bagot

| Shrewley . .

Corneockle Muir

| Green Mill, near

Dumfries

| Dumfries . .

5 ”
| Corneockle Muir

' :

”»

”
Dumfries.

Corneoekle Muir ‘
Dumfries . A
Corncockle Muir .

ae ay

(24) pp. 440-460,
(26) p, 484.

(30) p. 5.

(30) p. 121. |

(30) p. 121.

(31) p. 97. |

(18) p. 37; (19) p. 355.

(5) pp. 12-14 ; (19) p.
355. |

(8) p. 56; (19) p. 355
(14) p. 83 ; (19) p. 355

| (380) p. 5,

(30) p, 121.

(30) p. 121.
(25) p. 278.

. | (QU) p. 874.
|

IX.; (19)

p.3
Ibid., oo XIII. ; (16)
p. 95 ; (19) p. 355.
(16) p. "95; Us) p. 355
Ibid., p. 92 ; (19) Ibid.
(17), Bl. VE
(19) Jbid, (1) p.160:
@) 1945 p. ;
5 p. 208; (17)
oe IL, IIl.; (9)
p. 355.
(17) Pl. I. ; (19) Jbid.
(16) p.93; (19) Ibid.
ee X; (19) Ibid.
(16) p. 92; (19) Ibid.
(17) p. 10; (19) Zoid. |

ON THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF THE TRIAS OF THE BRITISH ISLES, 281

Notes, Additional—continued.

Genera and Species Formation Locality Reference
ni | eo aud
VERTEBRATA—cont,
Footprints—cont. |
Chelichnus sp. . . eee iicias Weston, nr. Runcorn | (15) p. 205; (19) Jbid.
Herpetichnus bucklandi, Sard. . » Corncockle Muir (15) p. 208;
Pl. VIL; (19) Zbid.
i sauroplesius, Sard. . oe, = (17) PL IV., V.; (19)
Ibid.
Saurichnus acutus, Wark. . a Fj Dunmifries . (16) p. 94; (19) /bid.
INCERS.; SEDIS.
Footprints , cd Weston, nr, Runcorn | (10) p. 65, Pl V.;
(19) Jbid.
+ % * 3 (14) p. 84; (19) Jbid.
Fi a Storeton, Cheshire (11) p. 410;
p. 283, fig. 3; (19)
Lbid.
” . ms Lymm i -| (8) p. 56; (19) Jbid.
rv) ; . : i wees Fi . Shrewley Common,| (4)p.318,PL.XXVILIL.
| Warwickshire fig. 1; (19) Jbid.
. | Keuper Shrewley, Guy's Cliff | (30) p. 6,

Labyrinthodon footprints z

- | Upper Keuper

sand-
stone

Lower Keuper sand-
stone

Rowington, Finwood
Green

Brewood, Penkridge,
Worcestershire
Longley Hill, Dela-

(17)

(12)

(28) p. 42 5 (21) p, 375.
(30) p. 71.

Thid., p. 79.

mere, Cheshire

” ” ” ” » Quarry at Eaton, | Jbid., p. 80, fig. 41.
Cheshire

” ” ” ” ’ Weston Quarries, | Zbid., p. 85,
Cheshire

Lymm, Cheshire . | Ibid., p. 86, section.

Tiblioyraphy of Works referring to the Flora and Fauna of the Trias
(Keuper), 1826-1876, exclusive! of Works already mentioned in the
Trias Reports, 1903-7.

1. (1826) Brongniart, AA—(‘ Ann. Sci. Nat.,’ 1826, p. 457, t. 20.)

2. (1828) Duncan, Rev. H.—‘ An Account of the Tracks and Footprints of
Animals found impressed on Sandstone in the Quarry of Corncockle Muir in Dum-
friesshire ’ (‘Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.’ vol. xi.).

3. (1837) Lindley, J.. and W. Hutton.—‘ The Fossil Flora of Great Britain, or
Figures and Descriptions of the Vegetable Remains found in a Fossil State in the
Country,’ 3 vols. (vol. iii. pl. 201).

4, (1837) Murchison, Sir R., and H. §, Strickland.—‘ On the Upper Formation
of the New Red Sandstone System in Gloucester, Worcestershire, and Warwick-
shire, showing that the Red or Saliferous Marls, including a peculiar zone of Sand-
stone, represent the Keuper or “ Marnes irisées,” with some account of the under-
lying Sandstone of Ombersley, Bromsgrove, and Warwick, proving that it is the
Bunter Sandstein or Grés Bigarré of Foreign Geologists ’ (‘ Trans. Geol. Soc.,’ vol. v.
p. 389, &e.).

5. (1838) Cunningham, J.—‘ An Account of the Cheirotherium and other unknown
Animals lately discovered in the Quarries of Storeton Hill, in the Peninsula of
Wirral, between the Mersey and the Dee’ (‘ Proc. Geol. Soc.,’ vol. iii. p. 12).

6. (1840-5). Owen, Sir R.—‘ Odontography ; or a Treatise on the Comparative
Anatomy of the Teeth.’ 2 vols.

7. (1841) Owen, Sir R.—(‘ Brit. Assoc. Rep.’)

8. (1842) Hawkshaw, J. C.—(‘Rep. Brit. Assoc.,’ Sect., p. 56.)

9. (1842) Owen, Sir R.—‘ Description of parts of the Skeleton and Teeth of Five
Species of the Genus Labyrinthadon (Lab. leptognathus, Lab. pachygnathus, and
Lab. ventricosus), from the Coten End and Cubbington Quarries of the Lower

' This does not apply to works quoted in which records of fossil plants or animals
oceny, hut have so far not been detailed, ;

284 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Warwick Sandstone; Lab. Jaegeri, from Guy’s Cliff, Warwick ; and Lab. scutulatus,
from Leamington; with remarks on the probable identity of the Cheirotherium with
this genus of Batrachians’ (‘ Geol. Tr.,’ 2, Ser. VI.).

10. (1846) Black, Dr. J.—(‘Q.J.G.5.,’ ii. p. 65, t. 5.)

11. (1846) Cunningham, J.—(‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe.,’ ii. p. 410.)

12. (1848) Cunningham, J.—(‘ Liv. Phil. Soc.,’ p. 283, f. 3.)

13. (1849) Pattison, 8S. R.—‘ Chapters on Fossil Botany,’ p. 193.

14. (1850) Harkness, R.—(‘ Rep. Brit. Assoc.,’ Sect., p. 83.)

15. (1850) Jardine, Sir W.—(‘ Ann. Mag. N.BH..,’ vi. p. 208.)

16. (1851) Harkness, R.—(Ann. Mag. N.H.,’ vii. pp. 92-5.)

17. (1853) Jardine, Sir W.—‘ Ichnology of Annandale.’

18. (1853) Rawlinson, R.—‘ On Foot-tracks found in the New Red Sandstone at
Lymm, Cheshire’ (‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ ix. pp. 37-40).

19. (1854) Morris, J—‘ Catalogue of British Fossils,’ 2nd edit.

20. (1855) Symonds, Rev. W. S.—‘ Notice of Fossils from the Keuper Sandstone
of Pendock, Worcestershire’ (‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ xi. pp. 450-51).

21. (1856) Brodie, Rev. P. B.—‘On the Upper Keuper Sandstone (included in
the New Red Marl) of Warwickshire’ (‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ xii. pp. 374-6).

22. (1858) Egerton, Sir P. de G.—‘ On Palgoniscus superstes, with a Note on the
Locality of the Fossil by the Rev. P. B. Brodie (‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ xiv. .
pp. 164-6).

23. (1859) Howell, H. H.—‘ The Geology of the Warwickshire Coalfield and the
Permian Rocks and Trias of the surrounding District’ (‘ Mem. Geol. Surv.’).

24, (1859) Huxley, T. H.—‘ On the Stagonolepis robertsoni (Agassiz) of the Elgin
Sandstones, and on the recently discovered Footmarks in the Sandstones of Cum-
mingstone’ (‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ xv. pp. 440-60).

25. (1860) Brodie, Rev. P. B.—‘On the Occurrence of Footsteps of Cheiro-
therium in the Upper Keuper in Warwickshire’ (‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ xvi.
p. 278).

26. (1861) Moore, C.—‘On the Zones of the Lower Lias and the Avicula contorta
Zone’ (‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ xvii. pp. 484-486).

27. (1861) Symonds, Rev. W. S., and Alan Lambert.—‘ On the Sections of the
Malvern and Ledbury Tunnels (Worcester and Hereford Railway) and the inter-
vening line of railroad, with a Note on the Fossils by J. W. Salter’ (‘ Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc.,’ xvii. pp. 132-162).

28. (1862) Jones, Professor T. R.—'‘A Monograph of Fossil Estherie’ (‘ Pal.
Soc.’).

29. (1867) Moore, C.—‘On Abnormal Conditions of Secondary Deposits when
connected with the Somersetshire and South Wales Coal-Basin, and on the Age of
the Sutton and Southerndown Series ’ (‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ xxiii. pp. 449-568).

30. (1869) Hull, Professor E.—‘The Triassic and Permian Rocks of the Midland
Counties of England ’ (‘ Mem. Geol. Surv.’).

31. (1871) Phillips, Professor J.‘ Geology of Oxford and the Valley of the
Thames,’ p. 97.

32. (1874) Miall, Professor L. C.—‘On the Remains of Labyrinthodontia from
the Keuper Sandstone of Warwickshire, preserved in the Warwick Museum ’ (‘ Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ xxx. p. 417, &ce.).

38. (1876) Ussher, W. A. E.—‘On the Triassic Rocks of Somersetshire and
Devonshire’ (‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ xxxii. pp. 367-894).

ON THE CRYSTALLINE ROCKS OF ANGLESEY, 283

Composition and Origin of the Crystalline Rocks of Anglesey.—Third

- Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. A. HARKER (Chairman),

Mr. EB. GREENLY (Secretary), Mr. J. Lomas, Dr. C. A. MAtLey,
and Professor K. J. P. ORTON.

Tue analyses contained in this Report, like those of last year, have
been drawn up by Mr. John Owen Hughes, B.Sc., who contributes a
chemical note upon them. They have all been executed by himself.

In almost every case they have been chosen for the purpose of
throwing light on difficult questions of the origin of highly altered rocks,
and a discussion of them would lead far into complicated metamorphic
questions, to which justice could not be done apart from microscopic
structures and detailed field relations. In this place, therefore, only the
nature of the rock and the bearings of the analysis will be given,
sufficiently to make its objects clear.

Two more rocks belonging to the zone of hornfels in Central
Anglesey have been analysed. When one more, a very important one
that is now in progress, is completed, that particular line of investiga-
tion will be at an end for the present, a typical selection having been
examined.

The remaining rocks belong to other groups, and have been selected
partly to aid field-work actually in progress at the time, partly because
the specimens had long ago been collected for analytical purposes, and it
seemed advisable to get them examined and out of hand.

The next line of investigation it is proposed to take up systematically
is that of the composition of the pillowy diabase and jasper group, with
the metamorphic rocks associated with them, a question of great import-
ance upon which some chemical work has been done already.

The numbers, as before, are those of the slides in the Secretary’s
cabinet.

No, 184A. Banded Hornfels.
Ang. 12 S.£.; 1,200 ft. B.N.E. Tai Eiddew.

PY I.
£6" Sa" set Wh e08 404
Na 5 ae OOh tag 1:65

This is a banded hornfels from near Gwalchmai. The object of the
analysis is, as in the case of those in last year’s report, to aid in deciding
whether these rocks are igneous or sedimentary in origin.

No. 2054. Garnet Mica Schist.

Ang.13S.W.; NE. nd Llyn Hendref.

I. II,
BED eS eee le a BAO 2°66
gO | 2) OREM sine eg aed 2°59

Owing to the small amount of material available, only the alkalies
could be estimated in the above rock.

This is a garnetiferous mica schist, also from near Gwalchmai,
belonging to a zone into which the hornfels appears to pass.

284 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

No. 374A. Greenish Mica Sehist.
Ang. 16 N.L. Cromlech Farm, Rhoscolyn.

I. Il.
KO Saas). Sb Ren Wy sree: MnO: ae - 437
Na,O A Mt eee Ws 2-69
SOR eek Ya CaiewNRS MME atpedbe a reg IG ZI 54-01

This is a mica schist from Rhoscolyn, Holyhead Island. It has been
selected, although from a different district, for comparison’s sake, for
there can be no doubt in this case that we are dealing with sedimentary
material.

No. 124A. Muscovite Epidote Schist.

Any. 19 N.W.; 200 fect V.W. ‘169. W. of Hen-durnpike.

6 II.
Sissvth, Swel e-OeMe dae. Wed $9667 SE 67°53
Al,0; ft Aenlek medi ee ee «-paedii-ict- 1 BO 17-45
FeO, Aha 8 Snytes > een ay ge a 1:72
TIS ie dat ee hace Presper 7.4 6 2-28
CoO ee Speen TITS, teu en Oe 2-18
MOMS 2Hul BO \AROb. 902 Oo) ano 1:42
Oe gs ap caries alta ippa Vers: , seIDL 2-54
Na aor hal pst paces casas cio 3°64
PD taal ag eka te aria ceo Sn RIS 1-04

99-78 99-80

This is a mica schist from near Penmynydd, in the south-eastern dis-
trict, and belongs to a series which in one place appear to pass into
felsite, in others into sediments. It was selected to complete a group of
analyses of which the rest were very kindly made for me some years ago
by Mr. Edmund Dickson, F,G.S.

A.P. 38. Limestone.
Ang. 19 NW. Rhydeilian Kiln.

if IW
Residues insoluble in HCl : + wo S) 3:97
Al,O,+ Fe,O, . r ; - oe 0:50 O-49

MnO. : i : 2 = —_
CaO . 7 : - 29-80 29-69
MgO. 2 : - ; é 20°66 20'15
eth ¢ ge ep tiiarinaine disse Iv ont 45°96 45°68
100-24 99-98

.. percentage CaCO, = 53°21 5301
4 MgCO, = 43:18 42-11

A limestone from Rhydeilian, about a, mile from No. 1244 and in the
zone of passage between those rocks and the schists in which sedimentary
material can still be recognised.

No. 99A. Flaky Mieaceous G'neiss.
Ang. 18 S.E, Edge of Wood at wall corner, 200 feet N.W. Graig Fach.

18 II.
SU: gee Ee ers. O80 6813
ALO ae 17:36
PaO, 7 aie te «i 4.. «pte 4:79

A gneiss containing sillimanite from Holland Arms. It occurs at
the junction of the mica schists with the hornblende gneisses of that
locality,

ON THE CRYSTALLINE ROCKS OF ANGLESEY. 28

ort

No, 2234. Jaspery Phylilite.
Ang. 18 N.W. In Limestone, 900 feet S.W. (a little to W.) of Hendrebach.
I

II.
SiO, i) Se CRBS Pero a: 9* Gaes 64-02
BRS eae Ny gt Cs aa ae 2 TAS 17-61
FEY ee RTE! OTR Ps eat 6:67
Boor pia) hibit Dtows wld gaiiae +t gore 0:70
CaOorviuns cmrrod <derte e OORT 0:62
fe OS Ol RIE) Ng to 582
1 pk tea it ae 1 a A aT Ys 2:55
Na,O Pee SA. KP EIS 0°33
see ey ge er ee a tae eer 1:43

99-21 99°75

A ‘jaspery phyllite —that is, a peculiar red or purple shale closely
associated with the jaspers and limestones. This example is from a
complex mass, chiefly limestone, near Cerrig Ceinwen, A jasper from
the same complex was analysed last year.

No. 4254, Gabbro.
Ang. 11 S.2. Lane, foot of High Boss, 250 feet W.S.W. ‘ 23°6.

ia I.
SOT: Sate! bwliici We AW be apeg 4T11
Ge oe, PR 2 pat 15°80
Rip tee wets olf ct: 80 0:98
RT ss ai Be AE eis San OE 3-93
Ce ra i a EG? 11:23
Rice ee ee Meter ee NIA. Tacaa 13-96
Ce DOM IA. FO RON AF ORG oF 0-19
Nats. d. sui ifs bogleed cdseg 1-98
TO Calis) A nats Volt lie. 9 OFE7 0-19
PL Odanave TL02) 0 vio spn ve Saat 44560 4:38

100:17 99°75

In the above rock H,O (above 110°) was determined by finding loss
of weight on ignition.

A specimen taken from the least deformed portion known to me of
the gabbro of Holyhead Island. The serpentine of that complex was
analysed many years ago by Mr. F. T. S. Houghton.!

No. 429A. Limestone.
Ang. 11 8.2. 700 feet S.S.E. of Cerig Moelion.
I

: Il.
Residues insoluble in HCl P . 5:32 5:26
Al,O,+¥e,O, . : : . 6:46 6°55
MnO. . F ; ; ; = —
CaO . j 2 é 3 ; » 32:94 32°43
MgO. ‘ . ; : 5 . 14°41 14°58
1) SR A LC a 41-26
“100°39 100-08
-’. percentage CaCO, = 58°82 5791
4s MgCO, = 30:26 30°47

A peculiar dark, hard limestone that occurs in association with the
saine serpentine and gabbro. This rock is not the ophicalcite, which T
hope later on to deal with.

' See Bonney, @.J.GS., 1881, p. 46.

286 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

No. 422A. Diorite.

Ang. 7S.W. Bodneithior, E. side house.
ie ins
SiO, . ‘ : " : ; . 45°21 45:13

Diorite from Bodneithior, Llandyfrydog. It is a less basic portion of
one of the Post-Ordovician intrusions, the more basic (and larger) portion
of which is the famous hornblende-picrite. For an analysis of that rock
see Teall, ‘ Brit. Petrography,’ p. 103.

No. 514A. Dolerite.
Ang. 8 S.W. Small dyke N. of Dinas, Traeth Bychan.
7] 4 y

i, I.
Bee 0 we eg oes Sy ade 47:29

A small basic dyke traversing the Carboniferous limestone on the
east coast near Moelfre. The only one known in that district.

Besides these rocks, a suite of six silica percentages have been
estimated, each in duplicate, of the very curious altered rocks of Parys
Mountain, which have lately been shown to be of Silurian age, and in
which the once famous copper mines (still worked by a solution process)
are situated. The filtrates are reserved for treatment later on.

On some of the methods Mr. Hughes remarks :—

‘The methods employed in the above analyses were described in
the report of last year, and no modifications of these, or new methods
have been introduced.

‘A large number of determinations of alkalies made by the Lawrence
Smith method proves that the method, besides being a convenient one,
is also very accurate, and great reliance can be placed upon it.

‘The steel crusher bought last year continues to give satisfaction,
and by its use considerable saving of time is effected in the preliminary
process of reducing the rock to powder. This, as well as all other
steel apparatus—hammer, mortars, &c.—are kept in a galvanised iron
tank, with a tightly fitting cover, containing lime; in this way rusting
is entirely prevented.’

There is still a small balance left, about equal to the amount expended

in the course of the past year. The Committee ask to be reappointed,
and to retain this balance for use in the coming twelvemonth.

Investigation of the pre-Devonian Rocks of the Mendips and the Bristol
Area._—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. H. B. Woop-
WARD (Chairman), Professor S. H. Rrynotps (Secretary), Dr.
C. Luoyp More@an, and Rev. H. H. Winwoop. (Drawn up by
the Secretary.)

THE pre-Devonian Rocks of the Bristol district include the two inliers of
the Eastern Mendips and of Tortworth.

THE Eastern Menpip INuier.

The grant from the British Association, the object of which was to
assist the Secretary in studying the Silurian rocks of the Bristol district,

PRE-DEVONIAN ROCKS OF THE MENDIPS AND THE BRISTOL AREA, 287

was not made till his paper on the ‘Silurian Inlier of the Eastern
Mendips’ had already been published,! and the main part of the work on
this part of the area had been done. With the aid of the grant, however,
several trenches were dug, and a good deal of additional information was
obtained both from them and from new exposures made in connection
with quarrying operations. Unfortunately, however, it did not prove
possible to ascertain the relations of the coarse ashy conglomerate, the
most remarkable deposit of the district, to the other rocks. The
additional information obtained from various sources since the publication
of the paper already referred to is as follows :—

1. Beacon Farm Neighbourhood.—Three trenches were dug here ; the
first was one-third of a mile N.E. of Beacon Farm, close to the north-
eastern border of a plantation. The material here is coarse ashy
conglomerate, exactly like that at the Butts on Beacon Hill. Precisely
similar material was reached at a depth of 3 feet in a trench dug close to
the Roman road and about 300 yards N.E. of the previous trench.
These trenches prove that the eastward extension of the coarse ashy
conglomerate is much as was previously mapped? on evidence derived
from material thrown out by moles and rabbits. A third trench at a
spot nearly a third of a mile N.W. of Lodge Farm was taken down
7} feet through loose material full of pieces of trap without anything
in situ being met with. It is, however, practically certain that the
material here is the trap (andesite).

2. Sunnyhill and Moon’s Hill.—The following section, essentially the
same as that in the Sunnyhill quarry, was exposed near the wind pump
just 8.W. of the quarry :—

Ft. In.
4. Compact andesite to top of section
3. Highly vesicular andesite 3ig40
2. Very fine red ashy clay. Laeres
1, Fairly coarse tuff . - 12 0
Thickness of ashy series seen . ia! ts

The vesicular andesite has vesicles an inch long: the big ones are
empty, the little ones filled with chlorite ; the rock is a noteworthy one,
as on the whole a vesicular structure is very little met with in the inlier.
There are indications of banding in the compact andesite, the banding
being parallel to the base of the mass. The line of junction of the
andesite and ashy clay is slightly undulating, and is clearly one of
deposition, not of faulting or intrusion.

At the time of publication of the previous paper no remains of
trilobites had been found in the fine tuff of Sunnyhill, but a single tail of
Phacops has since been obtained.

Hitherto nothing but andesite has been recorded from the large
Moon’s Hill quarry, but a band of tuff dipping N.N.E. at about 70°
occurs in the little excavation between the two main quarries. It is of
a rather coarse-grained type and closely resembles that interbedded in
- the lower part of the andesite at Sunnyhill.

__ Ina paper already published an analysis of the Moon’s Hill rock by
Mr. E. M. Lane was quoted. This unfortunately proved unreliable, and

1 Q.J.G.8., vol. 1xiii. 1907, pp. 217-240.
2 Tbid., vol. 1xiii. 1907, p. 220.

288 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE:

the folluwiiig analysis, made by Mr. J. H. Sturgess in the Chemical
Laboratory at University College, Bristol, is intended to replace it :—

Sige NLA iy WO
a0! iPeD. Ooy, WI aig6
Al,0, .
reo} Poteet |
MgO | sick iach lige Wak OEE
2.0, Sige we eee
Magy Tees ao honie lege
Os > gel, tae od Levee
99-71

3. New Line of Rails from Downhead Quarry.—Since the publication
of the previous paper a line of rails has been laid from Downhead quarry,
past Walltyning to Long Cross Bottom, and several interesting little
sections have been exposed. At a point } mile N.E. of Long Cross
Bottom there is a cutting in Old Red sandstone and conglomerate dipping
S. at 45°. Two hundred yards farther E. a cutting in fine greenish
sandy shale yielded the following fossils, which have been identified by
Mr. F. R. Cowper Reed :—

Pholidops implicata, Sow.

Lingula Symondsi(?), Salt.

Leptena rhomboidalis, Wilch.
Spirifer plicatellus var. radiatus, Sow.
Atrypa sp.

Crinoid stem joints.

Canites labrosus, M. Edw.

A trench opened on the hill slopes a few yards to the N. of this
cutting showed similar material, and contained :—
Pholidops implicata, Sow.
Meristella, cf. furcata, Sow.
Spwifer plicatellus var. radiatus, Sow.
Orthis sp.
Beyrichia sp.
Calymene sp.
Phacops Weaveri, Salt.

In Mr. Reed’s opinion these fossils clearly indicate that the rock is of
Llandovery age. Judging from the strike, the rocks at this point occur
not many feet below the Old Red sandstone, and certainly there would
be no room for a development of the Wenlock and Ludlow series between
them and the Old Red sandstone. These exposures, therefore, afford con-
firmation of the view previously arrived at, viz., that the Llandovery
rocks of the Eastern Mendips are directly succeeded by the Old Red
sandstone. A second exposure of Silurian—in this case a fine-grained
grit with shale—occurs near Holland’s Copse, about 300 yards to the E.
of that just described. No fossils were found here. These three ex-
posures, which are in all probability in the newest Silurian rocks of the
district, are noteworthy from the fact that the rocks are normal sediments
without any admixture of igneous material, while all the other Silurian
rocks throughout the inlier are wholly or partially igneous in origin.

4. Downhead.—Hitherto the only evidence of fossiliferous Silurians
in this neighbourhood has been afforded by bits thrown out by moles and
rabbits. A trench was, however, dug on the hill slope opposite the

PRE-DEVONIAN ROCKS OF THE MENDIPS AND THE BRISTOL AREA, 28Y

Downhead quarry, which at a depth of 15 inches entered fine-grained
greenish ash, dipping 12--15° 8.E., the dip being such as to indicate that,
as at Sunnyhill and probably Tadhill, fossiliferous ash underlies the trap
exposed further to the north. Fossils were by no means so common as
at Tadhill, the only ones found being

Rhynchonella Davidsoni, M‘Coy.

Orthis elegantula, Dalm.

Pterinea sp.

es :
Calymene Blumenbachi, Brong.

The most noteworthy points brought out by the work may be summarised
as follows :—

1. Trenching proves that the coarse ashy conglomerate of Beacon
Hill extends to a point not far short of 4 mile to the east of the Butts.

2. A band of tuff is found to be interbedded in the Moon’s Hill
andesite.

3. Sediments free from admixture with igneous matter occur close
below the outcrop of the Old Red sandstone, about } mile N.E. of Long
Cross Bottom. These, though probably the newest Silurian rocks of the
district, contain a fauna of the same general type as elsewhere in the .
inlier, 7.e., probably of Upper Llandovery age.

Tue Tortwortu INuIER.

Far more work has been devoted to the Tortworth inlier than to the
Eastern Mendip inlier ; but as the great majority of the facts ascertained
are recorded in a paper ‘On the Fossiliferous Silurian Rocks of the
Southern Half of the Tortworth Inlier,’ by Mr. F. R. Cowper Reed and
the Secretary, to appear in a forthcoming part of the ‘ Quarterly Journal
of the Geological Society,’ they will not be repeated here. It may be
mentioned, however, that during the course of the work, which was
greatly facilitated by the kindness of the landowners, Lord Fitzhardinge,
Sir George Jenkinson, Bart., and especially Lord Ducie, eighteen old
quarries or exposures were opened up and about twenty-five trenches
were dug.

The most important points with regard to the fossiliferous Silurian
rocks which have been ascertained or confirmed by the work are the
following :—

1, That the traps form two bands confined (with the possible ex-
ception of onesmall exposure) to the upper Llandovery rocks.

2. That the base of the series is not seen, very little sedimentary
material being exposed below the lower trap band, and that the main
fossiliferous horizon of the Llandovery, which occurs between the two
trap bands, has a thickness of about 500 feet.

3. That the exposures of ashy limestone at Middlemill and Cullimore’s
quarry, Charfield Green, which had previously been thought to rest
respectively on the lower and upper trap bands, are probably on the
same horizon and overlie the upper trap band.

4. That the highly fossiliferous calcareous sandstone of Daniel’s Wood
also overlies the upper trap band, and is of approximately the same age
as the ashy limestones of Middlemill and Charfield Green.

5, That a small area of Llandovery rocks occurs in Eastwood Park,
and includes an exposure of the same highly fossiliferous calcareous
sandstone as occurs in Daniel’s Wood...

1908, U

290 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

6. That areas of Wenlock occur in regions formerly mapped as
Llandovery to the west of Charfield Green, between Tortworth and
Daniel’s Wood, and in the neighbourhood of Stone.

7. That, although certain fossils of Ludlow type have been met with
near Horseshoe Farm and to the south of Little Daniel’s Wood, only a
very thin, imperfect, and non-typical development of these rocks exists ;
and this fact, taken in connection with the remarkable attenuation of
the Old Red sandstone, renders it probable that the district was &p-
heaved and subjected to erosion in late Silurian and early Old Red
sandstone times.

The paper by Mr. F. R. Cowper Reed and the Secretary describes
only the fossiliferous Silurian rocks, the igneous rocks having been
already described in a paper by Professor Lloyd Morgan and the Secre-
tary, published in 1901 ;1 but in the course of the work a certain amount
of additional information was obtained with regard to the ‘trap’ rocks,
which may be given here. In the first place a considerable number of:
new exposures has been obtained, especially between Middlemill and
Woodford. The great majority are not inconsistent with the view main-
tained by Professor C. Lloyd Morgan and the Secretary in the paper
above referred to, that both the upper and lower trap bands are regularly
interbedded with the sedimentary rocks, The forking of the trap to the
west of Woodford Green does not present any difficulty to the contem-
poraneous hypothesis, being explicable on the view that the trap is folded
into a syncline, and the isolated patch at Woodford Farm may be
regarded as brought in by a roll in the strata. There is, however, one
small patch of trap which it has been found very difficult to connect
with such a scheme: it lies to the west of the northern end of Daniel’s
Wood, in an area which, as far as the very limited amount of evidence
available goes, is Wenlock. We are inclined to think that this reopens
the question as to whether or not some of the trap may be intrusive, and
it must be admitted that there are certain facts, such as the strong
divergence of the two trap bands to the west of Damery and the en-
closure in parts of the Damery trap of much sedimentary matter, which
are best explained on the view that the lower trap band is intrusive.
The field evidence is, however, scarcely sufficient to warrant at present
a definite opinion. The chief points brought out by examination of rock
sections cut from new exposures are :—

1. The prevalence of andesitic rocks containing bastite pseudomorphs
after enstatite. These have already been recorded from Charfield Green,
Woodford Green, and Daniel’s Wood, and we have now met with them
to the W. of the Fox Inn at Woodford and in trenches to the 8.E. of

_Crockley’s Farm, Tortworth.

2. The frequent occurrence of quartz xenocrysts with corroded
borders. These were recorded in the paper previously referred to from
Warner’s Court, Charfield Green, Daniel’s Wood, Woodford Green, and
Middlemill ; but, except perhaps at Daniel’s Wood, they are best seen
in the old quarry W. of the Fox Inn at Woodford, an exposure not
recorded in the previous paper. All these localities probably lie on the
upper trap band.

3. It is perhaps worth noting that the pyroxene andesite exposed in

1 Q.J.@.S., Vole lviii, 1901, pp. 267-284.

PRE-DEVONIAN ROCKS OF THE MENDIPS AND THE BRISTOL AREA. 291

the trench S.E. of Crockley’s Farm shows little patches of a colourless
mineral, apparently chalcedony, sometimes scattered through the body of
the rock, sometimes partially filling vesicles, and giving a singularly perfect
black cross under crossed Nicols.

Topographical and Geological Terms used locally in South Africa.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. W. LampLucH
(Chairmun), Dr. F. H. Hatcn (Secretary), Dr, G. CoRsToRPHINE,
and Messrs. A. Du Tort, A. P. Hau, G. Kynaston, F. P. Men-
NELL, and A. R. RoGERS, appointed to determine the precise
Significance of Topographical and Geological Terms used locally in
South Africa. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Durine the year a long list of terms, mainly of Dutch origin, was received
from Mr. A. Du Toit. This list contained contributions from Mr. A. R.
Rogers. A list of words was also received from Mr. Kynaston and a
small one from Mr. F. P. Mennell. A few definitions have been con-
tributed by Dr. Hatch.

Two classes of words are at present being catalogued :—

I. Topographical terms.

II. Names of rocks and minerals.

Most’of the words hitherto catalogued are of Dutch origin, but some
Kaffir and Bushman words have also been included. It may be found

desirable to extend the scope of the Committee to other parts of Africa,
and suggestions will be welcomed.

Cuiass I.—TZopographical Terms.
Aar—

Is the name given to any feature on the surface which is very long compared
with its breadth. Applied to the outcrop of a dyke, to a low ridge of tufa,
to’a slight depression, or most frequently to a line of country characterised
by a particular kind of bush.

Baai—
A bay on the coast, ¢.g., Saldanha Baai.

Bak— ,
A basin or basin-shaped hollow.

Bank—
A low ridge rising suddenly, ¢e.g., Vaalbank.

Banken, plural of Bank—

A term? used to denote a step-like feature, hence banken type of scenery,
ég., in the high veld portion of the Lydenburg district of the Transvaal,
due to alternations of harder and softer beds with a low dip.

Berg—

Mountain: the term) ‘de ‘Berg’ is especially applied to the great eastern

escarpment of the Transvaal plateau.

Bosch—

Bush or wood, e.g., Blaauwbosch.

292 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Buli—
A low ridge with gentle and gradual rise and even outline.
Dan—
Reservoir or pond.
Dans—
A broad shallow valley, e.g., Leeuwen Dans.
Donga—

A small ravine or wash-out caused by floods in soft ground.
A gulley or dry water-course with steep sides, synonymous with the Kastern
terms waddy and nullah.

Draua—

A bend or turn (of a river or range),
Drift—

A ford or crossing of a river.
Duin, plural duien—

A sand dune.

Dwala—
A native term used in Rhodesia for a bare rounded knoll or ridge of rock.

Kiland—
Island, ¢.g., Paarden Eiland.
Fonteon—
A spring. Much used in place-names, e.g., Bloemfontein, Wonderfontein, &c.
Gat—
A hole, e.g., Wonder-gat, a term applied to a sink-hole in limestone formation.
Cyfergat, a spot from which water trickles ; a ‘ soak.’
Gouph (pronounced ‘ Coop ’)—

A ee word, meaning ‘as dry as can be,’ applied to a portion of the Western
arroo.

TTeuvel—
A height or elevation, generally of small magnitude, e.7., Klipheuvel.

IToek—

(i) The area enclosed by a bend in a river.
(ii) The upper end of a valley shut in by mountains.

LHolte—

A hollow or depression.
Hoogte —

A height or elevation generally of greater magnitude than a ‘ heuvel.’
Karroo—

A Bushman word Kéri, or G'dru%, meaning ‘ dry as a bone,’ applied to country like
the central portion of Cape Colony (geologically or botanically).

Kastrel (literally Castle)—
A high peak or ridge, ¢.y., Riebeck’s Kastrel.

ON 'TOPOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL TERMS USED IN S. AFRICA, 295

Kloof—

A gorge.
Knoppie—

A little hill or knob.
Kolk—

A very small flat or depression with a calcareous surface (name probably derived
from Kalk = limestone).

Kom—
A basin-shaped hollow.
Kop, diminutive Kopje—

A peak or little hill (literally head), e.g., Zwartkopje, Witkopje; hence Tafelkopje,
a flat-topped or table-mountain type of hill; Spitzkop, a sharply pointed
type of hill.

Kopjes Veld—
A track of country characterised by numerous little hills.
Kraai—

An enclosure for cattle or goats, also a native home or village ; ¢.g., Makapans-
kraal.

Krons or Kranz (often incorrectly written Arantz)—

The feature made by a hard rock in a precipice.
The precipitous face of an escarpment ; e.g., Kranskop, Kransberg.

Kuil—
A shallow valley or depression.
Laagte—
A very shallow valley in which the course of the drainage is ill-defined.
Mond—
Mouth (of a river).
Murur—
A wall or barrier.

Naauwte—

A narrow portion of a valley or constriction along a gorge.
Nek—

A high-level gap or pass in a range of hills, e.g., Commando Nek, in the
Magaliesberg.

Oog—

The ‘eye’ of a river, usually applied to the spring feeding a river, ¢.7., in lime-
stone areas.

Pan—

A depression below the general level of the country, and into which the drainage
is directed.

Panneveld—

Country characterised by numerous pans,

294 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Plaat—

A wide surface of bare rock, ¢.g., of granite, e.g., Klipplaat.
Plat Kop—

A flat-topped hill or mountain.

Pont—
A ferry ; e.g., Lindeque’s Pont, on the Vaal River.

Poort—

A low gap or short narrow gorge intersecting a range of hills=‘ water-gap ’ of
American geologists (lit. gate); ¢.g., Krokodilpoort, Komati Poort, &c.

Portje—
A little poort.
Put or Puts—
A pit or well.
Puut—
(i) A point on the coast, or (ii) a spur of a mountain.

Rand—
A ridge or steep escarpment, generally of no great elevation, ¢.g., Rooirand
(red ridge), Boschrand, Gatsrand, Witwatersrand (hence ‘The Rand’),
&e.
Randje—
The diminutive of Rand.
Rug, plural Ruggen—

A ridge or series of ridges. The ‘ Ruggens,’ a very rugged and mountainous
track in Cape Colony.

Slurt—

A ditch or water-furrow.
Spitz Kop—

A pointed or conical kill.
Spruit —

A small river or rivulet.

Strand—
A beach or strand.

Tafelberg or Tafelkop—
A table-topped mountain.

Toren—
A tower (applied to a pointed hill), ¢.g., Babylon’s Toren.

Veld (incorrectly Veldt)—

Open uncultivated country—
Bush veld (D., Boschveld), bush country. Sometimes called Low veld.
High veld (D., Hoogeveld), high plateaux, about 5,000 to 6,000 feet above
sea-level.
Middle veld (D., Middelveld). The intermediate mixed country, between
High and Low veld,

ON TOPOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL TERMS USED IN S§. AFRICA, 295

Viakte—

‘ Flats,’ a wide tract of flat country or plain.
Viex (often spelled Vallei or Valley)—

A flat track of country or area of gentle slope which is periodically subjected to
flooding ; a wide pan of inconsiderable depth.

Vloer—

A ‘floor.’ This term has much the same meaning as Viei.
Waterval—

Waterfall,

Cuass II.—Names of Rocks and Minerals.
Amandel Klip (almond-rock)—
Amygdaloidal lava.
Bacon-rock—

A term used by Barberton miners to denote the reddish cherty or jaspery variety
of the banded ferruginous quartzite.

Banket—

A term applied to the Witwatersrand conglomerates on account of a supposed
resemblance to an almond ‘cake’ made by the Boers.

Bantom—

A term used by alluvial diamond diggers to designate striped or banded
pebbles (magnetite-quartzite or slate, or magnetite-jasper rocks).

Bar—

A term used by miners to denote a conspicuous band or seam of rock, dis-
tinguished by some character such as hardness or colour, e.g., Red Bar.

Blaauw-grond (blue ground), Kimberlite—

The unoxidised portion of the filling of the diamond pipes.
Blue Ground. See Blaauw-grond.
Boyisman’s Klip (bushman’s rock)—

A term applied to the Dwyka of Southern Cape Colony owing to the jagged
character of its weathered surface.

Calico-rock—

A term formerly used by the Marabastad miners for a banded magnetite
quartzite, usually in alternating black and white bands.

Drip Kalk (drip-limestone)—
Stalactitic material,
Float—
A term used by miners for surface fragmentis—drift, rock not in situ.

Floating Reef—

A term used by diamond miners for the masses of the ‘ country,’ or foreign rock
occurring in a diamond pipe.

Gruis—
Shale, mudstone, or soft variety of Dwyka,

296 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Haar Klip (thread-rock)-—

‘ Crocidolite’ or asbestos.
Hardibank—
A term used by diamond miners for a hard compact variety of ‘ blue-ground
very resistant to weathering.
Ijzxer Klip (ironstone)—
Applied most commonly to igneous rocks such as dolerite and diabase,
Kalksteen—
Limestone.
Klip—
A stone, or rock.
Olifant’s Klip (elephant’s hide rock)—
Name given to the Dolomite formation owing to its mode of weathering.
Ou-Klip ov Oude-Klip (old rock)—
A secondary limonitic surface-deposit, a kind of laterite.
Turf—
A heavy black clayey soil or loam, very common in low-lying areas, overlying
basic igneous rocks.
Vuursteen Klip (firestone rock)—
Quartz, chert, flint, or very fine-grained quarizite,
Yellow Ground—

A term used by diamond miners for weathered, decomposed, or oxidised ‘ blue
ground’ in the diamond pipes.

Investigation of the Fossiliferous Drift Deposits at Nirmington, Lincoln-
shire, and at various localities in the East Riding of Yorkshire.—
Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. W. LAMPLUGH
(Chairman), Mr. J. W. STATHER (Secretary), Dr. Tempest ANDER-
son, Professor J. W. Carr, Rev. W. Lower Carter, Dr. A. R.
DwerryHousk, Mr. F. W. Harmer, Mr. J. H. Howarrn, Rev.
W. Jounson, Professor P. F. KENDALL, and Messrs. G. W. B.
Macturk, E. 'T. Newron, H. M. PLarnaver, CLEMENT REID, and
THoMAS SHEPPARD, (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Ir was the intention of the Committee to have completed the work at
Bielsbeck during the present summer, but owing to the field being under
corn-crop further excavation was impracticable till after the harvest. No
results therefore can be obtained before the date of the meeting, but the
work will be carried on immediately after the coming harvest, and it is
hoped that the final report of the Committee will be in readiness before
the next meeting.

The Committee ask for reappointment and for power to expend the
balance of the grant. ;

INDEX GENERUM ET SPECIERUM ANIMALIUM, 297

Index Generum et Specierum Animnaliwm,—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. HENRY Woopwarp (Chairman), Dr. F. A. BATHER
(Secretary), Dr. P. L. Scuater, Rev, T. R. R, Stessine, Dr. W.
Ki, HoyLe, Hon. WALTER RoruscuHiLp, and Lord WALSINGHAM,.

Steady progress has been made with the indexing of the literature for
the second portion of this Index (1801-1850). Among numerous works
dealt with, the compiler, Mr. C. Davies Sherborn, specially mentions the
following :—

Boisduval’s works on Lepidoptera.

Publications of the Bologna Academy,

Bonaparte’s numerous tracts and his ‘Conspectus Generum Avium.’
Publications of the Bonn Natural History Society.

Publications of the Bordeaux Linnean Society.

Roret’s edition of the ‘Suites a Buffon.’

The number of index-slips increases with great rapidity, and con-
tinual effort is needed to keep this mass of material in order for reference.
The slips already arranged constitute a mine of information for mono-
graphers and others. They are preserved in the Geological Department
of the British Museum (Natural History), where reference is frequently
made to them by members of the staff and outside workers, while infor-
mation derived from them is often asked for by correspondents at a dis-
tance. The Committee would, however, be glad to see still more
advantage taken of the facilities now offered for the consultation of this
valuable aid to systematic work.

A copy of the first volume of the ‘Index’ is being shown in the
Science Hall of the Franco-British Exhibition.

The Committee ask for reappointment, and earnestly hope that the
full sum of 100/. will be granted towards the continued preparation of
the ‘Index Animalium.’

Oceupution of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor S. J. Hicxson (Chairman), Rev.
T. R. R. Stessine (Secretary), Professors Sir E. Ray LANKESTER,
A. SEDGwick, and W. C. McIntosu, and Mr. G. P. Bipper.

Tux Committee report that the British Association table at the Zoological
Station at Naples was occupied for ten months during the past session by
Mr. Richard H. Whitehouse, B.Sc., of the University of Birmingham,
and by Mr. C. C. Dobell, B.A., of the University of Cambridge. A short
statement of the investigations they conducted at the station is given in
their reports to the Committee given below. The Committee ask to be
reappointed, with a grant of 100/.

Report of Mr. Ricuarp H. Wurrenouse.

I occupied the table at the Naples Zoological Station for a period of
six months (November 1907-May 1908). During the whole of the time

298 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

I was occupied in investigating the caudal fin of Teleostean fishes. I
obtained about ninety species of fish in all, the majority of which were
supplied in plenty. It is my intention to work out the whole of the
collection as soon as possible in Birmingham. I fully anticipate that the
results of the work will be of considerable value in this particular branch
of study.

Report of Mr. C. C. DoBE.t.

IT have occupied the British Association table for four months this
year—from March to June. During this time I have been chiefly engaged
in studying the life-history of the Sporozoan parasites, which live alter-
nately in Cephalopods and Crabs. (The parasites are those now usually
known under the name of Aggregata.) In addition to studying the living
animals in both hosts, I have been able to preserve satisfactorily a con-
siderable amount of suitable material, so as to be able to further the work
after leaving Naples.

Besides investigating the Sporozoan parasites J have also been able to
carry out some researches upon the Infusoria (Chromidina and Opalin-
opsis) in the liver and kidneys of the cuttle-fish. I have succeeded,
I believe, in arriving at a correct interpretation of the chromatin in
these forms.

In addition, I have spent a part of my time in working upon the
life-histories of the parasitic protists in Aricia fetida and in Lacerta
murals,

Experiments in Inheritance.—Interim Report of the Commnuttee, consist-
ing of Professor W. A. HeErpMAN (Chairman), Mr. Dovcuas
Laurig (Secretary), Mr. R. C. Punnett, and Dr. H. W. Marretr

. Tims. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

On the Inheritance of Yellow Coat Colour in Mice.

Reasons for this Research.—The primary reason for this research is
the unexpected result obtained by Cuénot on cross-breeding yellow mice
with mice of other colours. On mating a yellow mouse with one that
was grey, black, or chocolate Cuénot always found yellowness to act as
« heterozygous Mendelian dominant to the other colour. When yellow
F, hybrids so produced were intercrossed they gave an F,. generation
much in accord with expectation, being composed roughly of three
yellows to one recessive. It is the gametic constitution of these extracted
yellows which gives cause for surprise, and which is the essential point of
importance. Eighty-one of them were tested by breeding, and it was to
be expected that of these twenty-seven or so would be homozygous for
yellowness, but not even one fulfilled the conditions of Mendelian purity.
‘Or, 4 mon grand étonnement,’ says Cuénot, ‘ je n’en ai pas trouvé une
seule ; les quatre-vingt-un souris étaient toutes également hétérozygotes.’ !

This important and interesting result has attracted explainers of
different schools. Morgan*® makes it a text for emphasising his views
about ‘contamination.’ Purity, in the Mendelian sense, he denies,

' Arch. Zool. Exp. (4), tom. iii., Notes et Revue, p. cxxix, 1905,
? Science, n.s., vol. xxii, pp, 877-879,

ON EXPERIMENTS IN INHERITANCE. 299

‘Purity,’ he says, ‘is dominance over latency.’ Cuénot, on the other
hand, supported by Wilson and favoured by Lock, suggests that pure
yellow-bearing germ-cells of both kinds are indeed formed by heterozygous
yellow mice, but that there is a selective fertilisation ; so that a yellow-
bearing ovum and a yellow-bearing sperm are either mutually repellent
or mutually sterile, though capable of fertile union with germ-cells bearing
other colours. Or it may be that yellow is due to the association of
several factors, as appears to be the case in certain colours of sweet peas
investigated by Bateson, Saunders, and Punnett, and reported on by
them to the Royal Society. Castle, discussing various alternatives,
commits himself to none.
Further experiments are evidently most desirable.

Objects of the Research.—This brings me to the more precise aims of
the present investigation, which are :—

(a) To repeat Cuénot’s experiment with another strain of yellow
mice.

(6) To test analytically, by as many different kinds of matings as
possible, the gametic constitution of a series of yellow mice.

(c) To endeavour to produce a race of homozygous yellow mice.

Progress of the Research [at present im wnitial stage].—With the
above objects I obtained, during December 1907, certain mice from
sundry fanciers. These comprised (A) yellow mice, (B) mice of other
colours to cross with the yellows.

(A) The yellow mice were three clear yellows (Castle’s terminology),
of which one was a male and the other two females, these mice are of an
orange-yellow colour, their hairs containing yellow pigment only ; there
are also two yellows, which contained, in addition, a good deal of
chocolate pigment associated with the yellow (Castle’s sooty yellow) ; these
I call chocolate yellow. I use the term sooty yellow to include all mice
which, commencing life -yellow, develop in their hairs later any other
colour or colours in addition to the yellow. It will be convenient to
follow the line of descent from a pair of the clear yellows. Clear yellow
g No. 15 mated with clear yellow 918 gave an F, generation of one
clear yellow ($45) and three blacks. Of this F, generation the clear
yellow member mated with a chocolate gave two clear yellows and three
blacks ; this seems to imply that it contains black recessive. The same
mouse (645) mated with a blue gave three yellow youngsters (of which
one grew to a clear yellow adult, while the other two developed a con-
siderable quantity of dark pigment, producing a blue colour associated
with the yellow) and two blues ; this seems to imply that it contains blue
recessive. That is to say, 645 seems to contain both black and blue in
the recessive condition. The black was probably derived through the
father, $15, since a black youngster resulted from a mating of the latter
with a sooty yellow (#44) which had been shown to contain recessive
chocolate. The source of the blue is not so clear ; it is of course possible
that it depends upon the presence or absence of a ‘diluting’ factor, blue
being, as pointed out by Bateson, a diluted form of black.

Returning to $15 and 9218, the clear yellow commencers of this
pedigree, it may be noted-that 218 has not littered further. Additional
matings of ¢15 are;

(i.) With clear yellow 219, giving two yellows in which much dark
pigment developed in the adult, producing in one of them a considerable

300 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

vesemublance to a wild grey. No mice of other colours appeared in this
litter, but the number of young is too small to permit the conclusion that
the female parent is homozygous for yellow.

(ii.) With a chocolate yellow, giving two yellows (colour of young)
and one black.

(iii.) With another chocolate yellow (944) giving four yellows (of
which one died before adult condition was determinable and the other
three developed dark pigment) and one black.

Including the various kinds of yellows under one category, and
summarising the results of matings involving yellow mice, I find that,
so far, no yellow mice have certainly proved homozygous ; that the result
of mating yellow with yellow has been to give nine yellows and five of
the recessive colour (black) ; and that matings of yellow with another
colour have given twelve yellows and eight of the recessive colour.

(B) In addition to the yellow mice I obtained mice of other colours,
of which pure races are necessary in order to test at all adequately the
gametic constitution of the yellows.

(a) Chocolate mice.—These are particularly useful for testing pur-
poses, as their colour is recessive to all others. Some chocolate mice
were therefore obtained from various fanciers and tested. In all cases
only chocolate has resulted from mating chocolate with chocolate. A
large number of chocolate mice is desirable.

(6) A pair of blues were obtained from a fancier, and when mated
together gave seven youngsters, all blues. Various blues have also
appeared in mating black with black.

(c) Some blacks also were bought. Some of these were found to
contain blue recessive ; by appropriate breeding a race has been obtained
which promises to breed true to blackness. An interesting result of
mating black with black has occurred in one instance—the pair in
question giving three youngsters which at sixteen days old are one of
them black, one blue, and one chocolate ; the matter is being investigated
further.

(d) For greys I am using wild house mice. I shall also endeavour to
obtain a true-breeding extracted race,

I refrain from discussing these initial results in detail -until more
material is to hand, as this would require an undesirable degree of
speculation. For the present it is sufficient to point out —

1. That five of the six yellow mice which have so far been mated have
proved to be heterozygous in respect of coat colour, in accord with
Cuénot’s result. The exceptional case of 9 19 is considered in section (i.)
above,

2. There is nothing to contradict the order of dominance of the
various colours as found by other investigators. In particular yellow
is dominant to all other colours.

3. The occurrence of black, blue, and chocolate in one litter from
a mating of black with black. Also the apparent presence in the
recessive condition of both black and blue in $45 yellow.

4, The advisability of further classification of the various adult forms
included under the term ‘ yellow,’ and whose first coat is light yellow.

It will be seen that the experiments are at present in an initial
stage—that the interesting stage is just being reached. Thus the
clear yellow mice are in the third generation; pure races (so far as
tested) of chocolate, blue, black, and grey have been obtained for

ON EXPERIMENTS IN INHERITANCE. 301

mating with the yellows, and such matings should have commenced
before this interim report is in print. The problem upon which it is
sought to throw light will, I think, be recognised as one of importance
in regard to the theory of heredity, and I anticipate that the present
inquiry will lead to valuable results: that is to say, apart from any
other points that may be raised, it will be of equal value either to
confirm Cuénot’s results or to obtain results different from his, and there
is every prospect of one or other of these alternatives being fulfilled.

The Committee in submitting the above report desire to draw atten-
tion to the importance of enabling Mr. Laurie to continue his investiga-
tions. The amount granted last year has proved inadequate to meet the
necessary expenses, and therefore they now apply to be reappointed with
an increased grant,

APPENDIX.

Matings involving Yellow Mice.

Parents F, yellow PF, Pope
a) Clear yellow g No. 15 x clear yellow ? No.1S= 1 3 blacks
g a 3 No. 15 x 5 OY Nowlo = 2 —
= E + od No. 15 x choc. yellow 9 No. 44= 4 1 black
ae a5 3 No. 15 x ij 9 No. 43 = 2 1 black
op = ==
~~
3 9 5
eS Clear yellow $ No. 45 x chocolate 9No.41= 2 3 blacks
8 ,: | Chocolate ¢ No. 39 x choc. yellow 2? No. 44= 5 1 chocolate
3 zB Clear yellow 3 No. 45 x blue 9 No. 388= 8 2 blues
3 | Black 6 No. 47 x choc. yellow 2 No.43 = 2 2 blacks
qh — a
° 12 8

Lhe Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.—Bighteenth Leport of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Dr. F. Du Canr Gopman ( Chairman), Mr.
Davin SHARP (Secretary), Professor S. J. Hickson, Dr. ). L,
ScLaTEr, and Mr. Evaar A. Snrru.

In December 1907 a part of the ‘Fauna Hawaiiensis,’ by Lord Walsing.
ham, was published. It includes descriptions and figures of about four
hundred new species of Lepidoptera. Another part of the ‘ Fauna’ is at
present in the press. It deals with Coleoptera, the authors being the
‘Secretary and Mr. Hugh Scott. Dr. R. C. L. Perkins is preparing another
part devoted to Coleoptera, and it is hoped that the work will be corapleted
in about a year.
The Committee ask for reappointment without a grant.

302 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

_

The Fauna of the Lakes of Central Tasmania.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor G. C. BouRNE (Chatman), Mr.
J. J. Lister (Secretary), and Sir HE. Ray LANKESTER, appointed
to assist Mr. G. W. Smira to proceed to Tusmania to study the
Anatomy and Development of Anaspides, and to imvestigate the
Fauna of the Lakes of Central Tasmania.

Tue Committee have received the following report from Mr. G. W.
Smith :—

The expenses of this expedition were defrayed partly by a grant of
40]. from the British Association, and partly by Professor G. C. Bourne,
while New College, Oxford, by granting me leave of absence while hold-
ing a fellowship, made it possible for me to go.

The expedition was undertaken at the suggestion of Professor G. C.
Bourne for the purpose of studying the freshwater fauna of Tasmania,
and especially Anaspides tasmanie, the peculiar mountain shrimp only
known to occur in one or two localities in Tasmania.

On arriving in Hobart at the end of September I made arrangements
for living at a small chalet near the top of Mount Wellington, and by
inquiring from the settlers in the neighbourhood and from Mr. Rodway,
the original discoverer of Anaspides, I found out the chief localities where
the mountain shrimp occurred. The locality where they were most
abundant was in the pools of the upper reaches of the North-West Bay
River, which rises near the top of Mount Wellington, about two hours’
walk from the chalet where I was staying. I spent altogether six weeks
on the mountain observing the habits of the animal in its natural state
and making as accurate observations as possible on its anatomy. It was
also possible to establish that the female deposits her eggs immediately
after fertilisation, and that there is no complicated metamorphosis. The
result of these observations, the main points of which are published in
the ‘Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ June 24, 1908, is to vindicate the
Anaspidacea as a primitive and separate order of the Malacostrea,
showing affinities to several other orders, especially the Mysidacea and
Decapoda, with many peculiar characters of its own. During my stay
on the mountain I collected a number of other freshwater Crustacea,
especially Amphipods of the genus Neoniphagus, the Isopodan genus
Phreatoicus, and Astacopsis. I also made a study of the birds and
obtained specimens of the characteristic kinds, while, with the help of
Mr. Rodway, I became acquainted with the more interesting features in
the flora.

Several expeditions were also made during this period, one to the
tarns in the Harz mountains, where Anaspides was again met with, and a
sollection of the Entomostraca, &c., made, and another to Brunij Island
with a camping party from Hobart, where some freshwater lagoons were
investigated.

During Christmas week a camping expedition was arranged on Ben
Lomond, a mountain in the,north of the island, on the top of which are
several small tarns, and the freshwater fauna of these, including various
Entomostraca and Amphipoda, was collected. January was devoted to
the lake district on the central highland plateau of the island. Two

ON THE FAUNA OF THE LAKES OF CENTRAL TASMANIA, 303

weeks were spent at the Great Lake, which proved to contain a very
rich and interesting Crustacean fauna, In this lake a new genus and
species of the Anaspidacea (Paranaspides lacustris) was discovered in some
abundance living in the littoral zone. This species differs from Anaspides
tasmanie in a number of characters correlated with its more active
swimming powers ; thus the body is transparent and sharply flexed, and
the telson, uropods, and antennary scale greatly enlarged. Living with
Paranaspides were three species of Phreatoicus, two of them hitherto
undescribed, and a number of Amphipods, including the genus Chiltonia,
which shows atlinities to the South American Hyalella. Besides these
a collection was made of the Entomostraca, Flat Worms and Molluscs.
During my stay at the Great Lake I added several species to my col-
lection of birds, and obtained some specimens of Hechidna, Platypus,
Dasywrus, and other Marsupiais. From the Great Lake I made an expe-
dition across country for about sixty miles, in a spring cart with two
horses and a guide, to Lake St. Clair, the westernmost of the lakes and
an exceedingly deep one, in places reaching down to ninety fathoms. As
the tracts were either non-existent or else exceedingly rough, it took us
two days to reach the lake. Dredging and tow-netting was carried on in
the lake for two days, and some interesting Entomostraca and a few
Worms were obtained, but on the whole the waters of the lake were very
lifeless compared to the Great Lake.

On the way back a different route was taken, and the railway was
reached at Apsley after three days’ driving. One other lake was investi-
gated afterwards, namely, Lake Sorell, and a collection made, especially
of its Crustacean fauna, which differed considerably from that of the
other lakes.

These collections are now being worked out, but the work has not yet
reached a suttciently advanced stage to report on any general results,
though it is evident that the material will throw some light on problems
of geographical distribution.

Besides several smaller expeditions to freshwater localities in .the
neighbourhood of Hobart and in the Midlands, I stayed for several days
at Bridport, on the north-east coast, to collect specimens of the native
freshwater tish, Gadopsis, Aphritis, &c., and also the huge Astacopsis,
which in this district attains enormous dimensions. Some of the
specimens obtained weighed over 6 1b., and were considerably over a foot
in length.

At the end of February I went on to the west coast, and stayed in
some of the mining districts, my object being to see the evergreen beach
forests, which here almost entirely replace the gums, and to study, as
far as possible, the fauna and flora and see something of the physical
conditions.

Towards the end of March, I went to Melbourne and also to Sydney,
and obtained from Professors Spencer and Haswell the loan of a large
collection of undescribed Australian Crayfishes, affording material for a
memoir on this little-known group.

As a result of the expedition I propose preparing the following for
publication ;—

1, A book entitled ‘A Naturalist’s Impressions of Tasmania.’ Accepted
by the Clarendon Press.

2. ‘Preliminary Account of the Habits and Structure of the
Anaspidiide,’ Published ‘Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond.,’ 1908.

304: REPORTS ON THE STATE OF ‘SCIENCE:

3. ‘A Monograph of the Anaspidacea.’ For the ‘Quarterly Journal
of Microscopical Science.’

4. ‘The Freshwater Crustacea of Tasmania.’ In the ‘Trans. Linn.
Soc. London.’

5, ‘A Memoir on the Australian and Tasmanian Crayfishes.’

Occupation of a Table at the Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.—Report of
the Cominittee, consisting of Professor A. DENDY (Chairman and
Secretary), Sir E, Ray LanKester, Professor A. SEDGWICK, and
Professor SypNEY H. VINEs.

Since the date of our last report, the British Association’s table at the
Plymouth Marine Laboratory has been occupied as follows :—

July 22 to August 1, 1907.—By Mr. C. H. O'Donoghue, who was
engaged in collecting and preserving Hydrozoa for subsequent exami-
nation.

August 15-25, 1907.—By Mr. F. J. Bridgman, engaged in investi-
gating the histology of calcareous sponges, &c., and in obtaining material
for future work.

April 9-21, 1908.—By Miss H. L. M. Pixell, who was working at
the physiology of digestion in elasmobranchs.

April 21 to May 4, 1908.—By Mr. F. J. Bridgman, for the investi-
gation of special points in the histology of Grantia compressa.

Experiments on the Development of the Frog.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor G. C. BouRNE (Chairman), Dr.
J. W. Jenkinson (Secretary), and Professor 8. J. Hickson.
(Drawn wp by the Seeretary.)

Tur Committee report that the statistical investigation into the
relation between the spermpath and the plane of symmetry and the
spermpath and the first furrow in the frog’s egg is now approaching
completion. Details cannot be given at present, but it is expected that
a paper will be presented to the Section at the Dublin meeting.

Next year it is proposed to carry out an investigation into the
alteration that takes place, during the development of the embryo, in
the magnitude of the index of variability and the coefficients of corre-
lation between various organs. The trout is a suitable form for the
purpose, and may readily be obtained from a hatchery in the neighbour-
hood of Oxford. Some pecuniary assistance will, however, be necessary,
and the Committee ask that the grant, which has been in abeyance
during the past year, may be renewed.

ON INVESTIGATIONS IN THE INDIAN OCEAN. 305

Investigations in the Indian Ocean.—Third Report of the Committee,
consisting of Sir JOHN Murray (Chairman), Mr. J. STANLEY
GARDINER (Secretary), Captain E. W. Creax, Professors W. A.
Herpman, 8. J. Hickson, and J. W. Jupp, Mr. J. J. LisrEr, Dr.
H.R. Mit1, and Dr. D. Sarr, appointed to carry on an Expedition
to investigate the Indian Ocean between India and South Africa in
view of a possible land connection, to examine the deep submerged
banks, the Nazareth and Saya de Malha, and also the distribution
of marine animals.

Tue Committee have received the following communication from Mr.
J. Stanley Gardiner, who has had charge of the work :—

‘T am now (June 29) en route to the Seychelles for the further
prosecution of our researches. I expect to be there for twelve weeks,
working mainly at the physical conditions of Mahé and Silhouette, two
of the larger islands, which were scarcely examined during my last visit.
I am accompanied by Mr. Hugh Scott and Mr. J. C. F. Fryer, both
young Cambridge zoologists. Mr. Scott will devote himself to the
entomology of the Seychelles, probably remaining in the group for at
least six months. Mr. Fryer is to proceed to Aldabra, a ring-shaped
island of some 45,000 acres, famous for its large land tortoises and
peculiar birds, about 700 miles to the south by west of the Seychelles.
Here he will remain for at least three months, investigating it in all its
aspects, geographical, zoological, and botanical. He will also probably
visit other islands under the Colonial Government, returning early in
1909. In the Seychelles I am promised the assistance of Mr. H. P.
Thomasset, with whom I hope to collaborate in collecting the jungle
floras of Silhouette and Mahé.

‘ During the present year three parts of volume i., ‘‘ Transactions of
the Linnean Society,” of the results of the expedition of 1905 have been
published. They contain the following papers :-—Description of the
Expedition, Parts I. and II. (J. Stanley Gardiner and C. Forster
Cooper) ; On an Arboricolous Nemertean from the Seychelles (R. C.
Punnett) ; Land and Freshwater Decapoda (L. A. Borradaile) ; Hymeno-
ptera (P. Cameron) ; Odonata (F. F. Laidlaw) ; Fourmis des Seychelles,
Amirantes, Farquhar et Chagos (Professor A. Forel), Pycnogonida
(George H. Carpenter) ; Aves, with some Notes on the Distribution of
the Land Birds of the Seychelles (H, Gadow and J. Stanley Gardiner) ;
The Lithothamnia (M. Foslie) ; Note sur les Ixodidz (Professor L. G.
Neumann) ; Notes on the Coccide (EK. Ernest Green) ; Stomatopoda from
the Western Indian Ocean (L. A. Borradaile) ; and Pisces (C. Tate Regan).

‘Reports have also been read at the Linnean Society on the Reptilia,
Amphibia, and Freshwater Fish (G. A. Boulenger) ; The Antipatharia
(C. Forster Cooper) ; The Gammaridea (A. O. Walker); Part of the
Green Alge (Mr. and Mrs. Gepp); The Stylasteride (Professor S. J.
Hickson) ; Some Families of the Chetopoda (C. H. Potts) ; The Marine
Nemerteans (R. C. Punnett and C. Forster Cooper); and the Madre-
poraria Fungide (J. Stanley Gardiner),’

1908. x

396 REPORTS ON THE STATE Of SCIENCE.

The Exploration of Prince Charles Foreland, Spitsbergen.—Report of
the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. G. CHIsHoLM (Chairman),
Dr. W. 8S. Bruce (Secretary), and Major W. L. Forses, (Drawn
up by the Secretary.)

Tue period of the work in the field was during July, August, and part
of September in 1906, and during June, July, August, and September
1907. The persons assisting the author in the work during 1906
were Mr. E. A. Miller and Piper Gilbert Kerr; and during 1907,
Mr. Stewart Ross, M.A., Mr. J. V. Burn Murdoch, Piper Gilbert Kerr,
and Lieut. H. Johansen.

The work done was the topographical survey of the island by means
of theodolite, sextant, compass, plane-table, &c.; and determining, as
far as time and opportunity allowed, the geological features of the
Foreland, and investigating the zoology, botany, and meteorology.
The chief object was, however, the topographical survey, and other
work was sacrificed to make this the more thorough. The result is
the map I am able to lay before you now, on a scale of 1 : 100,000.
It will be seen that practically the whole of the west coast is now
accurately charted, and a very considerable part of the east coast ; in
fact, the only parts not thoroughly surveyed are small portions of the
east coast between Murray Ness and Ferrier Haven, and between Ferrier
Haven and Point Poole ; the coast line of the south end of the island is
also imperfect.

Practically the whole of the interior is mapped with minute accuracy,
the position and altitude of the hills known, as well as their bases.
Some parts—as, for instance, the vicinity of both the base camps of 1906
and 1907—can be accurately mapped on a scale of 1 : 10,000.

Prince Charles Foreland is about 49 miles long, varies from
24 to 74 miles in width, and has an area of about 271 square
miles. It may be divided into three parts: a northern, mountainous
part, extending from the north end 35 miles southward; then a
very low-lying portion; and finally, another smaller hilly part, the
south end. In a central part of the northern mountainous part
the mountains have an elevation of over 3,000 feet, culminating
in Mount Monaco (3,490 feet), and Mount Jessie (3,250 feet). This
mountainous part is traversed by several cols and glens which connect
the west and the east coast. The whole of the eastern slopes of the
highest mountains are heavily glaciated, and several dead glaciers pass
westward as minor branches. Between the foot of the mountains, which
are more precipitous on the west, and the sea is a low-lying stretch of
land from half a mile to two miles in width—a series of raised beaches—
along which, on the west coast, one can travel for the whole length of
the island. Similar beaches occur on the east coast. Nowhere do the
mountains come right down to the sea except at Vogel Hook and Cape
Sietoe. There are innumerable small rivers, only a few of which may
at times be troublesome to cross. In the low land and in the glens and
corries are many tarns and small lakes, many of which are typical rock
basins. The low-lying part of the Foreland which cuts off the southern
group of hills. viz. the Ross Heights from the northern mountain range ~
is country similar to the low-lying land in Morayshire, Scotland, and has
therefore been called Foreland Laichs.

ON THE EXPLORATION OF PRINCE CHARLES FORELAND. 307

Geology.—The rocks of Prince Charles Foreland consist, first, of
a series of metamorphic crystalline schists, together with white and
reddish quartzites, possibly connected, as regards age, with some fine
earthy, laminated dark shales, in which we found no fossils. A hard
grey limestone, having a weathered rough surface, may also possibly
belong to this older series. Secondly, fossiliferous limestone, the fossils
obtained from which have been carefully examined by Dr. G. W. Lee,
of the Geological Survey of Scotland. Thirdly, flags of grey shale,
containing the remains of dicotyledonous plants of Tertiary age, which
Dr. Nathorst has been kind enough to examine and determine. The
fossiliferous limestone has proved highly interesting, the fossils belonging
to some horizon of the Carboniferous system, or possibly the Permo-carbo-
niferous, whilst the others are Permian.

Fauna.—The mammals associated with Prince Charles Foreland and
its seas are the Greenland, finner, bottlenose, and white whales ; the
Greenland whale being very scarce. The walrus was not seen by the
Scottish Expedition; the only seals seen were Phoca barbata and
fetida in small numbers. On the land Ursus maritimus bones and fresh
footprints only were seen, and two reindeer in 1906; there are many blue
and arctic foxes.

Of the birds there are twenty-eight species, the most notable being
Xema Sabinu, Pagophilia eburnea, Colymbus glacialis, Alca torda,
Calidris arenaria (breeding), and Somateria spectabilis.

lora,—There are fifty-five species of phanerogams, one fern, one
equisetum, one lycopod, nineteen mosses, and four liverworts. Mr. R. N.
Rudmose Brown points out that the flora is a purely European one.

Climate,—The temperature is high for so high an altitude, doubtless
on account of the warm and open sea to the westward, which is mostly
free of ice for four to six months. A dense canopy of clouds almost
continuously covers the mountain tops, and often comes as low down as
100 feet from sea level, and not infrequently to sea level. Prince Charles
Foreland bears the brunt of the westerly weather and protects parts of
the mainland to the east, which consequently are blessed with far more
sunshine and less cloud.

The interest of this survey lies in the fact that Prince Charles
Foreland has been known for more than three hundred years, and has
never been surveyed. Its uncharted coast has been a difficulty and
danger to navigators especially on account of prevailingly foggy, and often
windy, weather. The quantity of material from shipwrecks on the
island tells a vivid tale of the past. These are sufficient reasons to
account for the island not having been surveyed previously, as one often
has to wait days, and not infrequently weeks, on account of rain and
snow, wind and fog, without doing anything. The country is very rough
for travelling over, which adds another obstacle. Captains, being timid
of its reefy and unknown coast, keep a wide berth, and this makes landing
and leaving difficuit. The survey of the seas around this island is the
next important part of the work, as well as the further study of the
geology, botany, and natural history of the island and seas adjacent.

x 2

308 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

The Investigation of the Oscillations of the Level of the Land in the
Mediterranean Basin.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Mr. D. G. Hocarta (Chairman), Mr. R. T. GUNTHER (Secretary),
and Drs. T. G. Bonney, F. H. GuiLemarp, J. 8, KELTIE, and
H. R. MIL.

Tue Committee have received the following report from Mr. R. T.
Gunther :—

1. I left England for South Italy in June 1907, and returned from
Naples early in October 1907.

2. The principal objects of investigation were the indications of local
alterations of the land level of the west coast of Italy beyond the
limits of the Bay of Naples. Incidentally, however, the opportunity
was taken to confirm past observations and to estimate with greater
accuracy than heretofore the relation of the present mean sea level to
certain marks upon the columns of the Temple of Serapis at Pozzuoli.

3. The localities examined included every rocky headland and beach
of importance hetween Reggio di Calabria and Pestum. Measurements
of alterations of level of especial value were obtained at or near Palmi
and Gioja Tauro, at Tropea, at Pizzo Amantea, Diamante, Praia, Sapri,
Pisciotta, and elsewhere. To the north of Naples indications of post-
Roman changes of land level were obtained at Formia, Gaeta, Sperlonga,
Terracina, and Monte Circeo.

4, Although I still hope to be able to visit Italy before publishing the
results of the investigation, it may be considered that the object for
which this Committee was appointed is accomplished.

Gaseous Explosions.—First Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir
W. H. PREECE (Chairman), Mr. DuGaLp CLERK and Professor
Bertram Hopkinson (Joint Secretaries), Professors Bonk, Bur-
STALL, CALLENDAR, CoKER, DaLBy, H. B. Dixon, HELE-SHaAw,
SMITHELLS, and W. Watson, Dr. Harker, Lieut.-Colonel HOLDEN,
Dr. PETAVEL, and Captain SANKEY, appointed for the Investigation
of Gaseous Explosions, with special reference to Temperature.

APPENDIX.—The Deviation of Actual Gases from the Ideal State and the
Experimental Brrors in the Determination of their Specific Heats. . ddd

General Scope of the Report.

To engineers the investigation of gaseous explosions is chiefly of interest
because of its bearing upon the theory of the internal combustion
engine. The Committee have hitherto considered it mainly from this
point of view, conceiving that a limited interpretation of their reference
would be necessary if their Jabours were to lead to any result within a
reasonable time, and that the limitation adopted should be determined

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 509

by the fact that the Committee was initiated by the Engineering
Section. On the other hand the work has been by no meansentirely, or
even mainly, of a practical as distinct from a purely scientific character.
Many questions of a kind that might properly engage the attention
of the Chemical and Physical Sections have been raised and discussed, and
full scope has been given to the varied skill and knowledge possessed by
the different members of the Committee, among whom, in addition to
engineers, «there are several whose interests are mainly in the direction of
pure science. The test of practical value or interest has only been
applied for the purpose of selecting from among the large number of
questions arising in connection with explosions those which are proper
subjects for investigation by this Committee, not with the idea of
limiting such investigation to the practical aspect of these questions.

Seven meetings of the Committee have been held, and they have
been excellently attended. At each meeting one or more notes written
by members of the Committee have been presented and have formed the
basis of the discussion. The following is a list of these notes :—

No.1. General Introduction . 5 é > 4 . Dugald Clerk.
No. 2. Dissociation of Steam and Carbonic Acid . . Dugald Clerk.
No. 3A. Measurements of Internal Energy of Gases up to

1400°C. 3 . B. Hopkinson.

No. 3B. Explosion Pressures as a Means of Determining
the Energy Function of Gases . : : .
No. 4. Dissociation and Specific Heat of Steam and
Carbonic Acid, and Comparison of Gas-

B. Hopkinson.

thermometers at very High Temperatures . J. A, Harker.
No. 5. The Temperature of the Walls of a Gas-engine
Cylinder E. G. Coker,

No. 6. The Deviation of Actual Gases from the Ideal
State, and the Experimental Errors in the
Determination of their Specific Heats . . HL. Callendar.

The essential feature common to the operation of all gas-engines is
the conversion of a mixture of inflammable gases, by combustion or
explosion, into a mass which consists in all practical cases of a mixture
of steam, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and excess oxygen. The per-
formance of the engine depends primarily on the change in pressure or
volume, or both, resulting from this chemical transformation, and on the
properties of the products of the transformation after they are formed.
It depends in only a secondary degree on the nature of the chemical
process and on the velocity with which it takes place. These matters,
important though they must be in any investigation of explosions and in
the theory of the gas-engine, are not of the first importance. The
foundation must be a knowledge of the properties of the gases
enumerated above at the temperatures occurring in the gas-engine—that
is, between 1000° and 2500° C. This report, therefore, consists mainly
of an analysis of the present state of knowledge on this subject, together
with suggestions as to the directions in which further research may be
undertaken with the object of advancing it. It will be found, however,
that as the mechanism and the velocity of combustion must be taken into
account as disturbing factors when applying our knowledge of the gases
in the theory of the gas-engine, so they enter into many of the experi-
ments on which that knowledge is based, and some discussion of them is
indispensable in any criticism of these experiments.

310 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Thermodynamic theory shows that the physical properties of a gas in
chemical equilibrium are completely specified when—

(1) The relation between the pressure and volume at constant tem-
perature is known, and

(2) The internal energy per unit volume is given as a function of the
temperature and the density.

The energy of a gas per unit of mass at temperature @ is usually
defined as k (@—6)), where @, is the standard temperature from which
energies are reckoned, and & the mean specific heat at constant volume
between the temperatures 6) and 6. The second of these data is there-
fore equivalent to a knowledge of the specific heat in terms of the
temperature and density. This form of statement is probably more
familiar ; but, for reasons given later on, it is in many ways less con-
venient than that based upon the energy function.

For those gases with which we have to deal it may be assumed that
the first relation is that given by Boyle’s Law. Experiment and theory
alike point to the conclusion that deviation from this law only occurs
when the density of the gas departs widely from its normal value, and
that it is diminished by high temperature. In the gas-engine the
density of the gas rarely exceeds ten times that of the atmosphere, a
point at which the deviation from Boyle’s Law in air (at 100° C.) is
only about one-half per cent.!

It is usual to make the further assumption that the product pv is
proportional to the absolute temperature 6. A detailed examination of
the grounds of this assumption forms the subject of a section of this
report. At this point it is only necessary to notice that, if it be true,
then the internal energy is a function of the temperature only, and is
independent of the density. If, on the other hand, the perfect gas-law
does not hold, then the true relation between pv and 6 can be deduced
from a knowledge of the internal energy, which is in that case a function
both of the temperature and of the density.

The properties of the gases with which we have to deal are therefore
completely defined when the energy has been tabulated as a function of
the temperature and the density. So far as the present state of know-
ledge goes the energy is to be expressed in terms of temperature only ;
but an important part of future investigation must deal with its
dependence on the density either by direct measurement or by a deter-
mination of the relation between pu and @ at high temperatures.

The prediction of the temperature reached in combustion, which
must be the starting-point of any investigation of explosions, also rests
primarily upon a knowledge of the energy function. For, subject to
corrections for loss of heat, incomplete combustion, and work done while
combustion proceeds, the thermal energy of the mixture of steam, CO,,
&c., after combustion is equal to the chemical energy of the gases from
which that mixture was formed. The latter can be accurately inferred
from the composition of the combustible gases, and, the thermal energy
being thus known, the temperature can be calculated from a table of the
energy function. The pressure or volume changes resulting from com-
bustion can be deduced from the temperature by the use of the p—v—é
relations, which again ultimately depend upon the form of the energy
function. A table of this function at high temperatures is therefore

’ See Witkowski, Phil, Mag., vol. xli, (1896), p. 309.

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS, dll

the first datum necessary for the investigations entrusted to the Com-
mittee, and is the principal subject of this report. Before proceeding to
the discussion of this physical question, however, it is well to say some-
thing further about its bearing on practical engineering problems.

The first requisite for predicting the performance of a gas-engine is to
know the rise of temperature and the consequent rise of pressure produced
by the explosion. The importance of this need not be insisted upon ; it
is not only the principal factor in the mean pressure developed, it also
determines in large measure the mechanical design of the engine and the
necessary strength of its parts. The part played by the energy function
in the calculation of this rise of pressure has been indicated in the last
paragraph. In proceeding further to analyse the indicator diagram given
by the engine with the object of accounting at each point for the heat
which has been put in, a knowledge of this function is again required.
The heat accounted for on the diagram is the work which has been done
plus the heat contained in the gas. The latter item can be calculated
from the temperature if the energy function be known. The balance
unaccounted for, which it is usually the object of such investigations
to find—whether in the steam-engine or the gas-engine—is the heat
which has been lost to the walls or has been suppressed owing to incom-
plete combustion. In fact, the internal energy of the gases at high tempera-
tures plays much the same part in the analysis of gas-engine phenomena
as does the total heat of steam in investigating the working of the steam-
engine.

Again, from a table of internal energy, it is possible to predict the
pressure changes resulting from any series of operations such as occur
in the gas-engine, one item in which is an explosion subject to certain
hypothetical conditions which cannot be realised in practice, though
they can be indefinitely approached. An ideal diagram of this
kind, corresponding to the cycle of operations which is most usual in
present-day gas-engines, can, for example, be constructed for any given
combustible mixture on the assumption that the combustion is instan-
taneous and complete at the in-centre; that there is no loss of heat
in compression, explosion, or expansion ; and that during expansion the
gases are at all times in thermal and chemical equilibrium. These con-
ditions can never be completely realised, but can in theory be approached
asymptotically by improvements in design carried on within certain defined
limits—namely, that the degree of compression and the nature of the
mixture are to be unaltered. For example, the heat loss may be reduced
by increasing the size of the engine and altering the nature of the cylinder
walls, and the attainment of thermal and chemical equilibrium may be
promoted by reducing the speed. Such an ideal cycle is, in fact, precisely
analogous to the Rankine cycle of the steam-engine, in that it takes account
of the actual physical properties of the working substance, but leaves out
of account such non-essential imperfections as heat loss to the cylinder
walls. It represents an ideal which the real engine may approach indefi-
nitely but can never attain ; and the closeness of the approach is a true
measure of the perfection of the engine.

The ideal cycle which has hitherto been used in discussing the per-
formances of gas-engines is the well-known air-cycle. This is based upon
a special assumption as to the form of the energy function—namely, that
it is a linear function of the temperature at high, as it is known to be at
low, temperatures. The specific heat of the working substance is taken

ole REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

to be constant and equal to 19 foot-pounds per cubic foot, or 4°8 calories
per gramme molecule. In the state of ignorance as to the real form of
the energy function which prevailed until quite recently, this assumption
was as good as any other, since it was impossible to say that the value of
the energy derived from it was further from the truth than any other value
which might be assigned toit. So far as was known, the differences between
the indicator diagram of a real engine and the corresponding air-cycle
diagram might have been wholly, or almost wholly, due to what have been
called above ‘non-essential imperfections’—that is, to heat loss and to
incomplete combustion. In other words, there was no conclusive evidence
that the air-cycle was not for practical purposes a true ideal cycle in the
sense defined above and equivalent to the Rankine cycle for the steam-
engine. Under these circumstances its extreme simplicity made it the
best available standard of comparison for judging the performance of a real
engine. Recent researches, however, on the properties of the gases at
high temperatures have definitely shown that the assumption of constant
specitic heat is erroneous, and have given sufficient information about
the magnitude of the error to show that it is of material importance. They
have shown that the air-cycle cannot be regarded as equivalent to the
Rankine cycle in the steam-engine, inasmuch as it does not take account
of the properties of the actual working fluid, but postulates a hypothetical
fluid which has no real existence. It is as though in the theory of the
steam-engine the total heat of the steam were to be taken as equal to its
latent heat, the sensible heat of the water being neglected. This assump-
tion would lead to a simpler formula for the ideal efficiency for the steam-
engine, but it would be erroneous in the same way and to about the same
extent as the air-cycle formula for the gas-engine.!. The closer approxi-
mation to the real cycle which is made by taking account of the actual
properties of the working fluid—in the steam-engine the total heat of
the steam instead of only the latent heat, in the gas-engine the true
value of the energy instead of that based on the assumption of constant
specific heat—though it leads to some complication of formule gives
compensating advantages of real practical value. It shows the engineer
what are the limits to the improvements which can be effected by changes
of design or increase of size, and it enables him to judge whether it is
better that the lines of development should proceed in such directions or
in the direction of radically modifying the cycle of operations.

Measurement of the Internal Energy or Specific Heats of Gases at
High Temperatures.

The results of most experiments on the energy of gases have been
expressed in the form of tables or formule giving the specific heat
(referred to unit mass of the gas) in terms of the temperature. It
would appear preferable for most purposes to exhibit them in terms
of internal energy per unit volume. That is the form most convenient

‘ If the sensible heat of the steam can be neglected in comparison with its latent
heat the Rankine cycle reduced to the Carnot cycle, with efficiency —, for no

heat is then necessary to warm the water from the condenser to the boiler tempera-
ture, and the whole process becomes reversible. The efficiency of the Carnct cycle
usually exceeds that of the corresponding Rankine cycle by about one eighth
part, ;

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 313

for purposes of thermodynamic calculation, and it has the further
advantage that it expresses the actual quantity measured. In nearly
all the experiments on the specific heats of gases the increase of energy
in unit volume associated with a large rise of temperature is measured ;
and in most the lower limit of temperature is near that of the room. The
rate of change with temperature, of the energy so determined, is some-
times called the ‘true’ or ‘instantaneous’ specific heat, and sometimes
‘thermal capacity.’ The Committee are of opinion that a definite name
should be given to this important quantity, and they suggest the name
‘volumetric heat,’ which if adopted should include in its significance
that the measurement to which it relates is made at constant volume,
and is referred to unit volume of the gas. The term ‘specific heat’ could
then be restricted to its usual meaning, which refers to unit mass of the
substance. Convenience of calculation is promoted if the unit of volume
taken is that corresponding to the gramme molecule under standard con-
ditions which is sufficiently nearly the same for each of the gases under
consideration and equal to 22°25 litres.!_ In this report internal energy
and volumetric heat are expressed as calories? per 22:25 standard litres ;
and the zero of temperature from which the energy is reckoned (except
where otherwise stated) is taken to be 100° C., in order that steam may
be included on the same basis as the other gases. The results are con-
veniently exhibited as curves in which the energy is the ordinate, and
the excess of the temperature over 100° C. is the abscissa. The slope
of such a curve represents the volumetric heat C, and the ordinate
divided by the abscissa for any temperature represents the mean volu-
metric heat from 100° C. to that temperature, here denoted by C.

The experimental work done on this subject may be divided into three
classes :—

(1) Constant-pressure experiments : Regnault, Wiedemann, Witkow-
ski, Lussana, Holborn and Austin, Holborn and Henning. The gas is
heated from an external source in these experiments, and is at atmo-
spheric pressure.

(2) Experiments in which both volume and pressure are varied, the
gas being heated by compression. The recent experiments of Clerk and
the determinations of the velocity of sound in hot gas by Dixon and
others belong to this class.

(3) Constant-volume experiment. To this category belong the ex-
plosion experiments of Mallard and Le Chatelier, Clerk, Langen, Petavel,
Hopkinson, and others, and Joly’s determinations with the steam
calorimeter. In the explosion experiments the gas is heated by internal
combustion,

* The volumes of the gramme molecule for the several gases are :—

EA ate rel LOG) SIDIG IY et OO 22-21
Da fiesticuit sw ifen! rey 82998 co, 22-08
Desig etal vvntocial 6 B22

in litres at O° C. and under a pressure of 760 mm. of mercury.

It may be noted here that 1 calorie per gramme molecule is equivalent to 3°96
foot-pounds per cubic foot.

* There is some difference in the energy value of the calorie according to the
temperature at which it is measured. The ditference between the maximum and
minimum value over the range 0° to 100° C. amounts to about 1 per cent. This is
of no importance for the purposes of this report, except in one or two places; but
where it is necessary to be so precise the calorie at 15° C.—namely, the quantity of
heat required to warm I gramme of water from 142° O, to 152° C.—-is meant.

314 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

(1) Constant-pressure Experiments.

The constant-pressure experiments have been carried to a tem-
perature of about 1400°C. The gas under atmospheric pressure flows
steadily through a heater and then through a calorimeter, where it is
cooled, The temperature just before entering and just after leaving the
calorimeter and the quantity of heat evolved per gramme molecule of
the gas are measured. This quantity of heat less the work done in the
contraction, which is 1-98 times the fall of temperature, is the change of
internal energy corresponding to that fall.

Regnault applied the method to air, H,, CO, CO,, and other gases over
the range 0-200° C.

Wiedemann! repeated Regnault’s experiments with some modifica-
tions of the apparatus. On account of the small range of temperature
these experiments must be regarded as only giving the slope of the
internal energy curve at the origin; but as they give this with an
accuracy at least equal to that with which the ordinate is known at
higher temperatures, they are of considerable importance in constructing
the curve. The following table shows the values of the mean volumetric
heat C. over the range 0° to 100° C., found by these two observers for
air, H, and CO. Witkowski’s value for air, by the same method, is in
exact agreement with Regnault’s.?

H, co Air
Wiedemann . 5 . 4:84 4:81 4:90
Regnault 4 : . 484 4:88 4°86

These results give a good idea of the accuracy attained in these
experiments. In both sets the different observations ranged about
15 per cent. above and below the mean in each determination. Later
work shows that the value of C for air is probably about 1 per cent.
greater over the range 0 to 200 than over the range 0 to 100. Regnault
was unable to detect this difference though he looked for it.

The volumetric heat of air has also been determined by Joly by
means of the steam calorimeter. He found the specific heat of air at
constant volume for the range 10° to 100° C, and at a pressure of about
twenty atmospheres to be 0-172. There were distinct signs of an
increase of specific heat with density, and assuming this to follow the
linear law given by Joly the specific heat at normal density would be
0:1715, equivalent to 4°93 calories per gramme molecule. Professor
Callendar points out, however, that this is based upon Regnault’s number
for the latent heat of steam which is of doubtful accuracy, and that
more probably Joly’s determination when reduced to the 15° calorie
should be 0:1732, or 4°98 calories per gramme molecule. According to
some unpublished experiments by a constant-pressure method, which
have been made by Mr. Swann in Professor Callendar’s laboratory, and
in which it is believed that some sources of systematic errcr inherent in
the earlier experiments of this type have been avoided, the volumetric
heat of air is 50. These results are distinctly higher than those obtained
by Wiedemann and Regnault, but the difference is of no importance for
the present purpose except as an indication of the possibility of

1 Annalen der Physik, 1876, vol. clvii,
% Phil. Mag., vol. xlii. (1896), p. 6.

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 315

systematic errors in their method of experiment which may become
important when it is applied to higher temperatures. It may be taken
as fairly certain that the volumetric heat of air at 100° C. is within
2 per cent. of 4:9.

In the case of CO, the results obtained by Wiedemann and Regnault
were :—

WwW R

Increase of internal energy 0 to 100 710 680
oe FA + ee 0 to 200 1510 1490
100 to 200 800 810

” ” ? ”

The first two rows of figures represent practically the quantities
actually measured in these experiments.' The third is obtained by
difference from the first two, and is therefore affected with a greater
probable error than either. The result of the two sets of experiments
may be summed up by saying that the volumetric heat of CO, at 100°C.
taken as equal to the mean volumetric heat between 0° and 200° ©. is
between 7°45 and 7:55, and that its rate of increase with temperature is
between 0:009 and 0-013, or roughly one six-hundredth part per ° C.
The specific heat of steam at constant (atmospheric) pressure in the
neighbourhood of 100° C., according to Regnault, is 0°48, equivalent to
6°64 volumetric heat, and subsequent observers have shown that this
value is at least as accurate as Regnault’s value of the specific heat
of air.

From Joly’s experiments with the steam calorimeter, when corrected
according to Callendar for the error in Regnault’s value of the latent heat
of steam, the specific heat of CO, between 10° and 100° C. and at a
pressure of 12 atmospheres is 0:172 and it increases by about 0°25 per
cent. per atmosphere. Assuming this law of increase to hold between one
atmosphere and 12 atmospheres, the mean specific heat at normal density
for the range 10° to 100° should be 0°1666, and the volumetric heat
should be 7:3, which is again decidedly greater than the values obtained
by Wiedemann and Regnault. According to a recent determination by
Swann, the result of which has been communicated to the Committee by
Professor Callendar, the volumetric heat of CO, at 100° is 7°76—again
materially higher than Regnault and Wiedemann (7°5).

Holborn in conjunction with Austin carried the constant-pressure
determinations for air and CO, up to 800° C.? The gas was heated
electrically and the temperature was measured with a thermo-coupie.
Similar measurements on steam were made by Holborn and Henning,
who subsequently carried the determinations for the three gases up to
1400° C.3

Holborn and Henning express the results of all these experiments in
algebraical formule representing the mean specific heats of CO,, air, and
steam respectively over the range 0-6 in the case of the first two gases,
and 100-6 in the case of steam. From these formule the full-lined

' The lower limit of temperature in Regnault’s measurements was 10°, the upper
limits were 100° and 210° respectively. In Wiedemann’s work the lower limit was
25° and the upper 100° and 200° respectively. The results have been reduced to
the forms here given on the supposition that the volumetric heat between 0° and
25° is 6°6, and at 200° 7-4. For the small additional range of temperature required
these figures are certainly as accurate as the experiments.

2 Wiss. Abhandlungen der Phys. Techn. Reichsanstalt, 1905.

% Ann. d. Phys., 283, 1907, p. 809.

0

jramme molecule.

g

Energy tr Caleries fer

316 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

curves in fig. 1, exhibiting the internal energy, have been constructed.
The actual observations are also shown in the same figure. Each of these
observations represents the mean of a large number of experiments, in
some cases as many as thirty. The results of the individual experiments
in such a group ranged about 2 or 3 per cent. above and below the mean.
These casual errors would no doubt cancel out to a great extent in taking

16900 -— en — —_— + - + $$

14000

/2000

10,000

co
o
is}
is)

6006

4000

£009 }—

o 200 400 600 coo 1000 1200 1200 7600”
Temperature, degrees Centigrade

the mean, which, apart from systematic errors inherent in the method of
experiment, is probably correct within about 2 per cent.

This degree of accuracy is not sufficient to enable any deduction to be
made as to the manner of variation of the volumetric heat beyond a rough
estimate of its average rate of increase over the whole range of experi-
ment. The following are the values of the volumetric heats of air, steam,

| 100° 600° 1100° | _ ;
ih Lf C Th hg = ) C. ‘ G C ; y | oT

Air 49 | vsot | 52. | 128 575 | 1-345 09 |
| ‘Stam [66 | 130) | ees. | 4-20 ab | aoa ae ean
“oo, "ae Piaeeniieos |, 20. .4cllaoe gers at eee

The corresponding values of y are also shown : y=1 4 Ls

C

-

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 317

The values at 100° are derived from the experiments of Wiedemann
and Regnault. Those at 600° and 1100° are based on the specific heat
values given by Holborn and Henning ; in other words, they are obtained
by drawing tangents to the curves, fig. 1. The error at these higher
temperatures may be double that of the internal energy, or, say, 4 per
cent. The figures show that the volumetric heat of air increases by about
‘0009, that of steam by 0033, and that of CO, by ‘0036 per degree
centigrade over the range 100°-1100° C. There is no evidence that the
rate of increase is other than constant in the case of air ; but there can he
no doubt that the average rate of increase between 100° and 1100° in CQ,
is less than half the rate of increase between 0° and 200°, as determined
by Wiedemann and Regnault. There is also distinct evidence in these
and other experiments that the rate of increase of the specific heat of
steam becomes greater as the temperature rises,

(2) Clerk’s Experiments.

These cover about the same range of temperature as Holborn and
Henning. The gas used was the products of an explosion in a gas-engine,
and therefore consisted of a mixture of CO,, steam, andair. It was first
expanded in the ordinary course after the explosion, and was then heated
by compression on the next in-stroke of the engine, the valves being kept
closed for this purpose. On the next out-stroke the gas was again
expanded, then compressed again, and so on, the valves remaining closed
and the engine running on itsown momentum. An indicator diagram was
taken of the whole operation. The change of internal energy in any
portion of a compression stroke (e.g., Bc in fig. 2) is equal to the work
done less the heat lost to the cylinder walls ; in an expansion stroke (c p)
it is the work done plus the heat lost. The work can be obtained from
the indicator diagram with an accuracy which is only limited by the
indicating appliances. The change of temperature can also be calculated
from the indicator diagram subject to a knowledge of the temperature at
ene point. Errors in the latter, however, do not greatly affect the
results found for internal energy or volumetric heat, because the figure
for the quantity of gas present is affected by these errors in such a way
as to cancel out the error in temperature interval.

The loss of heat comes in as a correction on the work done and was
estimated by a comparison of the compression line and the immediately
following expansion line (Bc and cp, fig. 2). The calculation is based on
the assumption that the total heat loss from the hot gases during any
given portion of a stroke is the same in expansion and compression if
the mean temperature be the same.

In the first compression the temperature of the gas rose to about
1100° C. (at the point c, fig. 2). During the first three tenths of the
following expansion stroke (cD), the temperature fell to about 700° C.
The work done in this part of the expansion was measured and the
heat loss determined as above was added. Thus the change of internal
energy corresponding to the temperature change 1100°—700° is obtained.
The average volumetric heat over this range is within the errors of
experiment equal to the volumetric heat at the mean temperature of
900° C., which accordingly is by this method determined direct instead

! Proce, Roy. Soc., A, vol. lxxvii.

318 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

of by difference, as is necessarily the case when (as in Holborn and
Henning’s experiments) the whole internal energy change associated
with complete cooling of the gas is measured.

In view of the great difference in the method of experiment a
comparison of Clerk’s results with those of Messrs. Holborn and Henning
is of great interest. Clerk’s measurements extended to 1450° C., but
those above 1200° C. were based on the first expansion line after the
explosion when the method for getting heat loss would be of doubtful
application, and when, moreover, combustion may have been incomplete.
It will be better, therefore, to confine the comparison to temperatures
of 1200° and below. The following table exhibits the internal energies
of the mixed gas with which Clerk experimented calculated from Holborn

and Henning’s figures, together with the energy calculated from Clerk’s
values for the mean volumetric heat. The energies are, as usual, reckoned
from 100° C. ; and the energies of an ideal gas with a constant volumetric
heat of 4:9 are added for comparison.

Holborn and

Temperature Henning Clerk Ideal Gas
400 1580 1720 1470
800 3840 4300 3430

1200 6285 7040 5390

It will be seen that Clerk’s results are throughout about 10 per cent.
higher than the others. The difference between the energy of the real
and of the ideal gas, the discovery of which is the true object of these
experiments, is about twice as great in the one case as in the other. It
does not seem possible to account for so large a discrepancy by ordinary
experimental errors. It must be due either to some systematic error
inherent in the method of experiment in one or both cases, or to a
difference in the conditions of experiment giving rise to a real difference
of internal energy.

—

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS, | 319

Professor Callendar has favoured the Committee with a note dealing
with the constant-pressure experiments. He is of opinion that the
results obtained by Regnault’s method are too low, and that at the
higher temperatures reached by Holborn and Henning the error may
possibly amount to as much as 10 per cent. In all these experiments
there is a considerable flow of heat from the heater to the calorimeter.
This, of course, has to be deducted from the heat registered in the
calorimeter in order to find that which has been given up by the hot
gas. All the experimenters by this method have determined the amount
of this correction by observations when the gas was not flowing, or
have compensated it under the same conditions by radiation from the
calorimeter, making, in either case, the assumption that the amount of
heat conducted is the same whether the gas be flowing or not. Professor
Callendar is of opinion that this heat-flow is, in fact, much less when the
gas is flowing. He considers that even the values obtained by Regnault
may be as much as 2 or 3 per cent. too low, and he supports this conten-
tion by reference to the work of other experimenters (some of which
has been alluded to above) and by theoretical considerations. As this
type of error is likely to increase greatly with rise of temperature a
systematic error of even 2 per cent. in Regnault’s results, if established,
would give reason to suspect that the experiments at high temperatures
may be subject to errors of real importance for the present purpose.

If there be systematic error in Mr. Clerk’s work it seems most likely
that it lies in the estimate of heat-loss. The total heat-loss in the first
partial compression and expansion line in the diagram (BCD, fig. 2) is
estimated from the fall of temperature and from the net work done
(area BCD) in the double operation, and amounts to, roughly, half the
work done in expansion. This loss has to be divided between com-
pression and expansion, and Mr. Clerk divides it on the assumption that
if the mean temperature in compression and expansion were the same
the heat-loss would also be the same. The mean temperature in expansion
is, in fact, rather less than in compression, and the heat-loss calculated in
this way is correspondingly smaller, but the difference on this account is
not very great, and the result is, roughly speaking, that the loss is equally
divided between the two operations. Thus the correction to be added
to the work done in expansion in order to get the total loss of energy
of the gas is about 25 per cent. of the work, or 20 per cent. of the
energy change.

Professor Hopkinson has dealt with this point in a note which he
communicated to the Committee, and he is of opinion that, relative to
the mean temperature, tie heat-loss is really much greater in compression
than it is in expansion. He supports this view by reference to some
experiments which he has made on the compression and expansion of a
charge of cold air in a gas-engine which was motored round with the
gas cut off. The specific heat of air being known, the loss of heat in
any part of the compression or expansion stroke can in this case be
independently estimated from the diagram. He found that while in the
latter half of the compression stroke the heat lost to the walls amounted
to a considerable fraction of the work done, some part of this loss was
actually restored to the gas during the first half of the succeeding
expansion, and this notwithstanding the high temperature of the air,
which in expansion, as in compression, was much above that of the walls.
An estimate of the thermal capacity could, of course, be obtained from

320 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

this diagrain by the application of Mr. Clerk’s method, and it would lead
to a result considerably in excess of the truth. Mr. Clerk has himself
tried this same experiment of compressing and expanding air, and he
also has found that the resulting value of the specitic heat of air is
too high and that the air takes in heat during expansion. Professor
Hopkinson thinks it possible that the heat lost during the partial
compression line in Clerk’s diagram may be more than twice as great
as the loss during expansion. If this were so, the correction for heat-loss
in expansion would be less than 16 per cent. of the work done instead
of 25 per cent., and the true change of energy would be less than that
calculated on the assumption of equal heat-loss in compression and
expansion by 7 per cent. or more.

It will be seen that the errors believed to affect each method of
experiment are in such a direction as to account for the divergence of the
results ; and it is quite probable that when these errors are completely
allowed for, the discrepancy will largely disappear. Meanwhile the
internal energy of the products of combustion in the gas-engine at
1200° C., if taken as the mean of Clerk’s and of Holborn and Henning’s
results, must be regarded as subject to a possible error of about 5 per
cent.

Under these circumstances it does not seem necessary to discuss the
possibility that there may be a real difference between the energy values
obtained by the two methods due to the different conditions of experi-
ment. It may be pointed out, however, that Clerk’s gas was at the
maximum temperature from fifteen to twenty times as dense as Holborn
and Henning’s. This difference in the condition of the gas is such that
1. comparison of the results obtained by the two methods, when freed
from experimental errors, will be of great interest and importance.

(3) Explosion Luperiments.

If a combustible mixture of gases be fired in a closed vessel im-
pervious to heat, and if sufficient time elapse to allow of the attainment
of complete thermal and chemical equilibrium, the internal energy of the
products of combustion after the explosion will be equal to the chemical
energy before explosion. The latter is capable of accurate measurement.
The temperature reached after explosion can be inferred from the
pressure, assuming the gaseous laws to hold. The pressure can also be
measured without difficulty and with considerable accuracy.

In the study of explosion pressures we have therefore a very con-
venient and simple means of getting the internal energy function at high
temperatures, provided that it is possible to make the necessary correc-
tions for deducing from the pressures observed in a real explosion the
pressure reached in an explosion under the ideal circumstances postulated
above. Moreover, the gaseous laws on which the temperature estimations
are based can themselves be checked, and if necessary corrected, by com-
parison of the pressures reached by mixtures of the same composition
but of different densities. Thus explosion experiments are capable of
furnishing a complete account of all the thermal properties of gases at
the temperatures reached by combustion, subject always to the possibility
of making the corrections referred to above. The difficulty of finding
these corrections is, however, very great, and in consequence of the
uncertainty which prevails even as to their order of magnitude, the

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. BPA

large amount of work which has been done on explosion pressures gives
but little definite information as to the specific heats of gases. Never-
theless, it is to the study of explosion pressures that we owe such
knowledge as we possess of the energy function at the temperatures
which prevail in the gas-engine, and it is to work on these lines that
we must look in large measure for extension of our knowledge. A full
discussion of what has been done already must therefore form an important
part of this report.

Let H. be the calorific value of the mixture before combustion, let A
be the heat lost at’ some point A on the record (taken on a revolving
drum) connecting the pressure and the time (fig. 3). The energy in the
gas isthen H—jf. The gas at this point is, however, certainly not in
thermal equilibrium, and is probably neither in chemical equilibrium nor
at rest. If, therefore, the loss of heat were suddenly arrested at A the
pressure would change owing to the more or less gradual attainment of
equilibrium in all three respects. The equilibrium value of the pressure
would be reached asymptotically, as shown by the dotted line. When

Pressure.

Time.

equilibrium has been attained the energy of the gas is all thermal and
equal to H — fh, and the temperature can be calculated in the ordinary
way from the pressure. The problem, therefore, is first to find or estimate
the heat loss 2 which has occurred at some point on the explosion record,
and then to find or estimate by how much the equilibrium value of the
pressure, if there were no further heat-loss, would differ from that shown
on the record.

This change of pressure, marked p on the diagram, is due partly to
the combustion of the gas remaining unburnt at A and partly to the
equalisation of temperature by convection. It may also be due to some
extent to the damping-down of the motion of the gas set up by the
explosion.

The sooner the point A is taken, the less will be the loss of heat ;
but the greater, on the other hand, will be the departure from equilibrium
conditions. The principal workers in this field, Mallard and Le Chatelier
and Langen, assumed that the latter might be neglected if the point A

were taken at the point of inflexion on the falling curve, and they
1908, 4

322 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

estimated the loss of heat by prolonging this curve backwards, as shows,
They assumed, in fact, that the pressure given by the point B was that
which would ultimately have been reached had the explosion taken place
in a vessel with walls impervious to heat.

It is difficult to justify this procedure on a priori grounds ; the only
satisfactory justification is to show, by independent evidence, that it
leads to correct results. The main object of this section of the Report
is to examine such evidence as there is of this kind, to point out the
defects in it, and to suggest experimental methods by which they could
perhaps be remedied.

In so far as the heat-loss and the departure from equilibrium are
dependent on surface phenomena, a definite estimate of their amount
can be obtained by a comparison of explosions of the same mixture in
vessels of different sizes.

Many years ago Berthelot tried this experiment, firing hydrogen and
oxygen, in explosive proportions, in vessels of 300 ¢.c. and 4000 c.c.
respectively. It is stated that the pressure reached was very nearly the
same, which would show that such part of the cooling and other corrections
as depends on the surface of the vessel is small in the case of this mixture.

Materials for a more accurate comparison are to be found in the
extensive researches of Mallard and Le Chatelier, and of Langen. The
French; experimenters worked with a cylindrical vessel 17 cm. x17 cm,,

surface

volume

whereas Langen used a sphere 40 cm. diameter. The ratio

was 2°3 times as great in the first as in the second case.

The following table shows the results obtained in two instances, in
each of which the composition of the mixture was practically identical
in the two sets of experiments :—

Mixture | Observer Tlo Cooling correction
— ue — —_
|
| 2 vols. air || Mallard and Le Chatelier, 740 14 per cent.
| 1 vol. (H,+0) j Langen 7:50 8 4
| 2 vols. air || Mallard and Le Chatelier, 7:50 rete or,
1 vol. (CO+0) | | Langen 7:50 8 =

Ifo is the pressure reached in the explosion in atmospheres after
correcting for cooling in the manner described above, when the initial
temperature is 0° C. The cooling correction, or excess of the pressure
at B (fig. 3) over that at A, is shown in the last column. Figs, 4 and 5,
which are taken from Langen’s paper, show a comparison between the
curve adopted by Langen, as representing the results of his experiments,
and Mallard and Le Chatelier’s observations.

On the whole the agreement between the two sets of experiments is
very fair, and the deviations are not such as to suggest that any very
great error has been made in estimating such part of the corrections for
heat-loss or for unburnt gas as depend on the surface of the vessel. If,
for example, Langen were, on the average, 4 per cent. out from this
cause, Mallard and Le Chatelier would be 9 per cent. out, and would
differ by 5 per cent. from Langen. Differences of that amount do
occur, but they do not seem to be systematic. Further experiment of
the same kind on vessels with a greater difference of size but of similar
geometrical form is, however, desirable, ae

fed)
bo
(whe)

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS.

10
rH)
5
i
a)
" Fo
e Fig.4.

H,+0+Inert Gas. °
Mallard & LeChatelvers results:- o
ets peat. ue 3 4 5 6

Quantity of Inert Gas per unit volume of (Hp+ 0).

19%

CO+O+ Inert Gas
Mallard & LeChatelier’s results-

re) z

aa 2 3. A = en:
Quantity of Inert Gas per unit volume of a+ Q).

The question remains, how far the corrections really are surface

corrections. This appears to the Committee to be the most important
x2

324 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

question of a general character awaiting solution in connection with
gaseous explosions when regarded as a means of investigating the
properties of gases at higher temperatures. It will be convenient to
discuss each of the corrections enumerated above with special regard
to this question.

Loss of Heat.—That much of the heat-loss goes on by direct con-
duction to the walls, and is, therefore, a surface phenomenon, is obvious.
But there is reason to believe that the loss by radiation, which certainly
exists in any flame, is practically important.

(a) Measurements of the temperature reached in an explosion by
means of a platinum thermometer, under circumstances which render
very improbable any loss of heat by conduction from the gas whose
temperature is measured, show that that temperature is considerably
lower than is to be expected from the heat of combustion of the gases
and the specific heat of the products. Professor Callendar pointed out,
in the discussion of these experiments, that there was probably a good
deal of radiation, and stated that he had found that an ordinary Bunsen
flame might radiate up to 15 per cent. of its heat.!

(b) Recent experiments, in which the loss of heat during an ex-
plosion was directly measured by finding the rise of temperature of the
walls, showed that in a certain coal-gas explosion it amounted to about
12 per cent. of the whole heat at the moment of maximum pressure.
Estimated by Mallard and Le Chatelier’s extrapolation method, the loss
was at most 5 per cent.”

The prevailing opinion seems to be that most simple gases cannot
be made to radiate by direct heating. If this be so the radiation must
take place in the act of combustion, It seems very probable that when,
say, hydrogen and oxygen combine a certain part of the energy of
combination passes into the form of internal vibrations of the steam
molecule, and that a large proportion, if not all, of this part is ultimately
radiated away. If this be the case a definite proportion of the heat
produced in combustion is always lost, and a comparison of explosions
in vessels of different sizes would not reveal this loss.

Thermal Equilibrium.—When an explosive mixture of gases is
ignited in a closed vessel the effect of the change of pressure during
the progress of the flame from the point or points of ignition is to raise
the temperature round about those points much above the mean tempera-
ture, and, on the other hand, the temperature attained at those places
which are last reached by the flame, and where the gas is compressed
before instead of after ignition, is much below the mean. Even in a
vessel whose walls are impervious to heat the difference of temperature
between the points first and last inflamed might amount to 700°C. at the
moment of maximum pressure.* Ina real explosion the cooling effect of
the walls causes the temperature to range from perhaps 500° or more
above the mean (as shown by the pressure) right down to the wall tem-
perature at points close to the metal. The existence of large temperature
differences in the gas close to the walls of an engine cylinder was first
experimentally demonstrated by Professor Burstall with the aid of

latinum thermometers.

Tf the volumetric heat of the gas were constant the equalisation of

1 Proc. R.S., A, vo’. 1xxvii. p. 400. 2 Thid., A, vol. lxxix, p. 147.
3 Thid., A, vol. Ixxvii, p. 389,

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 825

these temperature differences by convection and conduction, could it take
place without loss of heat, would cause no change of pressure. The
volumetric heat is, however, not constant, but may quite possibly be 50
per cent. greater in the hottest than in the coldest part of themass. The
attainment of thermal equilibrium must, in fact, cause a change of pres-
sure, and would contribute to the correction which has been designated p
(see fig. 3). The amount of the change might be the subject of rough calcu-
lation, taking an assumed distribution of temperature and assuming values
for the volumetric heat. Such a calculation in the present state of know-
ledge would only be of value as showing the possible order of magnitude
of the quantity sought, and the assumptions made could therefore be
of a character to make the calculation fairly simple. More accurate
knowledge both of temperature distribution and of thermal capacity will
enable greater accuracy to be attained in the estimation of this correction,
which will be of such a kind that a method of successive approximation
can be pursued, the revised values of thermal capacity resulting from its
application being applied to a more accurate calculation of the correction
if necessary.

The temperature variation set up by the cooling action of the walls is
a surface phenomenon, and as such the correction which it necessitates
can probably be determined and eliminated by experiments with vessels
of different sizes. The variation caused by the change of pressure during
the period of inflammation is not of this character ; and the necessity for
a large correction on this account is quite consistent with the observations
of Berthelot, or of Mallard and Le Chatelier and of Langen. In these experi-
ments the maximum pressure reached in the explosion was measured, and
at the time of maximum pressure very large differences of temperature
are known to exist at a distance from and quite independent of the
walls.

Soon after maximum pressure, however, the temperatures at points
remote from the walls are equalised to a large extent by convection
currents. There then remains only the layer of gas near the walls to be
considered in this connection. If, theretore, the measurements be post-
poned until a long enough time has elapsed to admit of this internal
equalisation, the correction becomes of the surface kind, and can be dealt
with by the method appropriate to corrections of that type. But in that
case the heat lost will be too large a quantity to admit of rough estima-
tion ; it must be directly measured.

Chemical Equilibrium.—The view that chemical equilibrium is not
attained until some time after the moment of maximum pressure was
first put forward by Clerk in 1885, who then expressed the opinion that
the greater part of the so-called ‘suppression of heat’ in explosions was
to be ascribed to this cause. On the other hand, Continental writers have
almost completely ignored it. For example, Langen makes practically no
reference to this in his paper. It can hardly be doubted, however, that
in many explosions, especially of weak mixtures, a considerable amount
of the energy is in the chemical form at the moment of maximum
pressure. On the other hand it seems probable to the Committee that
the amount of unburnt gas at this moment in such experiments as those
of Langen was not such as to very greatly affect the results. This belief
is based on the supposition that the incomplete combustion is due to the
cooling action of the walls. It seems probable that very shortly after the
attainment of maximum pressure—that is, within a time small compared

326 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

with that required to reach maximum pressure—the transformation of the
chemical energy into thermal form is everywhere complete except in a
thin surface layer where this transformation is retarded by the cooling
action of the walls.

If this view be accepted the correction of the results for incomplete
combustion is of the nature of a surface-correction, and can be determined
by comparing the pressures reached by the same mixture when exploded
in vessels of different sizes,

In the discussion of this important matter the Committee have
derived great assistance from the experience of Professors Dixon and
Bone, who have made a special study of the velocity of chemical action in
gases. These gentlemen are of opinion that though such action may be of
great complexity, involving in many cases several successive molecular
operations, yet, if it is not retarded by the presence of cold foreign bodies,
it will generally be completed within a period which, for the purposes of
gas-engine theory, may be regarded as negligibly small. In the simple
case of the explosion of hydrogen and oxygen they consider that the
complete transformation of the mixed gases into steam at any given point
is complete within a time measured by the interval between molecular
collisions. When the action is more complicated, as in the explosion of
carbon monoxide and oxygen in the presence of water, or in the combus-
tion of hydrocarbons, the period will be larger, but will still be measured
by thousandths of a second.

Some direct evidence that incomplete combustion in an explosion is
mainly, if not entirely, a surface phenomenon is to be found in Hopkin-
son’s measurements of the temperature at points within a large explosion
vessel by means of a platinum thermometer. A photographic record of
the resistance of a fine platinum wire immersed in the gas showed that
when the flame reached it the temperature rose in less than j,th of a
second from 20° C., which was the temperature of the unburnt gas, to about
1250° C., which was that of the burnt gas, and that it remained at the
latter figure quite steadily except in so far as the increase of pressure in
the vessel caused it to rise. In other words, there was no increase of
thermal energy except that due to work done upon the gas from out:
side.' The mixture was one part of coal gas to nine parts of air—a slow
burning mixture—and the time taken to reach maximum pressure was
about a quarter of a second or at Jeast ten times that required for _
combination of the gases at any one point. It is true that the vessel
was of rather large size—about six cubic feet capacity—but, on the other
hand, owing to the fact that the platinum wire extended over about
1 cm., so that the flame took an appreciable time to completely envelop
it, it is probable that the period of .1,th of a second, given above, is
a superior limit which greatly exceeds the actual time taken to effect the
combination at any one point.

On the other hand, it cannot be doubted that combustion must be
greatly retarded in the neighbourhood of the cold metal walls ; and there
is nothing to show that this surface retardation is not sufficient to
account for all the phenomena of delayed combustion: A simple cal-
culation based upon the rate of flow of heat per square foot into the
metal of a gas-engine cylinder (which is roughly known from measure-
ments of the heat carried away by the jacket water) shows that the

1 Proc, RS., A, Vol, 1xxvii. p. 387

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 327

mean temperature of the exposed surface at points separated by an inch
from the cooling water cannot exceed quite a moderate value. Probably
about 200° C. is a superior limit for the cylinder liner. Similar calcula-
tion of a still rougher kind, but still sufficiently accurate to give the
order of magnitude of the quantity sought, shows that the fluctuation above
and below the mean in the course of a cycle is very unlikely to exceed
20°C. The latter conclusion has been confirmed by some experiments
made by Professor Coker with a preliminary account of which he has
favoured the Committee. Measuring the cyclical variation of temperature
of the inner surface of a 12-h.p. gas-engine cylinder by methods similar
to those adopted by Professors Callendar and Nicholson in their well-
known work on the steam-engine, he found that the maximum was only
7° F. in excess of the mean. The direct measurements by Professor
Hopkinson of the temperature of the walls of an explosion vessel lined
with copper strip also lead to the conclusion that it is quite moderate.
This cold metal must obviously profoundly affect the combustion in its
neighbourhood. In a layer of gas of appreciable thickness the combus-
tion will be of a smouldering character, depending upon the velocity
with which the unburnt gas in contact with the walls can diffuse into
the hotter regions at a distance from them, and so be brought to the
ignition temperature. This layer being cold and highly compressed
might account for a considerable fraction of the heat, though its actual
thickness may be only a few tenths of a millimetre. It would appear
probable that the continued burning which undoubtedly goes on after
the time of maximum pressure in many explosions, and probably also
occurs during the first portion at least of the expansion stroke of a gas-
engine, is mainly of this character.!

Motion of the Gas.—In many explosions intense vibratory motions of
the gas are setup. The effect of these sometimes appears with a quick-
period indicator as a rapid variation of pressure. It is a question of
some importance how these motions affect the mean pressure shown by
a gauge. The damping-down of the motion which occurs in consequence
of viscosity of course only means that the motion becomes distributed
among the molecules in a random way, instead of following a definite
arrangement. The total kinetic energy remains the same. But it is not
certain that the mean effect on a pressure gauge of the molecular impacts
will be the same. This is a question which might be considered by
someone to whom the methods of the kinetic theory of gases are familiar,
It is of course not a surface phenomenon.

Results of Observations—The temperatures reached in these explosion
experiments range from about 1300° up to 3000° C. Temperatures of below
1500° are, however, obtained by the use of weak mixtures, involving
slow burning and large cooling corrections, and but little reliance can be
placed on the results. Langen made very few observations on mixtures
giving a lower temperature than 1500°, and takes that as the lower
limit of the range of temperature to which his observations apply. The
extreme upper limit of the constant pressure experiments is 1400°,
The temperature of 3000° C. is about that reached in the explosion of
hydrogen and oxygen in their combining proportions. This is much
above the mean temperature ordinarily reached in the gas-engine, the

__1 Professor Bone is doubtful whether ‘smouldering combustion’ plays so con,
siderable a part in gaseous explosions as is here suggested.

328 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

upper limit of which may be put at about 2000° C.; though it is
probable that 2500° or more is occasionally reached locally. Langen,
however, places the upper limit of the application of his formule at
1700° C., on the ground that there is dissociation of the CO, at higher
temperatures than that. ‘There does not seem to be much reason for this
limitation, for the effects of dissociation (provided that equilibrium is
attained) are indistinguishable from those of increasing specific heat, and
should be included in the change of energy. Dissociation may give
rise to errors in the temperature measurement, but there is reason to
suppose that the dissociation which occurs in the CO, in steam at a
temperature of 2000° C. is too small to cause any material change of
volume, though it may mean considerable absorption of heat.

The formule given by Langen as representing the results of his
observations are as follows :—

Air C=4'8 +0-0006 ¢
CO, C=6-7 + 0-00260 ¢
H,0 G=5:-9+40-00215 ¢

where C is the mean thermal capacity over the range 0 to t?C. The
explosion pressures predicted by the use of these formule agree well with
the observed pressures except in the case of mixtures of CO and air,
where they are a good deal too high. In the other cases the maximum
deviation is about 4 per cent.

Mallard and Le Chatelier represent their results by formule which
differ greatly from the above in the case of CO, and H,O, though the
formula for air is the same. This discrepancy must be due in some way
to the method of reduction adopted, for, as already pointed out, the
explosion pressures reached with mixtures of the same composition are
very nearly the same.

Taking Langen’s values, the following table exhibits the energy of the
various simple gases, and of the mixture on which Clerk experimented, at
1600° and 2000° respectively. The energy of the same gases at 800° and
at 1200° based on Holborn and Henning’s and on Clerk’s results is also
given for comparison. The results are given in calories per gramme
molecule. To reduce to foot-pounds per cubic foot multiply by the
factor 3°96.

| —— | "800° | 1200° 1600° | 2000°
| Holborn | Holborn iS
= | Clerk and | Clerk and Langen | Langen
| Henning Henning
here 3 3570 ae 5840 8700 | 11500
co, 3 3 : an] ul 6460 | — 10880 17000 | 23300
HO ye i" ~ a : _ 4670 ‘ — 7930 14400 | 19900
Gas-engine Mixture 4250 3840 6900 : 6340 | 9800 13200
Ideal Gast . | 3430 5400 tb 7350 | 9300

oD

GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS.

ON

The results for the gas-engine mixture are plotted on fig. 6, on

0002

Fate

21
98

apes82quaz ‘eunpedsr{u ay,

oogs o09oks

Corl ooze OOoL a0g 069 COR

O-uewmazeya oT P PLETELY
@ —-—- U0 Sra rT
(OP) a0 — 48779
@ ----Su2rmuapy wy Udogq707F

OO'k

zo Oty

S0:0 9
es. £8:0 OPN

Boy PHB weN Jo KAT HULL
|

090%

o609

0008

Od00+

cooes

CI0O¢+

Energy, Calories per gramme molecule.

which points obtained by Mallard and Le Chatelier’s formule are alsq

shown.

330 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

The energy of gas-engine mixture at 1400° according to Clerk, °
Holborn and Henning, and Langen respectively would be as follows ;—

Clerk . « ° e . . . ® e 8300
Holborn and Henning . . ‘ ‘ ’ . 7700
angen irate fae oe . » 8300

Tt will be seen that the agreement between Clerk and Langen is close,
both being about 8 per cent. higher than Holborn and Henning. But
it is to be observed that this temperature is just outside the range of all
three sets of experiments. ’

The Committee are of opinion that values of the energy obtained from
explosion records are not subject to any very great errors on account of
heat-loss by conduction to the walls of the vessel, nor on account of incom-
plete combustion, but that they are affected by errors of quite unknown
amount due, first, to heat radiated, and secondly to the want of thermal
equilibrium at the time when the pressure is measured. For the purpose
of testing the first of these conclusions, it is very desirable that further
experiments should be made on explosions in vessels of greatly different
size but of similar form. The opinion entertained by the Committee that
incomplete combustion is a surface-phenomenon, on which this conclusion
as to the validity of the method is based, also requires further confirma-
tion. As regards the second conclusion further experiment on the actual
amount of heat radiated by burning gas is urgently required, and also
experiments to confirm or negative the effect of the nature of the wall
surface upon the pressure reached in an explosion. The effect of want
of thermal equilibrium can be determined up to a point by calculation ;
but before such calculation can be usefully made, it is desirable that
further information should be obtained as to the temperature distribution
after an explosion, especially in the neighbourhood of the walls. It
should not be difficult to get an idea of this sufficiently accurate for the
purpose by means of platinum thermometers.

The most hopeful way, however, of making use of explosions to give
definite information as to the properties of gases would appear to be to
directly measure the heat lost in the explosion, as if this be done it is
possible to defer the pressure measurement until such time as equilibrium
conditions, except those that depend on the surface of the vessel, have
been attained,

The Measurement of Temperature.

Tn all the experiments for the determination of the energy function
which have been described above the measurement of the temperature is
ultimately based upon the pressure or volume changes of the gas. In the
constant-pressure experiments of Holborn and Henning the temperature
of the gas before entering the calorimeter was measured by means of a
thermo-couple which had been compared with a constant-volume nitrogen
thermometer up to 1600° C. In the explosion experiments the mean
temperature of a gas is inferred from its pressure. Similarly, in the
analysis of the gas-engine diagrams, the gas is itse!f the thermometer.
The mean temperature at any point is taken as proportional to the product
pv, and the actual temperature at one point in the cycle (a knowledge

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. Soll

of which is necessary for getting absolute values) is obtained either by
estimating the quant ty of gas present in the cylinder or by direct
measurement with the platinum thermometer, as was recently done by
Callendar and Dalby.

The temperature scale so obtained is probably sufficiently definite, at
any rate for the purpose of gas-engine theory, since the mixture to whieh
it is applied does not vary very greatly in composition, and always consists
mainly of nitrogen. It is not so certain, however, that this scale agrees
with the absolute thermodynamic scale ; and the question of the possible
amount of the deviations at temperatures of 1500° and over is of great
importance in connection with the present inquiry.

So far as the Committee are aware, the experiments of Joule and
Thomson still remain the only comparison between the various gas-scales
and the thermodynamic scale: this comparison only extended to about
200° C., andis, of course, of no application to the problem now under dis-
cussion except in so far as it gives an idea of the differences to be expected
at higher temperatures. What it really shows is that thermometers
constructed of the more permanent gases are all so closely accordant with
the thermodynamic thermometer as to lead to the belief (as a matter of
induction, and quite independently of the kinetic or any other theory)
that there is really some definite cause tending to make a gas, as such and
apart from its composition, obey the law Fe = constant. It would appear
that the small deviations from this law, sometimes one way and sometimes
the other, which are observed must be due to disturbing causes depending
on the nature of the gas, whose influence may be in either direction and
is of very various amount, but is at low temperatures small compared with
the tendency to obey the perfect gas law. This view being accepted,
there is a strong presumption that, if a number of thermometers con-
structed of different gases be compared at high temperatures and be
found to agree fairly well, then they all agree with the thermodynamic
scale at least as well as they agree with one another. It is upon the
agreement between different gas-thermometers that our belief in the—
measurement of temperature is really founded, and, so far as it goes,
the foundation seems to be sound.

The nitrogen thermometer has been used with an iridium bulb up to
1600° ©.,! but no other gas has been taken above 1100° C, At the
latter temperature the differences between thermometers constructed of
hydrogen, nitrogen, and air are quite negligible for the present purpose.
Rather more deviation has been observed in CO, ; but having regard to
the small percentage of this gas which is ordinarily present in the gas-
engine wixture, it is not likely that temperatures up to 1100° C.,,
calculated in the usual way from the indicator diagram, will differ much
from the true temperatures on the thermodynamic scale. 1100° C. is,
however, not much above the lower limit of the gas-engine range ; as to
what goes on in the upper part of that range we have little or no
evidence.

When considerable deviation from the gas-laws at high temperatures
is observed in the case of any gas, it is usually ascribed to dissociation.
For example, if comparison be made of two constant-pressure thermo:
meters filled respectively with hydrogen and with iodine vapour

} Holborn and Valentiner, Ann. d. Phys, xxii, (1907), p. 1.

Paps ie REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

they will be found to agree up to about 1000° Abs. ; the iodine thermo-
meter will then begin to read higher than the hydrogen thetmometér
until, when the latter reads about 1800° Abs., the former will read
about double that amount. When the gases are hotter still the
temperature shown on the iodine thermometer will continue to be
double that shown on the other. In this case the departure between
the two thermometers is accompanied by a change in the absorption
spectrum of the iodine vapour ; and the whole phenomenon is expressed
by saying that the iodine molecule has been split up or dissociated. In
the case of a compound gas this dissociation sometimes takes the form
of an actual separation of the constituents, which can be detected by
diffusion. A great deal of experimental work has been done with the
object of ascertaining to what extent the gases CO, and steam split up
at high temperatures. These gases are constituents in most gas-engine
mixtures, and if they dissociate to any considerable extent there will be
a corresponding effect upon the pvé relations of the mixture of which
they form a part. No far, however, there is, in the opinion of the
Committee, no conclusive evidence that either steam or CO, is dis-
sociated to an extent which is material for the present purpose. Slight
traces of dissociation have undoubtedly been found in both cases, but
the method of experiment is such as to leave it doubtful how far these
have been conditioned by the nature of the walls through which the
dissociated gas is diffused. It must be observed, moreover, that CO,
and steam usually form only a small part of the mixture in the gas-
engine, and that therefore a considerable amount of dissociation of these
gases would be necessary to produce much effect upon the pressure of the
whole. Again, such dissociation, if it occurs, must have an effect upon
the energy of the gas out of all proportion to the effect which it has
upon its temperature. Take, for example, the case of a mixture formed
by the explosion of CO and air and containing 10 per cent. of CO, the
remainder being nitrogen. If, by heating, one tenth part of the CO,
be split up into CO and oxygen, the resulting change of pressure of the
whole mixture will be only one two-hundredth part ; but this amount of
dissociation could only be effected by the absorption of an amount of
heat of the order of 10 per cent. of the total heat of combustion of the
gas. In other words, the mean specific heat of the mixture, as deter-
mined by the explosion, would be roughly 10 per cent. lower than if
there had been no dissociation. Any considerable departure from the
gas-laws in such a mixture, if it be ascribed to dissociation at all, must
therefore be put down to dissociation of the nitrogen, which might con-
ceivably occur at 2000° C., just as iodine vapour is dissociated at a much
lower temperature. It does not seem likely, h »wever, that if nitrogen
dissociates its splitting-up would be accompanied by any visible change
in its physical properties, such as is observed in the case of iodine. The
phesomenon in this case would be rendered evident only by the departure
from the gas-law, and possibly by absorption of heat.

It would appear, therefore, that our knowledge of thermometry at
these temperatures is more likely to be advanced by direct experiments
on the relation between the pressure or volume and the temperature
than by looking for other evidences of dissociation. The difficulty in
carrying the comparison of different gas-thermometers to very high
temperatures has hitherto Jain in the absence of any material sufficiently
refractory to withstand such temperatures, and at the same time suf-

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. ooo

ficiently impervious to the gas. Dr. Harker, to whom the Committee
are greatly indebted for much information upon this subject, believes,
however, that he is now in possession of a material which will satisfy
both of these conditions up to a temperature of 1800° C., and he has
suggested that an attempt should be made to compare thermometers
constructed with nitrogen, with CO,, and with argon up to that
temperature. If the nitrogen and argon thermometers are found to
agree, then, by reason of the great difference in the constitution of
these gases, it is almost certain, as explained above, that each agrees
with the thermodynamic scale. If, on the other hand, they do not
agree, then the presumption is in favour of the argon thermometer,
because this gas is supposed to be monatomic and to be incapable of
dissociation. The Committee venture to express a hope that a research
on these lines will be commenced and carried to a conclusion. They
believe that the results obtained will be of very great importance in
the investigation of explosions and in the theory of the gas-engine, and
it seems to them an inquiry eminently fitted for the National Paysical
Laboratory.

Tbe comparison of gas thermometers is, however, not the only way
in which the problem of thermometry at high temperatures may be
attacked. Another method, and one that is more satisfactory in some
ways because it is more fundamental, is to investigate the dependence
of the energy upon the density of the gas. As pointed out at the
commencement of this Report, any interdependence between energy and
density at a given temperature must be accompanied by a corresponding
deviation from the perfect gas-law, and investigation of change of energy
with density must be the ultimate basis of gas thermometry. The Joule-
Thomson experiment was, of course, of this character. Since then Joly
has determined the change of specific heat of CO, at pressures ranging
up to the critical pressure. But these determinations refer only to
temperatures of the order of 100° C. As was pointed out at the
commencement of the section of this Report dealing with explosions,
the corresponding measurement at very high temperatures can be very
easily made when once the various corrections necessary to determine
internal energy by explosion experiments have been satisfactorily per-
formed. It is only necessary to compare the pressures reached “in
explosions of mixtures identical in composition but of different density.
Should the pressures after explosion, when corrected, be proportional to
the pressures before explosion, then the energy is independent of the
density, and we have proof that the gas-law hclds up to the temperature
reached by the combustion. On the other hand, a departure from the
proportionality would imply a corresponding departure from the
gas-laws, the amount of which could be calculated. Mallard, Le
Chatelier, and Langen have made very careful comparisons of this kind,
and they have found that the actual maximum pressures reached in the
explosions are in many cases very approximately proportional to the
pressures before explosion. Petavel has found that this proportionality
is not much altered even when the density of the gas is increased
seventy times. This may be regarded to some extent as*evidence that
there is no very great difference between the gas scale and the thermo-
dynamic scale at the temperatures of 1700°, or more, which were reached
in these experiments. But it must be observed that this inference is
subject to the same limitations as the determinations of internal energy

304 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

based upon these experiments. It cannot be regarded as having a secure
foundation until the various doubtful questions in regard to heat loss
and delayed combustion, which have been raised above in this connection,
have been satisfactorily determined.

The Committee think that they can usefully continue their work in
the direction of suggesting, and to some extent organising, research
on the lines which have been foreshadowed in this Report. Research
of this kind is expensive, and the Committee are of opinion that their
work would be greatly facilitated if they had some funds at their
command, They therefore recommend that they be reappointed, and
ask for a grant of 100/.

APPENDIX.

The Deviation of Actual Gases from the Ideal State, and on Experimental
Errors in the Determination of their Specific Heats. By Professor
H. L. Catrenpar, W.A., LL.D., F.R.S. ;

1. The equation pv=Ré, where @ is absolute temperature, is the
characteristic equation of a fluid which (1) obeys Boyle’s Law at all
temperatures, and (2) has the difference of its specific heats constant
and equal to R. The specific heat at constant volume or pressure may
vary in any manner with temperature, provided that the difference of
the two is constant ; but both specific heats must be independent of the
pressure or density.

For the majority of common gases or vapours (excluding those which
polymerise, like sulphur) the deviations from Boyle’s Law, as measured by
the defect (R#/p—v) of the actual volume from the ideal volume, at
moderate pressures (say up to ten atmospheres) are to a first approxima-
tion a function-of the temperature only, and diminish rapidly with rise
of temperature. On this assumption tables of correction for the gas-
thermometer have been independently calculated by Callendar! and
D. Berthelot ? for various gases when employed in the usual manner.
The corrections are very small, and agree very closely, though calculated
on slightly different assumptions. The differences are much too small
to be taken into account in gas-engine experiments.

In dealing with a mixture of gases and vapours at high temperatures,
the method of procedure is necessarily somewhat different from the case
of the gas-thermometer, and the tabulated corrections do not apply. The
effective temperature of the mixture is calculated from the value of
the product pv/R, assuming that the composition of the mixture is
known, and that the constant R has the same value per gramme molecule
for each of the constituents as for an ideal gas. The errors involved in
this method will be small, and will diminish with rise of temperature,

provided that the constituents do not dissociate or polymerise. The.

experimental evidence at present available with regard to dissociation
would indicate that the error of this assumption is certainly less than

1 per cent. for a gas-engine mixture at 2000° ©., if the composition of

the products of combustion is known.

1 Phil. Mag., January 1903. * Trav. et Mém. Bur. Int., Paris, 1903.

—— a

je
co
© ’

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS.

Effective Temperature and Effective Specific Heat.

2. Since the temperature of a mass of gas, when exploded in a closed
vessel or in the cylinder of a gas-engine is far from uniform, and since
the actual distribution of temperature is necessarily somewhat uncertain,
it is evident that the variation of the specific heats of the constituents
with temperature cannot be certainly deduced from a knowledge of the
heats of combustion and the effective temperature, even apart from
difficulties inseparably connected with the determination of the cooling
corrections. It is possible, however, by explosion experiments to deduce
values of the apparent or effective specific heats which, in so far as they
approximate to the conditions actually existing in the gas-engine, may be
of greater practical utility than the true specific heats would be if they
could be independently determined. The method of Dugald Clerk, in
which the specific heat is directly determined from the work done on
the charge after ignition, appears to be particularly appropriate for this
purpose.

It is well known that the values of the specific heats deduced from
explosion experiments are generally higher than those deduced by more
direct methods, and it has been customary to explain the discrepancy
largely by possible errors inherent in the explosion method. Such errors
undoubtedly exist, and require careful investigation, but in arriving at
a decision it is most important to subject other experimental methods to
an equally close scrutiny.

Experimental Errors in the Determination of the Specific Heats of Gases
by the Constant-pressure Method,

3, Apart from errors in the measurement of the temperature of the
gas and of the calorimeter, which are not likely to be serious at low
temperatures, there is an important source of error in this method, as
applied by Regnault and subsequent observers, which has generally been
overlooked. In Regnault’s experiments, the rate of gain of heat from
the heating vessel by the calorimeter was observed before and after the
experiment proper, while the gas was not passing through the connecting
tube, and was assumed to be the same whether the gas was passing
or not. The correction amounted, when the heater was at 200° C., to
between 4 per cent. and 5 per cent. of the heat supplied by the gas.

The effect of the gas current would certainly be to change the
temperature gradient in the connecting tube in such a manner as to
diminish the heat conducted from the heater during the passage of the
gas. The error from this cause cannot be exactly determined, but would
probably amount to between 2 per cent. and 3 per cent. in Regnault’s
experiments at 200° C., and would have the effect of making the values
as determined hy Regnault too low. The true variation of the specific
heat of water was unknown in Regnault’s time, and he was also unable
to correct his thermometers accurately to the absolute scale. These
considerations introduce minor uncertainties which might amount to ag
much as | per cent. on the result.

The specific heat of air considered as a mixture of perfect diatomic
gases, taking the calorie at 20° C. as equivalent to 4:180 joules, should
be 0:2405. Since air is not a perfect gas the actual value must be some-
what greater than this. Regnault’s value, 0°2375, is evidently too low,

336 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

E. Wiedemann obtained the value 0:2389 by a method similat tu
Regnault’s. This value is probably affected by a similar error.

J. Joly measured the mean specific heat of air at constant volume,
and at densities 7 to 22 times normal, by the method of the steam
calorimeter, between 10° and 100° C. This method has the advantage
of avoiding the majority of the sources of error above mentioned.
Joly’s value for air at constant volume when reduced to the calorie at
20° C. and to normal density, would be 0:1732, which corresponds to a
value 0°2419 for the specific heat at constant pressure at a temperature of
55° C.! This is a far more probable value than Regnault’s, but it must
be observed that the extrapolation of the experiments to atmospheric
pressure involves some uncertainty.

The specific heats of air and CO, at atmospheric pressure and at tem-
peratures of 20° and 100° C. have recently been determined by Swann at
the Royal College of Science by the continuous electric method previously
employed by Callendar? in the case of steam. In this method the actual
specific heat at any point is determined by observing the rise of tempera-
ture produced in a steady current of gas at the required temperature
by supplying a measured quantity of electric energy. This method
is better adapted than Regnault’s for determining the variation of the
specific heat, because it gives the actual specific heat over a small range
(about 5°) at the required point in place of the mean specific heat over
alarge range. It has also the advantage that systematic errors may be
more completely eliminated.

The values obtained by Swann for the specific heat of air at atmo-
spheric pressure in terms of the calorie at 20° C. equivalent to 4:180
joules were :—

S=0:2415 at 20° C., and S=0-2425 at 100° C.

His value at 55° C. is in very good agreement with that deduced above
from Joly’s experiments by the constant-volume method. Adopting a
linear formula, we have for the specific heat at any temperature, ¢, be-
tween 0° and 100° C,

§,=0-2413(1 +0:00005¢) (Swann).

Holborn and Austin * and Holborn and Henning? extended Regnault’s
method for the determination of the mean specific heat to temperatures
up to 840°C. In working at these high temperatures the difficulties of
the method are greatly increased. They found it necessary to employ
electric heating and to connect the heater to the calorimeter by a porce-
lain tube in order to diminish conduction. The temperature of the hot
gas was observed with a thermo-couple near the entrance to the calori-
meter. The time of flow was about three minutes in each experiment,
and the corrections were estimated by observing the rate of change of
temperature of the calorimeter before and after each observation. There
appeared to be some doubt whether the couple would give the true mean
temperature of the gas-flow, especially as the time of flow was so short,
sor this and other reasons the authors do not lay great stress on the

! Callendar, Phil. Mag., January 1903, p. 76.
2 Proc. R.S., 1900.

8 Sitz. Akad. Wiss., Berlin, 1905, p. 175,

4 Wied, Ann., 18, 1905, p. 739,

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS, 837

accutacy of the absolute values of the specific heats obtained, but consider
that the ratios or relative values, and the rates of increase with tempera-
ture, are more likely to be correct than the absolute values, because the
various sources of error which they discuss are more likely to be elimi-
nated in the relative values.

The value found for the mean specific heat of air over the range 115°
to 270° C. by Holborn and Henning was -2315, which is about 5 per
cent. smaller than the probable value over this range. For the rate of
increase of the mean specific heat they gave the formula :

S,, =8,(1+°00004¢) (Holborn and Austin),

but considered that the rate of increase shown by their experiments was
within the limits of probable accuracy of their work, and that it could not
be regarded as certainly established that there was any increase over the
range of their experiments.

. Later experiments by Holborn and Henning! with a platinum
heating tube, extending to 1400° C., were made by a similar method,
except that the gain of heat by the calorimeter from the heating tube
was partly compensated by surrounding the calorimeter at 115° C. with a

‘jacket maintained at a much lower temperature. This compensation was
found necessary at high temperatures in order to prevent an excessively
rapid rise of temperature of the calorimeter ; but although it reduces the
apparent magnitude of the correction for gain of heat by the calorimeter,
it does not diminish the actual amount of heat transferred and does not
reduce the uncertainty of the correction. The magnitude of the effect at
high temperatures may be judged from the fact that it was found neces-
sary in the experiments at 1400° C. to maintain the jacket at as low a
temperature as 40° C. by passing a stream of cooling water through it in
order to prevent the calorimeter rising above 115° C. when no gas was
passing. Under such conditions the calorimetric corrections become so
uncertain that the probability of systematic errors must increase con-
siderably with rise of temperature. If the method gives a probable error
of 5 per cent. in defect over the range 115° to 270° C. it does not seem
at all impossible that the error may amount to 10 per cent. over the
range 115° to 1400° C.

The rate of increase of the mean specific heat of nitrogen at atmo-
spheric pressure between 840° and 1340° C., shown by the later experi-
ments, was about double that found in the earlier serics. Both series of
experiments could be represented within the limits of probable error by
the linear formula

S,, = °2350(1 + 000084) (Holborn and Henning).

It appears probable, however, that the value of the specific heat at 0? C,
given by the formula is too low, and that the rate of increase is not
uniform, but increases with rise of temperature to some extent in the case
of nitrogen.

Specific Heat of CO,.

4. Similar remarks apply to the determination of the specific heat of
CO, by the same methods, but the case of CO, is of special interest on
account of the rapid variation observed at ordinary temperatures, The

' Wied, Ann., 28, 1907, p. 809,
1908, ; Z

308 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Vv

following table gives the specific heats of CO, according to different
observers at 0° and 100° C, :—

Temperature Regnault Wiedemann | ~ Swann | Holborn
0° 0:1870 01952 . 01973 0°2628
100° 0 2145 0:2169 0:2213 02161
Increase. . 0:0275 0:0217 | 0:0240 | 0:0133

The value of the mean specific heat at constant pressure from 10° to
100° ©. deduced from Joly’s experiments at constant volume is 0-2120,
which is nearly 5 per cent. higher than Regnault’s value at this tempera-
ture, but agrees as closely as can be expected with that found by Swann.
The variation of the specific heat with density observed ky Joly agrees
very closely with that calculated by Callendar’ from the experiments’ of
Joule and Thomson on the cooling effect in expansion through a porous

lug.
: The rate of increase of the specific heat between 20° and 100° C.
observed by Swann is nearly a mean between the rates given by Regnault
and Wiedemann, but is much larger than that found by Holborn and
Henning, or deduced by Langen from explosion experiments. It is
probable that the variation is not linear, but that the rate of increase
diminishes with rise of temperature, as indicated by Mallard and
Le Chatelier’s formula, which would make the specific heat a maximum
at 1700° C. The latter formula differs from Holborn and Austin’s by
more than 20 per cent. at 800° C, The explanation appears to be partly
that Regnault’s value for the rate of increase at 100° C., adopted by
Mallard and Le Chatelier, is too high, but chiefly that Holborn and
Austin’s values, as already explained in the case of air, are systematically
too low, and that the error increases with rise of temperature.

Specific Heat of Steam.

5. Regnault’s value 0-475 for the specific heat of steam at atmo-
spheric pressure over the range 125° to 220° C. was obtained by taking
the difference between the total heats of steam, superheated to these
temperatures, as observed by condensing the steam in a calorimeter.
Since the ditference, corresponding to 100° superheat, is only ;4th of the
total heat measured in either case, it is evident that the method might
give rise to large errors. For this reason many writers have preferred
to deduce the specific heat of steam theoretically in various ways from
Regnault’s value of the rate of change of the total heat of saturated
steam, namely, 305 cal. per 1° C., which, however, really involves the
same source of errer in an aggravated form. Thus Zeuner gives
S = 0:568 ; Perry,? S=0:306 at 0° C. to 0°464 at 210° C. ; Grindley *
0:387 at 100° C. to 0°665 at 160° C.

A direct measurement of the specific heat of steam by the continuous
electric method gave S = 0°497 at 108° C.* Subsidiary experiments, in
conjunction with Professor Nicolson,” by the throttling calorimeter method

1 Phil. Mag., January 1903, p. 78. ® Steam Engine, 1899, p, 582.
® Phil, Trans., 1898. * Callendar, Proc, R,S., 1900,
5 McGill College, 1897,

es

a a e

ON GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS, 539

enabled the variation of the specific heat with pressure to be calculated,
These gave the formula

S, = 0°478 + 0:0242 p (373/0)*? (Callendar)

where p is the pressure in atmospheres. The approximate constancy of
the limiting value 0°478 of the specific heat at zero pressure over the
range 0° to 200° C. was verified by calculating the corresponding values
of the saturation pressure, which were found to agree accurately with
Regnault’s observations over the whole range. The theory was also
verified by a measurement of the ratio of the specific heats of steam by
Makower,' which gave values 1:303 to 1:307, agreeing closely with that
deduced by Callendar.

The experiments of Lorenz,? and of Knoblauch and Jacob and Linde 3
afforded a remarkable verification of the theory of the variation of the
specific heat with pressure. They found the specific heat at 1 atmo,
to be practically constant over the range 100° to 300° C., but their value,
namely, 0°463, is decidedly lower than Regnault’s.

Holborn and Henning,‘ in their experiments on the specific heat of
steam at atmospheric pressure, improved Regnault’s method by employ-
ing an oil calorimeter at 110° C. so as to avoid condensing the steam in
the calorimeter. They determined the ratio of the specific heat of steam
to that of air by passing currents of air and steam in succession through
the apparatus under similar conditions, and obtained the following values
of the ratio for different intervals of temperature :—

Temperature Interval , 110°-270° 110°-440° 110°-620° 110°-s20°
Ratio/Steam: Air , . 1-940 1:958 1-946 1-998

In their subsequent series with a platinum heating-tube at higher
temperatures they obtained the following ratios :—

Temperature Interval . 115°-826° 115°-1180° 115°-1324°
Ratio/Steam: Air . ¢ 1-900 1973 2003

The second series appears to make the ratio about 5 per cent. lower
at 110°-820° than the first, whch suggests the posstbility of constant
errors depending on the type of apparatus employed or on the velocity
of the gas-current. The experiments of Callendar and Swann would
make the ratio 2-05 at 100° C., which is higher than any of the values
obtained by Holborn and Henning at 1400° C.

Holborn and Henning point out that their results at 1400° C.
cannot be reconciled in the case of steam and CO, with any of the
results of explosion methods. They are 6 per cent. to 13 per cent. lower
than Langen’s, which are among the lowest. But having regard to the
fact that the constant-pressure method which they empioyed appears to
give results so much lower than Joly’s or Callendar’s methods at ordinary
, temperatures, and that the experimental difficulties increase so greatly
at higher temperatures, it does not seem at all improbable that a
considerable part of the discrepany is to be attributed to systematic
errors of the constant-pressure method,

' Phil, Mag., February 1903,

2 Forsoh. Ver. Deut. Ing., 21, 1908, p. 93.
® Loe. eit., pp. 1 and 35, 1906, p. 109,

' 1nn, Phys. xviii. 1905, p. 739.

ho

N

340 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

On the Cause of the Variation of Specific Heat.

6. It appears from theory that the energy of translation and
rotation of the molecules of an ideal gas should vary in direct pro-
portion to the product pv. ‘The internal energy of vibration of the
molecules, however, which is related to the absorption or emission of
radiation must vary by the Stokes-Kirchhoff law in relation to the full
radiation of a black body at the same temperature. According to
Planck’s formula, which has been verified over a very wide range, the
energy of full radiation corresponding to wave-length L in full radiation,
varies with the temperature according to the expression

dG om B(eh ts — 1)
L

the value of the constant cis 14,700 if L is measured in microns, p, or
millionths of a meter. The energy of vibration of a molecule which
is in equilibrium with full radiation at any temperature will depend on
the extent to which its free periods of vibration respond, as indicated
qualitatively by its absorption spectrum. Those periods which respond
very strongly may produce an appreciable effect on the specific heat.

It happens, for instance, that CO, has a very marked absorption
band at 15y, nearly, which can be detected even when the gas is present
in small quantities in the atmosphere. So far as this particular mode
of vibration is concerned, the specific heat would increase most rapidly
at ordinary temperatures, which is actually observed to be the case
with CO,. According to Planck’s formula, the effect of any mode of
vibration would be a maximum when @ is infinite, and would then
contribute the term C/cL‘ to the mean specific heat ; but for L=15yu
the effect would have already reached within about 10 per cent. of the
possible maximum at 2000°. According to Wien’s original formula

B=:0L-e-e
L

which holds very well for short wave-lengths and low temperatures,
but appears to fail when L@ is large, the energy E would reach a fin'te
lim‘t CL-° when @ is infinite, and the specific heat for L=15y would
reach a maximum when 6=500°. This does not appear to agree so well
with the changes of specific heat actually observed.

In the case of steam it appears that there are no equally well-
marked absorption bands corresponding to strong natural periods of
vibration, in the range of the heat spectrum available for investigation.
The very high dielectric constant of water for short electric waves has
been taken to indicate that there is a period of marked resonance very
low*down in the spectrum in the unexplored field between the shortest
electric waves and the longest heat waves hitherto obtainable, This
might account for the relatively high value of the specific heat of water
and steam at ordinary temperatures. It must be remembered, how-
ever, that’ the absorption spectrum is very complicated and difficult. to
investigate 'beyond the limits of photography. Moreover, it is very
difficult to deduce, except in a qualitative manner, the relative intensities
of the energy corresponding to each absorption band. An absorption
band may appear strongly marked in a thick layer of absorbent, which
really corresponds to a very small amount of energy. For this reason

ON GASEOUS BXPLOSIONS. bAL

hv quantitative estimation of the effects of vibration of the molecules on
the specific heat is possible at the present stage of knowledge, but it is
important to bear the possibility of such effects in mind as a guide for
future investigat‘on,

Megalithic Remains in the British Isles —Report of the Comuuittee,
consisting of Professor W. RipGeway (Chairman), Dr. G. A.
AupEN (Secretary), Dr. H. A. Aupen, Mr. G. L. Gomme,
Professor J. L. Myres, and Mr. F. W. RupLer, appointed to
report on the best means of registering and classifying systematically
Megalithic Remains in the British Isles.

THE Committee was appointed at the York Meeting (1906) of the Asso-
ciation, and made an interim report at the Leicester Meeting (Report
Brit. Assoc., Leicester, 1907, p. 391). The present report brings the work
of the Committee to an end.

The Committee’s first task was to inquire what means are adopted in
other countries for the registration and classification of megalithic monu-
ments. In this task the Committee has received valuable assistance
from foreign scholars, and particularly from Dr. Oscar Montelius, Dr.
Sophus Miller, Herr Haakon Schetelig, and M. Salomon Reinach. To
these distinguished colleagues the Committee desires to express its most
hearty thanks.

The Committee desires to point out, in the first place, that in regard
to Scotland and to Wales its task has been greatly simplified by the
recent appointment of official Commissions to report upon the historical
monuments of those countries. For it is obviously within the scope of
these Commissions to register and classify megalithic remains ; and all
future investigations by individual observers or by local organisations
should be carried out in co-operation with these Commissions.

Neither England nor Ireland is as yet provided with an official Com-
mission of this kind ; and the Committee strongly urges that the British
Association should use its influence vigorously and promptly to secure
the creation of such Commissions at the earliest opportunity. Every
year’s delay means damage or dangerous neglect of one or more of these
monuments and the loss of some part of those local traditions concerning
them which are so valuable an element in our knowledge. Pending the
appointment of such official Commissions for England and for Ireland,
the Committee desires to indicate briefly the means which exist already
for registration and classification such as is contemplated.

The Ordnance Survey has devoted considerable attention to the
record of all early remains and of megalithic monuments among the rest,
and possesses much valuable material for more detailed description and
registration. The Committee recommends that local observers should
put themselves in communication with the Ordnance Survey in the
event of the discovery of new monuments or of new evidence as to
existing monuments.

The ‘Victoria County Histories,’ now in course of publication, are
providing in the case of England (though not for Ireland) a very

842 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

systematic survey and register of all ancient remains, and also the out:
lines of a classification of them. The Committee recommends that local
observers should put themselves in communication with the editors of
these ‘ Histories’ (2 Orange Street, Leicester Square, W.C.), with the
object of making this record complete and of reducing the risk of
overlap and duplication. The Committee submits this recommendation
more particularly to the consideration of the Conference of Delegates of
Corresponding Societies.

Finally the Committee desires to impress upon the British Association
- the serious risk to megalithic monuments which results from the present
inadequate provisions and ineffective working of the Ancient Monuments
Act. The registration and classification of megalithic monuments falls
clearly within the proper province of an official inspector of ancient
monuments ; and in other countries, which value their monuments, the
work in question usually forms one of the duties of such an inspector.

Notes and Queries in Anthropology.—Interim Report of the Committee,
consisting of Mr. C. H. Reap (Chairman), Professor J. L. MyRes
(Secretary), Professor D. J. Cunnincuam, Mr. E. N. FALLAaIzE,
Dr. A. C. Happon, Mr. 'T’. A. Joyce, Dr. C. S. Myers, and Dr.
W. H. R. Rivers, appointed to prepare a new edition of Notes and
Queries in Anthropology.

Tuk work of revision, of which an outline was given in last year’s
report, has been continued ; but it has not yet been thought desirable to
begin the reprinting. The Committee, therefore, has incurred no ex-

penditure, and wishes to be reappointed, with renewal of the originai
grant 4
grant,

Hecavations on Roman Nites in Britain.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor J. L. Myres (Chairman), Professor R, €.
BosanqueEr (Secretary), Sir Epwarp Brasroox, Dr. T. AsHBy,
Mr. D. G. Hogarts, and Professor W. RipGEway, appointed to
co-operate with Local Committees in Excavations on Roman Nites
in Britain.

THE Committee has made grants of 5/. in each case in aid of exca-
vations on Roman sites at Caerwent, at Corbridge, and at Gelligaer, near
Cardiff. In each case the grant has been made on the same conditions as
in former years ; namely, that it should be applied to carry out special
investigations in regard either to pre-Roman remains found in the course
of the excavations already in progress, or to non-Roman objects such as
plant and animal remains, which might otherwise have been put on one
side. The Appendices A and B show the mode in which the grants made
by the Committee have been expended at Caerwent and at Corbridge

ON EXCAVATIONS ON ROMAN SITES IN BRITAIN, 343

respectively. The work at Gelligaer has not gone far enough to be
included in the present report, but a summary of it will be submitted in

due course.
The Committee asks to be reappointed with a further grant,

APPENDIX A.

Report on Plant Remains found in Excavations on the Roman Site at
Caerwent, 1907. By Artuur H. Lye,

The specimens of soil from wells and drains were practically, devoid
of seeds, only a very few specimens existing in a large bulk of material
examined, and of these there is unfortunately nothing new to report.

A few fragments of bone and insects were also found, the former of
which have been identified by Mr. E. T, Newton, and are given below.

Plant Remains.

House V.—Well T (82). House VN.—From bottom of Well T (84),
Elder 3 . (Sambucus nigra). White Goosefoot (Chenopodium album),
White Goosefoot (Chenopodium album). | Dock. : . (Rumez crispus ?),
(Polygonum). Nettle : . (Urtica divica).

Dock. 5 . (Rumes Acetosa ?),
Top of Drain under wall of House XVI,

Grain of Wheat (Triticum),

Bones,
House VN.—Box Drain 8. end T(93).. | Top of Drain under wall of House XVI
Roebuck phalange, Vole.
Vole tooth. ; Shrew.
Bird fragment. Blindworm.
Blindworm vertebra, Fish fragments.

APPENDIX B.

Report of Work on Pre-Roman and Natural History Remains
at Corbridge, 1907-98.

A. Pre-Roman Remains.—It has often been maintained that a pre-
Roman settlement existed at Corbridge, and Henry MacLauchlan ' held
that such a settlement would explain the fact that the Roman road from
the south descends into the Tyne valley near Riding Mill, but does not
at once cross the Tyne ; instead it follows the south bank for two miles
till opposite the site of Corstopitum. Accordingly a careful search was
made for prehistoric objects, and in particular a large trench, 80 feet
long, 5 feet wide, and in general 11 or 12 feet deep, was dug across the
lower part of the portion of the site under examination, under the

' Memoir written during a Survey of the Roman Wall in 1852-4 (London 1858),

344 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. ,

superintendence of Mr. C. L. Woolley. This spot when first tested seemed
to offer signs of an old inhabited surface below and previous to the Roman
occupation. But the complete trenching showed that the appearance
was deceptive or at least insufficient to prove any definite settlement.
Between the lowest Roman deposit and the wholly untouched soil were
two strata—two at the north or upper end of the long trench and one at
the south end near tlie river. The upper stratum was 3 inches thick at
its north end, and there consisted of black or burnt matter. Further
south it was composed of sandy clay, through which the stems of
plants and reeds ran perpendicularly. The lower stratum was a thin
layer of the same sandy clay containing a number of small flint chip-
pings. The upper part of the untouched soil beneath this layer was full
of the root-fibres of grass, &c., carbonised or decayed black. A few
rough flint-flakes and + scrapers also occurred loose in the upper soil on
other parts of the site, and one or two were picked up in the excavations
of 1906.

B. Bones.—Many specimens of bones were submitted to Professor
A. Meek. He reports the following :—Dog, pig, sheep, red deer, pony,
cattle (including a calf), fox, badger, roe deer, swan, pheasant (13 feet
deep), lower jaw of European beaver, partridge, grouse, oyster-shells from
the sea, shell of mytilus (marine mussel), and many snail-shells found
between two concrete floors, Helix aspersa (many), nemoralis. (a few),
hortensis (a few), and rotundata (one), all now common at Corbridge.
These snails may, of course, be of recent origin. Professor Meek observes
that the Bos longifrons was represented by a great variety of sizes ; the
majority were about the size of the present Chillingham cattle ; but some.
were as large as our shorthorns, while one skull indicates a small,
possibly wild, variety allied to the Chillinghams. One or two jaws had
the absence of the first premolar which characterises the Chillingham.

C. Geology.—Various sections were examined by Professor Lebour,
and his explanations considerably aided the work; but no results of a
new geological kind emerged.

Archeological and Ethnographical Researches in Crete.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Sir JoHN Evans (Chairman), Professor J. L.
Myres (Secretary), Professor R. C. Bosanquet, Dr. A. J. Evans,
Mr. D. G. Hocartu, Professor A. MacaListER, and Professor W.
RIDGEWAY.

Tur Committee was reappointed in 1907 without grant ; but it has been
in communication with Mr. C. H. Hawes, whose valuable researches on
the physical characters of the population of Crete were reported in 1903,!
with the object of inducing him to make another expedition to Crete.
There is now every reason to believe that, if a sufficient grant be forth-
coming, Mr. Hawes will be in a position to carry out this plan, and
complete his investigation under the most favourable conditions.

' Proc. Brit. Assoc., 1905, South Africa, p. 208.

ON ARCHZOLOGICAL AND ETHNOGRAPHICAL RESEARCHES IN CRETE. 3105
An interim report from Mr, Hawes is appended :—

In 1905, at the request of the Cretan Committee of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science, [ went to Crete to follow
up Dr. Duckworth’s investigations of the physical characters of the
ancient and modern Cretans.'

Four months spent in the island enabled me to travel from village to
village throughout the length and breadth, thus avoiding the plan often
imposed on the anthropologist from want of time, of culling his data from
police, prison or other institution.

In the first place I excavated at Palaikastro, and later made occa-
sional trial ‘digs’ en route. At Candia I examined some skulls dis-
covered since Dr. Duckworth’s visit, and the rest of the time was spent
by me in journeying to and fro in the island.

In excavating at Palaikastro I came upon several interments of about
the Third Late Minoan period in ‘larnakes,’ but the majority of the
crania in them were too much crushed by the fallen earth to be accurately
measured. Those that could be determined, together with other skulls
found since Dr. Duckworth’s inspection, at Knossos, Aghia Triadha,
Konmasa, and near Gournia, and measured by me in the Museum at
Candia, amount to eleven only.

Of these eleven, four belong to the same Early and Middle Minoan
periods as those measured by Dr. Duckworth ; one is dolichocephalic,
one is brachycephalic, and two are mesocephalic. Of the other seven
belonging to the Third Late Minoan, three are mesocephalic and four
are brachycephalic.

These skulls are, of course, too few to base any theory upon, yet it is
significant that the large proportion of brachycephalism at the close of
the Bronze Age tallies with archeological evidence as to an invasion of
peoples from the north ; and while Dr. Duckworth’s figures go far to
prove the affinity of the Early and Middle Minoans with the Mediter-
ranean race, he would be the first to admit the importance of the
brachycephalic element which we have seen to be present even in these
early times.

Any attempt to determine the origin of these broad heads must be as
yet in the nature of a guess. From Africa at this early period we expect
only long heads ; from Italy, the Greek mainland, and the coast regions
of Asia Minor a similar race. There remain the Transbalkan area and
the uplands of Asia Minor. nee ;

The Anatolian highlands were inhabited at this period by the so-called
Hittites, who from: ancient skulls and traces in the modern population
have been classed by von Luschan as brachycephalic. On the other
hand, it may be that the Alpine race on its westward journey from Irania
to Centra] Europe sent a few stragglers southwards, either direct from
Asia Minor to Crete, or via the Bosphorus and Thessaly. Organised
such offshoots of the Alpine race may have been, but judging from the
condition of their kinsmen who built the early Lake Dwellings of Switzer-
land, they must have been a primitive folk, yet in the Neolithic stage,
unable to make much impress on the higher civilisation then existing in
Crete, especially since they were few in numbers. For, whether Hittites
or members of the Alpine race, we are concerned with slight infiltrations

+ Proc. Brit, Assoc,, 1903, Southport, p, 404,

346 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

only, probably of a peaceful character. It might be possible, with more
crania, to decide between the two, for the Hittites had probably a greater
admixture of ‘ Armenoid’ skulls than the Alpine, and the characteristic
verticality of the occiput might solve the problem. I can only say that
to-day the Armenoid type is found, especially in the east end of the
island.

In my work of measuring modern Cretans, I planned to get a repre-
sentative collection of records from each eparkhy, and fuller ones from
such as Sphakia, which had special attractions, In each of these political
divisions I gathered my data from highland and lowland, mountain and
plain ; I failed, however, to traverse the eparkhies of Kissamos and Selino,
although I cbtained records of sixty-nine persons hailing from them.
On the borders of Kydhonia and Sphakia I had been attacked in a lonely
mountain pass, and although this did not prevent the continuation of my
work, the situation was more difficult in the two neighbouring eparkhies,
which were then witnessing a struggle between the insurgents and the
international troops.

In the great majority of cases I measured the maximum head length
and breadth, stature, nasal length and breadth, maximum circumference
of head, facial length and breadth, nasal-, alveolar-, and altitudinar-radii,
and the inter-ocular breadth. I recorded the colour and character of the
hair, complexion, colour of eyes, shape of face, prominence of cheek-
bones and jaws, flatness of ears and presence of lobes, together with full
genealogical data.

Tn all about 29,000 observations and measurements were made upon
1440 persons. Although tact was required, the work of getting people
to be measured was not so difficult as it might seera. On the other hand,
it was almost out of the question to persuade women to be the subjects
of one’s inquiries and it was not an easy matter to overcome the shyness
of Mussulmans. The records include 24 only of the former and 124 of
the latter.

In the following statements I have included, where possible, Dr,
Duckworth’s records with my own :—

The average breadth or cephalic index for 1600 modern Cretans (¢)
is 79°2, andstature for 1563 is 1686 mm. These are the two available
characters of the 62 ( ¢) ancient skulls of the Early and Middle Minoan
period and a comparison as follows :—

Modern - Breadth index 79-2 corrected to cranial index (79:2—2-0) =77:2
Ancient » Cranialindex . > 5 F - . . . =73°4
Modern . Stature - . ° ‘ - ; 1686 mm
Ancient 4 ei (estimated) , * fe 4 Peer : 1625 ,,

shows a broadening of the cranium and an increase of stature.

This brachycephalic tendency began early in the Bronze Age, if not
indeed in the Neolithic Age, but in the figures at our disposal only
amounted to 8} per cent. of the whole, Judging from the scanty material
the minority of broad heads was unimportant until the end of the Bronze
period.

This broadening tendency seems to have continued into modern times.
To what are we to attribute it? To dismiss two possible theories, I do
not credit this result to either artificial selection or civilisation. If any-
where, sexual selection might have been expected to have played its part
in producing those Cretans most noted for their beauty, the inha-

a

ON ARCHEOLOGICAL AND ETHNOGRAPHICAL RESEARCHES IN CRETE. 347

bitants of the mountain villages of Anogeia and Lakkoi, the refuges of
the finest and fairest of their womenfolk from the grasp of the Turk.
Yet at Lakkoi I found the breadth index nearly two units (77°4) below
the general average for Crete.

Nor can we fairly assume, as Bogdanov did for Russia, that this
broadening of the crania is due to civilisation, for Crete has only just
begun to be re-civilised, and methods of travel, for instance, are what they
were 1000 or 2000 years ago.

Immigration, in my opinion, have been responsible for the increasing
brachycephalic element.

The first serious contribution may have been at the end of the
Bronze Age. The Sphakiotes, who claim to be descended from the Dorians
and are certainly purer blooded than the rest of Crete, have broader
heads (80:1) than the Cretan average (79-2).

We may pass over the Saracenic invasion, not because its members
must have resembled the natives so closely as to leave little trace, but
since history encourages the belief that few were left after the Byzantine
conquest.

It is different with the Venetian occupation, and I sought in
many directions for traces of this element in the broadening of the head
and the raising of the stature of the modern Cretan. The French his-
torian, Jules Buillot, says that ‘permission was given for mixed mar-
riages (a practice unusual in Venetian colonies) which tended to make
the Venetian colonists good Cretans and lukewarm Catholics.’ On the
other hand, their evacuation in the middle of the eighteenth century
when the Turks captured the island, was complete, and whereas we find
Venetian families in Corfu and the Algean to-day, it is with difficulty
that we can discover any in Crete. Three or four families, the Cornaros
from Carpathos, the Moitso from Cythera, the Dandolo and Modatso
families are met with in the chief cities, Candia, Canea, and Rethymo.

In my efforts to probe this question, I sought eagerly for any names in
villages which boasted of Venetian remains, and in some of these I had
whole lists of the heads of families taken down. Among these Dr.
Jannaris, whom I met at Lakkoi, could recognise none but Cretan
names, with the exception of Venetakis, which he dubbed a nickname
given to the native servant of a Venetian. When measuring in the
Insurgents’ Camp J came upon two men who claimed to be of Venetian
descent one named Markandonakis (Mark Antonio) and the other
Reneris (Renero). Their breadth indices were diverse, respectively 78°5
and 87-3, but the latter from a consideration of all his measurements, «c.,
might have passed for a Venetian.

Several difficulties face the anthropologist in attempting to discover
the Venetian element which, on the whole, I believe, exists in the Cretan
to a small extent. The Venetians did not occupy any one portion
of the island to the exclusion of any other. Therefore any physical
modification is lost to sight in being spread over the whole island. They
are themselves a mixture probably of Alpine and Illyrian stock with the
native, and in height and breadth index are not to be distinguished from
the Turk. Yet I do not despair of being able to separate these elements
after a close and exhaustive analytical study of figures and records.

The last immigration, the Turkish, seems to me of more importance
in our problem. ‘If,’ as Mr. Stillman, U.S. Consul in the sixties of last
century, wrote ; ‘Everything was at the mercy of the Turk, the Cretan

348 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

women included,’ the Turkish soldiery must have been responsible for
some race mixture. The Mussulman population amounted at one time
to at least one-third of the whole, and in 1881 was certainly more than
one-quarter. But these people, though generally called ‘Turki’ on the
island, are not all Turk by provenance, for the great majority are of native
Cretan descent.

Unfortunately their names give us no clue, and individuals can rarely
give any information as to their forbears beyond the second genera-
tion.

The Turk of Asia Minor (though he still remains brachycephalic) is
himself a great mixture, and the problem becomes further involved when
we attempt to discriminate between half-breed descendants of Turks and
Cretan women and Moslems of pure Cretan blood. What we should
expect, however, is a higher cephalic index among the Mussulmans than
among the Christians, and this my figures show.

The average breadth index of 124 Mussulmans is 79°9, and that of the
Christians from the same eparkhies 78:9, Taking the eparkhies in which
the largest number of Mussulmans were measured, the differences exceed
one unit—e.g., 1°8, 1:4, 1:6, and 1:5.

Two Cretan villages bear Slavic names, Sklavopoulos and Vulgaros,
but a list of the names of the inhabitants of the former contains no trace
of Slav nomenclature.

Turning to the other observed difference between the ancient and
modern Cretans, to what are we to attribute the increase in stature? It
is dangerous to build anthropological conclusions on differences in stature.
They are often due to differences in fertility of soil or social condition.
The archeological evidence, however, tells in favour of better conditions
in the Bronze Age rather than the reverse. The effect of fertility is
probably seen in the relatively higher stature in the well-watered west of
the island. The reverse is best illustrated in the case of the arid island
of Gavdos, whose people are descended from Sphakiotes, yet whose mean
stature compares as 1632 mm. to 1713 mm.

Yet Sphakia is only rather better off as to its soil than Gavdos,
and some other explanation must be found for the Sphakiote stature
(194 persons), second to one only in the island, since theirs is a sterile
soil, largely composed of a steeply descending talus on which beats a fierce
Southern sun.

Can it be that their ancestors, the ‘Dorians,’ were tall? Across the
border of the 8000-feet range of the White Mountains another puzzle
awaits us.

Here we have the greatest mean stature in Crete (166 persons),
1720 mm., and it is greater in the mountains than in the plains; for of
150 individuals 79 who live above an altitude of 1000 feet have an
average stature of 1737 mm., whereas 71 living below 1000 feet are
only 1702 mm. in height. The difference in the breadth index is also
well marked ; for the mountaineers it is 77-4 and the lowlanders 80:3.
We have no traditions of special ‘ Dorian’ influence, and the cephalic
index does not favour it; but from time immemorial the Lakkiotes,
who form the majority of these 79 mountaineers, have been noted for
their beauty, stature, and courage. It was among them, and especially
their neighbours in Selino, that I met quite an appreciable number of
auburn or fair-haired and blue-eyed persons. They seem to be the Scotch

ON ARCHEOLOGICAL AND ETHNOGRAPHICAL RESEARCHES IN CRETE, 349

of the island in this respect and in point of stature. They differ from the
Sphakiotes, among whom was no noticeable percentage of blondes. Also
the contrast extends to character. The Sphakiote is dignified, intelligent,
but given to ruses, even to treachery. The Lakkiote is kindly, open-
natured, and brave.

I find, therefore, at present, the relatively great stature and low
cephalic index of the Kydhonian mountaineers difficult to account for.
There are, however, historical considerations which help. Neither the
Venetians nor the Turks ever got a hold upon the highlands, and once
only (in 1866) did the latter succeed in attacking Lakkoi. May not the
low index, 77°4, reflect the absence of admixture with these two peoples ?

The increased stature may be due in some measure to the healthier
climate. Perhaps the greater frequency of blondes may be attributed to
the fact that the finest, fairest, and most beautiful women of the plains
were sent away to the mountains to escape rape by the Turks; but would
this and the tendency for the boldest, strongest, and most venturesome
spirits in the frequent revolutions to retire to the mountains, there to hold
out against the oppresscr—would these account for the greater stature ?

These and many other problems, if they are to yield a solution, must
do so to a further study on the field and mathematical experiments with
the records obtained.

Notes.

Several suggestions occur from a perusal of some of the records, and
I jot them down as tentative.

The Cretans, though mixed, as I have suggested, are, as compared with
other races, only moderately so.

The standard deviation for the whole of Crete

(breadth index), 1600 persons is 41
The standard deviation for all the eparkhies
(head breadth) varies from . “ ° » Alto G1

This last compares with the

Naqada series .
Cairene ,,

bo or

7
0

co or

As between eparkhies the results of a trial of the probable error ot
the means (head breadth) are interesting and puzzling, but may provide
us, when other characters are tried, with a key or keys.

The differences between Upper and Lower Kydhonia are significant of
heterogeneity. The same is true between Upper Kydhonia and Sphakia,
and also between Sphakia and the rest of Crete.

There is no significant difference of race between Upper Kydhonia
and the rest of Crete ; nor is there, and this is puzzling, between Lower
Kydhonia and Sphakia. Can it be that, as we are dealing only with
head breadth, the Turkish and Venetian brachycephalism has done for
Lower Kydhonia what the ‘ Dorian’ has done for Sphakia ?

These experiments suggest more trials, but they also demand more
field work. Among the several questions I want more light on from the
field are : What is the significance of the blonde element in the west of
the island, particularly in Selino, which T have not yet entered? I wish

350 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

to follow up the differences between highlanders and lowlanders more
carefully in the middle and east end of the island ; for Rethymo confirms
Kydhonian differences.

The Armenoid element in the modern Cretan should be investigated,
and any trace of the same sought for in the ancient skulls. I should visit
the village Abadia, which is said to retain Saracenic descendants ; also
examine fully the collection of skulls of the last three hundred years at
the monastery of Aghia Triadha on the Aknoteri peninsula. In addition,
photographs of types are wanted. I should add largely to my Mussulman
records and attempt to get data of the three or four old Venetian
families.

Archeological and Ethnological Investigations in Sardinia.—Report of
the Committee, consisting of Mr. D. G. Hocarts (Chairman), Pro-
fessor R. C. Bosanquet (Secretary), Dr. T. AsHpy, Dr. W. L. H.
DuckwortH, Professor J. L. Myres, and Dr. F. C. SHRUBSALL.

Dr. Dunc4sn MackENZzIE was able to visit Sardinia on behalf of the
British School at Rome last autumn, and spent nearly two months in
the island ; during the last three weeks he was joined by Dr. Thomas
Ashby, Director of the School. His researches were mainly devoted to
the study of the relation between the ‘nuraghi’ and the so-called ‘ tombs
of the giants,’ the latter consisting of long chambers—sometimes as much
as 50 feet long, but only three or four feet broad and high—with a semi-
circular area, inclosed by upright slabs or by walling in front of them ;
and he was able to discover several cases in which the ‘ nuraghe’ and the
tomb seemed to be in such close relation to one another (the latter being
placed on a mound in the neighbourhood of, and easily visible from, the
former) as to make it clear that the former was the fortified habitation,
and the latter the family tomb. This was still clearer in several instances
where the ‘nuraghe’ itself dominated a group of smaller circular buildings,
no doubt dwellings under the protection of the ‘nuraghe,’ and usually
inclosed in a ring wall starting from it. Dr. Mackenzie gave an account
of his researches at an open meeting of the British School held at Rome
in February last. Both he and Dr. Ashby intend to return to Sardinia
in October.

ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES, 351

Anthropometric Investigation in the British Isles.—Report of the Come
mittee, consisting of Professor D. J. CunntncHaM (Chairman), Mr.
J. Gray (Secretary), Dr. A. C. Happon, Dr. C.S. Myers, Professors
J. L. Myres and A. F. Dixon, Mr. FE. N. Favuaize, Sir Epwarp
Brasrook, Mr. G. L. Gomme, Dr. F. C. SuHrussauy, Professor
G. D. THane, Dr. W. McDouGati, Professor M. EH. SApvLer,
Major H. J. M. Burst, Fleet-Surgeon G,.T. CoLLinGwoop, and
Dr. J. KERR.

Tue following Sub-Committees have submitted reports on particular
branches of anthropometry :—

1, An Anatomical Sub-Committee, consisting of the Chairman, the
Secretary, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall (Convener), Dr. T. H. Bryce, Professor
G. D. Thane, Dr. Waterston, Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth.

2, A Physiological Sub-Committee, consisting of the Chairman,
the Secretary, Dr. W., McDougall (Convener), Dr. C. 8. Myers, Dr.
W. H. R. Rivers, Dr. W. D. Halliburton, Mr. A. F. Shand, Mr. W. H.
Winch.

3. A Psychological Sub-Committee, consisting of the same members as
the Physiological Sub-Committee.

4, A Sub-Committee on Environment, consisting of the Chairman,
the Secretary, Sir Edward Brabrook (Convener), Dr. A. C. Haddon,
Dr. Halliburton, Dr. McDougall, Dr. Shrubsall.

5. A Photographic Sub-Committee, consisting of the Chairman, the
Secretary, Professor J. Ju. Myres (Convener), Dr. A. C. Haddon, Mr.
G. L. Gomme, Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth, Mr. A. Abraham, Mr. H.S.
Kingsford.

6. An Educational Sub-Committee, consisting of the Chairman, the
Secretary, Mr. E. N. Fallaize (Convener), Professor M. E. Sadler, Mr.
W. M. Heller, Mr. C. M. Stuart, Dr. F.C. Shrubsall, Dr. C. S. Myers,
Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, Sir Edward Brabrook.

7. A Sub-Committee on Schedules, consisting of the Chairman, the
Secretary, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall, Dr. J. Kerr.

This may be regarded as the final Report of the Anthropometric
Committee. The Committee commenced its work in 1902 by instituting
a preliminary inquiry into the state of anthropometry in the British
Isles. As a result of this inquiry it was made clear that the objects
in view could best be attained by drawing up a uniform and consistent
method of anthropometric investigation. The Committee has therefore
devoted itself for several years to the elaboration of a standard scheme,
and the results of its labours have from time to time been published in
itsannual reports. The present Report sums up the whole of the previous
work of the Committee and embodies some additions and amendments
that have been considered desirable. It consists of three previous
reports re-edited, with the additional work accomplished during the
present year,

In one department the Committee considers that its scheme is still in-
complete—namely, in the method which is suggested for the determinaticn

Sty : REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

of psychological measurements. A considerable amount of excellent.
work has been done on this subject, and some tests made in schools
promise that the method will be of great value; but the psychological
sub-committee considers that further investigation, extending over several
years, may be necessary before a thoroughly satisfactory method can be
arrived at.

Under the circumstances it has been decided to recommend that the
present Committee should not be reappointed, but that a new Committee,
entitled ‘A Committee to promote the installation of anthropometry in
schools and elsewhere, and to establish a system of measuring mental
characters,’ be appointed.

Tn order to maintain continuity in the work it is recommended that
the Chairman and Secretary of the present Committee should be on the
new Committee, and that Sir Edward Brabrook, Dr. A. C. Haddon,
Professor Arthur Thomson (Oxford), Dr. McDougall, Dr. Spearman
(University College, London), and Miss Cooper (Delegacy for Training
Secondary Teachers, St. John’s, Oxford) should be appointed members.
It is recommended that a grant of 5/. should be made to the new
Committee,

THE OBJECTS OF ANTHROPOMETRY.

The objects of anthropometry are in the first place to measure as
exactly as possible the structure and activities of the human body, and in
the second place to measure the factors of the environment with which
changes in man’s structure and activities are associated. The structure
of man is ascertained by measuring a sufficient number of his anatomical
or bodily dimensions, and his activities or functions by measuring such
physiological characters as vision, hearing, smell and tactile sensibility,
and such mental characters as are considered to be of the greatest
importance in human life.

As all these characters vary when subjected for a sufficiently long time
io a changed environment it is important and essential to measure the
principal factors of the environment of the men or groups of men we are
studying. From the data obtained from such complete observations cor-
relations between man and his environment can be ascertained, and we can
thus determine certain of the laws of human evolution, which is the
ultimate object of anthropometry. The knowledge of these laws is of the
highest importance to rulers, statesmen, and all authorities interested in
social reform. Such questions, for example, as that of physical deteriora-
tion, which has recently been the subject of official inquiry in this country,
cun only be satisfactorily dealt with by establishing periodic anthropo-
metry asa nationalinstitution. In addition to these practical applications
the results of anthropometric investigation will be of the greatest value
to science by enabling us to obtain a clearer conception of many problems
of the greatest interest to the anthropologist.

The general outline scheme of this Report is as follows :—

Anatomical dimensions :—
Tntroduction.
Terms defined,
Standard list,
Instruments to be employed,

ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 355

Hair and eye colours :—

Introduction.

Pigmentation standards and meters.

Hair colours.

Eye colours. :

Tables of schemes of classification of hair colours and
of eye colours.

Physiological measurements.
Vision.
Hearing.
Tactile sensibility, &c.
Muscular power.
Spirometer tests.

Psychological measurements.
Environment.

Methods of recording photographic data.
Educational report.

Schedules.

ANATOMICAL DIMENSIONS.

INTRODUCTION.

To obtain successful and uniform results it is absolutely necessary
that the observer should have a clear perception of the anatomical points
between and around which the measurements are made. Certain ana-
tomical terms and surface markings must therefore in the first instance
be defined and explained. For the purpose of obtaining as high a degree
of exactitude as possible in this direction, the Committee have intro-
duced into the Report a series of illustrations of the human body which
have been prepared by the Chairman (Professor D. J. Cunningham) with
the assistance of Dr. David Waterston.

ANATOMICAL TERMS DEFINED,

Acromion.—The sharp border of bone at the top of the outer aspect of
the shoulder. It can be detected most easily by passing the finger from
behind forwards over the upper and outer aspect of the shoulder and
pressing somewhat deeply. It is from the outermost point of the acromion
that measurements are taken.

Anterior superior spine of the iliun.—A rounded projection or pro-
minence which forms the anterior end of the iliac crest, or, in other words,
of the curved upper border of the pelvic or haunch bone. As a rule the
spine does not show with any degree of distinctness on the surface, and
must be chiefly discovered by touch. To do this it is best to pass the finger
from below upwards on the upper and outer aspect of the thigh until it is
arrested by the bony prominence in question.

Canthi (outer and inner).—The angles of meeting of the two eye-

1908, As

lids

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

(ds)
Cr
ASS

Condyles of the humerus.—The projections at the elbow-joint on
either side of the lower end of the humerus or arm-bone. The internal
condyle forms a prominence on the inner side of the limb appreciable to
the eye ; the external condyle, in a person of good muscular development,
does not form a projection on the surface. It can be felt at the bottom
of a slight depression on the posterior aspect of the limb.

Craniwm.—The part of the skull which forms a protective bony cover-
ing for the brain.

Darwinian tubercle.—A small projection very frequently present on
the free edge of the folded border (or helix) of the hinder part of the ear,
near the summit of the auricle (see figs. ] and 2). It is the morphological
apex of the ear.

External and vnternal malleoli.—The prominent projections on either
side of the ankle-joint. These are best felt from behind and below. The
external malleolus is formed by the lower end of the fibula or outer bone
of the leg, and reaches lower down than the internal malleolus. The
internal malleolus is the broader of the two, and is formed by the lower
end of the tibia, or inner bone of the leg.

Lace.—The part of the skull which lies below the fore portion of the
cranium. It is composed of the jaws and other bones which are arranged
around the cavities of the orbits, nose, and mouth.

Frontal cvests—If the forehead is grasped between the finger and
thumb immediately above and to the outer side of each of the orbits a
ridge of bone will be felt curving upwards and backwards on each side
of the cranium. This is the frontal crest.

Glabella,—Prominence in the mid-line of the forehead between the
two eyebrows.

Great trochanter.—The outstanding projection at the upper end of the
shaft of the thigh-bone (femur) external to the hip-joint.

Iliac crests.—The curved upper edges of the haunch or pelvic bones.

Iliac tubercle.—A projection on the outer edge of the iliac crest, about
one and a half or two inches behind the anterior superior spine of the
illum.

Incisura intertragica.—The prominence in front of the ear-hole is the
tragus ; the prominence behind the ear-hole is the antitragus, The narrow
interval between and below these prominences is the incisura inter-
tragica (figs. 1 and 2),

Inion.—External occipital protuberance ; a prominence on the under
aspect of the back of the head and in the middle line, at the point where
the curved outline of the back of the head meets the outline of the back
of the neck,

Nasion.—The bottom or deepest part of the depression between the
forehead (glabella) and the nose, or, in other words, the most depressed
part at the root of the nose.

Occipital point.—The point in the middle line on the back of the
head which is most distant from the glabelle. It can only be determined
by the callipers.

Ophryon.—A point, usually very obscurely marked, in the mid-line
between the prominence of the glabella and the place where the frontal
curve (i.¢., curve of the forehead) begins. It can also be determined by
taking the mid-point of the transverse measurement across the narrowest
part of the forehead from one frontal crest to the other,

=_— "_ 2

ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 355

Posterior superior spine of the ilium.—The projection at the posterior
end of the iliac crest or curved upper border of the pelvic or haunch-bone.
This spine is not easily felt, but its position is indicated by a very evident
dimple in the skin above the buttock and about one inch or so from the
mid-line of the back.

Pre-auricular point.—Point immediately in front of the tragus, or
the little projection of the ear which lies in front of the ear-hole.

Pubic symphysis.—The median line of junction of the two haunch-
bones in the middle line in front.

Styloid processes of radius and ulna.—The pointed projections which
are directed downwards from the lower ends of the two bones of the fore-
arm on either side of the wrist. The lower end of the ulna makes a
marked rounded prominence on the back of the inner or little-finger side
of the lower end of the forearm ; the styloid process of the ulna may be

felt on the inner side of the wrist almost immediately in front of this

prominence. The styloid process of the radius can be felt by placing
the finger in the hollow on the outer side of the wrist, between the

metacarpal bone of the thumb and the lower end of the radius, and

pressing upwards.
Sub-nasal point.—The angle between the septum of the nose (z.e.,
partition between the nostrils) and the upper lip. ;
Supra-sternal notch.—The depression on the upper margin of the
sternum or breast-bone at the root of the neck and between the inner

_ ends of the two collar-bones.

Zygomatic arch.—A bony arch on the side of the skull which can be
felt stretching forwards from a point in front of the tragus of the ear to
the most prominent part of the cheek.

STANDARD LIST OF DIMENSIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY SUITABLE
FOR MEASUREMENT.

The subjoined dimensions of the human body which the Committee

consider suitable for measurement cannot be regarded as constituting
an exhaustive list. Still it includes most of the measurements which

it has been customary to take, as well as a number of others which the
Committee consider to be of importance. It is not suggested that all the
dimensions in the list should be determined on each person measured,
nor, indeed, in the course of any one investigation. Each observer can
select from the list the particular dimensions he desires to record, and
which he considers to be the most appropriate for the object he has

in view.

A. CRANIUM,

The cranium is the part of the skull which forms the protective bony
covering for the brain.

Diameters (Calliper Measurements).

1.. Maximum length.—From the most prominent point of the gla-
hella to the most distant point in the middle line on the back of the
head, known as the occipital point. The observer stands on the left side
AA2

396 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

of the person being measured and the fixed point of the callipers is first
applied to the glabella and held there by the fingers of the left hand,
while the other point is moved over the mid-line of the back of the head
(occiput). Care must be taken to observe tbat the fixed point has not
moved off the glabella during the measurement, and that the points
of the callipers “have not been deflected from the median vertical plane.
The pressure of the points of the callipers on the head should be as
much as can be comfortably borne by the person under examination.

2. Maximum breadth.—Measured wherever it can be found above
the plane of the ear-holes. The callipers should be held in a vertical
transverse plane and moved about until the maximum diameter is ascer-
tained, the observer being careful to keep the points of the callipers
exactly opposite to one another. The pressure of the points on the head
should be as much as can be comfortably borne by the person under
examination,

3. Minimum frontal diameter.—From one frontal crest to the other
across the narrowest part of the forehead.

Tape Measurements.

4 Maximum circumjerence.—Measured by passing the tape horizon-
tally round the cranium at the level of the glabella in’ front and the
occipital point behind.

5. Longitudinal arc.—Measured with the tape over the middle line
of the vertex of the cranium from the nasion to the inion or external
occipital protuberance.

6. Transverse arc.—Measured over the vertex of the head, in a vertical
transverse plane, between the two pre-auricular points when the eyes
are directed to the horizon.

Radvi (Auricular Radiometer).

These radii may be considered to pass from the mid-point of the
bi-auricular diameter to the various points indicated in the median longi-
tudinal are of the cranium. They are all to be measured by contact (2.¢.,
without perceptible pressure between the contact-point of the instrument
and the skin of the head).

7. Vertical.—This gives the auricular height of the cranium. From
the mid-points of the ear-holes to the highest point of the cranium measured
in a vertical plane when the eyes are directed to the horizon.

8. Frontal.—(a) From the ear-holes to the most prominent por of
the glabella ; (b) from the ear-holes to the ophryon.

9. Maximum Jrontal—From the ear-holes to the most aes
point on the frontal curve.

10. Occipital. From the ear-holes to the occipital point.

11. Jnial.—From the ear-holes to the inion.

B, Facu.

The face is the part of the skull which lies below the fore portion of

the cranium. It is composed of the jaws and other bones which are

arranged around the cavities of the orbits, nose, and mouth.

"as

7
;

ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 357

Calliper Measurenents.

1. Upper face length—From the nasion to the edge of the gum
between the two upper central incisor teeth. A contact measure-
ment.

2. Total face length—From the nasion to the lower edge of the point
of the chin. A contact measurement.

N.B.—Jn connection with these measurements of face length it is important
to state the condition of the incisor teeth.

3. Maximum interzygomatic breadth.—The maximum diameter be-
tween corresponding points on the opposite zygomatic arches. The
pressure used is to be as much as can be comfortably borne by the
person under examination.

4, Maximum intermalar breadth—The maximum diameter between
the cheek-bones just below the angles or points of junction between the
outer and lower parts of the rims of the orbital openings. A contact
measurement.

5. External orbital breadth—Maximum diameter between the outer
margins of the orbital openings. A contact measurement.

6. External ocular breadth.—The diameter between the two external
canthi of the eyelids. A contact measurement.

7. Internal ocular breadth.—The diameter between the two internal
canthi of the eyelids. A contact measurement.

N.B.—The two last measurements should be taken when the eyes are open.

&. Gonial breadth.—The diameter between tie extreme outer points of
the angles of the lower jaw. This measurement is to be taken with the
maximum comfortable pressure.

Tape Measurement.

9. Orbito-nasal. Krom the same points as No. 5, the tape passing
lightly over the nasion. ;

Radii (Auricular Radiometer).
All these are to be measured by contact only.

10. Upper nasal.—F rom the ear-holes to the nasion.

11. Afid-nasal.—From the ear-holes to the lower border of the nasal
bones in the middle line.

12. Lower nasal.—From the ear-holes to the point of the nose.

13. Alveolar.—From the ear-holes to the margin of the gum between
the two upper central incisor teeth.

14, Mental.—From the ear-holes to the point of the chin.

C. Nos.
Calliper Measurements.

(All these are to be measured by contact only.)
1. Nasal height.—From the nasion to the subnasal point.

et
CO:

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

we

2. Nasal depth. From the subnasal point to the most projecting point
on the tip of the nose.

3. Nasal length.—From the nasion to the point of the nose.

4, Nasal breadth.—The greatest diameter, measured without pressure,
between the wings of the nose.

5. Nostril length—The greatest antero-posterior diameter of the
nostril.

6. Nostril breadth.—The greatest diameter taken at right angles to the
diameter of greatest length,

D. Var.
Calliper Measurements.

To be taken by contact only.

1. Length of ear basis——The length of the line drawn from the front
upper insertion point of the auricle to the front lower insertion point
(E, F, figs. 1 and 2).

icy Fic. 2,

2. Greatest length of the ear (A, B, fig. 1)—From the highest to the
lowest point of the auricle.

3. Greatest breadth of the ear (c, D, fig. 1).—The maximum diameter
at right angles to the length-line from the ear basis to the hinder border
of the auricle.

4, Distance from the Darwinian tubercle to the wpper border of the
trugus or the prominence in front of the ear-hole (x, L, figs. 1 and 2).

5. Distance from the highest point of the ear to the bottom of the
imeisura intertragica (A, I, fig. 2).

6. Length of the lobule of the ear.—¥From the bottom of the incisura
intertragica to the lowest point of the auricle (1, 8B, fig. 2).

' Both from Schwalbe.

ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH JSLES, 309

BE. Trunk ann Liss.

Measurements from the Ground.

The subject is to be measured in the erect attitude, with his eyes
directed to the horizon, his heels firmly planted, and the balls of the toes
in contact with the ground, It is absolutely necessary that the subject
should be symmetrically placed so that the mesial plane of the body is in
every respect vertical,

The majority of the measurements can best be taken by means of the
Anthropometric Wall-meter, seeing that this ensures a ready means of
securing a proper position of the individual under examination.

All the measurements are to be made after the subject has removed
his boots. It has been found that allowing for the height of the heel of
the boot introduces serious error,

1. Stature.

2. Height of the ear-hole.

3. Height of the acromion.

4, Height of upper edge of head of vadius.— When the arm is -
straightened at the elbow-joint a marked depression is seen on the
posterior aspect of the outer part of the joint. If the finger be placed
in this and moved slightly upwards and downwards the joint interval
between the humerus and the radius will be felt. The lower bony margin
of this interval is the wpper edge of the head of the radius, and is the point
from which this measurement is to be made.

5. Height of the tip of the styloid process of the radius.

6. ITeight of the tip of the middle finger.—When this measurement is
taken the arm should be held by the side with the palm of the hand
resting lightly on the outer side of the thigh.

7. Height of the iliae crests.—This is to be measured from the iliac
tubercle.

8. Height of the upper edge of the great trochanter.

9, Height of the knee-joint—This measurement should be made on
both the inner and outer aspects of the joint, and in each case from the
corresponding upper edge of the superior extremity of the tibia, or inner
of the two bones forming the skeleton of the leg.

10. Height of the tip of the internal malleolus of the tibia.

1l. Height of the supra-sternal notch.

12. Height of the upper edge of the symphysis pubis.

13. Height sitting, i.e., the length of the trunk from the vertex of the
head to the lowest points of the ischial tuberosities (height from seat).

14, Height kneeling.

Direct Measuvements
(taken with callipers).

15, Breadth of shoulders (bi-acromial).
16. Maximum breadth of shoulders (bi-deltoid).
17. Distance between two anterior superior spines of iliac bones.
18. Distance between the two posterior superior spines of iliac bones.
19. Distance between iliac tubercles on iliac crests.—This will give
approximately the maximum diameter between iliac crests.
: 20. Maximum diameter between the two great trochanters of the thigh
ones,

360 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

21. Huternal conjugate diameter of the pelvis—From a point behind
midway between the posterior superior iliac spines to the upper and fore
part of the pubic symphysis in front.

Measurements of Chest.
Circumference (taken with tape).

Direct the person being measured to hold the arms straight up over
the head.

Pass the tape horizontally round the chest at the level of the junction
of the fourth rib-cartilage with the sternum or breast-bone, then lower
arms, and, holding tape tightly, note circumference at the end of—

22. Deep inspiration.

23. Complete expiration.—This latter is easily attained by asking the
subject to count twenty aloud quickly without inspiring.

Before removing tape mark the level at which the measurements
have been taken with a blue pencil around the chest.

If the finger be passed from the supra-sternal notch downwards. over
the front of the sternum or breast-bone it soon meets a projecting ridge,
crossing the bone transversely. This gives the level of the second costal
cartilage, and, taking it as the starting-point, the fourth costal cartilage,
where it joins the sternum, can easily be determined.

Diameters (taken with Callipers).

24. Antero-posterior diameter from mid-line in front to mid-line
behind (sternum to spine of dorsal vertebra) at the level of the blue line
previously marked.

25, Lateral.—The maximum lateral diameter found with the callipers
held horizontally and blades tangential to side of chest at the level of the
blue line before referred to.

Both these latter measurements should be recorded (1) in deep
inspiration ; (2) in complete expiration.!

F. Upprer Line.

1. Length of the upper arm.—From the outer margin of the acromion
to the lowest point of the external condyle of the humerus. The latter
point can easily be determined on the straightened arm by placing the
finger in the depression on the back of the outer part of the elbow-joint
and feeling for the joint-interval between the humerus and radius. The
measurement is made down to this point and gives approximately the
length of the humerus.

1 The reasons which have prompted the Committee to select the level of the
junction of the fourth costal cartilage with the sternum for measuring the dimensions
of the chest will be found stated at some length in the Report of the Anthropometric
Committee, Section H, Leicester, 1907. The Committee are inclined to regard with
favour the data obtained by the calliper measurements of the mesial antero-posterior
and of the transverse diameters of the chest. For reasons which will be evident,
useful data regarding the circumference of the chest, measured by the tape, cannot
be obtained in the adult female. It is therefore recommended that the observer
should restrict the chest measurements in the adult female to the determination of
the diameters of the thorax obtained by means of the callipers.

ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 361

2. Length of the forearm.—From the elbow-joint interval as defined in
No. 1 to the tip of the styloid process of the radius. This gives the
length of the radius. ;

3. Length of the ulna.—From the tip of the olecranon or point of the
elbow to the extremity of the styloid process of the ulna.

4. Length of the cubit.—The elbow-joint being flexed, the measure-
ment is made from the tip of the elbow on the back of the arm to the tip
of the middle finger.

5. Length of hand.—Measured on the dorsum. The hand being dorsi-
flexed, the position of the radio-carpal joint can be determined. It may
be regarded as corresponding to the bottom of the angle which is formed
between the hand and the forearm. Measurement is made from this to
the tip of middle finger.

6. Length of the thumb.—From the base of the metacarpal bone to the
tip of the thumb.

7. Length of the four fingers.—The three phalanges only are to be
measured in each case. The measurement should be taken when the
fingers are strongly flexed at the metacarpo-phalangeal or knuckle joints
from points on dorsal aspect immediately in front of knuckles.

8. Breadth of the hand.—Taken across the knuckles.

9. Maximum circumference of the upper arm.—The upper limb should
be straightened, but the muscles must not be contracted. The tape
should then be passed round the upper arm where this shows the greatest

irth.
; 10. Maximum circumference of the forearm.—The upper limb should
be straightened, and the tape passed round the forearm where this shows
the greatest girth. The muscles should not be contracted while the
measurement is being taken.

G. Lower Line.

1. Length of the thigh.—From upper edge of the great trochanter to
the margin of superior extremity of tibia on outer side of knee-joint.

2. Length of the leg—From the margin of the superior extremity of
the tibia on the inner side of the knee-joint to the tip of the internal
malleolus. This measurement gives the length of the tibia.

3. Length of the foot——Two measurements : (a) from back of heel to
extremity of second toe, counted from inner side ; (6) from back of heel
to extremity of great toe. Both measurements taken with the foot
resting on the ground.

A tracing of each foot should be taken.

4, Breadth of the foot.—Measured across the heads of the metatarsals,
i.e. from the prominent point on the inner side of the joint at the root
of the great toe to the prominent point on the outer side of the foot at
the base of the little toe, when the foot rests on the ground.

5. Circumference of the thigh.—This measurement is to be taken mid-
way between pelvis and knee. The limb should be straightened, but the
muscles of the thigh should not be contracted.

6. Maximum circumference of the calf:—The muscles should not he
contracted while this measurement is being taken,

$62 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

H, Sprecian MeAsurements,
1. Span of arms.
2, Weight.
Where it is possible to do so the weight of the individual
should be taken after he has divested himself of his clothes.
The following symbols may be used to indicate how the weight
has been ascertained :—
W!. With clothes and boots.
W2. With clothes but without the boots.
W2?. Without both clothes and hoots,

Teeth.
. Pinger-prints.

= co

INSTRUMENTS.
WEIGHING MACHINES.

The two leading types of personal weighing machine on the market
are : (1) steelyard weighing machines, and (2) spring weighing machines,

I. Steelyard Weighing Machines.

Tn the most convenient form of steelyard weighing machine the steel-
yard is supported on the top of a pillar on a level with the eyes of the
observer. The platform, on which the person to be weighed stands, is
supported by knife-edges on levers housed in the base of the machine, and
connected by a rod passing up the centre of the pillar to the short end of
the steelyard.

A personal weighing machine of this type is made by W. & J. Avery,
Ltd., Soho Foundry, Birmingham, It weighs up to 24 stones by single
ounces. It is also graduated to weigh in metric measure. In weighing
with this machine sufficient loose weights are first placed on a disc
suspended from the outer end of the steelyard, the final adjustment being
made by a small weight which slides on the steelyard. Another machine
without loose weights is also made by the same makers,

A steelyard machine by Day & Millward, 39 Duke Street, Aldgate,
London, weighs up to 12 stones without the employment of loose
weights. The steelyard consists of two parallel graduated bars, on the
lower one of which slides a heavy weight for weighing the larger units,
while a light weight slides on the upper bar for weighing the smaller
units and making the final adjustment. By suspending a loose weight
on the end of the steelyard this machine is made capable of weighing up
to 24 stones. The steelyard is graduated to weigh both in English and
French measure,

IL. Spring Weighing Machines.

Spring weighing machines are not so reliable as steelyard machines,
because they are liable to be deranged by shocks or by leaving a heavy
weight for a long time on the spring. They have, however, a great
advantage over the steelyard machines in that persons can be weighed
much more rapidly, and this is a quality of considerable importance when
large numbers of persons have to be weighed in a short time, If these

ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES, 365

machines are frequently tested by placiug a standard weight on the plat-
form or scale and readjusted if necessary, there is no valid reason why
they should not be used.

A platform spring weighing machine suitable for weighing school
children is made‘by Geo. Salter & Co., 101 Leadenhall Street, London, E.C.
It weighs up to 14 stones by } lb.

A smaller machine for weighing infants is also made by the same firm.
This machine weighs up to 25 lb. by ounces. The infant is placed on a
table in a basket mounted on the top of the machine, which is conveniently
placed.

For public schools or other institutions where speed and ease in
weighing are considered of more importance than saving in first cost a seat
weighing machine‘of the spring type made by Henry Pooley & Son, Ltd.,
Temple Street, Birmingham, may be recommended. This machine weighs
up to 24 stones by pounds, and when protected from shocks is very
accurate,

General Remaris.

Steelyard ‘machines should be fitted with the best steel knife-edges,
Cheap‘machines with cast-iron knife edges get out of order after being
used a short time. It is recommended that machines graduated in the
metric system should be used, and that all weights should be recorded in
this measure whenever possible. English measure can, however, be easily
converted into French by the use of a comparative table,

Heicur Merers.

For measuring statures and the heights of various points of the human
body a considerable variety of apparatus is available. The simplest,
perhaps, is a set square sliding on a rod 2 metres in length and graduated
in millimetres. This rod may be fixed in a vertical position to a door
or wall when it is required to measure stature only. When it is proposed
to measure the heights of other points on the body the rod is preferably
detached so that it can be held in one hand and placed opposite the point
of the body to be measured. The rod may be fitted with a plummet to
ensure its being held vertical. By attaching a set square at the beginning
of the second meter, and making the lower half of the rod detachable, the
apparatus may be used as a sliding callipers for measuring the transverse
diameters of the body. An instrument of this kind is made by Messrs,
Aston & Mander, 61 Old Compton Street, London.

Short graduated rods which do not reach the ground, but are fixed
on doors or walls, are frequently used for measuring stature by appiying
a set square to their front surface. Such apparatus, though very simple
and cheap, is liable to give inaccurate measurements: first, because
it may not be fixed at the correct height ; and secondly, because the
surface to which the set square is applied may not be vertical.

A stature meter with a cast-iron pedestal fitted with levelling screws
is made by Home & Rowland, Troughton Road, Old Charlton, Kent, and
is very suitable as a permanent and fixed instrument for measuring the
stature of school children.

A device for measuring stature as well as a large number of other
dimensions of the body, horizontal as well as vertical, is the Wall-meter
employed by Professor Cunningham in the Anthropometric Laboratory of

564 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

the University of Edinburgh. This consists of a thin sheet of metal,
wood, or other rigid substance divided into centimetre squares and fixed
to the wall. The person to be measured stands in front of this, and the
dimensions are read off by means of a set square. A great advantage of
the Wall-meter is that it shows at a glance any lateral deformity or
want of symmetry, and also whether the individual is standing in a proper
position for measurement.

CALLIPERS.

Wherever cheapness in first cost is a desideratum a sliding callipers
of simple construction large enough to measure all the more important
diameters, may be used. Such cailipers are made by A. & J. Smith,
Maxwell House, Aberdeen, and by other makers.

For rapid and accurate measurement of small diameters such as those
of the cranium and face the large callipers are rather clumsy to handle, and
it is advisable to use smaller callipers.

Flower’s callipers may be employed for cranial diameters and for the
smaller face dimensions by using the points at the back. Flower’s callipers
may be obtained from W. F. Stanley & Co., Ltd., 5 Great Turnstile,
London, W.C.

Gray’s self-adjusting constant-pressure callipers, made by Home &
Rowland, are specially suited for measuring the length and breadth of the
head, and the compas glissiére used by Manouvrier is specially suited for
small face measurements.

RaADIOMETERS.

For measuring auricular radii the instruments devised by Cunningham
and by Gray may be used. In these instruments plugs fitted to the
instruments are placed in the ear-holes and a sliding piece is pushed
down (in the former instrument) or screwed down (in the latter instru-
ment) till it just touches (without pressure) the peripheral point whose
radius is to be measured.

TAPES.

The best appliance for measuring the girth of the chest or of other
parts of the body is a tape graduated to miilimetres, about 1 metre in
length. A piece of string about 6 or 8 inches in length is connected to
the zero end of the tape, or the tape itself may be extended 6 or 8 inches
beyond the zero of the scale. By pulling this string and the other end of
the encircling tape the necessary tension is put on, while the hands are
kept clear of the reading point. If an inextensible linen tape can be
obtained it is easier to work with than a steel tape, though the latter
has the advantage that it can always be relied on as being absolutely
inextensible.

Tapes may be obtained from Chesterman, Sheftield, or Aston & Mander.

For measuring span of arms a thimble may be attached to one end of
the tape. This thimble is slipped on the fore-finger of one hand, and the
measurement is read from the tape at the tip of the fore-finger of the
other hand. The subject should stand in front of a wall, the arms being
extended horizontally with the backs of the hands turned to the wall.

ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 365

FINGER-PRINT APPARATUS.

Finger-print apperatus consists of (1) a polished metal plate, about
4 inches by 12 inches, mounted on a wooden block about an inch thick ;
(2) a roller for distributing the ink ; (3) finger-print ink in collapsible
tube ; (4) a good supply of benzoline ; (5) a small reading glass. This
apparatus may be obtained from Aston & Mander.

The polished metal plate is placed on a stand or table about 4 feet in
height. About six drops of ink should be squeezed from the tube along
the centre of the plate at intervals, and then thoroughly rolled until an
evenly coated film of ink is spread over the whole surface of the plate.

To obtain an impression each of the subject’s digits should be placed
with one side in contact with the inked plate’ and rolled on the plate till
the whole surface, up to the first joint, is inked. The impression is taken
by repeating the rolling operation on a sheet of paper.

HAIR AND EYE COLOURS.

INTRODUCTION,

A considerable number of schemes of classification of hair colours and
eye colours have been published, but it is only necessary to consider those
that have been used to carry out extensive pigmentation surveys. Of
these there are only two that appear to be important—namely, the
scheme of Virchow and the scheme of Beddoe.

Virchow’s scheme has been adopted more or less completely in carry-
ing out a survey of about ten million children in Germany, Austria,
Switzerland, Belgium, and Beddoe’s has been generally adopted in ob-
servations made in the British Isles. These schemes are not in com-
plete agreement, and it is desirable that a scheme should be devised that
should be comparable with both. This is the chief object aimed at in the
scheme drawn up by the Anthropometric Committee. Tables are given
below showing the relation of the three schemes—namely, that of Virchow,
of Beddoe, and of this Committee.

It is desirable also that a set of standard colours, representing the central
colour of each category, should be determined. These standards should be
permanent and should be easily obtainable by any person wishing to make
exact observations on hair or eye colours. For less exact observations tiie
names of the colours given in each category will suffice. In large surveys
carried out by school teachers or other officials the cost of supplying
standard colours to each observer may be prohibitive, but it must not be
forgotten that there is a considerable amount of inconsistency between
different observers when colours are determined by the names only. The
Committee strongly recommend the use of standard colours whenever
possible.

PIGMENTATION STANDARDS AND METERS,

Standard coloured glasses representing the central colours of each
category of hair colours and eye colours have been prepared by and can
be obtained from Mr. Lovibond, of the Colour Laboratory, Salisbury.
These standard glasses are used for determining the colour of any given
sample of hair or of eyes in the Pigmentation Meter, a modification of
the Lovibond tintometer, adapted by J. Gray to observations on hair,

366 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

eye, and skin colours. This instrument can also be obtained from Lovi-
bond’s Colour Laboratory at Salisbury. The Pigmentation Meter is
described in ‘ Man’ (vol. viii., No. 27, 1908).

A series of thirty-four standard coloured locks made of artificial
silk, dyed to represent the usual hair colours, has been recently brought out
by Professor E. Fischer, of Freiburg, Baden. These may be used in some
cases with advantage. Each lock is marked with a number, which is
used to designate the colour. The cost of the set of locks inclosed in a
case is about one pound and may be obtained from Franz Rosset, surgical
instrument maker, Freiburg.

HAIR COLOURS.

The schemes of classification of hair colours adopted by Virchow, by
Beddoe, and by the Anthropometric Committee will be readily understood

TasBreE I.

Schemes of Classification of Harr Cotours.
| | | 7

VIRCHOW* BEDDOE+ BRITISH ASSOCIATION |
* . Ly |
Pigmentation Bury ey of | [Observations in the ANTE EOR OEE |
Ger EEK Austria,and = | British Isles] COMMITTEE,
Switzerland] | | 1908
Bi apace oe
erate, Contents of | 2 2 Contents of 2h Contents of
| 5 2 Category i is S Category I s | Category
45 a5) iS
| Rape 5)= Whitish yellow
Light yellow eller | z z Yellow
Whitish yellow | W@elden oa Flaxen
=] foot | ga aa Golden |
a LS S|
Sa, {cee eae ee ‘hn teal Meee Eel iSe5 oR hehe =
A & | & Bi |
Q Ash blonde— Lightest browns | uel Ash blondes
taal Grey yellow | Pale auburns (with | as Lightest browns
Jenn red inconspicuous) | < a Pale auburns |
ight brownis
| Red blonde :. ¥ ene |
ae | All shades of red =] |
| | which approach a g Same
Qa — | more nearlytored | & |_4 ak
S| Fiery red a than to brown, yel- | & | Beddoe
= low, and flaxen Bs
a
| |
e Numerous shades of A |
Brown = brown, answering | iS Same |
| So | nearly to the | 5 as }
& | Frenchchatainand | r= Beddoe ef
Be) al chatainclair A }
| i
a] Dark brown ty i
ao : = : |
a French brun, darkest | pero
e <= | chatain, upto Es oe
Ayal Os Pa) Beddoe
| :
Darkest brown Ps Darkest brown i Romie
=a < as
1 4 Beddoe's
BLACK, Jet black Ga Jet black ios} Niger

* Archiv fiir Anthropologie, vol. xvi. p. 281,
+ Beddoe's Races of Britain, p. 3.

ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 367

by an inspection of Table I. The main divisions of the scheme of
the Anthropometric Committee are Fair, Red, Brown, Dark, and Black.
These main divisions are the same as those of Beddoe, but fair hair is
subdivided into pure blonde and ash blonde, mainly because these sub-
divisions have been used by Retzius in his extensive observations in
Sweden. Red hair is subdivided into light red and dark red, because
there is a considerable difference in the amount of orange pigment in
the lightest and darkest red hair. Two or more of the main divisions
may be amalgamated when a simpler scheme is desired.

In Virchow’s scheme, as may be seen from the table, none of the
divisions coincides exactly with those of Beddoe and of the Anthropo-
metric Committee. The difference in the contents of the categories is,
however, not great.

Mr. Lovibond has prepared seven standard glasses, representing the
seven* final subdivisions of the Committee’s scheme. These glasses are
adapted for use with the Pigmentation Meter.

EYE COLOURS.

The schemes of classification of eye colours are shown in Table II.
The divisions of the scheme of the Anthropometric Committee are Pure
Blue, Light, Neutral,and Dark. They agree with Beddoe’s except that in
Beddoe’s scheme the pure blue and light divisions are amalgamated into
one division. The pure blue coincides with a corresponding division in

Tape II,

Schemes of Classification of Eyp Cotovurs.

VIRCHOW? BEDDOE + : BRITISH ASSOCIATION |
[Pigmentation Survey of | [Observations in the ANTHROPOMETRIC
Germany, Austria,and =| British Isies, &c.] CIMMITTEL,
Switzerland] : 1508 |
|
Name of Contents of Name of | Contents of Name of Contents of
Category Category | Category Category Category Category
ee |
| Blue (all shades, in- BY Blue (all shades, in-
| PURE BLUE cluding darkest | is = cluding darkest
ee blue) | Ev) blue)
ee 3 z = AR, OSES ae a Ae } ul
ie | Peet
4 | Bluish grey 3 Bluish grey
| Light grey ro Light grey
é; | Lightest green 3 Lightest green
: er |
<2) GRAY Very light hazel
4 Yellow 4
eS Green (most shades) ce Same as Beddoe’s
= Hazel grey H
| =) Dark grey a
B Brownish grey and all 7,
uncertain colours
—_—— - /
’ |
a Paes rs Brown 4
5 | Binck fd Dark brown & Same as Beddoe’s
8 Se a ~ Blick A

%* Archiv ftir Anthropologie, yol. xvi. p, 281,
f Beddoe's Races of Britain, p, 3,

368 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Virchow’s scheme. The division grey m Virchow’s scheme include’
both the light and neutral of the Committee’s scheme. In Virchow’s
scheme pure blue and grey are subdivisions of a larger division blue.

Standard glasses for use in the Pigmentation Meter, and representing
the central colours of the four divisions in the Committee’s scheme, may
be obtained from Mr. Lovibond.

PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS.

Tn making survey tests the observer must bear in mind the fact that
the success of the process presupposes the goodwill of the subject, and
he must consider in each case the possibility of ‘malingering’ on the
part of the subject.

VISION.

J.—The test of viswal acuity seems both the most important and the
most easily applied of all visual tests. It is desirable that the method
used should be applicable to subjects who have not learned to read.
Cohn’s modification of Sneilen’s E test is therefore recommended as one
which meets this requirement, and which has been employed with satis-
factory results on uneducated children and adults. Of the several forms
in which this test has been used the one in which the test E is presented
zlone through a window in a screen is recommended.!

The test-card should be held vertically in strong diffused daylight
at the zero point of a scale of metres marked on the ground. The back-
ground on which the test-card appears should be a dull surface, and
there should be no bright light (such as that from the sky) falling directly
upon the eyes of the subject.

The subject should be brought up to a point on the metre scale at
which the test E is clearly visible to him and be instructed to turn
his E (pasted oni board) into same position as the test E exposed. This
should be repeated five times by subject in his first position, and five
times at each point of the scale successively one metre further from the
test E. If at any position the subject makes more than one error
(which he fails to correct on being informed of it) the previous position
(one metre less distant) may be taken as the measure of his visual
acuity. If he makes one error only in the series of five tests five
further tests should be made at the same position. If he again makes
one error (2.¢., two errors in ten tests) this position may be taken as the
measure of his visual acuity. The visual acuity will then be expressed
simply in terms of the number of metres between the test E and the
position of the subject when he just satisfies the test.

The subject should be tested without glasses or any other artificial
aid to vision.

COLOUR-VISION.

{1.—Holmgren’s wools are so convenient a form of test that they
are to be preferred to the more refined methods that have been devised.
This method can be relied upon to reveal the commonest forms of

1 The cards may be obtained from Glaisher, 57 Wigmore Street, London, W.

ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES, 369

eolour-blindness, though it may fail to detect degrees of weakness of
colour-vision.

The three test wools of the Holmgren set should be given each
separately to the subject, and he should be asked to choose the ten
other skeins most nearly resembling the test-skein, and to lay them out
on the table in order of resemblance. Any naming of the colours should
be avoided until the subject has completed his selection, when he may,
with advantage, be questioned as to the names he would apply to the
test-wools. If the subject chooses wools of distinctly unlike colour-
tone, but of similar low saturation, it should be explained to him that
differences and resemblances of shade and of saturation are to be
neglected and those of colour-tone only regarded. Any grouping of
distinctly green tones with red, or of red with green, if not readily
rectified, must be taken as evidence of red-green blindness. Any
hesitation in distinguishing between red and green tones should lead to
amore searching examination. From this point of view it is important
to observe what wools the subject picks up and rejects, as well as those
which he finally selects.

If time permits, each eye should be separately tested.

The modified tintometer (designed by Mr. Lovibond for colour-vision
testing), in which the place of the coloured wools is taken by slips of
coloured glass presented against a white background, may be used in
place of the wools, but a larger series of glasses of lower saturation than
that at present supplied with the instrument would be required. Special
attention should be paid to the matches made with red and green glasses
of low saturation. A red glass of low saturation should be placed in the
topmost space of the one vertical row and a green glass of low saturation
in the topmost space of the other vertical row as ‘test-glasses’; the
remaining spaces may then be filled with glasses of various tones and
degrees of saturation, and the subject directed to resort them, placing
them beneath the ‘t+st-glasses’ in the order of their resemblance to the
test-surfaces.

This test may with advantage be made, first, with the apparatus at a
distance of 5 metres from the eye of the subject and then repeated at a
distance of 30 to 50 centimetres.

TESTS OF HEARING,
Auditory Acuity.

To be measured in terms of the distance (number of metres) at’ which
the stroke of Pollitzer’s ‘Hér-messer’ can just be heard.

The subject must be seated in a large, quiet room, or, better, in the
midst of an open space at some distance from all solid objects. The
subject’s eyes being closed and bandaged and the left ear stopped with the
finger, the instrument must be sounded at irregular intervals of two or
more seconds in a series of positions in the straight line passing from ear
to ear, first at 1 metre from the right ear and then at positions succes-
sively 1 metre more distant from the ear, The subject is instructed to
say ‘Now’ each time he hears the stroke. When the subject fails to
respond to a stroke it must be repeated five or more times in the same
position. The series must be continued until a position is reached at
ay subject fails to respond more frequently than he succeeds.

908, BB

370 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

The immediately preceding position may be taken as the nieasure of
auditory acuity of the right ear. The procedure is then to be repeated
on the left side, the right ear being stopped, for the determination of the
threshold of auditory acuity of the left ear.

TACTILE DISCRIMINATION.

To determine the threshold of local discrimination of two simultaneous
touches on the skin.—The area most suitable for the application of this
test is the middle third of the flexor surface of the left forearm. An
zesthesiometer with two ivory points, of which one slides along a milli-
metre scale, should be used (Dr. Spearman’s pattern is recommended).

The subject must be comfortably seated, his left forearm bared and
supinated and resting upon a pad on the table at a convenient height, while
he supports himself by placing his right forearm on the table and across
his chest.

The two points are applied suddenly and simultaneously in a line
parallel to the long axis of the forearm, with pressure sufficient distinctly
to pit the skin, and continued for about one second. The two points
are separated by 80 mm. A series of five applications of the two points
at this distance is irregularly interspersed with five applications of a
single point. Each contact should be preceded by a warning ‘ Now.’
The subject is instructed to answer ‘Two’ or ‘One,’ according as he
judges that he is touched with two points or with one only. He is
immediately informed as to the correctness of each answer. If the
individual under observation makes no erroneous answers the distance
between the two points is reduced to 70 mm., and the series of five
double and five single touches is repeated. The same procedure is
repeated with two points at 60 mm., 50 mm., 40 mm., 30 mm., 25 mm.,
20 mm., 15 mm., 10 mm., 5 mm. When the person being tested gives
one or more erroneous replies to double contact in any series of five the
series is prolonged to ten double and ten single contacts. A proportion
of two wrong answers to eight right in response to the series of ten
double contacts is taken as indicating that the distance between the two
points is the measure of the threshold of discrimination. If the answers
to the double contacts of any one series are to have significance the
answers to the single contacts of the series must be oftener right than
wrong. The answers of the person under observation should be recorded
thus :—

oe J Single touches Mz “YYRr*'z x x 7 Ke
Z

|, Double touches. 2) 4:1K% 4 24.242 2% Z

The answers recorded in this example would indicate that 30 mm. is
the measure of the sensible discrimination of the subject.

Tf the individual being tested makes no errors at one step (say 40 mm.),
and breaks down completely at the next step (say 30 mm.), the length
midway between the lengths separating the two points in the two cases
may be taken as the measure of sensible discrimination.

MUSCULAR POWER.

To measure power of grip a dynamometer to be obtained from Collin,
8 Rue de I’Ecole de Médecine, Paris, may be used. The subject should
squeeze the instrument with the greatest possible effort three times in each

ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 371

hand, using the two hands alternately, and the maximum squeeze with
each hand should be recorded.

To measure power of pull as archer a dynamometer with two handles
is used. The subject should grasp the handles and straightening the left
arm should pull the right hand with all his force. Repeat three times
and record maximum pull.

SPIROMETER TESTS.

Spirometers may be obtained from various makers, as, for example,
Zimmermann, of Leipzig.

In making spirometer tests the same rules are to he observed as stated
above for muscular power.

PSYCHOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS.

The list of mental characters drawn up by Mr. McDougall and
embodied in the Report submitted at the York meeting of the Associa-
tion has been discussed at two meetings of the British Psychological
Society, and has been amended and extended by the Sub-Committee in
the light of these discussions. The amended list is submitted with this
Report.

The Sub-Committee recommend that the list should be printed, and
_ that, before any use of it on a large scale is attempted, it should be

issued to a limited number of specially qualified school-teachers, who

should be invited to fill in the schedules of characters for groups of pupils
_ with whom they are well acquainted. In this way, it may be hoped,
some data may be obtained for the formation of an opinion as to the
applicability and reliability of this method of procedure. From this
point of view it appears especially important to secure independent
returns from two or more teachers in regard to identical groups of pupils,
as the degree of correspondence between two or more such independently
made Reports referring to the same group of pupils would indicate the
degree of objectivity of the Reports.

The Sub-Committee are of opinion that, though data of some value
may possibly be obtained by the issue of the list of mental characters to
school-teachers and others, the survey of mental characters cannot be
satisfactorily carried out save by the aid of observers specially trained
in the methods of mental measurement, who would make a series of
measurements of the capacities of each individual according to a scheme
which has yet to be drawn up ; they recognise that the estimation of
mental characters is very much more difficult than that of physical
characters, and that it is necessary to proceed in a tentative and experi-
mental spirit. They would especially insist on the difficulty of fixing any
common standard and of obtaining returns which shall have an absolute
value and shall be comparable with one another, except in so far as
returns can be based on exact measurements made by the methods of
experimental psychology.

oo
aes!
Do

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

(AMENDED) INSTRUCTIONS TO THE RECORDERS.

Mental characters are named, numbered, and briefly defined in this
Schedule.

The accompanying card bears a corresponding number of numbered
spaces.

The Recorder should put the name of one subject (child, &c.) at the
head of each card, and write in the space opposite each number one of
the letters A, B, C, D, or L.

These letters imply the following opinion on the part of the observer
in respect to the mental characters of corresponding numbers :—

A. High degree of development, intensity, or strength of the character
in question.

B. A degree of development distinctly above the average.

C. An average degree of development.

D. Degree of development distinctly below the average.

£. A marked deficiency of the character in question.

An average degree of development is to be taken to mean such as
would be exhibited by about 50 per cent. of any large number of normal
persons of the same age, race, and class, this 50 per cent. group being
made up of those who in respect to this character are nearest the mean.

Classes 2 and D should contain about 20 per cent. each of any large
number of normal subjects.

Classes A and F# about 5 per cent. each.

The Recorder should fill in on each subject’s card only those
characters in regard to which he feels able to express a confident opinion,
and should leave all other spaces blank.

It is suggested that the following procedure should be adopted when-
ever possible, especially by those reporting on school-children : A table
of thirty-four columns, numbered according to the list of characters,
should be made on a Jarge sheet of paper, and under each number the
individuals of the group observed should be entered in the order of
development of the corresponding character (those considered equal
being bracketed together). This should be regarded as a first rough
approximation only. From time to time the observer should go over his
table, amending the order of names in each column in the light of his
later observations. Jf this process were repeated once a month or
oftener throughous a year’s intercourse with the group of individuals
reported upon, it is probable that the final arrangement of each column
would represent a great refinement upon the order first given.

The words in popular usage by which mental characters are described are
in many cases of a negative character. In the following list such words
have been avoided and positive characters only are named ; e.g., laziness
does not appear, because a high degree of laziness is the same character
as a low degree of industriousness, and may be expressed by putting the
letter # after the corresponding number on the card.

Many of the words in popular usage express characters which are
extremely complex resultants of a number of more elementary characters
(ey. inteiligerce); such words have been avoided as far as possible, and

the c aracters named below have been chosen as being relatively simple
and elementary. ;

ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES.

C3
“TI
os

List or Mrentat Caaracrenrs,
1. Power of ‘observation’ or sense-perception,
(a) Accuracy. '
(6) Fulness (7.e., degree to which attention is habitually given

to objects of the outer world rather than to reflection and
imagination).

2. ‘Quickness’ of apprehension in general.

3. Scope of apprehension (i.¢., capacity for apprehending complex
relations and multiplicity of detail).

4. Intensity of application to mental tasks (7.e., power of ‘concentra-
tion’ of attention ; this may be taken to be inversely as the readiness
with which attention is distracted from the task in hand by irrelevant
objects and impressions).

(a) Spontaneous or non-voluntary.
(6) In virtue of effort of will.

5. Capacity for sustained application (2.¢., for sustaining and repeating
concentration of attention upon given task=‘ perseverance ’).

(a) Spontaneous.
(6) In virtue of effort of will.

6. Natural or spontaneous ‘interests’ (i.e., interests in objects or
topics for their own sake, not indirectly acquired by special training or
through such influences as emulation cr systematic reward and punish-
ment).

(a) Intensity.
(6) Variety or width of field of interests.
(c) Persistency of interests in particular topics and objects.

7. Native ‘retentiveness’ of memory as expressed, e¢.g., by accurate
reproduction of matter committed to memory by rote learning or by capacity
for describing objects or events of no special interest previously observed.

(a) Immediate, 7e¢., as revealed after brief interval of few
minutes only.

(6) Continued, @.¢., as revealed after interval of twenty-four
hours or more.

8. Systematic memory (7.¢., retention of facts in virtue of the appre-
hension of their connection with topics of special interest to the
individual, or because systematically related with one another).

9. Selective memory—exceptional retentiveness for certain classes of
impressions, or for facts about certain subjects.

10. Vividness and detailed accuracy of representative imagination
(i.e., power of recalling past sense-impressions in corresponding imagery).

11. Freedom and range of play of ‘fancy’ (7.e., in popular speech—
imaginativeness).

12. Purposive constructive imagination (7.e., ‘inventiveness,’ or the
power of bringing things together in imagination in relations in which
they have not previously been experienced, under the guidance of the
idea of some end to be achieved).

O74. REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE...

15. Power of ‘logical inference’ or reasoning.

14. Confidence in his own observations, judgments, and inferences.
15. Freedom of expression of feelings and emotions.

16. Liability to anger.

(a) Readiness with which the emotion is excited ;
(b) Intensity of the emotion ;
(c) Duration of the emotion.

17. Fear.

(a) :
(b) Same as 16,
(¢)

18, Curiosity.

(a) \
(b) Same as 16,
(¢)

19. Joyousness.

20. Sympathy (the tendency to be moved by an emotion when the
expression of it in another person is witnessed—i.e., primitive sympathy).

21. Courage or resolution (7.e., not mere absence of fear, but degree
to which purpose is pursued in spite of pain, fear, opposition, and of
difficulties foreseen).

22, Altruism (the tendency to put the welfare of others, individuals
or the public, before one’s own as a motive of action).

23, Egoism (the frequency with which the idea of one’s self and its
relations is the ruling motive in action and the mainspring of the
emotions),

24. Conscientiousness (tendency for action to be controlled by general
principles rather than by the immediate promptings of desire and
emotion ; expressed, e.g., in truthfulness, honesty in schoolwork, punc-
tuality, and general trustworthiness).

25. Industriousness.

26. Sensitiveness to opinions of other individuals (e.g., of teachers or
schoolfellows) or to public opinion (this is not to be confounded with
conscientiousness or with suggestibility).

27. Sociability (the finding of pleasure and satisfaction in the society
of fellows).

28. Initiative (expressed, ¢.g., in tendency to assume leadership in
games, in class, &c.).

29. Masterfulness—the tendency to impose one’s own will and
opinions upon others.

30, Suggestibility—readiness with which opinions and beliefs are
impressed by the expressions of other persons,

31. Competitive or emulative spirit.

32. Sense of ludicrous,

33. Aisthetic feeling.

34. Energy (i... capacity for doing work without exhaustion) ;

(2) Bodily work ;
(4) Mental work,

a

ied

ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES. ofa

ENVIRONMENT,

INTRODUCTION.

The environment may be regarded as affecting the evolution of
mankind in two different ways :—

(1) It may affect the growth and activity of living bodies, and thus
produce a more or less efficient population from any given stock.

(2) It may change the quality of the stock by selection.

The first controlling action of the environment may be called trophic
action ; and the second, genetic action.

The trophic factors of the environment include nutrition, physical
exercise and training, education, stimuli (physical and mental), inhibition
(physical and mental),

The genetic factors of the environment include all those influences
which control the relative rate of increase of the more or less endogamous
grades or classes of varying efficiency into which every population may
be divided. The rate of increase of any given class evidently depends
on the difference between its birth-rate and its death-rate. All factors of
the environment which influence the birth-rate or death-rate of a class of
the population have a genetic action, 7.¢., in the course of time they may
change the average quality of the stock.

Any of the actual factors of the environment are probably capable of
acting more or less both trophically and genetically. The kind of action
of each factor must be determined by observation of the changes which
they produce when they have been acting for a sufficiently long time on
sufficiently large groups of men. Jt would be impossible, therefore, to
rigidly classify the factors of the environment according to the kind of
their action on mankind, though we may fairly assume that the action of
some factors is mainly trophic, and of others mainly genetic.

Factors of the environment may also be classified according as they
act mainly on the bodies or minds of men, as physical, or psychological.

The factors selected for observation should preferably be of such a
kind that a numerical estimate can be made of their degree or intensity.
In many cases where the degree cannot be given in the case of indi-
viduals the presence or absence of the factor may be noted. When this
has been done, in the case of a sufficient number of individuals, the
intensity of the action of the factor on the group may be estimated as a
percentage.

In making observations on the environment of a group of individuals
we may know that many factors are common to all individuals in the
group. Such factors should not be noted on the individual schedule, but
should be noted on sheets or cards applying to the whole group.

It is not sufficient to note the factors of the environment in which the
individual or group of individuals is living at the time of the observa-
tions. As far as possible a history of the past environment should be
obtained,

LIST OF FACTORS OF THE ENVIRONMENT.

The following is a list of the more important factors of the environ-
ment, with suggestions as to methods of observation :—
Food.—The kind of food, whether, for example, vegetable or animal,

376 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

the number of meals, per day and the weight of each kind of food con-
sumed at each meal. In many establishments there is a fixed menu
which is the same for each individual. In that case the i.enu need only
be entered once in the general notes on the group.

It might be of interest to note how far the amount of food provided
corresponds with the amount actually consumed.

Drink.—The same kind of remarks apply to drink as to food.

Tobacco, &c.—The quantity or kind of tobacco, or any kind of drug,
habitually consumed by the individual should be noted.

Clothing.—The quality and quantity of clothing.

Climatology.—The statistics of temperature can be got from meteoro-
logical observations where such exist. Notes may be taken as to whether
the country is mountainous or low-lying and flat, whether the habitat is
urban or rural.

‘anitation.—The general facts as to systems of drainage (wet or dry
systems), ventilation, &c., should be noted. Number of rooms in dwelling
is a very valuable indication of sanitary life of the individual.

Work.—Kind and hours of work.

Physical training.—System of gymnastics and hours of day regularly
devoted to training should be noted. Also military training, kind and
amount of, or any other training special to individual or class ; bathing ;
hours in open air.

Recreation.—Kind of sports or games and time regularly devoted to
them may be noted.

Sleep.—Hours of actual sleep per day. Note whether sleep is dis-
turbed.

Education.—In recording the history of the education of the subject
an account should be given of the home, school, and university environ-
ment. The number of children and sex of the children in family, the
occupation of parents, whether one or both parents are dead, education of
parents, religion of parents.

The kind of school or schools attended. Co-education or not.

The university attended and the nature of the studies, whether
classical, scientific, or technical.

The time and kind of business training.

Wealth.—This may be indicated by noting wages or income where
possible. The number of domestic servants per unit of the population is
a valuable indication of wealth.

Leisure.— Hours devoted to work and recreation if already ascertained
above will give a fair indication of leisure.

Marriage and sex conditions.—It should be noted whether the sub-
ject is married or single, or has been married and how long. The number
of children and their ages (if not previously noted). Existence of prosti-
tution and venereal diseases in the community has an important bearing
on this branch of the subject.

Psychological factors.—The conduct and evolution of the individual
will be very much influenced by the public opinion of the community in
which he lives. The political opinions, love of liberty, patriotism,
individualism, socialism, morality, or any other widely spread beliefs of
the community or associates of the individual should be noted.

ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 377

GENERAL DIRECTIONS.

It is not intended that the whole of the factors indicated in
the above list should be noted in the course of all investigations. A
selection should be made of the factors in which the observer is most
interested, and this should be adhered to throughout the investigation in
question. In many cases good practical methods of estimating the various
factors may suggest themselves to the observer though they are not given
in the above list. In general it may be observed that it is safer to collect
statistics of a few factors with certainty than of a larger number where
the authenticity is more doubtful,

METHODS OF RECORDING PHOTOGRAPHIC DATA.

Racial characteristics are conveniently recorded by means of photo-
graphs. In every case the name, sex, age, and nationality (including
tribe, clan, or group), and also the date and place at which the photo-
graph was taken, should be recorded, and an identifying mark should be
placed on every negative. The portraits which are of anthropological
value are as follows :—

A. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.

(a) A few portraits of such persons of each sex as may, in the opinion
of the observer, best convey the special characteristics of the race as
regards features and pose of body. These should be taken in the aspect
which best displays those characteristics, and should be accompanied by a
note directing attention to the special features shown in the photograph.
Tt is desirable that some of these portraits should not be taken either
strictly full-face or in strict profile. Very interesting series are afforded
by whole families. Snapshot photography often gives more characteristic
records of expression and pose than can be obtained by formal sittings
before a stand-camera.

(6) Special photographs should be taken to record all characteristic
deformations of the head, face, teeth, and other parts of the body ; and
all forms of tattooing and scarification should be recorded by photographs
taken in the aspect which best displays the peculiarity. Scarifications
almost always demand special sidelong illumination ; tattooing also some-
times needs orthochromatic plates. It is occasionally necessary to enhance
tattoo marks with black paint on the person ; but this should be avoided
if possible.

B, Portraits or HEAD AND Fack onty.

(a) The portraits should show in each case the left side of the face in
exact profile. At least twelve male adults and twelve female adults
should be photographed. The hair should be so arranged as fully to show
the ear, and the males should be beardless if possible. If time only admits
of a smaller number, or of only one sex, males should be preferred. To
obtain the best average definition, the image should be focussed on a
plane midway between that of the ear and the mesial plane of the head.
For detailed directions as to pose, illumination, d&c,, see below,

78 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Qo

(>) The same persons who were taken in side-face should be photo-
graphed also in strictly full-face. The focal plane should be that of the
front of the cheek. ;

(c) The same persons should be photographed also, if possible, so as to
show the top of the head. This, however, is only of value if the subject
is bald or shaven, or has very close-cropped hair.

It will add much to the value of the portraits if the same persons
have also been measured.

C. Fuuu-Ltenctn Porrrairs.

At least twelve adults of each sex should also be photographed at full
length, standing, with heels together and arms by the sides. They should
be as nearly nude as circumstances permit, and each should be photo-
graphed in three positions :—

(a) Full-face, with the right arm hanging loosely by the side and the
left held across the body between the breasts and the navel, with the
fingers extended.

(6) Profile with arms hanging loosely by the side.

(c) Back view, with arms in the same position as in (6).

Of these the full-face view is the most important, and the back view
the least important.
For general directions as to pose, &c., see below.

GENERAL DIRECTIONS.

Camera and Lens.—In all cases record should be kept of the focal
distance of the lens and of the distance of the sitter from the camera.

A lens of short focus should be avoided. The ordinary field camera
is usually fitted with a lens of about 8 inches focal length, but for cabinet
portraits nothing under 15 inches is satisfactory, and professional photo-
graphers often use lenses of considerably longer focus. Valuable results
may even be obtained with a telephotographic lens such as is employed in
geographical work.

Rapidity of lens and plates is an advantage : uncivilised folk are im-
patient subjects. But note that very rapid plates are often too delicate
for field-work.

The focussing screen must be kept vertical, and the swing-back
should on no account be used in focussing. Otherwise distortion of the
image is inevitable.

Size and Scale.—The portraits should be on such a scale that the
distance between the top of the head and the bottom of the chin shall in
no case be less than 1} inch (30 mm.). Smaller portraits are of com-
paratively little value.

For composite work greater uniformity of scale is required. The best
results are obtained when the distances between eyes and lips are taken
as the constant dimensions.

In every series it is more important that the portraits should be of
uniform scale among themselves than that they should be precisely of any
standard scale, but the following hints will aid in securing the latter
result also :—

ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES, 579

FuLt-LencrH PortTRAtts.

A full-grown man can be photographed easily at full length on a ‘ half-
plate’ (83’’ x 63"’) on the scale of 54, and ona ‘ quarter-plate’ (4}” x 3}"’)
on the scale of 3. But ‘half-plate’ and ‘quarter-plate’ are both just
too small to admit head-and-shoulders portraits on the scale of § and
+ respectively. ,

Note, however, that the Ecole d’Anthropologie de Paris has adopted the
scale of 35 (=;35= oY) for full-length work, the object being to secure
full-length portraits on the French ‘13 x 18cm.’ plate (approximately
the English 5’x 7%” size). See Rev. Lc. Anthr. viii. (1898), p. 109.

HEAD-AND-SHOULDERS PoRTRAITS.

The ‘half-plate’ and ‘quarter-plate’ are just too small to admit with
security a head-and-shoulders portrait on the scale of 3 and } respec-
tively.

The French scale for these portraits, and for other parts of the body in

detail, is 18(=+=2), which permits a head-and-shoulders portrait to be
40 Io 5/9 Pp I

taken easily on a ‘13 x 18cm.’ plate, and with ample margin on a ‘half-
plate.’ Similarly on the scale of + a ‘ head-and-shoulders’ portrait can be
taken easily on a ‘ quarter-plate.’

Scale and Label.—A board, on which is marked very legibly a scale
of feet and inches and also a ‘metric’ scale, should be suspended over
the head of the subject in the plane of his profile, and so as just to fall
within the photographic picture. This is the only certain method of
preserving a record of the scale, and also makes it easy to secure what-
ever scale of reduction may be adopted, by comparison of the image of
this board with a line or rectangle of proportional size drawn on the
focussing screen of the camera.

The name of the district and of the sitter (or atall events a distinctive

letter or number) may be written with chalk or charcoal on this same
board, thus securing the identification of each subject.
--- Backgrownd.—The background should be at a considerable distance
from the subject. It should be of a medium tint (say a deep shadow, or
a sheet of light brown or french-grey paper pinned against the wall
beyond), very dark and very light tints being both unsuitable. Some,
however, use dead black ; others, red baize. A soft material which does
not readily crease obviates trouble from accidental shadows. In any case
due allowance must be made for the complexion or skin colour of the
persons to be photographed ; and preliminary experiment is advisable.
A note should be made of the colour of the background, and also of the
complexion or skin colour of the subject.

The essential condition is that the outlines of the figure shall be clearly
defined against the background.

Iilwmination.—The incidence of the light should be the same in all
cases, otherwise the photographs are difficult to compare, and cannot be
-used to make composite portraits.

The source of light should be single, definite, and plaged behind the
camera and above it, so that the shadows may be equally distributed
on either side of the face. This is especially important for composite
work.

The light, however, must not be so strong or concentrated as to
distress the subject or cause him to close or strain his eyes. But note
that subdued light involves longer exposure. A dark background behind
the camera relieves eye-strain, without cutting off top-light. When the

5380 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

top-light is strong, a white sheet on the ground lightens the shadows, and
helps to prevent the subject from looking down.

Mounting.—The photographs should be mounted on cards, each card
bearing the name of the district, and a letter or number to distinguish
the individual portraits ; the cards of each series may be secured together
by a thread passing loosely through a hole in their upper left-hand
corners.

For convenience of comparison and interchange, attention is called to
the standard sizes of mounts adopted by the British Association’s Com-
mittee on Anthropological Photographs. The ordinary ‘cabinet-mount’
is used for all sizes up to and including ‘ half-plate.’

The risk of fading is minimised by avoiding gum or paste ; each print
being secured by its corners to slits cut in the mount, as in a post-card
album. But the only complete security is the use of a really ‘ permanent’
process such as Platinotype.

DeratteD Directions as to Posr.

For purposes of comparison, uniformity of pose is essential in plioto-
graphs in classes 6 and C (see above).

For side-face (B*) and for full face (B") the head should be posed so
that a line drawn from the inferior orbital margin to the tragus of
the auricle is horizontal. This is a test which can be directly applied in
either pose with the help of sights and a level on the side of the camera ;
for the axis of the camera should lie in the same horizontal plane with
the line from the inferior margin of the orbit to the tragus.

Without such provision for uniformity, differences of face projection
and prognathism are liable to be obscured or misrepresented.

The subject should look at some object on a level with his eye and at
a moderate distance from it.

For top view of the head (B°) the following methods are practicable :—

1. Set the camera on a high stand, pointing vertically downwards,
and make the subject sit on the ground below it, with his head posed as
for side view.

2. Set the camera to point horizontally, and make the subject lie on
his back on a table of suitable height, with his head towards the camera.
The line from the inferior margin of the orbit to the tragus should now
be vertical.

3. Set the camera to point horizontally ; set a chair with its back to
the camera ; make the subject sit straddlewise on the chair, facing the
camera ; let him fold his arms on the back of the chair, and bend forward,
resting his head on his arms, and looking downwards, till the head is
in the right pose ; when a plumb-rule will test the line from the inferior
margin of the orbit to the tragus.

Sua@stions ror Rapipity AND UNIFORMITY.

By attending to the following hints, successive sitters may be made

to occupy so nearly the same position that the camera need hardly be
refocussed :—

1. Much time will be saved if all the side-faces are taken first, and
then all the full-faces ; the latter should occupy a different chair, in which
case the position of the camera would require to be changed after com-

ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES. O81

pleting the first series of photographs; unless, indeed, there happen to be
two operators, each with his own camera, ready to take the same persons
in turn.

2. If the camera hasa stand with vertical rack-and-pinion adjustment,
the subject’s place should be fixed, and the camera should be raised and
lowered to suit each subject. A square of the standard size of the picture
should be ruled on the focussing screen of the camera.

3. For field work, and wherever the camera has no such adjustable
stand, the camera should be set at a fixed height and all the subjects
should occupy in turn the same chair, with movable blocks of known
thicknesses on the seat to raise the heads of successive sitters to a uniform
height. It is, however, tedious and clumsy to adjust each sitter’s height
by trial in front of the camera. The simpler plan is to make the sitter
first take his place on a separate seat with his back to a wall, on which
are previously marked, at heights corresponding to those of the various
heights of head, the numbers of the blocks that should be used in each
case. The appropriate number for the sitter is found and noted, and
then the proper blocks are placed on the chair by the observer or an
assistant, with the assurance that what is wanted has been correctly
done.

4, The position of the sitter is easily controlled by the operator if he
looks at the sitter’s head over the middle line of the camera, against a
mark on the background.

The subject can also be caused to adjust himself approximately by
means of sights arranged on the side of the camera, as follows :—

A is a small mirror with a cross + painted on it. It is set at an
angle of 45° to the sitter’s line of sight.

DIAGRAM A. DIAGRAM B.

[ph &
al

Zi

B is a pin with head of glass or polished metal. The sitter is told to
keep the head of the pin sighted in the intersection of the cross.

The same device may he employed in photographing side-face to keep
the sitter in the right focal plane. In this case the sights are set up in
the focal plane, facing the sitter. Or a small plain mirror (C) may be
hung up, so that the sitter can only see his face in it when he is in the
right pose and focal plane.

382 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

EDUCATIONAL REPORT.

In dealing with anthropometrics in schools the chief factors which
the Sub-Committee has had to take into consideration are time, expense
and the object of the investigations. If time and expense did not enter
into the question, it is hardly necessary to remark that, from the scientific
point of view at least, the measurement of school-children would require
no special scheme of observations as apart from a general survey of
the population. In present circumstances, however, when a crowded
curriculum reduces the time available for anything outside the absolutely
essential to a minimum, and the cost of the education of the large majority
of the children is borne by public funds, it is necessary to confine the
investigation, so far as possible, to a practical issue more or less
immediate,

From an educational point of view the value of an anthropometric
survey must lie chiefly in the fact that it affords an accurate indication
of the development of the individual, and at the same time provides those
responsible for education with some means of judging how far the
individual, or individuals, of a particular area are modified, physically and
mentally, by the education provided.

The Sub-Committee is therefore of the opinion that the aim of
anthropometric observations in schools should be :—

1. To determine norms or averages, standard deviations and correla-
tions at different ages, having due regard to sexual, racial, and environ-
mental differences.

2. To correlate physical and mental growth with a view to testing
the efficiency of different systems of education and indicating the amount
of work that may advantageously be attempted at different ages, thereby
minimising the dangers of over-pressure.

3. To mark out the physically or mentally unfit for special educational
treatment. Where the deviation is abnormal in a number of individuals,
a whole school, or a whole area, it would point to the necessity for special]
investigations of social conditions and environment.

4. To correlate physica], mental, and environmental characters with a
view to providing a scientific basis for the better adaptation of education
to local needs and character.

As regards the anatomical measurements the Sub-Committee re-
commends the adoption of the schedules suggested for-use in schools in
this Report.

The adoption of a particular schedule must depend largely on local
circurostances and finance. And although it must be remembered that
more accurate conclusions are to be obtained from a few measurements of
a large number of individuals than from a large number of observations
on a few individuals, the value of a survey would be increased in propor-
tion as a schedule containing a Jarger number of observations were
generally adopted. The Sub-Committee is of the opinion that the
teachers, with a little practical instruction, would be capable of making
and recording the necessary measurements. In addition to actual measure-
ments, careful note should be taken of the general physical condition, and
a record of average (not record) performances in athletic spurts and of
proficiency in games should be kept.

In the case of the psychological observations the conditions are some-
what different. They would necessarily extend over a more or less

—

ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION iN THE BRITISH ISLES. 385

lengthy period, and therefore should, if possible, be entrusted to the
teacher. Graduated schedules for use in schools have not yet been drawn
up, but the teachers—who, it must be remembered, at any rate in the
elementary schools, have received some training in the observation of the
psychical characters of childhood—may select for themseives from the
schedule tentatively suggested by the Psychological Sub-Committee the
characters with which they feel themselves most competent to deal.

With regard to the record of observations, unless a special inquiry is
necessitated by local circumstances, some uniform system should be
adopted, and the method of envelopes and cards suggested in the previous
year’s Report, which includes a record of family history, seems most
desirable.

To secure the full value of the records a central body should be
established upon which should devolve the comparison and statistical
treatment of the observations made. Its duties should include the
determination of average values, standard deviations, and correlations in
different conditions ; and when this has been done, the reporting the
results of an examination of the material submitted to it to local
education authorities and others interested.

SCHEDULES.

Schedules may be in card form or a number of schedules may be bound
in book form. In some cases it may be found convenient to enter the
measurements as they are made
on cards, and afterwards enter the
Daa _ results in a book, each volume of
which should contain material

aed Cid cr

MELA (UU fucdl) Sa : :
which is as homogeneous as pos-
» pe _ sible, z.e. of the same age, class, dc,
i SOR Le ae ee Schedules will vary in com-
ay __si—is—isssSO#*piexity according to the number
_ of data to be collected about each

Stature —____— | subject.
Hair-colour_ : ' Annexed is a schedule suitable
Results of Medical ionah ‘ for entering perhaps the minimum

useful number of data, but which

e
| : ~~ | issufficient for the present require-
——________________ | ments of the Board of Education
Place of Observation | This schedule may be printed on ib
. card, with one corner bevelled off
to facilitate putting it in the cor-
. rect position in the box or drawer.
| Any special data about the indi-
ee vidual or his environment may be
entered on the back of the card,
Cards of children of the same age should be preferably kept together,

Signature of Observer and Date:

384 REPORTS ON THE STATE Of SCIENCE.

Where time is available for making more measurenients they should
preferably be added in the order given in the following list :—

1, Stature. 7. Head length.

2, Weight. 8. Head breadth.

3. Hair colour, 9. Shoulder breadth.

4. Eye colour, | 10. Breadth between trochanters.

5. Chest (circumferences). 11. Height of head.
6. Chest (diameters). $

For example, if it is decided to measure four dimensions on each sub-
ject, the first four in the above list should preferably be selected, and
so on.

A schedule in which provision is made for entering any number of
the characters specified in this Report may be printed on a card
preferably in the form shown below :—

A) ae 4 Fiera
Age
Surname and Christian Name (in full) = ES ee |
I) oad eases, Birthplace Calling ______.___-4
Father— Mother— /
Birthplace —__- Birthplace —— |
CONG eae To eS Calling (if any) =
Brothers : Nos.of Schedules _.. Sisters: Nos. of Schedules__
First Cousins : Nos. of Schedules____ : a
Novin fanily and position of subject- io eek Ss eo se eee |
Place of Observation ___ Peal : J 2g eee
Signature of Observer and Date. ss es ES. SUES a ae |
Front of Card.
| Ma PO gh kates a | eS: a
| ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS. PHYsIoLoGicaL,| PsycHoLocican. |
| (A 1) (1) (1) |
(A 2) (2) (2) |
= a ee ais = a i
(A 7) (3) (3) |
z _— annette
&e. | &e. &e. |
|

a men

-
3
:
:

ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES, 385

Back of Card.

| ENVIRONMENT, | RESULTS OF MEDICAL INSPECTION.

= | MISCELLANEOUS DATA.

The symbols in the above schedule are given as examples merely,
and represent the symbols denoting character in the lists given in this
Report.

Any selection of characters may be made in accordance with the
object of the special investigation. These characters should be denoted
by symbols which may be used in the schedules, instead of the full name
of the character, when it is desired to save space, and keep the schedule
card or sheet as small as possible. One or more cards, if necessary, may
be used for one subject.

Schedules of the above kind are very conveniently bound in book
form. In this arrangement it is convenient to have a number of sheets
at the commencement of the volume for general notes, say, on environ-
ment or other data that apply to all the individuals entered in the
volume.

1908. cc

386 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 9387

Front View of Head Chest and Shoulders (Cunningham).

ophryon - glabella
nasion - outer margin of

i orbit
outer margin of

orbit
intermalar
po:nt

intermalar point

; tip of nose
subnasa
point

lower border of
lower jaw

acromial point acromial point

suprasternal
point

point of jnne-
tion of the
manubrium
and body of
sternum:
level of 2nd
costal carti-
lages

~~~ level of chest
measurements

cc2

388 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

IN THE BRITISH ISLES.

INVESTIGATION

ANTHROPOMETRIC

ON

Profile View of the Head (Cunningham).

777

Mel IIMOT JO IP.LOG TAMO] ~-"--- --~ 7 Fo

_ eee ----- 7777 MBE LOMOT JO OpLSuL

_ = ---- - ---- Abd JO JUOTII[ORIAL JO YLUTT] LOA OT

Ctra eseomaeeae WOLUT

WIGLO JO ULBAVIA 1eqNO ___

a
a5

i)
Cat

Sceeeconctas quod zejnonme-a.d

pe va ayy JO JUaUAT~OVAIB Jo qromty taddu

WY
‘2

390 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Diagram of Cranial and Facial Radii (Cunningham).

(The radii diverge from the centre of the ear-hole.)

vertical cranial radius

maximum frontal radius

glabella
nasion
mid-nasal radius
occipital point
lower nasal

radius

alveolar radius

inion

mental radius

ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES, 391

Front Aspect of Male Figure (Cunningham).

glabella
> nasion

outer margin of orbit
* intermalar point

ophryon ~~}

outer margin of orbit al) es si
5 * a Ce wT
intermalar point \
=

margin of lower jaw

acromial point ------ -- SN -....... acromial point

suprasternal point

junction between manubrium ~
and body of sternum
level of chest measurement

internal condyle of humerus

anterior superior spine of ilium anterior superior spine of ilium

top of great trochanter --- Get Bees apchant er
top of symphysis pubis

styloid process of radius ----- styloid process of radius

upper end of tibia and lower

= : =F end of femur on the outside
aa head of fibula
___----tip of internal malleolus
A)

.--------tip of external malleolus

upper end of tibia and lower end of --~~
femur on inner side

tip of internal malleolus ---_____
tip of external malleolus ------

WW

bo

REPORTS ON

THE STATE OF

SCIENCE.

ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES.

Oo
ive)
Oo

Left Lateral Aspect of Male Figure (Cunningham).

upper limit of attachment of ear -__

outer margin of orbit -- ; s
et AGATE IN OLO > _- pre-auricular point
point of maximum interzygomatic
breadth ee 52 “anit of ;
point from which to measure inter- — lower limit of attachment of ear

malar breadth of © 2 2 & * fpea=~n#- = ----- angle of lower jaw
lower border of lower jaw -------

SESE acromial point

level for chest measurements ------

external condyle of humerus ----- - point of elbow

--- upper edge of head of radius
tubercle on crest of ilinm ----

anterior superior spine of ilium -----
top of great trochanter of femur -----_

----styloid process of ulna
~>>--styloid process of radius

____lower end of femur and upper end
of tibia
~~>>~-head of fibula

_ tip of external malleolus or lower
ia end of fibula

ws)
oF

REPORTS

ON THE

STATE

OF

SCIENCE,

Os
co
ue

ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES.

Back View of Male Figure (Cunningham).

-~-inion

spine of 7th cervical vertebra -------

aeroriall potatoe NN (Se acromial point

level of chest measurement

__internal condyle of humerus

internal condyle of humerus _ point of elbow

point of elbow ~

_ posterior superior spine of
ilium

- point from which to measure
conjugate diameter of pelvis

~ top of great trochanter

posterior superior spine of --
ilium

top of great trochanter ----

tip of styloid process of ulna ----~ - tip of styloid process of ulna

lower end of femur and upper

ibi lower end of femur and upper
end of tibia

end of tibia

head of fibula ----~ a Heanor abnla

intcrnal malleolus

internal malleolus

external malleolus external malleolus

E.

4

STATE OF SCIENC

ON THE

REPORTS

Ne)

a
3)

ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 397

Posterior Aspect of the Fully Extended Right Arm (Cunningham).

point of elbow—upper border of
olecranon process of ulna :
internal condyle of humerus ---— : ______ external condyle of humerus

upper edge of head of radius

tip of styloid process of ulua ---—-- ] --- tip of styloid process of radius

wo
(@2)

REPORTS ON THE STATE

OF

SCIENCE.

ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 399
Outer and Inrer Aspects of the Lower Limbs (Cunningham).
Tower end of femur ..---
<—outerside
= — - Sn y
Npadiohtipmian = Vi} of Ve § =) 2 OO gC H--- foro top of great trochanter

-
_ external malleolus *------
lower end of femur and

upper end of tibia—
inner side

--internal malleolus

100 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

The Age of Stone Circles—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Mr. C. H. Reap (Chairman), Mr. H. BaLrour (Secretary), Lorp
Avesury, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr. A. J. Evans, Dr. R. Munro,
Professor Boyp Dawkins, and Mr. A. L. Lewis, appointed to
conduct Hxplorations with the object of ascertaining the Age of Stone
Circles.

THE Committee report that they have been able to carry out the plan
of making excavations at Avebury, on the portion of the monument
belonging to Lord Avebury, who kindly gave the necessary permission.
The Committee in their last report asked for a larger grant than usual,
owing to the size and importance of the work, and it has been found that
the conditions were even more exacting than was foreseen. Owing
to the great scale of the vallum and fosse, and more especially from the
unexpectedly great depth of the latter, only a small section could be
entirely explored. The small portions investigated have, however, yielded
interesting results, though the evidence is not so conclusive as the Com-
mittee had hoped.

The most remarkable feature in the exploration was the great depth
of the fosse. Before the original bottom was reached nearly 17 feet
of silting had to be removed, and as the fosse at this point was about
35 feet wide at the surface of the silting and 17 feet wide at the bottom,
and the cutting 24 feet long, the quantity of soil to be removed involved
a very serious outlay. The section exposed showed very clearly the
stratification of the silting. The relics found were few, but they bore
out the theoretical chronology of the filling in of the ditch. At the
bottom, practically on the floor of the fosse, were found picks made from
the antlers of red deer, showing signs of use ; while at higher levels were
found fragments of Bronze Age pottery, above these Roman fragments,
and in the upper layers Norman and more recent relics. The deerhorn
picks recall the flint mines at Cissbury and Grimes Graves, where similar
picks were found in the workings and clearly belonged to Late Neolithic
times. All that can be said at present is that the relics tend to confirm
the theory that the circle at Avebury is of the Neolithic or Early Bronze
period : but this can hardly be said to be proved by the present explora-
tion. It is of the greatest importance, however, that an effort should be
made now to decide this question definitely, and the Committee feels
very strongly that the explorations at Avebury should be continued.

The Committee have been fortunate in again securing the services of
Mr. H. St. G. Gray, who has superintended the workmen with his usual
thoroughness; he has made careful scale drawings of the sections
exposed, and a series vf photographs of the cutting at different stages of
progress. Mr. Gray’s detailed report is appended.

The Committee desire to thank Lord Avebury for kindly allowing
the explorations to be made, and their thanks are also due to the Vicar,
the Rev. J. G. Ward, for his services in securing labourers.

The Committee ask to be reappointed with a grant of 120/., and
with permission to accept contributions towards the cost of exploration
from other sources.

>

ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES. 401

The Avebury Excavations, 1908. By H. St. Grorce Gray.
I. Introductory Notes.

In point of size and grandeur Avebury! stands out pre-eminently
among the prehistoric stone monuments of Great Britain ; at the same
time it is decidedly difficult to realise fully what Avebury and _ its
appendages were when in the height of their glory. The monument has
been terribly mutilated, and vandalism must have reigned supreme for
many years to effect the complete destruction of some 95 per cent.
of the great monoliths. To understand the original form of Avebury it
is necessary to refer to the plans of Aubrey, Stukeley, Hoare (drawn
by Crocker), and Lukis. Modern archeologists can accept only a certain
proportion of the statements and theories advanced by the earlier of
these antiquaries. Much remains to be proved with regard to the precise
origina] form of the great Avebury monument, and although the Kennet
Avenue,” approaching Avebury from the 8.E., is not disputed by any-
body, antiquaries are still divided in opinion on the question of the
former existence of a ‘ Beckhampton Avenue on the W.8.W.? Then,

1 * Averberie’ in Domesday Book.

2 Of the Kennet Avenue nineteen stones remain, viz. eleven in a group half
way between Avebury and West Kennet (which I photographed recently); one on
the brow of the hill on the other side of the main road and towards Avebury; one
close to the turnpike-gate outside the vallum; two stones on the Avebury side of
West Kennet, between which the main road passes; and four in the bank on the
left-hand side of the road from Marlborough as it enters West Kennet, which can
be seen by going into the adjoining field. Stukeley, with Lord Winchelsea, counted
seventy-two stones of this avenue in 1722. The eleven stones mentioned above
average 70 feet apart, and the only remaining standing stone is 8 feet 9 inches high.

Stukeley records that two prostrate stones of this Avenue (destroyed in 1722)
existed in the gap by which the Kennet road enters Avebury. Aubrey, in his plan
(1663) shows seven stones immediately outside the gap through the southern vallum.
Sir Norman Lockyer (Nature, Jan. 16 and Feb. 20, 1908) believes that the vallum
of Avebury was raised long after the circles had been constructed, at a time when
this Avenue became useless for astronomical purposes. He regards the Kennet
Avenue as being made for the purpose of watching the rise of a Centauri (pre-
viously to 4,000 years ago), as a warner of the Nov. festival (while the sunrise in
May was provided for in the Beckhampton Avenue). He goes so far as to suggest
that the stones of the Kennet Avenue close up to Avebury may have been removed
when the vallum was built! (or further information see Wature, and Wilts Arch.
Mag., xxxv. 1908, 515-7).

*In the Guide to the British and Roman Antiquities of the North Wiltshire
Downs, the Rev, A. CU. Smith has collected together the opinions of early writers as
to the former existence, or non-existence, of the so-called Beckhampton Avenue.
After mentioning Aubrey’s absolute silence on the subject, he quotes the words of
Stukeley at some length; then follow extracts from Thos. Twining, Jas. Fergusson,
and the Revs. C. Lucas, Bryan King. and W. C. Lukis.

‘There is no question that, if Stukeley’s word is to be believed, he most certainly
sam many sarsen stones lying in two, more or less apparent, lines west of the great
circle of Abury: moreover, he speaks of ten stones of this Avenue known to have
been standing within memory, between the exit of the Avenue from the vallum and
the brook.’ (Smith, 147.)

The Rev. Bryan King said: ‘There are very few Jineal yards which are not
occupied by causeways, walls and cottages, all formed of sarsen stone, sufficient,
and more than sufficient, to absorb all the stones of the Beckhampton Avenue.’
(Wilts Arch. Mag., xviii., 377-383.) Sir Norman Lockyer has dealt with the
alignment of the Beckhampton Avenue in Nature, Jan. 16, 1908.

Nearly a mile to the 8.W. of the centre of Avebury is the ‘ Longstone Cove,’ or
‘Long Stones,’ also known as the ‘ Devil’s Quoits.’ Aubrey spoke of three upright
stones, but two only remained in Stukeley’s time.

08, DD

402 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENGE.

again, the connection, if any, which Avebury had with Silbury Hill !
remains yet to be determined. But the excavations recently conducted
at Avebury were carried out, not to attempt to prove the above-
mentioned points, but to endeavour to increase our knowledge with
regard to the probable date of construction of Avebury, and to test the
hypothesis put forward so often, that because the sarsens of Avebury
are entirely unworked, the monument must be of earlier construction than
Stonehenge with its dressed stones.

The Avebury of to-day consists of a few enormous standing stones
and similar prostrate stones, scattered over an area which is usually
recorded as 284 acres and is surrounded by a stupendous fosse, now
to a large extent silted up; this again is bounded by a vallum of
imposing height, of which more than three-quarters remain, many parts
being well preserved. The mutilation of the bank and ditch was caused
chiefly by the building of the village and the construction of roads which
approach the ancient monument from four directions. Walls and houses,
obviously built of the venerable stones cracked up for the purpose, meet
one’s gaze at every turn. Indeed, as Lord Avebury has said in
‘Prehistoric Times,’ ‘the pretty little village of Avebury, like some
beautiful parasite, has grown up at the expense, and in the midst of the
ancient temple.’

Aubrey,” Stukeley, and Hoare all agreed that a circle of stones
followed the course of the fosse on its inner side, and that there were
two smaller circles within the greater—one north and one south—each
of which, according to Stukeley, contained a concentric circle ; that in
the centre of the N. ring there was the so-called ‘Cove,’ and in the
middle of the 8. circle a central monolith (according to Stukeley only).
There is now no trace of concentric circles.* Stukeley’s and Crocker’s
plans give the diameter of both circles as 410 feet, whereas Lukis

1 Silbury Hill is on the N. side of the main Bath road between Calne and
Marlborough, at a distance of 4,750 feet from the centre of the Avebury large
circle, in a direction slightly W. of 8. It is the largest artificial mound in
Britain, having an average perpendicular height of 125 feet; its diameter at base
is from 552 to 555 feet; circumference at base about 1,660 feet; angle of elevation,
30°. ;

Stukeley, in his work on ‘Abury,’ published in 1743, says: ‘In the month of
March 1723, Mr. Halford ordered some trees to be planted on the top of Silbury
Hill, in the area of the plain 60 cubits in diameter. .. . The workmen dug up the
body of the great king, there buried in the centre, very little below the surface.’

In 1777, a shaft was sunk from the summit by the Duke of Northumberland and
Col. Drax. It is to be regretted that no detailed account of these operations is
upon record ; all that is known was published by Douglas in his Wenia Britannica,
p. 161. In 1849 the base of the mound was tunnelled from the western ‘isthmus ’
on the §. side of the hill. Two pieces of red-deer antler were found, and on the
old surface fragments of a sort of string of two strands, each twisted. Vertebreo
and ribs of oxen (? red-deer) and a large tooth were also discovered. It is recorded
that the Royal Archeological Institute came across the shaft, 5 feet x 42 feet,
previously sunk from the summit of the hill, as before mentioned. (Proc. R. Arch.
Inst., Salisbury vol., 1849, see papers by Dean Merewether and C. Tucker, 73-81
and 297-303.) Excavations were conducted at Silbury Hill in 1867 to ascertain
the direction taken by, and the position of, the Roman Road with relation to Silbury
Hill. (See Preb, Wilkinson’s paper, Wilts Arch. Mag., xi. 113-118.)

2 The stones of Avebury were first noticed by Aubrey in 1648-9,

3 Of the N. inner circle, Sir R. C. Hoare’s surveyor (Crocker) marked one stone
as remaining in 1812, and Dean Merewether testifies to the existence of two prostrate
stones in 1849, (A. L, Lewis in Jowrn, Anthrop. Inst., 1891.)

baw

Pa :CS:CmCT.C

ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES. 4.03

says the N. circle was not more than 270 feet and the 8. circle 320 feet
in diameter.

Avebury has a circumference (according to Smith and others) of no
less than 4,442 feet ; whereas the vallum and fosse at Stonehenge measure
only 1,107 feet in circumference, curiously enough, almost exactly one
quarter of Avebury. Again, the diameter of the area at Avebury within
the encircling vallum measures 1,400 feet, whereas that within the vallum
at Stonehenge measures but 300 feet. The average height of the central
area of Avebury above mean sea level is 525 feet. It is, like Stonehenge,
commanded by higher ground at a short distance off.

W: ©. Lukis’s plan, in Smith’s large book on North Wilts, is probably
the best as yet existing, showing the remaining stones and the probable
position of others as ascertained by probing ; also the position of holes
which existed (some still exist) in the central plateau enclosed by the
fosse. From it we find that in 1881 fifteen stones were still standing,
sixteen prostrate stones remained visible, the existence of eighteen others,
now buried underground, was ascertained, and thirty-three pits were
observed in which stones formerly stood. Thus Lukis and Smith
accounted for eighty-two stones altogether. The sarsens of Avebury
are far larger than those of Stonehenge.

Avebury is one of the few stone circles where the ditch is within and
the rampart outside. Other instances of this design occur at the follow-
ing circles :—Arbor Low Derbyshire (already excavated) ;* the Stripple
Stones, Cornwall (also excavated) ;* Stennis and the Ring of Brogar, in
the Orkneys; and Arthur's Round Table, in Cumberland ; also at
Chlorus’ Camp, N.E. of Salisbury. At Stonehenge the shallow fosse is
outside the feeble vallum.

Il. Previous Excavations.

Avebury has been the site of archxological explorations on three
former occasions, but in each case the relics appear to have been lost,®
and very little indeed from the great ‘Temple’ is to be found in local
or other museums.® In the first instance, excavations were conducted
under the direction of the Wiltshire Archeological and Natural History
Society in September and October 1865.’ ‘Considerable researches’
were made by ‘sinking holes in many places, running trenches across
certain spots, and tunnelling the large external mound.’ In the vicinity
of ‘The Cove,’ within the N. circle, no traces of a burial deposit were
found. It is stated that just under the turf two or three fragments of
British pottery were found, together with bones of sheep and a small
piece of burnt micaceous sandstone. In digging close to the two large
stones of ‘The Cove,’ layers of blocks of sarsens, up to a size of 18 inches

1 These measurements are not mine, but taken from various authorities.

2 Archeologia, lviii. 461-498; Brit. Assoc. Reports 1901, 427-436, and 1902,
455-465; Journ. Derbysh. Archeol. and N. H. Soe., xxvi. 41-77.

8 Brit. Assoc. Reports, 1906, 370-382 ; Archeologia, Ixi. p. 1, et seg. (not yet
published).

4 Hoare’s Ancient Wiltshire, vol. i. 247.

5 Since writing this the pottery found in 1881 has been sent to me for examination
from Devizes Museunt.

5 Ina fuller account of the Avebury excavations I hope to give a list of ‘finds’
previously made at or near this ancient monument.

7 Wilts Arch. Mag., x. 209-216.

DD2-

4.04 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

across, were uncovered ; ‘they were evidently placed there, and rammed -
in for the purpose of propping the massive stones in their upright position.’
‘ Black charred matter’ is recorded to have been found, and numerous
chips of sarsen. It was thought that fires had been lit here for the
breaking up of the stones. ‘A good deal of British pottery and many
animal bones were found in these holes, but no human bones whatever.’
To the S.E. of ‘The Cove’ a low embankment was cut through from
W. to E., the ‘finds’ being a portion of a stag’s horn and some fragments
of pottery. An excavation was also made into the W. face of the E.N.E.
vallum, but nothing was found. Another was made on the S.W. at a
place where the vallum had been mutilated for the requirements of the
modern village ; only one fragment of pottery was found here. A third
excavation into the vallum was made to the W.N.W. side of the W. gap
without any result in the way of relics. The excavations made in all
numbered fourteen, and the fragments of pottery brought to light from
the deeper cuttings ‘were invariably of the British type.’ This latter
remark is vague, and without seeing the pottery it would be uusafe to
regard the shards as all being of the Bronze Age. Some Norman pottery,
although much harder baked, has often, in its coarseness and texture,
much about the same appearance as ancient British pottery, containing
grains of quartz, &c., and it is only during the last decade or so that we
have been able to identify shards of pottery with any degree of certainty.
Those responsible for the excavations of 1865 claim to have fairly upset
James Fergusson’s view that Avebury was a vast graveyard, and that
human bones would be disinterred if search were made.!

When the Rev. W. C. Lukis was making a plan ? of Avebury in 1881,
his colleague, the Rev. A. C. Smith, rector of Yatesbury, resolved to
examine the ground with a hope of discovering some buried stones.
This was carried out by five workmen, and the spots specially observed
were the places where Stukeley and Aubrey showed that stones had
stood. The result was that sixteen large sarsens of the outer circle were
discovered, some buried at a considerable depth. It was Mr. Smith’s
opinion that these stones had been sunk deep in the ground by means
of pits dug beneath them, doubtless to be no longer a hindrance to the
plough or for other agricultural reasons. They were covered up again
after Mr. Lukis had made his plan, the spots being marked by numbered
pegs, which have probably for the most part now disappeared. Lukis
and Smith also noted and planned several pits in which stones originally
stood. Hoare noted eight of these depressions, but Smith and Lukis
were able to add twenty-five others not previously recorded. Smith did
not find many relics during the work of 1881, but some of the pottery
was, I believe, regarded as being of early date.*

In July 1894 excavations were made into the vallum and fosse on the
S.E. at the expense of the then owner, Sir Henry Meux, Bart., under
the general direction of Mr. E. C. Trepplin, steward of the estate, and

1 Fergusson’s Rude Stone Monuments.

2 This plan is Plate V. in Smith’s Guide to the British and Roman Antiquities of

the North Wilts Downs.

8 Since writing this report I have had sent me by the Wiltshire Archeological
Society for examination fifty fragments of pottery found by Mr. Smith in 1881, and
now deposited in Devizes Museum. Allofthe shards appear to me to be post-Roman,
mostly of Norman date. There is certainly no fragment among them that can be
regarded as pre-Roman. It is all of the same general character as the pottery found
in my excayations in the 8. fosse above the depth of 4'5 feet from the surface,

ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES: 405

the ismmediate supervision of Mr. Thos. Leslie, also one of the officers
of the estate. The ‘finds’ consisted mostly of fragments of pottery, one
or two worked bones, a few flint implements, animal bones, and red-deer
antlers, some bearing evidence of having been used as picks. The latter
were found in the vallum, having been thrown up in a damaged condition
at the time of their being broken—viz. when the ditch was originally
being excavated and the vallum built. The fosse, apparently, did not
yield any important results, as the excavations were carried only to a
depth of 7} feet from the surface of the silting (about the depth at which
I came to the upper margin of the chalk rubble in the middle of the
S. fosse). It would appear, therefore, that when the white chalk rubble
(in fairly large knobs) was reached, it was thought to be the floor of the
fosse. Mr. Leslie speaks of Romano-British pottery, which may probably
be correct for the fragments found towards the bottom of his ditch-
digging, but he does not appear to have dug more than a foot or so into
the pre-Roman strata of the silting. He does not speak of Norman and
Early English pottery in his notes, but those pieces found above 4} feet
in the silting would probably, on close examination, prove to be post-
Roman shards. Perhaps the most interesting structural item revealed
by the 1894 excavations was a possible indication of an inner mound,
or vallum, subsequently surmounted by another vallum after the growth
of vegetation on the presumably earlier structure. Mr. Leslie found the
surface line of an inner bank defined by a curved band of vegetable mould
measuring about 34 inches thick. His rough notes are at present In my
possession, and when a fuller illustrated account of the Avebury excava-
tions is published, it is hoped that the 1894 digging may be spoken of at
greater length. The drawings, relics, and full notes, over which Mr. Leslie,
unfortunately, had no control at the close of the diggings, have been lost
beyond recovery, it is feared, a fact which minimises the scientific value of
those excavations very considerably.

Ill. The 1908 Excavations.

(a) Prefatory Remarks.—It was considered by the Committee that the fosse
was more likely to furnish evidence of date than any other part of the Circles,'
and a broad, well-preserved portion on the S., on Lord Avebury’s property,
situated about 156 feet W. of the Kennet Avenue entrance to this ancient
enclosure, was therefore selected for the purpose of excavation. A considerable
amount of surface silting appeared to have accumulated here, chiefly the result of
road-dirt being drained into this portion of the fosse through the gateway on the
high road. As one walks from the cutting to the gateway the silting naturally
increases in depth. The part selected for digging was practically level from N.
to S., and then began to rise in a S. direction towards the crest of the vallum,
and in a N. direction towards the level area on which the circles of stones stood.
In most parts of the earthwork the surface of the silting, the escarp of the
ditch, and the summit of the vallum combined, show an ogee outline, but the S.E.
quarter of the vallum and fosse differed,? and the curve from the surface of the
silting to the crest of the vallum is not a true ogee, as a berme, or terrace, exists
at the base of the vallum and above the escarp of the fosse.

The excavations began on Tuesday, May 19, and continued till Saturday,
June 6. The average number of men employed daily was nine, but for more than

1 A preliminary inspection of the site was made on April 14, 1908, when Mr.
C. H. Read (Chairman), Mr. Henry Balfour (Secretary), Mr. A. L. Lewis, and Mr.
—St. George Gray met at Avebury.

? Where Sir Henry Meux’s excavations took place.

4.06 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

half the time eleven men and a boy were engaged. Only three-quartets of a day
was lost owing to wet weather. Of both the cuttings sectional diagrams were
made on the ground, plotted to a scale of 8 feet to an inch, in which the various
soils were shown, and the exact position of every object of importance found during
the excavations was projected into these sections, notes being preserved relating
to each numbered ‘ find.” The accompanying diagrammatic section of Cutting I.
shows the position of the pottery and other objects found, and the various strata
which formed the accumulated silting in the fosse.

Sixteen satisfactory photographs (half-plate) were taken of Avebury, the
majority showing the progress made in the excavations from time to time as new
features presented themselves.

AVEBURY STONE CIRCLE, WILTS (309. _
AVERAGE SECTION OF THE S.FOSSE, isp

) ~ SHOWING THE POSITION OF THE POTTERY AND OTHER OBJECTS FOUND.

Xo4 FOSSE._ LENGTH, RE-EXCAVATED, 24 FEET. Woog
— ‘G26
| 20¢

tru TTT
O09 #8. lL HUTTE

\ {| | | | \ | a | LS | We oe
\ FE A a AAA RARE ARERR yenes SY
MOURA ww AQMD
RDN MAMA MG \ cata ey
187 SA LTD EDD ee bth 44t)2 05708
3 tit Poe eeyo:0 ° oe 2759.9
g J
co 0g
009
(eae)
oO?
rene)
2
°o
x
« 9
W.STGEORGE GRAY, a
VAENS. EY Dev, 1908. 7109 ng 2a, 090 92900 9 2e59 9 e
960 FG) o igo 6.8 80.00 95,08 Donan oo
02 25 2 996% a6 nog £5 3g 0 co 90
n 50% 20099 09 9400000 902000 0%0
06 9% 095 0007S a9909o opIg 2900 0
REFERENCES TO SOILS. REFERENCES TO FINOS.
OO rurr ano TuRF MouLD. -+- NORMAN AND MEDIZVAL POTTERY.
RSJ) SURFACE SILTING (CHIEFLY MOULD). @ porrery OF ROMANO-BRITISH TYPE,
MIXED SILTING. © RomMAN POTTERY. .
FINE MIXED SILTING. @ POTTERY OF BRONZE AGE TYPE,
ee ARABIC
CHALK RUBBLE. | Pita OTHER FINDS (SEE TEXT), 4
tes 0 5 10 is 20 21 ~~,
SCALE OF fa SS FRET S
colt o ! 2 3 4 5 6 7 METRE .

The excavations were visited by several fellows of the Society of Antiquaries
of London, and by members of the Wiltshire Archeological Society, Somerset-
shire Archeological Society, and the Viking Club.’

After consultation with Lord Avebury it was decided to leave the excavations
open until next spring, and a strong stake and wire fence has therefore been
erected to enclose the disturbed ground.

1 Most of the men were local labourers, but I brought with me, as foreman,
T. Paul, of Glastonbury, for many years engaged in work at the Lake Village there,
and another man with similar experience.

2 The Chairman and Secretary of the Stone Circles Committee, British Associa
tion, visited the excavations, and Lord Avebury came down from xondon on two
occasions.

SSS CCC rr”

ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES, 4.07

(b) Cutting I., Posse.—This cutting was 24 feet long, the most
westerly margin being about 156 feet from the middle of the hedge along
the road at the Kennet Avenue entrance. Turf was removed to a width
of 26 feet in the first instance, but this dimension in some places had to
be increased to 45 feet in order that the profile of the fosse, when partly
re-excavated, might be shown to better advantage.

In plotting the sectional diagram it was found that the present surface
of the silting of the fosse in this part was approximately 14 feet lower
than the original ground level above it (viz. the level of the adjacent
field in which the remains of the outer circle of stones are to be seen) at
the time of the construction of the fosse. It is rather remarkable that
the Avebury fosse has not silted up to a greater extent.!

As it was anticipated that the fosse might prove to be deep, ledges
had to be left in the silting at different stages to allow of the material
being thrown up from the lower levels with comparative ease ; and it was
found necessary in a large cutting of this sort to wheel out nearly all the
material on planks.

The turf and turf-mould was found to reach to a depth of 0°8 foot ;
in it several modern shards and scraps of iron were found. We next
came to a fine gritty mould, which has been called ‘ surface silting.’ The
average depth of this in the middle was 3:3 feet from the surface, tapering
off towards both sides of the ditch. In removing this layer horizontally
we, of course, came to earlier deposits on the sides, viz. mixed silting and
chalk rubble. As will be seen by the diagram, the strata are deepest in
the centre of the fosse, the surface of each deposit, as viewed from above,
presenting a decidedly concave outline. The deeper a ditch, the more
pronounced one expects to find this characteristic. Silting falling into
an open ditch from either side naturally covers the sides very rapidly,
and the surface of the silting as it increases from bottom to top is always
concave, more so in the early stages of filling than later.

The next deposit—mixed silting, consisting of mould with a larger
proportion of small pieces of chalk—extended to an average depth of
8°7 feet in the middle of the silting. This deposit was also on the curve.
In most places the bottom 2 feet of this silting was found to be of a finer
kind with a smaller admixture of bits of chalk, and it is differently repre-
sented in the diagram.

When the middle of the mixed silting was reached we proceeded to
trace the hard chalk walls of the fosse on both sides to the depth we had
excavated. This done, the work from day to day became temporarily
checked by the caving-in of parts of the vertical face of the silting, some-
times two or three tons falling in one night. This is well seen in the
photographs. In the mixed silting, at depths of 5, 6:3, 6°3 and 7 feet
respectively, four sarsen boulders were found, each about 2 feet across.

The mixed silting proved to be an interesting deposit as far as
fragments of pottery were concerned. Four distinct qualities were found,
representing three definite archeological types. In the upper third, and
above a depth of 4:5 feet from the surface, Norman and Early English
pottery was found commonly, indicating not only that Avebury was
overrun during those times, but also that since early Norman times about
45 feet of silting had accumulated in this part of the fosse. Secondly,

1 [ heard some reports that the fosse had been cultivated as arable land some five

6r six decades ago, but I was unable to substantiate those statements on making
inquiries from old inhabitants,

408 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

pottery of the Roman period was found at depths varying from 5 to 6 feet
in the middle of the mixed silting deposit ; and thirdly, two fragments of
coarse British pottery of Bronze Age type were found in the lowest third
of the mixed silting at a depth of 7:2 feet from the surface. In the
middle division of this area twenty-five fragments of pottery were collected,
all of Romano-British type and unornamented. Some of the pieces were
small, and it is possible that a few of them may be post-Roman, but all
undoubtedly are pre-Norman. The three pieces of Roman ware associated
with the Romano-British pottery consisted of a very thin fragment, brick-
red on the two surfaces (No. 80), a large piece of painted New Forest
ware (No. 98), and a piece of tile, tegula (No. 24). The coarse Bronze
Age type of ware, containing large grains of quartz, survived into Roman
times, and is occasionally found with Romano-British shards. But when
found in deep deposits, unassociated with Romano-British pottery, it is
generally safe to regard it as being of Bronze Age manufacture. In the
Avebury fosse, however, the highest pieces of the early type are found
1:2 feet below the Romano-British type. The position of the various
qualities of pottery in the mixed silting was most satisfactory as regards
chronology.

To complete the account of the pottery from Cutting No. I. we must
at once turn to the vast accumulation of chalk rubble, from 8°7 feet below
the surface of the silting to the bottom of the fosse. The only fragments
of pottery found in this deposit were three small pieces of Bronze Age
ware, at depths of 7 feet, 7:8 feet, and 12°5 feet respectively, two being
of the coarsest description.! There is no question about the depth of this
last-named fragment, which was found in my presence by the foreman
(who did all the important digging at low levels).

With one exception, the other ‘finds’ in the chalk rubble were value-
less as evidence of date. But that exception was an important one, viz.
the finding of five red-deer antler picks (Nos. 89, 90, 91, 94, and 95), for
the most part fractured and incomplete, but capable of considerable
repair,” resting on the solid chalk floor of the fosse—thrown away when
they became useless as tools. One or two of these picks prove to be
excellent specimens ; with one exception they are shed antlers, two being
extremely massive. (For details, see Section f.) It is difficult to realise
how this stupendous fosse was excavated out of the solid chalk by means
of antler picks only. There can be no doubt, I think, that the hardest
chalk must have been loosened, at least to some extent, by the blows of
flint hammers and mauls.* The other appliances used in this work would
probably be wooden and bone shovels, and baskets and ropes to haul the
chalk to the surface. Close to the bottom of the ditch we found a frag-
mentary shoulder-blade bone in a very bad state of preservation, but I
was unable to determine if it had been used as a shovel (‘ Archzologia,’
xlv. 345),

A flint knife was found at a depth of 13 feet and worked flint flakes
at 7°3 and 10 feet ; also a piece of human skull-bone at an approximate
depth of 12 feet. The relics are referred to later.

1 Two fragments of Romano-British pottery were found in the chalk rubble, but
quite high up, close to the inner wall of the fosse, and as evidence of date their
position was unimportant.

? They have been restored by Mrs. St. G. Gray.

‘In some cases the blunt end ‘of the picks appears to have been used fcr
hammering,

a a

—

i i hee ee a

ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES. 4.09

The chalk rubble covered the sides of the ditch up to the top ; in the
middle of the silting the deposit was reached at a maximum depth of
8-7 feet, and extended downwards to the floor of the fosse to a maximum
depth of 16-8 feet, and a minimum depth of 16°6 feet, from the surface.
We were much impeded in clearing the smooth, flat floor of the fosse
owing to the repeated falls from the vertical face of the silting. How-
ever, after perseverance, a length of 17 feet was cleared at the bottom,'
the length of the excavation on the surface being 24 feet. The bottom
of the fosse averaged 17 feet in width (between 17-3 and 16 feet in one
part). The inner wall of the fosse did not vary in slope very considerably,
as seen by the diagram (inclination about 59°), but the lower 5 feet of
the outer wall was very steep in most places (maximum inclination 80°),
No tool-marks were observable on the walls of the fosse, near the bottom
or elsewhere,

(c) Cutting II., Fosse, and digging to the East of it.—At 87 feet to the W. of
the hedge of the road coming into Avebury from Kennet, and at 69 feet to the
E. of the W. margin of Cutting I., another section was surveyed across the silting
of the fosse. On May 23 a large cutting was begun here. It was soon found that
as this section was nearer the road there would be a greater amount of surface
silting to remove than in Cutting I. At the bottom of the surface silting several
fragments of Norman and medieval pottery, two flint flakes, and a core were
found, but as time pressed (Cutting I. having proved a heavier task than was
anticipated), it was found necessary to cease working at Cutting II. on June 1,
hoping that it might be completed at some future time. A total depth of
5°5 feet was attained on the W. and 5 feet on the EH. Present length of the
cutting 9°5 feet. Judging from the sides already exposed, it appeared possible
that the fosse might be narrower at the bottom as it approached the Kennet
Avenue entrance.

If at no other place, it is quite reasonable to suppose that the ‘Temple of
Avebury’ was entered from the S. by way of the Kennet Avenue. We should,
therefore, look for an entrance causeway in the position of the modern road and a
little to the HE. of Cutting II. Indeed, this cutting was commenced here in order
that it might be prolonged eventually in search of the end of the fosse terminating
in a solid chalk causeway. To try and prove the existence of such a termination
on the S. we made several trial-holes to ascertain the direction taken by the upper
margins of the walls of the fosse exposed in Cutting II. Holes were made along
hoth margins, and in all those nearest to Cutting [1. the solid chalk upper margin

of the fosse wall was revealed ; but, instead of the fosse narrowing, it widened

as it approached the hedge and road. A trench was dug on the S. side up to the
hedge, and on the N. side close to the gate, but without proving that the fosse
rounded off. If such a termination does occur under the W. side of the roadway,
then the solid chalk entrance must have been narrow for so important a monument
as Avebury. On the other hand, there may have been no entrance causeway, and
it is possible that the fosse was spanned by a bridge. It is feared that, owing to
the presence of the hedge and modern roadway, it may be difficult to prove the
point. The best course to pursue would probably be to continue Cutting IT.
towards the hedge, and, if found necessary, to drive a tunnel under the road at a
safe level,

(d) The Stlting in Cutting I. (see Sectional Diagram). Dimensions taken in
the middle of the silting—1. Turf and turf-mould, thickness 08 foot.
_ 2. Surface silting, average thickness 24 feet; fine loamy silt of light-brown
colour, without lumps of chalk, washed in and partly the result of denudation,
but mostly derived from silt drained into the fosse from the roadway.

1 On a future occasion the remaining seven feet length of chalk rubble could be
excavated in the hope of finding other relics in this important deposit,

410 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

83. Mixed silting, average thickness 3°8 feet, consisting of rather darker loamy
mould than the surface silting, and containing a fair proportion of small lumps of
chalk from j inch across to about 2 inches, On the W. side of the cutting a
hard band of lumps of chalk was noticed across the middle of this stratum, Some
of the lumps were 3 or 4 inches long, and resulted from a sudden fall of chalk
from the profile of the fosse, This layer, 2 inches thick, was so hard that the
foreman thought at first that the bottom of the fosse had been reached.

4, Fine mixed silting, average thickness 2 feet. A narrow, curved layer, con-
sisting nf fine chalk mixed with a small proportion of light yellowish-brown loam
or mould,

5. Chalk rubble, average thickness 7:8 feet. The upper layers of this deposit
consisted of rather small lumps of chalk seldom more than 3 inches across, and
usually much smaller. Some of the pieces were found agglutinated as if by the
lime contained in water which had percolated through the silting. The lumps of
chalk were larger towards the bottom. Occasionally thin curved seams of mould
were observed in this deposit, caused by the falling of turf and mould from the
margins of the open fosse as it was gradually widening and falling from natural
causes, or by the deposit of surface mould thrown up undesignedly during the
process of building the vallum.

(e) Other Notes on the Pottery.—Every fragment of pottery found in Cutting I.
is projected into the sectional diagram accompanying this Report, the different
qualities being represented by symbols to show their relative devth at a glance.
The position of each fragment was carefully marked, as discovered, in the sectional
diagram, and the classification which was subsequently added was made quite
independently of the depth at which it was found.

The tive pieces of early British pottery of Bronze Age type, found at depths
varying from 7 feet to 12°5 feet, consisted of one smooth fragment containing
fine grains of quartz (the No. 4 British quality of Pitt-Rivers) and four pieces of
ware, containing large grains of quartz, of the roughest description, and as rude
as the piece of pottery found with the Stone Age interments in Wor Barrow,
Handley.’ (The latter, however, contained large grains of chalk and not quartz.)

The twenty-five fragments of Romano-British and the three pieces of Roman pot-
tery have already been briefly described in Section b. It remains, therefore, to say
something with regard to the shards of Norman and medieval pottery, which,
taken as a whole, are typical of the period. This pottery bears a very close
resemblance, both in quality, form, and general character, to that found by me in
the great camp of Castle Neroche, seven miles §.8,E. of Taunton.? The trained
eye has no great difficulty in distinguishing between medieval and pre-Norman
pottery, although it is true that ‘ puzzles’ occasionally crop up. Norman pottery
was comparatively plentiful in the upper strata of the silting of the fosse, indicat-
ing probably a large population at Avebury during that period. Among the
shards are a large proportion of pieces of rims and bottoms of vessels; less
Sena handles of pots were found, and fragments bearing definite traces of
glaze.

(f) Other Finds, Cutting I. (see numbers in Sectional Diagram). Flint
Implements.—42. Long knife with dorsal ridge slightly worked along both edges,
with evidence of prolonged use. Depth, 6:3 feet in the chalk rubble.

76. Large worked flake. Depth, 10 feet in the chalk rubble.

81. Large rough scraper-shaped flake. Depth, 4 feet in the mixed silting.

85, Flake worked to a bevelled edge along one side. Depth, 7°3 feet in the
chalk rubble,

96. Finely workea knife (the only well-chipped implement found). Depth,
13 feet in the chalk rubble, and within 4 feet of the floor of the fosse.

In addition, four large pieces of flint, bearing signs of slight rough flaking and
hammering, were found in the upper strata of the fosse. Of flint flakes, unworked,

1 Peeavations in Cranborne Chase, iv., plate 257, fig. 19.
*' Proc. Som. Arch, Soc., xlix., part ii., pp. 23-53.

i iti

ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES, 411

the following were gathered:—In the surface silting, down to 4 feet, 8; in the
mixed silting, down to 6 feet, 26; and in the chalk rubble, down to 16 feet, 30;
total, 64,

Iron Objects.—15. Two oblong-headed horseshoe nails, depth 2°8 feet, at the
top of the mixed silting. Another was found at No, 99 in Cutting II., depth
3 feet.

17, Part of a horseshoe, depth 2:7 feet. :

56. Medizeval arrowhead with socket of circular section ; shank nearly straight
and bevelled abruptly near the point, where the cross-section is rhombic; length
13 inch. Viscount Dillon, F.S.A., writes thus: ‘The Avebury specimen is a
medieval arrowhead of the “pile” class, and for use with the long bow. It is an
interesting and rare example, but the actual date is quite uncertain.”’ The
workman (W. Smith) who found this arrowhead at a time when I was engaged in
drawing, assured me that it was dug out of the fine mixed silting at a depth which
I found to be 7:8 feet from the surface. It is quite probable that a small pointed
object like this might work its way down from its original position in the silting
by means of rabbit and other holes to a much lower level. On the other hand, as
the workman had just begun a fresh ‘spit, earth containing the arrowhead may
have fallen from a higher level beforehand without revealing the object. How-
ever, No. 56 is shown in the diagram at the depth at which it was picked up.

75. Tang and portion of the blade of a small knife, found at a depth of 2°8 feet
in the mixed silting.

Pieces of iron slag were found in the upper strata down to a depth of 4°5 feet.

Miscellaneous Objects.—4. Farthing of William III., 1698. Depth 1 foot at the
top of the surface silting.

23. Piece of stone fractured through an artificial perforation. Depth 0:8 foot
at the bottom of the turf mould.

A small Jacobean clay pipe was found at a depth of 1 foot.

Human Remains.—Fragmentary human remains are frequently found in the
excavating of ditches, and indeed in most ancient sites. Four instances occurred
during the digging of Cutting I. at Avebury, viz. :—

30. Part of the lower jaw of an adolescent with two well preserved molars.
Depth 8'3 feet in the chalk rubble.

34, Greater part of a left clavicle (least circumference 86 mm.). Depth 5:7 feet
in the mixed silting.

tk Fragment of skull-bone (probably parietal). Depth 12 feet in the chalk
rubble.

100. Part of a right temporal bone (petrous and mastoid portions).? Depth
7 feet in the chalk rubble.

Picks of Red-deer Antler, §c,—Perhaps the most interesting ‘finds’ from these

excavations are the picks of antler found on the floor of the fosse in five instances.
All are marked in the diagram and are described below.
' 86. Greater part of a pick made from a shed antler of red-deer, the bez-tine
broken off. Parts of the brow-tine are very much polished, the rounded point
broken. This was not resting on the bottom of the fosse, like Nos. 89, 90, 91, 94
and 95, but at an approximate depth of 14 feet.

89. This is not the longest of the Avebury picks, but it is the most massive,
measuring 219 mm, in circumference just above the burr, and 183 mm. round the
beam between the brow- and the bez-tines. The stump of the trez-tine is seen,
and close to it the handle terminates in a smooth bevelled end. The long brow-
tine displays a graceful curve ending in a smooth point. The bez-tine is seen only
asastump. This was also a shed antler.

90. Fine specimen of a pick made from a large shed red-deer’s antler, Present

1 Vide also on medieval arrowheads, Gentleman’s Magazine, cii. 1832, part i., 114.
? Dr. W. Wright thinks it is that of a female adult, the extreme smallness of the
mastoid process being due to sex,

412 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

length 22} inches; maximum circumference of beam 140mm. The brow-tine does
not appear to have been utilised in this specimen, but is broken off short. The bez-
tine is straight and at an angle of about 40° with the beam of the antler. The
smooth rounded point bears evidence of considerable use. The stump of the
trez-tine is rounded and very smooth. The end of the handle and the grip are
much polished in places.

91, Pick formed from a large shed antler of red-deer. The bez- and trez-
tines have been broken off. The brow-tine, which is set at a very obtuse angle
with the beam of the antler, is much worn down from prolonged use. Circum-
ference of antler just above the burr 200 mm.

94, Greater part of a pick of red-deer antler; of average size; much damaged ;
the brow-tine bears evidence of use.

95. Pick formed from an average-sized antler of a slain red-deer. The brow-
and bez-tines are poorly developed, and both were probably used together as a
double pick. The rounded point of the bez-tine is in good condition.

88. A few fragmentary pieces of red-deer antler; approximate depth from the
surface 12°5 feet,

92, The burr, base, brow- and bez-tines of a small stag’s antler, shed. The
point of the bez-tine somewhat smoothed. Depth, 5-7 feet in the mixed silting.

An antler pick, much damaged, was found in the excavations at Stonehenge at
a depth of 5°7 feet. It is to be seen in Devizes Museum.' General Pitt-Rivers
found an antler pick of the Romano-British period at Woodyates (? Vindogladia) ;
the handle end, as well as the brow-tine, was cut and rubbed.2 A good
specimen of an antler pick was exhibited by the Rev. Bryan King, vicar of
Avebury, in 1880, on the occasion of the visit of the British Archzological Asso-
ciation to that place.* But the Neolithic flint mines of Grime’s Graves and
Cissbury have produced more specimens of these antler picks than any other places
“a Britain. At the Grime’s Graves, excavated by Canon Greenwell, the picks
were all found in the galleries or in the filling of the shaft, below 17 feet from
the surface ; the total number discovered was seventy-nine. Examples from the
Grime’s Graves,* Cissbury,’ and from the flint mines at Spiennes, near Mons,
Belgium,’ are exhibited in the British Museum.

(g) Animal Remains.—Animal remains, mostly fragmentary, were found
plentifully in Cutting I, and the maximum depth at which they were traceable
(apart from the antler picks and the shoulder-blade before mentioned) was about
95 feet. In the surface deposits animal bone was quite plentiful, and the remains
were found to be mostly those of young animals, the epiphyses being wanting.
There has not been time to go into details with reference to these remains, but it
is possible to record that the following larger animals are represented :—Horse,
ox, pig, red-deer, roe-deer, sheep, dog, and (?) fox and wolf. The remains of
oxen appear to have been most plentiful; the relative size of these bones varied
considerably ; a tibia found at a depth of 5:5 feet gives a height for the animal of
3 feet 2 inches, whereas a complete metatarsus (depth 6°5 feet) give a height of
only 3 feet { inch ; from a metacarpus (depth 6°8 feet) a height of 3 feet 54 inches
was estimated. The ox was clearly traceable down to a depth of 9 feet, and
remains apparently belonging to one animal were found at a depth of 8:8 feet;
astragali and digits were quite plentiful. The horse remains, including many
teeth, extended to a depth of at least 7 feet, and for the most part belonged to
small animals. The red-deer was represented, in addition to the antlers, by an
os calcis, astragalus, teeth, and small parts of lower jaws; the largest of the latter,

} Figured in Archeologia, liii. 71.

? Figured in Lexcavations in Cranborne Chase, iii. 135.

* The Rev. A. C, Smith, in his large work, informs us that ‘ fragments of antler
picks, the instruments with which the graves had been dug, have been found
repeatedly in opening the barrows of North Wilts.’

* Journ. Ethnol. Soc., 1870, n.8., ii. 426; and Archeologia, xlv. 342.

° Archevlogia, xlv. 344; Guide, Stone Age, British Museum, 1902, 81.

® Guide, Stone Age, British Museum, 85.

————

ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES. 413

however, was at a depth of only 2°5 feet. The roe-deer was represented by a
piece of antler at a depth of 7 feet. The sheep jaws and other pieces were found
down to 6 feet. Most of the pig teeth, &c., were found in the upper deposits, and
the lowest depth appears to have been 6 feet. The dog was represented by lower
jaws and bones varying much in size; some of the smaller may be remains of fox.
The lowest dog bones were at 8°8 feet deep. A tibia, found at a depth of 5:5 feet,
gave 1 foot 114 inches for the height of the animal, and a humerus at about the
same depth gave a height of 1 foot 9 inches.

(h) Concluding Remarks.—The excavations at Avebury, so far as
they have gone, have given satisfactory and encouraging results ; but
the evidence of date is not strong enough to determine, with any degree
of precision, whether the fosse and vallum were constructed in late
Neolithic times or in the early Bronze Age; and we have not yet
decided the relative dates of Stonehenge and Avebury—a matter of far-
reaching interest and importance to the archeologist. The enormous
fosse with its steep sides, great depth, and surprising width, is probably
the largest ancient ditch in Britain that has ever been re-excavated.
In the work of the re-excavation of the great ditch encircling the long
barrow known as Wor Barrow, Handley, Dorset, it was found that
the deepest part was 134 feet below the silting. This was regarded as
a stupendous undertaking ; at Avebury, however, we had the task of
removing 163 feet of silting before reaching the floor of the fosse.

No doubt the Avebury fosse increased in width a good deal, during
the time that it was left open, to the bottom ; but when allowed to fill
up the chalk rubble must have accumulated very rapidly, probably in a
period not exceeding fifty years. The relics found in this deposit, there-
fore, although it could not be expected that they would be numerous,
are of the highest importance as evidence of date, not necessarily of the
actual time of construction, but approximately of the time when the fosse
was allowed to fill up from natural causes. After the profile of the
fosse became covered with silting, the rate of filling would become very
much slower and would advance in a decreasing ratio as time went on.
Three fragments of pottery of Bronze Age type in the lowest deposit are
not enough to base a sound conclusion on, and the few flint implements
and human remains found there are not of a character to help us in
the matter of date. But when antler picks were found on the floor our
minds drifted back to late Neolithic times. At any rate until further
excavations are conducted, we may rest assured that the fosse of
Avebury was constructed in a late stage of the Neolithic or at the
beginning of the Bronze Age, a period suggested by Lord Avebury many

_ years ago.

414 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

The Lake Village at Glastonbury.—Tenth Report of the Commitee,
consisting of Dr. R. Munro (Chairman), Professor W. Boyp
Dawkins (Secretary), Dr. ArtHUR J. Evans, Mr. Henry Ba.roor,
Mr. C. H. Reap, and Mr. A. Butter. (Drawn up by Mr, ARTHUR
BULLEID and Mr. H. Sr. GEORGE GRAY.)

THE examination of the entire site comprising the Glastonbury Lake
Village was completed in 1907, and during the past year an exhaustive
description has been in course of preparation. Owing to the large amount
of material, notes, plans, drawings, and photographs to be gone through
and prepared—a collection that accumulated during the sixteen years the
excavations were in progress—the work of compilation for publishing has
been found somewhat onerous, but the chapters by the various con-
tributors are now well in hand, and it is hoped the monograph will be
published next year.

During the past summer tentative explorations have taken place at
another Lake Village site at Meare, situated between two and three
miles west of the Glastonbury Village.

The existence of this site has been known to Mr. Bulleid since 1895,
but the Glastonbury excavations being in progress no examination was
attempted until this year.

The Meare Lake Village lies on the peat moor to the north side of
a low ridge of ground, on which the village of Meare is built, and from
400 to 600 feet south of the River Brue.

The tract of land in this neighbourhood was at one time occupied
by Meare Pool, a body of water which in the early part of the sixteenth
century was five miles in circumference. All traces of this lake have
disappeared owing to drainage, and its position is now represented by
fertile pastures.

The Lake Village consists of two distinct groups of circular mounds,
A and B, separated by a level piece of ground about 200 feet in width.

The site covers parts of five fields, and measures some 250 feet in
width N. and §., by 1,500 feet in length E. and W.

Group A occupies parts of three fields, and consists of some forty
dwelling-mounds. This portion contains the more important mounds,
the highest being 4°4 feet above the level of the surrounding fields. This
is twice the height of the largest dwelling-mound excavated at the Glaston-
bury Village.

Group B represents at least fifty dwellings, together with the areas of

ground between them. These dwelling-mounds are comparatively low,
and range in height from a few inches to 2 feet at the centre, which is the
highest part.

During the flood-time last spring the two areas of ground, A and B,
were the only dry spots in this part of the moorland. The level of the
land lying to the south of the village is only 13-6 feet above the mean
tide level at Highbridge, 10 miles distant, and near the mouth of the
River Parret. The flood-soil covering the fields immediately adjoining
the village varies from 1 to 2 feet.

The recent trial excavations at Meare consisted of digging a trench
5 feet wide through the centre of a dwelling-mound of medium size, and

a

SS s oS

OO ese eee

ON THE LAKE VILLAGE AT GLASTONBURY. 415

two trenches in the level ground passing N. and S. of the dwellings in
Group A.

The two latter were made with the intention of finding the boundary
palisading, but although the ground was explored for more than 50 feet
beyond the outside mounds, no protection-wall of posts was found ; but
the ground still produced pottery and other evidences of occupation,

Test-holes were also dug in two mounds in Group B.

The examination proved conclusively that both groups of mounds were
constructed on similar lines to those at Glastonbury.

The section dug through the inound in Group A, provisionally called
Dwelling-mound I., was of great interest, apart from the number of

Meare,

objects it produced. The foundation consisted of eight clay floors, one
above the other, together measuring 6 feet in depth, with twelve super-
imposed hearths. The greatest diameter of the mound was 32 feet
N.and8. Below the clay floors was a substructure of brushwood and
timber 2 feet in thickness, and under this the reeds and rushes forming
the original lake-bed. The hearths were made of baked clay, with the
exception of the lowermost, which was paved with a few small stones.

The actual size of the dwellings erected over the floors was not ascer-
tained, but the walls had been constructed of wattle-and-daub, as proved
by the fragments of baked clay found bearing impressions of wattle-
work and timber, evidently the remains of a burnt habitation,

4.16 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Considering the small amount of digging that was done, the ‘fihds ’
were exceedingly numerous, and the one small trench through this mound
yielded more objects than were found in many of the largest Glastonbur y
dwellings. There were few spadefuls of earth that did not contain some-
thing of archzological value. Fragments of pottery and bones of animals
alone filled several wheelbarrows. Considerably over one hundred rims
of distinct pots and thirty pieces of pottery, ornamented with different
designs, were found. Amongst the other objects of interest were the
following :—

Amber. (A.)

1. Small red amber bead, showing considerable signs of wear; ext. diam. 12°5 mm.;
diam. of hole 45 mm.; section oval. Only five amber beads and parts of beads were
found in the Glastonbury Lake Village.

Bone Objects. (B.)

1. Distal end of a tibia of ox, cut off at right angles to the shaft at 82 mm. from
the end

2. Two pieces of rib-bone with knife-marks,

4, Bobbin consisting of a metatarsus of sheep or goat, with condyle trimmed off
at the distal end; at the proximal end there is the usual double perforation—at end
and side. The wool, or other fabric, was drawn off these bobbins as required for the
weft, passing through the holes to prevent the unrolling of the wound-on thread.
Several dozens of these objects were found in the Glastonbury Village.

5. Pin showing considerable signs of wear; length 89 mm. It tapers froma
max. diam. of 7 mm. at one end to the pvint at the other end, and has no
perforation.

6. The greater part of a skewer made from part of the shaft of a tibia of a
sheep (7) ‘These objects were found commonly in the Glastonbury Village.

7. Metatarsus of sheep, highly polished; smooth transverse parallel grooves are
observable in several places.

10 Part of a bobbin, polished, of precisely the same type as B 4 described above.

13. Two pieces of animal bone showing teeth-marks.

3. Shoulder-blade (scapula) of horse or ox, considerably worked and ornamented,
and perhaps used as ashovel. At the articular end is a hole for suspension, The
projecting anterior spine has been cut away; also the small coracoid process.
The flatter face is ornamented by a line of large representations of the dot-and-circle
pattern following the margin of the object, with an arm of the same pattern pro-
jecting inwards from each of thefoursides. The circular grooves are large, measuring
9 mm. in diam., and they were evidently described by a pair of compasses, the dot
representing the position of the stationary leg. Objects of this character were not
identified at the Glastonbury Village. In the flint workings at Cissbury five scapulz
were found, three of which had the spines cut away. They were regarded as shovels;
one has been figured.! )

8, 9, 11, 12, and 14-18. Fragments of nine worked scapule, similar to B 3, but
unornamented, four of which are perforated at the articular end. The spine in some
cases is not completely cut down. Some of the specimens are much polished.

Baked Clay other than Pottery. (D.)

1. Triangular loom-weight of the usual Late Celtic type, with holes for suspen-
sion across two of the corners.

2. Grooved piece of baked clay of semicircular section. The groove has evidently
been subjected to intense heat, and the object may form part of a mould for metal
work.

3. Piece of wattle-marked clay.

4, Two pieces of a triangular loom-weight,

Five fusiform siing-bullets.

} Archeologia, xlv. p 345. See also the Report on ‘Avebury,’ p. 406 supra,

i

ON THE LAKE VILLAGE AT GLASTONBURY. A17

Bronze Objects. (E.)

1. Small ring, band-shaped, with a central groove encircling it.

2. Piece of thin sheet bronze, shaped, and having one rivet-hole.

3. Another fragment, thicker, and triangular in form.

4, Spiral finger-ring of about 13 turns, composed of flat sheet bronze tape
gradually towards bothends. It is ornamented with two encircling grooves
hatching between, Int. diam. 18°5 mm.

5. Fragment of a finger-ring.

6. Piece of bordering for a sheath or other object; length 104 mm., averagé
width 63 mm. It bears traces of having been ornamented with a zigzag linear
design of a similar pattern to that seen on many of the weaving-combs of the

eriod.
z 7. Three little pieces of bronze dross.

Flint. (F.)

. Scraper with chipped and bevelled edge, of horse-shoe shape; length 34 mm.
. Small elongated scraper.

. Worked flake.

. Long, narrow piece of burnt flint.

. Three flakes and part of a calcined scraper.

. Short knife of plano-convex cross-section, well chipped.

(Glass. G.)
1, Knobbed piece of pale peacock-blue coloured glass; length 12 mm.

Objects of Antler, (H.)

4, Cylindrical piece of polished antler, length 65 mm.; perhaps the handle of a
tool; diameters 21 by 18 mm.

9. Awl-handle of antler, with remains of iron tang protruding from one end;
length 63 mm. At each end there is a band of cross-hatching by way of ornament.

11. Greater part of a tine, smooth, and bearing saw-marks; length on the curve
160 mm.

12. Piece of antler with projecting tine, very smooth, and bearing indications of
saw-marks and knife-cuts.

1. Weaving-comb, having eight teeth, tapering in length from one side to the
other. They show the usual groovings and signs of wear. The shaft is highly
polished, the ornamentation consisting only of two transverse lines at the base of
the teeth. The handle-end has been damaged, and bears indications of having been
gnawed. Length 114 mm.

2. Double-ended weaving-comb, much weathered and devoid of ornament. Very
few combs of this type were found in the Glastonbury Village. Six coarse but com-
plete teeth remain at one end; there were seven teeth at the other end, of which
one only now remains complete. Length 186 mm.

3. The handle-end of a weaving-comb, found in four fragments, some being
5 feet apart. The handle of this comb was considerably curved. The ornamentation
consists of a double zigzag pattern along the length of the handle similar to that
onH6andE6. Length of remaining part 113 mm.

5. Weaving-comb, repaired and now almost complete. Of the nine original teeth
seven remain complete. Like H1, they taper in length, although not to such a
great extent. The handle is highly ornamented with zigzag grooves, four deep,
extending from both sides and forming lozenge-shaped interspaces down the middle
and triangles along the sides. The five lozenges are filled with single dots-and-
circles measuring 11 mm. in diameter ; the two side triangles nearest the handle-end
likewise have the large dots-and-circles. Length 160 mm.

6. Handle of a weaving-comb which once had eight teeth. The butt-end exhibits
signs of considerable wear. The ornamentation consists of a double zigzag pattern
along the length of the handle similar to that on H 3 and E 6. Present length 138 mm.

7. Handle-end of a weaving-comb of very unusual form, the sides of the oblong
enlargement (wbich sometimes occurs in these combs) being deeply notched on the
curve. Double lines crossed occupy the two compartments marked off for orna-
mentation,

1908, EE

aor ane

418 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

8. Parts of a weaving-comb of which the remains of five teeth are stiil
seen; the handle much weathered; no ornament beyond a transverse groove indicat-
ing the depth to which the teeth were to be cut.

10. Weaving-comb having eight of its original nine sharp teeth remaining,
which, like H 1, has longer teeth on one side than the other. The perforation for
suspension is 6 mm. in diam, The ornamentation consists of a pair of transverse
grooves at both ends of the shaft, with triple transverse grooves at irregular
intervals between ; two of the interspaces are partly filled by a single diagonal line.

Length 140 mm,
Iron Objects. (J.)

1. Fragment, probably of a knife, covered with vivianite.

2. Two pieces of iron much corroded, of quadrangular section; probably the
greater part of a Late Celtic door-key.

3. A large piece of iron band, or hoop-iron, varying in width from 40 to 50 mm.,
and having one circular perforation.

4, Five pieces of corroded iron, two of which may be parts of the key, J 2.

Kimmeridge Shale. (K.)

1. One-half of a lathe-turned armlet, which, when complete, was 92 mm. in
ext. diam. Unornamented; section, oval, flatter on the inner than on the outer
face.

2. Armlet (or anklet ?), highly polished and lathe-turned. Ext. diam. 95 mm.
(about 32 inches). It was split obliquely in one place when found; otherwise com-
plete. The section of the shale is oval, flatter on the inner than on the outer face
‘(dimensions 10°5 by 75 mm.), Two heavier shale armlets, with external diameters
of 97 and 109 mm. respectively, were found in the Glastonbury Lake Village.

Animal Bones. (N.)

1. Metacarpus of sheep or goat, with an enlarged distal end, apparently the
result of disease. The bone has been polished, and shows a transverse notching on
both sides (with slight grooves—see B 7) near the large end.

2, 4, 5. Part of lower jaw with teeth and other bones of beaver. (Some of the
bones, otter?)

3. Horn cores of Bos longifrons, goat and sheep.

6. Small lower jaw, not yet identified.

Pottery. (P.)

The pottery has already been spoken of at the end of Part I. of this Report. A
large proportion of the fragments are ornamented with designs typical of the period,
nearly all being represented in the Pottery Series from the Glastonbury Village.
Similar designs have been found in Somerset, but much less frequently, on Ham Hill
(near Stoke-under-Ham), at Worlebury and Cannington Park Camps, and in Wookey
Hole. The fragments from Meare for the most part belonged to small vessels. One
piece with a ‘cordon’ reminds one of the vases from the Aylesford urn-field.

Querns. (Q.)
1,3. Upper stone of saddle-shaped querns.
4,5. Fragments of lower stones of saddle-shaped querns.
2. Fragment of lower stone of round quern.

Stone Objects. (S,)}
1, 15, 18. Hammerstones.
2-13, 16, 17, 19, 20. Whetstones, chiefly of sandstone.
14. Small thin disc of lias, with a perforation 11 mm, in diam.
21. Waterworn block of lias, with a chipped circular depression 32 inches in diam.
22. Piece of calcined (?) lias, with perforation.
23. Two small waterworn pebbles, perhaps used in games.

Tusks and Teeth, (T.)

1. Boar’s tusk, with circular perforation (diam, 4 mm.) for suspension, ,
2, 4. Five other boars’ tusks. j
3, 5. Two teeth, pig and dog.

——

ON. THE LAKE VILLAGE AT GLASTONBURY. 419

Spindle-whorls. (W.)
1. Large flat spindle-whorl of lias with irregular edge; diam. of hole 11 mm.
2. Oval sandstone disc, with incipient hole on one face, and probably a spindle.
whorl in the process of manufacture.
3. Small, thick spindle-whorl of lias, with hole 8 mm. in diam.
4. Somewhat irregular baked clay spindle-whorl with perforation.
5. Thick stone spindle-whorl not truly circular, with perforation 5:2 mm.in diam.

Fragmentary oyster-shells, snail-shells, limpet-shells, and bits of calcined bone
were also collected.

Anthropological Photographs.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Dr. C. H. Reap (Chairman), Mr. H. 8. Kinesrorp (Secretary),
Dr. T. Assy, Dr. G. A. AupEN, Mr. H. Batrour, Mr. E. N.
Fatvaize, Dr. A. C. Happon, Mr. E. Stoney Harruanp, Mr. E.
Heawoob, Professor J. 1. Myres, and Professor FLinpERS PETRIE,
appointed for the Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registra-
tion of Photographs of Anthropological Interest. (Drawn wp by the
Secretary.)

Tue Committee issue the third list of photographs registered with them.
They have to report that all the photographs in their possession have
been mounted, the balance in hand having been expended on this object.
The system of numbering and arrangement was published in the
York (1906) report of the Committee. The following is a list of the
numbers already allocated :—

1-2000. The Royal Anthropological Institute, 3 Hanover
Square, W.
2001-3000. Professor J. L. Myres, The University, Liverpool.
3001-4000. Dr. D. Randall-MacIver, Wolverton House, Clifton,
and the late Mr, Anthony Wilkin.
4001-5000. Mr. T. V. Hodgson, 54 Kingsley Road, Plymouth.
5001-6000. Dr. C. 8S. Myers, Galewood Tower, Great Shelford,
Cambridge.
6001-7000. Professor J. L. Myres, The University, Liverpool.
7001-8000. Mr. Edgar Thurston, Government Museum, Madras,
8001-9000. Will be used for small series or single photographs.
(8002-8015. Miss E. M. Hartland, Highgarth, Gloucester. )
9001-10000. Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, F.R.S., St. John’s College,
Cambridge.

10001-11000. Dr. C. G. Seligmann, 15 York Terrace, N.W.
11001-12000. Dr. G. A. Auden and Dr. H. A. Auden, Education
Office, Birmingham.

12001-13000. Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S., Inisfail, Hills Road,
Cambridge.

13001-14000. Not yet allocated.

14001-15000. Dr. J. J. Lister, F.R.8., St. John’s College, Cambridge.

The Committee ask to be reappointed, with a grant of 5/,

420

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

THIRD LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS.
EUROPE.

Encianp.—Photographed by Dr. G. A. AUDEN, 54 Bootham, York.

Yorkshire.
11093.

11094.
11095.
11096.
11097.

11098

Borneo :

Bronze brooch with representation of lion, and two bone buckles (York
Museum).

Staghorn amulets (York Museum).

Bone comb with Runic inscription (York Museum).

Staghorn amulets with zoomorphic design (York Museum).

Silver brooch with zoomorphic design (York Museum).

Cross and human face (bone) (York Museum).

ASIA.
Sarawak.—Photographed by Dr. A. C. Happon, F.R.S.,

Inisfail, Hills Road, Cambridge. [Application for photographs
should be made direct to Dr. Haddon. Cf. ‘ Head-Hunters, Black,
White, and Brown.’] 4} x3}.

12701.
12702.
12703.
12704.
12705.
12706.
12707.
12708.
12709.
12710.
12711.
12712.
12713.
12714.
12715.
12716.

12717

12718.
12719.
12720.
12721.
12722.
12723.
12724.
12725.
12726.
12727.
12728.

12729.

12730.
12731.
12732.

12733.

12734.
12735.
12736.
12737.
12738.
12739.

Drying upoh on darts.

Ratan raft, Marudi.

Preparing for a voyage, canoe with carved figure-head, Marudi.
Two figure-heads of canoes.

Sea Dayak (or Iban). >
Up-river scenery.

Going up rapids, Madalam River.

Girl offering borak to a ‘ boy’ at Long Puah.
Long Puah, Jangang’s house.

Long Puah, Jangang’s house.

Woman winnowing rice on a verandah (cf. 12838).
Hose taking tribute in Fort, Marudi.

Hose taking tribute in Fort, Marudi.

Ratans in front of bazaar, Marudi.

Kara jankeit, Ficus.

Going up rapids, Madalam River.

Malinau River, near source.

Mulu bone cave.

Mulu bone cave.

Temporary skull-house, Long Puah.

Temporary skull-house, Long Puah.

House in construction on Tutau River, Batu Blah.
Gourds containing skulls (Limbang).

Brunei.

Brunei.

Brunei.

Brunei, marketing.

Brunei.

Brunei.

Brunei.

Brunei.

Brunei, fish traps.

Brooketown.

Brooketown, middle of village, man making string.
Sibu, Malay-town.

Mohammedan saint’s grave, Baram Mouth.

Sago factory (Limbang), rasping trunk of palm.
Sago factory, man treading sago.

Sago factory.

i

12740.
12741.
12742.
12743.
12744,
12745.
12746.
12747.
12748.
12749.
12750.
12751.
12752.
12753.
12754.
12755.
12756.
12757.
12758.
12759.
12760.
12761.
12762.
12763.
12764,
12765,
12766.
12767.
12768.
12769.
12770.
12771.
12772.
12773.
12774.
12775.
12776.
12777.
12778.
12779.
12780.
12781.
12782.
12783.

12784.

12785.

12786.

12787.

12788.
12789.
12790.

12791.
12792.
12793.
12794.
12795.
12796.
12797.
12798.
12799.
12800.

12801.
12802.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS. AD]

Sago factory.

Sago factory, man treading sago.

Sago factory.

Sago factory, rasping trunk of palm (larger scale).
Sago factory.

Fishing with jalai net, Tutau or Malinau River. Fish cauglit.
Fishing with jalai net, Tutau or Malinau River. Fish caught.
Vishing with jalai net, Tutau or Malinau River.
Wooden protecting figure at Long Sulan (Long Pokun people).
Up-river scenery, Dapoi River.

Decorated Pontianak Malay hat.

Rice granary in padi field.

Rice granary in padi field.

Tinjar River, tree arch.

Poling up rapids, Dapoi River.

Poling up rapids, Dapoi River.

Images outside Long Sulan.

Long Sulan, sacred stones and images of tigers.

Drift wood at mouth of Baram River.

Mohammedan saint’s grave, mouth of Baram River.
Mohammedan saint’s grave, mouth of Baram River.
Verandah of Hose’s house.

A midday meal, making the fire.

Buffaloes in jungle, Baram River.

Nest of maias (orang-utan).

Poles at encampment, Marudi.

Boat race, Marudi.

Temporary sleeping-hut, Baram River.

A.C.H. in canoe, Pata River.

Natives in canoe, Pata River.

Clearing for padi, Tinjar River.

Group of natives.

Tree burial, Malinau River.

Long Tisam, Tinjar River.

Long Sulan ceremonial poies.

Taking tribute, Long Dapoi.

Boat race, Marudi.

Boat race, Marudi.

Boat race, Marudi.

Boat race, Marudi.

Boat race, Marudi.

Eggs in cleft sticks as an offering.

Tuba-fishing. Men with war coats.

Tuba-fishing.

Tuba-fishing.

Decorated baskets, Sarebas Dayak.

Mausoleum, Baram District.

Roof with carved beam, Aban Abit’s house, Long Tisam.
Painted partition, Long Tisam.

Painted wall of house with two hats, Long Tisam.
New Fort opposite Tama Bulan’s house.

Sea Dayak (Iban) cotton blanket, puah.

Sea Dayak (Iban) cotton blanket, puah.

Kenyah woman’s hat (Tama Bulan’s daughter).
Ceremonial posts and stones in front of Tama Bulan’s house.
Fisherman's hut, Brooketown.

Batu Blah Village, Tutau River.

Side view of a long house, Tutau River.

Long house (? Orang Bukit), (Kadayan), Long Lenai, Tutau.
Fish trap, Brooketown.

Winnowing rice, Brooketown.

Ceremony of skull-moving, Long Puah, Lobong River.
Grave on Rejang River, near Sibu.

422 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

12803, Fastening basket of skulls in new house, Long Puah, Lobong River.

12804. Verandah, Long Puah, McD. measuring.

12805. Long houses (? Aban Abit’s houses), Long Tisam, Tinjar.

12806. Long house.

12807. Bazaar, Marudi.

12808. Residency, Limbang.

12809. Residency, Limbang.

12810. Camp on Mount Dualit, 4,000 ft.

12811. Foliage, Mount Dulit, 4,000 ft.

12812. ‘Trophy of Murut skulls. .

12813. Mount Dulit.

12814. Skull trophy.

12815. Lobong River, buttress tree and canoe.

12816. Two Malangs.

12817. Leaf beds in bank of Malinau River.

12818. Scott-Keltie Falls, Mount Dulit.

12819. Up-river scenery.

12820, Tukanaiah (servant), Limbang.

12821. Skulls in verandah, Long Tisam.

12822. Skulls in verandah, Long Tisam.

12823, Skulls in verandah, Long Tisam.

12824, Verandah of a long house.

12825. Up-river scenery, overhanging tree, man on krangang,

12826. Ray’s Rapid, Dapoi River.

12827. Sea Dayak (Iban) petticoat, bidang.

12828. Two Sea Dayak fortmen (side), Kidara (tall) and Manchu (short).

12829, Two Sea Dayak fortmen (front), Kidara and Manchu.

12830. Tatued man, Jalai, a Rejang Sea Dayak. |

12831. Tatued man, Ajong, from Bakong.

12832. Two Sea Dayak fortmen, Biji (short) and Sui (tall),

12833. Kenyah man on krangang.

12834, Man cutting log.

12835. ‘Two boys (one with carrying-basket),

12836. Two Madangs, ‘lama Ipoi Bilong and man.

12837. Lelak man.

12838. Woman winnowing rice in verandah (cf. 12711) (best).

12839. Sea Dayak, Chrang from Batang Lupar.

12840. Sea Dayak and wite, Chrang and Lada.

12841. ‘Two Kenyah women (two types).

12842. Kenyah woman, Bulan.

12843. Two Kenyah women (narrow and broad faced types).

12844. Two Kenyah women.

12845. ‘Two Punans, Long Puah.

12846. View from Limbang towards Brunei.

12847. View from Limbang, towards Brunei.

12848. Group of Sea Dayak women at Sibu, Rejang. Fat girl with corslet is a
Kayan.

12849. Lad with brass-studded band in mouth in front of toothless gums (? Iban).

12850. Sea Dayak (Chrang, Batang Lupar) and wife (Lada), Limbang.

12851. Man (? tribe).

12852. Figure-head of canoe.

12853. Figure-head of canoe.

12854. Figure-head of canoe.

12855. Figure-head of canoe, Long Kiput.

12856. Old Kenyah man,

12857. Three lads, Marudi.

12858. Fort, Marudi.

12859. Judging rice, Marudi.

12860. Bazaar, Marudi.

12861. Bazaar, Marudi.

12862. Bazaar, Marudi.

12863. Lad, Marudi.

12864, Sea Dayak dancing, Marudi.

——s

12865.
12866.
12867,
12868,

12869.

12870.
12871.
12872.
12873.
12874.
12875.
12876.
12877.
12878.
12879.
12880.
12881.
12882.

12883.

12884.
12885.
12886.
12887.
12888.

12889.

12890.
12891.
12892.
12893.

12894,

12895.
12896.
12897.
12898.
12899.
12900.
12901.
12902.
12903.
12904,

12905.

12906.
12907.
12908.
12909.
12910.
12911.
12912,
12913.
12914,
12915.
12916.
12917,
12918.
12919.
12920.
12921,
12922.
12923.
12924.
129265.
12926.
12927.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS.

Sea Dayak dancing, Marudi.

Iban mural painting.

Model of Hornbill for festival, Marudi.
Model of Hornbill for festival, Marudi,
Sea Dayak dancing.

Floating houses (Malay), Marudi.
Two Sea Dayaks (front), Marudi.

Four bezoar stones.

Two Sea Dayaks (side), Marudi.

Boats on Tutau River.

Sea Dayak (Iban) petticoat, bidang, gold embroidery on green.

Hill’s Range.

Mount Dulit.

Old Kenyah man.

Kenyah man.

Mount Dulit.

Kenyah man.

Man (side) with distended lobe of ear.
Embroidered chawat, Iban.
Embroidered sash, Iban.

Kanowit decorated baskets,

Beaded baskets.

Sea Dayak (Iban) petticoat, bidang.
Three boys (up-country).

Man with curly hair (? Kenyah), cf. 12900.
Y'wo hooks, Baram.

Two men (cf. 12943), Punans, Bok River.
Sea Dayak (Iban) embroidery.

Hill’s Range.

Mount Dulit.

Two boys.

Stone implements.

Stone implements.

Sea Dayak (Iban) embroidery,

Stone hook.

Man with curly hair (cf. 12889).

Two bezoar stones.

Stone implement in Sarawak Museum.
Stone implement in Sarawak Museum.
Decorated hat, Malanau (Milano).
Decorated hat, Madang.

River scene.

Waterfall, Pata.

Pattern on bamboo receptacle, Kayan.
Unshipping at rapids, Madalam River.
Baram River at Marudi.

Kenyah man (full).

Kenyah man (# view).

Kenyah man (side) (cf. 12917)
Kenyah man (front).

Berantu (wooden image). |

Man.
Man (cf. 12913).
Rice-houses on river-bank,

Back view of a Sea Dayak with seat-mat (cf. 12925).

Seat-mats.

Sukun beside the hornbill (cf. 12926, 12867).
Patterns on tatu blocks, Murut and Kayan.
Painted shield, Long Pokun, Kenyah.
Foliage.

Cf, 12919, Sea Dayak wearing a seat-mat,
Iban mural painting.

Kenyah man (cf. 12934).

423

4.2.4, REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENGE,

12928. Kenyah man.

12929. Iban boy with ringworm (front).
12930. Iban boy with ringworm (back),
12931, Man (hair).

12932. Baram River from Marudi.
12933. Carved Iban shuttle.

12934. Details of carved Iban shuttle (other side).
12935. Details of carved Iban shuttle (other side).
12936. Areca palms, Marudi.

123937. Rubbing of Kenyah pattern.
12938. Rubbing of Kenyah pattern.
12939. Rubbing of Kenyah pattern (dog).
12940. Rubbing of Kayan pattern (dog).
12941. Rubbing of Kalabit pattern.
12942, Two Punan men,

12943. Cf. 12891.

12944. Rubbing of Iban thread-case.
12945. Chinese traders, Marudi.

12946. Sea Dayak family bathing.
12947, Ceremony before skull-house.
12948, Pulling up skull basket.

12949. Source of Malinau River,

12950. Boat race, Kuching.

12951. Boat race, Kuching.

12952. Boat race, Kuching.

12953. Boat race, Kuching.

12954. Boat race, Kuching.

12955. Boat race} Kuching.

12956. Boat race, Kuching.

12957. Boat race, Kuching.

12958. Boat race, Kuching.

12959. Boat race, Kuching.

12960. Kuching, sunset.

(Numerous negatives of decorative art are also available.)

OCEANIA.

New GuineEa.—Photographed by A. WILKIN and A. C. Happon, Jnisfail,
Hills Road, Cambridge. [Application for photographs should be made
direct to Dr. Haddon. Cf. ‘Reports Camb. Exped. to Torres Straits’
and ‘Head Hunters, Black, White, and Brown.’] 4} x31,

12001. Hula man, (A) profile (Tinea).

12002. C.G.S. at work (Hula).

12003. Hula child (oblique eyes), full face.

12004. Same as 12001, full face.

12005. Bleeding with miniature bow and arrow (Hula).
12006. Hula native, profile (Tinea), hair in cloth,
12007. Same as 12005.

12008. Hula man with tinea,

12009. Hood Peninsula, driving in bush.

12010. Gaile, near view of houses in sea,

12011. Kalo.

12012. Gaile (distance).

12013. Drawings of Kerepunu belts.

12014. Gaile and natives, group on shore.

12015. Kamali, Dubu.

12016. Gaile, near view of houses in the sea.

12017. Gaile natives,

12018. Kamali, Dubu and Chief’s house.

12019. Old woman washing a pot in the creek, Kalo,

12020,
12021.
12022.
12023.
12024,
12025,

12026.

12027.

12028.

12029.
12030.
12031.
12032.
12033.
12034,
12035.
12036.
12037.
12038.
12039.
12040.
12041.
12042.
12043.
12044,
12045.
12046.
12047.
12048.
12049.
12050.
12051.
12052.
12053.
12054,
12055.
12056.
12057.
12058.
12059.
12060.
12061.
12062.
12063.
12064.
12065.
12066.
12067.
12068.
12069.
12070.
12071.
12072.
12073.
12074.
12075.
12076.
12077.
12078.
12079.
12080.
12081.

12082,

Cr

ANTHROPOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS. 4.2

Kalo, drying grass.

Street, Delena (pots and hunting for lice).
Delena.

In the bush near Hula.

Steeple house, Kalo.

Delena, house, and woman making pottery.
Delena, canoe and mangroves.

Muuray Island.

Delena (pottery making).

Delena (child in bag).

Two Wara (Pokau) natives (man and wife).
Houses, Delena.

Same as 12028.

Ceremony at Babaka (nude girls on platform).
Ceremony at Babaka (clothed girls on platform),
Kerepunu, man hollowing bowl.

Kerepunu, man hollowing bowl.

Kerepunu, canoe-making (general view).
Alukune, fishing village close to Kerepunu,
Kerepunu natives seeing off a prisoner.
Part of the marine village of Hula.
Kerepunu, two men hollowing a canoe.
Kerepunu, hollowing a canoe.

Dance at Babaka.

Firing outside of canoe, Kerepunu.

Group of dancers, Babaka ( f and 9).
Group of dancers, Babaka( ¢ and 9).
Dance at Babaka.

Canoe-making, Kerepunu (back view of three ¢ ).
Dance at Babaka.

Dance at Babaka.

Firing inside of canoe, Kerepunu.

Male dancers, Babaka, with mouth charm.
Men hollowing out a canoe, Kerepunu (three ¢, front view).
Dance at Babaka.

Hula women.

Boys’ game, Hula, Kinimali.

Boys’ game, Hula, Korikini, hair.

Boys’ game, Hula, Korikini.

Boys’ game, Hula, Toitoi.

Boys’ game, Hula, Korikini, fingers,

Boys’ game, Hula, Korikini, ears.

Boys’ game, Hula, Korikini, ears.

Boys’ game, Hula, Korikini, ears.

Boys’ game, Hula, Rapurapu.

Palm-leaf toys, Hula.

Woman making fire (groove method), Hula.
Church at Saibai.

House at Saibai.

Swamp at Saibai.

Saibai, pile dwellings.

Saibai, pile dwellings.

Saibai, pile dwellings.

Tud, huts on ground.

Tud, huts on ground.

Saibai, Church (exterior).

Rev. J. Chalmers and Chief of Saibai.

Tud, coral image in bush.

Saibai (two 3).

‘May Meeting’ at Mabuiag, present of food,
Canoe at Mabuiag.

Bow of canoe at Mabuiac.

Stern of canoe at Mabuiag,

426

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

12083-90. Pathological.

12091.
12092.
12093.
12094.
12095.
12096.
12097.
12098.
12099.
12100.
12101.
12102.
12103.
12104.
12105.
12106.
12107.
12108.
12109.
12110.
12111.
12112.
12113.
12114.
12115.
12116.
12117.
12118.
12119.
12120.
12121.
12122.
12123.
12124.
12125.
12126.
12127.
12128.
12129,
12130.
12131.
12132.
12133.
12134.
12135.
12136.
12137.
12138.
12139.
12140.
12141.
12142.
12143.
12144.
12145,
12146.
12147.
12148.
12149,
12160.
12151,
12152,

House on fire at Mabuiag.

Cleaning pearl-shell at Mabuiag.

House on fire at Mabuiag.

Dugong, Mabuiag.

Restoration of totem shrines, Yam.
Snake and Dugong scarifications on two women.
Myrmecodium, Mabuiag.

Model of canoe, Mabuiag.

Model of canoe, Mabuiag.

Model of canoe, Mabuiag.

Cuscus, Mabuiag.

Myrmecodium, Mabuiag.

Snake totem scarification, Mabuiag.
Making a scar, Mabuiag.

Snake totem scarification, Mabuiag.
Cuscus, eating.

Two old women, Mabuiag midwives.

Two old women, Mabuiag midwives.
Kwoiam’s victims at Pulu, row of stones.
Head-post, &c., Pulu.

Part of Kwod, Pulu.

Cove of Mumugubut at Palu.

Rocks at Pulu.

Kwod, Pulu (positions of the clans),
Cave (Augudalkula), Pulu.
Rock-painting, Pulu, waterspout.
Hand-marks on rock which fell from the sky, Pulu,
Augudalkula.

Rock-painting, Pulu, man beating drum, and dancers
Augudalkula, Pulu.

Taburi, house where we slept.

View from Taburi.

House at Taburi, showing side verandah.
Two mountaineers (side), Ari and Yube of Wamai.
A ‘Bushman’ at Rigo.

Women carrying grass for thatch at Rigo,
Front face, young Motu ¢.

Side face, young Motu ¢.

Two mountaineers (side), Hogeri (with crescent).
Two mountaineers (front),

Mountain girl.

Same as 12124 (full face), Wamai.

Motu charms.

Same as 12125 (full length).

Rigo village.

Chief of Taburi whittling spears with a boav’s tusk
Dance at Hula.

Dance at Hula.

Dance at Hula.

Carving dubu-post, Rigo.

Charms, Port Moresby.

Charms, Port Moresby.

Charms, Port Moresby.

Mountaineer, Goria of Wamai.

Chief of Agi (with hat).

Chief of Agi (without hat, side).

Same as 12144 (side).

Same as 12146 (front).

View of bush near Taburi.

Same as 12146.

Our hosts at Taburi (full length).

Our hosts at Taburi (side, upper part).

2153,
12154.
12155.
12156.
12157.
12158.
12159.
12160.
12161.
12162,
12163.
12164,
12165.
12166.

12167.

12168.
12169.
12170.
12171.
12172.
12173.
12174.
12176.
12176.
12177,
12178.
12179.
12180.
12181,
12182.
12183.
12184.
12185.
12186.
12187.
12188.
12189.
12190.
12191,
12192.
12193.
12194.
12195.
12196.
12197.
12198.
12199.

12200.

12201.
12202.
12203.
12204.

12205.

12206.
12207.
12208.
12209.
12210.
12211.
12212.
12218.
12214.
12216.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS,

Women at Taburi.

Village of Taburi.

House at Ziria, Yule Island.

Lads at Ziria,

Lad, side face, at Ziria.

House at Ziria.

Marea at Ziria.

Lads at Ziria.

Street, Ziria.

Street, Ziria, with dogs.

House, Ziria.

Decorated board in front of a marea.
Houses at Ziria.

Dabbing a pot with a decoction of mangrove bark.
‘ Turtle-cutting,’ Port Moresby.
Three natives of Port Moresby (Koitapu, side).
Cleaning pots, Port Moresby. ..
Turtle-cutting, Port Moresby.
Animal masks from Gulf.

Firing pots, Port Moresby.

Same as 12168 (front).

Same as 12173.

Three masks and bull-roarer from Gulf.
Taking pots off fire, Port Moresby.
Carrying turtle (before cutting).
House at Mohu (hammock),

Mohu.

House at Mohu.

Houses at Mohu (gable end).

Mohu.

Mohu, street.

Decorated gable-beam, Mohu.

House at Mohu with tablet.

Marea at Mohu (side).

Houses at Mohu.

Mohu.

Great marea at Mohu (front).
Pottery making, Port Moresby, moulding bowl.
Pottery making, Port Moresby, moulding bowl.
Beating pots.

Scraping inside of pot.

Shaping edge of pot.

Shaping edge of pot.

Marking edge of pot.

Sprinkling water on clay.

Marking rim of pot with trade-mark.
Same as 12197.

Same as 12197.

Two unfinished pots.

Clay for making pots.

Removing pots off the fire.

Pots drying.

Potters in house.

The feast. Unfinished pot.

The feast. Unfinished pot.

Same as 12206. Firing pots.

Firing pots.

Mer, feast.

Mer, feast.

Mer, feast.

Mer, feast.

Kneading clay for pots, Port Moresby.
Cylinder, half finished,

4,

7

428

12216.
12217.
12218.
12219.
12220.
12221.
12222.
12223.
12224,
12225.
12226.
12227.
12228.
12229.
12230.
12231.
12232.
12233.
12234.
12235.
12236.
12237.
12238.
12239.
12240.
12241.
12242.
12243.
12244,
12245.
12246,
12247,
12248,

12249.
12250.

12551.
12252.
12253.
12254.
12255.
12256.
12257.
12258

12259.
12260.
12261.
12262.
12263.
12264.
12265.
12266.
12267,
12268.
12269.
12270.
12271,
12272.
12273.
12274.
12275.
12276.
12277.
12278,

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

A ‘spell,’ woman smoking.

Three stages of pot-making.

Everting rim of pots.

Half-finished pot.

Shaping edge.

Three states of pots, mixing and kneading clay.
Children playing at Hanuabada, walking on heads.
Hanuabada, Port Moresby.

Creek on road to Tuburi.

Pots and firewood ready for firing.

Firing a single pot.

Brushing a pot with decoction of mangrove bark.
Preparing for feast, Mer.

Pulling horse out of salt-pan.

Tug of war.

Kaketut, Mer.

‘ Cat’s Cradle,’ Port Moresby.

Frog game.

Mountaineer’s foot.

Mountaineer’s foot.

Hula man, side face, A (cf. 12246).
Mountaineer, Babu of Ubere.
Mountaineer, Babu of Ubere (side).

Two mountaineers (side).

Mountaineer, Ruiva of Umuna.
Mountaineer, Ruiva of Umuna (side).
Mouutaineer, Amiro of Wamai.
Mountaineer, Amiro of Wamai (side).
Hula man, mop of hair.

Hula man (side).

Hula man, shell in hair.

Clay for pots, Port Moresby.

Beating a pot.

Moulding a pot.

Ready to fire pots.

Cf. 12249

Cf. 12247.

Death dance (markai) at Mabuiag.

Death dancers, Mabuiag.

Death dancers, Mabuiag.

Death dancers, Mabuiag.

Death dancers, Mabuiag.

Death dance at Mabuiag (four men front).
Death dancers, four (three men side).
Death dancing at Mabuiag (one man front).
Death dancing at Mabuiag (one man front)
Death dancing at Mabuiag (one man side).
On Tong, Javanese ‘ boy.’

Gawer stone (cf. 12374).

House at Mer.

Canoe at Mer.

Canoe at Mer.

Gawer stone (cf. 12264).

Interior of ‘ humpy,’ Mer.

Canoe with masts.

Decoration on top of 12265.

Cf. 12269.

A Murray Islander.

Cf. 12270.

Houses at Mer (Czsar’s).

Canoe, end-on, Mer.

Mabuiag—Wiwai at Gomu.

Kwoiam’s house, Mabuiug.

12279.
12280.
12281.
12282.
12283.
12284.
12285.
12286.
12287.
12288.
12289.
12290.
12291.
12292.
12293.
12294.
12295.
12296.
12297.
12298.
12299,
12300.
12301.
12302.
12303.
12304.
12305.
12306.
12307.
12308.
12309.
12310.
12311.
12312.
12313.
12314.
12315.
12316.
12317.
12318.
12319.
12320,
12321.
12322.
12323.
12324,
123265.
12326.
12327,
12328.
12329.
12330.
12331.
12332.
12333.
12334.
12335.
12336.
12337.
12338,
12339.
12340,
12341,

ANTHROPOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS.

Man imitating death of Kwoiam.
Landing turtle.

Kwoiam’s grave, Mabuiag.
Turtle-cutting, Mabuiag.

View from Kwoiam’s look-out.

Cf. 12281.

Cf. 12282.

Cf. 12282.

Tom after turtle-cutting, Mabuiag.

Old Moatta.

Old Moatta shelters.
Old Moatta shelters.
Mabuiag village street.
Cf, 12290.

Moatta men (profile).
Moatta men (full face).
Cf. 12292.

Two Moatta women.
Daru.

Old Moatta.

European’s house on Daru.

Three Australians, Mabuiag (profile).

Mer, man (profile) ; cf. 12307.
Australians (full face).
Australians (profile).

Cf. 12300 (full face).
Mesaticephalic Australian.
Australians (profile).

Cf. 12301 (full).

Australians (profile).
Australians (group).

Interior of Long House, Kiwai.
Woman and child, Kiwai.
General view, Iasa, Kiwai.
Sop-sop bananas, Murray,
Long House, Kiwai.

Sus Papuensis, Kiwai.
Children, Kiwai.

Cf. 12311.

Darnley Island.

Kiwai, beach.

Women of Kiwai.

Sop-sop bananas (large scale).
Woman (leucoderma), Murray.
Archers, Murray.

Round House, Murray.
Singing at Las (Malu).
Tapau.

Charlie.

Dela and Ben.

Landing at Murray.

Three Zogo men (Malu), Las.
Malu ceremony at Gazir.
Malu circular dance, Las.
Malu pigeon men, Las.

Malu pigeon and dog men, Las,
Malu dog men.

Malu (phonograph).

Malu drum and clubs.

Group at Las.

Mer from Gelam, fringing reef.
Shrine of Zabaker, Mer.
Shrine of Zabaker, Mer,

429

L

0

12342.
12343.
12344,
12345.
12346.
12347.
12348,
12349.
12350.
12351.
12352.
12353.
12354.
12355.
12356,
12357.
12358.
12359.
12360.
12361.
12362.
12363.
12364.
12365.
12366.

12367.

12368.
12369.
12370.
12371.
12372.
12378.
12374.
12375.
12376.
12377.
12378.
12379,
12380.
12381.
12382.
12383.
12384,
12385.
12386.
12387.
12388.
12389.
12390.
12391.
12392.
12393.
12394.
12395.
12396.
12397.
12398.
12399.
12400.
12401.
12402,
12403,
12404,

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Ceremonial stones at Dam.
Ceremonial stones at Dam.

Wag or Wind Zogo.

The Iruam stone on reef, Mer.

Cf. 12344

Fish weirs.

Las, showing palisades.

Village of Las.

Village of Las.

Gorge at Mer, with reef.

View from verandah of mission house, Mer.
The Barat stone with shell on top.
Wanu (full face).

Papi and Doboro (full face).
Davita and Wag (full).

Davita and Wag (profile).

Wanai, &c.

Boa and family.

Ziai neur at Damud, Danar.
Waier.

Au Kosker, Waier.

Geigi’s spear, Waier.

Tree at Waier.

Man and 2 women (side).
Waipem, a turtle shrine, Waier.
B. Gasu and J. Rice, jun. (profile).
Dauar and Waier, and Sorkar, a fish shrine.
Cf. 12367 (full).

Dauar coconut Zogo,

U Zogo, Dauar.

Present of food.

Present of food.

Gawer's shrine on Dauar.

Gawer’s shrine on Dauar (large scale).
Marriage in church, Murray.
Marriage in church, Murray.
Dauar—canoe of Abob.

Sacred ground, Waier.

Turtle tracks, Dauar.

Ziai neur on Dauar (two stone figures).
Waier.

Group at Dauar.

The Meidu stone at Dauar.

Cf. 12381.

Andersen.

Gizu and rain charm, Murray.
Fish weirs on reef, Murray.

Cf. 12387.

Cf. 12387.

Queen’s birthday, children on Mer.
Stratified volcanic ash, Darnley.
Stratified volcanic ash, Darnley.
Cf. 12387.

Profile of 12402.

Smoke (full).

Smoke (protile).

Biro (profile).

Biro (full).

Deau (full).

Sambo.

Cf. 12395 Cull),

Cf. 12401 (side)

Beni (full)

12405.
12406.
12407.
12408,
12409.
12410.
12411,
12412,
12413,
12414,
12415.
12416,
12417.

12418,
12419,
12420,
12421,
12422.
12423,
12424,

12425,
12426.
12427,
12428.
12429.
12430.
12431.

12432.

12433,

12434,

12435.
12436.
12437,

12438.
12439,
12440.
12441.
12442.
12443,
12444,
12445,
12446,
12447,
12448.
12449,
12450,
12451.
12452.
12453.
12454,
12455.
12456.
12457,
12458,
12459,
12460.
12461.
12462.
-12463.
12464,
12465.
12466,
12467,

ANTHROPOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS, 431

Cf. 12400 9 (side),

Beni (side).

The Bishop’s house, Yule Island:

Two Koiari men of Makabiri (front).

Two Koiari men of Makabiri (side).

Two Koiari men of Makabiri (front).

Two Koiari men of Makabiri (side).

Two Koiari men of Ienari and Agobiri.
Two Koiari men of Ienari (side),

At Ziria.

R.C. Mission, Yule Island.

Boys’ games at Veifa, dressed in leaves,
Restoration of Bomai ceremony, Mer.
Port Moresby at dawn.

Cf. 12414, catching lice.

* Chief’s house,’ Mawi.

Boy fishing with bow and arrow, Port Moresby.
Firing pots, Port Moresby.

Queen’s Birthday, Murray. Men dancing.
Queen’s Birthday, Murray. Men dancing.
Queen’s Birthday, Murray. Men dancing.
Queen’s Birthday, Murray. Men dancing.
Queen’s Birthday, Murray. Men dancing.
Queen’s Birthday, Murray. Men dancing,
Queen’s Birthday, Murray. Men dancing.
Queen’s Birthday, Murray. Children dressed up.
Queen’s Birthday, Murray. Pager.
Queen’s Birthday, Murray. Zera markai.
Queen’s Birthday, Murray. Group.
Queen’s Birthday, Murray. Dancers.
Trophy of skulls.

Ceremony, Murray. Zera markai.
Spectators’ beating drums, Murray.
Children on grass, Murray.

Dugong charm and harpoon points, Mer,
String-making, Port Moresby,

Tatana, Port Moresby,

Houses at Tatana,

Babaka.

Babaka, a house.

Carrying fruit, ditto.

Nest of ti bird.

Of. 12444,

Coronation Day, Port Moresby. Gun-boats saluting
Decorated human jaw.

Shell with stones from Enau Zozo (cf. 12474).
Tatana, children dancing.

Pot-makers, Port Moresby.

String-making, Port Moresby,

String and bag making, Poit Moresby.
Top-spinning, Murray.

Geigi and Iruam Muris top,

Kaikai in Murray,

Copper Maori opened,

Copper Maori opening.

Round House, Darnley.

Street in Thursday Island,

Koko’s lugger, Darnley.

Ager, an Aroid.

Thursday Island.

Cf. 12458,

After church, Darnley,

Cf. 12457,

12468.
12469.
12470.
12471.
12472.
12473.
12474.
12475.
12476.
12477.
12478

12479.
12480.
12481,
12482.
12483.
12484.
12485.
12486.
12487.
12488.
12489.
12490,
12491.
12492,
12493

12494.
12495.
12496.
12497.
12498.
12499.
12500.
12501.
12502.
12503.
12504.
12505.
12506.
12507.
12508.
12509.
12510.
12511.
12512.
12513.
12514,
12515.
12516.
12517.
12518.
12519.
12520.
12521.
12522.
12523,
12524.
12525.
12526.
12527.
12528.
12529,
12530,

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Darnley.

Darnley.

Houses, Darnley.

Tomog Zogo, Murray.
Tomog Zogo, Murray.
Girls playing in sea.
Enau Zogo, Dauar.
Zogo (2).

Ai geres Zogo in garden:
Ai geres Zogo in garden.
Girls playing on beach (cf 12603).
Models of bud lu, Mer.
Tomog Zogo.

View on a Road, Murray
Markep stone on Dauar.
Finau and family.

Finau and family.

Irado and her basket, stones in Mer.
Minicoi.

Carts at Surabaija,

Port Said.

Minicoi.

Surabaija.

A Kampong in Java.
Duke of Westminster, Goode Island.
Boats at Surabaija.
Boats at Surabaija.
Alkantara, Suez Canal.
Minicoi.

Divers at Aden.
Feluccas, Suez Canal.
Cf, 12491.

Man at Mohu (side).
Men at Ziria (front).
Men at Ziria.

Drying fish, Mohu.
Catching lice, Ziria.
Men at Ziria (full).
Men at Ziria (side view).
Pinupaka.

Mask from Waima.
Mask from Waima.
Model of Waiet, Dauar.
Interior of big marea.
Boy at Mohu.

Dandy at Mohu.

Girls at Mohu.
Tumble-down marea.
Davita (profile).

Work (side).

Cf. 12516 (full).

Bugi man and a boy.
Tmagi (side).

Komaberi (full).
Komaberi (side).

Cf. 12519 (side).

Imagi (full).

Ulai (side).

Alo (full).

Boy (pathological).
Dead infant.

William and James (full)
Giaz (side),

12621.
12532.
12533.
12534,
12535.
12536.
12537.
12538.
12539.
12540,
12541.
12542.
12543.
12544.
12545.
12546.
12547.
12548.
12549.
12550.
12551.
12552.
12553.

12554.

12555.
12556.
12557.
12558.
12559.
12560.
12561.
12562.
12563.
12564.
12565.
12566
12567.
12568.
12569.
12570.
12571.
12572.
125738.
12574.
12575.
12576.
12577.
12578.
12579.
12580,
12581.
12582.
12583.
12584.
12585.
12586.
12587.
12588.
12589.
12590.
12591,
12592,
12593,

1908,

ANTHROPOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS,

Giaz (full).

Kilarup (side),

Kilarup (full).

Poi (full),

Poi (profile).

Pasi (profile),

Pasi (full).

Gadodo (full).

Gadodo (profile).

Cf. 12529 (side).

Alo (side). ;

Hula, present to Mr. Engilsh.
Hula, tatuing, three girls. =
Hula, phonog. (cf. 12624).

Cf. 12548, tatuing.

Hula, game, revolving.

Hula, leap-frog.

Cf. 12545, painting.

Hula, tatuing, painting.
Babaka, ceremony (nude, large),
On way from Babaka.
Sinaugolo boy.

Woman of Hula.

Back view of a tatuéd woman.
Hula, balancing game.

Hula, marine village.

Dancer, Hula.

Dance, Hula.

Dance, Hula,

In Hula.

Hula.

Raising a pile, Hula.

Raising a pile, Hula.

Raising a pile, Hula.

Dance, Hula.

Children playing in sand, Hula.
Tsau mani, Mer.

Gulf shields and bullroarer.
Lakatoi model.

Making arm shell, Port Moresby.
Making arm shell, Port Moresby.
Ad giz, Mer.

Profile, Motu lad, Port Moresby,
Hogeri man (front),

Hlogeri man (side).

Cf. 12573 (full).

Girls at Port Moresby.

Ikoro village near Vatorata,
Houses near Vatorata.

Yam charms, «ce.

Of. 12577.

Dogai mask, Mer.

Tree-house, Gasiri.

Tree-house building, Gasiri.
Tree-house, Gasiri.
Tree-house, Gasiri.

Group at Kapa Kapa.

Uafak, marine village.
Widow. :
Fishing in creek, Kapa Kapa.
Burnt pile village, Kapa Kapa.
Fishing in Kapa Kapa.
Scenery in Bush near Banale.

FE

134. REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCTENCE,

12594. Group of party at Mabuiag,

12595, Group of party at Mabuiag.

12596. Bush scene, Mabuiag.

12597. Bush scene, Mabuiag.

12598. Bush scene, with termite hill, Mabuiag.

12599. Gun and copper ingot, Mabuiag.

12600. Myrmecodium, Mabuiag.

12601. Terrier and cuscus.

12602. Terrier and cuscus.

12603, Girls’ game on sand (cf. 12473, 12478).

12604, Chief of Ziria (Yule Island),

12605. Rocks in Yam.

12606, Ubaro Zogo in Yam.

12607. Augudau kupai in Yam.

12608. Pictograph, Hammond I.

12609. Pictograph, Hammond I.

12610. Ulai (front).

12611. Albino and ordinary boy, Hula.

12612. Dubu, Kapa Kapa.

12613. Cf. 12570.

12614. Kwoiam’s water-holes, Mabuaig.

12615. Work (full face).

12616. Acuity of vision (with W. H. R. R.), Mabuiag.

12617. Acuity of vision, Mabuiag.

12618. Colour-wheel.

12619. Colour-wheel (out of doors).

12620. Group of our helpers, Mabuiag.

12621.. Gizu.

12622. Waria.

12623. Tom.

12624, Hula, phonograph (ef. 12644),

12625. Hula, singing into phonograph.

(A large number of negatives of decorative art, and magical and other objeets,
are available.)

PotynEsia.—-Photographed by Dr. J. J. Lister, F.R.S., St. John’s
College, Cambridge.
Tonga.
14001. evita, a Tongan man.
14002. Isaaki Futu, a chief man at Vavau.
14003. The Buli (Mayor) of Mua, Tongatabu.
14004. Vaca Futu, a Tongan Matabele. aang
14005, Tongan man, wearing a sisifrom Eua. (‘The ferns used in making it are
peculiar, in the Tongan Group, to the volcanic tracts on Eua.)
14006, The Feifikau (preacher) and his family, Mua, Tongatabu.
14007-14025. Tongan men.
14026, Sons of Junia, a chief man of Tongatabu.
14027. Tongan boys,
14028. Tongan baby boy.
14029, 14930. Tongan boy.
14031. Man and women of the Chief Tugi's household, Mua, ‘ongatabu.
14032, A chief woman at Mua.
14033. Chief women at Mua.
14034, Woman of Hafa’i, wearing an Hua sisi.
14035. Woman with her hair dressed with lime.
14036. Chief woman at Vavau.
14037. Woman and child.
14038. Woman and boy with shaved head.
14039-14052. Women.
14053. Two girls at Tongatabu. Upper is Fijian type; other, Tongan type.
14054, ‘College’ girls, eats, ; hed : ‘ :
14055, Girl with boatswain-bird’s feathers, Wearing mat for mourning.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL VHO'TOGRAPHS. 435

14056. Girl (chief).

14057-14079. Girls.

14080. Children (daughters) of Junia, a Chief of Tongatabu.

14081. The colony of fruit-eating bats (Pterobus; native name, ‘beka’) at
Hihifo, Tongatabu. They hang on Casuarina and fig-trees in the
open space of the village of Hihifo, and while thus hanging are tabu.
The Hihifo tapa bears a representation of them marked ‘ Roe tauga
beka ’ (the crowd of bats).

14082. The Ha’amonga Maui, portal leading to a group of ancient burying-
places near Niutoa, eastern end of Tongatabu.

14083. The Ha’amonga Maui, with man wearing half coconut leaf round waist.

14084, Corner-stone of one of the Tuitonga burying-places, Mua.

14085. Large slab of conglomerate shore rock—originally in one piece in the
side of one of the Tuitonga burying-places, Mua.

14086. Corner of one of the Tuitonga burying-places, Mua.

14087. Corner of same burying-place. A volcanic stone, probably from volcanic
island of Tofua, is used at the corner. The other stones are of the
ordinary shore conglomerate.

14088. R.C. cemetery and ancient Tuitonga burying-place, Mua.

14089, Slab of shore rock at side of one of the Tuitonga burying-places, Mua,

14090. Modern cemetery, Nakualofa, Tongatabu.

14091. Woman anointing husband’s grave ; wearing mat of mourning,

14092. Tongans; woman wearing mat of mourning.

14093, 14094. Two Tongan and one Samoan girl catching limes.

14095. Tongan children’s game.

14096. Girl playing nose flute.

14097. Girl playing nose flute.

14098. Gathering at Vavau.

14099. Paddle dance, Tongatabu.

14100-14102. Phases in the dance, Vavau.

14103. Laka-laka, Vavau.

14104, Women beating out the bark of the paper mulberry for tapa.

14105. Women adding the final marks to a sheet of tapa, Nukualofa.

14106. Woman wearing the Hihifo tapa.

14107. Women making sisis, Mua.

14108. Girls fishing with hand nets on reef opposite Nukualofa,

14109. A kava party (a sheet of tapa beyond).

14110. Men eee kava; pounding instead of chewing now generally em-
ployed.

Niue.
14111, 14112. Men.

Hervey Group.
14113-14118. Men of Mangaia.
‘ijt.
14119-14121. Men at Nagarawai, Viti Levu.
14122. Men and women at Nagarawai.

14123. Village in interior of Viti Levu.
14124. Interior of Fijian house, Naroko roko yama, Viti Levu,

Samoa.

14125. Anapo, a chief man at Safata, Upolu, and some of his household.
14126. Men, showing tatuing.
14127, 14128. Men.
- 14129, 14130, Fanlulia, wife of Siu-manu-tafa, Chief of Apia.
- 14131, 14132. Daughter of Siu-mana-tafa.
14133, 14134. Women, Tutnila.
14135-14137. Women.
14138. Group of men on south coast of Tutuila.
14139-14140. Men in canoe, Pango-pango Harbour, Tutuila.

FR2

436 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

14141. Dance by Anapo’s house, Safata, Upolu.
14142. Safa, south coast of Upolu.

Union Islands.

14143, 14144. Man,
14145. Women.

AUSTRALIA.
QUEENSLAND.—Photographed by Dr. J. J. Lister, F.R.S., St. John’s
College, Cambridge.

14146, 14147. Native man (full face and profile), photographed at Mount Hutton
Station.

See also Nos. 12300-12309, p. 429.

The ‘ Metabolic Balance Sheet’ of the Individual Tissues.—Final Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor GorcH (Chairman), Mr.
J. Barcrort (Secretary), Professor EK, H. StarLine, and Professor
T. G. BRODIE.

Tur Committee appointed in 1903 have since that time lost one of their
members—Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B.—in whose place Professor Brodie
was appointed in 1907.

The Committee had for their object the development of what seemed
likely to be a fruitful field of physiological inquiry, It was- recognised
from the first that the experimental difficulties would be considerable, and
it was therefore thought desirable to ensure the co-operation of a number
of investigators who were especially well qualified for the study of some
particular tissue problem.

The work which the Committee might with advantage undertake in
connection with tissue metabolism ranges over an extremely large field,
and, bearing this in mind, the Committee determined that their first duty
was to lay the foundation for future work by the development of sound
and fruitful methods, utilising for the purpose a limited number of tissues.
This object has been now more or less obtained, and the Committee do
not therefore propose to ask for reappointment. They recognise that
there is need for further special research as to the metabolism of special
tissues, but they consider that this may now be left to individual effort,
aided by grants for specific purposes.

In presenting their final report it seems desirable to review some of
the work which has been carried out during the last five years, and which
has been rendered possible by the financial help afforded by the grants
given to the Committee by the Association. ;

I. TECHNIQUE.

Apparatus.—The essential observations in an experiment on the
gaseous exchange of an organ are three in number—the analysis of
arterial blood, the analysis of the venous blood which comes from the
organ, and the rate of flow of blood through it.

eat

THE ‘METABOLIC BALANCE SHEET’ OF THE INDIVIDUAL TISSUES. 457

The analysis may be undertaken by one of three methods :—

1. The blood gas-pump,
2. The chemical method.
3. The differential method.

1. The Blood Gas-pump.—No new principle has been introduced, but
extensive modifications have been gradually developed in technique in
devising what seems to be the most convenient form of pump.

It was essential to have apparatus which will work quickly and with
as little Jabour as possible. It has been found best to have four similar
pumps, which can be rendered vacuous a day or two before the experi-
ment. The blood is collected in long tubes of about 10 c.c. capacity.
The froth chamber is fitted with a double-surfacé condenser filled with
ice and salt. The mercury is raised in the pump by water-pressure.
The pumps are used as follow: (1) For the venous blood from the
resting organ ; (2) for the arterial blood from the resting organ ; (3) for
the venous from the active organ ; (4) for the arterial blood from the
active organ.

2. The chemical method of analysing small samples of blood (1 ¢.c.)
has been improved in a few manipulative details.

3. Much of the analysis may be saved by adopting the differential
method, which gives a direct measurement of the difference between
the quantities of oxygen (or carbonic acid) in the arterial and venous
samples. This method, as well as being very rapid, is exceedingly accu-
rate. In general it will be found best to use the differential method,
and to test the accuracy of the results which it gives by the other two
methods.

Anesthetics —The anesthetic which is used requires careful considera-
tion. At present it will be best to avoid the use of volatile anzsthetics
(chloroform and ether) where the analysis is made by the blood gas-
pump. Morphia is often undesirable, both on account of its deleterious
effect on certain organs (the kidney) and on account of the deficient
respiration which it produces. In cases where none of the anzsthetics
mentioned can be used there remains urethane.

Clotting of Blood—A. constant source of solicitude is the tendency of
the blood to clot in cannuiz and apparatus. Two general methods for
the prevention of clotting seem useful.

1. In cases where there is a rapid flow of blood from a big organ the
blood withdrawn may be received under oil into potassium oxalate. For
this purpose an exact method of dilution has been devised.

2. In the case of small organs the animal may be given an injection
of hirudin. The Committee have ascertained that this reagent has no
specific disturbing influence on the gaseous contents of the blood.

The Measurement of Rate of Flow has usually been made by the
direct observation of the time which the blood emerging from the organ
takes to fill a tube of convenient size.

An indirect method which is valuable in certain cases, e.g., the
intestine, consists in placing the organ in a plethysmograph, damping
the vein momentarily, and noting the graphic record of the increase in
volume of the organ.

Perfusion with Saline Solutions.—In some cases it is convenient to
measure the gaseous exchange of organs which are supplied with an
artificial circulation of Ringer's or Locke’s solution. For this purpose

438 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

apparatus has been devised for the oxygen analysis of samples of
10 cubic centimetres each. The apparatus used has involved the elabo-
ration of the ‘capillary method’ of gas analysis.

Ii.—TuHe RESULTS OBTAINED IN INDIVIDUAL ORGANS,

The following organs have been investigated by the Committee :—

The heart, the kidneys, the salivary glands, the pancreas, the
intestines, and to some extent muscle. In addition to these a few
preliminary experiments have been undertaken on the liver.

The Heart.—The amount of oxygen taken up by the heart varies
with the activity of the organ. Adrenalin, atropine, and barium
chloride increase the oxygen intake of the heart ; stimulation of the
vagus or administration of pilocarpine, chloroform, or potassium chloride
reduces the quantity of oxygen which the heart requires.

The Salivary Glands.—The oxygen exchange of the submaxillary
gland of the dog, the cat, and the rabbit has been the subject of
numerous experiments. The metabolism of these glands is increased
by stimulation of the chorda tympani. This increase is three or four
fold when the stimulation is accompanied by a flow of saliva ; when the
gland is atropinised the increased metabolism is much smaller, and
amounts in many cases to about 30 per cent. of the total metabolism.

The Pancreas.—In the dog intravenous injection of secretion causes
a threefold increase in the metabolism of the pancreas, coupled with the
flow of pancreatic juice.

The Intestines.—A study of the gaseous metabolism of the intestines
has furnished positive results. The metabolism is much increased during
absorption, whether of water or of peptene (dog).

The Kidney has been investigated in the dog and in the frog, the
former by the blood gas method, and the latter by perfusion with
Nager’s solution. The following results have been obtained: Increase
in the flow of urine, induced by the injection of salts, causes a threefold
increase in the oxygen consumption of the dog’s kidney, whether perfused
through the renal portal vein or through the renal artery. The meta-
bolism of the kidney is about twice as great when perfused through the
renal artery as it is when perfused through the renal portal vein. By
whichever path the perfusion fluid is led into the kidney, the metabolism
greatly increases when the organ is secreting urine under the influence of
diuretics.

There is no case of diuresis in either of the animals under observation
without greatly increased metabolism.

Skeletal muscle was the only organ the gaseous exchange of which
had been seriously studied by previous workers. The Committee have
verified the coefficient of oxidation as determined by Chauveau and
Kaufmann.

The production of lactic acid in muscle as the result of incomplete
oxidation has been investigated. The production of lactic acid under
anaérobic conditions varied with the time and was increased by heat,
stimulation, &,

III. Comparison of Results obtained from Different Organs.—Some
results of general application have been gleaned from the study of the
metabolism of individual organs :— .

1, Increased vascularity does not of itself cause any change in the

‘

tiorw

THE ‘ METABOLIC BALANCE SHEET’ OF THE INDIVIDUAL TISSUES, 439

oxygen consumption. This has been shown in the heart, the pancreas,
the salivary glands, and the kidney.

2. Increased vascularity is associated with increased production of
carbonic acid in such a way as to suggest the conclusion that some pro-
duct of the metabolic activity of the organ—probably not CO, itself—
causes vascular dilatation during increased function activity, This has
been shown in the heart and the salivary glands.

3. A comparison of the ‘coefficients of oxidation’ (the quantity of
oxygen used up per gramme of tissue per minute) varies for different
organs when at rest. It is much higher for the glandular organs than
for skeletal muscle. The following figures are known :—

Name of tissue Animal

Coefficient of oxidation
Skeletal muscle. : Horse 0004 c.c.
(Chauveau & Kaufmann) |

¥ Dog | 00045 ,,
Cardiac muscle. : Dog | (OG er
a ei Cat | Cui,
Submaxillary gland a Dog 0:03 - 3
” Cat | 0:02 ”
| Rabbit 0:02 ”
Pancreas : 5 . Dog 0°03: -;,
Intestine . ‘ : Dog | O02 "5;
Kidney . S ° : Dog [eg 0:05" 9;

The following calculation would give some approximation to the
oxidation taking place in the organs of a dog of 10 kilogrammes (1) when
all the organs were (except the heart) resting ; (2) when all were active,
The liver is calculated on the basis of other glandular organs—an exter-
polation which seemed to be justified in the light of a couple of pre-
liminary experiments :—

| | Rest

Activity

Organ | Weight | Quantity | Quantity
| Coefficient | of oxygen | Coefficient | of oxygen |
| | absorbed | absorbed |

| Skeletal muscle . «| +3235 ¢. 0:004 | 129ec. | 0-08 259 c.c.
Heart . is ~ . 68,, | 0:03 2 Ore 2 BE) 2h 0:08 oa 5
Salivary glands . 59 14,, | 0:03 O4 ,, 6:08 II,
Pancreas . 5 % 18,, }| 0-04 |

| Alimentary Canal .| 279, | 0-028 | 70, |) 2 Wie?

i (Liver is 4 - i) 264 = 0:03) | 79 FS lf 0:08 j 43°5 xy

| Kidneys. 2 «| 44 ,, | 0:039 «|. 1 1:5e5,- 1) 0:95 4:2,

We oeice.G | 3132 ec

From the results given above it would appear that the réle of muscle
as the great regulator of heat production is played as much in virtue of
the relatively small amount of oxidation which takes place in it when at
rest as the relatively great amount during activity.

In bringing the inquiry to a close—at least as regards the more general
aspects referred to in this report—the Committee wish to express their
sense of the generous spirit in which the British Association has met the

4.4.0 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

recommendations of the Physiological Section by affording that continual
financial support without which the prolonged series of investigations
could not have been prosecuted with success, The results already attained
are, in the opinion of the Committee, of very considerable importance,
since the inquiry deals with such fundamental problems as the nature of
the chemical] changes which occur in the isolated tissues of the body, the
alteration in such changes during tissue activity, and the technique by
means of which such problems may be further studied under special con-
ditions. It is scarcely possible to exaggerate the physiological importance
of such investigations, and it is to be hoped that the present inquiry may
be of service, not merely by its actual results, but still more by future
achievements in this field.

List of Papers which embody so much of the work of the Committee as has already
been published.

‘The Oxygen Exchange of the Pancreas,’ Journal of Physiology, vol. xxxi. p. 491,

‘The Gaseous Metabolism of the Kidney,’ ibid., vol. xxxii. p. 18.

‘ The Gaseous Metabolism of the Kidney,’ ibid., vol. xxxiii. p. 52.

‘The Estimation of the Oxygen dissolved in Small Quantities of Salt Solutions,’
ibid., vol. xxxiv. p. 306.

‘The Gaseous Metabolism of the Mammalian Heart,’ ibid., xxxy. p. 182.

‘The Velocity and Nature of the Blood emerging from the Submaxillary Gland,’
ibid., Vol. XXXV. Pp. XXix.

‘The Effect of Hirudin on the Gases of Arterial Blood,’ idid., vol, xxxvi. p, 275.

‘The Analysis of Oxygen and Carbonic Acid contained in Small Quantities of
Salt Solutions,’ idid., vol. xxxvi. p. 405.

‘The Mechanism of Vasodilation in the Cat's Submaxillary Gland,’ ibid.,
vol. xxxvi. p. liii.

‘A Differential Method of Blood Gas Analysis,’ ibid., vol. xxxvii. p. 12.

‘Gaswechsel des Diinndarms wiihrend der Reabsorbtion von Witte Pepton,’
Deutsch. med. Wochensch. Jabrg. 33, p. 1566.

‘Gaswechsel des Diinndarms wiihrend der Reabsorbtion von Koch Salzlésungen
verschiedener Stiirken,’ ibid., p. 1566.

‘Gaswechsel in der Speicheldriise der Kiitze, ibid., p. 1566.

‘Zum Lehre vom Blutgaswechsel in den verschiedenen Organen,’ Ergebnisse der
Physiologie, Siebender Jahrg., p. 699.

The Ductless Glands.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Pro-
fessor SCHAFER (Chairman), Professor SWALE VINCENT (Secretary),
Professor A. B. Macatitum, Dr. L. E. SHore, and Mrs. W. H.
THompson. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Tue work of the Committee has been divided as follows: Mrs..W. H.
Thompson has been investigating the comparative anatomy and histology
of the thyroids and parathyroids. Drs. F. A. Young and J. E. Lehmann
have been performing some experiments on the internal secretion of the
suprarenal capsules of the dog. Dr. J. H. Leeming has been occupied
with the study of the medulla of the suprarenal capsule and the question
of its relation to other similar tissues in the body.

Mrs. Thompson reports that her work is by no means complete, but
that all the evidence collected from a study of the thyroids and para-
thyroids throughout a wide range of the animal kingdom supports the
view held by Vincent and Jolly and by Forsyth, viz., that thyroids and
parathyroids are not separate and independent organs, but are very inti-

ey

se Cr mc er rrr rh rh

ON THE DUCTLESS GLANDS, 441

mately related, the essential histological elements being practically
identical in the two structures.

Drs, F. A. Young and J. E, Lehmann give a preliminary account of
some experiments with the blood-stream from the suprarenal glands of the
dog.

* Cybulski and Biedl] found that the blood of the suprarenal vein raised
the blood-pressure when injected intravenously. Salvioli and Vezzolini
showed that the blood from the suprarenal vein acts like suprarenal
extract, but weakly. The blood from the suprarenal vein produces much
more effect upon the excised eye of the frog than does ordinary blood.
The water extract of the dried blood gives distinct pressor effects.

The present series of experiments was instituted in order to obtain, if
possible, evidence of a more direct nature of the fact of internal secretion
from the suprarenal capsule. An attempt was made to dam back any
secretion which the glands may pour into the blood-stream and after an
interval to remove the obstruction and allow the accumulated secretion to
flow into the general circulation.

The blood-pressure was recorded in the usual manner from the carotid
artery ; the glands were exposed through an abdominal incision, and a
double ligature passed beneath the organ on each side. The ligatures
were tied on each side of the gland above the vein so as to form two
pedicles, and were left in place for from 10 to 30 minutes and then released.

Out of a total of eight experiments, in three there was no effect on the
blood-pressure ; in two there was a slight rise after releasing the ligatures ;
in the remaining three there was a decided rise of the pressure (similar
to that which follows the injection of suprarenal extract), lasting about
three minutes. In one experiment the effect was repeated by tightening
the ligatures a second time and again releasing them.

It must be noted that the fall of blood-pressure during the time that
the ligatures were applied was only slight, and this is what one would
expect.

GNamierons control experiments have been performed in order to guard
against any fallacy arising from stimulation of nerves or other adven-
titious circumstances.

If further experiments should confirm the results of the present series,
it seems that we have very positive evidence that the pouring of the
adrenal secretion into the circulation is one of the factors which maintain
the normal blood-pressure, a view which of course was implied in the
internal-secretion theory of the organs put forward by Oliver and
Schafer at the time of their discovery of the powerful effects of suprarenal
extracts.

The experiment here described is a modification of one originally sug-
gested by Professor Schafer, but which we believe has not up to the
present been carried out.

Dr. Leeming finds, much to his surprise, that the cells staining brown
with bichromate of potassium (and hence considered to be of the same
nature as suprarenal medulla), which have been described in various
regions of the body, are so rare or so difficult to reveal that so far he has
failed- altogether to verify their existence. He has carefully examined a
number of dogs, cats and kittens, and rabbits, and, though he has closely
followed Kohn’s technique in every detail, yet he has been up to the
present unable to demonstrate the presence of ‘chromaffin’ cells in any
tissue except in the medulla of the suprarenal capsule,

44.2

The Committee ask to be reappointed with a grant of 30/.

REPORTS’ ON ‘THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

By accident

a considerable part of last year’s grant remained undrawn, although

expenditure had been incurred which it was intended to meet.

This

will be paid out of the next grant, if renewed.

The Kiject of Climate upon Health and Disease—Third Report of the
~ Cominittee, consisting of Sir LAUDER Brunton (Chairman), Mr. J.
Barcrort and Lieut.-Col. R. J. S. Srupson (Secretaries), Colonel

Sir D. Bruce, Dr. S. G. CampsBe., Sir

KENDAL _ FRANKS,

Professor J. G. McKenpricx, Sir A. MircHein, Dr. C. F. K.
Murray, Dr. C. Porter, Professor G. Sims WoopHeap, and the
Heads of the Schools of Tropical Medicine of Liverpool, London,

and Edinburgh.

Tur following is a compleie list of the members of the Committee,

including the co-opted members.

The names of those who are not

members of the British Association are indicated by an asterisk :—

*Aldridge, Lieut.-Col. A. R., R.A.M.G.,
Simla, India.

*Allbutt, Sir T. Clifford, K.C.B., F.R.S.,
Cambridge,

*Anderson, Dr. Barcroft, Hast London,
Cape Colony.

*Ashe, Dr. E. O., Kimberley, Cape Colony.

*Bain, Dr. Wm., Harrogate.
*Balfour, Prof. A., Khartoum.
Barcroft, Joseph, Cambridge.
*Benedict, Prof., Middletown, Conn.,
U.S.A.
Bohr, Prof. C., Copenhagen.
*Boobbyer, Dr. Philip, M.O.H., Notting-
ham.
*Bourguignon, Dr., Matadi, Congo Free
State.

Branfoot, Surgeon-General, A.M., C.1.E.,
I.M.S8., India Office.
*Broden, Dr., Leopoldville.
Bruce, Colonel Sir D.,

London.
Brunton, Sir Lauder, Bt., F.R.S., London.
*Bulloch, Dr. Wm., London.
*Bulstrode, Dr. H. Timbrell, Local Go-
vernment Board, 8.W.
*Bumm, Prisident, Berlin.

C.B:, E:B.S:;

Campbell, Dr. 8. G., Durban, Natal.
*Cantlie, Dr. James, London.
“Charles, Sir R. Havelock, K.C.V.O.,
I.M.8., London.
*Chittenden, Prof. R. H., New Haven,
Conn., U.S.A.
*Clarke, Dr. W. G., Bulawayo,

*Clemow, Dr. F. G., Constantinople.
*Clippingdale, Dr. S. D., British Balneo-
logical and Climatological Society,
London.
*Cumming, Hamilton, Torquay.
Currie, Dr. O. J., Pietermaritzburg,
*Curtis, Dr. H., London.
Cushny, Prof. A. R., F.R.S., London.
*Dixon, Prof. W. E., Cambridge.
Douglas, Capt. H. E. N., V.C., D.S.O.,
India.
*Dunbar, Sir Wm. C., Bt., C.B., Registrar-
General, London.
*Dunlop, Dr. J. C., Edinburgh.
Dunstan, Prof. Wyndham, F.R.S , Lon-
don.

*Ellis, Sir H. M., K.C.B., K.H.P., late
Director-General Naval Medical Ser-
vice.

*Ktienne, Dr., Boma, Congo Free State.

*Evatt, Surgeon-General G. J. H.,, C.B.,
Camberley.

*Ewald, Prof. A., Berlin.

*Fichet, Prof., Liege.
*Fox, Dr. Fortescue, British Balneological
and Climatological Society.
*Franklin, Surgeon-General Sir B.,
K.C.L.E., London.
Franks, Sir Kendal, C.B., Johannesburg,
Fraser, Sir Thos. R., F.R.8,, Edinburgh,

Gamgee, Prof. A., F.R.S., London.
*Grabham, Dr. M. C., Madeira.
*Greenwood, Dr. M., jun., London.
*Gregory, Dr. A, J., Cape Town:

I a i ah ei) nt

ee, eae

one

THE EFFECT OF CLIMATE UPON HEALTH AND DISEASE,

*Hann, Prof. J., Vienna.

*Hardy, W. B., F.R.S., Cambridge.

*Harford, Dr. C. F., Leyton.

*Hay, Prof. Matthew, Aberdeen.

*Heiberg, Dr. Inge, Boma, Congo Free
State.

*Hendley, Col. T. H., C.ILE., I.M.S.,
London.

Herbertson, Dr. A. J., Oxford.

*Herdman, Dr. Ronald, Filabusi, near
Bulawayo.

*Hill, Dr. Leonard, F.R.S., London.

*Hyslop, Dr..J, D.8.0., Pietermaritzburg.

*Jafié, Dr., Berlin.

Keltie, Dr. J. Scott, F.R.G.S., London.
*Keogh, Sir A., K.C.B., K.H.P., Director-
General, Army Medical Service, Lon-
don.
*Kerp, Prof., Berlin.
*King, Col. W.G., C.1.E., 1.M.S., Sanitary
Commissioner, Burma, India.
Kronecker, Prof. Hugo, Berne, Switzer-
land.

*Langgaard, Prof., Berlin.
Lankester, Sir E. Ray, K.C.B., F.RS.,
London.
Latham, Baldwin, M.Inst.C.E., London.
Lempfert, R. G. K., London.
*Leslie, Lieut.-Col. J. T. W., I.M.S., India.
Liversidge, Prof. A., F.C.8., Sydney,
N.S.W.

MacAlister, Principal, Glasgow Uni-

versity.

McCulloch, Major T., R.A.M.C., India.

Macdonald, Dr. J. S., Sheffield.
*McGregor, Sir Wm., G.C.M.G., C.B.,

F.R.S., Newfoundland.
McKendrick, Prof. J. G., F.R.S., Glas-
gow.
*Mackenzie, Dr. Leslie, Edinburgh.
*Manners, Dr. W. F., Calabar, West
Africa.
*Manson, Sir Patrick, K.C.M.G., F.R.S.,
London.
*May, Deputy-Director-General A. W.,
Naval Medical Service.
*Meek, Lieut.-Col. J., R.A.M.C., Simla,
' India.
*Melville, Lieut.-Col. C. H., R.A.M.C.,
London.

Mitchell, Sir A., K.C.B., Edinburgh.
*Mitchell, Dr. Weir, Philadelphia.
*Mitchell, Dr. J. A., Colonial Office, Cape

Town.
*Moffat, Dr., C.M.G., Uganda, Central
Africa.
*Moore, Sir John, Dublin.
*Morgan, Major J. C., R.A.M.C., India.
*Mosso, Prof. Angelo, Turin, Italy.
*Miiller, Dr, Franz, Berlin,

44.5

*Murison, Dr. P., Public Health Depart-
ment, Durban, Natal. f
Murray, Dr. C. I’, K., Kenilworth, Cape
Colony.

*Nuttall, Prof. G. H. F., F.R.S., Cam-
bridge.

Oliver, Prof. T., Newcastle.
*Osler, Dr. T. H., Cape Colony.
Osler, Prof. Wm., F.R.S., Oxford.
*O’Sullivan, Col. D., R.A.M.C., India.

*Pagliani, Prof., Turin, Italy.
*Pearce, Major C. R., I.M.S., India.
*Pembrey, Dr. M. 8., London.
*Phillips, Dr. L. P., Cairo.
*Pinching, Sir Horace, K.C.M.G., Cairo.
Porter, Dr. C., Johannesburg.
Prain, Lieut.-Col, D., C.1.E., 1.M.S., Kew.

*Raymond, Major G:, R.A.M.C., Welling-
ton, India.

Reymond, Prof. René du Bois, Berlin.
*Robertson, Dr. John, Birmingham.
*Rochfort-Brown, Dr. H., Pietermaritz-

burg.
*Rogers, Major Leonard, I.M.S., Calcutta.

Ross, Major Ronald, C.B., F.R.S., Liver-

pool.

*Rost, Dr. E., Berlin.

Raffer, Dr. E. A., C.M.G., Ramleh,
Egypt.

*Salmond, Dr. W., Ladysmith.
*Sanders, Dr. A. W., Pretoria.
*Schilling, Dr., Berlin.

*Scott, Major B. H., Edinburgh.

Scott, Dr. R. H., F.R.S., London.

Shaw, Dr. W. N., F.R.S., London.
*Sims, Dr. A., Matadi, Congo Free State.
*Smith, Major Fred., D.8.0., R.A.M.C.,

India.
*Spencer, Dr. Walter, Sydney, N.S.W.
*Stephens, Dr. J. W. W., Liverpool.
*Strangeways, Dr. T., Cambridge.
*Strong, Surgeon-Capt. EH. H., Bulawayo.
*Sutherland, Dr. S., London,
*Symons, Dr. W. H., Bath.

*Tatham, John F. W., London.
*Theiler, A., Pretoria.
*Thomson, Dr. Theodore, C.M.G., London.
*Tirard, Dr. N. I. C., London.
Todd, Dr. J. L., McGill University.
Turner, Dr. G., Pretoria.

*Usmar, Dr. G, H., Bloemfontein.

*Verdick, Le Commandant, Boma, Congo
Free State.

Wager, Harold, F.R.S., Leeds,
*Walford, Dr. E., Cardiff.
*Walker, Dr. G. Thomas, F.R.S., Simla
India.

Ad de

*Ward, Dr. A. B., Bloemfontein.

*Watkins, Dr. A. H., Kimberley.

*Weber, Dr., Berlin.

*Weber, Dr. Parkes, London.

*Welsh, Fleet-Surgeon, R.N., London.

*Will, Lieut.-Col. J.. R.A.M.C., British
East Africa.

*Woekoff, Prof., St. Petersburg.

REPORTS ON THE

STATE OF SCIENCE.

Woodhead, Prof. G. Sims, F.R.S., Came
bridge.
*Woodhouse, Lieut.-Col, T. P., R.A.M.C.,
India.
*Wutzdorff, Dr., Berlin,

*Yule, Dr. Pratt, Bloemfontein.
*Zuntz, Prof. N., Berlin.

The study of the effect of climate upon health and discase for which
the Committee was appointed can be pursued by two methods—the
statistical and the experimental. In each case the work may he
subdivided into the preliminary consideration of the nature of the data
which would afford material for investigation, and the provision for the
acquisition and discussion of these data.

In order to facilitate the collection of statistics of climate and disease
upon co-ordinated lines, forms for the tabulation of data with explanatory
memoranda were prepared last year. Specimen copies of these forms and
memoranda have been forwarded to each member of the Committee, and
to others as indicated in last year’s report. The memoranda are printed
as appendices to this report.

An inquiry is being conducted by the Committee into the coincidence
of diseases of the circulatory, nervous, and digestive systems respectively
with influenza in different epidemics of that disease. In the pros@eution
of this inquiry the Committee have to acknowledge its indebtedness to two
co-opted members of the Committee, viz., the Registrar-General, Sir
Wm. C. Dunbar, Bart., C.B., and Dr. J. F. W. Tatham, Superintendent
of Statistics, General Register Office, for their valuable assistance, with-
out which the inquiry would have been impossible.

The Committee have no funds for the payment of the scientific staff
and clerical assistance that would be necessary for the organisation and
prosecution of researches of this character upon a permanent basis.
Although it can look forward to the continuance of the active support
afforded by Government departments and public bodies, such support
cannot take the form of money grants to the Committee. The grant of
the Association is absorbed in secretarial and incidental expenses, and
any expense incurred in the prosecution of researches falls upon indi-
vidual members of the Committee.

The Committee cannot therefore contemplate extensive operations in
the direction of the compilation and discussion of the meteorological and
medical data, which would, in fact, afford sufticient work for a separate
institution.

There are however already in existence, within the knowledge of
various members of the Committee, large accumulations of statistics and
other data bearing upon various questions of climate and health, which
might form the subjects of valuable essays by competent students who
have time and opportunity for the study of the data, and special aptitude
for work of this nature. The Committee are of opinion that some of these
questions might be treated successfully as theses for the degree of M.D.,
provided that the advice of persons who have devoted attention to one
or other aspect of the problems involved could be secured. They have
been in communication with the heads of various Universities and
medical schools with reference to this suggestion, and have received a
number of encouraging replies. They have accordingly drawn up a pre-

——————

A he

THE EFFECT OF CLIMATE UPON HEALTH AND DISEASE,

AAS

liminary list of subjects which might serve for this purpose and which

might suggest others.

They have placed against the several grouped

subjects the names of those members of the Committee who are specially
conversant with some of the aspects of the various questions and are
willing to give advice and assistance to anyone who contemplates an

analysis of the available data.

The Committee will be glad if anyone who is willing to undertake the
preparation of a thesis upon any of the subjects mentioned, or upon some
similar subject, will place himself in communication with Sir Lauder
Brunton, the Chairman of the Committee.

Subject

Members willing to give Advice

1. The difference in symptoms, se-

quel, and pathology between sunstroke |

and heat apoplexy.
2. The effect of clothing and protec-
tion of the eyes as a prophylactic against

sunstroke and in keeping down body tem- |

perature.
3. The effect of different materials and
colours in dress on comfort and health.
4. The racial incidence of sunstroke.
5. The geographical distribution of
Mediterranean fever in Europe.
G6. The materials of which houses are
built, especially roofs, in ameliorating

the rigours of climate and in improving |

health.
7. The incidence of gouty kidney with
traces of albumen. f
8. Food in relation to climate.
9, The effect of alcohol in hot and
cold climates.
10. Soil dampness in relation to tuber-
culosis.
11. ‘The general effect of soils on health.
12. Modification of climate of towns,

&c., by local conditions, such as between |

the Plat and City at Hong Kong.

13. The relative values of high and
low altitudes in promoting the arrest of
pulmonary tuberculosis.

14. The relation of rainfall to the pre-

valence of diphtheria.

15. Bibliography of the relation of
meteorological conditions to the seasonal
prevalence of communicable and non-
communicable diseases.

16. Town smoke in relation to health.

17. The possibility of expressing in
simple mathematical terms the com-
bined climatic value of temperature and
humidity.

Lieut.-Col. R. J. 8. Simpson.
Deputy Director-General A. W. May.

Professor R. H. Chittenden.
Sir Lauder Brunton.
Professor W. E. Dixon.

Dr. H. T. Bulstrode.
Dr. J. Cantlie.

|| Dr. 8. D. Clippingdale.

Dr. H. R. Mill.

) Sir A. Mitchell,

[| Dr. W.N. Shaw.
| Dr. J. F. W. Tatham.

|

Dr. J. J. 8. Teale.

| Dr. F. Parkes Weber.

)
i

Dr. W. Hi Hamer.

The experimental side of the Committee’s work stands on a different,

footing.

Experiments of the necessary type can be performed—often

4.4.6 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

with simple apparatus—not only in the laboratories of medical schools, but
in ordinary practice, and researches of this character might also serve for
M.D. theses. The following subjects have also been suggested for experi-
mental researches. Appended to each subject is the name of one or more
members of the Committee who would undertake to advise those desirous
of working in one of the directions indicated :—

Subject. | Members willing to give Advice

1. The determination of body (rectal)
temperature under different conditions ns oe Beaks ui
of atmospheric temperature and moisture, | Dr. Martcanae ane
2. Racial variations in temperature. | : :
3. The relation of sunstroke to blood- )
pressure. |; Sir Lauder Brunton.
4. Racial variations in blood-pressure, | j
5. The physiology of skin secretion. |,
)

6. The effect of light on perspiration. Professor W. E. Dixon.

One research has so far yielded suggestive results. The rectal tem-
peratures of the members of the King’s College Second Boat have been
systematically taken before and after practice on several successive days.
The rise has been smaller in most cases than previous researches has indi-
cated. There would seem to be a considerable personal equation, as
shown by the temperature of two of the men—No, 5 and stroke.

Changes in Temperature (Fahrenheit) induced by rowing.

May JUNE
Date -_- s — |
o7 98 29 BO } 1 2 3
hig ee a te} md as ° fe) Oo
ea Ca tone icc | FOF SB al eek Te al er | 4 Det 41:7 | 42:1
-11 | -05 -00 | -0-4 |

Stroke . .| —O4 | ~-028, | —14

| |

After May 28 the rowing was performed at temperatures varying
between 71° and 75° F. It is proposed to undertake similar observations
in the cold weather of the Lent Term. The Committee take this oppor-
tunity of expressing their thanks to the members of the crew who have
co-operated in this research.

No progress has yet been made with the preparation of the biblio-
graphy mentioned in the first report of the Committee.

The Committee ask for reappointment, with a grant for secretarial and
incidental expenses. ‘4 :

I i i

THE EFFECT Of CLIMATE UPON HEALTH AND DISEASE, 4.47

APPENDICES.

AppENpIx I,

_ Memorandum on the Climatic and other Geographical Data for the
Investigation.

The success of any specific inquiry into the relations between
physical environment and health or disease depends ultimately upon the
initiative and skill of the person who conducts it. The precise course
of the inquiry must be regulated by the particular circumstances
of the case, so that no rules of general application can be laid down.
It may be necessary for the investigator to organise for himself the
special series of observations required for the particular object which he
has in view, but at the same time it is well to remember that there are
already in existence extensive organisations in the form of official depart-
ments or scientific societies which are engaged in the collection of climatic,
demographic, and other geographical data for general purposes, and that
advantage may be taken of these collections either for the direct pur-
pose of the inquiry or for the discussion of important collateral issues.

Further it may be remarked that the connection between the
incidence or development of disease and the physical environment is
often indirect. Climate may be regarded as the dominant variable, but
its effects may be produced through consequent alterations of surface and
ground water, or through its influence upon plants or animals, or in
consequence of the conditions of the ground and of the human settle-
ments upon it.

The compilation of a special body of data concerning all these points
is generally beyond the power of the investigator with limited time and
opportunity at his disposal, and the following suggestions are drawn up
to enable him to bring the results obtained by the ordinary agencies for
collecting such information into co-operation with those obtained in the
course of the special inquiry.

The organisation of meteorological observations is well advanced. It
is therefore possible to give an effective statement as to the nature and
extent of the data which are already available and where they may be
found. The information about the other factors cannot be so easily dealt
with. Demographic statistics and other information of an official cha-
racter can be obtained from the reports of various Government Depart-
ments, but there is an enormous body of information on other points
which must be sought in the libraries and collections of scientific
societies. In Section IY. of this memorandum the various heads of
information are enumerated, and a brief indication is given of the sources
which are most likely to prove useful.

Appenbix I (a).
Climatic Data.

The preparation, collection, and publication of meteorological data
have been conducted, more or less effectively, for a long series of years
and for nearly all parts of the world, in accordance with practices which
have been codificd and organised by international agreement. The

448 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

ineteorological data thus compiled are prepared for publication, princi-
pally in the form of monthly averages. Daily values are published for
comparatively few of the whole number of meteorological stations, In
those cases in which daily values are required, inquiries should be directed
to the meteorological authorities of the countries concerned.

It is necessary that in preparing vital statistics for comparison with
climatic statistics, these facts should be borne in mind at the outset, so
that comparisons may be, as far as possible, conducted for montlis, or
combinations of months ; otherwise the investigator may find himself
face to face with the practically impossible task of recovering the original
observations and recompiling them for his own purposes.

In complete form, the organisation of meteorological stations is
designed to afford data from which the following meteorological elements
can be obtained :—

1. The mean barometric pressure. Iu order that observations may be
strictly comparable, the means should be determined from twenty-four
hourly readings. In most cases the only observations available ‘are those
taken at two or more fixed hours during the day, and a correction must
be applied to the means determined from these observations, in order to
reduce them to the true daily means. The amount of this correction can
be determined from the records of the stations of the first order, where
such exist. Stations of the first order are those which are provided with
self-recording instruments, or at which personal observations are made
every hour.

2, The mean air temperature. To render observations strictly com-
parable, the means should be determined from twenty-four hourly read-
ings. Means determined from observations at fixed hours can be reduced
to true daily means by the application of a correction which can be
determined from the records of first-order stations, where such exist.

3. The mean maximum and mean minimum temperature, and the
absolute extremes of temperature with the dates of their occurrence.

4. The mean pressure of aqueous vapour and the mean relative
humidity, determined from readings of dry and wet bulb thermometers.

5, The total rainfall, and the maximum fall in one day, with the date
of its occurrence.

6. The mean amount of cloud, expressed as a decimal fraction of the
sky ¢ covered.

7. The frequency of days of rain, snow, hail, thunderstorm, clear sky,
overcast sky, and, for some stations, ‘fog.

8. The frequency of winds from each of eight points of the compass,
and information concerning wind force.

9. Information concerning temperature of the soil, grass minimum
temperature, and solar radiation temperatures. These elements are not
included in the international scheme, but information about them is given
in some cases,

These means, with such imodifications as are imposed by the circum-
stances of the several cases, form the basis of the monthly summaries
which are so largely represented i in meteorological publications. Informa-
tion as to the ditirial variation of the various elements beyond what is
indicated in the foregoing statement, is not given as a rule in meteoro-
logical tables, but for a number of stations it could be supplied on apple
cation to the Meteorologica] Authorities,

THE EFFECT OF CLIMATE UPON HEALTH AND DISEASE, 449

Appenpix I (6),

The examination of the relation between disease and climate may be
conducted upon one or other of two methods :—

(a) The chronological method, by which the data for a single locality
are examined for periodic or secular changes.

(6) The topographical method, by which the data are considered with
regard to geographical distribution,

or by a combination of both (a) and (6).
The application of climatological and other data upon these two
methods may be considered separately.

(a) The Chronological Method.

The monthly data for any station or country enumerated in the sum-
mary mentioned in the next following paragraph with sufficiently long
records are available for the study of questions upon this method. The
only question which arises is the important one of the reference of current
values to averages, in consideration of the fact that different stations
have records of different duration. In order to make the data generally
available, monthly averages should be given for the periods of five years,
indicated by the unit figures 1 to 5 and 6 to 0, e.g., 1901-05, 1906-10, so
that groups of corresponding duration may be combined without difliculty,
to form a uniform system of averages for reference.

(b) Topographical Method.

Appendix VII. of the report of the Committee of the Meteorological
Office for the year 1905-6 givesa brief summary of the published material
which is available from each of the areas into which the world is divided in
the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature. The data can be con-
sulted at the Meteorological Office. A list of other Central Offices where
Meteorological publications are collected is given below on pp. 455 and 456.

Publications classified in that summary under the heading ‘ Meteoro-
logical Registers General’ are almost all in the form of monthly averages.
In the majority of cases the form used is based on that adopted by the
Permanent International Meteorological Committee, as suitable for use
at stations of the second order. (For details see below.)

In localities where it is decided to start fresh observations a similar
form should be adopted. Form 19 of the Meteorological Office may be
used for recording the observations, but it is desirable, for the adequate
study of questions connected with the humidity of the atmosphere, that
provision should be made for an observation in the early afternoon. The
following combinations of hours have been recommended by the Permanent
International Meteorological Committee, as suitable for use at second-
order stations in Europe :—

Gam. 2pm. 10pm.| 8am. 2pm. 8 p.m.) with 8am, 8 p.m.
ds Deis, LOVES, oe Say 9 ,, }minimum oe. ey
UO ree URE 9 F.5. | 10\.,, 1 4, 4), 10 ey") temperature 10% 5. 10)-,;
7 ” 2 ” 9 32

In the British Isles, observations at stations of the second order are taken at |
9am.and9p.m. The Committee of the British Association, which in 1892 pre-
pared a book of ‘Hints to Meteorological Observers in Tropical Africa,’ recom- |
mended the combination 7 a.m., 2 p.m., and 9 p.m. for adoption in Tropical Africa.

1908, GG

450 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

The selection of times has been made with a view to the determinatioti
of the true daily mean temperature from the observations at fixed hours.
For other elements and for other climates, other combinations of hours
might prove to be more suitable. The question can only be dealt with
effectively by a study of the records from first-order stations.

Monthly summaries of the observations should be prepared in the
International Form, of which the Monthly Report of the Meteorological
Office: may be taken as a specimen.

In cases where the complete scheme of observations is impracticable
or undesirable, a form similar to Meteorological Office Form No. 34 should
be used for recording the observations, but provision should be made if
possible, for including observations of wind. The abridged summaries,
given in the Monthly Report of the Meteorological Office, may be taken asa
specimen of the form for publishing these data. The observations of wind
should be summarised in the manner shown in the full monthly summary.

It is a recognised principle in meteorological publications that the
values of the various meteorological elements are arranged in parallel

vertical columns. Reading downwards any column gives the values of

the elements either for various stations, or for successive days, or for con-
secutive months, years, or lustra of five years, as the case may be.

it is highly desirable that private observers who undertake meteoro-
logical observations should arrange their observations upon the recognised
plan, and forward copies of them to some central meteorological institution
in order that the results may be made available for use by investigators.

AppENDIX I (c),
Other Factors to be considered.

The following information should also be supplied, in addition to the
meteorological conditions :—

Physical Structure and Surface Conditions—

. Physical configuration in contours, if possible.

. Geological formation: (a) surface, (b) solid.

. Soil, sub-soil, and rock: (@) composition, (4) porosity.

. Ground water : (@) composition, (5) variation of level, (¢) other movements,
Note relation te seasonal rainfall,

. Rivers: (a) depth of water, (4) rate of flow, (¢) seasonal variations,
(@) sources of pollution.

Bos hoe

or

Biological Conditions—
1. Vegetation. (Note especially the distributioti of wood, grass, cultivated,
waste, marsh, and bare land.)
2, Any notes on insect or other animal life of the locality in relation to
health,
Human Conditions-—
1. Population of area.
2. Density of different sections in tetms of (@) people] These ate generally

_ per acre, (0) inhabited houses per acre. » the subjects of
. Distribution of occupations. | official inquiry.
. Distribution of birth-rates and death-rates.

. Typical diets of different sections of the community.

. Water-supply : (a) source of supply above or below ground water-level,
(0) nature of water—hard, soft, saline, variations with seasons.

. Disposal of refuse, and more particularly of sewage.

. Any fluctuations in employment, with special notes on effects of strikes or
famines (when they occur),

aon aor w

THE EFFECT OF CLIMATE UPON HEALTH AND DISEASE. A451

Appendix IT. contains a list of Learned Societies and Institutions
which collect and publish information bearing upon a number of the
points enumerated herein.

Those who have the opportunity of contributing to the general fund
of information which may prove useful in inquiries should consult the
‘ Hints to Travellers’ of the Royal Geographical Society or the ‘ Admiralty
Manual of Scientific Inquiry,’ and should be careful to communicate
the results of their investigations for publication in the most generally
accessible forms.

For geographical conditions reference should be given to standard
books, papers, and maps, if such exist. If these are inadequate, supple-
mentary notes and maps should be forwarded.

W. N. Suaw.
A. J, HERBERTSON.

APPENDIX II.

Data relating to Disease.
(a) Nomenclature.

The list of diseases given in the printed forms supplied for the record
of cases and deaths from disease is based on the ofticial ‘ Nomenclature
of Diseases’ of the Royal College of Physicians, edition 1906. Where
an observer is not in possession of, or has not access to, this ‘Nomen-
clature,’ he will be provided with a copy on application to the Central
Committee.

Those diseases only have been printed in the forms which appeared
for one reason or another to lend themselves to the purposes of this
investigation, or concerning which fuller information as to distribution
and prevalence is desirable, which should be obtainable without difficulty
in the course of this inquiry.

Synonyms have been inserted in most cases in which they are used
in the ‘Nomenclature,’ and in all in which any doubt could arise as
to the exact nature of the disease designated by the official title. The
number prefixed to each disease is that allotted to it in the ‘Nomen-
clature,’ and a reference will therefore clear up any difficulties of
description.

But the printed list is not intended to be exclusive ; space is left at
the end of the list under each system for the insertion in manuscript of
any other disease which an observer is prepared to report on, and in fact
certain systems have been allotted space for this purpose, though no
diseases have been printed under the headings.

The names of symptoms or of local manifestations should not be used
as descriptions ; the case should be inserted under the general heading of
the cause to which these conditions are due. In the special case of
anemia (No. 61), included in this list for purposes of comparison, this
term should only be used where it has proved impossible either to
differentiate the type or to discover the cause.

While it is highly desirable that the officially recognised titles should
be used for the disease under report in order that all doubt and difficulty
may be removed, yet where the observer either has not access to the complete
list or for some reason finds it unsuitable, there is, of course, no objection
to his using any terminology that may appear to him satisfactory, pro-

vided always that it is used consistently, and that he gives such
GG2

A452 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

information as may enable the Committee to recognise the disease on
which he is reporting.

(6) Disease statistics of population.

Statistics concerning the prevalence of or the mortality from disease
are of little value by themselves, nor can their variations be accurately
compared with climatic changes, or, indeed, with any other variable, till
their primary relationship to the population from which they are drawn
is established. Further, the incidence of a mortality is often selective in
the same race, determined usually by age, often by occupation, sometimes
by sex. ;

4 The requirements for the satisfactory comparison of disease data may
be set forth in tabular form :—
Tc isease .
are eens jess disease \ Require .
Cases by ages | { Population by ages, and possibly
| eee ae:

Jf Total population from which they
* \ were drawn.

Deaths ,, 29 : ‘ | total deaths by ages.
Cases by sex | :
Teadin Bi : : See . Population by sex.

Where the disease appears to be limited, chiefly or entirely, to one
section of the population, these statistical details should be given for the
sectional as well as for the total population.

Racial differences in incidence and mortality are most important, and
can only be elucidated by comparative statements in which all the par-
ticulars enumerated above are comprised.

It may sometimes be impossible to obtain exact statements as to age
aistribution of the population, but the best available information should
be given. There may be in certain localities a temporary change in the
age distribution of the population, where for religious, economic, or
climatic reasons, the tide of immigration (usually mainly of young adults)
flows at regular or irregular intervals. Probably this in most cases affects
the annual rather than the monthly ratios, but it is a point which is
worthy of consideration.

(c) Disease statistics.
These fall into two classes :—

(i) Where cases and deaths are recorded.

These include statistics from hospitals (civil, naval, and military), and
from prisons and gaols. The published data from these sources usually
give annual values for all and monthly for certain diseases. They
include, of course, all cases and deaths which come under observation ;
they are complete as far as they go. But the relation of these hospital
cases to the population varies. In naval and military statistics the
whole sickness of the navy or army is dealt with, hence the actual inci-
dence rate on the population is known. The deaths, however, do not
represent the total mortality due to sickness contracted in the service, as
a, certain small proportion of men die after invaliding out of the service
from disease actually contracted in the service.

Civil hospitals deal only with a part of the sickness of the population,
and the relation of this part to the total sickness of the population is a
very variable quantity. Hence, normally, the number of attacks in the
civil population is not known, The deaths in hospital also do not

THE EFFECT OF CLIMATE UPON HEALTH AND DISEASF, 458

represent the true death-rate on the hospital population, as a certain
proportion die after discharge from hospital.

In the special case of notifiable diseases we have, on the one hand,
the total cases notified, and, on the other, the total deaths from each
disease. One may assume that the fatal cases are notified, and that the
total mortality on population is approximately correct : but it does not
appear that the attack-rate calculated from the cases notified can always
be accepted as accurate, or that two attack-rates in different localities
are comparable, as there are considerable differences in different areas in
the carrying out of the process of notification, especially abroad.

Practically, where accurate methods of incidence are required, and of
mortality in acute disease, we have only the naval and military statistics
to depend on. The records from prisons and gaols are more difficult of
classification ; certainly the total sickness of the population is dealt with,
but the periods of ‘exposure to risk’ vary so much as to complicate
matters. The records from the Indian (and from some Colonial) gaols
are, however, extremely valuable in spite of this complication.

In all these cases the number of fresh attacks, as distinct from
relapses, in such diseases as, e.g., malarial fever and dgwentery, should be
noted ; special records are usually necessary to elucidate this point, which
is most important.

(ii) Where deaths only are recorded.

These are available, with varying degrees of accuracy, in all civilised
countries. They form in many cases the only available records which
relate to the whole, or, indeed, to any part of the population. They are,
or can be made, available by age groups. Unfortunately, they have not
all the same degree of accuracy ; in the younger or less civilised countries
the case often ends fatally without the cognisance of a medical man, and
a medical certificate is not always obligatory, as indeed it often could
not be obtained. Hence the deaths cannot be properly enumerated for
statistical purposes ; it is often not possible even to guess from the entry
in the register what the cause of death may have been. Again, even
where a medical certificate has been furnished the cause of death is too
often described in vague or even misleading terms. The inquirer must
often examine the register himself, and as conscientiously as possible
eliminate and reconstruct. This reconstruction is, of course, a dangerous
process ; it can only give possibilities, or at most probabilities, But in
some instances the true meaning of the death certificate is perfectly
obvious, especially where the inquirer has local knowledge.

(d) The compilation of statistical tables of disease.
The useful periods are :—

(i) The week. Probably only useful in epidemic disease, or where a
disease has a distinct seasonal variation of short period. Except for the
United Kingdom there are no regular meteorological tables with which
to compare these weekly results ; the observer must then re-compile either
(a) the daily meteorological data, to suit his weekly table, or (6) compile
a monthly disease table from his daily records, as the weekly tables will
not of themselves give monthly tables. The former is certainly the more
useful process in the conditions in which a weekly disease record is
wanted ; the second process defeats the purpose of the weekly record ;
but in the end both weekly and monthly tables will usually be required.

A.5 A REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

(ii) The calendar month,

(iii) The year.

(iv) The quinquennial period: A group of the monthly values for
five years, ¢.g., 1901-5.

These are directly comparable with normal meteorological tables.

The monthly values are sufficiently close for nearly all purposes, and
they are also less liable to adventitious error than the weekly record,
where, except during an epidemic, or where the observer has an unusually
large population to deal with, accidental causes may have an important
influence on the weekly variations, From the monthly tables the com-
pilation of the other tables of longer period is a simple matter.

The object of this memorandum is to inform observers of what material
is available and in what form, and to suggest the general lines which
new investigations should follow in order that they may be comparable
with existing records. If the suggestions in this memorandum are fol-
lowed, observers will usually find the interim results which they may
obtain will permit of easy rearrangement if that should prove necessary
for purposes of comparison. This is important, because (especially abroad
where reference libraries are scarce) it may happen that the opportunity
for observation must be seized at once or lost, while it is impossible to
ascertain immediately what has already been done. The observer may
in such a case compile his results on the lines indicated above, while he
is at the same time seeking information as to existing material on the
subject.

The associated conditions, enumerated in Section II., may be as im-
portant as the actual climatic changes, if, indeed, they are not more so—
that is, the climatic effect is often indirect,

Which of these shall be investigated in its relation to climatic a
disease variation, and how far this. investigation shall be carried, are
matters which the individual observer must decide for himself, But
usually material relating to most of these points is already available,
many of which are of economic importance, and so have received early
attention ; this in many cases will be sufficient Every investigation
has a natural tendency to expansion ; this can never be entirely obviated ;
points crop up which need special inquiry. But a careful consideration
at the outset of the possible lines of expansion will often enable the
observer to obtain contemporaneous records which may prove useful,
which he could possibly never obtain later or from other sources. A
working hypothesis is helpful, provided that it is regarded as a scaffolding
to disappear in the finished work, and it is not allowed to influence the
selection of the observations. The difficulty: at the outset»is to! dis-
tinguish between the essential and the adventitious ; this becomes easier
as the i inquiry proceeds. But when the observer has no knowledge of
what auxiliary material is available, it is better to observe those asso-
ciated conditions which appear to be essential than to trust to the
existence of records which may be deficient on this very point.

Of the associated conditions, probably those termed biological form
at present the most promising field for investigation, especially as regards
the incidence of many forms of tropical disease. Much work has been
done in this direction, especially in regard to mosquitoes and ticks, but
fuller investigations are still useful, especially the relation (direct or
through vegetation changes) of climatic conditions to the life history of
the carrier and the development of the parasite carried, and hence,

es ee

To face p

APPENI

1X

It

In THE Brrrish IStANDs DURING THE

MONTH OF

and Gale are counted irrespective of the Hours at which they occurred

19 Mowraty Rerors From Norstar Contatonocican Static
io : Locat Tan

ay, een F : mu Banow etre \ atu

: r E\s 3 4 \% E $- | oe al eS 3

APPENDIX IY.
A—Tasre orvixe 1 Suaaiany oF THE MeTroxoLoGicAL OnsERVATIONS MADE AT 8 A.M. AND 6 Vat, OK AT DAaf AND 9 vat
The observat are made at certain set hours daily, but the Nambers of Days of Rain, Snow, Hail, Thunderstorn
ft Mean 0 Yimarvations at Ham. and 6 p.m. | i
he : a on oral Dam and Opa. | pir|| 4, eee |
= i oe
4 te P | Dep, of Vap. \ Ay, || 4208) Dove a
Lave Min Dry wav | Pfc | pyre | Bamlaty | Azoouns| Day |] 3 | 3
aoa xe | ssa pol | es ee | :

Dusrai

B—Taste.
Sranow |

re

Min, | Max.

Aum Teavenarony

Abwnlate Min
Mew

or

‘

il

am Min. Day

Susamany or THe Opsenvations or Tesrenature, Rainracy, ayo Bi

1 Masiion

Max

Day

Hr SUNSHINE

TAG axp ovis Fouws oy PuscirrraTion

Amt. Day

AT OTHER STATIONS,

| |
|
|
|
|
AY : ty

Tit

indirectly, t

IDIX V. the subject
APPENDIX V ‘Append
meteorol
Form No. 84 Weersty Cumartorocican Report From . Tnstitutio
‘There are,
§ usually loc:
Observations made at m. cach day by during the week ending Saturday, 190 aaraabie in
plete list of
n Soxsutsr Other observations, if any | tion that
Teer Rapsvat rea ratlond, | Rane enialttes
ees = =) idee || eae | l ; | Anaerteeniegerparte

List of O

Aust
1
1

Bee

|
|
F merit |
|

nr
APPENDIX VI. URAL
Moxruiy Rervnx or Diseases.
(Hate =
Total population among whom the cases of sickness and the deaths occurred
(Female
|
axe ae Mave || Pwaurs
ede | tend sant | toana | isant | ovand | shan | asand | dsand | soant |-epand | reant |! Under | ian band | 10and | isana | ood | ssand | a5 and | ssand | 75ana
yer | coders | wndert0 | nderts | omier30 | coders | unter3s | opteras | omierss | coders | under 7s | apwarda || 1yer | under | underto | unteris | anders | amier%s | uner3s | onder 4s under 78 | upwants

THE EFFECT OF CLIMATE UPON HEALTH AND DISEASE. 155

indirectly, their.relation to the incidence of disease. The literature of
the subject is already enormous, but much yet remains to be done.

Appended to this Memorandum are lists of Central Offices where
meteorological publications are collected, and of Jiearned Societies and
Institutions to which inquiries for special information may be addressed.
There are, in addition to those enumerated (which are chiefly British),
usually local societies in various foreign countries, from which much
valuable information may be obtained. It is impossible to give a com-
plete list of such societies, but observers will he given all the informa-
tion that is available concerning them on application to the Central
Committee,

R. J. S, Simpson.

List of Central Offices where Meteorological Publications are collected,
EUROPE.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY:
Buda-Pest—K. Ungar. Meteorologische Centralanstalt,
Vienna—K.-K, Centralanstalt fiir Meteorologie.

BELGIUM 3
Brussels—Observatoire Royal, Uccle.

BULGARIA:
Sofia—Station Centrale Météorologique.

DENMARK :
Copenhagen—Det Danske Meteorologiske Institut.
FRANCE:
Marseilles—Commission Météorologique,
Paris—Bureau Central Météorologic”e.

GERMANY :
Berlin—K. P. Meteorologisches Institut.
Carlsruhe—Central Bureau fiir Meteorologie und Hydrographie,
Dresden—K. 8S. Meteorologisches Institut.
Hamburg—Deutsche Seewarte.
Munich—K. B. Meteorologische Centralanstalt.
Strassburg—Meteorologischer Landesdienst.
Stuttgart—K. W. Meteorologische Centralstation.

GREECE;
Athens—Observatoire National,

HOLLAND:
Utrecht (de Bilt)—Koninkl, Nederl. Meteorol. Institut.

ITALY:

Rome—Ufficio Centrale Meteorologico e Geodinamico.
Norway :

Christiania—Det Norske Meteorologiske Institut.

PORTUGAL:
Lisbon—Observatoire Coimbra.
Azores—Observatoire Punta Delgada,

ROUMANIA :
Bucharest—Institut Meteorologicul,

RUSSIA :
St, Petersburg—Observatoire Physique Central

SERVIA!
Belgrade—Observatoire Central,
SPAIN:
Madrid—Instituto Central Meteorol6gico; Real Observatorio.

4.56 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

SWEDEN:
Stockholm—Meteorologiska Central Anstalten.

SWITZERLAND : ‘
Berne—Bureau Hydrométrique Fédéral.
Zurich—Schweizerische Meteorologische Centralanstalt.

AFRICA,

Algiers—Service Météorologique.

Cairo—Survey Department.

Cape Town—Meteorological Commission ; Observatory,
Durban—Natal Observatory.

Johannesburg—Transvaal Meteorological Department.

ASIA,

Bombay—Colaba Observatory.
Calcutta—Meteorological Office.

Hong Kong—Observatory.

Shanghai—The Observatory, Zi-ka-wei.
Simla-—Meteorological Office.
Tokio—Imperial Meteorological Observatory.

InpIAN OCEAN.
Mauritius—Royal Alfred Observatory.

AMERICA.

Toronto—Meteorological Office.
Washington—Weather Bureau.
Argentina—Oficina Meteorolégica, Cérdoba.
Mexico—Observatorio Central Meteorolégico.

Rio Janeiro—Observatorio.

Valparaiso—Servicios Meteorolégico y Colombofilo.

AUSTRALASIA.

Adelaide—The Government Astronomer, Observatory Department.
Brisbane—The Government Meteorologist.
Melbourne—Observatory.

Sydney—Observatory.

List of Learned Societies and Institutions in the United Kingdom to which
Inquiries for Special Information may be addressed.

GENERAL SCIENCE.
LONDON:
Royal Society, Burlington House, W.
Royal Institution of Great Britain, Albemarle Street, W.
Royal Asiatic Society, 22 Albemarle Street, W.
Imperial Institute, South Kensington, 8.W.
African Society, 22 Albemarle Street, W.
London Institute, Finsbury Circus, E.C.

EDINBURGH :
Royal Society of Edinburgh, The Mound, Princes Street.
Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh, 1 India Buildings.
DUBLIN:

Royal Dublin Society, Leinster House, Dublin,
Royal Irish Academy, 19 Dawson Street,

THE EFFECT OF CLIMATE UPON HEALTH AND DISEASE.

PHYSICAL, Ke.
Lonpon:
Royal Astronomical Society, Burlington House, W.
British Astronomical Association, 85 Gracechurch Street, E.C.
Royal Meteorological Society, 70 Victoria Street, S.W.

EDINBURGH :
Scottish Meteorological Society, 122 George Street.

GEOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY, &c.
LONDON:
Royal Geographical Society, 1 Savile Row, W.
Geological Society of London, Burlington House, W.
EDINBURGH :
Edinburgh Geological Society, India Buildings.
Royal Scottish Geographical Society, Queen Street.

BIOLOGY, &e.
LONDON:
Linnean Society of London, Burlington House, W.

Anthropological Institute of Great Britain, 3 Hanover Square, W.

Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, 8.W.
Zoological Society of London, 3 Hanover Square, W.
Royal Botanic Society, Regent’s Park.

Hutomological Society of London, 11 Chandos Street, W.

ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
LONDON:
Royal Statistical Society, 9 Adelphi Terrace, W.C.

DUBLIN:
Statistical and Social Inquiry Society, 35 Molesworth Street.

AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE.
LONDON :
Royal Agricultural Society of England, 13 Hanover Square, W.
Royal Horticultural Society, Vincent Square, 8.W.

MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH.
LonpDon:
Local Government Board, Whitehall, S.W.
Medical Society of London, 11 Chandos Street, W.
Royal Society of Medicine, 20 Hanover Square, W.

Or
ot (

British Balneological and Climatological Society, 20 Hanover Square, W.

Dermatological Society of London, 11 Chandos Street, W.
Epidemiological Society of London, 11 Chandos Street, W.

Incorporated Society of Medical Officers of Health, 1 Upper Montague

Street, W.C.

Medico-Psychological Association of Great Britain and Ireland, 11 Chandos

Street, W.

Neurological Society of the United Kingdom, 11 Chandos Street, W.

Pathological Society of London, 20 Hanover Square, W.
Royal Institute of Public Health, Russell Square, W.C.
Royal Sanitary Institute, Parkes Museum, Margaret Street, W.

National Association for the Prevention of Consumption, 20 Hanover Sq., W.

Surveyors’ Institution, 12 Great George Street, S.W.

EDINBURGH :
Edinburgh Health Society, 43 Queen Street.
Edinburgh Medico-Chirurgical Society, 117 George Street.

GLASGOW :
Incorporated Sanitary Association of Scotland, 83 Bath Street,

DUBLIN:
Dublin Sanitary Association, 42 Dame Street.

458 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

The Conditions of Health essential to the carrying on of the Work
of Instruction in Schools.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor SHERRINGTON (Chairman), Mr. E.Waurte WALLIS (Secre-
tary), Sir Epwarp Brapsroox, Dr. C. W. Kimmins, Professor L. C.
Mra, Miss A. J. Cooper, and Dr, Eraen WILLIAMs.

Tur Committee had in co-operation with them in their investigations and
deliberations the valuable assistance of Dr. C. Childs, Dr. James Kerr,
Professor W. N. Shaw, Dr. C. E. Shelley, Mr. J. Osborne Smith, and Mrs.
White Wallis.

Several matters concerning the health of children in schools have been
referred to sub-committees, but owing to a misunderstanding as to the
reappointment of the Committee there has not been time to report.
They have, however, adopted and submit to the Association a final report
prepared by a sub-committee with regard to the ventilation of schools.

The Ventilation of School Buildings.

General Considerations.—Ventilation implies the continuous adequate
supply of pure air to all parts of inhabited buildings and the removal
therefrom of fouled air without causing inconvenience or ill-health to the
occupants,

In order to ensure this it is necessary to consider :—

1. The supply of sufficient quantity.
2. The proper quality of the air supplied.
3, The suitable degree of temperature and humidity—
(a) Of the air as supplied.
(6) Of the air in the room (or other enclosed space) during occupation,
. The distribution in equal proportion to each occupant.
. The complete removal of fouled air.
. The provision of such ventilation—
(a) Without producing discomfort or feeling of draught, or any gradual
though imperceptible depression of health.
(2) In such a way as to maintain full bodily and mental vigour.
(¢) In such a way that the whole process shall be reasonably practicable
and economical,

> Ol

Without a knowledge of the above requirements and a practical
knowledge of the complicated physical problems involved in ventilation it
is impossible to devise a rational and efficient scheme of ventilation, or
to form a reliable judgment upon any schemes of ventilation which may
be under consideration,

The Amount of Air required for Efficient Ventilation.

The problem of the satisfactory ventilation of rooms intended for the
accommodation of a considerable number of persons must be regarded as
being still in the experimental stage, and therefore no categorical state-
ment can be given as to the amount of air required to secure the object in
view, The Committee accordingly confine themselves to recommending

ON THE CONDITIONS OF HEALTH IN SCHOOLS, A5Y

that the allowance of air for each person should not be less than 2,000
cubic feet per hour, and to giving an indication of the reasons which lead
them to this recommendation.

They regard as ideal ventilation the condition of things which would
be given by general perflation on a day when the natural temperature of
the air is 62° or 63° F. In practice the air supplied must be confined if it
is to be warmed ; cold walls and windows also disturb the simplicity of
the arrangement.

The Committee have no evidence to show what amount of air would
be supplied under the conditions of ideal ventilation above mentioned ; it
would probably be far larger than the amount supplied by ventilating
systems in practical use, and the estimates of the quantity of air required
are based upon other considerations.

The most common basis of calculation starts from de Chaumont’s
estimate of the amount necessary to prevent any disagreeable smell or
feeling of closeness being perceived by a person coming from the outside
air directly into the room. This, again, has been interpreted by various
authorities in terms of the excess of carbonic acid in the air of the room
over that in the outside air. In taking samples of air for analysis regard
must be paid to the proportion of carbonic acid possibly being varied in
different parts of the room, and as far as possible the average proportion
should be ascertained. Different authorities fix the limit of ‘ respiratory
impurity ’ from this point of view as that indicated by 2 per 10,000 (which
corresponds toa supply of about 3,000 cubic feet of air per hour for adults
and somewhat less for children during continuous occupation) to 6 per
10,000 (for which a supply of 1,000 cubic feet of air per hour would be
sufficient).

Bacteriological tests of air have been made, but no quantitative
statements as to the amount of air required have been based upon the
results.

Another basis of computation is the amount of air necessary to remove
the ‘heat of combustion’ of the persons in the room. It has been calcu-
lated that this heat is sufficient in an adult to raise the temperature of
3,000 cubic feet of air per hour by 5° F. ; and, generally speaking, it is by
the warming of the air through omission of heat from their bodies that the
individuals in an occupied room dispose of their waste products and supply
themselves with their share of the fresh air which is delivered to the room.
It. is clear that it is-desirable to remove this heat by removing the air
which has been fouled. To remove the heat by conduction through walls
and windows while retaining the impurities is not a satisfactory means of
maintaining.a suitable average temperature, and it should be avoided as
far, ase*possible.. Restricting the air-supply implies a correspondingly
greater increase of its temperature by the occupants themselves during
its: passage through the room, and is on that account objectionable ; and for
the same mean or final temperature it implies a proportionately colder
supply and consequently more appreciable draughts. Thus 1,000 cubic
feet would be warmed 15° per hour by an occupant, and to keep air ina
room until it has been warmed 15° F. by the occupants would at least
produce discomfort. The 1,000 cubic feet per hour supply must on this
account be regarded as too small. It will probably be allowed, for
example, that if air were supplied to a room at 63° F. everyone would
‘wish it removed before it had been raised to 70° F. by the inmates them-
selves. Upon this basis of calculation here put forward 2,000 cubic feet

460 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

per hour must be supplied to each inmate for that purpose. There would
be no advantage from the point of view of freshness in having it merely
cooled by walls or windows ; and hence, without laying too much stress on
the precision of the numeral calculations, a supply less than 2,000 must
be regarded as inadequate.

A third consideration is the removal of the solid and liquid particles
which find their way into the air from the skin or clothing, or from the
mouth, or by raising the dust from the floor and surfaces of seats, desks, dc.
These particles, which often carry organisms, pathogenic or otherwise,
may be regarded from the physical point of view as fine dust which is
constantly in process of settling, but so slowly that the greater part of it
takes part even in the slow circulation of the air in an inhabited room,
It can hardly be denied that these particles when associated with or
derived from infectious sources may form the most injurious constituents
of a vitiated atmosphere. We know little of their size or nature, but
their behaviour in the air must be represented more or less aptly by that
of the cloud of particles which constitutes tobacco smoke, and we may
judge from the behaviour of such a cloud what is the best course to pursue
in order to remove the obnoxious particles. On this analogy it is clear
that the less vigorous the circulation of air through the room the more
the particles hang about the room, and we have thus another reason for
maintaining the flow of air at the highest figure compatible with the comfort
of the occupants.

Von Pettenkofer’s method of estimating the quantity of air required
by considering the dilution of carbonic acid draws a distinction between
adults and children, The considerations which have been adduced tend
to show that the introduction of any such distinction in practical ventila-
tion would indicate a degree of accuracy in our knowledge of the pro-
cesses of ventilation to which we can lay no claim. Even if it be true
that the production of carbonic acid increases with the body weight, it is
not a necessary consequence that the natural demand for fresh air increases
in the same proportion, and we are not prepared to say that a boy or girl
should be supplied with less air than a man or woman.

We may sum the considerations by saying that a supply of 1,000 cubic
feet per head per hour to healthy occupants will barely save the room
from becoming disagreeable. A supply of 2,000 cubic feet is the smallest
that can be recommended for health, mental energy, and comfort. More
still would be required in order to approach the conditions of ideal venti-
lation.

The Suitable Degree of Temperature and Humidity.

Recent investigations, more especially those of Haldane and others in
this country, of Fliigge and Paul in Germany, have shown that the
temperature of a room and of the air supplied is of greater importance
than has generally been supposed ; that a high degree of temperature in a
room (¢.g., above 68° F.) produces languor, sense of mental fatigue, and the
other symptoms associated with crowded assemblies, to a greater extent
even than polluted air ; and that these symptoms are aggravated by stag-
nation and immediately relieved by movement of the air surrounding the
body.

These results have been confirmed by the careful observations sug-

gested by the work of this Committee and recently carried out in the
London schools.

ON THE CONDITIONS OF HEALTH IN SCHOOLS. 461

From the same observations it has been shown that a high degree of
humidity of the air does not interfere with the comfort and mental energy
of the scholars in a room provided that the temperature is not above
65° F. Above that temperature it produces marked decrease of mental
energy.

The temperature most conducive to comfort and mental vigour
in a schoolroom is between 58° and 62°, irrespective of the degree of
humidity.

Furthur investigation is required in order to determine the maximum
temperature of the air which may be introduced into a room without pro-
ducing physiological disturbance. It would be probably safe to state
that in no case should the temperature of the warmed air so introduced
exceed by more than one degree the proposed normal temperature of the
room.

If a room supplied with warmed air becomes too cold, owing to loss of
heat through walls and windows, it should be further warmed by some
form of radiant heat.

The Distribution in equal Proportion to each Occupant.

It is generally assumed that in a mechanically ventilated room the air
is thoroughly mixed, so that the fresh air supplied is distributed in equal
proportion to each occupant. Further observations are required in this
respect, and also upon the best methods for securing this equal distribution,
the best position, size, and shape of inlet shafts, the relative sizes and
positions of inlets and outlets.

In many schoolrooms ventilated mechanically inlets and outlets are
so arranged that shortcircuiting of the air-supply is inevitable, and
occasionally stagnant spaces are to be found.

In ‘naturally’ ventilated rooms the fresh air supplied during cold
weather inevitably gravitates to the floor unless it be warmed before
admission, forming a cold floor-current which chills the feet and lower
extremities of the occupants without materially contributing to the venti-
lation.

The heat evolved from the body of each individual undoubtedly
causes a local upward current of air, and induces a fresh supply of air
to each body. The force of this upward current and its value so far as
it supplies fresh air to the individual require further investigation. It
probably contributes considerably to thé special supply for each occupant
of the room.

Ventilation as a Measure for reducing Risks of Infection.

By far the most important measure for the prevention of infection
when a scholar has contracted infectious disease is the prompt detection
and exclusion or removal of the infected individual.

Another important measure is the regular and effective cleansing of
the floor, walls, ceiling, furniture, &c., in the room by means of damp
cloths in such a way as to remove the dust and the bacteria contained
in it without allowing them to be merely displaced and scattered about
in the air of the room. Efficient ventilation, however, can to some
extent be made to help in reducing the risks of infection by removing
the majority of microbes present in the air.

In the investigations of Carnelly and Haldane in 1886-89 it was shown

462 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.
that mechanical ventilation removed most of the microbes contributed
from the bodies and clothing of the occupants.

These observations indicated that in mechanical ventilation a steady
movement of the air was maintained throughout the room, tending to
prevent the microbes from settling on surfaces and to convey them out
of the room.

It is desirable that similar investigations should be carried out with
the aid of the more complete methods of bacteriological investigation
now at our command.

Comparison of Mechanical and Natural Ventilation.

On comparing together mechanical and natural ventilation it is seen
that they each have their advantages and disadvantages. By means
of mechanical ventilation the air-supply can be better controlled,
washed and filtered from dust, heated or cooled; the disturbing in-
fluence of variation in the force and direction of wind can be more
easily overcome ; the required temperature of the room more steadily
maintained.

On the other hand, mechanical ventilation is far more costly: the
process is placed almost entirely in the hands of one individual, generally
remote from the schoolroom, whilst at the same time both teachers and
scholars are deprived of the salutary object-lesson afforded by ‘natural
ventilation’ in the desirability of admitting fresh air into all occupied

rooms and dwellings.

Recommendations.

From the foregoing statements it will be seen that the Committee are
of opinion that a large number of investigations will have to be made
before a final opinion can be formed with regard to many points in
connection with the problems involved in practical ventilation ; for
instance, the position and size of inlets and outlets, the best means
for the impartial distribution of the fresh air supplied, the relative
advantages of mechanical as compared with ‘natural ventilation,’ the
best mode of conveying heat.

Until such final opinion is formed, the best systems of ventilation will
suffer discredit owing to faulty and defective methods of carrying them
out ; great expenses may be needlessly incurred in the construction of
ventilation installations, whilst those who are responsible for the manage-
ment of schools will be constantly harassed by new regulations and
uncalled-for expenditure without obtaining any real improvement in the
ventilation.

The Committee have endeavoured to make investigations on some of
the points mentioned above, but have not the means or authority for
carrying them out. They suggest that inquirers well versed in the
scientitic aspect of the question, and acquainted with the practical
methods employed for ventilation, as well as with the requirements and
practical business management of schools, should be commissioned to
carry out such investigations ; that schoolrooms, some provided with
mechanical, others with ‘natural’ systems of ventilation, be put at
their disposal for this purpose; that the time is ripe for a carefully
conducted investigation on scientific lines of the whole subject of school

ventilation.

| ne

ON THE CONDITIONS OF HEALTH IN SCHOOLS, 4.68

- After consideration of the important conclusions arrived at in this
report the Committee urge the British Association to move for the
appointment of a Royal Commission or departmental committee with
the necessary authority fully to investigate the subject.

The Committee desire to be reappointed, and ask for a grant of 10/.
for the purpose of obtaining instruments for investigation in hearing
tests for school use.

Lhe Electrical Phenomena and Metabolism of Arum spadices.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. D. WALLER (Chair-
man), Miss SANDERS (Secretary), Professor GorcH, wnd Professor
FARMER,

Report of Dr. A. D. Watier, F.R.S., on the work of Miss SanpErs and
Miss Kemp during the year 1907-08,

Tue work during the past year upon Arum spadices by Miss Sanders
and Miss Kemp, although it has not been very fruitful as regards the
original object of the inquiry, has given rise to observations and experi-
ments which are in my opinion of very considerable value, and promise
to lead to further results of positive importance in vegetable and in
animal physiology.

The actual results as regards the Arwm spadices are described in the
report of Miss Sanders; that of Miss Kemp deals with the general
question of the transmission of stimuli in vegetable tissues, which was
the first outcome of the original inquiry. This question has been
touched upon by many previous observers by more or less definite
methods and with more or less definite conclusions. I have myself
for many years had this problem before my mind, and I am glad to take
this opportunity of stating my attitude towards it (vide infra),

The observations of Miss Kemp have, however, not been limited to
this single problem. In consequence of the manner in which it has been
treated in the recent publications of Professor J. C. Bose, Miss Kemp
was led to examine some of the data upon which that author has rested
his claim to have discovered the existence of vegetable nerves, As
presented by him these data consist essentially in the statement that a
close parallelism exists between the contractions of fibro-vascular bundles
in vegetables and those of ordinary nerves in animals. The results
of Miss Kemp’s experiments with me are given in a joint paper to the
Physiological Society,! entitled ‘A Demonstration of the “ Contractility ”
of Nerve, of Fiddle-strings, and of other Strings,’ to indicate the illusory
nature of Professor Bose’s results, which, according to our experiments,
are entirely due to the heating effects of the high-tension induction
currents used for stimulation.

The consideration of the effects of heat naturally led to a consideration
of the question whether or no heat per se may properly be regarded as
a physiological stimulus of vegetable or animal protoplasm. Obviously
temperature is a condition of stimulation, but the question to which we

§ Proceedings Physiol. Soc. Journal of Physictoyy, 1908, vol. xxxvii,

AGA. REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

addressed ourselves was whether the sudden application of heat—a thermidc
shock, so to speak—could act as a true stimulus in the sense that an
electric shock acts as a stimulus. Our results in this connection are
not yet published ; I may, however, so far anticipate them by stating—

(1) That as regards animal nerves the experimental answer is clearly
negative.

(2) That as regards vegetable tissues the answer is in all probability
negative, the effects of thermic shocks being, in my opinion, due to move-
ments of water rather than to excited and transmitted protoplasmic
activity.

(3) That the above two considerations lead to the reinvestigation of
Hermann’s fundamental principle to the effect that warmer tissue is
galvanometrically positive to cooler tissue.!

This third point will, I hope, form the subject-matter of an early
communication to the Physiological Society. At present I am not
sure of the fact as stated by Hermann, nor therefore obviously of its
possible interpretation, as to whether it be due to unequal ionic velocities
of dissociating molecules or to mere water movements from or towards
the heated spot.

The problem of transmission in vegetable protoplasm in the definite
restricted sense of the propagation of an excited state from cell to cell
has been previously approached by several observers and theorists.

The principal authors to whom I have referred have been Burdon
Sanderson, Haberlandt, Nemec, and Bose.

My first definite knowledge * of the question of transmission of the
excitatory state in plant protoplasm was derived from the papers of
Burdon Sanderson on Dionea. In the course of the observations by
which he sought to establish a comparison between vegetable and animal
tissues as regards their mechanical and electrical responses to excitation,
he showed that, in consequence of mechanical or electrical excitation of
a hairlet, an electrical response of an opposite lobe of the leaf of Dionewa
took place, thus clearly proving that in the case of a sensitive plant
transmission of excitation does actually occur. In fig. 10, p. 21,3 a
diagram of what he terms the fundamental experiment is given in which
an electrical response of one lobe is observed consequent upon an electrical
excitation applied to the other lobe. With some reservation (p. 40) he
gives as the probable rate of transmission ‘at least 200 mm. per second.’
In his second paper* Burdon Sanderson (pp. 444, 445) gives the rate as
200 to 300 mm. per second, according to temperature, and explicitly
concludes that ‘the excitatory process in the leaf is of the same nature
as that which follows stimulation in animal structures, and more
particularly in nerve.’ And the beautiful electrometer records given
in illustration of this paper exhibit diphasic effects in Dionea essentially

1 Piliiger’s Archiv, vol. iv, 1874, p. 163.

? Through the writings of Claude Bernard, and his description of the action of
anesthetics on Mimosa, my attention had been directed to the previous observations
of Dutrochet (1824), who first measured the speed of propagation in Mimosa, and
gave it as being 2 to 3 mm. per second, Paul Bert (1870) gave it as being
2 to 5 mm. per second.

* Phil. Trans., 1881, ‘On the Hlectromotive Properties of the Leaf of Dionea
in the excited and unexcited states,’

* Thid., 1888.

,

Pee. rrr rr

oe.) ce

ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA AND METABOLISM OF ARUM SPADICES. 465

similar to diphasic effects on nerve and muscle. The only difference is
one of speed, viz.—
M. 0:300 in Dionea.
3000 in ordinary muscle.
0°150 in cardiac muscle.
30:000 in nerve.

The transmission in Biophytwm was studied and described in 1890
and in 1898 by Haberlandt in the Buitenzorg Laboratory (Ueber die Reiz-
bewegung und die Reizfortpflanzung bei Biophytuwm sensitivum, ‘ Annales
du jardin botanique de Buitenzorg,’ Suppl. ii., 1898, p. 33). Haberland
gave as the speed of transmission at its quickest 25 to 3mm. per
second, as compared with 8 mm. per second in Mimosa.

In a more recent publication (‘Sinnesorgane im Pflanzenreich,’ Leipzig,
1901), Haberlandt (p. 152) compares transmission in plants with the cell-
to-cell transmission obtaining in cardiac muscle, and rejects the assump-
tion of special fibrillar paths of excitation in vegetable tissues.

Bose (‘Comparative Electro-physiology,’ 1907, chap. xxx.) deals with
the subject of transmission in plants at considerable length. He gives,
e.g., as having been determined by himself by the electromotive method,
the following values: Mimosa petiole, 14 mm. per second ; isolated nerve
of fern, 50 mm. per second ; and is of opinion (p. 453) that, since the
conduction of ‘ excitation takes place by the transmission of protoplasmic
changes, it is evident that it must occur most easily along those paths in
which there is greatest protoplasmic continuity. It is clear that certain
elements in the fibro-vascular bundles will furnish the best conducting
medium.’

But the data upon which the author rests his opinion do not bear
examination ; in fact, the chapter on the matter contains no data unless
the diagram on p. 454 of an experimental arrangement for comparing
transverse and longitudinal conductivities be regarded as a datum.
Moreover, as stated above, the discovery of vegetal nerves similar to
animal nerves is altogether illusory.

Report of Miss Sanvurs’ Work done on Metabolism of Arum spadices,
1908 (January to July).

The subject proper of the present inquiry—viz., the further elucidation
of the changes going on in Arwm spadices during inflorescence—has been
but little advanced this year owing to the difficulty of bringing plants
during their first season to a proper state of inflorescence.

The points which we held before us particularly were :—

1, The normal electrical conditions of variously active phases.

2. The chemical products of the proteolytic activity which had been
shown to exist.

2b. The relation between the secretion of oxidases and amylases.

3. The behaviour of the active parts under traumatic conditions and
after stimulation.

These points we desire to keep in view for a possible larger supply of
flowers in the future.

From the few plants (about fifty) that flowered properly this season
it was, however, found possible to extend observations on (a) the enzyme
activity ; (b) the nuclear changes of cells governing this intense meta-
bolism. Of these I hope to give figures in September.

1908. HH

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

4.66

*SUOTSoa oMeSs 94} JO SUOTPVALOSGO “queyd puodes Y—’S ‘DI

9 £. o/ 6 SWE oly eA EG: 9 e c/

‘xipeds oy) Jo Surpey 09 (Suey ONBULST}S Jo
worsn1j01d) Saruedo wor oseyd ortque ey} Sutinp s2vbjna snpnounavagy JO dy xipeds puv [r0yM-sJayZUV ye somnyerodmoey— T “OI
‘srreq o1yeuISyys Jo uotsnajoid puv oyyeds yo Sutuado syreut »
‘qybIupibl ‘AeopiW
9 o/ wad g/ wae el 301

SenESPEaY

02

Aaeee is nanmale

| BEETS otk Riera 22

rele este VT ester y-23

SeUer a od apne |

garry eels lel
°

#LECTRICAL PHENOMENA AND METABOLISM OF ARUM SPADICES. 467

Coincidently with some electrical experimerits (not sufficiently repeated
for any definite result), Miss Kemp took observations of the temperature
changes in Dracunculus vulgaris at a more active and less active portion
of the spadix. The accompanying figures show the course of these
changes in two typical cases. Miss Kemp has succeeded in locating the
region of greatest heat rise to the anther-whorls and the short starchy
portion, beset with club-shaped guards, immediately below. The region of
the ovules is not involved, as I had previously imagined.

The plotted curves which I gave in my first communication to show
the relation between rise of temperature and evolution of CO, may con-
veniently be shown for comparison with those of D. vulgaris.

ec. CO.
rer minute
261 16
1-4
KZ
2/°

10

08

06

O/ 29456 7EP9lIOUI213 1415 16-1718
Hours.

Fi@4. 3.

Temperature curve of the spadix of Arwm italicwm from protrusion of stigmatic
hairs to commencement of fading. The vertical lines at a, 0, c indicate the CO,
production and O, absorption in cubic centimetres per minute. The change is
more rapid and greater in species like the present, where the rise of temperature
occurs in the spadix than it is in Dracwneulus, where the starchy contents of

- the spadix are much reduced, and the seat of change is the anther-whorl.

(a) Enzyme Activity.—As before stated, it has been impossible to
take any chemical analyses owing to the lack of material. Miss M. T.
Fraser, B.Sc., most kindly undertook this part of the inquiry. Her
detailed report waits, as experiments are still going on. She began by re-
peating Miss Kemp’s work of last year with slightly different conditions ;
: HH 2

468 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

the former results stand confirmed and some new points established,
so that we may sum up our present knowledge as follows: The

Hours.

Fia. 4. —Temperature curve T T T of Avwm maculatum. The vertical bars indicate
CO, production in cubic centimetres per minute.

active spadices of A. italicwm, A. crinoides, A. erinitum, and D. vulgaris
secrete a proteolytic enzyme or enzymes readily extracted in water,

ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA AND METABOLISM OF ARUM SPADICES. 469

comparable with trypsin in attacking proteids and peptones, but carrying
the process of splitting to a further stage in which tryptophane can no
longer be detected.

The proteids used were: The tissues of the plant itself (H. P. K.
and M. T. F.); Vermicelli (M. T. F.); Fibrin (H. P. K. and M. T. E.);
Barley (H. P. K.).

The enzymes will not attach themselves to the solid proteid par-
ticles, but remain in the solution (fibrin standing for some hours in
spadix extract and then washed remains unattacked.—H. P. K. and
M.T.F.). The use of a bottle-shaker, therefore, greatly accelerates the
action.

Miss Fraser has succeeded in showing the complete destruction of
tryptophane (in a pancreas digest) by the addition of spadix enzyme, the
boiled control giving at the same time a strong tryptophane reaction.
This point, which seemed so probable last year, it was chiefly desired to
establish.

Miss Fraser is still experimenting as to the splitting of sugars by
the plant enzymes. It may be remembered that the splitting of starch
was shown by all species investigated ; but the fact that we could not
ascertain which sugars resulted by any of the ordinary methods has sug-
gested this possible further stage on the carbohydrate side parallel to the
complete breaking down of the proteids.

(6) Nuclear Conditions.—The first point which attracted me to the
investigation of the aroid inflorescence was the idea that they would
probably show nuclear changes governing enzyme secretion similar to
those which Miss Huie found to exist in Drosera. I have fixed material
in some of the media advocated by Dr. Gustav Mann at different stages :
bud, hot-phase, fading-flower.

Paraffin sections stained by Mann’s methyl-blue-eosin method, or in
hematozylin-eosin, display a short mitotic phase (from generally dis-
tributed chromatin to chromosomes) accompanied by an inversion of ionic
conditions in A. dracunculus.

Notes by Miss Frasur, B.Sc.

I. Auto-digestion—Extract of spadix of Arwm dracunculus shows tryptophane,
which disappears after twelve hours—boiled control negative.

Extract of spadix of Avwm italicum gives starch disappearance in twelve hours
in unboiled solution after several days in boiled control.

Tryptophane never appears in extracts of stem and leaves.

Il. Miatures of Extracts of Spadices with various Substrates.—Extract of spadix
of Arwm crinitum with tryptophane solution gives disappearance of tryptophane
after four days in unboiled solution. Tryptophame still present in boiled after
fourteen days,

Spadix of Arwm dioscoridis spectabile after ten days gives disappearance of
tryptophane in unboiled extract.

Extract of spadix of Arwm dioscoridis spectabile with vermicelli gives trypto-
phane after a week—boiled control negative.

Extract of spadix of Arwm dracunculus with Witte'’s peptone gives tryptophane
after a week—boiled control negative.

Extract of spadix of Arwm dracunculus with fibrin gives tryptophane after
ten days.

Extracts with casein, gelatine, give negative results. Extracts of spadices of
Aurum crinitum, dracunculus, dioscoridis spectabile give no disappearance of sugar
after ten days in solutions of dextrose and maltose (5, 3, 2, and 0°5 per cent.), but
those experiments are still in progress.

4.70, REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

III. Decomposition Produets.—Quantity of material insufficient to isolate satis-
factorily any products of decomposition in malodorous spadices, but merely empirical
tests do not indicate the presence of indol and skatol. In the extract of mature

spadix of Avwm crinitum trimethylamine seems to be present, but the material was
too scanty for isolation.

V.B.—Chloroform was found to be quite useless as an antiseptic where the
experiments extended over many days.

Report of Miss Kemp on the Ocewrrence in certain Vegetable Tissues of a
Propagated Electrical Response to Stimulation.

The literature dealing with the question of conduction of stimuli in
plants has been admirably reviewed by Fitting,! who also gives a complete
bibliography.

Fitting is of opinion that propagation of an excitatory change in
response toa local stimulus occurs widely in plants and essentially in
cells with living contents, though whether such propagation takes place
by water movement on variations in the permeability of the cell mem-
branes and osmotic pressure, by changes of the gaseous pressure, or
by a more active metabolism of the individual cells remains problematic.
He divides the tissues through which transmission may occur into two
groups : (a) the living cells of the vascular bundles through which exci-
tation may be transmitted, even when the tissue is under the influence
of anesthetic drugs or excessive changes of temperature ; (d) the ‘ ground-
tissue,’ in which transmission is very dependent upon the condition of
the plant. He states that the propagated activity is associated with
galvanometric negativity, and gives as its speed in Biophytwm 10-20 mm.
per second.

The following observations have been carried out upon seedling plants
of mustard, pea, bean, and further upon adult petioles of maidenhair
fern. Electromotive variations have been taken as an index of the
excitatory changes occurring within the tissue, the latter being led off by
non-polarisable electrodes to a high-resistance galvanometer.

By using a double galvanometer circuit, with one instrument under
observation in the laboratory and the other in a neighbouring photographic
room, it was possible to record the variations obtained at the same time
diagrammatically and photographically. I have made upwards of 120
plotted observations and photographs, of which eleven have been selected
for representing the results in the present preliminary communication.

With the exception of a few cases where the nature of the stimulus
was mechanical the thermo-electric method of stimulation has been used.
By this method, in which a platinum wire previously fixed in position
close to or actually against the tissue is heated by closure of an electric
current, the objection of shifting contacts liable to occur with any
mechanical form of stimulation is obviated. In each case the plant
under observation was placed upon non-polarisable Jeading-off electrodes
with an intrapolar distance of about 1} cm., and the stimulation was
applied at points successively nearer to these electrodes. Under these
conditions responses of an apparently diphasic character have been
obtained at distances varying between 1-12 cm. from the point of
stimulation.

The resulting curves appear to afford evidence of the propagation

' Ergebnisse der Physiologie, vol. v. p. 155.

ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA AND METABOLISM OF ARUM SPADICES. 471

through the tissue of a wave of excitation initiated at the point of
stimulation and sweeping successively over the proximal and distal
leading-off electrodes.

Plates 1., Iv., XI. give typical records obtained with mustard, pea,
and maidenhair.

In the experiment with a mustard seedling shown in Plate 1. three
successive thermal stimuli were applied, at ten-minute intervals, to a
spot 3 cm. distant from the proximal leading-off electrode B. They
elicited three diphasic responses, of which the first and second are shown
in Plate 1. A fourth stimulus was almost and a fifth quite ineffectual ;
but on moving the exciting wire to a distance of 10 mm. from B an
explosive double response was obtained on heating, followed by complete
inertia (Plate 1a, not shown). The interpolar distance of the leading-off
electrodes was about 1 cm. The maximum value of the response was
7/100 volt.

Plate 1y. (pea seedling) shows two successive responses, of which the
second is monophasic of more than 5/100 voltage, at 1 cm., 2°5 cm.
distance respectively.

The value of 1/100 volt is augmented by about 55 per cent. at the
end of the experiment, showing that the electrical conductivity of the
tissue is increased.

Plates x1. and x1a show the curves obtained with an adult maidenhair
petiole.

In this experiment the first stimulation was given at a distance of
12 cm. from the proximal electrode B, and caused a double diphasic
response, the first phase of which was rapid, the second prolonged and
of rather more than 1/100 voltage. There was an apparent latency of
response of about 30 seconds. y

Second and third stimuli at 6 em. and 3 cm. elicited multiple responses
of considerable voltage.

At the end of the experiment the electrical conductivity of the tissue
was found to be increased by more than 100 per cent.

Plates vi. and 1x. show an experiment with a broad bean
seedling in which a mechanical stimulus—z.e., the squeezing down of the
stimulating wire on the tissue, so causing a slight flexion—proved con-
siderably more effective than the thermal. The first diphasic effect
(value over 2/100 volt) was in response to pressure at 8 cm. distance.
Heating at this point caused only a slight response in the anomalous
direction. The second monophasic effect resulted from pressure at 4 cm.
distance and showed a latency of about 20 seconds.

The interpretation .of these diphasic electromotive changes as
indicative of an actual wave of excitation passing along the tissue is
borne out by the fact that the second phase of the response—i.e., that of
negativity at the distal electrode A—may be obliterated by previously
injuring the tissue at that spot. Such injury may be produced either by
strong tetanisation or by a section.

Plate 1. records an experiment with mustard in which after distal
injury by section repeated monophasic deflections, indicative of galvano-
metric negativity of the uninjured spot, were obtained in response to
thermic stimulation.

_ The transmission of electrical change may also be blocked by teta-
nising a portion of the tissue intermediate between the leading-off
electrodes and the point of thermal stimulation. Although the electrical

472 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

conductivity of the tetanised portion is increased by about tenfold,
repeated stimuli on the further side of it produce no electromotive
variation at the leading-off electrodes, but become immediately effectual
on their application between the latter and the tetanised tissue.

That the excitatory change undergoes a considerable decrement
during its transmission is suggested by the facts that a stimulus of given
intensity and duration, ineffectual at a certain distance, may be effectual
if that distance is diminished; that a stimulus repeated at points
successively nearer to the leading-off electrodes elicits from a tissue in
optimum condition responses of successively higher voltage ; finally, that
a first diphasic effect may on repetition of the stimulus at the same or a
nearer point be followed, perhaps owing to fatigue of the tissue, by a
simple monophasic response, showing that the wave has not in this case
reached the distal electrode.

The present data are insufficient to determine the true nature of the
change, by transmission of which an electrical disturbance is set up at
points distant from that of the exciting stimulus. The question arises as
to whether it is physiological in nature or a purely physical process
independent of any activity of the living tissue as such. From the
succulent nature of the seedlings used in the greater number of the
experiments, as also from the fact that a thermal stimulus is almost
invariably effective where a mechanical stimulus generally fails to elicit
a response, it appears likely that the electrical variations observed may
be due to a movement of water through the tissue set up by the sudden
change of temperature. On the other hand, the remarkable response
obtained from the maidenhair petiole, which is a particularly dry and
juiceless tissue, can hardly be so explained. Again, that the transmission
is essentially a physiological process appears from the following con-
siderations :—

First, that in character and extent the propagation varies in accord-
ance with the general character of the tissue tested. In a comparison
of roots and shoots in the pea seedling a correspondence was found
of general sluggishness of response with limited propagation in the root
as compared with general excitability and extensive propagation in the
shoot.

Again, that a very slight etiolation or unhealthiness of a plant
destroys its power of propagating a stimulus, as seen with seedlings
grown in the laboratory—i.e., under bad conditions of nourishment and
light—with these tissues, the results obtained, though at first good, were
after continued growth consistently negative.

Again, that the tissue quickly fatigues unless in optimum condition,
as appears from the fact, noted above, that a first diaphasic may be
followed by a monophasic response, or in many cases by complete
inexcitability.

Finally, that on altering the state of the tissue in such a way as to
annul its power of response while at the same time greatly increasing its
electrical conductivity—e.g., by boiling or tetanising. No propagation of
an excitatory state can be obtained with strong and repeated stimuli.
Plate 11. records such an experiment.

The undifferentiated nature of some of the tissues used in these ex-
periments, together with the great sensitivity of the observed phenomena
to external conditions, would bring these phenomena under the head
of propagation by activity of the ‘ ground tissue,’ following Fitting’s

ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA AND METABOLISM OF ARUM SPADICES. 473

classification. The results obtained, as also consideration of the necessity
of postulating some means of interaction between the various parts of a
plant, enabling it to react as an organic whole to external and internal
stimuli—again, the existence of such adaptations to environmont as are
shown in the trophic reactions common to all plants, and in the rather
specialised cases of response to tactile stimuli in climbers—lead to the
conclusion that the power of propagating excitation, far from being
a rare and specialised phenomenon in vegetable tissues dependent on
special fibrillar structures, is innate in every normal cell, and occurs
freely wherever the protoplasmic continuity between cell and cell is at
all considerable.

Transmission in Plants.—Selected Photos.
PLATE T.

Se Pe Va Bhs sb ge ee

secon

tts . ad f
enorme ay
| \

Two successive ‘ diphasic’ responses to thermic excitation. Duration of double

phase = 2 min., distance = 3cm. The two interpolated smaller deflections are by
qi Volt sent to the preparation.

NV.B.—The reader is advised that the records are taken (and reproduced) so that
current from A to B gives deflection to the right, and current from B to A deflection
to the left, in accordance with the diagram given below Exp. 1.

The letter B on the photograph indicates that B is ‘ zincative’ ( = galvanometrically
negative to A). The letter A indicates that A is zincative to B. All other records
are taken on the same plan, i.e., deflection to the left indicates action at B, deflection
to the right action at AW—(A. D. W.)

47 4: REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

PLATE It.

y he

Experiment 2.—MMustard seedling (November 20, 1908).
(Transverse section at A.)

A B

Two successive ‘monophasic’ responses to thermic excitation. Duration of single
phase =nearly 2 min.

PLATE III.

. 1
- “000

L

‘Experiment 3.—Electrocuted mustard seedling (November 20, 1907).

No response to thermic stimulations at 1,2,and 3. The deflections at beginning
and end of experiment are by tooo VOlt—i.e., the resistance is lower than in Experi-
nent 1, where the interpolated detections are by =4, volt. “ae

ah

ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA AND METABOLISM OF ARUM SPADICES, A75

PLATE IV.

; noe” ae
f 2g Ae ea —a 10°
i 2 =e AS
| “t pos coment C!
f
| AN
| p > zs
| ig
| 54

Experiment 4.—Pea seedling (November 28, 1907). Diphasic and monophasic
responses to two successive excitations by heated platinum loop of wire.

Distance between leading-off electrodes equals about 15 cm., and the same
distance between excited and led-off regions.

Deflections at beginning and end of experiment are by 795 volt.

PLATE V.

Experiment 5.—Pea seedling (November 28, 1907). Doubtful diphasic response
to thermic excitation.

4.76 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

PLATE VI.
Resid Be ere ea UDR ed ea foe |
Pee Aopen
| @ ; |
|
|
fetes

Experiment 6.—Pea seedling (November 28, 1907).

Doubtful diphasic response to mechanical excitation by a scissors cut at 2°5 cm.
from the led-off region. The time interval between cut and response was estimated
at about 30 secs.

VOLT 005 «

PLATE VII.
re 1 i f we 9 = aby eat
ct ie Pb
= SOs a Se

ile CPA, 5 a
Time in 10 seconds in the vats.

Experiment 7.—Pea seedling (December 3, 1907).

Two successive monophasic responses to thermic stimulations, X’ and X’’ at
25 and 1 cm. respectively from the led-off region. The record shows the lost times
to be 5 secs, for X’ and 10 secs. for X'’, measured from the end of the bar signalling
the application of heat for 10secs. The result is anomalous, inasmuch as the shorter
distance is associated with the longer time and the greater response, and illustrates the
danger of accepting speed of transmission calculated from such data. In subsequent
experiments we used shorter periods (i.¢., 3 Sec.) of heating by stronger currents.

i el

“7a

ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA AND METABOLISM OF

ARUM SPADICES. 477

PLATE VIII.

ay [32v0ad Bian
: Sec /f ‘0?

~/O

__ 80

C3. j

Experiment 8.— Bean seedling (December 11, 1907).
‘ Diphasic’ response to mechanical excitation (compression) at a distance of 8 cm.

from the led-off region.

This plant gave no response to thermic excitation.

In the next experiment on the same plant mechanical excitation was followed by

a monophasic response.

PLATE IX.

1 Sec

PLATE X.

Experiment 9.—Same plant.

‘Monophasic’ response to mechanical
excitation 4 cm. from the led-off region.
At this distance thermic stimulation was
followed by a small response with an ap-
parent latency of 20 secs. This, if a true
instance of transmitted excitation, gives a
speed value of 2 mm. per second.

Experiment 10.—Bean seedling.

Electrometer record of the local re-
sponse to localised mechanical excita-
tion, by a blow from a lever fixed to an
electromagnet, the shadow of the lever
being cast on the same plate as that of
the electrometer so as to signal the
instant of excitation. The local response
exhibits no appreciable lost time.

SCIENCE.

STATE OF

THE

ON

REPORTS

478

*SMOI]B}IOXS PITY] puw puodes oY J0qye souRqINySTp JO

, wuI0}s, { APIATONpPUOD Jo TOTYeJUETASNe quoNbasqns { UOISSIUISUBIy JO aTIT] 4SO] aIIUYEp ! Suoy pue yroys ‘asuodser ,oiseydip, afqnop
{m0 ZI “ae ‘saporjoe[e YO-SUIpva, pUB oITM SUIZIOXS UsdMJeq soOUIsIP Jo Uosver Aq a[QvyIvUIEI IoYyZINZ sem quouNIodxe SIU,

‘puodes sed ‘tm F 0} [enba peeds v Surars ‘a'2—uo01ey10x9

jaqye ‘soos OG ynoqe SurouemuMmoo asuodser oisvydip (j) eiqnop ve Aq pamoT[oy “wd ZI JO soULISIP V Ye VOLIOXe OTMIIATY,

Oz-

‘DIX ALVY1d

‘ulaf dnyuapvou Jo aovyjag—T{ yasutedxy

Pea Oe meee ten OC Pas) me

<=

omen Zéi7]
~~

“a Zi J Pas
(o-bl7e@9y

RA pag ny

‘IX GLV1d

FATIGUE. A7TY

Fatigue. By Wituam McDovuaaL, M.A., MB.

[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.]

Tue study of fatigue must always be of the deepest interest from the
point of view of pure science, because in studying fatigue we are study-
ing the sources of human energies, the modes and conditions of their
operations, and, above all, their limitations. But the general speeding up
of life, which is the most striking characteristic of modern civilisation,
and which affects all classes at all ages from early childhood onwards,
is rendering the study of the problems of fatigue a matter of the most
urgent practical importance, aud the scientific world has not been slow
to recognise the fact.

The physiologists of the laboratory have studied fatigue in its most
elementary manifestations, in the various organs and tissues, and at its
ultimate and secret source, the cell. The psychologists have devoted
‘much ingenuity to the study of the experimentally induced fatigue of
the human organism as a whole, seeking specially to find means of
measuring the degrees of fatigue and their influence upon the efficiency
and the development of the various powers of mind and body. The
physicians have discovered in the chronic fatigues produced by modern
conditions of life the source of a large range of disorders which seem to
have been unknown to, or at any rate unrecognised by, our forefathers.
There is no ground on which the problems of mental and of bodily
processes are so intimately and inextricably bound up _ together.
There is no field of scientific research in which there is more need of
co-operation between the various classes of workers, the physiologists,
the medical men, the psychologists, and the sociologists ; there is no
biological problem in dealing with which it is more necessary to keep in
mind both the organ and the organism in all their aspects.

On an occasion of this kind it is, I think, proper that we should
attempt to effect some synthesis, some fruitful combination of the con-
clusions and the hypotheses indicated by the work done along these
different lines. I shall hope, therefore, for your indulgence if I venture
to offer you one or two speculative suggestions as contributions towards
such a synthesis, suggestions whose only justification must be the degree
of success with which they enable us to occupy the more comprehensive
view-point in face of the problems of fatigue.

Our English word ‘fatigue’ is a most comprehensive one. Wherever
there is evidence that organic activity results in diminished capacity of
the organism to carry on any of its functions, there we commonly
recognise fatigue.

Of all the manifestations of fatigue the most familiar are the subjective ;
of these subjective symptoms we must distinguish at least three classes :—

(1) Local sensations of fatigue, more especially in the muscles.

(2) The sense of feeling of general tiredness, of limpness, and general
incapacity for effort. :

(3) The experience we call sleepiness.

The first of these I want to dismiss with a single observation. You
may get this sensation of local fatigue in the acutest form by holding out
a limb—say the arm—for a few minutes against the pull of gravity.

480 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

After a few minutes you begin to experience in the muscles of the shoulder
a disagreeable sensation which grows rapidly more intense until, after
about five minutes, you feel that you can hardly support it. But, if you
persevere, you find that there is no impossibility about doing so ; the dis-
agreeable or painful sensation grows but little more intense, if at all ;
you may continue to hold out your arm, and after half an hour there
will be little more discomfort than after five minutes.

Put alongside that the fact that most good hypnotic subjects will in
hypnosis keep a limb held up against the force of gravity for long
periods without showing any tendency to relax it, or any other symptom
of fatigue.

Facts of this order seem to show clearly that such local fatigue-
sensation is protective in function ; that it sets in long before there is
any question of exhaustion of, or serious injury to, the tissues concerned
through over-action. They show that the organism has need of some
protection against the possibility of self-injury through excess of activity.

And this conclusion may serve to direct our attention to the possi-
bility of a similar function being performed by other manifestations of
fatigue.

In connection with the other two classes of subjective symptoms—
tiredness and sleepiness, I would draw your attention to certain ex-
periences of a kind that are probably familiar to all of you.

I sit reading in the evening some difficult technical work until, as mid-
night approaches, I feel thoroughly tired and sleepy, my eyes smart and
will hardly keep open, my head is dull and heavy and aches a little, my
whole body and my limbs feel heavy and incapable of alert movement.
T then take up some thrilling story or other fascinating piece of literature ;
whereupon all my subjective symptoms of fatigue, both tiredness and
sleepiness, disappear, and I read keenly for perhaps two hours, when I
again begin to feel both tired and sleepy. Now suppose a continuation of
the evening’s history which is less familiar : some exciting event takes
place just as I am about to go to bed—the house takes fire or a burglar
breaks in, or a friend comes in with important and interesting news
that demands immediate action. Again all the symptoms of fatigue
disappear, and I can perform another spell of work at high pressure and
without objective symptoms, and with little if any objective trace of
fatigue—.e., without appreciable diminution of efficiency.

Facts of this order show, I think, clearly that what we commonly
call fatigue, with all its diverse symptoms, objective and subjective, is no
entity, that it is not due to any one kind of change in the organism ;
and they show that fatigue is never absolute, but is always relative. That
is to say, the symptoms of fatigue are always the expression of the
relation between at least two things—between, on the one hand, the work
to be done, and, on the other hand, the amount of energy available at the
moment for doing the work ; or, in more technical language, the symptoms
of fatigue are the expression of a change in the ratio between the
available energy (the energy in an active, living state at the moment)
and the resistance which that energy has to overcome. If the task
in hand is intrinsically uninteresting, the energies brought into play,
liberated within the organism, or transformed from the potential to the
active state, are small in quantity ; therefore a small amount of work,
producing a small increase of the resistances to be overcome, suffices to
raise the ratio of resistances to energies above the normal, and therefore

FATIGUE. 481

to produce the symptoms of fatigue ; whereas if the circumstances are
such as to bring into play greater stores of the potential energy of
the organism, a much greater amount of work may be produced by
the organism (whether bodily or mental work) before the ratio of the
resistance to the available energy rises to the point at which symptoms of
fatigue appear.

Reflection upon these familiar experiences yields then the two pro-
positions on which I invite you especially to concentrate your attention,
because I believe they may be the two master-keys to all the problems of
fatigue—at any rate to those of fatigue of the nervous system. They
may be briefly stated as follows :—

(1) Fatigue of the nervous system is a state in which the ratio of the
resistances to the active energies is raised above its normal value, either
through increase of the magnitude of the resistances or through diminu-
tion of the quantity of disposable energy.

(2) The function of the resistances is essentially the limitation of
activity ; they are thus protective of the energy of the organism ; they
prevent the organism exhausting its store of potential energy through
unduly prolonged, intense, or widespread activity.

If these propositions are well founded we must, in order to under-
stand fatigue, have good working conceptions on the one hand of the
sources of the energies concerned and of the conditions and nature
of their operations in the nervous system, and on the other hand of
the nature and seat of the resistances that limit and preserve these
energies.

It has recently been contended, notably by Bethe! in Germany and
by Deschamps ? in France, that the nervous system is not the seat of the
liberation of any energy, or at any rate that such liberation is no part of
its specific functions, but that it merely distributes the active energies
supplied to it by stimuli of all kinds and by the various organs of the
body. I think most of you will agree with me in holding that this view
is quite unacceptable, and that the activity of the central nervous system
does essentially and always involve liberation of energy, transformation
of energy from the potential to the active form, and a consumption or
using up of stores of potential energy. Verworn,? who has made him-
self the protagonist of this view, seems to me to have proved it by his
own experiments and those of his pupils, although, even without these
particular experimental results, there was hardly room for doubt about
the matter. Further, Verworn’s experiments on the spinal cords of
frogs confirm the view (about which also there was little room for doubt
apart from these experiments) that fatigue may be produced by either
of two processes, and that it commonly is produced by their conjunction,
namely (1) the process of accumulation of waste products of metabolism,
CO,, lactic acid and other substances; (2) the using up of stores of
potential energy through excess of katabolism over anabolism. ‘I'he
former is called by the Germans ‘ Ermiidung,’ the latter ‘ Erschéptung,’
and some English writers have proposed to use the words fatigue and
exhaustion in these two senses, as the equivalents of these German words.

' «Zur Theorie der Zentrenfunktion.’ Hrgebnisse der Physiclogie, Ba. v.
* Les Maladies de V Energie, Paris, 1908.
* «Die Vorgiinge in den Elementen des Nervensystems.’ Zeitsch. f. Allgemeine
Physiologie, Ba. vi.
8. FY

4.82 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

I do not think we can profitably specialise these words in this way ;! but
if not we must have new words, for there can be little doubt that both
processes take part in the production of fatigue, and we must distinguish
between them and hold fast the two conceptions.

The question then arises, What are the seats within the nervous
system of these two processes, ‘ Erschépfung’ and ‘Ermiidung’? Verworn’s
view may perhaps claim the adherence of a larger number of physiologists
than any other. It is very simple. According to this view, the cell-
bodies, or ‘ ganglion cells,’ are the seats, or at least the principal seats, of
both processes, and both result in a diminished katabolism and output of
energy by the cell-body. ‘ Erschépfung’ is thus, according to this view,
a strictly local process, affecting only the bodies of the nerve-cells involved
in any activity ; while ‘ Ermiidung’ is both local and general, because the
cell-body is liable to be poisoned not only by the waste products of its
own activity, but also by those of the metabolism of other nerve-cells and
of other tissues of all parts of the body, especially the muscular tissues ;
for these waste products, wherever formed, may pass into the blood and
lymph and so may reach the ‘ ganglion cells.’

Now I venture to say that this picture of the nature of fatigue of the
nervous system is very much too simple ; the conceptions are, I contend,
true and useful, but inadequate to the explanation of the complex mani-
festations of fatigue which meet us as soon as we consider the organism
as a whole ; and they are inadequate also for the explanation of many of
the special and local manifestations of fatigue.

The picture needs, it seems to me, to be complicated by two most
important additions. First, Verworn’s scheme takes little or no account
of the resistances that the nervous energies have to overcome. Now if
with him we regard the cells as seats of explosive decompositions and the
nerve-fibres as freely conducting excitations, either as purely physical pro-
cesses or, with more probability, as physico-chemical processes involving
metabolic changes similar to those that occur in the cell-bodies, then it
is obvious that there must be points or parts of the nervous tracts which
delimit functional units and groups of units ; else, instead of the orderly
sequence of nervous excitations which normally follow upon any stimula-
tion, the excitation would spread indefinitely throughout the nervous
system, soon producing inco-ordinate general activity and a rapidly
ensuing general exhaustion ; in the way the results of which we see in
the convulsions of strychnine poisoning.

Nowthe question, Where, in what structures, do these vesistanzes reside }
is one of secondary importance perhaps, so long as we recoguise their nature
and function. Still, it is a question of some interest. In a recent paper
Verworn recognises the existence of resistances and assigns them, like all
the other peculiarities of the central nervous system, to the cell-bodies.?
To that view serious objections may be raised. To mention only one,
it is difficult to suppose that the cell-bodies are the seats both of explosive
decompositions which liberate energy and also of the resistances which
delimit the paths by which the excitation spreads towards the different

' Because we need the word ‘ fatigue’ to denote the state of diminished efficiency
of the organism as a whole commonly produced by these two processes in con-
junction, and we need the word ‘exhaustion’ to denote the extreme degrees of the
state resulting from excess of metabolism over anabolism.

* «Die Cellularphysiologische Grundlage des Gedichtnisses,’ Zeitsch. f. Allgemeine
Physiologie, Ba. vi.

FATIGUE. 483

nerves. On the other hand, there are many considerations tending to
show that the principal seats of these resistances may be the synapses or
places of junction of the neurones. I have not time to attempt to display
the strength of the grounds of this assumption, and most of you are
familiar with theim.'

If we assume that the synapses are the seats of the resistance, and
that the process of transmission of the impulse across the synapse is one
that is very liable to result in a raising of the resistance of the synapses,
then we have a conception which enables us to account satisfactorily for
many manifestations of fatigue. I will point out a few of the facts which
seem to point to the synapse rather than to the cell-bodies as the principal
seats of the increased resistance. It has long been notorious that nerve-
fibres are but little, if at all, liable to fatigue ; and there is good reason
to believe that the cell-bodies also are fatigued, not easily or rapidly, but
only under prolonged activity or when deprived of the normal means of
recuperation—deprived, that is, of the normal blood-supply. Yet we
have evidence that local fatigue may be rapidly induced, and may as
rapidly pass away, in the various levels of the nervous system.

Such local fatigue occurs in the reflected ares of the spinal cord if
a stimulus is continuously applied to the afferent path.? It occurs in
the motor region of the cerebral cortex if one spot be continuously or
repeatedly stimulated.? It occurs still more readily in the higher levels
of the brain concerned in perception—e.g., in all the cases of ambiguous
figures which may be perceptually interpreted in two or more different
ways, and of which the different modes thrust themselves alternately
upon consciousness. I have studied these alternations and shown reason
to suppose that a rapidly induced local fatigue of the higher cortical
paths concerned is the principal condition of this alternating activity.*
In the same way the extreme liability to fatigue of the paths of the
higher cortical levels seems to underlie the extreme instability of all our
thought processes ; the fact that our attention can never be held fixedly
and unchangingly upon any single feature of an object, but always, in

1 See especially Professor Sherrington’s Integrative Action of the Nervous System,
Lecture I, In spite of all that has been written of the synapse in recent years, one
still finds widely accepted the following argument: The nervous system consists
of cell-bodies and nerve-fibres, therefore all those of its properties that are not
displayed by peripheral nerves are due to the cell-bodies. Verworn himself still
uses this argument, and so little is the conception of the synapse understood that
Verworn, in a recent paper, interprets Sherrington as meaning by the term ‘synapse’
the place of junction of the axis cylinder and the cell-body of a single neurone.
That, I take it, is implied when he writes, ‘ Goldscheider und Sherrington denken
an die Uebergangstelle des Nerven in den Ganglionzellkorper, an die “ Synapse,” wie
Sherrington sich ausdriickt’ (op. cit., p. 134), Sherrington inclines to the view that
the process of transmission of the excitation across the synapse is a purely physical
one (op. cit., p. 17); but if, as he also inclines to believe, it is a process very
readily affected by the presence of toxic substances in the blood, and if it has the
effect of immediately and temporarily raising the synaptic resistance (fatigue), and
of ultimately leaving it (when the fatigue effect has passed away) permanently
diminished (habit), these effects would seem to demand for their-explanation the
assumption of some metabolic activity at the synapse. In a paper in Brain
(vol. xxiv.) I have adduced other arguments in support of the assumption of
intercellular substances, the seats of synaptic metabolism of a highly specialised kind.

2 Sherrington, op. cit., p. 214.

3 A. G. Levy, ‘An Attempt to Estimate Fatigue of the Cerebral Cortex,’ Journ.
of Physiol., vol. xxvi.

4 «Physiological Factors of the Attention-process,’ Mind, N.S., vol, xv. p. 340.

112

484: REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

spite of all voluntary efforts to the contrary, passes on from feature to
feature or plays to and fro over the object of thought.

In all these cases we seem to be dealing with a rise of the resistance
of a nervous path rapidly induced by its activity and as rapidly passing
away ; a rise of resistance which serves to divert the excitation process
from the path to some other channel, and so to prevent the injurious
effects of a too-prolonged activity of any one path.

These are manifestations of local fatigue, of increase of the ratio of
resistance to energy, induced not by diminution of energy, but by increase
of strictly local resistance.

Again, experiments with the ergograph have been used much in the study
of fatigue, but one very interesting feature of such experiments has been
unduly neglected I think. I draw your attention to it in this connection,
because it seems to bear out the view I am setting forth.

The subject of the experiment has to lift a heavy weight repeatedly at
brief intervals, by bending as far as he can his middle finger. Fatigue
very soon manifests itself in the form of a diminished extent of the bend-
ings of the finger. Now if you carefully observe the subject as he con-
tinues to repeat his efforts, you will usually see that, while at first he
contracts only the muscles immediately concerned in the flexion of the
finger, other muscles come into play as the flexions become diminished in
extent ; first the muscles of the upper arm, then those of the shoulder,
then those of the trunk, still later the muscles of the lower limbs and of
the arm and shoulder of the opposite side, and even those of the face, jaw,
and neck on both sides. There takes place, in short, a spread or march of
the excitation (not unlike the march of Jacksonian epilepsy) from the
motor tract directly concerned in producing the flexion of the finger to
adjacent motor tracts, then to successively more distant tracts.

Now this is just what must occur if, while the supply of liberated
nervous energy is maintained at a high level of potential, and while the
subject continues to direct it towards the one set of muscles, the resist-
ances of the paths through which the excitation reaches the muscles are
liable to be rapidly raised owing to the intensity of the process and to its
repetition at brief intervals. The excitation will overflow, first into the
most nearly connected tracts ; later into those successively more remote,
as the resistances of the more nearly connected tracts become in turn
increased.

A very brief rest suffices to abolish, or to diminish in very large
degree, any fatigue symptoms induced by ergographic work ; and if in
the ergographic experiments the intervals between successive bendings of
the finger are made equal to several seconds, the evidences of fatigue are
much diminished.

We have then abundant evidence of the rapid production of local
increase of resistance in the central nervous system ; and all that we know
of the cell-bodies and of the axis cylinders makes it improbable that they
can be the seats of these rapidly induced and. very transitory local
increases of resistance. Further, the fact that these local increases of
resistance seem to be most rapidly induced in the higher levels of the
central nervous system, where the connections between neurones must be
regarded as least intimate and fixed, and to be least rapidly induced in
the reflex arcs of the spinal cord, where the connections between afferent and
efferent neurones are most firmly established, is in harmony with the view
Tam defending and seems unintelligible if the alternative view be adopted.

FATIGUE. 485

It seems probable that the resistance of the synapses is liable to be
temporarily increased not only locally by the transmission of the nervous
excitation across them, but also generally by the influence of the waste
products of metabolism brought to them in the blood ; that they are, in
short, very subject to chemical influences of many kinds.!

Tf so, then such action of waste products upon them must play a large
part in that general increase of the ratio of resistance to energy which
constitutes general fatigue, and which manifests itself subjectively in
general tiredness and in sleepiness; and also in the onset of sleep or
general quiescence of the brain, the most important of the modes in which
the organism protects itself against exhaustion.

If we provisionally accept this view, that the synapses are the prin-
cipal seats of resistance, and that their resistances are liable to be thus
increased both locally and generally, then the simple picture of fatigue
which I have associated with the name of Professor Verworn becomes
considerably complicated. In addition to local ‘ Erschépfung’ of the
neurones, and to local and general ‘ Ermiidung’ of them by waste products,
the former of which means local, and the latter both local and general,
diminution of energy supply, we recognise local and general increase of
synaptic resistances. We have then, I think, a scheme much less in-
adequate to the explanation of those familiar and important peculiarities
of fatigue to which I drew your attention in my opening remarks.

But I said there were two complications to be added to the simple
Verworn picture. We have added the resistances varying from local and
from general causes. The second complication concerns the sources of
the energies involved in bodily and mental activity.

According to the Verworn scheme every cell-body is, I take it, to be
conceived as capable of generating or transforming or liberating a certain
quantity of energy, which, up to a certain upper limit, varies with the
intensity of the stimulus applied to the cell; and this energy is to be
regarded as finding its field of operation wholly within the neurone or the
particular small functional group of neurones within which it is liberated ;
and all neurones are of appreciably equal value in this respect.

But there is another conception of the mode of operation of nervous
energy which goes back at least as far as Descartes; the conception—
namely, that the energy liberated by chemical change, by katabolic
process, in one part of the nervous system may be conducted through the
nervous channels and may operate in other parts of the nervous system.
This may be called the hypothesis of the vicarious usage of nervous energy.
Now it seems impossible to get the physiologists of the laboratory, the
physiologists who are chiefly concerned with the organs rather than with
the organism, to consider this conception seriously and on its merits. If
they occasionally refer to it, it is only to put it aside contemptuously
as a naive survival from the dark ages. Yet those who are in the habit
of dealing with the problems of the organism as a whole, the physician
and the psychologist, constantly make use of this conception, for they find
it impossible to make progress in the understanding of their problems
without it.? That fact gives the conception a claim to a more serious
consideration than it has commonly received from the physiologists.

1 There is something to be said for the view that they are the seats of the primary
and principal influence of various drugs, possibly of alcohol, chloroform, strychnine,
and others.

* The necessity of conceiving nervous energy in this way was urged as long ago

486 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

The conception towards which the study of the organism as a whole
points is that the neurones of the afferent side of the nervous system
(including the cerebellum) constitute a great common reservoir of free
energy, in which the head of pressure varies from moment to moment with
the ratio of the in-flow to the out-flow, and on which all efferent paths
may draw in turn when they come into activity.

As to the sources from which this reservoir of free energy is supplied,
no doubt every one of its constituent neurones is capable of making its
contribution, and especially all those directly connected with, and stimu-
lated through, the sense-organs.

But we shall never understand the problems of fatigue, or any other
of the great problems of the brain, until we adequately recognise certain
special sources of supply. And the study of fatigue serves to bring into
prominence the importance of these special sources of energy.

In psychology we speak of instincts or innate dispositions to action,
and we recognise that the constitution of every human being comprises
a certain number of such instinctive dispositions, and that when any one
of these is awakened, whether by sense-impression or idea, the subject
experiences a state of emotional excitement, and an impulse, a desire or
aversion, a strong conation or felt tendency towards some kind of action.
We recognise that under the driving power of such an impulse the subject
can achieve tasks, can put forth quantities of energy, such as are
impossible for him in the absence of any such conative-affective excite-
ment.!

It is for the physiologist to discover if possible the neural seats and
bases of these innate dispositions. Recent work by Pagano seems to
indicate that they may perhaps be found in the basal ganglio of the
brain.?

But however that may be, it seems safe to assume that these powerful
impulses, which we experience in conjunction with our emotional excite-
ments, and which enable us to energise in a way quite impossible in
their absence, have nervous correlates, and that the physiological correlate
of such an impulse is a great liberation of energy in some centre or part
of the central nervous system, which energy augmenting greatly the
disposable free energy of the brain, can be utilised in the performance of
any kind of action undertaken for securing the satisfaction of the im-
pulse ; and it seems that such an accession of energy can overcome the
increased resistances obtaining in a state of moderate general fatigue,
abolishing more or less completely in so doing both the objective and the
subjective symptoms of fatigue, because the great accession of energy
lowers the ratio of resistance to energy.

It is the possibility of these sudden accessions of energy that has
rendered well nigh futile all the many attempts hitherto made to obtain
reliable objective measures of degrees of fatigue of the organism as a

as 1886 by Dr. Hale White (Zancet, vol. ii. 1886, p. 161; see also Brit. Med. Journ.,
October 17, 1908), who proposed to use the word ‘ neurorrheuma’ to denote nervous
energy so conceived. Among many others who have approved of this conception
are Sir Victor Horsley (Hughling’s Jackson Lecture, Brain, vol. xxix. p. 448)
and Dr. 8. G. Sharkey (Presidential Address to the Neurological Society, Brain,
vol, xxvii. p. 12).

For a fuller discussion of the éle of these innate dispositions in the maintenance
of human activities, I may refer to my Introduction to Social Psuchology.

? Archives Ttaliennes de Bivlogie, 1906.

FATIGUE. 487

whole.! Dr. Rivers? has recently shown how great a disturbing factor
in ergographic work is ‘interest,’ and the awakening of interest on the
part of the subject means essentially the bringing into play of one or
more of these special sources of energy.

Again, in such fatigue experiments as those of the Kraepelin school,
the fatigue effects are constantly complicated, obscured, and rendered
doubtful by variations of interest or of impulse which show themselves in
spurts of all sorts.*

It is only when we take into account these special sources of energy
that we can begin to understand the way in which, under circumstances
that powerfully evoke our native impulses, we can execute without
fatigue tasks which in less favourable circumstances would render us
prostrate with every symptom of fatigue.

Professor James, in a recent lecture entitled the ‘ Energies of Men,’ !
has dealt, in his brilliant way, with this aspect of our problem ; he
brought forward many examples of the way in which, under conditions
suited to bring their powers most fully into play and to sustain their interest
at a maximum, men may achieve incredibly severe and sustained efforts.
He quoted especially the case of Colonel Baird Smith, who conducted the
siege operations before Delhi during the Sepoy Mutiny ; showing how
for months he hardly ate or slept, or rested in any way, but worked
almost continuously at tremendous pressure without showing or feeling
fatigue, and how then, when the end came, and the circumstances ceased
to demand and excite his efforts, he collapsed an inert, emaciated, almost
lifeless invalid.

Such cases illustrate again my main point—namely, that fatigue is
relative, is the expression of a rise of the ratio between resistances and
energies, and how, if the conditions are such as effectively to call into
play all the great special sources of energy, this ratio may be kept from
rising above the normal, until the whole organism approaches absolute
exhaustion ; whereas, on the other hand, under conditions of boredom,
the ratio is very readily raised above the normal.

If, then, there is any truth in what I have said of these sources
of energy and of the vicarious usage of energy, it follows that we have
to recognise as a second condition of general fatigue, in addition to the
presence of products, of metabolism in the blood, a diminution of the
disposable energy, due to a diminished metabolism of the neurones
in general, and of these special sources of energy in particular, and the

1 MM. Binet and Henri have shown the inadequacy of the various methods em-
ployed previous to the date of publication of their work—ZLa Fatigue Intellectuelle
(1898) ; and in a recent critical study of the principal methods Messrs, Ellis and Shipe
(American: Journ. of Psychology) have arrived at the conclusion that none of those
investigated by them are reliable.

2 «The Influence of Alcohol and other Drugs on Fatigue.’ London, 1908.

3 The Kraepelin methods, I may remark in passing, seek to avoid these disturb-
ances by keeping interest at a minimum. But the human subject is not easily kept
in such a state; he will become interested if only in the approaching end of his task,
and hence great irregularities. In view of these difficulties I have suggested a
method of estimating fatigue, which follows the opposite principle and seeks to keep
interest at a maximum throughout, the task set being of the nature of a sprint ; and
I venture to think that this is the sounder and more hopeful principle to follow ;
see ‘A New Method for the Study of Concurrent Mental Operations and of Mental
Fatigue’ (Brit. Journ. of Psychology, vol. i.).

* Philosophical Review, 1907.

488 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

possibility of general fatigue of this nature is, I think, especially important
from the point of view of the physician.

The long continuance of the chronic fatigues with which the physician
so often has to dea] seems to show that, in many cases at least, these are
not toxic fatigues (the only kind of general fatigue admissible under the
too simple Verworn scheme). They seem to imply the exhaustion of some
of the sources of energy, which rendering the maintenance of a due
general pressure or potential of free energy ; impossible, keeps the ratio of
resistance to energy high in all parts of the nervous system.

I have already kept you too long, but I should like, greatly daring, to
suggest how the conception of fatigue as an increased ratio of resistance
to energy may possibly help us in arriving at an understanding of some
nervous disorders.

A due balance between resistances and energies is essential to health,
and it seems possible @ priori that the balance may be disturbed by
disorder primarily affecting either factor.

Suppose that, as an innate constitutional peculiarity, the resistances
are deficient relatively to the energies in an otherwise normal or well-
endowed brain ; we should expect to see the possessor of such a brain
an excitable sensitive person who, the great protective system being
deficient, easily works himself to the point of exhaustion ; exhaustion
rather than fatigue will be his peculiarity. He is readily provoked to a
great and rapid output of energy, and his brain does not easily return to
rest ; general excitement is slow to die away, and he finds difficulty in
sleeping after any effort, for the condition of increased and predominant
resistance is not easily attained ; the system remains uselessly at work and
wears itself out; there follows exhaustion secondarily developed, owing
to the deficiency of the protective system of resistances. We should then
get the typical picture of the hereditary or born neurasthenic ; the dis-
order is brought on by any strenuous course of life, and its early stages
are characterised by hyperesthesias of all sorts, undue sensitiveness
to all sense-impressions, general irritability or irritable weakness, in-
somnia, increased reflexes ; the patient may have the power of working
sometimes extremely effectively for a short time, but such work soon
leads to exhaustion and leaves the patient incapable for a long time of
again getting up a sufficient head of nervous pressure to renew his
labours. It is, I think, in harmony with this view that some of our most
brilliant and original intellects have shown marked neurasthenic tendency
e.g. Charles Darwin and Herbert Spencer.

The neurasthenia induced by shocks—e.g., the mental and physical
shocks of a railway accident—may possibly be brought into line by the
supposition that the brief and general overstimulation of the nervous
system, which was too sudden to allow the increase of resistances to play
their normal protective part, has more or less paralysed the synaptic
process, so that they no longer are capable of building up and maintaining
the due resistances, and again irritable weakness dominates the scene.

In this way it seems to me we may perhaps account for the para-
doxical character of neurasthenia, for its combination of excess and
defect of energy, the difficulty of getting up steam, the easy and rapid
running down of the effort, if an effort is successfully initiated.

There is another creat type of functional disease—/ysteria, so like
and yet so different from neurasthenia, which seems to be also a form of
chronic fatigue.

I ll i ee ea eee

FATIGUE. 4.89

Here possibly the primary evil isa constitutional defect of the energies
relatively to the normal resistances. Such relative defect is apt to be
brought to light by any course of life that makes considerable demands
on the nervous energies, and shows itself in the failure to maintain the
unitary functioning of all the many neural systems and sub-systems that
make up the brain. The systems tend to become functionally separated from
one another, because the supply of energy is insufficient to overcome the
resistances of the highest levels of the brain and to keep open the con-
necting channels ; hence each neural system tends to function inde-
pendently of the rest, and each, being removed from the reciprocal
control and inhibition normally exerted by all the rest, may function in
excess, or, on the other hand, may lie dormant. Hence we get the
curious pictures of overactions combined with partial defects of action,
of hyperxsthesia with anesthesia, of local contracture and paralysis, of
incapacity for effort and violent convulsions, of fixed ideas and of easily
changed convictions, of extreme suggestibility and extreme obstinacy.
And in extreme cases we get the falling asunder of the neural basis
of unitary personality into two or more functional systems, each of which
becomes more or less fixed in its isolation ; and we thus get the most
strange of all the functional disorders—the cases of divided or muitiple
personality.

Body Metabolism in Cancer.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor C. S. SHERRINGTON (Chairman) and Dr. 8. M. Copeman
(Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

THE report now submitted has reference to a continuation of work
on the chemical constitution of the gastric secretion in cancer, of which
a preliminary account was communicated to this Section at the last
annual meeting.

Professor Benjamin Moore and his colleagues had published in the
‘Proceedings of the Royal Society’ the account of an investigation
dealing with this question in the human subject, in which they set out
reasons for their conclusion that the amount of free HCl in the gastric
secretion of patients suffering from cancer, in situations other than the
stomach, was invariably diminished or might even be absent altogether.

In view of the results obtained by these observers it was decided,
thanks to the cordial co-operation of Dr. Bashford, the Director of the
Imperial Cancer Research Fund Laboratories, to make use of the large
amount of material at the disposal of that fund for the purpose of deter-
mining, with other constituents, the relative amount of physiologically
active HCl in the stomach contents of mice suffering from transplanted
and from ‘spontaneous’ cancer ; controlling the results by examination
of normal mice under identical conditions of feeding and period of
digestion.

The experiments of which this report forms a brief summary were
commenced in December 1905, and have been continued up to the end
of June in the present year. A detailed account of the work will appear
in the forthcoming number of the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society.’

It should be premised that under the term ‘physiologically active

4.90 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

hydrochloric acid’ is included both the free acid and that combined with
proteids and nitrogenous organic bases. Much misconception has arisen
in the use of the terms ‘free’ and ‘ combined’ as applied to HCl in the
gastric contents ; but inasmuch as the latter may have been ‘ free’ a short
time previous to its estimation, the exclusive determination of ‘free’ HCl
alone cannot but lead to fallacious conclusions. The method adopted,
after careful consideration, for the estimation of the physiologically active
HCI is based on Luttke’s modification of Volhard’s volumetric estimation
of chlorides by precipitation with excess of standard silver nitrate solution
in the presence of free nitric acid, and subsequent determination of the
excess of silver nitrate by standard ammonium thiocyanate, using iron-
alum as indicator.

By estimating (a) the total chlorides and (6) the inorganic chlorides
in an aqueous solution of the gastric contents, by this method, the physio-
logically active HCl (a—b) is obtained. A further determination (c) of
the total acidity with standard sodium hydrate, using phenolphthalein as
an indicator, gives, in addition, the free organic acids |c —(a—6)] in terms
of hydrochloric acid.

It did not, at first, seem feasible to determine these constituents of
the gastric contents in single stomachs, owing to their small weight
(frequently not exceeding 0°5 gramme), and therefore estimations were
made, in the earlier experiments, on batches of stomachs varying in
number from six to sixty.
el ae

- 50 100
and slightly varying the details of the method, it proved possible to
make the estimations, with accuracy and comparative ease, with single
stomachs.

In the first five series of experiments no account was taken of the
period of digestion, the mice being simply removed from their cages
while feeding. Under these conditions the results obtained somewhat
unexpectedly indicated an increase in the secretion of physiologically
active HCl in mice with transplanted tumours as compared with normal
mice, the average amounts of HCl being 0°1752 per cent. and 0:1121 per
cent. on 178 mice and 150 mice respectively.

Next, a number of experiments were made to determine, if possible,
the usual period of digestion for normal mice ; but the results obtained
after periods of half an hour, one hour, and one hour and a half respec-
tively showed that while, on the whole, more mice attained a maximum
secretion of HCl in one and a half hours, many attained a maximum at
one hour, and some even at half an hour. Parallel experiments were
made with mice with transplanted tumours for the same period of diges-
tion. Similar variations were found, for these periods, to those observed
in normal mice, but with a general tendency to increase of HCl.

Summarising the results obtained in the experiments relating to
definite periods of digestion, the examination of 245 stomachs from
normal mice gave an average of 0:1456 per cent. ; and of 290 stomachs
from mice with transplanted tumours, 0:1673 per cent., for periods of one
hour’s digestion. ’

Thirteen single rat stomachs, weighing with contents from 2-5 to
10 grammes, were also examined. Six of these were from normal rats
and seven from rats with transplanted tumours, the tumours varying in
weight from 0°3 to 15 grammes, The former gave an average of 0:1427

Later, by usin standard solutions in place of = solutions

ON BODY METABOLISM IN CANCER. 4.91

per cent. HCl after one hour’s digestion, while the latter gave an average
of 01837 per cent. after the same period.

We have also had the special opportunity of examining fifteen single
stomachs from mice with spontaneous tumours, which showed an average
of 0:1929 per cent. HCl, also after one hour’s digestion.

Hence, comparing the secretion of HCl during definite and indefinite
periods of digestion in the stomachs of normal and ‘cancer’ mice, we
found practically the same range of variations throughout, brat with a
general tendency towards increase of HCl in the case of ‘cancer’
mice.

The total number of experiments wide from which the averages
referred to have been deduced, was about 150, involving from four to six
estimations in each experiment.

These results are interesting not only as indicating that, chemically, the
digestive process in mice is largely comparable with that in the human
subject, but as confirming, and to some extent explaining, the observation
made by Dr. Bashford in 1905 as to the general absence of cachexia in
mice suffering from cancer.

Now, inasmuch as recent extensive statistics collected by Dr. Bashford
from the various London hospitals have shown that cachexia, contrary
to the general belief, is not a constant accompaniment of cancer in man,
we might expect to find, in its absence, the same compensating influence
as regards increased secretion of HCl in human beings afflicted with this
disease.

As regards this point, however, so far as indicated by recent investi-
gations, to which reference has previously been made, the opinion is
prevalent that the reverse obtains ; Moore, Palmer, and others having,
indeed, asserted that there is a marked diminution or even an absence of
HCl in the gastric secretion in malignant disease of organs other than
the stomach.

These conclusions, however, have been mainly based on a determina-
tion of ‘free’ HCl only, in the fluid withdrawn from the stomach after
the administration of so-called ‘test meals’; but, as we have indicated,
such estimations alone may easily lead to fallacious conclusions.

We felt that, inasmuch as our determinations of physiologically active
HCl in the gastric contents of mice seemed to be in contradiction to
results obtained in man as regards ‘ free’ HCl, it was obviously necessary
to repeat Moore’s work, and at the same time, for purposes of comparison,
to carry out a parallel series of estimations, by the same method that he
had employed, in the work on mice. Examination was therefore made of
the gastric secretion in the human subject as represented by the fluid
withdrawn one hour after administration of a ‘test meal’ to patients
suffering from cancer, which material we have been able to obtain through
the courtesy of the surgeons to the Cancer, Middlesex, and Westminster
Hospitals. Estimations were made both of the physiologically active
hydrochloric acid by Volhard’s method, as already described, and also, for
comparison, of the free HCl by the inversion of methy]-acetate—the
method employed by Moore and others.

_ Summarising these experiments, it was found that the estimations of
free HCl more or less agreed with those of Moore in his later experiments,
published in the ‘ Bio- Chemical Journal’ (vol. i. p. 274), where he states
the average of thirteen cases of cancer as 0:0515 per cent. ; our average,
also for a series of thirteen cases, being 0-0407 per cent. Moore, however, in

4.92 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

thirteen previous cases! had recorded an average of only 0-0039 per cent.,
while Palmer, in fourteen cases, found an average of 0:0217 per cent.

Such discrépancies are not reassuring, but some explanation of them
may be found in the varying periods of digestion selected by these ob-
servers —viz., from one to two hours. But it would seem that a more
probable explanation is afforded by the evanescent character of the so-
called ‘free’ HCl, to which reference has previously been made. In
contrast to these results, the determination of the physiologically active
HCl in our thirteen cases averaged 0:1626 per cent., five of them being
above 0:18 per cent.

An unexpected difficulty arose in connection with the examination of a
number of the earlier ‘ test meals’ supplied to us, and to the results of which
no reference is now made, by reason of the fact that, as we subsequently
learnt, additions of varying amounts of water had been made in order to
overcome difficulty experienced in the withdrawal of the stomach contents.
Obviously, conclusions based on the examination of such diluted ‘ test-
meals’ can be of little or no value. To this point we think sutfticient
attention has not previously been directed.

Summarising the whole of the results of the work now recorded, it may
be stated generally that in mice, the subjects of transplanted or sponta-
neous cancer, there is found, on the average, a definite increase of physio-
logically active HCl in the gastric secretion. As regards the human
subject similar increase does not occur, while in some cases the amount
is decidedly below normal. Nevertheless, it would certainly not appear
justifiable to conclude that the amount of physiologically active HCl is
always greatly diminished in cases of cancer in the human subject.

Further investigation not only of the variations in amount of HCl
secreted, but of concurrent variations of the chemical constitution of the
blood, on which the former are probably in large measure dependent,
would appear to be most desirable. A commencement has already been
made with regard to work on the blood and, incidentally, the urine also ;
work which, if the Committee be reappointed, it is proposed to continue.

Studies of Marsh Vegetation.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Dr. F. I’. BLackman (Chairman), Mr. A. G. 'TANSLEY (Secretary),
Professor A. C. Sewarp, and Mr. A. W. Hitt.

THE work mentioned in the report of this Committee for last year has
been continued by Professor R. H. Yapp. Further experiments on
evaporation in relation to the stratification of marsh plants, as well as
various field observations, have been carried out at Wicken Fen. The
_ experiments on Spirwa Ulmaria have been continued at Aberystwyth
and Cambridge. Work was carried on at Wicken Fen in August,
September, and November of 1907, and in January, April, July, and
August of 1908. In addition to this, various other localities in the Fen
Country and the Norfolk Broads have been visited.

A preliminary account of the vegetation of Wicken Fen was pub-
lished in the ‘New Phytologist’ (March 1908), and it is hoped that
further results will be ready for publication shortly.

' Proc. Roy. Soe.

|
:
|

ON THE STRUCTURE OF FOSSIL PLANTS. 493

The Structure of Fossil Plants.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Dr. D. H. Scorr (Chairman), Professor F. W. OLIVER
(Secretary), Mr. EK. NEweELtt ARBER, and Professors A. C.,
Sewarp and F. BK. WEIss.

Onty 11. lls. of last year’s grant has been spent. The reason why so
little of the money has been required is that the material necessary has
not been available for the special investigations in hand. . Two papers,
based largely on specimens obtained by means of previous grants, have
appeared this year :—

1. Professor F. E. Weiss, ‘A Stigmaria with Centripetal Wood’
(‘ Annals of Botany,’ vol. xxii. April 1908).

2. Messrs. E. A. N. Arber and H. H. Thomas, ‘On the Structure of
Sigillaria scutellata and other Eusigillarian Stems’ (‘ Proc. Royal Soc.,’
vol. Ixxx., April 10, 1908). [The full paper, in the ‘ Phil. Trans.,’ will
appear immediately. |

The Committee ask for reappointment, with a grant of 15/. to enable
them to obtain new material as opportunity arises.

Sequence of Plant Remains.—Interim Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor J. B. FARMER (Chairman), Professor R._J.
Harvey Gipson (Secretary), Dr. J. Horne, Dr. Marr, Mr.
CLEMENT RED, and Mr. Francis J. LEwIs, appointed to examine
the Sequence of Plant Remains in the Peat Deposits of Teesdale
and Stainmore (Cumberland and Westmorland) and the Western
Portion of Iceland.

Tuis investigation was begun in Iceland last year. During September, a
journey was taken through the 8S.W. of Iceland between Reykjavik and
Fjlotshlid—a distance of about 130 miles—and the move extensive areas
of peat were noted, and sections taken in the Reykir district and in the
neighbourhood of Havnafjord. A considerable part of this area is
covered with peat, the deposits varying in thickness from 3 feet to more
than 15 feet.

Nearly all the peat deposits visited were found to be covered with
2 to 3 feet of extremely fine yellow dust having all the characteristics of
loess: These deposits occur in broad shallow valleys and on gently

sloping ground. No peat more than a few inches in thickness was

—

observed at a greater elevation than 500 feet above sea-level.

For about 20 miles to the east of the Pjérsa River the ground is
flat and covered with peat, generally exceeding 15 feet in depth. These
deposits consist of almost equal quantities of fine dust and plant
remains. The northern part of this district bordering on the Rangar-
vallasveit is generally covered with 3 feet of loess, but in the southern
part near the coast the peat is generally well exposed.

The present vegetation of the loess-covered peat mosses consists of
Dryas octopetala, Empetrum nigrum, Calluna vulgaris, Selaginella
spinosa, Salix lanata, S. herbacea, Vaccinium Myrtillus, Polygonum
viviparum, Thalictrum alpinum. Every section taken last year in the

4.94, REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

various districts visited showed the presence of one or sometimes two
distinct forest beds of Betula odorata. The wood is large, some of the
trunks being 15 inches in diameter. As far as the observations go at
present, the sections within 100 to 200 feet above sea-level showed one
forest bed, those at higher elevations showing two. Until more numerous
sections are taken over wider areas it is impossible to say whether this
feature obtains in all places.

The thickest peat beds are made up of Scirpus ceespitosus, and
Carices ; hardly any trace of Sphagnum has yet been met with in the
Icelandic peat mosses.

The following section, taken near Havnafjord at 30 to 50 feet above
sea-level, is taken to illustrate the general sequence of plant remains
met with in other localities at about this elevation :—

1. Loess, 3 feet.

2. Peat formed of Scirpus eespitosus and Carices, 4 feet.

3. Layer of Betula odorata remains, 2} feet.

4. Peat containing leaves of Dryas octopetala, Salix lanata, S. herbacea,
and numerous small Salix twigs, 14 feet.

5, Scirpus and Carex peat.

6. Rock.

A large amount of material was brought back from the sections,
some of this has yet to be worked through.

A fulldiscussion of the various sections and the sequence of vegetation
preserved in the peat is reserved for the final report.

The Committee asks for the renewal of the balance (27/.) of the grant
made in 1907 for the purport of completing this investigation by
examining other large peat areas in West Iceland, and for further
detailed work over those peat areas located and partly examined last
year. The Committee hopes to begin the investigation of the peat
deposits of Stainmore this autumn or next spring.

The Committee further asks for a small additional grant of 101. to be
made to the balance of last year’s grant, to be applied to the same
purpose, as the expenses of the investigation— chiefly due to the expense of
labour for cutting sections in Iceland—are larger than at first estimated.

Research on South African Oycads and on Welwitschia.—Second Interim
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. C. Srwarp
(Chairman). Mr. R. P. Gregory (Secretary), Dr. D. H. Scorr,
and Dr, W. H. Lane.

1. Tue Welwitschia-material collected in Damaraland in 1907 (B. A.
Report, 1907, pp. 408-409) has been investigated. The results are ready
for publication, and it is exnected that they will appear before the end of
the year.

2. The leisure of Professor H. H. W. Pearson, who is carrying out
the work, has been completely occupied with the work on Welwitschia,
and he has not personally proceeded further with the investigations on
Cycads referred to in the interim Report presented last year. Two corre-
spondents living in the Cyead region are continuing the field-observations,
especially with reference to pollination, and it is believed that definite
results will shortly be forthcoming.

i A i ee ee ln

ON STUDIES MOST SUITABLE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 495

Studies most suitable for Llementary Schools.— Report of the Committee,
consisting of Sir Paitiry Maanus (Chairman), Mr. W. M. HELLER
(Secretary), Sir W. DE W. Asney, Mr. R. H. Aniz, Professor
H. E. Armstrone, Miss L. J. Cuarxe, Miss A. J. Coorer, Mr.
GEORGE FLETcHER, Professor R. A. GREGORY, Principal Grirrirus,
Mr. A. D. Haut, Dr. A. J. Herserrson, Dr. C. W. Kiumins,
Professor L. C. M1AuL, Professor J. Perry, Sir H. R. Reicuet,
Mr. H. Ricuarpson, Mrs. W. N. Saaw, Professor A. SMITHELLS,
Dr. Luoyp Snare, and Profesor W. W. Warts, appointed to
report upon the Course of Experimental, Observational, and Practical
Studies most suitable for Elementary Schools.

CONTENTS.

PAGE
Introductory Statement by Sir Philip Magnus, MP. ‘ ‘ : : . 495
Report of Sub-Committee on Elementary Experimental Science . ‘ ; . 501
APPENDIX A. Syllabus of Work in Elementary Experimental Science 2, S10
“6 B. Syllabus for Girls’ Schools. Domestie Science . : helo

- C. Contracted Scheme of Work for Small Schools where the
upper classes are grouped for instruction in this branch . 519
4 D. List of Apparatus for Elementary Science Course F ai). Bee

Inrropuctory Starement.! By Sir Puitip Magnus, M.P.
REFORM in educational administration and in method of instruction has
been more rapid during the last decade than for many previous years.
This is, of course, due to the cumulative effect of national education. In
England and Wales the Act of 1902 has fully realised the expectations
of those who trusted to local interest to stimulate educational] progress.
Its defects, such as they are, have not yet been removed, but they are
strictly limited in character and do not prevent improvements being
effected in organisation and in teaching. Notwithstanding the political
and religious differences that divide parties, educational measures of some
importance have been added to the Statute-book during the life of the
present Parliament. The educational concept has been widened so as to
include physical training and the medical inspection of children, and
efforts are being made to develop on more scientific lines the teaching of
morality in its relation to civic duties. The discussion of this subject at
the Moral Education Congress, to be held in London at the close of the
present month, to be attended by representatives from all parts of Europe,
will, I hope, bear fruit. As the outcome of the efforts of this Section of
the British Association and of other societies, the unity of education is
being more generally recognised. The barriers that separate primary,
secondary, and university education are being partially removed, and the
close connection of technical with each grade of education is more firmly
established. In various directions, too numerous to be here indicated,
advances have been made. Still the ery is that the foundations of
a national system of education are not securely laid. In vain, it is said,
we try to rear a solid and useful superstructure on the teaching given in
our elementary schools. It fails to create a love of learning or serviceable
manual skill. It meets with a too faint response in the child’s mind and
habits. It leaves the senses inadequately stimulated and the reasoning
powers imperfectly developed. This partial failure of our efforts is not

! Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.

4.96 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

so much the fault of the teachers as of the system and the methods of
instruction. The teaching helps, no doubt, in creating certain aptitudes
and in imparting a limited amount of knowledge. But the aptitudes are
not permanent and the knowledge is too soon forgotten. The training is
defective as a preparation for practical pursuits, whether in the field, the
workshop, or the home. As a consequence, the unemployed and the
unemployable increase in numbers, and children seek the means of live-
lihood in occupations, such as messengers and newspaper-vendors, which
open up no avenue to more useful and more remunerative employment.
Some, it is true, by means of scholarships, scale the educational ladder and
find situations in the overcrowded ranks of clerks ; others—not many—
enter the learned professions, in which a few succeed. As a remedy for
this state of things compulsory attendance at continuation classes in day or
evening schools is suggested ; but the majority of parents are unable to afford
to maintain their children till the age of sixteen or seventeen ; only a few
ean do so, and the prospects of such children are in many cases improved.

Experiments have been, and are still being, tried in the way of
establishing schools in which specific trades are taught and of combining
industrial work with general instruction, but no sure method has yet
been found of providing during a boy’s or girl’s school years the kind
of training which affords a satisfactory substitute for apprenticeship,
enabling a youth on leaving school to become at once a wage-earner.
The difficulty has not yet been solved. I have long thought that the
remedy may be found in a somewhat drastic change in the aim and
methods of our elementary education in substituting very largely
practical exercises for book-learning, and in grouping the necessary sub-
jects of instruction around some kind of hand-work, whether in the
workshop, in agricultural pursuits, or in the practice of the domestic
arts. This fundamental change is now favourably regarded by many
educational reformers here and abroad. Schools in which the teaching
is mainly practical have been established in many parts of the world.
They are more common in the case of boys than of girls ; but it is equally,
if not more, important that the training of girls should be on practical
lines, and that manipulative skill should be developed during their school
life. In the opinion expressed by Professor Smithells at a recent meeting
of the Northern Union of the Domestic Economy Association I fully
concur. He said: ‘I believe, in fact, that in the household arts you
have a direct educational instrument for conferring upon girls the very
great gift of manipulative skill, and of doing it by teaching the very work
that will be nearest to them in their normal daily life when they have
left school.’

A Committee of this Association was appointed in 1903 at Southport
‘to report upon the course of experimental, observational, and practical
studies most suitable for elementary schools.’ The Committee nominated
several Sub-Committees, which have been actively employed in working
out the details of a scheme. Individual members of the Committee have
also been engaged on the problem, and have written papers and reports
on some of its special aspects. In 1904, at the meeting of this Association
held at Cambridge, I made some suggestions on workshop instruction
which, I am glad to note, are now bearing fruit. In 1906 at York
the Committee presented a report in which they indicated the cha-
racter of the changes to be introduced into our schools with a view to
wake practical studies an essential part of the school curriculum. To this

ON STUDIES MOST SUITABLE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 497

Report were added valuable appendices, the results of the labours of some
members cf the Sub-Committees, dealing in detail with the methods of
teaching arithmetic and mensuration very much on the lines suggested by
Professor Perry at the Belfast Meeting in 1902, and also with nature-
study in its relation to the general curriculum and with domestic work.

There are many satisfactory indications that the Board of Education
are now moving in the direction indicated in the Committee’s Reports,
but they are moving slowly. Workshop exercises, nature study, and
domestic science are now regarded as essential parts of the curriculum
of our primary schools. Some of the prefatory memoranda to the Board’s
regulations are excellent. They breathe the true spirit of educational
reform. In the preface to this year’s Code it is gratifying to find a state-
ment to the effect that the age for commencing handicraft instruction has
been reduced from twelve to eleven. This somewhat belated concession
will help to remove many difficulties. It is further stated in the same
memorandum: ‘The Board have under consideration the question of
developing all forms of manual instruction in the lower classes of public
elementary schools, and, in particular, of filing up the gap between the
infant school, in which manual instruction is an essential part of the
curriculum, and the upper classes, to which the teaching of hand-work is
at present confined.’ This is a welcome statement and full of encourage-
ment, as promising to give effect to some of the recommendations of your
Committee. But it does not go far enough. It leaves much to be yet
done. The reference to manual training occurs in a Section of the
memorandum headed ‘Instruction in Special Subjects.’ Why special
subjects ? What we ask for is that manual instruction shall be ‘an
essential part of the curriculum’ in the elementary as it is in the infant
schools ; that it shall be closely associated with practical science teaching
and with drawing and with other parts of the school curriculum. For
many years I have urged that hand-work should be made the chief
instrument of elementary education ; that the brain should be developed
by means of manual exercises ; that practical studies should dominate the
teaching. We are coming to understand that the attitude of passive
receptivity in the pupil—a condition of mind too frequently welcomed by
the teacher—should be discouraged, and that the lessons should be such
as constantly call forth fresh energy. There is an increasing tendency to
associate more closely the activity of the playground with that of the
classroom. It is felt that the child’s energy should be utilised in school,
and not wholly dissipated in play. The true function of the playground
is not the utilisation of unspent energy and exuberant spirits, but
relaxation and recreation. The recognition of this fact will lead to far-
reaching changes in school life. We shall see physical and mental energy
jointly utilised in school, and not separately, as now, in lessons and in
play.

If these general principles are sound it follows that much of the
instruction now given in our schools must be closely associated with, and
should be so organised as to arise incidentally out of, the pupils’ practical
work, This work should not be everywhere the same. It would be
different after a certain age for boys and girls, different in urban and
rural schools. It would vary in different parts of the country. The
system of education should not be too strictly codified. Much should be
left to the initiative of local authorities. But how varied soever may be
the subjects and instruments of the instruction to be provided in our

1908. KK

498 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

schools the essential feature of elementary education should be the
practical studies, whether in connection with the work of the shop, the
field, or the home.

Speaking roughly, the child’s time would be about equally divided
between practical manipulative work and the ordinary lessons in reading,
writing, and reckoning. This, however, does not mean that what is
known as the half-time system, by which the child spends half-time in
school and half-time in the commercial shop, is to be commended. On
the contrary, such an arrangement interferes with the discipline of school-
work and in most instances over-exerts the child at an age when his
strength should be carefully husbanded. Moreover, the shop-work cannot
be correlated, as in the school it should be, with his ordinary lessons.
Indeed, it is desirable that the instruction he receives in the three R’s
should have a bearing upon his practical work, and should be intimately
associated with his surroundings and his everyday life. In our Report
of 1906 it is stated that the ‘faults inherent in our present system of
elementary education would be to a great extent removed if practical
studies involving hand-work and simple experimental methods of acquiring
knowledge were made an essential part of the teaching.’ In the Appendix
to that Report it is shown how lessons in arithmetic should be founded
ou actual measuring and weighing, and co-ordinated with the teaching of
experimental science. Among the many important recommendations of
that Sub-Committee—one of the ‘fundamental principles’—was that
‘so far as possible all reasoning in arithmetic should be from the concrete
to the abstract, and that pupils should learn by the manipulation of
objects ; and that all rules should represent results of experience.’ In
the Appendix dealing with nature-study it is stated : ‘The experimental
teaching in school is easily linked to the outdoor life of field and hedge-
row with which the country children are familiar.’ The Sub-Committee
wisely condemns the working to any definite syllabus. ‘A syllabus,
they say, may be useful as a humble servant, but it is a very bad
master.’

In my Presidential address to this Section last year I urged that in our
elementary schools ‘the child should receive less formal teaching, that
opportunities for self-instruction through outdoor pursuits, manual
exercises, and the free use of books should be increased ; and that as far
as possible the teacher should keep in view the process by which in
infancy and in early life the child’s intelligence is so rapidly and mar-
vellously stimulated.’

To-day a report of considerable interest on the teaching of elementary
experimental science will be considered. The Report has been drawn
up by Mr. Heller, the Secretary of our Committee, with the assist-
ance of the Sub-Committee appointed to consider this important branch
of elementary education. The Report very properly refers to the suc-
cessful efforts of Professor Armstrong during the last twenty years to
improve the method of science teaching in our schools. It emphasises
the contention of the Committee that the spirit of scientific inquiry must
pervade our school teaching if effect is to be given to the educational
reforms which we have recommended. In France, the necessity of some
such fundamental change in the method of instruction is also recognised.
At the recent meeting of the French Association for the Advancement
of Science, Professor Paul Appell, of the Sorbonne, took as his subject,
‘The teaching of the sciences and the formation of the scientific spirit.’

ON STUDIES MOST SUITABLE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 499

According to the short report of the meeting in the ‘ Times,’ M. Appell
defines the ‘man of science’ not as ‘the man who knows,’ but as a man
who ‘combines with his knowledge scientific activity ; that is to say,
a curiosity always alert, indefatigable patience, and, above all, initiative,
and again initiative.’ It is this spirit that we desire to see dominate the
teachers and the teaching in our schools.

In connection with the main subject of our investigation there will
be a discussion to-day from which we may expect to derive many
valuable suggestions on ‘ Education in relation to rural life.’ This aspect
of elementary education has been hitherto too much neglected. No Acts
of Parliament dealing with the tenure of land will effectually create a
love of country life in the hearts of the people. Interest in agricultural
pursuits must be fostered among our school children, and this can best
be done by closely associating experimental science teaching with the
daily work of the farmer and by encouraging initiative among the pupils
in rural as in other schools.

It will be seen, therefore, that the Committee have been actively
engaged during the past five years in preparing the ground for a com-
plete reorganisation of our system of elementary education, and that their
efforts have included the consideration of the changes to be introduced
into the curriculum of urban and rural schools and of the studies most
suitable to the pupils, whether boys or girls. The fundamental principle
underlying the suggested reform is that work requiring manipulative skill
shall be the dominant feature of the curriculum. Under the suggested
scheme the school lessons will be essentially practical, and will be given
in part in the open air or in the rooms to be equipped for experimental
science and constructive work. The explanation of all practical processes
will constitute the main subjects of the science teaching, which will be
so organised as to stimulate accurate observation and correct reasoning.
In the teaching of all subjects practice will precede theory, so that the
explanation of any exercise will follow the ability to perform it. In con-
nection with these practical pursuits will be provided lessons in arith-
metic, geography, and composition, to consist largely of descriptive notes
of the work in which the pupil is engaged. Apart from these subjects the
pupil should have lessons in the history, and above all in the poetry, of his
country, and in his duties to the State. The instruction will be such as to
arouse activity, to satisfy curiosity, and to stimulate an intelligent interest
in the subjects taught. In such a scheme, towards which we are slowly
but surely working, there will be no ‘special subjects,’ no extra grants
for supplemental teaching. The manual training—recently introduced
into our schools—will become the ‘corner stone’ of our new educational
building. The curriculum will be narrower than at present; it will
embrace fewer subjects, but it will be one and undivided, and all its parts
will fit into one another, so as give a single aim and unity of purpose to
the teaching. The methods will be the same in all schools. There will be
the same endeavour everywhere to arouse ‘scientific acivity,’ ‘a curiosity
always alert,’ and, above all, initiative, self-reliance, and resourcefulness
in the pupils. But the subjects of instruction—the instruments of
education—may vary and will be adapted to local needs.

This great reform, which the Committee of this Section and many of
the members by their individual efforts are endeavouring to promote,
cannot be effected without further provision being made for the training
of teachers nor without considerable improvements in the methods of

KK 2

500 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

instruction at present adopted in our training colleges. If our system of
education is to be changed, the teachers must be competent to use the newly
devised instruments. They must be equal to their task. The Sub-Committee
in their report on experimental science very rightly point out : ‘It is of little
avail to advocate the teaching of a method or subject unless an adequate
supply of teachers fully competent to handle the subject can be trained.’
That supply does not yet exist. The teachers must not only be fully
conversant with the method, but must possess an adequate knowledge of
their subject. In these introductory remarks to the papers to be read
to-day I do not propose to consider what should be the qualifications and
special training of our future teachers. But it is certain that the quali-
fications and the training must be in many respects different from what
they now are; and we may be sure that, as the qualifications of the
teacher are strengthened, his status in the profession will be improved.

I trust that the new universities about to be created in Dublin and
Belfast will be the means of providing a suitable training for the teachers
in Irish schools. Let me take this opportunity of congratulating the
people of Ireland on the prospect which the foundation of these uni-
versities will afford of securing for all classes of citizens in Ireland further
opportunities for higher education. In facilitating the passage through
Parliament of the Irish Universities Bill, I took some part, and I sincerely
hope that a satisfactory arrangement may be made for enabling those
who are training to become teachers in elementary schools to take full
advantage of the wider learning and broader views of life which residence
at a university offers. Dublin will before long enjoy the unique and
exceptional privilege among the cities of Europe of being the seat of two
teaching universities, and I am sare that all parties in Great Britain,
divided as they may be politically and by religion, concur in felicitating
Ireland on the advantages which these additional opportunities for higher
education may bring to all her citizens.

The Committee appointed in 1903 are desirous of continuing their
efforts in the directions which I have indicated. The work in which they
are engaged is one of national importance. Year by year it is being
more directly brought home to us that in every branch of public service,
in every grade and variety of professional life, the prosperity and well-
being of this country largely depend upon the early training of our
citizens and upon the suitability of their studies to their future occupa-
tions. It is anticipated that the papers to be read at this year’s meeting
of the Section will prove a valuable contribution to the solution of the
problem which has engaged, and continues to engage, the careful con-

sideration of your Committee.

In presenting the following report of one of its Sub-Committees the
Committee is glad to avail itself of the opportunity of placing on record
the unique experience which Mr. Heller has had in organising and super-
intending the instruction in experimental work in elementary schools,
first as an organising inspector under the London School Board (1894-97),
and afterwards, since 1900, as head-organiser and inspector of science
instruction for the Board of National Education, Ireland. The report
has the advantage that all the recommendations that are brought forward
in it are based on actual results of work carried on, not in a single school,
but in a large number of schools both in England and Ireland.

ON STUDIES MOST SUITABLE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 9401

Report of the Sub-Committee on Elementary Experimental Science.—Members :
Professor H. E. Armsrrone, Mr. Herter (Secretary), Dr. KimMrns, and
Professor SMITHELLS.

Twenty Years of Progress.

This branch of instruction in primary schools has been the subject of
inquiry within recent years by two Committees of the Association. The
fundamental principles that should guide the teaching of elementary
experimental science were clearly enunciated in the 1889 and 1890
Reports of the Committee of Section B on the teaching of chemistry.
The experience of the past fifteen years tends to emphasise rather than
to modify the recommendations of those Reports. During this period a
remarkable transformation. has taken place in the teaching of elementary
science in this country, traceable in its origin to the 1889 and 1890
Reports and to the indefatigable efforts of Professor Armstrong and
other members of that Committee to achieve reform. In place of a large
number of alternative specific subjects, none of them really fundamental
in character, it is now insisted that there should be one general intro-
ductory course, indoctrinating that alphabet of scientific method and
knowledge upon which the intelligent study of all specific sciences is
based. The Reports directed attention to the overwhelming importance of
method in instruction by insisting that mental training and the formation
of accurate habits of observation, of work, of reasoning, and of descrip-
tion were at the early stage of education of far greater moment than
the accumulation of facts or the ability to answer examination questions
on these facts. The deliberate intention to achieve these ideals must
lie behind all teaching of elementary science. To accomplish such ends
it was found necessary to recommend a complete change in the methods
of instruction commonly practised and in the attitude of the teacher
towards his pupils and his subject. The ‘ results system’ of the ‘Science
and Art Directory’ and the Board of Education’s ‘Code’ had, after
twenty years, weill-nigh killed the art of elementary teaching, the learning
of rules and half-understood facts having become general. The method
of experimental inquiry is the only natural method of gaining a know-
ledge of scientific facts but such a method is the very antithesis of the
didactic method of instruction too generally in vogue.

The practical method of inquiry now known as ‘heuristic’ has been
defined as ‘carefully directed inquiry.’ Instruction should take the form
of the experimental solution of a series of problems arranged in rational
sequence. The motive for the experiment must be the outcome of
skilful teaching, in which the teacher has led his pupils from the known
to the unknown and toa clear conception of the problem to be solved ;
the experiment should not be merely an occasional effort to substantiate
one of the many facts that the teacher has told his class.

Teaching in which experimental results are to form the basis of
reasoning and to be regarded as suggesting new problems should involve
precision ; the facts must at least be true or the method is obviously of
no more value than those it is intended to supplant. Measurement may
be the basis of experiments and quantitative thinking should always be
encouraged.

The Reports referred to have profoundly influenced directly and
indirectly the science teaching in secondary schools. Well-equipped

502 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

laboratories have been provided in almost every good school and the
attempt to give logical experimental instruction is at least professed.
Test-tube work and the analysis of salts are for beginners a thing of
the past, and the balance is made the basis of the first years of expéri-
mental work. During the régime of the inspection of ‘Schools of
Science’ by the officials of the old Science and Art Department good con-
structive work was accomplished, and this period did much to set the
standards of work since adopted in secondary schools generally.

In the primary schools great changes have also taken place; the
higher grade schools of the larger urban education authorities are usually
well equipped and a special teacher of experimental science is appointed
to take charge of the laboratories. Increased provision has also been
made in pupil-teacher centres and in training colleges for the teaching of
experimental methods.

In many urban centres, from reasons of economy and because few of
the ordinary teachers possessed an adequate acquaintance with apparatus
and experimental methods, a special staff of peripatetic science demon-
strators was appointed: these taught periodically in the schools of their
district, usually carrying their apparatus about with them. The scheme
of instruction followed was known as ‘Mechanics’ but embraced a
superficial treatment of hydrostatics, the laws of force and motion, heat,
chemistry and electricity. In some cases the individual ability of the
demonstrator made the lessons useful and interesting, but the system was
only adopted as a matter of expediency and the scheme of instruction has
been far too comprehensive to lead young children to much real knowledge
that could be applied to life later on. Under this system of peripa-
tetic instructors little effort has been made or could be made to co-ordinate
instruction in science with that in other subjects, such as composition,
arithmetic, and drawing. Between the visits of the special instructor
the class teacher was supposed to revise the lesson without the assistance
of the apparatus that the former carried round with him: this revision
was done in a half-hearted way and led to undesirable methods of
memorising half-digested information.

It appears to be undesirable that the system of special peripatetic
instructors should continue, except as a temporary expedient and until each
school possesses a permanent and sufficiently qualified teacher of experi-
mental science. The services of a staff of specialists should be employed
in instructing the ordinary teachers, more especially in the methods of
teaching and organisation. The rigid adherence to the class-teacher
system met with in most primary schools should be abandoned and the
best qualified teacher should be responsible for the instruction in several
classes, if not for the whole school; it should be the business of the
head teacher to ensure adequate co-ordination of instruction in drawing,
composition, and arithmetic with that in science.

The Relation of Nature-Study and Observation Lessons to
Experimental Science.

The ‘Suggestions’ of the Board of Education deal in detail with the
aims and methods to be observed in nature-study, the advice therein
given being substantially in agreement with our Report presented at the
York Meeting. It is satisfactory to notice that the guiding principles
which through the teaching of experimental physical science have been

ON STUDIES MOST SUITABLE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 505

instilled into the minds of teachers are now recognised as applicable
and desirable in instruction relating to natural objects and phenomena ;
at the same time it is to be feared that the present tendency to substi-
tute in the higher standards of schools ‘nature-study’ for a systematic,
logical, and progressive course of experimental physical science has grave
dangers.

A very considerable amount of the ‘object teaching’ in the lower
standards is of a highly artificial character, being in most cases educa-
tionally valueless. The disconnected series of lessons on subjects which
come most easily to the teacher’s hand-—for example, a table, a chair, a
pen, a piece of chalk—which has become traditional, results in little more
than a ‘laborious elucidation of the obvious.’ It would seem to be
essential that a broad outline of a scheme of object-studies should be pre-
pared by the teacher for the year’s work in advance and that these
should be connected at least in short series. They should involve to
a large extent a real examination of individual objects hy the pupils
themselves and should on no account be demonstration lessons in which
the teacher holds a single specimen in his own hands. Good subjects
for such lessons are those connected with plant-life, for it is easy to obtain
sufficient objects at practically no cost. In the minority of cases where
the pupils can be taken out of doors under the charge of the teacher, real
nature-lessons can be given; but in the majority, where the conditions of
school work render such outdoor lessons an impossibility, much useful
observation may be encouraged by mentioning the subject of the next
lesson several days beforehand and by suggesting a few simple and detinite
inquiries. The lessons in the spring and summer months will be mainly
in connection with natural objects, but in the winter months it will be
difficult to obtain an adequate supply of objects for examination by the
pupils. This period might be usefully occupied in lessons introductory to
the work of the higher standards ; the nature and uses of water, air, and
food-materials form perhaps the most useful and interesting subjects.
The lessons on water should involve the consideration of its sources, the
work done by a stream, a river, and the sea, the change of water into ice
and steam, the evaporation of water, the presence of its vapour in the
atmosphere and the formation of cloud; the dissolving properties of
water, its uses as a food and the large amount of water present in nearly
all food-materials. The lessons on air might include some very simple
experiments to show its reality and the pressure it exerts, leading to some
first ideas as to its weight when hot and cold, the effects of heat upon it
and its relation to burning and breathing. A few of the typical food-
stuffs, such as eggs, flour, and sugar, might also be considered, with the
object of showing that they are all combustible and contain carbon and
a considerable quantity of water. Such a course of illustrated lessons in
Standards IT. and III. would do much to ease the difficulty of more
systematic work in higher standards.

It is needless to say that the teacher who is to give the first ideas on
these subjects to young children must be at least as well qualified as
the teacher of more advanced work in the higher classes of the school. A
more systematic and connected treatment will commence about Standard
IV. and must of necessity begin with careful lessons in the measurement
of size and weight.

In the endeavour to suggest a better correlation between instruction
in physical and biological science, it must not be assumed that the

504 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Committee fail to realise the great importance of the latter ; the neglect-of
the study of outdoor life that huge classes and the methods of the ‘ results
system ’ have engendered is to be deplored and in a previous Report the
Committee have strongly advocated the employment of more scientific
methods of instruction in this branch. English nature-study is largely
based upon the writings and methods of American teachers, and the wave
of enthusiasm which has spread from that country has brought. together
with much which is admirable much which is unsound and superficial.
The neglect of experimental methods of inquiry in the teaching of physical
science is one of the weakest points in the curricula of America’s schools
and in consequence their school nature-study has suffered. At any rate
it should not be forgotten that Nature is concerned with dead as well as
with living matter, and that a knowledge of the transformations of the
former is essential to the study of the latter.

In the lower standards the degenerate ‘object-lesson,’ which more
often than not amounts to little more than a didactic information-lesson,
should give place to seal study and observation of plant-life and the more
obvious natural phenomena ; before any detailed study of the conditions
of plant-growth can be attempted with success a systematic experimental
study of the simplest physical and chemical changes is necessary.

If science teaching is to achieve its full effect in training the reason-
ing powers and in the formation of accurate habits, it must involve the
experimental solution of problems ; as an instrument for exemplifying the
experimental method of inquiry, physical science has many obvious
advantages beyond those offered by a study of biological subjects; a
study of such simple physical subjects as the nature of air, the effects of
heat on matter, fluid pressure, the composition of the atmosphere and
the effect of plant and animal life upon it, would seem to be fundamental
to any intelligent study of plant growth and should certainly precede it ;
in the study of plant-life the conditions of experiment are so complex
that the experimental method of inquiry can only be followed to a very
limited extent in elementary schools.

The enthusiastic teacher who has made nature-study his hobby will
rise superior to syllabuses and programmes and should be given a free
hand ; the average teacher, however, finds a carefully drawn and detailed
syllabus of work helpful. For such teachers it is difficult at present to
provide a scheme of biological studies that will ensure regular and pro-
gressive instruction. In physical science, the difficulty of preparing
graduated syllabuses is not so great ; some suggestions for experimental
courses in different types of elementary schools are appended to this Report.

In deciding what practical work of an exact kind is most suitable for
individual pupils in the upper standards of an elementary school we feel
that by skilful teaching of experimental science better training may be
given than by the conventional methods of nature-study and that it is
more easy to obtain a supply of competent teachers in the former than in
the latter branch. Further that much will be lost if the pupil leave the
primary school without a knowledge of those fundamental facts necessary
to the intelligent understanding of the common phenomena of daily life ;
he should at least be equipped with that substratum of knowledge of
physical science which is necessary to the continued study of any branch
of science, whether technical, agricultural, or domestic.

The ‘Suggestions’ of the Board of Education in reference to instruc-
tion in elementary physical science appear to be meagre and inadequate

ON STUDIES MOST SUITABLE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 505

when contrasted with those in reference to nature-study ; the scheme
of work outlined by the Board is similar in subject-matter and scope to
that suggested in the Reports of the Committee of Section B referred to
above. The large amount of experience which has been gained during the
past fifteen years in the working of this scheme indicates that it would
be undesirable to effect many radical changes in it. The subject-matter
included can be adequately taught during the last four years of the
school curriculum, assuming that the first year’s work is undertaken by
pupils between the ages of eleven and twelve.

Training of Teachers.

It is of little avail to advocate the teaching of a method or subject
unless an adequate supply of teachers fully competent to handle the
subject can be trained. <A training in the methods of experimental
physical science although not easy has already been undertaken with
some degree of success in many parts of the kingdom, but with a few
brilliant exceptions comparatively little has been achieved in the training

, of teachers competent to direct nature-study ; such training presupposes
a knowledge of experimental method and a taste for and considerable
knowlege of natural history. Under existing conditions it is easier to
train teachers of physical science than it is to secure teachers competent
to deal with the complex issues involved in the study of living objects.

Until recently, the training in science that teachers have received
has done very little to equip them for their work in schools, and it is
cause for congratulation that improvement is taking place in the character
of the instruction given in the training colleges. It is not sufficient
that the teacher should leave the college with a schoolboy’s knowledge of
science. However little he knows, he must have a teaching grasp of that
little and have fully realised the aims and ideals to be kept before him.
Instruction in the training colleges should keep the teaching idea con-
tinually in the minds of the students. The tendency to teach specific
subjects of science in the training college should be discouraged. This is
the function of the university or technical school ; the business of the
training college is primarily to show the future teacher the methods of
his work. It is essential that students entering the training college
should be fully familiar with the subject-matter of introductory courses
in physical science. This condition is fulfilled where a student has
attended a pupil teachers’ centre or a secondary school. A large bulk of
first-rate teaching material is to be found, however, in the existing
teachers who have been engaged at their professional work for several years
but have had no opportunity of being trained in scientific method.
For these some provision must be made and there is ample experi-
ence to show that short practical courses under competent instructors
have excellent and lasting effects. To conduct such classes of teachers
it is necessary to secure instructors of special experience: they must
have superadded to a good knowledge of science a very considerable
teaching experience and should be familiar with the conditions of
work in the schools concerned. For sueh classes sufficient apparatus
must be provided, if possible, to enable the teachers to work inde-
pendently ; the chief purpose would be to illustrate the methods of
instruction and to inculcate the proper attitude of mind in the teacher.

The course would be best divided into two parts, each of not less than

506 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

a hundred hours, of laboratory instruction. Experience shows that
students who have attended special classes or training colleges often fail
to obtain a sufficient grip of the subject to enable them to teach effectively
after the first course of lessons ; a second revision course is of great value
to these, especially if the teacher in the meantime make an honest attempt
to teach the subject in school.

Organisation of Practical Work in the School.

Where the school is provided with a laboratory, it is desirable that
one teacher should be responsible for its care and for the instruction that
is given within it ; if it is necessary to employ a second science teacher,
he should act as an assistant to the responsible science teacher. A balance
and other apparatus should be provided if possible for every two pupils
in the laboratory. In designing a science work-room, it is neither neces-
sary nor desirable to provide elaborate furniture. Strong tables fitted, if
possible, with gas and plenty of floor-space are all that is really needed.
A separate lecture-room is unnecessary, but a demonstration table and
a few forms should be placed in the laboratory. It is undesirable to
provide storage accommodation for individual pupils ; cupboards under
the tables should be designed for the purpose of general storage. There
should be no shelving on the tables and two or three large sinks on the
walls of the room are all that would be required.

In comparatively few cases, however, has the primary school a special
room for the teaching of experimental science at its disposal ; but in
the majority of cases, where no such room er equipment is available,
the individual practical work of the pupils cannot be carried out simul-
taneously. The few simple pieces of apparatus necessary for the leading
experiment or experiments of the week’s work should be kept upon a
table in the class-room, or upon a narrow shelf hinged to the wall
throughout the day, and pupils should be sent out singly or in pairs from
time to time at the discretion of the teacher during any periods in which
no class instruction is taking place, to repeat experiments which have
already been carefully performed before the whole class and thoroughly
explained. An equipment of value about 10/., in addition to a good
strong table and storage accommodation, will enable a very considerable
amount of practical work to be accomplished.

The minimum time necessary is one and a half to two hours per week,
exclusive of the time devoted to the writing of notes, which may form a
considerable part of the teaching of English composition in the school.

The teacher’s demonstration lesson, in which he breaks new ground,
should be of about one hour’s duration. In this lesson, having led
his class to an appreciation of the problem to be solved and having
obtained from its members suggestions as to the mode of solution, the
experiment will be performed, possibly with the assistance of some of
the pupils, the results will be recorded and between this and the revi-
sion lesson later in the week or even in the following week the experi-
ment, if suitable, will be repeated by the pupils working in pairs at odd
times during the progress of other lessons. There are many suitable
periods for such work and the ten or twenty minutes that a pupil keenly
interested may spend at an accurate experiment will not be wasted nor
will an appreciable interruption of other studies occur. Much successful
work from this plan has been accomplished but, like any other kind of

ON STUDIES MOST SUITABLE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 507

teaching, to be effective it requires an enthusiastic teacher who will take
the trouble to organise it regularly.

In any school where the discipline is sound such individual work
causes no interruption after the novelty of the first few lessons has worn
off. All the experimental results obtained should be recorded and
tabulated in a Log Book, in which the teacher also enters his results
obtained at the demonstration lesson. No conclusions or generalisations
should be drawn until a number of pupils have repeated the experiment
and recorded the results. The teacher should then make these results the
basis of his next lesson, endeavouring to trace the reason for the want of
agreement of any particular result with the rest ; conclusions should then
be drawn, so far as possible, by the class, and the whole piece of work
reviewed and suggestions made as to the method of writing an account of
the work which has been done. It is necessary at first for the teacher
to summarise on the blackboard the various points in order with which
the composition should deal, but anything in the way of dictation or
transcription is valueless. The compositions must represent the children’s
thoughts in their own words. The experiments which the pupils repeat
individually should, as a rule, be those that yield a detinite quantitive
result ; there is little to be gained by repeating individually merely quali-
tative effects.

Preparation of Lessons.

In a subject in which the methods of instruction are of greater
importance than the intrinsic value of the information conveyed, the
preparation of careful teaching notes is an essential element in success.
It is impossible that science teaching can be fully effective unless careful
consideration of every lesson is given beforehand. As year by year the
teacher acquires increased experience, the amount of time that he will
find it necessary to devote to the preparation of his lessons will diminish,
but the more skilful he becomes the more will he appreciate the neces-
sity for thought in his teaching. In the preparation of lessons he
must consider carefully how he is to lead from what has been learned
already to the subject-matter of the new lesson. Before suggesting any
experiment he must make it absolutely clear why it is to be performed ;
the problem to be solved should be kept prominently in the minds of the
pupils throughout the lesson. He must, further, consider all the difticul-
ties the pupils are likely to meet in acquiring new ideas, and, finally, lay
considerable emphasis upon the application of the results of the lesson
to daily experience. But notes of lessons are not popular with teachers.
The reason is not far to seek. In training colleges students often have
been taught to write highly elaborate and highly artificial notes upon
extremely simple subject-matter. The only useful notes are those which
will help the teacher in his teaching; a few short sentences will
usually be sufficient to indicate the train of ideas he intends to follow.
Elaborate columns of heads, matter, and methed have probably done at
least as much harm as good.

In our General Report last year the following reference was made to
the special importance of the teaching of experimental method in girls’
schools :—

‘The science lessons to be given in connection with the subject should
have for their main object the inculcation of habits of accuracy and
cleanliness. The importance of exact method, and of using vessels which

508 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

are scrupulously clean, may best be illustrated by the simplest chemical
manipulation, and the school should be furnished with a room—not neces-
sarily a laboratory in the sense in which that term is generally em-
ployed—in which easy experiments may be performed by the children
themselves. As lessons in cooking cannot be given usefully until the
child has acquired some manipulative skill, and has reached the higher
standards, it is better that the course of experimental science should
precede the practical teaching of that subject. It is a matter for con-
sideration whether the science lessons should be combined with the
teaching of cooking, illustrating as they arise some of its underlying
principles, or whether they should run parallel with the instruction or
should precede the practical teaching of the subject. Something may be
said for each of these plans, but the balance of advantage is in favour of
the last, attention being directed to the results of the scientific experi-
ments with which the child would be previously familiar in explanation
of cooking processes.

‘ The selection of subjects for the science lessons and the arrangement
of experiments to be performed by the children themselves demand
much thought on the part of the teacher, and should not be undertaken
without careful preparation. They should be such as would find full
illustration in the practical teaching, not only of cooking, but of house-
wifery and general hygiene.’

There can be little doubt that at present boys exhibit more initiative
than girls in the general work of the standards ; girls appear to be more
prone to work by rule of thumb. Without attempting to discuss the
reasons for this characteristic, the fact remains that domestic duties call
for more initiative, more executive ability, more power of organisation,
and more common-sense, than do the ordinary vocations that boys follow
on leaving school. The woman in the home is continually confronted with
new problems the solution of which demands trained intelligence and
a habit of thought. A training in the methods of experimental inquiry
would appear to be the most direct means of creating the thinking
habit, and if the subject-matter of inquiry chiefly relate to the phe-
nomena and materials of home life such teaching should do much to
render more rational the management of the home. Experiments made
during the past three years in two large schools in Dublin and Belfast,
in each of which five hundred boys and girls have been taught by the same
instructor, tend to show no material difference between boys and girls
in reasoning or manipulative ability after the first arithmetical difficulties
have been overcome ; we believe that the reforms in the teaching of
arithmetic suggested in our last Report, accompanied by accurate experi-
menting, would do much to abolish the love of rules and recipes so often
noticed in the higher classes of girls’ schools. There is little reason to
advocate different courses of instruction for boys’ and girls’ schools ; the
explanation of the common phenomena of daily life are of equal importance
to both, although it may be advisable to consider popular prejudice
and make the boys’ programme look a little less domestic than that of
the girls.

The character of the instruction in both boys’ and girls’ schools
requires to be far less academic than heretofore ; there must be more
deliberate purpose of training to think and reason in terms of everyday
life. A lesson without some application to common experience should, in
the primary school, be regarded with suspicion.

ON STUDIES MOST SUITABLE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 509

Inspection.

The aims and methods we have advocated obviously demand much
enthusiasm, intelligence, and skill on the part of the teacher. To appre-
ciate such effort, the inspector must be at least as familiar with the
subject-matter and the proper modes of its presentment as the teacher
himself. Nothing takes the heart out of a teacher so quickly as a want
of appreciation of really earnest work. In assessing the value of such
work the inspector should ascertain that a carefully thought out scheme
of work has been regularly and progressively followed ; an examination
of the pupils’ note-books recording the year’s work, supplemented by some
general oral questions and the carrying out of practical exercises by a
selected number of pupils, should afford him all the information that is
necessary. If the class does not show an intelligent understanding of
the purpose for which experiments were performed, it is desirable to
examine the character of the teacher’s preparation of lessons.

The Committee desire to direct attention to the following conclusions
and recommendations :—

(1) The recommendations of the Committee of Section B on ‘The
Teaching of Chemistry,’ in reference to the subject-matter and methods
of instruction should be followed in giving instruction in ‘Elementary
Physical Science.’

(2) They do not consider the system of peripatetic science instructors
satisfactory, except as a temporary expedient.

(3) Every primary school should be provided with a special work-
room simply furnished, in which many forms of practical study could be
followed—e.g., manual instruction, drawing and elementary science for
boys, and cookery, laundry, drawing, and elementary science for girls.

(4) That while fully appreciating the value of studies of natural
objects and changes they do not consider that ‘ nature-study,’ as conducted
under the conditions of work prevailing in the average primary school,
provides by itself a satisfactory substitute in the higher standards for
formal and systematic instruction in elementary experimental work in
physical science.

(5) Much of the present object-teaching in primary schools is practi-
cally valueless ; throughout the standards some study of natural objects
is desirable.

(6) In the training colleges more attention should be paid to aims
and methods of instruction in elementary science.

(7) Ample provision should be made for classes of a pedagogic
character, in which existing teachers may become acquainted or increase
their acquaintance with methods of experimental inquiry.

(8) Accurate practical work by individual pupils is essential if the
‘teaching of experimental science is to achieve its full educational
effects.

(9) Where practical work by all the members of a class simultaneously
is impossible, much useful practical work may be done by a few working
at a time.

(10) They regard the teaching of methods of experimental inquiry as
being of even greater importance to girls than to boys, in that it provides
a training of special importance in domestic management.

(11) The teaching of domestic art should be much more closely

510 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

co-ordinated with the teaching of domestic science and the former should
be so taught as to provide an intellectual as well as a manual training.

(12) It is important that inspectors. of schools should possess an
adequate knowledge of the subject-matter and methods of instruction in
elementary science.

APPENDIX A.

Syllabus of Work in Elementary Experimental Science.

Norer.—It is assumed that in their arithmetic lessons the pupils have acquired skill in the
measurement of lengths and areas and have through these exercises obtained a real
knowledge of the manipulation of numbers in the decimal system not involving the
use of more than two digits after the decimal point.

Syllabus for Boys’ Schools, First Year (about 11 to 12 years of age).

The measurement of volume of a rectangular block of wood. The reason for
selecting the cube as the unit for measuring volume and capacity ; explanation of
the rule for calculating volume of a rectangular solid—a means of counting the
number of unit cubes that will build up the solid.

Cut out of turnip, soap, clay, &c., cubes of one inch and one centimetre edge.
To make a hollow cube of cardboard of one decimetre edge, the volume of which
is the litre, containing 1,000 cubic centimetres. Mould some putty or plasticine into
rectangular shape, and determine its volume by measurement; distort it, and lead
class to see it still occupies the same amount of space, and may still be measured
in rectangular units.

The volume of rectangular blocks of wood (including cubes) in cubic inches
and cubic centimetres; the number of cubic centimetres in a cubic inch.

The graduated cylinder; the fluid ounce and measuring glass; the number of
cubic centimetres in a fluid ounce; fill a water-tight rectangular box with water,
and pour into graduated cylinder; compare volume by direct measurement and
by graduated cylinder; the limits of accuracy in using the graduated cylinder.
Volume of small bodies by displacement in graduated cylinder.

The burette—a more finely divided graduated cylinder. Volume of small
bodies such as pencils, glass rod, nails, by displacement in burette, The pipette—
its method of use. Direct measurement of capacity of a bottle by burette and

ipette.
Pad notions of force and weight—the measurement of a pull or push; the
force of gravity very simply treated. Equal weights defined as those that stretch
a spiral spring or an elastic cord to an equal extent; construction of a series of
bags of sand or shot of equal weight.

Experiments with a simple lever or seesaw; equal weights balance at equal
distances from the turning edge.

British and metric units of weight and capacity; the gallon and its sub-
divisions; a gallon of water weighs ten pounds. To weigh cubes of different
kinds of wood on the seesaw.

The balance, adjustment and use; weight of cubes of wood, determined to
zoo gram.

Weight of volumes of water (80, 40, 50 c.c., &c.), measured from burette and
pipette, leading to the fact that one cubic centimetre of water weighs one gram.
Repeat these experiments with hot and lukewarm water.

Weigh volumes of milk, spirit, brine, mercury, &c., measured from burette, and
to calculate the weight of 1 ¢.c. of each.

Find the weight of 1 c.c. of milk, skimmed milk, cream, and mixtures of
fresh milk and water. Measurement of amount of cream in milk by allowing
100 c.c, of fresh milk to stand for some hours in graduated cylinder.

ON STUDIES MOST SUITABLE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 511

Heavy and light materials; to compare heaviness of materials we must find
the weight of equal volumes of each. By finding the weight of one cubic centi-
metre of each substance, we can find their relative weight. Necessity for com-
paring all materials with one standard substance. ‘The reason for selecting water
as this standard. The simplicity in the metric system of the connection between
weight and volume of water.

Tabulation of results of weight of 1 c.c. of all materials previously measured.
Weight of unit volume of a substance a very general method of determining its
quality or the amount of adulteration.

‘ Water finds its own level’; experiments to explain this statement. Oolumns
of liquid balanced in U-tube ; equality of level in tubes of equal and unequal bore.
The flow of water in pipes of a town supply.

Revision of the relative weights of 1 c.c. of water and of mercury, showing
that mercury is about 134 times as heavy as water. Columns of water balanced
against columns of mercury in U-tube, showing that the water column is always
about 133 times the length of mercury column; deduce the law of the U-tube,
and by it confirm the results previously obtained for weight of 1 ¢.c. of brine
and spirit.

Simple experiments and illustrations to show the reality of air; water does
not fill a tumbler of air inverted in a vessel of water ; air necessary to burning of
a fire and for breathing ; the blacksmith’s bellows and the bicycle pump. Solids,
liquids, and gases, Air, an invisible gas like coal-gas, but having no smell, not so
easily recognised. Steam also an invisible gas. Inflate an indiarubber balloon ;
pump up a bicycle tyre; pass air through water, and collect it by displacing water
from a jar inverted in water. Fill a jar inverted in water by sucking the air out
by means of a tube.

In order to weigh air we must ke able to expel it from a vessel. Show that it
may be expelled () by an exhaust pump, (4) by boiling water in the flask, (c) by
expansion by heat. Collect the air driven out of a flask by boiling water in the
flask, and thus show that all the air is expelled. Open a partially exhausted flask
under water.

Weigh a flask first full of hot air, and then full of cold air; explain why hot
air rises, and its application to natural ventilation. Simple experiments to show
that air exerts a pressure on bodies; experiments with tubes of water and mercury
to show that there is a limit to the pressure of the atmosphere.

The U-tube or siphon barometer ; the straight tube barometer. Changes in
height of mercury in barometer compared with changes in the weather. Daily
observations of barometer, kind of day, winds, direction, and strength; height of
sun at midday.

Norr.—It is not desirable that the term ‘density’ should be used in the first year’s work;
all results should be recorded as the weight of 1 cubic centimetre in grams.

Second Year (about 12 to 13 years of age).

Simple experiments with a lever having its fixed point (fulerum) at one end to
show connection between the force (power) and the load it can raise. A small
force can raise a heavy load, but the small force works through a greater distance
than the load is raised. Familiar applications of the lever—crowbar, poker,
scissors, fire tongs, weighing machines.

Determine the capacity of a bottle by weighing the water it will hold; find the
weight of other liquids—milk, mixtures of milk and water, skimmed milk and
cream that fill the same bottle, and hence calculate the weight of unit volumes of
these liquids, Weight of unit volume a means of testing quality or adulteration
of materals. Reasons why the authorities are so particular as to the milk-supply;
milk the only food of very young children and any removal of cream or addition
of water would seriously aftect nutrition.

Weight of unit volume of hot water. Revision of weight of air. Construction
of simple air and water pump.

Determine the weight of one cubic centimetre of air by (a) partially exhausting

512 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

flask with an air pump, (4) by boiling a small quantity of water in the flask.
Definition of density as the weight of unit volume of a substance.

Floating bodies; reference to earlier experiments with cubes of wood, some of
which float and others sink, to show that bodies heavier than water sink in water
and others float; an egg suspended midway in a brine solution is neither heavier
nor lighter than the brine; calculation of the weight of one cubic centimetre of
the egg.

Fav aaendlie to show that a floating body displaces its own weight of water,
and to find the fraction of its volume immersed in water. Construction of hydro-
meter to measure dilution of milk with water.

Application of the laws of floating bodies to ships; why iron ships float.

Familiar examples of apparent loss of weight of bodies in water; refer to
carriage of rocks and stones by rivers; the diver works under water loaded with
lead; experiments with bodies of known volumes weighed in air and water;
discovery of law of Archimedes; increase in weight of a vessel of water when a
body is suspended in it from an external support.

Use of the law of Archimides for finding the volume of irregular bodies
heavier than water; calculation of the weight of one cubic centimetre of these
bodies.

Show that this method of finding volume, since it depends on the use of the
balance only, is more accurate than any previously employed.

General effects of heat on animal and vegetable matter; wood and coal heated
in hard glass tubes give off inflammable gases which burn in air. The char of
carbon left in the tube will not burn until heated zm az; air evidently necessary
to charcoal burning. When it is completely burnt a light mineral ash is left.
Carefully dry some finely divided animal and vegetable matter and determine
percentage of water. The water in foods does not provide nourishment; the com-
bustion of foods produces heat.

Notice effects of strongly heating weighed quantities of sand, granite, lime-
stone, iron, copper, magnesium, &c. Some do not change, some lose weight, and
some gain weight.

Expansion of solids, liquids, and gases shown qualitatively. Applications of
expansion by heat to method of fixing metal tyres on wheels, riveting, circulation
of hot water, ocean currents, winds, draughts, and ventilation.

Hotness or temperature measured by expansion of liquids. Distinction between
heat, which is energy and possesses the power of doing work and producing change,
and temperature or hotness, which is the intensity of heat; analogy with quantity
and pressure of water or gas. Definitions of unit of temperature (degree Centi-
grade) and wnit of heat (calorie or gram degree Centigrade unit). Comparison of
times taken to raise large and small quantities of water to the same temperature
by the same source of heat. Amount of heat depends on quantity of material
heated.

Construction of spirit thermometer ; graduation of thermometer for household
purposes. The effect of large masses of warm water round the coast of British
Islands on its climate.

The freezing of water; ice always formed at the surface; ice will float; find
density of ice by making a mixture of spirit and water in which a lump of ice
remains suspended; find the weight of 1 c.c. of the mixture. The reason why
water freezes at the surface; economic importance of the fact. Applications of
the increase of volume of water when freezing to bursting of water pipes, to the
breaking up of the soil in winter, to the spliting of rocks, &e.

The boiling of water; steam and water vapour both invisible gases; the nature
of cloud, dew, frost, rain, snow.- The boiling-point of water varies slightly with
the pulley changes in barometer, and very considerably at great altitudes or
depths.

Determine whether a number of familiar substances are soluble, partially
soluble, or insoluble in water. Filtration as a means of separating soluble from
insoluble bodies. Distinction between dissolving and melting, as illustrated by the
solution of sugar in water and the melting of sugar by heat.

ON STUDIES MOST SUITABLE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 515

Determination of the solubility, ze, the weight of solid dissolved in a given
weight (or volume) of its solution—of familiar substances, salt, soda, sugar, tea,
lime. Food materials must be rendered soluble before they can pass into the
blood stream and nourish the body. Small amount of solid nutritive material in
most beverages.

Distillation of liquids—a double process of boiling and condensation. The
large amount of heat absorbed in converting water into steam. The heating
power of steam. Purification of a liquid by distillation. Production of alcohol
by distilling a fermented sugar solution.

Burning of a candle in air confined over water; the nature of the residual
‘inactive air.’ Moisture and a gas which turns lime-water milky produced by the
burning candle. A candle will not burn in breathed air.

The rusting of iron. Iron moistened and exposed to the air rusts and increases
in weight, but iron will not rust in boiled water. Iron rusting in a jar of air
causes the disappearance of about one-fifth of the whole. The residual gas is
‘inactive,’ but does not affect lime-water. The same ‘active’ part of air is con-
cerned in burning, rusting of iron, and in breathing.

Third Year (about 13 to 14 years of age).

Experiments with siphon to see how rate of flow varies with difference in
level of the liquids. Uses of the siphon for emptying tanks or reservoirs; draw
curve connecting time of flow with average difference in level during flow.

The volume of small irregular bodies found by weighing the water displaced
from a bottle by them. Relative density of mercury, sand, shot, &e (The solid
should be weighed independently of the bottle so that pupils may see the water
displaced.)

Piettereion of the principle of Archimedes to liquids other than water; a body
of known volume weighed in a liquid of known density to show that apparent
loss of weight is the weight of the liquid displaced.

Modes of transference of heat; simple experiments to illustrate conduction,
convection, and radiation, and the application of these to warming, clothing, &e.
The radiant heat of the sun.

Expansion of a metal tube ; comparison of expansion of water and alcohol under
a beeeiions applications of expansion of solids and liquids to experiences of

aily life.

Determination of expansion of unit volume of air when raised 1°C. Repeat
experiment if possible with coal-gas. Application of expansion of gases to
ventilation, explosives, winds, &c.

The unit of heat; calculation of heat lost and gained by quantities of water
when cooled or warmed. Heat energy like matter indestructible. The heat
absorbed by a copper vessel in which hot and could water are mixed.

Heat-capacity of metals; the high heat-capacity of water compared with other
substances; the great importance of this fact in reference to climate and the
retention of its heat by the human body; heating by hot water.

Comparison of amount of evaporation from a beaker of water on a fine and wet
day. Cooling effect of evaporation; the evaporation of perspiration on the skin,
and from the leaves of plants. Life possible in temperatures much above maximum
safe body temperature.

Chemistry of the atmosphere. Air passed over heated copper examined.

Air passed over heated phosphorus, sulphur, and carbon; lead when heated
first converted into a yellow scale (litharge), then into a red scale (red lead),

Composition of the air by volume, by burning phosphorus in a dry tube or
flask, and by the rusting of iron.

Preparation of the ‘active part’ of air from red lead, and from a mixture of
potassic chlorate and manganese dioxide. Sulphur, carbon, and phosphorus burnt
in ‘ active air’ produce acids, hence the name oxygen.

Oxygen passed over heated carbon; properties of carbonic acid gas.

Air synthesised by mixing oxygen with residual air from the burning of
phosphorus and the rusting of iron. Combustion due to chemical union which

1908. pt

O14 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

produces heat; decomposition of substances by heat. Effect of animal and
vegetable life on the air.

The Bunsen burner and gas stove; candle and coal-gas flame compared ; coal
gas if mixed with air or oxygen is explosive. Lamps and burning oils; precau-
tions to be observed in using oil lamps; the paraffin oil pressure blow-lamp.

The nature and functions of breathing; simple experiments to show that a
candle will not burn in breathed air; count the number of respirations per
minute under different conditions; length of time one can hold breath without
discomfort ; breathe rapidly, and then see how long one can hold breath. The
moisture, carbonic acid gas, and organic matter in breathed air.

Fourth Year (about 14 or 15 years of aye).

The volume of a gas changed by pressure; Boyle’s law; the U-gauge for
measuring pressures of air and water.

Change of state; simple experiments to show that heat is absorbed when
solids are conyerted into liquids and when liquids are converted into gases; deter-
mination of latent heat of water, z.e., the number of heat units necessary to melt a
gram of ice.

Latent heat of steam, ae., the number of heat units necessary to convert a
gram of boiling water into steam. Applications of latent heat to evaporation ;
steam as a motive power, slow formation of ice, steam scalds, damp clothing, &c.

Chalk, limestone, and lime; the action of water upon these; slaked lime a com-
pound of lime and water. The conversion of chalk into lime in the lime-kiln;
the loss of weight and production of ‘chalk gas’ during the change.

The action of acids on chalk and lime; weight and volume of ‘chalk gas’
produced from a gram of chalk, Identity of ‘chalk gas’ with carbonic acid gas
previously studied.

The synthesis of chalk from lime and ‘ chalk gas’; the action of carbonic acid
gas on lime-water, producing a ‘hard water’ containing a soluble form of chalk.
The comparison of the hardness of waters by means of soap solution.

Action of acids on metals. Preparation of ‘inflammable air.’ ‘Inflammable
air’ burns producing water, hence name hydrogen.

Decomposition of water by passing steam over heated iron ; reduction of oxides
by hydrogen; composition of water; properties of natural waters. Dangers of
impure water and means of rendering it safe for drinking purposes.

Acids and alkalis; alkalis in common use—ammonia, potash, and soda—in the
caustic and carbonated conditions. Interaction of acids and alkalis, producing
neutral substances. Exact neutralisation of acids by alkali, and vice versa, using
indicating colouring matters, litmus, and methyl orange.

Alkalis render fats soluble, producing soaps. Preparation of a sample of soap
from fat and caustic soda. Caustic soda produced by removing the carbonic acid
gas from washing soda by means of lime.

The necessity for cleanliness; the dangers of dirt; germs and their influence
on daily life; conditions favourable to germ life—darkness, dirt, warmth, and
moisture. Of what dirt consists; greasy dirt requires alkalis (soda, ammonia)
for its removal.

The nature of germs; minute vegetable organisms which multiply with great
rapidity, and chiefly concerned in breaking up complex organic substances by
oxidation. Germs of disease communicated from person to person by contact, by
the breath ; water and milk specially liable to contamination; fresh air, clean-
liness, and sunlight destructive to germ lite.

The elements entering into the composition of the human body—carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, calcium, sodium, and small
traces of others. These, especially carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, are
continually used up and excreted, and must be renewed in form of food. Im-
portance of mixed diet.

Food the fuel of the body; a slow or wet burning of food which maintains
temperature of body above that of its surroundings. The chief types of food-

~

ON STUDIES MOST SUITABLE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, 515

material—fat, lean, sugar, and starch; these required for all the important
functions of the body.

General structure and functions of the digestive system; foods must be ren-
dered soluble before they can enter the blood stream and nourish the body.

Respiration and circulation of the blood. The functions of the heart, lungs,
and skin.

Putrefaction and decay. The general influence of bacteria (germs) on daily
life ; simple experiments on sterilisation.

APPENDIX B.

Syllabus for Girls’ Schools. Domestic Science.
First Year (about 11 to 12 years of age).
Same as for boys.
Second Year (about 12 to 15-years of age).

Find the weight and volume (either by direct measurement or by displace-
ment of water) of pieces of wood, glass, slate pencils, cork, paraffin wax, shot, &c.
Tabulate the results, and calculate the weight of 1 c.c. of each of these, and note
which are lighter than water and heavier than water; throw them all into a
vessel of water, and notice that those heavier than water sink and those lighter
than water float.

Weight of water displaced by a floating body. Determine the water
displaced by weighed pieces of wood, cork, or wax floating in an ‘ overflow jar,’
leading to the discovery that a floating body displaces a quantity of water equal
to itself in weight. Float a test-tube loaded with shot cr sand in a graduated
cylinder of water; compare weight of loaded tube and weight of water displaced.
With a test-tube, cork, and glass tube construct a milk-float that will test whether
milk has been diluted with water.

Find the weight and volume (by ‘overflow jar’) of a fresh egg, and hence
weight of 1 c.c. of the egg. Make a strong brine solution, and notice that the ege
will float in it; carefully dilute the brine with water until the egg remains
suspended in the liquid; find the weight of 1 ¢.c. of the brine solution; compare
this with the weight of 1 c.c. of the egg. By making a large quantity of brine in
which a fresh egg will neither float nor sink we have a ready test for the freshness
of eggs.

aace on the lid of a crucible some finely divided animal and vegetable material,
e.g., lean and fat meat, cheese, bread, potato, and notice carefully all changes that
occur. Dry in an evaporating-dish placed in a cool oven or over a water-bath
some of the above substances, and determine the amount of water lost. Strongly
heat some splinters of wood in a hard glass test-tube until no further change
occurs. Show that the sticks of charcoal will burn when heated in the open air,

Completely dry some of the food-materials mentioned above, and strongly
heat weighed quantities until all the black charcoal is burnt away and unburnable
ash only is left. Notice that on burning animal matter there is a more pungent
smell than when sugar or potato or starch is burnt. Lead pupils to see that a
food with a high percentage of water in it (like turnip) cannot be as nourishing
as one with little water in it (like cheese).

Show that heat causes a metal bar or stretched wire to become longer; the
expansion of solids by heat is very slight, but sufficient to cause the cracking of
glass vessels and lamp-chimneys, owing to unequal expansion of different parts.
Refer to cracking of iron plates of a stove, to tie-bars in old houses, to railway
lines, &c.

Show that liquids when heated expand more readily than solids, and that
different liquids do not expand to the same amount. Weigh a bottle full of cold
water and full of hot water. Hot water is lighter than cold water, and will rise

LL2

516 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

above it. Show ‘convection’ currents in a beaker of water when heated. Refer
to ocean currents and the circulation of hot water in a house system.

Construct a spirit thermometer, and graduate it to show temperatures of
melting ice (0° C. or 32° F.), of a living room (about 60° F.), of the human body
(98° F.), of a hot bath (not higher than 100° F.), The Centigrade and Fahrenheit
methods of graduating the thermometer.

The mercury thermometer; the boiling-point and freezing-point of water.
The thermometer an instrument to measure temperature or hotness. First notions
of heat as distinct from temperature. The measurement of amount of heat
depends upon at least two quantities—the amount of substance heated and the
temperature to which it is heated.

The doctor’s thermometer for measuring the temperature of the human hody;
constructed so that it still indicates the body temperature when removed from the
mouth of the patient; method of using and cleansing; temperature of body in
sickness and in health.

Ice floats on water; water when frozen must therefore expand; make a
mixture of spirit and water in which ice remains suspended; find the weight of
1 c.c. of the mixture, and hence weight of 1 c.c. of ice. Refer to bursting of
water-pipes by ice, and explain why ice is always found at the surface, and the
importance of this fact.

Air expands much more readily than solids or liquids when heated. Heat a
Florence flask in hot water, and find how much 1 c.c. of air expands when made
1° C. hotter. Weigh a flask first full of cold air, then of hot air. Hot air is
lighter than cold air. Show the air currents above a flame in a hot room and up
achimney. Refer to winds, draughts. Show effect of a strong draught on the
burning of a fire.

Burning and breathing both make the air hot and poisonous, and unfit to be
breathed again. Natural and artificial means of ventilating a room. Necessity
for fresh air and sunlight.

Determination of melting-points of butter, paraffin wax, or beeswax, and
boiling-point of water, brine, spirit.

Evaporation or drying—the slow change of liquid into gas or vapour. Evi-
dence that heat is absorbed during drying ; clothes dry quickly on a windy day;
good and bad drying days; compare with barometer readings. Presence of
water vapour in the air. Hvaporation of perspiration on the skin, and its cooling
effect in hot weather.

Textile fabrics (especially woollens) have power of absorbing water vapour
from the air. Weigh roll of dry flannel, and again weigh after exposure to air for
a couple of days. Make daily weighings of a bag of seaweed, also observations of
thermometer, barometer, and the kind of day.

Condensation of moisture (water vapour) in the atmosphere; formation of
cloud, dew, and frost. The heating power of steam. Boil water by passing steam
into it. Find roughly what weight of steam will boil a given weight of water.

Distinction between dissolving and melting. Determination of soluble,
insoluble, and partially soluble substances used in the household. The amount of
solid matter contained in common beverages is very small, and the food value
is not therefore great. Repeat experiment with milk. Foods must be rendered
soluble before they can pass into the blood stream and so nourish the body.

Distillation—a double process of evaporation and condensation. Liquids can
be distilled, but solid substances dissolved in water do not usually undergo change.
Distil a mixture of water, salt, and ink ; examine residue and distillate.

Third year (ahout 18 to 14 years of age).

Repeat the experiments of drying and burning animal and vegetable foodstuffs
quantitatively. Completely dry (without burning). weighed quantities of finely
divided fat and lean meat, bread, and potato; find percentage loss of moisture.
Heat weighed quantities of the dried foodstuffs on a crucible lid until all carbon
has burnt away and a mineral ash only is lett. Find the percentage of ash in the
food-materials, Refer to loss of weight during roasting and baking; the water

ON STUDIES MOST SUITABLE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 517

contained in food-materials has no value as nourishment, the mineral ash or
fo, are needed in the blood and for building up the harder structure of
the body.

Diohandference of heat; illustrate conduction, convection, and radiation by
the ways in which an oil-lamp or gas-jet loses its heat. Conduction: coat wires
of iron and copper with wax, bind the ends together and heat the junction ; show
that the heat is conveyed more quickly and further along the copper than the iron ;
metals generally are good conductors of heat ; wood, glass, water, and air are bad
conductors. Some substances in a room feel warm and some cold when touched,
though all are at the same temperature. Linen sheets feel colder than calico
sheets or a blanket. Wool a bad conductor, chiefly because it contains so much
air; cotton wool. Refer to clothing materials, and the fact that wool absorbs

erspiration and keeps the skin dry ; other domestic application of conductors and
insulators of heat.

Convection: heat carried by heated particles of a liquid or gas moving and
communicating their heat to objects with which they come into contact. Revise
the lessons on ventilation and circulation of hot water, ocean currents, winds.
Radiation: the transference of heat energy independently of intervening media.
Simple experiments to show that objects exposed to radiant heat of fire or sun are
hotter than intervening air. Application of modes of transference of heat to the
familiar methods of cooking.

The effect of surface and colour on radiation and absorption of heat. Black
and white clothing materials. Reflection of heat from bright surfaces; applica-
tion to stoves. Modes of heating by closed stoves and open fires; necessity for
carrying away products of combustion.

The burning of a candle in a closed vessel of air; disappearance of some air
during the burning ; nature of residual inactive gas; similar effects when a small
lamp burns in a bell-jar over water.

Pass a slow current of air over bread or carbon heated in a glass tube; collect
and examine the issuing gases with a lighted taper, litmus solution, and lime-
water. Notice that the faster air is passed through the tube the more rapidly the
carbon burns and the greater the heat produced.

Inhale and exhale air through lime-water. Collect some jars of breathed air.
Test with taper, litmus, and lime-water. Breathing and burning have much the
same effect on the air. The body is nearly always hotter than its surroundings;
but in health never varies in temperature. How is this? There must be an
internal supply of heat, due to a slow or ‘wet’ burning of food-material in the
body. Refer again to loss of body heat by evaporation of perspiration on skin and
to prevention of loss of heat by clothing. Very simple description of organs of
breathing—the lungs, mouth, nose, diaphragm, and rib muscles—importance of
deep breathing, fresh air, well-developed and unrestricted breathing apparatus. ,

Metals such as iron, copper, lead, and magnesium, strougly heated in the air, form
scales and increase in weight. Air passed over heated metals is inactive, and will
not support burning; this inactive air is not acid, nor will it affect lime-water.

Phosphorus and sulphur burnt in air produce a diminution in volume of air,
and acid products which dissolve in water; the residual air is inactive and does
not affect lime-water. Determine the proportion of active air by burning
phosphorus in a tube.

Examination of iron rust. Rusted iron is heavier than the iron from which
it is formed. Iron will not rust in water free from air. The air affected by
rusting iron to the same extent as by burning substances; the residual gas is
inactive, is not acid, and does not affect lime-water.

The active part of air—preparation from red lead and ‘oxygen mixture’; the
properties of active air: the formation of acids when phosphorus, sulphur, and
carbon are burnt in it. Hence the name ‘oxygen’; compounds with oxygen
called oxides. :

Air evidently composed of inactive air (nitrogen) and active air (oxygen) in
proportion of about four to one. Oxygen added to inactive air from rusting iron
or burning phosphorus forms a mixture similar in properties to air.

518 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Repeat experiment of heating wood and some food-materials in hard glass
tube; notice that gases evolved only burn in contact with air, and that the
charcoal produced will not burn in the tube, but will burn in the air.

Oxygen passed over heated carbon produces a gas which is acid, affects lime-
water, and will not support the combustion of a taper—carbonie acid gas. It is
similar to the gas exhaled from the lungs. Magnesium will burn in this gas pro-
ducing carbon and magnesiura oxide, showing by analysis that carbonic acid gas
is composed of carbon and oxygen.

A slow stream of oxygen passed over a column of red hot carbon produces
some carbonic acid gas; but also large quantities of an inflammable gas—carbonic
oxide—often seen on the surface of a clear coke fire. The two oxides of carbon;
the nature of flame; care and use of oil lamps.

Revision lessons on the chief types of foodstuffs—starch and sugar, fat and
lean, All contain carbon; some when burnt produce a pungent odour of burnt
feathers: these contain nitrogen, and are known as proteids. Flour contains
starch and gluten (proteid). Kggs contain albumen (proteid) and fat insoluble.
Starch is easily convertible into sugar. Fats contain no nitrogen, but are usually
easily melted and rendered soluble by alkaline substances.

The fermentation of starch and sugar by yeast; production of alcohol and
carbonic acid gas. Distillation of a fermented liquor; preparation and properties
of alcohol; making and baking a loaf of bread; the yeast used as a means of
making dough spongy by setting free carbonic acid gas in all parts.

The nature of alcohol; its value as a food and as a stimulant; its effects on
the body when taken in excess ; it gives no additional strength, but acts as a whip
to the body, and enables it to use its energy faster than it otherwise would. The
great dangers attending the use of alcohol.

Yeast substitutes employed for the purpose of rendering dough spongy, so
that it will be easily attacked by the digestive juices, which must dissolve it
before it can get into the blood stream and nourish the body. The nature of
bread, soda, and baking powder ; the conditions under which they evolve gas.

Fourth Year (about 14 to 15 years of age).

The chief sources of water-supply for domestic purposes; deep wells, surface
wells, rivers, lakes, rain; the chief properties of these waters and the impurities
they contain. Evaporate to dryness in a weighed basin a litre of rain water and
of the ordinary supply, and weigh the residue. Detection of organic matter by
potassium permanganate. The function of water as a food: acts as the solvent
and carrier of the food-material that nourishes all parts of the body, and is
necessary to the chemical changes continually taking place; other domestic uses
of water, 7.¢., cleaning, draining, &c.

Hard and soft waters: evaporate a litre of each to dryness and determine
‘total solids.’ Notice difference in ‘feel’ of each, and action of soap upon them.
Compare hardness of two waters by finding the least quantity of a soap solution
which will create a permanent lather with 50 cc. of each water. Boil some of
the hard water and again ascertain how much soap solution is required to pro-
duce a lather. Boil some hard water in a glass vessel and notice what occurs.
Examine the ‘fur’ deposited on inside of kettle in which hard water is boiled.

The various ways in which water may become contaminated. Special danger
of shallow wells near agricultural land. Drainage of cesspools and leaky drains
into water-supply. Necessity of periodical cleaning of storage tanks. Pollution
of rivers. If water is muddy it should he filtered through sand. Most dangerous
impurity is organic matter, as this mostly means the presence of germs of disease
(bacteria). If water is thoroughly boiled for fifteen minutes it may be regarded
as safe to drink, but not otherwise unless from a good town supply. Filters,
unless very frequently cleaned, are dangerous, as they may collect organi¢ matter,
and form a conyenient feeding ground for bacteria.

Inflammable gas, originally called ‘inflammable air, is evolved in many cases
when metals such as zine, iron, and magnesium ave acted upon by hydrochloric

ON STUDIES MOST SUITABLE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 519

acid (spirits of salt) and sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) ; ‘inflammable air’ burning
in ordinary air forms a liquid which on examination is found to be water.
‘Inflammable air’ hence called hydrogen gas.

Hydrogen gas, passed over hot oxides, e.g., copper oxide or lead oxides,
remoyes the oxygen forming water and the metal. Steam passed over iron forms
iron oxides and hydrogen gas. Water is hence oxide of hydrogen. Hydrogen
present in all food-materials, and, like carbon, undergoes oxidation in the body to
form water.

The general properties of acids and alkalis; hydrochloric, sulphuric, and
nitric acids; sodium carbonate and caustic soda, lime, potash, ammonia.

Acids and alkalis react with each other to form neutral substances called
‘salts.’ Prepare a sample of common salt by exactly neutralising caustic or
washing soda with hydrochloric acid (spirits of salts); the action of acids and
alkalis on colouring matters (litmus) and on fabrics.

Differences between lime and chalk. The slaking of lime with water. The
lime-kiln. Loss of weight when chalk is converted into lime. Collection of
chalk gas.

Action of acids on lime and chalk. Preparation of ‘chalk gas’ which is
found to be identical with carbonic acid gas. The weight or volume of ‘chalk
gas’ obtained from one gram of chalk, marble, and kettle ‘fur’; action of carbonic
acid gas on lime-water, and production of artificial temporarily hard water.

Conversion of washing soda into caustic soda; caustic soda converts insoluble
fat into soluble soap.

Manufacture of soap; different alkalis and different fats employed. The best
soaps for domestic purposes.

he elements entering into the composition of the body—carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen, and oxygen, with small quantities of sulphur, phosphorus, and the metals
calcium, potassium, magnesium, sodium, and iron. These occur chiefly in form of
(a) water, (6) organic matter, and (c) mineral salts. The products of combustion
of food-material and waste food are excreted; this loss must be made good in
form of food; to feed the body properly, without excess of any one type of food,
the diet must be mixed, and contain lean, fat, starch, and sugar.

Revision lesson on food as the fuel of the body and the chief types of food-
stuffs. Lean, fat, and starch are all necessary for all the chief functions of food.

A very simple treatment of the structure and function of the digestive system,
the mouth, stomach, intestines, liver, and pancreas.

The principal changes that foods undergo in the human body ; how the food-
material gets into the blood stream.

The simple physiology of respiration and circulation of the blood; the heart,
lungs, and circulation of the blood.

Germs of disease (bacteria) ; conditions favourable to germ life; the useful
work of germs in destroying refuse matter and rendering it available for plant
nutrition. The close relationship of dirt and disease ; the reasons for personal
and domestic cleanliness.

APPENDIX C.

Contracted Scheme of Work for Small Schools where the upper classes
are grouped for instruction in this branch. In order that the ground
covered in successive years should not be identical, two parallel schemes,
A and B, are suggested to be taught in successive years; the introductory
part of each scheme is the same, but different subject-matter is dealt with
in the latter part of the schemes.

First Year.—Scheme A.

Build up rectangular solids from cubes and deduce the rule for finding the
volume of a rectangular solid or space. The reasons for selecting the cube as the
unit of volume,

520 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

The graduated cylinder, burette, and pipette; methods of use. Compare
volumes of a water-tight rectangular box obtained by (a) direct measurement,
(4) by measuring in the graduated vessels the water it will hold.

Measurement of volumes of small solid by displacement of water in the
graduated vessels, or of larger bodies, e.g., potato, egg, by ‘ overflow jar.’

The balance—adjustment and use; weight of cubes of wood, potato, egg, &e.,
to z45 gram.

Weight of volumes of water (30, 40, 50 c.c., &c.), measured from burette and
pipette, leading to the fact that a cubic centimetre of water weighs one gram.
Repeat experiments with hot water.

Weight of known volumes of milk, diluted milk, skimmed milk, cream, beer,
spirits, tea, &c. Leave 100 c.c. of fresh milk to stand in graduated cylinder,
measure number of ¢.c. of cream, Show that measurements of weight and volume
are used as an indication of quality or adulteration, and that the small amounts
of solid matter in tea, spirits, beer, as indicated by weights of unit volume, imply
small food-value.

Simple experiments and illustrations to show reality of air. The three states
of matter—solids, liquids, and gases. Air, an invisible gas like coal-gas, but
having no smell, is not so easily recognised. Refer to use of bellows and bicycle
pump. Pass air through water and collect it.

Methods by which air may be extracted from a vessel; experiments to show
that air has weight and that hot air is lighter than cold air and will rise above it;
application to natural ventilation; simple experiments to show that air exerts a
pressure on bodies.

The pressure of the air can hold up long columns of water, but can only sup-
port about thirty inches of mercury; construction and use of barometer; daily
weather observations.

General nature of changes produced by heat :—

(a) Rise of temperature or increase in hotness; refer to exceptions when
change of state occurs; heat energy is then employed into converting
solid into liquid, or liquid into gas, and not in making the substance
hotter.

(2) Changes in appearance, e.g., an iron poker or piece of asbestos heated.

(c) Changes in mechanical properties, e.g., change in hardness, pliability, malle-
ability, when iron is heated.

(d) Changes in substance, e.g., when coal is burnt, metals are heated, limestone
is burnt in lime-kiln, an egg is boiled: these changes, in which a new
substance is formed, are called chemical changes, as distinct from the
temporary physical changes mentioned above.

Effects of heat upon water. The boiling of water and condensation of steam ;
water vapour an invisible gas present in the air at ordinary temperatures. Cloud,
rain, dew, frost, snow.

Distillation of a fermented liquor and the separation of alcohol from water;
nature of alcohol; its use and abuse. The freezing of water; bursting of pipes.

Evaporation, water vapour; loss of heat during evaporation; evaporation of
perspiration on the skin; power of fabrics (especially wool) to absorb and condense
water vapour from the air; weight of a carefully dried roll of flannel on a fine day
and ona wet day. Necessity for thoroughly drying clothes after washing, and
again before use. Dangers of damp clothes and damp beds; ‘airing’ insufficient
to dry them properly unless weather is very fine.

Soluble, partially soluble, and insoluble substances; separation of soluble from
insoluble substances by filtration; most soluble substances dissolve more readily
in hot than in cold water; distinction between dissolving and melting. Filtration of
dirty water. Water used for drinking purposes should be thoroughly boiled if
there is any reason to suspect impurities.

Simple experiments to show that liquids expand when heated. The thermo-
meter an instrument for measuring hotness or temperature. TIlustrations leading
to the distinction between heat energy and temperature.

ON STUDIES MOST SUITABLE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 521

Simple experiments to show that air expands when heated, and that therefore
hot air is lighter than cold air; air currents due to differences in temperature.
Necessity for and means of obtaining a supply of fresh air.

Changes observed when typical foodstuffs, e.g., bread, cheese, fat, and lean
meat, are strongly heated until ash remains; the presence of carbon, and the fact
that food is a combustible substance shown.

Determine the amount of moisture in such food-substances as fat and lean
meat, bread, turnip, potato (raw and cooked). Mince the material (5 to 10 grams)
very finely and weigh it in a weighed evaporating basin; dry it either by placing
the dish on a small saucepan containing boiling water or by placing it in a cool
oven until no further loss of weight occurs.

Heat strongly some food-materials dried as above until only a grey ash
remains; determine the percentage of ash in the original food. Show that the
value of a food-material depends upon the amount of dry solid nourishment
contained; that most beverages (milk excepted) contain little real nourishment.
Determine the amount of dry solid matter in a cup of milk, a cup of tea, a glass
of beer or whisky.

Second Year.—Scheme B.

Build up rectangular solids from cubes and deduce the rule for finding the
volume of a rectangular solid or space. The reasons for selecting the cube as the
unit of volume.

The graduated cylinder, burette, and pipette; methods of use. Compare volumes
of a water-tight rectangular box obtained by (a) direct measurement, (4) by
measuring in the graduated vessels the water it will hold.

Measurement of volumes of small solids by displacement of water in the
graduated vessels or of larger bodies, e.g., potato, egg, by ‘overflow’ jar.

The balance—adjustment and use ; weight of cubes of wood, potato, ege, &c.,
to z45 gram.

Weight of volumes of water (30, 40, 50 c.c., &c.) measured from burette and
pipette, leading to the fact that a cubic centimetre of water weighs one gram.
Repeat experiments with hot water.

Weight of known volumes of milk, diluted milk, skimmed milk, cream, beer,
spirits, tea, &c. Leave 100 c.c. of fresh milk to stand in graduated cylinder ;
measure number of c.c. of cream. Show that measurements of weight and volume
are used as an indication of quality or adulteration, and that the small amounts of
solid matter in tea, spirits, beer, as indicated by weights of unit volume, imply
small food-value.

Simple experiments and illustrations to show reality of air. The three states
of matter—solids, liquids, and gases, Air, an invisible gas like coal-gas_ but
having no smell, is not so easily recognised. Refer to use of bellows and bicycle
pump. Pass air through water and collect it.

Methods by which air may be extracted from a. vessel; experiments to show
that air has weight and that hot air is lighter than cold air and will rise above
it; application to natural ventilation; simple experiments to show that air exerts
a pressure on bodies.

Draw air into the lungs through lime-water, and expel it again from the lungs
through lime-water. By breathing on a slate show that breathed air is highly
charged with water vapour. Expose dishes of lime, lime-water, and calcium
chloride to the air to show presence of moisture and something that turns lime-
water milky; show that a candle will not burn in breathed air. Simple methods
of ventilating a room: doors, windows, chimneys.

Burn a candle in a jar of air; it will burn if a continual stream of fresh air is
admitted ; if not, it goes out; measure the air absorbed during the burning ; what
fraction of the whole is it? The air left after the candle has burnt in it turns
lime-water milky, and will no longer support combustion. Repeat experiment
with a small lamp and phosphorus; examine and measure in each case the inactive
air left after the burning.

Observe carefully the effects of heating fuel—coal, wood, peat—in a tube

522 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

closed at one end, and in the open air. Inflammable gases produced which burn
only when they meet the air. Carbon or charcoal, which will not burn in the
tube, but in the open air, always burns without flame, leaving a small amount of
mineral ash.

Preparation and examination of oxygen. All substances that burn in air burn
mere vigorously in oxygen, producing the same products of combustion as when
burnt in air.

Carbon burnt in a slow stream of oxygen gas. Preparation and properties of
carbonic acid gas (oxide of carbon). Air breathed from our lungs contains carbonic
acid gas. Analysis of carbonic acid gas by burning magnesium in the gas.

Nature of acids—corrosive, dissolve metals ‘and many mineral substances
insoluble in water; the action of acids—e.g., vinegar, spirits of salt—upon chalk,
washing-soda, bread-soda. The action of acids on vegetable colouring matters.
Preparation and properties of ‘chalk gas’ obtained by action of acids on chalk,
marble, soda, &c.

The nature of alkalis—lime, soda, ammonia—their action on colouring matters
and upon acids. vactly neutralise some acid, e g., spirits of salt, with an alkali,
C.9., soda, and show that the resulting compound i is neutral, possessing neither the
properties of acids nor alkalis.

The burning of food in the human body a sort of slow or wet burning, which
maintains the temperature of the body many degrees above that of its surroundings.
Carbon the chief constituent of the body food or fuel, and carbonic acid gas the
principal product of combustion.

The principal functions of the digestive organs treated very simply to show
how food is transferred to the blood stream, and so becomes available for nourishing
the whole of the body.

The importance of germs in daily life; germs or bacteria are minute moulds,
which break up complex organic matier into simpler substances ; some kinds are
harmless to man, others if introduced into the blood stream cause diseases, e9.,
measles, typhoid, small-pox; bacteria thrive best under conditions of darkness,
moisture, warmth, and dirt. Necessity for cleanliness, fresh air, and sunlight.

APPENDIX D.

List of Apparatus for Elementary Science Course.

For a School NOT provided with a special Science Room in which experimental
work can be carried out by all the sh eer.

| Pres

Quantity Description of Apparatus mate Price |
Sati.
| GLASS.
2 | Barometer tubes, thick glass, 36 inches A
3mm. internal diameter . each | O 52 |
1 | Beakers, Bohemian glass, Nos. 2, 8, 4, and 5 . perset | 1 6
1 | Bell-jarvs, unstoppered, 9 inches high, 5 inches
| maraelet at base, neck 13 inch diameter . each 0 103
3 Bottles, 2-0z. stoppered, N.M. . , 3 : each 0 2
2 Ditto, 6-oz. stoppered, N. M. each | g 23
3 Ditto, 20-0z., with sand-blasted labels—
Sulphuric acid’
‘Nitric acid’
‘Hydrochloric acid’. ‘each 0 6
3 Ditto, unstoppered, 7 inches high to
|

shoulder, about 3 inches diameter,
with mouth 12 inch diameter. ; each 0 32

| =="

ON STUDIES MOST SUITABLE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS.

List of Apparatus for Elementary Science Course—continued.

523

Quantity

it

bo bo w& ow

= nd oR) ol)

bo CNH

HetolH bo

_

ae Approxi-
Description of Apparatus Bee Prica
SH Ge
Burettes, 50 c.c., in tenths, with spring clip

and jet : each 2 2

Calcium chloride tubes, straight, 1 ‘bulb,

6 inches each 0 13
Clock glasses, 4 inches diameter each 0 1}
Combustion tube, hardest Jena, ? inch dia-

meter . ‘ per lb. 115
Condenser's, body 12 inches, with LR. ‘stop-

pers, bored for condensing tube and water

supply . each 3.3
Conical flasks, Bohemian. glass, 5 oz. each 0 23

Flasks, Florence, with round bottom, fairly
heavy, 12-oz. : : each 0 3
Ditto, German, with ‘flat bottom, 6- on: each 0 1g
Funnels, 3 inches diameter, angle tested each 0 32
Gas jars, 7% inches high, and 2 inch dia-

meter . ; each 0 43
Graduated cylinders, 100 c.c. each 1 0}
Pipettes, 50 c.c. : each ONG

Ditto, 10 c.c. each 0 43
Plates, ground glass for gas jars each 0 0%
Glass rod, assorted . é per lb. 0 83
Test tubes, thin glass, 6 inches by 34 2 inch . per doz. 0 3}

Ditto, to fit conical flasks [item ‘1B $ inch

diameter . : per doz. 0 24
Ditto, hard glass, 6 inches by 8 3 inch ‘ “ each O 24
Thermometers, 10°C. to 110°C., craduated on
stem. : each axel
Ditto, 0° C. to 35° C., ,in fifths of a degree
with paper scale . ‘ : each 111
Thermometer tube, fairly wide per lb. 1 5
Thistle funnels, 14 inches each 0 12
Troughs, strong glass, 8 inches diameter each 0 11;
Tube, quill, assorted, soft glass, + to 5 inch

outside diameter . 5 : z per lb. O85

U-tudes, 4 inches by $ inch . each 0 22
Watch-glasses, 2 inches diameter . per doz. O 43
Winchester quart bottles, green glass, without

stoppers , ‘ 4 ; ‘i : . each 0 43

PORCELAIN, STONEWARH, Xe.
Beehives, earthenware, 3 inches and 22 inches each Oo 4
Boats, porcelain, 4 inches for # inch com-

bustion tube each 0 43
Crucibles, Berlin porcelain, with lids, 14 inch

diameter . - : : each 0 42
Evaporating dishes, ‘4 inch Berlin each OG

Ditto, 2 inch ditto each 0 33
Pestles and mortars, earthenware, 3 inches
diameter ‘ each 0 82
Troughs, stoneware, 10 inches diameter . : each 1 24
INDIARUBBER.
Stoppers, for bell-jars [item 3], l hole . : each 0 &
Ditto, for W.M. bottles [item 7], 2 holes each 0 82 |
Ditto, for CaCl, tubes [item 9], 1 hole . each O 13

524

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Quantity

bo bo bo

bo

mh [is | etnotte wets Re De ol

—

ae

Description of Apparatus

Stoppers, for conical flasks [item 13], 2 holes .
Ditto, for Florence flasks [item 14],
lhole . 3 ; : : : :
Ditto, for Florence flasks [item 14],
2 holes .
Ditto, for German flasks [item 15],
Uchole> : :
Ditto, for German flasks [item 15],
2 holes . : :
Ditto, for test- tubes [item 23], Lhole .
Ditto, for U-tube [item 32], 1 hole ;
Ditto, for W. qt. bottles fags sil
2 holes . A
| Ti ubing, black, best, 4- -inch
Ditto, -inch
Ditto, +inch. :

METAL.

Bunsen burners, without rose, diameter of
tube, 3-inch
Calorimeter, spun copper, 3 inches high,
2 inches diameter
Copper gauze, fine .
Copper tape, 12 inches by 3 = inch by 1 qh iach .
Copper wire, bare No. 16 : -
Cork borers, set of six, 4 mm. to 11 mm.
Deflagrating spoons
Files, triangular, with handles
Ditto, round, with handles

| Gas connectors, for slipping over fishtail

burners

Fletcher Argand burner "8, 5 inch, with tripod

Tron borings, free from grease

Iron gauze, tine, 6 inches square

Tron hoop, strip 18 inches by ? inch

Iron wire, fine [flower wire] .

Lead shot

Sandbaths, iron, heavy .

Retort stands, and bench lights, ‘combined,
with three rings and one clamp .

Screw clips :

Spring clips

Spreaders for flame, Russian i iron, 3 inches to fit
Bunsen

Heavy iron stempans, about 13 inches dia-
meter, lid with four holes 3 inches diameter,
and covers . .

Tongs, crucible, i iron, 6 inches .

Tripods, iron, 8 inches by 5 inches, triangular
top . : : ° ° . .

WOOD.

Blocks, set of six round wood blocks for sup-
ports, 4 inches diameter, 5 inches, 4 inches,
3 inches, 2 inches, 1 inch, and 3 inch re-
spectively . 5

each
each
each
each
each
each
each
each
per ft.

per ft.
per ft.

each

each

per sq. ft.

per strip
per lb.
per set.
each
each
each

each
each

per lb.
each
per strip
per reel
per lb.
each

each
each
each
each
each

each

each

per set

List of Apparatus for Elementary Science Cowrse—continued.

Approxi-
mate Price

d.
23

ocoooo ooo o i=) o on
—
Pl

2 0 0 ee CO fo 0)
Wfn0 420 Desa [a

hea

Hee ee On
re

o oom COo°coocoooneo cooWwrooo o
be

o nro

oo
wo

1 10

ON STUDIES MOST SUITABLE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 525

List of Apparatus for Elementary Science Cowrse—continued.

: ony Approxi-
Quantity Description of Apparatus oe Pane
8s. @
1 Cubes, of five different kinds of wood [3 ebony]
edge 2 cms., and 2 assorted, arranged in
wooden box. ‘ : : : . - per box 3 6
1 Ditto, ditto, edge 4 cms. . é é per box 4 6
1 Mahogany tables, for density determinations.
to fix over balance pan. See item 113 < each O 5k
4 Rules, boxwood, 12 inches, divided into inches
and tenths and into centimetres and milli-
metres. f 3 : ; 4 3 + per doz. a <a
1 Seesan, boxwood rule, 24 inches long, with
groove at centre, and wooden wedge to
balance it on : : : - : : each 1B}
— Test-tube stands, 12 holes and pegs. ; : each 0 112
1 Burette stand, double clamp and rings for
filter : : . : each 4 103
MISCELLANEOUS.
2 Asbestos millboards, 6 inches square : 3 each 0 13
2 Asbestos wool fluff . F : : 3 per lb 1 0
- Balances for a charge up to 250 grammes in
each pan, to turn to 1 milligramme, pro-
tected agate knife-edges, set-screws, and
plumb-line . : : . : s each 30 6
— Benzoline lamps, blast, with upright chimney each 12 6
1 Corks, good assorted, } inch to 1d inch . - ‘per gross 2 10
1 Plumbago crucible jackets, outside diameter
3 inches, tapering to 2 inches; height
23 inches : ; : . : per pair 1113
— Measuring-tapes, 22 yards, in case , : - each 6 2
4 Pipe-clay triangles, 23 inches . : each |- 0 08
4 Squared paper, 100 squares to a square inch,
size 14 inches by 10 inches . : : . per ream 5 0
4 Squared paper, ruled in square centimetres,
size 14 inches by 10 inches . - ; . per ream 5 0

Changes affecting Secondary Education.— Report of the Committee,
consisting of Sir Pamip Maanus (Chairman), Professor H. BE.
ArmstTRoNG (Secretary), Sir Witu1am Bousrietp, Dr. S. H.
BorcHer, Sir Henry Craik, Principal Grirriras, Sir Horace
PLUNKETT, and Professor M. E. Saver, appointed to take notice and
report upon Changes in Regulations—whether Legislative, Adminis-
trative, or made by Local Authorities—affecting Secondary Education.

Sinck the Committee were appointed at Leicester the Secondary Schools
Association for England, of which Sir Philip Magnus is Chairman, and
Canon Rawnsley Honorary Secretary, has been called into existence, the
aim of which is to safeguard the interests of Secondary Schools and
Secondary Education generally by the following among other methods :—

_ 1. By promoting interchange of experience among governors of
Secondary Schools.

526 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

2, By furnishing information and advice to members of governing
bodies and others as to the regulations and decisions of the Board of
Education and of local education authorities, and as to questions
arising on schemes of the Board for Secondary Schools, and on other
matters.

3. By communicating with the Board of Education, local authorities,
and other bodies in the interests of Secondary Education.

4, By obtaining such alterations in the regulations of the Board and
of local authorities and in schemes for Secondary Schools as may seem
desirable.

5. By Parliamentary action when necessary.

It will be a question for consideration later on whether the work of
the new Association so overlaps that of this Committee as to render the
latter unnecessary. The Committee, however, ask for reappointment.

Curricula of Secondary Schools.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Sir OLiveR LopGE (Chairman), Mr. C. M. Stuart (Secretary),
Professor H. E. Armstrone, Mr. G. F. Danrett, Mr. W. D.
Eaaar, Professor J. J. Finpuay, Dr. H. B. Gray, Professor R. A.
GREGORY, Principal GrirFiTHs, Sir WiLL1am Huaerns, Mr. O. H.
Larrer, Sir Partie Maanus, Professor H. A. Miers, Mr. T. E.
PaGE, Professor J. Perry, Mr. HuGH Ricuarpson, Professor M. E.
SaDLer, and Mr. A. E. SHIPLEY, appointed to consider and advise
as to the Curricula of Secondary Schools; in the first instance, the
Curricula of Boys’ Schools; and to consider through a Sub-Com-
mittee the Question of the Sequence of Studies in the Science Section
of the Curriculum.

THe Committee are indebted to a Sub-Committee for having under-
taken during the year an inquiry into the Sequence of Studies in the
Science Curriculum. The Report presented by this Sub-Committee is
subjoined.

The Sequence of Studies in the Science Section of the Curriculum.—
Report of the Sub-Committee, consisting of Professor R. A. GREGORY
(Chairman), Mr. G. F. Danig~i (Secretary), Mr. W. D. Eacar,
Mr. O. H. Larter, Mr. Hueu Ricsarpson, and Mr. C. M. Stuart.

AN inquiry has been conducted into the actual practice adopted and the
ideal plan of studies advocated by science-masters in selected public
schools of various types, and the Committee thank the science-masters
and inspectors who have helped by full, concise, and clear replies to the
questions sent to them.

The following extract from the circular letter will show the scope of

the inquiry :—

‘The Sub-Committee charged to make inquiries about the best sequence
of scientific studies in boys’ secondary schools (which for purposes of this

ON THE CURRICULA OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS. O20

inquiry may be taken to mean schools other than public elementary or
technical institutions) recognise that the actual order in which science
subjects are taught depends upon a variety of circumstances. Such
are the type of school, local conditions, the future career of pupils,
externa] examinations, and the personal preferences and qualifications of
teachers.

‘But we suspect that there is a natural order of treatment which is
indicated by the mutual interdependence of the subjects, and to an even
more important degree by the brain-development of the pupil. We
anticipate that from the replies of experienced teachers, inspectors, and
examiners we shall obtain trustworthy information on this question.

‘It seems of importance to specify the average age of the class in which
the work has been done ; to describe the method of teaching, giving an
indication of the relative importance (a) of lectures, tutorial work, labo-
ratory work, and (0) of text-books used by the boys, dictated notes, notes
composed by the boys. Jor convenience we adopt the terms “ subject-
method ” and “ problem-method ” as defined in question 6.’

Questions relating to the Sequence of Studies in the Science Section of
the Curriculum of Boys’ Schools.

1. (a) Name and address.
(6) School.
(c) Type of school and approximate leaving age.

2. Give a list of science subjects studied at your school in the order
in which they are taken, bracketing those begun simultaneously, with the
approximate average ages of the classes.

3. Indicate the range of the above work, and add remarks on method.
It may be useful to give the names of text-books used (if any) and the
extent of the books covered. The terms problem-method, tutorial or
lecture and laboratory, will help to indicate the style of teaching. Refer
also to local conditions and personal preference of teacher where these
have determined the choice of subjects.

4, At what stage or age can text-books proper—as distinguished from
laboratory guides—be introduced with success, and be used jointly with
lectures or instead of them ?

5, If free to teach any science subjects in any order (within limits of
not less than two or more than six hours per week) what order would
you select ? Please insert in brackets after each subject the range of age.
It may be useful to draw arrows to indicate cases in which one subject
leads to another.

6. (a) Please state your experience of teaching classes of from twenty
to thirty boys hy methods other than the usual ‘ subject-method,’ which
treats mechanics, heat, chemistry, botany, &c., as different subjects. Give
the extent of your experience and estimate the resuits obtained.

(6) From your general experience of science-teaching, would you
prefer, in classes of from twenty to thirty boys, to use the ‘sulyect-
method’ or the ‘ problem-method’? By the latter is understood the treat-
ment of particular problems by utilising the methods of mathematics,
chemistry, geology, or other ‘subjects’ at will.

7. Add further remarks based on experience.

528 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Results of Inquiry.
(The Roman numerals correspond with the numbers of the questions above.)

I. Status of Persons and Institutions sending Replies.—The distribu-
tion of these circulars was purposely limited. Of the schools replying,
twenty-five may be described as secondary schools of the type receiving
grants from the Board of Education, and twenty-two as ‘ Public Schools.’
Several inspectors sent replies containing criticism of special value.

II. On existing Curricula.—There is general agreement among the
curricula reported. We quote reply (2) as “typical of schools with leaving
age 15 to 16, and reply (43) as typical of schools with leaving age 18 to 19.
The former we designate Group A and the latter Group B.

School No. 2 (Group A).

Ages 12-13.—Physical Object-lessons—measurements, densities, ther-
mometry, centre of gravity, moments.

Ages 13-14.—Calorimetry, Boyle’s Law, Triangle of Forces ; Chemistry
of air, water, chalk, carbon.

Ages 14-15. Expansion, Vapour Density ; Salt, Chlorine, Sulphur.

Ages 15-16.—Ammonia, Oxides of Nitrogen, Metals, Light, Elec-
tricity, Organic Chemistry.

School No. 43 (Group B).

Ages 11-15.—Astronomy, Physiography or Botany.

Ages 14-15.—Practical Mensuration, Elementary Practical Chemistry.

Age 15.—Hydrostatics, Heat ; Chemistry of air and water.

Ages 16-19.—Mechanics, Heat, Light, Electricity and Magnetism ;
Inorganic Chemistry ; Elements of Chemical Theory and of Organic
Chemistry.

Owing to the close agreement of the curricula, the following tables
fairly represent the actual sequence of subjects in the majority of
schools :—

Taste A.!— Usual science subjects in schools where the leaving age is
svxteen.
Average Age.

Subjects 10 1 22 13 14 15 16°" |

| Nature-study . : ‘ a == we aS =

Elementary Physical
Measurements

| Elementary Heat . : ies Bau lh ba

Mechanics : . . rr
| Heat and Light : J — Se te

| Electricity

|
|
|

Elementary Chemistry . oi
|

Systematic Chemistry

|
|
|
|
|
|

1 See p. 529 for the key to the Tables.

ON THE CURRICULA OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

©
bo
©

Taste B.—Usual science subjects in schools where the leaving age is

eighteen,
Averaye Age.

| Baiaeanel lee a aa 4a 13 a ae a 16 | 17° 18 |

| Nature-study . ig ———_—__— fie = | ie

Klementary Physical } a ot sae econ line te | PH de
Measurements J | —=— |

Elementary Heat. 3 == _— a | eh
Mechanics nated ‘ .| = — |= | ————
Heat and Light : ; .) = | = ee
Electricity ; : f a) x — | — — FF SSS

Elementary Chemistry . .| — / _ | eee
Systematic Chemistry . .| — — | — Sr Ms —————
Biology . : : : a = ieee | — — ett a
Sound : 5 . : On tc Sore goes Ee —_—EAEr

Subject taught by a few schools

x » » Majorityofschl —=

4 » » nearly all schools

Nature-study appears in a minority of Group A and a majority of
Group B, and always precedes mensuration, &c. Outdoor and observational
studies have made progress since the Nature-study Exhibition of 1902.
The work is practical and seasonal. In many schools boys so inclined
continue in their leisure hours to work in connection with natural history
clubs ; otherwise these studies cease somewhat abruptly at age thirteen or
fourteen, and seldom lead to the later study of biology.

Elementary Physical Measwrements.—LBy this title we understand such
a course as that now contained in the earlier parts of most School-laboratory
manuals of physics. Such a course is practically universal ; its adoption
is supported by the Head Masters’ Association, and recognised by
examining bodies. The age at which this and other subjects are studied
is in accordance with the entrance and leaving ages. Boys of fourteen
presumably enter Group B schools without having done the work which
is taken from age twelve to fourteen in Group A. In a few cases the
elementary practical physics is correlated with mathematics; in many
cases the absence of such correlation is deplored.

Elementary Heat.—This subject is universally taught, and may be

considered a necessary preliminary to or accompaniment of elementary
chemistry.

5
seventeen, In some Group A schools electricity is introduced early as

1908, MM

530 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

otherwise the majority of boys leave entirely ignorant of a subject the
applications of which will meet them in everyday life. Sound is usually
omitted ; when introduced it appears late, and is perhaps retained for
examination purposes.

Systematic Chemistry, with few exceptions, is studied for the last two
years.

Biology.—In Group A schools biology only appears as a class-
subject in connection with agriculture. Interesting experiments in
rural education are being made, and botany is prominent in the pro-
gramme ; otherwise the absence of botanical teaching in boys’ schools is
markedly in contrast with the practice in schools for girls. In a few
cases lessons in physiology are given at age fifteen-sixteen. As a rule,
biology is taught only to boys intended for the medical profession, and is
a post-matriculation subject.

Physiography, Geography, and Geology—We do not include these
in our tables, as they do not appear to be among the responsibilities
of the scientific staff at present. In a few instances mention is made
of them, and some attempts to synthetise a boy’s scientific knowledge
through the medium of geography are discoverable.

The science work of the classical side of higher secondary schools
(Group B) is not sufficiently stated in the replies, the majority. of science
masters confining their statement of curriculum to the work done in the
divisions wherein science is an important branch of the instruction.
From statistics presented by Mr. R. E. Thwaites to the Leicester
meeting of Section L in 1907, it appears that in secondary day schools all
boys over twelve take science, and in twenty-nine public schools less than
60 per cent. of the boys take the general science course of four hours a
week. Some of our correspondents state that science on the classical
side is very weak ; there is no favourable report in this connection.

III. Replies to Questions 3 and 6 are considered together ; see VI.

IV. On the Use of Text-books.—The reports received are clear and
emphatic that text-books are not used, and ought not to be used, in the
youngest classes. They are equally clear that text-books are used in the
higher classes. At age nearly sixteen, or in Forms V. and VI., or in
the Jast year before an examination, text-books are usefully introduced.
The reasons given for using text-books are various—for reference, for
preparation, for specialists, for examinees, for revision, for boys who have
been absent. Up to fifteen, success appears to depend on carefully
prepared lessons, followed by a self-reliant attempt to write a plain,
accurate account of what has been done. Text-books when first intro-
duced are employed to supplement the tutorial work, and only at a
much later stage, depending on the intelligence of the boys, can a book
be employed instead of a lecture—z.e., for the acquisition of facts or
apprehension of a course of reasoning. Fairly intelligent boys about
fifteen years old, who have been learning science for two years, can use
text-books for home work, but not as a substitute for lectures. Many
boys appear to have very little power of reading for themselves, but that
is perhaps a reason for encouraging them to try. Text-books seem useful
in physics rather sooner than in chemistry. There is a loss of keenness
on the part of the boys who can find the result of an experiment in the
book before they perform it. The use of laboratory guides seems to
depend on the preference of the teacher rather than on the intelligence of
the boys, Where clear oral directions are given, and all the boys are

ON THE CURRICULA OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 531

doing the same experiment, no text-book is required on the laboratory
bench. On the other hand, if each boy works at his own pace through
a definite course of experiments, some such arrangement is necessary in
order to give assistance. Whether the boys shall all do the same experi-
ment at once or work independently is perhaps determined by other
circumstances. If the apparatus is limited, the class small, the master
not over-busy and helped by a demonstrator, individual teaching is pos-
sible with boys who can make some use of books. On the other hand,
in large classes, with plenty of apparatus but no demonstrator, the master
perhaps relies on very thorough teaching in the lecture-room, the class all
do the same practical work, and no text-book is required.

V.—On the Ideal Curricula in the View of the Correspondents.—The
majority regard the existing curricula as satisfactory, requiring few changes
to realise their ideals. The improvements most frequently desiderated are
(1) the teaching of mensuration and elementary physical measurements as
part of mathematics, (2) inclusion of nature-study where this is not already
done. A few ask for the introduction of more biology and of geology,
the latter as part of geography. In many schools—probably the great
majority—the science master has had a free hand to arrange the curriculum,
subject to the demand that some success in external examinations will be
achieved. Some public school science masters complain that preparatory
schools do not lay any foundation for the science work of the public school.

VI. and IIl.—On Present Methods of Teaching.—Laboratory work is
universal, and the importance of boy-made notes is frequently mentioned.
In the larger schools a high value is set upon written answers to
questions (a) set before experimental work in order to focus the ideas of
the class upon its purpose, (>) set afterwards in order to test grasp of
principles. The method of instruction is tutorial, supplemented by what
may be described rather as ‘lecture-demonstrations’ than as ‘lectures.’
Whereas teachers feel satisfied (as a rule) with their choice of studies,
many complain of the influence of external examinations on the methods
of teaching, particularly as hindering, or actually preventing, the adoption
of heuristic methods. There is so great a variety of opinion with regard
to the value of heuristic methods that we are unable to summarise the
replies with justice. We consider that opinion inclines to the adoption
of the ‘problem-method’ in the earlier stages and to the ‘subject-
method’ in the more advanced classes. Almost everyone appears to
have tried the heuristic method of teaching, particularly in connection
with the chemical side of problems in the laboratory. In the case of
nature study the problem-method dominates the teaching, and stimulates
boys during the years for which the study is prescribed. With reference
to chemistry and physics we quote several statements received :—

No. 1.—‘The course follows the order of discovery as developed in
my book. . . . I tried the problem-method within one subject—chemistry
—for several years. It failed completely ; it was impossible to keep up
with twenty boys individually or to keep them together. The method
was commended by several competent observers who saw isolated lessons,
but although the classes were keen and gave time out of school the result
was chaos of mind and the boys became discouraged.’

' No. 8.—‘ Ten years of heuristic work. I am more than ever con-
vinced of its value. . . . No work in the curriculum is valued more.’
_ No. 12,—‘ Rigid adherence to subjects is ridiculous in elementary
stages,’
M M2

632 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

No. 16.—‘ Heuristic method is excellent where boys are few, young,
ignorant of science, and it is possible to have the ‘‘sets” move up the
school together for two years. It breaks down when revising for
examination purposes,’

Nos. 17 and 20.—‘ Employ “ problem ” and ‘ subject” methods simul-
taneously ; infuse the first method with the spirit of the second.’

No. 22.—‘For larger classes even I should prefer the problem-
method.’

No. 23.—‘Country schools should base curriculum on rural economy
and agricultural science, all science “subjects” being drawn upon as
required ; but it is very difficult to obtain assistant masters capable of
using the method.’

No. 24.—‘ Problem methods tried with success for boys not entering
for examinations. Systematic chemistry is a poor school subject... .
Heuristic method takes too long. The standard of scholarship exami-
nations and the rigidity of pass examination methods and subjects are a
curse which prevents one adopting ideal methods.’

No. 25. ‘I much prefer the subject method. . . . More interesting
to the student,’

No. 26.—‘ Have had nine years’ experience of problem-methods and
nine years’ previously of subject-methods, and consider that there is no
comparison as to the superiority of the problem—z.e., heuristic method. . . .
It gives a better insight into the way in which knowledge is and has been
gained.’

No. 41.—‘ Boys are too slipshod in their mode of thought; since it is
my chief concern to teach them to concentrate their minds, I prefer the
subject-method.’

No. 42.—‘ Problem method requires smaller classes, better equipment,
more laboratory assistants than most schools can command. . . . Problem
work cannot be properly examined, and home-work is difficult to arrange ;
a very high class of teacher is required.’

No. 45.—‘ The subject-method is preferable for comparatively advanced
students, the problem method for beginners.’

An inspector of secondary schools writes: ‘It is very rare to find
that the result of the teaching is to lead boys to work on their own
initiative. Even in schools where the heuristic method is most success-
fully taught, it is rare to find boys who can apply the methods learnt in
previous problems to a new question, even of a related kind.’

A head master writes: ‘Subject-method preferable for public school
boys. Problem-methods only suited to those who are intensely in-
terested. I consider that those who emphasise the heuristic method
have had little experience in teaching discipline, which is essential to
learning.’

Sir William Huggins writes: ‘It would seem to me, on general
grounds, that in the junior classes the first elements of natural science as
a whole, in a broad way (including mechanics, heat, light, chemistry,
electricity, and geology), should be taught by the “subject-method,” to
be followed later by the judicious addition of the ‘‘problem method” in
the subsequent study of each science.’ ; ,

Professor H. A. Miers writes: ‘I think that for the more advanced
boys it is most desirable that all the science subjects should assist one
another, that problems should be discussed which involve an acquaintance
with more than one science, and that.the tendency to divide science up

ON THE CURRICULA OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 533

into separate subjects shod be left more and more out of sight as the
student advances.’

The difficulty of summarising replies of which the above is a selection
is obvious. There appears to be agreement as to the desirability of
emphasising the inter-dependence of chemistry and other subjects
‘Physical science is one; your teaching must bring this into promi-
nence.’

VII.—On Special Difficulties to which reference is made in the replies
under * Further Remarks.’—Several masters complain of the insufficient
mathematical equipment of pupils, and of the need of co-operation
between mathematical and science masters. Promotions are a source
of difficulty owing to their frequency and to the fact that they are
often made with entire disregard of the science work. As a conse-
quence, boys in the same set differ much in their ability and know-
ledge of science. One correspondent protests against the abandon-
ment of qualitative analysis, which in his opinion is of much value,
provided boys are made to think. Another states that Universities do
little to teach methods of teaching science. From the science masters of
a few schools comes the complaint that they are under a classical tradition
of overwhelming power, and that their colleagues disparage science.
We are happy to say that there are other schools where broader views
are found compatible with unsurpassed achievements in the classical
languages. ;

The injurious influence of external examinations, particularly in the
early part of the course, is a frequent source of complaint. We quote
reply No. 2 in this connection : ‘The curse of science work is examina-
tions, especially the compelling of boys to pass in Elementary Science.
Nothing is more deadening than the getting up of chemistry for London
matriculation. When the experiments have been made and understood,
all educational value has been sucked from them ; the boys are capable of
doing higher work, but they must now grind along the weary round of
describing elementary experiments, of learning to recognise that the same
question may be asked in ten different ways, and of devising laborious
experiments to prove something which is perfectly obvious.’

Opinions and Recommendations of the Sub-Committee.

_ The following conclusions may be drawn from the results of this
inquiry :—

(1) The organisation of the studies of chemistry and physics, and
especially their correlation, shows marked improvement, both in secondary
day-schools and in the ‘sides’ of those large public schools in which the
science work is regarded as an important part of the general intellectual
training.

(2) The attention universally given to laboratory practice and to the
development in the boys of the powers of doing and describing deserves
nothing but praise. The considerable degree of freedom given to teachers
has clearly encourage independent experiment and thoughtful criticism
as regards their work. The resulting variety and elasticity in their
methods is, in our judgment, a good feature which we wish to preserve
As indicated below, we desire to give greater freedom to teachers by
modification of the influence of examinations.

(3) We are in sympathy with the endeavour of the Public Schools
Science Masters’ Association to overcome the neglect of science n

5B REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

preparatory schools. The boys should be made to feel from the first that
the study of science is an essential part of their education. Both in the
preparatory departments of day schools and in preparatory schools some
mensuration should be included as part of the mathematical work.
But an essential part of the preparatory course in science should be
natural history (including some physical geography) and the rudiments of
physics ; the real value of these studies depends upon training in
observation.

(4) No school course can be considered complete without at least two
years’ systematic practical work in science. We direct the careful atten-
tion of head masters as well as science masters to the problem of how,
without over-pressure, to make the study of science an intellectually
fruitful and stimulating part of the work in higher secondary schools of
those boys whose special gifts are linguistic or literary.

We think that the value of sound scientific literature of a general
character and of good lectures, well illustrated, for older and intellectual
boys is underrated. Evolution, geology, electricity, optics, sound,
human physiology, and astronomy seem suitable subjects. The feeling
that there has been of late years a loss of popular interest in science
is shared by your Committee, who feel that we must look to the
schools to improve matters. While fully recognising the importance of
quantitative methods, we feel that qualitative work also deserves en-
couragement and respect. We wish to avoid producing the student
described by Professor J. J. Thomson (Section A, Liverpool, 1896) in the
words, ‘he commences his career by knowing how to measure or weigh
every physical quantity under the sun, but with little desire or enthusiasm
to have anything to do with them.’

(5) We are struck with the unanimity shown by our correspondents
concerning the influence of external examinations upon the teaching of
science. This influence is found to be harmful. The harm is produced
partly by having to work along the lines of too rigid a syllabus, but
chiefly from the fact that science is intended to teach principles, while the
examination asks for details. A boy may have derived the full benefit
from a course of science lessons without remembering the experiments
therein ; for the examination, however, he has not to repeat these experi-
ments ; he has to memorise them, and to study how to reproduce what
he remembers in the approved examination style. Anything further from
true scientific method could not possibly be conceived.

It has been suggested that the written and practical examination
should be replaced by, or include, an oral examination based upon the
candidates’ own work as shown in his note-books, leading on to its
application to other problems, and the plan is worth trying ; it is hoped
that some examining bodies may be induced to make some experiments
in this direction.

Working on the lines of a prescribed syllabus limits the teacher's
initiative and discourages research methods, The syllabus in nearly all
cases prescribes too much for the majority of schools, and, therefore, too
much is attempted in the schools. This prevents sufficient attention to
the scientific method of inquiry. There are many branches of science, but
one scientific method. This consists in obtaining facts and ideas by
experiment or observation, classifying and comparing them, and discover-
ing a formula or principle toexpress them. All the school work in science
should be imbued with the aim of cultivating an appreciation of and

or
ov

or

ON THE CURRICULA OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS,

@
familiarity with scientific method. Examinations will continue to impede
this aim in so far as the school-work is forced to conform to the examina-
tion rather than vice versa.

(6) We desire a more extended recognition of geography as a science
subject, in association with elementary geology. Rightly taught by means
of exercises both in and out of school, geography is capable of providing
a training in scientific method, of inspiring interest in natural phenomena,
and of co-ordinating work in many branches of science.

(7) We are of opinion that more attention may wisely be given to
the claims of biology in upper forms.

(8) We note with satisfaction that the necessary correlation is observed
as regards chemistry and physics. We find that there is too little correla-
tion of (a) mathematics with physics, (6) chemistry with English com-
position, (c) nature-study with art, (d) physics with workshop instruc-
tion, (e) geography with all other branches, especially meteorology and
nature-study.

The need for more correlation of mathematics and physics implies
the need for more co-operation between teachers of those subjects. We
believe that the classification into mathematical sets might be accepted
by the science masters as the classification for science sets also. It
should be pointed out that much of the work which has been done in the
physical laboratory can advantageously be transferred to the mathematical
classes. Mensuration, including the greater part of the work frequently
described as elementary physical measurements, should be part of the
mathematical teaching. The work in the physical laboratory should, even
at the beginning, be of a truly experimental character.

(9) We are impressed with the need of bringing all science work into
closer touch with everyday experience (see Professor Miers’ Address to
the Public Schools Science Masters’ Association, January 1908, pub-
lished in an abridged form in the ‘School World,’ March 1908).

(10) There is a need of inspiring and well-written books on scientific
works and achievements. It is unwise to limit a boy’s ideas in science
to the narrow experience he can gain in a laboratory or can hear in a
class-room ; such a course must in many cases lead to distaste for science.
On the other hand, we question the value of the stream of elementary
text-books continually poured forth. What is wanted is a scholarly
literature of science.

(11) There are too few laboratory assistants in secondary schools of all
types ; a most wasteful ‘economy.’

536 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

Corresponding Societies Committee.—Report of the Convmittee, consist-
ing of Mr. W. Wuitaker (Chairman), Mr. F. W. Ruper
(Secretary), Rev. J. O. Bevan, Sir Epwarp BraBroox, Dr. Horace
T. Brown, Dr. J. G. Garson, Principal E. H. Grirriras,
Mr. T. V. Hotmes, Mr. J. Horxryson, Professor R. MELpo.A,
Dr. H. R. Mitt, Mr. C. H. Reap, Rev. T. R. R. Sressine,
Professor W. W. Warts, and the PRESIDENT and GENERAL
OrricEers. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Tue resolution on*the subject of Photographic Surveys, which was sent
up by the Conference of Delegates to the Committee of Recommendations
at the Leicester meeting, was remitted by the Council to the Corre-
sponding Societies Committee. This resolution deals with three distinct
questions, to each of which the Committee have given their attention.
The first clause of the resolution expresses the desirability of obtaining
‘information as to the present state of things in Britain in connection
with photo survey-work.’ In order to obtain such information the Com-
mittee prepared a circular, with a schedule of questions, which was sent,
towards the end of last year, to all the J.ocal Societies in correspondence
with the British Association. Replies were received from thirty-eight
societies, and are preserved for future reference in the office of the
Association. These replies give information, in more or less detail, about
survey-work in the counties of Devon, Dorset, Essex, Kent, Shropshire,
Surrey, Sussex, Warwickshire, Worcestershire, and Yorkshire. It appears
from the replies that very little systematic survey-work is undertaken
directly by the local scientific societies, but in several cases it is carried
on by organisations which are related, more or less closely, to the societies,
and in some instances are their direct offspring. It is to be regretted
that certain surveys, after having been started with enthusiasm, seem to
have lapsed into inactivity.

With regard to the second clause of the resolution, which suggests
that the British Association should ‘publish instructions or give advice
for the execution of a scientific photographic survey,’ the Committee,
while recognising the desirability of co-ordinating the work which is
being carried on in different localities, do not feel justified in recom-
mending the Council of the Association to undertake the resyensibility of
issuing any code of general instructions. The Committee d sire to put
on record the receipt of a resolution passed by the Council of the Photo-
graphic Survey and Record of Surrey, expressing the opinion that ‘It is
desirable to federate the various Photographic Surveys in this country for
the greater furtherance of record work.’ Much may, no doubt, be said in
favour of federation, but in view of the existence of the National Photo-
graphic Record Society, the Committee hesitate to recommend the
Council of the British Association to take action in the matter.

The third clause of the resolution passed at the Leicester Conference
expresses the desire that steps should be taken ‘to found or promote a
photo-record of the town and district in which the British Association
holds its annual meeting.’ The Committee are of opinion that it is desirable
there should be such a record ; and, in an interim Report to the Council,
have recommended that the Local Executive Committee of the Association
should be asked each year to obtain a collection of photographs of the

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 537

district visited, and to arrange for the exhibition of the collection during
the meeting. Probably the collection could generally be obtained through
the medium of the local Scientific Societies. The Committee have heard
with much satisfaction that the Council has acted on this recommenda-
tion, and that the Dublin Naturalists’ Field Club, at the request of the
Local Executive Committee of the forthcoming meeting of the Associa-
tion, is preparing for exhibition a large collection in illustration of the
natural history and archeology of the Dublin district. It is hoped that
this example will be followed in the future, and that an exhibition of local
photographs, systematically arranged, will become a permanent feature of
the annual meetings.

The Committee desire to express the deep regret with which they have
learnt of the recent death of Mr. W. Jerome Harrison, who moved the
resolution at the Leicester Conference, and who had initiated the dis-
cussion on photographic survey-work by the paper which he read to the
Delegates at the York Meeting.

The Committee beg leave to recommend that the Selborne Society
and the Lincolnshire Naturalists’ Union be placed on the list of Affiliated
Societies, and that the Bradford Scientific Association and the Hawick
Archeological Society be added to the roll of Associated Societies.

Several suggestions with regard to subjects suitable for discussion at
the forthcoming Conference of Delegates have been received from the
various Corresponding Societies ; and the Committee, having duly con-
sidered them, have decided to recommend that the following subjects be
brought before the Dublin Conference :—

‘On detailed Natural History Surveys of Restricted Areas, an im-
portant work suitable for Local Societies.’ To be introduced by
Professor G. H. Carpenter, B.Sc. (Dublin).

‘Sanctuaries for our Native Fauna and Flora.’ To be introduced by
Mrs. Mary Hobson (Belfast).

‘The Advisableness of Re-stocking Haunts whence Fauna and Flora
have disappeared.’ To be introduced by Mr. H. Davey (Brighton).

‘On Permanent Records of Natural History or other Observations by
means of the Card Catalogue System.’ To be introduced by Mr.
F. A. Bellamy, M.A. (Oxford).

Professor H. A. Miers, F.R.S., who will preside at the Conference in
Dublin, has promised to deliver an introductory address to the Delegates
on ‘The Educational Opportunities of Local Scientific Societies.’

The Committee ask to be reappointed, with a grant of 25/7. It may
be explained that the annual grant is expended in binding the Proceedings
of the Corresponding Societies, in printing and postage, and in obtaining
the clerical assistance required for the preparation of the annual Catalogue
of Papers selected from the Corresponding Societies’ publications. This
catalogue, which is of much bibliographical value, is prepared by Mr.
H. C. Stewardson, and as the number of Corresponding Societies grows
year by year the labour naturally increases.

The Committee recommend that Mr. W. P. D. Stebbing be nominated
as Secretary, in succession to Mr. Rudler, who has resigned, after having
held the secretaryship of the Committee since 1902.

or
2
oO

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

feport of the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies held
at Dublin, September 3 and 8, 1908.

Chairman s : . Professor H. A. Miers, F.R.S.
Vice-Chairman ; . Professor Grenville A. J. Cole.
Secretary . : ° . W. P. D. Stebbing.

The following Corresponding Societies nominated Delegates to represent them
at the Conference, The attendance of Delegates is indicated in the list by the
figures | and 2 placed in the margin opposite to the name of the Society, and
referring respectively to the first and second meetings. Where no figure is
shown it will be understood that the Delegate did not attend. The attendances
are taken from the Attendance Book, which each Delegate is expected to sign on
entering the Meeting-room,

List of Affiliated Societies appointing Delegates.

1 2 Andersonian Naturalists’ Society . M.B. Gilmour, F.Z.S.
1 2 Ashmolean Natural History Society
Gf. Oxtardohire F. A. Bellamy, M.A.
1 Bath Natural History and Antiqua- | ys
chop uss es eae } Rev. C. W. Shickle, M.A.
1 2 Belfast Natural History and Philo | John Smyth, M.A
sophical Society i 2A ated
2 Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club . . Mrs. Mary Hobson,
2 Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club . . G. P. Hughes.
Birmingham and Midland ie lt Paleo
Scientific Society ia s
1 Birmingham Natural History and | Prof W. W. Watts, E.R.
Philosophical Society Sacer tree aber
2 Brighton and Hove Natural History }

and Philosophical Society j poet Ape

1 Bristol Naturalists’ Society A . J. H. Priestley, B.Sc.
1 2 British Mycological Society . . Carleton Rea, B.C.L.
1 Buchan Field Club. : : . J. F. Tocher, B.Se.

1 Burton-on-Trent Natural History and | Arthur Slator, Ph.D.

Archeological Society
Canada, Royal Astronomical Society | Prof. A. T. de Lury, M.A

of
1 Caradoc and Severn Valley Field Club Prof. W. W, Watts, F.R.S.
Cardiff Naturalists’ Society . . Prof. W. 8. Boulton, B.Sc.

Chester Society of Natural Science, | y
alferatuse, andeAct I. W. Longbottom, F.R.A.S.
Cornwall Royal Polytechnic Society EK. Kitto, ¥.R.M.S.
1 2 Croydon Natural History and Scien- W. Whitaker, F.R.8
tific Society ‘ Pao
1 2 Dublin Naturalists’ Field Club . . G. H. Pethybridge, Ph.D.
Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural .
hie an ee \ Prof. G. F. Scott-Elliot, M.A.
Hast Kent Scientific and Natural ) A. S. Reid. M.A
History Society Bias eS
Eastbourne Natural History Society . H. Dent Gardner, F.R.G.S.
Edinburgh Field Naturalists’ and W. C. Crawford, FR.S.E
Microscopical Society aba: ta Steet Ba
f Edinburgh Geological Society . . R.C. Millar.
1 Essex Field Club E . Prof. E. G. Coker, M.A.

=
bt «6b

2 Glasgow Geological Society ; . Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S.
1 2 Glasgow Natural History Society . Peter Ewing, F.LS.
2 Glasgow Royal Philosophical Society Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S.
Halifax Scientific Society . Wm. Simpson, F.G.8,

i Hampshire Field Club and Archzo- low
logical Society W. Dale, F.S.A.,

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 539

1 2 Hertfordshire Natural History Society | yo. topkinson, #.L.8

a e

on

no bo

bo

bo

bo

www

and Field Club
Holmesdale Natural History Club.
Hull Geological Society . : =
Hull Scientific and Field Naturalists’
Club
Institution of Mining Engineers
Ireland, Statistical and Social Society
of
Isle of Man Natural History and
Antiquarian Society

Leeds Geological Association . .
Leicester Literary and Philosophical
Society

Liverpool Biological Society . .
Liverpool Engineering Society . .
Liverpool Geographical Society . =
Liverpool Geological Society . :
London: Quekett Microscopical Club
London: Selborne Society ‘ °
Manchester Geographical Society
Manchester Geological and Mining
Society

Manchester Microscopical Society
Manchester Statistical Society .

Midland Counties Institution of En- \ J. A. Longden, M.Inst.0.E.

gineers .

Miss Ethel Sargant, F.L.S.
J. W. Stather, £.G.S.

T. Sheppard, F.G.S8.
J. A. Longden, M.Inst.C.E.
Sir Robert Matheson, LL.D.

J. Lomas, F.Q.S.
A. R. Dwerryhouse, D.Sc.

} Alfred Colson, M.Inst.C.E.

J. Pearson, M.Sc.

T. Duncanson, M.Inst.C.E.
Capt. E. C. Dubois Phillips,
H., C. Beasley.

C. F. Rousselet.

W. M. Webb, F.L.S.

J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S.

| Wm. Watts, M.Inst.C. 8.

F. W. Hembry, F.R.M.S.
Prof. 8. J. Chapman, M.A.

Norfclk and Norwich Naturalists’ | wre derick Long, L.R.C.P.

Society

North of England Institute of Mining )

and Mechanical Engineers
North Staffordshire Field Club .

J. H. Marr.
Sir Thomas Wardle.

Northamptonshire Natural History | Beeby Thompson, F.G.S

Society and Field Club
Northumberland, Durham, and New-
castle-upon-Tyne Natural History
Society
Nottingham Naturalists’ Society .
Paisley Philosophical Institution
Perthshire Society of Natural Science

Rochdale Literary and _ Scientific
Society
Somersetshire Archeological and

Natural History Society
South-Eastern Union of Scientific
Societies
Southport Literary and Philosophical
Society

ie

N. H. Martin, F.1.8.

Prof. J. W. Carr, M.A.
John Woodrow.
Dr. H. R. Mill, F.R.S.E.

J. R, Ashworth, D.Sc.

Rey. R. Ashington Bullen, B.A.

}
} F. J. Clark, F.LS.
}
\

A. H. Garstang.

South Staffordshire and Warwickshire \ ae

Institute of Mining Engineers
Tyneside Geographical Society .
Vale of Derwent Naturalists’ Field

Club
Warwickshire Naturalists’ and Arche-

ologists’ Field Club
Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club
Worcestershire Naturalists’ Club
Yorkshire Geological Society .
Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union ,.
Yorkshire Philosophical Society ;

Herbert Shaw, B.A.

} R. 8. Bagnall.
\ W. Andrews, F.G.S.

Rev. J. O. Bevan, M.A.
Carleton Rea, B.C.L.
J.G. Robinson.

T. Sheppard, F.G.S.
Dr, Tempest Anderson

640 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

List of Associated Societies appointing Delegates.

Bakewell Naturalists’ Club - . E.M. Wrench, M.V.O.
Balham and District Antiquarian and \ Rin ‘Kd ward: Biabrogeaen
Natural History Society J ae
Bournemouth Natural Science Society J. EK. Liddiard, F.R.G.S.
Bradford Natural History and Micro- } W. West. F.LS
scopical Society } pti pee ge
Catford and District Natural History } :
Society YLALB. Harding.
Dunfermline Naturalists’ Society _ +. Henry Beveridge.
aatee Scientific and Microscopical } DEW. Deane Gutches
Society
1 2 Grimsby and District Antiquarian and
Naturalists’ Society

Re
bo

a
be bo

\ Dr. O. T. Olsen, F.LS.

1 2 Hampstead Scientific Society °. . OC. O. Bartrum, B.Sc.
1 Hastings and St. Leonards Natural
History Society C. G. Skyrme.
Hawick Archeological Society . » C.J. Wilson.
Ipswich and District Field Club . P.G. H. Boswell.
1 Leeds Naturalists’ Club and Scientific

Association \ Harold Wager, F.R.S.

1 2 Lewisham Antiquarian Society . . Sir Edward Brabrook, C.B.

Newcastle-upon-Tyne Literary and -
Philosophical Society Prof. M. ©. Potter, F.L.S.

Preston Scientific Society . . Edmund Dickson, F.G.S.

Scarborough Philosophical and =
Archzeological Society Herbert King, M.Sc.

1 2 School Nature Study Union A . Mrs. White, D.Sc.
Scottish Microscopical Society . . Alexander Fraser, M.A.
Southport Society of Natural Science. D. E. Benson.

South’ London Entomological and ) -
Natural History Society = t Robert Adkin, F.E.S.

1 Teign Naturalists’ Field Club. . John 8, Amery.
1 Torquay Natural History Society . A. Somervail.
1 2 Watford Camera Club : ; . John Hopkinson, F.L.S.

Furst Meeting, September 3.

The Meeting was presided over ty Professor H. A. Miers, F.R.S., Chairman
of the Conference. The Corresponding Societies Committee was represented by
the Rey. J. O. Bevan, Sir Edward Brabrook, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Dr. H. R. Mill,
Mr. W. P. D. Stebbing, and Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S.

The Very Rev. Dr. Delany, Principal of University College, having wel-
comed the Delegates, the Chairman delivered an address on ‘ The Educational
Opportunities of Local Scientific Societies.’

Chairman's Address.

The subject which I have chosen for my brief Address is one to which I think
attention may be profitably drawn at the present moment. The opportunities for
scientific education have become so changed during the last few years, and yet at
the same time the gulf between the amateur and the trained scientist has been in
a sense so widened, that the educational position occupied by the Local Societies
deserves to be reconsidered.

It will, I think, be generally granted that the London and other central
societies are becoming more and more the aunt of the professional scientific man,
and I wish to raise the question whether under these circumstances it may not
he hoped that the Local Nocieties will accept an increased responsibility for the

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. Bd

amateur, for whom it is true they already do so much? To me, at any rate, it
appears that this responsibility is also an opportunity. Let us look back for a
moment at their earlier history.

The affiliated and associated societies number some which came into existence
nearly a hundred years ago, and many of them date back to a time when there
was no organisation which attempted to diffuse a taste for science throughout the
country at large. ‘I'hese societies were doing pioneer work, not only by arousing
interest in research, but by creating a general scientific atmosphere, and promoting
ideas which were at that time confined to a very small class, In fact, before
the birth of the British Association they were almost the only agencies occupied
in this sort of pioneer work. The British Association itself was initiated by
one of them, and may be regarded as a magnified society of the same character,
changing its habitat from year to year: the importance of the early work which
it effected in popularising and promoting scientific ideas cannot be over-estimated,
For a long time the work of the societies was not supplemented in any very
adequate manner by the publishers or the Press; public interest in the general
laws that underlie the processes of Nature was only dawning; the prevailing
attitude of mind was one of indulgent curiosity; the older generation regarded
science as a curious and entertaining pursuit, but chietly fitted to be a pleasing

astime for the young ; there was as yet no intellectual thirst for scientific know-
edge sufficient to create a demand for a special literature. I am of course
leaving out of account for the moment the ardent students and the earnest inves-
tigators and teachers who were engaged in laying the foundations of scientific
education and research, For the majority, however, especially those who lived
out of reach of the great towns and universities, and beyond the personal in-
fluence of the few inspired workers and teachers, there were as yet no books
which would enable them to acquire the rudiments of real scientific knowledge at
home or by individual effort. It was not easy even for those who had a personal
interest in some scientific subject to ascertain what progress was being made at
- the great centres of discovery and research.

It was only at a much later period, after the stimulus had been supplied by
the British Association, and by the Local Societies (whose rapid increase was no
doubt due in a great measure to the influence of the British Association) that a
real thirst for information made itself felt, and created a sufficiently widespread
demand for a new class of scientific literature.

This resulted in the appearance of a number of excellent. cheap text-bools of
elementary science, designed to give a certain amount of sound general knowledge
and to stimulate the desire for more, and for a considerable time these continued
to fulfil precisely the object for which they were intended. If the day of the
shilling primers, each including a whole science, seems now to have closed, we
must allow that in their time they played a very important part in the history of
science in the British Isles. Written by acknowledged leaders of thought, they
challenged the attention of educated and intelligent people to whom perhaps science
had not meant much before. They were written for and read by those who had
not received any advanced scientific training, and who would not have found else-
where the sort of information that they needed, presented in so instructive a
manner. But by fostering the desire for more accurate and detailed know-
ledge these primers contributed perhaps to their own extinction, for with the in-
crease of special training and the dissemination of expert knowledge they have
been more and more supplanted by the educational text-book used in schools, and
the specialist treatise which is now put into the hands of the advanced student.

In other words, as scientific literature has become more highly organised it has
fallen more and more into the hands of specialists. This is, no doubt, the merest
commonplace to all whom I am addressing; but the conclusion that I wish to
draw is that from the point of view of the amateur this is to be regretted; for he
can no longer get an adequate insight into the modern advances of science without
either going through a course of special reading in text-books of various grades—
for which he has no time—or attempting to master a treatise which he can hardly
be expected to understand without a preliminary training of some sort.

542 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

Moreover, it must be remembered that the intelligent amateur no longer
necessarily belongs to a class outside scientific circles as he did formerly, but he is
frequently quite learned in one branch of science though he may be the merest
amateur in another. And yet when he travels outside his own subject he is in danger
of being placed in a position somewhatsimilar to that of his predecessor, the amateur
of sixty years ago. For him the introductory text-book is too laborious and in a sense |
too elementary; the treatise is too technical and is expressed in a language which he
cannot understand. On the other hand, the magazine or newspaper article he dare
not trust ; it is true that excellent articles upon scientific subjects do from time to
time appear in the popular magazines, but they are rare: moreover the magazine
article comes to-day and is gone to-morrow, and cannot always be secured when
wanted. I do not forget that several good scientific journals exist which appeal
to a wider public than the specialist ; ‘Science Progress’ in particular, happily
revived during the last few years, aims at avery high standard of information, and
with conspicuous success. But even here the articles are too often expressed in
language which cannot be understood by the ordinary reader.

So far I have referred only to the condition of scientific literature in relation
to the amateur, But in this Association and at this conference we are concerned
rather with the spoken than with the written word; I have only deferred the
consideration of scientific meetings in order to draw a parallel.

For if we turn to Scientific Societies, is not what I have said about scientific
books still more true about the societies? The greater scientific societies are
becoming every day more highly specialised both in their publications and in
their membership; there are very few which occupy themselves with more than
one branch of science; and even those few which profess to cover a wider field
break up into sections, each of which is far too sharply divided from the others.

If it be difficult for the intelligent amateur to extract information from the
scientific text-book or treatise, how much more difficult is it for him to learn any-
thing from the proceedings and meetings of these societies? If the language of
even the text-books is so thiclly beset with technical expressions that it is hard
to understand, how much more unintelligible is the specialist jargon of a society
in which it often happens that a paper, though read in a meeting of specialists,
can only be fully followed by two or three of those present ?

Flease understand that I am not protesting against scientific terminology in
itself, or in its right place ; but I do feel that it is discouraging to the earnest
inquirer after knowledge to find himself confronted by books which he cannot
understand, or condemned to attend meetings where the language spoken is a
strange and uncouth tongue which he has no time to acquire.

The result is that our intelligent amateur, whether he be a scientific man
or no, is placed very much in the position where he was sixty years ago; and
I believe that now, as then, he may find salvation in the local scientific society,
if it really attempts to meet his wants.

Cannot the Local Societies, in addition to their ordinary work, make a special
effort to satisfy the educational needs of the great many intelligent people who
have not been trained in, or have not had access to, laboratories, museums, and
scientific libraries, or whose opportunities have not brought them into contact
with field-work and the interests and occupations of naturalists, and who desire
to know more of science, and perhaps to become themselves workers ?

It is true that for their working-purposes, especially if they are naturalist or
field clubs, it is advisable for them to break up into sections, one perhaps occupied
with the local fauna, another with the local flora, and so on; but if only they
could succeed in keeping their members together upon some common ground in
which they are united by a general interest in science, and could offer some educa-
tional help to members to whom science is chiefly a hobby and a relaxation, they
would be doing work which cannot be performed by any other sort of society or
by the publication of any ordinary text-book or treatise. In the present state of
scientific inowledge and specialisation nothing can be more useful than to bring
together persons interested in different subjects and to enable them to understand
one another, Very much of the estrangement which now exists between different

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 543

eciefices, or even between the different branches of the same science, is due to the
exaggerated use of technical language where it is not necessary, so that a great deal
of scientific work is almost entirely unintelligible to the workers in other subjects.
The most useful function, in my opinion, that can be performed by the Local
Societies, in addition to that of kindling an interest in local problems and in the
methods by which they are to be studied, is to encourage a habit of expressing
scientific results in simple and intelligible language that will appeal to the whole
society. ‘There are very few scientific ideas or facts which cannot be expressed in
homely language freed from technical nomenclature, and though it is necessary for
purposes of brevity and precision to make use of this nomenclature in the journals
and at the meetings of the more specialised societies, it ought to be wholly un-
necessary to do so in societies which embrace a number of interests, and whose
members are to a considerable extent persons without scientific training. Indeed,
nothing can be better or more useful for the scientific specialist himself than to
attempt to explain his own work in simple language to a wixed audience; and if
the Local Societies can encourage the specialist to come to them and describe his
own researches in language which all their members can understand they will do
him as much good as they do themselves.

It may justly be urged that there are not many persons able to describe
scientific observations or experiments in simple, untechnical language; they are
not trained teachers or lecturers. But surely that is all the more reason why
they should try to do so; and the Local Society is precisely the place in which the
attempt may with advautage be made. It would perhaps be a different problem
if the communication were a set lecture of the sort given at sckools and wuiver-
sities by professed teachers. For lectures of this kind educational training and
experience are no doubt necessary. Perhaps, indeed, there is already too much of
the set lecture about the meetings of some Local Societies. But when a speaker
is describing something which he has done or seen himself, it ougbt with a little
practice to be easy to give an account that can be understood by a mixed audience
as well as by those who are engaged in the same work as the speaker, I believe
that the attempt is well worth the making.

The educational opportunities which lie before the local scientific societies can
only be developed by co-operation between the professional and the amateur; let
the professional scientist become less professional and let the amateur become less
of an amateur when they come together at the meetings of such societies. The
difficulties with which they have to contend are twofuld: on the one hand, there
is always the danger lest a paper or a lecture be too special or too technical for
the audience because the professional cannot adapt himself to their need; on the
other hand, there is the danger lest the audience fall into the habit of expecting
too much novelty or entertainment. Everyone must have seen how the utility of
a society is undermined by a single pedantic address, which only causes members
to drop their attendance, or by the reluctance of some members to artend unless
they can expect to be amused by lantern-slides or showy experiments or witty
talk. And yet where can better material exist for the teaching of science than
among the members of a society who have joined it voluntarily, and in the first
instance because they really wished to learn ?

My suggestion is that the way to interest and to teach such people is through
the description, discussion, and criticism of new research,

An account of some piece of original work actually in course of progress, and
described by the enthusiast who is himself carrying it on, is far more interesting
and stimulating than any secondhand account in text-books and treatises of the
work that has been done at some previous time by others, and should not require
any additional embroidery to make it attractive. Anyone who hears a keen
naturalist describe the excitement with which he has watched something
new in the habits of animal or plant must catch the spirit of enthusiasm, and
feel the stir of interest that is the inspiration of all successful teaching and
learning.

Perhaps this sort of living interest has been too exclusively confined to natural
history communications in some of the Local Societies, In reality the same

544 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

excitement and the same interest belong to new observations in any and every
branch of science.

In fact, I often feel that the sort of book which is really wanted at the present
day is a simple untechnical account of the living work by the worker himself. No
matter how abstruse or advanced a research may be, there is always something in
it which is of surpassing interest if understood, and this can surely be expressed
simply and made intelligible without any detailed knowledge of the science in all its
bearings. Afterall, the methods and results of science can just as well be taught by
examples drawn from the new work which marks the advancing wave of progress
as by what has gone before; and the new thing is always the most interesting.

I am aware that to many it.will seem that popularisation of the newest thing
in science is being overdone at the present time, and that we hear too much of
yadio-activity, wireless telegraphy, and the rest. Iam suggesting, however, that
not only the brilliant discoveries, which most easily attract the public through the
Press and fire the popular imagination, should be taken up by the Local Societies,
but that the more ordinary work of everyday science, equally necessary and per-
haps equally momentous in its consequences, which is at present buried in the
proceedings of one sort of society, should be made a real and living thing by the
humbler societies of another sort.

I am aware, too, that for educational purposes it is not prudent to introduce
children to the newest and imperfectly understood results of modern science until
the soil has been prepared by the study of the more mature and better considered
work which has gone before ; but for the moment I am pleading the cause not of
school children, but of intelligent amateurs, many of them persons of exceptional
intelligence, some of them persons of considerable scientific attainments and know-
ledge ; before whom both the present achievements of scientific discoverers and
the humbler work that is being done by scientific students, whether professional
or amateur, may well be laid without all the preliminary training that affords
educational exercise to the child at school.

Up to the present, however, I have left out of sight the really great educa-
tional advantage that science possesses over all other subjects, namely this: That
science is not only talk and thought, but action; that there is always ready to
hand, not only something new to be described or narrated, but something new to
be actually done by both teacher and pupil. Either some natural object or
occurrence to be seen that has never been seen before, or some experiment to be made
that has never been made before. It is this which fires the enthusiasm and stirs the
imagination, and makes scientific research so enthralling ; and the educational work
which the Local Societies can best perform, because they are dealing not with
children but with men and women, is the encouragement and direction of
original research. A good deal is already done by some of them; but on the
whole how little compared with what might be done by some co-operation
between scientific workers and the societies, and some organisation of the societies
themselves. Education requires teacher and pupil; it would not be enough in
general that the members of a society should be interested by the address of a
specialist and then be left to their own devices to imitate his work and endeavour
to research for themselves. This would only, in general, lead to discouragement,
if not to disaster. After he has stimulated their interest, they need his guidance
and advice. Let him then address them, with the object not of advertising his
own researches, but of enlisting the services of fellow-workers. I believe that
many a scientilic investigator could attract an army of willing workers through the
Local Societies if he were given the opportunity of interesting them in his own
researches, of suggesting to them lines of simple investigation which they could
profitably pursue, and ot continuing to guide them by advice and criticism. Some-
thing of the sort is occasionally done in the study of the local flora and fauna.
That it is not done more widely and in other branches of science is due to the
prevalent and growing idea that none can take up any original work without the
preliminary of an orthodox scientific training. This I believe to be a great
mistake when the teacher is concerned with intelligent people who are no longer
- children, and who come to him with the desire for work,

‘

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 545

In an address delivered this year to the Public School Science Masters’ Associa-
tion, I ventured to illustrate this aspect of education by relating my own experience
with a young Frenchman whose previous training and previous work were in the
subjects of philosophy and theology, but who desired to have some personal
acquaintance with scientilic work. I found it possible with him to begin at once
’ with a definite problem of original scientific research (even in a highly specialised
branch of science), and to make that the introduction to the general principles of
the science which he was studying : beginning with the practical experiments and
observations, and working back to their interpretation. Ina very short time he
was able to publish important results. This is only one of several instances that
I might quote from my own experience, but it isthe most convincing, The interest
and enthusiasm inspired by the feeling that one is making new observations, or in
however humble a way working towards a discovery, is quite enough to inspire a
longing to understand the general bearing of the work upon which one is engaged.
This method would be impossible with a beginner of untrained mind; but it is
easy with a mature student who is a beginner only in the sense that he is not
a specialist. Far too much time is often spent in preparation which leads to no
performance; and much harm is done by discouraging willing learners, because
they have not been prepared in the orthodox manner. This is the reason why
I see the opportunity for the Local Societies to take up the scientific education of
unprepared but mature minds; firstly, by inviting the trained and experienced
workers to make known to them, through the medium of untechnical language,
the beauty and interest of scientific work in the course of its progress, and of
scientific discovery in the making; and, secondly, by providing them with fol-
lowers who will continue to prosecute under their guidance original observation,
and even experimental research.

Everyone knows the success which has attended the University Extension
movements, and how an inspiring lecturer has often sown the seed which has
produced in literature, art, or science a rich harvest of sincere students,

Let the Local Societies initiate a new Science Extension moyement, in which
they contribute from their members the willing workers who are ready to act
under the guidance and inspiration of those who have had the advantage of special
training and experience. Let them attract new members with this object. ‘Chere
are so many persons anxious and able to do something in the way of scientific
work who only want the sympathy and guidance of a leader more experienced
than themselves; such leaders may not infrequently have to be sought among the
teachers or researchers outside the society.

In this way, and by some such co-operation, will the professional cease to be
a professional, and the amateur cease to be an amateur, when they meet upon
common ground in the local scientific society.

Surely anything that tends to break down the barrier between the professional
scientist and the amateur, between expert and layman, is for the good of scientific
progress. That the one should ever be actually discouraged by the other seems
almost incredible ; and yet one has to make the humiliating confession that this
happens again and again. :

in this connection I would beg you to read the most fascinating and illuminating
address delivered to one of our societies, the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union, by
Mr. Lamplugh, when he was its President in 1906—an address which protested
forcibly against the unhealthy distinction between amateur and professional, and
put forward a plea for the need of the amateur spirit in scientific work.

If I have succeeded in this Address in making a practical suggestion that
embodies the spirit of his appeal, I may hope in some measure to repay the debt that
I owe to one who has always inspired me with the example of true and undivided
allegiance to the call of pure science.

Jt may well be that my views are visionary, and that those who know better
than myself the constitution and the work of the Local Societies will pronounce
the co-operation which I have suggested to be impracticable. Yet when I
remember how many persons I have met in my own limited experience who were
burning with the desire to do something in the way of scientific work, and only

1908, NN

546 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

wanted encouragement and guidance, I feel sure that they are to be numbered by
thousands. It is not enough to tell such people what they have to learn and bid
them go away and learn it, or when they ask for work to give them words.

Have we not in the Local Societies the agency which can get at these people
and organise them as workers? If not, where is such an agency to be found ?

I think it a duty incumbent upon those of us who have had the opportunities,
and have tasted the rare delight of scientific research, to lend a helping hand to
those who desire to share koth its toil and its treasure, but have not been able to
reach these by the well-recognised path that we have ourselves pursued.

Mr. William Gray (Belfast), in proposing that the thanks of the Delegates
be given to the Chairman for his very excellent address, said that he had had
the advantage of hearing many important addresses to the Conference, but he
had never heard one more appropriate and practical, appropriate because it so
clearly defined the proper relation between the work of the Local Societies
and the British Association. He said that he could not refer in detail to its
practical side, but hoped that he might be permitted to draw attention to one of
its suggestions to those who address their fellows—viz., to avoid the display of
technical text-book terms and try to convey the results of one’s investiga-
tions in such language as would be understood by one’s fellow-members and
friends.

The Rey. R. Ashington Bullen (S.E. Union), in seconding the vote of thanks,
said that he trusted that the wise and weighty words of the Chairman would be
read and acted upon by the Local Societies. He thought that the Chairman’s
valuable paper should be read in conjunction with the admirable address of Dr. A,
Smith Woodward to the Delegates in 1905.

Professor Miers asked the meeting to pass a hearty vote of thanks to
Mr. Rudler for his work as Secretary of the Conference since 1902, and also to
Dr. Delany for permitting the meetings of the Conference to be held at University
College. These were passed with acclamation.

Mr. William Dale (Hants Field Club and Archeological Society), in speaking
of Professor Miers’ address, said he thought it pointed to the necessity of Local
Societies meeting in the winter as well as the summer. The one with which
he was connected met only in the summer, and this was probably the case
with many others represented at this meeting. It was only at a winter meeting
that a professional scientist could impart information in the way suggested by
the Chairman.

The Very Rey. Dr. Delany (University College, Dublin), having thanked the
meeting for the vote which they had just passed, said that with the spread of
education he thought those societies were most useful which took up subjects
relating toman. In instancing the danger of using technical scientific terms,
of which so many did not understand the use, he suggested that they should
not be used at all. In speaking about the address from the educational point
of view, he mentioned, as an instance of what could be done with small means,
the work done by the Professor of Botany at the College in laying out and
planting a small area at the back of their buildings with hundreds of plants,
and so forming an invaluable series for investigation by the students.

Mr. J. Hopkinson (Hertfordshire Natural History Society and Field Club)
said that he thought the Hants Field Club was almost if not quite alone in not
holding winter meetings. It would be very advantageous to the members of
Local Societies if they could get original workers on various subjects to brin
their investigations before such evening meetings, disclosing their methods geil
stating the results at which they aimed.

Sir Edward Brabrook (Balham and District Antiquarian and Natural History
Society), who rose to speak on a matter concerning the harmonious working of
the British Association and Local Societies, proposed the following motion:
‘That the Conference desires to represent to the Committee of Recommendations
that whenever a Committee of the British Association enters upon a local
inyestigation notice should he given to any Local Scientific or Archeological

™

*”

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 547

Society, so as to enable that Society to offer any co-operation that may be
desirable.’ This proposal having been seconded by the Rev. J. O, Bevan
(Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club), was carried unanimously.

Mr. Whitaker (Croydon Natural History and Scientific Society), wha
mentioned that they were not represented on the Committee of Recommendations
as a matter of course, then proposed that the Chairman of the Conference should
be ex officio on the Committee of Recommendations. This having been seconded
by Sir Edward Brabrook, was duly carried.

Mrs. Mary Hobson (Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club) then introduced the
following subject :—

Sanctuaries for our Native Flora and Fawna.

The present moment seems most opportune to introduce the subject before us,
for here in Ireland, where the farms are being purchased from the landlords by
the tenants, many spots of value to science, of general interest and beauty, are
perhaps in danger of disappearing at the hands of the careless or the over-thrifty,

Hitherto the owners of the soil have of intent, or from a lack of interest,
been the preservers, and superstition on the part of the country people is
responsible for the preservation of many prehistoric remains.

In Ireland the demesnes are to be retained in most cases by the landlords,
and it is to the landlords largely we must look tor help.

In England only too many demesnes are kept so absolutely ‘tidy’ that wild
life has few spots to call its own; therefore it is suggested that field clubs and
other kindred societies should first consider the most likely spots suitable for
sanctuaries—say, one in each county or area—and then send a deputation of their
members to the owners, asking them to fence them in and guard them from the
ravages of intruders, the cost of which would be almost nv/.

It has been suggested that it might be possible for county councils to set aside
waste land, but in Ireland their powers are clearly defined and are limited to
ancient monuments; and I am told that rates are levied by the county councils
on practically all land, and that in this sense there is no waste ground,

The Irish Land Act, 1903, sect. 14, says—

(1) When any land which is vested under the Land Purchase Acts in a
purchaser contains any ancient monument, which in the opinion of the Land
Commissioners is a matter of public interest, by reason of the historic, traditional,
or artistic interest attaching thereto, they may, with the consent of the Commis-
sioners of Public Works in Ireland, by order declare that the property in the
monument shall not pass to the purchaser, and may make an order vesting the
monument in those Commissioners.’

It would be useless to ask the Government to help in Ireland, for so much
money is wanted urgently for land for relieving congestion, forestry, &c.

Perhaps the English county councils may have greater powers than the
councils here. There are certainly common lands in England which might in
some cases be available. I advocate the establishment of sanctuaries without
knowing all the possibilities of creating them; knowledge of that kind varies
with each district.

Some sanctuaries already exist in this country. Lambay Island has been
absolutely protected by the Hon. Cecil Baring. At Glencar, co, Sligo, is a
natural sanctuary, not in the demesne, owned by the Wynne family. At
Knocknarae Glen, in the same county, the hart’s-tongue ferns extend for a quarter
of a mile; they have the longest fronds in Britain, and measure up to a yard
in length. Lord Clonbrock, at Clonbrock Forest, East Galway, has a sanctuary
now carefully preserved, and the only one undisturbed since Elizabethan times.”

I do not advocate the preserving of sanctuaries for the shutting out of the
‘man in the street,’ and admitting solely the man who fondly imagines himself
a scientist, because he is making a collection of birds’ eggs, plants, &e.

What as scientific societies we should be strenuous about is the collecting of
knowledge rather than specimens, In the case of birds the excuse is always
‘ for identification,’

/ NN2

§48 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

« In these days of books and accurate descriptions and faithful illustrations
other pursuits can be studied without having actual specimens; for instance, it
is possible for any real student to study the Maoris, or certain tribes in Central
Africa, without requiring their mummies in the house. In the same way a man
can study the heavenly bodies, the Pyramids, the Pacific tides, without inverting
a well-known line, ‘ hitching a star to your chariot.’

Pick up a journal devoted to such subjects, and you will there read censure
of the professional bird-catcher, who makes a living out of his pursuit, and the
woman who has the wings of wild, and sometimes rare, birds in her hat. I
have not one word to say in defence of either; but what I do object to is the so-
called scientific person who is not only collecting but advertising every rare
bird. To me it seems absurd for one class to cast stones at the other; if anything
the latter is the worse, for because he loves birds he must kill; he also some-
times shoots, wounds, but cannot get the bird, and it is left to die a painful
death.

Take the case of Pallas’ Sand Grouse; that bird has come before now from
its home in Tartary, and been shot. Now attention is being called to its re-
appearance, and only the so-called scientific man will recognise it and appro-
priate it.

The following I copy from one of our local papers for August 8 :—

‘At a recent meeting of the British Ornithologists’ Club there was exhibited
a species of bunting new to Britain. It was shot on Romney Marsh on March 26
of the present year, and is the species known as the Large-billed Reed Bunting
(Emberiza pyrrhuloides palustris). It is a common species in Southern Spain
and Italy. The usual fate of such stragglers is to be shot by enthusiastic
ornithologists, which seems a pity, as otherwise they might possibly stay and
breed. And it is probable that it is sometimes by such wanderers that the range
of a species is extended.’

Have we made up our minds that we want no new birds added to our lists ?
Are we determined that a bird like this shall not breed on our shores? Is the
method now pursued an advantage to science? Let us be frank and answer,
‘No.’ If we could even preserve the rarer migrants from slaughter we would
still have the egg collector, who is quite as destructive as the man with the gun.

For myself, while admiring the art of the taxidermist, I get no pleasure from a
glass case of stuffed birds; one is told that such find their way eventually to
museums. I venture to say that our curators often resent such methods of
dumping indifferent property, which occupies much wanted space.

Museums are the only places justified in having collections of once living
things, and at the present rate of activity a time will come when they will be
stocked with only what is necessary for the pursuit of knowledge.

In the matter of our native birds it is bzd-watching that is of value.

Complaints are heard of hedgerows in the vicinity of our cities being denuded
of our common ferns, but the genuine botanist, who meanwhile is scouring the
country for the rarer sorts, is the first to cry out against the poor town-dweller
who has no scrap of garden and few opportunities of seeing the country.

Further, what about those Societies which give a list of every rare plant, &c.,
on the programme of an excursion, and sometimes offer a prize for the largest
collection of wild flowers gathered? It is said that no roots are taken, or
rarely; but even so, the more precious the find the greater the loss of the
seed.

Let us, if we have any love for science and the life about us, go back to our
respective societies and do some little thing to stay the vast destruction going
on around.

Mr. Wilfrid Mark Webb (Selborne Society) alluded to the nineteen acres of
woodland near London preserved by the Brent Valley and Richmond branch
of the Selborne Society as a bird sanctuary. He also expressed his opinion as to
the value and necessity of collections, but only when used for truly scientific
purposes,

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 549

Mr; William Gray (Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club) said that Mrs. Hobson
omitted to say that the motto of their club was ‘ Protection, not Obstruction,’
and that recently it gave a good example of this. For a number of years a pair
of birds, strangers to Ireland, had attempted to breed in the north, but were
prevented by a local collector, who had removed the eggs year by year. This past
summer the President of the Club had collected funds to be paid conditionally
on the successful hatching of the eggs. The result was that the young birds were
brought off and allowed to escape without being molested.

Mr. John Hopkinson (Hertfordshire Natural History Society and Field Glub)
spoke as to the intelligent use by a member of his Society of the field-glass and
camera for the observation of rare birds in their breeding haunts, stating that he
had been careful not to divulge the sites. He read a letter which he had received
that morning, written on the suggestion of an Assistant at Kew Gardens, asking
for a number of roots of a rare local plant for medicinal purposes. His Society
had a stringent rule against rare plants being uprooted and rare birds and other
animals being killed, and this request would not be granted.

The Rev. Ashington Bullen (S.E. Union of Scientific Societies) congra-
tulated Mrs. Hobson on her paper, and emphasised the need of educating public
opinion to protect rather than wantonly to destroy rare species. He instanced
the destruction of the hoopoe, of which one spring a pair was shot in the New
Forest and another (by a friend, whonoticed it as a strange bird) in Lincoln-
shire. Somewhere about thirty years ago one collector took over nine hundred
Lulworth skippers in the limited habitat in which it is found : probably the species
is on the verge of extinction by this time. Such insatiate greed was worthy of
the strongest condemnation. About a quarter of a century ago (1880) the
Cornish chough was to be seen on St. Alban’s (Aldhelm’s) Head, in Dorset. He
had heard the jackdaw credited with the disappearance of this species: it was
more probable that the charge should be laid at the door of the birds’-nester or
sportsman. He believed that the chough was nowhere to be found on the
South Coast nearer than Cornwall, and it was diminishing even there.

Mr. Harold Wager (Leeds Naturalists’ Club and Scientific Association) ex-
pressed the opinion that the collection of specimens for purposes of solving
definite scientific problems or for museum collections was no doubt necessary,
but that a sound knowledge of natural history, whether of animals or plants,
could be obtained without the indiscriminate and thoughtless collecting so often
indulged in. Local Societies could do much to prevent this by encouraging a
more scientific attitude towards collecting and by insisting upon the fact that
the study of the habits and life histories of the living organism in the field and
not the accumulation of dead specimens is the work of the true naturalist.

Mrs. Hobson, in responding, said it was the needless collecting that ought to
be checked. Referring to Mr. Gray’s remarks, she said that the bird mentioned
was the Red-throated Diver, which had laid its eggs for more than twenty years
in Donegal, only to be taken and sold to collectors; but, thanks partly to the
Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club, a sum of money had been spent in watching, and
for once the eggs had been saved from destruction.

The Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee was distributed by the
Secretary, and it was decided to apply for a grant of 257.

Second Meeting, September 8.

The Meeting was presided over by Professor Grenville A. J. Cole, Vice-
Chairman.

The Corresponding Societies Committee was represented by the Rev. J. O.
Bevan, Sir Edward Brabrook, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Mr. W. P. D. Stebbing, and
Mr. W. Whitaker.

The Vice-Chairman apologised for the absence of Professor Miers (who was
unable, to his great regret, to be present), and in his name welcomed the dele-
gates to the second session.

650 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Professor G, H. Carpenter introduced the following subject :—=

On Detailed Natural History Surveys of Restricted Areas, an important
work suitable for Local Societies.

He spoke of the advantages to be derived from a survey of the flora and fauna
of restricted areas. He described the researches lately carried out in Lambay, a
small island off the coast of co. Dublin, described in the ‘ Irish Naturalist’ for
January and February 1907. Five animals new to science and twelve additions
to the Britannic fauna are among the results of this survey, which threw much
light on the immigrations of animals and plants on the east coast of Ireland. At
present the North Bull, a grass-covered sandbank in Dublin Bay, known to be
less than a century old is being explored in the same way by the Dublin
Naturalists’ Field Club. It is hoped that this work will enable the course and
order of immigration into new areas to be traced. Next year a survey of Clare
Island, off the coast of co. Mayo, is to be begun. He urged the importance of
the study of such restricted areas in other districts, as likely to help in the
solution of geographical problems.

With regard to his use of the word ‘ Britannic, he suggested that it should
be used when referring to work relating both to Great Britain and to Ireland, the
word British being used when speaking only of the former.

Dr. G. H. Pethybridge (President Dublin Naturalists’ Field Club) desired to
call attention to the exhibition of photographs illustrating local Natural History
and Archeology, which that Club had organised for the benefit of members of the
British Association visiting Dublin. Included in the collection were several
photographs illustrating some of the points referred to by Professor Carpenter in
his remarks on the natural history survey of Lambay Island and of the North Bull.

Mr. R. C, Millar (Edinburgh Geological Society) said that in Edinburgh, on
the suggestion of Sir John Murray, the Scottish Natural History Society has made
arrangements for obtaining, classifying, and keeping up to date a systematic
record of information acquired and observations made regarding the physical
features, flora and fauna, of the Forth Valley. Field’s Catalogue is subscribed
for, and the Society stores the cards containing the information and observations
in a card cabinet, Dewey’s Decimal Tables being used as a conyenient index for
arranging them.

Mr. I. A. Bellamy (Ashmolean Natural History Society of Oxfordshire)
mentioned the great interest obtained from the study of the flora and fauna of an
area which he was investigating. rae age

Mr. Frederick Long (Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society) called atten-
tion to the fact that a few years ago Mr. Robert Gurney established a small
laboratory on Sutton Broad, in Norfolk, for the use of anyone wishing to prosecute
research work. Mr. Balfour Browne worked there for some time, chiefly on the _
Mollusea of the Broads. A lady at the present time is working at the flora of
the district. Board and lodging are provided at the laboratory for 30s. a week.
While staying there Mr. Browne made a map of the district, marked out in
squares for convenience in noting localities.

Professor Carpenter, in reply, spoke as to what it was proposed to do in the
investigation of Clare Island.

Mr. Henry Davey (Brighton and Hove Natural History and Philosophical
Society) brought forward his paper—

The Advisability of Re-stocking Haunts whence Fauna and Flora
have Disappeared.

This paper having been printed in the ‘ Brighton and Hove N. H. and Phil.
Soc.’s Ann. Report for 1908,’ pp. 28-31, a short abstract only is now given.

The author, having shown that the problem is less simple than appears and
that the larger Mammalia are most in danger of extinction, while the more
beautiful and rare birds also require protection, turns to the Lepidoptera for a

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 55k

detailed exposition of his views. Here he makes it clear that, besides man’s
attacks, various actions of Nature are involved in the uncertainty of the oecur-
rence of various species, and that while for some inexplicable reason a species
will disappear for years, it suddenly will reappear in great abundance. He deals
especially with the Large Copper, the Clouded Yellow, the Pale Clouded Yellow,
and the Large Blue butterflies. He shows that the profusion or rarity of these
species is greatly influenced by natural causes, and, speaking of the Large Blue
and Mr. Frohawk’s discoveries in 1903 in Cornwall, points out that the life-
history of many insects is still only partly known. Nevertheless, he advocates
the re-stocking and protection of rare animals and plants. The task, however,
should be undertaken in a scientific spirit, and allowance made for a certain
proportion of failures.

Professor Carpenter (Dublin) said that the main point to remember in any
scheme of preservation or introduction of rare forms was that those species which
tended to become extinct were usually of commercial value.

Mr. W. P. D. Stebbing mentioned how very often valuable work could be
done in the distribution of beautiful plants and insects when they were becoming
scarce through increasing cultivation of some of their areas. He particularly
instanced what had been done this last season by Mr. Henry Preston (Juincoln-
shire Naturalists’ Union) in collecting the caterpillars of the Peacock butterfly,
which was becoming scarce in his part of the county through the ruthless
destruction of nettles, in keeping them through the larval and chrysalis states
till they emerged as perfect insects, and then setting them free in areas less likely
to be disturbed.

Mr. Davey in his reply said that he thought when desirable Continental
species would thrive in this country they should be introduced in spite of
Professor Cole's objection that it would nullify much of the work on the distri-
bution of the species. As an example of the recent destruction of interesting
forms he mentioned a case where pheasants were lately introduced into woods
where they had never been preserved before, and the consequent loss in a short
time of much of the district’s more valuable fauna and flora.

~The Rey. J. O. Bevan (Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club), after a short dis-
eussion, brought forward the following resolution: ‘That this Conference of
Delegates of Corresponding Societies affirms the desirability of bringing under
the notice of Local Societies the necessity for preserving the fauna and flora of
their respective districts as against wanton destruction or careless and needless
collecting.’

Mrs. Hobson (Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club), in seconding the proposal,
reiterated the uselessness of the ordinary collection of stuffed birds and such
things. The only way to prevent this kind of destruction was to influence public
opinion,

The resolution was carried unanimously,

Mr. F. A. Bellamy (Ashmolean Natural History Society of Oxfordshire), who
exhibited his method for the permanent recording of Natural History or other
observations by means of the bard Catalogue System, spoke as to the great value
to workers of such a catalogue, but said that care was needed in outlining such
a scheme that it would retain its usefulness whatever the size. In a paper
which he had had printed, and which was distributed to the members, he
analysed the aims and methods of natural history societies, and the large
amount of time spent with very little result. Te then gave a summary of the
progress and the future scheme of work arranged for his society, and finally
submitted estimates of the initial cost of the tray, cover, and cards as exhibited,
and the general arrangement of the Mollusca Card Catalogue,

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF S@IENCE.

‘552

Ayyenuue ‘ssur

Z98T ‘Aqerog uvrenbyay
puv £10381 7 [B1NZBN ABAOT[VH PUL sITGssoLsoung

-p92001g puy su0oBsuBLy, "sg su0oN 0&% a bi . * salujmngq ‘pyanfuung “4j0u1y *S§
“Ajjenuue ‘y10dey = |"pH"sz FZ BIOOSSY| avoU “‘oossy “WH ‘deyug Aoydeg ‘¢ pus ‘aqud
+ATYQ WOU ,4S]VANJEN YsIaT, | $ "sg SIEQuIEF{ | : "sg “quay aa ‘puepeay jo Arerqyy yeconeN ‘your “AM OP ‘fF |* * * gsst ‘ANID Pll SIsi1BINIeN arqng
qasiog ‘eSvavora Aoqqy 98ST ‘ano
“Ayyenuus ‘ssurpee0o1g *80T “SOT 00% TOWN “SWWW “VW ‘Uyued yeqleH *ASY | Pel Uvrenbyuy pue Ar04STT [eIMPVN yosiog
“Ayyenuue ‘sui, "POSS OL8L
-OB8SUBIT, Puv ssuIpssd01g | puE “sg “SOT euoN OL e r * s100W_ “AM *) ‘uopsor9 ‘TIeH oTaNd ‘kya100g optyuatog pue A10;s1H [BINIeN BopsoID
“Aypenuus g1odeyq | spiemdn ‘sp ouoN 88E - . * [BAUIOD ‘eutoqmBp ‘MOIMEN *M “WH | * * €egT ‘Aqoloog o1uqoazAlog [vAOY [[BAUI0D
| Ysta109 “aL
“Ayjenuue ‘suooesueLy, "ST ‘21 ou0oN 86 | uyor ‘souvzuag ‘sZurpting o1qng ‘uinesnyy eq, | * FIBL ‘Jo Aqat00g [vorFojoay jeAoy TTema10D
“A(jenuue } uosduig IL8I ‘AV pue
‘sBulpaaoorg + pue yiodey | ‘pg ‘sz pus's¢ auoN OFO'T “| puBUIIW ‘ad “9 ‘ra1seyO ‘mnesnyy aoueasory | ‘oINqeIeqVT ‘eoUeIOg [BINJEN Jo AyoI00g 1298eq0
‘A[[BndUe ‘suoTyOwSUeI T, “PO SSL ouoN 00F * Ptpawuy ‘qo013g XN gz “93005 WeqTHD “AM | * ‘s . * L981 *Aqojoog SISH[BANIEN Piprep
“Ayjenuue ‘syoug avg |
JO plooay pus suo1{OBsUvAT, “90 "3g 10% : Amqsmoryg ‘209139 aTseo ze “|seTIOT “AH | * 6ST ‘ANIO PletT AeT[¥A W19Aeg pus oOpEIED
“Ay WA UOUI-1q ‘jeuINo ¢ SIVT]OP & ELilcg 00¢ ISUITION “y “f OWUOAOY, ‘Surpimg eyywysay uerpeury | * FRI ‘Jo AJaloog [volMLouo1}sV yeAoy “epeuep
*ATBUOTSvOD0 ‘su0T? query,-u0-u0,Ng 9181 ‘4491009 [BOrsoy
-owsuBiy, : ATjenuus “y10dey “9g au0N 002 rquedvig ‘yrosuaaey “ogg ‘pur pAOTT *H | -o@yory pus Ar0\sSI{ [VANJEN JUeL[-Wo-uoyINg
-Aypenuue ‘suomovsuriy, “sg “se OL * -peayieqeg ‘yee19g jadvyp “og gq “Moyo0L, “A “Lf | * : : s L881 ‘QNIO VIELT Weyong
*Apenuue ‘suoovsuely, "S01 au0N 18 . 1a}S9010 M “490199 oFBSaI0T FE ‘BOY UOzZIIVH | * : ‘ * 9681 ‘AqaT00g [voISO[OOAPY YSYLG
“Al[enuue ‘sdulpesoo1g ‘Sg PUB "SOT "8g SSL Joystag ‘adeT]0D Aqtsteatayg “ogg ‘AeT4seNg “H “Lf | * : * — * ZggT ‘Agal00g ,SISITVINQeN [Oystig
| | Past ‘Ajer00g [Borydos
*Ayyenuue ‘y10dey | "801 auoNn O09T uo SUg ‘soulg YSNoIOgTIVIV 6 “AIBIO WOBQION “C | -O[d puv ATOysI [VINJBN eAOH pas no sug
UMoIg "fq pue“y WT es01p "aM | 8g8T ‘Aqe100g§
“AT[BUuOTsBod0 ‘ssuTpae001g "ST 21 euoN est ‘UIBYSUTMIIgG ‘Yeeq3g [TeqMeN ‘asnoyH Linqaay | [eorydosopyq puv £10481H [eIngeN weqsuULITg
*Alpenuue ‘suo1}eAresqo | wey suIMAlg ‘490149 asIpBredg *8yNI195 6E8T ‘AgoI00g
[BOLSoTOIOAIO_ JO Sploomny | *s¢ puB "Pg “SOT au0oN GEL -U] PULIPIPY pus weysuuiig ‘[easseIM parjTY | OYWUETOS e3NgZIsUT PUBIPIIT Pues wey Ss OUI
“Ay [enuUs ‘qn[O,S481181098N OIISyOIM log
aayysyorateg 349 Jo Az09s1H "PO "88 “SOT 00% ‘uoy4y jo osueyy “C'd ‘UexIV "TI ‘Wf ‘£40 | * . * TéST “ANID SIStlVinqzeN eltysyormsag
“Ayenuue MoUsY Uva ssl puv
‘s3urpesd0ig pues 410dey “3G | "SG O%F “WWW ‘WPM "HY ‘eenby asa][0D ‘umesnyy | * : * $981 SQ0ID PIPhT SFSTCINIEN IEF OT
“ATTBNUUS IZ8T ‘Ayaro
‘sZurpeso01g ~pus 4yaoday | "SEIT ouoN ied “WIWH ‘Sunox ‘jy ‘arenbs eZaq[op ‘umnasnyy | -og [eorydosopiyd pue AIOYIAL [RPAINIVN YSeslog
yqeg ‘uo14ng14saT SgsI ‘quip
*Ayyenuue ‘sBurpaeoo1g | “901 "8G 0g oyueg pus Ares0qVy [eAoY ‘prvm plagsuey “¢ | Pleld uvluvnbiyuy pus AIOystH [VaNjeN yQV_
8281 “args
“Sypenaue gaodoy | “8g euoN | LFS * p1ofxO ‘pvory suqor “3g F “VW ‘AULTIEM “V “I | -PIOJXO Jo Aqayoog ArOysIH TBINIBN Weo[OWyS Vy
| | WBUN'] 351005) pus 900}s
*A][BuUOIsvo_0 ‘s]eUTTY | "PO *8Z Eling oge -uyor youre “Ye "MOSsSB[H “asa[[oM [eormyoay, | * * — eggT ‘A}eI00g ,SISI[CINIBN UWeIUOsIopuy
| |
su014B0I1qng JO onss] mo1ydraosqn aon s10q A£1B4a109g JO ssolppy
19801 SS Tydr S LIQ UO HL 5 In
yo Aouenberg pue 9731, jsuauy ER GRelicg jo ‘on pue suenN 10 siaqzienbpsay worepunoy JO OFVC PUL FLL ML
|

‘sayon0g pawyyy

“6061-8061 BOA NOILVIOOSSY HSILIug FHL do SHILEINOG DNIGNOdSAUUOD AH,

2

se)

iw

amd

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES,

| A(qquom‘szsau13ugq Sumy

yO ‘Qs8uy Jo suoljO¥SUeIy,

*Ajaaq1eub ‘jeuinor
*A[[BUOIs
-2090 ‘suoljoesuRIy {10h

® Soult} 90199 ‘ssulpeeo01g

*Apqquout ‘soJON 91n9UN

an *AyTeaA-J/vq ‘[eurn08 Lr

“Alfenuus ‘sSurpeado01g
“Ajpenuue

‘yzodey pus suoljoBsuBIy,
*Ajyenuue

‘q10dey pue suoovsuery,
“Ayyenuue ‘suory

-oBSURI, pus s50199000Ig

“Alpenuus ‘suonovsuvsy,

Area k-j ey ‘suoyousueiy,
“A[TBUOIsBI00 ‘sUOTZOVSUBA,

“AyTenuus ‘yeuino0g¢

“A[Q}UOUE ‘SMOT]OVSUBIT,

*A[TenuUe ‘suoiporsueLy,

“Al[enuue ‘suorjoesuel F,
*‘savak 901}

Io 0M} Arosa ‘sZulpsvovo1g

"1vak B OOM ‘SUOTPOVSUBLY,

“A[penuue ‘ssurpesoo1 g

“A [enuus ‘ssurpss001g
“ATpenuue ‘sso1

-pssdolg pues suonoesueiy,
*&[yenuue ‘ssut

-pes001g pues suolousuTLy,
“A]peuolseoo0 **o2p
‘sulomoyy jeloadg, £ A[[v
-nuus ,“yooq-avoX ,f A[129

-3enb $~“.4sI[vinjeN xossq,

“A[[8U0IsBd00 ‘suoIqOesuRLy,

“AyTenuue ‘suolzousuel J,

“AT[snuuse ‘suoioesue1y,
“ATTBLUUATG ‘sMOTyORsURIT,

“Ayvenuue ‘suorjoesuely,

"21 pus “ST “77

G99 nt “rg 7% auON
"P9SOI S9qB1O08SY
fs] “71 sloqmeyy euoN
“Sg Pus 'pg "SL “PY “SE
“sg eu0Nt
"SOT au0ON
“PO “SOT PUB ‘ST “7T suoN
“p9'SQ1 Sa2B1008Sy
£*S[ 7] Saaquaeyy ou0oN
"P9*SOT PUB ST 21 su0N
"PY “SZ
"P9'SOT PUL “ST “7T| PUB “PO “SOL
*s¢ ouoN
‘P9'SOT SEVBIOOSSY
fs] "71 sieq ueyy auoN
"sg ouON
"1 auoN
ouoN ou0ON
"8G ouoNT
“sg BuO N
“sg pus “901 eu0N
“S01 “$01
“pg "83 euoN
“PQ "8S ou0ON
“SL 71 “SLIT
"Pg 92 au0N
"901 auoN
"sgl auoN
"sg au0N
“PO “3E1 "P9801
"36 “sq
"PO “9h "PO "8%
* *$@ pus ‘SOT eu0N

OIT
SOJVIOOSSY 2p
“Sq UIE 09
oI
00T
n0g's
PL
aL
06
09T

03
Ist

000'T
£18
00¢

00€

961
683

026

Y3tas

*y Soupfs ‘rajseyouvyy ‘ye013g uoWeq uyoLr g
daysaqouryy ‘aseuosieg

s,AIBW "99 OL ‘pesy pavemoy ‘f¢ pus UOMIMIZ “WT

uty

JO oS] ‘Kasmrey ‘sueqyaeiO ‘apomsey “O ‘W ‘d

* "S'la ‘qqeM “WW MM ‘gaenbg JaAouBy 0

: TS ‘sey ‘peoy UULAM F ‘SAy0IS "| “M

* costa ‘PBaTEUTM “VM “doNqWysuT [eAoy
joodzsary ‘ssurpring

seaveisiey FI“ N'H ‘Sdniyd stoqng *9 “a “3deO

joodiaary ‘aonngysuy pefoy “yg ‘UO9TTM a iG
]00!

-I0AVE ‘uanesny o1[qug se1g “OS “QquIO “Vv ‘£
ujooury

‘manesnyy Aqunop pus Ay19 “ST ‘qITMg anyQIy
194sa0!e'T *YINOg poy

OSS0T $3 ‘suvag “V "MA “uneasy m0173810d 109

f Spee ‘soqedssoig ‘ q7T0Msay ACH "a
UlQng ‘499149 WIAOMSATOT og ‘UBT

“PIO “H ‘0; pus “AoUIyIeA “NN “AC I cae! “M
euAy,

~Wodn-a[}8BOMaN * UWeH eTLeN “T3{99[82.198 Ao19g

* (INA ‘unesnyy ogy, ‘y910JUTeIS “7,

6 * TMA “ATV puBpMeN “SO “AUIBIS “MA “LC

. .

4 * ogBstay ‘qjyoro1epuy ‘PleYSOIO *O *W SSI
P10}98M

‘u0qyqng “Vy pue ‘suBq ry “9S “S'T'd “sqqt) ‘HV
uoydaegq4nos ‘peo

BREEN ‘UMeT OUT AS DU “VW's'a ‘Olea “MK

7 XBjNVH “492179 [18H Il “Toxeg “wy

+ moSsey ‘qoorgg WIV 106 ‘euUE JI “Jorg
* MOSsBlH ‘peoyY W1I94SOA\ 9V21D GOP ‘SSO “KETV
AMOSSELD ‘9901)5 IIL L06°H'S'W' “yeuoepy Jojeq

xessq ‘TITH ysinyyoug
‘peoy Aen Surddg ‘preysuridg ‘efop WRIT
ri * 5 . * als “s'M ‘AByoByy S110 NT
4 Seorp paved "Ysiaquipy ‘ssalpying Bypuy
ysing
“UDA ‘sovlloy, SUBIUIN "99 1g ‘WOsmOoyT, uyor
suINOg sey

‘peoy §,prvaoo'y 99 ¢ ‘ONY VITA ‘syredg Ammo
. * SinqiszUsO ‘[[eHy [BVOIpepL SUL, ‘Aepuvy “vy

gest ‘AJoIOog Suarul~ puw [8d01S0[094H Jaj}saqoaeyy

FST ‘Ajatoog [worydeasoey JojsatoUepL
618T “Aqa1003

uvpeabyuy pus A104stp{ [eANAZeN ‘Jo 9[sy ‘uv,
* ager ‘Aqatong eus0qiag : UOpaeTy

, _ 2981 ‘qniO [Boidoosora1yy 399aNH + VOpaoT
. QEQT *AJ@IN0g [BOISO]Oay [OOdIOATT
I68T ‘Aqotoog jwo1qdeaZ0ay joodisary
GIST ‘Ajor00g Zutzsaursuyq [oodsaary

988I ‘AqoLog [eorsojorg [oodreayy

* * * gegT ‘moTTA .SastTeANyBN OATYSU[OOUTT
gest
‘Kqatoog yeorydosoyigg pie Areraqyy 103800107

ELE ‘WOIYBIOOSsY [voIdo[0IH speot
L¥8T ‘Jo
Ayawog Aumbuy [ejoog puv [wolysiyvyg “puvpery

. .

* EQ8T ‘SlosuUIAU FUIUT]Y JO WOryN4TWsAyT

* 9881 ‘auto ASISHCANIEN PPA PUB OYIyUdIOS TINH

L8xT ‘Aqoroo0g [BoTsoooy T1n_

: ‘ LGBT ‘Qui O Ar04stH{ [eIN}eN STS ReeUnIOEe
G18I “Quo

PPI pus Azot00g A104SIA [PANYBNY ALGSPIOJIIOH
Gggt “Aga10

“08 TeaysopossTory pues qnio ple eaysdureyy

* PLT ‘Aqoloog OgIZUEINg XBFI[eA

* 0ST ‘Jo Ayar00g pworydosojryad [ehoy “Mossuyy
s * egy ‘Jo Aqatoog A104sTH Tengen “MosselH

* gust ‘Jo Ayoto0g [BoIdojoay ‘Mosse

. . . ° .

* O8ST ‘ANID Plata xossy
9ERT ‘UOTZBLOOSS y
OBHUATOS pus Axesowwy] o1rgsheioqY pue uLs[q
* PEsl ‘AqaI00g [vorsO[0aH qsinquipy
698T ‘AqoT00g
[BordoosorNIPY PUY .SISIBINIVN PLPLT qsinquipy
*. * yogt ‘Ayoyoog Ar0;s1H [vINgeN emInogyseg:
L981

‘Sqoroog £10381H [VANIUN PUBOBIPUAIOS UM WBA | |

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

554

‘SUM “V'E"“ABYS eqIeyH ‘aus T,-u0-014880

n

aiganay ‘yeurno Pp “701 ouoN 000T “MON ‘aovld 8.Areyy “99 ‘eyNIWSUT Teorqduidoay js . 2881 ‘Aqa1009 [worydusB0e5 oprsonAy,
“Alqgaour
‘Sweusug Sump jo *P9 "S01 ; 2981 ‘stoour3agq Surarpy yo
WOLINIIFSU] JO SUOTJOVSUBIT, | “F]Z PUT*pPH*sTE | PUB “ST “2T LST 7 rey sarong 900198 TISUMON € “qytaAs “GD | 04N9TSUT orYSHoIMIeM pure OITYSPIOFSIS Ynog
*S(enaue ya ‘P98, euoN 0Z1 * qodq4ynog ‘anuaay ate by os wl iy * Aqojoos [woyqdosonyg pue Areseyry 410dyj00g
ISTEINQBN Wioyseq-GWNog, | “se wNUTUT auON | SaIqayoog ¢¢ | ‘oomalsug “yA ‘uaTINg UOWZUIYSY “Y “ACY | g6gT ‘soPoRN0g oyUEIOg Jo uoIUA UIE\Sey-TINOg
*A[[BUO[sBOdO ‘suOTJORS MEL], l6 euoN 108 UMOT adv ‘umesnyY uvoLyy YINOS “TIPO "WD | * —* 2pBT ‘Aqet00g [worqdosoligg UBolIyy qynog
e4LL *O pus ‘soqeg “A ag 6FST ‘AyaT00g £103
“Aypenuus aBapeord "P9901 "P9901 £69 *AOY OABAM “A\ “ACY “MoJUNBY, ‘ayyseH ay, | -syY yeangey PUB [VOISo[OBYyoIY oarysjesieuL0g
*Ajqeqren
f4St[e1078 NT 197894004 , “9g ou0oN SZT * * Jaqsayooy ‘asnoy uspury Biren bal es fo SET ‘ANID sqsteIngENT 1ajsa907
“Arreramaea ADORE "89 ou0N 5374 *‘qoorqg ploqaetg sol og'a ‘YIAOMYSy pleaisoy “p¢ | + 8181 ‘Ajo}00g og1quetog puv Arexayry elepyaowy
“ATTenuue ‘s3ut i
Bcc | UAB 8 "Pd “SE "PO “8S age “ * * " DOSITTE LS “Wed Goang fey | * sogy ‘oouorog peangeyy jo Aqoqoog oxysyzIag
*ATTENUN ‘suOWBAIEsqH — |
[eoLso[o1007;a FT ne jaodey | “PO "#2 "8g sig " * * Aasyeg ‘eovyg Ayunop ¢ ne L£)* * —— gost ‘uorqngq4suy peorqdosopmg Aoysteg
“Alpenuue meget}
‘suolqoesueiy, puke q10dey "se | «ng "8g FST -0N ‘os5aT10D AqsteaTUy “WW ‘IVD “AM “Pf “Jorg | * * BERT ‘Aqat00g ,systTvINye NT WIVYSU144ONT
Tosqoy “Gf ‘O pus “ST | ‘wqIe pT * "6881 JO Aqatoog AroqsrAy [wanjeN ‘ous y,
*stenuue ‘suoyovsuexg, 1g anon oe ‘HN ‘auSy-uo-opsvoman ‘ummosnqy Fie -uodn-ajseoMeN pus ‘wean “pUBl 19g WINYyI0 Ny
} 9481 “QUID PIola
LAPAREDD. ‘Teuinop | “B01 euoN 01g “WVAON ‘opuivg Avg seg eo “yy ‘uoxrq *N *H | puv Aqaioog Ax04styy yernqeyy aItysuozdoreyyIONy
-Ayysnuue }
mabaeeaerL DOM seco "99 “99 27g "ss 9 syeqg ‘ou09s ‘mepulg sIaM “M | * © * © * gogt*qnio Plot OrrIsPIOyCIS UVION
“ATQQUOUL's1o0ULS USUAL GEST ‘SloouLsug [vorueyoe
JO “qsU[ JO suojousuBly | ‘94> PUL ‘sez ou0oN oseT j* * * ousZ-uodn-sysvoMeN TCH T4ON | pus Suny Jo oyugysur puepsug jo THON
. scat SLOG OPADBLE “99 au0N ¥8z * — WOTAMION “go0u9g AorIng 1g “WosTONOIN “y “A. | * Gog ‘Aqazo0g ,sysTreANgUyT YorMON om HlOsION
“A[QQuoULs.20 ISU SULT AL 6981 ‘stoousay [vo
Jo “qsut JO suo;q0¥SURLy “90 IT ouoN 90¢ piiob ee *PleweTs “AqISTAATT ONL “VaqS,O “LT | -tusqooy puv ‘PATO ‘SuyuyW Jo 0yN444sUT puelprpL
sorties “AyqQuOUL «| *sQg SyUEpNyg } auoy { squepngs 2p ‘
U UImIy «JO | puesozepossy soyeloossy
MOTNGYSUT JO SUOTJOVSUBIT, |o-pHs|EsioqmMoy} “FT “7T “sqmely Och] * = * Aqua “qaea9g 0qTY “WIT ‘SIMoT paagry “D | Ter ‘stoous Bug JO WOLNFTASUT SarQUNOH puUL[pIAL
F98E
“Ayyenuue ‘q10doy "sg pus "sg "PO “81 08s “© adaljop ySsnoroqueRy “S"u “YowAO “| ‘Aya}00g Axoysty peANgUyT eSaTl0H YAnor0g[epE
*AyTenuue ‘ENON POTUERL "PS ‘S01 "PO “S01 I6L * doqsoqounyy ‘400199 YIOX ¢g Bec wets a * -* —* gst “Age100g TeoNNsIQEIg AoIsoT URL
*AyTYenuue a ‘apig
‘qioday pues suoljousuery, ay) "9g L11z SSOPT “Jaer}S pooajzsa\\ FI ‘AINSI Yoweparg |* —* ggey ‘Sqo1o0g [woldoososory roysayoueyy
suoryeortqng Jo onssy uondrosqng | eag siaqumoyy Arejaioag jo ssoippy
Jo Aouankeag pue ety, enuuy aouviqUg Jo ‘on pue owen 10 s10}IvNbpray ToOHepunoT JO oyUC Pus OPEL 1

‘ponutyuos—sarzar0g yagnryy

Sul ciaian GiiareP-aeamenceateameeacse ee es a eee

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

“fawas-JTVY .Qsyeanqgen

}

PPYsL9}INg UIYSNA * Ah

woEsng Isum pu ssuysep, "PO “St “ST OSF | *sSayseyy ‘aynqysay Sosseag ‘wmnasnyy uo01ye10d.109
*Al[euolseov0 ‘sede, | ; ;
eoustog + Ay[enuue “Qxoday ‘sg wWNUILUTTY ouON 98 joe : exoMe[sU fasno poy euy, “OXeVPIO *V “wT
“A[penuue | | *A\'NT ‘pragsdme py ‘400149 T4ROH ‘suorsuLyy qyVo_
‘SSuyposoory puv gtoday sg wmMUTUTyy amon =| 8G 31 ay W “OAM "MA “YU PUL “og'” ‘unIqaeg *O°D
— “Sp | auwoyr BOL . COSIOIED "VY Hq «*Aqsuainy ‘minasnyy aay,
*<ypunTUIT
“snojorsuriry, pe qxodayy | "pg ‘sg puvsor | AUONT Gor “M ‘Steg ‘oAory oy, Set “YUIAOJYSNY TTONOW “WT
| guiuntay
— “SG auoN } Sl -ung ‘yaa14g somep 2g “ogg ‘oT[TAdomIog gaaqory
*A[[BUOISRD00 | :
‘sjepeoy ! Sypenaue ‘sq10doy "sg | auoN | 29 ~ AO ‘suaprey ydjopuvy ez ‘sursoyy A019
at “8g “ST | O8 ; “O'S “px0y4Np “o[vA ouIAl OF “UND “HAL
*Ajxaqaenb | paoy
“‘[BUINOF OYIWUAaIOS plojpeig | “pg ‘sz puB ‘sc ou0 NT 00g | -perg ‘uapsitM ‘asnoyy yur ‘pjeyzoyyng assoyy
“Ayyenune ‘4.10dexy “Sh "ST ob ;° = * ployperg ‘yaa13g JUBOUTA “4IaMOL “par
Yynowsurnog
“Ayenuue “qQaodary | “sg DON 08% ‘proxy qoanqozs11qQ ‘yoorqusayg ‘uoxIg "Tye AC
| SIAL *f PABIDAT
| ie de a “PO “SE auoN 0s “AVS “vastoqyeg “IIH Jepuoaury ‘Arerquy o1qne
| “A[penuae “o2p | 49014G I[SIPlAATD G
‘spurpos0r1g pues yatodoy | *p9 sg pur ‘sg ouo Ny eee | SUG TM “MOLE ‘pue4g ‘Ry espuquep
“STTBUOIsvo00 ‘sxadeg | “se OO NT 99 its * sating ‘nopsuTTE MA “Wrqadolp ‘worreg “ry “yw
H Teast
—-- | "PQ “SZ PUB “sg aon ee | -ayeg ‘swpasuy 49 “S'zT “WId ‘xO sT1099 «Mh
| ;
“S0U20t004 Pa})29088 fF
oe
“SILT
| “Aypenuue 4x0day "18 auoNy O8F ‘dT ‘OD pus uosiopry ysodway, aq *y10X ‘umasnyy
| say Bloossy
“ATQZUOUL “ASITVINIUN OTL» | ges's pue |
{syyenuue ‘suoyovsuezy, | "D9 “SOT auON 16h | eo) | ‘preddayg. “L ‘ay ‘unesnyy oq,
“plameys ‘pvoy 100m1491g ‘A013
-AyTenuue ‘ssurpesoorg "SET au0ON 618 | -UIng ‘SUI[OF OMISOD PUB 12}4BO JaMOTT “AA *AdrT
: ‘SD
“Ayenuue ‘suoozsuery, "Sg ‘SOL 60L ‘uemyordg "LL “ ‘10980070 A ‘300 Woy BonpT
: d1OOW [1099 “HH -
“Ayperauerq ‘suopoesueiy, 01 "SOT 03 “priojoroy ‘Arwiqvy 9917 WORE, TO ee iM
; '1909A0() .
} *Ayyenue ‘sZaypeeo01g "sg "p9 "8% OL ‘Burdeoyo . S801D “489M “0 “SOT TE AA ‘mimasnyy
| +£}peuoyswoo0 ‘suotousuery, "D9 “8G auoN SPL "O'S" ‘IND spuvpmoy ‘jorsssopy ‘uds10q38g “A Ee

|

. .

gest ‘Kjyaweg = |
ALO}SIT [LANQYN spalvuosy “9S puw ssuygseA

S88T ‘{ga100g A1O9SIFT [RANJEN oasuus[se FF

+ 8 GegE MMyaroog oyqtaIng peaysdmeyy
968T ‘Aqat00g ,S9s!

-[BINJYN PUY Werrendbyuy gongsiq pus Aqswn+y

LIST ‘Ajatoog yeordoosors1 sy pure Oy TQUOIOg Super

GOGT *Aqato0g ,sys![eangeNy ouTTUAIoyUN ET
. * : : * BLET ‘AqoI00g sadUaTOg JOAOKT
L681 ‘Ajo100g A7098TH [VINGVN 4O144SIC Paw proj ey

* G19] ‘dOI}BIOOSsY OYTUAIOY pIOsperg
S18T ‘Aqao0g
Teordoosoro1yy pure ALOISIAY TeANZBN psoyperge

. -

. OGL ‘Xqa100g doUDdTOY [eANZeN Yynomoumog
st 8 s ¥68T SANTO PIPL waste}IeE
9187 ‘UOTZRBIOOSSY OYTZUaINg
pus s1V194VT PUB qniO PWT ,SISTeInzeNY Mose
L681 “Ajat00g A1048TH
[TRIN puve uviiwvabyUy JoUysiq pus weyeq

* 9681 “QUID SISHBANZEN TOMo_eT

BaSI ‘AqoI0g [eorydosopimd OxtqsHIO A

. . .

TOST ‘WOU ,S}SI[VANGBN SITGSHIO ®
LEST ‘A4e100g [voISojoeH oaTysHIOZ
LPS ‘ANID SzSITBINGVNT OIFTISTOISIOIO M
1981 ‘ant PLOT S98t8INgEN adonioom
PSST ‘GND DIET

sistSapowqoay . PUB. SISITBINGBN SITSHOIMIBM |)
2881 ‘AOID PIS SIsteINZENT FUaMIVC JO OBA

. e .

. .

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

|
|
|

— “Sg PUB “SOT oucN GL e © * proyqzeM “990199 USI OOT ‘Gourrg *M | * i = * GO6T ‘ANID BiaUIBD poe
rag "8S ouoN €¢ - moysutte A ‘490199 Aotdry 91 ‘Aallor *¢ “JIV | * Bp re , * $881 ‘ANID PPL Wosute A
"PY “SE STIOM F881 ‘Aqot00g eorqdos
*Ayyenuae “410day | pus “se “79 “SOT auoN ¥ST agprquny, * 420149 sooulIg gz “aosaiqoq0H "HU | Oly pues AroystA TeInjeN sta e3plaquny,
—_ "SL IL "PQ *SOT 602 * enbi0q, ‘uinasny ey, ‘veartamog *xeTy | * 5 FPSL ‘Aqa100§ AIOASIA{ [einyeyNy Awnb1o07,
“Ayrenuae ‘y10dayy "PY “SG auoN OZ1 * * woaag ‘moqImqysy ‘prnaq ‘Areury *g UgoL | * és * — 8S8T “GNIO Pea SISsVIngEN WsIa7,
qaodqynog ‘420149 a
“Ayyenuue “4.10dayy rT) au0ON 892 yqusqyseg ‘ssarpying Aanqsaqyeqg ‘sso1Q 3310045 | * * O68T ‘aduaTNg [eInqeN Jo Lyo100g yz0dq4n0g
moOspIaqoy "HM Ad = “Wsimq :
uly ‘sSurpaso01g "P9 “SOT auoN 09 -UIPA ‘49013 Wsent F ‘uoryn4q4sUyT [eorydosopiygd | * * S88I ‘Ajal00g eordoosoxoryy YS143009
*AT[BMOIsv9000
‘sjapveT {avat{ 8 soulry
aary3 {Apngs o1n4eN [ooqog , “PO "SE auoN 000‘T “O'S TlaAvzeqmey ‘yavg Iousasory | “oun, “A “A | * re * s06T ‘aorug Apnyg orngeN Jooqog
68t ‘Azar
“Aypenuue ‘y10day “SOT pure "7T au0N I0l OS W ‘Sury yoqieay *ySno1oqavog ‘ummaesny_ ayy, | [vowsojowyqory pue reorydosonee Gasceniena
9700789
“f[euorsvo00 ‘sredeg “8G auoNy g6¢ “SAM ‘UO4Sarg ‘a7z¥S.10NSIY VETI ‘WH enqoeT | * . ® * $681 ‘AjJeID0g ONIQUATOg MO4SeT
681 ‘A4a100
“f][eMoIsvoO ‘suOTZOVSURIT, *P9 "SOL auoN 0¢ s “ystu109 ‘g ‘*f ‘eouRzueg ‘s8uipting oqng | usmenbyuy pue A104styy eee eoientes
Aa Hort £6LT ‘JO Aqa100g
— SLIT auIONT 008° -dpaly PUBSAIM[OH parjyy ‘aux T-uodn-aysvomayy | yeorqdosopyg pue Areraqry ‘eu y-aodn-sy4svomen
aspug 898T ‘AqaI0
~Ayperunayay ‘410dexy ‘sg puUv ‘SOT auoN 601 “M “f pus uoyIeg “Vy ‘UWMasny_Y ouoysprepy | -og AIO}SIR [RANQVNT JUOY-pIyY pus suOySpIEyL
‘ST Sprvapa BL81 ‘Aqa00g AtOsTH [BINGEN
“syjenuue ‘sSutpasoo0a gq "pg SL “PO "SS OLT Agueyg “q's ‘esplig uopuoyT ‘srsquivyH eraszeqry | pus TeoLso[omMl0juq UoOpuoT YyNOog : uUOpuOT
proysurgyO ‘pug S681
“Aypenuue ‘ya0day | “pg ‘sz pue ‘sg "PO 8S 101 avy ‘onaaay yynom)jey ‘yeuoy, ‘surqqoy "mM “W | ‘Aqyaro0g A104ST{ [BAN}eN WopuO'T qIION + Uopuo'T
*IOUBASOLY "TJ 'A “LT SSRI ‘AJeI00g ALO4SIT [BINQE NY
*<yjenuue ‘suotorsuvry, “POS, "PQ SZ 6L ‘o’m ‘snoirg Aangsurg ‘uoiyngysuy uopuoTy ayy, | pue [eorsojomojuq uopuoTyT jo AqIQ : UopuoT
— "SG *p9 “SZ SF poomusary *M "A ‘[oodszaary ‘uoynzyWsuy yeAoy | * Sgt ‘WOljVlOOssy ,syUepNyg souaI0g JoodssaryT
*Ayyenuue “4.10deyy "PO “SOT *P9 “SOT $9 * nopseH LA ‘[oodszeavy ‘aorqn414suq] pesoy | * “ * g98T ‘Aqar00g [woldoososo1py [oodsaaTyT
‘a's ‘meys1mory
“A]TBUOIsBOdO ‘sMOTZORSURLT, "8g auoN OZ “pRory SPVATITB[S‘osSpoyT ayorqmag‘soyoorg *M ‘f | * e * gst ‘Ajal00g ueIIenbIyUy WeystMo'T
spae'T ‘oue'y 8981 ‘doy
“A[[BUOTsBI00 ‘sMOTIOBSUBIT, “89 amon €8 qdjed ‘eovlg yoyoING 7% “ST “WytA Aqaiq “rf | -BIOOssy oYyMEIOg pus qniD ,SIST[BINIEN spsa'T
} “<TTenuue aVe LL8T
| ‘sSurpaso01g paw qaodayy "sg anon OFT *SuQoaMs “WA *yoodsaary ‘auonqysuy or *Aqa100g Teoysopom0y ug aIlysoyO pus oi1yssoueT
== aye suON OLT * yormsdy] ‘proxy Arngsiyeg 6T ‘ayIq A “A SepteyO | * F * €06T ‘QNIO PIeMd 9914sIq pue yormsdy
*T[emorseo00 ‘smOTyOesUeI I, “sg auoNy 161 ; * ssoureauy ‘Amapvoy jefoy ‘uosye Ay “fo 9181 ‘anto Pel pus Aqa100g OYIWUAIOg ssauZZAT
“Ajjenuue suorovsuely, "PQ 8 avon 0S2 G 7 YOIMBH, ‘490199 YSIA 1g ‘WoUIA “ff * gael ‘Aqo100g [volsojo~yory Yormey,
D | =
eee ee none eae ane ai ec Arvjaxoag Jo ssaippy pus ameN Jo siaqzenbprey uoNepunoy Jo a3eq pre aIIT, [na
“panulyu0o—sarzara0g pazvrw0ss

or
or
“1

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Catalogue of the more important Papers, especially those referring to
Local Scientific Investigations, published by the Corresponding
Societies during the year ending May 31, 1908.

* .* This Catalogue contains only the titles of papers published in the volumes or
parts of the publications of the Corresponding Societies sent to the Secretary of
the Committee in accordance with Rule 2.

Section A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PuHysIcAL SCIENCE.

Anpson, Rev. W. The Weather of 1905. ‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway
N. H. A. Soe.’ xvirt. 97-102. 1907.

—— The Weather of 1906. ‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soe.
x1x. 69-76. 1908.

Barer, J. Miter. The Orbits and ‘ Velocity Curves’ of Spectroscopic Binaries.’
‘ Journal Roy. Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ 17. 70-81. 1908.

Beatriz, Dr. J. C. On some Physical Problems in South Africa. (Annual
Address.) ‘Proc. 8. African Phil. Soc.’ xvi. i—viii. 1907.

Biytuswoop, Lord, and W. A. Scoste. Recent Work on X-Ray Measurement.
‘ Proc. Glasgow R. Phil. Soc.’ xxxvurt. 186-197. 1907.

Brown, A. Examination of the Validity of an Approximate Solution of a
certain Velocity Equation. ‘Trans. 8. African Phil. Soc.’ xvr. 459-464,
1907.

Brown, M. Warton. Barometer, Thermometer, &c., Readings for the Year 1905.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxx1. 745-754. 1907.

CaMPBELL-BayarD, I’. Meteorological Report for 1906. ‘Trans. Croydon N, Il.
Sci. Soc. 1906-1907, 167-179, and Appendices, 64 pp. 1907.

Carapoc AND SEVERN VALLEY FIELp CLus. Meteorological Notes. ‘Record of
Bare Facts,’ No. 17, 40-55. 1908.

Cuant, Dr. C. A. Work at the Lick Observatory and Improvements in its
Equipment. ‘Journal Roy. Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ 1. 246-263. 1907.

Progress in Astronomy and Astrophysics during 1907. (Presidential
Address.) ‘Journal Roy. Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ 1. 1-14. 1908.

Crarkz, J. E, The Windrush at Biggin. ‘Report Yorkshire Phil. Soc. for

1906, 77-80. 1907.

Craxton, T. F. Note on the Connection between the Rainfall at Durban and
Mauritius. ‘Trans. S. African Phil. Soc.’ xvr. 487-442. 1907.

Coreman, W. H. (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.) The Cook Calorimetric Bomb.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxxitt. 283-288, 1907.

CornisH, Dr. VaucHan. On Surface Waves produced by Sledges. ‘Proc,
Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’ xxvirr. 149-158. 1907.

Craw, J. H. Account of Monthly Rainfall in the County of Berwick, 1905.
‘History Berwickshire Nat, Club, x1x. 869. 1907.

—— Note of Rainfall and Temperature, West Foulden, 1905. ‘History Berwick-
shire Nat. Club,’ xrx. 370. 1907.

CRESSWELL, ALFRED. Records of Meteorological Observations taken at the
Observatory, Edgbaston, 1907. ‘Birm. and Mid. Inst. Sci. Soc.’ 26 pp.
1908.

Dawson, W. Bett. Variation in the Leading Features of the Tide in different
Regions, ‘Journal Roy. Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ 1. 213-227. 1907.

Espry, T. E. Notes on some Double Stars, ‘ Journal Roy. Astr. Soc. of Canada,’.
1. 186-187. 1907.

—— Notes on Double Stars. ‘Journal Roy. Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ 1. 333-836.
1907.

Farrineton, T. E. Clouds and their Evolution. ‘Report Belfast Nat. F.C.’
y, 508-504, 1907,

598 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Fox, W. Lioyp, and Evwarp Kirro. Meteorological and Magnetical Tables
and Reports for the Year 1906, and Tables of Sea Temperature. ‘Trans.
Cornwall Poly. Soc. 1906,’ Appendix, 21 pp. 1907.

Falmouth Observatory : Meteorological and Magnetical Tables and Reports
for the Year 1907, and Tables of Sea Temperature. ‘Report R. Cornwall
Poly. Soc. 1907.’ Appendix, 28 pp. 1908.

Greson, Cuartes R. A Demonstration of Vibrating Plates and Bars. ‘ Proc.
Glasgow R. Phil. Soc.’ xxxvim. 97-101. 1907.

Gray, Prof. ANDREW. ‘The Limiting Speed of Vehicles moving on Curves,
and the Effect of the Gyrostatic Action of the Wheels on Stability. ‘ Proc.
Glasgow R. Phil. Soc.’ xxxvi11. 102-107. 1507.

Iiarper, W. E. The Spectroscopic Binary a Draconis. ‘Journal Roy. Astr,
Soe. of Canada,’ 1. 237-245. 1907.

——- Preliminary Orbit of @ Aquile. ‘Journal Roy. Astr. Soc. of Canada,’
1, 357-359. 1907.

IIlnywoop, H. Meteorological Observations in the Society’s District, 1905.
‘Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxx1x. 1-16. 1907.

Horxrson, Jonn. Hertfordshire Earthquakes. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soe.’
x11t. 141-172. 1908.

—— The Weather of the Year 1906 in Hertfordshire. ‘Trans. Herts N. TI. Soe.’
x11t. 221-240. 1908. ;
Istz oF Man Natura History anp ANTIQUARIAN Socrety. Report of the.
Meteorological Section, 1906, ‘Proc. Isle of Man N. H. A, Soc,’ 1, 97-98.

1907.

{KavanaGH, Rev. I. J. Stonyhurst College Observatory, Lancashire, England.
‘Journal Roy. Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ 1. 291-296. 1907.

—— The Variability of Light in Mira Ceti and cn the Temperature of Sun-spots.
‘ Journal Roy. Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ 11. 32-33, 1908.

Kine, W. F. Audibility of the Aurora, ‘Journ. Roy. Astr. Soc. of Canada,’
1, 193-194. 1907.

-—— The Theory of Least Squares. ‘ Journal Roy. Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ 1. 847—
356. 1907; 11. 15-26. 1908.

Kirscumann, Aveust. Transmutation of the Elements and the Interior of the
Earth. ‘Journal Roy. Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ 1. 337-346, 1907,

Kxorz, Orto. Earthquakes and the Interior of the Earth. ‘Journal Roy. Astr.
Soc. of Canada,’ 11. 51-69. 1908.

Knort, Prof. C.G. Recent Progress in Seismology. ‘Trans, Edinburgh Geol.
Soc.’ rx. 108-120. 1908.

Lanper, A. Meteorological Notes for 1907. ‘Trans. East Kent Sci. N. H. Soe.’
vit. 24-26. 1908.

Lovupon, W. J. Tides of Lake Huron. ‘Journal Roy. Astr. Soc, of Canada,’
1. 181-185. 1907.

Lunar Tides on Lake Huron. ‘Journal Roy. Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ 11. 82~
83. 1908.

McDrarmip, F. A. Determination of the 14lst Meridian. ‘Journal Roy. Astr.
Soc. of Canada,’ 11. 84-95. 1908.

Markuam, C. A., and R. H. Pruavesit. Meteorological Report.—Observers’
Notes. ‘Journal Northants N. H. Soe.’ xtv. 74-80, 114-119. 1907; 147-1658.
1908.

Mansu, D. B. The Telescope. ‘Journal Roy. Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ 1. 188-192.
1907.

Mawtey, Epwarp. Report on Phenological Phenomena observed in Hertford-
shire during the year 1906. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soc.’ xirr. 241-248, 1908.

Meyrick, E. Summary and Tables of Meteorological Observations, 1907. ‘Report
Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’ No. 56, 87--108. 1908.

Mircnett, Rev. J. Carrns. Results of Meteorological Observations taken in
Chester during 1906. ‘Proc, Chester Soc. Nat. Sci.’ 1906-1907, 15-20, 1907.

Morison, Dr. Jonn. The Mystery of Matter. (Anniversary Address.) ‘Trans.
Herts N. H. Soe.’ xtit, 173-194. 1908. RA

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 559

Moir, Dr. Tuomas. A Property of Axisymmetric Determinants, connected with

'- the Simultaneous Vanishing of the Surface and Volume of a Tetrahedron,

: ‘Trans. S. African Phil. Soc.’ xv. 445-457. 1907.

—— A Special Determinant having (r,s) equal to Zero whens>7+1. ‘Trans.
8. African Phil. Soc.’ xviit, 869-377, 1907.

PaisteyY PuinosopuicaL Instirution. Report of Meteorological Observations
taken at the Coats Observatory, 1907. 16 pp, 1908.

Parrerson, J. W. Colour Photography of Rock Sections under Polarised Light.
‘The Naturalist’ for 1908, 46-47. 1908.

Praskett, J.S. The Star Image in Spectrographic Work. ‘Journal Roy, Astr.
Soc. of Canada,’ 1. 297-822. 1907.

Preston, ARTHUR W. Meteorological Notes, 1906. ‘Trans. Norfolk and Norwich
Nat. Soe,’ vir. 489-448, 1907.

Royat-AstRonomicaL Society oF CanaDa, Summary Report cf the Weather
in Canada, April 1907 to March 1908. ‘Journal Roy. Astr. Soc. of Canada,’
I. 210-212, 270-272, 329-332, 878-581 ; 11. 47-50, 112-114. 1907.

—— Recent Seismographic Records, Toronto Observatory, 1907. ‘Journal Roy.
Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ 1. 3828. 1907.

Russet, James. President’s Address. [The various Methods of Illuminating
Objects under the Microscope.} ‘Trans. Edinburgh F. N. Mic. Soc.’ vy. 425-
432. 1907.

RvuTHERFORD, Prof. E. Some Cosmical Aspects of Radioactivity. ‘ Journal Roy.
Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ 1. 145-165. 1907.

RvtHeERFoRD, J. An Equatorial Star Finder for Beginners. ‘Trans. Dumfries-
shire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’ xvitt. 207-209, 1907.

Smrpson, T. Meteorological Notes for the years 1905 and 1906, ‘Trans. Ealing
Sci. Mic. Soe.’ 1906-1907, xt. 1907.

Spirra, E. J. The Photography of very Translucent Diatoms at High Magni-
fications. (Presidential Address.) ‘Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ x. 243-246.
1908.

Stewart, R. M. Errors of Transit Observations. ‘Journal Roy, Astr. Soc. of
Canada,’ 1228-236. 1907.

Srizwett, H. Returns of Rainfall, &c., in Dorset in 1906. ‘ Proc. Dorset
N. H. A. F.C.’ xxviit. 107-120. 1907.

Strzevecki, Percy. Barometer, Thermometer, &c., Readings for the year 1906.
‘Trans, Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxx1i1. 725-734. 1908.

Surron, J. R. On the Lunar Cloud-Period. ‘Trans, 8. African Phil. Soc,’ xvut.
313-820. 1907.

TECKLENBURG, Geheimer Bergrat, (Translated by L. L. Belinfante.) Deep
Bore-holes as a Source of Electric Energy. ‘Trans. Inst. Min, Eng.’ xxxrv.
484-493, 1903.

Watrer, A. Discussion of the Errors of certain Types of Minimum Spirit Ther-
mometers in use at the Royal Alfred Observatory, Mauritius. ‘Trans, S. African
Phil. Soe,’ xvi. 419-486. 1907,

Wart, Anprow. The Climate of the British Isles, ‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and
Galloway N. H. A. Soe.’ x1x. 87-41, 1808. '

YorksutrE PuitosopnicaL Society. The Meteorology of York, 1905, ‘Report
Yorkshire Phil, Soc. for 1906,’ 14-19, 1907.

Sectton B.—CuEMIstTRY,

Benson, Dr. P. P., and Henry Wtopas (N. Eng. Inst.), Experiments illustra-
tive of the Infammability of Mixtures of Coal Dust and Air. Part II. ‘Trans,
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxx1v, 91-97. 1908.

Coremay, W. H. (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.) Bye-products from Coke Ovens;

~ ©Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxxiv. 331-348, 1908,
Inuinewortn, 8, R, The Ionic Theory, ‘Bradford Scientific Journal,’ 11, 114+
~~ 417, 1908,

560 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

Jvritz, Cus. F. The Fertility of some Colonial Soils, as influenced by Geological
Conditions. ‘Trans, 8. African Phil. Soc.’ xviit. 7-30. 1907.

Kerrcan, Dr. P. Q. The Chemistry of some Common Plants. ‘The Naturalist
for 1908,’ 77-80. 1908.

MicHELL, Frank X. and W.A. Tantalum: its Ores, Detection, Properties, and
Uses. ‘ Report R. Cornwall Poly. Soc. 1906,’ 54-61. 1907.
Neat, Joun (Midland Inst. Eng.). An Ignition of Coal-dust at Middleton Col-
liery. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng,’ xxxty. 221-224. 1908,
PgasEaoop, W. G. (N.Statt. Inst. Eng.) Discharge of Inflammable Oil in a Coal-
seam. ‘Trans. Inst. Min, Eng.’ xxxv. 116-119. 1908.

Van Der Rie, Dr. B. pe Sr. J. The Chemical Composition of Berry Wax.
‘Trans. S. African Phil. Soc.’ xvr. 443-445. 1907.

Watxnr, W. (Midland Inst. Eng.) Notes on Two Incidents with Explosives at
the West Riding Collieries, near Normanton. ‘Trans, Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxxtv.
215-220. 1908,

Section C_—GEoLoey.,

Assort, G, Coneretions. ‘South-Eastern Naturalist for 1907,’ 67-76. 1907.

Bates, GeoraE I, The Microscopic Structure of some Perthshire Igneous Rocks.
Part II. ‘Trans. Perthshire Soc, Nat. Sci.’ 1v. 189-199. 1907.

Brastry, H.C. Some Results from the recent finds at Storeton. (President’s
Address.) ‘ Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.’ x. 157-171. 1907.

Bristo. Naturatists’ Sociury, Records of Well Sections. ‘ Proc. Bristol Nat.
Soe.’ 1, 208-211. 1907.
Broom, Dr. k. On some New Fossil Reptiles from the Karroo Beds of Victoria
West, South Africa. ‘Trans. S. African Phil. Soc.’ xvurr. 31-42. 1907.
Burton, F. M. The Lincolnshire Keuper Escarpment and its bearing on and
relation to the County, ‘Trans, Lincolnshire Nat. Union, 1907,’ 163-167.
1908,

-—— Welton. ‘Trans. Lincolnshire Nat. Union, 1907,’ 205-208. 1908.

CaMPBELL, R., and A. G. Stennovusn. The Geology of Incheolm, 4 Trans. Edin-
burgh Geol. Soc.’ rx. 121-134, 1908.

Carapoc anD SEVERN VatLtey Frecp Civus. Geological Notes, ‘Record of
Bare Facts,’ No. 17. 1908.

Coates, Henry. Geological and Seasonal Notes. (Opening Address.) ‘ Proc.
Perthsnire Soc. Nat. Sci.’ Iv. exxxii-cxxxvii. 1907,

—— The Glaciation of Perthshire ; Seasonal Notes. (Annual Address.) ‘ Proc.
Perthshire Soc. Nat. Sci.’ rv. exliii-clii, 1907.

Cots, Prof. G. A.J. Continental Glaciation. ‘ Report Belfast Nat. F.C.’ v. 318-
319, 1907.

Crampton, Crcit B. Fossils and Conditions of Deposit: A Theory of Coal
Yormation, ‘Trans, Edinburgh Geol. Soc.’ 1x.’ 73-y2. 1907.

—— and D, Tarr. On certain New Localities for Oil-bearing Shale near
Edinburgh, ‘Trans. Edinburgh Geol. Soc.’ 1x. 102-107. 1908.

Currin, H. Marine Beds in the Coal Measures near Doncaster. ‘The Naturalist
for 1908,’ 39-40, 1908.

Curriz, James. The Mineralogy of the Fwrves, arranged topographically.
(Anniversary Address.) ‘Trans, Edinburgh Geol. Soc.’ 1x. 1-68.

Davies, H.N. Supplementary Notes on the Cleveland Bone Cave and Grayels.
‘Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc.’ 1. 188-189. 1907.

Dawk1ns, Prot. W, Boyp (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.). Introductory Remarks
on the Coal Measures. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxxtv. 175-176. 1908. .

Dickinson, JosepH (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.). Section of Bore Hole at
Messrs. Mark Fletcher & Son’s Works at Moss Lane, Whitefield, Lancashire.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxxrv. 349-350. 1908.

Duncan, ANDREW. Geological Aspects of Water-Supply. ‘Report Belfast Nat.
F.C.’ v. 504-505. 1907.

Etens, Frank, Glacial Survivals, ‘The Naturalist for 1907,’ 274-276, 314-315,
1907, ; a

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 561

Frencu, J. On some Geological Sections at Witham, Essex. ‘ Ussex Naturalist,’
xiv. 274-275. 1907.

Hicxrine, Grorce (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.), Carboniferous Flora as an Aid
in Stratigraphical Classification, ‘Trans. Inst, Min. Eng.’ xxxty. 180-184.
1908.

Hinxcu, J. pp W. The Geology of Cork. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xvr. 262-265. 1907.

Submerged Cromleac at Rostellan. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xv1. 265-266. 1907.

—— The Occurrence of High-level Shelly Drift in the Killakee Valley, co.
Dublin, ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xviz. 99-100. 1908.

Hixp, Dr. Wueetron. The Palzontological Succession of the Carboniferous
Rocks in the South of the Isle of Man. ‘Proc, Yorkshire Geol. Soc.’ xvi.
137-154, 1907.

—— On the Occurrence of Dendroid Graptolites in British Carboniferous Rocks.
‘Proc. Yorkshire Geol. Soc.’ xv1. 155-157. 1907.

Hinton, Martin A.C. Note on the Occurrence of the Alpine Vole (Microtus
nivalis) in the Clevedon Cave Deposit. ‘ Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc,’ 1. 190-191.
1907.

— and A.§8. Krnnarp. Contributions to the Pleistocene Geology of the Thames
Valley: I. The Grays Thurrock Area: Part If, ‘Mssex Naturalist,’ xv. 56-
88. 1907.

Hotes, T. V. Ona recent Subsidence at Mucking, Essex, ‘ Hssex Naturalist,
xiv. 241-254, 1907.

Horwoop, A. R, On a Section of the Transition Bed and Amailtheus spinatus
Zone at Billesdon Coplow, Leicestershire. ‘Journal Northants N. H. Soc.’
xiv. 104-110. 1907.

~—A Contribution to the Paleontology of the North Derbyshire and Notts
Coalfield, or the Southern Portion of the North Midland Coalfield. ‘ Report
Nottingham Nat. Soc. for 1906-7,’ 38-58. 1908.

Howartn, J. H. The Ice-borne Boulders of Yorkshire. ‘The Naturalist for
1908,’ 97-99, 143-146, 175-180, 1908.

Hupieston, W. H. Artesian Wells in Dorset and elsewhere. ‘ Proc. Dorset
N. H. A. F.C.’ xxvurr. 185-208. 1907.

Uvewss, Prof.T. McKenyy. Ingleborough. ‘Proc. Yorkshire Geol. Soc.’ xv.
177-196. 1907.

Jackson, J. Witrrip. Vitrea cellaria in Shell Marl near Hale, Westmorland,
‘The Naturalist for 1907,’ 280. 1907. ‘

Jouns, Cosmo. Notes on the Carboniferous Rocks of the Kettlewell District.
‘The Naturalist for 1907,’ 281-283. 1907.

Kenpatt, W. B. Waste of Coast Line, Furness and Walney, in 1,000 years.
‘Report Barrow Nat. F. C. xvi. 75-84. 1907.

Lomas, J. Desert Conditions and the Origin of the British Trias, ‘ Proc.
Liverpool Geol. Soc,’ x. 172-197. 1907.

Lovis, Prof. Henry (N. England Inst. Eng.), On a Deficiency in the Nomen-
ee of Mineral Deposits, ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng,’ xxxiy. 236-237.

8.

Macxiz, Dr. Wa. The Occurrence of Volcanic Tuffs on Ben Nevis. ‘Trans,
Edinburgh Geol. Soc,’ 1x. 69-72. 1907.

Evidence of Contemporaneous Volcanic Action in the Banffshire Schists.
‘Trans. Edinburgh Geol. Soc.’ rx. 93-101. 1908.

Mercatrs, A.T. The Geology and Scenery of the Derbyshire Dales, (Presidential
Address.) ‘Report Nottingham Nat. Soc. for 1906-7,’ 19-87. 1908.

Reape, 1. Mevnarp, and Parnir Hottanp. Analyses of Ludlow Rocks. ‘Proc.
Liverpool Geol. Soc.’ x. 198-218. 1907,

Rerwotps, Prof. S. H. A Bone Cave at Walton, near Clevedon. ‘Proc. Bristol
Nat. Soc.’ 1. 183-187. 1907.

—— On the Erosion of the Shores of the Severn Estuary. ‘Proc. Bristol Nat.
Soe.’ 1, 204-208. 1907.

Sanppere, C. Notes on the Structural Geology of South Africa, ¢Trans, Inst,
Min, Eng.’ xxxrit, 540-556, 1907,

1908, | Ps

562 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Sawrer, A. i. New Rand Goldfield, Orange River Colony. ‘Tratis, Inst. Miu.
Eng.’ xxxutr. 680-531. 1907.

SHEPPARD, T. Recent Geological Discoveries at Speeton. ‘The Naturalist for
1907, 277-279. 1907.

-—— Fish and other Remains from the Chalk of Lincolnshife and Yorkshire.
‘The Naturalist for 1908,’ 187-189. 1908.

and J. W. Srarmrr. Note on a New Section in the Glacial Drifts of
Holderness. ‘ Proc. Yorkshire Geol. Soc.’ xvr. 171-176. 1907.

Sitrs, 8. A Study in Chalk (continued). ‘Rochester Naturalist, 111, 461-471.
1907.

SzanteEy, 8. S. Origin of Gypsum Beds and Medicinal Springs in a Line across
England from N.E. to 8.W. (Scarborough to Bath). ‘Proc. Warwickshire
F. C. 1907,’ 18-20. 1907.

SreruEns, F. J. Ores of Uraniem in West Cornwall and Scandinavia. ‘ Report
R. Cornwall Poly. Soe. 1906,’ 70-81. 1907.

Stracuan, James. The Geogony of some Secondary Minerals. ‘ Proc. Belfast
Nat. F, C. vy. 501-502. 1907.

Tart, D. On Egg-shaped Stones dredged from Wick Harbour. ‘Trans, Edin-
burgh Geol. Soc.’ 1x. 185-186. 1908.

Taomrson, Bresy. The Centre of the Earth. (Presidential Address.) Journal
Northants N. H. Soc.’ xry. 43--62. 1907.

Watson, Davip M.S. (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.) The Formation of Coal-
balls in the Coal-measures. ‘Trans, Inst. Min, Ung.’ xxxiv. 177-178. 1908.

Wetcu, R. Further Note on the Rostellan Cromleac, ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xvr.
267-269. 1907.

WELLBURN, Enegar D. A List of the Fossil Fishes of the Carboniferous Rocks of
Yorkshire, with their Distribution. ‘ Proc. Yorkshire Geol. Soc.’ xv1. 199-204.
1907.

Wimorg, A, On the Structure and Origin of some Craven Limestones. ‘ Proc.
Yorkshire Geol. Soc.’ xyr. 158-170. 1907. ‘

Woopwarp, Dr. A. Smita. Fossil Fish from the Chalk of North Lincolnshire.
‘The Naturalist for 1907,’ 806, 1907,

Section D.—Zoouoay.

AvAms, Jaxizs, Observations on a Mygale Spider (Psalmopaus Cambridyit Poc.)
‘Trans. Edinburgh I’, N. Mic. Soe.’ vy. 402-406. 1907,

Avkiy, Roperr. Notes on Porthesia chrysorrhea, . ‘Proc, South London
Ent. N. H. Soc. 1907-1908,’ 12-15. 1908,

~—— Further Notes on Tortrix pronubana, Ub. including its Life History in
Britain, ‘ Proc. South London. Ent. N. H. Soe. 1907-1908,’ 20-24, 1908.

~—— Annual Address, {Additions to the Lists of the British Insect Fauna, &e.]
‘Proc. South London Ent. N. H. Soe. 1907-1908,’ 27-46. 1908.

Arnott, 8. The Salmon Disease. ‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway
N. H. A. Soe.’ xviiz. 182-184, 1907,

AsHwortH, Joun H. Hawk or Snipe Flies, ‘ Bradford Scientific Journal,’
11.°106-110. 1908.

—— Additions to the List of Yorkshire Diptera. ‘The Naturalist for 1908,’
104-106. 1903.

Bairey, J. Harorp. Report of the Entomological Section. ‘ Proc. Isle of Man
N. H. A. Soe.’ 1, 95-96. 1907.

—— Annual Address, [The Coleoptera of the Isle of Man.] ‘Proc. Lancashire
and Cheshire Ent. Soc. 1907,’ 18-40. 1908.

Batpwiy, Epwarp T, The Marten in Lakeland. ‘The Naturalist for 1907,’
239-240. 1907.

Barry, J. W. Notes of Changes among Animals in Fylingdales, North-East
ae ee the last Fifty Years, *The Naturalist for 1907, 307-809,
vv4-95/, ‘7 ’

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 563

BarrorD, E. G. Coleoptera in Yorkshire, 1907. ‘The Naturalist for 1908,’
12-14. 1908.

Bickerton, Wittram. Notes on Birds observed in Hertfordshire during the
year 1906, ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soe.’ xtrt. 205-220, 1908.

Boor, Harry B. The Status of the Polecat (Putorius fetidus) in the Bradford
District. ‘Bradford Scientific Journal,’ 11. 42-46. 1907.

—_— The British Wild Cat. ‘ Bradford Scientific Journal,’ 1.110-112. 1908.

—— The Birds, &c., of Walney Island. ‘The Naturalist for 1907,’ 270-275.
1907.

—— Extraordinary Immigrations of Redwings in the West Riding. ‘ The Natu-
ralist for 1908,’ 17-18. 1908.

___ The British Willow Tit in Yorkshire. ‘The Naturalist for 1908, 107. 1908.

Bortzry, J. O. The Poison Apparatus of the Weever. ‘Trans, Norfolk and
Norwich Nat. Soe.’ vir1. 869-375. 1907.

Borrett, Rev. E. W. On Limnea pretenuis, n. sp.,and L. glabra, Mill. ‘Trish
Naturalist,’ xvit. 45-49. 1908.

——- On the Anatomy of Vitrina pyrenaica. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xvi. 94-98, 1908.

Brapy, L. S. Tortrix semialbana at Doncaster: a Lepidopteran new to the
County. ‘The Naturalist for 1907, 860. 1907.

Broom, Dr. R. A Contribution to the Knowledge of the Cape Golden Moles.
‘Trans. S. African Phil. Soe.’ xviii. 283-311. 1907.

Browne, F. Batrovr. Aquatic Coleoptera of Cork, ‘Irish Naturalist,’ XVI.
294-299. 1907.

—— Odonata of Cork. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xvr. 300-301. 1907,

——- On the Early Stages in the Life Histories of certain F'resh-water Fishes,
‘Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc.’ vir. 478-488. 1907.

Carapoc anp SEvERN VattEy Fretp Crus. Zoological and Entomological
Notes. ‘Record of Bare Facts,’ No. 17, 26-38. 1908.

Carr, Prof. J. W. The Herbarium Nottinghamiense of Thomas Jowett. ‘Report
Nottingham Nat. Soe. for 1906-7,’ 59-72. 1908.

Casrertain, A. List of Birds and Flowers of Bath and its Neighbourkood, with
the Periods of their First Appearance as observed in the Year 1906. ‘ Proc.
Bath N. H. A. F.C. xr. 118-127. 1907.

Cuarman, Frepertcx. Recent Foraminifera of Victoria: some Littoral
Gatherings. ‘Journal Quekett-Mie. Club,’ x. 117-146. 1907.

Curisty, Minter. On the Breeding of the Kite (Milvus ictinus) and the
Buzzard (Buteo vulgaris) near Malden in the Fifties and Sixties of last
Century. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ xv. 18-23. 1907.

CrarK, Dr. Jaws. The Bees, Wasps, and Ants of Cornwall. ‘ Report R. Corn-
wall Poly. Soe. 1906, 92-180. 1907.

___— The Orthoptera of Cornwall. ‘Report R, Cornwall Poly. Soc. 1907,’ 72-82,
1908.

CrarKxE, W. G. Notes on the Natural History of the Thetford District. ‘ Trans.
Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc.’ vi1r. 386-392. 1907.

Cusrgs, W.J. Report on Vertebrate Zoology, 1907. ‘Report Scarborough Phil.
and Arch. Soe. for 1907,’ 30-31. 1908. .

Corcan, NarHayien. The Ship-worm and Wood-boring Crustaceans in Kings-
town Harbour. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xvrr. 9-14. 1908.

—— Some County Dublin Holothurians. ‘Ivish Naturalist,’ xvit. 69-71. 1908.

Crett, Jony ©. Report of the Zoological Section. ‘Proc. Isle of Man
N. H. A. Soe.’ 1. 99-100. 1907.

Deetzy, GzuorcE P. Three Water-mites new to Britain. ‘ Journal Quekett
Mic. Club,’ x. 173-176. 1907.

Duntop, G. A. The Orkney Vole and its Parasites. ‘The Naturalist for 1908,’
19-20. 1908.

Extinesen, Evy. Notes on Pseudoscorpions, British and Foreign. ‘Journal
Quekett Mic. Club,’ x. 155-172. 1907.

Extis, Dr. Davip. Iron Bacteria and their Connection with Stone Decay.
‘Proc. Glasgow R. Phil. Soc.’ xxxvim1, 175-185. 1907,

002

564 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Evans, Dr. H. Murr. Observations on the Poisoned Spines of the Weever Fish
(Trachinus draco). ‘ Trans, Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soe.’ virr. 355-368. 1907.

Frercuer, J. H. Birds in Captivity. ‘Journal Northants N. H. Soc.’ x1v. 141-
144, 1908.

Forrest, H. E. Roving Disposition of the Marten, ‘Trans, Caradoc and Severn
Valley F. C.’ rv. 188-194. 1908.

Forrung, R. The Birds of the Farne Islands. ‘The Naturalist for 1907,’ 234-
238. 1907.

Foster, Nevin H. Isopoda. ‘Irish Naturalist, xvz. 302. 1907.

Observations on the Weights of Birds’ Eggs, ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xv1. 315-
319. 1907.

Frencu, Joun. The Last Colony of Ravens in Essex. ‘Essex Naturalist,’
xv. 55. 1907.

Grorex,C. F. Lincolnshire Mites: Rhyncholophide (continued). ‘The Naturalist
for 1907,’ 259-260, 357-859. 1907.

Lincolnshire Fresh-water Mites. ‘The Naturalist for 1908, 41. 1908.

Gibss, A, E. Notes on Lepidoptera observed in Hertfordshire in the year 1906.
‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soe.’ x11. 199-204. 1908.

Gittanpers, A. F. Notes on Scolytide, or ‘ Bark Beetles,’ ‘Trans. Manchester
Mie. Soc. 1906, 69-75. 1907.

Guiapstong, H. 8. Bird Life and Bird Photography. ‘Trans. Dumfriesshire
and Galloway N. H. A. Soe.’ xvii. 197-207. 1907.

Grirrin, W. H. The Antiquity of Zguus caballus in Kurope, with special reference
to Remains found in Kent. ‘South-Eastern Naturalist for 1907,’ 61-66. 1907.

Gurney, J. H. Southern Grey Shrike (Lantus meridionalis) in Norfolk. ‘Trans.
Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc.’ virt. 352-354. 1907.

Gurney, Rosrrr. The Crustacea of the Hast Norfolk Rivers. ‘Trans, Norfolk
and Norwich Nat. Soc.’ vit. 410-438. 1907.

GynceLt, W. A Time-tableof Bird-Song. ‘The Naturalist for 1908,’ 181-184. 1908.

Hatpert, J. N. Diptera of Cork. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xvr. 289. 1907.

Neuroptera of Cork. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xvr. 289-290. 1907.

—— Terrestrial Coleoptera of Cork. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xvr. 290-294. 1907.

Hargreaves, J. A. Report on Conchology, 1907, ‘Report Scarborough Phil.
and Arch. Soe. for 1907,’ 31-82. 1908.

Wart, WirtramM. The Internal Structure of some Insects’ Heads as revealed by
the Microscope. ‘'l'rans. Manchester Mic. Soc. 1906,’ 84-86. 1907.

Hlickson, Prof. 8. J. Presidential Address, 1906. [The Differentiation of Species
of Ceelenterata in the Shallow Water Seas.] ‘Trans’ Manchester Mic. Soc.
1906,’ 25-86. 1907.

HowartH, Ricuarp. Snakes. ‘Trans. Manchester Mic. Soc. 1906,’ 37-45. 1907.

Hoyiz, Dr. W. E. A large Squid at Redcar. ‘The Naturalist for 1908, 132-
133. 1908.

Jackson, A. Ranprtt. A Contribution to the Spider Fauna of the County of
Glamorgan. ‘ Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxx1x. 63-77. 1907.

—— On some Rare Arachnids captured during 1906. ‘Proc. Chester Soc. Nat.
Sci.’ Part vi. 1-8. 1907.

Tounson, Rev. W. F. Notes on Coleoptera collected during 1906. ‘ Irish
Naturalist,’ xvz. 201-203. 1907.

—— Notes on Irish Hymenoptera. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xvr. 244-247. 1907.

Kanu, W. F. pe V. Additional Records of Fresh-water Entomostraca in Ireland.
‘Trish Naturalist,’ xvz, 805-808. 1907.

Kkpynarp, A. S. On Vitrea (Hyalinia) hibernica, u.sp.; with Notes on the
Anatomy, by Rev. E. W. W. Borrell. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xvz. 825-831. 1907.

Kermope, P. M.C. Presidential Address. [The Work done at the Biological
Station, Port Erin.] ‘ Proc. Isle of Man N. H. A. Soe.’ 1. 81-89. 1907.

Laver, Henry. Helix pomatia, L., at Grimston. ‘Trans. Norfolk and Norwich
Nat. Soc.’ x11. 354-855. 1907,

Luney, Frank. Some Additions to the Norwich Castle Museum in 1906,
‘Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soe.’ vir. 458-460. 1907.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 565

M‘Cuesry, Hamitton. Bees: their Structure and Habits. ‘ Report Belfast Nat.
F, GC.’ v. 506-507. 1907.

Macnarr, Perrr. On the History and Development of the Natural History Col-
lections in the Glasgow Museums. ‘ Proc, Glasgow R. Phil. Soc.’ Xxxvutt.
81-96. 1907.

Main, Hueu. Some Notes on Pieris napi. ‘Proc. South London Ent. N. H. Soc.,
1907-8,’ 16-19. 1908.

Marrs, Henry. The Honey Bee: its Natural History, Anatomy, &c. ‘Trans.
Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soe.’ xvuir. 193-197. 1907.

MarswHatt, Guy A. K. A Revision of the Coleopterous Sub-Family Brysopine
(Curculionide). ‘Trans. 8. African Phil. Soc.’ xvrir. 53-88. 1907.

—— A Revision of the Genus Synthocus, Schénh., and its Allies (Curculionide).
‘Trans. 8. African Phil. Soc.’ xviiz. 89-120. 1907.

Martin, Dr. J. W. The Fauna of Glencairn: III. The Fishes. ‘Trans. Dum-
friesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soe.’ xviir. 30-34, 1907.

—— Reptilia and Amphibians of the Cairn District. ‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and
Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’ x1x. 79-82. 1908.

Mason, G. W. The Lepidoptera of Lincolnshire. Part. I. ‘Trans. Lincolnshire
Nat. Union, 1907,’ 174-191. 1908.

Meru, A. A.C. Extor. Note on Navicula Smithii and N. crabro. ‘ Journal
Quekett Mic. Club,’ x. 247-250. 1908.

Merrick, E. Report of the Entomological Section. ‘ Report Marlb. Coll. N. H.
Soc.’ No. 55, 66-75. 1908.

— Ornithological List. ‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’ No, 56, 76-80.
1908.

Mortey, B. Notes on the Variation of Abraxas ulmata at Skelmanthorpe. ‘The
Naturalist for 1907,’ 392-394. 1907.

Mortey, Oraupe. An Entomological Visit to Hunstanton. ‘Trans. Norfolk and
Norwich Nat. Soc.’ virr. 489-492. 1907. -

Monpy, A.T. A Net-building Chironomus Larva. ‘The Naturalist for 1907,’
389-391. 1907.

Mvrig, Dr. James. Memoranda on the Purple Sandpiper (7rivga maritima).
‘Essex Naturalist,’ xv. 53-40. 1907.

Morray, James. Philodina macrostyla, Ehr., and its Allies. ‘Journal Quekett
Mic. Club,’ x. 207-226. 1908.

Neztsoy, Epwarp M. Some Hairs upon the Proboscis of the Blow-fly. ‘Journal
Quekett Mic. Club.’ x. 227-228. 1908.

Netson,T. H. The First recorded British Example of the White-spotted Bluethroat.
*The Naturalist for 1907,’ 437. 1907.

eb A.R. The Canadian Crane in co. Cork. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xv1. 209-
211. 1907.

Patterson, AntHUR H. Natural Iistory Notes from Yarmouth. ‘Trans. Nor-
folk and Norwich Nat. Soe.’ vir. 460-477. 1907.

Parrerson, Ropert. Nuptial Change in Puffin’s Bill. ‘Report Belfast Nat.
F. C! v. 511-512. 1907.

—— Nesting of the Tree Sparrow in County Donegal. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xvt.
239-240. 1907.

N. H. Foster. Vertebrata of Cork. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xy1. 269-272.
1907.

Payne, Grorce. The Wildfowl of our Local Rivers. ‘Rochester Naturalist,’
mr. 480-496. 1907.

Parye, J. W. Natural History Notes from Annandale. ‘Trans, Dumfriesshire
and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’ x1x. 82-86. 1908.

Parson, W. Report on Coleoptera, 1907. ‘Report Scarborough Phil. Arch.
Soc. for 1907,’ 33-84, 1908.

Penarp, Dr. Evckne. On the Collection and Preservation of Fresh-water
Rhizopods. ‘ Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ x. 107-116. 1907.

Puttiirs, E. CAMBRIDGE. List of the Mammals of Breconshire. ‘Trans. Cardiff
Nat. Soc.’ xxxrx. 113-115. 1907.

566 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Puitus, R. A. Vertigo moulinsiana Dupuy: An Addition to the Irish
Fauna. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xvi. 89-935. 1908.

PickaRD-CAMBRIDGE, Rey. O. On New and Rare British Arachnida, ‘ Proc.
Dorset N. H. A. F. C” xxvii. 121-148. 1907.

Prarcer, R. Luoyp, and orHERs. Lambay Island: its Fauna, Flora, and
Antiquities. ‘Report Belfast Nat. F. C.’ v. 512-516. 1907.

Procger, T. W., and Dr. D. R. Paterson. Ornithological Notes. ‘Trans.
Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxxrx. 108-112. 1907.

Ratre, P. G. Manx Ornithological Notes, 1907. ‘The Naturalist for 1908,’
168-169, 1908.

Ranxry, W. Schizopoda. ‘Irish Naturalist, xvi. 301. 1907. .

Ropertson, Dr. Acnus. Theories of Evolution (continued). ‘The Naturalist for
1907,’ 209-215, 241-249, 1907.

Rosserer, T. B. On Hymenolepis fragilis. ‘Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ x.
229-234. 1908.

Rovssetet, CHartes F. On Brachionus sericus, usp... a new Variety of
Brachionus quadratus, and Remarks on Brachionus rubens, of Ehrenberg.
‘Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ x. 147-164. 1907.

Scuarrr, Dr. R. F. Further Advances in Irish Marine Zoology. ¢ Irish
Naturalist,’ xvi. 218-221. 1907.

The Determination of Sex in the Woodcock. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xv.
72-73. 1908.

Scorr, Dr. THomas. Observations on some Copepoda that live as Messmates or
Commensals with Ascidians, ‘Trans, Edinburgh F. N. Mic. Soe.’ v. 357-
872. 1907.

Scorr-Exiror, Prof. G. I’. Note on the Taste of Bees in Colour. ‘Trans.
Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc. xvim. 141. 1907.

Service, Ropert. Natural History Notes. ‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and Gallo-
way N. H. A. Soc.’ xvi, 20-24. 1907.

The Vendace. ‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soe. xvii.

123-127,149. 1907.

Seasonal Movements of Fishes in the Solway Area, ‘Trans. Dumfriesshire

and Galloway N. H. A. Soe.’ xviii. 149-152. 1907.

Bird Migration at Southerness. ‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway
N. H. A. Soe.’ x1x. 76-78. 1908.

Suarp, W. E. The Coleoptera of Lancashire and Cheshire. ‘ Proc. Lancashire
and Cheshire Ent. Soc. 1907.’ App. 75 pp. 1908.

SuepparD, T. Note on a Malformed Antler of a Red Deer (Cervus elaphus),
from the Peat at Sutton-on-Sea, Lincolnshire. ‘The Naturalist for 1907,’
231-233. 1907.

Sicu, ALFRED. Rhopalocera in the Taunus Hills. ‘Proc. South London Ent.
N. H. Soc. 1907-1908, 8-11. 1908.

Smirn, Frank P, Some British Spiders taken in 1907. ‘ Journal Quelkett
Mic. Club,’ x. 177-190. 1907.

Soar, Cuartes D, British Hydrachnide: the Genus Piona, ‘Trans. Edmburgh
F. N. Mic. Soc.’ v. 372-892. 1907.

SourHweELt, THomas, Some Old-time Norfolk Botanists, ‘Trans. Norfolk and
Norwich Nat. Soe.’ vir. 874-3886. 1907.

Srpcrox, A. W. Some Notes on the Land and Fresh-water Mollusca of Galway
and District. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xv1. 353-864. 1907.

-—— and J. N. Mityz. Further Notes on the Land and Fresh-water Mollusca
of Cork West and Kerry. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xvr. 286-288. 1907.

Srusss, F. Notes on the Lapwing. ‘The Naturalist for 1907, 310-311. 1907.

Taytor, J. W. Vitrina elongata in Ireland: an Addition to the Fauna of the
British Isles, ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xvr. 225-231. 1907.

Tertry, A. S. Report on Lepidoptera, 1907. ‘Report Scarborough Phil. Arch.
Soe. for 1907,’ 34-85. 1908.

THompson, Mrs, Rooks’ Nests. ‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A.
Soc.’ xvii, 144-145, 1907,

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 567

THorntey, Rev. A., and W. Wattace. Lincolnshire Coleoptera,, ‘Trans. Lin-
colnshire Nat. Union, 1907,’ 192-204, 1908,

- Torner, Miss E. L. Some Notes on the Coot and Great Crested Grebe.
‘Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc.’ vir. 449-454. 1907.

Turner, Henry J. Our Authorities: an Introduction to the Early Literature
of Entomology. ‘Proc. South London Ent. N. H. Soe. 1907-1908, 1-7. 1908.

VaucHan, Mervyn. Observations on the Flight of Flying Fishes. ‘Trans,
Edinburgh F. N. Mic. Soe.’ v. 406-411. 1907.

Wane, E. W. The Peregrines at Bampton, ‘The Naturalist for 1907,’ 216. 1907.

—— East Yorkshire Bird Notes, 1907. ‘The Naturalist for 1907,’ 419-422, 1907.

Wattace, W. The Coleoptera taken at Irby, June 20,1907. ‘Trans. Lincoln-
shire Nat. Union, 1907,’ 209-211. 1908.

Wetcu, R. Bythinia Leachii, an Addition to the Irish Fauna; with some Notes
on its Distribution and also on that of Planorbis corneus. ‘Irish Naturalist,’
xvit. 1-5. 1908.

—— and A. W. Sretrox. Land and Fresh-water Mollusca of Cork and Water-
ford. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xvr1. 273-286, 370-871. 1907.

Wescut, W. The Male Genitalia of the Cockroach, Periplancta orientalis, Linn.,
and their Homology with the Genitalia in Diptera. ‘Journal Quekett Mic.
Club,’ x. 235-242. 1908.

Wuiraker, ArtHur. Bats, their Senses and Habits. ‘Bradford Scientific
Journal, 11. 3-8. 1907.

— Bats, their Food and Flight. ‘Bradford Scientific Journal,’ rr. 46-53. 1907.

—— The Hairy-armed Bat (Vesperugo leisler:). ‘The Naturalist for 1907,’ 384—
388, 415-418. 1907.

Wuitaker, Wu. H. The Fishes of Upper Airedale. ‘Bradford Scientific

Journal,’ 11. 13-19. 1907.

Warts, G. A. and R. B. The False Scorpions of Cumberland. ‘The Naturalist
for 1907,’ 208-204. 1907. :

Wuyrte, Wm. Half a day on Tentsmuir. ‘Trans. Perthshire Soc. Nat. Sci.’
ty. 200-202. 1907.

Witriamson, Wm. Scottish Hydrachnids: Species collected during 1906.
‘Trans, Edinburgh F. N. Mie. Soc.’ v. 395-394, 1907.

Wricut, W. C. Attempted Nesting of the Red-throated Diver in Ireland.
‘Trish Naturalist,’ xvz, 837-8389, 1907,

Section E,.—GEOGRAPHY.

Cunninenam, C. M. Results of an Investigation of the Drift of the Irish Sea.
‘Report Belfast Nat. I’. C.’ v. 508-509. 1907.

Denpy, Joun. A Holiday in the Far West. ‘Journal Manchester Geog. Soc.’
xxi. 1-27. 1907.
Forpuam, H. G. Hertfordshire Maps: a Descriptive Catalogue of the Maps of
the County, 1579 to 1900. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soe.’ x11. 89-140. 1907.
Gray, J. Rem. Some Ancient Dreams of Italy in Stone and Paint. ‘ Journal
Manchester Geog. Soc.’ xx11r. 152-168. 1907.

Hrypiip, Lord. Ixperiences in East Africa, ‘Journal Manchester Geog. Soc,’
xxiii. 97-114. 1907.

Hors, R. Ernest. With Pen and Camera in Nigeria, ‘ Journal Manchester
Geog. Soc.’ xx1it. 155-157, 1907.

Husparp, Mrs. Leonipas, jun. A Woman’s Way through Unknown Labrador,
‘ Journal Manchester Geog. Soc.’ xx111. 169-182. 1907.

Pratt, A. EK, A Naturalist in New Guinea, ‘Trans. Liverpool Geog. Soc. 1907,’
11-20, 1908.

PutteN-Burry, Miss B. Dai Nippon Banzai. ‘Trans. Liverpool Geog. Soe.
1907, 7-10, 1908.

Russert, Dr. Epwarp J. The Relation between the Geographical Position and
the Productive Capacity of Land. ‘Journal Manchester Geog. Soc,’ XXII.
28-42, 1907,

568 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Sykes, Hursert R. The Lut, the Great Desert of Persia. ‘Journal Man-
chester Geog. Soc.’ xx111. 60-73. 1907.

Swattow, Rh. W. A Glimpse at Western China: the Province of Shansi.
‘ Journal Manchester Geog. Soc.’ xx11r. 49-59. 1907.

Workman, Dr. W. H. An Exploration of the Nunkun Mountain Group and its
Glaciers. ‘Journal Manchester Geog. Soe.’ xxi. 183-214. 1907,

Section F.—EconoMic SCtENCE AND STATISTICS.

Burton, Francis G. Appreciation of Municipal Assets. ‘Trans. Manchester
Stat. Soe. 1906-1907,’ 65-85. 1907.

BurterwortH, Water. Manchester Municipal Public Libraries. ‘Trans.
Manchester Stat. Soc. 1906-1907,’ 89-119. 1907.

Coorrr, F. W. Compensation under the Licensing Act, 1904. ‘Trans. Man-
chester Stat. Soc. 1906-1907,’ 121-144. 1907.

Corserr, J. Rooke. Recent Electoral Statistics. ‘Trans. Manchester Stat. Soc.
1906-1907,’ 37-63. 1907.

Fraser, D. Drummonp. A Decade of Manchester Banking, 1896-1905. ‘Trans.
Manchester Stat. Soc. 1906-1907,’ 1-386. 1907.

GuratsterR, Prof. Jonn. River Pollution and River Purification in Scotland.
‘Proc. Glasgow R. Phil. Soc.” xxxvuit. 118-149. 1907.

Scorr, Dr. ALExanDER. The Training of Youth: Supervision of Lads from their
Fourteenth till their Seventeenth Year. ‘ Proc. Glasgow R. Phil. Soe.’
Xxxvit. 159-173. 1907.

Topp, Joun A. The Report of the Select Committee of the Tlouse of Commons
on the Land Values Taxation (Scotland) Bill, 1906. ‘Proc. Glasgow R. Phil.
Soc.’ xxxviir. 48-69. 1907.

Wice, J. T. Notes on the Yarmouth Herring Fishery, 1906. ‘Trans. Norfolk
and Norwich Nat. Soc.’ vitr. 455-457. 1907.

Section G.—ENGINEERING.

Auegr, E.E. Artificial Lighting. ‘Report R. Cornwall Poly. Soc. 1906,’ 131-
135. 1907.

AsHwortH, James (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.). Air-percussion and Time in
Colliery Explosions. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxxiv. 270-277. 1908.

AsHwoRTH, Jorn {Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.). Presidential Address. ‘Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxxiv. 306-320. 1908.

Bain, James (Min. Inst. Scotland). Rescue Apparatus for use in Mines. ‘ Trans,
Inst. Min, Eng.’ xxxtv. 72-75. 1908.

Bawpryn, W. R. Diamond Drill Surveying. ‘Report R. Cornwall Poly. Soc.
1906,’ 62-69, 1907.

Binns, Grorer, J. (Mid. Counties Inst. Eng.), Presidential Address. ‘Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxxiv. 192-201. 1908.

BrisxeEez, Dr. F. J. Combustion in Locomotive Boilers. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng.
Soe.’ xxvuir. 177-192. 1907.

Broapuurst, Herbert F. Water Supplies by means of Artesian Bored Tube
Wells. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxxn1. 473-497. 1907.

Brown, Joun F. K. (Min. Inst. Scotland). A Stretcher for use in Mines.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng. xxx1i1. 162-163. 1907.

Brown, M. Watton. Experiments on an Auxiliary Ventilating Fan. ‘Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxxtv. 494-511. 1908.

Browne, J. T. The Thick Coal of Warwickshire. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’
xxxul. 502-512. 1907.

Bucxxey, F. E. (N. Staff. Inst. Eng.). Outbursts of Coal and Gas in the Cocks-
ieee Seam, Shelton Colliery, ‘Trans, Inst, Min, Eng.’ xxxmm. 313-820,
1907,

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 569

Capett, Rev. G. M. The Application of Duplicate Fans to Mines. ‘ Trans. Inst.
Min. Eng’ xxxirt. 431-433. 1907.

Cuamsers, D. M. The Ozokerite (Mineral Wax) Mine of the Galizische Kredit-
bank, at Boryslaw, Galicia, Austria. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxx. 555-
539. 1907.

Curisti£, T. T. (Min. Inst. Scotland). A Wagon-lowering Device for use at
Colliery Screens. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxxtv. 255-257. 1903.

Cocxritt, T. Sipney. Screw Propellers. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxviit.
71-86. 1907.

Cremer, R. (N. England Inst. Eng.), The Wolf-Bohres Electric Safety Lamp.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxx1v. 59-60. 1908.

Deacon, M. Presidential Address. [The Progress of the Institution and of
Mining Engineering.} ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxxti1. 330-345. 1907.

DurnrorpD, H.St.Joun. Deep Boring at Barlow, near Selby. ‘Trans. Inst.
Min. Eng.’ xxxiv. 426-438. 1908.

Foster, H. T. Roof-weights in Mines. ‘Trans, Inst, Min, Eng.’ xxxiv, 405-
413. 1908.

Fowter, A. F. Inaugural Address. [The Work of the Engineer.] ‘Trans.
Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxvimt. 1-8. 1907.

Fryar, J. W., and Ropert Crive. The Sinking of Bentley Colliery. ‘ Trans.
Inst. Min, Eng.’ xxxiv. 389-400. 1908.

Gay, H.S. A Single Room System of Mining: an Adaptation of the Longwall
Method to Work in Thick Seams. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxur. 558-566. 1907.

Gritz, R. D. The Equipment of the Cornish Consolidated Tin Mines, Limited.
‘Report R. Cornwall Poly. Soc. 1907,’ 64-71. 1908.

Greaves, E. (Mid. Counties Inst. Eng.). The Elliott Washer and Hardy Dust
Extractor and Grinder. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxxir. 158-149. 1907.
Hatnaum, H. W. G. Cast-iron Tubbing: What is its Rational Formula ?

‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxxirr. 567-617. 1907.

Hantry, Atsert (Min. Inst. Scotland). The Hanley Cage Guardian. ‘Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxx1ir. 164-166. 1907.

Harte, Ricwarp (N. England Inst. Eng.). Treatment of Dust in Mines above-
ground and below-ground. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxxui1, 254-257. 1907.

Horr, Atartc. Zeebrugge Harbour Works. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’
xxvii. 186-143. 1907.

Hystop, G. P. (N. Staff. Inst. Eng.). Presidential Address. ‘Trans. Inst. Min.
Eng,’ xxxiv. 289-301. 1908.

Jackson, W. B. M. A By-product Coking Plant at Clay Cross. ‘Trans, Inst.
Min. Eng,’ xxxti. 386-397. 1907.

Jounson, J. McA. (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.). Stirling and other Water Tube
Boilers as applied to Collieries and Coking Plant. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng,’

_ xxxv. 98-113. 1908.

Jongs, St, V. Cuampton (N. Staff. Inst.). A Gob Fire in a Shropshire Mine.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng,’ xxx1i1. 78-84. 1907.

Kemp, W. J., and G. Atrrep Lewis. Gypsum in Sussex. ‘Trans, Inst. Min.
Eng.’ xxxirr. 449-468. 1907.

Kennepy, A. J. The most suitable Form of Guides for Cages for Winding from
ne Shafts: 1,500 feet and deeper. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxxrir. 108-112.
1907.

Kirxsy, Ricwarp (Min. Inst. Scotland). An Underground Diamond Bore at
Preston Links Colliery. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxxv. 89-92. 1908.

Kocus, A. Victor. Notes on By-product Coke Ovens, with special reference to
the Koppers Oven. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxxurr. 398-416. 1907.

Louis, Prof. Henry (N. England Inst. Eng.). A Locking Hook for Linking
purposes. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxxiv. 56. 1908,

a Sliding-trough Conveyors. ‘Trans, Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxxrir. 198-
200. :

Merivatn, J. H. (N. Eng. Inst.). Presidential Address. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng,’
Xxxtv. 15-38, 1908,

570 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, 5

Morrow, Dr. Joun (N. Eng, Inst.). The Strength of Cast-iron Tubbing for Deep
Shafts. ‘Trans. Inst. Min, Eng.’ xxxrv. 100-123. 1908.

Preece, G. G. L. (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.), Recent Improvements on the
Design of Electric Cables for Collieries, ‘Trans, Inst. Min, Eng.’ xxxtv, 161-
166, 1908.

PritcHarD, P, M. The Schwartzkopff System of Coal Dust Firing. ‘Trans.
Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxviit, 154-165. 1907.

RamsporHaM, J. F. Graving Dock Construction, Dealing with the new Brockles-
bank Graving Dock. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxvmr. 45-70. 1907.
RATHMELL, BERNARD. Refrigerating Machinery, ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’

XXVIII. 9-385. 1907,

Rourteper, N. W. The most suitable Form of Guides for Cages. for Winding
from Deep Shafts: 1,500 feet and deeper. ‘Trans. Inst. Min, Eng,’ xxx1.
104-107. 1907.

Rourtepes, W. (Midland Inst. Eng.). Winding-ropes and Capels. ‘Trans, Inst.
Min. Eng.’ xxxiv, 140-148. 1908.

RowLEy, WatteR (N. England Inst. Eng.). Notes on Mining and Engineering in
America and Canada. ‘Trans, Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxxtv. 239-252. 1908.

SaInTE-CLATRE-DEvVILLE, Mr. (N. England Inst. Iing.). A Simple Method of
Water Stowage employed at No. 5 Pit of the Escarpelle Mines. ‘Trans. Inst.
Min. Eng.’ xxxv. 79-85. 1908.

Saris, H. R. ne. Improvements required in Inland Navigation. ‘Trans. Inst.
Min, Eng.’ xxx1t. 347-363. 1907.

Sartmonp, JAmzEs (Min. Inst. Scotland), Polmaise Collieries. ‘Trans, Inst. Min,
Eng.’ XXxi11. 237-248, 1907.

Sinrn, AtexanpER (S. Staff. and Warw. Inst. Eng.). Presidential Address,
‘Trans. Inst. Min, Eng.’ xxx1v. 79-87. 1908.

Surerrrre, R. (Midland Inst. Eng.). The Importance of Scientific Mining in the
Barnsley District. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxxrir. 90-99. 1907.

Tompson, I’. J. (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.). The Rock-salt Deposits at Preesall,
Fleetwood, and the Mining Operationstherein, ‘Trans, Inst. Min, Eng.’ xxXx1I1.
291-298. 1907. -

Trovussart, E. Electric Transmission of Power at the Works and Collieries
of the Grand-Hornu, Belgium, ‘Trans, Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxx. 647-662,
1908.

Wetts, L. Forrescur. Sundry Notes on Railway Construction. ‘Trans, Liver-
pool Eng, Soc.’ xxvirt, 238-252. 1907.

Waite, J. Watwyn. Aérial Ropeways and Cableways. ‘ Trans. Liverpool Eng.
Soc.’ xxvur. 198-230. 1907.

WILLIAMS, C. Wrenyez. Rock-breaking and Dredging, ‘Trans, Liverpool Eng.
Soc.’ xxvii. 117-124. 1907.

Winbtorn, ArtHUR T, (Midland Inst. Eng.). Notes on Recent Experience i in
the Practical Use of Rescue Apparatus. ‘Trans, Inst. Min. Eng. xxxv. 7-12.

1908.

Worpswortu, T. H. (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.). Cage-lowering Tables at
New Moss ‘Colliery. ‘Trans, Inst. Min. Eng.’ xXXrIt. 174-177, 1907,

Wroe, JonATHAN (Midland Inst. Eng.). Notes on a Recent Underground Fire
at Wharncliffe Silkstone Collieries, and the Use of Rescue Apparatus in Con-
nection therewith. ‘Trans. Inst, Min. Ing” xxxy. 2-6. 1908

Section H,—ANTHROPOLOGY.

ApAms, Rev. W. A. The Stone Age in South Africa. ‘Proc. Belfast Nat. F. C.’
v. 499-501. 1907.

AupDEN, Rey. Preb. Prehistoric Man in Shropshire. ‘Trans. Caradoc and Severn
Valley F. C.’ ty. 188-146, 1908.

Benson, Grorar. Notes on an Excavation at the Corner F Castlegate and
Coppergate, ‘ Report Yorkshire Phil. Soc, for 1906,’ 72-76, 1907,

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 571

Butte, Arraur, and H. Sr. G. Gray. The Glastonbury Lake Village : an
Account of a portion of the Excavations undertaken during 1906 and 1907,
‘Proc. Somersetshire Arch. N. H. Soc.’ tir. Part 11. 101-147. 1908.

Crarke, W.G. The Distribution of Flint and Bronze Implements in Norfolk,
‘Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soe.’ vii. 393-409. - 1907,

Craw, J. H. Cist and Urn Found on Harelaw Hill, Chirnside. ‘ History
Berwickshire Nat. Club,’ x1x. 340. 1907.

Gray, H. Sr. Georcr, Maesbury Camp, or Masbury Castle. ‘Proc. Somer-
setshire Arch, N. H. Soc.’ riz. Part 11. 73-81. 1908. :
Hormes, T. V. Miscellaneous Denehole Notes, 1906, ‘Essex Naturalist,’

xv. 6-13. 1907.

Denehole at Gravesend. ‘Essex Naturalist,’ xv. 92-98. 1907.

Hunt, Rev. Atrrep. The Pygmy Flint Age in Lincolnshire. ‘Trans. Lin-
colnshire Nat. Union, 1907,’ 154-162. 1908.

Lyett, Dr. Joun H. A New View of Human Descent. ‘Trans. Perthshire Soc.
Nat. Sci.’ 1v, 169-173. 1907.

M‘Cormicx, A. Gypsies. ‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’
xvul. 171-173. 1907.

Mackenzis, Sir A. M. Prehistoric Burials, ‘Trans. Perthshire Soe. Nat. Sci.’
1v. 163-168, 1907.

Macpualt, Dr. J.M. The Santals of Bengal. ‘Proc. Glasgow R. Phil. Soe.’
xxxvii1. 70-80. 1907.

Metto, J. M. Prehistoric Man in Europe. ‘Proc. Warwickshire IF’. ©. 1907,
11-12. 1907,

Meyrick, E. On the Practical Difficulties in obtaining Measurements of Growth
in Schoolboys. ‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soe.’ No. 56, 24-27. 1908.

aa Anthropometrical Report. ‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc. No. 56, 109-

37. 1908.
i F, W. Flint Axe found at Pleshey, Essex. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ xv. 18,
907.

Sconcs, Col. Jamzs. Cup-marked Stones. ‘Trans, Edinburgh I’, N. Mic. Soc.’
v. 415-422, 1907, :

Scorr-Extior, Prof. G. F. The Migrations of Man. Presidential Address.
‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’ xrx. 14-28. 1908.

SuerparD, T. Prehistoric Remains from Lincolnshire, ‘The Naturalist for
1908,’ 134-142, 185-186, 1908,

Section I,—Puysto.oay.

Brown tes, Dr. Joux. Statistical Studies in Immunity. The Incubation Periud
and the Crisis. ‘Proc. Glasgow R. Phil. Soc.’ xxxvui1. 25-47. 1907.

Burcuer, W. Deane. Presidential Address, [Heredity.]| ‘Trans. Ealing Sci.
Mic. Soc., 1906-1907,’ 1-13. 1907.

Ferevus, Dr. Freeranp. Vision and Work. ‘Proc. Glasgow R. Phil. Soe.’
Xxxviit. 108-112. 1907.

HasersHon, M. H. (Midland Inst. Eng.). The Use and Care of Oxygen-
Breathing Apparatus. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxxirt. 212-222. 1907.

Hit, Prof. Lronarp (S. Staff. and Warw. Inst. Min. Eng.). Breathing Appa-
ratus for Use in Mines. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxxv. 24-36. 1908.

Ross, Dr, J. Maxwert. Phthisis and Sanatoria. ‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and
Galloway N. H. A. Soe.’ xviir. 212-214, 1907,

Section K.—BorTany.

Arkuy, Rev. J.J. M. L. A Ramble round Yetholm, ‘History Berwickshire
Nat. Club,’ xrx. 827-832. 1907.

Auuzn, W. B. A Note on Zrametes rubescens, ‘Trans. British’ Mycologieal.
Soe.’ 1, 161-163, 1907, :

572 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Asien, W.B. Notes on Shropshire Poplars. ‘Trans, Caradoc and Severn Valley
F.C.’ iv. 147-164. 1908,

—— Notes on the Botany of Tickwood and District. ‘Trans, Caradoc and
Severn Valley I. C. 1v. 171-173. 1908.

Arnott, 8S. Raising Double Polyanthuses and Primroses from Seeds. ‘ Trans.
Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’ xviii. 27-28. 1907.

—— The Chrysanthemum Sport Exhibited at the [last December] Meeting.
‘ Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’ xvriz. 95-96. 1907.

Barry, J. W. Sylvan Vegetation of Fylingdales, N. E. Yorks. ‘The Natu-
ralist for 1907,’ 4253-431. 1907.

BreLterey, W. Sphagnum bavaricum in Yorkshire. ‘The Naturalist for 1908,’
15-16. 1908.

Benneir, A. Liparis loesellai, Rich., an Extension of Range. ‘ Trans. Norfolk
and Norwich Nat. Soc.’ vi1r. 340-343. 1907.

Szlene otites, Artemisia campestris, and Chenopodium botryodes in Kast Anglia.
‘Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc.’ vit. 348-352. 1907.

—— Potamogeton pensylvanicus in England. ‘The Naturalist for 1908,’ 10-11.
1908.

Borvus, Harry. Contributions to the African Flora. ‘Trans. 8. African Phil.
Soe.’ xvi1r. 379-399. 1907.

Bovupier, EmMine. Quelques rectifications et observations critiques sur les ‘ Ilus-
trations of British Fungi’ de Cooke. ‘Trans. British Mycological Soc.’ 11.
150-157. 1907.

Boyp, Wm. Annual Address, [The Snowdrop.| ‘ History Berwickshire Nat.
Club,’ x1x. 233-249. 1907.

Britis Myconoetcat Sociz1y. Report of the Epping Forest Foray [Oct 1-6,
1906] and complete List of Fungi and Mycetozoa gathered. ‘Trans. British
Mycological Soc.’ 11. 135-141. 1907.

Britten, James. Note on Ltosa hibernica. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xvr. 309-310.
1907.

Bourcunatt, H. W. Plants found at Spalding. ‘Trans. Lincolnshire Nat.
Union, 1907, 211-212. 1908.

CaRADOC AND SEVERN VALLEY Fretp Crus. Botanical Notes, 1907. ‘ Record
of Bare Facts,’ No. 17, 5-25. 1908.

CaRrRuTHERS, Major. Records of the Growth of Trees at Dormont, Lockerbie.
‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soe.’ xrx. 50-55. 1908.

Cavers, Prof. F, Hepaticse. ‘ Bradford Scientific Journal,’ 11. 33-37. 1907.

CHFETHAM, Curis. A. Mosses. ‘ Bradford Scientific Journal,’ 11. 97-105. 1908.

CHITTENDEN, F. J. The Uredinese and Ustilaginee of Fssex: Part HI. ‘ Essex
Naturalist,’ xv. 1-5. 1907.

Coon, JoserH M. Mycetozoa: Cornuvia Serpula. ‘Trans. R. Cornwall Poly.
Soe. 1906,’ 88-91. 1907.

Corton, A.D. Notes on British Clavarie. ‘ Trans. British Mycological Soc.’
11. 163-166. 1907.

CrosstanpD, C. Fungus Foray at Grassington, Bolton Woods, and Buckden.
‘The Naturalist for 1907,’ 397-401. 1907.

—— The Study of Fungi in Yorkshire. Presidential Address to the Yorkshire
Naturalists’ Union. ‘The Naturalist for 1908,’ 81-98, 147-155. 1908.

Davins, J. H. Bryological Notes from County Down. ‘Irish Naturalist, xv1.
215-217. 1907.

Deans, ARTHUR. Leaves and their Functions. ‘Proc, Belfast Nat. F. C.’
v. 497-498, 1907.

Fruits and Vegetables. ‘Proc. Belfast Nat. F.C.’ vy. 517-518. 1907,

Dixon, H.N. The Mosses of Northumberland. ‘History Berwickshire Nat.
Club,’ x1x. 805-326. 1907.

——- The Moss Flora of the Greywethers, ‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. IL. Soe.’
No, 56, 28-80. 1908.

—— Phenological Observations, 1905, ‘Journal Northants N. H. Soe.’ xiv.
63-64, 1907. ;

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 573

Druce, G. Crariper. Notes on the Flora of Northamptonshire. _‘ Journal
- Northants N. H. Soe.’ x1v, 99-108. — 1907.

Frenou, Joun. Notes on some Essex Woods. ‘Essex Naturalist,’ xv. 24-80,
1907.

—— Some Observations on the Chickweed (Stellaria media). ‘ Essex Naturalist,’
xy. 89-91. 1907.

Grsts, Tuomas. Fungi at Horton-in-Ribblesdale. ‘The Naturalist for 1907,’
395-396. 1907.

—— A New Coprimus. ‘The Naturalist for 1908,’ 100. 1908,

Hammonp, W.H. Botanical Notes for 1906-7. ‘Trans. East Kent Sci. N. H.
Soe.’ vit1. 22-28. 1908.

Hawtey, H. C. Fungi at Ropsley. ‘Trans. Lincolnshire Nat. Union, 1907,’
214. 1908.

Hispert-Wake, A. Report on Lower Cryptogams. ‘Report Scarborough Phil.
Arch. Soe. for 1907,’ 35. 1908.

HititHovsz, W. Linneus, 1707-1768 ; with Notes on interesting Exhibits made
before the Society. ‘Proc. Birmingham N. H. Phil. Soc.’ x11. No. 2, 20 pp.
1907.

Honter, Isanet J. The Course taken by Food Material from Leaves to different
parts of the Stem. ‘Annals Andersonian Nat. Soc.’ 111. 11-17. 1908.

IneHam, W. Sagina Reuteri Boiss.: a Native of the British Flora. ‘The
Naturalist for 1907, 383. 1907.

JEFFREY, Mrs. List of Wild and Naturalised Flowers found on St. Mary’s Is’e,
Kirkcudbright. ‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’ xvitt.
46-47. 1907.

JounstoneE, Mary A. The Ancestors of the Angiosperms. ‘The Naturalist
for 1907,’ 338-341. 1907.

Keren, Dr. P.Q. The Birch Tree, Betula albu, L. ‘ The Naturalist for 1907,’
205-208. 1907.

Kwyow tes, M. C., and C. G. O’Brinn. The Flora of the Barony of Shaned. ‘¢ Irish
Naturalist,’ xvi. 185-201. 1907.

Levy, Mary L. 8. How we fight Nature on a Kentish Fruit Farm. ‘ Rochester
Naturalist,’ 111. 478-480. 1907.

Lister, ArtHur. Presidential Address. [The Mycology of Epping Forest. ]
‘Trans British Mycological Soc.’ 11. 142-149. 1907.

M‘Arotg, D. Musci and Hepatice from County Fermanagh. ‘ Jrish Naturalist,’
XVI. 282-238. 1907.

an and Hepatic from County Mayo. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xv1. 332-337.
1907.

M‘Catt, Jamus. Notes on some of the Wild Flowers in the Vicinity of Penicuik.
‘Trans. Edinburgh F. N. Mic. Soc.’ v. 8387-841. 1907.

Macvicar, Sywers M. Hints on the Study of Hepatics. ‘Trans. Edinburgh
F. N. Mic. Soc.’ v. 347-852. 1907.

Marczrison, SAmven. The Vegetation of some Disused Quarries, ‘ Bradford
Scientific Journal,’ 1. 75-84. 1908.

Martorg, Dr. R. Some new South African Succulents. ‘ Trans. S. African Phil.
Soc.’ xvirr. 43-51. 1906.

—— Mesembrianthemum calcareum, Marloth: a new Mimicry Plant. ‘ Trans.
S. African Phil. Soc.’ xvzir. 281-282. 1907.

—— Notes on the Morphology and Biology of Hydnora africana Thunb. ‘Trans.
8. African Phil. Soc.’ xv1. 465-468. 1907.

Mason, G. W. Oaks and the Caterpillar Plague. ‘The Naturalist for 1908,

75-76. 1908.

MaxweELL, SirHprzert. Forestry. ‘Trans, Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A,
Soc.’ xvuir, 8-20. 1907.

Maxwett, W.J. Notes on Trees, ‘Trans, Dumfriesshire and Galloway N.H. A.
Soc.’ x1x. 41-44. 1908.

Meyrick, E. Hand List of the Flowering Plants of the District. ‘ Report Marlb.
Coll, N. H. Soc.’ No. 56, 31-48, 1908, .

574 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Meyrick, E, Report of the Botanical Section, ‘ Report Marlb. Coll, N. H. Soc.’
No. 56, 56-64. 1908.

Ottver, Prof. F. W. An Experiment in Co-operative Field-work in Botany,
‘ South-Eastern Naturalist for 1907,’ 35-42. 1907.

Parsons, Dr. H. F. On Casual Plants in Waste Places in London, ‘Trans.
Croydon N. H. Sci. Soc. 1906-1907,’ 163-166. 1907.

Patron, Joun. A few Remarks on Mushroom Phenomena, ‘Trans. Edinburgh
F. N. Mic. Soe.’ v. 341-3847. 1907.

Pearson, W. H. An Introduction to the British Hepaticee, ‘Trans. Manchester
Mic. Soc. 1906,’ 46-53. 1907.

Prepworta, W.H. Spring Notes on Natural History. ‘Trans. Manchester Mic.
Soc. 1906,’ 61-68. 1907.

Perry, 8S. L. New Plant Records for North Lancashire. ‘The Naturalist for
1907,’ 488. 1907.

Purr, R. H. Note on the Distribution of Diatoma hiemale in East Yorksbire,
&e. ‘The Naturalist for 1907,’ 312-813. 1907.

—— Interesting Diatoms in Wharfedale. ‘The Naturalist for 1908,’ 21-22,
1908.

Puituiprs, R. A. Some Irish Brambles. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xvi. 54-56. 1908.

Purtirps, W. H. (Inaugural Address.) [Beautiful Varieties of Ferns.] ‘ Proc.
Belfast Nat. F. C.’ v. 493-496. 1907.

Prascer, R. Lroyp. On Recent Extensions of the Range of some rare Western
Plants. ‘ Ivish Naturalist,’ xvr. 241-245. 1907.

—— Additions to ‘Irish Topographical Botany’ in 1906-1907. ‘Irish Naturalist,’
xvir. 28-37. 1908.

Prrestity, J. H. The Effect of Electricity upon Plants. ‘Proc. Bristol Nat.
Soe.’ 1. 192-203. 1907.

Rea, Carteron. How to distinguish the Species of British Lycoperda in the
Field. ‘Trans. British Mycological Soc.’ 11. 157-160. 1907. °

zonium auricomum Link. ‘Trans. British Mycological Soc,’ 11. 166. 1907,

RicHarpson, Netson M. Report on First Appearance of Birds, Insects, Xc.,
and the First Flowering of Plants in Dorset during 1906. ‘ Proc. Dorset
N. H. A. F. C. xx1i. 258-279. 1907.

Saxton, W.T. On the Development of the Ovule and Embryo-Sae in Cassia
tomentosa, Lamk. ‘Trans.S. African Phil. Soc.’ xviit. 1-5. 1907,

Scnbntann, Dr. S. A Study of some Facts and Theories bearing upon the
Question of the Origin of the Angiospermous Flora of South Africa. ‘ Trans.
S. African Phil. Soc.’ xvrtr. 521-367. 1907.

Scort-Extior, Prof. G.F. (Presidential Address.) [Advances in Science ; Origin
of Vegetation in Nithsdale.| ‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A,
Soc.’ xvrir. 2-7. 1907.

—— The Java Bean. ‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’
xviit. 146-149. 1907.

—— Notes on the Trap-Flora of Renfrewshire. ‘Annals Andersonian Nat. Soc.’
mr. 1-10. 1908.

Scutty, Resinatp W. Notes on the Kerry Flora, 1907. ‘Trish Naturalist,’
xyir. 50-54. 1908.

S[wepparp], T. The Natural History of Littondale, Yorks. ‘The Naturalist
for 1907,’ 342-853, 1907.

Suurrrey, Rev. W. A. The Botanical Features of Littondale. ‘The Naturalist
for 1907,’ 354-3856. 1907.

SmitH, Miss A. Lorrain, and Carteton Rus. Fungi new to Britain. ‘Trans.
British Mycological Soe.’ 11. 167-172. 1907.

Suitu, Rupert. The Graminesw under Economic Aspects. ‘Trans. Edinburgh
F. N. Mic. Soe.’ vy. 395-402. 1907.

Somprvitte, ALEX. On the Occurrence of the Rock Samphire (Crithmum
maritimum, L.) and the Marsh Helleborine (2pipactis palustris, Crantz)
on the West of Scotland. ‘Trans. Edinburgh F, N, Mie. Soe.’ v. 352-356,
1907.

epee

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. Waa)

Srizton, Dr. James. Scottish Mosses. ‘Proc. Glasgow R. Phil, Svc.’ xxxvuit,
1650-158. 1907.

Stow, Miss S.C. Lincolnshire Galled-Plants, ‘Trans. Lincolnshire Nat. Union,
1907,’ 145-153. 1908.

Taytor, Rev. Joun. Botanical Notes from Dover, ‘Trans. Mast Kent Sci.
N. H. Soe.’ vir. 23. 1908.

Tomiinson, W. J. C. The Occurrence of Spiranthes Romansofiana in co,
Antrim, ‘Trish Naturalist,’ xvi, 811-314. 1907.

Torrend, Rey. C. Additions to the Fungi of the Counties of Dublin and
Wicklow. ‘Irish Naturalist, xvir. 25-27. 1908.

Wess, Prof. F. E. British Forest Trees. ‘Trans, Manchester Mic. Soc., 1906,’
76-83. 1907.

West, W.andG.8. Algz from Austwick Moss, West Yorks. ‘The Naturalist
for 1908, 101-103. 1908.

Wiurxinson, Henry J. Historical Account of the Herbarium of the Yorkshire
Philosophical Society and the Contributors thereto. ‘Report Yorkshire Phil.
Soc. for 1906,’ 45-71. 1907.

Winter, W. P. Mediterranean Plants in the Botanical Garden [Bradford].
‘ Bradford Scientific Journal,’ 11, 20-21. 1907.

-—- The Bradford Botanical Garden. ‘Bradford Scientific Journal,’ m.
39-41, 88-89. 1907, 1908.

Woop, J. Mrprey. Revised List of the Flora of Natal. ‘Trans, S, African
Phil. Soe.’ xvirt. 121-280, 1908.

Woopueap, Dr. T. W. Plant Geography and Heology in Switzerland. ‘The
Naturalist for 1908,’ 170-174. 1908.

Wooprurre-Peacock, Rev. E. Appian. Broughton Woods, ‘Trans. Lincoln-
shire Nat. Union, 1907,’ 168-173. 1908.

—— The Botany of Irby-on-Humber. ‘Trans. Lincolnshire Nat. Union, 1907,’
208-209. 1908.

—— The Botany of Newton Cliff. ‘Trans. Lincolnshire Nat. Union, 1907,’
212-213, 1908,

~— The Botany of Ropsley. ‘Trans. Lincolnshire Nat, Union, 1907,’ 214-
216. 1908,

Section L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

Linpsay, Dr. J. A. Some German Educational Methods and Ideals, ‘Proc,
Belfast N. H. Phil. Soc, 1906-1907, 13-17. 1907,

Oxitvuary,

Baireks, Epwarp A, L, By R. Li, Plraeger], ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xvit. 43,
1908,

Bett, Sir Lowrwtay. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxx. 665-672. 1908.

Lrytu, Prof. James, By Dr. James Colville. ‘Proc. Glasgow R. Phil. Soc.’
XXXVIII. 234-248, 1907.

Dacuisu, Jouyx, By M. Walton Brown. ‘Trans. Inst. Min, Eng.’ xxxir. 201-
204. 1907.

Donréz, NicHoras Frank. By G. T. Pforritt]. ‘The Naturalist for 1908,’
48-50. 1902.

Exwortay, F. 'T. By Charles Tite. ‘Proc, Somersetshire Arch, N. H. Soc!
Litt. Part 11., 188-191, 1908.

Farran, Joun. By T. S[heppard]. ‘The Naturalist for 1907, 412-414. 1907,

Harrison, JouHN. By E.G. B. ‘The Naturalist for 1907,’ 290, 1907.

Kevin, Lord. By Prof. J. Joly. ‘Irish Naturalist, xvir. 41. 1908.

Law, Ropert. By W. Cash. ‘The Naturalist for 1908,’ 52-59. 1908,

Linton, Rev. W. R. By T.G. ‘The Naturalist for 1908,’ 5!. 1908.

ae Admiral Sir F, L, By A. R.N, ‘Irish Naturalist, xvit, 42-43,

3,

576 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Mitter, Wittiam. By E.M. Holmes, ‘South Eastern Naturalist for 1907,’
82-84. 1907.

Sorsy, Dr. H.C. By T.S{heppard]. ‘ The Naturalist for 1908,’ 129-180. 1908.

VoerL, Hermann Kart. By C. A. C. ‘Journal Roy. Astr. Soc. of Canada,’
1. 360-366. 1907.

Waker, JoHN Francis. By T. Sfheppard]. ‘The Naturalist for 1907,’ 221.
1907.

Youne, Cuartrs A. By Edwin B. Frost. ‘Journal Roy. Astr. Soc. of Canada.’
11, 27-31. 1908.

Youne, Lawrence Cuartes Hirts. By E. Meyrick]. ‘Report Marlb. Coll.
N. H. Soc.’ No. 56, 52-53. 1908.

1908,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

Poe

= e ae Fie. Rays d Rte

ane ht ré

‘

rs

a
&
P|
f=
he
‘
*-
}
be
4,

#

‘sig ses

my
*
_" a a

~ 7

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS,

Section A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION.—W. N. Saw, Se.D., LL.D., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 2.
The President delivered the following Address :—

Ir is with much misgiving that I endeavour to discharge the traditional duty of
the President of a Section of the British Association. So many other duties seem
to find a natural resting-place with anyone who has to reckon at the same time
with the immediate requirements of the public, the claims of scientific opinion,
and the interests of posterity, that, unless you are content with such contribution
towards the advancement of the sciences of mathematics and physics as my daily
experience enables me to offer you, I shall find the task impossible.

With a leaning towards periodicity perhaps slightly unorthodox I have looked
back to see what they were doing in Section A fifty years ago. Richard Owen
was President of the Association, William Whewell was President of Section A.
for the fifth time.

At the meeting of 1858 they must have spent some time over nineteen very
substantial reports on researches in science, which included a large section of
Mallett’s facts and theory of earthquake phenomena, magnetic surveys of Great
Britain and of Ireland, and, oddly enough, an account of the self-recording anemo-
meter by Beckley; perhaps a longer time was required for fifty-seven papers
contributed to the Section, but very little was spent over the Presidential Address,
for it only occupies two pages of print. My inclination towards periodicities and
another consideration leads me to regard the precedent as a good one. ‘That other
consideration is that Section A has always more subjects for discussion than it can
properly dispose of; and, in this case, discipline, like charity, might begin at home.

Since the Section met last year it has lost its most illustrious member and its
most faithful friend. Lord Kelvin made his first contribution to Section A at
Cambridge in 1845, on the elementary laws of statical electricity; he was Pre-
sident of the Section in 1852 at Belfast for the first of five times. I have looked
to see what suggestion I could derive from his first essay in that capacity. I can
find no reference to any Address in the published volume. J wish I had the
courage to follow that great example.

Lord Kelvin’s association with Section A was so constant and so intimate that
it requires more than a passing word of reference. There is probably no student
of Mathematics or Physics grown into a position of responsibility in this country
but keeps among his treasured reminiscences some words of inspiratioa and of
encouragement from Kelvin, spoken in the surroundings which we are once more
met to inaugurate. I refer to those unrecorded acts of kindness and help because
they were really a striking characteristic of Section A. Their value for the
amenity as well as for the advancement of science it would be difficult to over-
estimate. I could not, even if time permitted, hope to set before you an adequate

BeZ

580 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

appreciation of Kelvin’s contributions to Science as illustrated by his communica-
tions to this Section, and in this place it is not necessary. But I cannot pass
over that feature of his character without notice.

Closely following on the loss of Kelvin came the death of Sir Richard
Strachey, a personal loss to which it is difficult to give expression. I am not
aware that he had much to do with Section A. I wish, indeed, that the Section
had seen its way to bring him more closely into touch with its proceedings. He
was President of Section E in 1875, and, by appointment of the Royal Society, he
was for twenty-two years Chairman of the Meteorological Council. I had the
good fortune to be very closely associated with him during the last ten years of
his life, and to realise the ideas which lay behind his official actions and to appre-
ciate the reality of his services to science in the past and for the future.

These losses unfortunately do not stand alone. Only last year Sir John Eliot
received the congratulations of all his fellow-workers upon the publication of his
Climatological Atlas of India as representing the most conspicuous achievement of
orderly, deliberate, purposeful compilation of meteorological facts for a special area
that has yet been seen. He was full of projects for a handbook to accompany the
atlas, and of ideas for the prosecution of meteorological research over wide areas
by collecting information from all the world and enlisting the active co-operation
of the constituent parts of the British Empire in using those observations for the
advancement of science and the benefit of mankind. He died quite suddenly on
March 18, not young as years go, but quite youthful in the deliberate purpose of
manifold scientific activities and in his irrepressible faith in the future cf the
science which he has adorned.

The Section will, I hope, forgive me if I put before them some considerations
which the careers of these three men suggest. Kelvin, a mathematician, a natural
philosopher, a University Professor, some part of whose scientific work is known
to each one of us. He was possessed with the notion that Mathematics and Natural
Philosophy are applicable in every part of the work of daily life, and made good
the contention by presenting to the world, besides innumerable theoretical papers,
instruments of all degrees of complexity, from the harmonic analyser to an im-
proved water-tap. It was he who transfigured and transformed the mariner’s
compass and the lead-line into instruments which have been of the greatest practical
service. It was he who, when experimental science was merely a collection of facts
or generalisations, conceived the idea of transfiguring every branch of it by the
application of the principles of natural philosophy, as Newton had transfigured
astronomy. The ambition of Thomson and Tait’s ‘ Natural Philosophy,’ of which
only the first volume reached the stage of publication, is a fair index of Kelvin’s
genius.

Strachey, on the other hand, by profession a military engineer, a great adminis-
trator, head of the Public Works Department in India, deeply versed in finance
and in all the other constituent parts of administration, by his own natural
instinct demanded the assistance of science for every branch of administration. In
promoting the development of botany, of meteorology, of geodesy, and of mathe-
matics, he was not administering the patronage of a Maecenas, but claiming the
practical service of science in forestry, in agriculture, in famine relief, in public
works, and in finance. You cannot gauge Strachey’s services to science by the
papers which he contributed to scientific societies, if you leave out of account the
fact that they were really incidents in the opening of fresh channels of communi-
cation between scientific work and the public service.

And Eliot, as Meteorological Reporter to the Government of India, an accom-
plished mathematician (for he was second wrangler and first Smith’s prizeman in
1869), a capable and devoted public servant, the medium by which Strachey’s
ideas as regards the use of meteorology in administration found expression in the
Government of India, who caught the true perception of the place of science in the
service of the State, and made his office the indispensable handmaid of the Indian
administration, These three men together, who have all passed away within a space
of three months, are such representative types of scientific workers, complementary
and supplementary that a similar combination is not likely to occur again. All

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 581

three indispensable, yet no two alike, except in their enthusiasm for the sciences
for the advancement of which Section A. exists.

To these I might indeed add another type, the private contributor to the
physical exploration of the visible universe, of which Ireland furnishes so many
noble examples; and in that connection let me give expression to the sense of
erievous loss, to this Association and to Science, occasioned by the premature
death of W. E. Wilson, of Daramona, a splendid example of that type.

[When the preceding paragraph was written I was mindful of special
obligations, official and personal, to Birr Castle, and I must be allowed to associate
myself and the Section with all that was said at the opening meeting about the
late Earl of Rosse. |

In the division of the work of advancing the sciences of mathematics and
physics and their application to the service of mankind, I am reminded of Dryden’s
somewhat lopsided comparison of the relative influence of music and song in his
Ode to St. Cecilia’s Day. If I may be pardoned for comparing small things with
great, the power of Timotheus’ music over Alexander’s moods was hardly less
complete than Kelvin’s power to touch every department of the working world
with his genius. But I may remind you that, atter a prolonged description of
the tremendous influence of Timotheus upon the victorious hero, the poet deals
in one stanza with his nominal subject :—

‘At last divine Cecilia came,

Inventress of the vocal frame;

The sweet enthusiast, from her sacred store,
Enlarged the former narrow bounds

With nature’s mother-wit, and arts unknown before,

Let old Timotheus yield the prize,
Or both divide the crown;

He raised a mortal to the skies,
She drew an angel down.’

I doubt if any of my hearers who knew Strachey by sight would recognise in
him the scientific reincarnation of St. Cecilia, but it is none the less true that he
was pre-eminent among men in inventing the means of drawing angels down and
using their service for the attuning of common life to a scientific standard. It
may be equally hard for those who knew him to look upon Eliot as a vocal frame,
for of all his physical capacities his voice was the least impressive; and yet it is
not untrue to say that he was conspicuously a medium by which the celestial har-
monies of the physical sciences were brought into touch with the practical life of
India through his work, which is represented by a considerable number of the
twenty volumes of Memoirs of the Indian Meteorological Service.

I do not indulge in this poetic extravagance without some underlying reason.
Speaking for the physics of the atmosphere, there is a real distinction between these
three sides of scientific work. To some is given the power of the mathe natician
or the physicist to raise the mortal to the skies, to solve some problem which, if not
in itself a meteorological one, still has a bearing, sooner or later to be discovered
and developed, upon the working of atmospheric phenomena. It is easy enough to
cite illustrious examples : among notable instances there recur to my mind Ray-
leigh’s work on the colour of the sky and Pernter’s meteorological optics ; papers
by Ferrel and others on the general circulation of the atmosphere; Kelvin and
Rayleigh on the elastic oscillations of the atmosphere; the papers by Hagen,
Helmboltz, Oberbeck, Margules, Hertz, and Von Bezold on the dynamics and
thermodynamics of the atmosphere, collected and translated by Cleveland Abbé ;
the work on atmospheric absorption by Langley and the theoretical papers on radia-
tion by Poynting; those on condensation nuclei by Aitken and C. T. R. Wilson,
and the recent work on atmospheric electricity, including the remarkable paper by
Wilson on the quiet transference of electricity from the air to the ground.

But these things are not of themselves applied to the meteorology of
everyday life. It is, in a way, a separate sense, given to few, to realise the

582 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

possibilities that may result from the solution of new theoretical problems, from
the invention of new methods—to grasp, in fact, the idea of bringing the angels
down. And, in order that the regular workers in such matters may be ina position
constantly to reap the advantages which men of genius provide, the vocal frame
must have its permanent embodiment. For the advancement of science in this
sense we require all three—the professor with academic freedom to illuminate
with his genius any phenomenon which he may be pleased to investigate, the
administrator, face to face with the practical problems in which science can help,
and the living voice which can tune itself in harmony with the advances of
science and in sympathy with the needs of the people whom it serves.

The true relations of these matters are not always apparent. Eliot, bringing to
the work of the Indian Meteorological Office a mind trained in the mathematical
school of which Kelvin was a most conspicuous exponent, achieved a remarkable
success, with which perhaps my hearers are not familiar.

In this country there is a widespread idea that meteorology achieves its
object if by its means the daily papers can give such trustworthy advice as will
enable a cautious man to decide whether to take out his walking-stick or his
umbrella. Some of us are accustomed to look upon India as a place of unusual
scientific enlightenment, where governments have a worthy appreciation of the
claims of science for recognition and support. But Eliot was never tired of
telling me that it was the administration of India, and not the advancement of
science, that the Indian administrators had in view; and among his achievements
the one of which he was most proud was that the conduct of his office upon
scientific lines during his tenure had so commended itself to the administrators
that his successor was to be allowed three assistants, with special scientific
training, in order that the State might have the benefit of their knowledge.

It is, of course, easy to suggest in explanation of this success that the Depart-
ment of Public Works of India cannot afford to be unmindful of the distribution of
rainfall, and that there is an obvious connection between Indian finances and Indian
droughts; but it is a new fact in British history that the application of scientific
considerations to the phenomena of rainfall are of such direct practical importance
that meteorological information is a matter of consequence to all Government officials,
and that meteorological prospects are a factor of finance. Imagine his Majesty’s
Chancellor of the Exchequer calling at 63 Victoria Street to make inquiries with
2 view to ee his next Budget, or taking his prospects of a realised surplus
from the Daily Weather Report. Yet in India meteorology is to such an extent a
public servant that such proceedings would not excite remark.

To have placed a scientific service on such a footing is, indeed, a notable
success. Again, I rely upon Eliot when I say that that success is only to be
achieved by being constantly on the watch to render service wherever service can
be rendered. There is a difference between this attitude and that which has for
its object the contribution of an effective paper to a scientific publication; in
other words, it must be frankly recognised that the business of the scientific
departments of government is not to raise an occasional mortal to the skies, but
to draw Gown as many angels as are within reach. I was much surprised, when
Eliot wished to develop a large scheme for meteorological work on a wider scale,
that he made his appeal to the British Association as Chairman of the Sub-section
for Cosmical Physics at Cambridge, and thereby to the Governments of this
country and the Colonies. He felt that he could only urge the Indian Govern-
ment to join, and he did so successfully, so far as India would be directly benefited
thereby, however important the results might be from a purely scientific point of
view. Strange as it may appear to some, it was to this country that he looked
for assistance, on the plea of the increase of knowledge for its own sake, or for
the sake of mankind at large.

I am disposed, therefore, to carry your thoughts a little further, and rely on
your patience while I consider another aspect of the process of drawing down the
angels from the mathematical and physical sky, a process which is sufficiently
indicative of the functions of a State scientific department. Viewing the world
at large, and not merely that part of it with which we are ourselyes immediately

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 585

concerned, such departments deal with celestial physics in astronomy, with the
physics of the air in meteorology and atmospheric electricity, with the physics of
land and water in physical geography and geology, seismology and terrestrial
magnetism, oceanography and hydrography. It is for the practical applications
of these sciences to the service of the navigator, the fisherman, the husbandman,
the miner, the medical man, the engineer, and the general public that there is
an obvious public want.

Let me carry you with me in regarding these departments, primarily, as
centres for establishing the growth of science by bringing it to bear upon the
practical business of life, by a process of regular plantation, and not the occasional
importation of an exotic scientific expert. I shall carry you with me also if I say
that the gravest danger to such scientific institutions is the tendency to waste.
I use the term ‘waste’ not in its narrowest but in its most liberal sense, to
include waste of money, waste of effort, waste of scientific opportunity. I do
not regard it as a waste that such a department should be unable to emulate
Timotheus’ efforts. Any aspiration in that direction is, of course, worthy of every
encouragement, but the environment is not generally suitable for such achieve-
ments, I do, however, regard it as waste if the divine Cecilia is not properly
honoured, and if advantage is not taken of the fullest and freest use of the newest
and best scientific methods, and their application in the widest manner possible.

I speak for the Office with which I am connected when I say its temptations
to waste are very numerous and very serious. It is wasteful to collect observa-
tions which will never be used; it is equally wasteful to decline to collect observa~
tions which in the future may prove to be of vital importance. It is westeful
to discuss observations that are made with inadequate appliances; it is equally
wasteful to allow observations to accumulate in useless heaps because you are not
sure that the instruments are good enough. It is wasteful to use antiquated
methods of computation or discussion ; it is equally wasteful to use all the time
in making trial of new methods, It is wasteful to make use of researches if they
are inaccurate ; it is equally wasteful to neglect the results of researches because
you have not made up your mind whether they are accurate or not. Itis wasteful
to work with an inadequate system in such matters es synoptic meteorology; it
is equally wasteful to lose heart because you cannot get all the facilities which
you feel the occasion demands.

It is the business of those responsible for the administration of such an office
to keep a nice balance of adjustment between the different sides of activity, so that
in the long run the waste is reduced toa minimum. There must in any case be
a good deal of routine work which is drudgery ; and if one is to look at all beyond
the public requirements and public appreciation of the immediate present, there must
be a certain amount of enterprise and consequently a certain amount of speculation.

Let me remark by the way that there is a tendency among some of my meteoro-
logical friends to consider that a meteorological establishment can be regarded as
alive, and even in good health, if it keeps up its regular output of observations in
proper order and up to date, and that initiative in discussing the observations is
exclusively the duty of a central office. That is a view that I should like to see
changed, I do not wish to sacrifice my own privilege of initiative in meteoro-
logical speculation, but I have no wish for a monopoly. To me, I confess, the
speculation which may be dignified by the name of meteorological research is the
part of the office work which makes the drudgery of routine tolerable. For my
part I should like every worker in the Office, no matter how humble his position
may be, somehow or other to have the opportunity of realising that he is taking
part in the unravelling of the mysteries of the weather; and I do not think that
any establishment, or section of an establishmeni, that depends upon science can
be regarded as really alive unless it feels itself in active touch with that specu-
lation which results in the advancement of knowledge. I do not hesitate to apply
to other meteorological establishments, and indeed to all scientific institutions that
claim an interest in meteorology, the same criterion of life that I apply to my own
office. It is contained in the answer to the question, How do you show your
interest in the advancement of our knowledge of*the atmosphere? The reply that

584. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

such and such volumes of data and mean values measure the contribution to the
stock of knowledge leaves me rather cold and unimpressed.

But to return to the endeavour after the delicate adjustment between
speculation and routine, which will reduce the waste of such an institution to a
minimum ; experience very soon teaches certain rules.

I have said elsewhere that the peculiarity of meteorological work is that an
investigator is always dependent upon other people’s observations ; his own are only
applicable in so far as they are compared with those of others. Up to the present
time, I have never known anyone take up an investigation that involved a re-
ference to accumulated data, without his being hampered and harassed by uncer-
tainties that might have been resolved if they had been taken in time. I shall
give you an example presently, but, in the meantime, experience of that kind is so
universal that it has now become with us a primary rule that any data collected
shall forthwith be critically examined and so far dealt with as to make sure that
they are available for scientific purposes—that is, for the purposes of comparison.
A second rule is that as public evidence of the completion of this most important
task there shall be at least a line of summary in a published report, or a point on
a published map, as a primary representation of the results. Such publication is
not to be regarded as the ultimate application of the observations, but it is evidence
that the observations are there, and are ready for use.

You will find, if you inquire, that at the Office we have been gradually lining
up these troops of meteorological data into due order, with all their buttons on,
until, from the commencement of this year, anyone who wishes to do so can hold
a general review of the whole meteorological army, in printed order—first order
stations, second order stations, rainfall stations, sunshine and wind stations, sea
temperatures and other marine observations—on his own study table, within six
months of the date of the observations, upon paying to his Majesty’s Stationery
Office the modest sum of five shillings and sixpence. Jor all the publications
except one the interval between observation and publication. is only six weeks,
and as that one has overtaken four years of arrears within the last four years,
I trust that by the end of this year six weeks will be the full measure of the
interval between observation and publication in all departments. This satisfac-
tory state of affairs you owe to the indefatigable care and skill of Captain
Hepworth, Mr. Lempfert, and Mr. R. H. Curtis, and the members of the staff of
the Office who work under their superintendence. I need say little about cor-
responding work in connection with the Daily Weather Report, in which Mr.
Brodie is my chief assistant, although it has received and is receiving a great deal
of attention. The promptitude with which the daily work is dealt with hardly
needs remark from me, though I know the difficulties of it as well as anyone. If
I spend only one Jong sentence in mentioning that on July 1, 1908, the morning
hour of observation at twenty-seven out of the full number of twenty-nine stations
in the British Isles was changed from 8 a.m. to 7 A.M., and the corresponding
post-offices, as well as the Meteorological Office, opened at 7.15 .M., so that we
may have a strictly synchronous international system for Western and Central
Europe, and thus realise the aspiration of many years, you will not misunderstand
me to mean that I estimate the task as an easy one.

The third general rule is that the effectiveness of the data of all kinds, thus
collected and ordered, should be tested by the prosecution of some inquiry which
makes use of them in summary or in detail. It is here that the stimulating force
of speculative inquiry comes in; and it is in the selection and prosecution of
these inquiries, which test not only the adequacy and effectiveness of the data
collected but also the efficiency of the Office as contributing to the advance of
knowledge, that the most serious responsibility falls upon the administrators of
Pauliamentary funds.

Scientific Shylocks are not the least exacting of the tribe, and there have been
times when I have thought I caught the rumination :—

Shy. Three thousand ducats? ’tis a good round sum !
Bas, For the which, as I told you, Antonio shall be bound,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. D8o

Shy. Antonio is a good man?

Bas. Have you heard any imputation to the contrary ?

Shy. Oh! no, no, no, no. ... Yet his means are in supposition: he
hath an argosy bound to Tripolis, another to the Indies ; I understand more-
over, upon the Rialto, that he hath a third in Mexico, a fourth for England,
and other ventures he hath squandered abroad. But ships are but boards,
sailors but men. There is the peril of water, winds, and rocks. ... Three
thousand ducats.

We at the Meteorological Office are very much in Antonio's position. Our
means of research are very much in supposition: four observatories and over
four hundred stations of one sort or another in the British Isles; an elaborate
installation of wind-measuring apparatus at Holyhead; besides other ventures
squandered abroad ; an anemometer at Gibraltar, another at St. Helena; a sun-
shine recorder at the Falkland Isles, half a dozen sets of instruments in British
New Guinea, and a couple of hundred on the wide sea. The efforts seem so
disconnected that the rumination about the ducats is not unnatural.

And you must remember that we lack an inestimable advantage that belongs
to a physical laboratory or a school of mathematics, where the question
of the equivalent number of ducats does not arise in quite the same way.
The relative disadvantage that I speak of is that in an office the allowance
for the use of time and material in practice and training disappears. All the
world seems to agree that time or money spent on teaching or learning is well
spent. In the course of twenty years’ experience at a physical laboratory, and in
examinations not a few, I have seen J and 7) or the wave length of sodium
light determined in ways that would earn very few ducats on the principle of
payment by results; but, having regard to the psychological effect upon the
culprit or the examiner, the question of ducats never came in. Wisely or
unwisely public opinion has been educated to regard the psychological effect as
of infinite value compared with the immediate result obtained. But in an office
the marks that an observer or computer gets for showing that he ‘knew how to
do it,’ when he did not succeed in doing it, do not count towards a ‘first class,’
and we have to abide by what we do; we cannot rely on what we might have
done. Consequently our means in supposition, spread over sea and land, are
matters of real solicitude. In such circumstances there might be reason for
despondency if one were dependent merely upon one’s own ventures and the
results achieved thereby. But when one has the advantage of the gradual
development of investigations of long standing, it is possible to maintain a show
of cheerfulness. When Shylock demands his pound of flesh in the form of an
annual report, it is not at all uncommon to find that some argosy that started on
its voyage long ago ‘hath richly come to harbour suddenly.’ There have been
quite a number of such happy arrivals within the last few years.

I will refer quite briefly to the interesting relations between the yield of
barley and cool summers, or the yield of wheat and dry autumns, and the ante-
cedent yield of eleven years before, which fell out of the body of statistics
collected in the Weekly Weather Report since 1878. The accomplished statis-
ticians of the Board of Agriculture have made this work the starting-point for
a general investigation of the relation between the weather and the crops, which
cannot fail tc have important practical bearings.

Let me take another example. For more than a full generation meteoro-
logical work has been hampered by the want of a definite understanding as to the
real meaning in velocity, or force, of the various points of the scale of wind-
estimates laid down in 1805 by Admiral Beaufort for use at sea, and still handed
on as an oral tradition. The prolonged inquiry, which goes back really to the
report upon the Beckley anemograph already referred to, issued quite unexpectedly
in the simple result that the curve

p = ‘0105B°

(where p is the force in pounds per square foot, and B the arbitrary Beaufort
number) runs practically through nine out of the eleyen points on a diagram

586 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

representing the empirical results of a very elaborate investigation. The em-
pirical determinations upon which it is based are certainly not of the highest order
of accuracy ; they rely upon two separate investigations besides the statistical
comparison, viz., the constant of an anemometer and the relation of wind-
velocity to wind-pressure, but no subsequent adjustment of these determinations
is at all likely to be outside the limits of an error of an estimate of wind-force ;
and the equation can be used, quite reasonably, as a substitute for the original
specification of the Beaufort scale, a specification that has vanished with the
passing of ships of the type by which it was defined. This result, combined with
the equation’ » = ‘003 V*, which has been in use in the Office for many years, and
has recently been confirmed as sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes by
Dr. Stanton at the National Physical Laboratory and Monsieur Hiffel at the
Eiffel Tower, places us upon a new plane with regard to the whole subject of
wind-measurement and wind-estimation.

Results equally remarkable appear in other lines of investigation. Let me
take the relation of observed wind velocity to barometric gradient, You may be
aware that in actual experience the observed direction of the wind is more or
less along the isobars, with the low pressure on the left of the moving air in the
northern hemisphere; and that crowded isobars mean strong winds. Investigations
upon this matter go back to the earliest days of the Office.

There can be no doubt that the relation, vague as it sometimes appears to be upon
a weather chart, is attributable to the effect of the earth’s rotation. In order to
bring the observed wind velocity into numerical relation with the pressure-
gradient Guldberg and Mohn assumed a coefficient of surface ‘friction,’ inter-
fering with the steady motion. The introduction of this new quantity, not
otherwise determinable, left us in doubt as to how far the relation between wind
and pressure distribution, deducible from the assumption of steady motion, could
be regarded as a really effective hypothesis for meteorological purposes.

Recent investigations in the Office of the kinematics of the air in travelling
storms, carried out with Mr. Lempfert’s assistance, have shown that, so far as
one can speak of the velocity of wind at all—that is to say, disregarding the
transient variations of velocity of short period and dealing with the average
hourly velocity, the velocity of the wind in all ordinary circumstances is
effectively steady in regard to the accelerating forces to which it is subject.
This view is supported by two conclusions which Mr. Gold has formulated in the
course of considering the observations of wind velocity in the upper air, obtained
in recent investigations with kites. The first conclusion is that the actual
velocity of wind in the upper air agrees with the velocity calculated from the
pressure distribution to a degree of accuracy which is remarkable, considering the
uncertainties of both measurements; and the second conclusion affords a simple,
and I believe practically new, explanation upon a dynamical basis of the marked
difference between the observed winds in the central portions of cyclones and
anti-cyclones respectively, by showing that, on the hypothesis of steady motion,
the difference of sign of the effective acceleration, due to curvature of path
and to the earth’s rotation respectively, leads to quite a small velocity and small
gradient as the limiting values of those quantities near anti-cyclonic centres.

This conclusion is so obviously borne out by the facts that we are now practi-
eally in a position to go forward with the considerable simplification which
results from regarding the steady state of motion in which pressure gradient is
balanced by the effective acceleration due to the rotation of the earth and the
curvature of the path, as the normal or ordinary state of the atmosphere.

I cannot forbear to add one more instance of an argosy which has richly come
to harbour so lately as this summer. You may be aware that Kelvin was of
opinion that the method of harmonic analysis was likely to prove a very powerful
engine for dealing with the complexities of meteorological phenomena, as it has,
in fact, dealt with those of tides. In this view Sir Richard Strachey and the
Meteorological Council concurred, and an harmonic analyser was installed in the

‘ In this equation p is expressed, as before, in pounds per square foot, and V in
miles per hour,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 587

Office in 1879, but subsequently numerical calculation was used instead. A con-
siderable amount of labour has been spent over the computation of Fourier
coefficients. Not many great generalisations have flowed from this method up
to the present time. I have no doubt that there is much to be done in the way
of classifying temperature conditions, for climatic purposes, by the analysis of
the seasonal variations. A beginning was made in a paper which was brought to
the notice of the Association at Glasgow. The most striking result of the
Fourier analysis we owe to Hann, who has shown that, if we confine our atten-
tion to the second Fourier coefficient of the diurnal variation of pressure—that is,
to the component of twelve-hour period—we get a variation very marked in inter-
tropical regions, and gradually diminishing poleward in both hemispheres, but
synchronous in phase throughout the 360 degrees of a meridian: The maximum
occurs along all meridians in turn about 10 a.m. and 10 p.m. local time. This
semi-diurnal variation with its regular recurrence is well known to mariners, and
we have recently detected it, true to its proper phase, in the observations at the
winter quarters of the ‘ Discovery’; small in amplitude indeed—-about a thousandth
of an inch of mercury—but certainly identifiable.

The reality of this variation of pressure, common to the whole earth, cannot
be doubted, and, so far as it goes, we may represent it (if indeed we may
represent pressure differences as differences in vertical heights of atmosphere) as
the deformation of a spherical atmosphere into an ellipsoid, with its longest axis
in the Equator pointing permanently 30° to the west of the sun. Its shortest
axis would also be in the Equator, and its middle axis would be along the polar
axis of the earth. Somehow or other this protuberance remains fixed in direction
with regard to the sun, while the solid earth revolves beneath it. Whatever may
be the cause of this effect, obviously cosmical, and attributable to the sun, at
which it indirectly points, its existence has long been recognised, and further
investigation only contirms the generalisation, It is now accepted as one of the
fundamental general facts of meteorology.

Professor Schuster, for whose absence from this meeting I may venture to
express a regret which will be unanimous, has already contributed a paper to the
Royal Society pointing out the possible relations between the diurnal variations
of pressure and those of terrestrial magnetic force. Going back again to the
ubiquity of the application of the relation of pressure and wind, in accordance
with the dynamical explanation of Buys Ballot’s law, we should expect the effect
of a pressure variation that has its counterpart in that of terrestrial magnetism to

be traceable also in wind observations.

Mr. J. S. Dines has just given me particulars of the discovery of that effect in
the great air-current, the variations of which I have called the pulse of the atmo-
spheric circulation—I mean the south-east Trade Wind, the most persistent atmo-
spheric current in the world. It is difficult as a rule to get observers to pay much
attention to that current, because it is so steady; but in 1891 the Meteorological
Council set up an anemometer at St. Helena, in the very heart of the current, and
we have just got out the results of the hourly tabulations. When the observa-
tions for the hours 1 to 24 are grouped: separately for months, so as to give the
vector resultants for each hour and for each month, it appears that there is
a conspicuous semi-diurnal variation in the current, which shows itself as a closed
polygon of vector variations from the mean of the day.

The month of April gives the most striking diagram of the twelve. It
displays the superposition of two practically complete dodekagons, one a large
one, completing its cycle from 5 A.M. to 5 P.M., the other a small one, from 5 P.M.
to5 a.m. The resultant wind for the whole day is very nearly south-east, and
practically remains so for all the months of the year, the monthly variation of
resultant wind being confined to a change of velocity from about thirteen miles
per hour in May to about twenty miles per hour in September.

If, instead of combining the south and east components to form a vector
diagram, we plot their variations separately, the semi-diurnal variation in each is
plainly marked ; and the calculation of its constants shows that its amplitude is
about three-quarters of a mile per hour in the south, and rather less in the east

5&8 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A,

component, The latter has its maxima at 10 a.m. and 10 r.m., and the southerly
component is about a quarter of a period in advance. ‘Thus, to correspond with
the semi-diurnal variation of pressure, there is a semi-diurnal variation in the
Trade Wind at St. Helena, which is equivalent to the superposition upon the
resultant wind of a velocity-variation of about one mile and a half per hour,
passing through its zero value at half-past ten and half-past four, not far from
the hours when the extremes of the ellipsoidal deformation of the spherical
atmosphere are passing over the locality, together with a change of direction of
six degrees towards the southward between eleven o'clock and five, reversed
between five o’clock and eleven.!

I have only dealt with one month. I believe that when all the results that
flow from this simple statement can be put before you, you will agree with me
that the argosy which the Meteorological Council sent out in 1891 has indeed
richly come to harbour.

Let me digress to say a word in illustration of the principle I laid down that,
if one would avoid waste in meteorological work, the observations must be
examined forthwith and so far discussed that any ambiguities may be cleared up.

After some years of wear at St. Helena the persistent rubbing of the south-
east part of the spiral metallic pencil upon the metallic paper wore away the metal
and left a flat place. This got so bad that the instrument had to come home for
repairs, and when it was set up again, after a year’s absence, the average direction
of the Trade Wind differed by two points from the averages of most, but not of all,
of the previous years. So far as we know, the orientation has been attended to, as
before, and yet it is hardly possible to resist the suggestion that the anemometer
has been set slightly differently. We are now making very carefui inquiries from
the observer ; but, in the meantime, it seems to me that there is a great oppor-
tunity for a competent mathematical physicist to help us. Dynamical explana-
tions of the ‘rade Winds have been given from the time of Halley. Let me offer
as a simple question in the mathematical physics of the atmosphere whether a
variation of two points in the direction of the south-east ‘Trade Wind between the
years 1903 and 1905 can be regarded as real, and, if not, which of the two
yecorded directions is the correct one ?

It would be appropriate for me to add some words about the results of last year’s
work upon the upper air, in which we have had the valuable co-operation of the
University of Manchester. These results have disclosed a number of points of
unusual interest. But we are to have an opportunity of considering that subject in
a discussion before the Section, and I need not deal with it here. I must, however,
pause to give expression of the thanks of all meteorologists to Professor Schuster
for his support of the Manchester University station at Glossop Moor. I may
remind you that this generous contribution for the advancement of science on the
part of Professor Schuster is in addition to the foundation of a readership in
mathematical physics at Manchester and a readership in dynamical meteorology,
now held by Mr. Gold at Cambridge.

I have said enough to show that the speculative ventures of official meteoro-
logists are not all failures, and I will only add that if any mathematician or
physicist would like to take his luck on a meteorological argosy he will be
heartily welcomed. Part of the work will be drudgery ; he must be prepared to
face that; but the prospects of reaching port are reasonably good, so much so,
indeed, that such a voyage might fairly lead to a claim for one of the higher
academical degrees.

Up to now I have been dealing with the adjustment of official scientific
work to reduce waste to a minimum, in so far as it lies within the control of those
responsible for an office. I turn now to an aspect of the matter in which we
require the assistance of others, particularly of the British Association.

The most serious danger of waste in a busy office is that it should carry on its

' This statement is a modification of that contained in the Address as originally
printed. The original was based upon a diagram reproduced in the Report of the
Meteorological Committee, 1908, in which the phase of the southerly semi-diurnal
component is unfortunately incorrect.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 089

work without an adequate knowledge of what is being done in advancing science
and improving methods elsewhere. I speak myself for the Meteorological Office
alone, but I believe that the responsible officials of any scientific Government
department will agree with what I say.

Year by year some Timotheus ‘ with his sounding flute and tuneful lyre’ per-
forms some miracle by the application of reasoning to the phenomena of Nature.
Only last year you heard Professor Love in his Presidential address treat of the
mundane question of the shape of the earth and etherealise the grim actualities
with the magic of his spherical harmonics. Year by year, in every one of the sub-
jects in which the practical world is immediately interested, active students,
whether public officials, academic officials, or private enthusiasts, not only keep
alight the sacred flame but occasionally add to its brilliance; and all the new
knowledge, from whence soever it comes, ought to be applied to the service of the
State.

The actual volume of original contributions on these subjects is by no means
inconsiderable. You are all aware that, some years ago, the Royal Society initi-
ated a great international enterprise for the compilation of a catalogue of scientific
literature. I have been looking at the fifth annual issue of the volume on
Meteorology, including Terrestrial Magnetism. I may remark that the cata-
logue is quite incomprehensibly eclectic as regards official literature, but let that
pass. I find that, in the year that closed with July 1907, 1,042 authors (not
counting offices and institutions as such) presented to the world 2,131 papers on
Meteorology, 229 on Atmospheric Electricity, and 180 on Terrestrial Magnetism.
This will give some idea of the annual growth in these subjects, and may convince
you that, after all allowance is made for duplicate titles, for papers of uo import-
ance, and for mere sheets of figures published for purposes of reference, there
remains a bulk of literature too large for any single individual to cope with if he
has anything else to do,

If instead of confining ourselves to what can be included in meteorology alone
we extend our view over the other allied sciences, it would be necessary to take
in other volumes of the international catalogue, and there would be some over-
lapping. I have taken instead tlie volume of the ‘ Fortschritte der Physik’ for
1906, which deals with ‘ Kosmische Physik.’ It is edited by Professor Assmann,
who adds to his distinction as head of the Royal Prussian Aeronautical Observatory
of Lindenberg that of an accomplished bibliographer. In this volume are given
abstracts or titles of the papers published during the year which can be regarded
as worthy of the attention of a physicist. An examination of the volume gives
the following numbers of the papers in the different sections :—

Papers

Astro-Physics . : - ° ; : ‘ 222

Meteorology F - 0 . 7 : 4 1,122

Atmospheric Electricity . : : : : 135

Geophysics :

Geodetics . ; : ‘ el OD
Seismology and Volcanic Phenomena. 256
Terrestrial Magnetism and Aurora . 108
Currents, Tides, and Waves ; 5 46
Inland Hydrography : A ee
Ice, Glaciers, and Ice Age . : shag lH)
Other papers . e ° : a 126

897

Total 3 f , = 2.376

I need hardly say that these 2,376 papers are not all English; in some of the
sections few of them are in that language, and fewer still are British. If British
students, official and unofficial, are to make the most of the operation of drawing
the angels down, they need help and co-operation in dealing with this mass of
literature, in winnowing the important from the unimportant, and in assimilating
that which makes for the real progress of the practical application of Science.

590 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A,

This is the more necessary for these subjects because there is no organised system
of academic teaching, with its attendant system of text-books. In a subject which
has many university teachers it might reasonably be supposed that any important
contribution would find its way into the text-books, which are constantly revised
for the use of students; and yet, in his Presidential address to the Royal Society
in the November of last year, Lord Rayleigh felt constrained to point out that,
for the advance of science, although the main requirement is original work of a
high standard, that alone is not sufficient. ‘The advances made must be secured,
and this can hardly be unless they are appreciated by the scientific public.’ He
adds that ‘the history of science shows that important original work is liable to
be overlooked and is, perhaps, the more liable the higher the degree of originality.
The names of T. Young, Mayer, Carnot, Waterston, and B. Stewart will suggest
themselves to the physicist, and in other branches, doubtless, similar lists might be
made of workers whose labours remained neglected for a shorter or longer time.’

If this is true of physics how deplorably true it is of meteorology. IfI allowa
liberal discount of over 50 per cent. from the numbers that I have given, and estimate
the number of effective contributions to meteorology as recognised by the ‘ Inter-
national Catalogue’ at a thousand, which agrees pretty well with that given by
the ‘ Fortschritte der Physik,’ and if I were to ask round this room the number of
these papers read by anyone here present, I am afraid the result would be dis-
heartening. Many of us have views as to the way in which the study of
meteorology ought to be pursued, but the views are not always based on an
exhaustive examination of the writings of meteorologists. Few of us could give,
I think, any reasonable idea of the way in which it is being pursued by
the various institutions devoted to its application, and of the progress which
is being secured therein. Meteorological papers are written by the hundred,
and, whether they are important or unimportant, they often disregard what
has been already written in the saine or some other language, and are them-
selves in turn disregarded. JI do not think I should be doing any injustice
if I applied similar remarks to some of the other subjects included in the table
which I have quoted. How many readers are there in this country for an
author in terrestrial magnetism, atmospheric electricity, limnology, or physical
oceanography? But, if the papers are not read and assimilated, the advancement
of science is not achieved, however original the researches may be.

By way of remedy for the neglect of important papers in physics Lord
Rayleigh suggests that teachers of authority, who, from advancing years or from
some other reason, find themselves unable to do much more work in the direction
of making original contributions, should make a point of helping to spread the
knowledge of the work done by others. But what of those subjects in which
there are no recognised teachers P—and in this country this is practically the case
with the subjects which I have mentioned. It is true that many of them are
made the occasion of international assemblies, at which delegates or repre-
sentatives meet. But such international assemblies are of necessity devoted, for
the most part, to the elaboration of the details of international organisation, and
not to the discussion of scientific achievements. The numbers attending are,
equally of necessity, very restricted.

The want of opportunity for the discussion of progress in these sciences is
specially lamentable, because in its absence they lose the valuable assistance of
amateur workers, who might be an effective substitute for the students of an
academic study. In no subject are there more volunteers, who take an active
part in observing, than in meteorology; but how few of them carry their work
beyond the stage of recording observations and taking means. The reason is not
lightly to be assigned to their want of capacity to carry on an investigation, but
far more, I believe, to the want of knowledge of the objects of investigation and
of the means of pursuing them.

Among the agencies which in the past have fostered the knowledge of these
subjects, and stimulated its pursuit, there stand out prominently the Annual
Meetings of this Association. It was the British Association which in 1842
re-founded the Kew Observatory for the study of the physics of the atmosphere,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 59)

the earth, and the sun. It was the British Association which promoted the
establishment of magnetic observatories in many parts of the earth, and in the
early sixties secured the most brilliant achievements in the investigation of
the atmosphere by means of balloons. I know of no other opportunity of any-
thing like the same potentialities for the writers of papers to meet with the
readers, and to confer together about the progress of the sciences in which they
are interested. But its potentialities are not realised. Those of us who are most
anxious for the spread of the application of mathematics and physics to the
phenomena of astronomy, meteorology, and geophysics have thought that this
opportunity could not properly be utilised by crowding together all the papers
that deal with such subjects into one day, or possibly two days, so that
they can be polished off with the rapidity of an oriental execution. In
fact, the opportunity to be polished off is precisely not the opportunity that
is wanted. Thereare some of us who think that a British Association week is not
too long for the consideration of the subjects of which a year’s abstracts occupy
a volume of six hundred pages, and that, if we could extend the opportunity for
the consideration of these questions from one or two days to a week, and let
those members who are interested form a separate committee to develop and
extend these subjects, the British Association, the country, and science would all
gain thereby. 1 venture from this place, in the name of the advancement of
science, to make an appeal for the favourable consideration of this suggestion.
It is not based upon the depreciation, but upon the highest appreciation of the
service which mathematics and physics have rendered, and can still render, to the
observational sciences, and upon the well-tried principle that close family ties are
strengthened, and not weakened, by making allowance for natural development.
The plea seems to me so natural, and the alternatives so detrimental to the
advancement of science in this country, that I cannot believe the Association will
turn to it a deaf ear. Z

The following Papers and Reports were then read :—

\ 1. Discussion on the Isothermal Layer of the Atmosphere, opened by
Dr. W, N Suaw, LBS.

Dr. Suaw, in the absence of M. L. Teisserene de Bort, opened the discussion.
He explained what was the main feature of the phenomenon, and showed how
it had been corroborated by ballons-sondes ascents made in England. The tem-
perature of the air decreases in the lower layers on the average at 5° or 6° C. per
kilometre up to a height of about ten kilometres. Above this height the tem-
perature céases to fall rapidly, and falls very slowly indeed, or remains constant,
or in some cases increases. It had been suggested that the phenomenon might be
due to a change in the composition of the air at great heights.

M. L. Teisserenc de Bort had succeeded in sending up balloons carrying
vacuum tubes, which were opened and re-sealed electrically at a height of fourteen
kilometres, The samples of air so obtained were examined spectroscopically, and
the examination showed that there was no change in the composition of the air
sufficient to account for the cessation of temperature diminution.

It was intended that M. L. Teisserenc de Bort should open the discussion; but
he was unable to be present and sent the following communication :—

‘ Permit me to open the discussion on the Isothermal Layer, and the inversions
of temperature which are found there, by recalling in a few words the results
obtained during the past twelve years. Our experiments at Trappes have shown
in the first place that the temperature ceased to diminish at a certain height after
having passed through a point of maximum rate of decrease about 3,000 metres
lower down.

‘ The altitude at which the diminution ceases changes with the character of
the weather: it may descend as low as eight kilometres at Paris during a cyclone,
while it rises as high as thirteen or fourteen kilometres in high-pressure areas and
in front of large cyclones,

592 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

‘T indicated these peculiarities for the first time in October 1901, in a
communication to the Luftschiffart-Verein at Berlin, then in a communication to
the Meteorological Society of France in March 1902, and I have developed these
conclusions in a note to the Académie des Sciences in April 1902.

‘ A short time after, in the early part of May 1902, Prof. Assmann showed from
ascents of six rubber balloons that not only was there a cessation of the decrease
of temperature but also an inversion. This inversion had also been very marked
in the first ascents by Hermite and Besangon, but Prof. Assmann sought to
explain it as being due to the effect of solar radiation on the thermometer, while
the ventilation produced by the rapid ascent of the balloon showed that it could
not be referred to such an error in the thermometer record.

‘ Having once demonstrated the existence of this isothermal layer for places
in the neighbourhood of Paris, we sought to find the evidence of it in other
regions, in order to show that it was a general phenomenon. Ascents made by
us and our assistants in the winter of 1900-1901, by M. de Quervain in Russia, by
Mr. Eggenberger at Bath in England in 1902, have made it evident that the
phenomenon was a general one. On referring to the results of the international
ascents made in different countries, it is seen that the cessation of the tempera-
ture decrease is found ,in the case of all the balloons sent up, and that it is
impossible to refer it to insufficient ventilation, since the phenomenon was well
marked in ascents made during the night. Since this time ascents made on
board the “ Princess Alice” by Prof. Hergesell in 1905 have furnished evidence of
the existence of the layer near the Azores ; ascents made in the United States by
Mr. A. L. Rotch have furnished evidence of its existence there, with the pecu-
liarities I have indicated, 7.e., high up over high-pressure areas and low down over
low-pressure areas.

‘ The expeditions of the “ Otaria,” organised in conjunction with my friend Mr.
Rotch, have proved the existence of the zone in the tropics, and have shown that it
is further from the earth near the equatorial regions, where the Trade Winds meet.

‘ Finally, the ascents made at the end of the winters of 1907 and 1908 by the
French-Swedish expedition organised by the Observatory of Trappes, with the
support of Prof. Hildebrandson, have shown that near the Arctic Circle at Kiruna
the layer exists and possesses general characteristics analogous with those found
in these regions.

‘The results of series of daily ascents for eight, ten, or more days in succes-
siom in February 1901, March 1905, and May 1904 have proved that the change of
altitude of the point where the temperature ceases to fall is accompanied by
changes of temperature of 10°, 15°, 20° C., in an interval of a day or two at
heights between nine and thirteen kilometres, variations great enough to be felt
near the surface during the same time.

‘Thus the equalisation of temperature in the course of the year which had been
supposed to be nearly complete at eight or nine kilometres’ altitude does not exist,
but, on the contrary, sudden changes of temperature occur with the passage of
cyclones and anticyclones, which would furnish to an observer in those regions
the chief evidence of the changes occurring at the surface.

‘ Causes of the Isothermal Layer.—The summary of the observed phenomena
has led me to this conclusion: that the cessation of the temperature diminution
is due to the fact that there is at these heights no considerable vertical con-
vection.

‘ The fact that one meets with layers of air thousands of metres thick where
the temperature increases and decreases rapidly, and others where it is stationary,
is incompatible with the existence of motion of the air accompanied by pressure
variations, which always tend to produce a vertical temperature gradient more or
less near that for the adiabatic state. It does not follow that the movement in
the isothermal layer must be horizontal, hut that it takes place along the isobars
without crossing these surfaces nearly in the manner in which a body rolls on an
inclined plane.

‘ These ideas have been developed in several communications, in particular at
the Conférence d’Aérostation scientifique at St, Petersburg in September 1904

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A,

or
iJon]
On

(i) Dheodolite Observations of Balloons penetrating the Lsothermal Layer.
By C. J. P. Cave.

At the end of July, on the days arranged for balloon ascents by the Commis-
sion for Scientific Aeronautics, theodolite observations were made at Ditcham
Park on four dallons-sondes carrying instruments, and on one large balloon of the
same kind, but carrying no instrument. The balloons used were supplied by
M. Paturel of Paris, and were nominally 1°75 metre in diameter; their weight
was about 0-2 kg., and they were filled with hydrogen to lift 0:8 kg. in addition
to their own weight; the instrument, label, and string weighed from 75 to 80
grammes; there was also a balloon nominally of 1 metre in diameter and weigh-
ing 80 grammes, filled to lift 30 grammes in addition to its own weight; it
trailed below the instruments during the ascent, and was intended to serve as a
check to the descent and as an aid to the finding of the instruments.' The large
balloons were uncoloured, and were very plainly visible by reflected sunlight
against the clear sky. The ascents began about an hour before sunset.

Observations were made by means of two theodolites placed about 2°68 km.
apart; owing to the distance to which the balloons went, and sometimes to their
direction with regard to the base-line, it was not possible to plot the more
distant part of the trajectories from the two sets of observations ; accordingly
the rate of ascent was determined up to the point at which the two-theodolite
method ceased to be reliable, and was subsequently assumed to be uniform, and
the positions of the balloon were plotted from the observations of one theodolite.
It is probable that the balloons did not ascend with uniform velocity; the velo-
city probably increases as the balloon ascends. The assumption of a uniform velo-
city, however, probably gives a fair approximation of the trajectories of the
balloons. From the plotted trajectories the wind velocities are determined for
each minute interval, and are finally plotted to show the relation of wind velocity
to height. :

The first balloon of the series was sent up on July 27, but was lost to sight
at a height of about 85 km. The balloon of July 28 was kept in sight to a
height of 13 km.; the wind velocity increased from about 5 miles an hour at
2 km. to 50 miles per hour at 8 km.; above this it remained fairly constant to
11 km., when there was some increase, a maximum between 50 and 60 miles per
hour being indicated at 11°5 km.; above this the velocity decreased rapidly,
being about 8 miles per hourat 18km.; the wind, which had been from the north
or a little west of north, was more from the west at the greatest heights. The
record from the meteorograph carried by this balloon shows that the isothermal
layer was entered at 11°5 km. The wind velocities for J uly 29 are very
similar to those for the previous day, the maximum of from 50 to 60 miles per
hour being reached at 11°5 km.; the subsequent decrease, however, was not so
rapid, the velocity being still 20 miles per hour at 13-2 km. The balloon of
July 30 shows smaller wind velocities above 7 km, than on the three previous
days, the wind being fairly steady at from 26 to 30 miles per hour; there was
some increase at 10°5 km, to 35 miles per hour, followed by a slow but steady
decrease to 25 miles per hour at 11:7, when the balloon was lost to sight. Un-
fortunately the balloons of this and the previous day went out to sea and the
meteorographs were not recovered. On July 31 a 1:75-metre balloon, filled to
the same amount as the balloons of the previous days, was sent up without
instruments : this showed very large wind velocities, increasing from 10 miles per
hour at ground level to 80 miles per hour at 11°5 km.; above this there was a de-
crease to about 55 miles per hour at 13-5 km., when the balloon was seen to burst.

In all cases, therefore, in which the balloon was watched to heights of above
11 kilometres the wind velocity reached a maximum value at a little above this
height, followed by a decrease above.

‘ Owing tothe small balloon the instrument of July 28 was recovered
in the Channel, and the balloon kept it afloat for three days,

1908.

; it fell

QQ

594 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

(ii) Zhe Warm Stratun in the Atmosphere at Heights exceeding Light
Miles in the Unitel States. By Professor A. LAwrENCE Rotcu.

The only dallons-sondes t\at have been used in America are those launched
by the author. Since his observatory at Blue Hill lies too near the coast for
the purpose, most of the balloons have been despatched from St. Louis, Missouri.
The experiments were begun in September 1904, and have been continued since
that time, during different seasons, with the aid of grants from the Smithsonian
Institution, Of the seventy-six balloons sent up from St. Louis, all but four
have been found and returned, the majority falling within a radius of two
hundred or three hundred miles to the eastward of St. Louis. The balloons are
of rubber, the instruments of Teisserenc de Bort’s construction, calibrated for low
pressures and temperatures before each ascension, and all ascensions were made
after sunset, to avoid the effect of solar radiation.

Most of the balloons which rose higher than eight miles (12,870 metres)
entered the warm stratum, whose temperature continued to increase with
increasing height. The stratum was at its lowest level in summer, with a mean
minimum temperature of —54°6 C. at 12,000 metres. During the autumn of
1907 the warm stratum was penetrated eight times, the mean minimum tempera-
ture of —60°5 C. occurring at 12,370 metres. The variations in height from day
to day were large, a minimum temperature of —67°1C. at a height of 14,500
metres on October 8 being followed, two days later, by a descent of the minimum
temperature of —62°°2 C. to 12,000 metres. The temperatures at the extreme
heights reached were —58° C, at 16,500 metres on October 8 and —56° ©, at
15,000 metres on October 10, showing an increase of 9° C. in 2,000 metres and
—6°2 in 4,500 metres respectively. On November 6 the minimum temperature
of —52°-2C. was found at 9,700 metres, and —50°5 C. at 10,000 metres, the
highest point attained. On November & the level of the minimum of —63°1 C.
had risen to 14,250 metres, with an increase of temperature to —60°2C. at
15,380 metres, These observations are to be published im ertenso and discussed
in the ‘ Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College,’ under the
author’s direction.

These results, which were made near 35° North latitude, show the warm
stratum to be at a decidedly higher altitude than it isin northern Europe. On
the contrary, the results obtained by the expedition which was sent jointly by
M. Teisserenc de Bort and the author in 1906-7 to explore the atmosphere over the
tropical Atlantic indicated a still higher level for the warm stratum. In fact at
the height of 15,000 metres over the equator there was no inversion of tempera-
ture, and it was actually colder than at an equal height in the northern latitudes.

2. Report on the Measurement of the Geodetic Are in Africa,
See Reports, p. 56.

3. Seventh Report on the Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere by means
of Kites.—See Reports, p. 59.

4. Report on the Magnetic Observations at Falmouth Observatory.
See Reports, p. 55.

5, Report of the Committee on Electrical Standards.—See Reports, p. Br:

6. Report on Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis.—See Reports, p. 58.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 595

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
Joint Discussion with Sections B and G on Gaseous Explosions.
DepaRTMENT OF Matnemarics.
The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Report on Bessel Functions.—See Reports, p. 58.

2. The Asymptotic Hupansions of Bessel Functions.
By J. W. Nicuouson, D.Sc., B.A.

The tabulation of Bessel functions, so far as it has yet been carried out, has
been chiefly based upon the formule

2R nu
“| an cos (240-77
~ _

P= t- 2! (&)? ¥
pape ee in . dn? —5*
Qe “BL (8) =F;

as, for example, in the case of a tabulation now being made by a Committee of
the Association."

These formule are only useful when =z is fairly large and » small in com-
parison. Suitable bases of calculation for larger values of x have recently been

obtained by the author. There are three distinct cases for the Bessel functions of
real argument.

Case 1: n less than sz.
an 2 4
Writing Jn(z) = a/ ee sin p
TS
ab bane /2R :
J_,(2)—cos nw J,(2) =sin nx, / =— cos p (n not an integer)
1%

Y,(2)=—- ee cos p (7 an integer)
where Y,,(z) is the solution defined by

Y,(2) = sail == (—)® au) (n = integer)

Then if x =< sin a, and a is not too close to 90°

A, Xr
R=seca + 2 secia + “4 secta + .
Pe zt

where 4 (8 +8) Asi3+ (8+ 2) Aygit2n’s.st1.s+2.r,_,+n4's. s?-4., .=0

ee 1 " _ 27 —96n? d _ 4640n? — 1125 —640n4
ae hee Snel. Beg 910 oe

and the second, fifth, eighth, &c., terms of R are two orders in 2 or z less than
those preceding.

1 B.A, Report, 1907, p. 94.
QQ2

596 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

If also L+poa?tpet+ .. = (14.07 +A, 244... .)77

then = 42 (cos a— a sina) am (ag — Pe
p=a (cos a 5 a sin a) vy 2 eater ri
= Bs Be dean Bes part
Hy tana +7 (tan a—;, tan’ a= (tana—tan’a + =tan°a)...

where the orders decrease similarly,

Case 2: n greater than <.
If n== cosh 8, 8 not being small,

J, (a) = J é!

pose ie Brae :
J_n (2) —cos am J, (%) =sin mr a/ i et (x not integral)
Tv 3 2 =
NG; (e) =o A/ = Gee (~ integral)
Then 27 sinh B=1- Ae coth? 8 + Ne coth'B...
Om n

1 1 ep 1 pe
t=n (tanh 6-8) —= log.2~— (u,—— Pe+— 4

\ 828) g Bee Ts (Hs Sat Bone )
Boll a By2t 2,4

22) 41 a ele

1 Me 5
+— (p,cothB— ~* coth®’ B+...) +
n® (M4 6 3n* 6 )
where the B’s are the Bernoullian numbers, and orders decrease as before.

Case 3: when n and = are nearly equal, and fairly large, J,,(z) may be r
to an Airy’s integral} in the form : : Sate) anata aeaneee

Jy @=2 (ey ‘ie cos {w' + n=2(°) w dw

~

and its tabulation may be conducted at once by the use of tables given for thi
integral by Airy and later by Stokes.’ eutinaas She
In particular

F,(m) =0(§)22 34 et wt

'This is correct to three places of decimals when 7 = 8, and to four when x=10
so that it is not necessary for to be very large.

Similarly
J_,(n) = r(5) .288-t w) n=} cos (nn -")

Y,,(7) = -r(3)23 3h n-

More generally, if
F(p)= ie cos (w’ + pw) dw
0

Kp)= fs; sin (w? + pw) dw

i)

' Airy, Camb. Phil. Trans. vis p. 379; vill. p. 595.
2 Math. and Phys. Papers, ii. p. 329 et seq,

or
Los]
a |

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A,

thei a

1 6 4 na . ”
J (8) ed (°) {cos uz . F(p) + sin nz . 7(p)}
si 6\3 | Gar
+ San (2) ems {F(pe-H"ls) + of (pe-eis)}

6 3 / y eens See
MANE -(5) ferns F(pe-!7!s) +e ls f(pe-*is)}

when x and z are nearly equal. These lead to the series, when p is small,

mt

19-2 () {renga fr Qooktssin()onite
In(z ==(2){ r(é) sin 3 cos (nn—7) +P r(3) sin 2 cos (un —"2) +. F +
r= HC) 2) (Loses) fr) (rss)

The Bessel functions, whose argument is purely imaginary, are usually
defined by

I,(2) =tn In(cz)
eat ON Nia Cl ae — 2 cosh $ gjn}) 27 ]
K,,(z) = (a x 3) (3) f é 2) sinh ob df

the latter being zero at infinity.
These have the expansions when either x or ¢ is large,

where ul if n= sinh B
7=sech B—), sech® B+, sech'B..,

t=2(1-4 D-4 Dey: . ) {eosh 8—8 sinh 8}

i 0
where D= ‘sinh BcoshB ' OB

3. On Sir W. R. Hamilton’s Fluctuating Functions.
By E. W. Hopson, Se.D., F.R.S.

This paper dealt with the mode of representation of an arbitrary function
by means of definite integrals involving the fluctuating functions just intro-
duced by Hamilton in his memoir ‘On Fluctuating Functions,’ published in the
‘Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy’ in the year 1843. The results obtained
by Hamilton were discussed in a rigorous manner, and were extended to the case
in which the function to be represented is of the very general type limited only by
the postulation that the function possesses a Lebesque integral in the interval for
which it is to berepresented. General theorems are obtained containing sufficient
conditions for the convergence of the integrals at points in the limited or
unlimited interval of representation, and also sufficient conditions for the uniform

598 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A..

representation of the function in any portion of the interval in which that
function is continuous. It was shown that the subsidiary functions employed by
Hamilton are a particular case of a more general class of functions, the pro-
perties of which have been recently discussed by the author in the ‘ Proceedings
of the London Mathematical Society,’ vol. vi.

4. On the Law of Equipartition of Energy between Correlated Variables.
Sy 8. H. Bursury, F.R.S.

I think the law has never yet been proved except on the assumption, express
or implied, that the variables are not correlated.

Let, then, x, . . x, be m quantities which vary continuously between limits
given by =m2?=E, a constant, and which are, or some of them are, correlated
inter se, Let the chance that, subject to constants, they shall respectively lie
between 2, and 1, +d, v, and x,+dr,, &e., be denoted by f(a, .. tn)dt,.. den.

Then their mean values, .y, «,, &c., are

2; =Sf. S(t & », Sylt, Ae, «\. Ma

Lo =f[f. p(y) oo Dy) Daddy iat «edn neoe:
Also their mean squares are

£," =f, ec 421 Cabral Se) SrA he Peay Oe deh

And by virtue of the correlation any two of them, as 2, and «,, have a mean

product :
Lp = TF Ne Ply te Wn) CeTydiea sane

For my present purpose I must assume that every x=0. Also let x,?=a,,
ty” = Aq, &e., and 24%, =by=0q, . . 2» Lpq_=Opq= bap, &e.
Introduce now n new variables Uy «+ Up, Such that

y= Qu, + Byles + 3, Us Se + ih
Vy = dy), + Ayu, + oo 4 ye
Vn = bp U, + Byotty + . + AyUy, J
And by consequence
D Di 1D) D
t= os =p by D- + 25 7H +o. + tn . . ee)

with corresponding values for uw, . . wp.

Here D is the determinant of the coefficients a, 6 as they stand in (1), and
D,, is its minor, omitting row p and column gq, or vice versa.

The law of probability is then

. p(x, ate Zn) = eM + tlt « +2, ty)

ultiplied by a constant.
In the first equation of (1) multiply each side by x,. That gives

D D D
yt, = Ty St Tyg Hot ts po t &. Bis 28% cAtiat eee

Now the values of the coefficients a, , and therefore of D and its minors, do
not change between one set of values of x, . x, and another, but are the same

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 599
for all values of 2, . . x, and the consequent values of uw, ..u,. Therefore

we may multiply both sides of (8) by (2, . . 2) and integrate for all values of
Vy . + ®p, regarding a, b as constants. And since

ik i D(t, .< an)zuat, . . dx, =2,u,
we obtain

— - D D 2
Lu, = wo be SP caMt8) naar dey { xy D + U2, D + &e. }

= 4,D,, + 5,.D,, +,,D,, + ke.
D

D
eam, Li;
D
Similarly .
%u,=1,&e. And zu, =2,u,= Ke.
Or if a eo?
d d
Q= ZDLU, es = 2, = = Ono.

This is the law of equipartition of Q.

I now introduce the following principle :—

Making Q minimum, ie., e~° maximum, subject to the kinetic energy E
being constant, we find the most probable, or normal, state of the system. That

is, since Q is minimum
aQn,._
> ana 02 =0

— dE
==—On=0
pee
whence by the usual method
aQ_,dE dQ_,dE .
ants Madecada bbe

and since FE is constant

The indeterminate multiplier \ is a function, of the a’s and ’s, Therefore we
may write
dQ dE dQ 0
t= = AX, =, Vg=— = AX, ——.
nt dx, pits fae * du, “ dx,

And this being true for all values of 2; . « 7, consistent with E = constant

e/a [Ban

"1 de, | *2 da, “1 da, | “* de,
That :
\~dH Si} di
1dr. ~ *? da,"

And if E=Sm2”, mvZ=m,x,", &e.
5. Lhe Complementary Theorem. By Professor J. C. Frexps.

Let F (z, v) = 0 be an ‘integral algebraic equation. Any rational function can
be written in the forms
(hs) (2. (x +9) Sis
(1) He, v) = Pz, v) is Pr (2%) ¢ (0) + & ((E,»)),
k

te Res ax) te gtk

600 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

where € = 3~,y = 2” v, and 2 is the highest power of = which appears in the
equation. If the function is to become infinite to orders not higher than
Ty, toy, gee « Be

respectively for branches of the cycles corresponding to finite values = = a,, and
if for = = cc it ia to have orders of coincidence which do not fall short of

Te), a pe eye CO)
. co

respectively, then will the functions ¢ contain certain constants 6, which are
arbitrary excepting in so far as they are conditioned by the fact that the two
representations are to hold simultaneously for the function. The conditions to
which the constants 6 are subjected are given by the identity

(2) > s a9, 9) Ta S ap =") om) at
kb e=1 (2—a,)% 8=1 g
polynomial in (z, v) + &/ ((&, n)).

This identity can immediately be replaced by another identity.

li,

® 3s

* Z
k s=1 (xz —a;,) % s8=] é =

8,4) g() (z, v) + = 3) ot a 1) (& ”)

polynomial in (z,v) + & ((& 7)),,

where the several functions! ¢ have a very simple connection with the corre-
sponding functions ¢. The conditions to which the constants 5 are subjected
by this identity are obtained by equating to 0 the coefficients of z—" y"~!

(0<7r<7 + (n—-Zt)m, t=1,2,..., 2)

on the left-hand side. The equations of condition so obtained are not all
independent. A linear equation between them with multipliers a, , ,, signifies
that the coefficient of z-! v”~! in every product

(e—ay)~" GO G0) FW),
and in every product / 2
ere Gs +j) (, 7) y Cs v)

is 0, where

Wy (%, 2) = Yon. pane” 2 A,

The interpretation of this is that y (x, v) must have orders of coincidence which
are complementary adjoint to
(k) (i) re)
Onn Uog Ws ee OF,

for finite values z = @,, and for the value z = cc orders of coincidence which are
complementary adjoint to
(eo) (5) (2) 5
T 2, T, — 2) os 09 Ty Ie

coo

' For details in regard to these functions see the author’s book Theory of the
Algebraic Functions of a Complex Variable, Berlin: Mayer & Miiller,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 601

Employing the symbol N, to designate the number of arbitrary constants involved
in the most general rational function yf (z, v) possessing the orders of coincidence
here in question, this also represents the number of the equations of condition
which are dependent on the remaining ones. We, however, know expressions
for the total number of these equations and for the total number of the con-
stants 8. Making use of these expressions we immediately obtain for the number
of arbitrary constants 6 satisfying the identities (2) and (3)

VK VK
@ M=Nen- SSO - SSP

&s=1 ks=1

and this at the same time represents the number of arbitrary constants involved

in the most general function H (s, v), whose orders of coincidence for the various

values z do not exceed the cosresponding numbers r;" .. . pitt Here we

have replaced —o,... mars by the symbols 7," .., pe . Formula (4)
k k

contains one statement of the complementary theorem in a restricted case. From

it, however, can immediately be deduced in a variety of forms the theorem in

the most general case. This has already been done in the author's book. The

principal object of the present paper is to giye a method for obtaining

formula (4) with greater facility and elegance.

6, The Genesis of Elliptic Functions,

By Roperr RussE.t,

DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL PHySsIcs.

The following Papers were read : —
g tap

1. Do the Radio-active Gases (Hmanations) belong to the Argon Series ?
By Sir Wituiam Ramsay, A.C.B., FR.S.

The residues of the fractionation of 120 tons of liquid air were examined in
the chemical laboratory of University College by Professor Moore. After
removal of oxygen and nitrogen, argon, krypton, and xenon remained, and were
separated by methodical fractionation, The xenon amounted to about 300 cm;
it was methodically fractionated at —130°, and a final residue of 0°3 cm. was
obtained. The spectrum of this portion was photographed, and differed in no
respect from that of xenon. It is practically certain that if this residue had
contained 1 per cent. of a denser gas, that gas would have been detected. It
follows therefore that if there is a heavier constituent in air than xenon, its
amount does not exceed 1-25 billionth of the whole. Now it is certain that
if such an element existed, it would be gaseous, and would be found in air. Its
non-existence implies either the absence of such elements from the periodic table
or their instability. As possible atomic weights for missing elements are 178,
216, and 260, it is rendered probable that they are respectively unstable
emanations—those of thorium, of radium, and of actinium.

2. On the Number and Absorption of the B Particles emitted by Radium.
By W. Maxower.
The experiments were undertaken to redetermine the number of £ particles

emitted per second by radium C in equilibrium with one gram of radium.
Radium emanation was sealed in a small glass tube about 1 mm. diameter, the

602 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

thickness of whose walls was about 0'l mm., and the charge reaching a thick
insulated brass cylinder surrounding the glass tube per second was measured by a
quadrant electrometer. The whole was enclosed in a silvered glass vessel which
could be exhausted by means of charcoal and liquid air. In order to allow for
the absorption of the 8 rays from the emanation by the walls of the enclosing
glass tube, a series of experiments was made to determine the law of absorption
of the 8 rays from radium B and © when the thickness of glass is varied. It
was found that the law of absorption for glass was sensibly the same as for
aluminium as found by H. W. Schmidt, the radiation being measured in both
cases by the zonisation produced by the rays after traversing different thicknesses
of glass. It was further found that the law of absorption was the same when
measured by the charge received by the brass cylinder mentioned above when
different thicknesses of glass were interposed between the emanation and the
brass cylinder. It is therefore concluded that when rays pass through matter
the observed absorption of the rays is not due to scattering, but to an actual
stoppage of the particles by the absorbing medium. The final corrected value for
the number of 8 particles emitted per second from the radium C in equilibrium
with 1 gram of radium is 49 x 10", ;

38, The Rate of Production of Helium from Radium,
By Sir James Dewar, FES,

DEPARTMENT OF CosmicaL Puysics (AsTRoNoMyY),

The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Report of the Seismological Committee,—See Reports, p, 60.

2. A Generalised Instrument. By Sir Roperr Bax, /.B.S.

In the altazimuth the telescope should be perpendicular to a horizontal axis II.
which is itself carried by a vertical axisI. Owing to instrumental imperfection the
angle between the telescope and the axis I, is 90° + r and that between I. and II. is
90°—q where r and g are small quantities.

In the almucantar the telescope is inclined to the vertical axis II. at the angle
90° +7, and the vertical axis is inclined to the axis of the Earth I. at the angle
90°—g, where q is the latitude. In this case 7 and g are not small quantities.

Thus an investigation in which the circle attached to axis I. has A for the
longitude of its ascending node on the fundamental circle and 6 for the angle
between axis I. and the normal to the fundamental circle will include the com-
plete theory of the following instruments among others: the Altazimuth, the
Meridian Circle, the Prime Vertical Instrument, the Equatorial, and the Almu-
cantar. The instrument so defined we call the generalised instrument.

Let a, 6 be the co-ordinates of a star and R, R, be the readings of Circle I.
and Circle II. when the telescope of the generalised instrument is directed on
that star, then

Sin 6=7,(, 6, 7,7 .RR,)
Gos:a.cos 8=7,0, 6,.¢,7 RR) + & 44a) a ee
Sin a cos 6=F,(, 6, g,7 .R R,)

The following is the most convenient method of writing the formule :—

Sin 6=L cos 6+M sin 0
Cos a cos 8=(L sin 6—M cos 6) sin L+N cos d * « (ii)
Sin a cos 8= —(L sin6—M cos 6) cosd+N sind

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 603

where L, M, N aie the direction cosines of the star with respect to their
rectangular axes, of which the first is axis I. and the third is the intersection of
the circles II. and I., and we have L, M, N expressed in terms of q, 7, R, R, by
these equations :—

M sin R+N cos R=cos r cos R,
—M cos R+N sin R=sin 7 cos g+sin g cos 7 sin R,

When R and R, are observed then from (iii) we have L, M, N, and from (ii)
a, 6 are known, and as there are three equations there is no ambiguity.

If R and R, are given real quantities, then a and 6 are real quantities, but
the conyerse is not necessarily true. If a and 6 are given, then from (ii) we have
L, M, N, and from the first equation of (iii) we have sin R,. It may happen that
sin R, >1, in which case the instrument cannot be pointed ona, 6. If sin R,<1
there will be two values, R; and 180—R,, each of which by substitution in the
last two equations of (i) will give real values for sin R and cos R,so that
there will be two methods of pointing the generalised instrument on a given
point. This is, of course, the familiar process of reversal in the altazimuth, or of
observing upper and lower culmination in the meridian circle.

L= —sin g sin r+cosq cos r sin ca
ott ser Gili)

3. A New Form of Divided Object-Glass Telescope.
By Sir Howarp Gruss, 2.R.S.

For certain purposes it was necessary to produce a divided object-glass tele-
scope, in which the rays forming the images on one half of the field should be
due entirely and solely to the corresponding half object-glass, and the rays form-
ing the other half field to the other half object-glass. Moreover, it was necessary
to utilise circular revolving wedges over one of the half object-glasses for the
purpose of producing a deviation of the rays in one half field as regards the
other ; and, furthermore, the images were required to be erect.

These conditions, though theoretically solvable by introducing a thin dia-
phragm in whose plane the optical axis of the telescope would lie, are not prac-
ticable, as the light impinging on this diaphragm at very long incidence intro.
duces false light into the field and destroys the brilliancy of the images.

With this form it is not possible to use circular revolving wedges without a
considerable loss of light.

By reversing the two half object-glasses and placing them back to back, the
introduction ot an effective series of diaphragms is rendered possible without
cutting off from the cone of rays which form the images, while the positions of the
half object-glasses render the application of circular wedges quite possible and
convenient,

With this arrangement the two semicircular pencils of light being each reversed
in themselves by the erecting prisms, emerge from the eye-piece as one single disc,
just fitting the pupil of the eye with the lower powers.

4, The New Spectroheliograph for the Madrid Observaiory.
Sy Sir Howarp Grup, F.R.S.

The necessary conditions to be fulfilled in designing this spectroheliograph
were somewhat limited, owing to the fact that some apparatus (including a 45°
prism and a ccelostat) already existing had to be utilised,

Various designs were submitted, and these are mostly described in the Paper.
That which was finally accepted did not vary very much, so far as its optical
arrangements are concerned, from some of the well-known instruments.

Most of the novel features are to be found in the mechanical arrangements,

The whole instrument, which is very heavy and massive, rests on three feet,
sliding on three accurately worked planes,

604 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A;

No elides dre wsed, but the instrument is guided by parallel-motiou rods,
which rods can be adjusted slightly out of parallelism, so that the instrument,
instead of sliding in a perfectly straight line, describes an arc of a circle, of which
the object-glass used for forming the sun’s image (223-foot focus) is the centre,
the collimator always pointing to the centre of the object-glass.

Almost the entire weight of the instrument is supported by four steel wires,
which hang from counterpoised levers pivoted on the roof of the building, so that
only a very small portion of the weight is allowed to bear on the planed surfaces.

The motion is effected by a frictional clock acting on two screws, which drive
the instrument simultaneously at the forward and backward ends.

5, On the Relation between Intensity of Light, Time of Exposure, and
Photographic Action. Sy Professor H, H. Turner, D.Sc., PRS.

1, If Z be the intensity of a source of light, and ¢ the time of exposure, it was
not unnatural to assume that the photographic effect is proportional to the
product Zé. But experiments have shown that this is not the case. Sir William
Abney, who had previously expressed an opinion in favour of the law, announced
its ‘complete breakdown’ under certain conditions in 1893.' | The conditions
specified by him were that a slow plate should be used, more particularly a
bromide; and his Paper is written on the assumption that deyiation from the law
will vary with the kind of plate used,

2. The object of the present note is to suggest that the deviation is, at any
rate for stellar work, uniform; that in fact a new law can be formulated, the
photographic effect being proportional to

Ix t

instead of the first power of ¢. This result was arrived at by the present writer
from a discussion of numerous Greenwich plates in 1905,” but as it was supposed
to apply merely to particular conditions, no great importance was attached to it.
On reviewing the work of the late Mr. R. L. J. Ellery it was noticed that he had
arrived at identical figures in 1891,’ under conditions which probably differed in
several essentials from those at Greenwich (ey., the manufacture of plates has
changed a good deal in the interval). It was then remembered that the work of
Dr. Schwarzschild, using a quite different method of measuring stellar magnitndes,
gave nearly identical results. Finally, on looking up Sir William Abney’s paper of
1898 (Joc. ecit.), it was seen that the only numerical result given by him is closely
in accord with the suggested formula.

8. As a purely empirical formula, therefore (for at present no physical basis
has been suggested, so far as I know), and chiefly with the view of eliciting
opinions and experiences which may throw further light on the matter, it is
suggested that

photographic effect = intensity x (exposure)?
or stellar magnitude = C — 2'5 log I[—2-0 log ¢

or, with an increase of exposure equivalent to five magnitudes, we only get four.

6. Systematic Motion of the Stars. By Professor F. W. Dyson, F.R.S.

Eighteen hundred stars from all parts of the sky whose proper motions were
greater than 20” a century were examined, It was found that 1,100 were moving
in directions within 60” of one apex, 600 within 60” of the second apex, and 100
were outside these limits. .The motions of the 100 stars were irregular and not
directed to one part of the sky. The number of stars of large proper motion

1 Monthly Notices, liv. p. 65. 2 Tbid., lxv. p. 764.
: 8 Tha lii, p. 265 ;
* Thid., lii, p. 265.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 605

moving to the second apex did not seem in accordance with Mr. Eddington’s
determination that the stars of the first group were moving in streams, and that
the mean velocities of these streams were as 3:1. The investigation was not
concluded, but showed that stars of large proper motions had apparent drifts to
two points in the sky, but a difficulty was presented in the explanation of this
as due to two streams,

7, The Reflecting Telescope and its Suitability for Physical Research.
By Sir Howarp Gruss, 7.2.8.

The author referred to a Paper published by him some thirty-one years ago, in
which he pointed out the advantage of the reflecting telescope for many branches
of physical research, and predicted that the usefulness of the instrument would
be appreciated in course of time. For many years after this, instruments of the
reflecting type were not in favour either in Europe or America, but experience
of recent years of the use of reflectors in the hands of Huggins, Common, Roberts,
Wilson, and the astronomers at the Lick Observatory has practically demon-
strated the valuable qualities of such instruments for astrophysical research. In
America especially many improvements in construction and mounting have been
introduced in recent years, which have helped largely to develop the powers and
convenience of the reflecting telescope.

Notwithstanding the general impression that the practical limit of size for
large telescopes has been reached, and that further developments would be useless
on account of the limitations due to imperfections in our atmosphere, the obser-
vations and investigations of American astronomers, who have experience of the
largest instruments, tend to show that, for physical research, not only would
instruments of greater light-grasping power be desirable, but that they are
absolutely necessary in order to carry through the work of physical research on
the most promising lines.

Those who have had experience with large reflecting telescopes have therefore
devoted themselves in endeavouring to grapple with the difficulties which at
present hamper the usefulness of such instruments.

This Paper discussed the various devices introduced by the astronomers at
Washington, Mt. Wilson, and other observatories possessing large reflectors to
overcome the hindrances to increase of aperture due to the want of homogeneity
in the air and calorific effects, &c., and discussed the possibilities of increasing the
optical power in future instruments.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.

Discussion on the Theory of Waue-motion,' opened by
Professor Horace Lamp, FAS,

[PLATE VII. ]

It is understood that one of the chief objects of the discussion is to promote
an alliance, or at all events a better understanding, between meteorologists on
the one hand and mathematicians on the other, more especially as to the theory
of atmospheric waves of various kinds. The need for some such understanding
is fairly manifest. There exists a considerable mathematical literature on the
subject of waves in fluids, but the theory is far from complete, and the established
results are subject to various qualifications which sometimes seriously limit their
practical application. It is possible that the theory might be extended in some
directions, with a view to meteorology ; but the mathematician is deterred from
embarking on long and difficult calculations which might in the end prove to
have no real bearing on actual phenomena, owing to his own imperfect apprecia-
tion of the trne atmospheric conditions. The meteorologist, on the other hand,

' Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.

606 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

confronted witn the bewildering complexity of the phenomena which he registers,
asks for some theoretical clue which shall help him to analyse these and to reduce
them to something like order. In particular he considers that he has indications,
in various cases, of distinctly periodic fluctuations of atmospheric pressure, and he
requires some corresponding theory. Under these circumstances, perhaps the
most useful course will be to attempt a review of such results in the existing
theory of wave-motion as may conceivably have an application to meteorological
conditions, :

We may consider in the first case the oscillations of the atmosphere as a whole.
Jf we assume, for simplicity, isothermal conditions, these are closely analogous to
the oscillations of a liquid ocean of uniform depth covering the globe. The
velocity of propagation for waves of mainly horizontal displacement is in fact
equal to ./(gH), where # is the height of the ‘homogeneous atmosphere.’ If we
put H = 29500 feet, the most important type of free oscillation on a non-rotating
globe has a period of about 16 hours, the type being that of the semi-diurnal
tidal oscillation of an ocean of uniform depth. When we take account of the
rotation, the modes of oscillation and the periods are considerably modified. The
problem is virtually the same as in Laplace’s dynamical theory of the tides, with
this advantage, that owing to the absence of barriers to the aerial ocean the results
are much more closely applicable to the actual circumstances. The calculations of
Hough (with the preceding value of H) show that the principal free oscillation
has now a period of about 12 hours. This result is of interest in relation to the
well-known semi-diurnal variation of the barometer. This is of very regular
type, uniform along each meridian, with maxima at 10 a.m. and 10 pm. An
oscillation of this character might (except as to the phase) be regarded as a
torced solar semi-diurnal tide, whose period is very nearly coincident with that of
one of Hough’s free oscillations. This would explain the comparative smallness
of the solar diurnal atmospheric tide, and might even be consistent with the small-
ness of the lunar semi-diurnal tide, since the amplitude of the ‘resonance’ falls off
with extreme rapidity as the difference between the free and forced periods
increases. The difficulty is, however, in the phase, which is accelerated instead of
retarded. This cannot be accounted for by friction; and the magnitude of the
phase-interval also appears far too great to be attributed to such a cause. There
seems to be no alternative but to adopt Lord Kelvin’s view that the semi-diurnal
variation is a temperature effect. The diurnal variation of temperature does not
follow the simple harmonic-law, and when analysed by Fourier’s method will
have coustituents whose periods are respectively 1, 3, 4,...of a solar day. The
semi-diurnal constituent will be mainly operative owing to approximate co-
incidence with the free period already referred to. The phase remains to be
accounted for, but there does not appear to be any prima facie difficulty as to
this. It should be mentioned that the forced oscillations due to variation of tem-
perature have been discussed mathematically on the basis of Laplace’s theory by
Margules,

We have next to consider the possible types of local and (relatively) small
scale oscillations of the atmosphere. The most obvious locus of such oscillations
is at the common horizontal boundary of two strata of different densities. The
circumstances are here very nearly the same as if the fluids were incompressible,
and we may quote Stokes’ formula for the velocity of propagation of waves on
the commen boundary between two liquids in equilibrium, viz. :—

Wie gr p-p’
lr ptp J’
ptp

where A is the wave-length, and p, p’ are the densities of the lower and upper fluids
respectively. When p’=0, we have V=4/(gd/2m) as in the ordinary theory of
deep-water waves; in the present case the potential energy of a given deforma-
tion is diminished in the ratio (» —p’)/p, whilst the inertia is increased in the ratio
(p+p')/p. When p—p’ is relatively small, the oscillations are exceedingly slow,
asin the case of a flask half-filled with oil and half with water, a phenomenon

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Ay 607

noticed long ago by Franklin. On the other hand, such waves are eiisily produced,
owing to the smallness of the potential energy. An interesting application of the
theory has in recent times been made by W. V. Ekman, to explain the abnormal
resistance which is occasionally experienced by ships off the mouths of various
Norwegian fiords, where a layer of fresh water rests on one of salt water. This
is interpreted as a wave-resistance due to waves generated on the common
boundary. If’ is greater than p, the wave-velocity is imaginary: there is then of
course instability, and a corrugation of wave-length \, once produced, will tend to
increase in amplitude, and the more rapidly the smaller the value of \. This has
a bearing on the theory of the formation of cirrus clouds, which was proposed and.
experimentally illustrated by Jevons in 1857. An upper layer of air is supposed
to cool by radiation until it becomes heavier than the air below it; a sort of
interpenetration then takes place by means of narrow filaments which are made
manifest by thé condensation of vapour when the warmer air comes in contact
with the cooler.

In practice a discontinuity of density in the atmosphere is likely to be accom-
panied by a discontinuity of velocity. The corresponding circumstances in the
case of incompressible fluids were investigated by Lord Kelvin; if the velocities of
the two currents are v, v’, the formula for the wave-velocity may be written :—

j seal r ieee / <i
TS a/ PSP POP nrhiasig
ptp * on pep ptpy er) fr

or, in case the difference of density is relatively small,

r a t 2
V=a(vt vea/ {oe . my —i(v-v ea
The first term represents the mean velocity of the two currents; the second
represents a wayve-velocity which may be superposed on this in either direction,

This second term is imaginary, indicating instability, for values of A less than

2tp = (v—-0')?

p-p -y
Under atmospheric conditions very great wave-lengths will be required for
stability, unless v—v’ is very small. The importance of the fact that with an
absolute discontinuity of density the slightest difference of velocity would imply
partial instability has been strongly emphasised by Helmholtz. He pointed out
that in the case of air a rapid mixture of the two strata must take place, and
that this cause is far more powerful than friction in establishing a transition
stratum within which the change of density from p to p’ takes place gradually.
The presence of such a layer would modify the theory to some extent, but this has
hardly yet been investigated.

The theoretical results so far quoted relate to disturbances of infinitely small
amplitude; in cases of instability they represent therefore only the initial
tendency. Helmholtz has shown that although a plane surface of separation
between two currents is unstable, there are other forms of relative equilibrium
which are possibly stable. Since any common velocity may be superposed on
the two currents without affecting the dynamics of the question, this amounts
to a theory of waves of finite (as distinguished from infinitely small) amplitude,
The calculations, which are somewhat complicated, have been revised by W. Wien ;
but it does not appear yet to have been decisively settled whether, or in what
sense, such waves may be stable. It is very desirable that this very interesting
and definite problem should be attacked de novo by some mathematician.
Helmholtz argues that the theory has a real application to the atmosphere, and
that the crests of these waves are under favourable conditions made yisible by
the condensation of vapour cooled by expansion.

It will be evident from this review that the theory of wave-motion is, from
the point of view of atmospheric phenomena, on many points uncertain, It
may perhaps be urged that it would be unfair to expect any great improvement

608 TRANSACTIONS: OF SECTION A:

in this respect until the various conditions which actually prevail in the atmo-
sphere have been more thoroughly explored. Fortunately, the progress which is
now being made in the study of the upper regions of the air encourages us to
hope that before long we may have more secure data to form the basis and the
criterion of future theoretical investigations, :

Dr. SHaw expressed his appreciation of the clearness of Professor Lamb's
paper and of the advantages for the study of the atmosphere likely to accrue from
having the results obtained by mathematical investigation put together in a
concise and easily accessible form. So far as the atmospheric oscillations of short
period were concerned it was not easy to accept an explanation depending upon
the assumption of a substantial discontinuity of velocity between consecutive
horizontal layers. There was plenty of evidence of stratification in the atmo-
sphere of one sort or other, but pressure, being an integral gravitational effect,
could not show discontinuous stratification. Consequently there could not be
a discontinuous change of horizontal pressure-gradient. There might be slight
discontinuous stratification as regards temperature, and consequently also as regards
density ; but, as regards wind velocity, anything of the nature of a persistent wind
current in the upper air would have its velocity governed by the pressure gradient
and the density, and the discontinuity would be limited to the extent of that
shown in the density, which can very rarely reach so great a proportional
magnitude as 3 per cent.

The records obtained from autographic instruments occasionally showed
undulations, more or less sinusoidal in character, which had not hitherto been
explained. Neither the proximate cause of the initial disturbance, nor the
oscillating system which was set in vibration thereby, had been identified. Such
approximately sinusoidal oscillations were sometimes found in the wind, as shown
in the example taken from the Southport Observatory records for January 12, 1907
(see Plate VII.), but more frequently in the barometric pressure, and particularly
in the records of the ‘microbarograph,’ an instrument which, as ordinarily
adjusted, magnifies rapid variations of pressure twentyfold, as compared with
the mercury barometer, but disregards slow changes altogether. A period of about
twenty minutes is frequently to be identified in the records, and the trace from
Mr. Dines’s microbarograph at Oxshott for February 22-23, 1904, reproduced in
the original paper,’ shows intermittent groups of oscillations lasting for about
twenty hours, commencing with a period of about half an hour and ending with
a period of about ten minutes,

Barometric oscillations were occasionally set up during the violent commotion
of the line squall which introduces a thunderstorm, A good example is given
in the microbaric trace for August 2, 1906 (see Plate VIL.), where an oscillation
with rapid damping is clearly indicated. The changes in the other elements are
reproduced in order to indicate the general violence of the commotion.

But ‘line-squall’ or thunderstorm changes do not always cause oscillations.
The microbarographic trace for June 1, 1908 (see Plate VJI.), shows a sudden rise
of pressure as usual (the crochet d’orage or Gewitter-nase), but no recognisable
undulations; although the sudden violence of the wind is very conspicuous in the
records, and was still more so in reality on account of the destruction of trees caused
by it in Bushy avenue. :

Another example was given of violent barometric fluctuations on July 12,
1908, which were recorded during thundery weather, but without producing undu-
lations or indeed any other notable effects,

On the other hand, there were examples of regular undulations set up without
any considerable barometric change, the most noteworthy of which was the succes-
sion of four undulations, commencing with a range of about five-thousandths of an
iich, lasting about a quarter of an hour, and then violently interrupted by a sudden,
though slight, explosive disturbance which set up different and much faster oscilla-
tions for a similar interval. Traces of this train of atmospheric waves from five

' OJ. Roy. Met. Soc., vol. xxxi. 1905, p. 39. For a discussion of the theory
of the instrument, see Chrystal, Proc. 2.S.£., vol. xxviii. 1908, p. 437.

JUNE 30.08

ia }

of Lnoay © Noi. Walsinovin

Sam
HEPHERDS BU

Om.

MICROBARO!

9

g

o
im

m

5
ed)

JAN 12.1907

PERIODIC CHANGES IN WIND

AU

LINE SQUALL [THUNDER -STORM ]}
CAUSING PRESSURE OSC!

ERECTION

G 21906

1ONS.

BAROGRAM tad

PRESSURE OSCILLATIONS

UNACCOUNTED FOR

ine 2 z

FALMOUTH

BAROG RAM

f
MICROBAROGRAM aS 1

etc

TEMPERATURE

JULY 12.1908
RAPID PRESSURE CHANGES
WITHOUT OSCILLAT IO!

S KENSINGTON

MICROBAROGRAMS
i

CAMBRIDGE

LEIGHTON PK

W

uN

|
i
\

PETERSFIELD —

on the Theory of Wave-motion

+1 LNOBY NOLLYIISINSVW

OR pte

MICROBAROGRAMS
|
|
|
|
|

JUNE |. 1908

LINE SQUALL
WITHOUT
PRESSURE

OSCILLATIONS

SHEPHERDS BUSH

HEPHERDS Bi JSH

\ ile]
| Lika
tn ti i i
BRIGHTON

" 30

°

20
La
J Ai

rae AL

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A; 609

stations, viz., Cambridge, South Kensington, Westminster, Shepherd’s Bush, and
Leighton Park, Reading, were exhibited (see Plate VII., June 30). Another,
Petersfield (Ditcham Park), has been added. The distance apart between Cambridge
and Petersfield is about 130 miles. The record for the hour 5 a.m. to 6 a.m. for
each place is reproduced. There is barely a quarter of an hour shown between
the occurrence of the trough of the first wave at any of the places. No great
stress can be laid on the accuracy of timing, and the South Kensington record in
particular appears to be mistimed. In any case, it would seem that the dis-
turbance, if not simultaneous at the different places, travelled faster than 109
miles per hour.?

One other example of very regular oscillations was shown, namely, that of the
photographic record of the Falmouth barogram for December 10, 1900 (see
Plate VII.). The undulations, in this case also subject to damping, are clearly
shown in the reproduction.

The problem presented by these examples was to determine whether the
oscillations were due to the vibrations of the atmosphere as a whole or in part,
and, in the latter case, to specify what part. It was necessary again, as the late
Lord Salisbury said about the luminiferous ether at Oxford, to tind a nominative
case to the verb to undulate.

Professor. Lamb had suggested only gravitational and vertical wave-motion
in an atmosphere stratified in discontinuous layers. The question was asked
whether it was possible that a steady atmospheric current of wind, with its
transverse pressure gradient and its great momentum, could take on an elasticity
for transverse vibrations in consequence of the quasi-rigidity of its motion relative
to the earth’s axis, and thus form a system capable of horizontal oscillations with
associated pressure changes.

Professor C. H. Lees pointed out that since Dr. Shaw’s observations showed
that when there was a sudden change of atmospheric pressure it was at times
followed by an oscillation of pressure, and at other times not, it looked as if we
were dealing with an oscillatory system in which the damping term due to
viscosity had nearly the critical value, and in which, therefore, a small change of
viscosity would lead on the one hand to oscillation, on the other to no oscillation.

Professor A. Lawrence Rorcu, Director of Blue Hill Observatory, U.S.A.,
said that the waves set up in the atmosphere during thunderstorms were of com-
mon occurrence at Blue Hill. But another class of waves, arising from different
conditions, was discussed by Mr. H. H. Clayton in vol. xl. part iii. of the ‘Annals
of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College.’ These waves oecur to the
north-eastward of a cyclonic storm moving north-east, and the same wave has
been traced on the barographs of stations situated several hundred miles apart,
the velocity of propagation of the wave from west to east being somewhat greater
than the motion of the cyclone centre itself. As a rule, oscillations in wind
velocity and direction are synchronous with the barometric waves, the wind
reaching a maximum velocity from a northerly direction during the passage of
the crest of the wave and a maximum velocity from an easterly direction in the
trough of the wave. Nearly all the waves occur in rainy weather, and usually
there is an increase in the intensity of the rainfall at the wave-crest. That
similar waves occasionally exist in the upper air is shown by the undulations
seen in clouds. According to a study of special cloud-forms at Blue IHill by the
late Mr. A. E. Sweetland, published in the ‘ Annals of the Astronomical Observa-
tory of Harvard College,’ vol. xlii. part i, the greatest number of undulations
are observed in the cirrus and cumulus levels. At the lower level they occur to
the north-east of the cyclone centre and precede warmer weather, being due to
a warm current flowing over a colder current near the ground, a condition which
Von Helmholtz has shown to be necessary to the formation of undulatory clouds,

' In considering these and the other traces of the microbarograph, it should
be remembered that the recording pen is carried by a lever and describes a circle.
In some of the traces the effect of the curvature of the ordinates is very marked
and in the Shepherd’s Bush record of June 30 there is a gradual rise of the pen
during the period attributable to temperature change. }

1908, RR

610 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

and the existence of which the kite-flights at ~Blue Hill have demonstrated.
Sometimes there are coincident rhythmical oscillations in the barograph trace.
The continuous crests and hollows of the undulations in the clouds extend usually
from north to south, or .at right angles to their drift, in contrast to the cirrus
bands, which move most frequently in the direction of their length. Since the
crest of a wave usually lies normal to the wind which produces and propagates it,
these observations confirm Von Helmholtz’s explanation of the undulations as
being the visible crests of atmospheric waves formed between currents of air
differing in density and also in velocity or direction.

Sir Oxiver Lopes asked whether the recurrent rapid minor oscillations of
brief duration could not be due to a sort of echo or reverberation from the
discontinuity layers; but subsequently he supposed that they might more likely
be due to secondary and insignificant vortices accompanying the main depression.

Sir Witt1am WuiIte observed that his interest in wave-motion chiefly centred
in water waves, and particularly in deep-sea waves. Observations of ocean waves
were of importance to the naval architect, since the behaviour of ships at sea
largely depended upon the character of the wave-phenomena, and particularly
upon the proportion of the relative periods of approach of waves and the natural
periods of oscillation of ships. For many years (under orders from the Admiralty)
officers of the Navy made numerous observations of the dimensions and periods
of waves which produced oscillations in ships—particularly transverse oscillations’
of rolling—noting at the same time the actual angles of inclination obtained on
each side of the vertical. In this manner the modern theory of rolling (developed
chiefly by the late William Froude and Professor Rankine) was confirmed to an
extent sufficient for practical purposes. Jn the case of the ‘Challenger Expedition
also special orders were given in regard to making observations of wave-
phenomena; but, unfortunately, very little additional information was obtained.
There is need for much more extended observation of ocean waves, particularly
under the special circumstances when they form a fairly regular series, The
phenomena of a ‘confused sea’ also require much more extensive study. In
addition, the behaviour of deep-sea waves during their degradation, when they
run into shallow water and approach the shore, deserves careful study, and has a
practical application in regard to the construction of harbours and sea defences of
all kinds.

Up to the present time we have but little definite information available in
regard to the generation of waves, and the laws connecting the force and velocity
of wind with the creation of water-waves. The best observations available are
those of the lute Lieutenant Paris, of the French Navy, and they reflect the
greatest credit upon that officer both as to the methods ewployed and extent of
the work done. The analysis of his results, however, shows conclusively that
much more extended observation is required.

Wave-phenomena which accompany the movements of ships through water
which otherwise would be still, have received great attention in recent. years in
connection with experiments made on models in tanks on the system introduced
by the late Mr. William Froude, greatly developed in this country by Mr. R., E.
Froude, and now extensively employed in all maritime countries as an aid to the
design of steamships, This branch of investigation is still in full progress, and
it cannot be doubted that wave-phenomena in general may be studied with
advantage in such tanks. In most of these establishments the pressure of work
in connection with experiments which have a direct bearing upon the designs of
new steamships interferes greatly with purely research work. On these grounds
it has been advocated for some years past to establish at the National Physical
Laboratory an experimental tank, which should be devoted primarily to research
work. The Institution of Naval Architects has made various attempts towards
the creation of such an establishment, but has failed hitherto. Quite recently—
thanks to the generosity of Mr. Alired Yarrow in offering to meet the capital
expenditure required—the question has been brought into a much more hopeful
condition. The Institution of Naval Architects is now engaged in obtaining
guarantees from shipbuilders and shipowners for an adequate fund to meet the

_——

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 611

charges involved in the maintenance and working of an experimental tank at
Bushey, and there is good hope of success; as well as of the readiness of the
Executive Committee of the Laboratory to permit the tank to be placed at
Bushey. It may be hoped, therefore, that before long we shall have in this
country an establishment in which experimental investigations of wave-phenomena
in water may be carried further than has yet been possible; and it must be the
conviction of all those who have given attention to the subject that, whether
wave-phenomena in water or in the atmosphere be the special subject of study, the
foundation of a sound theory must be laid by means of experimental inquiries, to
the results of which mathematical processes may be applied in order to establish a
comprehensive theory.

Professor Larmor, Professor Trouton, and M. Teisserenc de Bort also con-
tributed to the discussion.

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Linear Vector Functions. Ly Sir Roperr Batt, L248,

The results here given are based upon and are largely identical with those
obtained by the late Professor C. J. Joly, to whom the application of quaternions
to the theory of screws is almost entirely due. The author was in intimate
correspondence with Professor Joly for many years, and up to the time of his
lamented death the subjects now referred to were under constant discussion.
The present communication is now offered in Joly’s own university as a token of
affectionate remembrance. ‘The occasion is the more appropriate as Joly was one
of the successors to the chair of Hamilton, whose invention of linear vector
functions was one of the most wonderful strokes of quaternion magic.

Let dy, @,; Ay, @,3 Az, , be three pairs of vectors defining three screws.
Let ¢,, ¢,, ¢, be the intensities of three wrenches on those screws. These
wrenches compound into a single wrench of intensity ¢ on a screw ), of the
three system, and we have

tA=t A +tA, +6, . . : : aged (0),
tw=t,0,+f,0,+f,0, . ° : A (uid)
Multiplying the first by VA,A, and taking the scalar

£ SAA,Ay = t,SAAAy,

by this and the two similar equations we have from (ii)
w = (a,SAA,Ay + @,SAA,A, + o,SAA,A,) /SAA,Ay.

But the expression on the right-hand side is a linear vector function @d of the
most general type.

We thus obtain X, dd as the two vectors defining in the most general manner
all the screws of a three-system. We now show how the properties of such a
system are obtained at once as properties of linear vector functions.

One of Hamilton’s most remarkable propositions states that

PV 'pp’v =mV pv.

This is the quaternion statement of the fact that of two reciprocal three systems
A and B each screw of A is reciprocal to each screw of B.
If Pd, A represent a three system, then any screw —mVyv, Vpudy will be a
screw of the reciprocal system, whatever A, », v may be, provided that m is the
invariant of the linear vector function defined by the equation

Sprpuhy — mary = 0.
RER2

612 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A,

To prove this it is only necessary to write the equation of reciprocity
S(PAV ppv) — MSAV py = 0

or

SPrpudhy—mSruv = 0,

It was shown by Joly that the screws reciprocal to mA, A must form the
three system —@’A, A. But we have also shown that —mVyv, Vppov by varying
p and v will form the system reciprocal to i.

Hence if we operate on Vou with - dp’ we must come to ~mVyy», or

pV pady = mV pv
PVG AP w= MVAp.
This shows that Vp’A¢’p is a linear vector function of Vip.

which may be written

2. The Inductance of Two Parallel Wires.
By J. W. Nicuotson, D.Sc., BA.

When direct and return currents flow in two wires of great length, and the
alternation is not rapid, the effective self-induction J, per unit length of the
system may be calculated readily by simple integration."

If the wires have radii (a, 6) and permeabilities (u, v), and if ¢ be the distance
between their axes,

L=2log 5 +5 (uty),

But this formula is generally of little practical use when the frequency of alter-
nation is several thousands per second. Such frequencies are of constant use in
practical work, where pairs of long wire leads are continually employed, whose
self-induction must be small. A knowledge of the effective self-induction of such
leads is therefore very desirable. The general case presents considerable mathe-
matical difficulty, but the solutions given below appear to include most cases of
practical utility. :

The mode of proof depends chiefly upon a transformation of a series of Bessel
functions of type K‘,, ‘finite at infinity, to another series similarly related with
respect to a new origin. The disturbances caused by one wire in the vector
potential due to the other may be summed to a high order of accuracy. From a
]mowledge of the vector potential, the total current in each wire, and thus the
self-induction, may be deduced.

The result for wires not too close together is

2 Qu ber & ber’ a + bei x bei’ x

in? lop og ge ee
8 abe (ber’ 2’)? + (bei’ 2)?

% 2v ber y ber’ y+ beiy bei’ y

y (ber’y)? + (bei’y)?—”

where (1, v) are the permeabilities of the wires, (c, o’) their resistivities.
rata, [PER 25y/ 8%.
o o
and ber x, bei a are the functions introduced by Lord Kelvin, and afterwards
tabulated. Their main properties are well known to mathematical electricians.
In this result, the greatest possible error is of magnitude n7c?/v? relative to
unity, where v= 3.10", For two wires one centimetre apart, and with a frequency

1 Russell, Alternating Currents, i. p. 56.

eS

TRANSACTIONS Of SECTION A, 613

so great as a hundred millions per second, this becomes 4.10 *, When the wires
are close together, an extra term R must be added to L, For two wires equal in all
respects, R is the real part of

a’ @ pw, ) ( nee pd.
453 Sasi (log au tan: y 4 log ae, )
ie =(,— 4 +) ae pd,
where Ay (1 eh ble kad)

and the argument of the Bessel functions is in all cases

ka = x15 = 2a Pi ee ( a, =
Co rf 2

t
This neglects a term of order (<), and may be used practically with suf-
c

ficient accuracy even when c= Ja.
If the wires are very far apart, so that, although x7a*/v? is negligible, n2c?/v*
is not, then, subject to an error of order n’a?/v? relative to unity,

aw {ne ; ee Misr 4u berw ber’ v+beie bei’ x
Beat. (7) 4 log Ge 00 fe aaa ay

where y, is the ordinary Bessel function of zero order of the second kind,
defined by P 5
oe J ,(w) J_»()
Y v= { UT an ee, \ SN }
2 (*) On o On n=0

whose tabulation is well known.

3. On the Ether Stress of Gravitation. By Professor F. Purser, /’.7'.C.D.

The problem of which Maxwell first attempted the solution, of accounting
for gravitation by a stress of the ether, is that of solving the equations

dA dH dG@___ dV

de dif \ de. Pe

dH dB. dF dV
ae x. eS et ‘ ’ . ° 1
de” dy" dz dy ©)

dG dF dC_ av

¢ dv dy dz Pies
p being the density of gravitating matter, V the gravitation potential,
A, B, C, F, G, H, according to Dr, Williamson’s notation, the six components

of stress, Substituting for p — z VV, it is easily seen that these become

dA dH dG_dA', dH’, dG’

dx dy Ge de dy * de

a BD Soa ota)
hee ue ieee ae dys ee EOE

dG’ ab dl dG’ dk’, dC’

dx dy dz dx dy = dz

614 TRANSACTIONS OF. SECTION A.

where

Oe av}? eae EE ays . 1. dV. aV
A —— —_ = _ —- ae eel eee ——-
= Sor ( dy | 3 az al te 4r dx dy~

1 1 Lpa¥ 2 aN? aia? br ae
w= 2 ((S] ‘i al [a 1) An dy dz

i DOTA eal Cl? £1 NGL Y ce an ae
o= (Gel +i) -[2)) ¢--224

Maxwell now solves these by taking A, B, C, F, G, H=A’, B’, C’, F’, G@’, H,
2

corresponding, as he shows, and as is easily seen, to a compression —~ along the

lines of gravitating force, the astronomical unit of mass being employed, accom-
panied by an equal tension perpendicular to these lines, R being the resultant
jorce of gravitation on unit mass. This, then, he considers, is the given state of
stress in the ether, for which we have to account, if possible, by a corresponding
state of strain. This now it is impossible to effect for an arbitrary distribution
of gravitating matter for an ether homogeneous and either isotropic or eolotropic,
according to a given Greenian function.

The difficulty will, however, be removed if we consider that we are not
hound to Maxwell’s special solution of the equations (1) or their equivalents (2),
but are free to take such a solution as may be deduced from a state of strain
according to the laws for, say, an homogeneous isotropic ether. Such solution
will then yield on an element yolume the same resultant force as the Maxwellian
stress, Now it is seen that we may make use, with slight modification, for this
purpose of the formula given by Lord Kelvin for an indefinite homogeneous
isotropic medium on which given bodily forces act per unit of mass, We thus
find the following displacement expressions :

> Goa ' dVv' dV > dV aMe Si
wnt (((0 (9 Ge + U-0 ap + © 9g - wae)

adr

6
with analogues for v, w, where

r= V Ge P+ -V +2
and the integrals are taken, throughout the space occupied by gravitating matter,

n, n, being certain functions of A, » for the ether. The state of stress derived
from these according to the laws of a homogeneous isotropic medium will be the
required ether stress of gravitation.

It is evident that the ether stress corresponding to a given electrostatic field
can be investigated on the same lines.

4. Conservative Systems of Prescribed Trajectories.
By Professor E. OprEtt Lovett.

Tisserand in the first volume of his classic treatise on celestial mechanics
studies the problem of determining the forces under which a particle, whatever
be its initial position and velocity, always describes a conic section whose
equation is taken in its most general form. Bertrand} was the first to set the
problem; he solved it, and later Darboux and Halphen in more complete form.”

1 Comptes Rendus, vol, 1xxxiv. pp. 671, 731. 2 Tbid., pp. 760, 939.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 615

Battaglini! determined the components of the forces in the case of motion in a
conic; and Dainelli, in the eighteenth volume of Battaglini’s ‘Journal,’ treated
the more general one of finding the components of the forces acting on the
particle as functions of its co-ordinates when the trajectory is a general curve.
In a recent number of Crelle’s ‘Journal,’ vol. 131, pp. 186-151, Professor
Stephanos has proposed still another generalisation of Bertrand’s problem.
Bertrand considered the case where the force has, in general, a unique direction
at every point and the trajectories are conic sections; he proved that in this case
the force should either pass through a fixed point or remain parallel to a fixed
direction. Professor Stephanos examines the general case of conic section
trajectories when the force has not necessarily a unique direction at every
point; he finds that this more general problem admits of no other solution than
those included in the case considered by Bertrand, and he shows that every force
under which a point describes a conic section, whatever be the initial conditions,
either always passes through a fixed point or remains parallel to a fixed
direction; finally, by applying his method to the determination of the explicit
forms of the forces in the case of conic sections, Stephanos rediscovers the known
results due to Darboux and Halphen.

All these discussions have been concerned with the motion of a single
material point. Similar problems may be proposed for material systems.
Oppenheim, in the third volume of the ‘Publications’ of the Von Kuffner
Observatory, investigates the central conservative forces under which three
bodies describe given co-planar curves; he constructs the analytical machinery
for the case of three arbitrary orbits, but the resulting differential equations
offer insuperable difficulties, and the only particular solutions realised were
previously known.

The first section of the present paper offers a modest contribution by studying
the problem of Bertrand, in all the generalities considered by Stephanos, but for
trajectories which include the conic sections as a very special case. In the second
section a wider generalisation is undertaken by proposing to determine the forces
capable of maintaining the motion of a particle on an arbitrarily given curve, in
space of any dimensions, independently of the initial conditions of the motion.
In the third section the forces of a central conservative system, capable of
maintaining a system of m-particles in motion on as many prescribed, but arbi-
trary, orbits in a space of n-dimensions are investigated. In the succeeding
sections applications are made to the study of a system of three bodies describing
any given trajectories in ordinary space, independently of the initial conditions,
under central conservative forces. Of special interest, perhaps, is a system of
differential equations which the functions, defining the orbits, must satisfy, if
the velocities and accelerations are to be determinate, certain of these equations
vanishing identically when the motions take place in a single plane; and among
the results achieved in the plane is the construction of an infinite family, in-
volving arbitrary functions of integrable problems’ of three bodies, whose force-
functions depend only on the masses and the mutual distances of the bodies.

5. Factorisation of the A.P.F. of N=(y"=1).
By ULieut.-Colonel Atuan Cunnincuam, £2.

Here A.P.F. is short for ‘maximum algebraic prime factor.’

Let. F (z) denote the A.P.F. of N (z)=(y" ¥ 1).
Then N (105) =F (105) . F (35) . F (21) . F (15). F (7). F (5). F(8). F(),
_. N(105).N (7).N (5).N(3)
whereof F (105) =n (35). N@l). N (16) . N (1)’
the signs = being the same as in N (105) throughout, and is of order y®,

1 Giornale di Matematiche, vol, xvii, p. 43 et seg.

616 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

Also F (105) is (algebraically) resolvable into two large factors, say L, M, in
following cases :— 7
OF (y' +1), when ¥=8n?, 7n?, 157”, 35n?
Of (y'% —1), when y= 5n?, 21n”, 104n?

and each factor L, M is of order y*', and is susceptible of the six 2% partitions
(t* +Au*), (¢?>—X'u*), where X=3, 7, 35; A’ =5, 21, 105,

The values of the large factors L, M of F (105) are shown below—resolved
into their prime factors as far as found practicable—for the small base
y= 3, 4, (6 12,

N (105) L and M of F (105)
(341); L=24151 . 3369031; M=211.1051 , 3454081;

(551) L =21, 226, 783, 250, 214, 361*
f M =207, 468, 970, 805, 907, 721*

(7054.1) {L.=211 . 338, 640, 865, 331, 157, 6914
M= 450, 798, 894, 542, 150, 330, 401;T

(1215 1 1) { L. =46, 199, 145, 981, 519, 207, 045, $42, 151}
| M=1471 . 85, 890, 295, 500, 577, 151, 086, 861t

The composition of the large factors in the L, M above is unknown; but those
marked * contain no factors < 100,000, and those marked + contain no factors < 10,000.

The complete factorisation (into prime factors) of the seven algebraic sub-
factors of the above N (105), viz., of

(y #1), (y° #1), (y FI), (v7 #1), (y* #1), (y" FD), (y* #1)
is known for each of the ahove hases [y= 3, 5, 7, 12], except that of (12° +1),

6. An Elementary Discussion of Schlifli’s Double-six.
By Professor A, C. Dixon, Sce.D., F.R.S.

The object of this note was to discuss by elementary methods the system of
twelve straight lines in space known as a double-six. The lines lie on a cubic
surface,’ but no reference is made to this fact.

Let a be a given straight line and 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 five other lines meeting it in
yy Ugy Ay, M,, @, respectively. Each of the five tetrads 3456, 2456, 2356, 2346,
2345 is met by a second line; let these be 3, ¢, d, e, f, so that 6 meets 3, 4, 5, 6 in
b, by, b,, b, respectively, and so on. The theorems to be proved are these :—

1. The five lines 4, ¢, d, e, f all meet another line, to be called 1.

2. The pairs of planes connecting 4 with a,,¢,; a, d,3 Gs) 23 Uy Jn are in
involution: there are sixty relations of this type. This theorem includes (2’),
that (¢, d, ey fr) = (dz Uy As My).

8. If the intersection of the planes a2 and 61 is called (12), and so on, the
lines (12) (34) (56) lie in a plane: of such planes there are fifteen.

‘The theorem (2) is new to me; the others are known in the theory of the cubic
surface.

‘ Salmon, Geometry of Three Dimensions, 4th edit., p. 500. Mr. Richmond has
lately drawn‘attention to the double-six, Camb. Phil. Proc., vol. xiv. p. 475. For an
elementary discussion of the generators of a hyperboloid, without reference to

the surface, see a paper in this year’s Proceedings of the Edinburgh Mathematical
Society.

sJ

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 61

7. On the Logarithmic Case in Linear Differential Equations,
By Professor A. C. Dixon, Sc.D., F.R.S,

If X is a linear differential operator whose coefficients are functions of the
independent variable 2 it is commonly possible to solve the equation

Xy = 0 . . . . e . * ‘ . . ° (1)
by finding a function $(m, «) of 2 and a parameter m, such that
X(m, x) =fOmn) . Wim, v) . : ” : : 5 aan (2),

where y is a function that is finite in general, and then choosing m so that
J(m)=0 and $(m, a) is not identically 0.

‘When the equation f(m) =0 has a repeated root a solution may generally be
derived by differentiating @ with respect to m, and it is my present object to
justify this proceeding in a very simple way.

_ Differentiate (2) with respect to m; then, since m does not appear in X,

x es PCM, 2’) =f"(m) v (mn, x) +f(m) ie. Wm, 2)

so that if fm), f(m) are zero
7)
a p(m, wv)

is a solution of (1), as well as h(m, x).
The simplest case is when X has constant coeflicients and may be written

F(D), Then
F(D)e™ =f(m)en

and by differentiating as to m

F(D)ce™ = f’(m) 3 ene +(m) . ven

so that e””, xe™ are hoth solutions of F(D)y=0 if m is a repeated root of

; 7(m) = 0.

Tn the very general case when
ASF (wD) + oF (wD) +27F (2D) + ., ,
the procedure is to form the series
S Ajxm+hr = h(m, x)
where A,=1, and ia
A,F (m+ kr) + Ay iF \(m+kr-r)+ ... =0(k=1,2,...)
so that each coefficient is a definite algebraic function of m, and we then have
X(m, «)=F(m) . vm

the solution being completed by solving the equation F',(m) =0.
Differentiating as to m we have

)
xX am p(m, x)= Fy (m) . 2” + F,(m) » 2 log a,
And thus if m is a repeated root of F'(m) =0

Op
song Om
are both solutions of (1),

618 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

If a particular solution of the equation Xy=.™ is required it is furnished by
p(m, x)/F(m) unless F,(m) is zero, and when F,(m) =0 by

and similarly in other cases.

It is also possible to meet the difficulty that arises when F(m)=0 has two
roots differing by a multiple of 7, say » and p+ br, where 6 is a positive integer.
Take A, =m-—p instead of 1, and A,, A, . . . A,_, are all algebraic fractions in m,
each having m—p as a factor in its numerator. A,, Ay4, .. . will notin general
have this factor, since it occurs in F,(m + br), the coefficient of A» in the equation

A, Fy (m+ br) + Ay_, F\(m+br—-r)+ ... =0

by which A, is given. We now have
X(m, v) = F,(m) (m— p)a™
so that the factor m—, is repeated on the right, and when m=p

ab
dm

are both solutions of Xy=0; ¢ differs only by a constant factor from (py + dr, 2’),
but Op/0m is an independent solution.

In special cases A;, A,,, ... may have the factor m—p, and then ¢(p, «)
vanishes identically, Op/Op is a series of the ordinary type without logarithmic
terms,

If there are three roots differing by multiples of r, let them be pn, p+ br, p+er,
where 4, ¢ are both positive or-zero, Then take A,=(m-—y)*, and the three
solutions corresponding are

Op 0?

"DOO =
qd, Fea ae (m =p).

¢ and

The functions involved are such that the change of order of the differentiations
can be easily justified.

DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL Puysics.

The following Papers were read :— 2

1. A New Three-Colour Camera.
By Sir W. pe W. Asyey, &.C.B., FBS.

Some two years ago I brought outa new form of ‘ one-exposure’ camera for
three-colour work. The problem was to bring three images of the same object
into focus and side by side on to one photographic plate, and also to make the
angle of the included image of not less than 30°, and to impress all three images
with one exposure. Of course if we have a wide camera and place three lenses
equidistant from one another, and of exactly the same form, we obtain what we
want, for we can expose them simultaneously. If we require a quarter plate
image the lenses would have to be 3} inches apart, with the result that when we
come to print from the three negatives and superpose the prints one over the
other, as in the Sanger-Shepherd lantern-slide process, or in the ordinary typo-
graphical block process, we shall find that, owing to what may be called the
stereoscopic effect produced by the distance apart of the lenses, the images
will not fit. Two years agoI published the way by which the stereoscopic
effect could be reduced to a minimum, and it became practically non-existent.
Baldly it may be said that three simple lenses of very narrow aperture, about

—— =.”

TRANSACTIONS OF SEOTION A. 619

5 inches in width, were placed side by side, touching one, another. The rays
from the two outside lenses were reflected 90° outwards, and when the necessary
interyal required between the pictures had been traversed the rays were again
reflected 90°, and so all three images fell on one long plate. In the first camera
I made, a second lens for the side images was placed in the path of the outer
rays and came to a focus on the plate. They were so chosen that the images
were of the same size as the central image. I may say that the results I got
with this camera were exceedingly good, and all last winter I used it for my
three-colour photographs. It had, however, the disadvantage that it was a
camera with a fixed focus, since if the plate were moved back from the focus for
parallel rays the central and side images no longer remained equal. I worked
out a new optical arrangement, which had the advantage that all three images
increased equally as the plate was moved from the focus for parallel rays. he
problem that presented itself was this: to find combinations which gave images
of equal focal length for parallel rays, and at the same time that the second
principal points were at the same distance from the front lenses. If this were
solved, as the three lenses were always at the same distance from any object,
however near, a movement of the plate from the front lenses would still give
images of the same size, no matter what distance the focus might be away.

As the problem also had to take into account the interposition of mirrors, it
required many trial calculations to get the most suitable form of combinations
which would keep the camera of reasonable dimensions. Eventually I fixed on
three combinations which answered my purpose. The two outside combinations
were of the same form, but the centre one was totally different. Beginning with
the ‘centre combination, the front lens was a convex of some 9-inch focus, and
a second convex lens was placed about 4 inches-away, of such focal length as
to give a focus of 6 inches, the plate being placed 7:5 inches from the front
lens. In the two side combinations the small front lens is concave, and the
second lenses are placed about 1°5 inch away from the first lens. The
first mirrors are not interfered with; they send the rays through the second lens
and these fall on the second mirror. The images given by these three combina-
tions are of the same size, each principal focal distance being the same. Further,
the second principal points are at the same distance from the front lenses, and thus
the problem was solved. I have brought the new camera with me. ‘The first
difficulty that I had was as to the material of which to make the mirrors.
Having noted that a mirror made for Mr. V. Boys for some of his experiments
was made of steel, and that after a lapse of many years it was practically unaltered
in brightness and had no rust about it, I decided to make my mirrors of steel.
They are readily worked to a flat sufficiently good for my purpose at any rate,
and are supposed to reflect 60 per cent. of the incident light. I have not
found it quite so much, 50 per cent. being nearer the mark. As there are two
reflections I only got 25 per cent. of the light which strikes the first mirror.
This, however, may be due to the fact that in order to render the steel surface
impervious to damp I have coated all the mirrors with a very thin coating of
celloidin varnish, which preserves it wonderfully (as it does that of silver, I may
add), and does not alter the reflective power to any great extent; nor does it
cause any distortion. As a second precaution against damp, chloride of calcium
is kept in the camera, in the same form as used for preserving platinum paper.

It may be asked, What about distortion of the image and flatness of field and
correction? The lenses are simple lenses and not achromatic. Correction for
colour is unnecessary, since only a small portion of the spectrum is traversed on
any one of the three screens. The flatness of field, Mr. Dennis Taylor, who
has kindly given me every help in making the lenses for me, secured by dividing
the second side-lenses into a pair and making them a compound lens. He also
corrected the curvatures of the lenses, for the three different colours. There isa
small quantity of distortion in each image, but the distortions are all equal.
The camera itself, with its mirror and fittings, was carried out by Mr. Colebrook,
of the Royal College of Science, under my own eye. I am greatly indebted to
him for the care he has taken and the high-class work he has put into it,

” 620 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A,

T must add a few words as to the screens employed. They have been made
in my laboratory with great care, and the light transmitted by them follows very
closely the colour sensation curves after white has been abstracted from them.

T have with me a few negatives, which show the focus for parallel rays and
also for portraits.

I do not know whether it is common knowledge that the best way of testing
equal sizes of image is to take a transparency from one image and superpose it
over the one to be tested, A want of equality of size is at once detected.

2. On the Measurement of Large Inductances containing Iron. 5
By Sir Ortver Loner, L.R.S., and Bensamin Davirs.

We have had occasion lately to measure large inductances, up to and above
100 henries, with core consisting of subdivided iron in a nearly closed circuit, as
used for certain telegraphic purposes with very weak currents. Since the in-
ductance may vary rapidly with strength of current, it is necessary in any measure-
ment to imitate the conditions of practice, and to determine the inductance as a
function of current under those conditions. To this end we have designed a
maximum-amplitude galvanometer, consisting of a well-damped coil moving
dead beat in a strong magnetic field, and attached to a mirror so that the ampli-
tude of its excursion can be observed. It can subsequently be calibrated by
means of a steady current giving the same deflexion. ‘The inductance to be
measured is connected up in series with this galvanometer, and with a specially
designed alternator of small power and known frequency p/27, giving a sinuous or
simply harmonic current. A switch allows the inductance to be suddenly re-
placed by a non-inductive adjustable resistance R’; and when under these con-
ditions the same oscillation is produced in both cases, then the self-induction is
equal to that equivalent resistance divided by the frequency constant ; or L=R’/p.
The strength of the current involved in this measurement is known by imitating
the deflexion with a known steady current; and the main measurement consists
simply in observing the deflexion caused by the sine-alternator, at a measured
frequency, either with the inductance, or with the adjustable non-inductive
resistance, indiscriminately. It is to be understood that the ohmic resistance of
the wire wound on the self-induction is low. If not, a correction must be applied
for that, which is easily done, since ./(R?+p*L*) =R’.

The following empirical expression is found able to give the self-induction of a
nearly closed magnetic circuit excited only by very weak currents, since for such
currents it is found to be practically constant.

attics
(G +9)"
where 7 is the number of turns, G the width of the air-gap in millimetres, and
the other quantities are constants to be determined by experiment: though @ will
naturally be nearly 2. In an actual case of a nearly closed magnetic circuit the
following values were found :—

a=199; b=0-47;
7:-=18 henries; and g=0:1 millimetre.
Results,

The result of this method of measurement applied to inductance coils of this
type shows (1) that measurements based on a determination of the square root of
mean square of current would serve fairly well for low magnetising forces; (2) that
the self-inductance of such coils is for weak currents nearly independent of fre-
quency, or say for all frequencies up to about 20 per second, when the magnetising
force does not exceed 0:04 c. g.s.; (3) that the self-inductance of a nearly closed
magnetic circuit is a definite and dependable function of the width of the air-gap
for moderate currents and frequencies.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 621

3. A Remarkable Feature in the Splash of a Rough Sphere.
By Professor A. M. Wortnineton, C.B., F.R.S.

The object of the communication was to exhibit and explain instantaneous
photographs showing the remarkable change that occurs in the splash of a rough
sphere falling vertically into a liquid, when the height of fall is increased beyond
a certain critical value, (With a sphere of 1-5 cm. in diameter this critical heig!i
is reached below 140 cm, and above 70 cm. A further increase of height to
680 cm.—about 223 feet—makes no material difference. )

Below the critical height the splash is characterised by an upward jet thrown
high into the air, the origin of which had been traced by the author many years
ago. It is now found that when the critical height is passed the long cylindrical
column of air which follows the sphere in its descent through the liquid is pierced
by a central downward jet directed from above along the axis of the air-column.
the photographs show that this downward jet is due to the permanent closing at
an early stage of the mouth of the air-column by a film of the liquid, and to the
subsequent reduction of the pressure of the confined air through the piston-like
action of the sphere when its momentum is large enough.

(For details as to the method by which the photographs were taken and other
information on the subject, reference may be made to the author's recently
published ‘Study of Splashes,’ Longmans, 1908,)

4, Analogy between Absorption from Solutions and Aqueous Condensation
on Surfaces. By Professor F. T. Trouton, D.Sc., LBS.

On introducing a solid, such as cellulose, into a solution, say, of an aniline dye,
surface concentration or adsorption of the solute takes place in general, the
amount of which is a function of the concentration and temperature.

For equilibrium with a solution of given concentration the higher the tempera-
ture the less the adsorption is found to be; but the adsorption may he preserved
constant as the temperature is raised by increasing the concentration in a definite
manner.

If curves are plotted, in terms of concentration and temperature as co-ordinates,
along which the adsorption is constant (from the analogy with adsorption of
water vapour by cotton these curves are called zsoneres) it is found that all such
curves, drawn for different amounts of adsorption, are similar to each other, and,
further, they are found to be similar to the ordinary saturated curve for the solute
in question.

This is analogous to the law of the isoneres for water vapour when we sub-
stitute osmotic pressure for concentration and the saturation curve of the solution
for the boiling-point curve, that law being that at different temperatures the
pressure ordinate of a given isonere is a constant fraction of the corresponding
ordinate of the boiling-point curve.

Both relations were shown to follow from thermodynamic considerations,

5. On the Effect of Pressure on the Boiling-point of Sulphur.
By Dr. J. A. Harker and F. P. Sexton.

Within the past few years it has been recognised that the platinum-resistance
thermometer furnishes probably the most exact means we possess for temperature
measurements over a very wide range. As is well known, the three fundamental
fixed points, on which the scale of this instrument is based, are usually 0°, 100°,
and the boiling-point of sulphur. The latter point is used in the determination
of the characteristic constant of the particular kind of wire employed in the

622 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

instrument. This constant is usually called the 5 of the thermometer.1 The
determination of this 6 is made by taking the resistance of the thermometer at the
temperature of sulphur-vapour, boiling freely under the prevailing atmospheric
pressure. Although the value of this temperature has been determined with
accuracy by several different investigators for the normal pressure, its change
with pressure has been always a matter of considerable uncertainty.

The authors have therefore made a redetermination of the effect of pressure
on the boiling-point, carrying the range of the experiments well outside the usual
atmospheric limits. Details will be given elsewhere in a later communication.
The results of the experiments were found to be closely represented by the

formula :—
T=T, +0904 (p —760) —+0000519 (p — 760)?

where T is the temperature of the vapour on the air-scale at the pressure p””, and
T’, the ‘normal ’ boiling-poiut.

The following table gives the value of the departure from normal boiling-
point at various pressures to the nearest ‘01° C,

| T-T; Difference for

Pressure | Degrees Cent. 1 millimetre
ae : 2 bp er Pas =e = =
700 | 561
0:096
710 | — 4:65
0:095
720 ~ 3°70
0:094
730 —2°76
| 0:098
740 —1°83
0:092
750 —-91
0091
760 —0:00 |
0-090
770 | + 0:90 |
0:089
780 +1:79
0:088
790 + 2°66
0:087
800 ) +3°53
|

It will be seen that the effect decreases somewhat rapidly with rise of
pressure, and is much greater than the value usually employed—viz., 0082 mm. per
degree, deduced from Regnault’s observations.

If, for example, the value of 8 be calculated for a thermometer, whose true
6 =1°500 from observations made at 730 mm., the temperature of the vapour
at this pressure being obtained by use of Regnault’s values for the divergence
from the normal temperature—the error in the 6 thus obtained would be 0018.
This would lead to the scale of the instrument in use being in error by reading
0:36° C. high at 500° C. and 1:6° C. at 1000° C., quantities of importance for work
of even moderate precision.

1 This is defined by the relation
‘s Un. intl
= ae [ G, ) ee

where d is the difference between the ‘platinum temperature’ pt, and the ‘air
temperature’ T.

—

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 623

6. On the Photometric Standard of the National Physical Laboratory.
By Dr. R. T. Guazeproox, £.2.8.

Tt was shown by Mr. Paterson in 1904 that the relation between the candle
power of the 10-c.p. Vernon Harcourt Pentane Standard at the Laboratory and
the humidity of the airis given by the equation, candle-power = 10 + 0:066(10—e),
where ¢ is the amount of moisture present measured in litres per cubic metre of
air, so that the standard condition is when 10 litres of moisture are present and
then the lamp has its nominal value 10 c.p.

In Mr, Paterson’s experiments the quantity « was measured in nearly all
cases by an ordinary wet-and-dry bulb thermometer, and the observations reduced
by the usual formula.

At the Reichsanstalt an Assmann yentilating hygrometer is employed for
the purpose, and the International Commission on Photometry recommended at
Ziirich the use of some ventilating hygrometer.

This has led to a comparison of the two kinds of hygrometers in the still air
of the photometer-room, with the result that it has been shown that the ordinary
wet-and-dry bulb instrument over the range met with in practice gives results
some 20 per cent. higher than the Assmann. The standard humidity then in
the previous experiments when measured by the Assmann was 8 litres (not 10) per
cubic metre, and Mr. Paterson’s formula becomes, candle-power = 10 + 0:066(8—e).

The paper discussed the question whether, since a change has to be made, it is
desirable to retain the standard humidity at 10 litres measured by the Assmann,
and in cunsequence change the light value at any given humidity of the National
Physical Laboratory standard lamps by about 1°3 per cent., or retain the light
value and change the standard humidity, and decided in favour of the latter
alteration. In this the Gas referees concur.

The changes which are involved in consequence in the value of the ratio of
the Pentane candle to the Hefner and to the Bougie decimal were considered, and
it was shown that, adopting as the basis of comparison the results arrived at by the
Commission at Ziirich, and altering the standard value of the Pentane candle to
8 litres humidity, the Pentane candle and the Bougie decimal become practically
equal, and each is equal to ten-ninths of the Hefner.

The practical conveniences of this were first pointed out to the author in a
letter from the Bureau of Standards of America, and it is hoped that they will
be thought sufficient to lead the International Gas Commission to consider the
question of the change at their next session.

e
7. An Improved Dry Daniell Pile. By Joun Brown, F.RS.

The author described a few improvements in this pile (which he had originally
brought before the Section in South Africa), and gave notes of an experiment
indicating its capability of maintaining a potential for several years, suitable for
electrifying electrometer needles, &c. A copy of the pile had been made by
Mr. John Finnegan, Belfast, two years ago, and found satisfactory and conyenient,

DEPARTMENT OF CosmMIcAL Puysics,

The following Papers were read :—

1. Is our Climate Changing? By Sir Joun W. Moore, I.4., ID.

The author quoted remarkable instances of abnormal weather conditions,
particularly in regard to temperature, which had been observed in recent years
and in all seasons. Of these perhaps the most notable were the spell of cold
weather which made memorable the Easter week of 1908, and the equally marked

624 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

apell of belated or deferred summer heat which was experienced at the end of
August and beginning of September 1906.

Such vagaries of the weather produce an exttaoidinary impression on men’s
minds, and on all sides we hear the remark, ‘The seasons have changed. The
severe winters of long ago, with their snow and ice, have disappeared; our
summers are cool and rainy, our winters mild and windy; our autumns are
warm and our springs are cold: in fact, there is a postponement of season, and
it is progressive.’

The object of this paper was to test the accuracy of this popular opinion.

Among weather records of a past age reference was made to the Rey. William
Merle’s ‘Consideraciones ‘l'emperiei pro 7 Annis’ (1337-1544), from which it
would appear that the weather was much the same at Oxford and at Driby,
Lincolnshire, in the fourteenth century as it is at present.

The Greenwich records extend from the year 1774 to the present time. In a
paper based on the observations taken at Greenwich from September 1811 to
June 1856 inclusive, and read before the Royal Meteorological Society in Decem-
ber 1887, Mr. Henry 8. Eaton concludes that ‘there was no appreciable change
in the mean annual temperature of the air at Greenwich in the period 1812 to
1855 inclusive.’

The late veteran meteorologist Dr. Alexander Buchan compared the mean
temperature of the British Islands, as recorded in the twenty-four years 1857 to
1880, with the mean for a much more extended period, and found that at none
of the British stations did the two values differ more than 0°3° F.

In 1770 Dr. Thomas Rutty published a work of 340 octavo pages, entitled
‘A Chronological History of the Weather and the Seasons, and of the Prevailing
Diseases in Dublin.’ The results of forty years’ observations are recorded in this
volume. Rutty’s remarks on the weather in Dublin in the early years of the
eighteenth century would serve to describe accurately the weather of the
twentieth century. This entertaining and instructive work teaches us that
beyond doubt the seasons were as often erratic in the eighteenth century as we
have found them to be in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Precisely the
same story is told in‘ A Diary of the Weather and the State of Vegetation at
the Botanic Garden of the Dublin Society,’ by John Underwood, A.L.S., head
gardener and superintendent during the years 1802-1808 inclusive.

The remainder of the paper was devoted to an analysis of the observations
made personally by the author from the year 1861 onwards to the present.
Ilis remarks were illustrated by four printed tables, setting forth respectively
the monthly and yearly mean temperature of the air, as well as the lustrum
averages, for the forty years 1866 to 1905 inclusive; the monthly and yearly
rainfalls and the rain days and the lustrum averages for the same period, and
the mean atmospheric pressure, with lustrum averages, in the forty years.

The average annual mean temperature of the period 1866 to 1905 inclusive
in Dublin was 49°7, the lustrum averages being 501, 50°2, 49°°3, 49° 4, 48°-6,
49°-4, 50°°8, and 50°.

The highest annual mean temperature was 51°-6 in 1898; the lowest was 47°35
in 1879—the ‘ cold year.’

A eareful study of this temperature table shows that, no matter what fluctua-
tions may take place between individual months in successive years, or between
individual years in successive lustrums, the temperature pendulum swings back
to its original position at either side of the average.

The rainfall shows a variation from 45 per cent. in excess of the forty years’
average—27-672 inches—to 40 per cent. in defect. The extreme excess occurred
in 1872, when the rainfall was 35°566 inches; the extreme defect fell in 1887—
(Queen Victoria’s Jubilee year—when the measurement was only 16-601 inches.

The average annual number of rain days in Dublin is 196. In 1870 the
number fell to 145; in 1872 it rose to 238,

Atmospheric pressure is on the average of the forty years 29-920 inches in
Dublin. The mean annual pressute varied from 29-731 inches in 1872 to
30-015 inches in 1887, The extreme readings of the barometer were 31-020 inches

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 625

at 10 a.. Of January 9, 1896, and 27-758 inches at 2.80 p.m. 6f December 8,
1886—a range of 3262 inches, or rather more than 33 inches.

In conclusion the author submitted that the facts put forward in his paper
prove that, within the past six centuries at all events, no appreciable change has
taken place in the climate of the British Isles. There is not a scintilla of
evidence to show that any such change has taken place in the past or is likely to
take place in the future,

2, A Comparison of the Changes in the Temperature of the Waters of
the North Atlantic, and in the Strength of the Trade Winds. By
Commander M. W. C. Hepwortn, C.B., R.N.R.

In order to confine that portion of the inquiry which relates to the trade winds
within manageable limits, two representative areas were selected for examina-
tion. One of these lies well within the region of the north-east trade wind, and
covers an area of 1,000,000 square miles; the other is in the heart of the south-
east trade wind, and covers an area of 1,380,000 square miles. For the former
homogeneous averages for a period of five years only are available; but for the
latter the results of four hourly observations, extending over a period of forty-five
years, have been utilised for estimating normal conditions. Judged by the five
years’ averages, the north-east trade is strongest in April (183°5 statute miles
per hour); relatively strong in February (13 miles); in March (12°6 miles);
and in May (12-4 miles). It then rapidly declines in strength until August, when
its velocitv is only 82 miles per hour. It is lightest (7-4 miles) in September.
From October its strength increases until February. According to the average
results obtained for the forty-five years’ period mentioned, the south-east trade is
strongest (15°5 miles per hour) in February; relatively strong (15 miles) in
April and November; also in March and December (14:9 miles). It is at about
its average strength for the year (14:7 miles) in January, August, and October.
In May it is lightest (13:7 miles), and from that month gradually increases, and
is again at its average strength for the year in August. It declines to 14:5 miles
in September.

To represent the North Atlantic in a comparison of the changes taking place
in the surface temperature of that ocean two zones were selected—the one lying
between Florida Strait and Valencia, and the other between that Strait and
Cape Race. Average results, based on observations extending over a long series
of years, showed that the temperature of the surface water is lower in February,
March, and April than during any other period of the year, and is lowest in
March. It is relatively low, as compared with any other months than the above,
in January, May, and Decomber, and of these months January has the lowest mean
surface temperature, and May the highest. The surface temperature is relatively
high in June, October, and November ; highest as regards those months in October,
lowest in November. It is higher in July, August, and September than during
any other period of the year; highest of all in August, not quite go high in July
as in September, in the Florida Strait to Valencia zone; but in the Florida Strait
to Cape Race zone the mean is found to be the same in these two months. A com-
parison between results of Atlantic trade-wind velocity in each of the years
1902-7 and those of North Atlantic surface temperatures for the same period leads
to the belief that a relation may be traced between departures from the mean
in the velocities of the trades in any one year and deviations from normal in the
average distribution of surface temperature in the North Atlantic in the year
following. Further, there is some evidence to prove that departures from the
average strength of the two trades during a series of months, and at times during
even so short a period as a month, are roughly reflected in deviations from normal
in the average distribution of surface temperature in the North Atlantic in the
corresponding series of months, or month, as the case may be, of the succeeding
year, notwithstanding the many causes affecting the temperature of the surface
water, which must tend to mask the appearance of any such connection.

_ Sglarge number of tables and diagrams accompanied the piper.

908. . ss

626 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

3. Temperature Conditions in Scottish Lochs.
By E. M. WeppErsury, F.R.S.L.

Very complete observations have been made in connection with the Scottish
Lake Survey in Loch Ness, which is a lake of the Tropical class, with a length
of 224 miles and a maximum depth of 750 feet. Numerous observations have
also been made in Loch Garry (Inverness-shire), which is a lake of the Temperate
class, from February to July 1908. The main basin of this lake has a length of
about 4 miles and a maximum depth of about 220 feet.

These observations indicate that in winter, at which time the lakes are of
nearly uniform temperature throughout, the effect of winds blowing along the
surface of the lake is to produce a circulation of the whole of the water in the
lake; and further, that in summer, when the water in the lake has had a con-
siderable accession of heat, mainly by isolation and conduction, the effect of winds
blowing along the surface is to produce a discontinuity in the temperature
gradient of the lake at a depth dependent on the particular circumstances of
each case.

An experimental investigation in which a long glass trough was used to
represent the basin of a lake, and difference in density of the liquid was used to
imitate difference of temperature, indicates that the discontinuity is produced
by the return current, induced in the lake by the wind-produced surface current
becoming localised and taking place at a relatively small depth when the increase
of temperature at the surface has produced considerable differences in temperature
in the lake.

Whenever the discontinuity is pronounced the layer of water above it behaves
independently of the lower layer. The surface layer shows changes which can be
directly traced to the action of the wind driving the warm water to one end of
the lake. The lower layer shows great variations of temperature, and it has been
satisfactorily demonstrated that these variations in temperature are due to what
is called a temperature seiche in the lower liquid, with period dependent, exter alia,
on the depth of the discontinuity and the difference in density between the upper
and lower layers. The amplitude of this temperature seiche in Loch Ness was at
times from 150 to 200 feet, and the period was about three days. In Loch Garry
the period of oscillation was about twelve hours.

Observations were made in Loch Garry and Loch Ness in 1908 with Ekman’s
propeller current meter.

Owing to the experimental difficulties encountered, and the danger of making
lengthy observations in high winds, the observations have not been so complete as
was hoped for, and must be looked upon as preliminary. They show, however,
that early spring currents are appreciable at very great depths, and that later in
the year the currents are chiefly felt near the surface.

The author has been criticised for generalising from Scottish Lochs, which are
narrow and situated in glens in which the wind can only blow with any force
in one of two directions, to broad and open lakes. It seems unlikely, however,
that the phenomena observed in these lakes do not have their counterpart in all
lakes, except in those which are very shallow and are kept of uniform temperature
from top to bottom by the action of winds. In Continental lakes there are no
observations known to the author which are sufficient to detect oscillations similar
to those noticed in Scottish lochs.

4. The Constants of the Lunar Libration. By F. J. M. Srrarron.

A reinvestigation of the heliometer observations of Mésting, A., made by
Schliiter at Kénigsberg in the years 1841-43, has been undertaken in the hope
of reconciling the conflicting sets of constants for the lunar libration given by

Drs. Franz and Hayn.
The expense of the work of checking the computations has been borne in

part by a grant from the Royal Society.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 627

5. Investigations on the Electrical State of the Upper Atmosphere.
By W. Maxowsr, Marcaret Wuite, and E. MarsDEn.

The investigations made during July and August 1908 is chiefly concerned
with the measurement of the electrical currents flowing from a kite down the wire
by which it is attached to the winding machine. In the first experiments different
lengths of wire were let out with the kite, detached from the winding machine,
and the free end of the wire attached to an ebonite insulator fixed to the ground.
The kite was then connected to earth through a sensitive dead-beat galvano-
meter and the current measured. In these experiments the currents at considerable
heights were so large that it was found necessary to reduce the sensitiveness of
the galvanometer by shunting. The plan was therefore adopted in later experi-
ments of using as a shunt a portion of the kite wire when attached to the drum
of the winding machine, which was earthed, and thus making use of the usual
daily flights taking place at the Glossop observatory. The mean currents obtained
are given in the accompanying table :—

Height of Kite Current in
above Ground Amperes
2,000 feet . “5 . ; ‘ 7 é , r > vax lors
*4,000 ,, . P : : - ‘ : c : «Lot AlOr
6,000)... i ; - : - ; : . 238x105

The current at any fixed height varied considerably from day to day. There
seemed, however, to be a fairly close connection between the current and wind
velocity, the currents being great when the wind was high. A few experiments
have been made on the potential of the air at different heights, but no very
reliable results have yet been obtained, on account of the difficulty of satisfactorily
insulating for the high potentials to be measured.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Applications of Quaternions to Problems in Physical Optics.
By Professor A. W. Conway.

2. On a Generalisation of the Question in Probabilities known as ‘ Le
Scrutin de Ballotage. By Major P. A. MacManoy, F.2.S.

3. On Conformal Transformations of a Space of Four Dimensions and
their Application to Geometrical Optics. By H. Baremay.

The study of the conformal transformations of a space of four dimensions is
simplified by the introduction of the six homogeneous coordinates

l=x+ty m=sz+iw n=e+yt+et+w
A=K—ty p=s—iw y=—l1
connected by the identical relation

AX+mp+nv=0,

628 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

A function V=F(, y, z, w) when expressed as a homogeneous function of
degree zero in (J, m, m, , p, v) will be a solution of

0 2 0 2 OF 2 OF 2

2 Gat GA Ga) ="
oV OV oV OV OV OV
Ol Od” Om Op On. Ov

when expressed as a homogeneous function of degree —1 in (/, m, 2, d, py v) it will
be a solution of

if

=n0

OF OF o°F o7F

Oa? oy? + O02 * Ow?
Lge apes bee
OlOn ~ Omop * Gnd. 7

_A particular solution of the last equation, which is a homogeneous function of
degree —1, is given by

if

abe
Nis UrzanNe ea Pee, vat) Eoin yane
a’ B’ y
where P is Riemann’s general hypergeometric function and

Ih = (b—c)(0~a), mp =(c—a)(6—b), nv =(a—b)(8—c)
ata’ +B+B'+y+y'=1.

The group of conformal transformations is derived from the group of auto-
morphic linear transformations of the coordinates (2, m,, A, , v) in which the
expression

DX + mp + nv

is left unaltered in form.

By putting w=zvt, where v is the velocity of light, we may obtain a number of
transformations which can he applied to optical problems. Of these we shall
mention two :—

7 2. r y % rn t
xe uty Weglses! Best eeees
P— yt? , 7 — yt? ’ r— ve ’ pe — yt?
and
bE x - y 14+ v2? —7* : 1-ve +7
x = ’ =——, a Bea? v[ = $5
z—vt s—vt 2(2 — vt) 2(z—vt)

In either case if F(X, Y, Z, T) is a solution of
O?F o?F O?F 1 coe

ox? * oy: * O2 ~ & OF

so that when F =0 is solved for T, the function T is the characteristic function of
a series of parallel wave surfaces, the transformation gives us an expression for F
in terms of (2, y, 2, £), which is also such that if the equation F=0 be solved
for ¢, then ¢ is the characteristic function for a second system of parallel surfaces.
In the case of the first transformation the surface t=0 is the inverse of the
corresponding surface T=0. This transformation may be studied further by
supposing a point (2, y, =) to start at a point (&, 7, ¢) on a surface f, and to move
with uniform velocity v along a straight line whose direction cosines are (/, m, 7),
so that its coordinates at time ¢ are given by

w=Et+lt, y=yntmet, s=C+nvt. .

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 629

‘The corresponding point (X, Y, Z) can be shown to start at the point (%, H, Z),
which is the inverse of (&, n, ¢), and to travel with velocity v along a straight line
whose direction cosines are (L, M, N), so that at time

CS aL
~ yt?
X =F + LoT, Y=H+MoT, Z=Z+NvT,
* where
2é ene yl arate
L=/- eo (E+ myn+n¢), &e. (p? = +77 +0)

These formulz establish a correspondence between the rays which are incident
at points of a surface # and the rays which are incident at points of the inverse
surface F. If (p, g,7) are the direction cosines of the normal at (&, n, ¢) to the
surface f, the corresponding quantities (P, Q, R) are the direction cosines of the
normal to the inverse surface F. If (/, m,) (l’, m’, n’) are the direction cosines
of a ray before and after refraction at the surface 7, the corresponding quantities
(L, M, N) (L’, M’, N’) are the direction cosines of a ray before and after refraction
at the inverse surface F, the refractive index of a portion of space being the same
as that into which it is transformed by inversion.

A ray through the origin is seen to correspond to a ray passing through the
origin but travelling in the opposite direction. A pencil of rays passing through
any given point in space is seen to correspond to a system of rays which meet the
line joining th_ given point to the origin.

It is evident from these considerations that the method can be applied success-
fully to the solution of problems in geometrical optics. A geometrical construction
for the point (X, Y, Z, T) is obtained by describing a sphere of radius v¢ round
the point (x, y, =). The inverse sphere is of radius vT’, and its centre is at the
point (X Y Z).

4. On the Extension of Optical Ideas to General Electromagnetic Fields.
Sy Professor E. T. Wuirraksr, Sc.D., F.R.S.

It was shown in this paper that the resolution of a beam of light into two
components polarised in planes at right angles to each other leads to an expres-
sion of the state of the luminiferous ether in terms of two potential functions,
one of which corresponds to each of the polarised beams. It was then shown
that the state of the ether can be expressed in terms of these two potential
functions, not only in the case in which the disturbance consists simply of
luminous or electromagnetic wayes, but also in the more complicated cases when
electrostatic charges and voltaic currents are present in the field. It thus appears
that the ether is a medium with two essential qualities, which are both scalar
(like the pressure and temperature of a gas) and the various vectors in terms of
which the electromagnetic field is usually specified (e.g., the electric force and
magnetic induction) are merely derived from the variation of these two qualities
in space and time.

5, Distribution of Electricity on a Moving Sphere.
Ly Professor A. W. Conway.

6. The Theory of Solids moving in an Incompressible Fluid.
By Professor F. Pursrr, /.7'.C.D.

Some years ago a paper was published by my brother, the late Professor John
Purser, of Queen’s College, Belfast, in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ in which
he demonstrated the applicability of the generalised dynamical equations of
Lagrange to the case of solids moving in an incompressible fluid.

630 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

As I believe the method adopted in this to constitute the simplest and most
satisfactory solution of the problem, I would endeavour in the present paper to
present it in a modified form, which may perhaps more clearly bring out its
scope and spirit. The difficulty to be overcome arises, as is well known, from the
fact that though, assuming a velocity potential, the velocities of any point 2, y, =
of the fluid are determined in terms of the g’,, g’,... representing the motions of
the solids, or assuming a displacement potential, the displacements of 2, y, z
are determined in terms of dq,, dq,...it is not possible, as is required for the
applicability of the Lagrangian equations, to express the coordinates 2, y, x them-
selves in terms of ¢,, q,---

Now, although this cannot be done, we may, starting from a given configu-
ration of the solids supposed at rest, and connecting g,, g, as functions of a single
variable, express in terms of this variable the position of a given point <, y, 2.
We may, in fact, conceive the following process: Sudden connected velocities
71 1Qo ++. ave imparted to the solids, determining corresponding velocities of x, y, z.
After an indefinitely small time the solids are stopped, and therefore z, y, z is also
brought to rest. The process is then repeated with new connected velocities
q'; ».+ producing a new velocity of 2, y, z again reduced to rest. In this way,
by what we may term a continuous system of jerks, 7, y, z is continuously dis-

placed by

@ dv
dq, aq,
is not identical with

(2) that in forming

we must have regard to the generalised coordinates g, not only as they occur in
qs, but as they arise from the variations of 7, y, z, i.e., we follow the particle.
Consider now the virtual moment which in general gives rise to the Lagrangian
equations, viz. :—
dx ay az
> de dx + dt? dy 23 ae) dm.

For the solids x, y, z being now functions of q,, ¢,, this yields the Lagrangian equa-
tion. For the third we throw the virtual moment into the form 5 Q,,d¢m, where Qn,

a AC ONE ENCE TIN, @z dz
= = dm ( a SE : + )

dt? dq, dt? dqn dt? dam

Now 2t @ _ 4 du du _ dx d as
dt® dg, dt “dt don dt dt dq¢m

with analogues y, 2.

~ dx d dx. = dT
The f t a ety tice
e former term, since a= Sag We? gives rise to E Bra

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 631

-- The second term may be written
dx a dv dx d dx d d. v )

dt dq at dt \dqm dt = dt dqm

The two first terms give then the Lagrangian equations
BAD 3508;
dt dqm dm
It remains to consider the integral corresponding to
dx [ad dx d dv )

dt \dgq, dt dt dqn
with analogues in y, z.
It will be convenient at this stage to suppose the variables two in number
7 + Qo the spirit of = proof being genera. We have then _
d dz Ga; ae an ee LO ene Oi:
ie = qg + ) = at =
dq, dt wy vdq, * “da,

1 dy, aq, ~ "sag, ay,
dp dip) dae "ad daz
dt dq, > 4 dq, dq, 2 dq, dq,
the corresponding terms thus becoming
de a de a =)
dt io dq, dq, dq, dq,

ay +4
B (-25 GH tol Meare (2 Be ae fi)
it dq, dt dt dq, at V\dq, dq, dq, dy,
Let now
= ad dx d dx eee
dq, dq, dq, dg, — *
dd. didy

dq, dq, dq, dy,
ad 4 & y
dq, dq, dq, dq,

Then we have evidently only to show that

dy dz 1
em wah ="0
\\) Ge a kt Byv+ Sb)

Now consider the total increment A 2, A y, A (z) arising from integrating
dx da
— a? d.

along a closed course of 4,, 9. a result by a well known theorem of Stokes
gives

Av= ||Xaa dq,
=|]¥aq, ay,

c= | \Zaa. dq,

If we suppose the circuit of g,, g, indefinitely small these become
Xdq, dq,, Ydq, dg, Zdq, aq,

632 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

or representing g, g, by coordinates of a point XdS, YdS, ZdS, dS being the
area of elementary closed circuit. Now Az, Ay, Az represents an indefinitely
smal] displacement :—

- dx | ddy GAZ _

“"dv dy da
Again, by the nature of the process considered any point in contact with
a solid remains in contact with it. When then4q, g, have returned to their
original values the displacement represented by Az, Ay, Az is tangential to the
solid, Now

so Gt) teatt .|fi(x,. Jang

=|] (XK dy des Vdede+Zav dy)
aX .dY daZ\, 4
-{{fe et yt ey dy ds

Both these terms vanish from considerations above. Hence our theorem is
established,

7. On the Analysis of Projection. By Professor R. W. Genuse, J/.A.

The importance of projection in the study of the points at infinity of a graph
makes a simpler treatment than that which appears in the usual texts desirable.

p in the plane ABoy is projected from V into P in the plane ABOY ; VoBO
is a plane perpendicular to AB; VOY, Voy planes parallel to ABo, ABO respec-
tively, so that oy, OY are the so-called vanishing lines of the planes.

ON=X, NP=Y being the coordinates of P, the plane VPN is parallel to
AB and meets the plane ABo in mp parallel to AB or oy. Taking on=2,
np =y we have

A
Y
O
5 gis Se
and also

where Z, z are the shortest distances of V from each plane measured parallel to
the other plane.
Now we may agree to take Z, z as different units of length for the two planes,
and the equations of transformation become
et oat

Bes

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 633

Hence the following simple rule: Make the equation to a curve in the x,y
plane homogeneous by the usual z; interchange z and x, and we obtain the equation
to the projection.

Thus the cubical parabola y¥=v=.z* becomes Y°=ZX*=X", the semi-
cubical parabola. The same curve in a different position, viz., y= 2, OL yz=az
projects into YX*=1.

In practice it will not be necessary to retain the two sets of letters; we may

say that

2
y =e" = xe projects into y= ve"

Ge : : 1
y=log «=z log — projects into y= log —

a v

: x : . |
y = cos huv=% cos h— projects into y =v cos h-.
8 Lv
Y=HQtAArta nw +awr+ Ke.
ee us
SA e+ AU +t A+ Aszt + 0 6
projects into

1 1

hos ha: aa Ae oabatlc Sae A

Or, generalising,
y=f(2) projects into y= BA).

From the transformation

eee
¥y = x: Ls axe
we obtain
dy_y _ ydY
ie as
dy _a¥
I~ le aX

Hence the solutions of
yl = (
Y Tae dx.

project into those of

, aos dana cs
Also
ay _ BY
= X3
dx aX?
a at
y> dX?
therefore

3@y v, @Y
at Se Y 3
y dx” aX?
If the constants z, Z be retained, the relation is
yp @y _YV? @y
2 da* 7) dX”

of zero dimensions, as might be expected,

—— -~ oso eee eneets

= a

634 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL PaHysiIcs.

The following Papers were read :—

1 A Suggestion with regard to the Meaning of Valency. By H. Baremany

Starting with the hypothesis that an atom contains a large number of charged.
particles some evidence can be brought forward in support of the view that
changes can take place in the configuration or state of motion of the particles
which do not involve a corresponding change in the spectrum. .

Let a sphere be described round each particle as centre, and let the radii of
the spheres be chosen so that there are a number of contacts between the
different spheres. We shall suppose that a node of the vibrations exists at a
point of contact when two spheres touch externally, provided the particles at
their centres carry similar charges, and when two spheres touch internally,
provided the particles carry opposite charges. :

Now a number of spheres, the members of which have a certain number of
contacts with one another, is transformed into another system with the same
number of contacts by any conformal transformation of space.

DIAGRAM I.—Expulsion of a particle or group of particles from an atom.
8

Fie. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4.

DIAGRAM II.—Rayless change (the shaded region may be occupied
by any number of spheres).

An infinitesimal transformation of this type may be built up from two
inversions where the spheres of inversion are very nearly coincident. Four

q

parameters are required for the specification of each sphere, so that the total-

number of variables in the transformation is eight. The correspondence between
this number and the maximum valency of an atom suggests that there may be
a group of conformal transformations associated with an atom involving arbitrary
parameters in number equal to the valency of the atom. A succession of
infinitesimal transformations would correspond to a motion of the charged
particles within the atom, so that on this view the valency would represent
the number of degrees of freedom fora departure from a given configuration or
state of motion of the charged particles contained in the atom.

When two atoms combine each can be supposed to lose a number of degrees
of freedom, a ‘bond’ of the chemist corresponding to a pair of equations involving
the valency coordinates, and one or more equations involving only the positional
coordinates.

To show that the periods of vibration of the atom are unchanged by a con-
formal transformation we may fix our attention on a particular sphere S which
always passes through a node N in the course of the vibrations. ‘The correspond-

ae

iY

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 635

ing sphere S’ will always pass through the corresponding node N’, and it is clear
that whenever S returns to its initial position S’ will do so also.

A possible description of a radio-active change may be based on the fact. that
the type of contact of two spheres alters when the centre of inversion lies
within one sphere. :

In the diagrams O,, O, are the centres of inversion; the second figure in each
case represents the effect of the first inversion, the third figure the etfect of the
second inyersion. In diagram I. fig. 3. the point of contact is no longer a
node, since the spheres touch externally and are associated with oppositely
charged particles; consequently the spheres are not required to remain in contact
and can separate.

(NotE.—The idea of attaching a physical meaning to the point of contact of
the spheres was not given in the original manuscript presented to the Association;
it was introduced later during the formation of an abstract.)

2. Secondary Radiation. By Professor J. A. McCLeLianp.

3. The Scintillations of Zine Sulphide.
By Professor E. Rurntrrorp, F.2.S.

4. A Determination of the Rate of Evolution of Heat by Pitchblende.
By Horace H. Poors. :

A spherical vacuum jacketed vessel with a narrow neck is filled with powdered
and carefully dried pitchblende. The neck is filled with cottonwool and rendered
watertight with sheet rubber, and the whole is buried in ice. The difference of
temperature between the layer of pitchblende in contact with the bottom of the
vessel and the ice is measured by a sensitive thermo-couple. After about a fort-
night this temperature becomes steady, when the heat leakage across the walls of
the vessel is equal to the heat generated by the pitchblende. This leakage depends
solely on the vessel and on the difference of temperature between inner and outer
walls, which is measured by the thermo-couple. The thermal conductance of the
vessel is found by substituting water for the pitchblende and determining its rate
of cooling. Hence the heat leakage is known, and, knowing the amount of pitch-
blende present, the heat evolution per gram is found.

The thermo-couple is calibrated by placing one junction in finely broken ice
and the other in a mixture of broken ice and water, which can be subjected to
a known pressure. The deflection caused by the resulting small change of
temperature is noted, and hence sensitiveness of couple is found.

Using 560°7 grs. of pitchblende in an atmosphere of nitrogen, the temperature
finally steadied at 0°-0092 C. As the thermal conductance of vessel is 5°8 calories
per hour per degree difference of temperature between inside and outside, this
corresponds to a heat leakage of 0:053 calorie per hour. Hence heat evolution
per gram of pitchblende is 0000094 calorie per hour. This is about twice the
quantity estimated from the known amount of radium present.

5. The Grating Spectrum of Radium Emanation. By T. Royps, Se.

Using a concave grating of 1 metre radius, intended for faint spectra, it has
been possible to obtain more accurate measurements of the wave-lengths of the
more intense lines in the emanation spectrum. The grating has a width of
3'5 inches, containing 15,000 lines to the inch. The dispersion in the first order
amounts to 16°8 A.U. per millimetre,

636 -YRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A,

A small vacuum tube, made from capillary tubing and fitted with platintini
electrodes, was filled to a pressure of about 1 mm. of mercury, with radium
emanation purified with Rutherford’s apparatus and method.' A quartz con-
densing lens was employed, and the iron are used to give a comparison spectrum.
Three photographs were obtained, two being of the end-on discharge seen through
a quartz window.

About thirty-five of the more intense lines previously obtained by Ruther-
ford and Royds* with a glass prism can he seen on the photographs, together
with four additional lines further in the ultra-violet. The spectrum presents the
same characteristics as those previously obtained, and the measurements are in
good agreement. The error in the waye-lengths of the grating photographs is
not more than about 0-1 ALU.

6. Photographs of Are Spectra of Metals under Pressure.
By Dr. W. G. Durrienp.

7. Secondary Effects in the Echelon Spectroscope. By H. Sransriuxp, B.Sc.

Further experiments made with the echelon spectroscope described at the
Leicester meeting of the Association have shown that some of the variations in
the spectra have their origin in the instrument. Tor example, a dark line that is
often observed in the bright central band of the given mercury line spectrum, and
has been supposed to be an absorption line, can be moved across from one side of
she band to the other by a slight rotation of the echelon about a vertical axis.

These effects are found to be due to the superposition on the primary spectrum
of secondary light that has been twice reflected in the echelon.

If a bright line spectrum is examined with the echelon in the ordinary
position, the secondary effects are not conspicuous, as the secondary lines are
parallel to the spectrum lines and can only be formed on a fairly broad band such
as the central band of the green mercury line; but on rotating the echelon about
a vertical axis the secondary lines will be seen crossing the broad bands in the
spectrum as they moye in the same direction as the spectrum lines and moye
much faster,

When the echelon is raised at one end the secondary lines become con-
spicuous ; they are more inclined than the spectrum lines, in the same direction,
and give them a screw-like appearance.

With the echelon in this position it is not difficult by means of screens to
oktain the secondary spectrum free from primary. _ It is also possible to obtain
the primary spectrum so free from secondary light that the spectrum lines lose
their screw-like appearance.

The secondary action of the echelon in forming a spectrum by internal
reflection is similar to that of a Fabry and Perot spectroscope. This action alone
would throw the secondary light into a ring spectrum, but as it emerges from
the step faces of the echelon the light also undergoes the ordinary echelon treat-
ment and so it is confined to the points of intersection of lines representing the
same wave length in the ring spectrum and the echelon spectrum. The secondary
lines observed in the spectrum resulting from the superposition of the primary
and secondary spectra are the loci of these points of intersection.

The distance apart of the secondary lines, their motion when the echelon is
rotated, and their inclination when one end of the echelon is raised have been
calculated in accordance with this theory, and the results agree well with the
observations.

The use of the secondary point spectrum extends the resolving power of the

instrument and gives a method of verifying the measurements made in the usual
way,

* Rutherford, ‘Experiments with Radium Emanation,’ Phil. Mag., August 1908.
* Rutherford and Royds, ‘Spectrum of Radium Emanations,’ ibid.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 637

8. Further Experiments on the Constitution of the Electric Spark.
By T. Royps, M.Sc,

The results obtained by photographing on a rapidly moving photographie film
the spectrum of the ordinary oscillatory spark with small self-induction have
already been communicated to the Royal Society. The method has now been
applied to study the spark when the self-induction of the circuit is gradually
increased. On account of the feebleness of the light in these cases it has been
found necessary to remove the prisms, photographing directly the image of the
slit, in order to avoid the loss of light due to dispersion by the prism. It is still
possible under these conditions to differentiate by their character the streamers
through the metallic vapour from those through the air.

Condensers, whose capacity amounted to about one-third of a microfarad,
were charged from a large Wimshurst machine, and the spark of 8 mm. length
passed between metal electrodes, Self-inductances ranging in value up to 0:026
henries could be inserted in the circuit. The velocity of the photographic film
was about 100 metres per sec.

The commencement of the spark is marked by a sudden and almost instan-
taneous luminosity of the air, showing on the photographs as a narrow vertical
line. The duration of the luminosity is not appreciably affected even when the
period of the circuit reaches a value of about 2x10~* secs. This initial air dis-
charge does not start qui.e simultaneously at all parts of the spark length. It is
followed by another type of streamer through the air in which the duration is
comparable with the interval between the oscillations ; in some cases the oscillation
is divided into more than one air-streamer.

After the initial air-discharge has passed, the light from the spark is chiefly
due to the metallic vapour which is produced. The moment of vaporisation of the
metal is simultaneous with the passage of the initial air-discharge. The first
streamer in the metallic vapour often reaches to the centre of the spark. The
slope of this streamer gives the velocity with which the vapour first produced is
moving along the line joining the two electrodes. The luminosity of the metallic
vapour afterwards consists of streamers starting from the electrodes. At the instan-
taneously positive electrode the luminosity of the streamers is of longer duration
than at the negative; the streamers are not so numerous nor so distinct. There is
not, however, the marked difference in the intensity of the streamers at the instan-
taneously positive and negative electrodes which was noticed in a previous paper
on the spark with small self-induction. It is again found, however, that at the
commencement of the spark, vapour is produced at both the positive and negative
electrodes. Dark spaces at the electrodes separate the oscillations of the circuit
and serve to measure the period of the oscillations.

The’ Velocity of the Metallic Vapour.—The measurements of the photographs
show that the velocity of the metallic vapour first produced is smaller in the spark
with self-induction than in the ordinary spark. In the case of mercury, for
example, the velocity becomes 620 metres per second ; the velocities found in the
ordinary spark are 1,150 and 940 metres per sec. for two different types of spectral
lines. This is more probably due to a reduced temperature rather than to the
supposition that the quantity of metal vaporised is not sufficient in the former case
to produce the difference of pressure required to make the velocity of diffusion
attain its maximum value. The introduction of self-induction brings out the ‘ arc’
lines of the metal. The evidence now obtained that the arc lines are due to, or
accompanied by, a lower temperature confirms Lockyer’s supposition which forms
the basis of his researches on star temperatures.

When the self-inductance of the spark is increased, it is seen that during a
single oscillation several streamers start from the electrodes; they are more dis-
tinct with magnesium than with lead, bismuth, or mercury. The streamers are
too numerous and close together to make useful the supposition that they are due
to harmonic overtones of the fundamental period of the circuit. The streamers
are found to recur at definite intervals after the commencement of each oscillation

638 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

of the spark, though they are not invariably present in every oscillation ; generally
not more than about ten apppear in a single complete oscillation. These intervals
are the same in different photographs of the spark under the same conditions, but
the individual streamers are not always reproduced in the same oscillation in
different photographs.

DEPARTMENT OF CosmIcAL Purysics.

The following Papers were read :—

1. On New Methods of obtaining the Spectra of Flames.
by G. A. Hemsarecnu, IZ.Sc., D.Sc.

The apparatus exhibited is a simplified form of the one which the author, in
conjunction with M. de Watteville, has devised for the production of flame
spectra. A glass bulb encloses a spark gap formed between electrodes of the
metal whose spectrum it is desired to obtain. ‘he lower part of the bulb is pro-
vided with one or more tubular openings, and the top communicates with a Bunsen
burner in such a way that the air feeding the burner flows through the bulb.
When powerful electric sparks (condensed) are allowed to pass between the elec-
trodes, metal vapour issues from the latter and diffuses into the surrounding air.
This vapour generally combines with the oxygen and nitrogen of the air, and the
resulting product forms very finely divided particles, which to a great extent are
in the ultra-microscopic state. These particles remain suspended in the air and
are carried along with it into the Bunsen flame, where they give rise to the cha-
racteristic flame spectrum of the element under examination. In many cases it is
preferable to supply the flame with the spray from a galt solution of the element.
The solution is contained in a small porcelain crucible placed at the bottom of the
glass bulb, and a condensed spark is taken from the surface of the solution by
means of a Cu. or Pt. electrode. The spectra thus obtained are very similar to
those given by the Gouy apparatus, and the new method has the advantage of not
necessitating the use of compressed air. The application of these methods to the
case of the oxy-coal gas, hydrogen, air-hydrogen, and oxy-hydrogen flames has
enabled M. de Watteville and the author to study the flame spectrum of an
element under various temperatures and other conditions, An examination of the
iron spectrum carried out in this way has disclosed the presence of ‘spark’ or
‘enhanced ’ lines in the cone of the Bunsen flame. On passing to flames of higher
temperature these lines diminish in relative intensity, and they are nearly all
absent from the oxy-hydrogen flame. Thus it appears that for iron the ‘dis-
sociating power’ of the inner cone of the Bunsen flame is greater than that of any
other flame here considered.

2. Polar Lines in Arc Spectra. By Dr. W. G. Durrie.p.

In a paper which appeared in the ‘Astrophysical Journal’ (27, 260, 1908) a
list of lines occurring at the tips of the electrodes of a continuous current iron
are were chronicled by the writer. Direct comparison with a spark discharge
showed a close resemblance in the ultra-violet between these lines and those
occurring in the spark; this resemblance gradually disappeared as the region of
longer wave-length was approached, the lines under discussion becoming fewer
in number. The term ‘polar’ lines was suggested to distinguish those lines
appearing at the tips of the poles from those in the centre of the arc or spark
(for which the term ‘median’ lines seems suitable), and avoids the ambiguity
introduced by the term ‘ spark’ line when applied to the spectrum of a normal
are. Not all of the polar lines occur in the spark; a few are absent from it and
others are weak in it. The paper also discusses the eflect of density, pressure,
chemical action, potential gradient, temperature, and molecular velocities upon

ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 659

this phenomenon, and the behaviour of median lines when polar lines appear
near them. Fowler, who had previously' examined these lines in the region
F to C, pointed out their identity with enhanced lines and those weakened in
sun-spots, and considered that they might be regarded as high-temperature lines ;
but the writer’s photographs, in which the intensities were the same on the two
poles, did not support this view. A subsequent paper by G. A. Hemsalech and
©. de Watteville? is of interest in this connection, because they find that
‘enhanced’ and polar lines constitute almost exclusively the spectrum of iron
given by the low-temperature Bunsen flame. This is evidence that chemical
action or electrical conditions are chiefly responsible for their appearance. Fabry
and Buisson have also independently examined the polar lines in an arc, but
they conclude that they are formed when the ions attain a certain velocity which
may be produced either by a potential fall or an elevated temperature. Hart-
maun has discussed the conditions concerned with the production of the
‘spark’ line of magnesium \ = 4481 in an are spectrum, and from its strong
appearance in a weak arc he decided that temperature was not the criterion for
its existence,

| 3. The Zeeman Effect in Sun-spots. By Professor J. Larmor, Sec. RS.

4. On the possible Existence of Steam in the Regions of Sun-spots.
By Rev. A. L. Cortiz, S./., F.RA.S.

At the Leicester meeting of the Association the probability of the lower
temperature of the sun-spot regions relatively to the photosphere was derived
rom a comparison of the behaviour of the bands of titanium oxide in the spectrum
of Mira Ceti, at a more or less brilliant maximum, and the bands of the same
compound in the spectrum of sun-spots.? The question at present discussed is
whether the reduction of temperature over a sun-spot is sufficiently great to
permit the formation of water-vapour in the form of superheated steam. For
more than twenty years in the observations of sun-spot spectra made at Stony-
hurst in the red and yellow regions numerous lines have been recorded with the
dispersion used as widened or affected in sun-spots, which are coincident with
lines due to water-vapour. One obvious explanation is that true solar lines; are
so close to the water-vapour lines as not to be separable, even with very great
dispersions, and that the widening is due to the solar lines. Using a much more
powerful combination of telescope and spectroscope than the tele-spectroscope at
Stonyhurst, Dr. Mitchell, of the Princeton Observatory, was unable to detect
these lines as widened in the spectrum of sun-spots.* The region A 5900-5950,
which is very rich in such lines, has been carefully studied and measured on a
hotograph in the third order of a large flat-grating in the spectrum of a big
sun-spot secured on July 31, 1906. ‘Che details of the measurements are set
forth in a table. Of 91 lines measured, 64, or 703 per cent., are due to
water-vapour, and of these 64, 29, or 45:3 per cent., are affected, either widened
or darkened, in the sun-spot. In the photograph measured the sun-spot spectrum
is not isolated from the photospheric spectrum. But in the photographic map
of Professor Hale and Mr. Ellerman, in which the sun-spot spectrum is isolated,
16 of these 29 lines are present, the dispersion being much greater than that
employed at Stonyhurst. Professor Fowler has shown’ that a great number
of the bands in sun-spot spectra are due to magnesium hydride, and Mr. Brooks,°
from a laboratory study of this same spectrum, concludes that it cannot be pro-
duced without the presence of water-vapour. Hence it may be concluded that
the lowering of temperature in the regions of sun-spots, in which the chemical

| Monthly Notices, 67, 154, 1907. 2 O.R., June 1908.
8 Astrophysical Journal, xxvi. 2, September 1907. 4 Jbid., xxii. i. p. 29.
5 IN. R.AS., Ixvii. No. 8. § Proc. R.S.A., 80, No. 537.

64.0 ‘TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A,

compounds titaniuni-oxide and magnesium hydride are indubitably present, catised
by the expansion of the escaping vapours, is sufficiently great to permit the
combination of the oxygen and hydrogen to form water-vapour in the state of
superheated steam.

5. Sun-spots and Solar Temperature.
By Professor E. T. Wurrraker, Sc.D., PRS.

‘The majority of astrophysicists incline to the view that sun-spots are places of
diminished temperature ; this view is based on the observational evidence, which
is (i) that chemical compounds are present in spots, (ii) that the ‘are’ lines are
widened and the characteristic ‘spark’ lines weakened in the spot-spectrum
as compared with the ordinary Fraunhofer spectrum, and (iii) that the con-
tinuous background of the spot-spectrum has its maximum displaced towards
the infra-red as compared with the continuous background of the Fraunhofer
spectrum.

The writer observed with regard to (i) that the formation of chemical com-
pounds from their dissociated elements may be brought about either by a fall of
temperature or by a rise of pressure ; with regard to (ii), that the observations of
the high-level and low-level chromospheric spectrum show that ‘are’ lines are
associated with the high pressures of the lower chromosphere rather than with
the low temperatures of the upper chromosphere ; and with regard to (iii) that
the differences between the continuous spectra of the spot and of the rest of the
sun is analogous to the difference between sunlight as observed at noon and
near sunset, the difference being in this case due to the extra depth of atmosphere
through which the sunlight has to travel. It is concluded that the phenomena
of the spot-spectrum are to be ascribed to relatively high pressure rather than
to relatively low temperature.

6. Recent Researches on the Cause of Seiches.
By E. M. Weppurpurn, /.2S.LZ.

in the autumn of the year 1905 careful observations were made in Loch Earn
by Professor Chrystal which throw much light on the effect of meteorological
conditions on the denivellations of lakes, In addition to the three stationary
limnographs employed to record the seiches, Dine-Shaw microbarographs were
stationed at Ardtrostan (on Loch Earn), Loch Karnhead, and Kallin (on Loch
Tay). There wasalso at Ardtrostan a pressure anemograph. By means of the triad
of microbarographs an indication could be obtained of the rate and direction of
travel of the disturbances shown on the traces. Out of twenty-seven cases
examined by Professor Chrystal, the disturbances travelled in a 8, W. direction
in twenty-two cases, and in a N.E. direction in five cases. The average velocity
of propagation was about thirty miles per hour.

Comparison of observations in Lochs Earn, Treig, Ness, Lubnaig, Tay, and
(Garry (Inverness-shire), indicate that seiches are most frequent in lakes which are
deep and straight, and also in those which run in the direction in which the
microbarometric disturbances travel.

Possible causes of seiches, mentioned by Professor Chrystal, are as follows,
viz. :—

(1) Earthquakes. The evidence from Loch Earn and Loch Ness is that
earthquakes are not an effective cause of seiches, Against this must be set the
great disturbances which are said to have occurred at the time of the Lisbon
earthquake of 1755.

(2) Progression of the general system of isobars causing a release of static
denivellation of the lake surface. Calculation shows that even in the most
favourable circumstances a seiche produced in this manner must be of very small
amplitude,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 641

(3) Piling up of water at one end of a lake by winds. In deep lakes piling up
of water by wind is small, owing to the readiness with which the return current
takes place, and may be neglected ina consideration of the causes of seiches.

(4) Rapid flooding at one portion of a lake may in exceptional circumstances
produce a seiche.

(5) A heavy rainfall may produce a seiche.

(a) By the gravitational effect of the precipitation.
(6) By the force of its impact.

(6) The impact of wind-gusts on portions of the lake may also cause a
seiche.

The foregoing are causes which might produce seiches suddenly. The fol-
lowing causes might account for a gradual increment in the seiche amplitude :—

(i) Microbarometric fluctuations over portions of the lake surface of a
period approximating to one of the seiche periods of the lake. The
disturbing effect may be considerable even where there is no con-
siderable disparity between the barometric period and the seiche

eriod.

(ii) Phriodie fluctuations in the direction and pressure of the wind. It is
difficult in any individual case to say what is the precise effective
cause of a seicue, as wind, rain, and barometric variations usually
occur together.

7. Difference of Temperature in the Upper Atmosphere between Equatorial
and Polar Regions. By Lu. TrissrRENc DE Bort.

In former discussions of the observations made over the Atlantic on the
‘Otaria,’ and those made at Kiruna, near the Arctic Circle, by the French-
Swedish expedition, I have shown that the difference of temperature between the
liquatorial and the Arctic regions is very different at different altitudes. In the
lower layers the temperature of the equatorial zone exceeds that of the Arctic
regions by 25° C, This excess of temperature decreases as the altitude increases
until at a height of 10 or 11 km. it is as warm over the Arctic Circle as it is over
the equatorial zone. With further increase in height there is no further decrease
in temperature over the Arctic Circle, because the isothermal region is reached.
But in the neighbourhood of the equator the rapid decrease of temperature with
increasing altitude still continues ; the temperature becomes less therefore over
the equator than it is at the same height over the Arctic Circle.

Recent balloon ascents made this year at Kiruna at the end of the winter give
a general confirmation of these conclusions. They show that at a very cold period
with temperatures below —15° C. near the surface, the temperature in the upper
regions is nearly the same as that found over the equatorial zone. There are
indeed some days when the polar temperatures are lower than the equatorial, but
this is a temporary phenomenon which occurs at the coldest time of the year. In
equatorial regions, on the contrary, if one considers as the point of departure the
region where the trade winds meet, near the thermal equator, there is, strictly
speaking, neither winter nor summer. |

No ascent to great heights has hitherto been made in Arctic regions during
the warm season: we propose finally to fill up this gap. But what we know
already of the decrease of temperature at different places, together with the obser-
vations made at St. Petersburg, enables us to count on temperatures sufficiently
high in the upper layers, probably higher than — 60° C.

Thus during the greater part of the year it is sensibly colder by 10° or 20° C.
in the equatorial regions at altitudes of 15 or 16 km. thanin Arctic regions. This
fact, anticipated by me some years ago, deserves to be taken into serious con-
sideration in theories relating to the general circulation.

1908. rT

642 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

8. Note on the Manchester ‘ Bullons-Sondes’ Ascents.
By W. A. Harwoop.

In connection with the Howard Estate Observatory of the Manchester Uni-
versity, ballons-sondes ascents have been made regularly during the past year on
the dates appointed by the International Committee.

The balloons are of fine sheet rubber, and carry light instruments of the type
devised by Dines, These record pressure and temperature. The total weight of
instrument and case being only two ounces allows the use of relatively small and
inexpensive balloons.

The majority of the ascents have been made after sunset, to avoid possible
errors due to solar radiation ; but the similarity of the results obtained by day and
night tends to show that the instrument is sufliciently ventilated to prevent
serious errors being introduced from this cause.

The instrument was carefully calibrated before and after each ascent, the rela-
tion between deflection and pressure being determined for a number of different
temperatures.

The results have been of fairly uniform type.

In general the temperature falls steadily at a slightly increasing rate up to
a height of about 10 kms. The gradient then quickly diminishes to zero, or to a
small positive or negative value.

The average height at which the isothermal layer was encountered is about
11:5 kms. This height is slightly greater (12 kms.) above anti-cyclones, and
slightly less (11 kms.) above cyclones, as has been previously found.

The lowest temperature which has been recorded is —65° C, on February 6,
1908, at a height of 11 kms,

The conclusion that the lowest temperatures are found above anti-cyclones
has been verified, the average minimum temperature being —55° C. compared
with corresponding cyclonic temperature —46° C.

On an average three-fourths of the instruments have been returned.

The usual practice has been to give the balloons a free lift, about 70 per cent
of the total weight. This gives the greatest heights combined with the greatest
percentage of balloons returned.

As might be expected the percentage of instruments found is greatest in
anti-cyclonic weather. The average distance traversed by the balloons is about
sixty miles, and the mean direction E. by S. Consequently the most favourable
starting-point would be in the neighbourhood of Shrewsbury.

9. The Results of the ‘ Ballons-Sondes’ Ascents in the British Isles during
the International Week, July 27-August 1, 1908. By J. 8. Drvgs.

The places of fall of the instruments were plotted on a map and exhibited
as a lantern slide, Of the five stations from which ascents took place, it may be
mentioned that Crinan is on the West Coast of Scotland, Pyrton Hill about fifteen
miles south-east of Oxford, and Ditcham Park a little to the north of Portsmouth.
It is generally found that the tracks of the several balloons sent up from the
different stations on the same day are approximately parallel, and this was the
case on the days of the international week, with the exception of July 29. On
this day a high-pressure system was situated with its centre over the south-western
part of the British Isles, and the direction of travel of the different balloons seems
to have agreed closely with the circulation around this centre. On the other
days of the week the high-pressure system was more remote.

The subjoined diagram shows the relation between the temperature (on the
absolute scale) and height above sea-level (in kilometres). The numbers against
the curves refer to the days, so that all ascents on tiie same day have the same
number, The different stations are denoted by the letters. All the ascents were
made near the time of sunset except C.5. The temperature near the highest
point in this case showed rather a sharp rise, and as this may havé been due to the

HEIGHT — KILOMETERS

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 6435

effects of insolation the upper part has been omitted from the diagram. The
temperatures of the isothermal layer obtained last year in the corresponding period

20

145

00 10 20 30
STATIONS

C.—Crinan. 1.—July 27.

M.—Manchester, 2.—July 28.
L.—Limerick. © 3.—July 29.
P.H.—Pyrton Hill, 4.—July 30.

D.—Ditcham Park, 5.—July 31
6.—Aug. 1.

were about 230° or 240°, which is considerably above those found this year.
The two minima of 204° are the lowest that have been obtained in British,

TT 2

644. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

ascents. ‘The usual inversions were experienced in the first three kilos. above the
earth’s surface, after which the temperature fell steadily, in some cases the rate
exceeding by a slight amount for a kilometre or more the dry adiabatic. (See
C.2and D.2.) In D. 2,C.2,and P.H.3 a very sharp rise of temperature is
noticeable just above the coldest point.

Great differences are apparent in the temperature of the isothermal at
different places on July 27. c. 1 and L. 1 are in moderately close agreement at
about 230°, while P.H. 1 and D. 1 show a temperature of below 220°.

The difference between L, 1 and P.H. 1 amounts to practically 20°.

On July 31 the records obtained at Manchester and Crinan are practically
identical for the isothermal.

10, Observations of Currents in the Upper Air of Egypt and the Sudan.
Sy Captain H. G. Lyons, /.2.S,.

ll. An Apparatus for illustrating, by Intermittent Vision, the Surface
Movement of Air in Travelling Storms. By R. G. K. Lemprsnrt, JLA.

This apparatus, by the use of which intermittent vision of a succession of
maps is obtained through parallel slits in a revolving drum, has been arranged at
the Meteorological Office to visualise simultaneously the trend of a ‘ storm’ across
the map and the surface movement of air within the storm area.

The consecutive maps have been drawn for intervals of one, or at most two
hours. When placed in position, they form an inner lining to a drum, with slits
in its upper part, attached to a revolving horizontal, after the manner of the toy
known as a ‘zoetrope.’ The position of the storm! is represented on successive
maps by the isobars which show the barometer distribution, The movement
of the air within the storm area is shown by arrows, each one of which represents
a ‘step’ in the motion of the air. As the drum is revolved, the isobaric systems
appear to travel across the map and the arrows to move forward, tracing out the
‘ trajectories’ or paths of the air.

12, On the Asynmetrical Character of Whirlwinds. By Paut Duranvin,

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Changes of Atmospheric Density in Storms. By J. I. Crate, ILA,

Ammass of air which expands without gaining heat necessarily experiences
cooling, and this mechanical cooling is now generally admitted by meteorologists
to be the chief cause of rain. Such an expansion occurs when air is transported
from a lower to a higher level. The paper showed that a similar expansion takes
place in front of the trough of depressions of both the cyclonic and the V-shape,
and that there is a certain amount of correspondznce between the region of yreatest
surface dilatation and that of heaviest rainfall. In rear of the trough the dilation
is negative, on the whole, but with isolated positive regions—a fact which may
help to account for the ‘ passing showers’ generally found in rear of baric
depressions.

1 The Life History of Surface Air Currents. London: H.M. Stationery Office,
1906, j

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 645

The time-rate of dilation being = ae where Q is the yolutie of a given mass,

may be expressed as — : me where p is the density and the differentiation operates

along the path of the air mass considered. : ; ‘
To apply this method one must have at his disposal the history of the air-
density along the traj ctory. Hence one is led to make use of the material
discussed by Dr. W. N. Shaw, F.R.S., and Mr. R. G, K. Lempfert.* :
An adyantage of the method indicated is that it permits of an estimate of the
upward velocity of the air, at least near the surface. The hydro-dynamical equation
of continuity may be written in the form

Oe) Seas Op”. Op Ou dv 2) 4
ot +“ Oa * Oy ae a Ox * Oy” Oz = 0

1Dp dw dv dw_
p Di* Ox * yt oz

where D/D¢ has the same signification as above. Of the quantities inyolved in
the last equation
: a may be found numerically at any locality, as above ;
p
Ou

jg May be computed by constructing a synoptic chart of the eastward

or

0

component velocity; and
2 may similarly be computed from a chart of the northward yelocity; so
that the fourth term may be found numerically.

A theoretical example for the particular case of uniform velocity and constant
incurvature of the wind round circular isobars is given. If the dilation vanishes
over the surface, the value of the upward velocity for small heights above the
ground is

Vz

w= —Sina
7

where V is the velocity of the wind, = is the altitude, a the angle between the
wind and the isobars, and x is the distance from the storm centre.

2. The Meteorology of the Winter Quarters of the ‘Discovery, 1902-1904,
By Dr. W. N. Suaw, F.Z.S.

The author gave an account of the meteorological results obtained from the
discussion of the observations at the winter quarters of the ‘ Discovery’ in
latitude 77° 50’ 50” §., longitude 166° 44’ 45" E., for the period February 9,
1902, to February 15, 1904, and on the sledge journeys of the Expedition, as
published by the Royal Society in 1908,

3. Results of some Physical Observations taken on the National Antarctic
Expedition, 1902-1904, By L. C. Bernaccu.
The ‘winter quarters’ of the ship ‘Discovery’ were situated in lat, 77° 50’ 45’S.,
long. 165° 44’ 30” E.
' The examples shown were taken from The Life History of Surface Air Currents,

by W. N. Shaw, F.R.S., and R, G. K. Lempfert. Meteorological Office Publication,
No. 174.

64.6 {RANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

The magnetic and other physical observations conducted on the shore close to
the ship extend over a period of nearly two years,

The ‘ Discovery’ ‘ winter quarters’ were to the south-east of the south magnetic
pole, the mean absolute declination being about 152° E. From the photographic
records by the Eschenhagen magnetometers the general character of the regular
diurnal variation of declination is clearly shown, the movement being five or
six times as large as that at Kew; even during the months when the sun is
continuously below the horizon the diurnal range remains large—at least double
that at Greenwich at midsummer,

The seasonal change in the type of the diurnal variation is very small. In
temperate climates generally the changes of declination during the day are con-
spicuously larger and more rapid than during the night. At ‘winter quarters’
there is no such marked difference,

The extreme positions are reached at about 9 A.M. and 7 P.M., and are totally
different from those customary. ‘lhe absolute declination observations indicate an
apparent decrease of about 26’ between mean of observations May—December 1902
and mean May—December 1903, the horizontal force observations an apparent
increase of 0:0013 C.G.S. between mean April-December 1902 and mean April-
December 1903, and the inclination an apparent decrease of about 7’ between
mean May—December 1902 and mean May—December 1903. The horizontal force
at ‘winter quarters’ was about a third of that at Kew, but the range of the
diurnal inequality about 50 per cent. greater than at Kew. The type also varies
very little with the season, and is totally different from that at temperate
stations, i

Vector diagrams have been made for ‘winter quarters’ for the whole year,
and for the seasons midwinter (May to July), equinox (March, April, September,
October), and midsummer (November—January). The differences between
these diagrams and the vector diagrams for Kew and Falmouth are remarkable.
There is much less asymmetry than in England, the direction of motion is anti-
clockwise, and there is very little difference in type for the different seasons.
The most striking peculiarity in the diurnal inequality in all the elements is the
large size of the fundamental or 24-hour Fourier ‘wave’ as compared with the
harmonics of shorter period.

‘In order to determine the position of the south magnetic pole by means of all
the declination observations taken at ‘ winter quarters,” sledge journeys, and at
sea, the results have been plotted (by Captain L. W. P. Chetwynd, R.N.) and the
direction of the magnetic meridian as indicated by the observations extended
towards the magnetic pole. These lines of direction intersect within a space
triangular in form. The radius of the circle inscribed in the triangle measures
about thirty-eight geographical miles, and the centre of the circle indicates the
probable position of the pole, and is in lat. 72°60’ S., long. 156° 20’ E.

‘ All the inclination results were plotted on a chart and lines of equal inclina-
tion drawn, from which the probable position of the pole is indicated to be in
lat. 72° 52’ S., long. 156° 30’ KE. The agreement between this position and that
determined by the declination results is remarkable, and may be considered as
corroboration of the results.

‘The mean of the two positions, viz., lat. 72° 51’ S., long. 156° 25’ E., is, in all
probability, a close indication of the centre of the polar area.’?

The results of the pendulum observations, taken with three separate quarter-
meter invariable pendulums, give values all slightly in excess of the theo-
retical.

Accepting 981,200 (centimetres/second*) as the value at Kew, the probable
mean value deduced from all observations combined for ‘winter quarters’ is
982,985, the theoretical value being 982,963.

The most interesting outstanding feature is the large difference between the
resulta obtained at ‘winter quarters’ during the winter months, July, August,
September, on the one hand and those obtained during February, the end of the

‘Magnetic Results,’ Physics, vol. i, Royal Society.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 64.7

antarctic summer, on the other. A possible explanation may be the large north-
ward movement of ice occurring in the antarctic summer prior to February.

The paper also dealt very briefly with the results of tidal observations and
atmospheric electricity.

4, On the possible Connection between Earthquakes and Great Waves in
distant places. By Rev. H. V. Gui, S.J.

In a paper read at the Royal Dublin Society ' two years ago it was shown
that there are grounds for the supposition that, under certain conditions, an
earthquake in one locality may well be the immediate occasion of the occurrence
of one or more succeeding shocks in other places on the earth’s surface sym-
metrically placed with respect to it. This view was based on the fact that great
earthquakes frequently cause a ‘wobble’ in, the rotation of the earth. The
effect of this is to produce a strain in other portions of the earth’s mass, and a
tendency for movable matter to shift its position, thus precipitating approaching
earthquakes. An examination of earthquake records showed that this series of
reactions may often have taken place. In the present paper the same principles
are invoked to show that, in the same way, an earthquake may give rise to a
water wave ata distant place, thu: accounting for the genesis of waves other-
wise difficult to explain. These principles were illustrated by experiments with
hollow tops containing movable matter, such as steel balls and melted wax,

5, Some Particulars of the British Association Storm of 1908.
By Dr. W. N, Suaw, F.B.S.

The author exhibited the original records of pressure, of direction and force
of the wind, and of rainfall at various stations in connection with the Meteoro-
logical Office during the passage across the British Isles of the deep depressions
which crossed the Irish Sea during the night of August 31-September 1, 1908,

6. The Great Snowstorm of April 25,1908, By Miss C, O. Stevens,

-7, On the Velocity of the Reducing Action of Electrolytic Hydrogen on
Arsenious and Arsenic Acids when liberated from the surface of
different elements. By W, THomson.

These experiments were commenced with a view to finding the velocities at
which arsenic is liberated as arseniuretted hydrogen (AsH,) from solutions
of arsenious and arsenic acids respectively when using cathodes of different
elements.

The experiments were made by passing, during intervals of two and a half
minutes, the hydrogen containing arseniuretted hydrogen liberated from the cathode
through drawn out hard glass tubes accurately graduated as regards diameter and
heated to redness near the drawn out portion by which the arseniuretted hydrogen
was decomposed, liberating arsenic in the elemental condition which deposited on
the drawn out portion of the tube (which was kept cold by running water) as a dark
metallic-looking mirror, the amounts of arsenic thus deposited being measured by
the density of these mirrors as compared with standard mirrors for each period of
24 minutes till no further mirror was deposited during one interval.

Fifty units of arsenic were employed for each experiment dissolved in 30 c.c.
dilute sulphuric acid, each unit consisting of 0:000,000,5413 gramme, roughly

? XI. No, 11, 1906.

648 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

about sga¢o00 Of a gramme of elemental arsenic, that amount being sufficient to
produce a well-detined mirror of arsenic on the drawn out tube. '

The apparatus previously described by me,’ which consists of a porous pot
with platinum foil outside as anode and the element under examination as
cathode inside the porous pot, was used in these experiments and the following
elements were tried as cathodes: lead, zinc, cadmium, tin, silver, graphite, iron,
platinum, aluminium, gold, cobalt, nickel, and palladium.

The above order represents their efficiency in removing arsenic from solutions
of arsenious acid, the first being the most efficient, but this order does not hold
good for efficiency in removing arsenic when it exists in the form of arsenic acid,
for whereas the metals lead, zinc, cadmium, tin, and silver all reduce arsenious
acid with the same velocity, only 41 per cent. of the arsenic acid present in the
cathode chamber is converted into arseniuretted hydrogen by a zinc cathode in
25 minutes, while with a lead cathode 98 per cent. is reduced in the same time and
under the same experimental conditions. Again, silver which with arsenious
acid effects the reduction with a velocity equal to the first four mentioned metals
fails when used as a cathode to liberate any arsenic as AsH, from arsenic acid.
The supertension hypothesis put forward by various writers utterly fails to ex-
plain these results. Palladium with a comparatively high supertension (0:46 volt)
stands at the bottom of the series both as regards arsenious and arsenic acids,
while silver which has a low supertension (0°15 volt) reduces arsenious acid
with a velocity equal to that of lead or zinc. Iron in this respect is remarkable
with the lowest but one supertension (0:08 volt). It effects the reduction of
arsenious acid with a velocity nearly equal to lead and stands next to lead in its
capacity for reducing arsenic acid.

Lead has a slightly lower supertension than zinc, yet lead, as already men-
tioned, is far more eflicient in the reduction of arsenic acid than zinc.

From the estimations made by collecting the arsenic evolved in intervals of
two and a half minutes the first four metals gave a constant for a unimolecular
reaction.

» Memoirs and Proceedings of the Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soe., vol. xlviii.,
part ili., p. 17.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 649

Secrion B.—CHEMISTRY.

PRESIDENT OF THE Sxction,—Professor F, 8, Kippina,
D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.
The President delivered the following Address :—

On taking the Chair of this Section my first duty is to express my personal
thanks to the Council of the British Association for having chosen me to fill
this position of honour.

At this meeting the Association is enjoying, not for the first, but for the fourth
time, the generous and genial hospitality of the citizens of Dublin; it is my
privilege, on behalf of all the members of this Section, to tender our cordial
thanks to our hosts for giving us this opportunity of meeting again in the capital
of Ireland.

During the past few months we have read in the daily journals—and we
sincerely hope it may be true—that there are signs of the commencement of a
great development of the resources of this Island; as such a desirable event must
be closely connected with, and, indeed, may even be dependent on, the vitality of
the chemical industries of the country, the moment seems opportune for the
consideration of a subject which has a direct bearing on both commerce and
chemistry.

Although this Section is chiefly occupied with matters relating to pure
science, the discussion of industrial questions is also regarded as one of its
important functions; it does not attempt to distinguish pure from applied
chemistry, and any problem which concerns either is deemed worthy of its
attention.

From this point of view I propose to consider whether any steps can be taken
to place the chemical industries of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland in a more prominent position than that which they now occupy in the
world of commerce.

The subject is not new; it has been dealt with by many, but principally by
those more directly interested—prominent members of the Society of Chemical
Industry, who are far better qualified to express opinions on commercial matters
thanam I. It is perhaps presumption on my part to attempt to add anything to
what has been said by such leaders of industrial chemistry, but I propose to deal
with the subject from a very different standpoint—namely, from that of the
teacher in the class-room and laboratory. yen if I fail to make a single
oO of immediate a value, the question is one of such magnitude
and so many-sided that 1 feel justified in bringing it under the notice of this
Section. It is not merely a matter of money, of a few millions or of a few tens
of millions sterling. There are few branches of industry to which chemistry, in
one way or another, is not of supreme importance. Whether we look to the
great shipbuilding interests, dependent on the progress of metallurgy; to our

650 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 5,

cotton and linen trades, where cellulose reigns supreme; to our dye-houses or to
our breweries, or to any other industry, great or small, there do we find problems
in chemistry awaiting solution, and the nation which solves them will not only
progress in civilisation and contentment, but will also justly claim to have taken
a leading part in the advancement of science.

It is not then in any grudging spirit of envy that we approach this question ;
recognising the splendid work of men of other countries, rejoicing in the services
which they have rendered to the world at large, our only desire is not to lag
behind in the general intellectual and industrial advance of nations.

It is unnecessary to trouble you with any detailed comparison of the position
which we occupy to-day with that which we have taken in the past. The fiftieth
anniversary of the epoch-making discovery of mauve was held only two years ago,
and the proceedings are still fresh in our recollection ; the peans of congratulation
addressed to the discoverer (now, alas! no longer with us) were marred by a
plaintive note, a note of lamentation over our lost industry, the manufacture of
dyes. The jubilee of the founder of the colour industry in this country was also
the occasion for pronouncing its funeral oration. If this were the full extent of
our loss we might bear it with equanimity; but it is not so much what has
already gone as what is going and what may go that are matters of such deep
concern. Those who doubt the seriousness of our condition may find statistical
evidence, more than sufficient to convince them, in the technical journals and in
the Board of Trade reports of recent years.

The facts there disclosed show that in the manufacture of ‘fine chemicals,’
including perfumes, alkaloids, and crude coal-tar products, as well as dyes, the
decadence of our industry is far advanced; in the case of heavy chemicals our
position, perhaps, is not quite so serious at the present moment, but the future is
dark and threatening. Chemical industries are so intimately connected and
dependent on one another, that the fate of one may determine the fate of all; the
by-product of one process is often the raw material of another. Who, then, can
deny that the patience, perseverance, and high scientific skill, which have built up
the colour industry abroad, if applied, as they have been and are being applied,
to the manufacture of heavy chemicals, will not soon defy all competition from less
progressive countries ?

Such a possibility is full of national danger. It has been pointed out—and the
prophecy cannot be regarded as unduly pessimistic—that from present indications
a time will arrive when we shall be dependent on outside sources, not only for our
food-supply, but also for our means of self-defence. When nitrates are exhausted,
when nitric acid and ammonia are prepared from the components of the atmo-
sphere, when all chemical industries have been so highly developed abroad that
they have completely vanished from these Islands, and when their loss has reacted
on all our other important industries, then, indeed, shall we feel the pinch of
poverty; then, indeed, must we submit to national decay.

Is it possible to remedy the present unsatisfactory state of affairs, and to
guard against an ominous future ?

During the Perkin Jubilee celebrations Professor Carl Duisberg answered
this question, in so far as it concerns the coal-tar colour industry, by an
uncompromising negative. In an able and interesting speech he pointed out that,
although the Briton is in general a practical man, he is lacking in patience, in the
power of waiting for success; he expects to be compensated in hard cash, and at
once, for his work or for his capital outlay. The German, on the other hand,
is primarily a theorist possessing endless patience, and works without any
immediate prospect of pecuniary reward; he has now learnt to be practical as
well, but not at the expense of his ideals. It is to this happy combination of
qualities that Professor Duisberg ascribes the success of his countrymen in the
coal-tar. colour industry—a success which he considers we are powerless to
emulate, with which it would be futile for us to try and compete. :

With this view-that our chemical industries must submit to gradual
extinction, even when it is held by so high an authority, we cannot and must
not agree; if ole nation can learn to he practical, we—the four nations of these

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 651

islands—one or all, can learn to be plodding and patient, and to appreciate the
importance of theory. We may be encouraged in our efforts to do so by the
opinions of others, countrymen of Professor Duisberg, eminent in pure or applied
science. Professor Ostwald, discussing this subject, said that he was sure the
difficulties were considerable only in the beginning,' while Professor Lunge, in
an address to the Royal Institution,? made use of the following words: ‘Seeing
that in pure science the people of Great Britain have never lagged behind any
other nation, and that, on the contrary, the land of Newton and Faraday has
been a beacon to all others at more than one epoch, there is absolutely no
valid reason why she should now, or at any other time, be behind any other in
the combination of science with practice.’

Here, indeed, is encouragement, and from one who has had ample opportunity
for studying the conditions which obtain in this country. Surely, therefore,
we ought to have some confidence in ourselves and try our best to regain a
strong and healthy position rather than fold our hands in a spirit of hopeless
resignation.

The new Patent Act which came into force this year, and for which the
country is so much indebted to the strenuous advocacy of Mr. Leviastein and
Sir Joseph Lawrente, seems to many to have inaugurated a new era, and to have
removed one of the principal causes of the decline of our chemical industries ; if
this be so, it is all the more important that the representatives of chemical
science should be ready and willing to join hands with the manufacturers in
order to assist in the process of regeneration.

The principal changes which haye been introduced by the new law are, of
course, familiar to all. The most important one, which came into operation on
August 28 last, is that which requires that the article or process which is
protected by the patent must be manufactured or carried on to an adequate
extent in the United Kingdom after the expiration of four years from the date ot
the patent. If this condition is not fulfilled, any person may apply for the
revocation of the patent.

Some of the results of this amendment, and some indications of the great
industrial changes which it will bring about, are already obvious. Foreign firms
or individuals who hold British patents and who have not sufficient capital to
work them in this country, or who do not think they are worth working here,
are attempting to sell their British patent rights. Others are building or buying
works in Great Britain, and it has been estimated that in the immediate future a
sum of at least 25,000,000/. of foreign capital will have been thus invested in
order to comply with the new law.

We need not stop to consider the economic effects of this transfer of capital
on the general trade of this country, but we may well pause a moment in order
to try and forecast the consequences of these new conditions in so far as they
concern our chemical industries.

The prospective establishment of branches of two of the largest German
chemical works at Ellesmere Port and at Port Sunlight respectively are already
matters of common knowledge, and it may be presumed that these firms will avail
themselves to a large extent of British labour. If this be the case, and if they
are successful—as they, no doubt, will be—the complaint that the inferior
technical education of our artisans is responsible for our lack of success will
thereby be proved to be groundless. Tven if we admit that at the present time
the British workman is an inferior operative in a chemical works, and only
capable of undertaking the less-skilled labour, these firms will gradually raise a
considerable number of trained men who will be ready to undertake more
responsible duties under our own manufacturers when the good time comes ;
a school for chemical operatives will be created in our midst, and, as in the past,
we shall reap the benefit of knowledge and experience brought to our shores,
It also seems reasonable to expect that, as is the case abroad, these works will be
equipped with laboratories and staffed by chemists, although possibly only so far

1 Jour. Soo. Chem. Ind., 1906, 1019. 2 March 16, 1907,

652 {RANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

as is necessary for routine work. Many of these chemists may settle permanently
in our midst, become members of our Chemical Society and Society of Chemical
Industry, and thus infuse us with their patience and perseverance. It is not
beyond the bounds of possibility that these great firms may even employ British
chemists in their works, if we can supply men sufficiently well trained to be of
value. On the other hand, as experience seems to have shown that industrial
chemistry cannot succeed with imported scientific labour, it is not very probable
that many posts in the laboratory will be filled by our countrymen, who, in this
connection, must be regarded as foreigners.

Now at the present time most chemical products can be manufactured more
cheaply abroad than here, otherwise we should not have any reason to consider
our position. Dr. Duisberg told us that even when an important firm in England
had a licence to work all the British patents of two of the largest German colour
works, merely paying for the privilege a small percentage of the net profits, it
failed to take any advantage of the opportunity. If, then, in this free-trade
kingdom production is cheaper than abroad, the foreign firms which have
branches here will be in a position superior to that which they now occupy in
their own countries. If, on the other hand, owing to inefficient labour, higher
wages, freights, and other economic conditions, production is more costly, the
superior efficiency and scientific organisation of these foreign firms will neverthe-~
Jess enable them to command our home market with the goods made here, and to
cut us out in the world market, as they do now, with those made abroad.

The conclusion which thus seems forced upon us is, that, although the new
Patent Act will prove to be of great value in many respects, it will do little to
foster British chemical trade and the development of British chemistry; it places
us on an equality with other countries as regards patent rights, and thus remedies
an outstanding grievance; but, unless we have something to patent, this equality
will be valueless and our chemical industries will continue to decline, possibly
more rapidly than heretofore.

Let us therefore pass in review the other causes which have been suggested as
contributory to our failure; after eliminating those connected with freights and
tariffs, and with the alleged supineness of the Government in assisting industry,
matters which may be left to the manufacturers to deal with, there still remain
several which are well within the purview of this Section.

These are: (1) the unsatisfactory condition of secondary education; (2)
the nature of the training which is given to chemists in our universities and other
institutions; (8) the insufficiency of the time and money devoted to research in
the manufacturing industries; (4) the lack of co-operation between manufacturers
and men of science.

There are some who believe that the first of these is the primary, if not the
sole, cause of our weakness; that if our secondary education were placed on a
sound basis all the other evils would disappear of their own accord; that a
steady and broad stream of well-trained boys from the secondary schools would
afford ample material from which good chemists could be fashioned in the
universities and colleges; that these trained chemists would be greedily seized
by the manufacturers, whose minds had been widened by improved educational
methods ; and once installed in the works these chemists would have no difficulty
in persuading their employers to spend time and money on research work in
co-operation with the leaders of science.

Whether such desirable and far-reaching results would in fact follow if our
system of secondary education were very much improved it is impossible to
predicate; but there is no doubt that at the present time we are moving in an
exactly opposite direction.

The shadow of the cypress rests upon our chemical trade, and manufacturers
do not see their way to employ chemists ; students are not attracted to chemistry
as a profession because there are so few openings; without an ample and
increasing supply of such students chemical industry must continue to decline,
and as a necessary consequence the development of pure chemistry is cramped
and hindered to a far greater extent than is generally realised.

a

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 655

In a Presidential Address to the Chemical Society last year Professor Meldola
discussed the position and prospects of chemical research in Great Britain, and in
view of the importance of the subject and the able manner in which it had been
treated the Council of the Society ordered the publication of five thousand copies
of his Address for distribution among the members of various public bodies. We
were told in this Address that many of our universities are distinct failures as
centres of chemical research, and that the output of original work from our col-
leges, polytechnics, and similar institutions is emphatically not representative of
the productive power of the teachers there employed. The causes of the failure of
our universities were only lightly touched upon, and I propose to refer to them
later; but in the case of our other institutions they were more fully discussed.
May I venture to draw attention to one cause, which I believe is by far the most
effective drag on research in the vast majority of such institutions not of
university rank? It is simply the lack of those more advanced students who,
while gaining valuable experience in the methods of research, would also render
useful assistance to their teacher. The governing body of the institution may
not realise the importance of research; the Principal, as, alas! is sometimes the
case, may throw cold water on such work; the teacher may be overburdened
with routine duties, and he may be most inadequately remunerated ; if, however,
the research spirit is strong within him. he would overcome all these difficulties
were there any prospect whatsoever of success; but what chance has he when he
must do everything himself, even to washing out his own test-tubes ? Provide
him with a few advanced students, and he would doubtless find time to undertake
the necessary pioneer research work, which would then be extended and developed
with their assistance.

It might be suggested that an efficient and enthusiastic man would soon attract
a number of research students. This, no doubt, is true as regards the universities,
but it must be remembered that a polytechnic or other institution which does
not grant degrees can hardly expect to compete with a university as a centre for
research ; all those students who intend to undergo a so-called ‘complete’ course
of study—that is to say, all who are likely to become capable of undertaking
research work— naturally proceed to one of the degree-giving universities. There
are not enough students to go round, to satisfy the research requirements of the
teachers, and the principal reason is—the limited demand for trained chemists on
the part of the manufacturers.

Even of the small number of those who leave our teaching institutions fairly
well trained in research, how many have a chance of passing into works and
directly advancing applied science? A very small proportion indeed. Most of
the better ones drift into other posts, become demonstrators, emigrate—any-
thing rather than wait on with the prospect of accepting as works-chemist
a salary which, meagre though it be, may be stopped altogether if dividends
are low.

With whom rests the responsibility for this state of affairs? Is it with the
teachers, and, if so, is it because they are incapable of training chemists or because
their system is at fault ?

To answer this question it is necessary in the first place to arrive at some
conclusion as to the kind of training which is required for the future works-
chemist. On consulting the opinions of the manufacturers it would seem that
they attach great importance to what is called the ‘ practical side’; they believe
that, in addition to a knowledge of theoretical chemistry, the prospective works-
chemist should also have some acquaintance with engineering, should understand
the apparatus and machinery used in the particular manufacturing operations
with which he is going to deal, and should have had practical experience in
working the given process. It is from this point of view that we build and
equip large technological chemistry departments, such as those in the Universities
of Birmingham and Leeds and in the Manchester Municipal School of Technology,
departments fitted up with complete apparatus and machinery for carrying out
operations ov a miniature manufacturing scale.

The arguments in fayour of this view, that it is a hybrid chemist-engineer who

654. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

is required in a chemical works, seem to me to be fundamentally unsound, and
the kind of training suggested by them for the works-chemist can only result in
the production of a sort of combined analytical machine and foreman. A two or
three years’ course of science, followed by one year’s practical work in the dye-
house, in paper-making, or in some other technological department, is quite
inadequate if the student trained in this way is expected to do anything beyond
routine analytical work and supervision.

We cannot possibly expect such a, poorly trained Jack-of-all-trades to run a
chemical works successfully in the face of competition directed by a large staff
of scientific experts in chemistry and in engineering. It is no use spending
immense sums of money on expensive machinery of the newest type in order
that the works-chemist may be able to tell his future employer that the
machinery used in his employer's works is completely out of date. Inthe course
of time, moreover, unless expenditure is practically unlimited, the reverse
conditions will obtain, and the technological department of the university or other
institution will become more of the nature of a museum of antiquities. The great
cost of the upkeep and of the working of such plant is also a very serious
matter. The conditions in a chemical works cannot be successfully imitated in
a university or polytechnic; attempts to do so can only lead to mistaken con-
clusions, and thus have the eflect of rendering the works-chemist quite helpless
when he passes from the elegant models of his educational apparatus to the
workaday appliances of the manufactory.

Here, it seems to me, we touch the bed-rock of our trouble. The state of our
chemical industries must be attributed to the erroneous views which have been
and still are held as to the functions, and consequently as to the training, of a
works-chemist. We have failed to realise that industrial chemistry must be
based on a foundation of continuous and arduous research work. Inthe past we
have sent out from our universities and other institutions students who no
doubt were qualified to undertake routine analytical work, but the great
majority of whom knew nothing of the methods of research. We are doing the
same to-day. Just when a student has reached a stage at which his specialised
scientific training should begin his course is finished, and whether he has been to
a university or to a polytechnic matters little; he joins the band of those who
subsist on but who do nothing to advance chemical industry. He enters a
works; the manufacturer does not realise exactly what his chemist ought to do,
but he expects some immediate results, and in consequence is generally
disappointed; the lack of success of the chemist is put down to his ignorance of
practical matters, and there is an outcry for technical education; science is most
unjustly discredited, and any suggestion of spending money on research work is
scouted as a mere waste.

The consequence is that if there is a scientific problem which intimately
concerns all the members of some large industry what course do they adopt ?
Through their trade journal, and as an association representing a total capital
of which I should not like to hazard a guess, they offer a bronze or possibly a
silver medal, or may even offer the extravagant sum of 20/., to the happy person
who will provide them with a solution. It is difficult to imagine the class of
solvers to whom these princely rewards may appeal, more difficult still to believe
that any useful result can be attained, and it is almost incredible that such
methods should be adopted by any influential industrial organisation. This way
of attempting to get research work ‘on the cheap’ is certainly not unknown
even in more enlightened countries, but that is hardly a sufficient justification for
its employment.

Contrast these methods with those adopted by the Badische Anilin- und Soda-
Fabrik and Meister, Lucius, & Brinig in their attempts to solve the problem of
the commercial synthesis of indigo. Could there be a greater antithesis? If
five thousand copies of Brunck’s paper on this subject! could be circulated among
the manufacturers of this country—a task which might be fittingly undertaken

} Ber, 1900, I. xxi,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 655

by the Society of Chemical Industry—the study of the truly magnificent results
attained by the systematic application of pure science, and of the indisputable
evidence of their commercial value, might prove an object-lesson far more effective
than argument for the accomplishment of a sorely needed reform.

Now if we are to meet successfully the very formidable scientific and
commercial organisation opposed to us in chemical industry, we must perforce
adopt the methods of our competitors; not only must we learn patience and
perseverance, but we must also call to our aid the best brain-power available.
We must recognise clearly that the scientific works-chemist, the only man who is
likely to make discoveries of commercial value, must be thoroughly trained in
the methods of research by those best qualified to do so, and we must not
imagine that when he enters the works he should or could immediately become
an engineer and a commercial expert; his place is in the research laboratory.
The practical man—that is to say, the man who has a thorough and useful
knowledge of some particular manufacturing process—must be trained under
practical men in the works, and we must not imagine that a course of even-
ing classes will convert him into an expert chemist. The ideal man who
combines high scientific training and sound practical knowledge cannot be
produced unless the period of his lucation is extended to half a life-time,
and even then only through the co-operation of the chemistry teacher and the
manufacturer.

Admitting the truth of these statements—and I do not think that they can be
successfully controverted—we have now to consider what steps can be taken to
provide these highly trained works-chemists, and to ensure for them a cordial
reception on the part of the manufacturers.

The first fact which we have to bear in mind is that the great and rapid
development of chemistry in recent times has lengthened the period which is
required for the collegiate study of the subject. In order to acquire the necessary
knowledge of facts and theory, and afterwards to devote even the minimum time
to gaining experience in research methods, the future works-chemist must be
prepared to continue at the university or other institution during at least five
years, The course of study during the first three years might be on the lines
now adopted by many of our universities for-the B.Sc. pass examination, but to
grant this degree in one or two subjects only, and then to call it an Honours
degree, is in my opinion a serious mistake, as is also the admission of research
work at this stage, both of which proceedings lead to far too early specialisation.
The pass degree should be regarded merely as an indication of a sound general
education in science, and the future works-chemist should then devote at least
two years more to research and to special work in chemistry, on the results of
which the Honours degree might be awarded. Every encouragement in the form
of low fees. free admission, research scholarships, and so on, should be offered to such
students, according to their merit and circumstances, in order that they may prolong
their studies; the cost of these remissions or awards would not be very serious and
the money would be well spent. Teachers should then refuse to recommend, and
manufacturers should refuse to employ, as a works-chemist, any student who had
not passed through such a course satisfactorily, unless it was understood that he
was only expected to undertake routine analysis or work outside the research
laboratory. By thus extending the period of training, and making research work
compulsory as far as possible, a great deal would be gained; pure science would
reap an immediate benefit from the investigations of the students—as has been
the case abroad—and this stimulus would necessarily react on industrial
chemistry ; the manufacturers could be assured that they were being supplied
with men of the right type; they would soon come to recognise that fact, and
ithe demand for works-chemists would expand. In the laboratory of the works
ithe manufacturer would then have the opportunity of gauging the capabilities
‘and special leanings of every chemist on his staff. Those who were best fitted
for directing operations in the works could be trained on the spot, as they could
mot possibly hope to be trained in any university or polytechnic; those who
proved to be the best research chemists would, of course, remain in the laboratory

656 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

working out scientific problems. Organisations of this kind could not fail to
command success, and the opsonic curve of our chemical industries would soon
begin to rise.

There is one institution, not a teaching body, which might greatly assist in
this movement: I refer to the Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and
Jreland. This body desires and claims to represent chemistry, not only in these
islands, but in all our dominions, and also to exercise some supervision or control
over public appointments. It examines in chemistry and grants diplomas, and
claims that its examinations are a test of practical ability rather than of
theoretical knowledge. I have not a word to say against the character of these
examinations, but to imagine that the Institute of Chemistry qualification is the
hall-mark of a chemist is ridiculous. An average student can obtain the diploma
after three, or at the very most four, years’ work subsequent to matriculation,
and more easily than the London B.Sc. (external). Here, again, it should be
recognised that the present Institute of Chemistry qualification is only a step in
the training of a chemist; the permission to present a thesis for the associate
examination should be withdrawn, and good research work should be insisted on
in the case of all candidates for the fellowship. It would then be possible to
distinguish between those who are capable routine chemists and those who
might. be expected to advance pure and applied science. It is certainly a grave
matter for an institution entirely controlled by chemists to set such a bad
example by ignoring the necessity of research work; if all our official chemical
appointments and many of our posts in works are to be filled by men who have
done no independent scientific work, the results will be most serious ; the research
habit and the research method are not easily acquired without assistance, and
therefore it is all the more important to make use of this assistance while it is
within reach, and before the budding chemist begins to believe that he has
nothing more to learn.

As a necessary corollary to making research compulscry in the training of
works-chemists, all our important teaching institutions must afford ample
opportunities for such work, and measures must be adopted to guard against that
failure of some of our universities as centres of research which was pointed out
by Professor Meldola.

Such failure, whatever may be the contributory causes, must be principally
due to the absence of sufficient interest in research work on the part of the
professor, and it certainly seems surprising, at first sight, that in these days many
such professors are to be found; but it must be remembered that although by
members of this Section research work is regarded as the highest and most
important of all professorial duties, this is not always the view of those who make
an appointment to a chair.

In selecting a professor there are many other considerations which come into
play: his ability as a teacher in the class-room and laboratory ; his qualifications
as a popular exponent of science; his power of organisation; his bearing towards
his colleagues and his students—all these matters are of great and direct im-
portance to a university, and it is not to be wondered at that a man highly
qualified in these accessories may sometimes be chosen even though he may take
no special interest in research work.

The results of such an appointment, however, cannot fail to be most prejudicial
to the highest interests of the university and of the country ; the chemistry depart~
ment becomes a chemistry school, but not a school of chemistry.

Unfortunately, moreover, the results extend over a long period: this raises
another question which certainly requires attention if we are to become more
efficient.

It is far from my object to create any gratuitous insecurity of tenure in chairs
of chemistry, but is it not desirable that in our teaching institutions the con-
ditions of all appointments should include a superannuation clause? Not that a
rigid age-limit should be introduced, but there should be a possibility of bring-
ing about the retirement of those who for any reason can no longer adequately
fulfil their duties, When, owing to the lapse of time, such retirement became

‘

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 657

figcessaty, the aged and honoured professor, pensioned by 4 grateful university,
might still retain an intimate connection with its scientific life; as emeritus pro-
fessor, with a research laboratory at his disposal, he might remain to advise and
encourage his youthful successor even when the duties of teaching and the general
supervision of a department had become too arduous.

It cannot be suggested that my remarks on this delicate topic are inspired by
the impatience of youth or by freedom from personal consequences; the time
when superannuation becomes desirable may arrive for one and all, and I have
ventured to draw attention to the matter simply and solely because of its grave
importance in connection with the subject of my Address. The country cannot
afford to allow periods of inactivity or decadence in our seats of learning, and the
interests of the individual must be subordinated to those of the nation.

Even if by adopting the above suggestions the training of our chemists is
improved, and all our higher educational institutions become permanent and
active centres of research, the manufacturers may still remain unresponsive,
what can be done in other ways to bring about the active co-operation of pure
and applied science ?

The great proportion of the original work now done in this country, judging
from the published records, is absolutely free from any utilitarian bias; the time,
brain-power, and money devoted to this work are considerable, and the results
from a scientific point of view eminently satisfactory. If even a fractinn of the
same skill and energy were brought to bear under proper conditions on problems
of applied science, who can doubt but that the effect on our chemical industries
would be one of vast importance? And yet it is the rarest possible occurrence
to find any record of research work undertaken with a commercial object even
in the natural home of such records, the ‘Journal of the Society of Chemical
Industry.’ ‘

One reason for this may be that the discoveries made in the works-laboratories
are not given to the world at large, but are quietly and lucratively applied in
some secret manufacturing process. Another reason, unfortunately the more
probable one, may be that nearly all the principal research workers are completely
shut off from any industrial influences.

Now the worker in pure science, unaided by the advice of the manufacturer
and business man, has little chance of solving any important technological
problem, except as the result of accident; he has not the requisite acquaintance
with commercial conditions, does not realise the enormous difference between
operations on the laboratory and the manufacturing scales, or, if he does so, is
unable to enter fully and with confidence into questions of fuel, labour, and so
on which often determine the success or otherwise of a process. Further, much
of the research work of direct commercial value concerns methods for reducing
the cost of processes already in operation, and demands an intimate practical
knowledge of these processes.

It is obvious, therefore, that, even if all the research capacity of the country
were henceforth devoted to purely technical matters, any great improvement in
our industries could hardly be anticipated without the aetive co-operation of the
manufacturers.

Now it has been stated' that the authorities of the Manchester Municipal
School of Technology intend to undertake investigations for local manufacturers
and merchants in connection with difficulties which may be met with in their
works or business. This method of securing the interest and support of those
engaged in applied chemistry may or may not be workable according to the con-
ditions under which such co-operation is carried out. The staff and the laboratories
of a university or polytechnic cannot be placed at the unrestrained and gratuitous
disposal of any manufacturer who is in some trivial difficulty, nor can the choice
of the subjects to be investigated be decided by the governing body. If how-
ever the arrangements, pecuniary and otherwise, are left entirely in the hands of
those dizectly concerned, namely, the manufacturer and the responsible head of

' Levinstein, Jour, Soc, Chem, Tnd., 1903, 845.
1908. .

Gc
a

658 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 8,

the chemistiy department, the scheme should then prove exceedingly valiable,
and should be adopted as widely as possible. It should be understood, and the
fact might even be advertised by the governing body, that for purposes of
research work in applied chemistry—but not of course for analytical work—the
laboratory of the university, college, or polytechnic is, under certain cecnditions,
at the service of the manufacturers; that although primarily and unswervingly
devoted to work in pure science, such institutions recognise that, for their own
interests, they must do all they can to assist chemical industries,

It might be thought that these conditions prevail at the present time and that
any manufacturer, if he so choose, may consult the university staff on any problem
in which he is interested. Possibly this is true to a limited extent, but in most
institutions the members of the staff are restrained from undertaking any outside
work ; in others, such work may only be done with the sanction of the authorities.

These conditions, of course, are only laid down because the governing body
believes that they safeguard the interests of the institution, and if it were shown
that their enforcement is really contrary to those interests they would soon be
abrogated. Many or all such authorities readily permit the members of their
staff to undertake outside examination work because they consider this course to
be to the advantage of the.r institution; but how incomparably more important
is the object of gaining the contidence and support of the manufacturers.

Pray do not let it be imagined that this is some subtle scheme for increasing
the pecuniary rewards of the teachers. I greatly fear that to many of those who
are now engaged in research work the suggestion that they should give some
attention to applied chemistry would be very distasteful, simply because it would
involve an immediate encroachment on the time, already far too limited, which
they are able to give to the immediate scientific problem which is one of their
principal joys in life. To those who might have fears of this kind I would point
out that there would soon be some compensation; once the co-operation of the
manufacturers is secured, the demand for research chemists would expand, and the
laboratories would be filled with students whose help in pure science would be
invaluable.

The possible objection that the teaching staff would devote too much time to
applied work and neglect other duties is one which could be left for the governing
body to deal with unsparingly. If the institution took some percentage of all
_ extraneous remuneration, or any similar arrangement were made, the funds thus

provided could be used for increasing the staff of assistants and demonstrators—
a most desirable reform in itself.

One of the greatest advantages of a working arrangement such as that here
indicated would be that, like the method already suggested, it would lead to the
evolution of whut is otherwise almost unattainuble—namely, men thoroughly
trained in both science and practice. The research students of the teaching
institution, engaged on a given problem for a manufacturer, would of course be
allowed to study its practical aspects in the works; on the other hand, works-
chemists, with considerable practical experience, would be granted permission to
proceed to the university laboratory, where they would study the problem with
the assistance of the highest scientific knowledge, and acquire further training in
the methods of research.

Combinations such as these could hardly fail to lead to valuable results,
which would form the subject of patents; the monopolies thus acquired would
place the manufacturers in a favourable position, and the revival of our chemical
industries would follow in due course. There is nothing Utopian in this scheme,
and there are no great initial difficulties to be overcome; it may be set in
operation by the manufacturer, and possibly also, as will be indicated later, by
the worker in pure science. Reading between the lines certain records which
have recently appeared in the science journals and the patent lists, it may even
be inferred that such arrangements are already in force in one of our large
industrial centres. ‘

There are other ways in which it might be possible to obtain the active
co-operation of the manufacturers. Any individual or firm interested in a

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 659

problem of applied science might be invited to found a temporary research
scholarship at the university or other institution for the definite object of the
particular problem in question. The maximum period during which such a
schelarship would be tenable might be fixed beforehand, so that the financial
liability of the founder would be limited and proportionate to the importance of
the object in view. The holder of the scholarship might be nominated by the
university, or by the founder and the university jointly, and suitable conditions
would be drawn up to ensure the interests of the founder; he would of course
have the benefit of all the results of the work, and would secure the patent
rights of any new invention, subject possibly to the payment of asmall percentage
of the profits to the university and to the holder of the scholarship. During the
tenure of the scholarship, the holder, and also the founder, would have the
advantage of the scientific knowledge of the university ; the scholarship holder
would also be allowed to gain practical experience in the works, and, if successful,
there is little doubt but that he would have the option of working the process
on the large scale and of obtaining permanent employment under satisfactory
conditions. After a given period the scientific results of the work would be
published through the usual channels in the ordinary way.

This idea of applied research scholsrships had taken shape in my mind when
I happened to come across a book recently published in the United States, called
‘The Chemistry of Commerce,’ in which I found that a similar proposal had been
made by the author, R. K. Duncan, Professor of Industrial Chemistry at the
University of Kansas. The scheme is there worked out in some detail, and a
form of legal agreement to be signed by the university authorities and by the
founder of the ‘ Industrial Fellowship’ is suggested,

Thinking it would be of interest to know how the plan had worked out in
practice, I wrote to Professor Duncan and received a reply a few weeks ago.
He very courteously informed me that five industrial fellowships had already
been. established in his laboratories, that the agreements for two additional ones
were being prepared, and that he might have obtained more but wished to
proceed conservatively; also that he had no reason to doubt the entire
practicability of the scheme, and that experience had shown that the terms
of the agreement could be made more favourable to the university than those
which were first drawn up. One of the new conditions is that the industria]
fellowship holder shall give two hours a week gratuitous instruction in the work
of the chemistry department—an arrangement which has proved to be of great
inspirational value. The fellowships are tenable during two years and are of
the value of $500 or $1000 per annum.

It is too soon to be able to form any opinion as to the commercial importance
of the work carried out under this scheme, but it is obvious that the foundation
of such scholarships for the study of general or special problems in applied
chemistry is most desirable. One of their great advantages would be that they
might be founded by those manufacturers who cannot afford permanently to
engage a research chemist. Large and successful firms like the United Alkali
Company, Brunner, Mond, & Co., and many others which can employ a staff of
chemists, are of course eminently capable of managing their own affairs without
outside assistance or advice, and it is only for those which are less prosperous
that the foregoing suggestions are made.

The great benefits which are conferred on pure science by the open research
scholarships at present available afford some indication of what might be done
for industrial chemistry by the foundation of such scholarships in applied science.
There are, no doubt, scattered over the country many men who possess originality
and inventive talent, and who have practical experience in industrial operations,
but who have not been sufficiently trained in science; if it were possible to
attract this dormant talent by means of open scholarships it might be directed
into proper channels instead of being allowed to run to waste.

It is easy to say how money might be spent advantageously, but very difficult
to suggest how the funds for such open scholarships should be raised. An appeal
to the manufacturers hy this Association or by the Society of Chemical Industry

UU2

660 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

might meet with some response, and it is also possible that public bodies might
render assistance. If the Government of Bengal, under the spur of dire
necessity, can subsidise research work on indigo, and if our county councils can
offer scholarships for dairy work, and grants for experiments on turnip-growing,
bee-keeping, and so on, our city and borough councils might award scholarships
in applied chemistry for subjects of especial importance to the dominant trades of
the district. By so doing they would be utilising to the best advantage the
chemistry departments of our universities and polytechnics.

I noted a few moments ago that practically all the published research work
of this country has no direct reference to any industrial problem ; nevertheless
the results of this work are often of such a character that they might be of
considerable technological importance. New reactions are discovered; new or
improved methods of preparing known compounds; new facts as to the conditions
under which important general reactions occur; and, needless to add, a great
many new compounds are prepared.

Now, abroad, all or nearly all such matters are protected by patents, generally
taken out by some firm of manufacturers. To the uninitiated it seems absurd to
think that there is money in the great majority of such patents, and yet it is
obvious that the employment of this system must pay in the long run, Why
should it not be adopted in this country—at any rate to a limited extent to start
with ?

If all those who are engaged in purely scientific research work would seriously
consider the desirability of obtaining provisional protection for any discovery
which they may make, and would then consult some manufacturer or industrial
expert with whom the further development of the matter might be undertaken,
there is reason to believe that in some cases at least the patent might prove to
be a commercial success.

The examination of the therapeutic action of compounds discovered in our
laboratories is also a possible means of assisting our chemical industries; the
matter is not sd trivial as it may seem; a monopoly in the manufacture of some
valuable medicinal preparation would serve as a point d’appui from which more
important operations could be undertaken.

Unfortunately the investigation of the physiological action of new prepara-
tions is a matter of some difficulty in this country, as it is to some extent
connected with vivisection in the public mind; we may poison rats with
impunity, and even create an organisation for their extermination, but we may not
individually try the effect of a new compound on a rabbit.

In drawing this Address to a conclusion I cannot but feel that my suggestions
may seem utterly inadequate to the attainment of those important results which
are so greatly to be desired. Ifso, I can only plead that more drastic measures
are hardly available, and that even under the most favourable circumstances
improvement can take place only very slowly. Whatever differences of opinion
may be held as to the details of any scheme for regaining our lost ground, the
main lines seem to be clearly indicated. The workers in pure science must
recognise that it is their duty to do all they can to promote the industrial welfare
of their country; the manufacturers must concede the paramount importance of
science and the impossibility of dispensing with its counsels. Guided by these
principles and by a spirit of cordial co-operation, a sustained and strenuous effort
on the part of the leaders of chemical industry and of chemical science can
hardly fail to accomplish the end in view.

In elaborating this Address I have enjoyed the advantage of the criticisms and
suggestions of my friend and relative Professor Perkin, F.R.S., to whom my
sincere thanks are here expressed.

{RANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 661

Vhe following Papers and Reports were then read :—

1. Synthetical Hapertments in the Verpene Series.

By Professor W. H. Perxin, 2.2.8,

2. The Preparation of Camphor from Turpentine Oil,
By Dr. C. WrizMann.

During the last six years many methods for the manufacture of camphor by
the removal of hydrochloric acid from pinene hydrochloride have been developed.
The hydrochloride is heated with aliphatic or alicyclic amines, such as methyl-
amine, dimethylamine, piperidine, or with an alcoholic solution of ammonia, under
high pressure,

The chief feature of these processes appears to be high pressure, a temperature
of 200° to 250°, and the presence of a large excess of the dehalogenising agent.
This agent need not necessarily be a strong base, but it appears to be important
that the pinene hydrochloride should be maintained in solution during the reaction.
Laboratory tests show that many of these processes yield from 70 to 80 per cent.
of the theory. As the result of experiments in the laboratories of Manchester
University it was found that when pinene hydrochloride is heated with glacial
acetic acid and from 5 to 10 per cent. of its weight of zinc chloride, it is readily
converted into ¢sobornyl acetate, with evolution of hydrochloric acid gas. The
zinc chloride appears to act catalytically, and large quantities of pinene hydro-
chloride can be converted into zsobornyl acetate with comparatively small quan-
tities of zinc chloride.

The acetate is then hydrolysed by boiling with alcoholic sodium hydroxide,
The alcohol is distilled off and the zsoborneol separates out as white crystals,

-

3. Bravilin and Hematoxylin, By R. Rosson,

4, The Dynamic Isomerism of Oxymethylene Camphor Derivatives.
By Professor W. J. Porr, /.R.S., and Jonn Reap.

5. Benzyl Sulphoaide: a possible Example of Tautomerism.
By J. A. Smytue, Ph.D., D.Sc.

The reaction between hydrochloric acid and benzyl sulphoxide in various
solvents has been studied. The products include four to six of the follow-
ing bodies: benzaldehyde, benzyl chloride, benzyl mercaptan, benzaldehyde
mercaptol and the sulphide, disulphide and disulphoxide of benzyl. Considera-
tion of this action has led to the view that benzyl sulphoxide exists in solution in
tautomeric forms, and from these two forms it is possible to build up five equations,
which give acomplete explanation of the reaction with hydrochloric acid, not only
qualitatively but also quantitatively. The agreement of the quantitative results
with those calculated from the equations is held to justify the hypothesis upon
which the equations are founded.

Thus in solution one may regard benzyl sulphoxide as existing in the two tau-
tomeric forms as expressed by the equation :—

C,H,.CH, C,H,.CHOH
Sso2 %
Ahora s
C,H,.CH, C,H,.CH,,7””

the equilibrium depending upon the temperature, the nature of the solvent, and the
concentration of water,

662 TRANSACTIONS of SECTION B.

6. The Action of Halogens upon Aromatic Hydrazines.
By F. D. Cuarraway, D.Sc, FR.

‘he actions which take place when the halogens are brought into contact with
ptimary aromatic hydrazines are so violent, unless special precautions are taken, and
such large amounts of tarry matters are formed, that they have been investigated
comparatively little, and in consequence the formation of the many different
substances which are produced when the conditions of interaction are altered
has never been accounted for satisfactorily.

The complicated changes which occur all depend, however, upon a progressive
substitution of hydrogen attached to the nitrogen, followed by a breaking down
or intra-molecular rearrangement of the N-substituted hydrazines thereby pro-
duced.

When a halogen acts upon an aromatic hydrazine one of the hydrogen atoms
of the -NH —NH, group, probably one in the — NH, group is replaced,' a nitrogen
halogen derivative being produced which at once undergoes what is in fact the
typical diazo decomposition——_for example :—

C,H;-N—H C,H,-N-H CH, N H
| i | aa | f [Uc oteaeseeett
H-—~N-H H-N-Br H N Br

Hydroxyl ions much accelerate the rate at which this decomposition occurs,
while hydrogen ions correspondingly diminish it.

When halogens therefore act upon aromatic hydrazines in presence of alkalis,
hydrocarbons, the hydrides of the aromatic groups present in the hydrazines, are
almost exclusively produced. When, however, an excess of halogen is employed
a relatively small amount of the N-mono-substituted hydrazine undergoes further
substitution before disruption can take place and a dihalogen N-substitution pro-
duct is formed, which, like the mono-substitution product, is unstable in presence
of alkali and breaks down similarly, a mono-substituted halogen derivative of
the hydrocarbon formed in the first action being produced—for example :—

C,H,-N-—H C,H,;—N—-—Br C,H; N H
= | 46 allyl) see]
H-N-—Br Br—N-—H Br N Br.

The N-mono-substituted hydrazines being far more stable in presence of acids,
when these are present this replacement of a second halogen atom takes place to
a much greater extent, and the whole of the hydrazine may thus be converted into
the N-disubstituted derivative, which then may, according to conditions, undergo
the diazo decomposition or yield a diazonium salt, thus :—

C,H;,—N—Br C,H,;—-N-—-Br
| ee III + HBr,
Br-N—H N

The diazonium salt may, if suitable means are adopted, be isolated,” but, as the
interaction of hilogen and hydrazine is usually very vigorous and accompanied by
considerable evolution of heat, it is generally decomposed, giving rise to tarry
matters.

In presence of a considerable excess of hydrochloric or other strong acid the
NH, group is to a large extent protected® against the action of the halogen
and substitution takes place most readily in the -NH— group. The nitrogen
halogen compound thus produced is of the type of the acyl amino compounds, and

* This, as in other similar eases, is without doubt effected by the addition of two
atoms of the halogen, followed by the elimination of a molecule of halogen hydride,

* Chattaway, Trans. Chem. Soc:, 1908, 98, 852.

* This is probably due to the addition of halogen necessary for substitution to
take place being prevented by the combination of the NH, group with the acid, ~

Rape gteceenas

TRANSACTIONS QF SECTION B. 663

under the influence of the acid undergoes the intramolecular rearrangement
characteristic of these compounds, whereby the halogen passes into the para or
ortho position in the nucleus. Mono and disubstituted hydrazines are thus pro-
duced—for example :

NBr.NH,HBr NH.NH,HBr NBr.NH,8 Br NH.NH,.HBr

O © : a
Br Br Br

Further substitution into the remaining ortho position has not been observed,
and probably cannot be effected, since the substitution of halogen so lessens the
basicity of the hydrazine that the NH, group is attacked by preference ; indeed
the yield of mono or disubstituted hydrazine is never satisfactory, diazonium salts
and their decomposition products always being produced in large quantity.

The author has recently shown! that when the required amounts of bromine are
added to aromatic hydrazines dissolved in acetic acid, diazonium perbromides,
which are thus N-tribromosubstituted hydrazines, are produced quantitatively.
The replacement of hydrogen in the —NH.NH, group can thus be carried to com-
pletion—for example:

C,H,-—N-—H C,H,-N-H C,H,—-N-—Br 0,4,—-N—- Br
> > | =>
H-—N-H ~ Br—N—H Br—N-H Br—N—Br

Each of these substitution products can undergo the typical diazo decomposition
quantitatively when the conditions are favourable. Thus by the action of bromine
upon phenyl hydrazine we can obtain either benzene or bromobenzene, nitrogen
and hydrogen bromide or bromine being eliminated thus :—

C,H, —N- H C,H; —-N- ‘Br C,H, —N-—bBr
Hii N=iBr. , Br-N-H , Br —N-— Br.

Other compounds besides these simple ones may be formed—for example, from
among the products of the action of bromine on phenyl hydrazine, in addition to
benzene and bromobenzene, p- and m-dibromobenzene and 1, 2, 4 and 1, 3,5 tri-
bromobenzene have been isolated, as well as azobenzene and diphenyl ; the forma-
tion of all these products can be simply explained by the theory of the reaction
here put forward. It is, moreover, entirely in harmony with all that has been
observed in the oxidation of the aromatic hydrazines.

7. Some Reactions of Dichloro Urea.
By F. D. Cuarraway, D.Sc., FR.

Urea is so well known and has been so much investigated that any new simple
substance obtainable from it possesses quite an unusual amount of interest. Such
a new substance is found in dichloro urea, which, leaving out of consideration
the derivatives of ammonia itself, is one of the simplest possible compounds con-
taining halogen attached to nitrogen. It is produced when chlorine is passed
into a cooled saturated aqueous solution of urea, Action takes place without
any considerable development of heat, and dichloro urea crystallises out as a
white powder consisting of small transparent plates. It can be preserved for a

' Proc, Chem. Soe,, 1908, 24, 172,

664 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

considerable time in a dry atmosphere, although it is not a very stable body. Itie
comparatively safe to handle, and promises to be of considerable use as a synthetic
agent, as it is easily soluble in water, alcohol, and ether, and is very reactive.
Its composition shows that it has the formula CON,H,Cl,, and having regard to
its mode of formation as well as to the structure of urea itself, its constitution is
most probably represented by the formula Oot

By means of this formula its formation and such of its reactions as have yet
been studied can be explained. The other theoretically possible chloro substi-
tution derivatives of urea, though probably formed in the reaction between
chlorine and urea, have not so far been isolated.

When dichloro urea is produced, although two molecules of hydrogen chloride
are formed, very little heat is developed, and it must therefore be an endothermic
compound and might be expected to be highly explosive. When heated, how-
ever, it does not itself explode, but decomposes at about 83°, with liberation of
nitrogen chloride, which latter may detonate with great, violence if not allowed
to escape, and if the temperature is raised a few degrees higher, as, for example,
when dichloro urea is heated in a test tube over a water-bath.

Dichloro urea gives all the characteristic reactions of a typical nitrogen
chloride; for instance, it liberates iodine from hydriodic acid, chlorine from
hydrochloric acid, and reacts with alcohol, forming ethyl hypochlorite, urea being
in each case re-formed.

Dichloro urea is distinguished from most other substituted nitrogen chlorides
by the readiness with which it is hydrolysed, nitrogen chloride, carbon dioxide,
a little nitrogen, and ammonium chloride being formed. If the compound is dis-
solved in water or kept in a moist atmosphere, this hydrolysis takes place slowly
at the ordinary temperature, and becomes very rapid at about 30° C,

It is probable that in this reaction a mono-substituted ammonia is first pro-
duced thus ;—~

(7/7 NHCI 1a OL once
COC NHI * 2H.0= COC OH +2NH,Cl.
But if so, it apparently can only exist momentarily, as nitrogen chloride is at
once liberated, The formation of the end-products of the reaction can be
explained by assuming that this monochloro ammonia immediately breaks up
into ammonia and nitrogen chloride,

3NH,Cl=2NH, + NCl,,

which then to some extent react in the ordinary way, forming nitrogen and
hydrogen chloride, the latter at once combining with the free ammonia and
allowing the remaining nitrogen chloride to escape, as this does not react with
ammonium chloride.

Both acids and alkalis accelerate the rate of hydrolysis, and further alter the
nature of the end-products by hindering or furthering the secondary reaction
between the ammonia and the nitrogen chloride. In presence of dilute acids the
ammonia is at once fixed, and the reaction between it and the nitrogen chloride,
with its accompanying liberation of nitrogen, is prevented; all the chlorine con-
tained in the dichloro urea is therefore liberated as nitrogen chloride. In presence
of allcalis, on the other hand, the reaction between the ammonia and the nitrogen
chloride goes on to completion since the hydrochloric acid formed in it is at once
fixed ; no nitrogen chloride, therefore, is set free since twice as much ammonia as
is required to decompose it is present.

The 1eaction between dichloro urea and a solution of caustic potash is very
energetic ; nitrogen is liberated with effervescence, the excess of ammonia and the
alkaline carbonate formed remaining dissolved in the liquid. The action, which is
quantitative, is expressed by the equation

S00 Nyip] + L2KOH =8K,CO, + 2NH, + KCI + 2N, + 6H,0,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 665

This behaviour of dichloro urea with alkalis affords an insight into what
occurs when urea is decomposed either by an excess of alkaline hypochlorite or
hypobromite. The course of this reaction has never hitherto been explained,
although it has received an unusual amount of attention on account of its fur-
nishing a ready method of estimating the quantity of urea present in a liquid. In
this reaction the urea is without doubt converted into a chloro or bromo urea,
which is at once hydrolysed in the manner above described. It is possible that
in presence of excess of hypochlorite or hypobromite a tri- or tetra-substitution
product may be produced, the formation and decomposition of which can be formu-
lated easily, but this does not affect the essential character of the reaction, which
is one of halogen substitution followed by hydrolysis of the substituted urea and
interaction between the résulting compounds.

A reaction which indicates the use to which dichloro urea may be put in the
synthesis of simple carbon and nitrogen rings is that between it and ammonia.

When ammonia in excess is added to an aqueous solution of dichloro urea,
hydrolysis, accompanied by liberation of nitrogen and formation of carbonate,
occurs, but in addition diurea COX RENE DOO is produced, and separates
in considerable quantity as a sparingly soluble crystalline powder. This is the
first direct synthesis of diurea from urea itself, the compound having been pre-
viously obtained from ethyl carbonate and hydrazine.

This adds another to the very few reactions known by which nitrogen atoms
can be made to link up together, and further affords an exceedingly simple
synthesis of hydrazine.

Diurea, when heated with excess of strong sulphuric acid to a little above
100° C., is easily hydrolysed, carbon dioxide escapes, and hydrazine sulphate is
produced. This crystallises out perfectly pure in almost theoretical amount on
cooling and adding a little water.

Dichloro urea can be prepared from urea and converted into diurea so easily,
and the latter can be hydrolysed so quickly, that the reactions afford a synthesis
of hydrazine more adapted to prepare a small quantity than any yet described.
The operations involved are so simple and can be carried out so quickly, that they
are also excellently‘suited for showing the synthesis of hydrazine as a lecture
experiment.

8. Report on Dynamic Isomerism,—See Reports, p, 112.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.

Discussion on the Nature of Chemical Change. Opened by Professor
H, E. Armstrone, 7.2.8,

The following Papers were then read :—

1. Note on a Volatile Compound of Cobalt with Carbon Monoxide. By
Dr. Lupwia Monn, F.A.S., Dr. Heryricu Hirtz, and M. Darron
Cowap.

In a previous paper,’ published by one of us in conjunction with Dr, Carl

Langer and Dr. F. Quincke, entitled ‘ Action of Carbon Monoxide on Nickel,’ p. 752,
we stated that ‘numerous experiments made to obtain similar compounds of

1 Journal of the Chemical Society, 1890, p. 749,

666 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

carbon monoxide with other metals, notably with cobalt, iron, copper, and platinum,
have only led to negative results.’ In a later paper,! published by one of us in
conjunction with Dr. F. Quincke, we announced the formation of iron carbonyls,
which were subsequently more fully described by one of us in conjunction with
Dr. Carl Langer.”

In continuing the experiments with cobalt, and taking advantage of the method
of Sir James Dewar for facilitating the formation of nickel carbonyl, by acting upon
the finely divided metals by carbon monoxide under a high pressure and corre-
spondingly high temperature, instead of working at ordinary pressure and ordi-
nary temperature, as we had hitherto done, we succeeded in obtaining small quan-
tities of a cobalt carbonyl when the pressure was raised to 50 atmospheres and the
temperature to 150° C., and the quantity formed was «considerably increased by
raising the pressure to 100 atmospheres and the temperature to 200° C.

The cobalt oxide was prepared from a pure oxalate, free from nickel and iron,
by heating to about 200° C. The cobalt oxide was filled into a steel retort,
which was fitted with two steel pipes for the gas circulation. All iron parts were
. lined with copper, so as to prevent the action of carbon monoxide on the iron. This
retort was heated in an oil bath. Behind the outlet valve we fixed a small gun-
metal cylinder, which contained a filter of flock asbestos, and behind this we had
an additional filter of cotton-wool in a glass tube. From there the gases had to
pass a condensing bottle, and the spent gases were burnt at the outlet. The cobalt
oxide was placed into the retort and reduced with hygogen at 5-10 atmospheres
pressure, and at the lowest possible temperature. A slow current of carbon mon-
oxide was then passed through tha apparatus at 100 atmospheres pressure. The
temperature of reaction lies between 150° C. and 200°C. Both filters were kept
at 50° O. by means of warm water. The condensing bottle was cooled in ice. In
this bottle we obtained large orange crystals of the cobalt carbonyl.

The analysis of these crystals was made by decomposing them with bromine
water. The carbon monoxide was measured, and the cobalt estimated in the
solution, The result was:—

aiM sy # Co. co. Co/CO.
0:0744 gr. 0:1597 gr. 1:53:96
0:0582 gr. 01115 gr. 1:4:03

We conclude therefore that this compound is Co(OO),, corresponding to the liquid
nickel carbonyl.

The cobalt carbonyl is gradually decomposed in air, leaving a deep violet sub-
stance, which has not yet been investigated. The crystals are best preserved by
sealing them in a glass tube under hydrogen or carbon monoxide. The cobalt
carbonyl is very slowly attacked by non-oxidising acids, as hydrochloric or sul-
phuric. The reaction is accelerated by the presence of an oxidising agent. The
carbonyl is quickly, almost instantaneously, decomposed by oxidising acids, such
as bromine, chlorine, nitric acid, and the corresponding cobalt salt is formed under
elimination of carbon monoxide, according to the following equation :—

Co(CO), + Br, = CoBr, + 4C0.

The cobalt carbonyl is insoluble in water, but more or less soluble in the several
organic solvents, such as carbon bisulphide, ether, naphtha, alcohol, and nickel
carbonyl. If these solutions are kept standing for some time, or if they are
warmed, decomposition sets in. These and other solutions and their products of
decomposition have not yet been investigated.

_ The specific gravity measured by the suspension method at 18° C. is 1:827, but
we do not regard this figure as final, as the substance is so easily decomposed, and
if only kept for a few hours the specific gravity increases considerably, due to
decomposition, The vapour tension zz vacuo could not be measured with certainty,
owing to decomposition. The vapour tension at 15°C. measured 11 mm., but

' Journal of the Chemieal Society, 1891, p, 604, .
* Ibid,, p. 1091.

PRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 8. 667

at 25° C. deeomposition éould be proved, which was very marked at 85° C., so
that we are not sure if there was not already a slight decomposition at 15° C.
In a carbonic oxide atmosphere the decomposition commences at about 40° C. to
45° C., and is complete at 130° C. to 136° C., leaving metallic cobalt.

The melting-point lies between 42°C. and 46°0, We could not estimate it
more exactly, owing to decomposition.

The authors reserve for themselves the right to further examine this reaction

with other metals.

2. The Structure of the Open Chain Hydrocarbons.
By Professor W. J. Porn, /.4.S., and Witu1am Bartow, £.4.S.

3. The Dynamics of Chenucal Action and the Meaning of Valency.
By H. Bateman,

The valency of a chemical element or radical is a number which indicates the
degrees of freedom for departure from the existing state of motion of the charged
particles which constitute the element or radical ; its value depends simply upon
the nature of the stability and instability of the state of motion,

An atom whose valency is different from zero is supposed to be capable of an
infinite number of states of steady motion, and of so adjusting its motion as to
enter into chemical combination with other atoms. ;

When two atoms combine the particles can be supposed to describe orbits
round one another, with the result that the stability of the motion of the com-
pound system is altered. If such atom loses a degree of freedom we can repre-
sent the effect by a bond connecting the two atoms,

An ideal atom can be constructed in which the spectrum is invariable for all
states of motion consistent with given types of stability or constraints,

4, Colloidal Chemistry. By H. R. Procrsr, M.Sc.
See Reports, p. 201,

5. The Influence of Colloids and Colloid Suspensions on the Solubility
of Carbon Dioxide in Water, By Dr. AuEx. FINDLAY.

The problem of the absorption of gases, more especially oxygen and carbon
dioxide, by blood is one which has exercised the minds of physiologists and
physicists for many years, the view generally held being that the gases are retained
in the blood largely owing to the formation of chemical compounds. With regard
to the absorption of CO,, the reputed alkalinity of the blood and the consequent
formation of carbonate and bicarbonate have been held chiefly responsible for the
increase in solubility of CO, in blood as compared with that in a corresponding
salt solution. Recently, however, various investigators (Holber, Farkas, Fraenkel
&c.) have shown that blood is ‘ water neutral,’ in which case the generally held
view regarding the absorption of CO, by blood becomes untenable.

Believing that the colloids present in blood might very probably play an im-
portant rd/e, it was decided to undertake an extended investigation of the influence
of colloids on the absorption of gases by water, since only a very few experiments
in this direction have been carried out (Geffchen).

The following results have been obtained by Mr. W. H. Harby, B.Sc., working
under the direction of the Author, All determinations were made at 25°, and

668 ‘(RANSACTIONS OF SECTION Bi,

the solubility values represent the ratio of gas volume absorbed to the volume of
the absorbing liquid :—

1. Solubility in water: 0°823, Experimental error about + 0°25 per cent.
Ul. Colloidal ferric hydroxide—
Grams of Fe(OH), in 100 c.c. of liquid 1°36 0:68 0-34 0136
Solubility of CO, : : : . 0896 0877 0°837 O'824
Il. Gelatin—
Grams of gelatin in 100 c.c. of liquid 5 3 1
Solubility of CO, 5 ‘ ‘ « 0°848 0°834. 0'826
IV. Arsenious sulphide—
Grams As,S, in 100 c.c. of liquid. » 0-305 0°244. 07122 00244
Solubility of CO, : F : . 0°822 0°825 5 0°825
V. Stlicie acid—

Grams H,SiO, in 100 ¢.c. of liquid . 0113 0-068
Solubility of CO, : ; . » 0°823 0-822

VI. Dextrin—
Grams of dextrin in 100 c.c. of liquid . 20 10 5 1
Solubility of CO, - ; 0°735 0°757 0-768 0-817

VII. Soluble stareh—
Grams of starch in 100 c.c. of liquid . 10 5 1
Solubility of CO, 2 : LG 0-801 0815
VIII. Glycogen—

Grams of glycogenin 100c.c. of liquid 1:18 0263

Solubility of CO, : . . . O80ot 0820
TX, Albumen.

Grams of albumenin 100 c.c. of liquid 05 0-75

Solubility of CO, A . : » (0822 0-822

Experiments, still in progress, have been made with the white of egg, diluted
with five times its volume of water. An increase of about 8 per cent. in the
solubility of CO, was found. Soon, however, a precipitate began to form, and the
solubility of CO, diminished, some of the gas which had been dissolved passing
out of solution, Finally, there was an increase in the solubility of about 4 per cent.

6. The Density of Liquids at Low Temperatures. By Dr. J. TimMeRMANs.

To continue Young’s experiments on the rectilinear diameter the densities of
liquids from 0° C. to their melting-points have been investigated.

The thermometric method was employed, using a platinum resistance ther-
mometer. An apparatus, which contained pure liquids at their melting-point,
was devised to keep the temperature absolutely constant. The experimental
error was within 1/10,000.

The following preliminary conclusions may be stated :

1, The ‘rectilinear diameter’ is very slightly curved down to the melting-point.
2. The are of the curvature corresponds to that observed by Young at higher
temperatures,

7. The Work of Two Lrish Chemists, Bryan Higgins and
Wiliam Higgins. By Dr, A. Metprum.

The two Irishmen Bryan Higgins and William Higzins are knowa to
chemists, if known at all, as, having adopted in the eighteenth century ideas
which in some respects forestalled the atomic theory of the nineteenth.

Bryan Higgins (4. 1737, d. 1820) was remarkable as a teacher of chemistry,
as a technical chemist, a3 an investigator into pure chemistry, and also by reason
of his atomic speculations.

He was a pioneer of the vractical teaching of chemistry, and gave instruction

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 669

in the subject for some twenty-three years (1774-1796) in his School of Practical
Chemistry in Greek Street, Soho, London. Towards the end of his career as a
teacher he was instrumental in spreading a knowledge of the new (anti-
phlogistonist) system of chemistry. The ‘Society for Philosophical Experiments
and Conversations’ met in his laboratory (1794 et seg.). Before this Society,
which included politicians, lawyers, and physicians of high standing in London,
Higgins demonstrated the experiments which formed the basis of the new
chemistry.

His practical work, which is extensive, was carried out with extraordinary
attention to detail. As technical chemist he did work on cements, on soap, and
on glass. In the West Indies, where he went on the invitation of a committee
of the Jamaica House of Assembly, he investigated the manufacture of musco-
vado sugar and rum (1797-1802). In pure chemistry he carried out one large
research, and made a number of minor discove~ies, including that of the musical
note which may be produced when a jet of hydrogen burns-in air.

‘The Experiments and Observations concerning Acetous Acid, ’&e. (1786), is
an elaborate investigation into acetic acid and acetates. Higgins describes the
preparation of pure acetic acid, and of tke acetates of calcium, potassium, mag-
neslum, ammonium, and lead. Having investigated the effect of heat upon these
substances, he arrived at a definite conclusion regarding the constitution of acetic
acid—virtually, that it consists of carbon dioxide (‘fixable air’) and methane
(‘ heavy inflammable air’).

Distilling ammonium acetate, he obtained acetamide. He purified it carefully
by ‘five sublimations,’ and in a detailed account of its properties gives the
melting-point as 170° F. instead of 177° F.

In the ‘ Philosophical Essay concerning Light’ (1776) Higgins gives reasons
for rejecting the emission theory of light and for adopting an undulatory theory,
but on this question he afterwards changed his mind. He adapted the Newtonian
atomic theory to the purposes of chemistry, and supposed that acid and alkali
combine atom with atom. In this way he accounted for the fact, which he proved
by an ingenious experiment, that ammonia and hydrochloric acid gases combine
in single definite proportion.

William Higgins (d. 1825) was trained in chemistry by his uncle Bryan
Higgins. He assisted Dr. Beddoes in the teaching of chemistry at Oxford (1787),
and he acted as chemist to the Apothecaries’ Hall of Ireland (1791-1795), and
then to the Royal Dublin Society (1795-1825). He carried out experimental
work on’ bleaching for the Irish Linen Board. A Fellow of the Royal Irish
Academy, he acted as a member of its Council for many years. In 1806 he was
elected to the Royal Society of London. He published three books: (1) ‘A Com-
parative View of the Phlogistic and Antiphlogistic Theories’ (1789); (2) ‘An
Essay on the Theory and Practice of Bleaching, wherein the Sulphuret of Lime
is recommended as a Substitute for Potash ’ (1799); (3) ‘ Experiments and Obser-
vations on the Atomic Theory and Electrical Phenomena’ (1814).

Having become a Lavoisierian in 1785, Higgins was the first to write against
phlogiston in the English language. Written expressly in reply to Kirwan’s
essay on the subject, the ‘Comparative View’ was published in the year
1789, just when there was a revulsion of feeling in England in favour of
phlogiston.

He made the important observations that at the ordinary temperature—

(1) Quicklime and dry hydrochloric acid gas do not combine (1789).

(2) Dry nitric oxide and sulphuretted hydrogen do not interact (1814).

(3) Phosphorus does not act with undiluted oxygen as it does with the
oxygen of the air (1814).

Throughout the ‘ Comparative View’ Higgins makes use of the atomic theory,
He believed firmly that combination occurs in definite proportions, and he sup-
posed that in the first place combination occurs atom with-atom. The molecule of
water he regarded virtually as OH.

Tn the case of water, sulphuretted hydrogen, and sulphur dioxide he attempted

670 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

to connect the composition by volume, which he knew, with the composition in
terms of atoms.

Knowing various cases of combination of two elements in more than one
proportion, he continued to apply the atomic theory. He regarded sulphurous
acid virtually as SO, and sulphuric acid as SO,. He recognised five oxides of
nitrogen, which he regarded as NO, NO,, NO,, NO,, and NO,. In the Wilde
Lecture for 1908, on the ‘Physical Aspects of the Atomic Theory, ? Larmor
expresses the ‘Daltonian principle’ in the words ‘a definite molecule for each
substance.’ This principle, which is certainly common to the various systems of
chemistry of the nineteenth century, was adopted by William Higgins as early as
the year 1789.

8, The Action of the Enzymes of Malt on Ungerminated Cereals.
By Jouan L. Baxer, F.1.C., and H. F. E. Hutton.

In a communication recently made on the strength of wheat flours ? we recorded
experiments showing that when a flour is doughed the evolution of carbonic acid
under standard conditions bears no relation to the diastatic activity as expressed
in degrees Lintner. When, however, a minute quantity of malt is added to the
dough the volume of gas evolved during the fermentation is increased in inverse
ratio to that originally given off; and in those cases where the original gas
production was low it is very largely increased.

J. S. Ford and J. M. Guthrie* in their recent work have shown that the
filtrate obtained by digesting an aqueous suspension of flour in presence of

apain is enabled to saccharify a greatly increased quantity of soluble starch.
n view of this work it would appear at least probable that the increased gas
production obtainable from dough by the use of malt might he due to the pro-
teolytic enzyme known to exist in malt, which by liberating more diastase, or
owing to its protection of that already present, renders more of this enzyme
available for the hydrolysis of the starch in flour, Ford and Guthrie (loc. cit.)
measured the saccharifying effect alone; but the enhanced gas production obsery-
able in dough containing a trace of malt must be due to an enzyme capable of
attacking the starch of the flour itself, which, of course, is fundamentally dif-
ferent from soluble starch, This led us to investigate the combined action of
the enzymes in barley and malt upon soluble starch and starch paste, with the
hope of throwing some light upon the nature of the activities involved.

If barley, when digested with malt—a substance which contains both a
starch-liquetying and proteolytic enzyme—were to yield a filtrate more diastatic
in its activity than that obtainable from the barley alone, then presumably this
enhanced activity of barley extract might be due to the action of the pro-
teolyst in the malt upon the barley. The nature of this increase, if any, could
be investigated by comparing its action upon soluble starch and starch paste,
since liquefying diastase, if liberated, cannot be supposed to increase the amount
of maltose produced from soluble starch, but would materially help the saccha-
rification of starch paste; on the other hand, if saccharifying diastase were the
one formed, then the conversion of starch paste would probably not be facilitated,
but soluble starch would be further saccharified and yield more maltose.

Finally ground malt and barley were separately extracted at the rate of
five grams per 100 c.c, At the same time a mixture of 24 grams of malt and
23 erams of barley was also digested with 100 c.c. of water. Filtrates from these
three extractions were examined as regards their action upon 2 per cent. soluble
starch and 2 per cent, starch paste for periods of one and two hours, at a tempe-
rature of 21°, the results being expressed as grams of maltose formed per gram of
barley, malt, and mixture of the two. Precautions were taken to keep the pro-

' Manchester Memoirs, 1908, 52, No. 10, p. 10,
* J. Soo, Chem, Ind., 1908, 27, 268.

* J, Inst, af Breming, 1908, 14, 61. aa

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 8, 671

portion of maltose within the limits of Kjeldahl’s ‘ Law of Proportionality.’ The
following results were obtnined :—

Soluble starch. | Starch paste.
_ Grams of maltose formed | Grams of maltose formed
1 hour 2 hours 1 hour 2 hours

Malt . “ . i 3:95 6°66 3°56 6:27
Barley - 5 . “al 1:03 1:53 0°92 1:57
Mixture as found i i 2°43 4:27 2°43 4-44

alculated mean 2°49 4095 | 2235 | 3°92
Per cent. increase 0 4°2 8:5 | 13'0

The order of these results was several times confirmed, and in some cases
larger percentage increases were obtained when acting on starch paste with the
filtrate from the mixed barley and malt. The experiment recorded above makes
it evident that the increased activity of the filtrate on the mixture is making itself
felt principally in the direction of the hydrolysis of the starch paste, which is
evidence that if an enzyme has been liberated it is one that facilitates lique-
faction of starch to a far greater degree than saccharification of already soluble
starch.

It is, of course, possible that in the filtrate from the mixture of barley and
malt the malt portion may have contributed liquefying diastase in sufficient
quantity not only for the liquefaction of the starch paste—it is itself saecharifying—
but sufticient also for the liquefaction of more than this amount, which would
then be available for attack by the saccharifying diastase of the barley, and thus
the mean of their actions would appear in excess of the theoretical amount. It
is obvious that if this is the case we should get the enhanced effect by mixing
the filtrates of the separately extracted malt and barley in equal proportions and
carrying out a conversion with the mixture. When this is done, however, the
maltose formed is the exact mean of that obtained from the two solutions used
separately.

These experiments, so far as they go, show that there is an undoubted increase
in the diastatic activity of barley when digested in the presence of the enzymes of
malt. This increased activity, whether due to the presence of a proteolyst or not,
is exercised mainly in the direction of the liberation of starch-liquefying enzyme.

We are continuing this investigation, as we believe it may be the means of
throwing further light upon some of the processes associated with germination.

9. The Preparation of Pure Maltose.
By Jouran L, Baker, £.1.0., and F. E. Day.

In a paper on the Action of Ungerminated Barley Diastase on Starch ' one of us
showed that the sole products of the action of barley diastase on starch paste or
soluble starch were maltose, about 60 per cent.,and a-amylodextrin. The dextrins
accompanying starch conversions made with malt diastase are soluble in alcohol,
and it is by no means an easy matter to isolate the maltose in a state of purity.
In starch conversions made with barley diastase a-amylodextrin can be easily
separated from the maltose by one precipitation with alcohol, and this constitutes
a convenient method for isolating pure maltose. The conversion is carried out by
preparing a quantity of a 3 per cent. starch paste or a 3 per cent. solution of
soluble starch and adding precipitated barley diastase, prepared according to
Lintner’s directions,” in such proportion that for every gram of starch the enzyme
from 1 gram of barley is present. The hydrolysis of the starch is conducted at a
temperature of 50° C, for five or six hours, and allowed to run on for several hours
in the cold. The conversion is evaporated toa thin syrup and poured into so much

1 Chem, Soe. Trans., 1902, 81, 1177, 2 J. Pral, Chem., 1886 (ii.), 34, 378,

672 TRANSACTIONS OF SKCTION #.

cold alcohol (95 per cent. by weight) that the resulting strength is about 80 pet!
cent. The a-amylodextrin is removed by filtration and the alcohol from the
filtrate by distillation. The maltose syrup may be seeded with a small quantity
of pure maltose and a little aleohol added. Usually in the course of a few hours
a solid magma of practically pure maltose is obtained. This may be further puri-
fied by triturating the sugar with strong alcohol, filtering, dissolving in a very
small quantity of water, and pouring into boiling 95 per cent. alcohol, again filtering,
and crystallising the maltose from the filtrate. Prepared under these conditions,
maltose separated in well-defined and relatively large plates mixed with irregular
crystalline masses.

When analysed it had a specific rotatory power (a) psssabs, = 187°1, and a
reducing power, determined under the conditions described by Brown and Millar,
1029. The osazone, which melted at 195°, consisted entirely of characteristic
broad prisms resembling ribbons in the microscopic field. The stellate aggregates
of crystals, which are always present in the osazone from maltose prepared by the
action of malt diastase on starch, were entirely absent. On acetylation the
characteristic octacetyl maltose was obtained.

Since the microscopic appearance of the maltose suggested the possibility of a
mixture, a large quantity of the sugar was collected and carefully fractionated by
dissolving in water and collecting successive crops of crystals. The fractions had
specitic rotatory powers of (a)p = 137°5 to 1384 abs. and reducing powers of
101°0 to 103°0 (calculated from Brown and Millar's Tables). The residential
mother liquor also had the constants (a)p = 3'98 abs. + 137°4 and R= 99-4.
Maltose of this degree of purity separates with remarkable ease from strong
aqueous solutions.

It will be noted that the reducing powers are all slightly higher than the
values recorded by Brown and Millar. We believe this to be due to the great
difficulty of preparing pure maltose by the action of malt diastase on starch,

Joint Discussion with Sections A and G on Gaseous Buplosions,

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 7,
‘The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. Lhe Inactive Gases. By Sir Wituiam Ramsay, K.C.B., PRS,

2. Lithium in Radio-active Minerals.
By Professor W. N. Hartuey, D.Sc., F.R.S.

‘The question as to whether lithium is or is not a widely occurring element,
and whether it is found associated with any other element, more particularly with
copper than with the alkalis or the alkaline earths, arises from the assumed
transmutation of copper contained in solutions, into lithium, nean, and possibly
other substances.

Tt has been stated by Sir William Ramsay :—

_ ‘As sodium and potassium are much more widely distributed than lithium, it
is more likely that they are the chief products from copper, and that some modi-
fying circumstance has determined the formation of a trace of lithium... .
Lithium was mentioned because it is an unlikely constituent of dust, glass,
copper, &c., which were tested specially to prove its absence,’

Nature, March|5, 1908 p. 412,

VRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 673

There are two statements here which, according to my experitncé, appear to
require modification, That potassium and sodium are more abundantly dis-
tributed than lithium is true, but that these are more widely distributed is not
strictly correct; nor can it be accepted as unquestionable that lithium is ait
unlikely constituent of dust, glass, copper, &c. Evidence to the contrary is
based upon facts divided into three categories—first, those derived from the
qualitative spectroscopic analysis of common ores and minerals usually associated
with the alkali metals; secondly, analysis of the crude salts of the alkalis, such
as the Stassfurth minerals and nitrates from Chile and Bengal, show that they
contain lithium and rubidium, with not unfrequently coesium. Facts belonging to
the third category are derived from experimental evidence, which is both quanti-
tative and spectrographic, the source of the spectra being the oxyhydrogen flame.
When half a gramme of material yields a photograph of the spectrum of lithium
on which the four chief lines are visible—namely, \ X 6708, 4603-07, 4132 93,
and 3$282°82—there cannot be less than 0:0009 gramme of lithium present.
When only the lines 6708°0 and 4603-07 are visible, the quantity is not less or
more than 0:0041 gramme.

When only the red line is photographed the quantity is not more than
0-002 gramme, and with half this quantity the line ceases to be photographed.
It follows, therefore, that from the evidence afforded by the number of plates on
which this line appears there could scarcely be less lithium in the 0'5 gramme of
material analysed than 0:2 per cent.

Further results have been obtained with several other metallic compounds,
but the sensitiveness of the flame reaction varies extraordinarily with the spectra
of different elements.

Mr. Ramage and I found in a hundred and seventy common ores and minerals
potassium and sodium, and with these common elements rubidium and lithium
were very generally associated. ‘Thus, of sixty-two iron ores, rubidium was found
in sixty-one. In sixteen red hematites, massive minerals of the purest type,
rubidium was contained in four. Where potassium and rubidium occurred lithium
was invariably found. It was found in limestones, in dust, in the Bessemer flame,
in ordinary pipeclay, tobacco pipes, and a great variety of siliceous minerals,
such as the Dublin granites; in Donegal kyanite, which contains 98 per cent. of
aluminium silicate; and in asbestos. It was found in dust which fell from the
‘clouds, in volcanic dust, in soot, in flue-dust from chemical works, and in that
from copper smelting and refining works, This last material contained lithium,
sodium, potassium, rubidium, and ccesium; copper, silver calcium, strontium,
aluminium, gallium, indium, thallium, iron, nickel, cobalt, manganese, chromium,
lead, zinc, cadmium, and tin. Upon such evidence as this it is impossible to
corroborate the statement that potassium is a more widely distributed element
than lithium, or that lithium is an unlikely constituent of dust, glass, copper, &c,

3. The Liquefaction of Helium. By Dr. KamMeErtincn ONNEs.

4, Anticipations and Hauperiments on the Liquefaction of Helium.
Sy Sir James Dewar, F.2.S.

5, A Demonstration on the Rapid Electroanalytical Separation of Metals.
By Dr. Henry J. 8. Sanp.

In the process of electroanalysis to be shown the principle of very vigorous
stirring of the electrolyte has been combined with that of keeping the potential
of the cathode under control by means of an auxiliary electrode. It has thus
been possible very largely to extend the scope of electroanalytical methods. ‘The

1908, me

674 TRANSACTIONS Of SECTION B.

following metals have hitherto been studied. First the metals of the silver and
copper groups and zinc, é.e., silver, mercury, copper, bismuth, lead, cadmium, and
zinc. These metals have all been deposited singly, separated from each other
and also separated when all present in the same solution. In the last-named case
the quantity of each metal taken varied between 0:J0 and 0:15 gram, and the
time for the deposition of each between about ten and fifteen minutes.1 Secondly,
new methods have been elaborated for the determination and separation from
each other of antimony and tin. A considerable number of determinations have
been carried out in which the metals taken in varying ratios weighed together
approximately one gram. ‘The time for the deposition of the antimony was
usually about twenty minutes, that for the tin about eighty minutes. Lastly, the
possibility of securing a purely electroanalytical method for the analysis of an
alloy consisting of copper, antimony, lead and tin has been examined, and all the
separations required for such an analysis have been carried out.

6. Studies on the Electro-deposition of Metals.
By W. E. Hueues and Dr. F. M. Perkin.

7. Transparent Silver and other Metallic Films.
By Professor THomas Turner, J.Sc.

Thin gold-leaf, when mounted on glass, becomes trauspurent when heated to
about 550°C. The light transmitted is white, and the effect does not depend upon
the supporting material or the gaseous atmosphere.

Thin silver-leaf becomes transparent if heated in air or oxygen. The light
transmitted is white, and the effect is not produced a vacuo or in a reducing
atmosphere. Though oxygen is necessary it is not appreciably absorbed, and the
effect is only noticed with thin sheets. Silver ;5495 of an imch in thickness is
too thick to show the effect.

Thin sheet-copper when heated in air or oxygen to about 200° C. gradually
passes into a transparent substance which transmits yellow-green light quite
freely. With further heating the colour darkens until at length it becomes black.
No effect is produced in a reducing atmosphere.

Thin sheet-aluminium does not become transparent when heated. For further
particulars the original paper may be consulted.”

8. Report on Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements.
See Reports, p. 119.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
The following Papers and Reports were then read :—
1. Discussion on Problems of Fermentation.
(i) The Factors which influence the Rate of Alcoholic Fermentation.
Sy Artuur Siator, PA.D., D.Se.

The transformation of glucose into alcohol and carbon-dioxide by the action of
yeast is probably not a single chemical reaction but a series of reactions. If one
reaction of the series proceeds relatively much more slowly than the others, then
the velocity of the transformation is determined by the rate of this slow reaction.

1 Trans. Chem. Sve., 1907, 91, 373. 2 Proc. Royal Soc., May 1908.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION RB. 675

Evidence was brought forward to show that the initial rate of fermentation by
living yeast is controlled almost completely by one single reaction. By consider-
ing only these initial velocities certain disturbing secondary reactions are elimi-
nated, for change of conditions, which are usually considered to influence the
rate of fermentation, have no effect on these initial velocities. The simple laws
governing the rate are evidence in favour of considering one reaction to have the
control of the velocity.

The rate of fermentation is exactly proportional to the amount of yeast
present. ‘I'he rate of fermentation of the four fermentable hexoses (glucose,
fructose, galactose, and mannose) is almost independent of the concentration of
the sugar. Glucose and fructose are fermented at approximately equal rates.
Yeasts which ferment glucose do not always possess the property of fermenting
galactose, and this sugar is fermented only by yeasts which have been grown
in the presence of galactose. The fermentation of mannose is similar to that of
glucose, but the rates of the two reactions a2 not equal. The enzyme which
ferments mannose seems to be more sensitive to heat than the one which ferments
glucose. The influence of temperature on these reactions is almost the same in
the case of glucose, fructose, and mannose, but rather less in the case of galactose.
These results are most easily brought into accord on the assumption that the
enzyme combines with the sugar. Glucose and fructose form the same compound ;
galactose and mannose form different compounds. It is possible that there exist
three different enzymes: glucozymase, which ferments glucose and fructose; galac-
tozymase, which ferments galactose ; and mannozymase, which ferments mannose.
It is probable that no compound has yet been isolated which can be considered
intermediate in alcoholic fermentation. The suggestion that lactic acid is such a
compound is of special interest, and has attracted much attention. Lactic acid
does not ferment, or ferments only very slowly and incompletely. This is the
chief objection to the hypothesis. An intermediate compound must be at least as-
reactive as the original reagent. The suggestion that lactic acid is liberated in a
‘nascent state’ is considered unlikely, for in constructing the mechanism of other
similar chemical reactions such suppositions have not been found necessary.

Fermentation by yeast-juice differs in many respects from that by living yeast.
It is probable that the mechanism of the reaction is the same in each case;
but the relative rates cf the different steps in the two processes are different. The
experiments show that there is an essential step in fermentation in which phos-
phates in some form or another play a part. This reaction proceeds too
rapidly in fermentation by living yeast to have aay controlling influence on the
velocity; but in the fermentation by yeast-juice it proceeds relatively more slowly
and influences the rate. ‘

The method of investigating complicated reactions by considering only initial
velocities has the advantage that disturbing side reactions are to a large extent
eliminated. The method can probably be applied with advantage to other
enzyme processes.

2. The Selective Permeability of certain Seeds.
By Professor Aprian Brown.

3. The Production of Ammonia from Atmospheric Nitrogen by means
of Peat. By H.C. Wourerecr, Ph.D.

Attempts to utilise the nitrogen contents of peat have been made during the
last sixty years, but the yield of ammonia obtained by the various processes which
have been tried shows that only about one-third of the nitrogen can be thus
recovered, Starting from an observation that a mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen
passed over reduced iron at a low heat always produced ammonia for some time,

XX2

676 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

the Author made further experiments on these lines, and found that the presence
of oxygen and water was of importance This led to the gradual reduction of the
quantity of hydrogen, and finally to its complete omission; but the periodical
necessity of reducing the iron used for the purposes of moist oxidation led him to
employ some carbonaceous material (coke, cdal, charcoal, &c.), for this purpose.

Finally peat was found to give the most satisfactory and rapid results, and
even when it contained up to 80 per cent. of water it could be utilised advan-
tageously.

In the meantime experiments were made to prove the co-operation of atmo-
spheric nitrogen. Sugar carbon absolutely free from nitrogen was treated by the
process and produced an average of 1 per cent. ammonia on the carbon consumed.

The large plant erected at Carnlough, co. Antrim, has finally confirmed the
working and results of the process on a commercial scale.

4. Discussion on Peat.

5. Report on the Study of Hydro-aromatic Substances.

See Reports, p. 221.

6. Report on the Transformation of Aromatic Nitroamines and Allied
Substances, and its Relation to Substitution in Benzene Derwatives.—
See Reports, p. 115.

7. Interim Report on the Study of Isomorphous Sulphonie Derwwatives of
Benzene.

lor)
“I
sw

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C,—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

Secrion C.—GEOLOGY.

PRESIDENT or THE SecTION.—Professor JouN Jory, Sc.D., FLR.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.
The President delivered the following Address :-—
URANIUM AND GEOLOGY.

INTRODUCTION.

In our day but little time elapses between the discovery and its application.
Our starting-point is as recent as the year 1903, when Paul Curie and Laborde
showed experimentally that radium steadily maintains its temperature above its
surroundings, As in the case of many other momentous discoveries, prediction
and eyen calculation had preceded it. Rutherford and McClung, two years before
the date of the experiment, had calculated the heat equivalent of the ionisation
effected by uranium, radium, and thorium, [yen at this date (1905) there was
much to go upon, and ideas as to the cosmic influence of radio-activity were not
slow in spreading.*

I am sure that but few among those whom I am addressing have seen a
thermometer rising urder the influence of a few centigrams of a radium salt ;
but for those who pay due respect to the principles of thermodynamics, the mere
fact that at any moment the gold leaves of the electroscope may be set in motion
by a irace of radium, or, better still, the perpetual motion of Strutt’s ‘radium
clock,’ is all that is required as demonstration of the ceaseless outflow of energy
attending the events proceeding within the atomic systems.

Although the term ‘ ceaseless’ is justified in comparison with our own span of
existence, the radium clock will in point of fact run down, and the heat outflow
gradually diminish. Next year there will be less energy forthcoming to drive the
clock, and less heat given off by the radium by about the one three-thousandth
part of what now are evolved. As geologists accustomed to deal with millions
of years, we must conclude that these actions, so far from being ceaseless, are
ephemeral indeed, and that if importance is to be ascribed to radium as a geolo-
gical agent, we must seek to find if the radium now perishing off the earth is not
made good by some more enduringly active substance.

That uranium is the primary source of supply cannot be regarded as a matter
of inference only. The recent discovery of ionium by Boltwood serves to link
uranium and radium, and explains why it was that those who sought for radium
as the immediate offspring of uranium found the latter apparently unproductive,
the actual relation of uranium to radium being that of grandparent. But even
were we without this connected knowledge, the fact of the invariable occurrence

' See letters appearing in Nature of uly 9 and September 24, 1903, from the late
r. W E. Wilson and Sir George Datwin referring to radium as a solar constituent
and one from the writer (October 1, 1903) on its influence as a terrestrial constituent.

678 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C,

in Nature of these elements, not only in association but in a quantitative relation-
ship, can only be explained on a genetic connection between the two, This
evidence, mainly due to the work of Boltwood, when examined in detail, becomes
overwhelmingly convincing.

Thus it is to uranium that we look for the continuance of the supplies of
radium. In it we tind an all but eternal source. The fraction of this substance
which decays each year, or, rather, is transformed to a lower atomic weight, is
measured in tens of thousands of millionths; so that the uranium ot the earth one
hundred million years ago was hardly more than one per cent. greater in mass
than it is to-day.

As radio-active investigations became more refined and extended, it was
discovered that radium was widely ditfused over the earth. The emanation of it
was obtained from the atmosphere, from the soil, from caves. It was extracted
from well waters, Radium was found in brick-earths,’ and everywhere in rocks
containing the least trace of demonstrable uranium, and Rutherford calculated
that a quantity of radium so minute as 46x 10-™ grams per gram of the
earth’s mass would compensate for all the heat now passing out through its
surface as determined by the average temperature gradients. In 1906 the Hon.
lt. J. Strutt, to whom geology owes so much, not only here but in other lines of
advance, was able to announce, from a systematic examination of rocks and
minerals from various parts of the world, that the average quantity of radium
per gram was many times in excess of what Rutherford estimated as adequate
tu account for terrestrial heat-loss. The only inference possible was that the
surface radium was not an indication of what was distributed throughout the
mass of tae earth, and, as you all know, Strutt suggested a world deriving its
iuternal temperature from a radium jacket some 45 miles in thickness, the interior
being free from radium.’

My own experimental work, begun in 1904, was laid aside till after Mr.
Strutt’s paper had appeared, and a valued correspondence with its distinguished
author was perafitted to me. This Address will be concerned with the applica-
tion of my results to questions of geological dynamics.

Did time permit 1 would, indeed, like to dwell for a little on the practical
aspect of measurements as yet so little used or understood ; for the difficulties to
be overcome are considerable, and the precautions to be taken many. ‘Ihe quantities
dealt with are astoundingly minute, and to extract with completeness a total of a
few billionths of a cubic millimetre of the radio-active gas—the emanation—from
perhaps half a litre or more of a solution rich in dissolved substances cannot be
regarded as an operation exempt from possibility of error; and errors of deficiency
are accordingly trequently met with.

Special difficulties, too, arise when dealing with certain classes of rocks, For
in some rocks the racium is not uniformly diffused, but is concentrated in radio-
active substances. Weare in these cases assailed with all the troubles which beset
the assayer of gold who is at a loss to determine the average yield ofa rock wherein
tue ore is sporadically distributed. In the case of radium determinations this
difficulty may be s) much the more intensified as the isolated quantities involved
are the more minute and yet the more potent to affect the result of any one
experiment. There is here a source of discrepancy in successive experiments
upon those rocks in which, from metamorphic or other actions, a segregation
of the uranium has taken place. With such rocks the divergences between
successive results are often considerable, and only by multiplying the number
of experiments can we hope to obtain fair indications of the average radio-activity.
It is noteworthy that these variations do not, so far as my observations extend,
present themselves when we deal with a recent marine sediment or with certain
unaltered deposits wherein there has been no readjustment of the original fine
state of subdivision, and even distribution, which attended the precipitation of
the uranium in the process of sedimentation,

But the difficulties attending the estimation of radium in rocks and other

! Proc. R.S., \xxvii. p. 472, and Ixxviii. p. 150.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 679

materials leave still a large balance of certainty—so far as the word is allowable
when applied to the ever-widening views of science—upon which to base our
deductions. The emanation of radium is most characteristic in behaviour; know-
ledge of its peculiarities enables us to distinguish its presence in the electro-
scope not only from the emanation of other radio-active elements, but from
any accidental leakage or inductive disturbance of the instrament. The method
of measurement is purely comparative. The cardinal facts upon the strength of
which we associate radium with geological dynamics, its development of heat and
its association with uranium, are founded in the first case directly on observation,
and, in the second, on evidence so strong as to be equally convincing. Recent
work on the question of the influence of conditions uf extreme pressures and
temperatures on the radio-active properties of radium appear to show that, as
would be anticipated, the effect is small, if indeed existent. As observed by
Makower and Rutherford, the small diminution » oticed under very extreme con-
ditions in the y radiation possibly admits of explanation on indirect effects. These
observations appear to leave us a free hand as regards radio-thermal effects unless
when we pursue speculations into the remoter depths of the earth, and even there
while they remain 4s a reservation, they by no means forbid us to go on.

The precise quantity of heat to which radium gives rise, or, rather, which its
presence entails, cannct be said to be known to within a small percentage, for the
thermal equivalent of the radio-active energy of uranium, actinium, and ionium,
and of those members of the radium family which are slow in changing, has not
been measured directly. Professor Rutherford has supplied me, however, with
the calculated amount of the aggregate heat energy liberated per second by all
these bodies. In the applications to which I will presently have to refer I take
his estimate of 5-6 x 10 calories per second as the constant of heat-production
attending the presence of one gram of elemental radium.

To these words of introduction I have to add the remark, perhaps obvious,
that the full and ultimate analysis of the many geological questions arising out of
the presence of radium in the earth's surface materials will require to be founded
upon a broader basis than is afforded by even a few hundred experiments. The
whole sequence of sediments has to be systematically examined ; the various classes
of igneous materials, more especially the successive ejecta of volcanoes, fully
investigated. The conditions of entry of uranium into the oceanic deposits has
to be studied, and observations on sea-water and deep-sea sediments multiplied.
All this work is for the future; as yet but little has been accomplished.

The Radium in the Rocks and in the Ocean.

The fact first established by Strutt that the radium distributed through the
rock materials of the earth’s surface greatly exceeds any permissible estimate of
its internal radio-activity has not as yet received any explanation. It might
indeed be truly said that the concentration of the heaviest element known to us,
(uranium) at the surface of the earth is just what we would not have expected.
Yet a simple enough explanation may be at hand in the heat-producing capacity
of that substance. If it was originally scattered through the earth-stuff, not
in a uniform distribution but to some extent concentrated fortuitously in a
manner depending on the origin of terrestrial ingredients, then these radio-
active nuclei heating and expanding beyond the capacity of surrounding materials
would rise to the surface of a world in which convective actions were still pos-
sible and, very conceivably, even after such conditions had ceased to be general :
and in this way the surface materials would become richer than the interior.
For instance, the extruded mass of the Deccan basalt would fill a sphere 36 miles
in radius. Imagine such a sphere located originally somewhere deep beneath the
surface of the earth surrounded by materials of like density. The ultimate excess
of temperature, due to its uranium, attained at the central parts would amount to
about 1000° C., or such lesser temperature as convective effects within the mass
would permit. This might take some thirty million years to come about, but before
fo great an excess of temperature was reached the force of buoyancy developed in

680 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

virtue of its thermal expansion must inevitably bring the entire mass to the surface.
This reasoning would, at any rate, apply to material situated at a considerable dis-
tance inwards, and may possibly be connected with vulcanicity and other crustal
disturbances observed at the surface.! The other view, that the addition of
uranium to the earth was mainly an event subsequent to its formation in bulk,
so that radio-active substances were added from without and, possibly, from a
solar or cosmic source, has not the same a priort probability in its favour.”

Thave in this part of my Address briefly to place before you an account of my
experiments on the amounts of radium distributed in surface materials. Here,
indeed, direct knowledge is attainable ; but this knowledge takes us but a very
few miles inwards towards the centre of the earth.

The Tgneous Rocks.—Yhe basalt of the Deccan, to which I have referred,
known to cover some 200,000 square miles to a depth of from 4,000 to 6,000 feet.
or more, appears to be radio-active throughout. A fine series of tunnel and
surface specimens sent to me by the Director of the Indian Geological Survey has
enabled me to examine the radio-activity at various points. It is remarkable that
the mean result does not depart much from that afforded by a long eeries of
experiments on North of Ireland basalt and on the basalt of Greenland.

Again, the granites and syenites—and those of Mourne, Aberdeen, Leinster,
Plauen, Finsteraarhorn have beeu examined—while variable, yet approximate to
the same mean result,

In the Simplon and St. Gothard tunnels igneous rocks have been penetrated
at considerable depth beneath the surface. The greatest true depth is attained,
I think, in the central St. Gothard massif. It is remarkable, and may be signifi-
cant, that in these rocks I have reached the lowest radio-activities I have met—
down to almost one billionth of a gram of radium per gram ; although the general
mean of the St. Gothard igneous rocks, owing to the high radio-activity of the
Finsteraar granite at the north end of the tunnel, is not exceptionally low. Radio-
active minerals seem common in the Simplon rocks, involving considerable variations
in successive experiments. Some of the highest results are omitted in the mean
given below, but as it is difficult to know what to allow for purely sporadic radium
the mean is not very certain. In the case of a specially high result I asked Pro-
fessor Emil Werner to determine the uranium: my result was confirmed. My
list of mean results on igneous rocks up to the present is the following :—

Basalts (14) - ; . 50% | Lewisian Gneiss (3) . Ae iC
Granites (6) ' . Aa Simplon (32) . ‘ + She
Syenites (1) 3 . . 68 St. Gothard (32) : kG

The general mean is 61.

From the igneous rocks have originated the sediments after a toll of dissolved
substances has been paid to the ocean. It does not of course follow necessarily
that the percentage of radium, or more correctly of uranium, in the sedimentary
rocks should be less than in the igneous. The residual materials might keep the
original percentage of the parent rock, or even improve upon it. There are
reasons for believing, however, that there would be a diminution.

Those sedimentary rocks which have been derived from materials formerly in
solution offer a different problem. In their case there is little or none of the
original materials carried into the secondary rock, and the radio-activity will
depend mainly upon how far uranium is precipitated or abstracted with the rock-
making substances. In other words, upon how far the waters of the ocean will
restore to the rocks what it has borrowed from them.

This brings me to consider the condition of the ocean as preparatory to quoting
experiments on the sediments.

1 See Appendix A. 2 Nature, \xxv. p. 294.

* This number is to be multiplied by 10-, and represents billionths of a gram
of radium per gram of material investigated. Throughout the rest of my Address
this understanding holds, unless where a different meaning is specified. The
numbeys in parentheses signify the number of different specimens investigated,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 681

The Ocean and its Sediments.—The waters of the ocean, covering five-sevenths
of the earth’s surface to a mean depth of 3:8 kilometres, represent the most
abundant surface material open to our investigation. As the mean of a very large
number of experiments upon twenty-two different samples of sea-water from
various widely separated parts of the ocean, I obtain a mean of 0-016 x i0- gram
per cubic centimetre. There is considerable variability. Taking the mass of the
ocean as 1°458 x 10'* tonnes, there must be about 20x 10° grams (20,000 tons) of
radium in its waters.

The experiments which I have been able to make on deep-sea deposits. thanks
mainly to the kind co-operation of Sir John Murray, apply to ten different materials
of typical character.

The results are so consistent as to lead me to believe that although so few in
number they cannot be far wrong in their genera. teaching.

The means are :—

Extension: Millions of

Radium -
: Square Miles,

Globigerina Ooze - (Ge 49:5
Radiolarian Ooze A 367 2°5
Red Clay . : . 33°35 51-5

Diatom Oozes have not yet been examined.

it is apparent from these results that the more slowly collecting sediments are
those of highest radio-activity, as if the organic materials raining downwards
from the surface of the ocean carried everywhere to the depths uranium and
radium abstracted from the waters; but in those regions where the conditions
were inimical to the preservation of the associated calcareous tests, there was the
less dilution of the radio-active substances accumulating beneath. The next table
shows that radio-activity and the percentage of calcareous matter in these deposits
stand in an inverse relation :—

Calcium Carbonate |

-~ per cent. Radium
Globigerina Ooze, ‘Chall.’ 338 : ; 92°24 67
Globigerina Ooze, ,, 296 : 3 64:34 74
| Red Clay . , a 5 ? ; 12:00 15-4
| Red Clay . . = 276 é i 28°28 52°6
Radiolarian Ooze _,, 272 s ‘ 10:19 | 22'S
| Radiolarian Ooze ,, 274 S ; 3°89 50°3

The percentages of calcium carbonate are from the Report of the ‘ Challenger’
Expedition. The Red Clay in the table, which reads as an apparent exception, is
probably a case of recent change in the character of the deposit, for the evidence
of manganese nodules and sharks’ teeth brought up with this clay is conclusive as
to the slow rate of its collection. Readers of Sir John Murray’s and Professor
Renard’s report will remember many cases where recent change in the character
of a deposit is to be inferred.

A point of much importance in connection with our views on oceanic radio-
activity is that of the presence in the waters and in the deposits of the parent
radio-active substance, uranium. The evidence that the full equivalent amount
of uranium is present is, I believe, conclusive.

In the first place, to so vast a reservoir as the ocean the rivers cannot be sup-
posed to supply the radium sufficiently fast to make good the decay. Ina very
few thousand years, in the absence of uranium, the rivers must necessarily renew
almost the entire amount of radium present. I have made examination of the
water of one great river only—the Nile. The quantity of radium detected
was 0:0042 x 10-* per cubic centimetre. That is less than the oceanic amount.
In short, it isevident that the uranium must accumulate year by year in the oceanic
reservoir, like other substances brought in by the rivers, and that the present state
of the waters js the resu]t of such actions prolonged oyer geological time,

682 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

While this reasoning is conclusive as regards the waters of the ocean, it does
not assure us that the sediments accumulating i in their depths are throu hout as
radio-active as their surface parts would indicate. There might be a precipitation
of radium unattended by uranium, in which case their deeper parts would not
be radio-active.

Against this possibility there is the evidence of such true deep-sea deposits as
were formed in past times and to-day still preserve their radio-activity. For
instance, the chalk, which, considering that it was undoubtedly a very rapidly
formed deposit, exhibits a radio-activity quite comparable with that of the
Globigerina Oozes, deposits which it mcst nearly resembles. In this deposit,
clearly, the uranium must have collected along with the calcareous materials.
We can with security argue that the similar oozes collected to-day must likewise
contain uranium. Jn the case of the Red Clays we have the direct determination
of the uranium which Professor Emil Werner was so good as to make at my
request. Considering the difficulties attending its separation, the result must be
taken as supporting the view that here, too, the radium is renewed from the
uranium. Regarding the efforts of other observers to detect uranium in such
deposits, it is noteworthy that without the guidance of the radium, enabling
specially rich materials to be selected for analysis, the success of the investigation
must have been doubtful. The material used was a Red Clay with the relatively
large quantity of 54:4 billionths of a gram per gram. In a few grams of this
Werner obtained up to seven-twelfths of the total theoretic amount, and of course
the separation of the uranium is not likely to have been complete.

It might be thought a hopeless task to offer any estimate of the total bulk of
the sub-oceanic deposits, and from this to arrive at some idea of the quantity
of radium therein contained. Nevertheless, such an estimate is not only possible
but is based on deductions which possess considerable security. As a major limit
I believe the estimate of the total mass of deposit is unassailable, and such deduc-
tions as might he applied will still leave it an approximation to the truth.

The elements of the problem are simple enough ; we know that the sedimen-}
tary rocks have been derived from the igneous, some 30 per cent. of the latter!
entering into solution in the process of conversion, Some of the soluble con-
stituents, owing to their great solubility, have remained in solution since they
entered the ocean.' These are the salts of sodium. An estimate of the amount of
these salts in the ocean gives us aclue to the total amount of rock substance which
has contributed to oceanic salts and oceanic deposits since the inception of the oceans.
Some years ago I deduced on this basis that the igneous rocks which are parent to
the sodium in the sea must have amounted to about 91 x 10'* tons.’ This figure
in no way involves the rate of supply by the rivers, or our estimate of geological
time. It only involves the quantity of sodium now in the ocean—a fairly well-known
factor—and the loss of this element, which occurs when ayerage igneous rocks are
degraded into sedimentary rocks—a factor also fairly well known. Mr. F. W.
Clark, to whom geological science is indebted for so much exact investigation, has
recently repeated this calculation, using data deduced anew by himself, and arrives
at the result that the bulk of the parent igneous rock was 84:3 x 10° cubic miles.*
On a specific gravity of 2°6 my estimate in tons gives nearly the same result :
84 x 10° cubic miles.

Now about one-third part of this parent rock goes into solution when break-
ing up into a detrital sediment. The limestones upon the land are part of what
was once so brought into solution. Having made deduction of these former
marine deposits (and I here avail myself of Van Hise’s and Clark’s estimates of
the total amount of the sedimentaries and the fraction of these which are cal-
careous),* and, allowing for the quantity remaining in solution in the oeean, the
result leaves us with the approximation of twenty million cubic miles of matter
once in solution, and now for the greater part existing as precipitated or abstracted
deposits at the bottom of the ocean. We are to distribute this quantity over its

‘ Trans. Royal Dublin Soe., vol. vii. ser. ii. p. 23 et seq. 2 Lbid., p. 46.
* Tie Data of Geochemistry. By F. W, Clark, p- 29, 4 Toid., Pp. 3],

——o

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 683

floor. if the vate of collection had been uniform in eyery part of the ocean
throughout geological time, a depth of about one-seventh of a mile (240 metres)
of deposit would cover the ocean bed.

While, I believe, we can place considerable reliance on this approximation, we
are less sure when we attempt an estimate of its mean radio-activity. If we assume
jor it an average radio-activity similar to that of Globigerina Ooze, we tind that
the quantity of radium involved must be considerably over a million tons, Apart
from the value which such estimates possess as preseuting us with a perspective
view of the great phenomena we are dealing with, it will now be seen that it
supports the finding of the experiments on sedimentary rocks, and leads us to
anticipate a real difference in the radio-activity of the two classes of material.

The Sedimentary Rocks.—The radium content f those of detrital character
is indicated in the tollowing sandstones, slates, and shales :—

Shales, sandstones, grits (10). f ‘ F - ‘ . 44
Slates (Cambrian, Devonian) . é : : : ‘ F “we eri
Mud from Amazon , S S j 5 . ; 4 apa

Some of the above are from deep borings in Carboniferous rocks (the Balfour and
Burnlip bores),! and from their nature, where not actually of fresh-water origin, can
owe little to oceanic radio-activity. Many of the following belong to the class of
precipitates, and therefore owe their uranium wholly or in part to oceanic source :—

Marsupites chalk . F : - - R : ; F . 42
Green sandstone. f : : ; > i - 4 . 49

Green sand (dredged) 2 3 5 E : pace
Limestones and dolomites [Trenton, Carboniferous, Zechstein,
Lias, Solenhofen (7) ] : - : : : : ; 2 el
Keuper gypsum . : 3 j - - : - ; . oo
Coral rock, Funafuti bore (4) * : : : ‘ : : elt
Trias-Jura sediments, Simplon: 17 rocks of various characters . 69

Mesozoic sediments, St. Gothard: 19 rocks of various characters. 4°2

The general mean on sixty-two rocks is 4°7.
Malnng some allowance for uncertainties in dealing with the Simplon rocks,
I think the experiments may be taken as pointing to the result :—

Igneous rocks from 5 to 6.

Sedimentary rocks from 4 to 5,

If our estimate of oceanic radium be applied to the account of the sedimentary
rocks in a manner which will be understood from what 1 have already endeavoured
to convey, there will be found to exist a fair degree of harmony between the great
quantities which we have found to be in the sediments of the ocean and the
impoverishment of the sediments which the experiments appear to indicate.

In all these results fresh and uoweathered material has been used. The
sand of the Arabian desert gave me but 04. Similarly low results have been
found by others for soils and such materials, These are not to be included when
we seek the radio-activity of the rocks.

As regards generally my experiments on the radium-content of the rocks,
I cannot say with contidence that there is anything to indicate a detinite falling
off in radio-activity in the more deeply seated materials 1 have dealt with. The
central St. Gothard and certain parts of the Deccan have given results in fayour
of such a decrease. On the other hand, as will ba seen later, the granite at the
north end of the St. Gothard and the primitive gneiss of the Simplon show no
diminution. According to the view I have put forward above as to the origin
of the surface richness in radium it is I think to be expected that, while the
richest materials would probably rise most nearly to the surface, there might be
considerable variability in the radio-activity of the deeper parts of the upper crust,

* For these rocks, and for much other valuable material, I have to thank Mr,
-D. Tate, of the Scottish Geological Survey.

2 Yor these I have to thank the Trustees of the British Museum and Mr, A,
Smith Woodward, F.R.S.

684 RANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

Uranium and the Internal Heat of the Earth.

While forced to deny of the earth’s interior any such richness iu radium as
prevails near the surface, the inference that uranium exists yet’ in small
quantities far down in the materials of the globe is highly probable. This
view is supported by the presence of radium in meteoric substances and by its
very probable presence in the sun—that greatest of meteorites. True, the
radio-thermal theory cannot be supposed to account for any great part of solar heat
unless we are prepared to believe that a very large percentage of uranium can
be present in the sun, and yet yield but feeble spectroscopic evidence of its
existence. Taken all together, the case stands thus as regards the earth. We
are assured of radium as a widely distributed surface material, and to such depths
as we can penetrate. By inference from the presence of radium in meteoric sub-
stances and its very probable presence in the sun, from which the whole of
terrestrial stuff probably originated, as well as by the inherent likelihood that every
element at the surface is in some measure distributed throughout the entire mass
we arrive at the conclusion that radium is indeed a universal terrestrial constituent.

The dependent question then confronts us—Are we living on a world heated
throughout by radio-thermal actions? This question—one of the most interesting
which has originated in the discovery that internal atomic changes may prove a
source of heat—can only be answered (if it can be answered) by the facts of
geological science.

I will not stop to discuss the evidence for and against a highly heated interior
of the earth. I assume this heated interior the obvious and natural interpretation
of a large class of geological phenomena, and pass on to consider certain limitations
to our knowledge which have to be recognised before we are in a position to enter
on the somewhat treacherous ground of hypotheses.

In the first place, we appear debarred from assuming that the surface and
central interior of the earth are in thermal connection, for it seems certain that,
since the remote period when (probable) convective effects became arrested by
reason of increasing viscosity, the thermal relations of the surface and interior
have become dependent solely on conductivity. From this it follows if the state
of matter in the interior is such as Lord Kelvin assumed—that is, that the
conductivity and specific heat may be inferred from the qualities of the surface
materials—we have remained in thermal isolation from the great bulk of the in-
terior for hundreds of millions of years, and perhaps even for more than a thou-
sand million of years. Assuming a diffusivity similar to that of surface rocks, and
starting with a temperature of 7000° F., Kelvin found that after 1000 million
years of cooling there would be no sensible change at a depth from the surface
greater than 568 miles. In short, even if this great period—far beyond our esti-
mates of geological time—has elapsed since the consistentior status, the cooling
surface has as yet borrowed heat from only half the bulk of the earth.

It is possible, on the other hand, that the conductivity increases inwards, as
Professor Perry has contended; and if the central parts are more largely metallic,
this increase may be considerable. But we find ourselves here in the regions of
the unknown.

With this limitation to our knowledge, the province of geothermal speculation
is a somewhat disheartening one. Thus if with Rutherford, who first gave us a
quantitative estimate of the kind, we say that such and such a quantity of radium
per gram of the earth’s mass would serve to account for the 2°6 x 10°° calories
which, according to the surface gradients, the earth is losing per annum, we
cannot be taken as advancing a theory of radio-active heating, but only a signi-
ficant quantitative estimate. For, in fact, the heat emitted by radium in the
interior may never have reached the surface since the convective conditions came
to an end.

And here, depending upon the physical limitations to our knowledge of the
earth’s interior, a possibility has to be faced. That uranium is entirely absent
from the interior is, as I have said, in the highest degree unlikely. If it is
present, then the central parts of the earth are rising in temperature This view,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 685

that the central interior is rising in temperature, is difficult to dispose of, although
we can adduce the evidence of certain surface-phenomena to show that the rise
in temperature during geological time must be small or its effects in some manner
kept under control. In a word, whether we assume that the whole heat-loss of
the earth is now being made good by radio-active heating or not, we find, on
any probable value of the conductivity, a central core almost protected from loss
by the immense mass of heated material interposed between it and the surface,
and within this core very probably a continuous source of heat. It is hard to
set aside any of the premisses of this argument.

We naturally ask, Whither does the conclusion lead us? We can take
comfort in a possible innocuous outcome. The uranium itself, however slowly
its energy is given up, is not everlasting. The dece, of the parent substance is
continually reducing the amount of heat which each year may be added to the
earth’s central materials. And the result may be that the accumulated heat will
ultimately pass out at the surface by conductivity, during remote future times,
and no physical disturbance result.

The second limitation to our hypotheses arises from this transformation and
gradual disappearance of the uranium. And this limitation seems as destructive
of definite geothermal theories as the first. To understand its significance requires
a little consideration, The fraction of uranium decaying each year is vanishingly
small, about the ten thousand-millionth part; but if the temperature of the earth
is maintained by uranium and consequently its decay involves the fall in
temperature of the whole earth, the quantity of heat escaping at the surface
attendant on the minute decrement would be enormous. An analogy may help
to make this clear. Consider the case of a boiler maintained at a particular
temperature by a furnace within. Let the combustion diminish and the furnace
temperature fall a little. The whole mass of the boiler and its contents follow
the downward movement of temperature, heat of capacity escaping at the surface.
An observer, only noting the outflow of radiated heat and unable to observe the
minute drop of temperature, would probably ascribe to the continued action
of the furnace, heat which, although derived from it in the past, should no
longer be regarded as indicating the heating value of the combustion. Magnify
the boiler to terrestrial dimensions: the minutest fall in temperature of the entire
mass involves immense quantities of heat passing out at the surface, which no
longer indicate the sustaining radio-thermal actions within.

It is easy to see the nature of the difficulties in which we thus become
involved. In fact, the heat escaping from the earth is not a measure of the
radium in the earth, but necessarily includes, and for a great part may possibly be
referred to, the falling temperature, which the decay of the uranium involves. If
we teke A (the fraction of uranium transforming each year) as approximately
10-” and assume for the general mass of the earth a temperature of 1500°,
a specific heat of 0-2, and, taking 6x 10*7 as its mass in grams, we have, on
multiplying these values together, a loss in calories per annum of 1:8 x 10°.
This by hypothesis escapes at the surface. But the surface loss, as based on
earth-gradients of temperature, is but 2°6x10°° calories. We are left with
0:8 x 10°° calories as a measure of the radium present. On this allowance our
theories, in whatever form, must be shaped. Nor does it appear as if relief from this
restriction can be obtained in any other way than by denying to the interior parts
of the earth the requisite high thermal conductivity. Taking refuge in this, we are
however at once confronted with the possibility of internal stores of radium of
which we know nothing, save that they cannot, probably, be very great in amount.
In short, I believe it will be admitted on full examination of this question that, while
we very probably are isolated thermally from a considerable part of the earth’s
interior, the decay of the uranium must introduce a large subtractive correction upon
our estimates of the limiting amounts of radium which might be present in the earth.

But, finally, is there in all these difficulties sufficient to lead us to reject the
view that the present loss of earth-heat may be nearly or quite supplied by radium,

1 Professor H. A. Wilson has made a suggestive estimate of the thermal effects of
radium enclosed in the central parts of the earth (ature, February 20 1908).

686 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

and the future cooling of the earth controlled mainly by decay of the uranium ?
T do not think there are any good grounds for rejecting this view. Observe, it is
the condition towards which every planetary body and every solar body containing
stores of uranium must tend; and apparently must attain when the rate of loss
of initial stores of heat, diminishing as the body grows colder, finally arrives
at equilibrium with the radio-thermal supplies. This final state appears inevitable
in every case unless the radio-active materials are so subordinate that they entirely
perish before the original store of heat is exhausted.

Now, judging from the surface richness in radium of the earth and the
present Joss of terrestrial heat, it does not seem reasonable to assign a sub-
ordinate influence to radio-thermal actions; and it appears not improbable that
the earth has attained, or nearly attained, this final stage of cooling.

How, then, may we suppose the existing thermal state maintained? <A
uniformly radio-active surface layer possessing a basal temperature in accordance
with the requirements of geology is, I believe, not realisable on any probable
estimate of the allowable radium, or on any concentration of it which my own
experiments on igneous rocks would justify.

But we may take refuge in a less definite statement, and assume a distribution
by means of which the existing thermal state of the crust may be maintained. A
specially rich surface layer we must recognise, but this need be no more than a
very few miles deep; after which the balance of the radium may be supposed
distributed to any depth with which we are thermally connected. Below that
our knowledge is indefinite. The heat outflow at the surface is in part from the
surface radium, in part due to the cooling arising from the diminishing amount of
uranium, in part from the deep-seated radium. In this manner the isogeotherms
are kept in their places, aud a state is maintained which is in equilibrium with
the thermal factors involved, but which cafinot be considered steady, using the
word in a strictly accurate sense, in view of the decay of the uranium.

While the existing thermal state may, I think, thus be maintained by radio-
active heating and radio-active decay, we find ourselves in considerable difficulties
if we extend this view into the past and assume that the same could be said of
any previous stage of the earth’s history. If the heat emitted by the earth,
when the surface was at melting temperature, was in a state of equilibrium with
the radio-active supplies, then, at that date, there must have been many thousands
of times the present amount of uranium on the earth, and the period of the
consistentior status must be put back by thousands of millions of years. Apart
from hopeless contradiction with every geological indication as to the age of the
earth, difficulties in solar physics arise. For the sun must be supposed of equal
duration, and we are required to assume impossible amounts of uranium to main-
tain his heat all that great lapse of time; and again this uranium would perish at
just the same rate as that upon the earth, so that at the present time the solar
mass must be, for by far the greater part, composed of inert materials of high
atomic weight: the products of the transformations of the uranium family. The
difficulty is best appreciated when we consider that even to maintain his present
rate of heat-loss hy radium supplies, some 60 per cent. of his mass must be
composed of uranium. But there are other troubles to face if we adopt this
view. The earth, or rather those parts of it which are sufficiently near the
surface to lose heat at the requisite rate, would have cooled but one per cent. in
10° years. Shrinkage of the outer parts and crustal thickness will be propor-
tionately small, and we must put back our epochs of mountain building to suit so
slow a rate of cooling and shrinkage and refer the earlier events of the kind into
a past of inconceivable remoteness. Otherwise we must abandon the only tenable
theory of mountain formation with which we are acquainted. On such a time-
scale the ocean would be supersaturated under the influence of the prolonged
denudation like the waters of certain salt lakes, and the sediments would have
accumulated a hundredfold in thickness.

Nor do the facts as we now them require from us such sacrifices. We are not
asked to raise these difficulties on supposititious quantities of uranium for the
existence of which there is no evidence, Radium has occasioned no questioning

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 687

of the older view that the cooling of the earth from a consistentror status has been
mainly controlled by radiation, But, on the contrary, this new revelation of scieace
has come to smooth over what difficulties attended the reconciliation of physical
and geological evidence on the Kelvin hypothesis. It shows us how the advent
of the present thermal state might be delayed and geological time lengthened, so
that Kelvin’s forty or fifty million years might be reconciled with the hundred
million years which some of us hold to be the reading of the records of denudation.

On this more pacific view of the mission of radium to geology, what has been
the history of the earth? In the earlier days of the earth’s cooling the radiation
loss was tar in excess of the radio-thermal heating. From this state by a con-
tinual convergence, the rate of radiation loss diminishing while the radio-thermal
output remained comparatively constant, the existir s distribution of temperature
near the surface has been attained when the radio-thermal supply may nearly or
quite balance the loss by radiation. The question of the possibility of tinal and
perfect equilibrium between the two seems to involve the interior conductivity
and in this way to evade analysis.

It will be asked if the facts of mountain building and earth-shrinkage are
rendered less reconcilable by this interference of uranium in the earth’s physical
history. I believe the answer will be in the negative. ‘True, the greatest develop-
ment of crustal wrinkling must have occurred in earlier times. This must be
so, in some degree, on any hypothesis. The total shrinkage is, however, not the
less because delayed by radio-thermal actions, and it is not hard to point to factors
which will attend the more recent upraising of mountain chains tending to make
them excel in magnitude those arising from the stresses in an earlier and thinner
crust.

Underground Temperature.

It would be a matter of the highest interest if we could definitely connect
the rise of temperature which is observed in deep berings and tunnels with the
radio-activity of the rocks. We are confronted, however, by the difficulty that
our deepest borings and tunnels are still too near the surface to enable us to
pronounce with certainty on the influence of the radium met with in the rocks.
This will be understood when it is remembered that a merely local increase of
radio-activity must have but little eflect upon the temperature unless the increase
was of a very high order indeed. A clear understanding of this point shows us
at once how improbable it is that voleanic temperatures can be brought within
a very few miles of the surface by local radiv-activity of the rocks. To account on
such principles for an elevation of temperature of, say, 120° at a depth of three or
four miles trom the surface, a richness in radium must. be assumed far transcending
anything yet met with in considerable rock masses; and as volcanic materials
appear to show nothing of such exceptional richness in radium we can hardly
suppose local radio-activity of the upper crust responsible for volcanic phenomena.

When we come to apply calculation to results on the radio-activity of the
materials penetrated by tunnels and borings, we at once find that we require to
know the extensicn downwards of the rocks we are dealing with before we can
be sure that radium will account for the thermal phenomena observed. At any
level between the surface and the base of a layer of radio-active materials—
suppose the level considered is that of a tunnel—the temperature depends, so far
as it is due to local radium, on the total depth of the rock-mass having the
observed radio-activity. This is evident. It will be found that for ordinary
values of the radium content it is requisite to suppose the rocks extending down-
wards some few kilometres in order to account for a few degrees in tempera-
ture at the level under observation. There is, of course, every probability of such
a dowuward extension. ‘Thus in the case of the Simplon massif the downward
“continuance of the gneissic rocks to some few kilometres evokes no difficulties.
The same may be said of the granite of the Finsteraarhorn massif and the gneisses
of the St. Gothard massif, materials both of which are penetrated by the St.
Gothard tunnel, and which appear to possess a considerable difference in radio-
activity. In dealing with this subject, comparison of the results obtained at one

688 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Cy

locality with tbosé obtained at another is the safest procedure. We mist
accordingly wait for an increased number of results before much can be
inferred. I will now lay the cases of the two great tunnels as briefly as possible
before you.

And first as to the temperature effects observed in the two cases.

The Simplon tunnel for a length of some seven or eight kilometres lies at
a mean distance of about 1,700 metres from the surface. At the northerly end
of this stretch the rock temperature attains 55°, and at the southern extremity has
fallen to about 35°. The temperature of 55° is the highest encountered. The
maximum predicted by Stapff, basing his estimates on his experience of the St.
Gothard tunnel, was 47°. Other authorities in every case predicted considerably
lower temperatures. Stockalper, who also had experience of the St. Gothard,
predicted 36° at a depth of 2,050 metres from the surface, and Heim 38° to 39°.!

When the unexpectedly high temperatures were met with, various reasons were
assigned. Mr. Fox has suggested volcanic heat. Others point to the arrange-
ment of the schistosity and the dryness of the rocks, where the highest tempera-
tures were read. The latter is evidently to be regarded more as explanation of
the lower temperatures at the south end of the tunnel, where the water circulation
was considerable, than of the high temperatures of the northern end. The
schistosity may have some influence in bringing the isogeotherms nearer to the
surface; however, not only are the rocks intensely compact in every direction, but
what schistosity there is by no means inclines in the best directions fur retention
of heat. From the sections the schistosity appears generally to point upwards at
a steep angle with the tunnel axis.”

Where there is such variability in the temperatures, irrespective of the depth
of overlying rock, there is difficulty in assigning any significant mean gradient.
The highest readings are obviously those least affected by the remarkable water-
circulation of the Italian side. The higher temperatures afford such gradients as
would be met in borings made on the level—about 31 metres per degree.

The temperatures read in the St. Gothard rocks were of a most remarkable
character. For the central parts of the tunnel the gradients come out as 46°6
metres per degree. Stapff, who made these observations and conducted the
geological investigations, took particular pains to ascertain the true surface tem-
peratures of the rock above the tunnel ; and from these ascertained temperatures,
the temperatures in the tunnel rock and the overlying height of mountain, he
calculated the gradients.

But this low gradient is by no means the mean gradient. At the north end,
where the tunnel passes through the granite of the Finsteraarhorn massif, there is
arise in the temperature of the rock sufficient to steepen the gradient to 20-9
metres per degree. Stapff regarded this local rise of temperature as unaccountable
save on the view that the granite retained part of the original heat. This matter
I will presently return to.

Now, it is a fact that the radium-content of the Simplon rocks, after some
allowance for what I have referred to as sporadic radium, stands higher than is
afforded by the rocks in the central section of the St. Gothard, where the gradient
islow. For the Simplon the general mean is (on my experiments) 7°] billionths
of a gram per gram, This mean is well distributed as follows :—

Jurassic and Triassic altered sediments . 5 2 5 . GA
Crystalline schists, partly Jurassic and Triassic, partly Archean 73
Monte Leone gneiss and primitive gneiss . : ° : . 63
Schistose gneiss (a fold from beneath) . - : : : - 65
Antigorio gneiss. ° : - : : . . : . 68

The divisional arrangement is Professor Schardt’s. Forty-nine typical rocks
are used in obtaining these results, and the experiments have been in many cases

* See the account given by Schardt, Verhandl, Schweizerischen Naturf. Gesellsch.
1904, 87, ‘ Jahresversammlung,’ p. 204 et seq.
2 Schardt, loc. cit,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 689

Tepeated on duplicate specimens. Including some very exceptional results, the
mean would rise to 9:1 x 10-” grams per gram,

Of the St. Gothard rocks I have examined fifty-one specimens selected to be,
as far as attainable, representative.'

Of these, twenty-one are from the central region, and their mean radium content
is just 33. The portion of the tunnel from which these rocks come is closely
coincident with Stapfi’s thermal subdivision of regions of low temperature.*
This portion of the mountain offers the most definite conditions for comparison
with the Simplon results. The region south of this is affected by water circu:
lation; the regions to the north are affected by the high temperature of the

ranite,
; We see, then, that the most definite data at our disvosal in comparing the
conditions as regards temperature and radio-thermal actions in the two tunnels
appear to show that the steeper gradient is associated with the greater radium-
content.

It is possible to arrive at an estimate of the downward extension of the two
rock masses (assumed to maintain to the same depth their observed radio-activity),
which would account for the difference in gradient. In making this estimate,
we do not assume that the entire heat-flow indicated by the gradients is due to
radium, but that the difference in radium-content is responsible for the difference
of heat-flow. If some of the heat is conducted from an interior source (of what-
ever origin), we assume that this is alike in both cases. We also assume the
conductivities alike.

Calculating on this basis, the depth required to establish on the radium
measurements the observed difference in gradients of the Central St. Gothard and
of the Simplon, we find the depth to be about 7 kilometres on the low mean of the
Simplon rocks, and 5 kilometres on the high mean. There is, as I have already said,
nothing improbable in such a downward extension of primitive rocks having the
radio-activities observed ; but as a different distribution of radium may, of course,
obtain below our point of observation, the result can only claim to be suggestive.

Turning specially to the St. Gothard, we find that a temperature problem of
much interest arises from the facts recorded. The north end of the tunnel for
a distance of 2 kilometres traverses the granite of the Finsteraarhorn massif.
It then enters the infolded syncline of the Usernmulde and traverses altered
sediments of Trias-Jura age for a distance of about 2 kilometres. After this
it enters the crushed and metamorphosed rocks of the St. Gothard massif,
and remains in these rocks for 7} kilometres, The last section is run through
the Tessinmulde for 5 kilometres. These rocks are highly altered Mesozoic
sediments.

I have already quoted Stapff's observations as to the variations of gradient in
the northern, central, and southern parts of the tunnel. He writes: ‘They (the
isotherms) show irregularities on the south side, which clearly depend on cold
springs, they bend down rapidly, and then run smoothly inclined beneath the water-
filled section of the mountain. Other local irregularities can be explained by
the decomposition of the rock; but there is no obvious explanation of the rapid
increase in the granite rocks at the northern end of the tunnel (2,000 metres), and
it is probably to be attributed to the influence of different thermal qualities of the
rock on the coefficient of increase, For the rest these 2,000 metres of granite
belong to the massif of the Finsteraarhorn, and, geologically speaking, they do
not share in the composition of the St. Gothard. Perhaps these two massifs
belong to different geological periods (as supposed for geological reasons long ago).
What wonder, then, if one of them be cooler than the other.’ (Loc cit., p. 30.)

Commenting on the explanation here offered by Stapff, Prestwich® states

* I would like to express here my acknowledgments to the Trustees of the
British Museum for granting me permission to use chips of the rocks in their
possession ; and especially to Mr. Prior for his valuable assistance in selecting the
specimens,

* Trans. North of England Mining and Mec, Engineers, xxxiii. p. 25,

3 Proc, BR.S., xli. p. 44,

1908, YY

690 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

his preference for the view that the excess of temperature in the granite is due to
mechanical actions to which the granite was exposed during tha upheayal of this
region of the Alps.

The accompanying diagram shows the distribution of temperature as given by
Stapf, and the distribution of radium as found from typical specimens of the
rocks, There is a correspondence between the two which is obvious, and when
it is remembered that the increase in radio-activity shown at the south end
would have been, according to Staptf, masked by water circulation, the correspond-
ence becomes the more striking. ‘The small radium values in the central parts of
the tunnel are remarkable. The rocks of the Central St. Gothard massif are
apparently exceptionally poor in radium,

At the north end the excess of radium is almost confined to the granite, the
cock to which Stapff ascribed the exceptional temperatures. The radium of the
Usernmulde is probably not very important, seeing that these sediments cannot
extend far downwards. The principal local source of heat appears located more
especially beneath the synclinal fold, for Staptf’s table (oc. cit., p. 31) of the
gradients beneath the plain of Andermatt shows a rising gradient to a point about
2,500 metres from the north entrance of the tunnel. It is observable that the
radio-activity of the granite increasesas it approaches the Usernmulde and attains
its maximum (14:1) where it dips beneath the syncline.

The means of radium-content in the several geological sections into which
the course of the tunnel is divisible are as follows :—

Granite of Finsteraarhorn . 77
Usernmulde ; F 49
St. Gothard massif , 3:9
Tessinmulde 34

The central section, however, if considered without reference to geological
demarcations, would, as already observed, come out as barely 33. And this is
the value of the radio-activity most nearly applicable to Stapff’s thermal sub-
division of the region of low temperature.

If we accept the higher readings obtained in the granite as indicative of the
radio-active state of this rock beneath the Usernmulde, a satisfactory explanation
of the difference of heat-flow from the central and northern parts of the tunnel is
obtained. Using the difference of gradient as basis of calculation, as before, we
find that a downward extension of about six thousand metres would, if the out-
flow took place in an approximately vertical direction, account for the facts
observed by Stapff. This depth is in agreement with the result as to the down-
ward extension of the St. Gothard rocks as derived from the comparison with the
Simplon rocks.

We are by no means in a position to found dogmatic conclusions on such results ;
they can only be regarded as encouragement to pursue the matter further. The
coincidence must be remarkable which thus similarly localises radium and tem-
perature in roughly proportional amounts, and permits us, without undue assump-
tions, to explain such remarkable differences of gradient. There is much work to
be done in this direction, for well-known cases exist where exceptional gradients
in deep borings have been encountered—exceptional both as regards excess and
deficiency.

Radio-active Deposits and the Instability of the Crust.

At the meeting of the British Association held last year at Leicester, I read a
note on the thermal effects which might be expected to arise at the base of a
sedimentary accumulation of great thickness due to the contained radium.

The history of mountain building has repeated itself many times: ages of
sedimentation, with attendant sinking of the crust in the area of deposition,
then upheaval, folding up of the great beds of sediment, and even their over-
thrusting for many miles. So that the mountain ranges of the world are not
constituted from materials rising from below, save in so far as these may form a

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 691

sustaining core, but of the slowly accumulating deposits of the ages preceding the
upheaval.

; The thickness of collected sediments involved in these great events is enormous,
and although uncertainty often attends the estimation of the aggregate depths of
sedimentation, yet when we consider that unconformities between the deposits of
succeeding eras represent the removal of vast masses of sediment to fresh areas
of deposition, and often in such a way as to lead to an under-estimate of the
thickness of deposit, the observations of the geologist may well indicate the minor
and not the major limit. Witness the mighty layers of the Huronian, Animikean,
and Keweenawan ages where deposits measured in miles of thickness are succeeded
by unrecorded intervals of time, in which we know with certainty that the tireless
forces of denudation laboured to undo their former work Each era represents a
slow and measured pulse in the earth’s crust, as if the overloading and sinking of
the surface materials induced the very conditions required for their re-elevation.
Such events, even in times when the crust was thinner and more readily disturbed
. than it is now, must have taken vast periods of time. The unconformity may
represent as long a period as that of accumulation. In these Proterozoic areas
of America, as elsewhere on the globe and throughout the whole of geological
history, there has been a succession in time of foldings of the crust always so
located as to uplift the areas of sedimentation, these upheavals being sundered by
long intervals during which the site of sedimentation was transferred and pre-
paration made for another era of disturbance. However long deferred there seems
to be only the one and inevitable ending, inducing a rhythmic and monotonous
repetition surely indicative of some cause of instability attending the events of
deposition.

The facts have been impressively stated by Dana: ‘A mountain range of the
common type, like that to which the Appalachians belong, is made out of the
sedimentary formations of a long preceding era; beds that were laid down con-
formably, and in succession, until they had reached the needed thickness; beds
spreading over a region tens of thousands of square miles in area. ‘fhe region
over which sedimentary formations were in progress in order to make, finally, the
Appalachian range, reached from New York to Alabama, and had a breadth
of 100 to 200 miles, and the pile of horizontal beds along the middle was 40,000 feet
indepth. ‘The pile for the Wahsatch Mountains was 60,000 feet thick, according
to King. The beds for the Appalachians were not laid down in a deep ocean, but
in shallow waters, where a gradual subsidence was in progress; and they at last,
when ready for the genesis, lay in a trough 40,000 feet deep, filling the trough
to the brim. It thus appears that epochs of mountain making have occurred onls
after long intervals of quiet in the history of a continent.’

The generally observed fact that the deposition of sediments in some manner
involves their ultimate upheaval has at various times led to explanations being
offered. I think I am safe in saying that although the primary factor, the com-
pressive stress in a crust which has ceased to fit the shrinking world within it,
has probably been correctly inferred, no satisfactory explanation of the connec-
tion between sedimentation and upheaval has beenadvanced. The mere shifting
upwards of the isogeotherms into the deposits, advanced as a source of local loss
of rigidity by Babbage and Herschel, need not involve any such loss so long as the
original distance of the isogeotherms from the surface is preserved.

We see in every case that only after great thicknesses of sediments have accu-
mulated is the upheaval brought about. This is a feature which must enter as
an essential condition into whatever explanation we propose to offer,

Following up the idea that the sought-for instability is referable to radio-
thermal actions, we will now endeavour to form some approximate estimate of
the rise of temperature which will be brought about at the base of such great sedi-
mentary accumulations as have gone towards mountain building, due to the radium
distributed throughout the materials.

The temperature at the base of a feebly radio-active layer, such as an accumu-
lation of sediments, is defined in part by radio-active energy, in part by its position
relative to the normal isogeotherms, whether these latter are in turn due to or

Yay

692 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

influenced by radio-thermal supplies or not. It is convenient, and I think allow-
able, to consider these two effects separately, and deal with them as if they were
independent, the resultant state being obtained by their summation.

In dealing with the rise of temperature at the base of a radio-active layer we
arrive at an expression which involves the square of the depth. This is a very
important feature in the investigation, and leads to the result that, for a given
amount of radium, diffuse distribution through a great depth of deposit gives rise
to a higher basal temperature than a more concentrated distribution in a shallower
layer.

"Bat this will not give us the whole effect of such a deposit. Another and an
important factor has to be taken into account. We have seen that the immediate
surface rocks are of such richness in radium as to preclude the idea that a similar
richness can extend many miles inward.

Now, it is upon this surface layer that the sediments are piled, and as they
grow in thickness this original layer is depressed deeper and deeper, yielding
under the load until at length it is buried to the full depth of the overlying
deposit. This slow and measured process is attended by remarkable thermal
effects. The law of the increase of temperature with the square of the depth
comes in, and we have to consider the temperature effect not merely at the base
of the deposited layer, but that due to the depression and covering over of the
yadium-rich materials upon which the sediments were laid down.

The table which follows embodies an approximate statement of the thermal
results of various depths of deposit supposed to collect under conditions of crustal
temperature such as prevail in this present epoch of geological history :—

| Weakening of Earth’s Crust |

| Thickness of Sedimentary Resulting Rise of as defined by the Rise of
Deposit | Isogeotherms the Geotherm at 40 kilo-
metres
Kilometres Kilometres Kilometres
| | 74 40 to 32°6
8 10:2 40 to 29°8
10 133 40 to 26-7
| 12 16:7 40 to 23:3
14 204 40 to 19°6

I have deferred to the conclusion of this Address an account of the steps
followed in obtaining the above results. It is clearly impossible, within the limited
time allotted to me, to make these quite clear. It must suflice here merely to
explain the significance of the figures.

The first column gives the depth of sedimentary deposit supposed to be laid
down on the normal radio-active upper crust of a certain assumed thickness and
radio-activity. From the rise of temperature which occurs at the base of this
crust (due to the radio-activity, not only of the crust, but of the sediments) the
results of the second column are deduced, the gradient or slope of temperature
prevailing beneath being derived from the existing surface gradients corrected for
the effects of the radio-thermal layer. The third column is intended to exhibit
the effect of this shift of the geotherms in reducing the strength of the crust. I
assume that at a temperature of 800° the deép-seated materials lose rigidity under
long continued stress. The estimated depth of this geotherm is, on the assump-
tions, about 40 kilometres. The upward shift of this geotherm shows the loss of
strength, Thus in the case of a sedimentary accumulation of 10 kilometres the
geotherm defining the base of the rigid crust shifts upwards by 13 kilometres, so
that there is a loss of effective section to the amount of 30 per cent.'

As regards the claims which such figures have upon our consideration,
my assumptions as to thickness and radio-activity of the specially rich sur-
face layer are, doubtless, capable of considerable amendment. It will be found,

1 See Appendix B.

i? oe

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 695

however, that the assumed factors may be supposed to vary considerably, and yet
the final results prove such as, I believe, cannot be ignored. Indeed those who
are in the way of making such calculations, and who enter into the question, will
find that my assumptions are not specially favourable, but are, in fact, made on
quite independent grounds. Again, a certain class of effects has been entirely left
out of account, effects which will go towards enhancing, and in some cases
greatly enhancing, the radio-thermal activity. I refer to the thickening of the
crust arising from tangential pressure, and, at a later stage, the piling up and
overthrusting of mountain building materials. In such cases the temperature of
the deeper parts of the thickened mass must still further rise under the intluence
of the contained radium. These effects only tale place, indeed, after yielding has
commenced, but they add to the element of instability which the presence of the
accumulated radio-active deposits occasions, and doubtless increase thermal meta-
morphic actions in the deeper sediments, and result in the refusion of rocks in the
upper part of the crust.

The effect of accumulated sediment is thus necessarily a reduction in the
thickness of that part of the upper crust which is capable of resisting a com-
pressive stress. Over the area of sedimentation, and more especially along the
deepest line of synclinal depression, the crust of the globe for a period assumes
the properties belonging to an earlier age, yielding up some of the rigidity which
was the slow inheritance of secular cooling. Along this area of wealiness—from
its mode of formation generally much elongated in form—-the stressed crust for
many hundreds, perhaps thousands, of miles finds relief, and flexure takes place
in the only possible direction ; that is, on the whole upwards. In this way the
prolonged anticline bearing upwards on its crest the whole mass of deposits is
formed, and so are born the mountain ranges in all their diversity of form and
structure.

We have in these effects an intervention of radium in the dynamics of the
earth’s crust, which must have influenced the entire history of our globe, and
which, I believe, affords a key to the instability of the crust. For after the
events of mountain building are accomplished, stability is not attained, but in
presence of the forces of denudation the whole sequence of events has to commence
over again. Every fresh accession of snow to the firn, every passing cloud con-
tributing its small addition to the torrent, assists to spread out once more on the
floor of the ocean the heat-producing substance. With this rhythmic succession
of events appear bound up those positive or negative movements of the strand
which cover and uncover the continents, and have swayed the entire course of
evolution of terrestrial life.

Oceanic Deposits.—The displacements of the crust which we have been con-
sidering are now known to be by no means confined to the oceanic margins. ‘The
evidence seems conclusive that long continued movements have heen in progress
over certain areas of the sea floor, attended with the formation of those numerous
yoleanic cones upon which the coral island finds foundation. Here there are
plainly revealed signs of instability and yielding of the crust (although, perhaps,
of minor intensity) such as are associated with the greater movements which
terminate in mountain building. I think it will be found, when the facts are
considered, that we have here phenomena continuous with those already dealt
with, and although the conditional element of a sufficient sedimentary accumula-
tion must remain speculative, the evidence we possess is in favour of its existence.

One of the most interesting outstanding problems of deep-sea physiography is that
of the rates of accumulation of the several sorts of deposit. In the case of the more
rapidly collecting sediments there seems no serious reason why the matter should
not be dealt with observationally, I hope it may be accomplished in our time.

' Professor C. Schmidt (Basel) has recently given reasons for the view that the
Mesozoic schists of the Simplon at the period of their folding were probably from
15,000 to 20,000 metres beneath the surface (Ze. Geol. Helvetie, vol. ix. No. 4,
p. 590). As another instance consider the compression of the Laramide range
(Dawson, Bull. Geol. Soc, Am., xii. p. 87).

694 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

For my present purpose I should like to now what may or may not be assumed
in discussing the accumulation of radio-active sediments on the ocean floor.

As regards the rate of collection of the non-caleareous deposits, the nearest
approach to an estimate is, I think, to be obtained from the exposed oceanic deposits
of Barbados. In the well-known paper of Jukes Brown and Harrison’ on the
geology of that island, it is shown that the siliceous radiolarian earths and red
clays aggregate to a thickness of about 800 feet. These materials are true
oceanic deposits, devoid of terrigenous substances. They collected very probably
during Pliocene and, perhaps, part of Pleistocene times. Now, there is evidence
to lead us to date the beginning of the Pliocene as anything from one million to
three million years ago. The mean of these estimates gives a rate of collection
of 5 millimetres in a century. This sounds a very slow rate of growth, but it is
too fast to be assumed for such deposits generally. More recent observations
might, indeed, lead us to lengthen the period assigned to the deposition of these
oceanic beds; for if, following Professor Spencer,” we ascribe their deposition to
Kocene times, a less definite time-interval is indicated; but the rate could hardly
have been less than three millimetres in a century. The site of the deposit was
probably favourable to rapid growth.

We have already found a maximum limit to the average thickness of true
oceanic sediments ; and such as would obtain over the ocean floor if the rate of col-
lection was everywhere the same and had so continued during the past. If there is
one thing certain, however, it is that the rates of accumulation vary enormously,
The 1,200 or 1,500 feet of chalk in the British Cretaceous, collected in one rela-
tively brief period of submergence, would alone establish this. Huxley inferred
that the chalk collected at the rate of one inch ina year. Sollas showed that the
rate was more probably one inch in forty years. Sir John Murray has advanced
evidence that in parts of the Atlantic the cables become covered with Globigerina
ooze at the rate of about 10 inches in a century, Finally, then, we must take it
that the fair allowance of one-seventh of a mile may be withheld in some areas
and many times exceeded in others.

Now it is remarkable that all the conditions for rapid deposition seem to pre-~
vail oyer those volcanic areas of the Pacific from which ascend to the surface the
coral islands—abundant pelagic life and comparatively shallow depths. Indeed,
I may remind you that the very favourable nature of the conditions enter into the
well-known theory of coral island formation put forward by Murray.

The islands arise from depths of between 1,000 and 2,000 fathoms. These
areas are covered with Globigerina ooze having a radio-activity of about 7 or 8.
The deeper-lying deposits around—red clay and radiolarian ooze—show radio
activities up to and over 50, From these no volcanic islands spring.

These facts, however, so far from being opposed to the view that the radio-
activity and crustal disturbance are connected, are in its favour. For while those
rich areas testify to the supply of radio-ac'ive materials, the slow rate of growth
prevailing deprives those deposits of that characteristic depth which, if I may put
it so, is of more consequence than a high radio-activity. For the rise in tem-
perature at the base of a deposit, as already pointed out, is proportional to the
square of the thickness; in reality the dilution of the supplies of uranium which
reach the calcareous oozes flooring the disturbed areas is a necessary condition
for any effective radio-thermal actions.

It might appear futile to consider the matter any closer where so little is
known. But in order to give an idea of the quantities involved I may state that,
if my calculations are correct, a rate of deposit comparable with that of the chalk
prevailing for ten million years would, on assumptions similar to those already
explained when discussing the subject of mountain building, occasion a rise of the
deeper isogeotherms by from 20 to 30 per cent. of their probable normal depth.

In making these deductions as to the influence of radium in sedimentary
deposits, I have so far left out of consideration the question of the time which mus.

t Q.S.G.S8., xlviii. p. 210. 2 Tbid,, \viii. p. 354 et seq.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 695

elapse in order that the final temperature-rise in the sediments must be attained.
The question we have to answer is: Will the rate of rise of temperature due tc
radium keep pace with the rate of deposition, or must a certain period elapse after
the sedimentation is completed to any particular depth, before the basal tempera-
ture proper to the depth is attained ?

The answer appears to be, on an approximate method of solution, that for rates
of deposition such as we believe to prevail in terrigenous deposits—even so great
as one foot ina century, and up to depths of accumulation of 10 kilometres and even
more—the heating waits on the sedimentation. Or, in other words, there is
thermal equilibrium at every stage of growth of the deposit; and the basal tem-
perature due to radio-active heating may at any instant be computed by the con-
ductivity equation. For accumulations of still greater magnitude the final and
maximum temperature appears to lag somewhat behind the rate of deposition.

From this we may infer that the great events of geological history have
‘primarily waited upon the rates of denudation and sedimentation. The sites of
the terrigenous deposits and the marginal oceanic precipitates have many times
been convulsed during geological time because the rates of accumulation thereon
have been rapid. The comparative tranquillity of the ocean floor far removed
from the land may be referred to the absence of the inciting cause of disturbance.
If, however, favourable conditions prevail for such a period that the local
accumulations attain the sufficient depth, here, too, the stability must break
down and the permanency be interrupted.

Upheaval of.the ocean floor, owing to the laws of deep-sea sedimentation,
should be attended with effects accelerative of deposition—a fact which may not
be without influence. But although ultimately sharing the instability of the
continental margins, the cycle of change is tuned to a slower periodicity. From
the operation of these causes, possibly, have come and gone those continents
which many believe to have once replaced the wastes of the oceans, and which
with all their wealth of life and scenic beauty have disappeared so completely
that they scarce have left a wreck behind. But those forgotten worlds may be
again restored. The rolled-up crust of the earth is still rich in energy borrowed
fron: earlier times, and the slow but mighty influences of denudation and deposi-
tion are for ever at work. And so, perchance, in some remote age the vanished
Gondwana Land, the lost Atlantis, may once again arise, the seeds of resurrection
even now being sown upon their graves from the endless harvests of pelagic life.

APPENDIX A.

Convective Movement of Uranium to the Earth's Surface (p. 680).—The estimate
of temperature given assumes (1) that the mass of igneous material is spherical,
and (2) that its surface is kept at constant temperature, heat escaping freely.
The first assumption is in favour of increasing the estimate of temperature, and
probably would not generally be true, especially of a mass moving upwards. The
second assumption tends to give a lower estimate of temperature, and is certainly
misleading, as the surrounding materials are non-conducting, and must favour the
accumulation of radio-active heat.

On assumptions (1) and (2) and on Barus’ results for the thermal expansion of
diabase between 1100° and 1500°,' and results of my own on basalt,’ which are
in approximate agreement, and assuming the mean excess of temperature to be
500° and the surrounding material to be at a fluid temperature, the force of
buoyancy comes out at over 60 dynes per cubic centimetre of the spherical mass.
This is an under-estimate.

If we may assume that the Deccan Trap is indeed an instance of such an over-
heated mass escaping at the surface, and that similar radio-active masses rising up
from beneath at various times in the past may have affected the crust, we have at
our disposal a local source of energy of plutonic origin which may account for much,

) Phil, Mag., xxxv. p. 173, * Trans. R.D.S., vi. p. 298,

696 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

APPENDIX B.

Sedimentation and Rise of Geotherms (p. 692)—The depth of the upper radio-
active layer is, of course, unknown, We possess, however, the means of arriving
at some idea of what it must be. The quantitative thermal conditions impose
a major limit to its average thickness, and the indications of injected rocks suggest
© minor limit.

It will be found that if 2°6 x 10° calories is the heat output of the whole
earth per annum, and if we assign only one-fifth of this amount to cooling due
to decay of the uranium, then, on the assumption that the earth is no longer
losing any part of its original store of heat, we have about 2 10° representing
radium heating. From this the allowance of terrestrial radium per square centi-
metre inwards is 2°3x10-> grams. This would give a major limit. But it is
almost certain that some of this radium is located in more deeply seated parts of
the earth. If we take 10— as contained in the normal radio-active surface layer,
and assume (what according to my experiments should not be far from the truth)
that the average radio-activity is 5, we arrive at a thickness of 12 kilometres,

Some such mean value is necessitated by the evidence we derive from the
radio-activity of igneous rocks. These rocks must in many cases be derived from
considerable depths. Such outflows as the Deccan may indicate local sub-crustal
conditions; so also may the eruptions of certain volcanic areas. But those
extrusions which have attended mountain building, more especially its closing
phases, appear to indicate general conditions, and involve the existence of such
radio-active materials at considerable depths. If we assume a thickness for the
radio-active part of the crust much less than the 12 kilometres, difficulties are met
with on this line of reasoning.'

Proceeding now to the derivation of the results given in the table, p. 692.

The equation ké= gh (D 3) (where @ is the temperature at the depth a,

D being the total depth of the radio-active layer, g the radium per ¢.c. in grams,
A the heat output of one gram of radium per second, & the thermal conductivity)
is easily derived by considering the conditions of thermal flow in the layer,
supposed to lose heat only at the surface.”

The aggregate depths of radio-active material in the several cases of sedimen-
tary deposit assumed in my Address amount to 18, 20, 22, 24, and 26 kilometres.
I assume the mean radio-activity to be 3°5, and the average conductivity to he
4x10-*, From this the basal temperatures are found, as due to radio-thermal
actions. These temperatures are to be augmented by the temperatures proper to
the several depths, which depend upon the conducted interior heat. To estimate
these we require to apportion the observed average surface gradient (taken as
32 metres per degree) between radio-active effects in the upper layer and the flow
of heat from within. The radio-thermal gradient comes out at about 75 metres ;
the inver gradient is accordingly 56 metres. Hence the total temperature at the
base of each radio-active mass is obtained. But the geotherms proper to the
several depths, 18, 20, &c., kilometres, under conditions prevailing elsewhere in
the crust, are easily found from the value of 6 for the normal layer (82° C.), and
adding the temperature due to interior heat. [From the difference of the tempera-
tures we, finally, find the rise of the geotherms.

As conveyed in my Address, I have found on several different values of the
thickness and radio-active properties of the surface layer, results in every case
showing large values for the rise of the geotherms, The data assumed above are
by no means the most favourable,

* See p. 693, ante, and foot-note as bearing on the possible displacement of the
geotherms. ;
? See Strutt, Proe. R.S,, xxvii. Pp; 482,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 697

- The following Papers were then read :—

1. The Geology of the Dublin District.
By Professor GRenvILLE A, J. Cous, /.G.S.

2. On the Cave of Castlepook, near Doneraile, Co. Cork.
By R. J. Ussuer, H. J. Seymour, E. T. Newron, and R. F. Scuarrr.

Castlepook Cave, north of Doneraile, leads into an extensive series of deep
parallel galleries in limestone. Most of them are narrow, with vertical sides up
to a certain level, where the walls recede with a wide sweep, forming an arched
tunnel. Near the top of this the galleries are still spanned in places by an ancient
stalagmite floor. Some of the sand on which the latter was formed is still ad-
hering to it underneath. Beds of sand filled the lower parts of many galleries. This
sand contained, sometimes down to 12 feet, numerous remains, chiefly of reindeer.

The geological evidence as to the age of the cave is unsatisfactory. Only
rolled ard unstriated pebbles have yet been discovered in the cave and no foreign
erratic. This would seem to indicate that the material now in the cave, and
hence the cave itself, is pre-glacial in age, for otherwise a pebble of the granite
known to be widely distributed throughout the overlying boulder-clay might
reasonably have been expected to occur amongst the large number of boulders
found in the various passages. No such pebble has, however, been found.
The inference, therefore, on more or less negative evidence, is that the cave was
formed in pre-glacial times.

The bird remains found in the cave call for no special remarks. More than half
are referable to the domestic fowl, turkey, and duck, though some of the latter
may belong to the wild form. Like the bones of the rook, which are also
numerous, they may have been brought in recently by foxes. The remainder all
belong to such species as are now found in the neigbourhood.

The mammalian remains are of a very different character. It is true that
the bones of the rabbit, sheep, ox, horse, pig, fox, cat, and rat seem mostly of
comparatively recent origin. By far the greatest number of the bones found
belong to the reindeer and bear. The exceedingly numerous bone splinters, the
gnawed bones of reindeer, and the presence of many bones of old and young
hyenas seem to indicate coexistence in Ireland of the latter and the typically
arctic species. The hyzna, which had not previously been known to haye ever
inhabited Ireland, is closely related to that now living in South Africa. Other
animals whose remains were probably dregged into the cave by hyznas, are the
mammoth, Irish elk, red deer, and wolf. Among the smaller mammals the bones
and teeth of the Arctic Lemming (Dicrostonyx torguatus) and of the Scandi-
navian Lemming (Lemus lemmus) are very abundant. They may have been
brought in by the Arctic fox.

No human remains or implements were found except parts of modern iron tools
and charred wood indicating the presence of man only within quite recent times.

In so far as Ireland is not generally believed to have been joined to England
by land in glacial or post-glacial times, the presence in the country of the
mammoth, Irish elk, and hyzna apparently confirms the opinion, arrived at from
geological evidence, that Castleyook Cave must be a pre-glacial one. This view
is supported by the absence of many animals from Ireland which seem to have
made their first appearance in England during the glacial period,

3. Probable Cretaceous and Cainozoic Outliers off the Coast of Cc. Kerry,
By Professor Grenvitte A. J. Corn, F.G.S.

The dredgings made since 1901 by the Fisheries Branch of the Department
of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland have amply supported the
conclusions then put forward,’ to the effect that the geological structure of the

* Cole and Crook, Report on Fisheries of Ireland for 1901.

698 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C,

sea-floor off western Ireland can be deduced from a study of the stoncs lying on
it from point to point. The most interesting recent results are the discovery of
abundant flints, chalk, glauconitie chalk, and two specimens of Miliolin2 limestone
in dredgings off the coast of Kerry. Mr. Worth’s observations in 1908 on similar
materials in the English Channel thus receive confirmation from areas much
further west, and it is clear that both the Cretaceous and Eocene seas extended
to an unknown distance in that direction, though we can trace their boundaries
fairly on the north-west. Many of the flints of southern Ireland may have been
derived from local strata rather than from ice-borne drift.

4. On a Section of the Lower Coal Measures at Emerald Pit, Dungannon.
By H. Bouron, F.RS.L., F.GS.

A shaft was sunk in 1894-5 some little distance to the north of the old
Drumglass colliery, and was carried to a depth of 197 yards, penetrating five coal-
seams before reaching the Main Coa], which was known to the miners as the
‘Congo’ seam. During the course of the sinking a measured section was
obtained of the strata passed through, and a collection of fossils brought together.
After work had commenced on the deeper coal-seams, water broke into the
colliery on two occasions, causing its abandonment. A generalised section of the
measures passed through is as follows :—

yds. ft. in.
Strata . ; : 4 : c : e a EO en
1. Coal (inferior) , , : : : ‘ ° : 1 10
Strata . aS es . - 7 i 4 ; DB! hoe
Poked. Wik ® tea hice ats) came ei z
Strata . ‘ i ; i , . é ae Ghia 2 ee
3. Coal (in thin partiogs with shale) . ‘ ; P io Bs iOie
Strata . ! f 3 ; F : 4 3s) 44 90 1E
4. Coal 3 . , 3 ¢ 5 é : ; 3
Strata . : a > : : - : : Fis aaa UA
ft. in.
Top Coal 10
Brown Shale qT
5. Coal Coal . i Hip oo F 3 ‘ ‘ 1 40010
Inferior Coal 3
Coal 9
Strata . ‘ F ; , F : < yor SPOS
6. Coal ; ‘ ¢ peeing i ‘ - 4 3 3

Down to the level of the 4th Coal, the strata consisted mainly of red,
yellow, and grey sandstones, with grey bind partings. Below the 4th Coal, black
and grey shales predominated. At a depth of 133 yards from the surface occurred
a black shale containing a typical Lower Coal measures marine fauna.

The following species have been determined :—

BRACHIOPODA— GASTEROPODA—
Discina nitida. | Pleurotomaria, cf. gemmulifera.
Lingula squamifor mis. |
Spirifera trigonalis. CEPHALOPODA—
Camarophoria isorhyncha ? Orthoceras Koninckianum 1 d’Orb.
Chonetes, sp.
PELECYPODA VERare
fear aay Serpulites membranaceous.
Sanguinolites plicatus, Portlock. P
eae :
onesedpen pee tain er
‘ 5 ube,
Protoschizodus axiniformis. Palroniseid scale and tooth,
Paralleiodon, cf, Verneuillianus, de Kon,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 699

5. On the Raised Beeches of the Liffey Valley.
By G. H. Kinanan.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. On the Igneous Rocks of the Outer Blasket Islands.
By Professor J. Jory, FAS.

2. The Laterite and Bauxite Zone of North-East Ireland.
By Professor Grenvitte A. J. Core, GS.

This paper was merely explanatory of an exhibit of the types of rock formed
during the interval between the basaltic eruptions in the north of Ireland in
Eocene times. It was urged, in agreement with the views of Richardson and Tate
and Holden, that the red lateritic zone represents basalt altered zm situ even down
to depths of 40 feet, the so-called ‘ volcanic bombs’ in the layer being residual
lumps of less altered basalt. Such a type of alteration is clearly connected with
the climatic conditions of Eocene times. Some of the pisolitic iron-ore may have
accumulated on the surface of the laterite in pools formed during the rainy seasons.
The pale bauxites are derived from sporadic eruptions of rhyolite, and the
bi-pyramidal crystals of quartz in them prove this over a wide area, The thin
bauxitic layer, occurring as it does aboye the pisolitic iron-ore, may be in part
formed by wind-borne material.

3. The Igneous and Associated Sedimentary Rocks of the Tourmakeady
District, Co. Mayo. By C. I. Garpiner and Professor 8. H. Reynowps.

The oldest rocks are a series of grits, conglomerates, black slates, cherts, and
tuffs exposed along the eastern side of the area. The slates have yielded a large
series of graptolites, which indicate that the rocks are of Upper Arenig age.
Further to the west occur gritty tuffs and limestones, often of a peculiar brecciated
character, which have yielded a considerable series of fossils of Llandeilo type.
Quartz felsites, probably both intrusive and contemporaneous (rhyolites), play a
very prominent part throughout the district.

4, The Lower Paleozoie Rocks around Killary Harbour, Co. Galway,
and Co. Mayo. By R. G. Carruruers and H. B. Murr.

The following succession was found in the Ordovician and Silurian rocks
around Killary Harbour :—

1. Tetragraptus zone (Middle Areniz).—Black shales and cherts, 60 feet
thick, with Vetragraptus (four species), Dichograptus octobrachiatus, Didymo-
graptus exrtensus, and other forms, including two species of Diplograptus new to
the British Isles but known in North America.

2. Diplograptus dentatus zone (Upper Areniz).

(a) Leenane Grits, following conformably above the cherts on the south
shore of Killary Harbour. Conglomeratic grits with slate bands
coming in towards the west in Rossroe, and a lenticular bed of

700 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

breceiated limestone about 1,000 feet from the base. About 2,500 feet
thick (top not seen). Diplograptus dentatus, Phyllograptus, Didymo-
graptus extensus, and D. fasciculatus.

(b) Doolough Slates, on north side of Killary Harbour. Green slates, with

subordinate grit bands, with Diplograptus dentatus, Phyllograptus
(four species) and other forms, including a N. American species of
Glossograptus and a new form, G. acanthus. E. & W. MS.
5. Mweelrea Grits (Llandeilo and (?) Bala).—Current-bedded red and greyish-
green, felspathic grits, resting conformably on the Doolough Slates. Apparently
12,000 feet thick (top not seen). Green shale bands in lowest 8,000 feet, with
Ogygia and brachiopods. Uppermost 9,000 feet barren,

4. Owenduff Beds (Upper Llandovery and Wenlock),—Basal breccia, with
fragments of schist, rests unconformably on the Connemara Crystalline Schists and
is succeeded by red mud-stones, barren green grits, calcareous grits with
brachiopods, a coarse conglomerate containing quartzite boulders, and a thick series
of greywacke grits and green sandy shales, in all about 5,300 feet thick. About
2,300 feet from the top is a band containing Monograptus Riccartonensis, and
about 300 feet from the top another containing Monograptus vomerinus and other
fossils.

5. Salrock Slates (Ludlow).—A monotonous series of dull Indian red and
pale green slates overlying Owenduff Beds conformably. A few bands contain
Lingua Davisi, L. Symondsi, &e. About 3,000 feet thick (top not seen),

The strata are arranged in a general east and west syncline through which,
along the south side of Killary Harbour, runs the great reversed fault of Salrock
Pass, hading to the north, and bringing up Arenig rocks on to Ludlow and
Wenlock beds.

All the rocks are more or less cleaved, but the folding is on the whole quite
gentle, although in the northern part of the district the Doolough Slates show
considerable compression and packing from the north against the great mass of
the Mweelrea Grits, and at the same time an appreciable development of seri-
citic mica,

The Arenig conglomerates contain boulders of quartzose schist identical with
some of the Connemara Crystalline Schists. Hence the latter were metamorphosed
before Arenig times, and are presumably of Archean age.

5, Notes on the Petrography of Egypt. By W. ¥F. Hume, D.Sc.

1. The ancient core of the North-east African continent consists of the
Cataract and Sudan Banded Gneisses, which may represent a very ancient
igneous magma, They are usually much veined by granitic dykes.

2. In certain places in the Arabian Desert, Cataracts, &c., these underlie highly
metamorphosed Schists (the Mica-Schists of Sikait, the Calcareous Schists of Um
Garaiart and Haimar and of the Amara Cataracts, also the Dolomites of the
latter region), which are sharply separated from the Banded Gneisses, aud are
possibly the oldest sedimentary representatives in Wgypt.

5. The greater part of the mountainous regions of the Eastern Desert and
Sinai are occupied by two types of rock, a schistose constituent overlying or being
surrounded by the acid member (@) the first-named, the Dokhan Volcanic Rocks
and Schists, are partly volcanic in origin and partly sedimentary, the former being
represented by lavas of various types, while the latter are clearly altered sedi-
mentary strata (grits, conglomerates, &c.). No fossils have yet been found, but
they have their nearest analogues in the latest pre-Cambrian and Cambrian series.
Here are included some of the most interesting rocks of Egypt, such as the Imperial
Porphyry and the Breccia Verde Antico.

(6) The igneous member intruded into these ancient sediments, &c., includes

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 701

a great diversity of igneous rocks, varying from highly basic to acid types. Contact
phenomena of complex nature occur at the junctions of @ and 4.

4, Red Granite and Dyke Rocks, whose parallelism and extent of distribution
present one of the most conspicuous features of the Eastern Desert of Egypt, mark
the final eruptive action before Carboniferous times.

5. Three periods of voleanic activity have been subsequently noted.

(a) In Western Sinai in late Carboniferous times,

(b) An undated series of eruptions interbedded with the base of the Nubian
Sandstone or intrusive into it with marked contact alterations.

(c) The Basic Intrusions near Cairo and the Fayum, &c.,which are intimately
associated with the Oligocene Continental Feriod in Egypt.

6. The Chemical Composition and Optical Characters of Dolomite
Crystals from Algeria. By A. Hurcuinson, M.A., Ph.D.

Fine crystals of dolomite are found at Biskra. As the material is perfectly
colourless and transparent, it was thought that a careful chemical and optical
examination would be of interest.

The results of an analysis were as follows :—

FeO i 6 : 075 or FeCO, . : fs 1:22
CaO 5 0 . 38031 ,, CaCO, . : . 5409
MgO - : an wike62 es | MeCOl as. : . 45°20

5) liege teal meat Wc

100°51

100°31

The indices of refraction were determined by means of a prism cut from the
crystal which afforded material for analysis, The values obtained for the mono-
chromatic flames given by lithium, sodium, and thallium respectively were—

Li Na Tl
Ord, 15002 15022 15042
Extraord, 1:6767 16813 16855

7. A Protractor for constructing Stereographic and G'nomonie Projections
of the Sphere. By A. Hutrcurnson, M.A., Ph.D.

The protractor, which has been designed for the use of students of crystal-
lography, consists of a rectangular strip of boxwood of any convenient length
and thickness, and of a width exactly equal to the radius of the sphere to be
projected. Experience has shown that 2°5 inches is a suitable radius for this
sphere; the protractor must therefore be 2°5 inches wide, and should be about
12 inches long. A zero line OD is drawn across it at right angles to its length,
at a distance from one end rather greater than the width of the protractor.
Taking as centre the point D, the opposite edge is graduated by means of a
circular dividing engine. The portion of the scale to the right of O is divided
to degrees, and the divisions numbered as shown in the figure, in which, however,
for the sake of clearness, the finer divisions have been omitted. The divisions
from O to A are exactly the same as those from O to C, but are numbered
differently, each division between O and C representing 2° instead of 1°.

From the method of construction it appears at once that the distance from
O of any division lying to its right is numerically equal to the tangent of the
corresponding angle (read on the upper row of numbers) when measured with a
scale for which the radius of the primitive circle DABC is taken as unit. Such
a scale is provided on the back of the protractor. Similarly, the distance from O
of any division on the scale OA is numerically equal to the tangent of half the

702 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

angle as read on the lower row of numbers, and the divisions themselves correspond
to degrees stereographically projected on a diameter.

Since the graduation of Op is identical with that of the ordinary rectangular
protractor, this scale may be used in the usual way for setting-off angles. So far
as special applications are concerned, the two scales Op and OA, used separately
or in conjunction, enable us to solve with ease the following problems of con-
struction :-—

(1) To project on any diameter the position of a point P, of which the angular
distance from the primitive or from the North pole is known, In the figure P is
the projection of a point 50° from the primitive.

B

Cit p
PESGS4E CEE SOR PE BED aa ae Mae ZTE 2
ee ee
} _ Ns stor siziol [s/o 70 60 5/0 4-8 EQ "0

,
‘

(2) To draw through any point P a great circle BPD perpendicular to that
projected in AOC. The centre of this circle lies at 7, a point which has the same
reading on the right-hand scale that P has on the left.

(3) To find the pole P’ of any projected great circle BPD, or in general to
find the point 90° removed from a given point and lying in the same diameter.

(4) To find the projected position p of a face parallel to a face of which the
projected position P is Inown. In other words, to find the point diametrically
opposite to any given point.

(5) To draw small circles about any given point.

The protractor may also be employed with advantage in constructing gnomonic
projections, as points of which the North polar distances are known can be plotted
at once from the scale Op. 1t will also be found useful in measuring the angles
between faces and zones on the completed projection.

8. Notes on the Microscopical Structure of the Derbyshire Limestones.
By H. H. Arnoxtp-Bemrosg, Se.D., GS.

These notes form only a brief sketch of the results of a cursory examination
of some four hundred thin slices of Derbyshire limestone in the author’s collection.
The specimens have been examined from a petrographical rather than from a
palzontological point of view. The classification of microscopical types given in
this short paper must be considered as provisional because of the few specimens
examined from a large area of country, and from a thickness of over 1,800 feet
of limestone shales and mountain limestone, in addition to the Permian lime-

stones. : :
I. Limestone Shales and Mountain Limestone.

These may be divided into fine and coarse grained rocks.
Fine-grained limestone, as ceen in the black limestone shales in the black

TRANSACTIONS Of SECTION C, 703

upper beds of mountain limestone, associated with chert, and in some beds of
white mountain limestone, These rocks have little definite structure under the
microscope. In some cases, especially in the limestone shales, they contain sponge
spicules,

r Some of the massive white limestones have a micro-granular or micro-oolitic
structure, like the limestones above the upper lava flow of Millers Dale. The
granules consist of pellets and small oolitic grains with minute fragments of
organisms.

Many limestones, both black and white, are composed mainly of foraminifera,
with or without minute shell fragments, often encle-ed in a calcite cement.
(Foraminifera are present in most of the specimens examined. )

The coarse-grained limestones consist of granular and shelly limestones. The
granular type includes the oolitic and the pebbly. One or both of these may be
present in the same thin slice, The oolitic grains often have a nucleus of a fossil
fragment. The pebbles consist of previously consolidated limestone, with fossil
contents, and are evidently detrital, The granular structure is found at various
horizons, and in many parts of the mountain limestone district. It frequently
occurs above a bed of clay or of volcanic tulf, and has probably been formed in
shallow water. The interspaces between the pebbles, oolitic grains and fossil
fragments form about 25 per cent. of the whole rock. They are composed of
crystalline calcite, and, according to Dr. Sorby’s experiments, the rock has been
subjected to considerable pressure previously to the infiltration of calcite. The
shelly limestones contain fragments of brachiopods and productus which are
waterworn. In some rocks there is a more or less laminated structure, resulting
in a compact limestone, with few if any interspaces; in others the shell frag-
ments have interspaces between them. Often associated with the granular lime-
stones are fossils which have not been previously described, and which may be
new forms of calcareous alge.

Metamorphic Limestones,

Metamorphism by contact with intrusive igneous rocks is found both below
and above the latter. The limestones have become marmorised or converted into
crystalline calcite.

Metasomatie Limestones

consist of a replacement of the original limestone by crystalline silica or quartz,
or by the doubles carbonate of lime and magnesia.

The former results in a rock consisting entirely of quartz, The changes from
a limestone free from quartz, through limestones with quartz crystals and a
quartzose limestone to a quartz rock, may be easily traced.

The latter change takes plaze when the carbonate of lime has been replaced
by dolomite. In this case specimens can be obtained showing the various stages
of replacement.

II. The Permian Limestones
in the eastern part of the county consist of more or less well-defined rhombohedra
of dolomite with few angular grains of quartz. ‘The white and red sandstones of
the same district, which apparently lie below the limestones, contain more
numerous angular grains of quartz in a dolomitie base, and compose about one-

fourth of the rock. The latter rocks may therefore be termed dolomitic sandstones
or quartzose dolomites.

9. On the Occurrence of Native Iron in the Deccan Basalt.
By Professor J. Joy, 7.2.8.

Ores ee

i

704 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION CG,

10. The Tourmaline Rocks of Cwm Dwythwe, near Llanberis (North
Wales). By W.G. Fearnsipes, WA.

Some years ago, when examining sands from the neighbourhood of
Caernarfon, I found that both the river sands of the Seiont and the beach sands of
the Menai contain tourmaline. In order to trace the mineral to its source I have
since examined the heavy mineral residues of the sands of nearly all the tribu-
taries of the Seiont, and find that all those which flow across the Cambrian Slate
Belt contain either needles or broken grains of brown tourmaline. The sand from
the Afon Arddu (whose delta parts the two lakes of Llanberis) is exceptional, and
is very rich in well-formed trigonal prisms of blue tourmaline. The sand from the
Afon Hweh, its tributary from between Moel Hilio and Moel Goch, is even more
surprising, and in the sand from the spits along the flatter reaches of this burn
tourmaline can generally be distinguished with a pocket lens,

I have therefore mapped the Cwm Dwythwe on the 6-inch scale, and in
mapping have found the tourmaline rocks 7 situ. They are mostly coarse grits,
grits, flags, and slaty flags, and occur along the horizon of the unconformity
between Cambrian and Ordovician rocks. The tgurmaline is not clastic but has
been formed in situ from the feldspathic ground-paste of the grits or flags, and
clustered new-formed needles enter and pierce the quartz pebbles of the grit or
the chloritoid ground mass of the slate in a most fascinating manner. There
has been much thrust-faulting along the unconformity, but no large intrusive
mass of igneous rock has been observed within five miles of the locality. Tour-
maline new-formed in the slate and the remains of tuning-fork graptolites can
be found within three or four inches of each other. The tourmaline is a soda-
bearing variety.

11. Note on the Occurrence of (so-called) Cave Pearls.
By Haroxtp Broprick, IA.

Cave pearls, as they were first called in ‘Cave Hunting’ (Professor Boyd
Dawkins), seem to be of comparatively rare occurrence. They consist of a nucleus
of some foreign material, frequently a small pebble of Yoredale rock (in one case a
small fragment of lead ore) coated by numerous concentric rings of calcite, All those~
that I have found have been formed under similar conditions; they have all been
found in what might be called nests in the rock, into which drops of water have
fallen at comparatively long intervals from a considerable height. Each falling
drop will have the tendency slightly to turn the nucleus, and also, by deposition,
to coat it with a thin film of carbonate of calcium; this deposition is continued
until what is called a cave pearl is formed, ranging in diameter from 0-5 cm. up
to 2 cm.

The three types with which I am acquainted come from three separate caves:
(1) The Blue John (Derbyshire). This type consists of a nucleus of Yoredale
Sandstone covered with layers of calcite, which become harder towards the out-
side, the exterior being extremely hard, smooth, and opaque; sp. gr. 2°75. (2) The
Bagshawe (Derbyshire). This type consists in many cases of a nucleus of Yoredale
Sandstone, or, in one case at least, of lead ore; the concentric deposit in this type
is somewhat translucent, the outer surface is slightly crystalline; sp. gr. 2°71.
(8) Marble Arch (Co. Fermanagh). This type has a nucleus of Yoredale Sand-
stone, while the covering is composed of carbonate which seems to have included
in it a considerable admixture of contained mud; the colour is a dirty grey, and
the deposit is comparatively soft; sp. gr. 2.40. As will be seen from the specific
gravity in each case, the deposit is in the form of calcite, a condition which might
be anticipated from the mode of occurrence. I have carefully examined active
streams in numerous caves for similar formations, but have been unable to find
them, The caves in which they have been found (to my knowledge) are Caldy
Island (Boyd Dawkins), the Blue John Cave (two nests), the Bagshawe Cave (one
nest), about thirty pearls; Marbl8 Arch Cave (one nest), at least a hundred
pearls.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 6, 705

12. The Derivation of Sand and Clay from Granite.
By Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, D.Sc., FBS.

The decomposition of granite by the attack of the carbonic acid in the rain-water
on the soluble crystalline elements of granite results in the formation of a surface-
covering more or less complete over the solid rock which can only be studied
in non-glaciated regions, It is conspicuous by its absence from the ice-swept
granite areas of the Lake country, of Scotland, and of Ireland, and of Middle and
Northern Europe.

The quartz in the granite has resisted decomposition, and where the finer
products of decomposition have been swept away form a coarse sand, each grain
presenting an irregular surface indented by the feldspars and micas as they cooled
from the heated magma. ‘These are traceable more or less through a large
number of sandstones, and more especially through those of the Millstone Grits
and Coal-measures of Middle and Northern England.

The attack of the rain-water containing carbonic acid on the micas results in
the decomposition of the biotite and to a lesser degree of the muscovite, while
the soluble feldspars, such as orthoclase, are completely dissolved, constituting
hydrated silicates of alumina and new minerals such as kaolinite and secondary
minutely crystalline muscovite. All these occur in the china clay of Cornwall
and Devon, and are invariably associated with grains of quartz, primary mica,
and tourmaline present in the unaltered granite. All these elements occur ia
all the samples ranging from the purest china clay through the whole series
which haye as yet been examined, with the addition of others of local derivation.

These facts indicate that granite has been one of the chief sources, not merely
of the arenaceous, but also of the argillaceous rocks. It is not improbable that
both may ultimatelw be proved to have been derived from the siliceous acid layer
believed by Durocher and Haughton to have been the first to become solid in the
cooling globe.

13. Interim Report on the Microscopical and Chemical Composition of
Charnwood Rocks.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
The following Papers and Reports were read : ~

1, Glacial Erosion in North Wales. By Professor W. M. Davis.

The mountains of the Snowdon district are believed to represent a group of
monadnocks which surmounted the peneplain to which a large part of the region
was reduced in Tertiary time. The valleys between the monadnocks were some-
what deepened by normal erosive processes, in consequence of a general elevation
of the region in late Tertiary time. Asa result, the topography of the Snowdon
district in immediately pre-glacial time may be described as exhibiting a group of
well-subdued mountains, drained through valleys of somewhat sharpened form. The
difference between the forms thus described and the forms seen to-day in the
Snowdon district is very great, both in amount and in kind, and cannot be
accounted for by normal erosion during glacial and post-glacial time. But the
difference is, in amount and kind, just what might result from glacial action, if it
be postulated that glaciers are effective eroding agencies. The depth of glacial
erosion in certain cwms and yalleys is believed to have been 400, 600, or 800 feet ;
the breadth of glacial erosion must have been of even greater measure,

1908, Yi Z

706 THANSACTIONS OF SECTION 6,

2. The Duration and Direction of Large Barthquakes.
Sy Dr. Joun Mine, F.R.S.

Small earthquakes, as for example those which occur in this country, have a dura«
tion ofa few seconds near to their origin. At places 50 or 100 miles distant they may
not be recordable. The duration, therefore, has varied between a few seconds and
zero. With many large earthquakes, however, this decay during transmission is
not appreciable, and duration near to their antipodes may be as great as it is near
to their origin. Duration as one of these disturbances travels, rather than decreas-
ing, at times appears to increase. The greatest duration is at about 90° distance
from an origin. That which occurs may be compared with what we observe after
a flask of water has been tilted. The contents oscillate like a pendulum, and any
one part of the fluid comes to rest about the same time as any other part.

Another observation in connection with recent seismological observations is
that large earthquakes travel furthest in particular directions. I have taken
seventy-nine large disturbances with fairly well-known origins south of the Cau-
casus, north of India, and to the east or south of Japan. These earthquakes have
travelled further to the west than to the east, and there has only been a small
percentage of them that have found their way across the equator, to observatories
in the southern hemisphere,

3. Report on the Excavation of Critical Sections in the Paleozoic Rocks
of Wales and the West of England.—See Reports, p. 231,

4. The Soufriere of St. Vincent : the Changes subsequent to the Eruption
of 1902. By Dr. Tempest Anperson, F.G.S.

In 1902 the author visited St. Vincent, along with Dr. Flett, after the then
recent eruption. In 1907 he revisited the island and examined the changes that
had taken place in the new deposits.

In 1902 an incandescent avalanche descended into the valleys which occupy
the great tranverse depression across the island to the south of the Soufriére, and
in particular the Wallibu Valley was filled for a great part of its course to a
depth of at least 100 feet, but less near its mouth. In this deposit of red-hot
material the secondary phenomena of re-excavation of the valley by the river,
the falls of hot ash, the steam explosions, and the flows of boiling mud took
place, and are described in the Report, Part I.1 In 1907 almost the whole of
this ash had been washed away, but a fragwent remained in the shape of a terrace,
GU to 80 feet high, situated on the north side of the valley. The ash of which it
is formed is unstratified, and contains very few ejected blocks or fragments of any
kind. The floor of the valley is all composed of water-sorted material, chiefly
gravel and coarse sand, but with a good many blocks as big as a man’s head.
They represent ejected blocks and fragments of lava derived partly from the ash
of 1902 and partly from older beds, the fine ash in each case haying been washed
away. The surface of the gravel bed showed marks of quite recent running
water, and during the last winter (19UG-7) the river ran along the foot of the
north bank of the valley. When examined in March 1907, it ran along the
south side of the valley, and had already in those few months excayated a new
channel about 30 feet in depth. The stratification, as exposed in this new valley,
is very distinct, and the sorting by water, mentioned above, is very evident.
Further up the mountain the remains of the avalanche became more abundant in
the valley bottoms, and here they were also better preserved, so that traces of
the feather-pattern erosion, so noticeable in 1902, were still visible on the surface.
This was mainly due to the surface of these aah deposits, like those to be presently

* Anderson and Flett, Phil. Trans. Series A, vol. 200, 1903; Anderson,
Geographical Journal, March 1903,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 707

mentioned on the plateaux and on the ridges, having consolidated into a crust,
almost like a cement pavement, which resists the action of the rain.

Another interesting point was observed with regard to these massive beds of
recent material. Instead of one stream re-establishing itself along the centre of
the deposit, the tendency is for a new stream to form on each side at or near the
junction of the new ash with the old valley slopes; and as these streams deepen
their beds two new valleys are formed where only one previously existed, and
the walls of each are composed on the one side of the new ash and on the other
of older tuff, with occasional terraces.!

An account was also given of a visit to Montagne Pelée, in Martinique, with
a discussion of the phenomena of the extrusion of and Labsequent destruction of
the spine which have been described by Lacroix and others, and a comparison of
the eruptions of the two islands,

5. Recent Earth Movements within the Basin of the Laurentian Lakes.
By Professor W. H. Hosss.

With the substitution of the method of precise levelling for the aneroid and
the hand-level in the study of the abandoned shore-lines of the great lakes, a new
epoch has been inaugurated. It now becomes possible to correlate the observa-
tions with some measure of assurance, and thus to extend the chapters of the
Post-Wisconsin history of the lake region, Generally accepted views concerning
the recent tilling of the province are shown to require considerable modification,
and prophecies relating to the time of future changes of drainage fall away.

6. Report of the Geological Photographs Committee,—See Reports, p. 245,

7. Report on the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles—See Reports, p. 242,

8. Note on Casts of Dinosaurian Footprints in the Lower Oolite at Whitby.
By Harotp Broprick, JA.

The two footprint casts found at Saltwick, a small bay to the south of
Whitby, were on blocks of oolitic sandstone which had fallen from the cliff above,
so that it is not possible to determine their exact horizon; they must, however,
have been within 150 feet of the bottom of the oolites of that district. Both casts
are those of the footprints of a three-toed creature, and are similar to those of the
iguanodon of the Wealden beds, although on a smaller scale. The first of the
Saltwick casts indicates a foot with three functional toes, arranged in the form of
a broad arrow; the greatest length is 18 cm., the palm being 6:5 cm. in length,
thus giving a length to the middle digit of 115 cm. The side digits were about
9-5 cm. in length. The cast is formed of a very fine-grained sandstone, and for-
tunately the whole of the cast is shown, although it has suffered somewhat from
weathering. The second cast seems to represent the footprint of a slightly smaller
specimen, and is composed of a rather coarser sandstone ; unfortunately the ends
of the digits have been broken, so that it is not possible to give exact measure-
ments. The general shape is the same as the first, but the palm is 5 em. long,
while there is a deep corrugation across it as if the creature had a loose fold of
skin under its foot. The total length is 12°5cm., but it 1s probable that the
digits were really a little longer than now shown, On the same slab, and slightly

! See, further, Anderson, Report, Part IL, Phil. Trans, Series A, vol. 208,
pp. 275-300, Flett, Petrology, ibid., pp. 304-333,

Za

708 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

overlapped by this cast, is the cast of a smaller footprint, similar in form but only
4 cm. in its greatest length; this may represent the footprint of a still smaller
creature, or may be the cast of the manus of the same one. In both cases the
impression is deepest at the heel, that of the first being 2°5 cm. deep and the
second 2cm. There seems to be no trace of webbing. As far as I have been
able to ascertain, no footprints of this kind have been found in the lower oolite
of England, and I am unable to find any reference to such a fini in any other
part of the world.

9, Siath Report on the Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the
British Isles.—See Reports, p. 269,

10. Report on the Faunal Succession in the Carboniferous Limestone
(Avonian) of the British Isles.—See Reports, p. 267.

11. Dopplerite from Sluggan Bog, Co. Antrim. By R. Wetcu.

This curious jelly-like substance was discovered in aco. Antrim bog by Mr.
Robert Bell, of the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club, a few years ago. The bog is
an old cutaway one, and was formerly about 11 feet deeper than at present. The
dopplerite occurred as a vein about 3 inches thick about 7 feet from present
surface, in the black dense lower peat. It is very slightly elastic under pressure,
but breaks away with a jet-like fracture under tension. It contracts very much
in drying, and becomes much like jet in colour, fracture, and lustre. Irish
observers in the past have noted a jet-like substance in peat without recognising
what it was, but Mr. R. Moss, the secretary of the Royal Dublin Society, did so
when the first specimens found by Mr. Bell were sent to him. Mr. Moss, in an
article in ‘ The Jrish Naturalist’ for August 1903, states that it contains in the
dry state about 70 to 73 per cent. of humic acid, and that may be regarded as the
nearest approach to humic acid occurring in Nature. Since this appeared I have
found it in a bog near Cookstown, co. Tyrone, where the peats cut from the turf
saturated with dopplerite dry almost as hard as a brick. It is perhaps much more
common than is supposed, but is probably seldom separated out in such thick masses
as Mr. Bell finds in Sluggan Bog. Mr. Arthur Stelfox, another member of the
Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club, has noticed it ir. the West of Ireland. It was first
discovered in Germany by Herr Doppler, an inspector of mines, about fifty years ago,

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
Discussion on Mountain Building.

Professor J. JoLy said: Of the many features which recent investigations into
mountain structure had revealed, the overlap of the upper recumbent folds upon
the lower in such a way that the uppermost folds were of greater span than those
beneath, was one of the most characteristic and at the same time one of the most
difficult of explanation upon existing views. ‘I'he notion that a horst (or horsts)
might be responsible for such a structural feature laboured under the objection
that at the depths at which we must suppose the horst located, the temperature
must be almost certainly one at which siliceous rock-masses would be highly
viscous and not capable of playing the part assigned.

However, an explanation of the phenomenon appeared to reside in this very
condition of viscosity, for it would follow that, upon the first development of
folding, those synclinal parts of the folds which became depressed into the zone of

RANSACTIONS OF SECTION G4, 709

high tetiperature would find themselves unacted upon by movement of trans-
lation, seeing that the medium around them would be capable of exerting
hydrostatic effects only. These effects would doubtless result in the bulging
and elevation of the accumulating folds above, but could not result in translatory
horizontal motion in one direction more than another.

This hydrostatic condition, however, must gradually give place in an upward
direction to conditions of rigidity under which the compressive forces would dis-
place the folded strata. In this matter the physical properties of calcareous
strata must play a part. Such rocks would not assume a state of plasticity
as a thermal effect so readily as siliceous materials, while possessing an inherent
plasticity of a crystalline character, allowing of folding and bending under long
continued stress.

If the process of folding was followed through its stages:—the first forma-
tion of simple anticlines and synclines; the overthrow of the anticlines of these
folds under the directed stresses in the crust; their displacement in the direction
of the translatory force while the extreme depths of the synclines remained com-
paratively unaffected by translatory horizontal movements; and it be borne in mind
that the upper and cooler parts of the accumulated mass being the more rigid
must partake most fully of the translatory displacement, it would be found that
the ‘déferlement,’ described by M. Lugeon, must arise as the inevitable result.

In support of this view the speaker had made calculations of the temperature
which must be attained under such a depth of material as Professor Schmidt of
Basel had assigned to the accumulated folds above the Simplon region, This
was still nearer the surface than the position of the roots of many of the recum-
bent folds. If sufficient time were permitted for radioactive heat to accumulate,
there must arise a temperature of from 800° to 1000° at a horizon now approxi-
mately coinciding with the mean height of the Alps. The assumption of a viscous
temperature at the horizon of the synclinal parts of the folds was, therefore, in the
highest degree probable, even if the events took place within a period too short to
permit of the equilibrium radioactive temperature being attained.

Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKIE remarked that the term ‘mountain’ had rather a vague
signification, but that from the geological point of view it included two main types
of structure. In the first place, and most appropriately, it was applied to chains
which, like the Alps, have been ridged up by plication of the terrestrial crust ;
in the second place, it was often also used to describe the results of the prolonged
denudation of large tracts of ground in which thick masses of marine sediments
have been elevated into land without serious displacement of their original approxi-
mate horizontality. The ultimate condition of these upraised plateaux might be
such a network of lofty and rugged ridges and deep valleys as almost to rival those
produced by the plication of the crust. The cause of the uplift of such plateaux
was one of the moot problems of geology. Possibly some of the suggestions put
forward in the President's Address might ultimately furnish its solution.

With regard to mountain chains due to deformation of the crust, opinion
had greatly varied as to their structure and the causes that gave rise to them.
The speaker gave an outline of the history of the investigation of the subject, and
remarked that it was now generally admitted that such chains were produced, not
by vertical upliit, or by what used to be called ‘ volcanic’ energy, but by tangential
movements connected with the earth’s secular contraction. The extent to which
these movements had plicated rocks had been admirably illustrated from the Alps
by Heim. Marcel Bertrand, Rothpletz, Schardt, Schmidt, Lugeon, and others had
shown how the folds had been drawn out and piled over each other. These
flattened folds had not infrequently been ruptured, as so strikingly displayed in
the north-west of Scotland, and had been pushed over each other, so as to bring
up some of the older rocks and leave them lying for many miles above the younger
formations.

The general principles of mountain structure had now been fairly well made
out, but there were still many questions to which no definite answer could yet be
given. Thus we had no means of deciding whether the plication was rapid or
slow, or whether it might not still be going on, Delicate geodetic observations

710 {TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

might determine, in the case of the Alps, for instance, whether the frequent earth-
quakes of that chain, which pointed to aripping along lines of fracture, were
accompanied by movements of uplift or of depression. Another question which
opened out a wide field for observation was the determination of the successive
periods of disturbance to which any given mountain range owes its origin, It
would be interesting also to ascertain the conditions under which volcanic vents
are at last opened along a chain of mountains. As investigations advance doubt-
less many new features of structure may be expected to arise, which will engage
the attention of geologists for many generations to come.

Professor Sotias remarked that all doubts he might have felt as to the existence
of recumbent folds on the scale asserted by French and Swiss geologists had been
dispelled by a careful examination of the pre-Alps, made under the guidance of
Professor M. Lugeon. The structure was obvious and the interpretation was
confirmed by the superposition of the Piedmontese on the Helvetian facies, The
question had been much simplified by the new views advanced by the Presi-
dent, which completely explained one of the greatest difficulties of the subject.
The geometrical properties of the fold were worthy of some consideration ; it was
obvious that the volume within the fold increased with its growth up to a stage
at which the middle limb was nearly vertical, and up to this point the internal
pressure diminished. Beyond it, further advance of the hinder limb produced a
flattening-out of the fold and a diminution of internal volume, which led to the
extraversation of molten material from the region of the hinder limb, z.e., on the
concave side of the mountain are. When the three limbs of the fold were reduced
to parallelism a second fold might arise behind it, to pass through the same stages,
and this might be repeated several times, When the middle limb was pushed
past the vertical the conditions would render an independent moyement of the
hinder limb very possible, and this might advance as a sheet over great distances ;
superimposed sheets, such as occur in the Alps, might thus be formed. The piled-
up folds would, as the President had shown, blanket over the deeper region so
effectually that the geotherms might rise through a great interval. A highly
heated region beneath the mountain folds might therefore be expected, and this
might account for the lower value of gravity met with in the neighbourhood of
mountain chains. The approximation of remote areas brought about by folding
involved the transference of viscous material from one region to another ; bulging
up, though it occurred, would not account for the whole of this. It might travel
long distances. The thrusting which built up the Alps and Carpathians was felt
in the British Isles, where it produced the posthumous folds of the Weald and
splintered the crust of Scotland and the North of England, as well as parts of
Ireland. The cracks then produced afforded a passage for underlying lava, which
itself might also have originated under the Alps. The upward growth of a
mountain chain possibly represented only a balance of movement, for a subter-
Tene draining-off of molten material would produce a continual lowering of the

age,

Given the deformational figure of the earth, the position of the mountain
chains, on Professor Joly’s theory, follows from it, since they will arise where
sediments are deposited at the limits of land and water. Thee is much indeed
to suggest that the mountain chains of the past have thus originated as a con-
sequence of the varying influence of the differential harmonies elicited by Professor

Ove.

Professor Coxz urged, as Sir A. Geikie had done, the importance of keeping in
view the formation of mountain-masses by block-uplift as well as by overfolding. The
early geologists, such as Scrope, recognised recumbent folds when they attributed
mountains to the vertical upthrust of igneous cores and the slipping away of sedi-
ments on either side. Gravitational sliding being well recognised in existing theories
of Alpine structure, it became important to ask if the older yiews were really
wrong, and perhaps, with E. Reyer, we ought to reconsider the whole theory of
lateral thrusting as against that of superficial downsliding. The speaker com-
pared the curved front of a mountain chain in process of formation with the
advancing front of a land-slide, and asked for a tolerant examination of Ampferer’s

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 711

view of the Untergrund or sub-crustal region as the layer that induces superficial
flow by dragging the solidified crust upon its surface. Oarrying the question into
still more speculative regions, he asked if the cause of epochs of mountain-building
on the earth as a whole might not be due to some primordial periodic change of
temperature in the interior, inherited from the time when our planet formed part
of what we call a variable star.

The following Reports and Papers were then read :—

1, Third Report on the Crystalline Rocks of Anglesey.
See Reports, p. 283,

2. On the Finding of Silurian Beds in Kent. By W, Wurtaxsr, F.R.S.

A boring has lately been made, to a great depth, at Messrs. Curtis & Harvey’s
works, on the Thames Marshes at Cliffe, for the purpose of getting a supply of
water, firstly from the Chalk and then from the Lower Greensand. It has failed
in this, the water from both formations being too salt to be of any use; but it has

‘succeeded in adding a geologic formation to the Kentish list, and that the oldest
yet found in the county.

Details of the section will be given in a forthcoming Geological Survey Memoir
on the Water-supply of Kent. It should be noted that the division between some
of the formations is doubtful, but any error from this cause is immaterial in the
following abstract :—

Alluvium and River Gravel aac i’

Upper, Middle, and Lower Chalk 656 (or more)

Gault : : i 208 (or less) } 1074 feet.
Lower Greensand. : . 96 (or less)

Dark grey clayey rock 3 . 87 (or more)

Nearly the whole of the Chalk has been pierced, the topmost part only being
absent. The thickness given to the Gault is a little more than in the borings at
Chatham, Frindsbury, and Strood eastward, and still more than at Erith (Cross-
ness) westward. The thickness given to the Lower Greensand is also more than
at Chatham, whilst at Erith there is none of this formation.

The chief interest of the boring, however, lies in the facts that the floor of the
older rocks, which has been proved in many places in Kent, was reached at a level
of about 1,030 feet below Ordnance Datum, and that the Paleozoic formation
found is of Silurian age, nothing older than Devonian having been hitherto
recorded from the deep borings of the county, and that only at Brabourne, unless
the red rocks at Crossness should turn out to be of like age.

The proof of the Silurian age of the lowest beds is given by the occurrence of
fossils at the depth of 1,063 feet, Atrypa reticularis and Plectambonites having
been determined at the Paleontological Department of the Geological Survey
by Mr. H. A. Allen, from samples of the cores sent by Mr. Baldwin Latham.
There are traces of other fossils.

The practical value of the boring is that it puts a northern limit to the Kent
coal-field in its neighbourhood.

a

3, On a Case of Thrust and Crush Brecciation in the Magnesian Lime-
stone, Co, Durham. By Davin Woo tacort, D.Sc., F.G.S.

Along the two miles of cliff between South Shields and Marsden the breccias
that form so marked a peculiarity of the Magnesian Limestone of north-east
England are best exposed. The rocks seen are the Yellow Sands, Marl Slate, and
Magnesian Limestone, hut the exposure of the first two are too small for the

712 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

effect on them of the thrust, here described, to be observed. The limestone,
although much disturbed, has a general low dip to the south. It consists of a
series of rocks of different flexibility, rigidity, brittleness, and compressive strength,
and the uniqueness of the section is due to the action of a thrust from the north,
which has caused some of the beds to move laterally upon the others, with an
associated production of folding, minor-thrusting, and fissuring, and a consequent
development of dynamic brecciation.

In Frenchman’s Bay the Lower Limestone (40 feet thick) is a brownish-
yellow, regularly-bedded rock of relatively high compressive strength and rigidity.
Its lower layers are gently folded, but its top layers are considerably disturbed,
being fractured, tilted-up, and laterally displaced. Resting on this is about
50 feet of Brecciated Limestone, consisting almost entirely of a cemented mass of
broken fragment, which have here and there been dissolved out from the
cementing matrix, the rock becoming cellular. In places the bedding, unfolded
but fractured, is still preserved. It was originally a finely laminated granular
limestone, and is of low rigidity and compressive strength. Experiments per-
formed by Dr. Morrow give the following results: Compressive strengths (tons
per square inch to break rock), Lower Limestone, 5:7 tons; Brecciated Bed (lower
middle), 1 ton.

The junction of the Brecciated Beds with the Lower Limestone is a thrust plane,
which does not always coincide with the line of demarcation between the two
strata; and the disturbance of the upper layers of the latter rock, together with
the smashing up of the former, is due to the thrust movement.

The Brecciated Beds occupy the top of the cliff for over a mile. Their upper
surface, which is seen at the north end of Marsden Bay, is very irregular and
hummocky, the breccia having been forced up into the base of the beds above.
These consist of about 200 feet of rock differing much in flexibility and compres-
sive strength (specimens tested vary from 1 ton to 3°7 tons per square inch), They
have been thrust against a horst, and consequently folding, thrusting, and
dynamic brecciation has taken place. The flexible beds haye been deformed
without being much broken, while a harder, more brittle, wedge-shaped limestone
has been highly brecciated. The latter has also had a coarse cleavage structure
impressed on it, and part of it has been torn off and thrust into the beds above.
Breccia gashes and vertical fissures filled with breccia, which has fallen into them,
occur on both sides of this folded and broken area, The amount of lateral dis-
placement at this point is difficult to estimate accurately, but it has probably been
about 100 yards, and the experiments indicate that the magnitude of the thrust
was about 300 tons per square foot,

4, Well-water Supply of the North-Eastern Sudan. By G. W. GRraBuam,

In the development of the north-eastern Sudan, water-supplies are of supreme
importance, and the Government has already expended large sums of money in
sinking wells along the railways and roads.

Artesian conditions have not been met with, and the supplies are dependent
on the rainfall and local geological conditions. There are two distinct rainfall
systems; one affects the plains during the summer months, while the other rains
oceur during the winter months, and are confined to the Red Sea coast.

The country is formed of crystalline rocks, and on the uneven surface of these
rest the Nubian sandstone, &c. The surfacé deposits vary according to the
climate and the underlying rock. In the north the conditions are similar to those
described by Mr. Ferrar, but to the south, where the rainfall is greater, the plains
are covered by a blanket of ‘cotton soil.’ This soil is very fine grained and absorbs
a great deal of water during the rains. In the dry season the moisture evaporates,
and the surface becomes fissured with deep wide cracks. A very thin layer of
this soil prevents the rainfall from reaching any underlying deposit, which might
otherwise become saturated.

Tn the northern area the rainfall does not exceed four inches per annum, except

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 713

among the hills bordering the maritime plain. The valleys contain a great deal
of ‘ valley fill, which at once absorbs the water, preserves it from evaporation,
and good quantities can be obtained from wells.

In the ‘ cotton soil’ area water is only found where hills of decomposable rock
break the impermeable layer, at the same time forming a porous mass which holds
the water.

Where sandstone, and not crystalline rock, underlies the surface deposits, the
underground water is, perhaps, mainly supplied by seepage from the rivers, and is
not dependent on the ability of rain-water to penetrate the surface deposits.
Though the water-level is often more than 100 feet be:ow the surface, water
may be obtained for some time after the rains from shallow holes made in the
beds of khors, and it does not appear that an impermeable substratum is necessary
to maintain this upper zone of saturation.

5, Contemporaneous Erosion in the Lower Series of Coal Measures of the
Bristol Coal-field. By H. Bowron,

6, Report on the pre-Devonian Beds of the Mendips and the Bristol
Area.—See Reports, p. 286,

7. On a Fossil Reptile with a Trunk from the Upper Karroo Rocks of
Cape Colony. By Professor H. G, Srrxey, F.4.S.

In all the reptiles from South Africa hitherto made known the external
openings of the nostrils are divided, with the possible exception of the genus
Gorgonops—a Theriodont reptile, in which the nasal openings are terminal and
have the aspect of the figure compressed from above downward. The animal
now described belongs to the Bidental or Dicynodont type, in most of which the
nares are at the sides of the face, as in existing lizards, and are sometimes far
away from the end of the snout, as in Ptychognathus. The animal is shown to
belong to this group by having two large lateral tusks or canines, like all the
genera of the family, and by the palate making no divergence in plan from that of
Dicynodon. ‘The palate forms a regular arch from side to side. Above it is
the slightly reniform nasal opening, 4} inches wide and an inch deep. The
aperture is unlike that in the skull of a tapir, and closely similar to that in the
skull of an elephant to which the trunk is attached. Its borders are smootlP on
the inner side. At the bottom of this excavation the cavity contracts to half the
width, but is not divided into two nostrils, though the vomer appears to rise, sv
as to indent the base of the nasal passage. The author regards the teeth ot
Dicynodonts as having been used, probably, to pull down structures like ant-hills
formed by the white ants, and finds in the narrow groove between the rami of the
lower jaw in Dicynodonts a channel which carried the extensible tongue adapted
for an insectivorous diet. In this case the large teeth were equally adapted for tear-
ing open ant-hills. But the remarkable evidence of a trunk indicates that the head
was extended in front, by a soft flexible part which would give it a functional
elongation, like that of the Orycteropus or Myrmecophaga. The aperture which
indicates the trunk is so like that in the skulls of elephants as to suggest a trunk
_of a similar kind, and only differs in the absence of any depth of bone between
the mouth and the nose such as in elephants carries teeth. The skull is 13 inches
long, and appears to have been 14 inches wide behind, It is not perfect, and
no other part of the skeleton is known. It is proposed to name the fossil
Kannemeyeria proboscoides. It was found in 1895 by Dr, Kannemeyer, near

Burghersdorp,

714 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

8. On Distinctions in Dentition between the Fossil Reptilia classed as
Cynodontia and Gomphodontia. By Professor H. G. Szrtey, F.R.S,

These two divisions of the Theriodont reptilia appear to be more definitely
distinguished by dental conditions than was evident when they were defined in
1895. The Gomphodontia are those animals which résemble mammals in the
unworn and worn conditions of the grinder teeth and in the diastema which
exists between the canine and the first molar. The author found thirteen molar
teeth in the mandible of Gomphognathus Kannemeyeri which are similar to each
other. In G. Polyphagus only nine molar teeth were found, but indications exist
of at least four minute pointed conical teeth in advance of the molars, all of which
appear to have the crowns broken, and their removal lengthens the diastema.
The fragment of a mandible figured in illustration of Tritylodon has similar teeth
in the diastema apparently worn level with the jaw during the life of the animal,
and now distinguished under the specific name dimorphodon. These species are
separated from Gomphognathus as Diastemodon. The teeth in the diastema are
regarded as milk molars, which are never shed, but cease to be effective by losing
their crowns.

There is no evidence that any Gomphodont reptile has teeth upon the palate,
on the maxillary, palatine, pterygoid, or other bone, and in this condition they
resemble mammals,

The Cynodontia, in AZlurosaurus, a carnivorous type with small, sharp, conical
molar teeth, are already known to have teeth upon the palate ; but the specimens have
had the mandible closed upon the skull, so that the structure of the palate is not
seen. The author has received two specimens from Dr. Kannemeyer which give
a better knowledge of the palate in the genus Cynognathus. In one specimen the
palatal plate of the maxillary bone carries on its\inner third a strong wedge of
dental armature. The individual teeth form several parallel rows blended together
in the manner of Hyperodapedon. This dental mass is blended with the maxillary
bove except in front, where one plate is lost from an empty socket. The crowns
are but slightly elevated, of ovate form carrying one or two élevated lines, and
sometimes a few granules.

he second specimen is crushed, and the species is not yet determined. It
shows that the maxillary armature of crushing-plates met in the medial line of the
palate. It also shows that an armature of crushing-teeth forming a flat wrinkled
enamelled surface was developed upon the edge of the palatine bone, so as hearly to
surround the posterior nares. This structure is entirely behind the maxillary
plate instead of being parallel to it, as in Hyperodapedon. The maxillary plate
has now been partly uncovered in the type Cynognathus crateronotus, and shows
that the palate carries teeth like those in the new specimens. The alveolar teeth
are so typically carnivorous that these palatal teeth are unexpected structures.

9. Report on the Fossiliferous Drift Deposits at Kirmington,
Lincolnshire, &c.—See Reports, p. 296,

10. Interim Report on the Correlation and Age of South African
Strata, &e.

11. Report on Topographical and Geological Terms used locally in South
Africa.—See Reports, p. 286,

12. Report on the Exact Significance of Local Terms.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Vile

Srction D.—ZOOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE Section.—S. F. Harmer, M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, SEPIEMBER 3.
The President delivered the following Address :---

Tue British Association meets this year for the fourth time in Dublin. The last
occasion was just thirty years ago, when Sir William Flower presided over
Section D, while Professor Huxley was Chairman of the Department of Anthro-
pology, at that time not raised to the dignity of a separate Section, and Sir
Wyville Thomson was President of Section KE. The last Dublin meeting was
fortunate in haying among its officers men who have left an enduring mark on
Zoological science.

I can hardly come to the more immediate subject of my Address without
referring to the death, on March 9 last, of Henry Clifton Sorby, who had been a
member of the Association for nearly fifty years. Dr. Sorby was President of
Section C in 1880; but although he does not appear to have presided over
Section D, many of his sympathies were with Zoology. He belonged to a type
which is becoming almost extinct with the increasing specialisation of science,
having done pioneer work in more than one branch. His interest in Chemistry
was no doubt responsible for his having taken up the subject of the pigmentation
of animals, by his researches on which he is probably best known to Zoologists.
During recent’ years he had devoted particular attention to the study of the
marine fauna of East Anglia.

According to the popular estimate, Zoology is regarded as the branch of science
that has perhaps the Jeast reference to the details of practical life. The import-
ance of the applications of Chemistry, Physics, Geology, Botany, and Physiology to
questions which involve the welfare of the human race is obvious and universally
admitted. But pure Zoology is often supposed to be a study of merely academic
interest, and its relation to the practical concerns of mankind is not always
apparent. It is no doubt true that many of the investigations undertaken by
Zoologists are of a highly special nature; and yet when the sum total of the
results achieved by workers in this science is estimated it will be found that the
contributions of Zoology to the common stock of human knowledge are by no
means of restricted application.

There is no conception wnich has more profoundly influenced thought in all
branches of knowledge than the idea of organic evolution, in the development of
which Zoology has shared the honours with its sister-subject, Botany. The present
summer has seen a memorable event in the celebration by the Linnean Society,
on July 1, of the fiftieth anniversary. of the communication to that society of
papers, by Darwin and Wallace, which revolutionised the whole of Biology.
There can surely have been few occasions when the commemoration of the jubilee
of an epoch-making discovery has been. attended by the. man. whose work was
thus recognised. TI am sure that I am expressing a unanimous feeling in saying

716 TRANSACTIONS. OF SECTION i.

that the award of the first Darwin-Wallace medal on that occasion to Mr.
Wallace in person was a source of deep gratification to all men of science, and
that the presence at the same meeting of others whom all Biologists must regard
with peculiar respect gave the occasion a perfectly unique character.

The present century has seen a remarkable development of the study of the
problems of heredity and variation, largely as the result of the interest awakened
in the resuscitation of Mendel’s experimental work from the oblivion in which it
had remained for so many years, though the general problem is being attacked
concurrently by investigators who attach more importance to the statistical
method of study. Professor Bateson, who has given the name ‘ Genetics’ to the
experimental study of heredity, chose the advances made in that branch of Biology
up to 1904 as the subject of his able Address to Section D in that year. Some of
the more recent conclusions of the workers in Genetics are to be discussed by this
Section during the present meeting. It cannot be doubted that an accurate
knowledge of the principles of heredity is destined to exert a marked influence on
the practical concerns of humanity.

The study of diseases which are due to parasitic Protozoa has made striking
progress during the last few years. Protozoology has become a distinct branch
of Zoology, represented by its own journals and its own professors and lecturers,
while it can command the resources of the schools of tropical medicine where
researches are being carried on from which great benefits to humanity may be
anticipated. Malaria, sleeping-sickness, yellow fever, and the numerous diseases of
domestic animals due to parasitic Protozoa such as Trypanosoma, Spirocheta, and
Piroplasma, are some of the complaints which are now recognised as the objects
of Zoological study. Most of these diseases are transmitted by blood-sucking
insects and arachnids, an accurate knowledge of which has become a matter of
pressing practical importance.

The history of Protozoology affords a complete vindication of the importance,
even from a utilitarian standpoint, of conducting scientific investigations for their
own sake, even though the likelihood that they will ever have any practical
bearing may not at first be apparent. Some years ago it would have been
generally supposed that the study of Ticks was a case of this kind, and that it
could at most be of interest to the special students of the Arachnida. How far
such a view would have been from the truth is well known, but we are suffering
now from the comparative neglect of this group of animals in the past. There is
still no satisfactory monograph by the aid of which the species of Ticks can be
discriminated, and there are few Zoologists who would be prepared to express an
opinion with regard to the determination of even those species that are the com-
monest and the most injurious. While it is clear that the investigation of the
Arthropod carriers of parasitic Protozoa is essentially a Zoological question, it is
equally true that the elucidation of the parasites themselves is largely dependent
on the results that have been achieved by Zoological investigators who have
worked without any thought of a practical outcome. The late Professor Schau-
dinn, to whom we owe so many brilliant results in the study of the Protozoa,
commenced his investigations from the Zoological side, and continued them in
their applications to preventive medicine. It is generally admitted that the
study of many of the tropical diseases can only be carried on by means of a due
co-ordination between Zoological and Medical methods of inquiry.

As a further instance of the manner in which Biological science may react on
other studies, | may mention the interesting theory which has recently been
developed by Mr. W. H. 8. Jones,' to the effect that the decay of the ancient
civilisations of Greece and Rome was largely due to the introduction of malaria
into those countries.

{ can do no more than allude to Economie Entomology, a subject which has
at’ present received but little official support in our own country, although
its importance is fully recognised abroad, particularly in the United States of

1 Malaria: A Neglected Factor in the History of Greece and Rome, Cambridge
(Macmillan & Bowes), 1907,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 717

America, where large organisations are devoted to the combat with the insect
enemies of agriculture. We are fortunately spared some of the worst of the foes
of vegetation which devastate other lands. But many of our cultivated plants
suffer severely from the ravages of insects and arachnids; and it is perhaps not
too much to hope that more systematic measures will some day be taken in
this country to disseminate the knowledge by which this injury to agriculture may
be minimised.

As a last illustration of the way in which Zoology comes into relation with
practical matters, I may allude to the question of fishery investigation. Although
much remains to be done in this connection, the importance of purely scientific
work has been to some extent officially recognised. The Board of Agriculture
and Fisheries in England, the Scottish Fishery Board, the Fisheries Branch of
the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland, and other
organisations which are mainly or entirely supported by private funds, are in part
devoted to the interests of the fishing industry. The Government have latterly
participated in an international investigation of the North Sea, as the result of
which many interesting facts have been recorded with regard to the life-histories
of food-fishes, their migrations at various periods of life, the age at which they
become sexually mature, and the nature of their food. These are questions that
demand study by experienced Zoologists; and the interrelations of food-fishes and
the organisms on which they subsist or with which they come into competition are
so complex that a full study of the entire marine fauna appears to be a necessary
preliminary to the elucidation of the questions of immediate practical utility.

I have tried to indicate that Zoology is a subject that has important relations
with the practical concerns of mankind. But in Zoology, as in other branches
of science, the principal advances have been made by investigators who have
studied it for its own sake, without thought of the practical outcome. It would
undoubtedly be a misfortune should an entirely utilitarian spirit become dominant
in the pursuit of science. In the full conviction of the truth of this statement I
venture to invite your attention to certain questions connected with the Polyzoa—a
somewhat neglected group of animals which I do not profess to be able to connect
in apy direct way with practical matters. In choosing this subject I have been
influenced by the belief that it is well for the President of a Section to speak on
matters of which he has had practical experience.

During the course of my studies on the Polyzoa I have been conscious of the
existence of many unsolved problems and difficulties, some of which are con-
nected with the functions, distribution, and variations of certain remarkable
appendages known as ‘avicularia’ and ‘vibracula.’ Although the facts bearing
on the significance of these organs are familiar to specialists only, they appear to
me capable of throwing light on questions of general Biological interest, particu-
larly in connection with variation in animals that increase by budding.

The statement has often been made, as the result of a theoretical conception of
the physical basis of heredity, that the asexual method of reproduction gives rise to
little or no variability. Although there are many reasons for doubting the validity
of this conclusion, it may be well to state at the outset that the Polyzoa, which
are without exception characterised by increasing in an asexual manner, show a
high degree of variability in the individuals thus produced. So much is this the
case that the want of fixity of type which results from the tendency to vary
renders the definition of species particularly difficult in this group of animals.

Meeting as we do at Dublin there is a special appropriateness in discussing
the Polyzoa, as a tribute to the memory of a distinguished Irish naturalist, J. V.
Thompson, to whom we owe not only the name Polyzoa, but also the first clear
conception of what these animals really are. In the fifth memoir, published at
Cork in 1830, of a short but brilliant series of papers,! Thompson was the first to
demonstrate the essential nature of the differences between the Polyzoa and the
other ‘ Zoophytes’ with which they had previously been classified. G. J. Allman,
_ who at a later period did so much to throw light on the structure and natural

) Zoological Researches and Illustrations.

718 ‘TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

history of these animals, particularly by his classical monograph on the Fresh
water Polyzoa,: was also an Irishman, who was born at Cork, and for some . :
held the professorship of Botany in the University of Dublin. Thomas Hincks,
another worker who was pre-eminent for his knowledge of the Polyzoa and for the
importance of his researches in this field, held professional appointments both t
Cork and at Dublin for several years. ; a
The Polyzoa are a group which is quite unknown to most persons who are not
Zoologists. Before coming to my special subject, the variations of the avicularia
I may for this reason, perhaps, be excused for attempting to explain what the
Polyzoa are like, and, in particular, what are the nature and functions of the st :
tures we have to discuss. ghee es
The Polyzoa are a class of aquatic organisms of world-wide distribution and
including a large number of species. They occur both in fresh water and in th
sea, and the marine forms are found from between tide-marks to the dee at
abysses of the ocean. Some of the species are among the commenest objects of th
sea-shore, and others may be obtained in numbers by the use of Ae dredge FS
trawl. They often occur as delicate encrustations, usually calcareous, on oe
stones, or shells; or they may assume the appearance of sea-weeds, oy on
ligsleas! Although ok of hen are of comparatively small size, they are
usually large enough to be recognised by the naked e i
reach “ ce of a foot or Hitec ve, while the largest Gh ameye
The Polyzoa are always colonial animals, the colony consisting of
number of individuals which are in organic connection with one another, thou h
they may appear at first sight as a series of isolated units. Each of these art
consists of a body-wall, which is usually calcified and is termed the ee .
since it was at one time supposed to constitute a sort of house for a zooid pages
as the ‘ polypide.’ The idea of a dimorphism of individuals expressed by this
nomenclature is no longer accepted, but the terms themselves are still pe Er
employed for descriptive purposes. The polypide consists in reality of the een
mass of the zocecium, together with the series of ciliated tentacles which are used
for the capture of food. The tentacles are protrusible, but are commonly f wi
retracted into the interior of the zowcium, in which condition they lie vide ane
walled introvert or ‘ tentacle-sheath,’ which opens to the exterior by an ‘ orifies ?
in the wall of the zocecium. In the sub-order Cheilostomata, to which my i aie
will principally refer, the orifice is closed, during the retracted eer of the
polypide, by a chitinous lid or ‘ operculum.’ €
In the great majority of cases the colony is inaugurated by the fixation of
a free-swimming larva, which has been produced from an egg by the Sait
sexual method. On the completion of its metamorphosis the “larva becomes the
first zocecium of the colony, and is then known as the ‘ ancestrula,’ a term int .
duced by Jullien to signify that it is the ancestor of the future colon iia
large number of species belonging to the most diverse genera of Chelauuaeas
the ancestrula has a certain definite character which appears to have no relati
to that of the individuals to which it gives rise by budding. The type ms
ancestrula in question has a striking resemblance to a single zocecium of ae a
the species of the existing genus Membranipora, and is characterised b ee
a series of marginal spines which surround a region closed by a Satan: ea
brane, at one end of which is situated the operculum. That this form of ance: 2
trula has a definite significance is indicated by its wide occurrence care
Cheilostomes and by the fact that the same cannot be said of any other form of
ancestrula, and is confirmed by the paleeontological occurrence of Membranipor
as one of the earliest genera of Cheilostomata. One
The aneestrula gives rise by budding to daughter-zocecia, which usuall
assume from the first the characters proper to their species. In the growi :
colony the formation of new zocecia takes place at the expense of a ae ae
ins the tissues concerned in the bud-development. Omitting the

which conta
consideration of special regenerative processes which may take place, a zowcium

4 Ray Society, 1856.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 719

which las orice been-constituted at the growing margin of the colony does not,
as a rule, possess the power of giving rise to new zoccia, although it commonly
has the faculty of producing sexual cells from which free larve may. develop.

In the majority of the species of Cheilostomata many of the individuals of the
colony have the form of the so-called avicularia. An avicularium is characterised
by possessing a chitinous ‘mandible,’ which can be closed with great force by
strong occlusor muscles, the organ being thus essentially of a prehensile nature.
There can be little doubt that the mandible is a modification of the chitinous
operculum which closes the orifice of the tentacle-sheath in Cheilostomata. It
thus follows that avicularia are restricted to this particular division! of the
Polyzoa. In the avicularium the operculum has become relatively and often
absolutely enlarged, and its muscles have become more powerful than those of the
unmodified zocecia. ‘The internal viscera have, as a rule, disappeared, and there
are thus neither tentacles nor alimentary canal. The body-wall, or zocecium, has
become a case which contains the muscles, while part of it has been prolonged
into a beak-like structure or ‘rostrum,’ which, with the chitinous mandible,
constitutes the prehensile mechanism.

In Bugula and its allies the avicularium has the form to which its name refers,
and has a striking resemblance to the head of a bird like an eagle or vulture.
This resemblance is due, not only to the general form of the structure, but also
to the hooked and beak-like shape of its rostrum and to the narrow neck by
which it is connected with the zocecium on which it is borne. The avicularia
of Bugula have considerable powers of movement, and in the living condition
they may be seen to bend backwards and forwards on their Hexible neck, their
range of action being thus considerably enlarged, The mandible is ordinarily
held wide open, but it closes with great force when some foreign object is placed
between the jaws. An avicularium which has in this way seized a small worm,
for instance, is known to be able to retain its capture for many hours, in some
cases for more than an entire day,

In the majority of Cheilostomata the avicularia are, however, not stalked.
They occur scattered over the colony in a considerable variety of positions, and
usually appear as appendages rigidly connected with the walls of the zoccia.

More than one attempt has been made to explain the functions of the
avicularia. The distribution of these organs indicates, I think, that the simplest
and most obvious explanation is the correct oue—namely, that, like the
pedicellarie of Echinoderms, they are defensive organs, The ordinary unmodified
opercula probably have the same function in many cases; and if account be taken
of the fact that the avicularium is morphologically a modified zocecium it becomes
easy to understand that the defensive office of the opercula has been made more
efficient in specially modified zccecia which concentrate their energies on this one
function alone.

A casual inspection of a number of Cheilostomes taken almost at random
reveals the fact that the avicularia are specially common in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of the orifice of the tentacle-sheath and of that of the ‘compensation-
sac.’

This is a thin-walled cavity which in a considerable proportion of the
Cheilostomes opens to the exterior at the proximal border of the operculum. Its
principal function is to permit protrusion and retraction of the polypide to take
place, since in a zo@cium with completely rigid walls the act of protrusion could
not occur if the temporary removal of structures of considerable size were not
compensated for by the admission of water into the space included by the
rigid body-wall. At each movement of protrusion, therefore, a volume of water
corresponding with that of the protruded organs is admitted into the compensation-
sac, the dilatation of which, by means of radiating muscle-fibres, is the cause of
the protrusion; and is again evacuated when the polypide is retracted. These
alternate actions of filling and emptying the compensation-sac with water from

1 It may be noted that Paleeontologists have described structures which they
have regarded as avicularia in Polyzoa which do not belong to the Cheilostomata,
)

720 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D,

the outside are probably of importance in the respiration of the animal. The
advantages of having avicularia in such a position that they can guard the orifice
from which the tentacles are protruded and that of the compensation-sac are too
obvious to require detailed discussion.

The avicularia probably afford little if any protection against the attacks of
the larger foes, such as Fishes, Echinids, and Nudibranch Molluses, which are said
to browse on Polyzoa. But there is one group of enemies against which the
opercula and the mandibles are probably particularly effective. These are
encrusting organisms, including other species of Polyzoa; and indeed the enemies
against which a Polyzoon has to provide are probably in a special degree the
members of its own class.

In many Polyzoa which afford large surfaces suitable for the growth of
encrusting organisms the older parts of the colony, where the opereula and man-
dibles are no longer in working order, do actually harbour large numbers of
encrusting Polyzoa, Sponges, Ascidians, and other organisms, These are usually
absent in the active parts of the colony nearer the growing margins. In these
positions the only animals which obtain a footing are such forms as the Infusorian
Folliculina, adapted by its minuteness to find a place between the defensive
appendages, or such organisms as are attached by means of delicate creeping
stolons or roctlets that can find their way between the opercula and mandibles
without being damaged by them. A branching species fixed by a natrow base
may do little harm to a Polyzoon on which it is growing. But the effects of an
encrusting species would be different, since the orifices of the colony which is
being overgrown would be occluded, and the polypides entirely cut off from the
outer world. Although experimental evidence is at present wanting to prove
this view, I have little doubt that the avicularia are specially important in
preventing the fixation of the larve of encrusting species. The larva is ofcourse
very vulnerable, and it cannot become the founder of an adult colony unless it
can find a secluded spot in which it is safe from undue disturbance during the
critical time of its metamorphosis. The avicularia are well adapted by their
form for warding off larve. Those that have the so-called ‘duck-billed’ or
‘spatulate’ form are in many cases large enough to catch or crush a larva without
difficulty, while those which have a mandible terminated bya spike-like projection
must be even more destructive to the life of any minute organism which is so
imprudent as to stray within their reach. In some of the avicularia belonging to
this latter type the mandible is strongly compressed along the greater part of its
length, and may then assume the shape of a knife-blade, with a sharp cutting
edge and a thicker back. The blade shuts down into the calcareous rostrum of
the avicularium in such a way that its action may be compared to that of a pair
of scissors. It cannot be doubted that this form of avicularium has a high
protective value.

In some cases the mandibles or the opercula are toothed. ‘The teeth are
specially strong in certain species of the genus Steyanoporella, where the opercula
become most formidable weapons. The large development of the occlusor muscles
proves that the closure of these opercula must take place with much force.

The protective value of the avicularia may be illustrated by the distribution
of these organs in Retepora, the species of which usually grow in the form of
a calcareous network, with oval meshes or ‘fenestre’ between the branches,
These are furnished with an elaborate armature of avicularia, which usually oceur
in large numbers and in considerable variety of form and size. Some of them
are scattered over the front surface, on which alone the zocecia open, while others
occur on the more unprotected backs of the branches, where there are no zocecial
orifices. To guard against an attack from the rear the margins of the fenestra
are frequently furnished with avicularia, among which some are usually of a
specially large size, and are well situated to intercept any larva or adult animal
that might attempt to pass through a fenestra,

A healthy Retepore is usually completely free from encrusting organisms in
regions where the avicularia are functional. One of the few exceptions I have
noticed to this rule is specially instructive. In this case a small encrusting

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 721

Cheilostome colony is growing near the edge of the Retepora frond. The
primary individual or ancestrula of the encrusting colony is readily distinguish-
able, and its position shows that the larva from which it was formed must have
attached itself to the growing margin of the Retepore, a region in which the
avicularia were not fully formed. Having thus established itself, the colony has
succeeded in invading a small region of the adjacent parts where the zocecia are
still vigorous and healthy. A dead Retepora, on the contrary, forms a substratum
which is well adapted for the growth of various organisms, such as other Polyzoa,
Sponges, Hydroids, Compound Ascidians, and Foramiuifera.

Although the avicularia are thus eflective in preventing the overgrowth of
the colony by most of the organisms that might otherwise settle there, there are
one or two animals of suitable habit which have succeeded in establishing them-
selves in the very midst of the defensive works. In species of Retepora from
the Malay Archipelago’ I find that a considerable proportion of the colonies are
infested by a Gymnoblastic Hydroid of Syncoryne-like appearance. The associa-
tion of this with its host is so intimate that the hydrorhiza becomes completely
included in tunnels formed in the calcareous mass of the Polyzoon, where it is, of
course, safe from the avicularia. These tunnels, the walls of which are secreted
by the Polyzoon, open to the exteriur by tubular apertures situated on the margins
of the fenestre and on other parts; and they are so definite in their appearance,
and often so regularly arranged, that it might be difficult to believe that they
were not a normal feature of the Retepora were it not possible to demonstrate
their relation to the Hydroid.?

There is one other organism which has a definite relation to colonies of
Retepora in Malay waters. This is Lovosoma, a stalked Polyzoon which leads
a practically solitary life owing to the fact that its buds break off as soon as they
have reached maturity. The Lovosoma no doubt succeeds in enjoying a secure
existence, even though it is surrounded by avicularia, owing partly to its stalked
form and partly to its minute size. It is commonly found in considerable
numbers, and often attaches itself in such a way that it projects into one of the
fenestree, where it is as far as possible removed from the dangerous neighbour-
hood of the avicularia.

We have thus seen that, while the species of Retepora are adequately pro-
tected against many encrusting or epizoic organisms, there are one or two animals
that have succeeded in evading the attacks of the avicularia, which, it must be
remembered, are rigidly attached to the colony, and cannot go in search of any
enemy that keeps out of their way. The efficient avicularian protection may
well be responsible for the fact that Retepora is a common and widely distributed
genus, flourishing in both shallow and deep water. Not only is it found in large
numbers in the most diverse localities, but it has differentiated itself into a large
number of species, among which avicularia occur in great profusion and in a
great variety of forms. But so soon as the avicularia cease to be active we find
that numerous organisms settle on the unprotegted branches; and a dead colony
of Retepora is accordingly usually found to be invaded by numbers of other
animals.

One other familiar case may be mentioned illustrative of the means by which
a Polyzoon may be protected from encrusting organisms, and at the same time of

1 The greater number of the facts referred to in this Address have been observed
during my study of the Polyzoa collected during the Siboya expedition.

* It may be noted, as has already been done by Alcock (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,
ser. 6, x. 1892, p. 207), that many other cases are known in which there is an
association between a Gymnoblastic Hydroid and some other animal. The interest-
ing case of the association of a Gymnoblastic Hydroid (Stylactis) with a fish
(Minous) described by Alcock has also been described, more recently, by Franz and
Stechow (Zvo0l. Anzeiger, xxxii. 1908, p. 752). Another case of the association of a
Coelenterate with a Polyzoon has been recorded by Haswell and by Kirkpatrick,
who have called attention to the occurrence of a small ‘ Actinid’ which forms
definite cavities in a massive calcareous Cheilostome from Australian waters. There
is in this case no satisfactory evidence to show what the Ccelenterate really is.

1908, 34,

722 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D,

the success. with which certain animals have ignored the defensive works that are
effective against ordinary foes, This is the common flustra foliacea of our own
shores, in which, although avicularia are present, the defence is provided largely
by the numerous stiff spines which make its surface irregular, and thus unsuitable
for the growth of an encrusting organism. But certain delicate Polyzoa, such as
Crisia and Scrupocellaria, which are attached by fine rootlets, flourish on this
species, their rooting processes being able to adapt themselves to the irregularities
of the surface, and to escape the closure of the opercula and mandibles. A
Gymnoblastic Hydroid (Hydranthea margarica) of a similar mode of growth is
also known to occur on healthy colonies of Flustra foliacea.

In a large number of erect Polyzoa the colony, or zoarium, assumes the form
of a small branching tree-like growth in which, as in Retepora, the zocecia open
on one surface only of the branches. The opposite surface is often devoid of any
armature of avicularia or vibracula,a fact which at first sight seems opposed to
the view that these structures are protective. But I think that in some of these
cases the form of the zoarium affords an answer to this objection, since the
branches are so crowded that the avicularia of the front surface of one branch are
probably quite capable of affording protection to the backs of the nearest
branches. It may be noted that Serupocellaria and Caberea, in which vibracula
occur on the backs of the branches, usually have a much Jaxer mode of growth
than Bugula, in which the back is unprotected.

In some other erect species there are no avicularia at all. But here we often
find, as in Euthyris, that the whole of the frond is covered by an organic mem-
brane, the ‘epitheca, which invests the calcareous parts; and it seems to me
probable that this epithecal layer is itself protective. Schiemenz has shown that
it is an advantage to certain Molluscs to have an internal shell, since Starfishes
can devour Molluscs to the shells of which they can attach their tube-feet, while
they can obtain no hold on the slimy surface of a Mollusc which has covered its
shell by part of its soft tissues. Although the enemies to be guarded against are
not the same in the Polyzoa, there may none the less be an advantage in having
the calcareous parts covered with an organic membrane. The species which are
especially liable to the attacks of Folliculina appear to be those in which the
calcareous parts are but little protected, as in Cyclostomes such as Lichenopora ;
while this Infusorian readily establishes itself on dead parts of Cheilostomes which
have lost the epitheca that covers their active regions. The encrusting species of
Polyzoa doubtless prefer a hard calcareous surface on which to grow to a soft
yielding membranous surface.

As a further factor with which the absence of avicularia may be correlated
may be mentioned the shape of the individual zoccia. There are many cases,
such as Schizoporella Cecilit, Mucronella ventricosa, and a number of others, in
which the zoccia of a species devoid of avicularia are very convex in their
external shape. The conjunction of a succession of convex zocecia is probably
important in preventing the encroachments of encrusting species, which more
easily adapt themselves to a level surface than to one which is strikingly uneven
or irregular. This is analogous to the case of Flustra foliacea, which we have
already noticed, where the protection appears to depend largely on the develop-
ment of spines. The irregular surface of many Cyclostomes, which is due to the
projection of the free ends of the zocecia, is probably similarly effective in preventing
overgrowth by foreign organisms.

In the vibraculum the part that corresponds with the mandible of the
avicularium has been prolonged into a thread-like structure, the ‘seta,’ which is
moved by muscles corresponding with those of the avicularium.

The sete of Caberea are very large, and they close into oblique grooves which
run along the back of the branch. The protective value of these sete is well
shown in a specimen I have observed from Torres Straits, in which a minute
encrusting Cheilostome has formed a single row of zocecia along the region between:
two of the vibracular grooves, but has not extended into any part where it would
be subject to injury by the movements of the sete.

The vibracula are, however, probably used for other purposes besides: the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 723

protection against living foes. They no doubt serve to brush away foreign
particles which might otherwise settle on the surface of the colony and block up
the orifices. This function has been suggested for the vibracula of the so-called
Selenariidz, a group of forms which agree in having a zoarium of a discoidal or
inverted saucer-like shape. The colony is believed to rest freely on the bottom,
on the edge of its concave base, though I have some evidence that it may be
attached to the ooze by means of very delicate, flexible, rooting processes. Some
at least of these Selenariiform species occur in situations where the ground is
covered by Globigerina-ooze, the settlement of which on the convex surface
bearing the orifices is probably prevented by the vibracula. It is now generally
admitted that this type of colony has been independently acquired in several
cases, the so-called family being in fact an entirely unnatural assemblage of
genera. It may be worth while to point out in passing that I have noticed in
several cases that the Selenariiform colony commences its existence on a
Foraminiferan shell or other minute object, in the absence of larger surfaces on
which fixation can be effected, and that the characteristic discoidal form is due
to the growth of the circular edge of the colony beyond this initial supporting
base.

But my object in introducing this group of Cheilostomes at the present point
is to call attention to the relatively enormous size which is reached by the sete
of the vibracula of some of the species, a size which is so great that it has even
been supposed that these appendages are used as oar-like organs of locomotion.
In a specimen of Selenaria hexagonalis, from South Australia, in the Museum of
Zoology at Cambridge, the setse have been colonised by a minute Cheilostome
belonging to the genus Eucratea. It might be said that in this case the sete
have almost overreached themselves, since they have become so large and powerful
that another species is minute enough to find a home on the protective mechanism
itself,

Having thus dealt with the probable functions of the avicularia and vibracula,
we may now return to the consideration of the forms assumed by these
appendages and of their distribution in the colony. The protective function
which they appear to possess prepares us for finding, as is actually the case, that
they are modified in an extraordmary number of directions. But although they
occur, in one form or another, in the majority of Cheilostomes, they may be com-
pletely absent in an entire genus, in certain species of a genus, in certain varieties
of a species, or in individual colonies of species which normally possess them,
They are often wanting on some of the zoccia, though present on most of the
zocecia, of a colony; and they may vary to a considerable extent in the position
they assume on the zoecium. Not only are they thus variable in their occurrence,
but they show equally striking differences in their individual characters. They
may be all of one kind in a single species, or two or more kinds may occur dis-
tinguished by size, by the shape of the rostrum and mandible, or in other ways.
We thus come to the consideration of the question how far these appendages can
be used in the discrimination of species.

The characters on which species are founded in a group of colonial animals like
the Polyzoa obviously differ in certain respects from those which are used in dis-
tinguishing species in organisms that lead a solitary existence. In the colonial
forms we are concerned partly with the mode of association of the individual
units, partly with the manifestations of dimorphism or polymorphism shown by
those units and partly by the features of the individuals themselves. Among the
Cheilostomatous Polyzoa the dimorphism or even polymorphism of the individual,
due to the presence in the colony of avicularia and vibracula, is of special
importance.

While the characters of the avicularia have accordingly long been used by sys-
tematists for distinguishing species,no one—so far as I am aware—has hitherto
suggested any hypothesis which helps us to form a reasonable conception of the
significance of the innumerable modifications undergone by these organs; nor
do I think that the problem has ever been fairly stated.

Tho difficulty of understanding the evolutionary significance of the avicularia

3A 2

724 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

arises in part from the fact that the occurrence and distribution of these structures
appear in many cases to give but slight indications of affinities. It cannot, for
instance, be assumed, without further evidence, that two species possessing an
identical type of avicularium are nearly related. The complete absence of avicu-
laria in a particular species is no sufficient reason for removing that species from
an assemblage of forms in which avicularia are always present. And, lastly, there
may be good grounds for believing that two forms with entirely different types of
avicularia are closely related, and in some cases may even belong to the same
species.

4 The result of a comparative study of the Cheilostomata leads in tact to the
conclusion that although certain genera or species are characterised by the posses-
sion of one or more definite types of avicularium or vibraculum, other genera or
species show no such constancy in this respect. The occurrence of the same type
of avicularian appendage in the species of widely separated genera and the diver-
sity of type of avicularium within the limits of a single genus or species render it
most difficult to frame any theory that will account for the facts. Are we to
assume that a given type of avicularium has been evolved independently in a
number of cases, or must we suppose that species with that type have inherited
it from a common ancestor? If the latter hypothesis be the correct one, we seem
to be led to the conclusion that the ancestral Cheilostomes were provided with
most of the types of avicularia that actually occur in existing species, many of
which have lost one or more of those types.

In trying to arrive at some conclusion with regard to these points we may
notice in the first instance one fact which stands out with great distinctness—
namely, that, whatever the modifications of the avicularium may be, the mandible
is usually either acutely pointed at its free end or rounded and spatulate at its
termination. The difference may at first sight appear unimportant, but I am
inclined to believe that it is an indication which may lead us to results of great
significance.

Though it may be going too far to assert that all avicularia belong to one of
these two types, there is usually no difficulty in recognising either the pointed or
the rounded character in every avicularium present on acolony. The distinction
may be observed by inspecting the form of the rostrum in a dry preparation of a
part of the zoarium, but it is seen with more certainty when the mandibles have
been isolated and are examined in Canada balsam. So striking is the difference
that the inquiry naturally suggests itself whether there is any indication of the
evolutionary meaning of the two kinds of avicularium. It appears to me probable
that a condition which is characteristic of the existing genus Steganoporelia may
furnish the answer to this question. In this genus avicularia are typically absent,
but in each species the zocecia are of two kinds, distinguished by differences in the
shape and structure of the opercula and orifices. The anatomy of the zoccia is
lnown in but few cases, but in those that have been observed both kinds of
zocecia possess polypides. In one division of Steyanoporella the more differentiated
zocecia show some resemblances to the pointed type of avicularium, while in a
second division they more nearly resemble rounded avicularia. I am inclined to
believe that these conditions correspond respectively with the two kinds of
differentiated avicularia of other Cheilostomes.

The avicularia most commonly met with occur as appendages of the ordinary
zocecia, which alone constitute the main framework of the colony. But in addi-
tion to these, the ‘adventitious’ avicularia of Busk, we find, although less com-
monly, another kind known as the ‘ vicarious’ avicularium, from the fact that it
occupies the place of an ordinary zocecium, with which it agrees more or less
closely in point of size. Its mandible is usually of the rounded type, appropriately
referred to as ‘duckbill-like’ and is readily seen to represent the operculum of
an ordinary zocecium. Compared with this the mandible and the orifice which it
closes are greatly enlarged, while the occlusor muscles have become correspond-
ingly increased in size, The polypide is generally absent in the vicatious
avicularium.

Pointed avicularia of the vicarious type occur normally in the species of

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 725

Onychocella, which, alike by their structure and by their early puleontological
appearance, may be regarded as representing a primitive type of the Cheilo-
stomata. Vicarious avicularia with a rounded mandible occur in certain species
which I refer provisionally to Siphonoporella, as well as in a small proportion of
the species of Membranipora and Flustra. All these may fairly be regarded as
belonging to a comparatively undifferentiated type of Cheilostomata, and their
vicarious avicularia are usually the only ones present. It is thus not improbable
that the avicularium in these cases really represents an early stage of evolution.
But we must notice that precisely similar rounded vicarious avicularia make their
appearance occasionally in species of a much more differentiated type, as in the
well-known Schizoporella Cecilii 1 and in certain other species which may for the
present he referred to the same genus. In the majority of the very numerous
species of Schizoporedla vicarious avicularia are not known to occur, and it is thus
impossible to regard them as a typical attribute of the genus.

The vicarious avicularia, which by their position and general structure are so
easily comparable with the ordinary zocecia, are usually supposed to represent an
initial stage in the evolution of the avicularium. But if this view be correct, how
are we toaccount for the sporadic way in which these structures occur in a series
of genera such as Membranipora, Flustra, Schizoporella, and Cellepora, the last two
of which at any rate are highly specialised in other respects? What conclusion can
we draw from the association, in one and the same colony, of this type ofavicularium
with adventitious avicularia of the most specialised description? How can we
explain the fact that each kind of avicularium occurs in certain species, but not in
all the species, of many distinct and not specially related genera? And, lastly, what
is the significance of the fact that certain species of a genus which is normally pro-
vided with avicularia may be totally destitute of these organs? These are some
of the problems of which no satisfactory solution has at present been given. On
the ordinary view of the way in which the species of a genus are interrelated we
should perhaps not expect to find that two species which are closely similar in
other respects may be distinguished by possessing entirely different types of
avicularia.

Iam aware of the fact that it is perhaps premature to indulge in specula-
tions which are unsupported by experimental evidence. But it appears to me
worth while to suggest that some of our difficulties might be removed by
appealing to the results obtained by workers on Mendelian inheritance. Au
essential part of the theory here involved is that in the formation of the gametes
of an organism there is a segregation of certain paired or ‘ allelomorphic’
characters whereby some of the gametes are endowed with qualities by virtue of
which they transmit one of the characters, while the rest of the gametes become
capable of transmitting the characters of the other member of the allelomorphic
pair. It has recently been made probable by Professor Bateson, whose views
have been confirmed by others, that the actual appearance of a particular
character may be dependent on a coupling of two allelomorphs belonging to dis-
tinct pairs. If only one of them is present the character will not show itself.
The phenomenon of reversion on crossing is thus explained as due to the combina-
tion of allelomorphs present in the isolated condition in two parental forms.

Is it not possible that the perplexing occurrence of vicarious avicularia in
some of, but not by any means in all, the colonies of certain species may be inter-
preted as a reversion due to the combination of two or more allelomorphs that
may not have occurred together in the parental formsP We have seen that
there is some reason to believe that these avicularia are really of an archaic
character, from their occurrence in certain genera of a primitive type, known
in some cases by palontological evidence to have appeared early in the
evolution of the Cheilostomata. We may further remember that we have
distinct evidence that Cheilostomes of a differentiated type may retain certain
primitive characters, in the occurrence of a Membranipora-like form of ancestrula
in so many of them, If, then, we may suppose that the appearance of vicarious

' Kirkpatrick, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6), v. 1890, p. 21.

726 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

avicularia is due to a combination of more than one allelomorph we may recognise
the possibility that the ancestrulz of a given species still carry the determinants
representing those allelomorphs. In species in which the vicarious avicularia are
of normal occurrence there is no difficulty in this hypothesis. In others, of which
examples may be found in Schizoporel/a, the vicarious ayicularia make their
appearance rarely, in a very small proportion of colonies. In these cases the
facts might be accounted for on the hypothesis of the chance recombination of
allelomorphs which are ordinarily separated, unless indeed it should prove to be
the case that the vicarious avicularia represent a recessive character which is
usually prevented from making its appearance by some dominant factor.

A single series of cases of this kind will not carry conviction, but there are
many facts with regard to the distribution of adventitious avicularia that may
point in the same direction. We may recur to the fact that the form of these
appendages may be eminently characteristic of a whole series of species which
from their similarity in other respects are naturally associated m a single genus or
family. The most striking instance of this is, perhaps, the genus Bugula, in which we
find the avicularium par excellence. The variations of this type of avicularium are
comparatively slight and for the most part depend on differences in position with
regard to the zocecia and on minor modifications of size, shape, and length of
stalk. Both in Bugula and in the allied genus Bicellaria the avicularian
characters may be described as relatively constant; and since they belong to a
type that is rarely met with in other genera, they seem to confirm the evidence
afforded by other structural features that the species which possess them are
related to one another. But even in Bugula, where the avicularia reach the
summit of their development, we meet with species or varieties in which these
appendages are invariably absent throughout the colony. This may be illustrated
by Bugula neritina, a widely distributed species which in the Mediterranean and
certain other districts is remarkable for the complete absence of avicularia,
although in other structural features it shows a close affinity to other species of
Bugula. In Australian and Oriental waters, however, there occur forms which
can hardly be distinguished from B. neritina except by the fact that they always
possess numerous avicularia of the specialised character that is so distinctive of
the genus. It does not matter for our present purpose whether these are to be
regarded as a variety of B. meritina or not. If the appearance of avicularia may
be regarded, on Mendelian principles, as due to the presence of one or more allelo-
morphs, it is possible to understand that these may be omitted in certain cases,
and that there may thus be a close affinity between two forms one of which
differs from the other in what appears at first sight so essential a respect as the
complete absence of the avicularia which we are justified in regarding as the most
important feature of the genus.

A second case of the same general nature may also be noticed. In the family
Cellulariide are included a number of delicate erect species which are commonly
placed in the genera Caberea, Scrupocellaria, Menipea, and Cellularia, The first
two of these are distinguished by possessing vibracula as well as avicularia.
Menipea is defined as possessing avicularia, but no vibracula; while Cellularia
peachit does not possess either kind of appendage. A species known as Amastigia
nuda has been placed in a separate genus because of the absence of vibracula and
their replacement by avicularia, while in other respects it agrees with Caberea,
in which the vibracula reach a development not exceeded by those of any other
Cheilostome. Before considering the bearing of these facts we may appropriately
consider another instance taken from the same family, although by doing so we
are for the moment leaving the question of the avicularia. In the genera
Caberea, Scrupocellaria, and Menipea certain species are distinguished by having
the free surface of the zocecium protected by a peculiar spine known as the
*scutum,’ which is usually flattened and much expanded at its free end, where it
overarches the membranous frontal surface in such a way as to cover and
presumably to protect it. But in each genus other species are characterised by
the complete absence of the scutum, while in others it occurs in varying degrees
of reduction,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 727

We have thus several cases in which certain species differ from their near allies
in the complete absence of a structure which is, as a rule, one of the most distinctive
features of the genera to which they are respectively assigned. Should it be
possible to prove that the appearance of the organ in question, whether avicularium,
vibraculum, or scutum,! was of the nature of an allelomorphic character, its dis-
appearance would be readily intelligible.

The facts which I have indicated with regard to the so-called Cellulariids
have not hitherto been sufficiently discussed; but I imagine that most systematists
who have considered the question have assumed that the scutum, for instance, has
undergone parallel evolution in Caberea, Scrupocellaria, and Menipea, either
having been independently evolved in each of the three cases (a most improbable
supposition), or having independently undergone a series of regressive changes of
precisely similar character in the three genera.

But it is perhaps in the mode of occurrence of adventitious avicularia that we
find the strongest reason for believing in the existence of some form of alternative
inheritance. We may indeed go as far as to assert that alternative development
does actually take place, whether the explanation of the facts is given by the
Mendelian theory or not. The difference between the pointed and the round
avicularia is a very definite one, which—it is no exaggeration to say—may be
observed in hundreds of species. When these species are arranged under genera
according to the result of a study of the whole of the evidence derived from all
the characters that have proved valuable in classification, we find that many
genera include some species with one type of avicularium and others with the
other type. It should perhaps be pointed out that the validity of many of these
genera is a matter on which differences of opinion exist. The subject is un-
doubtedly a difficult one, and we are far from having arrived at any certainty
with regard to the classification of the Cheilostomata. But it is perfectly
certain that we could not utilise the two kinds of avicularia in dividing these
Polyzoa into two main series, since there are innumerable cases in which both
kinds occur in a single colony. This is a fact to which I shall return later.

We may accordingly maintain that, although much is probably faulty in our
present system, we have clear evidence that the same genus may include species
which differ in the type of avicularium; and, moreover, that these are not
exceptional, but, on the contrary, are of common occurrence. A few instances
will make these points clear.

In the encrusting species and in certain others the avicularia commonly occur,
as we have already seen, in a position near the orifice of the zocecium, where they
are usually either lateral or suboral. In one of the species with lateral avicularia
these appendages may be of the pointed type, while in another they may be
rounded; and the same statement may be made with regard to the suboral
avicularia. Within the limits of the same genus we may further notice that
certain species have lateral avicularia, while others have suboral avicularia.
Here, again, we find the same indifference as to the shape of the rostrum and
mandible.

If we might provisionally suppose that the two kinds of avicularia constituted
an allelomorphic pair, represented by Aa, and that the lateral and suboral positions
indicated a second allelomorphic pair, Bb, the four combinations, AB, Ab, aB, ab,
would be theoretically possible. We might, in other words, have pointed or
rounded lateral avicularia, and pointed or rounded suboral avicularia. All these
conditions actually occur in such genera as Lepralia and Schizoporella; and;in
some cases two species which agree in the form of the avicularia but differ in
their position, or agree in the position but differ in their form, appear on other
grounds to be nearly related, one to the other.

Other cases may be taken from Retepora, an instance where we may feel our-
selves on comparatively secure ground, since there are strong reasons for believing

? The oase of the scutum is less striking than that of the other structures under
consideration, since conditions intermediate between full development and complete
absence are not uncommon,

728 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

the genus to be a natural one. The genus as a whole possesses an almost bewilder-
ing variety in the form, position, and size of the avicularia, among which, how-
ever, we may distinguish the following kinds: (i) The suboral avicularium,
closely related to the orifice and usually termed ‘labial,’ because it occurs on
what may be described as the lower lip; (ii) frontal avicularia, on some part of
that surface of the zocecium which bears the orifice; (iii) basal or dorsal
avicularia, on the backs of the branches; (iv) fenestral avicularia, which guard
the edges of the fenestrae or meshes of the colony.

In many of the species of this large genus the suboral avicularia are of the
small rounded type. In other species they are small and pointed, with an acute
mandible ; while others are distinguished by possessing suboral avicularia that may
ba described as gigantic.

Among the frontal avicularia similar differences exist. In one case that has
come under my observation a remarkable variation of this kind is found within
the limits of a single species. Remembering the great difficulty there often is in
arriving at certainty with regard to the limits of the species in the genus under
consideration, I wish to emphasise the fact that this instance is taken from
Retepora phenicea, a form that not only has well-marked specific characters
of the ordinary kind, but is remarkable in having a beautiful carmine-red or violet
colour, a respect in which it differs from most of its nearest allies. The frontal
avicularia of this species are usually of the pointed type, but in the variety in
question—a colony from Torres Straits—they are, so far as I have been able to
ascertain,’ all of the rounded kind.

The fenestral avicularia show a similar behaviour. In South Australian
waters there are a number of forms which are regarded as varieties of Retepora
monilifera. In the form known as var. munita there is usually a suprafenestral
avicularium of large size, distinguished by having a rounded mandible, which is
a good deal broader than it is long. In another form of the same species, dis-
tinguished by MacGillivray as var. acutirostris, the munita-avicularium may
either occur as such in some of the fenestre, or be replaced in others by a large
avicularium of the typical pointed form.

In other species a gigantic infrafenestral avicularium commonly occurs, but
while these structures are found in a considerable proportion of the fenestre of
some colonies they appear to be completely absent in other colonies. In this
series of cases, which is well illustrated by Retepora phenicea, I think there is
clear evidence that different colonies, from the same locality and belonging to the
same species, may show the two conditions of presence and absence respectively
of fenestral avicularia, According to the ordinary criteria by which species of
Polyzoa are discriminated, it might be necessary to place these in different species—
a result which is not supported by other evidence. I think we must conclude
that a species may have the faculty of entirely dropping out some complete series
of organs, like certain kinds of avicularia. The Mendelian principle may here
come to our aid by showing the theoretical possibility of having the two con-
ditions represented in a series of colonies of identical parentage. If this should
really be the explanation of the facts, it should occasion no surprise if some mem-
bers of the immediate progeny of a colony in which a certain type of avicularium
is absent should be found to be provided with a complete armature of these
appendages.

The cases so far considered may conceivably be explained on ordinary Men-
delian lines by assuming that an entire colony is homozygous or heterozygous
with regard to particular characters. Remembering that the so-called ancestrula,

1 Tt may be noted that it is extremely difficult and often impossible to make a
study of every part of a large and irregular Retepore sufficiently exhaustive to
justify one in asserting positively that all parts are identical in respect of their
avicularia.

? This characteristic munita-avicularium is probably merely an enlarged form of
the small circular type of avicularjum met with as labial avicularia and in other
positions in many species,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 729

or primary individual, does not show all the characteristics of the mature colony,
we must, however, assume that the determinants present in it do not find their
full expression until the budding process has commenced.

But we are by no means at the end of our difficulties, even in considering the
distribution of the appendages we have so far discussed. The instances already
given have for the most part been cases in which an entire colony differs in certain
respects from other colonies. We have still to notice the common case in which
there are differences in different parts of one and the same colony. No theory
can be considered complete unless it is able to account for these differences.

I approach this part of the subject with great trepidation, conscious as I am of
the absence of experimental evidence for the suggestion I wish to make This
suggestion is, briefly, that ifa segregation of characters normally takes place in the
formation of the gametes of an organism, it is conceivable that an analogous
segregation may occur in the blastogenic processes, or, in other words, in the
formation of a bud. It may be asserted positively that there is a very definite
differentiation of individuals at this time, not only in the Polyzoa, but also in
other animals which increase by budding. The fact that some of these differen-
tiations appear to be alternative suggests the possibility that they are due to a pro-
cess which resembles the Mendelian segregation of determinants in the gametes.

One of the instances which appears to me specially suggestive in this con-
nection is the genus Steganoporelia, the species of which are remarkable for the
dimorphism of their zocecia. This dimorphism is expressed, as we have already
seen, by differences in the opercula and in their muscles, and in the form of the
orifices which are closed by the opercula. It is not too much to say that every
individual in a Steganoporella colony belongs to one of the two types in question ;
and, so faras I am aware, intermediate forms of zowcium do not occur. It is thus
a positive fact that the blastogenic tissues undergo some sort of differentiation of
an alternative character, and there is at present no reason for believing that the
differentiation is in any way correlated with the production of sexual cells by
either of the two kinds of zocecia.

Another case which seems to me specially suggestive is that of the simulta-
neous occurrence in the same colony of two different kinds of avicularia. These
instances are not confined to a few species, but may be found in a number of
genera which do not constitute a single assemblage of related forms, The pointed
and rounded adventitious avicularia may be scattered about promiscuously in the
same colony, or even on the same zocecium. Sometimes avicularia of one of the
two types normally occur in a particular position, but are occasionally replaced
by avicularia of the other kind, an example of a general phenomenon to which
Professor Bateson has given the name of ‘ homeeosis.’

Excellent illustrations of this substitution may be taken from the genus
Retepora. In the &. monilifera series already considered the munita and
acutirostris types of avicularia may occur in different fenestree of the same
colony. #. granulata usually possesses a labial avicularium and a frontal
avicularium, both of the small rounded kind. In one of the colonies of this
‘species dredged by the ‘Siboga’ most of the labial avicularia are of this type, but
a certain proportion of the zocecia have a pointed labial avicularium. In another
‘colony most of the frontal avicularia are small and round, but in some of the
zocecia they are large and pointed. In both instances the examination of
the mandibles proved the reality of the distinction inferred from the shape of the
calcareous parts.

Instances of a similar substitution could easily be multiplied, while the cases
of the simultaneous occurrence of the two kinds of adventitious avicularia are
innumerable. Without going so far as to say that intermediate conditions do not
occur—a generalisation that could only be established by very prolonged study—
it may certainly be maintained that it is the general rule for an avicularium to
assume one of the two types. Ina suitable preparation it is usually quite easy
to sort all the mandibles into their proper group at first sight, and without haying
to pause to consider doubtful cases. This fact is surely significant, and it can
at least be argued that in the blastogenic processes by which the avicularia have

730 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

been developed some differentiation or segregation must occur by which the two
kinds are constituted. If this differentiation should prove to be analogous to the
segregation which occurs during the formation of gametes we should be able
to account for much that is at present perplexing in the polymorphism of the
Cheilostomata. We should in particular not be precluded from regarding a
colony with avicularia of one type as nearly related to other colonies which
possess avicularia of the other type; and we should have some explanation of the
fact that many of the genera possess all the different forms of avicularia which
are variously distributed among their constituent species.

I have so far spoken as if the adventitious avicularia belonged to two types
only. This statement requires some further qualification, although it may never-
theless be true that all the forms can be referred to one or other of the two
principal kinds. Asa matter of fact a single Cheilostome colony may bear more
than two sorts of avicularia; as, for instance, appendages with large pointed
mandibles, in addition to two kinds of those with small rounded mandibles.!
This introduces a further complication, about which it is unnecessary to speculate
at present.

It may naturally be asked whether there are any numerical facts which
support the suggestions I have made with regard to the significance of the
different forms of avicularian appendages. I must admit that the numerical
relations are so complicated and apparently so variable that I have not been able
to draw any definite conclusion from them.

Experimental evidence is at present wanting, nor would it be easy to devise
crucial tests. Evyen if it were possible to experiment with two colonies of the
same species which differ in their avicularian appendages, the result might be
negative, since it is not possible to say definitely whether-the eggs of a given
colony are normally fertilised by the spermatozoa of the same colony or by those
of a different colony. Some light may conceivably be obtained from observations
on the regenerative processes which may occur in Polyzoa, A recent paper by
Levinsen * gives some information with regard to this point, and there are a few
other observations on the same subject scattered through the literature of the
Polyzoa.

It is thus obvious that the speculations in which I have permitted myself
to indulge cannot be regarded as more than a guess as to the significance of
the causes which underlie the facts observed; but, whether the view I have
outlined has anything to recommend it or not, the observations on which I have
depended are, I think, correct. If this be the case, some explanation of the facts
is urgently required. The decision of the principles on which the Polyzoa should
be classified may not be a matter of immediate practical importance, but our
theories of species cannot be regarded as established until they have shown them-
selves capable of explaining all the cases. Some modification of the Mendelian
theory seems to me to be capable of elucidating the apparently haphazard way in
which the several forms of avicularia are distributed in the species of Cheilostomata,
and it may perhaps be allowed to afford a working hypothesis that can be used in
systematic study. The resultsof such a hypothesis would, I think, be far-reaching.

Whether we are justified in accepting it provisionally or not, I am convinced that .

we require some hypothesis by which we may regard two specimens as belonging
to the same species, even though they may differ in what might at first sight seem

' In the species of Retepora, for instance, there may occur the following types

of avicularia, in addition to others that need not be mentioned: Conspicuously ~

large avicularia, some of which are usually fenestral, either pointed (a) or
rounded (4); small avicularia, either pointed (c) or rounded, these latter occurring
as two well-marked types in which the mandible is respectively longer than
broad (d) or broader than long (e). The following combinations may occur in
individual species or colonies: a+c+d,a+d+e,a alone, b+c, b+d, and others.
Examples of some of these combinations may be seen in Busk’s Report on the
Polyzoa collected by H.M.S. Challenger (Part XXX., 1884).

* «Sur la Régénération totale des Bryozoaires,’ Acad. Roy. des Sci. de Danemark,
Bull. de Vannée 1907, No 4,

ta oT

_— PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Vol

to be fundamental respects. And, vice versa, we require the liberty to regard two
species as widely separated from each other in the system, even though they
possess identical types of avicularia.

There are other questions which might have been considered in the Cheilo-
stomata, and, in particular, the presence or absence of oral or marginal spines and
the forms and distribution of the ovicells. The occurrence of the latter is, how-
ever, probably connected with the presence in the young zocecium of tissue which .
will give rise to an ovary; and this implies the consideration of another factor
which is very difficult to estimate. :

I must not conclude without at any rate referring to the fact that the Polyzoa
are by no means the only animals in which dimorphism or polymorphism occurs
as the result of blastogenic processes. But among the Coelenterates, for in-
stance, the occurrence of medusoid individuals cannot be considered apart from the
question of the sexual cells, There is, however, one series of cases among Hydroids
to which allusion may perhaps be made. I refer to the existence of pairs of
genera such as Corymorpha and Tubularia, Syncoryne and Coryne, Podocoryne
and Hydractinia, in each of which pairs the two genera are distinguished by the
fact that one produces free medusz, while the other has sessile gonophores. There
is already some evidence that the validity of these generic distinctions is open to
question ; and the free medusoid individual and the sessile gonophore might con-
ceivably be related in such a way as to form members of an allelomorphic pair.
The same phylum contains another striking example of dimorphism in the distinc-
tion between gastrozooids and dactylozooids in many Hydroids; while in the
Siphonophora the differentiation of various forms of individual has advanced
much further.

But I have already gone much beyond my evidence, and I must bring my
remarks to a conclusion by expressing the view that the causes which regulate the
differentiation of the individuals during the blastogenic development of the Polyzoa
are well worthy of further study, and that our knowledge of the unity of the vital
processes throughout the animal kingdom gives us reason to believe that they are
part of some general Biological law.

The following Papers were then read :—

1. The Migratory Movements of certain Shore-Birds as observed on the
Dublin Coast. By C. J. Parren, Sc.D.

While the majority of my observations, extending over twenty years, on the
migratory movements of shore-birds along the Dublin coast have been incor-
porated in my work entitled ‘The Aquatic Birds of Great Britain and Ireland,’
published at the end of the year 1906, I still continue to visit my former
hunting-grounds, and, with the aid of trustworthy correspondents, have col-
lected further information on the subject. To add to my personal observations
and to enable me to bring before this meeting of the British Association informa-
tion as recent as possible, I selected the Dublin coast this autumn as a seaside
resort. I would refer particularly to the Sanderling (Calidris arenaria). There is
now strong evidence to show that this bird is found in adult plumage throughout
the breeding-season on that coast. The observations of Mr. A. Williams, made
in July 1906 in this locality, on the Sanderling are of interest, as there was an
unusually large gathering of adult birds recorded. In many ways the Turnstone
repeats the migratory movements of the Sanderling, and is found throughout
the year on the Dublin coast in adult plumage. I have, moreover, dissected the
genitals of the female bird, shot at the height of the breeding-season, and have
found quite ripe ova. The time will, I believe, yet come when this species will
be discovered breeding on the Irish seaboard, or perhaps along the shores of
inland lakes. The movements of the Little Stint are most irregular; a few pairs
appear during some autumn seasons, but in 1902 I have records of flocks from
the locality in question, The tameness of certain shore-birds on their first arrival

732 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

on the coast is remarkable, such species often only remaining a few days. This is
puticularly interesting to those of us wishing to avail ourselyes of the short
opportunities we have of watching them.

The paper was illustrated by a series of lantern-slides, and of skins of speci-
mens collected by the author, illustrating curious phases of plumage-changes,
according to sex, age, and season.

2. A Biological Expedition to the Birket el Qurun, Faywm Province of Egypt.
By W. A. Cunntnaton, B.A., Ph.D., and C. L. Boutencsr, B.A.

The lake known as the Birket el Qurun has a unique interest, since it is the
remains of the historic Lake Moeris, which was used as an artificial regulator
of the Nile floods by the monarchs of the twelfth dynasty. Our expedition was
undertaken in the spring of last year at the instigation of Captain Lyons, F.R.S.,
the Director-General of the Egyptian Survey Department.

While the Birket el Qurun is still of considerable size, being about twenty-five
miles long and having a maximum breadth of five or six miles, it is very evident
to the present-day observer that a remarkable reduction in size has taken place.
Raised beaches may be clearly recognised in many parts, and the lake is extremely
shallow, the greatest depth being between four and five fathoms. The water, too,
1s sufficiently brackish to be quite unpalatable, and its density is above that
of fresh water. It is thought that the surface of the lake was formerly as much
as 70 feet above sea-level; now it is some 140 feet below the level of the Medi-
terranean.

The lake was found to be well stocked with forms of life, but apparently the
number of species is not large. With the tow-net there were taken large
quantities of Entomostraca—principally copepods and cladocera—as well as great
numbers of rotifers, Very little phyto-plankton was obtained.

The Entomostraca doubtless form the food-supply of the fishes, which occur in
astonishing abundance. Fifteen species of fish were obtained, belonging to seven
families. All are well-known Nile forms, but more than half were secured for the
first time by this expedition. A large specimen of the so-called Nile perch (Lates
niloticus) was examined, which measured 120 cm. and weighed 54 pounds.

The swampy pools on the margin of the lake yielded ostracods, hydrachnids of
the genus Zulais, and five species of spiders. The mollusca belong to eleven
species, all of them being Nilotic forms. Among these mollusca only two species
of lamellibranchs are included. A small oligochete-—Paranais littoralis—is the
only aquatic worm obtained, as leeches and turbellaria appear to be absent.

Our collection contained also a gymnolematous polyzoan, with a circular
ophophore and eight tentacles. Cordylophora was found growing in great
abundance in the lake. Its occurrence is of considerable interest, since it has not
previously been recorded from Africa, and is not known to occur in the Nile, with
which the Birket el Qurun is in direct communication. The most interesting dis-
covery was that of a medusa and the associated hydroid stage. This form, which
has been named Merisia Lyons’, appears to bear a resemblance to the marine
genus Sarsia. Whatever its exact affinities, it is difficult to account for its pre-
sence in the Birket el Qurun.

The alge and the truly aquatic higher plants were also collected. Among the
latter, specimens of Potamogeton interruptus and Chara vulgaris are of interest,
since they show slight differences from the common forms.

3. On the Distribution of Irish Freshwater Mites (Hydrarachnida),
By J. N. HavBerr.

The author described the various stages in the life-history, and the importance
of the parasitic larval stage in the dispersal of the various species over large areas.
The geographical distribution of the species is very imperfectly known, but the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 739

majority are more or less widely distributed, and may be placed in at least two
great faunistic groups. One group inhabits the lowland waters of a comparatively
high temperature, while the other is especially characteristic of highland lakes
and streams possessing a deeper temperature. Both groups show many interesting
structural modifications in harmony with their natural environment,

; 4, On some Arctic and Antarctic Collembola.
By Professor GrorcE H. Carpenter, B.Sc., RIA.

The last ten years have been marked by great advances in the systematic
study of the Collembola or springtails. Collections from many parts of the world
have been worked out, but the most striking results have been obtained from the
examination of specimens brought from the Arctic and Antarctic regions by
various expeditions. The comparative richness of the Collembolan fauna of
remote northern and southern lands is remarkable. In the Arctic, Greenland
has about 20 species of springtails, Spitzbergen 16, and Franz-Joseph Land 7;
while in the Antarctic, Kerguelen has 5, Graham Land and the South Shet-
lands 4, South Georgia 6, the Falklands 10, and South Victoria Land at least 2.

' According to the views of most recent students, the Poduride and the
Isotomin are nearest to the primitive stock of the order, the Entomobryinz, the
Tomocerinx, and the Symphypleona being more highly specialised. It is suggestive
to find that in both the Arctic and Antarctic faunas the primitive sections are
well represented, while the specialised genera have but very few species. And in
the more remote and insular regions the higher groups seem entirely absent.

Ofmuch interest is the presence of two Arctic Isotomines in our own islands.
These are Agrenia bidenticulata (Tullb.), a species both Arctic and Alpine, dis-
covered last year in Irish and North British mountain streams, and Proisotoma
Beselsii (Packard), which inhabits the Arctic regions of both the Old and New
Worlds and the coast of Scotland. ‘ Bi-polarity’ in the Collembola is shown by
Wabhigren’s recent record of this latter species from Terra del Fuego and by the
presence of a closely allied form (Protsotoma Brucet, Carp.) on the South Orkneys.
Such distribution indicates a high antiquity (probably Mesozoic) for the species.

A similar conclusion is suggested by a comparison of the distinctively Antarctic
springtails. Several genera are apparently confined to the southern regions.
Among these Cryptopygus (Willem) is represented by identical or nearly allied
species in Terra del Fuego, Graham Land, South Shetland, South Orkneys, and
South Georgia. Turning to genera of wider range we find the same Isotoma
(Z. octo-oculata, Willem) present in Graham Land, South Shetland, South Orkneys,
and Kerguelen, while the Isotoma of South Victoria Land (J. klovstadi, Carp.) is
closely allied to a Fuegian species. Such distributional facts suggest a con-
siderable geological age for the species and a former wide extension of the
Antarctic continent.

The National Antarctic (‘Discovery’) Expedition collected from moss at Granite
Harbour, South Victoria Land, a remarkable springtail, referable to the
Poduridz, but showing some striking affinities to the Isotominea. This insect—
apparently the most southerly terrestrial animal yet known—will be described
and figured in the forthcoming part of the Expedition Reports,

5. On Diaposematism, or the Interchange of Characters between Distasteful
Forms. By ¥F. A. Drxey, I.A., MD.

When in the year 1879 Fritz Miiller put forward his theory of common warn-
ing colours, or the assimilation of one distasteful form to another for the sake of
mutual protection against insectivorous enemies, he recognised the probability, or
even certainty, that the approach would not necessarily be one-sided, but might
be in the strict sense convergent, each form in some respects advancing to meet
the other, This suggestion, however, so far as F, Miiller was concerned, remained

734 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

only in the theoretical stage; it was never developed by him, and although he
mentioned a few instances in support of his view, he did not attempt to trace the
supposed mutually mimetic process in any detail. There is, nevertheless, much
eyidence that such reciprocal approach, or interchange of obvious characters, does
actually occur; and some cases of mimicry are here exhibited, the peculiar features
of which are difficult to explain on any other hypothesis.

Thus the resemblance between Leuceronia pharis, Boisd., and the form of
Nychitona medusa, Cram., which inhabits the same districts of Central Africa,
appears to be due to mutual assimilation, the Lewceronia having borrowed its
peculiar outline and the attenuation of the dark apical patch from the Nychitona,
while the wings of the latter form owe their spotlessness and the comparative
opacity of their white pigment, in both of which respects they differ from the
forms nearest to them by affinity, to imitation of the Leuceronia.

Similarly, the mimetic relation between Heliconius as represented by H. guaricus,
Reak., or H. haenschi, St. and Riff., and certain Pierines or ‘ white’ butterflies
such as Pereute leucodrosime, Koll., and Pieris locusta, Feld, may very possibly be
due to an interchange of certain features between them,

Again, there is in the Island of Bali a certain Pierine butterfly, Ivias baliensis,
Fruhst., the female of which presents a general resemblance to another Pierine,
Huphina corva, Wallace, found in the same island. In view of the usual aspect of
the nearest allies of these two forms respectively, the conclusion suggests itself
that the Ixias has assimilated its forewing to that of the Huphina, and the
Huphina its hind wing to that of the Ivias.

The females of certain Central and South American Papilios, or‘ Swallow-tails’
(as P. tphidamas, Fabr., P. nephalion, Godt., &c.) are in close mimetic relation
with both sexes of some common species of the Pierine genus Huterpe*(e.g.,
E. approaimata, Butl., E. tereas, Godt., &c.) The suggestion is offered that
although in most respects the Papilio has plainly influenced the Pierine, it is yet
due to the influence of the latter that the females of the former have not adopted
more closely the aspect of their own males.

For this phenomenon of mutual approach, or reciprocal influence, the term
Diaposematism has been proposed by Professor Poulton. The possibility of its
occurrence has been questioned on a priori grounds, but, it would appear, without
sufficient reason,

6. (i) Mimicry in the Butterflies of North America. (ii) Recent Investi-
gations upon the African Swallow-tail Butterfly Papilio dardanus
(merope ) as an Example of Mimicry. By Professor E. B. Pounron,
ERS.

7. Some of the chief Mimetic Combinations among South American
Butterflies, By J. C, Movuton.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.

The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. An Inquiry into the Feeding Habits of British Birds.
By C. Gorpon Hewitt, I.Se.

It is becoming increasingly difficult, with the introduction of scientific methods
into agriculture, horticulture, and forestry, for zoologists studying economic
problems to form a definite opinion with regard to the economic status of many
species of the birds of our islands, such as, for example, the rook, jay, starling,
chaflinch and other finches, and many other birds. i

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 735

This difficulty is entirely due to the almost complete absence in this country
of any precise information as to the food habits of our birds. There exists a large
amount of evidence obtained from observers, such as fruit-growers, gamelkeepers,
sportsmen, and others; and although some of this may be and is useful, much of
it has been distorted on its way, through the prejudiced glasses of the observer.
What is really necessary in order to obtain as accurate a conception as possible
of the economic status of any species of bird is the actual dissection and recording
of the contents of the crops and stomachs of a large number of individuals killed,
not only in different months of the year, but also in different localities, since
different conditions exist in different regions, for example, in Kent and Lancashire.

Such evidence is the only real and safe guide, and observational evidence,
after careful selection, must only be taken as supplementary.

Very little work of this nature has been accomplished in this country, but
until it is done the regulations with regard to the protection of birds will be ever
subject to the influence of the personal bias or ignorance of the legislators, and
such legislation will be on as equally a sound foundation as many of the fisheries
regulations were until the advent of scientific fishery investigations,

The Biological Survey Bureau of the United States Department of Agriculture
furnishes an excellent example of the kind of work that should be carried out; it
is collecting and publishing a valuable mass of information concerning the feeding
habits of birds and their nestlings, from which, in the majority of cases, they are
able to deduce the precise economic value of these birds. The Central Bureau for
Ornithology of the Hungarian Department of Agriculture is doing similar work.

It is proposed to form a British Economic Ornithological Committee, as such
work can be best carried out by a number of biologists working together. At the
last annual meeting of the Association of Economic Biologists, held in April 1908,
the author moved the following resolution, which was carried unanimously :—

‘That this Association, recognising the great need of an organised inquiry into
the feeding habits of the birds of the British Isles, with a view to obtaining
a precise knowledge of their economic status, is of the opinion that a committee
should be formed with the object of carrying on investigations on this subject.’

The Board of Agriculture, recognising the importance of the subject, have

romised to help the inquiry.

2. On the Abuses resulting from the strict Application of the Rule of
Priority in Zoological Nomenclature, and on the means of protecting
well-established Names. By G. A. Bounenaer, 2.8.

Disapproval was expressed of the extreme application of the rule of priority,
which in the author's opinion had brought about much mischief under pretence of
aiming at ultimate uniformity.

The author protested against the abuse to which this otherwise excellent rule
had been put by some recent workers, encouraged as they were by the decision
of several committees who had undertaken to revise the Stricklandian Code,
elaborated under the auspices of the British Association in 1842.

The worst feature of this abuse is not so much the bestowal of unknown
names on well-known creatures as the transfer of names from one to another, as
we have seen in the case of Astacus, Torpedo, Holcthuria, Simia, Cynocephalus,
and many others which must be present to the mind of every systematist.

The names that were used uniformly by Cuvier, Johannes Miiller, Owen,
Agassiz, Darwin, Huxley, Gegenbaur, would no longer convey any meaning, very
often they would be misunderstood ; in fact, the very object for which Latin or
latinised names were introduced would be defeated,

It is all very well to talk of uniformity in the future, but surely we must have
some consideration for the past.

Names with which all general zoologists, anatoimists, and physiciogists are
familiar should be respected, should be excepted from the rule in virtue of what
may be termed the privilege of prescription,

736 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

If biologists would agree to make that one exception to the law of priority in
nomenclature, things would adjust themselves well enough, and we might hope to
see realised some day what we all desire, fixity in names, that we may readily
understand the meaning of all writers, not only over the whole civilised world,
at the present day and in the future, but back into the last century, which has
marked so great an advance in zoological science.

Such a result would be attained by protecting time-honoured names of well-
known animals from the attacks of the revisers of nomenclature. For this
purpose future committees that may be convened to discuss these topics might
confer a real and lasting benefit on zoology by determining, group by group,
which names are entitled to respect, not of course on the ground of their earliest
date or their correct application in the past, but as having been universally used »
in a definite sense.

This suggestion is not anew one, As far back as 1896, in a discussion which
took place at the Zoological Society of London, Sir E, Ray Lankester, protesting
against the digging up of old names, suggested that an international committee
should be formed, not to draw up a code of rules, but ‘to produce an authoritative
list of names—once and for all—about which no lawyer-like haggling should
hereafter be permitted.’

Twelve years have elapsed, and nothing of the kind has been arranged. On
the contrary, the various committees that have legislated since have insisted on
absolute priority, and we often read that such a decision has been arrived at by
international agreement. It is not so,a great body of zoologists in this country
pert: and hope that something will be done towards carrying out the proposal

ere briefly set forth, which seems to be the only proper step to take in order to
prevent the confusion with which we are menaced.

3. The Vascular System of Stylodrilus. By RowLanp SouTHeERN.

The genus Stylodrilus has hitherto been distinguished from other European
genera belonging to the Oligochete family Lumbriculide by the absence of the
blind contractile appendages of the blood-vessels, which are so characteristic of
the family. The new species investigated, but not yet described, from the river
Annalee, co, Cavan, Ireland, undoubtedly belongs to the genus Stylodrilus, but
differs from all the other species in the possession of simple contractile appen-
dages to the dorsal vessel. These blind sacs are restricted to the posterior end
of the worm and are simpler in structure than those of any other Lumbriculid.
This species thus forms an interesting link between the normal Lumbriculid type
and the aberrant genus S/ylodrilus. The relations of the dorsal and ventral vessels
to the intestinal blood-sinus are also investigated, and shown to differ considerably
from the condition typical of the Oligocheta.

4, Grant Nerve Cells and Fibres.' By Dr. J. H. Asuworrn.

5. The Respiration of Land Isopods. By Ernest Ewart Unwin.

The woodlice belong to an aquatic family, and it is interesting to see how they
fare in their new environment.

Taking Asedlws aquaticus as a typical aquatic isopod, Ligia oceanica perhaps
comes nearest in habitat and general structure. The respifation is effected by the
abdominal appendages, which are platelike. The outer plate (exopodite) is stouter
than and covers the thinner inner plate (endopodite). If kept damp, oxygen is
extracted from the air by these plates,

' Published in Phil, Trans, RS.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 737

Oniscus asellus, the common brown slater, resembles Ziyia in the general
structure of its respiratory organs. It has, however, a curious additional breathing-
organ at the outer edge of each exopodite. This is scooped out beneath to form a
very thin-walled air-chamber.

Porcellio scaber is noteworthy on account of the presence of whitish patches upon
the first two pairs of abdominal exopodites. These are caused by minute air-tubes
excavating the exopodite. It is interesting to find an independent acquisition of
air-tubes, although they exhibit none of the perfections found in insects’ trachee.
The habitat of Oniseus is distinctly damper than that of Porcellio.

A large number of experiments were tried with these two kinds of woodlice
under very wet and very dry conditions, the results being that Oniscws outlived
Porcellio when submerged ; but Porcellio easily outlived Oniscus under dry con-
ditions.

Several other genera of woodlice were examined, their habitat noted, and a
large number of similar experiments conducted, with the result that the common
genera can be arranged in an ascending series from a wet to a drier habitat, and
the structure of the respiratory orgars shows corresponding modifications ; in fact,
the one is the result of the other.

These results can be tabulated thus :—

HABITAT. ISsoPopD. RESPIRATORY ORGANS.

Aquatic . 5 : . Asellus aquaticus . . Gills.
High-water line . . Ligia oceanica ; . Gills, with stouter exopodites.
Wet grass’. : . Trichoniscus pusillus . Ditto.

ci { Oniscus asellus . | Gills, with special air-chambers
peeps places | Philoscia muscarum : } at edge of exopodites.
Drier places . . . Pureellioscaber . . { aes in’ two! pairs of exo-
ao (often very \ Armadillidium vulgare . { as with power of rolling

Cylisticus convexus has air-tubes in five pairs of exopodites, and can also roll
up; but this has not at present been found in sufficient numbers to verify by
experiment its place in the above list.

The author is undertaking further inquiries into the bionomics of this group.

6. Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station, Naples.
See Reports, p. 297.

7. Report on the ‘ Index Animalium.’—See Reports, p. 297.
8. Report on Experiments in Inheritance.—See Reports, p. 298.

9. Report on the Fauna of the Lakes of Central Tasmania.
See Reports, p. 302.

10. Eighteenth Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.
See Reports, p. 301.

11. Interim Report on Zoology Organi:ution.

1908. 3B

738 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D,

12. Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Marine Laboratory,
Plymouth.—See Reports, p. 304.

13. Report on Experiments on the Developinent of the Frog.
See Reports, p. 304.

14. A recent Visit to the Ceylon Pearl Banks.
By Professor W. A. Herpmay, £.2.S.

The author gave some natural history notes on the life and surroundings of
the pearl-oysters from observations made during a recent visit to the Ceylon pearl
banks. These dealt with (1) the kind of ground the oysters live upon and the
objects to which they are attached ; (2) the oyster-eating fishes and other enemies
that may affect the life of the oyster; and (3) the different types of oyster that
occur and the question of their constancy on certain grounds,

15. Wild Ancestors of the Domestic Horse.
By Professor J. Cossar Ewart, /.2.S,

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.

Joint Discussion with Section K on Determination of Sex.
Opened by L. Doncaster, JZ.A.

Until rather recent years there was the utmost diversity of opinion as to the
determination of sex. Some regarded it as depending on nutrition, others on
the age of the parents or maturity of the germ-cells, some as depending wholly
on the egg, and others, again, on the spermatozoon. Gradually, however, a cer-
tain amount of order has emerged from this chaos, In the first place, the facts of
parthenogenesis made it clear that in many cases at least the sex was determined
irrevocably in the egg before segmentation ; and the same thing was shown by
such instances as Dinophilus and certain mites, in which the eggs which will yield
females are larger than those. producing males, although both need fertilisation.
The bee and those animals which behave similarly, on the other hand, indicate
that sex may be modified by the spermatozoon, for in them virgin eggs yield
males, fertilised egzs females; but here, again, no treatment after fertilisation will
turn a female into a male or the reverse. It may therefore be regarded as
established in very many cases that from the moment of fertilisation at least, and
sometimes in the unfertilised egg, the sex is irrevocably determined.

The problem had reached this stage when M‘Clung, Wilson, and others dis-
covered that in certain insects the males and females contain different numbers of
chromosomes in the germ-cells before maturation, the females having an even
number and the males one less. After maturation there are two kinds of sperma-
tozoa, one containing the same number as the mature egg, and the other having
one chromosome missing. It was at first suggested that at fertilisation the
spermatozoon having the larger number caused the egg to develop into a female,
that with the smaller number male; but Wilson’s later suggestion is that
there is selective fertilisation, that the eggs are either male or female, and that
male eggs are fertilised by spermatozoa having no heterochromosome, female eggs
by those which have it. Morgan has recently found that in a species of Phyllovera
there are two kinds of spermatids, one of which has one chromosome more than
the other. Those with the smaller number degenerate; those with the larger
develop into functional spermatozoa, and all fertilised eggs become females,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 739

Recently important evidence has been obtained from breeding experiments with
Lepidoptera, fowls, &e. In the moth Abraxas grossulariata there is a rare variety,
lacticolor, which is found usually only in the female. It is a Mendelian recessive,
so that when paired with a typical male all the offspring are typical grossu-
lariata, The various possible matings give the following results :—

Lact. 2? x gross. gives $ gross.,? gross.

Heterozygous ? x heterozygous g gives 3 gross., 9 gross., 9 lact.
Lact. 9 xheterozygous g gives $ gross., 3 lact., 2 gross., 2 lact.
Heterozygous ? x lact. $ gives J gvoss., 2 lact.

Lact. 9 x lact. 3 gives $ luct., 2 lact.

Wild gross. 9 x lact. 3 gives 3 gross., 2 lact.

There are here two results of great importance—first, that Jact. g can only
be produced from the mating dact. 9 x heterozygous 4, for the converse mating
(heterozygous 9 x lact. #) gives all gsgross., all 9s Jact.; and, second, that
although /act. 9 x wild gross. g gives all offspring gross. of both sexes, yet the con-
verse cross wild gross. 2 x lact. $ gives all @s gross. all 9s lact. This last
result proves that wild and apparently pure gross 9s are really heterozygous in
respect of the dacticolor character.

The explanation appears to be as follows: The sex determinants behave as
Mendelian characters, maleness and femaleness being allelomorphic with one another
and femaleness dominant. All females are heterozygotes, carrying recessive male-
ness, and producing male-bearing and female-bearing eggs in equal numbers; all
males are homozygous, carrying only maleness and producing only male-bearing
spermatozoa. Further, the grosswlariata character cannot be borne by a female-
bearing gamete. Then if G stands for grossulariata, L lacticolor, g male deter-
minant, and 9 female determinant, we shall get the following results :—

Mating. Constitution. Gametes. Offspring.

Female lact.. . .LL®@? ¢@. L92,L8)L2?G 6 =gross. female.

Male gross. . . .GGOs. G3,G og hE 6G $=gross. male.

Female /act.. . .LU9? gd. . .L9,L¢ . : S Spree ty

Male heterozygote. GL gd. . Gé,L¢é Tigh CHL frees’ thal:
L OL 6 =lact. male.

Hemalegross. 22.4 Gli P go . 6 i fy Gis Yu 2L ¢=Zlact. female.

Male} lact. . ¢°. UL gs. Lg,Lg3jsG SL g =g7oss, male.

We can prove experimentally that all grossulariata females in this case are
heterozygous in respect of the dacticolor character, and that normal wild males
are homozygous and do not bear Jacticolor, so that the variety can never appear
under ordinary circumstances. The simplest explanation that has been offered
for this fact is the one suggested, that females are also heterozygous in respect
of sex-determinants, while males are homozygous, and that in gametogenesis
there is repulsion between the female determinant and the yrossulariata
determinant, so that the two cannot be borne by the same gamete.

The following Papers were then read :—

1. The Early Development of the Marsupialia. By Professor J. P. Huu.

2. The Gastrulation and Formation of Layers in Amphioxus.
By Professor E. W. MacBripg, /.2.S.

Two main types of theory as to the method in which the germinal layers
are formed in Amphioxus have been advanced. These are (1) That the invagina-
tion which changes the blastula into a gastrula is a simple process, and that the

3B2

740 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

whole of the invaginated Jayer is endoderm, from which notochord and mesoderm
take their origin by a process of folding. (2) That the invagination is a double pro-
cess; on the ventral side of the blastopore the unfolded cells are true endoderm,
whilst on the dorsal side they are ectoderm; the ectodermic roof of the archenteron
becomes completely used up in the formation of notochord and mesoderm, which
become cut out of the wall of the archenteron by the upgrowth of the true endo-
derm cells at the side.

The first view was put forward by Kowalevsky and Hatschek and was sup-
ported by Samassa and myself, while the second view was advocated by Livoff
and has recently been strongly supported by Cerfontaine. Morgan and Hagen
take an intermediate view, asserting that there is a difference between the cells
on the dorsal and ventral sides of the archenteron, but they do not assert that the
dorsal cells are ectoderm, The object of the present communication was to
present the results of a careful re-examination of the whole subject.

The starting-point may be made from a flattened blastula, On the flat side are
some larger cells, which have been rashly identified with the whole endoderm,
but which pass by imperceptible gradations into the cells of the rounded side,
and which have yolk-eranules of the same size and character as those of the
other cells. Invagination commences at one edge of the flat surface by the
establishment of a growing point, where cells are added to both inner and outer
layers, accompanied by an invagination of the newly formed inner cells, which
gradually involves the larger cells mentioned above. The impression is given
that these larger cells are passively dragged in by the movement of the active
cells. The growing point becomes the dorsal lip of the blastopore, and eventually
a cylindrical gastrula, with a wide terminal blastopore, is formed. The future
neural plate is indicated by a flattening, and in this way we are enabled to identify
the growing point mentioned above with the dorsal lip of the blastopore, A
difference between the nuclei of the outer ectodermal cells and those of the invagi-
nated cells now becomes observable, the passage from one to the other kind
taking place sharply at the blastoporal lips. No difference whatever, either in size
or quality of yolk-granule, is observable between the cells forming the roof and those
forming the floor of the archenteron.

Subsequently a new growing point is formed at the ventral lip of the blasto-
pore, and by the activity of this the blastopore becomes narrowed and forced up
on to the dorsal surface. Then the first indication of the folds to form mesoderm
and notochord are seen, and then, and then only, in consequence of a disappearance
of yolk-granules, some difference becomes observable between floor and roof of
the archenteron; but this difference is a secondary, not a primary, histological
differentiation. The mesoderm originates from a dorsal lateral fold of the endo-
dermic wall, which becomes cut into anterior and posterior halves by the growth
ofa septum. Both halves of the fold remain open into the gut, The front half
becomes, however, eventually closed off and forms the first myotome on each side,
which is different from the rest, both in its shape and history, and corresponds to
the mandibular head-cavity of other vertebrate embryos and to the collar cavity of
Balanoglossus. The posterior division corresponding to the lateral plate of meso-
derm of other vertebrate embryos, and to the trunk cavity of Balanoglossus, retains
its connection with the gut for a longer time. From its front end the somites of
the body are cut off. The head cavities arise later still as a single median evagina-
tion of the anterior gut-wall, agreeing in this respect with Balanoglossus and the
Elasmobranch embryo. Before this outgrowth separates from the gut, it begins to
be divided into right and left halves of different character.

With some slight modifications, therefore, the simple view of the development
of Amphioxus taught by Kowalevsky and Hatschek is to be maintained, and the
development of other vertebrates ought to be interpreted in terms of the deyelop-
“ment of Amphioxus, not vice versa.

3. The Evolution of Fishes. By Dr. A. Smita Woopwarp, F.R.S,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. rAd

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER §&.
Joint Meeting with Section I.
The following Papers were read :--

1. Binomics of Tsetse Flies. By R. NewsTEAD.

It is just seventy-eight years since Wiedemann published the first authentic
description of a tsetse fly, and it was this author also who in 1830 erected the
genus Glossina, basing his description on a single specimen of G. longipalpis,
captured at Guinea or in the maritime region of West Africa, and now pre-
served in the Natural History Museum at Vienna. In the same year, though at
a somewhat later date, Robineau-Desvoidy overlooked Wiedemann’s work and
erected the genus Nemorhina for the reception of Glossina palpalis, which is now
known as haying the widest distribution of all the members of this remarkable
genus. In 1849 Mr. F. Walker described G. fusca, and in 1850 Professor Wedge-
wood gave the diagnosis of G. morsitans and G. Tachinoides. Austen described
G. pallidipes and Bigot G. pallicera. Recently Mr. Newstead has also described
a species taken at Leopoldville by (the late) Dr. Dutton and Dr. J. L. Todd.
Referring to the life-history of these flies, Mr. Newstead pointed out that a
single female produccd one fully matured larva at a time, and at intervals of from
four to ten days. The habitat for the pupa was first discovered by Dr. Bagshaw
among the roots of banana, but the author had subsequently found them, an inch
to an inch and a half below the surface, among the fallen leaves of a deciduous shrub
belonging to the genus Alophyllus, as well as hetween the buttressed roots of a
species of ficus, &c. The distribution, habitats of the flies, and other matters
were dealt with, special reference being made to the structural characters of these
insects.

2. Cultures of Amebe. By J. W. W. Stepuens, UD.

The medium at present in use for the cultivation of amcebx is that devised by
Musgrave and Clegg, viz. :—

Agar. : ; : 20:0 grammes.
Nall : : : . 03-05 )
Beef extract . ; . 03-05 a
Distilled water « 1000 cc.

The alkalinity should be one per cent. to phenopthalein. The optimum tempera-
ture is 20°-25° C. No growth is obtained under anzrobic conditions.

Mode of Isolation of Amebe.——The fecal material is streaked on agar poured
out in plates in the ordinary way. Some authors advise fist smearing the plate
with cultures of various bacilli obtained from the stool in question. The reason
for this latter procedure is that amcebz are symbiotic with bacilli, and a selection
of bacilli is offered in order to increase the chance of a successful result.

Pure Mixed Cultures.—Starting from an impure culture of amcebe and bacilli
obtained from the gut, the plate is examined with a low power of the microscope and
a single isolated ameba is selected. This is then enclosed with a ring of carbcl-
vaseline (Walker), so as to prevent the amceba wandering out or others wandering
into the ring. When this amceba has sufficiently multiplied it is transferred
to another plate, so that we have a culture of one species of amceba with several
bacilli (viz., those of the gut). In order to get a pure mixed culture, a pure
culture of a particular bacillus (x) is inoculated in concentric rings on a fresh
plate; the impure culture is inoculated in the centre, and as the amceba wanders
over the plate it leaves behind its bacilli (obtained from the gut) and is found with
the periphery of the plate, now, with the pure culture of bacillus (x), giving the
pure mixed culture.

742 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D,

3. The Action of Atoxyl and Allied Compounds in vivo and vitro.
Ly Dr. M. NiERenstEIN.

Experiments tz vivo and vitro lead to the conclusion that ‘ Atoxyl’—p-amino-
phenylarsenic acid—combines with the proteins and acts in forms of this com-
bination. Atoxyl does not act on trypanosomes zz vitro. It is evident from the
experiments that this combination takes place through the NH, group, and it is
never suggested that the arsenic group in atoxyl plays the réle of the ‘ antipara-
sitophoric group’ (the ‘trypanophobic group’ of Moore, Nierenstein, and Todd)
when the amido group acts as the ‘antiparasito genetic group.’ The proteins act
as ‘mordants.’ This explains the observations of Moore, Nierenstein, and Todd.
and also of Breinl and Nierenstein, that parasites when they become ‘ autoxyl-
fast’ they only are so for the species and when this character has been acquired.
Atoxyl is secreted by the horse, as y-aminophenylarsenic acid, p-oxyphenyl-
arsenic acid, and arsoxycarbamil. Those compounds are found in the hippuric
acid residues which were isolated from the urine by Roaf’s methods.

4. The Morphology of Piroplasma canis.
By Dr. A. Breint and E. Hinpxe.

Piroplasma canis is the cause of the disease known as ‘ malignant jaundice,’
which affects dogs in many parts of the world (India, Cape Colony, the Levant,
&c.) The infection is naturally transmitted by ticks (Hamaphysalis leachit, &c.),
but in the laboratory the strain is easily kept going by means of simple blood
inoculation from dog to dog. In young animals the parasites usually appear in
the peripheral blood about two days after inoculation.

At early stages of the infection the parasites are large, amceboid, and very
vacuolated, and usually possess only one nucleus, These forms multiply by simple
fission, or, occasionally, by means of budding. The large nucleus soon buds off
a small nucleus, which often remains connected with it by o fine chromatic line.
These bi-nucleate forms divide so as to give rise to two pear-shaped forms.

At later stages of the infection, when the parasites multiply very rapidly, the
above described processes become somewhat irregular, owing to the extreme
rapidity of division. The pear-shaped division differs somewhat from that
occurring at earlier stages of the infection. Nearly all these latter forms are bi-
nucleate, and are usually somewhat smaller than the early forms.

Occasionally the ordinary free parasites develop a very fine flagellum.

At certain stages of the infection (before the rapid increase in the number of
the parasites) we have been able to trace the development of large flagellate
bodies. The two nuclei of an ordinary intra-corpuscular parasite swell up, and
the result in form somewhat resembles Leishmania. These parasites become free,
increase enormously in size, and develop two flagella; they eventually assume one
of the two forms described below.

1. The most frequent are large, elongate bodies, in which the large nucleus
appears to empty out its chromatin and become merely an achromatic residuum.
A varying number of small chromatic masses occur scattered through the
protoplasm.

2. These are large round forms, with a large nucleus and a varying number
of small nuclei. The large nucleus consists of a densely staining karyosome
surrounded by a lightly staining area,

Various stages in the development of these flagellate forms may be seen in

cultures of Piroplasma canis, We have been unable to follow their subsequent
development,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Ds 748

5, The Pharmacological Treatment of Trypanosomiasis.
By Professor B. Moore,

6, The Life-history of Trypanosomes in relation to the Diseases they produce.
By J. %. S. Moore and Dr. A. BreInu,

T. gambieuse undergoes a complete life-history in the animal organism. The
life-history takes place in three phases—multiplication, then an inter-action between
nucleus and extranucleur centrosome, then the formation of latent bodies, z.e.,
small round bodies with typical tryp-nucleus and vacuole. From this the new
generation of Trypanosomes develops.

T. equiperdium undergoes a similar, somewhat modified, life-history,

T. Lewisi develops in a somewhat similar way.

The authors suggest that from the similarity of the life-history with the life-
history of Crithidia described by Patton, Crithidia have a distinct relation to
Trypanosomes,

7, Hematozoa from some Ceylon Reptiles.
By Muniex Rosertson, M.A.

''he parasites discussed in this paper were treated according to their occurrence
in the vertebrate host.

Among tortoises Nicoria trijuga and Emyda vittata were very generally
found to be infected. Nicoria trijuga shows Hemogregarina nicorie (Castellani
and Willey). Multiplication occurs in the vertebrate host. The transmitting
host is a water-leech, a species of Branchellion. The Hemogregarines become
motile in the alimentary tract of the leech.

Emyda vittata harbours Trypanosoma vittate (Mihi) and Hemogregarina
vittate (Mihi), The Trypanosome, both on the slide and m the alimentary tract
of the transmitting host, a species of Glossiphonia, divides into four small flagellated
individuals with kinetonucleus anterivr to trophonucleus. They ultimately develop
into slender Trypanoform organisms, the kinetonucleus lying generally immediately
in front of the trophonucleus.

Hamogregarina vittate has two forms: (1) Broad massive form, showing
reticulate protoplasm and delicate loose nucleus; the larger forms have two red-
staining plastid-(?)like bodies at one end. (2) Recurved form, with pale protoplasm
and dense nucleus; the two limbs are equally long. Schizogones occur in the spleen
and liver; eight reproductive bodies are formed ; these are enclosed in pairs in
a delicate boat-shaped capsule, Transmitting host apparently Glossiphonia, as
above.

Among lizards, Hemidactylus leschenaultii and H. triedrus harbour a number
of different parasites.

H, leschenaultii has four different species :—

1. Hemogregarina leschenaultii (Mihi). This shows two free motile forms
always present in the blood, and two endo-corpuscular forms, Schizogones occur
in the blood. Transmitting host not known.

2. Trypanosoma leschenaultii (Mihi). The size of this form vavies very much,
Transmitting host not known.

3. Trypanosoma pertenuis (Mihi). This trypanosome is also present in
Hemidactylus triedri; it is a very delicate form with a small circular nucleus,
lying about half-way from the non-flagellate tip; the kinetonucleus is very
minute, and lies immediately behind the trophonuclens.

4, Hemocrystidium Limondi (Castellani and Willey), 1904,

744 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D,

Hemidactylus triedri harbours, as well as Trypanosoma pertenuis, Hemogregarina
triedri(Mihi). This form hasa double capsule, a loose deeply-staining outer sheath,
and a delicate inner capsule with an operculum.

Among snakes the common rat-snake, Zamenis mucosus and Chrysopelea ornata,
both showed the same species of Hamogregarine—a form with highly refractive
capsule thickened at both ends.

Heemogregarines were also found in the cobra and Python reticulatus. The
form in the python is very actively motile in its free phase.

8. On the Structure of Dendrosoma radians.
By Professor SypNry J. Hickson, JA., /.R.S., and J. T. Wapsworrtn.

The bodies described by Kent as the ‘exogenously produced germs’ of
Dendrosoma are epizoic, or possibly parasitic, Acinetaria belonging to the genus
Urnula. The only true reproductive bodies of the species are the so-called
‘internal buds,’ or gemmuls, first described and correctly figured by Levick. The
meganucleus is a long strap-like body in the axis of the base and branches, but it
is in some respects incorrectly drawn in all the figures that have been published.
It never, or very rarely, extends as far as the distal extremity of the processes,
and some of the shorter branches have no meganucleus in them at all.

In many specimens the micronuclei can be clearly seen. When they reach
their full size they are 4 w in diameter. In the division of the micronuclei a
spindle is formed 24 pw in length. The chromosomes are very numerous and
minute, There are no centrosomata, Conjugation has not yet been observed in
the genus.

9. On some Points connected with the Vetebrate Alimentary Canal, more
particularly in that of the Higher Mammalia. By Professor
ALEXANDER Fraser,

10. Zhe Maxilla and Palatine in the Mammalia.
By Professor Ricuarp Joun Anprrson, J/.D., ILA.

The extent of the palate process and its relation to the horizontal plate of the
palatine are the chief points considered. The following table gives the measure-
ments of the inter-palatine suture and the inter-maxillary suture. The position
of the posterior border of the hard palate has been examined, also the length of
the maxilla along the molar line, and in some cases the distance of the summit
of the frontal process of the maxilla from the anterior part of the maxilla below
and from the tuberosity behind. Taking the two latter and comparing with the
molar line, the three are very nearly equal in several cercopithecide examined.
So the first two measurements may be equal and the last different. In the first
case the maxilla would be a pyramid on an equilateral base.

The palatine border varies in position at different periods of development.

The formation of the teeth is responsible for much of the change. The hori-
zontal plates of the palatines make up for the altered maxillo-palatine plate. ‘lhe
enlarged back teeth, with the corresponding enlargement of the alveolar process,
‘taken in connection with the extended horizontal palatine plate, are not without
significance. It seems that an absorption of lime phosphate from an adjacent
portion of bone is the easiest way to obtain this salt for new ossific matter. The
thinning or fenestration or vacuolation of a bone might easily serve for this.
We find, at all events, extension of the palatines forwards (hystricoidea)—
eg., capybara, hystrix, or backwards (urside); in some mammals fenestra-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 745

tion (hares), vacuolation (marsupials). The accompanying table explains
itself :—

Mammalian Mazille.

—— TPy ee | Tht: —-— IP. IM.
Cervus capreolus 3 3:5 || Dasypus longicaudata 25 3°5
Cervus sp. a 10 Centetes ecaudatus 13 3
Antelope sp. 15 5 Talpa . ° ¢ 3 6
Cephalophus sp. 1 4:3 || Erinaceus europzus 16 15
Bos taurus (alt.) 7 10 Pteropus . . 1:3 2
Bos taurus (juv.) 4:5 75 || Capybara 3:3 5°5
Giraffe . é .| 36 | 12°5 || Hystrix . : 45 45
Sus scrofa (last m. Lot Ursus americauus . 6 3

emerged) 56 | 12:5 || Ursus thibetanus 8:5 85
Phacocherus . 65 | 13 Lutra 2 1-2

| Hippopotamus 8:5 — Cercoleptes 1:8 1-2
Tapirus (3 m. not up) 35 | 15 Hyena 39 35
Equus caballus 5:0 | 150 || Canis 4 3:5
Elephas . a — || Tigris 5:5 3-2
Hyrax 1 1:5 || Haliarctos 4 6
Manatus . — | 12 Phoca 18 3
Halichzrus 3 — || Papio 18 3:8
Ovis 2 5:2 || Gorilla 17 6
Manis. : 18 2°5 || Phascolomys . 2°2 4:6
Myogale . : 1 12 || Homo 15 2°9

« Kangaroo 9 3°8 || Indris 05 19

1l. The Epiphyses of Long Bones (chiefly in Sauropsids),
by Professor R. J. ANDERSON, JLD., M.A.

The epiphyses of the long bones in man and mammalia attract the attention
of every student, who in human anatomy learn that the epiphysis first to ossify
is last to unite with the shaft, and the nutrient artery is directed to the first
joining end, with one exception. The epiphyses in Sauropsids are rarely noticed
and not often referred to. The large cartilaginous extremities of avian long bones
are noteworthy. Ossific deposit in these is rarely observed. There seem to be
vicarious ossific deposits in birds and in tortoises, owing to the cessation of motion
in certain regions. It is not always easy to get the most satisfactory period in
all birds. Mr. F. G. Parsons says that the upper end of the tibio-tarsus in Ratita
and Gallinacez is the only example of true epiphysis in birds, This observer

uts this epiphysis to the credit of the ligament attached there. The transition
rom tendon to cartilage and cartilage to bone is easy. The cartilaginous epiphysial
-cones in the pigeon may be compared with the bony epiphysial cones of the
Sauropterygia. The tips of the former get gradually ossified. Calcification takes
place in most anura. A true bony deposit may take place, as in mammals and
some reptilia (Parsons), It seems probable that the sub-periosteal plastids may
work their way over the epiphysial ends. The lower end of the tibio-tarsus in a
turkey in the Galway Museum is not separate. The upper end is bony in part, and
this ossifie deposit corresponds to the cnemial part, The tarsal part of the tarso-
metatarsus is distinguishable. The extremities of the phalanges seem differentiated
as if epiphyses were intended. There is a thick cartilaginous end to the ulna
above (apparently epiphysial). There is a distal cap on the second metacarpal.
Dr. Hugo Fiichs has given figures of the humerus of Varanus, in which the
proximal and distal epiphyses are well seen. The femur of Uromastix, with
head and trochanteric epiphyses, as well as distal epiphyses, are given by
the same author, who gives sections of the diaphysis and epiphysis to show
the nature of the bony epiphysial centres and the cartilage joining them.
Fiichs mentions the cnemial epiphysis of Rhea, :and notes Huxley’s reference

"46 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Dy

to it in Struthio, Dollo, indeed, called attention to reptilian epiphyses so far
back as 1884. Albrecht also noted these in sections of the upper and lower
ends of the femur of Phrynosoma Harlanii (Schwalbe’s collection). Sauropterygids
have large epiphyses in both ends of the femur and humerus (Reynolds) and
the humerus in Sauropterygia (Zittel). Anomodontia have also epiphyses
(A. 8. Woodward). In Monitor both tibia and fibula have proximal and distal
epiphyses. ‘The tibia seems to have two proximal and the fibula two (perhaps),
There are epiphyses for the head, great trochanter, and lower end of the femur,
Shell-like structures, like calcified fibrous tissue, are present near the lower joint,
There are epiphyses for the head and tuberosity of the humerus. There are three
or four separate shell-like structures below. ‘The radius and ulna have each two
epiphyses.

Z ‘Omification is favoured amongst other things by rest; the previous deposit of
calcareous matter favours this. Cartilage, which is compared with a buffer in the
case of the extremities of long bones, will if the cartilage be sufficiently thick,
have probably its least mobile part near the central plane, perpendicular, trans-
verse to the lines of pressure. It is possible that further investigation will lead to
an increase in the number of Sauropsids known to have epipnyses, (See ‘ Journal
of Anatomy’ and ‘ Anat, Anzeiger,’ 8,)

12. The Development of Littorina littorea, By W. M. Tarrersaut,

13. The Digestive Enzymes of Invertebrates. By Dr, Hurpert E. Roar,

The presence of various hydrolytic enzymes has been sought for in a number
of invertebrates. Methods used. Protein digestion by total nitrogen determina-
tions after precipitating by trichloracetic acid, and by congo red fibrin.

Hydrolysis of polysaccharides and saccharose by coloration with iodine and
reduction of alkaline copper solution.

Hydrolysis of maltose and lactose by Barfoed’s reagent,

Lipase and rennin by litmus milk,

Fibrin ferment (?) by oxalated plasma from pig’s blood.

Protein digestion at different temperatures showed, in practically all cases,
increase in activity up.to 40° C.; and with varying amounts of acid or alkali it
was found that the maximum of digestive activity occurred with lower strengths
than are necessary for mammalian pepsin or trypsin.

The enzymes were prepared by treating the fresh minced tissue with an equal
weight of glycerine, and after keeping for some time the extracts were strained
through cotton. Certain of these extracts were precipitated by alcohol, and the
coagulum extracted with water. The method of preparation appeared to affect
the nature of the proteoclastic enzyme found.

The following results were obtained, using glycerine extracts of fresh tissues.
Protein digestion by nitrogen determinations :-—

=

- e “ o Re

2/3]2l42/ee|3|/2) 4 jas

Animal and organ a/ &} a /es/sb] 5 | 4s a |s Fy

Ble | A las 2e) 6 | a] ao RE
Digestive gland of Cancer pagurus fear fred Ste aera oe coal aay ae 0
Visceral hump of Patella vulgata Br Yan en ad ne ale | fe a 2 4
Intestine of Hchinus esculentus . +1 0} le lel] ey + + Fe
Dise of Ophiocoma nigra . a) eta lei |e Oat ela 1 ?
Asterias rubens pyloric ceca '. +/+i]+i]+]-—-—]|-— | — |digested) ?
Stomach “4 ‘ al 0 mea OE ml oa ot | = 0
Mesenteric filaments of Tealia crassicornis | 0 | + | + | 0 | 0 | O | — + +
Alcyonium digitatum 4 : ‘ oh ee OM Pome) |S Sars] ee ? 2
Cliona celata TES a ' f+]o 70 ;,0;/—-—;—],= ? 0
Cellaria fistulosa . t i : : | fede Opef—tal bse val ei = a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 74.7

Watery extracts from the alcohol coagula of the glycerine extracts gave the
following results, Protein digestion by congo-red fibrin :—

2|/SlelaPls#igl¢) ¢ |4

Animal and organ Ble | & RE\ss 8 | 4 = g

Ale | A aeire 4 | a a | a

Digestive gland of Cancer pagurus . Qe ata ete ete + =

Visceral hump of Patella vulgata . PA | (eo Vice a a VU + +

Liver of Pecten opercularis.. ‘ . Oracles Shee RE estes |e + 3¢

Intestine of Echinus esculentus . é On ei) et) | ee) + +
Mesenteric filaments of—

(a) Tealia crassicornis Oo;+]o;+4+}]0/;/ OF} + 0 +

(b) Actinia mesembryanthemum o;}+]0;]0;0;]0/; 0 0 +

In addition the crystalline style of Pecten coagulated blood plasma and the
liver extracts of the following molluscs gave a doubtful coagulation of blood
plasma; Buccimum undatum, Pecten opercularis, Trochus xizyphinus, and Purpura
lapillus.

748 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.
PReEsID«éNT OF THE SucTION—Major E. H. Hi11s, C M.G., R.E.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.
The President delivered the following Address —

THE thirty years that have elapsed since the British Association last met in
this city of Dublin have seen an obvious and rapid progress in the science of
geography, and a steady though perhaps not quite so apparent a change in
the character of that science.

In 1878 large parts of the earth’s surface still remained untrodden by the feet
of a white man; large areas were open to the enterprise and intrepidity of the
explorer ; large spaces were blank paper upon our maps. N6w there is but little
of the earth’s surface absolutely unknown.

It is not my intention to detain you by any recapitulation of the work of these
years to show you how and by whom these areas have been traversed and the gaps
in our maps filled in. I intend rather to speak of the present and of the future
work of the geographer, and to do this to any advantage we must at the outset
recognise the change that has taken place in the nature of his task, and the fact
that the days of individual exploration are over, never to return. We must
recognise that sporadic, unorganised effort must be and is being replaced by
organised, systematic work, and that the sciertific traveller of the last century,
with his rough map-making equipment, his compass, watch, and sextant has
yielded his place to the scientifically equipped survey-party with their steel tapes,
theodolites, and plane tables.

The theme is not a new one to this Section. I find on referring to the trans-
actions of past years that in 1902, at the Belfast meeting, Sir Thomas Holdich,
the President of Section E, said: ‘We find those spaces within which pioneer
exploration can be usefully carried out to be so rapidly contracting year by year as
to force upon our attention the necessity for adapting our methods for a pro-
gressive system of worldwide map-making, not only to the requirements of abstract
science but to the utilitarian demands of commercial and political enterprise.’

These words express succinctly the ideas that I wish to take as the text of my
address to-day. I am, however, not ambitious enough to attempt to cover the
whole surface of the earth in the brief review that I intend to put before you
of the progress of scientific survey. Rather I wish to restrict our outlook to
that section of the work in which we may all be considered as having a direct
personal interest—namely, the survey of the British empire, especially those lands
under the more immediate tutelage of the Government of this country. Let it not
be thought, however, that while we for the moment pay little attention to the
regions lying outside this definition, we are supporting the fallacious idea that the
survey of any part of the earth can be considered apart from the survey of the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 749

surrounding country. With the possible exception of the case of an oceanic
island such an assumption would be an erroneous one. Our British empire is so
widespread and our possessions are so often in close and intricate juxtaposition
with those of other nations that there is in this work large scope, and indeed
necessity, for international co-operation. Examples of this will occur to us in the
course of our review. We shall thus see that in addition to the obvious connection
which the geography of our empire has with that of other countries there is an
even closer connection in the methods of manufacture of that geography, which
methods we summarise under the general term of survey. One of the root
ambitions of the scientific surveyor is to determine the exact figure of the earth,
an operation for which observations spreading over a large area of the earth’s
surface are demanded. In fact we may truly say that the problem of the earth’s
shape will not be completely solved until the whole surface is known to the
surveyor. This is, therefore, pre-eminently a problem for international solution.

Before proceeding to the consideration of our special subject, the survey of the
British empire, it will be interesting to interpose a few remarks on the questions of
the utility and origin of national surveys in general. We may first note the some-
what curious fact that the production of a map of a country, useful as such a work
is for many purposes, has almost always been embarked upon because the impera-
tive necessity of maps of the theatre of operations in war has been brought home
to the people and Government of a nation. Thus the ordnance survey of Eng-
land had its first beginning in a military map of the highlands of Scotland, com-
menced in 1747, intended to facilitate the operations of the troops under the com-
mand of the Duke of Cumberland. It was not till many years later that the
systematic triangulation of the country was undertaken, a work which was initiated
partly for map making and partly for astronomical purposes. There was a con-
sensus of opinion among astronomers that it would be greatly to the advantage of
that science if the observatories of Greenwich and Paris could be connected by
triangulation and the famous French astronomer Cassini, in October 1783, drew
up a memoir to this effect. The arguments brought forward convinced King
George III., and he granted a sum of money sufficient to enable the work
to be started. This act of royal generosity was recorded by the surveyors in
the following grateful terms: ‘ A generous and beneficent monarch, whose know-
ledge and love of the sciences are sufficiently evidenced by the protection which
he constantly affords them and under whose auspices they are daily seen to flourish,
soon supplied the funds that were judged necessary. What his majesty has been
pleased to give so liberally it is our duty to manage with frugality consistent
_ with the best possible execution of the business to be done.’

. It is worthy of remark that the junction of the triangulation systems of Great
Britain and France was not made until 1861 and that the trigonometrical con-
nection of Greenwich and Paris observatories has not yet been completed to the
final satisfaction of men of science, a point which we shall have occasion to recur
to later.

In France, we may note in passing, the starting of the triangulation had a
quite different and quite definite object, the determination of the length of
the metre. This unscientific unit of length was fixed as a fraction (1/10,000,000)
of the quadrant of the earth’s surface between the Pole and the Equator, and to
find this quantity it was necessary to measure on the earth’s surface as long an
arc of the meridian as could be obtained.

In the case of our other great national survey, that of India, its origin is to be
found in circumstances somewhat analogous. The Madras Government, owing to
the success of the British arms in the Mysore campaign, found itself with a
great accession of totally unsurveyed country in the middle of the Peninsula,
while at the same time there were only in existence the roughest sketch-maps
of the older possessions. It was apparent that if any map, of even approximate
accuracy, was to be made covering a country of such vast area, it was impe-
rative that the work should be prosecuted upon the most rigorous and strictly
scientific basis. The geueral lines upon which it should be undertaken were laid
down in February 1800 by Brigade-Major Lambton, who addressed a letter to

50 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E

the Madras Government advocating a mathematical and geographical survey of
the peninsula.

In this letter he discussed the principles upon which such a survey should be
based. He dismissed astronomical fixations as not providing the requisite degree
of precision, observing that such determinations of position are liable to great
inaccuracies, ‘three, four, perhaps ten minutes,’ and proposed a triangulation
emanating from a measured base line checked by similar base lines at intervals,
He recognised that the figure of the earth and lengths of the polar and equatorial
radii were not then known with the precision necessary for fixing the spheroidal
co-ordinates of the trigonometrical stations of a survey covering such a large area
of the earth’s surface, and that a geodetic survey was therefore necessary pari
passu with the geographical survey. He had an impression, how derived it is not
now possible to say, that there was a sudden abnormal diminution of the force of
gravity at the latitude of 10° north, and consequently that ‘a degree on the
meridian from that parallel to the Equator must be very short compared with a
degree to the northward of 10°.’ He observed that it would be necessary to
“attend to this circumstance,’ which he characterised as important both from the
map-making and from the rigorously scientific point of view. He added: ‘TJ shall
rejoice, indeed, if it should come within my province to make observations tending
to elucidate so sublime a subject.’

In a similar case, occurring in recent years, the outcome has not been so
satisfactory. It will be within the recollection of all here how at the time of the
South African war the public at home learnt with shocked surprise that there
were no maps in existence of a colony which had been under the British flag for
a long period of years. To those who knew the facts this was, naturally, no
matter of surprise ; but it was earnestly hoped by many that this grave deficiency
thus revealed by the stress of war would be remedied by quiet work in the time of
peace and that, at the conclusion of the military operations, the foundation should
be laid for a federal survey department of British South Africa comparable with,
though on a more moderate scale than, the Survey Department of India. This
hopeful scheme, which it may be recorded very nearly came to fruition, ulti-
mately found political conditions too adverse, and had to be indefinitely postponed.
An army engaged in field operations in the north of Natal now, or in fact at any
time for an indefinite number of years in the future, would find the country nearly
as mapless as it was found by Sir R. Buller in 1900.

In this short recital of the determining causes which have in the past led to
the initiation of national surveys, it will have been noticed that no allusion has
been made to what we should now perhaps consider the main utility of a map—
namely, its value for all purposes connected with the ownership, development, and
taxation of land. When the ordnance surveys of Great Britain and Ireland were
originated there was little thought of this use, and it was not till long after that
period, when the enormous deficiencies of the existing property plans were
revealed by the Tithe Commutation Acts and by the railway boom, that the value
of a national survey for preparing a cadastral or large-scale property map of the
country was recognised and acted upon. Now this is often the ostensible object
for embarking upon a regular survey. It is fully recognised that, especially in the
case of a country undergoing rapid development, which is fortunately true of many
of our oversea possessions, the provision of an accurate land map is of prime neces-
sity both to the private or corporate landowner and to the State.

Neither were any of the early surveys undertaken for the purpose of mutual
delimitation of international boundaries; a necessity which has in recent years
been the stimulating cause for many pieces of valuable survey work, especially in
Africa.

The other manifold uses of a map are familiar to all of you and we need not
pause to enumerate them. We may admit the fact that the adequate mapping of
its territories is recognised as one of the duties of a civilised State. Let me now
turn to the main subject of this address—the inquiry as to how far this duty is
performed by us, what shortcomings we can perceive, and what suggestions we can
offer for the future.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 75h

Two yeats ago this task would have been a difficult and laborious one. Now
it is greatly facilitated by the issue from the Colonial Office of those excellent
little velumes, the reports of the Colonial Survey Committee.

This body has been in existence since August 1905, and has published three
annual reports. The Committee is therein defined as an advisory one formed at
the instance of the Secretary of State for the Colonies to advise him in matters
affecting the survey and exploration of British colonies and protectorates, more
especially those in tropical Africa, It is not at present an executive body, that is
to say it has at its own disposal no grant of public money or other funds ; whether
it will ultimately develop into such is a question that the future alone can answer.
Even thus limited in scope and powers it has, however, already worked a notable
improvement—firstly, by laying down authoritatively some of the more salient
conditions that ensure the efficient and economical expenditure of whatever funds
may be available, and by pointing out the disastrous extravagance of unsys-
tematic and unmethodical work; secondly, by insisting upon uniformity where
uniformity is essential, such as in matters relating to the style, projection, scales,
and sheet-lines of the maps produced, while leaving the utmost latitude as to
methods, these being selected in each case to suit the very divergent nature of the
country met with. It results from this that any two small portions of the map of
Africa, say, for instance, one sheet of the dense forest region of the Gold Coast
and another of highland country of East Africa, though 3,000 miles apart and
executed at different times by a different staff, will match each other in
general character, and will ultimately be found to fit exactly into their places as
constituent parts of a great map of the country. Thirdly, we may reckon the mere
fact of publicity in these matters as of no mean advantage. Though, as in the
case of many other Government publications, this report is not as widely read as
its merits deserve, yet it is all to the good that the information is there ready and
available for anybody who has the curiosity to consult it. I therefore welcome
the opportunity of drawing your attention to this volume.

In entering upon the discussion on the survey of British Africa, the first point
that meets us is the geodetic basis of the whole work; upon what do the actual
positions depend? In other words, to put the matter more familiarly, how are
we to provide that every isolated piece of the map will exactly fit into its proper
place? The only method for ensuring this is by basing all our surveys, ultimately,
upon a skeleton or framework of geodetic or primary triangulation executed with
the utmost attainable precision. Such a skeleton, or rather backbone, will
eventually exist in Africa in the shape of the meridional arc, or chain of triangles,
along the thirtieth meridian, running right through the country from north to
south, and ultimately joining on to the great arc observed by the famous
astronomer Struve. This originally extended from the mouth of the Danube
to Hammerfest, in Norway, an amplitude of 253° of latitude. To prolong it
southward, passing up the Nile Valley, through the heart of tropical Africa,
across the Zambezi River, and terminate it at the southernmost point of the
continent, is a magnificent conception due to Sir David Gill, to whose energy
and enterprise the actual execution of considerable sections of the undertaking
must also be ascribed.

At the present time the chain has been completed from the south to within
seventy miles of the southern end of Lake Tanganyika, a distance of about
1,700 miles. At Lake Tanganyika it will enter into German territory. The
German Government, fully recognising that the project is not only of great
theoretical interest, but also of immediate practical value, are already taking step:
to start work on their own section, from the south of Tanganyika up to the parallel
of 1° south latitude. From 1° south, northward to about 14° north, the aic
lies near the boundary between the Congo Free State and the British Pro-
tectorate of Uganda. An International Commission is at present engaged in the
survey of the boundary region, and Sir D. Gill, ever ready to seize an opportunity
of forwarding the work he has at heart, succeeded in raising sufficient funds,
partly from the Treasury and partly by grants from a few leading scientific
societies, to enable an observer to be sent out with this Commission to carry the

953 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION EF.

are over this section. North of this point the line comes into the territory of
the British Soudan, and traversing this eventually reaches Egypt proper. Here it
comes into the charge of Captain H. G. Lyons, the director of the Survey
Department of Egypt, under whose care its interests are safe.

It will thus be seen that while the actual completion of the whole chain is as
yet somewhat remote, we are in the satisfactory position of being able to say that,
as far as the section lying on the continent of Africa is concerned, there is no
portion of which there is not a reasonable probability that it will be finished
within a measurable period. With regard to the section joining Africa and
Europe the position is not so happy. This will run through Palestine and Asia
Minor and therefore lies in Turkish territory. It is not likely that the Turkish
authorities either will or could carry out such a work; in fact, seeing that even
when completed it would be totally useless to them, it would be hardly reasonable
to expect them to do so. It must, therefore, presumably be a matter for inter-
national co-operation. One point may be mentioned with regard to the exact
route of this connecting section. Sir ). Gill, in his Report on Geodetic Survey
of South Africa, 1896, said: ‘By an additional chain of triangles from Egypt
along the coast of the Levant, and through the islands of Greece, the African
arc might be connected by direct trianglation with the existing triangulation of
Greece, and the latter is already connected with Struve’s great arc of meridian
which terminates at the North Cape in latitude 71° N. The whole are would
then have an amplitude of 105°.’ This, however, gives rather a poor connection
with the European triangulation, The South Albanian series has a much higher
average error than either Struve’s original work or any part of the African series.
This portion would consequently be a weak link in the geodetic chain, and it
would be better to avoid it altogether by carrying the line along the coast of
Asia Minor to Constantinople, and then up the east side of Turkey to the mouth
of the Danube.

When we look back a few years and call to mind the prominent part that
this country has taken in the survey of Palestine—I need only mention in this
connection the names of Kitchener, Warren, and Oonder—we cannot avoid a
feeling of regret that we are not ourselves in a position to take the whole
execution of this section of the line upon our shoulders. I am too well aware of
the many urgent claims upon the Treasury to suggest that it is possible that they
would be prepared to incur such a charge; but supposing, for the moment, that
part of the necessary funds could be provided from other sources, I think we may
fairly urge that it is our duty to contribute a substantial monetary grant towards
the furtherance of an end so desirable and so practically useful.

The difficulty of obtaining money for geodetic work, the benefit of which is not
immediately apparent to the man in the street, is notorious. Thus Sir T. Holdich,
in 1902, said: ‘ But this accurate framework, this rigorously exact line of precise
values which ultimately becomes the backbone of an otherwise invertebrate survey
anatomy, is painfully slow in its progress and is usually haunted by the bogey of
finance. It does not appeal to the imagination like an Antarctic expedition,
although it may lead to far more solid results, and it generally has to sue ix forma
pauperis to Government for its support.’ To account for this regrettable, but
undoubtedly true, fact two reasons may be adduced. There is, in the first place,
the possible ignorance as to the ultimate value of the work; but, secondly, and
perhaps not least, there is the fear, not entirely unjustified, that to satisfy the
demands of the scientific man is something akin to the operation of filling a
sieve with water. It has been so often seen that compliance with one demand
only leads to another being made, that we may well sympathise with the holder
of the public purse when he draws the strings tight and refuses to pay for an arc
along the thirtieth meridian in the fear that directly this is completed he will
be asked to pay for one along the twentieth meridian, and then along the tenth,
and so ad infinitum. It behoves us, therefore, as practical men to make sure that
our demands are reasonable and limited to the actual requirements of the case,
and where such limits cannot be set we should make this fact clear at the outset.
When, however, it is possible to set such limits, we should not hesitate to

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 753

do so} and in the case of the African are this latter course is fortunately
ossible.
: If we take the map of Africa we shall see that the aré along the thirtieth
meridian passes through, or near, all the colonies of British South Africa, close to
British Central Africa, or Nyasaland, through Uganda, and is thus connected
with British East Africa, through the British Soudan and through Egypt. There
remain absolutely untouched by it only the West Africa colonies—Nigeria, the
Gold Coast, Sierra Leone, and the Gambia. These latter willeventually get theit
geodetic framework by an extension southwards of the French triangulation of
Algeria, a work of a high order of precision. We are therefore entitled to say—
and I take this opportunity of saying it with all due emphasis—that with the
exception of some triangulation to join the West African colonies with the French
triangulation, the arc along the thirtieth meridian is the only primary triangula-
tion required for the adequate mapping of the whole of British Africa. The
remainder of the geodetic framework can be supplied by ribs of secondary
triangulation branching out from the main backbone, such as the line already
completed along the boundary between British and German Kast Africa, passing
to the north of the Victoria Nyanza and thence westward to the thirtieth
meridian.

You will observe that I here speak only of the triangulation required for
mapping purposes, not of that demanded by the geodesist for the study of the
figure of the earth. The latter is satisfied only with a survey of the highest
attainable precision covering as large an area of the earth’s surface as possible, or
at all events with arcs, both meridional and longitudinal at frequent intervals. It
cannot be other than a very long period before the whole of Africa is surveyed
upon this scale of accuracy, and in the meantime we must devote ourselves to the
far more urgent duty of mapping the country, leaving the more remote and
abstract task to our descendants, well satisfied if in our hands the foundations
have been well and truly laid.

Furthermore, as we shall see presently, if we are prepared to recognise as a
national duty the minutely precise survey of our own land and of all territories
under our flag—and I do not see how any reasonable man can withhold this
recognition—then there are duties of this nature lying closer to our hands than
any to be found in Africa.

Having thus passed in brief review the ultimate geodetic basis of our African
surveys, let us enter more into detail and glance at the actual survey work now
in progress in the different regions of the continent.

In British South Africa, as we have already noted, the political conditions
are at present unfavourable to any comprehensive scheme of operations. There is
however in progress a first-class topographical survey of the Orange River
Colony and a reconnaissance survey of Cape Colony. The former is an excellent
example of the class of work that can be done by a small military party of the
highest technical training working upon systematic lines, and T should like to
devote a few minutes to a short description of the methods adopted and of the
results obtained.

The survey party consists of two Royal Engineer officers and four non-
commissioned officers, the former undertaking the triangulation and the general
supervision of the field work, and the latter the plane tabling. The positions
are primarily based upon the points of the geodetic survey broken up into a
secondary triangulation with sides averaging ten miles. In 1907 the average
triangular error of the secondary work was 2:9 seconds of arc, and the greatest linear
errors of displacement, as tested by the geodetic triangulation at the end of a
chain forty-five miles long, were three feet in latitude and two feet in longitude.
The probable error of a trigonometrical height was under a foot. You will see
therefore that the accuracy is ample for all mapping purposes, even upon large
scales, and the degree of precision is in excess of that demanded for 1 topogra-
phical map on the scale of two miles to an inch. The rate of progress and the
low cost of work are, however, no less notable than its accuracy. The actual rate
of outturn is about eight square miles per day per man, or for the whole party

1908, Be)

754 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION i,

twenty-three square miles of detail survey per diem, and the number of trigono:"
metrical points fixed about three hundred per annum. ‘The cost works’ out to
about eight shillings per square mile of the completed map, and the whole area of
47,000 square miles will be finished, printed, and published in five and a half
ears,

: These remarkable results are due in a large measure to the energy and
organising power of the officer in charge, Captain L. C. Jackson, R.E. The
detail survey is done in sheets fifteen minutes square, each non-commissioned
officer being given one complete sheet, which he works at until finished. Four
such sheets are therefore in progress at any given time, and each sheet takes about
six weeks. Seeing the rapid rate of progress maintained it might perhaps be
thought that the country is a particularly easy one for the topographer. Such is,
however, by no means the case. It is true that there is an entire absence of the
surveyor’s greatest impediment, large areas of dense forest, but there is much
broken and difficult country, rising in places to altitudes of above 7,000 feet.

In Cape Colony the reconnaissance survey is of a somewhat similar character,
but owing to the large area of the country and to the small amount of money
available the work has perforce to be of a more rapid nature. In Natal, Bechuana-
land, and Rhodesia no survey is at present in progress,

Passing northward through Africa, we come to the British Protectorate of
Nyasaland, formerly called british Central Africa, Of this country a certain
number of maps exist purporting to give topographical detail; but as they are not
based upon any framework of triangulation, and as much of the detail only depends
upon rough sketches, it is impossible to say how far they can be accepted as correct
representations of the ground. :

It is most unfortunate that financial considerations prevent the execution of
any systematic trigonometrical survey. The absence of such, and the fact that
maps are being made which must inevitably be withdrawn and replaced by others
in the future, will undoubtedly be the cause of ultimate waste of money.

Passing northward again we come to the large and important protectorates of
British East Africa and Uganda, in both of which systematic surveys are in hand.
The geodetic framework is supplied by a triangulation along the Anglo-German
boundary, connected with chains of triangles along the railway in the neighbour-
hood of Nairobi. In Uganda proper there is also a triangulation covering a
substantial area, As already noted, all this work will eventually be tied into the
thirtieth meridional arc, though it is not likely that the final adjustment of geodetic
positions thus arrived at will nécessitate any substantial alterations upon the maps.

In both protectorates topographical surveys are in hand, and maps on the
scale of two miles to an inch will be issued. In British East Africa, under the
able direction of Major G. E. Smith, R.E., rapid progress is being made. This
topographical mapping is additional to the cadastral maps also in progress in
both countries. These latter are required for property purposes, in Uganda for’
demarcating the estates given over to the native inhabitants of the country under
the agreement of 1900, and in East Africa for attachment to title-deeds of lands.
alienated for-farming or stock-raising.

In the Soudan the enormous area of the country—over a million square miles
—and the limited funds available have prevented any systematic survey being
taken up. A large amount of reconnaissance mapping has been done, and a series
of sheets on the scale of 1/250,000 (four miles to an inch) have been published.
These are corrected and improved by officers and Government officials as. oppor-
tunity offers. The energies of the Survey Department are almost entirely spent
in meeting urgent local requirements in the shape of cadastral maps of the culti-
vated areas along the river.

Somaliland, a British protectorate which came into unfortunate prominerce a
few years ago, is a country of too small value to be worth the cost of any sort
of survey, and the only maps that exist are based upon the route sketches of
travellers and sportsmen and upon the work done by a small section of the Survey
Department of India during the military operations five years ago.

Leaving the east side of Affiga and turning our eyes westward, we may note

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 750

that in the colony of the Gold Coast a rigorous survey was rendered imperative
by the gold-mining boom of 1901. The work was entrusted to Lieut.-Colonel
Watherston, C.M.G., R.E. Owing to the dense forest covering practically the
whole country triangulation would have been prohibitive in price and very slow
in execution, The initial positions were therefore fixed by a network of long
traverses, executed with all possible refinements with steel tapes and theodolites,
Astronomical latitudes were observed by Talcott’s method at every fifty miles,
The errors of misclosure of the traverses proved to vary from about 1 in 2,000 in
unfavourable cases to nearly 1 in 6,000—results inferior to triangulation, but
at the same time sufficiently accurate to form the basis of a map with no appre-
ciable errors on the paper. One great defect of the traverse method of fixing
points lies in the practical impossibility of carrying the heights through without
occasional checking, either by lines of levels or by trigonometrical observations.
Such work makes therefore an imperfect basis for topography, and would only be
used when natural features compel its adoption.

Northern Nigeria is a country of enormous area, and, up to the present, of
small revenue. It has therefore not been found possible to aJlocate the funds for
any systematic mapping. The existing maps are compilations based. upon
sketches made by civil and military officers when travelling upon duty and upon
the surveys made by the different Anglo-French and Anglo-German boundary com-
missions. In 1905-6 Captain R. Ommaney, R.E., fixed the astronomical longitudes
of fifteen towns by exchange of telegraphic signals with Lagos, With the aid of
these values, combined with a number of astronomical latitudes, it has been
possible to combine the material into something like a complete map. It need,
however, hardly be pointed out that astronomical fixations are liable to Jarge and
uncertain errors, due to the variation of local attraction, and cannot attain the
precision of even a rapid triangulation. In Southern Nigeria the experience
has been somewhat unfortunate. This colony has spent a very substantial sum
upon its survey department, and if the work had been properly organised and
systematically carried out we should by now be in possession of a complete map
of a large portion of the country. Unluckily, the mistake has been made of
detaching survey parties for non-geographical purposes, such as the erection of
telegraph lines, work doubtless urgently required in the interests of the colony,
but not lying within the sphere of a survey department. Thus systematic
progress was rendered impossible, and, though isolated pieces of triangulation and
long lengths of traverses have been done, no topographical map of any area yet
exists.

Of the remaining West African colonies the Gambia river is a narrow piece
of land with boundaries running parallel to the river banks, and, except for the
actual trade along the river, is unimportant. In Sierra Leone the country in the
immediate vicinity of Freetown was surveyed by the colonial survey section, a
small party employed by the War Office for the purpose of making surveys of
places of special military importance. ‘The map of the remainder of the colony is
a compilation based on miscellaneous material.

In the course of this summary of the state of the mapping of British Africa
mention has been made of the surveys made by joint commissions appointed for
the delimitation of international frontiers. No small part of the existing map is
due to work of this class. Thus joint Anglo-French commissions have marked
out the frontiers*of the Gambia, Sierra Leone, the Gold Coast and Nigeria :
Anglo-German commissions the eastern boundary of Nigeria, the boundaries
between British and German East Africa, between German East Africa and
North-East Rhodesia from Lake Nyasa to Tanganyika, and between Bechuanaland
and German South-West Africa; Anglo-Portuguese commissions the frontiers _
between Portuguese East Africa and North-East Rhodesia and Nyasaland respec-
tively. Useful surveys have also been made in the course of the mutual
demarcation of the frontiers between Abyssinia and the Soudan on the west and
British East Africa on the south; also of the frontier between the colony of
Sierra Leone and the Republic of Liberia. «.

Important as the work done by these commissions has been, its value would

302

756 ’ TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

be greatly enhanced if the reports of each commission were published in a
succinct and easily accessible form. Such reports would naturally contain a
record of the actual frontier as finally ratified, and also a technical account of the
survey methods employed. They would thus be of permanent use both to the
official or officer on the spot for the easy settlement of any disputes that may
arise, and to the chief of any future boundary commission as an aid to the
selection of the methods of survey most suitable to the particular country with
which he is concerned,

Up to three years ago many of the African protectorates were under the
tutelage of the Foreign Office, while the older colonies were under the Colonial
Office. The reports of Boundary Commissions are therefore scattered through
official documents in the two offices, and are drawn up upon no uniform model.
Now that the superintendence of all these territories has been handed over to the
Colonial Office, and that body has set itself such an excellent example in the
appointment of the Colonial Survey Committee and the publication of its reports,
it is greatly to be hoped that they will follow up th good work and systematise
and publish all these Boundary Commission reports. If a model for such a publi-
cation is desired, I may refer to the account of the demarcation of the Turko-
Egyptian frontier between Rabah on the Mediterranean to the Gulf of Akaba,
lately issued by the Egyptian survey.

The account which I have endeavoured to give you, short and imperfect as it
is, of the present state of the mapping of British Africa will have shown you
clearly that there is a large amount of excellent work now in course of execution,
and that there has been, especially during the last few years, very considerable
progress made towards co-ordinating this work and towards maintaining certain
fixed standards of accuracy, rapidity, and economy.

It will naturally occur to you to inquire whether this co-ordination could not
advantageously be pressed a step further, and whether all the isolated survey
departments, now working in the various colonies and protectorates, could not be
amalgamated under one executive head ; whether, in fact, a Survey Department
of Africa, precisely analagous to the Survey Department of India, could not be
formed. ‘The advantages of such a step are obvious, but must not be allowed to
blind us to the difficulties, We have, in the first place, the objection to be met
that the South African colonies would, under present circumstances, almost
certainly refuse to join in any general scheme, and would not consent to any
arrangement whereby money raised in one colony would be spent outside its own
geographical limits. If however we leave South Africa out of the question, the
financial difficulty tends to disappear. Both our East and West African posses-
sions are, in general, not yet in a position to maintain themselves, and are still,
and will be for some time to come, partially supported by grants from the
Imperial Treasury. To divert a portion of these grants to pay for the main-
tenance of a survey department would only be a matter of account and could be
adjusted so as to cause no hardship to any one colony. There remains the
geographical difficulty of space. The fact that the heads of the department would
have to keep in close personal touch with countries differing entirely in character,
and perhaps three months’ journey from each other, does not appear to offer
any insuperable objections, and I cannot avoid expressing the hope that it may be
found possible at a no very remote date to take some steps in the direction of a
consummation which appears so desirable.

In giving my evidence before the Royal Commission on the War in South
Africa, presided over by Lord Elgin, I outlined the general features of a scheme
under which the Imperial Government would undertake the topographical map-
ping of all our oversea possessions, apart from self-governing colonies. As on
this occasion I was considering the whole question more exclusively from the
military side, no reference was then made to the question of cadastral maps, and
it was tacitly assumed that these would fall to be constructed by the land office
or a land survey department belonging to each separate colony. On the present
occasion we are not restricted to the military point of view, but are permitted a
wider outlook, Our task is to consider the map in all its aspects, both as regards

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. vae

its method of construction and its ultimate use, whether for military, adminis-
trative, engineering, or purely scientific purposes. This enlargement of our scope
does not, I think, modify our previous conclusions, and were I now called upon
to devise a scheme for the mapping of British Africa, I should base it upon the
principle of a central Imperial body for executing the triangulation and topo-
graphy, leaving the land survey to local organisations.

The arguments in favour of this policy are manifold. As regards the trian-
gulation they hardly require stating. It will be obvious to all that such work
must be closely co-ordinated, and that some central, directing head is imperatively
called for. The enormous waste of money that is ultimately involved by tolerat-
ing imperfect work, of which many examples could be cited, is alone a sufficient
justification for holding this view. We may, however, pause to examine a little
more closely into the advantages of centralisation as regards one particular opera-
tion ina survey. That is the measurement of the initial base line upon which the
accuracy of the whole framework depends. This task used to be one of the most
laborious and difficult with which the surveyor is confronted. The apparatus
employed, some form of compensation bar, was cumbrous and difficult to use, the
site selected had to be levelled, and the preparatory alignment carried out with the
most scrupulous care. Thus the Loch Foyle base for the triangulation of Great
Britain and Ireland was about six miles long, and the actual measurement, quite
apart from the time spent on the preparation of the ground, took sixty days, an
average rate of work of just over 500 feet per working day.

A few years ago the discovery was made of the nickel steel alloy with a very
small or zero coefficient of expansion, the so-called invar. This valuable metal, by
abolishing the necessity for any temperature correction, has enormously simplified
all physical measurements of length, and, @ fortior’, those measurements, such as
base lines, which are perforce done in the open air and over a large range of tem-
perature. Survey bases are now measured with an invar wire stretched to care-
fully regulated tension, and either laid along a flat trough, or what appears to give
equally good results, hung freely between supports. The gain in precision due to
the avoidance of errors of expansion or contraction in the measuring apparatus is
substantial, while the gain in rapidity is very great. Thus, as a contrast to the
Loch Foyle base, let me give a short account of the measurement of a base in Spitz-
bergen by the Russian party of the joint Swedish and Russian missions in 1900,
extracted from a review already written for the ‘Geographical Journal.’

The conditions for accurate work were very untavourable: no site even ap-
proximately flat could be found, and the base was therefore irregular in contour
and traversed rough and in some parts marshy ground. The weather conditions
were far from ideal. The cycle of operations was as follows: An auxiliary base
175 metres long was measured with Struve’s apparatus, twice before the main base
measurement and twice afterwards, The two wires used for the main base were
standardised on this subsidiary base four times, twice before and twice after use.
The main base, 6:2 kilometres long, was measured twice in each direction by each
of two wires, eight measures in all. ‘The limit of error in the final value was
17 millimetres—say, one part in 360,000.

The whole of these operations, including the laying out of the standard and the
comparison of the wires, were completed in a period of three weeks ; Monsieur
Backlund, who superintended the actual measurement, left the observatory at
Pulkowa on June 11 and returned to it on July 24. It was therefore possible
to standardise the wires not only by the check base upon the spot, but also by the
permanent standards of the observatory within three weeks of their use for the
actual measurement. It need hardly be pointed out that this was eminently
favourable to the attainment of the highest exactitude, and we have here a marked
example of the value of centralisation. The proposed trigonometrical survey
department of Africa would probably find it advantageous to adopt similar proce-
dure, and, instead of trusting a base measurement to a local staff unacquainted
with the work, it would send out one or two men of highly trained technical skill
equipped with the best apparatus. The money spent in journeys would be more
than sayed—first, by the unquestionable gain in accuracy and the consequent

758 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION &.

avoidance of the costly necessity for repeating bad work; and, secondly, by the
gain in time, due to the fact that the local statf would not be called upon to learn
the use of an unfamiliar set of instruments.

Similar advantages would arise from a partial specialisation of the angular
measurements, Thus the first-class observer with a theodolite must possess cer-
tain qualities of eyesight, health, and judgment, rarely combined in one individual.
When such a combination of qualities is found it should be made the best use of,
and a good man should not be wasted on second-class work. At present, upon
the system of regarding each colony as an isolated unit, it is not possible to employ
every man to the highest advantage, and there are doubtless many examples at
present in Africa of able men being set tasks much below the standard of their
ability, and, per contra, men of no such qualifications being, given work beyond
their powers. It is only by working with an extended organisation, employing a
large staff and responsible for a large area of country, that any approximation can
be made towards that ideal wherein every member of the establishment is used to
the best advantage according to his special qualifications.

To turn from the triangulation to the question of topography, we shall find
analogous arguments in favour of entrusting this work to one central department.
Whether we consider the necessity for a uniform system of training for the topo-
grapher, or whether, looking at the matter from the other side, we consider the
desirability of a close degree of uniformity in the resulting map, we arrive at the
same end. Nor need we confine ourselves to theoretical arguments; practical
results are before us as examples. It is not possible at the present moment to
point out a single case of a thoroughly satisfactory topographical map of any
country whatever which has not been executed by men trained in a properly
organised survey department or, what is equivalent, in the Corps of Royal
Engineers. Examples of failure to accomplish this are numerous. Thus we have
the cases of the British Colonies in South Africa before the war; of Canada,
where no topographical map existed until two years ago, when the work was
taken up by the military department; and of Ceylon, where, in spite of the vast
sums spent on survey and the small size of the island, no topographical map of the
slightest pretensions to completeness exists of any part of the country.

It may also be noted that, especially in the case of a developing country, it is
of enormous advantage that the map shall be begun and finished within some
reasonable time. If a long interval elapses between the commencement and the
completion, the first sheets are out of date before the last are done and the whole
exhibits a most undesirable lack of uniformity.

With a central organisation the mapping of each protectorate can be taken
up in turn and dealt with rapidly, thus producing a homogeneous map impossible
to a small local body. Upon the converse point, the question as to whether
our central department should or should not undertake cadastral survey, the
arguments are perhaps not so one-sided. It is, however, quite clear towards
which side the balance of advantage tends. Taking into account the intimate
connection of the cadastral survey with the system of land holding and land
taxation, the fact that these systems necessarily vary and that asa financial matter
of account the receipts and expenditure of each colony are separate, it is not
difficult to see that the land survey is better left to local control. This would
not preclude any particular colony from arranging with the ‘tentral body for the
execution of any definite piece of work of this class, upon terms agreeable to both
sides, in a similar manner to that in which cadastral survey is executed by the
Indian survey for provincial Governments, and it need hardly be pointed out
that the geodetic points fixed by triangulation would in any case be available as a
framework for the large-scale map.

The geographical survey of the British Empire, apart from Africa, will not
on this occasion detain us long. I exclude from present consideration the great
self-governing colonies—Canada, Australia, and New Zealand—and also the whole
country lying within the sphere of the survey of India. Ceylon has an elaborate
land survey system ; and though, owing to past mistakes, the geographical mapping
of the island is in a most lamentably backward condition, there are good grounds

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 759

for hope that this state of affairs will be remedied in the near future. The Malay
States, where, owing to the fertility of the soiland the ubiquity of rich tin ore, the
land values are bigh, have the basis of an excellent survey system, and possess a
backbone of triangulation which will eventually extend southward to Singapore, and
possibly northward to join the Indian series in the south of Burma. Hongkong,
including the Jeased territory on the mainland, is of small area and of no appre-
ciable geographical importance. It has been adequately mapped for military
purposes. Of our insular possessions, Mauritius, St. Helena, and (in the Mediter-
ranean) Cyprus and Malta are thoroughly surveyed. The other islands scattered
throughout the ocean which fly the Union Jack, including the West Indies, while
their coast lines have naturally been the subject of close attention by the
Hydrographic Department of the Admiralty, are, as regards their internal
geographical features, still quite imperfectly known. The large and important
territory of British Guiana is entirely unsurveyed, and indeed in part almost
unexplored.

_ You will thus realise that if we are prepared to admit the validity of the
premiss that the mapping of its own territory is an imperative duty of a State
which aspires to justify itself before the nations as the possessor of a world-wide
Empire, there is still plenty of employment for the scientific geographer in the
British dominions.

‘Having thus far spoken of our duties and obligations, for such they appear
to me, which lie abroad in countries remote from our own shores, let us now
turn our eyes inward and see if we cannot discern some similar’ duties lying
close to our hands.

I take it that the great majority of us have been brought up in the idea that
our own Ordnance Survey is of such a high order of accuracy that a proposal to
undertake a revision of the fundamental triangulation of the British Isles must
appear strange. Yet this idea will not be a new one to the British Association,
for two years ago at the York meeting I brought the subject before this Section
in a short note, which gave rise to a useful discussion.

What I shall say now will be in a large measure a repetition of my previous

remarks, a repetition for which I need offer no apology, as it will be apparent to
you that had any steps been taken to remove this standing reproach to British
geodetical science no recurrence to the subject would be called for. As matters
stand, however, I feel impelled to recur to it with increased emphasis, a pesition
in which I am confident of being supported by all those who earnestly care for
the scientific repute of our country, Some few years ago, at the request of the
International Geodetic Conference, a volume was prepared by General Ferrero,
the eminent. Italian geodesist, giving a summarised account of all the geodetic
surveys of the world. If we take this volume and.examine the relative degree of
precision of the different national surveys there enumerated we shall find that
Great Britain stands lowest on the list. .
_ _ The popular illusion, for it is really no other, as to the extreme accuracy of the
triangulation of the British Isles rests in no small degree upon what must be con-
sidered a fortuitous circeumstance—namely, the accidental smallness of the closing
error. Have we not all been told how at the conclusion of the triangulation,
when the observations had been carried from the primary base on the shore of
Loch Foyle across part of Ireland and across Wales and England, terminating in
two points on Salisbury Plain, the distance between these points was calculated,
using as data the measured length of the Loch Foyle base and the observed angles of
the triangles across the country? The distance between the same two points was
then measured with every refinement of accuracy, and the measured length com-
pared with the calculated length. The difference between them was found to be
twenty inches, If in traversing a large portion of the kingdom the aggregate
error only amounted to this minute quantity—minute, that is, compared with the
distances involved, how can we either expect or demand a better result, even if
the work be redone with the most refined methods that the accumulated experi-
ence of the last fifty years can suggest ?

To answer this question we must bear in mind that the closing error of a

760 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E,

piece of work such as a triangulation is not the only, nor indeed the best, test of
its precision. A small closing error may be due to accident; larger discrepancies
may have occurred at intermediate stages which have chanced nearly to cancel
themselves at the end. Such undoubtedly did happen in this case. The work
was not as accurate as the smallness of the closing error would seem at first sight
to imply. We have, however, in such a case an absolute measure of relative pre-
cision in the magnitude of the average triangular error, being the quantity by
which the sum of the observed angles of a triangle exceeds or falls short of the true
value of 180° + spherical excess.

From this we can readily deduce the ‘probable error’ of a single observed
angle, a form in which the measure of precision of a triangulation is often ex-

ressed.
J In our British survey this quantity equals 1:20 second of arc, while in good
modern work it does not in general exceed 0:25 second. Making due allowance
for the fact that the network of triangles over our islands is a complicated one,
and therefore that the ultimate precision is considerably greater than that of a
chain of triangles of the same order of individual accuracy, we are probably
justified in concluding that a resurvey would at least halve the final errors.

Such a resurvey is urgently demanded in the interests of international
geodesy.

It will of course be clearly understood that this implies no adverse criticism
upon the work of the men who originated and carried out the primary triangula-
tion of the British Isles. or that great achievement we must all have the most
sincere admiration. It was pioneer work of the highest order; it set a standard of
accuracy never before attained, and was for long taken as the model for such work
in other countries. It was, however, started at the end of the eighteenth century
and was completed in 1857. It is therefore hardly surprising that it falls some-
what: short of the precision of modern observations of the same class. It will
also be understood that this resurvey does not affect the question of the reliability
of our Ordnance Survey maps. Any errors which exist in our triangulations
are important only for geodetic discussions, such as the determination of the
exact figure of the earth, and are quite negligible for map-making purposes.
There can be no appreciable error from this cause upon the maps of our own
country, even those on the largest scales, and no question of reconstructing our
maps can arise. This is fortunate from the financial point of view. Such a
reconstruction would involve a very heavy expenditure, while the cost of the
retriangulation suggested would be quite trifling compared with the actual annual
expense of our national surveys.

The result of this inferiority in accuracy of the British survey is that it is
useless to co-ordinate it with the continental series for geodetical purposes. This
defect is all the more noticeable in that the recessary observations for joining up
the two series were actually made. Three stations on the coast of Kent—St.
Peter's Church, between Margate and Ramsgate; Coldham, a hill about two
miles north of Folkestone; and Fairlight, a hill about four miles north-east of
Hastings—were connected trigonometrically with three stations in France—
Montlambert, near Boulogne; St. Inglevert, over the village of Wissant; and
the Clock Tower at Gravelines. This was done in 1861-63. The observations
were of a high order of precision. It would not be necessary to repeat them.

The importance of the co-ordination is apparent when we inspect a map of
Europe with the neighbouring part of Africa, upon which the triangulation lines
are entered. We then see that the British part of the work is imperatively
required to extend, and in fact to complete at one end in each case, two important
geodetic arcs, viz., the meridional arc along the meridian of Greenwich and the
longitudinal are along the latitude of 52° north. Without the British portions
these arcs extend from Ain Sefra in Algeria to Gravelines in France, an ampli-
tude of 18°, and from Orsk in Russia to the same point in France, an amplitude
of 57°. With the British section added they would be further extended to
Saxavord, the northernmost point of the Shetland Islands, and to Valentia, on
the West of Ireland, respactively. The added amplitydes would he 10° and 114°,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 761

very material additions, which would undoubtedly prove of substantial scientific
value.

It will thus be seen that it is by no means necessary, or even desirable, to re-
observe the whole network of triangles covering our islands. All that is required
is to connect geodetically the three extreme points—Saxavord, Valentia, and the
stations on the Kent coast just mentioned.

A knowledge of the exact figure of the earth is of high scientific importance,
especially so in reference to recent speculations as to its possible deviation
from a spheroidal form. lt cannot be other than a subject of national shame that
so important a link in this research remains unfilled. We may note with
gratification the forward position that our nation has in the past taken
in the advancement of geodesy. We know the great work done in the
triangulation of India, and we have alluded to the magnificent conception of the
Cape to North Sea are due to Sir David Gill. Surely it is not asking too much
that we should take steps to set our own house in order, and to ensure that our
own triangulation is at least as accurate as that covering the neighbouring por-
tions of the continent of Europe. The subject is one upon which the powerful
influence of the British Association might legitimately be brought to bear, and
any Bee ecnuione from our body would come with a peculiar appropriateness
from this the Dublin meeting, seeing that so large a section of the work, whose
importance we wish to urge upon the Government, lies upon Irish soil, whose
execution would therefore devolve naturally on the Ordnance Survey of Ireland.

In concluding this Address I feel constrained to apologise for what may have
appeared to some of you the dull and unromantic character of my theme. I am
too well aware that to many the idea of geographical advance is confined to the
perilous traversing of virgin lands, to the navigation of unknown waters, and to
the penetration of forests or deserts never yet trod by white men’s feet. I am
conscious that the substitution of the surveyor for the explorer has necessarily
destroyed much of the old romance, and that the feelings born when any fraction
of the earth’s surface was for the first time opened to our ken can never
be revived. While, however, the romance has gone the dangers remain, and
there is as much call now for unflinching courage and for unselfish devotion to
duty as there was in the days when the search for the sources of the Nile was an
impelling cause sending adventurous men into the unknown. Whether occupied
in cutting his way through the almost impenetrable forests of the Gold Coast or
struggling with the papyrus swamps of the Nile basin, or whether, standing upon
the top of some old volcanic hill, he is engaged in scanning the blue distances of
the great Rift valley, the surveyor is not less worthy of your admiration than the
earlier traveller whose name is perhaps honourably enshrined in that of river or
mountain. Whether pushing his way through the jungles of the Malays or
floating upon the muddy stream of an African river, whether he is braving the
attacks of savage animals, of treacherous natives, or the far more insidious assaults
of the germs of some deadly disease, he is equally deserving of your sympathy and
your encouragement. He is in truth a shining example of the power of that
spirit of adventure and thirst for information which has carried our race so far in
the past, and which in the future is, we all trust, destined to lead us ever
‘upwards and on’; the spirit that esteems no sacrifice too great in the cause of
duty, and recognises no duty so high as that of making some contribution towards
the increase of natural knowledge.

The following Papers were then read :-—

1. The Physiographic Subdivisions of the Appalachian Mountain System,
and thew Effects upon Settlement and History. By Professor
W. M. Davis.

The Appalachian mountain system of the eastern United States may be
divided into two longitudinal belts—the crystalline Appalachians on the south-
east, and the stratified Appalachians on the north-west; with these may be

7623 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E,

associated the Appalachian plateau, of horizontal structure, next further north-
west. Each belt varies somewhat when followed along its length. The crystalline
belt is low, narrow, and interrupted in a middle section; it is higher and broader
in the north-east and in the south-west. The stratified belt is most character-
istically developed in a middle section, where alternations of resistant and weak
strata result in alternations of ridges and valleys; in the north-east the ridge-
making strata are absent; in the south-west they are of less strength than in the
middle section. The plateau belt continues in full strength along the greater part
of the stratified belt in the United States, but it terminates in eastern New York;
further north it may be said to be replaced by the Adirondack Mountains,
separated from the plateau by the Mohawk Valley. The relation of these
various features to geological structures and to processes of erosion, and their
effects upon settlement and history, were briefly sketched in this paper.

2. Ireland; her Coasts and Rivers.
By Rev. W. Srorrswoop Green, C.B.

The more intimately we know a country the greater is the interest in investi-
gating its condition in the ages long gone by, and tracing the connection between
the past and the present. This is true, whether we look on the question from a
geographical or from an historical point of view. The present has been evolved out
of the past, and geographical and social conditions are so bound together that they
may almost be looked at as aspects of the one problem. ‘To make this clear it is
only necessary to take an imaginary illustration. If, for instance, the geography
of the British Islands could be so altered that Ireland lay to the east of England
instead of to the west of it, how profoundly would her history have been
affected !

It is impossible, in the brief space available, to follow up the geographical
history of the past. All I can hope to do is to touch on some salient points, and,
with some photographic illustrations of the coasts and rivers of Ireland, treat the
succession of events from the time that the river valleys were being sculptured
and the present configuration of the country determined through the great
Arctic and Forest periods to the coming of man into the island, the evolution
and admixture of races, and the scenes of beauty which we hope that many who
come to the British Association may go on and see for themselves. It is
impossible, also for lack of time, to name all the authorities upon whose writings
my outline sketch may be based; but it is well to notice that as all writers of
note have now adopted the modern historical methods, and place truth before
sentiment, the conclusions arrived at about Ireland’s past are based on as wide an
induction as the materials for European history permit.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 4,
The following Papers were read :—

1. School Geography asa Mental Discipline. By Professor R.A. GREGORY.

No teaching of science in schools is satisfactory unless the scientific method
of study is followed. ‘There are many science subjects, but only one scientific
method; and it consists in the collection and arrangement of facts—obtained
so far as possible by personal observation and experience—with the view of
discovering relationships and arriving at correct conclusions. A literary subject
taught in this spirit is of greater educational value than a science subject in
which the instruction is chiefly of a didactic character. What is most important
is not the subject, but the method, of study. }

In the modern teaching of physics, chemistry, nature-study, and similar
subjects in schools, the aim is not so much to accumulate a large amount of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION EF. "63

information—useful or otherwise—as to create"and foster an active and inde-
pendent habit of mind; individual contact with facts, and the critical study of
evidence, are thus encouraged instead of the passive absorption of statements
made by a teacher or a text-book.

By the introduction of practical exercises both in school and out, geography
is being brought into line with other subjects taught by truly educational
methods. It is being recognised slowly that the scientific aspects of geography
should be matters of personal observation rather than of description. Nothing
should be told a pupil which he can find out for himself by suitable exercises.
The construction of a plan from actual measurements gives a knowledge of scales;
and with this mental equipment the transition is easy to a simple map of the
district, upon which exercises can be set. When such a map is understood, work
may be done upon maps of the British Isles, either physical, political, or showing
foads and other ways of communication. After the natural physical divisions of
our islands have been studied by exercises based upon orographical maps, the
characteristics of British climate may be investigated. For this purpese familiarity
with meteorological instruments is necessary.

It is an educational axiom that no numbers or other symbols should be used
until their meanings are understood. No study should be made, therefore, of
records of temperature, rainfall, or other meteorological phenomena unless the
numbers convey definite ideas to the pupils. In all cases pupils should be en-
couraged to arrive at a principle or generalisation from the material put before
them, whether in the form of results of observation or of maps. It will then be
understood that every point upon a map represents results of investigation, and
that every geographical generalisation has been obtained by the study of facts
recorded by various explorers and observers. This method of approach may be
extended to the whole world at any convenient stage of the course, the intention
throughout being to use geographical material to stimulate intelligent inquiry, and
be a means of mental discipline, rather than as information to be remembered
merely. The practical exercises in the class-room as well as in the field should
thus be regarded as illustrations of the methods by which geographical science
has been built up, and to provide a vocabulary by means of which geographical
facts may be interpreted.

It must not be supposed that the neglect of the human and imaginative side
of geography is suggested; all that is here advocated is that whenever possible
pupils should be brought face to face with evidence and trained to study it. The
best way to obtain evidence is by direct observation; but as it is not practicable
for a single investigator to compass the world by personal inquiry, the results of
observations made by others may be used as material to be sorted, grouped, com-
pared, and generalised, provided that its nature is understood. Combined with this
collection and consideration of concrete facts there should be a course of reading
or descriptive lessons intended to inspire interest. in the earth and its inhabitants,
and to cultivate appreciation of what may be termed the intangible influences and
factors of geographical character. Taught in this way, geography may be made
one of the most valuable subjects in a school curriculum, for it provides not only
the intellectual discipline of a science rightly studied, but also the human interest
and sympathy of the most inspiring literature,

2. The Geographical Study of Mediterranean Man, considered as an Element
in a ‘Classical Education.’ By Professor Joun L. Myres, 1.4,

Some years’ experience in teaching classical subjects, and particularly ancient
history, to university students, mainly derived from the principal public schools,
shows that one of the principal defects in the equipment which these students
bring is that both their special historical knowledge and their general conception
of the social life and surroundings of the Greek and Roman world have been
formed without regard for the geographical conditions in which Mediterranean
societies were formed and deyeloped, Geography in the public schools seems to

764 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

be taught (when it is taught at all) as an isolated discipline, without regard to ita
application in any particular department of human history. Yet in this instance
a school with a classical curriculum cannot plead the impossibility of correlating
the geographical lesson with varying regions of historical study. For in a classical
curriculum the historical studies all have as their subject the doings of one
section or other of Mediterranean Man, and the region which he inhabits forms
as well-defined and manageable a subject of geographical study as could easily be
devised. Experiments which have been tried, both at universities and in public
schools, suggest that the introduction of a systematic study of the Mediterranean
region on broad geographical lines at an early stage in the classical course has at
the same time the effect of familiarising the students with the main principles
of geographical inquiry, and of presenting to them, in an impressive, methodical,
and yet a most natural way, the outlines of the history and the social life of
the peoples whose language, literature, and beliefs are to be their principal study.
Correlation of studies, in fact, is here particularly easy to secure.

In the present stage of development of the schools in question the only serious
difficulty is the lack of teachers of classics who have undergone any systematic
geography training at all. The remedy, therefore, would seem to be first to insist at
the universities on the acquisition, during the normal university course, of a far
higher quality of geographical knowledge than is at present presumed ; for
example, in the Final Classical School at Oxford, or in the Classical Tripos at
Cambridge. The existence both at Oxford and at Cambridge of an organised
staff for the teaching of pure and applied geography would make this change
quite easy, if the tutors and examiners could once be brought to see its practical
utility. Secondly, when once the universities have been persuaded to insist upon
a higher minimum of geographical knowledge than at present from their classical
studies, it will be possible for headmasters to require from candidates for assistant-
ships a knowledge of classical—that is, Mediterranean—geography, which at
present they do not appear to want, and could not secure if they did.

Meanwhile those few schools which have succeeded in securing either a
classical master with geographical interests, or even a geography master who
understands the special needs of classical students, are the best illustrations of
the vividness and coherence which can be put into the classical curriculum by
insistence on a geographical point of view in dealing with Greek and Roman
civilisation.

At present there is the familiar deadlock: headmasters who set store by
academic distinctions have no use for boys with geographical knowledge, and
consequently no use for geographically minded teachers ; the universities, hearing
no ery for geographically minded teachers, have no inducement to offer academic
distinctions to students with geographical knowledge.

3. Scientific Results of the Voyage of the ‘ Scotia.’
By Wiuu1aM §. Bruce, LL.D., PRSL.

The ‘Scotia’ was specially fitted out for oceanographical and meteorological
research in high southern latitudes.

Magnetism.—No magnetic research was done on board the ‘ Scotia,’ since this
was not compatible with deep-sea trawling, sounding, &c., but at Scotia Bay,
South Orkneys, a magnetic observatory, named Copeland Observatory, after the
late Professor Ralph Copeland, was set up, when Mr. R. C. Mossmann carried out
a series of magnetic observations during the wintering of the ‘Scotia,’ and during
her absence coaling and refitting at Buenos Aires for the second voyage.

Tides.—Tidal observations were made, under the direction of Captain Thomas
Robertson, every half hour at Scotia Bay. These are of special interest as being
a record in the most open stretch of ocean in the world. Their normality is
their striking characteristic.

Meteorology.—Observations were taken by and under the direct supervision of
Mr. R. C. Mossman, The results are especially important, since the Argentine

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 765

Republic agreed to continue the Scotia Bay observatories and have now secured
five years’ continuous records there. One of the most important results of these
records is that they seem to indicate an extensive continental Jand mass not far to
the south and west of the South Orkneys. ‘This is specially emphasised by the
observations at Scotia Bay, off Coats Land, and near the position where Morrell
reported land and Ross an ‘appearance of land.’ The observations show that
the line between the easterly and westerly systems of weather is in about 65° S.
in the Weddell and Biscoe seas ; the South Orkneys being well within the westerly
system.

" Ocean Physics—The large series of observations are only now being worked
up, but they must give us a large amount of new and important information,

Deep Sea Deposits.—The deep-sea deposits indicate by the continuous band of
terrigenous deposits between 65° and 74° S. a corresponding extensive con-
tinental coast-line to the south. The characteristic blue muds, as well as the
great rock-masses, strongly continental in character, give ample proof of an
extensive land mass to the south.

Bathymetry.—The results of the extensive sounding operations change our
ideas of the bathymetry of the South Atlantic Ocean, the Weddell Sea, and the
Biseoe Sea. The Ross Deep has been obliterated, and relatively shallow instead
of very deep water was found to extend to the northward. Actually in the
portion where Ross reported 4,000 fathoms, no bottom, Bruce reached bottom
n 2,660 fathoms, and brought up a sample of blue mud, Connecting rises of
less than 2,000 join Graham’s Land, South Orkneys, and the Sandwich Group, as
well as the south of South America and Antarctica. South of Gough Island,
where the ‘Scotia’ naturalists made interesting ornithological collections, Dr.
Bruce sounded out a continuance of the mid-Atlantic rise a thousand miles to the
south, and this rise probably joins another rise between the Sandwich Group and
Bowet Island, which rise continues north-eastward to meet Madagascar and the
east coast of Africa. The deep lying to the east of Argentina, therefore, seems to
be separate from that of the Biscoe Sea, and both these are separate from the deep
lying to the south-west of South Africa. The shelving of the water in the south
and west of the area bathymetrically surveyed by the ‘Scotia’ in the Weddell Sea
also gives additional weight to the hypothesis of an extensive and continuous
land mass existing between Kemp, Enderby, Coats, Morrell, and Moss’s supposed
land and Graham’s Land.

Topography.—The Scottish Expedition surveyed Laurie Island, South Orkneys,
on a scale of two inches to the mile. They included in this survey local hydro-
graphical work. A running coast survey was also made of the north side of
Coronation Island, as well as of 150 miles of the new coast-line which the
expedition discovered and Dr. Bruce named Coats Land in honour of the two
chief supporters of the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition.

Biology.—Besides making surface and shallow water collections, the Scottish
naturalists trawled in great depths, not only south of 40°S., but also south of
the Antarctic Circle, many trawlings being in water exceeding 2,500 fathoms.
Bipolarity fades away, for not only do North and South Polar species differ wideiy,
but even species from different South Polar areas. The northern extension of
Antarctica at Graham’s Land appears to be a potent factor in this matter.

4. The Northward Expansion of Canada.' By W. L. GRANr.

At its formation, in 1867, Canada extended from the Atlantic to Lake
Superior; by the purchase of its rights from the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1869,
eh by union with British Columbia in 187], it reached the Pacific. Buta country
is really measured, not in square miles, but in the area which men can inhabit and
develop. At federation the inhabited country was but a thin and broken strip
along the American frontier, Wildernesses separated the maritime provinces

} Introductory to the visit of the Association to Canada in 1309.

766 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E,

from Quebec, and Ontario from the West; from Winnipeg to the Rocky Moun
tains was the home of a few Indians; three ranges of mountains shut in
British Columbia. North of the ‘Height of Land’ in Ontario and Quebec all was
wilderness. Canada was length without breadth, and even the length was not
continuous.

The progress of the country has consisted not so much in any change of climate
or of geographic conditions as in (1) the spread of knowledge as to what the con-
ditions really are; (2) with the growth of knowledge the growth of popular confi-
dence; (3) the conquering of such conditions as were unfavourable. Man is to-day
the ruler, not the slave, of geographic conditions. He is no longer forced to follow
the rivers; settlement no longer creeps from point to point. The railway goes
hundreds of miles in advance of settlement, and everywhere finds land where
men may live and prosper. The new transcontinental railways pass through the
province of Alberta more than 300 miles north of the American frontier, and
already settlement has extended north of the railways. In Ontario and Quebec,
north of the Height of Land, great tracts are being opened up by new railways,
and are being found rich not only in minerals and in timber, but also in arable
land. A study of railways is to-day more important th'n a study of rivers,

With this widening of habitable territory goes au increase in political and
economic unity; that which was at first only a paper federation is being welded
together.

At the heart of this network of railways lies Winnipeg, the central city of
Canada. The railway map of Canada is in shape not unlike a wasp, with its
waist at Winnipeg. Perhaps the greatest danger to which Canada is exposed is
that the waist may be too small. A railway running north of Lake Winnipeg
should be one of the next links forged in the building together of Canada.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.

The following Papers were read :—

1. New Instruments for Travellers and Surveyors.
By EH. A. Reeves, /.R.A.8,.
This paper gave a brief description of three instruments recently designed
by the author for the use of travellers and surveyors :—

1. The Distance-finder Alidade for Plane Tabling—This consists of an
aluminium ruler 23 feet long, at each end of which is fitted a small telescope

placed at right angles to the ruler. One telescope has a vertical and horizontal-

wire only fitted in the diaphragm, while the other, in addition to these, has a
movable micrometer wire anddrum. In taking a distance the plane-table with
the alidade,is levelled, and then the telescope with the simple cross wire only is
sighted on to a definite point of an object of which the distance is required, after
which the surveyor passes to the other telescope, and, covering the same point

of the object with the movable micrometer wire, reads off the divisions recorded -

on the micrometer. To eliminate errors in parallelism, the measurement is
repeated with the alidade and telescopes reversed, and the mean of the divisions
noted. With this mean a scale on the alidade ruler is entered and the corre-
sponding distance in feet read off. A 2}-foot instrument will give direct distance
up to about 1,000 feet with fair accuracy; by repeating the observations and

with the distance so obtained, by a simple system of similar triangles, distances -
eight or ten times ‘as far can be measured without altering the position of the

plane-table. The whole operation is very rapid, and the great advantage of the
instrument is that it enables a surveyor to fill in a considerable amount of detail
without moving his board, and that he can obtain distances to points which he may
be unable to reach. The telescopes can be taken off the ruler, and one of them is

%

: YRANSACTIONS Of SECTION ‘f. 067

fitted with a small circular are and can be placed in a line with the xulet, when
the instrument can be used as an ordinary telescopic plane-table alidade. Larger
sizes of the distance-finder, with longer rods, are made fitted to a stand as a
separate instrument, and the instrument can be combined with a theodolite for
traversing.

2. The Astronomical Compass and Time Indicator.—This is a simple and in.
expensive little instrument for quickly finding the north and south line and the
true bearing of any object, as well as the local mean time by the sun or stars with
sufficient accuracy for all ordinary purposes. It has been designed by me to meet
the requirements of travellers and for night-marching when the ordinary magnetic
compass cannot be relied on.

The instrument consists of two small discs, upon each of which is a projection
of a hemisphere drawn on the plane of the meridian. One of the discs shows, in
black, parallels of declination of the principal stars and of the sun at different
dates, with hour circles subdivided into five minutes, while the other, the upper
one, is transparent and shows, in red, curves of altitude and azimuth, The two
dises are centered on a pivot, and the transparent one is weighted at the lower
part to keep it vertical. Through the central pivot passes a pin, carrying a sight-
rule or alidade on the front of the transparent disc and fixed to the handle at the
back,

When the instrument is used as a compass the N. or 8S. pole of the decli-

nation circle is first set to the red number on the transparent disc equal to the
latitude of the place; then, allowing the discs to swing freely, clamped together,
a rough altitude of the sun is taken through the sight-rule. The altitude circle
indicated by the pointer at one end of the sight-rule is now followed across the
disc until it intersects the curve of declination of the sun or star observed, seen
through the transparent disc, and the red longitudinal curve passing through the
point of intersection gives the true bearing or azimuth of the star or sun at the
time. Then, considering the upper disc as a compass card with the zenith as the
true N. point, the sight-rule is set to this bearing, counting the degrees round
the circumference of the disc. Now when the discs are held horizontal with the
sight-rule aligned on the sun or star observed, the true north will be indicated by
the large red arrow on the transparent dise. There is an additional movable
pointer which can be previously set to any bearing upon which it is desired to
march. The lines are all bold, so that they ean be read off easily at night. The
whole operation is extremely rapid, so that bearings at intervals of a quarter of an
hour or so can be taken without delay.
__ The same observation that gives the true bearing also furnishes the time, since
the hours and minutes read off the black figures of the declination disc at the
point of intersection indicate the hour angle of the sun or star. This hour angle,
of course, in the case of the sun gives the local apparent time, which can be
conyerted into mean time by applying the equation of time taken from the table
at the back, where a diagram is also given from which the approximate local mean
time can be quickly found without any computation from the hour angle taken
off as in the case of the sun.

3. The third instrument to which attention was called is a new form of reflecting
artificial horizon. tis intended for land or sea use, and it is hoped will be of service
in Polar exploration on moving ice. The special advantages claimed for it
over other attempts at the same kind of instrument are (1) that by the system
of taking observations errors are counterbalanced and a good mean obtained ;
(2) that it can be readily fitted on in front of a sextant when required for use,
and afterwards taken off; (3) that no arrangement is required for illuminating
wires for star work. Meridian altitude latitudes on land have been frequently
taken with this artificial horizon to within 8’ or 10” of the truth, and on sea
the results should be near enough to be quite useful.

This artificial horizon is very simple in construction, consisting merely of a
reflecting mirror kept horizontal by a short weighted pendulum, of which the
weight is slightly below the centre of gravity. The mirror is adjusted to move
accurately in the plane of the index and horizon glasses of the sextant by means

768 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION HB,

of adjusting screws, and altitudes are taken in pairs, the artificial horizon being
reversed laterally between each observation and the mean result accepted. This
is a special feature in connection with the instrument, and to a great extent
eliminates errors.

2, Notes on the Cartography of the Counties of England and Wales.
By Hersert GEORGE ForpHAm.

This paper summarised the results of the author’s inquiries into the history,
bibliography, and geographical characteristics of the engraved maps of the English
and Welsh counties. From the survey of Christopher Saxton, and the publication of
his atlas of thirty-four maps in 1579, to the present day there has been a remarkably
complete sequence of such maps, which will repay a careful study, both from the
point of view of the science of cartography and of that of the artistic side of topo-
graphical representation, The author, in examining exhaustively the cartography
of two English counties (Hertfordshire and Cambridgeshire), has established the
chronology and characteristics of the maps of the whole period here reviewed,
and has followed up in detail the history of the publishers, engravers, and topo-
graphical writers of the three centuries in their connection with British carto-
graphy generally. He indicated the position of the Dutch, Flemish, and French
schools of geographers in relation to the contemporaneous work in England at
different periods, and established a classification by reference to the initial
meridian lines adopted, and to the style and art developed by engravers in this
department. He also noticed the principal authors and their best-known works in
chronological order, and mentioned, by way of illustration, that in all nearly 400
maps have been published of the county of Hertford, of which, however, more
than one-half are reprints, more or less altered from the original plates, and may
be regarded as duplicates. Any complete collection of the whole series of engraved
maps of a county in England or Wales, 1579-1900, would contain approximately
the same number. The object of the communication was to draw attention to the
large and almost unworked field of research which exists in connection with the
bibliography and classification of maps from the early period of their production
by the engrayer’s art.

Bibliography.

‘Hertfordshire Maps: A Descriptive Catalogue of the Maps of the County,’
1579-1900. ‘Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Society and Field Club, 1901 to 1907,’
Hertford, Svo, and reprinted privately, with indexes, &c., Hertford, 1907, 4to.
‘Cambridgeshire Maps: An Annotated List of the Pre-Survey Maps of the County
of Cambridge, 1579-1800, with an Appendix containing a List of the Maps of the
Great Level of the Fens, 1604-1800.’ ‘Cambridge Antiquarian Society's Com-
munications, 1905 to 1907,’ 8vo. ‘Cambridgeshire Maps of the Nineteenth Cen-
tury, with a List of the Maps of the Great Level of the Fens, 1801 to 1900.’
‘Cambridge Antiquarian Society’s Communications, 1908,’ 8vo. ‘ Notes sur la
Cartographie des Provinces anglaises et frangaises des seiziéme et dix-septiéme
siécles.’ ‘Annales du 20° congrés de la Fédération archéologique et historique de
Belgique.’ Gand, 1907, 8vo.

3. The Longitudinal Section of the River Nile.
By Captain H. G. Lyons, 2.Z., FBS.

The inerease of cultivation in Egypt during the summer months has neces-
sitated an increased supply of water during the low stage of the river, and at this
season of the year the equatorial lakes, and that portion of the Nile system which
flows from them, alone can furnish it. The Abyssinian tributaries—the Sobat,
the Blue Nile, and the Atbara—are in these months discharging little or nothing.
As soon, therefore, as the Dervish power had been broken the survey of the Upper
Nile was commenced, During the past eight years much has been done, and,
among other results, an almost complete line of levelling now exists from the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION &; 769

Mediterranean to Lake Victoria, a distance of 3,500 miles This newly acquired
information enables us to discuss the longitudinal section of the Nile more com-
pletely than has hitherto been possible. A discussion of the material now
available shows that the probable discrepancy where the two portions of the line
join is not greater than about 25 or 30 feet.

The section shows clearly the great crustal blocks of which the equatorial
plateau is composed, while the lakes occupy the level surfaces of the blocks—as
Lake Victoria, Lake Choga, Lake Albert Edward, and Lake Albert. This portion of
the basin exhibits the characteristic features of recent development. At the foot of
the equatorial plateau the level plains of the Sudancommence. Through these the
rivers of the region drain—viz., the Bahr el Jebel, the Bahr el Zaraf, and others—
but now their slope is known not to be very low, being about 1 in 20,000, or a
little more than three inches to one mile. The great development of marshes in
this region is not so much due to the flatness of the plains, but to the water-level
being so near to that of the flood plains that vegetation grows luxuriantly
throughout the year, and all the river silt is arrested in the upper reach, so that
the flood plains are not being built up.

Between the Sobat River and Khartoum is the flattest portion of the whole
course of the river; the siope varies from one-half to one-third of an inch per
mile, and when the Blue Nile is in flood the White Nile is ponded up and presents
an absolutely horizontal surface for 300 miles,

Below Khartoum the character of the river-bed changes; reaches of rapids
where the river is eroding the crystalline rocks alternate with reaches of lower
slope where the rock is sandstone, These crystalline rocks therefore form natural
obstructions which can easily be converted into dams for storing up water in the
valley above. When the question of increasing the volume of water stored in the
reservoir at Aswan was under consideration, three of these reaches were contoured
carefully to determine what volume of water could be stored in them,

In these rapids the slope is at times steep, but never for any considerable
distance, and the mean inclination rarely exceeds 1 in 1,000 for any length of
river. At no point can the river be said to descend a vertical fall, as the term
cataract might be thought to imply; but the cataracts of the Nile are in fact
reaches of the river in which it has cut its way down to portions of the ancient
and uneven land-surface formed of the crystalline rocks on which the sandstones
of Cretaceous age have been laid down. The position of the ridges of this ancient
land have determined the places where cataracts occur, but the water-channels in
them follow the lines of weakness due to bands of softer rock or to lines of fracture
caused by the movement of the crust during long ages. The last of these barriers
is at Aswan, and below this the river flows in the wide alluvial plains which it
has formed by deposition, and which it is building up at the average rate of about
four inches per century. The equatorial plateau and the region of the cataracts
are regions in which the river is eroding at the present time, while in the Sudan
plains and in Egypt deposition is taking place. But little accurate levelling has
as yet taken place along the Abyssinian tributaries, and from Khartoum to Fazogli
along the Blue Nile only are the levels reliable. Here in one reach near Singa
the slope is markedly less than either upstream or downstream of it, and this
may be due to a warping of the crust at this part; but more evidence is needed.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. A Journey into the Primeval Forests of Tropical Peru,

By Li. C. BERNAcCcHI.

This paper dealt mainly with the region of the Rio Inambari, which the author
visited, and where a preliminary survey was carried out in 1907, at the expense
of an English rubber compariy, in a district practically unexplored. The author

1908, 3D

770 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

started from Santa Rosa, on the Peruvian Corporation railway. On the steep
eastern slope of the Andes a notable variety in succession of temperature, scenery,
and vegetation was observed, as were remains of a former population. The
present population is mainly Quichua, with whom the Atsahuaca, of whom there
are few, strongly contrast in their excellent nature and disposition. The Atsa-
huaca are nomad hunters and monogamists, and are nearly extinct in the
Inambari valley. The author quoted at some length from the survey report;
the work carried out is the most complete survey yet made of this part of the
continent. Rubber and trading companies are gradually opening up the country.
The forests of the Inambari abound in fine Para rubber-trees of the Hevea
variety.

2. Unique Luperiences at the Birth of a Volcano.
By Rey. GEorcr Furione.

The author witnessed, in August 1905, the birth and development of the
volcano, now called O Le Mauga Mu, in Savaii, which island exhibits lava-fields
in almost every stage of formation. After a period of earth unrest, two fissures
opened on August 4, flame-coloured steam and vapour broke forth with heavy
explosions, and masses of débris were ejected which soon began to build up the
crater, Streams of lava carrying other matter rolled from the vent ; their rate of
progress was calculated at half a mile in twenty-four hours. The behaviour of
these lava-streams was watched and described in detail by the author. He points
out (among other phenomena) that the surface of the lava quickly solidified, and
thus a tunnel was formed through which the flow went on, so that between the
crater and the vast columns of steam where the lava reached the sea it was
difficult to realise that volcanic action was in progress. It was noted that the
volcano was more active during the period of full moon than of waning moon;
also that the fumes from the volcano were not always of the same nature.
Several tidal waves were experienced, always in the same place; they were about
500 yards wide, and flowed inland from 100 to 120 yards. These waves were
observed to occur when the crater was more than usually active.

3. Report on the Luploration of Prince Charles Foreland, Spitsbergen.
See Reports, p. 306,

4, The Marble Arch Caves in Co. Fermanagh.'
By Harotp Broprick, I.A.

‘Three streams flow down the northern slope of Ouilcagh and sink into the
limestone at three points about a quarter of a mile apart; the central stream goes
by the name of the Monastir. The narrow limestone valley through which it
runs is cut off, at its lower end, by a limestone cliff 180 feet high. The cave at
the base of this has a total length of 40 yards, and ends in a fissure of unknown
height. Within 40 yards of the top of the cliff is a pot-hole (Pollbwee) 100 feet
deep, with a pool aud a narrow passage 60 feet in length at the bottom. Further
north is an opening in the moor called Pollnagapple; this is a pot-hole with a
diameter of 80 feet and a depth of 60 feet. Its floor is composed of jambed
boulders, below which the river can be heard; a high cave with good stalactitic
deposits leads from the bottom of this pot. About 150 yards further north is
Cradle Hole—a pot-hole 80 yards in diameter and 120 feet deep; at the base are
two caves in which the stream is met with ; upstream the passage, 15 feet wide

. A full account of these caves, with plans, will be published in the Irish
Naturalist.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E, 771

and 25 feet high, has been explored for 55 yards, but has not been surveyed. The
downstream cave is from 10 to 25 feet high and 30 feet wide; it is 104 yards
long and ends in a pool within about 20 feet of the upper end of Marble Arch
Cave. The roof seems too low to admit of passage. The Marble Arch Cave is
entered from lower down the hillside. At the upper end of the stream course is
a, pool, probably the continuation of the one met with in Cradle Hole. The stream
flows for 123 yards along the ‘Grand Gallery,’ through boulders and shingle, to
the ‘Junction.’ The ‘Grand Gallery’ is from 5 to 20 feet high and about 15 feet
wide. Atthe Junction the roof is at least 50 feet high; from here the stream
turns to the left and then to the right, filling the whole of the passage; it here
forms a lake at least 10 feet deep in the centre. At 8Lyards from the Junction
a beach is reached and 10 yards further the open air, at the floor of a wide pot-
hole 60 feet deep; from this beach the stream flows under low arches to another
lake, from which it emerges into the open just above the Marble Arch itself.
A high-level passage leads from above the beach to the shore of this lake, and
a second branch leads through boulders to the open at the bottom of a wide pot-
hole 30 feet deep, in the floor of which is also another opening, which will be
referred to later.
From the Junction a dry passage runs to the right, and at a distance of
45 yards becomes 20 yards wide and about 40 feet high; the floor rises to the
left, but the passage continues forward to the right. To the left the rising floor
is composed of boulders and sand cemented together and covered with stalagmite.
At the upper end of the slope is a fine collection of stalactites. A low passage
15 feet wide leads from here into a fissure cave 30 feet high and 40 feet long.
The low-level passage at the bottom of the boulder slope continues for 93 yards,
15 to 25 feet in height and about 10 feet in width, to the ‘ Pool Chamber.’ This
_is about 15 yards in diameter and 20 feet high, and has a still pool at its lowest
point. Beyond this chamber the passage continues 15 feet wide and about 4 feet
high, and in 12 yards is blocked with boulders. A climb of about 15 feet vertically
upwards through these boulders leads into the bottom of a chamber about 80 feet
high and 25 yards in diameter, the floor of which is entirely composed of a slope
of large boulders. The upper end of the boulder slope leads to the bottom of a
narrow pot-hole 30 feet deep, for the descent of which ladders are necessary. At
the far corner of this chamber there is a small hole leading, between jambed
boulders, into the floor of the pot-hole into which the high-level passage opens,
and within 20 feet of the end of the passage. The portion of the cave beyond
the Pool Chamber and the two openings there were unknown before this year.
Fluorescine put into the Monastir Sink at 11.30 a.w. in dry weather was clearly
visible at Cradle Hole at 10.45 a.m. the following day, and at 6.45 the same
evening began to emerge at the Marble Arch spring,

5, Mitchelstown Cave. By Dr. C. A. Hitz, W.A., MB.

Mitchelstown Cave, the largest yet discovered in the British Isles, is situated in
co. Tipperary, in the valley of the Biackwater. There are actually two separate
and distinct caves. The existence of one, the ‘ old’ cave, is new forgotten, though
this cave was known and exhibited in 1777. The ‘ new’ cave, first discovered in
1833, is now the only one shown to visitors. It was first described by Dr. Apjohn
of Dublin, who partially explored and surveyed it in 1834, and published a map
which has been the basis of all others up to the present time. It was further
explored by M. Martel of Paris in 1895 and described by him, and was also
visited by Dr. Lyster Jameson of Dublin, who described the cave fauna found
therein. Very little is known of the full extent of the caves even at the present
day, and no reliable plan or map exists. The cave was visited in 1905 by the
author, who took many photographs now shown for the first time, and also
explored portions hitherto unvisited. The cave was found to ke of much greater
extent and complexity than was previously imagined.

3D2

772 TRANSACYIONS OF SECTION E.

There is great need for systematic exploration and surveying, as the existing
plan of the ‘ new’ cave has been found inaccurate and misleading, and practically
nothing is known of the ‘old’ cave. Geologically the ‘new’ cave is of great
antiquity, as evinced by the enormous size and number of the stalactite and
stalagmite formations. There is no evidence of present active water-action, the
cave being practically dry, except at two points erroneously called ‘the River.’
The explored passages are estimated at a mile and a quarter in length.

6. Third Report on Investigations in the Indian Ocean.
See Reports, p. 305.

7. Report on the Oscillations of the Level of the Land in the
Mediterranean Basin.—See Reports, p. 308.

e
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 1773

Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

PRESIDENT OF THE SecTION.—W. M. Acwortn, M.A.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 3,

The President delivered the following Address :—
The Relation of Railways to the State.

No one can be more conscious than your President of to-day of the unfitness
of one who has no claim to be called an economist at all to occupy the Chair of
this Section in succession to a long line of the most distinguished economists of
the country. But it would be atlectation on my part to ignore that I owe the
distinction, however little personally I may deserve it, to the fact that what our
American friends call transportation problems are much to the fore at present, and
that to those problems the professed economists of this country have unfortunately
—for reasons that there is no need to discuss here—hitherto devoted but scant
attention. And parmi les aveugles le borgne est rot. You will therefore not be
surprised if your one-eyed king for the day directs your attention this morning to
railways, and especially to the question which is in the forefront of politics at
this moment in almost every part of the world—the relation of railways to the
State.

One word more by way of preface. I have said that these relations are being
discussed at present all over the world. Ireland is no exception. There is at
this moment sitting in Dublin a Viceregal Commission to inquire into the manage-
ment of the Irish railways, and the question of State versus private ownership
has been constantly brought up before it. As I am a member of that Commission,
I evidently could not, even if I desired to do so, express here any personal views
on a matter which is directly referred to me in an official capacity. But it seems
to me that while it is necessary for me to refrain from discussing the particular
question of the detailed remedies which the special historical and economic position
of Ireland may be thought to require, it is possible to discuss the whole question in
an abstract manner. I propose, therefore, to treat the subject in the main in two
aspects: the first, the history in outline of the relations between railways and the
State in different countries; and the second, the question of the factors which
are of primary importance in any consideration of the matter.

Ever since the year 1830, when the dramatic success of the Liverpool and
Manchester Railway first revealed to a generation less accustomed than our own
to revolutionary advances in material efficiency the startling improvements in
transport that railways were about to effect, theorists have discussed the question
whether State or private ownership of railways be in the abstract the more
desirable. But it is safe to say that in no country has the practical question,
‘ Shall the State own or not own the railways?’ been decided on abstract considera-
tions. The dominant considerations have always been the historical, political, and
economic position of the particular country at the time when the question came
up in concrete shape for decision.

714 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

The Belgian railways have belonged to the State from the outset, because
they were constructed just after Belgium separated from Holland, and (the
available private capital being in Holland and not in Belgium) King Leopold and
his Ministers felt that, if the railways were in private hands, that would mean in
Dutch hands, and the newly acquired independence of Belgium would be thereby
jeopardised. Within the last few years this history has repeated itself, and the
fact that the bulk of the Swiss railway capital was held in France and Germany
was one main reason, if not the main reason, which induced the Swiss people to
nationalise their railways.

In Germany seventy years ago the smaller States were regarded as the
personal property of their respective Sovereigns, almost as definitely as Suther-
landshire is the property of the Duke of Sutherland. And it was therefore as
natural that the Dukes of Oldenburg or Mecklenburg should make railroads
for the development of their estates as that the Duke of Sutherland should build a
railway in Sutherland.

Take, again, Australasia. In that region the whole of the railways, with
negligible exceptions, now belong to the different State Governments, and the
public sentiment that railways ought to be public property is to-day so strong
that it is impossible to imagine any serious development of private lines. But at
the outset the traditional English preference for private enterprise was just as
strong there as it was at home, and it was only the fact that the whole of the
available private capital was absorbed in the development of the goldfields and
that, therefore, if railways were to be built at all, public credit must be pledged
and English capital must be obtained, that caused the State to go into the
railway business.

Take, once more, the case of Italy. In the days when Italy was only a
geographical expression, the various Italian States experimented with railway
management of all sorts and kinds, When, after 1870, Italy was unified, it was
necessary to adopt a national railway policy, and the Italian Government instituted
an inquiry whose exhaustiveness has not since been approached. The force of cir-
cumstances had indeed already compelled the Government to acquire the ownership
of the railways, but the Commission reported that it was not desirable that the
Government should work them. The railways were accordingly leased for a
period of sixty years, running from 1884, to three operating companies, and it was
provided that the leases might be broken at the end of the twentieth or the
fortieth year. Irom the very outset a condition of things developed which had
not been contemplated when the leases were granted, and for which the leases
made no provision. Constant disputes took place between the Government and
their lessees. Capital for extensions and improvements was urgently needed;
neither party was bound to findit ; and agreement for finding it on terms mutually
acceptable was impossible of attainment. In the end the Government has been
forced to cut the knot, to break the lease at the end of the first twenty years’
period, and for the last two years the Italian Government has operated its own
railways. But it is safe to say that an a prioré preference for State management
over private management played but scant part in the ultimate decision.

It is impossible to review, even in the merest outline, the railway history of
all the countries in the world, but the instances already given will serve to
illustrate my proposition that the position in each country depends not on
abstract considerations, but on the practical facts of the local situation. Yet
one cannot look round the world and fail to recognise that the connection be-
tween the railways and the State is everywhere becoming more intimate year
by year. Whatever have been the causes, the fact remains that Italy and
Switzerland have converted their railways from private to public. In Germany
the few remaining private lines are becoming still fewer. In Belgium the process
is practically completed. In Austria it is moving steadily in the same direction :
four-fifths of the total mileage is now operated by the State. In Russia the
story would have been the same, had it not been for the war with Japan. Even
in France, whose railways have a very definite local and national history of their
own, an Act for the purchase of the Western Railway by the State was passed

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 779

last year by the Chamber of Deputies, and has now, after much contention, been
passed by the Senate within the last few weeks. But it is not without interest
to note that, though a majority both of deputies and of senators supported the Bill,
the representatives of the district served by the company were by a large
majority opposed to it, while the commercial community of the whole of France,
as represented by the Chambers of Commerce, were almost unanimously hostile.!
So far as can be seen at present, the purchase of the Western Railway by the
State is not likely to be made a precedent for the general nationalisation of the
French railways. Still, the broad fact remains that a series of railway maps of
the continent of Europe, constructed at intervals of ten years, would undoubtedly
show an ever-increasing proportion of State lines, and that the last of the series
would exhibit the private lines as very far below the State lines both in extent
and in volume of traffic.

A word ought to be said of Holland, not only because Holland is a country
with free institutions like our own, but because the railway position of Holland
is unique. The railways of that country were built partly by the State and
partly by private enterprise, but the working has always been wholly in private
hands. Some ten years ago, however, the Dutch Government bought up the
private lines and rearranged the whole system. The main lines of the country
are now leased to two operating companies, so organised that each company has
access to every important town, and railway competition is now practically
ubiquitous throughout Holland. So far there are no signs that the Dutch people
are otherwise than satisfied with their system. Now compare this with France.
The French Government, though it has’ hitherto, except on the comparatively
unimportant State railways in the south-west of the country, stood aloof from the
actual operation, has always kept entire control of railway construction and of
the allocation of new lines between the several companies. And the French
Government has proceeded on a principle diametrically opposed to the Dutch
principle. In France railway competition has, as far as possible, been definitely
excluded, and the various systems have been made to meet, not, as in Holland, at
the great towns, but at the points where the competitive traffic was, as near as
might be, a negligible quantity. Now that questions of competition and combina-
tion are to the fore in England, and seem likely to give very practical occupation
to Parliament in the Session of 1909, the precedents on both sides are perhaps not
without interest.

When we turn from the continent of Murope to the continent of America the

osition of affairs is startlingly dissimilar. The railways of America far surpass
in length those of the continent of Europe, while in capital expenditure they are
equal. State-ownership and operation of railways on the continent of America
is as much the exception as it is the rule in Europe. In Canada there is one
comparatively important State railway, the Inter-Colonial, about 1,500 miles in
length. Though its earnings are quite considerable—about 20/, per mile per week—
it barely pays working expenses. I may add that in all the voluminous literature
of the subject I have never seen this line cited as an example of the benefits of
State management. There is another small line, in Prince Edward Island, which
is worked at a loss; and a third, the Temiskaming and Northern Ontario Railway,
owned not by the Dominion but by the Provincial Government, which is too new
to afford any ground for conclusions.

The Federal Government of the United States has never owned a railway,
though some of the individual States did own, and in some cases also work, rail-
ways in very early days. They all burnt their fingers badly. But the story is
so old a one that it would be unreasonable to found any argument on it to-day.

In Mexico, of which I shall have more to say directly, the State owns no rail-
ways. As for Central America, Costa Rica and Honduras have some petty lines,

1! Further, it is common knowledge that the Senate only passed the Bill (and

. that by a majority of no more than tbree) because M. Clemenceau insisted that

he would resign if it was not passed, and, though they disliked nationalisation much,
they disliked M. Clemenceau’s resignation more.

776 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F,.

which are worked at a loss. Guatemala had a railway till 1904, when it was
transferred to a private company. Nicaragua has also leased its lines. Colombia
owns and works at a proit, all of which is said to be devoted to betterment,
twenty-four miles of line.

In South America, Peru and Argentina own, as far as I am aware, no rail-
ways. The Chilian Government owns about 1,600 miles out of the 3,000 miles in
the country. Needless to say private capital has secured the most profitable lines.
The Government railway receipts hardly cover the working expenses. The
Brazilian Government formerly owned a considerable proportion of its railway
network of nearly 11,000 miles. Financial straits forced it some years ago to
dispose of a large part to private companies, to the apparent advantage at once of
the taxpayer, the shareholder, and the railway customer. About 1,800 miles
of line are still operated by the Government, the receipts of which, roughly
speaking, do a little more than balance working expenses. But it may be broadly
said that the present Brazilian policy is adverse to State ownership and in favour
of the development of the railway system by private enterprise.

The question of public ownership and operation was, however, raised very
definitely in the United States only two years ago, when Mr. Bryan made a
speech stating that his European experience had convinced him that it was
desirable to nationalise the railways of the United States. For many weeks
after, Mr. Bryan’s pronouncement was discussed in every newspaper and on every
platform, from Maine to California. Practically, Mr. Bryan found no followers;
and to-day, though he is the accepted candidate of the Democratic party for the
Presidency, the subject has been tacitly shelved. To some extent this may have
been due to the ludicrous impossibility, if I may say so with all respect for a
possible President, of Mr. Bryan’s proposals. In order, presumably, not to offend
his own Democratic party, the traditional upholders of the rights of the several
States, he seriously suggested that the Federal Government should work the
trunk lines, and the respective State Governments the branches. Even if anybody
knew in every case what is a trunk line and what is a branch, the result would be
to create an organism about as useful for practical purposes as would be a human
body in which the spinal cord was severed from the brain. Mr. Bryan's proposal
was never discussed in detail: public sentiment throughout the Union was unex-
pectedly unanimous against it, and it is safe to say that the nationalisation of the
railways of the United States is not in sight at present.

But though nationalisation is nowhere in America a practical issue, every-
where in America the relations between the railways and the State have become
much closer within the last few years. Canada a few years ago consolidated its
railway laws and established a Railway Commission, to which was given very
wide powers of control both over railway construction and operation and over
rates and fares for goods and passengers. Argentina has also moved in the same
direction. In the United States, not only has there been the passage by the
Federal Congress at Washington of the law amending the original Act to Regulate
Commerce and giving much increased powers to the Inter-State Commerce Com-
mission, besides various other Acts dealing with subsidiary points, such as hours
of railway employés, but scores, if not hundreds, of Acts have been passed by the
various State Legislatures. With these it is quite impossible to deal in detail ;
many of them impose new pecuniary burdens upon the railway companies, as, for
instance, the obligation to carry passengers at the maximum rate of a penny per
mile. All of them, speaking broadly, impose new obligations and new restrictions
upon the railway companies. Not a few have already been declared unconstitu-
tional, and therefore invalid, by the Law Courts. And when the mills of American
legal procedure shall at length have finished their exceedingly slow grinding, it is
safe to prophesy that a good many more will have ceased to operate. But for all
that, the net result of State and Federal legislation in the Sessions of 1906 and
1907 will unquestionably be that even after the reaction and repeal, which, thanks
to the Wall Street panic of last year, is now in progress, the railways of the
United States will in the future be subject to much more rigid and detailed
control by public authority than there has been in the past. The reign of railway

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Tad

despotism, more or less benevolent, is definitely at an end; the reign of law has
begun. It is only to be regretted that the quantity of the law errs as much on
the side of excess as its quality on the side of deficiency.

Apart from its interest as a quite startling example of how not to do it, the
recent railway legislation of the United States is only valuable as an indication of
the tendency, universal in all countries, however governed, for the State to take a
closer control over its railways. Much more interesting as containing a definite
political ideal, worked out in detail in a statesmanlike manner, is the recent
railway legislation of Mexico. One may be thought to be verging on paradox in
suggesting that England, with seven centuries of parliamentary history, can learn
something from the Republic of Mexico. But for all that I would say, with
all seriousness, that I believe the relation between the State and the national
railways is one of the most difficult and important questions of modern politics,
and that the one valuable and original contribution to the solution of that question
which has been made in the present generation is due to the President of the
Mexican Republic and his Finance Minister, Senor Limantour.

Broadly, the Mexican situation is this: The Mexican railways were in the
hands of foreign capitalists, English mainly so far as the older lines were con-
cerned, American in respect of the newer railways, more especially those which
constituted continuations southwards of the great American railway systems.
The foreign companies, whether English or American, naturally regarded Mexico
as a field for earning dividends for their shareholders. The American companies
further, equally naturally, tended to regard Mexico as an annexe and dépendance
of the United States. If they thought at all of the interest of Mexico in developing
as an independent self-contained State, they were bound to regard it with hostility
rather than with favour, and such a point of view could hardly commend itself to
the statesmen at the head of the Mexican Government. Yet Mexico is a poor
and undeveloped country, quite unable to dispense with foreign capital; and,
further, it was at least questionable whether Mexican political virtue was
sufficiently firm-rooted to withstand the manifold temptations inherent in the
direct management of railways under a parliamentary régime. Under these cir-
cumstances the Mexicans have adopted the following scheme: For a comparatively
small expenditure in actual cash, coupled with a not very serious obligation to
guarantee the interest on necessary bond issues, the Mexican Government have
acquired such a holding of deferred ordinary stock in the National Railroad
Company of Mexico as gives them, not, indeed, any immediate dividend on their
investment, but a present control in all essentials of the policy of the company,
and also prospects of considerable profit when the country shall have further
developed. The organisation of the company as a private commercial undertaking
subsists as before. A board of directors, elected in the ordinary manner by the
votes of shareholders, remains as a barrier against political or local pressure in the
direction of uncommercial concessions, whether of new lines or of extended
facilities or reduced rates on the old lines; but—and here is the fundamental
difference between the new system and the old—whereas under the old system
the final appeal was to a body of shareholders with no interest beyond their own
dividend, the majority shareholder is now the Government of Mexico, with every
inducement to regard the interests, both present and prospective, of the country
as a whole.

Public ownership of railways is in theory irrefragable. Railways are a public
service ; it is right that they should be operated by public servants in the public
interest. Unfortunately, especially in democratically organised communities, the
facts have not infrequently refused to fit the theories, and the public servants have
allowed, or been constrained to allow, the railways to be run, not in the permanent
interest of the community as a whole, but in the temporary interest of that portion
of the community which at the moment could exert the most strenuous pressure.
The Mexican system, if it succeeds in establishing itself permanently—for as yet
it is only on its trial—may perhaps haye avoided both Scylla and Charybdis.
Faced with a powerful but local and temporary demand, the Government may be
able to reply that this is a matter to be dealt with on commercial lines by the

778 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F,

board of directors. If, on the other hand, permanent national interests are
involved, the Government can exercise its reserve power as a shareholder, can vote
the directors out of office, and so prevent the continuance of a policy which would
in its judgment be prejudicial to those interests, however much it might be to the
advantage of the railway as a mere commercial concern.

The history whose outline I have now very briefly sketched shows, I think,
that whereas there is everywhere a tendency towards further State control, the
tendency towards absolute State-ownership and State-operation is far from being
equally universal. I shall have a word to say presently as to the reasons why
America shows no signs of intention to follow the example of continental Europe.
Meanwhile it is well to notice that American experience proves also the extreme
difficulty of finding satisfactory methods of control. Sir Henry Tyler said some
five-and-thirty years ago in England, in words that have often been quoted since,
‘If the State can’t control the railways, the railways will control the State’; and
President Roosevelt has again and again in the last few years insisted on the same
point. ‘The American people,’ he has said in effect, ‘must work out a satisfactory
method of controlling these great organisations. If left uncontrolled, there will be
such abuses and such consequent popular indignaticn that State-ownership will
become inevitable, and State-ownership is alien to American ideas, and might cause
very serious political dangers,’

Perhaps some of my hearers may remember Macaulay’s graphic description of
the passion that was aroused by Charles James Fox’s proposed India Bill; it was
described as a Bill for giving in perpetuity to the Whigs, whether in or out of
office, the whole patronage of the Indian Government. The objection felt by
American statesmen to handing over their railways to the National Government—
for I think it may be taken for granted that if they were nationalised it would
have to be wholly under federal management, and that the separate States could
take no part in the matter—is in principle the same. There are something like
a million and a half men employed on the railways of the United States, say
roughly 7 or 8 per cent. of the voters. Americans feel that rival political parties
might bid against each other for the support of so vast and homogeneous a body of
voters; that the amount of patronage placed at the disposal of the Executive
Government for the time being would be enormous ; and that the general interests
of the nation might be sacrificed by politicianseanxious to placate—to use their
own term—particular local and sectional interests. How far this fear, which is
undoubtedly very prevalent in the States, is justified by the history of State
railways in other countries is a question exceedingly difficult to answer. Dealing
with State railways in the lump, it is easy to point to some against which the
charge would be conspicuously untrue. To take the most important State railway
organisation in the world, the Prussian system, no one, I think, can fairly deny
that it has been operated—in intention at least, if not always in result—for
the greatest good of the greatest number. But then Prussia is Prussia, with a
Government in effect autocratic, with a Civil Service with strong esprit de corps
and permeated with old traditions, leading them to regard themselves as the
servants of the king rather than as candidates for popular favour. An American
statesman, Charles Francis Adams, wrote as follows more than thirty years ago:
‘In applying results drawn from the experience of one country to problems which
present themselves in another, the difference of social and political habit and edu-
cation should ever be borne in mind. Because in the countries of continental
Kurope the State can and does hold close relations, amounting even to ownership,
with the railroads, it does not follow that the same course could be successfully
pursued in England or in America. The former nations are by political habit
administrative, the latter are parliamentary. In other words, France and Germany
are essentially executive in their governmental systems, while England and
America are legislative. Now the executive may design, construct, or operate a
railroad ; the legislative never can. A country therefore with a weak or unstable
executive, or a crude and imperfect Civil Service, should accept with caution results
achieved under a government of bureaus. Nevertheless, though conclusions cannot
he adopted in the gross, there may be in them much good food for reflection,’

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 779

I am inclined to think that the effect of the evidence is that the further
a Government departs from autocracy and develops in the direction of democracy,
the less successful it is likely to be in the direct management of railways.
Belgium is far from being a pure democracy; but compared with Prussia it is
democratic, and compared with Prussia its railway management is certainly
inferior. Popular opinion in Belgium seems at present to be exceedingly hostile to
the railway administration ; official documents assert that, while the service to the
public is bad, the staff are scandalously underpaid, and yet that the railways are
actually not paying their way. There was, it is true, till recently an accumu-
lated surplus of profits carried in the railway accounts, but the official figures
have been recently revised, and the surplus is shown to be non-existent.

The Swiss experiment is too new to justify any very positive conclusions
being drawn from it; but this much is clear: the State has had to pay for
the acquisition of the private lines sums very much larger than were put for-
ward in the original estimate; the surplus profits that were counted on have
not been obtained in practice; the economies that were expected to result
from unification have not been realised; the expenditure on salaries and wages
has increased very largely ; and so far from there being a profit to the Federal
Government, the official statement of the railway administration is that, unless
the utmost care is exercised in the future, the railway receipts will not cover the
railway expenditure.

The Italian experiment is still newer. It would not be fair to say that it
poe anything against State management; but I do not think that the most
ervid Etatist would claim that, either on the ground of efficiency or on the
cpyund of economy, it has so far furnished any argument in favour of that
policy.

If we wish to study the State management of railways by pure democracies
of Anglo-Saxon type, we must go to our own Colonies. My own impressions,
formed after considerable study of the subject.and having had the advantage of
talking with not a few of the men who have made the history, I hesitate to give.
It is easy to find partisan statements on both sides; for example, in a recent
article in the ‘ Nineteenth Century,’ entitled ‘The Pure Politics Campaign in
Canada,’ I find the following quotation from the ‘ Montreal Gazette’—a paper of
high standing—dated May 27,1907: ‘ Every job alleged against the Russian
autocracy has been paralleled in kind in Canada. First, there is the awful
example of the Inter-Colonial Railway, probably as to construction the most costly
single-track system in North America, serving a good traffic-bearing country,
with little or no competition during much of the year, and in connection with
much of its length no competition at all, but so mishandled that one of its
managers, giving up his job in disgust, said it was run like a comic opera. Some
years it does not earn enough to pay the cost of operation and maintenance
(I may interpolate that its gross earnings per mile are equal to those of an average
United States railway), and every year it needs a grant of one, two, three, or four
million dollars out of the Treasury to keep it in condition to do at a loss the
business that comes to it. When land is to be bought for the road, somebody
who knows what is intended obtains possession of it, and turns it over to the
Government at 40, 50, and 100 per cent. advance. This is established by the
records of Parliament and of the Courts of the land.’

Probably no one outside the somewhat heated air of Canadian politics is likely
to believe this damning accusation quite implicitly ; but even if there were not a
word of truth in it—and that the management of the Inter-Colonial Railway is,
for whatever cause, bad, appears, I think, clearly from the public figures—it is
bad enough that such charges should be publicly made and apparently believed.
Let me quote now from a document of a very different type referring to a
colony very far distant from Canada: ‘A Memorandum relative to Railway
Organisation, prepared at the request of the Railway Commissioners of the Cape
Government Railways, by Sir Thomas R. Price, formerly general manager of those
railways, and now-general manager of the Central South African (a.e., Transvaal
and Orange River) Railways, dated Johannesburg, February 22, 1907,

780 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Ff.

‘ Political Influences—Disturbing Effect of.

‘The drawbacks in the management of the railways in the Cape that call for
removal arise from the extent to which, and the manner in which, the authority
of Parliament is exercised. They are twofold in their character, viz. :—

‘(1) The practice of public authorities, influential persons, and others bent on
securing concessions or other advantages which the general manager has either
refused in the conscientious exercise of his functions, or is not likely to grant,
making representation to the Commissioner (as the ministerial head of the
Government), supplemented by such pressure, political influence, or other means
as are considered perfectly legitimate in their way, and are best calculated to
attain the end applicants have in view. ,

‘(Many members of Parliament act similarly in the interests of the districts,
constituents, or railway employés in whom they happen to be interested. It
is by no means unknown for the requests in both classes of cases to coincide
somewhat with a critical division in Parliament—present or in prospect—or other-
wise something has occurred which is regarded as irritating to the public or
embarrassing to the Government, and the desire to minimise the effect by some
conciliatory act is not unnatural.)

‘(2). The extent to which the fictitious, and often transitory, importance which
a community or district manages to acquire obscures (under the guise of the
Colony’s welfare) the consideration of the railway and general interests of the
Colony as a whole.’

(During the earlier period of my railway service in the Cape Colony few things
impressed me more, coming as I had from a railway conducted on strictly business
lines, than the extent to which the conduct of railway affairs was influenced
by certain conditions. Nor was this impression lessened afterwards when, in the
course of a conversation on the matter, Sir Charles Elliott mentioned to me that he
had more than once told a late Railway Commissioner, ‘The Government is
powerful, but [mentioning the town and authority] is more powerful still.’)

‘I do not regard it as open to doubt that the Colony as a whole has suffered
severely in consequence, the inland portions of the Colony particularly so; and
that the need for a remedy is pressing if the railways are to be conducted as a
business concern for the benefit of the Colony.

‘Means of Securing Freedom from Political Influences.

‘The necessity for the railways and their administration being removed from
such an atmosphere, and treated as a most valuable means of benefiting the
Colony as a whole, whilst not neglecting the interests of a district (but not sub-
ordinating the welfare of the whole Colony thereto), is pressing. That there
should be an authority to refer to in case of real necessity, where the decision or
action of the general manager is not regarded as being in the public interest, is
also clear. But it is equally manifest that the Commissioner or the Government
of the day, with political or party consideration always in view, is not the proper
court of reference.

‘ Political Influences as affecting Construction of New Lines.

‘There can be little doubt that in the Cape Colony political considerations
have influenced the adoption of new lines and their construction—many, if not
most of them, of an unprofitable character—without sufficient inquiry or informa-
tion, often with scanty particulars, and possibly contrary to the advice of the -
officer afterwards entrusted with the construction and working of the line.

‘ Proposals for New Lines.—Procedure recommended,

‘A material change is imperatively necessary in this respect, if only to ensure
the solvency of the Colony.’

It is sometimes conceded that improper exercise of political influence may be

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 781

a real danger where railways are managed under a parliamentary régime by a
Minister directly responsible to Parliament; but that difficulty, it is said, can be
got over by the appointment of an independent Commission entirely outside the

litical arena. History does not altogether justify the contention. The last
Ti sort of the Victorian State Railways gives a list of seven branches, with an
aggregate length of 46 miles, constructed under the Commissioner régime at a
cost of 387,000/., which are now closed for traffic and abandoned because the
gross receipts failed even to cover the out-of-pocket working expenses. It is
not alleged, nor is it a fact, that those lines were constructed in consequence of
any error of judgment on the part of the Commissioners, But in truth it is
inherently impossible to use a Commission to protect a community against itself.
In theory a Commission might be a despot perfectly benevolent and perfectly
intelligent ; in that case, however, it can hardly be said that the nation manages
its own railways. But of course any such idea is practically impossible, because
despots, however benevolent and intelligent, cannot be made to fit into the frame-
work of an Anglo-Saxon constitution. In practical life the Railway Commission
must be responsible to someone, and that someone can only be a member of the
political Government of the day.

I have indicated what in America, where the subject is much more carefully
considered than here, is regarded as a great obstacle to a State-railway system;
but I have pointed out also that it is quite possible that statesmen fully alive to
the dangers may yet find themselves constrained to risk them unless some satis-
factory method of controlling private railway enterprise can be found. I do not
think it can be considered that this has been done in England at the present time.
Jn the main we have relied on the force of competition to secure for us reasonable
service at not unreasonable rates; and as I still cherish a long-formed belief that
English railways are on the whole among the best, if not actually the best, in the
world, I am far from saying that competition has not done its work well. But
competition is an instrument that is at this moment breaking in our hands.
Within quite a few years the South Eastern Railway was united with the
Chatham ; the Great Southern has obtained a monopoly over a large part of
Ireland ; in Scotland the Caledonian and the North British, the Highland and
the Great North have in very great measure ceased to compete. If the present
proposals for the working union of the Great Eastern, the Great Northern and
the Great Central go through, competition in the East of England will be
absolutely non-existent from the Channel to the Tweed. And one can hardly
suppose that matters will stop there. In fact, since this address was in type a
comprehensive scheme of arrangement for a long term of years between the
London and North Western and the Midland has been announced. We must, I
think, assume that competition, which has done good work for the public in its day,
is practically ceasing to have any real operation in regulating English railways.

For regulation, therefore, we must fall back on Government; but how shall
a Government exercise its functions? Regulation may be legislative, judicial,
executive, or, as usually happens in practice, a combination of all three. But
Wwe may notice that, as Mr. Adams points out, in Anglo-Saxon countries it is
the Legislature and the Judicature that are predominant; whereas in a country
like France, which though a democracy is bureaucratically organised, it is execu-
tive regulation that is most important. Now, the capacity of the Legislature
to regulate is strictly limited; it can lay down general rules; it can, so to
speak, provide a framework, but it cannot decide ad hoc how to fit into that
framework the innumerable questions that come up for practical decision day
by day.

: The capacity of the Law Courts to regulate is even more strictly limited.
For not only is it confined within the precise limits of the jurisdiction expressly
conferred upon it by the Legislature, but further, by the necessity of the case, a
court of law can only decide the particular case brought before it; a hundred
other cases, equally important in principle, and perhaps more important in practice,
may never be brought before it at all. Even if the Court had decided all the
principles, it has no machinery to secure their application to any other case than

782 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

the one particular case on which judgment was given. There was a case decided
thirty years ago by our Railway Commission, the principle of which, had it been
generally applied throughout the country, would have revolutionised the whole
carrying business of Great Britain. It has not been so applied, to the great
advantage in my judgment of English trade. Further, the great bulk of the cases
which make up the practical work of a railway : ‘ What is a reasonable rate, having
regard to all the circumstances, present and prospective, of the case ? Would it be
reasonable to run a new train or to take off an old one? Would it be reasonable
to open a new station, to extend the area of free cartage, and the like ?’—all these
are questions of discretion, of commercial instinct. They can only be answered
with a ‘ Probably on the whole,’ not with a categorical ‘ Yes’ or ‘ No,’ and they
are absolutely unsuitable for determination by the positive methods of the Law
Court with its precisely defined issues, its sworn evidence, and its rigorous
exclusion of what, while the lawyer describes it as irrelevant, is often precisely
the class of consideration which would determine one way or other the decision
of the practical man of business.

Tt seems to me, therefore, that both in England and in America we must
expect to see in the near future a considerable development of executive govern-
ment control over railways.

This is not the place to discuss in detail the form that control should take, but
one or two general observations seem worth making. The leading example of
executive control is France; in that country the system is worked out with all
the French neatness and all the French logic. But it is impossible to imagine the
French principle being transplanted here. For one thing, the whole French rail-
way finance rests upon the guarantee of the Government. The French Govern-
ment pays, or at least is liable to pay, the piper, and has therefore the right to call
the tune. The English Government has not paid, and does not propose to pay,
and its claim to call the tune is therefore much less. Morally the French Govern-
ment has a right—so far at least as the railway shareholders are concerned
—to call on a French company to carry workmen at a loss; morally, in my
judgment at least, the Knglish Government has no such right. But there is
a further objection to the French system: the officers of the French companies
have on their own responsibility to form their own decisions, and then the officers
of the French Government have, also on their own responsibility, to decide whether
the decision of the company’s officer shall be allowed to take effect or not. The
company’s officer has the most knowledge and the most interest in deciding
rightly, but the Government official has the supreme power. The system has
worked—largely, I think, because the principal officers of the companies have
been trained as Government servants in one or other of the great Engineering
Corps, des Mines or des Ponts et Chaussées, But it is vicious in principle, and in
any case would not bear transplanting.

What we need is a system under which the responsibility rests, as at present,
with a single man (let us call him the general manager), and he does what he on
the whole decides to be best, subject however to this: that if he does what no
reasonable man could do, or refuses to do what any reasonable man would do,
there shall be a power behind to restrain, or, as the case may be, to compel him.
And that power may, [ think, safely be simply the Minister—let us call him the
President of the Board of Trade. For, be it observed, the question for him is not
the exceedingly difficult and complicated question, ‘ What is best to be done?’ but
the quite simple question, ‘Is the decision come to which I am asked to reverse so
obyiously wreng that no reasonable man could honestly make it?’

And eyen this comparatively simple question the President would not be
expected to decide unaided. He will need competent advisory bodies, Railway
history shows two such bodies that have been eminently successful—the Prussian
State Railway Councils and the Massachusetts Railroad Commission. Wholly
unlike in most respects, they are yet alike in this: their proceedings are public,
their conclusions are published, and those conclusions have no mandatory force
whatever. And it is to these causes that, in my judgment, their success, which is
undeniable, is mainly due, Juet me describe both bodies a little more at length.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 783

There are in Prussia a number (about ten, I think) of District Railway Councils,
and there is also one National Council; they consist of a certain number of repre-
sentative traders, manufacturers, agriculturists, and the like, together with a
certain number of Government nominees ; and the railway officials concerned take
part in their proceedings, but without votes. The Councils meet three or four
times a year, their agenda paper is prepared and circulated in advance, and all
proposed changes of general interest, whether in rates or in service, are brought
before them, from the railway side or the public side, as the case may be. The
decision of the Council is then available for information of the Minister and his
subordinates, but, as has been said, it binds nobody.

The Massachusetts Railroad Commission is a body of three persons, usually
one lawyer, one engineer, and one man of business, appointed for a term of years
by the Governor of the State. Originally the powers of this Commission were
confined to the expression of opinion. If a trade, or a locality, or indeed a single
individual, thought he was being treated badly by the Massachusetts Railroad,
he could complain to the Commission; his complaint was heard in public; the
answer of the railway company was made there and then; and thereupon the
Commissioners expressed their reasoned opinion. The system has existed now
for more than thirty years, and it is safe to say that, with negligible exceptions, if
the Commission expresses the opinion that the railroad is in the right, the applicant
accepts it; if the Commission says that the applicant has areal grievance, the
railroad promptly redresses it on the lines which the Commissioners’ opinion has
indicated. The success of the Commission in gaining the confidence of both sides
has been so great that of late years its powers have been extended, and it has
been given, for example, authority to control the issue of new capital and the
construction of new lines. But on the question with which we are specially con-
cerned here, the conduct of existing railway companies as public servants, it can
still do nothing but express an opinion; and it may be added that the Commission
itself has more than once objected to any extension of that power.

Mr. Adams, from whom I have already quoted, was the first Chairman of the
Commission. He has described their position as resting ‘on the one great social
feature which distinguishes modern civilisation from any other of which we have
a reccrd, the eventual supremacy of an enlightened public opinion.’ That public
opinion is supreme in this country, few would be found to deny; that public
opinion in railway matters is enlightened, few would care to assert. But given
the enlightened public opinion, one can hardly doubt that it will secure not
merely eventual but immediate supremacy. In truth, as Bagehot once pointed
out, a great company is of necessity timorous in confronting public opinion. It is
so large that it must have many enemies, and its business is so extended that it
offers innumerable marks to shoot at. It is much more likely to make, for
the sake of peace, concessions that ought not to be made than it is to resist a
demand that reasonable men with no personal interest in the matter publicly
declare to be such as ought rightly to be conceded.

To sum up in a sentence the lesson which I think the history we have been con-
sidering conveys, it is this: Closer connection than has hitherto existed between
the State and its railways has got to come, both in this country and in the United
States. Hitherto in Anglo-Saxon democracies neither State ownership nor
State control has been over-successful. The best success has been obtained by
relying for control, nut on the constable, but on the eventual supremacy of an
enlightened public opinion. Nearly twenty years ago, in the pages of the ‘ Economic
Journal,’ I appealed to English economists to give us a serious study of what the
Americans call the transportation problem in its broad economic and political
aspects. Since then half-a-dozen partisan works have appeared on the subject,
not one of them, in my judgment, worth the paper on which it is printed; but
not a single serious work by a trained economist. And yet such a work is to-
day needed more than ever. Let me once more appeal to some of our younger
men to come forward, stop the gap, and enlighten public opinion,

-~-

784 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Ff.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The needed Reform in the Assessment of Railways for Local Taxation,
By F. Outver Lyons, 4.4.

Protection against over-assessment is enjoyed by all ratepayers except railway
companies. The railway companies can, in common fairness, claim the same
protection against over-assessment. The ‘cumulo’ principle of assessment is
invulnerable. Details are separable from the principle; no disparagement of the
details affects the principle. What has actually happened under the ‘ parochial’
system of assessment is that the English and Welsh railways were over-assessed
in 1906 by at least 3,000,000/. sterling. Under the ‘cumulo’ method of assess-
ment the railways would have been saved in rates, say, 700,000/. per annum.
The net annual value of each railway as a whole would have been the maximum
limit of rateable value, and hence the necessary guarantee against over-assessment
would have existed. Large sums which were spent by the companies on rating
appeals would have been saved; unless total net annual value warranted an
increase in the total rateable value, any increase in the latter, made on account of
improvements at stations, would have had to be taken off elsewhere. The vital
defect in the ‘ parochial’ system overshadows all its other defects, since the total
amount of their assessment is really all that seriously concerns a railway
company. It was recommended by the Royal Commission on Local Taxation
that a central authority should be appointed who would value each railway
by the ‘cumulo’ method. The rateable value of the railways, as ascertained by
the ‘parochial’ system, is nothing better than guesswork, and there is much
uncertainty about the ‘parochial’ system. The responsibility for the existing
state of affairs rests with the companies’ rating surveyors, whose evidence before
the Royal Commission on Local Taxation was hostile to the ‘ cumulo’ principle,
and their hostility was founded on the imperfection of a detail which was of no
importance to the companies. The explanation of the attitude taken up by the
companies’ rating surveyors. ‘The essential data for assessment purposes are
not compiled by the railway companies. No responsible surveyor would contend
that the railways are not over-assessed, because definite and final proof that they are
is not obtainable from the railway returns. The chairmen of the companies have
never had the only information which would enable them to show the share-
holders the true assessment position. The author concluded by discussing the
attitude of outside interests towards the ‘cumulo’ method of assessment, the
remedy open to the railway companies, and the problem to be solved.

2. Nationalisation of Irish Railways. By J. O'Connor.

Compulsory purchase of the Irish railways by the State would only be justified
if it is clear that a substantial benefit would thereby be secured to the country
and on the terms of full compensation being made to the shareholders and stock-
holders.

If the benefit is small and uncertain, or if the shareholders were not
adequately compensated, the operation would be indefensible.

Anything less than a reduction of, say 25 per cent. in rates and fares (taken
as an average), would be merely trifling with the subject ; even that percentage
would produce little or no effect on the general prosperity of the country, and
give little aid in competition with other countries—because the distances covered
by the Irish railways are comparatively short, and the gross freights little; because
the staple products of the country are valuable in comparison with the rate;
because, as regards the general body of the traftic, the rates are paid by manufac-
turers and they fall to a large extent on imported goods; and because only the
local proportion of cross-channel rates could be affected.

Taking 25 percent., for the purpose of illustration, as representing the average
reduction of rates and fares, which might be more in one class of traffic and less

FRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F: 785
in another, it would represent a sum of 1,045,000/. on the receipts for the year
1906 to be made good by profit on purchase, by saving in working expenses, by
increased traffic, or in default by the taxpayer.

Three modes of providing payment for the shareholders and stockholders have
been proposed :—

First, cash raised on the credit of the State, presumably Imperial credit,
Second, by Imperial stock, say Consols,
Third, by guaranteed charge on the taxes of Ireland.

As regards the first—that is, cash--an Act of 1844 authorises the purchase of
all railways constructed subsequent to that date at twenty-five years’ purchase of
three years’ average net profits, with power for railways to arbitrate claims for
additional payment grounded on their prospects (which power many railways
would be likely to invoke). This in the case of the Irish railways would require
about 45,000,900/. cash—a sum which could not be raised without disturbing
the money markets to such an extent as to render any accurate calculation on its
results impracticable.

Second, as regards Consols, the transaction would be simple financially, only
requiring the issue of sufficient Consols to produce a net income of 1,647,550/. plus
some consideration for stocks on which no dividend was paid. This would leaye
no profit. Both these modes of purchase would involve the railways being con-
trolled and managed by the Treasury similarly to the telegraphs and posts.

The third mode of payment would be a railway stock charged primarily on
the net receipts of the railways and guaranteed by the rates of the country, sufficient
to produce the net income of 1,647,550/. plus a percentage for dead stocks. This
security would be inferior in capital value to the railway stocks at present on the
market ; substantial bonuses should be paid, and dead stocks must be considered,
and as a consequence the financial transaction would result in a loss instead of a

rofit.
‘ The control of the Treasury and of a Minister of State would not be popular,
and probably would not be acceptable in Ireland. Increased facilities would be
expected and would be almost impossible to obtain at the expense of the State,
and compensation for injury or loss of goods, or for personal injuries, would also
be most probably ignored,

The result would therefore be that unless a cash purchase were carried out
with extraordinarily good fortune, no part of the 1,045,000/. would be provided;
and in the other two modes of financing, the deficit would be increased instead of
diminished.

With regard to the savings, I have made careful estimates, guided by the
experience of twenty-five years of railway life. These estimates indicate that on
purchase by the State on either the first or second basis a saving in working
expenses amounting to about 73,000/. per annum could he effected, but that if the
railways were under popular control in Ireland that saving would be reduced to
about 25,000/., unless in both cases large reductions of train service and other
facilities were made which would be the reverse of the object for which the
purchase is advocated,

78,0002, or call it 100,000. in round numbers, would be 24 per cent. off the
rates and fares, a wholly inadequate and ludicrous result to justify such a project,
and even were there savings of 400,000/, per annum only 10 per cent. would be
taken off the rates and fares.

There remains, then, only increase of traflic to recoup the loss: 25 per cent.
reduction would mean that for every 100/. at present earned, 75/. would be earned
in future, ‘Taking the working expenses at 6U per cent., it would mean that 152,
or one-fifth profit, would arise on every 75/. of receipts, so that to obtain 1,647,5504.
of profit the gross receipts should be five times that amount, viz., 8,237,750/., prac-
tically double the present receipts, which for the year 1906 were 4,186,422/,, or, say,
in round numbers 8,000,000/., after deducting the odd figures for light mileage and
other savings. \

To carry the additional traffic would require additional rolling-stock, costing

1908, 35

786 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Ff,

about 3,301,312/., and also increased station and general acéorhiiodation, costing’
abont 2,000,000. more, giving about, say, 5,000,000/. new capital to be raised, which
at 4 per cent. would cost 200,000/. per annum, involving another million of traffic
receipts to cover—in all requiring traffic receipts of 9,000,000/., which is wholly
out of the question in this country.

The result is that to male even the not extravagant reduction of 25 per cent.
would involve an average taxation of over 80,000/. a year on every county in Ireland,
and as the country is already taxed beyond its financial abilities, and the contribu-
tions in aid of local taxation made out of Imperial taxation under the various Acts
of Parliament affecting the question have been pledged as security for the interest
on the advances made by the Treasury to finance the Land Act, this addition
to the taxation, if ever possible, would be extremely inopportune at the present
moment.

3. On certain Peculiar ities of Small Duties on Imports and Exports.
By Professor F. Y. Epcrwortn, D.C.L.

Mr. Bickerdike’s theory that ‘advantage is always possible in normal circum~
stances from either import or export taxation when the taxes are small enough,’ ”
can hardly be proved by verbal argument, involving, as it does, the mathematical
principle that when a variable magnitude is in the neighbourhood of a maximum,
the increment of the variable corresponding to a small finite increment of a
variable on which it is dependent is likely to be particularly small. The case
excepted by Mr. Bickerdike as very unlikely is practically impossible. The proof
of the theory is strict when there is fulfilled the condition that the collective
demand (at a price) is the sum of the amounts demanded by each individual, and
the collective supply is similarly formed, But even without this datum, the
theory is highly probable. For (1) ‘the condition may be assumed as the ‘least
arbitrary supposition’; * (2) small taxes, such as the theory mostly prescribes,
may be inadequate to overcome the friction resisting a change of scale and plan
in supply and demand; (8) failing the condition, the truth of the theory depends
on a certain coefficient having a value which it probably has. Light rather than
fruit is to be expected from the theory.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Financial Side of Irish Land Purchase.
Sy Professor C. F. Basrasiy, J/.A., LL.D.

Different problems are involved in the Land Question—political, social, and
financial—and the financial side is of growing importance. This is due to the
Act of 1903. The measure is ‘based on finance.’ Its promoters failed to recognise
the rapidity of operations and the possible changes in economic conditions, The
actual progress of Jand purchase will speedily exhaust the fund provided to meet
losses,

Suggested remedies :—

(1) Substitution (in whole or part) of stock for cash as payment to sellers
‘There are objections to this course.

(2) Issue of short-term notes instead of stock. The absence of real relief and’
financial danger by this expedient were dwelt upon.

(8) Taking up of Irish Land Stock by National Debt Commissioners, Only

! Published in the Lconomie Journal, September 1908.
2 Economic Jowrnal, vol. xvi. p. 529.
8 Bickerdike, Zvonomic Journal, vol, xvii, p. 583,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 787

slight relief would be obtainable in this way; the connection with the Sinking
Fund would be unsatisfactory.

More fundamental remedies are :—

(4) Alteration of 23 per cent. stock to 3 per cent., with corresponding increase
of purchasers’ annuities. In this case there would be a necessary loss to landlords
and tenants. The claim that the State is bound by the Act of 1903 was
examined,

(5) Transfer of the State grant from bonus fund to an insurance against loss
on issues. Objections are raised on the ground of unequal treatment and
hindrance to sales.

Possibly methods 4 and 5 might be combined.

(6) Further assistance from the British Exchequer. The unexpected magnitude
of the transaction may justify a proportional increase in financial aid. Possibly
compensation may be obtained through administrative reforms,

The land-purchase policy is closely dependent on general economic conditions.
Changes in the latter are accountable for the difficulties that have arisen.
Particular interest of Irish landlords.

Governmental action is limited by the above indicated conditions. The
special difficulties arising out of war finance were examined,

2. The Housing of the Working Classes in lrelund. By N. J. Synnorv.

The problem covers not only housing of town and country labourers, but also
that of artisans and skilled labourers in towns and of many farmers and cottiers in
the country. The deficiency of accommodation in Ireland is not due to the same
causes as was the deficiency in many English districts—e.g., increase of population
or shifting of labourcentres. The general standard of accommodation is lower than
in England, and there has not been here the same rigorous enforcement of sanitary
laws against owners or occupiers. Private effort or capital has not supplied in
Treland the deficiency of sanitary houses either in town or country.

The following public inquiries have been made: Richmond and Bessborough
Commissions (1879-1882); Select Committee on Agricultural Labourers, Ireland
(1884); Royal Commission on the Housing of the Working Classes, Ireland
(Urban Dwellings) (1885); Royal Commission on Labour (1894); Viceregal
Committee on Housing (1900). The Report of 1885 proved to be wrong in its
diagnosis by results. ‘The Report of 1894 was not acted upon in regard to
housing and sanitation.

The state of house accommodation in cities and towns in Ireland may be
gathered from the Census returns, the Reports of Assistant Commissioners in
1894, and the Local Government Board Inspectors’ Reports ; 750,0002. has been
the total amount of loans for housing, and 7,631,000/. the total amount of loans
for sanitation, water-supply, &c. The existing machinery for securing sanitation,
removing insanitary houses, and supplying new houses are the Public Health Acts,
the Housing of the Working Classes Acts, and certain local Acts. A short
analysis was made of the purview and machinery of these Acts—the aim of the
Legislature and experienee in their actual working.

It is questionable whether the Public Health Acts are suitable for Irish rural
districts or small towns and villages. Besides, they are adoptable only, and in
many districts they have not been adopted. Even where adopted they are often
a dead letter. There is no adequate system of inspection and report. The staff
is neither adequate, effective, nor independent of local influences. Proceedings
are not taken to abate nuisances or orders are not enforced. Local bodies are
inert, or do not like doing unpopular things, or increasing the rates.

The machinery of Parts I. and II. of the Housing of the Working Classes
Act is far too elaborate and expensive ; this has been found even in England. In
rural districts they seem quite unsuitable, and are a dead letter. Besides, there is

3E2

788 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F,

no practical means of compelling local bodies or officers to do their duties under
Parts I. and II. of the Acts. As to Part III. (giving power to local authorities
to build, let, and manage workmen’s houses), reasons were given to show that the
problem is much too large for local bodies to solve by construction schemes ; that
the burden on the rates would be prohibitive, and a partial attempt thus to
provide houses would deter private effort and would lead, in the end, to a further
deficiency of houses. The Bill of this Session, ‘ Housing of the Working Classes
({reland) Bill,’ was criticised. A subsidy of 190,060/. of public money is given
by the Bill. The basis of the proposal that municipalities should undertake the
task of providing cheap houses for the working classes is letting at low and
unremunerative rents. How should the gap be filled? It was argued that
the functions of local bodies should be mainly regulative and preventive—z.e.,
removal of nuisances, insanitary buildings, securing light, air, water, cleanliness,
&e., but not the construction and supply of new houses. ‘These functions
might include compulsory purchase of sites, but should otherwise be mainly dis-
housing, not housing. State aid might well, under certain conditions, be safely
given to private effort in rebuilding where sites are cleared. If these regulative
functions are to be generally used and effective, there must be a control of the
local bodies and a more thorough and eflicient inspection. Examination was
made of the principles of the new English Housing Bill—a Government measure,
not, however, applicable to Ireland (Housing and ‘Town Planning Bill, brought in
by Mr. John Burns). It was argued that the principles of that Bill might well
be adapted to Ireland.

The plan of providing houses for labourers in Ireland through local bodies,
under the Labourers Acts, however justifiable as an improvement or example,
cannot solye the whole problem, but may seriously hinder the final solution of the
main part of it. The economic and financial results of these Acts were outlined
and compared with the area of problem to be solved as illustrated by statistics.
The author dealt with the results of past working of the Labourers Acts and
the possible effect. of the new schemes proposed under the Act of 1906, specially
noticing financial consequences and the effect on the rates, and traced the
economic outcome with reference to the supply of labour and the relation
between labourer and farmer. ‘The present policy was contrasted with that
of schemes of migration and the compulsory paring down of large holdings
recently proposed. It was argued that the rational and equitable policy was to
make the employer of labour and owner of insanitary property supply proper
houses for workmen and tenant; and that the State should step in only in the
last resort. ‘The owner of insanitary property now goes free, or benefits by getting
cheap houses paid for out of the rates. The need of enforcement of the Public
Health Acts was emphasised, and also that loans should be given to the owner
or employer under certain conditions, the local kody being the intermediary, and
the rates the security to the Government for the loan. The author urged the
need for a more central system of medical inspection and for power to compel
local bodies to inspect and enforce abatement of nuisances, &c. It was contended
that the State should not embark on a policy of supplying houses out of public
mcney, unless it can supply a/7 who have equal claims. ‘

3. Lhe Depopulation of Ireland. By Ropert H. Murray, JA,

From 1801 to 1846 the population of Ireland steadily increased, while from
1847 to the present time it has just as steadily diminished. The year of the
great famine marke a dividing line in Irish history. Before 1846 the agriculture
of this country wis largely of the tillage order, while since that date it has
assumed the pastoral form.

The dominant influence in Irish industrial history for the early forty-five years
of the nineteenth century was Foster’s Corn Law. It is not perhaps an over-
statement to say that no Act so profoundly modified our history as the far-
reaching measure brought forward by Foster in 1784. Its author modelled it on

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 789°

the English corn laws as they had existed since 1688. The change from pasturage
to tillage came at a time when it proved peculiarly suitable to the requirements of
England, where the industrial revolution was making rapid strides. Consequently
the demand across the Channel for corn enormously increased, and the supply
came largely from Ireland, Wita the rise in the price of corn came the inevitable
influence in the marriage rate. In 1811 the population was 5,956,466 ; in 1821
it was 6,801,827; in 1831 it was 7,767,401: in 1841 it was 8,199,853; and in
1845-it was 8,295,061.

With the fall of prices consequent upon the conclusion of the Napoleonic
wars the hard years began to come. The tide of emigration flowed in 1826 and
1827, for the landlord attempted to consolidate the small holdings. The develop-
ment of transport coincided with the opening of the Mississippi valley, and these
changes promoted the growth of free trade in England. What gravely affected
Ireland since 1846 was not the potato famine, but the abolition of the corn laws.
A student of eighteenth-century Irish history at once perceives that Ireland
passed through many famines. The emigration statistics tell the tale of some of
the results of the change in English commercial policy.

This country flourished before 1846, but its state was entirely artificial. No
real dependence could therefore be placed on what had happened. With the
abolition of the corn laws the fictitious industrial life of the country was at once
evident. When free trade began, for a time this land did not prosper, but at last
some measure of success has been vouchsafed. To-day an Irishman feels at least
that his hardly-won industrial triumphs are all his own, that they are largely
independent of State control and State support.

4. The Reonomic Ideal and its Application to Countries or Nations.
By Professor Epwin Cannan, J/.A., LL.D.

The general economic ideal is maximum material welfare, not of course lumped
in an unintelligible aggregate, but reckoned in the ordinary way, per capita. If
this be straightway applied to countries, it will often conflict with the national or
political ideal of a population large enough for ‘security,’ and for certain other
purposes such as the maintenance of the national language and literature (if any),
but this objection may be set aside as non-economic. Even on purely economic
grounds, however, the application of this ideal to countries cannot be justified.
Countries are no longer ‘worlds in themselves.’ ‘The greater sale of goods in
international markets, coupled with easier migration and regulation of population,
is tending to wipe out international differences of earnings. Consequently
differences in material welfare as between countries is coming to depend more and
more upon the same cause as the differences between different parts of the same
country—that is, on the distribution over the globe of persons owning property and
performing the different classes of labour. Those countries are richest which
either contain the largest proportions of the persons who own considerable
portions of the property of the world, or contain the largest proportions of the
people who do the best paid classes of work. So if the ideal of the maximum
material welfare of its inhabitants be set up for each country, the most urban
countries will always appear nearest the ideal, which is absurd. A country
approaches the economic ideal just in so far as it is best utilised for the benefit of
the world community.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER &.

The following Lteport and Papers were read !—

1, Interim Report on the Amount of Gold Coinage in Circulation in the
United Kingdom.

790 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

2. International Agreements on Labour Legislation.
Ly Professor E. Francxn, Ph.D,

The question how to effect by means of international conventions a uniform
adjustment of the Jaws and regulations that are intended te serve for the protec-
tion of life, health, and morality of industrial workpeople is as old as the laws
themselves for the protection of the working-classes. Jngland was the country
of origin of both: both are connected with the name of R. Owen (1815) whose
labours were continued by the Elsass manufacturer, Dr. Legrand (1837-1859).
Representatives of science, of workmen’s organisations and statesmen encouraged
them. In 1889 the Federal Council of Switzerland issued invitations to the
governments of the industrial countries of Europe to attend a conference when
the German Emperor asked to be permitted to take the lead (Workmen’s
rescripts of February 4, 1890). In the spring of 1890 the delegates of thirteen
European countries—amongst them Germany, Great Britain, France, Austria,
and Italy—met together in order to consider the regulation of work in mines,
the observance of Sunday, and the employment of children and women, Although
general agreement was arrived at on many points, no definite treaties were
made—only wishes were expressed.

At the same time, this Conference of Berlin gave immense encouragement to
the progress of the idea of workmen’s protection. and, but for it, private initia-
tive, which now stepped in, would never haye been attended with success. In
August 1897 a workmen’s congress, held at Zurich, which was attended by
representatives of a great number of countries, demanded the establishment of
an international office for the protection of workpeople ; and a meeting of repre-
sentatives of social-politics from Belgium, Holland, France, Germany, Austria,
and Switzerland, held at Brussels in October 1897, voiced similar aspirations.
Delegates of both workmen and social politicians met together in 1900 at Paris in
order to found the International Association for the legislative protection of work-
people. The seat of this association is Basle, twelve countries as sections adhere to
it: Switzerland, Germany, Great Britain, France, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Belgium,
Holland, Denmark, Spain, and the United States of America. The governments
of almost all these countries have joined the Association—unfortunately the British
Government have not yet done so—and grant subsidies to it. Every two years the
delegates of the governments and sections meet for the purpose of discussing labour
questions—the next meeting will take place at Lucerne, September 27-30, 1908.

The Association aims at encouraging the study of labour legislation of all
countries and at preparing international diplomatic treaties connected with the
protection of workpeople. The International Office of Labour, inaugurated at
Basle in May 1901, serves both these aims, and, as a scientific central bureau,
collects material and publishes bulletins in German, French, and English ; the
office also supplies information and gives an opinion on matters laid before it.
The conference of delegates commenced in 1901 with the consideration of the pro-
hibition of industrial night-work for women, the means of combating the dangers
arising irom the use of poisons in factories, and international workmen’s insur-
ance. On the motion of the Association the Swiss Federal Council invited the
Governments of the countries of Europe in 1904 to meet in a conference which
led in 1905 and 1906 to the conclusion of two treaties containing the following
provisions :—

1. Night-work for women in factories is prohibited ; a minimum pause of two
hours during the night is fixed. Thirteen countries signed this treaty—namely,
Germany, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Spain, France, Great Britain, Italy,
Luxemburg, Holland, Portugal, Sweden, and Switzerland.

2. The use of white phosphorus in the manufacture of matches is prohibited.
Seven countries signed this treaty—namely, Germany, Denmark, France, Italy,
Luxemburg, Holland, and Switzerland. Six countries (namely, Austria, England,
Belgium, Sweden, Portugal, and Spain) held themselves aloof.

Already before these agreements, in 1904, France and Italy had concluded a
treaty—with the co-operation of the Association—allowing their workpeople to

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 791

participate mutually in the benefits of social insurance and protective regulations,
and in the promoting of labour legislation in the two countries. Various
countries (Germany, France, Belgium, Holland, Luxemburg) have come to terms
concerning individual questions of workman’s insurance, or in concluding com-
mercial treaties, and have agreed upon regulations affecting the mutual protection
of their workpeople (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy, and Switzerland). The
International Association is continuing to carry on its work. Prohibition of
night-work for youths; children’s work and the protection of children ; regulation
of home-industry; introduction of measures against dangers from the use of
poisons (lead) ; international accident insurance ; maximum length of workdays—
these are the subjects for the next conference, which, it is hoped, will move a step
forward towards the conclusion of new international treaties.

Anybody who sees in the protection of workmen of his own country an act
of obedience to the call of justice and also a necessity for the maintenance of the
health and the efficiency of the working classes, will also recognise in inter-
national treaties concerning labour legislation a furtherance of humanity and an
effective adjustment of competition. It is the interest of every civilised nation
and of every industrial country to promote the realisation of these aims,

3. Proposals for an Economie Survey of the United Kingdom.
By Henry W. Macrosty, B.A.

An economic survey of the United Kingdom is proposed, not only as a task.
useful in itself, but also as one which is a special duty of the economists, while
its execution would rescue the economic profession from its present position of
disregard. Economists are considered by a great mass of people to be not only
men of mere theory, but also theorists who have derived their beliefs from the
study of industrial conditions long past. Whether this charge is true or
false, its effects are the same. If economic theories were such as to give their
students a command over industrial conditions, their opinions would be regarded
as authoritative by statesmen and manufacturers, This is far from being the
case. In fact, the weakness of economics is that its generalisations, however true,
are so general that they are remote from the problems of everyday life, and the
two cannot be brought into any close relation with each other. It is therefore
necessary to leave theory on one side for a time and ascertain what are the facts
of the industrial world and how they have come to be what they are. This
done, it will be possible to test and complete our theories and to set forth those
subordinate generalisations which will connect them with the questions of every-
day life.

An economic survey is particularly necessary for the two new departments
of economics. Business economics, which treats of the conditions of business
success ; and social economics, which is concerned with the relations between the
individual, the trade, and the nation, The work has, indeed, been begun by
individuals, who have dealt with special problems or the condition of particular
classes; but the most essential feature of the present proposals is that any trade
which is dealt with should be treated as a whole and described and analysed in
all its parts and relations. Only then can we tell how that particular trade stands.

The survey of a trade will fall into the following main divisions—sources of
raw materials, methods of manufacture, machinery of sale, organisation, position
in the State. The sources of information are technical works, technical journals,
and journals of scientific societies, trade papers, prospectuses, company reports,
blue-books, and personal investigation. The Economic Section should appoint an
~ organising committee, which would institute advisory committees of manufacturers
to assist in obtaining the necessary information, overcoming trade jealousies, and
preventing the publication of trade secrets. The details of the investigation
would have to be worked out by the general committee, but success depends upon
securing efficient investigators and enough money, Still, to achieve a survey of
even one industry would be useful,

792 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F,

4. Industrial Evolution in the Cutlery Industry.
By G, I, H, Luoyp, M.A.

The transition from handicraft to factory organisation of industry may be con-
veniently traced in the development of the cutlery trades, especially in England and
Germany, where the trades have been mainly localised in a single town in each case,
and where a definite international parallelism can be established. The introduction
of steam-power, which is usually regarded as the turning point between the old and
tbe new types of industrial organisation, had no special significance where manual
skill retained its predominance. Just as there were factories before the steam-
engine, so there are to-day numbers of occupations in which the domestic producer
is found in possession of his special trade or process. A generation ago the cutlery
trades were for the most part semi-domestic, being principally carried on by
forgers, cutlers, and grinders, who rented their own work-places and worked on
their own tools, thus retaining to some extent the independence and the capitalistic
responsibilities of the old guild craftsman, and turning out goods in the produc-
tion of which machinery played an insignificant part. The gradual introduction
of mechanical methods as supplementary to, or as substitutes for, the almost bare-
handed skill of the old system is gradually producing the true factory type of
organisation. In fact, the factory system, though long retarded, is now making
rather rapid progress, involving a steady transition from independent master
workman to wage-worker, and the increasing prominence of the capitalist em-
ployer. The artisan has in the past clung tenaciously to his independence, but
the semi-capitalistie functions which fall on him prove a severe burden in times
of indifferent or declining trade, and he is now generally not unwilling to resign
them. The change in the status of the worker affects the power and influence
of the labour unions. These made their appearance in Sheffield early in the
eighteenth century, marking the practical exclusion of the journeymen from their
corporate rights as members of the Cutlers’ Company. During the first half of
last century they were powerfully organised, and became in some cases despotic
and even ruthless in enforcing their regulations on recalcitrant masters and men,
and earned an unenviable reputation. Though still organised on sectional lines,
they are beginning to look to federation and consolidation as necessary to main-
tain and increase their influence. The corresponding unions in Germany are
more effectively organised, the established price-lists are enforced, and elaborate
machinery for conciliation has resulted from their activity. Both in Sheffield and
in Solingen machinery has taken a firm hold of the forging process and of the
work of preparing the separate portions of a knife-handle. Even the cutler who
puts the pieces together and builds up a complete article is becoming more and
more dependent on mechanical aids, and finds his work increasingly subdivided.
Grinding remains for the most part the stronghold of simple hand industry, for,
though automatic grinding has been partially applied to grinding files and to pre-
paratory work on razors and knives, no device for the successful production of an
edge has yet appeared.

The basis of the prevailing wage rates is still the time-honoured piecework
price-lists ; but though these are not yet discarded, neither are they strictly
observed, but in most cases are subject to varying discounts. In the newer forms
of the industry there is a steady increase of time wages, but of course this cannot
apply to the considerable body of outworkers, whether grinders, file-cutters, or
cutlers. Meanwhile the ‘little master,’ employing a small team of men in a single
occupation, or giving out work in turn to those undertaking the various pro-
cesses, and then himself trading his wares away, has not disappeared, but is
numerically of less importance than formerly. In Germany the ‘little master’ is
also found, but the tendency to substitute a time wage for piecework rates is
being in the main successfully counteracted by the solid opposition of the labour
unions and also by the diffusion of electrical energy among the home workers, by
which means the necessity of concentrating in factories in order to obtain the
benefit of modern mechanical devices is obyiated. In general the tendency is for

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, 793

the increased cost of working appliances and the internal economies of a factory
where subdivision of occupations has free scope to hasten the advent of a factory
type of industrial organisation pure and simple,

5. Trade Unionism in the Tinplate Industry. By J. H. Jonns, MA.

The first association of employees in the tinplate industry was formed during
the period of rapid expansion 1870-73. In 1873 workmen demanded the uniformity
of wages at increased rates, but the time was ill-chosen, Uniformity was
obtained in the following year, but in the majority of cases at reduced rates.
There is no evidence of a continuous association before 1887, but there appears
to have been a number of temporary combinations, The first association consisted
of workers in the iron forges, tinplate rolling-mills, and the finishing departments,
Between 1883 and 1886 steel displaced iron as the raw material for tinplates,
and a cleavage followed of the steel-workers and tinplate makers. The steel~
workers formed an independent association.

The union from 1887-98 was one of tinplate millmen and workers in the
finishing departments. It was merely a wage-protective association, and its
energies were directed mainly to (1) maintaining the wages rate agreed upon in
1874; (2) preventing the introduction of new machinery; (3) restricting the
output.

Until the McKinley duty came into operation in 1891, U.S.A. was the chief
buyer of tinplates from South Wales. The loss of this market caused severe
depression for about six years, and it also resulted in a change in the character
of the product. The trade in black plate (¢.¢., untinned sheets) and sheet steel
was developed. This pressed hardly on the tinhousemen, who fought against the
working of black plate. Further to reduce cost of production, new machinery
was introduced, which displaced some labour in the tinhouse and mechanised the
Jabour of some of those not displaced. Thus there was a division of interests
between millmen and tinhousemen. Disputes were generally over the conditions
of work in the tinning mills, but the cost of them was borne mainly by those
employed in the rolling mills. Other causes of dissatisfaction at this time were—

(a) The lack of funds to fight whenever necessary. Bad administration
reduced the union to a penniless state and alienated a section of the men.

() The leaders granted reductions to individual employers, varying from
10 per cent, to 80 per cent. In this way they lost the confidence of the body of
employers.

The wage-protective association collapsed in 1898,

The millmen were convinced that an association from which tinhousemen
should be excluded was necessary. Some became members of the Steel Smelters’
Association ; the remainder, fearing to be the weaker section of a strong union,
formed the independent ‘ Tin and Sheet Millmen’s Association.’

The employees in the finishing departments joined either the National Union of
Gasworkers and General Labourers, or the Dock, Wharf, Riverside, and General
Workers’ Union. Consequently in 1899 there were four workmen’s associations
connected with the trade, where previously there had been one. In the same year
the Employers’ Association, which was formed in 1873, was reformed, and a
Conciliation Board established. his Board possessed no constitution, and there
was no provision for cases of failure of conciliation. The first task of the Board
was to establish a uniform rate of wages; and as the year was a very prosperous
one the workers’ associations found little difficulty in obtaining the ‘1874 list.’
The agreement was renewed annually, and remains in force to-day, with but
a few changes in rates paid to labourers whose tasks have varied slightly in
difficulty.

To facilitate collective bargaining, the ‘Tinplate and Sheet Millworkers’ Wages
and Disputes Board’ was formed in 1901. This Board consisted of three repre-
sentatives from each of the workmen’s societies. All grievances of the men were
to be submitted to the Disputes Board, and through the Board to the Conciliation

794 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

Board. The representatives on the Disputes Board were also the delegates on the
Conciliation Board.

For two years the Disputes Board appeared to work satisfactorily ; but in 1903
there was some friction, and again the diversity of interests of millmen and tinhouse-
men was made evident. The employers and the workmen failed to agree.on a ques-
tion affecting millmen. The masters wished to submit the dispute to arbitration, but
to this the millmen (who were in a position to strike with fair prospect of success)
were strongly opposed. The representatives of the finishing departments, who
were not directly affected, naturally favoured arbitration, and the Disputes Board
fell in with the wishes of the employers. 3

The Board of Trade appointed an arbitrator, and the case ended in a victory
for the employers.

Further, in the following year, the Disputes Board decided to enter a test case
(relating to the ‘custom’ of the trade) for trial in the High Court of Justice, the
cost to be shared by the four associations connected with the Board. Three of
the associations withdrew, and the Steel Smelters’ Union was left to fight without
financial assistance. The Steel Smelters’ Union then resigned from the Disputes
Board, which was consequently dissolved. The causes of the failure of this method
of collective bargaining may be summed up as follows :—

(1) Matters concerning the finishing departments demanded the attendance ot
millmen (and vice versa), although they were not directly affected by the results
and did not contribute to the discussion. Consequently, there was considerable
waste of time,

(2) Voting power did not vary with the interests at stake—eg., millmen
voted on questions affecting the finishing department. There was thus a lack of
responsibility: one department would generally vote in favour of arbitration on
a question affecting the other branch; they had nothing to lose by failure and
everything to gain by avoiding a strike.

(3) A list of claims was presented to the Conciliation Board by each depart-
ment. If the claims of one department, being just in the opinion of the employers,
were granted by them, the concessions were made by the representatives of the
other department the grounds for concessions. to that department, irrespective of
the nature of the claims. Thus, often the discussion did not turn on the justice
of the demands by a particular section.

Since the Disputes Board was dissolved, the employers have met the workmen
in two annual conferences—at one the millmen are represented, at the other the
workers in the finishing departments. Wages agreements are made for one year,
and agreements made with any section are operative ‘from the date upon which
an arrangement is completed with the other sections of the trade.’

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
Joint Meeting with the Agricultural Sub-Section.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Social Aspects of Agricultural Co-operation.
By J. Granam Brooks, WA.

The social reactions of this form of co-operation are illustrated hy (a) the
lengthening of the labour-time during the year, and by the greater variety of
things grown and by-products created—thus helping in the problem of unemploy-
ment; (4) the putting of the whole farming class to school; elementary science in
many forms must be applied every day in the week; (c) helping to overcome the
distrust of the well-equipped and competent man. This new confidence in the
trained man is already beginning to show itself in the political field. It is
actually producing a better type of clergyman and schoolmaster. (d) It is
not only unifying interests, but is destroying the theory of necessary class con-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 795

flicts, as presented by extreme Socialists; (¢) it is throwing new light on the
whole question of land-ownership and the social relations of this issue; (/f) it
has brought to the front the whole body of human and social interests, in such a
way that they can now be dealt with far more safely ; as illustrated by the various
forms of insurance, and the popularising of higher sanitary standards for the house
and school.

2. The Psychological Aspect of Agrarian Reform in Ireland.
By Morirz Jutius Bonn, Ph.D.

During the last twenty-seven years a thoroughgoing agrarian reform has taken
lace in Ireland. A radical system of fixing rents was created and supplemented
ya very effective machinery for converting tenants into peasant proprietors.

Have these reforms effected any of the great changes expected in Irish life ?

(a) A statistical inquiry to-day shows a certain amount of progress. Irish
live-stock, for example, has somewhat increased in numbers.

(6) Irish agriculture, as contrasted with pastoral industries, shows a steady
decline.

(c) The development of live-stock and agriculture is practically the same
in those districts where purchase of holdings has been carried out on a large
scale as in those where it has scarcely taken place. The period 1881-1896, when
prices were bad and reform was only started, does not differ very much in results
from the period 1896-1907, when depression was slowly ceasing and reform was
fairly advanced.

(d) The character of Irish farming as mainly a pastoral industry has been
mentioned. Though tillage and mixed farming are considered profitable by
experts, the change in ownership has not induced people to change the ways of
production.

(e) Agrarian reform has brought about a considerable remission of the people’s
burdens. The income thus made available has been spent on a general rise of the
standard of living. It has not been made an excuse for diminishing efforts in
production, inasmuch as the country’s agricultural output has not decreased. The
energy of the people has not been sapped by it; but, on the other hand, there is
no evidence that the great chances now within the grasp of the Irish farmer have
had much influence on his qualities as a producer.

3. The Productivity of English Agriculturists.
By Professor James Witson, J.A., B.Sc.

In 1696 Gregory King estimated the population of England and Wales at
5,500,000, and the areas under crop and pasture at 9,000,000 and 12,000,000
acres. Assuming that from 70 to 80 per cent. of the population was engaged in
agriculture, and that a fourth of that number was operative as agriculturists, then
there were about 1,000,000 agriculturists—farmers and workmen and their elder
children—in the country.

King’s estimates of crop and pasture were too high. Allowing for that, there
were about eight acres of arable land and ten acres of pasture and meadow to each
agriculturist.

Reducing all the grain to wheat, and remembering that the bulk of the arable

* land carried a crop only two years in three, and the rest of it only four or five

years in eight or ten, then the average annual yield was not more than 8 bushels
an acre.

In the same way, reducing all the pasture and meadow to milk, and remem-
bering that a cow gave only from 200 to 300 gallons a year, and that,even though
assisted by straw from the tillage land, three acres of meadow and pasture,
unimproved as they were, would barely maintain her, then the annual yield of
milk from an acre of meadow and pasture combined was not more than 80 gallons,

796 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F,

_ This, from his eight acres of arable land and ten acres of pasture aiid meadow
the English agriculturist of two hundred years ago produced about 64 bushels
of wheat and 800 gallons of milk. His successor to-day works on the average
about 13°64 acres of tillage and 15°63 of pasture and meadow. and from these
he produces not less than 400 bushels of wheat and 4,000 gallons of milk.

On well-organised, fully capitalised, and well-managed farms such as are
cotimonest in the east of England the productivity of the agriculturist is still
higher—probably not less than 50 per cent. higher.

Taking the average: since the agriculturist of to-day produces four or five
times as much from an acre, and works 30 acres instead of 20, he is equal to six
or eight of his predecessors of two hundred years ago. At the best: since he pro-
duces five or six times as much an acre and works from 40 to 50 acres instead of
20, he is equal to over twelve of his predecessors,

This change has been brought about by improvements, chiefly in agricultural
knowledge and methods, in organisation, and in machinery and transport.

The above has a bearing upon the following questions, among others: rural
migration and depopulation, large and small holdings, agricultural education and
organisation,

4. Economic and Statistical Investigation im Agriculture.
By W.G.S. Apams, A.

Some developments in agricultural statistics and economics were considered,
and a plea made for their study and investigation at the universities of the
United Kingdom,

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.

Discussion on Instruction in Universities as uw Preparation for Commerce
and Business Life.

SUB-SECTION OF AGRICULTURE.

CHATRMAN—Right Hon. Sir Horace Prun«rrr, K.C.V.0., F.RS.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 38.
The Chairman delivered the following Address :—

Scipench AND THE PropLemM OF RuRAL LIFE.
The Aim of the Address.

Wr have only to glance at the list of papers on our programme and of their
authors to realise that our papers need be neither dull nor unimportant. It is
true that our official title, ‘Sub-Section ‘ Agriculture ” of Section “ Economic
Science and Statistics,”’ is not inspiring. Even practical agriculturists may not
see here much more than a place where the talk, if it be a little above our bucolic
heads, will at least be concerned mainly with our business. Yet I am sanguine
eriough to hope that from the growing—if somewhat belated-—recognition of our
subject there arises the prospect of a notable contribution by the British Association
to a neglected side of human progress,

CHAIRMAN’S ADDRESS. 797

Tn future years this Chair will be more properly filled by one competent to
survey and appreciate, theoretically and practically, the past year’s additions to
knowledge within the province of our inquiries. But the Council have decided
that this opening Address should be delivered, not by a man of science, but by a
man of affairs. As such I shall address you; but, even in that capacity, I am
conscious of serious limitations. My nearest approach to practical agriculture
was a decade of cattle ranching in the Western States of America. There I
learned much more about men than about cattle. I have been since then, for
now some twenty years, in the public life of the country whose capital has been
chosen for the honour and privilege of receiving the Association. These years
have been spent mainly in organising voluntary effort among farmers, but, by the
accident of politics, | was for over seven years responsible for the administration
of the newly established Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction
for Ireland, an institution which has justified its existence, even if only, as public
men have told us, since I left it. Its most important work consisted in the
application of science to agriculture and the allied industries, mainly through
education. My way of life has thus brought me into close touch with the
conditions, human and material, which it will be the aim of our Sub-Section
to improve.

These personal details, introduced in order to justify an Address upon the
relations between a sphere of thought in which I am a comparative stranger and
a sphere of action where I have no record of practical work, will also, I hope,
serve to make clear the point of view from which I approach my subject. My
definite purpose will be to establish the claim of agriculture to a wholly new
position in the domain of science, and the claim of science to a more intelligent
regard for those who, for the most part unconsciously, apply its teachings to their
industry. The considerations to be submitted in support of this claim will be
primarily neither scientific nor practical, but political. I need hardly say that I
use the term in the only sense proper to the subject and the occasion; I speak as
a citizen upon a problem—as I think, a neglected problem—affecting the well-
being of that portion of the population which still follows the patriarchal calling,
the oldest and most honourable field of human effort,

Past Neglect and Present Urgency of the Problem.

In some notes written two and a half years ago, at the request of an American
statesman, upon the problem of rural life in the United States, I sought to
account for the fact that a subject of such obvious and fundamental importance
occupies so small a space in the public mind. ‘ Public opinion,’ I wrote, ‘is
a town-made thing, and among Western nations the progress of civilisation
has riveted men’s thoughts upon the great centres of industry and commerce,
where the most startling changes have taken place. The dweller in the modern
city not unnaturally believes that the many and varied improvements recently
effected in its conditions have fully counteracted the apprehended evils of con-
centration. He is confident that the rapid and cheap transit facilities which
enable the industrial and commercial classes to live in ever-widening suburbs will
realise the ideal of rus in urbe. What with improved sanitation and physical
culture on the one hand and the multiplication of movements for intellectual
advancement and social betterment on the other, the townsman of the future is
expected to unite the physical health and longevity of the Boeotian with the
mental superiority of the Athenian.’ I have quoted this passage verbatim because,
though I could paraphrase it, I could not condense it. For the same reason I ask
leave to quote just one other brief passage in which I suggested an important
omission in the reasoning upon which the townsman’s optimism seemed to be
based, and pointed a moral. ‘It does not appear, I wrote, ‘to have been
sufficiently considered how far the ethical and physical health of the modern city
has been due to the constant influx of fresh blood from the country. At present

- the town makes an irresistible appeal to the spirit of enterprise, to the growing

craving for excitement, to the desire to live where there is most life, But, sooner

798 TRANSACTIONS OF SUB-SECTION F.

or later, if the balance of trade in this human traffic be not adjusted, the raw
material, out of which urban society is made, will be seriously deteriorated ; and
the national degeneracy will be properly charged against those who failed to
foresee the evil and treat the cause.’

Since these words were written the impression they reflect has been deepening
in many minds, and the problem of rural life seems to be more than ever clamant
for solution. The city, in the pride of its conscious fascinations, captures in-
creasingly the best element of the country for its service, and this determination
of blood to the head becomes more and more a threatening symptom in our
national life. The consultant physicians are still the big men of the towns ; some
of them, it is true, are prescribing urbs in rwre in place of the older ideal, rus in
urbe. We hear much—we even see something—of the Garden City, but for any
broad and philosophic treatment of the economic and social conditions of the
open country we have still to wait,

Public Interest in Rural Life.

Although our problem has not yet received the proper attention at the hands of
the sciences, its urgency is growing in the public mind and stirring the centres of
government. If the British Association were to take action upon my appeal,
they would be responding to the call of an awakened civic conscience. Physical
degeneracy and the harassing prospect of unemployment in the towns—a prospect
that soon every nation will have a huge derelict population, not merely unem-
ployed but unemployable—have forced the problem of rural life over the
threshold—aye, into the very forefront of practical politics.

The King’s Speech at the opening of the present Parliament foreshadowed
legislation ‘by which a larger number of the population may be attracted to and
retained on the land,’ and measures framed upon an interesting diversity of
principle have marked the stage of economic thought reached by our public life.
Already President Roosevelt had, in more than one Annual Message to Congress,
urged the necessity of improving, by every available means, the condition of that
section (estimated by him to be nearly one half) of the population who ‘ devote
their energies to growing things from the soil.’ Nor has the great advocate and
exponent of the strenuous life been content to wait until the play of political
forces had produced a situation where the national problem he was determined to
elucidate could be treated on its merits. Within the last month he has appointed
a small Commission combining ideally in its five members the sciences most closely
related to agriculture, rural education, the organisation of voluntary effort in social
service, the highest kind of economic journalism, and that rare quality of admini-
strative capacity that understands the limits of the respective spheres of State
assistance and private initiative in practical affairs. The Commission are to survey
the whole field of rural social economy ; to review the existing agencies, voluntary
and official, available for its betterment; and to suggest what action may legiti-
mately be taken by the Government for the co-ordination of their several activities.
They are to report to the President in time to enable him, while in office, to send
a Special Message to Congress. If President Roosevelt adds to his stupendous
policy for the conservation of the natural resources of the United States a scheme
tor developing those latent resources which it is the highest statesmanship to
discover in the mind and character of the society of his day, it will be a fit ending
to a great administration.

The real significance of this new departure—the definite governmental recogni-
tion that rural progress isa matter of national concern—is to be found in the cireum-
stances of the country to which it relates. My own studies of the problem have
been made chiefly in Ireland, Great Britain, and North America. To us Irish the
problem is obviously one of paramount importance: its neglect means national
decay. In Great Britain, although the neglect may be more easily explained and
excused, it should, in my judgment, now be repaired. But in the United States,
where, speaking generally, there is neither agricultural depression nor rural
depopulation, it is doubtful whether any less far-seeing statesman than President

EEE EEE

a i i i i a

CHAIRMAN’S ADDRESS. 799

Roosevelt would have recognised the existence of the problem, much less have
insisted upon its urgency. In my view the wide dissimilarity in the external
conditions here and in the United States should bring into strong relief the human
factor of the problem. It is the part of the statesman and the philosopher to see
that this factor, neglected by the specialist, is given its proper place,

The British Association and Rural Life.

I pass now from the region of high politics, where national prob!ems must be
placed in their true perspective in order that their relative importance may be
determined, and turn to the bearing of the sciences, within the scope of the
British Association, upon the problems of rural life. And here let me say
emphatically that while I speak as a politician, because I am discussing a vitally
important national issue which politics will ultimately decide, the cause I have at
heart is the enhancement of the influence of science upon the affairs of State.

Now this influence of the British Association must, it seems to me, depend,
not upon its highest achievements in the region of pure science, but upon the
degree in which it establishes and maintains a mutually helpful relationship
between science and productive effort. To the man in the country lane, even
more than to the man in the street, science unapplied is soul without body—only
less negligible than the more common phenomenon of body without soul, And if
there be nothing sordid in the suggestion, may J point out that until the coming
of the ideal state those who devote their lives to research must be maintained by
those who make use of, and profit by, their discoveries? It is no longer necessary
for the master of great thoughts to find a patron before he can get a public; but
it were well to remember that while Demos pays Literature and Art for instruction
and amusement, he exacts of Science an increase of wealth and comfort. In the
town these conditions are fulfilled; in the country they have yet to be supplied.

The Three Sides of Rural Life.

Those of us who are working upon the problem of rural life in Ireland adopt
a tough formula to indicate the threefold character of the constructive work
which is needed for a complete solution. Better farming, better business, better
living, we say, covers the ground, For farming clearly has three sides: the first
dealing with the cultivation of the soil, the breeding and feeding of stock; the
second, with the principles of farm management, its finance, and the economy of
agricultural production and distribution; and the third, with the social life of the
agricultural classes. In each of these three divisions we can have most helpful
relations with the sciences: in the first, with the natural sciences; in the second
and third, with economic, in which I include social, science; and in all three,
with educational science. I now proceed to consider the three departments of
rural life and work, and the demands they make on the several sciences and the
sections embracing them.

(1) The Natural Setences antl Agriculture. .

In the first of my three divisions—better farming—we have to consider the
relations between science and practice in agriculture so far as they are affected by
the work of the British Association generally and of our Sub-Section in particular.
Let me call you back seventy years to the meeting of 1838, when the British
Association obtained from Liebig his epoch-making report upon the application
of chemistry to agriculture. At approximately the same time the Rothamsted
experiments—the one continuous organisation for the advancement of agricultural
knowledge the United Kingdom has to show, and the largest individual con-
tribution to such knowledge—were initiated. These two events are evidence of
the comparatively larger part agriculture played in national life and thought then
than it does now. Up to this time it is doubtful if agriculture had made any
substantia) advance since the time of the Romans. The work of Liebig, Gilbert,
and Lawes in one direction only—the feeding of the plant—has resulted in the

800 TRANSACTIONS OF SUB-SECTION Ff.

use of fertilisers drawn from either fossil deposits or manufacturing waste-product3
that has brought up the yield of our crops to an entirely new level. Lawes
reports that the average crop of wheat in his district at the beginning of his
experiments was about twenty bushels per acre; to-day it is over thirty bushels.
Of course it is not fertilisers only that have done this. Scientific method has also
been applied to the machines which cultivate the soil, to the breeds of plants
crowing there, and to the eradication of the diseases from which they suffer.

I do not suggest that agriculture has not shared in the benefits with which
science, physical and social, has richly endowed the whole field of industrial
effort, urban and rural. But when allis said, there is surely a marked disparity
between the attention given to urban and to rural affairs by those engaged in
the application of science to the material and social advancement of mankind.
In the sphere of the physical sciences a great gulf no doubt separates the
agriculture of Virgil from that of Sir John Lawes; but how insignificant it
is beside the ocean of knowledge which stretches between Archimedes and Lord
Kelvin.

It is not, however, with the knowledge itself, of the nature and amount of
which I have but the haziest conception, that I am here concerned. I am quite
certain that the British Association—I might say this audience —is in possession
of knowledge which, if applied, would enormously add to the agricultural wealth
of all countries, especially my own. The work of the moment, by far the most
important work of our Sub-Section, relates to the diffusion of this knowledge.
This end is to be attained in two ways—by an improvement in the means of
translating the research work of the field and laboratory into the workaday
experience of the farmer and by a co-ordination of the work done for the
advancement of the industry with that which seeks to improve the economic and
social character of those who are making their living out of the soil. Deficient
as is the provision for research in agriculture in this country, the working farmer
is still very far from utilising all the knowledge which science has already put at
his disposal. The intellectual apathy which the governing class displays towards
the acquisition of new knowledge is reflected in the neglect the farmer shows in
learning what has already been acquired. But, although I have every confidence
in their source, 1 admit that these views are second-hand, I shall be more at
home in the region of the other sciences which are concerned with the human as
distinct from the material conditions.

(2) Economic Science and the Business of Farming.

Coming then to the second factor in our problem—as I have presented it—let
us consider for a moment the business of farming in its relation to economic
science. A story—founded, I have good reason to believe, on fact—will serve
better than any arguments I could use to show the necessity of paying due regard
to the commercial as well as to the technical aspects of agricultural problems.
Some of Liebig’s pupils, fresh from the laboratory and the world of abstract
thought, set out to make a new conquest in the world of fact. They procured a
fine tract of land in the Argentine, upon which they applied all the latest dis-
coveries of agricultural chemistry. A large capital and a wealth of new know-
ledge were expended in restoring the fertility of the land, and the land, no
doubt, responded to the treatment. But the money, without the science, would
have sufficed to purchase fresh tracts of virgin soil; and thus, while the harvest
of these uneconomic laboratory men brought credit to their mastery of scientific
truth, it did not save their credit in the bank—aud they were sold up.

From my own observation and experience I should say that farmers are more
backward in their business than in their technical methods. I am convinced that
there is no more important work at the moment than to stimulate economic
thought in the country in order to give the rural population an intelligent interest
in its own problems. My administrative experience on this point is pertinent.
In the Irish Department, which was concerned with the advancement of rural
life, it was our constant aim, while retaining central supervision, to delegate the
administration of the local work more and more to local representative bodies.

CHAIRMAN’S ADDRESS. 801

What handicapped us and them most severely in comparison with siriila® bodies
engaged upon similar work in other countries was the lack of business organisation
among farmers. I have no hesitation in laying it down as a fundamental prin-
ciple of agricultural development that organisation for business purposes is an
essential condition of a demand for technical advice, and of a willingness and
capacity to apply it. This brings me to what is, perhaps, the most important of
all agencies in rural progress. I refer to agricultural] co-operation.

It is in regard to the organisation of industry that the modern city has made
its greatest advance as compared with the country. It should be remembered
that the problem of rural life is a product of the industrial revolution which
deprived the open country of all its economic activities, except the production of
food for the sustenance of the urban population, and of raw material for its manu-
factures. This inevitably had a narrowing and depressing effect upon rural society.
I know farming communities in the most fertile portions of the United States
where it is the settled practice of the up-to-date paterfamilias to send his hopefuls
to the city and keep the fool on the farm. In the economic changes consequent
upon the industrial revolution the organisation of the commerce and industry of
the towns proceeded apace. The circumstances of farm life did not lend them-
selves to any similar process. At the same time, the increased demand for
agricultural produce in bulk of uniform quality urgently called for the organisation
ot farmers if they were to compete in the world-market. To supply such a need
the co-operative system has been adopted by European farmers wherever education
is so related to the life of a people that economic thought is developed. In these
islands the work of organising farmers, of giving the country a co-operative system
which is the counterpart of the joint-stock system of the towns, has to be left to
agricultural organisation societies constituted for the special purpose of inducing
farmers to do here what elsewhere they do spontaneously.

Now the point I wish to emphasise is that agricultural co-operation has a far
higher aim, purpose, and justification than is to be found in the immediate and
obvious business advantage of joint action in the purchase of requirements, sale of
produce, mutual credit and insurance, and the well-known forms of combination
for productive purposes. If the economists would realise that those who are
organising farmers with the primary purpose of giving them some chance of
placing rural life upon a permanent basis of comfort are in reality making for a
much larger end, they would deyote a little more attention to those who are
engaged in this work, and who are in a position to give practical effect to any
addition that they may make to the available supply of economic thought.

(3) Social and Educational Science in Rural Life.

I take now the third part of the threefold division of the social service under
review, better living. There cc-operation is as necessary as it is in the diffusion
of technical knowledge. People who are brought together for mutual advantage
in the business of their lives are easily induced to apply their organisation for
purposes of mutual social and intellectual improvement. The complete recon-
struction of the social life of rural communities is as urgent as the reorganisation
of their business,

Before leaving agricultural co-operation, its primary purpose and incidental
effects, I would like to say a word upon its bearing on the small holdings question.
Everybody admits that agricultural co-operation is beneficial in inverse proportion
to the economic standing of the farmer, and that the isolated small holder will
have a very doubtful prospect to face. Yet neither in Great Britain, where small
holdings are being multiplied, nor in Ireland, where the people are on the land,
but where vast numbers of them have to be resettled on new holdings, has nearly
sufficient thought been given to this aspect of the question. It is a matter of
immense importance to consider whether the family should be the unit in our
schemes for reconstituting our rural sccial economy, or whether it would not be
sounder to treat communities as units; otherwise, no matter how we preach
co-operation, it may not be practised. I cannot, of course, pursue the subject
further, but I suggest to the economists that they would find here a rich field

1908, 3F

802 TRANSACTIONS OF SUB-SECTION Ff,

for research. I know what Ireland suffers from is the delusion that the solution
of the rural problem is to be found in the magic words ‘an economic holding.’
What we should try to develop is an economic system and the economic man to
work it.

There is one more factor in rural reconstruction which, though I have kept
it to the last, is unquestionably the most important—that is, rural education.
Here, again, a vast subject must be despatched with the fewest number of words
which will suffice to indicate those of its aspects which bear upon our problem.

Up to a certain point the education of the rural school is, im its essence, iden-
tical with city education. The character of the child has to be built up and its
mind stored with a certain number of necessary facts which nature curiously
enables us to assimilate much more easily when they are of no use to_us than
when we want to apply them to practical life. But the point of divergence be-
tween town and country education appears to me to be reached when the course
of study has regard to the mental outlook, ;

There are two human attributes to which the city appeals irresistibly, quite
apart from the better opportunity it affords of material advancement—the gre-
garious instinct and the love of excitement. Improved locomotion and means for
communicating thought from eye to eye and from ear to ear, the organisation of
social functions in rural centres, and lectures illustrated by the moving life of the
cinematograph—to take the latest addition to the mechanical aids to exposition—
will all help. But their influence may he centripetal with some, centrifugal with
others. No conceivable devices by which the country may gain some share of the
enjoyment of the town can destroy the lure of the city. ‘The farmer’s calling is
one of constant and unremitting toil. No process of evolution will evolve a cow
which will consent to do without milking on Sunday. A modest standard of
physical comfort, devoid of all expensive luxuries, must continue to be the lot of
the tillers of the soil. The one way to offset the townward tendency is to revolu-
tionise the mental outlook of the rural population, to concentrate it upon the
open country,

How this is to be done it is for those who lead thought in educational science
to say. All I can do is to define the need as I see it. We want two changes in
the rural mind. The physical environment of the farmer is replete with interest to
the followers of almost every branch of natural science. That interest must be
communicated to the agricultural classes according to their capabilities. ‘Nature
study,’ I believe, is the latest term of the pedagogues for the revelation of the
simple natural processes; but to make those processes interesting to the child
you must first make them interesting to the teacher. The second change in the
outlook relates to the spiritual rather than to the utilitarian side of education.
Somehow or other, that intimacy with and affection for Nature to which Words-
worth has given the highest expression must be engendered in the mind of rural
youth. In this way only will the countryman come to realise the beauty of the
life about him, as through the teaching of science he will come to realise its
truth,

The Birth, Death, and Reincarnation of the Agricultural Sub-Section.

I have now described in broad outline the problem of rural life as it presents
itself to my mind. I have drawn attention to, and tried to account for, the
failure of public opinion to recognise the gravity of the conditions out of which
the problem arises. Coming to the immediate concern of our Sub-Section, I have
argued that it will require a co-relation of all the sciences embraced by the British
Association to give even the hope of a satisfactory solution. I cannot conclude
without pointing out the treatment our subject has received since the Association
gave to it a distinctive—if a subordinate—position in its deliberations.

At Cambridge, four years ago, Dr. Somerville, in his inaugural Address,
expressed the thanks of those present to the British Association ‘ for the encourage-
ment and stimulus which are associated with the formation of an agricultural
Sub-Section.’ The gratitude in this case was for fayours not to come, My diss

a

CHAIRMAN’S ADDRESS, 893

tinguished predecessor, I can well imagine, saw in this union of science and
ractice, within the sphere of his life’s work, an invitation to a veritable marriage
east. He had reason to hope that if, in the humble seat allotted to us, we acted
well our part, the masters of the feast would have said to our Sub-Section, ‘ Friend,
go vv higher.’
ow far that hope has been fulfilled may be best judged by the brief,
uneventful history of our Sub-Section, which is easily told. The records show
that after our birth, at an ancient seat of learning in 1904, we were put out to
nurse in Section K—Botany. We do not appear to have survived the following
winter, but our ghost seems to have haunted Section B—Chemistry—for the three
succeeding years. After this unnatural treatment by the natural sciences we are
to-day reincarnated and left on the doorstep of Section F, where I hope some
humanised supplement to the separated milk of statistics will be found for our
sustenance. 1 suppose if we get beyond a second childhood we shall be sent to
school in Section L—Education. I shall then feel that my idols, Gilbert and
Lawes, have been shattered; that Gilbert and Sullivan reign in their stead.

When I mastered the history of the Sub-Section over which I was to preside
I thought it well before preparing my Address to seek advice from the members
of the British Association who could speak with authority as to the position which
I might claim for our subject in the future. I was dragged in two opposite
directions. Some, fearing no doubt the fissiparous tendencies attributed to Irish
public men by those who do not understand the catholicity of our sympathies,
vehemently deprecated my suggesting the creation of yet another Section. Others,
whose loyalty to the Association was only exceeded by their interest in agriculture,
pressed upon me that the time had come for placing us in an independent position,
where we could draw from and contribute to all the Sections as our growth
demands. It may be said that agriculture is not a science, but neither is
engineering. Indeed, I can find no reason why engineering should enjoy the
dignity of a Section and agriculture be restricted to a Sub-Section, unless it is
to be found in the subordination of rural to urban interests. I know well the
inconvenience of what we in Ireland call a long weak family, but I thought the
experiment of solvitur ambulando had been sufficiently tried upon the corpus vile
of our Sub-Section.

Tn all the circumstances a new Section for Agriculture seems to be indicated.
The public advantage of thus recognising the reality and urgency of the rural
problem, the popular influence which the British Association would command by
bringing the sciences to its solution, appear to me to outweigh objections based
upon the ideals of symmetry and logical division in the central body to which our
Sub-Section is so indeterminately attached.

The Appeal of Agriculture to Science.

Although the subject I have chosen for my Address is unquestionably ot
greater importance to Ireland than to any other portion of the Empire, I hope the
arguments I have placed before you are of no insular character. At any rate the
problem is not insular, it is co-extensive with our civilisation, And, speaking for
the unscientific, I submit that it should not be hastily assumed that we whose lite
work compels us to have chief regard to material considerations and the country
side of things fail in our appreciation of those who devote their life to pure
science. I know in my own case how deeply impressed I was by the thought of
a contemporary philosopher in closest touch with large affairs, which appears to
me to strike a true, a hopeful, and, I may add, an extraordinarily interesting note.
Mr. Arthur Balfour, one of your former Presidents, has recently suggested that
familiarity with the truths, wholly apart from the physical enjoyment of the
achievements of science, might constitute a new fact of happy augury for our
modern civilisation. It might counteract tendencies through which preceding
empires, after they had arrived at a stage very similar to that which we occup
to-day, hastened to their decline and fall. The most calamitous national downfall
which history records—that of the Roman Empire—finds its commonest, if not
its complete, explanation in the neglect of the country by the town. Is there not

3 F2

504 TRANSACTIONS OF SUB-SECTION F.

something analogous to this neglect in the modern Empire of Science? Whatever
answer be made to this question, I feel that, in the interests of our national
progress, I am justified in the appeal I make that, before modern civilisation goes
too far down the road of the rural exodus, the British Association should take
science and practice hand in hand and call it back,

ee

The following Papers were then read :—

1. Irish Soil Maps, Sy Professor Grenvitie Coxe, 2.G.S.

2. Electricity in Agriculture. By Sir Ottver Lopar, F.R.S.

It has been found by large scale experiments on a farm near Evesham, as well
as by other previous experimenters, that a discharge of positive electricity into the
air above growing plants stimulates and increases their growth; especially when
the sun is not too strong or the soil too dry. In this latter case it may over-
stimulate them. The reason for this action of electricity requires investigation.

The experiments have been carried out by Mr. J. E. Newman and Mr. Lionel
Lodge on the farm of Mr. R. Bomford, of Bevington Hall, Evesham, and at the
nursery garden of Mr, G, R. Newman, at Bitton, near Bristol.

3. Agricultural Education. By J. R. Camppety, B.Sc.

It is not perhaps well known that there was an agricultural school in Ireland
as early as 1826, ‘Those interested in this early venture will find an account of it
in Thackeray’s ‘Irish Sketch-book.’ The school was established by private sub-
scription, and was self-supporting for nearly twenty-five years. In 1858 the
Commissioners of National Education began their system of agricultural instruc-
tion, which they continued up to the creation of the Department of Agriculture
and Technical Instruction in 1900, The Commissioners started by giving lectures
on agriculture to teachers in training. It was as a demonstration farm in con-
nection with such lessons that the present Albert Agricultural College, Glasnevin,
was founded in the same year, 1838. The lectures were intended to qualify
elementary schoolmasters to give instruction in agricultural science, while
the college farm and its gardens were used to teach them to cultivate educational
gardens and small farms attached to national schools. Later, about twenty
agricultural schools were established in various parts of the country by the
Commissioners, at which provision was made for resident students. These served
at the same time as training centres for pupil-teachers and headmasters living in
the vicinity. The Commissioners aided other schools established by private
influence, and offered inducements to Poor Law Guardians to provide agricultural
education in workhouse schools.

In 1900, when the Department of Agriculture was established and charged
with the duty of providing agricultural education in Ireland, all that remained of
the provision made by the Commissioners were two institutions—one the Albert
Agricultural College, Glasnevin, and the other the Munster Institute, Cork,
After a study of the situation in 1900, the Department of Agriculture and
Technical Instruction decided on the following policy :—

1. To provide at one central institution the highest form of technical educa-
tion for the training of men who are to become teachers and specialists in
agriculture. This has been done at the Royal College of Science in connection
with the farm and college at Glasnevin.

2. To provide at least one high-class agricultural college which would form a
stepping-stone to men desirous of entering the Royal College of Science, as well

TRANSACTIONS OF SUB-SECTION F. 805

as men, the sons of well-to-do farmers, who wish for an education to enable them
to manage their own farms, and men who desire to become creamery managers,
or who wish to have a special training to fit them as horticultural or poultry
experts, stewards, land agents, or other occupations in connection with agri-
culture. This has been done at the Albert Agricultural College, Glasnevin.

3. To provide provincial institutions at which young men who can be spared
from the farm for one year can be taken in as apprentices, taught agriculture,
both practical and technical, at a fee proportionate to their means. This work,
which had to be delayed until teachers were trained, is now in progress at three
such institutions, and the provision of others is in contemplation.

4. To provide winter schools of agriculture where the sons of farmers could
obtain technical training at small expense during the winter months, when they
can best be spared from farm-work. About thirty such schools were in existence
last winter in twelve counties where progress had previously been made with
itinerant instruction. ;

5. To provide one central higher institution fur the training of women in the
domestic economy of the farmhouse, and in work which falls to the lot of women
to perform in connection with the farmyard, as, for example, dairying and poultry-
keeping. This provision has been made at the Munster Institute, Cork.

6. To provide for young women education in domestic economy and farmyard
lore at residential and day schools. This has been done at eight institutions,
while the equipment of others is under consideration.

”, To provide in each county, by a system of itinerant instruction in agri-
culture, horticulture, dairying, poultry-keeping, and bee-keeping, instruction and
advice for farmers and their wives, sons, and daughters who cannot avail them-
selves of other means of acquiring information.

8, Finally, in the application of all forms of State aid to make the schemes
of an educational character, and not to allow such aid to assume the nature of a
direct subsidy.

Thus the Department have laid the basis of a graduated system of agricultural
education by means of which the youth who is inspired by the work of the
itinerant instructor may be able to obtain education in the local winter school of
acriculture, from which he may graduate to the provincial agricultural school,
thence to the Albert Agricultural College, or the Royal College of Science,
according to his circumstances and his education.

Prior to about 1890 agricultural education in Great Britain was maintained
for the most part out of private funds, and was directed by leading agriculturists.
Since that date it has been supported by the State, and has claimed more attention
from recognised educational authorities.

In Scotland this form of State aid is administered by the educational autho-
rity, as was formerly the case in Ireland, while in England it is administered by
the agricultural authority, as is now the case in this country.

Thus there have been three sets of administrators engaged on this important
work, viz. (1) agriculturists themselves; (2) the State education authority; and
(3) the State agricultural authority.

The author referred to the methods and procedure, as well as to the results
obtained by these three bodies, and deduced therefrom the lines which future
action should follow. Special reference was made to proposals for instruction to
boys attending elementary schools,

4, Agricultural Education for Business and for Knowledge.
By Dr. Carro~tt DUNHAM.

806 TRANSACTIONS OF SUB-SECTION F

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Discussion on Breeding and the Relation of Modern Theories of
Heredity to the Problems of the Stock Raiser,

(i) The Application of the Mendelian Theory to Practical Problems.
Ly Professor W. Bareson, F.R.S.

(ii) Haperimental Breeding Farms. By W. Hearn, I.R.S.

(ili) Mendelism and the Elucidation of Live-stock History.
Ly Professor J. Witson.

2. Some Irish Experiments on Warble-flies.
By Professor Gro. H. Carprnver, B.Sc., ILRTLA.

For the past four years experiments have been carried on by the Irish
Department of Agriculture as to the life-history of the warble-flies and the effect
of the commonly accepted means for checking their attacks on cattle. In January
of this year a first report of these experiments was published in the Department
‘Journal’ by the writer and Mr. J. W. Steen. The experiments were for the
most part carried on at Ballyhaise, co. Cavan,

The most important practical result of the experiments has been to show the
uselessness of dressing cattle either with carbolic ‘dip,’ oil and tar ‘smear,’ or
paraflin emulsion with the object of preventing egg-laying. For example, six
yearlings were smeared all over every day from May till September 1906. In
1907 they showed warbles averaging over 30 per beast. Four calves sprayed
all over daily during the same period showed an average of 15 warbles per
beast the next spring. The average number of warbles on untreated animals at
the same time was 31 for heifers and 11 for calves.

In the spring of 1907 a systematic squeezing-out and destruction of maggots
was therefore set on foot: 2,090 maggots were obtained from 194 head of cattle
on the Ballyhaise farm, an average of nearly 11 per head. The good effect of this
operation has been strikingly shown in the spring of the present year, when from
166 head of cattle only 694 maggots were obtained—an average of 4:2. Equally
instructive is the fact that five cows grazed on the outskirts of the farm, and
therefore open to the attacks of flies from the surrounding country, had an average
of 16 warbles per beast, while 94 cows grazed near the centre of the farm had an
average of only 3 warbles per beast.

Observations show that the flies lay their eggs usually on the legs, very rarely
on the backs of the cattle. During the summer of 1906 six calves were muzzled
by day and tied up between stakes at night so as to prevent them from licking
themselves. All but one of these had warbles in the spring of 1907, whence it
was surmised that the maggots may gain entrance through the skin, and not, as
is now generally believed to be the case, through the mouth. During the summer
of 1907 two calves were muzzled and tied, with additional precautions. These
were the only two calves on the farm that as yearlings are entirely free from
warbles this spring (1908). It is likely, therefore, that the protection from
licking in the 1906 experiments was in some way incomplete. During the present
summer six calves are being again treated in this way, and it is hoped that the
method of entrance by the mouth will thus be conclusively tested.

Hypoderma bovis seems to be far commoner in Ireland than H. lineata. In
both species the interval between the emergence of the maggot from the beast’s
skin and the appearance of the fly is about seven weeks.

TRANSACTIONS OF SUB-SECTION F. 807

3. Barley Growing and Selection in Ireland.
By Hersert Hunter, B.Sc.

After dealing with the manner of origin of many of the varieties of cereals
which are to-day in cultivation and the methods of improvement adopted by early
workers, such as Colonel Le Couteur and Patrick Sherriff, the author proceeded to
describe some of the leading varieties of barley in use in Ireland to-day.

Incidentally some recent experiments in the cultivation of this cereal carried
out by the Department of Agriculture in Ireland were referred to, and the main
conclusions of these investigations dealt with. The special requirements of
barley for malting purposes were described, together with the effect of pure and
mixed seed on the quality of the produce. The author then proceeded to
enumerate the various methods adopted for the production of pure-seed supplies,
and showed by actual examples from experimental single-ear cultivations of Old
Irish, Chevallier, and Archer varieties the existence of many closely related
strains of the same variety. The constancy of the characteristics of each
type was then dealt with, and their adverse influence on a pure-seed supply
demonstrated.

The existence of ‘ quality’ in barley as a specific character was pointed out, and
the possible lines of improvement in this direction indicated.

As good ‘quality’ and high yield do not appear to be coexistent in present-day
varieties, selection of the forms possessing these characteristics in the highest
degree must eventually lead to hybridisation, In all cases, however, selection of
varieties with demonstrated characteristics must precede hybridisation, as this
process results in forms, new rather in the combination of definite characters
than in the production of intensified ones.

It was pointed out that, whether dealing with hybrids or pure natural varieties,
it is desirable to propagate seed for commercial purposes from single grains or
ears, as this method results in seed possessing a minimum amount of variation in
any direction, and is on that account more valuable commercially.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Small Holdings: Some Considerations on their Successful Establishment.
By Mrs. L. WILKINs.

The author discussed some general principles which have emerged during
work on the subject in England.

The present interest in the Irish land question, following on the Report of the
Commission on Congestion, leads one to think of the whole question in connection
with Ireland. The circumstances of the two countries are so different that the
application of these general principles is fundamentally affected.

Small holdings originally were not established but were a natural outcome of
existing conditions. The small man created them by means of his own labour
while earning his maintenance.

At the present day he has, as a rule, to have capital to pay for the creation of
his holding, except in those cases where farm land goes into market gardening or
fruit growing. ‘The difficulty he experiences in obtaining land in England is
not through dearth of land, but through want of organisation ; for the land in
the market is mostly in large areas beyond the means of the individual.

Necessity of Legislation to remedy this: Consideration of facts with which
legislation has to deal in the two countries. The fundamental point is: are the
people entirely dependent on the land for a living ?

In England, it being a manufacturing nation, they are not exclusively so; in
Treland, speaking generally, they are.

The influence of this on the nature of the small holdings: in England it is

808 TRANSACTIONS OF SUB-SECTION F.

possible to get a living off a small area of poor land, (i) by working it in
connection with some industrial occupation; (ii) by having a supply of good
local markets in the large industrial towns. Also the fact of not being entirely
dependent on the land makes it more difficult to induce the small holder to adopt
newer methods of cultivation, &ce.

In Ireland, on the other hand, the land must practically be made sufficient for
all. This can only be done by insisting on improved methods of intensive
cultivation, co-operation, &c.

In England legislation such as the Small Holdings Act of 1907 is practically
designed to assist people to get on to the land at their own expense. The process
will afterwards be a form of natural evolution,

In Ireland, the process must be more in the nature of a revolution in agricul.
tural methods ; the people are already on the land: legislation must be directed
towards helping them to work it to the best advantage.

Consider establishment of holdings more in detail.

The fundamental conditions necessary for success in England are one or other
of the following :—

Good land, favourable climate, good markets, common rights, opportunities fur
labour as an adjunct.
The importance of the size of holdings under various conditions.
The sizes found necessary in different parts of England :—
In the Jsle of Axholme :—
Two acres for a labourer in regular work ;
Five to ten acres for a man doing job work ;
Ten to twenty acres for an entire living.
Jn the market gardening districts of Bedfordshire :—
Half acre for a man in regular work ;
Six to ten acres for a living.
In cheese-making districts on grass land—twenty to thirty acres.

Summary of argument: That the successful establishment of small holdings
depends very largely on the regard paid to local details. But this cannot be done
on far-seeing or economic lines until you have got these details located in the
exact position they hold in the economy of the nation at large.

2. The Small Holdings Problem. By CuristOPHER TURNER.

3. The Management of Small Holdings. By F. Impey.

4. Letters from Small Holders, By W. Bracu Taomas.

5. The Economic Importance of judicious Tree Planting for Shelter
by Farmers. By J, Scorr Kerr.

6, A Method of Registering the Colours of Animals,
By Major Barrerr HAmitton.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
Joint Meeting with Section P’.—See p. 794,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.——PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 809

Section G.—ENGINEERING,

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—Dvycatp Cuerk, F,R,S,, M,Inst,C.E,

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 3,

The President delivered the following Address :—

Ar the middle of the last century the steam engine had attained toa high degree
of perfection. Its development was, it is true, incomplete, but it had been suc-
cessfully applied to all the great duties of the mine, the waterworks, the factory,
the railway, and the steamship. The engines were mechanically excellent; the
fuel economy was good, and they were built in units of thousands of horse-power.
Steam power, in fact, was revolutionising the whole of the social and industrial
conditions of the globe. Notwithstanding this great material and engineering
success, the world was in complete darkness as to the connection between steam
motive-power and heat. It was seen that motive power of almost any magnitude
could be obtained by the agency of heat; but how it was obtained and how much
power was connected with a given quantity of heat was quite unknown. The
fuel consumptions of existing engines were known, and certain modes of improving
economy were evident, and engineers were busily engaged in testing these modes
by the slow but sure methods of invention, design, construction, and operation in
practical work; but in this they had but little aid from pure science,

The science of thermodynamics did not yet exist.

New light was dawning, however, which gradually illumined the whole world
of pure science and engineering practice.

Men of the first rank in intellect—Newton, Cavendish, Rumford, Young and
Davy—had long before expressed the opinion that heat was not material in its
nature, but was a mode of motion; but their opinions, although to some extent
supported by experiment, made little impression upon the scientific world, and in
1850 we still find the most distinguished physicists adhering to the ‘ caloric’ or
material theory of heat.

The great change, from the errors of the old theories to the truth of the new,
was due to the work of Joule, Thomson, and Rankine in Great Britain, and of
Carnot, Meyer, Clausius, Helmholtz, and Hirn on the Continent. The story
begins with the work of Carnot in 1824, who published in Paris in that year a
pamphlet entitled ‘ Reflections upon the Motive Power of Heat.’ He was
attracted by the problem of the steam engine and the air engine. He saw that
heat and motive power were connected in some manner, and he endeavoured to
settle in a quantitative way the limits of that connection by the invention of an
ideal series of operations by means of which the greatest conceivable amount of
mechanical power may be obtained from a given quantity of heat under given
circumstances. For the purpose of his demonstration he assumes only two
things: (1) That if heat be added to any body under standard conditions of
temperature, pressure, and volume, and the body be carried throngh any series of

810 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

mechanical processes, returning ultimately to the standard condition of tempera-
ture, pressure, and volume, then the quantity of heat added to the body is the
same as that which has been discharged from it; (2) No process can exist whereby
a given mechanical energy can increase its own quantity. On these indisputable
assumptions he bases his ideal cycle, which consists of four simple and easily
imagined operations, occurring within a cylinder behind a piston, so arranged that
during the cycle work can be done by the working fluid upon the piston or work
done by the piston on the working fluid.

First Operation —The given volume of the working fluid is to be imagined as
confined at its highest temperature and pressure behind the piston, and heat is to
be added to keep the temperature constant, while the fluid expands, moving the
piston and doing work upon it.

Second Operation.—The supply of heat is cut off, and the working fluid expands
also during work on the piston, while its temperature falls to the lowest point
and its volume increases to its maximum, ;

Third Operation.—The piston returns, compressing the working fluid, but
allowing the heat of compression to escape, so that the temperature remains
during the operation at its lowest point.

Fourth Operation.—The piston compresses the working fluid, without allowing
any loss of heat, to such an extent that the temperature rises again to its highest
point, and the working fluid exists at the end of this operation at the same
volume, pressure, and temperature as at the beginning.

This assumed series of operations would give a certain available work area,
the indicated power of the engine, inasmuch as the work done by the working
fluid would be greater than that done upon it. If however it be assumed that
in all the operations the direction of motion of the piston be reversed, then com-
pression without loss of heat would take place in the second operation; further
compression, but with sufficient heat loss to keep temperature constant, would
occur on the first operation; the fourth operation would follow with expansion, and
the third operation would conclude also with expansion. The engine would be
reversed by beginning with the second operation, moving the piston backwards in
the order second, first, fourth, third. Carnot shows that this reverse operation
would be performed by exactly the same amount of work as was given out by the
direct operation, and that an amount of heat would be returned at the higher
temperature equal to that which was added in the first case.

An engine which fulfils these conditions, Carnot states, will give the greatest
amount of work which can be obtained from a given quantity of heat falling
through a given temperature range. And it is evident that this must be so,
because, if we assume the existence of any engine under the same conditions
giving a greater amount of work from the same heat, then that engine could drive
a Carnot engine in the reverse direction in such proportion as to return to the
higher temperature a greater amount of heat than it abstracted, and so mechanical
energy could be obtained without any heat fall whatever. This marvellous
demonstration is obviously independent of the nature of the working fluid; it
applies equally to all working substances, whether solid, liquid, or gaseous, whether
physical state changes or not. It at once gives a standard of the limit of
mechanical power which could possibly be obtained from a given amount of heat
and a given temperature fall.

The Curnot cycle operations, as here given, are applicable either to the material
or to the dynamical theory of heat; but Carnot originally stated that the whole of
the heat added in the first operation was to be discharged in the third. Under the
material or caloric theory, work was supposed to be done by the fact of fall in
temperature. Naturally, as the heat was material it could not be destroyed or
changed into mechanical energy. The production of mechanical energy was sup-
posed to be incidental to the fall of temperature, much in the same way as
mechanical energy was produced by the fall of water-level, and this analogy is
used throughout Carnot’s work of 1824.

Carnot thus succeeded in proposing a standard of efficiency which was
applicable to any heat engine, whatever the working fluid and whatever the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 811

Operative cycle. By his method a limit could be set, fixing the maximum of
mechanical energy to be obtained from a given heat quantity and a given
temperature range. ‘To reduce this to numerical values it was necessary, how-
ever, to experiment on any one working fluid within the desired temperature
range in order to determine the work area in its relation to heat quantity and
temperature fall. Carnot’s writings show that he intended to make such observa-
tions; and, had he succeeded, thermodynamics would have become a science at
an early date. Carnot’s death, however, in 1832, at the sadly early age of thirty-six
years, prevented this development.

The name of Sadi Carnot will always be remembered by mankind as the
founder of one branch of the thermodynamics of the heat engine.

His work remained practically without notice for thirteen years after his death,
when, fortunately, it attracted the attention of William Thomson during his
attendance at the Laboratory of Regnault in the year 1845. Thomson was then
twenty-one years of age, and had already attained a considerable scientific reputa-
tion. He took up the study of Carnot’s work with enthusiasm. He became
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow in 1846, and in
1848 he read a paper before the Cambridge Philosophical Society ‘On an
Absolute Thermometric Scale founded on Carnot’s Theory of the Motive Power
of Heat and calculated from Regnault’s Observations.’ Like Carnot, Thomson
accepted the ‘ material’ or ‘caloric’ theory of the nature of heat, although, like
Carnot also, he had doubts as to its truth. Assuming its truth, however, he
carried Carnot’s reasoning much further, and deduced trom the Carnot cycle a
thermometric scale which was absolute in the sense that it defined the idea of
temperature independently of the properties of any particular body.

It is very difficult to carry one’s mind back to the material theory of heat, but
it is necessary to do so in order to appreciate the rigid accuracy of the reasoning
of both Carnot and Thomson ; and it is especially desirable to do so in order to
understand the great step made in this paper. According to the ‘caloric’
theory, heat was supposed to be a subtle elastic fluid which permeated the pores
of bodies and filled the interstices between the molecules of matter. The funda-
mental quality imagined of this caloric or heat fluid was that of indestructibility
and uncreatability by any humanly controlled process. Bodies became warmer
when caloric was added to them, and grew colder as it left them. Caloric, how-
ever, might be added to a body without heating it. In this case the heat was
called ‘latent,’ and the state of the body changed from solid to liquid or from
liquid to vapour or gas.

Caloric, too, was required in greater quantities for some substances than others
in order to warm the body equally. The capacity for caloric was thus greater
in some bodies than in others.

If any particular body were heated without change of state it was hotter;
that is, its temperature rose when the quantity of caloric present was increased.
It was not difficult to define equality of temperature. This was defined by a
constant condition when brought into contact. But it was very difficult indeed to
define temperature on any rational scale.

To the acute and brilliant intellect of William Thomson it became apparent
that he had in the Carnot cycle a powerful instrument capable of widely general
use, apart altogether from the theory of heat engines; and he here uses it in a
most skilful way to give definiteness and universal application to the idea of
temperature, as Professor Larmor states,‘ elevating the idea of temperature from
a mere featureless record or comparison of thermometers into a general principle
of physical nature.’

Thomson accordingly defines equal differences of temperature in terms of the
reversible or Carnot engine.

Equal temperature differences are to be differences between the temperatures
of the source of heat and the refrigerator, when the proportion of work produced
from a given quantity of heat isthe same. Thermometers graduated in degrees
calculated in this way could naturally be treated as instruments based on definite
principles, independently of any properties of any particular material. The idea of

812 RANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

temperature here was in rigid logical consistency with the ‘caloric’ theory of
heat, and it carried out completely the analogy between power derived from the
same quantity of heat falling from a higher to a lower level, and resembling a fall
of water in producing its effects. For equal quantities of ‘caloric,’ as of
‘water,’ temperature fall was regarded as similar to fall in space, and so an
accurate idea of the nature of temperature difference is attained.

This definition, however, gave a scale greatly differing from that of mercurial,
air, and other thermometers, the degrees defined by it corresponding to larger
and larger intervals on the air thermometer as temperature increases. Professor
Tait pointed out also that on such a scale the temperature of a body totally
deprived of heat is negative-infinite.

All these difficulties do not detract from the fundamental importance of the
idea here enuuciated for the first time: the idea of an absolute thermometric
scale theoretically applicable to all bodies—solid, liquid, and gaseous. On the
‘caloric’ or ‘material’ theory of heat, motive power is obtained during the
letting down or fall from a higher to a lower level of a given quantity of heat.
The quantity of heat does not alter in the process; it is only its relative level
which alters. There is no reason, therefore, for mentally limiting the amount of
mechanical energy obtainable from any given quantity of caloric, just as there is
no reason for limiting the amount of mechanical energy to be mentally derived
from a given weight. Any desired quantity of energy may be derived from a
weight of, say, one pound, if it only be allowed to fall far enough, assuming
gravity to be constant through the range.

The investigation of the work to be derived from a given quantity of heat at
a given temperature is thus a matter of experiment, which can be settled by
measurement of the properties of a few bodies.

Reasoning, it is conceived, in this way, Thomson follows up his absolute
thermometric scale work with an investigation entitled ‘Carnot’s Theory of the
Motive Power of Heat,’ described in a paper read in 1849 before the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, in which he calculates from Regnault’s experiments on
steam the power developed by a Carnot reversible engine when using one
centigrade heat unit; that is, the heat necessary to heat one pound of water
through 1° C. for temperatures from 1° to 231° C., the temperature falling in the
engine in each case to 0° C.

In this paper he asks himself two questions: (1) What is the precise nature
of the thermal agency by means of which mechanical effect is to be produced
without effects of any other kind ? and (2) How may the amount of the thermal
agency necessary for performing a given quantity of work be estimated ?

Using Regnault’s values for the properties of steam, he calculates the lines of
compression and expansion without heat loss, the lines of compression and ex-
pansion with heat flow at the lowest temperature, and heat addition at the highest
temperature, and thus arrives at the work area per heat unit let down. He
tabulates these results, and shows that what he calls Carnot’s function diminishes
as temperature rises, using the ordinary centigrade scale. On the caloric theory
the methods are rigidly logical and correct, but some inaccuracy is introduced by
the necessity of that theory for the discharge of the same amount of heat at the
third operation as is taken in on the first. The paper is of great interest, however,
because it shows clearly how fully the distinguished author realises the necessity
for re-examining the standard ideas of the nature of heat. Two paragraphs make
this very clear :—

‘7. Since the time when Carnot thus expressed himself the necessity of a
most careful examination of the entire experimental basis of the theory of heat
has become more and more urgent. specially all those assumptions depending
on the idea that heat is a substance, invariable in quantity, not convertible into
any other element, and incapable of being generated by any physical agency; in
fact, the acknowledged principles of latent heat would require to be tested by a
most searching investigation before they ought to be admitted, as they usually have
been, by almost everyone who has been engaged on the subject, whether in com-
bining the results of experimental research or in general theoretical investigations,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 813

‘8. The extremely important discoveries recently made by Mr. Joule, of Man-
chester, that heat is evolved in every part of a closed electric conductor moving
in the neighbourhood of a magnet, and that heat is generated by the friction of
fluids in motion, seem to overturn the opinion commonly held that heat cannot
be generated, but only produced from a source where it has previously existed
either in a sensible or in a latent condition. In the present state of science,
however, no operation is known by which heat can be absorbed into a body with-
out either elevating its temperature or becoming latent, and producing some
alteration in its physical condition; and the fundamental axiom adopted by
Carnot may be considered as still the most probable basis for an investigation of
the motive power of heat, although this, and with it every other branch of the
theory of heat, may ultimately require to be reconstructed upon another founda-
tion when our experimental data are more complete. On this understanding, and
to avoid a repetition of doubts, I shall refer to Carnot’s fundamental principle,
in all that follows, as if its truth were thoroughly established.’

Tn these two paragraphs Thomson sums up the whole situation in 1849, and
promises further investigation and further attempts to deduce the nature of the
connection between heat and work.

Assume, then, the truth of the caloric theory of heat, as Thomson does in the
1849 paper: We have a complete theory of the heat engine, based on the Carnot
cycle, accounting for efficiencies which vary with temperature differences but
requiring no definite mechanical equivalent of heat; nay, antagonistic to the
existence of such an equivalent. The caloric theory, as has been pointed out,
is quite consistent with the theoretical possibility of obtaining an indefinitely
great amount of mechanical energy from any given quantity of heat, provided the
letting down or fall of level be indefinitely great.

At the time we are discussing—1850—the bare conception of the idea of an
absolute zero of temperature is one which is startling in its boldness; and it must
have been difficult indeed then to imagine any definite line of proof which could
be followed to establish the real existence of such a physical limit. We are so
familiar with the existence of very high temperatures, vastly transcending the
temperatures in which we personally exist, that we can hardly conceive a
temperature limit on the ascending side; that is, we can hardly think of any
given high temperature which could not under quite conceivable circumstances
be exceeded. We know, for example, that any metal—say platinum—may be
melted if its temperature be sufficiently increased; that a further sufficient
increase will convert the liquid metal to the gaseous state, and that the gaseous
metal may be heated indefinitely while in that state. We know the behaviour
and properties of many substances at high temperatures, and are aware of the
strong tendency of all chemical compounds, when highly heated, to split up into
the elementary bodies composing them. All this we appreciate, but we find it
difficult to see how a point of temperature could be reached when it could be said :
This is a physical limiting point on the ascending scale; we may heat a substance
up to this temperature, but it is impossible to conceive of any higher temperature.
It is necessary here to distinguish between a conceivable limit to an ascending
temperature and a practical limit under existing conditions. We may thus place
limits, say, to the temperature of coal-gas and air explosions, or the temperatures
possible from the electric arc ; the limit with coal gas and air depending on one
set of conditions, and the electric arc upon another set, such as the vapourising
point of carbon, and so on. In the same way, at the middle of last century it
would have been considered quite reasonable to suppose that human existence was
carried on at an intermediate plane of temperature, and that temperatures might
exist as low, relatively to our mean temperature, as our known furnace and com-
bustion temperatures are high. At this time, no doubt, such an idea was quite a
reasonable one.

No such limit could be proved, even by the aid of the Carnot cycle, reasoning
on the material theory of heat. If we assume that heat is material, and that in
some way temperature fall doing work resembles, as Carnot supposed, the fall of
water doing work in passing from a higher to a lower level, then no absolute zero

814 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

is possible, because the same quantity of heat is supposed to exist at the low as at
the high temperature. On this theory nothing in the idea of temperature suggests
a possible physical limit. Onthe material theory, the notion of temperature is one
to which it is exceedingly difficult to attach a precise meaning.

Thomson's promises of further investigation were fulfilled in 1850, in which
year he definitely accepted the dynamical theory of heat and finally abandoned the
material. His conclusions are given in a memoir of the first importance which
was read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1851. It was entitled ‘On
the Dynamical Theory of Heat.’ Before dealing with it, however, it is desirable
to consider the work of Joule and others on another side of thermodynamics.

Long before 1850 the equivalence of mechanical work and heat quantity had
been accepted by many scientific men, and Rumford had, indeed, made measure-
ments of a rough kind. It remained, however, for Joule experimentally to
determine the mechanical equivalent in the most accurate manner and place what
is now known as the first law of thermodynamics upon the sure basis of absolute
experimental determination. His first paper was read before the Cork Meeting
of the British Association in 1845, and at the Oxford Meeting in 1847 he read
another— On the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat’—describing the results of
experiments with paddles rotating in liquids driven by falling weights. By
these years of work he had absolutely demonstrated the equivalence of heat
quantity and mechanical work, so that no loophole of escape seemed possible ; it
appeared as if the material theory was rendered intellectually impossible to the
trained intellect. This was not the fact, however, as is evident from both Joule’s
and Thomson’s accounts of that British Association Meeting.

Joule’s earlier paper had been coolly received. Indeed, it is evident that the
idea of a mechanical equivalent of heat was still distasteful to the physicists of
the day, and its discussion was looked upon with dislike. Joule, at the 1847
Meeting, addressed a small audience, and the account of his experiments was
received without enthusiasm. This adverse atmosphere, so discouraging to the
investigator, was quickly removed, however, when a young man rose to make his
remarks, and, by his enthusiastic comment and clear reasoning, at once succeeded
in attracting the interest of those present. This young man was William
Thomson, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow.
Speaking of this, his first meeting with Joule, at Manchester forty-six years later,
Lord Kelvin said: ‘I can never forget the British Association at Oxford in the
year 1847, when in one of the Sections I heard a paper read by a very unassuming
young man, who betrayed no consciousness in his manner that he hada great idea
to unfold. I was tremendously struck with the paper. I had first thought it
could not be true because it was different from Carnot’s theory, and immediately
after the reading of the paper I had a few words of conversation with the author,
James Joule, which was the beginning of our forty years’ acquaintance and
friendship. . . . I gained ideas which had never entered my mind before, and
I thought I, too, suggested something worthy of Joule’s consideration when I
told him of Carnot’s theory.’ This meeting was indeed fateful for the future of
the science of thermodynamics, as it resulted in co-operation between two men
of giant intellect, who between them performed most of the experimental work
which was necessary to make thermodynamics an exact science. Their work
alone sufficed to place the first and second laws of thermodynamics on the firm
footing of accurate experiment and logical deduction.

Although Thomson was much struck by Joule’s experiments, he did not
accept the dynamical theory of heat at once. As he stated himself: ‘I had first
thought that it could not be true because it was different from Carnot’s theory.’

Joule’s discoveries at this date may be thus expressed :—

Heat and mechanical energy are mutually convertible, and heat requires for
its production, and produces by its disappearance, mechanical energy in the pro-
portion of 1,390 foot-pounds for each centigrade heat unit, a heat unit being the
amount of heat necessary to heat one pound of water through 1° C.

Knowing, as Thomson did, that mechanical energy could be produced by the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. §15

agency of heat, but that its amount varied with the temperature and temperature
fall, Joule’s discoveries seemed antagonistic to Carnot’s demonstration ; and, con-
vinced as he was that Carnot’s law was true, he naturally felt at first that there
must be some other way of looking at Joule’s results than that adopted by Joule
himself.

Joule naturally believed in his own manner of looking at his results, and he
apparently agreed with Thomson as to the antagonism between what may be here
called the Carnot and Joule laws.

The material theory of heat might have been true; in which case there was
no more need for any direct quantitative connection between heat quantity and
mechanical energy than between the mass of a body and its mechanical energy.
Any unit of mass may acquire any conceivable amount of mechanical energy if
its velocity be great enough, and so any unit of heat on the caloric theory may
produce any conceivable amount of mechanical energy if the temperature fall be
great enough. Joule considered the Carnot law to be so inconsistent with his
law that in one of his papers he proposes its abandonment as inconsistent with
discovered facts. At this point the two ideas seem to be in opposition. The

erm of reconciliation, however, is found in observations by Thomson in both the
1848 and 1849 papers. In paragraph 8, quoted here from the latter paper, it is
stated :—

‘In the present state of science, however, no operation is known by which
heat can be absorbed into a body without either elevating its temperature or
becoming latent and producing some alteration in its physical condition.’

This is equivalent to saying that no case has been observed where heat dis-
appears doing mechanical work. In a note occurring in the same paper he
alludes to the fact that engineers always assume that the amount of heat found
in the condenser of the steam engine was the same as that taken into the engine
by the steam, in the following terms :—

‘So generally is Carnot’s principle tacitly admitted as an axiom that its
application in this case has never, so far as 1 am aware, been questioned by
practical engineers.’

This was quite accurate, Hirn’s demonstrations that heat disappears in a
steam engine when work is done was not made until 1857, eight years later,
In the 1848 paper he states :—

‘The experiments of Mr. Joule of Manchester seem to indicate an actual con-
yersion of mechanical effect into caloric. No experiment, however, is adduced in
which the converse operation is exhibited; but it must be confessed that as yet
much is involved in mystery with reference to these fundamental questions of
natural philosophy.’

Here we find Thomson’s mind engaged—in 1848 and 1849—with the very
matter requiring proof. Joule had proved the generation of heat by means of
mechanical work; Thomson required the provt of the conyerse case—the dis-
appearance of heat when mechanical work was done by the working fluid.

This proof was forthcoming in the results of experiments on the compression
and expansion of air. Accordingly, we find the Carnot and Joule principles re-
conciled in Thomson’s paper of 1851, and the important deduction made of an
absolute zero of temperature at — 273° on the Centigrade scale. The introduction
of the idea of the mechanical equivalent of heat leads at once to an absolute
zero of temperature, and allows of the determination of this physical lower limit
by the use of the Carnot cycle for investigating the efliciency of a perfect engine
using any working fluid. Air was the working fluid actually investigated, and
the determination of its properties at ordinary temperatures was a vitally important
result of the co-operation of Thomson and Joule. Their experiments lasted for
many years, and their rigorous investigation disclosed the fact that internal work
was done in expanding a gas; in fact, that in a gas expanding isothermally doing
work, part of the heat only disappeared in external work and part was absorbed
in separating the molecules,

816 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

The Joule and Carnot laws are now known as the first and second laws ot
thermodynamics.
The second law, in modern form, may be thus stated :—

Although heat and work are mutually convertible and in definite and invari-
able proportions, yet no conceivable heat engine is able to convert all the heat
given to it into work. Apart altogether from practical limitations, a certain
portion of the heat must be passed from the hot body to the cold body in order
that the remainder may assume the form of mechanical energy.

The proportion of the total heat convertible into mechanical energy depends
on the absolute temperatures of the hot and cold bodies; it is unity mznus the
lower absolute temperature upon the upper absolute temperature,

It appears that during Thomson’s struggle to reconcile the two apparently
opposing laws, Clausius, who had seen the same difficulty, arrived independently
at its solution and published a paper, ‘ On the Motive Power of Heat and the Laws
of Heat which may be deduced therefrom,’ at the Berlin Academy in February
1850. In this paper, Clausius discusses Thomson’s difficulties, and also arrives at
the conclusion that the Carnot cycle may be reconciled to Joule’s law by the
omission of the supposition that during the third process the same amount of heat
is discharged from the cool body as was taken in from the hot one. He states :—

‘On a nearer view of the case we find that the new theories were opposed
not to the real fundamental principle of Carnot, but to the addition that no heat
is lost. For it is quite possible that in the production of work both may take
place at the same time: a certain portion of heat may be consumed and a further
portion transmitted from a warm body to a cold one; and both portions may
stand in a certain definite relation to the quantity of work produced. This will
be made plainer as we proceed ; and it will be moreover shown that the inference
to be drawn from both assumptions may not only exist together, but that they
may mutually support each other.’

In his 1851 paper, Thomson gives Clausius full credit for solving the difficulty
between the Carnot and the Joule principles. Thomson gives Clausius the full
credit for priority, but states that he was working on the same problem and had
arrived at the same solution in the year 1850, before he had seen Clausius’ work.
Clausius, however, assumed the theory of a permanent gas, which required the
absence of jnternal work, but Thomson was not prepared to assume this without
experiment. This determination rigidly to prove every necessary assumption,
and his clear conception of the points necessary for proof, led to the extensive
series of researches undertaken by Thomson and Joule with the object of deter-
mining how much gas thermometers differ from an absolute scale as determined
by the combination of the Joule and Carnot laws.

Rankine, as early as 1849, arrived at the general equation of thermodynamics
which expresses the relation between heat and mechanical energy, and indicated the
result of his investigations to the Royal Society of Edinburgh in Iebruary 1850.

tankine thus arrived independently at the same result as Clausius about the same
time. Both Rankine and Clausius, however, adopted certain theories as to the
molecular structures and motions of gases, and their demonstrations to some
extent depended upon their theories. To Thomson and Joule we are deeply
indebted for the rigid proof of the two laws and for the rigid deduction of the
modern scale of temperature and the determination of absolute zero in its modern
form. Thomson now thus defines temperature :—

‘The temperatures of two bodies are proportional to the quantities of heat
respectively taken in and given out in localities at one temperature and at the
other respectively, by a material system subjected to a complete cycle of perfectly
reversible thermodynamic operations, and not allowed to part with or take in
heat at any other temperature; or, the absolute values of two temperatures are to
one another in the proportion of the heat taken in to the heat rejected in a perfect
thermodynamic engine, working with a source and refrigerator at the higher and
lower of the temperatures respectively.’ ; ee

ee. ae

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 817

This definition leads to an absolute scale of temperature which is independent
of the substance operated on, and Joule and Thomson’s experiments have shown
that this scale differs but slightly from that of the ordinary air thermometer,
Joule had suggested to Thomson, in a letter to him in 1848, that the probable
value of Carnot’s function is the reciprocal of the absolute temperature as measured
on a perfect gas thermometer.

Thus Clausius appears to have anticipated Thomson, not in the suggestion of
an absolute scale o' temperature, but in the idea of an absolute zero founded upon
the combination of Carnot’s law and Joule’s law. Thomson, in his papers, very
modestly attributes the second law—the law of the transformation of heat—to
Carnot and Clausius; but in this he undervalued his work, because Clausius
appears to have assumed what Thomson and Joule proved; that is, the coinci-
dence of the absolute scale with the air thermometer scale.

Tt will thus be seen that the position usually assumed by the engineer at 1850,
of the equality between heat given to the engine and heat given to the condenser,
was fundamentally untrue. Without this deduction, however, no determination
of values of the Carnot function could have led to the determination of an absolute
zerd. According to the material theory, as seen in the light of Carnot’s cycle, a
heat unit could give an indefinitely increased amount of work with lowering of
the temperature. Nothing in the theory sets a limit to this increase, and, accord-
ingly, there is nothing to suggest an absolute zero, Immediately, however, we
accept the dynamical theory of heat we find that a pound of water requires the
exertion of 1,390 foot-pounds of work to heat it through 1° C. We also know from
the Carnot cycle that under ordinary conditions of human existence only a portion
of this work can be returned; but as no conditions could conceivably exist in
which a greater amount of work could be obtained from a pound of water than the
1,390 foot-pounds put into it to heat it through 1° C., it follows that, inasmuch as
the Carnot function increases with diminishing temperature, the limit of tem-
perature is reached when, according to the Carnot cycle, the whole of that work,
put into the pound of water, can be got out again as work. This limit is the
absolute zero of temperature. No lower temperature is conceivable without in-
troducing the idea of the creation of energy. So far as human beings are con-
cerned, this idea is as inconceivable as the idea of the creation of matter. The
determination of this limit with the close accuracy necessary for a well-founded
constant is to be entirely attributed to Thomson and Joule. In his 1851 paper
Thomson thus succeeds in answering the questions which he put to himself in
his 1849 paper, and he supplies a quantitative method of connecting the amount
of the thermal agency necessary with the amount of work which can be performed
under varying conditions.

Engineers dealing with motive power are thus deeply in debt to Thomson and
Joule for the secure position occupied by them to-day.

The brilliant work of Meyer, published so early as 1842, is held by some to
have anticipated to a large extent both the work of Thomson and of Joule.
Undoubtedly Meyer formulated true ideas and carried his generalisations through
a wide range. Helmholtz also very early arrived at similar conclusions to those
of Joule and Thomson; but it has been thought better to discuss the work of
Thomson and Joule separately, in order to illustrate the transition period through
which many distinguished minds were passing about the time. Undoubtedly
great credit is due to Meyer, Helmholtz, Clausius, and Hirn, and Thomson himself
recognised this in the most generous way.

The ideas of Thomson and Joule now form so much of the basis of all
reasoning upon motive-power engines that there is some little danger to the
present generation of forgetting what they owe to these two great men. To
appreciate the step made by them it is necessary to consider the position of motive
power produced by heat at about the middle of the last century. At that time
many attempts had been made to displace the steam engine as a heat engine by
air engines in various forms—both engines heated externally and those heated
internally, now known as internal-combustion engines. Papers read at the
Institution of Civil Engineers in 1845 and 1853, and the discussion of those

*

1908, 3G

818 TRANSACTIONS Oi SECTION G.

papers by eminent men of the day, supply an accurate measure of the knowledge
possessed by the engineer of the principles of action of his heat engines. Many
distinguished names occur in these papers and discussions, including James
Stirling, Robert Stephenson, Sir George Cayley, Charles Manby, James Leslie,
C. W. Siemens, Hawksley, Pole, W. G. Armstrong (afterwards Lord Armstrong),
Edward Woods, E. A. Cowper, D. K. Clark, Benjamin Cheyerton, Goldsworthy
Gurney, George P. Bidder, Professor Faraday, Isambard K. Brunel, Captain
Fitzroy, and I’, Braithwaite. At the date of the later of these discussions
Brunel had already designed the ‘Great Eastern,’ in 1852, with its engines of
11,000 h.p. Armstrong was a Fellow of the Royal Society, and had started the
Elswick Works and invented the Armstrong gun. Robert Stephenson was at the
height of his fame. He was then a Member of Parliament, President of the
Institution of Civil Engineers, and a Fellow of the Royal Society. Siemens was
a young man, but was busy on the regenerative furnace; had considered
regeneration as applied to steam engines, although his work on the air engine
was still to come. All were distinguished men in their day, and their opinions
may be taken as representing the very best scientific knowledge of the leading
engineers of the day. The first of the papers to which I refer is called
‘ Description of Stirling’s Improved Air Engine,’ by James Stirling, M.Inst.C.E.
It was read on June 10, 1845, with Sir John Rennie, the President of the
Institution, in the chair. The engine described was the later form of the well-
known Stirling air engine, invented by the Rev. Dr. Stirling, a Scottish clergy-
man, in the year 1815. The development considered was the invention of the
reader of the paper, a brother of Dr. Stirling. The main improvement consisted
in the use of air at a greater density than the atmosphere, and the engine at
that date had so far succeeded that two had been used at the Dundee Foundry
Company’s works—one giving about 21 h.p. and the other about 45 h.p. Practi-
cally, therefore, some success had been attained. Mr, Stirling claimed that the
21-horse engine consumed 50 lb. of coal per hour, which is about %} lb. per
horse-power per hour. This was an extraordinarily good result for the time.
At present, however, we are not interested in the practical result, but only in the
opinions of the engineers of the day as to the fundamental principles of heat
engines.
att is clear from the paper that the theory of the regenerator was entirely mis-
understood, It was imagined that with a perfect regenerator no heat would be
required to perform work. This is evident from Mr. Stirling’s answer to Sir
George Cayley. Sir George Cayley described his engine, which was of the
internal-combustion type, acting with solid fuel under constant pressure, and
showed that, owing to dust and heat in the cylinder and valves, his experiments
proved abortive. He stated, however, that his engine had consumed 6+ Ib. of
coke—equal to 9 1b. of coal—per horse-power. To this Mr. Stirling answered: ‘ It
must be remarked that Sir George Cayley, in following an entirely different object,
had overlooked the great leading principle of repeatedly using the same heat,’ and
‘he was of opinion that, except on that principle, the air could not be economically
used as a moving power.’ Another speaker, Mr. Cottam, said: ‘It was evident
that, if it was practicable to arrive at the theoretical condition of the absorption of
all the caloric by the thin laminze during the upward passage of the air and the
giving it out again during the downward passage, there would not be any loss of
heat.’ Mr. Robert Stephenson did not appear to understand Stirling’s air engine
at all, because he made the following remarks: ‘He understood the process to
consist of heating the air in a vessel, whence it ascended to the cylinder between
numerous thin lamin, by which the caloric was absorbed, to be again given out
to the descending air. Now it appeared to him that, though the ascending
process was natural and easy, the reverse action would require a certain expendi-
ture of power, in the depression of the plunger.’ This remark clearly showed
that Stephenson, notwithstanding his eminence as an engineer, at that date had
not appreciated the essential conditions of the hot-air engine.
In the year 1853 the subject of the air engine again came up before the
Institution of Civil Engineers, interest being excited evidently by the building of

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 819

the large engines of the hot-air ship ‘ Ericsson’ in America, the engines having
air cylinders of no less than 14 feet diameter. Four papers were read in this
year: ‘On the Use of Heated Air as a Motive Power,’ by Benjamin Cheverton ;
“On the Caloric Engine,’ by Charles Manby; ‘On the Principle of the Caloric
Air Heated Engine,’ by James Leslie, M.Inst.C.E. ; and ‘On the Conversion of
Heat into Mechanical Effect,’ hy Charles William Siemens, A.M.I.C.E.
Cheverton evidently considers, from his paper referring to Stirling and Ericsson,
that ‘ Both parties also rest the efficiency of their engines on the repeated use of
caloric. They contend that in recovering from the ejected hot air the caloric
which gave it superior tension, and employing it in heating the injected air, “ it
is made to operate over and over again.” Mr. Ericsson aspires to embody a new
principle in motive mechanics—no less, to use his own words, than “ that the pro-
duction of mechanical force by heat is unaccompanied by the loss of heat,” except
such as arises from radiation, or other practically unavoidable waste.’ Cheverton
rejects this idea, but, strangely enough, does not appear aware of the work either
of Carnot or of Joule. He comes to the conclusion, however, that ‘ caloric, doubt-
less, is in all its aspects a manifestation of force, and unquestionably, as a me-
chanical agent, of a dynamic force, and therefore is directly amenable to the third
law of motion.’ He appears to think that heat is accompanied with molecular
activity, but is puzzled by what he accepts to be a fact, that in the steam engine
the whole of the heat of the steam as it comes from the boiler is found in the
condenser. With regard to the steam, he says: ‘ Undoubtedly, in respect to the
materiality of caloric, if it be material, it is transferred intact to the condenser,
yet in its passage it may have parted with force, which it cannot communicate
again.’ He comes to the conclusion that the change may take place not in the
quantity, but in the intensity of heat. Here he resembles Carnot; but it appears
to him impossible to arrive at any useful theory of the heat engine, because he
states: ‘. . . for every investigation leads to the-vonclusion that the effect of
caloric is independent at least of the chemical, if not also of the physical, consti-
tution of bodies. But economy of fuel is a different question from the economy
of caloric ; it is altogether a practical matter, and can only be determined by ex-
periment ; for this, and, indeed, most other points of practice, are too intractable
to come within the grasp of the most powerful calculus.’ In the discussion a com-
munication was read from Sir George Cayley, in the course of which he states, with
regard to the regenerator : ‘ There can exist no doubt of the effective re-application
of heat to an almost unlimited extent by this beautiful invention, due originally
to Mr. Stirling, and now carried out to a greater extent by Captain Ericsson.’
Sir George Cayley discussed the difficulties of Ericsson’s engine, but he accepts
the principle that heat may give work and yet be used over and over again prac-
tically undiminished. Armstrong did not express himself upon the theory at all,
_ but he was doubtful as to the advantage of the air engine compared with the steam
engine, although he believed that it was practicable to recover and use over again
a large proportion of the heat applied, and he thought the balance of economy, so
far as heat was concerned, would be found in favour of air. Siemens agreed to
some extent in the advantages of a regenerator, but he showed clearly that expan-
sion doing work was accompanied by a diminution of temperature, and stated that
this heat had to be replaced by the fire. Bidder was of opinion ‘that no theoretical
advantage was obtained in using heated air instead of vaporised water as a motive
power, and it was incapable of being applied practically with as much con-
venience.’ It is most interesting to note that Dr. Faraday joined in this discussion.
He said very little, and I will give his remarks complete. Dr. Faraday said:
‘Twenty years ago he had directed his attention to this question, and from theo-
retical views he had been induced to hope for the successful employment of heated
air as a motive power; but even then he saw enough to discourage his sanguine
expectation, and he had, with some diffidence, ventured to express his conviction
of the almost unconquerable practical difficulties surrounding the case, and of the
fallacy of the presumed advantages of the regenerator. He still retained his
doubts as to the success of the innovation, and feared the eventual results, even
of Captain Ericsson’s spirited and ingenious efforts.’ Brunel considered the use
3G2

820 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. ‘

of the regenerator to be an entire fallacy, and did not believe that the power
derived from the expansion of air by heat could be used effectively, and then be
recovered and used again. Mr. Hawksley considered that the machine inyolyed
a mechanical fallacy and that the regenerator produced no mechanical effect
whatever. Mr. Rendel was the President at the meeting which dealt with Mr.
Cheverton’s paper, and, in view of the great differences of opinion on the subject,
he stated that ‘he would not have the meeting arrive at a hasty or erroneous
conclusion on the question of this engine, and he therefore suggested that Mr.
Siemens should draw up a paper on the subject, and that the members should
collect, for a future meeting, all the information within their reach, in order to
the calm and deliberate discussion of the question.’ ‘his resulted in the further
meeting of May 17, 1853, when papers were read by Manby, Leslie, and Siemens.
The paper by Manby consists of the summary of a discussion by M. Galy-
cazalet, which took place in Paris in 1852. M. Galy-Cazalet comes to the conclu-
sion that the regenerator involves a fallacy, and he concludes: ‘There appears
to be at present so much doubt of the utility of the regenerator that it would be
wise to abandon its use for a time, and by trials with a more simple form of
caloric engine establish the fact either of the superiority or of the inferiority of
heated air in comparison with steam as a motive power.’ Mr. Leslie, on the
contrary, in his paper upholds vigorously the accuracy of the principle of the re-
generator or economiser. He comes to the conclusion that it is based on true
principles and is attended in practice with real economy of heat, and consequently
of fuel. In this conclusion he is doubtless correct ; the regenerator is useful and
does economise heat. But Leslie goes much further than this; he appears to
support Stirling in the fallacy that the regenerator may be made indefinitely
useful. Stirling states :—

‘And thus it appears that by applying air successively to a series of bodies
regularly increasing in temperature, and moving it alternately from one end of the
series to the other, it may be heated and cooled ten times, with an expenditure
of caloric which would barely have heated it once, it if had been applied at once,
to the hottest body (7.e., beyond the series). It is evident also that if the series
had been composed of twenty points, or bodies, having a difference of temperature
of five degrees, the air might be heated and cooled twenty times at no greater expense
of caloric. Nay it is evident that by multiplying the members of the series
indefinitely air could be heated and expanded and made to do work at no
appreciable expense. But let no mathematician be alarmed with the idea of a
perpetual motion, or the creation of power. There are many enemies to contend
with in the air engine besides friction, which alone prevents perpetuity in some
mechanical motions. We have no means, without consuming a part of our power,
of applying the air so closely to the apparatus as to make it absolutely assume the
temperature of the bodies to which it is applied. There is, therefore, a loss in the
very act of heating and cooling.’

Leslie comes to the conclusion that Stirling is right, but that an air engine
without a regenerator would be a much less effective and economical application
of heat than the steam engine. Leslie gives some interesting particulars of the
later air engines of James Stirling. He states that an engine of 45 h.p. was
started in March 1843 at the Dundee Foundry; that in December 1845—two
years and nine months after starting—one air-vessel gave way, and in May 1846
another failed, and in January 1847 a third failed. This information was supplied
to him by Mr. David Mudie, one of the lessees of the foundry.

We now come to Siemens’ paper ‘On the Conversion of Heat into Mechanical
Effect,’ and for the first time we find the engineer guided by an intelligible principle.
Siemens discussed the material theory of heat, and accepted unreservedly the
dynamical theory, for which he gives a large measure of credit to Joule. This is
the first of the Institution papers in which I find the name of Joule. Siemens
mentions Carnot, Clapeyron, Holtzman of Mannheim, Joule, Helmholtz, Meyer,
Rankine, and Professor Thomson. Curiously enough, although Siemens mentions
Carnot and the other philosophers who dealt with the Carnot principle, including

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 821

Thomson, he does not appear at this date— May 17, 1853—to have realised
himself the effect of the law of Carnot upon the theory of the heat engine. He
clearly appreciated the first law, and gives the mechanical equivalent of heat as
determined by Joule at 770 foot-pounds, and by Thomson’s formula as 772 foot-
pounds, but in his discussion of the principles of the heat engine he is of opinion
that a perfect engine is ideally possible giving 770 foot-pounds for each Fahren-
heit heat-unit employed. This is clear from a table found on page 33 of the
paper, which I reproduce :—

Siemens’ TABLE oF 1858.

| | | Actual
Theoretical | Actual | Performance in
Description of Engine Performance in Performance in | pounds of Coal
foot-pounds | foot-pounds | per H.P. per
| Hour
ce —— en == =| es ae i = —
A Boulton and Watt con- | | |
densing engine, low | |
pressure . ; : 51:8 2 8:00
The best Cornish engine . 158'8 82 2:38
Combined steam and ex- |
pansive ether engine . 150-0 75 | 3°09 |
The expansive airengine . 91:0 35 6:63
Stirling’sengine. . . 130-0 | 65 3:57 |
Ericsson’s engine 5 : 196:0 | 65 3°57
A Perfect engine ; ; 770:0 | 385 0:60
\

He apprehends the mechanical equivalent of heat, but he still appears under
the impression that if heat be added to a certain upper temperature and expansion
take place until the original temperature is reached, then he has a perfect engine
indicating the full result of Joule’s mechanical equivalent. He sees, however,
that the old theory of the regenerator is quite wrong. He states :—

‘The cause of the failure of Mr. Stirling’s engine in practice may apparently
be traced chiefly to insufficiency of heating surtace, occasioned apparently from
misapprehension of the principle involved, it having been thought that the same
heat would serve over and over again to produce power, and that the necessary
expenditure of heat consisted only in the mechanical loss by imperfect action of the
respirative plates, which were approached to each other to the utmost limits,
consistent with an unobstructed passage of the air. By the aid of the dynamical
theory of heat it has been shown that there is another and far more importart
expenditure of heat, which should have been provided for.’

Siemens, in the discussion, rightly upheld the regenerator as useful, and
saw that there were limitations to its use. Mr. Hawksley contended that the
regenerator was useless. Mr. Pole considered that the regenerator was useful,
but he did not definitely adopt the mechanical theory of heat. He stated :—

‘It must be allowed that the general action of caloric in producing power
was still involved in much obscurity. The heat was often considered in
reference to its quantity only, but it was certain also that its intensity performed
a very important part; and it had even been surmised that power might be
obtained by the reduction of intensity alone, without any change of quantity.’

Armstrong concurred with Siemens and Pole. He believed in the utility of
the regenerator, limited as described by both. Mr. Edward Woods certainly
understood Siemens to have given 772 foot-pounds as the efficiency of an ideal

$22 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

heat engine, because he stated that this showed there was still great room for
improvement in engines. Mr, E. A. Cowper had clear ideas; he said :—

‘Steam, or gases, in expanding, and so giving out power, lost heat. Part o
the sensible heat became latent in the production of power, and this heat could
only be recovered by expending the power already produced in again
condensing the steam back to its original bulk, when the latent heat again
became sensible.’

This discussion, then, puts us in the position of engineers at the date of the
last meeting referred to—May 17, 1853. Of all the distinguished engineers
who spoke, Siemeus alone had thoroughly apprehended the value of Joule’s results
and understood the full bearing of the mechanical equivalent of heat. He had
not, however, understood Carnot’s reasoning on the Carnot cycle, or Thomson’s
deductions from Carnot. He was under the impression that heat added in any
way to a working fluid, raising the temperature, could be entirely converted into
work by a sufficient expansion, He had not appreciated that, even if expansion
be carried far enough to reduce the temperature to the original temperature before
heat addition, yet complete conversion of the entire mechanical equivalent was
impossible. When so able a man as Siemens had at this stage only reached
partial enlightenment, it was evident that much hard work and clear thinking
required to be done before a well-founded theory of heat motive-power could be
obtained. The data for such a theory was accumulating; and one of the most
interesting circumstances connected with these Institution of Civil Engineers
papers was a communication from M. Regnault to Colonel Sabine, Treasurer of
the Royal Society, dated April 1853, which was read at thé meeting, in which
Regnault stated that

‘He was about to publish immediately a series of elaborate experimental
researches on various subjects connected with the effects of heat on elastic fluids,
the results of which would solve many questions long in dispute, and by means
of which engineers might accurately calculate the effect of a given amount of
fuel, in whatever way it was applied. M. Regnault communicated in anticipation
that he had arrived at the number 0:287 for the specific heat of air at constant
pressure, and at 0-475 for that of steam under atmospheric elasticity, the specific
heat of water being taken in each case as unity,’

True to his word, Regnault produced his admirable investigations, and suc-
ceeded in solving many problems; but he did not settle the questions to the
extent he had hoped. Even at the present time doubt arises as to the very
values he gave for the specific heat of air and steam. The problem proved much
more difficult than he had anticipated, and for modern engine purposes it cannot
be considered as wholly solved now—fifty-five years later.

This description of the position of the hot-air engine, as shown by the opinions
of eminent engineers, is most useful as proving how much practical men were
in need of the work of Thomson and Joule. It is not surprising tbat, of all the
engineers present, Siemens appeared to be alone in thoroughly grasping the new
ideas. Thomson’s own conversion from the material theory of heat to the dyna-
mical theory was not complete until 1851, and although he had then succeeded
in reconciling the ideas of Joule and Carnot, it is not to be wondered at that
engineers two years later had not quite succeeded in grasping the combination of
the two laws. ‘This combination, however, supplied engineers with a new and
accurate standard of measurement for studying and improving upon their heat:
engines, and they were by no means slow in grasping the help thus offered them
by the abstract scientific man, The broad laws of thermodynamics have placed
the theory of the heat engine in a position of certainty, which was much needed.
It would be a mistake to assume, however, that even the determination of the
mechanical equivalent of heat and the second law of thermodynamics expressed
in terms of an absolute thermometric scale had solved all the difficulties of the
engineer desiring to determine the efficiency of his heat engines, ‘Thomson

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 823

Joule, Rankine, and their great Continental colleagues, it is true, settled once
and for all the broad laws of thermodynamics, but the Carnot cycle is a cycle
which is, as has been repeatedly shown, an impossible one in practice. Accord-
ingly actual engines have to operate upon imperfect cycles. ‘The theory of these
imperfect cycles has been worked out mostly during the last twenty-five years,
although Rankine made a beginning in dealing with the theory of the Joule air
engine. For the first time he showed the existence of what may be termed a
cycle of constant efficiency in the case of the Joule air engine. Assuming con-
stant specific heat for the working fluid, he calculates the efficiency of what we
now call a constant-pressure air engine between certain limits of temperature,
and he gives the efficiency of the fluid where U = energy exerted and Hy =heat
received, and 7 =ratio of compression and expansion ;—

2 eee
H, 0408?

that is, he indicates in this formula that the thermal efficiency is independent of
the maximum temperature as long as that maximum temperature exceeds the
temperature of adiabatic compression. He makes no statement, however, that
this engine is within a certain range independent of the maximum temperature;
that is, that increasing maximum temperature does not increase efliciency.
Subsequent work has shown that, on a simple assumption, such as constant
specific heat, many engine cycles exist of a practicable nature having high
theoretical efficiencies where the theoretical efficiency depends on one thing only—
the ratio of compression. Some misunderstanding has arisen with regard to
these imperfect cycles, and it has even been thought that such imperfect cycles
would be contrary to the second law of thermodynamics. Lord Kelvin himself
was of this opinion in 1881. I vividly remember a conversation I had with him
at the Crown Iron Works, in Glasgow, over the results I had obtained from one of
my early gas engines. I had then come to the conclusion that the ‘Otto’ cycle
as ordinarily operated was a cycle of constant efficiency, and I explained this to
Lord Kelvin. He had not followed such cycles, and his view then was that no
such cycle could exist, because he thought it was contrary to the second law of
thermodynamics. Some idea of this kind has been held by many scientific men,
and has prevented the minute investigation of imperfect cycles of different kinds,
because of the feeling that the whole question of efficiency was entirely settled
by the nature of the temperature limits; that is, by the maximum and minimum
temperatures at the disposal of the engineer. It is true that these values, as has
been shown, must always determine the extreme limit of possible efliciencies
between certain temperatures, and in cycles of constant efficiency the particular
efficiency of the cycle is always less than the efficiency of a Carnot cycle engine
working between the same limits of superior and inferior temperature. The
investigation, however, of these imperfect cycles is much more difficult than the
broad investigation of the general thermodynamic laws, because it requires
accurate knowledge of the properties of the working fluid dealt with under con-
ditions rendering observation extremely difficult. The modern internal-com-
bustion motor is the successor to the air engine so fully discussed by eminent
engineers of fifty-five years ago; and the forebodings of even so eminent a man as
Faraday as to its ultimate success have proved unfounded. Great difficulties
have been encountered and many discrepancies have had to be explained, but a
minute study of the nature of the working fluid has rendered it more and more
possible to calculate the efficiencies to be expected under practical conditions. At
the present time we can deal with almosé any cycle or any working fluid with some
fair approximation to an accurate result. Much work, however, is required before
all problems of the working fluid can be said to be solved with regard to any heat
engine. Indeed, it may be said that under modern conditions of the use of steam
even the properties of the working fluid—steam—have not yet been satisfactorily
determined, The mere question of specific heat, for example, of steam and its
variations of temperature and pressure is now under review, and important

824 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

experiments are in progress in Britain and on the Continent to determine those
properties. The properties of the working fluid of the internal-combustion
motor are also the subject of earnest study by many Continental and British
investigators, Notwithstanding all the perplexities involved in the minute study
of the imperfect heat engine cycles, we are in a very different position to-day
compared with the engineer of 1853. We know all the broad laws as to the
conversion of heat into work or of work into heat; and, numerous as are the
pectin yet to be solved, we at least profit by the guiding light set out for us by
Selvin, Joule, and Rankine,

~~ en

The following Paper was then read :—

Recent Advances in Steam Turbines.' >
By Gerap Stoney, B.Z., MInst.C.F., MALEL.

This paper was a continuation of one read by the author at the York meeting
in 1906, and showed the rapid progress that has been made in steam turbines
during the past two years. Improvements in electric machinery, both in the form
of continuous-current dynamos and also alternators driven by steam turbines, were
dealt with, as well as the application of the steam turbine to air compressors
and for pumping water, &c. The use of exhaust-steam turbines for utilising the
exhaust from reciprocating engines was described, and also of intermittent sup-
plies of exhaust steam, such as from winding-engines, by help of thermal accumv-
lators, along with the further refinement of mixed-pressure turbines, where, when
the supply of exhaust-steam fails, a high-pressure portion is brought into action,
thus utilising the full boiler-pressure. Improvements in condensers and the various
means to obtain the highest vacuum possible were also described.

In marine work the great development of express liners on the Atlantic was
dealt with, and also the combination of reciprocating engines and turbines for
tramp steamers and vessels of low speed, from which combination greater economy
can be obtained than with either steam turbines or reciprocating engines alone.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 4. Se

Joint Discussion with Sections A and B on Gaseous Luplosions.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.

The following Papers were read :—

lL. The Utilisation of Peat fur making Gas or Charcoal with Recovery a
By-products.2, By Captain H. Riauy Sankey, &.2., IW Inst.C.£.

The much-discussed subject of the utilisation of peat has during the last few
years been revived owing to developments in gas producers and in gas engines,
and at the moment if is of considerable interest in Ireland in connection with the
Bill which has been promoted in Parliament to obtain powers to produce gas from
peat, to use this gas for making electricity by means of gas engines and dynamos,
and to distribute electric power to works which will probably be established
in the immediate neighbourhood of the ‘power station and throughout a certain

' Published in the Llectrician, September 11,
? Published in Hnginsering, September 11,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 825

prescribed district. It is proposed to put the power station alongside the Grand
Canal, not far from Robertstown, about twenty-five miles from Dublin.

Previous attempts to utilise peat for power failed because they were based on
drying the peat, so as to contain no more than 25 per cent. of water, and in some
cases the expense of ‘briquetting ’ was incurred; the peat was then transported
to the place where power was required and burnt in steam boilers fitted with
specially designed furnaces. Such peat could not compete with coal; moreover,
the valuable by-products were not recovered.

In the proposed scheme the peat will only be partially dried—that is, will
still contain 60 per cent. of water; it will be used on the spot to make gas, so as
to get the benefit of the great thermal efficiency of gas engines and to save the
cost of carriage. The by-products will be recovered, the profit on which will at
least cover the cost of getting and drying the peat. It will be possible to supply
power to works in the immediate neighbourhood of the power station as cheaply
as can be done from water-power. Many of those industries which are dependent
upon cheap power will undoubtedly be attracted.

Great progress has been made in Germany in the utilisation of peat. Although
no complete electric-power undertaking is at present working on the above lines,
all the various links in the chain are separately and successfully in operation ;
many of these links have been ‘ Made in Germany,’ why should not the complete
chain be put together in Ireland ?

There are several methods of getting and drying peat. Apparently, the most
suitable, when it is desired to obtain peat nearly all the year round, is to dig with
a grab, and pass the peat through a Dornberg press. The peat then rapidly dries
to 60 per cent., except in very wet weather in the winter, and to tide over this
period a reserve of peat must be accumulated.

The producers used for making gas from peat are similar to those usad with
bituminous coal, but they are larger in dimensions for the same power. The gas
issuing from the producers passes through the recovery plant, thence to the gas
engines. The gas in passing through the recovery plant is cleaned in a very perfect
manner, and therefore troubles due to tar and dust are entirely obviated.

Sulphate of ammonia is the principal by-product. The amount obtained
depends on the percentage of nitrogen in the peat. The proposed power station
at Robertstown will be capable of making 3,000 tons of sulphate per annum.

The other important by-products are acetate of lime, methyl alcohol, and tar
containing paraffin wax and oils. An excellent waggon grease can be made from
the tar, the output of which at Robertstown ought to be about 2,000 barrels per
annum. ‘The monetary value of these by-products will be about equal to that of
the sulphate of ammonia.

An excellent charcoal can be made from peat, instead of gas, together with
the by-products enumerated above, and the process has been in operation near
Oldenberg for over ten years, The most up-to-date factory, however, is at
Beuerberg, near Munich, and it has been at work for three years. The charcoal
obtained from peat is of excellent quality, and can be used to advantage to replace
wood chareoal. It is used in large quantities in Germany in connection with the
manufacture of steel,

2. Producer Gas.' By J. Emerson Dowson, WV. Jnst.C.L.

The author's first paper on this subject was read at the York Meeting in 188],
and after twenty-seven years he reviewed briefly the progress since made. In large
furnace-work he traced the developments and improvements in the system intro-
duced by the brothers Siemens. Its success has been great, and has been due
chiefly to heating the air for combustion by the waste products. Dr. Mond’s
recovery of ammonium sulphate, which reduces the cost of fuel, is also mentioned.
For smaller heating work, where jets of gas are required, it is essential that the

’ Published in Lngineering, September 11,

826 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

gas should be clean, of good quality, and of uniform pressure. _ This is especially
necessary where the gas must be burnt with air at pressure, as for blow-pipes, &c.
Producer gas is now used for the following as well as many other purposes:
Cooking and baking in hospitals and asylums, japanning and enamelling, type-
founding, varnish making, melting in crucibles, cutting and finishing glass,
heating tailors’ irons in clothing factories, and laundry irons, calenders, &c.,
gassing silk and cotton yarns, singeing textile fabrics, soldering biscuit and
condensed-milk tins, &c., annealing, hardening and tempering, boiling sugar,
roasting coffee, cocoa, and other food-products in factories. Notwithstanding this
the author considers that, in proportion to the immense amount of heating
required in the various industries throughout the Kingdom, more progress would
have been made if manufacturers and others knew more about the subject
technically. Often they do not seem to understand the treatment of gas, or
what can be done with it. Undoubtedly the greatest development in the use of
producer gas has been with gas engines. A gas engine was worked for the first
time with producer gas in 1879, in a plant devised by the author. The calorific
power of producer gas is the same now as then, but less gas is now consumed per
h.p., owing to improvements made in the engines. The meaning of pressure and
suction gas was described. In 1862 Dr. Jacques Arbos of Barcelona patented
a gas producer worked by the suction of an engine, but the first to deal with this
in a practical way was M. Léon Bénier of Paris (1891). Various modifications
and improvements have since been made, and the suction plant is extensively
used. The chemical reactions on which pressure and suction gases depend are
identical, but the calorific power of pressure gas made with a jet of superheated
steam is usually considerably higher than that of suction gas. For heating
purposes in smal] burners, or in blowpipes, pressure gas is better, and an engine
worked by suction gas develops a rather lower maximum power than with pres-
sure gas. In considering the two types of plant for engine work, the general
conclusions are: A. suction plant costs less and occupies less ground space, but
the gas made in it is not so strong as in the older form of pressure plant, and in
some cases this is important. The fuel consumption per h.p.-hour and the labour
required are the same in both types of plant, provided the steam required for
the pressure gas is raised without an independent boiler. The consumption of
water is the same in both types. Where there are several engines to serve, the
gas piping is simplified and its cost reduced when the gas is taken from a small
gasholder, instead of from several suction plants. In some cases the pressure type
is better than the suction, in others suction is better than pressure. From the
economical point of view, where producer gas is used for heating work instead of
ordinary town gas, there is usually a saving of 50 to 60 per cent. With engines
the consumption of anthracite is guaranteed not to exceed 1 1b. per b.h.p.-hour
(under full or three-quarter loads) in both types of plant. Gas coke is also used,
but its consumption is a little higher. For large furnace work non-caking
bituminous coal is almost invariably used, and in some cases this kind of coal is
also used for engine work.

3. Suction Gas Producers.| By P. W. Rosson.

4. The Study of Breakages.2 By Water Rosennatn, B.A., B.C_E.

The importance of the thorough investigation of failures or breakages occur-
ring in engineering practice was dwelt upon in the first part of the paper, more
particularly on the ground that such cases serve to show where our existing
knowledge and experience are at fault. Manufacturers of materials of engineer-
ing construction sometimes shrink from full investigation of failures, but it is
frequently found that the failure arose from causes other than inherently bad

' Published in Hngineering, September 11, 2 Lbid.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 827

material. The results of such investigations tend, further, to place our specifica-
tions upon a sounder basis, and at times to remove unnecessary restrictions from
manufacturers.

The principal causes of engineering breakages were classified in three groups
—as arising from defects inherent in the material, defects produced during the
process of manufacture of the machine or structure, and defects arising during .
the life of the finished object. Some of the more important cases, such as impure
material, metal which has been burnt or overheated, badly forged or annealed,
or subjected to improper mechanical treatment, are referred to, and the manner
in which these factors can be traced by subsequent investigation are indicated.
In illustration of the principles thus laid down the investigation of four typical
cases of breakage as carried out by the engineering and metallurgical depart-
ments of the National Physical Laboratory were described. In three of these
cases, viz., those of a large gun-tube, of a locomotive crank-pin, and of a large
shaft, the full text of the Laboratory reports was reproduced, with some addi-
tional comments; the fourth case—that of the failure of a boiler-plate—was
only referred to as having been already fully published.

In the case of the large gun-tube, which fissured after an unduly short
service, mechanical tests show signs of weakness, and the microscopic evidence
leads to the conclusion that the failure was due to the contamination of the steel
with an excessive amount of slag enclosures. The boiler-plate just mentioned
was found to have failed because it was exposed to unduly severe local deforma-
tion during the process of construction. The locomotive crank-pin was found to
consist of satisfactory steel which had been case-hardened and subsequently
quenched. The microscopic evidence showed that the hardening process employed
had been too severe, and had resulted in the formation of a number of hardening
cracks, some of which had extended through the entire mass of metal under the
working stresses. In the case of the large shaft (12 inches in diameter) the
failure was found to be due to the fact that while the exterior of the shaft, for a
depth of about an inch, consisted of fairly satisfactory material, the interior of
the steel showed a very coarse, weak structure, possessing very unsatisfactory
mechanical properties. The failure is in this case regarded as due, in all proba-
bility, to insufficient forging of the steel during the manufacture of the shaft.

In conclusion it was claimed that modern methods of investigation, if com-
pletely carried out under favourable conditions, have a considerable prospect of
success in arriving at the cause of a given breakage. The favourable conditions
principally insisted upon are the fullest possible information as to all relevant
circumstances and the careful preservation of all portions of the fractured part
from rust and dirt.

5. The Electrical Conductivity of certain Light Aluminium Alloys as
affected by Exposure to London Atmosphere.' By Ki. WiLson.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
The following Papers were read :—

1. The Laws of Flight.2 By F. W. Lancuester.

Lhe Theory of Sustentation.

The law of the pressure reaction for speeds such as may be usefully employed in
aérial flight has been established experimentally, and is :—
‘1) On a body of stated geometrical form in given presentation the pressure

? Published in the Hlectrician, September 11.
? Published in Hngineering, September 25.

828 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

reaction varies approximately as the square of the velocity, and as the square of the
linear dimension.

The theoretical justification of this law is that the viscosity and elasticity
of the fluid as quantities of which the resistance is a function, are without
sensible influence. This is approximately true, first, concerning viscosity, so long
as the product of the linear size and velocity of the body is greater than a certain
minimum value; and secondly, as to elasticity, provided that the velocity does not
approach too nearly the velocity of sound. In aérial flight as practised by birds or
man neither of these limitations applies, so that the V-square law may be accepted
as applicable. There is some correction required in regard to skin-friction; in
resistance of this kind it would appear that the index is somewhat less than 2,
though how much at present we do not know.

In the relations of the pressure reaction on planes at small angles there is a law
of great utility to be deduced from experiment, namely,

(2) Lor a given velocity the pressure varies directly as the angle.

This law only applies to the small angle, i.e., to one which, expressed in
radians, the angle, its sine, andits tangent, are sensibly equal to one another.
The law further does not apply to planes in apteroid aspect, in the extreme
case of which the sine-square law of Newton can be shown to apply; neither
of these limitations seriously affects the validity of the law in relation to aérial
flight.

A theory founded on the hypothesis of constant sweep—that is, upon the assump-
tion of a layer of air of defined thickness uniformly handled by the aéroplane—
gives results in agreement with these two laws, but with a defect in the constant
by which the quantities are related. This defect is accounted for and the theory
is rectified by taking into account the cyclic component in the periptery; by this
extension of the initial hypothesis complete harmony is established between theory
and experiment.

The two laws so far established result in the fact discovered by Wenham and
rediscovered by Langley, that neglecting skin-friction and other direct resistance
the power expenditure decreases when the velocity is increased, and the law of
frictionless flight is established.

(3) Neglecting skin-friction und other direct resistance, the h.p. varies inversely
as V ; or the resistance to flight varies inversely as V*.

The modifying influence of skin-friction and of other resistances varying
directly as V* results in the following laws, the proofs of which are given in the
author’s ‘ Aérial Flight,’ vol. i., Aérodynamices.

(4) The total resistance to flight is least when the resistance due to aérodynamic

1 y . *. .
support ( cc x;5 ) ts equal to the direct resistance (cc V*); hence this is the condi-
ip} v2 g ;

tion of greatest range on given fuel-supply.

(5) The flight will be sustained for the longest time on a given supply of
energy when the resistance due to aérodynamic support is three times the direct
resistance,

(6) The speed of greatest range is es (=1'315) times the speed of least
power. <a

(7) Neglecting ‘body resistance’ for aérodromes or aérodones designed for
least resistance, the resistance is independent of the velocity of flight. In other
words, the gliding angle is constant, or the power varies directly as the velocity of
fight.

Cor. When body resistance is present the total resistance consists of two
parts, one of which varies as the velocity squared and the other of which ws
constant.

(8) That, consequent on laws 4 and 5, there are best values of angle A (the
angle of an aéroplane to the line of flight, or the angle of trail of a pterygoid
aérofoil), and of the P/V? relation, that correspond to the condition of least
resistance, These, tabulated from theory, are found to be in harmony with
experience,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 829

The Theory of Stability.

An aérodone or aérodrome may be constructed to possess automatic stability
without any special mechanism for the maintenance of equilibrium. The natural
flight path is of undulating form, the varieties of flight path obtainable being
demonstrated both by theory and by experiment, plottings of these curves being

iven.
: An extension of the theory gives an equation, termed by the author the
‘ equation of stability,’ and it is shown experimentally that this equation gives the
limiting proportions of an aérodone of stable flight path.

A final consequence of the theory of stability gives the important fact that for
any given design of aérodone or flying machine there is a minimum velocity of
stable flight, and that the larger the machine the higher this minimum velocity
becomes, For a man-bearing machine it is probably over 30 miles per hour, and
in order that a suflicient margin of automatic stability should be provided, the
flight velocity should be but little short of 40 m.h.

2. The Causes of Wear in Motor Vehicle Machinery.’ By F. H. Royce.

3. Clock-driving Mechanism of Equatorials.?
By Sir Howarp Gruss, /.2.S.

The ordinary driving clock for an equatorial generally consists of some form
of frictional governor, the best being capable of keeping the rate within about
one-fourth to one-fifth per cent., which suflices for all ordinary observing or
micrometrical purposes; but for photographic work not only is a higher degree of
perfection required but the conditions to be fulfilled are somewhat different.

All frictional governors tend to correct any error in rate which may ‘rom one
cause or another have occurred; but in the case of instruments used for photo-
graphic purposes it is necessary not only that the rate be corrected, but that the
error which has crept in owing to difference of rate having occurred shall be com-
pletely wiped out, in order that the star images may be brought back to precisely
the same position on the photographic plate which they occupied before the error
occurred.

In order to effect this an independent free pendulum is used, controlling at
every second the rate of the uniform motion clock.

In the original form of this electrical control, devised by the author, and used
for the instruments employed in the International Stellar Photographic Survey,
the apparatus for effecting this control consisted of three portions, viz., the
detector, the distributor, and a pair of correctors for accelerating or retarding, as
occasion might require, particulars of which are described in the paper.

This arrangement produced very perfect results, but was necessarily somewhat
complicated, and required very careful adjustment.

In this paper the author described a modified and simplified form of this
control, in which the distributor is altogether dispensed with, the complication
very much reduced, and the adjustments simpler.

It is not claimed that this apparatus gives more perfect results than the
original form of control, provided that this latter be in perfect adjustment; but
it has been found simpler to work, and gives equally good results, with less
liability to go out of adjustment.

‘ Published in Engineering, September 18.
* Reported fully, with illustrations, in Lngineering, September 18.

§30 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9

The following Papers were read :—

1. Experiments on Rotating Dises.'
By Joun Brown, F.R.S., and Maurice F, FirzGeraxp, B.A.

The authors began by referring to the difficulty of the mathematical analysis
of the elastic deformation, under centrifugal stress, of rapidly revolving discs,
particularly when formed with a central hole, surrounded by a thick boss,
gradually reduced outwards to a thin edge by an arbitrary curve, and mentioned
the investigations of Mr. Chree and Mr. F. Purser of the cases of cylinders and
ellipsoids. The authors’ experiments were described as made for the purpose of
finding out whether approximate formulz, such as have been given for cases in
practice in such works as that of Stodola on steam-turbines, are sufficiently nearly
correct for practical purposes. Two discs, made of red rubber, weighing 72 Ib.
per cubic foot, were tested. The dises were both 12 inches external diameter.
One was solid, 4 inch thick at edge, 2 inches at the centre, its surfaces being two
flat cones. The other was % inch thick at edge, in its centre was a hole 14 inch
diameter, surrounded by a boss, with flat ends, 24 inches diameter and 3 inches
thick, the surfaces between the edges of the boss and disc being shaped to hollow
hyperbolic curves. The dises were suspended from the end of the shaft of a small
motor, placed with its axis vertical, and circles drawn on the faces, previously
painted white, while spinning. Photographs being taken of the discs while
spinning and when at rest, the strains at different radii were found by comparison
of the photographs, and plotted as curves, shown by lantern slides. The results
were compared with those of approximate formule. In the case of the solid disc
the difference between the speeds causing a given strain, as calculated and as
observed, amounts to about 20 per cent., and may, considering the imperfect
elasticity of indiarubber, be considered a fair enough approximation; but in the
case of the other disc, though the formula gives a tolerably fair idea of the shape
of the curve of strains, its error as to the actual magnitude of the speed causing
a given strain is so great, being near 400 per cent., as to lead to the conclusion
that the formula could not be trusted for practical purposes.

2. General Urban and Inter-urban Transportation and Railless Electric
T'raction.2 By F. Dovaias Fox, MLnst.C.£.

3. The Strength of Solid Cylindrical Round-ended Columns.
By Professor W. E. Litiy, J.4., D.Se.

In some previous papers * by the author the importance of secondary flexure
and its influence on the strength of columns was demonstrated. The result of
these researches led to a revision of the formulz at present in use for the design
of columns. It was shown that some provision requires to be made for the wave
deformation due to secondary flexure, which depends upon the thickness and the
figure or shape of the cross-section of the column. A modified formula based

1 Reported fully, with illustrations, in Hngineering, September 18.

2 Published in Engineering, September 18.

3 Published in Page’s Magazine, September 18.

4 References to previous papers: ‘The Strength of Columns,’ Proceedings of
the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, June 1905; ‘The Economic Design of
Columns,’ Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers of Ireland, March
1907 ; ‘ The Design of Struts, Hngineering, January 10, 1908.

——

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 831

upon the experimental work and theory was then given which took into considera-
tion this variable. The object in view in the present paper was the determination
of the constants to be used in the formule for the design of solid round-ended
columns. A series of experiments were carried out on columns of cast-tool steel,
Bessemer steel, mild-steel shaftingjrolled and annealed, wrought iron, and cast iron.
The results obtained are recorded on three diagrams, on which are plotted five
curves obtained from the experiments, together with the stress-strain diagrams
from the different materials and a series of curves plotted to the formule
adopted.

Same interesting results have been obtained as to the effect of the ductility
of the material, its strength at the yield point, and Young’s modulus of elasticity
upon the strength of solid columns. A comparison is then given of the Rankine-
Gordon and other formule. The constants to be used and as adopted from the
experiments are then discussed.

832 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H,

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE Secrion.—Professor WinLIAM RidGEWAY,
M.A., LL.D., Litt.D., F.B.A.

THURSDAY, SHPTEMBER 3.
The President delivered the following Address :—
The Application of Zoological Laws to Man.

Tarrty years ago in this very city I heard for the first time a Presidential
Address at the British Association, and I was singularly fortunate in entering on
my novitiate. I had the privilege of hearing Professor Huxley deliver his
Presidential Address to the embryo of that Section over which I, a very unworthy
successor, have this day the honour to preside. On that occasion Huxley dealt
almost exclusively with the physical evolution of man, and the Neanderthal skull
played an important part in his discourse. The anthropologists of that day and
since have severely criticised, and rightly so, the old teleological doctrine that
everything except man himself had been created for man’s use, and they emphati-
cally enunciated the doctrine that man himself has been evolved under the same laws
as every other animal. Yet the anthropologists themselves have not always carried
out in practice their own principles to their logical conclusions. To-day I shall
attempt to show that the chief errors which impede the scientific study of man
which lead to the maladministration of alien races, and which beget blunders of
the gravest issue in our own social legislation, are due in the main to man’s pride
in shutting his eyes to the fact that he is controlled by the same laws as the rest
of the animal kingdom.

I. Let us first consider some of the chief problems which at present are being
debated by the physical anthropologists. J‘oremost in importance of these is the
stratification of populations in Europe. It has generally been held as an article
of faith that Europe was first peopled by a non-Aryan race. Of course it is
impossible for us to say what were the physical characteristics of palaolithic man,
but when we come to neolithic man the problem becomes less hopeless. It has
been generally held that the first neolithic men in Europe, whether they
were descended or not from their paleolithic predecessors, had long skulls, but
were not Aryan; that later on a migration of short-skulled people from Asia
passed along Central Europe and into Trance, becoming what is commonly
termed the Alpine, by some the Ligurian, by others the Celtic race; that later
these two primitive non-Aryan races were overrun by the Aryans, who, when
these theories were first started, were universally considered to have come
from the Hindu Kush, but are now generally believed, as held by Latham, to
have originated in Upper Central Nurope. Yet, although the view respecting the
cradle of the Aryans has changed, anthropologists have not seen the important
bearing that it has upon the problem of ncolithic man, The Aryans are generally
held to haye had a blonde complexion.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 833

As our discussion must from its nature concern itself with questions of race,
let us first examine the criteria by which anthropologists distinguish one race
from another. If you ask an anthropologist how he distinguishes an Aryan from
a non-Aryan race, he will tell you that he relies on three main tests: (a) the
colour of the skin, hair, and eyes; (4) the shape of the skull and certain other
osteological characteristics; and (c) the system of descent through males.
Formerly language was included in the tests of race, but when it was pointed out
that the Negroes of Jamaica speak Hnglish, those of Louisiana French, hence-
forward it was assumed that one race can embrace the language of another
with the greatest ease. Yet it may turn out, after all, that language was too
hastily expelled from the criteria of race. On the other hand, we may find that
too implicit faith has been placed on the three criteria of cranial characteristics,
pigmentation, and law of succession.

(a) As it is assumed that all Aryans were blonde and traced descent
through males, so it is held that all Europeans, who are dark-complexioned, and
whose forefathers traced descent through women, are non-Aryan in race, and
that, although they now in almost every case speak an Aryan tongue, this is not
their primitive speech, but simply that learned from their Aryan conquerors.
According to this orthodox view, the dark-skinned inhabitants of Italy, Spain,
and Greece are all non-Aryan, and all have borrowed the language of their
masters, whilst of course the same is held respecting the melanochrous popula-
tion of France and of the British Isles. Ever since Professor Sergi comprehended
under what he terms the ‘ Eurafrican species’ all the dark-complexioned peoples
of Southern and Western Europe, as well as the Semitic and Hamitic peoples
of Western Asia and Northern Africa, the doctrine that the dark-skinned
peuple of Europe once spoke a non-Aryan tongue or tongues is supposed to have

een finally established, But under his Eurafrican species Sergi includes the
blonde race of Northern Europe who speak Aryan languayes along with the dark
races who speak non-Aryan tongues. It is argued that as all the dark-skinned
peoples on the north side of the Mediterranean belong by their physical type to
the same original stock as the Semites and Hamites, they must likewise have
spoken non-Aryan languages. Yet it might as well be maintained that the Finns,
who speak a non-Aryan tongue, and the Scandinavians, who speak an Aryan,
were originally all of one stock, because both races are blonde.

This doctrine of a Mediterranean race depends upon the tacit assumption
made by the physical anthropologists that identity or similarity of type means
identity of race. Yet this assumption does not bear the test of scientific exami-
nation, for it assumes that only those who are sprung from a common stock
can be similar in physical structure and coloration, and it leaves altogether out
of sight the effects of environment in changing racial types, and that, too, in
no long time. The change in the type of the American of New England from
that of his English ancestor and his approximation to the hatchet face and
thin scraggy beard of the Red Indian have long been remarked, whilst the Boers
of South Africa, in less than 150 years, have quite lost the old Dutch build, and
become a tall weedy race. The elfects of climatic conditions are very patent
amongst the native peoples of the New World. The Iroquois of the temperate
oo (lat. 40°-45°) of North America were a tall rather light-complexioned race,

ut as we keep moving south and approach the equator, their kindred tribes grow
somewhat darker in complexion and more feeble in physique, except where they
live at a considerable altitude, for of course altitude acts in the same way as
latitude, When once we pass below the equator the physique keeps steadily im-
proving until we come to the Pampas Indians, a vigorous race who defied all the
efforts of the Spaniards to subdue them; and finally we meet the Patagonians
(lat. 40°-53°), a_fine, tall, light-complexioned race, who form in the south the
counterpart of the Iroquois and their closely allied tribes in the north.

The same law, as is well known, can be seen at work in Kurope. Starting
from the Mediterranean, we meet in the lower parts a melanochrous race; but
gradually, as we advance upwards, the population as a whole is growing less
dark, until finally, along the shores of the Baltic, we meet the tallest and most

1908, 3H

834 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

light-complexioned race in the world, Of course it has been explained that the
change in pigmentation, as we advance from south to north, is due to the varying
proportions inthe admixture of the blonde race of the north with the melan-
ochrous of the south. But it is difficult to believe that the movements up or down
of the people from the southern side of the Alps, or of those from the shores of
the Baltic, have been so nicely proportioned as to give the general steady change
from north to south in coloration without the aid ot some other force. ‘The case
of America, which | have just cited, is in itself enough to raise a suspicion that
climatic influences are at work all the time, and that environment is in reality the
chief factor in the variation of both stature and pigmentation trom the Mediter-
ranean to the Baltic. The white race of the north is of the same proximate
ancestry as the dark-complexioned peoples of the northern shores of the Mediter-
ranean. I have already argued elsewhere that, as the ice-sheet receded, mankind
kept pressing further north, and gradually under changed climatic conditions the
type changed trom area to area, and they all still continued to speak the same
Indo-European tongue, but with dialectic variations, these also being no doubt
due to the physical changes in the yocal organs produced by environment.

If we turn from man to the other animals we find a complete demonstration
of this doctrine. For instance, the conditions which have produced a blonde
race on the Baltic have probably produced the white hare, white bears, and
the tendency in the stoat and the ptarmigan to turn white in winter, whilst in
the same regions of Europe and Asia the indigenous horses were of a dun colour,
who not only turned white in winter but had a great tendency to turn white
altogether. lt may be objected that the Lapps and Eskimo are not tall and
blonde, but on the contrary short and dark; but they live within the arctic circle
in regions where the sun does not shine at all for a great part of the year, and
cousequently they are quite outside the conditions of environment under which
the tall blonde race ot North Germany has long dwelt. Of course, in dealing
with man we are always confronted with the difficulties arising from his
migrations; but if we can find a family of lower anuimals who cannot be said
to have thus migrated, and who show the effects of environment, we shall be able
to argue powertully trom analogy.

The horse family supplies the example required. If we follow it from
Northern Asia to the Cape of Good Hope, we shull find that every belt has its
own particular type, changes in osteology as well as in coloration taking place
from region to region. ‘irst we meet the old dun horse, with its tendency to
become white, the best HKuropean examples of which were probably the now
extinct ponies of the Lofoden Isles. In Asia, Prejvalsky’s horse is the best living
instance—a dun-coloured animal with little trace of stripes. Bordering on the
Prejvalsky horse or true tarpan come the Asiatic asses: first the dzeggetai of
Mongolia, a fawn-coloured animal, the under-parts being Isabella-coloured; then
comes the kiang ot the Upper Indus valley, seldom tound at a lower altitude
than 10,000 feet, rufous brown with white under parts, whilst, as might be
expected from its mountain habitat, its hind-quarters are much more developed
in length and strength than in the asses of the plains. The Onager indicus,
onager and hemippus are found in ail the great plains of the Punjab, Af-
ghanistan, Western ludia, Baluchistan, Persia, and Syria, whilst a few are said to
survive in South Arabia, All these are lighter in colour than the kang, the
typical onager being a white animal wath yellow blotches on the side, neck, and
head, All the Asiatic asses are distinguished by the absence of any shoulder
stripe, though they occasionally show traces of stripes on the lower parts of the
legs. ‘I'he southern Asiatic asses just described in their greyer colour and smaller
hoois approximate to the wild asses of Airica, especially to those of Somaliland,
whilst 1t is maintained that in their ery, as well as in their colour, the kiaug and
dzeggetai come closer to the horse, whose next neighbours they are.

1 assing to Africa, we tnd the ass ot Nubia and Abyssima showing a shoulder
stripe, ana trequently with very strongly defined narrow stripes on the legs, the
ears being longer than those of the onager. ut in closer proximity to South-
Western Asia comes the Somali ass, which ditters from those of Nubia and

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 835

Abyssinia by being greyer in colour, by the entire absence of shoulder stripes,
and by smaller ears, in all which characteristics it comes closer to its neighbours
on the Asiatic side than it does to its relations in Abyssinia and Nubia.

Next we meet the zebras. First comes the magnificent Grévy zebra of Somali-
land, Shoa, and British East Africa. It is completely striped down to its hoofs,
but the coloration of the specimens from Shoa differs from that of those from
Somaliland, and from those of British East Africa. The Grévy zebra has its hoofs
rounded in front like those of a horse, but its ears are more like its neighbours the
asses than those of any other zebra.

In the region north of the river Tana the Burchelline group of zebras overlaps
the Grévy, and though it differs essentially in form, habits, and shape of its hoofs
from the Grévy some of those in the neighbourhood of Lake Barringo show grid-
iron markings on the croup like those on the Grévy zebra, whilst, like the latter,
they also possess functional premolars.

All the zebras of the equatorial regions are striped to the hoofs, but when we
reach the Transvaal, the Burchelline zebra, known as Chapman’s, is divesting itself
of stripes on its legs, whilst the ground colour is getting less white and the stripes
less black. Further south the true Burcheil zebra of the Orange River has com-
pletely lost the stripes on its legs and under-surface, its general colouring being
pale yellowish brown, the stripes being dark brown or nearly black. South of the
Orange River the now extinct quagga of Cape Colony had not only begun to lose the
stripes of its under-part and on the hind-quarters, but in Daniell’s specimen they
only survived on the neck as far as the withers, the animal having its upper surface
bay and a tail like that of a horse, whilst all specimens of quagga show a rounded
hoof like that of a horse.

In the quagga of 30° to 32° S. we have practically a bay horse corresponding
to the bay Libyan horse of lat. 30°-32° N.

But the production of such variations in colour do not require great differences
in latitude. On the contrary, from a study of a series of skins of zebras shot for
me in British East Africa, each of which is from a known locality and from «
known altitude, there can be no doubt that such variations in colour are found
from district to district within a comparatively small area.

In addition to the two species of zebra already mentioned, there is the moun-
tain zebra, formerly extremely common in the mountainous parts of Cape Colony
and Natal, though now nearly extinct in that area. Its hind legs, as might natu-
rally have been expected from its habitat, are more developed than those of the
other zebras, just as these same limbs are also more developed in the kiang of the
Himalayas than in any other ass.

With these facts before us, there can be no doubt that environment is a most
potent factor not only in coloration, but also in osteology. No less certain is it
that environment is capable of producing changes in animal types with great
rapidity. Thus, although it is an historical fact that there were no horses in Java
in 1346, and it is known that the ponies now there are descended from those
brought in by the Arabs, yet within five centuries there has arisen a race of ponies
(often striped) some of which are not more than two feet high. Darwin himself
has given other examples of the rapid change in structure of horses when
transferred from one environment to another, as for instance when Pampas horses
are brought up into the Andes.

Another good example is that of the now familiar Basuto ponies. Up to 1846
the Basutos did not possess a single horse, those of them who went down and
worked for the Boers of the Orange River usually taking their pay in cattle. At
the date mentioned some of them began to take horses instead. These horses
were of the ordinary mixed colonial kinds, and we may be sure that the Boers did
not let the Basutos have picked specimens. The Basutos turned these horses out
on their mountains, where living under perfectly natural conditions their posterity
within less than forty years had settled down into’a well-defined type of mountain

ony.

Ror is it only in the horse family that we meet with examples of the force of
environment. ‘The tiger extends from the Indian Ocean, through gare it to
; 3 H 2

8356 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

Corea, but the tiger of Corea is a very different animal from that of Bengal.
Instead of the short hair of the Indian tiger the Corean has clothed himself with
a robe of dense long fur to withstand the rigours of the north. It is’ not unlikely
that if we had a sufficient number of skins from known localities we could trace
the change in the tiger from latitude to latitude, just as I have shown in the case
of the Equidae.

Now whilst there is certainly a general physical type common to all the
peoples round the Mediterranean, it by no means follows that all those peoples are
from the same original stock. On the contrary, the analogy from man in other
parts of the world, as well as that of the Equidae, suggest that the resemblance
between the Berbers, who speak Hamitic, the Greeks who speak Aryan, and the
Jews and Arabs who spoke Semitic, is simply due to the fact that those peoples
from having long dwelt under practically similar conditions in the Mediterranean
basin, have gradually acquired that physical similarity which has led Sergi to the
assumption that they have a proximate common ancestry, and that they accordingly
form but a single race.

Nor is there any lack of instances of convergence of type ‘under similar cone
ditions in the case of the lower animals. We saw that the asses of South-
Western Asia approximate in colour to the asses of North-East Africa, and in
respect of the size of the ears and absence of shoulder-stripe, more especially to
the nearest of these, the ass of Somaliland. Yet it does not follow that they
are more Closely related to the Somali ass than they are to their own next
neighbours, the kiang. On the contrary, it is much more likely that the
Somali ass is closely related to those of Abyssinia, and that the South-Western
Asiatic asses are closely related to the kiang. ‘The approximation in colour,
absence of shoulder-stripe, and size of the ears between the asses of Somaliland
and those of South-Western Asia must rather be explained by a convergence
of types under the somewhat similar climatic conditions of Somaliland and
the nearest parts of South-Western Asia. Again, though there are very
strong specific differences between the Grévy and Burchelline zebras met in
the neighbourhood of Lake Barringo, there is a curious approximation not only in
marking but also in the teeth between these two species, which is best accounted
for by supposing that it is the outcome of similar environment. It may be said
that this approximation may be due to the interbreeding of the two species of
zebras in the region where they overlap. This, in itselfa most unlikely contingney
from all that is known of the habits of wild species, certainly cannot be alleged in
the case of the convergence in type between the asses of South-Western Asia and
the Somali ass, since they are separated by the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf.

Again, the representative of the crocodile family in the Ganges is dis-
tinguished by the extreme elongation of the head and jaws, whilst the same elon-
gation of the head is equally characteristic of the representative of the dolphin
family found in the same waters. Again, all through the Indian Ocean wherever
avy family of crabs have become inhabitants of coralline sands its members have
long legs. Again, it has long been nOticed that in Cutch all the larger animals
have a tendency to become a sandy colour, whilst in certain areas of South
America insects, no matter to what family they belong, have a tendency to one
common aspect.

It may of course be said that the changes in colour of the horse family, tigers,
and insects are for ‘ protective’ reasons. But the case of the horse family alone
is sufficient to dispose of this objection. The kiang of the Himalaya bad no
dangerous enemy until man was armed with a rifle. In Africa the zebras have
had only two formidable foes—man and the lion. It is asserted by the most
experienced hunters that the gaudy livery of the zebra makes him conspicuous
from afar, whether he is on the mountain, on the plain, or in the shade of a tree.
His brilliant colour therefore really exposes him to man, But it will be said that
it is well adapted to conceal him at night, at which time the lion seeks his prey.
Yet as the best authorities hold that the lion hunts entirely by scent, the colora-
tion of the zebra affords him no protection against his inveterate foe.

I have shown that in horses the coluurs—such as bay, black, grey, and white—

> ie eae Es

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 837

actompany certain well-defined inward qualities, But as black is most cettainly
not a primitive horse colour, it follows that coat colours may be intimately con-
nected with certain other characteristics quite irrespective of protective colouring.
Again, as the variation in the size and shape of the ears and hoofs of the asses and
zebras cannot be set down to protective colouring, but must be due to other
causes, there is no reason why variations in colour should not be ascribed to
similar causes.

The argument based on the analogy of the horse family and the tigers, and on
that of the natives of the New World, may be applied to the races of Africa.
Next to the Mediterranean lie the Berbers and their Hamitic congeners, who
are regarded as part of the Eurafrican species by Sergi and his school. But the
Berbers are not all of the typical Mediterranean physique. The blonde Berbers
of the highlands of Rif in North-West Morocco and of the Atlas have long been
well known. In the region lower down and in Western Tunis the occurrence of
the xanthochrous type seems much less frequent, whilst further east it practically
disappears.

It is certain that there was a fair-haired element in Libya long before Rome
conquered Carthage or the Vandals had passed into the ken of history, Oalli-
machus testifies to the existence of blonde Berbers in the third century B.c. We
may hold, then, with Sergi and others that the blonde element in the Berbers is not
a survival from invasions of Vandals or Goths, or from Roman colonists, but that
they rather owe their fair complexions and light-coloured eyes to the circumstance
that they were cradled in a cool mountainous region, and ‘not along the low-lying
border of the Mediterranean like their dark-coloured relations whose language and
customs they share.

If, then, some of those who speak Hamitic are fair, and have been fair for
centuries before Christ, as Sergi himself admits, whilst others are dark, there is
no reason why some of the peoples who speak Aryan might not be dark whilst
others are blonde.

The Berbers and their Hamitie congeners shade off on the south into other
p2oples, but this is not altogether due to intermarriage, as is commonly held, for
it is more probably to be explained as due in a large part to climatic conditions.
The Bantus, who are said to have originated in the Galla country and to have
spread thence, are now regarded by the chief authorities as the result of an inter-
mixture of Hamites and Negroes, But, on the grounds I have already stated, it
is more rational to regard them as haying been evolved in the area lying between
the Hamitic peoples on the north and the Negroes on the south, just as we have
corresponding types of the horse family in Nubia and Abyssinia and in the equatorial
regions. The same hypothesis also explains the existence of those cattle-keeping
tribes which lie west of the Nile stretching across Northern Nigeria, who border
on the Berbers, but yet differ from them, and border also on the Negroes, but
differ from them likewise. South of these tribes come the Negroes, the true
children of the equator. The Bantu is able to live in elevated equatorial areas,
and he has burst his way down to the sub-tropical and temperate parts of south
Africa, where he especially flourishes in the highlands, thus showing that his race
was originally evolyed under similar conditions. The Bantu found in the South
the Hottentots, who are especially distinguished by steatopygy, a feature which
has led some to identify them with the primitive steatopygous race supposed to
have once lived in Southern Europe, Malta, and North Atrica, and to have lett
evidence of their characteristic in their representations of themselves. But,
granting that such a race once lived in North Africa and Southern Europe, there
is really no more reason for supposing that they and the Hottentots formed one
and the same race than there is for assuming that Daniell’s quagga, which was
practically a bay horse, was proximately akin to the bay horse of North Africa.
The occurrence of steatopygy in two areas so wide apart is not due to an ethnical
migration, but rather to similar climatic conditions producing similar characteristics.

As some anthropologists so commonly explain the origin of races such as
the Bantus by intermarriage, it may be well to see whether intermarriage between
two races, one of which is an invader, is likely to produce a permanent effect upon

838 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

the general physique of a whole community. I have shown elsewhere that the
many invasions of fair-haired races into the three southern peninsulas of Europe
and into the Aegean islands have left no permanent trace on the population.
It is a matter of common knowledge that the offspring of British and native
parents in India have a constant tendency to die out. The same undoubtedly holds
true for the offspring of British soldiers serving in Egypt, the Soudan, and West
Africa. The native race always reasserts itself. In America the Spanish blood
has died out, or is dying out, everywhere except in the temperate regions of Chile,
Quito, and Argentina, where the descendants of the Spanish settlers thrive in a
climate very analogous to that of Spain. In the Southern States of North
America the whites cannot flourish, and only just manage to survive. On the
other hand the descendants of the Negro slaves imported into Brazil, the West
Indies, and the Southern States of North America thrive and multiply with
extraordinary vigour; a fact doubtless due to their race having been evolved under
similar conditions in equatorial Africa.

Even from the evidence already to hand there is high probability that inter-
marriage can do little to form a new race unless the parents on both sides are of
races evolved in similar environments.

I have already pointed out that although the fair-haired race of Upper Europe
has age after age kept pouring over the Alps into Italy and the other southern
peninsulas, and have constantly intermixed with the indigenous populations, it is
only in the upper part of Italy that the blonde race is able to hold its own. In
Italy the xanthochrous race in ancient times as to-day had its maximum along
the Alps, and gradually dwindled towards the south until the melanochrous race
stood practically alone in the lower part of the peninsula. So too in the Balkan,
whilst the fair-haired element was at its maximum along the Alpsand the Danube,
southwards the melanochrous becomes more and more completely dominant, as it
practically is to-day in the lower part of the peninsula,

(4) In the Alpine regions there has been from Neolithic times a brachy-
cephalic race, also found in Central France and in the British Isles, whither it is
supposed to have come in the Bronze age. It has been a fundamental article of
faith with Sergi and others that this round-headed race came from Asia, the home
of brachycephalism. It is Mongolian according to most, and spoke a non-Aryan
language ; but Sergi regards it as Aryan, thus reverting to the old doctrine, which
made the Aryans come from Central Asia, and he assumes that these invaders
imposed their language both on the aborigines of Italy, such as the Ligurians, and
on the blonde race of Northern Europe; but we shall soon see that this assumption
has no base. Now, as these follx dwelt in the region where we find the Ligurians
of historical times, others have argued that the Ligurians were a non-Aryan
people from Asia. But it is impossible to find any hard-and-fast lines between
the Alpine race and the peoples north and south of it in culture and sociology.
For that reason when treating of the people of the Alps in my ‘Early Age of
Greece’ I did not take any account of the difference in cranial measurements. In
1906, at the British Association, I maintained that this difference of skull type
did not mean any racial difference, and on the analogy of the changes in the
osteology of the Equidae I urged that the roundness of the skulls was simply due
to environment, as the horses of the Pampas when brought up into the moun-
tainous regions of Chile and Peru rapidly change their physical type. Physical
anthropologists have already maintained that the round head of the Mongolian
has been developed in the high altitude of the Altai. If that be so, there is no
reason why a similar phenomenon should not have taken place in the Alpine
region, in Albania, Anatolia, and wherever else in mountain areas brachycephaly
has been found in more than sporadic examples, which of course may well be due
to migrations or importation of slaves. But Iam far from suggesting that altitude
is the only cause of brachycephaly.

The evidence then, as far as it goes, points to the same conclusion as that to
which we came as regards pigmentation, and it may eventually be proved that
just as each area has its own type of coloration, so also has it its own osteological
character. In support of this [ may point out that recently Dr. William Wright,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 839

Hunterian lecturer, has come to the conclusion from his craniological investiga-
tions that the brachycephalic Alpine race was evolved on European soil, whilst
Dr. C. S. Myers has been led bv his researches on Egyptian skulls to conclude
that, ‘in spite of the various infiltrations of foreign blood in the past, modern
Egypt contains a homogeneous population which gradually shifts its average
character as we proceed southwards from the shores of the Mediterranean to
Nubia beyond the First Cataract.’

It is not impossible that Alpine environment may have acted upon the shape of
the skull of the ox as well as that of man. We know from the examination cf
the fauna of the Lake dwellings of Switzerland that the Celtic ox (Bos lonat-
frons) was there the common type, and its descendants still continue to be the
typical breed along the Alpine chain. This ox is characterised by its strongly
developed occipital region and its small horns curved forward and inward. As
it differs so essentially from the urus (Bos primigenius) and from the long-horned
cattle of the Mediterranean lands, it seems not unlikely that the peculiar cranial
formation may have been evolved under mountainous environment.

It is now clear that differences in the shape of the skull and in the colour of the
skin, hair, and eyes cannot be at all implicitly relied on as criteria of race. The
defenders of the non-Arvan character of the dark races of Greece, Italy, Spain,
France, and the British Isles have now to depend on two arguments only, one of
which is linguistic, the other sociological. It is admitted that it is very difficult
to point to any non-Aryan survivals in the vocabularies of the languages of these
countries, and it is also admitted that in them all the tense system of the Aryans
has been taken over in its entirety. Neither Kretschmer nor anyone else has
ventured to affirm that there is any survival of non-Aryan syntactical forms in
Greek, the language of all others in which the Ayran tense system is found in
its greatest delicacy and perfection. But we know that in all cases where an
Aryan language has without doubt been adopted by a non-Aryan folk the tense
system is invariably broken up. No better example than this is needed than
ordinary ‘pigeon’ English. So difficult is it for the defenders of the non-Aryan
theory of the origin of the aborigines of Greece to maintain their position that
one of the latest, Professor Burrows, has to rely on certain supposed syntactical
survivals of a non-Aryan language which Sir John Rhys believes that he has found
in Welsh and Irish and in the remarkable resemblance which Professor Morris
Jones thinks that he has traced between the syntax of those languages and that
of Berber and ancient Egyptian.

Yet when we examine the evidence on which Sir John Rhys relies, it turns
out to be only three Welsh and Cornish oghams, written not in pure Celtic, but
in dog Latin, and also two Irish oghams, which show a looseness in the use of the
genitive suffix at a time when final syllables were dropping out of use in Trish.
Sir John Rhys supposes that the non-Aryan inhabitants of these islands derived
their Gaelic speech from a people whom he terms Celticans, who spoke Goidelic,
and who were followed by the Brythons, who found the aborigines already
Celticised. Professor Morris Jones freely admits that the aborigines must have
borrowed the full Aryan tense system, a fact in itself sufficient, from what I have
aiready said, to arouse grave suspicions as to the validity of any arguments based
on supposed fundamental grammatical differences. But this supposed taking over
of the full Aryan tense system by the non-Aryan aborigines of these islands is
rendered all the more miraculous from the circumstance that Sir John Rhys holds
that his Celticans who spoke Goidelic ‘ came over not later than the great move-
ments which took place in the Celtic world of the Continent in the sixth and fifth
centuries before our era,’ that the Brythons came over to Britain between the time
of Pytheas and that of Julius Cesar,’ and that the Brythons were not likely to
come into contact on any large scale with the aborigines ‘before they had been
to a considerable extent Celticised.’ It is thus assumed that it was possible
for the aborigines to have been so completely Celticised as to have adopted the
Aryan tense system, as well as the Aryan vocabulary, in its fulness in the interval
hetween the sixth or fifth century and the second century B.c. Yet English has
been the master speech in Britain for many centuries, and that, too, when reading

840 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION II.

and writing have been commonly practised ; yet Gaelic still survives, whilst Welsh
not only survives but flourishes. It is therefore simply incredible that such a
complete transformation as that postulated could have taken place in three or four
centuries in an age when writing and literature can be hardly said to have existed
in these islands.

Let us now see under what conditions does one race or people borrow the
language of another. Slaves of course take over the language of their masters, but
we have to consider (1) the adoption by a conquering people of the language of the
conquered, (2) the adoption by a conquered people of that of their conquerors, and
(3) the adoption by a people themselves unconquered of the language of their neigh-
bours. Under what conditions do the conquerors adopt the language of the con-
quered ? Ireland affords us at least twocertain examples. Cromwell planted large
bodies of his English soldiers in Tipperary, but they had no English women, and there-
fore took as wives the daughters of the land, who spoke the Irish language. From
this union resulted a splendid offspring, who spoke chiefly the language of their
Irish mothers, and not their fathers’ English. So it came to pass that in a single
generation the progeny of Cromwell’s Puritans were in language as Irish as the
purest blooded aboriginal of Munster. Yet this adoption of the Irish language by
the great majority of the children of these settlers took place in spite of the effect
which the reading of books in English must have exerted to counteract the
tendency to adopt the Irish language. Let us go back five hundred years in Irish
history and we find exactly the same process going on. The Normans who
followed Strongbow into Ireland, like their captain, frequently married native
women. It isa matter of common knowledge that the Anglo-Norman settlers
in a short time became Hiberniores tpsis Hibernis.

These and other examples too numerous to cite here prove that the children of
bodies of conquerors who marry the women of the land will have an inevitable
tendency to follow their mothers’ speech. We may also lay down as a solid factor
in the tendency of the conqueror to merge into the conquered the isolation of the
conquerors from their original homes and from the great mass of those who speak
the same language.

Next we come to the case where the conquerors bring with them some women
of their own race. This of course helps to keep their own language alive, as a
certain number of the children speak it as their mothers’ tongue. But even
in these circumstances the invaders are liable to drop their own language and
practically adopt that of the natives. Thus the Northmen who settled on
the coast of France gradually abandoned their national tongue for French, though
modifying dialectically their adopted language. When under the name of
Normans they conquered and settled in England, they again adopted the language
of the conquered, though modifying the English tongue by many words and
phrases brought with them from Normandy, and we have just seen how some of
their descendants who settled in Ireland for the third time changed their speech
for that of the conquered.

Hitherto all our examples show the adoption by the conquerors of the language
of the conquered, even when they bring a certain number of their women with
them.

We now come to undoubted cases where the language of the conqueror has
been able to get a firm foothold. From the time of the plantation of Ulster,
the advance of the English tongue, and consequent decadence of the Irish, has
steadily proceeded, for the settlers, unlike Cromwell’s Ironsides, brought with
them women of their own race and speech. Consequently their children grew up
speaking English as their mothers’ tongue. Yet even with such a basis the
advance of English amongst the Irish has been exceedingly slow. In the glens
of Antrim the Irish language still lingers on, whilst in Donegal, Connaught,
Kerry, Cork, and Waterford, English has not succeeded in ousting completely the
native language, though the former is the language of the national schools, of the
newspapers, and of trade.

The story of the establishment of English itself in Britain is just the same
as in Ulster, We know from Bede that the Angles who settled in Britain left

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 841

Holstein in large bodies, bringing with them their wives and families, and leaving
their old homes without inhabitant. Having thus settled in solid masses in the
east of Britain, they retained fully their own tongue, impressed it upon their
menials, and gradually, as they extended their conquests westward over the island,
English became the language of the land. Yet in Wales the ancient speech
still flourishes.

We may therefore conclude that the adoption by the conquered of the
language of the conqueror, even when it does take place, which is but rarely,
is a very slow and tedious process, although every advantage is on the side of
the invading tongue, aud that when the native speech gets a fair field, as in
Wales, the language of the conqueror can make little or no advance.

Only the third possibility now is left—that one people can adopt without
conquest the language of another. But no example of such can anywhere
be found, although Europe presents numerous instances to the contrary.
There can be no stronger case than that of the Swiss Republic, in which peoples
with more than four kinds of language combine for national defence and other
advantages. Here, if anywhere, we ought to find a gradual adoption by certain
cantons of the language of. their neighbours. But, far from thia being so, the
German, French, Roumansch, and Italian cantons rigidly preserve their respective
mother-speeches. In the Austro-Hungarian Empire there is no tendency observable
on the part of either Magyars or Slavs to adopt German; nay, the very opposite
is the case. Again, the Finns have not adopted either Swedish or Russian, though
partitioned between their more powerfal neighbours.

To sum up, it seems that no nation readily adopts the language of another,
even though it be in close ties of friendship; whilst there is still less tendency
when national hostility intervenes. Secondly, the adoption of the language of the
conqueror by the conquered, except under the most favourable circumstances, is
not common, and only takes place by a very gradual process, as is seen in the case
of Ireland. Thirdly, there is a strong tendency for the conqueror to adopt the
language of the conquered, as was done by the Normans in England, in Ireland, in
Sicily, and in Italy; by the Cromwellian settlers in Tipperary, by the Bulgari in
Bulgaria, by the Franks in Gaul, by the Lombards in Italy, and by the Visigoths
in Spain. There is thus an inevitable tendency for the children to speak their
mothers’ tongue, and indeed the phrase ‘mother-tongue’ is based on the fact
observed through long ages that the child learns its first words from its mother
and thus takes after her in speech. This law, which still holds good in modern
days and in civilised communities, must have been far stronger in earlier times
in countries where the tie of marriage hardly existed and the child belonged
to its mother’s and not to its father’s tribe, as is still the case in many parts of the
world.

In view of these facts we cannot accept Sir John Rhys’s hypothesis that when
a few bodies of invaders, whom he terms Celticans, passed into Ireland the
indigenous supposed non-Aryan race within two centuries completely abandoned
its own language, taking over in its entirety the Aryan tense system as well as the
Aryan vocabulary of its conquerors.

Now let us turn to Greece, Italy, and Spain. It is admitted that neither
Arcadia nor Attica was ever conquered by Acheans or Dorians, yet in both these
areas the Greek language existed through all historical time, and in Attica
especially the Aryan tense system is found in its highest perfection. The dialect
of Arcadia cannot have been taken over from Acheans or Dorians, because it is
the same as that of the Cypriotes from Arcadia who settled in Cyprus at least
1100 z.c. It is also very close to the dialect of Pelasgiotis in Thessaly, the home
of the aboriginal Pelasgian population, whilst it comes closest of all Greek dialects
to that of the ancient Epic. There can therefore be no doubt that Arcadian is
no mere bastard lingo, half non-Aryan, half Aryan, but is the genuine speech
of the oldest and most unmixed population of Greece, who were undoubtedly a
melanochrous race, and who also most certainly had occupied Greece from the
Stone age.

The Ligurians, who formed from the Stone age the bottom stratum in all

84.2 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. ee

Upper and Central Italy, are now admitted to have spoken an Aryan language, and
I have recently given some reasons for believing that the Latin language is simply
the native tongue of the aboriginal Ligurian population of Latium with some
admixtures derived from the Italic tribes of Siculi and Sabines. I have also shown
that the ancient Iberians, the next neighbours of the Ligurians, used the same
forms of place-names as the latter, and that some of the words plainly exhibit
Aryan terminations. Thus we may conclude that with the exception of the
Basques, who are probably a non-Aryan spurt from North Africa, the melanochrous
populations of Spain, Italy, the Balkan Peninsula, France, Britain, Ireland, and
Holland have from the first spoken none but an Aryan language.

(c) Only one argument is now left to the defenders of the non-Aryan
theory. When the study of sociology first sprang up in the last century, it at
once became a fundamental doctrine that the Aryans had always been strictly
patriarchal, and that polyandry and descent through women was unknown amongst:
them. Though this view has received many rude shocks in Jater days, Professor
Zimmer argues from it that the indigenous people of Britain and Ireland were
non-Aryan,

It is well known from the ancient writers that the Picts were polyandrous and
that succession was consequently through females. Again, it is certain, both
from the ancient Trish literature and also from statements of external
writers, that the Irish were polyandrous, and that they also almost certainly
traced descent through women. Accordingly Professor Zimmer infers that the
indigenous race was non-Aryan. But McLennan has long since pointed out that
descent through women was the ancient Jaw at Athens, and I have just shown
that the Athenians and Arcadians, the autochthonous, dark-complexioned people
of Greece, never spoke any save an Aryan tongue. Moreover, I have shown else-
where that the Ligurians, who are now generally admitted to have spoken always
an Aryan language, had descent through women, whilst I hava also pointed out
that there is good evidence that the ancient Latins, who have generally been taken
as typical Aryans, had the same system. Again, it is admitted that the ancient
Illyrians and dark-complexioned Thracians spoke an Aryan language, which,
inasmuch as it differed materially in certain ways from that spoken by their Celtic
overlords, must have been aboriginal, whilst I have further given grounds for
believing that the ancient Iberians (though not the Basques) were also an Aryan-
speaking folk. But there is good evidence that the Ilyrians, melanochrous
Thracians and Iberians all traced descent through women. In view of these facts
it is useless to urge that because the Picts of Scotland and the ancient Irish had
that system of succession through females these peoples must have been non-
Aryan.

We have now reviewed the three main criteria of race at present used by
anthropologists: (a) pigmentation of the skin, hair, and eyes; (+) the shape of the
skull and other osteological characteristics; and finally (c) their system of tracing
descent. We have seen that osteological differences may be but foundations of
sand, because it is certain that such variations take place within very short
periods, not only in the case of the lower animals, as in the horse family, but in
man himself. Pigmentation is no true criterion, for we have found a steady
tendency to change in colour in the case of the lower ‘animals from latitude to
latitude, whilst in the case of man the steady shading off in colour from dark to
blonde may be traced from the equator to the Baltic. | Unless then we postulate
that man is entirely free from the natural laws which condition the osteology and
pigmentation of other animals, we must admit that neither bone nor colour differences
can be regarded as crucial criteria. Further, we saw that the test of descent
through males or females broke down absolutely in the case of peoples who can be
proved historically never to have spoken any but a non-Aryan language. Finally,
we are forced to the conclusion that language, now that we realise what are the
laws which govern its borrowing by one race from another, is really the surest
of all the known tests of race when dealt with broadly and over wide areas, and
not merely in the way of guesswork etymologies.

II. Hitherto I have dealt only with the need of a rigid application of

ee

ee

—

os

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 843

zoological laws in studying the evolution of the various races of man. In the
time that is still left I propose to touch briefly on the vast importance of such natural
laws when dealing with the native races of our great dependencies and colonies,
and in our own social legislation, I venture to think that the gravest mistakes
which at present are being made in our administration and legislation are due to the
total disregard of the natural laws, which not only modify and ditferentiate one
race from another, but also are constantly producing variations within our own
community. As physical characteristics are in the main the result of environment,
social institutions and religious ideas are no less the product of that environment.
Several of our most distinguished Indian and Colonial administrators have pointed
out that most of the mistakes made by British officials are due to their ignorance
of the habits and customs of the natives. It has been in the past an axiom of
British politicians that in the English Constitution and in English law there is
a panacea for every political and social difficulty in any race under the sun, Only
let us give, it is urged, this or that State a representative parliamentary system
and trial by jury and all will go well. The fundamental error in this doctrine is
the assumption that a political and legal system evolved during many centuries
amongst a people of North-Western Europe, largely Teutonic, and that too living
not on the mainland but on an island, can be applied cut and dried to a people
evolved during countless generations in tropical or subtropical regions, with social
institutions and religious ideas widely different from those of even South Europeans,
and still more so from those of Northern Europe. We might just as well ask
the Ethiopian to change his skin as to change radically his social and religious
ideas. It has been shown by experience that Christianity can make but little
headway amongst many peoples in Africa or Asia, where on the other hand
Muhammadanism has made and is steadily making progress, acting distinctly
for good, as in Africa, by putting down human sacrifice and replacing fetish
worship by a lofty monotheism. This is probably due to the fact that
Muhammadanism is a religion evolved amongst a Semitic people who live in
latitudes bordering on the aboriginal races of Africa and Asia, and that it is far
more akin in its social ideas to those of the Negro or Malay than are those of
Christianity, more especially of that form of Christianity evolved during the last
twelve centuries by the Teutonic peoples of Upper Europe, who are of all races
furthest in physical characteristics, in religious ideals and social institutions, from
the dark races of Africa and Asia. This great gulf is due not merely to shallow
prejudice against other people's notions, it is as deep-seated as is the physical
antipathy felt by the Teuton for the Negro, which is itself due to the very
different climatic conditions under which both races have been evolved. The
Teuton does not freely blend with the black, and even when he does intermarry
he treats his own half-bred progeny with contempt, or at most with toleration.
On the other hand, some South Europeans, for example the Portuguese, are said
to haye little objection to intermarrying with dark races and allowing the mixed
progeny an equal social status, whilst the Arab through the ages has freely taken
to wife the African, and has never hesitated to treat the hybrid offspring as equals.
There is thus a wide breach between the physique and the social and religious
ideas of the African and our own; but, as political and legal institutions are
indissolubly bound up with social and religious, it follows inevitably that the
political and legal institutions of a race cradled in Northern Europe are exceed-
ingly ill adapted for the children of the equator. Accordingly in any wise
administration of these regions it must be a primary object to study the native
institutions, to modify and elevate them whenever it may be possible, but never
to seek to eradicate and supplant them. Any attempt to do so will be but vain,
for these institutions are as much part of the land as are its climate, its
soil, its fauna, and its flora. ‘Naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret.’
Let us hope for a successful issue for the effort now being made by the Royal
Anthropological Institute to establish an Imperial Bureau of Anthropology whose
function will be not only to carry out systematically the scientific study of
man, but also to aid the administrator and the legislator, the merchant and the
missionary,

844 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

III. I now pass to my last and most important topic—natural laws in
relation to our own social legislation. We have seen that environment is
a powerful factor in the differentiation of the various races of man, alike in
physique, institutions, and religion. It is probable that the food-supply at hand
in each region may be an important element in these variations, whilst the
nature of the food and drink preferred there may itself be due in no small degree
to climatic conditions. Each zone has its own peculiar products, and beyond
doubt the natives of each region differ in their tastes for food and drink. The
aboriginal of the tropics is distinctly a vegetarian, whilst the Eskimo within the
arctic circle is practically wholly carnivorous. In each case the taste is almost
certainly due to the necessities of their environment, for the man in the arctic
regions could not survive without an abundance of animal fat. Itis probable that the
more northward man advanced the more carnivorous he became in order to support
the rigours of the northern climate. The same holds equally true in the case of drink.
Temperance reformers would enforce by legislation complete abstinence from all
alcoholic liquors, and they point to the sobriety of the Spaniards, Italians, and
other South Europeans, and urge, if these nations are so temperate, why should
Britons and Irish continue to drink beer and spirits in such large quantities ?
This appeal depends unfortunately on the false assumption that the natives
of these islands enjoy the same climate as the people of the sunny south. All
across Northern Europe and Asia there is a universal love of strong drink, which
is not the mere outcome of vicious desires, but of climatic law. In Shakespeare’s
time ‘your Englishman was most potent in potting,’ and this was no new outbreak
of depravity, for the earliest reference in history to the natives of these islands
tells us the same tale. When Pytheas of Marseilles travelled in these regions,
about 350 B.c., he found the people making ‘wine from barley,’ and, though he
does not explicitly say so, we need not doubt that it was meant for home con-
sumption. In view of these facts we must regard this tendency as essentially climatic.
This view derives additional support from the well-authenticated fact that one of the
chief characteristics of the descendants of British settlers in Australia is their strong
teetotalism. This cannot be set down to their having a higher moral standard
than their ancestors, but rather, as in the case of Spaniards and Italians, to the
circumstance that they live in a country much warmer and drier than the British
Isles. We must therefore, no matter how reluctantly, come to the conclusion
that no attempt to eradicate this tendency to alcohol in these latitudes can be
successful, for the most that can be done by the philanthropist and the legislator
is to modify and control it, but especially by moral means.

I have spoken of the principles at work in the differentiation of one race from
another. It may be that the same principles or others closely allied may be at
work within each community, for each community is but the whole world writ
small. Within the United Kingdom itself there are not only different physical
types, but very different ideas respecting marriage and divorce embodied in the
laws regulating those fundamental institutions in England, Scotland, and Ireland.
If such fundamental differences exist in that most important of social institutions,
we may well expect that the natural laws which differentiate one race from
another may be at work within every community in the United Kingdom.

Yet though the world has been ringing with the doctrine of natural selection
and the survival of the fittest for nearly half a century, no statesman ever dreams
of taking these great principles into consideration when devising any scheme of
education or social reform. On the contrary, it is afundamental assumption in all
our educational and social reforms that all men are born with equal capacities ;
that there is no difference in this respect between the average child of the labourer,
sprung from many generations of labourers, and one born of many generations of
middle or upper-class progenitors ; and it is held that all that is necessary to make
the children of the working classes equal, if not superior, to the children of the
bourgeois is the same food, the same clothing, and the same educational advantages.
On that account we have devised the so-called educational ladder. Yet if we
ask any social reformer why are there middle classes, the answer will probably
be that they are better off, But why are they better off? We are told that

= ei

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 845

their fathers and mothers were better off, and that they thus got a better chance
than the poor labourer. But why were the parents of these middle-class folks
better off? Oh! they came of families that had been long well-to-do. But why
were these families long well-to-do? At last we are brought to the conclusion of
the northern farmer, that ‘ Work mun ’a gone to the gittin’ whiniver munny was
got,’ and to his brutal correlative respecting the labourers that ‘Them or thir
feythers, tha sees, mun ’a bein a ladzy lot,’

Work no doubt has been a main factor in the evolution of the middle and
upper classes, especially in later times, though undoubtedly other qualities, such
as superior physique and superior courage, have been very important elements in
the earlier stages. But at all times it is not improbable that the special quality
which led to their rise was a superior self-restraint, that enabled them to resist
the vices which are too often attendant on prosperity. This superior morale acts
in turn upon the offspring by setting up a better standard of life in the home,
which of itself gives children brought up in such an environment an advantage
at the outset of life denied to the children of inferior parents. It needs no
elaborate induction to prove that the middle classes are not the outcome of
chance, but of a long process of natural selection and the survival of the fittest
in the struggle for life, the two main factors in this evolution being, in the
language of Aristotle, heredity and training. Each community is but a microcosm
of the whole human race, which, as I have endeavoured to show, is bound by
the same laws as the rest of the animal kingdom. One race becomes a master
because of its superior physique, courage, brain power, and morale; another sinks
in the struggle or lags behind owing to its inferiority in the very qualities which
have given the mastery to its rival. What is true of master races in relation to
inferior races is equally true of the individuals in each community. The middle
and upper classes are in the main sprung from ancestors with better physique,
courage, and morale, and who have generation after generation been brought up
in a better moral atmosphere than the children of the masses. Their ranks are
also continually being reinforced by the best of the working classes. But this is
not due to any educational ladder provided in modern times, for the process has
always been at work, though of course its action has been distinctly aided by
modern legislation. Medieval history supplies many examples of those who,
though sprung from the humblest parents, rose to high place in Church and State.
This was not due to any legislative enactments, but rather to a principle well
known in the whole field of Nature. Everyone knows that the superior varieties
of flowers and vegetables are commonly the ‘ sports,’ as they are termed, from
inferior species. The skilful gardener watches carefully for good ‘ sports,’ for they
may become very valuable additions to his répertoire of useful plants. So, too,
the legislator must watch carefully for good human ‘sports,’ not for those with
criminal propensities. In the medisval world the Church provided a ladder by
which the son of the peasant could rise to be the counsellor of kings and princes.
In modern times the State provides an educational ladder by which the child of
the humblest parents may rise, if it has the capacity, to the highest positions in
the community. It is right—nay, essential—that such a ladder should be pro-
vided, but this ladder is not for the mass of children, The vast majority can
never climb beyond its lowest rung owing to their heredity, and in a less degree
to their home environment. The Jadder is for the good ‘ sports,’ who by its aid
are thus continually reinforcing with fresh blood the ranks of the middle and
upper classes.

It may be said that I underrate the number of the good ‘sports.’ Of course
it is very difficult to get any exact statistics on so complex a subject; but

according to information which I have obtained from one of our great industrial

centres, where the educational ladder enables any child who passes the fourth
standard in the primary schools before it is eleven to rise into the secondary
schools, it is probable that no more than 5 or 6 per cent. of the children of
the working classes have at the age of sixteen the same amount of brain power
as the average children of the middle classes at the same age. But even all
this 5 or 6 per cent. of ‘ sports’ cannot be credited to parents of the working class

846 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

alone, for it may be that a certain proportion of them must be ascribed to
middle or upper class parents, Of course these rude statistics must be corrected
by others collected on a large scale all over the country before we can form a
final judgment; but I believe that the evidence already to hand makes it
improbable that more than a very limited percentage of the children of the
working classes have the same ability as the average child of the middle classes.

In ancient days the chief end of the legislator was to produce a stalwart
brood of citizens capable of bearing arms in defence of their country and
advancing her material prosperity. Still more ought this to be the aim of our
legislators to-day, for under modern conditions great masses of population are
huddled together in a manner hardly known to ancient cities. To accomplish
this great end, the legislator must not merely look to improved housing of
the poor and the development of the physique of city populations. He must,
as far as possible, conform to the principles of the stockbreeder, whose object
is to rear the finest horses, cattle, or sheep. Amongst wild animals Nature
selects the fittest for continuing the race, and the wise breeder simply aids
Nature by selecting still more carefully the best animals. The legislator,
on his part, ought similarly to foster the increase of the best element
in the State, and on the other hand discourage the multiplication of the
worst. Yet in our community statesmen of both parties have adopted the
very opposite policy. The children of the working classes are educated at the
cost of the State, the offspring of the wastrels are given free meals, and
already there are demands that they shall be clothed at the expense of the rate-
payers, and that the parents shall even be paid for providing them with
lodging. It is not impossible that before long these demands will be conceded by
either party in the State. The heavy additional expense incurred in this policy
falls upon the middle-class ratepayers and taxpayers, who have to feed, educate,
and clothe their own children at their own expense. It may be said that they
can get free education for their children by sending them to the State schools;
but this is to level down instead of to level up; for if they do so, they will be
lowering the general morale of their own class, the most priceless asset of the
nation. The heavy burden of taxation entailed by this policy, falling as it does
with special weight on the middle classes, renders it more difficult each year for
the young men and the young women in that class to marry before thirty, for
they naturally shrink from the expense of bringing up large or even moderate-
sized families. We need not then wonder at the falling-off in the rate of increase
of the middle classes. Our legislators are bad stockmasters, for they are selecting
to continue the race the most unfit physically and morally, whilst they dis-
courage more and more the increase of what we have proved to be the outcome
of a long process of natural selection. The present policy therefore tends to reduce
that which in all ages has been the mainstay of every State, the middle class. The
yeomen of England, the free burghers of Germany and of Italy, formed the best
element in the Middle Ages. So was it also with the great republics of the
ancient world. Aristotle, in more than one passage, has pointed out that the
middle class, that which stands between the ‘ excessively wealthy’ and the ‘ very
poor,’ between the ‘ millionaire’ and the ‘ wastrel,’ are the mainstay of every State,
and he shows that,where the middle class has been crushed out by the millionaire
or the mob, ruin has inevitably overtaken the State. Indeed, it is clear that the
chief defect in the Greek democracies was the smallness and weakness of the middle
class, whilst it is notorious that Rome prospered only as long as the middle-class
citizeus flourished. Her downfall came when they were extinguished by the
great capitalists, who made common cause with the masses against them. The
latter had no patriotism, were incapable of bearing arms, and had no aspirations
beyond free meals and popular entertainments at the expense of the State.

It is of great scientific interest to discover how the short-skulled peoples of
Asia and Europe became differentiated from their long-skulled congeners ; it is of
great practical importance to apply to the administration of our great depen-
dencies and colonies the lessons taught by anthropology ; but it is infinitely more
important to maintain a vigorous stock of citizens for the kingdom and the

¥

—ese

ss so

i

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 847

empire, Questions of the origin of races are, after all, only academic; but the
other two, more especially the last, are intimately bound up with the life of
the nation. If the present policy of our legislators is adherred to, the moral
and the physical standard ot the British citizen will steadily deteriorate, for the
population will gradually come to consist of the posterity of those who are
themselves sprung from many generations of the most unfit, Should this unfor-
tunately come to pass, it will be the result of human pride refusing to apply to
the human race the laws which inexorably regulate all Nature.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The History of Mummification in Egypt.
By Professor G. Kxuior Surra, M.A., MD., FBS,

In predynastic times in Kgypt it was the custom to bury the bodies of the
dead in the sand, roughly wrapped in skins, linen, or matting. As the result
of the dryness of the soil, and the exclusion of the air by the close adaptation
of the sund to the body, desiccation often occurred before any putrefactive
changes set in, and the corpse thus became preserved in a permanent torm.

‘his phenomenon must have been perfectly familiar to the prehistoric
Egyptians themselves, for we have abundant evidence of the fact that plun-
dering of graves was common even at this early period. Moreover, the people
of later times must have learnt for themselves how excellently Nature preserved
the corpses of ,their predecessors, when they came to make tombs for themselves
in long-forgotten predynastic graveyards.

Thus the idea must have naturally presented itself to the Egyptian people,
perhaps in early dynastic times, to attempt to secure by art the preservation of
their dead, which was no longer attained naturally, once it became the custom
to put the body into a coffin or a rock-cut chamber, because the air thus buried
with the corpse favoured putrefaction. ‘The Egyptians would be encouraged in
these attempts, to which they no doubt were prompted by their religious beliefs
no less than by the natural inclination of all mankind to preserve the remains
of those dear to them, by the help which the properties of their soil and
climate afforded them, as well as by their knowledge of the properties of the
preservative salts, found ready at hand in such abundance in Kgypt, and of
the resins obtained from neighbouring lands, with the properties ot which they
had been familiar even in predynastic times. In this way the origin of the idea,
the reason for attempting to put it into practice, and the means for doing so
become intelligible to us, and render it more than ever improbable that the
custom of embalming could have been imported into Egypt trom some foreign
land, where none of these reasons for the initiation of the practice holds good.
We have no exact data to permit us to say exactly when embalming was first
attempted in Egypt. Although the earliest bodies certainly known to have
been embalmed are of the period of the tenth dynasty (found at Sakkara by
Mr. Quibell), there is some slight evidence to suggest that some form of mummi-
fication was attempted in the times of the earliest pyramid-builders.

By the time of the Middle Mmpire the general technique of the operation
had attained the stage which in its main features was the conventional procedure
for the succeeding two thousand years. But it was in the time of the New Empire
that the process of mummitication reached its highest development. Then for the
first time the embalmers learnt how to remove the brain and pack the cranium,
and put into practice the elaborate and difficult measures for restoring to the dead
body a greater semblance to the torm it had had in life; so that the statue of the
deceased, which had been an essential part of the furniture of the tomb in earlier
times, when the body either underwent corruption or was imperfectly preserved,
became superfluous, and was no longer put into the tomb,

Further stages in the evolution of the art of embalming were followed by a
vapid decline,

848 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION ft.

9. A Sequence of Egyptian Stone Implements. By C. T. Curktiny,

The rough early pieces are found in the cemented quaternary gravels of the
Thebaid. The regular palzolithic forms are found lying exposed on the rocks of
the upper plateau and on the side-hills bordering the Nile valley. The develop-
ment of the paleolith may be seen from the depth of the patina and also the
scratchings ; fourteen distinct shades of colour may be seen.

The flint of the Thebaid is of a uniform kind and colour, and except fot the
oldest forms the implements have been lying on the plateau under the same con-
ditions for different periods of time. In addition to the depth of colour many
pieces are reworked and show more than one patination. Several thousand pieces
were examined, and form and patination were found to go together. Each type
of implement has definite limits of patination, e.g.:—

Old points . . 3 1-3
Round butted lanceolate 4 : é a aa
Sharp 53 , ; ; : ‘ ‘ Pes

Round s,, 4 ovates : : PRE
Sharp a is As 2 a : -- o=0
Thick ovates . 4 . : : : : . 3-5
Flat “A : : : ; F 3-7

(So-called coup de poing.)

Moustier point . + . : ; 5 = orice

Thick discs ‘ : ; F ‘ ‘ . 2-14
HBG. e558 ; : : ; ; 2 : . 2-10
Lance-points . 4-12
Hollow scrapers ; : - : . 4-12

(Majority 9-12.)
Triangular implements . . : : : . 4-14

‘he neolithic implements of the Thebaid show little patination; a few are
found on the top desert and these show a slight patination. The Fayoum neoliths
show a considerable amount of patination and also reworking. In these the
patination is different from those of the Thebaid, as the flint is of a different kind.

The enormous duration of the neolithic period is shown by the number
of totally unpatinated implements that are made by reworking deeply patinated
neoliths. The forms similar to those obtained from the predynastic tombs show
little or no patination.

The catalogue of the collection in the Cairo Museum (with about sixty plates
of illustrations) will be published shortly, and the question of patination and
development will be dealt with.

3. The Veddas. By C. G. Sexiemany, AD.

The Veddas may most conveniently be considered under three headings,
Veddas, Village Veddas, and Coast Veddas, for it seems that at the present day
the Veddas fall into three groups characterised by different sociological features,
The coast Veddas fish and have borrowed largely from their Tamil neighbours,
while the village Veddas have, to a considerable extent, intermarried with the
Sinhalese. But in spite of these Japses both groups retain the remains of their
old clan organisation in the majority of their settlements, showing their connectiou
with those less contaminated and wilder folk who have commonly been spoken of
as ‘rock’ or ‘jungle’ Veddas. On the psychical side, the life of all Veddas is
unusually limited in every aspect except one, namely, their regard for the dead,
and even this regard, which attains the intensity of a cult, has given rise to no
decorative art ; indeed a number of crude drawings, for the most part of animals
and men, executed on the walls of certain caves, wete the only examples of
decorative art seen, and personal adornment is at the lowest ebb. But although

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 849

this cult has produced no pictorial or plastic art, it has given rise to 4 séries of
dances, often pantomimic, and so, perhaps, in the nature of imitative magic, but
whether pantomimic or not, accompanied, except in certain exceptional circum-
stances, by offerings of food to the spirits of the departed. Though others take part
in them, these dances are performed especially by men who have been trained to
invoke the yakw, as the spirits of the dead are called, and the use of a ceremonial
arrow with a blade over a foot long and a short handle is an indispensable feature
of some of these ceremonies, in all of which the ‘shaman’ becomes possessed by
one or more of the yaku he invokes.

Finally as to language: all Veddas speak Sinhalese or dialect of Sinhalese
with a predominanca of ch sounds which makes Vedda talk sound harsh, and has
led to the belief that they have a language of their own; but in addition many
Veddas have also a small number of words which are not obviously Sinhalese, or
are Sinhalese periphrases; these classes of words are specially used in hunting
and in addressing the yaku.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.

The following Papers were read :—=

- 1. Anthropological Work in Egypt.
By Professor G, Exuior Surru, .A., J.D. F.R.S,

The earliest known human remains found in the Nile Valley, when cotipared
with those of later times, demonstrate the fact that in predynastic times Epypt
and Nubia were inhabited by one and the same race, which has persisted in Egypt
with little or no change in physical characteristics throughout the intervening six
thousand years until the present day. They were and are a small people, the
average height of the men being about 5 feet 3 inches at every period of their
history ; their hair is very dark brown or black, usually wavy, but not ‘ woolly ’
or in any sense negroid; their heads are long and narrow, usually ovoid or
pentagonoid or ‘coffin-shaped,’ as the result of a frequent presence of a protuberant
occiput. On the whole they share those characteristics which distinguish the

‘majority of the peoples fringing the Mediterranean—the populations of Sicily,
Italy, Southern France, Spain, Algeria, and Tunis.

The physical characters of the population are remarkably uniform; they
exbibit a range of variation, which is not appreciably greater than that of the
purest races known to us, though, of course, it is easy to select the extremes of
these variations and call them ‘coarse’ and ‘fine’ types or ‘negroid’ and ‘non-
negroid ’ strains.

As we should expect in a group of people that has lived from the dawn of
history on the fringe of the negro territory, there is some slight evidence of au
infusion of black blood, but this is very small in amount, and its effects very
much slighter and less widely diffused than is commonly supposed to be the case.
The negro influence is least marked, if indeed it is not a negligible factor, in the
earliest predynastic times; but it becomes more and more pronounced in later, and
especially so in modern, times.

From the time of the earliest Egyptian dynasties a noteworthy change occurs
in the physical characteristics of the people of Nubia, and, though in a very much
slighter degree, in Lower Egypt. The inroad of negroes from the South leads
to the transformation of the Nubian population into a hybrid race. And there is
some evidence to show that even at the time of the pyramid-builders there was
some influx of an alien race from the Levant, which intermingled with tho
predominant Egyptian population of the Delta.

Three thousand years later a much greater immigration of people presenting
the same alien characteristics poured into Egypt and Nubia. From this time
onwards these foreign immigrants came to Egypt in a constant stream; and as
they intermarried with their co-religionists—the Christian Copts—it happens that

1908, 31

850 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

a considerable proportion of the latter present less resemblance to the ancient
Egyptians than their Moslem neighbours, who have intermarried either with their
fellow-countrymen or with the less dissimilar Arabian or Berber peoples of the
same faith as themselves,

2, Rajputs and Mahratias. By W. Crooks, B.A,

This paper was muinly devoted to a consideration of the views recently
enunciated by Sir H. Risley on the origin of the Rajputs and Mahrattas.

The former are classed by him, on the evidence of anthropometry, as ‘ Indo-
Aryans.’ But historical and other evidence points to the conclusion that, so far
from being a distinct ethnical unit, the Rajputs form a status group, compounded
from varied elements. Thus, in the Ganges valley and along the central ranges
of hills many Rajputs are promoted from the indigenous, so-called ‘ Dravidian,’
races. This fact is familiar to all ethnologists. More important and novel is the
evidence from epigraphy recently discovered, which shows that many of the
Najputs in the Panjab and Rajputana are sprung from Scythian and Hun
invaders. These foreigners were a brachycephalic people; and the failure of
craniometry to detect this strain in the present population may be due either
to insufficient investigation, or to the impossibility of classifying mixed races on
the basis of skull form.

Next, it was shown that there is no historical justification for the assumed
Scythian entry into the Deccan and Southern India as far down as Coorg. The
presence in those regions of a brachycephalic strain, whatever may be its origin,
cannot be due to a Scythian or Hun invasion.

The Mahrattas, again, do not constitute a stable ethnical unit. They are a
status group, the basis being the ‘ Dravidian’ or indigenous Kunbi tribe. The
higher classes, owing to their rise in social importance, have asserted and obtained
the right of connudiwm with the Rajputs.

It was suggested that the influence of environment and sexual selection have
been to some extent overlooked in recent discussions on the ethnology of India;
and that these causes may possibly explain the uniformity which characterises the
p!iysical character of the people of the Punjab.

3. On a Collection of Dinka Laws and Customs.'
By YH. SipNeY HaRtLanp.

The Dinkas are one of the most important tribes of the Egyptian Sudan.
Captain Hugh D, E, O’Sullivan, a Government official, has recently compiled for
administrative purposes a collection of their laws and customs. This collection
is at present unprinted, and contains valuable anthropological material. The
Dinkas are a pastoral people, the economic basis of their society being the pos-
session of cattle. Their government is patriarchal, and they reckon descent only
in the male line. Reasons were given for thinking that this exclusively male
descent was preceded by exclusively female descent. Some curious details of
custom were discussed; among others, the legal fiction (believed to be unique)
by which an heir is provided when the male line has died out,

4. Four Weeks in New Britain. By Miss B. Putten-Burry,

Among the inhabitants of New Britain, two races stand out from the rest
a3 possessing isolated features. The Sultkas of the south coast, known as
Spitzkopfe from the artificial protuberance of the occiput, and the Bainings, only
discovered ten years ago, now considered to be the aboriginals of the island.

* To be published in J, 2. Anthropological Institute,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 851

These latter are singular in that they are nomadic, have no totems, barter, not
using the universally prevailing shell-money, and in their dances the sexes dance
together. They believe in the invisible presence of spirits, but apparently have
no dread of their return in any form, such as prevails everywhere else in the archi-
pelago. ‘The bush Kanakas’ settlements, some fourteen miles from Herbertsléhe,
were described, also the snares used for catching flying foxes, the sacred sign of
three crotons, planted equidistant, in front of the chief’s hut, in a separate
enclosure, and the bachelors’ hut in which dried bats are suspended from the roof
to present to the brides.

5. The Northern Mound-builders of North America,
By Georce Bryce, D.D., LL.D., PRS.

The Northern Mound-builders described are, so far as known, the most
northerly in North America. The sites examined were :—

1. The Red River, on whose banks, at the junction of the river with the
Assiniboine River, the city of Winnipeg, Manitoba, stands.

2. The Rainy River (150 miles east of Winnipeg), which falls into the Lake
of the Woods. j

3. The Lower Souris or Mouse River, at a point some 200 miles south-west of
Winnipeg.

Number of mounds seen: 1. Red River . SN)
2, Rainy River. ppnies

3. Souris River . se

Total. ‘ nao:

Souris region: (a) The Roches Percées. A remarkable group of sandstone
rocks of the Tertiary period, standing on the open
prairie, covered with Indian pictures of the elk,
buffalo, Indian star, and teepee.

(6) Hill of the Murdered Scout.

(ce) Near by the Red Pipestone Quarry of Longfellow.

(d) Remarkable earthworks on the south side of the South
Antler, a tributary of the Souris.

The largest mound opened (on the Rainy River) was 110 feet long, 90 feet
wide, and 30 or 40 feet high.
The following objects were obtained from the mounds :—

1. Birch bark skull.

2. Bones of birds (whistle, scraper, beads), present ornaments of bone.

3. Stone implements—hammer, conjurer’s tubes, chisels, scraper, chucky stones.

4, Red and yellow ochre, lump of arsenical pyrites.

5. Copper—copper frontlets from skull, needle, cutting-knife, hook, arrow-
head.

6, Pottery—cup, fragments of many pieces of pottery with different designs.

The purposes of the mounds appear to be two—l. Sepulture. 2. Observation.

The builders were not of the same race as the modern Indians. This is proved
by Indian tradition, by their being agriculturists, metal-workers, and pottery-
makers,

It is suggested that they were of Toltec origin, having been driven from
Mexico up the Mississippi, then up the Missouri to the Souris, and then up the
Ohio ; others coming from the upper waters of the Mississippi to the Red and
Rainy Rivers.

They seem to have been followed by the Sioux (Dakotas), Iroquois, who are
probably of Aztec origin. About the time of the coming of the white man in the
end of the sixteenth century they were, as ries, Neutrals, and other pottery and
metal workers, blotted out, leaving their mounds behind them.

312

oO
cr
bo

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

6. Prehistoric Archeology in Japan. By N. Gorpon Munro.

During the past quarter of a century the observations of Japanese and foreign
investigators have enabled some general conclusions to be made. Features not
shared by other cultures have been isolated, while the resemblance of culture
vestiges to those of other lands agrees with the general verdict of prehistoric
intercommunication. Here also the great number of crude stone implements and
the persistence of horn and bone harpoons of palzolithic form suggest a direct
survival from the earlier culture, while some indications of an evolution are
present. But no remains of undeniably paleolithic status have been found.
Stones have been recovered from the drift gravel of the Sakawa Valley, but their
human manufacture is not positively determined. Jixcavations of shell-mounds
and other neolithic sites in Japan have revealed some connection between the
pottery of this phase and that of the iron culture which accompanied the agri-

‘cultural invaders from the mainland of Asia. These formed the core of the
present Japanese nation. The neolithic inhabitants were gradually driven to the
east and north, but miscegenation took place to a greater extent than is generally
supposed.

The present school of Japanese archeology, led by Professor Tsuboi, is mostly
in favour of the view that the primitive inhabitants of Japan were not of the
same stock as the surviving Ainu. The opposite thesis has been maintained by
Professor Koganei, Messrs. Sato, Takabatake, and others. ‘The discovery of Ainu
remains in the shell-heaps and underlying soil proves that this people played
a part in the neolithic culture. -

The characters of the dolmens and other vestiges of the Iron phase, and the
incidence of the former with the neolithic sites, favour the view that the progress
of the invaders towards the east and north was slow, and might have commenced
about five centuries B.c., or even earlier. Observations on the orientation of
dolmens have been made, but exact work of this kind is slow, on account of the
necessity of correcting the compass declination by star observations. Sufficient
material has not been accumulated to place it beyond question that alignments
were made to the rising or setting sun or to stars,

7, Some Ancient Stone Implement Sites in South Africa—their bearing cn
the Problem of the Antiquity of Man, By Rev. W. A, Apams, B.A,

The sites examined were five in number :—

1. The hill-slope near the coast at Bosman’s Crossing, Stellenbosch, yielding
rudely chipped picks and other implements of the paleolithic type, embedded in
clay.

%. The Karoo, near Kimberley, From this were collected weather-worn
specimens, chiefly, showing the transition from the older form of palzolithic
implement to the neolithic axe,

3. The Vaal River terraces, near Kimberley. Here is an extensive stone
implement site at Pniel, where the process of manufacture, from the block of
stone to the finished implement, can be clearly traced.

Higher up the banks ‘ pygmy’ implements were also discovered.

4, The uplands of Rhodesia, near Bulawayo. Roughly chipped disc-like
scrapers were procured, and well-made ‘ pygmies.’

5. The headlands at the Victoria Falls. Paleolithic implements were here
collected, some of them of chalcedony, of large size and highly glazed. A few
flakes are water-worn. Was ancient man on the headlands here when the river
was flowing along the high levels ?

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 8538

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
The following Reports and Papers were read :.—

1. Report on Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain.
See Reports, p. 342.

9, Recent Excavations at Roman Chester. By Dr. R. NewsTEap.

During the demolition of some house property in Chester a section of the
Roman Wall was discovered, of a total length of 56 feet 10 inches. It is built of
ashlar, the greatest height of this wall being approximately 6 feet 6 inches, and con-
sisting of seven courses of masonry laid in very regular and for the most part closely
jointed courses without mortar joints or embedding. The ashlar work is backed
by rubble of roughly hewed pieces of rock coursed more or less to correspond with
the masonry. Large quantities of soil were used to fill in the cavities between
the masonry and rubble. The foundations were deep and built of rubble similar
to the inner lining. The lowest course was formed of a single layer of boulder
stones buried in mortar and resting on a stratum of soft undisturbed red sand-
stone. Behind the rubble of the wall was found a solid bank of stiff clayey loam
5 feet in height. It is probable that this wall of clay was at one time supported
by masonry or stonework. The house was excavated in two places and a portion
exposed ina third. It was not of the usual V-shape, the bottom being broad and
flat and measuring 4 feet 4 inches in width. The greatest width from lip to lip
was approximately 22 feet, and the greatest depth 9 feet 3 inches.

Among the finds were shells of heli2: aspersa, bones of frog, and portions of the
pelvis of a sheep or goat. Fragments of amphors and cinerary urns of Upchurch
ware, pieces of Samian, roofing tiles and imbrices, pieces of glass, one of an amber-
green colour hitherto unrepresented at Chester, a bone pin and two coins, one
probably a first bronze of Hadrian, were also discovered. The only prehistoric
implement found was a beautifully preserved flint axe of paleolithic type.

3. Some Remarks on the Irish Horse and its Early History.
By Dr. RB. F. Scwarrr.

That the modern Connemara pony possesses certain features of resemblance to
Arab horses is well known, and has been recently emphasised by Professor Ewart
in his description of the various Irish breeds of ponies. This character is
currently believed to be due to a comparatively recent introduction into Ireland
of Eastern stock. Professor Ridgeway not only puts the date of this introduc-
tion as far back as pre-Christian times, but he contends that these supposed Eastern
horses were imported from France, and were originally of Libyan origin.

The most complete remains of the ancient horse discovered in Ireland were
obtained by Mr. George Coffey in the Craigywarren Crannog, county Antrim.
The human implements and weapons found with them imply that the occupation
of the Crannog dates back to early Christian times. The horses were then, no
doubt, domesticated. Their resemblance to the Arab type of horse is quite as
striking a feature as that in the modern Connemara pony. -

The remains from a tumulus and from Irish bogs, marls, and caves in the Irish
National Museum are less complete, but they all indicate that in still more remote
times a small race of horse, apparently similar to that of the Crannog period,
lived in Ireland. It is important to note that some of these remains probably
belonged to wild races.

The available evidence seems, therefore, to support the view that the resem-
blance of the modern Connemara pony to the Eastern or Libyan race of horse is
not entirely due to human iniroduction of foreign stock, but to the fact that the
wild horse of lreland possessed the same characteristics as the latter and trans-
mitted them to the existing ancient domestic breeds,

854: TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

4. The Distribution of Gold Lunule. Ay Grorcre Correy, JfA.

Of the known examples of this most characteristic of Irish gold ornaments
sixty have been discovered in Ireland itself, six in France, four in England, four
in Scotland, two in Denmark, and one each in Wales and Belgium. They may
be dated provisionally between 12U0 and 1500 B.c.

That they are essentially an Irish ornament is clear from their distribution, and
the finding of examples in other parts of Western Europe may point to early
raids from those districts or to an early trade for gold with the Irish people.

5. A Leather Shield found in Co. Longford. By E. C. R. Arnmsrrone.

The shield, which is of circular form, was found in June 1908 in a peat bog,
It is made of a solid piece of leather, and is 203 inches in length and 193 inches
across. It has an oblong central boss, which has been pressed out of the leather
and furnished with a cap, of finer leather, laced into the boss. The face of the
shield is ornamented with three ribs, between which are small bosses, arranged in
sets of three, recalling the decoration of bronze shields. The back of the shield is
furnished with a leather handle. That the specimen is not the leather lining of a
bronze shield is clear from the thickness of the leather and the lacing of the
boss. It is of the same type as the bronze shields common in Upper and Western
Europe.

6. The Survival of La Tene Ornament in some Celtic Penannular Brooches.
By Greorce Corrry, M.A.

The date of these brooches can be safely claimed as not later than 700 A.D.,
from the complete absence of any trace of interlaced ornament in them, as well as
from the many La Téne elements surviving in their decoration. Many of them
are no doubt earlier, and may antedate the coming of St. Patrick. All are of
bronze, but the enamels with which they were decorated have disappeared.

7. Note on the Tara Brooch. By Grorcr Corrry, M.A.

The particular feature of the brooch with which the paper dealt, and which
had not previously been noticed, was that the fine wires of the interlaced patterns,
of the central interlacements, and of the head of the pin have a minute granula-
tion, hardly apparent to the naked eye.

8. The Origin of Irish Motes. By Gopparp H. Orpen, &.A.

The scientific investigation of Irish earthworks is only in its infancy. This
paper was concerned with classes D and E of the ‘Scheme for recording
Ancient Defensive Earthworks,’ as recommended by the Congress of Archeological
Societies.

Ireland offers some advantages over the sister island as a field for the study of
motes :-—

1. Existing motes are more numerous and less mutilated than in Britain.

2. From the known history of Ireland, the peoples to whom the erection of its
motes can be ascribed are practically reduced to three, viz, :—

(«) The Celtic tribes, meaning thereby the race or races that exclusively
occupied Ireland prior to the Scandinavian invasion of the ninth century,

(6 The Scandinavian invaders themselves.

(c) The Normans, who first came to Ireland.

As to the hypothesis of a Celée origin—(1) the local distribution of motes is

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H, 855

impossible to explain on any theory which would ascribe them to Celtic tribes
generally. (2) There is no mention in early Jrish documents of an artificial mound
as forming part of a Celtic fortress, (8) At the time of the coming of the Nor-
mans the Irish had few or no castles, and there is no account of the siege or assault
of any Irish castle. Indeed it is not contended by the advocates of this hypo-
thesis that motes were in use by the Irish when the Normans came, and the only
current rival to the hypothesis of their Norman origin is one that would ascribe
their erection to very early, and even prehistoric, times. ‘The unscientific nature
of the arguments put forward on behalf of ‘the prehistoric theory’ is easily
demonstrable.

Thus in 1169 the Romansand the early Saxons, Angles, and Jutes are excluded.
The hypothesis of a Scandinavian origin of Irish motes, though once widely held,
is now discredited. Motes have not been observed in the countries from which
the Northmen came, and are non-existent or rare in many parts of Ireland which
appear to have been specially occupied and dominated by them, ey., the district
near Armagh, the co. Clare, and West Muaster.

As regards the remaining hypothesis, that motes were erected by the Normans
at the close of the twelfth century and beginning of the thirteenth, the following
are the principal facts and inferences which, in the writer's opinion, establish it :—

(1) The Normans are known to have adopted this type of fortress in Nor-
mandy in the eleventh century, and the large majority of the castles they built in
England towards the close of that century have been shown to include a mote.

(2) When a century later the Normans came to Ireland the mote-fortress
suited the conditions of their warfare.

(3) There is contemporary documentary evidence that the Normans did erect
certain motes in Ireland,

(4) Upwards of 80 per cent. of the probable sites of the castles known to have
been erected by the Normans in Ireland prior to the year 1216 include a mote.

(5) The distribution of the motes in Ireland, so faras it has been ascertained,
is completely explicable on the hypothesis that they were raised by the Normans,
and seems to be inexplicable on any other hypothesis. Of the motes of Ireland,
as far as known—228 in number, 74 are within the Anglo-Norman lordship of
Leinster, 63 within the lordship of Meath, and 40 within the lordship of Ulster.
Tn lands retained by the Crown there are 20 motes. In parts of the modern
counties of Tipperary, Limerick, and Kerry, occupied by Normans prior to 1215,
there are 24 motes. While in all Irish Connaught there are only six earthworks
which can be classified as motes, and in all Irish Ulster there is only one; and
these seven outlying motes can with probability be connected with early Norman
settlers.

(6) The vast majority of these motes have been shown to be situated at early
manorial centres.

(7) In many cases the remains, or at least foundations, of stone towers and
other defences exist, or can be shown to have formerly existed,.on the summit of
motes, or in the attached base-courts, and these seem to have been the work of
the Normans or of their Anglo-Irish successors, and to have taken the place
of the original wooden defences,

Certain classes of artificial mounds must be distinguished from motes, viz.,
(a) sepulchral mounds, (4) ceremonial mounds.

9. On certain Changes in the Lateral Wall of the Cranium due to Muscular
Development. By Professor J. Symineron, I.D., FBS.

The following are the results of a series of observations upon the relation of
the temporal muscle to the skull and brain from birth until adult life. It was
found that the muscle was small at birth compared with the brain-cas2, and con-
sequently the temporal ridge was low at this period of Jife, only just reaching on
to the parietal bone. After birth the muscle grows more rapidly than the lateral

856 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

area cf the skull, and gradually extends upwards upon it, so that the temporal
ridye reaches a much higher level than in the infant, This extension of the
muscular attachment proceeds gradually, and is probably not completed until
adult life.

An index was constructed by taking a vertical line from the upper border of
the zygoma to a point opposite the level of the bregma as equal to 100, and
observing the ratio of this to a line starting from the same point below, and pro-
ceeding in the same direction as far as the temporal ridge. At birth the index is
about 34 and in the adult about 68, so that at birth the temporal muscle occupies
approximately the lower third of this zygomo-bregmatic line and in the adult its
lower two-thirds. The process is not completed at puberty, for in a girl thirteen
years the index was 59°6, and in another fifteen years it was 622. ‘The growth
of the temporal muscle is associated with that of the jaws and teeth, and is
independent of brain growth.

The parts of the brain situated in the mesial plane were projected outwards
orthogonally on to the lateral aspect of the skull. Drawings prepared in this
way showed that at birth the area occupied by the temporal muscle was distinctly
below the whole of the corpus callosum, and did not reach backwards to the level
of its posterior border; whereas in the adult the corpus callosum was entirely
within the temporal region. A series of specimens, arranged according to age,
between infancy and adult life exhibited a gradual expansion of the temporal
area towards, upon, and finally above and behind the corpus callosum, During
this period the height of the corpus callosum maintained a fairly constant relation
to that of the cranium, and the rates of growth of these two structures closely
corresponded with each other.

10. The Development and Adult Form of the Human Brain,
Sy Professor A. FRASER.

11. The Significance of the so-called Accessory Dental Masses sometimes
found in the Upper Jawbones. By Professor A. Francis Dixon.

An examination of a group of young Ibo skulls from West Africa leads to the
belief that the small ‘accessory dental masses,’ which may occur in the maxilla
between the second premolar and the first molar, have not the important morpho-
logical significance sometimes attributed to them. It has been suggested that
these rudiments, which are fairly common in negro skulls, represent aborted or
vestigial premolars corresponding to the third premolars of platyrrhine apes. The
Ibo skulls examined do not bear out this interesting suggestion, for in them the
rudiments can be seen to arise as unabsorbed portions of the second milk molar.
In some of the specimens the actual method of their formation can be followed.
The origin of the rudiments explains their rather variable microscopic structure
and the absence, or relatively small amount, of enamel usually present. The
question as to why fragments of the second milk molars should be relatively so
frequently retained in certain races is one of considerable interest.

12. Who Built the British Stone Circles? By J. Gray, B.Sc.

Closely associated with dolmens and avenues in Britain, there are threé
leading types of stone circles—namely, the Dartmoor, the Aberdeenshire, and the
Inverness types, the simplest forms being found in the south.

The distribution of stone circles in Britain would be simply explained if we
assume that the race who built them first settled in Cornwall and Devon, then
migrated up through Wales, Lancashire, and South-West Scotland as far as the
mouth of the Clyde, from thence across the midlands of Scotland to the mouth
of the Tay, then north along the east coast, through East Aberdeenshire, turning

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. $57

west to Inverness, and after that north through Caithness to the Orkney Isles
and Lewis.

A large number of the river names in this stone circle area are evidently
derived from the same root as Devon, thus indicating one important tribal name
among the stone circle race. The four rivers Dee (ancient Deva), for example,
are found in this area.

The physical characters of the race with which the stone circles are associated
are unique. It is demonstrable from available data that this race, which is
assigned to the early Bronze Age, differs from all the other prehistoric races
found in Britain; it also differs from the prehistoric races of Sweden, Denmark,
and Switzerland. Since the physical type of North-West Africa excludes the
probability of immigration from this region, we would appear to be driven to
seek the original home of these people in some region of Asia which the present
state of our knowledge does not enable us to identify with certainty. It is
interesting to note here certain indications of aflinity with the ancient people of
South-West Asia.

13. Report an Anthropometric Investigation in the British Isles,
See Reports, p. 351,

14, Report on Archeological and Ethnographical Researches in Crete.
See Reports, p, 344,

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8&8,

The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. Excavations at Caerwent, Monmouthshine, on the Site of the Romano-
British City of Venta Silurum, in 1907-8. By T. Asusy, 1.A4., D.Litt.

Of the excavations up to August 1907 an account was given at the Leicester
meeting. The rest of the campaign of 1907 was devoted to the exploration of
the Basilica and Forum, with the exception of the western portion of both, which
lies beyond the limits of Lord Tredegar’s property. It was possible to recover
the plan of the whole block, which, surrounded by streets on all four sides, formed
one of the twenty insule into which the town was divided, and it corresponds
closely with that of the Forum of Silchester. An interesting feature is the large
drain which carried the surface water off the open area under the Basilica and
away to the north. The season of 1908 was devoted to the continuation of work
in the insula, to the east of the Forum, to the south of a large house,
numbered VIL, excavated in 1906. Remains of a temple and of several private
houses and some rubbish pits were found, one containing a peculiarly hideous
seated statuette of a female deity.

2. The Work of the Liverpool Committee for Excavation and Research
in Wales and the Marches. By Professor Joun L. Myres, M.A.”

The Liverpool Committee for Excavation and Research in Wales and the
Marches was constituted in October 1907, with the object of co-operating with
existing agencies for the investigation of the early history of the Welsh people,

1 To be published in full in Arch@ologia.
JH ike) be published in full in the Annual Report of the Liverpool Committee for
Excavation and Research in Wales and the Marches,

858 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

with special reference to the effects of the Roman occupation of Wales and of
the non-Roman invasions which terminated and succeeded that occupation.

The Liverpool Committee has its headquarters in the Liverpool University
Institute of Archzology, and carries on its work in close association with the
School of Celtic Studies there. Its first task has been to enter into a close under-
standing with the local Archeological Societies, which have done so much for the
archeology of Wales in the past; and in particular with the Cambrian Archeo-
logical Association, whose publications contain by far the most copious collection
of materials for early Welsh history. Many of these societies are already
engaged upon archzeological surveys of their respective districts, and there is a
general desire that as far as possible these surveys shall be carried out on uniform
plan and scale.

The work of the Committee for the current year has been confined to the
conduct of a preliminary survey of a few districts of Wales which have not yet
been undertaken by any local society, and to tentative excavations on sites which
seem likely to deserve more thorough examination in the near future. Such, for
example, is the excavation of the Roman site at Caerleon, of which a summary
is given below, by Mr. H. G. Evelyn-White. By these means the Committee
expects to enter upon the work of the next season with an adequate staff of
trained workers, and with a plan of investigation based upon a general survey

of the present state of our knowledge of the country and its monuments.

3. Excavations at Caerleon, Monmouthshire.
By H. G. Everyn-Wutre.!

Excavations have recently been carried out at Caerleon on a piece of ground
lately added tothe churchyard. As ‘quarrying’ has been actively pursued on the
site the plan could in some parts only be recovered by following mere foundations
at a depth of 4 or 5 feet. The area excavated, judging by analogy, apparently is
a little north of the site of the principia pretorium.

Among the finds were the lower part of a sandstone statuette, the base of
which bore the inscription

‘DEO MERCVRIO
[A]JVR DD SEVER P (?),;

an amphora handle with the graffito (in cursive letters) ‘ AMINE,’ and a few coins,
chiefly of the Constantine family, but including one each of Carausius and Trajan.

The value of the excavations consists in the recovery of the ground plan, espe-
cially as this will shortly be inaccessible for ever,

4. Neolithic Culture in North Greece. By J. P. Droop, B.A.?

Recent exploration of the neolithic culture of Northern Greece has shown that
the plain districts of Southern Pelasgiotis, Thessaliotis, Phthiotis, Malis, and
Phocis were inhabited from an early date by three peoples alike in culture, and
near akin, but distinguishable by the varying style of their painted pottery. The
mounds of accumulated deposit from their settlements are easily distinguishable in
the plains.

The stone implements consist of celts (sometimes bored), rubbers, and polishers ;
while obsidian chips are much more frequent than flint.

One people lived in the district round Pagase and Phere; another in the
plains round Pharsala and Itonos; and the third in Phocis, as far south as
Cheeronea. The two southern peoples show a nearer kinship.

‘ To be published in full in the Annual Report of the Liverpool Committee for
Hecavation and Research in Wales and the Marches.
* To be published in the Annual of the British School of Archeology at Athens.

-
—

PE ee —. a -

—— er

ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 859

The excavation of a mound called Zerelia in Phthiotis shows that the two
northern peoples at least were contemporary, and that, as time passed, their art
degenerated.

Traces of eight successive settlements show that the period of painted pottery
gradually passed, after the fourth settlement, into a period of unpainted polished
ware,

The eighth neolithic settlement is roughly dated to 1500 B.c, by the presence
of imported Mycenean sherds.

A series of tombs sunk into the remains of this eighth settlement indicates a
subsequent poor bronze period. Thus, during the development of the A%gean
bronze culture the north of Greece was still in an Age of Stone, and used bronze
only at a comparatively late date, and presumably but for a short while before
the introduction of iron.

The date at which these neolithic peoples brought in their comparatively high
culture may be placed in the middle of the third millennium,

5. The Excavations of the British School at Athens at the Sanctuary of
Artemis Orthia at Sparta. By M.S. Tuompson, B.A.*

The Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia, one of.the most important centres of
Spartan religion and especially celebrated for the annual scourging of the Spartan
boys, was discovered in 1906, and this is therefore the third season of the work.
In 1906 and 1907 atemple built in the middle of the sixth century B.C, was
found, and in front of it a late Roman theatre, for the better witnessing of the
rites, in the centre of which was the altar. The excavation of this arena and
of the interior of the temple revealed a rough cobble pavement, and on it a large
altar of undressed stones. The whole area was covered with a thick deposit of
votive offerings of great importance, characterised by pottery ranging from
geometric to orientalising. All these were clearly earlier than the temple, which
may be dated to the middle of the sixth century, and contemporary with the
large archaic altar mentioned above. The thickness of the stratum of votive
offerings is such that its earliest date cannot be later than the middle of the
ninth century, and as geometric sherds were found even lower than the pavement,
the earliest occupation of the site may be about 900 s.c.

Thus at the end of 1907 both temple and altar had been found for the period
from the middle of the sixth century onwards; this year’s work gave the remains
of the primitive temple contemporary with the great archaic altar, and like it
resting on the cobble pavement. The mass of votive offerings was especially rich
in its neighbourhood.

The primitive temple has been largely destroyed by the foundations of the
later temple. The part preserved lies on the south side of the later building, and
fairly symmetrically with regard to the altar, although the orientation is slightly
different.

The remains were covered with a mass of earth burned red, recognisable 2s
the remains of mud-brick walls destroyed by fire. Beneath this were the founda-
tions of the end and part of the side of a rectangular building consisting of a
single course of undressed stones. At the west end of this building the walls
contained some vertical slabs in situ, and there were traces of a small inner cella.
Along what was probably the central line of the building was a row of irregular
stone slabs laid flat at intervals of about a yard, and corresponding to these in
position were similar slabs set in the foundation of the walls. All the slabs seem
to have supported wooden timbers, those built into the wall serving as a frame for
the building, and the others forming a row of pillarsdown the centre. ‘The ezstern
part was completely destroyed, and with it all possibility of recovering the form
of the entrance. A fragment of roof-tile was found, but clearly later than the

1 To be published in full in the Annual of the British School of Archeoloay a
Athens.

S60 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

building itself. ‘his, however, almost certainly had a gable roof, with the row of
pillars supporting the roof-tree. Itis noticeable that the temple at Thermos in
Mtolia, which replace a similar mud-brick building, had a row of pillars down
the middle.

In this primitive building we may see the earliest Dorian style, and the
conclusions drawn from its remains point to a building essentially identical with
that which Doerpfeld has already reconstructed from the indications afforded by
extant monuments of the developed Doric style.

Much progress has also been made in the excavation and study of the votive
offerings. The suggestion that the so-called Cyrenaic pottery is really Laconian
has been very fully confirmed by the discovery of Cyrenaic vases, and still more
by he series of pottery leading up to and degenerating from the fine Cyrenaic
style.

Of the terra-cotta masks which were such a feature of the excavation of

1906 many more have been found, and they have been proved to belong almost
entirely to the late sixth and early fifth century, the period immediately following
the building of the later temple. No ivory dates from this time, when its place
was taken by bone. All the rich series of carved ivories, this year much
increased, belong to the period when the primitive building was still standing.

~

6. Report on Archeological and Ethnological Investigations in Sardinia,
See Reports, p. 350.

7. Lhe Sculptured Stones of Norway and their relation to some British
Monuments. By Dr. Haakon ScHETELIG.

The sculptured stones of the Viking Age in Norway are not very numerous
but are of great interest, as showing several diflerent types. The standing stone
of Kirkeide, in Nordfjord, is covered with symbols: the comb, the serpent, the
group of four concentric circles, the crescent, and the radiated sun-disc, which are
all found also in the early Christian monuments of Scotland, It is a proof of
direct communication between Scotland and Western Norway about a.p. 700,
Another stone in the same district bears a ship-figure only, and probably shows
an influence from Gotland during the same period—viz., about A.D. 700. Such
connections between Gotland, Western Norway, and Scotland have been suggested
already by the late Professor Sophus Bugge, from some peculiarities in the form
of the runes. Mr. Jacobsen has come to the same conclusion from Norwegian
names of places in Shetland. Thus we see that direct communications between
Britain and some parts of Scandinavia were opened at a time not a little earlier
than the Viking expeditions recorded in history. A stone from Tu, in Jederen,
bears a runic inscription and simply carved representations of a man and a woman.
By comparing them with a certain type of small gold leaves, impressed with
figures, it is made out that they represent a mythical scene, probably personifica-
tions of the sun and the earth (Frey and Gerd). This monument must be

assigned to the first part of the Viking Age, and, as its runes show the same |

peculiar character as the runes of the Norwegian crosses in the Isle of Man, its
figures may also have been influenced by the sculptures of that island.

The sculptured stones of the early Christian time are chiefly found in the
eastern parts of Norway; they are of a more ornamental character. Specially
are mentioned the representations of Sigurd Faynesbane, a hunting scene, and the
Three Kings.’

8. The Four Principal Aqueducts of the City of Rome in Classical Times.
By T, Asusy, W.A., D.Litt.
Among the aqueducts which supplied the city of Rome the four which came

from the upper valley of the Anio were the most important—the Anio Vetus,
the Aqua Marcia, the Aqua Claudia, and the Anio Novus. Of these the first

ed ee ee ere eee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 861

and the last, as their name implies, derived their water from the river itself,
while the second and third were fed by springs which rose, and still rise, in the
floor of the river valley.

Considerable remains of these conduits still exist, and well repay—what they
have not of recent years received—careful study and examination. Their course,
known fairly well as far as the village of Gallicano, in the district between the
Sabine and the Alban Hills, has hitherto been treated as unknown between
Gallicano and the point some seven miles out of Rome, where they emerge for the
last time from the ground, and run upon arches into Rome. Careful investiga-
tion, and especially the search for pieces of the calcareous deposit brought down
by the water, which was removed from the channels when they were cleaned
(which must have been frequently necessary), have, however, made it possible to
determine their course accurately, and this has been indicated in the maps
annexed to Parts I-III. of the work by the present writer on the ‘Classical
Topography of the Roman Campagna,’ and will be dealt with fully before long in
a special work, which will also be illustrated with drawings and photographs,
showing the more important remains of the aqueducts along the whole extent of
their course,

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.

The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. Notes on an Ancient Land Surface in a River Terrace at Ipswich and
on Paleoliths from a Gravel Pit in the Valley of the Lark. By
Miss Nina F. Layarp.

At the junction of the river Gipping with the estuary of the Orwell gravelly
sands are superimposed on the original red river gravels, but separated from them
by a black band varying in thickness from three inches toa foot. This band repre-
sents an old land surface which is largely composed of decayed animal matter. In
this band the following remains have been found: teeth and bones of a large
horse, bones and antler of red deer (Cervus Elaphus), large tusk, also tooth and
bones of mammoth, bones of Bos primigenius, teeth and part of jaw of wolf (Canis
lupus), proximal end of radius of bear with part of a claw, part of the sternum of
a bird, and the shaft of humerus of an herbivorous mammal which has been
gnawed. Flint implements were discovered in connection with these remains: a
well-worked scraper with a number of flakes; and two small pointed tools of the
Abbeville type. These remains were fully 30 feet below the present surface.

The implements from the valley of the Lark were mostly found at a depth of
18 feet, in coarse gravels, which are in some parts of a deep red colour, in others
inclining to light yellow. The tools are much rolled, and many have a whitish
patina. Cowparing these paleoliths with those found at Foxhall Road, Ipswich,
the most notable differences are the generally rougher workmanship and the
prevalence of flint cores of considerable size, from which knives have been struck.
No examples of these cores from East Anglia are included in the British Museum
collection, and they do not appear to have attracted much attention in England.
Comparing them with the cores from Pressigny and the banks of the Indus in
Upper Sindh, it will be seen that the examples from Suffolk are of a much rougher
type. Should it be found that cores are usually absent from sites which produce
flint tools of the Foxhall Road type, it may be possible to recognise a distinction
between knife-making tribes and tribes which had not discovered the art of making
long blades.

2. Report on the Age of Stone Circles.—See Reports, p. 400.

862 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

3. Tenth Report on the Lake Village at Glastonbury.
See Reports, p. 414.

4, Report on the Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of
Photographs of Anthropological Interest.—See Reports, p. 419.

5. Cup- and Ring-markings.
By Rey. H. J. Duxinrretp Astiey, JLA., Litt.D.

Attention was first publicly called to cup- and ring-markings by Sir James
Simpson in his book ‘Archaic Sculpturings of Cups, Circles, &c., on Rocks’ in
1867, although Sir J. Gardiner Wilkinson claimed to have observed them as far
back as 1835. These marks are of wide distribution, archaic examples being found
on megalithic monuments, the stones of chambered tumuli, stone kists, and on
yocks and boulders in many parts of Great Britain, in Ireland, on the Continent
in France, Spain, Italy, and Seandinavia, in China, India, and in North and South
America. As examples among modern savages may be instanced those found in
Australia, in Fiji, Easter Island, and other parts of the Pacific, as well as certain
parts of Africa.

Various theories as to the origin and meaning of these marks have been
advanced; these may be grouped ‘according as the explanations are based on
(1) religion—sun worship, serpent worship, mithra worship, &c. ; (2) signs—dials,
maps, plans of villages, a form of writing.

It was suggested that cup- and ring-marks are connected with totemism,
being analogous to the designs on the churinga of the Arunta, and are to be
assigned to a similar stage of primitive society and a corresponding process of
primitive psychology.

6. Report on Classifying and Registering Megalithic Remains in the
British Isles.—See Reports, p. 341.

7. On the Classification of the Megalithic and analogous Prehistoric
Remains of Great Britain and Ireland. By GEorGcE Cuincu.!

Some reasonable and conyenient classification of megalithic and related
remains is urgently required because of—

1. The existing confusion of ideas as to the different types; and

2, The special need of some common method of classification in view of the
Government’s promised action with reference to the ‘historical monuments’ of
England.

The author gave recent examples of grotesque errors on the part of ‘local
antiquaries’ and indicated the pressing need of greater care in the study of
megalithic remains.

The classification suggested aims at precision combined with sufficient breadth
.of scope to permit the inclusion of prehistoric dwellings, hill-side sculptures, and
other antiquities not already included in the scheme of the Earthworks Com-
mittee of the Congress of Archeological Societies, z

8. Report on the Preparation of a New Edition of Notes and Queries in
Anthr it de —See Reports, p. 342.

' To be published in full in Annas of sritecdoyl and Anthropology, Liverpool
University.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H, 863

9. Perforated Stone Hammers and Aves, By W. J. Know es
Sir John Evans divides axes into four divisions—
1, Double axes.
2, Adzes or implements with the edges at right angles to the shaft-hole.
3. Axes with the edge at one end only.

4, Axe hammers, sharp at one end and more or less hammer-like at the
other.

Perforated hammers he considers to be closely allied to the axe hammers.

All these divisions are well represented in Ireland, and I haye examples of all
the classes.

I have one fine specimen of the third division of axes, hollowed at the sides,
with a raised moulding round the hollows. It is six inches long, and was found
in the river Bann while deepening the river over fifty years ago, A description
of it is given by Robert McAdam in the ‘ Ulster Journal of Archeology,’ vol. iil.
and it is shown in two views, full size, facing p. 234, Reference is made to it
in ‘Ancient Stone Implements,’ 2nd edition, p. 198. The author says it is now
in the British Museum. Sir John Evans must haye been misled in making this
statement, as the specimen is in my possession.

There was found at the same time in the Bann an unfinished specimen with
the hole partially bored on each side. The hole, so far as formed, would seem to
have been made with a pick or punch. The numerous flint picks found in
the bed of the Bann and along its banks would have been suitable for making
such borings by hammering the pointed end of the pick into the hole. Quarrymen
use ‘jumpers’ of iron pointed with steel for boring holes for blasting at the
present day, The implement now used for boring is different, but the method is
the same.

The holes in many of the axes and hammers are wide at the surface of the
implement and narrow in the centre. There have been. many conjectures as to
the method of shafting implements with such holes. Sir John Evans discusses
many of them, but I do not see that he mentions the plan adopted by the natives
of New Britain, who use a shaft the size of the narrowest part of the hole and
fill the wider parts with gum, in which they stick cowrie shells,

The perforated axes have mostly blunted and polished edges, They and most
hammers must have been used as mace heads,

864 TRANSACTIONS Of SECTION 1.

Section I.—PHYSIOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE Section.—J. S. Haupane, M.D., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 3.

The President delivered the following Address :—

The Relation of Physiology to Physics and Chemistry.

Tx choosing to address you on the relation of Physiology to Physics and
Chemistry, [am aware that I have selected a subject which has already beett
treated from this Chair by more than one distinguished predecessor.. My excuse
for returning to it again is that it not only possesses deep scientific interest for
us all, but that a great deal remains to be said about it.

The majority of physiologists in recent times have expressed more or less
clearly the opinion that Physiology is the application to living organisms of the
methods and modes of explanation of Physics and Chemistry. It is, in short,
Physics and Chemistry applied to the activities of living organisms; so that
the only explanations aimed at in Physiology are, or ought to be, physical and
chemical explanations, A minority, which is at present a growing one, I think,
have either definitely dissented from this view, or have remained unconvinced of
its truth, As one of this minority I should like to place before you as shortly
as possible what seem to me to be the main reasons of our dissent. Let me add
that I have carefully pondered over these reasons during many years of active
physiological work.

When we look back on the history of Physiology it seems perfectly evident
that physiological progress has been dependent on the progress of Physics and
Chemistry. On this point there is no room for doubt. To take only one
example, where should we be in the investigation of animal metabolism but for
the ideas and experimental methods furnished to us by Physics and Chemistry ?
We should know next to nothing about respiration, animal heat, nutrition, or
muscular and other work. Physiology depends at every turn on Physics and
Chemistry, and its future pregress will certainly be equally dependent on
advances in physical and chemical knowledge. Thisconsideration has, I imagine,
weighed very heavily in the minds of those physiologists who have concluded
that Physiology is nothing but applied Physics and Chemistry. A further fact
which weighs equally heavily is that in spite of diligent search no fact contra-
dicting the fundamental laws of conservation of matter and energy has been
discovered in connection with living organisms.

When, however, we ask what progress has been made towards the physico-
chemical explanation of physiological processes, we at once enter upon contro-
yersy. We may point to advances in some directions, but they are accom-
panied by the appearance of unforeseen difficulties in other directions. Again,
1o take animal metabolism as a typical instance, the investigations of the last

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS: 865

hundred and twenty years have enabled us to assign ultimate physical and chemical
sources to the energy and material leaving the body in various forms. We can
assign to such sources the energy of animal heat, muscular work, glandular, nervous,
and other activity: also the carbon dioxide, urea, salts, and many other substances
which leave the body or are formed within it. All of this new knowledge may
be regarded as progress towards a physico-chemical explanation of life.

But there is another aspect to be considéred ; for side by side with what I have
just referred to there has been a different kind of increase of knowledge with
regard to animal metabolism. This growth of knowledge relates to the manner
in which the passage of energy and material through the body is regulated in
accordance with what is required for the maintenance of the normal structure
and activities of the body. In Liebig’s time, for instance, it was believed that
the rate of respiratory exchange was regulated simply by the supply to the body
of oxygen and food-material. Ifone breathed faster, or if the barometric pressure
or percentage of oxygen in the air increased, the respiratory exchange was
assumed to be also increased, just as ordinary combustion outside the body would
be increased by an increased supply of oxygen. If, again, one took in more food
it was supposed that the excess went to increase the rate of combustion in the
blood (duxus conswmption), just as a fire is increased when more fuel is supplied.
We now know that these assumptions were wholly mistaken, and that the re-
spiratory movements, respiratory exchange, and corresponding consumption of
food material in the body are regulated with astounding exactitude in accordance
with bodily requirements. If, for instance, the body consumes more proteid, it
economises a quantity of fat or carbohydrate equivalent in energy value to the
proteid ; and from day to day the amount of energy liberated in the body is very
steady. With regard tothe excretion of material by the kidneys a similar growth
in knowledge can be traced. It is scarcely a century since the urine was re-
garded as equivalent more or less to the liquid part of the blood separated from
the corpuscles, which were unable to pass through the very fine capillary tubules
supposed to exist in the kidney substance. Gradually, however, we have learnt
how extraordinarily delicate is the selective action which occurs in the kidney
substance, and how efficiently this selective action maintains the normal com-
position of the blood. Scarcely a remnant is now left of the old filtration
theories, Our ideas of tissue nutrition and growth have undergone a similar
change ; and it is hard to realise that only about seventy years ago Schwann
could put forward the theory that cell formation and growth is a process of
crystallisation.

One can multiply instances like these almost indefinitely; but I have, per-
haps, said enough to show that if in some ways the advance of Physiology seems
to have taken us nearer to a physico-chemical explanation of life, in other ways
it seems to haye taken us further away. On the one hand we have accumulating
knowledge as to the physical and chemical sources and the ultimate destiny of
the material and energy passing through the body: on the other hand an equally
rapidly accumulating knowledge of an apparent teleological crdering of this
material and energy; and for this teleological ordering we are at a loss tor
physico-chemical explanations. There was a time, about fifty years ago, when
the rising generation of physiologists in their enthusiasm for the first kind of
knowledge closed their eyes to the second. That time is past, and we must once
more face the old problem of life.

Let us first look at the answer given to this problem by many of the older
physiologists. Roughly speaking they carried physical and chemical explanation
of physiological processes as far as they could, and for the rest assumed that at
some point or other the physical and chemical factors are interfered with and
ordered in a teleological direction by something peculiar to living organisms—the
‘ vital principle’ or ‘ vital force.’ This theory, if one can call it a theory, had
the negative merit that it did not lead physiologists to ignore facts which they
could not explain. But in practice the ‘vital force’ became simply a convenient
resting-place for these facts. It was assumed that the vital force could do any-
thing and everything, and that it acts ‘from the blue’ on physical and chemical

1908, 3K

866 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 1.

processes. Yet its action was admittedly dependent on physical and chemical
conditions, such as warmth, the presence of oxygen, &c. In fact no consistent
definition was given to the conception of vital force.’ It consequently never
could become a working hypothesis of any value. Chiefly on this account, I
think, it practically disappeared from Physiology last century. Yet the class of
fact which led to the theory of ‘vital force’ is now more prominent than ever ;
and what du Bois Reymond called the ‘ spectre’ of Vitalism meets us at every turn,
thinly disguised under such names as ‘ cell autonomy,’ ‘ vital processes,’ &e. It
is useless to shut our eyes and deny the existence of this ‘spectre.’ We must
fairly face and examine it. :

However difficult it may be to imagine physico-chemical explanations of such
processes as respiratory exchange, secretion, muscular activity, &c., there is
nothing in the known facts relating to each process taken by itself to preclude
the possibility of such explanations. Let us then follow the Euclidian method
and assume provisionally that they are nothing but physico-chemical processes,
This assumption evidently implies that each of the living cells concerned has a
very complex and definite structure varying according to its functions. To take
an example, a secreting cell in the kidney may be assumed to have a structure
which responds to the stimulus of a certain percentage of urea or sodium chloride
in the blood, and reacts in such a manner that energy derived from oxidation is
so directed as to perform the work of taking up urea or sodium chloride from the
blood and transferring it against varying osmotic pressures from one end of the
cell to the other. This mechanism must also be assumed to have the property of
maintaining itself in working order, and probably also of reproducing itself under’
appropriate stimuli, besides also performing various other functions. Its physico-
chemical structure must thus be very definite and complex—to an extent which
the older physico-chemical theories took no account of. If we look to the cells in
other parts of the body we are met with the same necessity for assuming com-
plexities of structure which seem to grow in extent with every advance in
physiological knowledge, every discovery of new substances present within or
around the cells, every discovery of new physiological reactions.

Let us not lose courage, however, but continue to follow the direction in
which our assumption leads. In assuming that the body is an enormously com-
plex physico-chemical structure we have only begun to face the difficulties of our
hypothesis: for we have still to consider how this structure can have originated
in accordance with the physico-chemical theory of life. The adult organism
develops from a single cell, the fertilised ovum. It is certain that this cell does
not contain in a preformed condition the structure of ‘an adult organism. The
conditions of environment in which any particular ovum develops itself are
doubtless indefinitely complex from the physico-chemical standpoint, as indeed is
the environment ot any particular portion of matter existing anywhere. But
these conditions also vary almost indefinitely in the case of different ova, whereas
the adult organism to which the ovum gives rise reproduces in minute detail the
enormously complex characters of the parent organism. We are thus driven to
the assumption that the ovum contains within itself a structure which, given
certain relatively simple conditions in the environment, reacts in such a way as
to build up step by step, from materials in the environment, the structure of the
adult organism. To effect this the germ-cell must have a structure almost
infinitely more definite and complex than that of any cell in the adult organism.
Ditlicult as it may be to form any conception of the mechanism of a secreting cell,
it is infinitely more difficult to form the remotest idea of that of a germ-cell.

But we are still only at the beginning of the difficulty. The assumed tre-
mendous mechanism of the germ-cell has been developed, together with the whole
of the rest of the parent organism and countless other germ-cells, from a previous
germ-cell. What must the ‘mechanism’ of this cell have been? And that
of its endless predecessors? We have reached the Euclidian reductio ad
absurdum.

I might strengthen my argument by referring to the further difficulty over any
physico-chemical conception of what occurs in the sexual fusion of the male and

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, — _ 867

female cell, or in the process of partial reproduction after injury, or in the facts
cstablished by Driesch and others with regard to the extraordinary reproductive
powers of each cell in developing embryos. But I have purposely confined my
references to more simple and well-known facts; for the more simply the argu-
ment can be put, the better. I confess that as a physiologist I am struck with
amazement at the manner in which heredity is often discussed by contemporary
writers who endeavour to treat the subject from a mechanistic standpoint.
Sometimes, indeed, the germ-cell is acknowledged to be a complicated structure,
but at other times it is treated as a ‘plasma,’ which can be mixed with other
‘plasma,’ divided, or added to, as if for all the world it were so much treacle !
T have tried to place clearly before you the assumptions in connection with heredity
which to my mind make the physico-chemical theory of life unthinkable, even if it
be tenaciously clung to in connection with those ordinary physiological phenomena
where, as already explained, it has proved so disappointing.

Our aim as physiologists is to render physiological phenomena intelligible—
in other words, to- obtain general conceptions as to their nature. The point now
reached is that the conceptions of Physics and Chemistry are insufficient to enable
us to understand physiological phenomena. But if so, we need not sit down in
despair, for we can look for other working conceptions, Are we justified in doing
this? I think we are.

There is a prevalent popular idea that the world as presented to us under the
conceptions of Physics and Chemistry is more than our own imperfect conception
of reality, and corresponds completely with reality itself. Philosophy has shown
us, however, that this idea must be erroneous; for if it were correct, knowledge
of such a world would be impossible. This was first clearly pointed out almost
two hundred years ago in this city by one of the greatest of Irishmen, George
Berkeley, at that time a Fellow of Trinity College.t The lesson taught by
Berkeley, Hume, and their successors is not that Physical Science is of less value
than it appears to be, but that its fundamental hypotheses are only working
hypotheses, applicable only so far as they successfully fulfil their purpose. Each
different. science is thus free to employ whatever working hypotheses may prove
most useful in interpreting the order of phenomena with which it deals. We
are thus perfectly justified in seeking to find a conception of life which will serve
as a better working hypothesis than that of life as a physico-chemical process.

' I venture to think that the conception we are in search of lies very near to
hand and is indeed in common use, though in a form which has hitherto been
too ill-defined for deliberate scientific employment. It is simply the conception
of the living organism, which stands, or ought to stand, in the same relation to
Biology as the conceptions of matter and energy to Physics, or of the atom to
Chemistry. Let me try to give more definition to this conception. A living
organism is distinguished by the fact that init what we recognise as specific
structure is inseparably associated with what we recognise as specific activity.
Its activity expresses itself in the development and maintenance of its structure,
which is nothing but the expression of this activity. Its identity as an organism
is not physical identity, since from the physical standpoint the material and energy
passing through it may be rapidly changing. In recognising it as an organism
we are applying an.elementary conception which goes deeper than the concep-
tions of matter and energy, since the apparent matter and energy contained in, or
passing through, or reacting with, the organism are treated as only the sensuous
expression of its existence. Even the environment is regarded as in organic
relation with the organism, and not as a mere physico-chemical environment. It

follows that for Biology we must clearly and boldly claim a higher place than
the purely physical sciences can claim in the hierarchy of the sciences—higher
because Biology is dealing with a deeper aspect of reality. It must also be the
-aim of Biology gradually to penetrate behind the sensuous veil of matter and
energy which at present seems to permeate the organic world at all points.

et us now see how the conception just defined can be used as a scientific

‘ Treatise concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, 1710.
3K 2

868 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

working hypothesis. In accordance with it any form of physiological activity is
presumably related essentially, and not accidentally, to the other details of
activity and structure in the same organism. Stated generally, therefore, the
roblem of Physiology is not to obtain piecemeal physico-chemical explanations
of physiological processes, but to discover by observation and experiment the
relatedness to one another of all the details of structure and activity in each
organism as expressions of its nature as an organism.

The first step in physiological or morphological discovery is to observe the
bare sensuous fact of some detail of physical or chemical change, or of
composition or structure, in connection with an organism. It is only, however,
when we find that this detail is not accidental that it becomes of biological
interest. We can observe its constancy or otherwise in the same organism or
similar organisms—that is to say, the constancy of its relations to other details
of structure and activity. Or we can by experiment search for the element of
constancy when it is at first sight hidden from our view. In so far as we find
this, it seems to me that we reach physiological or biological explanation ; but
evidently the process of reaching it is at any stage in knowledge only imperfectly
realised, since new details of activity and structure are constantly being
revealed.

Concrete examples will make the matter clearer, and I shall first take as an
example the progress of knowledge in relation to animal heat. It was of course
common knowledge from early times that in the higher animals a certain amount
of warmth in the body is present during life. With the invention of the
thermometer the body-temperature could be measured, and its extraordinary
constancy observed. When Lavoisier measured the heat-production of an
animal, and compared the output of heat with the output of carbon dioxide and
disappearance of oxygen in respiration, an immense step forward was taken. This
step was in two distinct respects a very great one. In the first place it revealed
an element of identity between crganic and inorganic phenomena, since heat-
production in an animal was shown to be accompanied by chemical changes
quantitatively identical with those accompanying heat-production by oxidation
outside the body. In the second place, and from the distinctively physiological
point of view, it revealed a fundamental relation between heat-production,
respiratory exchange, and the consumption of food.

As regards the first of these points I should like to say definitely that I, for
one, firmly believe that could we only understand them fully we could bring
organic and inorganic phenomena under the same general conceptions. Lavoisier’s
discovery, like that of Mayer in relation to the sources of muscular energy, was
a great advance in this direction. But this is a very different thing from an
advance in the direction of rendering life intelligible in terms of physico-chemical
conceptions as we commonly understand them. Lavoisier’s discoveries did
nothing in the direction of reducing to physico-chemical terms the apparent
teleological or, as I should prefer to say, ‘ physiological’ element in the phenomena
of animal heat.

It is to the second point that I wish to direct special attention at present.
Lavoisier’s discovery rapidly brought the phenomena of animal heat into direct
relation, not only with respiration but with nutrition, circulation of blood, excre-
tion, and other processes ; and it was gradually discovered that the maintenance
of a constant body-temperature renders physiologically intelligible a large number
of phenomena in connection with different bodily activities—for instance, increased
metabolism with fall of external temperature, sweating or increased circulation
through the skin with muscular work, the relative constancy of metabolism
during starvation, and the physiological equivalence of proteid, carbohydrate,
and fat in proportion to their energy values. These phenomena are intelligible
onthe assumption that warm-blooded animals actively maintain a certain body-
temperature, just as they maintain a certain bodily structure and composition.
This mode of explanation is not a physico-chemical one, but I venture very
confidently to assert that it is a physiological one, and in fact the only kind of
explanation which really interests and appeals to a true physiologist, The thread

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 869,

of identity which has been traced through the phenomena just referred to seems
to me to have proved a real scientific clue.

As another example I may perhaps be allowed to refer shortly to the regula-
tion of breathing, as this is a subject on which I have recently been working.
Current accounts of the clock-like action of the respiratory centre during normal
breathing, with the expansion and contraction of the lungs acting as a sort of
governor through the vagus nerves, always filled me with suspicion, as it seemed
to me that such aregulation was altogether unlike a physiological one. This led
me to investigate the matter further, along with Mr. Priestley; and we had the
satisfaction of being able to prove that the ventilation of the lungs is actually
regulated with exquisite exactness, in such a way as to keep the partial pressure
of carbon dioxide in the alveolar air and presumably, therefore, in the arterial
blood, constant. In reality, therefore, the lung ventilation is regulated in
accordance with the requirements of respiratory exchange; and what seems to be
true physiological explanation has been advanced a short stage.

The advance of knowledge with regard to the circulation might be made the
text of a similar discourse. By a process of abstraction the circulation of the
blood may be regarded as a mere mechanical process, connected only by the
accidents of physical structure with other physiological processes. Under the
influence of mechanistic theories the blood-pressure and rate of blood-flow
through different organs were indeed for long supposed to be the primary deter-
mining cause of the physiological activities of these organs, just as the rate and
depth of breathing were supposed to determine the consumption of oxygen by the
body. Evidence is, however, accumulating on all hands that the blood-supply
to various parts, like the air-supply to the lungs, is in reality determined by
physiological requirements. In other words, it is a direct expression of the
nature of the organism, just as the common-sense idea of life would lead us to
expect.

I may pass next to a branch of physiological knowledge which is still in its
early infancy. Under the influence of mechanistic ideas Physiology has for long
left completely out of account investigation into the formation and maintenance
of organic structure. For mechanistic explanations structure had to be assumed,
and as a consequence anatomy was left high and dry in a position of helpless
isolation. If, however, the real aims of Physiology are those which I have tried
to indicate, the separation between Physiology and Anatomy must tend to dis-
appear: for the structure no less than the activity of each part must be deter-
mined by its relations to the structure and activities of other parts in the organic
whole of the living organism. We can investigate these relations, just as we
investigate the connection of secretion with respiratory exchange, circulation, or
the composition of the blood ; and they must evidently be physiological relations.
Our aim is not the hopeless one of giving a physico-chemical explanation of the
development and maintenance of organic structure, but simply to discover the
physiological relations which determine the structure of each part and its main-
tenance. Many facts bearing on this subject have recently been brought to light
by the application of experimental methods to embryology, and by the study of
reproduction of lost or injured parts, and of grafting: also by the study of so-
called ‘internal secretion’ in connection with various organs. It seems clear,
however, that we are only at the beginning of a vast development of knowledge
in this direction, and that for this development far more refined methods of deal-
ing with the chemistry of the body will be required.

It was in connection with the facts of reproduction and heredity that the
difficulties of the mechanistic theory of life were found finally to culminate. For
the distinctively biological theory of life, to which I have endeavoured to give
some definition, these difficulties do not exist. They are, it is true, not solved ;
but they are set aside as being due to wrong initial assumptions and therefore purely
artificial. The difficulty remains of reconciling the fundamental conceptions of
Biology with those of Physics and Chemistry. This is, however, a matter of
which the discussion must be handed over to Philosophy, which has many similar
matters to deal with. If it is a fundamental axiom that an organism actively

870 TRANSACTIONS Of SECTION 1.

asserts or maintains a specific structure and specific activities, it is clear that
nutrition itself is only a constant process of reproduction: for the material of the
organism is constantly changing. Not only is there constant molecu'ar change,
but the living cells are constantly being cast off and reproduced. It is only a
step from this to the reproduction of lost parts which occurs so readily among
lower organisms; and a not much greater step to the development of a complete
organism from a single one of the constituent cells of an embryo in its early
stages. In all these facts we have simply manifestations of the fundamental
characters of the living organism. The reproduction of the parent organism from
a single one of its constituent cells separated from the body seems to me only
another such manifestation. Heredity, or, as it is sometimes metaphorically ex-
pressed, organic memory, is for Biology an axiom and not aproblem. The problem
1s why death occurs, what it really is, and why only certain parts of the body are
capable of reproducing the whole. These questions carry us, at least in part,
beyond the present boundary lines of Biology. They involve those ultimate
questions which, as has just been pointed out, it is the province of Philosophy
to deal with.

To turn to another set of questions, the distinctively biologi al standpoint in
Biology involves a change in what has in recent times become the ordinary
attitude towards organic evolution, Since our conception of an organism is
different in kind, and not merely in degree, from our conception of a material:
aggregate, it is clear that in tracing back life to primitive forms we are
getting no nearer to what is called abiogenesis. The result of investigation in
this direction can only be to extend further the domain of Biology and widen
biological ideas. Our aim must be, in short, not to reduce organic to inorganic
phenomena, but to bring inorganic phenomena into the domain of Biology.

Tam well aware that it will be strongly maintained that the change of front
which I have urged as necessary involves the giving up of all real attempt at
scientific explanation in Biology. As already explained, this is a philosophical
question, and I shall not attempt to deal further with it here. What immedi-
ately concerns us as biologists is whether the change of front will further or hinder
biological advance, particularly in Physiology. Now the first requisite of a
working hypothesis is that it should work, and I have tried to point out that as
a matter of fact the physico-chemical theory of life has not worked in the past
and can never work. As soon as we pass beyond the most. superficial details of
physiological activity it becomes unsatisfactory; and it breaks down completely
when applied to fundamental physiological problems, such as that of reproduction,
Those who aim at physico-chemical explanations of life are simply running their
heads at a stone wall, and can only expect sore heads as a consequence, It
seems to me that the proposed change of front is only the conscious adoption of a
common-sense idea which is somewhat vaguely, perhaps, present in the minds of.
all men, and which has in reality guided biological advance in the past. This.
idea, as I have tried to show, is a working hypothesis which actually works, and.
affords clear guidance for future advance. og

TI would fain add a few words as to the relation of Physiology to Psychology
and Ethics: for this is a subject of deep human interest. We know that at any
rate the higher organisms are conscious and intelligent. This fact - brings,
Physiology into touch with a new element in the behaviour of organisms. The
subject is far too great a one for me to attempt to discuss here, but I should like
to say that it appears to me very clear that just as Biology is something more
than Physics and Chemistry, so Psychology is something more than Physiology,
with the added assumption that consciousness is tacked on to certain physiological
processes, if such a crude conception has any definite meaning. We can, it is
true, by a process of abstraction treat sensation from the purely physiological side,
as in investigating the physiology of the sense-organs; but this is Physiology
and nothing else; for we are leaving out of account the distinctive elements of
consciousness. At our present stage of knowledge life is not intelligence, and
men or animals as intelligent individuals involve a deeper aspect. of reality:
than Biology deals with, Our fundamental physiological working hypothesis

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 871

cannot be successfully applied to the phenomena of intelligence, and the sooner
and more definitely this is realised the better for Physiology.

In conclusion, let me endeavour to state shortly the main contention which
I have endeavoured to place before you. It is that in Physiology, and Biology
generally, we are dealing with phenomena which, so far as our present knowledge
goes, not only differ in complexity, but differ in kind from physical and chemical
phenomena; and that the fundamental working hypothesis of Physiology must
differ correspondingly from those of Physics and Chemistry.

That a meeting-point between Biology and Physical Science may at some time
be found, there is no reason for doubting. But we may confidently predict that
if that meeting-point is found, and one of the two sciences is swallowed up, that

one will not be Biology.

The following Papers and Reports were then read :—

1. Proprio-ceptive Reflexes of the Limb.
By Professor C.S. Suerrinaton, 1.2.5,

2, Final Report on the ‘ Metabolic Balance Sheet’ of the Individual Tissues.
See Reports, p. 436,

3. Report on the Effect of Climate upon Health and Disease.
See Reports, p. 442.

4, The Physics of High Altitudes in relation to Climate and Health,
By Micuart C. Grasuam, M.D.

This paper dealt with the physiological influence of electrical tension in asso-
ciation with tissue change, secretion, and cerebral and nerve stimulation, and
associates the lassitude experienced in cloudy humidity and also in the excessive
dryness of the easterly currents with the low difference of potentials in the
atmospheric electrical charge which prevails in each of these conditions.

The author touched upon the well-known increase of the red corpuscles of the
blood in mountain altitudes, and correlates the experiments of Dr, Frankland and
Professor Tyndall on combustion and luminosity with his own elimination of the
influence of aqueous vapour in these experiments to show that the union of
O and C is not lessened in rarefied air, and that the more perfect combustion
obtained is due to greater molecular freedom and a lessened pressure-promptness
of action compensating for sparseness of particles. Such an influence cannot
be overlooked as an exciting stimulus within the human body, for there can be
no reason to assign a lesser power of combination to the unrestrained oxygen
within the air-cells than it shows in penetrating to the central unburnt gases of
the candle-flame.

5, Report on the Ductless Glands.—See Reports, p. 440,

§. Certain Factors in the Glomerular Secretion of the Kidneys.
By Professor A. B. Macatium, /.2,S,

872 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

7. Surface Tension as a Factor in the Distribution of Salis inside the
Living Cell, By Professor A, B, Macauium, F.R.S,

8. The Prevention of Deaths under Anesthetics.
By Freperic W. Hewitt, M.V.0., WA., MD,

Owing to the steady increase in the number of deaths in connection with
the use of anasthetics for surgical operations, the prevention of these distressing
accidents constitutes one of the most pressing questions of the day.

In order that the risks incidental to generalised anesthesia may be reduced,
it is obviously first necessary to study the conditions and circumstances under
which anesthetics are now administered. At the present moment (1) the law

ermits any person to produce general anesthesia; (2) many of the examining

odies permit their candidates to qualify without producing evidence of having
received instruction in anzsthetics; (3) the anasthetic departments at our
hospitals are in many instances imperfectly and inadequately equipped both in
personnel and in other respects; (4) anesthetics, in both hospital and private
practice, are frequently entrusted to comparatively inexperienced practitioners ;
and (5) most of our hospitals publish no records of the anzsthetics administered
within them.

Experience has conclusively shown that though anesthetics are powerful
poisons, they may be safely administered provided that those who undertake their
administration have been properly educated and trained, and that the principles
under which they work, and the methods which they employ, are based upon
scientific data. The author referred to the valuable physiological researches of
Professor A. D. Waller, and to the work of other physiologists in the direction
of regulating the percentage composition of ansesthetic atmospheres. While
fully admitting that by percentage methods the risks of anzsthetics may be
reduced, it was submitted that the ground must first be cleared by better and wider
education, and particularly by instilling into students the absolute necessity of
securing a perfectly free and unembarrassed air-way during anesthetisation.
There is no single principle, indeed, the faithful observance of which will ensure
eafety in every case. It was contended that there are three main principles which
must collectively be observed, viz.: (1) the selection of appropriate anzsthetics ;
(2) the adjustment of the percentage of the anzesthetic gas or vapour to meet the
requirements of the case; and (3) the avoidance of the slightest obstruction to
the free entry and exit of air throughout the administration. The author dis-
cussed the relative importance of the second and third of these principles, and
suggested that a considerable step towards the solution of the main question
might be achieved if arrangements could be made whereby a committee of physio-
logists might observe, clinically, the usual modes of onset of difficulties and dangers
under anesthetics. Such a committee would soon appreciate the differences
between naso-oral and tracheal anzsthetisation, and the asphyxial effects which
may arise in the human subject as the result of naso-oral methods. The author
regards the third principle as the most important of the three; for his whole
clinical experience, and the examination of the records of a large number of
recent fatal cases, kindly placed at his disposal by Dr. F. J. Waldo and
Dr. Freyberger, convince him that in the great majority of fatalities under
anesthetics some obstruction to breathing above the trachea has heen the imme-
diate cause of death.

The following reforms are urgently needed :—

(1) To make it a penal offence for any person other than a legally qualified
medical practitioner to administer an anesthetic ;
’ (2) To improve and extend the anesthetic departments of our hospitals by
appointing experienced men of the highest academic and professional attainments
tg the yarious offices of such departments ;

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 873

(3) To make a thorough course of instruction in anssthetics a necessary part
of the medical education of every practitioner, and

(4) To require hospital authorities to register every anzsthetic administered
within their respective institutions.

It is a matter for great congratulation that the General Medical Council have
recently looked favourably upon the more important of these reforms, and it is to
be hoped that ere long legislation may be granted in the directions indicated.

9. Is Alcohol a Fvod of Muscle? A Comparison of Chioroform, Ether,
and Alcohol. By Professor A. D. Water, 7.2.8.

Dr. Waller described his method of work. Two frog muscles (Sartorius), each
immersed in salt solution contained in two glass tubes, are arranged in one electric
circuit, so that they can be stimulated simultaneously and their contractions
recorded on two smoked plates fixed each on a small railway-truck moved
simultaneously by a clock. A series of normal contractions were first recorded
on the smoked plates; then the salt solution was replaced by the same quantity
of the liquid to be tested, and the record continued. In this way the effects of a
series of alcohols and different strengths of alcohol were compared. It seemed as
though alcohol in weak solution of about one per cent.'acted on muscle as a fuod—
that is to say, not only calling out the energy there but supplying fresh energy—
but the experiments are not conclusive enough to give a definite answer.

By this method, also, the toxicity of chloroform was compared with that of
alcohol and ether. The toxic value of one ounce of chloroform is equivalent
physiologically to nearly half a gallon of alcohol. More precisely, the order of
toxicity is—

1 molecule of chloroform is equivalent to
12 molecules of ether and to
100 molecules of ethyl alcohol.

The object of these latter experiments was to determine the safe administration
of chloroform, a continuation of work extending over the last fifteen years.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.

Discussion on Mental and Muscular Fatique.
(i) Fatigue. By Dr. W. MacDoucaut.—See Reports, p. 479.

(ii) Fatigue. By Professor T. H. Mirroy.

Professor Milroy referred to a special form of fatigue—namely, fatigue to
colour, and especially with regard to its effect upon those phenomena which are
referred to under the term ‘simultaneous contrast.’

Simultaneous contrast requires two fields, an inducing and a reacting field ;
and the visual sensation derived from a stimulation of the latter is of the nature of
that furnished by the colour complementary to the inducing colour.

Two explanatiogs of this have been given, a psychological and a physiological
one. The former, formulated by Helmholtz, may be stated in the following
way :—

When a small colourless field is included in a coloured one, a false judgment
is made as to the nature of the former owing to the observer subtracting from the
small central field the colour of the larger coloured field.

874 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 1,

The other, a physiological explanation, is that furnished by Hering. He
regards the surrounding field as affecting the condition of the central one by
producing in it a change of the opposite type to that going on in the general
tield—spatial induction.

If the reacting tield be stimulated originally by the colour which would
normally be induced in it by the surrounding or inducing field, then simultaneous
contrast is no longer seen until a certain time has elapsed to allow the area
again to resume its normal condition. Thus even brief exposure of the eye to red
spectral light will prevent the appearance of the red tint in the central field which
is surrounded by a larger green field. One may observe the gradual increase in
the induced effect as fatigue passes off, but it does not reach its normal degree
until some time after the usual signs of fatigue, as shown by the negative after-
image, have disappeared.

It is interesting, in the light of Hering’s views on the black-white substance,
to note the effects uf a previous fixation of a central lampblack disc in the green-
coloured field. If one examines a patch of black in a spectral green field for a
few minutes and then removes the black disc and allows white light to pass
through in its place, the induced pink simultaneous contrast-effect is not seen at
once, but prior to its appearance one has the sensation of a central white field
which slowly, beginning from the periphery, shows the gradual pink colouration
of the field.

That is to say, during the period when the excitability of the reacting
field has been raised by the previous examination of a black field, the inducing
colour does not bring out its normal effect.

This phenomenon is more readily explained on the Hering than on the
Helmholtz hypothesis,

(iii) Some Aspects of Mental Fatigue. By H. Sackvitte Lawson.

This paper was concerned with the measurement of mental fatigue by means of
the wsthesiometer, which is in reality a modified compass, and has been used in
connection with physiological experiments on skin-sensitiveness. Intellectual
effort causes an accumulation of waste and poisonous material in the brain-cells.
As a result of this there is found a diminished skin-sensitiveness in all parts of
the body. Hence the measurement in millimetres of the loss in skin-sensitiveness
would appear to be a guide to the mental energy expended; and the principal of
the zesthesiometer is to record mental fatigue in terms of this nature.

In conducting these experiments it has been found that fatigue symptoms may
or may not have a physiological counterpart. The individual experimented on
may feel tired and yet be objectively fresh, or, on the other hand, he may feel tired
and at the same time find justification for this feeling on physiological grounds.

There is yet another kind of fatigue met with in the victims of that ‘roten sin’
known to Chaucer as aceidie, which maketh a man ‘heyy, thoughtful, and wrawe’
and ‘full of slouthe, wanhope, and sompnolence.’ Many an accidiose patient feels
tired and betrays all the outward casual symptoms of fatigue. And yet a careful
reading with the esthesiometer confirms nothing of these symptoms; indicates, on
the contrary, that now, as of old, the best remedy for such ‘nerves’ is hard work.

The following are some of the kiuds of information to be obtained by the
systematic use of the sesthesiometer :-—

1. How many units of skin-sensitiveness a student may lose without injury.

2. The relative fatigue induced by a study of the various subjects in the school

curriculum.
3. Information as to the most correct method of arranging the subjects in the

time-table.

The physiological effect on the student of different methods of teaching may
also be shown.

Lastly, the differences Letween physiological and psychical fatigue are rendered,
evident,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I, 875

The following fatigue graphs have been drawn :-—

1, Primary school student.

2. Primary school teacher.

8. Professor in university.

4. Student in university.

5. Vicar iu suburban parish.

G. Private pupil: showing physiological effect on him of different methods of
teaching. In all cases readings have been taken over a series of days.

The last part of the paper was concerned with fatigue in Egypt, and the condi-
tions generally which obtain in Mohammedan schools.

Educationists in Egypt regret the prevalence of the memorising system and
the unavoidable difficulties of the Fast of Ramadan.

Two graphs are shown of a student in a secondary school in Egypt. The first
series of readings were taken before the Fast of Ramadan, the second series during
that Fast. {

In conclusion it would seem that esthesiometric measurement not only gives
very positive results which are helpful to the educationist, but also, by coming into
conflict with subjective opinion, seems to suggest a possible cure for those who are
subject to accidie and psychical maladies generally,

The following Papers and Report were then read :—

1. The Interpretation of the Results obtained from the Study of Cerebral
Localisation in the Prosinie. By Professor W. H. Witson and
Professor G. Extiot Situ, 7.2.8.

This research was undertaken seven years ago, with the object of determining
whether or not electrical stimulation of the cerebral cortex would yield evidence
for the identification of a small sulcus in the brains of certain lemurs, which
one of us (G. E. 8.), on morphological grounds, had described as the repre-
sentative of the upper part of the sulcus centralis of monkeys and man. The
demonstration by Sherrington and Griinbaum that the sulcus centralis was the
caudal limit of the excitable area of cortex gave us a definite criterion to male
use of in deciding whether or not a sulcus ought to be regarded as Rolando’s
furrow. We chose the lemurs for this investigation because the arrangement of
the sulci in the members of this sub-order formed the key to the comparison of
the fissural plan in all the non-primate mammals with that of the apes and man;
the plan formed by the sulci in the lemurs so closely resembled that found in the
apes that the identity of most of the furrows was obvious; and, at the same
time, the Prosimian arrangement was appreciably nearer to—i.e., more like—that
found in the carnivora and ungulata and the other mammalia. Six years ago we
stimulated two brains of Loris gracilis, employing Sherrington’s unipolar method,
and found centres for movements of the lez, trunk, arm, and head immediately
in front of the position of the coronal suture (of the slcull), the two brains being
quite devoid of the sulcus x, our supposed upper part of Rolando’s suleus. On
examining a series of eight brains of Loris gracilis we found in two of them a
sulcus 2 exactly on the line of the coronal suture.

Next year Page May joined us, and with our help he stimulated the brains of
two examples of Lemur macaco, using the bipolar method.

The motor area was mapped out with the greatest ease, and was found to
stop sharply at the sulcus 2, thus confirming the view which our anatomical
researches had previously suggested. Page May repeated the experiments on
another lemur, and examined the distribution of the Betz cells in several specimens.
‘The results were presented to the British Association in 1904 at Cambridge.

The authors then repeated the experiments (using the unipolar method) on
three examples of Lemur mongoz, and studied the distribution of the Betz cells
in lemurs of various species, in Perodichius, Loris, Nycticebus, and Tarsius.

876 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION ft.

Since then several writers (Brodmann, Oskar and Cecilie Vogt, Volsch, Halli-
burton, and Mott) have published accounts of the histological and physiological
localisation of the motor cortex in lemurs, -‘There are so many discrepancies in
these various statements of fact and inference that we propose to describe the
results of our latest work, which thoroughly bears out the account given by Page
May in Cambridge four years ago; and we seize the opportunity to emphasise and
extend our views regarding the significance of these results,

2. The Localisation of the Human Cerebral Cortex.
Ly Professor G. Evuior Smira, /.2.8.

Two years ago I demonstrated to the Anatomical Society the ease. with
which one can map out the surface of the human cerebral cortex into a large
number of areas, each of which presents distinctive features (thickness, colour,
arrangement and density of the iutracortical medullary matter) which are appre-
ciable to the naked eye in fresh material, when cut with a scalpel.

Last year I published charts of the human cerebrum showing the distribution
of these various anatomically distinct areas and indicating the causal relation-
ship existing between the situation of various sulci and the borders or the axes
of these areas.

Shortly afterward Brodmann published similar maps, based upon the results of
the histological examination of the human brain. ‘There is a remarkable agree-
ment between the two series of charts, which becomes more pronounced when it
is recalled that Brodmann represents one individual brain as seen flattened out in
a fresh condition, whereas I have shown the average condition of a large series,
represented on a specimen hardened zn situ.

But even after eliminating these discrepancies and certain other differences
which a comparison of the tests (and not the diagrams only) of the two
memoirs will dissipate, there are still some points of disagreement between
Brodmann’s results and mine. I have made a new investigation of all such points
of disagreement and, as the result, present new charts, modified in some
respects in accordance with Brodmann’s results, but in others retaining my own
interpretation.

Brodmann refuses to admit my interpretation of the meaning of the cerebral
sulci. But the examination of a large series of brains proves beyond any
possibility of error that the vast majority of the cerebral furrows are placed con-
stantly near to or actually at the boundary line between adjoining areas or, in
other cases, in the axis of a given territory; in other words, the causal relation-
ship between the sulci and the distribution of the areas is patent.

At the same time there is a considerable range of variation in the case of
certain sulci, especially the calcarine. Yet no furrow affords a more striking
a uteea tae of the varied factors which call a sulcus into being and determine
its form,

3. On certain Features of Retinal Photo-electro Phenomena.
By Professor Francis Gorcn, J.R.S,

4. Colour-blindness and Colowr-perception.
By ¥F. W. Epriver-Green, .D., F.R.C.S.

The theory which IT have advanced as an explanation of vision and colour-
vision is that light falling upon the eye causes the visual purple to be diffused
into the surrounding parts of the retina: that the cones of the retina are insensi-
tive to light but sensitive to chemical changes in the visual purple, which stimu-
lates the end of the cones and causes visual impulses, ‘Then in the impulse itself

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 877
we have the physiological basis of light and in the quality of the impulse the
physiological basis of colour. I consider that the quality of the impulse varies
with the wave-length of the light causing the impulse.

Cases of colour-blindness may be divided into two classes, which are quite
separate and distinct from each other, though both may be present in the same
person. In the first class there is light as well as colour loss. In the second
class the perception of light is the same as the normal-sighted, but there is a
defect in the perception of colour. In the first class certain rays are either not
perceived at all or very imperfectly. Colour-blind individuals belonging to the
second class can be arranged in a series. At one end of the series are the
normal-sighted, and at the other the totally colour-blind. I have classified
the colour-blind in accordance with the number of primary colours which they
see in the spectrum. If the normal-sighted be designated hcxachromic, those
who see five colours may be called pentachromic; those who see four, tetra-
chromic ; those who see three, trichromic; those who see two, dichromic; and
the totally colour-blind, monochromic. There are many degrees included in the
dichromic class. There may or may not be a neutral band, and this is widest in
those cases approaching most nearly to total colour-blindness. The tests I use
are three in number: (1) Lantern test; (2) Classification test ; (3) Spectrum test.
In all these tests the examinee is required to know the names of the primary
colours—red, yellow, green, and blue, and matching is not employed. In the
spectrum test the examinee is required to point out the commencement and
termination of the spectrum, designate the various colours, and show by a special
apparatus the size of the different portions of the spectrum which appear to him
monochromatic.

5. Report on the Electrical Phenomena and Metabolism of Arum Spadices,
See Reports, p. 463.

6. The Constitution of Lecithin and other Phosphatives.
Sy Dr. HucH MacLean.

Lecithin used was obtained from the firm of T. D, Riedel, Berlin, and is sold by
this firm under the trade name of ‘Lecithol.’ This lecithin was split up by means
of boiling for different periods with a solution of methyl alcohol saturated with
Ba(OH),: the products of hydrolytic decomposition were then separated off
and the choline obtained in as pure a state as possible in the form of choline
chloride. This choline chloride was precipitated by platinum chloride and the
double salt of chlorine platinum chloride obtained ; latter was washed, dried, and
weighed, and the amount of choline found was then calculated. In no case did
the amount of the double salt obtained correspond to more than &0 per cent. of
the theoretical amount calculated on the N present, and in a series of about fifteen
experiments the actual average result was only 77-3 per cent.

This loss of over 20 per cent. is accounted for chiefly by the fact that

(a) Platinum chloride does not completely precipitate choline even in con-
centrated solution ; there is a loss of anything up to 10 per cent.
_ (4) Part of the N remains in the insoluble residue obtained after boiling the
lecithin. This varies from 6 to 10 per cent. of the total N.
(c) Small losses due to decomposition of choliae resulting in the production of
volatile products; presence of traces of impurities retarding precipitation ; slight
losses in general manipulation.

Thus it may be assumed that the above ‘lecithol’ contains practically all its
NV in the form of choline.

In lecithin obtained from heart-muscle, however, in which the proportion of
N to P was almost exactly as 1:1, not more than 40 per cent. of the theoretical
amount of choline platinum chloride could be obtained when heated in the same

‘

878 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

way as above. This, coupled with many other observations, proves (contrary to the
general statement advanced by Hoppe Seyler) that in this lecithin at least a great
part of the N present zs not combined in the form of choline, but probably as some
other base. Similar experiments prove that the monamino-diphosphatide ob-
tained from heart-muscle (Erlandsen’s cuorin) contains no part of tts N in the
form of chloline. Egg lecithin, on the other hand, contains all, or nearly-all, its
N combined as choline.

In the course of this investigation I have succeeded in separating from eggs a
new phosphatide with the ratio of N to Pas 1:2. Generally, though not exactly,
it corresponds to cuorin obtained from heart-muscle.

7. The Gastro-intestinal Ganglionic Nervous System.
By Sir James Grant, K.C.ILG.

An imperfect nervous impulse points to some abnormality in its conduction,
and when the obstruction has been removed the axis cylinder once more conveys
the impression. This result has been frequently observed during the application
of the electric current through the neurotone.

Nerve action to be of service must be normal in its distribution, hence the
marked and rapid improvement in digestive power, in the cases cited, on applying.
the neurotone over the abdomen. ‘This leads to the impression that the neurotone
current applied to the abdominal ganglionic nerve centres brings about a change
restoring the function of the medulla of the axis cylinder and re-establishing the
free transmission of nerye power and energy. Asa result constitutional changes
for the better become most marked.

The nervous system plays an important part in the remarkable chemical trans-
mission of food-products through the influence of these ganglionic centres. It is
due to improvement in nerve conduction of the gastro-intestinal ganglionic system
that the neurotone current is capable of improving digestion and prolonging life
when no organic disease is present.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.

Discussion on Instruction of School Teachers in Physiology and Hygiene.
Opened by Professor C. 8S. Suerrineton, /.2.S.

The following Reports and Papers were then read :—

1. Report on the Conditions of Health essential to the Carrying-on of the
Work of Instruction in Schools.—See Reports, p. 458.

2. On Amyloid. By Professor A. KosseEt.

Professor Kossel gave a description of some work done at his laboratory in
Heidelberg by Dr. Mayeda. dealing with the subject of the chemical nature of
amyloid. Dr. Mayeda tried to decide the question as to whether this albuminous
substance differs from other albuminous substances in its chemical structure. This
question is one related to a larger problem—namely, the existence of proteins of
abnormal constitution occurring in pathological conditions.

Differing from Neuberg, who considers the amyloid-protein as a protein
belonging to the histone group, but free from histidin, Dr. Mayeda, in determining
the cleavage products of protein in normal and amyloid-degenerated organs, found
no differences between these two kinds of protein, and no similarity with histone.
He further showed the presence of histidin. The amyloid was found to be

: hes
i a ici cr tr i i a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 1. 879

digestible by pepsin in hydrochloric acid, and the digested solution gave no reaction

for histopeptone. es
The quantitative determination of the cleavage-products gave the following

results :—

Amyloid from spleen, Amyloid from liver, Histone,
Ammonia , “ 0-4 : ; ‘ =
Histidine , ‘ 2:3 o- 2:3 ‘ 2:3
Arginine ° U7 ‘ 79 ; 14-15
Lysine ry ° 98 e 2:6 or Rei = 8:3

This result was confirmed by the quantitative analysis of the whole organs,
Dr. Mayeda divided the proteolytic products obtained from the amyloid. degene-
rated organs into two fractions by precipitating with zinc sulphate. These fractions
showed the same percentage of arginine, histidine, and lysine as the analogous
fractions obtained from normal organs.

Up to the present therefore no proof has been furnished that the proteins
found in amyloid degeneration differ in their essential structure from the albu-
minous substances of the same organ in the normal condition.

3. Lhe Relationship of the Pyloric to the Fundic Part of the Stomach.
By Dr. E. P. Catucart.

The present investigation was undertaken in order to discover, if possible, the
nature of the relationship between the pyloric and fundic parts of the stomach—
a.¢., to see whether a stimulus acting on the pyloric part alone brought about
the secretion of gastric juice in the fundic part by chemical or nervous agency.

For this purpose two dogs were used, in which the stomachs were divided into
two parts—the one part purely pyloric, and the other the whole fundus. Further,
one of the dogs had, in addition, a Heidenhain isolated stomach—z.e., one where
all nervous connection between the large stomach and the isolated is cut off.
Latterly controls were also made on a dog with a Pawlow isolated stomach—
t.¢., with nervous connections intact.

The method employed was to connect the cannula of the isolated pyloric part
with a funnel containing the solution to be tested as regards its stimulating
properties. This funnel was raised to a suitable height, so that the pressure on
the pyloric part would not be too great. It also permitted of the free movement
of the fluid brought about by the fairly energetic contractions of the pyloric part
of the muscle wall. The gastric juice secreted in the fundic part was collected
from another cannula in connection with this part.

It was found that a large number of very different solutions brought about a
flow of gastric juice, the amount secreted varying with different stimulants. Of
all the solutions or fluids so far tested the onlyone which did not bring about
a secretion of juice was ordinary ‘tap’ water. This is a point of some import-
ance, as here, although the contractions of the pyloric part were quite as active
as, say, with a solution of Licbig’s extract, yet no secretion resulted. Among
the solutions tested which gave positive results were Liebig’s extract solution,
peptone (Chapoteaut) solution, sodium chloride solution, alcohol, and distilled
water.

The primary question, however, as to whether the secretion is evoked through
chemical or nervous agency has not yet been definitely settled, as, owing to trouble
with the animals used, the research had to be interrupted before absolutely con-
clusive results were obtained.

4. Isolation of a Physiologically Active Substance from Peptone.
By ¥. O’B. Exxison, ILD.

The number of symptoms produced by injection of peptone seem to indicate
more than one active agent. This ‘ peptone effect’ is shown by Pick and Spiro
not to be due to the albumoses as such, but to an impurity attached to them and
called by them ‘peptozyme,’ This body was found by them in peptone prepared

880 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 1;

by acid or peptic digestion, but not in that prepared by tryptic digestion, I under
took the following experiments to ascertain if possible whether this peptozyme
or any similar bodies could be removed from Witte’s peptone by the action of
various solvents.

The following was the method I adopted: 25 grams of Witte’s peptone
were extracted by means of Soxhlet’s apparatus, with about 150 c.c. of ether,
chloroform, or commercial benzole, under a reflux condenser for about twenty-
four hours. The solvent was then distilled off to a small bulk and allowed to
dry completely at room temperature.. The solid residue was dissolved in, or
rather extracted with, 0-9 per cent. NaCl solution, in which it was only
sparingly soluble, and the extract was injected into an anesthetised dog through
the femoral vein.

Contrary to the observations of Nolf, I have found that simple hypodermic
injection was ineffective. In the case even of unaltered peptone a hypodermic
injection of 0-1 gram per kilo. of body weight produced no effect on blood-pres-
sure, while the same dose given intravenously at once produced the characteristic
effect. Control injections were made with unaltered Witte’s peptone in doses of
0:1 gram per kilo, Not more than one per cent. of Witte’s peptone is soluble in
boiling ether, benzole, or chloroform; but up to the present I have not been able
to carry out any exact quantitative experiments. Some chemical changes also
seem to occur during extraction, as the resulting product is only slightly soluble
in water, while the original peptone is completely so.

Experiment I.—Injection of the benzole extract of 50 grams Witte’s peptone
(10 kilo. dog) = very slight fall of blood-pressure, while the heart’s beats became
more frequent and diminished in amplitude.

Injection of 1 gram of the portion insoluble in benzole produced a great and
rapid fall of blood-pressure.

Experiment II.—The same with chloroform extract. Result, very slight fall
of pressure.

Injection of the chloroform insoluble residue and subsequent control injection
of Witte’s peptone were both negative as regards blood-pressure. A sample of
blood remained uncoagulated.

Experiment III, the same as LI.

Injection of chloroform extract = no fall of pressure. A sample of blood
taken immediately after did not coagulate.

Control with Witte’s peptone = slight fall of blood-pressure, much less than
normal,

I think that the following inferences may perhaps be drawn from the fore-
going experiments :—

1. That the substance which causes lowering of blood-pressure is not ex-
tracted from peptone by benzole, ether, or chloroform.

2. That a substance which confers immunity from the vaso-dilator effect of
peptone injection can be extracted from Witte’s peptone by chloroform, but not
by benzole.

3. That chloroform extracts from peptone a substance which diminishes the
coagulability of the blood.

The amount of these extracts used in the above experiments never amounted
to more than 0°5 gram, this being chiefly due to the difficulty of extracting large
amounts in Soxhlet’s apparatus. The extraction with ether had also to be aban-
doned, as the tap-water was not cold enough to condense ether in the summer
weather.

Fischer's research bids fair to sort out the tangle of complex bodies grouped
together as peptones on a sound chemical basis, and if the different constituents
could be obtained of definite and constant composition much would thereby be
gained towards determining their molecular structure ; but meanwhile I hope I
have shown that something may also be done in the same direction by proceeding
on physiological lines,

— 2 ee

—_

TRANSACTIONS Of SECTION ft. 881

5, The Hemo-renal Index. By Dr. Dawson TURNER:

The Hemo-renal Index is the ratio between the electrical resistance of the
blood and the electrical resistance of the urine. Methods of measuring the
resistance of the blood and of the urine. In health the index is equal to not
less than three or more whole numbers, thus

the electtical resistance of the blood 1000 ee

the electrical resistance of the urine 250 :
but in disease there may be alterations. Value of the method in ascertaining the
real efficiency before a proposed operation. Comparison with other methods.
Conclusions.

6. Osmotic Growths. By Dr. Dawson Turner.

Dr. Dawson Turner exhibited a specimen and photographs of the curious
growths which Professor Leduc has produced by the purely physical process of
osmosis. An artificial seed of one part of sugar and of two parts of copper
sulphate is sown in a solution of gelatine and potassium ferro-cyanide: this seed
begins to grow as though it were alive: it may attain a height of one to two feet,
and it presents organs analogous to those of vegetables, such as roots, stems,
leaves, and terminal organs. Functions which were hitherto considered as
characteristic of life, such as (1) nutrition by intussusception, (2) organisation,
(3) growth in thickness and in length, are thus realised by purely physical forces,
and we are led to conjecture whether these functions in living plants and
animals may not be due to the same cause.

7. Report on Body Metabolism in Cancer.—See Reports, p. 489.

8. Further Observations on a previously undescribed Tract in the
Spinal Cord. By Dr. W. Pace May.

The author demonstrated by means of the lantern the presence in several
monkeys of a tract to which he gaye the provisional name of the postero-septal
tract, which undergoes descending degeneration from the mid brain to the lower
thoracic region. In the spinal cord it is well marked, lying symmetrically
immediately on either side of the posterior septum and situated slightly nearer
the posterior margin than the anterior margin of the posterior columns. This
tract was discovered by the speaker just over four years ago, and since then
he has succeeded in showing its constant presence in several types of monkeys,
and undoubtedly it conveys impulses downwards and is of considerable im-
portance.

9. Demonstration of the Cells and Tracts concerned in Paralysis and
Recovery from Paralysis. By Dr. W. Pace May.

Dr. Page May gave a demonstration of the various tracts concerned in
voluntary movement and in the return of movement after paralysis due to
interference by disease or otherwise in certain cerebro-spinal paths. An analysis
of these paths was given and included the origin, course, and termination of the
pyramidal, rubro-spinal, vestibulo-spinal tracts, and the complex of fibres
descending in the anterior columns of the spinal cord. Brief references were
also given to the disturbances of movement produced by interference, by disease,
or otherwise with the functions of one or more of the above paths. Finally,
using the chromatolytic method the author showed lantern specimens of the
cells which give origin to the above-mentioned tracts in yarious animals,
including those of the cat, lemur, monkey, and chimpanzee,

1908, 3 L

oD,

82: TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Tf.

10. The Action of Two Sera on a Carcinoma occurring in Mice.
By C, E. Waker.

1]. Zhe Biological Method of Differentiating Blood-stains.
By Professor E. J. McWeenry, J£A., M.D.

The method referred to is that known as the Precipitin Test. It is a par-
ticular case of the general law that the animal organism reacts to the intro-
duction of foreign substances of high molecular complexity by the production
of specific anti-bodies. The most satisfying explanation of this phenomenon
hitherto is the now well-known ‘ Side-Chain ’ ‘theory of Ehrlich. The foreign sub-
stance injected is known as the Anti-gen, and may consist of albumen, toxin,
or formed elements (blood-cells or the like). In the present case the anti-gen is
albumen derived from some animal and present in its serum, while the anti-
body is called a precipitin, because, when brought in contact with specific
anti-gen, it manifests its antagonism by the production of an opalescence which
speedily thickens into a flocculent precipitate. As this only occurs (save in the
ease of very closely allied species) with the specific anti-gen, the method affords
a reliable means of determining the species of animal from which a given speci-
men of serum or of blood-stain is derived. Originally applied by the late
Walter Myers about the year 1900 to the differentiation of the various kinds
of egg- and serum-albumen, the reaction was used on an extensive scale by
Nuttall in his fundamental work on blood-relationship, and was applied first in-
Germany to the purposes of the medical jurist by Uhlenhuth, Wassermann, and
Schiitze,

Since then the value of the precipitin test as a means of determining the
origin of blood-stains occurring on articles of clothing, surfaces, é&c., in cases of
murder and other medico-legal inquiries has received State recognition in most
civilised countries. So far as the writer is aware, however, the method has not
been utilised by the Home Office in England, and this is his principal reason for
coming forward with the present paper. In Ireland when the advantages of the
method were first brought under the notice of the Crown authorities just six
years ago by the present writer they received immediate recognition, and the
writer has been employing the test for the past five years in medico-legal
practice with most satisfactory results. A few words as to technique. The
animals used for producing the precipitin are rabbits. As human anti-gen the
writer uses ascitic fluid or pleural effusion, aseptically collected where possible,
otherwise stored over chloroform. The injections are intravenous, about
5 to 7 cc. being administered at intervals of four or five days. After eight to ten
such injections, t the animal usually yields a satisfactory anti-serum, giving a dis-
tinct zone of opalescence when brought in contact with human serum diluted
to 1 in 500, After further treatment the reaction appears with dilutions of
1 per 1,000, and even 1 per 10,000. During the immunisation the power
of the serum is tested from time to time by withdrawing small quantities of
blood from the marginal vein of the ear by means of suitably curved pipettes.
The serum of domestic animals can of course be always readily procured for
injection, but suitable anti-gen for making anti-human serum is not always
obtainable save by those in hospital practice. In doing the test, as the quan-
tities of stain extract available are as a rule small, the observations are made in
very small test-tubes into which about 50 emm. of the anti-serum is first
placed witha glass capillary, after which about 200 cmm. of the diluted serum
or stain-extract are allowed to run slowly down the side of the tube so as to
form a distinct line of demarcation. The liquids must be absolutely clear. The
writer makes his observations at room-temperature, and extends them over
a period of four hours. Controls are absolutely indispensable and must on no
account be omitted. Working on these lines the writer has obtained most
convincing results in every case. "The chief sources of error are the so-called

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 883

mammalian reaction, and the fact that the blood of animals of closely related
species is often found to yield reciprocal or group reactions. But these sources
of error may be avoided by using only high potential anti-sera, reacting with the
anti-gen in a dilution of not less than 1 per 1,000, and by a careful system of
controls. The precipitin test, more especially if completed by the still more
delicate method of complement-fixation, forms an important and valuable addition
to medico-legal procedures of analysis.

12. The Action of Acid and Alkali on the Growth and Division of Animal
and Vegetable Cells. By Professor B. Moors and Dr. H. E. Roar.

Cells are very susceptible to changes in reaction of their surrounding medium,
Echinus eggs, hyacinths, and newts have been kept in solutions of various acids
and alkalis, and mammals have been fed with large quantities of acid and
alkaline phosphates. Isolated cells are very susceptible to the action of the
surrounding medium, while more complex organisms can modify the effect and
protect themselves by neutralising the excess of acid or alkali. Acid shows,
even with the weakest strengths, an inhibiting effect on all growth, the nuclei
disappear, and the cells degenerate. With hyacinth rootlets the cell walls become
enormously thickened, and the cells themselves become swollen. Japanese newts
become lethargic in acid phosphate, thus showing a similar inhibitive effect.
Alkali, although also causing stoppage of growth at quite low concentrations,
shows with still weaker strengths a stimulating effect. Echinus eggs and
hyacinth rootlets show increased cell-division, and, with increased strength of
alkali before inhibition occurs, the divisions appear to become irregular. Japanese
newts show hyperexcitability, thus pointing to increased and disordered action of
the cells. Mammals, with large doses of either acid or alkaline phosphates, show
degenerative lesions, but the actual effect of acid or alkali is probably masked by
excretion and neutralisation. The ‘reactivity’ of mammalian blood serum can be:
altered by large doses of phosphates.

13. Changes in the Prinitary after Thyroidectomy.
By Dr. P. T. Herrine.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.

Joint Meeting with Section D.—See p. 741.

The following Paper was afterwards read :—

A Review of the Tuberculosis Crusade in Ireland.
By Sir Ropert E. MarTuHeson.

3L2

884 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

Section K.—BOTANY.

| PRESIDENT OF THE Sxction,—F. F, Buackmay, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 3,
The President delivered the following Address :—

The Manifestations of the Principles of Chemical Mechanics in the
Living Plant.

Tue UNIFORMITY OF NATURE,

Amone the phenomena of nature Man finds himself to be one of medium mag-
nitude, for while his dimensions are about a billion times as great as those of
the smallest atoms that compose him they are also about one billionth part of his
distance from the centre of his solar system.

From the vantage point of this medium magnitude the man of science scans
eagerly the whole range of natural phenomena accessible to him with a strenuous
desire for unity and simplification.

By the unwearying study of special sections of this long front of natural
phenomena special guiding principles have been detected at work locally. No
sooner has this been accomplished than, in obedience to this desire for con-
tinuity throughout, such principles have been freely extended on either side
from the point of discovery.

Thus, the theory of probability, which dealt at first with so limited an
occupation as drawing white and black balls out of an opaque bag, now is known
as the only determinable factor in such remote things as the distribution of the
duration of human lives and the effect of concentration of the colliding molecules
in a solution upon therate of their chemical change. Again, the principle of evolu-
tion discovered among living things has been extended, till to speak of the evolution
of societies, of solar systems, or of chemical elements is now but commonplace.

The biologist, with all his special difficulties, has at least the limitation that
he is only concerned with the middle range of the interminable hostile front of
natural phenomena, and that for him is ordained the stubborn direct attack,
leaving the brilliant attempts at outflanking movements to the astronomers on
the one wing and the workers at corpuscular emanations on the other.

The atoms and molecules that the biologist has to deal with do not differ
from those passing by the same names in the laboratories of chemistry and physics
(at least no one suggests this), and their study may therefore be left to others.
At the other end of the scale, with astronomical magnitudes we have not to deal,
unless indeed we yield to the popular clamour to take over the canals on Mars as
phenomena necessarily of biological causation.

In the study of that particular range of phenomena which is the special
allotment of the physiologists, animal and vegetable, we have had ever before us

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 885

the problem of whether there is not here some discontinuity in nature; whether
the play of molecular and atomic forces occurring outside the living organism can
ever account for the whole of the complexity and correlation of chemical and
physical interactions demonstrable within the living structure.

As yet we are of course far from any answer to this question, and no one in a
scientific assembly like this will call upon us for prophecies, Yet the subject to
which I shall devote my Address has a bearing upon this question. I propose to
consider a particular aspect of the relation of chemical changes in a test-tube
to those taking place in a living growing plant, and this in the spirit of one who
craves for continuity throughout natural phenomena.

The point of view from which the chemist regards the reaction taking place in
his test-tube has undergone a change in the last twenty years, a change bringing
it more into uniformity with that of the biologist. No longer content with an
equation as a final and full expression of a given reaction, the chemist now
studies with minutest detail and with quantitative accuracy the progressive
stages of development of the reaction’ and the effect upon it of varied external
conditions, of light, temperature, dilution, and the presence of traces of foreign
substances.

Perhaps it is too much to believe that this, as it were physiological, study of each
reaction 1s the effect of some benign irradiation from the biological laboratory.
At least, however, it is true that it is the modern study of ‘slow’ chemical
reactions which has made all this possible, and the living organism consists
almost entirely of slow reactions. The earliest studied chemical reactions, those
between substances which interact so quickly that no intermediate investigation
can be made, did not of course lend themselves tu this work, but nowadays
whole classes of reactions are known which are only completed hours or days
after the substances are initially mixed. To the slow reactions belong all the
hydrolytic and dehydration changes of carbohydrates, fats, and proteids that bulk
so largely in the metabolism of plants and animals, together with other
fermentation changes such as are brought about by oxidases, zymases, and
enzymes in general. This precise quantitative study of chemical reactions has
been developing with remarkable acceleration for some twenty-five years, till it is
grown almost into an independent branch of science, physical chemistry. This
is sometimes called ‘general chemistry’ because its subject is really the
fundamental universal laws of the rate of chemical change, and these laws hold
through all the families, genera, and species of chemical compounds, just as the
same physiological laws apply to all the different types of plants.

Now if these laws are fundamental with all kinds of chemical change they must
be at. work in the living metabolic changes. If the chemical changes associated
with protoplasm have any important factor or condition guite different from the
state of things which holds when molecules react in aqueous solution in a test-
tube, then it might happen that the operation of these principles of physical
chemistry would be obscured and not very significant, though it is inconceivable
that they should be really inoperative.

My present intention, then, is to examine the general phenomena of
metabolism in an attempt to see whether the operations of these quantitative
principles are traceable, and if so how far they are instrumental in giving a clearer
insight into vital complexity.

THe DoMINANCE oF IRRITABILITY IN PHYSIOLOGY.

I think that certain manifestations of these principles are indeed quite clear,
though not generally recognised, and that this neglect is largely due to the
dominance of what our German colleagues call ‘ Reizphysiologie’—the notion
that every change in which protoplasm takes part is a case of the ‘ reaction’ of an

1 Modern research has made it clear that reactions conventionally represented by
complex equations of many interacting molecules really take place in a succession
of simple stages, in each of which, perhaps, only two molecules interact.

886 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

‘irritable’ living substance to a ‘stimulus.’ Now this general conception of
protoplasmic irritability, of stimuli and reactions was, of course, a splendid
advance, the early development and extension of which we owe largely to our
veteran physiologist, Professor Pfeffer of Leipzig. Great as is the service it
has rendered to many departments of botany, yet in one direction, I think, it
has overflowed its legitimate bounds and swamped the development of the
physical-chemical concepts which I shall indicate later on. The great merit of
the ‘stimulus and reaction’ conception is that it supplies a very elastic general
formula for the sort of causal connection that we find occurring in all departments
of biology ; a formula which allows the phenomena to be grouped, investigated, and
formally expounded, whether they be the temporary turgor-movements of
‘sensitive’ plants, the permanent growth movements of tropistic curvatures, or
the complex changes of plant-form and development that result from present and
past variations of external conditions.

The strength and the weakness of the conception lie in its extraordinary
lack of particularity. When an irritable cell responds to a stimulus by a reaction
nothing is implied about the mechanism connecting the cause and the effect,
and nothing even about the relative magnitudes of these, but all this is lett for
special research on the case under consideration. The one natural chain of cause
and effect that is recognised to be outside this comprehensive category is that
rather uncommon one in which a definite amount of energy of one kind is turned
into an equivalent definite amount of energy of another. Here we have a
direct ‘equation of energy,’ whereas in a reaction to a stimulus we are said to
have typically an ‘ unloosing’ effect—a liberation of potential energy by a small
incidence of outside energy, as in the classical analogies, drawn from completely
comprehended non-living things, of a cartridge exploded by a blow, or the
liberation into action of a head of water by the turning of a tap.

So elastic a conception may be easily stretched to fit almost any sequence of
phenomena with the apparent closeness that argues a bespoken garment. We
must therefore be critically on our guard against cases of such sartorial illusion.

THe Princretes or CurmicaAL MECHANICS.

That my consideration of particular cases may be intelligible it seems
necessary that I devote a few minutes to outlining the four quantitative
mechanical principles which govern every single chemical reaction, though much
that I have to say has been drawn from elementary books on physical chemistry.

These four principles are concerned with (1) the nature of the reaction in
question; (2) the amount of reacting substances that happen to be present ;
(3) the temperature at which the reaction is taking place; and (4) the influence
of catalysts upon the reaction.

For the moment we will confine ourselves to the first two matters, and
assume that'catalysts are absent and the substances at constant temperature.

(1) The first principle that we have to consider is that which declares that
no chemical reaction is really instantaneous, though the interaction of substances
is often so fast that a direct measurement of its rate cannot be made; and,
further, that every reaction has its own specific reaction-velocity which distinguishes
it from other reactions. This is expressed by giving to each particular reaction a
numerical velocity-coeficient which is low or high proportionally as the reaction

slow or quick.

(2) This coefficient only expresses the actual experimental velocity when the
reacting substances are present in wit concentration, because difference of
pabrhertegey cs is just the most important factor controlling the actual reaction-
velocity.

If a solution of a substance A of unit concentration is undergoing change, then
to keep this reaction going at its present rate fresh amounts of A must be added
continually just to equal the amount removed by the reaction and so keep the
substance up to unit concentration. The amount of a that had to be added thus
per unit time would give an exact measure of the amount being decomposed,
z.e., of the specific velocity of this reaction. it

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 887

_- If the reaction were started with a at double unit concentration, then twice
as much 4 would have to be added per unit time to keep the reaction velocity
constant at the double rate it would have started at.

And with higher concentrations proportionally more A would have to be
added, It is therefore shown that the amount of chemical change going on in
unit time is proportional to the concentration. This is a most fundamental
principle of chemical mechanics, known as the daw of mass, and it may be stated
thus: the amount of chemical change taking place at any time is always propor-
tional to the amount of actively reacting substance (or substances) present.

To carry out experiments by the procedure given above is in practice very
difficult and the velocities of reactions are: never measured by the chemist in this
way. Ina living organism this continual bringing up of new supplies of material
to maintain a constant rate of change is the ordinary way of life, but in the
chemical laboratory procedure is different. There, definite amounts of substances
are initially mixed in a vessel and the reaction is allowed to progress by itself
without further additions. In this case there is a continual falling off of the
concentration of the substance, and so a corresponding diminution of the actual
reaction-velocity.

In this procedure the diminution of the initial amount of substance can be
actually measured by withdrawing small samples at intervals of time and
analysing them. Let us consider a definite example. Cane-sugar can be
hydrolysed, under various conditions, to give two molecules of hexose, according
to the equation

C,,H,,.0,, + H,O = 2C,H,,0,.

This reaction goes on, though extremely slowly, when an aqueous solution
of cane-sugar is kept very hot in a beaker. Suppose we started with, say,
128 grammes dissolved in a litre of water and traced the diminution of this
amount down towards zero by withdrawing samples at intervals of time and
analysing them. If we plotted the sugar-content of these successive samples
against the times when they were taken we should get the curve given in fig. 1,
If we call x minutes the time taken for the sugar to diminish from 128 grammes
to 64 grammes, we should find that in the second » minutes the sugar had fallen
to 32 grammes, after 3x minutes to 16 grammes, and so on, the amount halving
itself every x minutes. Thus the amounts of cane-sugar hydrolysed in successive
equal intervals are 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1 grammes, amounts in each case just
exactly proportional to the quantity of cane-sugar then remaining in solution,
thus exemplifying the law of mass.

Such a curve as A in fig. 1, which changes by a constant multiple for suc-
cessive units of time (here halving itself every m minutes) is known asa logarithmic
curve; the velocity of reaction at any moment is exactly indicated by the steepness
of the curve at that moment; the velocity is greatest at first and it declines to
almost zero as the curve approaches the horizontal at the end of the reaction.

‘When instead of the decomposition of a single substance we deal with two
dissolved substances, A and R, reacting together, then as both of them go on
being thus used up, the amount of change must be ever proportional to the mass or
amount of A present multiplied by the mass of B present.

There is a special important case when the amount of, say, B is in very great
excess of that amount required to unite with the whole of a. Then all through
the slow progress of the reaction the amount of B never becomes reduced enough
to make appreciable difference to its mass, and it may be considered as practically
constant all along. In such a case the rate of the reaction is found to be pro-
portional simply to the amount of A present, and we get again the curve A, fig. 1.
Here the amount of A may be considered as a limiting factor to the amount of
reaction; B being in such great excess never falls low enough to take a
practical part in determining the velocity.

The case of the hydrolysis of cane-sugar in aqueous solution is just sucha case.
The water itself enters into the reaction, but so little is used up in relation to the
enormous excess present that the amount remains practically constant and the

888 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

rate of hydrolysis of the cane-sugar is determined only by the amount of the
cane-sugar present at any moment.'

(3) We have now shown how the actual amount of chemical change going on
in a solution is determined by the combined effect of (1) the specific reaction
velocity and (2) the law of mass. We have next to point out that the specific
reaction coefficient is not the same under all circumstances, but is affected by
variations of external conditions, always by temperature, and generally by the
presence of traces of so-called catalysts,

IDE? 1

7 ¢
Tasz0 nn 2h 3n 4n Sn bn jn Shr
Fig: 1.

The relation to temperature we will postpone, and proceed to consider our

hird principle, the acceleration of reaction velocity by catalytic agents.

It has long been known that small additions of various foreign substances may
have a great effect in increasing the rate at which a reaction is proceeding. Thus
this hydrolysis of cane-sugar, so slow with pure water, goes at a fair velocity if a
few drops of a mineral acid are added to the solution, while the addition of a
trace of a particular enzyme (invertase from plant or animal) enormously
increases the rate of change, so that the whole 128 grammes of cane-sugar are soon
hydrolysed to hexose. The reaction progresses quantitatively in the same sort of

‘ 128 grammes cane-sugar unite with 6:7 grammes water in hydrolysis, and in our
experiment nearly 1000 grammes of water are present,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 889

way as before, giving a logarithmic curve of sugar-content. Indeed the same
aphic curve, fig. 1, A, would represent the facts if the value of m were reduced
from many hundred minutes to quite a few.

The most striking point about this new state of things is that the added body
is not used up by its action, but the acid or enzyme is still present in undiminished
amount when the reaction is completed.

Such actions were at first styled ‘contact’ actions, but are now known as
catalytic actions, because we have learned that the catalyst does not work just by
contact but by combining with the sugar to form an intermediate addition
compound, and that this compound is then split up by the water liberating the
catalyst again, but freeing the sugar part, not as cane-sugar, but combined with
the water to form two molecules of hexose.

On many chemical reactions, finely divided metals such as platinum and gold
have a very powerful catalytic action. Thus platinum will cause gaseous
hydrogen and oxygen to unite at ordinary temperatures, and will split up
hydrogen dioxide with the formation of oxygen. The intermediate stages in this
catalytic decomposition may be summarily simplified to this—

H,O, + Pt=PtO+H,O and PtO + H,0, = Pt + 0, + H,0.

Thus the reaction goes on and on by the aid of the appearing and disappearing
‘intermediate compound’ PtO till at the end the H,O, is all decomposed and
the platinum is still present unaffected.

The enzymes are the most powerful catalytic agents known, and most of
them are specifically constituted to effect the hydrolysis, oxidation, reduction,
or splitting of some definite organic compound or group of compounds containing
similar radicals.

Innumerable enzymes have in late years been isolated from the plant-body,
so that it would seem that there is one present to catalytically accelerate each of
the slow single changes that in the aggregate make up the complex metabolism
of the plant.

The law of mass applies with equal cogency to catalytic reactions. If twice
the amount of acid is added to a solution of cane-sugar (or twice the amount
of enzyme) then the reaction velocity is doubled, and hydrolysis proceeds twice
as fast. As the catalyst is not destroyed by its action, but is continually being
set free again, the concentration of the catalyst remains the same throughout
the reaction; while, on the contrary, the amount of cane sugar continually
decreases.

If the catalyst be present in great excess the amount of hydrolysis will be
limited by the amount of cane-sugar present, and as this is used up so the reaction
will progress by a logarithmic curve as in fig. 1, 4. In this case B may represent
the amount of catalyst. If, on the contrary, there is a large amount of sugar and
very little acid or enzyme present, so that the catalyst becomes the limiting
factor, then we happen upon a novel state of things; for-by the law of mass the
rate of hydrolysis will now remain constant for some time till the excess of sugar
is so far reduced that it in turn becomes a limiting factor to the rate of change.
In this case the velocity curve would consist of a first phase with a straight
horizontal line of uniform reaction-velocity leading into the second phase of a
typical falling logarithmic curve (see fig. 1, c). These conditions have been
experimentally examined by Horace Brown and Glendinning, and fully explained
and expounded by E. F. Armstrong in Part II. of the critical ‘ Studies in Enzyme
Action.’!

Having now outlined the three fundamental principles of reaction-velocity,
the law of mass, and the catalytic acceleration of reaction-velocity, we are in a
position to consider the broad phenomena of metabolism or chemical change in
the living organism from the point of view of these principles of chemical
mechanics.

’ Proc, Roy, Soe., vol, 1xxiii, 1904, p. 511,

890 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. ;

THE METABOLISM OF THE PLANT CONSIDERED AS A CATALYTIC REACTION,

Plants of all grades of morphological complexity, from bacteria to dicotyledons,
have this in common, that throughout their active life they are continually
growing. Putting aside the qualitative distribution .of growth that determines
the morphological form, as a stratum of phenomena above the fundamental one
that we are about to discuss, we find that this growth consists in the assimilation
of dead food-constituents by the protoplasm with a resulting increase in the
living protoplasm accompanied with the continual new formation of dead
constituents, gaseous CO,, liquid water, solid cellulose, and what not. This
continual flux of anabolism and katabolism is the essential character of meta-
bolism, but withal the protoplasm increases in amount by the excess of anabolism
over katabolism.

Protoplasm has essentially the same chemical composition everywhere, and in

the whole range of green plants the same food-materials seem to be required; the
six elements of which proteids are built are obviously essential in quantity as
building material, but in addition small amounts of Fe, Ca, K, Mg, Na, Cl, and Si
are in some other way equally essential. What part these secondary elements
play is still largely a matter of hypothesis.

Regarding metabolism thus crudely as if it were merely a congeries of slow
chemical reactions, let us see how far it conforms to the laws of chemical
mechanics we have outlined.

If the supply of any one of these essential elements comes to an end, growth
simply ceases and the plant remains stationary, half-developed. If a Tropeoluwm
in a pot be watered with dilute salt-solution, its stomata soon close permanently,
and no CO, can diffuse in to supply the carbon for further growth of the plant.
In such a condition the plant may remain for weeks looking quite healthy, but
its growth may be quite in abeyance.

In agricultural experience, in manuring the soil with nitrogen and the essential
secondary elements, the same phenomenon is observed when there is a shortage
of any single element. If a continuous though inadequate supply of some one
element is available then the crop development is limited to the amount of
growth corresponding to this supply. Agriculturalists have formulated the ‘law
of the minimum,’ which states that the crop developed is limited by the element
which is minimal, z.c., most in deficit. Development arrested by ‘ nitrogen-
hunger’ is perhaps the commonest form of this. All this is of course in accord-
ance with expectation on physical-chemical principles. The quantity of anabolic
reaction taking place should be proportional to the amount of actively reacting
substances present, and if any one essential substance is quite absent the whole
reaction must cease. It therefore seems clouding a simple issue and misleading
to say of a plant which, from the arrested development of nitrogen-hunger, starts
growth again when newly supplied with nitrogen that this new growth is a
response to a ‘nitrogen stimulus, It would appear rather to be only the removal
of a limiting condition.

Let us now move ona stage. Suppose a growing plant be liberally supplied
with all the thirteen elements that it requires, what, then, will limit its rate of
growth? Fairy bean-stalks that grow to the heavens ina night elude the modern
investigator, though some hope soon to bring back that golden age with over-
head electric wires and underground bacterial inoculations. If everything is
supplied, the metabolism should now go on at its highest level, and quantities of
carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen supplied as CO,, nitrates, and water will
interact so that these elements become converted into proteid, cellulose, &e.
Now this complex reaction of metabolism only takes place in the presence of
protoplasm, and a small amount of protoplasm is capable of carrying out a con-
siderable amount of metabolic change, remaining itself undestroyed. We are
thus led to formulate the idea that metabolism is essentially a catalytic
process. In support of this we know that many of the inherent parts of the
protoplasmic complex are catalytic enzymes for these can be separated out of the
protoplasm, often simply by high mechanical pressure. We know, too, nowadays

—

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 894

that the same enzymes that accelerate katabolic processes also accelerate the
reverse anabolic processes.

In time a small mass of protoplasm will, while remaining itself unchanged,
convert many times its own weight of carbon from, let,us}say,!the formaldehyde
(HCHO) of photosynthesis to the carbon dioxide (CO,) of respiration.

If metabolism is a complex of up-grade and down-grade changes catalysed by
protoplasm we must expect the amount of metabolism to obey the law of mass
and to be proportional to the masses of substances entering into the reacticn.
The case when any one essential element is a limiting factor we have alreaay
considered. When all are in excess, then the amount of the catalyst present
becomes in its turn the limiting factor. Transferring this point of view to the
growing plant, we expect to find the limited mass of protoplasm and its
constituent catalysts setting a limit to the rate of metabolic change in the
extreme case where all the materials entering into the reaction are in excess.
When once this supply is available further increase in supplies cannot be
expected to accelerate the rate of growth and metabolism beyond the limit set by
the mass of protoplasm. This, of course, is in accordance with common
experience. The clearest experimental evidence is in connection with respiration
and the supply of carbohydrates—this, no doubt, because the carbohydrate
material oxidised in respiration is normally stored inside plant-cells in quantity
and can be estimated. When the supplies for an internal process have to be
obtained from outside, then we have the complications of absorption and
translocation to obscure the issue, especially in the case of a higher plant.

Let us first take a case where the carbohydrate supply is in excess and the
amount of catalytic protoplasm is small and increasing. Thus it is in seeds
germinating in the dark: respiration increases day by day for a time, though
carbohydrate reserves are steadily decreasing. Palladine has investigated
germinating wheat by analysing the seedlings and determining the increase of
the essential (non-digestible) proteids day by day. The amount of these proteids
he regards as a measure of the amount of actual protoplasm present, Assuming
this to be so, he finds an approximately constant ratio between the amount of
protoplasm at any stage and the respiration.

As germination progresses in the dark the supplies of reserve carbohydrate pre-
sently fail, and then the respiration no longer increases in spite of the abundant
protoplasm. According to our thesis the catalyst is now in excess and the CO,
production is limited by the shortage of respirable material.

This second type of case was more completely investigated by Miss Matthei
and myself in working on the respiration of cut leaves of cherry-laurel kept
starved in the dark. For a time the CO, production of these non-growing struc-
tures remains uniform, and then it begins to fall off in a logarithmic curve, so that
the course of respiration is just like c im fig. 1. We interpret both phenomena in
the same way: in the initial level phase the respirable material in the leaf is in
excess, and the amount of catalytic protoplasm limits the respiration to the
normal biological level; in the second falling phase some supply of material is
being exhausted, and we get a logarithmic curve controlled by the law of mass,
as much, it would seem, as when cane-sugar is hydrolysed in aqueous solution.

After these two illustrations of the action of the law of mass from the more
simple case of respiration we return to the consideration of the totality of
metabolic reactions as exemplified in growth.

What should we expect to be the ideal course of growth, that is, the increase
of the mass of the plant regarded as a complex of reactions catalysed by proto-
plasm? Let us consider, first, the simplest possible case, that of a bacterium
growing normally in a rich culture solution. Whe its mass las increased by
anabolism of the food material of the culture medium to a certuin amount it
divides into two. As all the individuals are alike, counting them would take
the place of weighing their mass. The simplest expectation would be that,
under uniform conditions, growth and division would succeed each other with

» Revue gén. de botanique; tome viii. 1896,

892 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K,

monotonous regularity, and so the number or mass of bacteria present would
double itself every x minutes. This may be accepted as the ideal condition.

The following actual experiment may be quoted to show that for a time the
ideal rate of growth is maintained, and that at the end of every m minutes there
is a doubled amount of protoplasm capable of catalysing a doubled amount of
chemical change and carrying on a doubled growth and development.

From a culture of Bacillus typhosus in broth at 37° C, five small samples were
withdrawn at intervals of an hour, and the number of bacteria per unit volume
determined by the usual procedure. The number of organisms per drop
increased in the following series: 6:7, 14-4, 33:1, 70:1, 1610.1. This shows a
doubling of the mass of bacteria in every fifty-four minutes and is the case actually
represented in the strictly logarithmic curve of fig. 2.

sj

We may quote some observations made by E. Buchner? of the rate at which
bacteria increase in culture media. Bacillus coli communis was grown at 37° C.
for two to five hours, and by comparison of the initial and final numbers of
bacteria the time required for doubling the mass was calculated. Out of twenty-
seven similar experiments a few were erratic, but in twenty cases the time for
doubling was between 19-4 and 24'8 minutes, giving a mean of 22 minutes. This
produces an increase from 170 to 288,000 in four hours. No possible culture
medium will provide for prolonged multiplication of bacteria at these rates.

Cohn * states that if division takes place every sixteen minutes then in twenty-
four hours a single bacterium 1p long will be represented by a multitude so

‘ For this unpublished experiment on bacterial growth I am indebted to Miss
Lane-Claypon of the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine.

* Buchner, Zuwachsgrossen u. Wachsthumsgeschwindigheiten, Leipzig, 1901.

* Cohn, Vie Pfanze, Breslau, 1882, p. 438. .

—

ab

OF i i

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 893

large that it requires twenty-eight figures to express it, and placed end to end they

~ would stretch so far that a ray of light to travel from one end to the other would
take 100,000 years. The potentialities of protoplasmic catalysis are thus made
clear, but the actualities are speedily cut short by limiting factors.

For a while, however, this ideal rate of growth is maintained. At the end
of every z minutes there is a doubled amount of protoplasm present, and this
will be capable of catalysing twice the amount of chemical change and carrying
on a doubled amount of growth and development. This is what common-sense
and the law of mass alike indicate, and is exactly what this logarithmic curve in
fig. 2 expresses.

This increase of the amount of catalytic protoplasm by its own catalytic
activity is an interesting phenomenon. In Section K we call it growth, attribute
it to a specific power of protoplasm for assimilation (in the strict sense), and
leave it alone as a fundamental phenomenon, but are much concerned as to the
distribution of the new growth in innumerable specifically distinct forms. In
the Chemical Section they call this class of phenomenon ‘ autocatalysis,’ and a
number of cases of it are known. In these a chemical reaction gives rise to some
substance which happens to catalyse the particular reaction itself, so that it goes
on and on with ever-increasing velocity. Thus, we said that free acid was a
catalyst to the hydrolysis of cane-sugar; suppose now that free acid were one of
the products of the hydrolysis of sugar, then the catalyst would continually in-
crease in amount in the test-tube, and the reaction would go faster and faster.
Under certain conditions this actually happens. Again, when methyl acetate is
hydrolysed we normally get methyl alcohol and free acetic acid. This free acid
acts as a catalyst to the hydrolysis, and the rate of change continually accelerates.
Here, if the supply of methyl acetate were kept up by constant additions, the
reaction would go faster and faster with a logarithmic acceleration, giving a curve
of velocity identical with fig. 2, A.

For a clear manifestation of this autocatalytic increase in the plant it is, of
course, essential that the supply of food materials to the protoplasm be adequate.

Another case where we might look for a simple form of this autocatalytic
increase in the rate of conversion of food materials to anabolites would be in the
growth of a filamentous alga, like Spirogyra. Here, as in the bacterium, all the

cells are still capable of growth. In this case the food-material needed in
greatest bulk is carbon, which has to be obtained by photosynthesis. Some
experiments have been started in the Cambridge Laboratory on the rate of growth
of Spirogyra in large tubs of water kept at different temperatures and with varying
facilities for photosynthesis and metabolism. Under rather depressing conditions
the Spirogyra took several days to double its weight—a rate of metabolism out of
all comparison slower than that of bacteria. Experiments on these lines, with
the different food materials as limiting factors, should give instructive results.

We turn now to consider the growth of a flowering plant. Here conditions
are more complex, and we know that at the flowering stage or end of the season
the growth diminishes considerably. This difference from a simple alga or
bacterium we can only regard as a secondary acquisition in relation to the
external conditions—either a reaction to a present external stimulus or to the
memory of past stimuli. In a flowering plant, too, all the cells do not continue
to grow ; many cells differentiate and cease to grow and alsosome of the groups
of meristem remain dormant in axillary buds. Clearly the growth curve cannot
continue to accelerate logarithmically, and in Jater phases it must tail off; the
‘grand period’ which growth is said to exhibit is another way of stating this.
It will, however, be of great interest to us to see what will be the form of the
curve of growth during the early period of development.

The importance of this class of work has been realised in Geneva, and
detailed work is now being done under the inspiration of Professor Chodat' in

! A. Monnier, Les maticres minérales et la loi d’accroissement des végétaux, Geneva,
1905 ; N. Déléano, Le réle et lu fonction des sels minéraux dans la vie de la plante,
Geneva, 1907. See also the independent work of Tribot, Comptes rendus de l Acad.
des Sciences, October 14, 1907.

894. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

which the curve not only of growth (fresh weight) but of the uptake of all the
separate important elements in selected plants is being carefully followed.

With plants grown in the open, climatic disturbances must occur. We shall
therefore figure a curve for the fresh weight of a maize plant grown in water-
culture. This is prior to the Geneva work, and due to Mlle. Stefanowska,! who
has studied also the growth-curves of small animals. The first phase of the curve,
lasting some fifty days, shows strictly uniform acceleration, doubling the weight
of the plant every ten days (fig. 3). The precise external conditions are not
stated.

In spite of the morphological complexity the autocatalytic reaction of growth
is apparently not checked by inadequate supplies before the plant enters rather
_ suddenly upon the second phase. Here, from the present point of view, we

consider that the progress of growth is interrupted, not by the primary physical-
chemical causes, but by secondary causes, presumably to be classed in the
category of stimulus and reaction.

The numerous curves for the accumulation of diffevent organic and mineral
constituents worked out for barley and buckwheat at Geneva are of similar form,
but do not keep up the uniform rate of doubling so well as does the curve of
total fresh weight.

9 oO Ue)

In this connection the tall and dwarf forms of the same plant present an
interesting problem, and some experiments have been started on sweet peas at
Cambridge. At the time of germination the seedlings weigh about the same,
whereas at the end of the season the weight of a tall plant is many times that of
a dwarf ‘cupid’ growing alongside under similar conditions. Is the difference
due to a less vigorous autocatalysis in the dwarf form, so that throughout its
growth it takes a greater number of days to double its weight ? Construction of
the curves of growth through the season will show whether it is this or some
other alteration in the form of the curve.

I now propose to say a few words about one last point in connection with
growth considered as a phenomenon of catalysis before passing on to deal with
the effects of temperature. : Tee i seth

“Of the metallic elements that are essential for the growth of plants some
occur in such minute quantities that one can only imagine their function is
catalytic. If iron, for instance, played any part in metabolism which involved
its being used up in any building material or by-product of metabolism, then a

1 Stefanowska, Comptes rendus de Acad. des Sciences, February 1, 1904

.

——

—_— —_~-*

Bat Nl Oe aie ats itt yf +

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 895

larger amount than actually suffices should be advantageous. If its function is
catalytic the iron would go on acting indefinitely without being consumed, and
so a minute trace might serve to carry out some essential, and even considerable,
sub-section of metabolism.

Elements like manganese, magnesium, and iron are often associated with
non-vital catalytic action, and a preparation of iron has recently been quantita-
tively investigated which seems to have literally all the properties of an organic
oxyduse from plant tissues.!

As long ago as 1869 Raulin observed that traces of unessential salts, in
particular those of zine, added to the culture medium in which he grew the
fungus Sterigmatocystis caused a rapid acceleration of the growth rate. The
time that the mycelium took to double its weight was now reduced to a half or
even a third. This continued enormous effect of so small a trace of substance is
possibly to be regarded as an added catalyst to the normal protoplasmic apparatus.
This sort of effect is currently labelled ‘chemical stimulation’ and has been
interpreted as an attempt of the fungus to grow away from an unpleasant
environment. To me it looks as if such chemical simulation were really another
example of the injudicious extension of the concept of stimulus and reaction.

This effect of zinc upon the growth of mycelium has recently been verified and
extended by Javillier,? who has made comparative cultures with increasing doses
of zinc salt. He grew Sterigmatocystis for four days at 34° C. in media with
graded additions of zinc salts. As the graphic representation shows, he finds a

0 OS 2. 3 “4. , Ss
> farts zime Sutpheale per million
Fia. 4.

+6

continuous regular increase of the number of grammes of final dry weight with
doses up to 0°U0001 per cent., and then no greater but an equal effect up to 100
times as large a dose.

This form of curve with uniform rise at first, abruptly changing to a level top,
suggests, as I have pointed out elsewhere,® the cutting-off of the primary rising
effect by a limiting factor. In this case presumably the limit set by some other
sub-section of the metabolism has keen attained.

ACCELERATION OF REACTION-VELOCITY BY TEMPERATURE,

We now turn to consider the fourth and last of the principles of chemical
mechanics which we might expect to find manifested in metabolism.

It is a universal rule that rise of temperature quickens the rate at which a
chemical reaction proceeds. Of course in some rare conditions this may not be
obvious, but be obscured by superposed secondary causes; but almost always this
effect is very clearly marked.

Further, the nature of the acceleration isa peculiarone. Rise of temperature
affects nearly all physical and chemical properties, but none of these is so greatly
affected by temperature as is the velocity of chemical reaction. Fora rise of
10° C. the rate of a reaction is generally increased two or three fold, and this has

J. Wolff, ‘Des péroxydiastases artificielles,’ Comptes rendus de UAcad. des
Scienzes, June 9, 1908.

? Comptes rendus de VAcad. des Sciences, December 1907,
* «Optima and Limiting Factors,’ Annals ef Botany, vol, xix, April 1905

896 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

been generalised into a rule by van’t Hoff. As this increase is repeated for each
successive rise of 10° C, either by the same factor or a somewhat smaller one, the
acceleration of reaction-velocity by temperature is logarithmic in nature, and the
curverepresenting it risésever more and moresteeply. ‘Thus keeping within the vital
range of temperature a reaction with a temperature factor of x2 per 10° C. will
go sixteen times as fast at 40° C. as at O° C., while one with a factor of x3
will go eighty-one times as fast.

This general law of the acceleration of reactions by temperature holds equally
for reactions which are being accelerated by the presence of catalysts. As we
regard the catalyst as merely providing for the particular reaction it catalyses, a
quick way round to the final stage by passing through the intermediate stage of
forming a temporary addition-compound with the catalyst itself, so we should
expect rise of temperature to accelerate similarly these substituted chemical
reactions.

If this acceleration is a fundamental principle of chemical mechanics it is
quite impossible to see how vital chemistry can fail to exhibit it also.

ACCELERATION OF VITAL PrRocEssES BY TEMPERATURE,

At present we have but a small number of available data among plants to
consider critically from this point of view. But all the serious data with which
I am acquainted, which deal with vital processes that are to be considered as part
of the protoplasmic catalytic congeries, do exhibit this acceleration of reaction-
velocity by temperature asa primary effect.’

Let us briefly consider these data. On the katabolic side of metabolism we
have the respiratory production of CO,, and opposed to it on the anabolic side the
intake of carbon in assimilation.

As a measure of the rate of the metabolic processes constituting growth we
have data upon the division of flagellates ; and finally there is the obscure process
of circulation of protoplasm.

The intensity of CO, production is often held to be a measure of the general
intensity of metabolism, but any relation between growth-rate and respiration
has yet to be clearly established. Our science is not yet in the stage when
quantitative work in relation to conditions is at all abundant; we are but just
emerging from the stage that chemistry was in before the dawn of physical
chemistry.

Taken by itself the CO,-production of an ordinary green plant shows a very
close relation with temperature. In the case of the cherry-laurel worked out
by Miss Matthei and myself the respiration of cut leaves rises by a factor of
2-1 for every 10°C. (See fig. 5, Resp.) This has been investigated over the
range of temperatures from 16° C. to 45° C, At this higher temperature the
leaves can only survive ten hours in the dark, and their respiration is affected in
quite a short time, but in the initial phases the CO, output has the value of
0 0210 gr. per hour and unit weight of leaf, while at 162 C. the amount is only
00025 gr. CO,. Thus the respiration increases over a range of tenfold with perfect
regularity solely by increase of temperature. No reaction in a test-tube could
show less autonomy. At temperatures above 46°C, the temperature still sooner
proves fatal unless the leaf is illuminated so as to carry out a certain amount
of photosynthesis and compensate for the loss of carbon in respiration. Thus,
with rising temperature, there is at no time any sign of an optimum or of a
decrease of the intensity of the inztial stage of respiration.

Tiere, then, on the katabolic side of metabolism we have no grounds for
assuming that ‘temperature-stimuli’ are at work regulating the intensity of pro-
toplasmic respiration, but we tind what I can only regard as a purely physical-
chemical effect. The numbers obtained by Clausen” for the respiration of seedlings
and buds at different temperatures indicate a temperature coefficient of about
2°5 for a rise of 10° C,

1 A collection of twenty cases, mostly from animal physiology, by Kanitz (Zeits,
fiir Elektrochemie, 1907, p. 707), exhibits coefficients ranging from 1*7 to o*3,

2 Landnirtschaftliche Jahrbicher, Ba, X'™X , 1890,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 897

To this final process of katabolism there could be no greater contrast than
the first step of anabolism, the assimilation of carbon by the protoplasm as a
result of photosynthesis. We must therefore next inquire what is the relation
of this process to temperature.

This question is not so simple, as leaves cannot satisfactorily maintain the high
rate of assimilation that high temperatures allow. The facts of the case were
clearly worked out by Miss Matthzi,' the rate of assimilation by cherry-laurel
leaves being measured from ~—6° C. to +42°C,. Up to 37° C. the curve rose at
first gently and then more and more steeply, but on calculating out the values it
is found that the acceleration for successive rises of 10° C. becomes less and less,
Between 9° C. and 19° C. the increase is 2°1 times, the highest coefficient measured,
and exactly the same coefficient as for respiration in this plant, which in itself
is a striking point, seeing how different the processes are. (See fig. 5, Assim.)

EO ES SS a
fae oe a
lise act ase ad en ed Pee
OF, tS, | BO: 230A SOG
Fie. 5.

The decrease of the coefficient with successive rises is a state of things which is
quite general among non-vital reactions. A critical consideration of the matter
leads one to the conclusion, however, that this failure to keep up the temperature
acceleration is really due to secondary causes, as is also the appearance of an
optimum at about 38°C. Some of these causes have been discussed by me else-
where,? and I hope to bring a new aspect of the matter before the Section in a
separate communication. ‘The conclusion formerly come to was that probably
in its initial stages assimilation at these very high temperatures started at the
full value indicated by a theoretically constant coefficient, but that the proto-
plasm was unable to keep up the velocity, and the rate declined. It must be
borne in mind here that quite probably no chloroplast since the first appearance
of green cells upon the earth had ever been called upon for anything like such a
gastronomic effort as these cherry-laurel leaves in question. It is not to be

! Phil. Trans. Roy. «oc., Ser. B, vol. exevii. 1904.
2 ‘Optima and Limiting Factors,’ Annals of Botany, vol xix April 1903.

1908, 3M

898 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

wondered that their capacities speedily declined at such a banquet, and that the
velocity-reaction of anabolic synthesis traces a falling curve in spite of the keeping
up of all the factors concerned, to wit, temperature, illumination, and supply of
CO,. This decline is not permanent, but after a period of darkening the power
of assimilation returns. Physical-chemical parallels can easily be found among
cases where the accumulation of the products of a reaction delays the apparent
velocity of the reaction, but this complicated case may be left for further research.

In relation to assimilation, then, we must say that owing to secondary causes
the case is not so clear over the whole range of temperature as that of respiration,
but that at medium temperatures we have exactly the same relation between
reaction-velocity and temperature.

We may consider now some data upon the combined net result of anabolic and
katabolic processes. Such total effects are seen in their clearest form among
unicellular saprophytic organisms for which we have a few data, Mlle. Maltaux
and Professor Massart' have published a very interesting study of the rate of
division of the colourless flagellate Chilomonas paramecium and of the agents
which they say stimulate its cell-division, in particular alcohol and heat.

They observed under the microscope the time that the actual process of divi-
sion into two took at different temperatures. [From 29 minutes at 15° C. the
time diminished to 12 minutes at 25° C., and further to 5 minutes at 35° C. The
velocities of the procedure at the three temperatures 10° C. apart will therefore
be in the ratio of 1 : 2-4: 5-76, which gives a factor of 2-4 for each rise of 10° C.
(See fig. 5, Division.)

Now we are told by the investigators that at 35° C. Chilomonas is on the point
of succumbing to the heat, so that the division rate increases right up to the
death point, with no sign of an optimum effect. Below 14°C. no observations are
recorded,

Here, then, we have throughout the whole range exactly the same primary
temperature relation exhibited by the protoplasmic procedure that we should
expect for a chemical reaction in a test-tube.

This division phase is only a part of the life-cycle of the flagellate, and between
division it swims about anabolising the food material of the medium and growing
to its full size ready for the next division. One wishes at once to know what is
the effect of the temperature upon the length of the life-cycle. Is the whole rate
of metabolism quickened in the same way as the particular section concerned
with actual division? Of course a motile flagellate cannot be followed and its
life-cycle directly timed, but the information was obtained by estimating carefully
what percentage of individuals was in a state of actual division at each tempera-
ture. It was found that always 4 per cent. were dividing, whatever the tem-
perature. This proves that the whole life-cycle is shortened in exactly the same
proportion as the process of division at each temperature, and that it is just
twenty-five times as long. Therefore the life-cycle is 125 mins. at 35°C. and
725 mins, at 15° C., so that here, again, we have the physical-chemical relation
with a factor of 2:4 for each rise of 10° C, .

In this paper of Maltaux and Massart these relations are not considered as
the manifestation of physical-chemical principles, but are regarded as reactions to
stimuli; and the paper contains a number of experiments upon the effect of
sudden changes of temperature upon the occurrence of division. As far as one
can make out from inspection of the scattered literature, it does seem eatablished
that sudden changes of temperature act as stimuli in the strict sense of the word.
In many investigations one finds it stated that a quick change of temperatute
produced a certain reaction which a slow change of temperature failed to evoke.
Usually all the phenomena are treated in terms of stimulation, and the absence
of reaction with slow change of temperature is regarded as secondary. Were
it not for the specific stimulatory effects of quick change, which are not difficult
to comprehend as a phenomenon sui generis, I hardly think so general a tacit
acquiescence‘would have been extended by botanists to the view that all enduring

4 Maltaux and Massart, Reeucil de U'Lnstitut botanigue Bruxelles, tome vi. 1906.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 899

changes of velocity of metabolism brought about by lasting changes of temperature
are stimulatory in nature.

No determination of the rate of development of bacteria through a very wide
range of temperature seems to have been made, There are various incidental
experiments which indicate values about 2 for the coeflicient of increase of
metabolism for a rise of 10° C,

Tam not acquainted with any data for the growth-rate of whole flowering
plants at different temperatures. Of course the case of growth most usually
measured in the laboratory, namely, where one part of a plant extends at the
expense of the reserves stored in another part and there 1s a decrease, not an
increase, of total dry weight, is not the type of growth we have to deal with,
Even for simple elongation of a shoot at different temperatures we have but
few data, Those of Koppen (1870) generally quoted are wildly irregular, and
in many cases it is clear that the growth-extension of complex structures is a
process which proceeds by spasms rather than smoothly.

The rate of movement of circulating protoplasm increases rapidly with
temperature, but Velten’s numbers do not give an obvious logarithmic curve,
If we confine our attention to the values for 29° C. and 9° C. we do find, how-
ever, that the velocity increases about twofold for each rise of 10° C. being
10 mm. at 9° C. and 40 mm. at 29° C.

Taken altogether these various data clearly support the hypothesis that
temperature accelerates vital processes in the same way as it does non-vital
chemical reactions, that is, logarithmically by an approximately constant factor
for each rise of 10° C.; and, further, it accelerates them to the same extent; that
is, that the factor in question has values clustering about 2-3.'

To make these similarities more significant I ought to point out that no other
properties of matter are accelerated to anything like this extent by rise of
temperature. Most reactions increase in velocity by no less than 10 percent. per
degree rise of temperature; a most marked effect, and yet there is no generally
accepted explanation of this almost universal phenomenon. By the kinetic
theory of gases each rise of a degree in temperature increases the movements of
the gas-molecules, so that the number of collisions between them is greater, but
only about 3 per cent. greater. With rise in temperature, too, the viscosity of a
solution diminishes, so that there is less resistance to internal changes; but this
only to the extent of 2 per cent. per degree. The degree of ionisation also
increases, but only extremely little, so that no change of known physical pro-
perties will explain the phenomenon. Various hypotheses which need not detain
us have been put forward.

Unexplained though it may be, yet the quantitative treatment of the subject
is clear enough and, I think, as cogent in the living organism as in the test-tube.
If so, we may consider ourselves now justified in separating off from the realm of
stimulation yet a third class of causal connection, namely, that between tempera-
ture and the general intensity of vital processes.

ConcLusIon,

In this attempt to assert the inevitableness of the action of physical-chemical
principles in the cell, I have not ventured upon even the rudiments of mathe-
matical form, which would be required for a more precise inquiry. Bio-chemistry
is indeed becoming added to the ever-increasing number of branches of know-
ledge of which Lord Bacon wrote: ‘ Many parts of nature can neither be invented
with sufficient subtilty, nor demonstrated with sufficient perspicuity, nor accom~
modated unto use with sufficient dexterity, without the aid and intervening of the
mathematics.’ : Fst aoe ats

In this sketch which I have had the honour of outlining before you I have

' It has been proposed to use the size of the temperature coefticient to settle
whether a process iike the conduction of an impulse along a nerve is a chemical or
a physical process. See Keith Lucas, Journal of Physiology, vol. xxxvii. June 1908,
p. 112.

3M 2

900 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

critically considered but few points. I have rather endeavoured to distribute
imperfect data in the eet in which they appear from the point of view of
one who seeks to simplify phenomena by extending the principles of chemical
mechanics as far as possible into the domain of vital metabolism. Much critical
quantitative work has yet to be done before the whole becomes an intelligible
icture.

: To me it seems impossible to avoid regarding the fundamental processes of
anabolism, katabolism, and growth as slow chemical reactions catalytically accele-
rated by protoplasm and inevitably accelerated by temperature, This soon follows
if we once admit that the atoms and molecules concerned possess the same
essential properties during their brief sojourn in the living nexus as they do before
and after.

Perhaps the more real question is rather as to the importance and significance
of this point of view. Protoplasmic activity might be something so much per se,
and the other factors of the nature of stimuli might be superposed so thickly
upon that substratum which should be dominated by simple principles of chemical
mechanics that for practical purposes the operations of the latter would be so
overlaid and masked as to be negligible. A survey of this field, however, seems
to show that this is not so, and that the broad action of the law of mass and the
acceleration of reaction-velocity by temperature are obviously responsible for
wide ranges of phenomena.

Now the conception at the bottom of these principles is that of reaction-
velocity, and the conclusion of the whole matter is that the physiologist must
frankly take over from physical chemistry this fundamental conception.! Under
definite conditions of supply of material and temperature there is a definite
reaction-velocity for a given protoplasm, and the main factors that alter the rate of
metabolism, viz., heat, nutrition, and traces of impurities are exactly the factors
which affect the velocity of reactions zn vitro.

Working on this basis we no longer need the vague unquantitative terminology
of stimulation for the most fundamental of the observed ‘responses’ to external
conditions. Three sets of phenomena we have observed which, though usually
treated in the category of stimulation, draw a clearer interpretation from the
conception of reaction-velocity. These were: (1) the relation of development to
the absence or deficit of single essential food constituents; (2) the occasional
striking effect of minute traces of added foreign substances upon the whole rate of
growth and metabolism ; and (3) the general doubling of the activity of vital
processes by a rise of 10° C.

The next higher stratum of principles should be the complications introduced .
by limiting factors which interrupt the extent of the manifestations of these
principles and by various correlations, as, for example, that by which the reaction-
velocity of one catabolic process might withdraw the supply of material needed
for full activity of another different process. To this sort of relation may be
attributed that phenomenon so characteristic of the more complex vital processes
and quite unknown in the inorganic world, namely, the optimum.

Finally, superposed upon all this comes the first category of phenomena that
we are content still to regard as stimulatory. [From the point of view of meta-
bolism and reaction-velocity many of these appear very trivial, though their
biological importance may be immense. Think how little the tropistic curvatures
of stems and roots affect our quantitative survey; yet a little rearrangement of
the distribution of growth on the two sides of an organ may make the difference
between success and failure, between life and death.

From our present point of view vision does not extend to the misty concep-

» No general treatment of the physiology of ylants has yet been attempted in
terms of reaction-velocity. _ Czapek, however, in the introduction to his stupendous
Biochemie der Pflanzen, vol. i. 1905, does draw attention to the conception of
‘reaction-velocity’ and refer to the standard literature on this subject and on
catalysis, though direct application is not made to the plant. Cohen (Physical
Chemistry Sor Physicians and Biologists, English edition, 1903) considers in detail
some biological applications of the acceleration of reactions by temrerature. :

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS; 901

tions of stimulation upoit our horizon. We may therefore postpone speculation
upon the mechanical principles governing them and await the time when by
scientific operations we shall have reduced to law and order the intervening
region, which we may entitle the chemical substratum of life. This done we
may venture to pitch our laboratory a march nearer to the phenomena of proto-

lasmic irritability and make direct attack upon this dominating conception, the
Fst formidable bulwark of vital territory.

The following Papers were then read :—

1. The Influence of Living Cells on the Transpiration Current.
By Professor H. H. Dixon, £.2.S.

The resistance experienced in the passage of water through wood is considered
by some as necessitating the intervention of vital actions in the elevation of the
transpiration current in trees. According to Ewart a pressure of 10 atmospheres
is required to raise water at the transpiration velocity in an elm-tree 18 m. high.
He allows that 3 atm. may be supplied by the traction exerted by the evaporat-
ing cells of the leaves, leaving 7 atm. for the living cells to supply, viz., 0°39 atm.
per metre of stem. Existing methods should easily reveal the presence of such a
force, but up to the present no such force has been detected.

In order to reveal the presence of even a much smaller force of a vital nature,
if such exists, the following method was adopted: The rates of transmission
from above downwards of two similar branches were simultaneously observed.
To maintain both at the same temperature and so avoid differences in viscosity,
both were enclosed in the same water-jacket. One branch was then killed by
being surrounded with steam, and the rates of transmission again observed as
before. The similarity of behaviour of both branches showed that the influence
of the living cells on water-transmission is insensible. The experiment gives the
same result when the branch is killed with picric acid. In the latter case, in
order to subject the two branches to conditions as similar as possible, water was
pe through the control while picric acid was forced through the experimental
branch.

The fading of the leaves supported by killed branches has also been urged in
support of vital theories of the ascent of sap. It is, however, arbitrary to assume
that in this case the leaves fade directly owing to the want of water, or that the
methods of killing do not bring about changes in the sap and in the water-tracts
other than the destruction of the life of the cells. The fading of leaves due to
want of water is quite different from the fading of those supported by dead stems.
Tn the latter case the appearances indicate poisoning of the mesophyll-cells, while
in branches so killed, even if the tracheze in the dead aie itself escape being
clogged, those at higher levels in the stem and in the fading leaves ultimately
become plugged with reddish material.

The poisonous effects of water which has passed through a killed branch may
be observed by supplying water to the basal leaves of a branch through its distal
part, after the latter has been steamed. Although provided with a two-fold
supply (viz., from the basal intact organs, and also through the killed upper part),
the leaves fade in a manner similar to those on a dead branch,

It will be seen that the experiments described in the paper lend no support to
the vital theories of the ascent of sap.

2. The Death-rate of Bacteria under the Action of Disinfectants,
By Miss Harrietre Cuicx, D.Sc.

Disinfection is shown to be a process exhibiting a close analogy with a chemical
reaction, the disinfectant representing one reagent and the protoplasm of the
bacterium the second, It is shown to be a gradual process without any sudden

902 RANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

effects; if the disinfectant employed is sufficiently dilute the reaction velocity of
disinfection can be studied by enumerating the surviving bacteria after successive
intervals of time.

The process is found to proceed in accordance with the mass law if ‘number
of surviving bacteria’ is substituted for ‘concentration of reacting substance.’
The number of living bacteria, when enumerated after successive intervals of
time, is found to decrease in a logarithmic manner. Although disinfection in-
volves the interaction of two substances—hacteria and disinfectant—the reaction
velocity at any period during disinfection is controlled only by the ‘concentration’
of living bacteria at the time. Disinfection thus recalls a reaction of the ‘first
degree,’ the reason for this being that the concentration of the disinfectant may
be regarded as constant throughout, since it is present in so great excess. (An
interesting analogy is thus suggested with the case of sugar inversion.)

The experiments upon which the above conclusions are based were made by
the author and other workers with both spore-bearing and vegetative types of
bacteria, and employing metallic salts, phenol, other coal-tar derivatives, and
heat as means of disinfection.

The suggestion is made that the gradual and orderly natuve of the disinfection
process is due to temporary differences in resistance among the individual bacteria,
which themselves may be referred to different rhythmic phases occupied by that
constituent of the bacterium concerned in disinfection.

The reaction velocity of disinfection is influenced by temperature in a manner
similar to many chemical reactions, and increases logarithmically with rise of
temperature. With B. paratyphosus and metallic salts the increase was 2-4-fold
for arise in temperature of 10°C. In the case of phenol the temperature coeflicient
was much higher, between 7 and 8,

3. The Death-rate of Celis of Higher Plants in Fatal Conditions.
By Miss Nora Darwin and Dr. Biackmayn, L.R.S.

4. Colour Changés in Flowers produced by controlling Insolation.
By Colonel H. E. Rawson, C.B., RE.

On March 12, 1905, a wonderful sunrise was observed at sea just after crossing
the equator while on a voyage from Southampton to the Cape of Good Hope.
Myriads of cirrus threads, as fine as gossamer, suddenly flashed out in the highest
levels of the atmosphere, and formed continuous and parallel lines of visible
vapour, converging optically to V-points, which were true north and south as
the sun rose trus east. The V-points did not remain fixed, but moved clockwise,
and the whole vault of heaven, with its countless arches of cirrus lines, swung
slowly round, as if on a pivot, in the zenith.

The phenomenon did not disappear entirely for some days, and variations in
the disposition and movements of the threads in the cirrus level with respect to
bands of visible vapour, which formed at certain hours, in the cumulus and stratus
levels were noted and measured with instruments.

While endeavouring to explain some of the effects, which were clearly attri-
butable to direct rays from the sun, a crucial experiment suggested itself which
could most easily be carried out upon plants.

On arriving at Cape Town some indication of the sun’s action in the particular
direction suggested was looked for amongst garden plants, and was found in the
case of the Kei apple (Aderia caffra), which is much used for a border to gravel-
walks and flower-beds. This clue was followed up, and experiments were carried
out in Pretoria with several different vegetables. These were found to be affected
by sun-rays in the way anticipated. :

The results obtained were described in a paper entitled ‘Sunrise and Growth,’
which was read before the South African Association for the Advancement of
Science, and appeared in the Report for 1905,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 903

With the information acquired, as to the effect of direct sun-rays upon plants,
trials were made in the direction of forcing plants to protect themselves against
those direct rays which, in the clear South African atmosphere, at an altitude of
4,550 feet, were proved to be distressing to thern. Nasturtiums were selected as
most likely to be sensitive to the treatment they were to be exposed to, and trials
were commenced with an existing group of growing common nasturtiums, which
were already in a suitable aspect, and were shaded by a brick wall at certain
hours of the day from all direct rays. Between April 21, 1905, and August 5,
1907, the whole of the group had been changed from the ordinary scarlet and
orange varieties into a new mauve variety, with the exception of one plant, whose
flowers were changed to the deepest carmine, with velvety-blue markings on two
of the petals. A seed from this plant, which was brought from Pretoria and
sown under glass at York on March 26, 1908, was changed to the mauve variety
by exactly similar treatment at York to that administered in other cases at
Pretoria in order to produce the mauve variety from the deep carmine.

The principle which has been followed is to shade off with a perfectly opaque
screen all direct rays of the sun for certain intervals of daylight. There has been
no other special treatment, and the only fertilisers used have been soot-water and
liquid manure. Their judicious use during the correct periods of growth, and
their supply in proper strength, are considered of great importance, ;

At Pretoria the mauve variety proved a veritable mutation, and no known
instance occurred of its reverting to the original. Mxperiment so far goes to show
that seeds from it after the second year may be planted in any aspect, and will
come true even if sown in such different climates as those of York and Pretoria.

The crimson variety similarly treated in York and in Pretoria gave the same
flowers of a bronze old-gold colour in both places, and the seed of this latter
variety brought from Pretoria and sown in York gave the same curious colour, in
spite of the great difference of altitude between the two localities.

_ Cuttings of the mauve variety could be grown in any aspect at Pretoria, with-
out any change in the mauve colour of the flowers.

In addition to the mauve and bronze old-gold colours, varieties of rose-salmon
and of sallow flesh-colour baye been obtained, and no difficulty has been ex-
perienced in changing any of the known orange, yellow, or scarlet flowers into
these curious colours.

Experiments with dahlias and cosmos indicate that their coloration can be as
easily changed as that of nasturtiums by employing similar means.

5. The Mechanical and Electrical Response of Plants.
By Professor J. C. Boss, C.L.2., M.A., D.Sc.

In order to make an accurate study of the effects of external stimulus on the
plant, it is necessary to have some means of immediately recording the responsive
changes that take place. In making records of motile responses many difficulties
are encountered, owing to friction and other causes. The author has overcome
these by devising two different types of instrument. Of these the first is the
oscillating recorder, in which a very light aluminium recording-lever traces
Tesponse-curves on a moving surface of smoked glass, which touches the recording-
point at intervals of one-fifth of a second. Friction of the recording-point is thus
practically eliminated, and as the record consists of successive dots, it also gives
the time-relations of the curve. ‘I'he second method of record employed is that of
the optical lever, which enables the movements even of minute leaflets to be self-
recorded, A very high magnification may be obtained by its means, and the
immediate effects of a given stimulus clearly observed.

Again, by the employment of the method of balance, any variation in the rate
of growth under external stimulus finds immediate record.

The author has also shown that a definite electrical change, of responsive
character, occurs in all -yegetable tissues on excitation, Thus all plants, and all
organs of all plants, are shown to be sensitive.

904 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

Correspondingly, he has been able also to show that even ordinary plants
exhibit the excitatory reaction by motile response.

By the employment of modes of investigation, both mechanical and electrical,
he demonstrates the occurrence of two opposite responsive reactions, which are
definite under definite conditions. The true excitatory reaction is associated with
a negative turgidity-variation, contraction, and galvanometric negativity; while
as a result of ‘indirect’ stimulus, or increase of internal energy, the responsive
reaction is of positive turgidity-variation, expansion, and galvanometric positivity.

The author finds, further, that the tonic condition of the tissue is also a factor
in determining the character of response. When the tissue is in a state of sub-
tonicity on the one hand, or of fatigue on the other, the sign of normal response
is apt to become reversed.

By mechanical and electrical tests alike the author is able to demonstrate that
there is true transmission of excitation in plants, distinct from the propagation of
hydro-mechanical disturbance. The fibro-vascular elements provide preferential
channels, through which the wave of true excitation is conducted.

The velocity of transmission of excitation increases with the intensity of
stimulus. A moderate rise of temperature is also conducive to the enhancement
of this velocity. Cold, fatigue, and the action of anzsthetics, on the other hand,
retard or abolish the conducting power.

The character of that effect of stimulus which is transmitted to a distant point
depends on the conductivity of the tissue, and also on the intensity of the stimulus.
The effect transmitted is of negative sign when the stimulus is strong or long-
continued, or the tissue highly conducting. Conversely, it is of positive sign
when the stimulus applied is feeble, or the tissue semi-conducting.

The fact that true conduction of excitation takes place in the plant, as in the
animal, receives conclusive demonstration from the polar effects of currents on
excitation. The author finds that as in the animal, so also in the plant, the
normal effect is that the kathode excites at make and the anode at break.

He has also observed the phenomenon of multiple response in vegetable tissues
under strong stimulation. A continuity exists in plants as between this multiple
and the so-called ‘ autonomous’ response.

The characteristics of rhythmic tissues in the plant are found to be parallel to
those of rhythmic tissues in the animal.

The author has also been able to determine with accuracy the death-point of a

lant. A mechanical and electrical excitatory spasm is shown to occur at the
initiation of death. In the morographic record the critical point is exhibited as a
sudden invereion of the curve.

6. The Mechanism of Mitosis. By W. L. Bats.

7. A perfectly Fertile Species-hybrid showing Segregation.
By Dr. J. P. Lorsy.

8, The Natural Crossing of the Cotton Plant. By W. L. Batts,

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
The following Papers were read :—

1, Photo-chemical Action in the Test-tube and the Leaf.
By Dr. F. F. Buacxman, 7.2.8,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 905

2. On Increase in Dry Weight as a Measure of Assimilation.
By D. Tuopay, B.A.

The increase in dry weight of unit-area of leaf-surface was first suggested as a
measure of the accumulated products of assimilation by Sachs in 1883. He took
halves of leaves in the early morning and the other halves afterla certain number
of hours of insolation, and found the difference in dry weight per square metre.

Comparison with the results obtained by other more exact methods has led to
the conclusion that this method tends to give an over-estimate of assimilation.
Brown and Escombe (1905) compared increase in dry weight with intake of
carbon dioxide’ simultaneously directly determined, and found the former far
in excess of the latter in three experiments out of four. They attributed the
discrepancy chiefly to the asymmetry of leaves and to changes in area taking
‘place under experimental conditions, and published a few determinations of
the errors intreduced in these ways. They also suggested the possibility of
a change of capacity for water retention in the colloid constituents of leaves
during insolation, presumably as an explanation of the high! values usually
obtained; and expressed the opinion that Sachs’ method is not capable of giving
accurate results.

At Dr. Blackman’s suggestion I undertook a more detailed investigation of the
method, for it is the only method which is available for determining the rate of
assimilation in the open air, and if it could be trusted for sufficiently accurate
results in its original or a modified form, might prove of service in ecological
Bere peations in the near future. The following are among the most important
results :-—

Analysis by combustion of portions of material of which the dry weight had
been determined showed a fair correspondence between the increase in dry weight*
und the increase in carbon content, and gave no support to Brown and Escombe’s
suggestion of a change in capacity for water retention.

eaf material is often extremely hygroscopic. It should be dried in a current
of dry gas and weighed with care to exclude moisture.
_ The methods of measuring area are or can be made sufficiently accurate.

Errors from lack of symmetry in dry weight per unit area cannot be elimi-
nated, They can only be reduced by avoiding veins and by using a large number
of leaves. It is this source of error which will set the limit to the degree of
accuracy obtainable by the method.

Change of area by shrinkage during experiment introduces an error the
seriousness of which varies according to conditions, and is most liable to vitiate
the results of experiments aimed, like those of Sachs, at determining a maximum
rate of increase in full sunlight in the open air,

These errors from shrinkage or expansion will require special care in the future
use of the method, but present no insuperable difficulty. Floating on water can.
not be trusted to eliminate them.

The calculation of the equivalent intake of carbon dioxide from the increase
of dry weight can only at present be rough, as too little is known of the composi-
tion of the products of assimilation. For more accurate work it may be possible
to avoid this difficulty by estimating the carbon content itself.

Sachs’ result for the rate of assimilation of detached leaves of Helianthus
annuus, 16 milligrammes per square decimetre per hour, has been confirmed as
substantially correct in this investigation.

Flaccidity, even if but slight, brings about a considerable reduction in the
rate of assimilation in leaves of Helianthus annuus, and probably in other leaves.
Brown and Escombe’s results for Helianthus annuus are very low, and cannot be
taken as a satisfactory’ indication of what goes on under open-air conditions.
Nor can their suggestion be considered universally applicable that the greater
results which detached leaves have given when compared with attached leaves
are to be explained by differences of stomatal apertures. One of Brown and
Morris’s results cannot be explained satisfactorily in this way; similarly with

905 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

several cascs among the work of others, When this explanation is valid a further
analysis of the conditions is necessary, especially in regard to the relative efficiency
of the water-supply. a

3. Lhe Factors influencing Photosynthesis in Water Plants,
By A. M. Suiru, Jf,

Description of Apparatus.—The apparatus has as its object the maintenance
of a current of water containing dissolved carbon dioxide, so that it. passes at a
constant rate over a plant enclosed in an oval chamber. This chamber is placed
in a copper bath which can be maintained at a desired constant temperature.
Through a window in the bath the plant-chamber is illuminated for assimilation
experiments by Keith high-pressure incandescent burners, which can be put
at varying distances away. Thus the conditions of assimilation (1) amount of
CO, supply, (2) temperature, (3) light, can all be regulated to any desired
intensity. The assimilation or respiration is measured by analysing the CO,
content (1) of the supply to the plant, (2) of the water which ,has passed over
the plant. This analysis is performed by precipitating the CO, in a known
volume of the solution as insoluble carbonate by addition of baryta and
titrating the excess of baryta by standard hydrochloric acid. The apparatus
includes arrangements for collecting and analysing the gas given off during the
experiment, so that a complete account is obtained of the CO, changes due to the
lant. S
‘ Experiments.—Blank tests with no plant in the chamber show that a high
degree of accuracy can be attained in analysing the stream of water and compar-
ing samples drawn off near its source with samples taken after passing through
the whole of the apparatus. : '

The general course of the earlier experiments made in 1905—and these form
the greater bulk of the work—showed the effect on assimilation of a CO,
supply increasing in amount from that present in ordinary tap-water 0-0007
grms. per 50 cc. to 0:0620 grms. per 50 ce., which represents a solution about
two-thirds saturated at 15°C.

Light and temperature being constant the general form of the curve obtained is

B Cc

A= ), CO; supply...

Where the part A B represents increase of assimilation with increase of CO,
supply, while the part B c represents a constant assimilation due to some limit-
ing factor. That this limiting factor is the intensity of the light was proved by
increasing this intensity when an increase of assimilation above that represented
by Bc was obtained. No change was observed on raising the temperature,
It was shown by experiments in 1908 with temperatures of 7° C. and 13° C. that
in all the earlier experiments the temperature was above the limiting intensity for
this amount ofassimilation. The later experiments fixed the limiting temperature
for this assimilation at 16°C.; and all the temperatures used in the earlier part
of the work were higher than this.

That CO, supply, light, and temperature were actually limiting under
different conditions was shown, not only by the form of the general curve, but in
each case by changing the intensity of that factor during the course of a single
experiment, when, if the factor was limiting, a corresponding change of assimila-
tion followed.

Besides this demonstration of the conditions under which each factor in turn
becomes limiting, other interesting general results are :—

(1) That when CO, is limiting, plants with an internal atmosphere (flowering

_

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Kf. 907

plants) have an advantage over plants without (mosses) in being able to convert
a higher proportion of the CO, supplied.

(2) No depressing effect of CO, on assimilation could be detected up to a point
when the supply was about one-third saturated, corresponding in land plants to
an atmosphere containing 33 per cent. CO,. This supply is from thirty to fifty
times as rich in CO, as tap-water.

(3) Water-plants are extraordinarily sensitive to external conditions. A
night in the laboratory will considerably depress the assimilation, and a week
will reduce it to very small dimensions. In order to get results as constant as pos-
sible the plant was always, after this sensitiveness had been realised, gathered on
the morning of the experiment and in as green and fresh a condition as possible.

Plants unhealthy to the eye, though they assimilate less than normal for the
particular light and temperature, yet respond to changes in the limiting factor in
the same way as healthy plants do.

4, The Carbohydrates of the Snowdrop Leaf and their bearing on the I’irst
Sugar of Photosynthesis. By Joun Parwiy, MA.

“The main purpose of this research is an attempt to extend our knowledge
regarding the sugars which appear in the leaf as a direct effect of photosynthesis,
Few additions have been made to this subject since the publication of Brown
and Morris’s important results in 1893.!_ From an examination of the sugars in
the leaf of Tropeolum majus these authors were led to the novel conclusion that
sucrose (cane sugar) is the first carbohydrate to arise in photosynthesis, rather
than glucose, the hitherto accepted view. This theory was criticised adversely on
the grounds that the sucrose might come from the maltose, which is formed from
the leaf-starch.

For this investigation a plant has been selected (Galanthus nivalis, the
snowdrop) which never under ordinary conditions produces starch in its mesophyll ;
consequently the problem is not complicated by the occurrence of maltose, and
hence sucrose, if present, could hardly have this sugar for its source of origin.

Sucrose has been found to occur abundantly in the snowdrop leaf, along with
glucose (dextrose) and fructose (Jevulose). About forty duplicate analyses have
already been made of leaves picked at different periods of the spring, at various
times of the day and under diverse conditions. The work, as far as it has
progressed, allows the following conclusions to be provisionally drawn :—

1. The total quantity of sugars in the leaf is considerable—20 to 30 per cent.
of the dry weight as a rule.

2. The amount of sugar in a single leaf increases from above downwards, at
the same time the ratio of the sucrose to the hexoses (glucose and fructose)
diminishes,

3. The proportion of sucrose to the hexoses decreases as the season advances,

4, At any given period of the spring the percentage of hexose remains
fairly constant, no matter what hour out of the twenty-four the leaves may he
examined, but that of the sucrose fluctuates greatly. It increases during the day
and diminishes during the night. Further leaves detached and insolated contain
decidedly more sucrose than their controls.

5. The glucose and fructose appear present in fairly equal proportions ; the
analyses however as a whole point to a slight preponderance of the latter.

6. Leaves darkened for some days still contain a moderate quantity of sugar.
The percentage rapidly falls during the first forty-eight hours of obscurity, and
then remains fairly constant. Plants so treated and then re-illuminated show a
large increase of sucrose in their leaves, while the amount of hexose undergoes
little alteration.

The above results seem more intelligible on the view that in photosynthesis
the formation of sucrose precedes that of the two hexoses, rather than that the

'« Chem. and Physiol. of Foliage Leaves,’ Juurn. Chem. Soc., lxiii. p. 661.

908 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

converse takes place. The glucose and fructose can easily arise from the inversion
of some of the sucrose. If, however, cane sugar be the first carbohydrate to be
formed in the foliage leaf, then the aldehyde theory of photosynthesis becomes
less easily imagined. Too little attention appears to have been paid to the
possibility of the first sugar of photosynthesis arising in the chloroplast as a
product split off from a complex protein aggregate. On this supposition, and
granting sucrose as the primary sugar, the still unproven hypothesis of Baeyer,
as usually formulated, would scarcely be required.

Further, greater emphasis in the author's opinion should be laid on the
importance of sucrose in the higher plants, and its probable réle as the chief form
in which the carbohydrate travels in the tissues. Various investigations point to
the plant’s capability, when calling upon its non-nitrogenous reserves, of con-
verting these finally into sucrose before utilising them in growth and metabolism
generally,

In conclusion the author expressed his indebtedness to Major G. Dixon for
much assistance in the analytical part of this research.

5. The Time Factor in Assimilation. By J. M, F. Drummonp, M.A.

6. The Woodlands of Southern England.' By A. G. Tanstey, M.A.

The more or less vague knowledge that we had of the character and distri-
bution of the natural plant communities of the British Isles until the present
method of ‘primary survey’ of vegetation was initiated a few years ago, requires
to be made definite and systematic before it can become of scientific value and be
made the basis of further research. The present paper was a contribution to that
end. Reasons were given for believing that the great majority of existing English
woodlands retain enough of their primitive character to permit of their treat-
ment as natural plant communities, though nearly all have been modified by the
agency of man to a greater or less degree.

Four main types of natural English woodland were distinguished: The Oak
type, the Oak-Birch-Heath type, the Ash type, and the Beech type. The distri-
bution of these, at least in the south-east and in the lowlands generally, appa-
rently depends entirely on edaphic factors, ¢.e., on the nature of the subsoil, and
each type is characterised by a well-marked composition and constitution. The
general character of each was described, the principal dominant and commoner

subordinate species enumerated, and the mutual relations of the different types
discussed.

7. The Woodlands of Northern England.| By CO. E. Moss, D.Sc.

With slight modifications, the scheme of woodland associations described by
Mr. Tansley in his paper on ‘The Woodlands of Southern England’ is appli-
cable also to the lowlands of northern England. Woods of the Beech type are
not found in the north ; but the remaining types occur, and are determined by the
same factors which apply in the south. These factors are chiefly edaphic ones.

When we come to consider the woods of the higher hills of northern (and of
western) England, we find that climatic factors as well as edaphic ones are
operative.

Three main types of woodland occur on the Pennines, viz., Upland Oak
Woods, Birch Woods, and Ash Woods. The Upland Oak Woods are dominated
by Quercus sessiliflora. Q. sessiliflora Woods occur up to 1,000 feet, and the
Birch Woods ascend to 1,500 feet ; they form a natural series, and the presence or
absence of the Oak (Q. sessiliflora) is determined by altitude. Q. pedunculata

‘ A joint paper on ‘The Natural Woodlands of England’ will be published in the
Annals of Botany during 1909,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 909

is completely absent from the woods of this series; and this fact, and also the
different nature of the ground vegetation, distinguishes them from the various
types of Lowland Oak Woods. The woods are degenerating, and numerous
derivative scrubs occur. The whole of this series falls into the general Oak-Birch-
Heath type, and the slight modifications are due to factors correlated with
altitude.

The above Oak and Birch series of woods is developed on siliceous soils alone:
on the soils of the carboniferous limestones the natural woods belong to the
type dominated by the common Ash (Fravxinus excelsior). Quercus sessiliflora is
completely absent from and Q. pedunculata is quite local in the Ash Woods of
Derbyshire. The Ash Woods have the same altitudinal range as the Q. sessili~
flora Woods: above 1,000 feet, scrubs derived from pre-existing Ash Woods
occur.

Certain intermediate types, such as Oak-Ash Woods and Ash-Birch Woods,
were mentioned; and the ground vegetation of the main types was described.
The present altitudinal range of the upland woods was compared with that of
former times.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.

Joint Discussion with Section D on the Determination of Sea.
See p. 738,

The following Papers and Reports were then read :—

1. The Optical Behaviour of the Epidermal Cells of Leaves.
By Harotp Wacer, 1.2.8.

The observations of Haberlandt! and others have shown that the structure
of the epidermal cells of the leaves of many plants is such that the rays of light
which fell upon them are refracted and brought to a focus either within the
epidermal cells or on their basal walls, or in the leaf among the chlorophyll-
containing cells. Haberlandt appears to consider that this function is restricted
to the cells of the upper epidermis, but although it is in most cases not so

* marked, it is equally common to the cells of the lower epidermis.

"In some leaves the epidermal cells are so regular in outline that they may
be compared to the corneal facets of the compound eyes of insects; but usually
they are not so regular, and often possess a wavy outline. Nevertheless they
are all capable of bringing the rays of light which fell upon them to a more or
less definite focus. These lens cells are very widely distributed, and it is very
rare to find a plant which does not possess them in some degree, although, as
Haberlandt has pointed out, they are more highly developed in shade plants
than in those exposed more fully to the light. From some observations which
I have recently made, they would also appear to be more highly developed in
the shade leaves of some plants than in the leaves of the same plant exposed to
the light.

Cells with a very regular outline such as occur in species of Tradescantia on
both sides of the leaf, the upper epidermal cells ot Liyustrum ovalifolium,
various Orchidacee, &c., act as very efficient lenses, and not only bring the light
to a focus, but are capable of forming clear and distinct images of objects near
them. In one case Haberlandt was able to obtain a somewhat indistinct photo-
graph of a microscope stand which was focused upon the basal wall of the
cell. More recently I have been able, by appropriate manipulation with the
microscope and the use of the Gordon photo-micrographic apparatus, made by
Messrs. Beck, to obtain photographs of a variety of objects through cells both

1 Lichtsinnesorgane der Laubblitter, 1905.

910 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K,

of the upper and lower epidermis of leaves of many species of plants. Among
these are portraits from life which are clearly recognisable, reproductions of
photographs of various kinds, flowers, and other objects direct, and it has even
been found possible to photograph trees, houses, and landscapes, and to reproduce
simple diagrams in colour on the autochrone plates of Messrs. Lumiére.

Haberlandt put forward the hypothesis that the convergence of the light
rays causes a differential illumination of the protoplasmic layer on the basal
walls of the epidermal cells, and in some way sets up a stimulus which results
in the orientation of the leaf into the position in which it can obtain the most
suitable illumination. The alternative hypotheses (1) that the orientation of the
leaf may be bound up with the absorption of light by the chlorophyll grams, and
(2) that the convergence of the light rays may bring about a more efficient
illumination of the chlorophyll grains have not, in my opinion, been sufficiently
considered, A further possibility that the phenomenon is a purely incidental one,
due to the curvature of the cell-walls by turgescence, and not of any utility to
the plant, is also deserving of attention.

Observations which have been made upon Schistostega osmundacea seem to
indicate a clear case of chlorophyll illumination, and in some Selaginellas and
Hepatice a similar explanation is possible. So also in the case of Botrydium
granulatum, the spherical form of the cell brings about a total internal reflection
of some part of the light rays which fall upon it and causes a very efficient
illumination of the chlorophyll grains which form a lining over the whole of the
inside of the wall of the cell. :

Haberlandt has described cases in which special cells or cell-wall thickenings
appear to be developed with a lens function, These appear to be only on the
upper epidermis. It is interesting to note that in a species of Mesembryanthemum
T have found these special lens cells equally abundant and well developed on
both sides of the leaf, and that in Garrya elliptica special lens thickenings of
the cuticle occur also equally well on both sides. In this last case they are
more or less regularly arranged over the whole surface, and appear to be inde-
pendent of the position of the epidermal cells.

The elongate cells of such leaves as those of Hyacinth and Iris bring the
light rays to a focus in the form of an elongate bar of light. The epidermal
cells of Aspidistra lurida do not cause a convergence, but there is very distinct
and transparent nucleus in some of the cells through which an image was photo-
graphed, The epidermal cells of the petals of some flowers also form good
images through their curved walls, and in the case of a fungus, Russula emetica,
the spherical cells found in the pileus also bring about a convergence of the light,

2. The Contractile Roots of the Aroid Sauromatum guttatum,
By Mrs. D. H. Scort, F.L.8.

Contractile roots, which have the power of pulling bulbs and tubers down into
the ground, have been known for some centuries. Nehemiah Grew, in his work
on the anatomy of plants, published in 1682, writes of the descent of ‘ bulbous
roots’ being already known to ‘botanicks.’ He goes on to describe the process
in the crocus, &c.; and, in speaking of the cause of the descent, says: ‘The
immediate visible one are the String-roots, which this kind of trunks frequently
put forth, which, descending themselves directly into the ground like so many
ropes, Jug the trunk after them.’

This mechanism has been worked out in more detail in the present day.

In Sauromatum guttatum, a member of the Arum family, the bulb, if placed
on an inverted flower-pot, flowers without any water being given it. If then
planted on the surface of the soil it throws out leaves. When these begin to
wither the tuber gradually disappears from sight, and when dug up in about two
months’ time was found 6 inches below the surface of the soil. It had thrown
out thick, fleshy roots from its upper surface, the tips of which had firmly attached
themselves by their root-hairs to pieces of broken tile, bracken, rhizomes, Xc.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 911

The yoots are found to be contracted to about half their original length. Later on
they are cut off by layers of periderm from the tuber, just as a dead leaf becomes
detached from its stem.

If one of these tubers is replaced at the surface of the soil it sends out a new
set of contractile roots and is again pulled down to its normal depth of about
G inches, —

3. Evaporation in relation to the Stratification of Marsh Vegetation.
By Professor R. H. Yaprp, M.A.

The evaporating power of the air may be considered as an approximate
measure of the pull exerted by the atmosphere on the water contained in leaves
and other transpiring organs of plants.

Evaporation readings were taken at different levels in and above the marsh
vegetation of Wicken Fen, under varying atmospheric conditions. It was shown
that evaporation varies according to the density of the vegetation and the depth
of the stratum in which the readings are taken. For example, in the case of a
mixed vegetation of marsh plants, about 2 feet in height, the average evapora-
tion in the free air above is about 1:7 times that in the layer immediately below
the top of the vegetation, and 6°8 times that in a stratum 18 inches below the
surface of the yegetation.

4, Report on the Registration of Botanical Photographs.
5. Report on the Structure of Fossil Plants.—See Reports, p. 493.

6. Report on Studies of Marsh Vegetation.—See Reports, p. 492.

7. Interim Report on the Sequence of Plant Remains in the Peat
Deposits of Teesdale, &c.—See Reports, p. 493.

6, Second Interim Report on Research on South African Cycads and on
Welwitschia.—See Reports, p. 494.

9. A Plant Animal. By Professor F, W, Kirsre.

Se See - es

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
The following Papers were read :—
1. The Origin of Dicotyledons. By W. ©. WorsveEtt.

The various existent plant-phyla have a common origin in the remote past.
The similar structures met with in each group are therefore analogical, and not
hhomological in character, and must always represent instances of parallel develop-
‘ment along distinet lines,

912 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION kK,

Embryology and Seedling-structure.

The view developed here is founded on the doctrine of anaphytosis as opposed
to the monaxial theory of most observers. The typical plant represents a colony
of distinct ¢ndividuals or ‘phytons,’ budding one out of the other as the ‘stem’
grows in length (¢f. formation of stationary colony of aphides), The possibility
of propagation by cuttings shows this to be the true interpretation, In the history
of such a colony the first individual is the embryo.

The main question is, does the embryo, or does it not, repeat in its structure
that of the group or race to which the ‘plant’ belongs? Every analogy from
the animal kingdom supports the view that it does. Nor is it likely that any
adaptive function acquired comparatively recently, however important, can have
obscured this primitive structure. If the stem had, in the whole ancestry of the
plant, always been the dominant organ and the leaf a subsidiary lateral one, it
would be expected that the plumular axis, and not the cotyledon, would have
assumed the role of an absorptive organ within the embryo-sac or of an assimilating
organ on germination.

It is highly probable that the Angiosperm group, like every other group,
roughly recapitulates in its embryonic history the structure of the primeval
ancestor from which all groups have sprung. ‘This latter is the primitive
Bryophyte. It is the archaic znrdividual, showing, in its capsule, seta, and foot,
the fundaments and originals of the phyllome, caulome, and root respectively in
the vascular plants. The close correspondence in development of the three or
four main parts between the embryo of an Angiosperm and that of a Liverwort,
like Jungermannia biscuspidata, proves that the two are precisely homologous
structures.

The facts of embryogeny in vascular plants are entirely opposed to, and
inconsistent with, the ordinary teaching that a plant consists of a single shoot on
which the leaves are borne as lateral appendages. This teaching is due to the
misleading ideas which arise as a result of the study of the later phases in the
ontogenetic development of the ‘ plant,’ the importance of which has always been
too greatly insisted on. On the other hand, these embryological data are in
harmony with the sporogonial theory and the do¢trine of anaphytosis. The first
one or two foliar organs begin to appear long before the axis: and the subsequent
development clearly shows how the leaves are the dominant organs and the axis
entirely subsidiary. The primary division of the embryo into an upper and a lower
set of quadrants shows that the former represents an organ of closed and limited
growth, viz., a foliar organ, and not a leaf-bearing axis of unlimited and indefinite
yrowth. This is due to the fact that each successive leaf is primitively terminal
to a segment of the axis, which would result in the leaf being large as compared
with the axis on which it is borne.

Eventually the axis asserted itself precociously, and the leaves became pushed
over into a lateral position. Both conditions, the primary and the inauguration
of the secondary, occur in the embryonic history of Bryophytes (Jungermannia
and Moss), Ferns ( Ceratopteris and Polypodium), and Angiosperms (Monocotyledons
and Dicotyledons).

Inasmuch as in all these groups the first one or two leaves precede the stem
during the course of development of the various organs out of the homogeneous
thallus structure, it follows that in the primitive vascular plant, including the
primitive Angiosperm, there was in the first place a single leaf, terminal to the
stem, which by dichotomy gave rise to two leaves.

Hence Monocotyledons must have preceded Dicotyledons ; for if the embryo of
the latter group does not represent in its history a repetition of the phases of
development of the ancestor, it must represent a case of extreme reduction, which
is an absurd supposition for such a highly advanced group as Dicotyledons. The
monocotyledonous embryo is therefore the primitive sporogonium-like type, and
the dicotyledonous type has been derived from it, just as the dicotyledonous
embryo of Selaginella must have been derived by dichotomy of the single coty-

ledon of Lycopodium,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 913

Modern Monocotyledons show no sign of having been reduced from Dicoty-
ledons, The embryo of the Palm is precisely the same as that of any other
typical Monocotyledon. Palms are, of course, very fat from being reduced,
and the same may be said of any other Monocotyledons. The primitive Angio-
sperm must have had alternate leaf-arrangement, especially if it were derived
from a form analogous to the Ferns. Hence if the dicotyledonous embryo
repeats the phylogeny of groups, the two opposed cotyledons cannot be primary,
but must be derived by dichotomy of a single cotyledon; they cannot be derived
by approximation of two alternating leaves, for there is no stem in existence upon
which they could alternate at the time when they first arise. Reduction is out
of the question in such an advanced group as Dicotyledons; moreover, there is no
embryonic type, characteristic of a group, from which such a supposedly reduced
dicotyledonous embryo could have been derived. That the dicotyledonous condition
is not primary, but that the two cotyledons really represent a single-dichotomised
member is shown by the fact that in plants with alternate leaves the two opposed
cotyledons are immediately followed by a single leaf about equal in size to the
two cotyledons together; the single cotyledon has dichotomised and ensheathed
the plumule, this process being best carried out by the two halves becoming
opposite and distinct leaves. Cases observed in seedlings of Cheiranthus, &c.,
support this.

If the monocotyledonous condition is derived and reduced, then we ought to find
frequent cases of reversion to the dicotyledonous condition ; but this is, I believe,
unknown, whereas the converse is common, viz., the occurrence of dicotyledonous
seedlings with a single cotyledon.

The Pseudo-monocotyledons afford cases where such reversionary {processes
have become fired. These are true cases of reduction. The cotyledon of Mono-
cotyledons is homologous with the foliage-leaf of this group, as}is shown by the
fact that inJuncacee, Pistia, and Sparganium, the first one to eight foliage-leaves
develop in the same way as the cotyledon, z.e., each is terminal to the stem-
segment and dominant over it, Reasons are given for thinking that this structure
does not necessarily represent a reduction due to the aquatic habit,

If these first few terminal foliage-leaves are homologous with the cotyledon, as
is obvious, they must also each be formed by fusion of two opposite leaves, as is
supposed to be the case with the terminal cotyledon. Yet it must be conceded
that they are similar in every character save position to the remaining (lateral)
foliage-leayes of the plant. Hence it is highly improbable that the first and the
later formed foliage-leaves should be so different in origin; and it is little short
of absurd to suppose that the typical foliage-leaf of a Monocotyledon repre-
sents in origin a compound, while that of a Dicotyledon represents a simple
organ. Yet this is the logical consequence of the fusion theory as advocated by
Miss Sargant.

Anatomy.

The primitive Angiosperm probably possessed a scattered system of vascular
bundles in its stem, due to possession of large leaves; these probably grew indi-
vidually in size by means of secondary thickening. Many Dicotyledons show
rudiments of this scattered arrangement in their stems in the form of medullary
bundles; where it has vanished from the stem it often persists in the leaf-petioles.
This ancestral character could not possibly be exhibited by the seedling, owing
to the kind of space-relationships prevailing and absence of large leaves at that
stage. The argument from ontogeny is therefore useless in this connection.

The bisymmetry of the vascular structure of the cotyledon of Anemarrhena,
as pointed out by Miss Sargant, is due to the cotyledon being terminal, not to
its being the result of fusion of two organs. The structure of the cotyledon of
Eranthis is due to the same fact.

Floral Structure,

Pleiomery is the primitive character in the flower, at least as regards
the sporophylls. In those orders in which pleiomery obtains—cy., Palme,

1908, 3N

914, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

Alismacee, Ranunculacee, Magnoliacew, Polygonacee, &c.—trimery also occurs
in one form or another; pentamery is a later character derived by fusion of two
trimerous whorls accompanied by elision of a single member.

The correct interpretation of the Monocotyledonous group lies in the assigning
to it of an intricate combination of primitive and reduced characters.

Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons run into each other at all points, and are
intimately allied. They both spring from a common ancestor, and it is the
characters of this latter to which the foregoing remarks apply.

2. A Note on the Morphology of Endosperm.
By Professor H. H. W. Pearson, Se.D.

The origin of the Welwitschia endosperm from the fusion of potentially
sexual nuclei was briefly described.

Such an endosperm is morphologically distinct from the prothallus of the
lower gymnosperm. It is proposed to distinguish it by the term ‘ trophophyte.’

The relations between the trophophyte of Welwitschia and the endosperm of
the angiosperm were discussed.

3. The Primary Wood of Lepidodendron and Stigmaria.
By Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc.

The primary wood of Lepidodendron, like that of most Lycopodiales, shows
a centripetal development, the protoxylem elements being found in definite
groups at the periphery of the stele. In some cases, e.g., in Lepidodendron
esnotense, figured by Renault, and in J. Pettycurense, recently described by
Kidston, the stele is composed of a solid mass of wood (protostele), while in one
form at least, L. selaginoides, the woody mass at the centre is interspersed with
parenchymatons elements, a condition of things which may well have led on to
the typical siphonostele such as is found in L, Harcourti.
As is well known, the typical Stiymar'a, the underground organ supporting
the Lepidodrendron-stem, po-sesses a siphonostele with centrifugal primary
wood, a condition which it is difficult to imagine to be primitive. At the York
meeting of the Association, at which [ described a Stigmarta with centripetal wood,
similar in some respects with Renault’s Stigmaria Brardi, 1 suggested that the
centrifugal wood so typical of Stigmariz might have been developed by a reduction
of the older centrifugal wood and a substitution of the centripetal primary wood,
on the analogy of the ‘new’ and ‘old’ wood in the Cycadofilices and Cycadales.
But while the occurrence of Stigmarize with centripetal primary wood supports
this theory, a recently discovered Stiymaria seems to indicate that, in some cases
at all events, the normal stigmarian type of primary wood may have been
ditferently formed. In this Stigmaria, in which the stele is comparatively small,
thongh it shows a fair amount of secondary wood, the primary wood is centrifugal
in its development, but instead of surrounding a well-marked medulla, the
central area is filled with a mass of lignified elements resembling the protoxylem
and narrow parenchymatous cells. The arrangement is in close agreement with
that found in L. selaginoides, except that the vascular elements of this central
area are long and narrow instead of short and wide. ‘The stele would therefore
have to be described as a protostele of mesarch type, and by an increase of the
parenchymatous elements and a decrease of the vascular elements it would be

readily converted into a typical stigmarian siphonostele. The arrangement of

the primary wood in this new Stigmaria resembles on an enlarged scale the
primary wood of the creeping stem of Selaginella spinulosa, or the hypocotyl
of S. Kraussiana, except for the admixture of parenchymatous elements amongst
the protoxylem. It is interesting to note that already, before the discovery of
this new specimen, Dr. Scott had drawn attention to the fact that these two

=—— as” es

——e— vr TO

—_—

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 915

Selaginellas agreed with the Lepidodendracew in possessing centrifugal primary
wood in the lower, and centripetal wood in their upper portions. The present
specimens possessing a solid protostele strengthens this comparison.

4. On Bensonites fusiformis, sp. nov., «@ Yossi! associated with Stauropteris
burntislandica, P. Bertrand, and on the Sporangia of the latter. By
Mrs. D. H. Scort, /. ZS.

A description was given of some curious spindle-shaped bodies, first observed by
Miss Benson in petrified material from the Lower Carboniferous formation of
Burntisland.

They are found in close association with Stauropteris burntislandica. The
author discussed their nature and inclined to the view that they are glandular
structures belonging to the Stawropteris.

The sporangia ot S. burntistandica were also described. One sporangium was
found to contain germinating spores.

This, with the two examples already described by Dr. Scott, makes the third
appearance of germinating spores amongst this group of plants.

d. The Structure of Sigillaria scutellata, Brongn.
By E. A. Neweut Arser, M.A., and Hucn H. Tuomas, B.A.

A full account of the structure of stems belonging to the Rhytidolepis
section of the Eusigillarie has not hitherto been given. In 1906, a grant from
the British Association enabled us to procure several beautiful specimens from
the Lower Coal Measures of Shore-Littleborough, in Lancashire. ‘The characters
of the ribs of one of them agree exactly with those of the impressions known as

Sigillaria scutellata, Brongn.

The characteristic points in its structure are as follows: The stele has a
medullary cavity, surrounded by a continuous ring of scalariform tracheides—the
primary wood. The outer margin of this ring is crenulated, and the protoxylem
elements lie at the apices of the blunt, rounded teeth of the corona. The
secondary xylem forms a band of radially arranged, scalariform tracheides.

A well-developed band of phelloderm is found near the surface of the ribs.
This is regarded as having arisen on the inner side of a meristematic zone; no
definite cambial layer is, however, found.

The ribs are really formed of cortical tissues, and not of fused leaf-bases. They
consist largely of phelloderm, and external to this there is a narrow zone of tissue
which is probably the primary cortex. The ribbing of the stem in the Eusigillarive
seems entirely independent of the form and arrangement of the leaf-bases,

The presence of a ligule-pit and ligule has been detected for the first time in
petrified specimens. The course of the leaf-traces in the cortical tissues exhibits
interesting features. In the leaf-bases, the trace contains a double xylem
strand, the two xylem groups being widely separated. The structure of the trace
is almost identical with the foliar bundle of the leaf described by Scott as
Sigillariopsis sulcata, which is obviously simply a leaf of a Eusigillarian stem.

The parichnos increases greatly in size as we pass inwards from the exterior
of the stem. The two strands further unite, first below, then above the trace
so that at a deep level in the’periderm the trace is completely surrounded by a
broad zone of this tissue.

1 Published in extenso in Annals of Botany, October 1908.
3N 9

916 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

6. Notes on the Life History of Hematococcus lacustris,
By M. Witson, B.Sc.

This unicellular alga is characterised by the possession of hematochrom in
various amounts, as well as the ordinary chlorophyll of the cell. While the
motile cells are often largely green, the immotile resting cells are red, and these
alone can withstand drying. A culture of resting cells in 0-1 per cent. Knop’s solu-
tion gave motile cells partly green and partly red, and eventually entirely green
motilecells. This culture was killed on drying. In a more dilute solution the
motile cells were at first green, but as the food became exhausted successive
generations became partially, and at last completely, red. A portion of a green
culture added to a large bulk of water produced red cells after some days.
With increasing strength, above 0:2 per cent., the cells were motile for a shorter
and shorter time, and eventually passed into the non-motile green condition. In
a one-per-cent. solution division occurred, but the daughter cells never escaped,
and no further development ensued. In solutions above one per cent. no division
took place, and the cells remained completely red.

The size of the cells varies with the concentration of the food substance,
being greatest in distilled water and becoming less in successively higher strengths
of Knop’s solution. In other salt solutions, however, size is not proportional to
the osmotic pressure, so that it cannot be supposed that the osmotic factor is the
only one at work.

Palmella-like masses of cells are produced in all cultures in Knop’s solution,
from 0°5 per cent. to nearly one per cent., and also in cultivations on damp, porous
tiles.

One-per-cent. Knop’s solution is about the highest concentration in which the
cells will grow. In considerably higher concentrations they die.

a eee

PRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.—+PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 917

Section L.-EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

PresipeNr oF THE SectiIoN.—Professor L. C. Mraut, D.Sc., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, SHPTEMBER 3.
The President delivered the following Address :—

Useful Knowledge.

I propose to speak to you about useful knowledge, and you will, I think, admit
the importance and the appropriateness of the subject. But you may be
surprised that I venture upon so wide a theme. For my part, I maintain that the
extent of a subject gives no notion, however vague, of the time required to
discuss it. If you have a quarter of an hour and a sheet of paper you may
employ them with about equal probability of success in delineating a hand’s
breadth of greensward, or the British Isles, or the whole world. Bossuet handled
universal history from his own point of view in a volume of no more than
six hundred octavo pages, and Buffon! remarks, quite truly, that every subject, no
matter how vast, can be treated in a single discourse. You will observe with satis-
faction that I deny myself the commonest and most plausible excuse for an unduly
prolonged address; that, I mean, which pleads the magnitude of the subject.

I do not wish to exaggerate the importance of useful knowledge. It is not
everything, nor yet the highest thing in education. There are things which we
rarely mention in a British Association section, and which are perhaps best left
undiscussed, except where there is entire sympathy between speaker and hearer ;
some of these stand above useful knowledge of every kind. But the fact that
useful knowledge occupies nearly all the school-time shows its practical import-
ance, and disposes us to welcome any means of making it more effective.

Book-learning.?

The knowledge of books may be an excellent form of useful knowledge ; it
may also, when it strives merely to record and remember, be unproductive and
stupefying. Let me give you an example, by no means an unfavourable one, of
the book-learning which becomes sterile for lack of method andaim. My example

! Discours a Académie.

2 In the preparation of this Address I have been’ much embarrassed by the
inexactness of the terms used to denote different studies. Some, such as science,
literature, &c., include both process and product, which is as if we had but one
name for weaving and cloth. The accepted names of the divisions of knowledge
are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive ; they are not so much logical terms
as names of occupations, each of which might well occupy one man’s time. We
acquiesce in such anomalies because we feel the need of brief and comprehensive
expressions, and find that bad definitions are not so intolerable as cumbrous and
unfamiliar terms,

918 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

shall be the elder Pliny, Pliny the naturalist, who lost his life in an eruption of
Vesuvius, and whose many virtues were piously described by his nephew, Pliny
the younger. The elder Pliny wrote a voluminous Natural History, and left
behind him 160 books of unused extracts. His appetite for reading was
insatiable. Reading filled all the hours which could be spared from public
duties or snatched from sleep. Once, when a friend interrupted the reader to
correct a mispronunciation, Pliny asked, ‘Did you not understand?’ ‘ Yes.’
‘Then why did you interrupt? You have made us lose ten lines.’ The Natural
History compiled during years of such reading is wholly uncritical ; any testimony
is good enough for the most improbable story. We lookin vain for interpretation,
combination, or inference. The facts are indeed rudely sorted, usually according
to subjects, but sometimes alphabetically. The chief use of Pliny’s Natural
History has been to promote the fabrication of more books of the same kind.

Pliny, with his unlimited appetite for knowledge and his very limited power
of using it, mighteseem to have been taken as a pattern by scholars. Like him,
they have amassed knowledge in heaps. It has been the ambition of many
scholars to read eyerything that was worth reading, and to fill great volumes
with the imperfectly digested fragments.

In the ages of learning, the schoolmaster too became a pedant. His chief
duty he supposed to consist in furnishing his boys with knowledge which they
might some day want. If it were not that Nature has endowed schoolboys with
a healthy power of resistance, their memories might have come to resemble the
houses of those who believe that whenever they throw a thing away they are
sure to want it again—houses in which room after room is so packed with
antiquated lumber as to be uninhabitable.

The Renaissance called up men who made a vigorous protest against unused
learning. Rabelais put into grotesque Latin his opinion that the most learned
scholars may be far from the wisest of men.' Montaigne said over again in
pointed phrases what common-sense people had been saying for ages, that he who
knows most is not always he who knows best; that undigested food does not
nourish ; that memory-kuowledge is not properly knowledge at all.? Erasmus
wondered at the practical ignorance of the scholars of his own days— Incredibile
quam nihil intelligat litteratorum vulgus.’ Locke refused the name of knowledge
to book-learning ; real knowledge, he held, was mental vision. In the educated
man he valued virtue, wisdom, and breeding (manners), ranking them in this
order ; learning came last of all.°

Happily for us, a great deal that we once knew and might foolishly wish to
keep quickly fades from the memory. I picture to myself a stream gliding past,
and bearing along a miscellany of facts any of which may possibly be useful at
some future time. Now and then we stretch out a hand and grasp something
which takes our fancy. In nine cases out of ten we drop it immediately. Only
a small fraction of the knowledge which enters the mind of an inquisitive person
is kept for so long as a month.

What we remember so greatly exceeds what we can use that we need not
deeply regret the loss that is always going on. When people expiain to us how
much valuable substance is wasted by want of care in selecting and preparing our
food, I reflect that all of us consume twice or thrice as much food as we can do
any good with, and then I am consoled. It is not nearly so necessary to know
more things as to know them better, to know what to do with them.

No doubt we often find it necessary to recall a multitude of small facts, in
order, it may be, to elicit a general conclusion or to produce a telling argument.
But is it wise to prepare years in advance by storing all the facts in the memory ?
I cannot think so. ‘lhe study of the bodies of animals teaches us that muscle and

1 ‘Magis magnos clericos non sunt magis magnos sapientes’ (Frere Jean des
Entommeures in Gargantua, i. 39).

2 Hssais, i. xxv.

* Rabelais, Montaigne, and Locke have been collated by Quick in his edition of
the Thoughts concerning Education.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 919

nerve, which are easily fatigued and require an abundant blood-supply, are never
employed in Nature where bone or tendon will serve. Exercise of the memory
involves nervous strain, and after an early age a considerable nervous strain. It
is more economical and more business-like to employ mechanical contrivances
rather than brain-tissue for such purposes, to leave the vast mass of useful facts in
grammars, dictionaries, and text-books, and to collect those for which we have a
present use in the notebook or the card-index. ‘There is ancther appliance which
the serious student finds almost as useful as the notebook or the card-index—
I mean the waste-paper basket.

The history of learning warns us that it is not good to lay up in our memories
a great store of knowledge whose use lies far in the future. Apply to knowledge
what moralists tell us about money. It is only the money that you may expect
to put to use within a reasonable time that does you any good, and the same holds
true of knowledge. Unused knowledge, like unused money, becomes corrupt.
Uncritical, ill-mastered knowledge is at its best a knowledge of useful things,
which, as Hazlitt points out,’ is not to be confounded with useful knowledge.

If I felt it necessary to show that all book-learning is not futile, I might dwell
upon the great subjects of languages and history. But you will gladly allow me
to pass on to branches of useful knowledge with which 1 am more familiar.

Science.

It is the function of science to produce verifiable knowledge. Science achieved
her earliest successes by investigating the simplest properties of tangible things—
number, form, uniform motion. Here she Jearned how to combine the knowledge
of many concrete facts into general statements, which (to the confusion of thought)
we call scientific Jaws. Science applies her general statements to new cases, using
facts to make general statements, and general statements to discover or verily
facts, so that a considerable part of scientific knowledge is in perpetual use.
Science is no longer content with the study of simple properties and tangible
things. She will consider facts of every kind as soon as she can find the time.
There is no hope of withdrawing from scientific treatment any kind of experience
which the human senses or the operations of the human mind furnish ; to be safe
from the inroads of science you must betake yourself to some study which does
not meddle with facts.

Generalisation involves incessant reference of effects to their causes. Facts
can only be ill-classified and superficially generalised so long as the causes of the
facts remain uninvestigated. Science of any good kind sets up, theretore, the
habit of methodical inquiry and the habit of reasoning—productive reasoning, we
might call it, to distinguish it from the reasoning of the schools. The best
examples of productive reasoning are to be found in the investigations of science,
and especially of those experimental sciences which deal with simple tangible
objects, whose properties can be studied one at a time.

The virtues of science are exactness, impartiality, candour. Scientific impar-
tiality means the determination to accept no authority as binding except the assent
of all competent persons. Scientific candour means perpetual readiness to revise
opinions which are held in respect. Loyalty, except of one kind, loyalty to
herself, science has no use for and does not cultivate.

I think it is true, but you can judge as well asI, that during the last four cen-
turies there has been no generator of useful knowledge at all comparable with
science.

Spencer's Estimate of the Place of Science in Education.

Herbert Spencer has raised the question: What knowledge is of most worth ?
He considers knowledge in its bearing on life and health, on the gaining of a
livelihood, on citizenship, on artistic production and enjoyment ; lastly, as a means
of discipline. The answer which he gives under each head is ‘Science’; that is
his verdict on all the counts. A decision so clear, which is, moreover, powerfully

' Round Table, ‘ Classical Education,’

920 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

and even eloquently supported, cannot fail to be impressive. It is naturally
welcome to those who are devoted to the cause of science, and we can all see that,
if accepted, it will simplify many troublesome questions. Will it not guide us in
choosing a school staff, in drawing up a curriculum, in fixing the future occupa-
tions of our children ?

But we must first scrutinise the verdict itself. Let us begin by putting a
preliminary question so as to remove all risk of ambiguity. Who or what is to
possess the knowledge whose worth is to be estimated? Spencer seems to con-
tend that for everybody and uuder all possible circumstances science is that
knowledge which is most valuable, but this is a conclusion hard to receive. There
are persons who are intellectually unfit to acquire the scientific habit of mind, or
who follow an occupation incompatible with any but a light and recreative study
of science. Suppose that a youth is wholly uninterested in science ; or that after
fair trial he shows no capacity for it ; or that he is eager to become a poet ; or that
he will inherit a lucrative business in which science plays no part ; would not
these propensities and circumstances modify our choice? I cannot believe that
Spencer was so unpractical as to deny them any weight at all. is it possible that
he was thinking of mankind, of the British nation, or of some other large collection
of men; that it is to the nation or the race that science will prove itsclf of most
worth? If this is the right interpretation, we have some ground for blaming
Spencer's neglect to mention so important a qualification. ‘Those who admit that
the nation requires scientific knowledge beyond knowledge of any other kind are
not compelled to maintain that the individual man must give his chief attention
to science. A minute division of labour, intellectual as well as manual, is neces-
sary in modern life, and we become every day more dependent upon other people’s
knowledge. An elementary knowledge of many sciences, such as Spencer valued
and himself possessed, steadily becomes less attainable, and less applicable to real
business ; less attainable, because the standard is always rising ; what was a respect-
able acquaintance with science inthe days when Spencer was educating himself
would now be thought no better than a smattering; less applicable, because
business now requires and commands the science of experts. The instances which
used to be quoted half a century ago of workmen who attended a course of
chemistry in a mechanics’ institute, and straightway suggested improvements in~
the manufacturing processes upon which they were engaged, have become rare,
and will soon disappear altogether. Lusiness demands the very best science that
the age can supply, and it can afford to pay high enough to get it. Obviously the
best knowledge of any kind can only be possessed by a few. ‘

Spencer seems to expect that every intelligent mother should enjoy a knowledge
of human physiology which will be a sufficient practical guide for the rearing of a
family, but here, too, I have my doubts. Sixce the first publication of his essay
the requirements of human physiology have risen in a surprising degree. The
knowledge that can be got by reading even so admirable a text-book as ‘ Huxley’s
Lessons’ does not nearly suffice for the practical adviser. On this point I can
speak with experience. When I was preparing for biological work I dissected the
human body, took out courses in physiology, and walked the hospital. But this
tincture of professional knowledge, though better than that which any elementary
or secondary school could supply, has never proved applicable, except to the
least serious of emergencies. A little knowledge may indeed be dangerous when
it is applied to the diagnosis of disease or to sanitary construction.

Those who agree with me that the science which is applicable to industry or to
public health is steadily growing harder cf attainment will not, I hope, turn this
into an argument for restricting the study of science to a few. The elementary
science of the school, if good of its kind, is valuable for its effect upon the cha-
racter and the intelligence ; it is necessary for the timely discovery of young people
who can be trained to carry on scientific discovery ; and it engenders a sympathy
with science which is of high importance to the State. If the science of the
school does no more than make the phenomena of everyday life a little more
comprehensible and a little more interesting, it will fully justify itself.

Spencer would, I feel sure, have admitted that even when science is to be the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 921

chief occupation of after-life, it should not occupy more than part of a well-
ordered course of school-study. ‘The chemist or physiologist often requires to
express his own meaning by speech or writing; it will be highly advantageous
that he should express it clearly and vigorously. He must get effective command
of at least one foreign language. He ought to know enough mathematics and
drawing to make his own calculations and sketches. He ought to have learned
how to use books. Spencer does not exclude literature and the fine arts from
education, but in his scheme they are not to claim very much. ‘As they occupy
the leisure part of life, so should they occupy the leisure part of education.’

I do not suppose for a moment that this passage was written with the inten-
tion of pouring contempt upon literature, and it is really appropriate to the
current fiction which to-day is, and to-morrow is cast into the oven, but what
insensibility to the claims of the higher literature it betrays! ‘On traite volon-
tiers dinutile, says Fontenelle, ‘ce qu’on ne sait point; c’est une espéce de
vengeance,’ !

These considerations move me to reject Spencer's verdict. There is not, and
cannot be, a scale of usefulness by which everybody's choice can be at once deter-
mined. Before deciding what the schoolboy is to study we must inquire what are
his aptitudes, inclinations, and opportunities. And the importance of science,
which I do not think Spencer has exaggerated, will be fully recognised when
every vation and city, every profession and trade, every person and interest, can
be guided as often as need arises, not by their own scientific judgment but by the
judgment of scientific experts,

Preliminary Scientific Medical Studies.

Everyone agrees, in the abstract, that scientific information, the heap of
scientific facts, is a small matter in comparison with scientific method and the
scientific spirit. We do not, it is true, give effect to our convictions in practice.
The teacher of science still loads the memory with facts; the examiner in
science still passes or ploughs according to the quantity of facts that the candi-
dates have got up. it requires an effort to keep hopeful, but we must go on
steadily pointing out what we take to be the right way. ‘The reformers of science-
teaching are now bent upon such improvements as these: they wish to see a
greatly improved synthesis of the student’s knowledge, so that the things that he
learns in one place and from one teacher should be intimately combined with what
he learns in another place and from another teacher. Further, they wish to see a
large extension of personal inquiry and personal verification of the fundamental
scientific facts. It is thus, we think, that the future man of science will become
possessed of a compact and harmonious body of useful knowledge, which may in
favourable cases incorporate with itself the experience of after-life, and exhibit
the incomparable virtue of healthy natural growth.

I will continue the discussion a little further with reference to the great
problem of the scientific education of the medical practitioner, which has occupied
the attention of the scientific world during the whole time of my long professor-
ship, and still seems far from permanent settlement. Medicine is at present our
one great scientific profession. It brings science into the daily life of every one of
us, and employs it for the protection of some of our dearest interests. The scien-
tific basis of medical knowledge should be sound, compact, well-mastered, and, if
possible, productive. I will go on to consider what it actually is, forming my
opinion upon thirty years of experience in teaching elementary science to medical
students.

Let me begin by making a concession to those who think that things are pretty
well as they are. Remembering distinctly what the medical student was thirty
years ago and more, I find that the tirst-year’s university student of medicine at
the present day is in all respects a better man, more serious, more enlightened,
more capable. I find too that his preliminary scientific course seems to do him
real good. It is far from perfect, but it is a great improvement upon anything

! Dr. Duncan's Zife furnishes proof of the slightness of Spencer's obligations to
literature,

922 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

that existed in the remote days when I was myself a first-year’s medical student. The
labours of the last thirty or forty years have not, in my opinion, been thrown away.

Nevertheless the preliminary scientific studies of the medical man are far from
being as effective as they ought to be. Much of his time and effort are spent in
laying up heaps of knowledge for which he is expected to find a use at some
distant day. The items of scientific knowledge still require to be firmly bound
together, and indissolubly associated with professional ideas and with professional
exigencies. It is only close association with the work of the practitioner that
can keep his knowledge alive.

The preliminary scientific course should give practice in the methods of
chemistry, physics, and biology. It should prove by definite evidence characteristic
scientific truths. Lastly, it should be closely related to medical practice. Looking
round for an inquiry which will satisfy these conditions, one inevitably thinks of
the teaching of Pasteur, which is now recognised as fundamental in medicine,
surgery, and hygiene. Is it possible to give the future medical practitioner a firm
grip of that teaching? I think it is. The first part of the preliminary scientific
year I should treat as preparatory. It ought to acquaint the student with the
methods which chemistry, physics, and biology employ for the establishment or
the criticism of scientific statements. Methods of detecting and estimating; of
observing small indications; of drawing; of recording results; of putting ques-
tions and bending the mind to their solution, should receive particular attention.
The multifarious learning of the text-books should be put aside in order that
undivided attention may be give to investigation and proof. I would leave it to
the teachers concerned to supply the appropriate training, and to certify that it
had been got. The latter part of the same year might be concentrated upon the
close study of a very few of those agents which set up fermentation and putrefac-
tion and contagion, A simple practical examination would test the reality of the
knowledge of ferments actually gained; I can only hope that the examiners would

not expect encyclopedic knowledge, This is not the place for the discussion of
details,

Technical Education.

Of technical learning I must say but little, and that little must be said with
reserve. For my only acquaintance with the subject is indirect, and arises
from long connection with a city and university where technical education is
prominent. I hope not to express presumptuous opinions on a kind of useful
knowledge which [ know so superficially.

Technical education may be pursued in at least three ways: (1) We may seek
to qualify the pupil for his calling by a thorough training in some science or art,
and then, by the application, under the guidance of an expert, of that science or
art to a particular industry, The experience of at least two generations seems to
show that this method is really effective ; it does what it professes to do. (2) The
second method aims at no more than supplying information directly applicable to
the industry in question. Surely this is the least profitable of the three. The
information is not accurately lodged, either in the memory or in the note-books of
the students; it soon becomes obsolete in consequence of the advance of know-
ledge ; and it does little to cultivate intelligence or the power of doing. Where
intelligence and the power of doing already exist, mere information may be
valuable, but the best storehouse of information is the printed book. (3) Lastly,
we may aim at nothing more than facility by repetition. Such practical arts as read-
ing, writing, drawing, needlework, and cookery are largely acquired by imitation
and constant practice. Skill in these arts is a tool, whose profitable application
depends much upon the intelligence and enterprise of the possessor. Independent
attempts to meet difficulties, friendly criticism of these attempts, questioning
about the causes of failure, are the expedients which a wise and experienced
teacher, ever at hand, would employ. Such a teacher is of course rarely to be
had, but is now and then found in a sensible mother. Perhaps the best substitute
for the sensible mother would be plain, practical lessons on elementary science,
such as the Kdgeworths, Dawes, and Henslow used to give,

oe

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 923

Literature.

Literature differs from most kinds of useful knowledge in having an immediate
value. Like beautiful scenery, health, liberty, friendship, and other felicities of
life, it is good in itself, apart from the advantages which it brings. Nevertheless,
literature is not satisfied with delighting. Like architecture, it aims at utility as
well as beauty, and employs its power of delighting to instruct and guide.

The benefits which we receive from literature are comparable with those which
we receive from good society. We are expected to enjoy and appreciate; we are
not to be for ever asking : ‘ What have I got that I can carry away?’ Literature
may be more than good society ; it may compare with the intimate talk on grave
subjects of a wise and high-minded friend. Unfortunately those whose office it is
to introduce us to literature often treat it as if it were only a particular sort of
useful knowledge. They occupy our attention so completely with grammar,
metre, etymology, and historical allusions that we have no leisure to enjoy and
appreciate. Dr. Bain! tells us that we need to be indoctrinated in points of style
before we begin to read on our own account, and discourages the reading of entire
plays of Shakespeare because we come across long passages which yield no marked
examples of either grammar or rhetoric.

I have little fear that the scientific age which is now upon us will be perma-
nently hurtful to literature. No new Lucretius, it may be, will write on the
Universe, no new Milton on the Creation and the Fall. But contemplative and
lyrical poetry will survive all changes in our philosophy. The higher criticism,
which is the study of life as well as of letters, will survive too. One literary art,
the art of rhetoric, may be weakened and lost when the scientific spirit becomes
predominant—that sort of rhetoric, 1 mean, which may be fitly described as
insincere eloquence. Rhetoric seeks above all to persuade, and in a completely
scientific age men will only allow themselves to be persuaded by force of reason.
Hyen in our imperfectly scientific age those men gain most by speech who have
something important to say, who say no mordé than they know, and who use all
possible plainness.

It will be enough for my present purpose if we can agree that literature has
an aim and purpose of its own, and must not be treated simply as a brauch of
useful knowledge. Literature and science, for instance, are incommensurable,

The Necessity of Choosing.

It is an intellectual luxury to run over the kinds of useful knowledge that we
should like to possess. Among them come languages, ancient and modern, some
giving access to high literature, some yielding historical or scientific information,
some acquainting us with communities or modes of thought very unlike our own.
Then come a multitude of sciences, which perhaps show the engineer how to build
railway bridges, or tell the navigator how to cross the Atlantic, or help us to im-
prove our health and lengthen our lives. I barely mention history, geography,
and innumerable practical arts. We seem to be led into a well-filled treasury, and
invited to say what we will have. But one unpleasant condition is laid down;
we may choose what we please, but we must pay for it. A new study generally
means outlay of money, and always means outlay of time. We soon find ourselves
forced to behave like the man whose wife has tempted him into a fine London
shop ; like him, we begin to ask: ‘ How much can I afford to spend here ?’

Every headmaster and headmistress is occupied with the eternal question how
to make room for all the things that are demanded of the school. Theorisers, who
have no responsibility for the time-table, insist from time to time upon new addi-
tions, and are happy if they can only express their own opinions with an emphasis
which satisfies their sense of justice. It is my opinion that far too much has
already been conceded to demands which, reasonable when taken separately, are
unreasonable when taken together. I have known the time-table of a girls’ school
overloaded to such a point that in one form chemistry and English literature got

1 On Teaching English, p. 18,

G94 FRANSACTIONS Of SECTION 1.

no moré than an holit a week between them, The headmistress no doubt hated
the arrangement, but had to conform.

T have said that the grounds for introducing each separate subject are often
perfectly reasonable. Thus by ancient usage Latin is made a necessary subject in
cettain schools. Then a claim is put in for Greek as more interesting and equally
important. French and German demand admission, and put forward claims
which can hardly be overstated, The result is that some boys in secondary
schools attempt four languages, and many attempt three. Then we usually find
that no foreign language, ancient or modern, is mastered to the point at which it
can be used in reading, writing, or conversation. Our wish to be fair and con-
sistent has landed us in an absurdity. The root of the whole difficulty lies in the
fact that while there are perhaps fifteen or twenty branches of knowledge emi-
nently fit to be taught in school, no pupil can profitably undertake more than five ©
or six at a time. The man of business who is inveigled into a shop is better
able to resist importunity than the schoolmaster. He will say: ‘ If you insist upon
the drawing-room table, you must go without the chest of drawers; if you insist
upon the chest of drawers, you must go without the drawing-room table.’ I wish
that the headmaster or headmistress might find courage and strength to require
that every subject admitted to the curriculum should come round frequently, at
least for two or three years; as nearly as may be once a day, but we cannot be
rigid in these matters.

The sciences taught in school may spoil one another’s chances in the same way.
Not a few schools are convinced that they must have chemistry and physics
because of their industrial importance, hygiene because of its relation to the
health of the community, physiology to make the hygiene intelligible. The school-
boy is made to buy more sciences than he can pay for, and his time is gone before
he reaps any of the advantages which are so much desired.

Too Much and too Long.

One inevitable result is that the school hours, including the preparation of
lessons, are nearly always too long. Another result is that the schoolboy who is
willing, but not very clever, is often overworked, I haye known many such cases
myself, and have also known cases in which excellent results have been attained
in a good deal less than the customary time. If we could consent that our pupils
should remain ignorant of many useful things, if we could materially shorten the
lessons of very young pupils, and if we could bring the home-lessons into much
mae compass, I believe that the education which we offer would really be more
valuable.

Natural and Artificial Education.

If we had a pupil put into our hands for solitary instruction, like the Emile
of Rousseau, we should find it wise to begin by studying him closely, and three
things would particularly require attention—his aptitudes, his inclinations, his
opportunities. The first two are self-explanatory, but the word opportunities may
present some difficulties. It includes, of course, opportunity of learning, but the
chief stress is to be laid upon opportunity of exercise in after-life. This is the
opportunity which stimulates interest and rewards exertion. Moral character,
intellectual character, curiosity, love of knowledge, equipment for practical life,
and, so far as I can see, all considerations which ought to govern the choice of a
study, come under one or other of the three requisites—aptitude, inclination,
opportunity.

In school we have not so much solitary pupils as groups of pupils to consider,
and this compels us to accept compromises, which are familiar to every teacher.
We have often to study the wants of a school-form as well as the wants of an
individual.

Some writers have given to the education which considers first of all aptitude,
inclination, opportunity the name of Natural Education, while that which makes
its choice of studies on abstract or arbitrary grounds, with little reference to the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 925

needs of the pupil, they call Artificial Education,» We may be allowed to revive
these terms for the sake of brevity. To me they seem appropriate as well as con-
venient in practice.

The advocates of natural education have sometimes reached absurdity by
pressing the claims of one of the three requisites to the neglect of the rest.
Tolstoy would make inclination supreme, even in early education. He exempli-
fies Quick’s remark that writers on the school-course who are not schoolmasters
are almost all revolutionary. Others have attended too exclusively to the oppor-
tunity of future exercise. The old grammar schools, thinking much of the future
wants of the pupils who might wish to enter the Church, often added Hebrew to
the compulsory Latin and Greek, Fortification was frequently taught to little boys.
When the Berlin Realschule was founded (1747) it offered, among other things,
a in the rearing of silkworms and the discrimination of ninety kinds of
eather. :

Nothing, I think, gives us a clearer notion of what natural education can
accomplish under favourable circumstances than foreign travel, which is a form
of self-education prescribed by grown-up people to themselves. Even the milder
forms of compulsion are wanting here; aptitude, inclination, and opportunity are
everything. The preparation, the actual journey, and the recollections yield
abundance of instruction to those who use them well. For weeks before setting
out the traveller will turn over maps and conversation-books, inquire about handy
cameras or collecting-boxes, and study the country which he is about to visit
with an eagerness which he never felt before. The journey itself, if only it be
such a journey as an active mind will frame, cannot but call forth many powers,
physical, intellectual, and moral, that are rarely exercised at home. The love of
science, the love of languages, the love of scenery, the love of adventure, the love
of society, the love of poetry, all get a new stimulus. And the journey, already
profitable in anticipation and in execution, is not exhausted when we return
home. Our experiences in unfamiliar countries vivify many a page of history and
many a scrap of useful knowledge which would have heen otherwise languidly
remarked or passed by altogether. Some years ago I had occasion to read the travels
in the Levant of old Belon, a French naturalist of the sixteenth century. Though
I had a purpose in reading them, they made no impression, and after afew months
nothing survived but some pages of dry and unprofitable notes. Then I visited
the Greek Archipelago myself, and one of the things that I made a point of doing
when I came back was to read Belon again. I found it an entirely new book,
full of curious and valuable observations. Now I dwelt with keen interest on
his account of the various nations which had made settlements in the Archi-
pelago, on the Greek language, on the Cretan customs of wine-drinking, on the
fishes and birds, and on a hundred other details which had seemed totally un-
interesting before I visited the eastern end of the Mediterranean.

Let us suppose that all is done, not dy the traveller, but for him, that routes
are chosen, hotel-bills paid, carriages and boats hired, languages interpreted,
information supplied, all without effort on his part. In a few months he will
barely remember what places he has seen and what he has passed by. This may
remind us that natural education is only kept alive by doing.

Of course the grown-up person is not like a child, and_there is need of steady
and impartial government, of drilJ, in short, if the child is to take all the pains
that are indispensably necessary in school-work. All our teaching cannot be
recreative. Does not this show, some of you will say, that your natural educa-
tion is inadequate, and that a sterner thing, which takes little or no account of
inclination, is demanded in school ?

I think not. I think that inclination is a power that we ought to employ as
often and as far as we can. No doubt it is inadequate; our very definition makes
inclination only one of three requisites. The child at school may usefully remind
us that the opportunity of future exercise in some cases becomes necessity, and
will take no denial. Nevertheless all three should be considered, and that teacher

‘ See, for example, Henry Sidgwick in Essays on a Liberal Edueation (1887).

926 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION tL.

will prosper best who lets none of them drop out of sight. Do not forget,
too, that inclination is the modifiable requisite; we can stimulate, and even create
it; we can also fatally discourage it. It is only natural education, I still maintain,
which can count upon the energetic co-operation of the child.

On the other hand, if we ignore aptitude, inclination, and opportunity—if we
pour out information upon which the pupil does no work, merely because we
think it ought to be good for him, then we have a dull, perhaps a sullen, mind to
deal with, which neither will nor can learn to good purpose. The example for all
time of artificial education is, or lately was, the setting of every boy in every
grammar school to learn Latin, if not Latin and Greek.

Those who believe that natural education is at once the most formative and
the most productive, that it helps to build up body and mind, that it encourages
the acquisition of truly useful knowledge, should attend to one point which often
escapes notice. Natural education demands leisure for the pupil. At the present —
moment the leisure of the pupil has been reduced to a very small amount indeed.
We strive for efficiency, for good examination results, for knowledge of useful
things. The negligence of the old race of schoolmasters, which winked at
monstrous abuses but allowed a certain independent school-life, has been re-
placed by zeal and conscientiousness, which occupy every hour, and sometimes
treat independent occupations as mere idleness. Long rambles, such as were the
delight of my boyhood, when we used to go miles in search of a wasp’s nest, are
in certain modern schools abolished by compulsory games. Some day or other
(the reform will not come in my time) we shall recognise that the chief occupa-
tion of the young child should be spontaneous natural play.

That interesting book called ‘ Public Education,’ now nearly a hundred years
old, in which we find a description of the methods practised by Rowland Hill and
his brothers at Hazelwood and Bruce Castle, is inspired by the desire to make
education natural and not merely artificial; so is that older and still better book,
‘Edgeworth on Practical Education.’ There are modern English schools which
give fair opportunity for natural education. I pass over some, perhaps many,
out of mere ignorance; but I will name two which I happen to know—Bedales
School and the Friends’ School at Bootham, York, both of which have discovered
how to combine natural education with efficiency.

Heuristic Methods.

Dr. Armstrong’s heuristic method is well known in this section. He tells us
that neither the name nor the thing is altogether new, and the same may be said
of nearly every educational expedient. Promising schemes are proposed, tried
perhaps on a small scale, and dropped, often for lack of enterprise on the part of
the teachers, and years after someone discovers them again. Dr. Armstrong tells
us' where he got the name, and quotes a passage from Edmund Burke, which
clearly describes the method, It is now a good many years since I saw Mr.
Heller give several lessons on this plan in elementary schools in London, and was
then permanently convinced of the real value of the heuristic method. I only
wish that we had a score of such, each worked out as carefully as Dr. Armstrong's
model.

The method need not be confined to experimental science, nor to science at all.
I have attempted something of the same kind in elementary biology. Why should
not teachers of history carry out a little historical research with the help of
an upper form? Suppose that the subject chosen was English town and country
life in the sixteenth century. Harrison's Description of England, Shakespeare's
plays, Walton’s Lives, some of the modern books which collect the testimony of
foreign visitors during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I., Spenser’s View
of the state of Ireland, and Hume Brown’s Scotland before 1700 are, let us
suppose, accessible to the class. Useful materials from these and any other

‘sources might be arranged in a card-index. Co-operation is eminently desirable,

» The Teaching of Scientific Method, &c., 1903, p. 235

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 927

and a little club of pupils might well make their index in common, Then the
materials should be treated in literary form, every detail of literary workmanship
receiving attention. I fully expect to be told that this plan has actually been
tried in some school or other. The historical researches of the school may give
opportunity for the use of foreign languages, for map-drawing, or for the handling
of statistical information.

Mr Greening Lamborn’s ‘School History of Berkshire’! is interesting as an
investigation carried out by and for the boys of an Oxford school. It will be
read in a very different spirit from that with which the condensed school-history
of England is received, and will no doubt suggest more work of the same kind.
The share of the boys may well grow larger and larger,

The advocates of learning by inquiry and learning by doing will descend even
into the nursery. What an opportunity is afforded by toys!—an opportunity
that those who purchase all their children’s toys throw away. Surely every little
girl ought to be encouraged to make plausible dolls out of the rag-bag, every little
boy to make his own menagerie, his own boats and whistles and sledges. Even
the bought toy gives opportunity for inquiry. Ask any child if he has noticed
that the animals of the Noah’s Ark are always thicker at one end, usually the ,
hinder end. ‘here is a reason for this, and a curious reason, which the child may
be helped to discover.

Mastery of Something.

Let us indulge less than we do the passion of intellectual avarice, if only
because avarice blinds us to the relative values of things. The old French
anatomist, Méry, said of himself and his colleagues that they were like the rag-
pickers of Paris, who knew every street and alley, but had no notion of what
went on in the houses. The accumulation of miscellaneous knowledge of useful
things, copious, inexact, inapplicable, may, like rag-picking, leave us ignorant of
the world in which we live. Let us try to reach the inner life of something,
great or small. The truly useful knowledge is mastery. Mastery does not come
by listening while somebody explains; it is the reward of effort. Effort, again,
is inspired by interest and sense of duty. Interest alone may tire too quickly;
sense of duty alone may grow formal and unintelligent. Mastery comes by
attending long to a particular thing—by inquiring, by looking hard at things, by
handling and doing, by contriving and trying, by forming good habits of work,
and especially the habit of distinguishing between the things that signify and
those that do not.

It is too much to expect that mastery will often be attained in school. Schvol
is but a preparation, not I think for promiscuous learning, but for the business of
life. The schoo! will have done its part if in favourable cases it has set a pattern
which will afterwards develop itself naturally and harmoniously,

The following Papers were read :—

1, The Outlook: A Grand Experiment in Education.
By Professor H. E. Armsrronea, 1.2.

2. Education under a Local Authority. By R. Buair, M.A., B.Sc.

I. The London Council became the Local Education Authority for the Admini-
strative County of London on May 1, 1904. The Council not only succeeded
to the powers and duties of the London School Board, but is also required ‘to
maintain and keep efficient all public elementary schools within the area which
are necessary.’ Further the Council, which had previously, under the Technical
Instruction Acts, been responsible for the supply of technical education, was

1 Clarendon Press, 198.

928 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION fi.

entrusted by the Act of 1903 with powers relating to all branches of highet educd=
tion, and was commissioned ‘to supply or aid the supply of education other than
elementary, and to promote the general co-ordination of all forms of education.’

All matters relating to the exercise of their powers under the Education Acts,
except the power of raising a rate or borrowing money, stand referred by statute
to the Education Committee of the Council, and the Council before exercising
any such powers, unless in their opinion the matter is urgent, receive and consider
the report of the Education Committee with respect to the matter in question.
The Council may delegate to the Education Committee any of their powers under
the Education Acts except their power of raising a rate or borrowing money. The
Education Committee is composed of fifty members, of whom thirty-eight are
members of the Council, and twelve co-opted members (including six women). The
powers and duties of the Education Committee are distributed among eleven sub-
committees. The Hducation Committee is assisted by 180 statutory bodies of
managers for provided elementary schools, while the statutory bodies of managers
of non-provided elementary schools number 367. In the management of its own
secondary schools, training colleges, technical institutes, and schools of art, the
Education Committee is assisted by advisory or local sub-committees. The Council
also appoints representatives to serve upon the governing bodies of all schools and
institutions to which it makes grants.

II. Area of the administrative county, 120 square miles; population, 4,795,757.
School rolls: Public elementary, 734,288 ; provided, 566,086; non-provided, 165,620.
Public secondary, 32,010; provided, 3,070; aided, 16,168; non-aided, 12,779.
Technical, 50,800 ; provided, 7,700; aided, 38,600; non-aided, 4,500. Ordinary
evening schools, 121,208. Training colleges, 1,863.

In these figures neither the University of London, the Imperial College of
Technology, nor the Schools of the University are included, although the Council
aids them all.

The Council spends five anda half millions sterling (round figures) on education,
4,500,000/. on elementary, and 1,000,000/. on higher. The receipts amount to
1,750,000/.; the rest of the cost falls on the ratepayer. The education rate is
19d. per pound; a penny rate raises about 185,0002.

The administrative staff consists of 1,000 officers, including 41 inspectors and
28 organisers; and there are 20,000 teachers engaged in some 3,000 schools or
departments of schools of all kinds.

III. The Council purchases sites, designs and erects its own schools, equips the
schools with furniture, desks, books, and apparatus ; supplies fuel and light ; does its
own repairs; engages, pays, trains and affords further training to its own®teachers.

IV. Elementary Schools——Education is free in all public elementary schools
(provided and non-provided). The enforcement of school attendance employs
a large body of officers. With relatively few references to the magistrate the
average school attendance is maintained at 88-9 per cent. of the average roll.

The subjects of instruction, in addition to those usually found in public ele-
mentary schools, include elementary science, nature study, domestic economy,
manual training, physical exercises, swimming, and in certain cases modern
languages. A strong endeavour is made by means of conferences and consultative
committees to secure in the management of the schools the assistance of the expert
views of the 20,000 teachers.

Much attention has been given to medical inspection, a comprehensive system
having been established before the passing of the Education (Administrative Pro-
visions) Act of 1907.

Voluntary funds provide meals for necessitous children,

Some 2,000 of the ablest of the children in the elementary schools annually
receive scholarships, including free education at secondary schools; in the majority
of cases the scholarship holders are assisted by maintenance grants. There are
further scholarship schemes for trade schools and for higher institutions, including
the Universities. For the weakest, medical inspection, For the physically and
mentally defective, special schools, with a roll of 9,000; and for those not under
control there are industrial and reformatory schools.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION tL. 929

Voluntary associations provide play centres, vacation schools, country holidays,
and happy evenings for thousands of London elementary school children.

‘Physical education, including organised games and medical inspection, have
received much attention and are going to receive more. Visits to places of educa-
tional interest are a feature of the school work. Some of the elementary schools
have themselves organised school journeys. The Council has experimented on
open-air schools, A small botanical department supplies to the schools 900,000
plants and other Nature-study specimers per month,

There is an annual requirement of 1,100 elementary teachers. These are in
the main obtained by means of the ‘Collego List,’ a procedure understood to be
special to London. Some eighty head-teachers are appointed annually, according
to a scheme of promotion which begins with consideration of the claims of every
eligible assistant. A scheme for further training brings the practising teachers
into direct contact with the University.

V. Secondary Schools and Training Colleges.—The Council's policy is to pro-
vide or assist in providing secondary education at a moderate fee for those who
are able to avail themselves of it, and to offer the advantages of secondary educa-
tion free of charge to the most promising children from the elementary schools.
As previously shown, the secondary schools of London contain 32,010 pupils,
3,070 in the Council's own secondary schools, 16,158 in aided secondary schools,
and 12,779 in non-aided secondary schools. These numbers include the students
attending the first-grade secondary schools, where the leaving age is approximately
nineteen, but they do not include any pupils in attendance at private secondary
schools,

The cost of secondary schools, scholarships, the training of teachers, and
University education, apart from the administrative staff and loan charges, is esti-
mated at 540,000/. for the present financial year. This sum includes 80,000).
grant to aided schvols, irrespective of scholarships and maintenance of scholarship
holders.

The Council has itself established seven training colleges, with accommodation
for 1,900 students in training.

VI. Technical Education.—The work of polytechnics, technical institutes,
schools of art, science, art, and commercial centres, and ordinary evening schools
is all being co-ordinated. These institutions, apart from their day work, provide
education for 200,000 evening students. The work ranges from repairing the
defects of elementary education to education of a University standard, students
in some of the polytechnics working as exterrals or internals for the degree of the
University of London.

The cost of the Councii’s own technical institutes and schools of art was
53,5417. in the session 1906-7, while in the same session 87,2497. was paid to
aided technical institutions, including the twelve polytechnics. The ordinary
eyening schools cost 135,880/.

3. Special Schools for the Physically Defective and the Mentally Deficient.
By Mrs, E. M. Burewiy.

A report on ‘The Scientific Study of the Mental and Physical Conditions of
Childhood, with particular reference to Children of Defective Constitution, and
with Recommendations as to Education and Training,’ was published in 1895, with
the result that the Lord President of the Council at that time appointed in 1896
a Departmental Committee to inquire into the existing systems for the education
ol feeble-minded and defective children ‘not idiots or imbeciles.’ The owtcome
of the recommendations of this committee was an Act of Parliament which
received the Royal Assent in August 1895, and is known as the Elementary
Education (Detective and Epileptic Children) Act, 1899.

This Bill is permissive only; it gave increased grants from the Imperial
Exchequer, and enabled the education authority putting the Act into force to
retain the children in school until the age of sixteen,

1908, 30

930 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L,

The late London School Board opened its first school for the mentally deficient

in July 1892, and for the physically defective in 1901. There are now eighty-four

schools, with a roll of 6,006 for the mentally deficient, and twenty-eight schools, —

witha roll of 2,255, for the physically defective; these latter are brought to school
in ambulances in charge of trained nurses. The school hours are from 9.30 A.M.
to 3 P.M., with a midday interval of one and a half hours. The premises consist
of light and airy class-rooms, with a corridor hall and kitchen. A good dinner is
provided at a cost of 2d. per head, paid by the parents. The teaching is given by
trained and certificated teachers, the morning session devoted to mental work,
and the afternoon to art and suitable handicrafts.

The mentally deticient attend from 9.30 to 12 a.m., and from 2 to 4 or 1.80 to
3.30 P.M., according to the recommendation of the managers of the schools.

Pupils are admitted to the schools by the London County Council medical
officer, who on examination enters in a book called the ‘Family History’ the

articulars of the child’s ailments, whether mental or physical. The teacher

eeps the ‘class progress’ of the pupil in a separate book for each child. The
truth concerning the family history 1s often very difficult to obtain, especially in
the case of the mentally deticient. All these schools are in charge of the Special
Schools Sub-Committee, consisting of eleven London County Councillors and four
co-opted members.

The aim in teaching the physically defective is to train them to become good
workers, in spite of their infirmity, and for the mentally deficient to develop
intelligence through the motor senses, and so quite three-quarters of their time
is devoted to manual and kindred occupations, with the result that many can
obtain remuneratiye work on leaving school. It is generally estimated that here
and on the Continent one per cent. need this special instruction. The classes in
the special schools consist of boys and girls, but experience shows that the senior
boys are better separated from the junior mixed classes, and so they are now
being taught in separate schools advanced manual work—e.g., woodwork, boot-
making, tailoring, and gardeving (where possible). The Royal Commission’s
Report may give further impetus to this higher training.

The physically defective need expert trade teaching for four years before
leaving school, and the lower-grade mentally deficient permanent custodial care
in a working colony. Only by decreasing consumption can we reduce the numbers
of cripples, and by the segregation of the unfit the numbers of the feebleminded
and insane.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.
The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Report on Studies most suitable for Elementary Schools (with Intro-
ductory Statement by Sir Philip Magnus).—See Reports, p. 495.

2. Discussion on Education in relation to Rural Life.

(i) Education in relation to Rural Lijz, By L. C. Mian, D.Se., ERS.

Special training for the occupations of rural life satisfies the three requisites of
naturaleducation, viz., aptitude, inclination, opportunity. (See Presidential Address
tu the’Section, 1903.) ¢

In the near future the practival applications of biology will demand far more
serious consideration than they receive to-day. The raising of crops, the manage-
ment of gardens, the prevention of insect plagues, the food-supply of the sea,
are obviously of first-rate importance, and a good supply of trained naturalists
competent to advise upon such industries will be fouad essential to the national

ey ee ee ee ee

Se a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 931

welfare. Natural history, which is too often looked upon as no more than an
agreeable recreation, is really one of the great and permanent interests of mankind.

The great difficulty is to secure an adequate training for the practical naturalist
of the future. It is only thorough knowledge which can satisfy the demands of
agriculture and horticulture. First-hand observation, the habit of experiment, and
the power to make quantitative determinations will be found in this as in other
applied sciences to be indispensably necessary.

Elementary instruction in natural history, even when it is offered to the prob-
able inhabitants of large towns, may profitably lead up to such practical pursuits
as horticulture. The natural history will be more real, and intellectually more
valuable, if it is directed towards a practical aim.

At present what may be called labour-saving contrivances are far too popular
in the classes where biology and Nature-study are taught. Of these labour-saving
contrivances pictures and lantern-slides, ready-made preparations (dead, of course),
printed descriptions, museum lectures, &c., are much recommended and employed.
It may safely be said that the knowledge which will help to develop industries is
not to be got by such facile methods.

There are already a few teachers scattered over the British islands who are
taking a more promising course and striving to lead their pupils to see, to handle,
and to think for themselves. Our hopes for the future rest upon the gradual
increase of teachers of this type.

(ii) School Gardens. By Miss Livtan J. Cuarxe, B.Sc. LS,

School gardens looked after entirely by the children have been found most
useful as a means of education. In connection with Nature-study lessons the
following have been proved to be of the utmost value :—

1. Climbing Plants—A convenient arrangement for climbing plants is a
screen made of trellis work or wire netting about six feet high, attached to
wooden uprights at intervals. It is useful to have these screens even when wall
space is available, as children in an outdoor lesson can stand each side of the screen
and draw the various contrivances by means of which plants climb. A good
selection shows plants climbing by twining stems, stem tendrils, leaf tendrils,
petioles, and hooks.

2. Pollination Experiments.—These are especially valuable, as the results of
many of these experiments are not known beforehand. The children find out
what flowers can be self-pollinated by fixing a muslin frame over the plants or
tying up flowers in muslin bags, and thus ascertain what flowers are dependent
on visits of insects for the production of fruit.

3. Fruits especially adapted for dispersal by wind, animals, §c.—It is well to
include in the gardens plauts which have interesting fruits as well as those
which have interesting flowers. Outdoor lessons can be given on the dispersal of
fruits by means of plumes, wings, hooks, &c., aud the children can see which
plants easily spread.

4, Experiments in connection with the Food of Plants.—Experiments can be
made by placing stencils of tinfoil on the leaves of plants growing in the garden,
By means of these the necessity of light for the formation of starch can be shown
in a simple manner, and the children learn how important it is for plants to have
plenty of light. Nasturtium and sunflower leaves are useful in these experiments,
and the plants are easily grown by children.

5. Soil Experiments.—(a) Growing plants year after year in the same soil
without supplying any manure and noting the effect. (6) Inoculating plants,
such as peas, with bacteria, and comparing the crops produced from similar plants
not inoculated. (c) Growing plants in various soils, and noting the effect of the
soils:on the plants and the different treatments required. It is quite easy to grow
plants in chalk, clay, sand, and see the influence of the soil on the life of tha
plant. :

In addition to gardens planned in connection with the Nature-study work the
302

932 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L,

children can own vegetable gardens and learn to grow beans, cabbages, tomatoes,
&c., at very slight cost. ;

A special knowledge of plant life is gained by looking after the various gardens _
mentioned: above, but, as well as this, the children learn incidentally many things %
which will be of value to them in rural life, ;

ie

(iii) The Problem of Rural Education in Irish Primary Schools.
By the Right Rey. Dr. Foury, Bishop of Kildare.

Agriculture should not be regarded as a subject which can be taught in the
primary schools by the ordinary school teachers, All that appears feasible in
this connection is that there should be central schools in which pupils, who _
have gone through the?primary school course, would be taught the principles
involved in agricultural operations by the county agricultural instructor, or by
specially trained teachers under his direction, and working under the supervision
of the department of Agricultural and Technical Instruction.

As regards gardening, much could and should be done in the primary schools ;
and it is satisfactory to know that this was the conclusion unanimously arrived
at by a committee consisting of representatives of the National Board of Primary
Education and of the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction. It
was the general feeling of the committee that a good deal could be done by means
of suitable object-lessons to familiarise the pupils of the primary schools with
natural phenomena, and in this way to prepare their minds for the reception
of technical knowledge, should their circumstances put them in the way of
obtaining it. The first thing required is power to acquire school plots com-
pulsorily; and it is hoped that the Chief Secretary will assist in gaining this
end. Otherwise it will not be possible to introduce the subject of gardening
extensively into the schools of Ireland. These gardens would be of the greatest
service to the rural schools, not merely from the utilitarian point of view, but also
from that of true education, Nothing is better calculated to impart interest and
actuality to the object-lessons in the schools.

The question of the training of the teachers also needs consideration. Although
Ireland is an agricultural country, a school teacher is rarely.met who has any
taste for gardening or agriculture. Hence the work will have to be begun de novo,
and the foundations laid in the training colleges.

(iv) Rural Education. By Grorce FLercurr.

Tt seems desirable to define as clearly as may be the nature of the reform
desired. It should be plainly understood that there is no desire to displace or
supersede the fundamentals of a general education. Indeed, it is less a question
of the introduction of a new subject into the curriculum than the infusion of a
new spirit into the system. So long have we continued to run in the academic
groove that primary education seems to have become a thing somewhat remote
from the lives of those receiving it ; and this want of relation is the more marked
in the case of rural schools. The lesson in geography too often deals with a
foreign country while the pupil remains ignorant of his immediate neighbourhood.
His early steps in art are dogged by the acanthus-leaf—although in this matter
we are mending somewhat—while his problems in arithmetic suggest a Stock
Exchange rather than the countryside.

It may be admitted that the sole test of the fitness of any subject in the
curriculum is its value as an educational agent; but it needs to be recognised
that the commonest things in one’s everyday environment may be made to serve
an educational end. If every school in town and country possessed and utilised
freedom to make its surroundings a means of education the problem would be in :
a fair way to solution. This, however, involves the introduction of the spirit to
which reference has been made, and this cau only come through the teacher. The
problem then, as in so many cases, resolves itself into the question of the training

TRANSACTIONS Of SECTION tu 933

of teachers, In connection with this, it is desirable to urge the value of carefully
arranged summer courses of instruction as a means of aflording supplementary
training of the type in view, for teachers.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.

1. Discussion on Education in Ireland.

(i) Character and Educational Efficiency. By T. P. Git.

This author, while dealing with the general question in the title, referred also to
the situation in Ireland, which is now at a moment of great significance for education.
A new university system is about to be organised, and the country is being called
on to take_stock of her whole educational equipment and to consider the end to
which she wishes it to conduce, The situation is thus one of general as
well as particular interest. What results does the country intend her educational
system to produce? By what means does she propose that the results are to be
produced ? How does she propose to assure herself that she is getting these results ?
In other words, what is to be the aim, the method, and the test of the educational
activity of the nation? It is one of the most practical tasks of the hour in
Ireland to consider these questions, and the answers to them should be known
and understood by the teachers in every school—from the kindergarten to the uni-
yersity—and, if possible, by every parent.

In connection with the aim of a national system of education it is desirable to
examine what is meant by educational efficiency. ~ Efficiency must be considered
(1) from the individual and (2) from the social and national point of view. It must
be all-round efficiency, physical, mental, and moral—aspects closely related yet
distinct inthemselves. It is the business of education to develop allthree. Again,
efliciency is the fitting of the individual (a) to pursue efficiently his calling in life,
his trade or profession, and (4) to be a good man and a good citizen. The profes-
sional, the bread-and-butter efficiency is necessary ; and not only is it necessary to
aim at it in connection with professional or technical education, but from an early
stage in general education it is essential that the pupil should be made to think of
what is to be his calling in life, and how he is best to prepare himself for it. This
object of education, however, must be pursued in such a way as not to eclipse the
higher end of producing the good man and the good citizen. On the contrary, it
must be realised that the practical efficiency itself is impaired in proportion as the
higher end is neglected or lost. sight of. National and individual efficiency in
every country has suffered from this error. So hasnational and individual happi-
ness, Ireland must study to avoid this error.

In connection with methods and tests, the suitability of certain methods and
tests to produce the results aimed at must be considered. The influence of the
test on the method is sometimes so great that it is impossible to separate them.
For instance, the fact that a written examination was imposed by law as the sole
test has fatally governed the whole character of the Irish intermediate system for
nearly two generations, Tests and methods must vary with the things being dealt
with. Physical, mental, and moral things cannot be tested in the same way. The
subject, the circumstances, and the end in view must always be borne in mind in
devising a test or amethod. Moreover, in a test, in considering any one part, we
must provisionally examine the whole—see if all the parts are there and if the
proportions are right. In other words, the time-table, the very vital question of
the disposal of the pupil’s time, must be taken into account. In a test we cannot
look at the individual pupil alone, we cannot judge the pupil apart from the system
and the teacher.

Educational tests may be considered under the three aspects, physical, mental,
and moral. (1) Physical: in connection with the general bodily development of
the pupil, and the effects of bodily health and occupation upon intellectual

934 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

efficiency and moral strength; in connection with manial training; and in
connection with the question in its broadest sense of discipline, order, and
method. (2) Mental: the aim of producing a logically disciplined mind. The end
of testing here is to see that the observing and reasoning faculty is being rightly
trained; that cram is avoided; that observing, thinking, and correlating power is
being developed. (8) Moral: the test here should aim at ascertaining whether
the teachers have the right outlook and influence ; whether the pupil is being really
led on to know, admire, and love the right things ; to understand his duties, private
and public ; to.select true aims in life; to develop a noble individuality. The
importance, in relation to his moral strength and general efliciency, of making the
pupil from an early stage think about his trade, profession, or career in life, and of
thus giving a personal and purpose-like character to his education.

How are these aims being followed or hindered in the Irish educational system
at the present time, and how far is it practicable, by improvements in the methods
of testing or other means, to get them followed more effectively ? How far is the
work of the system in its different branches, primary, intermediate, technical,
agricultural, university, susceptible of development in these directions under
existing machinery ?

(ii) Zhe Correlation of Primary, Secondary, and University Education
in Ireland. By Professor Benzamin Moore, J/.4., D.Sc.

One of the greatest evils in the systems of education in Ireland is the lack of
co-ordination which everywhere exists. Instead of the three systems forming
one interdependent and harmonious whole, each is worked on a separate and
entirely independent plan, so arranged as to prevent one system giving assistance
or support to the others.

The Board of National Education, which controls the national schools, has
entire jurisdiction over the primary system, and in the past has neither sought nor
obtained the assistance of the Universities in thé training of primary teachers or
the supervision of work and examination.

The Intermediate Board, by means of the funds at its disposal, has attained
a similar autocratic and bureaucratic control over almost all the secondary or
intermediate schouls of the country. This Intermediate Board is not in organic
relationship with either the National School system on the one band or the
Universities on the other, and has disastrously isolated the whole secondary
educational system of Ireland.

The Universities have in the past taken no share in moulding and guiding
either the primary or the secondary education of the country, but have confined
themselyes to training students for entrance to one of the so-called learned
professions. The whole nation has suffered from this narrow conception of the
educational work of a university; and also the Universities themselves have
suffered, even in that portion of work they have been attempting, from the defective
preparation of their students at entrance.

The present time when happily two new and modernly equipped universities
are coming into existence in Ireland, appears a suitable moment for considering
how these defects may best be removed.

It may almost be laid down as an axiom that, unless the new Universities
exercise a potent influence on the whole educational system from primary or
national schools upwards, they will fail in carrying out their true functions, and
of accomplishing the great revival in education which the Irish people have a right
to expect, and do expect, from them. ‘The fundamental changes which, it is urged,
are necessary in order to bring the three systems into accord and proper co-ordina-
tion may be briefly summarised as follows :—

Primary or National Education.—The most essential change here is that
the training of the teachers should be placed largely under the control of the
Universities, or of a body on which the Universities are strongly represented.
The teacher in the primary school is the most important teacher in the country, .
for he teaches the most preponderating class of the population, and that from which

d
j

th ia i tile

nd

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 935

organically all other classes arise. He does not require the special training of
the university professor or of the secondary school teacher, but he doss require as
perfect a training as can possibly be given to him, and on lines peculiarly adapted to
his work. It is fundamentally important that this training should be given to
the primary teachers by the best intellects the country can afford, and at the
highest teaching centre in the country. There should hence, in every modern
university, be a Faculty of Education for the training of teachers ranking in honour
and standing with the older Faculties of Arts and Science. By intimate contact
and fellowship with other university students the primary school teacher will
gain appreciation of what true education is, and will, further, find a liberality of
thought and development which can never be attained in a purely technical
training college. The existing training colleges for teachers can be utilised for
supplying the technical portion of tbe instruction, but should form an integral
part of one or other of the Universities.

The nature of the instruction to be given in the national schools, the text-
books to be employed, and the nature of revision of work and examination of the
primary schools could also be best carried out under the control and influence of
the Universities, and the present system might readily be moditied to this end with
the aid of the present personnel. These are the more important changes required
in primary education in Ireland; the provision of means whereby children of talent
and genius could be assisted to a secondary education is easy of arrangement.

Secondary Education.—The chief thing required here is a liberal control by
the Universities, acting in accord with the teachers of the secondary schools,
Nothing can be conceived more fatal to the secondary education of any country
than having all its schools cast in one mould and of one pattern.

This is the great evil that the intermediate system has brought about in the
secondary schools of Ireland. Instead of the liberal freedom which ougbt to
exist in the higher schools, and the power of the teachers to select, books and
poriions of subjects, to develop their own style of imparting knowledge, and of
arranging their pupils and disposing of their time according to their abilities and
mental trends, there exists the hidebound system of Intermediate Education and
the attempt to turn one boy out machine-made exactly like another. Why should
the same books be read and the same syllabuses followed in every secondary school
in Ireland, whether the teacher has sympathy and enthusiasm for them or whether
he detests them? What fire and love of learning can any teacher raise in his
boys under such a prison system ?

Instead of this let each university within its own sphere of influence recognise
secondary schools. Let each school so recognised draw up its own system of
work, with the approval and, if necessary, with the assistance of the university
authorities, and then let the university act as an external authority in sympathy
with the teachers, examining the work done and testing the pupils conjointly
with the teachers. The work of the university in relation to the examining of
the secondary schools would to a considerable extent be that of the external
examiner in the university, the teacher himself acting as internal examiner to
see that ample justice was done to the pupil. The final examination of the
secondary school would then naturally become the matriculation examination of
the university, and the best system would have been arrived at for making this
entrance examination what it really ought to be, viz. a guarantee that the
matriculant had been so educated that he could with profit proceed to the work
of the university.

2. Discussion on Training in Teaching.

(i) By Miss C. P. TREMAIN.

During recent years public interest in educational matters has greatly in-
creased. There is now a tendency to make the provision of the means of
education a national, county, or municipal charge, instead of relying on private
initiative,

.

936 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

Logically the first step towards improvement in education would be to direct
attention to the better professional training of teachers. But school buildings,
equipment, codes and curricula, examinations, and systems of scholarships have
received far more attention, and the necessity for teachers being specially prepared
for their work on intelligent, rational, and thoughtful lines has only lately been
realised. Primary school teachers, both men and women, secondary school
women teachers, and teachers of special technical subjects form the main body of
‘trained’ teachers, but even of these a large majority are still untrained. Only
a very small proportion of men actively engaged in secondary school teaching, or
in directing and inspecting primary and secondary school work hold a teachers’
diploma.

The training of teachers has three distinct stages :—

(i) General Education in school, colleg2, or university, where the methods
of teaching employed have an important, if indirect, influence on future teachers,

(ii) Professional Training in training college or department, where the
course should include instruction in the theory and practice of education and in
school hygiene. The course should be largely determined by the previous general
education of the student rather than by his future work ; it should be intensive
rather than extensive as regards time; it is best pursued alone, not as in most
primary training colleges along with the general education. The short post-
graduate training for intending secondary school teachers seems to give better
results than the longer course for intending primary school teachers who are
pursuing degree and training courses together.

The purpose in studying the theory of education is to induce a scientific habit
of mind in approaching educational questions. Practice in education, which
includes the preparation and presentation of lessons by the student, the hearing
and reporting on lessons given by others, aims at developing and increasing skill
in teaching. The aim of training is not to produce finished and perfect teachers,
but rather ‘aspiring’ and intelligent ones who will be able to adapt themselves
to, and learn from

(ili) the Eaperience Stage of Training, in which the student passes into the
responsible class-room teacher. This has often been the sole training of suc-
cessful teachers, but the increasing complexity of life, the urgent need for clear
ideals on the part of experts to whom democratic educational bodies look for
guidance, as well as the needs of the taught, imperatively demand that future
teachers shall regard their work from a professional standpoint. Those who
so regard their work will not feel that finality is reached when a teaching diploma
eae een obtained, nor even when their pupils obtain brilliant examination
results,

Theory and practice should correct and supplement each other. This may
be attained through the work of students in demonstration schools and classes,
and still more by the active participation in school teaching of all members of
the training college staff. The teaching should be under the most natural
conditions possible, and therefore series of lessons in the ordinary course are to
be preferred to criticism and the so-called ‘ Model’ lessons.

Some problems in training which press for solution are—

(a) How to adjust the claims of liberal and professional education—cf,
German and American normal colleges.—The special difficulties in primary
school teaching, which have caused a premium to be placed on the pupil teacher
system (¢.g., unwieldy classes) are gradually disappearing, and many county
council schemes show a better way than this for preparing future teachers.
Secondary schools are displacing pupil teacher centres and less actual practice in
teaching is required of a student before he enters a training college.

(8) How to obtain adequate school practice for those who have had no e-
perience as Pupil Teachers or Student Teachers.—A demonstration school plus
classes in schools of different scope and management would seem to afford the
best practice, There are special difficulties due to local and other conditions in
obtaining adequate practice, Schools are sometimes afraid of admitting graduates

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L, 937

who teach under supervision to classes which are readily entrusted to untrained
teachers fresh from college.

The work of supervising school practice must be individual, hence training to
be efficient must nevessarily be expensive. The trainer of teachers in addition
to good school experience and progressive knowledge of educational principles
needs sympathetic insight in dealing with students.

(y) How efficiently to test practical work in teaching.—Vere there has been
a great advance from the examination ‘show’ lesson of earlier days. But it
would appear desirable to withhold the full certificate of ability to teach until the
young teacher has shown, after experience as a responsible teacher under suitable
conditions, his powers as teacher and governor. The executive powers of an
individual cannot be tested in the same way as his receptive and reflective
powers.

A special difficulty in training at present is that more has to be attempted in
the time than can be done efficiently, The secondary school, which is recognised
as taking part in the work of training teachers, would render valuable assistance
by directing more attention to the subjects which are necessary to every teacher
(¢g., the mother-tongue, drawing, clear enunciation, physical culture, &c.),

(ii) By Cuartes MacGrecor.

No system of training will ever produce finished teachers; but every system
should send forth students with some knowledge of the principles and methods of
teaching, and with so much skill in practice as will bridge the gap between
experience and inexperience, and serve to lessen the difficulties of that first period
of responsible work which is often so profitless to the pupils and painful to
the teacher. The students should go forth knowing what has been thought and
done educationally in the past, knowing the best that is being thought and
done in the present, aware that education is in process of evolution, and full
of the desire to contribute to its advance.

1. Sound knowledge is the first essential for teaching of the right kind, and
any satisfactory system must be based on a sound general education, or must
provide for that. The ordinary school subjects of English, science, mathematics,
history, and geography should be re-studied with more maturity of mind, on
a higher intellectual plane, and iv a more philosophical manner than is possible
in a secondary or preparatory school. Concentration of effort should also be
aimed at, and the subjects not spread over the whole course as in the Ecoles
Normales, and in some of the German Seminars and of our own colleges,

2. The students must know not only the material they are to work with, but
also the material they are to work upon. They must go through a serious course
of psychology, not introspective psychology only, but experimental psychology,
and above all child-study. With the study of the mind must proceed the study
of the body, and this also must be thoroughly practical, under a competent
medical officer. It might include a little anthropometry. A third part of this
division should include a short course in ethics, helping the students to the better
consideration of the problems of moral education. All this work—psychology,
hygiene, and ethics—must possess a vital connection with the students’ work in
the schools.

3. To the knowledge of the materials students are to use, and the knowledge
of the material they are to work on, must be added knowledge of the methods
by which these are to be connected and skill in their use. This involves
(a) history and science of education ; (2) study of particular methods of teach-
ing school subjects; and (c) practice in teaching. Needless to say these three
must be correlated in the closest possible fashion, Detachment is disastrous.

(a) The history must be brought up to date, and include the work of Parker
and Dewey as well as that of Herbart or Rousseau. There should certainly
be also a course of lectures on educational systems of other countries, and at least
an introduction given to the valuable stores of material in the Board of Education
Reports,

938 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

(>) In connection with the study of methods there should be a special school
at the Centre, where students may see methods and experiments which they are
not likely to see in the ordinary schools, (It is a misfortune that our City
schools are not used to some extent for experimental purposes. Some blind
experimentation goes on, but little conscious experiment towards a definite issue,
and no systematic examination and comparison of results. Joint-committees of
head-masters, school boards, training authorities, and of the local inspectorate
could do valuable work in this direction.) Each student should be accustomed
to the idea of experiment in education, and each also should have to prepare a
thesis requiring observational, if not experimental, work.

(c) An effective system of training, besides providing for such school-work as
will give reality to the studies already mentioned, must allow for an adequate
amount of practice in teaching. A student may have an excellent knowledge of
methods and yet make a poor use of them.

The period of training for non-university students should be three years, and
for university students four. The following is an outline of a suitable arrange-
ment of the professional work for the non-university students.

First Year.—Psychology, experimental psychology and child-study = 100 hours;
hygiene = 40 hours ; ethics = 20 to 30 hours; two hours per week in the schools,
chiefly for observational and experimental work correlated with these subjects.

Second Year—istory and science of education = 100 hours; methods,
criticism, and demoustrat'2n lessons at the Centre = 60 hours; attendance at
schools two hours per w2ek during the winter ard four during the summer
= 80 hours. At the beginning of the summer should be given out the subject
for a thesis, to be handed in at the end of the following winter.

Third Year.—About six hours per week of teaching practice, and at least a
fortnight’s continuous teaching = 150 to 200 hours; work on thesis and oral on
same ; special study for kindergarten, housewifery, or rural courses = 200 hours.

During the last two years great advance has been made in Scotland in the pro-
visions for the training of teachers. The country is divided into four provinces
with Centres at the four University towns. The gathering of students into these
Centres where they can have the best educational facilities has been rendered
possible by the grant of use of the public schools for practice purposes, one of the
most valuable features of the new régime. There are courses of training for
elementary and for secondary school teachers, as well as for teachers of special
subjects (art, &c.). For the last two classes the period of training is one year;
for the first class, two years if they are not graduating and three if they are.

The two-year course is, in practice, a fairly crowded one of 1,800 hours, one-
third of which are given up to professional work—education, psychology, hygiene,
logic, ethics, methods, and teaching; the other two-thirds are for ‘culture-
subjects ’—science, mathematics, &e. The regulations, however, permit of the
omission of any subject of general education from the curriculum. Of the time
for professional work, about 250 hours are allowed for the study of methods
and practice in teaching. This period is devoted to lectures and discussions on
methods, to demonstration and criticism lessons, and to properly supervised
practice in the schools. It will be seen that the provisions go a considerable way
towards meeting the requirements set forth above.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.

The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1, Report on the Curricula of Secondary Schools,—See Reports, p. 526,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 939

2, Discussion on (a) Note-taking and Reports on Work , (6) Clear
Speaking and Reading Aloud.

3. Discussion on Types of Education and their relative Values.

(i) Acquirement in Education. By Dr. G. ARCHDALL REID.

Some parts of our bodies—the muscles of our limbs, for example—do not grow
after birth unless they are used. Other parts—hair, teeth, and ears, for example—
develop fully if only they receive sufficient nourishment. All that is developed
under the sole stimulus of nutriment is termed inborn by biologists; all that is
added under the stimulus of use is termed acquired. In this sense most of
the bulk of the human body is due to acquirement. Mind offers an exact
parallel to body. Some mental parts, the instincts, for example, develop in us
without the aid of experience, which is the term we use when speaking of the
mind. But everything we learn is acquired.

The power or faculty by means of which we learn is termed memory. Memory,
the faculty not its contents, is of two kinds, conscious and unconscious. The
conscious memory stores all experiences that can be recalled to mind, the things
we have seen, sounds we have heard, and so on, The function of the unconscious
memory is every whit as important. Thus ability to walk o1 read is due to
thousands of experiences stored and concentrated in our unconscious memories.

Intelligence and reason are not innate faculties. We learn them just as surely
as we learn to walk or read. They are acquired dexterities in thinking. They
depend on memory. Intelligence is that faculty by means of which we consciously
adapt means to ends. But we cannot consciously adapt means to ends unless
we haye learned to do so. ‘The caterpillar is not intelligent when he builds
his cocoon; for he appeals only to that blind impulse which we term instinct,
and which is the very antithesis of intelligence. The man who builds a house
is intelligent because he utilises experience, Unlike the adult man, the new-
born baby is not intelligent, for he has no experience to which he can appeal.
He has only great capacity to learn to become intelligent. Reason is merely
glorified intelligence. We have reason, unlike the lower animals, only because
our memories are yaster, and because we can learn to be very dextrous in using
their contents.

When we send a child to school, we design that he shall learn, not merely
knowledge more abstruse than that which he can pick up, like a savage, from the
ordinary experiences of life; we intend, also, that he shall acquire right habits
of thought. These right habits are acquired mental dexterities. Just as some
children can acquire more knowledge and acquire it more quickly than others,
so some can learn greater dexterity in thinking, and learn it more quickly than
others; but one and all, the quick and the slow, the clever and the stupid,
must learn it by means of the memory. An idiot or imbecile is simply a person
with a defective memory. He cannot learn knowledge, or he cannot learn to use
it, or both.

If we wish to create great skill in thinking, we must create it, as we create
-great knowledge, by continuing to train our pupils to the latest stage of develop-
ment over which we have control. Formerly little children were taught nothing
but knowledge ; now we have invented the kindergarten and the object-lesson.
Eyen the mental training of older boys and girls is improved. But the training
of university and college students remains much as it was a hundred years ago.
They are still crammed with facts and little more than facts.

The best educational subjects are those which at the same time supply useful
knowledge and exercise the thinking faculty. What is useful knowledge P
Obviousiy one condition of its usefulness is that it shall be remembered. The
things that we remember are either very impressive things or those which link
up with our subsequent experiences, so that we are frequently reminded of them

94.0 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

Much that school or college teach—for example, the kind of zoology and botany
taught to medical students—does not link up with the experiences of the sub-
sequent career, and therefore is forgotten as soon as may be, and consequently is
useless.

There is a persistent and growing demand for the substitution of scientific for
classical study, Unfortunately all that is meant in many instances by scientific
teaching is mere science teaching—the mere cramming of pupils with scientific
facts without regard to the likelihood of their being remembered, and without
care being taken that they are used as materials of thought. It is possible,
however, to choose scientific data which link up with the experiences of subse-
quent life, because they give a deeper and clearer meaning to them; because they
help to unify the world the mind creates, and therefore furnish ideal materials
for acquiring intellectual dexterity. Only after scientific subjects are scientifically
taught shall we be able to demonstrate to the world that the teaching of science
is, as it actually is, the best means of creating intelligence.

(ii) Influence of Mental Values of Types of Education.
By Professor E. P. CunveRwE.L, 1.7'.C.D.

While the application of psychology to the practice of education has doubtless
been of great service, there is a dangerous tendency not only to investigate but to
decide questions of curriculum and method on purely psychological grounds. The
chief object of this paper is to show that this claim is invalid, and that even our
limited knowledge of physiology can give us help in criticising psychological
arguments.

The psychological discussion of a question may be as exhaustive as possible,
and yet may omit the determining factor; for psychology can never be a science
complete in itself. This follows from the fact that changes in mental states may
be due to physiological changes which have no mental counterpart—eg., the
whole mental outlook may be changed by a dreamless sleep.

Whether mental conditions are wholly determined when the physiological
conditions are given is unknown ; yet the following assumptions may be generally
accepted :—

J. There is no mental change without a corresponding passage of energy

from one region of the brain to another:

. To every difference in mental action there corresponds a difference in the
mode of this passage of energy.

5, Whenever a mental state is revived there is some revival of the corre-
sponding passage of energy. In particular we may assume that if the
whole mental state is vividly revived, then the original nervous action
is closely repeated; if the revival is but faint or partial, then the
corresponding neryous disturbance or oscillation is faint or partial
compared with the original one.

2

These assumptions can be applied to a destructive criticism of the psychological
argument against the theory of formal education. It follows from them that
there is a marked physiological difference between what we commonly speak of as
superficial thought on the one hand and deep thinking on the other, and that
experience alone can exonerate the method of interest from the charge of pro-
ducing superticial rather than deep thinking.

For consider the difference between concrete and abstract thought. Concrete
thinking, if mere recollection, implies the revival in its natural form of the
nerve disturbance which originally passed. It also includes a comparison of
two ideas in regard to a common element which is strong in both. This is a less
complicated operation than to compare them in regard to an element which is
weak in both. In the former case the excitation follows the natural path—what
we may describe as the path of least natural resistance. In the latter case,
however, the excitation has to be of a very special character: it must be so
arranged as not to excite the more vigorous—and therefore, as we should suppose,

—— =.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 941

the more easily excited nervous oscillations—and yet it must excite the less
vigorous ones. If the thinking be very abstract—e.g., the deduction of a common
principle underlying many sense experiences which were not simultaneously
received—then it is evident that the stimulation must be of a very specialised
kind. The great majority of mankind is unable to stimulate the brain in this
wiy. Instead of keeping so many different brain oscillations simultaneously
excited, the nervous energy flows along the path of least natural resistance, and
some vigorous element in one of the many images to be compared excludes the
other ideas altogether.

The Herbartian argument against formal education, as well as such
psychological and physiological arguments as those of Professor Bagley in his
‘Educative Process,’ fall to the ground when examined in connection with the
physiological point of view.

It is well to observe that the ordinary man has little power of abstract
reasoning. With most men the nervous energy follows the path of natural least
resistance, except so far as they are trained. Inconsistent ideas lie side by side
in our minds; we can only direct the energy along the natural path. In other
words, we take things at their face value. If we had more practice in com-
paring ideas which lie far apart in our minds (the comparison of which has
therefore but little immediate interest), we might see far more deeply than we do.
Thus we have no @ priori right to expect that an education which follows the
path of interest will be the best for producing the highest kind of organisation
of which a given brain is capable. With some brains no doubt it will, With
others it may lead to superficiality.

An instance of the excessive tendency to do away with formal reasoning is to
be found in the amount of geometrical construction and example now usual
before the principles of true demonstration are entered on,

4, Discussion on Experimental Studies in Education.
(i) Experimental Studies in Education. By Professor J. A, Green, M/A.

The grand method of German educational philosophers has held sway long
enough to bring the theory of education into some disrepute. The educator is
dealing with facts both stubborn and complex. Unless we are to postulate
anarchy for one corner of the universe, there are, underlying these facts, uni-
formities of sequence and co-existence which it is the aim of educational research
to lay bare.

Teaching is essentially a synthetic process. Like the farmer, the teacher may
be said to prepare his ground, sow his seed, and look for a return, But the
scientific farmer recognises varieties of soil and adapts his measures to them.
His training embraces the study of agricultural chemistry, though it is a long
way from the test-tube and balance to the plough. At the same time, he does
not forget that agriculture is finally au affair of the field and of the weather,

Should not education as a subject of University study be approached in a
similar way ? Abstract investigations of a scientific and quantitative kind should
be possible. These would consist in part, at least, of exercises with individual pupils
with the object of a more exact determination of the mental processes of children
under instruction. The results arrived at would then be applied to the conditions
of the school. The two sides of the work are commonly divorced to the detri-
ment of both. The practising school becomes the demonstration ground of an
& priori philosophy, and the laboratory loses sight of the fact that pupils are
something more than ideational types.

The teacher as such is not primarily a researcher, nor should be be. He
wants the result of research in a usable form, and the University Department of
Education should be organised with a view to provide them. Some examples of
what is being done abroad will indicate possibilities for such a department ou one
side of its work.

942 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

‘ Observation’ as the foundation of teaching practice has received much atten-
tion. By using pictures, Stern found that what children see depends more on
inner factors than upon the pictures themselves. Up to seven, children take
in only isolated objects; about eight, they begin to notice action; at ten, time,
space, and other abstract relations begin to appeal to them; and, last of all, they
notice the characteristic qualities of individual things. Kerschensteiner’s researches
into the development of children’s drawing powers are an interesting confirmation
of these results, The accuracy of children’s observing powers, the influence of
suggestion upon them, their educability, &c., are points of importance at which
Binet, Lobsien, Meumann, and others have worked. Meumann comes to a con-
clusion which reads like a paradox—‘ From the general notion to the particular
application is the true order of mental development, and not vice versa.’ Waise-
mann’s investigation into the sensory approach to ideas of number shows the
difficulties underlying concrete teaching. He finds that the special grouping of
dots is a better avenue than varieties of things, the form, colour, &c., of which
distract.

Children’s associations have been investigated, and much light has been thrown
upon the workings of their minds under school influences by Ziehen, Meumann,
Winteler, Schuyten, and others.

The memory of pupils at school has been the subject of much inquiry. On
the side of acquisition, it is found to grow steadily during school age, reaching its
approximate maximum just at the point where elementary school training breaks
off (Meumann). The value of the additional year in the higher primary school
is thus not a mere time function. The acquisitive power of memory develops
more rapidly under formal training than under the ordinary influence of the
school (Van Biervliet).

The importance or a fuller knowledge of individual differences in children will
hardly be questioned, and various suggestions have been made for the objective
determination of relative capacity. Kraepilin’s attempt to express a man in
figures, as a steam-engine is expressed in horse-power, though objectionable from
many points of view, is a bold attempt to sum up the quantitative study of mental
phenomena—attention, grasp, productivity, fatigue-resistance, educability, reten-
tiveness, &c. Binet’s work upon intelligence approaches the same problem from a
different though highly suggestive standpoint.

Laboratories have already been instituted in Antwerp, St. Petersburg, Leipsic,
Milan, and Buda Pesth for experimental inquiry into the problems which confront
the teacher.

(ii) Scientifie Method in the Study of Education.'
By Professor J. J. Finpuay, JA., Ph.D., and P. Sanvirorp, M.Sc.

In the paper presented at York, Mr. Findlay confined his attention to experi-
mental studies in school teaching, and indicated the lines on which he and others
were at work in Demonstration Schools,” associated with Departments of Education
or training colleges. The time now seems ripe for a wider review of methods for
the improvement of education which, in a broad sense, may be described as ‘ experi-
mental’ or ‘scientific’: experiments in teaching form only one section of a large
field which is being tentatively worked in many parts of the world,

1, A first group consists of investigations which do not directly raise questions
of education at all, but are concerned solely with the physical powers of childhood,
and iheir development; they are really questions of physiology and -hygiene—a
branch of anthropometry. ‘To these may be added inquiries into feeding, clothing,
sleep, &c. It must be borne in mind that while such inquiries are invaluable as
material for educational proposals, they are not of themselves directly of service,

1 A sequel to a paper read at the York Meeting of the British Association. Vide
Transactions, 1906, p. 793. - F , ical RS Se ees |

2 Some of the results of the work in Manchester, as well as an account of the
methods employed, are to be found in The Demonstration School Record, No. 1
(The University Press, Manchester, 1908).

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 943

and the interpretations put upon them are often wide of the mark; for the school
is a social organisation which has to do its work under complex social conditions.

2, Allied to the above may be placed investigations into school appliances, and
the physical conditions under which children live while at school. This is a
branch of public sanitation, rather than distinctively a matter for pedagogics.

3. The third group is concerned with the organs of sense, eyesight, hearing,
&c.; and we are still in regions where the physiologist and the physician are at
home, rather than the teacher. ‘Their results need to be handed over for the use
of schools, but the methods and processes of research are not a distinctive concern
for the teacher.

4. A fourth group carries us forward to experimental psychology, to research
in which the methods of the pyschological laboratory are applied to the features
of the growing organism as distinguished from the adult.

A large mass of very suggestive research has been undertaken, of which the
work on ‘ Fatigue’ may be taken as typical. The most recent results show the
grave difficulties encountered in endeavouring to interpret physical conditions in
terms of mind (see Ellis and Snipe, ‘ Amer. Journ. Psychology,’ 1903, p. 232).

Experimental psychology, when the subjects of an experiment are children,
undoubtedly would appear to have a close bearing upon the problem of the
teacher, and a good deal of the work undertaken in Germany under the title of
‘ xperimentelle Padagogik’ (see Schwarz in ‘ School Review,’ Chicago, January
tu September 1907) shows that many investigators would desire to see stations
fur research in genetic psychology established as part of the equipment of Depart-
ments of Hducation.

It would appear, however, as if the methods of the psychological laboratory
are too specialised, and too remote from the positive functions of the school, to be
introduced as part of the pedagogical equipment of a university. Rather one
would say that such a laboratory ought to be at hand wherever advanced work in '
the study of education is set on foot; and the psychologist ought to be asked to
pay special attention to genetic studies in view ot the practical importance of any
results which.he may reach. It is certain that if the laboratory can arrive at new
conceptions of the mental life of the young, these results will find an immense
field jor application in the teaching profession.

5. Of an entirely different order are the numberless investigations conducted
under the name of Uhild-study, especially 11 America by Stanley Hall and Earl
Barnes, and more recently in Germany by Kerchensteiner and others. Here the
investigator deals with experience, with mental ‘ content’ in ideas and feelings, or
output in expression, rather than with mental qualities or faculties. These investi-
gations, when conducted with real scientific ability, have greatly influenced the
schools, for the teacher’s business is directly concerned with the child’s output:
the fundamental difficulty felt by the psychologist as to the nature of mind process
is largely avoided when attention is confined to achievement.

6. All the above groups are conducted on well-recognised lines of control
experiments, with quantitative measurements. But they only bring us to the
threshold of the school; experiments which touch directly the business of the
teacher encounter several dificulties—(1) they need a long period of time for their
completion ; (2) disturbing and qualifying factors are always presented, and cannot
easily be reckoned with ; (3) methods for estimating results have scarcely as yet
been seriously considered. Such methods must obviously vary for each branch
of instruction or s‘hool management. Both in selection of the material of a
curriculum, in methods of teaching, and in the corporate life of school a great
amount of experimental work is being undertaken, but it can seldom hope to be
placed on the same footing as regards exactness such as is attained in the earlier
groups. Further, such work can seldom be undertaken without some @ privri
bias of general principles as to the underlying aim and function of the school.

It is, however, in this group that the proper business of a Department of
Education centres: and it is here that the scientific attitude is most urgently
needed by demonstrators and instructors. Material, Method, Corporate Life—each
of these three sections—can be treated from the standpoint of scientific method.

G44 fRANSACTIONS OF SECTION fa

One of the pressing problems for investigation is to consider principles on whicli
results can be tested: here we should refer to a remarkable inquiry conducted in
American cities by Dr. Rice.t| Our English examining bodies collect every year
a large mass of material which could be utilised to capital advantage for research,
if means were at hand.

8, This leads us to a final group which takes the student outside the school
walls: the administration and control of educational institutions. Here we have
a field in which the methods of political science offer the model.

This cursory sketch serves to indicate the vast field that lies before the teaching
profession when the time comes for the teacher to be trained on lines which
demand an approach to scientific method. There are some signs that the Govern-
ment, which controls so intimately the training of teachers, is beginning to realise
its responsibility to take the lead in this work, by affording means to universities
and training colleges to make a beginning: the Education Bill of 1906 contained
a clause on behalf of Demonstration Schools. But a fully equipped Department
of Education in a university would be at least as costly to maintain as a medical
school. It may be worth while for this Association to set on foot some means
for collecting information as to the extent to which work is being attempted
(either in Departments of Education or in schools) of a quality that can make
pretensions to be regarded as scientific.

5, Report on Changes affecting Secondary Education.-See Reports, p. 525.

1 Published in Zhe Forum, from January 1901 to January 1902,

FIRST EVENING DISCOURSE. 945

EVENING DISCOURSES.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 4.

Halley's Comet. By Professor H. H. Turner, D.Sc., 7.2.3.

The British Association is to meet next year at Winnipeg. Before it reassembles
on this side of the Atlantic in 1910 we may expect to have seen Halley’s Comet,
which“last appeared in 1835, and is calculated to return to perihelion in April
1910. The comet will not be so striking an object as Donati’s in 1858; but it is
the most famous of all comets for two reasons :—

(a) Its long sequence of appearances at intervals of about seventy-five years,
which have now been verified (by Messrs, Cowell and Crommelin, of the Royal
Observatory, Greenwich) back to 240 B.c.

(b) The circumstances under which it became associated with the name of
Halley, who in§1705 first realised its periodic returns and predicted that of 1759,

Halley’s discovery of the periodicity followed naturally from the great work of
Newton on gravitation, which first suggested the character of the movements of
comets. Newton's ‘ Principia’ was presented to the Royal Society in 1686. Only
twenty years earlier, in the very first number of the ‘ Philosophical Transactions,’
we find an¥attempt by a certain Monsieur Auzout to predict the motion of the
comet of 1664. And he claims this as a ‘ design, which never yet was undertaken
by any Astronomer; all the World having been hitherto perswaded, that the
motions of Comets were so irregular, that they could not be reduced to any Laws.’
M. Auzout, however, got no further than the suggestion that the orbit lay in
a plane; and in’a later paper he extends his method to the comet of 1665.

What is not understood is apt to be disquieting and even terrifying, and
comets had been in olden times, and were still, at that date, regarded as causing
pestilence and war. Milton writes in ‘Paradise Lost,’ Book II. 708 :—

: . . like a comet burn'd

That fires the length of Ophiuchus huge
In th’ Arctic sky, and from his horrid hair
Shakes pestilence and war.

‘ Paradise Lost’ was finished in 1665, and these words have been supposed to
refer to the very comets of 1664 and 1665 considered by M. Auzout, which were
held responsible for the Dutch War and the Great Plague of London. But
Milton was by that time blind and did not see these comets. He probably had in
his mind, at any rate in addition, the much larger comet of 1618, which he
had seen as a boy of ten, and which had a tail 104° long, and was actually in
Ophiuchus, as suggested in the passage quoted. The great Thirty Years’ War was
attributed to this comet (see Evelyn's ‘ Diary’).

In the few centuries elapsed since Milton the world has forgotten its

1908, 3P

946 EVENING DISCOURSES.

superstitious dread of comets, which are now (a) much more familiar and (4) much
better understood,

(a) They are more familiar through the development of the telescope and
increase of assiduity in searching for them. Half a dozen are found every year,
and it would be difficult to identify their malign influences. Some are found
quite by accident, as when Mr. Holmes in 1892 turned his telescope to look at the
nebula in Andromeda and found a comet; or when Professor Barnard found the
faint trail of a comet on one of his photographic plates. Others spring into view
almost suddenly, so bright as to be seen by several observers simultaneously,
Others, again, are found by most patient searching. The great majority are never
seen by the naked eye, but can readily be photographed. Such photographs show
beautiful structure in the tail, which always points away from the sun, as if blown
by a current of wind outwards from the sun. It seems probable that the light
emitted by the sun acts much as a current of air would, and by its pressure drives
away the lighter particles to form the tail.

(6) They became better understood from the moment when Newton
announced the great law of gravitation. It was at once suggested that comets
might move in orbits round the sun under his attraction. The orbits were
clearly not circular like those of the planets, but Newton’s work pointed to long
ellipses or parabolas as alternative forms. Halley, the devoted disciple of
Newton, on being appointed Savilian Professor of Geometry at Oxford in 1704
set about the task of computing the orbits of as many comets as had been well
enough observed, and in his famous paper, ‘Astronomize Cometic Synopsis,’ *
xives computed elements of twenty-four comets, from 1337 to 1698. This
involyed almost incredible labour, and is in itself a title to fame. But, as
often happens in scieutitic work, the most important outcome was unexpected,
Three of the orbits were so nearly the same as to suggest a recurrence of the
same comet. The elements were approximately as follows :—

| Longitudes of |
Date of Comet | Interval SSS Inclination | Distance
' Node Perihelion

a's M ° ; ° °

ISS1VADE HOU ee Tae linet 49, Niet DORI 18 0:567
CG Sei2s ai |

1607: O0b. 16.005) vi Gyrs |. 60 | 802 17 0°587
TAS oA de |

168?, Sept. 4 . : P } 61 |. 302 | 18 0583 |

It will be seen that there are some slight differences; but the point which
chiefly arrests attention is the difference in interval between the returns, Halley
divined the explanation that this was due to the disturbing action of the planets.
It was known that the intervals between successive returns of the planets
Jupiter and Saturn were not exactly equal, and he ascribed this to their mutual
attractions. How much greater might not such errors be in the case of a comet
which moved much more slowly? He saw no difliculty that could not be
explained, and confidently predicted the return of the comet in 1758, or there-
abouts. In a later edition (not published until 1749) of his paper he reflects
with just national pride that, though he could not hope to live to see the return
{he was born in 1656 and died at the age of eighty-six in 1742), posterity would
remember to credit an Englishman with the prediction. ‘ Quocirca si secundum
predicta nostra redierit iterum circa annum 17658, hoc primum ab homine Anglo
joventum fuisse non inficiabitur aqua posteritas.’

Tt was in every way appropriate that this grand discovery should fall to
ilalley. He was, as above mentioned, Newton’s devoted disciple, and, more than
that, 1t was largely due to Halley that Newton's ‘ Principia’ was ever published,
It was Halley who sought from Newton, after failing elsewhere, the answer to the

1 Phil, Trans , vol. xxv., March 1705.

FIRST EVENING DISCOURSE. 94.7

uestion, ‘What curve will a particle describe if attracted to a centre by the
orce of gravitation?’ He journeyed specially to Cambridge to ask this question ;
and never has a more momentous journey of an Oxford man to Cambridge
been taken. Newton was able to reply, to Halley’s delight, ‘An ellipse.’ He
had solved the problem some time before, and then tossed it aside as solved—
so carelessly that he could not find the solution. But he sent another solution to
Halley later, with much other new knowledge, which developed with extraordinary
rapidity into the ‘Principia... When this was presented to the Royal Society they
had no funds to publish it; but Halley, though then a poor man, had been formerly
a rich one, and retained the rich man’s contempt for financial difficulties. He pub-
lished the ‘Principia’ at his own expense, showing the same enthusiasm which
was capable of taking him all over the world as captain of his own ship to try
and solve the longitude problem, and later of gluing him to his chair to com-
pute cometary orbits with unprecedented labour. It was a tremendous epoch in
scientific history; and the smallest details relating to it are of interest. Fresh
light was thrown upon it some years ago by the rediscovery of an autograph
letter from Newton to Hooke dated November 28, 1679. Hooke claimed that ne
had himself been the first to announce the solution of the question above men-
tioned, put by Halley to Newton, and asserted that Newton had in the first
instance supposed that an attracted body would move in a spiral to the centre,
and that he (Hooke) had first told Newton that the curve would be an ellipse.
The letter recently discovered and now in the possession of Trinity College,
Cambridge, is the actual letter wherein Newton draws a spiral curve; but it
also makes it clear that he was at the moment considering a totally different
roblem, viz., what would be the path relative to the rotating earth (not the orbit
in space) of a falling body. This most interesting letter therefore bridges a gap in
a most important episode.
Halley’s Comet returned, as he had predicted, ‘ about 1758 ’—yeally in 1759,
a little later than his rough date. The delay was due to the perturbing action of
the planets, and had been anticipated by calculation; so that Halley’s prediction,
in making which such perturbations had been expressly recognised, was the more
completely verified. ‘The comet went round once again and reappeared in
1835; and now we are eagerly awaiting the next return in 1910. Calculations
of the circumstances of return have meantime been chiefly made by foreign
astronomers, but in the last year or two Messrs. Crommelin and Cowell, of the
Royal Observatory at Greenwich, have done splendid work of this kind. Mr.
Cowell has suggested a method of work which greatly shortens the calculations,
and, with the able assistance of Mr. Crommelin, mistakes in other calculations
have been rectified, and a prediction made which should be close to the truth.
The comet will be brightest in May 1910, but a search will be made for it much
_ earlier; indeed the search was commenced last autumn, though without success.
Tt will be renewed this autumn, when success is more probable, and the comet
‘when found will be followed along its orbit with the greatest interest by many
' telescopes.

But although England until recently left to others the exact calculation of
modern returns, a fine piece of work on the past history of the comet is due to an
Englishman, Mr. J. R. Hind. In 1849 he examined old records, especially the
Chinese annals, and collected accounts of remarkable comets which could fairly be

. identified with Halley’s.*
The following is his list :—

Probable Early Returns of Halley's Comet (Hind),

A.D. 1456 1145 837 530 218
1378 1066 760 451 141
1301 989 684 373 66 A.D
1223 912 608 295 12 B.C.

The comet of 1066 is represented on the Bayeux tapestry, and was held

1 Monthly Notices R.A.S., vol. x. p. 51.
3P2

948 EVENING DISCOURSES,

responsible for the conquest of England. Halley, who was delighted that an
Englishman should be first to recognise the periodical character of the comet, —
would no doubt have been deeply interested by this curious association with an _
important epoch in our history had he been led to suspect it.

The verification of these dates, rendered probable by Hind, has been nobly
carried out by the Englishmen above mentioned, Messrs. Cowell and Crommelin.
(Mr. Crommelin is an Irishman, but an assembly of the British Association in
Dublin takes no note of such details.) Mr. Crommelin wrote to the present
ecturer on July 28:—

‘ We have now carried back Halley’s Comet to B.c. 87 (August) with certainty
(one revolution earlier than Hind’s list), and with fair probability to B.c. 240 (May).
Before this observations are completely wanting. Hind is one and a half years
too late for his 608 (a.D.) return (it really was 607 March), but all his earlier
returns are right up to the beginning of his list (—11=n.c. 12). We find
1910 Apr.l 12:9 for the next passage, but are going over the work again by a new
method.’

This date makes the comet at its brightest, to our earthly view, in May 1910.
In that month there will be a total eclipse of the sun, visible in Tasmania, and the
most glorious view of the comet obtainable at this return will probably be that
accorded to those in Tasmania during totality. (Does this signify an extension of
the national associations of the comet to our colonies ?)

The year 1910 is also the tercentenary of the first use of the telescope by
Galileo. We are reminded how much we owe to astronomical work in the three
centuries since elapsed. Not merely are we no longer terrified by comets; our
whole conception of the magnitude and meaning of the universe has been changed.
Much of what we have gained we owe to Halley, who showed that comets were
no strange monsters, but members of our family (solar) circle; and, far more than
this, elicited the ‘ Principia’ from Newton, When we see Halley’s Comet let us
think with reverence of this great Englishman and his work.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.

The Colorado Canyon. By Professor W. M. Davis.

The Grand Canyon of the Colorado, in the plateau of Northern Arizona, is not
only impressive as an exhibition of normal erosion in a dry climate, but is even
more instructive in presenting a natural geological section in its walls from which
one may learn of several periods in the past, during each of which the amount of
erosion accomplished was vastly greater than that required in the excavation of
the canyon. The plateau is built of a heavy series of horizontal paleozoic strata
which rest partly on a body of crystalline schists, partly on a series of east-dipping
strata. If one imagine the horizontal strata to be removed, an even surface
truncating the crystalline rocks and the inclined series is seen. This is evidently
the result of widespread erosion by which the former upward extension of the
inclined series and its crystalline foundation were reduced from their original
extension. Restoring the lost mass and imagining it turned so as to place the
inclined series in a horizontal position, these strata may be stripped off, revealing
the remarkably even floor of their crystalline foundation. This floor is also
evidently the work of erosion of a formerly greater crystalline mass which may
well have once had a mountainous height above what now remains. Further
backward in time the history of the rock structures has not yet been traced. The
reduction of the ancient crystalline mountains to an even surface must have
required a vastly longer time than the erosion of the Grand Canyon, for the erosion
of the canyon represents only the good beginning of a cycle of erosion, while the
reduction of the ancient mountains to a plain represents the essential completion
of a cycle of erosion. The deposition of a heavy series of strata, some 10,000 feet
thick, upon the crystalline floor represents another period of time vastly longer

SECOND EVENING DISCOURSE. 94.9

than that required for the erosion of the canyon. The tilting of the crystalline
foundation and its heavy stratified cover and the erosion of the tilted mass to a
plain that truncates its two parts required a third vast period of time. The
deposition of the horizontal plateau series, 3,000 feet or more in thickness, required
a fourth vast period of time.

A first view of the region would suggest that the erosion of the canyon
followed the deposition of the plateau series and the uplift of the total mass; but
an examination of the area to the north and east shows the retreating escarp-
ments of overlying series of Mesozoic strata, which seem once to have stretched
over the whole plateau area with a thickness of several thousand feet. Their
deposition required a fifth vast period of time, and their removal a sixth vast
period, and only then was the region uplifted to its present altitude and the
erosion of the canyon begun.

At first sight of the huge canyon one is disposed to think that its erosion
must have occupied an enormously long chapter of geological time. The chapter
was certainly long if measured in years; but if rated on a geological scale it
appears to be much shorter than any one of the six chapters into which the
geological history of the region is naturally divided. Huge as the canyon is, it is
appropriately regarded as a young geographical feature ; its magnitude indicates
a precocious development rather than a venerable antiquity. Really venerable
features are in the buried plains of erosion revealed in the canyon walls.

i Th uperds ba
mol 2S asker
excigitigy io ‘eg
Hast oo): aiody and .

be ARE THhph sO Z

Br rent vite Lint
ee
1 Ty #fy a nhs
Phaeton) cearrit
uw. Wb Teter eeeray

Lar fk at ct

~rabandd ie regi

PRED EX.

References to reports and papers printed in extenso are given in Italics.

An asterisk * indicates that the title only of the communication is given.

The mark + indicates the same, but that a reference is given to the Jowrnal or News-
paper where the paper is published in extenso.

FFICERS and Council,
XXxi.

Rules of the Association, xxxiii.

Places and Dates of Meeting, Presi-
dents, Vice-Presidents, and Local
Secretaries, xlix.

Trustees and General Officers, Ixv.

Sectional Presidents and Secretaries, xvi.

Chairmen and Secretaries of Conferences
of Delegates, Ixxxviii.

Evening Discourses, lxxxviii.

Lectures to the Operative Classes, xcii.

Attendances and Receipts at Annual
Meetings, xciv.

Analysis of Attendances, xcvi.

Grants of Money for Scientific Pur-
poses, xcvii,

Report of the Council, 1907-1908, cxx.

General Treasurer’s Account, cxxiv.

eDublin Meeting, 1908 :—

General Meetings, cxxvi.

Sectional Officers, exxvi.

Officers of Conference of Delegates,
Xviii.

Committee of Recommendations, exviii.

Research Committees, cxxix.

Communications ordered to be printed
im extenso, CXXxix.

Resolutions and Recommendations re-
ferred to the Council, cxxxix.

Synopsis of Grants of Money, cxli.

1908-1909,

Address by the President, Francis Darwin,
M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., 3. ;

Apney (Sir W. de W.) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements,
119.

on studies most suitable for elementary

schools, 495.

; a new three-colour camera, 618.
Absorption from solutions and aqueous

condensation on surfaces, analogy be-
tween, by Prof. F. T, Trouton, 621.

Accessory dental masses, the so-called,
sometimes found in the upper jaw-
bones, the significance of, by Prof.
A. F, Dixon, 856.

Acquirement in education, by Dr. G.
Archdall Reid, 939.

Acwortu (W. M.), Address to the Section
of Economic Science and Statistics,
773.

Apams (Rev. W. A.), some ancient stone
implement sites in South Africa, 852.
Apvams (Prof. W. G.) on practical elec-

trical standards, 31.

on magnetic observations at Fal-
mouth Observatory, 55.

Avams (W. G. S.), economic and statis-
tical investigation in agriculture, 796.
Aprengy (Dr. W. E.) on wave-length

tables of the spectra of the elements, 119.

Aptz (R. H.) on studies most suitable for
elementary schools, 495.

Age of stone circles, report on explorations
to ascertain the, 400.

Agrarian reform in Ireland, the psycho-
logical aspect of, by Dr. M. J. Bonn,
795.

Agricultural co-operation, social aspects
of, by J. G. Brooks, 794,

Agricultural education, by J. R. Camp-
bell, 804.

* Aoricultural education for business and
for knowledge, by Dr. Carroll Dunham,
805.

Agricultural Subsection, Address by
Rt. Hon. Sir Horace Plunkett to: the,
796.

Agriculture, economic and _ statistical
investigation in, by W. G. S. Adams,
796.

Alcohol, is it a food of muscle? A
comparison of chloroform, ether, and
alcohol, by Prof. A. D. Waller, 873.

Attren (H. A.), list of British triassic
Jossils in the Warwick Museum, 274.

952

yAluminium alloys, certain light, the
electrical conductivity of, as affected
by exposure to London atmosphere,
by E. Wilson, 827.

Ammonia from atmospheric nitrogen,
the production of, by means of
peat, by Dr. H. C. Woltereck, 675.

Amobe, cultures of, by Dr. J. W. W. |

Stephens, 741.

Amphioxus, the gastriculation and forma-
tion of layers in, by Prof. E. W.
MacBride, 739.

Amyloid, Prof. A. Kossel on, 878.

Anaspides, the anatomy and development
of, G. W. Smith on, 302.

AnpeErson (Prof. R. J.), the maxilla and
palatine in the mammalia, 744.

the epiphyses of long bones (chiefly
in sauropsids), 745.

AnprErson (Dr. Tempest) on the collec-

tion of photographs of geological interest, |

245,

on the fossiliferous drift deposits

at Kirmington, Lincolnshire, &c., 296.

the soufriére of St. Vincent: the
changes subsequent to the eruption
of 1902, 706.

Anglesey, the composition and origin of
the crystalline rocks of, third report on,
283.

Animal and vegetable cells, the action of
acid and alkali on the growth and
division of, by Prof. B. Moore and
Dr. H. E. Roaf, 883.

Anthropological photographs, report on |

the collection of, 419.

Anthropological Section, Address by |
Prof. W. Ridgeway to the, 832.
Anthropological work in Egypt,

Prof. G. Eliot Smith, 849.

Anthropology, Notes and Queries in,
interim report on the preparation of a
new edition of, 342.

Anthropometric investigation in the British
Isles, report on, 351.

Appalachian mountain system, the
physiographic subdivisions of the,
and their effects upon settlement and
history, by Prof. W. M. Davis, 761.

Aqueducts of Rome in classical times, the
four principal, by Dr. T. Ashby, 860.

ArBer (HE. A. Newell) on the structure
of fossil plants, 493.

and H. H. Tuomas, the structure
of Sigillaria scutellata, Brongn, 915.

Are spectra, polar lines in, by Dr. W. G.
Duffield, 638.

*Arc spectra of motals under pressure,
photographs of, by Dr. W. G. Duffield,
636.

Archeological and ethnographical researches
in Crete, report on, 344.

by |

Archeological and ethnological researches |

tn Sardinia, report on, 350,

INDEX.

ARCHIBALD (D.) on the investigation of
the upper atmosphere by means of kites, —
59

Armstrone (E, C. R.), a leather shield
found in co. Longford, 854, :

Armstrone (Prof. H, E.) on dynamic
isomerism, 112.

on studies most suitable for elemen-

tary schools, 495,

on elementary experimental science,

501,

on changes affecting secondary

education, 525.

on the curricula of secondary schools,
526.

a the outlook: a grand experiment
in education, 927.

ARNOLD-BrEmrRosE (H. H.) on the micro-
scopical structure of the Derbyshire
limestones, 702.

Aromatic hydrazines, the action of
halogens upon, by Dr. F. D. Chatta-
way, 662.

Aromatic nitroamines and allied sub-
stances, the transformation of, and its
relation to substitution in benzene
derivatives, report on, 115. -

Artemis Orthia, the sanctuary of, at
Sparta, the exoavations at, by M. 8.
Thompson, 859.

Arum spadices, the electrical phenomena
and metabolism of, report on, 463.

Asusy (Dr. T.) on excavations on Roman
sites in Britain, 342.

on archeological and ethnological

researches in Sardinia, 350.

on the collection of photographs of

anthropological interest, 419.

excavations at Caerwent, Mon-
mouthshire, on the site of Venta
Silurum, in 1907-08, 857.

—— the four principal aqueducis of
the city of Rome in classical times,
860.

y;AsHwortH (Dr. J. H.), giant nerve
cells and fibres, 736.

*Assimilation, the time factor in, by
J. M. F. Drummond, 908.

AstLry (Rev. H. J. D.), cup- and ring-
markings, 862.

*Asymmetrical character of whirlwinds,
P. Durandin on the, 644.

Asymptotic expansions of Bessel func-
tions, the, by Dr. J. W. Nicholson, 595.

Atmosphere, the upper, investigation of, by
means of kites, seventh report on, 59.

; , difference of temperature in,
between equatorial and polar regions,
by L. Teisserenc de Bort, 641.

——, , investigations on the elec-
trical state of the, by W. Makower,
Margaret White, and EK. Marsden, 627.

Atmospheric density in storms, changes
of, by J, I, Craig, 644,

INDEX.

a:

Atoxyl and allied compounds, in vivo
eal vitro, the action of, by Dr. M.
Nierenstein, 742.

Avuprn (Dr. G. A.) on registering and
classifying megalithic remains in the
British Isles, 341.

— on the collection of photographs of
anthropological interest, 419.

Aupxrn (Dr. H. A.) on registering and
classifying megalithic remains in the
British Isles, 341.

Avepury (Lord) on the age of stone |

circles, 400.

Avebury excavations, 1908, the, by H.

St. G. Gray, 401.
Ayrton (Prof. W. E.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 31.

B particles emitted by radium, the
number and absorption of the, W.
Makower on, 601.

Bacteria, the death-rate of, under the
action of disinfectants, by Miss H.
Chick, 901.

Baker (Julian L.) and H. F. KE, Hutton,
the action of the enzymes of malt on
ungerminated cereals, 670.

and F. E. Day, the preparation of
pure maltose, 671.

Batrour (H.) on the age of stone circles,
400.

on the lake village at Glastonbury,

on the collection of photographs of
anthropological interest, 419.

Batt (Sir Robert), a generalised instru-
ment, 602.

—— linear vector functions, 611.

‘ Ballons-sondes’ ascents, the
chester, W. A. Harwood on, 642.

Man- |

‘ Ballons-sondes’ ascents in the British |

Isles, July 27-Aug. 1, 1908, the results
of the, by J. 8. Dines, 642.
*Barts (W. L,), the mechanism of

mitosis, 904,
*

plant, 904.

Barcrort (J.) on the ‘ metabolic balance
sheet’ of the individual tissues, 436.
on the effect of climate upon health

and disease, 442.

Barley growing and selection in Ireland,
by H. Hunter, 807.

*BarLow (Wm.) and Prof. W. J. Popx,
the structure of the open chain hydro-
carbons, 667.

BasTaBLe (Prof, C. F.), the financial
side of Irish land purchase, 786.

Bateman (H.) on conformal trans-
formations of a space of four dimen-
sions and their application to geo-
metrical optics, 627,

the natural crossing of the cotton |
| Buackman (Dr. F. F.) on marsh vegeta-

953

BatEman (H.), a suggestion with regard
to the meaning of valency, 634.

the dynamics of chemical action
and the meaning of valency, 667.

*Bareson (Prof. W.), the application
of the Mendelian theory to practical
problems, 806.

Batuer (Dr. F. A.) on the compilation
of an index generum et specierum
animalium, 297.

Beastey (H, C.) on the fauna and flora
of the Trias of the British Isles,
269,

report on tracks of invertebrates,
casts of plants, &c., and markings of
uncertain origin from the Lower Keuper,
Part I., 269.

Ben Nevis, meteorological observations on,
report on, 58.

| Bensonites fusiformis, sp. nov., a fossil

associated with Stawropteris burnt-
islandica, P. Bertrand, Mrs. D. H.
Scott on, and on the sporangia of the
latter, 915.

Benzyl sulphoxide: a possible example
of tautomerism, by Dr. J. A. Smythe,
661.

Bernaccut (L. C.), results of some
physical observations taken on the
National Antarctic expedition, 1902-
1904, 645.

a journey into the primeval forests
of tropical Peru, 769,

Bessel junctions, the Jurther tabulation
of, report on, 58.

the asymptotic expansions of,
by Dr. J. W. Nicholson, 595.

Brvan (Rev. J. 0.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 536.

Bipper (G. P.) on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at Naples,
297.

Bryeiey (G.) on the collection of pheto-
graphs of geological interest, 245.

Birket el Qurun, Fayum province of
Egypt, a biological expedition to the,
by Dr. W. A. Cunnington and C. L.
Boulenger, 732.

tion, 492.
Address to the Botanical Section,
884.
= photo-chemical action in the

test-tube and the leaf, 904.

and Miss Nora Darwin, the
death-rate of cells of higher plants in
fatal conditions, 902.

Buarr (R.), education under a local
authority, 927.

Blood-stains, the biological
of differentiating, by Prof.
McWeeney, 882.

Body metabolism in cancer, report on,
489,

*

method
By od.

954

Boiling-point of sulphur, the effect of
pressure on the, by Dr. J. A. Harker
and F. P. Sexton, 621.

Bouton (H.) on a section of the lower
coal measures at Emerald Pit, Dun-
gannon, 698.

contemporaneous erosion in the
lower series of coal measures of the
Bristol coal-field, 713.

Bonk (Prof.) on gaseous explosions, 308.

Bonn (Dr. M. J.), the psychological
aspect of agrarian reform in Ireland,
795.

Bonney (Dr. T. G.) on seismological
investigations, 60.

on the erratic blocks of the British

Isles, 242.

on the collection of photographs of

geological interest, 245.

on the oscillations of the level of the
land in the Mediterranean basin, 308.

Bosanquet (Prof. R. C.) on excavations
on Roman sites in Britain, 342.

on archeological and ethnographical

researches in Crete, 344.

on archeological and ethnological
researches in Sardinia, 350.

Boss (Prof. J. C.), the mechanical and
electrical response of plants, 903.

*Botanical photographs, report on the
registration of, 911.

Botanical Section, Address by Dr. F. F.
Blackman to the, 884.

Borromiey (Dr. J. T.) on practical
electrical standards, 31.

Bovutrencrer (C. L.) and Dr. W. A.
CuNNINGTON, a biological expedition
to the Birket el Qurun, Fayum pro-
vince of Egypt, 732.

BovuLencer (G. A.) on the abuse of the
tule of priority in zoological nomen-
clature, and on _ protecting well-
established names, 735.

Bourne (Prof. G. C.) on the fauna of the
lakes of Central Tasmania, 302.

on experiments on the development of
the frog, 304.

BovusFiExp (Sir Wm.) on changes affecting
secondary education, 525.

Boys (C. Vernon) on the investigation of
the upper atmosphere by means of kites,
59.

*

on seismological investigations, 60.

Brasroor (Sir Edward) on excavations
on Roman sites in Britain, 342.

—— an anthropometric investigation in
the British Isles, 351.

on the conditions of health essential
to the carrying on of the work of in-
struction in schools, 458.

——- on the “work Yof the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 536.

*Brazilin and hematoxylin, by R. Robin-
son, 661,

INDEX.

Breakages, the study of, by W. Rosen-
hain, 826.

*Breeding and the relation of modern
theories of heredity to the problems of
the stock-raiser, discussion on, 806.

Brutyzt (Dr. A.) and E. Hiyptz, the
morphology of Piroplasma canis, 742.

——~ and J. E. S. Moors, the life-history
of trypanosomes in relation to the
diseases they produce, 743.

*Bristol coal-field, | contemporaneous
erosion in the lower series of coal
measures of the, by H. Bolton, 713.

British Association storm of 1908, some
particulars of the, by Dr. W. N. Shaw,
647.

British birds, the feeding habits of, an
inquiry into, by C. G. Hewitt, 734.

British stone circles, who built them ? by
J. Gray, 856.

Bropte (Prof. T. J.) on the ‘ metabolic
balance sheet’ of the individual tissues,
436.

Broprick (Harold) on the occurrence of
(so-called) cave pearls, 704.

on casts of dinosaurian footprints
in the lower oolite at Whitby, 707.

— the Marble Arch caves in co. Fer-
managh, 770.

Brooks (J. Graham), social aspects of
agricultural co-operation, 794.

Brown (Prof. A. Crum) on meteorological
observations on Ben Nevis, 58.

*Brown (Prof. Adrian), the selective per-
meability of certain seeds, 675.

Brown (Dr. H. T.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 536.

Brown (John), an improved dry Daniell
pile, 623.

and M. F. FirzGEra.p, experiments
on rotating dises, 830.

Broce (Col. Sir D.) on the effect of climate
upon health and disease, 442.

Bruce (Dr. W. S.) on the exploration of
Prince Charles Foreland, Spitsbergen,
306. j

scientific results of the voyage of the
‘ Scotia,’ 764.

Brunton (Sir Lauder) on the effect of
climate upon health and disease, 442.
Bryce (Dr. George), the northern mound-

builders of North America, 851.

Buist (Major H. J. M.) on anthropometric
investigation in the British Isles, 351.
Butter (A.) on the lake village at

Glastonbury, 414.

Burgsvury (S. H.) on the law of equi-
partition of energy between correlated
variables, 598.

Burewrn (Mrs. E. M.), special schools for
the physically defective and mentally
deficient, 929.

Burstauu (Prof,) on gaseous explosions,
308.

INDEX.

Burton (F. M.) on the erratic blocks of the |
British Isles, 242.

BurcusEr (Dr. 8. H.) on changes affecting
secondary education, 525.

* Butterflies, South American, some of the
chief mimetic combinations among, by
J. C. Moulton, 734.

*Butterflies of North America, mimicry
in the, by Prof. E. B. Poulton, 734.
*Butterfly, the African swallow-tail, as
an example of mimicry, Prof. E. B.

Poulton on, 734.

Caerleon, Monmouthshire, excavations |
at, by H. G. Evelyn-White, 858.

Caerwent, excavations at, in 1907-08, by
Dr. T. Ashby, 857.

Caerwent, the Roman site at, report on the
plant remains found on, by A. H. Lyell,
343.

CaLLENDAR (Prof. H. L.) on practical
electrical standards, 31.

on gaseous explosions, 308.

the deviation of actual gases from the
tdeal state, 334.

Cambrian rocks of Comley, Shropshire,
some excavations in the, 1907, by E. S.
Cobbold, 231.

CaMPBELL (J. R.), agricultural education,
804.

CaMpBELL (Dr. S. G.) on the effect of |
climate upon health and disease, 442.

Camphor, the preparation of, from tur- |
pentine oil, by Dr. C. Weizmann, 661. |

Canada, the northward expansion of, by
W. L. Grant, 765.

Cancer, body metabolism in, report on, 489.

Cannan (Prof. Edwin), the economic
ideal and its application to countries
or nations, 789.

Captive balloon, the, at the Howard Estate |
kite station, by J. E. Petavel, 59.

Carbohydrates of the snowdrop leaf, the,
and their bearing on the first sugar of
photosynthesis, by John Parkin, 907.

Carbon dioxide, the solubility of, in
water, the influence of colloids and
colloid suspensions on, by Dr. A.
Findlay, 667.

*Carcinoma, a, occurring in mice, the
action of two sera on, by C. E. Walker,
882.

CaRPENTER (Prof. G. H.) on detailed
natural history surveys of restricted
areas, 550.

—— oon some Arctic and Antarctic
collembola, 733.

some Irish experiments on warble-
flies, 807.

Carr (Prof. J. W.) on the fossiliferous
drift deposits at Kirmington, Lincoln-
shire, &c., 296,

955

CARRUTHERS (R. G.) and H. B. Murr, the
lower palezozoic rocks around Killary
Harbour, co. Galway, and co. Mayo,
699.

CaRTER (Rev. W. Lower) on the fossili-
Jerous drift deposits at Kirmington,
Lincolnshire, &c., 296.

Cartography of the counties of England
and Wales, H. G. Fordham on the,
768. :

Castlepook Cave, near Doneraile, co.
Cork, R. J. Ussher, H. J. Seymour,
E. T. Newton, and R. F. Scharff on,
697.

Catucart (Dr. E. P.), the relationship
of the pyloric to the fundic part of the
stomach, 879.

Cave (C. J. P.), theodolite observations
of balloons penetrating the isothermal
layer, 598.

Cave pearls (so-called), the occurrence of,
H. Brodrick on, 704.

*Cells of higher plants in fatal condi-
tions, the death-rate of, by Miss Nora
Darwin and Dr. Blackman, 902.

Cerebral localisation in the prosimiz,
the interpretation of the results
obtained from the study of, by Profs.
W. H. Wilson and G. E. Smith, 875.

Ceylon pearl banks, a recent visit to the,
by Prof. W. A. Herdman, 738.

Character and educational efficiency,
by T. P. Gill, 933.

Charnwood rocks, the microscopical and
chemical composition of, interim report
on, 705.

Cuatraway (Dr. F. D.), the action of
halogens upon aromatic hydrazines,
662.

some reactions of dichloro urea, 663.

Chemical action, the dynamics of, and
the meaning of valency, by H. Bate-
man, 667.

*Chemical change, the nature of, dis-
cussion on, 665.

Chemical Section, Address by Prof.
F. 8S. Kipping to the, 649.

Cuick (Miss Harriette), the death-rate
of bacteria under the action of dis-
infectants, 901.

Chinese earthquakes, a catalogue of, by
Shinobu Hirota, 82.

CutsHoi~m (G. G.) on the exploration of
Prince Charles Foreland, Spitsbergen,
306.

CuREE (Dr.) on magnetic observations at
Falmouth Observatory, 55.

CLaRKE (Miss L. J.) on studies most
suitable for elementary schools, 495.

school gardens, 931.

*Clear speaking and reading aloud,
discussion on, 939.

CiERK (Dugald) on gaseous explosions,

308.

956

Crirrk (Dugald), Address to the Engincer-
ing Section, 809.

Climate, the effect of, wpon health and
disease, report on, 442.

our, is it changing ?
J. W. Moore, 623.

CLincu (George) on the classification of
the megalithic and analogous pre-
historic remains of Great Britain and
Treland, 862.

CiosE (Major C. F.) on the measurement

by Sir

of a further portion of the geodetic arc of

meridian north of LakeTanganyika,56.
Coal measures, the lower, at Emerald
Pit, Dungannon,
section of, 698.
Coatres (H.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest, 245.
CogpBoLp (E. 8.) on some excavations in

the Cambrian rocks of Comley, Shrop- |

shire, 1907, 231.

Correry (George), the distribution of gold
lunule, 854.

—— the survival of La Téne ornament

in some Celtic penannular brooches, |

854.

—— on the Tara brooch, 854.

Coxer (Prof.), on gaseous explosions, 308.

*ConE (Prof. G. A. J.), the geology of the
Dublin district, 697.

probable cretaceous and cainozoic

outliers of the coast of co. Kerry, 697.

the laterite and bauxite zone of

North-east Ireland, 699.

Trish soil maps, 804.

Collembola, some Arctic and Antarctic,
Prof. G. H. Carpenter on, 733.

Cottrnawoop (Fleet-Surgeon G. T.) on
anthropometric investigation in the
British Isles, 351.

Colloid chemistry, by H. R. Procter, 201.

Colloids and colloid suspensions, the
influence of, on the solubility of
carbon dioxide in water, by Dr. A.
Findlay, 667.

Colorado canyon, the, by Prof. W. M.
Davis, 948.

Colour-blindness and colour-perception,
by Dr. F. W. Edridge-Green, 876.

oa

Colour changes in flowers produced by |

controlling insolation, by Col. H. E.
Rawson, 902.

*Colours of animals, a method of regis-
tering, by Major Barrett Hamilton,
808.

Complementary theorem, the, by Prof.
J. C. Fields, 599.

Conditions of health essential to the
carrying on of the work of instruction
in schools, report on the, 458.

Conformal transformations of a space
of four dimensions and their applica-
tion to geometrical optics, H. Bateman
on, 627.

H. Bolton on a |

INDEX,

Conservative systems of prescribed tta-
jectories, by Prof. E. O. Lovett, 614.
*Conway (Prof. A. W.), applications of
quaternions to problems in physical

optics, 627.

distribution of electricity on a
moving sphere, 629.

Coorrer (Miss A. J.) on the conditions
of health essential to the carrying on of
the work of instruction in schools, 458.

on studies most suitable for elementary
schools, 495.

CopEMaNn (Dr. 8. M.) on body metabolism
in cancer, 489.

Corbridge, pre-Roman and natural history
remains at, report of work on, 1907-08,
343.

Correlated variables, the law of equi-
partition of energy between, 8. H.
Burbury on, 598,

Correlation of primary, secondary, and
university education in Ireland, Prof.
B. Moore on the. 934.

Corresponding Societies Committee :—

Report, 536.

Conference at Dublin, 538.

List of Corresponding Societies, 552.

Papers published by Corresponding
Societies, 557.

CoRSTORPHINE (Dr. G.) on topographical
and geological terms used locally in
South Africa, 291.

*

| Cortre (Rey. A. L.) on the possible

existence of steam in the regions of
sun-spots, 639,

*Cotton plant, the natural crossing of
the, by W. L. Balls, 904.

Cowar (M. Dalton), Dr. L. Monn, and
Dr. H. Hirvz on a volatile compound
of cobalt with carbon monoxide, 665.

Crate (J. T.), changes of atmospheric
density in storms, 644,

Craik (Sir Henry) on changes affecting
secondary education, 525.

Cranium, certain changes in the lateral
wall of the, due to muscular develop-
ment, Prof. J. Symington on, 855.

Crrak (Capt. E. W.) on magnetic observa-
tions at Falmouth Observatory, 55.

on investigations in the Indian
Ocean, 305.

Cretaceous and cainozoic outliers, prob-
able, off the coast of co. Kerry, by
Prof. G. A. J. Cole, 697.

Crete, archeological and ethnographical re-
searches in, report on, 344.

Critical sections in the palewozoic rocks of
Wales and the West of England, report
on the excavation of, 231.

Croox (C. V.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest, 245.

Crooks (W.),Rajputs and Mahrattas,850.

CrosstrY (Prof. A. W.) on the study of
hydro-aromatic substances, 221

INDEX.

Orystalline rocks of Anglesey, the compo- |
sition and origin of the, third report on, |
283.

CuLVERWELL (Prof. E. P.), influence of |
mental values of types of education,
940.

CunninGuam (Lt.-Col. A.), factorisation
of the A.P.F. of N=(y" +1), 615.

CunnincuaM (Prof. D. J.) on the prepara-
tion of a new edition of Notes and
Queries in Anthropology, 342.

on anthropometric investigations
in the British Isles, 351.

Cunnineton (Dr. W. A.) and C. L.
BouLrencER, a biological expedition
to the Birket el Qurun, Fayum
province of Egypt, 732.

Cup- and ring-markings, by Rev. H. J.
D. Astley, 862.

CurrELxy (C. T.), asequence of Egyptian
stone implements, 848.

*Currents in the upper air of Egypt and
the Sudan, observations of, by Capt.
H. G. Lyons, 644.

Curricula of secondary schools, report on
the, 526.

Cutlery industry, industrial revolution
in the, by G. I. H. Lloyd, 792.

OCycads, South African, second interim
report on, and on welwitschia, 494,

Dasy (Prof.)-on gaseous explosions, 308.

DanteLtt (G. F.) on the curricula of
secondary schools, 526.

on the sequence of studies in the
science section of the curriculum, 526.

Daniell pile, an improved dry, by John
Brown, 623.

Darwin (Dr. Francis), Presidential Ad-
dress, 3.

Darwin (Sir George) on the measurement
of a further portion of the geodetic arc of
meridian north of Lake Tanganyika, 56.

on seismological investigations, 60.

Darwin (H.) on seismological investiga-
tions, 60.

Darwin (Major L.)
investigations, 60.
*Darwin (Miss Nora) and Dr. Biacx-
MAN, the death-rate of cells of higher

plants in fatal conditions, 902.

Davey (Henry), the advisability of
restocking haunts whence fauna and
flora have disappeared, 550.

Davies (Benjamin) and Sir OLiver
Lonce on the measurement of large
inductances containing iron, 620.

Davis (Prof. W. M.), glacial erosion
in North Wales, 705.

—— the physiographical subdivisions
of the Appalachian mountain system,
and their effects upon settlement and
history, 761. &3 YTOs |

on seismological

957

Davis (Prof. W. M.), the Colorado canyon,
948,

Dawxtns (Prof. W. Boyd) on the age of
stone circles, 400.

on the lake village at Glastonbury,

414.

the derivation of sand and clay
from granite, 705.

Day (F. E.) and J. L. Baxsr, the

* preparation of pure maltose, 671.

Deaths under anesthetics, the prevention
of, by Dr. F. W. Hewitt, 872.

*Deccan basalt, the occurrence of native
iron in, Prof. J. Joly on, 703.

Dendrosoma radians, the structure of,
Prof. 8. J. Hickson and J. T. Wads-
worth on, 744.

Denpy (Prof. A.) on the occupation of a
table at the marine laboratory, Ply-
mouth, 304.

Density of liquids at low temperatures,
the, by Dr. J. Timmermans, 668,

Depopulation of Ireland, the, by R. H.
Murray, 788.

Derbyshire limestones, the microscopical
structure of the, by Dr. H. H. Arnold-
Bemrose, 702.

Descu (Dr. C. H.) on dynamic isomerism,
112,

Dewar (Prof. Sir J.) on wave-length

» tables of the spectra of the elements, 119.

* the rate of production of helium
from radium, 602.

anticipations and experiments on
the liquefaction of helium, 673.

Diaposematism, or the interchange of
characters between distasteful forms,
Dr. F. A. Dixey on, 733.

Dichloro urea, some reactions of, by
Dr. F. D. Chattaway, 663.

Dicotyledons, the origin of, by W. C.
Worsdell, 911.

Digestive enzymes of invertebrates, the,
by Dr. H. E. Roaf, 746.

Dryzs (J. 8.), the results of the ‘ ballons-
sondes’ ascents in the British Isles,
July 27-Aug. 1, 1908, 642.

Dryus (W. H.) on the investigation of the
upper atmosphere by means of kites, 59.

Dinka laws and customs, a collection of,
E. Sidney Hartland on, 850.

Dinosaurian footprints in the lower oolite
at Whitby, on casts of, by H. Brodrick,
707.

Discussions :—
on the isothermal layer of the atmo-

sphere, 591.
*on gaseous explosions, 595.
on the theory of wave-motion, 605.
*on the nature of chemical change, 665.
on problems of fermentation, 674.
*on peat, 676.
on mountain building, 708.
on determination of sex, 738, 3

*

~_

958

Discussions :—

*on instruction in universities as a
preparation for commerce and busi-
ness life, 796.

*on breeding and the relation of modern
theories of heredity to the problems
of the stock raiser, 806.

on mental and muscular fatigue, 873.

*on instruction of school teachers in
physiology and hygiene, 878.

on education in relation to rural life,
930.

on education in Ireland, 933.

on training in teaching, 935.

*on (a) note-taking and reports on
work ; (b) clear speaking and read-
ing aloud, 939.

on types of education
relative values, 939.

on experimental studies in education,
941.

Divers (Dr. E.) on the study of hydro-
aromatic substances, 221.

Divided object-glass telescope, a new
form of, by Sir Howard Grubb, 603.
Dixry (Dr. F. A.) on diaposematism,
or the interchange of characters

between distasteful forms, 733.

Dixon (Prof. A. C.), an elementary
discussion of Schlifli’s double-six, 616,

on the logarithmic case in linear

differential equations, 617.

Dixon (Prof. A. F.) on anthropometric
investigation in the British Isles, 351.
the significance of the so-called
accessory dental masses sometimes

found in the upper jawbones, 856.

Dixon (Prof. H. B.) on gaseous explosions,
308.

Drxon (Prof. H. H.), the influence of
living cells on the transpiration current,
901.

Dossre (Dr. J. J.) on dynamic iso-
merism, 112.

Dose. (C. C.) on his occupation of the

and their

table at the zoological station at
Naples, 298.

Dolomite crystals from Algeria, the
chemical composition and _ optical

characters of, by Dr. A. Hutchinson,
701.

Doncaster (L.) on determination of sex,
738.

Dopplerite from Sluggan bog, co. Antrim,
by R. Welch, 708.

Dowson (J. Emerson), producer gas, 825.

Droop (J. P.), neolithic culture in North
Greece, 858. :

*Drummonp (J. M. F.), the time factor
in assimilation, 908.

DucxwortsH (Dr. W. L. H.) on archeo-
logical and ethnological researches in
Sardinia, 350.

Ductless glands, report on the, 440.

“INDEX,

*DUFFIELD (Dr. W.:G.), photographs of
are spectra of metals under pressure,
636.

polar lines in are spectra, 638.

*Dounuam (Dr. Carroll), agricultural edu-
cation for business and for knowledge,
805.

*DURANDIN (Paul) on the asymmetrical
character of whirlwinds, 644.

Du Torr (A.) on topographical and
geological terms used locally in South
Africa, 291.

DweErRyYHOvSE (Dr. A. R.) on the erratic
blocks of the British Isles, 242.

on the fossiliferous drift deposits at
Kirmington, Lincolnshire, &c., 296.

Dynamic isomerism, report on, 112.

*Dynamic isomerism of oxymethylene
camphor derivatives, the, by- Prof.
W. J. Pope and John Read, 661.

Dyson (Prof. F. W.) on meteorological
observations on Ben Nevis, 58.

systematic motion of the stars, 604.

Earth movements, recent, within the
basin of the Laurentian lakes, by Prof.
W. H. Hobbs, 707.

Earthquakes, Chinese, a catalogue of, by
Shinobu Hirota, 82.

large, the duration and direction of,

by Dr. J. Milne, 706.

and great waves in distant places,
the possible connection between, Rey.
H. V. Gill on, 647.

Echelon spectroscope, secondary effects
in the, by H. Stansfield, 636.

Economic and statistical investigation
in agriculture, by W. G. S. Adams, 796.

Economic ideal, the, and its application
to countries or nations, by Prof. E.
Cannan, 789.

Economic Science and Statistics, Address
to Section of, by W. M. Aeworth, 773.

Economic survey of the United Kingdom,
proposals for an, by H. W. Macrosty,
791.

Epceworts (Prof. F. M.) on certain
peculiarities of small duties on imports
and exports, 786.

EpriIpGe-GREEN (Dr. F. W.), colour-
blindness and colour-perception, 876.
Education in Ireland, discussion on, 933.
Education in relation to rural life,

discussion on, 930.

Education under a local authority, by
R. Blair, 927.

Educational opportunities of local scien-
tific societies, the, by Prof. H. A. Miers,
540.

Educational Section, Address by Prof.
L. C. Miall to the, 917.

Eeaar (W. D.) on the curricula of
secondary schools, 526.

4

INDEX.

Eeoar (W. D.) on the sequence of studies in |

the science section of the curriculum, 526.

Egypt, anthropological work in, by
Prof. G. Elliot Smith, 849.

— the petrography of, Dr. W. F.
Hume on, 700.

Egyptian stone implements, a sequence
of, by C. T. Currelly, 848.

Electric spark, further experiments on
the constitution of the, by T. Royds,
637.

Electrical measurements, experiments for
improving the construction of practical
standards for, report on, 31.

Electrical phenomena and metabolism of
Arum spadices, report on the, 463.

Electrical response to stimulation, a

959

Ethnographical and archeological re-
searches in Crete, report on, 344.

Ethnological and archeological researches
in Sardinia, report on, 350.

Evans (Dr. A. J.) on archeological and
ethnographical researches in Crete, 344.

on the age of stone circles, 400.

on the lake village at Glastonbury,
414,

Evans (Sir J.) on archeological and
ethnographical researches in Crete, 344.

Evetyn-Wuite (H. G.), excavations at
Caerleon, Monmouthshire, 858.

| *Ewarrt (Prof. J. Cossar), wild ancestors

propagated, the occurrence in certain

vegetable tissues of, by Miss Kemp, 470.
*Electricity, distribution of, on a moving
sphere, by Prof. A. W. Conway, 629.
Electricity in agriculture, by Sir O. Lodge,

804

Electroanalytical separation of metals,
the rapid, a demonstration on, by Dr.
H. J. 8. Sand, 673.

*Electro-deposition of metals, studies on
the, by W. E. Hughes and Dr. F. M.
Perkin, 674.

Electrolytic hydrogen, the velocity of the |

reducing action of, on arsenious and
arsenic acids when liberated from the
surface of diferent elements, W.
Thomson on, 647.

Electromagnetic fields, general, the ex- |

tension of optical ideas to, Prof. E. T.
Whittaker on, 629.

Elementary experimental science, report |

on, 501

Elementary schools, studies most suitable
for, report on, 495.

*Elliptic functions, the genesis of, by
R. Russell, 601.

Extison (Dr. F. O’B.), isolation of a

physiologically active substance from ,

peptone, 879.

Endosperm, the morphology of, Prof. |

H. H. W. Pearson on, 914.
Engineering Section, Address by Dugald
Clerk to the, 809.

English agriculturists, the productivity |

of, by Prof. J. Wilson, 795.

Enzymes of malt, the action of the, on |

ungerminated cereals, by J. L. Baker
and H. F. E. Hulton, 670.
Epiphyses, the, of long bones (chiefly in
hes by Prof. R. J. Anderson,
45.
Eguatorials, clock-driving mechanism of,
by Sir Howard Grubb, 829.

Erratic blocks of the British Isles, report |

on the, 242.

Ether stress of gravitation, Prof. F.
Purser on the, 613.

of the domestic horse, 738.

Ewrne (Prof. J. A.) on seismological
investigations, 60.

*Experimental breeding farms, by W.
Heape, 806.

Experimental studies in education, dis-
cussion on, 941.

by Prof. J. A. Green, 941.

Factorisation of the A.P.F. of N=(y" #1),
by Lt.-Col. A. Cunningham, 615.

Fatxaize (E. N.) on the preparation of
a new edition of Notes and Queries
in Anthropology, 342.

on anthropometric investigation im

the British Isles, 351.

on the collection of photographs of
anthropological interest, 419.

Falmouth Observatory, report on magnetic
observations at, 55.

Farmer (Prof. J. B.) on the electrical
phenomena and metabolism of Arum
spadices, 463.

on the sequence of plant remains in
certain peat deposits, 493. -

Fatigue, by Wm. McDougall, 479.

by Prof, T. H. Milroy, 873.

mental, some aspects of, by H. 8.

Lawson, 874.

mental and muscular, discussion on,
873.

Fauna and flora of the Trias, biblio-
graphical notes on the, 1826-76, by
A. R. Horwood, 277.

Fauna and flora of the Trias of the
British Isles, sixth report on the, 269.

Fauna of the lakes of Central Tasmania,
report on the, 302.

| Faunal succession in the carboniferous

limestone (Avonian) of the British Isles,

_ report of the Committee to enable Dr.
A. Vaughan to continue his researches
on the, 267.

Frarnsipes (W. G.) on the excavation
of critical sections in the palewozoic
rocks of Wales and the West of England,
231.

— the tourmaline rocks of Cwm
Dwythwe, near Llanberis, 704,

960

Feeding habits of British birds, an
inquiry into the, by C. G. Hewitt, 734.

Fermentation, problems of, discussion
on, 674.

alcoholic, the factors which influ-
ence the rate of, by Dr. A. Slator, 674.

Fietps (Prof. J. C.), the complementary
theorem, 599,

Fron (Dr. L. N. G.) on the further tabula-
tion of Bessel functions, 58.

Tinptay (Dr. Alex.), the influence of
colloids and colloid suspensions on the
solubility of carbon dioxide in water,
667.

Frypuay (Prof. J. J.) on the curricula of
secondary schools, 526.

and P. SANDIFORD,
method in the study of education, 942.

* Wishes, the evolution of, by Dr. A. Smith
Woodward, 740.

FirzGeraup (Maurice IF.) and Joun
Brown, experiments on rotating discs,
830.

Firzpatrick (Rev. T. C.) on practical
electrical standards, 31.
Fremine (Prof. J. A.)
electrical standards, 31.
Fietcuer (George) on studies most

suitable for elementary schools, 495,

rural education, 932.

Flight, the laws of, by F, W. Lanchester,
827.

Flora and fauna of the Trias, bibliographi-
cal notes on the, 1826-76, by A. R.
Horwood, 277.

Flora and fauna of the Trias of the
British Isles, sixth report on the, 269.
Fluctuating functions, Sir W. R. Hamil-

ton’s, Dr. E. W. Hobson on, 597.

TFotny (Rt. Rev. Dr.), the problem of
rural education in Irish primary
schools, 932.

Fores (Major W. L.) on the exploration
of Prince Charles Foreland, Spits-
bergen, 306.

Forpuam (H. G.) on the cartography of
the counties of England and Wales,
768.

Forster (Dr. M. 0.) on dynamic iso-
merism, 112.

—— on the study of hydro-aromatic
substances, 221.

Fossil plants, the structure of, report on,
493.

Fossil reptile with a trunk, a, from the
Upper Karroo rocks of Cape Colony,
Prof. H. G. Seeley on, 713.

Fossil reptilia classed as Cynodontia and
Gomphodontia, distinctions in den-
tition between the, by Prof. H. G.
Seeley, 714.

Fossiliferous drift deposits at Kirmington,
Lincolnshire, &c., interim report on
the, 296.

on practical

scientific |

INDEX.

Fosrar (Prof, G. Carey) on practical elec
trical standards, 31.

{Fox (F. Douglas), general urban and
inter-urban transportation and railless
electric traction, 830.

Fox (W. L.) on magnetic observations at
Falmouth Observatory, 55.

FRANCKE (Prof. E.), international agree-
ments on labour legislation, 790.

Frangs (Sir Kendal) on the effect of
climate upon health and disease, 442.

*FRASER (Prof. Alex.), points connected
with the vertebrate alimentary canal,
more particularly in that of the
higher mammalia, 744.

the development and adult form of
the human brain, 856.

Frog, the, experiments on the development
of, report on, 304. ;

Furtone (Rev. George), unique experi-
ences at the birth of a volcano, 770.

a

GARDINER (C. I.) and Prof. 8. H, Rry-
NOLDS, the igneous and associated
sedimentary rocks of the Tourmakeady
district, co. Mayo, 699.

GARDINER (J. Stanley) on investigations
in the Indian Ocean, 305.

Garson (Dr. J. G.) on the age of stone
circles, 400, '

on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 536.

Garwoop (Prof. E. J.) on the collection
of photographs of geological interest, 245.

Gases, actual, the deviation of, from the
tdeal state, by Prof. H. L. Callendar,
334.

Gaseous explosions, first report on, 308.

* discussion on, 595

Gastro-intestinal ganglionic nervous sys-
tem, the, by Sir James Grant, 878.

Gerixie (Prof. J.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest, 245.

Generalised instrument, a, by Sir Robert
Ball, 602.

Genesp (Prof. R. W.) on the analysis
of projection, 632.

Geodetic arc of meridian north of Lake
Tanganyika, report on the measurement
of a further portion of the, 56.

Geographical Section, Address by Major
H. Hills to the, 748.

Geological and topographical terms used
locally in South Africa, report on the
precise significance of, 291.

Geological photographs, sixteenth report
on the collection of, 245

Geological Section, Address by Prof.
J. Joly to the, 677.

*Geology cf the Dublin district, the, by
Prof. G. A. J. Cole, 697.

{Giant nerve cells and fibres, by Dr. J. H.
Ashworth, 736. 4

INDEX,

Gibss (Prof. Wolcott) on wave-length

tables of the spectra of the elements, 119. |

QGisson (Prof. R. J. H.) on the sequence of
plant remains in certain peat deposits,
493.

Grit (Sir David) on the measurement of a

| ‘urther portion of the geodetic are of
meridian north of Lake Tanganyika, 56.

-—— on the work of the Corresponding |

Societies Committee, 536.

Gitt (Rev. H. V.) on the possible con- |

nection between earthquakes and great
waves in distant places, 647.

Git (T. P.), character and educational
efficiency, 933.

Glacial erosion in North Wales, by
Prof. W. M. Davis, 705.

Glastonbury, the lake village at, tenth
report on, 414. 2

GLAZEBROOK (Dr. R. T.) on practical
electrical standards, 31.

on magnetic observations at Falmouth

Observatory, 55.

on the investigation of the wpper

atmosphere by means of kites, 59.

on seismological investigations, 60.

on the photometric standard of the
National Physical Laboratory, 623.

*Glomerular secretion of the kidneys,
certain factors in the, by Prof. A. B.
Macallum, 871.

Gopman (F. Du Cane) on the zoology of
the Sandwich Islands, 301.

*Gold coinage in circulation in the United
Kingdom, interim report on the amount
of, 789.

Gotpis (Sir G. T.) on the measurement
of a further portion of the geodetic arc of
meridian north of Lake Tanganyika, 56.

Gomme (G. L.) on registering and classi-
tying megalithic remains in the British
Isles, 341.

on anthropometric investigation in
the British Isles, 351.

Gotcu (Prof. Francis) on the ‘ metabolic
balance-sheet’ of the individual tissues,
436.

on the electrical phenomena and

metabolism of Arum spadices, 463.

on certain features of retinal photo-
electro phenomena, 876.

GrapuHam (Dr. M. C.), the physics of high
altitudes in relation to climate and
health, 871.

Granam (G. W.), well-water supply of
the North-eastern Sudan, 712.

Grant (Sir James), the gastro-intes-
tinal ganglionic nervous system, 878.
Grant (W. L.), the northward expansion

of Canada, 765.

Gravitation, the ether stress of, Prof. F,
Purser on, 613.

Gray (Dr. H. B.) on the curricula of
secondary schools, 526,

1908,

961

Gray (H. St. George), the Avebury eacas
vations, 1908, 401:

on the lake village at Glastonbury,
414,

Gray (J.) on anthropometric investiga-
tion in the British Isles, 351.

who built the British stone circles ?

Gray (M. H.) on seismological investiga:
tions, 60.

Gray (W.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest, 245.

GREEN (Prof. J. A.), experimental
studies in education, 941.

GREEN (Rev. W. S.), Ireland ; her coasts
and rivers, 762.

GREENLY (E.) on the crystalline rocks of
Anglesey, 283.

Grecory (Professor J. W.) on Dr. A.
Vaughan’s researches on the faunal
succession in the carboniferous lime-
stone (Avonian) of the British Isles, 267.

Grucory (Prof. R. A.) on studies most
suitable jor elementary schools, 495.

on the curricula of secondary schools,
526.

on the sequence of studies in the
science section of the curriculum, 526
school geography as a mental
discipline, 762.
Grecory (R. P.) on South African
cycads, and on welwitschia, 494.
GRIFFITHS (Principal E. H.) on practical
electrical standards, 31.
on studies most suitable Jor elemen-
tary schools, 495.
on changes
education, 525.
on the curricula of secondary schools,
526

affecting secondary

on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 536.

GruBB (Sir Howard), a new form of
divided object-glass telescope, 603.

the new spectroheliograph for the

Madrid Observatory, 603.

the reflecting telescope and its

suitability for physical research, 605. .

clock-driving mechanism of equa-
torials, 829,

GUILLEMARD (Dr. F, H.) on the oscilla-
tions of the level of the land in the
Mediterranean basin, 308.

GuntueErR (R. T.) on the oscillations of
the level of the land in the Mediter-
ranean basin, 308,

Happon (Dr. A. C.) on the preparation
of a new edition of Notes and Queries in
Anthropology, 342

on anthropometric investigation in

the British Isles, 351.

3 Q

962

Happon (Dr. A.C.) onthe collection of photo-
graphs of anthropological interest, 419.
Hematococcus lacustris, the life history

of, by M. Wilson, 916.

Hexmatozoa from some Ceylon reptiles,
by Muriel Robertson, 743.

Hemo-renal index, the, by Dr. Dawson
Turner, 881.

Hareert (J. N.) on the distribution of
Irish freshwater mites (hydrarachnida),
732.

Haxupane (Dr. J. S.), Address to the
Physiological Section, 864.

Haut (A. D.) on studies most suitable for
elementary schools, 495.

Hatt (A. P.) on topographical and
geological terms used locally in South
Africa, 291.

Halley’s comet, by Prof. H. H. Turner,
945.

Halogens, the action of, upon aromatic
hydrazines, by Dr. F. D. Chattaway,
662.

*HAmMILTON (Major Barrett), a method of
registering the colours of animals, 808.

Hamilton’s, Sir W. R., fluctuating func-
tions, Dr. E. W. Hobson on, 597.

Harker (A.) on the crystalline rocks of

Anglesey, 283.

Harker (Dr. J. A.) on gaseous explosions,
308.

—— and F. P. Srxron on the effect of
pressure on the boiling-point of sulphur,
621.

Harmer (F. W.) on the erratic blocks of |

the British Isles, 242

on the fossiliferous drift deposits at
Kirmington, Lincolnshire, &c., 296.

Harmer (Dr. S. F.), Address to the
Zoological Section, 715.

Harrison (Rev. 8S. N.) on the erratic
blocks of the British Isles, 242.

Harrison (W.
photographs of geological interest, 245.

Harrnanp (EK. Sidney) on the collection of

photographs of anthropological interest,
419.

on a collection of Dinka laws and
customs, 850.

Hartiey (Prof. W. N.) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements, 119.
hee ees in radio-active minerals,

Harwoop (W. A.) on the Manchester |

“ ballons-sondes ’ ascents, 642.

Hatcu (Dr. F. H.) on topographical and
geological terms used locally in South
Africa, 291.

Hea'th and disease, the effect of climate
upon, report on, 442.

“Heare (W), experimental breeding
farms, 806.

Heawoop (E.) on the oallaction of photo-
graphs of anthropological interest, 419.

J.) on the collection of

INDEX.

Heve-Suaw (Prof.) on gaseous eaplosions,
308.

*Helium, the liquefaction of, by Dr. K.
Onnes, 673.

, anticipations and experi-
ments on, by Sir James Dewar, 673.
*Helium from radium, the rate of pro-
duction of, by Sir James Dewar, 602.
HELLER (W. M.) on studies most suitable

Jor elementary schools, 495.

on elementary experimental science,
501.

Hemsauecu (Dr. G. A.) on new methods
of obtaining the spectra of flames,
638.

Herworta (Comm. M. W. C.), a com-
parison of the changes in the tempe-
rature of the waters of the North
Atlantic and in the strength of the
trade winds, 625.

Hreertson (Dr. A. J.) on studies most
suitable for elementary schools, 495.

HerpMan (Prof. W. A.) on the fauna and
Hora of the Trias of the British Isles,
269.

on experiments in inheritance, 298.

——on investigations in the Indian
Ocean, 305.

on the work of the Corresponding

Societies Committee, 536.

a recent visit to the Ceylon pearl
banks, 738.

*HeErrInG (Dr. P. T.), changes in the
prinitary after thyroidectomy, 883.

Hewirr (C. G.), an inquiry into the
feeding habits of British birds, 734.

Herwirr (Frederic W.), the prevention
of deaths under anesthetics, 872.

Hewitt (Dr. J. T.) on the transformation
of aromatic nitroamines and allied sub-
stances, and its relation to substitution
in benzene derivatives, 115.

Hickson (Prof. §. J.) on the occupation
of a table at the zoological station at
Naples, 297.

on the zoology of the Sandwich

Islands, 301.

on experiments on the development

of the Jrog, 304.

on investigations

Ocean, 305.

and J. T. WapswortH on the
structure of Dendrosoma radians, 744.

Higgins, Bryan and William, two Irish
chemists, the work of, by Dr. A.
Meldrum, 668.

Hitz (A. W.) on marsh vegetation, 492.

Hitt (Dr. C. A.), Mitchelstown cave, 771.

*Hitt (Prof. J. P.), the early develop-
ment of the marsupialia, 739.

Hirt (Prof. M. J. M.) on the further
tabulation of Bessel functions, 58.

Hitts (Major E. H.), Address to the
Geograp iical Section, 748.

*

in the Indian

INDEX.

Hip (Dr. Wheelton) on Dr. A. Vaughan’s

. researches on the faunal succession in

F the carboniferous limestone (Avonian)
of the British Isles, 267.

Hinpie (E.) and Dr. A. Brett, the
morphology of Piroplasma canis, 742.
Hirora (Shinobu), a catalogue af Chinese

earthquakes, 82.

Hirvz (Dr. Heinrich), Dr. L. Monn, and
M. D. Cowar on a volatile compound
of cobalt with carbon monoxide,
665.

Hosss (Prof. W. H.), recent earth move-
ments within the basin of the Lauren-
tian lakes, 707.

Hogson (Dr. E. W.) on Sir W. R.
Hamilton’s fluctuating functions, 597.

Hopson (Mrs. Mary), sanctuaries for our
native flora and fauna, 547.

Hocartu (D. G.) on the oscillations of
the level of the land in the Mediter-
ranean basin, 308.

on excavations on Roman sites in

Britain, 342.

on archeological and ethnographical

researches in Crete, 344.

on archeological and ethnological
researches in Sardinia, 350.

Honpen (Lieut.-Col.) on gaseous ex-
plosions, 308.

Homes (T. V.) on the work of the Cor-
responding Societies Committee, 536.
Horxktnson (Prof. B.) on gaseous ex-

plosions, 308.

Horxrnson (J.) on the work of the Cor-
responding Societies Committee, 536.
Horne (Dr. J.) on the erratic blocks of

the British Isles, 242.

on the sequence of plant remains in
certain peat deposits, 493.

*Horse, the domestic, wild ancestors of,
by Prof. J. C. Ewart, 738.

Horwoop (A. R.), bibliographical notes
on the fora and fauna of the Trias, 1826-
1876, 277.

Housing of the working classes in
Treland, the, by N. J. Synnott, 787.

Howartu (J. H.) on the Jossiliferous |
drift deposits at Kirmington, Lincoln- |

shire, &c., 296.

Hoye (Dr. W. E.) on the compilation
of an index generum et specierum
animalium, 297.

Huacins (Sir W.) on the curricula of |

secondary schools, 526.

*Hucues (W. E.) and Dr. F. M. PERKIN,
studies on the electro-deposition of
metals, 674.

Huron (H. F. E.) and J. L. Baxer, the

action of the enzymes of malt on

ungerminated cereals, 670.
*Human brain, the development and
\ adult form of the, by Prof. A, Fraser,
; 856.,

_ International

963

Human cerebral cortex, the localisation
of the, by Prof. G. Elliot Smith, 876.
Hume (Dr. W. F.) on the petrography

of Egypt, 700.

Hunter (Herbert), barley growing and
selection in Ireland, 807.

Hourcuinson (Dr. A.), tho chemical
composition and optical characters
of dolomite crystals from Algeria,
701.

a protractor for constructing stereo-
graphic and gnomonic projections of
the sphere, 701.

Hydro-aromatic substances, report on the
study of, 221.

*Hydrocarbons, the open chain, the
structure of, by Prof. W. J. Pope and
W. Barlow, 667.

Igneous and associated sedimentary
rocks of the Tourmakeady district,
co. Mayo, the, by C. I. Gardiner and
Prof. 8. H. Reynolds, 699.

*Igneous rocks of the outer Blasket
Islands, Prof. J. Joly on the, 699.

*Iupry (F.), the management of smell
holdings, 808.

*Inactive gases, the, by Sir W. Ramsay,
672.

Increase in dry weight as a measure of
assimilation, D. Thoday on, 905.

Index generum et specierum animalium,
report on the compilation of an, 297.

Indian Ocean, investigations in the, third
report on, 305.

| Inductance of two parallel wires, the, by

Dr. J. W. Nicholson, 612.

Inductances, large, containing iron, the
measurement of, by Sir O. Lodge and
B. Davies, 620.

Industrial evolution in the cutlery
industry, by G. I. H. Lloyd, 792.

Inheritance, experiments in, interim
report on, 298.

*TInstruction in universities as a prepara-
tion for commerce and business life,
discussion on, 796.

*Instruction of school teachers in
physiology and hygiene, discussion on,
878. j

Instruments, new, for travellers and sur-
veyors, by E. A. Reeves, 766.

Intensity of light, time of exposure, and
photogrsphic action, the relation be-
tween, Prof. H. H. Turner on, 604.

agreements on labour
legislation, by Prof. E. Francke, 790.

International ohm and international am-
pere, specifications for the practical
realisation of the dejnitions of the,
and instructions for the preparation
of the Weston cadmium cell, 51.

3Q2

~

964

Ipswich, an ancient land surface in a
river terrace at, Miss N. F. Layard
on, 861.

Treland, her coasts and rivers, by Rev.
W. 8S. Green, 762.

—— the depopulation of, by R. H.
Murray, 788.

—— the housing of the working classes
in, by N. J. Synnott, 787.

Irish horse, the, and its early history,
by Dr. R. F. Scharff, 853.

Trish land purchase, the financial side
of, by Prof. C. F. Bastable, 786.

Irish motes, the origin of, by G. H.
Orpen, 854.

Trish railways, nationalisation of, by
J. O'Connor, 784.

*Trish soil maps, by Prof. Grenville
Cole, 804.

Isopods, land, the respiration of, by
E. E. Unwin, 736.

Isothermal layer of the atmosphere, the,
discussion on, 591.

theodolite observations of balloons

penetrating, by C. P. Cave, 593.

Japan, prehistoric archeology in, by
N. G. Munro, 852.

JENKINSON (Dr. J. W.) on experiments
on the development of the jrog, 304.

Jounson (Rev. W.) on the fossiliferous
drijt deposits at Kirmington, Lincoln-
shire, &c., 296.

Joty (Prof. John), Address to the
Geological Section, 677.

* on the igneous rocks of the outer
Blasket Islands, 699.

* on the occurrence of native iron
in the Deccan basalt, 703.

Jonres (J. H.), trade unionism in tho
tinplate industry, 793.

Joycr (T. A.) on the preparation of a
new edition of Notes and Queries in
Anthropology, 342.

Jupp (Prof. J. W) on seismological in-
vestigations, 60.

——- on investigations in the Indian
Ocean, 305.

*KEEBLE (Prof. F. W.), a plant animal,
911.

Keurig (Dr. J. S.) on the oscillations of
the level of the land in the Mediter-
ranean basin, 308.

Kemp (Miss) on the occurrence in certain
vegetable tissues of a propagated elec-
trical response to stimulation, 470.

Kenpauu (Prof. P. F.) on the erratic
blocks of the British Isles, 242.

~—— on the fauna and flora of the Trias of

the British Isles, 269,

INDEX.

Kenpatu (Prof. P. F.) on the fossiliferous
drift deposits at Kirmington, Lincoln-
shire, d:c., 296.

Kerr (Dr. J.) on anthropometric inves-
tigation in the British Isles, 351.

*Kerr (J. Scott), the economic import-
ance of judicious tree-planting for
shelter by farmers, 808.

Krpston (R.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest, 245.

Kimmins (Dr. C. W.) on the conditions
of health essential to the carrying on of
the work of instruction in schools, 458,

—— on studies most suitable for elemen-
tary schools, 495,

on elementary experimental science,
501.

*KINAHAN (G. H.) on the raised beeches
of the Liffey valley, 699.

Kixcsrorp (H. 8.) on the collection of
photographs of anthropological interest,
419.

Kirrinc (Prof. F. §.) on the transforma-
tion of aromatic nitroamines and allied
substances, and its relation to substitu-
tion in benzene derivatives, 115,

Address to the Chemical Section, 649,

Knott (Prof. C. G.) on seismological
investigations, 60,

Kyowires (W. J.), perforated stone
hammers and axes, 863,

Kossgu (Prof. A.) on amyloid, 878.

Kynaston (G.) on topographical and
geological terms used locally in South
Africa, 291, :

~

Labour legislation, international agree-
ments on, by Prof. E. Francke, 790.
Lake village at Glastonbury, tenth report

on the, 414.

Lame (Prof. H.) on the theory of wave-
motion, 605.

Lametucn (G. W.) on topographical
and geological terms used locally in
South Ajrica, 291.

on the fossiliferous drijt deposits
at Kirmington, Lincolnshire, &c., 296.

LANCHESTER (F, W.), the laws of flight,
827,

Land surface, an ancient, in a river
terrace at Ipswich, Miss N. F, Layard
on, 861.

Lane (Dr. W. H.) on South African
cycads and on welwitschia, 494.

LANKESTER (Sir E. Ray) on the ocewpa-
tion of a table at the zoological station.
at Naples, 297.

on the fauna of the lakes of Centrat
Tasmania, 302.

—— on the occupation of a table at the
marine laboratory, Plymouth, 304.

Lapwortn (Dr. A.) on dynamic isomerism,
112 !

“ae

INDEX,

LapwWorttu (Dr. A.) on the transformation
of aromatic nitroamines and allied sub-
stances, and its relation to substitution
in benzene derivatives, 115.

LarwortH (Prof. C.) on the excavation
of critical sections in the paleozoic
rocks of Wales and the West of England,
231.

*LarmMor (Prof. J.), the Zeeman effect
in sun-spots, 639,

La Téne ornament, the survival of, in
some Celtic penannular brooches, by
G. Coffey, 854.

Laterite and bauxite zone of North-east
Treland, Prof. G. A. J. Colo on the,
699.

Larter (O. H.) on the curricula of
secondary schools, 526.

—— on the sequence of studies in the
science section of the curriculum, 526.
Laurin (Douglas) on experiments in

inheritance, 298.

Laws of flight, the, by F. W. Lanchester,
827.

Lawson (H. Sackville), some aspects of
mental fatigue, 874,

Layarp (Miss N. F.) on an ancient land
surface in a river terrace at Ipswich
and on paleoliths from a gravel-pit
in the valley of the Lark, 861.

Leather shield, a, found in co. Long-
ford, by E. C. R. Armstrong, 854.

Lecithin and other phosphatives, the
constitution of, by Dr. Hugh MacLean,
877.

Lemrrrrt (R. G. K.), an apparatus for
illustrating, by intermittent vision,
the surface movement of air in travel-
ling storms, 644,

Lepidodendron and Stigmaria, the pri-
mary wood of, by Prof. F. E. Weiss,
914.

Le Sueur (Dr. H.R. ) on the study of
hydro-aromatic substances, 221,

Lzwis (A. L.) on the age of stone circles,
400.

Lewis (F. J.) on the sequence of plant
remains in certain peat deposits, 493.
*Liffey valley, the raised beeches of the,

G. H. Kinahan on, 699.

Litty (Prof. W. E.), the strength of
solid cylindrical round-ended columns,
830,

Linear differential equations, the loga-
rithmic case in, Prof. A. C, Dixon on,
617.

Linear vector functions, by Sir Robert
Ball, 611.

Listrr (J. J.) on the fauna of the lakes
of Central Tasmania, 302.

on investigations in the Indian
Ocean, 305.

Lithium in radio-active minerals, by
Prof. W. N. Hartley, 672,

965

*ZLittorina lillovea, the development of,
by W. M. Tattersall, 746,

Liverna (Prof. G. D.) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements, 119.

Liverpool Committee for excavation and
research in Wales and the Marches,
the work of the, by Prof. J. L. Myres,
857.

Luoyp (G. I. H.), industrial evolution
in the cutlery industry, 792.

*Local terms, the exact significance of
report on, 714,

Lockxygrr (Sir Norman) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements, 119.

Lopes (Prof. A.) on the further tabula-
tion of Bessel functions, 58.

Lovage (Sir Oliver) on practical electrical
standards, 31.

on the curricula of secondary schools,

526.

electricity in agriculture, 804.

and Brngamin Davies on the
measurement of large inductances
containing iron, 620.

Lomas (J.) on the excavation of critical
sections in the paleozoic rocks of Wales
and the West of England, 231.

on the erratic blocks of the British
Isles, 242.

—— on the fauna and flora of the
Trias of the British Isles, 269

on the crystalline rocks of Anglesey,
283.

*Lotsy (Dr. J. P.), a perfectly fertile

species-hybrid showing segregation,
904.
Lovett (Prof. E. 0.), conservative

systems of prescribed trajectories, 614.
Lower Kewper, report on tracks of in-
vertebrates, &ce., from the, by H. C.
Beasley, 269.
Lowry (Dr. T. M.) on dynamic isomerism,

Lunar libration, the constants of the,
by F. J. M. Stratton, 626.

Lunule, gold, the distribution of, by
G. Coffey, 854.

Lyzu (A. H.), report on plant remains
Jound on the Roman site at Caerwent,
1907, 343.

Lyons (F, Oliver), the needed reform
in the assessment of railways for local
taxation, 784.

*Lyons (Capt. H. G.), observations of
currents in the upper air of Egypt
and the Sudan, 644,

the longitudinal section of the

River Nile, 768.

Macatister (Prof. A.) on archeological
and ethnographical researches in Crete,
344,

MacaLium (Prof. A. B.) on the ductless
glands, 440,

966

*Macatium (Prof. A. B.), certain factors
in the glomerular secretion of the
kidneys, 871.

surface tension as a factor in the
distribution of salts inside the living
cell, 872.

MacBripe (Prof. E. W.), the gastrula-
tion and formation of layers in
amphioxus, 739.

*“McCLELLAND (Prof. J. A.), secondary
radiation, 635.

McDoveatt (Dr. W.) on anthropometric
tnvestigation in the British Isles, 351.

McDoveatt (Wn.), fatigue, 479.

MacGrecor (Charles), training in teach-
ing, 937.

McIntosu (Prof. W. C.) on the occupa-
tion of a table at the zoological station
at Naples, 247.

McKenprick (Prof. J. G.) on the effect
of climate wpon health and disease, 442.

McLaren (Lord) on meteorological ob-
servations on Ben Nevis, 58.

MacLean (Dr. Hugh), the constitution
of lecithin and other phosphatives,
877.

MacManon (Major P. A.) on the work of
the Corresponding Societies Committee,
536.

a

*.

on a generalisation of the question
in probabilities known as ‘le scrutin
de ballotage,’ 627.

Macrosry (Henry W.), proposals for an
economic survey of the United King-

. dom, 791.

Macturk (G. W. B.) on the fossiliferous
drift deposits at Kirmington, Lincoln-
shire, &c., 296.

McWerney (Prof. E. J.), the biological
method of differentiating blood-stains,
882.

Magnetic observations at Falmouth Obser-
vatory, report on, 56.

Maenvs (Sir Philip) on studies most
suitable for elementary schools, 495.

on changes affecting secondary edu-

cation, 525,

on the curricula of secondary
schools, 526.

Mahrattas and Rajputs, by W. Crooke,
850.

Makowrr (W.) on the number and
absorption of the 8 particles emitted
by radium, 601.

—, Marearer Wuits, and FE. Mars-
DEN, investigations on the electrical
state of the upper atmosphere, 627.

Maltose, pure, the preparation of, by
J. L. Baker and F. E. Day, 671.

Map of the world, by R. D. Oldham, 82.

Marble Arch caves in, co. Fermanagh,
the, by H. Brodrick, 770.

Marine laboratory, Plymouth, report on
the occupation of a table at the, 304.

INDEX,

Marr (Dr. J. E.) on the excavation of
critical sections in the paleozoic rocks
of Wales and the West of England, 231.

on the sequence of plant remains in
certain peat deposits, 493.

Marspen (E). W. Makowerr, and Mar-
GARET WHITE, investigations on the
electrical state of the upper atmo-
sphere, 627.

Marsh vegetation, studies of, report on,
492.

the stratification of, evaporation
in relation to, by Prof. R. H. Yapp, 911.

*Marsupialia, the early development of
the, by Prof. J. P. Hill, 739.

Mathematical and Physical Section, Ad-
dress by Dr. W. N. Shaw to the, 579.

Maruer (T.) on practical electrical
standards, 31.

*MatTueEson (Sir R. E.), a review of the
tuberculosis crusade in Ireland, 883.
Matiry (Dr. C. A.) on the crystalline

rocks of Anglesey, 283.

Marrnrey (G.) on practical electrical
standards, 31.

Maxilla and palatine in the mammalia,
the, by Prof. R. J. Anderson, 744.

May (Dr. W. Page), further observations
on a previously undescribed tract in the
spinal cord, 881.

demonstration of the cells and tracts
concerned in paralysis and recovery
from paralysis, 881.

Mechanical and electrical response of
plants, the, by Prof. J. C, Bose, 903.
Mediterranean basin, the oscillations of
the level of the land in the, report on,

308

Mediterranean man, the geographical
study of, considered as an element in a
‘classical education,’ by Prof, J. L,
Myres, 763.

Megalithic and analogous prehistoric re-
mains of Great Britain and Ireland, the
classification of the, George Clinch on,
862.

Megalithic remains in the British Isles,
the best means of registering and
classi/ying systematically, report on, 341.

Mexpora (Prof. R.) on seismological in-
vestigations, 60.

on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 536.

Me.tprum(Dr. A.), the work of two Irish
chemists, Bryan and William Higgins,
668.

*Mendelian theory, the, the application
of, to practical problems, by Prof. W.
Bateson, 806.

*Mendelism and the elucidation of live-
stock history, by Prof. J. Wilson, 806.

MEnNNeELL (F. P.) on topographical and
geological terms used locally in South
Africa, 291, ett UF ae

INDEX,

Mental and muscular fatigue, discussion
on, 873.

Mental fatigue, some aspects of, by H. S.
Lawson, 874.

* Metabolic balance sheet’ of the individual
tissues, final report on the, 436.

Metabolism and electrical phenomena of
Arum spadices, report on the, 463.

Meteorological observations on Ben Nevis,
report on, 58.

Meteorology, the, of the winter quarters
of the ‘ Discovery,’ 1902-04, by Dr.
W. N. Shaw, 645.

Mratz (Prof, L. C.) on the conditions of
health essential to the carrying on of the
work of instruction in schools, 458.

on studies most suitable for elementary

schools, 495.

Address to the Educational Section,

917.

education in relation to rural life,

930.

Miers (Prof. H. A.) on the curricula of
secondary schools, 526.

on the educational opportunities of
local scientific societies, 540.

Migratory movements of certain shore
birds as observed on the Dublin coast,
Dr. C. J. Patten on the, 731.

Mitt (Dr. H. R.) on the investigation of
the upper atmosphere by means of kites,
59.

on investigations in the Indian Ocean,

305.

on the oscillations of the level of the

land in the Mediterranean basin, 308.

on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 536.

Mitne (Dr. J.) on seismological investiga-
tions, 60.

the duration and direction of large
earthquakes, 706.

Mirroy (Prof. T. H.), fatigue, 873.

*Mimetic combinations among South
American butterflies, some of the chief,
by J. C. Moulton, 734.

*Mimicry, the African swallow-tail
butterfly as an example of, by Prof.
E. B. Poulton, 734.

*Mimicry in the buttérflies of North
America, by Prof. E. B. Poulton, 734.
Mircnet (Sir A.) on the effect of climate

upon health and disease, 442.

Mitchelstown cave, by Dr. C. A. Hill; 771.

Mites, Irish freshwater (hydrarachnida),
the distribution of, J. N. Halbert on,
732.

*Mitosis, the mechanism of, by W. L.
Balls, 904.

Monp (Dr. Ludwig), Dr. H. Hirrz, and
M. D. Cowar on a volatile compound
of cobalt with carbon monoxide, 665.

*Moorz (Prof. B.), the pharmacological
treatment of trypanosomiasis, 743,

967

Moorn (Prof. B.), the correlation of
primary, secondary, and university
education in Ireland, 934.

and Dr. H. E. Roar, the action of
acid and alkali on the growth and
division of animal and vegetable cells,
883.

Moors (J. E. 8.) and Dr. A. Brernt, the
life-history of trypanosomes in relation
to the diseases they produce, 743.

Moorx (Sir J. W.), is our climate chang-
ing ? 623.

Morean (Dr. C. Lloyd) on the pre-
Devonian rocks of the Mendips and the
Bristol area, 286.

Moss (Dr. ©. E.), the woodlands of
Northern England, 908.

{Motor vehicle machinery, the causes of
wear in, by F. H. Royce, 829.

*Movutton (J. C.), some of the chief
mimetic combinations among South
American butterflies, 734.

Mountain building, discussion on, 708.

Morr (H. B.) and R. G. CarruTHERS, the
lower paleozoic rocks around Killary
Harbour, co. Galway, and co. Mayo,
699.

Murrunan (Dr. A.) on practical electrical
standards, 31.

Mummification in Egypt, the history of,
by Prof. G. Elliot Smith, 847.

Munro (N. Gordon), prehistoric arche-
ology in Japan, 852.

Monro (Dr. R.) on the age of stone circles,
400.

on the lake village at Glastonbury,
414,

Murray (Dr. C. F. K.) on the effect of
climate upon health and disease, 442.
Murray (Sir John) on meteorological

observations on Ben Nevis, 58.

on investigations in the Indian
Ocean, 305.

Murray (Robert H.), the depopulation of
Ireland, 788.

Myers (Dr. C. S.) on the preparation of
a new edition of Notes and Queries in
Anthropology, 342.

on anthropometric investigation in the
British Isles, 351.

Myres (Prof. J. L.) on registering and
classifying megalithic remains in the
British Isles, 341.

on the preparation of a new edition

of Notes and Queries in Anthropology,

342.

on excavations on Roman sites in

Britain, 342.

on archeological and ethnographical

researches in Crete, 344.

on archeological and ethnological re-

searches in Sardinia, 350.

on anthropometric investigation in

the British Isles, 351,

968

Myzezs (Prof, J. L.) on the ccllection of pho-
tographs of anthropological interest, 419.

the geographical study of Mediter-

# Tanean man, considered as an element |

| in a ‘classical education,’ 763.

—— the work of the Liverpool Committee
for excavation and research in Wales
and the Marches, 857,

National Antarctic expedition, 1902-04, |
results of some physical observations |
taken on the, by L. C. Bernacchi, 645. |

Nationalisation of Irish railways, by J. |
O’Connor, 784.

Natural history surveys, detailed, of |
restricted areas, Prof. G. H, Carpenter |
on, 550.

Neolithic culture in North Greece, by
J. P. Droop, 858.

New Britain, four weeks in, by Miss B.
Pullen-Burry, 850.

NeEwstTeap (R.), binomics of tsetse flies, |
741.

NEwsTEAD (Dr. R.), recent excavations |
at Roman Chester, 853.

Newron (E. T.) on the fauna and flora of
the Trias of the British Isles, 269.

—— on the fossiliferous drift deposits
at Kirmington, Lincolnshire, d:c., 296.
R. J. Ussunr, H. J. Stymour, and |
R. F. Scuarrr on the cave of Castle-

pook, near Doneraile, co. Cork, 697.

NicHotson (Dr. J. W.), the asymptotic
expansions of Bessel functions, 595.

the inductance of two parallel wires,
612. |

Nizrenstrin (Dr. M.), the action of
atoxyl and allied compounds in vivo
and vitro, 742.

Nile, the River, the longitudinal section
of the, by Capt. H. G. Lyons, 768.

Northern mound-builders of North
America, the, by Dr. J. Bryce, 851.

Norway,the sculptured stones of, and their |
relation to some British monuments,
by Dr. Haakon Schetelig, 860.

Notes and Queries in Anthropology, in- |
terim report on the preparation of a new
edition of, 342.

*Note-taking and reports on work, dis-
cussion on, 939.

O’Connor (J.), nationalisation of Irish
railways, 784.

OtpHam (R. D.) on seismological investi- |
gations, 60.

map of the world, 82.

OLIVER (Prof. F. W.) on the structure of
fossil plants, 493.

Omonp (R. T.) on meteorological observa-
tions on Ben Nevis, 58.

*“OnnES (Dr. K.), the liquefaction of
helium, 673, |

INDEX.

Optical behaviour of the epidermal cells
of leaves, the, by Harold Wager, 909.
OrPEN (Goddard H.), the origin of Irish

motes, 854.

Orton (Prof. K. J. P.) on the transfor-
mation of aromatic nitroamines and
allied substances, and its relation to
substitution in benzene derivatives,
115.

on the crystalline rocks of Anglesey,

83.
Oscillations of the level of the land in the
Mediterranean basin, report on the, 308.
Osmotic growths, by Dr. Dawson Turner,

*Outlook, the, a grand experiment in
education, by Prof. H, E, Armstrong,
927.

*Oxymethylene camphor derivatives, the
dynamic isomerism of, by Prof. W. J.
Pope and John Read, 661,

Pace (T. E.) on the curricula of secondary
schools, 526.

Palzoliths from a gravel pit in the valley
of the Lark, Miss N. F. Layard on, 861.

Paleozoic rocks, the lower, around
Killary Harbour, co. Galway, and co,
Mayo, by R. G. Carruthers and H. B.
Muff, 699.

Paleozoic rocks of Wales and the West of
England, the excavation of critical sec-
tions in the, report on, 231.

Paralysis and recovery from paralysis,
demonstration of the cells and tracts
concerned in, by Dr. W. Page May, 881.

ParkKIN (John), the carbohydrates of the
snowdrop leaf and their bearing on the
first sugar of photosynthesis, 907.

Patren (Dr. C, J.), the migratory move-
ments of certain shore-birds as observed
on the Dublin coast, 731.

Prarson (Prof. H. H. W.) on the mor-
phology of endosperm, 914.

*Peat, discussion on, 676.

the utilisation of, for making gas or
charcoal with recovery of by-products,
by Capt. H. R. Sankey, 824.

Peptone, isolation of a physiologically
active substance from, by Dr. F. O’B.
Ellison, 879.

Perforated stone hammers and axes, by
W. J. Knowles, 863.

| *PrerRKIn (Dr. F. M.) and W.E. Hueuss,

studies on the electro-deposition of
metals, 674.
Perkin (Prof. W. H.) on the study of
hydro-aromatic substances, 221.
synthetical experiments in the
terpene series, 661.

ok

| Perry (Prof. J.) on practical electrical

standards, 31.
on seismological investigations, 60,

—————— se hhh Oe

INDEX,

Perry (Prof. J.) on studies most suitable |

tor elementary schools, 495.

— on the curricula of secondary schools,
526.

on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 536.

Peru, tropical, a journey into the primeval
forests of, by L. Bernacchi, 769.

Prravet (Dr. J. E.), the captive balloon at
the Howard Estate kite station, 59.

—— on gaseous explosions, 308.

lection of photographs of anthropological
interest, 419.

Petrography of Egypt, Dr. W. F. Hume
on the, 700.

904,

Photographic action, intensity of light
and time of exposure, the relation
between, Prof. H. H. Turner on,
604.

Photometric standard of the National |

Physical Laboratory, Dr. R. T. Glaze-
brook on the, 623.

Photosynthesis, the first sugar of, the
carbohydrates of the snowdrop leaf
and their bearing on, by John Parkin,
907.

—— in water plants, the factors influenc-
ing, by A. M. Smith, 906.

Physical and Mathematical Section,
Address by Dr. W. N. Shaw to the,

579.

Physical observations taken on the
National Antarctic expedition, 1902-
04, results of some, by L. C. Ber-
nacchi, 645.

969

Piunkett (Rt. Hon. Sir Horace), Address

a the Sub-section of Agriculture,
96.

Plymouth marine laboratory, report on the
occupation of a table at the, 304,

Polar lines in are spectra, by Dr. W. G.
Duffield, 638.

Pootz (H. H.), a determination of the
rate of evolution of heat by pitch-
blende, 635.

| *Popx (Prof. W. J.) and Joun Reap, the
Perris (Prof. W. M. Flinders) on the col- |

Physics of high altitudes, the, in relation |

to climate and health, by Dr. M. C.
Grabham, 871.

Physiological Section, Address by Dr.
J. S. Haldane to the, 864.

Piroplasma canis, the morphology of, by

Dr. A. Breinl and E. Hindle, 742.
Pitchblende, a determination of the rate
of evolution of heat by, by H. H. Poole,
635.

*Plant animal, a, by Prof. F. W. Keeble,
911.

Plant remains found on the Roman site
at Caerwent, 1907, report on, by A. H.
Lyell, 343.

Plant remains in certain peat deposits, the
sequence of, interim report on, 498.

Puatnaver (H. M.) on the fossiliferous —
drift deposits at Kirmington, Lincoln- |

shire, &c., 296.

Prummer (W. E.) on seismological in-
vestigations, 60.

PLunkrtTT (Rt. Hon. Sir Horace) on
Sapien affecting secondary education,
628,

l

dynamic isomerism of oxymethylene
camphor derivatives, 661.

and W. Bartow, the structure
of the open-chain hydrocarbons, 667.

*

| Porter (Dr. C.) on the effect of climate upon
*Photo-chemical action in the test-tube |
and the leaf, by Dr. F. F. Blackman, |

health and disease, 442.

*PouLTon (Prof. E. B.), mimicry in the
butterflies of North America, 734.

*—— the African swallow-tail butterfly
as an example of mimicry, 734.

Poyntine (Prof. J. H.) on seismological
investigations, 60.

Pre-Devonian rocks of the Mendips and
the Bristol area, report on the investiga-
tion of the, 286.

PREECE (Sir W. H.) on practical electrical
standards, 31.

on magnetic observations at Falmouth
Observatory, 55.

—— on gaseous explosions, 308.

Prehistoric archeology in Japan, by N. GC.
Munro, 852.

Pre-Roman and natural history remains at
Corbridge, report of work on, 1907-08,
343.

Prince Charles Foreland, Spitsbergen,
report on the eaploration of, 306.

*Prinitary, changes in the, after thy-
roidectomy, by Dr. P. T. Herring, 883.

Procter (H. R.), colloid chemistry, 201.

Producer gas, by J. Emerson Dowson, 825

| Projection, the analysis of, Prof. R. W.

Genese on, 632.
*Proprio-ceptive reflexes of the limb, by
Prof. C. 8. Sherrington, 871.
Protractor, a, for constructing stereo-
graphic and gnomonic projections of
the sphere, by Dr. A. Hutchinson, 701.
Psychological aspect of agrarian reform
in Ireland, the, by Dr. M. J. Bonn

795.

Pullen-Burry (Miss B.), four weeks in New
Britain, 850.

Punnett (R. C.) on experiments in in-
heritance, 298.

Purser (Prof. F.) on the ether stress of
gravitation, 613.

the theory of solids moving in an

incompressible fluid, 629.

*Quaternions, applications of, to pro-
blems in physical optics, by Prof. A, W,
Conway, 627, :

970

Radio-active gases (emanations), do they
belong to the argon series ? by Sir Wm.
Ramsay, 601.

Radium, the number and absorption of
the 8 particles emitted by, W. Makower
on, 601.

the rate of production of helium
from. by Sir James Dewar, 602.

Radium emanation, the grating spec-
trum of, by T. Royds, 635.

Railways, the assessment of, for local
taxation, the needed reform in, by F. O.
Lyons, 784.

—— the relation of, to the State, by
W. M. Acworth, 773.

—— Trish, nationalisation of, by J.
O’Connor, 784.

*Raised beeches of the Liffey Valley, G. H.
Kinahan on the, 699.

Rajputs and Mahrattas, by W. Crooke,
850.

Ramsay (Sir Wm.), do the radio-active
gases (emanations) belong to the argon
series ? 601.

* the inactive gases, 672.

Rawson (Col. H. E.), colour changes in
flowers produced by controlling insola-
tion, 902.

RayiricH (Lord) on practical electrical
standards, 31.

Reap (Dr. C. H.) on the preparation of a
new edition of Notes and Queries in
Anthropology, 342.

—-— on the age of stone circles, 400,

on the lake village at Glastonbury, 414.

*

anthropological interest, 419.

on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 536.

*RraAp (John) and Prof. W. J. Porn, the
dynamic isomerism of oxymethylene
camphor derivatives, 661.

Reeves (KE. A.), new instruments for
travellers and surveyors, 766.

Reflecting telescope, the, and its suit-
ability for physical research, by Sir
Howard Grubb, 605.

RetcuHet (Sir H. R.) on studies most sait-
able for elementary schools, 495.

Rew (A. 8.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest, 245.

Reip (Clement) on seismological investi-
gations, 60.

on the fossiliferous drift deposits at

Kirmington, Lincolnshire, &c., 296.

on the sequence of plant remains in
certain peat deposits, 493.

Rep (Dr. G. Archdall), acquirement in
education, 939.

RENNIE (J.) on practical
standards, 31.

Re-stocking haunts whence fauna and
flora have disappeared, the advisability
of, by H. Davey, 550,

electrical

on the collection of photographs of

INDEX.

*Retinal photo-electro phenomena, cer-
tain features of, Prof. F. Gotch on, 876.

ReEyNo tps (Prof. S. H.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest, 245.

on the pre-Devonian rocks of the

Mendips and the Bristol area, 286.

and C. I. GARDINER, the igneous and
associated sedimentary rocks of the
Tourmakeady district, co. Mayo, 699.

RICHARDSON (H.) on studies most suitable
Jor elementary schools, 495,

on the curricula of secondary schools,

526.

on the sequence of studies in the
science section of the curriculum, 526,

RicHARDSON (Nelson) on seismological
investigations, 60.

Ripcnway (Prof. W.) on registering and
classifying megalithic remains in the
British Isles, 341.

on excavations on Roman sites in

Britain, 342.

on archeological and ethnographical

researches in Crete, 344.

Address to the Anthropological Sec-
tion, 832.

Rivers (Dr. W. H. R.) on the preparation
of a new edition of Notes and Queries in
Anthropology, 342.

Roar (Dr. H. E.), the digestive enzymes
of invertebrates, 746.

and Prof. B. Moors, the action of
acid and alkali on the growth and
division of animal and vegetable cells,
883.

Rogvertson (Muriel), hematozoa from
some Ceylon reptiles, 743.

*Ropinson (R.), brazilin and hema-
toxylin, 661,

+Roeson (P. W.), suction gas producers,
826.

Roeers (A. R.) on topographical and geo-
logical terms used locally in South
Africa, 291.

Roman Chester, recent excavations at, by
Dr. R. Newstead, 853.

Roman sites in Britain, excavations on,
report on, 342.

Rome in classical times, the four principal
aqueducts of, by Dr. T. Ashby, 860.
Roscok (Sir H. E.) on wave-length tables

of the spectra of the elements, 119.

RosENHAIN (Walter), the study of
breakages, 826.

Rotating discs, experiments on, by John
Brown and M. F. FitzGerald, 830.

Rotcn (Prof. A. Lawrence), the warm
stratum in the atmosphere at heights
exceeding eight miles in the United
States, 594.

Roruscuitp (Hon. Walter) on the com-
pilation of an index generum- et
specierum animalium, 297,

Sa

~~

: INDEX.

Royce (F. H.), the causes of wear in
motor vehicle machinery, 829.

Royps (T.), the grating spectrum of
radium emanation, 635.

further experiments on the consti-
tution of the electric spark, 637.

Ricker (Sir A. W.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 31.

on magnetic observations at Fal-
mouth Observatory, 55.

Rupwegr (F. W.) on registering and classi-
Sying megalithic remains in the British
Isles, 341.

on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 536.

RuHEMANN (Dr. 8.) on the transformation
of aromatic nitroamines and allied sub-
stances, and its relation to substitution
in benzene derivatives, 115.

Rural education, by George Fletcher, 932.
in Trish primary schools, the pro-
blem of, by Rt. Rev. Dr. Foley, 932.

* RUSSELL (Robert), the genesis of elliptic
functions, 601.

*RUTHERFORD (Prof. E.), the scintilla-
tions of zinc sulphide, 635.

SapieEr (Prof. M. E.) on anthropometric
investigation in the British Isles, 351.
on changes affecting secondary educa-

tion, 525.

on the curricula of secondary schools,
526.

St. Vincent, the soufri@re of : the changes
subsequent to the eruption of 1902, by
Dr. Tempest Anderson, 706.

Sanctuaries for our native flora and fauna,
by Mrs. Mary Hobson, 547.

Sanp (Dr. H. J. S.), a demonstration on
the rapid electroanalytical separation
of metals, 673.

Sand and “lay from granite, the derivation
of, by Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, 705.
Sanpers (Miss) on the electrical pheno-
mena and metabolism of Arum spadices,

463.

SANDIFORD (P.) and Prof. J. J. Finpuay,
scientific method in the study of educa-
tion, 942.

Sandwich Islands, the zoology of the,
eighteenth report on, 301.

Sankey (Capt.) on gaseous explosions, 308.

the utilisation of peat for making
gas or charcoal with recovery of by-
products, 824.

Sardinia, archeological and ethnological
researches in, report on, 350.

Sauromatum guttatum, the aroid, the con-
tractile roots of, by Mrs. D. H. Scott,
910.

SenArer (Prof. E. A.) on the ductless
glands, 440,

971

Scuarrr (Dr. ‘R. F., the Irish horse
and its early history, 853

——R. J. Ussurr, H. J. Seymour, and
E. T, Newton on the cave of Castle-
pook, near Doneraile, co. Cork, 697.

ScuEtenia (Dr. Haakon), the sculp-
tured stones of Norway and their rela-
tion to some British monuments, 860.

Schlifli’s double-six, an elementary dis-
cussion of, by Prof. A. C. Dixon, 616.

School gardens, by Miss L. J. Clarke, 931.

School geography as a mental discipline,
by Prof. R. A. Gregory, 762.

Scnustrr (Prof. A.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 31.

on magnetic observations at Fal-

mouth Observatory, 55.

on the investigation of the wpper

atmosphere by means of kites, 59.

on wave-lengths tables of the spectra
of the elements, 119.

Scientific method in the study of educa-
tion, by Prof. J. J. Findlay and P.
Sandiford, 942.

Scrater (Dr. P. L.) on the compilation
of an index generum et specierwm
animalium, 297.

on the zoology of the Sandwich
Islands, 301.

‘Scotia,’ the voyage of the, scientific
results of, by Dr. W. 8. Bruce, 764.
Scorr (Dr. D. H.) on the structure of fossil

plants, 493.

—— on South African cycads and on
welwitschia, 494.

Scort (Mrs. D. H.), the contractile roots
of the aroid Sauromatum guttatum, 910.

on Bensonites fusiformis, sp. nov., a
fossil associated with Stauropteris
burntislandica, P. Bertrand, and on
the sporangia of the latter, 915.

Scottish lochs, temperature conditions in,
by E. M. Wedderburn, 626.

*‘Scrutin de ballotage, le,’ a generalisa-
tion of the question in probabilities
known as, Major P. A. MacMahon on,
627.

Secondary education, changes affecting,
report on, 525.

*Secondary radiation, by Prof. J. A.
McClelland, 635.

Secondary schools, the curricula of, report
on, 526.

Srpewick (Prof. A.) on the occupation of
a table at the zoological station at Naples,
297.

on the occupation of a table at the
marine laboratory, Plymouth, 304.

Sretry (Prof. H. G.) on a fossil reptile
with a trunk from the Upper Karroo
rocks of Cape Colony, 713.

on distinctions in dentition between

the fossil reptilia classed as Cynodontia

and Gomphodontia, 714; 4

Loirt
972

Seiches, recent researches on tlie cause of, |

by E. M. Wedderburn, 640.
Seismological investigations, thirteenth re-
port on, 60.
*Selective permeability of certain seeds,
the, by Prof. Adrian Brown, 675.
SELIGMANN (Dr. C. G.), the Veddas, 848.
Sequence of plant remains in certain peat
deposits, interim report on, 493.
Sequence of studies in the science section
of the curriculum, report on the, 526.

Sewarp (Prof. A. C.) on the fauna and |
Nora of the Trias of the British Isles, 269. |

on marsh vegetation, 492.

—— on the structure of fossil plants, 493.

on South African cycads and on
welwitschia, 494.

Sex, determination of, discussion on, 738.

+ ——, L. Doncaster on, 738.

point of sulphur, 621.
Seymour (H. J.), R. J. Ussumr, E. T.

INDEX;

Sigillaria seutellata, Brongn , the stvuctie
of, by E. A. N. Arber and H. H.
Thomas, 915, !

Silurian beds in Kent, the finding of, by
W. Whitaker, 711.

Srmpson (Lieut.-Col. R. J. S.) on the effect
of climate upon health and disease, 442.

Stator (Dr. Arthur), the factors which
influence the rate of alcoholic fermen-
tation, 674.

Small duties on imports and exports,
certain peculiarities of, Prof. I. Y.
Edgeworth on, 786.

*Small holders, letters from, by W.

Beach Thomas, 808.

mall holdings, by Mrs. L. Wilkins, 807.

the management of, by F. Impey,

9)

% 7

808.
| *Small holdings problem, the, by C.
Sexton (F. P.) and Dr. J. A. Harker on |
the effect of pressure on the boiling- |

Newron, and R. F. Scuarrr on the |
eave of Castlepook, near Doneraile, co. |

Cork, 697.
Suarp (Dr. D.) on the zoology of the Sand-
wich Islands, 301.

—— on investigations in the Indian |

Ocean, 305.

standards, 31.

on the investigation of the wpper
atmosphere by means of kites, 59.

—— Address to the Mathematical and
Physical Section, 579.

atmosphere, 591.

the meteorology of the winter

quarters of the ‘ Discovery,’ 1902-04,

645.

some particulars of the British Asso-
ciation storm ot 1908, 647.

SHaw (Mrs. W. N.) on studies most suwit-
able for elementary schools, 495.

SHEpparpD (Thomas) on the fossiliferous
drift deposits at Kirmington, Lincoln-
shire, &c., 296.

SHERRINGTON (Prof. C. S.) on the con-
ditions of health essential to the carrying
on of the work of instruction in schools,
458.

on body metabolism in cancer, 489.

proprio-ceptive reflexes of the

limb, 871.

*

Turner, 808.

Smirn (A. M.), the factors influencing
photosynthesis in water plants, 906.
Smirn (E. A.) on the zoology of the Sand-

wich Islands, 301.
Smith (F. E.) on practical electrical
standards, 31.
on the secular changes of the standards
of resistance at the National Physical
Laboratory, 34.

| Smiru (Prof. G. Elliot), the history of
Suaw (Dr. W. N.) on practical electrical |

on the isothermal layer of the |

SuiptEy (A. E.) on the curricula of |

secondary schools, 526.
Snore (Dr. E.) on the ductless |
glands, 440.

SHRUBSALL (Dr. F. C.) on archeological
and ethnological researches in Sar-
dinia, 350.

——— on anthropometric investigation in
the British Isles, 351. ;

mumunification in Egypt, 847.

anthropological work in Egypt, 849.

the localisation of the human cere-

bral cortex, 876.

and Prof. W. H. Witson, the inter-
pretation of the results obtained from
the study of cerebral localisation in
the prosimiz, 875.

Smith (G. W.) on the anatomy and
development of Anaspides, and on the
Sauna of the lakes of Central Tasmania,
302.

SMITHELLS (Prof. A.) on gaseous explo-
sions, 308.

on studies most suitable for elementary

schools, 495,

on elementary experimental science,
501.

SmyTuHeE (Dr. J. A.), benzyl sulphoxide,
a possible example of tautomerism, 661.

Snare (Dr. Lloyd) on studies most suitable
tor elementary schools, 495.

*Snowstorm, the great, of April 25, 1908,
by Miss C. O. Stevens, 647.

Social aspects of agricultural co-operation,
by J. G. Brooks, 794.

Solar temperature and sun-spots, by
Prof. E. T. Whittaker, 640.

Solid cylindrical round-ended columns,
the strength of, by Prof. W. E. Lilly,
830.

Solids moving in an incompressible
fluid, the theory of, by Prof. F. Purser,
629.

INDEX,

Sortas (Prof. W. J.) on the erratic

blocks of the British Isles, 242.

South Africa, ancient stone implement
sites in, by Rev. W. A. Adams, 852.
South African cycads, second interim

report on, and on welwitschia, 494.
*South African strata, the correlation and
age of, interim report on, 714,
SoutnERN (Rowland), the vascular sys-
tem of Stylodrilus, 736.
Special schools for the physically defective

973

Stoney (Dr. G. J.) on practical electrical
standards, 31.

Stoney (Gerald), recent advances in
steam turbines, 824.

/ SrrattTon (F. J. M.), the constants of the

| Studies

and mentally deficient, by Mrs. E. M. |

Burgwin, 929.
*Species-hybrid, a perfectly fertile, show-
ing segregation, by Dr. J. P. Lotsy, 904.
Spectra of flames, new methods of obtain-
ing the, Dr. G. A. Hemsalech on, 638.
Spectroheliograph. the new, for the
Madrid Observatory, by Sir Howard
Grubb, 603.
Spinal cord, a previously undescribed

lunar libration, 626.
Stuart (C. M.) on the
secondary schools, 526.
on the sequence of studies in the science
section of the curriculum, 526.
most suitable Jor

schools, report on, 495.

curricula of

elementary

| Stylodrilus, the vascular system of, by

| Sudan,

tract in the, further observations on, |

by Dr. W. Page May, 881.
Splash of a rough sphere, a remarkable

feature in the, by Prof. A. M. Worth- |

ington, 621.

Standards of resistance at the National
Physical Laboratory, the secular changes
of the, F. EL. Smith on, 34.

SransrieLp (H.), secondary effects in

the echelon spectroscope, 636.

Srarxine (Prof. E. H.) on the ‘ metabolic |
balance sheet’ of the individual tissues,

436.
Srarupr (J. W.) on the erratic blocks of
the British Isles, 242.

Kirmington, Lincolnshire, &c., 296.

Statistics and Economic Science, Address
to the Section of, by W. M. Acworth,
773.

Steam turbines, recent advances in, by
Gerald Stoney, 824.

Sreperne (Rev. T. R. R.) on the compi-
lation of an index generum et specie-
rum animalium, 297.

——on the occupation of a tatle at the
zoological station at Naples, 297.

——on the work of the Corresponding

+ Societies Committee, 536.

SrrpHens (Dr. J. W. W.), cultures of
amebe, 741.

*STEVENS (Miss C. O.), the great snow-
storm of April 25, 1908, 647.

Stigmaria and Lepidodendron, the primary
wood of, by Prof. F. E. Weiss, 914.

Stomach, the, the relationship of the
pyloric to the fundie part of, by Dr. E.
P. Cathcart, 879.

Stone circles, the age of, report on ex-
plorations to ascertain, 400.

Stone implement sites, some ancient, in
South Africa, by Rev. W. A. Adams,

852.

Rowland Southern, 736.

+Suction gas producers, by P. W. Robson,
826.

the North-eastern, well-water
supply of, by G. W. Graham, 712.

Sun-spots, possible existence of steam in
theregions of, Rev. A. L. Cortie on, 639.

Sun-spots and solar temperature, by
Prof. E. T. Whittaker, 640.

Surface movement of air in travelling
storms, an apparatus for illustrating,
by intermittent vision, by R. G. K.
Lempfert, 644.

*Surface tension as a factor in the dis-
tribution of salts inside the living cell,
by Prof. A. B. Macallum, 872.

Symrneton (Prof. J.) on certain changes
in the lateral wall of the cranium due
to muscular development, 855.

Synnorr (N. J.), the housing of the
working classes in Ireland, 787.

_ *Synthetical experiments in the terpene

on the fossiliferous drift deposits at

|

series, by Prof. W. H. Perkin, 661.
Systematic motion of the stars, by Prof.
F. W. Dyson, 604.

Tansuey (A. G.) on marsh vegetation, 492.
A the woodlands of Southern England,
08.

Tara brooch, the, G. Coffey on, 854.

Tasmania, Central, the fauna of the lakes
of, report on, 302.

*TATTERSALL (W. M.), the development
of Littorina littorea, 746.

Traut (Dr. J. J. H.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest, 245.
TEISSERENC DE Bort (L.) on the isother-

mal layer of the atmosphere, 591.

-—— difference of temperature in the
upper atmosphere between equatorial
and polar regions, 641.

Temperature in the upper atmosphere,
difference of, between equatorial and
polar regions, by L. Teisserenc de Bort,
641.

Temperature of the waters of the North
Atlantic, a comparison of the changes
in the, and in the strength of the trade
winds, by Comm. M. W. C. Hepworth,
625,

97 1

*Terpene series, synthetical
ments in the, by Prof. W. H. Perkin,
661.

TuHane (Prof. G. D.) on anthropometric
investigation in the British Isles, 351.
Tuopay (D.) on increase in dry weight

as a measure of assimilation, 905.

Tuomas (Hugh H.) and E. A. N. Arper,
the structure of Sigillaria scutellata,
Brongn., 915.

*THomas (W. Beach), letters from small
holders, 808.

Tuompson (M.8.), the excavations of the

British School at Athens at the Sanc- |

tuary of Artemis Orthia at Sparta,
859.

Tuompson (Prof. 8. P.) on practical elec- |

trical standards, 31.
THompson (Mrs. W.
glands, 440.

Tuomson (Prof. J. J.)
electrical standards, 31.

TuHomson (W.) on the velocity of the
reducing action of electrolytic hydro-
gen on arsenious and arsenic acids
when liberated from the surface of
different elements, 647.

Three-colour camera, a new, by Sir W.
Abney, 618.

Thrust and crush brecciation in the
magnesian limestone, co. Durham, a
ease of, Dr. D. Woolacott on, 711.

TippEMAN (R. H.) on the erratic blocks
of the British Isles, 242.

Time of exposure, intensity of light, and
photographie action, the relation be-
tween, Prof. H. H. Turner on, 604,

TimmMERMANS (Dr. J.), the density of
liquids at low temperatures, 668.

Tims (Dr. W. H. M.) on experiments in
inheritance, 298.

Tinplate industry, trade unionism in the,
by J. H. Jones, 793.

Topographical and geological terms used
locally in South Africa, report on the
precise significance of, 291.

Tourmaline rocks, the, of Cwm Dwythwe,

on practical

near Llanberis, by W. G. Fearnsides,
704.
Tracks of invertebrates, &c., rom the

Lower Keuper, report on, by H. C.
Beasley, 269.

Trade unionism in the tinplate industry,
by J. H. Jones, 793.

Trade winds, the strength of the, a com-
parison of the changes in, and in the
temperature of the waters of the North
Atlantic, by Comm. M. W. C. Hep-
worth, 625.

Training in teaching, discussion on, 93°.

by Miss C. P. Tremain, 935.

by Charles MacGregor, 937.

Transparent silver and other metallic
films, by Prof. T. Turner, 674.

H.) on the duclless |

,
experi-

INDEX.

Transpiration current, the influence of
living cells on the, by Prof. H. H.
Dixon, 901.

*Tree planting, judicious, for shelter by
farmers, the economic importance of,
808.

TREMAIN (Miss C, P.), training in teach-
ing, 935.

Trias of the British Isles, the fauna and
Hora of the, sixth report on, 269.

; , bibliographical notes
1826-76, by A. R. Horwood, 277.

Triassic jossils, British, in the Warwick
Museum, list of, by H. A. Allen, 274,

Trotter (A. P.) on practical electrical
standards, 31.

Trovuton (Prof. F. T.), analogy between
absorption from solutions and aqueous
condensation on surfaces, 621.

Trypanosomes, the life-history of, in
relation to the diseases they produce,
by J. E. 8. Moore and Dr. A. Breinl,
743.

*Trypanosomiasis, the pharmacological
treatment of, by Prof. B. Moore, 743.
Tsetse flies, binomics of, by R. Newstead,

741.

*Tuberculosis crusade in Ireland, a re-
view of the, by Sir R. E. Matheson,
883.

Tucker (W. T.) on the erratic blocks of
the British Isles, 242.

*TURNER (Christopher), the small holdings
problem, 808.

Turner (Dr. Dawson),
index, 881.

osmotic growths, 881.

TurNeER (Prof. H. H.) on seismological
investigations, 60.

on the relation between intensity of

light, time of exposure, and photo-

graphic action, 604.

Halley’s comet, 945.

TuRNER (Prof. Thomas), transparent sil-
ver and other metallic films, 674.

on,

the hemo-renal

| Types of education, influence of mental

values of, by Prof. E. P. Culverwell,
949,

Types of education and their relative
values, discussion on, 939. ee:

Unwin (E. E.), the respiration of land
isopods, 736.

+Urban and inter-urban transportation,
general, and railless electric traction,
by F. Douglas Fox, 830.

UssHeEr (R. J.), H. J. Stymour, E. T.
NEWTON, a R. F. Scuarrr on the
cave of Castlepook, near Doneraile, co.
Cork, 697.

UssHer (W. A. E.) on the fauna and flora
of the Trias of the British Isles, 269,

\=_—s ©

—_—=

ee hd, We ee i a i hi ht te Od i

— oe

INDEX.

Valency, a stiggestion with regard to the |

meaning of, by H. Bateman, 634.

the meaning of, and the dynamics of
chemical action, by H. Bateman, 667.

Vascular system of Stylodrilus, the, by
Rowland Southern, 736.

Vaucuan (Dr. A.) on researches on the
faunal succession in the carboni/erous
limestone (Avonian) of the British Isles,
267.

Veddas, the, by Dr. C. G. Seligmann, 848.

Venta Silurum, the British city of, ex-
cavations on the site of, in 1907-08,
by Dr. T. Ashby, 857.

*Vertebrate alimentary canal, points con-
nected with the, particularly in that of
the higher mammalia, Prof. A. Fraser
on, 744,

Vincent (Prof. Swale) on the ductless
glands, 440.

Vines (Prof. S. H.) on the occupation
of a table at the marine laboratory,
Plymouth, 304.

Volatile compound of cobalt with carbon

monoxide, Dr. L. Mond, Dr. H. Hirtz, |

and M. D. Cowap on a, 665.
Volcano, the birth of a, unique experi-
ences at, by Rev. G. Furlong, 770.

WanpswortH (J. T.) and Prof. S. J.
Hickson on the structure of Dendrosoma
radians, 744.

WaceEr (Harold), the optical behaviour
of the epidermal cells of leaves, 909.
*WALKER (C. E.), the action of two sera

on a carcinoma occurring in mice, 882.

Water (Prof. A. D.) on the electrical
phenomena and metabolism of Arum
spadices, 463.

is alcohol a food of muscle? A
comparison of chloroform, ether, and
aleohol, 873.

Watts (E. White) on the conditions of
health essential to the carrying-on of
the work of instruction in schools, 458.

WatsincHam (Lord) on the compilation
of an index generum et specierum anima-
lium, 297.

Warble-flies, some Irish experiments on,
by Prof. G. H. Carpenter, 807.

Warm stratum in the atmosphere, the,
at heights exceeding eight miles in the
United States, by Prof. A. L. Rotch,
594,

Watson (Prof. W.) on the investigation
of the wpper atmosphere by means of
kites, 59.

on gaseous explosions, 308.

Warts (Dr. Marshall) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements, 119.

Warts (Prof. W. W.) on the excavation of
critical sections in the yalewozoic rocks

of Wales and the West of England, 231. |

975

War's (Prof. W. W.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest, 245.

on Dr. A. Vaughan’s researches on

the faunal succession in the carboni/erous
limestone (Avonian) in the British

Isles, 267.

on the fauna and flora of the Trias

of the British Isles, 269.

on studies most suitable for elementary

schools, 495.

on the work of the Corresponding

Societies Committee, 536.

Wave-length tables of the spectra of the
elements, report on, 119.

Wave-motion, the theory of, discussion
on, 605.

WrDDERBURN (KE. M.), temperature
conditions in Scottish lochs, 626.

recent researches on the cause of
seiches, 640.

Wetss (Prof. F. E.) on the structure of
Jossil plants, 493.

the primary wood of Lepidodendron
and Stigmaria, 914.

Weizmann (Dr. C.), the preparation of
camphor from turpentine oil, 661.

Wetcu (R.) on the collection of photographs
of geological interest, 245.

dopplerite from Sluggan bog, co.
Antrim, 708.

Welwitschia, second interim report on, 494.

Weston cadmium cell, instructions Jor the
preparation of the, 51.

*Whirlwinds, the asymmetrical character
ef, by P. Durandin, 644.

Wuitakrr (W.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest, 245.
on the work of the Corresponding

Societies Committee, 536.

on the finding of Silurian beds in
Kent, 711.

Wuite (Margaret), W. Maxkower, and
E. Marsprn, investigations on the
electrical state of the upper atmo-
sphere, 627.

WHITEHOUSE (R. H.) on his occupation
of the table at the zoological station at
Naples, 297.

Wuittaker (Prof. E. T.) on the extension
of optical ideas to general electro-
magnetic fields, 629.

sun-spots and solar temperature,
640.

Witxins (Mrs. L.), small holdings, 807.

| Wiiiiams (Dr. Ethel) on the conditions

of health essential to the carrying-on of
the work of instruction in schools, 458.

Wiuiams (G. W.) on the excavation of
critical sections in the palewozoic rocks
of Wales and the West of England, 231.

+Witson (E.), the electrical conductivity
of certain light aluminium alloys as
affected by exposure to London atmo-
sphere, 827,

976

Witson (Prof. Jaimes), the productivity

of English agriculturists, 795.
Mendelism and the elucidation of
live-stock history, 806.

*

Witson (M.) on the life history of |

Hematococcus lacustris, 916.
Witson (Prof. W. H.) and Prof. G.

Extiot Situ, the interpretation of |
the results obtained from the study of |
cerebral localisation in the prosimiz, —

875.

Winwoop (Rev. H. H.) on the pre- |
Devonian rocks of the Mendips and the |

Bristol area, 286.

Wotrterecx (Dr. H. C.), the production
of ammonia from atmospheric nitrogen
by means of peat, 675.

WoopuHeap (Prof. G. 8.) on the effect of |

climate upon health and disease, 442.
Woodlands of Northern England, the,
by Dr. C. E. Moss, 908.

Woodlands of Southern England, the, by |

A. G. Tansley, 908.

Woopwarp (Dr. A. Smith) on the fauna
and flora of the Trias of the British
Isles, 269.

the evolution of fishes, 740.

Woopwarp (Dr. H.) on the compilation
of an index generum et specierum
animalium, 297.

cf

Woopwarp (H. B.) on the collection of |

photographs of geological interest, 245.
on the pre-Devonian rocks of the
Mendips and the Bristol area, 286.

i

INDEX.

Wooracott (Dr. David) of a Gase of
thrust and crush brecciation in the
magnesian limestone, co. Durham, 711.

World, map of the, by R. D. Oldham, 82.

WorspeE1u (W. C.), the origin of dicoty-
ledons, 911.

WorTHINGTON (Prof. A. M.), aremarkable
feature in the splash of a rough sphere,
621.

Yarp (Prof. R. H.), evaporation in
relation to the stratification of marsh
vegetation, 911.

Youna (Prof. Sydney) on dynamic iso-
merism, 112.

*Zeeman effect in sun-spots, the, by
Prof, J. Larmor, 639.

*Zinc sulphide, the scintillations of,
by Prof. E. Rutherford, 636.

Zoological nomenclature, the rule of
priority in, on the abuse of, and on
protecting well-established names, by
G. A. Boulenger, 735.

| Zoological Section, Address by Dr. S. F.

Harmer to the, 715.

Zoological station at Naples, report on
the occupation of a table at the, 297.

Zoology of the Sandwich Islands, the,
eighteenth report on, 301.

*Zoology organisation, interim report on,

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.

Life Members (since 1845), and all Annual Members who have not
intermitted their Subscription, receive gratis all Reports published after
the date of their Membership. Any other volume they require may be
obtained on application at the Office of the Association, Burlington
House, Piccadilly, London, W., at the following prices: Reports for
1331 to 1874 (of which more than 15 copies remain), at 2s. 6d. per volume ;
after that date, at two-thirds of the Publication Price. A few sets, from
1831 to 1874 inclusive, may also be obtained at £10 per set.

Associates for the Meeting in 1908 may obtain the Volume for the Year at two-thirds
of the Publication Price.

REPORT or tHe SEVENTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at Leicester,
July-August 1907, Published at £1 4s.

CONTENTS.

Rules of the Association, Lists of Officers, Hepyrt of the Council, List of Com- see

mittees, Grants of Money, &e. . A . xXxvii-cxxviii
Address by the President, Sir David Gill, K. C. B., F. R SEMUO ¢ ; : 3
Report of the Corresponding Societies Gommittde 5 29
Report of the Conference of Seen of Corresponding Bouideies held a

Leicester Fi 30
Report on Electrical Biautanis ; z : : . . : »
Twelfth Report on Seismological Pancsheulioasy - - : : Feet]
Report on Magnetic Observations at Falmouth @teervataty A : ; Cohen 8B
Report on the Further Tabulation of Bessel Functions . 5 5 ; . 94
Revort on the Teaching of Elementary Mechanics. 97
Sixth Report on the ee of the Upper Atmosphere by means of

Kites. - 99
Report on Mefoonalonteal Gusciwations on Ban Nowa : 100
Report on the Transformation of Aromatic Nitroamines and Allied Biter cas 101
Report on the Study of Hydro-aromatic Substances . 104
Report on Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Wlements aed Geaipoaads 116
Report on Dynamic Isomerism . . 270
Report on the Study of Isomorphous Detivatives’ of Benzone dulphanie Aoi . 272
The Applications of Grignard’s Reaction. By Dr. Alex. McKenzie, M.A. - 273

1908. 3 R

978

PAGE
Fifth Report on the Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the British Isles ‘ - 298
Report on the Faunal Succession in the Carboniferous Limestone of the South-

west of England . - 5 . 313
Report on the Investigation of the a Gaoeniene Bede of the ard é . 315
Report on Life-zones in the British Carbmiferous Rocks . . 316
Second Report on the a a sition and Origin of the Crystalline Rake ee

Anglesey : : cola
Report on the Fassiliterous Drift iveaia at arama Tsipeola ines &e, . 325
Interim Report on South African Strata, : < : : ; : - 328
Report on the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles 2 a “ : . 329
The Iron Ore Supply of the Scandinavian Peninsula. By Hj. Sjégren . . 332
Report on the Fossil Flora of the Transvaal : . B45
Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Marine eae Plgmonces . 346
Keport on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples . . 346
Report on the Compilation of an Index Animalium . : . : : Sebey!
Report on Experiments on the Development of the Froz . : : . . d47
Report on Colour Paysiology in Animals . : ; i e . . B49
Interim Report on the Development of the Sexual Cells - : : é . 350
Interim Report on Zoology Organisation . : 350
Interim Report on the Investigation of the Ostillattons ‘of the Teves of the

Land in the Mediterranean Basin : . ; ° “ . 350
Second Report on Investigations in the Indian Gpean é : : ; . 351
Interim Report on Rainfall and Lake and River Discharge : 353
Interim Report on the Amount of Gold Coinage in Circulation in ite United

Kingdom 3 ; : ‘ ‘ . 353
Report on Anthropometric Investigation(s in the British Isles - : : . 854
Report on the Age of Stone Circles. : - 363
Report on the Exploration of the ‘ Red Hills’ of the East Coast Salt Marsties . 373
Report on the Registration of Anthropological Photographs : é - . 874
Interim Report on Megalithic Remains in the British Isles : ; : . 391
Report on Archeological and Ethnographical Researches in Crete . : . 391
Ninth Report on the Lake Village at Glastonbury . : ; 5 - . 392
Interim Report on Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain 5 ; 4 . 400
Report on the Ductless Glands . . : 3 - 400
Report on the ‘ Metabolic Balance Sheet’ of the Saaiyidgal TPasenee ; ; - 401
Second Report on the Effect of Climate upon Health and Disease . . . 403
Third Interim Report on the Structure of Fossil Plants. ; . 408
Interim Report on Research on South African Cycads and on Welseitechie - 408
R2port on Studies of Marsh Vegetation . : 3 . . 409
Report on Experimental Studies in the Phy aes of Mediy : . . 410

teport on Peat Moss Deposits. : ; 3 : ‘ . 410
R:port on the Registration of Botanical Photameaihes : ; 417
Report on the Conditions of Health essential to the carrying on of eo Work of

Instruction in Schools . : : ; : ; ; 4 . 421
R2port on the Curricula of Secondary Schools 5 ; : 3 : : . 422
The Transactions of the Sections : ; - : : ; 5 i » 427
Evening Discourses :

The Arc and the Spark in Radio-Telegraphy. By W. Duddell, F.R.S. . + 728
Recent Developments in the Theory of Seal By F. A. Dixey, M.D. - 736
Index . £ ‘ : c F : : : ‘ : , . 79
List of Bubliodivens : : . : “ : : : : : ; 763

List of Members, &c. . A - = = f é 4 ‘ “ : ee -90

979

Publications on sale at the Office of the Association.

Lithographed Signatures of the Members who met at Cambridge in 1833, with the
Proceedings of the Public Meetings, 4to, 4s.

Index to the Reports, 1831-1860, 12s. (carriage included).

Index to the Reports, 1861-1890, 15s. (carriage, 4d.).

Lalande’s Catalogue of Stars, £1 1s.

Rules of Zoological Nomenclature, Ls.

On the Regulation of Wages by means of Lists in the Cotton Industry :—Spin-
ning, 2s.; Weaving, ls.

Report on the best means for promoting Scientific Education in Schools, 1867, 6d.

Report on Electrolysis, 1886, 1s.; 1887, 6d.; 1888, 6d.

Second Report on the present Methods of teaching Chemistry, 1889, €d,

Fifth to Twelfth Reports on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, 1889, 1s. ; 1890,
2s. 6d.; 1891, 1s.; 1892, 1s.; 1894, 6d.; 1895, 1s. 6d. ; 1896, 6d.; 1898, ls. 6d.

Discussion on the Theory of Solution, 1890, 6d.

Report of the Committee for constructing and issaing Practical Standards for use
in Electrical Measurements, 1892, 6d. ; 1893, 6d.; 1894, 1s.; 1895, 6d.; 1899, 6d.;
1903, 6d.; 1904, 62.; 1905, 64.; 1996, 6d.; 1907, 6d.; 1908, 6d.

Second Report on the Development of Graphic Methods in Mechanical Science,
1892, 1s. ;

Report on the Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom, 1823, 6d.; 1894, 67.

The Action of Magnetism on Light, by J. Larmor, F-B.S., 1893, 1s.

Report on the Character of the High-level Shell-bearing Deposits at Clava, Chapel-
hall, and other Localities, 1893, 6d.

Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry,
1893, 6d.

Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of Thermodynamics, Part II., by
G. H. Bryan; with an Appendix by Prof. L. Boltzmann, 1894, Ls.

Report on Planimeters, by Prof. O. Henrici, FE.R.S., 1894, 1s.

Discussion on Agriculture and Science, Ipswich, 1895, 3d.

Fourth Report on the Erosion of the Sea Coasts of Eng'and and Wales, 1899, 9d.

Second Report on a Gauge for Small Screws, 1884, reprinted 1895, 6d.

Report on giving practical effect to the Introduction of the British Association Screw
Gauge, 1896, 6d.; 1901, 6d.; 1903, 6d.

Report on Proposed Modification of the Thread of the B.A. Screw, 1900, 6d.

Digest of Observations on the Migration of Birds, made at Lighthouses, by W. Eagle
Clarke, 1896, 6d. ;

Report on the Migratory Habits of the Song-thrush and the White Wagtail, by
W. Eagle Clarke, 1900, 6d.

Report on the Migratory Habits of the Skylark and the Swallow, by W. Eagle
Clarke, 1901, 6d. °

Report on the Migratory Habits of the Fieldfare and the Lapwing, by W. Eagle
Clarke, 1902, 6d.

Report on the Migratory Habits of the Starling and the Rook, by W. Eagle Clarke ,
1903, 6d.

Report on Tables of the Bessel Functions, 1896, 1s.
Report on the Comparison of Magnetic Instruments, 1896, 4d.

Report on the Position of Geography in the Educational System of the Country
1897, 6d.

980
Report of the International Conference on Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric
Electricity, 1898, 6d.

Report on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy in continuation of 1894 Report, 1898,
1s. 6d.; 1901, 1s. 6d. -

Report on Wave-lengths, 1899, 1s.; 1900, with Index to Tables from 1884 to 1900,
1s.; 1901, 1s.

Tables of F (7, v) and H (7, v) Functions, 1899, 1s.
Report on the Ethnological Survey of Canada, 1899, 1s. 6d.; 1900, 1s. 6d.; 1902, Is

Report on Seismology, 1900, 1s.; 1901, 1s.; 1902, 1s.; 1903, 1s.; 1904, 1s.; 1905, 1s.
1906, 6d.; 1907, 6d.; 1908, 1s.

Report on the Chemical Compounds contained in Alloys, by F. H. Neville, F.B.S.,
1900, 6d.

The Constitution of Camphor, by A. Lapworth, D.Sc., 1909, 1s.
Report on Future Dealings in Raw Produce, 1900, 6d.
Note sur l’Unité de Pression, par le Dr. C. E. Guillaume, 1901, 3d.

Note on the Variation of the Specific Heat of Water, by Prof. H. L. Callendar,
1901, 4d.

Report on Absorption Spectra and Chemical Constitution of Organic Substances,
1901, 1s.

Report on the Structure of Crystals, 1901, 1s.

The Relative Progress of the Coal-tar Industry in England and Germany during the
past Fifteen Years, by Arthur G. Green, 1901, 6d.

The Methods for the Determination of Hydrolytic Dissociation of Salt Solutions, by
R. C. Farmer, 1901, 6d.

The Application of the Equilibrium Law to the Separation of Crystals from Complex
Solutions and to the Formation of Oceanic Salt Deposits, by Dr. HE, Frankland
Armstrong, 1901, 1s.

Report on the Resistance of Road Vehicles to Traction, 1901, 3d.

The Influence of the Universities on School Education, by the Right Rev. John
Percival, D.D., Lord Bishop of Hereford, 1901, 3d.

Report on Life-zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks, 1901, 6d.; 1902, 6d.;
1904, 6d,

Our Present Kuowlelge of Aromatic Diazo-compounds, by Dr. Gilbert Thomas
Morgan, 1902, 6d.

Report on the Teaching of Elementary Mathematics, 1902, 3d.
Report on Women’s Labour, 1903, 6d.

Report on the Teaching of Botany in Schools, 1903, 3d.
Report on the Changes in the Sea Coast, 1903, 6d.; 1904, 6d.

Report on the Accuracy and Comparability of British and Foreign Statistics of Inter-
national Trade, 1904, 6d.

Report on Anthropometric Investigation in the British Isles, 1906, 1s.; 1907, 3d.
The Present Position of the Chemistry of Rubber, by S. S. Pickles, 1906, 6d.
The Present Position of the Chemistry of Gums, by H. Robinson, 1906, 3d.

Standardisation in British Engineering Practice, by Sir John Wolfe-Barry, K.C.B.,
1906, 3d.

Melanism in Yorkshire Lepidoptera, by G. T. Porritt, 1906, 6d.
Preliminary Report on the Magnetic Survey of South Africa, 1906, 3d.
Report on the Curricula of Secondary Schools, 1907, 3d.

Report on the Sequence of Studies in the Science Section of the Curriculum of
Secondary Schools, 1908, 3d.

The President’s Address, and Sectional Addresses, for 1889, 1890, 1891, 1892, 1893,
1895, 1896, 1899, 1900, oS 1902, each 1s.

x oS te >
aoe ze 2) 1 MAY. 1909

erat He

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

1908

LIST OF MEMBERS

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL

AND

INSTITUTIONS RECEIVING THE REPORT

CORRECTED TO JANUARYJ1, 1909

LONDON
BURLINGTON HOUSE, PICCADILLY, W.

~

Se

74

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1908-1909.

PATRON.
HIS MAJESTY THE KING.

VICE-PATRON FOR THE MEETING AT WINNIPEG.
His EXcELLENCY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF THE DOMINION OF CANADA,

PRESIDENT.
FRANCIS DARWIN, M.A., M.B., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

The Right Hon. Alderman GERALD O’REILLY, Lord
Mayor of Dublin.

The Right Hon. Sir SAMUEL WALKER, Bart., Lord
Chancellor of Ireland.

The Right Hon. AUGUSTINE BmrRELT, M.P., Chief
Secretary to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland.

The Right Hon. the EarL or Meaty, K.P., His
Majesty’s Lieutenant for the County of Dublin.

The Right Hon. LorpD CASTLETOWN or UPPER
Ossory, K.P., Chancellor of the Royal University
of Ireland.

ANTHONY TRAILL, M.D., LL.D., Provost of Trinity
College, Dublin.

The Very Rey. WiLLIAM DELANY, LL.D., President
of University College, Dublin.

; The Right Hon. Viscount, IvEAGH, K.P., LL.D.,

| F.RS.

The Right Hon. Lord ArpILAUN, D.L., LL.D.,

| President of the Royal Dublin Society.

| Francis A. TaRLEYON, LL.D., President of the
Royal Trish Academy.

The Right Hon. Mr. Justice MADDEN, M.A.,
LL.D., Vice-Chancellor of the University of
Dublin.

Sir CHRISTOPHER Nixon, Bart., M.D., LL.D.,
Vice-Chancellor of the Royal University of
Treland.

T. W. Russeit, M.P., Vice-President of the

Department of Agriculture and Technical
Instruction in Ireland,

PRESIDENT ELECT.
Professor Sir J. J. THomson, Sc.D.,, D.Se., F.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.

The Right Hon. LoRD STRATHCONA AND Mount
Royal, G.O.M.G., F.R.S.

The Right Hon. Sir Witrrip Laurie, G.C.M.G.,
D.C.L., Premier of the Dominion of Canada.

His Hon. the LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR OF THE PRo-
VINCE OF MANITOBA.

The Hon, the PREMIER OF THE PROVINCE OF MANI-

TOBA.
His Hon. the LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR OF THE PRO-
VINCE OF SASKATCHEWAN,

| The Hon. the PREMIER OF THE PROVINCE oF SAs-
KATCHEWAN.
| His Hon, the LinuTENANT-GOVERNOR OF THE PRO-
| VINCE OF ALBERTA.
The Hon, the PREMIER OF THE PROVINCE oF
ALBERTA.
| His Hon, the LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR OF THE PRo-
VINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA,
The Hon. the PREMIER
BRITISH COLUMBIA.

OF THE PROVINCE OF

GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor JOHN Perry, D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.

Major P. A. MAcMAnov, R.A., D.fc., F.R.S.

Professor W. A. HERDMAN, D.Sce., F.R.S.

ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
ARTHUR SILVA WHITE, Burlington House, London, W.

CHIEF CLERK AND ASSISTANT TREASURER.
H. O. Stewarpsoy, Burlington House, London, W.

LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT WINNIPEG,
JOHN AIRD.

LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT WINNIPEG.

G. N. BELL.
W. SANFORD EVANS.

Professor M. A. PARKER, B.Sc.
Professor SWALE VINCEN', M.D,

[P.T.0,

4 - BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

ABNEY, Sir W., K.C.B., F.R.S | Haut, A. D., M.A.
ANDERSON, TEMI FST, M. D., D. fc | HARTLAND, E. SIDNEY, F.S.A.
Bourng, Professor G. O., D.: ‘Se. | HAWESLEY, O., M.Inst.C.E.

Bowley, A. L., M.A. HoeGasrts, D. G., M.A.

BRABROOS, Sir E “EDWARD, O.B. | McKENDRICK, Professor J. G., F.R.S,

Brown, Dr. Horace T., F.R.8. | MITCHELL, Dr. P. CHALMERS, F.R.S,

BRUNTON, Sir LAUDFR, Bart. . F.RS PouLToN, Professor E. B., F.R.S.

CLOSE, Major C. F., RE, O.M.G. PRAIN, Lieut.-Colonel D., 0.1.E., F.R.S,

CRAIGIE, Major P. G., C. 3. SHERRINGTON, Professor 0. &., F.R.S.

Dyson, Professor F. W., F.R.S. SHIPLEY, Dr. A. E., F.RB.S.

Forsy?H, Professor A. R., F.RS. | TuTToN, Dr. A. E. H., F.RS.

GLAZEBROOK, Dr. R. T., F.R.S. } Watts, Professor W. W., F.R.S.
Woopwanp, Dr. A, SMIvH, F.R.S.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL,

The Trustees, past Presidents of the Association, the President and Vice-Presidents for the year, the

President and Vice-Presidents Elect, past and present General Treasurers and General Secretaries, past-

Assistant General Secretaries, aud the Local Treasurers and Local Secretaries for the ensuing Annual
Meeting.

TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

The Right Hon. Lord Avebury, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.
The Right Hon. Lord RAYLEIGH, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.1.S., F.R.A.S.
Sir ARTHUR W. RUCKER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

PAST PRESIDENTS OF THE ASSOCIATION,

Sir Joseph D. Flooker, G.C.S.I. Sir Archibald Geikie, K.O,B.,) Sir James Dewar, LL.D., ee
Lord Avebury, D.C.L., F.R.S. Pres.R.S. _ Sir Norman Lockyer, K.O. —e ish
Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., F.R.S Lord Lister, D.C.L., F. a8 | Arthur J. Balfcur, D.C.L., RS.
Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C. ioe F.R.S. Fix Williem Cicckes, F.R. ss | Sir Gcorge Darwin, K. GE, RES.
Sir William Huggins, K.O.B., | Sir W. Turner, K.O.B., F.R.S. | Sir E.Pay Lankester,K.0.B.,F.R.S.
F.R.S. | Sir A. W. Riic ker, D. Se., ERA. fir David Gill, K.C.B., F.R.S.

PAST GENERAL OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION.

F. Galton, D.O.L., F.R.S. A. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S. Dr. D. H. Scott, M.A., F.R.S.

P. L. Sclater, Ph,D., F.R.S. Sir A. W. Riicker, D.§c., F.R.S. Dr. G. Carey Foster, F.R.S.

Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Se., F.R.S. | Prof. E. A. Schiifer, F.R.8. Dr, J. G. Garson.
AUDITORS.

Sir Edward Brabrook, C.B. | Professor H. McLeod, F.R.S.

LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT

OF SCIENCE.

1908.

* indicates Life Members entitled to the Annual Report.
§ indicates Annual Subscribers entitled to the Annual Report.
{ indicates Subscribers not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names without any mark before them are Life Members, elected
before 1845, not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names of Members of the GENERAL COMMITTEE are printed in
SMALL CAPITALS.
Names of Members whose addresses are incomplete or not known
are in italics.

Notice of changes of residence should be sent to the Assistant Secretary,

Burlington House, London, W.

Year of

Election.

1905. *& Ababrelton, Robert, F.R.G.S. P.O. Box 322, Pietermaritzburg,
Natal.

1887. *Appn, Professor CuEvELAND. Weather Bureau, Department of
Agriculture, Washington, U.S.A.

1881. *Abbott, R. T. G. Whitley House, Malton.

1885. *ABERDEEN, The Earl of, G.C.M.G., LL.D. Haddo House, Aber-

1885.
1873.

1905.
1905.
1882.
1869.
1877.

1894.
1877.
1904.
1898.

deen.

tAberdeen, The Countess of. Haddo House, Aberdeen.

*ApneEyY, Captain Sir W. pe W., K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.AS.
(Pres. A, 1889; Pres. L, 1903; Council, 1884-89, 1902-05,
1906- .) Measham Hall, Leicestershire.

tAbrahamson, Louis. Civil Service Club, Cape Town.

§Aburrow, Charles. P.O. Box 534, Johannesburg.

*Acland, Alfred Dyke. 38 Pont-street, Chelsea, S.W.

tAcland, Sir C. T. Dyke, Bart., M.A. Killerton, Exeter.

scat Captain Francis E. Dyke, R.A. Walwood, Banstead,

urrey. :

*Acland, Henry Dyke, F.G.S. Lamorva, Falmouth.

*Acland, Theodore Dyke, M.D. 19 Bryanston-square, W.

§Acton, T. A. 3 Grove-road, Wrexham.

tAoworra, W. M., M.A. (Pres. F, 1908.) The Albany, W.

6

BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

Year of
Election.

1901.
1887.

1901.
1904.

tAdam, J. Miller. 15 Walmer-crescent, Glasgow.

fApam, J. G., M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathology in
McGill University, Montreal, Canada.

§Adams, John, M.A., Professor of Education in the University of
London. 23 Tanza-road, Hampstead, N.W.

tAdams, W. G. S., M.A. Department of Agriculture, Upper
Merrion-street, Dublin.

. *Apams, WintiaAmM Grits, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.P.S.

(Pres. A, 1880 ; Council, 1878-85.) Heathfield, Broadstone,
Dorset.

. §Adamson, R. Stephen. Emmanuel College, Cambridge.
. tAddison, William L. T. Byng Inlet, Ontario, Canada.
. t[Aprmnny, W. E., D.Sc., F.C.S. Royal University of Ireland,

Earlsfort-terrace, Dublin. ax

. *Adie, R. H., M.A., B.Sc. 136 Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.
. §Adkin, Robert. 4 Lingard’s-road, Lewisham, 8.E.

. tAdle, Henry. P.O. Box 1059, Johannesburg.

. *Agar, W. E., M.A. Natural History Department, The University,

Glasgow.

. tAgnew, Samuel, M.D. Bengal-place, Lurgan.

. §Aikman, J. A. 6 Glencairn-crescent, Edinburgh.

. *Ainsworth, John Stirling. Harecroft, Gosforth, Cumberland.

. *ATREDALE, Lord. Gledhow Hall, Leeds.

. *Airy, Hubert, M.D. Stoke House, Woodbridge, Suffolk.

. *Aisbitt, M. W. Mountstuart-square, Cardiff.

. §ArrKeEn, Joun, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Ardenlea, Falkirk, N.B.
. tAitken, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E. County Buildings, Cupar-Fife.

. *Alabaster, H. Milton, Grange-road, Sutton, Surrey.

. *Albright, G.S. Broomsberrow Place, Ledbury.

. {Albright, Miss. Finstal Farm, Finstal, Bromsgrove, Worcester-

shire.

. §Alcock, Dr. N. H. 22 Downshire-hill, Hampstead, N.W.
. *Aldren, Francis J... M.A. The Lizans, Malvern Link.
. §Aldridge, J. G. W., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-street, West-

minster, S8.W.

. *Alexander, J. Abercromby, F'.8.A. 24 Lawn-crescent, Kew.

. *Alexander, Patrick Y. 82 Victoria-street, S.W.

. *Alford, Charles J., F.G.S. 15 Great St. Helen’s, E.C.

. [Alger, W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South Devon.

. tAlger, Mrs. W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South Devon.
. *Allan, James A. Westerton, Milngavie.

. *Allcock, William Burt. Emmanuel College, Cambridge.

. *Allen, Rev. A. J.C. 34 Lensfield-road, Cambridge.

. §Atuen, Dr. E. J. The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth.

. tAuuen, F. J., M.A. 108 Mawson-road, Cambridge.

. *Allorge, M. M., L.ésSe., F.G.S. University Museum, Oxford.

. *Alverstone, The Right Hon. Lord, G.C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S.

Hornton Lodge, Hornton-street, Kensington, W.

. tAlward, G. L. 11 Hamilton-street, Grimsby, Yorkshire.

. §Amery, John Sparke. Druid, Ashburton, Devon.

. t{Amery, Peter Fabyan Sparke. Druid, Ashburton, Devon.

. [Amr, Henry, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. Geological Survey, Ottawa,

Canada.

. fAnderson, A. J., M.A., M.B. The Residency, Portswood-road,

Green Point, Cape Colony.

. *Anderson, C. L. P.O. Box 2162, Johannesburg.
. §Anderson, Edgar. Glenavon, Merrion-road, Dublin.

Year of
Blection

1885.

1901.
1892.
1899.
1888.
1887.

1905.
1880.

1902.
1901.
1908.
1907.

1895.

1880.
1886.,
1877.

1900.
1896.

1886.
1890.
1901.

1900.
1894.
1884.
1883.
1908.

1903.
1873.

1905.
1905.
1893.

1904.
1870.
1903.
1907.

1903.
1890.
1905.

LIST OF MEMBERS : 1908. v

*AnpERSON, HuaH Kerr, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. Caius College,
Cambridge.

*Anderson, James. Ravelston, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

tAnderson, Joseph, LL.D. 8 Great King-street, Edinburgh.

*Anderson, Miss Mary Kerr. 13 Napier-road, Edinburgh.

*Anderson, R. Bruce. 5 Westminster-chambers, S.W.

tAnpeERson, Professor R. J., M.D., F.L.S. Queen’s College, and
Atlantic Lodge, Salthill, Galway.

tAnderson, T. J. P.O. Box 173, Cape Town.

*ANDERSON, TempEst, M.D., D.Sc.,¥.G.S. (Council, 1907— ; Local
Sec. 1881.) 17 Stonegate, York.

*Anderson, Thomas. KEmbleton, Osborne Park, Belfast.

*Anderson, Dr. W. Carrick. 8 Windsor-quadrant, Glasgow.

§Anderson, William. Glenavon, Merrion-road, Dublin.

{Andrews, A. W. Adela-avenue, West Barnes-lane, New Malden,
Surrey. ;

tAndrews, Charles W., B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. British Museum
(Natural History), S.W.

*Andrews, Thornton, M.Inst.C.E. Cefn Eithen, Swansea.

§Andrews, William, F.G.S. Steeple Croft, Coventry.

§AnGELL, JouNn, F.C.S., F.C. 6 Beacons-field, Derby-road,
Withington, Manchester.

tAnnandale, Nelson. 34 Charlotte-square, Edinburgh.

tAnnett, R. C. F., Assoc.Inst.C.E. 4 Buckingham-avenue, Sefton
Park, Liverpool.

{Ansell, Joseph. 27 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.

§Antrobus, J. Coutts. Eaton Hall, Congleton.

tArakawa, Minozi. Japanese Consulate, 84 Bishopsgate-street
Within, E.C.

tArber, E. A. Newell, M.A., F.L.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.

tArchibald, A. Holmer, Court-road, Tunbridge Wells.

*Archibald, E. Douglas. Constitutional Club, W.C.

*Armistead, William. Hillcrest, Oaken, Wolverhampton.

§Armstrong, E. C. R., M.R.LA., F.R.G.S. Cyprus, Eglinton-road,
Dublin.

*ArmstRonG, EH. FRANKLAND, D.Sc., Ph.D. 98 London-road
Reading.

*ArmsTRoNG, Henry E., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1885;
Pres, L, 1902 ; Council, 1899-1905), Professor of Chemistry in
the City and Guilds of London Institute, Central Institution,
Exhibition-road, §8.W. 55 Granville-park, Lewisham, S.E.

tArmstrong, John. Kamfersdam Mine, near Kimberley, Cape
Colony.

§ARNOLD, J. O., Professor of Metallurgy in the University of
Sheffield.

*Arnold-Bemrose, H. H., Sc.D., F.G.S. Ash Tree House, Osmaston-
road, Derby.

tArunachalam, P. Ceylon Civil Service, Colombo, Ceylon.

*Ash, Dr. T. Linnington. Penroses, Holsworthy, North Devon.

*Ashby, Thomas. The British School, Rome.

§AsHieEy, W. J., M.A. (Pres. F, 1907), Professor of Commerce in the
University of Birmingham. 3 Yateley-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

Ashworth, Henry. Turton, near Bolton.

*Ashworth, J. H., D.Sc. 4 Cluny-terrace, Edinburgh.

tAshworth, J. Reginald, D.Sc. 105 Freehold-street, Rochdale.

tAskew, 'T. A. Main-road, Claremont, Cape Colony.

8

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1875.
1896.
1905.
1908.

1903.

1887.
1898.
1894.

1906.
1881.
1907.
1881.

1863.
1906.

1907.
1903.
1853.

1883.
1905.
1883.
1887.
1903.
1907.

1908.
1905.
1883.
1883.

1893.
1887.
1905.
1905.
1894.
1878.
1897.
1905.
1886.
1907.
1904.

1894.

1905.
1875.

*Aspland, W. Gaskell. 50 Park Hill-road, N.W.1

*Assheton, Richard, M.A., F.L.S. Grantchester, Cambridge.
tAssheton, Mrs. Grantchester, Cambridge.

sAstloy: 3 Rev. H. J. Dukinfield, M.A. East Rudham Vicarage,

g’s Lynn.

tAtchison, Arthur F. T., B.Sc. Royal Engineering College,
Cooper’s Hill, Staines.

tAtkinson, Rev. C. Chetwynd, D.D. Ingestre, Ashton-on-Mersey.

*Atkinson, E. Cuthbert. 5 Pembroke-vale, Clifton, Bristol.

*Atkinson, Harold W., M.A. West View, Eastbury-avenue, North-
wood, Middlesex.

tAtkinson, J. J. Cosgrove Priory, Stony Stratford.

{Atkinson, J. T. The Quay, Selby, Yorkshire.

§Atkinson, Robert E. Morland-avenue, Knighton, Leicester.

{Argrson, Ropert WiiiiAM, F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1891.) 44
Loudoun-square, Cardiff.

*ATTFIELD, J.,M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.,F.C.S. Ashlands, Watford, Herts.

§AupEN, Dr. G. A. The Education Office, Edmund-street, Bir-
mingham.

§Auden, H. A., D.Sc. Westwood, Grassendale, Liverpool.

tAusrrm, CHartes E. 37 Cambridge-road, Southport.

*AveBuRY, The Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L., F.R.S. (PResripEnt,
1881; Trusten, 1872-_ ; Pres. D, 1872; Council, 1865-71.)
High Elms, Farnborough, Kent.

*Bach, Madame Henri. 19 Avenue Bosquet, Paris.

tBackhouse, James. Daleside, Scarborough.

*Backhouse, W. A. St. John’s, Wolsingham, R.S.O., Durham.

*Bacon, Thomas Walter. Ramsden Hall, Billericay, Essex.

{Baden-Powell, Major B. 22 Prince’s-gate, S.W.

§Badgley, Colonel W. F., Assoc.Inst.C.E., F.R.G.S. Verecroft,
Devizes.

*Bagnall, Richard Siddoway. The Groves, Winlaton, Co. Durham.

{Baikie, Robert. P.O. Box 36, Pretoria, South Africa.

tBaildon, Dr. 42 Hoghton-street, Southport.

*Bailey, Charles, F.L.S. Atherstone House, North-drive, St.
Anne’s-on-the-Sea, Lancashire.

tBartuey, Colonel F., F.R.G.S. 7 Drummond-place, Edinburgh.

*Bailey, G. H., D.Se., Ph.D. Marple Cottage, Marple, Cheshire.

*Bailey, Harry Percy. 22 Clarendon-road, Margate.

§Bailey, W. F., C.B. Land Commission, Dublin.

*Batty, Francis Gipson, M.A. Newbury, Colinton, Midlothian.

{Barny, WALTER. 4 Roslyn-hill, Hampstead, N.W.

§Barn, JAMES. Public Library, Toronto, Canada.

*Baker, Sir Augustine. 56 Merrion-square, Dublin.

§Baker, Harry, F.I.C. Epworth House, Moughland-lane, Runcorn.

§Baldwin, Walter. 5 St. Alban’s-street, Rochdale.

{Batrour, The Right Hon. A. J., D.C.L., LL.D., M.P., F.RB.S.,
Chancellor of the University of Edinburgh. (PrusmpEnt,
1904.) Whittinghame, Prestonkirk, N.B.

{Ba.trour, Henry, M.A. (Pres. H, 1904.) 11 Norham-gardens,
Oxford.

tBalfour, Mrs. H. 11 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

{Batrour, Isaac Bayzny, M.A., D.Sc., M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.,

| F.LS. (Pres. D, 1894 ; K, 1901), Professor of Botany in the
University of Edinburgh. Inverleith House, Edinburgh.

Year of
Election

1883.
1905.
1905.
1905.
1878.

1866.

1908.
1883.
1905.
1869.

1890.
1899.
1905.
1898.

1890.
1861.
1860.
1887.
1902.
1902.
1904.
1906.

1899.
1882.

1898.
1909.

1889.

1883.
1885.
1905.

1902.
IS8sl.
1904.
1907.
1881.

1902.
1904.
1872.
1874.

1874.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908. 9

{Balfour, Mrs. I. Bayley. Inverleith House, Edinburgh.

{Balfour, Mrs. J. Dawyck, Stobo, N.B.

{Balfour, Lewis. 11 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

{Balfour, Miss Vera B. Dawyck, Stobo, N.B.

*Ball, Sir Charles Bent, M.D., Regius Professor of Surgery in the
University of Dublin. 24 Merrion-square, Dublin.

*Bati, Sir Ropert STawELL, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (Pres. A,
1887 ; Council, 1884-90, 1892-94 ; Local Sec. 1878), Lown-
dean Professor of Astronomy and Geometry in the University
of Cambridge. The Observatory, Cambridge.

§Ball, T. Elrington. 6 Wilton-place, Dublin.

*Ball, W. W. Rouse, M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

{Ballantine, Rev. T. R. Tirmochree, Bloomfield, Belfast.

tBamber, Henry K., F.C.S. 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-
street, Westminster, S.W.

{Bamford, Professor Harry, M.Sc. 30 Falkland-mansions, Glasgow.

§Bampton, Mrs. 42 Marine-parade, Dover.

§Banks, Miss Margaret Pierrepont. 10 Regent-terrace, Edinburgh.

{Bannerman, W. Bruce, F.8.A. The Lindens, Sydenham-road,
Croydon.

*Barber-Starkey, W. J. S. Aldenham Park, Bridgnorth, Salop.

*Barbour, George. Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall, Chester.

*Barclay, Robert. High Leigh, Hoddesden, Herts.

*Barclay, Robert. Sedgley New Hall, Prestwich, Manchester.

tBarcroft, H., D.L. The Glen, Newry, Co. Down.

{Barcroft, Joseph, M.A., B.Sc. King’s-College, Cambridge.

§Barker, B. T. P. Fenswood, Long Ashton, Bristol.

*Barker, Geoffrey Palgrave. Henstead Hall, near Wrentham,
Suffolk.

§Barker, John H., M.Inst.C.E. Adderley Park Rolling Mills,
Birmingham.

*Barker, Miss J. M. Care of Mrs. Plummer, Prior’s-terrace, Tyne-
mouth.

tBarker, W. R. 106 Redland-road, Bristol.

§Barlow, Lieut.-Colonel G. N. H. Care of Messrs. Cox & Co., 16
Charing Cross, 8. W.

tBarlow, H. W. L., M.A., M.B., F.C.S. The Park Hospital, Hither
Green, S.E.

{Barlow, J. J. 84 Cambridge-road, Southport.

*BaRLOw, WILLIAM, F.RB.S., F.G.S. The Red House, Great Stanmore.

§Barnard, Miss Annie T., M.D., B.Sc. 32 Chenies-street-chambers,
Gower-street, W.C.

§Barnard, J. E. Park View, Brondesbury Park, N.W.

{Barnard, William, LL.B. 3 New-court, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.

{Barnes, Rev. E. W., M.A., F.R.A.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.

§Barnes, Professor H. T. McGill University, Montreal, Canada.

{Barr, ARCHIBALD, D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Civil Engineer-
ing in the University, Glasgow.

*Barr, Mark. Gloucester-mansions, Harrington-gardens, 8.W.

tBarrett, Arthur. 6 Mortimer-road, Cambridge.

*Barrett, W. F., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.R.1L.A., Professor of Physics
in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. 6 De Vesci-terrace,
Kingstown, Co. Dublin.

*Barrineton, R. M., M.A., LL.B., F.L.S. Fassaroe, Bray, Co.
Wicklow.

*Barrington-Ward, Rev. Mark J., M.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., H.M.
Inspector of Schools. Thorneloe Lodge, Worcester.

10

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1893.
1896.
1908.
1884.
1890.
1890.
1892.

1858.
1893.

1908.
1904.

1845.
1888.

1891..
1866.
1889.

1871.

1883.
1907.
1884.

1881.

1906.
1863.
1904.
1905.
1876.
1887.
1883.
1905.

1889.

1905.
1904.
1905.

1902.
1855.

1900.
1861.
1887.
1885.
1887.
1904.

*Barrow, GEORGE, F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, 8.W.

§Barrowman, James. Staneacre, Hamilton, N.B.

§Barry, Gerald H. Wiglin Glebe, Carlow, Ireland.

*Barstow, Miss Frances A. Garrow Hill, near York.

*Barstow, J. J. Jackson. ‘The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.

*Barstow, Mrs. The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.

tBartholomew, John George, F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. Newington
House, Edinburgh.

*Bartholomew, William Hamond, M.Inst.C.E. Ridgeway. House,
Cumberland-road, Hyde Park, Leeds.

*Barton, Edwin H., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Experimental
Physics in University College, Nottingham.

§Barton, Walter John. The College, Winchester.

*Bartrum, C. O., B.Sc.- 12 Heath-mansions, Heath-street, Hamp-

stead, N.W.

*Bashforth, Rev. Francis, B.D. Minting Vicarage, near Horncastle.

*Basset, A. B., M.A., F.R.S. Fledborough Hall, Holyport, Berk-
shire.

{Bassett, A. B. Cheverell, Llandaff.

*Bassert, Henry. 26 Belitha-villas, Barnsbury, N.

{BasraB.e, Professor C. F., M.A., F.S.8. (Pres. F, 1894.) 6 Tre-
velyan-terrace, Rathgar, Co. Dublin.

{Bastran, H. Cuaruton, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Emeritus Pro-
fessor of the Principles and Practice of Medicine in University
College, London. 84 Manchester-square, W.

{Baremay, Sir A. E., K.C.M.G. Woodhouse, Wimbledon Park, 8.W.

*Bateman, Harry. The University, Manchester.

{Bareson, Witi1aM, M.A., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1904), Professor of
Biology in the University of Cambridge. St. John’s College,
Cambridge.

*Baruer, Francis Artuur, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. British Museum
(Natural History), 8.W.

§Batty, Mrs. Braithwaite. Ye Gabled House, The Parks, Oxford.

§BaupRMAN, H., F.G.S. 14 Cavendish-road, Balham, 8.W.

tBaugh, J. H. Agar. 92 Hatton-garden, E.C.

{Baxter, W. Duncan. P.O. Box 103, Cape Town.

*Baynes, Ropert K., M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.

*Baynes, Mrs. R. E. 2 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

*Bazley, Gardner S. Hatherop Castle, Fairford, Gloucestershire.

*Bazley, Miss J. M. A. Kilmorie, Ilsham-drive, Torquay, Devon.

Bazley, Sir Thomas Sebastian, Bart., M.A. Kilmorie, Isham-
drive, Torquay, Devon.

§BrareE, Professor T. Hupson, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. The
University, Edinburgh.

§Beare, Mrs. T. Hudson. 10 Regent-terrace, Edinburgh.

§Beasley, H.C. 25a Prince Alfred-road, Wavertree, Liverpool.

{Beattie, Professor J. C., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. South African College,
Cape Town.

{Beatty, H.M., LL.D. Ballymena, Co. Antrim.

*Beaufort, W. Morris, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.MLS., F.S.8. 18 Pic-
cadilly, W.

{Beaumont, Professor Roberts, M.I.Mech.E. The University, Leeds.

*Beaumont, Rev. Thomas George. Oakley Lodge, Leamington.

*Beaumont, W. J. The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth.

*Braumont, W. W., M.Inst.C.E. Outer Temple, 222 Strand, W.C.

*BeckErt, JoHN HamepEN. Corbar Hall, Buxton, Derbyshire.

§Beckit, H. O. ‘The Schoolhouse Whitchurch, Salop.

LIST OF MEMBERS : 1908. ind

Year of
Election.

1885.
1870.

1904.
1891.
1878.

1901.

1905.
1891.
1894,
1900.
1870.

1883.
1905.
1888.
1908.

1904.
1905.
1883.
1901.

1905.
1905.
1903.
1901.
1887.

1898.
1904.
1905.
1905.
1908.
1896.

1894.
1905.
1906.
1898.
1894,
1908.
1908.
1904.

1905.
1862.

1880.
1904.

{Bepparp, Franc E., M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., Prosector to the
Zoological Society of London, Regent’s Park, N.W.

{Brppor, Joun, M.D., F.R.S. (Council, 1870-75.) The Chantry,
Bradford-on-Avon.

*Bedford, T. G., M.A. 13 Warkworth-street, Cambridge.

{Bedlington, Richard. Gadlys House, Aberdare.

{BEpson, P. Puruuirs, D.Sc., F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1889), Professor of
Chemistry in the College of Physical Science, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

*Buitpy, G. T., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1905.) 11 University-gardens,

Glasgow.

tBeilby, Hubert. 11 University-gardens, Glasgow.

*Belinfante, L. L., M.Sc., Assist. Sec. G.S. Burlington House, W.

{Bex1, F. Jerrrey, M.A., F.Z.S. British Museum, 8.W.

*Bell, Henry Wilkinson. Beech Cottage, Rawdon, near Leeds.

*BELL, J. Carrer, A.R.S.M. The Cliff, Higher Broughton, Man-
chester.

*Bell, John Henry. 102 Leyland-road, Southport.

tBell, W. H.S. P.O. Box 4284, Johannesburg.

*Bell, Walter George, M.A. Trinity Hall, Cambridge.

*Bellamy, Frank Arthur, M.A., F.R.A.S. University Observatory,
Oxford.

{Bellars, A. E. Magdalene College, Cambridge.

{Bender, Rev. A. P., M.A. Synagogue House, Cape Town. .

*Bennett, Laurence Henry. The Elms, Paignton, South Devon.

tBennett, Professor Peter. 6 Kelvinhaugh-street, Sandyford,
Glasgow.

§Benson, Arthur H., M.A., F.R.C.S. 42 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.

§Benson, Mrs. A. H. 42 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.

§Benson, D. E. Queenwood, 12 Irton-road, Southport.

*Benson, Miss Margaret J., D.Sc. Royal Holloway College, Egham.

*Benson, Mrs. W. J. Care of Johannesburg Consolidated Invest-
ment Co., P.O. Box 590, Johannesburg, Transvaal.

*Bent, Mrs. Theodore. 13 Great Cumberland-place, W.

{Bentley, B. H. The University, Sheffield.

§Bentley, F. W. Rein Wood, Huddersfield.

*Bentley, W. C. Rein Wood, Huddersfield.

§Benton, Mrs. Evelyn M. Kingswear, Hale, Altrincham, Cheshire.

*Bergin, William, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Queen’s
College, Cork.

§BerKEcey, The Earl of, F.R.S., F.G.S. Foxcombe, Boarshill, near
Abingdon.

*Bernaccul, L. C., F.R.G.S. Pound Farm, Upper Long Ditton,
Surrey.

*Bernays, Albert Evan. 3 Priory-road, Kew, Surrey.

§Berridge, Miss C. E. 7 Albert-mansions, Lansdowne-road, Croydon.

§Brerripen, Dovanas, M.A., F.C.S. The College, Malvern.

*Berridge, Miss Emily M. Dunton Lodge, The Knoll, Beckenham.

*Berry, Arthur J. 5 University-gardens, Glasgow.

fBerry, R. A. West of Scotland Agricultural College, 6 Blyths-
wood-square, Glasgow.

{Bertrand, Captain Alfred. Champel, Geneva.

{Besant, Witi1aM Henry, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. St. John’s College,
Cambridge.

*Brevan, Rev. Jamas Oxtvur, M.A., F.S.A., F.G.S. Chillenden
Rectory, Dover.

*Bevan, P. V.,M.A. Garden-walk, Chesterton, Cambridge.

12

Year of

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Election.

1906,
1884.
1903.
1888.
1885.

1904.
1882.
1898.
1901.
1908.
1887.
1884.

1881.

1887.
1904.
1906.
1894.
1886.
1881.

1901.
1903.

1908.
1908.
1902.
1900.
1905.
1904.
1884.
1887.

1887.
1884,
1902.
1888.

1887.
1900.
1908.

1887.
1898.
1894.
1898.

1908.
1871.

1888.
1893.
1890.

§Bevan-Lewis, W., M.D. West Riding Asylum, Wakefield.

*Beverley, Michael, M.D. 54 Prince of Wales-road, Norwich.

{Bickerdike, C. F. 1 Boverney-road, Honor Oak Park, S.E.

*Bidder, George Parker. Savile Club, Piccadilly, W.

* BIDWELL, SHELFORD, Sec.D., LL.B., F.R.S. Beechmead, Oatlands
Chase, Weybridge.

§Bigg-Wither, Colonel A. C. Tilthams, Godalming, Surrey.

{Biggs, C. H. W., F.C.S. Glebe Lodge, Champion-hill, §.E.

tBillington, Charles. Heimath, Longport, Staffordshire.

*Bilsland, Sir William, Bart., J.P. 28 Park-circus, Glasgow.

*Bilton, Edward Barnard. Graylands, Wimbledon Common, 8.W.

*Bindloss, James B. Elm Bank, Buxton.

*Bingham, Colonel Sir John E., Bart. West Lea, Ranmoor, Shef-
field.

{Boynig, Sir ALexanpER R., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. (Pres. G, 1900.)
77 Ladbroke-grove, W.

*Birley, H. K. Penrhyn, Irlams o’ th’ Height, Manchester.

{Bishop, A. W. Edwinstowe, Chaucer-road, Cambridge.

§Bishop, J. L. Inland Revenue Office, York.

tBisset, James, F.R.S.E. 9 Greenhill-park, Edinburgh.

*Bixby, Colonel W.H. 428 Custom House, St. Louis, Mo., U.S.A.

{Black, Surgeon-Major William Galt, F.R.C.S.E. Caledonian United
Service Club, Edinburgh.

§Black, W. P. M. 136 Wellington-street, Glasgow.

*BLACKMAN, F. F., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. K, 1908.) St. John’s
College, Cambridge. =

§Blackman, Professor V. H., M.A., Sc.D. The University, Leeds.

§Blake, G. F., J.P. Royal College of Surgeons, Dublin.

tBlake, Robert F., F.1.C. 66 Malone-avenue, Belfast.

*Blamires, Joseph. Bradley Lodge, Huddersfield.

tBlamires, Mrs. Bradley Lodge, Huddersfield.

tBlane, Dr. Gian Alberto. Istituto Fisico, Rome.

*Blandy, William Charles, M.A. 1 Friar-street, Reading.

*Blos, A. J. S. Palm House, Park-lane, Higher Broughton, Man-
chester.

*Bles, Edward J., M.A., B.Sc. The University, Glasgow.

*Blish, William G. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.

t{Blount, Bertram, F.I.C. 76 & 78 York-street, Westminster, S.W.

tBloxsom, Martin, B.A., M.Inst.C.E. Hazelwood, Crumpsall
Green, Manchester.

Blyth, B. Hall. 135 George-street, Edinburgh.

*Boddington, Henry. Pownall Hall, Wilmslow, Manchester.

{Boprneton, Sir NATHANTEL, Litt.D. Yorkshire College, Leeds.

§BoEDDICEER, Orro, Ph.D. Birr Castle Observatory, Birr,
Treland.

*Boussevain, Gideon Maria. 4 Tesselschade-straat, Amsterdam.

§Borton, H., F.R.S.E. The Museum, Queen’s-road, Bristol.

§Botton, JoHn. 15 Cranley-gardens, Muswell Hill, N.

*Bonar, JaMus, M.A., LL.D. (Pres. F', 1898 ; Council, 1899-19065. )
The Mint, Ottawa, Canada.

§Bone, Professor W. A., D.Sc., F.R.S. The University, Leeds.

*BonnEy, Rev. Taomas Guoras, D.Sc., LL.D., F.B.S., F.S.A.,

_F.G.S. (Secretary, 1881-85; Pres. C, 1886.) 9 Scroope-

terrace, Cambridge.

{Boon, William. Coventry.

{Boot, Jesse. Carlyle House, 18 Burns-strect, Nottingham.

*Boora, Right Hon. Caaruus, D.Sc., F.B.S., F.S.S. 24 Great
Cumberland-place, W.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908. 1

Year of
Election.

1883. {Booth, James. Hazelhurst, Turton.
1908. §Booth, Robert, J.P. Bartra Hall, Dalkey, Co. Dublin.
1876. {Booth, Rev. William H. St. Paul’s Rectory, Old Charlton,

1883.
1901.

1882.
1901.
1876.
1903.

1896.
1881.

Kent.

+Boothroyd, Benjamin. Weston-super-Mare.

alt he Herbert E., M.A., B.Sc. Sidney Sussex College, Cam-
bridge.

§Borns, Henry, Ph.D., F.C.S. 5 Sutton Court-road, Chiswick, W.

tBorradaile, L. A., M.A. Selwyn College, Cambridge.

*Bosanquer, R. H. M., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Castillo Zamora,
Realejo-Alto, Teneriffe.

§Bosanquet, Robert C., M.A., Professor of Classical Archeology
in the University of Liverpool. Institute of Archzology,
40 Bedford-street, Liverpool.

tBose, Professor J. C., C.I.E., M.A., D.Se. Calcutta, India.

§BoTHAMLEY, CuartEes H., M.S8c., F.I.C., F.C.S., Education
Secretary, Somerset County Council, Weston-super-Mare.

1871. *BorroMiry, James Toomsoy, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.,

1884.
1892.
1905.
1905.

F.C.S. 13 University-gardens, Glasgow.
*Bottomley, Mrs. 13 University-gardens, Glasgow.
*Bottomley, W. B., B.A., Professor of Botany in King’s College, W.C.
§BouLencER, G. A., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1905.) 8 Courtfield-road, S.W.
§Boulenger, Mrs. 8 Courtfield-road, 8.W.

1903. §Boutron, W. S., B.Sc., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in University

1883.
1893.
1904.

1902.
1884.

1881.

1898.
1856.
1908.
1898.
1880.
1887.
1899.

1899.
1887.

1895.

1901.
1892.

1905.

College, Cardiff. 26 Arches-road, Penarth.

tBourny, A. G., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Biology in the
Presidency College, Madras.

*Bournn, G. C., M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. (Council, 1903- _; Local Sec.
1894), Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy in the
University of Oxford. Savile House, Mansfield-road, Oxford.

*Bousfield, E. G. P. Hungate Mills, York.

tBousfield, Sir William. 20 Hyde Park-gate, W.

tBovey, Henry T., M.A., F.R.S., M-Inst.C.E., Rector of the
Imperial College of Science and Technology, South Kensing-
ton, S.W. ;

*Bower, F. O., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1898 ;
Council, 1900-06), Regius Professor of Botany in the Univer-
sity of Glasgow.

*Bowker, Arthur Frank, F.R.G.S., F.G.S. Seal, Sevenoaks.

*Bowlby, Miss F. E. 4 South Bailey, Durham.

§Bowles, E. Augustus, M.A., F.L.S. Myddleton House, Waltham
Cross, Herts.

§Bowtey, A. L., M.A. (Pres. F, 1906 ; Council, 1906- .) North-
court-avenue, Reading.

tBowly, Christopher. Cirencester.

{Bowly, Mrs. Christopher. Cirencester.

*Bowman, Herbert Lister, M.A., F.G.S. Greenham Common, New-
bury.

*Bowman, John Herbert. Greenham Common, Newbury.

§Box, Alfred Marshall. Care of the Lancashire and Yorkshire
Bank, Huddersfield.

*Boyon, Sir Rupert, M.B., F.R.S., Professor of Pathology in the
University of Liverpool.

{Boyd, David T. Rhinsdale, Ballieston, Lanark.

§Boys, CHARLES VERNON, F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1903 ; Council, 1893-99,
1905-08.) 66 Victoria-street, S.W.

{Boys, Mrs. C. Vernon. 27 The Grove, Boltons, 8.W.

14

Year of

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Election.

1872.
1869.

1894.
1905.
1893.
1904.
1899.

1903.

1892.
1863.

1880.

1905.
1906.
1885
1905
1905.
1905.
1902.

1898.
1882.
1905.
1908.
1907.
1886.

1870.
1906.
1904.

1905.
1908.
1893.

1904.
1905.
1898.

1879.
1905.

1905.
1907.

1896.
1883.
1901.

1883.
1905.

*BRABROOK, Sir Epwarp, ©.B., F.S.A. (Pres. H, 1898; Pres. F,
1903 ; Council, 1903-— .) 178 Bedford-hill, Balham, S.W.
*Braby, Frederick, F.G.S., F.C.S. Bushey Lodge, Teddington,
Middlesex.
*Braby, Ivon. Helena, Alan-road, Wimbledon, 8.W.
{Bradford, Wager. P.O. Box 5, Johannesburg.
§Bradley, F. L. Ingleside, Malvern Wells.
*Bradley, Gustav. Council Offices, Goole.
*Bradley, J. W., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Westminster City Hall,
Charing Cross-road, W.C.
*Bradley, O. Charnock, D.Sc., M.D., F.R.S.E. Royal Veterinary
College, Edinburgh.
tBradshaw, W. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Nottingham.
{Brapy, Grorcr §., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural
History in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
2 Mowbray-villas, Sunderland.
*Brady, Rev. Nicholas, M.A. Rainham Hall, Rainham, S.O.,
Essex.
§Brakhan, A. Clare Bank, The Common, Sevenoaks.
§Branfield, Wilfred. 5 Victoria-villas, Upperthorpe, Sheffield.
*Bratby, William, J.P. Alton Lodge, Lancaster Park, Harrogate.
§Brausewetter, Miss. Roedean School, near Brighton.
tBremner, R. 8S. Westminster-chambers, Dale-street, Liverpool.
{Bremner, Stanley. Westminster-chambers, Dale-street, Liverpool.
*Brereton, Cloudesley. Briningham House, Briningham, S.O.,
Norfolk.
§Brereton, Cuthbert A., M.Inst.C.E. 21 Delahay-street, S.W.
*Bretherton, C. E. 26 Palace-mansions, Addison Bridge, W.
§Brewis, E. 46 Clonmel-road, West Green, Tottenham, N.
§Brickwood, Sir John. Branksmere, Southsea.
*Bridge, Henry Hamilton. North Lodge, Battle, Sussex.
t{Bripex, T. W., M.A., Se.D., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology in the
University of Birmingham.
*Bricc, JoHN, M.P. Kildwick Hall, Keighley, Yorkshire.
§Briggs, John, M.A., F.Z.S. 32 Red Lion-square, W.C.
*Briggs, William, M.A., LL.D., F.R.A.S. Burlington House, Cam-
bridge.
Brill, J., Litt.D. Grey College, Bloemfontein, South Africa.
§Brindley, H. H. 4 Devana-terrace, Cambridge.
tBriscoe, Albert E., B.8c., A.R.C.Se. The Hoppet, Little Baddow,
Chelmsford.
tBriscoe, J. J. Bourn Hall, Bourn, Cambridge.
§Briscoe, Miss. Bourn Hall, Bourn, near Cambridge.
{Bristot, The Right Rev. G. F. Browne, D.D., Lord Bishop of.
17 The Avenue, Clifton, Bristol.
*Brirrain, W. H., J.P., F.R.G.S. Storth Oaks, Sheffield.
*Broadwood, Brigadier-General R. G. The Deodars, Bloemfontein,
South Africa.
§Brock, Dr. B. G. P.O. Box 216, Germiston, Transvaal.
tBrockington, W. A., M.A. Leicestershire County Council, 38 Bowl-
ing Green-street, Leicester.
*Brocklehurst, 8. Olinda, Sefton Park, Liverpool.
*Brodie, David, M.D. Slingsby Villa, Regent’s Park-road, N.
FBrodieas G., M.D., F.R.S. 4 Lancaster-terrace, Regent’s Park,

*Brodie-Hall, Miss W. L. 5 Devonshire-place, Eastbourne.
{Brodigan, C. B. Brakpan Mines, Johannesburg.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908. 1

or

Election.

1903.
1904.

1906.
1905.
1906.
1883.
1883.
1886.

1905.
1863.

1883.
1905.

1903.
1870.

1870.

1905.
1876.

1881.
1895.

1905.
1905.
1882.
1898.
1886.
1905.
1901.
1908.
1905.
1908.
1906.
1900.

1908.
1895.
1879.
1905.

1891.
1862.

1883

1905.

1905.
1893.
1902.

{Broprick, Harorp, M.A., F.G.S. (Local Seo. 1903.) 7 Aughton-
road, Birkdale, Southport.

{Bromwich, T. J. PA., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in
Queen’s College, Galway.

tBrook, Stanley. 18 St. George’s-place, York.

* Brooke, Geofrey. Christ Church Vicarage, Mirfield, S.0., Yorkshire.

§Brooks, F. T. 102 Mawson-road, Cambridge.

*Brotherton, E. A., M.P. Arthington Hall, Wharfedale, vid Leeds.

*Brough, Mrs. Charles 8. 19 Salisbury-road, Southsea.

{Brough, Joseph, LL.D., Professor of Logic and Philosophy in Uni-
versity College, Aberystwyth.

tBrown, A. R. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Brown, ALEXANDER Crum, M.D., LL.D., F.RS., F.RB.S.E.,
V.P.C.S. (Pres. B, 1874; Local Sec. 1871.) 8 Belgrave-
crescent, Edinburgh.

t{Brown, Mrs. Ellen F. Campbell. 27 Abercromby-square, Liver-

ool.

A ee Professor Ernest William, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Yale Uni-
versity, New Haven, Conn., U.S.A.

tBrown, F. W. 6 Rawlinson-road, Southport.

§Brown, Horace T., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. B, 1899 ; Council,
1904- .) 52 Nevern-square, §.W.

*Brown, J. CamppeLt, D.Sc., F.C.8., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Liverpool.

{Brown, J. Ellis. Durban, Natal.

§Brown, JouN, F.R.S. (Local Sec. 1902.) Longhurst, Dunmurry,
Belfast.

*Brown, John, M.D. 2 Glebe-terrace, Rondebosch, Cape Colony.

*Brown, John Charles, 39 Burlington-road, Sherwood, Notting-
ham.

{Brown, John §. Longhurst, Dunmurry, Belfast.

{Brown, L. Clifford. Beyer’s Kloof, Klapmuts, Cape Colony.

*Brown, Mrs. Mary. 2 Glebe-terrace, Rondebosch, Cape Colony.

§Brown, Nicol, F.G.S. 4 The Grove, Highgate, N.

tBrown, R., R.N. Laurel Bank, Barnhill, Perth.

tBrown, R. C. Strathyre, Troyville, Transvaal.

tBrown, R. N. R., B.Sc. University College, Dundee.

§Brown, Sidney G. 52 Kensington Park-road, W.

§Brown, Mrs. Sidney G. 52 Kensington Park-road, W.

§Brown, William, B.Se. 48 Dartmouth-square, Dublin.

§Browne, Charles E., B.Sc. Christ’s Hospital, West Horsham.

*Browne, Frank Balfour, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.Z.8. Claremont,
Holywood, Co. Down.

§Browne, Rev. Henry, M.A. University College, Dublin.

*Browne, H. T. Doughty. 10 Hyde Park-terrace, W.

{Browng, Sir J. Cricuton, M.D., LL.D., F.B.S., F.R.S.E. 61 Car-
lisle-place-mansions, Victoria-street, S.W.

*Browne, James Stark, F.R.A.S. The Red House, Mount-avenue,
Ealing, W.

tBrowne, Montagu, F.G.8. Corporation Museum, Leicester.

*Browne, Robert Clayton, M.A. Browne’s Hill, Carlow, Ireland.

tBrowning, Oscar, M.A. King’s College, Cambridge.

tBruce, Colonel Sir Davin, C.B., M.B., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1905.)
War Office, 68 Victoria-street, S.W.

+Bruce, Lady. 3p Artillery-mansions, Victoria-street, S.W.

tBruce, William 8. 11 Mount Pleasant, Joppa, Edinburgh.

tBruce-Kingsmill, Major J., R.A. Royal Arsenal, Woolwich.

16

Year

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

of

Election,

1900
1896

1868.

1905.
1897.
1886.

1894.
1884.

1901.
1902.
1890.
1902.
1905.
1881.
1871.

1886.
1884.

1904.
1893.

1903.

1905.
1905.
1886.
1907.
1881.

1905.
1894.
1884.

1905.
1904.
1883.

1885.
1908.

1905.
1866.
1892.

1904.
1906.
1887.
1899.
1895.
1906.
1908.

. *Brumm, Charles. Lismara, Grosvenor-road, Birkdale, Southport.

. *Brunner, Right Hon. Sir J. T., Bart., M.P. Druid’s Cross, Waver-
tree, Liverpool.

tBrounron, Sir T. Lauper, Bart., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Council,
1908- .) 10 Stratford-place, Cavendish-square, W.

+Brunton, Lady. 10 Stratford-place, Cavendish-square, W.

*Brush, Charles F. Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A.

*Bryan, G. H., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in University
College, Bangor.

{Bryan, Mrs. R. P. Plas Gwyn, Bangor.

*Brycn, Rev. Professor GrorcE, D.D., LL.D. Kilmadock, Winni-
peg, Canada.

tBryce, Thomas H. 2 Granby-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.

*Bubb, Miss E. Maude. Ullenwood, near Cheltenham.

§Bubb, Henry. Ullenwood, near Cheltenham.

*Buchanan, Miss Florence, D.Sc. University Museum, Oxford.

§Buchanan, Right Hon. Sir John. Clareinch, Claremont, Cape Town.

*Buchanan, John H., M.D. Sowerby, Thirsk.

tBucnanan, Joun Youne, M.A., F.RS., F.RSE., F.RGS.,
F.C.8. Christ’s College, Cambridge.

*Buckle, Edmund W. 23 Bedford-row, W.C.

*Buckmaster, Charles Alexander, M.A., F.C.S. 16 Heathfield-road,
Mill Hill Park, W.

tBuckwell, J. C. North Gate House, Pavilion, Brighton.

§BuiiErp, Artuur, F.S.A. The Old Vicarage, Midsomer Norton,
Bath.

*Bullen, Rev. R. Ashington, F.L.S., F.G.8. Englemoor, Heathside-
road, Woking, Surrey.

+Burbury, Mrs. A. A. 17 Upper Phillimore-gardens, W.

+Burbury, Miss A. D. 17 Upper Phillimore-gardens, W.

§Bursury, S. H., M.A., F.R.S. 1 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.

§Burch, George J., M.A., D.Se. F.R.S. Norham Hall, Oxford.

+Burdett-Coutts, William Lehmann, M.P. 1 Stratton-street, Picca-
dilly, W.

{Burdon, FE. R., M.A. Tkenhilde, Royston, Herts.

{Burxkn, Joun B. B. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Burland, Lieut.-Colonel Jeffrey H. 342 Sherbrooke-street West,
Montreal, Canada.

{Burmeister, H. A. P. 78 Hout-street, Cape Town.

{Burn, R. H. 21 Stanley-crescent, Notting-hill, W.

*Burne, Major-General Sir Owen Tudor, G.C.LE., K.C.8.1., F.R.G.S.
132 Sutherland-gardens, Maida Vale, W.

*Burnett, W. Kendall, M.A. Migvie House, North Silver-street,
Aberdeen.

§Burnside, W. Snow, D.Se., Professor of Mathematics in the Uni-
versity of Dublin. 35 Raglan-road, Dublin. we|

{Burroughes, James S., F.R.G.S. The Homestead, Seaford, Sussex.

*Burton, FREDERICK M., F.L.S., F.G.S. Highfield, Gainsborough.

{Burton-Brown, Colonel Alexander, R.A., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. 11
Union-crescent, Margate.

{Burtt, Arthur H., D.Se. 4 South View, Holgate, York.

§Burtt, Philip. Swarthmore, St. George’s-place, York.

*Bury, Henry. Mayfield House, Farnham, Surrey.

§Bush, Anthony. 43 Portland-road, Nottingham.

{Bushe, Colonel C. K., F.G.S. 19 Cromwell-road, 8.W.

§Bushell, H. A. Melton House, Holgate Hill, York.

*Bushell, W. F. The Hermitage, Harrow.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908. 17

Election.

1884.

1884

1887.
1899.

1908.
1861.
1905.
1901.
1907.
1908.

1897.
1857.

1896.
1901.

1897.
1902.
1890.

1905.
1897.
1904.
1905.
1894,

1896.
1902.

1906.
1905.

1893.
1906.
1889.
1905.
1867.
1886.
1899.

1868.
1900.

1896.

1878.
1870.

*Butcher, William Deane, M.R.C.S.Eng. Holyrood, 5 Cleveland-
road, Ealing, W.

*Butterworth, W. Verona, 10 Derbe-road, St. Anne’s-cn-the-Sea,
Lancashire.

*Buxton, J. H. Clumber Cottage, Montague-road, Felixstowe.

{Byles, Arthur R. ‘ Bradford Observer,’ Bradford, Yorkshire.

§Cadic, Edouard, D.Litt. Mon Caprice, Pembroke Park, Dublin.

*Caird, James Key, LL.D. 8 Roseangle, Dundee,

tCalderwood, J. M. P.O. Box 2295, Johannesburg,

tCaldwell, Hugh. Blackwood, Newport, Monmouthshire.

§Caldwell, K. 8. St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, S.E.

§Caldwell, Colonel R. T., M.A., LL.M., LL.D. Corpus Christi
College, Cambridge.

§CALLENDAR, Huen L., M.A., LL.D., F.RB.S. (Council, 1900-06),
Professor of Physics in the Royal College of Science, 8.W.

{CameErRon, Sir Cuoarres A., C.B., M.D. 51. Pembroke-road,
Dublin.

§Cameron, Irving H. 307 Sherbourne-street, Toronto, Canada.

tCampbell, Archibald. Park Lodge, Albert-drive, Pollokshields,
Glasgow.

tCampbell, Colonel J. C. L. Achalader, Blairgowrie, N.B.

tCampbell, Robert. 21 Great Victoria-street, Belfast.

Cannan, Professor Epwin, M.A., LL.D., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1902.)
46 Wellington-square, Oxford.

tCannan, Gilbert. King’s College, Cambridge.

§Cannon, Herbert. Woodbank, Erith, Kent.

{Capell, Rev. G.M. Passenham Rectory, Stony Stratford.

*Caporn, Dr. A. W. Roeland-street Baths, Cape Town.

{tCarreEr, D. S., M.A., Professor of Mechanical Engincering in King’s
College, W.C.

*Carden, H. Vandeleur. Fassaroe, Walmer.

}Carpenter, G. H., B.Sc., Professor of Zoology in the Royal College
of Science, Dublin.

*Carpenter, H. C. H. 11 Oak-road, Withington, Manchester.

§Carpmael, Edward, F.R.A.S., M.Inst.c.E. 24 Southampton-
buildings, Chancery-lane, W.C.

fCarr, J. Westey, M.A., F.LS., F.G.S., Professor of Biology in
University College, Nottingham.

*Carr, Richard E., British Vice-Consul, Cordoba, Spain.

tCarr-Ellison, John Ralph. Hedgeley, Alnwick.

{tCarrick, Dr. P.O. Box 646, Johannesburg.

{CarruTuers, Witiram, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S8. (Pres. D, 1886.)
14 Vermont-road, Norwood, S.EF.

tCars~ake, J. Barwam. (Local Sec. 1886.) 30 Westfield-road,
Birmingham.

tCarslaw, H. 8., D.Sc., Professor of Mathematics in the University
of Sydney, N.S.W.

*Carteighe, Michacl, F.C.S., F.I.C. Oriel, Goring, Reading.

*Carter, Rev. W. Lower, M.A., F.G.S. East London College, Mile
End-road, E.

{Cartwright, Miss Edith G. 21 York Street-chambers, Bryanston-
square, W.

*Cartwright, Ernest H., M.A., M.D. Myskyns, Ticehurst, Sussex.

§Cartwright, Joshua, M.Inst.C.E., F.S.1. “21 Parsons-lane, Bury,
Lancashire, -

1908, B

18 BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

Year of

Election.

1862. {Carulla, F. J. R. 84 Rosehill-street, Derby.

1894. {Carus, Dr. Paul. La Salle, Illinois, U.S.A.

1884. *Carver, Rev. Canon Alfred J., D.D., F.R.G.S. Lynnhurst,
Streatham Common, 8.W.

1884. {Carver, Mrs. Lynnhurst, Streatham Common, §.W.

1901. {Carver, Thomas A. B., D.Sc., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 118 Napiershall-
street, Glasgow.

1899. *Case, J. Monckton. Town Office, Uitenhage, Cape Colony.

1897. *Case, Willard E. Auburn, New York, U.S.A.

1873. *Cash, William, F.G.S. 35 Commercial-street, Halifax.

1904. {Caspair, W. A. National Physical Laboratory, Bushy House,
Teddington, Middlesex.

1908. *Cave, Charles J. P., M.A. Ditcham Park, Petersfield.

1886. *Cave-Moyle, Mrs. Isabella. St. Paul’s Vicarage, Cheltenham.

Cayley, Digby. Brompton, near Scarborough.

1905. *Challenor, Bromley, M.A. ‘The Firs, Abingdon.

1905. *Challenor, Miss E. M. The Firs, Abingdon.

1905. {Chamberlain, Miss H. H. Ingleneuk, Upper St. John’s-road, Sea
Point, Cape Colony.

1901. §Chamen, W. A. South Wales Electrical Power Distribution
Company, Royal-chambers, Queen-street, Cardiff.

1905. {Champion, G. A. Haraldene, Chelmsford-road, Durban, Natal.

1881. *Champney, John E. 27 Hans-place, 8.W.

1908. §Chance, Sir Arthur, M.D. 90 Merrion-square, Dublin.

1907. *Chapman, Alfred Chaston, F.I.C. 8 Duke-street, Aldgate, E.C.

1902. §Chapman, D. L. 10 Parsonage-road, Withington, Manchester.

1899. §Chapman, Professor Sydney John, M.A. Burnage Lodge, Levens-
hulme, Manchester.

1905. {Chassigneux, E. 12 Tavistock-road, Westbourne-park, W.

1903. {Chaster,G. W. 42 Talbot-street, Southport.

1904. *Chattaway, I’. D., M.A., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S. 22 Park-crescent,
Oxford.

1884. *Cuarrurton, Grorak, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. 6 The Sanctuary,
Westminster, S.W. ;

1886. *Cuartock, A. P., M.A., Professor of Experimental Physics in
University College, Bristol.

1867. *Chatwood, Samuel, F.R.A.S. Queen’s Hotel, Southport.

1904. *Chaundy, Theodore William. 49 Broad-street, Oxford.

1900. §Cheesman, W. Norwood, J.P., F.L.S. The Crescent, Selby.

1874. *Chermside, Lieut.-General Sir H. C., R.E., G.C.M.G., C.B. New-
stead Abbey, Nottingham.

1908. §Cherry, Right Hon. R. R. 92 St. Stephen’s Green, Dublin.

1879. *Chesterman, W. Belmayne, Sheffield.

1908. §Chill, Edwin, M.D. Westleigh, Mattock-road, Ealing, W.

1883. {Chinery, Edward F. Monmouth House, Lymington.

1884. {Chipman, W. W. L. 957 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada.

1894. {Cmsnotm, G. G., M.A., B.Sc, F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1907.) 12
Hallhead-road, Edinburgh.

1899. §Chitty, Edward. Sonnenberg, Castic-avenue, Dover.

1899. {Chitty, Mrs. Edward. Sonnenberg, Castle-avenue, Dover.

1899. §Chitty, G. W. Brockhill Park, Hythe, Kent.

1904. {Chivers, John, J.P. Histon, Cambridgeshire.

1882. {Chorley, George. Midhurst, Sussex.

1893. *Curen, Cuarzes, D.Sc., F.R.S. Kew Observatory, Richmond,
Surrey.

1900. *Christie, Rh J. Duke-street, Toronto, Canada.

1875, *Christopher, George, F'.C.S. May Villa, Lucien-road, Tooting

Common, §.W, : Bap

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908. 19

Year of
Election.

1876. *Cunystat, Georce, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. (Pres. A, 1885),
Professor of Mathematics in the University of Edinburgh.
5 Belgrave-crescent, Edinburgh.

1905. {Chudleigh, C. P.O. Box 743, Johannesburg.

1870. §CHuRcH, A. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., Professor of Chemistry in the

Royal Academy of Arts. Shelsley, Ennerdale-road, Kew.

1898. §CauRcH, Colonel G. Hart, F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1898.) 216 Crom-
well-road, S.W.

1903. §Clapham, J. H., M.A., Professor of Economics in the University
of Leeds.

1901. §Clark, Archibald B., M.A. 16 Comely Bank-street, Edinburgh.

1905. *Clark, Cumberland, F.R.G.S. 29 Chepstow-villas, Bayswater, W.

1907. *Clark, Mrs. Cumberland. 29 Chepstow-villas, Bayswater, W.

1877. *Clark, F. J., J.P., F.L.S. Netherleigh, Street, Somerset.

1902. {Clark, G.M. South African Museum, Cape Town.

1908. §Clark, James, B.Sc. Newtown School, Waterford, Ireland.

1881. *Clark, J. Edmund, B.A., B.Sc. Asgarth, Riddlesdown-road,

‘ Purley, Surrey.

1908. §Clark, John R. W. Brothock Bank House, Arbroath, Scotland.

1901. *Clark, Robert M., B.Sc., F.L.S._ 27 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

1907. *Clarke, E. Russell. 11 King’s Bench-walk, Temple, E.C.

1902. sae Hae Lilian J., B.Sc., F.LS. 43 Glasslyn-road, Crouch

nd, N.

1905. {Clarke, Rev. W. E.C., M.A. P.O. Box 1144, Pretoria.

1889. heer A. W., M.A., F.G.S. 5 The Crescent, Mount Radford,

xeter.

1890. *Clayton, William Wikely. Gipton Lodge, Leeds.

1861. {CieLanD, Jonny, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the
University of Glasgow. 2 The University, Glasgow.

1905. §Cleland, Mrs. 2 The University, Glasgow.

1905. §Cleland, J. R. 2 The University, Glasgow.

1902. {Clements, Olaf P. Tana, St. Bernard’s-road, Olton, Warwick.

1904, §CierK, Duaatp, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1908.) 18 South-
ampton-buildings, W.C.

1861. *Cumron, R. Bettamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Experi-
mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. 3 Bardwell-
road, Banbury-road, Oxford.

1906. §CLosE, Major C. F., R.E., C.M.G., F.R.G.8. (Council, 1908- .)
Army and Navy Club, Pall Mall, S.W.

1883. *CLowzs, Franx, D.Sc., F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1893.) The Grange,
College-road, Dulwich, S.E.

1891. *Coates, Henry, F.R.S.E. Pitcullen House, Perth.

1903. *Coates, W. M. Queens’ College, Cambridge.

1884. §Cobb, John. Fitzherrics, Abingdon.

1895. *CossoLp, Ferrx T., M.A. The Lodge, Felixstowe, Suffolk.

1908. *Cochrane, Miss Constance. The Downs, St. Neots.

1864. *Cochrane, James Henry. Burston House, Pittville, Cheltenham.

1908. hecusehs Robert, L8.0., LLD., F.S.A. 17 Highfeld-road,

ublin.

1901. {Cockburn, Sir John, K.C.M.G., M.D. 10 Gatestone-road, Upper
Norwood, S.E.

1883. {Cockshott, J. J. 24 Queen’s-road, Southport. z

1861. *Coe, Rev. Charles C., F.R.G.S. Whinsbridge, Grosvenor-road,
Bournemouth.

1908. §Coffey, Denis J., M.B. 2 Arkendale-road, Glenageary, Co. Dublin,

1898. iCoffey, George. 5 Harcourt-terrace, Dublin,

1881, *Corrrs, WaLrEeR Hargis, F.C.S. Passaic, Kew,

B2

20 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of

Election.

1896. *Coghill, Percy de G. 4 Sunnyside, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

1884. *Cohen, Sir Benjamin L., Bart. 30 Hyde Park-gardens, W.

1901. §Cohen, N. L. 11 Hyde Park-terrace, W.

1901. *Cohen, R. Waley, B.A. 11 Sussex-square, W.

1906. *Coker, Professor Ernest George, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. City and
Guilds of London Technical College, Finsbury, E.C.

1895. *Colby, James George Ernest, M.A., I'.R.C.S. Malton, Yorkshire.

1895. *Colby, William Henry. Carregwen, Aberystwyth.

1893. §Cole, Grenville A. J., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.

1903. {Cole, Otto B. 551 Boylston-street, Boston, U.S.A.

1897. §CotemAN, Dr. A. P. 476 Huron-street, Toronto, Canada.

1899. §Coleman, William, F.R.A.S. The Shrubbery, Buckland, Dover.

1899. Collard, George. The Gables, Canterbury.

1892. {Collet, Miss Clara E. 7 Coleridge-road, N.

1887. {Cottis, J. Norman, Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Organic Chemistry
in the University of London. 16 Campden-grove, W

1893. tCollinge, Walter E. Tho University, Birmingham.

1861. *Collingwood, J. Frederick, F.G.S. 5 Irene-road, Parson’s Green,S.W.

1876. {Coxutys, J. H., F.G.S. Crinnis House, Par Station, Cornwall.

1865. *Collins, James Tertius. Churchfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1905. {Collins, Rev. Spencer. The Rectory, Victoria West, Cape Colony.

1902. {Collins, T. R. Belfast Royal Academy, Belfast.

1907. §Cotson, ALFRED, M.Inst.C.E. (Local Sec. 1907.) Millstone-lane,
Leicester.

1905. *Combs, Rev. Cyril W., M.A. Elverton, Castle-road, Newport,
Isle of Wight.

1871. *Connor, Charles C. 10 College-gardens, Belfast.

1902. {Conway, A. W. 100 Leinster-road, Rathmines, Dublin.

1903. {Conway, R. Seymour, Litt.D., Professor of Latin in Owens College,
Manchester.

1898. §Cook, Ernest H. 27 Berkeley-square, Clifton, Bristol.

1876. wean hes W. The Pines, Langland-gardens, Hampstead,

.W.

188%. {Cooley, George Parkin. Constitutional Club, Nottingham.

1899. *Coomaraswamy, A. K., D.Sc, F.L.S., F.G.S. Broad Campden,
Gloucestershire.

1902. *Coomaraswamy, Mrs. A. K. Broad Campden, Gloucestershire.

1903. §Cooper, Miss A. J. 22 St. John-street, Oxford.

1901. *Cooper, C. Forster, B.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1907. §Cooper, William. Education Offices, Becket-street, Derby.

1878. {Cope, Rev. 8. W. Bramley, Leeds.

1904. *Copmeman, 8S. Moncxron, M.D., F.R.S. Local Government Board,
Whitehall, S.W.

1904. *Copland, Miss Louisa. 10 Wynnstay-gardens, Kensington, W.

1905. {Corben, J. H. Education Department, Klerksdorp, Transvaal.

1901. {Corbett, A. Cameron, M.P. Thornliebank House, Glasgow. c

1887. *Corcoran, Bryan. Fairlight, 22 Oliver-grove, South Norwood, S.E.

1894. ents Miss Jessie R. The Chestnuts, Mulgrave-road, Sutton,

urrey.

1883. *Core, Professor Thomas H., M.A. Groombridge House, Withington,
Manchester.

1901. *Cormack, Professor J. D.,B.Sc. University College, Gower-street, W.C.

1893. *Corner, Samuel, B.A., B.Sc. Abbotsford House, Waverley-
street, Nottingham.

1889, {Cornisu, Vauanan, D.Se., F.R.G.S. 31 Kensington Gardens-
square, W. :

LiST OF MEMBERS; 1908. 21

Year of
Election.

1905.
1884.
1888.
1900.
1905.

1908.

1906.
1906.
1874.
1908.
1905.
1904.
1908.

1896.

1905.
1908.
1872.

1903.
1900.
1905.
1895.

1899.

1867.
1906.

1905.
1902.
1908.
1884.

1906.
1908.
1906.
1905.
1906.
1887.
1905.
1905.
1871.
1905.

1871.

1890.
1883.

{Cornish-Bowden, A. H. Surveyor-General’s Office, Cape Town.

*Cornwallis, F.S. W., F.L.S. Linton Park, Maidstone.

{Corser, Rev. Richard K. 57 Park Hill-road, Croydon.

§Cortie, Rev. A. L., S.J., F.R.A.S. Stonyhurst College, Blackburn.

{Cory, Professor G. E., M.A. Rhodes University College, Grahams-
town, Cape Colony.

*Costello, John Francis, B.A. The Rectory, Ballymackey, Nenagh,
Treland, :

tCotsworth, Moses B. Acomb, York.

§Cotter, J. R. 21 Mayfield-road, Terenure Park, Dublin.

*CoTTERILL, J. H., M.A., F.R.S. Braeside, Speldhurst, Kent.

§Cotton, Alderman W. F., D.L., J.P. Hollywood, Co. Dublin.

{Cottrill, G. St. John, P.O. Box 4829, Johannesburg.

{Coulter, G.G. 28 Pall Mall, S.W.

§Courtenay, Colonel Arthur H., C.B., D.L. United Service Cluh,
Dublin.

tCourtnEy, Right Hon. Lord. (Pres. F, 1896.) 15 Cheyne-walk,
Chelsea, S.W.

{Cousens, R. L. P.O. Box 4261, Johannesburg.

§Cowan, P. C., B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. 33 Ailesbury-road, Dublin.

*Cowan, Thomas William, I’.L.S., F.G.S. Upcott House, Taunton,
Somersetshire.

tCoward, H. Knowle Board School, Bristol.

§Cowburn, Henry. Dingle Head, Leigh, Lancashire.

tCowell, John Ray. P.O. Box 2141, Johannesburg.

*CowELL, Puiuie H., M.A., F.R.S. Royal Observatory, Greenwich,
and 74 Vanbrugh-park, Blackheath, S.E.

{Cowper-Coles, Sherard, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 82 Victoria-street,
S.W

*Cox, Edward. Cardean, Meigle, N.B.

§Cox, 8. Herbert, Professor of Mining in the Roval College of
Science, 8.W. ie ;

{Cox, W. H. Royal Observatory, Cape Town.

tCraig, H. C. Strandtown, Belfast.

§Craig, James, M.D. 18 Merrion-square North, Dublin.

§CraiciE, Major P. G., C.B., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1900; Council,
1908- .) West Wellow, Romsey, Hampshire.

tCraik, Sir Henry, K.C.B., LL.D., M.P. 5a Dean’s-yard, West-
minster, S.W.

*Cramer, W., Ph.D., D.Sc. Physiological Department, The
University, Edinburgh.

§Cramp, William. Redthorn, Whalley-road, Manchester.

*Cranswick, Wm. Franceys. 34 Boshof-road, Kimberley,

tCraven, Henry. (Local Sec. 1906.) Clifton Green, York.

*Craven, Thomas, J.P. Woodheyes-Park, Ashton-wpon-Mersey.

tCrawford, Mrs. A. M. Marchmont, Rosebank, near Cape Town.

tCrawford, Professor Lawrence, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. South
African College, Cape Town.

*Crawford, William Caldwell, M.A. 1 Lockharton-gardens, Colin-
ton-road, Edinburgh.

{tCrawford, W. C., jun. 1 Lockharton-gardens, Colinton-road,
Edinburgh.

*CRAWFORD AND BatcarReEs, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.T.,

.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 2 Cavendish-square, W.; and

Haigh Hall, Wigan.

§Crawshaw, Charles B. Rufford Lodge, Dewsbury.

*Crawshaw, Edward, F.R.G.S8, 25 Tollington-park, N.

22

Year of

BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

lection.

1885.

1876.
1887.
1904.
1880.

1908.
1905.
1890.
1908.
1878.

1903.
1901.

1887.
1858.
1865.

1879.
1897.
1905.
1894.
1870.
1904.

1890.

1905.
1904,

1908.
1887.
1894,

1897.
1890.
1883.

1883.
1898.
1861.
1861.
1905.
1882.

1905.

1877

<a

§CREAK, Captain E. W.,C.B., R.N., F.R.S. (Pres. E, 1903 ; Council,
1896-1903.) 9 Hervey-road, Blackheath, S.E.

*Crewdson, Rev. Canon George. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Windermere.

*Crewdson, Theodore. Spurs, Styall, Handforth, Manchester.

tCrilly, David. 7 Well-street, Paisley.

*Crisp, Sir Frank, B.A., LL.B., F.L.S., F.G.S. 5 Lansdowne-road,
Notting Hill, W.

§Crocker, J. Meadmore. Albion House, Bingley, Yorkshire.

§Croft, Miss Mary. 17 Pelham-crescent, 8.W.

*Croft, W. B., M.A. Winchester College, Hampshire.

§Crofts, D.G. Cadastral Survey, Nairobi, East African Protectorate.

*Croke, John O’Byrne, M.A. Clouncagh, Ballingarry-Lacy, Co.
Limerick.

*Crompton, Holland. Oaklyn, Cross Oak-road, Berkhamsted.

tCromeron, Colonel R. E., C.B., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1901.)
Kensington-court, W.

tCroox, Henry T., M.Inst.C.E. 9 Albert-square, Manchester.

§CrooKE, Wiii1Am. Langton House, Charlton Kings, Cheltenham.

§Crooxzs, Sir Witt1aM, D.Sc., F.R.S., V.P.C.S. (PREsIDENT, 1898 ;
Pres. B, 1886; Council, 1885-91.) 7 Kensington Park-
gardens, W.

tCrookes, Lady. 7 Kensington Park-gardens, W.

*CROOKSHANK, E. M., M.B. Ashdown Forest, Forest Row, Sussex,

{Crosfield, Hugh T. Walden, Coombe-road, Croydon.

*Crosfield, Miss Margaret C. Undercroft, Reigate.

*CROSFIELD, WiLLIAM. 3 Fulwood-park, Liverpool.

§Cross, Professor Charles R. Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Boston, U.S.A.

tCross, E. Richard, LL.B. Harwood House, New Parks-crescent,
Scarborough,

§Cross, Robert. 13 Moray-place, Edinburgh.

*CrossLey, A. W., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry
to the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. 10 Crediton-
road, West Hampstead, N.W.

§Crossley, F. W. 30 Molesworth-street, Dublin.

*Crossley, William J. Glenfield, Bowdon, Cheshire.

*Crosweller, William Thomas, F.Z.S., F.I.Inst. Kent Lodge, Sid-
cup, Kent.

*Crosweller, Mrs. W. T. Kent Lodge, Sidcup, Kent.

*Crowley, Ralph Henry, M.D, 116 Manningham-lane, Bradford.

*CULVERWELL, EpwArp P., M.A., Professor of Education in Trinity
College, Dublin.

tCulverwell, T. J. H. Litfield House, Clifton, Bristol.

{Cundall, J. Tudor. 1 Dean Park-crescent, Edinburgh.

*Cunliffe, Edward Thomas. The Parsonage, Handforth, Manchester.

*Cunliffe, Peter Gibson. Dunedin, Handforth, Manchester.

{Cunningham, Miss A. 2 St. Paul’s-road, Cambridge.

*CUNNINGHAM, Lieut.-Colonel ALLAN, R.E., A.I.C.E. 20 Essex-
villas, Kensington, W.

{Cunningham, Andrew. Larlsferry, Campground-road, Mowbray,
South Africa.

*CunninGHAM, D. J., M.D., D.C.L., F.RB.S., F.R.S.E. (Pres. H,

1901 ; Council, 1902-08), Professor of Anatomy in the Univer-

ms Sete Y sity of Edinburgh.

1885.
1869.

{Counninenam, J. T., B.A. Biological Laboratory, Plymouth.
{Cunninauam, Rosperr O., M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Natural
History in Queen’s College, Belfast.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908. 23

Year of

Election.

1883. *Cunnrnanam, Rev. W.,D.D., D.Sc. (Pres. F, 1891, 1905.) Trinity
College, Cambridge.

1892. {Cunningham-Craig, E. H., B.A., F.G.S. 14a Dublin-street,
Edinburgh.

1900. *Cunnington, William A., B.A., Ph.D., F.Z.S. 13 The Chase,
Clapham Common, S.W.

1908. §Currelly, C. T., M.A., F.R.G.S. United Empire Club, 117 Picca-
dilly, W.

1892. *Currie, Tana M.A., F.R.S.E. Larkfield, Wardie-road, Edin-
burgh.

1905. §Currie, Dr. 0. J. Manor House, Mowbray, Cape Town.

1905. {Currie, W. P. P.O. Box 2010, Johannesburg.

. tCurry, Professor M., M.Inst.C.E. 5 King’s-gardens, Hove.
. {Cushing, Mrs. M. Rosslynlee, Woodside Green, South Norwood,8.E.
. §Cushing, Thomas, F.R.A.S. Rosslynlee, Woodside Green, South

Norwood, 8.E.

. {Cushny, Arthur-R., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pharmacology in

University College, Gower-strect, W.C.

. tCuthbert, W. M. The Red House, Kenilworth, Cape Colony.
. [Cuthbert, Mrs. W. M. The Red House, Kenilworth, Cape Colony.

. §Dalby, W. E., D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Civil and Mechanical

Engineering in the City and Guilds of London Institute,
Exhibition-road, S.W.

. *Dale, Miss Elizabeth. Garth Cottage, Oxford-road, Cambridge.
. §Dale, William, F.S.A., F.G.S. The Lawn, Archer’s-road, South-

ampton.

. {DateuresH, RicwarD, J.P., D.L. Ashfordby Place, near Melton

Mowbray.

. {Datiincer, Rev. W. H., D.D., LL.D., F.RB.S., F.L.S. Ingleside,

Newstead-road, Lee, 8.E.

. *Datton, J. H.C., M.D. The Plot, Adams-road, Cambridge.

. {Dansy, T. W., M.A., F.G.S. The Crouch, Seaford, Sussex.

. §Daniel, Miss A.M. 3 St. John’s-terrace, Weston-super-Mare.

. {Daniell, G. F., B.Sc. Woodberry, Oakleigh Park, N.

. §Danson, F. C. Liverpool and London Chambers, Dale-street,

Liverpool.

. *Danson, Joseph. Montreal, Canada.
. §Darbishire, F. V., B.A., Ph.D, South-Eastern Agricultural

College, Wye, Kent.

. §Darbishire, Dr. Otto V. The University, Manchester.

. *Darwin, Charles Galton. Newnham Grange, Cambridge.

. *Darwin, Erasmus. The Orchard, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

. *Darwiy, Francis, M.A., M.B., LL.D., D.Sc, F.RS., F.LS.

(PRESIDENT; Pres. D, 1891; Pres. K, 1904; Council, 1882-84,
1897-1901.) 13 Madingley-road, Cambridge.

. *Darwin, Sir Gzorcr Howarp, K.C.B., M.A., LU.D., F.R.S.,

F.R.A.S. (Presrpent, 1905; Pres. A, 1886 ; Council, 1886-
1892.) Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental
Philosophy in the University of Cambridge. Newnham
Grange, Cambridge.

. {Darwin, Lady. Newnham Grange, Cambridge.
. *Darwin, Horace, M.A., F.R.S. The Orchard, Huntingdon-road,

Cambridge.

. *Darwiy, Major Leonarp, Pres. R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1896 ; Council,

1899-1905.) 12 Egerton-place, South Kensington, S.W.

24

Year of

BRITISH ASSOCIATION, ~

Election.

1882.
1908.
1880.

1898.
1884.
1904.

1902.
1887.
1904.
1906.
1893.

1896.
1870.
1873.
1905.
1896.

1905.
1885.
1905.
1905.
1860.
1864.

1885.

1901.
1905.
1884.

1906.
1870.

1900.
1901.
1884.
1866.

1893.
1878.
1908.
1907.

1896.
1902.

1908.
1889.

1905.
1874,

{Darwin, W. E., B.A., F.G.S. 11 Egerton-place, $.W,

§Davey, H. 15 Victoria-road, Brighton.

*Davey, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. Parliament-chambers, Great Smith-
street, Westminster, S.W.

{Davey, William John. 6 Water-street, Liverpool.

{David, A. J., B.A., LL.B. 4 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, E.C.

§Davidge, H. T., B.Sc., Professor of Electricity in the Ordnance
College, Woolwich.

*Davidson, S. C. Seacourt, Bangor, Co. Down.

*Davies, H. Rees. Treborth, Bangor, North Wales.

§Davies, Henry N., F.G.8. St. Chad’s, Weston-super-Mare.

tDavies, S. H. White Cross Lodge, York.

*Davies, Rev. T. Witton, B.A., Ph.D., Professor of Semitic Lan-
guages in University College, Bangor, North Wales.

*Davies, Thomas Wilberforce, F.G.S. 41 Park-place, Cardiff.

*Davis, A.S. St. George’s School, Roundhay, near Leeds.

*Davis, Alfred. 37 Ladbroke-grove, W.

{Davis, C. R. 8. National Bank-buildings, Johannesburg.

*Davis, John Henry Grant. Hillsborough, Wednesbury, Stafford-
shire.

§Davis, Luther. P.O. Box 898, Johannesburg.

*Davis, Rev. Rudolf. 4 Alexandra-terrace, Gloucester.

{Davy, Mrs. Alice Burtt. P.O. Box 434, Pretoria.

{Davy, Joseph Burtt, F.R.G.S., F.L.S. P.O. Box 434, Pretoria.

*Dawes, John T. The Lilacs, Prestatyn, North Wales.

{Dawktns, W. Boyp, D.8c., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1888 ;
Council, 1882-88), Professor of Geology and Palzontology in
the University of Manchester. Fallowfield House, Fallow-
field, Manchester.

*Dawson, Lieut.-Colonel H. P., R.A. Hartlington Hall, Burnsall,
Skipton-in-Craven.

*Dawson, 2. The Acre, Maryhill, Glasgow.

{Dawson, Mrs. The Acre, Maryhill, Glasgow.

{Dawson, Samuet. (Local Sec. 1884.) 258 University-street,
Montreal, Canada.

§Dawson, William Clarke. 16 Parliament-street, Hull.

*Deracon, G. F., LL.D., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1897.) 19 Warwick-
square, S.W.

{Deacon, M. Whittington House, near Chesterfield

*Deasy, Captain H. H. P. Cavalry Club, Piccadilly, W.

*Debenham, Frank, F.S.8.__1 Fitzjohn’s-avenue, N.W.

{Desvus, Herricu, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1869 ; Council,
1870-75.) 4 Schlangenweg, Cassel, Hessen.

*Decley, R. M. Melbourne House, Osmaston-road, Derby.

{Detany, Very Rev. Witi1am, LL.D. University College, Dublin.

§Delf, Miss E. M. Westfield College, Hampstead, N.W.

{De Lisle, Mrs. Edwin. Charnwood Lodge, Coalville, Leicester-
shire.

{Dempster, John. Tynron, Noctorum, Birkenhead.

{Dendy, Arthur, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology in
King’s College, London, W.C.

§Dennehy, W. F. 23 Leeson-park, Dublin.

§Drenny, ALFRED, F.L.S., Professor of Biology in the University of
Sheffield.

tDenny, G. A. 603-4 Consolidated-buildings, Fox-street, Johannes-
b

urg.
*Derham, Walter, M.A., LL.M., F.G.8. 76 Lancaster-gate, W.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908. 25)

Year of
Election.

1907. *Desch, Cecil H., D.Se., Ph.D. 93 Mount Pleasant-road, South
Tottenham, N.

1908. §Despard, Miss Kathleen M. 39 Twyford-avenue, West Acton.

1894. *Deverell, F. H. 7 Grote’s-place, Blackheath, S.E.

1903. {Devereux, Rev. FE. R. Price. Drachenfeld, Tenison-avenue, Cambridge.

1868, *Drwak, Sir JaMss, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., V.P.C.S.,

; Fullerian Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Institution,
London, and Jacksonian Professor of Natural and Experi-
mental Philosophy in the University of Cambridge. (Prust-
DENT, 1902; Pres. B, 1879 ; Council, 1883-88.) 1 Scroope-
terrace, Cambridge.

1881. {Dewar, Lady. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.

1905. {Dewar, W. R. Agricultural Department, Bloemfontein, South
Africa.

1884. *Dewar, William, M.A. Horton House, Rugby.

1905. {Dewhirst, Miss May. Pembroke House, Oxford-road, Colchester.

1901. {Dick, George Handasyde. 31 Hamilton-drive, Hillhead, Glasgow.

1908. §Dicks, Henry. Haslecourt, Horsell, Woking.

1904. {Dickson, Charles Scott, K.C., LL.D. Carlton Club, Pall Mall, 8.W.

1881. {Dickson, Edmund, M.A., F.G.8. Claughton House, Garstang,
R.8.0., Lancashire.

1887. §Dicxson, H. N., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. The Lawn, Upper
Redlands-road, Reading.

1902. §Dickson, James D. Hamilton, M.A., F.R.S.E. 6 Cranmer-road,
Cambridge.

1862. *Ditkr, The Right Hon. Sir Coartes Wentwortg, Bart., M.P.,
F.R.G.S. 76 Sloane-street, S.W.

1877. {Dillon, James, M.Inst.C.E. 36 Dawson-street, Dublin.

1908. §Dines, J. 8. 17 Denbigh-street, Pimlico, S.W.

1901. §Dines, W. H., F.R.S. Pyrton Hill, Watlington.

1900. §Divers, Dr. Epwarp, F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1902.) 3 Canning-place,
Palace Gate, W.

1898. *Dix, John William §. Hampton Lodge, Durdham Down, Clifton,
Bristol.

1905. §Dixey, F. A.. M.A.,M.D. Wadham College, Oxford.

1899. *Drxon, A. C., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in Queen’s
College, Belfast. Almora, Myrtlefield Park, Belfast.

1874. *Drxon, A. E., M.D., Professor of Chemistry in Queen’s College,
Cork.

1900. {Dixon, A. Francis, Sc.D., Professor of Anatomy in the University
of Dublin.

1905. {Dixon, Miss E. K. Fern Bank, St. Bees, S.O.

1908. §Dixon, Edward K., M.E., M.Inst.C.E. Castlebar, Co. Mayo.

1888. {Dixon, Edward T. Racketts, Hythe, Hampshire.

1908. *Dixon, Ernest. Pwllcrochan, Pembroke.

1900. *Dixon, Major George, M.A. St. Bees, Cumberland.

1879. *Dixon, Harorp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1894), Professor
of Chemistry in the Victoria University, Manchester.

1902. {Dixon, Henry H., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Botany in the
University of Dublin. Clevedon, Temple-road, Dublin.

1908. *Dixon, Walter, F.R.M.S. Derwent, 30 Kelvinside-gardens,
Glasgow.

1907. *Dixon, Professor Walter E. The Museums, Cambridgo.

1902. {Dixon, W. V. Scotch Quarter, Carrickfergus.

1896. §Dixon-Nuttall, F. R. Ingleholme, Eccleston Park, Prescot.

1890, {Dobbie, James J., D.Sc., F.R.S., Director of the Museum of Science
and Art, Edinburgh,

26

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of

Election,
1885.
1860.

1902.
1905.

1908.
1876.
1905.
1889.
1904.
1896.
1901.

1905.
1908.

1905.
1905.

1905.

1863.
1909.
1905.
1884.
1903.
1884.
1865.
1881.

1883.
1892.
1905.

1906.
1906.
1908.
1893.

1905.
1905.
1907.
1892.
1905.

1905.
1856.

1870.
1900.
1895.
1906.
1904.

1890.

§Dobbin, Leonard, Ph.D. The University, Edinburgh.

*Dobbs, Archibald Edward, M.A. Castle Dobbs, a
Co. Antrim.

{Dobbs, F. W. 2 Willowbrook, Eton, Windsor.

{Dobson, Professor J. H. Transvaal Technical Institute, Johannes-

bur

§Dopp, non Mr. Justice. 26 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.

tDodds, J. M. St. Peter’s College, Cambridge.

{Dodds, Dr. W. J. Valkenberg, Mowbray, Cape Colony.

tDodson, George, B.A. Downing College, Cambridge.

§Doncaster, Leonard, M.A. The University, Birmingham.

{Donnan, F. E. Ardenmore-terrace, Holywood, Ireland.

§Donnan, F. G., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Physical Chemistry.
The University, Liverpool.

tDonnan, H. Allandale, Claremont, Cape Colony.

§Donnelly, Most Rev. Dr. Nicholas, Bishop of Canea. St. Mary’s,

Haddington-road, Dublin.

tDonner, Arthur. Helsingfors, Finland.

§Donovan, Surgeon-General William, C.B. Army Headquarters,
Pretoria.

§Dornan, Rey. 8. 8. P.O. Box 510, Bulawayo, South Rhodesia,

South Africa.

*Doughty, Charles Montagu. 26 Grange-road, Eastbourne.

*Douglas, James, 99 John-street, New York, U.S.A.

{Douglas-McMillan, Mrs. A. 31 Ford- street, Jeppestown, Transvaal.

tDove, Miss Frances. Wycombe Abbey School, Buckinghamshire.

tDow, Miss Agnes R. 81 Park-mansions, Knightsbridge, 8.W.

*Dowling, D. J. Sycamore, Clive-avenue, Hastings.

*Dowson, E. Theodore, F.R.M.S. Geldeston, near Beccles, Suffolk.

*Dowson, J. Emerson, M.Inst.C.E. 11 Embankment-gardens,
Chelsea, S. W.

{Draper, William. De Grey House, St. Leonard’s, York.

*Dreghorn, David, J.P. Greenwood, Pollokshields, Glasgow.

tDrew, H. W., M.B., M.R.C.S. Mocollup Castle, Ballyduff, §.0.,
Co. Waterford.

*Drew, Joseph Webster, M.A., LL.M. Fashoda, Scarborough.

*Drew, Mrs. Fashoda, Scarborough.

§Droop, J. P. 11 Cleveland-gardens, Hyde Park, W.

§Drucr, G. CLariper, M. Ae F.LS. (Local Sec. 1894.) Yardley
Lodge, 9 Crick-road, Oxford.

tDrury, H. P.O. Box 2305, Johannesburg.

tDrury, Mrs. H. P.O. Box 2305, Johannesburg.

§Drysdale, Charles V. Northampton Institute, Clerkenwell, E.C.

{Du Bois, Professor Dr. H. Herwarthstrasse 4, Berlin, N.W.

{Dubois, Raymond, B.Sc. Groot Constantia, Wynberg, Cape
Colony.

tDubois, Mrs. Raymond. Groot Constantia, Wynberg, Cape Colony.

*Ducir, The Right Hon. Henry Jonn Reynotps Moreton, Earl
of, F.R.S., F.G.S. 16 Portman-square, W.

Duckworth, Henry, F.LS., F.G.8. 7 Grey Friars, Chester.

*Duckworth, W. L. H., M.D., Sc.D. Jesus College, Cambridge.

*Duddell, William, F.R.S. 47 Hans-place, 8.W.

{Dudgeon, Gerald C., Superintendent of Agriculture for British
West Africa. Bathurst, Gambia, British West Africa.
*Duffield, W. Geoffrey. Physical Laboratory, The University,

Manchester.
{Dufton, §. F. Trinity College, Cambridge.

Year of
Election

1891.
1896.

1876.
1884.

1893.

1891.
1885.

1905.
1895.

1885.

1895.
1905.

1905.
1899.

1871.

1893.
1906.
1905.
1903.
1908.
1870.
1858.
1884.
1887.

1870.
1883.
1908.
1888.
1884.

1901.
1899.
1903.

1903.
1903.

1887.
1901.
1907.

LIST OF MEMBERS; 1908. 27

*Duncan, John, J.P. ‘South Wales Daily News’ Office, Cardiff.

*DUNKERLEY, STANLEY, D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineer-
ing in the Victoria University, Manchester.

{Dunnachie, James. 48 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

§Dunnington, Professor F. P. University of Virginia, Charlottes-
ville, Virginia, U.S.A.

*Dunstan, M. J. R., Principal of the South-Eastern Agricultural
College, Wye, Kent.

{Dunstan, Mrs. South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye, Kent.

*Dunstan, Professor WynpHaM, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.CS.
(Pres. B, 1906 ; Council, 1905-08), Director of the Imperial
Institute, S.W.

§Dutton, C.L. O’Brien. High Commissioner’s Office, Johannesburg.

*DwerryHousn, ArtHur R., D.Sc., F.G.S. 10 Ashwood-villas,
Headingley, Leeds.

*Dyer, Henry, M.A., D.Sc. 8 Highburgh-terrace, Dowanhill,
Glasgow.

§Dymond, Thomas $., F.C.S. Savile Club, Piccadilly, W.

*Dyson, F. W., M.A., F.R.S. (Council, 1905- _), Astronomer Royal
for Scotland and Professor of Practical Astronomy in the
University of Edinburgh.

{Earp, E. J. P.O. Box 538, Cape Town. =

+East, W. H. Municipal School of Art, Science, and Technology,
Dover.

*Easton, Epwarp. (Pres. G, 1878 ; Council, 1879-81.) 22 Vincent-
square, Westminster, S.W.

*Ebbs, Alfred B. Northumberland-alley, Fenchurch-street, E.C.

§Ebbs, Mrs. A. B. Tuborg, Durham-avenue, Bromley, Kent.

+Ebden, Hon. Alfred. Belmont, Rondebosch, Cape Colony.

tEccles, W. H., D.Sc. 16 Worfield-street, Battersea, S.W.

*Eddington, A. S. Royal Observatory, Greenwich, 8.E.

*Eddison, John Edwin, M.D., M.R.C.S. The Lodge, Adel, Leeds.

*Eddy, James Ray, F.G.S. The Grange, Carleton, Skipton.

*Edgell, Rev. R. Arnold, M.A., F.C.S. Sywell House, Llandudno.

§Epcrworta, F. Y., M.A., D.C.L., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1889 ; Council,
1879-86, 1891-98), Professor of Political Economy in the
University of Oxford. All Souls College, Oxford.

*Edmonds, F. B. 6 Clement’s Inn, W.C.

tEdmonds, William. Wiscombe Park, Colyton, Devon.

§Edmondson, Thomas. Creevagh, Orwell Park, Dublin.

*Edmunds, Henry. Antron, 71 Upper Tulse-hill, S.W.

*Edmunds, James, M.D. 23 Sussex-square, Kemp Town,
Brighton.

*Eprince-Green, F. W., M.D., F.R.C.S._ Hendon Grove, Hendon,

N.W.
gEdwards, E. J., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 290 Trinity-road, Wandsworth,

S.W.

{Edwards, Mrs. Emily. Norley Grange, 73 Leyland-road, South-
port.

{Edwards, Francis. Norley Grange, 73 Leyland-road, Southport.

+Edwards, Miss Marion K. Norley Grange, 73 Leyland-road,
Southport.

*Egerton of Tatton, The Right Hon. Lord. Tatton Park, Knutsford.

tEggar, W. D. Willowbrook, Eton, Windsor.

*Elderton, W. Palin. Allington, Telford-avenue, 8.W.

28

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1890.
1885.

1901.
1904.
1904.
1904.
1891.

1905.
1883.

1906.
1875.
1906.
1880.

1891,
1906.
1884.
1863.
1869.
1894.

1862.

1887,

1887

1889.
1905.
1870.

1908.
1887.
1883.

1897.
1885.
1905.
1865.
1905.
1905.
1865.
1903.
1871.
1902.
1872.

1883.
1881.

1874.

§Elford, Percy. St. John’s College, Oxford.

*ELGar, Francis, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 18 Cornwall-
terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.

*Elles, Miss Gertrude L., D.Sc. Newnham College, Cambridge.

{Elliot, Miss Agnes I. M. Newnham College, Cambridge.

tElhot, R. H. Clifton Park, Kelso, N.B.

fElliot, T. R. B. Holme Park, Rotherfield, Sussex.

{Elliott, A. C., D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in
University College, Cardiff. 2 Plasturton-avenue, Cardiff.

tElliott, C. C., M.D. Church-square, Cape Town.

*Extuiotr, Epwry Baitry, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Waynflete
Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University of Oxford.
4 Bardwell-road, Oxford.

Elliott, John Fogg. Elvet Hill, Durham.

*Ellis, David, D.Sc., Ph.D. Technical College, Glasgow.

*Ellis, H. D. 12 Gloucester-terrace, Hyde Park, W.

§Etiis, HERBERT. 120 Regent-road, Leicester.

*Eiiis, JoHN Henry. (Local Sec. 1883.) 10 The Crescent,
Plymouth.

§Ellis, Miss M, A. Care of Miss Rice, 11 Canterbury-road, Oxford.

tEimuirst, CoarLes E. (Local Sec. 1906.) 29 Mount-vale, York.

{Emery, Albert H. Stamford, Connecticut, U.S.A.

tEmery, The Ven. Archdeacon, B.D. Ely, Cambridgeshire.

*Enys, John Davies. Enys, Penryn, Cornwall.

t2rskine- Murray, James, D.Sc., F.R.S.L. University College, Not-
tingham.

*Esson, WituraM, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Savilian Professor of
Geometry in the University of Oxford. 13 Bradmore-road,

Oxford.

*Kstcourt, Charles, F.I.C. 5 Seymour-grove, Old Trafford, Man-
chester.

*Estcourt, P. A., F.C.S., F.I.C. 5 Seymour-grove, Old Trafford,
Manchester.

*Evans, A. H., M.A. 9 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

tEvans, Mrs. A. H. 9 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

*Evans, Arrour JouN, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A. (Pres. H,
1896.) Youlbury, Abingdon.

§Evans, Rev. Henry, D.D. Malvina, Howth, Co. Dublin.

*Evans, Mrs. Isabel. Hoghton Hall, Hoghton, near Preston.

*Evans, Mrs. James C. Casewell Lodge, Llanwrtyd Wells, South
Wales.

*Evans, Lady. Britwell, Berkhamsted, Herts.

*Evans, Percy Bagnall. The Spring, Kenilworth.

{Evans, R. O. Ll. Broom Hall, Chwilog, R.S.O., Carnarvonshire.

tEvans, Sepastran, M.A., LL.D. Abbot’s Barton, Canterbury,

tEvans, T. H. 9 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

tEvans, Thomas H. P.O. Box 1276, Johannesburg.

*Evans, William. The Spring, Kenilworth.

tEvatt, E. J., M.B. 8 Kyveilog-street, Cardiff.

tEve, H. Weston, M.A. 37 Gordon-square, W.C.

*Everett, Perey W. Oaklands, Elstree, Hertfordshire.

tEverstry, Right Hon. Lord, F.R.S. (Pres. F, 1879 ; Council,
1878-80.) 18 Bryanston-square, W.

{Eves, Miss Florence. Uxbridge.

tEwart, J. Cossar, M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1901), Professor of
Natural History in the University of Edinburgh.

tia Sir W. Quartos, Bart, (Local Sec, 1874.) Glenmachan,
Belfast,

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908. 99
of

Election.

1876

1903.
1884.
1905.

1906.
1901.
1865.
1908.
1896.
1902.

1907.
1898.

1902.
1892.

_*Ewine, JaMes Atrrep, ©.B., M.A. LL.D., F.RS., F.RS.E.,
M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1906), Director of Naval Education.
Admiralty, 8.W.

§Ewing, Peter, F.L.S. The Frond, Uddingston, Glasgow. i

*Eyerman, John, F.Z.8. Oakhurst, Easton, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

tEyre, Dr. G. G. Claremont, Cape Colony.

Eyton, Charles. Hendred House, Abingdon.

*Faber, George D., M.P. 14 Grosvenor-square, W.

*Fairgrieve, M. McCallum. 115 Dalkeith-road, Edinburgh.

*FarRLEY, Tuomas, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 8 Newton-grove, Leeds.

§Falconer, Robert A., M.A. 44 Merrion-square, Dublin.

§Falk, Herman John, M.A. Thorshill, West Kirby, Cheshire.

§Fallaize, E. N., M.A. Vinchelez, Chase Court-gardens, Windmill-
hill, Enfield.

*Fantham, H. B., D.Sc. 30 Salisbury-road, West Ealing, W.

+Faraday, Miss Ethel R., M.A. Ramsay Lodge, Levenshulme, near
Manchester.

§Faren, William. 11 Mount Charles, Belfast.

*Farmer, J. BRETLAND, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1907), Pro-
fessor of Botany, Royal College of Science, S.W.

1886. {Farncombe, Joseph, J.P. Saltwood, Spencer-road, Eastbourne.

1897. *Farnworth, Mrs. Ernest. Broadlands, Goldthorn Hill, Wolver-
hampton.

1904. ¢Farnworth, Miss Olive. Broadlands, Goldthorn Hill, Wolver-

hampton.

1885. *Farquharson, Mrs. R. F. 0. Tillydrine, Kincardine O’Ncil,
N.B.

1905. {Farrar, Edward. P.O. Box 1242, Johannesburg.

1904. §Farrer, Sir William. 18 Upper Brook-street, W.

1903. §Faulkner, Joseph M. 13 Great Ducie-street, Strangeways, Man-

1890.
1906.

1900.

1902.
1906.

1901.
1905.
1900.
1904.
1906.
1902.
1871.
1896.
1901.

1863.
1905.

chester.

*Fawcett, F. B. University College, Bristol.

§Fawcett, Henry Hargreave. 20 Margaret-street, Cavendish-
square, W.

tFawoert, J. E., J.P. (Local Sec. 1900.) Low Royd, Apperley
Bridge, Bradford.

*Fawsitt, C. E., Ph.D. 9 Foremount-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow. |

*Fearnsides, Edwin G., B.A, B.Sc. 55 Gore-road, South
Hackney, E.

*Fearnsides, W. G., M.A., F.G.S. Sidney Sussex College, Cam-
bridge.

§Feilden, Colonel H. W., C.B., F.G.S._ Burwash, Sussex. ioe

*Fennell, William John. Deramore Drive, Belfast.

tFenton, H. J. H., M.A., F.R.S. 19 Brookside, Cambridge.

+Ferguson, Allan. Cemetery Hotel, Newhall-lane, Preston.

tFrrauson, Goprrey W. (Local Sec. 1902.) Cluan, Donegall
Park, Belfast.

*Ferauson, Joun, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.S.A., F.C.S., Professor
of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow.

*Ferguson, Hon. John, C.M.G. Calton Lodge, Cinnamon-gardens,
Colombo, Ceylon.

+Ferguson, R. W. Municipal Technical School, the Gamble Insti-
tute, St. Helens, Lancashire.

*Fernie, John. Box No. 2, Hutchinson, Kansas, U.S.A.

*Ferrar, H. T. Survey Department, Giza, Egypt.

30

Year of

BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

Election,

1905.
1873.

1882.
1897.

1907.
1906.
1883.
1905.
1878.
1905.

1904.
1902.

1895.
1902.
1869.

1875.
1887.

1871.

1883.
1835.

1894.
1888.

1904.
1908.

1904.
1890.
1892.
1888.

1908.
1901.
1906.
1905.
1889.
1905.
1890.

1877.
1903.

1906.
1873.

{Ferrar, J. BH. Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge.

{Frrrier, Davin, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Neuro-
Pathology in King’s College, London. 34 Cavendish-square, W.

§Fewings, James, B.A., B.Sc. King Edward VI. Grammar School,
Southampton.

{Field, George Wilton, Ph.D. Room 158, State House, Boston,
Massachusetts, U.S.A.

§Fields, Professor J. C. The University, Toronto, Canada.

§Filon, L. N. G., D.Sc. Vega, Blenheim Park-road, Croydon.

*Finch, Gerard B., M.A. Howes Close, Cambridge.

{Fincham, G. H. Hopewell, Invami, Cape Colony.

*Findlater, Sir William. 22 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.

§Findlay, Alexander, M.A., Ph.D., D.Sc., Lecturer on Physical
Chemistry in the University of Birmingham.

*Findlay, J. J., Ph.D., Professor of Education in the Victoria
University, Manchester. Ruperra, Victoria Park, Manchester.

{¥innegan, J., M.A., B.Sc. Kelvin House, Botanic-avenue,
Belfast.

§Fish, Frederick J. Spursholt, Park-road, Ipswich.

{Fisher, J. R. Cranfield, Fortwilliam Park, Belfast.

{Fisuer, Rev. Osmonp, M.A., F.G.S. Harlton Rectory, near
Cambridge.

*Fisher, W. W., M.A., F.C.S. 5 St. Margaret’s-road, Oxford.

*Fison, Alfred H., D.Sc. 47 Dartmouth-road, Willesden Green,
N.W

*Fison, Sir Freprerick W., Bart., M.A., F.C.S. 64 Pont-street,
8.W.

tFitch, Rev. J. J. 5 Chambres-road, Southport.

*Fy7rzGERALD, Professor Mauricr, B.A. (Local Sec. 1902.) 32
Eglantine-avenue, Belfast.

+Fitzmaurice, M., C.MLG., M.Inst.C.E. London County Council,
Spring-gardens, S.W.

*FyrzpatRick, Rev. Tomas C., President of Queens’ College,
Cambridge.

{Flather, J. H., M.A. Camden House, 90 Hills-road, Cambridge.

§Flavelle, Miss Ruth. 7 Alexandra House, St. Mary’s-terrace,
Paddington, W.

§Fleming, James. 21 Norse-road, Scotstoun, Glasgow.

{Fletcher, B. Morley. 7 Victoria-street, S.W.

+Fletcher, George, F.G.8S. Dawson Court, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.

*FLETCHER, Lazarus, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.S. (Pres. C, 1894),
Keeper of Minerals, British Museum (Natural History),
Cromwell-road, S.W. 35 Woodville-gardens, Ealing, W.

*Pletcher, W. H. B. Aldwick Manor, Bognor, Sussex.

tFlett, J. S., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S.E. 28 Jermyn-sireet, S.W.

§Fleury, H. J. University College, Aberystwyth.

*Flint, Rev. W., D.D. Houses of Parliament, Cape Town.

{Flower, Lady. 26 Stanhope-gardens, 8.W.

{Flowers, Frank. United Buildings, Foxburgh, Johannesburg.

*Frox, A. W., M.A. Care of R. H. Hooker, Esq., 3 Clement’s:
Inn, W.C.

tFoale, William. The Croft, Madeira Park, Tunbridge Wells.

{Foord-Kelcey, W., Professor of Mathematics in the Royal Military
Academy, Woolwich. The Shrubbery, Shooter’s Hill, S.E.

§Forbes, Charles Mansfeldt. 1 Oriel-crescent, Scarborough.

*Norpes, Georcs, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 34 Great:
George-street, 5.W. i ’

LIST OF MEMBERS; 1908, 51

Year of
Election.

1883.
1905.
1890.

1875.
1887.

1902.
1883.

1857.

1908.
1901.

1903.
1905.
1906.
1883.
1883.
1904.
1904.
1905.
1883.
1847.
1900.
1908.

1881.

1907.
1905.
1905.

1905.
1887.

1895.
1882.

1908.
1885.

1906.

1865.
1871.

{Forses, Henry O., LL.D., F.Z.S., Director of Museunis for the
Corporation of Liverpool. ‘The Museum, Liverpool.
§ForBEs, Major W. Lacan, Sec. R. Scot. G. 8S. Synod Hall,
Castle-terrace, Edinburgh.
{Forp, J. Rawxryson. (Local Sec. 1890.) Quarry Dene, Weetwood-
lane, Leeds.
*FoRDHAM, Sir HerBert GzoraE. Odsey, Ashwell, Baldock, Herts.
{Forrezst, The Right Hon. Sir Jonny, G.C.M.G., F.R.G.S., F.G.S.,
Perth, Western Australia.
*Forster, M. O., Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. Royal College of Science, 8.W.
tForsyru, A. R., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1897, 1905 ; Council,
1907- ), Sadlerian Professor of Pure Mathematics in the
University of Cambridge. Trinity College, Cambridge.
*Fosrmr, GrorGE Carey, B.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (GENERAL
TREASURER, 1898-1904; Pres. A, 1877; Council, 1871-76,
1877-82). Ladywalk, Rickmansworth.
*Foster, John Arnold. 11 Hills-place, Oxford Circus, N.W.
§Foster, T. Gregory, Ph.D., Principal of University College, London.
Chester-road, Northwood, Middlesex.
{Fourcade, H. G. P.O., Storms River, Humansdorp, Cape Colony.
§Fowlds, Hiram. Keighley, Yorkshire.
§Fowler, Oliver H., M.R.C.S. Ashcroft House, Cirencester.
*Fox, Charles. The Pynes, Warlingham-on-the-Hill, Surrey.
}Fox, Sir Cuartes Dovc.as, M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1896.) Cross
Keys House, 56 Moorgate-street, E.C.
*Fox, Charles J. J., B.Sc., Ph.D. 33 Ashley-road, Crouch Hill, N.
§Fox, F. Douglas, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. 19 The Square, Kensington, W.
§Fox, Mrs. F. Douglas. 19 The Square, Kensington, W.
{Fox, Howard, F.G.S. Rosehill, Falmouth.
*Fox, Joseph Hoyland. ‘The Clive, Wellington, Somerset.
*Fox, Thomas. Old Way House, Wellington, Somerset.
§Foxley, Miss Barbara, M.A. 5 Clarence-road, Withington, Man-
chester.
*FoxweEtt, Hurpert §., M.A., F.S.S. (Council, 1894-97), Professor
_of Political Economy in University College, London. St.
- John’s College, Cambridge.
ape Ethel de. Whitelands College, King’s-road, Chelsea,
iS)

+Frames, Henry J. Talana, St. Patrick’s-avenue, Parktown,

Johannesburg.
tFrames, Mrs. Talana, St. Patrick’s-avenue, Parktown, Johannes-
burg.

titandie. M. P.O. Box 1156, Johannesburg.

*FRaNKLAND, Percy F., Ph.D., B.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres, B, 1901), Pro-
fessor of Chemistry in the University of Birmingham.

§Fraser, Alexander. 63 Church-street, Inverness.

*Fraser, ALEXANDER, M.B., Professor of Anatomy in the Royal
College of Surgeons, Dublin. 18 Northbrook-road, Dublin.

§Fraser, Mrs. Alexander. 18 Northbrook-road, Dublin.

{Fraser, Anavs, M.A., M.D., F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1885). 232 Union-
street, Aberdeen.

*Fraser, Miss Hetun C. I, D.Sc. F.L.S. University College,
Nottingham.

*FraseER, JOHN, M.A., M.D., F.G.8._ Chapel Ash, Wolverhampton.

{Fraser, Sir Toomas R., M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Materia Medica and Clinical Medicine in the University of

Edinburgh. 13 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh,

32

' BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

Year of
Election.

1884.
1884.
1906.

1905.
1886.

1901.
1887.
1906.
1892.
1882.
1887.
1898.

1905.
1875.
1908.
1905.

1898.
1872.
1859.

1869.

1863.
1906.

1885.
1875.
1887.

1905.
1899.

1860.

1888.
1868.
1899.
1898.
1905.
1900.
1887.
1882.

1905.
1905.

*Frazer, Persifor, M.A., D.Sc. (Univ. de France). Room 1082,
Drexel-building, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

*FREMANTLE, The Hon. Sir C. W., K.C.B. (Pres. F, 1892 ; Council,
1897-1903.) 4 Lower Sloane-street, S.W.

§French, Fleet-Surgeon A. M. Langley, Beaufort-road, Kingston-
on-Thames.

tFrench, Sir Somerset R., K.C.M.G. 100 Victoria-street, S.W.

{FREsHFIELD, Doveras W., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1904.) 1 Airlie-
gardens, Campden Hill, W.

tFrew, William, Ph.D. King James-place, Perth.

*Fries, Harold H., Ph.D. 92 Reade-street, New York, U.S.A.

§Fritsch, Dr. F. E. 77 Chatsworth-road, Brondesbury, N.W.

*Frost, Edmund, M.D. Chesterfield-road, Eastbourne.

§Frost, Edward P., J.P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire.

*Fyost, Robert, B.Sc. 55 Kensington-court, W.

{Fry, The Right Hon. Sir Epwarp, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A.
Failand House, Failand, near Bristol.

tFry, H. P.O. Box 46, Johannesburg.

*Fry, Joseph Storrs. 16 Upper Belgrave-road, Clifton, Bristol.

§Fry, M. W. J., M.A. 39 Trinity College, Dublin.

*Fry, William, jun., J.P., F.R.G.S. Wilton House, Merrion-road,
Dublin.

{Fryer, Alfred C., Ph.D. 13 Eaton-crescent, Clifton, Bristol.

*Fuller, Rev. A. 7 Sydenham-hill, Sydenham, S.E.

{Fuiier, Freperick, M.A. (Local Sec. 1859.) 9 Palace-road,
Surbiton.

+Fourxer, G., M.Inst.C.E. (Local Sec. 1874.) 71 Lexham-gardens,
Kensington, W.

*Gainsford, W. D. Skendleby Hall, Spilsby

§Gajjar, Professor T. K., M.A. Techno-Chemical Laboratory, near
Girgaum Tram Terminus, Bombay.

*Gallaway, Alexander. Dirgarve, Aberfeldy, N.B.

tGattoway, W. Cardiff.

*Galloway, W. J. The Cottage, Seymour-grove, Old Trafford,
Manchester.

{Galpin, Ernest E. Bank of Africa, Queenstown, Cape Colony.

+Galton, Lady Douglas. Himbleton Manor, Droitwich.

*Gatton, Francs, M.A., D.C.L., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. (GEN.
Src. 1863-68 ; Pres. E, 1862, 1872 ; Pres. H, 1885 ; Council,
1860-63.) 42 Rutland-gate, Knightsbridge, S.W.

*GAMBLE, J. Sykes, C.ILE., M.A., F.RS., F.LS. Highfield, East
Liss, Hants.

tGamcer, Artuur, M.D.,F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1882 ; Council, 1888-90.)
5 Avenue du Kursaal, Montreux, Switzerland.

*Garcke, E. Ditton House, near Maidenhead.

tGarde, Rev. C. L. Skenfrith Vicarage, near Monmouth.

{Gardiner, J. H. 59 Wroughton-road, Balham, 8.W.

{Gardiner, J. Stanley, M.A., F.R.S. Gonville and Caius College,
Cambridge.

tGarpINER, WatTER, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. St. Awdreys, Hills-
road, Cambridge.

*Gardner, H. Dent, F.R.G.S. Fairmead, 46 The Goffs, East-
bourne.

tGarlick, John. Thornibrae, Green Point, Cape Town.

tGartick, R. C. Thornibrac, Green Point, Cape Town,

a

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908, ao

Year of
Elect‘on.

1887. *Garnctt, Jeremiah. The Grange, Bromley Cross, near Bolton
Lancashire. ;

1882. {Garnett, William, D.C.L. London County Council, Victoria Em-
bankment, W.C.

1883. {Garson, J. G., M.D. (Assist. Gen. Src. 1902-04.) Moorcote,
Eversley, Winchfield.

1903. tGarstang, A. H. 20 Roe-lane, Southport. :

1903. ee T. James, M.A. Bedale’s School, Petersfield, Hamp-
shire.

1894. *Garstana, WatTeER, M.A., D.Sc., F.Z.S., Professor of Zoology
in the University of Leeds. i

1874. *Garstin, John Ribton, M.A., LU.B., M.R.LA., F.S.A. Bragans-
town, Castlebellingham, Ireland.

1905. tGarthwaite, E.H. B.S. A. Co., Bulawayo, South Africa.

1889. {Garwoop, Professor E. J., M.A., F.G.S. University College,
Gower-street, W.C. 7

1870. *Gaskell, Holbrook. Erindale, Frodsham, Cheshire.

1905. tGaskell, Miss C. J. The Uplands, Great Shelford, Cambridge.

1905. {Gaskell, Miss M. A. The Uplands, Great Shelford, Cambridge.

1896. *GASKELL, WALTER Horsrook, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I,
1896 ; Council, 1898-1901.) The Uplands, Great Shelford,
Cambridgo.

1906. §Gaster, Leon. 32 Victoria-street, S.W.

1905. {Gaughren, Right Rev. Dr. M. Dutoitspan-road, Kimberley.

1906. {Gavey, H. Myddelton, M.R.C.S. 16 Broadwater Down, Tun.
bridge Wells.

1905. *Gearon, MissSusan. 55 Buckleigh-road, Streatham Common, S.W.

1867. ¢Gerxre, Sir AncHrBaLp, K.C.B., LL.D., D.Se., Pres.R.S., F.R.S.E.,
F.G.S. (PRrestpEntT, 1892 ; Pres. C, 1867, 1871, 1899 ; Council,
1888-1891.) 3 Sloane-court, S.W.

1871. {GurKre, James, LL.D.. D.C.L.. F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. (Pres. C,
1889; Pres. E, 1892). Murchison Professor of Geology and
Mineralogy in the University of Edinburgh. Kilmorie, Colin-
ton-road, Edinburgh.

1898. {Gemmill, James F., M.A., M.D. 21 Endsieigh-gardens, Partick-
hill, Glasgow.

1882. *Genzsz, R. W., M.A, Professor of Mathematics in University
College, Aberystwyth.

1905. tGentleman, Miss A. A. 9 Abercromby-place, Stirling.

1875. *George, Rev. Hereford Brooke, M.A., F.R.G.S. Holywell Lodge,
Oxford.

1902. *Gepp, Antony, M.A., F.L.S. British Museum (Natural History),
Cromwell-road, S.W.

1899. *Gepp, Mrs. A. 26 West Park-gardens, Kew.

1884. *Gerrans, Henry T., M.A. 20 St. John-street, Oxford.

1905. §Gibbs, Miss Lilian S., F.L.S. 22 South-street, Thurloc-square,
S.W.

1902. tGibson, Andrew. 14 Cliftonville-avenue, Belfast.

1901. §Gibson, Professor George A., M.A. 8 Sandyford-place, Glasgow.

1876. *Gibson, George Alexander, M.D., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.E. 3 Drums-
heugh-gardens, Edinburgh.

1904. *Gibson, Mrs. Margaret D., LL.D. Castle Brae, Chesterton-lane,
Cambridge.

1896. tGreson, R. J. Harvey, M.A., F.R.S.E., Professor of Botany in the
University of Liverpool.

1889. *Gibson, T. G. Lesbury House, Lesbury, R.S.O., Northumberland.

1893. ¢Gibson, Walcot, F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-strect, S.W.

1908, Q

34

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1887.

1898.
1883.
1884.
1895.

1896.

1878.
1871.

1902.
1908.

1892.

1907.
1908.
1893.
1904.

1900.
1884.
1886.
1850.
1883.
1871.
1880.
1881.
1881.

1878.
1880.

1879.
1878.
1908.
1906.

1898.

1899.
1890.

1907.
1884.
1884.
1905.

1871.

*Girren, Sir Rogrrt, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.S.S. (Pres. F,
1887, 1901.) Chanctonbury, Hayward’s Heath.
*Gifford, J. William. Oaklands, Chard.
§Gilbert, Lady. Park View, Englefield Green, Surrey.
*Gilbert, Philip H. 63 Tupper-street, Montreal, Canada.
tGrcunist, J. D. F., M.A., Ph.D., B.Sc., F.L.8. Marine Biologist’s
Office, Department of Agriculture, Cape Town.
*Gicurist, Percy C., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Reform Club, Pall
Mall, S.W.
{Giles, Oliver. Brynteg, The Crescent, Bromsgrove.
*Gint, Sir Davip, K.C.B., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Hon.F.R.S.E.
(PRESIDENT, 1907.) 34 De Vere-gardens, Kensington, W.
tGill, James F. 72 Strand-road, Bootle, Liverpool.
§Gill, T. P. Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction
for Ireland, Dublin.
*Gilmour, Matthew A. B., F.Z.S. Saffronhall House, Windmill-
road, Hamilton, N.B.
§Gilmour, S. C. 3 Vernon-chambers, Southampton-row, W.C.
§Gilmour, T. L. 1 St. John’s Wood Park, N.W.
*Gimingham, Edward. Croyland, Clapton Common, N.
tGinn, 8. R., D.L. (Local Sec. 1904.) Brookfield, Trumpington.
road, Cambridge.
{Ginsburg, Benedict W., M.A., LL.D. Cookham, Berks.
tGirdwood, G. P., M.D. 28 Beaver Hall-terrace, Montreal, Canada.
*Gisborne, Hartley, M.Can.S.C.E. Caragana Lodge, Ladysmith,
Vancouver Island, Canada. “
*Gladstone, George, F.R.G.S. 34 Denmark-villas, Hove, Brighton.
*Gladstone, Miss. 19 Chepstow-villas, Bayswater, W.
*GLAISHER, J. W. L., M.A.. D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (Pres. A, 1890 ;
Council, 1878-86.) Trinity College, Cambridge.
*GLANTAWE, Right Hon. Lord. The Grange, Swansea.
*GLAZEBROOK, R. T., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1893 ; Council,
1890-94, 1905- ), Director of the National Physical Labora- |
tory. Bushy House, Teddington, Middlesex.
*Gleadow, Frederic. 38 Ladbroke-grove, W
Glover, Thomas. 124 Manchester-road, Southport.
*Godlee, J. Lister. Wakes Colne Place, Essex.
tGopman, F. Du Canr, D.C.L., F.B.S., F.L.8., F.G.S. 10 Chandos-
street, Cavendish-square, W.
tGopwr-Avustrn, Lieut.-Colonel H. H., F.R.S., F.R.G.8., F.Z.8.
(Pres. E, 1883.) Nore, Godalming.
+Gorr, JAMEs. (Local Sec. 1878.) 29 Lower Leeson-street, Dublin.
*Gold, Ernest, M.A. 3 Devana-terrace, Cambridge.
{Gotprm, Sir Grorer D. T., K.C.M.G., D.C.L., F.R.S. (Pres. E,
1906 ; Council, 1906-07.) 44 Rutland-gate, 8.W.
tGoldney, F. Bennett, F.S.A. Goodnestone Park, Dover.
tGomnn, G. L., F.S.A. 24 Dorset-square, N.W.
*GonneR, E. C. K., M.A. (Pres. F, 1897), Professor of Political.
Economy in the University of Liverpool.
§Goodrich, E. 8., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. Merton College, Oxford.
*Goodridge, Richard KE. W. Coleraine, Minnesota, U.S.A.
{tGoodwin, Professor W. L. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario,).
Canada. ~
}Gootp-Apams, Major Sir H. J., G.C.M.G., C.B. Government.
’. House, Bloemfontein, South Africa.
*Gordon, Joseph Gordon, F.C.S. Queen Anne’s-mansions, West- .
minster, 8.W.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908. ° 35

Year of
Election.

1893.
1901.

1875.

1881.
1901.
1901.
1876.
1883.
1873.

1908.
1886.
1802.

1875.

1904.
1896.
1908.
1905.
1890.

1905.
1864.
1881.
1903.
1904.
1892.

1904.
1892.
1887.
1887.
1886.
1901.
1873.

1866.
1893.
1872.
1905.
1904.
- 1904.
1906.
1888.

1903.
1908.
1882.

1905.
1905.

tGordon, Mrs. M. M. Ogilvie, D.Sc. 1 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.

{tGorst, Right Hon. Sir Joun E., M.A., K.C., M.P., F.R.S. (Pres. L,
1901.) 21 Victoria-square, 8.W.

*GotcH, Francis, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1906; Council,
1901-07), Professor of Physiology in the University of Oxford.
The Lawn, Banbury-road, Oxford.

tGough, Rev. Thomas, B.Sc. King Edward’s School, Retford.

tGourtay, Roperr. Glasgow.

§Gow, Leonard. Hayston, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

tGow, Robert. Cairndowan, Dowanhill-gardens, Glasgow.

§Gow, Mrs. Cairndowan, Dowanhill-gardens, Glasgow.

tGoyder, Dr. D. Marley House, 88 Great Horton-road, Bradford,
Yorkshire.

§Grabham, G. W.,.M.A., F.G.S. Khartoum, Sudan.

tGrabham, Michael C., M.D. Madeira.

*Graham, William, M.D. District Lunatic Asylum, Belfast.

{GRaHAME, JAMES. (Local Sec. 1876.) Care of Messrs. Grahame,
Crums, & Connal, 34 West George-street, Glasgow.

§Gramont, Comte Arnaud de. 179 rue de l'Université, Paris.

tGrant, Sir James, K.C.M.G. Ottawa, Canada.

*Grant, W. L. 10 Park-terrace, Oxford.

{Graumann, Harry. P.O. Box 2115, Johannesburg.

tGray, Anprew, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow.

tGray, C. J. P.O. Box 208, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa.

*Gray, Rev. Canon Charles. West Retford Rectory, Retford.

tGray, Edwin, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.

§Gray, Ernest, M.A. 99 Grosvenor-road, 8.W.

tGray, Rev. H. B., D.D. The College, Bradfield, Berkshire.

*Gray, James Hunter, M.A., B.Sc. 3 Crown Office-row, Temple,
E.C.

tGray, J. Marfarlane. 4 Ladbroke-crescent, W.

§Gray, Joun, B.Sc. 9 Park-hill, Clapham Park, S.W.

tGray, Joseph W., F'.G.S8. St. Elmo, Leckhampton-road, Cheltenham.

tGray, M. H., F.G.S. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.

*Gray, Robert Kaye. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.

tGray, R. W. 7 Orme-court, Bayswater, W.

tGray, William, M.R.I.A. Glenburn Park, Belfast.

*GRay, Colonel Witu1aM. Farley Hall, near Reading.

§Greaves, Charles Augustus, M.B., LL.B. 84 Friar-gate, Derby.

*Greaves, Mrs. Elizabeth. Station-street, Nottingham.

*Grece, Clair J., LL.D. 146 Station-road, Redhill, Surrey.

tGreen, A. F. Sea Point, Cape Colony.

*Green, A.G. The Old Gardens, Cardigan-road, Headingley, Leeds.

§Green, F. W. 5 Wordsworth-grove, Cambridge.

§Green, Professor J. A. The University, Sheffield.

§GreeEn, J. Ruynorps, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1902),
Professor of Botany to the Pharmaceutical Society of Great
Britain. Downing College, Cambridge.

tGreen, W. J. 76 Alexandra-road, N.W.

§Green, Rev. William Spotswood, C.B., F.R.G.S. 5 Cowper-villas,
Cowper-road, Dublin.

{tGREENHILL, Sir A. G., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in
the Royal Artillery College, Woolwich. 1 Staple* Inn,
W.C

Greenhill, Henry H. P.O. Box 172, Bloemfontein, South Africa,
tGreenhill, William. 64 George-street, Edinburgh,
o2

36

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1898.
1906.

1894.
1896.

1904.
1881].
1836.
1894.
1908.
1884.

1884.
1847.

1903.
1888.

1894,
1894.

1896.
1904.
1869.

1897.
1887.

1842.
1905.
1866.

1894.
1880.
1904.
1902.
1904.

1905.
1881.
1905.
1888.
1905.
1906.
1894.
1899.

1903.
1879.

*GREENLY, EDWARD, F.G.S. Achnashean, near Bangor, North Wales.
{Greenwood, Hamar, M.P. National Liberal Club, Whitehall-
place, 8.W,
*GrecoRY, J. WALTER, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1907), Pro-
fessor of Geology in the University of Glasgow.
*Grecory, Professor R. A., F.R.A.S. Dell Quay House, near
Chichester.
*Gregory, R. P., M.A. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
{Gregson, William, F.G.S. 106 Victoria-road, Darlington.
Griffin, S. F. Albion Tin Works, York-road, N.
*Griffith, C. L. T., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Municipal Offices, Madras.
§Griffith, John P. Rathmines Castle, Rathmines, Dublin.
{Grirritus, E. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1906), Principal
of University College, Cardiff. -
{Griffiths, Mrs. University College, Cardiff.
{Griffiths, Thomas. The Elms, Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.
{Griffiths, Thomas, J.P. 101 Manchester-road, Southport.
*Grimshaw, James Walter, M.Inst.C.E. St. Stephen’s Club, West-
minster, S.W.
tGroom, Professor P., M.A., F.L.S. Hollywood, Egham, Surrey.
{Groom, T. T., M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the
University of Birmingham.
tGrossmann, Dr. Karl. 70 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
tGrosvenor, G. H. New College, Oxford.
{Gruss, Sir Howarp, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Rockdale, Orwell-road,
Rathgar, Dublin.
tGriinbaum, A. S., M.A., M.D. 45 Ladbroke-grove, W.
{Guittemarp, F. H. H., M.A.,M.D. ‘The Mill House, Trumpington,
Cambridge.
Guinness, Henry. 17 College-green, Dublin.
Guinness, Richard Seymour. 17 College-green, Dublin.
*Gunn, Donald. Royal Societies Club, St. James’s-street, S.W.
{Ginrner, Arpert C. L. G., M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.LS.,
F.Z.S. (Pres. D, 1880.) 22 Lichfield-road, Kew, Surrey.
{Giinther, R. T. Magdalen College, Oxford.
§Guppy, John J. Ivy-place, High-street, Swansea.
§Gurney, Eustace. Sprowston Hall, Norwich.
*Gurney, Robert. Ingham Old Hall, Stalham, Norfolk.
§Guttmann, Leo F., Ph.D. 18 Aberdare-gardens, N.W.

tHacker, Rev. W. J. Edendale, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa.

*Happon, ALFRED Cort, M.A., D.Sc., F.B.S., F.Z.S. (Pres. H, 1902,
1905 ; Council, 1902-08.) Inisfail, Hills-road, Cambridge.

tHaddon, Miss. Inisfail, Hills-road, Cambridge.

*Hadfield, Sir R. A., M.Inst.C.E. Parkhead House, Sheffield.

t{Hahn, Professor P. D., M.A., Ph.D. York House, Gardens, Cape
Town.

tHake, George W. Oxford, Ohio, U.S.A.

tHatpanez, JoHNn Scort, M.A, M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1908), Reader
in Physiology in the University of Oxford. Jesus College,
Oxford.

tHatt, A. D., M.A. (Council, 1908- _), Director of the Rothamsted
Experimental Station, Harpenden, Herts.

tHatt, E. Marswatt, K.C. 75 Cambridge-terrace, W.

*Hall, Ebenezer. Abbeydale Park, near Sheffield.

LIST OF MEMBERS : 1908. 87

Year of
Election.

1883.
1854.

1899,
1874,
1908.

1891.
1873.
1888.

1905.
1904.
1908.
1908.
1883.
1904.
1906.
1906.
1885.

1902.
1905.

1905.
1881,

1899.
1878.
1905.
1890.
1886.
1906.
1904.

1902.
1859.

1886.

1902.
1903.
1892.

1905.
1877.
1894.

1883.

1881.
1890.

1896.

*Hall, Miss Emily. 63 Belmont-street, Southport.

*Hatt, Huan Ferrari, F.G.S. Cissbury Court, West Worthing,
Sussex.

tHall, John, M.D. National Bank of Scotland, 37 Nicholas-lane,
E.C,

tHall, Thomas Proctor. School of Practical Science, Toronto,
Canada.

*Hall, Wilfred, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 9 Prior’s-terrace, Tynemouth,
Northumberland.

*Hallett, George. Cranford, Victoria-square, Penarth.

*Haert, T. G. P., M.A. Claverton Lodge, Bath.

§Hatirpurton, W. D., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1902 ; Council,
1897-1903), Professor of Physiology in King’s College, Londen.
Church Cottage, 17 Marylebone-road, N.W.

{Halliburton, Mrs. Church Cottage, 17 Marylebone-road, N.W.

*Hallidie, A. H.S. Avondaie, Chesterfield-road, Eastbourne.

§Hallitt, Mrs. Steeple Grange, Wirksworth.

*Hamel, Egbert Alexander de. Middleton Hall, Tamworth.

*Hamel, Egbert D. de. Middleton Hall, Tamworth.

*Hamel de Manin, Anna Countess de. 35 Circus-road, N.W.

{Hamill, John Molyneux, M.A., M.B. 14 South-parade, Chiswick.

{Hamilton, Charles I. 88 Twyford-avenue, Acton.

{Hamilton, David James, M.B., F.R.S., Professor of Pathology in
the University of Aberdeen.

{Hamitton, Rev. T., D.D. Queen’s College, Belfast.

tHammersley-Heenan, R. H., M.Inst.C.E. Harbour Board Offices,
Cape Town.

t{Hammond, Miss Edith. High Dene, Woldingham, Surrey.

*HAMMOND, RoBeERT, M.Inst.C.E. 64 Victoria-street, Westminster,
S.W

*Hanbury, Daniel. Lenqua da Ca, Alassio, Italy.

§Hance, E. M. Care of J. Hope Smith, Esq., 3 Leman-street, E.C.

*Hancock, Strangman. Plas Uchaf, Abergele, North Wales.

tHankin, Ernest Hanbury. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

§Hansford, Charles, J.P. Englefield House, Dorchester.

§Hanson, David. Salterlee, Halifax, Yorkshire.

§Hanson, E. K. Woodthorpe, Royston Park-road, Hatch End,
Middlesex.

tHarbison, Adam, B.A. 5 Ravenhill-terrace, Ravenhill-road, Belfast.

*Harcourt, A. G. Vernon, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.,
V.P.C.S. (Guy. Src. 1883-97; Pres. B, 1875; Council,
1881-83.) St. Clare, Ryde, Isle of Wight.

*Hardcastle, Colonel Basil W., F.S.8. 12 Gainsborough-gardens,
Hampstead, N.W.

*Harpcastie, Miss Frances. 25 Boundary-road, N.W.

*Hardcastle, J. Alfred. The Dial House, Crowthorne, Berkshire.

*HarRpDEN, ARTHUR, Ph.D., M.Sc. Lister Institute of Preventive
Medicine, Chelsea-gardens, Grosvenor-road, S.W.

tHardie, Miss Mabel, M.B. High-lane, vid Stockport.

tHarding, Stephen. Bower Ashton, Clifton, Bristol.

tHardman, 8. C. 120 Lord-street, Southport.

tHargreaves, Miss H.M. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.

tHargrove, William Wallace. St. Mary’s, Bootham, York.

*Harker, ALFRED, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. St. John’s College, Cam-
bridge.

tHarker, Dr. John Allen. National Physical Laboratory, Bushy
House, Teddington.

38

Year

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

of

Election.

1875

1905.
1877.
1883.
1862.

. *Harland, Rev. Albert Augustus, M.A., F.G.S., F.LS., F.S.A. The
Vicarage, Harefield, Middlesex.

{Harland, H.C. P.O. Box 1024, Johannesburg.

*Harland, Henry Seaton. 8 Arundel-terrace, Brighton.

*Harley, Miss Clara. Rosslyn, Westbourne-road, Forest-hill, S.E.

*Harzey, Rey. Rozerr, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Rosslyn, West-
bourne-road, Forest-hill, S.E.

1868. *Harmer, F. W., F.G.S. Oakland House, Cringleford, Norwich.

1881. *Harmer, Smpney F., M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1908.)
King’s College, Cambridge.

1906. {Harper, J. B. 16 St. George’s-place, York.

1842. *Harris,G. W. Millicent, South Australia.

1889.

1903.
1904.
1904.
1892.

1870.

1892.
1901.
1885.

1876.
1903.
1907.
1893.

1905.
1871.

1886.
1887.

1905.
1885.
1862.
1893.
1903.

1903.
1904.
1875.
1903.
1889.
1903.
1904,
1908.
1904.
1887.
1872.
1864.

{Harris, H. Granam, M.Inst.C.E. 5 Great George-strect, West-
minster, S.W.

tHarris, Robert, M.B. Queen’s-road, Southport.

tHarrison, Frank L. 83 Clarkehouse-road, Sheffield.

tHarrison, H. Spencer. The Horniman Museum, Forest-hill, S.E.

{Harrison, JoHN. (Local Sec. 1892.) Rockville, Napier-road,
Edinburgh.

{Harrison, Recinatp, F.R.C.S. (Local Sec. 1870.) 6 Lower
Berkeley-street, Portman-square, W.

tHarrison, Rev. 8. N. Ramsey, Isle of Man.

*Harrison, W. E. 15 Lansdowne-road, Handsworth, Staffordshire.

{Hakrr, ColonelC, J. (Local Sec. 1886.) Highfield Gate, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

*Hart, Thomas. Brooklands, Blackburn.

*Hart, Thomas Clifford. Brooklands, Blackburn.

§Hart, W. E. Kilderry, near Londonderry.

*HartTLAnD, E. Srpney, F.S.A. (Pres. H, 1906 ; Council, 1906- .)
Highgarth, Gloucester.

{Hartland, Miss. Highgarth, Gloucester.

*HartLEy, WALTER NOEL, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S. (Pres. B,
1903), Professor of Chemistry in the Royal College of Science,
Dublin. 10 Elgin-road, Dublin.

*Hartoa, Professor M. M., D.Sc. Queen’s College, Cork.

{Harroa, P. J., B.Sc. University of London, South Kensington,
S.W.

tHarvey-Hogan, J. P.O. Box 1277, Johannesburg.

§Harvie-Brown, J. A. Dunipace, Larbert, N.B.

*Harwood, John. Woodside Mills, Bolton-le-Moors.

§Haslam, Lewis. 44 Evelyn-gardens, 8.W.

*Hastie, Miss J. A. Care of Messrs. Street & Co., 30 Cornhill,
E.C

§Hastie, William. 20 Elswick-row, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{Hastings, G. 15 Oak-lane, Bradford, Yorkshire.

*Hastinas, G. W. (Pres. F, 1880.) Chapel House, Chipping Norton.

§Hastings, W.G. W. 2 Halsey-street, Cadogan-gardens, S.W.

{Hatcu, F. H., Ph.D., F.G.S. Cowley Place, Cowley, Middlesex.

tHathaway, Herbert G. 45 High-street, Bridgnorth, Salop.

*Haughton, W. T. H. The Highlands, Great Barford, St. Neots.

§Havelock, T. H. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

{Havilland, Hugh de. Eton College, Windsor.

*Hawkins, William. Earlston House, Broughton Park, Manchester.

*Hawkshaw, Henry Paul. 58 Jermyn-street, St. James’s, S.W.

*HawksuHaw, JoHN Criarge, M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. (Council,
1881-87.) 22 Down-street, W., and 33 Great George-street,
S.W.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 19038. 39

Year of
Election.

1897.

1887.
1861.

1885.

1900.
1903.

1903.

1896.

1879.
1883.
1882.
1908.

1902.
1902.

1883.
1892.

1889.
1888.

1888.

1887.
1881.

1901.
1905.
1887.

1908.

1899.
1901.
1905.
1905.

1891.
1905.

1907.

1906.
1880.

1904.
1873.

1906.
1892.

§Hawgstey, Cuarvzs, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. (Pres. G, 1903 ; Council,
1902- .) 30 Great George-street, S.W.

*Haworth, Jesse. Woodside, Bowdon, Cheshire.

*Hay, Admiral the Right Hon. Sir Joun C. D., Bart., G.C.B.,
D.C.L., F.R.S. 108 St. George’s-square, S.W.

*HAYCRAFT, JOHN Berry, M.D., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Physiology in University College, Cardiff.

§Hayden, H. H., B.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey, Calcutta, India.

*Haydock, Arthur. 197 Preston New-road, Blackburn.

tHayward, Joseph William, M.Sc. 29 Deodar-road, Putney, S.W.

*Haywood, Lieut.-Colonel A. G. Rearsby, Merrilocks-road, Blun-
dellsands.

*Hazelhurst, George S. The Grange, Rockferry.

tHeape, Joseph R. Glebe House, Rochdale.

*Heape, Walter, M.A., F.R.S. Greyfriars, Southwold, Suffolk.

§Heath, J. St. George, B.A. Woodbrooke Settlement, Selby Oak,
near Birmingham.

tHeath, J.W. Royal Institution, Albemarle-street, W.

{Heathorn, Captain T. B., R.A. 10 Wilton-place, Knightsbridge,
S.W.

{Heaton, Charles, Marlborough House, Hesketh Park, Southport.

*Heraton, Witt1aM H., M.A. (Local Sec. 1893), Professor of Physics
in University College, Nottingham.

*Heaviside, Arthur West, I.S.0. 12 Tring-avenue, Ealing, W.

*Heawood, Edward, M.A. Briarfield, Church-hill, Merstham,
Surrey.

*Heawood, Percy J., Lecturer in Mathematics in Durham Univer-
sity. 41 Old Elvet, Durham.

*Hepgzs, Kitnisewortu, M.Inst.C.E. 10 Cranley-place, South
Kensington, S.W.

*Heie-Suaw, H. 8., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 64 Victoria-
street, S.W.

*Heller, W. M., B.Sc. 40 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin,

tHellman, Hugo. Rand Club, Johannesburg.

§Hembry, Frederick William, F.R.M.S. Langford, Sidcup, Kent.

§Hemmy, Professor A. S., B.A., M.Se. Care of Dr. Davidson,
Clavell House, Belvedere, Kent.

tHemsalech, G. A., D.Sc. The Owens College. Manchester.

tHenderson, Rev. Andrew, LL.D. Castle Head, Paisley.

*Henderson, Andrew. 17 Belhaven-terrace, Glasgow.

*Henderson, Miss Catharine. 17 Belhaven-terrace, Glasgow.

*HENDERSON, G. G., D.Sc., M.A., F.I.C., Professor of Chemistry in
the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College, Glasgow.

§Henderson, Mrs. Technical College, Glasgow.

tHenderson, H. F. 46 Clarendon Park-road, Leicester.

{Henderson, J. B., D.Sc., Professor of Applied Mechanics in the
Royal Naval College, Greenwich, 8.E.

*Henderson, Vice-Admiral W. H., R.N. 12 Vicarage-gardens,
Campden Hill, W.

*Hendrick, James. Marischal College, Aberdeen.

*Henricr, Otaus M. F. E., Ph.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1883 ; Council,
1883-89), Professor of Mechanics and Mathematics in the City
and Guilds of London Institute, Central Institution, Exhibi-
tion-road, S.W. 34 Clarendon-road, Notting Hill, W.

tHenry, Dr. T. A. Imperial Institute, 8.W.

tHxrrsurn, Davin, M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Anatomy in Univer-
sity College, Cardiff.

40

Year of

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Election.

1904.
1892.
1902.
1887.

1393.
1875.

1908.
1874.

1900.
1905.
1903.

1895.
1905.

1894.
1894.

1908.
1896.
1903.
1903.

1882.
1883.

1866.
1901.
1886.
1898.
1877.

1886.
1887.

1864.
1891.

1907.
1885.
1903.
1906.
1881.

1908.

§Hepworth, Commander M. W. C., C.B., R.N.R. Meteorologica’
Office, Victoria-street, S.W.

*Herpertson, A. J., M.A., Ph.D., Reader in Geography in the
University of Oxford. 43 Banbury-road, Oxford.

tHerdman, G. W., B.Sc., Assoc.M.inst.C.E. Irrigation and Water
Supply Department, Pretoria. ;

*HERDMAN, Wiu1aM A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.B.S.E., F.L.S. (GENERAL
SEcRETARY, 1903- ; Pres. D, 1895; Council, 1894-1900 ;
Local Sec. 1896), Professor of Natural History in the University
of Liverpool. Croxteth Lodge, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

*Herdman, Mrs. Croxteth Lodge, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

tHereErorp, The Right Rev. JoHn Percrvat, D.D., LL.D., Lord
Bishop of. (Pres. L, 1904.) The Palace, Hereford.

*Herring, Dr. Perey T. Physiological Department, The University,
Edinburgh.

§HerscHEeL, Colonel Joun, R.E., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Observatory
House, Slough, Bucks.

*Herschel, Rev. J. C. W. Bracknell, Berkshire.

t{Hervey, Miss Mary F. 8. 22 Morpeth-mansions, S.W.

*Husketu, Coartes H. Furetwoop, M.A. The Rookery, North
Meols, Southport.

§Hesketh, James. Scarisbrick Avenuc-buildings, 233 Lord-street,

Southport.
tHewat, M. L., M.D. Mowbray, near Cape Town, South
Africa.

{Hewertson, G. H. (Local Sec. 1896.) 39 Henley-road, Ipswich.

*Hewins, W. A. S., M.A., FSS. The Rowans, Putney Lower
Common, S.W.

§Hewitt, C. Gordon. The University, Manchester.

§Hewitt, David Basil, M.D. Oakleigh, Northwich, Cheshire.

tHewitt, E.G. W. 87 Princess-road, Moss Side, Manchester.

tHewitt, John Theodore, M.A., D.Se., Ph.D. 7 The Avenue, Sur-
biton, Surrey.

*Hpycock, Caarues T., M.A., F.R.S. 3 St. Peter’s-terrace, Cam-
bridge.

{Heyes, Rev. John Frederick, M.A., F.R.G.S. St. Barnabas
Vicarage, Bolton.

*Heymann, Albert. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire.

*Heys, Z. John. Stonehouse, Barrhead, N.B.

tHeywoop, Henry, J.P. Witla Court, near Cardiff.

{Hicks, Henry B. 44 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.

§Hicks, W. M., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1895). Professor of
Physics in the University of Sheffield. Leamhurst, Ivy Park-
road, Sheffield.

{Hicks, Mrs. W. M. Leamhurst, Ivy Park-road, Sheffield.

*Hickson, Sypnry J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1903), Pro-
fessor of Zoology in Victoria University, Manchester.

*Hirrn, W. P., M.A., F.R.S. The Castle, Barnstaple.

{Hiacs, Henry, C.B., LL.B., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1899; Council,
1904-06.) H.M. Treasury, Whitehall, S.W.

{Hirey, E. V. (Local Sec. 1907.) Town Hall, Birmingham.

*HILt, ALEXANDER, M.A., M.D. Downing College, Cambridge.

*Hitt, Arruur W., M.A., F.L.S. Royal Gardens, Kew.

§Hill, Charles A.. M.A., M.B. 13 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

*Hitt, Rev. Epwry, M.A. The Rectory, Cockfield, Bury St.
Edmunds.

‘SHill, James P. Zoological Laboratory, University College, W.C.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908. Al

Year of

Election.

1886. {Hixx, M. J. M., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Pure Mathematics
in University College, W.C.

1885. *Hill, Sidney. Langford House, Langford, Bristol.

1898. *Hill, Thomas Sidney. 80 Harvard-court, West End-lane, N.W.

1885. *HrttHouse, Witi1aM, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the
University of Birmingham. 43 Calthorpe-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

1907. *Hitts, Major E. H., C.M.G., R.E., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1908.)

32. Prince’s-gardens, S.W.

1903. *Hilton, Harold. 73 Platt’s-lane, Hampstead, N.W.

1903. *Hinp, WHEELTON, M.D., F.G.S. Roxeth House, Stoke-on-
Trent.

1870. {Hinpg, G. J., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Ivythorn, Avondale-road,
South Croydon, Surrey.

1883. *Hindle, James Henry. 8 Cobham-street, Accrington.

1898. §Hinds, Henry. 57 Queen-street, Ramsgate.

1908. §Hinkett, Felix E. Birchfield, Omagh, Ireland.

1900. §Hinks, Arthur R., M.A. The Observatory, Cambridge. 5

1903. *Hinmers, Edward. Glentwood, South Downs-drive, Hale, Cheshire.

1899. tHobday, Henry. Hazelwood, Crabble Hill, Dover.

1887. *Hobson, Bernard, M.Sc., F.G.8S. Thornton, Didsbury, near
Manchester.

1883. {Hobson, Mrs. Carey. 5 Beaumont-crescent, West Kensington,
W

1904. §Hobson, Ernest William, Sc.D., F.R.S. The Gables, Mount
Pleasant, Cambridge.

1907. §Hobson, Mrs. Mary. 6 Hopefield-avenue, Belfast.

1877. {Hodge, Rev. John Mackey, M.A. 38 Tavistock-place, Plymouth.

1863. *Hopaxin, Tuomas, B.A., D.C.L. Benwell Dene, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

1887. *Hodgkinson, Alexander, M.B., B.Sc., Lecturer on Laryngology
in the Victoria University, Manchester. 18 St. John-street,
Manchester.

1880. {Hodgkinson, W. R. Eaton, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of
Chemistry and Physics in the Royal Artillery College, Wool-
wich. 18 Glenluce-road, Blackheath, S.E.

1905. {Hodgson, Ven. Archdeacon R. The Rectory, Wolverhampton.

1898. {Hodgson, T. V. Municipal Museum and Art Gallery, Plymouth.

1904. §Hodson, F. Bedale’s School, Petersfield, Hampshire.

1904. {Hocarrn, D. G.,M.A. (Pres. H, 1907 ; Council, 1907- .) Chapel
Meadow, Forest Row, Sussex.

1894. {Hogg, A. F., M.A. 13 Victoria-road, Darlington.

1908. §Hogg, Right Hon. Jonathan. Stratford, Rathgar, Co. Dublin.

1907. {Holden, Colonel H. C. L., R.A., F.R.S. “Gifford House, Black-

heath, S.E.

1883. {Holden, John J. 73 Albert-road, Southport.

1887. *Holder, Henry William, M.A. Sheet, near Petersfield.

1900. {Hoxpicu, Colonel Sir Tuomas H., R.E., K.C.B., K.C.1.E., F.R.G.S.
(Pres. E, 1902.) 41 Courtfield-road, S.W.

1887. *Holdsworth, C. J. Fernhill, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

1904. §Holland, Charles E. 9 Downing-place, Cambridge.

1903. §Holland, J. L., B.A. 72 Kingsley Park-terrace, Northampton.

1896. {Holland, Mrs. Lowfields House, Hooton, Cheshire.

1898. {Holland, Thomas H., F.R.S., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office,
Calcutta.

1889. tHollander, Bernard, M.D. 35a Welbeck-street, W.

1906. *Hollingworth, Miss, Leithen,.Newnham-road, Bedford.

42

Year of
Wlection

1905.

1883.
1866.
1882.
1903.
1875.
1904.
1847.

1892.
1908.
1865.
1877.

1904.
1905.
1901.

1884.

1882.
1871.

1905.
1898.
1885.

1903.
1902.
1905.

1884.
1887.
1893.

1908.
1884,
1899.
1906.
1859.
1896.

1905.
1905.
1908.
1883.

1904.

1887.
1901.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

{Hollway, H. C. Schunke. Plaisir de Merle, P.O. Simondium, vid
Paarl, South Africa.

*Holmes, Mrs. Basil. 23 Corfton-road, Ealing, Middlesex, W.

*Holmes, Charles. 36 Buckingham-mansions, West End-lane, N.W.

*Hoitmes, THomas VINCENT, F.G.S. 28 Croom’s-hill, Greenwich, 8. E.

*Holt, Alfred, jun. Crofton, Aigburth, Liverpool.

*Hood, John. Chesterton, Cirencester.

§Hooke, Rev. D. Burford. Bonchurch Lodge, Barnet.

{tHooxenr, Sir JosurpH Daron, G.C.S.I., C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. (Preswwent, 1868; Pres.
E, 1881; Council, 1866-67.) The Camp, Sunningdale,
Berkshire.

{Hooxer, Reamnatp H., M.A. 3 Clement’s Inn, W.C.

*Hooper, Frank Henry. Clare College, Cambridge.

*Hooper, John P. Deepdene, Streatham Common, 8.W.

*Hooper, Rev. Samuel F., M.A. Lydlinch Rectory, Sturminster
Newton, Dorset.

tHopewell-Smith, A., M.R.C.S. 37 Park-street, Grosvenor-square,
S.W.

“Hoehne Charles Hadley. Junior Constitutional Club, 101 Picca-
dilly, W.

*Hopkinson, Bertram, M.A., F.R.S.E., Professor of Mechanism and
Applied Mechanics in the University of Cambridge. Adams-
road, Cambridge.

*HOPKINSON, CHARLES. (Local Sec. 1887.) The Limes, Didsbury,
near Manchester.

*Hopkinson, Edward, M.A., D.Sc. Ferns, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

*HopxKInson, Joun, Assoc.Inst.C.E., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.
84 New Bond-street, W.; and Weetwood, Watford.

{Hopkinson, Mrs. John. Holmwood, Wimbledon Common, S.W.

*Hornby, R., M.A. Haileybury College, Hertford.

{Horne, Joun, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1901.)
Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court-buildings, Edinburgh.

{Horne, William, F.G.S. Leyburn, Yorkshire.

{tHorner, John. Chelsea, Antrim-road, Belfast.

*Horsburgh, E. M., M.A., B.Sc., Lecturer in Technical Mathematics
in the University of Edinburgh.

*Horsfall, Richard. Stoodley House, Halifax.

{Horsfall, T. C. Swanscoe Park, near Macclesfield.

*Hors.tey, Sir Vicror A. H., LL.D., B.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.CS.
(Council, 1893-98.) 25 Cavendish-square, W.

§Horton, F. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

*Hotblack, G.S. Brundall, Norwich.

{Hotblack, J. T., F.G.S. 45 Newmarket-road, Norwich.

*Hough, Miss Ethel M. Codsall Wood, near Wolverhampton.

{Hough, Joseph, M.A., F.R.A.S. Codsall Wood, Wolverhampton.

*Hough, 8. S., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., His Majesty’s Astronomer at

the Cape of Good Hope. Royal Observatory, Cape Town.

§Houghting, A.G. L. Glenelg, Musgrave-road, Durban, Natal.

tHouseman, C. L. P.O. Box 149, Johannesburg.

§Houston, David, F.L.S. Royal College of Science, Dublin.

*Hovenden, Frederick, F.L.S., F.G.S. Glenlea, Thurlow Park-road,
West Dulwich, S.E.

*Howard, Mrs. G. L. C. Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa,
Bengal, India.

*Howard, 8.8. 58 Albemarle-road, Beckenham, Kent. .

§Howarth, E., F.R.A.S. Public Museum, Weston Park, Sheffield.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908, 43

Year of
Election.

1903.
1907.
1905.
1901.
1863.

1887.

1903.
1898.

1898.
1867.
1858.

1871.
1868.

1867.

1903.
1905.
1901.
1904.

1907.
1877.
1891.
1881.
1889.
1901.
1903.
1861.

1905.
1894.
1903.
1864.
1887.

1908.
1901.
1871.
1900.
1908.
1883.

1884,

*Howarth, James H., F.G.S. Somerley, Rawson-avenue, Halifax. |
§Howarth, O. J. R., M.A. 25 St. Leonard’s-terrace, Chelsea, S.W. !
tHowick, Dr. W. P.O. Box 503, Johannesburg.

tHowie, Robert Y. 3 Greenlaw-avenue, Paisley.

{Howortz#, Sir H. H., K.C.I.E., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.S.A. 30 Colling-
ham-place, Cromwell-road, S.W.

§Hoy ez, Wittr1amM E., M.A., D.Sc. (Pres. D, 1907.) Victoria Uni-
versity, Manchester.

tHiibner, Julius. Ash Villa, Cheadle Hulme, Cheshire.

§Hupteston, W. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1898.)
8 Stanhope-gardens, §.W.

tHudson, Mrs. Sunny Bank, Egerton, Huddersfield.

*Hupson, Wittiam H. H., M.A. 34 Birdhurst-road, Croydon.

*Hvuaars, Sir Witii1am, K.C.B., D.C.L.. LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
(PresipENnt, 1891 ; Council, 1868-74, 1876-84.) 90 Upper
Tulse-hill, S.W.

*Hughes, George Pringle, J.P., F.R.G.S. Middleton Hall, Wooler,
Northumberland.

§Hucues, T. M‘K., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Council, 1879-86), Wood-
wardian Professor of Geology in the University of Cambridge.
Ravensworth, Brooklands-avenue, Cambridge.

tHuut, Epwarp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1874.)
14 Stanley-gardens, Notting Hill, W.

tHulton, Campbell G. Palace Hotel, Southport.

§Hume, D. G. W. P.O. Box 1132, Johannesburg.

tHume, John H. Toronto, Canada ; and 63 Bridgegate, Irvine.

*Humphreys, Alexander C., Sc.D., LL.D., President of the Stevens
Institute of Technology, Hoboken,-New Jersey, U.S.A.

§Humphries, Albert HK. Coxe’s Lock Mills, Weybridge.

*Hount, Arraur Roors, M.A., F.G.S. Southwood, Torquay.

*Hunt, Cecil Arthur, Southwood, Torquay.

tHunter, F.W. 16 Old Elvet, Durham.

tHunter, Mrs. F. W. 16 Old Elvet, Durham.

*Hunter, William. Evirallan, Stirling.

tHurst, Charles C., F.L.S. Burbage, Hinckley.

*Hurst, William John. Drumaness, Ballynahinch, Co. Down,
Treland.

tHutcheon, Duncan, M.R.C.V.S. Department of Agriculture, Cape
Town.

*Hurcuinson, A., M.A., Ph.D. (Local Sec. 1904.) Pembroke
College, Cambridge.

§Hutchinson, Rev. H. N. 17 St. John’s Wood Park, Finchley-

road, N.W.

Hutton, Crompton. Harescombe Grange, Stroud, Gloucestershire.

*Hutton, Darnton. 14 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.

*Hutton, J. Arthur. The Woodlands, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

§Hutton, Lucius O. Wyckham, Dundrum, Co. Dublin.

*Hutton, R.S., D.Sc. West-street, Sheffield.

*Hyett, Francis A. Painswick House, Painswick, Stroud, Glouces-
tershire.

*Hyndman, H. H. Francis. 5 Warwick-road, Earl’s Court, $.W.

§Idle, George. 43 Dawson-street, Dublin.

tIdris, T. H. W., M-P. 110 Pratt-street, Camden Town, N.W.
Thne, William, Ph.D. Heidelberg.

*Tles, George. 5 Brunswick-street, Montreal, Canada.

44.

Year of
Election
1906.
1885.
1888.
1907.
1905.
1893.
1901.
1905.

1901.
1882.

1908.
1905.

}
:

1876.
1883.

1903.
1883.
1883.
1874.

1899.
1897.
1906.

1898.
1905.
1905.

1887.
1905.
1874.
1905.
1906.
1891.
1891.
1904.
1905.
1896.

1881.

1859.
1889.

1896.
1903.

1904.
1897.

1908.
1903.

_ BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

ylliffe, J. W. Oak Tower, Upperthorpe, Sheffield.

tim Thurn, Sir Everard F., C.B., K.C.M.G. Colombo, Ceylon.
*Ince, Surgeon-Major John, M.D. Montague House, Swanley, Kent.
§Ingham, Charles B. Moira House, Eastbourne.

tIngham, W. Engineer’s Office, Sand River, Uitenhage.

tIngle, Herbert. Department of Agriculture, Pretoria.

fIveuis, Joun, LL.D. 4 Prince’s-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
§Innes, R. T. A., F.R.A.S. Meteorological Observatory, Johannes-

burg.

*Tonides, Stephen A. Rydens Croft, Walton-on-Thames.

§Irvina, Rev. A., B.A., D.Sc. Hockerill Vicarage, Bishop’s Stort-
ford, Herts.

§Irwin, Alderman John. 33 Rutland-square, Dublin.

{Iwasaki, Koyata. Pembroke College, Cambridge.

*Jackx, Wii14M, LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in the University
of Glasgow. 10 The University, Glasgow.

*Jackson, Professor A. H., B.Sc. 349 Collins-strect, Melbourne,
Australia.

§Jackson, C.S. Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, S.E.

*Jackson, F. J. 35 Leyland-road, Southport.

tJackson, Mrs. F. J. 35 Leyland-road, Southport.

*Jackson, Frederick Arthur. Belmont, Somenos, Vancouver Island,
B.C., Canada.

{Jackson, Geoffrey A. 31 Harrington-gardens, Kensington, 8.W.

§Jackson, James, F.R.Met.Soc. Seabank, Girvan, N.B.

*Jackson, James Thomas, M.A. Engineering School, Trinity
College, Dublin.

*Jackson, Sir John. 51 Victoria-strect, S.W.

tJacobsohn, Lewis B. Lloyd’s-buildings, 58 Burg-street, Cape Town.

{Jacobsohn, Sydney Samuel. Lloyd’s-buildings, 58 Burg-street,
Cape Town. :

§Jacobson, Nathaniel. Olive Mount, Cheetham Hill-road, Manchester.

*Jaffé, Arthur, B.A. Strandtown, Belfast.

*Jaffé, John. Villa Jaffé, 38 Promenade des Anglais, Nice, France.

jJagger, J. W. St. George’s-street, Cape Town.

{Jalland, W. H. Museum-street, York.

*James, Charles Henry, J.P. 64 Park-place, Cardiff.

*James, Charles Russell. 5 Raymond-buildings, Gray’s Inn, W.C.

{James, Thomas Campbell. University College, Aberystwyth.

tJameson, Adam. Office of the Commissioner of Lands, Pretoria.

*Jameson, H. Lyster, M.A., Ph.D. ‘Transvaal Technical Institute,
Johannesburg.

{Jamieson, Andrew, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E., Principal of the College
of Science and Arts, Glasgow.

*Jamieson, Thomas F., LL.D., F.G.S. Ellon, Aberdeenshire.

*Japp, F. R., M.A., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1898), Professor
of Chemistry in the University of Aberdeen.

*Jarmay, Gustav. Hartford Lodge, Hartford, Cheshire.

{Jarratr, J. Ernest (Local Sec. 1903). 10 Cambridge-road
Southport.

*Jeans, J. H., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mathematics ia
Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, U.S.A.

tJeffrey, E. C., B.A. The University, Toronto, Canada.

*Jenkin, Arthur Pearse, F.R.Met.Soc. Trewirgie, Redruth.

tJenkinson, J. W. The Museum, Oxford.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908. 45

Year of
Election.

1904.
1893.
1905.
1905.
1887.

1900.
1907.
1905.

1905.
1884.

1865.
1881.
1890.

1902.
1898.
1899.
1883.

1908.
1884,
1885.

1888.

1887.
1904.
1890.

1896.
1903.
1887.

1891.
1883.

1903.
1905.

1901.
1902.
1908.
1860.

1875.
1872.
1883.
1886.

1905

tJenkinson, W. W. 6 Moorgate-street, E.C.

§Jennings, G. E. Glen Helen, Narborough-road, Leicester.

+Jennings, Sydney. P.O. Box 149, Johannesburg.

tJerome, Charles. P.O. Box 83, Johannesburg.

+Jervis-SmitH, Rev. F. J., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Oxford.

Jessop, William. Overton Hall, Ashover, Chesterfield.

*Jevons, H. Stanley, M.A., B.Sc. Woodhill, Rhiwbeina, near Cardiff.

*Jevons, Miss H. W. 19 Chesterford-gardens, Hampstead, N.W.

§Jeyes, Miss Gertrude, B.A. Berrymead, 6 Lichfield-road, Kew
Gardens.

{Jobson, J. B. P.O. Box 3341, Johannesburg. tt ne

{Jounson, ALEXANDER, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in
McGill University, Montreal. 5 Prince of Wales-terrace,
Montreal, Canada.

*Johnson, G. J. 36 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.

+Johnson, Sir Samuel George. Municipal Offices, Nottingham.

*JoHnson, Tuomas, D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Royal:
College of Science, Dublin.

*Johnson, Rev. W., B.A., B.Se. Archbishop Holgate’s Grammar
School, York.

*Johnson, W. Claude, M.Inst.C.E. Broadstone, Coleman’s Hatch,
Sussex.

§Johnston, Colonel Sir Duncan A., K.C.M.G., C.B., R.E., Hon. Sec.
R.G.S8. Branksome, Saffrons-road, Eastbourne.

{Jonnston, Sir H. H., G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.G.S. 27 Chester-
terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.

§Johnston, Swift Paine. 1 Hume-street, Dublin.

*Johnston, W. H. County Offices, Preston, Lancashire. “

{Jonnsron-Lavis, H. J., M.D., F.GS. Beaulieu, Alpes-Maritimes,
France.

tJoty, Jonn, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1908), Professor
of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of Dublin.
Geological Department, Trinity College, Dublin.

tJones, D. E., B.Sc. Inglewood, Four Oaks, Sutton Coldfield.

§Jones, Miss E. E. Constance. Girton College, Cambridge.

§JonEes, Rev. Epwanrp, F.G.S. Primrose Cottage, Embsay,
Skipton.

tJones, E. Taylor, D.Sc. University College, Bangor.

§Jones, Evan. Ty-Mawr. Aberdare.

tJones, Francis, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Beaufort House, Alexandra
Park, Manchester.

*Jonus, Rev. G. HartweEtt, M.A. Nutfield Rectory, Redhill, Surrey.

*Jones, George Oliver, M.A. Inchyra House, 21 Cambridge-road,
Waterloo, Liverpool.

*Jonrs, H. O., M.A. Clare College, Cambridge.

tJones, Miss Parnell. The Rectory, Llanddewi Skirrid, Aberga-
venny, Monmouthshire. .

tJones, R. E., J.P. Oakley Grange, Shrewsbury.

tJones; R. M., M.A. Royal Academical Institution, Belfast.

§Jones, R. Pugh, M.A. County School, Holyhead, Anglesey.

tJones, Toomas Rupert, F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1891.) Pen .,
bryn, Chesham Bois-lane, Chesham, Bucks.

*Jose, J. E. Ethersall, Tarbock-road, Huyton, Lancashire.

tJoy, Algernon. Junior United Service Club, St. James’s, 8. W.

tJoyce, Rev. A. G., B.A. St. John’s Croft, Winchester.

{Joyce, Hon. Mrs. St. John’s Croft, Winchester,

+Judd, Miss Hilda M., B.Sc. Berrymead, 6 Lichfield-road, Kew.

46

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1870. {Jupp, JouN Westey, C.B., LL.D., F.B.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1885 ;

1903.
1894.
1905.

1888.

1904.
1892.

1908.

1878.
1884.
1908.
1908.

1902.
1885.

1877.
1887.
1893.
1884.
1891.
1875.

1906.

1897.

1906.

1908.
1905.
1893.

1901.
1857.
1892.

1889.
1869.

1869.
1903.
1883.
1905.

1902.
1906.

Council, 1886-92.) Orford Lodge, 30 Cumberland-road,
Kew.
§JULIAN, Henry Fores. Redholme, Braddon’s Hill-road, Torquay.
§Julian, Mrs. Forbes. Redholme, Braddon’s Hill-road, Torquay.
§Juritz, C. F., M.A., D.Se., F.I.C. Government Analytical
Laboratory, Parliament-street, Cape Town.

{Kapp, Gisbert, M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.E.E. Pen-y-Coed, Pritchatts-
road, Birmingham.

{Kayser, Professor H. The University, Bonn, Germany.

{Keane, Cuartes A., Ph.D. Sir John Cass Technical Institute,
Jewry-street, Aldgate, E.C.

§Keeble, Frederick, Sc.D. University College, Reading.

*Kelland, W. H. 80 Lothian-road, S.W.

{Kellogg, J. H., M.D. Battle Creek, Michigan, U.S.A.

§Kelly, Malachy. Ard Brugh, Dalkey, Co. Dublin.

§Kelly, Captain Vincent Joseph. Montrose, Donnybrook, Co.
Dublin.

*Kelly, William J., J.P. 25 Oxford-street, Belfast.

§Kettiz, J. Scort, LL.D., Sec. R.G.S., F.S.S. (Pres. E, 1897 ;
Council, 1898-1904.) 1 Savile-row, W.

*Kelvin, Lady. Netherhall, Largs, Ayrshire ; and 15 Eaton-place,
S.W

{Kemp, Harry. 55 Wilbraham-road, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Man-
chester.

*Kemp, John T., M.A. 4 Cotham-grove, Bristol.

{Kemper, Andrew C., A.M., M.D. 101 Broadway, Cincinnati, U.S.A.

{Kenpatt, Percy F., M.Se., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the
University of Leeds.

{Kennepy, Sir ALEXANDER B. W., LL.D., F.R.S., M-Inst.C.E.
(Pres. G, 1894.) 1 Queen Anne-street, Cavendish-square, W.

{Kennedy, Alfred Joseph, F.R.G.S. Care of Williams Deacon’s
Bank, Ltd., 2 Cockspur-street, S.W.

§Kennedy, George, M.A., LL.D., K.C. Crown Lands Department,
Toronto, Canada.

{Kennedy, Robert Sinclair. Glengall Ironworks, Millwall, E.

§Kennedy, William. 40 Trinity College, Dublin.

*Kennerley, W. R. P.O. Box 158, Pretoria.

§Kent, A. F. Stanzey, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., Professor of Physiology
in University College, Bristol.

Kent, G. 16 Premier-road, Nottingham.

*Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland.

{Kerr, J. Grauam, M.A., Professor of Natural History in the
University, Glasgow.

{Kerry, W. H. R. The Sycamores, Windermere.

*Kesselmeyer, Charles Augustus. Rose Villa, Vale-road, Bowdon,
Cheshire.

*Kesselmeyer, William Johannes. Elysée Villa, Manchester-road,
Altrincham, Cheshire.

tKewley, James. Balek Papan, Koltci, Dutch Borneo.

*Keynes, J. N., M.A., D.Sc., F.S.S. 6 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

{Kidd, Professor A. Stanley. Rhodes University College, Grahams- .
town, Cape Colony.

§Kidd, George. Greenhaven, Malone Park, Belfast.

tKidner, Henry, F.G.8. 78 Gladstone-road, Watford.

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908. 47

of

Election.

1886.

1901.
1885.
1896.

1890.
1905.

1905.

1875.
1872.
1888.
1875.
1899.

1871.
1883.
1883.
1908.

1860.
1875.
1870.
1903.

1900.

1899.
1907.

1905.
1901.
1886.
1905.
1888.

1887.
1887.
1906.
1874.
1903.
1902.
1875.
1883.
1905.
1890.

1888

1905.
1903.

1885

§Kipstron, Rozgert, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 12 Clarendon-
place, Stirling.

*Kiep, J. N. 4 Hughenden-terrace, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

*Kilgour, Alexander. Loirston House, Cove, near Aberdeen.

*Killey, George Deane, J.P. Bentuther, 11 Victoria-road, Waterloo,
Liverpool.

{Kmonns, C. W., M.A., D.Sc. Dame Armstrong House, Harrow.

§Kincaid, Major-General W. Care of Messrs. Alexander, Fletcher, &
Co., 2 St. Helen’s-place, Bishopsgate-street, E.C.

§Kincaid, Mrs. Care of Messrs. Alexander, Fletcher & Co., 2 St.
Helen’s-place, Bishopsgate-street, E.C.

*Kincu, Epwarp, F.C.S. Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester.

*King, Mrs. E. M. Melrose, Alachua, Co. Florida, U.S.A.

*King, E. Powell. Wainsford; Lymington, Hants.

*King, F. Ambrose. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.

{Kine, Sir Gores, K.C.L.E., F.R.S. (Pres. K, 1899.) Care of
Messrs. Grindlay & Co., Parliament-street, S.W.

*King, Rev. Herbert Poole. The Rectory, Stourton, Bath,

*King, John Godwin. Stonelands, East Grinstead.

*King, Joseph. Sandhouse, Witley, Godalming.

§King, Professor L. A. L., M.A. St. Mungo’s College Medical
School, Glasgow.

*King, Mervyn Kersteman. Merchants’ Hall, Bristol.

*King, Percy L. 2 Worcester-avenue, Clifton, Bristol.

tKing, William, M.Inst.C.E. 5 Beach-lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool.

§Kingsford, H. §., M.A. Royal Anthropological Institute,
3 Hanover-square, W.

{Kiprrmna, Professor F. Srantry, D.Se., Ph.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B,
1908.) University College, Nottingham.

*Kirby, Miss C. F. 74 Kensington Park-road, W.

§Kirby, William Forsell, F.L.S. Hilden, 46 Sutton Court-road,
Chiswick, W.

{Kirkby, Reginald G. P.O. Box 7, Pietermaritzburg, Natal.

§Kitto, Edward. The Observatory, Falmouth.

{Knight, Captain J. M., F.G.S. Bushwood, Wanstead, Essex.

§Knightley, Lady, of Fawsley. Fawsley Park, Daventry.

tKnort, Professor Carcitt G., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 42 Upper Gray-

street, Edinburgh.

*Knott, Herbert, J.P. Sunnybank, Wilmslow, Cheshire.

*Knott, John F. St. Martin’s, Hooton, near Chester.

*Knowles, Arthur J., B.A., M.Inst.C.E. Turf Club, Cairo, Egypt.

tKnowles, William James. Flixton-place, Ballymena, Co. Antrim.

{Knowlson, J. F. 26 Part-street, Southport.

{Knox, R. Kytr, LL.D. 1 College-gardens, Belfast.

*Knubley, Rev. E. P., M.A. Steeple Ashton Vicarage, Trowbridge.

{tKnubley, Mrs. Steeple Ashton Vicarage, Trowbridge.

{tKoenig, J. P.O. Box 272, Cape Town.

*Krauss, John Samuel, B.A. Stonycroft, Knutsford-road, Wilms-
low, Cheshire.

*Kunz, G. F., M.A., Ph.D. Care of Messrs. Tiffany & Co., 11 Union-
square, New York City, U.S.A.

{Lacey, William. Champ dOr Gold Mining Co., Luipaardsvlei,

Transvaal.
*Lafontaine, Rev. H. C. de. 49 Albert-court, Kensington Gore, 8.W.
. *Laing, J. Gerard. 3 Paper-buildings, Temple, E.C,

48 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1904. {Lake, Philip. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1904. {Lamb, C. G. Ely Villa, Glisson-road, Cambridge.

1889. *Lamb, Edmund, M.A., M.P. Borden Wood, Liphook, Hants.

1887. {Lams, Horacs, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1904), Pro-
fessor of Pure Mathematics in the Victoria University, Man-
chester. 6 Wilbraham-road, Fallowfield, Manchester.

1903. {Lambert, Joseph. 9 Westmoreland-road, Southport.

1893. *Lampiuan, G. W., F.RB.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1906.) 13 Beaconsficld-
road, St. Albans.

1905. t{Lane, Rev. C. A. P.O. Box 326, Johannesburg.

1898. *Lana, Witt1am H. 61 Gibson-street, Hillhead, Glasgow.

1905. §Lange, John H. Judges’ Chambers, Kimberley.

1886. *Lanatry, J. N., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1899; Council,
1904-07), Professor of Physiology in the University of Cam-
bridge. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1865. {Lanxester, Sir E. Ray, K.C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.Se., F.R.S.
(PRESIDENT, 1906; Pres. D, 1883 ; Council, 1889-90, 1894-95,
1900-02.) 29 Thurloc-place, S.W.

1880. *LANsDELL, Rev. Henry, D.D., F.R.AS., F.R.G.S. Morden
College, Blackheath, London, S.E.

1884, §Lanza, Professor G. Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Boston, U.S.A.

1885. {Larwortn, CHarves, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1892),
Professor of Geology and Physiography in the University
of Birmingham. 48 Frederick-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1887. t{Larmor, Alexander. Craglands, Helen’s Bay, Co. Down. ;

1881. {Larmor, JosEerH, M.A., D.Sc., Sec.R.S. (Pres. A, 1900), Lucasian
Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambridce.
St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1883. §Lascelles, B. P., M.A. Longridge, Harrow.

1896. *Last, William I. Victoria and Albert Museum, London, 8.W.

1870. *LaTHAM, Batpwin, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Parliament-mansions,
Westminster, 8.W.

1900. {Lauder, Alexander, Lecturer in Agricultural Chemistry in the
Edinburgh and East of Scotland College of Agriculture,
Edinburgh.

1892. {Lauriz, Marco, B.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. School of Medicine, Sur-
geons’ Hall, Edinburgh.

1883. {Laurie, Major-General. Oakfield, Nova Scotia, Canada.

1907. *Laurie, Robert Douglas. 16 James-street, Birkenhead.

1870. *Law, Channell. Ilsham Dene, Torquay.

1905. §Lawrence, Miss M. Roedean School, near Brighton.

1908. §Lawson, H. §., B.A. Westfield, Bath.

1908. §Lawson, William, LL.D. 27 Upper Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin.

1888. §Layard, Miss Nina F., F.L.S8.. Rookwood, Fonnereau-road,
Ipswich.

1883. *Leach, Charles Catterall. Seghill, Northumberland.

1894. *Luany, A. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Sheffield. 92 Ashdell-road, Sheffield.

1884. *Leahy, John White, J.P. South Hill, Killarney, Ireland.

1905. tLeake, E.O. 5 Harrison-street, Johannesburg.

1901. *Lean, George, B.Sc. 15 Park-terrace, Glasgow.

1904. *Leathem, J. G. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1884. *Leavitt, Erasmus Darwin. 2 Central-square, Cambridgeport,
Massachusetts, U.S.A.

1872. tLrsour, G. A., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Durham
College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908. 49

of

Election,

1895.
1907.
1896.

1894.
1884.
1905.

1892.

1886.
1906.
1905.

1889.

1906.
1881.
1905.
1892.
1891.
1903.

1906.

1905.
1882.

1903.

1902.
1908.
1887.
1901.
1905.
1904.
1890.
1904.

1900.
1896.
1905.
1887.
1893.

1905.
1904.
1870.
1891.
1905.

1904.
1884.

1903

*Ledger, Rev. Edmund. Protea, Doods-road, Reigate.

§Lee, Mrs. Barton. 37 Derby-road, Heaton Moor, Stockport.

§Lee, Rev. H. J. Barton. The Limes, Derby-road, Heaton Moor,
Stockport.

*Lee, Mrs. W. Ashdown House, Forest Row, Sussex.

*Leech, Sir Bosdin T. Oak Mount, Timperley, Cheshire.

§Lees, Mrs. A. P. Care of Dr. Norris Wolfenden, 76 Wimpole-
street, W.

*Lnns, Cuartes H., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the
East London College, Mile End. Greenacres, Mayfield-avenue,
Woodford Green, Essex.

*Lees, Lawrence W. Old Ivy House, Tettenhall, Wolverhampton.

tLees, Robert. Victoria-street, Fraserburgh.

{Lees, R. Wilfrid. Pigg’s Peak Development Co., Swaziland, South
Africa.

*Leeson, John Rudd, M.D., C.M., F.LS., F.G.8S. Clifden House,
Twickenham, Middlesex.

{Lectham, Sidney. Elm Bank, York.

{Le Frvuves, J. E. (Local Sec. 1882.) Southampton.

tLegg, W. A. P.O. Box 1621, Cape Town.

{Lenretpt, Rosperr A. 56 Norfolk-square, W.

{Leigh, W. W. Glyn Bargoed, Treharris, R.S.O., Glamorganshire.

{Leighton, G. R., M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Pathology in the
Royal Veterinary College, Edinburgh.

{Leiper, Robert T., M.B., F.Z.S. London School of Tropical
Medicine, Royal Albert Dock, E.

§Leitch, Donald. P.O, Box 1703, Johannesburg.

§Lemon, James, M.Inst.C.E., ¥F.G.S. Lansdowne House, South-
ampton.

*Lempfert, R. G. K., M.A. Meteorological Office, 63 Victoria-
street, S.W.

tLennox, R. N. Rosebank, Hammersmith, W.

§Lentaigne, John. 42 Mervion-square, Dublin.

*Leon, John T. Elmwood, Grove-road, Southsea.

§LEonaARD, J. H., B.Sc. 28 Talgarth-road, West Kensington, W.

{Leonard, Right Rev. Bishop John. St. Mary’s, Cape Town.

t Lepper, Alfred William. 6 Trinity College, Dublin.

*Lester, Joseph Henry, Royal Exchange, Manchester.

*Le Sueur, H. R., D.Sc. Chemical Laboratory, St. Thomas’s
Hospital, 8.E.

+Letts, Professor KE. A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Queen’s College, Belfast.

§Lever, W. H. Thornton Manor, Thornton Hough, Cheshire.

tLevin, Benjamin. P.O. Box 74, Cape Town.

*Levinstein, Ivan. Hawkesmoor, Fallowfield, Manchester.

*Lewes, Vivian B., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal
Naval College, Greenwich, S.E.

tLewin, J. B. Duncan’s-chambers, Shortmarket-street, Cape
Town.

*Lewis, Mrs. Agnes S., LL.D. Castle Brae, Chesterton-lane, Cam-
bridge.

tLewis, AtrRED LioneL. 35 Beddington-gardens, Wallington,

urrey. °
tLewis, Bea tinche D. Morgan, M.A. University College, Aberystwyth.
tLewis, F.S., M.A. South African Public Library, Cape Town.
tLewis, Hugh. Glanafrau, Newtown, Montgomeryshire.
*Lewis, Sir W. T., Bart. The Mardy, Aberdare.
. {Lewkowitsch, Dr. J. 71 Priory-road, N.W.

1908. D

50

Year of

Election.

1906.

1908.
1904.

1898.
1895.

1888.
1861.
1876.

1902.
1903.
1891.
1854.

1892.
1905.
1904.
1863.

1902.
1900.
1886.
1875.

1894.
1899.
1902.

1903.
1905.
1883.
1904.
1905.
1898.

1901,

1875.

1872.
1881.
1899.
1903.
L897.

t883.
L896.

L887.
1886.

1904,
1876.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

§Liddiard, James Edward, F.R.G.S. Rodborough Grange, Bourne-
mouth.

§Lilly, W. E., M.A., Sc.D. 39 Trinity College, Dublin.

{Link, Charles W. 14 Chichester- road, Croydon.

§Lippincott, R. C. Cann. Over Court, near Bristol.

*ListeR, The Right Hon. Lord, F.R.C.8., D.C.L., D.Se., F.R.S.
(PRESIDENT, 1896.) 12 Park-crescent, Portland-place, W.

tListrr, J. J., M.A., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1906.) St. John’s College,
Cambridge.

*Livetne, G. D., M.A., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1882 ; Council 1888-95 ;
Local Sec. 1862.) Newnham, Cambridge.

*LIVERSIDGE, ARCHIBALD, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.,
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney, N.S.W.
United University Club, Suffolk-street, Pall Mall, W.

§Llewellyn, Evan. Working Men’s Institute and Hall, Blaenavon.

§Lloyd, Godfrey I. H. 8 Claremont-place, Sheffield.

*Lioyp, R. J., M.A., D.Litt., F.R.S.E. 494 Grove-street, Liverpool.

*LosiEy, J. Loaan, F.G.8., F.R.G.S. 36 Palace-street, Bucking-
ham Gate, S.W.

tLocn, C.8., D.C.L. Denison House, Vauxhall Bridge-road, 8.W.

tLochrane, Miss T. 8 Prince’s-gardens, Dowanbill, Glasgow.

tLock, Rev. J. B. Herschel House, Cambridge.

{Lockyer, Sir J. Norman, K.C.B., LL.D., D.Se., F.R.S. (PRESIDENT,
1903 ; Council, 1871-76, 1901-02.) 16 Penywern-road, S.W.

*Lockyer, Lady. 16 Penywern-road, S.W.

§LockyerR, W.J.8., Ph.D. 16 Penywern-road, S.W.

*Lopar, Atrrup, M.A. ‘The Croft, Peperharow-road, Godalming.

*Lopar, Sir Oxrtver J., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1891;
Council, 1891-97, 1899-1903), Principal of the University of
Birmingham.

*Lodge, Oliver W. F. 17 Ruskin-buildings, Westminster, S.W.

§Loneq, Emile. 6 Rue de la Plaine, Laon, Aisne, France.

tLonponpERRY, The Marquess of, K.G. Londonderry House,
Park-lane, W. ,

tLong, Frederick. The Close, Norwich.

§Long, W. F. City Ingineer’s Office, Cape Town.

*Long, William. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.

*Longden, J. A., M.Inst.C.E. Stanton-by-Dale, Nottingham.

§Longden, Mrs. J. B. Stanton-by-Dale, Nottingham.

*Longfield, Miss Gertrude. Belmont, High Halstow, Rochester.

*Longstafl, Frederick V., F.R.G.S. Ridgelands, Wimbledon, Surrey.

*Longstaff, George Blundell, M.A., M.D., F.C.8., F.S.S. Highlands,
Putney Heath, 8.W.

*Longstaff, Lewellyn Wood, F.R.G.S. Ridgelands, Wimbledon, 8.W.

*Longstaff, Mrs. LI. W. Ridgelands, Wimbledon, 8.W.

*Longstaff, Tom G., M.A., M. D. Ridgelands, Wimbledon, S.W.

jLoton, John, M.A. 23 Hawkshead- street, Southport.

{Loupon, James, LL.D., President of the University of Toronto,
Canada.

*Louis, D. A., F.I.C. Savage Club, W.C.

§Louis, Henry, M.A., Professor of Mining in the Durham College of
Science, New castle- on-Tyne.

*Love, A. E..H., M.A., D.Sc., I°.R.S. (Pres. A, 1907), Professor
of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford. 34 St.
Margaret’s-road, Oxford.

*Love, I. I. J., M.A. The University, Melbourne, Australia.

*Love, J. B. Outlands, Devonport.

*Love, James, F.R.A.S., F.G.S., F.Z.8, 33 Clanricarde-gardens, W,

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908. 51

Year of
Election.

1905.
1908.
1885.
1891.
1885.
1905.
1886.
1894.
1903.
1901.
1891.
1906.
1866.
1850.
1905.
1883.
1874.

1898.
1903.
1884.
1907.

1908.
1908.

1905.
1868.

1878.

1904.
1908.

1896.

1879.
1883.
1866.
1896,
1904.
1896.

1902.
1908.

1884.
1887.

1904.
1876.
1902.

{Loveday, Professor T. South African College, Cape Town.

§Low, Alexander, M.A., M.B. Marischal College, Aberdeen.

§Lowdell, Sydney Poole. Baldwin’s Hill, East Grinstead, Sussex.

§Lowdon, John. St. Hilda’s, Barry, Glamorgan.

*Lowe, Arthur C. W. Gosfield Hall, Halstead, Essex.

{Lowe, E. C. Chamber of Trade, Johannesburg.

*Lowe, John Landor, B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. Spondon, Derbyshire,

{Lowenthal, Miss Nellie. Woodside, Egerton, Huddersfield.

*Lowry, Dr. T. Martin. 130 Horseferry-road, S.W.

*Lucas, Keith. Greenhall, Forest Row, Sussex.

*Lucovich, Count A. Tyn-y-parc, Whitchurch, near Cardiff.

§Ludlam, Ernest Bowman. Ackworth School, Pontefract, Yorks,

*Lund, Charles. Ilkley, Yorkshire.

*Lundie, Cornelius. 32 Newport-road, Cardiff.

{Lunnon, F. J. P.O. Box 400, Pretoria.

*Lupton, Arnold, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 6 De Grey-road, Leeds.

*Lupron, Sypnry, M.A. (Local Sec. 1890.) ~ 102 Park-street,

Grosvenor-square, W.

§Luxmoore, Dr. C. M. Central Technical Schools, Truro.

tLyddon, Ernest H. Lisvane, near Cardiff.

{Lyman, H. H. 384 St. Paul-street, Montreal, Canada.

*Lyons, Captain Henry George, R.E., D.Sc., F.B.S., Director-
Gencral of the Survey Department, Egypt. Gezira Gardens,
Cairo, Egypt.

glyster, George H. 34 Dawson-street, Dublin.

§Lyster, Thomas W., M.A. National Library of Ireland, Kildare-

street, Dublin.

{Maberly, Dr. John. Shirley House, Woodstock, Cape Colony.

{MacauistErR, ALEXANDER, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. H, 1892;
Council, 1901-06), Professor of Anatomy in the University of
Cambridge. Torrisdale, Cambridge.

{MacAuister, Sir Donatp, K.C.B., M.A., M.D., LL.D., B.Sc.,
Principal of the University of Glasgow.

{Macalister, Miss M. A. M. Torrisdale, Cambridge.

§Macallan, J., F.C, F.R.S.E. 3 Rutland-terrace, Clontarf, Co.
Dublin. :

{t{Macatium, Professor A. B., Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Loeal See.
1897). 59 St. George-strect, Toronto, Canada.

§MacAndrew, James J., F.L.S, Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon.

{MacAndrew, Mrs. J.J. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon.

*M‘Arthur, Alexander. 79 Holland-park, W.

*Macaulay, F. S., M.A. 19 Dewhurst-road, W.

*Macaulay. W. H. King’s College, Cambridge.

{MacBripr, Professor E. W., M.A.,D.Sc., F.R.S. McGill University,
Montreal, Canada.

*Maccall, W. T., M.Sc. 223 Burrage-road, Plumstead.

§McCarthy, Edward Valentine. Ardmanagh Hovse, GlenLrook,
Co. Cork.

*McCarthy, J. J.. M.D. 83 Wellington-road, Dublin.

*McCarthy, James. Care of Sir Sherston Baker, Bart., 18 Caven-
dish-road, Regent's Park, N.W.

§McClean, rank Kennedy. Rusthall House, Tunbridge Wells.

*M'CLELLAND, A.S. 4 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow

}McClelland, J. A., M.A., Professor of Physics in University Colleg-,
Dublin,

p2

52

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1906.

1878.
1908.
1901.
1905.
1901.
1892.

1901.

1905.

1904.
1904.

1905.
1900.

1890.
1905.

1834.

1908.

1897.
1906.
1885.

1905.
1901.
1888.
1908.

1906.
1908.
1884.
1902.
1905.
1867.
1884.
1885.
1908.
1873.

1905.
1907.

4

1995.
1905.
1897.
1901.
1872.
1901.

{McClure, Rev. E. 80 Eccleston-square, S.W.

*M‘Comas, Henry. Pembroke House, Pembroke-road, Dublin.

§McCombie, Hamilton, M.A., Ph.D. The University, Birmingham.

*MacConkey, Alfred. Queensberry Lodge, Elstree, Herts.

tMcConnell, D. E. Montrose-avenue, Orangezicht, Cape Town.

tMacCormac, J. M., M.D. 31 Victoria-place, Belfast.

*McCowan, John, M.A., D.Sc. Headersoa-street, Bridge of Allan,
N.B

tMcCrae, John, Ph.D. 7 Kirklee-gardens, Glasgow.

§McCulloch, Principal J. D. Free College, Edinburgh,

{McCulloch, Major T., R.A. 68 Victoria-street, S.W.

tMacdonald, H. M., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the
University of Aberdeen.

tMcDonald, J. G. P.O. Box 67, Bulawayo.

tMacDonald, J. Ramsay, M.P. 3 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, W.C.

*MacDonald, Mrs. J. Ramsay. 3 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, W.C.

§Macdonald, J. S., B.A., Professor of Physiology in the University

of Sheffield.

*Macdonald, Sir W. C. 449 Sherbrooke-strect West, Montreal,

Canada.

§McEwen, Walter, J. P. Flowerbank, Newton Stewart, Scotland.

t{McEwen, William C. 9 South Charlotte-street, Edinburgh.

§McFarlane, John. 30 Parsonage-road, Withington, Manchester.

t{Macfarlane, J. M., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Biology in the
University of Pennsylvania, Lansdowne, Delaware Co., Penn-
sylvania, U.S.A.

{Macfarlane, T. J. M. P.O. Box 1198, Johannesburg.

tMacfee, John. 5 Greenlaw-terrace, Paisley.

{MacGeorge, James. 8 Matheson-road, Kensington, W.

§McGratu, Joseru, LL.D. (Local Sec. 1908.) Royal University
of Ireland, Dublin.

§Maceregor, D. H., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

§MacGregor, Charles. Training Centre, Charlotte-street, Aberdcen.

*MacGrecor, JAMES Gorpon, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Pro-
fessor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Ndinburgh,

t{Mcllroy, Archibald. Glenvale, Drumbo, Lisburn, Ireland.

tMacindoe, Flowerdue. 23 Saratoga-avenue, Johannesburg.

*McIntosH W. C., M.D., LL.D., F.B.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. (Pres. D,
1885), Professor of Natural History in the University of
St. Andrews. 2 Abbotsford-crescent, St. Andrews, N.B.

§MacKay, A H., B.Se., LL.D., Superintendent of Education.
Education Office, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.

{Mackay, Jonn Yucr, M.D., LL.D., Principal of and Professor of
Anatomy in University College, Dundee.

§McKay, William, J.P. Clifford-chambers, York.

tMcKenprick, Jonn G., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (Pres. I,
1901; Council, 1903- ), Professor of Physiology in the
University of Glasgow. Maxieburn, Stonehaven, N.B.

tMcKenzie, A. R. P.O. Box 214, Cape Town.

§McKeEnziz, ALEXANDER, M.A., D.Sc., Ph.D. Birkbeck College,
Bream’s-buildings, Chancery-lane, E.C.

tMackenzie, Hector. Standard Bank of South Africa, Cape Town.

{Mackenzie, J. 13 Derwent-road, Kloof-road, Cape Town.

tMcKenzie, John J. 61 Madison-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

*Mackenzie, Thomas Brown. Netherby, Manse-road, Motherwell,N.B.

*Mackey, J. A. United University Club, Pall Mall East, S.W.

{Mackie, William, M.D. 13 North-street, Elgin.

LIST O# MEMBERS: 1908. 53

Year of
Election.

1887,

1908.
1885.

1894,
1901.

1905.
1901.
1901.
1905.
1892.

1905.
1908.
1868.

1883.

1902.
1905.

1878.
1905.
1905.
1907.
1906.
1908.
1908.
1902.
1902.
1908.
1905.
1902.
1875.

1908.

1902.

1907.
1908.
1908.
1357.

1905.
1897.
1903.
1905.
1894.
1905.
1887.

1902.
1898.

{Macxinper, H. J., M.A., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1895 ; Council, 1904-
1905.) London School of Economies, Clare Market, W.C.
§MacKinnon, Mrs. Donald. Speldhurst Rectory, Tunbridge Wells.

*M‘Larun, The Hon. Lord, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. 46 Moray-place,
Edinburgh.
*McLaren, Mrs. E. L. Colby, M.B., Ch.B. 11 Leopold-place, Edin-

burgh.

+Maclaren, J. Malcolm. Royal Colonial Institute, Northumber-
land Avenue, W.C.

{McLaren, Thomas. P.O. Box 1034, Johannesburg.

{Maclay, William. Thornwood, Langside, Glasgow.

§McLean, Angus, B.Sc. Ascog, Meikleriggs, Paisley.

{MacLean, Lachlan. Greenhill, Kenilworth, Cape Colony.

*Mac Lean, Maanvs, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S.E. (Local Sec. 1901), Pro-
fessor of Electrical Engineering, Technical College, Glasgow.

*Maclear, Admiral J. P. Beaconscroft, Chiddingfold, Godalming.

§McLennan, J. C. The University, Toronto, Canada.

§McLrop, Hersert, F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1892; Council, 1885-90.)
37 Montague-road, Richmond, Surrey.

t{MacManon, Major Prrcy A., R.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (GENERAL
SEcRETARY, 1902- ; Pres. A, 1901 ; Council, 1898-1902.)
27 Evelyn-mansions, Carlisle-place, 8.W.

t{McMordie, Robert J. Cabin Hill, Knock, Co. Down.

t{MacNay, Arthur. Cape Government Railway Offices, De Aar,
Cape Colony.

{Macnie, George. 59 Bolton-street, Dublin.

§Macphail, Dr. S. Rutherford. Rowditch, Derby.

{Macrae, Harold J. P.O. Box 817, Johannesburg.

§Macrosty, Henry W. 29 Hervey-road, Blackheath, 8.E.

{Macturk, G. W. B. 15 Bowlalley-lane, Hull.

§McVittie, R. B., M.D. 62 Fitzwilliam-square North, Dublin.

§McWalter, J. C., M.D., M.A. 19 North Earl-street, Dublin.

{McWeeney, E. J., M.D. 84 St. Stephen’s-green, Dublin.

t{MeWhirter, William. 9 Walworth-terrace, Glasgow.

§MappeEn, Rt. Hon. Mr. Justice. Nutley, Booterstown, Dublin.

§Magenis, Lady Louisa. 34 Lennox-gardens, S.W

{Magill, R., M.A., Ph.D. The Manse, Maghera, Co. Derry.

*Maanus, Sir Parr, B.Sc., B.A., M.P. (Pres. L, 1907). 16 Glouces-
ter-terrace, Hyde Park, W.

*Magson, Egbert H. 67 Pepys-road, Cottenham Park, Wimble-
don, 8. W.

{Mahon, J. L. 2 May-street, Drumcondra, Dublin.

*Mair, David. Civil Service Commission, Burlington-gardens, W.

§Mair, William, F.C.S. 7 Comiston-road, Edinburgh.

§Makower, W. ‘The University, Manchester.

{Matter, Jonn Witiam, Ph.D., M.D., F.B.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Virginia, Albemarle Co., U.S.A.

§Maltby, Lieutenant G. R., R.N. 54 St. George’s-square, S.W.

t{Mancz, Sir H.C. Old Woodbury, Sandy, Bedfordshire.

{Manifold, C. C. 16 St. James’s-square, S.W.

{Manning, D. W., F.R.G.S. Roydon, Rosebank, Cape Town.

t{Manning, Percy, M.A., F.S.A. Watford, Herts.

tMansfield, J. D. 94 St. George’s-street, Cape Town.

*March, Henry Colley, M.D., F.S.A. Portesham, Dorchester,
Dorsetshire.

*Marchant, Dr. E. W. The University, Liverpool.

*Mardon, Heber. 2 Litfield-place, Clifton, Bristol.

54 BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

Year of

TFlection.

1900. {Margerison, Samuel. Calverley Lodge, near Leeds.

1864. {Markuam, Sir Clements R., K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.GS., F.S.A.
(Pres. E, 1879; Council, 1893-96.) 21 Eccleston-square, S.W.

1905. §Marks, Samuel. P.O. Box 379, Pretoria.

1905. {Marloth, R., M.A., Ph.D. P.O. Box 359, Cape Town.

1881. *Marr, J. E., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1896 ; Council,
1896-1902.) St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1903. §Marriott, William. Royal Meteorological Society, 70 Victoria-
street, S.W.

1892. *Marsden-Smedley, J. B. Lea Green, Cromford, Derbyshire.

1883. *Marsh, Henry Carpenter. 3 Lower James-street, Golden-square, W.

1887. {Marsh, J. E., M.A., F.R.S. University Museum, Oxford.

1889. *MarsHati, AtrreD, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc. (Pres. F, 1890.) Balliol
Croft, Madingley-road, Cambridge.

1904, {Marshall, ¥. H. A. University of Edinburgh.

1905. §Marshall, G. A. K. 6 Chester-place, Hyde Park-square, W.

1892. §MarsHatrt, Hucu, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. 12 Lonsdale-terrace,
Edinburgh.

1901. {Marshall, Robert. 97 Wellington-street, Glasgow.

1886, *MarswaLt, Witttam Bayxey, M.Inst.C.E. Imperial Hotel, Mal-
vern.

1907. §Marston, Robert. 14 Ashleigh-road, Leicester.

1899, §Martin, Miss A. M. Park View, 32 Bayham-road, Sevenoaks.

1891. *Martin, Edward P., J.P. The Hill, Abergavenny, Monmouth-
shire.

1905. tMartin, John. P.O. Box 217, Germiston, Transvaal.

1884. §Martin, N. H., J.P., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. Ravenswood, Low Fell,
Gateshead.

1889. *Martiv, Thomas Henry, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Northdene, New
Barnet, Herts.

1905. Marwick, J. 8. P.O. Box 1166, Johannesburg.

1905. {Marx, Mrs, Charles. Shabana, Robinson-street, Belgravia, South
Africa.

1907. {Masefield, J. R. B., M.A, Rosehill, Cheadic, Staffordshire.

1847. {MaskELyNnzE, Nevic Srory, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Council,
1874-80). Basset Down House, Swindon.

1905. *Mason, Justice A. W. Supreme Court, Pretoria.

1893. *Mason, Thomas. Enderleigh, Alexandra Park, Nottingham.

1891. *Massey, William H., M.Inst.C.E. Twyford, R.S.O., Berkshire.

1905. §Massy, Miss Mary. York House, Teignmouth, Devon.

1898. {Masterman, A. T. University of St. Andrews, N.B.

1901. *Mather, G. R. Boxlea, Wellingborough.

1887. *Mather, Sir Wiliiam, M.Inst.C.E. Salford Iron Works, Manchester.

1908. §Matheson, Sir R. E., LL.D. Charlemont House, Rutland-square,
Dublin.

1905. {Mathew, Alfred Harfield. P.O. Box 242, Cape Town.

1894, {Matuews, G. B., M.A., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1902. {Matley, C. A., D.Se. 7 Morningside-terrace, Edinburgh.

1904, {Matthews, D. J. The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth.

1905. {Matthews, J. Wright, M.D. P.O. Box 437, Johannesburg.

1893. {Mavor, Professor James. University of Toronto, Canada.

1865. *Maw, Guorcr, F.LS., F.G.S., F.S.A. Benthall, Kenley, Surrey.

1894. §Maxim, Sir Hiram §. Thurlow Park, Norwood-road, West
Norwood, S8.E. 7

1903. {Maawell, J. M. 37 Ash-street, Southport.

1901, *May, W. Page, M.D., B.Sc. University College, Gower-street, W.C.

1884, *Maybury, A.C, D.Sc. 411 Fulham-road, S.W.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908. 55

Election.

1905.
1905.
1878.
1904.
1905.

1879.
1905.
1881.

§Maylard, A. Ernest. 10 Blythswood-square, Glasgow.

{Maylard, Mrs. 10 Blythswood-square, Glasgow.

*Mayne, Thomas. 19 Lord Edward-street, Dublin.

tMayo, Rev. J., LL.D. 6 Warkworth-terrace, Cambridge.

{Mearns, J. Herbert, M.D. Edenville, 10 Oxford-road, Observatory,
Cape Town.

§Meiklejohn, John W.8., M.D. 105 Holland-road, W.

§Mein, W. W. P.O. Box 1024, Johannesburg.

*MELDOLA, RAPHAEL, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S., F.I.C. (Pres. B,
1895 ; Council, 1892-99), Professor of Chemistry in the Fins.
bury Technical College, City and Guilds of London Institute.
6 Brunswick-square, W.C.

§Meldrum, A. N., D.Sc. Chemical Department, The University,
Manchester.

tMellis, Rev. James. 23 Part-street, Southport.

*Mellish, Henry. Hodsock Priory, Worksop.

{Metto, Rev. J. M., M.A., F.G.S. Cliff Hill, Warwick.

§Mellor, G. H. Weston, Blundellsands, Liverpool.

§Melrose, James. Clifton Croft, York.

. *Melvill, E. H. V., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. P.O. Box 719, Johannesburg.

{Mennell, F. P. 8 Addison-road, W.

§Meredith, H. O. Dunwood House, Withington, Manchester.

§MrreEpITH, Sir JAMES CREED, LL.D. Royal University of Ireland,
Dublin.

{MeERIVALE, JoHN HERMAN, M.A. (Local Sec. 1889.) Togston Hall,
Acklington.

*Merrett, William H., F.1.C. Hatherley, Grosvenor-road, Walling-
ton, Surrey.

tMerriman, Hon. John X. Schoongezicht, Stellenbosch, Cape
Colony.

tMerryweather, J.C. 4 Whitehall-court, S.W.

*Merz, John Theodore. The Quarries, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tMethven, Cathcart W. Club Arcade, Smith-street, Durban.

§Metzler, W. H., Professor of Mathematics in Syracuse University,
Syracuse, New York, U.S.A.

tMratz, Louis C., D.Sc. F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S. (Pres. D, 1897 ;
Pres. L, 1908; Local See. 1890.) Norton Way North, Letch-
worth.

*Micklethwait, Miss Frances M.G. Penhein, Chepstow, Monmouth.

*Middlesbrough, The Right Rev. Richard Lacy, D.D., Bishop of.
Bishop’s House, Middlesbrough.

{Middleton, T. H., M.A. South House, Barton-road, Cambridge,

*Mirers, H. A., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1905), Principal of
the University of London. 23 Wetherby-gardens, 8.W.

. §Mitt, Huan Rosert, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. (Pres. EK,

1901.) 62 Camden-square, N.W.
§Mill, Mrs. H. R. 62 Camden-square, N.W.
*Mitiar, Ropert Cockpury, 30 York-place, Edinburgh.
Millar, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. Perth.
{Miller, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E. 9 Thoroughfare, Ipswich.
{Millin, S. T. Sheridan Lodge, Helen’s Bay, Co. Down.
{Millis, C. T. Hollydene, Wimbledon Park-road, Wimbledon.
§Mills, Mrs. A. A. 36 St. Andrew’s-street, Cambridge.
§Mills, Miss E. A. Nurney, Glenagarey, Co. Dublin.
*Mints, EpMuND J., D.Sce., F'.R.S., F.C.S. 64 Twyford-avenue,
West Acton, W.
§Mills, Miss Gertrude Isabel. Nurney, Glenagarey, Co. Dublin.

56

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
lection.

1908.

1908.
1902.
1907.
1882.

1903.
1898.
1908.

1907.
1880.

1901.
1901.
1905.
1885.

1905.
1908.
1905.
1895.
1908.
1905.
1905.
1905.

1883.
1908.

1900.
1905.

1905.
1887.

1891.

1905.
1908.
1894.
1908.
1901.
1905.
1896.
1905.

1901.
1905.
1895.
1873.

1896.
1902,

§Mills, John Arthur, M.B. Durham County Asylum, Winterton,
Ferryhill.

§Mills, W. H., M-Inst.C.E. Nurney, Glenagarey, Co. Dublin.

{Mills, W. Sloan, M.A. Vine Cottage, Donaghmore, Newry.

tMilne, A., M.A. University School, Hastings.

*Mitne, Joun, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.8. Shide, Newport, Isle of
Wight.

*Milne, R. M. Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, South Devon.

*Milner, 8. Roslington, D.Sc. The University, Sheffield. ;

§Milroy, T. H., M.D., Dunville Professor of Physiology in Queen’s
College, Belfast.

§Milton, J. H., F.G.8. Harrison House, Crosby, Liverpool.
{Mincurn, G. M., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the
Royal Indian Engineering College, Coopers Hill, Surrey.

*Mitchell, Andrew Acworth. 7 Huntly-gardens, Glasgow.

*Mitchell, G. A. 5 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

{Mitchell, John. Government School House, Jeppestown, Transvaal.

{Mrrcuett, P. Cuatmers, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Sec.Z.S. (Council,
1906- ). 3 Hanover-square, W.

*Mitchell, William Edward. Ferreira Deep, Johannesburg.

§Mitchell, W. M. 2 St. Stephen’s Green, Dublin. :

tMitter, M. Care of J. Speak, Esq., The Grange, Kirton, near Boston.

*Moat, William, M.A. Johnson Hall, Eccleshall, Staffordshire.

§Moffat, C. B. 36 Hardwicke-street, Dublin.

, §Moir, James, D.Sc. Mines Department, J ohannesburg.

{Moir, Dr. W. Ironside. Care of Dr. McAulay, Cleveland, Transvaal.
§Molengraaff, Professor G. A. F. The Technical University of
Delft, The Hague.

{Mollison, W. L., M.A. Clare College, Cambridge.

§Molloy, W. R. J., J.P., M.R.LA. 78 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar,
Co. Dublin. :

*Moncxton, H. W., Treas.L.S., F.G.S. 3 Harcourt-buildings,
Temple, E.C.

*Moncrierr, Colonel Sir C. Scorr, G.C.S.I., K.C.M.G., R.E. (Pres.

G, 1905.) 11 Cheyne-walk, S.W.

tMoncrieff, Lady Scott. 11 Cheyne-walk, S.W.

*Monp, Lupwic, Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.8. (Pres. B, 1896.)
20 Avenue-road, Regent’s Park, N.W.

*Mond, Robert Ludwig, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 20 Avenue-road,
Regent’s Park, N.W.

tMoore, Charles Elliott. P.O. Box 5382, Johannesburg.

*Moore, F. W. Royal Botanic Gardens, Glasnevin, Dublin.

§Moore, Harold E. Oaklands, The Avenue, Beckenham, Kent.

§Moore, Sir John W., M.D. 40 Fitzwilliam-square West, Dublin.

*Moore, Robert T. 142 St. Vincent-strect, Glasgow.

§Moore, T. H. Thornhill Villa, Marsh, Huddersfield.

*Mordey, W. M. 82 Victoria-street, S.W.

{More, T. E. Padern. Carlton Buildings, Parliament-street, Cape
Town.

*Moreno, Francisco P. Parana 915, Buenos Aires.

*Morgan, Miss Annie. Friedrichstrasse No. 2, Vienna.

{Moraan, C. Luoyp, F.B.S., F.G.S., Principal of University College,
Bristol.

tMorgan, Edward Delmar, F.R.G.S. 15 Roland-gardens, South
Kensington, S.W.

t Morgan, George. 21 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpool.

tMoraan, Gitsert T., D.Sc., F.1.C, Royal College of Science, S.W.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908. 57

Year of
Election.

1902. *Morgan, Septimus Vaughan. 37 Harrington-gardens, 8.W.

1901. *Morison, James. Perth.

1883. *Mortey, Henry Forsrmr, M.A., D.Sc., F.C.S. 5 Lyndhurst-road,
Hampstead, N.W. e

1906. {Morrell, H.R. Scarcroft-road, York.

1896. {Morrell, R. 8. Caius College, Cambridge.

1908. §Morris, E. A. Montmorency, M.A., M.R.I.A. Winton House,
Cabra, Co. Dublin.

1905. {Morris, F., M.B., B.Sc. 18 Hope-street, Cape Town.

1896. *Morris, J. T. 13 Somers-place, W.

1880. §Morris, James. 6 Windsor-street, Uplands, Swansea.

1907. {Morris, Colonel Sir W. G., K.C.M.G. Care of Messrs. Cox & Co.,
16 Charing Cross, W.C.

1899. *Morrow, Joun, M.Sc., D.Eng. Armstrong College, Neweastle-
upon-Tyne.

1865. {Mortimer, J. R. St. John’s Villas, Driffield.

1886. *Morton, P. F. 15 Ashley-place, Westminster, S.W.

1896. *Morton, Wixi1aM B., M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in
Queen’s College, Belfast.

1908. §Moss, Dr. C. E. Botany School, Cambridge.

1876. §Moss, Ricnarp Jackson, F.I.C., M.R.I.A. Royal Dublin Society,
and St. Aubyn’s, Ballybrack, Co. Dublin.

1892. peters poe M.A., M.B. 15 Grange-avenue, Harton, near South

ields.

1866. {Morr, Frepurick T., F.R.G.S. Crescent House, Leicester.

1878. *Movutton, The Right Hon. Lord Justice, M.A., K.C., F.R.S.
57 Onslow-square, S.W.

1899. §Mowll, Martyn. Chaldercot, Leyburne-road, Dover.

1905. §Moylan, Miss V. C. 3 Canning-place, Palace Gate, W.

1905. *Moysey, Miss K. L. Pitcroft, Guildford, Surrey.

1899. *Muff, Herbert B., B.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 33 George-
square, Edinburgh.

1902. §Muir, Arthur H. 2 Wellington-place, Belfast.

1907. *Muir, Professor James. 189 Renfrew-street, Glasgow.

1874. t{Muir, M. M. Patrison, M.A. Gonville and Caius College, Cam-
bridge.

1904. §Muir, William. Rowallan, Newton Stewart, N.B.

1872. *Murrneap, ALEXANDER, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S. 12 Carteret-street,
Queen Anne’s Gate, Westminster, S.W.

1905. *Muirhead, James M. P., F.R.S.E. Markham’s-chambers, St.
George’s-street, Cape Town.

1876. *Muirhead, Robert Franklin, B.A., D.Sc. 64 Great George-strcet,
Hillhead, Glasgow.

1902. {Mullan, James. Castlerock, Co. Derry.

1884. *Mutter, Huco, Ph.D., F.RS., F.C.S. 13 Park-square East,
Regent’s Park, N.W.

1905. {Mulligan, A. ‘ Natal Mercury’ Office, Durban, Natal.

1908. §MuLiican, Joun. (Local Sec. 1908.) Greinan, Adelaide-road,
Kingstown, Co. Dublin.

1904. §Mullinger, J. Bass, M.A. 1 Bene’t-place, Cambridge.

1898. {Mumford, C. EH. Cross Roads House, Bouverie-road, Folkestone.

1901. *Munby, Alan KE. Royal Societies Club, St. James’s-street, S.W.

Munby, Arthur Joseph. 6 Fig Tree-court, Temple, E.C.

1506. t{Munby, Frederick J. Whixley, York.

1904. {Munro, A. Queens’ College, Cambridge.

1883. *Munro, Roper, M.A., M.D., LL.D. (Pres. H, 1893.) Elmbank,
Largs, Ayrshire, N.B,

58

Year

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

of

Election.

1890. {Murphy, A. J. Springfield Mount, Leeds.

”

1908. §Murphy, Leonard. 156 Richmond-road, Dublin.

1884

. §Murphy, Patrick. Marcus-square, Newry, Ireland.

1908. §Murpuy, Wititam M., J.P. Dartry, Dublin.

1905

. tMurray, Charles F. K., M.D. Kenilworth House, Kenilwortn,
Cape Colony.

1905. {Murray, Dr. F. Londinium, London-road, Sea Point, Cape Town.
1891. {Murray, G. R. M., F.B.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.8. 8 Kerrison-road,

1905
1905
1884

Ealing, W.

. §Murray, Sir J. A. H., LL.D., Litt.D. Sunnyside, Oxford.

. §Murray, Lady. Sunnyside, Oxford.

. [Murray, Sir Jonn, K.C.B., LL.D., D.Sc., Ph.D., F'.R.S., F.R.S.E.
(Pres. E, 1899.) Challenger Lodge, Wardie, Edinburgh.

1903. §Murray, Colonel J. D. Rowbottom-square, Wigan.

1870.
1902.
1902.
1906.
1890.

*Muspratt, Edward Knowles. Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool.

t{Myddleton, Alfred. 62 Duncairn-street, Belfast.

*Myers, Charles $., M.A., M.D. Melrose, Grange-road, Cambridge.

{Myers, Jesse A. Glengarth, Walker-road, Harrogate.

*Myres, JoHN L., M.A., F'.S.A., Professor of Greek in the Uni-
versity of Liverpool. 26 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.

. TNacex, D. H., M.A. (Local Sec. 1894.) Trinity College, Oxford.
. *Nairn, Sir Michael B., Bart. Kirkcaldy, N.B.

. tNalder, Francis Henry. 34 Queen-street, H.C.

. §Nally, T. H. Temple Hill, Terenure, Co. Dublin.

. tNapier, Dr. Francis. 73 Jeppe-street, Von Brandis-square, Johan-

nesburg.

. tNarzs, Admiral Sir G. S., I..C.B., R.N., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 11 Clare-
mont-road, Surbiton. ‘

. *Neild, Theodore, M.A. Grange Court, Leominster.

. *Nevill, Rev. J. H. N., M.A. The Vicarage, Stoke Gabriel, South
Devon.

. *Nevill, The Right Rev. Samuel Tarratt, D.D., F.L.S8., Bishop of
Dunedin, New Zealand.

. tNevitte, F. H., M.A., F.R.S. Sidney College, Cambridge.

. *Newall, H. Frank, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Madingley Rise, Cam-
bridge.

. [Newman, F. H. ‘Tullie House, Carlisle.

. tNewstead, A. H. L., B.A. 38 Green-street, Bethnal Green, N.E.

. {Newron, EK. T., F.R.S., F.G.S. Florence House, Willow Bridge-
road, Canonbury, N.

. §Nicholls, W. A. 11 Vernham-road, Plumstead, Kent.

. §Nichols, Albert Russell. 380 Grosvenor-square, Rathmines, Co.
Dublin.

. Nicholson, John Carr, J.P. Moorfield House, Headingley, Leeds.

. [Nicwotson, JoserH §., M.A., D.Sc. (Pres. F, 1893), Professor of
Political Economy in the University of Edinburgh. Eden
Lodge, Newbattle-terrace, Ndinburgh.

. §Nicholson, J. W. Trinity College, Cambridge.

. §Nrxon, Sir Curistopuer, Bart., M.D., LL.D., D.L. 2 Merrion-
square, Dublin.

. *Noste, Sir ANDREW, Bart., K.C.B., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.8.
(Pres. G, 1890 ; Council, 1903-06 ; Local Sec. 1863.) Elswick
Works, and Jesmond Dene House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

. §Norman, Rev. Canon Atrrep Mertz, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,

F.L.S. The Red House, Berkhamsted.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908. 59

Year of
Election.

1908.

1888.
1883.
1894,

1903.
1908.

1898.
1908.
1883.

1858.
1908.
1902.
1876.
1885.
1905.

1905.
. §Oldham, Charles Hubert, B.A., B.L: 44 Upper Leeson-street,

§Norman, Conolly, M.D. St. Dymphna’s, North Circular-road,
Dublin.

tNorman, George. 12 Brock-street, Bath.

*Norris, William G. Dale House, Coalbrookdale, R.S.O., Shropshire.

§Norcurt, 8. A., LL.M., B.A., B.Sc. (Local Sec. 1895.) Constitu-
tion-hill, Ipswich.

{Noton, John. 45 Part-street, Southport.

§Nutting, Sir John, Bart. St. Helen’s, Co. Dublin.

*O’Brien, Neville Forth. Fryth, Pyrford, Surrey.

§O’Carroll, Joseph, M.D. 43 Merrion-square East, Dublin.

f{Odgers, William Blake, M.A., LL.D., K.C. 15 Old-square,
Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.

*Opiine, WittiAM, M.B., F.R.S., V.P.C.S. (Pres. B, 1864 ; Council,
1865-70), Waynflete Professor of Chemistry in the University
of Oxford. 15 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

§O’Farrell, Thomas A. 30 Lansdowne-road, Dublin.

ftOgden, James Neal. Claremont, Heaton Chapel, Stockport.

{Ogilvie, Campbell P. Sizewell House, Leiston, Suffolk.

{Oermviz, F. Grant, C.B., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S.E. (Local Sec.
1892.) Board of Education, S.W.

*Oke, Alfred William, B.A., LL.M., F.G.S., F.L.S. 382 Denmark-
villas, Hove, Brighton.

§Okell, Samuel, F.R.A.S. Overley, Langham-road, Bowdon,
Cheshire.

Dublin.

. LOLpHam, H. Yuun, M.A., F.R.G.S., Lecturer in Geography in the

University of Cambridge. King’s College, Cambridge.

. *OLpHAM, R. D., F.G.S., Geological Survey of India. Care of Messrs.

H. 8. King & Co., 9 Pall Mall, S.W.

. tOxtver, Danter, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Emeritus Professor of

Botany in University College, London. 10 Kew Gardens-
road, Kew, Surrey.

. {Ox1ver, F. W., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1906), Professor

of Botany in University College, London. 2 The Vale,
Chelsea, 8. W.

. tOliver, Professor Sir Thomas, M.D. 7 Ellison-place, Newcastle-

upon-Tyne

. §Olsen, O. T., D.Se., E.LS., F.R.AS., F.R.G.S. 116 St. Andrew’s-

terrace, Grimsby.

. *Ommanney, Rev. E. A. St. Michael’s and All Angels, Portsea,
Hants.
. §O’Neill, Rev. G., M.A. University College, St. Stephen’s Green,

Dublin.

. tO’Neill, Henry, M.D. 6 College-square East, Belfast.

. tO’Reilly, Patrick Joseph. 7 North Earl-street, Dublin.

. {O’Riley, J.C. 70 Barnet-street, Gardens, Cape Town.

. *Orpen, Rev. T. H.,M.A. The Vicarage, Great Shelford, Cambridge.
. tOrr, Alexander Stewart., Care of Messrs. Marsland, Price, & Co.,

Nesbit-road, Mazagon, Bombay, India.

. fOrr, Professor John. ‘Transvaal Technical Institute, Johannesburg.
. *Orr, William. Dungarvan, Co. Waterford.
. *Orton, K. J. P., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in University

College, Bangor.

. }Osborn, Philip B. P.O. Box 4181, Johannesburg. : s

60

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Boe of

lection.

1901. {Osborne, W. A., D.Sc. University College, W.C.
1908. §O’Shaughnessy, T. L. 64 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.
1887. {O’Shea, L. T., B.Sc. University College, Sheffield.

1865.
1884,

1881.
1896.
1906.
1903,
1889.
1896.

1908.

1906.
1903.
1870.

1896.
1878.

1866.
1880.

1904.
1905.
1905.
1891.

1905.
1899.
1905.
1906.

1879.
1903.
1908.

1878.

1904.
1905.

1898.
1887.

1908.
1897.

1883.
1884.
1908.
1874.

*Osler, Henry F. Coppy-hill, Linthurst, near Bromsgrove, Bir-
mingham.

{OstEr, Witt1aM, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Regius Professor of Medicine
in the University of Oxford. University Museum, Oxford.

*Ottewell, Alfred D. 14 Mill Hill-road, Derby.

{Oulton, W. Hillside, Gateacre, Liverpool.

tOwen, Rev. E.C. St. Peter’s School, York.

*Owen, Edwin, M.A. Terra Nova School, Birkdale, Lancashire.

*Owen, Alderman, H.C. Compton, Wolverhampton.

§Owen, Peter. The Elms, Capenhurst, Chester.

§Pack-Beresford, Denis, M.R.I.A. Fenagh House, Bagenalstown,
Ireland.

§Page, Carl D. Wyoming House, Aylesbury, Bucks.

*Page, Miss Ellen Iva. Turret House, Felpham, Sussex.

*PaLtGRaveE, Ropert Harry Inaus, F.R.S., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1883.)
Henstead Hall, Wrentham, Suffolk.

{Pallis, Alexander. Tatoi, Aigburth-drive, Liverpool.

*Palmer, Joseph Edward. Royal Societies Club, St. James’s-street,
S.W.

§Palmer, William. Waverley House, Waverley-street, Notting-
ham.

*Parke, George Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. St. John’s, Wakefield,
Yorkshire.

{Parxer, E. H., M.A. Thorneyereck, Herschel-road, Cambridge.

{Parker, Hugh. P.O. Box 200, Pietermaritzburg, Natal.

}Parker, John. 37 Hout-street, Cape Town.

{ParKkgr, WiLL1IAM Newton, Ph.D., F.Z.S., Professor of Biology in
University College, Cardiff.

*Parkes, Tom E. P.O. Box 4580, Johannesburg.

*Parkin, John. Blaithwaite, Carlisle.

*Parkin, Thomas. Blaithwaite, Carlisle.

§Parkin, Thomas, M.A., F.Z.S., F.R.G.S. Fairseat, High Wick-
ham, Hastings.

*Parkin, William. The Mount, Sheffield.

§Parry, Joseph, M.Inst.C.E. Woodbury, Waterloo, near Liverpool.

§Parry, W. K., M.Inst.C.E. 6 Charlemont-terrace, Kingstown,
Dublin. :

{Parsons, Hon. C. A., C.B., M.A., Se.D., F.R.S., M-Inst.C.E.
(Pres. G, 1904.) Holeyn Hall, Wylam-on-Tyne.

{Parsons, Professor F. G. St. Thomas’s Hospital, S.E.

*Parsons, Hon. Geoffrey L. Northern Counties Club, Newcastle-on-
Tyne.

*Partridge, Miss Josephine M. 15 Grosvenor-crescent, S.W.

{Parerson, A. M., M.D., Professor of Anatomy in the University
of Liverpool.

§Paterson, M., LL.D. 7 Halton-place, Edinburgh.

tPaton, D. Noél, M.D. Physiological Laboratory, The University,
Glasgow.

*Paton, Rev. Henry, M.A. 120 Polwarth-terrace, Edinburgh.

*Paton, Hugh. Box 2400, Montreal, Canada.

§Patten, C. J., M.A., M.D., Sc.D. The University, Sheffield.

{Patterson, W. H., M.R.I.A. 26 High-street, Belfast.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908. 61

Year of
Election.

1879.
1883.

1863.

1887.
1887.

1877.
1881.
1888.
1876.

1906.
1885.

1886.
1905.
1883.

1893.
1898.
1905.

1883.
1906.
1904.

1864.
1898.

*Patzer, F. R. Clayton Lodge, Neweastle, Staffordshire.

tPaul, George. 32 Harlow Moor-drive, Harrogate.

tPavy, Freperick Wiuuam, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 35 Grosvenor-
street, W.

*Paxman, James. Standard Iron Works, Colchester.

*Payne, Miss Edith Annie. Hatchlands, Cuckfield, Hayward's
Heath.

*Payne, J. C. Charles, J.P. Albion-place, The Plains, Belfast.

{Payne, Mrs. Albion-place, The Plains, Belfast.

*Paynter, J. B. Hendford Manor, Yeovil.

tPeace, G. H., M.Inst.C.E. Monton Grange, Eccles, near Man-
chester.

tPeace, Miss Gertrude. 39 Westbourne-road, Sheffield.

{Pracu, B. N., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office,
Edinburgh.

*Pearce, Mrs. Horace. Collingwood, Manby-road, West Malvern.

{tPearse, S. P.O. Box 149, Johannesburg.

{Pearson, Arthur A., C.M.G. Hillsborough, Heath-road, Petersfield,
Hampshire.

*Pearson, Charles K. Hillcrest, Lowdham, Nottinghamshire.

§Pearson, George. Bank-chambers, Baldwin-street, Bristol.

§Pearson, Professor H. H. W., M.A., F.L.S. South African College,
Cape Town.

{Pearson, Miss Helen E. Oakhurst, Birkdale, Southport.

§Pearson, Joseph. ‘The University, Liverpool.

{Pearson, Karl, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mathefftatics in
University College, London, W.C.

Peckitt, Henry. Carlton Husthwaite, Thirsk, Yorkshire.

. *Pecxover, Lord, LL.D., F.S.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Bank House,

Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.

. {Peckover, Miss Alexandrina. Bank House, Wisbech, Cambridge-

shire.

tPeddie, William, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy
in University College, Dundee.

t{Peebles, W. E. 9 North Frederick-street, Dublin.

*Peek, William. Dorman’s Park, near East Grinstead.

*Peel, Hon. William. 13 King’s Bench-walk, Temple, I..C.

. §Peirson, J. Waldie. P.O. Box 561, Johannesburg.
. §Pemberton, Gustavus M. P.O. Box 93, Johannesburg.
. [Penptesury, Witiiam H., M.A., F.C.S. (Local See. 1899.)

Woodford House, Mountfields, Shrewsbury.

. }Pengelly, Miss. Lamorna, Torquay.

tPennant, P. P. Nantlys, St. Asaph.
tPentecost, Rev. Harold, M.A. The School, Giggleswick, Yorkshire.
tPercival, Francis W., M.A., F.R.G.S. 1 Chesham-street, S.W.

. §Percival, Professor John, M.A. University College, Reading.

{Péringuey, L., D.Se., F.Z.S. South African Museum, Cape ‘Town.

{Prerary, A. G., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.C. 8 Montpelier-
terrace, Hyde Park, Leeds.

*Perkin, F. Mollwo, Ph.D. The Firs,~Hengrave-road, Honor Oak
Park, 8.E.

. {Perxmy, Wirtiam Henry, LL.D., PhD. F.RS. F.R.S.E.

(Pres. B, 1900; Council, 1901-07), Professor of Organic
Chemistry in the Victoria University, Manchester. Fair-
view, Wilbraham-road, Fallowfield, Manchester.

*Perkins, V. R. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.

*Perman, E. P., D.Sc. University College, Cardiff,

62

Year of
Election

1874.

1904.
1900.
1901.
1895.

1871.
1863.

1903.
1905.
1853.
1877.

1905.
1899.

1894.

1902.
1890.

1905.
1883.
1901.
1885.
1884.
1907.
1888.

1865.
1896.
1905.
1896.
1905.
1908.
1908.

1893.
1908.
1900.
1898.

1908.

1908.
1907.

1900
1904.

1896.
1908.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

*Pprry, JoHN, M.E., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. (GenERAL TREASURER,
1904- ; Pres. G, 1902; Council, 1901-04), Professor of
Mechanics and Mathematics in the Royal College of Science,
S.W.

*Pertz, Miss D. F. M. 2 Cranmer-road, Cambridge.

*Petavel, J. E., M.Sc., F.R.S. The University, Manchester.

{Pethybridge, G. H. Royal College of Science, Dublin.

{Perrin, W. M. Fumpers, D.C.L., F.R.S. (Pres. H, 1895), Professor
of Egyptology in University College, W.C.

*Peyton, John EK. H., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. 13 Fourth-avenue, Hove,
Brighton.

*PHENK, JOHN SAMUEL, LL.D., F.S.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 5 Carlton-
terrace, Oakley-street, S.W.

{Philip, James C. 20 Westfield-terrace, Aberdeen.

{Philip, John W. P.O. Box 215, Johannesburg.

*Philips, Rev. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire.

§Philips, T. Wishart. Elizabeth Lodge, Crescent-road, South
Woodford, Essex.

{Phillimore, Miss C. M. Shiplake House, Henley-on-Thames.

*Phillips, Charles E. S., F.R.S.E. Castle House, Shooter’s Hill,

Kent.

{Phillips, “Staff-Commander E. C. D., R.N., F.R.G.S. 14 Har-
greaves-buildings, Chapel-street, Liverpool.

{Phillips, J. St. J. B.E. 64 Royal-avenue, Belfast.

tPhillips, R. W., M.A., D.Sc., F.L.8S., Professor of Botany in Uni-

® versity College, Bangor. 2 Snowdon-villas, Bangor.

{Phillp, Miss M. E. de R., B.Sc. 12 Crescent-grove, Clapham, 8.W.

*Pickard, Joseph William. Oatlands, Lancaster.

{Pickard, Robert H., D.Sc. Isca, Merlin-road, Blackburn.

*PICKERING, SPENCER P. U., M.A., F.R.S. Harpenden, Herts.

*Pickett, Thomas E.,M.D. Maysville, Mason Co., Kentucky, U.S.A.

§Pickles, A. R., M.A. Todmorden-road, Burnley.

*Pidgeon, W. R. Lynsted Lodge, St. Edmund’ s-terrace, Regent’s
Park, N.W.

{Prxz, L. Owen. 10 Chester-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.

*Pilkington, A. C. Rocklands, Rainhill, Lancashire.

*Pilling, Arnold. Royal Observatory, Cape Town.

*Pilling, William. Rosario, Heene-road, West Worthing. i

{Pim, Miss Gertrude. Charleville, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.

*Pio, Professor D. A. 6A Short-street, Cambridge.

$Pirrie, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.D., M.Inst.C.E. Downshire House,
Belgrave-square, 8.W.

*Prrt, Watrer, M.Inst.C.. Lansdown Grove Lodge, Bath.

§Pixell, Miss Helen L. M. St. Faith’s Vicarage, Stoke Newington, N.

*Platts, Walter. Fairmount, Bingley.

§Plummer, W. E., M.A., F.R.A.S. The Observatory, Bidston,
Birkenhead.

§Plunkett, Count G. N. National Museum of Science and Art,
Dublin.

§Plunkett, Colonel G. T.,C.B. Belvedere Lodge, Wimbledon, 8.W.

*PLUNKETT, Right Hon. Sir Horace, K.C.V.0., M.A. F.RB.S.
Kilteragh, Foxrock, Co. Dublin.

*Pocklington, H. Cabourn, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. 11 Regent’s Park-
terrace, Leeds.

{Pollard, William. 12 Aberdare-gardens, South Hampstead, N.W.

*Pollex, Albert. Tenby House, Egerton Park, Rockferry.

$Pollok, James H., D.Se, 6 St. James’s-terrace, Clonshea, Dublin.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908. 63

Year of
Election,

1862. *Polwhele, Thomas Roxburgh, M.A., F.G.S. Polwhele, Truro,
Cornwall.

1906. *Pontifex, Miss Catherine E. The Chestnuts, Mulgrave-road,
Sutton, Surrey.

1907. §Pope, Alfred, F.S.A. South Court, Dorchester.

1900. *Porr, W. J., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the University of
Cambridge.

1907. *Poppleton, Mrs. A. G. 12 Hyde Park-gate, S.W.

1892. {Popplewell, W. C., M.Se., Assoc.M.Inst.C.£. Bowden-lane,
Marple, Cheshire.

1901. §Porter, Alfred W., B.Sc. 87 Parliament Hill-mansions, Lissenden-
gardens, N.W.

1883. *Porter, Rev. C. T., LL.D., D.D. All Saints’ Vicarage, Southport.

1905. §PortER, J. B., Ph.D., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Mining Engineering
in the McGill University, Montreal, Canada.

1905. {Porter, Mrs. McGill University, Montreal, Canada.

1883. {Porrmr, M. C., M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Arm-
strong College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 13 Highbury, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.

1906. {Potter-Kirby, Alderman George. Clifton Lawn, York.

1907. {Potts, F. A. University Museum of Zoology, Cambridge.

1908. *Potts, George, Ph.D., M.Sc. Grey University College, Bloem-
fontein, South Africa.

1886. *Pouxtton, Epwarp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. (Pres. D,
1896 ; Council, 1895-1901, 1905- ), Professor of Zoology in
the University of Oxford. Wykeham House, Banbury-road,
Oxford.

1905. {Poulton, Mrs. Wykeham House, Banbury-road, Oxford.

1898, *Poulton, Edward Palmer, M.A. Wykeham House, Banbury-road,
Oxford.

1905. {Poulton, Miss. Wykeham House, Banbury-road, Oxford.

1905. {Poulton, Miss M. Wykeham House, Banbury-road, Oxford.

1873. *Powell, Sir Francis S., Bart., M.P., I'.R.G.S. Horton Old Hall,
Yorkshire ; and 1 Cambridge-square, W.

1887. *Powell, Horatio Gibbs, F.R.G.S. Wood Villa, Tettenhall Wood,
Wolverhampton.

1894. *Powell, Sir Richard Douglas, Bart., M.D. 62 Wimpole-street,
Cavendish-square, W.

1887. §Pownall, George H. 20 Birchin-lane, E.C.

1883. {Poyntine, J. H., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1899), Professor of
Physics in the University of Birmingham. 10 Ampton-road,
Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1908. §Praeger, R. Lloyd, B.A., M.R.I.A. Lisnamae, Rathgar, Dublin.
1907. *Pratn, Lieut.-Col. Davin, C.1.E., M.B., F.R.S. (Council, 1907-__ ).
Royal Gardens, Kew. ,

1884. *Prankerd, A. A., D.C.L. 66 Banbury-road, Oxford.

1906. §Pratt, Miss Edith M., D.Sc. The Woodlands, Silverdale, Lancashire.

1869. *Prencr, Sir Wim Henry, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.
(Pres. G, 1888 ; Council, 1888-95, 1896-1902.) Gothic Lodge,
Wimbledon Common, 8.W.

1888. *Preece, W. Llewellyn. Bryn Helen, Woodborough-road, Putney,
S.W

1904. §Prentice, Mrs. Manning. Thelema, Undercliff-road, Felixstowe.

1892. {Prentice, Thomas. Willow Park, Greenock.

1906. {Pressly, D. L. Coney-street, York.

1889. §Preston, Alfred Eley, M.Inst.C.1., F.G.S. 14 The Exchange,
Bradford, Yorkshire.

64

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

£905.
1903.

1888.

1875.
1897.
1908.
1905.
1889.

1876.
1881.
1884.
1879.
1907.

1872.
1871.
1867.
1883.
1903.
1904.
1905.
1905.
1885.

1881.

1874.
1866.

1884.
1905.
1860.
1898.
1883.
1883.
1868.

1879.

1893.
1906.

1855.
1887.
1905.
1905.
1893.

1896.
1894.

1908.

{Pretoria, The Right Rev. the Bishop of, D.D. Pretoria.
§Price, Edward E. Oaklands, Oaklands-road, Bromley, Kent.
Price, J. T. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire.

tPricr, L. L. F. B., M.A., F.S.8. (Pres. F, 1895 ; Council, 1898-
1904.) Oriel College, Oxford.

*Price, Rees. 163 Bath-street, Glasgow.

*Pricr, W. A., M.A. Charlton, Headington, Oxford.

§Priestley, J. H. University College, Bristol.

{Prince, James Perrott, M.D. Durban, Natal.

*Pritchard, Eric Law, M.D., M.R.C.S. 70 Fairhazel-gardens, South
Hampstead, N.W.

*PriTcHARD, URBAN, M.D., F.R.C.S. 26 Wimpole-street, W.

§Procter, John William. Ashcroft, York.

*Proudfoot, Alexander, M.D. 100 State-street, Chicago, U.S.A.

*Prouse, Oswald Milton, F.G.S. Alvington, Ilfracombe.

§Pryce, George Arthur. Care of Philip Harris & Co., Limited,

144 Edmund-street, Birmingham.

*Pryor, M. Robert. Weston Park, Stevenage, Herts.

*Puckle, Rev. T. J. Chestnut House, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

*Pullar, Sir Robert, M.P., F.R.S.E. Tayside, Perth.

*Pullar, Rufus D., F.C.S. Brahan, Perth.

§Pullen-Burry, Miss. 28 Fairholme-road, West Kensington, W.

tPunnett, R. C. Caius College, Cambridge.

{Purcell, W. F.. M.A., Ph.D. South African Museum, Cape Town.

tPurcell, Mrs. W. F. South African Museum, Cape Town.

{Purpir, Tuomas, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in tho
University of St. Andrews. 14 South-street, St.A drews, N.B.

tPurey-Cust, Very Rev. Arthur Percival, M.A., Dean of York. The
Deanery, York.

{Pursrr, Freperick, M.A. Rathmines Castle, Dublin.

{PurseR, Professor Joun, M.A., LL.D., M.R.I.A. (Pres. A, 1902.)
Rathmines Castle, Dublin.

*Purves, W. Laidlaw. 20 Stratford-place, Oxford-street, W.

Purvis, Mr. P.O. Box 744, Johannesburg.

*Pusey, S. E. B. Bouverie. Pusey House, Faringdon.

*Pye, Miss E. St. Mary’s Hall, Rochester.

§Pye-Smith, Arnold. 52 Queen Victoria-street, E.C.

{Pye-Smith, Mrs. 32 Queen Victoria-street, E.C.

{Pyxr-Smiru, P. H., M.D., F.R.S. 48 Brook-street, W. ; and Guy’s
Hospital, S.E.

tPye-Smith, R. J. 350 Glossop-road, Sheffield.

tQuick, James. 36 Kingsworth-gardens, Folkestone.
*Quiggin, Mrs. A. Hingston. 88 Hartington-grove, Cambridge.

*Radstock, The Right Hon. Lord. Mayfield, Woolston, Southampton.

*Ragdale, John Rowland. The Beeches, Stand, near Manchester.

tRaine, Miss. P.O. Box 788, Johannesburg.

tRaine, Robert. P.O. Box 1091, Johannesburg.

*Raisin, Miss Catherine A., D.Sc., Bedford College, York-place,
Baker-street, W.

*RamAGE, Hucu, M.A. The Technical Institute, Norwich.

*RamBaut, ArtnouRr A., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., M.R.1A.
Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford.

§Rambaut, Mrs. Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908. 65

Year of
Election.

1876.

1883.
1869.
1907.
1868.
1861.

1889.
1903.
1892.
1874.

1908.

1905.
1868.

1895.

1883.
1897.

1907.
1896.

1902.
1884.

1852.
1890.
1908.
1905.
1891.
1894.
1891.

1903.
1906.

1901.
1904.
1881.
1883.
1903.

1892.
1908.

*Ramsay, Sir Wirt, K.C.B., Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. B,
1897; Council, 1891-98), Professor of Chemistry in Uni-
aay College, London. 19 Chester-terrace, Regent’s Park,

VE

tRamsay, Lady. 19 Chester-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.

*Rance, H. W. Henniker, LL.D. 10 Castletown-road, W.

§Rankine, A. O. 21 Drayton-road, West Ealing, W.

*Ransom, Edwin, F.R.G.S. 24 Ashburnham-road, Bedford.

fRansome, Arruur, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. (Local Sec. 1861.) Sunny-
hurst, Deane Park, Bournemouth.

tRapkin, J. B. Thrale Hall, Streatham, S.W.

§Rastall, R. H. Christ’s College, Cambridge.

*Rathbone, Miss May. Backwood, Neston, Cheshire.

tRavensTEIN, E. G., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. (Pres. E, 1891.) 2 York-
mansions, Battersea Park, S.W.

*Raworth, Alexander. Fairholm, Uppingham-road, Leicester.

{Rawson, Colonel Herbert E., R.E. Army Headquarters, Pretoria.

*Ray.eicH, The Right Hon. Lord, O.M., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.R.AS., F.R.G.S. (Presipent, 1884; TrustEx,
1883-— ; Pres. A, 1882; Council, 1878-83), Professor of
Natural Philosophy in the Royal'Institution, London. Terling
Place, Witham, Essex.

tRaynbird, Hugh, jun. Garrison Gateway Cottage, Old Basing,
Basingstoke.

*Rayne, Charles A., M.D., M.R.C.S. St. Mary’s Gate. Lancaster.

*Rayner, Edwin Hartree, M.A. Elm Lodge, Queen’s-road, Ted-
dington, Middlesex.

§Rea, Carleton, B.C.L. 34 Foregate-street, Worcester.

*READ, CHaRLes H., LL.D., F.S.A. (Pres. H, 1899.) British Museum,
W.C.

tReade, R. H. Wilmount, Dunmurry.

§Readman, J. B., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Staffield Hall, Kirkoswald,
R.S.0., Cumberland.

*REDFERN, Professor PerEr, M.D. (Pres. D, 1874.) Templepatrick
House, Donaghadee, Co. Down.

*Redwood, Sir Boverton, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Wadham Lodge,
Wadham-gardens, N.W.

§Reed, Sir Andrew, K.C.B., C.V.O., LL.D. 23 Fitzwilliam-square,
Dublin.

§Reed, J. Howard, I’.R.G.S. 16 St. Mary’s Parsonage, Manchester.

*Reed, Thomas A. Bute Docks, Cardiff.

*Rees, Edmund 8. G. Dunscar, Oaken, near Wolverhanzpton.

*Rees, I. Treharne, M.Inst.C.E. Blaenypant, near Newport, Mon-
mouthshire.

§Reeves, E. A., F.R.G.S. 1 Savile-row, W.

*Reichel, Sir H. R., LL.D., Principal of University College, Bangor.
Penrallt, Bangor, North Wales.

*Reid, Andrew T. 10 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.

tReid, Arthur H. 30 Welbeck-street, W.

§Reid, Arthur S., M.A., F.G.S. Trinity College, Glenalmond, N.B.

*Reip, Clement. F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, 8.W.

*Reid, Mrs. E. M., B.Sc. 7 St. James’s-mansions, West End-lane,
N.W.

{Rei, E. Waymourn, B.A., M.B., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology
in University College, Dundee.

§Reip, Gorge ArcuHpatt, M.B., C.M., F.R.S.E, 9 Victoria-road
South, Southsea.

1908, E

66 BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

Year of

Election.

1901. *Reid, Hugh. Belmont, Springburn, Glasgow.

1901. {Reid, John. 7 Park-terrace, Glasgow.

1904. {Reid, P. J. Moor Cottage, Nunthorpe, R.S.O., Yorkshire.

1897. {Reid, T. Whitehead, M.D. St. George’s House, Canterbury.

1887. *Reid, Walter Francis. Fieldside, Addlestone, Surrey.

1875. {Remonp, A. W., M.A., F.R.S. (Council, 1890-95), Professor of
Physics in the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, S.E.

1894, {Rendall, Rev. G. H., M.A., Litt.D. Charterhouse, Godalming.

1891. *Rendell, Rev. James Robson, B.A. Whinside, Whalley-road,
Accrington.

1903. §RENDLE, Dr. A. B., M.A., F.L.S. 47 Wimbledon Park-road,
Wimbledon, 8.W.

1889. *Rennie, George B. 20 Lowndes-street, S.W.

1906. {Rennie, John, D.Sc. Natural History Department, University of
Aberdeen.

1905. *Renton, James Hall. Rowfold Grange, Billinghurst, Sussex.

1905. {Reunert, Clive. Windybrow, Johannesburg.

1905 {Reunert, John. Windybrow, Johannesburg.

1904 {ReuneRtT, Taropore, M.Inst.C.E. P.O. Box 92, Johannesburg.

1905 §Reyersbach, Louis. P.O. Box 149, Johannesburg.

1883 *Reynolds, A. H. 271 Lord-street, Southport.

1871. {Reynotps, James Emerson, M.D., D.Sc, FE.RS., F.C.S.,
M.R.I.A. (Pres. B, 1893; Council, 1893-99.) 29 Campden
Hill-court, W.

1900. *Reynolds, Miss K. M. 8 Darnley-road, Notting Hill, W.

1870. *REyYNOLDs, Ossornz, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G,
1887.) 19 Lady Barn-road, Fallowfield, Manchester.

1906. {Reynolds, 8S. H., M.A., Professor of Geology and Zoology in
University College, Bristol.

1907. §Reynolds, W. Birstall Holt, near Leicester.

1877. *Rhodes, John. 360 Blackburn-road, Accrington, Laticashire.

1899. ‘cane aegis Sir Joun, D.Sc. (Pres. H, 1900.) Jesus College,

xford,

1877. *Riccardi, Dr. Paul, Secretary of the Socicty of Naturalists. Riva
Muro 14, Modena, Italy.

1905. §Rich, Miss Florence, M.A. Granville School, Granville-road,
Leicester.

1906. {Richards, Rev. A. W. 12 Bootham-terrace, York.

1869. *Richardson, Charles. 3 Cholmley-villas, Long Ditton, Surrey.

1884. *Richardson, George Straker. Isthmian Club, Piccadilly, W.

1889. {Richardson, Hugh, M.A. 12 St. Mary’s, York.

1884. *Richardson, J. Clarke. Derwen Fawr, Swansea.

1896. *Richardson, Nelson Moore, B.A., F.E.S. Montevideo, Chickerell,
near Weymouth.

1901. *Richardson, Professor Owen Willans. 25 Bank-street, Princetown,
IN 20E 8. Ae

1876. §Richardson, William Haden. City Glass Works, Glasgow.

1891. §Riches, T. Hurry. 8 Park-grove, Cardiff.

1883. *RipEAL, SAMUEL, D.Sc., I°.C.S. 28 Victoria-street, S.W.

1902. §Ripcuway, Wituiam, M.A., D.Litt, F.B.A. (Pres. H, 1908),
Professor of Archeology in the University of Cambridge.
Fen Ditton, Cambridge.

1894. {Ripiuy, E. P., F.G.8. (Local Sec. 1895.) Burwood, Westerfield-
road, Ipswich.

1881. *Rigg, Arthur. 150 Blomfield-terrace, W.

1883. *Riac, Epwarp, 1.8.0., M.A. Royal Mint, FE.

1892. {Rintoul, D., M.A. Clifton College, Bristol.

LIST OF MEMBERS; 1908, 67

Year of
Election.

1860. *Rrron, The Most Hon. the Marquess of, K.G., G.C.8.L, C.LE.,
D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 9 Chelsea Embankment, S.W.

1905. {Ritchie, Professor W., M.A. South African College, Cape Town.

1903. *Rivers, W. H. R., M.D., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1908. *Roaf, Herbert E., M.D. Physiological Department, The University,
Liverpool.

1898. §Robb, Alfred A. Lisnabreeny House, Belfast.

1902. *Roberts, Bruno. 30 St. George’s-square, Regent’s Park, N.W.

1887. *Roberts, Evan. 30 St. George’s-square, Regent’s Park, N.W.

1881. {Roberts, R. D., M.A., D.Sc., F.G.8. University of London, South
Kensington, 8.W.

1896. {Roberts, Thomas J. Ingleside, Park-road, Huyton, near Liverpool.

1904. a ae Miss Agnes, D.Sc. 9 Elsworthy-terrace, Primrose Hill,
N

1897. §RosErRtson, Sir Grorcz 8., K.C.S.I. (Pres. E, 1900.) 1 Pump-
court, Temple, E.C.

1905. {Robertson, Dr. G. W. Office of the Medical Officer of Health,
Cape Town.

1897. §Robertson, Professor J. W., C.M.G., LL.D. The Macdonald
College, St. Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, Canada.

1901. *Robertson, Robert, B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. 154 West George-street,

Glasgow.

1905. {Robertson, Professor T. E. Transvaal Technical Institute,
Johannesburg.

1898. §Robinson, Charles E., M.Inst.C.E. Holne Cross, Ashburton, South
Devon.

1903. {Robinson, G. H. 1 Weld-road, Southport.
1905. patron, Harry. Duncan’s-chambers, Shortmarket-street, Cape
own.

1887. §Robinson, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. Parliament-mansions, Victoria-

i street, S.W.

1902. }Robinson, Herbert C. Holmfield, Aighurth, Liverpool.

1906. {Ropryson, H. H., M.A., F.C. 75 Finborough-road, S.W.

1902. {Robinson, James, M.A., F.R.G.S._ Dulwich College, Dulwich, S.E.

1888. {Robinson, John, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Vicarage-terrace, Kendal.

1908. *Robinson, John Gorges. Cragdale, Settle, Yorkshire.

1895. *Robinson, Joseph Johnson. 8 Trafalgar-road, Birkdale, Southport.

1905. {Robinson, Dr. Leland. 6 Victoria-walk, Woodstock, Cape Town.

1899. *Robinson, Mark, M.Inst.C.E. 9 Belsize-grove, N.W.

1875. *Robinson, Robert, M.Inst.C.E. Beechwood, Darlington,

1908. §Robinson, Robert. Field House, Chesterfield.

1904. {Robinson, Theodore R. 25 Campden Hill-gardens, W.

1904. §Robinson, W. H. Kendrick House, Victoria-road, Penarth.

1870. *Robson, E. R. Palace Chambers, 9 Bridge-street, Westminster,
S.W.

1906. §Robson, J. Nalton. The Villa, Hull-road, York.

1872. *Robson, William. 5 Gillsland-road, Merchiston, Edinburgh.

1885. *Rodger, Edward. 1 Clairmont-gardens, Glasgow.

1885. *Rodriguez, Epifanio. New Adelphi Chambers, 6 Robert-strect,
Adelphi, W.C.

1905. {Roebuck, William Denison. 259 Hyde Park-road, Leeds.

1907. {Roechling, H. Alfred, M.Inst.C.E. 39 Victoria-street, S.W.

1908. §Rogers, A.G. L. Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, 8 Whitehall-
place, 8. W.

1905. §Rogers, A. W., M.A., F.G.S. South African Museum, Cape Town.

1898. {Roaurs, Burrram, M.D. (Local Sec. 1898.) 11 York-place,
Clifton, Bristol.

E2

8.

Year of

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Election,

1907.
1890.

1906.
1884.
1876.

1905.
1855.

1905.
1905.
1883.

1905.
1894.

1905.

1905.
1905.
1905.

1900.
1859.
1908.

1902.
1901.

1891.
1905.
Lisa

1899.
1884.
1905.
1883.
1903.
1890.

1906.
1881.
1875.

tRogers, John D. 85 St. George’s-square, §.W.

*Rogers, L. J., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Leeds. 15 Regent Park-avenue, Leeds.

§Rogers, Reginald A. P. 142 Leinster-road, Dublin.

*Rogers, Walter. Lamorva, Falmouth.

tRotut, Sir A. K., B.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.A.S., Hon. Fellow
K.C.L. 45 Belgrave-square, S.W.

tRooth, Edward. Pretoria.

*Roscok, Sir HENRY ENFIELD, B.A., Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
(PRESIDENT, 1887; Pres. B, 1870, 1884; Council, 1874-81 ;
Local Sec. 1861.) 10 Bramham-gardens, S.W.

tRose, Miss G. 45 De Pary’s-avenue, Bedford.

tRose, Miss G. Mabel. Ashley Lodge, Oxford.

*Rose, J. Holland, Litt.D. Ethandune, Parkside-gardens, Wim-
bledon, 8. W.

tRose, John G. Government Analytical Laboratory, Cape Town.

*Rosz, T. K., D.Sc., Chemist and Assayer to the Royal Mint.
6 Royal Mint, E.

*Rosedale, Rev. H. G., D.D., F.S.A. St. Peter's Vicarage, 13 Lad-
broke-gardens, W.

*Rosedale, Rev. W. E., M.A. Willenhall, Staffordshire.

tRosen, Jacob. 1 Hopkins-street, Yeoville, Transvaal.

{Rosen, Julius. Clifton Grange, Jarvie-street, Jeppestown, Trans-
vaal.

{Rosenhain, Walter, B.A. Park View, Park-road, Teddington.

*Ross, Rev. James Coulman. Wadworth Hall, Doncaster.

§Ross, Sir John, of Bladensburg, K.C.B. Rostrevor House,
Rostrevor, Co. Down.

tRoss, John Callender. 46 Holland-street, Campden-hill, W.

tRoss, Colonel Ronap, C.B., F.R.S., Professor of Tropical Medicine
and Parasitology in the University of Liverpool. The Uni-
versity, Liverpool.

*Roth, H. Ling. Briarfield, Shibden, Halifax, Yorkshire.

{Rothkugel, R. Care of Messrs. D. Isaacs & Co., Cape Town.

*Rottenburg, Paul, LL.D. Care of Messrs. Leister, Bock, & Co.,
Glasgow.

*Round, J. C., M.R.C.S. 19 Crescent-road, Sydenham Hill, $.1.

*Rouse, M. L. Hollybank, Hayne-road, Beckenham.

§Rousselet, Charles I’. 2 Pembridge-crescent, Bayswater, W.

tRowan, Frederick John. 5 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

*Rowe, Arthur W., M.B., I'.G.S. 2 Price’s-avenue, Margate.

tRowley, Walter, M.Inst.C.E., F.S.A. Alderhill, Meanwood,
Leeds.

§Rowntree, B. Seebohm, The Homestead, Clifton, York.

*Rowntree, Joseph. 38 St. Mary’s, York.

*Ricxer, Sir A. W., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (PResipent, 1901 ;
Truster, 1898- ; GENERAL TREASURER, 1891-98 ; Pres. A,
1894 ; Council, 1888-91.) 19 Gledhow-gardens, South Ken-
sington, S.W.

. §Rupter, F. W., 1.8.0., F.G.S8. Ethel Villa, Tatsfield, Westerham.
. *Rudorf, C. C. G., Ph.D., B.Sc. Ivor, Cranley-gardens, Muswell

Hill, N.

. *Ruffer, Mare Armand, C.M.G., M.A., M.D., B.Se. Quarantine

International Board, Alexandria.

. §Ruffer, Mrs. Alexandria.
. {Ruhemann, Dr. 8. 3 Selwyn-gardens, Cambridge.
. *Rundell, T, W., F.R.Met.Soc, 3 Fenwick-street, Liverpool,

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908. 69

Election.

1904.
1875.

1883.
1852.
1908.
1908.
1852.

1886.
1907.

1908.
1905.
1898.
1906.

1903.

1883.
1871.
1903.
1873.

1904.

1861.
1901.
1907.
1907.
1883.

1896.
1896.
1892.
1903.

1886.
1905.
1896.
1905.

1907.
1886.
1900.
1903.
1901.
1887.

1906.
1883.
1903.
1903.

{Russell, E. J., D.Sc., Rothamsted Experimental Station, Har-
penden, Herts.

*Russell, The Hon. F. A. R. Dunrozel, Haslemere.

Russell, John. 39 Mountjoy-square, Dublin.

*Russell, J. W. 28 Staverton-road, Oxford.

*Russell, Norman Scott. Arts Club, Dover-street, W.

§Russell, Robert. Arduagremia, Haddon-road, Dublin.

§RussELL, Right Hon. T. W., MP. Olney, Terenure, Co. Dublin.

*RuUSSELL, Wini1aM J., Ph.D., F.R.S., V.P.C.S. (Pres. B, 1873;
Council, 1873-80.) 34 Upper Hamilton-terrace, St. John’s
Wood, N.W.

tRust, Arthur. Eversleigh, Leicester.

§Rutherford, Ernest, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in
the University of Manchester.

§Ryan, Hugh, D.Sc. Omdurman, Orwell Park, Rathgar, Dublin.

+Ryan, Pierce. Rosebank House, Rosebank, Cape Town.

§Ryland, C. J. Southerndown House, Clifton, Bristol.

*RymMer, Sir Josern Sykes. The Mount, York.

{Sapier, M. E., LL.D. (Pres. L, 1906), Professor of Education in
the Victoria University, Manchester. Eastwood, Weybridge.

{Sadler, Robert. 7 Lulworth-road, Birkdale, Southport.

{Sadler, Samuel Champernowne. Church House, Westminster, S.W.

+Sagar, J. The Poplars, Savile Park, Halifax.

peo Sir David, Bart., F.G.S. Broomhill, Tunbridge

ells.

§Satrer, A. E., D.Sc., F.G.S. 20Shell-road, Loampit Hill, Lewis-
ham, 8.E. :

#Samson, Henry. 6 St. Peter’s-square, Manchester.

tSamuel, John S., J.P., F.R.S.E. City Chambers, Glasgow.

*Sand, Dr. Henry J. 8. University College, Nottingham.

§Sandars, Miss Cora B. Parkholme, Elm Park-gardens, 8. W.

{Sanderson, Lady Burdon. 64 Banbury-road, Oxford.

Sandes, Thomas, A.B. Sallow Glin, Tarbert, Co. Kerry.

§Saner, John Arthur, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Highfield, Northwich.

+Saner, Mrs. Highfield, Northwich.

{Sang, William D. Tylchurst, Kirkcaldy, Fife.

{Sankey, Captain H. R., R.E., M.Inst.C.E. Palace-chambers,
9 Bridge-street, S.W.

tSankey, Percy E. 44 Russell-square, W.C.

{Sargant, E. B. Quarry Hill, Reigate.

*Sargant, Miss Ethel. Quarry Hill, Reigate.

{Sargent, Miss Helen A., B.A. Huguenot College, Wellington,
Cape Colony.

§Sargent, H.C. Ambergate, near Derby.

{Saundby, Robert, M.D. 83a Edmund-street, Birmingham.

*SaunpeEr, 8. A. Fir Holt, Crowthorne, Berks.

*Saunders, Miss E. R. Newnham College, Cambridge.

tSawers, W. D. 1 Athole Gardens-place, Glasgow.

§Sayce, Rev. A. H., M.A., D.D. (Pres. H, 1887), Professor of
Assyriology in the University of Oxford. Queen’s College,
Oxford.

{Sayer, Dr. Ettie. 35 Upper Brook-street, W.

*Scarborough, George. Whinney Field, Halifax, Yorkshire.

§ScARISBRICK, Sir CHARLES, J.P. Scarisbrick Lodge, Southport,

t@carisbrick, Lady. Scarisbrick Lodge, Southport,

70

BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

Year of
Election.

1879.

1888.
1880.
1905.
1885.
1905.
1908.
1873.

1905.
1847.

1883.
1905.
1881.
1878.
1889.

1857.

1884.
1902.
1895.

1883.
1895.

1890.
1880.
1905.
1906.
1861.
1904.
1907.
1888.
1888.
1870.

1905.
1901.

*SouArer, E. A., LL.D., D.Se., F.R.S., M.R.C.S. (Gen. Sec. 1895-
1900; Pres. I, 1894; Council, 1887-93), Professor of
Physiology in the University of Edinburgh.

*ScuarFr, Rogrrt F., Ph.D., B.Sc., Keeper of the Natural History
Department, National Museum, Dublin.

*Schemmann, Louis Carl. Hamburg. (Care of Messrs. Allen
Everitt & Sons, Birmingham.)

tScholer, W. Peter. Transvaal Technical Institute, Johannesburg.

{Scholes, L. Ivy Cottage, Parade, Parkgate, Cheshire.

tSchonland,§., Ph.D. Albany Museum, Grahamstown, Cape Colony.

§Schrédter, Dr. E. 3-5 Jacobistrasse, Diisseldorf, Germany.

*Scuuster, Artuur, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (Pres. A, 1892;
Council, 1887-93.) Kent House, Victoria Park, Manchester.

{Sclander, J. E. P.Q. Box 465, Cape Town.

*ScLaTeR, Pare Luriry, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.LS., F.GS.,
F.R.G.S., F.Z.S. (GENERAL SECRETARY, 1876-81; Pres. D,
1875 ; Council, 1864-67, 1872-75.) Odiham Priory, Winch-

field.

*SciraTeR, W. Lutiey, M.A., F.Z.S. South African Museum, Cape
Town.

{Sclater, Mrs. W. L. Crossroads, Baker-road, Wynberg, Cape
Colony.

*Scotr, ALEXANDER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S. Royal Institu-
tion, Albemarle-street, W.

*Scott, Arthur William, M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Natural
Science in St. David’s College, Lampeter.

*Scott, D. H., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Pres.L.S. (GENERAL SECRE-
TARY, 1900-03; Pres. K, 1896.) East Oakley House, Oakley,
Hants.

*Scort, Rozvert H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.Met.S. 6 Elm Park-
gardens, S.W.

*Scott, Sydney C. 28 The Avenue, Gipsy Hill, S.E.

{Scott, William R. The University, St. Andrews, Scotland.

{Scott-Elliot, Professor G. F., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. Newton, Dum-
fries.

{Scrivener, Mrs. Haglis House, Wendover.

{Scull, Miss E. M. L. St. Edmund’s, 10 Worsley-road, Hamp-
stead, N.W.

*Searle, G. F. C., M.A., F.R.S. Wyncote, Hills-road, Cambridge.

tSrmpewick, ApaM, M.A., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1899), Professor of
Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in the University of
Cambridge. 4 Cranmer-road, Cambridge.

tSedgwick, C. F. Strand-street, Cape Town.

*See, T. J. J., A.M., Ph.D., F.R.A.S., Professor of Mathematics,
U.S. Navy. Naval Observatory, Mare Island, California.

*SrnLey, Harry Govier, F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S.,
Professor of Geology in King’s College, London. 3 Holland
Park-court, Holland Park-gardens, W.

{Sell, W. J. 19 Lensfield-road, Cambridge.

§Seligman, Dr. C. G. 15 York-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.

*SENIER, ALFRED, M.D., Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
Queen’s College, Galway.

*SEnNETT, ALFRED R., A.M.Inst.C.E. 15 Heath-mansions, Hamp-
stead, N.W.

*Sephton, Rev. J. 90 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.

tSerrurier, Louis C. Ashley, Sea Point, Cape Town.

tService, Robert. Janefield Park, Maxwelltown, Dumfries»

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908. TL

Year of
Flection.

1895.

1892.

1904.
1899.

1891.
1905.
~ 1904.

1902.
1901.

1906.
1878.

1904.

1889.
1883.

1883.
1904.
1903.
1905.
1905.
1865.
1900.
1908.

1905.
1883.
1883.
1896.

1888.
1908.
1902.
1883.
1887.

1897.
1882.

1cOl.

1908.

1904.
1889.
1902.
1883.
1877.

1873

*Scton-Karr, H. W. 31 Lingfield-road, Wimbledon, Surrey.

*Sewarp, A. C., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. Kx, 1903 ; Council,
1901-07; Local Sec. 1904), Professor of Botany in the Univer-
sity of Cambridge. Westfield, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

tSewell, R. B. Scymour. Christ’s College, Cambridge,

§Seymour, Henry J... B.A, EGS. “Bt. Peter's, Ailosbury-road,
Dublin.

tShackell, E. W. 191 Newport-road, Cardiff,

*Shackleford, W. C., M.Inst.M.E. County Club, Lancaster.

{Shackleton, Ernest H., F.R.G.S. 14 South Learmonth-gardens,
Edinburgh.

{Suarrespury, The Right Hon. the Earl of, D.L. Belfast Castle,
Belfast.

*Shakespear, Mrs. G. A. 21 V Joodland-road, Northfield, Worcester-
shire.

tShann, Frederick. 6 St. Leonard’s, York.

{Suarp, Davip, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. Musoum of Zoology,
Cambridge. ,

tSharples, George. 181 Great Cheetham-stroct West, Higher
Broughton, Manchester.

*Shaw, Mrs. M. S., B.Sc. Brookhayes, Exmouth.

*Snaw, W. N., M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1908 ; Council, 1895-
1900, 1904-07.) Meteorological Office, 63 Victoria-street, S.W.

{Shaw, Mrs. W. N. 10 Moreton-gardens, South Kensington, 8.W.

+Shaw-Phillips, Miss. 19 Camden-crescent, Bath.

tShaw-Phillips, T., J.P. 19 Camden-crescent, Bath.

+Shenstone, Miss A. Sutton Hall, Barcombe, Lewes.

{Shenstone, Mrs. A. E. G. Sutton Hall, Barcombe, Lewes.

Shenstone, Frederick §. Sutton Hall, Barcombe, Lewes.

§Sheppard, Thomas, F.G.S. The Municipal Museum, Hull.

§Sheppard, W. F., Sc.D., LL.M. Board of Education, White-
hall, S.W.

{Sheridan, Dr. Norman. 96 Francis-strect, Bellevue, Johannesburg.

tSherlock, David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin.

+Sherlock, Mrs. David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin.

§SHERRINGTON, C. 5S., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1904 ; Council,
1907- ), Professor of Physiology in the University of Liver-
pool. 16 Grove-park, Liverpool.

*Shickle, Rev. C. W., M.A., F.S.A. St. John’s Hospital, Bath.

*Shickle, Miss Mabel G. M. 9 Cavendish-crescent, Bath.

*Shillington, T. Foulkes, J.P. Dromart, Antrim-road, Belfast.

*Shillitoe, Buxton, F.R.C.S. 2 Frederick-place, Old Jewry, E.C.

*Snurptey, Artuur E., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Council, 1904- .)
Christ’s College, Cambridge.

tSuore, Dr. Lewis E. St. J ohn’s College, Cambridge.

{Suorr, T. W., M.D., B.Se., Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy at
St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. 6 Kingswood-road, Upper Nor-
wood, S.E.

tShort, Peter M., B.Sc. 1 Holmdene-avenue, Herne Hill, 8.E.

§Shorter, Lewis B., B.Se. 55 Campden Hill-road, W.

*Shrubsall, F. C., M.A., M.D. 34 Lime-grove, Uxbridge-road, W.

{Sibley, Walter K., M.A., M.D. The Mansions, 70 Duke-strect, W.

{Siddons, A. W. Harrow-on-the-Hill, Middlesex.

*Sidebotham, Edward John. Erlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.

*Sidebotham, Joseph Watson. Merlewood, Bowdon, Cheshire.

Sidney, M. J. F. Cowpen, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
. *StpeMENS, ALEXANDER, MInst.C.E. 12 Queen Anne’s-gate, SW,

72

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of

Election.

1905. {Siemens, Mrs. A. 12 Queen Anne’s-gate, S.W.

1903. *Silberrad, Dr. Oswald. Buckhurst Hill, Essex.

1871. *Suveson, Sir ALEXANDER R., M.D., Emeritus Professor of Mid-
wifery in the University of Edinburgh. 52 Queen-street,
mn ae

1863. {Simpson, J. B., F.G.S. Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne.

1908. §Simpson, J. AG M.A., B.Sc. Zoological Department, Marischal
College, Whonicon:

1901. *Simpson, Professor J. Y., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 52 Queen-street,
Edinburgh.

1907. §Simpson, Lieut.-Colonel R. J. S., C.M.G. 1 Ambherst-avenue,
Ealing, W.

1894. §Simpson, Thomas, F.R.G.S. Fennymere, Castle Bar, Ealing, W.

1896. *Simpson, W., F.G.S. Catteral Hall, Settle, Yorkshire.

1874, {Srnctarr, Right Hon. THomas. (Local Sec. 1874.) Dunedin,
Belfast.

1907. *Sircar, Dr. Amrita Lal, L.M.S., F.C.S. 51 Sankaritola, Calcutta.

1905. *SyocrEeN, Professor H. Natural History Museum, Stockholm,
Sweden.

1902. {Skeffington, J. B., M.A., LL.D. Waterford.

1906. {Skerry, H. A. St. Paul’s-square, York.

1883.
1898.

1905.
1905.
1889.
1887.
1887,
1903.
1904.
1889.

1902.
1905.

1908

1892.
1897.

1901.
1874.
1873.

1905.
1889.

1908

1886.
1900.
1901.

1866.
1897.
1903.
1889.

{Skillicorne, W. N. 9 Queen’s-parade, Cheltenham.

tSxrmyner, Srpney, M.A. (Local Sec. 1904.) South-Western
Polytechnic, Manresa-road, Chelsea, S.W.

*Skyrme, C. G. 28 Norman-road, St. Lconards-on-Sea.

{Slater, Dr. H. B. 75 Bree-street, Johannesburg.

§Slater, Matthew B., F.L.S. Malton, Yorkshire.

{Small, Evan W., M.A., B.Sc., F.G. S. 48 Kedleston- road, Derby.

{Small, William. Lincoln- circus, The Park, Nottingham.

*Smallman, Raleigh 8. Wressil Lodge, Wimbledon Common, S.W.

{Smart, Edward. Benview, Craigie, Perth, N.B.

*Smart, Professor Witt1aM, LL.D. (Pres. F, 1904.) Nunholme,
Dowanhill, Glasgow.

§Smedley, Miss Ida. 11 Mecklenburgh-square, W.C.

{Smith, Miss Adelaide. Huguenot College, Wellington, Cape Colony.

§Smith, Alfred. 30 Merrion-square, Dublin.

{Smith, Alexander, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.

{Smith, Andrew, Principal of the Veterinary College, Toronto,
Canada.

*Smith, Miss Annie Lorrain. 20 Talgarth-road, West Kensing-
ton, W.

*Smith, Benjamin Leigh, F.R.G.S. Oxford and Cambridge Club,
Pall Mall, S.W

{Smith, C. Sidney-Sussex College, Cambridge.

{Smith, C. H. Fletcher’s-chambers, Cape Town.

*Smith, Professor C. Michie, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. The Obser-
vatory, Kodaikanal, South India.

§Smith, E. Shrapnell. 7 Rosebery-avenue, E.C.

*Smith, Mrs. Emma. Hencotes House, Hexham.

§Smith, E. J. Grange House, Westgate Hill, Bradford.

§Smith, F. B. Care of A. Croxton Smith, Esq. -, Burlington House,
Wandle-road, Upper Tooting, S.W.

*Smith, F. C. Bank, Nottingham.

tSmith, G. Elliot, M. D., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Galneene

*Smith, H. B. Lees. 16 Park-terrace, Oxford.

*Smith, Sir H. Llewellyn, K.C.B., B,A., B.Sc., F.S. S. Board of
Trade, 8, W,

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908. Ta

Election.

1860.

1876.
1902.

1903.

1894.

1908

1896.
1885.
1883.

1906.
1905.
1908.
1908

1857.
1888.

1905.
1905.
1879.

1905.
1892.
1900.

1879.
1901.
1903.
1903.
1865.
1883.

1893.
1905.
1889.
1864.

1894.
1864.
1864.
1854.
1905.
1888.
1903.

1883,

*Smith, Heywood, M.A., M.D. 25 Welbeck-street, Cavendish-
square, W.

*Smith, J. Guthrie. 5 Kirklee-gardens, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

{Smith, J. Lorrain, M.D., Professor of Pathology in the Victoria
University, Manchester.

*Smith, James. Pinewood, Crathes, Aberdeen.

Smith, John Peter George. Sweyney Cliff, Coalport, Iron Bridge,
Shropshire.

§Smith, T. Walrond. Care of Frank Henderson, Esq., Shirley,
Station-road, Sidcup, Kent.

§Smith, Walter G. 25 Merrion-squave, Dublin.

*Smith, Rev. W. Hodson. Newquay, Cornwall.

*Smith, Watson. 34 Upper Park-road, Haverstock Hill, N.W.

{SmirHewys, ArruourR, B.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1907 ; Local Sec. 1890),
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Leeds.

§Smurthwaite, Thomas E. 134 Mortimer-road, Kensal Rise, N.W.

§Smuts, C. P.O. Box 1088, Johannesburg.

§Smyly, Sir William J. 58 Merrion-square, Dublin.

§Smyth, J. A., Ph.D., D.Sc. 15 The Poplars, Gosforth, Newcastle-
on-Tyne.

*SmytTH, Joun, M.A., F.C.S., F.R.M.S., M.Inst.C.E.I. Milltown,
Banbridge, Ireland.

*Snare, H. Luoyp, D.Sec., Ph.D. Balholm, Lathom-road, South-

ort.

tSoppy, F. The University, Glasgow.

§Sollas, Miss I. B. J., B.Sc. Newnham College, Cambridge.

*Sottas, W. J., M.A., Se.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. (Pres. C,
1900 ; Council, 1900-03), Professor of Geology in the Univer-
sity of Oxford. 173 Woodstock-road, Oxford.

{Solomon, R. Stuart. Care of Messrs. R. M. Moss & Co., Cape Town.

*SOMERVAIL, ALEXANDER. The Museum, Torquay.

*SOMERVILLE, W., D.Sc., F.L.S., Sibthorpian Professor of Rural
Economy in the University of Oxford. 121 Banbury-road,
Oxford.

*Sorby, Thomas W. Storthfield, Ranmoor, Sheffield.

{Sorley, Robert. The Firs, Partickhill, Glasgow.

{Soulby, R. M. Sea Holm, Westbourne-road, Birkdale, Lancashire.

{Southall, Henry T. The Graig, Ross, Herefordshire.

*Southall, John Tertius. Parkfields, Ross, Herefordshire.

{Spanton, William Dunnett, F.R.C.S. Chatterley House, Hanley,
Staffordshire.

*Speak, John. Kirton Grange, Kirton, near Boston.

{Spencer, Charles Hugh. P.O. Box 2, Maraisburg, Transvaal.

*Spencer, John W. Impney Hall, Droitwich, Worcester.

*Spicer, Henry, B.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 14 Aberdeen-park, High-
bury, N.

tSpiers, i H. Gresham’s School, Holt, Norfolk.

*SPILLER, JOHN, F.C.S. 2 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, N.

*Spottiswoode,. W. Hugh, F.C.S. 6 Middle New-street, Fetter-
lane, E.C.

*SPRAGUE, THomas Bonp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. 29 Buckingham-
terrace, Edinburgh.

tSquire, Mrs. Clarendon House, 30 St. John’s Wood-park, N.W.

*Stacy, J. Sargeant. 164 Shoreditch, E.C.

{Stallworthy, Rev. George B, The Manse, Hindhead, Haslemere,

Surrey.
*Stanford, Edward, F.R.G.S. 12-14 Long-acre, W.C,

74

BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

Year of
Tlection.

1905.
1881.

1883.
1894.
1900.
1905.
1905.
1905.
1905.
1899.

1899.
1898.

1907.
1900.
188].
1892.
1896.

1905.

19938

1905.
1884,
1902.

1908

1906.
1880.
1900.

1890.
1885.
1905.
1905.
1875.
1901.

1901.
1876.

1904.
1906,

1901.
1865.

1883.
1898.

{Stanley, Professor Gcorge H. Transvaal Technical Institute,
Johannesburg,

*Stanley, William Ford, J.P., F.G.S. Cumberlow, South Nor-
wood, 8.E.

tStanley, Mrs. Cumberlow, South Norwood, S.E.

*STANSFIELD, ALFRED, D.Sc. McGill University, Montreal, Canada.

*STANSFIELD, H., B.Sc. 19 Cawdor-road, Fallowfield, Manchester.

tStanwell, H. B. South African College School, Cape Town.

tStanwell, Dr. St. John. P.O. Box 1050, Johannesburg.

{Stapleton, Frederick. Control and Audit Office, Cape Town.

*Starkey, A. H. 24 Greenhead-road, Huddersfield.

tSrariina, KE. H., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in Univer-
sity College, London, W.C.

§Statham, William. The Redings, Totteridge, Herts.

{Stather, J. W., F.G.S. Brookside, Newland Park, Hull. j

Staveley, T. K. Ripon, Yorkshire.

§Staynes, Frank. 36-38 Silver-street, Leicester.

*Stead, J. E., F.R.S. Laboratory and Assay Office, Middlesbrough.

tStead, W. H. Beech-road, Reigate.

*STEBBING, Rev. THomas R. R., M.A., F.R.S. Ephraim Lodge,
The Common, Tunbridge Wells.

*Stebbing, W. P. D., F.G.S. 8 Playfair-mansions, Queen’s Club-
gardens, W.

ee: Miss Inez F., B.A. Huguenot College, Wellington, Cape

own.

§Steele, Lawrence Edward, M.A., M.R.I.A. 18 Crosthwaite-park
Kast, Kingstown, Co. Dublin.

{Stephen, J. M. Invernegie, Sea Point, Cape Colony.

*Stephens, W. Hudson. Low-Ville, Lewis County, New York, U.S.A.

{Stephenzon, G. Grianan, Glasnevin, Dublin.

*Steven, Alired Ingram, M.A., B.Se. 54 Albert-drive, Pollokshields,
Glasgow.

§Stevens, Miss C. O. 11 Woodstock-road, Oxford.

*Stevens, J. Edward, LL.B. Le Mayals, Blackpill, R.S.O.

tSrrvens, frepericx. (Local Sec. 1900.) Town Clerk’s Office,
Bradford.

*Steward, Rev. Charles J., F.R.M.S. The Cedars, Anglesea-road,
Ipswich.

*Stewart, Rev. Alexander, M.D., LL.D. Murtle, Aberdeen.

§Stewart, A. F. 127 Isabella-street, Toronto, Canada.

{Stewart, Charles. Meteorological Commission. Cape Town.

*Stewart, James, B.A., F.R.C.P.Ed. Junior Constitutional Club,
Piccadilly, W.

*Stewart, John Joseph, M.A., B.Sc. 2 Stow Park-crescent, New-
port, Monmouthshire.

*Stewart, Thomas. St. George’s-chambers, Cape Town.

{Srrrciva, WitiraM, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology
in the Victoria University, Manchester.

§Stobbs, J. T. Dunelm, Basford Park, Stoke-on-Trent.

*Stobo, Mrs. Annic. Somerset House, Garelochhead, Dumbarton-
shire, N.B.

*Stobo, Thomas. Somerset House, Garclochhead, Dumbartonshire,

N.B.

*Stock, Joseph 8. St. Mildred’s, Walmer.

*StockEer, W. N., M.A. Brasenose College, Oxford.

*Stokes, Professor George J., M.A. 65 Fernhurst-villas, College-
road, Cork.

LIST OF MEMBERS; 1908. 75

Year of

Election.

1899. *Stone, Rev. F. J. Radley College, Abingdon.

1874. {Stone, J. Harris, M.A., I'.L.S., F.C.8. 3 Dr. Johnson’s-buildings,
Temple, H.C.

1905. {Stoneman, Miss Bertha, D.Sc. Huguenot College, Wellington, Cape
Colony.

1857. {Sronny, Brypon B., LL.D., F.R.S., MInst.C.E., M.R.LA.,

1895.

1908

1878.
1861.

1903.

1883.
1887.
1884.
1888.
1905.
1881.

1905.
1881.

1908

1906.
1883.
1898.
1887.

1887.

1905.
1876.

1872.
1885.
1879.
1891.

1902.
1898.
1905.
1887.

1908.
1903.
1905.
1881.
1905.
1897.
1908.
1882.
1887.
1870.

1895.

Engineer of the Port of Dublin. 14 Elgin-road, Dublin.

*Stoney, Miss Edith A. 30 Chepstow-crescent, W.

*Stoney, Miss Florence A., M.D. 46 Harley-street, W.

*Stoney, G. Gerald. Oakley, Heaton-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*SToNEY, GEORGE JOHNSTONE, M.A., D.Sc., F.B.S., M.R.LA.
(Pres. A, 1897.) 30 Chepstow-crescent, W.

*Stopes, Miss Maric, Ph.D., D.Sc. 53 Stanley-gardens, Haver-
stock Hill, N.W.

{Stopes, Mrs. 53 Stanley-gardens, Haverstock Hill, N.W.

*Storey, H. L. Bailrigg, Lancaster.

{Storrs, George H. Gorse Hall, Stalybridge.

*Stothert, Perey K. Woolley Grange, Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts.

*Stott, Clement H., F.G.S. P.O. Box 7, Pietermaritzburg, Natal.

{Srranan, Ausrey, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8. (Pres. C, 1904.) Geo-
logical Museum, Jermyn-street, S.W.

{Strange, Harold F. P.O. Box 2527, Johannesburg.

§Srraneways, C. Fox, F.G.8. Kylemore, Hollycroft-avenue,
West Hampstead, N.W.

*Stratton, F. J. M., M.A. Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.

*Stromeyer, C. E. 9 Mount-street, Albert-square, Manchester.

§Strong, Henry J., M.D. Colonnade House, The Steyne, Worthing.

*Strong, W. M., M.D. 3 Champion-park, Denmark Hill, $.E.

*Stroud, H., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Physics in the Armstrong
College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Srroup, WiLL1AM, D.Sc., Professor of Physics in the University
of Leeds. Gowan Lea, Ilkley.

{Struben, Mrs. A. P.O. Box 1228, Pretoria.

*Stuart, Charles Maddock, M.A. St. Dunstan’s College, Catford,
S.E

*Stuart, Rev. Canon Edward A.,M.A. The Precincts, Canterbury.

{Stump, Edward C. Malmesbury, Polefield, Blackley, Manchester.

*Styring, Robert. Brinkcliffe Tower, Sheffield.

*Sudborough, Professor J. J., Ph.D., D.Sc. University College of
Wales, Aberystwyth.

§Sully, H. T. Scottish Widows-buildings, Bristol.

§Sully, T. N. Avalon House, Queen’s-road, Weston-super-Mare.

{Summer, A. B, Ollersett Booyseux, Transvaal.

*Sumpner, W. E., D.Sc. Technical School, Suffolk-street, Bir-
mingham.

§Sutherland, Alexander. 25 Mount-street, Aberdeen.

{Swallow, Rev. R. D., M.A. Chigwell School, Essex.

{Swan, Miss Hilda. 58 Holland Park, W.

§Swan, Sir JosrrH Witson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. 58 Holland Park, W.

Swan, Miss Mary E. 58 Holland-park, W.

{Swanston, William, F.G.S. Mount Collyer Factory, Belfast.

§Swanzy, Sir Henry R., M.D. 23 Merrion-square, Dublin.

*Swaythling, Lord. 12 Kensington Palace-gardens, W.

§SWINBURNE, JAMES, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 82 Victoria-street, S.W.

*Swinburne, Sir John, Bart. Capheaton Hall, Newcastle-upon-

Tyne.
tSykes, FE. R., B.A. 3 Gray’s Inn-place, W.C,

76

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1902.
1887.

1906.

1896.
1902.

1906.
1905.

1903.

1885

1905.
1908.

1896.
1904.
1903.

1890.

1892.
1883.
1908.
1861.

1902.
1901.
1908.

1887.
1898.
1881.
1906.
1884.
1882.
1860.
1906.
1884.
1895.
1894.
1901.
1903.
1901.
1858.

1885.
1906.
1879.
1896.

*Sykes, Miss Ella C. Elcombs, Lyndhurst, Hampshire.

*Sykes, George, H., M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.S.A. Glencoe, 64 Elm-
bourne-road, Tooting Common, 8.W.

*Sykes, Miss M. G. Royal Holloway College, Englefield Green,
Surrey.

*Sykes, Mark L., F.R.M.S. 10 Headingley-avenue, Leeds.

*Sykes, Major P. Molesworth, C.M.G. Elecombs, Lyndhurst,
Hampshire.

tSykes, T. P., M.A. 4 Gathorne-street, Great Horton, Bradford.

{Symington, C., M.B. Railway Medical Office, De Aar, Cape
Colony.

§Symington, Howard W. Brooklands, Market Harborough.

{Symincton, Jounson, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (Pres. H, 1903),
Professor of Anatomy in Queen’s College, Belfast.

tSymmes, H.C. P.O. Box 3902, Johannesburg.

§Synnott, Nicholas J. Furness, Naas, Co. Kildare.

{Tabor, J. M. Holmwood, Haringey Park, Crouch End, N.

§Tallack, H. T. Clovelly, Birdhurst-road, South Croydon.

*Tanner, Miss Ellen G. 48 Campden House-court, Gloucester-
walk, W.

{Tanner, H. W. Lioyp, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Local Sec. 1891), Professor
of Mathematics and Astronomy in University College, Cardiff,

*Tansley, Arthur G., M.A., F.L.S. Grantchester, near Cambridge.

*Tapscott, R. Lethbridge, F.R.A.S. 62 Croxteth-road, Liverpool.

§TARLETON, Francis A., LL.D. 24 Upper Leeson-street, Dublin.

*Tarratt, Henry W. 2c Oxford and Cambridge-mansions, Hyde
Park, W.

{Tate, Miss. Rantalard, Whitehouse, Belfast.

tTaylor, Benson. 22 Hayburn-crescent, Partick, Glasgow.

§Taylor, Rev. Campbell, M.A. United Free Manse, Wigtown,
Scotland.

tTaylor, G. H. Holly House, 235 Eccles New-road, Salford.

tTaylor, Lieut.-Colonel G. L. Le M. 6 College-lawn, Cheltenham.

*Taylor, H. A. 12 Melbury-road, Kensington, W.

tTaylor, H. Dennis. Stancliffe, Mount-villas, York.

*Taytor, H. M., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Taylor, Herbert Owen, M.D. Oxford-street, Nottingham.

*Taylor, John, M.Inst.C.E. 6 Queen Street-place, H.C.

§Taylor, Miss M. R. Newstead, Blundellsands.

*Taylor, Miss 8. Oak House, Shaw, near Oldham.

tTaylor, W. A., M.A., F.R.S.E. 3 East Mayfield, Edinburgh.

*Taylor, W. W., M.A. 66 St. John’s-road, Oxford.

tTaylor, William. 57 Sparkenhoe-street, Leicester.

tTaylor, William. 61 Cambridge-road, Southport.

*Teacher, John H., M.B. 32 Kingsborough-gardens, Glasgow.

tTratr, THomas Priparn, M.A., F.R.S. 38 Cookridge-strect,
Leeds.

{Traut J. J. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1893 ; Council,
1894-1900), Director of the Geological Survey of the United
Kingdom. The Museum, Jermyn-street, 8.W.

*Teape, Rev. W. M., M.A. South Hylton Vicarage, Sunderland.

tTemple, Lieutenant G. T., R.N., F.R.G.S. Solheim, Cumberland
Park, Acton, W.

*Terry, Rev. T. R., M.A., F.R.A.S. The Rectory, East Isley,
Newbury, Berkshire.

OO

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908, 17
Year of
Election.
1892. *Tesla, Nikola. 45 West 27th-street, New York, U.S.A.

1883.
1883.
1882.

187].

1901.

{Tetley, C. F. The Brewery, Leeds.

{Tetley, Mrs. C. F. The Brewery, Leeds.

*Toanz, GrorcE Dancer, LL.D., Professor of Anatomy in Uni-
versity College, London, W.C.

{Tuisrtton-DyrErR, Sir W. T., K.C.M.G., C.LE., M.A., B.Sc.,
Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. D, 1888; Pres. K,
1895 ; Council, 1885-89, 1895-1900.) The Ferns, Witcombe,
Gloucester.

. §Thoday, D. Trinity College, Cambridge.
. {Thom, Colonel Robert Wilson, J.P. Brooklands, Lord-strect

West, Southport.

. *Thomas, Miss Clara. Pencerrig, Builth.
. *Thomas, Miss Ethel N., B.Sc. 3 Downe-mansions, Gondar-

gardens, West Hampstead, N.W.

. *Thomas, Joseph William, F.C.S. Overdale, Shortlands, Kent.

. *Thomas, Mrs. J. W. Overdale, Shortlands, Kent.

. *Thomas, Miss M. Beatrice. Girton College, Cambridge.

. t{Thomas, Northcote W. 7 Coptic-street, W.C.

. {Thomas, Thomas H. 45 The Walk, Cardiff.

. *Thomas, William. Bryn-heulog, Merthyr Tydfil.

. *Thompson, Beeby, F.C.S., F.G.S. 67 Victoria-road, North-

ampton.

. *Thompson, Claude M., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Chemistry in

University College, Cardiff. 38 Park-place, Cardiff.

. {THomeson, D'Arcy W., B.A., C.B., Professor of Zoology in Univer-

sity College, Dundee.

. *Thompson, Edward P. Paulsmoss, Whitchurch, Salop.

. *Thompson, Edwin. 1 Croxteth-grove, Liverpool.

. *Thompson, Francis. Eversley, Haling Park-road, Croydon.

. *Thompson, G. R., B.Sc., Professor of Mining in the University of

Leeds.

. *Thompson, Harry J., M.Inst.C.E., Madras. Care of National

Bank of India, 17 Bishopsgate-street Within, E.C.

. *Thompson, Henry G., M.D. 86 Lower Addiscombe-road, Croydon.
. [Thompson, James. P.O. Box 312, Johannesburg.

. *THompeson, JosEers. Riversdale, Wilmslow, Cheshire.

. *Thompson, Richard. Dringeote, The Mount, York.

. {THompson, Sitvanus Puituies, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.AS.

(Pres. G, 1907 ; Council, 1897-99), Principal and Professor of
Physics in the City and Guilds of London Technical College,
Leonard-street, Finsbury, E.C.

. *Thompson, T. H. Oldfield Lodge, Gray-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.
. *Taompson, W. H., M.D., D.Sc. (Local Sec. 1908), King’s Professor

of Institutes of Medicine (Physiology) in Trinity College,
Dublin. 14 Hatch-street, Dublin.

. {Thompson, William. Parkside, Doncaster-road, Rotherham.
. {THomson, Artuur, M.A., M.D., Professor of Human Anatomy in

the University of Oxford. Exeter College, Oxford.

. §Thomson, F. Ross, F.G.8. Hensill, Hawkhurst, Kent.
. *Tnomson, Professor J. ARtuuR, M.A., F.R.S.E. Castleton House,

Old Aberdeen.

. {Tsomson, Sir J. J., M.A., Sc.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (PREsIDENT ELEct ;

Pres. A, 1896; Council, 1893-95), Professor of Experimental
Physics in the University of Cambridge. Trinity College,
Cambridge.

tThomson, Dr, J, T. Kilpatrick. 148 Norfolk-street, Glasgow.

78

BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

Year of
Election.

1889.
1891.
1871.

1874,

1880.
1906.

1905.
1898.

1902.

1903.
1881.
1881.
1898.
1898.

1871.

1899.
1896.

190+4.
1907.
1889.
1873.
1905,
1874.

1896.
1899.

1902.
1905.

1900.
1907.
1889.
1905.
1875.
1901.
1876.

1883.

*Thomson, James, M.A. 22 Wentworth-place, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne. s

{Thomson, John. Westover, Mount Ephraim-road, Streatham,
S.W.

*Tuomson, JoHN Mittar, LL.D., F.R.S. (Council, 1895-1901),
Professor of Chemistry in King’s College, London. 9 Camp-
den Hill-gardens, W.
§Toomson, WituiaM, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Royal Institution, Man-
chester.
§Thomson, William J. Ghyllbank, St. Helens.
§Thornely, Miss A. M. M. Oaklands, Langham-road, Bowdon,
Cheshire.
*Thornely, Miss L. R. Nunclose, Grassendale, Liverpool.
*Tnornton, W. M., D.Sc., Professor of Electrical Engineering in
the Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
+Thornycroft, Sir John I., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Eyot Villa, Chis-
wick Mall, W.
tThorp, Edward. 87 Southbank-road, Southport.
{Thorp, Fielden. Blossom-street, York.
*Thorp, Josiah. 37 Pleasant-street, New Brighton, Cheshire.
§Thorp, Thomas. Moss Bank, Whitefield, Manchester.
tThorpe, Jocelyn Field, Ph.D., F.R.S. Victoria University, Man-
chester.
tTuorrt, T. E., C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., F.RS., F.R.S.E., V.P.CS.
(Pres. B, 1890 ; Council, 1886-92), Principal of the Government
Laboratories, Clement’s Inn-passage, W.C.
§TuRELFALL, RicuarD, M.A., F.R.S. 30 George-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
§Turirt, WiLL1AM Epwarp, M.A. (Local Sec. 1908), Professor of
| Natural and Experimental Philosophy in the University of
Dublin. 80 Grosvenor-square, Rathmines, Dublin.
§Thurston, Edgar. Government Museum, Madras.
\§Thwaites, R. E. 138 Kimberley-road, Leicester.
{Thys, Colonel Albert. 9 Rue Briderode, Brussels.
*TippEmMaN, R. H., M.A., F.G.S. 175 Banbury-road, Oxford.
{Tietz, Heinrich, B.A., Ph.D. South African College, Cape Town.
{Tirpen, Witu1am A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1888 ; Council,
1898-1904), Professor of Chemistry in the Royal College of
Science, London. The Oaks, Northwood, Middlesex.
§Timmis, Thomas Sutton. Cleveley, Allerton, Liverpool.
tTims, H. W. Marett, M.A., M.D., F.L.S. Deepdene, Cavendish-
avenue, Cambridge.
tTipper, Charles J. R., B.Sc. 21 Greenside, Kendal.
tTippett, A. M., M.Inst.C.E. Cape Government Railways, Cape
Town.
§Tocher, J. I'., B.Sc., F.1.C. 5 Chapel-street, Peterhead, N.B.
§Todd, Professor J. L. MacDonald College, Quebec, Canada.
§Toll, John M. 49 Newsham-drive, Liverpool.
tTonkin, Samuel. Rosebank, near Cape Town.
{Torr, Charles Hawley. 35 Burlington-road, Sherwood, Not-
tingham.
{Townsend, J. 8. E., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the
University of Oxford. New College, Oxford.
*Tram, J. W. H., M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Regius Professor of
Botany in the University of Aberdeen.
tTrat, A. M.D., LL.D., Provost of Trinity College, Dublin,
Ballylough, Bushmills, Ireland,

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908. -79

Year of
Election.

1870.
1868.

1902.
1884,
1908.
1908.
1887.

1903.
1908.
1905.
1871.

1902.

1a

1884.
1887.

1898.

1885.
1847.
1905.
1901.

1893.
1905.
1894.

1905.
1886.

1863.

1890.
1907.

1886.
1899.
1907.
1865.

1883.

iS84.
1903.
1908.

{Traiur, Witum A. Giant's Causeway Electric ‘Tramway,
Portrush, Ireland.

{Traquair, Ramsay H., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. D,
1900.) The Bush, Colinton, Midiothian.

{Travers, Ernest J. Dunmurry, Co. Antrim.

{Trechmann, Charles O., Ph.D., F.G.S._ Hartlepool.

§Treen, Henry M. Wicken, Sohan, Cambridge.

§Tremain, Miss Caroline P., B.A. Alexandra College, Dublin.

*Trench-Gascoigne, Mrs. F. R. Lotherton Hall, Parlington, Aber-
ford, Leeds.

{Trenchard, Hugh. The Firs, Clay Hill, Enfield.

§Tresilian, R. 8. Cumnor, Eglington-road, Dublin.

§TrEvor-Battyg, A., M.A., F.LS., F.R.G.S. Chilbolton, Stock-
bridge, R.S.O.

{Tzmen, Roranp, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S. Ovingdean, King
Charles-road, Surbiton Hill.

§Tristram, Rev. J. F., M.A., B.Sc. 20 Chandos-road, Chorlton-
cum-Hardy, Manchester.

*Trotter, Alexander Pelham. § Richmond-terrace, Whitehall, S.\W.

*TrouTon, Freperick T., M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physics
in University College, W.C.

§Trow, Albert Howard, D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Uni-
versity College, Cardiff. 50 Clive-road. Penarth.

*Tubby, A. H., F.R.C.S. 68 Harley-street, W.

*Tuckett, Francis Fox. Frenchay, Bristol.

§Turmeau, Charles. Claremont, Victoria Park, Wavertree, Liverpool.

§Turnbull, Robert, B.Sc. Department of Agriculture and Technical
Instruction, Dublin.

{Turwner, Dawson, M.B. 37 George-square, Edinburgh.

{Turner, Dr. G. 54 Government-buildings, Pretoria.

*Turner, H. H., M.A., D.Sc. F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of
Astronomy in the University of Oxford. The Observatory,
Oxford.

Turner, Rev. Thomas. St. Saviour’s Vicarage, 50 Fitzroy-street, W.

*TurNER, Tnomas, M.8c., A.R.S.M., I.1.C., Professor of Metallurgy
in the University of Birmingham. Springfields, Tipland-road,
Selly Hill, Birmingham.

*Tprver, Sir Wittiam, K.C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.
(PrEsIDENT, 1900; Pres. H, 1889, 1897), Principal of the
University of Edinburgh. 6 Eton-terrace, Edinburgh.

*Turpin, G. &., M.A., D.Se. High School, Nottingham.

§Turton, A. E. H., M.A.. D.Se., F.R.S. (Council, 1908- .)
41 Ladbroke-square, W.

*Twigg, G.H. 667 Ludgate-hill, Birmingham.

{Twisden, John R., M.A. 14 Gray’s Inn-square, W.C.

§Twyman, F. 75a Camden-road, N.W.

§Tytor, Epwarp Burnett, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. H, 1884 ;
Council, 1896-1902), Professor of Anthropology in the Univer-
sity of Oxford. Museum House, Oxford.

tTyrer, Thomas, F.C.S. Stirling Chemical Works, Abbey-lane,
Stratford, E.

*Underhill, G. E., M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.

{Underwood, Captain J. C. 60 Scarisbrick New-road, Southport.

§Unwin, Ernest Ewart, MSe. Ackworth School, Ackworth, near
Pontefract,

80

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1885.
1883.
1876.

1902.
1880.
1905.

1887.
1908.
1905.
1883.

1865.
1907.

1903.
1907.

1895.

1905.
1881.

1873.

1883.
1904.
1896.
1896,
1890.
1906.

1899.
1883.

1902.
1904.

1904.
1902.
1888.
1890.

1900.
1902.
1906.
1905.
1894.
1882.
1893,
1890,

§Unwin, Howard. 1 Newton-grove, Bedford Park, Chiswick, W.

§Unwin, John. LEastcliffe Lodge, Southport.

*Unwin, W. C., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1892; Council,
1892-99.) 7 Palace Gate-mansions, Kensington, W

§Ussher, R. J. Cappagh House, Cappagh, Co. Waterford.

{Ussumr, W. A. E., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, 8.W.

tUttley, E. A., Electrical Inspector to the Rhodesian Government,
Bulawayo.

#Valentine, Miss Anne. The Elms, Hale, near Altrincham.

§Valera, Edward de. University College, Blackrock, Dublin.

{Van der Byl, J. A. P.O., Irene, Transvaal.

*Vansittart, The Hon. Mrs. A. A. Haywood House, Oaklands-road,
Bromley, Kent.

*VarLey, S. AtFreD. Arrow Works, Jackson-road, Holloway, N.

§Varley, W. Mansergh, M.A., D.Sc., Ph.D. 27 St. Hilary-terrace,
Devonport.

{Varwell, H. B. 2 Pennsylvania-park, Exeter.

§Vaughan, Arthur, B.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. 9 Pembroke-vale, Clifton,
Bristol.

tVaughan, D. T. Gwynne. Botanical Laboratory, The University,
Glasgow.

{Vaughan, E. L. Eton College, Windsor.

tVeLey, V. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. 8 Marlborough-place, St.
John’s Wood, N.W.

*VeERNEY, Sir Epmunp H., Bart., F.R.G.S. Claydon House, Wins-
low, Bucks.

*Verney, Lady. Claydon House, Winslow, Bucks.

*Vernon, H. M.. M.A., M.D. 22 Norham-road, Oxford.

*Vernon, Thomas T. Shotwick Park, Chester.

*Vernon, William. Shotwick Park, Chester.

*Villamil, Lieut.-Colonel R. de, R.E. Carlisle Lodge, Rickmansworth.

*Vincent, J. H.,M.A., D.Sc. L.C.C. Paddington Technical Institute,
Saltram-crescent, W.

*VincEeNnT, SwaLz, M.D., D.Sc. (Local See. 1909), Professor of
Physiology in the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Vings, SypNEY Howarp, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F’L.S. (Pres. K,
1900 ; Council, 1894-97), Professor of Botany in the University
of Oxford. Headington Hill, Oxford.

§Vinycomb, T. B. Sinn Fein, Shooter’s Hill, §.E..

§Volterra, Professor Vito. Regia Universita, Rome.

§Wace, A. J. B. Pembroke College, Cambridge.

{Waddell, Rev. C. H. ‘The Vicarage, Saintfield.

tWadworth, H. A. Breinton Court, near Hereford.

§WacrEr, Harorp W. T., F.R.S., F.L.8. (Pres. K, 1905.) Hendre,
Horsforth-lane, Far Headingley, Leeds.

tWagstaff, C. J. L., B.A. Grafton House, Oundle.

{Wainwright, Joel. Finchwood, Marple Bridge, Stockport.

tWakefield, Charles. Heslington House, York.

§Wakefield, Captain E. W. Stricklandgate House, Kendal.

{Watrorp, Epwin A., F.G.S. 21 West Bar, Banbury.

*Walkden, Samuel, F.R.Met.S. The Cottage, Whitchurch, Tavistock,

§Walker, Alfred O., F.L.S. Ulcombe-place, Maidstone, Kent,

{Walker, A. Tannett. The Elms, Weetwood, Leeds,

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908. 81

Year of
Election,

1901.
1897.

1904.
1891.
1905.
1894.

1897.
1906.
1894,
1906.
1907.
1908.
1888.
1896.
1883.
1863.

1905.
1901.
1887.

1905.
1889.
1895.

1894.
1891.

1908.
1903.
1895.

1902.
1904.
1904.
1887.
1881.
1874.
1858.

1905.
1884.
1896.
1887.

1875.
1905.

1904.
1900.
1875.

1884,
19)

*Walker, Archibald, M.A., F.1.C. 7 Crown-terrace, Glasgow.

*WatKer, B. E., D.C.L., F.G.S. (Local Sec. 1897.) Canadian Bank
of Commerce, Toronto, Canada.

§Walker, E. R. Nightingales, Adlington, Lancashire.

{Walker, Frederick W. Tannett. Carr Manor, Meanwood, Leeds.

tWalker, G. M. Lloyd’s-buildings, Burg-street, Cape Town.

*Watker, G. T., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.B.AS. Meteorological
Office, Simla, India.

{Walker, George Blake. Tankersley Grange, near Barnsley.

{Walker, J. F. E. Gelson, B.A. 45 Bootham, York.

*WaLKER, JAMES, M.A. 30 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

§Walker, Dr. Jamieson. 37 Charnwood-street, Derby.

tWalker, Philip F., F.R.G.S. 36 Prince’s-gardens, 8. W.

*Walker, Robert. 3 Grand Parade, The Hoe, Plymouth.

{Walker, Sydney F. 1 Bloomfield-crescent, Bath.

§Walker, Colonel William Hall, M.P. Gateacre, Liverpool.

tWall, Henry. 14 Park-road, Southport.

{tWa..aceE, ALFRED RusszL, O.M., D.C.L., F.R.S., E.LS., F.R.G.S,
(Pres. D, 1876 ; Council, 1870-72.) Broadstone, Wimborne,
Dorset.

{Wallace, R. W. 2 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, E.C.

{Wallace, William, M.A., M.D. 25 Newton-place, Glasgow.

*Wa.ter, Augustus D., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1907.) 32 Grove
End-road, N.W.

§Waller, Mrs. 32 Grove End-road, N.W.

*Wallis, Arnold J., M.A., 5 Belvoir-terrace, Cambridge.

tWatuis, E. Wurrz, F.S.S. Sanitary Institute, Parkes Museum,
Margaret-street, W.

*WatmisLry, A. T., M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-street, Westminster,
Ss

gWalmsley, R. M., D.Sc. Northampton Institute, Clerkenwell,
E.G

§Walsh, John M. Pleona Park-avenue, Sidney-parade, Dublin.

tWalsh, W. T. H. Toynbee Hall, Whitechapel, E.

{Watsinewam, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.D., F.R.S. Merton Hall,
Thetford.

*Walter, Miss L. Edna. 38 Woodberry-grove, Finsbury Park, N.

*Walters, William, jun. Etheldreda House, Exning, Newmarket.

tWard, A. H. M., B.A. Lenoxvale, Belfast.

tWapgp, A. W., M.A., Litt.D., Master of Peterhouse, Cambridge.

§Ward, George, F.C.S. Buckingham-terrace, Headingley, Leeds.

tWard, John, J.P., F.S.A. Beesfield, Farningham, Kent.

Wardle, Sir Thomas, F.G.S. St. Edward-street, Leek, Stafford-
shire.

tWarlow, Dr. G. P. 15 Hamilton-square, Birkenhead.

*Warner, James D. 199 Baltic-street, Brooklyn, U.S.A.

{Warrand, Major-General, K.E. Westhorpe, Southwell, Middlesex.

TWareren, Lieut.-General Sir Cuartus, R.E., K.C.B., G.C.M.G.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1887.) Athenzum Club, S.W.

*WaTERHOUSE, Major-General J. Hurstmead, Eltham, Kent.

{Watermeyer, F. S., Government Land Surveyor. P.O. Box 973,
Pretoria, South Africa.

tWaters, A. H., B.A. 48 Devonshire-road, Cambridge.

{Waterston, David, M.D., F.R.S.E. 23 Colinton-road, Edinburgh.

tWatherston, Rev. Alexander Law, M.A., F.R.A.S. 2 Countess-
road, Nuneaton.

{Watson, A. G., D.C.L. Uplands, Wadhurst, Sussex.

08. F

82

Year

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

of

Election

1901. *Warson, ARNOLD Tuomas, F.L.S. Southwold, Tapton Crescent-

road, Sheffield.

1886. *Watson, C. J. Alton Cottage, Botteville-road, Acock’s Green,

1906.
1892.
1885.

1906.
1889.

1905.
1894.

1879.
1901.

1875.
1884.

1873.
1883.
1870.
1905.
1905.
1905.
1907.
1891.
1908.

1903.
1890.

1905.

Birmingham.

§Watson, D. M.S. 466 Moss-lane East, Manchester.

{Watson, G., M.Inst.C.E. Moorlands, Worcester.

{Watson, Deputy Surgeon-General G.A. Hendre, Overton Park,
Cheltenham.

*Watson, Henry Angus. 3 Museum-street, York.

t{Watson, John, F.1.C. P.O. Box 1026, Johannesburg, South
Africa.

{Watson, Dr. R. W. Ladysmith, Cape Colony.

*Wartson, Professor W., D.Sc., F.R.S. 7 Upper Cheyne-row,
S.W.

*Wartson, Witt1am Henry, F.C.S., F.G.S. Braystones House,
Beckermet, Cumberland.

§Watt, Harry Anderson, M.P. Ardenslate House, Hunter’s Quay,

lishire.

*Warts, JoHN, B.A., D.Sc. Merton College, Oxford.

*Watts, Rev. Canon Robert R. The Red House, Bemerton, Salis-
bury.

*Warrs, W. Marsuatt, D.Sc. Shirley, Venner-road, Sydenham,

E

8.E.

*Warts, W. W., M.A., M.Sc., F.R.S., Sec.G.S. (Pres. C, 1903 ;
Council, 1902- ), Professor of Geology in the Royal College
of Science, London, 8.W.

§Watts, William, F.G.S. Kenmore, Wilmslow,’Cheshire.

tWay, E. J. Post Office, Benoni, Transvaal.

tWay, W. A., M.A. The College, Graaf Reinet, South Africa.

{Webb, Miss Dora. Gezina School, Pretoria.

§Webb, Wilfred Mark. Odstock, Hanwell, W.

Vibbadh peace 12 Southey-terrace, Wordsworth-avenue, Roath,
Cardiff.

§Wedderburn, Ernest Maclagan, F.R.S.E. 6 Luccoth-gardens,
Edinburgh.

tWeekes, R. W., A.M.Inst.C.E. 65 Hayes-road, Bromley, Kent.

*Wuiss, F. Ernest, D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the
Victoria University, Manchester.

{tWelby, Miss F. A. Hamilton House, Hall-road, N.W.

1902. {Welch, R. J. 49 Lonsdale-street, Belfast.
1894. {Weld, Miss. 119 Iffley-road, Oxford.
1880. *Weldon, Mrs. Merton Lea, Oxford.

1908.
1881.
1908.
1881.
1881.

§Welland, Rev. C. N. Wood Park, Kingstown, Co. Dublin.
§Wellcome, Henry 8. Snow Hill-buildings, E.C.
§Wellisch, E. M. 17 Park-street, Cambridge.
tWells, Rev. Edward, M.A. West Dean Rectory, Salisbury.
*WENLOCE, The Right Hon. Lord, G.C.S.L, G.C.LE., K.C.B., LL.D.
Escrick Park, Yorkshire.
Wentworth, Frederick W. T. Vernon. Wentworth Castle, near
Barnsley, Yorkshire.
. *Were, Anthony Berwick. Roslyn, Walland’s Park, Lewes.
. *Wertheimer, Julius, B.A., B.Sc., F.C.S., Principal of and Professor
e pees in the Merchant Venturers’ Technical College,
ristol.

1900. §West, Wr11am, F.L.S. 26 Woodville-terrace, Horton-lane,

Bradford.
. §Westaway, F. W. 1 Pemberley-crescent, Bedford.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908. 835

Election.

1882.
1900.

1878.
1888.
1893.

1888.
1879.

1898.
1883.
1859.

1884.

1886.
1897.
1886.

1908.

1904,
1885.
1905.
1897.

1877.
1904.

1883.
1905.
1893.

1907.
1905.
1891.
1897.

1901.
1857.

1905.
1905.

1881.
1889.

1887.

1905.
1905.
1904.
1900.
1903.
1904.

*Westlake, Ernest, F'.G.S. Fordingbridge, Salisbury.

{Wethey, E. R., M.A., F.R.G.S. 4 Cunliffe-villas, Manningham,
Bradford.

*Wheeler, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. 4 Hope-park, Bromley, Kent.

§Whelen, John Leman. 23 Fairhazel-gardens, N.W.

eceas e W. C. D. M.A., F.R.S. Upwater Lodge, Cam-
bridge.

*Whidborne, Miss Alice Maria. Charanté, Torquay.

*WuHIDBORNE, Rev. Grorcr Farris, M.A., F.G.S. Hammerwoud
Lodge, East Grinstead, Sussex.

*Whipple, Robert S. Scientific Instrument Company, Cambrirlge.

*Whitaker, T. Walton House, Burley-in-Wharfedaie.

*WaiTakeER, WILLIAM, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1895 ; Council,
1890-96.) 3 Campden-road, Croydon.

{Whitcher, Arthur Henry. Dominion Lands Office, Winnipeg,
Canada.

{Whitcombe, E. B. Borough Asylum, Winson Green, Birmingham.

fWhitcombe, George. The Wotton Elms, Wotton, Gloucester.

{Wurre, A. Srtva (Assistant SECRETARY). Burlington House, W.;
and Clarendon Lodge, St. John’s-gardens, Holland Park, W.

§White, Mrs. A. Silva. Clarendon Lodge, St. John’s-gardens,
Holland Park, W.

tWhite, H. Lawrence, B.A. 2 St. Margaret’s-terrace, Cheltenham.

*White, J. Martin. Balruddery, Dundee.

{White, Miss J. R. Huguenot College, Wellington, Cape Colony.

*Wuirte, Sir W. H., K.C.B., F.R.S. (Pres. G, 1899 ; Council, 1897-
1900.) Cedarcroft, Putney Heath, 8.W.

*White, William. 20 Hillersdon-avenue, Church-road, Barnes, S.W.

tWuirrneaD, J. E. L., M.A. (Local Sec. 1904). Guildhall, Cam-
bridge.

{Whitehead, P. J. 6 Cross-street, Southport.

§Whiteley, Miss M. A., D.Sc. Royal College of Science, S.W.

§Whiteley, R. Lloyd, F.C.S., F.I-C. Municipal Science and Tech-
nical School, West Bromwich.

*Whitley, E. Clovelly, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

*Whitmee, H. B. P.O. Box 470, Durban, Natal.

{Whitmell, Charles T., M.A., B.Sc. Invermay, Hyde Park, Leeds.

{Wenrracer, H. T., M.A., F.R.S., Royal Astronomer of Ireland
and Andrews’ Professor of Astronomy in the University of
Dublin. The Observatory, Dunsink, Co. Dublin.

{Whitton, James. City-chambers, Glasgow.

*Wuirry, Rev. Jonn Irwine, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. Alpha Villa,
Southwood, Ramsgate.

tWhyte, B. M. Simon’s Town, Cape Colony.

§Wibberley, C. Beira and Mashonaland Railways, Umtali, South

ca.
*Wigglesworth, Robert. Ashtead Lodge, Surrey.

*WiLBERFORCE, L. R., M.A., Professor of Physics in the University
of Liverpool.

*Witpz, Henry, D.Sc., D.C.L., F.R.S. The Hurst, Alderley Edge,
Cheshire.

{Wiley, J. R. Kingsfold, Mill-street, Cape Town.
{Wilkins, R. F. Thatched House Club, St. James’s-street, S.W.
§Wilkinson, Hon. Mrs. Dringhouses Manor, York.
§Wilkinson, J. B. Holme-lane, Dudley Hill, Bradford.
{Willett, John KE. 3 Park-road, Southport.
*Williams, Miss Antonia. 6 Sloane-gardens, S.W.

FQ

84

Year

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

of

Election.

1861

1905.
1883.
1861.
1875.

1891.

1883.
1888.

1901.
1891.
1883.
1877.
1906.
. 1857.

1894.
1895.
1895.

1896.
1859.
1899.
1899.

1908.

1901.
1886.
1878.

1905.
1907.
1903.
1894.

1904.
1904.
1900.
1847.
1903.
1895.
1901.

1902.
1879.

1885

. *Williams, Charles Theodore, M.V.O., M.A., M.D. 2 Upper Brook-
street, Grosvenor-square, W.

§Williams, Gardner F. 2201 R-street, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

{Williams, Rev. H. Alban, M.A. Sheering Rectory, Harlow, Essex.

*Williams, Harry Samuel, M.A., F.R.A.S. 6 Heathfield, Swansea.

*Williams, Rev. Herbert Addams. Llangibby Rectory, near New-
port, Monmouthshire.

§Williams, J. A. B., M.Inst.C.E. The Hurst, Branksome Park,
Bournemouth.

*Williams, Mrs. J. Davies. 5 Chepstow-mansions, Bayswater, W.

*Williams, Miss Katharine T. Llandaff House, Pembroke-vale,
Clifton, Bristol.

*Williams, Miss Mary. 6 Sloane-gardens, S.W.

{Williams, Morgan. 5 Park-place, Cardiff.

{Williams, T. H. 27 Water-street, Liverpool.

*Wiiiiams, W. CaRLeton, F.C.S. Broomgrove, Goring-on-Thames.

tWilliams, W. F. Lobb. 32 Lowndes-street, 8.W.

t{Wrturamson, Bengamin, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. Trinity College,
Dublin.

*Williamson, Mrs. Janora. Ardoyne, Birkbeck-road, Muswell Hill, N.

tWrxrwe, W. (Local Sec. 1896.) 14 Castle-street, Liverpool.

{Willis, John C., M.A., F.L.S., Director of the Royal Botanical
Gardens, Peradeniya, Ceylon.

t{Wituson, J. 8. (Local Sec. 1897.) Toronto, Canada.

*Wills, The Hon. Sir Alfred. Saxholm, Basset, Southampton.

§Willson, George. Ivanhoe, Combermere-road, St. Leonards-on-Sea.

§Willson, Mrs. George. Ivanhoe, Combermere-road, St. Leonards-
on-Sea.

§Wilson, Miss. Grove House, Paddock, Huddersfield.

{Wilson, A. Belvoir Park, Newtownbreda, Co. Down.

{Wilson, Alexander B. Holywood, Belfast.

{Wilson, Professor Alexander 8., M.A., B.Sc. United Free Church
Manse, North Queensferry.

§Wilson, A. W. P.O. Box 24, Langlaagte, South Africa.

§Wilson, A. W. 20 Westcott-street, Hull.

tWilson, C. T. R., M.A., F.R.S. Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge.

*Wilson, Charles J., F.I.C., F.C.S. 14 Old Queen-street, West-
minster, S.W.

§Wilson, Charles John, F.R.G.S. Deanfield, Hawick, Scotland.

§Wilson, David, M.D. Grove House, Paddock, Huddersfield.

*Wilson, Duncan R. Menethorpe, Malton.

*Wilson, F. Linford. 99 Albany-street, N.W.

{Wilson, George. The University, Leeds.

{Wilson, Dr. Gregg. Queen’s College, Belfast.

{Wilson, Harold A., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in
King’s College, London. 3 & 4 Clement’s Inn, Strand, W.C.

*Wilson, Harry, F.I.C. 32 Westwood-road, Southampton.

¢Wilson, Henry J. 255 Pitsmore-road, Sheffield.

. [Wilson, J. Dove, LL.D. 17 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.

1905. {Wilson, J. F. H.M. Dockyard Extension, Simon's Town, Cape

1908
1865

1884
1879

Colony.

. §Wilson, Professor James, M.A., B.Sc. Cluny, Orwell Park, Dublin.

. [Wison, Ven. Archdeacon Jamus M., M.A., F.G.S. The Vicarage.
Rochdale.

. {Wilson, James 8. Grant. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court-
buildings, Edinburgh.

. [Wilson, John Wycliffe. Eastbourne, East Bank-road, Sheffield.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1908.

(o")
Cr

Year of
Election.

1901. *Wilson, Joseph. Hillside, Avon-road, Walthamstow, N.E.

1908. *Wilson, Malcolm, B.Sc. Royal College of Science, S.W.

1903. {Wilson, Dr. R. Arderne.. Saasveld House, Kloof-street, Cape Town.

1847. *Wilson, Rev. Sumner. Preston Candover Vicarage, Basingstoke.

1883. tWilson, T. Rivers Lodge, Harpenden, Hertfordshire.

1892. {Wilson, T. Stacey, M.D. 27 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

1887. §Wilson, W., jun. Battlehillock, Kildrumny, Mossat, Aberdeen-
shire.

1907. §Wimperis, H. E. 28 Rossetti Garden-mansions, 8.W.

1886. {WinDiz, Brerrram C. A., M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., President of
Queen’s College, Cork.

1863. *Winwoop, Rev. H. H., M.A., F.G.S. (Local Sec. 1864.) 11 Caven-
dish-crescent, Bath.

1905. §Wiseman, J. G., F.R.C.S., F.R.G.S. Stranraer, St. Peter’s-road,
St. Margaret’s-on-Thames.

1875. {WotFe-Barry, Sir Joun, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G,
1898 ; Council, 1899-1903.) 21 Delahay-street, Westminster,

S.W.

1905. {Wood, A., jun. Emmanuel College, Cambridge.

1863. *Wood, Collingwood L. Freeland, Forgandenny, N.B.

1875. *Wood, George William Rayner. Singleton Lodge, Manchester.

1908. §Wood, Henry J. 4 Elsworthy-road, N.W.

1878. {Woop, Sir H. Trurmayn, M.A. Royal Society of Arts, John-
street, Adelphi, W.C. ; and 16 Leinster-square, Bayswater, W.

1883. *Wood, J. H. 21 Westbourne-road, Birkdale, Lancashire.

1904. *Wood, T. B., M.A., Professor of Agriculture in the University of
Cambridge. Caius College, Cambridge.

1899. *Wood, W. Hoffman. Ben Rhydding, Yorkshire.

1901. *Wood, William James, F.S.A. (Scot.) 266 George-street, Glasgow.

1899. *Woodcock, Mrs. E. M. Pahargoomiah Tea Association, Bag:
doora P.O., vid Sillguri, North Bengal, India.

1896. *WoopuEAD, Professor G. Smus, M.D. Pathological Laboratory,
Cambridge.

1888. *Woodiwiss, Mrs. Alfred. 121 Castlenau, Barnes, S.W.

1906. §Woodland, W. N. F. University College, Gower-street, W.C.

1904. §Woodrow, John. Berryknowe, Meikleriggs, Paisley.

1904. {Woods, Henry, M.A. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

Woops, SamuEt. 1 Drapers’-gardens, Throgmorton-street, E.C.

1887. *Woopwarp, ArtTHuR Smitu, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.8. (Council,
1903- ), Keeper of the Department of Geology, British
Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-road, 8. W.

1869. *Woopwarp, C. J., B.Se., F.G.S. The Lindens, St. Mary’s-road,
Harborne, Birmingham.

1886. {Woodward, Harry Page, F.G.S. 129 Beaufort-street, S.W.

1866. {Woopwarp, Henry, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1887;
Council, 1887-94.) 13 Arundel-gardens, Notting Hill, W.

1870. {Woopwakrp, Horacz B., F.R.S., F.G.8. Geological Survey Office,
Jermyn-street, 8. W.

1894. *Woodward, John Harold. 8 Queen Anne’s-gate, Westminster, S.W.

1908. §Woolacott, David, D.Sc., F.G.S. 8 The Oaks West, Sunderland.

1890. *Woollcombe, Robert Lloyd, M.A., LL.D., F.1.Inst., F.S.8., M.R.1.A.,
F.R.S.A. (Ireland). 14 Waterloo-road, Dublin.

1883. *Woolley, George Stephen. Victoria Bridge, Manchester.

1908. §Worsdell, W. C. 27 Flanders-road, Chiswick, W.

1863. *Worsley, Philip J. Rodney Lodge, Clifton, Bristol.

1901. {Worth, J. T. Oakenrod Mount, Rochdale.

86

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of

Election.

1904. §Wortutineton, A. M., C.B., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the
Royal Naval Engineering College, Devonport. Mohuns,
Tavistock.

1855. *Worthington, Rev. Alfred William, B.A. Old Swinford, Stourbridge.

1908. *Worthington, James H., B.A., F.R.A.S. Wycombe Court, High
Wycombe.

1906. {Wraaesx, R. H. Vernon. York.

1896. t{Wrench, Edward M., M.V.O., F.R.C.S. Park Lodge, Baslow,
Derbyshire.

1905. t{Wrentmore, G. G. Marva, Silwood-road, Rondebosch, Cape
Colony.

1906. {Wright, Sin A. E., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. 7 Lower Seymour-street, W.

1905.
1883.
1883.
1905.
1874.
1884.

1904.
1903.
1871.

1902.
1901.
1902.
1899.

1905.
1901.

tWright, Allan. Struan Villa, Gardens, Cape Town.

*Wright, Rev. Arthur, D.D. Queens’ College, Cambridge.

*Wright, Rev. Benjamin, M.A. Sandon Rectory, Chelmsford.

*Wright, FitzHerbert. The Hayes, Alfreton.

tWright, Joseph, F.G.S. 4 Alfred-street, Belfast.

tWricut, Professor R. Ramsay, M.A., B.Sc. University College,
Toronto, Canada.

tWright, R. T. Goldieslie, Trumpington, Cambridge.

tWright, William. The University, Birmingham.

tWrieHtson, Sir Tuomas, Bart., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Neasham
Hall, Darlington.

tWyatt, G. H. 1 Maurice-road, St. Andrew’s Park, Bristol.

tWylie, Alexander. Kirkfield, Johnstone, N.B.

tWylie, John. 2 Mafeking-villas, Whitehead, Belfast.

{Wyrwne, W. P., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Uni-
versity of Sheffield. 106 Whitham-road, Sheffield.

fYallop, J. Allan. Alandale, London-road, Sea Point, Cape Colony.
*Yapp, R. H., M.A., Professor of Botany in University College,
Aberystwyth.

. *Yarborough, George Cook. Camp’s Mount, Doncaster.

1894.
1905.
1886.
1904.
1891.
1905.
1894.

1901.
1905.

1885.
1901.
1883.
1907.

1887.
1903.

*Yarrow, A. F. Poplar, E.

tYerbury, Colonel. Army and Navy Club, Pall Mall, S.W.

*Youna, A. H., M.B., EROS. (Local Sec. 1887), Professor of
Anatomy in the Victoria University, Manchester.

tYoung, Alfred. Selwyn College, Cambridge.

§Young, Alfred C., F.C.S. 17 Vicar’s-hill, Lewisham, S.E.

{tYoung, Professor Andrew, M.A., B.Sc. South African College,
Cape Town.

*Younc, GrorcE, Ph.D. 79 Harvard-court, Honeybourne-road,
N.W.

*Young, John. 2 Montague-terrace, Kelvinside, Glasgow.
tYoung, Professor R. B. Transvaal Technical Institute, Johannes-

burg.

tYoune, R. Bruce, M.A., M.B. 8 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill,
Glasgow.

tYoung, Robert M., B.A. Rathvarna, Belfast.

*Youna, Sypnry, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1904), Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Dublin. 12 Raglan-road,
Dublin.

*Youna, W. H., M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S. 444 Wilhelm-Weberstrasse,
Gottingen, Germany.

tYoung, Sydney. 29 Mark-lane, E.C.

tYoxall, J. H., M.P. 67 Russell-square, W.C.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS: 1908, 87

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1887.
1892.

1881.
1897.
1894.

1887.
1892.
1894.

1893.
1887.

1884.
1890.

1893.
1887.

1884.
1894.

1897.
1887.

1887.

1894,
1901.
1894.

1887.
1873.

1889.
1872.

1901.
1870.
1890.

1876.
1894.
1892.
1901.

Professor Cleveland Abbe. Weather Bureau, Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

Professor Svante Arrhenius. The University, Stockholm. (Bergs-
gatan 18.)

Professor G. F. Barker. 3909 Locust-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

Professor Carl Barus. Brown University, Providence, R.I., U.S.A.

Professor E. van Beneden, D.C.L. 50 quai des Pécheurs, Liége,
Belgium.

Professor A. Bernthsen, Ph.D. Mannheim, L 11, 4, Germany.

Professor M. Bertrand. 75 rue de Vaugirard, Paris.

Deputy Surgeon-General J. S. Billings. 40 Lafayette-place, New
York, U.S.A.

Professor Christian Bohr. Bredgade 62, Copenhagen, Denmark.

Professor Lewis Boss. Dudley Observatory, Albany, New York,
U.S.A.

Professor H. P. Bowditch, M.D., LL.D. Harvard Medical School,
Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

Professor Dr. L. Brentano. Friedrichstrasse 11, Miinchen.

Professor Dr. W. C. Brégger. Universitets Mineralogske Institute,
Christiania, Norway.

Professor J. W. Briihl. Heidelberg.

Professor George J. Brush. Yale University, New Haven, Conn.,

U.S.A.
Professor D. H. Campbell. Stanford University, Palo Alto, Cali-

fornia, U.S.A.

M. C. de Candolle. 3 Cour de St. Pierre, Geneva, Switzerland.

Professor G. Capellini. 65 Via Zamboni, Bologna, Italy.

Hofrath Dr. H. Caro. C. 8, No. 9, Mannheim, Germany.

Emile Cartailhac. 5 rue de la Chaine, Toulouse, France.

Professor T. C. Chamberlin. Chicago, U.S.A.

Dr. A. Chauveau. 7 rue Cuvier, Paris.

F. W. Clarke. United States Geological Survey, Washington,
D.C., U.S.A.

Professor Guido Cora. Via Nazionale 181, Rome.

W. H. Dall, Sc.D. United States Geological Survey, Washington,
D.C., U.S.A.

Dr. Yves Delage. Faculté des Sciences, La Sorbonne, Paris.

Professor G. Dewalque. 17 rue de la Paix, Liege, Belgium.

Dr. Anton Dohrn, D.C.L. - Naples.

Professor V. Dwelshauvers-Dery. 4 quai Marcellis, Liége, Belgium.

Professor Alberto Eccher. Florence.

Professor Dr. W. Einthoven. Leiden, Netherlands.

Professor F. Elfving. Helsingfors, Finland.

Professor H. Elster. Wolfenbiittel, Germany.

88

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of

Election.

894. Professor T. W. W. Engelmann, D.C.L. Neue Wilhelmstrasse
15, Berlin, N.W.

1901. Professor W. G. Farlow. Harvard, U.S.A.

1874. Dr. W. Feddersen. Carolinenstrasse 9, Leipzig.

1886. Dr. Otto Finsch. Altewiekring, No. 19b, Braunschweig, Germany.

1887. Professor Dr. R. Fittig. Strassburg.

1894.
1872.
1901.
1894.
1887.
1892.
1881.
1866.
1901.
1884.
1889.
1889.
1884.

1892,

1876.
1881.
1895.

1893.
1894.
1893.

1893.
1897.
1881.

1887.
1884,

1876.
1881.

1887.

1876.
1884.
1873.
1894,
1896.

1894,

1894.
1887.

1877.

1887,
1887

1872,
1901.

Professor Wilhelm Foerster, D.C.L. Encke Platz 3a, Berlin, S.W. 48.

W. de Fonvielle. 50 rue des Abbesses, Paris.

Professor A. P. N. Franchimont. Leiden, Netherlands.

Professor Léon Fredericq. 20 rue de Pitteurs, Liége, Belgium.

Professor Dr. Anton Fritsch. 66 Wenzelsplatz, Prague, Bohemia.

Professor Dr. Gustav Fritsch. Dorotheenstrasse 35, Berlin.

Professor C. M. Gariel. 6 rue Edouard Détaille, Paris.

Dr. Gaudry. 7 bis rue des Saints Péres, Paris.

Professor Dr. H. Geitel. Wolfenbiittel, Germany.

Professor Wolcott Gibbs. Newport, Rhode Island, U.S.A.

Professor Gustave Gilson. lUniversité, Louvain, Belgium.

A. Gobert, 222 Chaussée de Charleroi, Brussels.

General A. W. Greely, LL.D. War Department, Washington,
U.S.A.

Dr. C. E. Guillaume. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures,
Pavillon de Breteuil, Sévres.

Professor Ernst Haeckel. Jena.

Dr. Edwin H. Hall. 30 Langdon-street, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A

Professor Dr. Emil Chr. Hansen. Carlsberg Laboratorium, Copen-
hagen, Denmark.

Professor Paul Heger. 23 rue de Drapiers, Brussels.

Professor Ludimar Hermann. Universitat, Konigsberg, Prussia.

Professor Richard Hertwig. Zoologisches Institut, Alte Akademie,
Munich.

Professor Hildebrand. Stockholm.

Dr. G. W. Hill. West Nyack, New York, U.S.A.

Professor A. A. W. Hubrecht, LL.D., D.Sc., C.M.Z.S. The
University, Utrecht, Netherlands.

Dr. Oliver W. Huntington. Cloyne House, Newport, R.I., U.S.A.

Professor C. Loring Jackson. 6 Boylston Hall, Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts, U.S.A.

Dr. W. J. Janssen. Villa Polar, Massagno, Lugano, Switzerland.

W. Woolsey Johnson, Professor of Mathematics in the United States.
Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, U.S.A

Professor C. Julin. “153 rue de Fragnée, Liége.

Dr. Giuseppe Jung. Bastions Vittoria 41, Milan.

Baron Dairoku Kikuchi, M.A. Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan.

Professor Dr. Felix Klein. Wilhelm-Weberstrasse 3, Gottingen.

Professor Dr. L. Kny. Kaiser-Allee 186-7, Wilmersdorf, bei Berlin.

Professor F. Kohlrausch. Marburg, Germany.

Professor J. Kollmann. St. Johann 88, Basel, Switzerland.

Maxime Kovalevsky. 13 Avenue de l’ Observatoire, Paris, France.

Professor W. Krause. Knesebeckstrasse, 17/1, Charlottenburg, bei
Berlin.

Dr. Hugo Kronecker, Professor of Physiology. Universitat, Bern,
Switzerland.

Professor A. Ladenburg. Kaiser Wilhelmstrasse 108, Breslau.

Professor J. W. Langley. 2037 Geddes-avenue, Ann Arbor, Michi-
gan, U.S.A.

M. Georges Lemoine. 76 rue Notre Dame des Changes, Paris.

Professor Philipp Lenard. Schlossstrasse 7, Heidelberg.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS: 1908. 89

Year of
Election.

1887.
1883.
1877.
1887.
1871.

1894.
1887.

1867.

1887

1884.
1887.
1894,
1897.
1897.

1887.
1889.
1894.
1864,
1887.
1894,
1890.
1890.
1895.
1887.
1901.
1890.
1894.
1870.
1886.

1887.
1868.
1895.

1897.
1896.
1892.
1890.

t895.
1901.

1894.
1874,
1897.
1892.
1887.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1881.
1894,

Professor A. Lieben. Molkerbastei 5, Vienna.

Dr. F. Lindemann, Franz-Josefstrasse 12/I, Munich.

Dr. M. Lindemann. Sennorrstrasse 62, IT, Dresden.

Professor Dr. Georg Lunge. Rimistrasse 56, Zurich, V.

Professor Jacob Liiroth. Mozartstrasse 10, and Universitit,
Freiburg-in-Breisgau, Germany.

Professor Dr. Otto Maas. Universitat, Munich.

Henry C. McCook, D.D., Sc.D., LL.D. 3700 Chestnut-street,
Philadelphia, U.S.A.

Professor Mannheim. 1 Boulevard Beauséjour, Paris.

Dr. C. A. von Martius. Voss Strasse 8, Berlin, W.

Professor Albert A. Michelson. The University, Chicago, U.S.A.

Dr. Charles Sedgwick Minot. Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

Professor G. Mittag-Leffler. Djursholm, Stockholm.

Professor Oskar Montelius. St. Paulsgatan 11, Stockholm, Sweden.

Professor E. W. Morley, LL.D. West Hartford, Connecticut,
U.S.A.

E. S. Morse. Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass., U.S.A.

Dr. F. Nansen. Lysaker, Norway.

Professor R. Nasini. Istituto Chimico, Via S. Maria, Pisa, Italy.

Dr. G. Neumayer. Deutsche Seewarte, Hamburg.

Professor Emilio Noelting. Miihlhausen, Elsass, Germany.

Professor H. F. Osborn. Columbia College, New York, U.S.A.

Professor W. Ostwald. Linnéstrasse 2, Leipzig.

Maffeo Pantaleoni. 13 Cola di Rienzo, Rome.

Professor F, Paschen. Universitat, Tubingen.

Dr. Pauli. Feldbergstrasse 49, Frankfurt a/Main, Germany.

Hofrath Professor A. Penck. Georgenstrasse 34-36, Berlin, N.W. 7.

Professor Otto Pettersson. Stocktolms Hogskola, Stockholm.

Professor W. Pfeffer, D.C.L. Linnéstrasse 11, Leipzig.

Professor Felix Plateau. 152 Chaussée de Courtrai, Gand, Belgium.

Professor F. W. Putnam. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, U.S.A.

Professor Georg Quincke. Hauptstrasse 47, Friederichsbau, Heidel-
berg. :

L. Radlkofer, Professor of Botany in the University of Munich.
Sonnenstrasse 7. x

Professor Ira Remsen. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore,
U.S.A.

Professor Dr. C. Richet. 15 rue de l'Université, Paris, France.

Dr. van Rijckevorsel. Parklaan 3, Rotterdam, Netherlands.

Professor Rosenthal, M.D. Erlangen, Bavaria.

A. Lawrence Rotch. Blue Hill Observatory, Hyde Park, Massa-
chusetts, U.S.A.

Professor Karl Runge. Goldgraben 20, Gottingen, Germany.

Gen.-Major Rykatchew. Central Physical Observatory, St. Peters-
burg.

Tietescor P. H. Schoute. The University, Groningen, Netherlands.

Dr. G. Schweinfurth. Potsdamerstrasse 754, Berlin.

Professor W. B. Scott. Princeton, N.J., U.S.A.

Dr. Maurits Snellen. Apeldoorn, Pays-Bas, Holland.

Professor H. Graf Solms. Botanischer Garten, Strassburg.

Ernest Solvay. 25 rue du Prince Albert, Brussels.

Dr. Alfred Springer. 312 East 2nd-street, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A.

Professor G. Stefanescu. Strada Verde 8, Bucharest, Roumania.

Dr. Cyparissos Stephanos. The University, Athens.

Professor E. Strasburger. The University, Bonn.

90

Year of
Election

1881.
1887.
1887.

1890.
1889.

1886.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1881.
1887.
1887.

1887.
1896.
1887.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Professor Dr. Rudolf Sturm. Weyderstrasse 9, Breslau.

Dr. T. M. Treub. Buitenzorg, Java.

Professor John Trowbridge. Harvard University, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, U.S.A.

Arminius Vambéry, Professor of Oriental Languages in the University
of Pesth, Hungary.

Professor Dr. J. H. van’t Hoff. Uhlandstrasse 2, Charlottenburg,
Berlin.

Wladimir Vernadsky. Imperial Academy of Sciences, St. Peters-
burg.

Professor Jules Vuylsteke. 21 rue Belliard, Brussels, Belgium.

Professor H. F. Weber. Zurich.

Professor Dr. Leonhard Weber. Moltkestrasse 60, Kiel.

Professor August Weismann. Freiburg-in-Breisgau, Baden.

Dr. H. C. White. Athens, Georgia, U.S.A.

Professor H. M. Whitney. Branford, Conn., U.S.A.

Professor E. Wiedemann. Erlangen.

Professor Dr. R. Wiedersheim. Hansastrasse 3, Freiburg-im-
Breisgau, Baden.

Dr. Otto N. Witt. Ebereschen-Allée 10, Westend bei Berlin.

Professor E. Zacharias. Botanischer Garten, Hamburg.

Professor F. Zirkel. Thalstrasse 33, Leipzig.

SOCIETIES, &c., RECEIVING REPORT : 1908. 91

LIST OF SOCIETIES AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS

TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

Belfast, Queen’s College.
Birmingham, Midland Institute.
Bradford Philosophical Society.
Brighton Public Library.

Bristol Naturalists’ Society.

——, The Museum.

Cambridge Philosophical Society.
Cardiff, University College.
Chatham, Royal Engineers’ Institute.
Cornwall, Royal Geological Society

of.

Dublin, Geological Survey of Ireland.

——, Royal College of Surgeons in
Treland.

——, Royal Irish Academy.

——, Royal Society.

Dundee, University College.

Edinburgh, Royal Society of.

——, Royal Medical Society of.

, Scottish Society of Arts.

Exeter, Royal Albert Memorial
College Museum.

Glasgow, Royal Philosophical Society
of

——, Institution of Engineers and
Shipbuilders in Scotland.

Leeds, Institute of Science.

——, Philosophical and Literary
Society of.

Liverpool, Free Public Library.

——, Royal Institution.

——, The University.

London, Admiralty, Library of the.

——, Chemical Society.

——,, Civil Engineers, Institution of.

——, Geological Society.

—., Geology, Museum of Practical.

——, Greenwich, Royal Observatory.

—, Guildhall, Library.

——, Institution of
Engineers.

——, King’s College.

——.,, Linnean Society.

Mechanical

London, London Institution.

——, Meteorological Office.

——, Physical Society.

——., RoyalAnthropological Institute.

——, Royal Asiatic Society.

——, Royal Astronomical Society.

——., Royal College of Physicians.

——, Royal College of Surgeons.

——, Royal Geographical Society.

——, Royal Institution.

——, Royal Meteorological Society.

——, Royal Society.

——, Royal Society of Arts.

——, Royal Statistical Society.

——, Sanitary Institute.

——, United Service Institution.

——, University College.

——, War Office, Library.

——, Zoological Society.

Manchester Literary and Philosophi-
cal Society.

— —., Municipal School of Technology.

Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Literary and
Philosophical Society.

——, Public Library.

Norwich, The Free Library.

Nottingham, The Free Library.

Oxford, Ashmolean Natural History
Society.

——, Radcliffe Observatory.

Plymouth Institution.

——, Marine Biological Association.

Salford, Royal Museum and Library.

Sheffield. University College.

Southampton, Hartley Institution.

Stonyhurst College Observatory.

Surrey, Royal Gardens, Kew.

——, National Physical Laboratory
(Observatory Department).

Swansea, Royal Institution of South
Wales.

Yorkshire Philosophical Society.

The Corresponding Societies.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

EUROPE.

Berk oan atv <5 Die Kaiserliche Aka- ; Moscow...... University Library.
demie der Wissen- | Munich....... University Library.
schaften. Naples-....... Royal Academy of

Bonn! 222.1251. University Library. Sciences.

Brussels ..Royal Academy of | Paris......... Association Frangaise
Sciences. pour l Avancement

Charkow . University Library. des Sciences.

@ombray oe Meteorological - Ob- | —— ........ Geographical Society
servatory. ——_seeeeeee Geological Society.

Copenhagen...Royal Society of | —— ........ Royal Academy of
Sciences. i | Sciences.

Dorpat, Russia University Library. ee ee School of Mines.

Dresden ....Royal Public Library. | Pultova...... Imperial Observatory,

Frankfort ...Natural History So- | Rome ....... Accademia dei Lincei.
ciety. a aratlannis aid « Collegio Romano.

Geneva...,.>. Natural History So- | —— ........ Italian Geographical
ciety. | Society.

Gottingen ....University Library. Ore Italian Society of

GYAtZi 5 cts 5: tae Naturwissenschaft - Sciences.
licher Verein. Roumania ..Roumanian Association

Halle (oo ccte.cisie Leopoldinisch - Caro - for the Advance-
linische Akademie. | ment of Science.

Harlem. ;..5,..<. Société : Hollandaise | 94. Petersburg. University Library.

des Sciences. een Eh erty Imperial Observatory.

Heidelberg... . University Library. Stockholm ...Royal Academy.

Helsingfors . . . University Library. 1 ah a Royal Academy of

OM Aimeetet stele teys University Library. Sci

Kazan, Russia University Library. asa R ps rat f

go) °, ects canes Royal Observatory. pe eae m4 Es ea hie

Ie gn dis University Library. Utrecl U meet Lib

Lausanne ....The University. — MG ws. ee. sasiaee's Ppekt tet:

Leiden ....... University Library. | Vienna ...... The Imperial Library.

TOPO care wetsictele University Library. hare es Central Anstalt fir

Lisbon: syeopr Academia Real des Meteorologie und
Sciences. Erdmagnetismus.

Maan) srevsterais aca The Institute. ZMITICUShaai5 shoes Naturforschende Ge-

Modena ...... Royal Academy. sellschaft.

MOSCOW, =i ies Society of Naturalists.

ASIA,

IN GTAI oie ota, Sec5)s The College. | Calcutta ..... Medical College.

Bombay ..... Elphinstone Institu- (cae SMe, Presidency College.
tion. Ceylon’). <1 The Museum, Co-

aan eee ele ot Grant Medical Col- lombo.
lege. Madras ...... The Observatory.

Calcutta ..... Asiatic Society. = wp Aoobnne University Library.

a ol nena ah Hooghly College. WOK yen eet Imperial University.

AFRICA.
Cape Town ....The Royal Observatory.

ed

South African Association for the Advancement

of Science.

South African Public Library.
.-Publie Library.

SOCIETIES, &c., RECEIVING REPORT : 1908. 93
AMERICA
NIDBTIY: (cas a - The Institute. Montreal ..... Council of Arts and
Amherst...... The Observatory. Manufactures.
Baltimore ....Johns Hopkins Uni- | —— _........ McGill University.
versity. New York ...American Society of
Boston ...... American Academy of | Civil Engineers.
Arts and Sciences. | —— ....... Academy of Sciences.
==> epesoee Boston Society of | Ottawa....... Geological Survey of
Natural History. Canada.
California..... The University. Philadelphia .. American Philosophi-
=== | | RSeeer Lick Observatory. cal Society.
—— ...-Academy of Sciences. | —— ....... Franklin Institute.
Cambridge ...Harvard University | —— ....... University of Penn-
Library. sylvania.
Chicago ...... American Medical | Toronto ..... The Observatory.
Association. § | —— ....... The Canadian Insti-
=== Bocasper Field Museum of tute.
Natural History. ma cides The University.
Kingston ..... Queen’s University. Washington... Bureau of Ethnology.
Manitoba ....Historical and Scien- | —— ....... Smithsonian Institu-
tific Society tion.
==) Sdupose The University. —— sseeeee The Naval Observa-
Massachusetts .Marine Biological tory.
Laboratory, Woods | —— ....... United States Geolo-
Holl. gical Survey of the
Mexico ...... Sociedad Cientifica Territories.
‘ Antonio Alzate.’ Salo erate Library of Congress.
Missouri ..... Botanical Garden. —— se ssaeeee Board of Agriculture.
AUSTRALIA,
Adelaide! 3... 2)... <2 The Colonial Government.
Oe re The Royal Geographical Society.
Brisbane .......:..Queensland Museum.
Melbourne ........ Public Library.
ehnelitns abn ene aooe Public Works Department.
=a 1) My aretoretaratere ets Australian Museum.
PASM Anish eveletelerats eters Royal Society.
Wibtoria 3.2 vis! sie s The Colonial Government.
NEW ZEALAND.
Canterbury ........ The Museum.
Wellington ........ New Zealand Institute.

} te

A

oy

I Hist

PRINTED BY

SPOTTISWOODE AND CO, LTD., LONDON

COLCHESTER AND ETON

pk te ,
Bot 22 A ‘4 ie,
eres = Sa rs .
' YY tie ra ¥,
. .
Mas Ge :
ie
as a .
i pale, LAA ay ;
iat a i ca

’ m
3 ,
anil
; .
“ Ki 2
é . ‘
? s
s
oy ' =
\ ,
‘a -
al
Sha
, >
Lea
-
: .
.
.
’
i
\.
.
Ls
oe ‘
?
——_— & %

‘
.<
ve

Ka ate

ar

a

Seats glen 5 tart me eng OTT
eee ey it a mh

wren —=

— =

ss
¥

eats

aes

7