REPORT

OF THE

EIGHTY-THIRD MEETING OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

BIRMINGHAM: 1913

SEPTEMBER 10-17

LONDON
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET
Ihe lee

Office of the Association: Burlington House, London, W.

CONTENTS.

—w
Page

ORKICERS AND COUNCIL, 1913—-LOV4. 0... ieee eee eecsccecnceceeeere seeds vane iii
RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.........000.ccoceasssscesascccess scone Vv
TasiEs: Past ANNUAL MEETINGS: *

Trustees, General Officers, &c. (1831-1913) ...ecseseeseeceneeneeneenee *xxi

Sectional Presidents and Secretaries (1901-1913) ...........ccceceeees “xii

Chairmen and Secretaries of Conferences of Delegates (1901-1913) xxix

Evening Discourses (1901-1918) ..........:...sseesscesccennenensceneenees XXIX

Lectures to the Operative Classes and Public Lectures (1901-1913) xxxi
Places and Dates, Presidents, Attendances, Receipts, and Sums

paid on account of Grants for Scientific Purposes (1881-1913) xxxii
AmalyaisiOf AGbeENGaNGlS) <ler-ccoccascurmsensease-coteciamecnuensoavs.comsese XXXIV
Grants for Scientific Purposes (1901-1912) ooo... eee eee eee eee XXXV1

ReEpPoRT OF THE CoUNCIL TO THE GENERAL CoMMirTEF, 1912-1913 ... xli

GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT, 1912-1913 ...........csscecreceecseeoeeeees xlvi
BrruincHam Mesrine, 1913:
General Meetings ............sccccccscvrecerencen cocescscscceseccensnanenes xlviii
Sectional Officers...........+ Bee eee She nthins Nea tennnda done decdades ents cseexonss xlviii
Officers of Conference of Delegates ........0......sececeseeeeeceeeseseeees 1
WomMntleesOl MMCCOMIMENGALIONS! «2. ccessus.scosescccrsseseestevecsossesets 1
VES CARCHY OGMINMLLCESm ccthsess seta peoasceas eeveee sg cuonaasniheondesasines’s li
Communications ordered to be printed tm extenso .......sccsereeeeeers 1xii
Resolutions referred to the Council ...... LER eat bbet Copp eE bee REL lxii
Synopsis of Grants of Money ......0...00scsssconscrscenseecnnccesseeeseneers lxiv
ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, SIR OLiveR J. Lopen, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. 3
45

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE ........csccecscesceeereeeeeress jagnegodetace
* Particulars for early Meetings not furnished in the following Tables will

be found in Volumes for 1911 and previous years.
AQ

il CONTENTS.

Page
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS :
A.—Mathematical and Physical Science ..............:eceeceeeeeevees 367
Bi=-Chomistry, vesctvasesssesascteaseossergaiectsiusstassesctyenccdetaeerenya 408
Ci Goaol ogy ica. s es tearcepterancuscdeexeicscesersccrepsisse ere ric 453
Di Zoology | c.csesssercscecsen A SobcG neo CRD peenos aan one 500
I).—Geography ..........00-.00 SMe ar cost wnc species: sakecoreanee Di eencaeas 536
¥'.—Economie Science and Statistics ......... Soaisvekad 2c ee eho eeaam 560
Gi HPA GOI isso Set alr oe Pc ote cigtvn dobre tanh sos0sadamaatagseaceeeeee 587
EL A MENTONOLOD Wye cea ttencs de acqanscee sa Teees wlsoee, Sepaneeeeencepac uct eee 615
SER Y GLORY it. cece sgeexs fetes Stated sy catssenaddan sheen aeees es eam 652
WG — QUAN 2 raceesdaek toca tei sends saccnccetauies encanss:.ccamesaeernt a rane 692
Li—Wducahional Science: )4-2..-cavcercess so has seuta-c-ts dovemsear hy acaeaeeme 122
IE ATOM SURO: 5.72. ceccsaneavers ns vsivedcnsneascnge' «vy Sap Reape eam , «08
PV MMONG ITSOOURBES : ...davar.dessnvieensaubeune te ys Succ cceapareugsecneneeNeee ay eee 783
APPENDIX: Papers ordered to be printed i extensO ...c.ccccseeeee eee eee ees 788
MENS erence te <sssk ota at pasinn Te hlge cover creo ep agen ema sintnen sen ecru Maya 815
EIST OF MEMBERS QO. | caiteaedsascscsacisncntcdecseccsdseent -cceu Greesep eae reteatae 100 pages

LIST OF PLATES.
Prare I.—Illustrating the Report on Seismological Investigations.

Praves IT., U1., any 1V.—Iustrating the Report on the further Tabulation
on Bessel and other Functions.

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1913-1914.

PATRON.
IiiS MAJESTY THE KING.

PRESIDENT,
Sin OLIVER J. LODGE, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.,

The Right Hon. the Lord Mayor of Birmingham
(Lieut.-Ool. E, MARTINEAU, M.A., V.D.).

The Right Hon. the EARL or CRAVEN, Lord-
Lieutenant of Warwickshire.

The Worshipful the High Sheriff of Warwickshire
(Sir F. E. WALuER, Bart.).

The Right Hon, the Harn ov Coventry, Lord- |

Lientenant of Worcestershire.

The Right Hon. the Earn ov Danrmourn, V.D., |

Lord-Lieutenant of Staffordshire.

The Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of Birmingham |

(Dr. H. RussEtw WAKEFIELD).

{ The Right Hon. JoskrH CHAMBERLAIN, D.C.L.,

“ok Chancellor of the University of Birming-
iam.

The Vice-Chancellor of the University of Birming-
ham (GILBERT BARLING, M.B., F.R.O.S.).

The Right Hon, Jusse CoLuinas, M.P., Hon. Presi-
dent of the Birmingham Chamber of Commerce.

Alderman the Right Hon. WILLIAM KENRICK.

The Deputy Lord Mayor of Birmingham (Alderman
W. H. Bowater),

Professor CHARLES LAPWoRTH, LL.D., F.R.S.

Professor J. H. Poyn'rtnG, Sc.D., F.R.S.

PRESIDENT ELECT.
Professor WILLIAM Bateson, M.A,, F.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.

His Excellency the Governor-General of the Com-
monwealth of Australia.

Their Excellencies the Governors of New South
Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia,
Western Australia, Tasmania.

The Honourable the Prime Minister of the Com-
monwealth.

| The Honourable the Premiers of New South Wales,
| Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western
| Australia, Tasmania.
The Right Honourable the Lord Mayors of Sydney
| and Melbourne,
The Right Worshipful the Mayors of Brisvane,
Adelaide, Perth, Hobart.

The Chancellors of the Universities of Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, Tasmania, Queensland,
Western Australia.

GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor JOHN Perry, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

GENERAL SECRETARIES,

Yrofessor W. A. HinpMAN, D.Sc., F.R.S.

| Professor H. H. Turnwn, D.Sc., D.C.L., F.R.S.

ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
0. J. R, Howarts, M.A., Burlington House, London, W.

CHIEF CLERK AND ASSISTANT TREASURER,
H. 0. STEWARDSON, Burlington House, London, W.

FEDERAL COUNCIL FOR THE AUSTRALIAN MEETING.

P, esident: THE Hon, THE PRIME MINISTER OF THE COMMONWEALTH,
Chairman: Professor ORME Masson, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S,
Secretary : M. lu, SHEPHERD, Prime Minister’s Department, Melbourne,

GENERAL ORGANISING SECRETARY FOR THE AUSTRALIAN MEETING.
A.C. D. Riverr, B.A., D.Se., University of Melbourne, Victoria.

[P.1.0,

1V OFFICERS AND COUNCIL.

LOCAL OFFICERS FOR THE AUSTRALIAN MEETING.

New SourH WALEs.—Chairman: Professor T. W. EDGEWORTH DAvip, O0,M.G.,
D.Se., F.R.S,

Secretary: J. H, MAIDEN, F.L.S.
Treasurer: H G, CHAPMAN, M.D., B.S.

Vicvorii.—Chairman: Professor ORME MAsson, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S.
Secretary: Professor BALDWIN SPENCER, M.A., O.M.G., F.R.S.
Treasurer: FREDERICK WHITE.

QUEENSLAND.—Chairman: Professor B. D. SYEELE, D.Sc.
Secretary: T. E. JONES, B.A.

SourH AUSTRALIA —Chairman: Professor E. C. STIRLING, M.D., D.Se., PRS.
Secretary: Professor KERR GRANT, M.Sc.
Treasurer: THOMAS GILL.

WESTERN AUSTRALIA.—Chairman: Sir WINTHROP Hackett, K.C.M.G., LL.D.
Secretary: JAMES S, BATTYE, M.A., LL.B, :

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

ARMSTRONG, Professor H. E., F.R.S. | Hatt, A. D., F.B.S.

BRABROOK, Sir EDWARD, O.B. HALLIBURTON, Professor W. D., F.R.S.
BraGG, Professor W. H., F.R.S. m™M THURN, Sir E. F., K.0.M.G.
OLERK, Dr. DUGALD, F.R.S. LODGE, ALFRED, M. WN

ORAIGIE, Bein | P.G., O.B. Lyons, Captain H. G., F.B.8.

CRooxE, W., B.A Marr, Dr. J. E., F.R. 8.

DENDY, Professor A., F.R.S5. MELDOLA, Professor R., F.R.8,
Dixey, Dr. F. A., F.R.S. MyreEs, Professor J. L., M.A.

DIXon, Professor H. B., F.B.S. PRAIN, Sir DAvip, O.1.E., F.R.S.
FARMER, Professor J. B. ., F.R.S. SHERRINGTON, Professor 0.8, F.B.8.
GRIFFITHS, Principal E. H., F.R.S. TEALL, Dr, J. J. H., F.B.S.

Hanppov, Dr. A. ©., F.R.S. THOMPSON, Dr. SILY ANUS P., F.B.S.

TROUTON, Peatecsor F, T., F.R.S.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

The Trustees, past Presidents of the Association, the President and Vice-Presidents for the year, the

President and Vice-Presidents Elect, past and present General Treasurers and General Secretaries, past

Assistant General Secretaries, and the Local sae and Local Secretaries for the ensuing Annual
eeting.

TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

The Right Hon. Lord RAYLEIGH, O.M., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Sir ARTHUR W. RUCKER, M.A., D.Sc.. LL.D., F.R.S.
Major P. A. MaAcManony, D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.

PAST PRESIDENTS OF THE ASSOCIATION.

., F.R.S. | Sir A. W. Riicker, D.Se., F.R.S. | Sir Francis Darwin, F.R.S.

L., F.B.S. Sir James Dewar, LL.D., F.R.S. Sir J. J. Thomson, 0.M., F.R.S.

O.B., F.R.S. Sir Norman Lockyer, K.O.B.,F.R.S, | Prof. T. G. Bonney, Se.D., F.R.S.
«5 Pres.R.S. Arthur J. Balfour, D.C.L., ERS. | Sir W. Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S.

Sir W. Turner, OB. F.R.S. Sir E.Ray Lankester,K.0.B.,F.R.S. | Sir E, A. Schafer, LL. Ds F.R.S.

Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L.
Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.
Sir A. Geikie, 0. M. at Ky

PAST GENERAL OFFIOERS OF THE ASSOOIATION.

Prof. T. G. Bonney, Se.D., F.R.S. | Sir E. A. Schafer, LL.D., F.R.S. Dr. J. G. Garson.
A. Vernon Harcourt, D.C.L., F.R.S. | Dr. D. H. Scott, M.A., F.R.S, Major P. A. MacMahon, F.R.S.
Sir A. W. Riicker, D.Sc., F.R.S. Dr. G. Carey Foster, F.R.S.

AUDITORS.
Sir Edward Brabrook, C.B. | Professor H. McLeod, LL.D., F.R.S,

RULES OF

mah BRITISH. ASSOCIATION.

[Adopted by the General Committee at Leicester, 1907,
vith subsequent amendments. |

—

Cuaprer I.

Objects and Constitution.

1. The objects of the British Association for the Advance-
ment of Science are: To give a stronger impulse and a more
systematic direction to scientific inquiry ; to promote the
intercourse of those who cultivate Science in different parts
of the British Empire with one another and with foreign
philosophers ; to obtain more general attention for the objects
of Science and the removal of any disadvantages of a public
kind which impede its progress.

The Association contemplates no invasion of the ground
occupied by other Institutions.

2. The Association shall consist of Members, Associates,
and Honorary Corresponding Members.

The governing body of the Association shall be a General
Committee, constituted as hereinafter set forth; and its
_affairs shall be directed by a Council and conducted by
General Officers appointed by that Committee.

3. The Association shall meet annually, for one week or
longer, and at such other times as the General Committee
may appoint. The place of each Annual Meeting shall be
determined by the General Committee not less than two years
in advance ; and the arrangements for these meetings shall
be entrusted to the Officers of the Association.

Cuaprer II.
The General Committee.

1. The General Committee shall be constituted of the
following persons :—
(i) Permanent Members—

(a) Past and present Members of the Council, and past
and present Presidents of the Sections.

Objects.

Constitution.

Annual
Meetings.

Constitution.

vi RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

(6) Members who, by the publication of works or
papers, have furthered the advancement of know-
ledge in any of those departments which are
assigned to the Sections of the Association.

(ii) Vemporary Members—

(a) Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections.

(b) Honorary Corresponding Members, foreign repre-
sentatives, and other persons specially invited
or nominated by the Council or General Officers.

(c) Delegates nominated by the Affiliated Societies.

(d) Delegates—not exceeding altogether three in
number—from Scientific Institutions established
at the place of meeting.

Admission. 2. The decision of the Council on the qualifications and
claims of any Member of the Association to be placed on the
General Committee shall be final.

(i) Claims for admission as a Permanent Member must
be lodged with the Assistant Secretary at least one
month before the Annual Meeting.

(ii) Claims for admission as a Temporary Member may be
sent to the Assistant Secretary at any time before or
during the Annual Meeting.

Meetings. 3. The General Committee shall meet twice at least during
every Annual Meeting. In the interval between two Annual
Meetings, it shall be competent for the Council at any time
to summon a meeting of the General Committee.

Functions. 4, The General Committee shall

(i) Receive and consider the report of the Council.
(ii) Elect a Committee of Recommendations.
(iii) Receive and consider the report of the Committee of
Recommendations.
(iv) Determine the place of the Annual Meeting not less
than two years in advance.
(v) Determine the date of the next Annual Meeting.
(vi) Elect the President and Vice-Presidents, Local Trea-
surer, and Local Secretaries for the next Annual
Meeting.
(vii) Elect Ordinary Members of Council.
(viii) Appoint General Officers.
(ix) Appoint Auditors.
(x) Elect the officers of the Conference of Delegates.
(xi) Receive any notice of motion for the next Annual
Meeting.

COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS. vil

Cuapter IIT.
Committee of Recommendations.

1. * The ea officio Members of the Committee of Recom-
mendations are the President and Vice-Presidents of the
Association, the President of each Section at the Annual
Meeting, the Chairman of the Conference of Delegates, the
General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and
the Presidents of the Association in former years.

An Ordinary Member of the Committee for each Section
shall be nominated by the Committee of that Section.

If the President of a Section be unable to attend a meeting
of the Committee of Recommendations, the Sectional Com-
mittee may appoint a Vice-President, or some other member
of the Committee, to attend in his place, due notice of such
appointment being sent to the Assistant Secretary.

2, Every recommendation made under Chapter IV. and
every resolution on a scientific subject, which may be sub-
mitted to the Association by any Sectional Committee, or by
the Conference of Delegates, or otherwise than by the Council
of the Association, shall be submitted to the Committee of
Recommendations. If the Committee of Recommendations
approve such recommendation, they shall transmit it to the
General Committee ; and no recommendation shall be con-
sidered by the General Committee that is not so transmitted.

Every recommendation adopted by the General Committee
shall, if it involve action on the part of the Association, be
transmitted to the Council ; and the Council shall take such
action as may be needful to give effect to it, and shall report
to the General Committee not later than the next Annual
Meeting.

Every proposal for establishing a new Section or Sub-
Section, for altering the title of a Section, or for any other
change in the constitutional forms or fundamental rules of
the Association, shall be referred to the Committee of Recom-
mendations for their consideration and report.

3. The Committee of Recommendations shall assemble,
for the despatch of business, on the Monday of the Annual
Meeting, and, if necessary, on the following day. Their
Report must be submitted to the General Committee on the
last day of the Annual Meeting.

* Amended by the General Committee at Winnipeg, 1909.

Constitution.

Functions.

Procedure.

Procedure.

Constitution.

Proposals by
Sectional
Committees.

Tenure.

Reports.

Vlil RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

CuHaAptTer IV.

Research Committees.

1. Every proposal for special research, or for a grant of
money in aid of special research, which is made in any
Section, shall be considered by the Committee of that Section ;
and, if such proposal be approved, it shall be referred to the
Committee of Recommendations.

In consequence of any such proposal, a Sectional Com-
mittee may recommend the appointment of a Research
Committee, composed of Members of the Association, to
conduct research or administer a grant in aid of research,
and in any case to report thereon to the Association ; and the
Committee of Recommendations may include such recom-
mendation in their report to the General Committee.

2. Every appointment of a Research Committee shall be
proposed at a meeting of the Sectional Committee and adopted
at a subsequent meeting. The Sectional Committee shall
settle the terms of reference and suitable Members to serve
on it, which must be as small as is consistent with its efficient
working ; and shall nominate a Chairman and a Secretary.
Such Research Committee, if appointed, shall have power to
add to their numbers.

3. The Sectional Committee shall state in their recommen-
dation whether a grant of money be desired for the purposes
of any Research Committee, and shall estimate the amount
required.

All proposals sanctioned by a Sectional Committee shall
be forwarded by the Recorder to the Assistant Secretary not
later than noon on the Monday of the Annual Meeting for
presentation to the Committee of Recommendations.

4. Research Committees are appointed for one year only.
If the work of a Research Committee cannot be completed
in that year, application may be made through a Sectional
Committee at the next Annual Meeting for reappointment,
with or without a grant—or a further grant—of money.

5, Every Research Committee shall present a Report,
whether interim or final, at the Annual Meeting next after
that at which it was appointed or reappointed. Interim
Reports, whether intended for publication or not, must be sub-
mitted in writing. Each Sectional Committee shall ascertain
whether a Report has been made by each Research Committee
appointed on their recommendation, and shall report to the
Committee of Recommendations on or before the Monday of
the Annual Meeting.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES. ix

6. In each Research Committee to which a grant of money
has been made, the Chairman is the only person entitled to call
on. the General Treasurer for such portion of the sum granted
as from time to time may be required.

Grants of money sanctioned at the Annual Meeting
expire on June 30 following. The General Treasurer is not
authorised, after that date, to allow any claims on account of
such grants.

The Chairman of a Research Committee must, before
the Annual Meeting next following the appointment of
the Research Committee, forward to the General Treasurer
a statement of the sums that have been received and ex-
pended, together with vouchers. The Chairman must then
return the balance of the grant, if any, which remains un-
expended ; provided that a Research Committee may, in the
first year of its appointment only, apply for leave to retain
an unexpended balance when or before its report is presented,
due reason being given for such application.*

When application is made for a Committee to be re-
appointed, and to retain the balance of a former grant, and
also to receive a further grant, the amount of such further
grant is to be estimated as being sufficient, together with
the balance proposed to be retained, to make up the amount
desired.

In making grants of money to Research Committees, the
Association does not contemplate the payment of personal
expenses to the Members.

A Research Committee, whether or not in receipt of a
grant, shall not raise money, in the name or under the auspices
of the Association, without special permission from the General
Committee.

7. Members and Committees entrusted with sums of money
for collecting specimens of any description shall include in their
Reports particulars thereof, and shall reserve the specimens
thus obtained for disposal, as the Council may direct.

Committees are required to furnish a list of any ap-
paratus which may have been purchased out of a grant made
by the Association, and to state whether the apparatus is
likely to be useful for continuing the research in question or
for other specific purposes.

All instruments, drawings, papers, and other property of
the Association, when not in actual use by a Committee, shall
be deposited at the Office of the Association.

* Amended by the General Committee at Dundee, 1912.

GRANTS.
(a) Drawn by
Chairman.

(6) Expire on
June 30.

(ec) Accounts
and balance
in hand,

(d) Addi-
tional Grant.

(e) Caveat.

Disposal of
specimens,
apparatus,
ke.

P< RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

CHAPTER V.
The Council.

Constitution. 1. The Council shall consist of ex officio Members and of
Ordinary Members elected annually by the General Com-
mittee.

(i) The ex officio Members are—the Trustees, past Presi-
dents of the Association, the President and Vice-
Presidents for the year, the President and Vice-
Presidents Elect, past and present General Treasurers
and General Secretaries, past Assistant General
Secretaries, and the Local Treasurers and Local
Secretaries for the ensuing Annual Meeting.

(ii) The Ordinary Members shall not exceed twenty-five in
number. Of these, not more than twenty shall have
served on the Council as Ordinary Members in the
previous year.

Functions. 2. The Council shall have authority to act, in the name and
on behalf of the Association, in all matters which do not con-
flict with the functions of the General Committee.

In the interval between two Annual Meetings, the Council
shall manage the affairs of the Association and may fill up
vacancies among the General and other Officers, until the next
Annual Meeting.

The Council shall hold such meetings as they may think
fit, and shall in any case meet on the first day of the Annual
Meeting, in order to complete and adopt the Annual Report,
and to consider other matters to be brought before the General
Committee.

The Council shall nominate for election by the General
Committee, at each Annual Meeting, a President and General
Officers of the Association.

Suggestions for the Presidency shall be considered by the
Council at the Meeting in February, and the names selected
shall be issued with the summonses to the Council Meeting in
March, when the nomination shall be made from the names
on the list.

The Council shall have power to appoint and dismiss
such paid officers as may be necessary to carry on the work
of the Association, on such terms as they may from time to
time determine.

THE COUNCIL. xi

3. Election to the Council shall take place at the same
time as that of the Officers of the Association,

(i) At each Annual Election, the following Ordinary
Members of the Council shall be ineligible for re-
election in the ensuing year :

(a) Three of the Members who have served for the
longest consecutive period, and
(6) Two of the Members who, being resident in or near
London, have attended the least number of meet-
ings during the past year.
Nevertheless, it shall be competent for the Council, by
an unanimous vote, to reverse the proportion in the
order of retirement above set forth.

(ii) The Council shall submit to the General Committee,
in their Annual Report, the names of twenty-three
Members of the Association whom they recommend for
election as Members of Council.

(iii) Two Members shall be elected by the General Com-
mittee, without nomination by the Council ; and this
election shall be at the same meeting as that at which the
election of the other Members of the Council takes place.

Any member of the General Committee may propose
another member thereof for election as one of these two
members of Council, and, if only two are so proposed,
they shall be declared elected ; but, if more than two
are so proposed, the election shall be by show of hands,
unless five members at least require it to be by ballot.

Craprer VI.
The President, General Officers, and Staff.

1. The President assumes office on the first day of the
Annual Meeting, when he delivers a Presidential Address.
He resigns office at the next Annual Meeting, when he
inducts his successor into the Chair.

The President shall preside at all meetings’of the Associa-
tion or of its Council and Committees which he attends in his
capacity as President. In his absence, he shall be represented
by a Vice-President or past President of the Association.

2. The General Officers of the Association are the General ea

Treasurer and the General Secretaries.

Elections,

The Presi-
dent.

cers.

The General
Treasurer.

The General
Secretaries.

The Assistant
Secretary.

Assistant
Treasurer.

Financial
Statements.

xii RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

It shall be competent for the General Officers to act, in
the name of the Association, in any matter of urgency which
cannot be brought under the consideration of the Council ;
and they shall report such action to the Council at the next
meeting.

3. The General Treasurer shall be responsible to the
General Committee and the Council for the financial affairs
of the Association.

4. The General Secretaries shall control the general
organisation and administration, and shall be responsible to
the General Committee and the Council for conducting the
correspondence and for the general routine of the work of
the Association, excepting that which relates to Finance.

5. The Assistant Secretary shall hold office during the
pleasure of the Council. He shall act under the direction
of the General Secretaries, and in their absence shall repre-
sent them. He shall also act on the directions which may
be given him by the General Treasurer in that part of his
duties which relates to the finances of the Association.

The Assistant Secretary shall be charged, subject as afore-
said : (i) with the general organising and editorial work, and
with the administrative business of the Association ; (ii) with
the control and direction of the Office and of all persons
therein employed ; and (iii) with the execution of Standing
Orders or of the directions given him by the General Officers
and Council. He shall act as Secretar y, and take Minutes, at
the meetings of the Council, and at all meetings of Com-
mittees of the Council, of the Committee of Recommendations,
and of the General Committee.

6. The General Treasurer may depute one of the Staff, as
Assistant Treasurer, to carry on, under his direction, the
routine work of the duties of his office.

The Assistant Treasurer shall be charged with the issue of
Membership Tickets, the payment of Grants, and such other
work as may be delegated to him.

Cuapter VII.
Finance.

1. The General Treasurer, or Assistant Treasurer, shall
receive and acknowledge all sums of money paid to the
Association. He shall submit, at each meeting of the
Council, an interim statement of his Account; and, after

FINANCE. xili

June 30 in each year, he shall prepare and submit to the
General Committee a balance-sheet of the Funds of the
Association.

2. The Accounts of the Association shall be audited,
annually, by Auditors appointed by the General Committee.

3. The General Treasurer shall make all ordinary pay-
ments authorised by the General Committee or by the
Council.

4, The General Treasurer is empowered to draw on the
account of the Association, and to invest on its behalf,
part or all of the balance standing at any time to the credit
of the Association in the books of the Bank of England,
either in Exchequer Bills or in any other temporary invest-
ment, and to change, sell, or otherwise deal with such tem-
porary investment as may seem to him desirable.

5. In the event of the General Treasurer being unable,
from illness or any other cause, to exercise the functions of
his office, the President of the Association for the time being
and one of the General Secretaries shall be jointly empowered
to sign cheques on behalf of the Association.

Cuapter VIII.
The Annual Meetings.

1. Local Committees shall be formed to assist the General
Officers in making arrangements for the Annual Meeting, and
shall have power to add to their number.

2. The General Committee shall appoint, on the recom-
mendation of the Local Reception or Executive Committee for
the ensuing Annual Meeting, a Local Treasurer or Treasurers
and two or more Local Secretaries, who shall rank as officers
of the Association, and shall consult with the General Officers
and the Assistant Secretary as to the local arrangements
necessary for the conduct of the meeting. The Local Treasurers
shall be empowered to enrol Members and Associates, and to
receive subscriptions.

3. The Local Committees and Sub-Committees shall under-
take the local organisation, and shall have power to act in the
naiie of the Association in all matters pertaining to the local
arrangements for the Annua] Meeting other than the work of
the Sections,

Audit.

Expenditure.

Investments,

Cheques.

Local Offi-
cers and
Committees.

Functions.

THE
SECTIONS.

Sectional
Officers.

Rooms,

SECTIONAL
COMMITTEES.

Constitution.

Privilege of

Old Members.

Daily
Co-optation.

X1V

RULES OF

THE BRITISH

ASSOCIATION,

Cuaprer JX.
The Work of the Sections.

1. The scientific work of the Association shall be trans-

acted under such Sections as shall be constituted from time
to time by the General Committee.

It shall be competent for any Section, if authorised by the

Council for the time being, to form a Sub-Section for the
purpose of dealing separately with any group of communica-
tions addressed to that Section.

2. There shall be in each Section a President, two or
more Vice-Presidents, and two or more Secretaries.

They

shall be appointed by the Council, for each Annual Meet-
ing in advance, and shall act as the Officers of the Section
from the date of their appointment until the appoint-
ment of their successors in office for the ensuing Annual

Meeting.
Of the Secretaries, one shall act as Recorder of the Section,

and one shall be resident in the locality where the Annual
Meeting is held.

3. The Section Rooms and the approaches thereto shall

not be used for any notices, exhibitions, or other purposes
than those of the Association.

4. The work of each Section shall be conducted by a

Sectional Committee, which shall consist of the following :—

Provided always that—

(i) The Officers of the Section during their term of office.
(ii) All past Presidents of that Section.
(iii) Such other Members of the Association, present at

any Annual Meeting, as the Sectional Committee,
thus constituted, may co-opt for the period of the
meeting :

(a) Any Member of the Association who has served on
the Committee of any Section in any previous year,
and who has intimated his intention of being present
at the Annual Meeting, is eligible as a member of
that Committee at their first meeting.

(6) A Sectional Committee may co-opt members, as above
set forth, at any time during the Annual Meeting,
and shall publish daily a revised list of the members.

THE WORK OF THE SECTIONS. XV

(c) A Sectional Committee may, at any time during the
Annual Meeting, appoint not more than three persons
present at the meeting to be Vice-Presidents of the
Section, in addition to those previously appointed
by the Council.

5. The chief executive officers of a Section shall be the
President and the Recorder. They shall have power to act on
behalf of the Section in any matter of urgency which cannot
be brought before the consideration of the Sectional Com-
mittee ; and they shall report such action to the Sectional
Committee at its next meeting.

The President (or, in his absence, one of the Vice-Presi-
dents) shall preside at all meetings of the Sectional Committee
or of the Section. His ruling shall be absolute on all points
of order that may arise.

The Recorder shall be responsible for the punctual trans-
mission to the Assistant Secretary of the daily programme of
his Section, of the recommendations adopted by the Sectional
Committee, of the printed returns, abstracts, reports, or papers
appertaining to the proceedings of his Section at the Annual
Meeting, and for the correspondence and minutes of the
Sectional Committee.

6. The Sectional Committee shall nominate, before the
close of the Annual Meeting, not more than six of its own
members to be members of an Organising Committee, with
the officers to be subsequently appointed by the Council, and
past Presidents of the Section, from the close of the Annual
Meeting until the conclusion of its meeting on the first day of
the ensuing Annual Meeting.

Each Organising Committee shall hold such Meetings as
are deemed necessary by its President for the organisation
of the ensuing Sectional proceedings, and shall hold a meeting
on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting : to nominate
members of the Sectional Committee, to confirm the Pro-
visional Programme of the Section, and to report to the
Sectional Committee.

Each Sectional Committee shall meet daily, unless other-
wise determined, during the Annual Meeting: to co-opt
members, to complete the arrangements for the next day, and
to take into consideration any suggestion for the advance-
ment of Science that may be offered by a member, or may
arise out of the proceedings of the Section.

No paper shall be read in any Section until it has been
accepted by the Sectional Committee and entered as accepted
on its Minutes,

Additional
Vice-Presi-
dents,

EXECUTIVE
FUNCTIONS

Of President

and of
Recorder.

Organising
Committee.

Sectional
Committee.

Papers and
Reports.

Recommen-
dations.

Publication.

Copyright.

xvi RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

Any report or paper read in any one Section nfay be read
also in any other Section.

No paper or abstract of a paper shall be printed in the
Annual Report of the Association unless the manuscript has
been received by the Recorder of the Section before the close
of the Annual Meeting.

It shall be within the competence of the Sectional Com-
mittee to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Annual Meetings, as published in the Annual Reports of the
Association, and the communications made to the Section at
its current meetings, for the purpose of selecting definite
objects of research, in the promotion of which individual or
concerted action may be usefully employed ; and, further, to
take into consideration those branches or aspects of knowledge
on the state and progress of which reports are required : to
make recommendations and nominate individuals or Research
Committees to whom the preparation of such reports, or the task
of research, may be entrusted, discriminating as to whether,
and in what respects, these objects may be usefully advanced
by the appropriation of money from the funds of the Associa-
tion, whether by reference to local authorities, public institu-
tions, or Departments of His Majesty’s Government. The
appointment of such Research Committees shall be made in
accordance with the provisions of Chapter LV.

No proposal arising out of the proceedings of any Section
shall be referred to the Committee of Recommendations unless
it shall have received the sanction of the Sectional Com-
mittee.

7. Papers ordered to be printed in extenso shall not be
included in the Annual Report, if published elsewhere prior
to the issue of the Annual Report in volume form. Reports
of Research Committees shall not be published elsewhere
than in the Annual Report without the express sanction of
the Council.

8. The copyright of papers ordered by the General Com-
mittee to be printed in eatenso in the Annual Report shall
be vested in the authors ; and the copyright of the reports
of Research Committees appointed by the General Committee
shall be vested in the Association.

ADMISSION OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES, XVil

CHAPTER X.
Admission of Members and Associates.

1. No technical qualification shall be required on the
part of an applicant for admission as a Member or as an
Associate of the British Association; but the Council is
empowered, in the event of special circumstances arising, to
impose suitable conditions and restrictions in this respect.

* Every person admitted as a Member or an Associate
shall conform to the Rules and Regulations of the Association,
any infringement of which on his part may render him liable
to exclusion by the Council, who have also authority, if they

think it necessary, to withhold from any person the privilege -

of attending any Annual Meeting or to cancel a ticket of
admission already issued.

It shall be competent for the General Officers to act, in
the name of the Council, on any occasion of urgency which
cannot be brought under the consideration of the Council ;
and they shall report such action to the Council at the. next
Meeting.

2, All Members are eligible to any office in the Association.

(i) Every Life Member shall pay, on admission, the sum
of Ten Pounds.

Life Members shall receive gratis the Annual

* Reports of the Association.

(ii) Every Annual Member shall pay, on admission, the
sum of Two Pounds, and in any subsequent year
the sum of One Pound.

Annual Members shall receive gratis the Report
of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay,
without intermission, their annual subscription. An
Annual Member who omits to subscribe for any
particular year shall lose for that and all future
years the privilege of receiving the Annual Reports
of the Association gratis. He, however, may resume
his other privileges as a Member at any subsequent
Annual Meeting by paying on each such occasion
the sum of One Pound.

(iii) Every Associate for a year shall pay, on admission,
the sum of One Pound.

* Amended by the General Committee at Dublin, 1908.
1913

Applications.

Obligations.

Conditions
and Privileges
of Memb er-
ship.

Correspond-

ing Members.

Annual Sub-
scriptions,

The Annual
lieport.

AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES.

ASSOCIATED
SOCIETIES.

XV RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Associates shall not receive the Annual Report
gratuitously. They shall not be eligible to serve on
any Committee, nor be qualified to hold any office in
the Association.

(iv) Ladies may become Members or Associates on the
same terms as gentlemen, or can obtain a Lady’s
Ticket (transferable to ladies only) on the payment
of One Pound.

3. Corresponding Members may be appointed by the
General Committee, on the nomination of the Council. They
shall be entitled to all the privileges of Membership.

4, Subscriptions are payable at or before the Annual
Meeting. Annual Members not attending the meeting may
make payment at any time before the close of the financial
year on June 30 of the following year. 3

5. The Annual Report of the Association shall be forwarded
gratis to individuals and institutions entitled to receive it.

Annual Members whose subscriptions have been inter-
mitted shall be entitled to purchase the Annual Report
at two-thirds of the publication price ; and Associates for a
year shall be entitled to purchhetas at the same price, the
volume for that year.

Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of
publication can only be issued by direction of the Council.

Cuaprer XI.
Corresponding Societies: Conference of Delegates.
Corresponding Societies are constituted as follows :

1. (i) Any Society which undertakes local scientific inves- _
tigation and publishes the results may become a
Society affiliated to the British Association.

Each Afhliated Society may appoint a Delegate,
who must be or become a Member of the Associa-
tion and must attend the meetings of the Conference
of Delegates. He shall be ea officio a Member of
the General Committee,

(ii) Any Society formed for the purpose of encouraging
the study of Science, which has existed for three
years and numbers not fewer than fifty members,
may become a Society associated with the British
Association.

eo

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES : CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES, X1x

Each Associated Society shall have the right
to appoint a Delegate to attend the Annual Con-
ference. Such Delegates must be or become either
Members or Associates of the British Association,
and shall have all the rights of Delegates appointed
by the Affiliated Societies, except that of member-
ship of the General Committee.

2. Application may be made by any Society to be placed
on the list of Corresponding Societies. Such application must
be addressed to the Assistant Secretary on or before the Ist of
June preceding the Annual Meeting at which it is intended
it should be considered, and must, in the case of Societies
desiring to be affiliated, be accompanied by specimens of the
publications of the results of local scientific investigations
recently undertaken by the Society.

3. A Corresponding Societies Committee shall be an-
nually nominated by the Council and appointed by the
General Committee, for the purpose of keeping themselves
generally informed of the work of the Corresponding Socie-
ties and of superintending the preparation of a list of the
papers published by the Affiliated Societies. This Com-
mittee shall make an Annual Report to the Council, and
shall suggest such additions or changes in the list of Corre-
sponding Societies as they may consider desirable.

(i) Each Corresponding Society shall forward every year
to the Assistant Secretary of the Association, on or
before June 1, such particulars in regard to the
Society as may be required for the information of
the Corresponding Societies Committee.

(ii) There shall be inserted in the Annual Report of the
Association a list of the papers published by
the Corresponding Societies during the preceding
twelve months which contain the results of local
scientific work conducted by them—those papers
only being included which refer to subjects coming
under the cognisance of one or other of the several
Sections of the Association.

4. The Delegates of Corresponding Societies shall consti-
tute a Conference, of which the Chairman, Vice-Chairman,
and Secretary or Secretaries shall be nominated annually by
the Council and appointed by the General Committee. The
members of the Corresponding Societies Committee shall be
ex officio members of the Conference.

(i) The Conference of Delegates shall be summoned by

the Secretaries to hold one or more meetings during
a2

Applications.

CORRE-
SPONDING
SOCIETIES
COMMITTEE.

Procedure.

CONFERENCE
or DELE-
GATES.

Procedureand
Functions.

Alterations.

xR

or

RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

each Annual Meeting of the Association, and shall
be empowered to invite any Member or Associate
to take part in the discussions.

(ii) The Conference of Delegates shall be empowered to
submit Resolutions to the Committee of Recom-
mendations for their consideration, and for report
to the General Committee.

(iii) The Sectional Committees of the Association shall
be requested to transmit to the Secretaries of the
Conference of Delegates copies of any recommenda-
tions to be made to the General Committee bearing
on matters in which the co-operation of Corre-
sponding Societies is desirable. It shall be com-
petent for the Secretaries of the Conference of
Delegates to invite the authors of such recom-
mendations to attend the meetings of the Conference
in order to give verbal explanations of their objects
and of the precise way in which they desire these
to be carried into effect.

(iv) It shall be the duty of the Delegates to make
themselves familiar with the purport of the several
récommendations brought before the Conference,
in order that they may be able to bring such re-
commendations adequately before their respective
Societies.

(v) The Conference may also discuss propositions
regarding the promotion of more systematic ob-
servation and plans of operation, and of greater
uniformity in the method of publishing results.

CHAPTER XII.
Amendments and New Rules.

Any alterations in the Rules, and any amendments
new Rules that may be proposed by the Council or

individual Members, shall be notified to the General Com-
mittee on the first day of the Annual Meeting, and referred
forthwith to the Committee of Recommendations ; and, on the
report of that Committee, shall be submitted for approval at
the last meeting of the General Committee.

Xx1

TRUSTEES, Se ok OFFICERS, &c., 1831-1913

“TRUSTEES.
1832-70 (Sir) R. I. Murcuison (Bart.), | 1872- fSir J. Luppock, Bart. (after-
F. |

B.S.
1832-62 JOHN TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.S.
1832-39 C. BABBAGE, Esq., F.R.S,
1839-44 F. BAILy, Esq., ¥.R.S.
1844-58 Rev. G. PEACOCK, F.R.S.
1858-82 General E. SABINE, F.R.S.
1862-81 Sir P. EGERTON, Bart., F.R.S.

1913 | wards Lord AVEBURY), F.R.S.
1881-83 W. SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., Pres.
RS.

1883— Lord RAYLEIGH, F.R.S.
1883-98 Sir Lyon (afterwards
PLAYFAITR, F.R.S.
Prof. Cae W. RUCKER, F.R.S.
Major P. A. MACMAnON, F.R.S.

Lord)

1898-
1913 -

GENERAL TREASURERS.

JONATHAN GRAY, Esq.

JOHN TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.S.

W. SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., F.R.S.
Prof. A. W. WILLIAMSON, F.R.S.

1831

1832-62
1862-74
1874-91

1891-98 Prof. (Sir) A. W. Rucker,
E.R.S.

1898-1904 Prof. G. C. FostEr, F.R.S,

1904— ~=Prof. JOHN PERRY, F.R.S.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.

Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT,
F.R.S.

1835-36 Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT,
¥.R.S., and F. Batuy, Esq.,
¥.R.S.

Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT,
¥.R.S., and R. I. MuRcHISON,
Esq., F.R.S.

R, I. Murcuison, Esq., F.R.S.,
and Rev. G. PEACOCK, F.R.S.

Sir R. I. Murcutison, F.R.S.,

: and Major E. SABINE, F.R.S.

1845-50 Lieut.-Colonel E. SABINE, F.R.S.

1850-52 General E. SABINE, F.R.S., and
J. F. Rory, Esq., ERS.

J. F. ROYLE, Esq., EBS.

1853-59 General E. SABINE, F.R.S.

1859-61 Prof. R. WALKER, F.R.S.

1861-62 W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S.

1862-63 W. Hopxtns, Esq., F.R.S., and
Prof. J. PHILLIPS, F.R.S.

W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S., and
F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.8.

1865-66 F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S.

1832-35

1836-37

1837-39

1839-45

1852-53

1863-65

1871-72 Dr.T. THOMSON,F.R.S.,and Capt.
DOUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.

1872-76 Capt. D. GALTON, F.R.S., and
Dr. MICHAEL FOSTER, I'.R.S.

1876-81 Capt. D. GALTON, F.R.S., and
Dr. P. L. SCLATER, F.RB.S.

1881-82 Capt. D. GALroN, F.R.5., and
Prof. F. M. BALFouR, F.R.S.

1882-83 Capt. DOUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.

1883-95 Sir DouGLAs GALTON, F.R.S.,
= A.G. VERNON HARCOURT,

, F.RB.S.

1895-97 A. a anaes HARCOURT, Ksq.,
TRS anes broins He: 7A;
SCHAFER, E.R.S.

1897— f Prof. SCHAFER, F.R.S., and Sir

1900 W.C.ROBERTS-AUSTEN,F.R.S.

1900-02 Sir W. C. ROBERTS-AUSTEN,
F.R.S., and Dr. D. H. Scort,
F.R.S.

1902-03 Dr. D. H. Scort, F.R.S., and
MajorP. A.MAcMAHnON, F.R.S8.

1903-13 Major P. A. MAcCMAnON, F.R.S.,
and Prof. W. A. HERDMAN,

1866-68 F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S., and E.R.S.

Dr. T. A. Hrrst, F.R.S. 1913-— Prof. W. A. HerpMAN, F.R.S.,
1868-71 Dr. T, A. Hirst, F.R.S., and Dr. and Prof. 1.H.TURNER, F.R.S.

T. THoMsoN, F.R.S.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARIES, &c.: 1831-1904.
1831 JOHN PHILLIPS, Esq., Sceretary. 1881-85 Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.B.S.,
1832 Prof. J. D. ForBEs, Acting Secretary.

Secretary. 1885-90 A. T. ATCHISON, Esq., M.A.,
1832-62 Prof. JOHN PHILLIPS, F.R.S. Secretary.
1862-78 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A. , 1890 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Acting
1881 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Acting | Secretary.

Secretary.

1890-1902 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A.
1902-04 J. G. GARSON, Esq., M.D.

ASSISTANT SECRETARIES.

1878-80 J. E. H. Gorpon, Esq., B.A.
1904-09 A, SILVA WHITE, Esq.

1909- O.J.R. HowartH, Esq., M.A.

XX

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF

THE SECTIONS,

Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association,

1901-1913.

Date and Place

Presidents Secretaries

1901,

1902.

1903.

1904.

1905.

1906.

1907.

1908.

1909.

1910.

ant

1912.

1913.

1901.

1902.
1908.

SECTION A.'—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

Glasgow ...
Belfast......

Southport

Cambridge

SouthA frica

Leicester ...

Dublin

Winnipeg

Sheffield ..,

Portsmouth

Dundee

Birmingham

Glasgow

Belfast

Southport

does Edel obi-el lg be

| Major P. A. MacMahon, F.R.8.
—Dep. of Astronomy, Prof. |
H. H. Turner, F.R.S.
| Prof. J. Purser, LL.D.,M.R.L.A.|

H.S.Carslaw, C.H. Lees, W. Stewart,
Prof. L. R. Wilberforce.

. S. Carslaw, A. R. Hinks, A.
—Dep. of Astronomy, Prof.| Larmor, C. H. Lees, Prof, W. B.
A. Schuster, F.R.S. Morton, A. W. Porter.

|C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.—Dep. D. E. Benson, A. R. Hinks, R. W.
of Astronomy and Meteor-| H. T. Hudson, Dr. ;C.. Hcy lees;
ology,Dr.W.N. Shaw,F.R.8.| J. Loton, A. W. Porter.

Prof. H. Lamb, F.R.S.—Sub-| A. R. Hinks, R. W. H. T. Hudson,
Section of Astronomy and| Dr. C. H. Lees, Dr. W. J.S. Lock-
Cosmical Physics, Sir J.| yer, A. W. Porter, W. C. D.
Eliot, K.C.I.E., F.R.S. | Whetham.

Prof, A. RB. Forsyth, M.A.,| A. R. Hinks, 8. 8. Hough, R. T. A.
F.R.S. Innes, J. H. Jeans, Dr. C. H. Lees.

Principal E. H.Griffiths, F.R.S. | Dr. L. N. G. Filon, Dr. J. A. Harker,

A. R. Hinks, Prof. A. W. Porter,

H. Dennis Taylor.

Prof. A. E. H. Love, M.A.,/E. E. Brooks, Dr. L. N. G. Filon,

F.R.S. Dr. J. A. Harker, A. R. Hinks,
Prof, A. W. Porter.

Dr. W. N. Shaw, F.R.S. ......|Dr. W. G. Duffield, Dr. L. N. G.

Kilon, 5. Gold) “Prof, aoe, A.

McClelland, Prof. A. W. Porter,

| Prof. E. T. Whittaker.

|Prof. F. Allen, Prof. J. C. Fields,

E. Gold, F. Horton, Prof. A. W.

Porter, Dr. A. A. Rambaut.

..|H. Bateman, A. 8. Eddington, E.
Gold, Dr. F. Horton, Dr. 8. R.
Milner, Prof. A. W. Porter.

H. Bateman, Prof. P. V. Bevan, A.S.
Eddington, E. Gold, Prof. A. W.
Porter, P. A. Yapp.

Prof. P. V. Bevan, E. Gold, Dr. H. B.
Heywood, R. Norrie, Prof. A. W.
Porter, W. G. Robson, ¥. J. M.
Stratton.

| Prof. P. V. Bevan, Prof. A. 8. Edding-

ton, E. Gold, Dr. H. B. Heywood,

| “Dy AS OY Rankine, 5 week.
| Shakespear.

SECTION B.2A—CHEMISTRY.

Prof. E. Rutherford, F.R.S....

Prof. E, W. Hobson, F.R.S..

Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S. ...

Callendar, F.R.S.

Dy. Baker i Resuaime

.... Prof. Percy F. Frankland, W.C. Anderson, G. G. Henderson,
FE,

B.S. W. J. Pope, T. K. Rose.
Prof, E. Divers, F.R.S........08 R. F. Blake, M. O. Forster, Prof.
G. G. Henderson, Prof. W. J. Pope.
Prof. W. N. Hartley, D.Sc., Dr. M. O. Forster, Prof. G. G. Hen-
| ERS. derson, J. Ohm, Prof. W. J. Pope.

1 Section A was constituted under this title in 1835, when the sectional division
was introduced. The previous division was into ‘Committees of Sciences.’
* «Chemistry and Mineralogy,’ 1835-1891.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS, Xx

Date and Place Presidents Secretaries

1904.

1905.
1906.
1907.

1908.

1909.

1910.

HOLY:

1912.
1913.

1901.
1902,

1903.
1904.
1905.

1906.
1907.
1908.
1909.
1910,
1911.

1912.

1913,

Cambridge | Prof. Sydney Young, F.R.5....| Dr. M. O. Forster, Prof. G. G. Hen-
derson, Dr. H. O. Jones, Prof.

W. J. Pope.
SouthAfrica|George T. Beilby ........ ..... W. A. Caldecott, Mr. M. O. Forster,
Prof. G. G. Henderson, C. F. Juritz.
MOTE caries Prof. Wyndham R. Dunstan, | Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Prof. A.W. Cross-
E.R.S. ley, S. H. Davies, Prof. W. J. Pope.

Leicester ...|Prof. A. Smithells, F.R.S. ...| Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Prof. A. W.
Crossley, J. H. Hawthorn, Dr.
¥. M. Perkin.

Dublin...... Prof. F. S. Kipping, F.R.S. ...| Dr. E. F.Armstrong, Dr.A. McKenzie,
Dr. F. M. Perkin, Dr. J. H. Pollock.

Winnipeg...| Prof. H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S.| Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Dr. T. M. Lowry,
Dr. F. M. Perkin, J. W. Shipley.
Sheffield .../J. H. Stead, F.R.S. ........208. Dr. EB. F. Armstrong, Dr. T. M.
Lowry, Dr. F. M. Perkin, W. E. 8.
Turner.
Sub-section of Agriculture—|Dr. C. Crowther, J. Golding, Dr.
A. D. Hall, F.R.S. E. J. Russell.
Portsmouth| Prof. J. Walker, F.R.S. ......|Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Dr. C. H.

Desch, Dr. T. M. Lowry, Dr. F.
Beddow.

Dundee ...|}Prof. A. Senier, M.D. ......... Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Dr. C. H.
Desch, Dr. A. Holt, Dr. J. K. Wood.

Birmingham| Prof. W. P. Wynne, F.R.S....| Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Dr. C. H. Desch,
| Dr. A. Holt, Dr. H. McCombie.

SECTION C.3—GEOLOGY.

Glasgow ...| John Horne, F.R.S. . |H. L. Bowman, H. W. Monckton.

Belfast...... |Lient.-Gen. ©. A. McMahon, | 'H. L. Bowman, H. W. Monckton,
fellas Py ipesund Phillips, H. J. Seymour.

Southport Prof. W. W. Watts, M.A., H. L. Bowman, Rev. W. L. Carter,
| M.Sc. | J. Lomas, H. W. Monckton.

Cambridge Aubrey Strahan, F.R.S. ...... H. L. Bowman, Rev. W. L. Carter,

| J. Lomas, H. Woods.

SouthAfrica Prof. H. A. Miers, M.A., D.Sc., H. L. Bowman, J. Lomas, Dr. Molen-
espa S89 8 tS graafi, Prof. A. Young, Prof. R. B.
| Young.

OUK cece cere G. W. Lamplugh, F.RB.S....... H. L. Bowman, Rev. W. L. Carter,

| Rev. W. Johnson, J. Lomas.

Leicester... Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.B.S.... Dr. F. W. Bennett, Rev. W. L. Carter,
} Prof. T. Groom, J. Lomas.

Dublin...... Prof. John Joly, F.R.S. ....... Rev. W. L. Carter, J. Lomas, Prof.
| §. H. Reynolds, H. J. Seymour.

Winnipeg...|Dr. A. Smith Woodward, W. L. Carter, Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse,
|. ERS. R.T.Hodgson, Prof. S.H. Reynolds.

Sheffield .. apo A. P. Coleman, F.R.S...| W. L. Carter, Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse,

B. Hobson, Prof. S. H. Reynolds.

Porknontht APNE an en ah ohn cs xe aeosise scart Col. C. W. Bevis, W. L. Carter, Dr.

A. R. Dwerryhouse, Prof. 8. H.
| Reynolds.

Dundee ... Dr. B. N. Peach, F.R.S. ...... Prof. W. B. Boulton, A. W. RB. Don,
. | Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse, Prof. 8. H.
| Reynolds.

Birmingham Prof. E. J. Garwood, M.A. ... Prof. W. 8. Boulton, Dr. A. R.
| Dwerryhouse, F. Raw, Prof. 8. H

Reynolds.

3 «Geology and Geography,’ 1835-1850.

XXIV

PRESIDENTS AND SECKETARIES OF THE SECTIONS,

Date and Place |

Presidents Secretaries

1901.

1903.

1904. Cambridge

1905. SouthAfrica
1906. York.......

1907.
1908.

1909. Winnipeg...
1910. Sheffield ...

1911.

1912. Dundee

1913. Birmingham |

1901.
1902.

1908. Southport...

1904. Cambridge
1905. SouthAfrica |

1906. York. .....
1907. Leicester ...
1908. Dublin.....,

4 «Zoology and Botany,’ 1835-1847 ;
‘ Biology,’ 1866-1894.

1848-18665 ;

Glasgow ...
1902. Belfast...

Southport

.|Dr. W. E. Hoyle, M.A.......... Dri J; (He

Portsmouth

.|Dr. P. Chalmers

Glasgow ...
Belfast....

SECTION D.‘—ZOOLOGY.

Prof. J. Cossar Ewart, F.R.S.\J. G. Kerr, J. Rankin, J. Y. Simpson.

Prof. G. B. Howes, F.R.8. . ..| Prof, J. G. Kerr, R. Patterson, dae
Simpson.

Dr. J. H. Ashworth, J. Barcroft,
A. Quayle, Dr. J. Y. Simpson, Dr.
H. W. M. Tims.

Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster,
Prof. J. Y. Simpson, Dr. H. W. M.
Tims. ;

Dr. Pakes, Dr, Purcell, Dr. H. W. M.
Tims, Prof. J. Y. Simpson.

aeaeaneseran Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster,

| Oxley Grabham, Dr. H.W.M. Tims.

Ashworth, L. Doncaster,

| EH. E. Lowe, Dr. H. W. M. Tims.

Dr. 8. F. Harmer, F.B.S....... ‘Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster,

Prof. A. Fraser, Dr. H. W. M. Tims.

.. C. A. Baragar, C. L. Boulenger, Dr.
| J. Pearson, Dr. H. W. M. Tims.
By eee ial Ashworth, L. Doncaster,
| TT. J. Evans, Dr. H. W. M. Tims.

Prof. D’Arcy W. Thompson, Dr. J. H. Ashworth, C. Foran, R. D.
C.B. | Laurie, Dr. H. W. M. Tims.

Mitchell, Dr. J. H. Ashworth, R. D. Laurie,

Prof. $. J. Hickson, F.R.S. ...

William Bateson, F.R.S8.......

G. A. Boulenger, F.R.S. ......
J. J. Lister, F.R.S.

Dr. A. E. Shipley, F.R.S.
Prof. G. C. Bourne, F.R.S. .

F.R.S. Miss D. L. Mackinnon, Dr, H. W.
M. Tims.
Dr. H. F. Gadow, F.R.S....... 'Dr. J. H. Ashworth, Dr. C. L.
| | Boulenger, R. D. Laurie, Dr. H.
W. M. Tims.

SECTION E..—GEOGRAPHY.

Dr. H. R. Mill, F.R.G.S. ......|H. N. Dickson, E. Heawood, G.
Sandeman, A. C. Turner.

.../G. G. Chisholm, E. Heawood, Dr.
A.J. Herbertson, Dr. J. A. Lindsay,

E. Heawood, Dr. A. J. Herbertson,
E. A. Reeves, Capt. J. C. Under-
wood.

Douglas W. Freshfield.........| 'E. Heawood, Dr. A. J. Herbertson,

eave Oldham, E. A. Reeves.

Adm. Sir W. J. L. Wharton,'A. H. Cornish-Bowden, F. Flowers,
R.N., K.C.B., F.R.S, Dr. A. J. Herbertson, H. Y. Old-

ham.

Rt. Hon. Sir George Goldie, EK. Heawood, Dr.
K.C.M.G., F.B.S.

George G. Chisholm, M.A. ...|

Sir T. H. Holdich, K.C.B.

Capt. E. W. Creak, R.N., C.B.,
F.R.S.

A. J. Herbertson,
E. A. Reeves, G. Yeld.

E. Heawood, O. J. R. Howarth,
E. A. Reeves, T. Walker.

Major EH. H. Hills, C.M.G.,|W.F. Bailey, W. J. Barton, O. J. R.
R.E. Howarth, E. A. Reeves.

ceaase and Botany, including Physiology,’

2 Section E was that of ‘Anatomy and Medicine, 1835-1840; of ‘ Physiology ’

(afterwards incorporated in Section D), 1841-1847.
and Ethnology,’ 1851-1868 ;

It was assioned to ‘ Geography
‘Geography, 1869.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. XXV

Date and Place Presidents | Secretaries

1909. Winnipeg... | Col. SirD. Johnston,K.C.M.G., G. G. Chisholm, J. McFarlane, A.
C.B., R.E. | McIntyre.

1910. Sheffield ...| Prof. A. J. Herbertson, M.A., ‘Rev. W. J. Barton, Dr. R. Brown,
Ph.D. | J. McFarlane, E. A. Reeves.

1911. Portsmouth Col. C, F. Close, R.E., CMG.) McFarlane, E. A. Reeves, W. P.

| Smith.

1912. Dundee ...|Col. Sir C. M. Watson, Rev. W. J. Barton, J. McFarlane,

K.C.M.G. | EK. A. Reeves, D. Wylie.

1913, Birmingham Prof. H. N. Dickson, D.Sc.... Rev. W. J. Barton, P. E. Martineau,

J. McFarlane, E. A. Reeves.

SECTION F.6—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.

1907.
1908.

1909.
1910.
1911.

1912.
1913.

1901.
1902.
1903.

1904.
1905.

1906.
1907.

1908.

Glasgow ...| Sir R. Giffen, K.C.B., F.R.S. |W. W. Blackie, A. L. Bowley, E.
; Cannan, 8. J. Chapman.

Belfast ...|E. Cannan, M.A., LL.D. ...... |A, L. Bowley, Prof. 8. J. Chapman,
Dr, A. Duffin.
Southport |E. W. Brabrook, C.B. ......... A. L. Bowley, Prof. 8. J. Chapman,
| Dr. B. W. Ginsburg, G. Lloyd.
Cambridge | Prof. Wm. Smart, LL.D....... J. E. Bidwell, A. L. Bowley, Prof.
8. J. Chapman, Dr. B. W. Ginsburg.
SouthAfrica| Rev. W. Cunningham, D.D.,|R. 4 Ababrelton, A. L. Bowley, Prof.
D.Se. H.E.S. Fremantle, H. O. Meredith.
WOE Kec dices A. L. Bowley, M.A. ............ Prof. S. J. Chapman, D. H. Mac-
gregor, H. O. Meredith, B. S.
| Rowntree.
Leicester ...| Prof. W. J. Ashley, M.A....... Prof. S.J. Chapman, D. H. Macgregor,
H. O. Meredith, T. 8. Taylor.
Dublin...... W. M. Acworth, M.A. ......... W.G. 8. Adams, Prof. 8. J. Chap-
| man, Prof. D. H. Macgregor, H.0O.
Meredith.

Sub-section of Agricultuwre—|A. D. Hall, Prof. J. Percival, J. H.
Rt. Hon. Sir H. Plunkett. Priestley, Prof. J. Wilson.
Winnipeg...| Prof. 8. J. Chapman, M.A. ...| Prof. A. B. Clark, Dr. W. A. Mana-
han, Dr. W. R. Scott.
Sheffield ...)Sir H. Llewellyn Smith,/C. R. Fay, H. O. Meredith, Dr. W. RB.

K.C.B., M.A. Scott, R. Wilson.
Portsmouth} Hon, W. Pember Reeves. ...... C. R. Fay, Dr. W. R. Scott, H. A.
Stibbs.

Dundee ...|Sir H.H. Cunynghame, K.C.B.|C. R. Fay, Dr. W. R. Scott, E. Tosh.
Birmingham| Rev. P. H. Wicksteed, M.A. |C. R. Fay, Prof. A. W. Kirkaldy,
Prof. H. O. Meredith, Dr. W. R.
Scott.

SECTION G.’—ENGINEERING.

Glasgow ...|R. E. Crompton, M.Inst.C.E. |H. Bamford, W.E. Dalby, W. A. Price.
Belfast ...|Prof. J. Perry, F.R.S. .........|M. Barr, W. A. Price, J. Wylie. .
Southport |C. Hawksley, M.Inst.C.H. ...| Prof. W. E. Dalby, W. T. Maccall,
| Wi. A. Price.

Cambridge | Hon. C. A. Parsons, F.R.S. ... J. B. Peace, W.T. Maccall,W. A. Price.
SouthAfrica Col. Sir C. Scott-Moncrieff,, W.T. Maccall, W. B. Marshall, Prof.

G.C.S.1., K.C.M.G., R.E. | H. Payne, E. Williams.
MOrk.scssecve J. A. Hwing, F.B.S. .......00.+ /W. T. Maccall, W. A. Price, J. Triffit.
Leicester ...| Prof. Silvanus P. Thompson, Prof. E. G. Coker, A. C. Harris,

F.R.S. | W. A. Price, H. E. Wimperis.
Dublin ......| Dugald Clerk, F.R.S. ......... Prof. E.G. Coker, Dr. W. E. Lilly,

W. A. Price, H. &. Wimperis.

6 ¢ Statistics,’ 1835-1855, 7 © Mechanical Science,’ 1836-1900.

Xxvl

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

1909.
1910.
1911.

1912.

1913.

1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
1907.
1908.
1909.
1910.
1911.

1912.

1913.

1901,
1902.
1904.
1905.

|
Date and Place Presidents | Secretaries
Winnipeg...|Sir W. H. White, K.C.B., EH. E. Brydone-Jack, Prof. E.G. Coker,
E.R.S. Prof, E. W. Marchant, Wises rrice,
Sheffield ../Prof. W. E. Dalby, M.A.,/F. Boulden, Prof. E. @G. Coker,
M.Inst.C.E. | A. A. Rowse, H. E. Wimperis.
Portsmouth| Prof. J. H. Biles, LL.D.,|H. Ashley, Prof. E. G. Coker, A. A.
D.Se. Rowse, H. E. Wimperis.
Dundee> ~../IProl, As) Barr. Diseases |Prof. E. G. Coker, A. R. Fulton,
H. Richardson, A. A. Rowse, H. E.
Wimperis.
Birmingham Prof. Gisbert Kapp, D.Eng.... Prof. E. G. Coker, J. Purser, A. A.
Rowse, H. E. Wimperis.
SECTION H.*—ANTHROPOLOGY.
Glasgow ...|Prof. D. J. Cunningham, W. Crooke, Prof. A. F. Dixon, J. ¥.
F.R.S. Gemmill, J. L. Myres.
Belfast .,.|Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S. .../R. Campbell, Prof. A. F. Dixon,
| J. L. Myres.
Southport... | Prof. J. Symington, F.R.S..../E. N. Fallaize, H. S. Kingsford,
| K. M. Littler, J. L. Myres.
Cambridge HL Baltoury MA. ste.sa..cetees |W. L. H. Duckworth, E. N. Fallaize,
| H.S. Kingsford, J. L. Myres.
SouthAfrica) Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S. ... A. R. Brown, A. von Dessauer, E. 8.
Hartland.
Yorkeccceate K, Sidney Hartland, F.S.A....| Dr. G. A. Auden, E. N. Fallaize, H. 8S.
| | Kingsford, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
Leicester ... D. G. Hogarth, M.A............. \C, J. Billson, E. N. Fallaize, H. 8.
Kingsford, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
Dublin ..... Prof. W. Ridgeway, M.A. ... E. N. Fallaize, H. S. Kingsford, Dr.
F. C. Shrubsall, L. E. Steele.
Winnipeg... | Prof. J. L. Myres, M.A. . H. §. Kingsford, Prof. C. J. Patten,
| Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
Sheffield ...|W. Crooke, B.A. .............8- E. N. Fallaize, H. $8. Kingsford, Prof.
| C.J. Patten, Dr. F.C. Shrubsall.
Portsmouth|W. H, R. Rivers, M.D., F.R.S. E. N. Fallaize, H. S. Kingsford,
| E. W. Martindell, H. Rundle,
Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
Dundee ...| Prof. G. Elliot Smith, F.R.S. D. D. Craig, E. N. Fallaize, E. W.
Martindell, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
Birmingham |Sir Richard Temple, Bart. ... E. N. Fallaize, E. W. Martindell,
| Dr. F. C. Shrubsall, T. Yeates.
SECTION I.°—PHYSIOLOGY (including Experimenrar
PATHOLOGY AND EXPERIMENTAL PsyCHOLOGY).
Glasgow ... | Prof.J.G. McKendrick, F.R.S.| W. B. Brodie, W. A. Osborne, Prof.
W. H. Thompson.
Belfast .|Prof. W. D. Halliburton,|J. Barcroft, Dr. W. A. Osborne, Dr.
¥.B.S. | ©. Shaw.
Cambridge | Prof. C.S. Sherrington, F.R.S.|J. Barcroft, Prof. T. G. Brodie, Dr.
| LL. 5. Shore.
SouthAfrica Col. D. Bruce, C.B., F.R.S. ...|J. Barcroft, Dr. Baumann, Dr. Mac-
kenzie, Dr. G. W. Robertson, Dr.
Stanwell.

8 Established 1884. ® Established 1894.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. XXVil

Date and Place Presidents Secretaries

1906.
1907.
1908.
1909.
1910.
1911.
1912,

1913

1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.

1905.

1906.

1907.

1908.

1909.

1910.

1911.

1912.

1913.

MODK es. sas0 3 Prof. F. Gotch, F.R.S..........|J. Barcroft, Dr. J. M. Hamill, Prof.
| J. 8. Macdonald, Dr. D. S. Long.
Leicester ...| Dr. A. D. Waller, F.R.S. ......, Dr. N. H. Alcock, J. Barcroft, Prof.
J.S. Macdonald, Dr. A. Warner.
Dublin: osc Dr. J. Scott Haldane, F.R.S. Prof. D. J. Coffey, Dr. P. T. Herring,
Prof.J.S. Macdonald, Dr.H.E.Roaf.
Winnipeg...| Prof. E. H. Starling, F.R.S....| Dr. N. H. Alcock, Prof. PT. Herring,
- Dr. W. Webster.
Sheffield ...| Prof. A. B. Macallum, F.R.S. Dr. H. G. M. Henry, Keith Lucas,
Dr. H. E. Roaf, Dr. J. Tait.
Portsmouth | Prof. J. S. Macdonald, B.A. Dr. J. T. Leon, Dr. Keith Lucas,
Dr. H. E. Roaf, Dr. J. Tait.
Dundee ...|Leonard Hill, F.R.S. ......... \Dr. Keith Lucas, W. Moodie, Dr.
H. &. Roaf, Dr. J. Tait.

.Birmingham|Dr. F. Gowland Hopkins, |C. L. Burt, Prof. P. T. Herring, Dr.

F.R.S. | T.G. Maitland, Dr. H. E. Roaf,
| Dr. J. Tait.

SECTION K.'°—BOTANY.

Glasgow ...|Prof. I. B. Balfour, F.R.S. ...;D. T. Gwynne-Vaughan, G. F. Scott-
; Elliot, A. C. Seward, H. Wager.
Belfast ...|Prof. J. R. Green, F.R.S.......|A. G. Tansley, Rev. C. H. Waddell,
H. Wager, R. H. Yapp.

Southport |A. C. Seward, F.R.S. ......... H. Ball, A. G. Tansley, H. Wager,
R. H. Yapp.
Cambridge | Francis Darwin, F.R.S. ......;Dr. F. F. Blackman, A. G. Tansley,

Sub-section of Agricultuwre—| H. Wager, T. B. Wood, R. H. Yapp.
Dr. W. Somerville.
SouthAfrica| Harold Wager, F.R.S. .........|R. P. Gregory, Dr. Marloth, Prof.
Pearson, Prof. R. H. Yapp.
MOTE ss see Prof. ¥. W. Oliver, F.R.S. ...|Dr. A. Burtt, R. P. Gregory, Prof.
| ; A. G. Tansley, Prof. R. H. Yapp.
Leicester ...| Prof. J. B. Farmer, F.R.S. ...|W. Bell, R. P. Gregory, Prof. A. G.
Tansley, Prof. R. H. Yapp.
Dublin ...... Dr. F. F, Blackman, F.R.S....|Prof. H. H. Dixon, R. P. Gregory,
A. G. Tansley, Prof. R. H. Yapp.
Winnipeg... | Lieut.-Col. D. Prain, O.I.E.,|Prof. A. H. R. Buller, Prof. D. T
E.R.S. Gwynne-Vaughan, Prof.R.H.Yapp.
Sub-section of Agriculture—|W. J. Black, Dr. E. J. Russell, Prof.
Major P. G. Craigie, C.B. J. Wilson.

Sheffield ...| Prof. J. W. H. Trail, F.R.S. |B. H. Bentley, R. P. Gregory, Prof.
D. T. Gwynne-Vaughan, Prof.
R. H. Yapp.
Portsmouth Prof, F. E. Weiss, D.Sc. ...... C. G. Delahunt, Prof. D. T. Gwynne-
Vaughan, Dr. C. E. Moss, Prof.
R. H. Yapp.
Sub-section of Agriculture—|J. Golding, H. R. Pink, Dr. E. J.
W. Bateson, M.A., F.R.S. Russell.
Dundee ...|Prof. F. Keeble, D.Sc.......... J. Brebner, Prof. D. T. Gwynne-
Vaughan, Dr. C. E. Moss, D.
Thoday.

Birmingham Miss Ethel Sargant, F.L.S. ..| W. B. Grove, Prof. D. T. Gwynne-
> Vaughan, Dr. C. E. Moss, D.
Thoday.

10 Hstablished 1895.

XXvili PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS,

EOS a) L.—EDUCATIONAL SCHENCE:

Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
1901. Glassen ... Sir John KE. Gorst, F.R.S. ...)R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller, R. Y.
Howie, C. W. Kimmins, Prof.
H. L. Withers.

1902. Belfast ... Prof. H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S.| Prof. R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller,
R. M. Jones, Dr. C. W. Kimmins,
Prof. H. L. Withers.
1903. Southport .. Sir W. de W. Abney, K.C.B.,| Prof. R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller,
| HRS: ; Dr. C. W. Kimmins, Dr. H. L. Snape.
1904. Cambridge |Bishop of Hereford, D.D. ...|J. H. Flather, Prof. R. A. Gregory,
W. M. Heller, Dr. C. W. Kimmins.
1905. SouthAfrica! Prof. Sir R. C. Jebb, D.C.L.,| A. D. Hall, Prof. Hele-Shaw, Dr. C. W.

M.P. Kimmins, J. R. Whitton.
LUG Se ViOLKe ae ves. ee ‘Prof. M. E. Sadler, LL.D. ...|Prof. R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller,
| Hugh Richardson.
1907. Leicester... Sir Philip Magnus, M.P. ......)W. D. Eggar, Prof. R. A. Gregory,
J. S. Laver, Hugh Richardson,
1908. Dublin ....... Prof. L. C. Miall, F.B.S. ......|Prof. E. P. Culverwell, W. D. Eggar,
| George Fletcher, Prof. R. A.

Gregory, Hugh Richardson.
1909. Winnipeg... | Rev. HSB Gray, D D> a.m W. D. Eggar, R. Fletcher, J. L.
Holland, Hugh Richardson.
1910. Sheffield . - Principal 1. A. Miers, F.R.S.|}A. J. Arnold, W. D. Eggar, J. L.
Holland, Hugh Richardson.
1911. Portsmouth |Rt. Rev. J. E. C. Welldon,|W. D. Eggar, O. Freeman, J. L.
l) DD: Holland, Hugh Richardson.
1912. Dundee ...| Prof. J. Adams, M.A. ......... D. Berridge, Dr. J. Davidson, Prof.
J. A. Green, Hugh Richardson.
1913. Birmingham Principal E. H. Griffiths,!D. Berridge, Rev. 8. Blofeld, Prof.
E.R.S. | J. A. Green, Hugh Richardson.

SECTION M.—AGRICULTURE.

1912. Dundee . ale H, Middleton, M.A.......... Dr. C. Crowther, J. Golding, Dr.
| Lauder, Dr. E. J. Russell.
1913, Birmingham | |Prof. 7p Bewood), MAC... |W. E. Collinge, Dr. C. Crowther,

| J. Golding, Dr. E. J. Russell.

CHAIRMEN

AND SECRETARIES OF

CONF

ERENCES OF DELEGATES. xxix

CHAIRMEN anp SECRETARIES or tue CONFERENCES OF
DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 1901-13.!

Date and Place

Chairmen

Secretaries

1901.

1902

1903.
1904.
1905.

1906.
1907.
1908.
1909.
1910.
1911.
1912.
1913. Birmingham Dr.

Southport ..
Cambridge
London

ste eeeene

Dublin......
London
Sheffield .
Portsmouth |
Dundee

lr. W. Rudler, F.G.S.

.| Dr.

.| Dr, A. C. Haddon, ¥.R.8.

Prof. W. W. Watts, F.GS.
W. Whitaker, F.R.S.
Prof. E. H. Griffiths, ORS:
A. Smith
F.R.S.

.|H. J. Mackinder, M.A..........

Prof. H. A. Miers, F.R.S.......

-| Dr. Tempest Anderson
| Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.5..
Prof. F. O. Bower, F.B.S. ..

P. Chalmers Mitchell,
F.R.S.

Woodward,

Sir Edward Brabrook, C.B....|

.|Dr. J. G. Garson, A. Somerville.

.|E. J. Bles.

EB W. Rudler.

|F. W. Rudler,

KF. W. Rudler.

F. W. Rudler.

F, W. Rudler, 1.5.0.

W. P. D. Stebbing.
. W. P. D. Stebbing.

W. P. D. Stebbing.

W. P. D. Stebbing.
LW. P. D. Stebbing.

|W. P. D. Stebbing.

EVENING DISCOURSES, 1901-1913.

Date and Place

Lecturer

1901.
1902.

1903.

1904.
1905.

Cape Town

Durban

Glasgow ...|

Belfast

Southport...

Cambridge

South
Africa:

_ Pietermaritz-
burg.
Johannesburg

Pretoria

Bloemfontein...

Kimberley

Bulawayo

. Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S...

.| Douglas W. Freshfield

. Sir Wm. Crookes, F.R.S.....

. D. Randall-MacIver

Prof. W. Ramsay, F.R.S

|Francis Darwin, F.R.8.

weeeee

...| Prof. J. J. Thomson, F.B.S....
| Prof. W. F. R. Weldon, F.R.S.

Dr. R. Munro

Peete eee w meee eeeeee

| Prof. G. H. Darwin, F.R.S..
Prof. H. F. Osborn

eee ereeeee
.

C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S. ...
Prof. W. A. Herdman, F-.R.S.
Col. D. Bruce, C.B., ‘BK R.S..
ESP HOLbar recviccacccnes coesetawe
Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S..
| Prof. J. O. Arnold

eee eee erro neee

see eeaee

Pee eee ener w ween eeene

Prof. J. B. Porter

Aen ee eee eee eeee

eee

! Established 1

Subject of Discourse

The iment Gancciiiaaks
Atmosphere.

The Movements of Plants.

Becquerel Rays and Radio-activity.

Inheritance.

Man as Artist and Sportsman in the
Paleolithic Period.

The Old Chalk Sea, and some of its
Teachings.

of the

..|Ripple- Marks and Sand-Dunes.

Paleontological Discoveries in the
Rocky Mountains.

: | W. J. Burchell’s Discoveries in South

Africa.

.|Some Surface Actions of Fluids.

The Mountains of the Old World.
Marine Biology.

. |Sleeping Sickness.

|The Cruise of the ‘ Discovery.’

.| The Distribution of Power.

Steel as an Igneous Rock.
Fly-borne Diseases: Malaria, Sleep-
ing Sickness, &c.

The Milky Way and the Clouds of
Magellan.

. | Diamonds.

‘The Bearing of Engineering on
| Mining.
'The Ruins of Rhodesia.

885.

XXX

EVENING DISCOURSES.

Date and Place | Lecturer 1 Subject of Discourse
AUG 2) VOLK ress. Dr. Tempest Anderson......,... Volcanoes.
Dr, A. D. Waller, F.R.S, ...... The Electrical Signs of Life, and
| their Abolition by Chloroform.
1907. Leicester ...;W. Duddell, F.R.S. seasensreare | DHE Ark and the Spark in Radio-
| | telegraphy.
PDT. 7H SAR MUAKC Vary eennedente=st ce Recent Developments in the Theory
/ of Mimicry.
1908. Dublin...... | Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S. .... Halley’s Comet.
|Prof. W. M. Davis. ..........+ The Lessons of the Colorado Canyon.
1909. Winnipeg .., Dr. A. E. H. Tutton, F.R.S.... The Seven Styles of Crystal Archi-
tecture.
ee W. A. Herdman, F.R.S. Our Food from the Waters.
|! Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S... The Chemistry of Flame.
a Prof. J. H. Poynting, F.R.S. The Pressure of Light.
1910, Sheffield . ..|Prof. W. Stirling, M.D. ...... Types of Animal Movement.?
PG SOP ATG He escent eset New Discoveries about the Hittites.
1911, Portsmouth Dr. Leonard Hill, F.R.S....... The Physiology of Submarine Work.
Prof. A. C. Seward, F.R.S. ..., Links with the Past in the Plant
| World.
1912. Dundee ... Prof. W. H. Bragg, F.R.S. ... Radiations Old and New.
| Prof. A. Keith, M.D............. The Antiquity of Man.
1913.

Birmingham Sir H. H. Cunynghame, K.C.B. Explosions in Mines and the Means
| | of Preventing them,

|Dr. A. Smith Woodward, Missing Links among Extinct
|} E.RS. | Animals.

' «Popular Lectures,’ delivered to the citizens of Winnipeg.
* Repeated, to the public, on Wednesday, September 7.

LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES. XXx1

LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES.

Date and Place | Lecturer Subject of Lecture

. Glasgow .. |e, +, Madkinder, MA. pagoor ace ‘The Movements of Men by Land
| and Sea.

. Belfast....... ‘Prof. L. C. Miall, F.R.S. . Gnats and Mosquitoes.

pasoubhport,.. | Dred Ss lett... sets iacecesece ‘Martinique and St. Vincent: the
| Eruptions of 1902.

. Cambridge..| Dr. J. E. Marr, F.R.S. ....... - The Forms of Mountains.

BeMOEK cf cseee Prof. 8. P. Thompson, F.R. 8. The Manufacture of Light.

. Leicester ...| Prof. H. A. Miers, F.R.S.......| The Growth of a Crystal.

. Dublin...... |Dr. A. E. H. Tutton, F.R. S.. ‘The Crystallisation of Water.

. Sheffield ... C. T. Heycock, F.R. BA ‘Metallic Alloys.

. Portsmouth |Dr. H. R. Mill ...........2...000| | Bain.

PUBLIC OR CITIZENS’ LECTURES.

Date and Place © Lecturer be Subject of Lecture

1912, Dundee ...|Prof. B. Moore, D.Sc. ......... Science and National Health.

Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, M.A. | Prices and Wages.

Prof. A. Fowler, F.R.S. ......) The Sun.
— «1918. Birmingham Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S. ...|The Decorative Art of Savages.
‘Dr. Vaughan Cornish ........, The Panama Canal.
‘Leonard Doncaster, M.A. ...|Recent Work on Heredity and its
) Application to Man.
‘Dr. W. Rosenhain, F.R.S. ...| Metals under the Microscope.
‘Frederick Soddy, F.R.S.......| The Evolution of Matter.

XXxl1

ATTENDANCES AND RECEIPTS.

Table showing the Attendances and Receipts

|
; , y Old Life | New Life
Date of Meeting Where held | Presidents ‘Mambent Wivenherd
| |
1831, Sept. 27...... VOr Kyte eee | Viscount Milton, D.O.L., F.R.S. ...... - | =
1832, June 19...... Oxford” 2. .| The Rey. W. Buckland, F.R.S. ~ — _
1833, June 25...... Cambridge .. The Rey. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S. s — _
1834, Sept. 8 ...... Edinburgh Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.O.L., F. RS... x — —
1835, Aug. 10 Dublin ...... .| The Rev. Provost Lloyd,LL.D., F.R. 8! _ _—
* 1836, Aug. 22......| Bristol . The Marquis of Lansdowne, F.B.S.... => _
1837, Sept. 11......| Liverpool . .. The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S.......... — —
1838, Aug. 10 Newcastle- ...| The Duke of Northumberland, FERS. _ _
1839, Aug. 26 ...... Birmingham ........, The Rey. W. Vernon Harcourt, E.R.S. _ _
1840, Sept. 17...... Glasgow......... .| The Marquis of Breadalbane, F.R.S. — =
1841, July 20 ...... Plymouth .| The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S. ......... 169 65
1842, June 23.,....| Manchester .| The Lord Francis Egerton, F.G:8..: 303 169
1843, Aug. 17 .. Corker ido .| The Earl of Rosse, F. B.S. wi 109 28
1844, Sept.26......) York . f .| The Rey. G. Peacock, Dz D., ‘BRS. 226 | 150
1845, Junel9..,.... Cambridge. ws .| Sir John F, W. Herschel, Bart. » HR is 313 36
1846, Sept.10 . ...) Southampton .| Sir Roderick I, Murchison, Bart.,F.R.S. 241 10
1847, June 23......) Oxford ...... .| Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart., FRS. ... 314} 18
1848, Aug. 9 ......) Swansea......... .| TheMarquis ofNorthampton, Pres.R.8. 149 | 3
1849, Sept.12....... Birmingham .| The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D., F.R.S. 227 12
1850, July 21 ...... Edinburgh .| Sir David Brewster, K. H., F. R. Shean 235 9
1851, July 2..... Ipswich ...... .| G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal, ERS. 172 8
1852, Sept.1 .. Belfast .| Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S. ......... 164 10
1853, Sept. 3 Ph. Fee .| William Hopkins, F.R.S............ 141 13
1854, Sept. 20 Liverpool .| The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S. 238 23
1855, Sept. 12 ......| Glasgow..... .| The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. .. 194 33
1856, Aug.6 .,,...; Cheltenham .| Prof. 0. G. B. Daubeny, M.D., F.R. 182 14
1857, Aug. 26 Dublin ...... .| The Rey. H. Lloyd, D.D., F.R.S. 236 15
1858, Sept. 22 ...... | Deeds 7.2... '| Richard Owen, M.D., D.O. L., FBS... 222 42
1859, Sept. 14....., Aberdeen . ‘| H.R.H. The Prince Consort ......... 184 27
1860, June 27 Oxfords. <<: .| The Lord Wrottesley, M.A., F.R.S. 286 21
1861, nea ......| Manchester .| William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S....... 321 113
1862, Oct. Fecsae|: CAMO Per eee The Rey. Professor Willis, MLA. »F.R.S. 239 15
1863, Aug. 36 Neweastle-on-Tyne.,.| SirWilliam G. Armstrong.0. B., F.R.S. 203 36
1864, Sept.13......| Bath ........... ...| Sir Oharles Lyell, Bart., M.A., F.R.S. 287 40
1865, Sept.6 ......) Birmingha: .| Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D. -_ FERS. 292 44
1866, Aug. 22 ,,,... Nottingham... .| William R. Grove, Q. ae SS Bae eae 207 31
1867, Sept. Dundee ...... ., The Duke of Buccleuch, K.O0.B.. ss 167 25
1868, Aug. Norwich .| Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, PRS.” on 196 18
1869, Aug. | Exeter .... ‘| Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.O.L., F.B.S....... 204 21
1870, Sept. Liverpool .., .| Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. ... 314 39
1871, Aug. Edinburgh .| Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D., F.R. ‘Si 246 28
1872, Aug. | Brighton . .| Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. ... ; 245 36
1873, Sept.17......) Bradford . .| Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R 212 | 27
1874, Aug.19......| Belfast .... ....| Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. 162 13
1875, Aug. | Bristol .... .| Sir John Hawkshaw, F. RS. 239 36
1876, Sept. Glasgow Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F. B.S. 221 35
1877, Aug. Plymouth .| Prof. A. Thomson, M.D. 173 19
1878, Aug. Dublin .| W. Spottiswoode, M.A. a 201 18
1879, Aug. Sheffield .| Prof. G. J. Allman, M. 184 16
1880, Aug. Swansea .| A. O. Ramsay, LL. D., Fil 144 11
1881, Aug. BY OCR <. osvresee ‘| Sir John Lubbock, Bart. 272 28
1882, Aug. 23 .. Southampton .| Dr. 0. W. Siemens, E.R. 178 17
1883, Sept. 19 .. Southport ...... .| Prof. A. Cayley, D.O.L. 203 60
1884, Aug. Montreal .., ....| Prof, Lord payleien. F. 235 20
1885, Sept.9 ...... Aberdeen ...... .| Sir Lyon Playfair, K.O. 225 18
1886, Sept.1 ...... Birmingham .| Sir J. W. Dawson, O.M, 314 25
1887, Aug. 31...... Manchester .., .| Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.O.L. 428 86
1888, Sept.5 ...... Baths scatess ees a Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.. 266 36
1889, Sept. 11...... Newcastle-on-Tyne.,,| Prof. W. H. Flower, O.B.,. 277 20
1890, Sept.3 ...... eds eee ate Sir F. A. Abel, O.B., F.R. Ss. 259 21
1891, Aug.19.,,,...| Cardiff . .| Dr. W. Huggins, F.R.S. 189 24
1892, Aug.3 ...... Edinburgh | Sir A. Geikie, LL.D.,F.RS. 000” 280 14
1893, Sept. 13...... Nottingham ....| Prof. J. S. Burdon Sanderson, F.R.S. 201 17
1894, Aug.8 ...... Oxford .| The Marquis of Salisbury,K.G.,F. ae 327 21
1895, Sept. 11....., Ipswich ...| Sir Douglas Galton, K.C.B., F. 214 13
1896, Sept.16...... Liverpool .| Sir Joseph Lister, Bart., Pres. 330 31
1897, Aug. 18 ..,...| Toronto ...| Sir John Evans, K.C.B. oR. R.. ihe 120 8
1898, Sept.7 ...... Bristol .| Sir W. Crookes, PRS. x 281 19
1899, Sept.13...... DOVER sc.00 .| Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., Sec.R.S... 296 20
1900, Sept. 5 ...... Bradford , Sir William Turner, D.O. Te F.RB.S. . 267 13

* Ladies were not admitted by purchased tickets until 1843.

[Continued on p. xxxiv.

+ Tickets of Admission to Sections only-

4
7 ATTENDANCES AND RECEIPTS. XxXxX1l1
1 . . .
at Annual Meetings of the Association.
| Sums paid
4 Ola New r eee on account
7 Annual | Annual Stated | Ladies Foreigners) Total eaaTeiehie of Grants Year
Members Members Meetin for Scientific
| g Purposes
= a = — — 353 -- | 1831
= = — _ — = | _ — 1832
d ae et =: = = 900 = = 1833
— | = — — — 1298 — | £20 0 0 1834
| se = — — ae Baile. ee 167 0 0} 1835
_ | — — = _— 1350 — |; 4385 0 0 1836
— —_— _ = —_ 1840 _— 922 12 6 1837
_ _ —_ 1100* — 2400 — 932 2 2 1838
= = — — 34 1438 os 1595 11 0 1839
= = — == 40 1353 — 1546 16 4 1840
46 317 — 60* _ 891 = 1235 10 11 1841
75 376 33T 331* 28 1315 _— 144917 8 1842
71 185 — 160 _— — — 1565 10 2 1843
45 190 9F 260 — —_— — 981 12 8 1844
94 22 407 172 35 1079 — 831 9 9 1845
65 39 270 196 36 857 — | 685 16 0 1846
197 40 495 203 53 1320 a | 208 5 4 1847
54 25 376 197 15 819 £707 0 0 275 1 8 1848
93 33 447 237 22 1071 963 0 0 159 19 6 1849
128 42 510 273 44 | 1241 1085 0 0 345 18 0 1850
61 47 244 141 37 710 620 0 0 aol 9% 1851
63 60 510 292 9 1108 1085 0 0 304 6 7 1852
56 57 367 236 6 876 903 0 0| 205 0 O 1853
121 121 765 524 10 1802 1882 0 0 380 19 7 1854
142 101 1094 543 26 2133 2311 0 0| 48016 4 1855
104 48 412 346 9 1115 1098 0 0 73413 9 1856
156 120 900 569 26 2022 2015 0 0 507 15 4 1857
111 91 710 509 13 1698 1931 0 O 618 18 2 1858
125 179 1206 821 22 2564 2782 0 0 68411 1 1859
177 59 636 463 47 1689 1604 0 0 76619 6 1860
184 125 1589 791 15 3138 3944 0 0} 1111 5 10 1861
150 57 433 242 25 1161 1089 0 0} 1293 16 6 1862
154 209 1704 1004 25 3335 3640 0 0} 1608 3 10 1863
182 103 1119 1058 13 2802 2965 0 0/| 128915 8 1864
215 149 766 508 23 1997 2227 0 0| 1591 7 10 1864
218 105 960 771 it 2303 2469 0 0) 1750138 4 1866
193 118 1163 771 7 2444 2613 0 0| 1739 4 0 1867
226 117 720 682 45t 2004 2042 0 0/1940 0 0 1868
229 107 678 600 17 1856 1931 0 0} 1622 0 0 1869
303 195 1103 910 14 2878 3096 0 0| 1572 0 0 1870
311 127 976 754 21 2463 2575 0 0| 1472 2 6 1871
280 80 937 912 43 2533 2649 0 0| 128 0 0 1872
237 99 796 601 11 1983 2120 0 0/| 1685 0 0 1873
232 85 817 630 12 1951 1979 0 0} 115116 0 1874
307 93 884 672 17 2248 2397 0 0} 960 0 0 1875
331 185 1265 712 25 2774 3023 0 0} 1092 4 2 1876
238 59 446 283 inl | 1229 1268 0 0/| 1128 9 7 1877
290 93 1285 674 17 | 2578 2615 0 0 725 16 6 1878
239 74 529 349 13 1404 1425 0 0O/| 1080 11 11 1879
171 41 389 147 12 915 899 0 0} 731 7 7 1880
313 176 1230 514 24 2557 2689 0 0| 476 8 1 1881
253 79 516 189 21 1253 1286 0 0} 1126 111 1882
330 323 952 841 5 2714 3369 0 0| 1083 3 3 1883
317 219 826 74 |26&60H.§ 1777 1855 0 0/1173 4 0 1884
332 122 1053 447 6 2203 2256 0 0| 1385 0 0 1885
428 179 1067 429 11 2453 2532 0 0 995 0 6 1886
510 244 1985 493 92 3838 4336 0 0} 118618 0 1887
399 100 639 509 12 1984 2107 0 0| 1511 0 5 1888
412 113 1024 579 21 2437 «=| 2441 0 0} 1417 O11 1889
368 92 680 334 12 1775 1776 0 0; 78916 8 1890
341 152 672 107 35 1497 1664 0 O| 102910 0 1891
413 141 733 439 50 2070 2007 0 0} 86410 0 1892
328 57 773 268 17 1661 1653 0 0) 90715 6 1893
435 69 941 451 77 2321 2175 0 0 583 15 6 1894
290 31 493 261 22 1324 1236 0 0) 97715 5 1895
383 139 1384 873 41 3181 3228 0 0| 1104 6 1 1896
286 125 682 100 41 1362 1398 0 0} 105910 8 1897
327 96 1051 639 33 2446 2399 0 0/1212 0 O 1898
324 68 548 120 27 1403 1328 0 0} 143014 2 1899
297 | 45 801 482 9 1915 1801 0 0 | 107210 0 1900

1913.

+ Including Ladies. § Fellows of the American Association were admitted as Hon. Members for this Meeting.

[Continued ow p. XXxv,

b

XXXIV

ATTENDANCES AND RECEIPTS.

Table showing the Attendances and Receipts

| Date of Meeting

1901, Sept. 11...
| 1902, Sept. 10...

Where held

.| Glasgow,
.! Belfast ....
{ Southport .
Cambridge

1903, Sept. 9
1904, Aug. 17
1905, Aug. 15

1906, Aug. 1... WAY OL ris sscescas
1907, July 31 ..,... Leicester

1908, Sept. 2 ...... Dublin .......

1909, Aug. 25,...., Winnipeg

1910; Aug. 31 .....: Sheffield......

1911, Aug. 30...... Portsmouth

1912, Sept. 4 ...... DMundee:.::..0..5,

1913, Sept. 10 ,.,...) Birmingham .,,......

..| Prof. @. H. Darwin, LL.D.

Presidents

.| Prof. A, W. Riicker, D.Sc., Sec.R.S. ...

Prof. J. Dewar, LL. Ds F.R.
.| Sir Norman Lockyer, KC.
1s
“3

Rt. Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.
Prof. E. Ray Lankester, LL.

ee Sir David Gill, K.C.B., P.

R.
Dr. Francis Darwin, F. RS.
F.

"| Prof. Sir J. J. Thomson,

Rey. Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.

..| Prof. Sir W. Ramsay, K.C.B,

Prof. E. A. Schafer, F.R.S..

‘| Sir Oliver J. Lodge, F.R. sag

Old Life
Members

310
243
250
419
115
322
276
294
117
293
284
288
376

Sh :
B., FBS.
IRS.
EVR.S. ...
. F'.R.S.

S.
RS.
Bie a
F.RS.

¥ Tueluding 848 Members of the South African Association,

ANALYSIS

OF ATTENDANCES

New Lite
Members

<)
| -

AT

| Zhe total attendances for the years 1832,

Average attendance at 79 Meetings : 1858,

mock: attendance at 5 Meetings beginning during

1833 and 1860 .

Average attendance at 4 Meetings beginning during

1841 and 1907
Average attendance at 32
1836 and 1911 . A

Average attendance at 37 Meetings ‘beginning during September

between 1831 and 1913

Meetings beginning during ‘August, between

Attendance at 1 Meeting held in Oe tober, Cambridge, 1862

——*or

Meetings beginning during August.

Average attendance at—

4 Meetings beginning during the Ist week in August ( Ist- 7th) .

5
9

14

” ” ”

a» ”

2nd
3rd
4th

” ” ” ”

” ” ”

” ” ”

Average _
Attendance
June, between
1260
July, between
1122
1927
on MLO
1161
1905
( 8th-14th) . 2130
(15th-21st) ., 1802
(22nd-31st) . 1985

ATTENDANCES AND RECEIPTS, XXXV

at Annual Meetings of the Association—(continued).

, Sums paid
ola New Naa | ee on account
Annual | Annual inte Ladies |Foreigners Total infing the of Grants Year
Members | Members ; | “Meetine £0r Scientific
= = nbs | CPULDE: Purposes
131 | 794 | 246 20 1912 £2046 0 0 £920 9 11 1901
86 647 305 6 1620 | 1644 0 0, 947 0 0 1962 |
90 | €88 365 21 1754 1762 0 0} 845 13 2 1903
13 | +1838 317 121 2789 2650 0 0, 887 18 11 1904
A 430 181 16 2130 2422 0 0| 928 2 2 1905
93 817 352 | 22 1972 1811 0 0 | 882 0 9 1906
61 | 659 251 42 1647 1561 0 0 | 757 12 10 1907
DUS |i 92 ELGG: 222! 14 2297 2317 0 0 115718 8 1908
| 162 789 90 7 1468 1623 0 0/1014 9 9 | 1909
57 «| «(568 Tepe) 6 1449 1439 0 0. :963.17 0 1910
614) 414 81 31 W241 =} LI76_ (0) 0 922 0.0 1911
95 | 1292 359 88 2004 2349 0 0; 845 7 6 | 1912
149 1287 291 20 2643 2756 0 0, 97817 1 1913
** Tncluding 137 Members of tle American Association,
THE ANNUAL MEETINGS, 1831-1913.
835, 1843, and 1844 are unknown. |
Meetings beginning during September.
r
verage attendance at—
Average
, Attendance
13 Meetings beginning during the Ist week in September( 1st— 7th). 2131
17 ” ” ” ” 2nd ” ” ” ( 8th— 14th ) . 1906

5 ” ” ” ” 3rd ” ” ” 6 15th-21st) . 2206
2 ” ME #p? ” »” 4th ” ” ” (22nd-30th) ‘ 1025

Meetings beginning during June, July, and October.
_ Attendance at 1 Meeting (1845, June 19) beginning during the 3rd

week in June (15th-21st) . - 1079
Average attendance at 4 Meetings beginning during the 4th week i in
Sune (22nd-30th) 1306
Attendance at 1 Meeting (1851, ‘July 2) beginning | during the Ist
week in July (1st-7th) : 710
_ Average attendance at 2 Meetings beginning during the 3rd week in
—- Fuly (15th-21st) ; 1066
Attendance at 1 Meeting (1907, July 31) beginning during the 5th
week in July (29th-31st) . . 1647
Attendance at 1 Meeting (1862, October 1) beginning during the Ist
week in October (1st-7th) . 4 - : 1161

b2

XXXV1 GENERAL STATEMENT.

General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of
Grants for Scientific Purposes, 1901-1912.

1901. £ 3s. d.
£ 3. d. | Wave-length Tables............ pao, O
Electrical Standards ......... 45 0 0 | Life-zones in British Car-
Seismological Observations... 75 0 0 | _ boniferous Rocks ............ one O) 10
Wave-length Tables............ 414 0O | Exploration of Irish Caves... 45 0 0
Isomorphous Sulphonic De- | Table at the Zoological
rivatives of Benzene ...... 35 0. 0 | | Station, Napleseipiesrosese 100 0 0
Life-zones in British Car- | Index Generum et Specierum
boniferous Rocks ........++++ 20 0 0 | Animalinmiiescesseoe 100 0 O
Underground Water of North- | Migration of Birds ............ im 0 0
west Yorkshire .......0+-.+++ 50 0 O | Structure of Coral Reefs of
Exploration of Irish Caves... 15 0 0 | Indian Ocean................. au, 0 0
Table at the Zoological Sta- | Compound Ascidians of the
tion, Naples ........0..s...0+s 100 0 O Olyde Areal zener scnacpee sees 25 0 0
Table at the Biological La- Terrestrial Surface Waves ... 15 0 O
boratory, Plymouth ........ 20 0 0 | Legislation regulating Wo-
Index Generum et Specierum | - men’s abOuniaeescssesseesceds 30 0 O
ARIMA DIN. sccensseseneseuees 75 0 O | Small Screw Gauge ............ 20 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ 10 0 O | Resistance of Road Vehicles
Terrestrial Surface Waves... 5 O OQ | to Traction.............ssceeees 50 0 O
Changes of Land-level in the | Ethnological Survey of
Phlegrean Fields............ 50 0! 0." “Canada, \.i erenscosrsenen emcee toro. 0
Legislation regulating Wo- | Age of Stone Circles............ 30 0 0
men’s Labour............00+ees 15 0 O | Exploration in Crete............ 100 0 0
Small Screw Gauge............ 45 0 0 | Anthropometric Investigation
Resistance of Road Vehicles of Native Egyptian Soldiers 15 0 0
TO ULRCACHION: caenananescsaee (cel 75 0 0 | Excavations on the Roman
Silchester Excavation ......... 10! 0-20 Site at Gelligaer ............ bed) 0
Ethnological Survey of Changes in Hemoglobin ...... LoO:, 0
Se MO ANAGA Mra seevstsicorssseacessinns 30 0 0 | Work of Mammalian Heart
Anthropological Teaching ... 5 0 0 | under Influence of Drugs... 20 0 0
Exploration in Crete ......... 145 0 O | Investigation of the Cyano-
Physiological Effects of Pep- |. “phiycess! ©, Siriatescrurencscree 10 0 0
WOE), 2 oaBuopbapoeacseriaene en anon 30 0 O | Reciprocal Influence of Uni-
Chemistry of Bone Marrow... 51511 | versities and Schools ...... Do. .0
Suprarenal Capsules in the | Conditions of Health essen-
als bltrcerscss ccseeeneeres sasecne 5 0 0. tial to carrying on Work in
Fertilisation in Pheophycee 15 0 O | Schools .............cscseceeees 20 0
Morphology, Ecology, and Corresponding Societies Com-

Taxonomy of Podoste- INIDECE Sccee inc ccteeducroneeeneeMe Le0) 0
PHeG Coo Gee tu sseetecar eases 20 0 0 POAT ()
Corresponding Societies Com- is nel

HWE REE} Gagaconoanunad Seepoeeseee 1b) JOmAG
£920 9 11 1903.
| Electrical Standards............ 35 0 O
1902 Seismological Observations... 40 0 0
ve Investigation of the Upper
Electrical Standards............ 40 0 0 | Atmosphere by means of
Seismological Observations... 35 0 0 | Kites ...csccccccccssesseeeeeees 75 0 0
Investigation of the Upper Magnetic Observations at Fal-
Atmosphere by means of TOUGH econ teunene seers aeeeeeae 40 0 0
(Keitel. scccccteerecexcucseessc se 75 0 O | Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-
Magnetic Observations at Fal- stances: ..stsss-cateee eee 20 10) -.0
IM OUGN cuactcersiecersseeeateveie ; 80 0 0 | Erratic Blocks) s:c.:sesecceeeeee LOSOs 0
Relation between Absorption Exploration of Irish Caves... 40 0 O
Spectra and Organic Sub- Underground Waters of North-
SEANCES! “cicnce osutucdevasres avs 20.00 west Yorkshire .......esse000e 40 0 0

I

Life-zones in British Car-
boniferous Rocks ............
Geological Photographs ......
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tion at Naples ........ pinnae
Index Generum et Specierum
PATPFIALIUIN 5.0... 0000:0cececnonss
Tidal Bore, Sea Waves, and
PRTC bir sacle oc-p Dice Vase ches -
Scottish National Antarctic
ER MECICION wc casirc--cebsbniacsoes
Legislation affecting Women’s
Ibe DUR RRog: Grace sansceudocnsce
Researches in Crete ............
Age of Stone Circles............
Anthropometric Investigation
Anthropometry of the Todas
and other Tribes of Southern

GRANTS
Ss i
bw 0
LO. Os. 0
LOG. 20.20
100 O O
1b, 40) 20:
50 10° 0
25-0 0
100 0 O
a3 2
Bb . ONO

Meiers saciescassvicvws cn ensn ae 50 0
The State of Solution of Pro-

RON eo sac tc cdw sin ccessvenaans 20 0
Investigation of the Cyano-

DENVER. ac penctiewcsnsesteceni 25 0
Respiration of Plants ......... 12 0
Conditions of Health essential

for School Instruction ...... 5 O
Corresponding Societies Com-

Mittee ......... sor scunaa7pebOCeD 20 0

£845 13 2
1904.
Seismological Observations... 40 0 0
Investigation of the Upper

Atmosphere by means of

UATIRES SESS SSSaen econo eApnaacEads 50 0 0
Magnetic Observations at

LIAM OUUN sso cstestieneses see 60 0 0
Wave-lengthTablesof Spectra 10 0 0
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-

stances ...... ceacosgoncapcascoh 25 0 0
erratic Blocks) <......6..00ssse0s LOO! 0
Life-zones in British Car-

boniferous Rocks ............ 350) 0
Fauna and Flora of the

PUBIELS I elawils intone cs os elelao 10 0 0
Investigation of Fossiliferous

Mabie tt ght Gees ees So0% 50) 0 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-

MION, Naples. .cv.scssevececsers 100 0 0
Index Generum et Specierum

Animalium ....... oaveddslad sae 60 0 0
Development in the Frog...... L620) 20
Researches on the Higher

TUBTACED Ae s.ceidscivesenca ses om 0is 0
British and Foreign Statistics

of International Trade...... 25 0 0
Resistance of Road Vehicles

to Traction......<....0005) fy 0K O'> O
Researches in Crete ............ 100 0 O
Researches in Glastonbury

Lake Village ..... gisesevacenss 25 0 0

OF

MONEY. XXXVil
£ s.d

Anthropometric Investigation
of Egyptian Troops ......... 810 0

Excavations on Roman Sites
OME TUG AUN sae cite a's asieasle = 2570070

The State of Solution of Pro-
GOWDS: als siccsacths vs teedceher ss 20 0 0

| Metabolism of Individual
ISSUES soc Sescuuassgeses<oeeaseses 40 0 0
Botanical Photographs......... 4 811
Respiration of Plants... ........ 15530' 0

| Experimental Studies in
IS erode Shad pees sconce 35 0 0

Corresponding Societies Com-
MILGHCE ei tccesandgesesse 3 Pages 20 0 0
£887 18 11

ee

1905.

Electrical Standards............ 40 0 0
Seismological Observations... 40 0 O

Investigation of the Upper
Atmosphere by means of

KGGGS, .cccssiveceteeesthaun oats 40 0 O
Magnetic Observations at Fal-
MOUthG aarisaseescassscscewendes pO. HORO
Wave-length Tables of Spec-
ULI | eAgraaacdasoscnion caeecein oc S26 5, 0-0
_ Study of Hydro-aromatic
Substances ........-... nrerery, zie) (UE KY)
Dynamic Isomerism ............ 20 0 0
Aromatic Nitroamines ......... 25 0 0
Faunaand Flora of the British
TAS ya sergeeae- scenes ye rekers LOO: 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tions Naples iic..vsss.cshecwars 100 0 O
Index Generum et Specierum
Amimaliumnts: <cvenssessse-esae Toa0, 10
Development of the Frog ... 10 0 0
Investigations in the Indian
OXGE a Se chacuocenenrcrect prcocude 150 0 0
Trade Statistics ..............0+0: 4 4 8
Researches in Crete .........-+. 70.0
Anthropometric Investiga-
tions of Egyptian Troops... 10 0 0
Excavations on Roman Sites
ATG TU fade caseiats ca rato waseeale LOMO 0
| AnthropometricInvestigations 10 0 0
Age of Stone Circles............ 30 0 O
The State of Solution of Pro-
(Es eee Se onhen oon Bantetanccc ty sonaee 20 0
Metabolism of Individual
PISRMES#A = sactaecerearen aves yas 30 0
Ductless Glands........+.....+. Fie) 0
_ Botanical Photographs...... ROP SAT 6
Physiology of Heredity......... 35

| Corresponding Societies Com-

Structure of Fossil Plants ... 50

wo ocoonoo i=)
o

Mittes Md. we seei vasa edces 20 0
£928 2
——

XXXVI

1906.
als. d.
Electrical Standards............ 25-0 0
Seismological Observations... 40 0 0
Magnetic Observations at Fal-

THOU) eee aic dewcendentsscans oss 50 0 0
Magnetic Survey of South

UNETICR, | dyads Seuss aneecssvidacs Ace 9941276
Wave-length TablesofSpectra 5 0 O
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-

SACO Se eieninn oe Gb ee teeee ce sna sa 25 0 0
Aromatic Nitroamines ......... 10500
Faunaand Flora of the British

SDINAS - acsieivewskcasinscseesceviee fone LI
Crystalline Rocksof Anglesey 30 0 O
Table at the Zoological Sta-

HOD NAPICS a oar -e crue anneness 100 0 O
Index Animalium .....,......... io, 0-0
Development of the Frog...... 10 0 0
Higher Crustacea ............002 15; 0.0
Freshwater Fishes of South

PAMTA GH, Undonaucniocesewacssdeeeenes 30, 05°0
Rainfall and Lake and River

DISCHANCCT veacadsensesece. ones 10 0 0
Excavations in Crete ......... 100 0 O
Lake Village at Glastonbury 40 0 0O
Excavations on Roman Sites

ANUBLILAIT oO Siveatisleeconeesnes 30 0 0
Anthropometric Investiga-

tions in the British Isles... 30 0 O
State of Solution of Proteids 20 0 0
Metabolism of Individual

LISSUCS | freassaeaecdsacscness assets 20 0 O
Effect of Climate upon Health

and Disease... ...c.:2c.cvessseres 20 0 GO
Research on South African

Wy Cade svanvessescertcarscesnce 1419 4
Peat Moss Deposits ............ 25 0 0
Studies suitable for Elemen-

LADY SCHOOIS nace .veseeeswes 5210740
Corresponding Societies Com-

THULUCE rcivsseaeeensceeteeceste ee Ee

£882 0 9
1907.
Electrical Standards ......... 50 0 O
Seismological Observations... 40 0 0
Magnetic Observations at

Malmiouthat cs, ccea vaste = sisves one 40 0 0
Magnetic Survey of South

ACA: vssseePewessmseecsannscacs 26 wot G
Wave-length Tables of

DPeChEAt deems todeckierasea seas 100% '0
Study of Hydro -aromatic

SUDStANCeSs seecrwebesiakes ss ce 30 0 O
Dynamic Isomerism............ 30 0 O
Life Zones in British Car-

boniferous Rocks ............ 10 0 0
Rrratie BLOCKS \-ccsrsessasceten +e 10 0 0
Fauna and Flora of British

GLAST 7 setiavsichsstecscaswacouethe 10 0 0
Faunal Succession in the Car-

boniferous Limestone of

South-West England ...... 15 0 0

| Anthropometric

| Metabolism

GENERAL STATEMENT.

Correlation and Age of South
African Strata, &c.

see eneeee

Table at the Zoological
Station, Naples........ ... ann
Index Animalium ............ 206

Development of the Sexual
Cells
Oscillations of the Land Level
in the Mediterranean Basin
Gold Coinage in Circulation
in the United Kingdom ...
Tnvestiga-
tions in the British Isles...
of Individual
TisSU@S . <<csccaescevaseneeseme
The Ductless Glands
Effect of Climate upon Health
and Disease

Physiology of Heredity
Research on South African
Cycads......... Apo cocca rit
Botanical Photographs. caste baer
Structure of Fossil Plants ...
Marsh Vegetation.............. .

Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee

45
25

55
30

35

15
16

~
.

oo oO

14

coolUlolUD™#

£757 12 10

1908.

Seismological Observations ...
Further Tabulation of Bessel
Functions

Seen eee eee enenee

| Investigation of Upper Atmo-

| Erratic Blocks ........

sphere by means of Kites...
Meteorological Observations
on Ben Nevis......... casiereee 5
Geodetic Arc in Afriea.........
Vave-length Tables of Spectra
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-
StQNCES. <2 scx scecesseaeeatearees .
Dynamic Isomerism ............
Transformation of Aromatic
Nitroamines ......, sa eeopeead :

| Fauna and Flora of ‘British

_ Hereditary Experiments

Trias
Faunal Succession in the Car=
boniferous Limestone in the
British Isles ......dcoseccoese
Pre-Devonian Rocks..........+.
Exact Significance of Local
Terms ..... pueevn carcere ee ene
Composition of Charnwood
BOCES) . cacdcisssssaenaase deen
Table at the Zoological Station
at Naples......... pawaeenavens es
Index Animalium

Stee ee eee ew ne eeaeeee ereneee

steeee

Fauna of Lakes of Central
Tasmania

Ocean

40

a
oO ao oo ooo Ss eo. ©

SS (OP Ore eee Gon WG)

ooo S o So

ao oc

So

O'S tere'o- 'S> 16s o:9

Exploration in Spitsbergen ...
Gold Coinage in Circulation
in the United Kingdom......
Electrical Standards
Glastonbury Lake Village ...
Excavations on Roman Sites
in Britain
Age of Stone Circles............
Anthropological Notes and
BMNES METS toes o's Scactceccnaceeesiy c
Metabolism of Individual
BERNE rece cactcsRecar cscs secanes
The Ductless Glands.....:......
Effect of Climate upon Health
SEGUE ISCAS yc caversiesesensnannn
Body Metabolism in Cancer...
Electrical Phenomena and
Metabolism of Arum Spa-
dices
Marsh Vegetation
Succession of Plant Remains
Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee ......

Sete eee eeeeneee seneee

eee eee ee ee eee eee

enero e eee eenees

Per eee ee ee eee ee eens

£
30

2
o

50
30
15
50

40

‘£1157 18 8

1909.

Seismological Observations...
Investigation of the Upper At-
mosphere by means of Kites

Magnetic Observations at
MUM OUGDS “sosscecesccdesecn cee
Kstablishing a Solar Ob-
servatory in Australia ......

-Wave-length Tables of Spectra
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-
stances
Dynamic Isomerism............
Transformation of Aromatic
Nitroamines ......
Hlectroanalysis .............0666+
Fauna and Flora of British
PRIIAS UE tosexsesccstodécaseaecdscss
Faunal Succession in the Car-
boniferous Limestone in the
British Isles .............0000+
Paleozoic Rocks of Wales and
the West of England
Igneous and Associated Sedi-
mentary Rocks of Glensaul
Investigations at Biskra ......
Tableat the Zoological Station
BEUNADIES occ eet sctceraseees +e

_ Heredity Experiments.........
¥ eae Habits of British
Birds

eeccaticws in the Indian
RIPBAN I. so dakcestetasecscescendes
Gaseous Explosions ...... eatin
Excavations on Roman Sites
in Britain

60
10
50

50
9

15
35

10
30

8

“1
oro

“100
cro

XXX1X

GRANTS OF MONEY,
a) a. | £
0 0 | Age of Stone Circles............ 30
Researches in Crete............ 70
7 6 | The Ductless Glands ......... 35
0 0 | Electrical Phenomenaand Me-
0 0 tabolism of Arwm Spadices 10
Reflex Muscular Rhythm...... 10
Op On| PAnzestheticst ticc.-cssedesees-pee. 25
0 0O | Mentaland Muscular Fatigue 27
Structure of Fossil Plants ... 5
0 0 | Botanical Photographs......... 10
| Experimental Study of
OF 0 Heredity tis-:caskest saedasseeire 30
14 8 | Symbiosis between Tur-
| bellarian Worms and Alge 10
0 O | Survey of Clare Island......... 65
0 O | CurriculaofSecondary Schools 5
| Corresponding Societies Com-
| .
| pa 212) ogenscnchoddo oo: eee oe 21
h 0 | £1014
aitia. | 1910.
| Measurement of Geodetic Arc
GO. 6 | J. in. Both Airicn...- csste.cs, 100
| Republication of Electrical
Standards Reports ......... 100
Seismological Observations... 60
Magnetic Observations at
RealMOULN seasccags seseesenetes 25
0 0O | Investigation of the Upper
[i At MOSPHELe: asdvecesuserceccse 25
0 0 | Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-
BbaANGES pS csecenece cscs seisasee 25
0 0 | Dynamic Isomerism.......... SAO Sis
| Transformation of Aromatic
ON? es Nitroamines!..-cc.<se.2-s sear LD
16 0 | Electroanalysis ............00-00+ 10
Faunal Succession in the Car-
0 0. _ boniferous Limestone in the
PSION te. BTitishvislegetencsrccctecsesee. 10
| South African Strata ......... 5
0 O | Fossils of Midland Coalfields 25
0 0 | Table at the Zoological Sta-
| tion at Naples ......... aeeais 100
O O Index Animalium............... 75
Heredity Experiments .,....... 5
Feeding Habits of British
On On| Binds) S.stevesestesasientesseess 5
| Amount and Distribution of
0 0 InGOMe yr ccecontsscnecascntee ct Crab
Gaseous Explosions ............ 75
13 9 | Lake Villages in the neigh-
0 0 bourhood of Glastonbury... 5
Excavations on Roman Sites
0 0 | INP BIIPAIN: sok oseaseret esemees 5
0 0 Neolithic Sites in Northern
| Greece ccc SHpas res ngaseen scsi oO
0 0 | The Ductless Glands ...... 40
0 0 | Body Metabolismin Cancer... 20
| Anzesthetics ........cesc0ssesenss 25
0 0 | Tissue Metabolism ............ 25
0 0 | Mentaland Muscular Fatigue 18
Electromotive Phenomena in
ord PIB ESeeteteakes seendse sede asp 10

ot

s. a.
0 O
0 0
gato)
OF at
0 0
0 O
0 0
0 0
0 0
G70
0 0
0 0
0 O
0 0
9 9

xt

£8:
Structure of Fossil Plants ... 10 0
Experimental Study of

EEReMIby lesdersccesegevscenasons 30 0
Survey of Clare Island......... 30 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

BGTASLLES Em vatstaiis satan sets elsiersta sedis 20 0

£963 17
HOU
Seismological Investigations 60 9 0
Magnetic Observations at

HrmOrhhl warearscccene sc snees 25 0 O
Investigation of the Upper

Atmosphere ....c2c..c-nsccees 25 0 0
Grant to International Com-

mission on Physical and

Chemical Constants ......... 30 0
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-

BMC ES ota tnarceasaenehnemeanice 20 0
Dynamic Isomerism ............ 25 0
Transformation of Aromatic

INTEFOAIMINES wesescens esaceuss 15:40
Hlectroanalysis ...............0.- 15 0
Influence of Carbon, &c., on

Corrosion of Steel............ 15 0
Crystalline Rocksof Anglesey 2 0
Mammalian Fauna in Miocene

Deposits, Bugti Hills, Balu-

Chishall’ << .cuassasseersceueeess 75 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-

tion at Naples ............00+ 100 0
index cAnimaltum\; es.cseecesee 75 0
Feeding Habits of British

Bind) yastocetse sticasscteveeteeaee 5 0
Belmullet Whaling Station... 30 0
Map of Prince Charles Fore-

NANG pcouemacts ct sacaeainesceetenes 30 0
Gaseous Explosions ...,........ 90 0
Lake Villages in the neigh-

bourhood of Glastonbury... 5 0
Age of Stone Circles............ 30 0
Artificial Islands in Highland

TH OCHS eerceceusce es desc sesereee 10 0
The Ductless Glands............ 40 0
Anaesthetiesigerw.ssessaeesneses 20 0
Mental and Muscular Fatigue 25 0
Electromotive Phenomena in

Plants eescescrs cei cseencnscctot 10 0
Dissociation of Oxy-Hzemo-

LOD IN ca cdeceuese aueree core aes 25 0
Structure of Fossil Plants ... 15 0
Experimental Study of

V@TeGIGy escent sce caesonesooe 45 0
Survey of Clare Island......... 20 0
Registration of Botanical

PHOLOrTAapDS sc. ..seeve cesses .. 10 0
Mental and Physical Factors

involved in Education ...... 10 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

ALUGEE ma sccnitestarscatseaeete. 20 0 O

oo oo oo o

—] i=) oo oo f=) ocoooo oo oo oo oo o

|

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1912.
£ 8. tl
Seismological Investigations 60 0 0
Magnetic Observations at
Falmouth ..... eBeResce sirid ae Ape MO,
Investigation of the. Upper
Atmosphere: ....2...cccressees 30 0 O
Grant to International Com-
mission on Physical and
Chemical Constants......... 30 0 0
Further Tabulation of Bessel
Manebions -.-sceseseeenseee ese iby sO --0
Study of Hydro-aromatic
Substances........ Ronse eo. 0 0
Dynamic Isomerism ............ 30 0 0
| Transformation of Aromatic
| | Nitroaminest. ess -seenee 10 0 0
| Hlectroanallysisincessseseeeersees 1-0. 0
| Study of Plant Enzymes...... 30 0 0
Erratic JBlOGKSmesessessstceeeenee pO) 0
Igneous and Associated Rocks
of Glensaul, &C.........sc000+6 Jo 0 0
List of Characteristic Fossils 5 0 O
| Sutton Bone Bed ............... 15 0 0
| Bembridge Limestone at
Creechbarrow Hill ......... 20 0 O
Table at the Zoological
Station at Naples..... wtepeis 50 0 O
Index Animalium............... 7% 0 0
Belmullet Whaling Station... 20 0 0
Secondary Sexual Characters
IDM DILAS csneeeecesacseces meena 10 0 0
Gaseous Explosions ..... sas 60 0 0
Lake Villages in the neigh-
bourhood of Glastonbury... 5 0 0
Artificial Islands in High-
land! OCHS re sctccssarcceres aes 10 0 90
Physical Character of Ancient
Egyptians Pasi Sane Oe 40 0 0
| Excavation in Easter Island 15...0..0
The Ductless Glands ......... 35 0 0
Calorimetric Observations on
Man Jd iisensaceseclaeeeseorterees 40.0. 0
Structure of Fossil Plants 2 oeROR O
Experimental Study of
Heredity scecsecceseensensotee at 35 0 0
Survey of Clare Island......... 20 0 O
Jurassic Flora of Yorkshire 15 0 0
Overlapping between Second-
ary and Higher Education 1s 6
Curricula, &c., of Industrial
and Poor Law Schools...... 10 0 0
Influence of School Books
upon Eyesight ...... pee ei 3 9 0
Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee...... nena aceceeeenr sate 25 0 0
Collections ill ustrat ing
Natural History of Isle of
Wright: 5 ck casaneasensameesae «se 20/00
£845 7 6

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. ‘sli

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1912-15.

I. The Council have to record their profound sorrow at the death of
Sir Wiliam H. White, K.C.B., F.R.S., President-Elect. A resolution
expressing their deep sympathy with the members of his family was
conveyed to Lady White by the President.

The Association was represented at the funeral by Professor E. A.
Schifer, President, Major P. A. MacMahon, General Secretary, and a
number of Members of the Council and others.

II. A Resolution expressing the Council’s sympathy and deep sense of
loss at the death of Sir George Darwin, F.R.S., ex-President, was conveyed
to the members of his family ; and the Association was represented at the
funeral by Major P. A. MacMahon, General Secretary.

II. A Resolution expressing the Council’s regret and sympathy at the
death of the Rt. Hon. Lord Avebury, F.R.S., ex-President and Trustee of
the Association, was conveyed to the members of his family.

IV. Sir H. A. Miers, F.R.S., was appointed-to represent the Association
at the International Geological Congress at Toronto in August, 1913.

VY. Proressor W. Bateson, F.R.S., has been unanimously nominated
by the Council to fill the office of President of the Association for 1914 -15
(Australian Meeting).

VI. (a) The arrangements for the Australian Meeting have occupied
the attention of a Committee appointed by the Council to assist the
President and General Officers, and are progressing favourably. Draft
programmes have been prepared, furnishing details of the arrangements
proposed.

(6) The Council have considered what alterations, if any, it may be
necessary to make in the transaction of business at the Australian meeting
in consequence of the exceptional distance. They recommend that the
General Committee hold only two meetings in Australia (following the
precedent of previous oversea meetings), and are of opinion that it will
probably be found most convenient to hold these at Adelaide and Brisbane,
the Committee of Recommendations being held at Sydney during the
intervening period: they further recommend that a third meeting of the
General Committee should be held in London, after the Australian meeting,
if necessary for the consideration of outstanding business.

(c) The Committee appointed to advise the Council in respect of any
action to be taken in connection with the proposed exploration in Oceania
in 1914 was authorised to approach the Secretary to the Admiralty, and
subsequently the Federal Government through the High Commissioner for
Australia, on behalf of the Council, and negotiations and inquiries are
proceeding.

(2) A letter has been received from Dr. A. Loir, of Havre, Local Secretary
for the Meeting of the French Association for the Advancement of Science
in Havre in 1914, intimating that the municipality of Havre desires to
invite as guests leading Members of the British Association who do not

xlit REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

attend the meeting in Australia, and that all Members not attending that
meeting will be welcomed at the meeting of the French Association ; also
proposing that the Conference of Delegates should meet in Havre. Informa-
tion has also been received from Dr. Loir that a Local Committee, including
some of the principal British residents in Havre, has been formed for the
reception of Members of the British Association.

It was resolved that the invitation be cordially accepted, in general
terms, and that details of the arrangements be left to the consideration of
the President and General Officers and a committee appointed to assist
them.

(e) The attention of the Council has been drawn to the question of relax-
ing for the year 1914 (Australian Meeting) the rule under which Annual
Members intermitting their subscriptions for one year lose thereafter the
right to receive the Annual Report free. This question was referred by
the General Committee at Sheffield to the consideration of the Council.

The Council have resolved to report that they are unable to support the
proposal to relax this rule.

Vil. (a) The Council, having considered the question of the disposa
of Sir J. K. Caird’s gift of 10,0001. to the Association, have resolved to
recommend :—

That the income remain in the hands of the Council under the
name of ‘The Caird Fund’; and be available for allocation by the
Council at any time for special scientific purposes. The Council are
also of opinion that further consideration might be given hereafter
to the question as to whether the capital or a part thereof should be
spent on some special scheme or schemes.

(6) The following memorial, to which were appended the signatures
of an influential body of biologists, sixty-nine in number, has been
received :—

‘The biologists whose names are subscribed desire to call the atten-
tion of the Council to the urgent importance of the maintenance of a
table at the Zoological station at Naples for the use of British subjects.
They consider that it is very desirable that the table which has for
many years been known as the “ British Association Table ” should
be given a permanent endowment, so that its maintenance should no
longer depend upon the vote in the Committee of Recommendations
at the yearly meetings of the Association. The Zoology Organisa-
tion Committee will be pleased to appoint a small deputation of
biologists to wait upon the Council to discuss the arrangements that
should be made.’ ’

The Council, in consideration of the interest on Sir J. K. Caird’s gift
accumulating during the present year, authorised the payment of 50/. to the
Committee appointed to aid investigators to carry on work at the Zoo-
logical Station at Naples, in addition to the grant made to the Committee
at the Dundee Meeting.

VIII. Resoxurions referred to the Council by the General Committee
at Dundee :-—

From Section A.
“That it is desirable that a detailed Magnetic Survey of the British
Isles, on the lines of that of Professors Riicker and Thorpe for

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. xli

the epoch of 1891, should now be repeated, in order to answer the
question as to the local variations of the terrestrial magnetic
elements within twenty-five years.

‘That a representation to this effect be made to the Royal Society,
the Admiralty, the Ordnance Survey, and the Meteorological
Committee.

‘ That having regard to the importance of the observations at Falmouth
in the work of the previous Survey and in other work in connection
with terrestrial magnetism and meteorology, steps be taken to assist
an appeal for a Treasury grant, in order that the Observatory at
Falmouth may be efficiently maintained.’

The Council appointed a Committee to consider and report on any
necessary steps in connection with the above proposals. The Committee
was subsequently empowered to act as might be necessary, and resolved
that its report be communicated to the Royal Society, as it was under-
stood that the Society already had the matter under consideration.
The Committee’s report is as follows :—

I

The Committee is of opinion that it is desirable to repeat without delay
the Magnetic Survey of the British Isles carried out under the auspices of
the Royal Society between the years 1886-96 ; and further considers that
the approximate number of stations for the fundamental survey should
be about 200, and that about 50 more will be wanted for testing the
permanence of the position of one of the chief ridgelines. It is estimated
that such a survey could be carried out for a sum of, approximately,
1,000/.

The Committee recommends that the British Association make a
substantial contribution towards this sum.

i.

While the Committee attaches importance to the existence of a station
in the south-west, it was of opinion that if the Survey were carried
through rapidly the maintenance of the observations at the Falmouth
Observatory would not be essential. After consideration and enquiry
it was unable to recommend that steps be taken to assist an appeal for
a Treasury grant, in order that the Observatory might be maintained.

From Section D.

“That the British Association for the Advancement of Science deplores
the rapid destruction of fauna and flora throughout the world, and
regards it as an urgent duty that immediate steps should be taken
to secure the preservation of all species of animals and plants
irrespective of their economic or sporting value.’

The Council approved the principle of the above Resolution, and resolved
to give expression to it in the following terms :—

“That the British Association for the Advancement of Science deplores
the rapid destruction of fauna and flora throughout the world, and
regards it as an urgent duty that steps should be taken, by the

xliv REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

formation of suitably placed reserves, or otherwise, to secure the
preservation of examples of all species of animals and plants,
irrespective of their economic or sporting value, except im cases
where it has been clearly proved that the preservation of particular
organisms, even in restricted numbers, and places, is a menace to
human welfare.’

From Section H.

‘That the copies of the fourth edition of Notes and Queries in Anthro-
pology, now on the point of publication through the Committee
appointed for the purpose of its preparation, be delivered as
heretofore to the Royal Anthropological Institute for sale to its
members and to the public; the proceeds to be reserved at the
disposal of the Association towards the expenses of any future
editions, and accounts of the sales to be submitted to the General
Treasurer of the Association on demand.’

The Council resolved to confirm the arrangements proposed in the above
resolution, and further (a) that members of the Association and Fellows
of the Royal Anthropological Institute may obtain copies at 3s. 6d. each
(the price to the public being 5s.); (b) that the President of the Royal
Anthropological Institute may occasionally present copies to workers who
in his opinion are likely to make good use of them.

IX. The following Nominations are made by the Council :—

Conference of Delegates—Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell (Chairman), Sir
H. G. Fordham (Vice-Chairman), Mr. W. P. D. Stebbing (Secretary).

Corresponding Societies Committee—Mr. W. Whitaker (Chairman),
Mr. W. P. D. Stebbing (Secretary), Rev. J. O. Bevan, Sir Edward Brabrook,
Sir H. G. Fordham, Dr. J. G. Garson, Principal E. H. Griffiths, Dr. A. C.
Haddon, Mr. T. V. Holmes, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Mr. A. L. Lewis, Rev.
T. R. R. Stebbing, Mr. W. Mark Webb, and the President and General
Officers of the Association.

X. The Council have received reports from the General Treasurer
during the past year. His Accounts from July 1, 1912, to June 30, 1913,
have been audited and are presented to the General Committee.

XI. The retiring members of the Council are :—

Sir Oliver J. Lodge (on becoming a member ew-officio and President
for the year) ; Mr. E. Sidney Hartland and Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell (by
seniority) ; Dr. Tempest Anderson and Sir Lauder Brunton (resigned
during the year).

The Council have nominated the following new members :—

Prof. W. H. Bragg,
Dr. F. A. Dixey,
Mr. Alfred Lodge,

leaving two vacancies to be filled by the General Committee without
nomination by the Council.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. xlv

The full list of nominations of ordinary members is as follows :—

Prof, H. E. Armstrong. | Prof. W. D. Halliburton.
Sir E. Brabrook. Capt. H. G. Lyons.
Prof. W. H. Bragg. Alfred Lodge.

Dr. Dugald Clerk. Dr. J. E. Marr.

Major P. G. Craigie. Prof. R. Meldola.

W. Crooke. Prof. J. L. Myres.
Prof. A. Dendy. Sir D. Prain.

Dr. F. A. Dixey. Prof. C. 8. Sherrington.
Prof. J. B. Farmer. J. J. H. Teall.

Principal E. H. Griffiths.
Dr. A. C. Haddon.
A. D. Hall.

Prof. 8. P. Thompson.
Prof. F. T, Trouton.

XII. Major P. A. MacMahon has been nominated by the Council as a
TrustEx of the Association in succession to the late Lord Avebury.

XII. The Generat Orricers have been nominated by the Council
as follows :—

General Treasurer : Prof. J. Perry.
General Secretaries: Prof. W. A. Herdman.
Prof. H. H. Turner.

The Council have received with great regret Major P. A. MacMahon’s
intimation of his intention to resign the office of General Secretary at the
Birmingham Meeting.

XIV. The following have been admitted as members of the General
Committee :—

Mrs. E. A. Newell Arber.
Dr. T. Ashby.

Dr. Henry Bassett.
Miss M. J. Benson.
Sidney G. Brown.

F. Balfour Browne.
Dr. W. S. Bruce.

Miss Florence Buchanan.
E. R. Burdon.

W. Lower Carter.
Prof. F. J. Cole.

Dr. W. Cramer.

Major H. A. Cummins.
Dr. O. V. Darbishire.
J. Burtt Davy.

Prof. H. H. Dixon.
Prof. W. E. Dixon.
W. G. Fearnsides.

H. T. Ferrar.

Dr. F. E. Fritsch.

Dr, R. R. Gates.

Dr. J. F. Gemmil.

R. P. Gregory.

prot.) Dos L- Gwynne- Vaughan.

Dr. H. S. Harrison.
Prof. J. bs Hulls
Prof. G. W. O. Howe.
Dr. A. A. Lawson.

R. Marloth.
Prof. A. Meek.
Dr. 8. R. Milner.
Prof. B. Moore.
Sir F. W. Moore.
W. M. Mordey.
Dr. C. E. Moss.
Prof. T. G. B. Osborn.
Prof. H. H. W. Pearson.
Prof. R. W. Phillips.
Prof. A. W. Porter.
R. Lloyd Praeger.
Dr. W. Rosenhain.
Miss E. R. Saunders.
Dr. S. Schénland.
R. E. Slade.
Miss A. Lorrain Smith.
Dr. O. Stapf.
W. Stiles.
Dr. Marie C. Stopes.
D. Thoday.
Prof. A. H. Trow.
Dr. E. W. Ainley Walker.
Miss E. J. Welsford.
Prof. G. S. West.
Dr. J. C. Willis.
Prof. R. H. Yapp.

xlvi GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT.

Dr. THE GENERAL TREASURER IN ACCOUNT
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE,
1912-1913. RECEIPTS.
£ Seer A
Balance brought FOV WAT: .csissssiveseavacceseveve sess teeneteeteeaeee 229 15 5
Life Compositions (including Transfers) ............ssecseeeeee ‘4 tpa0e O 0
New Annual Members’ Subscriptions ..........0ecsseseeeeenee are y cope 0: “O
Annual Subscriptions — ...<cs.scececsesssenveescesestsrocossesaesodene 642 0 0
Sale of Associates’ Tickets .........sseeceeeeeees Sodscesnacacsmeer ies 1,262 0 0
Sale of Ladies’ TICKS (i. ccascccnescsseseetaspeaueeomaeante ene eeenee 357 0 O
Sale of Publications ~'s:2.i72c.:.svecnseacssn aes ceduccaesaenenaeast eee 203 0 11
Sale of Great Indian Peninsula Railway ‘ B Annuity bodies 617 8 6
Sir James:Caird’s |Gitt-i..5 searsncees eens reteemee tas reth eeee eee 10,000 0 0
Interest on temporary investment thereof .......;:..:sccecceeee ees THeld 1
Interest on Deposit at Dundee Bank ............ SOROS COAE OF 39 1 6
Unexpended Balances of Grants returned : eg uy
Belmullet Whaling Station ..............06 SaaSeDAE Gan) 79
Gaseous Explosions .....,...sceeeeeeeeneees senate 15 0 O
Solar Observatory in Australia ..............006+ 50 0 0
= (QU pe)
Income Tax returned ...... saoeeres Raeeeeovcos vias tiiccce nsec emeNaetawicee 55 12 4
Pividend:on Consols! qs vcsedesesmameae niece dr saane'oonie enews Baasoo: 134 4 8
- PDividend on India 3 per Cent. Stock ............sessceceseesecens 101 14 0
Dividend on Great Indian Peninsula Railway ‘B’ Annuity 39 3 «4
Dividend on India 33 per Cent. Stock, ‘Caird Fund’......... 21 12 11
Dividend on London and North- Western Railway Consoli-
dated 4 per Cent. Preference Stock, ‘Caird Fund’ ......... Aide 8
Dividend on London and South- Western Railway Consoli-
dated 4 per Cent. Preference Stock, ‘Caird Fund’......... 47-1 8

Mem.: Receipts on account of the Birmingham Meeting
(1913) amounting to £84. 10s. 4d., are not included in
this Account, but are paid to a Separate (No. 2) Account
at the Bank.

Investments.
Value at 30th June, 1913,

Nominal Amount.
£ $d. £ Saode
5,701 10 5 23 per Cent. Consolidated Stock...... 4,169 4 9
3,600 0 0 India 3 per Cent. Stock ...........6. 2,700 0 Q
879 14 9 £48 Great Indian Peninsula Railway
“BR JAnnuity (COSt)i..c<.cereseesssanane 827 15 0

2,627 010 India3z per Cent.Stock,Caird Fund’ 2,285 10 6
2.500 0 0 London and North-Western Railway
4 per Cent. Preference Stock,‘ Caird

WUT hebreackeccswarn. sasnecieeeceneeee 2,525 0 O
2500 0 0 Canada 3+ per Cent. 1930-1950 Regis-
tered Stock, ‘Caird Fund’ ......... 2,325 0 O

2,500 0 0 London and South-Western Railway

“,0
4 per Cent. Consolidated Pre-
ference Stock, ‘Caird Fund’ ...... 2,475 0 O
Sir Frederick Bramwell’s Gift :—
76 «1 «3 23 per Cent. Self-cumulating Con- b
solidated Stock. £14,585 11 1
[To be awarded in 1931 for a paper —$<$<

dealing with the whole question
of the prime movers of 1931, and
especially with the then relation
between steam engines and internal
combustion engines. |

JoHN PERRY, Gencral Treasurer.

GENERAL TREASURERS ACCOUNT.
WITH THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE
July 1, 1912, to June 30, 1913.

1912-1913. PAYMENTS.

Rent and Office Hxpenses ........sccedecsescsscoassssosscasenserece
DAIATICN) WECe sovcseccceesseactecasceceeusdentee:
Printing, Binding, &c......... Bisa ss Beamer bestiteddelza Sidanjniiotees
Expenses of Dundee Meeting .
PeTITCOASE OL OUOCK: acc csaceaus<cucasecasiiwacs

Kelvin Memorial Volume |... cccccccccascodessasscscxiccensonecs
Grants to Research Committees :—

Seismological Investigations ............eeeeeee mreeipiaice 60 0
Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere ..........- 50 0
Grant to International Commission on Phy sical | and
Chemical Constants: &, <i: ct «tas connate vod ooe aoect | 200RO
Further Tabulation of Bessel Functions ............-. 30 0
Study of Hydro-aromatic Substances ............002+-. 20 0
Dynamic TSOMEVISM! join < si ctevdalaele opialc’e ve go wolasi eis sriainiom 30 (0
he Transformation of Aromatic Nitroamines awe meine riiopode wile W
Study of Plant Hnzymes. . .sics .dsacc cetdees cscccwes east ou oO
Igneous and Associated Rocks of Glensaul, “ke. Mee ciaeteRr Ue
List of Characteristic Fossils........c.eceeeecesceveecs 5 0

Exploration of the Upper Old Red Sandstone of DuraDen 75 0
Geology of Ramsey Island ............+..
Old Red Sandstone Rocks of Kiltorcan ...
Table at the Zoological Station at Naples .

Ditto ditto (Special Grant) 50 0
Nomenclature Animalium Genera et Sub- sje swatiss) LOD) 10
Belmullet Whaling Station............ceccescseveeees 15 0
Ditto (Special Grant) ...... aaresree, LOr lg
Gaseous ExplosionS .........csseeceressesceeces erro, steth a!]
Lake Villages in the neighbourhood of Glastonbury. Pron em 4!)
Age of Stone Circles (Special Grant) ............ee000 15 0
Artificial Islands in the Highlands of Scotland Chigalv sins PAMOMRIU
Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain ................ 15 0
Hausa Manuscripts ........... 0 0
Duetless Glands.. 0 0
Calorimetric Obser vations on Man 5 0
Dissociation of Oxy-Hzemoglobin at High ‘Altitudes aieicte PLD Ol
Structure and Function of the Mammalian Heart...... 20 0
Structure of Fossil Plants)... .cccccseccrssttecctevence 15 0
Jurassic. Blora of Yorkshire™. 5. ...0060.e0s eacesiavenvec t 412
Vegetation of Ditcham Park, Hampshire .............. 45 0
Influence of School Books on ‘Byesight Foret latereteleiele hs - 9 4
Corresponding Societies Committee .............- Risia trate 25 0
Balance at Bank of Scotland, Dundee oS ud- LN SS
ing accrued Interest) ............ iaschadheaderes lg lOOr 64
Balance at Bank of England
(Western Branch), including
£191 7s. 4d. Income from the
Card: Hound! ss.2.c.s-<sarterererete Oa So. 10
Cash Nob paldian.....nc1 case scceees Ze OAnO)
329° 3 O
Less Cheques not presented ....... 110 18 9
SSS 218 4
Petty) Cash in hand iscccsssecsecseacs Sspenaee’s 12!

An Account of about £910 is outstanding due to Messrs. Spottiswoode &: Co.

I have examined the above Account with the Books and Vouchers

OP a nee nee eee eeeeeeraee

xlvii
Cr.

eee nad

Aad 169 6 3

695 7 &

POTS %

2 0

0 0

Ra 55 13 6
d.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
9
0

978 17 1
d,
4
8

1,375 13 3

£14, 585 11 1

of the Associa-

tion, and certify the same to be correct. I have also verified the Balance at the
Bankers, and have ascertained that the Investments are registered in the names

of the Trustees.
Approved—
EDWARD BRABROOK, | oe
HERBERT McLEop, | ©“?

W. B. KEEN, Chartered Accountant.
23 Queen Victoria Street, E.C.
July 31, 1913,

xlviii GENERAL MEETINGS.

GENERAL MEETINGS AT BIRMINGHAM.

On Wednesday, September 10, at 8.30 p.m., in the Central Hall, a
communication was read from Sir E. A. Schafer, F.R.S., who was
unavoidably absent, resigning the office of President to Sir Oliver J.
Lodge, F.R.S., who took the Chair and delivered an Address, for which
see p. 3.

bn Thursday, September 11, at 8.30 p.m., the Lord Mayor held a
Reception and Conversazione in the Council House and Art Gallery.

On Friday, September 12, at 8.30 p.m., in the Central Hall, Sir H. H.
Cunynghame, K.C.B., delivered a Discourse on ‘ Explosions in Mines and
the means of preventing them.’

On Monday, September 15, Evening Entertainments were given by the
Local Committee in the Prince of Wales’ Theatre (Opera), the Repertory
Theatre, and the Picture House.

On Tuesday, September 16, in the Central Hall, Dr. A. Smith Wood-
ward, F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on ‘ Missing Links among Extinct
Animals.’

On Wednesday, September 17, at 3 p.m., the concluding General
Meeting was held in the Midland Institute, when the following
Resolutions were adopted :—

1. That the cordial thanks of the Association be given to the Right
Hon. the Lord Mayor and Corporation of the City of Birmingham for
the hearty welcome accorded to this Meeting, and to the citizens for their
generous hospitality.

2. That a cordial vote of thanks be extended to the governing bodies
of the University of Birmingham and other Institutions for their kind-
ness in placing their buildings and resources at the disposal of the
Association.

3. That a cordial vote of thanks be extended to the ladies and gentle-
men who, in the kindest manner, gave themselves personal trouble in
the reception of members of the Association, both in connection with
excursions and also private garden parties and other receptions ; and to
the firms which generously threw open their works to members of the
Association.

4, That a cordial vote of thanks be given to the Honorary Local
Officers, to the Executive Committees, and to the members of the General
Committee for the admirable arrangements made for the Meeting.

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT
THE BIRMINGHAM MEETING.

SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.*

President.—Dr. H. F. Baker, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. R. 8. Heath,
D.Se. ; Prof. E. W. Hobson, F.R.S.; Prof. J. H. Poynting, F.R.S.; R. Threlfall,
F.R.S.; Prof. A. W. Porter, F.R.S.; Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S. Secretaries.—
Prof. P. V. Bevan, Se.D. (Recorder); Prof. A. S. Eddington, M.Se.; E. Gold,
M.A.; Dr. H. B. Heywood; Dr, A. O. Rankine; Dr. G. A. Shakespear.

* The name of Prof. J. E. A. Steggall was omitted in error from the list of Vice-
presidents of this Section in the Report of the Dundee Meeting, 1912.

Sea

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. xlix

SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY.

President.— Prof. W. P. Wynne, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents——Prof, Adrian J.
Brown, F.R.S.; Madame Curie; Prof. P. Frankland, F.R.S.; Prof. A. Senier,
M.D.; Prof. T. Turner. Secretaries—Dr. EH. F. Armstrong (Recorder); Dr. C. TH.
Desch; Dr. A. Holt; Dr. Hamilton McCombie.

SECTION C.— GEOLOGY.

President.—Prof. EL J. Garwood, M.A. Vice-Presidents.—George Barrow ;
Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S. ; Prof. J. Cadman, D.Sc.; Dr. Victor Goldschmidt ;
Prof. Chas. Lapworth, F.R.S. Secretaries—Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse (Recorder) ;

Prof. W. 8. Boulton, D.Sc.; Prof. S. H. Reynolds; F. Raw, B.Sc.

SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY.

President.— Dr. H. F. Gadow, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.— G. T. Bethune-Baker ;
Dr, F. A. Dixey, F.R.S.; Prof. Louis Dollo; Prof. F. W. Gamble, F.R.S. ; Prof.
I’. Keibel; Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell, F.R.S. Secretaries—Dr. H. W. Marett
Tims (Recorder); Dr. J. H. Ashworth; Dr. C. L. Boulenger; R. Douglas Laurie,
M.A.

SECTION E.— GEOGRAPHY.

President.—Prof. H. N. Dickson, D.Sc. Vice-Presidents—Dr. W. 8. Bruce;
G. G. Chisholm, M.A.; Col. C. F. Close, C.M.G.; Dr. J. Scott Keltie; Sir C. P.
Lucas, K.C.M.G. ; Capt. H. G. Lyons, F.R.S. _ Secretaries—Rev. W. J. Barton,
M.A. (Recorder); J. McFarlane, M.A.; P. E. Martineau; E. A. Reeves.

SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

President.—Reyv. P. H. Wicksteed, M.A. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. W. J.
Ashley, M.A.; Dr. A. L. Bowley, M.A.; Prof. E. Cannan, LL.D.; Nevilie
Chamberlain; Sir H. H. Cunynghame, K.C.B. Secretaries.—Dr. W. R. Scott
(Recorder) ; C. R. Fay, M.A.; Prof. A. W. Kirkaldy, M.A.; Prof. H. O. Mere-
dith, M.A.

SECTION G.—ENGINEERING.

President.—Prof. Gisbert Kapp, D.Eng. Vice-Presidents—Prof. A. Barr,
D.Se.; Prof. 8. M. Dixon, M.A.; G. R. Jebb; G. G. Stoney, F.R.S.; Dr.
W. E. Sumpner. Secretaries.—Prof. E. G. Coker, D.Sc. (Recorder); A, A.
Rowse, B.Sc.; H. E. Wimperis, M.A.; J. Purser, M.Sc.

SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

President.—Sir Richard Temple, Bart., C.L.E. Vice-Presidents—Dr. G. A.
Auden, M.A,; Sir Everard im Thurn, K.C.M.G.; Prof. G. Elliot Smith, F.R.S. ;
Prof. E. A. Sonnenschein ; Prof. P. Thompson, M.D. Secretaries —E. N. Fallaize
(Recorder); KE. W. Martindell, M.A.; Dr. F. C. Shrubsall; T, Yeates, M.B.

SECTION J.— PHYSIOLOGY.

President.—Dr. F. Gowland Hopkins, F.R.S. Vice-Tresidents—Prof. E. W.
Wace Carlier, M.D.; Dr. W. H. Gaskell, F.R.S.; Prof. Leonard Hill, F.R.S. ;
Prof. R. F. C. Leith, M.A.; Prof. J. H. Muirhead, LL.D. Secretaries —Dr.
Ii. E. Roaf (Recorder) ; C. L. Burt, M.A.; Prof. P. T. Herring, M.D.; Dr. T. G.
Maitland; Dr. J. Tait.

1913. c

l OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES.

SECTION K,—BOTANY.

President.—Miss Ethel Sargant, F.L.S. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. F. Keeble,
F.R.S. ; Prof. F. W. Oliver, F.R.S.; Sir David Prain, C.M.G., F.R.S.; Dr. D. H.
Scott, F.R.S.; Prof. A. C. Seward, F.RS.; Prof. G. E. West, D.Se.; Prof.
R.H. Yapp, M.A. Seeretaries—Prof. D.T. Gwynne- Vaughan, M.A. (Recorder) ;
W. B. Grove, M.A.; Dr. C. E. Moss; D. Thoday, M.A.

SECTION L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

President—Principal E. H. Griffiths, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents—_R. Cary
Gilson, M.A.; Sir A. Hopkinson; Prof. A. Hughes, M.A.; Sir G. H. Kenrick;
A. Mosely, C.M.G. Secretaries—Prof. J. A. Green (Recorder); D. Berridge,
M.A.; Rey. S. Blofeld, B,A.; H. Richardson, M.A.

SECTION M.—AGRICULTURE.

President.—Prof. T. B. Wood, M.A. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. W. Bateson,
F.R.S.; A. D. Hall, F.R.S.; T. H. Middleton, C.B.; Prof. W. Somerville, M.A.
Secretaries.—Dr. E. J. Russell (Recorder); W. E. Collinge, M.Sc.; Dr. C.
Crowther; J. Golding.

CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING
SOCIETIES.

Chatrman.—Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell, F.R.S. Vicee-Chairman.Sir H. G.
Fordham. Secretary. W. P. D. Stebbing.

COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS.

The President and Vice-Presidents of the Association; the General Secretaries ;
the General Treasurer ; the Trustees ; the Presidents of the Association in former
years; the Chairman of the Conference of Delegates; Dr. F. H. Baker; Prof.
H. H. Turner; Prof. W.P. Wynne; Dr. E. F. Armstrong ; Prof. E. J. Garwood ;
Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse; Dr. H. F. Gadow; Dr. Marett Tims; Prof. H. N.
Dickson; Rev. W. J. Barton; Rev. P. H. Wicksteed; Dr. W. I. Scott; Prof.
Gisbert Kapp; Prof. E. G. Coker; Sir R. C. Temple; E. N. Fallaize; Dr. F.
Gowland Hopkins; Dr. H. E. Roaf; Miss E. Sargant; Prof. D. T. Gwynne-
Vaughan; Principal E. H. Griffiths; Prof. J, A. Green; Prof. T. B. Wood;
Dr. E. J. Russell; Sir H. G. Fordham.

eed

RESEARCH COMMITTEES. li

LIST OF GRANTS: Birminenam, 1913.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES, ETC., APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE
AT THE BIRMINGHAM MEETING: SEPTEMBER 1913.

1, Receiving Grants of Money.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose | Members of Committee | Grants
| |

Section AA—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

Seismological Observations. Chairman.—ProfessorH.H.Turner.| 60 0 0#

| Secretary.—Professor J. Perry. j
| Mr. Horace Darwin, Dr. R. T.
Glazebrook, Mr. M. H. Gray,
Mr. R. K. Gray, Professors J. W.
Judd and C. G. Knott, Sir J.
Larmor, Professor R. Meldola,
Mr. W. E. Plummer, Dr. R. A.
Sampson, Professor A. Schuster,
Mr. J. J. Shaw, and Mr. G. W.
Walker.

1

i

| Investigation of the Upper Atmo- | Chairman.—Dr. W.N. Shaw. 25 00
| sphere. Secretary.—Mr. E. Gold.

Mr. D. Archibald, Mr. C.J. P. Cave,
| Mr. W. H. Dines, Dr. R. T. Glaze-
| | brook, Sir J. Larmor, Professor
| J. E. Petavel, Dr. A. Schuster,
|
|
j
|
|
|
|
|

and Dr. W. Watson.

Annual Tables of Constants and | Chairman.—-Sir W. Ramsay. 40 00
Numerical Data, chemical. phy- | Secretary.—Dr. W.C. McC. Lewis. |
sical, and technological.

Calculation of Mathematical | Chairman.—Professor M. J. M.| 20 09
Tables. Hill.

Seeretary.—Professor J. W. Nichol-
son.

Mr. J. R, Airey, Professor Alfred
Lodge, Professor L. N. G. Filon,
Sir G. Greenhill, and Professors
E. W. Hobson, A. E. H. Love,
H. M. Macdonald, and A. G.

Webster.
Disposing of Copies of the | Chairman.—Lieut.-Col. A. Cun- 5 00
| ‘Binary Canon’ by presentation ningham.
| to Mathematical Societies. Secretary.—Professor A. E. H.

Love.

Major P. A. MacMahon.

* In addition, the Council was authorised to expend a sum not exceeding £70 for the printing of
circulars, etc., in connection with the Committee on Seismological Observations, See also Oaird
Fund, p. lxvi.

c 2

hi

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Members of Committee

| Dynamic Isomerism.

' The Transformation of Aromatic |

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.

The Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub- |
stances.

Nitroamines and allied sub- |
stances, and its relation to |
Substitution in Benzene De- |
rivatives.

The Study of Plant Enzymes,
particularly with relation to
Oxidation.

Correlation of Crystalline Form
with Molecular Structure.

Study of Solubility Phenomena.

Chairman.—ProfessorW.H.Perkin. |
Secretary.—Professor A. W.Cross- |

ley.

Dr. M. O. Forster, Dr. Le Sueur, |

and Dr. A. McKenzie.

Chairman.—Professor H, E. Arm-
strong,

Secretary.—Dr. T. M. Lowry.

Professor Sydney Young, Dr. Desch,
Dr. J. J. Dobbie, and Dr. M. O.
Forster.

Chairman.—Professor F, 8. Kip- |

ping.

Secretary.—ProfessorK.J.P.Orton. |

Dr. S. Ruhemann and Dr. J. T.
Hewitt.

Chairman.—Mr. A. D. Hall.

Secretary.—Dr. EK. F, Armstrong.

Professor H. E. Armstrong, Pro-
fessor F. Keeble, and Dr. E. J.
Russell.

Chairman.—Professor W. J. Pope.
Secretary.—Professor H. E, Arm-
strong. z
Mr. W. Barlow and Professor

W. P. Wynne.

Chairman.—Professor H. E. Arm-
strong.

Secretary.—Dr. J. VY. Eyre.

Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Professor A.

Findlay, Dr. T. M. Lowry, and |

Professor W. J. Pope.

Section C.—GEOLOGY.

| To investigate the Erratic Blocks |

of the British Isles, and to take |
measures for their preservation.

|
|
|

Chairman.—Mr. R. H. Tiddeman.

Secretary.—Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse.

Dr. T. G. Bonney, Mr. F. W.
Harmer, Rev. 8. N. Harrison,
Dr. J. Horne, Mr. W. Lower
Carter, Professor W. J. Sollas,
and Messrs. W. Hill, J. W.
Stather, and J. H. Milton.

Grants
By Ss. hs
15 00
25, 0-60 |
|
15 00 |
25. 00
25 00
}
15-0 0
50:0

|
|

RESEARCH COMMITTEES,

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Members of Committee

To consider the preparation of a
List of Characteristic Fossils.

The Geology of Ramsay Island,
Pembrokeshire.

The Old Red Sandstone Rocks of
Kiltorcan, Ireland.

Fauna and Flora of the Trias of
the Western Midlands.

To excavate Critical Sections in
the Lower Palzozoic Rocks of
England and Wales.

Chairman.—Professor P. ¥, Ken-
dall,
| Seerctary.—Mr. W. Lower Carter.
| Mr. H. A. Allen, Professor W. S.
Boulton, Professor G. Cole, Dr.
| A. R. Dwerryhouse, Professors
| J. W. Gregory, Sir T. H. Hol-
| land, G. A. Lebour, and S. H.
Reynolds, Dr. Marie C. Stopes,
Mr. Cosmo Johns, Dr. J. HE.
Marr, Dr. A. Vaughan, Professor
W. W. Watts, Mr. H. Woods,
and Dr. A. Smith Woodward.

| Chairman.—Dr. A. Strahan.

Secretary.—Mr. H. H. Thomas.

Mr. E. HE. L. Dixon, Dr. J. W.
Evans, and Professor O. T.
Jones.

Cole.
Secretary.—Professor T, Johnson.

and Dr. A. Smith Woodward.

| Chairman.—Mrx. G. Barrow.

| Secretary.—My. L. J. Wills.

| Dr. J. Humphreys, Mr. W. Camp-

and Professor W. W. Watts.

| bell Smith, Mr. D. 8. Watson, |

Chairman. — Professor W. W. |
Watts.
| Secretary. — Professor W. G.
Fearnsides.

|

|

| Professor W. S. Boulton, Mr. E. 8.

| Cobbold, Mr. V. C. Illing, Dr.
Lapworth, and Dr. J. E. Marr.

Section D.—ZOOLOGY.

To investigate the Biological
Problems incidental to the Bel-
mullet Whaling Station,

Nomenclator Animalium Genera
et Sub-genera,

Chairman.—Dyr. A. E. Shipley.

Secretary.—Professor J. Stanley
Gardiner.

Professor W. A. Herdman, Rev.
W. Spotswood Green, Mr. E. S$.
Goodrich, Dr. H. W. Marett
Tims, and Mr. R. M. Barringion.

Mit-

Chairman.—Dr. Chalmers

chell.

Seeretary.—Rev. T.R. R.Stebbing.

Dr. M. Laurie, Dr. Marett Tims,
and Dr. A. Smith Woodward.

Chairman.—Professor Grenville

Dr. J. W. Evans, Dr. R. Kidston,

liii

ra

Grants |

|

Kayes |

£ s. d. |

5 00]

|
|
|
|

10 00)

|
|

10 00

10 00

15 00

|

|

20 00)

50 00

liv RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Members of Committee

To provide assistance for Major | Chairman.—Dr. 8. F. Harmer.
G. E. H. Barrett-Hamilton’s | Secretary.—Dr. W. T. Calman.
Expedition to South Georgia to | Dr. Bather, Dr. W. 8. Bruce, and
investigate the position of the | Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell.
|

Antarctic Whaling Industry.

Srotion E.—GHOGRAPHY.

style of Atlas, Textual, and Wall | Secretary.—Rev. W. J. Barton.
Maps for School and University | Professors R. L. Archer and
Use. R. N.R. Brown, Mr. G. G. Chis-
holm, Col. C. F. Close, Professor
H.N. Dickson, Mr. A. R. Hinks,
Mr. O. J. R. Howarth, Sir Dun-
can Johnston, and Mr. EK. A.
Reeves.

Strengths and Directions of Tidal | Chairman.—Dr. H. N. Dickson.
Currents in the Moray Firth | Secretary.—Mr. A. G. Ogilvie.
and adjacent firths. Dr. J. Horne and Dr. J. 8. Owens.

Section G.—ENGINEERING.

The Investigation of Gaseous Ex- | Chairman.—Sir W. H. Preece.

Professors W. A. Bone, F. W. Bur-
stall, H. L. Callendar, E. G.

Harker, Colonel H.C. L. Holden,
Professors B. Hopkinson and
J. E. Petavel, Captain H. Riall
Sankey, Professor A. Smithells,
Professor W. Watson, Mr. D. L.
Chapman, and Mr. H. E.

Wimperis.
To report on certain of the more | Chairman.—Professor J. Perry.
complex Stress Distributions in | Secretaries. — Professors EH. G.
Engineering Materials. Coker and J. E. Petavel.

Professor A. Barr, Dr. Chas. Chree,
Mr. Gilbert Cook, Professor
W. E. Dalby, Sir J. A. Ewing,
Professor L. N. G. Filon, Messrs.
A. R. Fulton and J. J. Guest,
Professors J. B. Henderson and
A. E, H. Love, Mr. W. Mason,
Sir Andrew Noble, Messrs. F.
Rogers and W. A. Scoble, Dr.
T. E. Stanton, and Mr. J. 8.
Wilson.

To inquire into the choice and | Chairman.—Professor J. L. Myres.

plosions, with special reference | Vice-Chairman—Dr. Dugald Clerk. |
to Temperature. Secretary.— Professor W. E. Dalby. |

Coker, and H. B. Dixon, Drs. |
R. T. Glazebrook and J. A. |

Grants

40 00

40 00

50 00

ayy) (0) 0)

|

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

lv

|

|
|

| Secretary.—Professor Swale Vin-

cent.

Professor A. B. Macallum, Dr. L. E.

Shore, and Mrs.W. H. Thompson.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Members of Committee Grants
Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
£ ss. a.
To investigate the Lake Villages | Chairman.—Professor Boyd Daw- | 20 0 0
in the neighbourhood of Glas- kins.
tonbury in connection with a | Seeretary.—Mr. Willoughby Gara-
Committee of the Somerset ner.
Archeological and Natural | Professor W. Ridgeway, Sir Arthur
History Society. J. Evans, Sir C. H. Read, Mr.
H. Balfour, and Dr. A. Bulleid.
To conduct Explorations with the | Chaivman.—Sir C. H. Read. 20 00
object of ascertaining the Age | Secretary.—My. H. Balfour.
of Stone Circles. Dr. G. A. Auden, Professor W.
Ridgeway, Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir
A. J. Evans, Dr. R. Munro, Pro-
fessors Boyd Dawkins and J. L.
Myres, Mr. A. L. Lewis, and
Mr. H. Peake.
To investigate and ascertain the | Chairman.—Professor Boyd Daw-; 5 00
Distribution of Artificial Is- kins. |
lands in the lochs of the High- | Seeretary.—Mr. A. J. B. Wace.
lands of Scotland. Professors T. H. Bryce, W. Boyd
Dawkins, J. L. Myres, and W.
Ridgeway. |
To investigate the Physical | Chairman.—Professor G. Elliot’, 34 16 6
Characters of the Ancient Smith.
Egyptians. Seeretary.—Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
Dr. F. Wood-Jones, Dr. A. Keith,
and Dr. C. G. Seligmann.
To co-operate with Local Com- | Chairman.—Professor W. Ridge- | 20 00
mittees in Excavations on way.
Roman Sites in Britain. Seeretary.—Professor R. C. Bosan-
quet.
Dr. T. Ashby, Mr. Willoughby
Gardner, and Professor J. L.
Myres.
To conduct Anthropometric In- | Chairman.—Professor J. L. Myres., 5) 0 0
vestigations in the Island of | Seeretary.—Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
Cyprus. Dr. A. C. Haddon.
To excavate a Paleolithic Site in | Chairman.—Dr. R. R. Marett. 50 00
Jersey. Seeretary.— Col. Warton.
Dr. C. W. Andrews, Dr. Dunlop,
Mr. G, de Gruchy, ard Professor
A. Keith. :
Ssection I.—PHYSIOLOGY.
The Ductless Glands. Chairman.—Sir E. A. Schafer. 35 0 0

lvi

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose -

Members of Committee

To acquire further knowledge,
Clinical and Experimental, con-
cerning Anzsthetics—general
and local—with special refer-
ence to Deaths by or during
Anesthesia, and their possible
diminution.

Calorimetric Observations on Man

in Health and in Febrile Con- |

ditions.

further Researches on the Struc- |
tureand Function of the Mam- |
| Seeretary.—Professor Stanley Kent.

malian Heart.

The Binocular Combination of
Kinematograph Pictures of dif-
ferent Meaning, and its rela-
tion to the Binocular Combina-
tion of simpler Perceptions.

|

Chairman.—Dr. A. D. Waller.

Secretary.—Sir ¥. W. Hewitt.

Dr. Blumfeld, Mr. J. A. Gardner,
and Dr. G. A. Buckmaster.

Chairman.—Professor J. 5S. Mac-
donald.

| Secretary.—Dr. Francis A. Duffield.

| Dr. Keith Lucas.

Chairman.—Profezsor C. S. Sher-
rington.

| Chairman.—Dr. C, 8. Myers.
Secretary.—T. H. Pear.

Section K.—BOTANY.

The Structure of Fossil Plants.

The Investigation of the Jurassic

Flora of Yorkshire.

The Investigations of the Flora

of the Peat of the Kennet Valley,
Berks.

| The Investigation of the Vegeta-

tion of Ditcham Park, Hamp-
shire.

Experimental Studies in the
Physiology of Heredity.

The Renting of Cinchona Botanic
Station in Jamaica,

| To carry out Breeding Experi-

ments with Gnotheras.

Chairman.—Professor F,W.Oliver.

Secretary.—Professor F, BH. Weiss.

Mr. E. Newell Arber, Professor A.C.
Seward, and Dr. D. H, Scott.

Chairman.—Professor A. C.
Seward.

Seeretary.—Mr. H. Hamshaw
Thomas.

Mr. H. W. T. Wager and Pro-
fessor F. E. Weiss.

Chairman.—Frofessor F. Keeble.

Secretary.—Miss M. C. Rayner.

Professors F. W. Oliver and F, EB.
Weiss.

Chairman.—Mr, A. G. Tansley.
Secretary.—Mr. R. 8. Adamson.
Dr. C. E. Moss and Professor R. H.

Yapp.

Chairman.—Professor F.F. Black-
man.

Secretary.—Mr. R. P. Gregory.

Professors Bateson and Keeble.

Secretary.—Professor R. H. Yapp.
Professors R. Buller, F. W. Oliver,
and ¥F. E. Weiss.

Chairman.—-Professor W. Bateson.
Sceretary.—Professor F. Keeble.
Mr. R. P. Gregory,

Chairman.—Professor F. O. Bower.

Grants
oo BACs
20 00]
/
40 00)
380 00
10 900
15. 0-0
5 00
150.10
20 00
380 00
2ome0n0
20 00

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

lyii

Members of Committee

Section L.—ED

Jo inquire into and report upon
the methods and results of
research into the Mental and
Physical Factors involved in
Education.

The Influence of School Books
upon Eyesight.

To inquire into and report on the
number, distribution and re-
spective Values of Ssholarships,
Exhibitions and Bursaries held

by University Students during |
their undergraduate course, and |

on funds private and open avail-
able for their augmentation.

To examine, inquire into and re- |

port on the Character, Work
and Maintenance of Museums,
with a view to their Organisa-
tion and Development as In-
stitutions for Education and
Research; and especially to
inquire into the Requirements
of Schools.

G

rants

UCATIONAL SCIENCE,

Chairman.—

Secretary.—Professor J. A, Green.

Professor J. Adams, Dr. G. A.
Auden, Sir E. Brabrook, Dr. W.
Brown, Mr. C. Burt, Professor
E. P. Culverwell, Mr. G. F.
Daniell, Miss B. Foxley, Pro-
fessor R. A. Gregory, Dr. C. W.
Kimmins, Professor W. Mc-
Dougall, Dr. C. 8S. Myers, Dr.
ry Po Nunn Dre Waele i.
Rivers, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall, Mr.
H. Bompas Smith, Dr, U. Spear-
man, and Mr. A, E. Twentyman.

Chairman.—Dr. G. A. Auden.

Secretary.—Mr. G. F. Daniell.

Mr. C. H. Bothamley, Mr. W. D.
Hggar, Professor R. A. Gregory,
Mr. J. L. Holland, Dr. W. E.
Sumpner, and Mr. Trevor Walsh.

Chairman,—Sir Henry Miers.

Secretary. —Professor Marcus Har-
tog.

Misa Lilian J. Clarke, Miss B.
Foxley, Professor H. Bompas
Smith, and Principal Griffiths.

Chairman.—Professor J. A. Green.

Secretaries.— Mr. H. Bolton and |

Dr. J. A. Clubb.

Dr. Bather, Mr. E. Gray, Professor
8. F. Harmer, Mr. M. D. Hill,
Dr. W. E. Hoyle, Professors H. J.
Garwood and P. Newberry, Sir
Richard Temple, Mr. H. H.

Thomas, Professor F. E. Weiss, |

Mrs. Dr. White, Rev. H. Browne,
Drs. A. C. Haddon and H. 8.
Harrison, Mr. Herbert R. Rath-

bone, and Dr. W. M. Tattersall.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Corresponding Societies Com- | Chairman.—Mr. W. Whitaker.
mittee for the preparation of | Secretary.—Mr. W.P. D. Stebbing.

their Report.

pew J. O. Bevan, Sir Edward
Brabrook, Sir H. G. Fordham,
Dr. J. G, Garson, Principal E, H.
Griffiths, Dr. A. C. Haddon, Mr.
T. V. Holmes, Mr. J. Hopkinson,
Mr. A. L. Lewis, Rev. T. R. R.
Stebbing, Mr. W, Mark Webb,
and the President and General
Officers of the Association.

1

to

ow
i=)
or
on

lap lotos}

0 00

ce
(=)
So

lyili RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

2. Not receiving Grants of Money.*

| Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Members of Committee

| *Radiotelegraphic Investigations.

To aid the work of Establishing a Solar
Observatory in Australia.
i

To consider the Nomenclature and
Definitions of Magnetic and Elec-
trical Quantities.

The Collection, Preservation, and Sys-
tematic Registration of Photographs
of Geological Interest.

|

To investigate the Microscopical and
Chemical Composition of Charnwood
Rocks.

The further Exploration of the Upper
Red Sandstone of Dura Den.

To consider the Preparation of a List
of Stratigraphical Names, used in the
British Isles, in connection with the
Lexicon of Stratigraphical Names in
course of preparation by the Inter-
national Geological Congress.

Section A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

Chairman.—Sir Oliver Lodge.
Secretary.— Dr. W. H. Eccles.
Mr. 8. G. Brown, Dr. C. Chree, Professor

A. 8. Eddington, Dr. Erskine-Murray,
| Professors J. A. Fleming, G. W. 0.
| Howe, and H. M. Macdonald, Sir H.
| Norman, Captain H. R. Sankey, Dr.
| A. Schuster, Dr. W. N. Shaw, and
| Professor 8. P. Thompson.

| Chairman.—

| Secretary.—Dr. W. G. Duffield.
| Rev. A. L. Cortie, Dr. W. J. S. Lockyer, |
Mr. F. McClean, and Professors A.

Schuster and H. H. Turner. |

Chairman.—Professor Silvanus Thomp- |
son.

Secretary.—Professor F. G. Baily.

Professors H. L. Callendar, J. A. Fleming, |
A. W. Porter, and A. Schuster, and Mr. |

Section C.—GEROLOGY.

| Secretary.—Dy. T. J. Jehu.

F. E. Smith.

Chairman.—Professor J. Geikie.

Secretaries —Professors W. W. Watts and
8. H. Reynolds.

Mr. G. Bingley, Dr. T. G. Bonney, Mr. C.
V. Crook, Professor E. J. Garwood,
and Messrs. R. Kidston, A. S. Reid,
J. J. H. Teall, R. Welch, W. Whitaker,
and H. B. Woodward.

Chairman.—Professor W. W. Watts.
Secretary.—Dr. T. T. Groom.
Dr. F. W. Bennett and Dr. Stracey.

Chairman.—Dr. J. Horne.

Messrs. H. Bolton and A. W.R. Don, |
Dr. J. S. Flett, Dr. B. N. Peach, and |
Dr. A. Smith Woodward. .

Chairman.—Dr. J. E. Marr.

Secretary.—Dr. F. A. Bather.

Professor Grenville Ccle, Mr. Bernard |
Hobson, Professor Lebour, Dr. J.

Horne, Dr. A. Strahan, and Professor
W. W. Watts. ;

E xcepting the case of Committees receiving grants from the Caird Fund, for which see p. Ixvi.

7

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

|

Members of Committee

Section D.—ZOOLOGY.

*To aid competent Investigators se-
lected by the Committee to carry on
definite pieces of work at the Zoolo-
gical Station at Naples.

To investigate the Feeding Habits of
British Birds by a study of the
contents of the crops and gizzards
of both adults and nestlings, and by
collation of observational evidence,
with the object of obtaining precise
knowledge as to the economic status
of many of our commorer birds
affecting rural science.

Todefray expenses connected with work
on the Inheritance and Development
of Secondary Sexual Characters in
Birds.

To summon meetings in London or else-
where for the consideration of mat-
ters affecting the interests of Zoology
or Zoologists, and to obtain by corre-
spondence the opinion of Zoologists
on matters of a similar kind, with
power to raise by subscription from
each Zoologist a sum of money for
defraying current expenses of the
Organisation.

To nominate competent Naturalists to
perform definite pieces of work at
the Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.

To enable Mr. Laurie to conduct Ex-
periments in Inheritance.

To formulate a Definite System on
which Collectors should record their
captures.

A Natural History Survey of the Isle
of Man.

Chairman.—Mr. E. §. Goodrich.

Secretary.— Dr. J. H. Ashworth.

Mr. G. P. Bidder, Drs. W. B. Hardy and
S. F. Harmer, Professor 8. J. Hickson,
Sir E. Ray Lankester, Professor W. C.
McIntosh, and Dr. A. D. Waller.

Chairman.—Dr. A. B. Shipley.

Secretary.—Mr. H. S. Leigh.

Messrs. J. N. Halbert, Robert New-
stead, Clement Reid, A. G. L. Rogers,
and F. V. Theobald, Professor F. E.
Weiss, Dr. C. Gordon Hewitt, and
Professors 8. J. Hickson, F. W. Gam-
ble, G. H. Carpenter, and J. Arthur
Thomson.

Chairman.—Professor G. C. Bourne.

Secretary.—Mr. Geoffrey Smith.

Mr. E. S. Goodrich, Dr. W. T. Calman,
and Dr. Marett Tims.

Chairman.—Sir E. Ray Lankester.

Secretary.—Professor 8. J. Hickson.

Professors G. C. Bourne, J. Cossar Ewart,
M. Hartog, and W. A, Herdman, Mr.
M. D. Hill, Professors J.Graham Kerr
and Minchin, Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell,
Professors E. B. Poalton and Stanley
Gardiner, and Dr. A. E. Shipley.

Chairman and Secretary.—Professor A.
Dendy.

Sir E. Ray Lankester, Professor J. P.
Hill, Professor Sydney H. Vives, and
Mr. E. 8. Goodrich.

Chairman.—Professor W. A. Herdman.
Secretary.—Mr. Douglas Laurie.

Professor R. C. Punnett and Dr. H.W. |

Marett Tims.

Chairman.— Professor J. W. H. Trail.

Secretary.—Mr. F. Balfour Browne.

Drs. Scharff and E. J. Bles, Professors
G. H. Carpenter and E. B. Poulton,
and Messrs. A. G, Tansley and R. Lloyd
Praeger.

Chairman.—Professor W. A. Herdman,

Secretary.—Mr. P. M. C. Kermode,

Dr. W. T. Calman, Rev. J. Davidson,
Mr. G. W. Lamplugh, Professor E. W.
MacBride, and Lord Raglan. -

lix

|

lx

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Members of Committee

SECTION

The question of Fatigue from the
Economic Standpoint, if possible in
co-operation with Section I, Sub-
section of Psychology.

The Collection, Preservation
Systematic Registration of Photo-
graphs of Anthropological Interest.

To conduct Archzological and Ethno-
logical Researches in Crete.

To produce certified copies of the Hausa
| Manuscripts in the possession of
Major Tremearne, for deposit in
centres at which Hausa is taught and
students prepared for the Govern-
ment Service.

To report on the present state of know-
ledge of the Prehistoric Civilisation
of the Western Mediterranean with
a view to future research.

To co-operate with a Local Committee
in the Excavation of a Prehistoric
Site at Bishop’s Stortford.

Toconduct Excavations in Easter Island.

To report on Paleolithic Sites in the
West of England.

F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

Chairman.—Professor Muirhead.
Secretary.— Miss Hutchins.

Miss A. M. Anderson, Professor W. J.

Ashley, Professor F, A. Bainbridge,
Mr. EH. Cadbury, Mr. P. Sargant
Florence, Professor Stanley Kent, Mr.
W. J. Layton, Dr. T. G. Maitland,
Miss M. C. Matheson, Dr. C, §S. Myers,
Mr. J. W. Ramsbottom, and Dr.
Jenkins Robb.

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY

and , Chairman.—Sir C. H. Read.

Secretary.—Mr. K. W. Martindell.
Dr. G. A. Auden, Mr. E. Heawood, and
Professor J. L. Myres.

Chairman.—Mr. D. G. Hogarth.

Secretary.—Professor J. L. Myres.

Professor R. C. Bosanquet, Dr. W. L. H.
Duckworth, Sir A. J. Evans, Professor
W. Ridgeway, and Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.

Chairman.—My, E, Sidney Hartland.
Secretary.—Professor J. L. Myres.

Mr. W. Crooke and Major A. J. N. Tre- /

mearne,

Chairman.—Professor W. Ridgeway.

Secretary.—Dr, T. Ashby.

Dr.
Hogarth, Sir A, J. Evans, and Professor
J. L. Myres.

Chairman.—Professor W. Ridgeway.

Secretary.— Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth.

Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, Dr. A. C.
Haddon, Rey, Dr. A. Irving, and Dr,
H. W. Marett Tims.

Chairman.—Dr. A. C. Haddon,
Secretary.—Dr. W. H. R. Rivers.

Mr. R. R. Marett and Dr. C. G. Seligmann.

Chairman.—Professor Boyd Dawkins.
Secretary.—Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth.
Professor A, Keith.

W. L. H. Duckworth, Mr. D. G. |

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

lhi

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Members of Committee

The Teaching of Anthropology.

To excavate Early Sites in Macedonia.

To report on the Distribution of Bronze
Age Implements.

Chairman.—Sir Richard Temple.

Secretary.—Dr. A. C. Haddon.

Sir E. F. im Thurn, Mr. W. Crooke, Dr. |
C. G. Seligmann, Professor G. Ellict
Smith, Dr. R. R. Marett, Professor
P. E. Newberry, Dr. G. A. Auden, Pro-
fessors T. H. Bryce, P. Thompson,
R. W. Reid, H. J. Fleure, and J. L. |
Myres, and Sir B. C. A. Windle.

Chairman.—Professor W. Ridgeway.

Secretary.-—Mr. A. J. B. Wace.

Professors R. C. Bosanquet and J. L.
Myres.

Chairman.—Professor J. L. Myres.

Secretary.— Mr. H. Peake.

Sir Arthur Evans, Professor W. Ridge-
way, Mr. H. Balfour, Sir C. H. Read,
and Professor W. Boyd Dawkins.

Section IL.—PHYSIOLOGY.

Effect of Low Temperature on Cold- |
blooded Animals.

Electromotive Phenomena in Plants.

The Dissociation of Oxy-Hemoglobin
at High Altitudes,

Colour Vision and Colour Blindness.

To investigate the Physiological and |

Psychological Factors in the produc-
tion of Miners’ Nystagmus.

Chairman.—Professor Swale Vincent.
Seerctary.—Mr. A. T. Cameron.

Chairman.—Dr. A. D. Waller.

Secretary.—Mrs. Waller.

Professors J. B. Farmer and Veley and
Dr. F. O’B. Ellison.

Chairman.—Professor E. H. Starling.
Secretary.—Dr. J. Barcroft.
Dr. W. B. Hardy.

Chairman.—Professor E. H. Starling,

Secretary.—Dr. Edridge-Green.

Professor Leonard Hill, Professor A. W.
Porter, Dr. A. D. Waller, Professor C. 8. |
Sherrington, and Dr. F. W. Mott.

Chairman.—Professor J. H. Muirhead.
Secretary.—Dr. T. G. Maitland.
Dr. J. Jameson Evans and Dr. 0.8. Myers. |

Section K.—BOTANY.

To consider and report on the ad-
visability and the best means of
securing definite Areas for the
Preservation of Types of British
Vegetation.

Chairman.— Professor F. E. Weiss.

Secretary. —Mr. A. G. Tansley.

Professor J. W. H. Trail, Mr. R. Lloyd |
Praeger, Professor F. W. Oliver, Pro- |
fessor R. W. Phillips, Dr. C. E. Moss, |
and Messrs. G. C. Druce and H. W. T.
Wager. ;

lx RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Members of Cemmittee |

Section L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

To take notice of, and report upon | Chairman.—Professor H. E. Armstrong.
changes in, Regulations—whether | Seeretary.—Major E. Gray. |
Legislative, Administrative, or made | Miss Coignan, Principal Griffiths, Dr.
by Local Authorities — affecting C. W. Kimmins, Sir Horace Plunkett,
Secondary and Higher Education. Mr. H. Ramage, Professor M. EH. Sadler, |

and Rt. Rev. J. E. C. Welldon. |

The Aims and Limits of Examinations. | Chairman.—Professor M. E. Sadler. /
Secretary.—Mr. P. J. Hartog. |
Mr. D. P. Berridge, Professor G. H.
Bryan, Mr. W. D. Eggar, Professor
R. A. Gregory, Principal HE. H.
Griffiths, Miss C. L. Laurie, Dr. W.
McDougall, Mr. David Mair, Dr. 1. P.
Nunn, Sir W. Ramsay, Rt. Rev. J. E. C.
Welldon, Dr. Jessie White, and Mr. |
G: U: Yule:

Communications ordered to be printed in extenso.

Section A.—As many of the remarks made in the Discussion on Radiation as
the Recorder may be able to obtain.

Section B.—The Papers comprising the Discussion on the Proper Utilisation
of Coal and Fuels derived therefrom.

Section C.—Professor W. J. Sollas: The Formation of ‘ Rostro-carinate’ Flints,

Section D.—Professor J. Versluys: The Carapace of the Chelonia.

Section G.—Professor F. W. Burstall: Liquid, Solid, and Gaseous Fuels for
Power Production.

Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and, if desirable,
for action.

(a) RESOLUTIONS RELATING TO THE CAIRD FOND (see p. xlii).

(1) That the Council be asked to appoint a Committee to carry out the request of
Sir J. K. Caird in his letter of September 10 (viz., that his further gift of 1,000Z. be
earmarked for the study of Radio-activity as a branch of Geophysics.

(2) That the request of Section A (Mathematics and Physics) for a grant from
the Caird Fund of 500/. for Radiotelegraphic Investigations be sent to the Council
for consideration and action.

(8) That a grant of 100/. for the coming year be made to the Committee on the
Naples Table from the Caird Fund, and that the Council be requested to consider
the advisability of endowing the Committee with a capital sum yielding an annual
income of 1001.

(4) That a grant of 1007. for the coming year be made to the Committee on
Seismological Investigations from the Caird Fund, and that the Council be asked
to consider the advisability of endowing the Committee with a capital sum yielding
an annual income of 100/.

(d) OTHER RESOLUTIONS.

Irom Sections A and E.

That the terms First Order, Second Order, Third Order, and Fourth Order of
Triangulation, as connoting different degrees of precision, be used to describe

RESOLUTIONS, ETC. ]xiil

triangulation, even though the terms now in use (e.g., Major, Minor, etc.), which
have only a local significance, are also employed.

_ ‘That this resolution be communicated through the proper channels to (a) the
Geodetic Association, and (b) the Institute of Surveyors.

From Section TI,

That in view of the fact that numerous deaths continue to take place from
anesthetics administered by unregistered persons, the Committee of the Section of
_ Physiology of the British Association appeals to the Council of the Association to
represent to the Home Office and to the Privy Council the urgent need of legislation
to protect the public against such unnecessary risks.

From Section I.

The Committee of Section I requests the Council of the Association to forward to
_ the Board of Trade the following resolution :—
(i) That colour vision tests are most efficiently conducted by means of what
is known as the ‘ Lantern Test.’
(ii) That the best form of such lantern has not yet been finally decided upon,
and can be arrived at only after further expert report.
(iii) That the actual application of sight tests requires the co-operation of an
ophthalmic surgeon with a practical navigator.

lxiv SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY.

Synopsis of Grants of Money (exclusive of Grants from the Caird
Fund) appropriated for Scientific Purposes by the General Committee
at the Birmingham Meeting, September 1913. The Names of
Members entitled to call on the General Treasurer for the Grants are

prefiwed to the respective Research Committees.
Section A.—Mathematical and Physical Science.

*Turner, Professor H. H.—Seismological Observations .........
Tn addition, the Council are authorised to expend on the
printing of circulars, &c., in connection with the Com-
mittee on Seismological Observations a sum not exceeding
*Shaw, Dr. W. N. —Upper AtMmOSphGre oo. sc. cs 5 ue
*Ramsay, Sir W.— Grant to the International Commission on
Physical and Chemical Constants: ......... <ovsvecussenernmal
*Hill, Professor M. J. M.—Calculation of Mathematical
RANCH ewicse ace sn vac estes sue duct ers eueh thence se dtte seem
Cunningham, Lieut.-Col. A.—Copies of the ‘ Binary Canon,’
PORAPECSCNDAUION (ise 0 isss sss. .c0c ce dle baaere teu «eee eam

Section B.—Chemistry.
*Perkin, Dr. W. H.—-Study of Hydro-aromatic Substances

* Armstrong, Professor H. E.—Dynamic Isomerism ............
*Kipping, Professor F. 5.- —Transformation of Aromatic Nitro-
EMU S ryt Gieleak soieses hep TUE F400 «honed aaeeee

* Hall, A.-D:—Study of Plant Enzymes ......2.:..0n5+..00sesee ate
Pope, Professor W. J.—Correlation of Crystalline Form with
Molecular Structare ..s. ... 0 2.>nessae.qesearge saree ene
Armstrong, Professor H. E.—Solubility Phenomena .........

Section C.—Geology.

*Tiddeman, R. H.—Erratic Blocks ......... eh
* Kendall, Professor PbS istior Chariceenisees Recise eee
Strahan, Dr. A. - Geology of Ramsay Island, Pembroke
Cole, iBraiasor Grenville.—Old Red Ganeaeane Rocks of
Pelion. e As
Barrow, G. —Trias of “Western Midlands aeleecsraee
Watts, Professor W. W.—Sections in ewer Pala
Rocks Ra inne Seon cite coe cae oidiisivesis ob cost ee

Section D.—Zoology.

*Shipley, Dr. A. E.—Belmullet Whaling Station ...............
Mitchell, Dr. Chalmers..—Nomenclator Animalium..... ......
Harmer, Dr, 8. F.—Antarctic Whaling Industry ............

WArricGsfOr wands acs scree nose cclssdacciowesessceceoces coteemeeoem

* Reappointed.

Su

SoS oy Oo. SoS

jae 0) oo oo

Oo oo ora 'S

os

Soo. 7S So

ae) ==) oo

o oo Coo

SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY. lxv

ie
Bradehh LOUWARG, iissscseracesoecevartidimssr dened. DDD 0

Section E.—G'eography.

*Myres, Professor J. L.—Maps for School and University Use 49 0 0
Dickson, Professor H. N.—Tidal Currents in Moray and
Banjacent Hirthay 1 <i. .acpore's. lapeasave lage wend a cick vee ok vane on 40 0 0

Section G.—Engineering.

*Preece, Sir W. H.—Gaseous Explosions ..........c..ssseeeee ees 50 0 0
*Perry, Professor J.—Stress Distributions ...........c0:0. 50 0 0

Section H.—Anthropology.

Dawkins, Professor Boyd.—Lake Villages in the neighbour-

Bree! Cr LISUON DULY acc niokisitn sora pac ste auiten vetenn sgesieras vias ae OO
*Read, Sir C. H.—Age of Stone Circles ................cccce eee ees 20) One O
Dawkins, Professor ‘Boyd. —Artificial Islands in Highland
Lochs nee Pee 3)
*Simith, Professor. G. “'Blliot. —Physical | "Chaschers lok ‘the
Ancient Egyptians .. SS ec it date
*Ridgeway, Professor W Roman Sites in Britain ............ BOO NG
Myres, Professor J. L. ager aber Tnvestigations in
| Cyprus .. nS Ee oh eee veel RN
2 Marett, Dr. R. R.—Palvolithie Site in Jer sey .. ihayhe Ue
Section I.— Physiology.
*Schiifer, Sir E. A.—The Ductless Glands ..,...... ern ht ae 3D OL 60
*Waller, Dr. A. D.--Ansthetics ........ tna Oe nO LO
*Macdonald, Professor J. S. —Calorimetric Observations act, 40; 760)e2.0
Sherrington, Professor C. S.—Mammalian Heart .............. 30 0 0
Myers, Dr. C. S.—Binocular Combination of Kinematograph
RRR eRe oes caek ht Sate Mees tna e Spo Lime oaaaharapcal se eeeati ee. ©
Section K.— Botany.
; *Oliver, Professor F. W.—Structure of Fossil Plants ......... Ldn O70
*Seward, Professor A. C.—Jurassic Flora of Yorkshire ...... He Osa
Keeble, Professor .—Flora of Peat of Kennet Valley ...... Lesh tO
Tansley, A. G.—Vegetation of Ditcham Park .................. 20 0 0
Blackman, Professor F, F.—Physiology of Heredity ......... 30 0 0
Bower, Professor F. O.—Renting of Cinchona Botanic Sta-
tion, Jamaica ...... 20 OF 0
Bateson, Professor W. Breeding ‘Experiments i in » Genothera as; 20. 0 0

Carriedshonwarde tere ce rete oe be tree teeeee ae. £1,199 16°°6

* Reappointed.
1913. d

XV1 SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY.

£ 8. d.
Bronght Forward is scceve ses ic adardiskeveecs eacster eae, Low Lo: 6
Section L.— Education.

—Mental and more Factors in-
volved in Education.. ¢ eee 0° 0
* Auden, Dr. G. A. —Influence of School Books on | Eyesight... 1515 3
* Miers, Sir H.—Scholarships, &c., held by University Students 5 0 0

Green, Professor J. A.—Character, Work, and Maintenance
EER EMS oe ashe Saved, beens cvicls i ans 3 > «a baw s base meneeas aoetes 10 0 0

Corresponding Societies Committee.

*Whitaker, W.—For Preparation of Report ................... 25 0 0
Total 2202.0 2 ee melee

* Reappointed.

CaAIRD FUND.

An unconditional gift of 10,000/. was made to the Association at the
Dundee Meeting, 1912, by Mr. (afterwards Sir) J. K. Caird, LL.D., of
Dundee.

The Council in its Report to the General Committee at the Bir-
mingham Meeting made certain recommendations as to the administration
of this Fund ($ “V II., p. xlii). These recommendations were adopted,
with the Report, by ‘the General Committee at its meeting on Sep-
tember 10, 1913.

Recommendations were made by certain Sectional Committees at
Birmingham of grants from the Caird Fund, for which see p. xii.

The following allocations have been made from the Fund by the
Council (including those made at the Council meeting on November 7,
1913, the first ordinary meeting following the Bir mingham Meeting) :—

Naples Zoological Station Committee (p. lix).— 501. (1912-13) ; 1002.
(1913-14) ; 1007. annually in future, subject to the adoption of the Com-
mittee’s report.

Seismology Committee (p. li).—100/. (1913-14); 1007. annually in
future, subject to the adoption of the Committee’s report.

Radiotelegraphic Committee (p. lviii). — 5007. (1915-14).

Magnetic Re-survey of the British Isles (in collaboration with the
Royal Society).—250/.

Sir J. K. Caird, on September 10, 1913, made a further gift of 1,000/.
to the Association, to be devoted to the study of Radio-activity.

Annual Meetings, 1914 and 1915.

The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1914 will be held in
Australia in August ; in 1915, at Manchester.

—

-PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

ADDRESS
By
Srr OLIVER J. LODGE, D.Sc., LL.D., F.B.S.,
: PRESIDENT.

CONTINUITY.

First let me lament the catastrophe which has led to my occupying
the Chair here in this City. Sir William White was a personal friend
of many here present, and I would that the citizens of Birmingham
could have become acquainted with his attractive personality, and
heard at first hand of the strenuous work which he accomplished in
carrying out the behests of the Empire in the construction of its first
line of defence.

Although a British Association Address is hardly an annual stock-
taking, it would be improper to begin this year of Office without refer-
ring to three more of our losses:—One, that cultured gentleman,
amateur of science in the best sense, who was chosen to preside over
our Jubilee meeting at’ York thirty-two years ago. Sir John Lubbock,
first Baron Avebury, cultivated science in a spirit of pure enjoyment,
treating it almost as one of the Arts; and he devoted social and political
energy to the welfare of the multitude of his fellows less fortunately
situated than himself.

Through the untimely death of Sir George Darwin the world has
lost a mathematical astronomer whose work on the Tides and allied
phenomena is a monument of power and achievement. So recently as
our visit to South Africa he occupied the Presidential Chair.

By the third of our major losses, I mean the death of that brilliant
Mathematician of a neighbouring nation who took so comprehensive
and philosophic a grasp of the intricacies of physics, and whose eloquent
though sceptical exposition of our laws and processes, and of the
modifications entailed in them by recent advances, will be sure to
attract still more widespread attention among all to whom the rather
abstruse subject-matter is sufficiently familiar. I cannot say that I
find myself in agreement with all that Henri Poincaré wrote or spoke

B2

4 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

in the domain of physics, but no physicist can help being interested in
his mode of presentation, and I may have occasion to refer, in passing,
to some of the topics with which he dealt.

And now, eliminating from our purview, as is always necessary, a
great mass of human activity, and limiting ourselves to a scrutiny on
the side of pure science alone, let us ask what, in the main, is the
characteristic of the promising though perturbing period in which we
live. Different persons would give different answers, but the answer
I venture to give is—Rapid progress, combined with Fundamental
scepticism.

Rapid progress was not characteristic of the latter half of the nine-
teenth century,—at least not in physics. Fine solid dynamical founda-
tions were laid, and the edifice of knowledge was consolidated; but
wholly fresh ground was not being opened up, and totally new
buildings were not expected.

‘In many cases the student was led to believe that the main
facts of nature were all known, that the chances of any great
discovery being made by experiment were vanishingly small, and
that therefore the experimentalist’s work consisted in deciding
between rival theories, or in finding some small residual effect,
which might add a more or less important detail to the theory.’—
Schuster.

With the realisation of predicted ether waves in 1888, the discovery
of X-rays in 1895, spontaneous radioactivity in 1896, and the isolation
of the electron in 1898, expectation of further achievement became
vivid; and novelties, experimental, theoretical, and speculative, have
been showered upon us ever since this century began. That is why I
speak of rapid progress.

Of the progress I shall say little,—there must always be some
uncertainty as to which particular achievement permanently contri-
butes to it; but I will speak about the fundamental scepticism.

Let me hasten to explain that I do not mean the well-worn and
almost antique theme of Theological scepticism: that controversy is
practically in abeyance just now. At any rate the major conflict is
suspended; the forts behind which the enemy has retreated do not
invite attack; the territory now occupied by him is little more than
his legitimate province. It is the scientific allies, now, who are waging
a more or less invigorating conflict among themselves; with Philoso-
phers joining in. Meanwhile the ancient foe is biding his time and
hoping that from the struggle something will emerge of benefit to
himself. Some positions, he feels, were too hastily abandoned and
may perhaps be retrieved; or, to put it without metaphor, it seems
possible that a few of the things prematurely denied, because asserted

‘a ‘ee

ee

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS, 5

on inconclusive evidence, may after all, in some form or other, have
really happened. Thus the old theological bitterness is mitigated, and
a temporising policy is either advocated or instinctively adopted.

To illustrate the nature of the fundamental scientific or philosophic
controversies to which I do refer, would require almost as many
addresses as there are Sections of the British Association, or at any
rate as many as there are chief cities in Australia; and perhaps my
successor in the Chair will continue the theme; but, to exhibit my
meaning very briefly, I may cite the kind of dominating controversies
now extant, employing as far as possible only a single word in each
case so as to emphasise the necessary brevitygand insufficiency of the
reference.

In Physiology the conflict ranges round Vitalism. (My immediate

predecessor dealt with the subject at Dundee.)

In Chemistry the debate concerns Atomic siructure. (My pen-
ultimate predecessor is well aware of pugnacity in that region.)

In Biology the dispute is on the laws of Inheritance. (My
nominated successor is likely to deal with this subject; probably
in a way not deficient in liveliness.)

And besides these major controversies, debate is active in other
sections :—

In Education, Curricula generally are being overhauled or funda-
mentally criticised, and revolutionary ideas are promulgated
concerning the advantages of freedom for infants.

In Economic and Political Science, or Sociology, what is there
that is not under discussion? Not property alone, nor land
alone, but everything,—back to the Garden of Eden and the inter-
relations of men and women.

Lastly, in the vast group of Mathematical and Physical Sciences,
‘ slurred over rather than summed up as Section A,’ present-day
scepticism concerns what, if I had to express it in one word, |
should call Continuity. The full meaning of this term will
hardly be intelligible without explanation, and I shall discuss
ib presently.

Still more fundamental and deep-rooted than any of these sectional
debates, however, a critical examination of scientific foundations gene-
rally is going on; and a kind of philosophic scepticism is in the
ascendant, resulting in a mistrust of purely intellectual processes and
in a recognition of the limited scope of science.

For science is undoubtedly an affair of the intellect, it examines
everything in the cold light of reason; and that is its strength. It is
a commonplace to say that science must have no likes or dislikes, must
aim only at truth; or as Bertrand Russell well puts it :—

‘The kernel of the scientific outlook is the refusal to regard

6 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS«

our own desires, tastes, and interests as affording a key to the
understanding of the world.’

This exclusive single-eyed attitude of science is its strength; but, if
pressed beyond the positive region of usefulness into a field of dogmatic
negation and philosophising, it becomes also its weakness. For the
nature of man is a large thing, and intellect is only a part of it: a recent
part too, which therefore necessarily, though not consciously, suffers
from some of the defects of newness and crudity, and should refrain
from imagining itself the whole—perhaps it is not even the best part—
of human nature.

The fact is that some of the best things are, by abstraction, excluded
from Science, though not from Literature and Poetry; hence perhaps
an ancient mistrust or dislike of science, typified by the Promethean
legend. Science is systematised and metrical knowledge, and in
regions where measurement cannot be applied it has small scope; or, as
Mr. Balfour said the other day at the opening of a new wing of the
National Physical Laboratory,

‘Science depends on measurement, and things not measur-
able are therefore excluded, or tend to be excluded, from its
attention. But Life and Beauty and Happiness are not measur-
able.’ And then characteristically he added:—‘ If there could
be a unit of happiness, Politics might begin to be scientific.’

Emotion and Intuition and Instinct are immensely older than
science, and in a comprehensive survey of existence they cannot be
ignored. Scientific men may rightly neglect them, in order to do their
proper work, but philosophers cannot.

So Philosophers have begun to question some of the larger generali-
sations of science, and to ask whether in the effort to be universal and
comprehensive we have not extended our laboratory inductions too far.
The Conservation of Energy, for instance,—is it always and every-
where valid; or may it under some conditions be disobeyed? It would
seem as if the second law of Thermodynamics must be somewhere dis-
obeyed—at least if the age of the Universe is both ways infinite,—else
the final consummation would have already arrived.

Not by philosophers only, but by scientific men also, ancient postu-
lates are being pulled up by the roots. Physicists and Mathematicians
are beginning to consider whether the long-known and well-established
laws of mechanics hold true everywhere and always, or whether the
Newtonian scheme must be replaced by something more modern, some-
thing to which Newton’s laws of motion are but an approximation.

Indeed a whole system of non-Newtonian Mechanics has been
devised, having as its foundation the recently discovered changes which

a ie el

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 7

must occur in bodies moving at speeds nearly comparable with that of
light. It turns out in fact that both Shape and Mass are functions
of Velocity. As the speed increases the mass increases and the shape
is distorted, though under ordinary conditions only to an infinitesimal
extent.

So far I agree; I agree with the statement of fact; but I do not
consider it so revolutionary as to overturn Newtonian mechanics.
After all, a variation of Mass is familiar enough, and it would be a great
mistake to say that Newton’s second law breaks down merely because
Mass is not constant. A raindrop is an example of variable mass; or
the earth may be, by reason of meteoric dust; or the sun, by reason of
radio-activity; or a locomotive, by reason of the emission of steam.
In fact, variable masses are the commonest, for friction may abrade
any moving body to a microscopic extent.

That Mass is constant is only an approximation. That Mass is
equal to ratio of Force and Acceleration is a definition, and can be
absolutely accurate. It holds perfectly even for an electron with a
speed near that of light ; and it is by means of Newton’s second law that
the variation of Mass with Velocity has been experimentally observed
and compared with theory.

I urge that we remain with, or go back to, Newton. I see no
reason against retaining all Newton’s laws, discarding nothing, but
supplementing them in the light of further knowledge.

Even the laws of Geometry have been overhauled, and Euclidean
Geometry is seen to be but a special case of more fundamental generali-
sations. How far they apply to existing space, and how far Time
is a reality or an illusion, and whether it can in any sense depend on
the motion or the position of an observer: all these things in some form
or other are discussed.

The Conservation of Matter also, that main-mast of nineteenth
century chemistry, and the existence of the Ether of Space, that sheet-
anchor of nineteenth century physics,—do they not sometimes seem
to be going by the board?

Professor Schuster, in his American lectures, commented on the
modern receptive attitude as follows :—

‘The state of plasticity and flux—a healthy state, in my
opinion,—in which scientific thought of the present day adapts
itself to almost any novelty, is illustrated by the complacency with
which the most cherished tenets of our fathers are being aban-
doned. Though it was never an article of orthodox faith that
chemical elements were immutable and would not some day be
resolved into simpler constituents, yet the conservation of mass
seemed to lie at the very foundation of creation. But now-a-days

8 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

the student finds little to disturb him, perhaps too little,
in the idea that mass changes with velocity; and he does not
always realise the full meaning of the consequences which are
involved.’

This readiness to accept and incorporate new facts into the scheme
of physics may have led to perhaps an undue amount of scientific
scepticism, in order to right the balance.

But a still deeper variety of comprehensive scepticism exists, and
it is argued that all our laws of nature, so laboriously ascertained and
carefully formulated, are but conventions after all, not truths: that
we have no faculty for ascertaining real truth, that our intelligence
was not evolyed for any such academic purpose; that all we can do
is to express things in a form convenient for present purposes and
employ that mode of expression as a tentative and pragmatically useful
explanation.

Even explanation, however, has been discarded as too ambitious
hy some men of science, who claim only the power to describe. They
not only emphasise the how rather than the why,—as is in some sort
inevitable, since explanations are never ultimate—but are satisfied with
very abstract propositions, and regard mathematical equations as
preferable to, because safer than, mechanical analogies or models.

“To use an acute and familiar expression of Gustav Kirchhoff,
it is the object of science to describe natural phenomena, not to
explain them. When we have expressed by an equation the
correct relationship between different natural phenomena we have
gone as far as we safely can, and if we go beyond we are entering
on purely speculative ground.’

But the modes of statement preferred by those who distrust our
power of going correctly into detail are far from satisfactory. Pro-
fessor Schuster describes and comments on them thus :—

‘ Vagueness, which used to be recognised as our great enemy,
is now being enshrined as an idol to be worshipped. We may
never know what constitutes atoms, or what is the real structure
of the ether; why trouble, therefore, it is said, to find out more
about them. Is it not safer, on the contrary, to confine our-
selves to a general talk on entropy, luminiferous vectors, and un-
defined symbols expressing vaguely certain physical relation-
ships? What really lies at the bottom of the great fascination
which these new doctrines exert on the present generation is
sheer cowardice; the fear of having its errors brought home
HO aby 3. tele

“I believe this doctrine to be fatal to a healthy development
of science. Granting the impossibility of penetrating beyond the

SE

ee

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS, 9

most superficial layers of observed phenomena, I would put the
distinction between the two attitudes of mind in this way: One
glorifies our ignorance, while the other accepts it as a regrettable

necessity.’
With this criticism I am in accord.
In further illustration of the modern sceptical attitude, I quote from
Poincaré :—

‘ Principles are conventions and definitions in disguise. They
are, however, deduced from experimental laws, and these latws
have, so to speak, been erected into principles to which our mind
attributes an absolute value.’

‘The fundamental propositions of geometry, for instance
Euclid’s postulate, are only conventions; and it is quite as un-
reasonable to ask if they are true or false as to ask if the metric
system is true or false. Only, these conventions are con-
venient.’ won

‘ Whether the ether exists or not matters little,—let us leave
that to the metaphysicians; what is essential for us is that every-
thing happens as if it existed, and that this hypothesis is found
to be suitable for the explanation of phenomena. After all, have
we any other reason for believing in the existence of material
objects? That, too, is only a convenient hypothesis.’

A needed antidote against over-pressing these utterances, however,
is provided by Sir J. Larmor in his Preface :—

‘ There has been of late a growing trend of opinion, prompted
in part by general philosophical views, in the direction that the
theoretical constructions of physical science are largely facti-
tious, that instead of presenting a valid image of the relations of
things on which forther progress can be based, they are still little
better than a mirage.’ :

“The best method of ahanie this scepticism is to become
acquainted with the real scope and modes of application of con-
ceptions which, in the popular language of superficial exposition—
and even in the unguarded and playful paradox of their authors,
intended only for the instructed eye—often look bizarre enough.’

One thing is very notable, that it is closer and more exact know-
ledge that has led to the kind of scientific scepticism now referred to;
and that the simple laws on which we used to be working were thus
simple and discoverable because the full complexity of existence was
tempered to our ken by the roughness of our means of observation.

Kepler’s laws are not accurately true, and if he had had before him
all the data now available he could hardly have discovered them. A

10 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

planet does not really move in an ellipse but in a kind of hypocycloid,
and not accurately in that either.

So it is also with Boyle’s law, and the other simple laws in Physical
Chemistry. Even Van der Waals’ generalisation of Boyle’s law is only
a further approximation,

In most parts of physics simplicity has sooner or later to give place
to complexity: though certainly I urge that the simple laws were true,
and are still true, as far as they go, their inaccuracy being only detected
by further real discovery. The reason they are departed from becomes
known to us; the law is not really disobeyed, but is modified through the
action of a known additional cause. Hence it is all in the direction of
progress.

It is only fair to quote Poincaré again, now that I am able in the
main to agree with him—

_’ Take for instance the laws of reflection. Fresnel established
them by a simple and attractive theory which experiment seemed
to confirm. Subsequently, more accurate researches have shown
that this verification was but approximate; traces of elliptic polari-
sation were detected everywhere. But it is owing to the first
approximation that the cause of these anomalies was found, in the
existence of a transition layer; and all the essentials of Fresnel’s
theory have remained. We cannot help reflecting that all these
relations would never have been noted if there had been doubt in
the first place as to the complexity of the objects they connect.
Long ago it was said: If Tycho had had instruments ten times as
precise, we would never have had a Kepler, or a Newton, or
Astronomy. It is a misfortune for a science to be born too late,
when the means of observation have become too perfect. That is
what is happening at this moment with respect to physical
chemistry: the founders are hampered in their general grasp by
third and fourth decimal places; happily they are men of robust
faith. As we get to know the properties of matter better we see
that continuity reigns... . . It would be difficult to justify [the
belief in continuity] by apodeictic reasoning, but without [it] all
science would be impossible.’

Here he touches on my own theme, Continuity; for, if we had to
summarise the main trend of physical controversy at present, I feel
inclined to urge that it largely turns on the question as to which way
ultimate victory lies in the fight between Continuity and Discontinuity.

On the surface of nature at first we see discontinuity; objects
detached and countable. Then we realise the air and other media, and
so emphasise continuity and flowing quantities. Then we detect atoms

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS, 11

and numerical properties, and discontinuity once more makes its
appearance. Then we invent the ether 'and are impressed with con-
tinuity again. But this is not likely to be the end; and what the ulti-
mate end will be, or whether there is an ultimate end, is a question
difficult to answer.

The modern tendency is to emphasise the discontinuous or atomic
character of everything. Matter has long been atomic, in the same
sense as Anthropology is atomic; the unit of matter is the atom, as the
unit of humanity is the individual. Whether men or women or chil-
dren—they can be counted as so many ‘ souls.’ And atoms of matter
can be counted too.

Certainly however there is an illusion of continuity. We recognise
it in the cose of water. It appears to be a continuous medium, and yet
it is certainly molecular. It is made continuous again, in a sense, by
the ether postulated in its pores; for the ether is essentially continuous.
Though Osborne Reynolds, it is true, invented a discontinuous or
granular Hther, on the analogy of the sea shore. The sands of the
sea, the hairs of the head, the descendants of a Patriarch, are typical
instances of numerable, or rather of innumerable, things. The difficulty
of enumerating them is not that there is nothing to count, but merely
that the things to be courted are very numerous. So are the atoms in
a drop of water,—they outnumber the drops in an Atlantic Ocean,—
and, during the briefest time of stating their number, fifty millions or so
may have evaporated; but they are as easy to count as the grains of
sand on a shore.

The process of counting is evidently a process applicable to discon-
tinuities, i.e., to things with natural units; you can count apples and
coins, and days and years, and people and atoms. To apply number to
a continuum you must first cut it up into artificial units; and you are
always left with incommensurable fractions. Thus only is it that you
can deal numerically with such continuous phenomena as the warmth
of a room, the speed of a bird, the pull of a rope, or the strength of a
current.

But how, it may be asked, does discontinuity apply to number?
The natural numbers, 1, 2, 3, etc., are discontinuous enough, but
there are fractions to fill up the interstices ; how do we know that they
are not really connected by these fractions, and so made continuous
again ?

(By number I always mean commensurable number; incommensur-
ables are not numbers: they are just what cannot be expressed in
numbers. The square root of 2 is not a number, though it can be
readily indicated by a length. Incommensurables are usual in physics
and are frequent in geometry; the conceptions of geometry are essen-
tially continuous. It is clear, as Poincaré says, that ‘if the points

12 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS.

whose co-ordinates are commensurable were alone regarded as real, the
in-circle of a square and the diagonal of the square would not intersect,
since the co-ordinates of the points of intersection are incommensur-
able.’)

I want to explain how commensurable fractions do not connect up
numbers, nor remove their discontinuity in the least. The divisions on
a foot rule, divided as closely as you please, represent commensurable
fractions, but they represent none of the length. No matter how
numerous they are, all the length lies between them; the divisions are
mere partitions and have consumed none of it; nor do they connect up
with each other, they are essentially discontinuous. ‘The interspaces
are infinitely more extensive than the barriers which partition them off
from one another; they are like a row of compartments with infinitely
thin walls. All the incommensurables lie in the interspaces; the com-
partments are full of them, and they are thus infinitely more numerous
than the numerically expressible magnitudes. ‘Take any point of the
scale at random, that point will certainly lie in an interspace: it will
not lie on a division, for the chances are infinity to 1 against it.

Accordingly incommensurable quantities ave the rule in physics.
Decimals do not in practice terminate or circulate, in other words vulgar
fractions do not accidentally occur in any measurements, for this would
mean infinite accuracy. We proceed to as many places of decimals as
correspond to the order of accuracy aimed at.

Whenever, then, a commensurable number is really associated with
any natural phenomenon, there is necessarily a noteworthy circum-
stance involved in the fact, and it means something quite definite and
ullimately ascertainable. Every discontinuity that can be detected and
counted is an addition to knowledge. It not only means the discovery
of natural units instead of being dependent on artificial ones, but it
throws light also on the nature of phenomena themselves.

For instance :—

The ratio between the velocity of light and the inverted square root
of the product of the electric and magnetic constants was discovered by
Clerk Maxwell to be 1; and a new volume of physics was by that dis-
covery opened.

Dalton found that chemical combination occurred between quantities
of different substances specified by certain whole or fractional numbers;
and the atomic theory of matter sprang into substantial though at first
infantile existence.

The hypothesis of Prout, which in some modified form seems likely
to be substantiated, is that all atomic weights are commensurable
numbers; in which case there must be a natural fundamental unit
underlying, and in definite groups composing, the atoms of every form
of matter.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 13

The small number of degrees of freedom of a molecule, and the
subdivision of its total energy into equal parts corresponding thereto,
is a theme not indeed without difficulty but full of importance. It is
responsible for the suggestion that energy too may be atomic!

Mendelejefi’s series again, or the detection of a natural grouping of
atomic weights in families of seven, is another example of the signi-
ficance of number.

Electricity was found by Faraday to be numerically connected with
quantity of matter; and the atom of electricity began its hesitating but
now brilliant career.

Electricity itselfi—i.e. electric charge—strangely enough has proved
itself to be atomic. There is a natural unit of electric charge, as
suspected by Faraday and Maxwell and named by Johnstone Stoney.
Some of the electron’s visible effects were studied by Crookes in a
vacuum; and its weighing and measuring by J. J. Thomson were
announced to the British Association meeting at Dover in 1899—a
fitting prelude to the twentieth century.

An electron is the natural unit of negative electricity, and it may not
be long before the natural unit of positive electricity is found too. But
concerning the nature of the positive unit there is at present some divi-
sion into opposite camps. One school prefers to regard the unit of
positive electricity as a homogeneous sphere, the size of an atom, in
which electrons revolve in simple harmonic orbits and constitute nearly
the whole effective mass. Another school, while appreciative of the
simplicity and ingenuity and beauty of the details of this conception, and
the skill with which it has been worked out, yet thinks the evidence
more in favour of a minute central positive nucleus, or nucleus-group,
of practically atomic mass; with electrons, larger—i.e. less concen-
trated—and therefore less massive than itself, revolving round it in
astronomical orbits. While from yet another point of view it is in-
sisted that positive and negative electrons can only differ skew-symmet-
rically, one being like the image of the other in a mirror, and that the
mode in which they are grouped to form an atom remains for future
discovery. But no one doubts that electricity is ultimately atomic.

Even magnetism has been suspected of being atomic, and _ its
hypothetical unit has been named in advance the magneton: but I con-
fess that here I have not been shaken out of the conservative view.

We may express all this as an invasion of number into unsuspected
regions.

Biology may be said to be becoming atomic. It has long had
natural units in the shape of cells and nuclei, and some discontinuity
represented by body-boundaries and cell-walls; but now, in its laws of
heredity as studied by Mendel, number and discontinuity are strikingly
apparent among the reproductive cells, and the varieties of offspring

14 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

admit of numerical specification and prediction to a surprising extent;
while modification by continuous variation, which seemed to be of the
essence of Darwinism, gives place to, or at least is accompanied by,
mutation, with finite and considerable and in appearance discontinuous
change.

So far from Nature not making jumps, it becomes doubtful if she
does anything else. Her hitherto placid course, more closely examined,
is beginning to look like a kind of steeplechase.

Yet undoubtedly Continuity is the backbone of evolution, as taught
by all biologists—no artificial boundaries or demarcations between
species—a continuous chain of heredity from far below the amceba up
to man. Actual continuity of undying germ-plasm, running through all
generations, is taught likewise; though a strange discontinuity between
this persistent element and its successive accessory body-plasms—a dis-
continuity which would convert individual organisms into mere tem-
porary accretions or excretions, with no power of influencing or con-
veying experience to their generating cells—is advocated by one school.

Discontinuity does not fail to exercise fascination even in pure
Mathematics. Curves are invented which have no tangent or differ-
‘ential coefficient, curves which consist of a succession of dots or of
twists; and the theory of commensurable numbers seems to be exerting
a dominance over philosophic mathematical thought as well as over
physical problems.

And not only these fairly accepted results are prominent, but some
more difficult and unexpected theses in the same direction are being
propounded, and the atomic character of Energy is advocated. We had
hoped to be honoured by the presence of Professor Planck, whose theory
of the quantum, or indivisible unit or atom of energy, excites the
greatest interest, and by some is thought to hold the field.

Then again Radiation is showing signs of becoming atomic or dis-
continuous. The corpuscular theory of radiation is by no means so
dead as in my youth we thought it was. Some radiation is certainly
corpuscular, and even the etherial kind shows indications, which may
be misleading, that it is spotty, or locally concentrated into points, as
if the wave-front consisted of detached specks or patches; or, as J. J.
Thomson says, ‘the wave-front must be more analogous to bright
specks on a dark ground than to a uniformly illuminated surface,’ thus
suggesting that the Ether may be fibrous in structure, and that a wave
runs along lines of electric force; as the genius of Faraday surmised
might be possible in his ‘Thoughts on Ray Vibrations.’ Indeed
Newton guessed something of the same kind, I fancy, when he super-
posed ether-pulses on his ccrpuscles.

Whatever be the truth in this matter, a discussion on Radiation,
of extreme weight and interest, though likewise of great profundity and

eS rr SOr—”—”

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 15

technicality, is expected on Friday in Section A. We welcome Pro-
fessor Lorentz, Dr. Arrhenius, Professor Langevin, Professor Prings-
heim, and others, some of whom have been specially invited to England
because of the important contributions which they have made to the
subject-matter of this discussion.

Why is so much importance attached to Radiation? Because it is
the best-known and longest-studied link between matter and ether, and
the only property we are acquainted with that affects the unmodified
great mass of ether alone. Electricity and magnetism are associated
with the modifications or singularities called electrons: most phenomena
are connected still more directly with matter. Radiation, however,
though excited by an accelerated electron, is subsequently let loose in
the ether of space, and travels as a definite thing at a measurable and
constant pace—a pace independent of everything so long as the ether
is free, unmodified and unloaded by matter. Hence radiation has much
to teach us, and we have much to learn concerning its nature.

How far can the analogy of granular, corpuscular, countable, atomic,
or discontinuous things be pressed? There are those who think it can
be pressed very far. But to avoid misunderstanding let me state, for
what it may be worth, that I myself am an upholder of ultimate
Continuity, and a fervent believer in the Ether of Space.

We have already learnt something about the ether; and although
there may be almost as many varieties of opinion as there are people
qualified to form one, in my view we have learnt as follows: F

The Ether is the universal connecting medium which binds the
universe together, and makes it a coherent whole instead of a chaotic
collection of independent isolated fragments. It is the vehicle of
transmission of all manner of force, from gravitation down to cohesion
and chemical affinity ; it is therefore the storehouse of potential energy.

_ Matter moves, but Ether is strained.

What we call elasticity of matter is only the result of an alteration
of configuration due to movement and readjustment of particles, but
all the strain and stress are in the ether. The ether itself does not
move, that is to say it does not move in the sense of locomotion,
though it is probably in a violent state of rotational or turbulent
motion in its smallest parts; and to that motion its exceeding rigidity
is due.

As to its density, it must be far greater than that of any form of
matter, millions of times denser than lead or platinum. Yet matter
moves through it with perfect freedom, without any friction or
viscosity. There is nothing paradoxical in this: viscosity is not a
function of density; the two are not necessarily connected. When a
solid moves through an alien fluid it is true that it acquires a spurious
or apparent extra inertia from the fluid it displaces; but, in the case

16 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

of matter and ether, not only is even the densest matter excessively
porous and discontinuous, with vast interspaces in and among the
atoms, but the constitution of matter is such that there appears to be
no displacement in the ordinary sense at all; the ether is itself so
modified as to constitute the matter in some way. Of course that
portion moves, its inertia is what we observe, and its amount depends
on the potential energy in its associated electric field, but the motion
is not like that of a foreign body, it is that of some inherent and
merely individualised portion of the stuff itself. Certain it is that
the ether exhibits no trace of viscosity.?

Matter in motion, Ether under strain, constitute the fundamental
concrete things we have to do with in physics. The first pair represent
kinetic energy, the second potential energy; and all the activities of
the material universe are represented by alternations from one of these
forms to the other.

Whenever this transference and transformation of energy occur,
work is done, and some effect is produced, but the energy is never
diminished in quantity: it is merely passed on from one body to
another, always from ether to matter or vice versa,—except in the case
of radiation, which simulates matter—and from one form to another.

The forms of energy can be classified as either a translation, a
rotation, or a vibration, of pieces of matter of different sizes, from stars
and planets down to atoms and electrons; or else an etherial strain
which in various different ways is manifested by the behaviour of such
masses of matter as appeal to our senses.” -

Some of the facts responsible for the suggestion that energy is
atomic seem to me to depend on the discontinuous nature of the
structure of a material atom, and on the high velocity of its constituent
particles. The apparently discontinuous emission of radiation is, I
believe, due to features in the real discontinuity of matter. Disturb-
ances inside an atom appear to be essentially catastrophic; a portion is
liable to be ejected with violence. There appears to be a critical
velocity below which ejection does not take place; and, when it does,
there also occurs a sudden re-arrangement of parts which is presumably
responsible for some perceptible etherial radiation. Hence it is, I
suppose. that radiation comes off in gushes or bursts; and hence it
appears to consist of indivisible units. The occasional phenomenon of
new stars, as compared with the steady orbital motion of the millions
of recognised bodies, may be suggested as an astronomical analogue.

The hypothesis of quanta was devised to reconcile the law that

* For details of my experiment on this subject see Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. for
1893 and 1897; or a very abbreviated reference to it, and to the other matters
above-mentioned, in my small book The Liher of Space.

* See, in the Philosophical Magazine for 1879, my article on a Classification
of the forms of energy,

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. HH

the energy of a group of colliding molecules must in the long run be
equally shared among all their degrees of freedom, with the observed
fact that the energy is really shared into only a small number of equal
parts. For if vibration-possibilities have to be taken into account, the
number of degrees of molecular freedom must be very large, and
energy shared among them ought soon to be all frittered away ; whereas
it is not. Hence the idea is suggested that minor degrees of freedom
are initially excluded from sharing the energy, because they cannot be
supplied with less than one atom of it.

I should prefer to express the fact by saying that the ordinary
encounters of molecules are not of a kind able to excite atomic vibra-
tions, or in any way to disturb the ether. Spectroscopic or luminous
vibrations of an atom are excited only by an exceptionally violent kind
of collision, which may be spoken of as chemical clash; the ordinary
molecular orbital encounters, always going on at the rate of millions
a second, are ineffective in that respect, except in the case of phos-
phorescent or luminescent substances. That common molecular
deflexions are ineffective is certain, else all the energy would be dissi-
pated or transferred from matter into the ether; and the reasonableness
of their radiative inefficiency is not far to seek, when we consider the
comparatively leisurely character of molecular movements, at speeds
comparable with the velocity of sound. Admittedly, however, the
effective rigidity of molecules must be complete, otherwise the sharing
of energy must ultimately occur. They do not seem able to be set
Vibrating by anything less than a certain minimum stimulus; and that
is the basis for the theory of quanta.

Quantitative applications of Planck’s theory, to elucidate the other-
wise shaky stability of the astronomically constituted atom, have been
made; and the agreement between results so calculated and those
observed, including a determination of series of spectrum lines, is very
remarkable. One of the latest contributions to this subject is a paper
by Dr. Bohr in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine ’ for July this year.

To show that I am not exaggerating the modern tendency towards
discontinuity, I quote, from M. Poincaré’s ‘ Derniéres Pensées,’ a
proposition which he announces in italics as representing a form of
Professor Planck’s view of which he apparently approves :—

“A physical system is susceptible of a finite number only of
distinct conditions; it jumps from one of these conditions to
another without passing through a continuous series of inter-
mediate conditions.’

Also this from Sir Joseph Larmor’s Preface to Poincaré’s ‘ Science
and Hypothesis ’:—

* Still more recently it has been found that the good Bishop
1913. c

18 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

Berkeley’s logical jibes against the Newtonian ideas of fluxions
and limiting ratios cannot be adequately appeased in the rigorous
mathematical conscience until our apparent continuities are re-
solved mentally into discrete aggregates which we only partially
apprehend. The irresistible impulse to atomise everything thus
proves to be not merely a disease of the physicist: a deeper
origin, in the nature of knowledge itself, is suggested.’

One very valid excuse for this prevalent attitude is the astonishing
progress that has been made in actually seeing, or almost seeing, the
molecules, and studying their arrangement and distribution.

The laws of gases have been found to apply to emulsions and to
fine powders in suspension, of which the Brownian movement has
long been known. This movement is caused by the orthodox mole-
cular bombardment, and its average amplitude exactly represents the
theoretical mean free path calculated from the ‘ molecular weight ’ of
the relatively gigantic particles. The behaviour of these microscopi-
cally visible masses corresponds closely and quantitatively with what
could be predicted for them as fearfully heavy atoms, on the kinetic
theory of gases; they may indeed be said to constitute a gas with a
gram-molecule as high as 200,000 tons; and, what is rather important
as well as interesting, they tend visibly to verify the law of equiparti-
tion of energy even in so extreme a case, when that law is properly
stated and applied.

Still more remarkable—the application of X-rays to display the
arrangement of molecules in crystals, and ultimately the arrangement
of atoms in molecules, as initiated by Professor Laue with Drs.
Friedrich and Knipping, and continued by Professor Bragg and his
son and by Dr. Tutton, constitute a series of researches of high interest
and promise. By this means many of the theoretical anticipations of
our countryman, Mr. William Barlow, and—working with him—Pro-
fessor Pope, as well as of those distinguished crystallographers yon
Groth and von Fedorow, have been confirmed in a striking way.
These brilliant researches, which seem likely to constitute a branch of
Physics in themselves, and which are being continued by Messrs.
Moseley and C. G. Darwin, and by Mr. Keene and others, may be
called an apotheosis of the atomic theory of matter.

One other controversial topic I shall touch upon in the domain
of physics, though I shall touch upon it lightly, for it is not a matter
for easy reference as yet. If the ‘ Principle of Relativity’ in an
extreme sense establishes itself, it seems as if even Time would become
discontinuous and be supplied in atoms, as money is doled out in
pence or centimes instead of continuously ;—in which case our cus-
tomary existence will turn out to be no more really continuous than

any OQ ANY

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 19

the events on a kinematograph screen;—while that great agent of
continuity, the Ether of Space, will be relegated to the museum of
historical curiosities.

In that case differential equations will cease to represent the facts
of nature; they will have to be replaced by Finite Differences, and the
most fundamental revolution since Newton will be inaugurated.

Now in all the debatable matters of which I have indicated possi-
bilities I want to urge a conservative attitude. I accept the new
experimental results on which some of these theories—such as the
Principle of Relativity—are based, and am profoundly interested in
them, but I do not feel that they are so revolutionary as their pro-
pounders think. I see a way to retain the old and yet embrace the
new, and I urge moderation in the uprooting and removal of landmarks.

And of these the chief is Continuity. I cannot imagine the exer-
tion of mechanical force across empty space, no matter how minute; a
continuous medium seems to me essential. I cannot admit discon-
tinuity in either Space or Time, nor can I imagine any sort of experi-
ment which would justify such a hypothesis. For surely we must
realise that we know nothing experimental of either space or time, we
cannot modify them in any way. We make experiments on bodies,
and only on bodies, using ‘ body’ as an exceedingly general term.

We have no reason to postulate anything but continuity for space
and time. We cut them up into conventional units for convenience’
sake, and those units we can count; but there is really nothing atomic
or countable about the things themselves. We can count the rotations
of the earth, or the revolutions of an electron, or the vibrations of a
pendulum, or the waves of light. All these are concrete and tractable
physical entities; but space and time are ultimate data, abstractions
based on experience. We know them through motion, and through
motion only, and motion is essentially continuous. We ought clearly
to discriminate between things themselves and our mode of measuring
them. Our measures and perceptions may be affected by all manner
of incidental and trivial causes, and we may get confused or hampered
by our own movement; but there need be no such complication in
things themselves, any more than a landscape is distorted by looking at
it through an irregular window-pane or from a travelling coach. It
is an ancient and discarded fable that complications introduced by the
motion of an observer are real complications belonging to the outer
universe.

Very well, then, what about the Ether? Is that in the same
predicament? Is that an abstraction, or a mere convention, or is
it a concrete physical entity on which we can experiment ?

Now it has to be freely admitted that it is exceedingly difficult
to make experiments on the ether. It does not appeal to sense, and

c2

20 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS,

we know no means of getting hold of it. The one thing we know
metrical about it is the velocity with which it can transmit transverse
waves. That is clear and definite, and thereby, to my judgment, it
proves itself a physical agent; not indeed tangible or sensible, but
yet concretely real.

But it does elude our laboratory grasp. If we rapidly move
matter through it, hoping to grip it and move it too, we fail: there
is no mechanical connection. And even if we experiment on light
we fail too. So long as transparent matter is moving relatively to
us, light can be affected inside that matter; but when matter is
relatively stationary to matter nothing observable takes place, how-
ever fast things may be moving, so long as they move together.

Hence arises the idea that motion with respect to Ether is mean-
ingless: and the fact that only relative motion of pieces of matter
with respect to each other has so far been observed is the foundation
of the Principle of Relativity. It sounds simple enough as thus
stated, but in its developments it is an ingenious and complicated
doctrine, embodying surprising consequences, which have been worked
out by Professor Einstein and his disciples with consummate ingenuity.

What have I to urge against it? Well, in the first place, it is
only in accordance with common sense that no effect of the first
order can be observed without relative motion of matter. An Ether-
stream through our laboratories is optically and electrically undetect-
able, at least as regards first-order observation; this is clearly
explained for general readers in my book ‘The Ether of Space,’
Chapter IV. (Also in Nature, vol. 46, p. 497.) But the Principle of
Relativity says more than that; it says that no effect of any order of
magnitude can ever be observed without the relative motion of matter.

The truth underlying this doctrine is that absolute motion without
reference to anything is unmeaning. But the narrowing down of
‘anything’ to mean any piece of matter is illegitimate. The nearest
approach to absolute motion that we can physically imagine is motion
through or with respect to the Ether of Space. It is natural to
assume that the Ether is on the whole stationary, and to use it as
a standard of rest; in that sense motion with reference to it may
be called absolute, but in no other sense.

The Principle of Relativity claims that we can never ascertain such
motion: in other words it practically or pragmatically denies the
existence of the Ether. Every one of our scientifically observed
motions, it says, are of the same nature as our popularly observed
ones, viz., motion of pieces of matter relatively to each other; and
that is all that we can ever know. Everything goes on—says the
Principle of Relativity—as if the Ether did not exist.

Now the facts are that no motion with reference to the ether

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 21

alone has ever yet been observed: there are always curious com-
pensating effects which just cancel out the movement-terms and
destroy or effectively mask any phenomenon that might otherwise
be expected. When matter moves past matter observation can be
made; but, even so, no consequent locomotion of ether, outside the
actually moving particles, can be detected.

It is sometimes urged that rotation is a kind of absolute motion
that can be detected, even in isolation. It can so be detected, as
Newton pointed out; but in cases of rotation matter on one side the
axis is Moving in the opposite direction to matter on the other side
of the axis; hence rotation involves relative material motion, and
therefore can be observed.

To detect motion through ether we must use an etherial process.
We may use radiation, and try to compare the speeds of light along
or across the motion; or we might try to measure the speed, first
with the motion, and then against it. But how are we to make the
comparison? If the time of emission from a distant source is given
by a distant clock, that clock must be observed through a telescope,
that is by a beam of light; which is plainly a compensating process.
Or the light from a neighbouring source can be sent back to us by a
distant mirror; when again there will be compensation. Or the start-
ing of light from a distant terrestrial source may be telegraphed to us,
either with a wire or without; but it is the ether that conveys the
message in either case, so again there will be compensation.
Electricity, Magnetism, and Light, are all effects of the ether.

Use Cohesion, then; have a rod stretching from one place to
another, and measure that. But cohesion is transmitted by the ether
too, if, as believed, it is the universal binding medium. Compensa-
tion is likely; compensation can, on the electrical theory of matter, be
predicted.

Use some action not dependent on Ether, then. Very well, where
shall we find it?

To illustrate the difficulty I will quote a sentence from Sir Joseph
Larmor’s paper before the International Congress of Mathematicians
at Cambridge last year :—

“If it is correct to say with Maxwell that all radiation is an
electrodynamic phenomenon, it is equally correct to say with
him that all electrodynamic relations between material bodies are
established by the operation, on the molecules of those bodies,
of fields of force which are propagated in free space as radiation
and in accordance with the laws of radiation, from one body to
the other.’

The fact is we are living in an epoch of some very comprehensive

22 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

generalisations. The physical discovery of the twentieth century, so
far, is the Electrical Theory of Matter. This is the great new theory
of our time; it was referred to, in its philosophical aspect, by Mr.
Balfour in his Presidential Address at Cambridge in 1904. We are
too near it to be able to contemplate it properly ; it has still to establish
itself and to develop in detail, but I anticipate that in some form or
other it will prove true.*

Here is a briefest possible summary of the first chapter (so to
speak) of the Electrical Theory of Matter.

(1) Atoms of Matter are composed of electrons,—of positive and
negative electric charges.

(2) Atoms are bound together into molecules by chemical affinity,
which is. intense electrical attraction at ultra-minute
distances.

(3) Molecules are held together by cohesion, which I for one
regard as residual or differential chemical affinity over
molecular distances.

(4) Magnetism is due to the locomotion of electrons. There
is no magnetism without an electric current, atomic or
otherwise. There is no electric current without a moving
electron.

(5) Radiation is generated by every accelerated electron, in
amount proportional to the square of its acceleration; and
there is no other kind of radiation, except indeed a corpus-
cular kind; but this depends on the velocity of electrons,

and therefore again can only be generated by their accelera-
tion.

The theory is bound to have curious consequences; and already it
has contributed to some of the uprooting and uncertainty that I speak
of. For, if it be true, every material interaction will be electrical,
1.e., etherial; and hence arises our difficulty. Every kind of force is
transmitted by the ether, and hence, so long as all our apparatus is
travelling together at one and the same pace, we have no chance of
detecting the motion. That is the strength of the Principle of Rela-
tivity. The changes are not zero, but they cancel each other out of
observation. (Nature, vol. 46, page 165, 1892.)

Many forms of statement of the famous Michelson-Morley experi-
ment are misleading. It is said to prove that the time taken by light
to go with the ether stream is the same as that taken to go against or
across it. It does not show that. What it shows is that the time
taken by light to travel to and fro on a measured interval fixed on a

* For a general introductory account of the electrical theory of matter my
Romanes lecture for 1903 (Clarendon Press) may be referred to.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS, 23

rigid block of matter is independent of the aspect of that block with
respect to any motion of the earth through space. A definite and
most interesting result: but it may be, and often is, interpreted loosely
and too widely.

It is interpreted too widely, as I think, when Professor Hinstein
goes on to assume that no non-relative motion of matter can be ever
observed even when light is brought into consideration. The relation
of light to matter is very curious. The wave front of a progressive
wave simulates many of the properties of matter. It has energy, it
has momentum, it exerts force, it sustains reaction. It has been
described as a portion of the mass of a radiating body,—which gives it
a curiously and unexpectedly corpuscular ‘ feel.’ But it has a definite
velocity. Its velocity in space relative to the ether is an absolute
constant independent of the motion of the source. This would not
be true for corpuscular light.

Hence I hold that here is something with which our own motion
may theoretically be compared; and I predict that our motion through
the ether will some day be detected by the help of this very fact,—by
comparing our speed with that of light: though the old astronomical
aberration, which seemed to make the comparison easy, failed to do so
quite simply, because it is complicated by the necessity of observing
the position of a distant source, in relation to which the earth is
moving. If the source and observer are moving together there is no
possibility of observing aberration. | Nevertheless I maintain that
when matter is moving near a beam of light we may be able to detect
the motion. For the velocity of light in space is no function of the
velocity of the source, nor of matter near it; it is quite unaffected by
motion of source or receiver. Once launched it travels in its own
way. If we are travelling to meet it, it will be arriving at us more
quickly; if we travel away from it, it will reach us with some lag.
That is certain; and observation of the acceleration or retardation is
made by aid of Jupiter’s satellites. We have there the dial of a clock,
to or from which we advance or recede periodically. It gains while we
approach it, it loses while we recede from it, it keeps right time when

we are stationary or only moving across the line of sight.

But then of course it does not matter whether Jupiter is standing
still and we are moving, or vice versa:’ it is a case of relative motion
of matter again. So it is if we observe a Doppler effect from the right
and left hand limbs of the rotating sun. True, and if we are to permit
no relative motion of matter we must use a terrestrial source, clamped
to the earth as our receiver is. And now we shall observe nothing.

But not because there is nothing to observe. Lag must really occur
if we are running away from the light, even though the source is
running after us at the same pace: unless we make the assumption,—

24 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

true only for corpuscular light,—that the velocity of light is not an
absolute thing, but is dependent on the speed of the source. With
corpuscular light there is nothing to observe; with wave light there
is something, but we cannot observe it.

But if the whole solar system is moving through the ether I
see no reason why the relative ether drift should not be observed by
a, different residual effect in connection with Jupiter’s satellites or the
right and left limbs of the sun. The effect must be too small to
observe without extreme precision, but theoretically it ought to be
there. Inasmuch however as relative motion of matter with respect
to the observer is involved in these effects, it may be held that the
detection of a uniform drift of the solar system in this way is not
contrary to the Principle of Relativity. It is contrary to some state-
ments of that principle; and the cogency of those statements breaks
down, I think, whenever they include the velocity of light; because
there we really have something absolute (in the only sense in which
the term can have a physical meaning) with which we can compare
our own motion, when we have learnt how.

But in ordinary astronomical translation—translation as of the
earth in its orbit—all our instruments, all our standards, the whole
contents of our laboratory, are moving at the same rate in the same
direction ; under those conditions we cannot expect to observe anything.
Clerk Maxwell went so far as to say that if every particle of matter
simultaneously received a graduated blow so as to produce a given
constant acceleration all in the same direction, we should be unaware
of the fact. He did not then know all that we know about radiation.
But apart from that, and limiting ourselves to comparatively slow
changes of velocity, our standards will inevitably share whatever
change occurs. So far as observation goes, everything will be prac-
tically as if no change had occurred at all;—though that may not be
the truth. All that experiment establishes is that there have so far
always been compensations; so that the attempt to observe motion
through the ether is being given up as hopeless.

Surely, however, the minute and curious compensations cannot
be accidental; they must be necessary? Yes, they are necessary; and
I want to say why. Suppose the case were one of measuring thermal
expansion; and suppose everything had the same temperature and
the same expansibility; our standards would contract or expand with
everything else, and we could observe nothing; but expansion would
occur nevertheless. That is obvious, but the following assertion is not
so obvious. If everything in the Universe had the same temperature,
no matter what that temperature was, nothing would be visible at all;
the external world, so far as vision went, would not appear to exist.

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 25

Visibility depends on radiation, on differential radiation. | We must

have differences to appeal to our senses; they are not constructed for

uniformity. _

It is the extreme omnipresence and uniformity and universal agency
of the ether of space that makes it so difficult to observe. To observe
anything you must have differences. If all actions at a distance are
conducted at the same rate through the ether, the travel of none of
them can be observed. Find something not conveyed by the ether
and there is a chance. But then every physical action is trans-
mitted by the ether, and in every case by means of its transverse or
radiation-like activity.

Except perhaps Gravitation. That may give us a clue some day,
but at present we have not been able to detect its speed of transmission
at all. No plan has been devised for measuring it. Nothing short
of the creation or destruction of matter seems likely to serve: creation
or destruction of the gravitational unit, whether it be an atom or an
electron or whatever it is. Most likely the unit of weight is an electron,
just as the unit of mass is.

The so-called non-Newtonian Mechanics, with mass and shape
a function of velocity, is an immediate consequence of the electrical
theory of matter. The dependence of inertia and shape on speed is
a genuine discovery and, I believe, a physical fact. The Frinciple
of Relativity would reduce it to a conventional fiction. It would
seek to replace this real change in matter by imaginary changes in
time. But surely we must admit that Space and Time are essentially
unchangeable: they are not at the disposal even of mathematicians;
though it is true that Pope Gregory, or a Daylight-saving Bill, can
play with our units, can turn the 3rd of October in any one year
into the 14th, or can make the sun South sometimes at eleven o’clock,
sometimes at twelve.*

But the changes of dimension and mass due to velocity are not
conventions but realities: so I urge, on the basis of the electrical
theory of matter. The Fitzgerald-Lorentz hypothesis I have an
affection for. I was present at its birth. Indeed I assisted at its birth;
for it was in my study at 21 Waverley Road, Liverpool, with Fitzgerald
in an armchair, and while I was enlarging on the difficulty of recon-
ciling the then new Michelson experiment with the theory of astrono-
mical aberration and with other known facts, that he made his brilliant
surmise :—‘ Perhaps the stone slab was affected by the motion.’ I

* In the historical case of Governmental interference with the calendar no
wonder the populace rebelled. Surely someone might have explained to the
authorities that dropping leap-year for the greater part of a century would do
all that was wanted, and that the horrible inconvenience of upsetting all engage-
ments and shortening a single year by eleven days could be avoided.

26 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS.

rejoined that it was a 45° shear that was needed. To which he replied,
‘ Well, that’s all right,—a simple distortion.’ And very soon he said,
‘And I believe it occurs, and that the Michelson experiment demon-
strates it.’ A shortening long-ways or a lengthening cross-ways ~
would do what was wanted. (See Nature for June 16, 1892, p. 165.)

And is such a hypothesis gratuitous? Not at all: in the light of
the electrical theory of matter such an effect ought to occur. The
amount required by the experiment, and given by the theory, is
equivalent to a shrinkage of the earth’s diameter by rather less than
three inches, in the line of its orbital motion through the ether of
space. An oblate spheroid with the proper excentricity has all the
simple geometrical properties of a stationary sphere; the excentricity
depends in a definite way on speed, and becomes considerable as the
velocity of light is approached.

All this Professors Lorentz and Larmor very soon after, and quite
independently, perceived ; though this is only one of the minor achieve-
ments in the electrical theory of matter which we owe to our dis-
tinguished visitor, Professor H. A. Lorentz.

The key of the position, to my mind, is the nature of cohesion.
I regard cohesion as residual chemical affinity, a balance of electrical
attraction over repulsion between groups of alternately charged mole-
cules. Lateral electrical attraction is diminished by motion; so is
lateral electric repulsion. In cohesion both are active, and they nearly
balance. At anything but molecular distance they quite balance, but
at molecular distance attraction predominates. It is the diminution
of the predominant partner that will be felt. Hence while longitudinal
cohesion, or cohesion in the direction of motion, remains unchanged,
lateral cohesion is less; so there will be distortion, and a unit cube
X y Z moving along x with velocity u becomes a parallelopiped with
sides 1/k?, k, k; where 1/k*=1—u?/v?.5

The Bisstscal theory of matter is a positive achievement, and has
positive results. By its aid we make experiments which throw light
upon the relation between matter and the Ether of Space. The
Principle of Relativity, which seeks to replace it, is a principle of
negation, a negative proposition, a statement that observation of
certain facts can never be made, a denial of any relation between
matter and ether, a virtual denial that the ether exists. Whereas if
we admit the real changes that go on by reason of rapid motion, a

5 Different modes of estimating the change give slightly different results;
some involve a compression as well as a distortion—in fact the strain associated
with the name of Thomas Young; the details are rather complicated and this is
not the place to discuss them. A pure distortion, as specified in the text, is
simplest; it appears to be in accord with all the experimental facts—including
some careful measurements by Bucherer,—and I rather expect it to survive.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 27

whole field is open for discovery; it is even possible to investigate the
changes in shape of an electron—appallingly minute though it is—
as it approaches the speed of light; and properties belonging to the
Ether of Space, evasive though it be, cannot lag far behind.

Speaking as a physicist, I must claim the Ether as peculiarly our own
domain. The study of molecules we share with the chemist, and matter
in its various forms is investigated by all men of science, but a study
of the ether of space belongs to physics only. I am not alone in feeling
the fascination of this portentous entity. Its curiously elusive and
intangible character, combined with its universal and unifying per-
meance, its apparently infinite extent, its definite and perfect properties,
make the ether the most interesting as it is by far the largest and most
fundamental ingredient in the material cosmos.

As Sir J. J. Thomson said at Winnipeg :—

‘The ether is not a fantastic creation of the speculative
philosopher ; it is as essential to us as the air we breathe... .
The study of this all-pervading substance is perhaps the most
fascinating and important duty of the physicist.’

Matter it is not, but material it is; it belongs to the material
universe and is to be investigated by ordinary methods. But to say
this is by no means to deny that it may have mental and spiritual
functions to subserve in some other order of existence, as Matter has

in this.

The ether of space is at least the great engine of continuity. It

may be much more, for without it there could hardly be a material
universe at all. Certainly, however, it is essential to continuity; it is
the one all-permeating substance that binds the whole of the particles
of matter together. It is the uniting and binding medium without
which, if matter could exist at all, it could exist only as chaotic and
isolated fragments: and it is the universal medium of communication
_ between worlds and particles. And yet it is possible for people to deny
its existence, because it is unrelated to any of our senses, except sight,—
and to that only in an indirect and not easily recognised fashion.
To illustrate the thorough way in which we may be unable to detect
what is around us unless it has some link or bond which enables it to
make appeal, let me make another quotation from Sir J. J. Thomson’s
Address at Winnipeg in 1909. He is leading up to the fact that even
single atoms, provided they are fully electrified with the proper atomic
charge, can be detected by certain delicate instruments,—their field of
force bringing them within our ken—whereas a whole crowd of
_ unelectrified ones would escape observation.

‘The smallest quantity of unelectrified matter ever detected
is probably that of neon, one of the inert gases of the atmosphere.

28 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

Professor Strutt has shown that the amount of neon in 1/20 of
a cubic centimetre of the air at ordinary pressures can be detected
by the spectroscope ; Sir William Ramsay estimates that the neon
in the air only amounts to one part of neon in 100,000 parts of
air, so that the neon in 1/20 of a cubic centimetre of air would
only occupy at atmospheric pressure a volume of half a millionth
of a cubic centimetre. When stated in this form the quantity
seems exceedingly small, but in this small volume there are about
ten million million molecules. Now the population of the earth
is estimated at about fifteen hundred millions, so that the smallest
number of molecules of neon we can identify is about 7,000 times
the population of the earth. In other words, if we had no better
test for the existence of a man than we have for that of an
unelectrified molecule we should come to the conclusion that the
earth is uninhabited.’

The parable is a striking one, for on these lines it might legitimately
be contended that we have no right to say positively that even space
is uninhabited. All we can safely say is that we have no means of
detecting the existence of non-planetary immaterial dwellers, and that
unless they have some link or bond with the material they must always
be physically beyond our ken. We may therefore for practical purposes
legitimately treat them as non-existent until such link is discovered,
but we should not dogmatise about them. ‘True agnosticism is legiti-
mate, but not the dogmatic and positive and gnostic variety.

For I hold that Science is incompetent to make comprehensive
denials, even about the Ether, and that it goes wrong when it makes
the attempt. Science should not deal in negations: it is strong in
affirmations, but nothing based on abstraction ought to presume to
deny outside its own region. It often happens that things abstracted
from and ignored by one branch of science may be taken into con-
sideration by another :—

Thus, Chemists ignore the Ether.

Mathematicians may ignore experimental difficulties.

Physicists ignore and exclude live things.

Biologists exclude Mind and Design.

Psychologists may ignore human origin and human destiny.

Folk-lore students and comparative Mythologists need not trouble
about what modicum of truth there may be in the legends which they
are collecting and systematising.

And Microscopists may ignore the stars.

Yet none of these ignored things should be denied.
Denial is no more infallible than assertion. There are cheap and

sit ii tS ae

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 29

easy kinds of scepticism, just as there are cheap and easy kinds of
dogmatism; in fact scepticism can become viciously dogmatic, and
science has to be as much on its guard against personal predilection in
the negative as in the positive direction. An attitude of universal
denial may be very superficial.

‘To doubt everything or to believe everything are two equally
convenient solutions; both dispense with the necessity of
reflection.’

All intellectual processes are based on abstraction. For instance,
History must ignore a great multitude of facts in order to treat any
intelligently: it selects. So does Art; and that is why a drawing is
clearer than reality. Science makes a diagram of reality, displaying
the works, like a skeleton clock. Anatomists dissect out the nervous
system, the blood vessels, and the muscles, and depict them separately,
—there must be discrimination for intellectual grasp,—but in life they
are all merged and co-operating together; they do not really work
separately, though they may be studied separately. A scalpel
discriminates: a dagger or a bullet crashes through everything. That
is life,—or rather death. The laws of natureare a diagrammatic frame-
work, analysed or abstracted out of the full comprehensiveness of reality.

Hence it is that Science has no authority in denials. To deny
effectively needs much more comprehensive knowledge than to assert.
And abstraction is essentially not comprehensive: one cannot have it
both ways. Science employs the methods of abstraction and thereby
makes its discoveries.

The reason why some physiologists insist so strenuously on the
validity and self-sufficiency of the laws of physics and chemistry, and
resist the temptation to appeal to unknown causes—even though the
guiding influence and spontaneity of living things are occasionally
conspicuous as well as inexplicable—is that they are keen to do their
proper work; and their proper work is to pursue the laws of ordinary
physical Energy into the intricacies of ‘ colloidal electrolytic structures
of great chemical complexity ’ and to study its behaviour there.

What we have clearly to grasp, on their testimony, is that for all
the terrestrial manifestations of life the ordinary physical and chemical
processes have to serve. There are not new laws for living matter, and
old laws for non-living; the laws are the same; or if ever they differ,
the burden of proof rests on him who sustains the difference. The
conservation of energy, the laws of chemical combination, the laws of
electric currents, of radiation, etc., etc.,—all the laws of Chemistry and
Physics,—may be applied without hesitation in the Organic domain.
Whether they are sufficient is open to question, but as far as they go

30 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS,

they are necessary ; and it is the business of the physiologist to seek out
and demonstrate the action of those laws in every vital action.

This is clearly recognised by the leaders, and in the definition of
Physiology by Burdon Sanderson he definitely limited it to the study
of ‘ ascertainable characters of a chemical and physical type.’ In his
Address to the Sub-section of Anatomy and Physiology at York in 1881
he spoke as follows :—

‘ It would give you a true idea of the nature of the great advance
which took place about the middle of this century if I were to
define it as the epoch of the death of “‘ vitalism.’’ Before that
time even the greatest biologists—e.g. J. Miiller—recognised that
the knowledge biologists possessed both of vital and physical
phenomena was insufficient to refer both to a common measure.
The method, therefore, was to study the processes of life in
relation to each other only. Since that time it has become funda-
mental in our science not to regard any vital process as understood
at all unless it can be brought into relation with physical standards,
and the methods of physiology have been based exclusively on
this principle. The most efficient cause [conducing to the
change] was the progress which had been made in physics and
chemistry, and particularly those investigations which led to the
establishment of the doctrine of the Conservation of
inergy.” 0.

‘Investigators who are now working with such earnestness
in all parts of the world for the advance of physiology, have
before them a definite and well-understood purpose, that purpose
being to acquire an exact knowledge of the chemical and physical
processes of animal life and of the self-acting machinery by which
they are regulated for the general good of the organism. The
more singly and straightforwardly we direct our efforts to these
ends, the sooner we shall attain to the still higher purpose—the
effectual application of our knowledge for the increase of human
happiness.’

Professor Gotch, whose recent loss we have to deplore, puts it more
strongly :—
“It is essentially unscientific,’ he says, ‘to say that any
physiological phenomenon is caused by vital force.’

I observe that by some critics I have been called a vitalist, and in
a sense I am; but I am not a vitalist if vitalism means an appeal to an
undefined ‘ vital force’ (an objectionable term I have never thought
of using) as against the laws of Chemistry and Physics. Those laws
must be supplemented, but need by no means be superseded. The

ear

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 31

business of science is to trace out their mode of action everywhere, as
far and as fully as possible; and it is a true instinct which resents the
medieval practice of freely introducing spiritual and unknown causes
into working science. In science an appeal to occult qualities must be
illegitimate, and be a barrier to experiment and research generally ;
as, when anything is called an Act of God—and when no more is said.
The occurrence is left unexplained. As an ultimate statement such a
phrase may be not only true but universal in its application. But there
are always proximate explanations which may be looked for and dis-
covered with patience. So, lightning, earthquakes, and other portents
are reduced to natural causes. No ultimate explanation is ever attained
by science: proximate explanations only. They are what it exists for;
and it is the business of scientific men to seek them.

To attribute the rise of sap to vital force would be absurd, it would
be giving up the problem and stating nothing at all. The way in which
osmosis acts to produce the remarkable and surprising effect is dis-
coverable and has been discovered.

So it is always in science, and its progress began when unknown
causes were eliminated and treated as non-existent. Those causes, so
far as they exist, must establish their footing by direct investigation
and research; carried on in the first instance apart from the long-
recognised branches of science, until the time when they too have
become sufficiently definite to be entitled to be called scientific. Out-
landish Territories may in time be incorporated as States, but they
must make their claim good and become civilised first.

It is well for people to understand this definite limitation of scope
quite clearly, else they wrest the splendid work of biologists to their
own confusion,—helped it is true by a few of the more robust or less
responsible theorisers, among those who should be better informed and
more carefully critical in their philosophising utterances.

But, as is well known, there are more than a few biologists who,
when taking a broad survey of their subject, clearly perceive and teach
that before all the actions of live things are fully explained some
hitherto excluded causes must be postulated. Ever since the time of
J. R. Mayer it has been becoming more and more certain that as regards
performance of work a living thing obeys the laws of physics, like
everything else; but undoubtedly it initiates processes and produces
results that without it could not have occurred,—from a bird’s nest to
a honeycomb, from a deal box to a warship. The behaviour of a ship
firing shot and shell is explicable in terms of energy, but the dis-
crimination which it exercises between friend and foe is not so explic-
able. There is plenty of physics and chemistry and mechanics about
every vital action, but for a complete understanding of it something
beyond physics and chemistry is needed.

32 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS.

And life introduces an incalculable element. ‘The vagaries of a
fire or a cyclone could all be predicted by Laplace’s Calculator, given
the initial positions, velocities, and the law of acceleration of the mole-
cules; but no mathematician could calculate the orbit of a common
house-fly. A physicist into whose galvanometer a spider had crept
would be liable to get phenomena of a kind quite inexplicable, until
he discovered the supernatural, 7.c. literally superphysical, cause. I
will risk the assertion that Life introduces something incalculable and
purposeful amid the laws of physics; it thus distinctly supplements
those laws, though it leaves them otherwise precisely as they were
and obeys them all.

We see only its effect; we do not see Life itself. Conversion of
Inorganic into Organic is effected always by living organisms. ‘The
conversion under those conditions certainly occurs, and the process
may be studied. Life appears necessary to the conversion; which
clearly takes place under the guidance of life, though in itself it is a
physical and chemical process. Many laboratory conversions take
place under the guidance of life, and, but for the experimenter, would
not have occurred.

Again, putrefaction, and fermentation, and purification of rivers,
and disease, are not purely and solely chemical processes. Chemical
processes they are, but they are initiated and conducted by living
organisms. Just when medicine is becoming biological, and when the
hope of making the tropical belt of the earth healthily habitable by
energetic races is attracting the attention of people of power, philo-
sophising biologists should not attempt to give their science away to
Chemistry and Physics. Sections D and H and I and K are not really
subservient to A and B. Biology is an independent science, and it is
served, not dominated, by Chemistry and Physics.

Scientific men are hostile to superstition, and rightly so, for a
great many popular superstitions are both annoying and contemptible ;
yet occasionally the term may be wrongly applied to practices of which
the theory is unknown. To a superficial observer some of the practices
of biologists themselves must appear grossly superstitious. To combat
malaria Sir Ronald Ross does not indeed erect an altar; no, he oils a
pond,—making libation to its presiding genii. What can be more
ludicrous than the curious and evidently savage ritual, insisted on by
United States Officers, at that hygienically splendid achievement the
Panama Canal,—the ritual of punching a hole in every discarded tin,
with the object of keeping off disease! What more absurd, again—
in superficial appearance—than the practice of burning or poisoning
a soil to make it extra fertile!

Biologists in their proper field are splendid, and their work arouses
keen interest and enthusiasm in all whom they guide into their domain.

Oe ea

—_——=——

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 33

Most of them do their work by intense concentration, by narrowing
down their scope, not by taking a wide survey or a comprehensive
grasp. Suggestions of broader views and outlying fields of knowledge
seem foreign to the intense worker, and he resents them. For his own
purpose he wishes to ignore them, and practically he may be quite
right. The folly of negation is not his, but belongs to those who mis-
interpret or misapply his utterances, and take him as a guide in a
region where, for the time at least, he is a stranger. Not by such aid
is the universe in its broader aspects to be apprehended. If people
in general were better acquainted with science they would not make
these mistakes. They would realise both the learning and the lmita-
tions, make use of the one and allow for the other, and not take the
recipe of a practical worker for a formula wherewith to interpret the
Universe.

What appears to be quite certain is that there can be no terrestrial
manifestation of life without matter. Hence naturally they say, or
they approve such sayings as, ‘I discern in matter the promise and
potency of all forms of life.’ Of all terrestrial manifestations of life,
certainly. How else could it manifest itself save through matter?
“I detect nothing in the organism but the laws of Chemistry and
Physics,’ it is said. Very well: naturally enough. That is what
they are after; they are studying the physical and chemical aspects
or manifestations of life. But life itseli—life and mind and con-
sciousness—they are not studying, and they exclude them from their
purview. Matter is what appeals to our senses here and now;
Materialism is appropriate to the material world; not as a philosophy
but as a working creed, as a proximate and immediate formula for
guiding research. Hverything beyond that belongs to another region,
and must be reached by other methods. To explain the Psychical in
terms of Physics and Chemistry is simply impossible; hence there is
a tendency to deny its existence, save as an epiphenomenon. But all
such philosophising is unjustified, and is really bad Metaphysics.

So if ever in their enthusiasm scientific workers go too far and say
that the things they exclude from study have no existence in the
universe, we must appeal against them to direct experience. We
ourselves are alive, we possess life and mind and consciousness, we have
first-hand experience of these things quite apart from laboratory

experiments. They belong to the common knowledge of the race.

Births, deaths, and marriages are not affairs of the biologist, but of
humanity ; they went on before a single one of them was understood,
before a vestige of science existed. We ourselves are the laboratory
‘in which men of science, psychologists and others, make experiments.
They can formulate our processes of digestion, and the material

1913. D

34 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS:

concomitants of willing, of sensation, of thinking; but the hidden
guiding entities they do not touch.

So also if any philosopher tells you that you do not exist, or that the
external world does not exist, or that you are an automaton without free
will, that all your actions are determined by outside causes and that
you are not responsible,—or that a bady cannot move out of its place,
or that Achilles cannot catch a tortoise,—then in all those cases appeal
must be made to twelve average men, unsophisticated by special studies.
There is always a danger of error in interpreting experience, or in
drawing inferences from it; but in a matter of bare fact, based on our
own first-hand experience, we are able to give a verdict. We may be
mistaken as to the nature of what we see; stars may look to us like
bright specks in a dome; but the fact that we see them admits of no
doubt. So also Consciousness and Will are realities of which we are
directly aware, just as directly as we are of motion and force, just as
clearly as we apprehend the philosophising utterances of an Agnostic.
The process of seeing, the plain man does not understand ; he does not
recognise that it is a method of etherial telegraphy ; he knows nothing
of the ether and its ripples, nor of the retina and its rods and cones,
nor of nerve and brain processes; but he sees and he hears and he
touches, and he wills and he thinks and is conscious. This is not an
appeal to the mob as against the philosopher; it is appeal to the
experience of untold ages as against the studies of a generation.

How consciousness became associated with matter, how life exerts
guidance over chemical and physical forces, how mechanical motions are
translated into sensations,—all these things are puzzling, and demand
long study. But the fact that these things are so admits of no doubt;
and difficulty of explanation is no argument against them. ‘The blind
man restored to sight had no opinion as to how he was healed, nor could
he vouch for the moral character of the Healer, but he plainly knew
that whereas he was blind now he saw. About that fact he was the
best possible judge. So it is also with ‘ this main miracle that thou art
thou, With power on thine own act. and on the world.’

But although Life and Mind may be excluded from Physiology, they
are not excluded from Science. Of course not. It is not reasonable to
say that things necessarily elude investigation merely because we do not
knock against them. Yet the mistake is sometimes made. The ether
makes no appeal to sense, therefore some are beginning to say that it
does not exist. Mind is occasionally put into the same predicament.
Life is not detected in the laboratory, save in its physical and chemical
manifestations; but we may have to admit that it guides processes
nevertheless. It may be called a catalytic agent.

To understand the action of life itself, the simplest plan is not to
think of a microscopic organism, or any unfamiliar animal, but to make

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS 35

use of our own experience as living beings. Any positive instance serves
to stem a comprehensive denial ; and if the reality of mind and guidance
and plan is denied because they make no appeal to sense, then think how
the world would appear to an observer to whom the existence of men
was unknown and undiscoverable, while yet all the laws and activities
of nature went on as they do now.

Suppose, then, that man made no appeal to the senses of an observer
of this planet. Suppose an outside observer could see all the events
occurring in the world, save only that he could not see animals or men.
He would describe what he saw much as we have to describe the
activities initiated by life.

If he looked at the Firth of Forth, for instance, he would see piers
arising in the water, beginning to sprout, reaching across in strange
manner till they actually join or are joined by pieces attracted up from
below to complete the circuit (a solid circuit round the current). He
would see a sort of bridge or filament thus constructed, from one shore
to the other, and across this bridge insect-like things crawling and
returning for no very obvious reason.

Or let him look at the Nile, and recognise the meritorious character
of that river in promoting the growth of vegetation in the desert. Then
let him see a kind of untoward crystallisation growing across and begin-
ning to dam the beneficent stream. Blocks fly to their places by some
kind of polar forces; ‘ we cannot doubt’ that it is by helio- or other
tropism. There is no need to go outside the laws of mechanics and
physics, there is no difficulty about supply of energy—none whatever ,—
materials in tin cans are consumed which amply account for all the
energy ; and all the laws of physics are obeyed. The absence of any
design, too, is manifest; for the effect of the structure is to flood an area
up-stream which might have been useful, and to submerge a structure
of some beauty ; while down stream its effect is likely to be worse, for it
would block the course of the river and waste it on the desert, were it
_ not thai fortunately some leaks develop and a sufficient supply still goes
down—goes down in fact more equably than before: so that the ulti-
mate result is beneficial to vegetation, and simulates intention.

If told concerning either of these structures that an engineer, a
designer in London, called Benjamin Baker, had anything to do with
it, the idea would be preposterous. One conclusive argument is final
_ against such a superstitious hypothesis—he is not there, and a thing
plainly cannot act where it is not. But although we, with our greater
advantages, perceive that the right solution for such an observer would
be the recognition of some unknown agency or agent, it must be
admitted that an explanation in terms of a vague entity called vital force
would be useless, and might be so worded as to be misleading ; whereas

D2

36 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

a statement in terms of mechanics and physics could be clear and
definite and true as far as it went, though it must necessarily be
incomplete.

And note that what we observe, in such understood cases, is an
Interaction of Mind and Matter ; not Parallelism nor Epiphenomenalism
nor anything strained or difficult, but a straightforward utilisation of the
properties of matter and energy for purposes conceived in the mind, and
executed by muscles guided by acts of will.

But, it will be said, this is unfair, for we know that there is design
in the Forth Bridge or the Nile Dam, we have seen the plans and under-
stand the agencies at work: we know that it was conceived and guided
by life and mind, it is unfair to quote this as though it could simulate
an automatic process.

Not at all, say the extreme school of biologists whom I am criticis-
ing, or ought to say if they were consistent, there is nothing but
Chemistry and Physics at work anywhere; and the mental activity
apparently demonstrated by those structures is only an illusion, an
epiphenomenon ; the laws of chemistry and physics are supreme, and
they are sufficient to account for everything!

Well, they account for things up to a point; they account in part
for the colour of a sunset, for the majesty of a mountain peak, for the
glory of animate existence. But do they account for everything com-
pletely? Do they account for our own feeling of joy and exaltation,
for our sense of beauty, for the manifest beauty existing throughout
nature? Do not these things suggest something higher and nobler and
more joyous, something for the sake of which all the struggle for
existence goes on?

Surely there must be a deeper meaning involved in natural objects.
Orthodox explanations are only partial, though true as far as they go.
When we examine each particoloured pinnule in a peacock’s tail, or
hair in a zebra’s hide, and realise that the varying shades on each are so
placed as to contribute to the general design and pattern, it becomes
exceedingly difficult to explain how this organised co-operation of parts,
this harmonious distribution of pigment cells, has come about on merely
mechanical principles. It would be as easy to explain the sprouting
of the cantilevers of the Forth Bridge from its piers, or the flocking of
the stones of the Nile Dam by chemiotaxis. Flowers attract insects
for fertilisation; and fruit tempts birds to eat it in order to carry
seeds. But these explanations cannot he final. We have still to
explain the insects. So much beauty cannot be necessary merely to
attract their attention. We have further to explain this competitive
striving towards life. Why do things struggle to exist? Surely the
effort must have some significance, the development some aim. We
thus reach the problem of Existence itself, and the meaning of
Evolution.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 37

The mechanism whereby existence entrenches itself is manifest, or
at least has been to a large extent discovered. Natural Selection is a
vera causa, so far as it goes; but if so much beauty is necessary for
insects, what about the beauty of a landscape or of clouds? What
utilitarian object do those subserve? Beauty in general is not taken
into account by science. Very well, that may be all right, but it exists
nevertheless. It is not my function to discuss it. No; but it is my
function to remind you and myself that our studies do not exhaust the
Universe, and that if we dogmatise in a negative direction, and say
that we can reduce everything to physics and chemistry, we gibbet
ourselves as ludicrously narrow pedants, and are falling far short of
the richness and fullness of our human birthright, How far preferable
is the reverent attitude of the Eastern Poet :—

‘The world with eyes bent upon thy feet stands in awe with
all its silent stars.’

Superficially and physically we are very limited. Our sense organs
are adapted to the observation of matter; and nothing else directly
appeals to us. Our nerve-muscle-system is adapted to the production
of motion in matter, in desired ways; and nothing else in the material
world can we accomplish. Our brain and nerve systems connect us
with the rest of the physical world. Our senses give us information
about the movements and arrangements of matter. Our muscles enable
us to produce changes in those distributions. That is our equipment
for human life; and human history is a record of what we have done
with these parsimonious privileges.

Our brain, which by some means yet to be discovered connects us
with the rest of the material world, has been thought partially to dis-
connect us from the mental and spiritual realm, to which we really
belong but from which for a time and for practical purposes we are
isolated. Our common or social association with matter gives us certain
opportunities and facilities, combined with obstacles and difficulties

_ which are themselves opportunities for struggle and effort.

Through matter we become aware of each other, and can communi-
cate with those of our fellows who have ideas sufficiently like our own
for them to be stimulated into activity by a merely physical process
set in action by ourselves. By a timed succession of vibratory move-
ments (as in speech and music), or by a static distribution of materials
(as in writing, painting, and sculpture), we can carry on intelligent
intercourse with our fellows; and we get so used to these ingenious
and roundabout methods, that we are apt to think of them and their
like as not only the natural but as the only possible modes of com-

munication, and that anything more direct would disarrange the whole
fabric of science.

38 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

It is clearly true that our bodies constitute the normal means of
manifesting ourselves to each other while on the planet; and that if
the physiological mechanism whereby we accomplish material acts is
injured, the conveyance of our meaning and the display of our personality
inevitably and correspondingly suffer.

So conspicuously is this the case that it has been possible to suppose
that the communicating mechanism, formed and worked by us, is the
whole of our existence: and that we are essentially nothing but the
machinery by which we are known. We find the machinery utilising
nothing but well-known forms of energy, and subject to all the laws of
chemistry and physics,—it would be strange if it were not so,—and from
that fact we try to draw valid deductions as to our nature, and as to the
impossibility of our existing apart from and independent of these
temporary modes of material activity and manifestation. We so
uniformly employ them, in our present circumstances, that we should
be on our guard against deception due to this very uniformity. Material
bodies are all that we have any control over, are all that we are experi-
mentally aware of; anything that we can do with these is open to us;
any conclusions we can draw about them may be legitimate and true.
But to step outside their province and to deny the existence of any other
region because we have no sense organ for its appreciation, or because
(like the Ether) it is too uniformly omnipresent for our ken, is to wrest
our advantages and privileges from their proper use and apply them to
our own misdirection.

But if we have learnt from science that Evolution is real, we have
learnt a great deal. I must not venture to philosophise, but certainly
from the point of view of science Evolution is a great reality. Surely
evolution is not an illusion; surely the universe progresses in time.
Time and Space and Matter are abstractions, but are none the less
real: they are data given by experience; and Time is the keystone of
evolution. ‘Thy centuries follow each other, perfecting a small wild
flower.’

We abstract from living moving Reality a certain static aspect, and
we call it Matter; we abstract the element of progressiveness, and we
call it Time. When these two abstractions combine, co-operate,
interact, we get reality again. It is like Poynting’s theorem.

The only way to refute or confuse the theory of Evolution is to
introduce the subjectivity of time. That theory involves the reality
of time, and it is in this sense that Prof. Bergson uses the great phrase
“Creative Evolution.’

I see the whole of material existence as a steady passage from past
to future, only the single instant which we call the present being actual.
The past is not non-existent however, it is stored in our memories, there

a i le le

SC CC rE

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS, 39

is a record of it in matter, and the present is based upon it; the future
is the outcome of the present, and is the product of evolution.

Existence is like the output from a loom. The pattern, the design
for the weaving, is in some sort ‘there’ already; but whereas our
looms are mere machines, once the guiding cards have been fed into
them, the Loom of Time is complicated by a multitude of free agents
who can modify the web, making the product more beautiful or more
ugly according as they are in harmony or disharmony with the general
scheme. I venture to maintain that manifest imperfections are thus
accounted for, and that freedom could be given on no other terms, nor
at any less cost.

The ability thus to work for weal or woe is no illusion, it is a reality,
a responsible power which conscious agents possess; wherefore the
resulting fabric is not something preordained and inexorable, though by
wide knowledge of character it may be inferred. Nothing is inexor-
able except the uniform progress of time; the cloth must be woven, but
the pattern is not wholly fixed and mechanically calculable.

Where inorganic matter alone is concerned, there everything is
determined. Wherever full consciousness has entered, new powers
arise, and the faculties and desires of the conscious parts of the scheme

-have an effect upon the whole. It is not guided from outside but

from within, and the guiding power is immanent at every instant.
Of this guiding power we are a small but not wholly insignificant
portion.

That evolutionary progress is real is a doctrine of profound signi-
ficance, and our efforts at social betterment are justified because we
are a part of the scheme, a part that has become conscious, a part
that realises, however dimly, what it is doing and what it is aiming
at. Planning and aiming are therefore not absent from the whole,
for we are a part of the whole, and are conscious of them in
ourselves.

Hither we are immortal beings or we are not. We may not know
our destiny, but we must have a destiny of some sort. Those who
make denials are just as likely to be wrong as those who make assertions:
in fact, denials are assertions thrown into negative form. Scientific men
are looked up to as authorities, and should be careful not to mislead.
Science may not be able to reveal human destiny, but it certainly should
not obscure it. Things are as they are, whether we find them out or
not; and if we make rash and false statements, posterity will detect
us—if posterity ever troubles its head about us. I am one of those
who think that the methods of Science are not so limited in their
Scope as has been thought: that they can be applied much more
widely, and that the Psychic region can be studied and brought under
law too, Allow us anyhow to make the attempt. Give us a fair

40 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS.

field. Let those who prefer the materialistic hypothesis by all means
develop their thesis as far as they can; but let us try what we can do
in the Psychical region, and see which wins. Our methods are really
the same as theirs—the subject-matter differs. Neither should abuse
the other for making the attempt.

Whether such things as intuition and revelation ever occur is an
open question. There are some who have reason to say that they do.
They are at any rate not to be denied off-hand. In fact, it is always
extremely difficult to deny anything of a general character, since evi-
dence in its favour may be only hidden and not forthcoming,
especially not forthcoming at any particular age of the world’s history,
or at any particular stage of individual mental development. Mys-
ticism must have its place, though its relation to Science has so far
not been found. They have appeared disparate and disconnected, but
there need be no hostility between them. Every kind of reality must
be ascertained and dealt with by proper methods. If the voices of
Socrates and of Joan of Arc represent real psychical experiences, they
must belong to the intelligible universe.

Although I am speaking ex cathedra, as one of the representatives
of orthodox science, I will not shrink from a personal note summaris-
ing the result on my own mind of thirty years’ experience of psychical
research, begun without predilection—indeed with the usual hostile
prejudice. This is not the place to enter into detail or to discuss
facts scorned by orthodox science, but I cannot help remembering
that an utterance from this chair is no ephemeral production—it
remains to be criticised by generations yet unborn, whose knowledge
must inevitably be fuller and wider than our own. Your President
therefore should not be completely bound by the shackles of present-
day orthodoxy, nor limited to beliefs fashionable at the time. In
justice to myself and my co-workers I must risk annoying my present
hearers, not only by leaving on record our conviction that occurrences
now regarded as occult can be examined and reduced to order by the
methods of science carefully and persistently applied, but by going
further and saying, with the utmost brevity, that already the facts
so examined have convinced me that memory and affection are not
limited to that association with matter by which alone they can
manifest themselves here and now, and that personality persists beyond
bodily death. The evidence—nothing new or sensational, but cumula-
tive and demanding prolonged serious study—to my mind goes to prove
that discarnate intelligence, under certain conditions, may interact with
us on the material side, thus indirectly coming within our scientific
ken ; and that gradually we may hope to attain some understanding of
the nature of a larger, perhaps etherial, existence, and of the conditions
regulating intercourse across the chasm. A body of responsible in-

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 41

vestigators has even now landed on the treacherous but promising
shores of a new continent.

Yes, and there is more to say than that. The methods of science
are not the only way, though they are one way, of being piloted to
truth. ‘ Uno itinere non potest perveniri ad tam grande secretum.’

Many scientific men still feel in pugnacious mood towards Theo-
logy, because of the exaggerated dogmatism which our predecessors
encountered and overcame in the past. They had to struggle for
freedom to find truth in their own way; but the struggle was a deplor-
able necessity, and has left some evil effects. And one of them is
this lack of sympathy, this occasional hostility, to other more spiritual
forms of truth. We cannot really and seriously suppose that truth
began to arrive on this planet a few centuries ago. The pre-scientific
insight of genius—of Poets and Prophets and Saints—was of supreme
value, and the access of those inspired seers to the heart of the
universe was often profound. But the camp followers, the scribes and
pharisees, by whatever name they may be called, had no such insight,
only a vicious or a foolish obstinacy: and the prophets of a new era
were stoned.

Now at last we of the new era have been victorious, and the stones
are in our hands. But for us to imitate the old ecclesiastical attitude
would be folly, for it cannot be sustained; humanity would ultimately
rise against us, and there would come yet another period of reaction,

in which for a time we should be worsted. Through the best part of

two centuries there has been a revolt from religion, led by Voltaire
and other great writers of that age; but let us see to it that the revolt
ceases when it has gone far enough. Let us not fall into the mistake
of thinking that ours is the only way of exploring the multifarious
depths of the universe, and that all others are worthless and mistaken,

The universe is a larger thing than we have any conception of, and no

one method of search will exhaust its treasures.

Men and brethren, we are trustees of the truth of the physical
universe as scientifically explored: let us be faithful to our trust.
Genuine religion has its roots deep down in the heart of humanity
and in the reality of things. It is not surprising that by our methods
we fail to grasp it: the actions of the Deity make no appeal to any
Special sense, only a universal appeal; and our methods are, as we

_ know, incompetent to detect complete uniformity. There is a Prin-
ciple a Relativity here, and unless we encounter flaw or jar or change,
_ nothing in us responds ; we are deaf and blind therefore to the Imma-

nent Grandeur, unless we have insight enough to recognise in the woven
fabric of existence, flowing steadily from the loom in an infinite pro-
gress towards perfection, the ever-growing garment of a transcendent

God.

42 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS,

SUMMARY OF THE ARGUMENT.

A marked feature of the present scientific era is the discovery
of, and interest in, various kinds of Atomism; so that Continuity
seems in danger of being lost sight of.

Another tendency is toward comprehensive negative generalisa-
tions from a limited point of view.

Another is to take refuge in rather vague forms of statement, and
to shrink from closer examination of the puzzling and the obscure.

Another is to deny the existence of anything which makes no
appeal to organs of sense, and no ready response to laboratory experi-
ment.

Against these tendencies the author contends. He urges a belief
in ultimate continuity as essential to science; he regards scientific
concentration as an inadequate basis for philosophic generalisation; he
believes that obscure phenomena may be expressed simply if properly
faced ; and he points out that the non-appearance of anything perfectly
uniform and omnipresent is only what should be expected, and is no
argument against its real substantial existence.

Phi 4

REPORTS

ON THE

STATE OF SCIENCE.

>

3

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Seismological Investigations.—Highteenth Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor H. H. Turner (Chairman),
Mr. J. Minne (Secretary), Mr. C. VERNON Boys, Mr. HoRAcE
Darwin, Mr. F. W. Dyson, Dr. R. T. GuAzeBroox, Mr.
M. H. Gray, Mr. R. K. Gray, Professor J. W. Jupp, Pro-
fessor C. G. Knott, Professor R. Metnpona, Mr. R. D.
OLDHAM, Professor J. PERRY, Mr. W. E. PuummMer, Dr. R. A.
Sampson, and Professor A. ScHuSTER. (Drawn up by the
Secretary.)

[Prats I.]

ConTENTS. ean
I. General Notes, Registers, Visitors, Stations . : é : ' 45
WY, Sezsmic Activity in 1910- «2 es wa ta“ pin IF" 46
III. On the 443 or 452 Day Period... filam Stoo" 51
IV. On the Determination of the Position of Epicentr es : 51

V. On the Variation of Harthquake Speed with the Variation in the Direction of
Propagation 52

VI. Comparison of the Amplitudes of the East-West and North-South Motion at
a given Station 351.55

VII. On the Direction in which Earthquake M otion i is m ost easily propagated » 56
VIII. On the Times of Occurrence of Maximum Motion on Pendulums differently

Oriented . . 59

IX. Disturbances only ‘recorded at Two or Three Widely y Separated Stations . 60

X. Recurrence of Megaseismic Groups . . . .» 61

XI. Frequency of Earthquake Followers . 62

XII. Large Earthquakes recorded at different Obser vatories, January y to June 1910 63

KIT. Seismic and Volcanic Activities. . . 65

_ XIV. Report on an Improved Seismograph 67
XV. Indexing Materials published by the Br itish Association and the Seismo-

logical Society of Japan relating to Geoph uses Bee 68

XVI. Shinobu Hirota: Obituary Notice . . Sy oe a Gi

XVII. John Milne; Obituary Netice : 85

I. General Notes.

Tue above Committee seek to be reappointed with a grant of 60I.
The expenditure in connection with seismological work during the
last twelve months exceeded 300]. This covered the salaries of two
assistants, sundry expenses connected with the Observatory at Shide
in carrying out the work connected with 58 co-operating stations.
Out of the above sum 2001. was kindly placed at the disposal of your
Secretary by the Government Grant Committee of the Royal Society.
Registers.—During the last year Circulars Nos. 26 and 27 have
been issued. They contain 117 pages of entries which refer to the
following stations: Shide, Kew, Bidston, Stonyhurst, West Bromwich,

46 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

Guildford, Haslemere, Eskdalemuir, Paisley, Edinburgh, Cork, Ponta
Delgada, Rio Tinto, San Fernando, Valetta, Cairo, Beirut, Ascension
Island, St. Vincent, Cape of Good Hope, Fernando Noronha, Trinidad,
Toronto, Victoria, B.C., Honolulu, Alipore, Bombay, Kodaikanal,
Colombo, Seychelles, Mauritius, Adelaide, Sydney, Wellington,
Christchurch.

Mr. Alan Owston, of Yokohama, kindly sends me records of earth-
quakes he has noted at that place; whilst Mr. Joseph Rippon, of the
West India Cable Co., and Mr. Maxwell Hall, of the Weather Office,
Jamaica, send records relating to that country. Observers in various
parts of the world send from time to time results of their observations.

Visitors.—Baron Kujo; H. M. B. Cooke, Kolas Gold Field, South
India; Dr. J. B. A. Treusch, Fanning Island; G. Hewett, Paramaribo;
Sir H. B. Donkin; Lord Tennyson; Hon. A. R. D. Elliott; Officers
of the Royal Fusiliers; L. F. Richardson, Eskdalemuir; G. F. C. Searle
and D. L. Scott, Cambridge; Prof. W. J. Sollas and a party of
geological students from Oxford; G. Owen, Liverpool University ;
Prof. H. H. Turner, Oxford.

Stations.

Fanning Island, 159° 40' W., 4° N.—This is a Coral Atoll about
30 miles in circumference, no part of which is more than 1000 feet
distant from the sea and not more than 10 feet above it. The instru-
ment is in charge of Dr. J. B. A. Treusch.

Agincourt.—In the Report for 1912, page 70, this appeared as if
it were a station at which there was a seismograph, which, however,
is not the case. Certain of the magnetometers at the Agincourt
Observatory are, however, occasionally disturbed by teleseismic motion,
which did not happen with the same instruments when they were
installed in Toronto.

Toronto.—The seismograph here was first installed in the old
Observatory buildings. In March 1908, when these were abolished,
it was temporarily erected in a dwelling-house. On September 30,
1909, it was permanently installed in the barograph room in the
basement of the new Meteorological Office, which is about half a mile
north of the site of the old Observatory.

Shide, Wireless Telegraphy at.—At the end of last year Mr. J. J.
Shaw, of West Bromwich, very kindly installed me a wireless tele-
graphic system, the object of which was to obtain time signals from
the Hiffel Tower or North Germany. Up to date it has worked
satisfactorily, giving time to within half a second. This it has done
in all kinds of weather, when it was impossible to make an observa-
tion on the sun or to obtain a Greenwich signal. The cost of an
installation for this purpose is less than 10I.

II. Seismic Activity in 1910.

The following catalogue is a continuation of catalogues published
in the British Association Report, 1911, p. 57, and 1912, p. 70.

The number given to an earthquake corresponds to that which
is given to the same disturbance in the Shide Registers, published as
British Association Circulars. The numbers with an asterisk (*) refer
to earthquakes which have disturbed the whole world. Those which
are not thus marked have been recorded over areas of not less than two

Sage mee ew my aevav ue

“ee ~~ Oe

=

ORIGINS OF LARGE EARTHQUAKES, 1910.

British Association, S8nd Report, Hirmingham, 1918,

t# refer to Shido Records (seo

sorld. Figures in Circles

Tilustrating the Highteonth Report on Seismological Investigations.

bes ON SEISMOLOGIOAL INVESTIGATIONS. 47

_ continents. These numbers are reproduced on the accompanying map,
and those which are underlined correspond to numbers in the catalogue
_ which carry an asterisk (*). For a description of the methods by

_ which the position of origins has been determined see British Asso-

ciation Report, 1900, p. 79. When the time at which an earthquake

_ originated is followed by plus or minus so many minutes, this means

_ that there is a corresponding uncertainty as to the position of the

origin. The names of places at which an earthquake has only been

felt is followed by the letter F. If destruction has taken place it is
followed by the letter D. The dotted lines on the map are the axes

_ of troughs or ridges from which large earthquakes have originated.

In the column for remarks I have made a few references to deter-

mination of origins by other investigators. Those given by Prince

Galitzin are of interest from the fact that they are made from observa-

tions at a single station. The determinations by Dr. Kurt Wegener

depend upon observations made at three to six stations.?

In connection with my own observations, to make which I fre-

quently had materials from 30 or 40 stations, it is interesting to

_hote that these stations could sometimes be divided into groups, each

_of which would give different epicentres, the distances between which

might be as much as six degrees. One interpretation of this is the

assumption that the earthquake originated over an area the dimension
of which is indicated by the distances which separate the calculated
epicentres.

Lat. and long.

u emarks.
in degrees

D=destructive
C, 90 W. 24 N. | Wegener gives 82 W.
25 N., time 11.2.26.
Seismograms _ eyi-
dently refer to two

or three disturbances
6 | 2200 | 19.5442 E, 125 KE. 25 N. | Ishigakijima, Loochoo,
F

R
F=felt,

8 | 2204 | 14.4842 K, 122 E. 35 N. | In Chili, Kwangsu and

Shantung, F.
15 | 2212 | 22.15 E, 125 FE. 5 N. Mindanao, Agusan

Valley, F., also Hal-

mahera and Talaud,

2220 | 14.50+4 M, 180 E. 48.

2225 | 8.48 J 19 W. 67 N. | Galitzin gives 17 W.
68 N.

2228 | 18.48ca Uy 55 W. 12 N. | St. Vincent, George-
hs Paramaribo,

- Y,

2241 | 3.45ca F, 168 E. 338. | Probably a dual earth-
uake.

2247 | 16.34ca ¥, 168 E. 175. fae

2248 | 14.0ca F, 168 EH. 178. | Lifu in Loyalty Is.,

- Wegener gives

177 W. 18 S., and
times 13.59.7,
15.40.2, 17.36.5 and
18.32.5.

* Seo Bulletin del’ Académie des Sciences de St.-Pétersbour , No. 13, 1911, p. 954.
2 See d. Kgl. Ges. d. Wiss. math.-phys. Kl. 1912, Heft 3. — Bal

48
| Date | = Time at | RS ats Lat. and long. |
1910 No origin | District in degrees
Feb, 7 | 2255/1540 | E, | 121 E,13N.
» 12* 2262 18.6 E, 141 E. 32 N.
» 13 | 2264 | 16.21ca | F,, F,, E, 125 E.0NS.
Sie nA Abe sly DLL K, 24 EB. 36 N.
, 297 | 2278 | 14.27ca | ,, E,, E,| 145 E. 37 N.
»» -28*/ 2280 21.044 | Ay 150 W. 47 N. |
| Mar. 2 | 2281 | 11.22 M, 170 W. 13 8.
| 4, 11 | 2284 | 6.50ca As 121 W. 38 N.
., 25 | 2297 | 15.174-2 | D,,D, | 80 W. 20S.
» 25 | 2298 | 18.38 E, 121 E. 25 N.
| 4, 30% 2301 | 16.55 F, 168 E. 178.
| |, 31*, 2302 | 18.133 L 6 W. 71S.
April 1 | 13.46 F, 129 E. 48.
einer anes 116285 om, 175 W. 2N.
| |
» 9 | 2309 | 9.2744 | K, 93 E. 22 N.
» 12% 2313, 0.22 E, 124 E. 26 N.
| 5,13} 2814) 6.41 B 84 W. 11 N.
| |
» 16* 2318 | 12.30 F, 130 E. 5S.
» 17 | 2319 | 0.52ca H 30 W. 30 S.(”)
, 20 | 2323 | 22.12ca M, 166 E.8N. |
May 1*, 2329 | 18.30.4 Fy 170 E. 18 8.
33 4 | 2332 | 15.17ca 105 137 E. 17 N
, 5; 2334 | 0.26 B 84 W. 9 N
9 | 2335.| 9.47 E, 142 E. 36 N
» 10 | 2337} 9.29 E, 130 E. 26 N.
» 10 | 2338 | 13.55 OM 140 E. 34 N.
5 10* 2340 | 17.42ca L 20 W. 55 S.
aS ies _ 7.38ca C, 71 W. 18 N.
| bas
es; 11 | 2341 | 15.51ca Ky 71 BE. 42 N.
| fe ng 12, 2344 Bt E, 141 E. 33 N. |
» 13% 2345 | 7.57ca P 163 W. 48 N.
, 15 | 2348 | 16.3+3 F, 122 E. 108.
| ., 184 2351) 8.58 O 38 E. 98.
| |
» 20* 2354 | 12.9ca C, 58 W. 22 N.
91 | 2355 | 7.46ca | Kg 12E.21N. |
” 994] 9356! 6.25 | E, 145 E. 42 N. |
» +28 | 2357.| 18.38 F, 142 E. 3N.
97 | 9361 | 11.59ca i 9 E. 28 N.
28 2362 6.2lca O 25 E. 148.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

Remarks.
F=felt, D=destructive

| N. Mindoro at Calapan,
F

Central Japan, F. Gal-
itzin gives 131.5 E.
34.58 N.

Crete, Varipetro, D.

_ Central Japan, F.

Central California, F.
Antofagasta, F.(?)
N. Formosa, F.

Ambon and Neira, F.
Not recorded
Shide.

at

Wegener gives 171 W.

168.

Formosa and Loochoo,
F. Galitzin gives
122.55 E. 27.31 N.

Time 16.34.7. |

Wegener gives 122 E. |

23. N. Time 0.21.6.
Costa Rica, Cartago,
D

| Ambon and Neira, F.

Possibly 10 W. 65 8.

Wegener’s determina-

tion.

| Costa Rica, Cartago, D. |

E. Coast N. Japan, F. |

| Origin doubtful.
| Haiti, W. Indies, D.

in |

Not recorded at
Shide.

Talas Ala-tau
Turkestan.

Off Boso, E. Coast |
Japan, F.

Maoe Mere in Flores,
also in Timor, F.

| Tanganyika and Ger-

man EK. Africa, F.

N.E. Japan, Yoko-
hama, Kushiro, F.

Rhodesia, Livingstone,
Ff.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 49

Date Time at ape Lat. and long. Remarks.
1910 No. origin District in degrees F=felt, D=destructive
May 30 | 2365 | 12.33ca O | 22 BH. 15 N.
a 31*, 2366 | 4.54 B | 105 W. 10 N. | Galitzin gives 92.16 W.
23.5 N.
June 1* 2367 | 5.5742 F, | 165 E. 23S. | Wegener gives approxi-
mate origin as 170 E.

| 18 S. at 5.55.1.
Bs 9*| 2376 | 11.47 E,, E,, E,; 138 E. 28 N. | Bonin Is. and ©. E.

| Japan, F,
FS 14 | 2379 | 19.39ca H | 44 W. 32 N.
a 16) 2381 | 4.15 K, | 2W.37N. | 8. Spain, Almeria,
Maes and Algeria,

3 16* 2382 | 6.30 4 | 166 E. 19S. | New Caledonia and
| Loyalty Is., F.

33 17 | 2384 | 5.26 KE; 128 BE. 22 N. | Formosa, Pescador
| Is., Batanes Is.,
| and N. Luzon, F,

2391 | 2.50ca E, | 121 E.2N. | Celebes, Posso and
Paleleh, F.
| 2393 | 18.52.5 M, 174 W. 188. | Determined by
| Wegener.
2394a) 13.27.5 Ky 4 E. 36 N. ne Aumale, Tab-
at, D.
2395 | 19.26 K; 34 E. 41 N. | Asia Minor, Iskelib,
| F.
2398 | 15.57 E, 139 E. 35 N. | C. Japan, F.
2402 | 10.49ca M, 180 E.W. 15S.
14.21ca M, 178 W. 28 S. | Not recorded at Shide.
18.9ca F, | 130 E. 188. | Not recorded at Shide.
| 2404 | 2.55 E, 127 KE. 4 N. | S.E. Mindanao, F.
| 2406 | 5.37 E, 125 E. 7 N. | Agusan River, E. Min- |
danao, F.
| 2412 | 9.9 A, 135 W. 59 N. | Skagway, F.
| 2415 | 18.30 K, 128 E. 25 N. | Loochoo, Naha, F.
| 2417 | 4.41 Ay 135 W. 60 N. | Skagway, F.
| 2418 | 8.17 F, 108 E. 12 8. | Kediri, Soerakarta, F. |
2419 | 3.59 F, 108 E. 11 8. | Madioen, Pasoeroean,
| 2422 | 15.9ca C, 69 W. 16 N. | Not recorded at Shide.
| 2424 | 20.33ca F, 170 E. 33S
| 2427 | 7.31(?) K, | 72 E. 40 N. | Galitzin gives 35.55 N.
69.18 E. N. Af. |
ganistan, nr. Hindu
| Kush Mts.
2428 | 21.6 F, 163 E. 29 S.
2433 | 12.1ca F, 174 E. 23 S.
2443 | 22.17ca G, 60 E. 3 N.
| 2444 | 14,13 E, 126 E. 10 N. | Surigao, F.
2446 | 15.19ca M, 176 E. 78.
2450 | 10.27+3 F, 145 E. 3 N.
2454 | 10.43 K, 19 KE. 39 N. | Italy, South, F.
2455 | 22.15ca K, 35 E. 35 N.
2456 | 2.35ca K,; 21 E. 37 N.
2460 | 1.30ca A; 117 W. 48 N. | Galitzin gives 116.50 W.
39.48 N.
2461 | 20.45 K,; 28 E. 38 N. | Smyrna, F.
2465 | 20.16ca F, | 111E.108
2466 16.37 CG, 70 W. 25 N.
| 2472 | 21.19 | es 90 E. 28 N

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

50
Date Time at sores
1910 No. origin District
Aug. 14 | 2473 7.33¢ca H
Re nas ee ee F,
» 17 | 2477 | 11.58 K,
» 21*| 2486 | 5.20 M,
» 21 | 2487 | 16.0ca
Sept. 1* 2500] 0.45 E,
3 1*, 2501 | 14.20 Ee
i 6*| 2506 | 19.59ca D,, Dy
4 7* 2508 | 7.1042 F,
» 9*| 2513] 1.11 P
» 14 | 2522 | 13.53 F,
» 16 | 2525 | 23.7 E,
» 24] 2533 | 3.23ca D,
» 24 | 2535 | 15-12ca D,
Oct. 2 | 2541 | 20.33 & E,
21.15
és 4*, 2543 | 22.51ca M,
x 7 | 2545 | 6.52 M,
7 | 2546 | 11.54 F,
= 7 | 2547 | 16.2 F,
» 13 | 2551 | 14.56 E,
» 18] 2553] 2.36 F,
» 20 | 2554] 5.3ca F,
| » 27] 2560] 0.59 K,
| » 30 | 2561 | 7.33 M,
Nov. 6 | 2572 | 20.29 A
_ 9*, 2578 | 5.57ca F,

Lat. and long.
in degrees

32 W. 10 N.

118 E. 38.
68 E. 30 N.

165 E. 9 N.

122 E, 21 N.

122 HE. 24 N.

82 W. 218.

155 E. 5 8.

170 W. 45 N.

89 EK. 2 N.
142 E. 38 N.

171 E. 19 S.
97 E. 48.

5 W. 35 N.

180 E. or W.
10 8.

135 W. 53 N.

164 E. 12 8.

Remarks.

F=felt, D=destructive

Not recorded at Shide.

Galitzin gives 28.39 N.
67.10 E. Sind and
Shikarpur, F.

In the Shide Register
the date is given
wrongly as Aug. 24.
North of India.

| Galitzin gives 120.22

E. 23.30 N. Taito
Taichu and Keelung
in Formosa, also in
Batanes Is., F.

Galitzin gives 119.54 EK.
23.13 N. Taihoku
Keelung, Tainan,
Taichuin,Formosa,F.

At 20.32+2 a shock
originated 5 W. 2 8.
At 20.14+3 shocks
were noted at Andal-
gala, in Catamarca,
Argentina.

Wegener gives a
locality near to
148 E. 48. at 7.10.4.

Galitzin gives 160.24 E.
45.26 N., E. of the
Kuriles. Unalaska
and Bogoslof Is., F.

Soembawa and Bali, F.

N. Luzon, F.

Arizona, F.

Rioja, San Juan, and
Mendosa, in Argen-

tina, F.

Nueva Caceres and
throughout S.E.
Luzon, F.

Valparaiso, F.(?)

Eastern part of Central
Japan, F.

Padang, Bovenlanden,
Sumatra, F.

Fez in Morocco, also in
Tetuan, Melilla, in
Malaga, F.

Mallicolo, in New

Hebrides, F.

i i

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

Ct
—

Date Time at er Lat. and long. Remarks,
1910 No. origin District in aeons F=felt, D=destructive
Noy. 10*) 2579 | 12.11ca MV, 160 E. 0 N.S.
saa 14*) 2585 | 7.33 BE, 120 BE. 21 N. | N. Formosa, F.
4 15*| 2589 | 14.18ca L 16 W. 628
Pa 24 | 2594 | 15.41ca F, 90 E. 6 N.
i 25 | 2596b) 19.12 EK, 125 E. 6 N. S.E. Mindanao, Saran-
gani Is., F.

4 26*| 2598 | 4.39ca F, 167 E. 8S Not recorded at Shide.
om 29*| 2599 | 2.24 E, 125 E. 25 N. | E. coast Formosa, F.
Dec. 1 | 2601 | 15.42 F, 135 E.0 N.S. | About this time an

earthquake was re-
corded in Tondano
in Menado.

Rs 3 | 2603 | 4.5ca F, 155 EK. 48. | Namatani, New Ire-
land, F.

iS 3*| 2604 | 7.47ca F, 155 HE. 45.

‘a 4*| 2606 | 11.0ca F, 140 E. 108. | About this time an

earthquake was re-
corded in Ambon.

a 5 | 2609 | 16.21 E, 150 KE. 42 N. | Off N.E. Japan.

e 10*| 2612 | 9.25 F, 159 E. 88. | Recorded in Ambon.

bs 13*| 2620 | 11.34 O 33 E. 9S. or

30 E. 7S.

a 14*| 2622 | 20.27ca M, 176 BE. 10 N.

ES 16*| 2624 | 14.45 BE, 125 E.5 N S. Mindanao, Saran-
gani Is., F.

oe 16 | 2625 | 18.50 E, 125 E.5 N. | 8. Mindanao, Saran-
gani Is., F.

3 17 | 2627 6.33 EK, 127 E. 4 N. N.E. Celebes.

is 18 | 2629 2.42ca E, 127 EK. 4 N. N.E. Celebes, S. Min-
danao.

is 23 | 2639 | 0.29ca K, 150 E. 62 N

es 26 | 2640] 5.34ca E, 149 FE. 18 N.

s 27 | 2642 | 18.50ca E, 123 EF. 5 N

a 29 | 2647 | 13.5 BE, 122 BE. 3 N Ambon and Mindanao,

*) 30*| 2650 | 0.45ca E, 128 E. 8 N Mindanao, Samar,

Leyte, Butuan, D.

III. On the 443 or 452 Day Period.

In the Report for 1912, p. 94, I pointed out that marked periods of
rest followed groups of megaseisms every 443 days. Professor H. H.
Turner increased this period to 452 days. December 14, 1899, is the
middle of a rest period, and we find similar periods every successive
443 days. ‘The last period—which, however, is only one of partial
quiescence—was about September 3, 1909; we should expect the next
one about November 20, 1910. The fact that the accompanying
catalogue shows that between November 14 and 24 no large earth-
quake was recorded verifies the expectation.

IV. On the Determination of the Position of Epicentres.

In the British Association Report, 1896, p. 230, I showed by
example that the distance of an epicentre could be determined from
the duration of preliminary tremors. In 1911 Prince Galitzin showed
that not only could a distance be determined from these precursors,

E 2

52 REPORTS ON fHE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

but the first of them gave the direction in which we should seek for
an origin. In the British Association Report, 1900, p. 79, I gave
several methods which I use when mapping the position of epicentres.
These methods were dependent on a number of observations made
at several more or less widely separated observatories.

As a slight addition to these I submit the following: If we have
registers from a number of stations for large earthquakes it is usually
easy to read the times of commencements and other phases of motion,
together with the amplitudes. An inspection of the records which
refer to a given earthquake shows the stations nearest to its epicentre,
and any one of these should give us the distance of the same, and
if we know this we can easily compute the time at which the shock
originated. The difference between this and the arrival of the large
wayes or the maximum motion at other stations enables us to compute
their respective distances from the district from which they radiated.
The intersection of ares, which I draw upon a ‘black globe,’ which
correspond to these distances should represent the epifocal area.

I venture to mention this simple and self-evident way of procedure
because it is frequently of use when other methods fail. Preliminary
tremors may have been eclipsed by air tremors or microseisms, or
they may have died out on their journey, with the result that the
selsmogram may Only present very small records which represent the
large waves or maximum motion.

V. On the Variation of Earthquake Speed with the Variation in the
Direction of Propagation.

In the British Association Report, 1908, p. 74, I showed thai
megaseismic motion was propagated from its origin farther to the
east and west than it was in the direction of a meridian. One
explanation for this is that in the former direction the rigidity of the
propagating medium may be greater than it is in the latter direction—
a suggestion that falls in line with the observations of Dr. Hecker
on the gravitational influence of the moon on the crust of our world.
If this hypothesis is correct it might be inferred that the velocity of
propagation of earth waves would be greatest in an east-west direction.

To test this I took earthquakes Nos. 859, 860, 884, 1111, 1170,
1260, 1363, and 1632 (see British Association Report, 1912, p. 71).
I selected these particular disturbances because the positions of their
epicentres and times of origin were known, and also because they
had been recorded at widely separated stations. For any particular
earthquake the only observations considered were those made at stations
the bearings of which from the epicentre were within 30 degrees of
east and west or within 30 degrees of north and south. The following
tables only refer to maximum motion or large waves :—

Earthquake No. 859, June 25, 1904, origin 160° E. 53° N.

Per sec.
Bombay, time to travel 48 m., distance 74°, velocity 2°85 km.
; ) Mauritius, 5 68 m., ee bic Gee as 3°10 km.
East-West Kedaikanal, ” 48 m., ” Miles 2 2°93 km.
\ Calcutta, Ps 41 m., ee Gl Rate 2°75 km.

Average . ° « 2°90 km.
SF

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS, 58

Per sec.

Shide time to travel 48m., distance ae velocity 2°92 km.

( Kew, a 49 m., a fF 2°83 km.

Bidston, - 43 m., i Cx a 3°09 km.

North-South ~ Edinburgh = 44 m., a 71°, 5 2°98 km.
Paisley, 53 54 m., rr mice 4 2°43 km.

San Fernando, _,, 55 m., Pe 90°, cL 3°02 km.

Wellington, 5 80 m., + 95°, rf 2°19 km.

Average . - 2°78 km.

Harthquake No. 860, June 25, 1904, origin 160° E. 53° N.

Mauritius, time to travel 68m., distance 101°, velocity 2°74 km.

Calcutta, ss 37m., 3 60°, p 3°00 km.
) East-West Bombay, sf 49 m., Pr 72°. ae 2°72 km.
. Kodaikanal, * 50 m., 55 76°, a elem.
Honolulu, 3 26 m., 3 44°, 33.) LS km.
Average . . - 2°88km.

j
Shide, time to travel 52m., distance 76°, velocity 2°70 km.
Kew, *e 49 m., aa 75°, 3 2°84 km.
Bidston, A 43 m., oa 12°, 33 3°02 km.
North-South Edinburgh, i 43 m., 5 Rie: - 3°05 km.
San Fernando, ,, 56 m., ar 90°, Bs 2°97 km.
Christchurch ne 81 m., a i 3 2°21 km.

Average . . - 2°79 km.

Earthquake No. 884, August 24, 1904, origin 135° E. 329 N.

Beirut, time to travel 55 m., distance 79°, velocity 2°65 km.

Hact-West Calcutta, 25 m., as 42°, PP 3°09 km.
Kodaikanal, 44m., i; Biz 35 2°39 km.

Cape Town ay 85 m., a 129°, 5 2°80 km.

Average . . - 2°73 km.

Shide, time to travel 60 m., distance 88°, velocity 2°71 km.

Kew, 6 59 m., ae ats) aie ” 2°72 km.

Bidston a 58 m., es 85°, 55 2°75 km.

North-South \ Edinburgh i, 59 m., s 84°, 5 2°71 km.
. Toronto as 72 m., Bs 98°, 3 2°51 km.
Christchurch Fr 40 m., xf 84°, as 2°88 km.

Wellington fs 44 m., 5 82°, ce 3°51 km.

Average . . _ 2°82 km.

Earthquake No. 1111, January 21, 1906, origin 143° EK. 34° N,

Caleutta, time to travel 23 m., distance 49°, velocify 3°94 km.
East-West Honolulu . 38 m., Sita cD ss 2°48 km.

Average . ; - 3:20km.

Baltimore, time to travel 72 m., distance 98°, velocity 2°51 km.
89°,

Kew, 5 53 m., ¥ 5 3°10 km.
North-South + Bidston, * Rosh. eee ad 280 en,
Perth, ‘A 37 m., KP re - 3°55 km.

Average . . - 3°01 km.

54 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

Earthquake No. 1170, April 18, 1906, origin 1219 W. 38° N.

Cape Town, time to travel
Toronto “
Batavia, Hs
East-West Perth, a4
Honolulu, B
Samoa, a
Manila, es
Victoria, time to travel
Mauritius, 5
Calcutta, a
North-South / Bombay a
Kodaikanal, e
Irkutsk, 2.
Cairo, eS

Earthquake No. 1260, September 7

Per sec.
83 m., distance 148°, velocity 3°29 km.
21 m., = 33°, > 2°90 km.
91 m., 33 Es 53 2°54 km.

56m. ,, 100°, . 330km.
Average . - - 3.27 km.

5 m., distance 10.5°, velocity 3°86 km.
98 m., 3 oasis » | 298 km.
68 m., er ile » 93°04 km.
82 m., A 202: 3 tae dcrns
74 m., oe gaa 3 Wailea,
53 m., . 80°, » 2°78 km.
82 m., oO. » 2°41 km.

Average . : : 2-95 km.

, 1906, origin 145° E. 35° N.

(calculated by Mr. ‘e Horikawa).

Bombay, time to travel
Calcutta, -
East-West . ~\ Kodaikanal, 5
Cape Town, x
Mauritius, 5

Shide, time to travel
Kew, 99
| Bidston, ¥
North-South ~ Edinburgh, +
Paisley, S
Perth, a
Wellington, 5

Earthquake No. 1363, April 18,

Bombay, _ time to travel

See en ae Kodaikanal,

Samoa, 3
Honolulu, 3
/ Shide, time to travel
Kew, on
Fdinburgh, es
North-South -~ Paisley, se
Tokio, 3
Perth, s

Christchurch, 3

46 m., distance 65°, velocity 2°61 km.
34 m., of 50°, 3 2°73 km.
44 m., ojos SOD - 2°72 km.
86 m., sy) lilies x 2°94 km.
67 m., pn LOOg 4 2°78 km.

Average . 5 . 2°74 km.

60 m., distance = velocity 2°64 km.
56 m., S + 2°9 km.

Average . : : 2°62 ae

1907, origin 123° H. 139° N..

31 m., distance bP velocity 2°43 km.
32 m., te 3 2°60 km.
32 m., = 70° 5 4:04 km.
45 m., id elDe + 3°08 km.

Average . - - 304 km.

64 m., distance 101°, velocity 2°91 km.
anise 3 100° » 2°60 km.
64 m., 33 99°, » 2°86 km.
63 m., 3 © LOO"; » 2°93 km.
13 m., 55 273) >» 384km.
33 m., a 46°, i 2°57 km.
43 m., x 13°, ‘4 3°14 km.
Average . 2°98 km.

i

J
1
+
;

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS, 55

Earthquake No. 1362, April 18, 1907, origin 124° BK. 13° N,

Per sec.

Bombay, _ time to travel 31m., distance 49°, velocity 2:92 km.

East-West Kodaikanal, 3 40 m., Chl ed Hite a 2°08 km.
Honolulu, “ 43 m., a 74°, - 3°19 km.

Average . : - 2°73 km.

Irkutsk, time to travel 28 m., distance 42°, velocity 2°77 km.

Shide, “A 65 m., aa OZ. 4 2°90 km.

Kew, a 65 m., 3 LOZ? % 2°90 km

Seek South + pidston, ; 64m, 5 99 ., 3:39km
Edinburgh, 5 59 m., Bs 99°, ves 3°07 km.

Tokio, AS 14 m., ee P Atte. 5 3°56 km.

Average . F a 3 09 km.

Earthquake No. 1632, October 13, 1908, origin 102° W. 18° N,
Eaxt-West Honolulu, time to travel 28 m., distance 52°, velocity 3°43 km.

Victoria, time to travel 23 m., distance 35°, velocity 2°81 km.

Irkutsk, 3 60 m., 3; LOSS, i 3°23 km.

Tashkend, on 60 m., en 2285 i 3°76 km.

North-South ~ Victoria, Re 23 m., ne aii Ss 2°81 km.
Beirut, aa 82 m., sane lds. A 2°56 km.

Edinburgh, a bi i en amar S12 3 2°77 km.

Bidston, ~ 54 m., a3 (ES ss 2°70 km.

Average . a - 2°95 km.

When we look at the averages at the end of the above nine tables,
it appears that in seven instances the velocity for East-West motion
has been greater than that given for North-South motion. In two
instances—viz., those for Karthquakes Nos. 884 and 1362—the reverse
has been the case.

If we combine the results for all nine earthquakes we get 35
observations for East-West motion, which give an average velocity of
2°96 km. per second, and 58 observations for North- South motion, the

average velocity for which is 2°88 km. per second.

VI. Comparison of the Amplitudes of East-West and North-South
Motion at a given Station.

At Eskdalemuir during the year 1910 two Milne pendulums, one
of which recorded North-South motion and the other East-West motion,

_had periods which did not differ from each other more than one second.

At times they had the same period, but usually the former had a
period of 17 seconds and the latter 18 seconds. From this we should
expect that, if the displacement of the booms was due to tilting, the
amount of this as measured in millimetres would be slightly greater
in the East-West direction than in the North-South direction. For
40 earthquakes recorded during this year this was the case, but there
are 16 instances in which the boom recording North-South motion
showed the greatest displacement. In nine instances the amount of
displacement was the same on both pendulums. It may be added
that for a short period—viz., from January 1 to February 12—the

56 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

boom recording North-South motion was as sensitive or more sensitive
than the one recording East-West motion. Notwithstanding this, the
amplitudes for East-West motion were usually greater than those for
the North-South motion.

If, instead of comparing boom displacements measured in milli-
metres, we convert these into angular units, the conclusion arrived at
is that East-West tilting is usually greater than that at right angles.

VII. On the Direction in which Earthquake Motion is most easily
propagated.

In the British Association Report for 1908, p. 74, I discussed
the direction in which megaseismic motion is most freely radiated.
Two general conclusions at which I arrived were, first, that the motion
of large earthquakes travelled farther westwards than it did eastwards,
and, second, that the range of motion across the equator was shorter
than it is to the East or West.

In the following note this inquiry has been extended to four groups
of earthquakes, the members of each group having origins in the same
district. Each earthquake is designated by a number corresponding
to entries in the Shide Register, in the Circulars issued by the British
Association, and also in a-Catalogue published in the Report for 1912,

nti
4 District No, 1.—West Coast of Central America, or approximately
90° W. 5° N.

The earthquakes considered are Nos. 806, 1164, and 1450. As
there are only three members in this group no single station can have
more than three records.

At 11 stations lying northwards from this origin 25 records were
made, or on the average 2°2 records per station. At five stations lying
to the south of the origin eight records were obtained, the average
therefore being 1°6 per station.

Inasmuch as all stations within 60 degrees of the origin each
obtained the possible three records, I find that if these are omitted
when comparing records obtained in the North with those obtained
in the South I get the following results :—

Nine northerly stations recorded on the average two shecks. Four
southern stations recorded on the average 1°5 shocks.

T also find that the average distance from the origin of the 11 North-
lying stations is 98 degrees, whilst that of the five southerly stations
is 77 degrees.

From these examinations it would appear that for the three earth-
quakes considered, two of which were recorded at Batavia, 159 degrees
distant from the origin, that motion was transmitted more freely
towards the North than in the opposite direction.

If we compare the transmission of motion eastwards with that
which is transmitted towards the West we obtain the following :—

At 11 eastern stations 19 records were obtained, or an average
of 1°8 per station.

At eight western stations 17 records were obtained, or an average
of 2°1 per station.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 57

If we omit the stations lying within 60 degrees of the origin,
the above two averages respectively become 1°5 and 2°0.

The average distance from the origin of the eastern stations is
88 degrees, whilst that of the western stations is 90 degrees—two
distances which are practically equal.

The inference is that motion is transmitted more freely towards
the West than it is towards the East.

District No. 2.—North of India, or approximately 80° E. and
40° N.

The earthquakes considered are Nos. 832, 886, 982, 1070, 1293,
and 1468.

The number of records obtained at 9 stations lying to the North of
this district was 46; the average per station was therefore 5.1.

At 8 stations lying to the South of this district 29 records were
obtained, the average per station therefore being 3°6.

If we only consider stations more than 60 degrees distant from
the origin, these two averages respectively become 5°2 and 3°8. Here,
again, we are led to the conclusion that motion was propagated more
freely towards the North than in the opposite direction.

It must, however, be pointed out that the average distance of these
southern stations from the origins was somewhat greater than that
of the northern stations, these distances being respectively 65 and
85 degrees.

To the East of long. 80° E. 33 records were obtained at 9 stations,
or 3°6 records per station. To the West of this meridian 38 records
were obtained at 9 stations, or on the average 4°2 records per station.
It would seem, therefore, that in this district, as in District No. 1,
motion was propagated more freely towards the West.

The average distances from the origin of these Hast and West
stations are respectively 76 and 75 degrees.

District No. 3.—East Coast of Japan, or approximately 140° BK.
40° N.

The earthquakes considered are Nos. 884, 1031, 1266, 1427, and
1510.

Nine stations with northerly bearings recorded 28 disturbances,
or on the average 3°1 per station.

Eight stations with southerly bearings noted 20 disturbances, or
on the average 2°5 per station.

If we only consider stations more than 60 degrees distant from
this district these averages become 3:0 and 2°6.

The average distance from the origin for the southerly stations is,
however, somewhat greater than for the northerly stations, these
distances respectively being 91 and 77 degrees.

Five stations lying to the East of 150° BE. long. gave 13 records,
or an average of 2°6 per station.

Eleven stations lying to the West of this same region yielded 34
records, or on an average 3°1 per station. Here again we observe
motion has been propagated more freely towards the West.

District No. 4.—North and North-East of New Guinea, or approxi-
mately 150° BE. and 0° N, or S.

5g REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

The earthquakes considered are Nos. 977, 1025, 1128, 1190, 1272,
1301, and 1460.

Eleven stations North of the Equator recorded 61 disturbances,
or an average of 5°5 per station. Six stations South of the Equator
recorded 29 disturbances, or an average of 4'8 per station. If we
only consider stations more than 60 degrees distant from an origin
these averages respectively become 5°4 and 5.

That the average number of northern records preponderates over
those obtained in the South seems more remarkable when we consider
the average distances of these two groups of stations from the origin—
the former being 95 degrees and the latter 75 degrees.

Six stations lying to the East of long. 150° HE. noted 32 disturb-
ances, or on the average 5°3 per station.

Twelve stations lying to the West of this meridian noted 65 dis-
turbances, or an average of 5°4 per station.

This last result suggests that the quantity of motion propagated
eastwards is the same as that which is propagated towards the West.

With this exception, the four groups of earthquakes considered
indicate that motion travels to greater distances northwards and west-
wards than it does southwards and eastwards. i

If we take the four districts together we find the following :—

40 northerly stations gave 160 records, or 4°0 per station.

27 southerly 86 x 3°2 5
40 westerly a 154 % Ball bs
31 easterly - 97 x, Bal _

District No, 5.—West of South America, or approximately 80° W.
30° S.

The earthquakes considered are Nos. 1248, 1248p, 1277, 1398, 1851,
and 1852.

Each of these six disturbances was recorded at two or more stations
in Great Britain, 105 degrees distant from the origin.

Five were noted at San Fernando, Honolulu, and Cape Town, the
respective distances of which from the origin are 95, 88, and 78 degrees.
The average distance is 87 degrees.

Four were recorded at Toronto, Victoria, Azores, Tokio, Perth,
and Zikaiwei. The distances of these from the origin are respectively
73, 88, 85, 145, 115, and 160 degrees. The average distance is 110
_ degrees.

Three were noted at New Zealand, Mauritius, Bombay, and
Calcutta. The distances of these places are respectively 85, 125,
155, and 170 degrees. The average distance is 134 degrees.

Two were noted at Colombo, Kodaikanal, and Irkutsk, the distances
of which are 150, 150, and 160 degrees; the average distance is 153
degrees.

One was noted at Sydney, 100 degrees distant.

This examination simply shows that stations near to an origin
obtain more records than those at a great distance.

The average number of records for stations lying westwards from
the origin is 3°4, and the average distance of these stations from the
origin was 105 degrees. The average number of records for stations

ae eo =:

el Rt i ee

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 59

lying eastwards from the origin was 4°6, and the average distance of
these stations was 102 degrees.

The average number of records for stations lying northwards from
the origin was 4°6, and the average distance of these stations was 101
degrees.

The average number of records for stations lying southwards from
the origin was 3°2, and the average distance of these stations was 95
degrees. ;

Although the average distance of stations was practically the same,
the greater number of records had been obtained at stations lying
eastwards and northwards from the origin.

District No. 6.—Near New Zealand, or approximately 180° East
or West, 40° South.

The earthquakes considered are Nos. 804, 877, 9228, and 1768.

Each of these four disturbances was recorded in New Zealand,
and at approximately 180 degrees distance in Great Britain.

Three were recorded in Toronto, Perth, Honolulu, San Fernando,
and India. The distances of these stations from the origin are 122,
52, 65, 180, and 105 degrees; the average distance is 105 degrees.

Two were noted at Victoria, B.C., Cape Town, Irkutsk, Mauritius,
Cordova, and Batavia. The distances of these places from the origin
are 102, 105, 112, 100, 85, and 72 degrees. The average distance
is 96 degrees.

Only one disturbance was noted at Cairo and Sydney, the distances
of which from the origin are respectively 150 and 22 degrees.

Ten stations with a northerly bearing recorded on the average 2°4
shocks, the average distance of these stations from the origin being
109 degrees.

Cape Town, which has a southerly bearing from the origin, recorded
two shocks; its distance from the origin is 105 degrees. .

Material for comparing propagation in these two directions is
evidently too scanty.

Three stations to the eastward of the origin recorded on the average
2°3 shocks, the average distance being 103 degrees.

Six stations to the westward of the origin recorded 2°1 shocks,
the average distance being 76 degrees.

The result of these examinations does not suggest that earthquake
motion is radiated more freely in one particular direction rather than
in some other.

_ For the six groups of earthquakes originating in six different
districts it appears that more motion has been propagated towards the
North than towards the South. For the first four groups more records
were obtained to the westward of an origin than were obtained to the
East of the same. For Groups 5 and 6 this is reversed, but it
is based on observations which were comparatively few in number.

VIII. On the Times of Occurrence of Maximum Motion on Pendulums
Differently Oriented.

In the records from certain stations (see British Association Circu-

lars) we observe that the maximum for East-West motion is frequently

reached from one to four or even more minutes before that for North-

60 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

South motion. A good illustration of this is found in all the registers
from Eskdalemuir. In 1910 the East-West and North-South pendulums
indicated a maximum 12 times simultaneously; the East-West
pendulums, however, had a maximum 41 times in advance of and
six times later than the North-South instrument. When the natural
period of the pendulums was not identical they did not vary from each
other more than one second, the period for the East-West recording
instrument being 18 seconds whilst that for the North-South was
17 seconds. This slight difference in sensibility in the two instru-
ments does not, however, explain why the East-West component,
although usually giving earlier records, should occasionally give them
simultaneously with and sometimes after the North-South instrument.

At San Fernando in South Spain there is a pair of Milne pendulums
mounted to record East-West and North-South motion. The natural
period of the first of these instruments is 16 secs., and 1 mm. deflection
of the outer end of the boom corresponds to a tilt of 0°43. The
period of the second is 20 seconds, and 1 mm. deflection of the outer
end of the boom is equivalent to a tilt of 0/-25. As regards the
displacement produced by tilting, the first of these instruments, which
records East-West motion, has only half the sensitiveness of the other.
Notwithstanding this, in 1910 the maximum for Hast-West motion
was obtained before North-South motion 17 times. Twice both
pendulums recorded maxima simultaneously, while the very sensitive
North-South instrument showed maxima 26 times earlier than the
East-West boom.

IX. Disturbances only recorded at Two or Three Widely Separated
Stations.

In the British Association Report for 1858, p. 55, Mallet refers
to a number of shocks which had been felt simultaneously, or nearly
so, at two distant places. The most remarkable pair are shocks noted
at Okhotsk and Quito, places which are nearly antipodal to each
other. As these coincidences cannot be assured within several hours,
Mallet agrees with Mylne? that ‘the probability of anything more
than mere coincidence is extremely slight.’

In the British Association Reports, 1908, p. 64, and 1909, p. 51,
I called attention to 148 small disturbances which had been noted in
Jamaica. Fifty-one of these were undoubtedly recorded 43 minutes
later at several stations in Great Britain. They were not, however,
noted in Europe. This absence of records across the Channel was
attributed to a want of sensibility in the seismographs which were
there employed. Although we know that the seismograph recording
photographically will pick up very small movements which may or
may not be visible on the record received on smoked paper, whether
a microseism shall or shall not be noted apparently depends not
only on the sensibility of the recording instrument but on other
conditions not yet defined.

As illustrative of this I called attention to the fact that from
time to time Batavia and Cairo have recorded the same earthquake,
which, however, has not been recorded at stations lying between

‘See ‘ Brit. Earthquakes,’ Edin. Phil. Journ., vol. 31.

— |

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS, 61

these places or at any other station in the world. The distance
between these places is 80 degrees, and the times taken for com-
pressional, distortional, and surface waves, or P,, P, and P,, to travel
this distance would be 15, 24, and 50 minutes. A disturbance
originating in Java might after one of these intervals be recorded
in Cairo or it might in the vicinity of Cairo bring into existence
a secondary disturbance. There would be practically the same time
intervals between the observations at these two places if the primary
disturbance had its origin somewhat to the East of Java. Had the
origin of the primary been between Batavia and Cairo the time
intervals might be anything less than the given three intervals. If
the time intervals exceed 50 minutes it is extremely likely that these
two records refer to independent earthquakes.

The following are illustrations of records peculiar to Batavia and
Cairo made in 1911 :—

Feb. 4at 7.8 in Batavia and 64 m. later in Cairo.

2 Feb. Sat 4.0 ae xt $5
Feb. 9 at 18.40 . 42 m. 4
| Feb. 10 at 17.25 i 42 m. a
Feb. llat 0.54 sk 2. 2m: * - Felt in Sumatra.
March 6at 9.57 5 11 m. earlier in Cairo.
March 19 at 0.59 G 41 m. later in Cairo.
April 26 at 10.0 a 16 m. ra
Aug. 2at 10.7 55 22 m. <i
Aug. 19 at 0.49 12m . Felt in Sumbawa.

Sept. 14 at 23.16 in Samoa and 19 m. later in Cairo.

The fact that with but one exception all these disturbances were
recorded at Batavia before they were recorded at Cairo suggests that
their origins were nearer to the former place than the latter.

Well-equipped stations nearer to Batavia than Cairo, and at which
we should have expected to find records of these earthquakes, are
the following: Mauritius, Tokio, Irkutsk, Zikawei, Tsing-tau, Calcutta,
Bombay, Kodaikanal, Manila, Perth, Sydney, Wellington, Christ-

_ church, Tiflis, Beirut, Harpoot, and Tashkend.

X. Recurrence of Megaseismic Groups.

Between 1899 and 1909 I find 88 groups of megaseisms. The
number of disturbances in a group varies from 2 to 14, while the
number of days over which a group extends varies between 1 and
25. The former numbers divided by the latter give what I call the
seismicity of a group period. If three earthquakes have taken place on
one day I call the seismicity 3, but if four have happened in 5 days
T call it 8. These seismicities, or earthquake-activity numbers, vary

between 4 and 3. In the following lines I give in the form of
numerators and denominators the relationship between seismicities
and the average number of days of rest which have followed each
group.

‘ed 5 6 “7 ao} 9 1: 12 “9 . .

ES ae a: ea: er: oa FA: Peis (7)

No definite conclusion can be drawn from these figures, but in
connection with them I must call attention to a.somewhat similar
investigation referred to in the Report for 1910, p. 54, where it is

ie
fie
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bo
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62 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

shown that great megaseismic activity is followed by long periods
of rest. In that case the intensity of a group was considered inde-
pendently of the number of days over which it was spread.

XI. Frequency of Earthquake Followers.

In the British Association Reports, 1899, p. 227, and 1900, p. 71,
under the title of ‘Earthquake Echoes,’ I discussed the vibrations
which follow the main shock or shocks of an earthquake and which
bring the same to a conclusion. These occur in groups, and as these
rise and fall in amplitude it may be inferred that an earthquake does
not become extinguished at a uniform rate, but it dies in surges.
I sought for the origin of these surgings, particularly for those groups
which resemble each other in form, in the hypothesis of repeated
reflection.

Another possible explanation is to assume that these repetitions
are interference phenomena consequent on the difference in period
between the free swing of the recording pendulum and that of the
earth.

Now steady-point seismographs have shown for earthquakes we can -
feel that their period increases as they die out at a given station,
and that it also increases as they radiate from an origin. Assuming
this to be correct for megaseismic motion, then beats or recurrences
at stations at different distances from an origin should show differences
in their frequency. To test this I have compared the time frequency
of pulsatory recurrences for disturbances recorded in the Isle of Wight
which originated in different localities.

The localities chosen were as follow :—

1. East Coast of Japan, distant from Shide . ‘ . -1 80? tte’) 85°.
2. West Coast Central America, distant from Shide . 80° to 885°.
3. Central Asia, distant from Shide . F 3 {: ORE GO?
4. Between East New Guinea and Fiji, distant from Shide 130° to 140°.

The earthquakes originating in these four districts, and of which
I have seismograms recorded in the Isle of Wight, are referred to
by numbers corresponding to the numbers given in the Earthquake
Catalogue published in the British Association Reports, 1911, p. 57,
and 1912, p. 71.

For District No.1 these numbers were 263, 397, 405, 425, 431,
446, 448, 450, 457, 483, 493, 514, 884, 1031, 1266, 1427, and 1510.
The average time interval between successive groups was found to be
2°8 minutes.

For District No. 2 the numbers were 248, 264, 407, 415, 417,
432, 447, 536, 576, 606a, 642, 806, 924b, 1164, 1450. The average time
interval for these disturbances was 3'4 minutes.

For District No. 3 the numbers were 542, 558, 626, 644, 662,
663, 832, 886, 982, 1064, 1070, 1293, 1468. The average time interval
for these disturbances was 2°7 minutes. -

For District No. 4 the numbers were 351, 352, 354, 377, 435,-
515, 530, 581, 977, 1025, 1128, 1190, 1272, 1301, and 1460. The
average time interval for these disturbances was 28 minutes.

If we compare the time intervals for Districts 1, 8, and 4, it would

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 63

appear that these are not dependent on the distance at which they
are recorded from an origin.

XII. Large Earthquakes recorded at dijjerent Observatories, January
to June 1910.

The total number of large earthquakes, each of which disturbs
a continental area, between January and June 1910, was about 166.
Bach of these was recorded at from 3 to 50 or 60 different observatories,
and all extended to a distance of more than 20 degrees from their
origin. In the following tables, drawn up by the late Shinobu Hirota,
instruments which record photographically are followed by the letter P,
whilst those which write mechanically on a smoked surface are
marked §. The Milne instruments, unless otherwise stated, are
‘single-boom instruments recording East and West motion only.

District I.—British Islands, Central and Western Europe.

: ; : Tashen: No. of
Station Foundation Seismographs DSUEH Cor. |
ment | Records |
Shide Disintegrated Chalk | Milne, twin boom P. 144
Hamburg Alluvium Wiechert, Hecker Berges bal
Edinburgh Andesite Lava Milne 1g. lll
Bidston New Red Sandstone | Milne P. 75
Strassburg . | Thick Compact | Wiechert, Rebeur- | P. & S 68
Gravel Ehlert, Milne, Vicen-
tini, Schmidt,
r Mainka
Gottingen . Wiechert . . ./P.&S 64
Vienna . .| Alluvium . ._ . | Wiechert Weber 8. 64
Paris . --. : Wiechert, Bosch- 8. 59
Mainka
Kew .. . | Thick Alluvium salIMING 6 BrtecbieM mown e si jen 58
| San Fernando | Calcareous Rock . | Milne, two machines . ize 56
| W. Bromwich | Thick Alluvium pal MITIG) iete come Meroe S. 55
| Grenada . | Limestone . | Stiatesi, Wiechert, S. 50
- Vicentini and Omori
| Laibach . | Alluvium . . — . | Vicentini, Grablovitz- | P. & S 43
{o Belar, Rebeur-Ehlert
| Eskdalemuir . | Paleozoic Rock . | Milne, twin boom P. 27
Gatania. ©.|Rock. . . . | Cancani, Vicentini, 8. 26
ln. Agamennone, Omori
| Malta . . | Limestone ‘ . | Milne : 12 26
| Azores . . | Basalt Soe: wes Milnes sisi) bags. P. 23
| Tortosa. .|Alluvium. . . Vicentini, Grablovitz . Ss. 22
_| Monte Cassino | Limestone . . | Cancani <M higapes Ss. ily
i , District Il.—North America.
: ; P fnstvo- No. of
Station Foundation Seismographs Weve Cor.
ment | Records
| Victoria, B.C. | Hard Pan above Ig-| Milne . . - ik 36
4 neous Rock
Toronto SP Aliaviumicet sep O3 Malne sf syle dys Vey 35
Ottawa . .|BoulderClay . .|Bosch . - «+ +; iE 34
7 13

St. Louis,| Alluvium . . .{|Wiechert . - -

64 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.
District Ill.—W. Pacific, Australia, and New Zealand.
. : . Instru- No. of
Station Foundation Seismographs eit Cor.
Records
Cairo Eocene Limestone . | Milne, two instruments P. 91
Tiflis Rock . : . | Milne, Rebeur-Eblert, | P. & 85
| Bosch, Zollner and
| Cancani
Adelaide Thick Alluvium .| Milne . 4 5 : P. 76
Batavia Alluvium . . | Milne, Rebeur-Ehlert, | P. & 67
Wiechert
Zikawei . Thick Alluvium Omori, Wiechert Ss. 53
Osaka Thick Alluvium Omori . s. 52
Honolulu Coral Limestone ./ Milne . 122 52
Riverview, Sandstone Wiechert Ss. 51
Sydney
Manila Alluvium . Gray-Milne, Bertelli, | P. & 48
Cecchi, Vicentini,
Omori
Sydney . Clay and Ironstone | Milne P. 45
Shale |
Tsintau | Wiechert 8. 45
Mauritius . | Alluvium on Basalt | Milne BP: 38
Kodaikanal . | Rock . . . | Milne Pp: 37
Calcutta Alluvium . . | Milne lee 31
Wellington, Milne 1 34
N.Z. |
Colombo Laterite | Milne le 27
Mizusawa Alluvium . ; . | Omori . 5 é 6 8. 24
Bombay Red Earth above | Milne, Colaba, Omori P. & 22
Basalt
Tokio . . | Alluvium . Milne PR; 21
Perth, West | Limestone | Milne iP: 15
Australia
Reykjavick . | Volcanic Materials . | Wiechert 8. 16

A glance
has recorded

has only recorded 15.

at the preceding tables shows that while one station

144 of the possible 166 disturbances, another station

These marked differences in the number of

records in different places are dependent upon many conditions, and
at no two stations are the conditions exactly the same. At one, rapid
changes in temperature may be accompanied by air tremors, which
may eclipse all but the largest seismic records. In this respect
I have found marked differences between adjoining rooms. At certain
observatories insects, particularly small spiders, cause trouble. A
more important cause leading to differences in the number of earth-
quakes recorded at stations in the same district is difference in the
adjustment of the instrument. If two horizontal pendulums have
different periods, the one with the longer period yields the greater
number of records. Unfortunately, however, it is the one most
influenced by air tremors. The expiring efforts of large earthquakes,
which at a distance from their origin may be represented by minute
ripples or thickenings in consequence of their smallness, have fre-
quently been overlooked. Proximity to or remoteness from epicentral
district has naturally a considerable influence upon the number of
records obtained at a station.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 65

Those stations which are in or near to areas in which large earih-
quakes radiate, as, for example, Batavia, Manila, and Osaka, should
obtain more records than Toronto, Ottawa, and St. Louis, which are
distant from sites of seismic activity. For this reason stations have
been grouped according to their relative distances from seismic regions.
The first group refers to stations in the British Isles, Central and
Western Europe, the second group is in North America, and the
third group is India, the Western side of the Pacific, Australia, and
New Zealand.

The average number of records obtained in these three districts
is respectively 58, 29, and 41, but why the average for the first
of these districts should exceed that for the last is contrary to expec-
tations, and to explain it we must look for something more than
nearness to or distance from epicentral regions.

If we consider the average number of records given by different
types of instruments in different districts, the results we arrive at are
as follow :—

In District 1 the average number of photographic records was 69

3 1 - smoked-paper 3 55
Pe 2 3 photographic 3 35
a 2 ie smoked-paper a 13
“ 3 of photographic . 39
ae 3 = smoked-paper 33 45

Districts 1 and 2, together with records from Cairo, Tiflis, and
Reykjavick, indicate that with photographic recording apparatus more
records can be obtained than with mechanical registration. The same
is true if we take all the records, including those for District 3, en bloc,

but for this latter district by itself the conclusion is reversed.

If we next turn to the character of the foundations we find for
Districts 1 and 3 that the average number of records obtained if this
was rock was 52, but where it was alluvium it was 50.

Other observations bearing upon this subject will be found in
British Association Reports for 1901, pp. 43 and 51; 1902, p. 68;
1903, p. 81; and 1904, p. 42.

XIII. Seismic and Volcanic Activities.

In the Report for 1912, p. 102, I pointed out the material in
certain catalogues suggested that volcanic and seismic activities in
the world increased and decreased independently of each other. From
this it might be inferred that if there is any periodicity in volcanic

activity it would not be the same as the one exhibited by the

megaseisms. With the object of examining this question more closely
I asked Mr. Leo Kelley, of Dublin, who has made an extensive
collection of materials in connection with volcanoes, to furnish me
with a list of eruptions which have taken place during the last 200
years. This he kindly did, but unfortunately in many instances the
authors from whom he has quoted only mention the year in which
an eruption took place and omit the month and date. In the first
1913. F

66 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

column of the accompanying table the year is given, and in the second
and third columns the number of eruptions and earthquakes. The
earthquake numbers are taken from the ‘ Catalogue of Destructive
HKarthquakes,’ published in the Report for 1911. In this table we
have entries relating to 110 years. When we compare successive
years we see, for example, that in 1790 there were 14 eruptions and
11 earthquakes, but in the year following the number of eruptions
had fallen to seven, while the number of earthquakes remained
constant—volcanic activity had decreased while seismic activity
suffered no change.

No. of | No. of No. of | No. of No. of | No. of

Year Erup- | Earth- Year Erup- | Harth- Year Erup- | Earth-

tions | quakes tions | quakes | tions quakes
1790 14 11 1827 20 16 | 1864 10. | 432
1791 7 ll 1828 21 23 =| :~:1865 10 24
1792 7 7 1829 10 15 || 1866 Ber A Bag
1793 12 5 1830 15 18 1867 9° fh) 182
1794 5 1l 1831 10 14 = 1868 Lib Pos
1795 5 4 1832 9 7 1869 20. et - 41
1796 10 6 1833 8 9 |) 2870 12 28
1797 ll 4 1834 10 Il || Ysa 16 33
1798 5 6 1835 12 ll 1872 24 30
1799 8 4 1836 16 11 1873 5 38
1800 5 6 1837 7 9 || 1874 9 32
1801 5 6 1838 18 7 1875 12 31
1802 5 1l 1839 8 16 =~) «1876 9 20
1803 7 6 1840 10 ll | 1877 22 21
1804 6 4 1841 9 23. «|| :1878 24 32
1805 7 6 1842 8 7 || 1879 ll 25
1806 10 15 1843 18 15 | -:1880 8 35
1807 6 3 1844 11 14 =| 1881 5 45
1808 6 7 1845 14 | 2i | 1882 5 27
1809 4 | 10 1846 12 26 =| 1883 29 27
1810 5 toatl 8 1847 19 29 «|| :1884 fae’ [ser
1811 7 8 1848 14 20 =|) 1885 18/, Airey
1812 11 18 1849 12 17 1886 18 29
1813 2 6 1850 1l 14 1887 8 34
1814 7 10 1851 10 30 1888 8 34
1815 7 10 1852 | 330 35 =| 1889 7 33
1816 4 3 1853 1l 35 =|) ~:1890 5 19
1817 7 5 1854 16 27 ~——-:1891 5 20
1818 9 9 1855 17 36 =| +1892 8 24
1819 8 12 1856 27 30 1893 7 30
1820 13 7 1857 20 32 1894 19 | 42
1821 9 12 1858 8 36 1895 Die Dl eet oO
1822 22 14 1859 | 10 24 1896 3 ca. 26
1s23 P12 | 7 1860 ll 26 =| «1897 3 35
1824 | Sees LO 1861 8 35 1898 aes SS Oe
TSO | SPL Oee 9 1862 10 43 1899 8 | 18
1826 | 10 8 1863 8 34 1900 3 / —

Prof. H. H. Turner writes to me about the above table as’ follows :—
“Tf we calculate the correlation between these annual totals as
they stand, we obtain the coefficient
r= +0°450°05.

But there is a systematic effect which should first be eliminated. A

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS, 67

mere glance at the figures shows that the number of recorded earth-
quakes steadily increases; in the first 50 years (1790-1839) there are
471, and in the last 50 years (1850-1899) there are 1555. The number
of eruptions also increases, though not so markedly: in the first
50 years there are 465, and in the last 50 years 601. Now it seems
probable that these increases are chiefly due to increased facilities for
newsgathering; at any rate, a real secular change of this kind would
require independent evidence. Further, it is clear that if the two
series of numbers are both steadily increasing there will be a tendency
for small numbers in one series to be associated with small numbers
in the other, and large with large—that is to say, we shall get a
spurious correlation (or rather, a spurious increase in the correlation)
due to this cause.
‘Hence a further computation was undertaken in which the secular
effects were eliminated in the following manner :—

‘Taking 10 yearly sums, the numbers and their logs are :—

j | ] j |
No. of No. of
Years Erup- | Log. | Cale. O—C || Earth- | Log. | Cale. 0-C
tions | quakes
1790-9 . r 84 1°92 | 1°71 | +21 74 1°87 | 1°67 | +-20
1800-9 . : 61 1:78 | 1:84 | —-06 74 1°87 | 1°81 | +°06
1810-9 . 5 65 181 | 1°94 | —'13 89 1:95 | 1:95 00
1820-9 . A 142 2715 | 2°01 | —-06 121 2°08 | 2°07} +°01
1830-9 . : 113 2°05 | 2:07 | —-02 113 2°05 | 2716; —'ll
1840-9 . 4 127 2°10 | 2°10 00 183 2°26 | 2°26 00
|1850-9 . ; 160 2°20 | 2°11 | +09 299 2°48 | 2°34 | +:14
—|1860-9 . é 107 2°03 | 2°09 | —-06 337 2°53 | 2-41 | +:°12
-|1870-9 . : 144 | 2°16 | 2:06} +°10 || 290 2°46 | 247) —-Ol
1880-9 . 5 113 | 2°05} 2°00 | +°05 | 374 2°57 | 2°51 +:06
{1890-9 . 77 | 1:89} 1:91 | —:02 | 255 2°51 | 2°55 |) —‘14

‘The ‘‘ calculated ’’ columns are from the formule

Eruptions 210+nx0020-n*x0°0114,

Harthquakes 2'26+n x 0°087 — n? x 0'0060,

where n is the number of the term, counting from the middle term

(1840-9). Part of these assumed secular terms may, of course, be

real; but we have no means of testing the point, and for the present

we shall assume that they are spurious and therefore to be eliminated.
“When these formule are suitably modified and applied to the

individual years and the correlation again calculated it is found to

be

4 r=0°39 + 0°05.

x

This is still quite comparable with the former value, and the conclusion

seems justifiable that earthquakes and eruptions are affected by the

same cause.” |

; XIV. Report on an Improved Seismograph.

Experiments are being made by Mr. J. J. Shaw, of West Bromwich,
with a view to increase the efficiency and economy of the Milne-type

seismograph.

B2

68 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCTENCE.—1915.

The improvements it is proposed to incorporate are electro-magnetic
damping, more delicate means of calibrating, clearer definition in the
trace of seismograms, a still further economic use of the sensitised
paper, increased maximum amplitude, adjustable light slits, &c.

Hitherto these pendulums have been quite undamped (except for
the natural damping of the mechanism), and herein has partly lain
the secret of its very high degree of sensitivity. The fact has long
been recognised that most forms of damping, such as the air and liquid
systems used on the Continent, would be too crude to apply to so
sensitive an apparatus.

The Galitzin method of electro-magnetic damping seemed to offer
the best opportunities for development; but the lightness and delicacy
of the Milne booms is such that the addition of heavy copper plates
was impracticable. Tests have been made with aluminium foil, and
it has been found that this metal is superior to copper for the purpose,
in so far that its conductivity is higher than that of copper, weight
for weight.

Partly due to the feeble inertia of these pendulums and partly to
the efficiency of the aluminium as a damping medium, it is found that
a strong magnetic field acting upon five grains of the metal will give
a damping effect of 8:1. Any lower value is readily obtained by a
sliding adjustment.

The new calibrating device will obviate the usual disturbance of
the apparatus in the process, either by opening cover cases or walking
round the pedestal. The usual calibrating screw is fitted with a worm
and wheel; one whole turn of the worm produces a 2-degree turn of
calibrating screw, which gives a tilt of 2” of arc.

The worm is operated from the vicinity of the clock-box by means
of an intervening length of flexible cable, and the movement of the
calibrating screw is read on a scale fixed on top of the recording case.
The angular motion is read by means of a beam of light from a mirror
fixed to the calibrating screw. This direct reading eliminates any error
due to flexure in the cable or worm.

XV. Indexing Materials published by the British Association and the
Seismological Society of Japan relating to Geophysics.

Although the British Association has since the year 1841 published
fifty-three Annual Reports and other notices about seismology and other
branches of geophysics, it is but rarely these are referred to by modern
investigators. ‘To make these publications better known and to give
to geophysicists an easy means of reference to them, the following
index has been compiled. With these a few references are made to
the ‘ Transactions of the Seismological Society of Japan’ and the
‘Seismological Journal.’ The former are indicated by the letters
T.S. and the latter by S.J. These for the most part are detailed
accounts of investigations which in the Reports of the British Asso-
ciation are only referred to as abstracts.

Authors’ names are attached to all reports and writings, with the
exception of those written by myself.

=

a a eS een, ee

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

Vol.

ne — Year
A.
After-Shocks (Omori) : S.J lI == —
After-Shocks of the Jamaica Earthquake, — -- 1908 | 64.
January 14, 1907
After-Shocks of the Jamaica Earthquake, | — — 1909 | 51
January 14, 1907
Air Tremors at Cardiff, Mitigation of — me 1912 | 102
Amplitude in relation to Continental and | — = 1900 | 69
Suboceanic Paths

Amplitude, Relation of, in Seconds of Arc, to — — 1912 88

the Distance of an Origin

Analyses for 1888 and 1889. — = 1892 | 98

Analyses of Earthquakes recorded in n 1899 — — 1900 | 60
a of Records for the year 1900 — 901 | 41

Animals, Effects of Earthquake on . TS XII — —

Antarctic Earthquakes. — — 1906 | 100

Areas from which Shocks felt in Tokio and | 2 1881 | 200

Yokohama emanate awe 1882 | 205

Areas from which Shocks felt in N. Japan | — —- 1884 | 241

emanate

Areas shaken by Earthquakes in 1885 and 1886 | — — 1888 | 424

” ” ” ” ”? i) ne 1890 164
Areas shaken by Earthquakes (Mallet) . — — 1850 | 30
Artificial Earthquakes, Experiments in the | — — 1881 | 203

Alluvium of the Tokio plane

Ditto . — = 1882 | 210

Artificial Disturbance produced by the Ex- | — — 1883 | 213

plosion of a Charge of Dynamite

Artificially-produced Disturbances, Experi- 1851 | 272

ments of Mallet, Abbot, Fouqué, Levy, | | — — 1895 159

Gray and Milne } =

Astatic Suspension (Ewing) Ss VI — =

Astronomical and Meteorological Phenomena — — 1850 | 63

and Earthquakes, Connection between

(Mallet)

Atami, Hot Springs of (Kuwabara) T.S. Til. —

x (Dan) TS V. — =

Atmospheric Phenomena — — 1850 4

Aurora (Mallet) . — — 1850 | 74

Azumasan (Omori) 8. J. Iii. — _

B.

Bandaisan (Odlum) T.S. | XIII. pt. 1 | 1889 | 301
Bs (Sekiya) T.8. | XIII. pt. 2 — —
is (Kikuchi) . T.S. | XIII. pt. 2 — —
i (Knott) T. 8. | XIII. pt. 2 == —
or (Smith) . . 8. | XIII. pt. 2 — —

Barometer and Earthquakes (Mallet) ‘ — — 1850 | 68

eps tical Effects on Horizontal Pendu- | — — 1893 | 218

ums

Bibliography of Earthquakes Va ad — — 1858 | 106

Bifilar Pendulum (Darwin) . 8. J. Til. —_ —

Buildings, Effects of Earthquakes on T.S. II —

” in Earthquake Countries — — 1885 | 372
” % = = 1889 | 303
99 Choice of a Site — — 1889 | 304
” Foundations — — | 1889 | 305
” Archwork . = ——— } 1889 307

70 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

—— -— | Vol. Year | Page
Buildings, Doors and Windows . . .| — — 1889 | 307
~ Chimneys . 3 ‘ : : 5 — — 1889 | 308
> Roofs er aly cr ema scale SS — 1889 | 309
s Walls 3: ge a ee cee 1889 309
3 Balconies and @onnices ‘ — — 1889 310
33 Shape and Orientation of Buildings — = 1889 | 310
3 Floors . a . — — 1889 | 311
5 Ceilings . 2 : : i ‘ — — 1889 | 311
4 Staircases . 3 F ‘ Z — — 1889 | 311
a Materials . ‘ . — 1889 | 311
= Types of Buildings es ah Ue — 1889 312
a Conclusions . fi ‘ —- 1889 | 313
] in Earthquake Countries . .| TS. pai ae XV. — —
os «or. CM EAS: Xi — | —
5 to resist "Earthquake Motion, Ex- | — = 1884 , 248
periments on
55 to resist Earthquake Motion, Ex- — — 1885 371
periments on
C: |
Carisbrooke Castle and Shide, Observations at | — =— 1897 | 146
Catalogue of Earthquakes (Mallet), 1606 B.c. | — — 1852 1
to December 11, 1755 a.p.
Catalogue of Earthquakes (Mallet), December | — —— 1853 | —
13, 1755, to August 1785
Catalogue of Earthquakes (Mallet), August | — — 1854 2
1784 to December 1842
Catalogue of Earthquakes, Japan, 1881-1885. | T.S. X. ae
Catalogue of Earthquakes, Japan, 1885 | T.S. X. —- > —
(Sekiya)
Catalogue of Earthquakes at Tokio, 1883-1885. | T. 8. VIII. — | —
Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded at Tokio, | — —— 1886 | 414
May 1885—May 1886
Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded at Tokio, | — -- 1887 | 212
May 1886—May 1887
Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded at Tokio, | — — 1888 | 435
June 1887—June 1888
Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded at Tokio, | — — 1889 | 295
June 1888—March 1889
Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded at Tokio, | — — 1890 | 160
March 1889—April 1890
Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded at Tokio, | — — 1891 | 123
May 1890—April 1891
Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded at Tokio, | — |; — 1892 | 93
May 1891—April 1892
Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded at Tokio, | — — 1893 | 214
May 1892—April 1893
Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded at Tokio, | — —_— 1895 | 82
April 1893—May 1894
Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded at Tokio, | — — 1895 | 114
May 1893—February 1894
May 1895—February 1896 — —_— 1897 | 133
Catalogue of Earthquakes, Japan, 1887-1890. | T. 8. XV. = =
Catalogue of 8,331 Earthquakes recorded in | — — 1895 | 149
Japan between Jan. 1885 and Dec. 1892
Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded in Tokio, | — _: 1898 | 189
December 17, 1896—December 16, 1897
Catalogue of Destructive Earthquakes ol — _— 1908 | 78

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

Catalogue of Destructive Earthquakes in Ice-
land (Thoroddsen)

Catalogue of Destructive Earthquakes in
Russian Empire (Musketoff and Orloff)

Catalogue of Chinese Earthquakes (Hirota)

(Omori)

(Parker)

Catalogue of Destructive Earthquakes i in the
8. Andes (S. Peru), Chile, Bolivia, W. Argen-
tina) (Ballore)

Catalogue of Perrey’s Memoirs (Mallet)

5 of large Earthquakes, 1910
Cause of Earthquakes (Daubrée)
sy (Mennier)

Causes producing Movements which may be
Mistaken for Earth Tremors

Centres of Earthquake Vibrations and the
Requisites of the Instruments to be em-
ployed (Hopkins)

Changes in Temperature, Effects on Hori-
zontal Pendulums

China, Earthquakes in (MacGowan)

Civil Time employed throughout the World

Clinometric Experiments .

Column, A Rocking of (Perry) . .

Comrie, Earthquake of Aug. 8, 1872 (Bryce) F

99 ” 39

Shocks in (W. Buckland and D. Milne)
», Shocks observed at, July 1841—
June 8, 1842 (D. Milne)
Construction of Chimneys .
Criticisms and Analyses (Knott)

D.
| Daily Change in Position of Pendulums
Daily Tilting

| Daily Wave Records .
| Destructive Earthquakes, Notes relating to
| Developing, Fixing, and Copying a Film .

i Displacements of Horizontal Pendulums .

Distribution of Earthquakes in 1909

Motion in a small
Area

By on in Time

” ”

in Space eet)
Diurnal Waves
os », also see

” ”

” ” s . s .
Double and Multiple Earthquakes
Duration of Earthquakes (Mallet) .
oh of two Rectangular Components ai
Earth-Movement at a given Station

E.

Earth Currents (Shide)
* », Experiments on 1 the produe-
tion

— Vol.

8. J. 1.
8. J J. Il.
T.S. | XIII. pt. 1
T.S X.
tS Iii.
T.S IX.

71

| Year | Page

1910
1910
1908
1909
1910

1858
1910

64

211

Wow REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

a=
°
i
wet
e
©
=
ae)
2
og
©

Rael
Earth Currents, Observationson . . .| — —_— 1884 | 251
»» Internal Heat of . |) SS | IV. — =
» Mitigation of Earthquake Effects Ae | sec Je I. — —
+ Pulsations eons MoS to eee) (LER SS: IV. — ea
i f oe) ree IN Si us —
a ss or Earth Waves j : ; — —_— 1893 | 219
» Temperatures . 5 " — — 1885 | 379
» Tremors . é 3 p F SMRERESE VIL., XI., — —
XIil.
i » Harth Pulsations . ‘ .| — — 1884 | 249
_ F = A . se ae Eaete — 1885 | 374
% » and FireDamp . ‘ 3 .| = — 1892 | 107
» orKarthTips . 2) — 1892 | 107
3 >» Results of Analysis i in upan . -| — J — 1888 | 433
55 », Work donein Japan F ‘ ; — | — 1887 | 221
+5 » Notes relating to Work done in | — | — 1887 | 219
Italy
5 », TheRecording of . : eae aa —_ 1881 | 202
- » Observations regarding . 5 -—- — 1883 | 211
» Waves of Earthquakes . 3 : ; _- — 1893 | 221
or Pulsations . — | — 1893 | 219
Earth’ 8 Crust form, Solidification, and Thick- — | —_ 1847 | 40
ness of (Hopkins)
Earthquake, October 28, 1891 F , ee Wise (e | a 8 —
fs ~ 3 ks 2 — — 1892 | 114
- June 20,1894 . P : : — —_ 1895 | 111
er February 22, 1880. ° Babes) I. — —
s July 25, 1880 (Knipping). . | T.S. TIT: — =
a March 8, 1881 (Ewing) . T.S. III. ~- —
oe March 8, 1881, Horizontal and TS TI. -— —
Vertical Motion of
* May 9,1877, Peru . . & lellgiss TI. _— —
< January 15, 1887, Japan | T.S. XI. — —
(Sekiya)
55 March 11,1882(Ewing) . IDES; IV. — —
a and Magnetometer, Disturbance | — — 1899 | 233
es Catalogue, Construction of | — | — 1851 | 317
(Mallet)
Commencements as Recorded at | — | —_ 1903 | 82
Strassburg and in Britain
- Echoes : : : - : — | = 1899 | 227
Ps 3 a is Gere ees “= = 1900 | 71
= Effects, Emotionaland Moral . | T.S. XI. — =
e » onStructures(Pownall) | T.S. | XVI. | — —
- Frequency(Knott) . . .{|.S.] IX., XV. | 1896 | 220
3 Intensity, Curve of . ‘ ; — | — 1883 | 214
a Motion, Directionof. .. . | — | — 1912 | 90
:, Motion, Dissipation of, as — — 1908 | 67
Measured by Amplitude and |
Duration
ua Motion, General Character of . — | — 1885 | 363
” ” ” ” ” . ar cis it | 1898 | 218
= » Normal ‘ A - — — | 1885 | 364
3 » imaSmallArea . T.S. | XIII pt.1 | — | —
a Motion, Relative Extent and — | -- 1881 | 203
Variation in Direction of an
Earthquake passing over a
Limited Area, the Contour
and Geological Structure of
which is Irregular

= Ditto Ditto oC ee eo — ‘ 1882 | 200

J

ae ae eS a le

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

eet ynake Petia, eeerena ite Nature obs}
sh Direction in which it is
most freely propagated

” ted

2? 2

Intensity of
Movement as recorded at a
Great Distance from its Origin
Measurements (Gray)
Measurements in a Pit and on the
Surface (Sekiya and Omori)
Observing Stations round the
World, Establishment of
Observations in Italy and

Europe

“a Observations, 1885 (Sekiya)
- Es 1885-7
” ra 1886
” ” 1887
a 3 1888
” 9 1889
” » 1890
_ Periodicity

Precursors

Propagation, Velocity of

Records from Japan and other
Places

Records obtained at British
Stations

Recurrences .

Shocks, Effects produced o1 on In-
struments (D. Milne)

Varieties and Duration

= in India (Doyle) . é
= in Scotland, 1873 (Bryce)
(Bryce) .
Earthquakes, Peru and North Chile (H. Hope-

Jones)

7H and Changes in Latitude

+ = », (Knott)

” ” os

5 and Rain (see Rain) :

cB and Timekeepers at Observi-
tories

# of 1885-1886

Bs of 1886-1887

a of 1886 .

os of 1888-1889 .

4A in 1885 and 1886, ‘Area shaken
by |

7 in 1887

a in connection with Electric and
Magnetic Phenomena

aS in connection with Magnetic
and Electric Phenomena I.—
Magnetic

a II. Electric . . :

» Recorded by Horizontal paiad. |

lums in Tokio

Maximum Velocity and |

Vol.

Ne
Mi
XIII. pt. 1
XV.
XVI.
XVI,

1898

1898

74 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

—— -- Vol. Year Page
| | =
Earthquakes recorded at Shide, Edinburgh, | — — 1898 191
Bidston, and certain Stations | |
in Europe, with Discussions on | /
the same | |
- recorded in Japan, Feb. 1893 . | — — | 1893 | 223
i Jopmbokia. .. fea = 1888 | 426
& recorded by the Ramnkcasn Ine — — 1895 | 91
strument
Be Simultaneous : | — — 1858 55
= Where Wave Paths have “been — —_ 1895 163
long (Newcombe, Dutton,
Agamennone, Ricco, Cancani,
Von Rebeur-Paschwitz, Milne) |
“a Where Wave Paths have been |) — — ' 1895 163
short (Milne and Omori)
El Mayon (Casariego) BR ced cin 2 EEE, Vi — —
Electrometer (Mallet) : : Oe |= = 1850, 72
Electricand Magnetic Phenomena . . . | T.S. XV. —- ) —
as os roi la tee Sue Sgn Src f il —- —
Emptying a Well, Effects produced ona Hori- | — — 1895 107
zontal Pendulum
Eruption of Bandaisan. — = 1889 | 301
Eruptions in relation to Months and Seasons — — 1886 424
ie Intensity of . : = -- — 1886 426
s Number of 5 a — 1886 423
Evaporation, Experiment on, in connection —- — | 1895 106
with a Horizontal Pendulum |
Experiences of Lady Moncrieff at Comrie — — | 1844 89
House (D. Milne)
Experiments at Oxford with a Horizontal — — | 1896 216
Pendulum (Prof. Turner)
Experiments in Pits in the Midlands (J. J. — — 1911 40
Shaw) |
Experiments made in Granite (Mallet) . . — — 1851 294
: on Piers : : : 5 5 — _— | 1901 43
F. / |
Fault, Selection of a, Locality Suitable for — — 1900 108
Observations on Earth Movements (Clement |
Reid) |
Fire Dampand EarthTremors. . . . — — | 1892 | 112
Fissures (Mallet) : — — 1850 | 52
Force due to Shock, Indirect Estimation of) = — 1858 134
(Mallet)
Fractions of an Hour (S. Hirota) at — 1898 | 257
Fracturing of Brick and other Columns — = _ 1891 | 126
+ and Overturning of Columns . —_ — | 1892 | 113
9 os = eh | — — 1893 | 226
» = ae peers sae e Ly —
Frequency of Earthquakes oo ee opal ad — 1850 «64
ey # ee ee eee me 1888 | 422
Frequency of Earthquakes (see ‘Seismic — = 1890 | 163
Energy in Relation to Time ’)
Frequency of Earthquakes at different Stations | — — ; 1901 | 41
x and General Character of recent | — — | 1886 | 415
Earthquakes |
of Waves, No. of Waves in 20secs.. | — | — 1884. | 245
Fujiyama (Wada). Sowa ete ot eres a beau IV. — |

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.

== at Vol. Year | Page
Fujiyama, Pendulum Experiments of | T.8 Il. (ete _
(Mendenhall) |
.G. | |
General Notes on Stations and Registers . — = | 1908 | 77
2? ’ ”? ” oa ri, | 1904 4]
” ” 29 2” aa Tt | 1905 83
” ” 9 ” ia a 1906 92
2 2»? ” ”? ae Te | 1907 83
” ” ” 2? ae 5. 1908 60
2” ” ” ” Tak ii | 1909 48
” ” ” ” TEL 7} 1910 } 44
” ” ” ” ere Te | 1911 ' 30
-- —— 1912 69
Geographical Distribution of Megaseisms and |} — — 1912 | 97
Thermometric Gradients |
Geological Structure and Direction of Move- | — — 1893 | 218
ments of Horizontal Pendulums | |
Geology, Notes on Dynamics of (Kingsmill) . | T.S. X. — | —
Gravity at Tokyo (Mendenhall) sey aba tS I. — _—
Gray-Milne Seismograph, Observations with .| — = 1884 | 247
. ‘5 - a = 1886 | 413
aS rr ss — — 1887 | 212
3 fb — — | 1889 | 295
a5 ay 3 Pet bd te -- 1897 | 132
Great Britain, Earthquakes in eee oe _— 1843 | 121
Great Circles and Charts of the World — — 1898 | 256
Great Earthquake of October 28, 1891 — -= 1892 | 114
|
H. |
Horizontal Pendulum Observations at Kama- = — — | 1895 | 88
kura | |
Aj Pendulum Records obtained in) — — 1895 | 96
1894
& Pendulum Observationsin Tokio . | — — | 1895 | 94
me Pendulum Observations at Yoko- | — — | 1895 | 109
hama and Kanagawa
a Pendulums (Paschwitz) . ‘ — —
a4 if Description of —_— — | 1895 | 85
5 ss Movements of . — —_— | 1893 | 215
a 5% Installation, Character —_ = | 1895 | 115
of Movements
x eS Records from 3 atShide| — —- | 1902 68
”? 2” ” ” ae met | 1903 81
” ” ” 29 by ss a | 1904 42
a Velocity and Coseismal Line, De- — — | 1858 | 95
termination of (Mallet) |
99 Comparison of three differently — _ 1909 | 53
installed H.P.’s. | |
sae | |
. | | |
Influence of the Season of the Year and Time | — | — | 1850-64
of Day on Earthquakes (Mallet)
Instrumental Seismometry and the Construc- = — — | 1858 | 86
tion of Seismometers (Mallet) )
Instruments, Boor ptinn of (D. Milne) a — | 1842 | 94
is which will record Earthquakes | — — |: 1896 Isl
} {

of Feeble Intensity

76

Vol.

Intensity of Shocks

Interior of the World, Speed of Earthquake |
Motion and Inferences based thereon

relating to

International Co-operation for Seismological

Work

Ditto Ditto

International Seismological Association, Re-
lationship to

Intervals between Preliminary Tremors and |

Large Waves
Intervals in Days from the Commencement of
one Group to the Commencement of Another
Intervals and Days between Successive Mega-
seisms in Particular Districts
Inverted Pendulum Seismometer (D. Milne)
Ischia, Earthquakes of (Du Bois)
3 Further Notes on
Italy, Instruments Used in (Dr. Davison)

J.
Jamaica Earthquake, After-shocks
5 Instruments in -

Japan Earthquakes, 1883 -1884
», 9387 Earthquakes in
» Great Earthquakes of

K.
Kumamoto Earthquake

Otsuka
Kerilo Islands, Voleanoss .

L.

Lady Moncrieff, Experiences at Comrie House,
(D. Milne)

Lakes and Rivers Formed (Mallet)

Landslips (Mallet) . .

Large Earthquakes, Miscellaneous Notes re-
lating to

Large “Earthquakes, Relationship to each
other and to Volcanic Eruptions

Large Earthquakes and Small Changes in
Latitude

Large Earthquakes in Relation to Time and
Space

Large Waves, Natureof .

Lavas, Lithological and Chemical Character of

Letter from Lieut. Baird Smith (Buckland |

and D. Milne)

Letter from J. Bryce to D. Milne, July 1841 /

(D. Milne)
Letter from Mr. Mathie Hamilton, M.D. (W.
Buckland and D. Milne)

Letter to Assistant Secretary to British |

Association (Mallet)

Level, Changes in
- PP on two Sides of a Valley
33 due to Tides

Polen

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915.

| Year
|

| 1858
1903

1904

1905
1908

1900

| 1912

| 1912

1841

1896

1908

| 1910

1910

Page

134
84

88
49

1906 99, 102

1910 |

49 |

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS,

Lisbon, Great Earthquake (Pereira) .
Luminous Effects from certain Rocks :
i 5, Obtained from Rock Sur-
faces
Luzon Earthquake in 1880 (Garcia) .

M.

Magnetic Movements and their Possible Re-
lationship with Horizontal Pendulums

Magnetic Declination in Japan (Naumann)

Magnetometer Disturbances and Earthquakes

” ” 99

Map of the World (R. D. Oldham) .
Measurement of Earthquakes (Sekiya) .
Megaseismic Activity and Rest ; :
re Activity and Periods of Quie S-
cence
Frequency “Jl Ae
Pe 4 in Different Seasons .
PS Activity, Possible Cause of . <
Meteorological Observations at Comrie, Im-
portance of (D. Milne)
Meteorological Tables for Tokio
Meteorology of Japan (Knipping)
Meteors (Mallet)
Milne Horizontal Pandnlam: Tristallation and
Working of
Mine Gas and Earth Pulsations
Miscellaneous Notes on Large Earthquakes,
Vibrations of a Chimney
Model of an Earthquake eat,
Moon .
Molten Metal disturbed by an Earthquake
(Gergens)
Motion relative to two Points
;, recorded in Buildings ;
Motions of the Bubbles of Two Delicate Levels
Mountains, Theoretical 5 :
Movements of Horizontal Pendulums

99 9

S Daily Tilting .

‘ Effects of Changes in "Tempera-
ture

s3 Barometrical Effects . 3

ey Possible Relationship with
Magnetic Movements

A Geological Structure and Direc-
tion of Movements

- Irregular Movements .

- Barometric Pressure . ‘ :

oF Strata at Ridgeway Fault (H. —
Darwin)

a Strata at Ridgeway Fault

” ” ” ”

“Fr Water ina Well H ; ‘

Vol.

‘

~]
=e

78 REPORTS ON THE STATE

OF ScIENCE.—1913.

Vol.

— } — Year Page
N.
Nausea (Mallet) . . ps —_— -- 1858 | 133
Nebulosity of Solar System eee — — 1847 | 56
New Departure in og 4 — — 1910 48
New Installations . — — 1908 | 60
New Zealand Earthquakes i in 1855 (Mallet) — — 1858 | 105
0.
Observation of Earthquakes hae! Mats IV. — —
Observations with Horizontal Pendulums :— | |
Instruments, Installation, Character of = — es | 1895 115
Movements |
Daily Wave Records -| — — 1895 | 122
Tremors, Microseismic Disturbances or, — — 1895 | 126
Earth Pulsations |
Slow Displacements of Pendulums — — 1895 128
Periodic Movements of Several Days . — — 1895 129
Wandering of the Pendulum — — 1895 , 129
Daily Change i in Position of the Pendulums — — 1895 | 130
Diurnal Wave . — — 1895 | 131
Tremors . = — 1895 | 139
Meteorological Tables for Tokio . — — 1895 | 143
Observations with Milne Pendulums T. and U., a — 1896 | 184
1895 to 1896 |
Localities and their Geology . . .| — — 1896 | 184
The Instruments T. and U. and their | — — | 1896 | 187
Installation

Artificially-produced Disturbances . = — | 1896 | 188

Sudden Displacements and Earthquakes | — — 1896 | 189

in the Isle of Wight

Earthquakes recorded in Europe and | — — 1896 191

possibly noted in the Isle of Wight

Notes on Special Earthquake (also Ap- | — — 1896 | 199

pendix, p. 229)
Tremors and Pulsations, their Relation- | — — 1896 | 200
ship to the Hours of the Day, Air Cur-
rents, Effects of Barometric Pressure,
Temperature, Frost, Rain, &c.
Diurnal Waves . — — 1896 | 212
Observations in a Pit 10 feet deep — — 1885 | 371
Observing Stations and Registers obtained | — — 1899 | 162
from the same, Notes on

Orientation of an Instrument with regard to | — — 1908 | 63
Building in which it is placed

Origins, Determination of :—
By Comparison between Time Intervals — ~- 1900 79
By Method of Circles — — 1900 79
By Time Intervals between P. T.’s and — a 1900 79

L.W.’s
1900 80

By Seismic Recurrences ete — 1858 | 95

Origins of Large Earthquakes recorded in | — — 1903-78
1902 and since 1899 |

Ditto in 1903 } — | -—— 1904 43

» 1904 . : a= 1905 , 91
Origins of Barthquakes recorded i in 1905 | — 4 — 1906 94

” ” ” 1906 = * 1907 86

” ” ” 1907 rare | pas | 1908 63

: i . i908 0 6} — J 1909) BI

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 19

—— | = | Vol. | Year | Page
Origins for the Earthquakes of 1899 . | — | — | 1900 | | 80
Origins of Earthquakes (Foster) : | E. 8. | XV. | =
» Of Earthquakes recorded in 1899, — — | 1902 61
1900, and 1901 | | | |
Oscillographs, Double (Bertin). . Wd bakse XY. ; — | —
Overturning and Fracturing of Brick and| — | — 1891 | 126
other Columns
Ditto Sih 6 Mpegs off pee al bie eee — | 1892 | 113
Ditto Gucavivatcae cre? «| — 1893 | 226
P | |
Paths followed by Earthquake Motion, Hypo- | — | _— ; 1895 | 173
theses of Hopkins, Seebach, Schmidt |
Pendulum, Astatic (Gray) cage oke) Relies: II. po (Ge Ee
» withaSingle Bob (Ewing) Talat ste iust Sesh VI. ; — | —
* Duplex (Sekiya) | SIDSe VII. _—- |),
Periodicity in Earthquake Frequency, New| — | — 1912 | 95
(H. H. Turner) |
Perrey’s Catalogues, Discussion of (Mallet) . — — | 1858.) 4
Perrey’s Memoirs, A List of (Mallet) Sa) esta tye — | 1858 | 122
Perry Tromometer(Prof.J. Perry) . . . — — | 1896 | 218
% : * ae eel ee == abahaleo tee
Peru and N. Chile Earthquakes (H. Hope- | — _ 1911 | 45
Jones) | |
Peruvian Earthquake, May 9,1877. . i dtoish Il. | — —
Phenomena and Theories of Volcanoes (Hop- = — | 1847 | 33
kins) |
He Connected with Earthquake Pro- | T. 8. TTT: /—-
pagation (Hoefer)
Demanding Solution . . .|T.S. XII. |; — —
Philippine Islands Earthquakes, 1881 . . | T.S. | IV. ; — | —
Photograms obtained with Seismometer | — ~- | 1898 | 272
(Plummer)
Photographic Record Receivers. g |) == — | 1907 | 85
Photography applied to Seismology (Burton) . isbn ile | — | —
Piers, Experiments on . . A — — | 1901 | 43
Pit, 18 ft. deep, observations . = — 1891 | 24
Point, Experiments on Direction of ‘Motion of — = — 1884 | 244
Preliminary Tremors, Duration of . / — 1902 64
Preliminary Tremors, Duration of (R. D. [ — — 1907 | 93
Oldham)
Publication of a Seismological Journal. . | — — 1893 | 226
|
Q.
Quick Vibrators as Applied to Seismometry . | — | — 1909 | 55
; R. |
Rainand Earthquakes . . . . «| — | — 1900 | 106
— — 1850 72
Rate of Wave Transit in the Killiney Bay — = 1851 | 273
Sand (Mallet)
Recent Earthquakes (Ewing) . Mush Ii. — | —
Records obtained from Three Horizontal Pen |; — — 1902 | 68
dulums at Shide | |
Ditto . . B ° “ . A . el — 1903 | 81
Ditto... . — — 1904 | 42 |
Records obtained from Two Similar Seismo- | — _ 1901 | 51

graphs at Kew (Dr. Chree) \

80

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF

SCIENCE.

Mecoaé Aokeaned at Tokio by fie ae
Milne Seismograph for the years 1886-1901,
Tabulation of (R. D. Oldham)

Record-Receiver, Improved .

Register of Earthquake Shocks, July 1842
to September 1844 (D. Milne)

Registers, Discussion of

Registers, Comparison of, rom Shide, ew
Bidston and Edinburgh

Ditto
Ditto : :

Relative Motion of Two Neighbouring Points

of Ground, Experiments to Determine

Report upon the Facts of Earthquakes (Mallet)

Reports, Form of :
Reports relating to Earthquakes published by
the British Association
Ridgeway Fault, Relative Movement of
Strata (H. Darwin)
Ditto :
Ditto
Ditto :
Rivers, Stoppage of (Mallet)
Rockfolding, Seismic and Volcanic Activ ities,
Relationship between

s.
Safety Lamps for Harthquake Countries
(Sekiya)
San Francisco and Columbian Earthquakes,

TS. |

Duration of First Preliminary Tremors |

(R. D. Oldham)
Sea Waves (Mallet)

Seiches (Forel)
> at Hakone (Burton) :
Seismic Activity in Different Districts, "Syn-
chronism between

Seismic Activity in Japan, Italy, and America |
during the years 1700-1900 (F. M. ee |

Seismic Activity in Japan
as 2 1899-19038. .
s 4) 1904-1909 inclusive
5 53 ani Voleanic Activity .
» Energy in Relation to Season
» Energy in Relation to Time, Sensous,
: Months, Position of Moon fallet)
» Hnergy in Relation to Space eg
Pe » Distribution of ‘
ee >» Force of ‘(Mallet)
», Experiments . :
», Science in Japan .
» Survey in Tokio
Survey of the World (Letters sent to
the Foreign and Colonial Offices)
Seismogram obtained in London, Oct. 16, 1907 |
! A Interpretation of (Alexander)

Year | Page
1905 92
|
1904 43
1844 | 86
1843 126
1899 192
1901 43, 51
1902 | 73
1903 81
1904 42
1882 211
1850 | 25
1899 | 238
1898 276
1900 119
1901 52
1902 75
1904 51
1858 | 131
1902 72
|
|
1907 | 93
1850 45, 60
1858 | 124
a | ingle
1909 56
1911 | 36
1911 | 36
1911 | 55
1912 | 70
1912) 102
1858 | 51
1858 | 1,47
1858 | 57
1888 | 422
1890 | 163
1858 | 134
1897 129
1908 | 81

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS, 81

— eee Vol. | Year Page |
| a!
| Seismograms, Illustrations of os ee te a ' 1900 | 87 |
¥ +) ae a Ae Na onl XV. | =
Seismograph, the Gray-Milne . . . . TAS. XII. oe
Seismographs, Modern Forms of . . .. T.S. XII. [ies aa
7 The Cecchi (Dubois) 4 4 / Last VITl. — | —
| r. A Pendulum (Ewing) eo MibbSe I. — —
a A Ball and Cup(Alexander) . | T.S. VI. — =
B Vertical Motion (Gray) . . | T.S. | il. = —
= A Torsion Pendulum (Gray) . | T.S. | I. = SE
| ” A Parallel Motion(West). . | T.S. VI. = =
Vertical Motion(Ewing) . . TS. | Ii. pee
Seismological Journal, Publication of . ~| — | —_ ' 1893 226
| 9 Notes (Ewing) ; aS. Vi ee)
| 3 Stations already established. | — — | 1899 161
a » Abroad & in Gt. Britain | — — 1900 59
” ” ” ” ” | a a | 1901 | 40
/ ” — 1902 59
| if Work, Directions i in which it may — — | 1904 | 48
be extended
| Work in Progress ah Be rel = — | 1904 | 46
Seismology, BEXHETIMEN Ts ye ieeren nts) nla ety / aS III. Hh ay op
A New Departurein. . . «| — — | 1910 48
| Seismometer at Comrie (Bryce) = | — — | 1872 | 241
e at Liverpool Observatory, Be ae -- | 1898 | 272
| amination of Photograms (W. | / |
E. Plummer) | |
s. Common Pendulum (D. Milne) . | — | —- 1841 46
a Duplex Pendulan 0 4 4 (ECSAR COVELL. -|br tne)
: On a (Wagner) Seed ln Saal I. = se
for Mantelpiece . Sy) Ae tsb XVI. =} ee
Seismometers, Construction under the Super- fi Yen = __ f, 1854 | 370
. intendence of Major James (Col. pale ee j || 1858'| 73
Seismometry applied to Trains Tis. XV. } — | —
Sensibility of Seismographs recording | ona, — — /1911 +66
Smoked Surface | |
Sensitiveness of the Horizontal Pendulum 2h || aad — 1895 | 94
Severe Earthquakes . . . . «©. . — | — / 1890 | 168
Shide, Instruments at ; — — ' 1902 60
Shocks in Comrie and elsewhere (W. Buck- — — 1843 121
land and D. Milne) |
Shocks Observed at Comrie, July 1841 to = — | 1842 | 93
June 8, 1842 (D. Milne) |
Simultaneous Observation of Earthquakes at | — a 1884 244
Three Stations in Telegraphic Connection |
Ditto at Several Stations in Electrical Con- — — 1885 | 367
nection |
Situation of Stations :— |
_ Abassia a Oe eee DR SO tee — 1905 | 84
Azores 3 : 3 5 g F z ee a 1905 | 84
Baltimore ‘i 5 4 ‘ s ; : — — | 1905 85
wee ae i. Ate 6, apt — 1905 | 85
MGM 8s — 1905 | 85
BAMSLOM Easy aoe w se re |, eNP ICL. fs (potted — 1905 | 85
Bombay . se ooh eee ce — 1905 | 86
Calcutta (ibid. 1899, p. 177). : Sees | ee oe oa oes
Mane of Good Hope . . . +». .«] — — 1905 | 86
pete ee sere Tee | hte Dalheeta| oe | 1905 | 87
Edinburgh - A s , A ‘ 3 — | —s | 1905 | 87
Helwan (Cairo) 4 - 3 ‘ i eS — 1905 | 87
Honolulu . ° . . . . . Sri , i —s } 1905 87

1913. G

82 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913,

——— | — Vol. Year | Page

Situation of Stations (cont. i: — |
Kew . - : = — 1905 | 89
Kodaikanal = = 1905 | 88
Mauritius . |) == == 1905 | 88
Paisley. ars = 1905 | 89
Perth (W. Australia) Voss = 1905 | 89
San Fernando . lis4 — 1905 | 89
Shide _ = = 1905 | 90
Strassburg ae = 1905 | 90
Sydney a = 1905 | 90
Toronto (ibid. 1 1899, ig 170) = — — =
Trinidad . == — 1905 | 91
Victoria, B.C. = -= 1905 | 91
Akhakalaki — — 1906 | 93
Batoum = — 1906 | 93
Borshom . == = 1906 | 93
Shemakha == — 1906 | 93
Derbent = — 1906 | 94
Tiflis . : == — 1906 | 94
Pilar (Argentina) —— 7 1907 | 84
Colombo (Ceylon) = = 1907 | 85
Perth (W. eae = == 1908 | 62
Lima. = = 1908 | 62
Eskdalemuir == = 1909 | 49
Toronto (Canada) : == — 1909 | 50
Porto Rico (W. Indies) . — — 1909 | 50
Stonyhurst : == = 1909 | 50
Guildford . = = 1910 | 46
West Bromwich = — 1910} 46
Zikawei = a 1912 | 70
Agincourt . = = 1912 | 70

Sonora Earthquake ~ in 1887 (Hunt and 7. S) xe = ie
Douglas)

Sound Phenomena T.S XI. = _

Sounding Asama Yama — = 1887 | 216

Sounds, Earthquake (Knott) iS XII — _—

Special Earthquakes in Japan - — — 1888 | 425

W. Indies, Notes on. = — 1898 | 185

Speed of Earthquake Motion and Inferences | — -— 1903 | 84
based thereon relating to the Interior of
the World

Speed of Earthquakes (Ewing) ess Ill —/|—

Strong Shocks, List of, in United States aati = oa 1911 | 41
Dependencies (H. F. Reid)

Sub-oceanic Changes . = = 1897 | 181
Bradyseismic Action = == 1897 | 182
Sedimentation and Erosion . — — 1897 | 187
Causes resulting in the Yielding of Sub- | — — 1897 | 188

marine Banks |
Cable Fracture : = = 1897 | 189
Conclusions and Suggestions “for # a Seismic eS — 1897 | 204
Survey of the World

Sub-oceanic Changes in Relation to Earth- — — 1898 , 251

quakes

Subterranean Forces on the Solid Crust of the = — — 1847 | 57
Earth, Effects of (Hopkins) |

State of Tension of the Elevated Mass ; — a 1847 | 57
Formation of Fissures | eee = 1847 | 58
Systems of Fissures | = = 1847 | 60

— — 1847 | 60

Application of the Theory ny

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS, 83

Fi

pare _— Vol. Year | Page
ss eves 5
| Subterranean Forces, &c. (cont.) :—
Secondary Phenomena of Elevation. .| — _ 1847 | 62
: Relative Displacement of Stratified Beds | — — 1847 | 62
. ata Fault
| Horizontal Pressure . . . «© «| — — 1847 | 63
P aided Strata. wk kw — 1847 | 67
Inverted Strata . . —_— —_ 1847 | 68
Thickness of Fractured Portions of the _- — 1847 | 69
Earth’s Crust |
Contraction of the Earth’s Crust : c — == 1847 | 69
Contemporaneity of Elevation : =| = | 1847 | 69
Slow Movements of Elevation and De-| — — | 1847) 71
: pression and their Relation to Par- |
| oxysmal Movements | | |
Sunspots oe = 1858 | 37
Survey of Earthquake Theories (Mallet) . tiluassehe — 1850 2
T. |
Theoretical Mountains. «Pople Sere — 1886 | 429
Theories of Earthquakes (Mallet) = Te —_ — 1850 | —
Theories of Volcanoes, Fundamental Hypo- — — 1847 | 36
theses (Hopkins)
Thermometer and Earthquakes . — | —_— | 1850 | 70
Thickness of Earth’s Crust, Form and Solidi- — | = | 1847 | 40
fication (Hopkins) |
Tidal Load at Ryde, I.W., Observationson . ; — Aes 1911 39
Tidal Load Experiments in Pennsylvania Rail- = — — 1911 | 40
way Tunnels |
Tidal Observations . — — 1884 | 251
Time Curves for Earthquakes recorded during | — 1902 | 65
the four years ending Dec. 31, 1900 | |
Time Indicator .. ==) — 1898 | 255
Time of Origin of Earthquakes, Determina- | — — 1906 | 100
tion of (R. D. Oldham) |
Time Signals : ; — — | 1908 | 60
Timekeepers at Observatories and Earth- | — _ 1900 | 105
quakes
Times of Occurrence of Earthquakes (Mason) . | T. S. XV. — 2
Tokio Earthquakes, 1882-1883 Pr Nan el a VI. | — —
Tokio Earthquake, June 20, 1894 . : ; — — | 1895 | 111
Tokio and Yokohama Earthquakes, Com- | — — 1890 | 170
parison of |
Transit Rates of Wave Propagation (Mallet) . | — — _ 1861 | 219
Transit Velocity of Waves, Experiments rn ee | _ 1861 | 201
Holyhead
Tremors EA et ts, Sos aboaealt he — | 1892 | 109
” == = 1895 | 109
# >» UGS Werte: AN see aoe rane em |e — 1895 | 139
a Micro-seismic Disturbances or Earth | — -— | 1895 | 126
Pulsations }
ag Meee “aera! Rapddede wes — 1896 | 210
ce Preliminary Seater) coal ear — 1902 64
Yr A ete Cito eo If — — | 1907 | 93
Uz
Underground Observatory, Establishment of | — Te 1884 | 249
+ £ Notes on 9%, ~~. | e=— | ae 1884 | 250
V.
Velocity of Earthquake Propagation . — —~ 1890 | 171
» Of Propagation of Earthq uake — | “= | 1895 | 170

Motion, Nature of (Dr. Knott, Lord | )
Kelvin, Lord Rayleigh) | | | j

84 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCTENCE.—1913.

{ |
ae i Vol Year | Page
Velocities of Earthquake Waves . . «| — —_— 1850 | 37
3 AA 3 Sek el — 1851 | 312
55 | — —_— / 1900 61
AS of Earth Waves (Lord Kelvin) a Ss. |] II. — | —
- for Large Waves 7 : oa — 1900 | 64, 70
=A », Preliminary Tremors . a — 1900 63
3 Highest Apparent, at which Earth | — 1897 | 172
Waves are propagated |
8 with which Waves and Vibrations | — as 1895 | 158
are propagated on the Surface of |
and through Rock and Earth |
Vertical, Changes in, Observed at Tokio . : — — 1896 | 215
4 Motion Diagrams (Omori) 2) RES XVI. Dose
| 53 Spring Seismograph aueae a — 1902, 71
| Vibration, Effect of Ground on a ~- 1885 | 363
" Produced in the Ground by 'T ‘rains |, T.S. IT. — | —
(Paul) |
Vibrations, Artificially produced(Palmer) . T.S. It — —
bs of Locomotives, Rolling Stock, — _ 1889 | 303 |
and Structures | |
+ of Chimneys and Buildings . — -= 1895 | 181
Vibratory Motions of Earth’s Crust produced | — — 1847 | 74
| by Earthquakes (Hopkins) sure? Luts
| Volcanoes and Earthquakes (Mallet) . ; -= — 1850 | 26
Ka Chemical Theory of (Hopkins) . — —_ 1847 | 38
ss Form of Japanese... — — 1886 | 427
3 Japanese, Position and Belative jee ~- 1886 | 425
Age of |
= Map of Japanese . . . .| — — 1886 | 418
as Number of Japanese. , ‘ ~- — 1886 | 422
s of Honshiu and Kiushiu . ‘ , — ~- 1886 | 420
= of Japan s . 9 cee) coyylleremetete | aaaeond 1886 | 418
55 soe ge ee | T.S. | IX. pt — —
Ss of "Yezo 4 — — 1886 | 419
53 Phenomena and Mhearied of (Hop.- | — — 1847 33
kins)
| Volcanic Action, Theory of (Hopkins, Bischoff) — — 1847 | 5,39
ee Eruptions, Effect on People : — — 1886 | 430
Vive |
Wandering of Pendulums 5 Se Cacia ch eat ms 1895 | 99
i r Ee et | = 1895 | 129
Water Level, Five Miles long ee SEER INES A | If. — |=
Waves, Diurnal . 7 She | _- | 1897 176
», Frequency of Number i in n 20 Seconds os | =v — | 1884 | 245
» of Earthquakes at Great Distances | S. J. | Tt. ;— —
(Paschwitz) |
Wave Surface, Production of (Hopkins). . — 1847 | 88
Weather and Earthquakes - | — — 1850 | 66
| West Bromwich and Guildford, New Stations | — _- 1910 46
| Windand Earthquakes .. — — 1850 | 73
Y. he ee
Yokohama, Earthquakes in (Pereira) . . T.S. | XV. a
a 3 RE Wie cr) » SENAY AU IIT. —-\)|—

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS, 85

XVI. Shinobu Hirota.

. Many in the Isle of Wight, and many more outside, will regret
io hear of the death of Shinobu Hirota, which sad event took place
at his home in Japan on April 24. He came to England in 1895,
and within a week of his arrival the seismograph which he brought
with him was at work at Shide. To convince those who had doubts
as to the possibility of recording an earthquake which had originated
even so far away as our antipodes and to corroborate whatever records
might be obtained at Shide, a second instrument was installed at
Carisbrooke Castle. To look after this Hirota had, wet or fine, a
daily walk of four miles. The fact that these two instruments gave
similar records and also that from a single record we could tell the
distance from which a megaseism had originated, naturally attracted
some attention. Directly it was shown that certain sub-oceanic dis-
turbances had interrupted cables, Colonies desirous of knowing the
cause of these sudden isolations from the rest of the world set up
seismographs. This was the commencement of the British Association
co-operation of seismological stations. To bring this into being Hirota
played an active part. He knew personally many of the directors,
and gave instruction to their officers. In practical seismometry
he made many innovations, some of which have rendered instruments
more sensitive. His multiplying levers made of grass stems gathered-
from ‘bents’ give pointers exactly one-third the weight of their
equivalent in aluminium and yet twice if not three times as stiff. It
was by using these that we got at Bidston the first record of rock
deformation due to tidal load. In the workshop he was a good all-
round workman, and in the Observatory office he kept most careful
records. For photographic work he held a gold medal from the Isle
of Wight Photographic Society. Above all this, his sharp eyes would
find in a seismogram two records where at other stations only one
had been discovered.

In view of the great attention and large sums which have been
Spent, particularly in foreign countries, on the new seismological
departure, I feel it my duty to give recognition to an assistant pioneer
in these new studies. His work is embodied in annual Seismological
Reports for the last seventeen years and twenty-six Circulars, being
the records received from observatories. His chief work at Shide was
to assist in working up an absolutely new branch of geophysics, which
has received recognition throughout the world. He died at the age
of forty-three.

XVIT. John Milne.

The above Report was, as stated in the heading, drawn up by the
“Secretary of the Committee, and in correcting the proof alterations
have been made as sparingly as possible.

Tt falls to the lot of the Chairman to add a paragraph recording the
sudden removal of the mainstay of the work. John Milne died, with
but a few days’ warning, on July 31. This is not the time or place
for an adequate account of his life and work; but it may fitly be recalled
that since he became Secretary of this Committee in 1895, seismology

*

q

86 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913,

has become a new science, largely owing to his own initiative. During
twenty years’ residence in Japan he became acquainted with earthquakes
as disasters, and devoted himself to the study of them at close quarters,
with a view to preventing loss of life. On his return to England he
looked for a place where these studies at close quarters might be con-
tinued on minor disturbances, and Shide was selected after consultation
with Professor J. W. Judd, F.R.S., then Chairman of this Committee.
But almost simultaneously the possibility of detecting large earthquakes
at a distance was realised; at once Milne seized the new opportunity ;
he devised a simple instrument for collecting such distant records, and
stimulated the establishment of stations equipped with this instrument
scattered over the globe, especially in British territory. Their records
were sent to him at Shide, and he gave them information in return
which maintained their interest and enthusiasm. The results are
embodied in the annual reports of this Committee, in which the growth
of a new department of knowledge can be traced. Facts about the
structure of our globe are now familiar which were not only unsuspected
in themselves when Milne began work, but to which it was not sus-
pected that we had the means of access. Milne was cordially recog-
nised, at the last meeting of the International Seismological Associa-
tion, as the pioneer in their discovery.

Such a man cannot be replaced. At a meeting of the Committee
held on September 10, 1918, it was determined that the work he had
organised should for the present be carried forward as nearly as possible
on the same lines as before. Mr. J. H. Burgess, who has for some
years past been assisting Professor Milne at Shide (especially since
the departure of Shinobu Hirota for Japan last year), will carry on
the routine, under the general direction of the Chairman of the Com-
mittee. Professor Perry has accepted nomination as Secretary of the
Committee, as a purely temporary expedient, which will allow of full
consideration of a successor. It will not be easy to raise funds for
the proper continuation of the work, even on the present lines, since
Professor Milne himself subsidised the work to an unknown amount;
but this provision of funds is under consideration.

The following resolution was passed by the General Committee of
the British Association on September 17 :—

‘That this Committee desires to put on record its deep sympathy
with Mrs. Milne, and its profound sense of the loss which
seismology, and especially British seismology, has sustained
in the death of John Milne. As Secretary of the Committee
from 1895 to his death, he secured the establishment of half a
hundred observing stations scattered over the face of the earth;
he organised a co-operative scheme of work among them and
incorporated the results of it in a series of Reports of this Com-
mittee which have revolutionised the science, if indeed they
may not rather be said to have created it.’

sma

ON THE TABULATION OF BESSEL AND OTHER FUNCTIONS. 87

The further Tabulation of Bessel and other Functions.—Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor M. J. M. Hitt (Chair-
man), Professor J. W. NicHonson (Secretary), Mr. J. R.
Artrty, Professor lL. N. G. Finon, Sir GEORGE GREENHILL,
Professor ALFRED LODGE, and Professor A. G. WEBSTER.

{Puarss IT., III., anp IV.]

THE grant of 30/. given to the Committee during the past year has been
expended on the calculation of the Elliptic Function Tables, according to
the scheme of Sir George Greenhill approved by the Association. The
Tables of these functions, printed in the present report, are accompanied
by some graphs, and by a further explanation prepared by Sir George
Greenhill. One of these Tables is given only in a skeleton form in the
present report.

The Committee desires reappointment, with a further grant of 301.
during the coming year. It is proposed that this should be expended
mainly on the further calculation of the I, Y, and K Bessel Functions, as
the Secretary has received several requests for such Tables from scientific
workers during the past year. The remainder of the approved scheme of
work on the Elliptic Function Tables does not require much expenditure
for the present.

Mr. Airey has completed his Tables of the Neumann Functions or
_ Bessel Functions of the second kind, for an argument z=0-00 to z=15-26,

at intervals of 0-01. The functions are of order zero and unity, and the
Tables can be made a basis for the accurate calculation of the functions
of higher orders. The Committee desires to point out that this very
_ complete and important Table is entirely the work of Mr. Airey, and has
been calculated without a grant. The necessity of a grant for the con-
tinuation of this part of the work will be apparent.

The Committee seeks the formal sanction of the Association for a
_ change of name to ‘ The Committee for the Calculation of Mathematical
Tables.’ Its scope has been enlarged several times by the Association,

and this change of name seems now to be necessary.
___ The Committee desires to recommend that, in view of the scarcity of
‘fa reports, more copies should be printed, and at the same time a
er number placed on the tables at the meeting, so that the greater
number of those printed should be placed in the hands of the Secretary
for distribution.

the

88 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIRENCR.—1913.

Part I. Exuieric Functions.
Report III. on Tables of the Elliptic Function.
Ten new tables have been calculated, for which the ratio of the periods

Kau 3
Ry /2, 2/2, 2/3, 3, J?

The square root of a rational number was chosen as the period ratio,
so as to utilise the singular modulus of the elliptic function which arises
in the theory of Complex Multiplication, and thence obtain an independent
numerical check.

The table of the period ratio K’/K = /3 and modular angle 6 = 15°
has been printed already ; also of K/K’ = /3, 675°; and thence the
table for K/K’ =2./3 or 3/3 was derived by the quadric or cubic
transformation.

The table for

3/2, 3/3, 4, 5.

r GY “4 = 1 2
K =4K',=(¥5 =)
was calculated by a quadric transformation of K=2K’, given in
Report II., and it could have been calculated immediately from K = K’
by a quartic transformation; and K =5K’, sin 26= (2 sin 18°)! was
calculated by a quintic transformation of K =K’.
A sketch of the table for

K = 7K’, sin 20 = (2 ae tL Ye Pe

is submitted, obtained from K=K’ by a transformation of the seventh
order, with a view of showing the shape of the curve for E (r), D (r), A (r)
in a penultimate form, when the modular angle is undistinguishable from
a right angle.

Curves of the function E (r), D (7), A (7) are given in the figures to show
the change of shape as the modular angle 6 increases from 0° to 90°.

It will be observed that these curves are featureless for @ up to 15°,
and even to 45°, showing that the elliptic function does not require tabula-
tion for a modular angle much below 45°, as E(r), D(r), A(7) may be re-
placed by a circular function formula within the limits of accuracy of the
four significant figures required in a practical problem.

But in the important cases which arise in physical applications of a
modular angle in the last degree of the quadrant it will be noticed that
the curve of a function preserves a definite character in a penultimate
form, even when the modular angle is undistinguishable from a right
angle, provided the period ratio is assigned.

The tabulation must be abandoned here which takes the modular
angle as a parameter of the function ; and the period ratio K/K’, or else
Jacobi’s ¢ = exp(—7K’/K), must be adopted instead, as the parameter of
a table.

To ensure the accuracy of a transformation formula employed in the
calculation of a table the check values were applied at the beginning and
end, *=0 and 90; half-way, at bisection, where r=45; and then at tri-

ES eee ee SC ee SS S—“‘<is

ON THE TABULATION OF BESSEL AND OTHER FUNCTIONS. 89

section, 7=30, 60; and at quinquesection, when possible, where r=18,
36, 54, 72 ; in accordance with the formulas of Report I., pages 6, 7, which
provide an algebraical numerical value to contrast with the number
obtained by the expansion of a q series, or else by the formula of trans-
formation.

These check values can be assigned for a singular modulus, and are
given as they arise in the calculation of a table, and entered at once on
the sheet of numbers to serve as standard points of reference in the same
way as the cyclotomic values in a table of the circular function.

Thus in all cases we have the check values—

E(0)=0, D(0)=1, A(0)=0,

H(90)=0, D(9)=F5, A(90)=1;

,

eG 1b PONG 1
Rs) — 5", Das)=(Sur) A(t) =(5“5) stan $(45)= ,=D(00).

The trisection and quinquesection formulas are given on pages 6, 7,
Report I., and at full length in the ‘ Phil. Trans.,’ 1904, pages 261, 264 ;
and they can be quoted as required in the check of a table.

Thus the new table for K’/K=/2, x= /2—1=sin 24°-47, required
the q series formulas for a complete tabulation ; and it was checked at
trisection by taking b= /3+ V2.

The table for K/K’= v2, «’=/2-1, can be derived by the second
quadric transformation, and checked at trisection by b= /3—/2.

Another quadric transformation gave K/K’=2./2, and _ here
b?=(./2+1) (2+. 3) for trisection.

Any function, such as A(r), may be distinguished as regards the period
ratio by writing it

K
A ( ; @) -

and the formulas of the second quadric transformation are written

ee ae Kone
D/ 90, —
(5)

ok Mey k (x w)
1 22 = 7 JA > [P77
P(r 2x7) D(x ra) Ae as
K
A(2r, )
K ae K

a0) (2r, K’) si Ge p(2r,)

K K’
1 (r, 25,)= Tied eee

A( x)=A(s ae) P(r)

90 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913,
So also for the second cubic transformation, requiring in going from

K/K’ to St the formulas can be written, putting for simplicity A(r)
for A(r, K/K’), . ;

ahs B(60, K’/K)? , «’ D(x)? A (60, K/K)?
A (r, 3K/K’) = A (r)? E (60, K’(K)? Se ee (n)? Be,

D (r, 3K/K’) =D (r)*[1+ pen Hs 0 be al

A(r) Bir) O(r) 260, 7K)"

ME (r, 3K/K’) = 3E (r)+2« 3B (60, K’/K)?
i eer D(r, 3K)

K K
Ko yy Be ois Os] Doca's's ALON K == ibs olle i

At the trisection check

M=b= 4/3 es 24/3 sin 75°, 3(\V 3+ /2), (V3 -V2), «6 «
In deriving K =5K’ from K = KR’, the formulas of the quintic trans-
formation were
6)? Dir)" Hise | ; AWS er A(72)?
2" A(v)? D(36)2| LD(72) * A(r)® D(72)2 |
)
)

6
D(r, 5) = D> E ae

A(r, 5) =A(r)* Ee

ME(r, 5) = E(r) + 2E(2r) + ODEN te eo
D(r)*" B(36)*

A(r)? , (72)?

D(r)? B72)?

1A? Aap

Dr)? B(72)?

l+ongK 1l+om3K _ yp io,

1—cn#K 1—cn3K

ON THE TABULATION OF BESSEL AND OTHER FUNCTIONS. 91

A quinquesection test can be applied here of the formulas on page 7,
Report I., by taking

¢ — * = 64 (sin 18°) =2 | =5/5—11,

ct taays (“=I 5

So.also for K=7K’ from K=K’ ; the transformation formulas would be

7) = ag? [BEIM , Den? ACs?
A(r,7) = A(r)7 I ee ante

(7 ) (r) Lpasep + ace ao

peers Dey aceas

pet age DER]
PBs)? | Di)? Alege)

Leap + at Dey

Den =o [+B
)

~

B(
A(r)? A(
[+ Dey By

2

~

ME(r,7) = E(r) + 3E(7).

Ar)? AGH)? A(r)? A(282)?
AG) | Dor tT BED? | Det Base

+ D(0)D(2r) Ar)? A(

u— 1+en;K _Aen7K I+en'?K
1—cn#K 1—en$K 1—cn!?K

The calculation has been made at r=45, ... , so as to show the
general shape of the curve of the elliptic function of penultimate
character.

Some applications of the Elliptic Function Table were mentioned in
Report II., p. 7, including the potential of a spherical bowl, which can be
given by c&2-+7’0’ instead of the expansion in a series of spherical har-
monics, as in Maxwell’s ‘ Electricity and Magnetism,’ IT. §694, where it is
denoted by P; and then

Pr = crQ. + 070’, leading to o (Pr) = cQ, as in §695.

‘HE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

5S ON 1

REPOR‘

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REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

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102

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106

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107

VII1. ON THE TABULATION OF BESSEL AND OTHER FUNCTIONS,

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IX.

1913.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

108

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109

ON THE TABULATION OF BESSEL AND OTHER FUNCTIONS.

IX.

| oa $ Oa | Wa Wy (a Wo (a in | (A) a
| noseoze-e | 128 | 066F-0 COLF-G 6ZLe0 | 6zLe-0 9LF-6 066F-0 M18 | 1066926-¢ |
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7%

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

69 SO9LSE-9 81-68 | 9SOL-ES 6¢1008:0 | 118880-0 9S8PFL°S 98ZESL-0 90° 8806:
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114

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—19/3.

PART II. BESSEL FUNCTIONS.
See p. 115.

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Iilustrating the Report on the Talulation of Bessel and other Functions.

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British Association, 83rd Report, Birmingham, 1913.)

Illustrating the Report on the Tabulation of Bessel and other Functions

ON THE TABULATION OF BESSEL AND OTHER FUNCTIONS. 115

L Part II, BrssEL Funcrions.
Mr. Atrey’s TABLE.

Tables of the Neumann Functions G,(x) and G(x) or Bessel Fu-ctions
of the Second Kind.

Tables of the first solution y = J,(x) of Bessel’s differential equation

io

when n =0and n = 1 have been calculated by Meissel' from the ascending
series

Iz) =1-

x
eee APS PS

Oo Bate ee

to 12 places of decimals from 7 = 0:00 to # = 15°50 by the interval 0-01.
For greater values of x than 15°50, these functions can be found from the
semi-convergent expansions.

It is possible, however, to use these semi-convergent series to deter-

_ mine the values of J,(x), J,(x), etc., to 12 places of decimals” for values of

gz as small as 8.

Tables of the second solution® of Bessel’s equation—viz.

Y,(z), Y,(x), G,(x), G(x) . ete—

are much less complete, and as these functions—Bessel functions of
the second kind or Neumann functions, as they are sometimes called—
are of considerable importance in their application to many physical
problems, tables of G,(x) and G,(z) have been calculated to seven places of
decimals.
Different writers have given different definitions of these second

solutions.
The Neumann cylinder function‘ defined by

vio=2| (2)-a+4 sley+ — (log 2— y— loge) J s00 |

are

etc., differs from the G,(z) and G,(x) function only by the factor S
1 Gray and Mathews, Treatise on Bessel Functions, 1895.
2 Archiv. der Math. u. Physik. III. Reihe, XX., 1913.
5 B. A. Smith, Messenger of Mathematics, 26, 1897; Smith, Phil. Mag., 45, 1898 ;
Aldis, Proc. Royal Society, London, 64, 1898-9.
4 Nielsen, Theorie der Zylinderfunktionen, p. 12.

116 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCTENCE.—1913.

On the other hand, the Neumann function’ Y,(z), etc., defined by

\2 & 4 x :
Y) (2) = J,(x) : log.¢+ (5) ae a+n(s) + a+4+ 4) a) ate ie etc.,
2?

3
are found readily from G, (x), ete. by the relation
Y,,(2) a (log i y) J (x) a. G,(z).

The following tables were calculated, with some slight corrections, from
those already published,® by interpolation, first to fifths and then to

halves.
The values for «—0-01 to =0-40 were found from the ascending

series,
ge \? zy
—G,(z) = (3 — (1+ 4) (3 fF... —(log 2— y—log,z) J,(x), etc.
2!°

To determine the value of G,(z) and G,(x) for intermediate values of the
argument, interpolation formule may be used, such as

G, (« +h) = [3 = e ie ‘A G, (a) -+ [= pe 5a G(x)
and
ae ht wie 2 IV? fi
G,(¢@ +h) = E a (i-3) &: : G, (@) ++ [+a— a . |B.

Neumann Functions or Bessel Functions of the Second Kind. Go(a) and G,(x).

e Go(x) | Gila) a | Go(x) | Gi(x)
0-01 | +4-7209587 +100-0261051 0-20 +1-6981963 +5-2210521
002 | +4:0274517 | +50-0452769 0-21 | +1:6471663 | +-4-9887552

0-03 +3:°6214494 | +33-3951624 0:22 +1-5983499 | -+4-7778488
0:04 +3°3330736 | +-25-0766778 0:23) +-1:5515475 | -+-4°5855201
0°05 | +3:1090945 +20:0902576 0-24 +1:5065855 | -|-4:-4094258
0:06 | +2°9258067 | +16°7694905 0:25 +1:4633116 -+-4:2475986
0-07 | +2°7705685 +14:4002597 0:26 +1:4215915 +4:0983739
0:08 | +2°6358361 -+12°6255419 0:27 +1:3813067 | -+3-9603349
0:09 | +2°5167454 -+-11-2470137 0:28 +-1°3423516 -|-3°8322673

0-10 + 2:4099764 +-10°1456966 0:29 +1:3046317 | +3-7131248 |
0-11 +2°3131625 | +9°-2458884 0°30 | +1:2680624 | -+3-6020011
0-12 | +2:2245569 | +8-4971288 031 | +1-2325676 | -+3°4981072 —
0-13 | +2°1428339 +-7:8644903 0°32 +1:1980784 +3°4007530

0-14 | +2:0669638 _ +7:3230293 0°33) | +-1:1645327 -+-3-3093323
0-15 +1:9961309 | -6°8544580 0°34 +1:1318738 +3°2233107
016 +1-9296778 | +6:4450632 | 0-35 +1-:1000501 +3°1422149
0-17 -+1:8670675 +6:0843612 0:36 +-1:0690145 | -+3-0656245
O18 | +1:8078556 -+5:7642001 0:37 -+ 10387238 -++-2-9931649

0-19 | +1-7516700 | -+-5-4781456 0:38 -+-1:0091385 | -+-2-9245007 |

5 Gray and Mathews, Bessel Functions, p. 14.
6 Report of the Mathematical Tables Committee: British Association, 1911,
pp. 73-78.

ae

ON THE TABULATION OF BESSEL AND OTHER FUNCTIONS.

Neumann Functions—continued,

Gol)

fy |
||
0:39 +0:9802222 --2-8593316 —0-1011991
0°40 +0°9519412 -+-2:7973873 | —0°1138162
0-41 ---0°9242645 +2-7384238 | —0-1262939
0-42 +0-°8971635 -+-2-6822210 | —0°1386337
0-43 +0°8706115 -+2°6285790 | —0:1508369
0-44 +0°8445840 +2°5773161 —0-1629049
0:45 -+0°8190579 +-2-5282673 —0:1748389
0°46 -+-0°7940117 -++2-4812818 —0-1866402
0°47 +-0°7694257 +2°4362218 | —0-1983100
0°48 +0°7452813 --2-3929611 — 02098494
0°49 +0:7215610 --2°3513837 | —0-2212596
0-50 -+0°6982484 +-2°3113834 —0:2325417
0-51 +0°6753283 -+2°2728620 —0:2436966
0°52 +0°6527865 -++-2°2357292 — 02547254
0-53 +0°6306094 +2-1999014 —0-2656290
0:54 +0°6087844 +2-1653015 —0:2764084
0°55 +0°5872995 +2:1318578 —0-2870644
0-56 -+-0°5661436 +2-0995041 —0:2975980
0°57 +0°5453060 +2-0681786 —0°3080099
0-58 +0°5247768 +2-0378241 —0-°3183010
0:59 +0:5045465 +2°0083871 | —0°3284721
0-60 +0-4846062 -+1-9798181 —0°3385240
0-61 +0:4649474 -+1-9520705 | | —0:3484573
0-62 +0:4455622 --1-9251008 | _0:3582727
0°63 +0-4264429 -+1-8988685 | —0:3679711
0-64 +0-4075825 +1:8733358 | | —0°3775529
0:65 +0-3889740 +1-8484670 | —0°3870190
0-66 +0°3706111 +1-8242286 | —0°3963698
0°67 -+0°3524875 +1-8005894 | —0-4056061
0-68 +0:3345974 +1-7775199 | | —0-4147283
0:69 +0:3169352 --1-7549924 | | —0-4237372
0:70 +0:2994958 +1-7329808 | —0°4326332
0-71 --0-2822740 +1-7114606 ] —0-4414169
0:72 +0-2652650 -+1-6904087 | —0:4500887
0°73 +0-2484643 +1:6698031 i — 04586493
0:74 +0°2318674 +1-6496233 | —0:4670990
0°75 -+-0°2154704 +-1°6298497 | | —0°4754385
0-76 +0-1992692 +1-6104640 | —0-4836681
0-77 +0-1832600 -+1-5914488 — 04917884
0-78 -+-0:1674391 -+-1:5727875 —0:-4997997
0-79 --0-1518031 -++1-5544646 | —0-5077026
0:80 +0-1363487 +1-5364653 —0°5154974
0-81 | +0:1210727 +1:5187754 | | —0°5231845
0:82 --0°1059722 +1:5013818 | | —0°5307644
0:83 -+-0:0910442 +1:4842717 | —0-5382375
0-84 +0:0762859 +1-4674332 | —0'5456041
0°85 +0-0616946 +1-4508548 | — 05528647
0-86 +0-0472680 -+1-4345258 | —0-5600195
0°87 +0-0330034 +1:4184358 | —0-5670691
0:88 +0-0188985 +1:4025749 | —0°5740137
0°89 +0-0049511 +1-:3869340 | —0:5808537
0:90 —0-0088409 +1°3715040 | —0°5875894
0-91 —0:0224797 | +1°3562765 | —0°5942212
0:92 —0:0359671 +1-3412435 | —0:6007494
0:93 —0-0493051 +1:3263972 —0-6071744
0-94 —0:0624956 --1°3117303 — 06134964
0:95 —0:0755403 -|-1:2972359 | 3 —0°6197158
0-96 | —0-0884409 --1:2829072 | O4 —0°6258329

Gi (x)

+1-2687378

+1:2547216
+1-2408530
+1:2271262
+1:2135361
+1-2000774-
+1:1867454
+1:1735355
+1:1604432
-- 11474643
+1:1345946
+1:1218304
+1-1091679
+1-0966036
+1:0841341
+1:0717560
+1:0594664
+1:0472622
+1:0351405
+1:0230987
+1:0111340
+0:9992441
+0°9874264
+0-9756787
+0°9639989
+0°9523848
+0-9408343

| +0°9293456

+0-9179169
+0°9065463
+0°8952321
+0-8839729
-+-0°8727670
+0°8616128
+0°8505091
+0°8394545
+0°8284477
-+0°8174875
+0:°8065726
+0:°7957021
+0°7848748
+0-7740897
+0°7633458
+0°7526423
+0°7419783
+0°7313528
+0-7207651
+0°7102146
+0-6997004
+0-6892220
+0:6787786
+0-6683696
+0°6579946
+0°6476529
+0-6373441
+0°6270677
--0°6168232

| +4-0-6066102

117

118 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.
Neumann Functions—continued,

Fy Go(x) Gi(a) z Go(z) Gi(x)
1:55 —0°6318481 +0:5964284 | 2°13 —0°8161870 +0:0557487
1:56 —0°6377616 +0:5862773 | 2:14 —0°8167024 +0:0473427
1:57 —0°6435737 +0°5761566 | 2-15 —0°8171340 +0-0389723
1:58 —0-6492848 +0°5660661 2°16 —0:8174820 +0-:0306376
1:59 —0-6548951 -+0:°5560054 Pan Wi —0-8177469 | +0:0223391
1-60 —0.6604050 +0°5459743 2:18 | —0-8179289 +0:0140769
1-61 —0-°6658147 +0°5359725 2°19 | —0°8180285 | +0-0058514
1-62 —0-6711246 | +0-5259999 2-20 —0-8180460 | —0-0023370
1-63 —0-°6763348 +0-5160561 2°21 | —0-8179819 —0-0104881
1:64 —0°6814458 +0-5061411 2:22 | —0-8178364 —0-0186016
1:65 —0-6864578 +0°4962547 2°23 | —0-8176099 —0-0266772
1:66 | —0-6913710 +0°4863967 | 2:24 | —0-8173029 —0-0347145
1:67 —0'6961858 -+0°4765671 | 2:25 | ~—0-8169158 —0-0427132
1:68 —0:7009024 +0:°4667656 2°26 —0°8164488 —0-0506730
1:69 —0-°7055212 -+0:4569922 2:27 | —0°8159025 —0:0585936
1:70 —0°7100424 -+0°4472469 2:28 | —0°8152771 —0°0664747
1-71 | —0-°7144662 -|-0:4375296 2:29 | —0°8145731 —0:0743159
72 —0°7187930 | +0:4278403 | 2:30 | —0-8137909 —0-0821170
1:73 | —0°7230231 +0°4181789 | 2-31 —0-8129309 —0-:0898776
1:74 —0:7271567 +0:4085454 | 232 —0°8119935 —0:0975974
1:75 —0°7311941 +0:3989398 2°33 —0°8109791 —0-1052760
1:76 —0°7351356 -++0°3893622 2°34 —0-8098881 —0-1129132
1:77 —0-7389814. +0°3798125 2°35 —0-8087210 —0-1205086
1:78 —0:°7427319 -++-0°3702909 2°36 —0°8074781 —0:1280619
1:79 | —0°7463874 -+0:°3607974 2°37 —0:8061599 —0°1355728
1:80 —0-°7499480 +0°3513320 | 2:38 | —0°8047668 —0°1430409
1°81 —0'7534141 +0°3418948 | 2°39 | —0°8032992 —0:°1504660
1:82 —0°7567860 +0°3324859 2°40 | —0°8017576 —0°1578477
1:83 —0°7600639 +0°3231054 2°41 | —0-8001424 —0°1651857
1:84 —0°7632482 -+0°3137534 2°42 —0:°7984540 —0:1724796
1:85 —0-°7663391 +0:°3044301 2°43 —0°7966929 —0°1797292
1:86 —0°7693369 | -+0-2951355 2°44 | —0°7948596 —0:1869341
1:87 —0°7722419 -+-+-0°2858699 2°45 —0-7929544 —0:°1940940
1-88 —0°7750544 | +0-2766333 2°46 —0:7909779 —0°2012086
1:89 —0°7777747 +0:2674260 2°47 —0:7889304 —0°2082776
1:90 —0-7804030 +0:2582480 | 2-48 —0°7868125 —0:2153006
1°91 —0-°7829397 +0:2490996 || 2:49 | —0-7846246 | —0-2222774
1:92 —0-°7853851 -+0-2399809 2°50 —0-:7823671 —0°2292077
1:93 —0°7877394 +0:2308921 2°51 —0-7800406 —0-2360911
1:94 —0-7900030 +0:2218335 2°52 —0:°7776454 —0:2429272
1:95 —0-7921762 +0:2128052 2°53 —0:7751822 —0°2497159
1:96 —0-°7942592 +0:2038074 2°54. —0°7726513 —0-2564567
1:97 —0°7962524 +0:°1948404 2°55 | —0:7700532 —0-2631493
1:98 —0-°7981561 +0:°1859044 2°56 —0-°7673884 —0°2697937
1:99 —0-7999706 +0:°1769996 2°57 | —0°7646575 —0:°2763893
2.00 —0-8016962 +0:°1681262 2°58 —0-7618608 —0°2829359
2°01 —0-°8033332 +0:1592844 || 2-59 —0-7589989 —0°2894332
2-02 —0-8048820 +0°1504746 2-60 —0-°7560723 —0-:2958808
2-03 —0°8063429 +0:1416970 2°61 —0-°7530815 —0°3022785
2:04 —0-8077161 +0:°1329518 2-62 —0-7500269 —0°3086260
2°05 —0-8090020 +0°1242393 2°63 —0-7469091 —0°3149230
2:06 —0-°8102010 +0:1155598 2°64 —0-°7437286 —0°3211692
2-07 —0°8113133 +0°1069134 2:65 —0°7404859 —0°3273644
2:08 —0°8123394 +0:0983006 || 2°66 —0°7371815 —0°3335082
2°09 —0°8132795 -+0-0897216 2°67 —0°7338159 —0°3396004
2°10 —0°8141339 +0°0811766 || 2°68 —0:7303897 —0°3456406
2-11 —0°8149031 +0:0726659 || 2:69 —0-°7269033 —0-3516286
2712 —0°8155873 +0:0641898 | 2°70 —0°7233573 —0°3575642

a a

sos i acai

ON THE TABULATION OF BESSEL AND OTHER FUNCTIONS. 119
Neumann Functions—continued,
a aan ee ee leaner aaa |
ee Go(2) Gi(z) hi age hf Go(2) | G(x)
2-71 | —0-7197522 —0°3634471 3:29 | —0-4287691 —(0-6068260
2-72 —0:°7160885 —0°3692769 3°30 | —0°4226887 —(°6092380
2°73 —0:7123668 —0°3750535 3:31 | —0-4165846 —0-6115874
2:74 | —0-7085876 —0°3807765 3°32 | —0-4104572 —0-°6138742
275 —0°7047515 —0°3864457 3:33. | —0-4043073 —0-6160985
2-76 —0°7008589 —0-3920609 3-34 | —0-3981354 | —0-6182601
2717 —0-6969104 —0°3976218 3°35 —0-3919422 —0-6203590
2:78 —0-6929066 —0°4031281 3:36 | —0°3857284 — 06223953
2:79 —0-6888480 —0-4085796 3°37 —0-3794946 —0-6243689
2-80 —0°6847352 —0-4139761 3:38 —0°3732413 —0-6262797
2-81 —0-6805687 —0-4193173 3°39 —0-3669692 —0-6281279
2-82 —0-6763490 —0-4246030 3°40 —0-3606789 —0-6299133
2°83 —0-6720768 —0°4298329 3°41 —0:3543711 —0-6316361
2-84 —0-6677526 — 04350067 3°42 —0-3480464 —0-6332962
2°85 —0-6633769 —0-4401244 3:43 —0°3417054 —0°6348936
2:86 —0-6589503 —0°4451856 3:44 — 03353487 — 06364283
2:87 — 06544734 —0-4501901 3°45 | —0°3289771 —0:6379004
2°88 —0-6499467 —0°-4551378 3:46 | —0°3225910 —0-6393099
2°89 —0-6453708 —0-4600284 3:47 —0°3161911 | W—0-6406568,
2-90 —0-6407463 —0-4648616 3°48 —0-3097780 | —0-6419411
2-91 —0-6360737 —0:4696373 3°49 — 03033524 —0-6431630
2°92 —0-6313537 —0-4743552 3°50 —0:2969150 —0°6443225
2-93 —0:6265868 —0:4790153 3°51 | —0-2904662 — 06454196
2°94 —0-6217736 — 04836172 3:52 | —0-2840068 — 06464542
2-95 —0-6169147 —0-4881608 3°53 —0:2775374 —0-6474266
2-96 —0-6120106 —0-4926458 3°54 —0:2710585 | —0-6483368
2:97 —0-6070620 —0-4970722 3°55 —0:2645708 —0-6491849
2-98 —0-6020694 —0-5014397 3:56 —0-2580750 —0-6499709
2-99 —0-5970334 —0-5057482 3.57 | —0:2515716 —0-6506949
3-00 —0:5919546 —0-5099974 3°58 | —0-2450613 —0-6513570
3:01 | —0°5868337 —0:5141872 3°59 | —0-2385446 —0-6519573
3°02 —0°5816711 —0-5183175 3-60 | —0°2320223 —0-6524959
3:03 —0°5764675 —0-5223880 3°61 | —0-2254949 —0°6529728
3°04 —0:5712235 —0-5263987 3°62 | —0-2189630 —0-6533882
3:05 — 05659397 —0-5303493 3°63 | —0-2124273 —0-6537422
3:06 —0-5606167 —0:5342397 3°64 | —0-2058884 —0-6540349
3:07 —0°5552552 =| - —0°5380698 3°65 —0:1993469 — 06542664
3-08 —0°5498556 — 05418394 3-66 —0:1928033 | —0°6544369
3:09 —0:5444186 —0°5455484 3:67 —0:1862583 | —0-6545464
3:10 —0-5389448 —0°5491967 3°68 | —0°1797125 | —0-6545951
3:11 —0°5334348 —0-°5527841 3°69 —0:1731666 —0°6545831
3°12 —0°5278893 —0-5563105 3°70 —0:1666211 | —0-6545106
3°13 —0-5223088 —0°5597758 3°71 —0:1600766 | —0-6543777
3:14 —0°5166940 —0°5631798 3°72 —0°1535338 —0:6541845
3°15 —0°5110454 —0°5665225 3°73 —0°1469932 | —0-6539312
316 — 05053637 —0-5698037 3°74 —0°1404554 —0°6536181
3°17 —0°4996495 —0-5730233 3°75 —0°1339210 —0°6532452
3°18 —0°4939035 —0-5761813 3:76 —0:1273907 —0-6528126
3:19 —0-4881261 —0°5792776 3:77 —0-1208650 | —0-6523206
3°20 —0°-4823181 —0°5823120 3°78 —0-1143445 | —0-6517694
3:21 —0-4764801 —0°5852845 3:79 —0°1078298 | —0-6511590
3°22 —0-4706126 —0-5881950 3°80 —0:1013215 —0-6504898
3°23 —0-4647163 —0°5910433 | 3°81 — 00948202 —0-6497619
3°24 | —0-4587919 —0-5938295 || 3°82 —0-0883265 —0-°6489755
3°25 —0-4528400 —0:5965535 || 3:83 —0-0818409 —0-6481308
3°26 —0°4468611 —0:5992152 | 3°84 —0-0753640 —0-6472279
3:27 —0-4408559 —0°6018146 3°85 —0-0688965 —0-6462671
3°28 | —0°4348250 —0-6043515 3°86 | —0:0624389 —0-6452486

120

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

Go(x)

—0-0559917

—0-0495556
—0-0431311
—0-0367188
—0-0303192
—0-0239330
—0-0175606
—0-0112027
—0-0048598
+0-0014676
-+-0-0077788
-+-0-0140734
-+-0:0203509
-+0:0266105
+0-0328518
-+-0-0390744
+0-0452776
+0-0514609
+0:0576237
+0:0637656
+0:0698860
+-0°0759844
-+0-0820603
+0-0881132
+0°0941425
+0-°1001478
+0°1061285

+0°1239183
+0:1297958
+0°1356462
+0°1414691
+0°1472640
-+-0°1530304
+0°1587679
+0°1644759
+0°1701540
-+-0°1758017
-+-0-1814186
+0°1870042
+0:1925581
+-0:1980798
+0°2035688
+-0:2090247
+0°2144472
+-0°2198356
+0°2251897
-++0:2305090
+0:2357930
+-0:2410413
+0°2462536
+0°2514294
-+0:2565683
+0-2616699
--0°2667338
-+0°2717596
-+-0'2767470

Neumann Functions—continued,

Gi(z) x Go(x) Gi(v)
—0:6441727 4-45 | +0-2816955 —0-4928942
—0-6430395 4-46 | +0-2866048 —0-4889507
—0-6418493 4-47 | +0-2914745 | —0-4849697
—0-6406022 4-48 | +0-2963041 —0-4809515
—0-6392986 4:49 | +0-3010934 | —0-4768966
—0-6379386 4:50 | +0°3058419 | —0-4728055
—0-6365225 4-51 +0°3105494 | —0-4686786
—0°6350506 4-52 | +0°3152154 | —0-4645163
—0°6335231 | 4:53 | +0:3198396 | —0-4603190
—0-6319402 | 4:54 | +0-3244216 —0-4560873
—0-6303022 4:55 | +0-3289612 —0-4518215
—0-6286093 | 4:56 | -+0-3334580 | —0-4475222
—0-6268619 | 4:57 +0°3379116 | —0-4431897
—0-6250602 | 4:58 | +0:3423217 | —0-4388246
—0°6232045 | 4:59 | +0-3466880 | —0-4344272
—0-6212950 | 4:60 | +-0-3510101 —0:4299980
—0-6193321 4-61 | -+0-3552878 —0-4255376
—0:6173160 4:62 | +0-3595207 —0-4210463
—0-6152470 4:63 | +0-:3637086 —0-4165246
—0-6131254 4-64 | +0°3678511 —0-4119730
—0-6109515 4-65 | +0°3719480 | —0-4073920
—0-6087255 4:66 | +0°3759989 | —0-4027820
—0-6064479 4-67 -+0:3800035 | —0-3981435
—0-6041189 | 4-68 | +0-3839616 | —0-3934770
—0:6017388 | 4:69 | +0:3878729 | —0-3887829
—0:5993080 | 4-70 | -+-0-3917372 —0-3840617
—0°5968267 4-71 +0°3955541 —0°3793140
—0°5942953 4-72 | +0-3993234 —0°3745401
—0:5917141 4-73 | +0-4030448 —0°3697406
—0°58908385 | 4:74 +0-4067181 —0-3649160
—0:5864038 | 4:75 | +0:4103431 —0-3600667
—0-5836752 | 4:76 | +0-4139194 | —0-3551933
—0-5808982 4:77 +0-4174468 —0-3502961
—0°5780732 4-78 | +0-4209252 —0:3453757
—0°5752004 4:79 | +0-4243543 — 03404327
—0-5722801 4:80 | +0-4277338 —0°3354674
—0-5693129 4:81 +0:4310636 | —0-3304804
—0-5662990 4:82 | +0-4343433 —0°3254721
—0-5632387 4-83 +0-4375729 —0-3204432
—0:5601325 4:84 | +0-4407521 —0-3153940
—0-5569807 4:85 | +0:4438807 —0-3103250
—0°5537837 4-86 | +0-4469586 | —0-3052368
—0°5505419 4-87 +0-4499854 —0-3001299
—0-5472556 488 | +0:4529611 —0-2950047
—0°5439253 4:89 | +0:-4558854 —0-2898618
—0:5405513 4:90 | +0-4587583 —0-2847016
—0-5371340 4-91 +0-4615795 —0:2795247
—0:5336737 | 4:92 | +0-4643488 | —0-2743316
—0-5301709 | 4-93 +0-4670661 —0-2691228
—0-5266261 4-94 | +0-4697312 —0:2638987
—0-5230395 | 4:95 | +0-4723440 —0-2586599
—0:5194116 4:96 | +0-4749043 —0-2534069
—0-5157428 497 | +0-4774121 —0-2481402
—0-51203385 4:98 | +0-4798671 — 02428603
—0-5082841 | 4:99 | +0-4822692 —0-2375677
—0-5044951 | 5:00 | +0-4846184 | —0-2322629
—0:5006668 | 5:01 +0:4869145 | —0-2269464
—0:4967997 | 5:02 | +0-4891573 | —0-2216188

ON THE

TABULATION

OF BESSEL

AND OTHER FUNCTIONS.

Neumann Functions—continued,

121

Go(~) Gi(z) x Go(«) Gi(z)
-+0-4913468 —0-2162805 5:61 +0°5259967 -+-0:0943309
+0:4934828 —0-2109321 5:62 +0°5250279 -++0:0994135
+0:4955654 —0-2055740 5:63 +0°5240084 +0:°1044775
+0°4975943 —0-2002068 5:64 -+0:°5229384 +0°1095224
+0°4995695 —0-1948310 5:65 -+0:5218180 +0°1145478
-+-0°5014908 —0-1894470 5:66 +0:5206475 -+0°1195532
--- 05033583 —0-1840555 5:67 +0:5194270 -+0°1245381
+0-°5051719 —0-1786568 5:68 -+0°5181568 +0°1295023
-+0-5069314 —0-1732515 5:69 +0°5168371 -+0:1344452
+.0°5086369 —0-1678402 5:70 -+0°5154680 -+-0°1393663
+0°5102883 —0-1624233 5-71 +0:5140498 -+0°1442653
-+-0°5118854 —0°1570014 5-72 +0:5125828 +0:1491418
+-0°5134283 —0:1515749 5:73 +0-5110671 -+0:1539954
+0:5149169 —0-1461444 5°74 -+0°5095029 -+0°1588255
+0°5163511 —0-1407103 5°75 -+0-5078906 +0:°1636319
--0-5177311 —0-1352732 5:76 -+-0°5062304 -+-0°1684141
-+-0:5190567 —0:1298336 fase lr -+0°5045224 -+-0:1731716
-+0-5203278 —0-1243919 5:78 +0:5027670 +-0°1779041
+0°5215445 —0-1189488 5:79 +0:5009644. -|-0-1826112
-++-0°5227068 —0-1135046 5:80 +0-4991149 -+-0°1872925
-+0°5238146 —0:1080599 5°81 +0:4972187 +0:1919476
+0°5248680 —0-1026152 5:82 +0:4952760 +0:1965760
+0°5258669 —0:°0971711 5°83 +0:4932872 +0:°2011775
+0°5268114 —0-0917279 5°84 +0:4912526 +0:2057515
-+0°5277015 —0-0862862 5°85 +0-4891723 +0:2102978
+0°5285371 —0:0808465 5:86 +0:4870467 --+-0:2148159
+0°5293184 —0-0754094 5:87 -+0°4848761 +0°2193055
+0°5300453 —0:0699752 588 +0°4826607 -+0:2237661
+0°5307179 —0-0645446 5:89 -+0:4804009 +-0:2281974
+-0:5313362 —0-0591179 5-90 -+0-4780969 -+-0°2325991
--+0-5319003 —0-0536958 5:91 -+-0°4757490 +-0°2369708
-|-0°5324101 —0:0482786 5-92 -+-0°4733576 -+-0°2413120
+0°5328658 —0°0428669 5:93 -++0°4709229 -+0:2456225
+0°5332675 —0-0374612 5:94 -+0°4684453 +0:2499019
+0:5336151 —0-0320620 5:95 -++-0:4659250 -+-0°2541499
+0:5339088 —0-0266697 5:96 -+0:4633624 -+-0:2583660
+0:5341486 —0:0212848 5:97 -+-0°4607578 -++-0:2625500
-+0°5343345 —0-0159079 5:98 +0°4581115 -+-0°2667015
-+0:5344667 —0-0105393 5:99 -+0°4554239 -+0-2708201
-+-0:5345453 —0-0051797 6:00 -+- 0°4526952 -++0:2749056
+0:5345703 | -+0:0001705 6:01 -++-0-4499259 -+0:2789576
+0:5345419 +0:0055109 6:02 +0-4471162 -+-0:2829757
+-0°5344602 -+-0:0108409 6:03 -++0:4442665 +0°2869596
+0:5343252 --0-0161601 6:04 +-0:4413771 -+-0:2909091
+0-5341370 --0-0214680 6:05 -+0:4384484 -+0°2948238
-+0:5338958 +0:0267642 6:06 +0:4354807 +0:2987034
+0:°5336017 +0-0320482 6:07 +0:4324744 -+-0°3025475
-+0:5332549 +0-0373194 6:08 -+-0:4294298 -+-0°3063559
-+0°5328554 +0:0425774 6:09 -+0°4263474 +0°3101283
-+0°5324034 --0:0478218 6:10 +-0:4232274 -+0°3138643
-+-0°5318990 -+-0:0530520 6-11 +-0-4200703 -+-0°3175637
-+0-5313424 -+0:0582677 6:12 -|+-0°4168763 +0°3212261
+0:5307337 +0:0634683 6:13 +0:4136459 -+0:3248514
-+0-5300731 -+0:0686535 6°14 --0°4103794 -+ 0°3284391
-+0-5293607 +0:0738227 6°15 +0:4070772 -+-0°3319890
+0:5285967 -+0:0789755 6°16 +0:4037397 +0°3355009
+0°5277812 +0:0841115 6°17 -+-0:4003673 +0°3389745
+.0:5269145 | +.0-0892301 | 618 | -+-0-3969604 | +0-3424094

122

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913,

Neumann Functions—continued,

x Gol)
6:19 +0:3935193
6°20 +0-3900444
6:21 +0°3865361
6:22 +0°3829949
6°23 +0°3794211
6°24 +0°3758152
6°25 +0°3721774
6°26 -+0°3685083
6:27 +0°3648082
6:28 -+0°3610775
6:29 +0°3573167
6°30 +0°3535262
6°31 -+-0:°3497063
6-32 -+0°3458576
6:33 +0°3419804
6°34 +0°3380752
6°35 +0°3341423
6°36 +0:3301823
6°37 +0°3261954
6°38 -+0:3221822
6°39 +0°3181431
6:40 +0:3140786
6-41 -++0:3099890
6-42 +0°3058748
6:43 +0:°3017365
6:44 +0:2975744
6:45 -+0-2933890
6:46 +0°2891808
6:47 +0:2849503
6:48 -+-0:2806978
6-49 +0:2764238
6:50 +0:2721287
6°51 +0:2678131
6°52 +0:2634773
6°53 -+0:2591218
6-54 +0:2547471
6°55 +0°2503537
6:56 +0°2459419
6:57 +0:2415123
6°58 -+0:2370652
6°59 -+0°2326012
6:60 +0°2281208
6°61 +0°2236244
6:62 +0°2191124
6°63 +0°2145853
6:64 +0-2100436
6°65 +0:2054877
6-66 +0°2009182
6°67 +0:1963355
6-68 +0-:1917400
6-69 +0-°1871322
6°70 +0°1825126
6°71 +0:°1778816
6°72 +0:1732398
6:73 +0:1685876
6°74 +0°1639254
6°75 +0°1592538
6°76 +0:1545731

Gi(«)
+-0°3458055
-+-0°3491624
+-0°3524799
+0°3557578
-+|-0°3589958
-+-0°3621937
+-0°3653512
+-0°3684681
+-0°3715441
-+-0°3745790
+-0°3775726

-+0°3863034
+0°3891296
+0-3919135
-+0:3946547
+0:3973532
+0:4000087
+0-4026211
+-0:4051902
+-0-4077157
+0:4101975
+0°4126355
+.0-4150295
+0-4173793
+0-4196848
+0-4219457
+.0-4241620
+.0:4263334
+-0:4284600
+.0:4305415
+.0°4325778
-++0-4345687
+0°4365142
+0-4384142
+0°4402685
+0-4420769
+0-4438395
+.0°4455560
4.0-4472265
+0:4488507
+0:4504287
+0:4519603
4.0-4534455
+0-4548841
+.0-4562762
+.0-4576216
+0:4589203
+0:4601723
+0:4613774
+0-4625356
-+.0-4636469
+0-4647113
+.0°4657287
+.0:4666990
+.0-4676223
+0:4684985

Go(z) Gi(z)
-+0:1498839 | -10-4693276
+-0:1451867 | -1-0-4701097
+0:1404819 | -+0-4708447
--0:1357699 | +0-4715325
+0-1310513 | -+-0-4721732
+0-1263266 | +0-4727668
+0:1215962 | +0-4733133
-+0:1168605 | -+0-4738128
+0:1121200 | +0-4742652
--+0°1073753 | +0:4746705
---0-1026268 | -+-0-4750288
--0-0978749 | +0-4753401
-+0-0931202 | -+0-4756045
+0-0883630 | +0:4758220
+0:0836039 | +0-4759926
+0:0788433 | +0-4761164
+0:0740817 | -+0-4761934
+0:0693196 | +0-4762237
+0:0645575 | +0-4762074
+0:0597957 | +0-4761445
-+0:0550348 | +0-4760351
+0:0502752 | +0-4758793
+0:0455174 | +0-4756771
+0:0407618 | +0:4754286
-+0:0360090 | -+0-4751339
-+0-0312593 | +-0-4747932
+0:0265133 | +0-4744065
+0-0217713 | +0-4739738
-+0-0170340 | +0-4734954
+0-0123016 | -+-0-4729713
+0:0075747 | -+0-4724016
+0:0028537 | -+0-4717865
—0-0018609 | +0-4711260
—0-0065687 | +0-4704203
—0-0112692 | +0-4696695
—0-0159620 | +0-4688738
—0-0206466 | +0-4680333
—0-0253225 | +0-4671481
—0-0299894 | -++0-4662183
—0-0346467 +0-4652442
—0-0392941 +-0:4642259
—0-0439311 | +0-4631635
—0:0485572 | +0:-4620572
—0-0531721 | +0-4609071
—0-0577752 | +0-4597135
—0:0623662 | +0-4584764
—0-0669446 | -+0-4571962
—0:0715100 | +0-4558729
—0-0760619 | +0:4545067
—0-0806000 | -++0-4530979
—0-0851238 | +0-4516466
—0-0896328 | +0-4501530
—0-0941267 | -+0-4486173
—0-0986050 | +0-4470397
—0-1030674 | +0-4454205
—0-1075133 | +0-4437598
—0-1119424 | +0-4420578
—0:1163543 | +0-4403148

~~ F- ‘
ON THE TABULATION OF BESSEL AND OTHER FUNCTIONS. : 123

‘
4.

Neumann Functions—continued,

]

Go(x) Ga(a) | Go(a) Gi(a)
—0:1207486 +0°4385310 —0°3328025 +0°2745266
—0:1251248 -+0:4367067 —0°3355294 +0:2708413
—0-1294826 +0°4348420 —0°3382193 +0°2671340
—0:1338215 +0-4329371 —0°3408720 +0°2634050
—0:1381412 +0:4309923 —0°3434873 -+0-2596548
—0'1424412 +0:4290079 —0°3460650 +0°2558838
—0:1467212 +0:-4269841 | —0°3486049 +0°2520923
—0-1509808 +0:4249211 | —0°3511068 -++0:2482808
—0°1552195 +0-4228192 || —0°3535705 +0°2444496
—0°1594370 +-0:4206787 —0°3559957 +0°2405992
—0'1636329 +0°4184997 —0°3583823 -+-0:2367298
—0-1678069 -+0:-4162826 —0°3607302 -+-0:2328420
—0°1719585 +0:4140277 —0°3630391 -+-0°2289361

! —0°1760873 -+0°4117351 —0°3653089 +0°2250126

r —0-1801930 +-0°4094051 —0°3675393 +0°2210718

s —0°1842753 +0-4070381 —0°3697303 -+-0°2171141

; —0°1883337 +0°4046343 —0°3718816 +-0°2131399
7:52 —0°1923679 -+0°4021940 —0°3739930 +-0°2091497
7:53 —0°1963775 +0:3997174 —0°3760645 -+-0°2051438
754 | -—0°2003621 +-0°3972049 —0°3780958 +-0°2011227
7:55 —0°2043214 +0°3946567 y —0°3800869 +0:1970867
7:56 —0°2082551 +0°3920731 ‘1 —0°3820375 +0-1930362
757 —0:2121628 +0°3894544 ai! —0°3839476 -+0°1889717
7:58 —0°2160441 +0°3868010 “Il —0°3858169 +0-°1848937
7:59 —0:2198987 +0°3841131 ‘1 —0°3876454 -+-0°1808024
7:60 —0°2237262 +0°3813910 lt —0°3894329 -+-0°1766983
761 — 02275264 -+-0°3786350 gil —0°3911793 +0°1725818
7:62 —0:2312988 +0°3758455 ‘ — 03928845 +0°1684534
7:63 —0°2350431 +0°3730227 —0°3945483 +0°1643134
7°64 —0°2387591 +0:3701669 —0°3961707 +0:1601623
7:65 —0°2424464 +0°3672786 —0°3977515 -+0°1560005
7°66 —0-2461046 +0°3643579 —0°3992907 -+-0:°1518283
7:67 —0-2497334 --+-0°3614053 —0°4007881 -+-0°1476462
7°68 —0°2533326 -+-0°3584210 —0°4022436 +0°1434547
7:69 —0:2569018 +0°3554054 —0-4036571 +0°1392542
7°70 —0°2604406 -+-0°3523587 —0-4050286 +0°1350450
771 — 02639488 +0°3492814 —0:4063580 +0°1308276
7°72 —0°2674261 -+-0°3461738 —0°4076451 -+0:1266023
7°73 —0:2708722 +0°3430362 —0-4088900 +0:1223697
7:74 —0°2742867 -+0°3398689 —0°4100925 +0:1181301
7°75 —0°2776695 +0°3366724 —0°4112525 +0-1138840
7°76 —0-2810201 -+-0°3334469 —0:4123701 +0:1096318
ariel —0°2843383 +0°3301927 —0°4134452 +0°1053738
7:78 —0°2876238 --0:3269103 —0°4144776 +0°1011106
7-79 —0:2908764 +0°3236000 —0°4154674 +0:0968425
7:80 —0-2940957 -+-0°3202621 —0°4164144 -+0:0925700
781 ‘—0:2972815 -+-0°3168970 —0°4173187 -+0:0882935
7°82 —0°3004336 +0°3135051 —0-4181803 -+0:0840133
7:83 —0°3035516 +0:3100867 —0-4189990 +0-0797299
7:84 —0°3066352 -+-0°3066421 —0°4197749 +0:0754438
7:85 —0°3096843 --0°3031718 —0°4205079 +0-0711554
7:86 —0°3126986 +0:°2996761 —0°4211980 +0-0668650
7:87 —0°3156778 +0:2961554 —0-4218452 +0:0625731
7:88 —0°3186216 +0°2926101 —0°4224495 +0-0582801
7:89 —0°3215299 +0°2890405 —0:4230108 -++0:0539864
7:90 —0°3244024 +-0°2854469 —0°4235292 +0-0496925
791 —0°3272388 +0°2818298 —0°4240047 +0-0453988
7:92 —0°3300389 -+0°2781896 —0°4244372 +0-0411056

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

Neumann Functions—continued,

Go!r)

Go(x) G(x) ie exe reall Gi(z)

—0-4248268 | -+0-0368134 9:09 | —0-3763619 | —0-1966875

| —0-4251735 | +0-0325227 910 | —0-3743773 | —0-2002230

| —0-4254772 | +0-0282338 9-11 | —0-3723575 | —0-2037348
—0-4257381 | -+0-0239471 9-12 | —0-3703027 | —0-2072227
—0-4259562 | -+0-0196631 9:13 | —0-3682131 | —0-2106863
—0-4261314_ | +0-0153821 9:14 | —0-3660890 | —0-2141254
—0-4262638 | +0-0111046 9:15 | —0-3639307 | —0-2175395
—0-4263535 | +0-0068310 9:16 | —0-3617383 | —0-2209284
—0-4264004 | -+-0-0025617 9:17 | —0-3595122 | —0-2242918
—0-4264047 | —0-0017028 | 9-18 | —0-3572525 | —0-2276293
—0-4263663 | —0-0059622 | 9-19 | —0-3549596 | —0-2309408
—0-4262854 | —0-0102161 9-20 | —0-3526338 | —0-2342258
—0-4261620 | —0-0144641 9-21 | —0-3502752 | —0-2374841
—0-4259961 | —0-0187057 || 9-22 | —0-3478842 | —0-2407155
|g —0-4257879 | —0-0229406 9-23 | —0-3454611 | —0-2439196
. —0-4255373 | —0-0271683 9-24 | —0-3430059 | —0-2470961
8-67 | —0-4252445 | —0-0313884 9-25 | —0-3405192 | —0-2502448
8-68 | —0-4249096 | —0-0356006 9-26 | —0-3380011 | —0-2533653
8-69 | —0-4245325 | —0-0398044 9-27 | —0-3354519 | —0-2564575
8-70 | —0-4241135 | —0-0439995 9-28 | —0-3328720 | —0-2595210
8-71 | —0-4236526 | —0-0481854 9-29 | —0-3302616 | —0-2625556
8-72 | —0-4231498 | —0-0523618 9:30 | —0-3276210 | —0-2655609
8-73 | —0-4226054 | —0-0565282 9-31 | —0-3249505 | —0-2685368
8-74 | —0-4220193 | —0-0606842 9°32 | —0-3222504 | —0-2714829
8:75 | —0-4213917 | —0-0648296 9-33 —0-3195210 | —0-2743991
8-76 | —0-4207228 | —0-0689638 9-34 | —0-3167625 | —0-2772851
8-77 | —0-4200125 | —0-0730865 9-35 | —0-3139754 | —0-2801405
8-78 | —0-4192611 | —0-0771972 9:36 | —0-3111598 | —0-2829652
8-79 | —0-4184687 | —0-0812957 9°37 | —0-3083161 | —0-2857590
8-80 | —0-4176353 | —0-0853815 9°38 | —0-3054447 | —0-2885215
8-81 | —0-4167611 | —0-0894542 9-39 | —0-3025458 | —0-2912526
8-82 | —0-4158463 | —0-0935135 9-40 | —0-2996198 | —0-2939520
8-83 | —0-4148909 | —0-0975590 9-41 | —0-2966669 | —0-2966195
8:84 | —0-4138952 | —0-1015903 9-42 | —0-2936875 | —0-2992548
8:85 | —0-4128593 | —0-1056070 9-43 | —0-2906819 | —0-3018578
8-86 | —0-4117832 | —0-1096087 9-44 | —0-2876505 | —0-3044282
8-87 | —0-4106671 | —0-1135951 9-45 | —0-2845935 | —0-3069658
8-88 | —0-4095113 | —0-1175658 9-46 | —0-2815113 | —0-3094704
8:89 | —0-4083159 | —0-1215204 9-47 | —0-2784042 | —0-3119417
—0-4070810 | —0-1254586 9-48 | —0-2752726 | —0-3143796
—0-4058068 | —0-1293800 9-49 | —0-2721167 | —0-3167839
—0-4044935 | —0-1332842 9-50 | —0-2689370 | —0-3191543
—0-4031412 | —0-1371709 9-51 | —0-2657337 | —0-3214907
—0-4017501 | —0-1410397 9-52 | —0-2625073 —0-3237928
—0-4003205 | —0-1448903 | 9:53 | —0-2592580 | —0-3260606
—0-3988524 | —0-1487223 9°54 —0-2559862 | —0-3282937
—0-3973461 | —0-1525353 9°55 | —0-2526923 | —0-3304920
—0-3958017 | —0-1563290 9-56 | —0-2493765 | —0-3326554
—0-3942195 | —0-1601031 9°57 | —0-2460393 | —0-3347836
—0-3925997 | —0-1638571 9-58 | —0-2426810 | —0-3368764
—0-3909424 | —0-1675908 9-59 | —0-2393019 | —0-3389338
—0-3892479 | —0-1713038 9-60 | —0-2359024 | —0-3409556
—0-3875164 | —0-1749958 9-61 | —0-2324829 | —0-3429415
—0-3857481 | —0-1786664 9-62 —0-2290437 | —0-3448915
—0-3839431 | —0-1823154 9-63 | —0-2255852 | —0-3468053

| —0-3821018 | —0-1859423 9-64 | —0-2221077 | —0-3486829

| —0-3802244 | —0-1895468 9-65 | —0-2186117 | —0-3505240
—0-3783110 | —0-1931287 9-66 | —0-2150974 | —0°3523286

ON

THE TABULATION

OF

BESSEL

AND OTHER

Neumann Functions—continued,

FUNCTIONS,

0(2’) | Gi(a) av Go(«) Gi(v)
9-67 —0-°2115653 —0°3540965 | 10°25 +0-0108311 —0°3910216
9-68 —0-2080156 —0°3558275 |; 10:26 +0:-0147388 —0°3905127
9-69 —0-°2044488 —0°3575216 || 10°27 +0-0186412 —0-3899656
9-70 —0-2008653 —0°3591785 || 10-28 +0-0225380 —0°3893805
9-71 —0-1972654 —0-3607982 || 10:29 +0-0264287 —0°3887574
9-72 —0:1936495 —0°3623806 10-30 +0:0303130 —0°3880964.
9-73 —0-1900179 —0°3639255 | 10°31 +0:0341905 —0°3873976
9°74 —0°1863711 —0°3654328 | 10°32 +0:0380608 —0-3866611
9-75 —0-1827094 —0°3669024 10°33 +0-0419236 —0°3858871
9-76 —0:1790332 —0-3683343 10°34 -+0:-0457784. —0°3850756
9:77 —0:1753428 —0°3697282 | 10°35 +0:0496249 —0°3842267
9-78 —0°1716387 —0°3710842 | 10:36 | -+0-0534628 —0°3833406
9-79 —0:1679212 —0°3724021 | 10°37 | +0-0572916 —0°3824174
9-80 —0:1641908 —0°3736818 || 10:38 | -+0-0611110 —0°3814573
9-81 —0:1604478 | —0-3749233 10°39 -+-0:0649206 —0°3804603
9-82 —0°1566925 | —0-3761264 10:40 +0:0687201 —0:3794266
9-83 — 01529254 —0:3772911 10-41 +0:0725090 —0°3783563
9-84 —0:1491468 —0-3784172 10°42 -+0:0762871 —0°3772496
9°85 —0:1453571 —0°3795048 | 10-43 | +-0-0800539 —0°3761066
9°86 —0'1415568 | —0-3805538 | 10-44 +0-0838091 —0°3749274
9°87 —0:1377462 —0-3815640 10°45 --+-0°0875523 —0-°3737122
9-88 —0-1339256 —0°3825355 10°46 +0:0912832 —0°3724612
9-89 —0-1300956 —0-3834682 10°47 -+0-0950014 —0°3711745
9-90. —0:1262564 —0-3843620 10°48 -+0-0987066 —0°3698522
9-91 —0°1224085 —0-3852168 10°49 +0°1023984 —0°3684946
9-92 —0:1185522 —0:3860327 10°50 +0-1060764 —0-3671018
9:93 —0-1146879 —0°3868096 || 10-51 -+0-1097403 —0°3656739
9-94 —0-1108161 | —0:3875474 | 10°52 -+.9°1133898 —0°3642112
9°95 —0-1069371 | —0-3882462 | 10-53 -+-0-1170244 —0-3627138
9-96 —0-1030513 —0°3889058 | 10°54 +0:1206439 —0-3611819
9:97 —0-0991591 —0-3895263 | 10-55 --+-0-1242479 —0°3596157
9-98 —0-0952609 —0:3901076 || 10-56 --0:1278361 | —0-3580153
9-99 —0-0913571 —0°3906497 10°57 +0°1314081 | —0-3563810
10-00 —0-0874480 —0°3911526 || 10°58 -+-0°1349636 —0°3547129
10-01 —0:0835341 —0°3916163 10°59 --0-1385022 —0°3530112
10-02 —0-:0796158 —0°3920408 | 10°60 +0°1420237 —0°3512762
10:03 —0:0756934 —0°3924261 || 10°61 -+-+0°1455276 —0°3495080
10:04 —0-0717674 —0°3927722 || 10°62 --+-0°1490137 —0-3477069
10:05 —0-:0678381 —0°3930791 | 10°63 +0:°1524817 —0:3458730
10-06 —0:0639059 —0°3933467 | 10°64 -+-0°1559311 —0-3440066
10:07 —0-0599713 —0°3935751 | 10°65 -+0:1593617 —0:3421079
10-08 —0-0560346 —0'3937644 I 10:66 -+-0:1627731 —0:3401770
10-09 —0-0520962 —0°3939145 || 10°67 +0-1661651 —0°3382142
10-10 —0:0481564 —0°3940255 | 10°68 +0:1695373 —0-3362198
10-11 —0-0442158 —0:-3940974 || 10-69 +0:1728894. —0°3341939
10°12 —0-0402746 —0°3941302 || 10-70 -+0-1762211 —0°3321368
10-13 —0-0363333 —0°3941240 | 10-71 +0-1795321 —0-3300487
10°14 —0:0323922 —0°3940787 i 10°72 -+0:1828220 —0-3279299
10°15 —0:0284518 —0°3939945 || 10-73 +0-1860906 —0-°3257805
10°16 —0:0245125 —0°3938714 || 10°74 -+0:1893375 —0-3236009
10°17 —0:0205746 —0°3937094 10°75 -+0-1925625 —0°3213912
10-18 —0:0166384 —0°3935086 10°76 --+-0°1957653 —0°3191518
10°19 —0-:0127045 —0°3932690 10°77 +0°1989455 —0-3168828
10:20 —0-:0087732 —0°3929908 10:78 -+-0-2021028 —0°3145845
10°21 —0:0048449 —0°3926739 10°79 +0:°2052371 —0°3122571
10-22 —0-0009199 —0°3923185 10°80 +0°2083479 —0-3099010
10°23 +0-0030014 —0°3919246 10°81 -+0°2114350 —0-3075163
10°24 +0:0069185 | —0-3914923 10°82 +0:2144981 —0-3051034

125

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

Neumann Functions—continued,

x Gola) Gi(z) x Go() Gu(a)
10°83 +0°2175370 —0°3026625 11-41 | +0°3441456 —0-1232874
10°84 +0°2205513 —0-3001938 11:42 +-0°3453607 —0:1197334
10°85 -+-0°2235408 —0-2976977 11:43 -+0°3465402 | —0-1161706
10°86 +0:2265051 —0-2951743 11-44 | +0°3476841 | —0-1125994
10-87 -++0:229444] —0°2926240 11-45 +-0°3487922 —0-1090202
10°88 -+-0°2323575 —0-2900471 11-46 +0:3498644. —0°1054333
10°89 -+-0°2352450 —0:2874438 | 11:47 -+0°3509007 —0:1018390
10:90 | +0:2381063 — 02848144 11:48 +0°3519011 —0:0982378
10-91 +0°2409412 — 02821592 11:49 -+-0°3528655 —0:0946300
10:92 +0°2437494 —0:2794784 11°50 -+0°3537937 —0-:0910159
10-93 -+-0°2465307 —0-2767724 11:51 | +0°3546858 —0:0873959
10-94 +0°2492848 —0:°2740415 11°52) | +0°3555416 —0:0837704
10°95 +0°2520114 —0-2712859 || 11:53 -+-0°3563611 —0:0801398
10-96 --0°2547104 —0-2685059 11°54 +0:°3571443 —0:0765043
10:97 +0°2573815 —0:2657018 11°55 +0°3578912 —0-0728644
10-98 +-0°2600244 —0:2628740 11-56 +0°3586016 —0:0692204
10-99 +0:2626389 —0-2600226 11:57 -+-0°3592755 —0:0655727
11-00 +0°2652248 —0-2571481 | 11°58 +-0°3599130 —0:0619217
11-01 +0:2677818 —0-2542507 || 11°59 -+-+0°3605140 —0:0582677
11-02 -+0:2703097 —0-2513307 || 11-60 -+-0°3610784 —0:0546110
11:03 -+-0°2728083 —0-2483884 11°61 -+-0°3616062 —0:0509521
11-04 +0:2752774 —0°2454242 11-62 -+-0°3620974 —0-0472912
11-05 +0:2777167 —0°2424384 11°63 + 0°3625520 —0:0436288
11-06 --0°2801261 —0-2394312 11-64 -+-0°3629700 | —0-0399653
11:07 +0°2825053 —0:2364030 11°65 +0°3633514 | —0-0363009
11-08 +0-2848541 —0-2333541 11-66 -++-0:3636961 —0-0326360
11:09 -- 02871723 — 02302848 11:67 -+0°3640041 —0-0289711
11:10 +0:°2894597 —0-2271954 11-68 +0°3642755 —0:0253064
VBE Aa +0:2917161 —0-2240863 11-69 -+0°3645103 —0-0216424
11:12 +0:°2939413 —0-2209578 11-70 +0°3647084 —0-0179793
11:13 +0-2961352 —0-2178102 11-71 +0:3648699 —0-:0143176
11:14 -+0°2982975 —0°2146438 11-72 +0°3649948 —0:0106576
11-15 +0:3004280 —0-2114590 11-73 -+-0:3650831 —0-0069996
11-16 +0°3025266 —0°2082561 11-74 +0°3651348 — 00033441
11:17 -+0°3045931 —0-2050354 11°75 -+-0°3651500 -+0:0003087
11:18 -+0:3066272 —0-2017972 11-76 +0°3651286 +0:0039583
11-19 +0:3086289 —0:1985419 11:77 +0:3650708 +0:0076044
11-20 +0:°3105980 —0-1952699 11-78 +0°3649766 +0-0112467
11-21 +0°3125343 —0:1919814 11:79 +0°3648459 +0:0148847
11-22 +0°3144376 —0:1886768 11-80 +0:3646789 +0:0185182
11-23 -+-0°3163078 —0:1853565 11-81 +0°3644756 +0:0221468
11-24 +0°3181447 —0-1820207 11-82 +0:-3642360 -+0-0257701
11-25 +0:3199481 —0-1786698 11°83 +0°3639602 -+-0:0293878
11:26 +0°3217180 —0°1753042 11-84 -+0:3636483 +0:0329995
11-27 +0°3234542 —0°1719242 11°85 -+-0°3633003 +0-0366049
11-28 +0°3251565 —0-1685301 11-86 -+0°3629162 +0-0402036
11:29 +0:3268248 —0:1651223 11:87 +0°3624962 +0:0437953
11°30 +0°3284589 —0°1617012 11°88 +0°3620403 +0:0473796
11:31 +0°3300588 —0°1582671 11-89 +0°3615486 +0-0509562
11-32 +0°3316242 —0°1548203 11-90 -+0°3610212 +0:0545247
11-33 +0°3331551 —0°1513612 11-91 -+0°3604581 +0-0580848
11-34 +0°3346514 —0'1478901 11-92 +0°3598595 +0-0616362
11°35 +0°3361129 —0-1444074 11-93 +0°3592254 +0-0651785
11°36 +0°3375395 —0:1409135 11-94 +-0°3585560 +0:0687113
11-37 -+0°3389312 —0:1374087 11-95 +0°3578512 -+-0:0722344
11:38 -+-0°3402877 —0:1338933 11-96 +0°3571113 -+0:0757474
11:39 +0°3416090 —0°1303677 11-97 +0°3563363 -+0:0792499
11-40 +0:3428950 —0°1268323 11-98 +0°3555263 +0:0827416

ON THE TABULATION OF BESSEL AND OTHER FUNCTIONS.

Neumann Functions—continued,

127

Go(x) Gi(x) x Go(x) Gi(r)
+0°3546815 | +0°0862222 12°57 +0°2514309 +0:2584717
+0°3538019 +0°0896913 | 12°58 -++0°2488347 +0-2607666
+-0°3528877 +0:0931486 | 12°59 +-0°2462157 +-0°2630338
+0:3519389 | +0-0965938 | 12-60 +0°2435741 -++0:2652730
-+0°3509558 +0°1000266 12°61 +-0°2409103 +0:2674841
--+0°3499384 +0°1034466 || 12°62 +-0°2382245 +0°2696669
+0:3488869 | -+-0°1068535 12°63 +0:2355170 +0°2718212
-+-0:3478014 | +0:1102469 12°64 +-0°:2327882 +-0°2739467
+-0°3466820 +-071136265 12°65 -++0°2300382 +0°2760433
+-0°3455289 +-0-1169921 12°66 +0:2272674 +0-2781109
+0°3443422 -+-0:1203433 | 12°67 +-0°2244761 +0°2801492
+0°3431221 +0:1236798 | 12°68 +0°2216645 +0:2821581
+0°3418687 +0:1270012 | 12°69 +-0°2188330 +-0°2841374
+0°3405821 +0:1303073- || 12-70 -+0°2159819 -+0:2860869
-+-0°3392626 +0°1335977 / 12-71 +0°2131114 -+0-2880065
-+-0°3379103 +0°1368722 || 12°72 +0-2102219 +-0°2898959
+-0°3365252 -+-0°1401304 |) 12°73 +0:2073136 +0:2917550
+0:3351077 | +0-1433719 | 12-74 --0°2043869 +0°2935837
+-0°3336579 | +0°1465965 || 12°75 +-0-2014421 +0°2953818
-+0°3321759 -+-0°1498040 || 12°76 +0°1984794 +-0:2971491
+0°3306619 +-0°1529940 > 12°77 -+0°1954992 +0:2988856
+0°3291161 +0°1561661 | 12°78 +-0-1925018 +0-3005910
+0°3275387 +-0°1593202 12°79 -++0°1894875 -+-0°3022652
+-0°3259298 +0°1624558 12-80 +-0°1864566 +-0°3039080
+0°3242896 +0°1655727 12°81 -+0:1834094 +0°3055194
+0°3226184 +0-1686706 12°82 +-0:1803463 +0°3070991
+0°3209163 +0-1717493 12°83 -+-0°1772676 +0°3086471
-+0°3191835 -+-0-1748084 12°84 +0°1741735 +0-3101633
+0°3174202 +0°1778477 || 12°85 -+-0°1710644 -+-+0°3116474
-+0°3156266 -+0-1808668 12°86 -+-0°1679406 +0°3130994
+-0°3138029 +0:1838655 12°87 -+-0°1648025 +0°3145192
+0°3119493 -+0°1868435 12°88 +0°1616503 -+0°3159066
+0°3100660 -+-0°1898006 12°89 +0°1584844 +0°3172616
+-0°3081533 -++-0-1927364 12-90 -++0-1553052 +-0°3185840
+0°3062114 +-0:1956507 || 12-91 +0°1521129 +-0°3198737
+0°3042404 -+-0°1985432 12:92 -+0:1489078 -+0°3211307
+0°3022406 +0:2014136 12-93 -++0°1456903 +0°3223547
+0°3002121 +-0°2042617 12°94 -+-0°1424608 +0-3235458
+0°2981553 -+-0:2070873 12°95 -+-0°1392196 +0°3247038
+0°2960704 +0-2098900 12-96 -++0-1359669 +-0:3258287
+0°2939576 +-0°2126696 || 12-97 +-0°1327031 +0°3269204
+0-2918171 +0°2154258 | 12:98 +0°1294286 +0°3279787
+-0°2896492 +0°2181584 12-99 +-0°1261436 +0°3290036
-+-0:2874540 +0:2208672 13°00 -+0°1228486 +0°3299950
-+-0:2852319 +0:2235518 13-01 +0°1195439 +0°3309529
+-0°2829831 +0:2262121 13-02 +0:1162297 +0°3318771
+0:2807078 +-0:2288478 13-03 +0°1129064 +0°3327677
+0:2784063 +0:2314586 13-04 +0°1095744 +0°3336245
+-0:2760788 +0:2340443 13:05 +-0°1062340 +0°3344475
+0:2737255 +0:2366047 13-06 +0:1028856 +0°3352366
+0:°2713467 +0:2391396 13:07 +0:0995294 +0-3359918
+0°2689428 +0:2416487 13-08 +0-0961659 +0°3367131
+0°2665139 +0:2441318 13-09 -+-0:0927953 +0:3374003
+0:2640603 +0°2465886 13°10 +0-0894180 +0°3380535
+0:2615822 +0:2490190 13-11 +0-0860344 +0°3386726
-+0°2590800 +0°2514228 13°12 +0:0826447 +0°3392575
+0:2565539 +0-2537996 13°13 +0-0792493 +0-3398083
+0°2540041 +0°2561493 13-14 -+-0:0758486 +0°3403249

128

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915.

Neumann Functions—continued,

Go(z)

Go(z) Gi(z) | G(x)
+0-0724429 | +0-3408073 | 13-73 | —0-1220050 | +-0-3111202
+0:0690326 | +0-3412554 | 13-74 | —0-1251089 | -0-3096586
+0:0656180 | +0-3416692 | 13-75 | —0-1281981 | -+0-3081673
+0:0621994 | +0-3420488 | 13-76 | —0-1312722 | --0-3066465
+0:0587771 | +0-3423941 || 13-77 | —0-1343310 | +-0-3050963
+0:0553516 | +0-3427052 | 13°78 | —0-1373741 | -10-3035168
+-0-0519232 | +0-3429820 || 13-79 | —0-1404013 | +0-3019083
+0:0484921 | +0-3432244 | 13-80 | —0-1434122 | -+10-3002710
+0:0450588 | +0:3434325 | 13°81 | —0-1464066 | --0-2986050
+0-0416235 | +0-3436064 | 13°82 | —0-1493842 | +.0-2969105
+0:0381867 | +0-3437460 || 13-83 | —0-1523447 | -10-2951877
+0:0347487 | +0-3438513 | 13°84 | —0-1552879 | --0-2934368
+0-0313098 | +0-3439224 | 13:85 | —0-1582134 | --0-2916580
+0:0278703 | +0-3439592 | 13-86 --0:1611210 | +0-2898514
+0:0244306 | +0-3439618 | 13°87 | —0-1640103 | --0-2880174
+-0:0209912 | +-0:3439302 | 13°88 | —0-1668812 | +-0-2861560
4-0:0175522 | +0-3438645 | 13°89 | —0-1697334 | +0-2842675
+0-0141140 | +0:3437646 | 13-90 | —0-1725665 | +0-2823521
+0:0106770 | -+-0-3436306 | 13-91 | —0-1753803 | +.0-2804100
+-0:0072415 | +0-3434625 | 13-92 | —0-1781746 | -+0-2784414
-+0-0038078 | +0-3432604 | 13°93 | —0-1809491 | +.0-2764465
+0:0003764 | +0-3430244 | 13-94 | —0-1837035 | +0-2744256
—0-0030525 | +0-3427544 | 13-95 | —0-1864375 | -+0-2723788
—0-0064786 | +0-3424506 | 13-96 | —0-1891509 | -+0-2703064
—0-0099014 | -+0-3421130 | 13-97 | —0-1918435 | +-0-2682086
—0-0133207 | +0-3417416 | 13-98 | —0-1945150 | +0-2660856
—0-0167361 | -+0-3413365 | 13:99 | —0-1971652 | --0-2639377
—0-0201473 | -+-0-3408978 | 14:00 | —0-1997937 | +0-2617651
—0-0235539 | -+0-3404255 | 14-01 | —0-2024004 | +0-2595680
—0-0269557 | +0-3399197 | 14:02 | —0-2049850 | -10-2573466
—0-0303522 | -+-0-3393805 | 14:03 | —0-2075472 | -10-2551012
—0-0337432 | +0-3388080 | 14:04 | —0-2100869 | +0-2528321
—0-0371283 | +-0:3382022 | 14-05 | —0-2126038 | -10-2505395
—0-0405072 | -+0-3375633 | 14-06 | —0-2150976 | -0-2482235
—0-0438795 | +0-3368913 | 14:07 | —0-2175682 | --0-2458845
—0-0472449 | +0-3361863 | 14:08 | —0-2200152 | +0-2435227
—0-0506031 | +0-3354484 | 14:09 | —0-2224385 | -10-2411383
—0-0539538 | -10-3346777 | 14:10 | —0-2248379 | -+-0-2387317
—0-0572966 | -10-3338743 | 14:11 | —0-2272131 | --0-2363030
—0-0606311 | +0-3330383 | 14:12 | —0-2295639 | --0-2338526
—0-0639572 | -+-0:3321698 | 14:13 | —0-2318901 | -+0-2313806
—0-0672744 | +0-3312689 | 14:14 | —0-2341914 | -+-0-2288874
—0-0705824 | +0-3303358 | 14:15 | —0-2364677 | --0-2263732
—0-0738810 | -+0°3293705 | 14:16 | —0-2387188 | -|-0-2238382
—0-0771697 | -+-0-3283732 | 14:17 | —0-2409444 | --0-2212898
—0-0804483 | -10-3273439 | 14:18 | —0-2431444 | +-0-2187071
—0-0837164 | -++0-3262828 | 14:19 | —0-2453185 | -10-2161115
—0-0869738 | -10-3251901 | 14:20 | —0-2474666 | -+-0-2134962
—0-0902201 | +0-3240658 | 14:21 | —0-2495884 | --0-2108615
—0-0934550 | +0-3229102 | 14:22 | —0-2516838 | +-0-2082077
—0-0966782 | +0-3217233 | 14-23 | —0-2537525 | +0-2055351
—0-0998894 | +0-3205053 | 14:24 | —0-2557944 | +.0-2028439
—0-1030882 | +0-3192563 | 14-25 | —0-2578093 | -+.0-2001344
—0-1062744 | -10-3179765 | 14:26 | —0-2597970 | +.0:1974069
—0-1094476 | +0-3166660 | 14:27 | —0-2617574 | -10-1946617
—0:1126076 | -10-3153249 | 14-28 | —0-2636902 | -.0-1918990
—0-1157540 | +0:3139535 | 14-29 | —0-2655953 | +.0-1891192
—0-1188866 | +0-3125519 |, 14:30 | —0-2674725 | -10:1863225

een

ON

THE TABULATION OF BESSEL AND OTHER FUNCTIONS.

Neumann Functions—continued,

Go(«) Gi(2) uv Go(x) Gi(2)
—0°2693217 +0-1835092 14:89 —0°3244344 +0-0024150
—0°2711426 -+0°1806797 14:90 —0°3244423 —0-0008299
—0°2729352 +0:1778342 14°91 —0°3244178 —0-0040726
—0°2746992 -+0:1749729 14-92 —0°3243608 —0:0073127
—0:2764346 +0:1720962 14-93 —0°3242715 —0-0105499
—0°2781411 +0°1692044 14:94 —0°3241498 —0-0137839
—0-2798186 -+-0:1662978 14:95 —0°3239958 —0:0170143
—0:2814669 +-0°1633767 14:96 —0°3238096 —0:0202409
—0-2830860 +0-1604414 14:97 —0°3235911 —0-0234633
—0°2846757 -+-0°1574921 14-98 —0°3233403 —0-0266812
—0-2862358 +0°1545292 14:99 —0°3230574 —0-0298944
—0-2877662 -+0:1515530 15-00 —0°3227425 —0-0331024
—0°2892668 +0°1485638 15°01 —0°3223955 —0:0363050
—0°2907374 +0:1455619 15-02 —0:3220164 —0:0395018
—0-2921780 +0:1425476 15:03 —0-3216054 —0-0426926
—0°2935884 +0°1395211 15:04 —0°3211626 —0:0458770
—0°2949684 +0°1364829 15-05 —0-3206880 —0:0490547
—0:2963180 +0°1334332 15-06 —0-3201816 —0:0522255
—0-2976370 -+0°1303723 15:07 — 03196435 —0:0553890
—0-2989254 +0°1273006 15:08 —0:3190738 —0:0585448
—0-3001830 +0°1242183 15:09 —0°3184726 —0:0616927
—0-3014098 +0-1211258 15°10 —0-3178400 —0-0648324
—0°3026056 +0°1180234 15-11 —0°3171760 —0-0679636
—0°3037702 +0°1149113 15:12 —0°3164808 —0-0710859
—0-3049037 +0:1117900 15:13 —0°3157544 —0:0741991
—0-3060060 -+0°1086597 15°14 —0-3149968 —0-0773028
—0-3070769 +0°1055207 15:15 —0:3142083 —0-0803968
—0°3081164 -+-0°1023734 15°16 —0°3133889 —0-0834807
—0-3091244 -+-0°0992181 15°17 —0°3125387 —0-0865543
—0:3101008 -+-0:0960550 15:18 —0°3116579 —0-0896172
—0°3110455 +0-0928846 15-19 —0°3107464 —0:0926692
—0°3119585 -+0-0897071 15-20 —0°3098045 —0-:0957100
—0°3128396 +0-0865228 15:21 —0°3088322 —0-0987393
—0°3136889 -+-0-0833321 15-22 —0:3078297 —0:1017567
—0°3145063 +0:0801353 15:23 —0-3067971 —0:1047620
—0°3152917 +0-0769327 15°24 —0°3057345 —0-1077550
—0:3160450 +0-0737246 15:25 —0-3046420 —0-1107352
—0°3167661 -+-0-0705114 15:26 —0°3035198 —0:1137025
—0°3174551 -+-0-0672934 15:27 —0°3023680 —0°1166565
—0°3181120 +0-0640708 15°28 —0-3011867 —0:1195969
—0°3187366 +0-0608441 15:29 —0:2999761 —0:1225235
—0°3193289 +0-0576135 15°30 —0:2987363 —0:1254361
—0-3198889 +0:0543793 15°31 —0-2974675 —0-1283342
—0°3204165 +0-0511419 15°32 —0°2961697 —0:1312177
—0-3209117 +0:0479017 15°33 —0°2948432 —0:1340863
—0°3213745 +0:0446589 15°34 —0°2934880 —0°1369396
—0-3218049 +0:0414138 15°35 —0°2921044 —0:1397774
—0-3222028 +0:0381668 15°36 —0-2906925 —0-1425994
—0°3225682 +0-0349182 15°37 —0-2892525 —0°1454055
—0°3229011 +0-0316683 15°38 —0-2877845 —0°1481952
—0°3232015 +0:-0284175 15:39 —0-2862887 —0-1509684
—0°3234694 -+0:0251660 15°40 —0-2847652 —0°1537247
—0°3237048 +0-0219142 15°41 —0°2832143 —0°1564639
—0°3239077 +0-0186624 15°42 —0-2816360 —0-1591858
—0°3240781 +0-0154110 15-43 —0°2800306 —0-1618901
—0°3242159 +0-0121602 15°44 —0-2783983 —0°1645765
—0°3243212 +-0:0089104 15°45 —0-2767391 —0:1672448
—0°3243940 +0:0056619 15°46 —0:2750534 —0-1698948

K

129

130 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.
Neumann Functions—continued.

x Go(2’) Gi(z) x Gola) Gi(w)
15°47 —0°2733413 —0-1725261 15°74 —0:2178739 —0-2356711
15-48 —0-2716030 —0°1751385 15:75 —0:2155071 —0-2376877
15°49 —0°2698386 —0°1777318 15:76 —0:2131203 —0-2396794
15:50 —0-2680484 —0-:1803057 15:77 —0:2107136 —0-2416460
15°51 —0-2662326 —0-1828600 15-78 —0-2082874 —0-2435872
15°52 —0-2643913 —0°1853945 15°79 —0°2058420 —0:2455029
15°53 —0:°2625248 —0:1879088 || 15°80 —0:2033775 —0:2473930
15°54 —0-2606332 —0:1904029 || 15°81 —0-2008943 —0:2492573
15°55 —0-2587168 —0-1928764 15°82 —0-1983925 —0°2510955
15°56 —0°2567757 —0-1953291 15°83 —0°1958724 —0-2529076
15°57 —0°2548102 —0-°1977608 15°84 —0°1933344 —0°2546934
15°58 —0-2528205 —0:2001712 || 15°85 —0:1907787 | —0-2564527
15-59 —0-2508068 —0-2025602 | 15-86 —0-°1882055 —0-2581853
15-60 —0-2487694 —0:2049274 15°87 —0-°1856151 —0-°2598912
15-61 —0°2467084 —0:2072727 || 15°88 —0-°1830077 —0-2615701
15°62 —0-°2446240 —0-2095959 || 15°89 —0°1803837 —0-2632219
15°63 —0°2425165 —0-2118967 15-90 —0°1777434 —0-2648464
15-64 —0-2403861 —0°2141750 || 15-91 —0-1750869 —0-2664436
15°65 —0-2382330 —0°2164305 || 15-92 —0-1724146 —0-2680132
15°66 —0:2360575 —0-2186630 15-93 —0-1697267 —0-2695552
15:67 —0-2338598 _—0°2208723 || 15-94 —0-°1670236 —0-2710693
15-68 —0-2316401 —0-2230582 || 15:95 —0-°1643055 —0°2725555
15-69 —0-2293987 —0-2252205 |! 15-96 —0:1615726 —0-2740136
15:70 —0-2271358 —0-2273590 || 15:97 —0:°1588253 —0°2754436
15°71 —0°2248516 —0-2294735 15-98 —0-1560638 —0:°2768452
15°72 | —0°2225464 —0-2315638 | 15:99 —0-°1532885 —0°2782184
15-73 | —0-2202204 —0-2336297 || 16:00 —0°1504996 —0-2795630

Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere, in co-operation with a
Committee of the Royal Meteorological Society.—Twelfth
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. W. N. SHaw
(Chairman), Mr. E. Goup (Secretary), Messrs. D. ARCHIBALD, '
C. J. P. Cave, and W. H. Dinss, Dr. R. T. GLAZEBROOK,
Sir Jos—EpH LaARMoR, Professor J. E. PETAVEL, Dr. A.
ScHUSTER, and Dr. W. WATSON.

A meETING of the Joint Committee was held in the rooms of the
Royal Meteorological Society on April 8, 1913. It was decided to
continue the ascents at Mungret College, Limerick, with funds pro-
vided by the Royal Meteorological Society, and to approve of the
allocation of the grant of 50]. made by the Association at Dundee to
the purchase of instruments and balloons for the meteorologist accom-
panying the ice ship ‘ Scotia,’ Mr. G. I. Taylor, Schuster Reader in
Meteorology.

Ascents have been made at Mungret College on July 6, 31,
October 4, November 7, 1912, January 3, July 3, 1913, and also on
four days during the International week (May 5-10), when observations
were obtained which, in conjunction with others made at Pyrton Hill
and Eskdalemuir (forming with Limerick a nearly equilateral triangle),
give a remarkable series in illustration of the structure of a cyclonic

wT ——

—————— SC

ON THE INVESTIGATION OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE. MED!

disturbance having its centre near Limerick on three of the four days
A brief summary of the results obtained is given in the accompanying
table.

The results of ascents at Barbadoes have been discussed in a paper
by Mr. J. S. Dines, read before the Royal Meteorological Society.

Mr. Taylor, who returned at the end of August, reports that owing
to continued unfavourable weather and other conditions no ascents of
registering balloons could be undertaken with any prospect of regaining
the balloon and instrument. He succeeded, however, in obtaining a
valuable set of kite observations, especially on occasions of fog, and a
report on these will appear in due course.

In view of the possibility of a further opportunity of investigation
over the ocean next spring, the Committee ask for reappointment with
a grant of 251.

Summary of Registering Balloon Ascents at Limerick, July 1912 to July 1913.

—— <a

| |
Place of Fall | 1 Character of
| | 7 | eels ben Gra- | Gra- Approxi-' Guryature of
| Maxi- | dient | dient | mate Isob
Date Time | mum ona Haclnen liceecpaeltqys Pressure], -S02275)
i : a8 ace tt Velo- | Direc- , (a=anticyclonic, |
} Height} Dist- Direc- (GSI ve at Sea ay 2 2
| ance | tion | H y | Uuon Level c=cyclonic,
| | s=straight)
| | | | Eee Pees My |
1912 a.m. | km. | km. a km. | °A. m/s. ° mm. |
ey 6 26° 2) 7.15 15 55 320 10.2} 221 | ? ? | 765 | No gradient
» 31. .| 7.15 | 14.8 | 107 56 9.0 | 227 12 155 ct) c
October4 .| 7.0 | 15.7] 88 | 160 * | # 13¢ | 225+ | 777 | a
November 7.| 7.15 | 14.1 | 131 | 82 | 11.9/ 208 | 15 | 220 | 768 | 8
| |
i913. | |
January 3 7.15 | 9.8 27 85 9.0 | 225 Il | 225 | 752 s
ay 5 | 7.0 11.3 | 60 | 130 9.4 | 217 OFA A 756 | Irregular
» 6 | 7.12 | 14.9 12 30 8.2 | 225 3 | 330 750 | ce
e Gate Pe 32 355 7.8 | 223 | 17 | 350 | 743 | c
By 9 7.13 14.2 56 327 7.3 | 222 | 13. | 130 | 744 4 c
July 3 TAT | 15.3 66 192 T9207 |e, | Cel 720 | a

== we
* The temperature gradient above 9 km. is so irregular that no definite value can be assigned

t Gradient at6p.m. At7 a.m. the station was in the central calm area of an anticyclone

Radiotelegraphic Investigations.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Sir OLIVER LopGE (Chairman), Dr. W. H. Eccizs
(Secretary), Mr. StipNEY G. Brown, Dr. ERSKINE Murray,
Professors J. A. FuemMinc, G. W. O. Howe, and H. M.
MAcponaLD, Captain H. Riaun SanKey, and Professor Sit-
VANUS THOMPSON.

At a meeting held on June 13, 1913, the Committee came to the

conclusion that the most urgent and most profitable work they could
promote was the investigation of the following large-scale phenomena :—

1. The influence of sunrise and sunset, of daylight and dark-
ness, and of meteorological conditions, on the propagation of
electric waves over long distances ;

2. The origin and the laws of ‘ strays ’-—i.e., natural electric

waves.
K 2

132 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

These are subjects which seem particularly suitable for the British
Association, since they are such as cannot be efficiently pursued by
uncoordinated individual effort.

In order to promote the necessary widespread observations, the
Committee propose to draw up a simple scheme of instructions which
will be circulated to amateurs throughout this country, and also,
with the permission of the Companies concerned, to operators on ships.
These instructions would include directions for simultaneous observa-
tions of, forexample, the strength of the time-signals from such stations
as the Hiffel Tower, and the average strength and frequency of strays.
The observations would subsequently be classified and reduced by this
Committee; and it is felt that this work would open up at once an
almost unexplored, and exceedingly promising, branch of research—
one which cannot be entered upon in any other way. It is, of course,
essential that the work should be carried out over a very large area and
by very numerous observers; and after full consideration of this fact
the Committee resolved to apply for a grant of 2001. to enable the work
to be started in a thorough manner,

Establishing a Solar Observatory in Australia.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Sir Davip GitL (Chairman), Dr.
W. G. Dorrietp (Secretary), Rev. A. Iu. Contig, Dr.
W. J. S. Lockyer, Mr. F. McCruran, and Professors A.
Scuuster and H. H. Turner, appointed to aid the work of
Establishing a Solar Observatory in Australia.

Tue following Resolution was passed by the Council of the Royal

Meteorological Society in October 1912 :—

‘The Council of the Royal Meteorological Society desires to asso-
ciate itself with the movement to establish a Solar Observatory in
Australia and expresses the decided opinion that such an observatory in
the longitude of Australia or New Zealand is essential for the elucida-
tion of the connection between solar changes and meteorological con-
ditions upon the earth. It regards with great satisfaction the oppor-
tunity at present afforded to the Government of Australia of acquiring
the equipment necessary to initiate this work.’

The opportunity referred to was the offer of the balance of the
necessary equipment of a Solar Observatory which comprised a spectro-
heliograph, pyrheliometer, and Littrow spectrograph. The Fisher
Ministry did not at the time see its way to the immediate acceptance

of this offer on the ground that ‘ the establishment of scientific observa-

tories is a matter for the future, and the organisation of such institu-
tions should perhaps be left in the hands of those who may at some
future time be appointed to take charge of them.’

Mr. Fisher’s Ministry passed out of office during the year and has
been succeeded by that of Mr. Cook. The new Ministry has been

—————

ik oe

ON ESTABLISHING A SOLAR OBSERVATORY IN AUSTRALIA. 133

approached with a view to their carrying the intentions of the previous
Coalition Cabinet into effect.

It is understood that the Commonwealth Government contemplates
the erection of a Solar Observatory upon a large scale, but it is unlikely
that any further step will be taken before the British Association visits
Australia next year, when, it is officially announced, a report embodying
observations of the intended site which have been made for a period
of more than a year will be presented and further advice sought.
News has reached England of the offer by Mr. Cawthron, of Nelson,
New Zealand, of 15,0001. to erect a Solar Observatory in the neigh-
bourhood of that town. Miss Proctor, to whom belongs the immediate
credit of obtaining the munificent offer, had previously lectured in
Australia in support of the Solar Observatory to be established in
that country.

Need still exists for a Solar Observatory in lower southern latitudes
than that of Nelson, New Zealand, and Mr. C. G. Abbot writes
urging that the Australian Observatory shall undertake the study of
Solar Radiation, for which he regards the conditions as favourable.

In spite of the Government’s attitude towards the recent offer of
apparatus, the Commonwealth will shortly accept delivery of the
Farnham telescope. ‘This is the last of the three telescopes accepted
in 1909 when the Commonwealth Government offered 100l. for its
repair and alteration for Australian latitudes. A prominence spectro-
scope has been added to it out of the funds provided.

At the International Solar Union at Bonn in August 1913, it was
proposed by Professor Campbell, Director of the Mount Hamilton
Observatory, that the resolution passed at Meudon in 1907 be re-
affirmed, and that the desirability of the erection of an Australian
station be again urged upon the Commonwealth Government.

Experiments for improving the Construction of Practical Stan-
dards for Use in Electrical Measurements.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Lord RayLEicH (Chairman), Dr.
R. T. GuazeBroox (Secretary), Professors J. Perry and
W. G. Apams, Dr. G. Carzy Foster, Sir OLIVER Lopce,
Dr. A.MurrHeEaD, Sir W. H. PReeEcE, Professor A. SCHUSTER,
Dr. J. A. FueminG, Professor Sir J. J. THomson, Dr. W.N.
SHaw, Dr. J. T. Botromiry, Rev. T. C. FITZPATRICK,
Professor 8. P. THompson, Mr. J. RENNIE, Principal HE. H.
GRIFFITHS, Sir ARTHUR RUcKER, Professor H. L. CALLENDAR,
Professor T. MatTHer, and Mr. F. E. SMITH.

THE republication of the Reports of the Committee from 1862 to
1870 and from 1881 to 1912 is now complete. The volume consists
of about 800 pages, with several plates, and is published by the
Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Association.

The Committee are indebted to Mr. R. K. Gray for a generous
donation towards the expenses of the republication, and are glad to report

134 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913,

that the Council have taken over the volume as a publication of the
Asscciation.

During the year the death of Mr. G. Matthey, F.R.S., has deprived
the Committee of a valued colleague. His ready help was always
given when questions dealing with the purity of the metals required
for the work of the Committee were under discussion.

In 1861 the first work to be undertaken by the Committee was the
realisation of the absolute unit of resistance. In 1882, 1883, 1888,
1894, and again in 1897, other measurements were made by members
of the Committee, and in this their last Report they are pleased to
be able to announce a further development. The new Lorenz apparatus
at the National Physical Laboratory is now complete, and measure-
ments of resistance can be made by means of it with an uncertainty
of not more than a few parts in 100,000. During the present year
a large number of such measurements have been made, and the results
obtained are now being prepared for publication.

A satisfactory feature of the machine is that it can be used at
all times for absolute measurements, and the plans adopted for the
re-determination of the dimensions of the coils ensure an accuracy in
the future as great as that obtained in the recent measurements. The
nominal values of the resistances measured are 0°001, 0°002, and
0°01 ohm. As an instance of the care taken, it may be mentioned
that the dimensions of the coils have been measured with a current
flowing through them, and the radius of a disc 53 cm. in diameter
has been determined within 0°01 mm. when running at 1,200 revolu-
tions per minute. Electrical methods of setting the coils parallel and
coaxial with the shaft proved to be more sensitive than the usual
methods, and a Wheatstone bridge with a condenser in one arm proved
to be the most sensitive indicator of constancy of speed. This instru-
ment, together with the Ayrton-Jones current balance, enables the
fundamental electrical units to be realised with an accuracy sufficient
for all present purposes. It is hoped to re-wind the coils of the current
balance and leave them uncovered with paraffin wax so that their
dimensions may be determined at any time.

The Committee are pleased to report that the original rotating-coil
apparatus, designed by Lord Kelvin in 1861, is in good condition,
and steps are being taken for its inclusion in the Science Museum,
South Kensington. Some rough measurements of resistance were
made by the apparatus in the spring of this year, and the coils used
by Lord Rayleigh in 1882 were also experimented with. An account
of the apparatus is given in the Secretary’s ‘ Kelvin’ Lecture to the
Institution of Electrical Engineers.

A statement on international comparisons of resistances and
standard cells was included in last year’s Report and _ sufficiently
indicates the arrangements that have been made for the maintenance
of constant electrical standards in the future. The Committee regard
these arrangements as satisfactory. They do not ask for reappoint-
ment.

ON THE STUDY OF HYDRO-AROMATIC SUBSTANCES. 135

The Study of Hydro-aromatic Substances.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor W. H. PERKIN (Chairman),
Professor A. W. CrossuEy (Secretary), Dr. M. O. FORSTER,
Dr. H. R. Le Sueur, and Dr. A. McKENzIE.

1. Bromozylenols obtained from dimethyldihydroresorcin.1—During
the past year work has been largely concerned with the transformation
of certain hydro-aromatic substances into bromoxylenols. These con-
versions were originally noticed? during the action of phosphorus
pentabromide on dimethyldihydroresorcin, when the main initial pro-
ducts are not bromoxylenols, but are hydro-aromatic in nature, the prin-
cipal ones isolated being dibromo- and tribromodimethylcyclohexenones.

As the original reaction is very complicated, it was decided to study
the transformations using the pure above-mentioned cyclic ketones, and
as a result of the work so far concluded it has been established that:

(a) The action of heat on dibromodimethylcyclohexenone (I) gives
rise to 5-bromo-o-3-xylenol (II) and 6-bromo-o-4-xylenol (ITT).

C(CH,).
CH, He see CH,
CH, : Br SH co CH,
a Br ~
Br OH oa Br OH
II. Ill.

In the first of these rearrangements a methyl group has wandered,
as previously noted, from carbon atom 1 to carbon atom 2; but in the
second case from carbon atom 1 to carbon atom 6.

(b) The action of dilute alcoholic potassium hydroxide on dibromo-
dimethyleyclohexenone gives rise to 5-bromo-o-3-xylenol and
4: 5-dibromo-o-3-xylenol (V).

(c) Tribromodimethyleyclohexenone (IV) gives, under the influence
of heat or alcoholic potassium hydroxide, mainly 4: 5-dibromo-o-3-
xylenol (V) and another bromoxylenol, which has not, so far, been
characterised.

C(CH;), CH,
3 HC fe | CHBr CH,
BrC \ a co Br OH
C Br Br
IV. V.

The constitutions of 5-bromo-o-3-xylenol, 6-bromo-o-4-xylenol, and
4: 5-dibromo-o-3-xylenol have been definitely established by synthetic
methods.*

2. Derivatives of isopropyldihydroresorcin.—The method for the
preparation of isopropyldihydroresorcin * has been improved so as to
yield 75 per cent. of the theoretical amount of the dihydroresorcin.

1 Proc. C.8., 1912, 28, 332. 2 J.C.S., 1903, 83, 110. 8 J.C.8., 1913, 108.
4 J.C.S., 1902, 81, 675.

136 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

1-Isopropyleyclohexan-3-ol and 1-isopropylcyclohexan-3-one have
been prepared, and it is intended to use them as starting-points for the
preparation of several meta-terpene derivatives.

The Transformation of Aromatic Nitroamines and Allied Sub-
stances, and its Relation to Substitution in Benzene Deriva-
tives.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
F. §. Kreptna (Chairman), Professor K. J. P. Orton
(Secretary), Dr. S. RUHEMANN, and Dr. J. T. HEwItt.

The Transformation of Acetylchloroaminobenzenes and the Chlorination
of Anilides. The Reactions of Chloroamines in Aqueous Solution.

[With W. H. Gray, B.Sc.]

In a previous report,! we have given a summary of the results of a large
number of experiments on the transformations of chloroamines into the
isomeric chloroanilides : Ar. NC]. Ac +Cl Ar. NH. Ac; it was shown that
this change could not be regarded as an intramolecular rearrangement, but
consisted primarily of a reversible reaction of hydrogen chloride with the
chloroamine: thus,

Ar.NCl. Ac-+ HCl +Ar.NH.Ac+ Cl,>ClAr.NH. Ac-+ HCl,

followed by a direct irreversible interaction of chlorine and the anilide.

In these experiments the medium was aqueous acetic acid containing
not less than 50 per cent. of acetic acid. We have now examined the
behaviour of acetylchloroaminobenzene in pure aqueous solution, and have
discovered an interesting modification of the ordinary reaction.

The production of hydrogen chloride during the transformation of a
chloroamine, in the presence of hydrogen chloride, was first indicated by
Blanksma,? who found that the amount of this acid at the end of the
reaction was slightly greater than that originally introduced. Moreover,
it was demonstrated by Chattaway and Orton’ that any change of the
chloroamine which occurred in the presence of other acids—for example
sulphuric—was invariably accompanied by the appearance of hydrogen
chloride. The first quantitative experiments were made by Orton and
Jones (compare Reports, 1910). These were carried out in an acetic acid
medium containing from 0-35 per cent. of water, both in the presence and
absence of various acids. The following table shows some of the results :—

TABLE I.

. . . . Chloroamine Chloroamine
Medium Acid Time of Reaction Ditappeseed Rednsad
Per cent. Days Per cent. Per cent.

65 HA none 22 | 50-8 6-04
3 H,S0, 13 | 49-16 11-2
5 HNO, 7 54-96 3°72
9 HClO, 9 | 48-0 18-67

* Reports, 1910.

2 Recueil des Trav. Chim. 1903, 22, 290.
3 Proc. Chem. Soc. 1902, 18, 200. 5

TRANSFORMATION OF NITROAMINES AND ALLIED SUBSTANCES. 137
The following experiment serves as a comparison when a chloroamine,
which cannot yield an isomeride, is used :—
65 per cent. HA H,SO, 16 days 8-25 per cent. 8-1 per cent,

In the following experiments hydrogen chloride (1 molecular proportion)
is initially present :—

Per cent.
Glacial puriss. Reaction complete. . . . . «. . . 3-24
» ordinary. 3 ; , \ - ‘ : : PH6:0
93-4 per cent. puriss. a NAS eeAD een Fanti’ Anscieeee
75 per cent. puriss. Me RA lees: ok Ste cues ee el O4:

There can be little‘doubt as to the manner of this reduction. In all
aqueous media some hydrolysis of the chloroamine occurs :—

Ar.NCl. NAc+ H,O = HClO + Ar. NH. Ac.

The reduction of hypochlorous acid is rapid in aqueous acetic acid
even when carefully shielded from light. From an aqueous solution
of chloroamine it is possible to distil off hypochlorous acid under
reduced pressure. Thus at 25° and under 13-9 mm. the first 50 cc.
of distillate from 250 cc. of a 0-1 per cent. solution of a chloro-
amine had a titre of 2-57 cc. of N/20 thio. No chlorine was found in the
distillate, and there was no loss of chloroamine from the mother liquor
other than by hydrolysis. The distillation of an equivalent solution of
hypochlorous acid showed that the hydrolysis of the chloroamine is not
extensive ; for the first 50 cc. gave a titre of 30 cc. N/20 thio.

Reduction of the Chloroamine in Aqueous Solution—The behaviour of
acetylchloroaminobenzene in pure water would be expected to show a
marked difference from that in concentrated acetic acid media on several
erounds. If it be granted that the mechanism of the isomeric transforma-
tion consists in a reaction between chloroamine and hydrogen chloride,
yielding anilide and chlorine, which then react to form the C-chloro-
derivative, any extensive hydrolysis of the chlorine should lead to ab-
normalities and retard the production of chloroanilides. Jakowkin‘
showed that the reversible hydrolysis of chlorine, which is governed by the
equation K[Cl,]=[HCIO] [HCl], is very extensive in dilute aqueous
solution. Thus, for example, over 90 per cent. of the chlorine at a con-
centration of 0-05 per cent. and less is present as hypochlorous and
hydrochloric acids. From the form of the equation it will be seen that
the proportion of free chlorine in the system would rapidly increase as the
concentration of hydrogen chloride was raised ; according to Jakowkin in
solutions of hydrogen chloride above 0-1 N very little of the chlorine is
present as hypochlorous acid. Above these limits of concentration of
hydrogen chloride, therefore, the ordinary conversion of chloroamine
would predominate.

Our experimental study is generally in harmony with these anticipa-
tions. With a high concentration of hydrogen chloride, the main reaction
is a transformation of the chloroamine into monochloroacetanilides, but
with low concentrations the reactions are greatly modified. In fact, the
Poor with hydrogen chloride then closely resembles that with other
acids,

Aqueous solutions of acetylchloroaminobenzene change very slowly

4 Zeit. f. Physik. Chem., 1899.

138 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

if due regard is had to the purity of the water, and the protection of the
solution from contamination with reducing materials. At 25° a 0-1 per
cent. aqueous solution of this chloroamine drops only a few per cent. in
titre in the course of several weeks; at 60°, however, 50 per cent. has
disappeared in 38:5 hours. The addition of small quantities of an acid
(1-2 molecular proportions, which give a concentration of 0-0058-0:0116)
increases the rate of change, which is, however, still very slow ; about 50
per cent. of the chloroamine disappears in one month at 25°, but in less
than a day at 60°. There is no great difference between different acids,
including hydrochloric, in their effect. Careful examination of the re-
actions, which lead to a fall in titre both in aqueous and highly dilute acids,
discloses the fact that the principal change is a simple reduction of the
chloroamine to anilide and hydrogen chloride; at the same time a small
and very variable amount of chlorate appears. The production of chloro-
anilides is quite subsidiary. The most obvious interpretation of the facts is
that the chloroamine is hydrolysed :

Ar.NCl.Ac+ H,O = HClO+Ar.NH. Ac

and the hypochlorous acid then reduced. It is not so easy to see how
the latter change is brought about. Both an aqueous solution of
hypochlorous acid and also solutions containing a strong acid are quite
stable. Moreover, the pure anilide does not reduce hypochlorous acid ;
the sole interaction is the equilibrium represented above. It seems most
probable that the reduction is effected by aniline arising from the hydrolysis
of the anilide—a change which has been shown to occur, but slowly, under
the circumstances. The hydrolysis of the anilide in pure water is yet
slower than in acids, and hence the permanence of solutions of chloro-
amine in this medium at ordinary temperatures. The development of the
characteristic colour reactions of aniline with hypochlorous acid in the
course of the change is in harmony with this suggestion. Further, aniline
is particularly effective as a reducing agent for hypochlorous acid, since
one molecular proportion reduces several of the acid.

At higher concentrations of the acids (0-023 NV) the specific effect of
hydrogen chloride appears ; but with the other acids the speed of hydro-
lysis and reduction is merely increased. But even with very great excess
of hydrogen chloride, when the disappearance of the chloroamine is rela-
tively rapid, the hydrolysis and reduction can still be detected as a sub-
sidiary reaction. ‘The formation of hydrogen chloride by reduction in the
experiments with other acids is the obvious cause, as previously indicated,
of the production of the small quantities of chloroanilide.

Method of Experiment—Aqueous solutions of acetylchloroaminoben-
zene containing about 1 gram per litre were used, the reactions being
carried out at 25°and 60°. After more than 50 per cent. of the chloroamine
has disappeared, the hydrogen chloride is estimated. The remaining
chloroamine (and the very small amount of hypochlorous acid) is reduced
by arsenite, and the chloridion weighed as silver chloride. In order to
estimate any chlorate which has been formed from the hypochlorous acid
the reduction in another portion is carried out by sulphite. The chloro-
anilide is assumed to be given by difference, but it is quite possible that
some chlorine disappeared in the oxidation of the aniline or in chlorinating
free aniline. Some of the results are shown in Table IT.

TRANSFORMATION OF NITROAMINES AND ALLIED SUBSTANCES. 139

Tasce II.
| Acid : wee Percentage of Chloroamine converted into :
es : {—— -—- (a) CY (b)CY + C10," (ce) Chloroanilide
| HC1(2 mols.) . | 25° 54:24 8-12 37-64.
| H,SO, (1 mol.) | 3 68-77 12-74 18-52
| H,SO, (4 mols.) | os 65-39 15-46 19-14
| HNO, (1 mol.) | ‘ 76-56 5-59 17-85
(COOH), (1 mol.) oe 74:36 — 25-64
HCl (10 mols.) be 12-2 — 87-78
HCl (20 mols.) | m 7:73 — 92-28
| HCl (4 mols.) . 60° 25-42 3-93 70-65
| HCl (10 mols.) 60° 11-47 — 88-54
HCl (2 mols.) . 585° | 43-76 9-36 46-98 :
_ Water isis 60° | 63-59 — 36-42
HSO, (1 mol.) | 60° 60-85 12-19 26-96
_ H,SO, (10 mols. | 60° | 73-86 0-91 25-23 |

The times which the reaction occupies in various cases are very different.
The chlorination of the anilide is in an aqueous medium an extremely rapid
reaction (Orton and Jones, Joc. cit.), and hence in circumstances when
chlorine and anilide are present at relatively high concentrations, the
chloroamine rapidly disappears, and a large proportion of chloroanilide is
formed. This condition is realised when the concentration of the hydrogen
chloride is sufficiently raised, for, as was shown in the foregoing, the hypo-
chlorous acid is then replaced by chlorine: H’+ Cl’ + HClO — Cl,+H.0,
and further hydrolysis of the chloroamine follows from disturbance of the
equilibrium: Ar. NCl.Ac+ H,O +Ar.NH.Ac-+ HCIO.

The time of the half-change in a number of the experiments is shown in

Table III.

Tasce III.
| Experiment Acid | Heuer Half-period | pe raee Re
i HCl (2 mols.) | 25° | 16-75 days 37-64
ii | HCl (2 mols.) 60° 8-2 hours 43-6
eal iii HCl (4 mols.) 60° 2-8 hours 70-65
iv - HCl (10 mols.) 60° 40-5 mins. 88-54
| v H,.SO, (1 mol.) 25° 31-5 days 18-52
vi _ H,SO, (4 mols.) 25° 11-3 days 19-14
vii | _H,SO, (1 mol.) 60° 18-7 hours 26-96
viii | 4-9 hours 25-23

HSO, (10 mols.) | 60°

(i) A comparison of the experiments in which hydrogen chloride was
used with that in which sulphuric acid was used at equivalent concentra-
tion (i with v and ii with vii), whether at 25° or 60°, shows that with
double the production of chloroanilide, the speed of the disappearance of
chloroamine is also approximately doubled.

(ui) With increase in the concentration of the hydrogen chloride, the
Seen of chloroanilide rapidly increases. Raising the proportion of

ydrogen chloride from 10 to 20 mols., roughly quadruples the speed, but
only slightly raises the proportion of chloroanilide (from 88 to 92 per cent.).

(iii) Increase in the concentration of the sulphuric acid is accompanied
by an increase in the rate of disappearance of the chloroamine. But in
marked contrast to the effect of hydrogen chloride, the reaction is still

140 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913:

identical; the production of chloroanilide and the reduction remain in
the same proportion.

These results illuminate some recent observations of Rivett® on the
‘transformation ’ of acetylchloroaminobenzene in aqueous solution. In
one series of experiments he used hydrogen chloride, but never below a
concentration of 0:1351. Although the values for

k,/[HCI}? (= 0-0413-0-0419)

between the limits of 0:2702-0-4797 for [HCl], are very close, he
seeks for an explanation of the slightly divergent values outside these
limits of concentration only in the degree of ionisation of the hydrogen
chloride, and in the secondary influences of the ions on one another or on
the unionised molecules on the ions. Our demonstration of the existence
of a subsidiary side reaction would indicate another cause for the diver-
gence from strict constancy of the expression kr/ [HCl]?. We have pre-
viously attempted (Reports 1910) to show how this relation, k1/ [HCl]?
= const., is accounted for on our view of the transformation.

The speed of the formation of chloroanilides is given by the equation :

d [chloroanilide] / dt = ku [Cl,] [anilide] = ku K [chloroamine][HCl]?,

since

K [chloroamine] [HCl]? = [Cl,] [anilide],
from the equilibrium :
Ar.NCl. Ac+ H’+ Cl = Cl,+ Ar.NH. Ac;
Hence as chloroamine is the only variable,
d [chloroanilide] / dt = (kn. K [HCI]’) [chloroamine]= hk: [chloroamine].

Apart from the completeness of the ionisation of the hydrogen chloride,
and apart from the slight increase in the concentration of the hydrogen
chloride during the reaction, the quantity of chloroamine in the equation
is supposed to be sensibly identical with that used in the preparation of the
system, the reaction with hydrogen chloride being disregarded. These
approximations would undeniably cause variation in the expression,
kx / (HCI).

The final form of the equation is not changed if the hydrolysis of the
chloroamine is taken, as seems necessary in an aqueous medium, as the
first step.

Ar. NC]. Ac+ H,O ~Ar. NH. Ac+HCl0 and HCIO+H’+Cl +Cl,+H,0.

F ,
K, [chloroamine] [H,O] = [anilide] [HClO],
K, [Cl,] [H,0] =[HCI0] (HCI),
K, [chloroamine] / K, [Cl,] = [anilide] / [HC1]?,

K [chloroamine] [HCI]’ = [Cl,] [anilide].
In Rivett’s experiments with a pure aqueous medium, and also with
other acids, he fails to recognise that the transformation of the chloroamine

to the chloroanilides is merely a side-reaction, and that hydrolysis and
reduction are the primary changes. His measurement of the rate of dis-

5 Zeit. f. Physik. Chem., 1913, 82, 201.

or

TRANSFORMATION OF NITROAMINES AND ALLIED SUBSTANCES. 141

appearance of chloroamine in these solutions led him to the conclusion
that hydrogen chloride was produced, but he does not determine the
amount of hydrogen chloride, and thus misses this fact. Without attempt-
ing to examine his views as to the series of changes (reversible) by which
he supposes hydrogen chloride to be produced, it may be stated that he does
not suggest the reduction of chloroamine or hypochlorous acid. Moreover,
it may be pointed out that the pink or purple colour referred to above,
which appears during the decomposition of the chloroamine, is without
doubt identical with the ordinary colour reaction of bleaching powder
and aniline, and not as is suggested due to a compound, Ar. Nz. Ac,
produced together with hydrogen chloride in a reversible reaction with the

acid :—Ar. NCI. Ac-++ Hz = Ar. Nz. Ac+ HCI.

Summary.
1. The decomposition of acetylchloroaminobenzene in pure aqueous
solution, or in the presence of all acids including hydrochloric, ata very low
concentration is mainly hydrolysis and reduction of the hypochlorous

acid :
Ar. NCl. Ac+ H,O >Ar.NH.Ac-+ HClO
Ar.NH.Ac+ H,O-Ar.NH,-+ CH,.CO,H.
x(HClO) + Ar. NH,—(Ar. NH, + 20) + «HCl.

The transformation of the chloroamine into chloroanilides, which
follows from the formation of hydrogen chloride, is quite subsidiary.

2. With higher concentrations of hydrogen chloride, more chlorine
appears in the system from the reaction H’+ Cl’ + HClO =Cl,-+ H,0.
According to Jakowkin’s measurements, chlorine is nearly completely
hydroiysed in water at concentrations below 0-05 in the absence of excess
of hydrogen chloride, whilst on the other hand in solutions of hydrogen
chloride above 0-1 N, hydrolysis of the chlorine is nearly absent. Hence,
now that chlorine and anilide are both at relatively high concentrations,
the transformation of chloroamine to chloroanilide is the main reaction.

3. With acids other than hydrogen chloride, increase in the concentra-
tion cannot cause a similar change in the reaction.

4. The results of the study of the decomposition of chloroamine in
aqueous solution are in complete harmony with the earlier view as to the
part played by hydrogen chloride in the conversion of chloroamines to the
isomeric chloroanilides.

The Committee asks to be reappointed with a grant of 201.

The Report is a summary of the work which has been carried out. A
detailed account of the experimental work will be published later in one
of the chemical journals.

Dynamic Isomerism.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor H. EK. Armstrone (Chairman), Dr. T. M. Lowry
(Secretary), Professor SypNEY Youna, Dr. C. H. Desscu,
Dr. J. J. Dopste, and Dr. M. O. Forster. (Drawn up by
*he Secretary.)

A. Rotatory Dispersion.

Tue past year has witnessed the culmination of an investigation that

has a close relationship to the main line of research for which the

142 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915,

Committee is responsible. The marked progress that has been made
in the study of rotatory dispersion may be shown by the list of papers
which have been published during the year. These include a paper on

‘ Optical Rotatory Dispersion, Part I. The Natural and Mag-
netic Rotatory Dispersion in Quartz of Light in the Visible
Region of the Spectrum’ (‘ Phil. Trans.,” 1912, A. 212,
261-97),
which will be followed shortly by Part IJ., in which the extension
of the polarimetric method through the ultra-violet and infra-red regions
of the spectrum will be described.

The application of these new physical methods to the study of
chemical problems is described in a second series of papers, of which
the following have been published already, or are in preparation for
publication in the autumn:

‘The Rotatory Dispersive Power of Organic Compounds.’
I. The Measurement of Rotatory Dispersion (‘ Trans. Chem. Soc.,’
1913, 103, 1062-1067).
II. The Form of the Rotatory Dispersion Curves (‘ Trans. Chem.
Soc.,’ 1913, 103, 1067-1075).
III. ‘The Measurement of Magnetic Rotatory Dispersion (f Trans.
Chem. Soc.,’ 1913, 108, 1322-1331).
IV. Magnetic Rotation and Dispersion in some simple Organic Liquids
(‘ Proc. Chem. Soc.,’ June 19, 1918).
Vv. A Comparison of the Optical and Magnetic Rotatory Dispersion
in some simple Organic Liquids.
VI Anomalous Rotatory Dispersion (‘ Proc. Chem. Soc.,’ June 5,
1913).

Attention may also be directed to a paper by Armstrong and Walker
on ‘ The Causes of Variation in the Optical Rotatory Power of Organic
Compounds and of Anomalous Rotatory Dispersive Power ’ (‘ Proc. Roy.
Soc.,’ 1913, A. 88, 388-403), in which the close relationship between
rotatory dispersion and dynamic isomerism is specially emphasised.

The general result of these investigations has been to show that a
knowledge.of the phenomena of dynamic isomerism is essential for the
interpretation of optical rotation, especially in the case of liquids which
show anomalous rotatory dispersion; conversely, it is believed that the
study of rotatory dispersion will open up a new and fruitful field for
the investigation of dynamic isomerism in the case of large groups of
important compounds.

B. Successive Isomeric Changes.

The past year has also seen the completion of a long series of
experiments on the complex isomeric changes which take place in the
amide and piperidide of camphor-carboxylic acid. Nearly five years
ago it was discovered that these substances were capable of giving
inflected mutarotation curves. An investigation of ‘ The Equations for
Two Consecutive Unimolecular Changes’ (Lowry and John, ‘ Trans.
Chem. Soc.,’ 1910, 97, 2634-2645) showed that inflected curves might
be produced by two successive isomeric changes, but the experimental

oe

ON DYNAMIC ISOMERISM. 143

curves were found to be more complex, giving indications of at least
three successive changes involving four isomeric compounds. These
experiments have been described in detail in two papers published during
the past year (Glover and Lowry, ‘ Trans. Chem. Soc.,’ 1912, 101,
1902-1912; 1913, 103, 913-924).

Experiments are now in progress with a view to investigating
Forster’s a-benzoyl camphor, the enolic form of which has been found
to give inflected mutarotation curves when ethylene chloride is used as
a solvent in place of chloroform. Even nitrocamphor has been found
to give inflected curves if dissolved in ethylene chloride or in benzene
(Lowry and Courtman, ‘ Trans. Chem. Soc.,’ 1913, 103, 1216), but
it is believed that these are due to the gradual absorption of a catalyst
from the walls of the polarimeter tube, and not to successive isomeric
changes.

C. Influence of Light.

A series of experiments on the influence of light on isomeric change
(Lowry and Courtman, ‘ Trans. Chem. Soc.,’ 1913, 108, 1214-1221)
has shown that no marked acceleration is produced by exposing nitro-
camphor, glucose, galactose or maltose to the action of powerful ultra-
violet light. In the case of aminomethylene camphor, however, ver™
marked acceleration occurs whilst the light is acting, but the action
reverts to its original slow rate of change when the light is withdrawn.
In the case of (enolic) a-benzoyl camphor a similar acceleration is pro-
duced, but the effect continues after the light has been extinguished;
it is believed that this permanent stimulation of the action is due to the
liberation of benzoic acid acting as a catalytic agent.

The Study of Plant Enzymes, particularly with relation to
Oxidation.—Second Report of the Committee, consisting of
Mr. A. D. Hatui (Chairman), Dr. E. F. Armstronea (Secre-
tary), Professor H. E. ARMSTRONG, Professor F. KEEBLE, and
Dr. EK. J. Russet.

THE inquiry has been continued in various directions during the past
year, as shown by the following list of communications to the Royal
Society :—

(a) Herbage Studies. II. Lotus corniculatus and Trifolium
repens, cyanophoric plants. By H. E. Armstrong, HE. F. Armstrong,
and HK. Horton.

(b) Studies on Enzyme Action. XIX. Urease. II. Observa-
tions on Accelerative and Inhibitive Agents. By H. E. Armstrong,
M. 8. Benjamin, and E. Horton.

(c) Studies on the Processes operative in Solution (XXX.) and on
Enzyme Action (XX.). The nature of enzymes and of their action as
hydrolytic agents. By E. F. Armstrong and H. HE. Armstrong.

(d) Studies on Enzyme Action (XXI.). Lipase. III. By H. E.
Armstrong and H. W. Gosney.

(e) The Roéle of Oxydases in the Formation of the Anthocyan Pig-

144 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

ment of Plants. By F. Keeble and E. F. Armstrong [in the ‘ Journal
of Genetics ’].

(f) The Formation of the Anthocyan Pigments of Plants. IV. The
Chromogens. By F. Keeble, E. F. Armstrong, and W. N. Jones.

(g) The Formation of the Anthocyan Pigments of Plants. V. The
Chromogens of White Flowers. By W. N. Jones.

(h) The Formation of the Anthocyan Pigments of Plants. VI. By
F. Keeble, E. F. Armstrong, and W. N. Jones.

Considerable progress has been made in elucidating the part played
by oxidising catalysts in the production of plant pigments. By means
of suitable agents—in particular benzidine and a-naphthol—oxydases
and peroxydases can be localised in plants both in the flower petals
and in the vegetative parts. Evidence has been accumulated in favour
of the hypothesis that the soluble sap pigments of plants are formed
by the oxidation of a colourless chromogen through the agency of an
oxydase. The method has been applied with success to certain pro-
blems in genetics.

The sap pigment may be reduced to the colourless chromogen by
the agency of a reducing substance. Such a change takes place when
the coloured cell is stimulated by a hormone (a substance which pene-
trates the cell membrane) under conditions in which the amount of
water present is a minimum. When the conditions are reversed and
there is an excess of water in the system, the chromogen is reoxidised.
Both the reducing substance and the reduced pigment are soluble in
aqueous alcohol of a suitable strength (90 per cent.). After extraction
of a coloured petal by alcohol of this strength, both the solution and
the extracted petal are colourless; but they can be caused to recover
their original colour—the solution on evaporation of the alcohol
and dissolution of the residue in water, the petal on warming in
water. There is evidence that the flower contains an excess of
chromogen beyond that normally converted into pigment. The
reducing substance is not destroyed by boiling: it cannot therefore
be classed as an enzyme. The experiments afford proof of the exist-
ence of an oxidising-reducing mechanism in the cell sap which controls
the formation of flower colour and is itself regulated by the condition of
concentration of the cell sap. Dilution favours oxidation, concentra-
tion alters the balance in the opposite direction.

Very little progress has yet been made in determining the chemical
nature of the sap pigments. The researches of A. G. Perkin have made
it almost certain that the soluble yellow pigments belong to the class of
hydroxyflavones of which quercetin is the best known representative.
On genetical grounds there is strong evidence in favour of regarding
these yellow pigments as antecedents of the red, magenta, and blue sap
pigments. By hydrolysis and subsequent reduction and oxidation or by
hydrolysis and oxidation, red pigments have been obtained from a
number of yellow flowers, such, for example, as the wallflower, daffodil,
and primrose; it is possible that the coloured varieties of these species
may arise in a similar manner.

The most fruitful discovery during the year has been the proof
afforded by Chodat that the action of tyrosinase on an amino- acid,

ON THE STUDY OF PLANT ENZYMES. 145

é.g., glycine, gives rise to the production of formaldehyde,
ammonia, and carbon dioxide. Elements are thus available for
the production of all manner of complex compounds and the method
has a wide application. Starting, for example, from a mixture
of the glucoside arbutin with glycine, it is possible, by the action
of emulsin and an oxydase at the ordinary temperature, to obtain
first a red compound, then a brownish black substance, as well
as a volatile compound possessing the characteristic odour of ripe
plums. In short, both the colour and odour of the ripe fruit are
obtained by a biological synthesis from the glucoside and an amino-
acid. This synthesis appears of general application and is being further
studied. Presumably the colours produced in this manner are those
characteristic of the fruit and leaves of the plants rather than of the
flower petals. The interaction appears to involve the oxidation of the
phenolic constituent of the glucoside either to an ortho- or to a para-
quinone, the condensation to quinhydrone and the interaction of this
compound with ammonia and formaldehyde. Meta- phenols do not
undergo the same transformation.

Erratic Blocks of the British Isles.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Mr. R. H. TippEMAN (Chairman), Dr. A. R.
DWERRYHOUSE (Secretary), Dr. T. G. Bonney, Mr. F. W.
HARMER, Rev. §. N. Harrison, Dr. J. Horne, Mr. W.
Lower Carter, Professor W. J. Souuas, and Messrs. WM.
Hitt, J. W. StatHer, and J. H. Mitton.

EXNGLAND.

Reported by the Rev. A. Irvine, D.Sc., B.A., and Mr. Percy A.
Irvine, B.A.

Localities all in the Upper Stort Valley.

1. Thorley, Herts. (Boulder Clay.) 230 feet to 240 feet (O.D.).

(1) Hypersthene Andesite (8 in. by 7in. by 4in., weight 12 lbs.).
From the Boulder Clay. This is the same rock as an erratic recorded
as ‘trap’ in the 1911 Report, from Parsonage Lane, which has been
recognised by Mr. G. Campbell Smith, of the British Museum (Natural
History), as “ quite comparable with some of the Cheviot andesites, and
may be referred to that district provisionally.” Subangular, columnar,
both blocks extensively bleached by the leaching-out of the iron in
cee ering. Fragments of this rock not uncommon in the Rubble-
Drift.

(2) Coarse Phyllite (18 in. by 12 in. by 5 in.) intersected by a
network of vein-quartz, considerably weathered with oxide of iron on
the divisional planes. It closely resembles the rock continuous with
the coarser type of slate of the Swithland quarries (Charnwood).

(3) Angular slab (54 in. by 5 in. by 14 in). Fine-grained sandstone
(coal-measures ?), pressure-scarred and coarsely striated on one surface.

1913. L

146 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCiENCE.—1913.

2. Maple Avenue, Bishop’s Stortford. (Rubble-Drift.) 300 feet.
(O.D.) All derived immediately from the glacial drift of the
Herts plateau.

Phyllite (subangular), fragment of a larger slab (3 in. by 2 in. by
2 in.): derived from the older and higher ‘ Drift’ of the Herts
plateau. This specimen strongly resembles some of the highly
altered bedded ‘ ash’ of Snowdonia.

Dolerite: bomb (broken), 2 in. in diam.

Flint: extremely weathered and devitrified (cortex of one extensively
flaked), probably result of Miocene weathering of the quondam
‘Mercian’ chalk. (See Report in the 1911 volume, pp. 131 ff.)

Limestone: vermiculate, weathered, probably from the Cornbrash
or the Lias (6 in. by 5 in. by 2 in.).

Sandstone, cuboidal block, very hard and fine-grained
(24 in. by 2 in. by 2 in.): Rothliegendes (?).

The erratics found here have mostly been obtained in the excavations
connected with the horse skeleton described at Sheffield (in 1910),
with further comparative anatomical notes at Portsmouth (1911),
Section H ; see also Report tothe Special Committee in the 1911 Report
(pp. 131 ff.). As a whole erratics from this source are far more exten-
sively ‘ weathered’ than those found in the Harlow Till, the Chalky
Boulder Clay of the lower plateau, and the still younger Valley Boulder
Clay at Thorley, where it is intercalated with the contorted gravels.

3. Hockerill Vicarage. (Excavations in Rubble-Drift.) 230 feet to
240 feet (O.D.).

(a) Quartz-porphyry: deeply weathered on exterior. Felspar more
or less kaolinised throughout, suggesting a Bunter pebble
(4 in. by 3 in. by 1} in.).

(b) Quartz-porphyry: slab-like, subangular; more felsitic in texture
than (a), slightly kaolinised.

Dolerite (3 in. by 24 in. by 14 in.): and several smaller fragments.

Hypersthene Andesite: several fragments.

Basalt: several fragments.

Rételschiefer (3 in. by 3 in. by 14 in.) from Rothliegendes.

Rhazella Chert (4 in. by 2 in. by 3 in.): several smaller fragments.
4. Hallingbury Road. (Gravel-pit) (B.S. Urban Dist. Council.)

Quartz-porphyry (3 in. by 3 in. by 13 in.).

Bedded Ash (6 in. by 5 in. by 8 in.).

Same with included fragments (8 in. by 2 in. by 1} in.).

Pale@ozoic Conglomerate (5 in. by 4 in. by 3 in.).

Silicified Wood (?) (8 in. by 4 in. by 3 in.).

Boulder of vein-quartz (7 in. by 4 in. by 3 in.).

Several blocks of millstone-grit and of older grits (probably of
Cambrian age).

All from the ‘ interglacial sands,’ 210 feet to 230 feet (O.D.), which

are strongly current-bedded: probably dropped by ice-rafts.

Reported by Mr. THomas Suevparp, F.G.S., F.S.A.

Excavations continue to be made in the gravel pits at Burstwick
and Kelsey Hill in Holderness. In the latter pit enormous quantities

ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 147

of gravel have been removed, and have revealed many interesting
mammalian remains, including the bone of a seal, which is the first
record for that species from the Holderness drifts.

TRELAND.

Reported by the Committee of the Geological Section of the Belfast
Naturalists’ Field Club.

The Committee record the extension of the area of distribution of
Ailsa Craig Riebeckite-eurite to Moys, two miles west of the Roe, by
Madame Christen; the rock has also been found for the first time at
Limavady, Kilrea, Aghalee, Drumaneway, Dervock, and the White
Mountain, north of Lisburn; at the latter locality it was found by
Mr. Robert Bell, at an elevation of 800 feet.

Dungannon, Tyrone, Brickfield. Brown Boulder-Clay, overlain by
black Boulder-Clay. Erratics:—Jasper, green rock series of Mid-
Tyrone—red granite, ironstone nodules, dolomitic limestone, red lime-
stone, concretionary iron ore, sandstone (probably local)—porphyritic
syenitic granite, quartz-porphyry, probably Slieve Gallion—quartzite,
diorite, epidiorite, Dalradian series, chalk, flint, gneiss, basalt,
Carboniferous conglomerate.

Portstewart, Sand-hills. Epidiorites, metamorphic grits, granite,
quartzites, arkose, porphyritic felsite, metamorphic sandstone,
Dalradian, from Londonderry, Donegal, or Scotland—rhyolite
(?trachyte), Tertiary series, Antrim—coarse granite, orthoclase rock
(syenite group), granite-porphyry, syenite, Slieve Gallion, quartzite,
porphyries—granite, riebeckite rock, Ailsa Craig—schist, altered
diabase with epidote.

Limavady, Ballast-Pit near Railway Station. Erratics :—Riebeckite
rock, Ailsa Craig—gabbro, hypersthenite (Slieve Gallion)}—meta-
morphosed grit, epidiorites, quartzite, vein quartz—fine gneiss,
granulite, Tyrone—red granites, hornblende schist—diorite, with
granular ground.

Derrybeg Brickfield, Limavady, Boulder-Clay. Erratics :—Meta-
morphosed grit, Carboniferous sandstones, quartzite, diorite with
granular ground, mica hornblende-schist, red and pink granites, crushed
felsite, epidote granite with hornblende.

Moys, nearly four miles §. of Limavady, Gravel-Pit, Knockandunn.
Erratics :—Riebeckite rock, Ailsa Craig—fine-grained granite—meta-
morphosed grits and sandstones, quartzite—pink granite, Carboniferous
sandstone—gneiss.

Aghadowey, Gravel-Pit, Clare Hill. Erratics:—Micropegmatitic
granite, quartz-porphyry, grey granites—crushed granite—quartzite,
felsite, metamorphosed grit—vein quartz, epidiorite.

Kilrea Gravel-Pits. Erratics:—Riebeckite rock, Ailsa Craig—red
and pink granites, green phyllite, rhyolite, diorite, gabbro—red
Carboniferous limestone—coarse gneiss, dark red granite—quartzite.

Cavanmore Road, Gravel-Pit three miles from Kilrea. Erratics :—
Hornblendic granite, quartzites, grey granite, red granites—meta-

L 2

148 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

morphosed sandstone, crushed felsite—limestone, probably Carboni-
ferous—dark red granite, diorite, flints.

Garvagh Quarries. Boulder-Clay and ‘Sands and Gravels.’
Erratics :—Numerous red and pink granites, grey granite, hornblendic
lamprophyre (camptonite?), andesite, pebbly grits, quartz-porphyries,
syenite (Slieve Gallion)—mica schist, metamorphosed grits, quartzite.

Cookstown District, Gravel-Pits. Erratics:—-Numerous red and
pink granites, grey granite, aplite vein, felsites, felsite porphyries,
syenites, diorites, crushed fragmental rock, ophitic gabbro, quartz-
hornblende-porphyry, pink pegmatite, quartz-porphyry, Slieve Gallion
—dolerite—banded granite, gneiss, metamorphosed sandstones and
grits, quartzite (Dalradian).

Coalisland, Sand- and Gravel-Pits, fine current bedding. Erratics :—
Syenite, grey, pink, and red granites, hornblendic granite, crushed
felsite, felsite porphyries, quartz-porphyries, fine-grained gneiss,
hypersthenite or pyroxenite, granite porphyries, lamprophyre, felsites,
Slieve Gallion—gneiss—quartzite, reddened by hematite, red band of
Slieve Gallion—andesite, Tyrone Devonian—flint.

Sherrygroom Gravel-Pit, about five miles South of Cookstown.
Erratics:—Crushed conglomeratic sandstone (Dalradian), epidiorite
(Dalradian), syenites, felsite porphyry, granite (aplite in), lamprophyre,
pink granites, hornblende schist, Slieve Gallion—granites, Barnes-
more (?)—andesite, Tyrone Devonian—diorite, Slieve Gallion or
Tyrone axis—gneiss-—flint, basalt, mica schist.

‘ Blue Door’ or ‘ Finger’ Gravel-Pit, near Cookstown. Erratics :—
Red granites, syenites, hornblendic granites, Slieve Gallion—chalk,
flint, quartzite.

Glasgow Hill, esker one mile north of Cookstown. Erratics :—
Hornblendic granite, including pieces of diorite, coarse felsite porphyry,
granite with inclusions of mica schist, hornblendic granites, syenite,
diorites, porphyritic felsite, Slieve Gallion—granulitic gneiss, epidiorite,
chalk flint breccia (local)—flints, basalts, chalk, quartz.

Aghalee, Section of Sands and Gravels overlying basalt in a quarry
south of the Aghalee Bridge over Lagan Canal. Erratics :—
Riebeckite rock, Ailsa Craig—granites, hornblendic granites, diorites,
syenite, aplitic granite, quartz-felsite (altered rhyolite), Slieve Gallion—
fine-grained sandstone, rhyolite, clay ironstone, jasper, flint, chalk,
mica schist, white quartz.

Cullion Glen, North Slieve Gallion, Boulder-Clay overlying
Carboniferous limestone. Erratics:—Carboniferous conglomerate—
hematite and quartz, Red band Slieve Gallion—sheared felsite, Tyrone
axis to West—andesites, quartz andesite, syenites, granites. hornblendic
rock, diorites, camptonitic lamprophyre, local—chalk, flints, jasper,
schist, red sandstone, quartz.

Carmean, esker close to Railway Station, about two miles North of
Moneymore. Sands and Gravels. Sands of a red colour, and
numerous pink granites common throughout the section—jasper,
hematite ore, fine grained sandstone—granites, syenites, hornblende
eranite, diorite, Slieve Gallion—Carboniferous conglomerate, .sand-
stone (probably Lower Carboniferous), crushed pegmatite.

OEE EE ee SS

ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 149

Drumaneway, esker two miles west of Randallstown. Erratics :—
Riebeckite rock, coarse and fine, Ailsa Craig—rhyolite.

Dervock, Carncullagh Gravel-Pit, one mile to East. Erratics:—
Riebeckite rock, Ailsa Craig—rhyolite, pink granites, mica felsites,
gneiss, mica schists, quartz schists, fine granite, quartzites, granite
and quartz vein—granite, felsite with quartz and mica, sandstone.

Ballymoney, very small Gravel-Pits, Seacon. Erratics :—Rhyolite
—felsite, quartz-felsite—felsite, altered rhyolite. Heagles :—Rhyolite
—chalk with manganese dendrites, granite, granulitic felsite, felsite,
ironstone, quartzite. Ballybrates:—Ferruginous sandstone, gneiss,
felsite, red granite from N.E. Another small pit near (Darcus’) con-
sisted almost entirely of basalt boulders in a stiff matrix, but sand-
stone, red granite, and flint recorded.

Macfin, Gravel-Pit right bank of Bann near Macfin Station.
Erratics :—Granites, diorites, aplites, quartzites, felsites, flint, quartz.

Coleraine, Hillman’s Fancy Sand-Pit, near Railway Station.
Erratics :—Riebeckite rock, Ailsa Craig—pink granites, porphyritic
granite, crushed felsite, pegmatite vein in granite, diorite, granite in
diorite, andesite, granite, quartz felsite, syenite, felsite, red granite,
porphyritic felsite, jasperised rock (?), felsite, granite with micaceous
knots, andesite—chalk, flint, quartz, quartzite.

Monaghan. Erratics:—Ferruginous jasperised shale, local, pos-
sibly Ballyjamesduff area—sandstene, local—white chert, Carboniferous
limestone—from canal bank—calcareous pebbly sandstones, limestone,
dolerite, calcareous grit, sandstones, all local—felsite (?), local. From
Threemile House, S. of Monaghan—felspathic grit ?Silurian—felsite
porphyry, (?) Slieve Gullion—quartzite, quartz vein—sandstone, local,
metamorphosed grit, chert, local. From esker eight miles from
Monaghan—calcareous sandstone with cemented coating of pebbles,
felsp. grit, felsite, chert, limestone, sandstone, local—felsite porphyry,
(?) Slieve Gullion.

Ballymurphy, Belfast (Springfield Brick-works), Boulder-Clay over-
lying Trias. Erratics:—Riebeckite rock, Ailsa Craig—chalk, flint,
chalcedony, basalt, quartzite, quartz, clay ironstone, dolerite, Rhetic,
Lias, Old Red Sandstone, weathered granite.

Portrush, New Waterworks, Boulder-Clay. Grey granite, West of
Scotland.

Glenoe, Boulder-Clay. Rhyolite (Tardree type) and a few imperfect
ossils.

Armagh. Granite invading hornblende rock, Tyrone axis.

Maghaberry, near Moira. Hornblendic granite—epidiorites, Done-
gal or Tyrone type, also Co. Derry type—quartzite, mica schist, Ailsa
Craig rock 12 in. x 7 in. x 6 in.

White Mountain, North of Lisburn. Riebeckite rock, Ailsa Craig,
from an elevation of 800 feet.

Lagan, Brickfield. Porphyritic felsite, hornblendic granite.

150 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,—1913.

Investigation of the Igneous and Associated Rocks of the Glensaul
and Lough Nafooey Areas, Cos. Mayo and Galway.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. W. Watts
(Chairman), Professor S. H. Reynoups (Secretary), Mr.
R. G. CARRUTHERS, and Mr. C. I. GARDINER.

Mr. GarpIner and the Secretary visited the Lough Nafooey district
in April 1913 and completed their work in the field. A general
account of the structure is given in the report presented at the Dundee
Meeting (1912), page 143, and the work of the present year did not
disclose any additional facts of primary importance. It is hoped to
bring an account of the Lough Nafooey district before the Geological
Society during the coming session.

The Committee has now completed its work and does not seek
reappointment.

The Preparation of a List of Characteristic Fossils.—Interim
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor P. F.
KENDALL (Chairman), Mr. W. Lowrr Carter (Secretary),
Mr. H. L. Atwen, Professor W. S. Bounton, Professor G.
CoLE, Dr. A. R. DwerrynHouss, Professors J. W. GREGORY,
Sir T. H. Houtanp, G. A. Lesour, and §. H. Reynoups,
Dr. Martz C. Stores, Mr. Cosmo Jouns, Dr. J. E. Marr,
Dr. A. VAUGHAN, Professor W. W. Warts, Mr. H. Woops,
and Dr. A. SMiIrH Woopwarp, appointed for the considera-
tion thereof.

Durina the year, in response to the request of the Committee, lists
of fossils characteristic of the various geological formations have been
prepared and sent in by specialists, to whom the sincere thanks of
the Committee are due. The arrangement of these lists into a whole
has been undertaken and the result will be issued in print, at an
early date, to the members of the Committee, and subsequently to
teachers of geology throughout the United Kingdom.
The Committee ask for reappointment with a grant of 51.

The Upper Old Red Sandstone of Dura Den.—Preliminary Report
of the Committee, consisting of Dr. J. Horne (Chairman),
Dr. T. J. JEnu (Secretary), Mr. H. Bouton, Mr. A. W. R.
Don, Dr. J. S. Fuerr, Dr. B. N. Peacu, Dr. R. H. Traquair,
and Dr. A. SMirH Woopwarb, appointed for the further
exploration thereof.

THE Committee now present a preliminary report regarding the excava-
tions for fossil-fishes in the Upper Old Red Sandstone at Dura Den,

ON THE UPPER OLD RED SANDSTONE OF DURA DEN. 151

Fife. At the outset they desire to acknowledge the courtesy of Mr.
Bayne-Meldrum, of Balmungo, the proprietor, who kindly granted
permission to continue the work and gave facilities for extending the
operations.

The excavations, begun so successfully by the Dundee local com-
mittee in 1912, ceased during the meeting of the British Association
in September last. They were not resumed till May 5, 1913, when
our Committee took the work in hand. They have been carried on
continuously since that date with marked success.

A definite plan has been followed in conducting these excavations.
The sandstone layer, rich in fish remains, is restricted to a zone
about 2 inches thick. It lies at an average depth of 9 feet from
the surface, and is overlain by about 4 feet of comparatively barren
sandstone, capped by about 4 feet of loose superficial materials. It
was arranged that the fish-bearing zone should be uncovered and
removed in successive sections. The first section laid bare 11 square
yards of the rich layer, the second 23 square yards, and the work now
in progress will expose 28 square yards when completed.

The contractor was authorised to proceed with the third section
on July 8, when the Chairman, the Secretary, and Mr. Don met at
Dura Den. When this work is finished and the ground levelled, the
outlay will exceed the British Association grant of 751. Mr. Bolton,
of the Bristol Museum, has kindly offered a contribution of 121, on
condition that some of the fossils be given tothat museum. The Com-
mittee have accepted this offer, and should further funds be required,
the money will be raised privately.

The fish-remaings obtained from the first and second sections have
been stored in an adjoining shed under lock and key. Those from
the third section will be placed beside them. Dr. Smith Woodward
is expected to undertake the determination of the fish-remains. A list
will appear, together with a ground plan of operations, in the detailed
report to be presented to Section C in 1914.

The Committee cordially acknowledge their obligations to Mr.
Dunlop, from Dunfermline, who, at the request of the Chairman,
undertook to superintend the work on the spot.

The Committee ask authority to distribute the fish-remains to various
public institutions.

Geology of Ramsay Island, Pembrokeshire.—Interim Report of
the Committee, consisting of Dr. A. StRAHAN (Chairman),
Mr. Herpert H. THomas (Secretary), Mr. HK. E. L. Dixon,
Dr. J. W. Evans, Mr. J. F. N. Green, and Professor O. T.
JONES.

Ture Committee have to report that the grant made to them to aid
Mr. J. Pringle in carrying out his researches in the West of Pembroke-
shire has been spent.

They have also to report that considerable progress has been made

152 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

in the detailed mapping of the island, and a great number of fossils and
rocks has been collected.

The southern half of the island, excluding the high ground of Carn
Llundain, has been found to consist of Didymograptus bifidus shales,
which have been invaded by a large mass of quartz-porphyry. At Foel
Fawr these shales, with thick beds of tuff, are conformably overlain by
dark grey rhyolites. Carn Llundain itself is built up of a series of
rhyolites, brecciated and banded tuffs, and thin beds of highly altered
sediments. A quartz-porphyry also occurs as an intrusive rock and is
indistinguishable from the large mass mentioned above. At Ogof
Colomenod there is a remarkable conglomerate. The lavas have proved
to belong to a volcanic outburst which took place in Lower Llanvirn
time.

In the northern half of the island a portion of the ground occupied
by Lingula Flags and Didymograptus extensus beds has been mapped
out, and a large collection of fossils has been made from the so-called
Tremadoc deposits, the D. extensus beds, and the Lower Llanvirn.

Many of the rock specimens have been sliced, and together with the
collection of fossils are undergoing investigation.

Neither the field-work nor laboratory examinations are yet complete,
and the Committee ask that they may be reappointed with a grant
of 101.

The Old Red Sandstone Rocks of Kiltorcan, Ireland.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor GRENVILLE COLE
(Chairman), Professor T. JoHNSON (Secretary), Dr. J. W.
Evans, Dr. R. Kipston, and Dr. A. SmiItH Woopwarp,
appointed for the Exploration thereof.

Durine the year further exploration of the Upper Devonian deposits
at Kiltorcan, co. Kilkenny, has brought to light more material of the
sterh of Archeopteris hibernica and of, apparently, the stem of
Sphenopteris Hookeri, of which up to the present scraps of foliage
only had been found. Kiltorcan is particularly rich in remains of
A. hibernica and of Bothrodendron kiltorkense. A few fish scales
were also found.

The Committee thought it desirable to examine other possible
sources of Devonian fossils. Accordingly Tallow Bridge (co. Water-
ford) was visited. The ‘linear’ plant recorded from the Old Red
Sandstone there proved to be a Bothrodendron. It is very abundant
at the particular exposure sketched by J. B. Jukes in 1855. A little
material of (apparently) Arch@onteris hibernica was found.

This locality would repay thorough exploration. Your Committee
recommends its reappointment and a total grant for 1913-14 of 201.,
inclusive of the balance of 91. odd.

OCCUPATION OF A TABLE AT ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 153

Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor 8. J.
Hickson (Chairman), Mr. E. §. Goopricu (Secretary),
Sir BE. Ray LANKESTER, Professor W. C. McIntosH, Dr.
S. F. Harmer, Mr. G. P. Broper, Mr. W. B. Harpy, and
Professor A. D. WALLER, appointed to aid competent Investi-
gators selected by the Committee to carry on definite pieces
of work at the Zoological Station at Naples.

Srvcz the last report of the Committee was written the table at
Naples has been occupied by the Hon. Miss Mary Palk from July 5,
1912, to April 16, 1913, and by Dr. Stuart Thomson from March 25,
1913, to April 16, 1913.

The Committee have received a grant of 501. from the Council of
the Association out of the Sir J. K. Caird benefaction, which can be
used towards the contribution for the table next session.

The Committee ask to be reappointed with a further grant of 501.

Dr. J. Stuart Thomson, of the University of Manchester, reports :—

‘I beg to report that I occupied the British Association table at
Naples for one month during the Easter vacation of 1913. I made
histological studies on the muscles of the dorsal vibratile fin of
Hippocampus, and the impregnation of these muscles with hemoglobin
and myo-hematin, and also worked at Motella with the same object
in view. I devoted considerable attention to the general fauna, but
more especially to the Alcyonaria of the Gulf of Naples. I collected
and carefully preserved the brains of several genera of Elasmobranch
fishes for future work by the Weigert Pal and Bielschowsky methods
in connection with an investigation on which I am engaged on the
Telencephalon of Selachians.’

Nomenclator Animalium Generum et Subgenerum.—Report of
the Committee, consisting of Dr. CHALMERS MITCHELL (Chair-
man), Rev. T. R. R. Steppine (Secretary), Dr. M. LAvRIE,
Dr. Maretr Tims, and Dr. A. SmirH Woopwarp. (Drawn
up by the Chairman.)

I wave to report that after consulting the Committee I paid over the
grant in full to Professor Schulze last December.

He writes to me that the amount has been expended in helping to
pay the large staff of specialists employed in carrying out the work,
and he has furnished me with detailed accounts and statistics showing
that he is making good progress with his gigantic task. The grant
made by the Association is, of course, only a very small part of the cost
of the work, but Dr. Schulze asks me to convey his thanks to the
Association for the encouragement and assistance extended to him.

The Committee asks for reappointment, and hopes that the Associa-
tion will be able to afford some further help for speeding the publi-
cation of the Nomenclator.

154 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913,

Zoology Organisation.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Sir E. Ray LANKESTER (Chairman), Professor S. J. Hickson
(Secretary), Professors G. C. Bourne, J. CossarR Ewart,
M. Hartoa and W. A. Herpman, Mr. M. D. Hutu, Pro-
fessors J. GRAHAM Kerr and EH. A. MINCHIN, Dr. P.
CHALMERS MITCHELL, Professor E. B. Poutton, and Dr.
A. E. SHIPLEY.

THE past session has been a quiet one as far as the work of the

Committee is concerned. Some correspondence has been carried on

regarding the question of the permanent endowment of the British

table at Naples.
The Committee ask to be reappointed.

Belmullet Whaling Station.—Interim Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. A. E. Surptey (Chairman), Professor J.
STANLEY GARDINER (Secretary), Professor W. A. HERDMAN,
Rev. W. Spotswoop GREEN, Mr. E. 8. Goopricu, Dr. H. W.
Marerr Tims, and Mr. R. M. Barrinaton, appointed to
investigate the Biological Problems incidental to the Belmullet

Whaling Station.

THe Committee, having decided to further investigate the catch of
whales during 1913, requested Professor W. A. Herdman to nominate
one or more naturalists to proceed to Belmullet and also to direct
and advise them as far as might be necessary. He selected two of
his pupils, R. J. Daniel, B.Sc., and J. E. Hamilton, B.Sc., who
proceeded to Belmullet on June 24. At the request of the Board of
Agriculture and Fisheries Mr. Daniel was released on August 28 to
take up a temporary appointment as Assistant Naturalist for Herring
Investigations, but Mr. Hamilton still remains at the Fishery.

The following is an extract from a short report sent to the
Secretary by Messrs. Daniel and Hamilton:

Blacksod, Belmullet, August 29, 1913.

Since June 26 we have examined altogether thirty-eight whales, of which
twenty-eight have been Common Rorquals. The remainder consisted of six
Sperm Whales, all males, three Sibbald’s Rorquals, and one Humpback. A com-
plete set of standardised measurements has been taken of each whale. The
length and sex of the whales caught at the neighbouring whaling station on
Rusheen Island have also been procured.

Four foetus of the Common Rorqual have been examined; they were not
sufficiently small to be of embryological interest. The smallest, which had been
about four feet long, was almost completely destroyed by the explosion of the
bomb, and was considerably decayed.

The stomachs have been examined to ascertain the food of the different
species, but we believe that there is nothing of importance to record. The
Schizopod, which is the principal food of the Balenopterid whales, has been
noted in many Rorquals, and also in the single Humpback examined. A nearly
complete cuttlefish of very large size was taken from the stomach of one of
the Sperm Whales.

The external parasites found include Penella and Balewnophilus on the
Common Rorqual, Cyamus and Conchoderma on the Sperm Whales, and a large
Balanus-like Cirripede on the Megaptera. Of internal parasites the sole

ON THE BELMULLET WHALING STATION. 155

trematode was Monostomum from Balenoptera muscularis. In B. sibbaldti a

cestode and an echinorhynch were found, in Physeter nematodes and echino-
rhynchs, and in Megaptera a large echinorhynch.

In the whalebone whales we discovered a peculiar dendritic tubular process
projecting into the vena cava at the level of the kidneys. It appears to be the
blind termination of a series of branching tubes ramifying in the kidney, and is
nearly always stuffed with mineral matter in small irregular masses.

Although not as yet fully assured on the point, we are inclined to think that
Burfield’s ‘ Problematical Organ’ will prove to be the external aperture of a mass
of gland-like tissue situated between the mandibles at the symphysis.

Experiments in Inheritance.—Sixth Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor W. A. HERDMAN (Chairman), Mr. R.
Dovuauas Laurige (Secretary), Professor R. C. PUNNETT, and
Dr. H. W. Marert Tims.

Tue final report is unavoidably held over, and pending its presentation
to the Association next year the Committee ask to be reappointed
without a grant.

Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor A. DENDyY (Chairman and Secretary),
Sir E. Ray LANKESTER, Professor SyDNEY H. VINES, and
Mr. E. S. GoopricH, appointed to nominate competent
Naturalists to perform definite pieces of work at the Marine
Laboratory, Plymouth.

Durine the past year the use of the table has been granted to Professor
J. Playfair McMurrich, of the University of Toronto, for one week, in
order to enable him to procure specimens of the various Sagartiide that
are to be found in the neighbourhood ; also to Mr. W. O. Redman King,
B.A., of the University of Leeds, for a fortnight, to enable him to
investigate the temperature coefficient of the developing egg and the
enzymes in the ova and spermatozoa of echinoderms.

Natural History, &c., of the Isle of Wight.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Mr. CLEMENT Rep (Chairman), Pro-
fessor J. L. Myres (Secretary), Mr. O. G. 5. CRAWFORD,
Mr. W. Dats, Professor E. B. Pounton, and Dr. A. B.
RENDLE, appointed to co-operate with local bodies in acquiring
and arranging collections to illustrate the Natural History,
Geography, and Antiquities of the Isle of Wight.

In 1912 arrangements were made for transferring further archeological
collections to Carisbrooke Castle, and half the grant was devoted to
this purpose. There was, however, no room available in the Castle
for anything but the archeological collections; and a recent visit by
the Chairman of your Committee shows also that this old castle is
scarcely suitable for the purpose.

156 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE—1913.

The other available collections are almost entirely geological. For
these, excellent accommodation has been found in the public library
at Sandown. Here a well-lighted large room has been devoted to
them, and they will be properly cared for. The cases from the old
museum at Newport have now been removed to Sandown, and with
a certain amount of adaptation and repair they will do very well.
The whole of the specimens, however, require re-tableting and cleaning.
The Committee has devoted the remainder of the grant to this work,
which is now being carried out by a local committee.

Your Committee does not ask to be reappointed.

Atlas, Textual, and Wall Maps for School and University Use.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor J. 1. Myris
(Chairman), Rev. W. J. Barton (Secretary), Professor R. L.
ARCHER, Dr. R. N. RupMosE Brown, Mr. G. G. CHISHOLM,
Colonel C. F. Citosz, Mr. G. F. DANIELL, Professor H. N.
Dickson, Mr. O. J. R. Howarry, Colonel Sir D. A.
JOHNSTON, and Mr. E. A. REEVES, appointed to inquire into
the Choice and Style thereof.

THE Committee was appointed at the Dundee Meeting of the Association,
and has spent its first year in preliminary work in two principal direc-
tions. One Sub-Committee has devoted itself to questions of content
and arrangement; another to questions of style and draughtsmanship.
The former necessarily had to settle many important points before the
cartographical aspect of the matter could be discussed with profit; but
the members of the Cartographical Committee have taken the oppor-
tunities of map-inspection which are described below to meet the
members of the Contents Committee and discuss general points of
principle.

The needs of junior and senior students differ widely, and it was
found necessary from the outset to deal with them separately. But
throughout the inquiry it has been the object of the Committee to
provide as far as possible for a senior and a junior atlas which should
be consistent in their general plan and execution. In order to keep in
touch with the actual needs of teachers, and with the current practice
of map-publishers, the Committee held one of its meetings at the School
of Geography in Oxford, where it was able, by the courtesy of Professor
Herbertson, to consult a very large collection of atlases, British and
foreign, and to frame a series of questions for circulation among
teachers and also among the Directors of Education in the larger
administrative areas. The replies to these questions, so far as they
shall have been received, are to be discussed at a conference to be held
in connection with the Birmingham Meeting of the Association, and will
be summarised in an Appendix to this Report. The questions, mean-
while, are printed below.

_ The Cartographical Sub-Committee will then be in a position to draft
its recommendations with fuller knowledge of the limiting conditions of

ATLAS, TEXTUAL, AND WALL MAPS, 157

size, shape, and eventual cost, than would have been the case if it had
begun its part of the work earlier.

The Committee therefore asks to be reappointed. It also asks for a
grant to enable it to prepare the specimen sheets of maps which are
already seen to be essential, if the Committee is to illustrate adequately

- the practical reforms which it hopes to recommend in map-production

and to obtain the criticisms both of teachers and of publishers on the
many points of detail and execution which arise at every stage.

The Committee desires to express its thanks to the many teachers
and geographers whom it has consulted, and particularly to the Royal
Geographical Society and the Oxford School of Geography for the oppor-
tunity of holding meetings and inspecting collections of geographical
material.

Letter and Questions addressed to Teachers and Directors of Education.

Dear Srr,—The above Committee, appointed by Section EH
(Geography) at the Dundee Meeting (1912) of the British Association,
hopes to present a preliminary report for discussion at Birmingham
in September 1913. That the discussion may be effective, we venture
to send you (Enclosure 1) a portion of this report in draft, and to
invite your co-operation and, in particular, replies to the appended
questions.

It would enhance the value of the replies if you would kindly state
(a) what type of school you have in mind, and (b) what atlas is at
present in use in the school.

1. What maps would you wish to see in duplicate, physical and

political ?

2. What would be the order of utility for your purposes of the

large scale maps of the British Isles (1) A, B, OC, D, E;
(2) a, b, e¢ (Enclosure 2)?

3. What chief inconveniences have you remarked in existing maps,

and especially

(a) What regions are inadequately represented ?
(b) What maps contain too many names? What maps too
few ?
Any: communication addressed to the Rev. W. J. Barton, The
College, Winchester, before the end of August would be welcomed.
Thanking you for your generous assistance, we have the honour
to be
Yours faithfully,
Joun I). Myres, Chairman of the Committee.
Water J. Barton, Secretary of the Committee.

Encuosure 1.
Sentor Scuoon ATuAs.
“Royal ’ paper (25” x 20”) will give a map 101” x 81”, single page.
Double-page maps should be mounted on guards.
To make maps readily comparable, (a) all world maps should be
on the same projection (Mercator’s projection to be used for Map 7
only); (b) few scales should be employed. The continents should be

158 _ REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

shown on the same scale, and for larger scale maps simple. sub-
multiples of this scale should be used.

List oF Maps.
World Maps.
1. Maps of a selected region, to exhibit scales, methods of showing
relief, &c.
2. Hemispheres, heights, depths: section along 45° N.

European areas to be shown are enclosed by broken lines (Maps 13 and 17a)
and continuous lines (Maps 14, 15, 17s, and 18).

3. Hemispheres, political: inset River Basins.

4. Hemispheres, population, density: Races insev.
5. Polar Regions: Land and Sea Hemispheres.

6. Vegetation: Ocean Currents.

ATLAS, TEXTUAL, AND WALL MAPS. 159

7. Mercator (Australia repeated), showing Commercial Highways
and Development.

8. Temperature: January, July, Year, Annual Range.

9. Pressure and Winds, two or four months. Rainfall: Year,
Seasonal.

Hurope.

10. Europe (20 million), physical. Inset (40 million), tem-
perature: January, July.
11. Europe (20 million), political. Inset (40 million), rainfall,
seasonal.
12. (a) Population, density; languages. (b) Minerals and manu-
facturing regions.
13. Mediterranean (10 million),
_14. Central Europe (5 million).
15. Italy and Balkans (5 million).
16. Alps.
17. (a) N.-W. Europe (10 million). (b) Spain (5 million),
18. (a) France (5 million). (b) British Isles (5 million).
19. large scale maps—e.g., position of Vienna.

America.

20. (a) North America (40 million), physical. Inset (80 million),
temperature.

(b) North America (40 million), political. Inset (80 million),
rainfall.

21. (a) U.S.A. (20 million). (b) Atlantic Coast (10 million).

22. Canada (20 million), and Special Areas.

23. S. America (40 million), political, §. America (40 million),
physical.

Asia.
24. Asia (40 million), physical. Inset (80 million), temperature:
January, July.
25. Asia (40 million), political. Inset (80 million), rainfall.
26. Southern Asia (20 million).
27. China and Japan (20 million); Palestine.
28. India, political (large scale); climate.

Australasia.

29. (a) Oceania, including East Indies (40 million), political.
(b) Australia (20 million), physical.
30. (a) E. Australia, (b) New Zealand, larger scale.

Africa.
31. Africa, physical (40 million). Political (40 million).
32. S. Africa (20 or 12 million). Insets, W. Africa, Egypt,
temperature, rainfall.

160 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

ENCLOSURE 2.

RS iverpoo! o Sheffield

0 Sirmingham

London
}°

A, B, C, D,\E are areas, some of which might be shown by double-page maps on a
large scale (e.g. 1 : 500,000) ; a, b, c, single-page maps of holiday areas on a still
larger scale (say 1 : 200,000).

——————

ATLAS, TEXTUAL, AND WALL MAPS. 161

British Isles.

England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland, physical and political
(2 million).

Special regions, A, B, C, D, E, 1: 500,000.

Special regions, a, b, c, 1: 200,000.

Climate, Geology, Population, &c., to be determined.

About 40 double pages in all.

For a Junior School Atlas, one map of each continent (physical,
with political boundaries shown in red) would meet all needs. Maps 4
and 5 would be combined; also 8 and 9 (temperature and rainfall only).
For 26 and 27, India, China, and Japan (20 million) might be sub-
stituted, and the following maps omitted—viz. 12, 15, 16, 17, 19, 218,
22, 29a, and 30a, together with 18a if France were shown on Map 14.

Geographical Teaching in Scotland.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. J. Horne (Chairman), Mr. T. S. Murr
(Secretary), Dr. R. N. RupMosE Brown, Dr. W. 8. Bruce,
Mr. H. M. Capetn, Mr. G. G. CuisHo~m, Mr. J. Cossar,
Professor H. N. Dickson, Professor P. GreppEs, Professor
A. J. Herpertson, Dr. J. Scorr Kexriz, Mr. J. Mauwoce,
Mr. J. McFaruane, and Dr. M. NEwsIGIN, appointed to
inquire into the present state thereof.

Tue following questions were issued in the form of a circular to all
the Secondary and Higher Grade schools, and to some of the Elemen-
tary schools in Scotland, care being taken in the latter case to select
representative areas :—

1. How many hours per week are devoted in your school to the
teaching of Geography in (a) the Qualifying stage? (b) Inter-
mediate stage? (c) Post-Intermediate stage?

2. Has that time increased, diminished, or remained stationary as
compared with previous years? (a) Qualifying? (b) Inter-
mediate? (c) Post-Intermediate ?

3. What is the staple subject in your school outside of English?
How many hours per week are devoted to it? (a) Qualifying?
(b) Intermediate? (c) Post-Intermediate ?

4. (a2) How many candidates did you present in 1912 for the
Leaving Certificate in Geography? (b) What proportion did the
number of candidates bear to the total Leaving Certificate candi-
dates from your school ?

5. (a) Have you a ‘ qualified’ teacher of Geography? (b) Is any
* practical ’ work done? (c) What kinds of maps and atlases are
in use?

6. Please add any remarks you think may prove helpful to the
Committee.

From the replies received, and from other sources, a considerable
mass of information has been accumulated which has enabled the
Committee to come to what it believes are trustworthy conclusions.

I. It is clear that in very many Elementary schools, especially in

1913. M

162 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,—1913.,

country districts, Geography teaching is still on the old lines. ‘To
quote from one correspondent: ‘All elementary teachers (in my
district) are of the old school—i.e., text-book, map, and memory. I
find great difficulty, more in this than in any other subject, in getting
them to teach Geography in a reasonable and attractive way.’ The
causes of this unfortunate state of matters are: (1) lack of knowledge
on the part of the teachers, due to the extremely limited opportunities
for acquiring instruction; (2) the reluctance, frequently the refusal,
of School Boards to supply modern equipment, even such essentials
as proper text-books and physical wall-maps. Some Boards issue
admirable lists of approved text-books, &c., but, rightly or wrongly,
many teachers are of opinion that the smaller their annual bill for such
things is the more favourably they are looked upon by their employers.
Teachers here and there exist who, at the expenditure of their own time
and labour, construct wall-maps and simple instruments; but the
ordinary elementary teacher who has to undertake many subjects has
little, if any, leisure to devote to special work in one of these subjects.
Nor can it reasonably be expected of him.

The ‘Memorandum on the Teaching of Geography in Scottish
Primary Schools’ issued by the Scotch Education Department in
1912, in spite of some defects which need not be mentioned here, as
they have already been noticed in several geographical reviews, un-
doubtedly marks a great advance, and will promote the setting up of a
higher standard than before in Elementary schools.

It is advisable that classes for teachers be held in suitable centres
all over Scotland. The experiment has been tried in at least one place
with considerable success, and correspondents indicate that the demand
for such instruction is both strong and widespread. Secondly, pressure
should be brought to bear upon School Boards by inspectors or by
other means to equip their schools with at least modern text-books and
physical wall-maps.

II. In the Intermediate stage (ages 12 to 15) a higher standard
of teaching is maintained. The Intermediate Certificate examination
is here the end in view. Geography is compulsory, but is counted as
part of English on the basis of 100 marks to English and 50 to
Geography. No time allowance for teaching is prescribed, but one
and a half hours per week is recommended. Needless to say, that
allowance is rarely exceeded. Six schools only reported an allowance
of more than two hours, one of them giving three hours.

The Committee notes with satisfaction the recent improvement in
the type of paper set in the Intermediate examination, but thinks it
capable of improvement. The following is an account of the paper
set in 1913, which was of the same character as those for some years
past. The paper was divided into three sections: A, B, and C. Two
outline maps were provided—one of the World, the other of the British
Isles. Section A consisted of three parts: (a) to insert in their proper
places names such as Borneo, Lake Chad, Tibet; (b) to show by a dot
and write beside it towns such as Bilbao, Canton, Colombo; (c) either
to write names of races in their native places—e.g., Kafir, Dyak, Ainu—
or to draw in the Arctic and Antarctic Circles and the two tropics.
Section B also consisted of three parts: (a) two towns famous for
certain industries—e.g., cutlery, brewing, &c.; (b) indicating regions

ON GEOGRAPHICAL TEACHING IN SCOTLAND. 163

of heavy and light rainfall; (c) inserting certain names—e.g., Stranraer,
the Lizard, &c. In all, 42 separate facts were asked to be recorded
for a maximum of 26 marks. Both sections were compulsory, and
choice was given only in the case of part (c) of Section A. Section C
consisted of eight questions of a wide range, from which the candidate
was expected to select two. The marks for this section amounted to
24, making up for the paper a total of 50.

In the compulsory sections it would be of advantage that some
further choice be afforded to the candidates, that greater opportunity
be given for displaying knowledge of places associated with current
events, and that a more reasonable proportion of the marks be allotted
to that part of the paper which exercises the intelligence of the
candidate.

The written examination is supposed to be supplemented by an
oral examination conducted by an inspector, but this is usually per-
functory, and in some schools the inspector pays no attention whatever
to Geography. Throughout the Intermediate course a compulsory
minimum time-allowance of three and a quarter hours per week would
be very beneficial, and inspectors of Geography might encourage
attempts at a higher standard of teaching.

III. In the Post-Intermediate stage Geography is no longer a
compulsory subject, except in the case of junior students, who,
however, are at no time examined as to their knowledge of Geography.
In the Leaving Certificate examination Geography is separated from
English, which is the only compulsory subject, is put on a level with
other optional subjects, and is allotted 100 marks. It may form one
of a ‘ group,’ but the curriculum must then be submitted to the Scotch
Education Department for its specific approval. This is not required
if a school commits itself to English, Mathematics, and French; or to
English, Mathematics, and Latin. It is distinctly laid down that
Geography is on the same level with, for example, languages, and that
a candidate must spend upon it an adequate amount of time. The
Committee finds that the average amount of time spent upon languages
at this stage is seven hours per week. The following tabular statement
will help to make matters clear :—

1912. 1913.

No. of candidates for Group Leaving Certificate .... 2,202 2,290
QTIGCCSSLUIEA chee aaah orcad ate oer! hee 1,711 1,739

No. of candidates with Geography as part of Group 195 146
S eC Cabby: <. Hievmepidas eae inalt ndedesveai<s 155 92

No. of candidates who sat Geography examination 319 212
Siitese sel ost halt vk cadence tes ea bene tinae ts 227 116

From these figures it will be seen that while in 1912 Geography
candidates formed only about 9 per cent. of the total number of Leaving
Certificate candidates, in 1913 even that small proportion was reduced
to a little more than 6 per cent. The presentations for Geography as
a separate paper also fell from 124 to 66; while the number of candi-
dates with Geography as part of their group fell from 195 to 146.

The Committee has received some information regarding 1912. It
is aware of 70 candidates who were accepted by the Department, and
who had had an hour and a half, or less, teaching per week. It is also

M 2

164 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

aware of 35 of these candidates who passed. This last piece of informa-
tion was not asked for in the circular sent out, but some correspondents
gave it voluntarily. These figures speak for themselves.

From the returns received it is definitely proved that the making an
optional subject of Geography has practically killed it in the Post-
Intermediate stage. Only seventy-two schools sent in information on
this point. The average time allowance was just over an hour and a
half per week; in nine schools it was more than two hours. Some give
an hour or so for the first year, then drop it entirely. Twelve have
dropped it altogether. The Committee is aware of some others which
have made no returns, and which have also dropped Geography. It is
a fair inference that a complete census would reveal many more. In
only eleven schools has the time allowance been recently increased,
and in most cases this increase has been from a totally inadequate to
but a slightly less inadequate amount. The Committee is of opinion that
this is a very serious matter. It finds that in many Secondary schools,
some of thern the largest and most important in the country, situated in
great educational centres, the pupils cease to study Geography at the
age of fifteen. Further, that the average time devoted to Geography up
to that age is only an hour and a half per week. Now the time up to the
close of the Intermediate stage should be devoted to providing that
foundation of fact which is the basis of scientific Geography, and it is
only in the Post-Intermediate stage that a pupil is mentally fitted to
build upon that foundation by studying Political and Economic Geo-
graphy—in other words, how man adapts himself to his environment,
and how that environment reacts upon man. It is not considered
necessary to emphasise the value of Geography as an educational
subject beyond expressing the opinion that after a knowledge of the
English language there is nothing more essential to the mental equip-
ment of the modern Briton than a thorough grounding in Geography.
This is impossible of achievement under the present regulations. It
seems only reasonable that Geography be made a compulsory subject
throughout the Post-Intermediate stage, and that in this stage also a
minimum time allowance of three hours and a quarter per week be
fixed.

IV. Training Colleqges.—It may be explained that students prepar-
ing for the Teaching Profession in Scotland may either receive their
training at the Training Colleges, where the course extends for two
years, or may continue their professional training with a University
course, or may first complete their graduation and then devote one year
to their professional training under the auspices of the Provincial
Committees for the Training of Teachers established in the four centres
— Aberdeen, Edinburgh, Glasgow, and St. Andrews.

The University students in training at Edinburgh or Glasgow may
include Geography among the subjects required for graduation at the
University, but this is not possible at the other centres, where so far
there is no University teaching of the subject.

The position of the subject varies considerably at the different
centres. At the Training Colleges of Edinburgh, Glasgow, and St.
Andrews, lecturers in Geography have been appointed, and at these
centres instruction in Geography forms an integral part of the cur-
riculum for all Training College students.

ve ee ee ee ee se

ee a | ee ee

ON GEOGRAPHICAL TEACHING IN SCOTLAND. 165

At Aberdeen Training College the previous training of the students
and their knowledge of the subject are regarded as satisfactory, so that
there is now no special instruction in the subject, and attention is
confined to the methods of teaching Geography. ‘The classes consist of
thirty to forty students, and thirty periods are devoted to the methods
of teaching Mathematics, Nature Study, and Geography, so that if the
time is equally divided Geography can receive only ten periods.

At Edinburgh at least thirty periods are given to the study of
Geography, and the classes consist of forty to fifty students. At
Glasgow the Geography course extends to thirty periods, and for
lectures the classes average eighty students, while for practical work
they are reduced to twenty-seven. At St. Andrews sixty periods are
devoted to the study of Geography, and the classes number twenty-five
students.

The University students in training at the Edinburgh centre receive
no instruction in Geography unless they elect to include the subject in
their graduation course at the University; a considerable number do
so, but the larger number, who do not, are being sent out each year—
many to teach in Secondary schools—without any equipment to teach
the subject so far as the Training College is concerned,

At Glasgow the subject has been dropped from the curriculum
of the University students in training, and attention is confined to
methods in teaching Geography, in spite of the fact that in very many
cases the previous study of the subject has been quite insufficient.

Finally, recent legislation by the Scotch Education Department, and
local conditions at several of the Training Centres, now make it quite
possible for students who may have ceased the study of Geography
after obtaining the Intermediate Certificate to complete their professional
training without much, if any, further instruction in the subject.

In the opinion of the Committee it should be rendered necessary for
all University students in training to have obtained the Leaving
Certificate in Geography unless adequate instruction in the subject is
provided in their professional course, or unless they include the subject
in their graduation course at the University.

V. Universities —Geography was first recognised by the Scottish
Universities in 1908, when a lecturer was appointed as head of a new
department in that subject in the University of Edinburgh. The
lecturer has an ordinary class extending over the whole session (three
terms) and two advanced classes, each of which is confined to a single
term. From the first the ordinary class has qualified for admission to the
M.A. examination, Geography being now one of the optional subjects
in that degree. One of the advanced classes is a non-graduation class.
The other, which is devoted especially to Economic Geography, is the
qualifying class for an optional paper for the degree of M.A. with
honours in Economic Science. In five years during which the ordinary
class has been held, the attendance has been 48, 40, 116, 132, 98. ‘he
attendance at the advanced class varies from 5 to 10.

The only other Scottish University which so far recognises Geo-
graphy is Glasgow, where the lecturer was appointed on similar con-
ditions to those in Edinburgh in 1909. There Geography may now be
taken as a subject for either the M.A. or the B.Sc. degree. The
ordinary class is the qualifying class for the M.A., and the advanced

166 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

class for the honours degree of B.Sc., and was held for the first time
last winter. The attendance at the ordinary class for the four years
during which the lectureship has been in existence has been about 30,
65, 73, 94.

It should be added that under a recent regulation, which comes into
force next year, the position of Geography in the preliminary examina-
tion for admission to the Arts and Science Faculties of Edinburgh
University has been seriously prejudiced. Down to 1918 Geography was
one of the branches under the head of English, which is a compulsory
subject in the preliminary examination, but from 1914 onwards the
only recognition of Geography is in connection with the history of the
British people, one of the subjects included in the English syllabus.
“Candidates will be expected to show acquaintance with the social as
well as the political history of the British people and the relevant
geography.’

In conclusion the Committee is of opinion that while the worst
result of the present regulations for the Post-Intermediate stage is that
pupils leave school with a very imperfect and one-sided educational
equipment, a subsidiary result of nearly as much importance may soon
appear. It is that the majority of the pupils who intend to become
teachers will not care to take up the study of Geography again after the
lapse of two or three years. Thus the supply of capable teachers will
diminish, and once more, as in the past, even in the Intermediate stage,
Geography will be entrusted to the ‘ general’ teacher, and it will fall
back into its old position of memory work, unintelligent and uncom-
prehended.

Gaseous Ezxplosions.—Interim Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Sir W. H. PREEcE (Chairman), Dr. DuGALp CLERK
(Vice-Chairman), Professor W. E. Datpy (Secretary), Pro-
fessors BonE, BursTaLL, CALLENDAR, COKER, and Drxon,
Drs. GLAZEBROOK and HaRrkER, Lieut.-Colonel HoLpEN, Pro-
fessors B. Hopkinson and PETavEL, Captain SaNKEy, Pro-
fessors SMITHELLS and Watson, Mr. D. Li. CHapman, and
Mr. H. EK. Wimperis, appointed for the Investigation of
Gaseous Explosions, with special reference to Temperature.

Note on the Proceedings of the Committee for the year 1912-13.

Ar the Dundee Meeting certain changes were made in the constitution
of the Committee. Sir William Preece continues to be Chairman, but
Dr. Dugald Clerk and Professor Hopkinson resigned the joint secretary-
ship. Dr. Dugald Clerk, however, consented, to the great satisfaction
of the Committee, to act as Vice-President, and Professor Dalby was
appointed Secretary.

The Committee allocated the whole of the grant to the Secretary,
with the object of providing him with a permanent research assistant to
carry on the work. The moment is favourable for this action of the
Committee. The new laboratories of the Imperial College of Science
and Technology are approaching completion, and it is intended by the
governing authority of the college that these laboratories shall he

GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 167

devoted to research. Professor Dalby is working on a scheme with
Dr. Dugald Clerk for equipping one bay with internal-combustion
engines. It is recognised that the Imperial College would be materially
assisted in carrying out their ideals if the work of the Committee were
concentrated in the new laboratories.

Owing to a delay in the completion of the laboratories it is not
possible to present a report this year. Work, however, has been
carried on with the old plant by Professor Dalby with the aid of a
research scholar, and some important results have been obtained which
will be communicated in due course. The general work of the Com-
mittee has also gone steadily on during the year.

Three meetings have been held at the City and Guilds (Engineering)
College, at which the following Notes were presented and discussed :—

Note 26. ‘ The flow of heat from a charge of air subject to cyclical

variations of state in the cylinder of a gas engine,’
and
‘The comparison of the temperature readings of a plati-

num thermometer with the temperature computed from
the pressure volume diagram.’ By Professor Dalby.

Note 27. ‘ The flow of heat between a charge of air enclosed in a
gas-engine cylinder and the walls of the cylinder when
the charge is subjected to a cyclical variation of tem-
perature.’ By Professor Dalby.

Note 28. ‘ Leakage of charge.’ By Professor Dalby.

Note 29. ‘ Gas-engine temperatures.’ By Professor Hopkinson.

Note 30. ‘ The effect of compression ratio on the efficiency of a
gas engine.’ By Professors G. Asakawa and J. E.
Petavel.

Note 31. ‘ Determination of leakage by the method of alternate
compression and expansion.’ By Dugald Clerk.

Note 26.—In this Note, which was presented last year, Professor
Dalby drew attention to a method of testing and correcting for leakage
in a gas-engine cylinder. A detailed explanation of this method was
given in the note, which was accompanied by eight photographic records
relating to the experiments referred to; these were carried out at one
constant speed. The observations were made by two research students
of the Imperial College—Messrs. Mawson and Begg—working under
the direction of Professor Dalby.

Note 27. This Note is a record of the results obtained by applying
the method to the same engine run at different speeds in order to
ascertain the effect of speed on the leakage. The paper was accom-
panied by eleven large blue prints giving the data and the deductions
drawn from them.

Note 28. There was considerable discussion at the Committee
regarding the amount of leakage found, and at the request of the
Committee Professor Dalby made some further experiments, the results
of which are embodied in Note 28. This Note was accompanied by a
blue print of two curves and a photographic record.

Note 29. Professor Hopkinson’s Note consisted of general remarks
relating to the importance of knowing the suction temperature and its
influence on the heat flow.

168 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

Note 30. This Note relates to the efficiency of a gas engine with
varying degrees of compression, and is embodied in a paper which
is to be presented at the Birmingham Meeting of the Association.

Note 31. This Note, presented by Dr. Clerk, relates to experiments
on the determination of the specific heat of gases, with special relation
to the correction applied to eliminate the effect of the small amount of
leak of charge.

Certain of the More Complex Stress Distributions in Engineering
Materials.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
J. Perry (Chairman), Professors EK. G. Coxser and J. E.
PETAVEL (Secretaries), Professor A. Barr, Dr. C. CHREE,
Mr. GILBERT Coor, Professor W. EK. Datpy, Sir J. A. Ewina,
Professor L. N. G. Finon, Messrs. A. R. Fuuton and J. J.
GuEsT, Professors J. B. HENDERSON and A. E. H. Loves, Mr.
W. Mason, Sir ANDREW Nose, Professor KARL PEARSON,
Messrs. F. Rocers and W. A. Scosiz, Dr. T. EK. STANTON,
and Mr. J. S. Witson, appointed to report thereon.

Report on Combined Stress. By W. A. Scostz, B.Sc.

INDEX.

PAGE
Historical : 4 é 5 = : : < : : : ‘ ; sve 168
Theories . 5 4 3 5 5 5 ; > : é ‘ F : : i 169
Failure . : ; : : ; 2 : : 2 : 2 : : : —xe LTO
Materials F P : : : : : ; : : ; : ‘ : ~ L0
Systems of Stress . Rha TSS EO eee eld a
Rate of Loading and Repeated Loading . ei job's 3 Sen [3 tg Mie ieee
Mechanism of Failure . 5 : é ; : . : ‘ ore UT
Early Engineering Tests . LMR <) copes 5
Experiments with Ductile Materials under Combined Stresses : efit ey 2
Brittle Materials under Combined Stresses . . . . . «. . « I75
Friction Theory . eee i ea Se eC ere Pre eS eed lS
Liider’s or Hartmann’s ‘Lines : 3 ? : 2 ae Te
Some other Considerations in Combined Stress Researches : : : : 2 3-176
Alternating Combined Stresses su! sey at ie ee ar ee et Set ee ed
Separationiof Materials... jt > APs sche adele ears an asta (toe
An Mngineering Views.) ) iy es sks) tees clei ek 0) Bitte hol a
Conclusion . a Leo

(The sina eile t in the t text role to the bihlionea phy )

Historical—Coulomb 1 appears to have been the first to study the kind of
strain we now call shear, and he considered that rupture takes place when
the shear of the material is greater than a certain limit. This is the first
recorded Theory of Strength, but since it refers to rupture, the shear
defined is a permanent set. Vicat® drew attention to the flow of metals
when he discovered that the yield of iron is dependent on the time it is
stressed, but Tresca,® by his extended researches, kindled great interest
in this subject, and he also stated that the maximum difference of the
greatest and least principal stresses is the measure of the tendency to
rupture. Theories of molecular action were devised by various investiga-
tors to account for the viscosity and the elastic afterworking.* Love

* See The Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, Love, 2nd edit., p. 116.

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 169

oints out that the stress difference theory of Tresca leads to a limit which
is little different from the shear strain hypothesis enunciated by Coulomb.
The Stress Difference Theory was applied by G. H. Darwin and C. Chree.™
It is probable that they were influenced by Tresca, and also by the
knowledge that a brittle material fractures by shearing when loaded in
compression.

The Maximum Strain Theory is usually named after St. Venant,® but he
attributed it to Mariotte,? who wrote: ‘ que c’est le degré d’extension qui
fait rompre les corps.’ St. Venant adapted this theory to the elastic
breakdown of a material by assuming that after the limit of mathematical
elasticity is reached, the body will ultimately be ruptured if it has to sus-
tain the same load.* He also rejected Coulomb’s theory when applied to
rupture in compression, and followed Poncelet,®? who ascribed rupture by
compression to the transverse stretch which accompanies a longitudinal
squeeze.

Lamé?‘ assumed that the greatest tension had a limiting value to ensure
safety. This view was adopted by Rankine, who was followed by British
and American engineers, but when known as the Maximum Stress Theory
it is usually assumed to apply in compression as well as in tension.

A modification of the Stress Difference Theory was suggested by Navier,
and is based on the assumption that the shear-stress at failure is modified
by the internal friction of the material to an extent proportional to the
stress normal to the plane of the shear. Perryf has been the principal
exponent of this modified shear stress theory in this country. He notices
that cast iron, stone, brick, and cement fracture at angles greater than 45
degrees with the cross section. For cast iron the angle is 542 degrees,
which corresponds to a coefficient of internal friction equal to 0:35.
Perry also suggested that there is no internal friction in wrought iron and
mild steel, in which case the modification is eliminated, and the simple law
holds. Mohr™* has proposed a further development of the shear theory to
take account of the kind of stress which is developed within the body.

Poisson’s Theory indicated that the ratio which bears his name should
be 4. The early determinations by Wertheim? have been noted here
because they disproved the theory by giving different values, and thus
had a great influence on the rariconstancy and multiconstancy controversy
in the Theory of Elasticity.

1. Theories.

We desire to define the conditions which determine the failure of a
material when subjected to any system of stress. Theories have been
advanced which suggest as a criterion of strength: (a) the maximum
stress; (b) the maximum strain; (c) the greatest stress difference, or
shear stress or strain ; (d) the maximum value of the shear stress modified
by a friction term proportional to the stress perpendicular to the plane of
the shear.

The shearing stress and the stress normal to the plane of the shear have
received increasing attention, not always on the lines indicated by theories
(c) and (d), but these have to a great extent eclipsed the other suggestions.

In a recent paper, Mallock *” ** considers the limit of shear and the limit
of volume extension as the fundamental limits of a material, and failure
is assumed to occur according to which is first reached.

* Todhunter and Pearson, History of the Theory of Elasticity, vol. ii., pt. i., p. 107,
{ Perry, Applied Mechanics, 1898, pp. 345 to 348, 356,

170 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

Too frequently the complexity of our subject has not been realised,
and confusion has followed the omission of conditions and limitations.
This is particularly noticeable in early statements of theories, and has not
been eliminated in some of the most important modern contributions.

2. Failure.

The laws of failure for materials are important to elasticians, experi-
mentalists, theorists, and engineers, and we must inquire whether one
definition of failure can be generally acceptable. The theory of elasticity
is based on Hooke’s Law which holds to the elastic limit, consequently the
elastic limit is the fail point for the elastician, and also for the experimenter
who calculates his stresses from formule based on Hooke’s Law. But
the elastic limit is not a well-defined point even under the most favourable
conditions,* and many materials extensively used in engineering practice
have no elastic range. In the case of steel the yield point has been taken
for experimental purposes instead of the elastic limit, and modern tests
under simple loading indicate that these points coincide for some steels
initially in a state of ease. Engineers are justified in considering fracture 7°
because in many structures the yield point is exceeded locally (as in riveted
joints), and where the stress intensity varies through the mass of the
material the distribution at rupture is entirely different from that within
the elastic range of the material.

These considerations lead to the suggestion that for the purpose of the
present investigation experiments should be arranged with uniform distri-
bution of stress, and then important data will be obtained at elastic failure
and at fracture. Experiments which employ non-uniform stress distribu-
tions will give useful results at the elastic limit and possibly at the yield
point of the material, but the data obtained at fracture or other complete
failure in such cases is of no value for the present purpose.

3. Materials.

We have to consider materials with widely different mechanical pro-
perties,j and it is certain that all materials do not behave similarly when
tested under identical conditions. To the present the distinction appears
to have been between ductile and brittle materials,2?: “1 which is better
than the frequent neglect of this consideration ; but this is not a complete
definition, and, furthermore, it does not readily enable the physical pro-
perties of a material to be defined with exactness. It is possible that
Mallock’s suggestions will lead to more accurate scales, and consequently
to a knowledge of the relation between the elastic constants and the
behaviour under any system of combined stresses.

4. The Systems of Stress.

The stresses may be referred to the three principal stresses. Each
principal stress may be either a tension or a compression. In cases of
simple tension or compression two of the principal stresses are zero. With
two-dimensional stress one principal stress is absent, and we can have
combinations of two tensions, two compressions, or one tension and one
compression. There are corresponding combinations for three-dimensional

* The correspondence on this point should be consulted.

+ Mallock”’ suggests relations between the unclassified mechanical properties,
brittle, ductile, tough, &c., and the measurable constants of the substances to which
they are applicable.

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 171

stresses, but in this case there is very little experimental evidence available.
It is certain that some materials do not fail in the same manner under all
systems of stress, and Mallock’s double limit is an attempt to meet this
difficulty,”” by which the material is supposed to fail according to the
limit which is first reached.

It is probable that each of the principal theories contains a germ of
truth if its application be properly limited. Difficulty has arisen because
a theory has been assumed to apply under too wide a range of conditions.

The experimental evidence will be shown later to indicate that a
ductile body fails when the maximum stress difference (or shear stress)
reaches a certain value. So far as is known, the intermediate principal
stress 1s without effect on the failure. If the failure be limited to yield,
this limit will apply for compressive as well as tensile stresses.

A brittle material appears to fracture at a definite maximum principal
stress when this is a tension. Under compressive stress failure seems to be
by shearing modified by friction on the plane of the shear.

Theories (a) and (d) are so far justified under definite conditions by the
experimental evidence, and (c) is a particular case of (d), and not very
different from it, which applies to ductile steels because the coefficient
of internal friction is zero.8°

It will be noticed that Mallock’s double limits cover all the above if the
shear theory is modified by friction, and maximum stress is used to replace
the volume extension. The double limits apply to brittle materials, and the
relation between them should be determined. It is difficult to conceive a
volume extension limit, because in two-dimensional stress a material
under tension in one direction would be strengthened by a compression
perpendicular to the tension. Further, the very different strengths of
most brittle substances in simple tension and simple compression are
accompanied by very different strains at fracture, and a maximum strain
theory could not always apply.

It is clear that tests will be incomplete unless they employ most of the
possible combinations of the principal stresses.

5. The Rate of Loading, and Repeated Loading.

The most common and simplest method of applying the stresses is by a
slow rate of increase so that the material fails under sensibly static con-
ditions. In engineering practice combined stresses are also applied under
rhythmically repeated and shock conditions. The former is of special
interest because it is one of the most common cases of combined stresses,
and causes fractures which resemble those of brittle materials under
similar, but static loading. It is probable that the practical cases which
involve shock will require special treatment, but some attention might be
given to the matter in our investigations.

6. The Mechanism of Failure.

Consideration of this subject has been largely dissociated from that
of combined stresses, to the detriment of both. That there is the closest
connection is evident, and it is possible that a study of the mechanism of
failure might be of assistance in the case of a material to which the more
usual methods cannot be applied. The matter is noted here as a reminder
rather than for present discussion.

172 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

PREVIOUS RESEARCHES.
7. Early Engineering Tests.

Reference has been made to the important experiments of Tresca,®
which led him to support the stress difference theory of rupture for ductile
materials, and his conclusions have been generally accepted. Most
modern researches have differed from Tresca’s because attention has been
concentrated on the yield point or the elastic limit of the material.

Experiments on steel by the Committee of Civil Engineers are of
interest because the tension and compression specimens were 15 inch
diameter and 10 feet long, so that the longitudinal strains could be mea-
sured accurately. There was little difference in the stress at the yield
poimt in any case, a result which supports the contention that the co-
efficient of internal friction for steel is zero, and that Theory (c) is a par-
ticular case of (d) to suit ductile steels.

Hodgkinson * found that cast iron fractured at stresses of 7 tons per
square inch in tension, and 24 tons per square inch in compression. ‘lhe
form of the fracture in compression in common with those of other brittle
materials has led to the acceptance of I’heory (d) under these conditions,
in the absence of direct experimental evidence. It is remarkable that the
great differences in strength and form of fracture did not lead to an earlier
recognition of the possibility of two limits for failure, at least for brittle
substances.

The tests of iron and steel in different ways by Appleby and Kirkaldy"®
were of great engineering importance, but since results are given for
fracture they lead to no definite conclusions for our purpose. ‘This applies
also to the later work of Platt and Hayward," which included tests of cast
iron in tension, torsion, and shear, because Scoble #4 has concluded that cast
iron yields too much before fracture to allow the elastic formula to be used
to calculate the true breaking stress in torsion. The results of the shearing
tests are not acceptable.

8. Hxperiments with Ductile Materials under Combined Stresses.

Wehage * tested circular steel and wrought-iron plates supported round
their edges and loaded at their centres. ‘I'he extension at the elastic limit
was about half that in simple tension.

Carus Wilson’s paper®® on ‘The Rupture of Steel by Longitudinal
Stresses ’ describes an attempt to test the stress difference theory (c)
employed by Darwin.'? Tension specimens of rectangular cross section
were tested to fracture when plain, with a‘ V’* notch, and with a ‘ U’ notch
oneach side. He used the true mean stresses calculated on the contracted
areas at fracture. The ‘V’ notched specimens were weaker and the
‘U’s’ stronger than the original bar. ‘he notches caused an uneven
stress distribution across the breadth of a bar, which tended to weaken it ;
they also reduced the tension area more than that which resisted the shear.
He concluded that the material fractured by shearing. He also found
that the shear stresses in tension, and in double shear tests agreed very
well if the true stresses at tensile fracture were taken.

Foppl™ tested materials under a uniform pressure of 50,000 lb. per
square inch and also with compression in two directions, and a third
principal stress absent. His experiments led to no definite conclusions,
except that the uniform pressures applied did not cause rupture.

;

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 173

Guest 3 conducted by far the most important early research. He dis-
tinguished between brittle and ductile materials. Thin tubes of steel,
copper, and brass were tested to yield under combinations of tension, torsion,
and internal fluid pressure. The principal stresses were two tensions, or
one tension and one compression, with the third always very small. An
abstract cannot do justice to Mr. Guest’s paper, which raised the experi-
mental side of our subject to a higher level, and has directly suggested
much of the more recent research. He concluded that the condition for
initial yielding of a uniform ductile material is the existence of a specific
shearing stress, and that the intermediate principal stress is without effect.

Coker ® studied iron and steel under torsional stress, and included some
data in relation to torsion with tension or bending. This paper indicates
the general character of the effect of tension and bending on a specimen
subjected to torque.

Wehage* presented no new experimental results. He contended that
although two tensile stresses at right angles counteract one another when
the extensions are considered, their destructive effect on the material is
really superposed. The previous experiments of Guest prove him to be
wrong. Mohr’s Theory is quoted as only considering the stress normal to
the plane of maximum shear.

Hancock *® 38; 48, 46, 55 first tested solid steel rounds, and then steel
tubing, in tension and torsion. His results have been adversely criticised,
and certainly supported neither hypothesis, although the author favoured
the shear stress theory. Later tests under tension or compression with
torsion indicated that the maximum tension was seldom greater than the
tensile strength of the steel, but the maximum shear stress was often greater
than its shearing strength.

Izod*" tested materials to fracture in double shear. The discussion on
his paper makes it clear that shearing tests of this type are complicated by
cross stresses after yield. The ratio of shear to tensile strength was 0°62
to 0°78 for iron and steel, the tensile strength being the maximum load
divided by the original area of the cross-section. The results were con-
firmed by Goodman. Lilly held the surprising view that only under ex-
ceptional conditions was the shear strength less than the tensile, and that
isotropic materials were strongest in compression, next in pure shear and
weakest in tension. There was a rough indication that ductile materials
followed the shear rather than the maximum stress law of failure.

Frémont *® modified the usual shearing test by filing away the sheared
face from time to time to eliminate the friction between the steelings and
the sheared faces. He then found that the shear stress at fracture was
about 0-4 times the maximum tensile stress for irons and steels which had
a range of tensile strength from 19 to 65 tons per square inch.

Scoble *° *! employed combinations of bending and torsion on solid
round steel bars. Yield was taken as the point of failure. The maximum
shear stress varied from 29,170 to 33,500, and the maximum principal
stress from 29,170 to 64,600 Ib. per square inch, having the low values in
pure torsion. The bending moment was not constant over the length of
a bar, which would tend to mask the yield and give a high stress
under bending. It was concluded that the maximum shearing stress was
approximately constant at yield, but it was also shown that engineering
materials ave not perfectly isotropic, and consequently have different
shearing strengths in different directions. Later tests included steel and

174 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

copper tubes subjected to torque and a uniform bending moment. The
maximum shear stress again varied, being greater in bending than in
torsion, but this deviation from the law is in the contrary direction to that
required by Theories (a) and (0b).

Turner's *°: ® early experiments were modelled on those of Guest. He
tested steel tubes in simple tension, and under simple torque, and included
a few tests under combined tension and internal pressure. The shear
stress theory was confirmed at elastic breakdown. Later he made a few
experiments with solid mild, tool, and nickel steels in simple tension and
torsion. The maximum shear stresses were: for mild steel 21,200 and
24,400, tool steel 33,900 and 38,400, and for nickel steel 40,600 and 40,800
Ib. per square inch. He says: ‘It is clear that the shear theory is no
general Jaw which covers all elastic materials. The tool steel shows the
ereatest inequality of shear in the two distributions of stress ; yet even for
it the theory that failure occurs through shear is obviously very much
closer than the tension hypothesis.’

Three-dimensional stress was secured by the use of thick steel cylinders
under internal pressure and longitudinal tension. The tubes were so thick
that the radial compressive stress was usually about 11,000, but in one
case reached 17,200 lb. per square inch. The principal stresses were two
tensions and one compression. The external diameter of the cylinder
decreased at yield. For one tube the extreme value of the maximum
shearing stress were 16,600 in simple tension, and 20,900 under simple
torque. He deduces from these experiments that the shear theory is not
very far from true, but that it is sensibly untrue. The tube was used for
several tests with intermediate annealing. The maximum shear stress for
one test in simple tension was 18,500 lb. per square inch.

Smith 4 5% 60, 68 tested solid steel specimens in tension or compression
with torsion. He supported Theory (c). Experiments with non-ferrous
metals demonstrated the attendant difficulties and did not lead to satis-
factory results.

Mason *® extended the range of conditions by testing steel tubes in
tension, compression, compression and hoop tension, compression and
hoop compression. His experimental results show an approximate
agreement between the maximum shear stress at the yield pomt in com-
pression, and the yield point stress in pure shear (obtained by equal
tensile and compressive principal stresses), the mean difference in the
tests of annealed specimens being about 3 per cent. ‘It appears, then,
that mild steel in direct compression yields by shearing; and to a first
approximation that the value of this shear stress is independent of any
normal compressive stress on the planes of the slide.’ The direct applica-
tion of two compressive principal stresses to steel was an important
advance.

Cook and Robertson determined the strength of thick hollow cylinders
of cast iron and steel under internal pressure. They concluded that the
failure of cast-iron cylinders is determined solely by the maximum principal
stress, and for mild steel cylinders the pressure is about 20 per cent. in
excess of that required by the shear stress theory, or midway between that
indicated by Theories (b) and (c).*

* These results differ from those of other observers. Cast-iron cylinders fractured

according to the formula based on the principal stress law, but since this formula
applied also to the steel cylinders, there is no proof here that cast iron fractures

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 175

Bridgman™ * worked with extremely high-fluid pressures applied to
the curved surface of a rod of circular section, on the outside of plugged
hollow cylinders, and to the inside of heavy cylinders. All tests were to
rupture. Brittle materials were also tested. Little numerical data is
given. The original paper should be consulted since it does not lend itself
to abstraction, and the results are very remarkable. It is doubtful
whether the deductions, that all the theories of strength are not valid under
certain conditions, are justified by these experiments.

9. Brittle Materials under Combined Stresses.

Carus Wilson found the tensile strength of cast iron to be 10-4, and
the shearing stress at fracture to be 5-46 tons per square inch, ratio 1°9.
Platt and Hayward found the ratio to be 2:2. The mean crushing strength
was 41°5 tons per square inch. The rupture of cast iron in compression by
shearing is well known, and he appeared to consider that it also held for
tension.

Izod*? gives the ultimate shear stress of cast iron from 1:1 to 15 times
the ultimate tensile strength.

Scoble *! © fractured round cast-iron bars by combined bending and
torsion. The calculated stresses followed neither law, but the angles of
fracture agreed well with the planes of maximum principal stress. On
the assumption of a redistribution of stress by yield the maximum princi-
pal stress varied 10 per cent. on either side of the mean value. Hardened
cast-steel bars were elastic to fracture. At least two tests were made on
each bar. ‘The maximum principal stress was nearly constant at fracture
for each bar, and the bar broke along the plane of maximum principal
stress with extreme accuracy.

Williams attempted to determine the effect of fluid pressure on the
strength of rock salt and hard aluminium. He claimed to disprove the
Poncelet Theory, but the range of the experiments was too limited to draw
further conclusions.

Griibler®* used cement mortar formed round a central shaft and
covered by a clamp which carried torsion levers. The shear stress was the
same at all points at the same distance from the axis. The cement failed
by tension, but never by shearing.

Kédrmén™ compressed marble and sandstone and supplied latera
pressure by means of glycerine under pressure. He quotes Mohr’s Law
as the shear stress law. With no side pressure these stones behave as
brittle materials, but with a pressure of 700 atmospheres the material
becomes perfectly plastic, and the elastic limitis raised. Further deforma-
tion is possible after the elastic limit if the lateral pressure is increased,
but the effect is rapidly diminished at high pressures. The stones flowed
on planes at 45 degrees to the axis. Permanent set may take place by
relative shearing of the crystals for low values of the lateral pressure, or by
internal changes in the crystals at high values. The first kind of failure
occurs at a maximum value of the shear stress which depends on the
normal stress, but the second form takes place at a limiting constant
shear stress, and the material hardens.

according tofTheory (a). The results for steel are ratios depending on the tensile
strength, and would be high unless the first yield was detected. Their cylinders
increased in diameter at yield, Turner’s diminished. :

176 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

Adams,® and Nicholson,®° and Coker ® tested rocks in compression, and
supplied lateral support by enclosing each specimen in a steel cylinder
which bulged laterally. Marble flows as a plastic body under differential
pressure by distortion of the calcite grains, and the deformed specimen
retains 60 to 85 per cent. of its original compressive strength. Its specific
gravity is not increased. By Kick’s process—in which the specimen is
embedded in a fused salt, usually alum, to fit the retaming cylinder—
minerals with hardness under 5 show plastic deformation, which is less
pronounced as they are harder. Still harder minerals, which do not flow,
have their structure broken down and are powdered. Fine-grained,
massive limestones show combined flow and fracture. Harder rocks, like
granite, crumble under pressure, but the flow structure is developed in
these by greater differential pressures.

10. The Friction Theory.

Many investigators have studied the internal friction of solids, and
when not associated with combined stresses the favourite method has been
by the decay of torsional oscillations. Only a few references are given
to the large volume of research of this type. Lord Kelvin poimted out
that the damping was caused by all the effects included under the class of
hysteresis phenomena. Bouasse dealt with torsional oscillation, and paper
No. 32 includes a review of his work. Ercolini*® again pointed out that
the damping is due to hysteresis, and not to molecular friction. Guye’s
work is of a similar character.

Reference has been made to the angles of fracture of brittle materials in
compression, which probably suggested Theory (d), and to the equality
of the yield stresses for steel in tension and compression.

In connection with combined stresses, Scoble 4° © considered that the
friction theory does not apply to steel. Gulliver*’ found that steel yields
in tension at an angle of 50 degrees to the axis (u = 0-176), but this is not
confirmed by yield at 40 degrees in compression. A study of combined
stress experiments led him to the same conclusion as that of Scoble, since
calculated values of ‘ 1’ varied from —0-242 to0:38. Smith’s tests did
not support the friction theory for steel, nor did those of Mason ** which
were specially well adapted to test it.

11. Liider’s or Harimann’s Lines.

These markings have been studied in this country chiefly by
Gulliver ** ®7 in relation to the friction theory, and by Mason” in connec-
tion with his combined stress experiments. Their papers will furnish
further references.

12. Some other Considerations in Combined Stress Researches.

The peculiarities in the behaviour of steel—variation of the elastic limit,
hysteresis, &c.—have been discussed elsewhere. It is possible that their
importance has been magnified, since the elastic limit and yield point
coincide approximately for thoroughly annealed steel, and the hysteresis
effect is extremely small. The difficulties are intensified in the case of
-other metals, because most have no elastic range and no well-defined yield.
Apparently we must study the fracture of these materials under uniform
stress distribution. Brittle substances, like rocks, cement, &c., ure

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS, 177

probably simpler to deal with than non-ferrous metals, or even cast iron,
to a first approximation; but Bauschinger found that the strength of
stone varies considerably with the proportions of the specimens, and
that stone has no elastic limit, taking sets with small loads. Hard and
dense stones are better in these respects, and all are better at higher loads.
The difference in the strength of some rocks in different directions is very
great. Nagaoka® also found rocks to be very imperfectly elastic, but
Adams and Coker® consider their elasticity in compression to be better
than that of cast iron, especially after they are loaded several times to
attain a state of ease.

The errors which are likely to be introduced in tests of rocks in com-
pression are now well known, and the best-conducted tests leave some
uncertainty regarding the true compressive strength.

It is impossible to deal fully here with the behaviour of the crystals in a
material under stress. The researches of Ewing and Rosenhain are well
known, and those of Beilby deserve notice. The discussion on the papers
of Mason and Smith ®* included a reference to this matter by Gulliver, and a
most suggestive contribution from M. Osmond.

Papers which deal with experiments made on rocks usually refer to the
behaviour of the separate crystals.

13. Alternating Combined Stresses.

The only experiments with which we are acquainted which have been
intended directly to investigate alternating combined stresses are those of
Turner.*® The plan of the research was not all that could be desired, but
was probably the best that could have been done with the available facili-
ties. Specimens were tested under alternating bending and torsion, but
not combined. The torsion was taken as an example of combined stresses.
The chief results are shown in the table.

Material Tube Steel) Mild Steel | Tool Steel Nickel Steel —
Ib./sq. in. | 1b./sq.in. | 1b./sq.in. | 1b./sq. in.
Elastic Limit . : 31,000 42,300 67,000 creat | Tension by
Endurance a 29,000 40,000 50,000 59,000 bending
Elastic Limit . ; 17,000 | 24,000 38,400 40,800 } Shsar
Endurance A é 16,000 22,000 38,000 35,000
Per cent. Elong. (8) 24 | 29 9 14 | At fracture

The tube and mild steel specimens conformed to the shear stress law
under alternating stresses. The tool steel was particularly weak in
alternating tension, and with nickel steel the drop in strength was greater
in tension than under torsion. The percentage elongations indicate that
the more ductile steels obey the shear stress law under repeated loadings,
and the behaviour of the more brittle samples approaches more closely to
that required by the maximum strain and maximum stress theories.
Wohler tested steels under repeated tension and compression, bending,
and torsion. It is difficult to compare his results for our purpose, since there
were considerable differences in the material included under the same
title—the elongation at fracture for Krupp’s cast steel for axles varied
from 11-7 to 23-7 per cent. The range of stresses which he selected from
all his tests probably refer to an average sample, and these for cast steel

1913. N

178 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

axles are under tension, compression, or bending 13:38 to —13-38, range
26:76 ; 23 to 0, range 23. Shearing or torsion 10°5 to —10°5, range 21.
18-2 to 0, range 18:2. These figures would approximately fit the maximum
strain theory. It is evident that more work is required in this portion of
our field.

14. The Separation of Matervals.

A distinction has been drawn between ductile and brittle materials.
Frémont*® has arrived at the interesting conclusion that steel is brittle or
tough according to whether the ratio of the elastic limits in tension and
compression is less or greater than one. It is quite possible that the usual
classification is not along correct lines, and this should be discovered when
greater attention is paid to substances of an intermediate character. The
latter appear likely to introduce considerable complexity. For com-
pletely ductile and brittle materials it appeared possible that double limits
would cover all the conditions, and these would be shear modified by fric-
tion, and possibly the maximum stress in tension. The intermediate steels
appear to show an intermediate behaviour, and then we cannot apply the
two limits. Scoble® has suggested that a criterion might be found of the
form

P,+ mP, =c

in which m depends on the degree of ductility of the material. This
equation is a general expression for all the laws except that of maximum
strain, which would require a P, term. For brittle materials m and ¢ have
different values in tension and compression. A microscopic study is
particularly desirable to discover the mechanism of failure for the inter-
mediate materials, since it is possible that it is not of a simple character,
but a combination of that exhibited by the extremes. It is further neces-
sary to give each substance its correct position in a scale based on those
standard properties which determine its behaviour under combined
stresses.

15. An Engineering View.

Yield has been taken to denote failure in most tests of ductile materials
under compound stress. The reason has sometimes been given that the
yield stress, and of course certain other considerations, fixes the working
stress. This is only partly correct ; the ultimate strength retains much of
its old importance, and the relative bearing of the yield and maximum
stresses depends on the conditions of the case under consideration. The
real reason for the selection of the yield point appears often to have been,
either that the scheme of the tests was such that they could not con-
veniently be continued to fracture, or that the stress distribution varied
from point to point and could be estimated only within the elastic range.

Although a knowledge of the ‘ Law of Failure ’ is of great interest, it is
not of great importance to the engineer in cases of simple static loading.
He will prefer to fix his working stresses by tests which are modelled on the
working conditions. When combined stresses are produced by the loading,
the theories are liable to be misleading or of no assistance. ‘Two examples
will illustrate this contention.

The yield and maximum stresses are considered to fix a working stress
for a sample of steel in tension. The yield stress should not be exceeded,
and the excess of the maximum over the yield stress is a reserve of strength.

,
.
.
‘
9

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 179

The experiments which have been recorded indicate that a plain shaft
subjected to combined bending and torsion should be designed for an
equivalent torque, /M?+ T?. The maximum stress theory gives M +
/ M2 + 'T?. The latter emphasises the importance of the bending moment,
and bending yield is much more serious than torsion yield. A small
bending yield would cause a considerable deflection of the shaft, but a
twist would fully stress more material with a strain of little importance.
It is not at all clear that the formula which gives the equivalent torque
to cause yield is the best for the purposes of design. The results of the
repeated loading tests, at least for the harder steels, lend further support
to this view.

The important cases of combined stresses in practice are usually accom-
panied by a variable stress distribution. We may assume that the shear
stress theory will allow the load at yield to be calculated, but the engineer
requires to know the fracture load to estimate the reserve of strength.
Bridgman 7 7 states he found that he could raise the yielding pressure
of a thick cylinder under internal pressure tenfold by giving it a set. The
reserve strength here is not only due to the difference between the yield and
maximum stresses, but also to the understressed material. A law of
failure does not help an engineer to calculate to fracture in many such
cases, and he must depend on experiments made under the conditions of
each case.

The above considerations point to the advisability of confining tests
on ductile steels to the elastic limit or yield point, and of considering the
importance of tests to fracture in cases of ‘Special Problems’ which
involve complex stress distributions.

16. Conclusion.

Most experimental work has been done on ductile steel, but more tests
are required under three-dimensional stress, and particularly under com-
pressive stresses.

One point appears to have escaped notice. A material might appear
to have different shearing strengths under different systems of stress, as
in the case of cast iron in shear and under compression. The shearing
stress has been shown to be approximately constant at the elastic failure
of steel under modification of the same general type of stress distribution.
Are these maximum shearing stresses the same under all conditions of
loading ?

They have frequently been compared with the tensile strength, and the
differences do not seem to be great, but it would be of interest, and neces-
sary for further refinement, to test exactly the same material under very
different combinations of principal stresses.

Few experiments have been made with the materials now classed as
brittle, and those already made should mostly be repeated. Here we can
assume that there is a clear field. The same applies to non-elastic ductile
metals, and to those intermediate between ductile and brittle.

The methods of experiment will require further consideration. Simple
tension and compression are the most direct tests available. Longi-
tudinal tension and internal fluid pressure applied to a thin hollow
cylinder appear to be the readiest means of securing two tensions.
Longitudinal compression and external fluid pressure have been used

N 2

180 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

for obtaining two compressions, but it is hardly satisfactory for all cases,
and might be replaced by external fluid pressure on a solid specimen with
free ends, as in Bridgman’s pinching-off test, but this requires extremely
high pressures. A complete treatment of the problem in three dimen-
sions appears possible only by the use of high-fluid pressures.

Cases of combined stresses in engineering practice should be the sub-
jects for separate tests, and cannot entirely replace those which are in-
tended to determine the laws of failure. Combined alternating stresses
are mainly of practical interest, and here again the experiments should be
modelled to suit the engineering examples. Cases are not uncommon in
which compound stresses are applied under shock conditions, but a further
consideration of this matter might well be the subject for a later report.

BIBLIOGRAPHY ON COMBINED STRESS.

1 Coulomb 1776 Essai sur une application de régles de Maximis et
Minimis & quelques Problémes de Statique, relatifs
aT Architecture. ‘Mém. par divers Savants,’ 1776.

2 Vicat 1834 Note sur l’allongement progressif du fil de fer soumis a
diverses tensions. ‘ Annales des ports et chaussées,’
ler semestre, 1834.

3 Mariotte Traité du mouvement des eaux, sixiéme et troisiéme
alinéa du second discours.

4 Lamé 1833 Mémoire sur [Equilibre intérieur des corps solides
homogénes. Paris, ‘Mém. par divers Savants,’
t. 4, 1833.

5 Poncelet 1839 See ‘Todhunter and Pearson’s History.’ Vol. i. 995.

6 St. Venant Historique Abrégé in St. Venant’s edition of the
‘Lecons de Navier,’ pp. cxcix—ccv.

7 Wertheim 1848 Determinations of Poisson’s Ratio. ‘Annales de
Chimie,’ t. 23, 1848.

8 Hodgkinson, E. 1857 Experimental Researches on Cast-Iron Pillars. ‘ Phil.
Trans. Roy. Soc.,’ 1857.

9 ‘Tresca, H. 1868 Flow of Metals.

1872 ‘Mém. par divers Savants,’ 18, 1868.
1878 Ditto, 1872. ‘Proc. I.M.E.,’ 1878. See also ‘Comptes
Rendus.’
10 1870 Experiments on the Mechanical and other Properties
of Steel. By a Committee of Civil Engineers, 1870.
Also Unwin’s ‘ Strength of Materials.’
11 Bauschinger 1875 Ueber den Elasticitits-Modul Baustein. ‘Mitt. aus
dem Mech. Tech. Lab. Miinchen,’ 1875. Also Unwin’s
‘Strength of Materials.’
12 Bauschinger 1876 ‘Mitt. aus dem Mech. Tech. Lab.,’ 1876.
13 Darwin, G.H. 1882 Stresses produced in the Interior of the Earth by the
Weights of Continents and Mountains. ‘ Phil.
Trans. Roy. Soc.,’ 173, 1882. Kelvin and Tait,
‘Nat. Phil.,’ IL, Art. 832.
14 Chree, C. ‘ Transactions Cambridge Phil. Soc.,’ vol. xiv., Part IIT.,

p. 273.
15 Appleby, P. V. 1883 Iron and Steel in Tension, Compression, Bending,
Torsion and Shear. ‘ Proc. I.C.E.,’ vol. Ixxiv.

16 Kirkaldy 1884 Iron and Steel in Tension, Compression, Bending,
Torsion and Shear. ‘Proc. I.C.E.,’ vol. lxxvi.
17. Platt and 1887 Experiments on the Strength of Iron and Steel in
Hayward Shear and Torsion. ‘ Proc. I.C.E.,’ vol. xe.
18 Wehage 1888 On the Critical Extension of Bodies strained simultane-

ously in Several Directions. ‘Mittheil. aus den
KGniglichen techn. Versuchsanstalten zu Berlin,’
1888. ‘ Proc. I.C.E.,’ 95, p. 410, Abstract.

i ti

19

20
21
22
23
24.
25
26

27
28

29
30

31

32
33

34
35

36
37
38
39
40

41
42
43
44
45

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 181

Wilson, C.
Foppl, A.
Foppl, A.
Guest, J. J.

Mohr, O.
Nagaoka

Martens, Féppl
and Berner

Voigt

Frémont, C.

Coker, E. G.

Adams, F. D.,
and Nicholson,

J.T.
Filon, L. N. G.
Bouasse, H.
Obermeyer,
Tammann,
Werigin,
Lewkogiw
Gulliver, G. H.

Wehage, H.

Hancock, E. L.
Izod, E. G.
Hancock, E. L.
Frémont, C.

Scoble, W. A.

Scoble, W. A.
Williams, W. E.
Hancock, E. L.
Bouasse, H.

Carriére, Z.
Smith, C. A.

1890

1890
1899
1899
1900

1900
1900

1899
1900

1901
1901

1901

1901

1902

1903
1905

1905
1905

1905
1906
1906
1906
1906

1907
1908
1908
1908

1908

Article ‘Elasticity.’ ‘Encye. Brit.,’ or ‘Math, and
Phys. Papers,’ vol. iii., 1890, or see Lamb’s ‘ Mathe-
matical Theory of Elasticity,’ 1906, p. 115.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc.,’ vol. xlix., March 1890, and ‘ Phil.
Mag.,’ June 1890.

‘ Mittheilungen (Miinchen),’ xxvii., 1899.

The Relation of Failure to the Manner of Application of
Stress. ‘Centralblatt der Bauverwaltung,’ 1899.
Abstract in ‘ Proc. I.C.E.,’ vol. exl.

On the Strength of Ductile Materials under Combined
Stress. ‘Phil. Mag.,’ July 1900. ‘Phys. Soc.
Proc.,’ vol. xvii., Sept. 1900.

‘ Zeitschrift Ver. Deutschen Ing.,’ Bd. 44, 1900.

The Elastic Constants of Rocks, &c. ‘Phil. Mag.,’
1900.

The Relation of Failure to the Manner of Application
of Stress. ‘Centralblatt der Bauverwaltung,’ 1899,
p. 590; 1900, p. 147.

Theory of Solids. ‘Ann. Phys.,’ Ser. 4, March 1901.

Relation between Brittleness and Elastic Limits for
Tension and Compression. ‘Comptes Rendus,’ 132,
Jan. 28, 1901.

Tron and Steel under Torsional and Combined Stress.
‘Roy. Soc. Edinburgh Trans.,’ 40, Nov. 12, 10, 1901.

An Experimental Investigation into the Flow of Marble.
‘Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.,’ Series A, vol. excv.

Elastic Equilibrium of Circular Cylinders under certain
Practical Systems of Load. ‘ Roy. Soc. Phil. Trans.,’
198, Feb. 28, 1902.

Deformation of Solids. ‘Annal. Chim. Phys.,’ 29,
July 1903.

Flow of Solids. ‘ Beiblitter Annal. Phys.,’ vol. 29,
1905.

Permanent Deformation of Metals. ‘Proc. I.M.E..,’
Jan., Feb. 1905.

Stresses in Materials simultaneously loaded in Several
Directions, ‘ Zeitsch. Ver. Deutsch. Ing.’ 49, July 1,
1905.

The Effect of Combined Stresses on the Elastic Proper-
ties of Steel. ‘ Eng. News,’ 54, Aug. 24, 1905.

Behaviour of Metals under Shear. ‘ Engineering,’
Dec. 22, 1905. ‘ Proc. I.M.E.,’ Jan. 1906.

The Effect of Combined Stress in Iron and Steel. ‘ Phil.
Mag.,’ 12, October 1906.

Shear Strength of Structural Materials. ‘Soc, d’Encour.
Rev. de Métall.,’ 3, July 1, 1906.

The Strength and Behaviour of Ductile Materials under
Combined Stress. ‘ Proc. Phys. Soc.,’ xx., and ‘ Phil.
Mag.,’ Dec. 1906.

The Strength and Behaviour of Brittle Materials under
Combined Stress. ‘ Proc. Phys. Soc.,’ xx., Jan. 1907.

Rupture of Materials under Combined Stress. ‘ Phil.
Mag.,’ Jan. 1908.

The Effect of Combined Stress on Steel. ‘ Phil. Mag.,’
Feb. 1908.

Decay of Oscillations. ‘Annal. Chim. Phys.,’ 14,
June 1908.

Guest’s Law on Combined Stresses, ‘ Engineering,’
Juiy 10, 1908.

182
46
47

48
49
50

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

Hancock, E. L. 1908
Gulliver, G. H. 1908

The Behaviour of Metals under Combined Stress.
‘ Phil. Mag.,’ Nov. 1908.

The Cohesion of Steel and Relation between the Yield
Points in Tension and Compression. ‘Proc. Roy.
Soc. Edin.,’ 28, 1908.

Gulliver, G. H. 1908- Internal Friction in Cases of Compound Stress. ‘ Proc.

1909
Ercolini, G. 1909

Turner, L. B. 1909
Gribler 1909
Coker, E. G. 1909
Poynting, J. H. 1909

Smith, C. A. 1909
Hancock, Ed. 1909

Guye, C. E. 1909
Friedericksz, V.

Schulze, F. A. 1909
Mason, W. 1909
Smith, C. A. M. 1909

1909
Scoble, W. A. 1910
Adams 1910
Morley, A. 1910
Scoble, W. A. 1910
Adams, F. D. 1910

Coker, E. G.
Turner, L. B. 1910

Gulliver, G. H. 1909

1910
Smith, C. A. M. 1910
Turner, L. B. 1911

Mason, W. 1911
Karman, T. V. 1911
Houstoun, R. A. 1911

Roy. Soc., Edin.,’ 29, 1908-09.

Recent Experiments on Elasticity. ‘N. Cimento,’ 17,
Jan. 1909.

The Elastic Breakdown of Materials under Combined
Stress. ‘ Engineering,’ 87, Feb. 5, 1909.

Shear Strength and Elasticity. ‘ Zeitschr. Ver. Deutsch.
Ing.,’ 53, March 20, 1909.

Testing Machine for Combined Bending and Torsion.
‘Phil. Mag.,’ April 1909.

Pressure Perpendicular to Shear Planes and Lengthening
of Wires when Twisted. ‘Proc. Roy. Soc.,’ A, 82,
July 1909.

Solid Steel Bars under Combined Stress. ‘ Engineer-
ing,’ 88, Aug. 20, 1909.

Design in Case of Combined Stress. ‘Eng. News,
62, Sept. 2, 1909.

Internal Friction of Solids at Low ‘Temperatures.
“Comptes Rendus,’ 149, Dec. 6, 1909. See also
Guye and Mintz, ‘Arch. des Sciences,’ 26, 1908.
Guye and Schaffer, ‘Comptes Rendus,’ 150, April
1910.

Relation between the Elastic Modulus, Tension, Tor-
sion and Strain. ‘ Ann. d. Physik,’ 31, Dec. 30, 1909.

Mild Steel Tubes in Compression and under Combined
Stress. ‘ Proc. I.M.E.,’ 4, 1909.

Compound Stress Experiments. ‘Proc. I.M.E.,’ 4,

1909.

The Elastic Breakdown of Non-Ferrous Metals. ‘ Inst,
Metals Journ.,’ 2, 1909.

Ductile Materials under Combined Stress. ‘ Proc.
Phys. Soc.,’ vol. xxii. ‘ Phil. Mag.,’ Jan. 1910.

Differential Pressures on Minerals and Rocks (Kick’s
Process). ‘Journ. of Geology,’ Sept., Oct. 1910.

Strength of Materials under Combined Stress. ‘ En-
gineering,’ April 29, 1910.

Further Tests of Brittle Materials under Combined
Stress. ‘Proc. Phys. Soc.,’ vol. xxii. ‘ Phil. Mag.,’
June 1910.

Experiments on the Flow of Rocks. I. The Flow of
Marble. ‘Am. Journ. Sci.,’ 29, June 1910.

Stresses in a Thick Cylinder subjected to Internal
Pressure. ‘Camb. Phil. Soc. Trans.,’ 21, No. 14,
Sept. 12, 1910.

A New Experimental Method of Investigating Certain
Systems of Stress. ‘Proc. Roy. Soc. Kdin.,’ 30,
1909-10.

The Elastic Breakdown of Certain Steels. ‘Iron and
Steel Instit. Journ.,’ 1910.

The Strength of Steels in Compound Stress and Endur-
ance under Repetition of Stress. ‘ Engineering,’
July 28, 1911.

Liider’s Lines on Mild Steel. ‘ Phys. Soc. Proc.,’ 23,
Aug. 1911.

Compression Tests of Marble and Stone. ‘ Zeits. Ver.
Deutsch. Ing.,’ 55, Oct. 21, 1911.

A Relation between Torsion and Tension. ‘ Phil.
Mag.,’ Nov. 1911.

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 183

73 Cook, G. 1911 The Strength of Thick Hollow Cylinders under Internal
Robertson, A. Pressure. ‘ Engineering,’ 92, Dec. 15, 1911.

74 Bridgman, P. W. 1912 The Collapse of Thick Cylinders under High Hydro-
static Pressure. ‘ Phys. Rev.,’ 34, Jan. 1912.

15 1912 Breaking Tests under Hydrostatic Pressure and Con-
ditions of Rupture. ‘ Phil. Mag.,’ July 1912.

76 Basquin,O. H. 1912 The Circular Diagram of Stress and its Application to

1913 the Theory of Internal Friction. ‘ West Soc. Eng.

Journ., 17, Nov. 1912, ‘Sci. Abs.,’ Feb. 1913,

No. 149.

77 Mallock, A. 1912 Some Unclassified Properties of Solid: and Liquids.
“Proc. Roy. Soc. A.,’ Dec. 1912.

78 Mallock, A. The Extension of Cracks in an Isotropic Substance.
“Proc. Roy. Soc.,’ A, vol. 82, pp. 26-29.

79 1912 The Yield Point and the Elastic Limit. ‘ Engineer-

ing,’ Jan. 26, 1912. Definitions by the Engineering
Standards Committee and Recommendation of the
Ships Committee.

80 Report on ‘Theories and History.’ Also Applied
Mechanics, Perry.

Report on Alternating Stress. By W. Mason, M.Sc., with Notes by
F. Rogers, D.Eng., and E. M. Even.

INDEX.

PAGH
Introductory . : i : : : : : : : ; : : : - 183
Mestine Machines sy 2. ox ho es i pmal. fry Sher pin 184
Data from Published Tests . . . . . . . at w ad Le Tih eh eee 84
ieaoschinger’s. Theory ... . . «. «5 «= «. + Se he Ne oe Os we OL
Recovery of Elasticity . Joy ERGARMNS Qiagen Ad ein), oe! COG
PNeRICEEySstoresIS COS era easter iives teary ter EY)
PreDripiiticctrr.s es RATE Th USFS 1 ot 190
Divergent Results of Fatigue Tests . . 190

Carbon-Content of Steels and Resistance to Alternating Sivesaans 4g leh Sto
Effects of Annealing and Quenching upon Resistance to Alternating Stress . 191

Tests with Repeated Cycles of Combined Stresses . . . . . . . 192
Alternate Stress with Repeated Impact . . . . . . . . . 192
Practical Utility of the Alternate Stress Test. . . . . . . . 192
Rapid Means of determining Endurance under Stress Repetition . ay Reger cel Lt)
Materials other than Wrought Iron and Steel. . ©. . . . . . 193
Pugpestions for Research . . « . . . 193
Note by Dr. F. Rogers on Heat Treatment . . 194

Note by Dr. F. Rogers on Microscopic Effects of Alternating Stress . . 195

Remarks on the Phrase ‘ Crystallisation through Fatigue’ ‘i ‘ see 2 L9G
Note by Mr. E. M. Eden on Stress Alternation Curves for Bending Tests on
Rotating Bars i. 5 sec wks Rt alten bars sh bags enh ately fon LOC
Note by Mr. E. M. Eden on Divergent Results of Alternating Stress Tests . 197
AppEnpIx I. Review of recent Papers on Elastic Hysteresis ‘aett «aon LOS
BeeMNDix, II. Table of certain Data. . . . . . . «ss. 200
Introductory.

By an ‘alternating stress * is meant a stress varying cyclically between
maximum and minimum values. Unless otherwise stated, it 1s implied
that the stresses are imposed without shock, and that the variation of
stress on either side of the algebraic mean of the maximum and minimum
stresses is, or is approximately, simple-harmonic. The range of stress is
the algebraic difference between the maximum and minimum stresses.

The resistance of a material to alternating stress may be measured by

_ the values of the maximum and minimum stresses of the cycle whose

184 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

repetition for some particular very large number of times will just produce
fracture. If unlimited time were available for testing, the very large
number referred to would be indefinitely great or would exceed the
number of repetitions which the material would be required to withstand
in service.

The cycle of stress having its maximum and minimum respectively of
equal (or nearly equal) positive and negative values is the most important
practically ; and the bulk of experimental work has been done with this
cycle. The usual method of finding experimentally the resistance of a
material is to make a number of tests to destruction with a series of ranges
of stress of this (equal +) cycle; the first of the series having an appropriate
high range, and subsequent series a successively less and less range. This
succession of tests is continued until the number of the repetitions before
fracture is at least a million. Plotting the ranges of stress, ‘f’ (or half the
range of the cycle of equal + and — stresses), against the respective number
of repetitions, ‘ »,’ before fracture, an ‘f, n’ curve, or ‘ endurance curve,’
is obtained. This curve (at any rate for iron and steel) becomes less and
less inclined to the axes of ‘n’ as ‘n’ becomes larger. Where the curve
becomes sensibly asymptotic to a line parallel to the axis of ‘n,’ the
ordinate—i.e., the range of stress—between the asymptote and the axis of
‘mn’ is called the ‘limiting range,’ or the ‘ Wohler safe range.’ This range
is a definite measure of the ‘ endurance ’ under the type of stress and con-
ditions of test. The term ‘endurance’ has been somewhat loosely used,
and it is not employed herein to denote any particular measure of the
resistance to alternating stress.

Testing Machines.

The machines used in making the alternating stress tests that have been
published are referred to in the bibliography and the notes contained
therein.

Data from Published Tests.

It has been suggested * that a list of all published data of tests should
be made out. Such a list should include (if available) information con-
cerning the chemical composition, manufacture, previous heat treat-
ment, testing machine, shape and preparation of specimen, and an attempt
to estimate how nearly the Wéhler safe ranges have been approached in
each case. This matter is one of some magnitude, and is at present left
over for further discussion.

Bauschinger’s Theory.

This theory is thus concisely stated by Bairstow (No. 2,f page 168,
Vol. VI. ‘Collected Researches,’ N.P.L.) :—‘ The superior limit of elas-
ticity can be raised or lowered by cyclical variations of stress, and at the
same time the inferior limit of elasticity will be raised or lowered by a
definite, but not necessarily the same, amount. The range of stress be-
tween the two elastic limits has therefore a value which depends only on
the material and the stress at the inferior limit of elasticity. This elastic
range of stress is the same in magnitude as the maximum range of stress
which can be repeatedly applied to a bar without causing fracture, no

* By Prof. J. E. Petavel.
{ The numbers refer to the bibliography of this Section.

ed

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 185

matter how great the number of repetitions. Bauschinger made experi-
ments to show that these definitions did not apply to the elastic limits as
measured on a previously unstrained specimen, and he made experiments
to show that the elastic limits in this case, which he called primitive elastic
limits, were unstable, and that only a few reversals of stress were necessary
to produce a condition in which the theory was satisfied. In this latter
state Bauschinger defined the elastic limits as ‘“‘ natural elastic limits.”’’

It is interesting, here, to note that the ideas underlying Bauschinger’s
theory had been published so long ago as 1848 by James Thomson * ; who
wrote: there are ‘ two elastic limits for any material, between which the
displacements or deflexions, or what may in general be termed changes of
form, must be confined, if we wish to avoid giving the material a set, or in
the case of variable strains, if we wish to avoid giving it a succession of sets
which would bring about its destruction ;’ . . . these limits “ may there-
fore, with propriety, be called the superior and the inferior mit of the
change of form of the material for the particular arrangement which has
been given to its particles; that these limits are not fixed for any given
material, but that, if the change of form be continued beyond either
limit, two new limits will, by means of an alteration in the arrangement
of the particles of the material, be given to it in place of those which it
previously possessed.’

There is now no doubt concerning the existence, for iron and steel, of
elastic ranges such as those found and actually measured by Bairstow.
Provided that these ranges, when once attained, are never exceeded, it
may be regarded as quite certain that any number of cycles of any speed
of alternation can have no destructive effect. (See Article ‘ Elastic
Hysteresis ’ of this Report.) But in most cases, certainly with cycles of
unequal + stresses, and most probably with equal + stresses, the elastic
range is reached through a partially elastic period which is gradually ended
by recovery and the attainment of elastic limits adjusted to the range of
stress. Though it is improbable that these elastic ranges can be affected,
either in range or position of range, by speed of alternation, yet it seems
quite certain that the duration of the period and the number of cycles
necessary for the adjustment may be very largely influenced by this speed

(No. 43). It is not so certain that the range,of adjustment does not

depend on the temperature of testing ; but experimental evidence on this
point is wanting. Thus it is not quite certain that the elastic ranges found
by Bairstow would have been exactly the same if the temperatures of his
experiments had been different. ;

Mr. Bairstow’s method of finding the values of the elastic ranges from
his observations is one that leaves a little room for personal judgment ;
but since he estimates the probable error of this process to be within half
a ton per square inch, it is clear that the elastic ranges found were quite
definite. ,

‘The identity of these elastic ranges with the limiting safe ranges of
fatigue tests can hardly be said to be conclusively proved. But there is
considerable evidence in favour of it, and it appears to the writer that this
identity may be regarded as sufficiently well established.

The term ‘natural’ elastic limit is in certain respects a little misleading.
A piece of material of a definite composition and crystalline structure will

ett Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical Journal. The paper is quoted by Kelvin
in his Article ‘ Elasticity, 2Hncy. Brit., 9th ed. vol. vii., p. 800, § 19, but does not
appear to be generally known; it has recently been pointed out by Prof. J. Perry.

186 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

certainly possess ‘natural’ elastic limits when it has been subjected to a
number of repetitions of stress of approximately the amount of the limiting
range ; and it has been shown by Bairstow that a limit exists above which
the tension elastic limit cannot be raised, so long as the stress is entirely
removed in each cycle. The piece may possess natural elastic limits when
the process of overstrain and recovery attempted by Bauschinger, and
carried out with more (though not complete) success by Bairstow, has been
applied to it. It has not yet been proved that the natural elastic limits
for equal + stress cycles are the same as would be found in static tension
and compression by the use of an exceedingly delicate extensometer on the
piece in its primitive state. The question has not been definitely settled
whether, when the primitive elastic limits have been altered, and the granu-
lar structure distorted, by cold working, the natural elastic limits will or
will not remain the same; though it is certain that the part of the f, n
curve for small values of n will be made to fall above the corresponding
part of the curve for the unworked stuff. It appears from the Table,
Appendix II., that the annealing to which the specimens of published
repeated stress tests have been subjected produces, in general, some little
lowering of the ‘natural’ elastic limits; though the primitive elastic
limits may be very much altered by this heat treatment.

There appears to be no definite relation between the ‘ natural’ elastic
limits and either the primitive elastic limit, the yield point or the ultimate
tensile stress.

Recovery of Elasticity.

It is a well-known fact, discovered by Weber in 1835, that ‘ when a body
is strained beyond the elastic limit and is set free, part of the strain
disappears at once, and the strain that does not disappear gradually
dimmishes. The body never returns to its primitive condition, and the
ultimate deformation is the permanent set; the part of the strain that
disappears is called elastic after-strain.’* In the case of the metals of
engineering construction, the immediate re-application of the stress after
such overstrain shows the metal to be in an imperfectly elastic state ; but
if the stress be re-applied after a considerable period of rest, during which
the elastic after-strain disappears, the elasticity is found to be restored.
The period of rest may be shortened to one of a few minutes only, if the
temperature be raised to 100° C.; presumably the elastic after-strain dis-
appears in this short interval, though, so far as the writer is aware, this has
not been verified experimentally. After this recovery the elastic limit is
somewhat higher than at the first overstrainig. Provided the recovery
is complete, further exposure to this temperature, or to considerably higher
temperature in the case of many metals, produces no further effect ;
and the additional exposure has no more effect than on a piece of the
unstrained material.

It may be noticed here that the limit of proportionality of wrought iron
is practically the same at 0° C. and 250° C., there being some little varia-
tion between these temperatures with a maximum about 200° C.+

It has been proved that, in general, non-elastic strain is effected by
cleavage plane slipping in the crystalline grains. The parts of a crystal
not immediately contiguous to the slipped surfaces are, so far as can be

* Quoted from Love’s Theory oj Elasticity.
+ A. Martens, Proc. Inst. C.E., vol. civ.

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING \MATERIALS. 187

detected under the microscope, unaffected by plastic strain.* The effect
of the increase of temperature which promotes recovery of elasticity must
therefore be upon the material which, according to Beilby,t exists in an
altered physical and perhaps molecular condition between the slipped
surfaces; or, at any rate, upon material in the imniediate neighbourhood
of these surfaces.

Recovery, then, is due to the effect of temperature on this material,
resulting in the healing up of the crystalline ships. It seems reasonable to
suppose the disappearance of ‘ elastic’ after-strain to be a phase of this
healing process, rather than a distinct and different phenomenon. The
fact that recovery is much impeded or totally stopped in the case of iron
and steel at a temperature of 0° C. shows that rest, unless accompanied by a
suitable temperature, is ineffective in promoting restoration of elasticity ;
the rapidity of recovery—i.c., the duration of rest required—being thus a
function of the temperature.

Turning now to the consideration of cyclically applied stresses, Ewing
has remarked: { ‘ When in the overstrained condition, and before re-
covery has taken place, iron and steel exhibit much hysteresis in the rela-
tion of extension to load. Any process of loading and unloading, repeated
until the changes become cyclic, then shows a well-marked difference in
the length of the piece for any one amount of load in the two stages of the
process. The curves exhibiting extension in relation to load form a loop,
and this loop closes up as the piece gradually recovers its elasticity by pro-
longed rest.’ Recovery of elasticity may thus be defined, for cyclically
applied stresses, by reference to the hysteresis loop. With regard to the
physical meaning of this loop, may it be regarded as the cyclic counterpart
of the elastic after-strain before mentioned, or is it a combined effect of
permanent set and elastic after-strain ? The answer seems to be, in the
strict sense, neither; for the cyclical application of stresses, unless very
slowly made, leaves very little time for the healing during rest. The
internal condition, then, would appear to be very similar to that of the
statically overstrained bar immediately after the elastic limit is passed ;
and when, therefore, no period of rest has differentiated the strain into
elastic after-strain and permanent set.

In the ultimate stage of fatigue, the cracks which finally end in rupture
are doubtless produced by the continual to and fro sliding along crystalline
cleavage surfaces. This action causes the attrition and removal of ma-
terial from between these surfaces (Ewing and Humphrey, No. 27). It is
reasonable to suppose that such to and fro sliding is in operation from the
time of appearance of a hysteresis loop; and upon this is based the
commonly accepted explanation of plastic hysteresis.

The work of L. Bairstow (No. 4) has thrown much light on plastic
hysteresis. When the cycles consist of unequal + and — stresses, he has
demonstrated that, before adjustment of elastic limits to a range of stress,
the hysteresis loop is not closed ; and that plastic hysteresis then consists
of a cyclical strain, called by him ‘ cyclical permanent set,’ which is accom-
panied by an average strain of gradually increasing amount, named (the
tensile maximum stress being greater than the compressive) ‘ permanent
extension.’ If the range is not too great, the ‘ permanent extension’

* Rosenhain, Iron and Steel Inst. Journal, vol. lxx.; 1906.
+ The hard and soft states in metals, Hngineering, May 19, 1911.
{ Strength of Materials, Art. 41,

188 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

gradually ceases to increase, and the ‘ cyclical permanent set’ gradually tends
to disappear ; with such disappearance the elastic limits become adjusted
to the stresses, and the material recovers its elasticity. Recovery during
cycles of equal + stress was observed by Bairstow (No. 4), the width of
the hysteresis loop being seen to decrease with repetitions of the same
stresses. Recovery under equal stress alternations is usually masked in
fatigue tests by the circumstance that the primitive elastic limits are
further apart than the adjusted limits ; but some tests of Rogers (No, 62)
of heat-treated steel appear to show adjusted limits higher than those found
by static tests on the same treated material.

Recovery during repetitions of stress is difficult to explain. The heal-
ing up, which occurs with rest after a single overstrain, is not by itself a
sufficient explanation, for the stresses succeed each other too rapidly in
alternating stress tests for any material healing up to take place in any one
cycle. It has been shown (No. 82) that adjustment of elastic limits (and
therefore recovery) occurs not only with slow repetitions of two cycles per
minute, but also with 800 cycles per minute ; and, of course, the existence
of safe ranges of stress, one of whose limits may be outside the primitive
elastic limits, is a fact known since the time of Wohler. It may be con-
jectured that recovery during cyclical stressing is a slow continuous action
due to change in the material between slipping cleavage planes. The
slowness of this action, in tests at laboratory or workshop temperatures,
still obtains at higher temperatures ; butit appears from the experiments of
Unwin* (No. 91) ‘and Howard (No. 47) that the resistance to fatigue was
somewhat greater at 400° to 500° F. It may be noticed that the energy
corresponding to the hysteresis loop, which may cause considerable rise of
temperature of the test piece, is generated at the slipping cleavage surfaces,
which is the very locality where increased temperature will have its
greatest effect.

The small increase of resistance to fatigue mentioned above may
possibly result either from a tendency to create a more extended elastic
range (due to recovery at the higher temperature, in which case the
adjusted elastic limits would be further apart) ; or merely froma greater
healing tendency counteracting the disintegrating action of the to and
fro slipping, but not leading to any extension of the elastic range ; or from
both these two together : the three suggested alternatives being, of course,
different aspects of the same thing. ‘Lhe first of the three seems impro-
bable from some experiments of Bairstow (No. 4) on alternate boiling and
overstrain of a specimen previously subjected to repetitions of stress in his
machine. The considerations concerning temperature and recovery in
static tests, also, are in accordance with this view. In short, it seems
probable, though not quite certain, that for large limits of temperature
the rapidity of (or rather slowness), or degree of tendency to, recovery
is somewhat affected, but not the extent of the elastic ranges of iron and
steel.

It should be noticed that Howard in a further paper (No. 48) found the
resistance to fatigue much increased for tests carried out at 400° to 600° F.
Whether the increase of 100° F. between the experiments of Howard’s
papers No. 47 and No. 48 corresponds to some critical change in tempera-

* Unwin attributes the increased resistance rather ‘ to the annealing effect each
evening when the bars were left to cool.’

Sn le a a alin

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 18!)

ture effect on unstable material between slipping cleavage surfaces, it is
impossible, so far as the writer is aware, to say.

A point worthy of notice in Bairstow’s experiments (No. 4) is that the
increase of width of hysteresis loop for a given increase of range applied was
greatest for equal + stresses. It would be expected that, with the accom-
panying increase of “ permanent extension * under unequal + stresses, the
increase of width of loop would have been the greater. That itis otherwise
indicates that recovery must be in comparatively rapid operation during
the increase of ‘ permanent extension,’ so as to effect a continuous (because
less interrupted) healing of the average amount of strain per cycle.

In view of Coker’s (No. 18) and McCaustland’s (No. 55) conclusions
concerning absence of recovery at 0° C., experiments such as Bairstow’s,
conducted at 0° C., should throw light on the operation of recovery,
especially in the case of cycles of unequal + stresses. Hopkinson has
already suggested that his own experiments (No. 43) should be carried
out at higher temperatures.

Elastic Hysteresis.

When a metal is put through a cycle of stress of which the extreme
stresses are less than any known elastic limit or limits of the material, the
stress-strain diagram is found to be not a straight line, but a closed curve
containing a very small area (No. 26). The name of ‘ elastic hysteresis ’ is
given to this phenomenon ; its physical nature is not understood.* A
review of recent papers on the subject is given in Appendix I. of this
Report.

its the first place, there is ground for belief that the increased decrement
which has been observed after long-continued torsional oscillation of wires,
and the subsequent decrease of decrement with rest, are accidental circum-
stances pertaining to the use of wires in decrement experiments, but other-
wise quite extraneous to the phenomenon of elastic hysteresis. The draw-
Ing process of wire-manufacture renders material liable to give abnormal
results, and it appears probable that these effects are due to crystalline
cleavage slipping, of which they are quite characteristic. Hopkinson and
Williams (No. 45) found no perceptible increase of hysteresis with a quarter
of a million stress-cycles on a steel bar; correspondingly, if no ‘ fatigue of
elasticity ’ (as this alleged increase of hysteresis has been called) occurs
there would be no corresponding recovery of elasticity. Should this
absence of fatigue of elasticity be supported by further experiment,
alleged points of resemblance between elastic hysteresis, and fatigue of
strength and recovery of elasticity in plastic hysteresis, would disappear.

It may be remarked that there is good ground for believing that elastic
hysteresis will always accompany plastic hysteresis. The latter is an
aggregate effect of movements in the crystals, and is of much greater

- magnitude than the former ; butit seems clear that in general the cleavage

slipping of plastic hysteresis affects at the same time only parts of a por-
tion of the whole number of crystalline grains composing a material ; thus
the remaining parts and grains will doubtless be affected with elastic
hysteresis.
The chief contrast between the two kinds of hysteresis is furnished by
* The following articles should be consulted : ‘ Viscosity of Solids,’ Art. 54;

Love's Theory of Elasticity; Art. 56, Ewing’s Strength of Materials; Article ‘ Elasti-
city,’ Lord Kelvin, Ency. Brit., 9th ed., vol. vii,

190 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

certain effects of temperature. So far as the writer knows, there are no
actual measurements giving a comparison of the actual amounts of hys-
teresis, of either variety, at various temperatures. But it appears to be
certain from experiments on torsional oscillations of wires that increase
of temperature causes considerable increase of decrement of oscillations—
2.e., increased loss of energy by increased elastic hysteresis. On the other
hand, the effect of temperature on plastic hysteresis is complex (see article
‘Recovery of Elasticity’ in this Report) ; the tendency is for decrease
with higher temperature, owing presumably to increased potency of
recovery by ‘healing’ together of displaced portions of crystals.

These temperature effects are evidence of a difference of nature,
and not merely of degree, between the two kinds of hysteresis. The
question arises whether elastic hysteresis under cyclically applied stresses
causes weakening or predisposition to plastic hysteresis. The suggestion
of Bairstow (No. 4) that ‘ below the static yield-point, iron and steel appear
to be capable of maintaining an unstable condition for a considerable time
against cyclical variations of stress’ admits of a different and more simple
explanation (see No. 66). Hopkinson, as already mentioned, found no sign
of increase of (elastic) hysteresis with 250,000 repetitions of a range of
stress of 28-6 tons per square inch ; and the results of experiments on resist-
ance to alternating stress provide many instances of very long-continued
cyclic stressing without fracture. Thus, 200 million revolutions in a
rotating-bar machine with calculated stresses of + 40,000 lb. per square
inch (No. 48) have been withstood without fracture by a steel specimen.

It is interesting to know that the experiments of Hopkinson and
Williams (No. 45) are being continued, with the general object of discover-
ing how elastic hysteresis is related to the elastic limit.

Speed Effect.

The influence of high rate of alternation of stress is to increase the
number of repetitions required for fracture, and apparently to increase the
Wohler range (No. 43). It is pointed out in No. 43 that the range may not
really be increased ; but that, on account of the large number of cycles
required to fracture a specimen, the practical effect is virtually to increase
the endurance either in range or number of cycles.

Speed effect does not appear to become apparent at less than 2,000
reversals per minute. (See Nos. 23, 43, 80, 65, 82, and 84; also No. 59.)

The article on ‘Probable Causes of Speed Effect’ on p. 147 of
No. 43 should be consulted ; and reference may be made to the article
‘Recovery of Elasticity ’ in this Report.

Divergent Results of Fatigue Tests.*

Suggested Causes.—(1) Impurities (No. 3), flaws, &c. (No. 94), in-
cipient cracks (No. 23) (such as would be left by a lathe cutting tool after a
deep cut). The improved endurance of ground specimens and of specimens
filed and polished, in alternate bending tests, is probably due to the re-
moval of small surface cracks. J. B. Kommers (No. 51) states that polished
and also ground specimens showed an increased resistance over turned
specimens of 45 to 50 per cent.

(2) Unrecognised stresses, due to bending in a direct stress ; to vibra-

* See Note by Mr. E. M. Eden (p. 41).

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 191

tion in any kind of test ; or to stress accumulation (No. 58). From the
known difficulty of getting an axial pull or push in a direct static test, it is
to be expected that there will be some bending in alternate stress tests
with directly applied tension and compression. In No. 43 it would appear
that bending oscillations would surely have been detected by the apparatus
used to measure the lengthwise strain. The records of the only other
experiments in which straims corresponding to directly applied stresses were
measured, viz. Nos. 4 and 74, do not state that any bending effect was
observed. It is noteworthy that the experiments in No. 82 with varying
ratios between the maximum tensile and maximum compressive stresses
gave little variation in the values of the limiting range; showing that
bending, if any, had little effect ; or that the bending was caused equally
during tension and compression. Though it is difficult to draw conclusions,
it seems likely that the line of resultant force in the specimen does not
appreciably alter its position after the first few alternations of the approxi-
mate limiting stresses. This early change of position in this line would be
one tending to equalise the distribution of stress in the specimen.*
Alternate bending tests upon solid rotating bars give an apparently
greater value for the Wohler limiting range. The number of revolutions
required for fracture is considerably greater than the number of reversals
in tests with stresses directly applied. The‘ /, »’ curves for the former
are not, generally speaking, even approximately parallel to the axis of
‘n’ after 10® revolutions ; while in the latter there is indication that the
curve is asymptotic to a line, parallel to the axis ‘ n,’ and not far removed
from the curve, at this number of cycles. It is to be expected that the
calculated maximum stresses in a bending test will be somewhat higher
than the actual, even when the bendings give the Wéhler limiting stresses,
because of stress equalisation near the ‘ skin’ of a specimen (see remarks
on No. 23). Unwin remarks f that ‘ Bending experiments are not less
trustworthy than tension experiments, and for stresses considerably less
than the statical breaking weight probably the error in the calculated stress
is not a large one.’ Hollow test bars are found to give ‘ f, n’ curves more
nearly approaching the curves for directly applied tension and compression.

Carbon-Content of Steels and Resistance to Alternating Stress.

Speaking of steels which consist partly of pearlite and partly of ferrite,
Rosenhain (No. 66) remarks: ‘ From the point of view of the resistance te
comparatively steadily applied alternating stresses, the higher the carbon-
content up to 0-9 per cent. of carbon, the better the resisting power of the
metal.’ Nos. 23, 47, 62, 82, 90, 93, and especially No. 48, contain evidence
in accordance with this statement. Heat treatment of steels may have, of
course, an enormous influence on their resistance.

Effects of Annealing and Quenching upon Resistance to Alternating Stress.

The effect of the ‘annealing’ which has been done t¢ upon the speci-
mens of published alternate stress tests has been, in general, to diminish
the resistance as compared with that of the material in untreated com-
mercial condition ; and the effect of the quenching done has been to

* See No. 82, and Proc. I.C.E., elxvi. p. 100.

_ > The Testing of Materials of Construction, 1910 ed., p. 377.
{ See Appendix II.

192 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

increase the resistance greatly. It is pointed out elsewhere in the Report
(Note on ‘ Heat-Treatment ’) by Dr. F. Rogers that for adequate study of
this branch of the subject very precise information concerning manufac-
ture and of treatment previous to the specific treatment given must be
available.

Tests with Repeated Cycles of Combined Stresses.

The question has been raised, notably by Turner (No. 90), whether a
common factor may not be found for all kinds of stress systems when these
systems are applied in simple harmonically varying cycles. Since the
Wohler limiting ranges have been shown to coincide with the elastic ranges
(at any rate for direct stresses) this question becomes very pertinent.

_ The main result of Turner’s experiments is very briefly indicated in the
comments on No. 90 in the bibliography. More experimental data are
required. The Table (Appendix II.) gives all the information available at
present.

Alternate Stress with Repeated Impact.

The very important conclusion (see No. 83) arrived at by Stanton and
Bairstow seems to be well substantiated by Roos (No. 64). The practical
importance of the discovery may be gauged from the following quotation
from No. 83: ‘The authors are of opinion that conclusive evidence has
been shown that materials which are strong under alternating stresses are
in general strong under those shocks which are likely to be put upon them
in ordinary machine practice.’

Practical Utility of the Alternate Stress Test.

The practical bearing of Wohler’s results has long been recognised,
witness the Launhardt and Weyrauch formule. (‘ Proc. I.C,E.’ Lxiii.
1880-1. See also No. 3.) In view of the result of No. 83, it would appear
that the repeated stress test ought to have enhanced importance. A
Wohler test is rarely specified by engineers, who rely on the general result
of research tests and on the convenient ‘ factor of safety.’ Resistance to
sudden large shock is of at least equal importance with resistance to alter-
nate stress, and these in general seem to be somewhat opposing require-
ments. (See Nos. 3,83, and 66.) The former necessitates ductility, while
the latter requires a high natural elastic limit. These exacting and in many
cases apparently inconsistent conditions would appear to render the
Wohler test, as well as a sudden large impact test (for the former does not
detect brittleness), all the more necessary. But it is unlikely, however,
that any test for resistance to repeated stress will be extensively used until
a rapid, simple, and inexpensive test has been discovered.

Rapid Means of determining Endurance under Stress Repetition.

(1) Prof. J. H. Smith’s Method. (No. 74.)

The method seems to be open to certain objection, and confirmation is
required of its validity (see Notes on No. 74 in the bibliography) ; but
there is promise that 1t may meet the need for a quick method of finding
commercially the safe limits for alternating stress.

(2) Professor J. O. Arnold’s Test. (Nos. 1, 2, and 3.)

This test does not profess to give the elastic ranges, but only to be a
practical substitute for the difficult Wohler test. ‘I'he test, however, is

Ee re

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 193

qualitative only ; it certainly detects brittleness, which the Wéhler test
does not; but whether it can give a quality factor which, besides excluding
brittleness, includes resistance to repeated stresses of very small overstrain,
is a matter quite unproved.

(3) Method suggested by Bauschinger and latterly investigated by
Bairstow (No. 2), viz., a very few repetitions of alternate overstrain and
heating to 100° C. This has not been advanced as a quick method for
finding the elastic ranges ; indeed, further experiment is required. If the
method should prove satisfactory for certain classes of steel only, it would
seem to be worth while to design special apparatus for carrying out
expeditiously the present rather cumbersome process.

Should (1) or (3) be adopted means would have to be taken to discover
impurities and flaws, since these, which. vastly imit the endurance, would
not be detected.

Materials other than Wrought Iron and Steel.
The information concerning the resistance of materials other than
wrought iron and steel is not extensive ; what the writer has found may be
consulted by the aid of the following references :—

Cast Iron.

No. 59. Alternate direct stress,

No. 93. Repeated bending in one
direction (see Unwin’s
‘Testing of Materials ’).

[xe 23. Alternate + and — bending.

Endurance tests

Elasticity and pic naa
under repeated loading, | Nos. 8 and 9.
&e. . ; - Aye
Copper.
Endurance tests . . ah oe Alternate + and — bending.

No. 24. Alternate combined stress
(with considerable over-
strain).

Suggestions for Research.

The writer understands that the following researches are in progress :—

High-speed tests on resistance at temperatures of 100° C. and other
temperatures.

Experiments on elastic hysteresis on a high-speed direct-stress machine.

Experiments on alternating combined stress.

Experiments on the effect on resistance of keyways, &c.

The following suggestions for further research seem worthy of con-
sideration :—

(1) That experiments be made at 0° C. with unequal + stresses, in
order to study the effect of recovery and adjustment of the elastic hmits
at that temperature.

(2) That (as suggested by L. Bairstow, No. 2) experiments be made to
determine the ‘ permanent extension,’ if any, when the range of stress
(direct) is less than the safe range.

(3) That the validity of the method of finding the safe elastic ranges by

1913. Oo

194 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

two or three repetitions of alternate small overstrain and boiling be
further tested.

(4) That the effect of cold working upon the ‘ natural’ elastic limits be
further investigated.

(5) It would appear that two desiderata, viz., resistance to repeated
stress and resistance to large impact, require somewhat inconsistent
qualities in the case of steel. (Nos. 83, 3, and 66.) Thus further work
(though probably mainly metallurgical and micrographic) should be done
in order to ascertain, if possible, the best conditions for maximum resist-
ance when both kinds of straining action above mentioned operate, as in
certain service conditions. A point to be tested is the resistance to sudden
impact of steel which has undergone test by alternating stress of approxi-
mately the Wohler safe range.

(6) That an elaborate series of alternating stress endurance tests, all
with the same material, be made on all the alternating stress testing
machines in use ; at the very least twenty test pieces to be tested in each
machine, and special precautions to be taken to ensure uniformity in the
material.*

Note on Heat Treatment. By Dr. F. Rogers.

The effects of heat treatment upon the resistance of metals to alternat-
ing stress form an almost entirely metallurgical aspect of the subject.

The value of some published work is very doubtful, because of the
vague use of such terms as ‘ annealing’ and ‘ quenching.’ In order that a
heat treatment may be sufficiently specified the following particulars or
others from which they may be derived should be given :—

Composition of the steel, process of manufacture, its condition before
the treatment in question (whether as rolled or forged, or heat-treated and
how), the size of the piece, top temperature of the treatment, duration of
heating at that temperature, rate and manner of cooling, whether in a
furnace, in the air, or a liquid.

A so-called annealing of a small piece may happen to be equivalent to
the quenching of a large piece at some point in the large piece, except in
so far as the result is affected by the previous treatment in each case.

The present state of knowledge is such that the condition of the ma-
terial can frequently be equally well, if not better, defined by the results of
various familar mechanical tests, together with composition and micro-
structure, as by a precise statement of the known portions of the heat
treatment. On this account, when the effects of heat treatment on the
endurance under alternating stress are being dealt with, it is desirable that
as much collateral information about the material as possible should also
be given. Largely on account of the more or less natural jealousy of
manufacturers, little information of practical value has been published.

It may be as well to confine present attention to carbon steels of carbon
contents not exceeding what is usual in rails, say about 0-50 per cent.
carbon, since practically no information on the remaining steels is to be
found in the literature.

The complexity of the subject has already been suggested. Further,
however, it is necessary to remember that in any dynamic tests the relative

* Suggested by Mr. E. M. Eden.

oO EEE

ee eS

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 195

importance of a flaw such as a crack, a non-metallic enclosure, or even a
tool-mark, is relatively very great, and depends upon the composition
generally, increasing, for example, with the carbon content. Heat treat-
ment may increase or decrease the relative importance of such flaws
according to the kind of treatment and the previous condition of the steel.

Apart from flaws of the kinds mentioned, steel in the rolled or forged
condition occasionally happens to be weak dynamically. For the present
purpose it appears necessary to consider the effects of heat treatments
upon steels in the rolled or forged condition which are not weak from
either of these causes.

There are then three main classes of treatments to consider :—

(1) Overheating —This in general diminishes the endurance under
alternating stress (62 and 87). When extreme it merges into ‘ burning,’
from which it is distinguished technically. Shght overheating, on the
other hand, is the same thing as some of the processes which are called
annealing.

(2) Reheating through the critical range is, in general, capable per se of
bringing the endurance to a normal high value, or of leaving it undisturbed,
according to the state of the steel before the treatment (Nos. 62, 85, 86,
and 87). The following factors tend to make the effects of such reheating
approximate more and more to those of overheating: (a) the more the
temperature exceeds the upper limit of the critical range ; (b) the greater
the duration of heating above the lower limit of the critical range; (c) the
slower the cooling through the critical range (62).

(3) The speed of cooling through the critical range has in any event a
most profound influence upon the endurance under alternating stress.
Generally speaking, it appears that the more rapid this cooling the greater
is this endurance (62, 33).

As to the effect of Cold Work upon endurance of alternating stress,
there are no data available. It is well known to manufacturers that it
increases the endurance greatly in some cases—for example, wire. This
fact also explains partly why in some published experiments (e.g., 62)
“annealing ’ diminished the endurance. The bars from which the tests
were cut were of small section, and therefore they were somewhat cold
worked, and also relatively rapidly cooled, in manufacture. They were
much more slowly cooled in some of the experimental annealings.

The effect of annealing after a metal has withstood large numbers of
alternations is also one which can only be answered when many practical
particulars of the metal are known. In (47) no effect was found. In (62)
it was clearly proved why no effects could be obtained from annealing after
a certain stage of the fatigue had been passed. At a comparatively early
stage minute incipient cracks are sufficiently open to contain air. Hence
the faces oxidise, effectually ending any possibility of reunion.

Note on Microscopic Effects of Alternating Stress.
By Dr. F. Rogers.

This has been exhaustively elaborated in a very few papers. The main
conclusion is to show that cracks form by the development of repeated
cleavage, seen as slip-bands. This was done in (27) for iron, and in
(62, 63, and 82) for steel. In (63) and (82) the influence of the constituents
is noted, and in particular the avoidance of the harder carbon containin g

0 2

196 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

constituent by the incipient fracture is noted.* Further, the fatigue of
steels which had been variously heat-treated on systematic lines is simi-
larly studied. This helps to throw light upon the overheating of steel &c.

Remarks on the Phrase ‘ Crystallisation through Fatigue.’

From views which I have elsewhere expressed (No. 63a) as to the
microscopic nature of strain effects it will doubtless be expected that I do
not endorse the use of this hackneyed phrase. Twinning and the recrystal-
lisation of polyhedric steels might, however, be regarded as admissions of
the possibility of recrystallisation after straining, and therefore possibly
after fatigue. But my view is that the expression arose through‘ the
crystalline appearance which is well known upon the fracture of defective
iron, and was later sometimes found on fractures of relatively brittle steel.
I always find evidence that when such ‘crystalline ’ fractures are obtained
they can also be obtained without fatigue; and, further, that metal which
gives a fibrous or silky fracture does not develop ‘crystalline’ fractures
by fatigue.

Note on Stress Alternation Curves for Bending Tests on Rotating Bars.
By EK. M. Even.

Wohler’s rotating cantilever experiment showed that n (the number
of rotations to fracture) depended on f (the maximum stress). For two
materials ‘ Phoenix Iron’ and‘ Homogeneous Iron’ a fairly definite curve
can be obtained by plotting the stress f against the number of alter-
nations n, the curve extending in the case of the Phcenix Iron from
n = 50,000 to n = 20,000,000, and in the case of the Homogeneous Iron
from n = 3,000 to n = 4,000,000.

The other materials experimented with by Wohler appeared to obey
similar laws, but the results were much more irregular.

Later rotating beam experiments than Wohler’s on steel, iron, and
copper confirm the form of /, n curve given by these wrought-iron tests,
but the more modern experiments have usually only carried the /, n curve
up ton = 10% The form of the f, n curve suggests that there is a limiting
value of the stress f below which fracture cannot be caused by any number
of alternations; this limiting stress may be called f,. Values have been
assigned to this limiting stress by Wéhler, but I cannot see any reason for
thinking that the values he gives are correct.

In practice, material does not have to withstand an indefinite number of
alternations of stress, but the useful life of some machinery may involve
some hundreds of millions of alternations of stress. In solid rotating
beam tests the resistance of a material to 10° alternations (f,,8) would
appear to be considerably lower than the resistance to 10® alternations
(f108)-

},, the limiting stress, is the value of f where the /, n curve is horizontal ;
as far as I know it has not been reached in any solid rotating beam test.

Alternating stress tests in direct tension and compression on recipro-
cating weight-testing machines with a presumably uniform distribu-
tion of stress over the cross-section of the test piece show f, n curves,
which although in many cases rather vague in form are more nearly hori-

* For a review of this question see 78,

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 197

zontal after 10° alternations than the curves from solid rotating beam
tests, and it is possible that in these tests the limiting stress /, has been
nearly reached or that /,)8 may not be much lower than /,,°. Quite lately
it has been shown that rotating cantilever tests with hollow test pieces
where the stress should be nearly uniform over the cross-section also give
a curve more nearly horizontal at 10° alternations than the curve from
solid test pieces ;* in fact, /, appears to have been reached with 500,000
alternations.

These hollow cantilever tests help to explain the difference between
the form of /, n curve obtained from the rotating bar and reciprocating
mass types of testing machine, but unfortunately this is not the only
difference in the results of tests on the two machines.

Note on Divergent Results of Alternating Stress Tests.
By EH. M. Even.

In the reciprocating weight-testing machine, rate of alternation of
stress, number of revolutions per minute, largely affect the endurance
strength, whereas in a rotating-beam machine the endurance strength is
quite unaffected by speed.

Although, as far as I know, alternating stress tests of the same material
in different testing machines have not been published, yet it appears to be
impossible for the two types of machine just mentioned to give the same
endurance figures, as if they did agree at one speed they would not do
so at another. It appears that endurance under an alternating stress or
resistance to an alternating stress cannot at present be determined for
any material—the values obtained will depend on the testing machine that
is used.

In the Reynolds-Smith endurance tests with a reciprocating weight
machine a high tenacity steel showed a lower endurance strength than a
steel of much lower tenacity. Such a result has never been obtained with
a rotating-beam machine where increase in endurance usually accompanies
increase in tenacity, and this again rather points to some unexplained
difference in the destructive action of the two types of machine.

Apparently either the calculated stress in one or both types of testing
machine is not the true stress, or something else besides the intensity of the
alternating stress affects the endurance.

In either case the calculated values of f, and /, are not the only factors
affecting the endurance of a piece of material.

There are some other factors besides /, and f, which are known to
affect endurance; the distribution of the stress over the cross-section has
been referred to before, and the condition of the surface, and the form of
the test-piece, are also known to largely affect endurance, but none of these
can explain the speed effect.

In this connection it is, I think, worth noticing that it is not at all easy
to repeat an endurance test and obtain exactly the same result. ‘Two test
pieces cut from the same bar of metal will not usually show the same
endurance when tested under what are intended to be the same conditions,
on the same alternating stress-testing machine ; a great deal depends on
the machine and on the care taken ; but in many published tests there is a
great want of agreement between different tests of what is said to be the

* “Welded Joints in Iron and Steel.’ Proc. I.C.H., vol. clxxxviii.

198 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

same material, and it is probable that many unpublished tests would show
even larger variations.

This variation in the apparent endurance strength of test pieces cut
from the same bar may be due to an actual variation in the material, to
local weak spots in the structure of the bar, or to differences in the amount
of surface damage in machining or grinding the test pieces, or they may be
due to the test piece really being treated differently in testing, such as one
piece being run more out of truth than another.

While there is no doubt that in the case of some materials there may
really be a difference in different parts of the same bar, yet there is some
evidence that the apparent variation in endurance strength is not always
due to this alone. In the alternating shock or Repeated Impact Tests of
Dr. Stanton * different test pieces from the same bar of steel gave prac-
tically identical endurance results. If the variation in endurance of
different test pieces from the same bar when tested in an alternating
stress-testing machine is due to variation in the material, it is remarkable
that alternating shock tests should not be affected in the same way, for the
impact tests referred to are really alternating stress tests with suddenly
applied stresses, which are not calculated in tons per square inch.

Alternating stress in practice is often accompanied with repeated shocks
or occasional shocks or vibrations. In a testing machine such shocks or
vibrations are as far as possible eliminated, but it may be that these or the
stresses caused by these affect the endurance.

Suggestions for Experimental Work.—There seems to be room for a
great deal of purely experimental work on alternating stress and endur-
ance ; to help to clear up some of the immediate difficulties of the subject I
would suggest :—

(1) An elaborate series of alternating stress endurance tests all with the
same material on all the alternating stress-testing machines in use, at the
very least twenty test pieces to be tested in each machine, and special
precautions to be taken to ensure uniformity in the material.

APPENDIX I.

Brief Review of the Papers in the Bibliography on Internal Friction,
Hysteresis, Effects of Magnetism, Temperature, and Oscillatory Discharge.
By Dr. F. Rocers.

The estimate (in 45) of the area of the hysteresis loop in ‘ static’ tests,
as being, say, 10 to 20 per cent. greater than in alternating tests at a speed
of average frequency of 136 alternations per second, is of much interest, and
it would be of value if direct confirmation could be otherwise obtained.

It is of great importance to inquire whether this hysteresis at stress well
below the elastic hmit, determined statically by a good extensometer, is
(a) simply a matter of local permanent set beyond the elastic limit owing to
microscopically visible or other want of homogeneity ; or (b) strain of
some sort which is as homogeneously distributed as purely elastic strain is
commonly supposed to be, and therefore possibly dependent upon inter-
molecular distances, or even upon orientations of molecules or of relatively
small groups of molecules. Since magnetisation of a bar is accompanied
by a change of length, and since straining of a bar assists the bar to take

* Proc. Inst. Mech. Engs., No. 4, 1908.

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 199

permanent magnetisation, it is conceivable that the mechanism involved,
whatever precisely it may be, is the same for both mechanical and magnetic
hysteresis ; or (c) a combination of these two.

Most frequently this aspect of the subject has been studied by observa-
tion of the torsional oscillations of wires. The decrement of oscillations
appears to be increased by :

Temperature above atmospheric (36, 38, 37).

Temperatures below — 80° C. for gold and magnesium (38), or — 40 for

gold (36).

Very high frequency oscillatory discharge (20).

It is decreased by :

Temperatures below atmospheric.

In No. 36 this decrease is found for copper, platinum, silver, and
steel; gold having a minimum at — 40° C.

In No. 37 this decrease is found for silver, iron, and more especially
aluminium; magnesium and gold having a minimum
at — 80° C.

(Exceptions are noted above.)

Magnetic field, particularly alternating (34, 19, 20).

Oscillatory discharge (34, 19, 20).

(34 is concerned with tensile hysteresis.)

On the other hand (12), successive torsions decrease the magnetisation
in a given field.

A relation between the decrement and the maximum strain is not in
most cases available, but would be desirable from the point of view of
answering the above inquiries. A glance at this summary suggests, how-
ever, that the analogy between mechanical and magnetic hysteresis (0)
finds some support. An important limitation is, however, suggested by
the fact that whereas an alternating magnetic field tends to diminish the
energy absorbed in mechanically straining (19, 20), yet, on the other hand,
repeated torsion causes an increase in the energy required for magnetisa-
tion (12).

The suggestion should be regarded rather as a basis for investigation,
than as based upon existing data.

BIBLIOGRAPHY ON ALTERNATING STRESS.
Drawn up by W. Mason and Dr. F. Rocers.

1 Arnold, J. O. 1903 Dangerous Crystallisation of Mild Steel and Wrought
Tron. (Description of Main Features of Arnold’s
Alternate Bending Machine.) ‘Inst. C.E. Proc.,’
154. Supplement, 1903.

2 Arnold, J. O. 1904 Fracture of Structural Steels under Alternating Stress.
‘ Brit. Assoc. Report,’ 1904. ‘Science Abs.,’ 1904,
Nos. 19298, 27958.

Some preliminary experiments indicated that the resistance of structural
steel to cycles of stress with considerable overstrain was inversely as the
rate of alternation.

3 Arnold, J. O. 1908 Factors of Safety in Marine Engineering. ‘ Inst.
Naval Arch.,’ L., 1908.

An analysis of ‘factors of safety ’ for various purposes is given; and
the practical importance of the Wéhler phenomenon shown.

The author demonstrates that the Wohler test does not detect brittle-
ness—a, fact now accepted. He argues that the Wohler limiting stresses

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

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COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 201

(equal + alternations of stress) are a ‘ reflection ’ of the yield point or elastic
limit, giving figures in support—a contention not borne out by nearly all
other tests.

The effect upon resistance to fatigue of microscopic ‘ rods’ of manganese
sulphide is shown; tests being made with stresses parallel and also per-
pendicular to the length of the ‘ rods.’

4 Bairstow, L. 1909 Elastic Limits of Iron and Steel under Cyclical Varia-
tions of Stress. ‘Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.,’ 210,
Dec. 9, 1909.

This paper is a very important contribution to the subject of alternating
stress. The author has thrown much light on the strain history of the
Wohler test on iron and steel, and has revealed the nature of the stress-
strain relations, whether of hysteresis or permanent extension, throughout
his tests. The main conclusions are mentioned in various places in the
Report, and only one or two salient facts need be mentioned here. He has
proved the existence of elastic ranges of stress which were suggested by
Bauschinger as the explanation of Wohler’s results ; and from comparison
of these elastic ranges (ranges for which the hysteresis loop disappears),
with the safe limiting ranges found by Wohler for presumably similar mate-
rial, he has concluded that the former are identical with the latter.

Work (previous to Bairstow’s) on the points just mentioned is con-
tained in No. 7, Bauschinger; No. 82, Stanton and Bairstow. See also
Unwin’s ‘ Testing of Materials,’ Article 253, edition 1910.

5 Baker, E. 1905 Report of Tests of Metals. Abstract in ‘Iron and
Steel Inst. Journ.,’ 1905, IT., p. 768.

Tests of material at the Watertown Arsenal. Re-tests made of wrought
iron, following a period of rest of twenty-two years, showing that certain
tensile properties characteristic of the early overstraining still remain in the
iron.

6 Baker, Sir E. 1886 Influence on Steel of repeated subjection to Stress.
‘Proc. Inst. Civil Engineers,’ cxxiii. See Unwin’s
‘Testing of Materials.’

7 Bauschinger, J. 1886 Ueber die Verinderung der Elasticitiétsgrenze und
Festigkeit des Eisen, ete. ‘ Mitthlg. aus dem Mechan-
ischtechnischen Laboratorium in Minchen.’ See
Unwin’s ‘ Testing of Materials,’ also for Bauschinger’s
earlier paper.

8 Berger, Karl 1899 Elasticity of Cast Iron subjected to repeated tensile
and Compressive Strain. See Abstract in ‘ Proc.
Inst. Civil Engs.,’ exxxvi. 370.
No particular value can be assigned for the elastic strain due to a definite
load, since this strain depends upon previous loadings. See No. 9.

9 Berliner, S. 1906 Behaviour of Cast Iron under slowly Alternating Stress.
‘Ann. de Physique,’ 20, 3, June 1906. ‘Sc. Abs.,’
1906, No. 1528.

Investigation of the amount of strain after successive loadings of cast
iron in equal tension and compression +p’. An expression is given for the
strain at any stress p, after such loadings, in terms of p and p’. Similar
work for + torsion of cast iron. See No. 8.

10 Blount, B. 1910 Tensile, Impact Tensile, and Repeated Bending Tests
Kirkaldy, W. G. of Steel. ‘Inst. Mech. Engs. Proc.,’ 2, 1910. ‘Sci.
Sankey, H. R. Abs.,’ A, 300, 1911.

In the repeated stress tests the specimen is bent to and fro in a machine
worked by hand. The angle of bending on either side is 464°, and a very
few cycles break the specimen. The work done is automatically recorded
and is found to be a measure of the ductility. See No. 3.

11 Bouasse, H., and 1908 Decay of Oscillations. ‘Sci. Abs.,’ 1908, No. 1225.
Carriére, L. ‘ Annal. Chem. Phys.,’ 14, June 1908, also ‘ Annal.
Chem. Phys.,’ 2, May 1904.
See Report, Appendix I.

13

14

15

16
17

18

19

20

21

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

Bouasse, H., and 1907 Decay of Oscillations. ‘Annal. Chem. Phys.,’ 10,
Berthier Feb. 1907. ‘Sci. Abs.,’ A, 1907, No. 710.

See Report, Appendix I.

Bondouard, O. 1910 ‘Tests on Metals by study of the damping of Oscillations.
‘Comptes Rendus,’ 150, Mar..14, 1910. ‘Sci. Abs.,’
1910, No. 645.

Bondouard, O. 1910 Tests of Metals by the Abatement of Vibrating Move-
ments. ‘Comptes Rendus,’ 152, Jan. 3, 1911. ‘Sci.
Abs.,’ 1911, No. 295.

Bondouard, O. 1912 Breakdown Tests of Metals. (Alternate Bending.)
‘Intern. Assoc. for Testing Materials,’ Paper V. 3,
1912.

The tests of Nos. 13, 14,and 15 were made on bars 1 em. x $ cm. x 20 em.
to 30 cm. long ; these were clamped in a vice, and vibrations of the free end
started and maintained by an electro-magnetic device. The free end of the
bar carried a mirror, from which photographic records were obtained of the
oscillations.

Tests were made, under continued oscillation, of commercial steels of
0-3 per cent. carbon and other steels, the tests being made on this material as
received, after annealing, and after tempering. ‘The resistance to fatigue
was found to be in the order just mentioned, the tempered specimens having
the lowest resistance. It is stated that the numbers of vibrations before
fracture are inversely proportional to the carbon content ; puddled iron being
more resistant than soft Martin’s steel. Under the test, 0-3 carbon steels
showed no sensible difference between the ‘annealed’ and hardened
states ; but with high carbon steels, hardening considerably diminished
the time for fracture at a given rate of oscillation.

These results are directly opposed to those of Nos. 23, 93, 62, 90, 47.

It is stated that the stresses were below the ‘elastic limit,’ but no
calculation is given of the stresses. The numbers of oscillations before
fracture were, however, between one and two millions in certain cases.

Breuss, E. About History of Fatigue Tests of Metals. ‘ Baumaterialen-
1905 kunde,’ xi., pp. 245-249.

Coker, E. G. 1898 Endurance of Steel Bars subjected to Repetitions of
Tensional Stress. ‘Proc. Inst. Civil Engineers,’

exxxv. 294.
Shows that very large elongation may be produced by repetitions of a

process of alternate stressing beyond the yield point and annealing.

Coker, E. G. 1902 Effect of Low Temperature on Over-strained Iron and

Steel. ‘Phys. Rev.,’ 15, Aug. 1902. ‘Sci. Abs.,’
1903, No. 227. See also E. J. McCaustland, No. 55.
A temperature of 0° C. appears to prevent recovery from tensile over-
strain ; and moreover to retard recovery when the temperature is after-
wards made normal.
Recovery appears to proceed more slowly in the case of steels with larger
percentage of carbon.

Drago, E. 1911 Influence of Oscillatory Discharge on Decay of Torsional
Oscillations. ‘ Accad. Lincei,’ Atti 20, pp. 100-107.
“Sci. Abs.,’ A, 1911, 1423.
Drago, E. 1911 Influence of Oscillatory Discharge on Decay of Tor-
sional Oscillations. ‘ Accad. Lincei,’ Atti 20, pp. 369-
376. ‘Sci. Abs.,’ A, 1912, 2.
For Nos. 19 and 20, see Report, Appendix I.

Dudley, C. B. 1904 Alternate Bending Stresses. ‘Iron and Steel Metal-
turgist,’ Feb. 1904.
A photograph shows fatigue fractures of an axle, a bolt, and three rotating
bar test pieces. The conclusion is drawn that if one is having trouble with
‘ detail’ (7.e., fatigue) fractures the best cure is to adopt a stiffer, 7.e., harder,
stecl.

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 203

Three examples are given which illustrate the conclusion. These are

(1) On the Pennsylvania Railroad, many fatigue failures of axles were
obtained with acid open-hearth axles containing 0-25 to 0-28 per cent. carbon,
with a tensile strength of 29 tons per square inch, and 25 per cent.
elongation. The maximum calculated stress in the middle of the axle was
6-8 tons, and in the journal 3 tons, per square inch. These axles failed
in the journal. Steel of about 36 tons tensile was then substituted, and
this cured the trouble.

(2) 0-22 to 0-25 per cent. carbon steel rollers for a sugar mill used to
break, and these were successfully replaced by rollers of 0-40 to 0-45 per
cent. carbon steel.

(3) A soft tough steel was successfully replaced by a higher carbon steel
for use in the form of piston rods for steam hammers.

On the above subject there is, and perhaps always will be, much diver-
gence of opinion. The chief reason is that conditions vary so greatly. The
treatment of the steel is obviously a very important factor. The axles,
for example, if treated at all, could have been treated so as to give different,
and probably much better, results, and to some users this would have formed
a more acceptable solution of the problem. One has to allow, amongst
other things, for considerable shock and some ill-treatment. This is em-
phasised by the fact that the calculated stress in the journals is only 3 tons
per square inch. No Wohler test results are given.

22 Eden, E. M. 1910 Endurance of Metal under Alternating Stress and
Effect of Rate of Alternation on Endurance. ‘ Univ.
of Durham Phil. Soc. Proc.,’ 3, 5, 1910. ‘Sci. Abs.,’
1910, No. 1384.

23 Eden, E. M., 1911 he Endurance of Metals. ‘ Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng.,’ 4,
Rose, W. N., Oct., Dec. 1911. ‘Sci. Abs.,’ 1912, No. 1145.
Cunningham,

F. L.

The main results of these well-known experiments were :—

No ‘ speed effect? between 250 and 1,300r.p.m. ; agreeing with Nos. 43,
80, 65 and 82. .

Greater resistance of high tenacity steels ; agreeing with Nos. 93, 82, 62,
90, 47 and 48.

Tests with loaded rotating solid bars appear to give either a higher
limiting range of stress (calculated by the usual theory of bending) or require
a larger number of cycles to fracture than direct-stress experiments; a
result in agreement with Nos. 47,48 and 93. The tests of these papers
(Nos. 22 and 23) were carried to fracture or to 10° revolutions. In No. 43
a small difference only was found in some comparative tests on machines
of the rotating bar and reciprocating mass type.

Rest intervals during a test appear to have little effect. This appears to
be the case in all tests with cycles of equal + stresses.

The effects of the kind of finishing process used in preparing the speci-
men, and of the kind of finished surface, are found to be important. See
also No. 51.

A few cast-iron and copper specimens were tested. The relative resist-
ance of certain forms of specimens was tested, with results in agreement
with Nos. 74, 75, 82 and 93.

24 Ercolini, G. 1906 Effect of Deformation upon Torsional Couple exerted
bya Twisted Wire. ‘ Accad. Lincei,’ Atti 15, Sept. 2,
1906. ‘Sci. Abs.,’? 1906, No. 1807.
Some experiments with combined stress and with alternating combined
stress on copper wire. The strains appear to have been considerably beyond
the elastic limits.

25 Ercolini, G. 1909 Recent Experiments on Elasticity. ‘Sci. Abs.,’ 1909,
No. 965.

The following is quoted from ‘Science Abstracts’: ‘It is concluded
that the damping of vibrations is due to the dissipation of energy corre-

204 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

37

38

39

sponding to the hysteresis effect on taking a specimen through a cycle of
strain, and not to molecular friction.’ The meaning of this is not clear.

Ewing, Sir J. A. 1889 On Hysteresis in the Relation of Strain to Stress.
‘ British Assoc. Report,’ 1889. See also Ewing’s
‘Strength of Materials.’

Ewing, Sir J. A. 1902 Fracture of Metals under Alternations of Stress. ‘ Phil.
and Trans.,’ A, 200.
Humfrey, J.C. W.
The important conclusions are well known, and therefore do not require
to be quoted. For further micrographic work, see Nos. 62, 63 and 82.

Fairbairn, Sir W. 1864 The Effect of Impact Vibratory Action and Changes
of Load on Wrought-iron Girders. ‘Phil. Trans.
Roy. Soc.’ See Unwin’s ‘ Testing of Materials.’

Finley, W. H. 1906 Case of Failure of Iron from Fatigue. ‘ Engineering
News,’ 55, p. 487. ‘Sci. Abs.,’? A, 1906, 1200.
Coupling pin of a ‘mine trip’ found to be brittle. Toughness was
restored by ‘ annealing.’

Foster, F. 1903 Repetition of Stress. ‘Mech. Eng.,’ Nov. 22, 1902.
‘Sci. Abs.,’ 1903, No. 866.

It is suggested that fatigue is an effect of accumulated permanent strain,

the latter being the aggregate of a prolonged series of hysteresis loops. The

relation between permanent extension and hysteresis is cleared up in No. 4.

Frémont, C. 1910 The Fatigue of Metals and New Methods of Testing.
‘Génie Civil,’ Oct. 22, 1910.

Frémont, C. 1910 Continuation of No. 31. ‘ Génie Civil,’ Nov. 19, 1910.

Accidents caused by the fracture of steel and attributed to mysterious

causes, notably fatigue, are in many cases due to bad quality of steel ; 1.e.,
either bad quality generally, or local impurities.

See also Papers VIII. and X., International Congress for Testing Materials,
1912. See also Nos. 3, 23 and 94.

Gardener, J. C. 1905 Effect of Stress Reversals on Steel. ‘Journ. Iron and
Steel Inst.,’ 67, 1905. ‘Sci. Abs.,’ 1905, No. 1804.

Quenched steel specimens submitted to alternating stress in a rotating-
bar machine of cantilever (Wohler) type. High resistance was found. This
agrees with No. 65. See also No. 66.

Grimaldi, G., 1909 Influence of Oscillatory Discharge and of Magnetisation

and upon the Elastic Hysteresis for Extension of Iron.
Accolla, G. ‘ Elettricista, Rome,’ 8, pp. 329-31. ‘ N. Cimento,’ 18,
pp. 446-77. ‘Sci. Abs.,’ 1910, 276.
Do. 1905 Influence of Magnetisation upon the Elastic Hysteresis
for Extension of Iron. See ‘Sci. Abs.,’ A, 1905, 927.
Guye, C. E. 1912 Internal Friction of Solids, Variation with Tempera-
ture. ‘Journ. de Physique,’ 2 Ser. 5, Aug. 1912.
‘Sci. Abs.,’ A, 1912, 1793.
Guye and 1908 On Internal Friction of Solids at Low Temperatures.
Mintz * Archives des Sciences,’ 26, pp. 136 and 263, 1908.
Guye and 1909 Internal Friction of Solids at Low Temperatures.
Friedericksz (Decrement of Torsional Oscillations.) “Comptes

Rendus,’ 149, Dec. 6, 1909. ‘Sci. Abs.,’ 1910,
No. 224. ‘Comptes Rendus,’ 150, April 18, 1910.
‘Sci. Abs.,’ 1910, No. 1189.

Note.—For Nos. 34, 35, 36, 37 and 38, see Report, Appendix I.

Do. 1912 Description of Krupp’s Laboratory. (Mentions battery
of six alternating-shock bending machines.) ‘ Revue
de Métallurgie,’ 9, 9, Sept. 1912.

40

41

42

43

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 205

The machines are on the principle of Stanton and Bairstow’s alternating-
shock bending machine (No. 78).

Notched specimens are used; the number of blows is 80 per minute.
The machines are arranged to give, if desired, + of a turn to the specimen
after each blow. No results are given.

Haigh, B. P. 1912 Alternating Load Tests. ‘ British Association,’ 1912-
‘ Engineering,’ Nov. 29, 1912. ‘Sci. Abs.,’ 1912,
No. 1612.
A description of the author’s machine for testing wire in repeated ten
sion. A few preliminary experiments only are recorded, the cycles having a
frequency of 60 per second, and the stresses varying between 0 and a tensile
maximum.

Hancock, E. L. 1906 ‘Tests of Metals in Reverse Torsion. ‘ Phil. Mag.,’ 12,
pp. 426-30. ‘Sci. Abs.,’ A, 1906, 1810.
This paper is concerned with alterations of elastic limits by torsional over-
strain in alternate directions of twist, the latter being slowly applied.

Haughton, S. A. 1905 Failure of an Iron Plate through Fatigue. ‘Sci. Abs.,’
A, 1905, 1846.
Failure of a barrel plate of a boiler. The plate had been exposed to
severe ‘ panting’ stresses.

Hopkinson, B. 1912 A High-speed Fatigue Tester and the Endurance of
Metals under Alternating Stress of High Frequency.
‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.,’ A, 86, Jan. 31, 1912. ‘Sci. Abs.,’

1912, No. 628.
Description of the Hopkinson high-speed machine and of the checks on
the calculated stresses. A variety of results given for speeds of 7,000 cycles
er minute. It is conclusively shown that there is a very marked speed
effect, both the number of cycles and the time required for producing fracture
being greater than with machines at one or two thousand cycles per minute.

Table of Limiting Ranges of Stress, with Three Machines of Different Type for
same Material.

| Stanton’s Direct- | Wohler Rotating-bar Hopkinson’s
Material stress Machine. Machine, N.P.L. Machine.
1,100 per minute 2,200 per minute 7,000 per minute
tons per squareinch | tons per square inch tons per square inch
Cc | 25 —_— +32
Ds +26-5 +31-5

+24

It is inferred that ‘ recovery of elasticity ’ is not an important factor in
tests with equal + alternations at high speeds, though at low speeds ‘ re-
covery ’ may be sufficient to mark the speed effect.

It is pointed out that it is not proved that the limiting range is higher,
but that the apparent resistance to fatigue (in time and in number of cycles)
is increased. The speed effect is shown to be the reverse of that found by
Reynolds and Smith, No. 59.

Nos. 23, 65, 80, 82 and 84 show that speed effect is apparently negligible
at speeds between 60 and about 2,400 cycles per minute.

44 Hopkinson, B., 1905 Elastic Properties of Steel at High Temperatures.

and F. Rogers “Proc. Roy. Soc.,’ A, 76, 1905.

Tensile tests of iron and steel, using an extensometer, at temperatures
up to 900° C. Tests not carried to fracture.

The elastic time effect (7.e., that strain which occurs with lapse of time
under a constant load, and which disappears with lapse of time upon removal
of the load, as distinguished from hysteresis, which is independent of time)
probably increases with temperature, since it was found to be very great
at high temperatures.

206 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

45 Hopkinson, B., 1912 The Elastic Hysteresis of Steel. ‘Proc. Roy. Soc,
and

Nov. 21, 1912.
Williams, Gen
See Report, Appendix I.

46 Howard, J. E. 1888 Watertown Arsenal Reports.
1893 See Massachusetts Institute of Technology.’
“Quarterly Proceedings,’ 1899.
47 Do. 1906 Alternate Stress Testing : and Heat Treatment of Steels.
‘Engineering Record,’ Sept. 22, 1906. ‘Int. Assoc.
Testing Materials Congress,’ 1906. ‘Sci. Abs.,’
1906, No. 1808.

Rotating loaded bar tests, at 500 r.p.m. Material, steels 0-17 to 0:82 %
carbon. No steels were found to endure 100 10°* rotations with greater
stresses than +40,000 lb. per square inch (calculated); but below this
stress some bars withstood 150 x 10° rotations.

At 400° F. the endurance was rather greater than at ‘atmospheric ’
temperature.

48 Howard, J. E. 1909 Resistance of Steels to Repeated Alternate Stresses.
Paper read Intern. Assoc. Testing Materials, 1909.
See also ‘Mech. Eng.,’ 24, Dec. 31, 1909. ‘Sci.
Abs.,’ 1910, No. 218.
Rotating bar tests. Bars, 1 inch diameter, loaded to give uniform
bending moment over 4 inches.
Speed, 500 r.p.m.
Material, 6 grades of open-hearth steel, hot rolled for commercial pur-
poses ; carbon content, 0-17 to 1-09 per cent.
Since the existence of or the possibility of finding a ‘limiting range ’
stress in rotating bar tests has been questioned the following results are
quoted :—

0:55 per cent. C. Steals
With +35,000 lb. square inch rupture occurred with 9x 10°
rotations.
With + 30,000 1b. square inch rupture did not occur with 76 x 10°
rotations.
0-82 per cent. C. Steel—
With +45,000 Ib. square inch rupture occurred with 6-05 10°
rotations.
With + 40,000 lb. square inch rupture did not occur with 202 x 10°
rotations.

See also some results of Wohler, page 378 Unwin’s ‘ Testing of Mate-
rials.’ Of the range of steels tested, the highest resistance was found for
the 0-73 per cent. and 0-82 per cent. carbon. This agrees with Rosenhain’s
statement (No. 66), also substantially with Nos. 23, 62, 82, 90, 93. Occa-
sional annealing at intervals during a test did not increase the endurance.

See section Heat Treatment in Report.

The number of rotations necessary for fracture was much increased when
the temperature of the test was 400° F. to 600° F., a result which differs
apie from Unwin’s (No. 91), and also from the author’s own result in

o. 47.
49 Kapp, G. 1911 Alternating Stress Machine. ‘ Zeits. Vereines Deutscher
Ing.,’ Aug. 26, 1911.

The stresses are direct tension and compression, and are obtained by the

pull of an electro-magnet excited by an alternating current.

50 Lord Kelvin Article Elasticity, ‘ Ency. Brit.,’ vol. vii., 9th ed.
51 Kommers, J. B. 1912 Repeated Stress Testing. Papers V. 44 and V. 48.

“Intern. Assoc. for Testing Materials,’ 1912. “€ Bei,
Abs.,’ A, 1912, 1794.

Tests on a Landgraf-Turner machine. To and fro bending given by
an oscillating die, the slot in the die being longer in the direction of the

53

56

57

58

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS, 207

stroke than the (unfixed) end of the specimen engaging with it. The length
of the slot could be varied so as to give various proportions of impact (?)
with the bending. The stroke of the die could also be varied.

Speeds, 150 to 700 (double) strokes per minute.

Specimens, $ inch diameter and 8$ inch long.

The maximum stresses were higher than the tensile elastic limit.

Material, cold rolled steel, carbon 0-1 per cent., annealed at a red heat.

Within the limits of the experiments it was found that the endurance
was independent of the proportion of the ‘impact’ factor in the bending.
It is doubtful whether there was any dynamic effect at all at the moment
of highest stressing. See Nos. 65 and 83. The nature of the surface of the
specimen, whether turned, filed, or ground, had a marked effect. The
polished and the ground specimens showed an increased resistance over the
turned ones of 45 per cent. to 50 per cent. See also No. 23.

An attempt is made in a second paper (Int. Cong. for Testing Materials,
1912) to find the stresses in the above experiments by observation of the
strains (beyond the elastic limit) and stresses in static bending tests, and of
the strains and stresses in a tensile test of the same material.

Lenoble, E. 1900 Permanent Deformation of Metallic Wire (Hysteresis
Loop). ‘Journ. de Physique,’ 9, Oct. 1900. ‘ Sci.
Abs.,’ 1901, No. 7.
A hysteresis loop was obtained for a wire which was gradually loaded
and unloaded.

Lilly, W. E. 1910 A New Torsion-testing Machine. ‘ Proc. Inst. C.E.
of Ireland,’ Nov. 2, 1910.
A machine for direct and reverse torsion worked by hand ; stress strain
diagram automatically drawn.

Do. 1911 The Elastic Limits and Strength of Materials, ‘ Proc.
Inst. C.E. of Ireland,’ Dec. 6, 1911.
An account of some experiments on the machine of No. 53. The results
are believed by the author to confirm Bauschinger’s theory.

McCaustland, 1906 Effect of Low Temperature on the Recovery of Steel
: from Overstrain. ‘Am. Soc. Min. Eng, Bull,’ 9,
May 1906. ‘Sci. Abs.,’ 1906, No. 1176.

The results are similar to those of No. 17.

Memuler, K., 1910 Temperature Measurements during Repetition of Stress ;

and experiments with Pipes. ‘Kgl. Material-Priifungs-

Schob, A. amt. Mitt.,? 28, 6, pp. 307-33. ‘Sci. Abs.,’ A,
1910, 1382.

See Report, Appendix I.

Milton, J. T. 1905 Instit. of Naval Architecture, July 1905. Milton
mentions cases of failure of plates by fatigue. Also
‘ Engineering,’ Aug. 4 and 11, 1905.

Pearson, Karl 1905 On Torsional Vibrationsin Axles and Shafts. ‘ Drapers’
Company Memoirs,’ Technical Series IV.

It is suggested that there may have been much higher stresses than those
calculated in Wohler’s tests with + alternate stresses, because the loadings
were repeated before the stress-waves set up by the previous loadings had
ceased to be of importance. Thus the real maximum stresses would be
the sum of effects due to several successive loadings. Since L. Bairstow
(No. 4) has obtained results corresponding quantitatively to Wéhler’s (about
60 per minute), with a rate of loading of only two per minute, it seems probable
that stress accumulation can only have been a very minor factor in Wohler’s
results. Supposing a small number of successive peaks of stress to occur,
the duration of the peak stresses would be very short and unlikely to give
appreciable non-elastic strain (see No. 43); and moreover, though such
non-elastic strain (cleavage slipping) may be produced, yet, unless the stresses
producing these strains are many times repeated, cracking in the crystals
would not be produced (No. 82). The fact of possible stress accumulation

208 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

cannot be ignored, and it is likely that some of the anomalous results of
fatigue tests may be due to it. It is remarkable that Stanton’s repeated
shock tests (No. 83) should give results at least as consistent as those of
tests in which the stresses are not (or are intended not to be) impulsive.

59 Reynolds, O., 1902 On a Throw Testing Machine for Reversals of Stress.
and ‘Phil. Trans.,’ A, 199, 1902. ‘Sci. Abs.,’ 1903,
Smith, J. H. No. 1302.

Two of the chief conclusions have been contradicted by subsequent
work. These are :—

That under a given range of stress the number of reversals before rupture
diminishes as the frequency of reversals increases. That ‘hard’ steels
will not sustain more reversals with the same range of stress than mild steels
when the frequency is high.

Some vibration of machine or specimen is supposed to be responsible
for the above results. See remarks by Messrs. Stanton and Pannell, No. 84,
pages 10 and 11.

60 Ritchie, J. B. 1910— Dissipation of Energy in Torsionally Oscillating Wires ;
ll Effects Produced by Change of Temperature. ‘ Proc.
Roy. Soc. Hd.,’ 31, 1910-11. ‘Sci. Abs.,’ 1911,

No. 1310.
61 Do. 1910— Apparatus for Inducing Fatigue by Repeated Exten-
Il sional and Rotational Strains. ‘Proc. Roy. Soc.
Edinburgh,’ 31, 1910-11. ‘Sci. Abs.,’ 1911, No. 1311.

For Nos. 60 and 61, see Report, Appendix I.

62 Rogers, F. 1905 Heat Treatment and Fatigue of Steel. ‘Journ. Iron
and Steel Instit.’? 1905. ‘Sci. Abs.,’ 1905, No. 1805.
Tests on rotating cantilever (Wohler pattern) machine, 400 r.p.m. Three
grades of steel tested.
See Report, note on ‘ Heat Treatment.’

63 Rogers, F. 1906 Microscopic Effects produced by the Action of Stresses
on Metals. ‘Soc. d’Encouragement Rev. de Metal-
lurgie Mém.,’ 3, Oct. 1, 1906.
Further details, with micrographs of the work of No. 62. Suggested
reasons why slip lines in iron and steel should be ‘ broken.’
See Report, Note on Heat Treatment.

63a Rogers, F. 1913 So-called Crystallisation through Fatigue. Read before
Iron and Steel Institute, September 1913.

64 Roos, J. O. 1912 On Endurance Tests of Machine Steel. Intern. Assoc.
Testing Materials. Paper V. 24, 1912.

65 Do. 1912 Some Static and Dynamic Endurance Tests. Intern.

Assoc. Testing Materials. Paper V. 2B, 1912.
Two series of tests made on same material :—
(1) With rotating-bar machine of Wohler type. Speeds, 1,200 and 2,400
r.p.m.

PO) In a machine of author’s design. Blows were given by hammers
striking a specimen alternately on either side. The maximum stresses
were calculated from the height of fall of hammer, on the assumption that
the whole energy of blow was taken up as elastic energy of the piece.

Material, steels of 0-10, 0-40, 0-65 per cent. of carbon, on which tests were
made after ‘annealing’ and also after oil-tempering.

In (1) the endurance was rather higher with the higher speed.

In (1) and (2) the oil-tempered specimens had much greater endurance.

The ‘f, » curves’ for (1) and (2) corresponded very closely, confirming

Stanton’s (No. 83) result, that So may be taken as a measure of the re-

sistance to repeated shock, / being the ‘ real’ (natural) elastic limit.

66 Rosenhain, W. 1911 Two Lectures on Steel. ‘Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng.,’
Pt. IL., pp. 280-83.

Remarks on resistance of steel to alternating stress.

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 209

67 Sankey, H.R. 1905 Vibratory Testing Machine. ‘Mech, Eng.,’ Nov. 11,

1905.
68 Do. 1907 Hand Bending Test. ‘ Engineering,’ Dec. 20, 1907.
‘ Engineering, Feb. 15, 1907.
See No. 10.
69 Schuchart, A. 1908 Resistance of Wire to Repeated Bending. ‘Stahl und
(Sen.) Kisen,’ July 1 and 8, 1908.

Tests of wire, gripped in jaws with curved faces, over which the wire
was bent backwards and forwards into contact with the faces.

70 1908 Olsen Vibrating Testing Machine. ‘Elect. Rev.,
April 17, 1908.
71 1909 Landgraf-Turner Alternating Impact Machine. ‘ Iron
and Steel Times,’ June 24, 1909.
See No. 51.

72 Smith, J. H. 1905 Testing Machine for Reversals of Stress. ‘ Engineer-
ing,’ March 10, 1905.
73 Do. 1909 Fatigue Testing Machine. ‘Engineering,’ July 23,
1909.
For direct stresses of any required range with any required mean stress
of range. The specimen is motionless. The machine has been (or is being)
used for various speeds of alternation.

74 Do. 1910 Experiments on Fatigue of Metals, ‘Journ. Iron and
Steel Instit.,? 2, 1910. ‘Sci. Abs.,’ 1911, No. 568.

Tests with machine of No. 73. Speed of repetitions, 1,000 per minute ;
various values, both + and —, of the mean stress being used. An extenso-
meter was kept in position during the tests. A range of steels, of from 0-13
to 0-79 per cent. carbon content was tested ; also some nickel steels. Most
of the specimens were without heat treatment; a few were tested both in
the untreated state and also after annealing.

The author proposes a new and very quick method of finding the Wéhler
safe ranges. The validity of the method depends entirely on the experi-
mental agreement between the Wohler safe ranges, determined by the
endurance test, and what the author calls ‘yield ranges.’ A description
of the method of finding the latter is given in the paper. Very briefly, the
“yield range’ is reached when the specimen first shows, by the extenso-
meter indication, a small change of length, which appears to be similar to
that found by Mr. L. Bairstow (No. 4), and called by him ‘ permanent ex-
tension.’ It is shown, however, in No. 4, that these ‘ permanent extensions ’
may occur even if the range isa safe one. If Bauschinger’s theory be accepted
it is difficult to see why these ‘ yield ranges’ should be the same as the
Wohler limiting (or safe) ranges. In Dr. Smith’s method the successive
changes of mean stress from + to — will give little opportunity for the
adjustment of the elastic limits to the upper and lower limits of the range ;
whereas it is established that (Nos. 4, 7, and 82) such adjustment does take
place when the range is in the neighbourhood of the safe range, and the mean
stress is constant.

It would appear that before the method can be generally relied upon
the experiments should be repeated, preferably on a machine of another
type. The correspondence between the quickly determined ‘ yield ranges ’
and the Woéhler limiting range promises, however, to fulfil the need for a
commercial substitute for the tedious Wohler fatigue test.

75 Sondericker, J. 1899 Repeated Stresses. ‘Massachusetts Inst. of Tech-
nology Quarterly Journ.,’ 1899. (Description of
machine, 1892, ditto.)

Machine of rotating-bar type, with constant bending moment over a short
length. The materials tested were wrought iron and steels of carbon con-
tent 0-08 to 0-50 per cent., and the speeds 350 to 500 r.p.m. Two pointers were
clamped to the part under uniform bending moment, and the extreme fibre
strains measured ; such measurements were taken at intervals during each

a test. The fibre stresses were high, often considerably above the observed
3. B

210

76

77

79

80

SL

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

elastic limits in tension; but the latter appear to have had an unusually
low ratio to the tensile strength. Thus :—

———

Specimen of Wrought Tron Specimen of Steel
Range of stress + 28,000 lb. sq. in. + 42,000 |
Rest (to fracture) 2:5 10° (not broken) 3-31 x 10°
| Tensile E. limit, 23,400 1b, sq. in. 38,300 lb. square inch
Tensile strength, 50,510 1b. sq. in. 78,010 lb. square inch

It is stated that the ‘set’ observed ‘ did not appear to have a notable
influence in causing fracture until it reached -001 inch or -002 inch in a
length of 10 inches.’ Rest was found to decrease the ‘set.’ It was noticed
that the specimens were always perceptibly warmer in the middle than
near the ends. The temperature increased with the amount of the ‘set.’
Three specimens reached a blue heat (about 300° C.); the break occurred
where the shaft was coolest.

The effects of a V groove and of a square shoulder were investigated.
Some tests were made of flanged couplings, in which cracks commenced in
the keyways.

Spangenberg 1874 Ueber das Verhalten der Metalle bei wiederholten

Anstrengungen. See ‘Handbook of Testing, A.
Martens, or Unwin’s ‘ Testing of Materials.’

Stanton, T. E. 1905 Alternating Stress-testing Machine at the National

Physical Laboratory. ‘ Engineering,’ Feb. 17, 1905.
‘Sci. Abs.,’ 1905, No. 670.
An investigation concerning the effect upon the calculated stresses of
the friction of the author’s direct-stress reciprocating machine, and of the
fluctuation of angular acceleration of the shaft.

Do. 1906 Repeated Impact-testing Machine. ‘ Engineering,’
82, July 13, 1906. ‘Sci. Abs.,’ 1906, No. 1520.

The specimen is 4 inch diameter, with V notch turned 0-40 inch diameter
at bottom of V. It is placed on knife-edges 44 inches apart, and receives
blows over the notch from a tup, and it is given a half-revolution between
each blow. Maximum speed, 100 blows per minute.

Do. 1907 A Factor in the Design of Machine Details. ‘ Engineer-
ing,’ April 19, 1907.
On the effect of sudden changes of section in machine members, with
estimates of the reduction of resistance to alternating stress.

Do. 1908 New Fatigue Test for Steel. ‘Journ. Iron and Steel
Inst.,’ 76, 1908.
Test in simultaneous abrasion and fatigue. No speed effect was found
for speeds between 200 and 2,200 cycles per minute.

Do. 1912 Recent Researches made at the National Physical
Laboratory on the Resistance of Metals to Alternating
Stress. Intern. Congress for Testing Materials.
Paper V. 1, 1912.

Stanton and 1905 On the Resistance of Iron and Steel to Reversals of

Bairstow Direct Stress. ‘Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng.,’ clxvi.
“Sci. Abs.,’ 1907, No. 373.
Tests made on commercial materials of iron and steel, using Stanton’s
direct-stress machine (No. 77); cycles 800 per minute, the ratio
maximum tensile stress of cycle
maximum comp. stress of cycle
being from 1-4 to 0-72.
Results :-—
No reduction in endurance was found at 800 per minute as compared
with 60 per minute, thus agreeing with Nos. 23, 43, 65 and 80.

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

oF

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 211

High carbon steels have superior endurance, thus agreeing with Nos. 23,
48, 62, 90, 93.

The effect of ‘rate of change’ of section of test pieces demonstrated,
and the endurance of various forms (screwed, &c.) compared. See Nos.
23, 74, 75 and 93.

Strong evidence was found that the primitive elastic limits are fre-
quently unstable under alternating stress; also evidence concerning the
coincidence of the Wohler limiting range and the ‘ natural’ elastic ranges.
See also, notably, No. 4.

Fracture occurs by cracking in one of the localities where slip bands are
massed together. Fracture goes through ferrite crystals, not only in iron
(No. 27), but also in medium carbon steels. This is in accordance with
Nos. 62 and 63. See also No. 66.

The mode of fracture is the same whether the stress is applied directly
or by means of bending (Nos. 62, 63).

Stanton and 1908 The Resistance of Materials to Impact. ‘ Proc. Inst.
Bairstow Mech. Eng.,’ No. 4, 1908.

A machine for giving alternating direct impact is described. The blows
of a tup put the specimen into alternate tension and compression. One of
the chief objects of the research was to determine the limiting resistance
of the materials for which the resistance to alternating stress had already
been found. The important conclusion is reached that, if f is the ‘real’
elastic limit derived from the Wohler test, then the measure of tho

?

resistance to repeated small + equal impacts is a This result is con-

firmed by Roos (No. 65). See also No. 51.
Stanton and 1911 Experiments on the Strength and Fatigue Propertics

Pannell of Welded Joints in Iron and Steel. ‘Proc. Inst.
Civ. Eng.,’ vol. clxxxviii., 1911.
Stead and 1903 Sorbitic Steel Rails. ‘Iron and Steel Inst. Journ.,’
Richards 1903, II., p. 141.
Mentions rotating-bar (Wéhler type) tests on rails specially heat-treated.
Do. : 1903 Restoration of Dangerously Crystallised Steel by Heat

Treatment. Ibid., p. 119.
Rotating-bar tests and heat treatment.

Do. 1905 Overheated Steel. Heat Treatment; tests in Wohler
machine, and also in severe bending.
Thearle, S. J. P. 1913 Note on some Cases of Fatigue in the Steel Material
of Steamers. Inst. Naval Arch., June 1913. Also
*‘ Engineering,’ June 27, 1913.
Tobusch, H. 1908 Elastic and Magnetic Hysteresis. ‘Ann. de Physik.,’
26,3. ‘Sci. Abs.,’ A, 1908, No. 1482.

See Report, Appendix I.

Turner, L. B. 1911 The Strength of Steel in Compound Stress and En-
durance under Repetition of Stress. ‘ Engineering,’
July 28 to Sept. 8,191]. ‘Sci. Abs.,’ 1911, No. 1315.

Bending Tests on cantilever specimens; one end fixed, the free end
being made to describe a circle of constant small radius,

Torsion Tests.—One end fixed, the other end twisted to and fro through
a constant small angle.

Speed, 250 cycles per minute.

Materials.—Tube steel (annealed and untreated), mild steel, tool steel,
and nickel steel (annealed and untreated).

The main object of the research was to determine how far the shear-
stress criterion of elastic failure applies to alternating-stress tests. The
tests gave an affirmative result for tube steel and mild steel for both tension
and torsion, and a negative result for tool steel and nickel steel.

Unwin, W.C. 1905 Experiments on Rotating Bars at Different Tempera-
tures. ‘Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng.,’ clxvi. ‘Sci. Abs.,’
1907, No. 373.

&

PZ

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

bo
bt
bo

Rotating cantilever tests in which mild steel appeared to have slightly
greater endurance at 400° to 500° F. than at ordinary temperatures. J. E.
Howard (No. 48) finds that the number of rotations for fracture was very
much increased at temperatures of 400° F. to 600° F. This is partly a
metallurgical question, as the condition of the steel previous to the warming
may affect the result. Further, it is known that the elongation in tensile
tests of the steels dealt with would be slightly improved at the temperatures
named, which is broadly in agreement with these authors’ results.

92 Unwin, W. C. General Considerations on Safe Working Limits of
Stress. ‘Testing of Materials of Construction,’ Art.
255, 1910 edition.

93 Wohler, A. 1871 Ueber die Festigkeitsversuche mit Eisen und Stahl.
See ‘Engineering,’ vol. II., or Unwin’s ‘ Testing
of Materials.’

94 (Various writers) 1910 Enquéte sur la fatigue des Métaux. ‘La Technique
Moderne,’ 1910, vol. 2, pp. 19-21, 83-84, 151-4,
210-4, 280-4, 345-7.
Discussion of these questions, proposed by the Editors :—

1. Is it established that metals undergo, in time, fatigue which noticeably alters
their endurance ?

2. Are the circumstances of this known and can they be avoided ?

3. Are there means of recognising the symptoms of this state, and hence avoiding
disasters resulting from it ?

4, What inferences can be drawn from the existence of these phenomena from
the point of view of determining the safety of metallic machines and structures ?

The replies received are generally of the utmost vagueness, or are quite platitudes
to all concerned materially in the subject, or are of little practical bearing (e.g., most
of Retjo’s theory).

A. Mesnager quotes Le Chatelier (Internat. Congr. for Testing Materials, 1900,
p. 90) that an alteration of the decrement would be produced by alteration of the
material, and seems to suggest this as an indication of the progress of fatigue in a
piece. [Evidently this would rarely be applicable.—F. R.] E

P. Breuil refers to the fact that the vastly greater part of the work on the subject
is British, both combined stress and alternating. Eighty per cent. of the failures
are due to ignorance on the part of the designer (as to stress which will actually come
upon the piece). It is not known whether any stress, however small, will produce a
permanent deformation, or, if so, whether this deformation is localonly. The micro-
scope is the best instrument at present available in this respect. It is necessary to
do fatigue tests above the elastic limit, and desirable to register deformation at each
alternation of the same stress, or to register each load necessary to give equal alter-
nating deflections. Importance of hysteresis. Importance of annealing to restore
from the effects of fatigue ; but this is not always practicable.

F. Schule.—Microscope has not given a satisfactory answer to (2).

Do.—Suggests electric conductivity should be tried as a test for progress of fatigue
for (3).

(This is of very little use.—F. R.)

4, Suggests scrapping after a certain life; i.e. ‘ life’ factor of safety.

A. Retjo.—Treats the subject mathematically, following Van der Waals and
Amagat.

L. Grenet.—It is not fully evident that annealing will restore fatigued material.

(Of course not. Qualification is necessary. See comment below.—F. R.)

In design, so far as possible, it should be endeavoured to calculate the shock
absorbable ; in general, he recognises the importance of resilience ; he suggests par-
ticularly tests of the safe limit of repeated shock, accompanied by the use of a large
factor of safety.

Cellerier and Breuil.—Report on a broken rail. Failure ascribed to fatigue of
the intensely cold-worked (in service) surface layer.

L. Guillet.—Troubles are usually due to bad treatment of metals. His answer to
(3) and (4) is ‘ Prudence,’

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 213

Comments by F. Rogers.

It is worth noting at the outset that, rather differently from us, the French often
mean by ‘fatigue’ what we would call simple overstrain ; e.g., such as occurs in a
tensile test piece strained beyond the elastic limit. In this particular series of
articles, however, this use of the term has not occurred considerably. Further,
there seems to be no reference to any question of an ‘ ageing’ effect in metals, either
under steady stress or in the absence of stress.

Most writers, as is to be expected, agree explicitly or implicitly in answering (1) in
the affirmative.

There is no agreement as to unconditional scrapping after a specified life (measured
in time, or else number of stressings). This is as one would expect, since in most cases
the aim is to design for permanent use, except where wnavoidable wear is concerned.
Railway cranks and axles are, however, used for a definite mileage only.

I consider that the suggestions made by Grenet are the crux of the problem,
although they are not individually novel. There is room for more research on resilience
from this point of view, particularly the values of elastic modulus in relation to en-
durance of repeated stress and repeated shock, and the safe limit of repeated shock.

I have shown (No. 62) the increase of elastic modulus with brittleness due to
overheating of steel.

Periodical annealing during the useful life is only applicable to certain materials
and to certain forms. No large pieces, such as shafts, can be so dealt with, on account
of distortion and scaling. Small iron articles, such as chains, are annealed. I have
shown that at a certain stage annealing is in any event incapable of restoring a mate-
rial. The original heat treatment of steels is often such that their properties would
be hopelessly ruined by any process which could fall under the vague term ‘ annealing.’
Springs are, however, sometimes annealed and re-tempered ; it is questionable whether
any advantage is gained.

The microscope is a valuable aid to research, but it is only in exceptional cases
that it is of assistance in finding hair-cracks in existing structures. In my experience
the hair-crack period is of short duration, and tests to destruction are the most reliable
index of the state of the material; but in certain cases it would be worth while to keep
vital points polished ready for periodical examination (and varnished), and approach-
ing fatigue could then be satisfactorily detected at a considerably earlier stage than
the appearance of hair-cracks.

In regard to Guillet’s dictum that the original treatment of the metal is usually to
blame when metals fail under alternating stress, I do not think it is possible to arrive
at a general conclusion ; that is to say, each of the following three main classes contain
the usual sources of trouble, and many cases in practice have been traced to eaca of
these causes :—

(a) Flaws, including pipe, fissures, blow-holes, impurity, and non-metallic en-

closures.

(b) Faulty original heat-treatment of pure metal. This includes, as a special case,

strains set up in manufacture, and overwork in the working processes.

(c) Under-estimation of stresses to be expected on the part of the designer. This

includes, as a special case, insufficient allowance for the effect of repetition
of a stress which would be harmless if applied once or steadily maintained.

SPECIAL PROBLEMS.
The Resistance of Tubes to Collapse. By GitBERtT Coox, M.Sc.

(The small figures in the text refer to the bibliography.)

When a thin cylindrical tube is subjected to a gradually increasing
external pressure, a point is reached at which the equilibrium becomes
unstable, any further increase in the pressure resulting in the collapse of the
tube. This pressure is known as the collapsing pressure. The subject of its
determination is one which has, from time to time, received considerable
attention both from mathematicians and engineers. Yet, in spite of the

214. REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

practical importance of the subject, definite and exact knowledge is
lacking. A universal formula has not yet been found by which the
strength of a tube of given dimensions and material may be estimated.
It is perhaps safe to say that it is impossible to devise such a formula
which will be sufficiently simple to be of any practical value. This will
at once be evident when the number of factors which enter into the
problem, and the lack of knowledge with regard to each, irrespective of
their mutual relations, are considered. These factors may be divided into
two main classes: (a) those relating to dimensions and geometrical
form ; (6) those relating to the physical properties of the material. The
first of these may be subdivided as follows :—

(1) Lateral dimensions; 7.c., diameter and thickness.

(2) Length.

(3) The boundary conditions at the end of the tube.

The statical condition of the tube at the moment of collapse being one
of unstable equilibrium, the influence of slight variations from the circular
form or uniform thickness which are invariably found in practice must
also be considered.

It is proposed in the course of this report to consider separately the
influence of the above factors.

Lateral Dimensions.

Although the influence of length will be dealt with later, it may be
stated here that it is found both from experiment and theory that, as the
length increases, the strength of a tube of given lateral dimensions tends to
a minimum constant value, which appears to be attained, for practical
purposes, when the length is greater than six times the diameter.® It
is therefore proposed to consider here only the case of a tube of infinite
length. The strength of such a tube is dependent upon its diameter and
thickness, and it appears to be established, both from theoretical con-
siderations and from the experimental data available, that the collapsing

pressure is some function of the ratio of the thickness to the diameter é ) :
A complication is at once introduced by the fact that the form of that
function deyends upon the value of the ratio iM
The problem is, in many respects, analogous to that of a column under

a direct compressive load, in which the conditions determiming failure
depend on the ratio of k, the least radius of gyration of the cross-section, to /,

the length. In the failure of a column, two ranges of values of k may be
distinguished.
(1) When : is very small, failure occurs by pure buckling, without

any departure from perfect elasticity, and it can be deduced mathemati-
cally that the stress at failure is

we k\2
p=a(7)

where a depends only on Young’s modulus and the end conditions.

(2) When = exceeds a certain fairly definite value, failure is caused by —

l

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 215

the elastic breakdown of the material in some part of the column. If the
ratio is not too great, buckling results from irregularities thus produced, and
the problem is not amenable to rigorous mathematical treatment owing
to the fact that such inequalities are largely the result of initial irregularities

in the form of the column.* When, however, $ becomes large, buckling

does not occur, and failure takes the form of uniform lateral expansion.
There is an analogy in the collapse of tubes to each of these cases.

(1) When the ratio ; is very small, collapse will occur without over-

strain in any part of the material. As in the case of long columns, this is
the only case for which a complete mathematical solution has been found.
The problem was first investigated by Bryan, and the theory subse-
quently improved by Basset ! and Love,'!? and more recently by South-
well, '7 '8 The pressure at which the equilibrium becomes unstable is

given by
He t 3
p=o (7 re ex rien kde apseemte Sait |

where c is a constant depending only on the elastic properties of the
material, and is equal to

2B
l—m?

where # is Young’s modulus, and m Poisson’s ratio.
Very elaborate and accurate experimental work carried out during
recent years by Carman® and Stewart!® has shown that the relation (1)

holds very nearly in the case of tubes in which the ratio F is less than -025.

The value of the constant c is, however, found to be considerably less than
the theoretical value. The discrepancy has been attributed by Slocum!
to imperfections in the geometrical form of the tube, and by Southwell to
the fact that in the comparison of the theoretical and experimental results,

values of 4 were included which were great enough to allow elastic break-

down to precede instability.

(2) When the ratio ;
a
relation (1) no longer holds. It is evident that no tube can withstand,
without permanent deformation, a pressure greater than that which would
cause any part of the material to exceed the elastic limit. By Lamé’s
theory the maximum compressive stress occurs at the inner surface of the
tube, and, assuming that there is no longitudinal constraint, is given by

exceeds ‘025, it is found by experiment that the

f=— P
A aE
O-8)
d d
* It is possible to give a mathematical explanation of the form of the curve showing
the relation of load to . even in this case. See paper by R. V. Southwell, ‘The

Strength of Struts,’ Engincering, Aug. 23, 1912.

216 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

and therefore the maximum pressure which could be applied to the tube
without permanent deformation is theoretically

ee ae oe
p= 7} a? 5

where /, = direct compressive stress at yield. How far the strength of the
material in compression does actually enter into the problem does not
appear to have been satisfactorily determined. It is probable that for a

c el
certain range of the ratio 7 Upwards from -025 the tube does not fail either

by simple buckling or by direct crushing, but by a combination of both.
Tt is found that the results of tests on tubes of this form may be con-
veniently expressed by the relation

reals)

where a and 6 are constants depending on the material. 19 The upper
t
d

but its maximum value in the tests upon which it is based was about :07.

limit of the ratio for which this relation holds has not been determined,

A question of some interest is the value of 5 for which collapse in the

form of buckling ceases to occur. Recent experiments by Bridgman 3
have shown that the effect of the application of high hydrostatic pressure
to tubes of ductile materials in which the ratio of thickness to external
diameter is greater than 0:27 is to close up the hole in a uniform manner,
without any departure from the circular form.

Length.

Very little experimental data are available in regard to the influence of
the length upon the strength of a tube to resist collapse. Indeed, the
attention paid to this point has not been in any degree commensurate with
its importance.

Recent experimental work has shown that when the length is suffi-
ciently great 1t ceases to have any appreciable effect upon the strength.
An attempt has been made to define the length below which the strength is
materially increased, and the term ‘ critical length’* has been applied to
this quantity by Love and Carman. Such a term suggests a point of dis-
continuity, the existence of which, in the above sense, is hardly conceivable.
An investigation by Love,}* based partly on analysis, and partly on analogy
to simpler problems, leads to the result that, for thin tubes of different
lateral dimensions, the influence of the length becomes negligible to the
same order when it is greater than some multiple of the mean proportional
of the diameter and thickness ; 7.¢., when

L> ar/dt ; : : : (2)
where a is a constant.

An important contribution to the theory of this subject recently made
by Southwell !7) 18 has pointed to the desirability of a modification in the
meaning attached to the term ‘critical length.’ It is a well-known fact
that the number of lobes into which a tube collapses is dependent upon the

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 217

length of the tube ; the shorter the tube, the greater is the number of lobes.
Unwin ”? was the first to appreciate the importance of this fact, and he
used it in an attempt to set on a more rational basis the results of the
classical experiments of Fairbairn. Southwell has shown, however, that

the collapsing pressure of any tube in which the ratio ; is very small may
be expressed by

t Z fs stael et oe aaa
p=28 | BeSS E° 3 (=m) a

where « is the number of lobes in the collapsed cross-section and Z is a
constant depending on the type of the end constraints. If, for a tube of
given thickness and diameter, the value of p be plotted against / for values
of xequal to 2, 3,4... . aseries of curves is obtained ; and Southwell has
pointed out that, from an inspection of these curves, it will be seen that long
tubes will always tend to collapse into the two-lobed form, since the curve
for x = 2 then gives the least value for the collapsing pressure, but that at
a length corresponding to the point at which this curve intersects the curve
for x = 3, the three-lobed form becomes natural to the tube, and for
shorter lengths still, for which the point of intersection of the curves for
« = 3 and x = 4 gives the upper limit, the four-lobed form requires least
pressure for its maintenance. Thus the true curve connecting pressure and
length is a discontinuous one, and therefore the collapsing pressure is not a
continuous function of the length.

It may be suggested therefore that the term ‘ critical length ’ be applied
to the points of discontinuity ; that is, the points of intersection of the curves
for x = nand x = n +1, these points being rightly described as ‘ critical ’
in the sense that the tube may collapse into either n or n + 1 lobes at these
points. With this meaning a tube will have a number of critical lengths
corresponding to the configuration of the collapsed cross-section, and it may
be shown that for different tubes the length corresponding to the critical

points is proportional to
a?
ie Saree meremy patie (i)

Southwell has pointed out that the above expression is also the factor
determining the value of the critical length in the sense in which that term
has been generally used, e.g., by Love and Carman. Prof. Love has
accepted the above result as superseding the expression (2) given above.

It would appear from (3) that a thin tube may collapse into a greater
number of lobes than a thicker tube of the same length and diameter.
This has been verified in experiments carried out by the writer, but beyond
this no definite experimental confirmation of the above results has yet been
made, although work in this direction is in progress. It has usually been
assumed—and the assumption appears to be sufficiently justified by the
experimental work of Carman and Stewart—that, for practical purposes,
the influence of the length vanishes when it exceeds about six diameters,
and that below this value the strength of the tube may roughly be taken
as proportional to the reciprocal of the length, although the experimental
evidence in regard to the latter cannot be regarded as conclusive.

218 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

End Conditions.

In dealing with the question of length no assertion was made in regard
to the statical conditions at the ends of the tube. In the experimental
work the ends were rigidly fixed to a true circular form of invariable
diameter, and were also held rigidly in a longitudinal direction. Southwell
has shown ?” that any variation in these conditions in the case of a short tube
will considerably affect the resistance to collapse. It is reasonable to sup-
pose that where the ends are more or less flexible in any direction, the
strength will not be as great as when the tube is rigidly held parallel and
circular. Itis, however, hardly to be expected, when the knowledge of the
general effect of length is so vague, that the effect of the end conditions
could be expressed in more exact terms.

Variations from True Geometrical Form.

The ideal conditions assumed in the derivation of the rational formula
are never realised in practice. The phenomenon of collapse is, however,
due to imperfections in form and material, and, in the mathematical
analysis of the ideal case, the collapsing pressure is that which would
produce a state of neutral equilibrium in the shell, although actual collapse
would only occur if some shght unsymmetrical deformation were caused.
It is evident that slight initial deviations from the perfect form must affect
the value of the collapsing pressure to a considerable extent. The earlier
experimental work in this subject by Fairbairn ® was carried out on tubes
which were lap-riveted and in which therefore the variation from the true
circular form was at least equal to the thickness of the plate. Although
serving the purpose for which they were intended at the time, the results
have little application to modern tubes, which are either solid drawn or
welded, and are much more perfect in form. The slight variations, how-
ever, which still occur are probably responsible in a large measure for
a considerable departure from the theoretical strength. Experiments
carried out within recent years on modern tubes have shown that the

relation
P d,)’

where ¢, and d, are the average thickness and diameter, holds when the
average of a large number of tests is taken, but the constant is smaller than
the theoretical constant by about 30 per cent. Further, wide differences
in the collapsing pressure of tubes of the same average dimensions have
frequently been found. A theoretical formula for the calculation of the
effect of inequalities in diameter and thickness is hardly to be looked for,
even if it were possible or convenient to measure the latter, for any given
tube. Such a problem is, moreover, complicated by the fact that the
positions of greatest and least thickness may have any relation to those of
oreatest and least diameters, with a corresponding variation in the com-
bined influence.

A series of tests was carried out by Stewart ?° some six years ago on
steel tubes 10 inches in diameter in order to determine the effect of distor-
tion on the collapsing pressure. It was found that the results could be
expressed by the formula

p> = 0:0926 pi — 47°55

it oer) + AT-B5

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 219

where p, = collapsing pressure of normally round tube (in lbs. per sq. im.),

p, = collapsing pressure of distorted tube.

M = ratio of maximum to minimum diameter.

The utility of this formula is, however, somewhat doubtful, and
cannot in any case be taken as indicating the effect of initial deviations
from the true circular form, since p, is the experimentally determined
collapsing pressure of what is described as ‘ a normally round tube,’ which
in this case was merely a commercial tube of average quality.

It has since been proposed by Slocum!* that the rational formula
may be made applicable to the practical determination of the collapsing
pressure by introducing a correction factor, C, so that

12 QE /t \3
Uatcle eee ary

where ¢, is now the average thickness and d,,,, the maximum diameter.

The assumption that the strength varies as the cube of the ratio of the
average thickness to the maximum diameter is not entirely valid, but it
has been found that the above formula gives a fairly close approximation,
and that C is nearly constant for any one class of tubes. Its value has been
found for the following cases, the tubes in each instance being of average
quality :—

1. Lap-welded steel tubes = -69.

2. Solid-drawn weldless steel tubes = -76.

3. Solid-drawn brass tubes = -78.

The values of E and m are known for most materials, and the maxi-
mum diameter and average thickness are the dimensional quantities
most readily and conveniently obtainable for a given tube. It is, however,
somewhat doubtful whether variations from true geometrical form would
account altogether for the reduction of 25 per cent. to 30 per cent. indicated

above. Southwell considers that too wide a range of values of ; were

used in the comparison, and that in the thicker tubes the elastic limit of
the material was reached before the equilibrium became unstable, thus
producing a lower value of the collapsing pressure.*

Physical Properties of the Material.

It is evident, from statical considerations, that the whole of the
material composing a tube of circular form is in a state of compression in
a circumferential direction. The physical properties which it is natural to
suggest as determining the strength are Young’s modulus, the elastic limit,
and, for thick tubes, the ultimate strength, all in compression. The two
latter quantities are difficult to determine, and the ultimate strength, in
materials usually employed in tubes, is a somewhat indefinite quantity.
The value of Young’s modulus is known to be approximately the same in
compression and tension, and is easily determined. For thin, long tubes it
appears to be the only physical property influencing the resistance to
collapse. The custom of specifying, as in the case of boiler flues, the
ultimate tensile strength cannot therefore have any reference to the actual
collapsing pressure, but serves merely as a guarantee of the quality of the

* This question is fully discussed by Mr. Southwell in a paper which is to appear in
the Philosophical Magazine for September 1913.

220 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

material employed. The elastic limit im compression enters into the
problem when the thickness is considerable, and also when the length is
short. ‘The precise influence of the ultimate strength is not known, and
the uncertainty in regard to its value would render futile any attempt to
introduce it.

Tn conclusion, it may not be out of place to make a few general remarks
in regard to the practical side of the question. Few problems in engineer-
ing have given rise to a larger number or greater variety of formule, and
it is not surprising that in actual practice the design of tubes to withstand
external pressure is based upon previous experience obtained from failures
of tubes of the same material and dimensions rather than upon theory or
even systematic general experimental work. In the case of boiler flues,
the rules formulated by the Board of Trade * and Lloyds’ ** differ, but are
based upon the same tests carried out upon flues of the same form as those
to which they are intended to be applied, and are admittedly inapplicable
beyond the range of these tests. In these formule, which stipulate the
safe working pressure, and not the collapsing pressure, allowance is made
for effects such as corrosion, associated with the particular purpose for
which the tubes are used.

The case of long, thin, plain tubes, such as are employed for smoke tubes
in locomotive boilers, appears to be the only one for which it is possible
to propose a general and useful formula. The most convenient appears to
be that obtained by introducing into the rational formula a constant
depending only upon the material and mode of manufacture, and not on
the absolute size. It has been suggested by Slocum" that the most useful
purpose likely to be served by further experimental work is the determina-
tion of the factor for different kinds of tubes. This was proposed some
four years ago, but the difficulty and expense of systematic experimental
work of this character has limited the investigation to three classes of
tubes only.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1 Basset, A. B. 1892 On the Difficulties of Constructing a Theory of the
Collapse of Boiler Flues. ‘Phil. Mag.,’ 1892, vol.
200, p. 221.

2 Belpaire, T. 1879 Note on the Resistance of Tubes to External Pressure.

‘ Annales du Génie Civil,’ March 1879.

The formula

2 9 t? B
p = 3,427,15 ld 56,892,400.

is given as representing the results of Fairbairn’s tests.
3 Bridgman, P. W. 1912 The Collapse of Thick Cylinders under High Hydrostatic
Pressure. ‘ Physical Review,’ vol. xxxiv., No. 1.
Jan. 1912. ‘Sci. Abs.,’ 1912, No. 427.
4 Bryan, G. H. 1888 Application of Energy Test to Collapse of Long, Thin Pipe
under External Pressure. ‘ Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc.,’
vol. vi., p. 287. 1888.

Gives the derivation of rational formula
2E ii

5 Carman, A. P. 1906 Resistance of Tubes to Collapse. ‘ Physical Review,’
vol. 21, Dec. 1905, pp. 381-387. ‘Sci. Abs.,’ 1906,

No. 239.
Describes a series of tests on small brass tubes, diameters ranging from

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS, 22]

891 to 1-78 cm.; thickness from -041 to -135 cm. Length from 8 mm. to
210 mm. Results seemed to indicate that when length>6 diameters,
strength practically constant. Below that length, strength appeared to be
inversely proportional to length, though it is stated that experiments are not
sufficient to determine definitely the relation.
6 Carman, A. P., 1906 Resistance of Tubes to Collapse. ‘ Univ. of Ill. Bull.,’
and Carr, M. L. vol. 3, No. 17, June 1906. ‘Sci. Abs.,’ 1906, No. 1986.
Describes tests carried out on a number of lap-welded steel tubes, seam-
less cold-drawn steel tubes and brass tubes.
Following formule are given :—

(a) When ; less than -025

p— 25,150,000( 7) for brass tubes.
p= 50,200,000( 5) for seamless steel tubes.
(6) When ; > 0-03
p = 93,365 ; — 2,474 for brass tubes.
p = 95,520 ; — 2,090 for seamless cold-drawn steel.

p = 83,270 ; — 1,025 for lap-welded steel.

The last formula in each series agrees well with those obtained by Stewart.

7 Clark, D. K. Strength of Boiler Flues. ‘ Engineering,’ vol. 46, p. 280.
From reports of Manchester Steam Users’ Assoc. of six boiler-flues actually
collapsed, gives formula
50,000

p=t( ; — 500)

8 Fairbairn, W. 1858 Resistance of Tubes to Collapse. ‘ Phil. Trans.,’ 1858,
p. 389. ‘ Brit. Assoc. Report,’ 1857, p. 215.

Tests carried out on 32 wrought-iron tubes, lap-riveted, varying in
diameter from 4 to 12 inches and in length from 1 foot 3 inches to 5 feet.
Uniform thickness except in five cases, -043 inch. Results of tests repre-
sented by formula

= 9,675,600"
Real vane did
(p in lbs. square inch, ¢, 7, d in inches).
9 Grashof, F. 1859 W. Fairbairn’s ‘ Versuche tiber den Widerstand von

Rohren gegen Zusammendruckung.’ ‘Zeitschr. des
Vereines deutscher Ingenieure,’ 1859, p. 234. Tod-
hunter and Pearson, ‘ History of Elasticity,’ vol. ii.
p.1; i, p. 666.

From Fairbairn’s tests, deduces formule

p08 a
(a) p=1,033,620 posi qe fF thin tubes.
(b) p=24,481,000 © for thick tubes.
Ldtma

Also considers a tube of slightly elliptical cross-section, and, using a
method previously suggested by Bresse, obtains the formula

222 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

Where C, = compressive strength,
eé = ellipticity,
d = diameter of circular tube of same circumference as ellipse.
10 Lilly, W. E. 1910 The Collapsing Pressure of Circular Tubes. ‘ Proc. Inst.
Civ. Eng. of Ireland,’ Feb. 2, 1910.
The analogy of the problem of tube collapse to failure of columns is dis-
cussed, and a formula similar to the Rankine-Gordon formula is derived,

viz.
eee)
i) es
t nE t
where / = strength to compression, and 7 is a constant to be determined
experimentally.
The investigation is also extended to corrugated flues.
11 Lorenz, R. 1911 Buckling of Thin-walled Cylinders. ‘ Phys. Zeitschr.’ n.
12, pp. 241-260. April 1911. ‘Sci. Abs.,’ 1911,
No. 978.

12 Love, A. E. H. ‘ Mathematical Theory of Elasticity,’ p. 530.
The theoretical formula

p es 2H e
1—m d

is given, and it is shown that when the pressure exceeds this limit, any flue
will collapse if its length exceeds a certain multiple of the mean proportional
between the diameter and thickness.
13 Love, G. H. 1859 Sur la résistance des conduits intérieurs 4 fumée dans
les chaudiéres & vapeur. ‘Mémoires et Comptes
Rendus,’ 1859, pp. 471-500. Todhunter and Pearson,
* History of Elasticity,’ vol. ii., pt. 1, p. 667.
The formula

t? e t
p = 5,358,150 + 41,906— 1,323—
p= 5,3 ae + 41,90 7 + 1,3 q

is given as representing the results of Fairbairn’s experiments.
14 Nystrom, J. W. ‘ Treatise on Steam Engineering,’ p. 106
Derives the formula

t?
= 692,000 —_
iy [93q
as representing results of Fairbairn’s tests.
15 Roelker, C. R. 1881 Experimental Investigation of Resistance of Flues to
Collapse. ‘Van Nostrand’s Magazine,’ vol. 24, p.

208.
16 Slocum, 8. E. 1909 Collapse of Tubes under External Pressure. ‘ Engineer-
ing,’ Jan, 8, 1909, vol. 87, p. 35.
A discussion of Carman’s and Stewart’s experiments. Suggests that
discrepancy between theoretical formula and experimental results due
to imperfections in geometrical form. Proposes the introduction of a
‘correction factor’ C in the formula, thus :

—c _2E_ zy"
ae 1— m* (

Following values of C are given :
Lap-welded steel tubes C = -69.
Solid-drawn weldless steel tubes C = -76.
Solid-drawn brass tubes C = -78.

17 Southwell, R.V. 1913 On the General Theory of Elastic Stability. ‘Phil.
Trans,’ (A), vol. 213 (1913), pp. 187-244.
Discusses the boiler-flue problem as an example to illustrate a proposed

ee

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 223

ew niethod of rigorous investigation for stability problems in general, It
obtains the general formula
t Al d' 1 Kk — | all
p= 2H— | - : ope ae
P d | wae 1) 16 ny 3 l—m 4d |

where « = number of lobes in collapsed cross-section and i is proportional to

the length of the flue, the ratio depending on the terminal conditions. It is
shown that the above formula leads to a result differing from that of Prof.
Love (see No. 12) for the rate of decay of end effects. _

Southwell, R. V. 1913 On the Collapse of Tubes by External Pressure. ‘ Phil.
‘ Mag.,’ May 1913.
An attempt to meet the difficulties suggested by A. B. Basset. (See
No. 1.) An investigation of the strength of short tubes is also given leading
to the formula given in No. 17.

19 Stewart, R. T. 1905-6 Collapsing Pressures of Bessemer Steel Lap-welded
Tubes 3 to 10 inches in diameter. ‘Trans. Am. Soc.
Mech. Eng.,’ 1905-6, vol. 27, pp. 730-822.

Over 500 tests carried out on lap-welded steel tubes. It was found that
the length of tube between transverse joints tending to hold it to circular
form has practically no influence on collapsing pressure so long as length not
less than about six diameters.

The formula

p = 1,000 ¢ - f1- 1,600 7.)

for values of p less than 581 Ib. and values of | less than -023, and p

_
ow

= 86,670 5 — 1,386 for values of p and 5 greater than the above, are given.

It is also pointed out that the formula
3
p = 50,210,000 (4 )

represents very nearly the results of the tests on tubes in which © ig less

than -023. A series of curves is also given, showing the inapplicability of the
older formule of Fairbairn, Nystrom, Grashof, Unwin, Belpaire, Wehage,
Clark, &c., to modern tubes.
20 Stewart, R. T. 1907 Collapsing Pressures of Lap-welded Steel Tubes, ‘ Trans.
Amer. Soc. Mech. Eng.,’ 1907, vol. 29, pp. 123-130.
The effects of the distortion due to successive re-tests on the collapsing
pressures of 10-inch lap-welded steel tubes. The following formula is given :

— 47°55 ed
a 0-0926 7° — 0-874)!-# + 47-55

where p, = collapsing pressure of normally round tube,
p, = that of distorted tube,
M = ratio of max. to min, diameter.
21 Stewart, R. T. 1911 Stressesin Tubes. ‘ Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Eng.,’ 1911,
vol. 33, pp. 305-312.

An investigation showing that the stresses in the wall of a tube exposed
to an external fluid-pressure are of the same character as those in a column
having fixed ends.

22 Unwin, W.C. 1875 Resistance of Flues to Collapse. ‘ Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng.,
vol. 46, p. 225, 1875.

Showed, from shape of collapsed tube, that when length exceeded a

certain value, strength would become constant. Deduced the formula

from analogy to struts,

224 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCItENCE.—1915.

Where 7 = No. of arcs into which tube divides in collapsing.
= Young’s Modulus.
By comparison with Fairbairn’s experiments, proposed the formula
e
p = 115,000,000 je gms

provided that / is less than 6-7 d?

0%"

qo:'8

23 Westphal, M. 1909 Tubes under External Fluid Pressure. ‘ Zeitschr.

Vereines D. Ing.,’ 53, pp. 1188-1191, 1909. ‘Sci.
Abs.,’ 1909, No. 664.

24 Wilson, R.,and 1876 ‘ Engineering,’ vol. 21, 1876, pp. 392, 410, 441, 458,
others. 483, 512; vol. 22, pp. 9, 30, 36, 75.
A discussion of Fairbairn’s formula.

25 Board of Trade Rules for Survey of Passenger Steamships,1913. § 149, ‘ Circular
Furnaces.’

and greater than 4,469

26 Lloyd’s Rules for Survey and Construction of Engines and Boilers of Steam
Vessels. Section 16; ‘ Circular Furnaces.’

The Lake Villages in the Neighbourhood of Glastonbury.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Dr. R. Munro (Chairman),
Professor W. Boyp Dawkins (Secretary), Professor W.
Ripceway, Sir ArTHUR J. Evans, Sir C. Hercuues Reap,
Mr. H. Baurour, and Mr. A. BULLEID, appointed to investi-
gate the Lake Villages in the Neighbourhood of Glastonbury
im connection with a Committee of the Somersetshire Archeo-
logical and Natural History Society. (Drawn up by Mr. .
ARTHUR BULLEID and Mr. H. St. Georce Gray, the Directors
of the Excavations.)

Tue fourth season’s exploration of the Meare Lake Village by the
Somersetshire Archzological and Natural History Society began on
May 15, 1913, and was continued until June 7. The ground excavated
was situated in the same field and was continuous with the work of
1910 and 1912. The digging included the examination of Mounds III.
and IV., the S. quarter of Mound V., the N.E. part of Mound XIII.
(remaining from last year’s exploration), and portions of Mounds XV.,
XVII., and XVIII.

Structurally the excavations proved to be of considerable interest
and the number and importance of the relics discovered this season
were greater than those of the previous year.

With reference to the construction of the mounds the attention of
the directors was centred in the examination of Mound XIII., which
revealed many features of exceptional interest. This mound consisted
of four clay floors having a total thickness of 6 ft. 8 in. The lower-
most floor was subdivided into a number of thin layers of clay of
various colours, each having a baked clay or stoned hearth in the.

THE LAKE VILLAGES IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF GLASTONBURY, 225

centre. In all there were fourteen superimposed hearths. The hearths
belonging to Floors i., ii., and iil. were not superimposed, and were
situated several feet to the N.E. of those belonging to Floor iv.

The: substructure underlying the clay was of an average depth of
two feet in thickness, consisting of timber and brushwood, amongst
which were several well-preserved wattled hurdles, pieces of worked
wood, mortised beams, and squared planks of oak. The largest plank of
split oak measured 18 in. in width. Near the N.W. margin of
Hearths xi. and xil., belonging to Floor iv., two superimposed planks
of oak of nearly similar shape and size were discovered, separated by
a layer of clay 2 in. in thickness. Each plank was perforated with
three circular holes arranged in line, the holes of the upper plank
being placed immediately over the corresponding perforations of the
lower. Hach pair of holes was filled by a pile driven vertically into
the substructure below. The corresponding edge in both planks was
cut semicircularly, resembling somewhat the arms of a settle.

Among other points of interest may be mentioned the central post
of the dwelling erected over Floor iv., which was situated near the
E. margin of the hearths, and a large area of lias stone discovered near
the N. margin of the mound having the appearance of a landing-place.
Near the 8. W. margin of the lias stone was a silty layer of clay con-
taining water-worn pebbles, grit, and a number of flint flakes. This
layer was at the level of Floor iv.

The structural details of Dwelling-mounds III. and IV. were of
less importance. The substructure, however, was noteworthy on
account of the absence of timber. Besides a little brushwood the
foundation had been increased by a layer of cut peat placed on the sur-
face of the bog. It was noticed that the substructure under the N.E.
half of Mound XIII. had been covered with a thick layer of peat,
amongst which were patches of compressed bracken and rush.

Small portions of Mounds XV., XVII., and XVIII., adjoining
Mound XIII., were examined, but a description of the structural
details discovered is reserved, and will be incorporated in a future
report when these dwellings have’ been fully explored.

The following is a summary of the objects found this year :—

Bone.—Two socketed tools with rivet-holes; a needle; an awl; two
tibiee of horse, sawn and perforated; pieces of cut rib-bone, one having
two perforations; parts of four worked scapule (similar to several
others previously found); several perforated tarsal bones of sheep or
goat (? bobbins). Fifteen tarsal and carpal bones of sheep, not worked,
were found laid out in rows in Mound XIII. in black earth belonging
to Floor iv.—evidently a collection made for the purpose of converting
them into tools.

Antler.—Hight weaving-combs, some incomplete, some ornamented ;
two ‘ cheek-pieces’ for horse harness; roe-deer antler knife-handle ;
several cut pieces of red and roe deer antler.

Beads.—Finely preserved amber bead (the second found at Meare) ;
two glass beads (one with spirals); and a baked clay bead.

Bronze.—Pair of tweezers; two finger-rings; flat ring; rivets; and
a cm fragmentary objects. Also a solid bronze figure, perhaps

13. Q

226 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

intended to represent a boar with long ears—unfortunately the facial
portion has been broken, but it is seen that there was a perforation
through the forehead. Along the back there is a groove in which a
thin bronze crest was inserted, traces of which remain. In length the
figure is about 24 in.; height over fore-legs about 14 in. It is similar
in character to the series of bronze figures—three boars and two
nondescript animals—found at Hounslow,’ and another boar found at
Guilden Morden, Cambs.

Crucibles.—Two fragments.

Lead and Tin.—TIwo lumps of lead ore, and a flat, wide ring,
perhaps containing a large percentage of tin.

Iron.—The iron objects for the greater part are much corroded and
included a fragmentary ring encased in thin bronze, part of a file, a
punch or narrow chisel, and a large pointed bar, of square section,
which may have been an earth-anvil.

Kimmeridge Shale.—An earring; part of a vessel, or cup; a knife-
cut armlet (split); and parts of lathe-turned armlets.

Pottery.—Mound XIII. produced a large amount of pottery, the
thicker and ruder wares being found chiefly in the substructure. The
proportion of ornamented pottery was again large, but there is a great
amount of restoration work to do before the designs can be fully
described. One ornamented bowl was revealed in six pieces, which,
when joined, will make the vessel practically complete. The greater
part of a plain pot was discovered on the fourth floor of Mound XIII.
Ornamented bases of pots were also found this season.

Flint.—Chipped and polished celt, of Neolithic type, length 43 in.
(the second stone axe from Meare); an arrowhead and part of another;
a hammerstone; a dozen scrapers; two cores; and a large number of
flakes, some of which were burnt. Of the flint flakes, 154 were col-
lected from Mound XIII. and 16 from Mound III.

Sling-stones.—Two hundred and seventeen were collected this
season, including 89 from Mound III. and 75 from Mound XIII.
Thirteen baked clay sling-bullets and four unbaked ones were also
found. Ninety-one whetstones were collected, including 57 from
Mound XIII. .

Querns.—Several quern fragments were found, but only one com-
plete saddle quern.

Spindle-whorls.—Seven specimens, all of stone, were found this
year in various stages of manufacture.

Human Remains.—Humerus found in the fourth floor of
Mound XIII.

Animal Remains.—Plentiful, including several bird-bones. In the
foundation of Mound XIII. a skeleton of roach (Leuciscus rutilus) was
uncovered.

1 Proc. Soc. Antig., 2nd ser., iii., 90; Harly Iron Age Guide, Brit. Mus., 1905,
p. 135,

ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES, 227

The Age of Stone Circles.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Sir C. Hercuntes Reap (Chairman), Mr. H. Batrour
(Secretary), Dr. G. A. AUDEN, Professor W. RipcEeway, Dr.
J. G. Garson, Sir A. J. Evans, Dr. R. Munro, Professor
Boyp Dawkins, and Mr. A. L.. LEwis, appointed to conduct
Explorations with the object of ascertaining the Age of Stone
Circles. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Owrna to the smallness of the balance in hand, which only amounted
to two guineas, it has not been possible to carry out any work at
Avebury during the present year. It was hoped that this sum might
be available for re-levelling the inequalities in the ground caused by
shrinkage of soil disturbed during previous excavations; but as the
levelling will have to be done under skilled supervision, the small
amount would only suffice if a responsible person were on the spot,
and as there was no grant for excavation work there was no suitable
expert available. As soon as excavation work can be resumed at
Avebury the levelling and repairs can be conducted concurrently with
the more important operations and at trifling expense. In view of
the scientific results already obtained from the excavations in former
years, and as a means of adding to their value in determining the
period to which the Avebury stone circle should be assigned, it is
most important that fresh explorations should be made in another
portion of the earthwork. It is especially desirable that a portion of
the fosse to the east of the causeway leading from Kennet Avenue
should be excavated down to its original bottom. This is on the
opposite side of the causeway to the site of the previous excava-
tions. This important piece of work should either confirm or correct
the impressions derived from the sections cut through the fosse on
former occasions, and may be expected to lead to definite results pro-
vided that a sufficiently large area can be explored. With this object
in view, the Committee apply for re-election and for a grant of 50l.,
together with the small balance in hand, which would still be allotted
to the repairing of damage caused by previous excavations. The
Committee also wish to apply for leave to invite subscriptions from
other sources, in order to acquire a sum sufficient for moderately
extensive investigation. Owing to the great depth of the silting in
the fosse, the cost of excavation is relatively high, and the grant
applied for would by itself only be sufficient for a very limited explora-
tion of the fosse; but if the grant is allotted, a further sum will be
available from private sources, enabling the work to be conducted on
@ more substantial scale, with every prospect of valuable results. It
18 important that excavations should be renewed at Avebury next
spring if possible, and not be delayed for another year, as there would
be a better chance of enlisting the services of labourers who have
already been employed in this work and have learned something of
the requirements.

The Committee desire to express their deep regret at the death
of Lord Avebury, who had not only served upon the Committee for
several years, but had also freely given permission for excavations

Q2

228 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

to be made in those portions of Avebury stone circle and earthworks
which were his own property. He was deeply interested in the work,
and was anxious that it should be carried out in a thorough manner,
so as to yield results which might solve finally the problem of the
age of this splendid monument.

The Production of Certified Copies of Hausa Manuscripts.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. KE. 8. HARTLAND
(Chairman), Professor J. Li. Myres (Secretary), Mr. W.
CRooKE, and Major A. J. N. TREMEARNE.

Arter careful consideration of the question in all its bearings the
Committee decided to accept the proposal of Messrs. Bale, Sons, &
Danielsson, Limited, to print the Hausa manuscript tales, collected
by Major Tremearne, as a companion volume to that already in pre-
paration for him, and to provide twenty copies for the purposes of
the Committee, in consideration of a grant of 201. towards the expense
of printing. Major Tremearne has undertaken to certify the accuracy
of these twenty copies, after comparison with his manuscript, and
to adopt an approved system of transliteration in preparing the tales
for the press. The printing is already in hand, and the volume of
tales should be ready for publication early in the autumn of 1913.

Artificial Islands in the Lochs of the Highlands of Scotland.—
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. R. Munro
(Chairman), Mr. A. J. B. Wack (Secretary), and Professors
W. Boyp Dawxins, J. L. Myrss, and W. Ripceway, on the
distribution thereof.

THE Committee have received the following report from Dom Odo
Blundell, of Fort Augustus, in continuation of the two previous reports
of the Committee. Much fresh information has been collected, and
a grant has been made by the Carnegie Trust to Dr. Munro for the
excavation of the island in Loch Kinellan, which it is hoped to under-
take at the first opportunity. In view of the proposed excavation,
the Committee ask to be reappointed with the balance of last year’s
grant and a fresh grant of 101.

APPENDIX.
Report from Dom Ovo Buunpetu, O.S.B.

Since the report of last year several islands have been visited,
and an application has been made for means to excavate the
island in Loch Kinellan. By request of the shooting tenant, no work
was to be done in this island till after the end of June, so that up
to the date of writing it has not been possible to investigate this
example further.

Loch Tay.—Mr. Hugh Mitchell has continued his examination of
the examples in this loch, which he thus summarises in a recent letter ;

ARTIFICIAL ISLANDS IN LOCHS OF HIGHLANDS OF SCOTLAND. 229

‘The artificial islands in Loch Tay, so far as I can ascertain, are
as follows :—

‘1. The Priory Island, or ‘‘ Y,’’ of Loch Tay.

‘9. Cuigeal Mairi, or Mary’s Distaff, about 200 yards west from
the Priory Island, which is submerged when the loch is at its normal
height, but it is marked with a pole.

‘3. Island in Fernan Bay, which can be seen at low water, and
which is marked by a pole to prevent the steamer or boats striking it.

‘4, Hilean nan Brebean, which is quite complete, is in the bay
east of Morenish. It is almost wholly formed of stones of from
10 Ib. to 40 lb. in weight.

‘5. In Finlarig Bay, to the west of Killin Pier. This island is
marked by a tree.

‘6. There is also a small island in good preservation on the west
side of Acharn Bay. It has no name.’

Loch Achnacloich.—At the invitation of Major Cuthbert, Factor
for Mr. Perrins, of Ardross Castle, I visited this loch on February 25.
Major Cuthbert was absent for the day, but his senior clerk, Mr.
Macdonald, motored me to the loch, about two miles distant. We
easily found the cairn at the east end of the loch and about 80 yards
distant from the shore. The top was covered by a few inches of water,
but we could see that it exactly resembled the islands in Loch Moy
and Loch Garry, which have been fully described elsewhere during
‘the present survey. At the outer edge of the rubble building the
depth of the water was from 8 to 10 feet, and the diameter of what
may be judged to have been the top of the island is about 50 feet.
With the boat-hook we could feel the wood that formed the founda-
tion of the island, and could bring up chips from the logs, but did
not succeed in dislodging one of these. The chips of wood showed
that the logs were of oak.

Loch Lomond.—Mr. Walter Macdermott, who has forty years’
experience of fishing on the loch, of which he knows every bay and
inlet, stated that there is a large cairn of stones in the loch just south
of Doune and another opposite Rowchoish—the one investigated by
Mr. Robertson, Inversnaid. The Mill Cairn, in Ross Bay, he is sure
is artificial. On the west side of the loch Mr. Macdermott mentions
a large cairn in Luss Bay, just north of the pier, and another between
the two points of Straddan Bay, with a third just south of this last.
Mr. Henry Lamont, Secretary of the Loch Lomond Fishing Associa-
tion, confirms all the above suggestions, and repeated his assurance
that Insh Galbraith would be found to be artificial. Mr. Macdermott
suggested further examples, such as the cairn in Rossdhu Bay, and
another south of this and midway between Auchintullich House and
the burn. He agrees with Mr. Lynn in suggesting the cairn opposite
Auchinheglish, and also the one opposite Cameron Point; while he
well remembers the occasion when Dr. Robert Munro and Mr. David
MacRitchie examined the island opposite Strathcashel Point. Dr.
Munro, the author of several well-known works on artificial islands
and the greatest living authority on the subject, informs me that it

230 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

was in 1901 that he visited this island. As the water was low at
the time, they were able to stand on the woodwork of which the island
is partly composed. It then measured about 15 feet by 20 feet, and
is distant 25 yards from the shore.

Another resident in the Loch Lomond district, Mr. MacGregor,
farmer, Garabel, reported seeing a large cairn of stones or small island
at the mouth of the River Falloch on the north or Ardleish side. This
he hoped to investigate more fully during the coming summer. From
the above information there is every reason to hope that this loch
will prove of great interest, for even if some of the islands suggested
prove to be natural, the fact that one has already been certified as
artificial by so competent observers as Dr. Munro and Mr. MacRitchie
leads one to suspect that others will be in the same category.

AppitTionaL Norte.
By Mr. Huan Monro, C.H., Kilmarnock.

Description of a supposed Artificial Island in a small Loch near
Loch Ranza, Arran,

The loch with the island is situated about a mile up the valley
from Loch Ranza Pier and about 500 yards to the south of the public
road. It lies at the base of a steep hill, and a small burn flows from
the north-west end to the river. The bottom of the loch is gravelly,
and it does not appear to be of great depth. The island lies towards
the north shore, and is probably 40 feet long by 10 feet wide, and
covered with bushes (a species of willow). In one place there was
an almost continuous line of peaty matter from the island to the shore,
and I reached the island by laying ladders on this peat, which was
otherwise too soft to bear my weight. The island had a thick growth
of grass, and felt quite solid underfoot. Deer had formed a path around
it, and I learned afterwards that in dry summers children could wade
to it. I had no implements for digging, and so could not examine the
structure of the place, but quite close to the solid part I could push
a pole six or eight feet through soft mud. There is no evidence to
show that the island is artificial; my reason for supposing it to be so
is that the island appeared out of place in the geological configuration
of the neighbourhood of the loch.

The Organisation of Anthropometric Investigation in the British
Isles.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A.
THOMSON (Chairman), Dr. F. C. SHRUBSALL (Secretary), Dr.
G. A. AupEN, Dr. DuckwortH, Professor A. KEITH, and
Professor G. ELLIoT SMITH.

Tue Committee fully considered the lines of possible future work, and
concluded that the most useful and pressing subject would be the corre-
lation and co-ordination of the records of physique now being accumu-
lated by the medical officers of the various education authorities. This
subject would, however, require a large part of the time of anyone who

ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 231

undertook to be Secretary of the Committee, if, indeed, it did not demand
his undivided attention. It would be difficult to find anyone who
could spare the time and energy devoted to this Committee by the late
Secretary, Mr. J. Gray. The Committee have therefore reluctantly
come to the conclusion that they could not undertake the task, but
recommend that if any suitable investigator becomes available the Section
should consider favourably the formation of a new Committee to render
assistance to the project. The work of the former Anthropometric
Committee of the Association has become so well known that it would
materially aid any future inquiry to be conducted under the egis of the
Association.

Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor Ripazway (Chairman), Pro-
fessor R. C. Bosanquet (Secretary), Dr. T. AsHBy, Mr.
WILLOUGHBY GARDNER, and Professor J. Lu. Myrss, ap-
pointed to co-operate with Local Committees in Excavations
on Roman Sites in Britain.

Tuis Committee was reappointed in September 1912, to co-operate
with the Abergele Antiquarian Association in the exploration of the
hill-fort in Parc-y-meirch Wood, Kinmel Park, Denbighshire.

In recent years several hill-forts in North Wales have been investi-
gated: (1) Tre’r Ceiri in Carnarvonshire, where sixty-four huts were
excavated in 1903 and 1906 by the Cambrian Archeological Associa-
tion. (2) Pen-y-gaer, near Llanbedr-y-cenin, Carnarvonshire, ex-
amined by the Nant Conwy Antiquarian Society in 1905. (3) Pen-
y-corddyn Mawr, near Llanddulas, Denbighshire, examined by the
Abergele Antiquarian Association in 1905-9. (4) Braich-y-ddinas on
Penmaenmawr Mountain, Carnarvonshire, where a survey, accom-
panied by excavation, is being made for the Cambrian Archeological
Association.

Reports on (1), (2), and (4), by Mr. Harold Hughes and others, and
on (2) and (3) by Mr. Willoughby Gardner, have appeared in ‘ Archeo-
-logia Cambrensis,’? and have furnished data for comparing the methods
of construction used in these forts and determining the periods during
which they were occupied. The fact which directly concerns this
Committee is that three of them yielded Roman pottery: Tre’r Ceiri
and Braich-y-ddinas, which are village-sites with numerous hut-circles,
producing much more than Pen-y-corddyn, which was rather a refuge
fort, bearing marks of hasty construction and demolition.

Similar evidence of occupation in Roman times was recorded in
1850 by Mr. W. Wynne Foulkes for three of the native forts which
crown the heights of the Clwyd range on the borders of Flint and

* Sixth Series. (1) Tre’r Ceiri, iv. 1 and vii. 38. (2) Pen-y-gaer, vi. 241.
(3) Pen-y-corddyn, x. 79 (4) Braich-y-ddinas, xii. 169 and xiii. 353. The
work at Tre’r Ceiri was done by the Rev. S. Baring Gould and Mr. R. Burnard
in 1903, by Professor Boyd Dawkins, Col. L. W. Morgan, and Mr. Harold
Hughes in 1906.

232 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

Denbigh. The inference drawn at that time was that these sites had
been occupied ‘ by the Romans.’ It has become increasingly plain in
recent years that ‘Roman’ pottery, both Continental ‘ Samian’ and
coarser home-made wares, was used by the natives throughout the
province of Britain, and in some cases also outside its limits; and, as
much of this pottery can be dated, it may be expected to furnish a
useful index of the distribution of the native population at various
stages of the Roman occupation. The excavations carried out in
recent years by Mr. H. Neil Baynes at Din Lligwy, on the north-east
coast of Anglesey, furnish an admirable example of the amount of
information as to native culture under Roman influence which may be
recovered from a fortified village-site.?

From this point of view, the fort of Parc-y-meirch presents a most
promising field of inquiry. The excavation begun in 1912 by the
Abergele Antiquarian Association was originally suggested by the
Cambrian Archeological Association, through its President, Professor
Boyd Dawkins, and has received generous support both from the
national society and from subscribers in the district. But the excep-
tional size of the fortifications—the main rampart rises fifty feet ver-
tically above the bottom of its encircling ditch—and the complexity of
the stratification, due to more than one destruction and rebuilding,
make it a very costly site to dig. The grant of 15]. allotted to this
Committee has been spent in wages, supplementing the funds raised
from other sources, and has made possible a more extended examina-
tion of the ditches and gates. The work has been superintended by
Mr. Willoughby Gardner, whose account of this season’s work is
printed as an appendix to this report. A full record has been made
in the form of plans, sections, and photographs. Professor Arthur
Keith has kindly undertaken to describe the human remains found
at more than one point in the rock-cut ditch.

The Committee asks to be reappointed and applies for a renewal
of its grant.

APPENDIX TO COMMITTEER’S REPORT.

Further Excavations in the Ancient Hill Fort in Parc-y-meirch Wood,
Kinmel Park, Abegele, North Wales, during 19138. By
WituoucHsy Garpner, F.L.S.

At the Dundee Meeting last September an account was given of some
excavations made, by kind permission of the owner, Colonel Hughes,
in this native hill fort by the Abergele Antiquarian Society and the
Cambrian Archeological Association, as printed in abstract in the
‘Report of the British Association,’ 1912, pages 611-12. This year
further work has been done by the same societies during six weeks
upon this extensive site, by help of ten labourers and several amateur
assistants, and aided by Colonel Hughes in very many material ways.
Indeed, exploration of this wooded hill would have been impossible had
not Colonel Hughes most generously allowed trees to be cut down
whenever necessary and himself lent tackle forthe work. This

2 Arch. Camb., VI., viii. 183.

ON EXCAVATIONS ON ROMAN SITES IN BRITAIN. 233

season’s excavation work has been much stimulated by the invaluable
co-operation of one of the Research Committees of Section H of the
British Association, as well as helped bya grant of 151. from the same
source. Professor R. C. Bosanquet, the Secretary of this Committee,
spent five days with us upon the site.

Attention was first directed to the interior area at the north end,
and to the artificial defences and an entrance near that end; subse-
quently the defences to the south and south-east were investigated,
and finally further examination was made of the south-east entrance.
Last year evidence was obtained of three occupations of the hill fort
in a section of three superincumbent roadways in this entrance. It
was shown by relics unearthed upon the topmost roadway that the
latest of these occupations was during the fourth century a.p. Many
similar relics (of which photographs were exhibited) were found
also in the interior area of the stronghold, proving that portions of the
hilltop at any rate were inhabited by a primitive-living native resident
population at that time.

During the present summer excavations have revealed relics, in
the form of pottery, coins, &c., belonging to the same period at the
northern end of the hill fort and elsewhere. It was thought at first
that the fourth-century occupation of the hill-top might have been
partial only, but identical remains have now been found within the
stronghold at the south-east, the south, the south-west, and the
north, proving an occupation of practically the entire site by a large
number of people, who, besides possessing implements and utensils
of home manufacture, used Roman pottery and a Roman currency.
All these fourth-century relics were found very near to the present
surface, being covered by one to one and a half feet only of vegetable
humus.

Last year a plan showed the fourth-century roadway in the south-
east entrance as far as excavated. It was a passage with roughly
built side walls in dry masonry, thirty-eight feet long, cut through
wide-spreading ruins; it has since been found that it was closed by
four gates set up at intervals within its course, of which the
holes for the wooden gate-posts, and some charred wood fragments
found in a few of them alone survive. Photographs exhibited showed
that portions of the side walls of this passage were built upon previous
ruins. Further excavations this season have revealed two guardhouses
here, one on each side within the entrance; these also are constructed
amid ruins, their sites being dug out of the fallen débris of earlier
guardhouses.

Work during 1912 showed that the inner ditch at the south side
of the stronghold was filled with the ruin of a wall which previously
stood on the rampart above. This year’s investigations have shown
that apparently the whole length of this ditch was so filled as well as
a similar one at the north end. Cuttings were made across the second
ditch on the south-east, south, and south-west sides, and it also was
found to be more or less filled with stony débris in the neighbourhood
of the entrance and on the south-west side. It was further discovered
this year that sometimes the first and sometimes the second of these

234 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

ditches had been in part re-excavated at a later date. This was appa-
rently the work of the fourfh-century inhabitants of the stronghold.

The accumulated results of the two seasons’ work now show that
during the fourth century, or earlier, the natives of the district re-
occupied the hill fort after its previous destruction at some unknown
time; that they entrenched themselves behind ramparts roughly
constructed upon ruins and defended by shallow ditches re-excavated
in deeper ones previously filled up; and that they cut a fresh entrance
to the south-east through the débris of an older one.

A closer date for this return to the hill-top is apparently obtained by
further finds, made this year, of Roman ‘ third ’ and ‘ small brass ’ coins.
The total number found during the two seasons amounts to thirty-seven
from sixteen different sites; they are as follows:—One Trajan, very
worn; one Julia Mamaea, worn; four Gallienus, more or less worn;
one Claudius Gothicus, fair condition; three Tetricus, cut and worn;
two Carausius, in good condition; one Crispus, corroded; four Con-
stantinus Magnus (minted about a.p. 335), in fine condition; one
Constantinus II., in fine condition; one Constantius II., in good con-
dition; ten Constans, in corroded to fine condition; three Magnentius,
in corroded to good condition; one Valens, in good condition; one
Gratianus, in good condition; one illegible. It is to be noted that
though careful watch was kept for the ‘ minimi’ of the fifth century,
none were discovered. Most of the coins found were struck in
Gaul; the majority were minted a.p. 835 to a.p. 353, and the latest
about a.p. 380. On the numismatic evidence therefore this would
seem to point to a reoccupation of the site somewhere about a.p. 340,
and either to a final abandonment, or else to a cutting off of traffic with
the Roman world, soon after a.p. 380. It is suggested that the return
of the natives to the ruined fort on the hill-top may have been caused by
raids of Trish or other sea pirates who boldly infested the coast after the
withdrawal of the Roman troops from this district some time prior to
A.D. 340.

But, as has been previously pointed out, the above is a mere
episode in the story of this hill fort, which is of far earlier origin.
This summer’s excavations have thrown further light upon its earlier
constructions. The plan of the more ancient entrance at the south-
east, also found to have two guardhouses, has been in part recovered
from the ruins. This entrance had a good gravelled roadway and side
walls in dry masonry better built than those of the later superin-
cumbent entrance; it had apparently post-holes for a single gate only.
In many ways it resembles one of the three entrances excavated by the
Abergele Antiquarian Association some years ago in the ancient hill-
fortress on Pen-y-corddyn, three miles distant.

Eighteen cuttings made at various points in front of the ramparts
have revealed the courses of ditches for the most part previously hidden
from sight by débris. At the north end there was a single ditch across
the spur of the hill below the main rampart, and this ditch was con-
tinued along the north-east side. It was V-shaped, and was cut, from
five to seven feet deep, and from seven to nine feet wide across its
top, out of solid rock. Opposite to a point where an entrance had

ON EXCAVATIONS ON ROMAN SITES IN BRITAIN. 235

been previously located at the north-east of the hill fort, this ditch
was found to curve slightly inwards, shallowing to less than two feet; a
similar ditch further on was found to curve slightly outwards, without
shallowing, so as to form an overlap on either side of the rock cause-
way which leads up to the entrance. This ditch was found to be
filled to the brim with limestone rubble and wall facing stones from
the ramparts above. That these stones had not fallen merely from
the natural decay of the wall, but rather that the ramparts had been
deliberately thrown down into the ditch, was shown by the rubble being
frequently clean and free from soil throughout. And that this throw-
ing down took place not long after the ditch was cut was made plain
by the fact of there being practically no silting upon the solid rock
below the stones. At the south side of the hill-fort this year’s
excavations showed three more or less parallel ditches across
the level neck of land below the great main rampart; the inner
one was V-shaped and the others nearly so. The dimensions of the
inner one approximated to that of the ditch at the north end, but the
outer ones were generally wider and sometimes deeper. Here also
the inner ditch was found to be filled with the ruins of a dry masonry
wall which formerly existed upon the top of the main rampart. The
stones and rubble showed similar features to those described at the
north end, again proving that the wall had not merely fallen from
decay, but had been deliberately thrown down into the ditch not long
after the latter was cut. At the south-east side only two parallel
ditches were found on excavation, the first entirely, and the second
at the end near the entrance, being filled with débris in a similar way.

The ramparts also showed marks of destructionin many places. All
along the main south rampart the whole of the wall just mentioned was
thrown down the slope with the exception of a few foundation stones
here and there. To the south-west not only the wall at the top, but the
entire rampart, had been deliberately destroyed—shovelled down the
slopes into the ditches below. At the north end the facing wall of
the rampart had been removed to its foundation stones. At well-nigh
every point where investigations have hitherto been made—in the south-
east entrance, in the ramparts, in the ditches to the north, the north-
east, the south-east, the south, and the south-west—destruction 13
everywhere apparent; and, further, there are traces of a great con-
flagration at some early period in the large quantities of burned
limestone found in several places, e.g., below the floors and walls of
the guard-chambers in the south-east entrance. A few human remains
and some fragments of Roman pottery have been found deep in the
ditches and upon the second road in the south-east entrance; but relics
hitherto unearthed in definite strata of the ruins of the earlier forti-
fications are disappointingly few, and do not include anything that has
yet been accurately dated.

Up to the present, therefore, no certain evidence of the time of
this destruction of the hill fort is forthcoming, except that it was
during an early period of its existence. But it is difficult to conceive
of its having been the result either of local tribal warfare or of piratical
raids, and itis suggested that it shows the work of the Roman armies,

236 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

perhaps during one of their expeditions into the district in the first
century A.D.

The section of the three roadways in the south-east entrance, of
which a photograph was shown last year, pointed to three occupations
of the hill fort—the fourth century one and two of earlier date.
This year’s investigations afford similar evidence from other directions,
but it is not yet possible to apportion the superincumbent roadways
found to the various constructions and destructions of entrances, of
ramparts, and of ditches that have since been unearthed ; in particular,
a massive wall which suggests a still earlier entrance than that con-
taining the three superincumbent roadways has been brought to light,
eighteen feet to the east of the latter. It is hoped that this apportion-
ment may be accomplished by future excavations.

Although this year’s work has advanced our knowledge of this
extensive site by several steps, the explorers feel that they are only
on the threshold of an investigation which promises much information
about a dark period in the early history of Wales.

Prehistoric Site at Bishop’s Stortford.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor W. RipGeway (Chairman), Dr.
W. L. H. DuckwortH (Secretary), Professor W. Boyp
Dawkins, Dr. A. C. Happon, and Dr. W. H. Marerr Tims,

appointed to co-operate with a Local Committee in the excava-
tion thereon.

On Wednesday, May 7, Dr. Haddon and the Secretary visited Bishop’s
Stortford at the invitation of the Rey. Dr. Irving, B.A., and with him
they made an inspection of the site on which the ‘ fossil horse’ was
found about three and a half years ago.
The site is at the western side of a meadow about half a mile west
of the town and at a considerable height above the Stort valley. The
actual excavation in which the skeleton was found is now a lily-pond.
A wire fence separates the meadow from the property occupied by Dr.
Dockray. A small trial trench in the meadow below the pond was
found to be filled with water. On the actual site there is at present
no exposure, trench, or section of any kind, further than that furnished
by the lily-pond itself, so that Dr. Haddon and the Secretary can give
only a bare statement of its position as described to them, and for
details must refer to reports already published. It would appear that
Dr. Dockray may possibly become interested in the meadow adjoining
his land, and in that event he may carry out extensive levelling or
scarping. Should this surmise be realised, the interest of the skeleton
already found calls for the maintenance of as close an inspection as
possible. ;
While regretting that there is little to report to the Committee in
connection with the special object with which it was originally
appointed, beyond what was reported by Dr. Irving in 1911 at the
Portsmouth Meeting, Dr. Haddon and the Secretary desire to express

PREHISTORIC SITE AT BISHOP'S STORTFORD. 237
their appreciation of Dr. Irving’s efforts to elucidate the difficult local
problems in geology and archeology, and to record their satisfaction
with the valuable work he has accomplished and continues to carry
out in keeping definite records of local discoveries. Dr. Irving’s
publications will show the nature and scope of his activities, but in
this Report it is advisable to mention that he gave a general demonstra-
tion (of the local geological conditions) to Dr. Haddon and the Secre-
tary. In particular the gravel pit known as Frere’s pit was visited,
and after the main exposure had been viewed, attention was directed
to a trench in the Boulder-clay (above the gravel) in which prehistoric
sherds and other objects were found in 1912 by Dr. Irving and his
sons. A visit was paid subsequently to Gilbey’s gravel pit, and the
remarkable fact was demonstrated that the Boulder-clay so conspicuous
in Frere’s pit is absent from Gilbey’s, though the two are at most
some two hundred yards apart, a ‘ river-drift ’ deposit occupying the
horizon of the Boulder-clay. Dr. Haddon and the Secretary were thus
enabled to gain a good idea of two typical exposures of the locality.

In terminating this report Dr. Haddon and the Secretary have to
express their opinion that under the present circumstances it does not -
appear to them necessary that the special committee to investigate
the prehistoric site at Bishop’s Stortford should be reappointed.

Pal@olithic Sites in the West of England.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor W. Boyp Dawkins (Chaitr-
man), Dr. W. L. H. DuckwortaH (Secretary), and Professor
A. KEITH, appointed to report thereon.

THE members of the Committee visited various caves in the West of
England during the early part of the present year (1913).

Inasmuch as they have not been able to meet for the purpose of
combining the results of their observations, the members of the Com-
mittee ask to be reappointed without a grant.

Anesthetics.—Fifth Interim Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Dr. A. D. Water (Chairman), Sir FREDERIC HEWITT
(Secretary), Dr. Buumrenp, Mr. J. A. GARDNER, and Dr.
G. A. BucKMASTER, appointed to acquire further knowledge,
Clinical and Experimental, concerning Anesthetics—espe-
cially Chloroform, Ether, and Alcohol—with special refer-
ence to Deaths by or during Anesthesia, and their possible
diminution.

Durie the past year we have acquired further experience of the use
of the chloroform-balance in the hospital and in the laboratory. Our
opinion has been confirmed that this apparatus affords the safest pos-
sible and the most convenient fixed means of inducing and maintaining

938 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

anesthesia upon man and animals. As a laboratory fixture, so far
from requiring a greater expenditure of time and attention, its routine
use has proved to be economical in both these respects; the smaller
animals, such as dogs, cats, rabbits, and mice, are most conveniently
prepared and kept ready for operation in a bell-jar or other confined
space by means of a continuous stream of chloroform and air at per-
centages rising from 0 to 2 per cent., and subsequently falling from
1 to 0.5 per cent.

Our attention has been directed to the action of local anzesthetics—
cocaine, stovaine, ‘ novocaine,’ ‘ eucaine,’ &c., and we have undertaken
observations of their relative toxicities as measured by their effects
upon isolated tissues. But upon the present occasion we desire to
lay particular stress upon the practical dangers involved in the use of
these powerful poisons by unqualified persons, more especially in con-
nection with cheap dentistry.

This matter has been closely investigated by our Honorary Secre-
tary, Sir Frederic Hewitt, and we consider that the facts brought to
light in that investigation are of such gravity as to require the most
serious consideration of the British Association. The detailed report
of Sir F. Hewitt and a formal resolution arising out of that report have
been discussed at length in Section I, and the unanimous opinion of
the Section, after listening to the opinions expressed by several inde-
pendent authorities—Professor Barling, Dr. Saundby, Dr. McCardie,
Dr. George Foy, Mr. Vernon Harcourt, Mr. Leonard Hill, Mr.
Joscelyne, and Mr. Pearce—is to the effect that it is desirable at this
juncture that the Committee of Section I should consider, and if judged
proper forward to the Council of the Association, the following resolu-
tion :—

‘That in view of the fact that numerous deaths continue to take
place from anesthetics administered by unregistered persons, the Com-
mittee of the Section of Physiology of the British Association appeals
to the Council of the Association to represent to the Home Office and
to the Privy Council the urgent need of legislation.’

The Committee asks to be reappointed, and that its original reference
should be extended to include the study of ‘ local anesthetics, such as
cocaine and stovaine.’

APPENDIX.

An Account of Three Fatal Cases of Poisoning by Cocaine administered
by Unqualified Persons. By Sir Frepertc Hewirr.

As Honorary Secretary of the Committee, and as one of those who
have for some time past urged the need of legislation to prohibit
the administration of anesthetics by unqualified persons, I venture to
draw the attention of the Committee to three coroners’ inquests which
have taken place within the past few months upon members of the
working-classes to whom cocaine or some derivative thereof has been
administered for tooth-extraction by unregistered dentists.

The evidence given at the first of the three inquests went to show
that the deceased was a woman forty-five years of age, the wife of a

ON ANZSTHETICS. 239

labourer earning 16s. a week. She consulted a wholly unqualified and
unregistered ‘practitioner of dentistry,’ agreeing to pay him four
guineas for preliminary tooth extraction and subsequent artificial teeth.
The ‘ practitioner of dentistry ’ admitted that whilst the law permitted
him to use this title he could not call himself a ‘ dental practitioner.’
Before the extraction he injected a solution of cocaine and adrenalin,
disregarding the fact that the gums were very unhealthy. He also
ignored the warning on the label of the bottle containing the analgesic
solution: ‘The contents of this package are only to be used in accord-
ance with the prescription of a medical practitioner.’ Some hours after
the operation the patient became semi-delirious and retched. Next
morning she became unconscious and convulsed. She died early on the
following morning. The ‘ practitioner of dentistry ’ stated in evidence
that he had only injected 4 gr. cocaine. At the post-mortem the gums
were found to be lacerated and the heart and kidneys to be diseased, but
the cause of death, in the opinion of the two medical men called in, was
cocaine poisoning. The jury returned a verdict of death by misadven-
ture, but ‘ asked the coroner to severely censure Mr. for admin-
istering such large quantities of cocaine without having the necessary
qualification.’

At the second inquest the evidence showed that the patient had been
a perfectly healthy woman, aged twenty-nine, the wife of a bricklayer.
Suffering from toothache she consulted a so-called ‘ dental operator,’
who injected cocaine and then extracted a decayed tooth. There was
considerable inflammation around the tooth—a state which is now
generally regarded as strongly contra-indicating injection. The patient on
her return home lay ‘ in a dizzy condition.’ A week after the operation
& medical man was called in who found the patient to be ‘ suffering
from some narcotic poison.’ She was in a ‘ collapsed condition.” Next
day the narcotic symptoms passed off and the mouth was found to be
septic. The patient died four days later. At the post-mortem a condi-
tion of pyzeemia was found originating in disease of the jaw around the
tooth socket. In his remarks to the jury the coroner said ‘ he thought
the position was certainly a very unsatisfactory one that people without
any qualification of having been apprenticed—in what he might call a
legal way—to a dentist should be allowed to operate by injecting cocaine
or any derivative of cocaine, or any other drug of that kind.’ Owing,
no doubt, to the fact that the ‘dental operator’ exercised his right to
answer no incriminating questions, the hands of the jury were to a
great extent tied, and after much difficulty they returned a verdict
“that the deceased died from blood-poisoning, but that there was not
sufficient evidence to show how it was produced.’ Fortunately, further
light was thrown upon this lamentable case some two months after the
inquest, when the husband of the deceased woman sued the so-called
“dental operator’ for damages in respect of his wife’s death and
obtained judgment for 70). At the civil proceedings it was shown that
the defendant ‘ advertised painless extractions with no after-effects.’
The prosecution stated that ‘ the negligence complained of was that the
defendant wrongly injected a solution of cocaine into an abscess which

240 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

he ought to have known to exist, thereby causing blood-poisoning and
death.’ In the course of the proceedings the defendant admitted that on
one occasion he had paid 2/. compensation to a patient upon whom he
had performed an injection, and that in two other cases he had been
obliged to pay for medical advice required by patients after his opera-
tions. The judge found that the deceased ‘ was negligently treated by
the defendant—ignorantly of course, but negligently. This negligence
was the cause of the illness with which she was seized, and that illness
caused her death.’

The third inquest was held upon the body of a young married
woman twenty-three years of age, whose occupation had been that of
shirt-making. Though quite able to do her work her general health had
not been very good. She had suffered from toothache. The evidence
showed that she had obtained the services of a ‘ dental operating
mechanic,’ who, having come to the house, injected cocaine as a pre-
liminary to tooth extraction. Very shortly after the injection the
patient complained of curious sensations in her hands and feet, and
rapidly became unconscious. ‘ Her lips, face and hands were blue, and
she was breathing heavily.’ She died very shortly afterwards. The
post-mortem examination showed that the deceased was ‘ well-nour-
ished and sound.’ In summing up the coroner said ‘he thought
that, in view of the fact that there was so much of this injecting going
on by unqualified persons, the sooner something was done to prevent
it the better it would be for the public.’ The jury returned a ‘ verdict
that death was due to misadventure, but added a recommendation that
the law should be so amended as to prohibit the use of anesthetics
except by fully qualified practitioners.’ The coroner said‘ he cordially
agreed with the recommendation and would communicate it to the
Home Office.’

There have been several similar inquests in recent years. At one
of these, held in Ireland, upon a young woman of nineteen, to whom
cocaine had been administered, but whose death was more probably due
to hemorrhage, the jury strongly condemned the action of unqualified
persons going about the country performing dental operations. The
unqualified dentist was committed for manslaughter, and, in summing
up at the trial the judge said: ‘ So far as the citizens were concerned
he thought it was a highly dangerous thing that these young men should
be let out to try their apprentice hand—for it was nothing else—upon
patients.’ The prisoner was found guilty, but recommended to mercy
on the grounds of his ignorance, the judge considering the dental firm,
whose employé the prisoner was, more culpable.

It is highly important, in this connection, to bear in mind the
following facts with regard to cocaine and its derivatives : (1) The risk
attendant upon the injection of cocaine and similar analgesics is quite as
great from the septic as from the purely toxic side. It hence happens
that apart from the numerous cases of cocaine poisoning which occur,
a few of which terminate in inquests, there are a large number of
others which escape attention, the victims either suffering from pro-
longed impairment of health or dying from sequele rarely traced to

ON ANASTHETICS. 241

their true causes. (2) The injection of cocaine or its derivatives may
lead to dangerous or fatal symptoms by (a) direct toxicity; (b) the
introduction of septic organisms into the circulation through improper
sterilisation of injecting appliances; (c) lacerating and reducing the
vitality and power of recovery of inflamed tissues into which the anal-
gesic solution may have been forced, with the result that sloughing or
necrosis follows; and (d) ‘ the injected fluid, not only driving out the
blood and lymph, but also dispersing pathogenic organisms into the
tissues and even into the general circulation’ (Gibbs). (3) It is hence
clear that without proper medical or dental education and training the
risks to the public of such injections are very great.

Electromotive Phenomena in Plants.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. A. D. WaLLER (Chairman), Mrs. WALLER
(Secretary), Professors J. B. FARMER and VELEY, and Dr.
F. O’B. Evtison. (Drawn up by the Chairman.)

In previous reports we have stated that the presence of a ‘ blaze-
current’ is a sign that a given vegetable tissue is alive and also how
much it is alive, i.e., that it is a quantitative as well as a qualitative test
of the living state.

In a recent number of the ‘ Annals of Botany’! W. Laurence
Balls, after a laborious attempt to estimate the vitality of cotton
plants by means of this test, comes to the conclusion that the method,
although holding good as a ‘ death-test,’ does not seem to be a ‘ vitality-
test ’ in a quantitative sense, and that it failed of its object with regard
to the testing of root samples, because the small roots give the most
insignificant results.

Mr. Balls has very courageously attacked a new and difficult
problem with very inadequate resources, i.e., with a galvanometer of
22 ohms resistance, with induction currents of excessive strength, and
with a circuit of such intricacy as to make it difficult to verify direction
of excitation and response, and impossible to obtain systematic data.
I think it is very much to Mr. Balls’s credit, and incidentally a very
encouraging sign of the applicability of the blaze-test, that it should
have been possible to obtain any result whatever under such conditions.
And I venture to forecast that the tenacity of purpose that has enabled
Mr. Balls to discover by his apparatus that the blaze-test is a death-test
will, if he pursues the inquiry under more favourable conditions, enable
him to discover further that the test can be employed as a ‘ measure of
vitality ’ in particular cases more or less difficult. We have hitherto
applied the test quantitatively only in cases selected as being the most
easy and best adapted to the acquisition of comparable numbers by the
fewest number of trials, e.g., to seeds fresh and old, to parts of plants
presumably more or less active, or of which the activity has been

1“ Apparent Fallacies of Electrical Response in Cotton Plants, by W.
Laurence Balls, M.A., Annals of Botany, January 1913, p. 103.

1913. R

242 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

more or less reduced by means of anesthetics. We have not been
sanguine enough to attempt to measure the vitality of a given set of
plants by applying the test to its roots; we have not even ventured
to attack preliminary questions, such as the comparative vitality of roots
and stems or of their different parts. In spite of the fact that we are
able to work under favourable conditions as regards apparatus and
method, we are only too familiar with the difficulty of securing uni-
formity of experimental conditions during the uninterrupted periods of
time required for the systematic recording of a sufficient number of
data. We have, therefore, refrained from embarking upon difficult
problems such as that proposed to himself by Mr. Balls, although we
are by no means convinced that it is incapable of solution after its
necessary preliminaries have been mastered, and provided the observer
can then devote to it the necessary time and attention. But as a
practical proposition it certainly cannot be solved by sporadic or sum-
mary experiments such as are sufficient to establish the validity of its
principle.

Hitherto our reports have been directed to the establishment of the
method in principle, and in this respect we believe ourselves to have
been successful; we have shown, e.g., that the voltage of blaze-currents
and the vitality of seeds decline pari passu with their age.

Our present report contains a detailed account of individual observa-
tions carried out during the months of July and August to serve as an
indication and sample of the procedure we think necessary to follow in
working out the test as a practical method of measuring the vitality of
seedlings.

A repetition of the description of method, precautions, results, &c.,
is not possible now; we must refer for such description to previous
publications, more especially to an article in the Journal of the Linnean
Society, Vol. XXXVII., on the blaze-currents of vegetable tissues,
and to my lectures on ‘ Signs of Life’ published by John Murray,
1903.

It is, however, necessary to say in preface to the following detailed
protocols :

1. That excitation by a single induction shock must be of given
constant strength, not too weak when little or no response is obtained,
nor too strong when after a large response the subsequent excitability is
impaired.

2. That it is convenient to have in circuit two galvanometers of
different sensitiveness, so that small responses are read upon the more
sensitive, large responses upon the less sensitive galvanometer. In the
protocols G, is a less sensitive galvanometer of 5,000 ohms, G, is a
more sensitive galvanometer of 70,000 ohms.

3. The voltage of response and the resistance in circuit are to be
calculated from the deflections through the plant and through a megohm
of a known fraction (one-hundredth) of a volt.

243

ON ELECTROMOTIVE PHENOMENA IN PLANTS.

‘9JOA 9120-0
—_—_—__a————~
4 66Z
! a Te Sa ae | as
008 6 oce— oc- Sug+
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| 92 OF — = =
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| clr ¢9 — | yo— _
— — ocz— <I— — 00¢+
OFS o¢ = a
— — 08e— FI— —-00b-+
oct 09 o — --
— 9 o0e— cI— ore t+
| OFS 0¢ _ yo + =
| — ¢ 00+ oI+ 008+
| 1000-0x | ——>
| 000TX a i) eS
ae oot oe ae i
Gis | ITx Ix Xx XI

“3104 T9T0-0

= esuodsei oSvioay

Oooo
SbT SLI
og+ Z1I— 6— 1st+
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yo + = yo — —
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yo + oor— ss os —
oo+ = G— 00g+
zi+ oos— | oI- o9r+
| og— } Se
yo + =) S0gs-
CO}, re =
e+ oor-t J | are 006+
~—— | — +> | 1000.0x
++000¢ WA | - —000T "qJOA
ont SA) Bose Ps
IITA IIA IA A

Ti+ 00€
yo+ | g19
Lt |
Os OSF
or | —
go + OFS
ort | —
yo + 16¥
st | —
yo + OFS
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<—
+0001 0001 X
“OX rs"
ALi} TET

*syooys uoronput , Su0iys, WII

qno fiqysasg

"syooys UOKONpUr , wom, YIM

6c inp “po syaam oauyg ((WMATES TANSTg) vag fo shurppoagy

*‘] NOILVATUSAO

lo
In

B3

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913

244

“9194 6880-0

—— eee

oe _
lab 9¢e)
|
= | yo _ _
cue— | og— | oost+
|
— yo — —
eea— OI—— | beh
ee yo — =a
98h— | LI- 98¢+
|
— | yo _ —_
009— | os— 00~+
Tann.g xX —
‘404 | —000¢ qJoa
iy og ae
Ix x XI

“9194 9LT0.0 = ostIOAY
pS ee
623 Por
ite os abt ) a Ti yo may | 0
8éI— i= a Sax LEE 8 — ly
ons OSS =) Bo — | 009 co — |%*9
SLT— g— L9¢— ZI— — = eds
ae Hoa Lg+ 06+ ILL ce — |%5 |
00%— FI— — _— _— _— = Fy
= go — = go + OFS 0g osI+ | *D
006— (0) oe 09r+ 8+ — c — Wy
= | TOO lh ey
“gfOA — 0001 “goa +0001 | 0001 X , “19
oe ‘Ox oe ‘ox a. oor “piooy
IIA IA A AI III II I

“uoroas 4ai{o hop ayy, “og Ame ‘doso ams

T82M ,

f vag fo sbusppaayy

‘'% NOILVAUASAQ

245

ON ELECTROMOTIVE PHENOMENA IN PLANTS.

“H104 TG80-0 =
—_—_wiueqj~
8b G83

— yo — —
Seg | é— 00g +
— |go— | gett
00% — 6I— =
LYp— =| ~S3— OLg+
as | yo — a
ose— 8I— oer
ee et
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ae “OXT -
Ix xe | xI

$$

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ag
9+

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+000¢
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ee
.

IIA

‘uoyoae Lajyfo finp yzinof ayy ‘gz qnbn

ae <-—

—000T eseyjoA | +0001

“OX th ‘OXG
IA A AI

‘pag fo sbuappaay “g NOILVAUASAO

we.
Iil

4

*prooy

- REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

246

Hal

Til

S106 Onis oak Aah okt S[RLIY OT Jo oseIBAY
EE Eee
9800-0 900°0 edecvcscvsce S]eLIy c jo osvIOAY
Of or— ZI— ot+ e+ | = - —_ _ 006 o¢ | og |*p/|
es | Ls. whe 2 a | -s — — = ==s ss | ae | 3)
| | / | |
|
$e 0s— 0Z— 08-+ oot | = — = = O80 G o |%*%
— = — — —— ay — — — — — ae | Uy
ce | OF 09—- | 09t— or— = — ~ — | osor rd oes ty |
—— oo — —— ——, — _— — — _ — — | 9) |
ce. i) oge— oe 02+ ¢+ -- — — — 0801 & 0 ||
ol al lasers MBP = ts ae =z a = = |
eo 30 SR a a a eae a S| st
0g os— Gh opt aie jp = = == = GLO OF OO. = *9 |
— _——s — — | —a | —— —- — — — — == | 9)
| res
|
oo ; <— | — <—
| e8eqoa | —Q00g | o8eyfoA | +0009 = eBeqfoa —000T | 98eqfoa | +CO00T “ain
oot | 5 “OXOT sie | “OX ais “OXG] Ks “OX S| ate oon ‘ploy
TEX 28! Goss he all | IIIA IIA IA A AI TIL II I

x

(‘3104 FE10-0 0483 spetsy OT Jo OF vIAAG 049 UOKVesTULI0} OT)

"SIGBL ‘OL gsnbnp ‘adaydsowpn fsoyosogn) ayy u2 gybruguof » 4a3{0 Burdooup + pjo syeam aay + vag fo shuxppaog

“p NOILVAUTSAO

247

ON ELECTROMOTIVE PHENOMENA IN PLANTS.

"HOA L1Z0°9 "4104 ZOTO-0 = abeI0ay
YO —_—
893 991 86 LOT
= gett ome yo — a yo + Ob— 03— 0b— OZ—, | O79 Of | geg+ | 9
Ose L | Ove— ZI— | oat ia pete time t s = = ae a 9
| |
16F eg = yo — a Bo + am yo + 35 yo+ | g19 OF | oopt | 2
= & ose— OI— | sest ei+ ost on PLE L+ aa = 9
—
om = e- Bol = =e go + 08— 0F— oor+ oct+ | oF 02 | age
OLE 8 003— OI— | O09t+ s+ = = = a = = 9
|
Ost 09 += yo — os— 0e— 0at— os— 03— oI— | S29 OF | oot— | 2
aad aa 0s3— o1— = =i sa = = i F se 9
ore ¢ == Npei= | get= st— | oor— ee— — |Fo+ | ¥en ge lg “9
ee a 006 — 1; Gaga | liners = am = 006+ L+ ati =e 0
| |
=== | = ) = ee
aseqoa | —900e | eseqfoa | +000 eseyoA —O00T eseqjoa | +000T ental
a’. oot a8 ‘OxE ae ox 29 | ‘ox we “OXTT oueoe in *Prooy
TX | IIx x | xX | x IITA ITA \ | , TA A AI iI II I
i

no hpysetg ‘6ehinpe po syaom aay) “(snnuue snyyuereH) wanoyung fo sbuypaog “g NOILVANASAO

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

248

TLL

a
TTX

“7194 €820°0 “7104 SOT0-0 = adBI0Ay

—_ um ~~ —_———$___ a.

6r8 LYG Lt 08
gg a yor == yo — 006 — 09— &o— Lee 006 08 9)
— | ess— | or- | ees— o1— ~ — —- — | = | — | O8IF | ty
SF a yo — Sal yo + 9b— ) 00+ cet+ TLL gE 00z— 2) |
= 8rs— 6I— 983 oI+ = a = — oa = 19)
a a Goh Zz go + SL— Sp— L9+ or+ OSF 09 = 2)
L seg— | FI =| 88Et 8+ _ i = = ea - cage)
og = BO — | 0OF+ ge+ = Bos ob— Ol— |) TEE cE a ES
Roh tLe? 3) Sep ~= = 008 — i= = = ok = = ap
0F = yo — = yo + “a go + = yo+ | 006 0g re.)
= L9b— mM | Ste es 99r+ ¢t+ Lot+ q+ = = = AD

_—- > <— —— <—— |

eseqjoa | —Q00¢G | oe8eqT0A +0008 O380A —000T eseqjoA | +Q00T “1g
Ws oe “OX ° “Ox Oxo oe "OxTT °° oot *plooy
IIx Ix x XI IITA TIA IA A AI III II I

"uoroes tayo hop ayy, “Og Ayn “pjo syaem aa.yy dows awns § samoyung fo ebursypearg 9 NOILVANASAQ

249

ELECTROMOTIVE PHENOMENA IN PLANTS,

ON

"3194 600-0 = osvI0AY
—_—_— (WV! —_"'""-—
SIT SL
| gor 4 et — ez eg-+ Lt+ oe — _ — Oset 0g tee: |
| ae = oo -— = == = az = on oe 79)
|
| Nestea Ns a9
| Q80T & 03— g— oE+ e+ — = = = 080T cS == m.
— — — — — — — — — — — — — ra)
F19 +P = yo — eor-+ o¢+ — — — = SLO OF a 9)
= ap Ea) VRP sae tee = = = = = ee - or eons
GLO OF te or— os— EH fe — — a a 006 0g = “0
i — oS — — — = = a Fz = = = 79)
L891 9T 023— cE— ss— hi —- |= = = L89T 91 006+ 3)
asad — — — on es ioe —— — ea — — — ra)
—> <— — <—
e88zJ0A | —Q00G | e8eqJoA +000¢ | 95%zJ04 | —QO0OT eseqoa | + 000T “aI
qe oo1 “e ‘OXNT “ “OXT os ‘OXG “e ‘OXNT qe. oor *prlooy
IIx mx Ix p'4 Ba! IIIA TIA IA A AI Il II I

‘uouoes 1az{o hop yqsnof 24,7,

=

‘Z asnbnp ‘dota awns § samoyjung fo sbuappoagy -) NOILVANASAQ

‘

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

250

“9194 9870-0
SS SE

= asri0aAy

9420-0 9210-0

OFS o¢ = yo — — yo + om

ae = 0cg — oI— ost-+ Ole =

aera et |

Bae |. fae ee) He | pe | BO =
StS II ose+- Sor PIT 3= ae
009 cP rt yo — — yo — =

¥ = TLE— €I— 006 — ii =
TLL ce s8— 0g — ogy + CF+ =
CIF ¢9 SL¥— 0L— Le-- eI+ =

eseyfoA | —Qo0¢ | odvyjoa +000¢ e8eq[OA

PS Gor on “oxq | “ ‘OX “
TIX TIX IX xX XI TIA IIA

O58 {TOA

A

see ae
oe ee
|
ne Xi, | gere
= | age
|
|
=) | oe
zr ||. ab
=
| |
_ eL9
he
——— |
+000T
OX | US
AG +) Tl

"hiojoasasuos ayy ur doy “ET6T

‘LT asnbny *pjo syaem aay ‘sburypoagy samoyfung *g NOILVAUTSAO

a

ON ELECTROMOTIVE PHENOMENA IN PLANTS,

SLO

080I

OSél

ae
Ix

"104 600-0
————
06 86
L8— se— S3t--
e+ (1) 99+
ost — 09 — os--
a =a
08t— Sh 00r+-
—~ — | —
03— 5 ae ost +
| eee
esejjoa | —Q00¢ | o8ByTOA
at Oxy a
Ix x xXI

"mo hiyysatg ‘ZI6T ‘Og Ane *pjo syaam aauyg ‘(sXe 207) ULOQ unipuy fo shurzpoogyy “G6 NOILVAMASAO

og+

See
+0008
“OX
IITA

“4194 OF00-0

ase4[OA

IIA

o1— og—
oa+ SL+
ee eet

i os+

—000T o8eq[oa
TA A

= osRIOAV

oI+

<——

+000T
OXOL
AI

|

OL
v96
su0
0801

OgéT

we
III

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

"4194 0610.0 = ssRIOAW

—$——
6r L8t
OF ares coal 98— 0g— = = = aa TLL ag
f | ObR= clas Sa = = SR a = a =
0g L8— s8— | Oi == _ a — | 929 OF
Ts = | ORR ie cee = a = 63 cs =<
i}
|
og ea OS =m yo — = = = — | 080r 9%
=e OEE L— | 088— L— = = = <7 = =
0g Uh 03— 88— 9g — ~ = — => |-008 0€
ae <—— ——> hae |
cor | 88204 | —0009 | oBeaToa | +0009 | eB¥zfoa | —OOOT | o8ez04 | +000T
oot “- “OxXTT oe ‘OX s ‘OXTT oe ‘OXT] 7 oe 0
TIX Ix x XI IIIA ITA IA Au 5! AL III II

252

‘uoroas aly inp py, “Zbl ‘se wnbny ‘dowo owns ayn §usiog unrpur fo sburypoog ‘OT NOILVANTSAEO

N

PLANTS.

ELECTROMOTIVE PHENOMENA IN

ON

“S161 ‘8a fine mo fiqysarf { pjo syaom aauyg (eqey BIOIA) uvag fo shusppaagyy *[[ NOILVAUTSEO

"4194 0020-0 "4194 100-0 = oSvI0aAy
—— oo
6et0-0 9420-0 9800-0 2900-0
— — —_— yo — — yo + — yo + — yo + —
00 6 98— 5— 98¢+ oo+ 095+ t+ ost-+ 6+ 98¢
ee ee ar ees ee eee oe SOF
— — = 5o — = yo + oz— oE— eo+ oe+ —
Ost cl 00r— eI— LOE+ eg — — — _ OST
-- -- — yo — — go + = yo — ert 0s+ ~
ost 81 198— 0r— 00¢+ og¢+ LOT— SZ— — — Ost
Ost ST SLI— 93— L9¢+ or+ 03+ e+ 19+ OI+ | Ost
a = eee a Sere TS Sea peed Fee SO Mss. |
LEE 8 ost — (Sil are+ cot 29— cc cL— o— | Les
— << — - > <—
adeqoa | —Go0g | eBegoa | + 000g | o8egfoa | —00T | o8ea{oa | +0901
a ses oun i *OXOT Gi oxTT Oo OX OD ‘OX W sae
Tx x Ix x XI IIIA IIA IA A AI III

|)

ST

Io
rio
In

_
Ln

es &
alae
os+ | *9
= 3)
|

a *9

i
00T— 0
= 9)
ost— *
= 73)

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

254

(919A $O10-0 PAS sTRIIy OT JO OSvaA’ OY UOIZesTUeI03 OF.)

“4104 8200-0 = osni0Ay
aoa OR
7800-0 3200-0
1 ed 7 Sri 5 = ot A pory = iT eo ied = | 7; if)
| 818 &€ | 19 | 0c— os sI+ = — — ah 006 0g Ca)
— — _ — — —— es a — — — — — re)
| | | | |
| | |
006 oe | se ES tire 0 hod = ew eae = CLO OF 0 3)
bg ele ee = = = = a bee oe == Mare oon es)
| | | :
TLL ot a lp ae ie e+ = adams a 006 gma net *)
— fa | =s — Sen | a — cats | Pat, = == aes eA 9)
CRO a Te ily ISS, | Deine) 3 areas eee | Care
| |
| Th oe 0s 03— cr o1— = he — cLo |) «(OP ost | “9.
he = a a = — — ete, ans. = a = ae 7)
TLL Ta 0 0 0 iting wai hee bates as TLL s¢ OLT | “DO
fa e a = aa Zs od Saeeae ee enti Wen oy 2 Tr a = a
| a we —— | <— }
| eBeyoa | —Q00G eBugjoa — +000G | eBegfoa | —QOOT | oBesfoa | +000T | rule)
| it oor | oe | *OxTy Oe OX oe “OX | sie “OXNT ay ee ool “ploy
| TX | Ux |" Six Xo Saeer IIIA IIA IA A AI III II I
| | : |

“ETGT ‘OT asnbny “A.soppsogn] us syaam om uayy ‘huojmasasuoa Us syaom ao4yp ‘2° “pyo syaam aay <unag fo sbuypoosy “ZT NOILVAUISAO

255

ON ELECTROMOTIVE PHENOMENA IN PLANTS.

“eroydsourye peq v ul doorp 03 ueseq syued 04} USYA poysturuntp 41 posverOUT 4ys1y 4e SBA STUI[Poes yn 049 Jo osuodsaz oY,

(Sujdoosp) “*

| (qsory) urog
| (Sep pag)“
(qseaz) UlOo WeIpUy
(ep 3%)“

| (Sep pug)“

| (qseuz) 1amopung
| (3uidoorp) vog
| (Aep q3%) “
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(qsoaq) vag

cl ita
0 Gate
Ol
gi
By. aie
ee
ae ke
Gan
es
g is
=) he
T ‘840

“Aroywsoqey O13 Ur 44 31Ug.103 & IOITW 8% = |
002 PL |
061 — |
| ¥6 One |
*£10}BAJOSUOO UI FYSTUZI0F & 1097W | 981 —
|
ies SEL ZL |
| 888 | ~~ S0r
igh Pte | Z01
“41078109 2] 043 UI 4YSTUQIO} BADTY | 98 #9 |
| sit ©8z
| ese ont |
OLE ti
syreurayy Suong yea sy

“AUVAWOAS

91
8G

0€
66

‘Sny
4p
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REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

256

OS*H Ut

OOT't '

p> /|
meth cos <2 ot BO 7 = Bor oi a
& 1 | 012 or | a4 = oor 6+ = =
5B a
5
8 — = _ 70) == yo + = coed
S981 0Z LOT o1— L81 8o+ — —
g
he = — oo7— = yo + 0g oe—
=| | 008 6 4 +o— ost 7 — --
<7] ——— ie a | ee ee ee
pr —_— — yo — — yo + _ _
| Lee 8 £82 i= 008 er- — _
2)
B _ —_— —_— yo — —_— yo + — yo +
= | O81 cl Ost cI— oss eg+ oor oI+
ON Sl la alate 0 ee 7 em =)
3 |
i as oy BO — = yo + = yo —
008 6 L&Z sI— Pre tot Yn) Le
| —- > <-— i
edugqoa | —Q00G | eSezJoa | +000¢ | o8eyfoa | —QOOT
qe oor o OX] “ "ONT oa ‘OX
TIX erie 1X, x XI IIIA IIA IA

| — 008

— OST

FI+ —

— OLS

— OSF

yo + —

sit | oLz

yo + —

zo+ | 98e
<—
e084foA | +Q00T

ate Leis ane

AI III

A

"OSH O1/% pun OOT/U wz Uorsuaunus fig samojyung pun ‘unag

uodn pasnwo (hpavjon-yunjd fo wornsoriajap oy3

‘nag {o sbuypoay

for)

ST

Or

Or

it

oot
it

II

Rattle)
aPLee iy)
I

= 4) Masina-aznjq fo uorwsay ay2 aunusagap 07 opou quaunsedaxa UR “ET NOLLVAUTSAO

PLANTS.

“JOJ8AL UT SINOY

Or/u OS’ Ut
INOY J JO} UOISIOWU JoIJY FF OF WOO UU 1o9gpV

ON ELECTROMOTIVE PHENOMENA IN

e I+ ’ penne = ER ee be Se ee
= = =e ae = =a -3 1 Oo ils ee amet
9 8— he se -- — -- ~- Pot GOL Tw ie
eg = a = ar; > | 808 el ihe
t e+ I ae 0 0 0 oO. |= — | ott |
= = = oe Fe f = —= &| 208% SI rete Bi
es ee at |
8% or— L ie = = = = = Se aie, Stes
= = rs = a = = “= mt S86 #1 Si le OND
ere ne ee Sonera. ee uae Sven
| | | |
ee oF+ L st+ eS sea pt] = — — | 2
a = po = = = See = 9 ¥G caipeat eo
a | oe ees | Se
— jyo— | — |po+ | se | oj 6 | at | — | — | — | %|
rdf 91— yd 91+ oa i = aan 808 €1 =
— <—— —_> = Ls [a
asejzJoA —QOQ0E | eseyJoa | +Q00¢ | eBeq]oa —OO0T | o3e9T704 | +Q00T naiite)
aie “OXGL Oe “OX O55 . “OXTT on “OX aT se our ‘ploy :
Ix x 2a IITA TELA sesh sa 1 eae ei III II I

*panuyuoI— ET NOILVANTSEQ

eS

1913.

258 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

The foregoing data, scanty and imperfect as they are, indicate 3
general relation between plant-vitality and voltage of blaze-current.
But our principal object has been to indicate in detail the systematic
lines along which further observations are required from which—
multiplied a hundredfold—it can become legitimate to infer in given
instances how much the blaze-current actually varies with varying
degrees of plant-activity and (?) plant-health under given conditions.

The Structure and Function of the Mammalian Heart.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor FRANCIS GOTCH
(Chairman) and Professor STANLEY Kent (Secretary),
appointed to make further researches thereon.

Tue investigation forms a portion of work which has been in
progress for some years.
The particular problem attacked this year has been the question :—

‘Is the conducting path between auricle and ventricle in the
mammalian heart single, or is it multiple?’

The problem has been attacked both from the histological and from
the experimental side.

The histological results have shown the existence of an alternative
anatomical path, whilst the experimental findings are most easily
explained on the supposition that this alternative path becomes
functional under certain conditions.

The results are of interest theoretically, and also from the point of
view of the clinician, who has found it impossible to explain—on the
supposition of a single path—conditions which occur not infrequently
in cases of cardiac disease.

Some of the results are being published in the Proceedings of
the Royal Society, but more work is necessary before the full details
can be available. For this further work a new grant is being sought.

Colour Vision and Colour Blindness.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor KE. H. Staruine (Chairman), Dr. F. W.
EDRIDGE-GREEN (Secretary), Professor LEONARD HILL, Pro-
fessor A. W. PortsER, and Professor A. D. WALLER. (Drawn
up by the Secretary.)

A CONSIDERABLE amount of work in colour vision has been done by
individual members of the Committee. The inadequacy of the wool
test even with additional colours as an efficient test for colour blindness
is now established. On April 1 of this year the Board of Trade
adopted a lantern test for colour blindness in addition to the wool test.
The total number of men examined by the Board in colour vision from
April 1 to May 31 was 1,689, and of these 105, or 6°22 per cent.,
failed. Of the 105 failures, 55 failed in both the wool test and lantern
test, and 50 in the lantern only. None failed in the wool test only.

ee Se

he ee

orem

ON COLOUR VISION AND COLOUR BLINDNESS. 259

The four chief colour names (red, yellow, green, and blue) must
be used in any test for colour blindness, and if a daylight test be
required, the bead test of Edridge-Green is preferable. The chief
difficulty from a practical point of view is the line at which rejection
should take place, as there is every grade of transition between
total colour blindness and the normal colour sense. If a large
number of persons be examined with the Edridge-Green lantern
about 25 per cent. show defects of colour perception. In the
majority of cases these defects are slight, therefore it is necessary
to know the nearest distance at which a coloured light must be
recognised—t.e., the exact degree of colour weakness which is per-
missible—and that the line of rejection should be fixed accordingly. It
is obvious that any man having even a slight defect of colour perception
is not quite as efficient as one not possessing this defect; this particu-
larly applies to the shortening of the red end of the spectrum, which
prevents the recognition of red light at the normal distance, particu-
larly when obscured by fog.

The Committee recommends that it be reappointed.

The Ductless Glands.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Sir E. A. ScHArerR (Chairman), Professor SWALE VINCENT
(Secretary), Professor A. B. Macanttum, Dr. lL. E. SHorsg,
and Mrs. W. H. THompson. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Tue Secretary has been continuing his investigations ‘upon various
points connected with the physiology and the comparative anatomy
of the ductless glands.

A study of the distribution and the detailed histology of the accessory
cortical adrenal bodies has been commenced, but as this involves a
large amount of serial section cutting, the work has not progressed
very far, and there are no new facts to report at this stage.

An investigation into the histological changes in the thyroids and
parathyroids (along with some of the other ductless glands) under
varying physiological and pathological conditions (different diets,
starvation, poisons, &c.) has been undertaken, and a large amount of
material for examination has been collected.

Mr. Cameron has been testing Hunter’s method of iodine estima-
tion in organic substances. It is satisfactory for moderate amounts,
such as are found in the sheep’s thyroid. It is not satisfactory for
very slight traces. Comparison tests are being made with this method
and some more recent modifications of it in the hope of finding a
rigid test for traces of iodine (one part in 500,000).

An initial attempt has been made to correlate other tissues with
the thyroid as regards iodine content. No definite results have yet
been obtained, but traces (of a second lower order of magnitude) appear
to be present in other organs of the series of ductless glands (e.q.,
testes, ovary, adrenal, thymus).

1 J. Biol. Chem., 1910.
s 2

260 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCTENCE.—1913.

The presence of iodine in the thyroid of frogs, fishes, and reptiles
is under investigation, and it is hoped to have some publishable data
shortly. This comparative work is being carried out with the assist-
ance of Mrs. Thompson.

This chemical work is preliminary to a thorough investigation (by
means of metabolism experiments) of the réle of iodine in the animal
economy.

The Committee ask to be reappointed, with a grant of 401.

The Dissociation of Ory-Hemoglobin at High Altitudes.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor EK. H. STARLING
(Chairman), Mr. J. Barcrorr (Secretary), and Mr. W. B.
Harpy.

In this report the blood will be termed ‘ mesectic ’ when the balance
of ions in it is such that the dissociation curve of the individual is in
its normal position, ‘ pleonectic’! when the curve is so shifted that
at any given pressure of oxygen the hemoglobin takes up more oxygen
than under normal circumstances, and ‘ meionectic ’ when it takes less
than its usual quantity of oxygen.

The curves in this report are calculated from the formula suggested
by Hill

i Kan
1000 «1+ Ka’
where y = the percentage saturation of hemoglobin with oxygen,
x =oxygen pressure in mm., K and n are constants for each curve.
In human blood n remains 2°5, therefore practically K is the only
variable.

The immediate effect of exercise, if sufficiently severe, is to shift
the curve in the direction of greater acidity; this may take place even
though the carbonic acid tension is reduced.

For instance, the constants of Roberts’ mesectic curve are n=2°5,
K=:00033, log K=4°5785, his normal alveolar CO, pressure is 40 mm.
Some points on his curve would be as follows :—

Percentage saturation. 9°4 22 37 51 62 85°5 95
Pressure of oxygen . 10 15 20 25 30 50 80

After climbing 1,000 feet from sea level in 20 minutes up Carlingford

mountain, his curve became meionectic,

n=2'5, K=:0001805, log K=4:2565, CO,=35 mm.
Percentage saturation . 6 14 24 35 47 716 91
Pressure ofoxygen. . 10 15 20 25 30 50 80
At slow rates of climbing, 1,000 feet in 45 minutes, Barcroft’s blood
remained mesectic.

) wdeovextixds, disposed to takejmore than one’s share. From mAcovetia, a dispo]
sition to take more than one’s share (Liddell and Scott). We are indebted to Dr
W. M. Fletcher and Mr. Harrison for this nomenclature. +

THE DISSOCIATION OF OXY-HASMOGLOBIN A't HIGH ALTITUDES, 261

The investigation was undertaken for the purpose of controlling
the results of similar climbs at high altitudes. The comparison is
as follows :—

1. Altitude up to 15,000 feet produces a lowering in the carbonic
acid pressure, nevertheless the blood remains mesectic in the resting
subject.

For instance, at the Capanna Margherita? on Monte Rosa the day
after arrival Roberts’ alveolar carbonic acid pressure was 26 mm.
The following points determined at these pressures fall on his mesectic
curve (see previous paper).

Percentage saturation . 33 77 calculated from mesectic curve
Percentage saturation . 34 73 (observed)
Oxygen pressure. . . 19 4]

2. A given degree of meionexy is produced by a lesser degree of
activity at high altitudes. Thus at Col d’Olen, climbing 1,000 feet,
from an altitude of 9,000 feet to 10,000 in 38 minutes, Roberts’
curve became as follows :—

n=2'5, K="000161, log K=4:2068, CO,=36 mm.

The degree of meionexy is almost identical with that produced at
Carlingford when climbing the same height in 20 minutes.

3. A greater degree of meionexy is produced by a given amount
of exercise at high altitudes. Thus Barcroft, climbing from 9,000
feet to 10,000 feet in 45 minutes at Col d’Olen, moved the constants
of his curve as follows :—

Mesectic curve . = 2°5, K = -000292, log K = 4°4654
Meionectic curve n= 2°5, K=-000191, log K = 4:2810, CO, = 33mm.

Corresponding points would be

Percentage saturation 9 20 34 48 58 84 94 mesectic
Percentage saturation 6 14 26 37 48 77 92 meionectic
Oxygen pressure - 10 15 20 25 30 50

Climbing from sea level to 1,000 feet at Carlingford also in 45
minutes no certain degree of meionexy could be ascertained. The
following points were observed :—

CO, pressure 38 mm.
Percentage saturation 58 calculated from mesectic curve.

Percentage saturation 56 per cent.—55 per cent. observed.
Oxygen pressure 30 mm.

The Effect of Low Temperatures on Cold-blooded Animals.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor SWALE
VINCENT (Chairman) and Mr. A. T. CAMERON (Secretary).
(Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Messrs. Cameron AND BrowNizE have carried out a number of
experiments on frogs (R. pipiens) obtained from the neighbourhood

2 For the amounts of acid added see Brit. Assoc. Report, 1911, p. 153.

262 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913;

of Chicago. They freeze at a temperature of 0°44°-0:02° C., in a
manner very similar to that of solutions isotonic with their body-fluids.
They will survive a temperature of —1° C. They will not survive a
temperature of —1°8° C.

The heart-tissue, whether exsected or in vivo, of these frogs survives
a temperature of -— 2°5°, but is killed by a temperature of —3°0° C.
Other observers have shown that frog’s muscular tissue will survive a
temperature of —2°9° C., while the peripheral nerves are not killed by
much lower temperatures. Hence it appears probable that the cause
of death is connected with a specific temperature effect on the brain
or cord.

Full details of these results will appear shortly elsewhere. It seems
desirable to continue these experiments with the same species obtained
at different seasons, and with some tropical species.

The Committee therefore request to be reappointed, with a grant
of 101.

Calorimetric Observations on Man.—Report of the Committee,
consisiing of Professor J. S. Macponaup (Chairman), Dr.
F. A. DUFFIELD (Secretary), and Dr. Keira Lucas, appointed
to make Calorimetric Observations on Man in Heaith and in
Febrile Conditions.

ContinuinG the work reported on last year a large number of experi-
ments have been performed, in which the total heat-production has
been measured and contrasted with the mechanical work done. A
statement dealing with the results of these experiments has been
accepted for publication in the Proceedings of the Royal Society. In
each of these experiments a subject enclosed in the calorimeter cycled
against the known resistance of a definite brake at a uniform revolution-
rate for a period of two hours. Again, as in last year’s experiments,
there was a noticeable difference between the measured heat-production
of the first and second hour respectively in each experiment. To test
the meaning of this apparent difference between the events of the first
and second hour arrangements were made early in this year’s work to
add to the measurements formerly made some means of determining
the carbon-dioxide production, and it is upon the progress made in this
direction that I have now to make some report.

It will be remembered that in the original Atwater and Benedict
calorimeter, from which the details of construction of the body of this
instrument in Sheffield have been largely copied, apparatus of a very
perfect kind is arranged to deal with the gaseous exchange of the subject.
In that instrument the air-steam from the calorimeter is pumped
through a system of absorption vessels, and thus freed from carbon-
dioxide, and water is pumped back into the calorimeter with the addition
of just so much oxygen as suffices to maintain the normal barometric
pressure of the enclosed atmosphere. From the altered weight of the
absorption vessels and of the oxygen-cylinder exact data are obtained
as to the output of carbon-dioxide and aqueous vapour and the intake of

+

eee FET ~~.

Se I 7 eens

ON CALORIMETRIC OBSERVATIONS ON MAN. 263

oxygen. Largely from reasons of economy no attempt has been made
to copy this procedure and apparatus. In place of the closed circuit of
tubes through which air is led away from and back to the calori-
meter we have an open system. By a length of suitably wide tubing
the air-entrance is carried to a point at some little distance from the
calorimeter, and therefore some distance from the air disturbed by the
presence of the observers. A powerful fan driving a large current of air
across the path of this tube further secures this separation. Similarly
by a length of tubing the air-exit is carried into another room, in which
the pump and gas meter are situated. The entrance and exit are thus
widely separated.

The tubes carrying the ‘ entering’ and the ‘ leaving’ air have each,
at a certain point, been subdivided into three separate paths, and suit-
able arrangements made so that sampling-bottles may be inserted or
removed from one of these short subdivisions of the air-path. Thus a
definite fraction of the air-stream traverses each sampling-bottle, and
is always allowed to traverse it for a time sufficient to ensure the com-
plete replacement of its original contents by air similar to that traversing
the remaining fraction of the air-path.

In twenty of the experiments in which Professor Macdonald has
collected the data of heat-production I have analysed samples of the
“leaving air’ obtained in this way. In the earlier cases the ‘ entering
air’ was also sampled and analysed, but I found its content of carbon-
dioxide so relatively constant that I abandoned dealing with it for the
present. In thirteen of these experiments the ‘leaving air’ was dealt
with as follows :—The sample-bottles were of large size (7 to 8 litres), to
the large volume of air contained in them baryta solution was added,
shaken up and allowed to stand, and then titrated with a known strength
of oxalic acid. In the application of this ‘ Pettenkofer method ’ I owe
much to the assistance of Mr. W. J. Jarrard, B.Sc. The results
obtained by this method were consistent in the different experiments,
and in each experiment provided results giving, when plotted out,
comparatively smooth curves, which showed the output of carbon-
dioxide from the calorimeter as gradually increasing towards a level
reached somewhere before the end of the first hour of cycling and then
sustained for the second hour.

In the remaining seven of these experiments I have replaced this

method by a volumetric method, using the apparatus devised by

Dr. J. S. Haldane (large laboratory type), substituting smaller sampling

' vessels of approximately 70 c.c. capacity as now sufficient. Up to the

present the plotted curves of results obtained by this method have not
been as smooth as those originally obtained, but this will be improved
upon when the air-stream has been diminished so as to enable me to
deal with larger percentage values. The quantity of air traversing the
system has varied from 300-410 cubic feet per hour, and will next year
be substantially diminished in the interests of these gas-analyses, and
peculiarly so because of oxygen determinations, which ‘will then be
instituted. This desire to deal later with the oxygen values explains
a preference for the Haldane method.

Adding to the results of such experimental determinations of the

264 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCTENCE.—1913.

carbon-dioxide output, corrections for the amount of carbon-dioxide
stored within the large space of the calorimeter (175 cubic feet approx. ;
see below), the plotted curves are practically converted into lines parallel
to the abscissa—that is to say, the difference apparently existing between
the first and second hours of cycling disappears. It would seem then,
as far as these experiments go, that the total transformation of energy
is the same in the two cases, varying with the amount of mechanical
work performed alone, and not with the length of time during which
this performance has been continued. The bearing of this conclusion
upon the still continuing differences in the measurements of apparent
total heat-production in the first and second hour has been dealt with by
Professor Macdonald in the communication already referred to.

A large number of special experiments (25) have been performed
to obtain an experimentally-derived method for estimating the precise
value of these corrections for internal storage of carbon-dioxide, in which
the experimental subject has been replaced by a measurable source of
carbon-dioxide production. Such experiments are still in progress, and
will be described better at a later period; their results are such, how-
ever, as to promise considerable security in dealing with the storage
corrections.

Incidentally the internal volume of the calorimeter has been
measured, carbon-dioxide gas being injected until a certain definite per-
centage composition was attained in the well-mixed atmosphere within
the calorimeter, and the total quantity present then measured as it was
withdrawn in the air-current. The figure obtained by. this method,
176 cubic feet, closely coincides with that obtained from measurements
of the average dimensions of the chamber (174 cubic feet). This coin-
cidence in the two sets of measurements is naturally accepted as evidence
of accuracy of the means used for measuring the carbon-dioxide output
from the calorimeter.

The Investigation of the Jurassic Flora of Yorkshire.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. C. SrEwarp
(Chairman), Mr. H. HamsHaw T'Homas (Secretary), Mr.
HaARrouD WAGER, and Professor F. E. WEIss.

Tue work of the year has been very satisfactory. The rich plant-beds
exposed on and near Roseberry Topping have been carefully examined
and have yielded a large number of interesting forms, several of which
are new to Yorkshire. These plant-bearing strata are at the base of
the Estuarine series, and may be probably regarded as Liassic in age
and older than any of the previously known plant-beds. Among the
specimens found are many beautifully preserved examples of two
species of Thinnfeldia, a species of Ptilozamites, a species of
Hausmannia, and a new conifer. A brief sketch of the flora has been
given by the Secretary of the Committee in the ‘ Naturalist’ (p. 198,
1913). The occurrence of the plant-beds in the locality has been studied
and proves to be very local. Some plant remains have been found

ON THE INVESTIGATION OF THE JURASSTG FLORA OF YORKSHIRE, 265

in the Middle Estuarine beds of Eston Hill, one of the northern outliers
of the Cleveland Hills. J

The Gristhorpe bed continues to provide interesting forms. The
excavations which have been carried on this year in Cayton and
Gristhorpe Bays have resulted in the discovery of several new species.
Among them is a new type of Ginkgoalian leaf, which has been
described as Hretmophyllum pubescens, gen. et sp. nov.,* and this
type has also been recognised at Whitby. A female flower of the
Williamsonia type, new to England and probably allied to the
Wieldandiella angustifolia of Nathorst, has been found, also a new
fern and some seeds and cones of new types. Many specimens of the
rare species Beania gracilis, Carr., Batera Lindleyana, Schimp., and
Cladotheca wndans, L. and H., have been found, also some interesting
forms of Czekanowskia. Material has also been obtained for the study
of the cuticular structure of the Jurassic Cycadophyta, the results of
which will be published shortly.

The experience of the last few years has justified the opinion that
many new forms might be found by systematic search, even in the
oldest and most worked localities. During the last three years the
Secretary of the Committee, aided materially by grants made by the
Association, has succeeded in obtaining about twenty-two species new
to the Jurassic Flora of Yorkshire, which will be described in due
course.

The Flora of the Peat of the Kennet Valley.—Interim Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor F. KnEsne (Chairman),
Miss M. C. Rayner (Secretary), Professor I’. W. OLIVER, and
Professor F. EK. WEIss, appointed for the investigation thereof.

THERE are extensive deposits of peat in the Valley of the Kennet and
evidence of old peat workings in the neighbourhood of Newbury.

The peat occurs from four to five feet below the surface and may be
as much as eight feet below the present dry-weather level of the river.
It varies in thickness from a few inches to about ten feet.

The present investigation was undertaken to map the distribution of
some of these peat deposits and to investigate and report on the plant
and animal remains which they contain.

The following data have been obtained :—

(1) A coarse flint gravel underlies the peat in all the completed
sections, at depths varying from six feet to fifteen feet.

This gravel may mark an early type of infilling of the valley, but is
more probably part of a gravel terrace formed during Paleolithic times
which has since been buried beneath the rising flood plain. There is at
present no certain clue as to its age.

(2) The peat is of the ‘valley’ type, i.e., it includes varying
amounts of fine silt and contains land and fresh-water shells. It is

* Proceedings Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1913, p. 256.

266 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

mixed and sometimes interstratified with a loose calcareous tufa which
seems to be of concretionary origin, the calcareous matter having
surrounded the decaying vegetation in a way suggestive of the action of
a ‘ petrifying ’ spring.

This tufa is not associated with any special abundance of shells, but
seems to occur at a level in the peat to which saturation may rise in
winter, but below which it falls in dry weather. In one section the tufa
occurs mainly in a layer about two feet thick, separating the peat into
two distinct layers, which are slightly different in character and give
some indication of containing remains of a different fauna and flora.

(3) The following remains have been collected from the peat and
identified : —

Bones of wild boar, red deer, and beaver ; shells of numerous species
of land and fresh-water Gasteropods.

The remains of beaver were found in the lowest layer of peat,
twelve feet below the surface, and are of some interest as suggesting
that beaver dams may have been a factor in the formation of local
deposits of peat.

Plant remains are abundant but badly preserved. The following
have been identified : —

Trunks and roots of Alnus and Betula; rhizomes of Phragmites
and Equisetum sp. (locally very abundant); seeds of Menyanthes
trifoliata; Carex sp.; Potentilla sp.

Many more borings and sections are required in order to map the
distribution, and to determine with certainty whether there were any
marked changes of flora during the formation of the peat. Owing to
the occurrence of the peat below the present river level and the wet
winter and spring of 1912-1913, field work was impossible during the
greater part of this year.

The Committee therefore ask for reappointment for another year,
with a renewal of the grant of 157. made last year.

The Vegetation of Ditcham Park, Hampshire.—Interim Report
of the Committee, consisting of Mr. A. G. Tansey (Chair-
man), Mr. R. S. Apamson (Secretary), Dr. C. E. Moss, and
Professor R. H. Yarp, appointed for the investigation thereof.

CoNSIDERABLE progress has been made with the investigations. A
general survey has been made of the area, which consists of chalk,
partly covered with clays, in part calcareous and in part leached. The
principal plant communities have been mapped. The following are the
most noticeable ones on the area :—

(i) On chalk.—Beech wood with and without Tarus. All stages
between beech wood and chalk scrub, passing through Taxus wood and
ash wood. The chalk scrub is partly retrogressive and partly progres-
sive. Chalk grassland, with transitions to scrub, either retrogressive or
progressive.

etd

ON THE VEGETATION OF DITCHAM PARK, HAMPSHIRE. _{! 267

Calcareous coppice, both with standards of beech and ash and
without.

(ii) On clays.—Coppiced woods, showing transition stages from cal-
careous coppice where the soil is thin to coppiced woods with good oak
standards and hazel or ash coppice, and many non-calcareous elements
in the vegetation, such as Pteridium and Holcus mollis.

Grassland on clay with local patches of heath grassland, and to a
very limited extent of heath.

Special attention has been paid to natural regeneration of beech
woods. Large quantities of fruit were produced in 1912, and the fate
of the seedlings is being watched and investigated.

Two areas where beech wood and chalk scrub adjoin chalk grassland
have been fenced in to exclude rabbits and are receiving special attention.
Very considerable differences are observable on the two sides of the
fence ; the most striking being the height of the pasture plants. Outside
the turf is cropped like a lawn, while inside, in June, there was a
luxuriant growth averaging 12 to 18 inches in height.

Of more experimental work special attention has been paid so far
to evaporation. A large series of evaporimeters has been established
in selected parts of the woods and readings taken regularly. Tempera-
ture and humidity (by wet and dry bulb thermometer) are also being
recorded along with the evaporation. Very considerable differences
of evaporation, accompanied by changes in the ground vegetation, have
been noted in beech woods at different levels of the chalk escarpment
and on the tops of the hills.

Preliminary investigations have also been carried out on the light
intensity and on the different soils, which will be pursued in more

- detail in the immediate future.

Botanical Photographs.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor F. W. OLiIver (Chairman), Professor F. E. WEISS
(Secretary), Dr. W. G. SmirH, Mr. A. G. TanszeEy, Dr.
T. W. WoopHEAD, and Professor R. H. Yarp, for the Registra-
tion of Negatives of Photographs of Botanical Interest.

Owine to the small demand made for the loan of negatives of
botanical interest, due, no doubt, to the large number of photographs
and lantern slides available from various dealers, the Committee con-
siders that it is unnecessary now to continue its labours. It recom-

‘mends that all prints of ecological interest should be handed to the

newly founded Ecological Society, and that all other prints should be
housed in the Botanical Department of the University of Manchester,
where they will continue to be available for further reference. It
considers, however, that the Committee might now be dissolved.

208 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

Report* of the Committee, consisting of—

Dr. G. A. AUDEN (Chairman), Mr. G. F. DanieLy
(Secretary), Mr. C. H. Boruamtey, Mr. W. D.
Ecear, Professor R.A. Grecory, Mr. N. Bisuop
Harman, Mr. J. L. Hotianp, Professor Prigsr-
LEY SmiTH, and Mr. W. T. H. Watsu, appointed
to Inquire into the Influence of School-books upon
Eyesight.

Tue Committee was appointed at Portsmouth in
Igi1, and from the beginning of its investigations
has had the advantage of the assistance of Dr. H.
Eason, Professor H. R. Kenwood, Mr. R. B.
Lattimer, Miss Brown Smith, and Dr. Louisa
Woodcock.

In view of the fact that Local Education
Authorities are able greatly to influence the selec-
tion of school-books, the Committee made an
inquiry, on which is based the section of this report
headed ‘Present Practice of Local Education
Authorities.’ At the request of the Committee
Dr. H. Eason, Mr. Bishop Harman, and Professor
Priestley Smith drew up the ‘Oculist Sub-Com-
mittee’s Report.’ The typographical section of
the report has been revised since its original
presentation at Dundee, and to this portion
oculists, school medical officers, directors of
education, teachers, publishers, printers, and type-
founders have contributed. The Committee desires
to record its sense of obligation to the pioneer
work of Javal.

1 This report is a revision (involving substantial alterations) of that
presented by the Committee in 1912, and is printed from the type in
which the report of 1912 was set up, at the request of the Committee,
subsequently to its issue in the ordinary type used for the Annual Report
of the Association.

ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCIIOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 269

The Present Practice of Local Education Authorities
in England and Wales.

In a Circular (No. 596) issued by the Board of
Education in 1908 the functions of the School
Medical Officer are defined. Under the heading
of ‘ Arrangements for attending to the health and
physical condition of school children’ it is stated
that he will advise the Local Education Authority
with reference to improvements of the school
arrangements. It is further stated in the Circular
that ‘ As regards cases of defective eyesight he will
indicate such measures as can be taken to remedy
or mitigate the defects by altering the position of
the children in the class, or improving the lighting
of the school in amount or direction; and he will
call attention to the strain imposed on eyesight by
the use of too small type in text-books, the teaching
of very fine sewing, &c.’ There can be no doubt
that this suggested advice has in many cases led
to an improvement where certain school arrange-
ments have been prejudicial to vision ; but hitherto
it has not been possible to deal effectively with the
provision of satisfactory school text-books.

A circular letter was sent to the Education
Authority of each county and county borough
stating the objects of the Committee, and asking
for information on the following points :—

(1) Whether the eyesight of the children in
the schools of the Authority is tested at
regular intervals ;

(2) Whether advice on the care of the children’s
eyesight is given to school teachers ;

(3) Whether the teachers instruct the children
in the general care of eyesight ;

(4) What regulations (if any) have been adopted
for the selection of school-books and

270 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,—I0Q1I3.

atlases (including limits of price, size of
type, character of illustrations, weight, &c.),
wall maps, charts, and diagrams ;

(5) Whether any definite principles or rules
have been laid down by or for those who
select school-books for the Authority.

Replies were received from sixty Authorities, to
whom and their officers the Committee is much
indebted for the information supplied.

Under the system of medical inspection now
general in public elementary schools, in accordance
with the day-school code, the eyesight of children
of school age is tested at least twice during their
school life, the test being made, with few excep-
tions, by means of the well known test-cards. A
few Authorities in both counties and county
boroughs go further, and employ a competent
oculist, either part or full time, his duty being to
examine special cases and prescribe spectacles or
recommend that medical or operative treatment
be obtained. Some Authorities have arrangements
under which spectacles according to the prescription
of their oculist are supplied to the children at cost
price, which is comparatively low by reason of
special contracts. Arrangements are also made
for free provision of spectacles in case of need,
frequently with the aid of voluntary associations.

The school medical officers and ophthalmic
surgeons on the occasion of their visits give advice
to the teachers concerning the treatment of children
with defective sight. With one or two important
exceptions, however, it would seem that instruction
concerning proper and improper use of the eyes in
school-work has not been given to teachers. The
Committee is pleased to report that, under the
new regulations for the training of teachers,
hygiene, including testing of eyesight, is now a

ae ae

Ol ie he eee

ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 271

compulsory subject for the Board of Education
examination of training-college students.

We learn that it is not customary for teachers
to give the children special instruction concerning
the care of their eyes. It is stated in several
instances that teaching of this kind is given
incidentally in the course of the lessons on hygiene
which form part of the school curriculum; but
nothing more is done, and what is done amounts
to very little.

Speaking generally, no definite principles or
rules as to printing and other conditions of legibility
have been adopted in the selection of school-books,
atlases, diagrams, &c. Two or three Authorities,
when drawing up their book-lists, have given
considerable attention to their possible effects on
eyesight, but without formulating any definite
rules. Several state that the committee or officers
responsible for the supervision of the book-supply
pay attention to the type, paper, &c.; several, on
the other hand, inform us that the selection of
books, &c., is left to the teachers.

Summarising the evidence generally, it may
be said that whilst effective arrangements for
the detection of existing defects in the eyesight
of elementary school children are general and
arrangements for the supply of proper spectacles
at cheap rates are not uncommon, practically no
systematic attention is given to the influence of
school-books upon eyesight.

The replies lead us to believe that the report
of the Committee will have attention from Local
Education Authorities.

Report of the Oculist Sub-Committee.

The eye of the child isa growing eye. It is
immature both in structure and in function. At

272 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—IQI3.

birth the eye has a volume equal to about half
that of the full-grown eye; the materials of which
it is built are comparatively soft and yielding; the
functional power of the visual apparatus is merely
a perception of light. By growth and develop-
ment, rapid at first, slower later on, the eye tends
progressively to acquire the dimensions and the
powers of the normal completed organ.

Nutrition by healthy blood, and the natural
stimulus of voluntary use, are essential to this
process. We know by experience that in early
infancy disease may arrest the growth of the eye,
and that suspension of use, as when a serious
ophthalmia prevents an infant for many weeks from
attempting to use its eyes, may check functional
development to an extent which cannot after-
wards be made good. On the other hand, exces-
sive efforts, due to unnatural demands on the
eyesight, are apt to be injurious in the opposite
direction. Unfortunately there is evidence to show
that the demand made on the eyesight of school
children is not infrequently excessive.

At the age when school life begins the visual
apparatus is still immature. The orbits, the eyes
themselves, and the muscles and nerves which move
them, have still to increase considerably in size..
The various brain-structures concerned in vision
have not only to grow but to become more complex.
The intricate co-ordinating mechanism which
later will enable the eyes, brain, and hand to work
together with minute precision is awaiting develop-
ment by training. ‘The refraction of the eyes is
not yet fixed. It is usually more or less hyper-
metropic, with a tendency to change in the direction
of normal sight ; in other words, it has not reached
the ideal condition in which the eyes see distant
objects without accommodative effort, but is tend-

ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 273

ing towards it. In short, the whole visual apparatus
is still unfinished, and is therefore more liable than
at a later age to injury by over-use.

Over-use of the eyes is chiefly to be feared in
such occupations as reading, writing, and sewing,
not in viewing distant objects. During near work
the head is usually bent forward, and the blood-
vessels of the eyes tend to become fuller; the
focus of the eyes is shortened by a muscular effort
which alters the form of the crystalline lens; the
visual axes, which in distant vision are nearly
parallel, are held in a position of convergence,
and if the work be reading, they are also moved
continuously from side to side. It is near work,
therefore, that makes the greatest demand upon
the eyes, and the nearer the work the greater the
strain. Moreover it is chiefly in near work that
continuous mental effort is required.

Children who do too much close eye-work
suffer in various ways. Some simply from fatigue,
showing itself by inattention, mental weariness,
temporary dimness of sight, or aching of the eyes
and head. Some from congestion of the eyes, as
shown by redness, watering, and frequent blinking.
A certain number, in circumstances which pre-
dispose them to the disorder, develop strabismus, or
squint. Some others—and these cases are perhaps
the most important of all—develop progressive
myopia.

Myopia, or short sight, commonly depends on
undue elongation of the eyeball. It is never, or
hardly ever, present at birth. It is rare at five
years of age. It usually begins during school life,
and increases more or less from year to year during
the period of growth. It sometimes continues to
increase after growth is completed. It is not

necessarily, or always, associated with over-use of
1913. ch

274 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—IQI3.

the eyes, either in school or elsewhere, for we see
it arise after illness, we meet with it in illiterates,
and we know that the predisposition to it is strongly
hereditary. But it is everywhere most frequent
among the most studious, and there is a mass of
evidence to show that it depends very largely,
both in its origin and in its progress, on over-use
of the eyes in near work.

A moderate myopia which does not increase
may be regarded as an innocent, though somewhat
inconvenient, over-development of the eye. <A
high myopia usually involves serious stretching
and thinning of the coats of the eye, and a liability
to further trouble. A high myopia in a child is a
very grave condition, for further deterioration
always follows. In connection with myopia alone,
to say nothing of other eye defects, the question of
school-work in relation to eyesight deserves more
attention than it has hitherto received.

The subject has many sides: the lighting of
school-rooms, the arrangement of the desks, the
design and proportion of individual desks, the
attitudes of the scholars, the amount of work
required, are all factors of importance ; but they
cannot be considered here. Our present effort is
directed to the standardising of school-books, a
very important step in the desired direction.

Small print leads the young scholar to look too
closely at his book. He is not yet familiar with
the forms of the words, and ‘his attention is not
easily secured unless he has retinal images larger
than those which satisfy the trained reader. To
obtain these larger images he brings the book too
near to his eyes, or bis eyes too near the book, and
this, for the reasons already given, is apt to be
injurious. Hence the importance of establishing
certain standards of legibility for school-books,

‘

ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 275

having régard to the ages of the scholars who are
required to use them, and of employing only such
books as reach these standards.

The importance of the matter becomes still
more evident when we remember that, according to
recent medical inspection, at least 10 per cent. of
the children in our elementary schools have serious
defects of vision, and about 20 per cent. errors of
refraction, and see less easily and clearly, even
when provided with proper glasses, than do normal-
sighted children.

At what age should children begin to read from
books? From the hygienic point of view the later
the better, and there is reason to believe that little,
if anything, is lost educationally by postponing the
use of books in school until the age of seven at
earliest. Beginners may learn to read from wall-
charts; and in the general instruction of young
children, teaching by word of mouth, with the help of
black-boards, large-printed wall-sheets, pictures, and
other objects which are easily seen at a distance, is
preferable from the medical standpoint, for it has the
great advantage of involving no strain on the eyes.

Hygienic Requirements with which School-books should
conform.

The Committee desires to acknowledge the
helpful advice received from Mr. J. H. Mason, Mr.
R. J. Davies, Mr. F. J. Hall, Mr. H. Fitzhenry, and
Mr. F. Killick in connection with the technical and
trade aspects of this section of its report; also to
thank Messrs. Caslon & Co., the Chiswick Press,
John Haddon & Co., the Imprint Publishing Co.,
Miller & Richard, Shanks & Sons, Stephenson,
Blake & Co., R. H. Stevens & Co., for the loan
of specimen books, types, and printing papers.

T2

276 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—IOQ13.

The factors which have been taken into con-
sideration are : (1) The nature of the psychological
process involved in reading; (2) the quality of the
workmanship employed in book-production ; (3) the
quality of the paper on which text and illustrations
are printed; (3a) the mode of binding books;
(4) the character of the illustrations and the pro-
cess employed for their reproduction ; (5) the colour
and quality of the ink used in printing the text ;
(6) the mode of printing ; (7) the character of the
type ; (8) the size of the type faces and their
vertical and horizontal separation; (9) the length
of the lines; (10 to 18) particular requirements
of special subjects.

1. The psychology of the reading process—The
special consideration to be here noted is that the
printing should be such as will facilitate the main
aim of reading—viz. the getting of the meaning of
what is read. The trained reader generally recog-
nises whole words and phrases at a glance. It is
therefore important that the process of beginners
should be made as easy as possible towards the re-
cognition of word-wholes and phrase-wholes by the
use of type suitable in character and judiciously
spaced. The best type for isolated letters is not
necessarily the best for word-wholes, and attention
must be given to the comparative legibility of
letters as seen in context.

2. Workmanship.—It frequently happens that
much of the good effect of well-selected type, paper,
&c., is neutralised by inefficient workmanship. In
all the recommendations which follow, good work-
manship will be assumed.

3. Paper.—The paper should be without gloss.

Glazed paper is trying to the eyes by reason of
reflections which are apt to interfere with binocular

ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 277

vision. Pure white paper gives the greatest con-
trast with the ink, and therefore a paper which is
white or slightly toned towards cream-colour is to
be preferred under average conditions of class-room
illumination. A hard-wearing paper of suitable
quality should be used, as a soft paper has two
defects—(1) it is readily soiled, (2) the surface is
easily rubbed off and the detritus is injurious.
The surface should be fairly smooth, because a
rough-surfaced paper necessitates a heavy im-
pression in order that the unbroken surface of
each letter may appear, which impression is liable
to cause a still rougher surface on the other side
of the sheet. The print of one side must not
show through from the other, and the printing
must not affect the evenness of the surface of the
other side. These rules also apply to illustrations,
which afford a good test of the opacity of the
paper. Books are occasionally bound and pressed
before the ink is dried, and a faint impression of
the opposite sheets causes a haze. Copies with
this defect should be rejected.

3a. Mode of binding books—Books should be
stitched with thread. Books should open flat and
should not require the restraint of the hand to keep
them so; stabbing or clipping should therefore
be avoided. If not flat, the convex surface of
the page gives rise to eye-strain. On recent tests
of a large number of school-books Mr. Bishop
Harman reports that certain small books with very
good paper and type could not be passed as
satisfactory because they were clipped from side to
side with wire staples. The books could not be
opened flat ; the back margin was lost and some-
times even the print nearthe back. The excessive
handling needed to keep such books open would
soon cause the pages to be soiled. Even in the

278 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—IQ13.

better samples of wire-stabbed and thread-stabbed
work the margin was reduced.

4. Illustrations include (1) pictures for young
readers, (2) diagrams and sketches, and (3) photo-
graphic reproductions involving considerable
elaboration of detail. For (1) it is important to
recollect that children are only confused by elabo-
rate or complex pictures. Bold, firm treatment
of a few objects is appropriate alike to their
visual powers and to their understanding. From
this point of view line blocks from pen-and-ink
drawings are preferable to half-tone blocks from
photographs or from wash-drawings. The pictures
should be of a good size, and the printed text
should not extend in narrow lines at the side. In
the case of (2) diagrams, it is important that the
lettering should not be too small to be easily read.
(3) For the older scholars it is sometimes necessary
to provide illustrations exhibiting details with the
precision most readily obtainable by photography.
For the sake of obtaining effective illustrations by
the half-tone method, use is frequently made of
highly glazed paper. Whenever this is done it is
important that such paper should be used for illus-
trations only, and not for the text. By the use of
recent methods it is possible to secure half-tone
prints with good rendering of detail on matt paper.
Blurred photographs not only fail to instruct;
they tend to injure eyesight.

5. Ink.—The ink should be a good black, and
it is important to secure a proper, sufficient, and
even distribution of it over the whole page. The
use of coloured inks for reading matter is strongly
to be deprecated, especially the use of more than
one colour on a page.

6. Mode of printing.—It is important that types
should be in true alignment along the base line.

ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 279

The practice of printing from stereos produces
quite satisfactory results, provided that the stereo
is carefully made from new or little-worn type. A
slight thickening of all the lines results from stereo-
typing, but this in no way detracts from legibility.
Stereos should not be used when they begin to show
signs of wear. The ordinary text of school-books
which are intended for continuous reading should
not be printed in double columns.

7. Character of type.—The type should be
clean-cut and well-defined. Condensed or com-
pressed type should not be used, as breadth is even
more important than height. The contrast between
the finer and the heavier strokes should not be great,
for hair-strokes are difficult to see. On the other
hand, a very heavy-faced type suffers in legibility
through diminution of the white inter-spaces, as, for
example, when the space in the upper half of the e
is reduced to a white dot. In an ideal type the
whites and blacks are well balanced in each letter,
and it is easy to discriminate between e, c, and 0,
between fand J, and between Aand k; and to recog-
nise m, nn, nu, nv, w, in. The general form of the
letters should be broad and square rather than
elongated vertically; thus the letter o should
approach the circular shape. Legibility is not in-
creased by adding to the height of a letter without
adding to its width. There should be a lateral
shoulder on every type so that each letter is distinct.
Long serifs should be avoided, and any extension
sideways which forms or suggests a continuous line
along the top or bottom is detrimental.

The upper half of a word or letter is usually
more important for perception than is the lower
half, because the upper half of most letters has a
more distinctive shape than the lower. In some

1 For explanation of technical terms, see Appendix.

280 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—IQT3.

recent type-faces the designers have accordingly
shortened the letters below the line, and lengthened
those above—thus the p is shortened and the A
lengthened, at the same time the upper parts of
the # have been raised. It is too early to pass
judgment on the results, and more experiment is
desirable.

With reference to the question of ‘modern-
face’ versus ‘old-face’ design for type, the
Committee is not prepared to advise the use of
either to the exclusion of the other, good and bad
varieties of both styles being at present in use.
Great contrast between the thick and thin strokes
is a serious defect which often appears in ‘modern
face.’ It is claimed for the ‘modern face’ that the
letters are more legible, and it may be conceded that
failure to provide the minimum height of the short
letters is more frequent in ‘old face.’ Hence the
letters of the ‘modern face’ are sometimes more
legible in the case of sizes below twelve-point.
The advocates of the ‘old face’ contend that the
‘modern face’ letters remain isolated, whereas the
letters of the ‘old face’ flow more naturally into
words ; thus the form of the word and its meaning
are apprehended smoothly. It is also claimed
that the basic design of the ‘old face’ is of higher
esthetic merit. The Committee insists on the
importance of the minimum height and breadth
for the small letters (vide columns 2 and 3 of the
table), and if this be secured leaves the decision
between the ‘modern face’ and ‘old face’ to
individual judgment helped by the criteria provided
in various paragraphs of this report.

Italics, being less easy to read than ordinary
type of the same size, should be used sparingly.

8. The size of type-faces and their vertical and
horizontal separation.—The size of the type-face is

ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 281

the most important factor in the influence of
books upon vision. Legibility depends mainly on
the height and breadth of the short letters, for the
larger the type the further from the eyes can it be
read with ease, and it is of the first importance to
induce the young reader to keep a sufficient
distance between eyes and book. Children under
seven years old should be able to lean back in
their seats and read from the book propped up on
the far side of the desk. (Asa rule books should
not be too large or heavy to be held in the hand.)
The appended typographical table shows the
minimum requirements, in the opinion of the
Committee, for the various ages given; the
dimensions are given in a form which can be
understood and utilised by readers unacquainted
with the technical terms used by printers.

The sizes and spacing of: the type suggested
for age eight to nine years may be adopted for
older readers.

The column giving the minimum length of the
alphabet of the small letters (7.e., not capitals)

Standard Typographical Table.

Maximum

Minimum | Minimum aoe . Maximum
Age of Height of | Length of ee | No. 2 ce Length
Reader Face of Short Alphabet of | “"'Gh ica. | P&E sertical’ or Measure of
Letters Small Letters P or 4 inches Line
| Under 7 yrs.) 3:5 mm. | 96mm. | 65 mm. | 10 / —
7to8yrs. .| 25mm. | 72mm. | 4:0mm. 15 / roomm.,
| or4in.
Stogyrs. .| 20mm. | 55mm. | 2-9 mm. | 20 93 mm.
| or 33 in.
|
gto 12 yrs..| 18mm. | 50mm. | 2°4mm. | 22 |; 93mm,
or 33 in.
Over 12 yrs.| 1°58 mm.| 47mm. | 2:2 mm. 24 93 mm.
| | or +: inch. or 33 in.

I inch = 25.4 mm.
Specimens of printed matter conforming with the above
table will be found in a Supplement.

282 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—IQI3.

affords a measure of the breadth of the types.
Strictly speaking, this cannot be measured by the
reader of a book. A sufficiently good estimate
can be made when it is recollected that there are
twenty-six letters in the alphabet, and accordingly
a word of thirteen letters should not fall short, to
a material extent, of half the lengths stated in the
third column. A rough rule may be given thus:
The number of letters per running inch or 25 mm.
should not on the average exceed—

6or 7 letters for readers under 7 years.
8or g 3 * Troma) 7 tO. ges
TiOlea2 8 He ast SOLO Oa
13 ” ” ” fe) to 12 ”
13 or 14 3 ‘3 over 12 533

By ‘interlinear space’ is meant the vertical
distance between the bottom of a short letter and
the top of a short letter in the next line below.
This space between the lines should vary in
proportion to the size of the type. Too little
space is a source of fatigue in reading, for it
involves difficulty in passing from the end of a line
to the beginning of the line below. Very wide space,
on the other hand, has no advantage as regards
legibility, and involves waste of paper and unde-
sirable increase in the size of the book. Columns
4 and 5 of the table indicate a suitable proportion.

g. The length of the line is important in a school-
book intended for continuous reading. Other
things being equal, the longer the line the greater
the excursions of the eyes and the greater the
difficulty in passing from one line to the next.
Very short lines, on the other hand, demand too
frequent a change of direction in the movement of
the’ eyes. The use of lines longer than “the
maxima given in the last column of the table is
sure to cause fatigue to a considerable proportion
of readers. |

ID A mee

ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 283

Approximate uniformity in length is desirable ;
but not absolute uniformity. It is doubtful
whether the power of fairly rapid intelligent reading
can be attained without the unconscious Deciaaate
ance of the swing from near the end of each line
to near the beginning of the next. This swing
may be compared with the motion of an oarsman’s
body between the strokes. An occasional slight
indentation in the lines helps the reader; but large
ones, if frequent, hinder the acquisition of a good
habit of swing. Children of eight years old should
not have their reading confined to very short
paragraphs, as the habit of swing has been found
well established in good readers of between nine
and eleven years of age. In other words, these
readers made the necessary eye-movements with-
out conscious effort and with great regularity.

Unusual separation of letters should be
avoided. For beginners, lines should not end in
the middle of a word; the whole word should be
carried to the next line and not be hyphened.
The admission in the table of a four-inch line for
the large type is a concession intended to meet the
difficulty of securing an even set of the letters in a
line of shorter measure.

Good margins are restful to the eye, and are
well worth their slight cost. Asa rule the margin
at the top or ‘head’ of a page should be less than
that at the bottom or ‘tail’; less on the inner
side or ‘back’ than on the outer or ‘ fore-edge.’
So many influences, including optical illusions,
have to be considered in determining the proportion
of margin that it is not thought desirable to propose
formule for the purpose. It should be considered
a defect in a school-book if the width of fore-edge
is less than half an inch, or of back-edge less than
three-eighths of an inch, at any page of the book.

284 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—IQI3.

Particular Requirements of special Sulyects :

10. Bibles, Prayer-books, and Hymn-books.—It is
to be regretted that these books are so frequently
printed in type which is injurious on account of its
small size. It is desirable that the standard given in
the table should not be lowered with respect to these
important books, which are frequently used under
poor conditions as regards illumination. The fact
must be faced that the Bible contains more matter
than can be squeezed into a volume of a size
which can be handled by children. It is desirable
that one or more volumes should be issued, con-
taining those parts of the Bible which are used in
schools. When it is considered desirable to place
the complete Bible in the hands of older pupils, this
should be in parts or fascicules. The public
demand for handy Prayer-books has led to the use
of compressed type and of thin paper which is
liable to show the print through. Children should
not read bijou editions of Bible, Prayer-book, or
Hymn-book.

10a. Poetry.—As it is occasionally impossible
to set poetry satisfactorily in type of the size given
for under seven years, excepton a large page, aheight
of face not less than 3 mm., with length of alphabet
not less than 84 mm. may be allowed in these cases.

11. Books for Evening Work.—The unfavourable
conditions resulting from artificial illumination and
fatigue of the learners make it highly desirable
that the rules ‘from age twelve’ should be main-
tained for books to be used for home-work or for
evening continuation classes.

12. Exercises, Sets of Examples, and Questions. —
These are important parts of a_ school-book,
and the rules for the printing of them should on
no account be less stringent than those applied to

— =" a SS eee

ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 285

the rest of the book. The same rules should be
applied to test-cards. The use of hektographing
or other multiplying processes is increasing in
schools. Care should be taken to secure clear and
legible copies.

13. The Types for Mathematical Symbols, includ-
ing those used for Algebra, should correspond
with, or be larger than, the sizes of type recom-
mended for the various ages. It is important that
the smaller symbols should not be too fine. For
children under twelve years no fractions should be
employed less than 4 mm. in height of face; thus
in 3 the distance from the top of the 3 to the
bottom of the 4 should not be less than 4 mm.
For pupils over twelve the minimum face height
for fractions should be 35 mm. There should be
a clear interval between the figures and the
separating line. It should be easy to discriminate
between the numerals 3, 6, 8 and 9.

14. Squared Paper.—Use of squared paper
should be restricted to work for which it is really
required. If this be done, and paper with rulings
not less than one-tenth inch apart be used, there
will be little danger to vision. The use of milli-
metre paper should be restricted to students over
fourteen, and it should only be used by them ina
good light—on exceptional occasions.

15. Atlases—It does not appear possible to
avoid some use in atlases of type which is below
the desirable standard of size, and the care which
should be exercised by teachers in regard to the
children’s eyesight needs to be specially emphasised
in this connection. Their use should be avoided
when the illumination is below normal—the less they
are used for home-work the better. Location by
reference lines should be taught from the begin-

286 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—IQ13.

ning, and children should not be allowed to hunt
for a name in an undirected fashion, as they may
thus have to read fifty names in finding the one
sought. Atlases intended for use by children under
nine should have no type smaller than ten-point,
with minimum height of 1°6 mm. or one sixteenth
inch for the short letters. No school atlas should
be printed with type smaller than eight-point, with
minimum height of 1:2 mm. for the short letters.
The type should be extended; italics should not
be used more than is necessary, and should not
have fine hair-lines.

It is not necessary that every map should be
coloured. (It has already been pointed out that
colour decreases legibility.) In the case of
beginners, the colour helps the appreciation of area ;
but for this purpose the colouring should be pale,
and few names inserted. For the pourtrayal of
relief, the practice of block-shading the contours is
better than heavy black hill-shading by hachures.
Maps should be duplicated where it is necessary
(¢.g., Switzerland) to exhibit great variation of
contour together with several place-names. In
general it is better to multiply maps than to put
much detail into one.

If a system of inserting the names of every
town of a certain population be adopted, the
result is certain to be overcrowding of those
portions of the maps which represent highly-
populated countries. It would be better to avoid
this overcrowding, even at some sacrifice of system-
atic uniformity. Modern methods in the teaching
of geography are reducing the hunting for place-
names, and thereby diminishing eye-strain. This
advantage will be more general when the supply
of orographical maps to public elementary schools

ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 287

is increased. The reading of Ordnance Survey
sheets by the older pupils is not objected to,
provided they are used in good daylight.

16. Music——For the tonic sol-fa notation the
minimum height of the short letters should be
(a) for music, 2mm.; (0) for words, 1-5 mm. Staff
music is often produced by lithography, in which
all gradations of size and shape are possible. Care
in printing is needed, so as to secure well-defined
stave-lines and tails. Advantage should be taken
of the elasticity in the length assigned to different
bars in the lithographed music, so as to avoid
compression of complicated passages. For begin-
ners music of the size of the ‘Giant Note’ is
recommended. For others, the stave-lines should
not be less than 1°75 mm. apart, or the four spaces
should measure not less than 7 mm. The ruled
paper for music-writing should have lines not less
than 2 mm. apart.

17. Greek. Greek type is troublesome to
beginners by reason of its unfamiliarity and of the
difficulty of synthetising accents and letters into
word-wholes. Type which has a line of uniform
thickness affords easy discrimination of individual
letters, and is legible in mathematical formule,
even when small sizes are used. The variety -
Greek type which employs fine hair-lines should
be entirely abandoned. For reading, it is recom-
mended that no type smaller than twelve-point be
used for beginners, or eleven-point for experienced
readers.

18. German.—The older styles of German type
are not easily legible, partly on account of the ill-
placed hair- lines : at the top of the letters: Recent
forms of the black letter used in German books
are improved in this respect; but since Roman

288 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—IQI13.

type is being used largely even for literary works in
Germany, the use of the less legible German types
may be reduced in our schools with some gain to
the security of eyesight.

Conclusion.

The Committee observes in conclusion that :—

(1) The existence of a very serious amount of
visual defect among children of school age is
established as a result of official inspection. Some
portion of this defect is preventable by greater care
in the selection of books.

(2) It is desirable that a standard of book-
production should be established, and that the
publication of books below standard should cease.

(3) It appears possible that the adoption by
local education authorities of a common standard
would render unprofitable the publication of books
which failed to reach such standard.

(4) It is hoped that this report may assist the
responsible authorities in the work of determining
the standard of book-production requisite for the
protection of the eyesight of children so far as it is
influenced by the books which the children are
compelled to read in school.

ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT, 289

APPENDIX.
Notes on Technical Terms used in this Report.

Type-body, type-face, lateral shoulder, large-face.—
The letters are cast on a ‘ type- -body’; the part of
the type which actually leaves its impress is the
‘face.’ When the face is nearly as large as the
body will carry, the type is ‘large fee. The
space on the upper surface of the body on each side
of the face is the lateral ‘shoulder.’ All one reads
is the impress of the faces of the type.

Serif.—A type in which each letter had only its
bare necessary features would be ‘without serif,’
the serifs being the terminals of the letters. If of
proper design, the serifs guide the eye from letter
to letter and give a balanced effect. In some styles
the serifs take the form of purposeless ornament,
which is undesirable in books which are intended
for continuous reading.

In condensed or compressed type the bodies are
narrow, so that the letters are narrow and close
together. Column 3 of the typographical table
excludes such type.

Old face and modern face refer to styles of type.
In the specimens in the Supplement the faults of
the more extreme varieties of each have been
avoided.

Heavy type, heavy fractions refer to type of which
the lines are thick.

Point is a unit of measurement. Unfortunately
manufacturers do not agree precisely as to the size
of ‘point’ which they use. Approximately one
point=1/72 of an inch. Thus an eighteen-point
type has a body one-quarter inch high. The face
may be of any size smaller than the body.

SS U

290 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—IQ1I3.

Solid and leaded.—lf the types of consecutive
lines are set with no vertical interval between the
bodies, the type is ‘solid.’ When there is a vertical
interval, say of a thirty-sixth of an inch, the type is
‘two-point leaded.’ A large face type of ten-point
body with two-point leading will produce about the
same vertical space between the short letters as a
small-face type of twelve-point body printed solid.

An indentation occurs in a line where the print
does not extend to the same length as in neigh-
bouring lines, ¢.g., the first line of this paragraph.

A

ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 201

SUPPLEMENT

SELCIMENS OP BYPE,

Tue Committee draws attention to the fact that
there is considerable variation in the size of the
faces of the various types coming under the same
rating in point body, or bearing the same trade
description. The following specimens are inserted
for the purpose of illustrating the dimensional rules
proposed by the Committee in the Standard Table

(p. 281). The Committee does not undertake to
recommend these or other individual designs of type.

For the purpose of testing books reference
should be made to the Standard Table, as in several

instances the specimens exceed the minimum

requirements.

U2

19T3.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

292

SET PIO Fed

Aqary T se uMouy odd} Wo poqwtg

‘a]qva [eorydessodAy ay) UT WHNUTUTU
oY} ULYI JoBIV] a1e SIoqay oy “srRaA
UdABS JapuN UaIpyIyS Aq pol oq
0} syooq Jof pasn aq Avut od AQ sty TL

“T “ON

"NHAHS WHAON!

293

ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT.

MAIS PIO WO FZ
WOJ} poJULIg ‘afqev} [eorydvsisodA}
oY} Ul UdAIS UMWIUIUT 34} Uv}
JISIv] 91e SIo}}o] IY], ‘Wadas
Jopun Uolpiys Aq pvol oq 0}
SYOO JO} posn oq Avu odA} sIq]

NYAS WHANN

"6 ‘ON

1913.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

294

‘anbryuy 9eAj¢g
PIO WIOd v2 Worl peywiid ‘“e[qe4
jeorydesgodA} oy} Ul USALS WINWIUIU
94} UCU} JesIe] ate S192] UL
‘usAVS Jopun UsipfIya Aq peor aq
0} Syooq 10} peasn oq Aeur adA} SIy TL

‘NHAHS UaUHCNYN)

ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 295

wot. AGE SEVEN TO EIGHT

This type may be used for books
to be read by children from seven
to eight years old. The letters are
larger than the minimum given in
the typographical table. Printed
from Eighteen Point Old Style
Antique.

v5" AGE SEVEN TO EIGHT

This type may be used for books
to be read by children from seven
to eight years old. The letters are
larger than the minimum given
in a typographical table. Printed
from Eighteen Point Old Style,
with 2 point Leading.

296 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—I0QT3,

toe AGERE VEN TO: EIGHT
This type may be used for books to be

read by children from seven to eight
years old. The letters are slightly larger
than the minimum given in the typo-
graphical table. Printed from Old Style
Great Primer with 3 point Leading.

No. 7.* AGE EIGHT TO NINE

This type is suitable in size for books to be
read by children from eight to nine years
old. The size of the letters is slightly larger
than the smallest given in the typographical
table. Printed from Fourteen Point Old Style
with 2 point Leading.

ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 207

No. 8. AGE EIGHT TO NINE.

This type is suitable in size for books to be
read by children from eight to nine years
old. The size of the letters is slightly larger
than the smallest given in the typographical
table. Printed from Twelve Point Modern,
with 2 point Leading.

No. 8.* AGE EIGHT TO NINE.

This type is suitable in size for books to be
read by children from eight to nine years old.
The size of the letters is slightly larger than
the smallest given in the typographical table.
Printed from Twelve Point Antique Old Style
with 3 point Leading.

No. 9.* AGE EIGHT TO NINE.

This type is suitable in size for books to
be read by children from eight to nine years
old. The size of the letters is slightly
larger than the smallest given in the
typographical table. Printed from Twelve
Point Old Style Antique, No. 7, with 2 point
Leading.

298 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—IQTI3.

No. 10. AGE NINE TO TWELVE.

This type is suitable in size for books intended
for readers over nine years old. The size of the
letters is slightly larger than the smallest given
in the typographical table. Printed from Eleven
Point Modern, with 2 point Leading.

No. 11. AGE NINE TO TWELVE.

This type is suitable in size for books intended for
readers over nine years old. The size of the
letters is equal to the minimum given in the typo-
graphical table. Printed from 12 Point Old Style,
with 1 Point leading.

No. 12. AGE NINE TO TWELVE.

This type is suitable in size for books mtended for
readers over nine years old. The size of the letters
is equal to the minimum given in the typographical
table. Printed from 12 Point Old, with 1 Point
leading.

ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 299

No. 18. OVER TWELVE.

This type is suitable in size for books intended for
practised readers over twelve years old. The size of
the letters is in conformity with the smallest dimen-
sions given in the typographical table. Printed from
Ten Point Modern, with 2 point Leading.

No. 14. OVER TWELVE.

This type is suitable in size for books intended for
practised readers over twelve years old. The size of
the letters is in conformity with the dimensions
given in the typographical table. Printed from 11
Point Old Style, with 1 Point leading.

No. 15.* OVER TWELVE,

This type is suitable in size for books intended for
practised readers over twelve years old. The size of
the letters is in conformity with the smallest dimen-
sions given in the typographical table. Printed from
Ten point Antique Old Style, with 2 point Leading.

Oe ee

No. 16.* OVER TWELVE.

This type is suitable in size for books intended for
practised readers over twelve years old. The size of
the letters is in agreement with the requirements
specified in the typographical table. Printed from
Ten Point Old Style Antique, No. 7, with 2 Point
Leading. *

300 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—I1913.

12 POINT GREEK.

AIOAETZANTES 6€ tH "Apditodw Kat “Arod\wviar,
MOov eis Beccadovixyny, omov Av 7H cuwaywyy TOV
lovéaiwy, kata S€ Td etwbds TO Iaviw etondOe mpos,

TONIC SOL-FA MUSIC.

(The smallest size suitable for school use.)

ee ————
(ees cea seid id :- :e tf o:- Swi So eee ree
Sleep, gen - tle |babe, your pret - ty|eye - lids clos -

ee sl Tay 34 la Biv: Sy eal lp ee : Si fi :- 26) hfs =—: -
fase s=ohma See ram 32. edoldeos- sd td eee! eet ss,
Sleep, gen - tle jbabe, yourpret - ty|eye - lids clos -

fi 2= 3- \fervs- sefeiliey! s40ie's, | of!) =! ogy li c/ig lies ook

ig )
a. Fe eae Bes sete ae es get see
ing, Soft sleeps the ;moon - beam
mi sebee dl = taeda ev s- slave. tmlf.. 2 = 2 ae
OS ae oe ee eae Mist? Se fe- pl iran Rel Es See cee
ing, P Soft sleeps the|moon - beam
Git Alig, Siteiy fT ies Silk vant | ockee Sel ee
Sleep on till | day,

2

* — ee -
et eae wr

ORGANISATION OF INDUSTRIAL AND POOR-LAW SCIIOOLS. 301

The Curricula and Educational Organisation of Industrial and
Poor-Law Schools.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Mr. W. D. Eaaar (Chairman), Mrs. W. N. Saw (Secre-
tary), Professor R. A. Grecory, Mr. J. L. Hotzanp, Dr.
C. W. Kimuins, and Mr. J. G. Lace, appointed to inquire
thereinto, with special reference to Day Industrial Schools.

In furtherance of the Committee’s recommendation copies of their
Report of 1912 were sent (by order of the Sectional Committee) to the
Board of Education, the Home Office, and the Local Government Board.
The Committee were reappointed to watch for provision being made for
“adequate reports upon all educational work and training either to
central or local authorities.’ In the event of no such provision being
made the Committee were authorised to arrange for a discussion to
elicit public opinion on the matter.

In a speech in the House of Commons on July 22 (reported in ‘ The
Times,’ July 23) the President of the Board of Education asked: ‘ Would
the House believe him when he said that it was not possible for him,
as Minister of Education, to say how many Secondary Schools there
were in this country, or what they were doing? There might be 10,000
or 15,000; he could not say because he had not the right to ask.’ The
President might have included in this question Elementary as well as
Secondary Schools.

He went on: ‘ They told him that in the County of Middlesex there
were perhaps several hundreds of schools outside the purview of the

Board of Education altogether.’ The British Association Report of

last year shows that this is undoubtedly true of many institutional
schools throughout the country. To quote the President further, ‘The
State, having made education compulsory, ought, however, to be in a
position to give parents some guarantee that the education which their
children received was not positively harmful to their minds or bodies.’
To meet this state of things the Government would propose next
session ‘ that there should be power to make a comprehensive survey of
educational institutions of every kind.’ ‘The Board of Education
would take power to decide what was and what was not education.’

Any survey of schools presupposes a knowledge of the existence
of the schools. It would not appear possible to obtain this knowledge
without the co-operation of the schools themselves. There are at
present no lists of schools which are complete for either elementary or

secondary education. What is required is power to obtain complete

lists.

The Committee have therefore arranged for a discussion on the
“compulsory registration of all schools, public or private, and of all
institutions giving instruction, technical or general, with the qualifica-
tions of the teachers.’

The Committee have considered the question of registration with a
local or central authority. The Board of Education appears to be in the
first instance the appropriate authority. As a Government department
dealing expressly with educational organisation and requirements for
the whole country it would appear that the primary need of such a

302 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

department is complete knowledge of existing educational facilities, and
the Committee therefore desire to ascertain the views of representatives
of various classes of schools on the question.

In the discussion it is expected that papers will be read by the Right
Reverend Bishop Welldon, Dean of Manchester, the Right Reverend
Bishop McIntyre, Roman Catholic Bishop of Birmingham, and Mrs.
Sophie Bryant, D.Sc.

The discussion will be continued by speakers representing girls’
private boarding-schools, waifs and strays schools, and others.

Mental and Physical Factors involved in Education.—Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor J. J. Frnpuay (Chair-
man), Professor J. A. GREEN (Secretary), Professor J.
Apams, Dr. G. A. AUDEN, Sir EDWARD Brasrook, Dr. W.
Brown, Professor EK. P. CULVERWELL, Mr. G. F. DANIELL,
Miss B. Foxury, Professor R. A. GREGoRY, Dr. C. W.
Kimoins, Professor McDoucatt, Drs. C. 8S. Myers; T. P.
Nunn, W. H. R. Rivers, and F. C. SHRupsaut, Mr. H.
Bompas SmitH, Professor C. SPEARMAN, Mr. A. E. TwEnty-
MAN, and Dr. F. WARNER, appointed to inquire into and report
upon the methods and results of research into the Mental and
Physical Factors involved in Education.

Tur Committee has been concerned with the problem of the
Psychology of Spelling with a view to the establishment of sound
methods of teaching. In pursuit of this end researches were instituted
under the guidance of Dr. Myers at Cambridge and Professor Findlay
at Manchester. The reports of these researches are given below. The
conclusions they embody have not, however, been accepted by the
Committee. They are submitted for discussion with the further hope
of stimulating additional research.

The thanks of the Committee are due to Miss Fairhurst and Miss
Suddards for the work they so kindly undertook. The Committee
desires to be reappointed.

1. Psychological Analysis and Educational Method in Spelling.
By Miss Susie 8. Farruurst.

Spelling, as the reproduction of the constituent parts of a word-
whole, in speech or writing, involves a mechanism somewhat different
from that of reading, which is recognition of the word-whole. The
desideratum of teaching method is that it should involve the least
possible expenditure of time and energy in the production of efficiency
in spelling. A study of the actual processes involved, in children and
adults, is obviously of first importance.

Tn the total word-complex there are the visual and writing-motor
elements forming the written symbol, and the auditory and speech-
motor elements of the spoken symbol. The visual and auditory

a

MENTAL AND PHYSICAL FACTORS INVOLVED IN EDUCATION. 303

elements may be either perception or imagery; the motor elements
either actual movement or imagery. The writing-motor adjustment is
less highly specialised, more artificial, and more lately acquired than
the motor processes of speech. It is probable that its imagery does
not pass over so readily or so definitely into actual movement. The
impulse to image or actually to experience the writing movement on
hearing a word is much more controllable than the tendency to articu-
late on seeing it. The visual form of each letter carries a qualification
due to the tactual and muscular experiences of writing it; but those
experiences are not nearly so important for the comprehension of the
visual form of a new word as are the speech-motor elements. They
are probably more important with children than with adults. Writing
movements do not appear to act as an independent medium of memory,
as the speech movements may do; they rarely enter as a conscious
factor into recall, and, when present, are so as a qualification of the
visual memory. The intrinsic value of the writing memory appears
greater than it strictly is by virtue of the extra aids it affords to
visualism, to attention, and to the fusion of the visual and auditory
elements.

Articulation of syllables is usually introduced into any method of
learning. The visual form does not become a ‘ word’ until it is pro-
nounced, either aloud or internally. The tendency to pronounce on
seeing the word is almost universally irresistible and essential to learn-
ing, whatever the imaginal type of the observer. Anthropological con-
siderations throw some light on this fact—spoken language precedes
written.

The wnit of spelling is usually the syllable—the syllable finds direct
expression as one whole, even in spelling by speech. And the syllable
is primarily a speech-unit; the letters are grouped by sound-synthesis,
the visual form often showing syllabic grouping in correspondence.
There is visual synthesis of the general form of the word, as a visual
picture, apart from its sound-value, but the synthesis of syllabic group-
ing is determined by and follows on articulation. With a perfectly
familiar word, the articulatory syllable simply ‘is’ the visual form—
the fusion is complete. As regards the correspondence of visual and
auditory constituents, the English language is in a peculiar position.
The visual word-whole contains its parts, the letters unchanged. The
auditory-motor whole is a very different thing from the sum-total of
the sound values of the letters (apart from letter-names); some of
them are not represented at all, and many are quite changed in value.
The auditory constituents of a word are strictly not the letters, but
phonetic units. A complicated and highly variable system of corre-
spondences between the spoken and written letters thus occurs. This
Increases the strain on mechanical memory—a separate memory for
almost every word being necessary.

Articulation of the letters is thus no direct aid to the spelling
memory and a wasteful method of learning. ~Drill of some form is,
however, essential to spelling efficiency, since the spelling process is in
the nature of a habit, and efficiency means a habit so fixed as to be
almost unconscious. Articulation of the syllables simultaneously with

304 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

the writing of the word is probably the best method of learning—it
introduces every essential element, visual, auditory, and motor; by
producing the visual elements in succession it aids the exact analysis
of the speech-whole, it helps the synthesis of the visual elements in
accordance with the articulatory units, and therefore the fusion of the
written and spoken symbols.

The experiments on which these conclusions are based will be
described at the meeting.

2. An Invesligation into Spelling at the Fielden Demonstration School.
By Miss Iba Supparps (in collaboration with other members of
the staff, Miss MrrcneLu and Miss Marrutas).

Parr I.—The Problem.

(a) Spelling is the reproduction from memory of certain arrange-
inents of symbols to which convention has attached definite meaning
for the common purpose of written intercourse. The good speller
normally achieves success through constant practice in reading and
writing, whereby correct mental images, visual, auditory, and motor,
are obtained largely on the margin of attention. Practice in the correct
writing of words implies:

(1) Imitation, by means of which certain memory images develop
. and the required habit is gradually formed ;

(2) Reproduction by means of these memory images—notably motor
images.

The scholar reaches the end in view when the written symbol is
produced automatitally in the conventional spelling.

(b) It is only necessary to be able to spell such words as we need
to write. The smaller the vocabulary the smaller the chances of bad
spelling. Many schools, especially some elementary schools, pro-
duce a great number of people who never spell badly because they use
so few words. The sacrifice of ideas to formalism necessarily restricts
growth of vocabulary, and scholars passing through such schools spell
correctly because of the limited number of words they have the oppor-
tunity of spelling incorrectly; but these are badly educated people.
Modern culture implies a wide experience in reading and writing;
hence it follows that scholars must be allowed scope for reading and
writing freely.

(c) But here is the crucial point—the greater the opportunities for
enlargement of experience the more pronounced the spelling difficulty
becomes. Of the child’s three vocabularies, (1) speaking, (2) reading,
(3) writing, the growth of (1) and (2) far outstrips (8), and in the
attempt at a wider and more complete expression the habit of bad
spelling is formed. It is this differentiation of rate in the acquirement
of the three vocabularies which is at bottom the cause of bad spelling.

(d) To meet this difficulty some schools place undue emphasis on
spelling. The scholars spend time and effort on spelling lists and
rules as a separate branch of study. Any such attempt at basing
spelling on conscious processes fails in that it fixes attention on the

od ie

{

MENTAL AND PHYSICAL FACTORS INVOLVED IN EDUCATION. 305

mechanism of expression rather than on the thought to be expressed;
to have to think how to spell a word hinders expression. The problem
then is to insure the same standard of accuracy, but by means which
will not hinder development or waste time.

Parr Il.—Investigation of this Problem with Scholars ages 8 to 10.

(a) By the tests referred to in the paper the following points were
noted :—

1. The highest standard of accuracy was reached by the eight year
olds in Class II. who have no free written composition. The subject
matter of their writing is given orally by the scholars, written on the
blackboard by the teacher and copied by the scholars into their books.
They see and write only the correct forms of words, and their written
vocabulary is thus under the control of the teacher.

2. Class III. (nine year olds) gave a higher percentage of error.
In this class free composition is first begun, the teacher loses control
of the written vocabulary, and the spelling disease begins to show
itself.

3. In Class IV. the speaking and reading vocabularies increase still
more rapidly, the teacher has still less control than in Class ITI., and
inaccurate spelling was shown to be on the increase.

(b) As a result of this diagnosis the following reforms are being
instituted :—

1. It is clearly better to spend time in the forming of accurate
spelling habits at the beginning than in the correction of wrong habits
later. In the early stages scholars may be prevented from spelling
incorrectly by never giving them the opportunity of doing so; hence we
now delay ‘ free’ written composition so as to keep the scholars’
written vocabulary within the control of the teacher.

2. The transition to free written composition is made gradually with
strict oversight from the teacher. The scholars use small dictionaries
and are constantly reminded of the need for correct spelling in any
“free ’ writing which they undertake.

3. In spite of these precautions some errors still occur. From the
result of a recent investigation by Mr. Stanley Wyatt at the F.D.S.
into methods of treating errors, the following procedure has been
adopted for the correcting of these :—

The misspelt words are to be actually obliterated and practice given
in the writing of the correct symbols—i.e., the right form is brought to
the focus of attention. Each scholar keeps his own note book, where
such words are entered.

(c) In every class there are one or two scholars for whom the.
ordinary class teaching is not sufficient. For these spelling is made
more of an independent study, and special methods are devised to meet
the needs of individual cases, taking time from other pursuits. Such
cases, however, are not permitted to stop the normal progress of the

I class as a whole.

1913. x

306 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir HENRY Misrs (Chair-
man), Professor Marcus Hartoa (Secretary), Miss L. J.
CLARKE, Miss B. Foxuey, Professor H. Bompas SmitH, and
Principal GRIFFITHS, appointed to inquire into and report
on the number, distribution, and respective values of
Scholarships, Exhibitions, and Bursaries held by University
Students during their undergraduate course, and on funds
private and open available for their augmentation.

Your Committee sent out early in the spring a Questionary to the Heads
of all the Universities and University Colleges in the British Isles
(omitting professional and technical schools). Their answers, arranged
and somewhat abridged, will be found in Appendix I. We have omitted
much valuable information dealing with benefactions for post-graduate
and research study, and limited ourselves to answers dealing with the
courses for the primary degree. Appendix II., modified from the
evidence before the Royal Commission on the Civil Service, shows
in order of value of total emoluments the number of beneficiaries
entering the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge respectively.

The Committee desire to express their warm thanks to those who
by their willing answers have enabled them to present so much
valuable information to the British Association, and suggest the desira-
bility of their reappointment.

APPENDIX I.
QUESTIONARY AND ANSWERS.

University College, Cork: March 11, 1913.
Drar —— ;
On behalf of the above Committee I write to ask if you will very kindly furnish
me with information in regard to the following questions :—

I. The number, duration and respective values of Scholarships, Exhibitions,

and Bursaries in your College ?

II. Whether two or more such benefactions are tenable together ?

Ill. Whether any limit is imposed on the maximum annual income derived
from endowments of all kinds by a single beneficiary ?

IV. Have you at your disposal any funds (a) of permanent endowment; or
(b) of private benefaction to supplement Scholarships, &c., for the
complete maintenance of students of exceptional promise ?

V. (a) Have cases occurred in which successful candidates have been obliged
to decline Scholarships, &c., on the ground of inadequate personal
means ? :

(b) Have any deserving beneficiaries retired during their course through
lack of adequate means ?

(c) Have such resignations been met by help from or through the College;
and if so in what way ?

VI. Will you very kindly add any further suggestions or information bearing
on this matter ?

I am, dear
Faithfully yours,
Marcus Harroe
(Secretary to the Committee).

il tie

- a AE OI OT LCT

SCHOLARSHIPS, ETC., HELD BY UNIVERSITY STUDENTS. 307

ANSWERS RECEIVED.

BaLLioL CoLLEaE, OXFORD.

I. Annual open, 4 minor Exhibitions of 40/. ; 3 Exhibitions of 701. ; 7 Scholarships
of 802. Annual close, 1 Exhibition of 180/.; 1 Scholarship of 60/. Every fourth
year, 1 close Exhibition of 401. ; 1 Scottish Exhibition of 120/.

The above are generally tenable for the full Undergraduate course (four years).
Annual; 1 Exhibition of 1007. for Senior Undergraduates of the College for two years.

II. No; except last Exhibition of 100/., and a minor Exhibition of 40/. is tenable
with close Exhibition of 60. when the candidate has taken a high place in the Open
School Examination.

_ TIT. No limit. Most scholars and some commoners hold subventions from Schocl,
County Council or City Companies, and a few gain University Scholarships.

IV. A fund of 1507. per annum charged on College revenues, supplemented by
private benefactions, amounting to an average of 3301. for the last ten years. This
is used to help commoners as well as scholars who need a supplement. Exceptional
promise would be an additional inducement for grants, not a necessary condition.

V. (a) and (b) Not aware of such refusals for the last twenty years, but they
may have occurred earlier. After the death of two predecessors it became known
that they had helped privately.

(c) The fund under (IV.) would be applicable. Cases where a man has for family
reasons to emigrate or begin earning money without completing his University career
cannot of course be met.

VI. ‘Given a man of health and ability sufficient to be successful in open com-
petition, and of sufficient previous education, I believe that there is nothing to deter
a poor man from a successful Oxford career. If there is any obstacle it must be
found on the “ lower rungs of the ladder.” I am told that opportunities differ con-
siderably in different parts of the country.’

Form sent to the father or guardian of scholars elect at Balliol College, Oxford :—

Dear Sir, Balliol College, Oxford.
Under a system by which Scholarships and Exhibitions are filled by open

competition, it will inevitably happen that they are sometimes gained by those who
are not in need of the emoluments attached to them. You will have seen that this
possibility is anticipated in the notice relating to Scholarships and the conditions of
their tenure issued before the Scholarship Examination.

Tf this is the case with Mr. who has been elected to a
at this College and you think it proper that he should surrender the whole or any
part of the emoluments to which he is entitled while retaining the status and other
privileges of a , Lhave to inform you that effect will be given by the College
to your wishes as to the application of such emoluments. Should you express no
such wishes as to the application, any money which he may surrender now, or which
at any future time he may feel himself to be in a position to surrender or repay, will
be paid into a Fund established in the College for the assistance of those who require
assistance to avail themselves of the advantages of a University education. Any
such renunciation of emoluments will be treated by the College as confidential, and
those receiving the help you give will only know that it comes to them through a
College Fund.

T enclose a memorandum which will inform you as to College expenses.

Will you kindly let me know what are your wishes in this matter ?

Tam, Sir,
Yours faithfully,

Master of Balliol College.

BRASENOSE COLLEGE, OXFORD.

I. (a) Open :—13 Scholarships of 100/.; 4 (usually, number variable) of 80/. ; un-
fixed number of Exhibitions of 701. (b) Restricted :—4 Scholarships of 80/. ; varial le
number of Scholarships of 70/. ; 2 Exhibitions of 80/. ; 3 Exhibitions of 401.

Il. Blank.

III. No limit.

IV. No funds specifically set aside, but men whose College emoluments are

x 2

308 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCTENCE,—1913.

supplemented by grants from school funds, &c., can sometimes support themselves
completely during their career.
V. (a) and (6) No.

(c)
VI. Scholarship Regulations contain proviso: ‘ The holder of any Scholarship to
which no pecuniary restriction is attached will be allowed to retain the status of a

scholar without receiving the emoluments, should he express a wish to that effect.’

Curist CHURCH, OXFORD.
I. Open: 6 Scholarships of 80/.; 3 Exhibitions of about 85/. (money and

allowances). Close: 3 Scholarships of 807. All tenable for two years and renewable
for two more by the Governing Body, and ultimately for a fifth in satisfactory

circumstances.

II. No.
III. No limit for Scholarships. Candidates for Exhibitions must satisfy the

Dean that they are incapable of coming to the University without financial assistance.

IV. (a) Grants may be made from College Funds, not amounting in all to over
4001. in any one year, to scholars or commoners who need assistance. Such grants
are in practice made for one year only, but are renewable.

(b) There is a Poor Scholars’ Fund which depends almost entirely on private
benefactions administered by the Dean.

V. (a) and (b) I know of none.

(c) Financial difficulties have been met under IV.

VI. The statutes make a similar provision to Brasenose College.

EXETER COLLEGE, OXFORD.
I. 11 Scholarships, open, of not more than 80/. and 1 of 100/.; 8 close of not less

than 60/. and 1 or more of not more than 1001. (all of which may be opened in default
of the preferred class of qualified candidates); 2 Scholarships of 80/. for persons
intending to take Holy Orders and needing assistance at the University. Various
Exhibitions (mostly close), all limited to those needing assistance at the University.

IIT. None by Statute, but by College policy.

IV. No permanent endowment; but a deserving scholar who is poor can be
helped by a grant from general College Funds or a special fund.

VI. (a) Only Scholarships of less than 80/.

(b) None.

HERTFORD COLLEGE, OXFORD.

I. Majority Scholarships, open to Churchmen only, 30 of 100/. for five years ;
10, varying from 40/. to 80/., for four years, besides a number of Exhibitions.

II. Not from College sources.

III. No limit.

IV. No.

V. (a) Exhibitions only.

JEsus COLLEGE, OXFORD.

I. Open Scholarships, 12; close Scholarships, 22 of 80/. to 1007. Exhibitions,
several open and several close, of 301. to 607. All granted for two years and renewable
on satisfactory industry and good conduct for two more.

II. No, but a grant from the Exhibition fund may be made to a scholar or
exhibitioner.

III. No statutable limit, but no grant is made out of the Exhibition Fund except
to the really necessitous.

IV. (a) The Exhibition Fund.

f @) Only one case in forty years unable to come up on 60. per annum.

(b) No.

(c) In extreme cases exceptionally large grants have been made from the Exhibi-
tion Fund.

LINCOLN COLLEGE, OXFORD.
I. Scholarships, about 17 of 801. or 60/.; Exhibitions, about 10 of 40/., or more

usually 30/.

Il. No; but the value of a Scholarship may be increased, or an exhibitioner
elected to a Scholarship.

Iii. No limit; the College is not always aware what other benefactions are held.

SCHOLARSHIPS, ETC., HELD BY UNIVERSITY STUDENTS. 309

IV. (a) There is a small fund applicable.

(b) Occasionally private benefactions are forthcoming, or the College may grant
remission of fees or other charges to deserving students.

V. (a) Yes, occasionally.

(b) and (c) I cannot recall such cases. i

VI. A similar provision to that of Brasenose College.”

MacpaLen CoLLEGE, OXFORD.

I. 30 Scholarships and Exhibitions in variable numbers, according to needs and
merits of candidate: tenable for not exceeding four years as a rule, in many cases
for only three, never exceeding five.

II. No; except in so far as additional grants are made from the Exhibition Fund,
independently or in addition to Scholarships.

III. No limit; but we take maximum annual income into account in awarding
Exhibitions or grants. There are a certain number of Scholarships and Exhibitions
given by the County Councils and by the City Companies, sometimes on the results
of examinations, sometimes on recommendation, which are of very material assistance
to students.

IV. (a) The Exhibition Fund, which could in theory be used for complete main-
tenance of students of exceptional promise. But practically speaking, it is not so
used, as we always expect that the student should enjoy some other benefaction, or
that friends should come to his aid.

V. (a) I have known of no case.

(b) Very seldom.

(c) As a rule assistance has been given from the Exhibition Fund, supplemented
by donations from private friends.

VI. It not infrequently occurs that successful candidates decline to accept Scholar-
ships in whole or in part because they do not need the whole assistance. I am in-
clined to think that money given in Scholarships is at present too diffused, and that
it is better for County Councils and others to concentrate their resources on a few
candidates of marked ability rather than to spread them over a number of weaker
candidates who often are not able greatly to profit by an University education.

New Coniecr, Oxrorp.

I. 10 or 11 Scholarships of 50/. in each year, tenable for two years, renewable for
two years, and in exceptional circumstances, for a fifth ; 6 Scholarships are restricted
in the first instance, but, if the limited candidates do not show sufficient merit, may be
thrown open for that competition. About 2 or 3 Exhibitions of 50/., tenable for two
or three years, confined to those in need of assistance, not tenable with Scholarships.

II. Tenable with outside Exhibitions (School, County Council, &c.). We have
a private Exhibition, usually of the value of 30/. a year, given to those men who may
be in need of assistance, tenable with a Scholarship.

IV. (a) The Exhibition Fund ; a loan fund.

(b) A small private benefaction.

V. (a) I can scarcely remember any such case.

(6) I can scarcely remember any deserving candidates who have had to retire
during their course for lack of means, though a man who is not succeeding well might
be allowed to retire.

PremBRoKE CoLLEGE, OxFoRD.
I. 34 ranging from 1001. downward, chiefly 80/., mostly restricted to schools or
ae tenable during residence for four years.
. No.
V. (a) and (b) Not during my Mastership.

Sr. Joun’s Cottece, Oxrorp.

I. Open Scholarships, 13 of 80/.; close Scholarships, 22 of 100/. (besides 4 open
to members of the College of 4 terms standing of 80/., and only tenable for one or two
years). All open Scholarships and 7 of the close, tenable for four years, which may
be increased to five; 15 close Scholarships, tenable for five years.

At present, 7 open Exhibitions of 40/. to 70/., tenable as open Scholarships; 5
close Exhibitions of 40/. to 80/., tenable as open Scholarships. Variable number
(5 at present) restricted to undergraduates of 4 terms, of 20/7. to 60I.

IL. Scholarships and Exhibitions not tenable together.

310 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

III. No limit.

IV. (a) The Exhibition Fund of not less than 600/. per annum. It is not usual to
erant more than 60/. in one year to an individual.

(6) A small fund of about 40/. in the hands of the President, sometimes augmented
by private gifts to 70/., is usually distributed in gifts of about 10/. to deserving and
needy undergraduates, not necessarily scholars or exhibitioners.

V. (a) I cannot recall any.

(b) I think not.

(c) If such resignations were threatened, the College would certainly intervene
in the case of a promising and deserving undergraduate.

VI. I have only to add that this College has for many years past done its best
to keep and encourage poor men.

MeErtToN CoLLEeGE, OXFORD.

I. 20 Scholarships of 80/.; 4 Exhibitions of 80/., plus a limited number (about 2
a year) of 60/., restricted to candidates in need of assistance at the University. All
tenable at the outset for two years, renewable for two years if the holder has given
satisfaction. A fifth is sometimes sanctioned for special reasons.

II. No.

III. No.

IV. An Exhibition Fund, including an annual subsidy not exceeding 400/. from
the College, and the emoluments of vacant Scholarships and dividends from two
bequests of about 601. a year.

V. (a) No resignations. The College gives help from the Exhibition Fund to
very poor students who cannot live on their Scholarships. Only latterly the holder
of an Exhibition of 80]. received an addition of 50/. on the grounds of poverty and
exceptional promise. But so large a grant is unusual.

WanduAm CoLLecr, OxForRD.

I. 14 Scholarships, 1 of 867. ; 13 of 80/., tenable, as a rule, for four years; 14 Ex-
hibitions of 23/7. to 60/., tenable for four years.

II. No, with four special exceptions.

III. No.

IV. (a) A fund of about 50/. in the Warden’s hands to assist deserving students.

(b) Frequently some assistance from private benefaction.

V. (a) and (6) I have never known of such cases. Sometimes deserving students
get their Scholarships or Exhibitions supplemented by private benefaction.

VI. Our scholars almost always come from homes where some help is needed for
a boy to come to the University. During my thirty years’ experience I cannot recall
a single case of a scholar or exhibitioner to whom the money was immaterial, and
may also mention that in case of special need or desert help is given for residence
during a fifth year. Each such case is decided on its merits.

Att Sours’ CoLLEGE, OXFORD.

I. 4 Bible Clerkships, value consisting in lodging, tuition, and allowances, fully
coven board during academical terms, tenable for three years.

SING:

IIT. No.

IV. A sum of 1507. per annum in aid of non-Collegiate students in cases of need,
on the recommendation of the Censor.

VY. (a) and (b) No cases.

QuEEN’s CoLLEGE, OxrorD.

I. 4 open and 1 close (which in defect of qualified candidates, is thrown open).
Scholarships of 80/. awarded annually, tenable primarily for two years, and renew-
able, if holders are satisfactory, for two years; for special reasons, may be continued
for a fifth.

Two Bible Clerkships conferred, as vacancies occur, on deserving persons in
need of assistance at the University, of 80/. (or 90/. if resident in College), on same
tenure as Scholarships. :

1 J. O. F. Scholarship of 907. every fourth year, restricted to Churchmen, and 4
J. N. F. Scholarships of 100/. for five years, awarded as they fall vacant, restricted to
Churchmen. Caet. par. a candidate who stands in need of pecuniary assistance is
to be preferred.

ES =

ee

at vs

SCHOLARSHIPS, ETC., HELD BY UNIVERSITY STUDENTS. at

Exhibitions, all close, 4 or 5 of 100/.; 1 of 1002. for two years, which may be
extended to a third and to a fourth year; 1 of 42/.; 2 of 68].; 2 of 251.; 1 of 43/7.;
1 of 61.; 1 of 5/. 5s.; 1 of 97. Most of these are restricted to poor and deserving
students. All may be thrown open on defect of qualified candidates. Close, of 701.
for seven years; 2, 40/. for four years; 1, 331. for four years; 2, 60/. for four years;
1, 627. for students of the College in their twelfth term (theological) for one year,
which may be extended to a second; 1 of 50J. a year, and-a benefaction of 101.

~ No.

III. No. A large proportion of our scholars and exhibitioners receive supple-
mentary Scholarships from their Schools or County Councils or from the City Com-
panies. A good many are completely maintained.

IV. A small Exhibition Fund might very occasionally be available, but it cannot
be advertised.

V. (a) No.

(b) No.

(c) Difficulties have frequently been met by aid from the Exhibition Fund.

Trinity CoLLtEcr, OxFrorp.

T. (a) 18 Scholarships of 80/.; 8 Exhibitions of 60/. to 70J.; 4 or more close
Studentships of 55/7. Scholarships and Studentships tenable for four years; Ex-
hibitions for three or four years.

II. No.

III. No.

IV. An Exhibition Fund from which payments can be made to members of the
College who need assistance to complete their University course ; private benefactions
from time to time.

V. (a) Very rarely, as candidates usually know the probable expenditure required
for a University course.

(d) I remember none.

(c) The College has not infrequently supplemented Scholarships by grants from
the Exhibition Fund and by loans.

VI. A considerable number of members of the University, including many of those
who hold College Scholarships, have been awarded University Exhibitions by the
Education Authority of the district to which they belong.

Kesitte CoLLeGe, OXFrorpD.

I. Scholarships of 80/., Exhibitions of 502. primarily for two years, though capable
of being extended for two more.

Il. No.

III. No.

IV. I have 2007. a year of permanent endowment that I can use in this way.

V. (a) and (b) No cases.

Lapy Maraaret Hatt, Oxrorp.
IV. There is a Loan Fund common to all women students in Oxford.
V. (a) Yes, occasionally.

SoMERVILLE COLLEGE, OXFORD.

i, Awarded annually, 2 Scholarships of 60/. for three years; 1 of 50/. for three
years (which may be extended for a fourth). Awarded triennially, 2 Scholarships of
50/. for three years (with possible extension for a fourth), and one of 40/. for three
years. A few Exhibitions (1 to 3) of 202. to 30/. for three years (with possible exten-
sion to a fourth). ;

Another Scholarship of 507. is awarded without examination annually, usually
to ae a three-years’ Scholarship to a fourth year.

oO

Ill. No.

IV. (a) No permanent endowment.

(6) Friends of the College have occasionally supplemented Scholarships privately.
There is the Loan Fund (see Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford).

VY. (a) I don’t remember such a case.

(b) One case. The scholar was (already) a graduate of another University, and

_ the College thought it best in the scholar’s own interest that she should accept a good

teaching post offered her and resign the Scholarship.

312 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCTIENCE.—1913.

VI. Ascholar or exhibitioner may, for the benefit of others who need assistance, -
relinquish the whole or part of the emolument, while retaining the title.

Sr. Hueu’s CoLLEGE, OXFORD.

I. Annually, 1 Scholarship of 25/.; biennially, 2 of 30/., 2 of 40/., all tenable for
three years and renewable for a fourth.

II. No.

III. No.

IV. None.

V. (a) No.

(6) and (c) Retirements would have occurred but for help through the College
(private Loan Fund) or from the Loan Fund of the Association for the Education
of Women in Oxford.

Curist’s COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.

I. Average number of scholars and exhibitioners in residence, 40. Nominal
value, 20/. to 80/.; but additional grants or reduction of fees, amounting to at most
201., are sometimes allowed privately in cases of poverty. Except there be dis-
tinct evidence of idleness, the Scholarship is retained normally to end of third year,
sometimes continued to fourth, and occasionally to fifth year. The total average
annual amount of the last six years is 1,800/.

II. No two open Scholarships or Exhibitions tenable together, but the value of a
Scholarship may be increased. A close Scholarship, connected with a particular
School, may be held with an open Scholarship.

III. No. The amount of a student’s income from endowments of all kinds is,
however, a factor in fixing the amount of his Scholarship, except in the case of those
elected before coming into residence.

IV. No.

V. Candidates for Scholarships awarded before residence has commenced are
asked to state the minimum value they are prepared to accept, and if they do not
come up to the necessary standard for that value they are not elected. In very rare
cases such a candidate has written to say he finds he cannot come into residence
on account of his Scholarship not being adequate.

VI. The fund for these benefactions arises partly from trust funds, liable to con-
siderable fluctuations, but chiefly out of the corporate income, the amount payable
out of this to the fund being one-quarter of the sum paid in the same year to the
Master and Fellows; and this sum again has of later years been supplemented
by grants from the Society. Our system has the great advantage of elasticity; the
amount and duration of the Scholarship is within certain limits fixed by ourselves
to meet the requirements of the special case.

The present system works well. No rich men hold Scholarships, and in
nearly every instance the benefaction is necessary to enable the student to come to
the University. The cases in which an intellectually deserving candidate fails to
obtain a Scholarship are rare indeed ; they hardly exist. It is most undesirable to
attract by emolument poor men of ordinary ability... . The College badly wants
funds for advanced students in specialised subjects.

Downine CoLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.

I. 6 Foundation Scholarships at least tenable till graduation standing of 501. to
807. ;_ a varying number of minor Scholarships and Exhibitions, tenable for one year,
of 201. to 501.

Il. No; but may be tenable with benefactions outside the, College.

Ill. No.

IV. No.

V. (a) I can recall no case.

(6) and (c) Additional aid from the College has prevented any actual retirement.
JESUS COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.

I. Entrance Scholarships are limited by Act of Parliament to 80/., and tenable
for two years, but are ordinarily renewed and frequently increased in value. Scholar-
ships (except some close Scholarships) are never less than 40/. and seldom exceed 80.

Ii. Trust and open Scholarships may in general be held together, but the total
amount of benefaction received by any individual seldom exceeds 801.

III. No limit is imposed. I do not see how it would be possible to do so. But
in determining the value of any Scholarship regard is paid to the total income of the

ee

—"

SCHOLARSHIPS, ETC., HELD BY UNIVERSITY STUDENTS. 313

scholar and his parents’ means. Generally, this is only possible in the case of scholars
already in residence.

IV. No; but privately many scholars (and undergraduates who are not scholars)
receive assistance from the College or the Tutor.

V. (a) No, by the conditions: ‘Candidates are required to state the value (usually
minimum) which they are prepared to accept, and are bound to accept any offer
of the value they state.’

(b) Whether any scholars have ever retired for this reason I do not know; there
has been no recent instance.

(c) The College sometimes gives assistance to scholars and others.

MaGpALENE CoLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.

I. Number variable of Scholarships and Exhibitions. At present 24 in residence,
besides 6 Sizars and 4 Subsizars. Scholarships are of 401. to 801. ; Exhibitions gene-
rally of 30/.; tenure of both for two years, after which they may be prolonged and
increased if the holders prove of sufficient merit. Sizarships are worth about 34l.
and Subsizarships consist in the reduction of certain fixed charges, and admission to
certain privileges at a given fixed charge.

II. A Scholarship or Exhibition is tenable with a Sizarship or Subsizarship, or
with a ‘ private Exhibition ’ of 25/. (see IV.).

If. No.

IV. (1) Trusts amounting to about 120]. per annum from which small benefac-
tions are made annually to poor and deserving students.

(2) Ordinands Fund of 50/. from which grants of 10/. are made to candidates for
ordination requiring assistance.

(3) A private Exhibition Fund, providing 12 Exhibitions a year of 25/.; but
in no case do we provide for the complete maintenance of students.

V. (a) Occasionally ; but it seldom, if ever, happens that a candidate of real
ability is obliged to decline an emolument on such grounds, as they are generally
able to get additional help by means of School, or County Council, or City Company
Exhibitions.

(6) No, not to my knowledge.

PEMBROKE COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.

I. Annually offered, 2 Scholarships of 80/.; 4 of 601. ; 4 of 50/.; and Exhibitions of
30/., all tenable for three years and renewable for a fourth.

II. No.

III. No.

IV. A small fund is available.

V. (a) No.

(6) Only when sudden financial disaster has overtaken the parents.

(c) Private liberality has never failed.

St. Prtrer’s CoLttEGE, CAMBRIDGE.

II. No; but grants in aid may be made from a fund for deserving students,
but no grant would be made to an 80/. Scholar.

IV. Two private funds for deserving students administered by the Tutor with
the cognisance of the Master; and a fund for the encouragement of research from
which grants are made to students after graduation. No funds for complete main-
tenance of a student of exceptional promise.

V. (a) Cases may have occurred.

(6) I cannot remember any case.

SeLwyn CoLiecn, CAMBRIDGE.

If. The endowed Scholarships may be supplemented from the Exhibition Fund
if the scholar is regarded as reaching a higher standard, but two benefactions cannot
be held together.

IIT. No limit.

IV. No.

V. (a) ‘ Yes, from time to time. Now and then it has been possible to interest
private individuals to come to the rescue before or after the candidate comes into
residence ; but the College has no means at its disposal! for the purpose.’

VI. ‘I should suggest that local authorities should be prepared to subsist all
candidates from their area which have reached the requisite standard in an open
competition, instead of making their support dependent on a further competition
for a limited number of local Exhibitions.’

314 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

NEwNHAM COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.

I. 5 Scholarships of 50/. for three years and 2 of 35/., tenable for three years ;
1 of 50/., tenable for two or three years, and another of 50J., tenable here or at
Girton Coliege for three years; 1 of 100J. for first year’s students, tenable for three
years; 1 of 40/. for one year for third-year students. A number of small grants,
generally of 15/., tenable with or without Scholarships; 5 grants of 5/. for books to
students. All but one of above Scholarships are awarded annually.

II. Only as stated above.

III. No limit.

IV. A Loan Fund, from which as much as 301. a year may be borrowed for three
years. No other permanent endowment, though help may be given as stated above
by means of the grants and Loan Fund and from private sources.

V. (a) No such cases.

(b) I believe not.

(c) Such resignations would be met by help from the grants and Loan Fund.
By means of these a student holding the smallest of our Scholarships, one of 35/.,
could make it up to 801. (our fees are 90/.) with 15/. grant and 36/. loan. As a rule,
however, we find that the students most in need of help have school Scholarships,
and that their families are able to give them a little help.

UNIvERSITY CoLLEGE, Lonpon.

I. 44 Scholarships, varying from 10/. to 150/.; tenure varying from one to three
years—‘ in two cases this may be raised to five.” Two Exhibitions of 57/. 15s., tenable
for three years ; 2 Bursaries of about 16/., tenable for two years.

II. Permission must be obtained to hold two College Scholarships at the same
time, and in the case of the A. entrance Scholarships, the following Regulation obtains :

No student is permitted to hold an A. Scholarship concurrently with any other
College Scholarship when the joint annual value of such Scholarships exceeds 50/.,
except upon the special recommendation of the Professorial Board.

III. No.

IV. I have small sums placed at my disposal by friends of the College and mem-
bers of the College Committee from time to time to help poor students, who are now
greatly helped by County Scholarships. -

V. (a) I have only known of one since my tenure of office here for the last nine

ears.
i (b) In two cases during my tenure of office.

VI. I think it would be a good plan if all Scholarships, Exhibitions, and Bursaries
were given practically as loans with the understanding that if and when a student,
who had benefited from holding a Scholarship, found himself financially able to do
so, he should return at least the sum that he had received. It has been done in one
or two cases, but it should become a general policy and tradition.

Kine’s ContteaE, Lonpon.

I. Scholarships (1 entrance), 1 of 307. for one year (in alternate years); 2 of 25/.
for two years; 2 of 301. for three years; 2 of 25/. for four years; 2 (to Students of
the College), 1 of 20/. for two years; 2 of 201. for one year (first and second year’s
medical respectively); 1 of 20/. for five years (training of medical missionaries).
Exhibitions, 2 of 25/. for two years (1 entrance).

Theological, 6 Exhibitions of 50/., 5 Exhibitions of 20/., and a few Bursaries at the
discretion of the Dean.

II. Most of the above are entrance Scholarships, and not more than one can be
held. The Regulations for the other benefactions make it impossible for more than
one to be held at a time.

III. No limit.

IV. No regular fund, but Scholarships are sometimes supplemented by private
benefactors.

V. (a) Yes, but not often.

(b) Yes, but not often.

(c) On rare occasions from general College funds.

Kinqe’s CoLLEecE FoR Women, Lonpon.

I. 2 Scholarships of 401. for three years, each awarded once in three years; 1 of
301. for one year (to second year Arts Students not necessarily of the College) in entrance
Scholarships in Classics of 251. for two years. Exhibitions of the value of 60/. for

SCHOLARSHIPS, ETC., HELD BY UNIVERSITY STUDENTS. 315

three years are open. Five Bursaries in Theology, covering fees for one session, are
given to members of the Church reading for Certificate or Diploma, and who show
that they are in need of financial help.

II. Two Scholarships may and at present are held by a single beneficiary.

TIT. No.

V. (a) No.
(6) No. Had such a case arisen, I think that the College would undoubtedly
have assisted.

GoLpsmitus’ CoLLEGcE.

I. None, except when the London County Council award a free place. They are
entitled to award 15 in consideration of their annual grant towards the maintenance
of the College.

II. :

III. Not by the College Authorities.

IV. None.

V. (a) Application for free places is made to the County Council. I am not,
therefore, in a position to answer.

(b) Not that I know of.

Roya Hottoway CoLuece.

I. Scholarships, 4 of 60/., 7 or 8 of 501. at entrance, tenable for three years. Bur-
saries not more than 6 of 30/., tenable for three years. After not less than three
terms’ residence, 3 at least of 301. for three years, and 1 of 60/. for three years.

II. If two (entrance and other) are held together, a reduction of 15/. is made.

III. No limit.

IV. None.

V. (a) No successful candidate has declined a Scholarship, but there have been
several cases where a successful candidate would not have been able to take up a
Scholarship without the help she received, either from her school, or from a County
Council or other awarding body. In the case of the smaller Scholarships, namely,
Bursaries, it has happened in several cases that these benefactions have been de-
clined as a candidate was‘unable to furnish the remaining amount required for the
fees.

(6) and (c) So far as I know, no deserving beneficiary has been allowed to retire
from her course through lack of means ; but there have been cases where this retire-
ment would have been necessary if the students had not received help from a Loan
Fund which has been established in connection with the College.

VI. I think that there is great room for increase in the help given by local edu-
cation authorities to promising girls in order to enable them to go to College. Where
an examination for Scholarships is strictly competitive, as in the case of our own
entrance Scholarship Examinations, and, I believe, the entrance Examinations
of all other Colleges, and where the funds are strictly limited, only a small number
can be helped by the College to take up their career. I feel sure that the British
Association Educational Section could do much to educate public opinion in this
very important matter.

BrEprorp CoLLEGE roR WoMEN.

I, Entrance Scholarships, 1 of 60/.; 4 of 30/.; 4 of 501. tenable for three years ;
1 Scholarship, 601. for two years; 1 Fellowship (? post-graduate), 50/. for two years.
Residence Bursaries, which reduce the fees of residence by 14 guineas, are given to
students who are unable to pay the full fees.

II. No two College Scholarships may be held together, but a College Entrance
Scholarship may be held with a Scholarship or Exhibition from another source by
special permission of the Council. Residence Bursaries are sometimes awarded to
Scholars.

Ill. The question has not arisen.

IV. (a) No. There is a small ‘ College Fund’ supported by voluntary contribu-
tions, from which grants are made to needy students, but these grants are not as a
rule made to scholars.

(b) Scholarships are occasionally supplemented privately, but in no case does
this provide for a complete maintenance of the student.

V. (a) and (4) Not during the last six years.

316 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

WESTFIELD COLLEGE.

I. 5 to 7 Scholarships annually of 35/. to 50/. for three years (last year 7 were
awarded, each of 50/.); 1 permanent endowed Scholarship of 50/. for three years,
offered every third year.

II. No.

III. No.

IV. Private help is in many cases given to supplement Scholarships, and also
to help students who do not hold Scholarships. I have arranged for this privately.

V. (a) I believe that in some cases a Scholarship or Bursary has been declined
where the winner has failed to gain another Scholarship elsewhere to supplement
the one offered by the College.

(b) I think not. Help has been arranged in case of need.

(c) I have arranged privately for help by gifts or loans, and have received some
gifts for this purpose from members of Council, old students, and friends of the College.

VI. Examinations are not as a rule a full test of merit, and the help and most
value are given to desirable students who have passed a standard, and when the person-
ality and circumstances are taken into consideration.

UNIVERSITY OF DURHAM.

I. At entrance, 5 open Scholarships (to men and women) of 70/.; 1 of 401. ; 3 of
30/., for one year, renewable for a second and third year; 1 of 70/., for women only ;
an Exhibition of 301. for students of limited means ; 3 second year’s Scholarships of
30/., one restricted to those who do not hold any Scholarship or Exhibition, and two
Exhibitions of 401. restricted to candidates for the B.A. in Theology. A number of
close Scholarships and Exhibitions, ranging from 50/. to 8/., all for one year (except
two for three years).

II. No holder of a Foundation Scholarship can hold together with it any other
Scholarships or Exhibitions (except two University and two close Scholarships for
Graduates) which will with it amount to as much as 100/. a year.

ARMSTRONG COLLEGE, NEWCASTLE.

I. (a) At entrance, Exhibitions, 2 of 15/.; 1 of 20/. for one year, tenable and re-
newable for a second year, subject to satisfactory conduct and progress; 20 Exhibi-
tions of free admission to the courses for two years, renewable for a third under same
conditions ; with these may be provided Bursaries for successful candidates who,
without such aid, would not be able to accept the Exhibitions ; 2 close Exhibitions,
giving free admission to Degree course (same conditions). County Council Scholar-
ships and Exhibitions (restricted locally), 2 of 601. ; 2 of 50/.; 2 of 40/., plus tuition
fees, tenable for two years only; 1 yearly of 50/. in Marine Engineering, for three
years, restricted to candidates who can produce satisfactory evidence that the amount
will enable him to pursue his day courses, and that he would be unable to do so with-
out this aid; 3 Scholarships in Naval Architecture of 50/. under same conditions.

(b) At close of first year, a Scholarship of 30/. or under for one year, plus remission
of two-thirds of the class fees; 1 of 20/., with similar remission for three years; 1
Scholarship of 15/. for one year; 1 of 13/. 10s. for one year (renewable under condi-
tions for a second).

(c) At close of second year, 2 Scholarships of 40/. (with remission of laboratory
fees), and other money rewards and prizes.

ae The second year’s Scholarships and Exhibitions are not tenable with any
other.

Tue Victoria UNIVERSITY, MANCHESTER. .

About 24 Foundation Scholarships, awarded by the University. A large number
of entrance Scholarships, awarded by other bodies, varying from 25/. upwards; 12
Exhibitions of 15/. upwards; numerous prizes of books and money.

I. “No... Scholarship or Exhibition awarded by the University shall be held
together with any other . . . Scholarship awarded by the University or with any
County Council School, without the express permission of the Senate. In the case of
students who hold other . . . Scholarships or Exhibitions of any kind the Senate
shall have power to withhold, either in whole or in part, payment of any . . . Scholar-
ship or Exhibition awarded by the University. In the case of .. . Scholarships,
Exhibitions, and Bursaries awarded by a Hall of Residence no such permission is
necessary (University Scholarships are frequently held with County Council Scholar-
ships up to a maximum of 751. by special permission of the Senate).’

RR rr

SCHOLARSHIPS, ETC., HELD BY UNIVERSITY STUDENTS. 317

Ill. ‘The Regulation stated above limits concurrent tenure, but there is no fixed
maximum limit as to the amount a single beneficiary may hold laid down by the
Regulations.

IV. Not at present. A small sum is set aside for assistance to deserving students
to enable them to complete their course in case of special need arising.

V. (a) Yes, but not frequently.

(6) I cannot recollect such a case.

(c) Under very special circumstances a supplemental grant has been made from
the Scholarship Suspense Account, or private loans have been given.

UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM.

I. (a) On entrance, 15 of remission of fees plus maintenance not exceeding 301.
for four years (city residents) ; 2 of 25/. for one year; 1 of 24/. for two or three years
(Wolverhampton students) ; 1 of 50/. and 1 of 401. for three years (Faculty of Com-
merce); 2 Bursaries of 45/. for three years (parents’ income not exceeding 1501.) ;
and one of 13/. (residents of Smethwick) for one year, renewable.

(6) Second and later years in Science, Arts, and Commerce, awarded mostly on In-
termediate Examination, 1 Scholarship of remission of fees for three years (pupils of
Technical School) ; 1 of 407. for three years; 1 of 25/. for two years, and 1 of 361. for
1 year (limited to pupils from King Edward’s Schools) ; 1 of 50/. and 1 of 401. for three
years (Commerce) ; 1 of 37/. for one year (Science and Metallurgy) ; 4 Exhibitions of
301. for one year.

(6) Medicine, 1 of 21/7. for 2 years; 1 of 14/. for one year (orphans of medical men) ;
4 of 10/. 10s. for one year on results of second, third, fourth, and final examinations.

II. No.

IV. We have no funds at our disposal of a permanent kind to supplement Scholar-
ships for the complete maintenance of students of exceptional merit. We provide,
however, out of ordinary revenue for maintenance up to 30/. per annum, in respect of
60 University Entrance Scholarships, tenable by candidates resident in the city.

(a) The amount to be expended in any year on Scholarships and Bursaries
respectively in any year is in the discretion of the Committee, and is determined by
the applications received. Bursaries may provide for complete maintenance ; their
amount depends on the circumstances of the applicant and of his parents or guardians.

(b) No.

VY. I do not remember any instances of (a) or (6).

Tne University or LEEDS.

I. Entrance Scholarships, 2 of 20/. and 1 of 21. for two years; 3 of 40/1. for two
years for a third; 2 of 25/. and 1 of 35/. renewable ; and a number of Scholarships
on the award of public bodies. The Leeds City Entrance Scholarship Fund is now
utilised ‘for the purpose of extending the courses of deserving and necessitous Leeds
students attending at the University.’

II., III. ‘ Power is reserved to declare a Scholarship vacant or reduce its value on
the ground that the Scholar has previously or subsequently to his election acquired
another Scholarship. In cases where students hold Scholarships the aggregate
amount of which amounts to more than 75/., the Senate reserves power to reduce them
to this sum.’

IV. I am not quite clear as to the intention of this question. We have no fund
which is necessarily used as a means of supplementing Scholarships, but some of the
Scholarships and other awards may be given to students already holding some other
Scholarship. Special grants have also been given by the University to Scholarship
holders.

V. (a) (b) and (c) The information available is not sufficiently definite for a reply
to be given to these questions. If such cases have occurred, they have been very
rare. Special grants have been made to Scholarship holders by the University, and
private help has sometimes been forthcoming.

UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL.

I. Scholarships, 3 of 30/. to 34/. for one year; 1 of 25/., for not exceeding three
years; 1 of 20/. for one year; ‘ City Scholarships ’ (variable, dependent on applica-
tions and qualifications of students, remission of fees) for one year renewable ; ‘ City
Bursaries,’ under same conditions, for maintenance, purchases of books or apparatns,

II. ‘ Not as a rule.’

III. No.

V. No.

318 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD.
I. Scholarships and Exhibitions :
l every year, tenable during whole degree Course, 122J. a year.
8 every year, tenable for three years, 50/. a year.
2 a x ¥, 301. a year.
15]. first year, plus fees remitted.
11 KA AF 5 201. second year
| 251. third year 4
2 re FA Pi 50]. a year ee
1 (triennial), tenable for three years, 50]. a year.
ys i 211. a year.
4 (annual), tenable for one year, Fees of Degree Course remitted.
4 be a a in Engineering or Metallurgy remitted.
1 ” ” 33 o
Medicine.
1 3 = one year 20.
3 “é ~ 50/. plus fees remitted.
In addition, the Surveyors’ Institute offer 1 Scholarship of 607. and 1 of 50/. for
three years, tenable in this University.
II. Only with the special permission of the Council and Senate of the University.
III. Not specifically ; but the regulation cited in answer to II. provides a check
against any student receiving too large a sum in Scholarships.
IV. No.
V. (a) Not to my knowledge. I think I should be justified in saying No.

(b) No.

University CottEcr, NottmeHaM.

I. Scholarships, 1 of 12/. for one year, renewable at the discretion of the Council
College Studentships (16 during 1912-13) of 10/. to 187. awarded on results of Terminal
and Sessional Examinations to College students who are in need of pecuniary assist-
ance, tenable for one year, renewable. City Education Bursaries of 10/., with re-
mission of College fees, averaging 181.

II. Under exceptional circumstances the College Council might sanction a Student-
ship being held together with one of the above-named Scholarships. It is possible
for holders of College Scholarships and Studentships to hold Scholarships awarded
by another body during the same period.

III. No. In awarding Scholarships, however, the pecuniary circumstances are
in some cases taken into consideration.

IV. No.

V. (a) Very few such cases have occurred.

(b) The College Studentships are designed to meet such cases.

University CoLLecr, READING.

I. Scholarships and Exhibitions releasing the holder from payment of College
fees wholly, or in part; or contributing towards the cost of his or her maintenance
while at the College. Major Scholarships, 2 of 69/., 1 of 65/., at entrance, tenable for
two years, renewable for a third. Two minor Scholarships of about 20J. (7.e. re-
mission of tuition fees) under same tenure. Exhibitions, several, of which only
the Gallia (107.), awarded to Matriculated Students in French, is available for ordinary
undergraduate students.

II. Not two College benefactions in ordinary circumstances. Comparatively
small Exhibitions, however, may be awarded to students holding other Scholar-
ships or Exhibitions. The Committee governing our halls of residence also occa-
sionally make small supplementary grants to students who already may be holding
Scholarships or Exhibitions, if the cases seem to make such a course desirable.

III. We have no definite rule.... In this institution, during many years, I
have only known one case in which it could fairly be said that perhaps the candidate
was receiving too much money. In that case, he was not receiving Scholarships
from the College at all, but derived them from other quarters.

IV. Our chief Hall of residence for men has an endowment, the object of which
is—provided that the working expenses of the Hall have been first defrayed
—to enable Scholarships and Bursaries to be granted to students in residence
at the Hall. The full scheme is not yet in operation, but ultimately there should be,
in a Hall of 77 students, about 6 scholars in receipt of about 40/. a year each,

IM

ie ae

SCHOLARSHIPS, ETC., HELD BY UNIVERSITY STUDENTS. 319

and possibly more holders of Exhibitions and Bursaries of smaller sums. We shall
also be in possession quite shortly of an endowment to provide a Scholarship of 607.
a year, tenable by a candidate from R. School. Apart from these instances, we have
occasionally given Scholarships temporarily out of our College income, or they have
been provided by special gifts. I am not aware that we have ever given a Scholarship
which involves “‘ complete maintenance.” In our opinion, such a course would be
rarely desirable.

V. Ido not remember a case of (a) or (6). The College has frequently, on
the other hand, assisted students who could not complete their College course without
some special assistance in addition to that which they might already be receiving
from other sources.

VI. It is not quite clear to me what the precise purport of these inquiries is.
Consequently, I am afraid that the information I have given may not be of much use.
The most important observation, based on experience, that I can offer on the subject
of Scholarships would be this: that while entrance Scholarships serve a certain
obvious purpose, far too much stress has been laid upon the importance of having a
large supply of them, without giving sufficient importance to their duration. That
is to say, it isof very little use for a local education authority or other body to give a
Scholarship for two years unless it has quite clearly made up its mind that—except
the candidate fails in conduct or progress—the Scholarship will be extended, not only for
a third year, but for a fourth. Extraordinary difficulty is experienced in persuading
local authorities to extend any Scholarship for a fourth year, and yet it is precisely
that fourth year which, in the case of University students, is the most important of all.
Over and over again at this College our students have been placed in a difficulty in
the final year of their course. The difficulty arises in any kind of University course,

‘but I will give an instance of which I have had two recent examples. Two women

students, holding Scholarships from local authorities, successfully obtained their
degree after probably in each case three years’ work, not more, and possibly less.
These students wish to become teachers in secondary schools. Consequently, they
wish to remain at the College for another year in order to go through a course of
secondary training and get a certificate. Unless they do this, they will stand very
little chance of getting posts for which trained candidates are in competition, and yet
in both cases—the cases of the two Education Committees—opposition is shown
to the extension of the Scholarships for these purposes. In one case, the Education
Secretary writes to say that the course of secondary training appears to him to be
similar to a course of preparation for a civil service examination, and, in his opinion,
not a course for which a Scholarship should be continued. The same Secretary, I
believe, puts into his advertisements for vacancies in the staffs of his county secondary
schools that only trained candidates need apply. At this College we have recognised
that the most imperative need of all is for Scholarships that would take effect during
the third and fourth and even fifth years of a student’s stay with us. We consider
that these are more important than entrance Scholarships, and that nothing would
benefit a University institution more than for it to be known that, notwithstanding
a comparatively small supply of entrance Scholarships, there is a probability that any
hardworking and promising student will be enabled to complete a long course of
study, including probably a period of post-graduate study. We have already decided
that such funds as we possess available for such purposes will be used in accordance
with these principles when the College becomes a University in two or three years’
time.

University Cottegr, ABERYSTWITH.

I. 37 Scholarships and Exhibitions, 1 of 54.; 3 of 401.; 1 of 35/.; 1 of 271.;
4 of 30/.; 1 of 20/.; 2 of 15/.; 14 of 10/.; 1 of 61. Of these, 1 is tenable for four
years, 18 for three years, 12 for two years, 6 for one year.

II. No two of these are tenable together, but students may hold them together
with Scholarships from other sources outside the College.

Ill. No limit is imposed on the annual income derived from emoluments of all
kinds by a single beneficiary.

IV. There is no benefaction for the complete maintenance of students of excep-
tional promise.

V. (a) Cases have occurred. ‘ Occasionally the College can be of assistance by
obtaining private aid, but as a rule this is not possible.’

(0) ‘ Cases have also occurred of deserving beneficiaries retiring during their course

320 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

through lack of adequate means; but in most cases they have taken posts in schools
or otherwise, and have subsequently returned to College to complete their course.’

(c) ‘The Principal and Registrar have at their disposal a small loan fund from
which they make periodical grants to deserving students, free of interest.’

University CoLLEeGrE, BANGOR.

I, Entrance Scholarships, 1 of 40/.; 1 of 30/.; Exhibitions, 1 of 20/.; 4 of 101.,
tenable in the first instance for three years, but may be extended for a fourth; and
a number of limited Scholarships and Exhibitions, the highest of 30/., the longest
tenure three years.

II. ‘ No two College benefactions can be held together.’

III. No limit has hitherto been imposed.

IV. We have no permanent endowment or benefaction for this purpose. ‘There
is, however, a ‘ Loan Fund’ from which advances (repayable without interest) are
made to students who are unable without such assistance to complete their courses.

V. (a) We do not know of any case . . . great sacrifices are often made by the
parents of students in order to enable their children to come to College, and in many
cases friends in the locality from which a student comes render assistance.

For the Bursaries, etc., at the Scottish Universities, see Parliamentary Paper 411,
11 Dec. 1912.

St, ANDREWS.

I. The value of the Bursaries on entrance and their tenure, as given in the Parlia-
mentary Paper, are from 6/. 10s. to 501. respectively, and their tenure varies from
three to eight years. In addition to these, 7 Bursaries of 16/. 5s. to 30/., tenable for
two or three years, and two in the fourth year of 20/. and 451. respectively, have been
awarded.

An additional entrance Scholarship of 30/. for four years has been founded for
women students. As a rule, the Bursaries on entrance run only for three years, in
a few cases for four; and 6 Scholarships of 80/. for 1 year, 4 of 502. for two years,
and 5 of 50/. for one year, and one of 80/., tenable at Oxford or Cambridge, are not
included in the White Paper (some are post-graduate).

Il. Not as a general rule; but in the case of second-year Bursaries, they may
be awarded to a student, notwithstanding he already holds a Bursary gained at en-
trance.

III. No general rule imposing a limit. The rule just quoted to some extent
secures that there will be no undue accumulation of Bursaries in one person. As
regards outside Bursaries over which the University has no control, the case is pro-
vided for by a rule that no one shall be entitled to hold a Bursary in the University
with any outside Bursary yielding an annual income greater than 30/., and tenable
during a period of three years. The University authorities may at any time alter
this regulation.

IV. There is a small fund raised some years ago to enable Foundation Bursaries
to be supplemented. Two other funds left to the University without any reservation
may be devoted to the augmentation of existing Bursaries.

I do not remember any case, however, where money from any of these sources
has been drawn upon for the complete maintenance of any student. Of course, in
Scotland, the existence of the Carnegie Fund Trust for the Universities of Scotland,
which up till recently practically paid the class fees due by a student qualified to
obtain that benefit, forms a considerable supplement to the Bursary Fund. Students
may have their fees paid and hold a Bursary of from 15l. to 401. a year, in which case
the latter source of income provides for their maintenance.

V. (a) Ido not recollect such a case within my experience. Of course, the cases
are numerous in which candidates who were relying on assistance from the Bursary
Funds have been obliged, owing to their failure to obtain a Bursary or to some
other financial casualty, to defer entering the University, or to leave the University
midway in their career. No statistics and no definite note has been kept of such
cases. I do not think that in the case of a student of exceptional ability it could
easily occur.

(c) The University is enabled, out of a fund made up of the income from Bursaries
which from various causes have lapsed, to provide for the encouragement of students
of small means where they are known to have merit; and that more particularly
where, having struggled on through the curriculum for an ordinary degree, the student

SCHOLARSHIPS, ETC., HELD BY UNIVERSITY STUDEN''S. 321

desires to obtain honours. The University Court have provided, to meot that case,
for grants being made to students of the fourth and fifth year of study. Asa rule, the
ordinary Bursary or University Scholarship at entrance runs only for three years, in a
few cases for four,

University CoLLece, DunDEE.

I. Bursaries, entrance, 12 of 15/. ; second year, 4 of 20/., 2 of 15/. Third, fourth,
and fifth years each one of 20/., all tenable for one year only. Other Scholarships
and Bursaries in the gift of other bodies or patrons tenable, held mostly at this College,
are one of 60/. for two years; 2 of 25/. for three years; 1 of 251. to 301. for three
years; 5 of 40/. for three years.

II. Asa rule not ; but exceptions are allowed in special deserving cases.

Ill. This question is answered in the negative in reference to Answer IT.

IV. No.

V. (a) and (b) No.

VI. A Committee of the College Education Board is at the present moment in-
vestigating the whole question of the awarding and tenure of Bursaries concerning
the College, whose Report is expected before the close of the current academical year.

UNIVERSITY of GLAsGow.

I. Reference only to Parliamentary Paper. For undergraduates are provided a
large number of Bursaries of which few are over 40/. a year, 601. being the highest ;
tenable mostly for three or four years (the longest tenure is seven years). Exhibitions
and Scholarships are all post-graduate.

University of ABERDEEN.

I. Reference to Parliamentary Paper. Maximum value, 38/.; tenure one, two,
or three years, mostly four years, some five years, some seven years. A fund of 322/.
awarded in Bursaries of varying amount to such students as may require pecuniary
assistance to prosecute their studies at the University.

II. No; but a student may hold a Bursary of the University along with such a
Scholarship as the Ferguson, which is open to all Scottish Universities.

IIf. No.

IV. No.

V. (a) and (6) Not that I am aware of.

UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH.

(Compiled from Calendar and Parliamentary Paper.)

I. 10 Scholarships of 100/. for three years, open, after completing second year ;
1 of 271. for two years (after 1 course in Natural Philosophy) ; Bursaries, 235, ranging
from 10/. to 501.; 1 of 531. 15s. 4d.; 1 of 910. 12s. 8d.; tenure, mostly one to four
years, some of five, ten of six, and one of seven years.

Trinity Cottecr, DuBLIN, AND UNIvEeRsIty or DuBLIN.

I. 70 Foundation Scholarships given at various stages, and tenable till degree
Standing of 18/. 9s. 4d. yearly. 14 Non-foundation Scholarships of 30/. under same
tenure, for women students. Twenty Roll-keepers, markers, &c., from 7I. to 201.
yearly, and Provost’s marker with 45/. yearly ; 30 Sizarships, 5 Reid Sizarships, 5
Sizarship Exhibitions, emoluments not specified ; 4 lady Sizarships of 12/. Exhibi-
tions from 4/. 12s. 4d. to 20/., 25/., and in two cases 501.

II. Yes.

III. No limit.

IV. None for complete maintenance.

V. (a) and (6) No.

THE QUEEN’s UNIVERSITY, BELFasT.

I. (a) Foundation Scholarships, junior, 40 of 40/., tenable for one year; 3 of 401.,
6 of 30/., 4 of 201., 3 of 157. in the Faculty of Medicine ; 3 of 201. in the Faculty of
Law, and 6 of 20/. in the Faculty of Commerce. Extra Scholarships may, in special
circumstances, be offered for competition among Art(s?) Students entering upon
their second or third year.

(6) Private endowment, 1 of 20/., on entrance, for one year, renewable for a second
and a third year ; 3 Sullivan Scholarships of about 40/., for three years, on entrance,
restricted to national teachers or assistant teachers ; 2 of 20/. for one year; 1 (Megaw)
of about 40/. for one year (restricted to Christians) ; 1 of about 40/., payable in three

1913.

322 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

annual instalments ; 1 of 10/. and 1 of 5/. in Commerce, tenable for two years; 1 of
about 27]. for women, payable in three annual instalments; 1 Exhibition of 271.
for Undergraduates in Arts; 2 entrance Exhibitions (Drennan and Tennent) of
51. each at entrance.

(c) In addition to these the City and County Borough of Belfast offers annually
4 Scholarships of 40/. annually for three years (which may be extended to a fourth
or fifth, in the case of exceptional merit or excellence), tenable by matriculated
students of the University. Candidates must show that they are in need of assistance.

(d) The following County Scholarships and Bursaries are also tenable at any Uni-
versity in Ireland, all for three years, in the University of Belfast, Antrim, 2 of 401. ;
Donegal, 2 of 451. ; Kildare, 4 of 50/. (Catholics excluded) ; Monaghan, 3 Scholarships
of 501. and 3 Bursaries of 25/. (Catholics excluded) ; Westmeath (only tenable in the
University of Belfast and the National University), 3 of 50/.; Wexford, 3 of 50/., and
3 Bursaries of 25/. (Catholics excluded).

II. ‘ Except where otherwise specified, no Scholarship can be held in conjunction
with Scholarships or Exhibitions.’ A Sullivan or Megaw Scholarship, or a Drennan or
Tennent Exhibition may be held with a Foundation Entrance Scholarship.

V. (a) and (b) Not to our knowledge.

UNIVERSITY CoLLEGE, Cork.

I. Entrance Scholarships, College 12 (3 of 40/., 6 of 30/., 3 of 20.) for one year ;
3 Honan (for those whose financial position is such that it would be impossible to
obtain a course of instruction for a University degree without this aid); 3 of 50/.,
renewable up to a fifth year.

Later years, Faculties other than Medicine and Engineering, 2 of 40/.; 2 of 301. ;
4 of 201. for second year, renewable for third year. Engineering, 1 of 30/. for second
year; 1 of 30/. for third year. Medicine, 3 of 301. for second year ; 3 of 30/. for third
year, 3 of 301. for fourth year, renewable for fifth. Law, 1 of 101., awarded at end of
first year. Exhibitions may be awarded in every case to students of merit who have
failed to obtain Scholarships.

County Council Scholarships, tenable in the College :—

Cork: 10 of 241., tenable for three years and renewable for a fourth or fifth; in-
creasable from the Reserve Fund up to 501. in such cases as may seem advisable ; 1001.
per annum, rising in the third year, to be allocated to Bursaries of lesser value to
promising students, not worthy of Scholarships.

Kerry: 2 of 501. ; 3 of 30/. (restricted in respect of calling and means of parents)
for one year, renewable for a second to a third year.

Waterford: 3 of 501. and 1 of 30/. for three years (may be extended to fourth and
fifth year).

Other Scholarships are offered by the County Councils of Limerick and of
Tipperary (North and South Ridings).

II. No. But there are practically no outside ones that could be tenable with
ours, except possibly from Trinity College, Dublin.

IV. (a) Only in the case of the County Cork scholars, who may be helped from the
‘Reserve Fund’ ‘ where necessary ’ in the judgment of the President of the College.

(6) No regular stream.

V. (a) and (b) Yes.

(c) In some cases by private beneficence.

VI. It is desirable that there should be at the disposal of the College a fund ear-

marked to supplement Scholarships, &c., for the complete maintenance of students of
exceptional merit.

SCHOLARSHIPS, ETC., HELD BY UNIVERSITY STUDENTS. 323

APPENDIX II.

LIST OF TOTAL EMOLUMENTS HELD ON ENTRANCE BY STUDENTS
IN THE UNIVERSITIES OF OXFORD AND CAMBRIDGE.

(Arranged in Order of Values.) !

A. Oxford. B. Cambridge.
No Emoluments Accepted 1 £20 2
£20 2 25 3
21 1 30 19
30 7 32 1
33 1 33 1
40 10 35 5
50 10 40 21
60 10 50 q/
70 2 57 ]
Bie. iF 60 14
80. 45 65 2
82 10s. 1 67 1
89. 4 70 5
90 1l 74 1
100 19 75 3
105 4 80 15
106 3 85 3
110 ‘A 90 11
a oe 1 91 2
117 14s. 1 93 1
120ie~ 15 - 95 iE
121 1 100 16
125 4 105 2
126 1s. 6d 1 110 9
SYD) ope 17 it 1
133 16s. 8d. 1 112 ]
eos vs. 3 115 6
136 1 120 6
140 10 125 3
143 1 130 8
145 1 135 6
150 12 138 1
151 1 140 7
152 1 145 3
155 2 150 13
160 5 154. 1
170 6 155 2
180 5 160 5
185 1 164. 1
230 2 170 1
— 175 1
> Total . 231 178 1
180 3
188 1
¥ 190 3
300 1

Total . > P ., 221

___} Compiled from the detailed tables supplied on behalf of the Universities’
_ ‘Minutes of Evidence’ to the Royal Commission on the Civil Service, Jan. 9-24.

x2

324 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCTIENCE.—1913,

Corresponding Societies Committee.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Mr. W. WurtaKerR (Chairman), Mr. W. P. D.
STEBBING (Secretary), Rev. J. O. Brvan, Sir Epwarp
BraBrook, Dr. J. G. Garson, Principal E. H. GRirrirus,
Dr.-A. C. Happon, Mr. T. V. Houmess, Mr. J. Hopkinson,
Mr. A. L. Lewis, Rev. T. R. R. Stepsinc, Mr. WILFRID
Mark WEBB, and the PRESIDENT and GENERAL OFFICERS.
(Drawn up by the Secretary.)

THE Committee recommend that the Hampstead Scientific Society be
raised from the status of an Associated to that of an Affiliated Society.
An application for affiliation has been received from the Child Study
Society, but its constitution and the rules of the Association governing
Affiliated Societies have prevented its election.

The Midland Institute of Mining, Civil, and Mechanical Engineers
being affiliated to the Institute of Mining Engineers (an Affiliated
Society) has resigned its affiliation. The Warrington Field Club has
resigned its position as an Associated Society, as its membership,
already below fifty, is still decreasing. The Dover Sciences Society,
the Hull Society of Natural Science, the Penzance Natural History
Society, and the Scottish Microscopical Society, as they have not
renewed their applications for association, have been removed from
the list.

Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell has promised to preside at the Conference
of Delegates at Birmingham and to deliver an Address with the title
* Utility and Selection.’

The Committee recommend the following subjects, suggested by the
Yorkshire Philosophical Society and the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club,
for discussion at the Conference: ‘ The Relationship of Local Museums
with Educational Institutions,’ to be introduced by the Rev. William
Johnson, and ‘ The Best Means for Preventing the Extinction of Local
Species,’ to be introduced by Mr. R. H. Whitehouse. Mr. A. R.
Horwood, of Leicester, will also open a discussion on ‘ Scientific
Societies and the Control of Plant Extermination.’

Consideration will be given at the Conference to the desirability of
holding next year’s Conference at Havre during the meeting of the
French Association for the Advancement of Science.

The Committee announce that through the good offices of Dr. Jessie
White and Professor F. W. Gamble a room will be set aside for the
use of the delegates during the Association’s visit to Birmingham.

The Committee des're to draw attention tothe valuable collection of
Local Scientific Societies’ Proceedings housed at the British Associa-
tion’s offices and available for reference.

The Committee ask to be reappointed and apply for a grant of 251.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 3825

teport of the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies held
at Birmingham, September 11 and 16, 1913.

Chairman . : . Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell, F.R.S.
Vice-Chairman . . Sir George Fordham.
Secretary . f . W. P. D. Stebbing, F.G.S.

First Meerine, Thursday, Sepiember 11.

Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell presided, the Corresponding Societies Committee
being represented by the Rev. J. O. Bevan, Sir Edward Brabrook, Principal
Griffiths, Mr. J. Hopkinson, and Mr. W. P. D. Stebbing.

The business was opened by the reading of the Report of the Corresponding
Societies Committee. The Chairman then delivered his Address, entitled :—

Utility and Selection.

The greatest paradox of philosophy is that each of us is the only begetter of
the universe in which we live, that the world is an extension of the individual
mind. The hardness and roundness of a pebble exist because we think they
exist; the stars of the high heavens twinkle in us; pain and pleasure, revolving
time and illimitable space are qualities or categories of our mind. I have called
it the greatest paradox, for a paradox is great in the proportion that it is true.
The universe is a creation of the human mind, an artifact of the instrument that
apprehends it. I am not here to discuss philosophical realism and idealism, or
to expound the converse of the paradox. Those who lose themselves in the airy
mists of philosophy are not to be pitied; they may contentedly play by them-
selves the game of Hamlet with Polonius, doubling the parts.

Hamlet : Do you see yonder cloud that’s almost in shape of a message from
the dead?

Polonius : By the mass, and ’tis like a message from the dead.

Hamlet : Methinks it is a spirit.

Polonius: It is disembodied like a spirit.

Hamlet: Or like a spook.

Polonius: Very like a spook. Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, ui. 2.'

But I would remind you that if there be an objective reality, as we all must
believe, of which our universe is a pale reflection, that reflection owes its
character and its quality as much to the powers and imperfections of the
reflecting instrument as to the objective reality. Our attempt to comprehend
nature can be no more than an attempt to recreate it within the categories of
the human mind. ]

Man has been defined as a rational animal, and there is no more persistent
quality of his mind than the craving for teleological interpretation. He is uncom-
fortable in the presence of any phenomenon, until he is satisfied that it fulfils
a purpose which he conceives to be useful. This point of view dominated the
theologians and the rationalists of the eighteenth century, and in the nineteenth
it led Darwin to one of the greatest triumphs of the human mind, and filled the
armoury of the opponents of Darwinism.

If we can assign utility to a character in an individual, we agree readily that
its possession by most individuals may be an advantage to the species in the
struggle for existence. We agree also that as characters vary in individuals
(whether the variations be large or small, continuous or discontinuous, does not
affect the argument), the average of these in the members of the species may be
intensified in the course of generations, if they fit the environment, or smeared
and obliterated if they are out of gear with the environment. Having gone so
far, we have accepted the main principle of Darwin’s theory of evolution, a
principle so harmonious with our mental disposition that it has become almost

1 Unauthorised edition.

326 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

personified and has displaced the other gods in high Olympus. Many of the
adherents of the new god have assigned to it an immanence of which Darwin
did not dream. They believe it to be universal and all-powerful, and that the
partisans of any other principle are like the ignorant heathen, bowing down to
wood and stone. One of the disadvantages of this pathological distortion of
Darwinism is not only that it has misled the elect, but has given a welcome
opportunity to the crafty depreciators of the achievements of science, and to the
clamorous advertisers of new theories. In attacking the excrescences of Dar-
winism, they persuade themselves and try to persuade others that they are
establishing the bankruptcy of science, or clearing the way for their own nostrum.

I believe it to be historical truth that Darwin convinced the world of the
fact of evolution by his exposition of the principle of natural selection, that
no principle has been suggested before or since more in harmony with the
observed facts of nature, or more congruous with the processes of human intel-
ligence. Using for a moment the erroneous language of personification, which
is so convenient to employ and so difficult to avoid, I believe that natural
selection has been the active agent in bringing about evolution, and that in a
sense it may be said to have produced the material on which it acts by the
processes of summation and obliteration. But Darwin never even suggested that
all characters came into existence because they were useful, that the marks by
which systematists find it convenient to distinguish species must be useful, or
that the initial stages of a new character must be useful. Living beings are
limited or determined by their inherited structure, by the inevitable necessities
of their mode of growth and mode of living. Their parts and functions are
linked by a thousand correlations, structural and functional, so that a change
in any organ reverberates through the system. Living beings abound in
characters and qualities of which no utilitarian explanation is possible. Such
characters may be associated with other characters that are useful; they may
have been useful in the past, in a different environment; they may never have
had ‘selection-value,’ but a change in the environment or an alteration in the
kaleidoscopic interrelations of the whole organism may give them ‘selection-
value.’ They are material ready for natural selection, and so far from being
vague and inchoate, may have a high degree of definiteness and complexity.

I propose to invite your attention to some examples of characters and qualities
that, so far as we can see, are not present because they are useful.

The process of oxidation always accompanies living activity, and some of the
chemical energy is liberated in the form of heat. Probably in plants and in the
animals that we speak of as ‘cold-blooded’ the discharged heat is practically
a waste product. The temperature of the tissues must be above freezing-point
for the vital processes to be active, and each kind of organism has a euthermal
range, a few degrees of temperature within which its organic processes succeed
best. The heat produced by internal oxidation, however, does not appear to
contribute in any important respect to the production or maintenance of the
requisite temperature. Most organisms are ruled by the surrounding media,
their activities rising and falling with the external temperature. If they have
the power of movement or locomotion, they may turn or crawl to the sun, or seek
the shade, but changes of weather and the recurring seasons are the dominating
factors in their lives. Even the higher reptiles depend directly on the circum-
ambient media. A few years ago, we improved the heating-system in the London
Zoological Gardens, with the result that there was an increase in the frequency
with which the reptiles fed, and a rise in their activities. If you wish a little
torpid water-tortoise or a young alligator to take food, you must place it in a
warm bath, precisely as many chemical reactions will not take place until you
heat the mixture over a spirit-lamp.

Birds and mammals, the ‘ warm-blooded’ creatures, have a fixed and rather
high euthermal state, and depend chiefly on their internal production of heat to
produce it. The normal temperature of the human body is 98°4° Fahr., and this
may be taken as a fairly typical mammalian temperature, the normal for birds
being a little higher. There is no more certain indication of illness, of the
existence of something wrong in the bodily functions, than an important rise or
fall in the temperature, and we feel ill even when the variation is small. Cer-
tainly we take notice of changes in the surrounding media, and after a time may
be affected by them, so that we try to avoid extreme heat and extreme cold.

Te eC

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 327

But when we are in good health, the height of the barometer, the intensity of
light, and the dampness or dryness, purity or impurity, of the air, affect us even
more than the actual temperature. We rely on the physiological mechanism
by which the production and waste of heat respond to surrounding changes and
cause the actual temperature of our tissues to remain almost constant. Very
young mammals or birds, and all warm-blooded creatures when they are ill, have
a feebler control of their own temperature, and the heat metabolism of the body
has to be assisted by a more rigorous choice of environment, if the normal tem-
perature is to be maintained.

There is thus a marked contrast between warm-blooded and cold-blooded or-
ganisms, which I may impress on you by asking you to compare an insectivorous
bird and an insectivorous lizard. Both are swift and restless creatures which
have to expend much energy in capturing their watchful and rapid prey. The
alimentary canal and, so far as we know, the physiological processes of diges-
tion are much alike in the two. The. euthermal temperature is nearly identical,
although the bird is more strictly limited to about 100° Fahr. and the lizard has
a wider range. But the bird uses the heat of the oxidation processes in its own
tissues to produce the temperature it requires, and so maintains its activity in
spite of surrounding changes. If it be provided with suitable food, it can endure
the cold of winter and heat of summer, and can adapt itself to a great range of
climate and locality. The lizard cannot abide by its own production of heat; it
is limited by the surrounding conditions, and becomes torpid or dies when the
external cold is too severe or the external heat too great.

The evidence shows that warm-blooded mammals and birds are the descend-
ants of cold-blooded reptiles. In the course of that evolution, the power of
retaining and controlling the heat produced by oxidation in the tissues must
have been acquired. No one can doubt the high utility of this power or its great
advantage in the struggle for existence, as it widens the possible geographical
range and increases the viability of its possessors. No one can doubt but that
this kind of character would have come under the operation of natural selection.
I desire to impress on your attention that the production of heat existed before
it became useful. It was a waste product, an accident of the metabolism of the
body, material ready for natural selection.

An important part of the provision for heat-regulation in warm-blooded
animals is the coat of fur or feathers that serves to ward off the inclemency of the
weather, and to prevent waste of internal heat by radiation and conduction.
When small birds are roosting in the open air at night, their sleek plumage
becomes ruffled, each feather standing out at right angles to the surface of the
skin, changing the smooth contours of the body into a globe of fluff. Exposure
to cold similarly induces erection of the fur of most mammals, and the effect of
cold on our own naked skins, that we call ‘ goose-flesh,’ is doubtless a surviving
action of the mechanism that erected the hairs of our ancestors. Such devices
control the loss of heat to a notable extent, but they are far from complete. If
we had organs as sensitive to radiant heat as our eyes are sensitive to radiant
light, the bodies of warm-blooded hirds and mammals would be perceptible to usin
the dark, in inverse proportion to the efficiency of their heat-retaining covering.
They would be perceptible in no vague fashion, but in what T may call some kind
of contour, due to the different intensities of heat-discharge from differently
protected parts of the body. There would be creatures radiating an even glow,
flashing intermittently, banded, spotted, and irregularly surfaced.

If enemies of warm-blooded animals were armed with such a power of appre-
ciating differences in temperature, the mechanisms for preventing loss of heat by
radiation would acquire a new selection-value. Such enemies cannot be said to
exist, but there is a suggestion of the possibility in the behaviour of ectopara-
sites. These seem to have some kind of directive heat-sense. Everyone who
has had to handle the fresh bodies of dead warm-blooded animals must have
noticed how quickly the lice and fleas migrate from the cooling corpse, and the
frequency with which they find their way to the warm body of the anatomist
seems to show that their wandering is not aimless. The concealment of heat-
radiation does not seem to have had any importance in the evolution of animals,
but if the necessity should come to pass, a character already exists which could
be turned to advantage,

328 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.,

I am not certain that this accidental radiation of heat has ever become useful
to animals, in the fashion in which the production of light, a parallel side issue
of oxidation, has been turned to account in many groups. I say I am not
certain, for I remember that heat-radiation plays a part in the relations between
young warm-blooded animals and their parents, and possibly in the relations of
gregarious creatures. Long after the heat of the mother has ceased to be neces-
sary to the feeble young, it remains an attraction. Those who have had expe-
rience in the rearing and taming of young birds and mammals know how fond
these are of heat, and how readily they will find their way and attach themselves
to non-luminous sources of heat, such as the human body, the warm corner of a
room, or the surface of a radiator. Successive mammalian pets of my own,
belonging to different groups, have selected the same corner of my dressing-room,
where hot-water pipes emerge for a few inches on their way to a bath-room, and
have picked out the same ways of getting to the same radiators. Warmth is a
surer attraction to a young mammal than food, and if at any time it should
become more important to the survival of animals that they should have addi-
tional means of finding their mothers, heat-radiation and the incipient heat-sense
are ready to be used.

A few hours before I began to write these words (on a hot day in August)
my attention was attracted by brilliant points of light in a flower-bed in
the Zoological Gardens. It was too late in the day and too hot for dew-drops,
and the points sparkled with an acuter, more coloured scintillation, like diamonds
of the finest water. I found the source in the ripe blooms of a Solanaceous
plant (Salpiglossis emperor). The tip of the style was a cross-piece like the arm
of a crutch, and its upper surface bore a narrow, elongated, and deeply-grooved
stigma. The sticky exudation formed a brilliant mirror in the hollow of the
groove, and the curvature of the surface was such that the reflection of the sun
met the eye as a single, acutely shining point of light. I have never seen any-
thing more hardly brilliant in a living organism. The flowers were being
visited by numbers of small flies; they emitted a sickly odour, and their colours
were conspicuous. I watched for some time, but could not make out that the
flies were attracted by the shining point, which indeed was visible only from a
particular angle. They alighted on any part of the corolla and crawled indiffer-
ently over the inner surface of the flower. Here is a character, startlingly
definite and conspicuous, and yet apparently only a side issue of the mechanical
shape of the stigma and the production of the sticky juice. But if it should
happen that diurnal insects exist which are attracted and dazzled by such a
shining point of light, as we know that nocturnal insects are attracted by a
source of light, a lure is there, appearing at the right moment and fully perfected.

We know that the emission of odours is frequently utilitarian. It is the chief
means by which insects are attracted to flowers that bloom by night, and the
plants scatter their perfumes on the air only when ripe for fertilisation. It is
possible that the odours of the stem and leaves of many plants are distasteful to
animals, and ward off their attacks. Among animals the emission of odours is
the chief sexual lure and the awakener of the sexual reflexes, and no doubt it
serves also to secure recognition between parents and offspring, and amongst the
members of gregarious tribes. But there are many odours, just as definite and
characteristic, which we cannot imagine to be useful. Almost every plant and
the different tissues of a plant, almost every animal] and the different tissues of an
animal, can be recognised by the sense of smell. I may make a single example.
In the course of anatomical work I have had to examine the digestive tract of
many hundreds of birds, belonging to practically every group. It is a curious
and remarkable circumstance that the intestines offer scents, even to a nose not
highly skilled, racially or individually, that are almost as characteristic of the
families as are the patterns formed by the intestinal coils, blood-vessels, and
mesenteries. The nature of the food, the processes of digestion, the varying
kinds of putrefaction, all contribute to the result, but the product, so to speak,
is accidental, and cannot be imagined to have any utility.

It is with regard to the colour and pattern of living things that the craving
of the human mind for teleology has led to the greatest excesses. I do not wish
to suggest that colour and pattern, and the combination of the two sometimes
called colouration, are never useful. I have no doubt that they serve a purpose

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 329

in the interplay of the sexes, that they are useful in the various fashions
described by Darwin, Poulton, and Abbot Thayer, and that they have played a
large part in the success and failure of races. But I wish to remind you that
they are inevitable outcrops of the structure and physiology of living organisms,
and that, howsoever they may have been altered under the agency of natural
selection and sexual selection, they must have existed and will exist so long as
life endures.

Pattern is essentially a repetition of parts, and is the result of the mode of
growth of organisms. A few scraps of tinsel and coloured glass placed in the
well of a kaleidoscope form indefinitely varying patterns as the tube is revolved
and they fall into different places. The geometrical patterns are formed by the
reflections from a set of mirrors in the bottom of the tube, placed so ae to
multiply the images. Jf irregular holes be torn in a sheet of paper that has been
doubled and redoubled, a symmetrical pattern is visible when the sheet is un-
folded. Growth of tissues takes place by the multiplication of cells, cell-masses,
organs, and parts of tissues and organs, for there is a physiological limit to
increase in size of the different units of the body. Thus repetition patterns occur
inevitably, producing the various kinds of symmetry, radial, concentric,
metameric, antimeric, and so forth, which are characters of living things so
conspicuous that even the untrained eye at once distinguishes a fossil in the
rocks or a shell on the sand from its contrast with the formless monotony of
surrounding matter.

The multiplication or repetition of cells or parts may take place regularly,
radiating in every direction from the growing point, until the product of one
centre of growth is modified by the different conditions it meets on different parts
of its periphery, by interference with the products of other centres of growth,
or by the changed conditions of nutrition brought about by its own growth.
Growth in one plane or radius may be arrested, in others proceed with greater
vigour; so that annual systems spread out into curving streaks, like the stream-
lines on the surface of muddy water, or it may be subjected to local, temporary,
or seasonal intermittences, with a consequent elaboration of pattern. In its
finest details and its gross structure every organism displays pattern.

When the microscope reveals the exquisite sculpturing on the surface of a
scale, the graceful details of the cross-section of a stem, or the intimate beauty
of tissues like brain, or liver, or kidney, we are not tempted to explain the
patterns on utilitarian principles. We propound no theory of mimicry, or of
protection, or of sexual advertisement, but are content to accept their presence
as an organic fact. But when the erowth patterns reveal themselves on the
surface as the markings on a shell, the stripes on a skin, or the vermiculations
on a feather, the craving for teleology is aroused. JI do not doubt but that these
natural patterns have provided material for selection, but chiefly in the sense
that they have been obliterated where they were visible. No assemblage of living
animals shows externally visible growth-pattern in a more conspicuous fashion
than the members of the abyssal fauna, where the only light is a dim and fitful
phosphorescence, and where conspicuousness can be attended with no dis-
advantage.

Organisms, like all visible things, must have colour, and it is still less neces-
sary than in the case of pattern to suppose that the colour as such subserves a
useful purpose. We do not ask what advantage it is to one form of carbon that it
should be black and opaque, to another that it should appear a crystal of the
rainbow, why calomel should be white, mercuric iodide scarlet, or what gain it is
to the sea that it should display its deepest azure when we are shivering under
the blast of the mistral. Many of the most brilliant colours, the shifting metallic
sheens, are the direct result of structure. The incident light is broken up when
it is reflected from a sculptured surface, as in the case of the shining glow of a
pearl, the inner face of a shell, and the shifting brilliance of a rifle-bird’s throat,
or by reflection from an opaque surface through a transparent layer, as when the
swim-bladder or the sheath of a tendon display the shivering hues of a mirror of
polished silver. The pearl grows as a disease of the tissues of the oyster, hidden
away from light, not revealing itself until the animal, dredged up from the
bottom of the sea, has rotted into a putrid mass. The internal tissues of every
creature reveal a multitude of iridescent surfaces only when the dissecting knife

330 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

lets in the light. A still larger number of colours are due to pigments, blues
and greens more rarely, reds, yellows, blacks and browns almost invariably.
Perhaps in most cases the pigment has a direct physiological importance, as,
for instance, the red colour of the blood, due to the presence of hemoglobin, the
substance that carries oxygen to the tissues, or the green chlorophyll of plants,
by which the radiant energy of sunlight is captured. Others are by-products of
excretion, poisonous waste that has to be removed, like the brilliant derivatives
of bile and urea. Extreme instances of the casual or accidental production of
colour may be seen in the crimson of turacos, which is not merely a pigment,
but one that is soluble in rain-water. The Malay tapir exudes a black sweat, and
that of the hippopotamus is carmine-coloured. Still more suggestive is it to
reflect that not only the visible surface of the body may be resplendent with
vivid hues. The blood runs as red under the thick and hairy hide of an ape
as on the fair cheek of a girl. Splashes and streaks of black, glows of yellow and
green and scarlet, vivid contrasts of colour, diversify the internal organs and
tissues, where they can delight the eye only of the anatomist, who, after all, is a
small part of the economy of Nature. Ruskin once said that it was immoral if
the back of a column, destined to be invisible to every eye from the moment it
was put in place until the cathedral crumbled, were not carved as fairly and
lovingly as the side that was to confront the world. In her dispersal of colour
Nature is of the school of Ruskin, and no parsimonious utilitarian, scamping the
invisible part of her work. Colour is lavished freely on creatures that rejoice in
the sun and that seem consciously to flaunt their brilliance or coyly to match
their surroundings, but it is lavished no less freely on internal parasites,
creatures of the night, inhabitants of clefts in the rocks, or of the dim abysses
of the ocean.

Colouration (the combination of colour and pattern) is in a sense accidental.
A thin slice of almost any living tissue placed under the microscope reveals
little of its structure because of the uniform grey of protoplasm. The skilled
microscopist stains his sections, and as the different parts react differently, the
uniformity disappears and the structure becomes visible. In the same fashion,
in the laboratory of Nature colour often magnifies or intensifies pattern. Differ-
ences in texture of the component parts of the structural pattern may reflect light
differently, so that iridescent hues map out the lines of growth. The bright
exudations of the body reveal differences in the texture and substance of the
tissues they reach, or the structural distribution of blood is made visible by
the scarlet hemoglobin. The combined effect is so conspicuous that we deem it
must have a purpose. It is curious, however, to note how much inconspicuous
pattern exists amongst animals and plants. The black variety of leopards and
jaguars is a familiar instance; it is just possible to see, like a faint water-mark,
the characteristic rosettes of the leopard or the jaguar on the uniform black fur.
It may be said that these melanistic forms are abnormal, almost pathological ;
but there are many cases for which no such explanation can be offered. The
young of almost all the cats, great and small, are spotted or striped, even if the
adults are self-coloured. The kittens of cheetahs, or hunting-leopards, appear
to be a remarkable exception. for, although the yellow fur of the adult is
thickly set with black spots, the young are clothed with soft fur of a uniform
pale grey; but closer examination shows that the under fur is spotted. Ray
Lankester has called attention to the almost invisible pattern of stripes on the
face of the young giraffe. The cony or hyrax is really a striped animal; when
the creature is alive one can see in appropriate light that the hair is set in
hoop-like bands running downwards from the dorsal middle line, but the uniform
colouration masks this arrangement. I have almost no doubt but that the
African rhinoceros is similarly a striped creature, the stripes appearing as
structure and not as colouration.

The striped pattern of zebras is a salient instance of the combination of
structure and colour, and there is excellent reason to suppose that it has been
turned to a utilitarian purpose, and helps to protect the animal by making it less
visible against a background, or merely by breaking up its outline and so making
it less like an animal. But it passes belief to suppose that the different types of
pattern found in Grevy’s zebra, the Mountain zebra, and Burchell’s zebra
have different and appropriate utilities. They are the outcrop of different

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at a ee

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 331

structure, of similar, but not identical, material. The fate of the zebra-pattern
in hybrids shows that structure, and not utility, is at the root of the matter.
When a zebra is crossed with a donkey the hybrid has a smaller number of
stripes, but these are very vividly marked, one along the dorsal middle line,
one or two on the shoulder, and many on the legs. When it is crossed with a
horse the hybrid is much more fully striped than the zebra parent, but the stripes
are faint, almost invisible. Nor can it be supposed that the patterns charac-
teristic of the different races or species of giraffe have separate utilities, although
each of them may serve equally for protective concealment.

Although colour and pattern may combine to produce a result, the colour
differences accentuating the structural differences, it frequently happens that
the outlines of colour and pattern do not conform. In such cases the separate
factors produce a result that is in a sense accidental, and that, although it may
be useful, cannot have been produced because it was useful. Ruskin, who was an
acute observer of natural objects, called attention to this in his chapter ‘The
Lamp of Beauty’ in ‘The Seven Lamps of Architecture.’ ‘I am quite sure,’ he
wrote, ‘that any person familiar with natural objects will never be surprised at
any appearance of care or finish in them. That is the condition of the universe.
But there is cause both for surprise and inquiry whenever we see anything like
carelessness or incompletion; that is not a common condition; it must be one
appointed for some singular purpose. I believe that such surprise will be forcibly
felt by anyone who, after carefully studying the lines of some variegated organic
form, will set himself to copy with similar diligence those of its colours. The
boundaries of the forms he will assuredly, whatever the object, have found
drawn with a delicacy and precision which’ no human hand can follow. Those
of its colours he will find in many cases, though governed by a certain rude
symmetry, yet irregular, blotched, imperfect, liable to all kinds of accidents, and
awkwardnesses. Look at the tracery of the lines on a camp shell, and see how
oddly and awkwardly its tents are pitched. It is not, indeed, always so; there
is occasionally, as in the eye of a peacock’s plume, an apparent precision, but
still a precision far inferior to that of the drawing of the filaments which bear
that lovely stain’; and in the plurality of cases a degree of looseness and varia-
tion, and still more singularly, of harshness and violence in arrangement, is
admitted in colour which would be monstrous in form. Observe the difference
in the precision of a fish’s scales and of the spots on them.’

Analysis of the differences noted by Ruskin would probably show that when
there was a coincidence of colour-outline with pattern-outline, the colour was
fundamentally structural in character, that is to say either the result of
interference and reflections, or of chemical differences in the different parts.
In so far, the colouration would be in a sense accidental, a secondary result of
the pattern. When the colour does not conform with structural lines, it is
most often pigmentary, an exudation of the products of excretion staining the
surface according to the osmotic conditions, or the relation of the internal
organs to the external covering. Here again the total result of pattern and
colour is still more accidental, due to uncorrelated factors. The work of the
most modern school of painting, with its display of startling primary colours,
and its insistence on masses rather than on outlines, is training us (in a fashion
that doubtless would have been most repugnant to Ruskin, and that he would
have denounced in language as vivid as a canvas of Matisse) to see beauty in com-
bimations that we have been accustomed to regard as incongruous, and to
comprehend harmony and design without the aid of the familiar scaffolding of
outline and perspective. I admit in the fullest way that Nature may be a
better guide than our acquired prepossessions, and that colour may show its
highest value when it is divorced from form. I wish only to remind you that
pattern is an inevitable outcrop of structure; that there must be colour, and
that there must be combinations of colour and pattern. The living world, even
if selection had played no part in moulding it, would still be a shining wonder,
infinitely diversified.

In the two groups of the animal kingdom with which I am most familiar,
there seems to be a general process, rather different in the two cases, according
to which the evolution of colouration has taken place. In each case there has
been a transition from patterns that are the plain consequence of growth-

aon REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

forces, such as the simple geometrical markings which are structure revealed,
through more irregular stripes and blotches, which may be set down to ir-
regular growth, first to a uniform colouration which obliterates the structural
form, and lastly to odd and brilliant disguises of the true contours of the body.
I do not doubt but that natural selection has attended each stage of the process,
now rejecting and now favouring the patterns that have emerged from the
laboratory of nature, as they turned out to be harmful or useful.

Comparison of the lower and higher groups of mammals and of the earlier
and later stages of individuals would appear to lead to the inference that
primitive mammals were spotted or striped. Spots and stripes become in-
creasingly frequent as we pass from the higher to the lower groups. If the
adults are spotted, the young are, I believe, always spotted; if the adults are
striped, the young are always either spotted or striped; when the adults are
self-coloured, or when they display the strange markings which conform with
none of the structural lines of the body, and which Abbot Thayer has inter-
preted as ‘ruptive’ or outline-breaking, the young are striped, spotted, or
uniform,

Man and his allies, the apes, monkeys, and lemurs, compose what we must
regard as the highest group of mammals, and among them stripes and spots
are extremely rare in the adult or in the young, the most obvious cases being the
rings on the tails of lemurs. The tiger, leopard, jaguar, and cheetah are
familiar instances of striped and spotted carnivores, and their young are always
striped or spotted. But the young of the self-coloured lion, puma, and caracal
are spotted, and lynxes, which are greyish-brown in the adult summer coat, are
brilliantly spotted with black when young. Small carnivores such as civets
and genets, binturong and ichneumons, have many striped and spotted forms,
and here, again, the young of the striped and spotted creatures are always
striped or spotted, and the young of the self-coloured animals are not in-
frequently striped or spotted. Antelopes are not often striped or spotted, but
the banded duiker, which is marked with hoops across the back, has young
with a similar pattern. The South African eland shows almost no traces of
striping when it is adult, but the calves have barrel-like hoops of white, and
in the Derbian eland and the kudus, where the stripes persist through life, the
young have them more strongly marked. Sitatunga antelopes are nearly
devoid of stripes in the adult condition, but their young are brightly striped
and spotted. The bongo and angas antelopes and the beautiful harnessed
aptelopes are striped, although the stripes tend to disappear in old bulls, and
their young are vividly striped. The young of a large majority of different
kinds of deer are spotted; sometimes the spots are retained throughout life;
scmetimes they are found only in the brighter coats of summer, sometimes the
disappear altogether. But I do not know of any spotted deer with self-coloured
young. ‘The young of true wild swine, pygmy hogs, river-hogs, and wart-hogs
are marked with longitudinal stripes that disappear in the adult. The young
cf the American and Malay tapirs are striped and spotted. Spots, dapplings,
end stripes are more common in foals than in adult horses and asses. The
foals of all the zebras are vividly striped, and there seems reason to believe that
the less striped forms are the descendants of forms that were more fully
marked. Among the rodents many are marked with stripes or with spots
arranged in longitudinal rows, and the young of the striped forms are always
striped. A good many marsupials are spotted or striped, and precisely the
same condition obtains; the young of the striped or spotted animals are always
striped or spotted.

The suggestion was made many years ago, I think first by Dr. Bonavia,
that these spots and dapplings, so frequent and so plainly ancestral, were
legacies of a primitive coating of scales like the armour of armadillos and of
their gigantic extinct allies, and it is at least a fair speculation that they are
to be associated with the scaly covering of the reptilian ancestors of mammals.
Without pushing the argument to this extreme, we may at least assume that the
presence of spots, reticulations, and stripes (the latter being expanded spots or
fused rows of spots) are indications or revelations of the composite nature of
the skin, which is not merely a uniform sheet stretched over the surface of the
Lody, but a structure growing from many centres. Like the cranial and spinal
nerves, these centres were no doubt fundamentally segmental in character, but

——

og

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. ooo

by unequal growth, areas belonging to one segment occasionally have invaded
neighbouring territory, and the primitive regularity has become disguised, and
tends to be more and more disguised in the course of ontogeny and phylogeny.
In such anatomical and physiological facts we must seek for the origin of the
primitive patterns of mammals. No doubt in many cases they have been retained
and perhaps accentuated by selection. But selection does not and cannot
account for their origin. It seems to me in many cases incredible that they
are utilitarian. In the young of many animals, they may serve for protective
concealment, but they occur almost with equal frequency on the least visible
portions of the body, on the under parts and legs, and in the case of creatures
whose young are carefully hidden and sedulously guarded by the parents. The
general trend of events seems to be the obliteration of these primitive patterns,
and their replacement by an even tone. The even tone, in its turn, is being
replaced, especially in the males, by countershading, and by many of the odd
and brilliant patches and marks which may be interpreted as decorative sexual
colouration or as ruptive, outline-breaking patterns. Where the young are
neither striped nor spotted they are more uniformly coloured than the adults,
and slowly acquire the adult condition, the females more slowly than the males.

The trend of events in birds is similar but not identical. The kind of
plumage most common in the lower types of birds and that appears most
frequently in young birds is a rather uniform dull brown or grey, marked with
patterns of stripes and spots and mottlings symmetrically arranged with regard
to the whole body and to the individual feathers. Many of these primitive
patterns and colourations suggest the accidental expression of structure, and can
be imitated in a very close fashion by mechanical means. Certainly they appear
to serve for protection, and blend with rough and mottled backgrounds in a very
complete fashion. But, just as in the case of mammals, they often occur on
parts of the body not naturally the most exposed, or in cases where protection is
secured by other means. At first the plumages of the young and of adult males
and females were similar and retained throughout the year. Next, during the
breeding season, the males began to assume brighter colours, and when the breed-
ing season was over, relapsed into the duller ancestral plumage, passing into the
condition usually spoken of as ‘eclipse.’ In such a stage, the males in eclipse,
the females and the young were all much alike, and there are many birds in which
this condition is retained. A later modification came about when the females as
well as the males began to assume brighter tints in the breeding season. When
the breeding season was over, males and females both went into eclipse, with the
result that males and females in eclipse, and the young in their early plumage,
were all much alike, and wore a plumage recalling the ancestral condition.
This stage persists in a large number of cases. Then the period during
which the breeding plumage was retained became longer and longer, half the
year in some of the weaver birds, for all but a few weeks in the game birds and
in most of the ducks, or for the whole year, as in South American ducks, king-
fishers, and parrots. Every stage in the suppression of the eclipse or ancestral
plumage still exists; in some of the game birds and tanagers, for instance, it
is represented only by a few feathers. When the eclipse plumage has been
suppressed, only the young birds retain the dull ancestral livery, and there are
many cases in which even the newly fledged birds, or birds in the first down,
show traces of their future brilliancy.

I have attempted not to weary you by going into much detail. I have been
trying to show you that amongst birds and mammals there has been a general
chenge from dull colours and mechanical patterns to brilliant and fantastic
garbs, an intermediate stage of almost uniform colouration having been passed
through. The process has been an inevitable outcrop of organic growth, a naive
blossom of the tree of life, as free from purpose as art is free from morality. It
has been associated with an increase in the vigour of the body and a heightening
of the vital activities, so that growth, respiration, and excretion, and all the
chemical changes in the living laboratory, have become more exuberant. It is
natural, therefore, to find the beginnings of more brilliant colour and more
aberrant growth associated with the breeding season, for it is then that the
strength and vigour of the animal hody are most acute. No doubt there were
critical stages during which natural selection played a great part; most notably

334 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

the suppression of the primitive geometrical growth patterns which are most
abundant in situations where they are least seen, more abundant in young
creatures than in adults, and in lower groups than in higher groups. The later
stages, in which dull uniformity has been replaced by exuberance of colour and
extravagance of form, may have secondary utilities either as stimulants to sexual
activity, acting through the organs of sense, or from the fashion in which they
disguise the natural outlines of the body. But I have tried to submit evidence
that even if natural selection and sexual selection had not been at work, there
still would have been a gradual increase in the fantastic beauty of the organic
world, as growth became more complex and metabolism more active. At the
least there is nothing more superfluous than to object to the theory of Darwin,
that it cannot explain the existence of material for selection. The circumam-
bient media, pressing on the obstinate living organism, mould it by processes of
selection and rejection, but the material is there, a varied yet inevitable product
of inherited structure and function. These are the

‘Hierarchs and Kings
Who from their thrones pinnacled on the past
Sway the reluctant present.’

Sir Grorcr ForpxHam proposed and Mr. H. D. Actanp (Royal Institution of
Cornwall) seconded a hearty vote of thanks to the Chairman for his valuable
address, which was carried.

Sir Grorcr Forpwam, on being called on by the Chairman, outlined the
arrangements which were being made by the French Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, and the invitation from that body to the Conference of
Delegates to hold their meeting next year at Havre during the meeting of the
French Association. He said that the Conference must definitely settle now if
it will accept the invitation. Although the British Association could not meet
in a foreign country, there was nothing in the rules to prevent the Conference
meeting where it wished. The Council of the Association had accepted the
invitation of the French Association on behalf of any of its members who might
like to attend the meeting at Havre. The wording of the section of the Report
of the Council for 1912-13 relating to this matter is as follows :—

(d) A letter has been received from Dr. A. Loir, of Havre, Local
Secretary for the Meeting of the French Association for the Advancement
of Science in Havre in 1914, intimating that the municipality of Havre
desires to invite as guests leading Members of the British Association who
do not attend the meeting in Australia, and that all Members not attending
that meeting will be welcomed at the meeting of the French Association ;
also proposing that the Conference of Delegates should meet in Havre.
Information has also been received from Dr. Loir that a Local Committee,
including some of the principal British residents in Havre, has been formed
for the reception of Members of the British Association.

It was resolved that the invitation be cordially accepted, in general terms,
and that details of the arrangements be left to the consideration of the
President and General Officers and a committee appointed to assist them.

The opening meeting of the French Association will be held on August 4.

Dr. A. Lorr, on the invitation of the Chairman, confirmed what Sir George
Fordham had said about the invitation of the French Association to the Con-
ference of Delegates, and said that the matter was being taken up enthusiastically
by the City and Municipality of Havre.

Mr. G. C. Druce (Ashmolean Natural History Society of Oxfordshire)
regretted that holding the Conference in Havre in August would prevent
members going to Australia from attending it, which they would be able to do
if the Conference was held in London in November, as was the case when the
Association went fo South Africa.

On the Chairman asking for a vote on the desirability of the Conference of
Delegates meeting in Havre in 1914, it was proposed by Mr. Jonn Hopkinson
(Watford Camera Club) and seconded by Mr. A. W. Oxe (Brighton and Hove
Natural History and Philosophical Society) that the meetings of this Con-
ference of Delegates be held next year at Havre on the occasion of the meeting

aT...

een stan ie ee

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 335

of the French Association for the Advancement of Science. To this Mr.
H. D. Actanp proposed an amendment that the Conference of Delegates
should first meet in London and carry out a part of the business of the Con-
ference and then adjourn to Havre. This was seconded by Mr. Bryan CoRcoRaNn
(Croydon Natural History and Scientific Society). On being put to the vote
the amendment was lost, eight voting in favour and fifteen against. No other
amendment being brought forward, Mr. Hopkinson’s proposal was put to the
meeting and carried as a motion to be brought up at the meeting of the Com-
mittee of Recommendations by the Vice-Chairman of the Conference.

In the absence of the Rev. William Johnson, who was to open a discussion
on ‘The Relationship of Local Museums with Educational Institutions,’ the
Conference was adjourned to the 16th.

Mr. Johnson wrote later that an accident to his hand prevented him from
attending the meeting of the Association.

Seconp Mestina, Tuesday, September 16.

In the absence of the Chairman the Vice-Chairman took the chair ad interim,
the Corresponding Societies Committee being represented by the Rev. J. O.
Bevan, Sir Edward Brabrook, Mr. W. P. D. Stebbing, and Mr, W. Mark Webb.

The CHarrman reported that at the meeting of the Committee of Recom-
mendations he had brought forward the Conference’s resolution that it should
hold its meetings next year at Havre, and that after discussion the matter had
been referred to. the General Committee.

The Rev. J. O. Bryan (Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club) thought that there
might be an informal meeting of the Delegates in Australia, and that the official
meetings might take place afterwards in London.

Mr. W. Marx Wess (Selborne Society), asking if there was any rule prevent-
ing the Conference from meeting in Australia, was informed that it met in
Toronto on the occasion of the British Association’s visit there in 1897.

Mr. H. D. Actanp suggested that Delegates should be sent to Australia not to
hold a Conference but to keep in touch with the work of the Association. He
was hoping to go to Australia.

Mrs. Juuian (Torquay Natural History Society) having spoken in agreement
with the remarks of the last speaker, the meeting decided, on the motion of
Mr. A. W. Oxz, seconded by Mr. W. M. Wess, to proceed with the next
business.

The following subject for discussion was brought forward by Mr. A. R.
Horwoop (Leicester Museum) :—

Scientific Societies and the Control of Plant Extermination.

The resolution which this Conference passed last year relative to the aim (if
not the work) of the Plant Protection Section of the Selborne Society has
encouraged and stimulated the Section to further endeavours,

As a consequence an appeal was made to the scientific societies in this country
to support the work in a definite way by the appointment of a corresponding
secretary who might keep in touch with the Section and continuously advance
the work locally, in the special way demanded by each district.

The necessity of some such method of decentralisation had long been
apparent to the Section working from headquarters in London. It was felt
impossible for the Committee, however large and energetic, to do what a body
of willing and intelligent workers in each district might do locally. Indeed,
the organisation of and correspondence with such a body of workers is in itself
a large enough task, together with the planning of the modus operandi for
securing the aims of the Section. For many reasons men on the spot with local
knowledge and interest are essential to the success of this or any other wide-
spread and far-reaching movement.

As a result of the appeal made to some 300 secretaries (though I have not
full or final details as yet, as reports have to come in later from a large number
of societies) nearly 100 corresponding secretaries have been or will be appointed.

As in the British Isles there are 117 counties (as defined by H. L. Watson,
including vice-counties), one might be disposed to stop here, but since some
counties have no efficient societies, whilst others, e.g., Yorkshire, have a great

336 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1915,
number, an endeavour has been made to appoint one secretary at least in every
county, and in the case of counties not represented by any society the Section
has appointed district secretaries in place of corresponding secretaries. But of
the 117 counties I may say that between one-half and two-thirds are represented
by a secretary in touch with us, a decidedly encouraging result. But this was
not done at once; several appeals had to be made before a single reply was
received, usually because of absence, of deferred meetings, &c., and nearly a
thousand appeals were sent, involving various replies, to obtain this result,

To each corresponding secretary nominated by a Society, after application
to the secretary, the following suggestions for local work were sent as a basis
for his or her own active campaign :—

Suggestions for Local Socielies.
It is suggested that your Society might possibly carry out the following
programme as far as it can be adapted to local needs :—

1. Choose a member to act as a corresponding secretary who would keep in
touch with the movement and report measures adopted, or instances of
extinction. :

2. Constitute itself a local body ready to :—

A. Inform the Recorder of any cases of extinction, with their causes,
and send photographs of sites as well as definitely compare present
records of the flora with earlier ones.

B. Educate the people locally by means of the Press as to the importance

"of plant protection.

c. Help to distribute information and display notices as to plant
preservation (to be obtained from the Selborne Society).

p. Memorialise the County Council to obtain a local order for plant
protection, and secure signatures to a petition for legislation (a
Bill is being prepared).

zr. Endeavour to create locally a public opinion against the too
abundant collection of plants.

r. Work to obtain the purchase of tracts that need reserving, and dis-
cuss with the Selborne Society the formation of sanctuaries where
needed.

A quarterly report should be sent as to facts ascertained (a and Ff),
progress made (B-E), and help and advice needed.

In addition to such work, the Section proposes to obtain the help of the
secretaries in obtaining data in each area as to the need for the reservation of
any tract of land, or the protection of any particular plant. This will be in the
nature of registration, as followed out in Prussia, and in exceptional cases
exact maps of such areas may be required.

This is an era of land-inquiries, and as one of the most important aspects
of plant-protection has to do with the estates of landowners, who as a body
could help in the work of protection, and as much depredation is carried out
upon their property, their assistance is to be sought in protecting plants, and it
is proposed to ascertain who are the landowners in each district, the extent of
their property, and so on. In this way, if local orders (as is hoped) become
general, then the Section can lay down all the machinery necessary for the
carrying out of protection without the creation of a single extra official, which
is the only objection made to this method of preservation. The necessity for
organisation is obvious. 1 Fue '

Too great emphasis cannot be laid upon the great principle of co-operation,
without which no work of this national character can be done. One is even led
to suggest the federation of all such conserving bodies for common strength and
unity. But the present attitude of harmony towards each other is all that can
be expected so far, so diverse are the objects in view.

In this campaign one thing is of paramount importance, the necessity of
promoting a public opinion upon the matter. Prevention is better than cure.

The deliberate efforts made towards the proper safeguarding of national
monuments abroad must be the pattern by which we must work. Though much
remains to be done in this country, yet much has already been done. There

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. oot

must inevitably be divergent opinions as to how it is to be done, who is to do
it, and so on, but these discussions surely do more good than harm.

And it is surely the work of scientific societies, since the material to be
preserved is that upon which such bodies are continually engaged in research,
and its conservation is a principle to which each society must subscribe.

I would ask that as practical a result of this discussion be arrived at as was
achieved last year; that is, the unanimous voice of the Conference upon the
desirability of organised effort.

With the approval of your Secretary and that of the Chairman of the
Section, I submit to you a resolution, which I wish to have sent to every
member of Parliament in the country through the corresponding secretaries or,
in default, by the Section, asking them to approve the principle of State pro-
tection and the framing of a Wild Flowers Protection Act.

* [That this meeting of the Delegates of Scientific Societies gathered in
Conference at the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement
of Science at Birmingham, September 16, 1913, records its opinion that the
time has arrived when the question of the protection and preservation of
wild plants demands the attention of Parliament] by the appointment of a
Commission to recommend the enactment and endowment of such a
measure by the State, and the passing cof an Act to make and enforce
regulations required.’

It is proposed to get each secretary to send a copy of this resolution with
Leaflet No. 1 to his M.P., with a request for a reply and an expression of
opinion.

These replies would be collected by the Section, and a definite estimate
formed of the possibility of success and the best means of attaining it.

Meanwhile, the work of the Section will be to collect data which will serve,
when a Commission is appointed or a measure brought forward, to provide
reasons for its promotion. This method is calculated to save delay.

The CHatrMan, speaking on the resolution suggested by Mr. Horwood,
thought that it was rather cumbrous and that it would be almost impossible to
get a Royal Commission appointed.

After discussion on Mr. Horwood’s resolution by Sir Daniel Morris (Bourne-
mouth Natural Science Society) and Mr. Joseph Wilson (Essex Field Club),
Mr. Witson proposed an amendment to the resolution that all the words from
‘Parliament ’ to the end be omitted. This was seconded and carried,

Mr. T. Sueprarp (Hull Scientific and Field Naturalists’ Club) said that he
was not sure from what benighted parts of the country the various delegates
present might have come, but he could assure them that in the North they were
sufficiently civilised to look after their botanical treasures without such drastic
measures being taken. The Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union, with its forty
affiliated societies, and nearly 4,000 members and associates, had for many
years taken the greatest possible interest in the preservation of the flora
and fauna of the county, some of the more interesting localities being pro-
tected by watchers paid from the Union’s funds. Nor did they, in York-
shire, find that serious harm was done, either by collectors or herbalists.
After many years’ work he felt that in Yorkshire, and surely in
other parts of England as well, the various societies were doing much more
good in looking after their floral treasures than harm in collecting them. In
fact, he felt that the professional or amateur ‘collector’ was an exceedingly
rare individual ; one reason being his difficulty in disposing of large quantities to
advantage. He was sure that Yorkshire botanists would resent any action being
taken which would interfere with the present very satisfactory state of things.

He also resented interfering in any way with the landowners, either by
making suggestions to them or by giving them additional powers. From many
years’ experience with Jandowners (as secretary to his society) in all parts
of Yorkshire, he had found that they were invariably willing to give every
facility to natural history societies to roam over their estates, and he believed
that during the very many years in which this privilege has been given to York-
shire naturalists, on seven or eight occasions each year, there had not been

? The resolution carried is put in square brackets,
1913, Z

338 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

a single instance in which the privilege had been abused. In the suggested
powers that it was proposed through Parliament to give he saw grave danger
of this present state of things being interfered with.

In other respects, the suggestions now made had already been adopted by
several societies many years ago.

He also, as representative of one of the largest societies in the Union,
resented the suggestion that all these various societies should come under the
wing of the Selborne Society in this so-called protective scheme. He did not
wish to deprecate in any way the excellent work the Selborne Society was
doing, but he felt sure that many societies whose delegates were present felt
that they were able to continue the work they had been doing for many years
without being connected with the Selborne, or any other society of that kind.

Mr, Witu1am West (Bradford Natural History and Microscopical Society), as
an ex-President of the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union, endorsed all Mr. Sheppard’s
remarks. The less said in calling attention to rare plants the better; it simply
calls the attention of both vandals and collectors to the desirability in their
own interests of collecting these plants for sale or other purposes. A true
naturalist would never buy a rare specimen if there were the slightest chance
of its extinction.

The discussion was at this point adjourned until the following subject had
been brought forward by Mr. R. H. WHITEHOUSE.

The Best Means of Preventing the Extinction of Local Species.

It is an easy matter to talk about what measures should be taken to prevent
the extinction of species, but it is exceedingly difficult to find really practicable
measures to enforce.

This subject has occupied the attention of the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club
for many years; not so much for the necessity for active measures in their
district, for we are singularly free from the wanton destruction reported from
many districts, but more from the fact that they realise that it is better to
have some workable scheme in readiness should necessity arise. Besides, the
Club is anxious to do its part for the common good, and to support heartily
schemes which will prove effective in preserving local species from destruction.

Discussion will be most profitable if we place ourselves in the position of the
people who would be affected by any measures; we shall then be in a better
position to realise the objection to schemes.

We must not forget there is a dominant characteristic of the British public
which all reformers do well to consider, namely, the resentment to interference
with what are thought to be personal liberties.

There are some causes for extinction over which, apparently, we have no
control; I am thinking of ‘progressive schemes’ chiefly associated with the
extension of towns. As a town expands (and here in Birmingham we know
what that means) people penetrate further into the country for recreation. The
chief occupation of our lower artisan classes during their country-rambles to-day
is to make ‘short cuts,’ cut sticks from hedges with which to mow down any
herb that is handy, remove ferns, saxifrages, &c., from walls and carry on other
such acts of destruction. I cannot see any really practical means which can be
adopted in this country against this evil; in Germany they would simply erect
a prohibitory notice and nobody would go! And I might add that, as a lover
of Nature, I strongly resented such notices even when in Germany. The average
Britisher resents notices against trespassing, and I know naturalists who even
make it a rule to invade all fields and woods which are forbidden.

_The construction of public works is another frequent cause of destruction to
objects of natural interest. The construction of huge reservoirs, as in the
Lake District and Elan Valley, is fatal. Drainage schemes similarly affect
certain species. The construction of a railway is frequently attended with
disasters, as we so frequently see in Sutton Park, where fires are common during
a fered and are caused by hot cinders as often as by carelessness of the
public.

_ What I want you to realise is that as naturalists we are of second-rate
importance against such destruction. Many enthusiastic lovers of Nature talk
as though rare animals and plants were of the first importance. This is a

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 339

commendable enthusiasm, but it is sometimes a blind one. Areas must be
drained; reservoirs must be made; railways must be constructed. When all
is said and done, economic matters have, and always will have, greater weight
than natural history matters. We must give way and mourn the loss of our
valued friends.

I emphasise this side of the question because I know abler men than I will
deal with preventable cases. But it seems to me that even here we need not
be idle. Probably in the case of economic advances, the best means of preserv-
ing species liable to destruction would be some such method as the following :
Our natural history societies should be provided with a complete list of the fauna
and flora of their districts; they should make themselves acquainted with all
schemes which involve the destruction of any species, and attempt to preserve
them by such means as transplanting as nearly in the same district as possible.

In such discussions as these, it frequently happens that much time is spent
in denouncing the actions of certain people in ruthless collecting; I am fully
aware of such disgraceful vandalism, but at the same time I feel that we should
be careful to see that we do not anger any class by hasty accusations. One
person who is always accused is the teacher of nature-study with his class of
pupils. To some teachers a plant has no interest unless it be rare in the
locality ; so one of the first things to try and bring home to all such teachers
is that the commonest plants are of equal educational value to rare ones.

I have had some considerable experience of teachers of nature-study, and in
spite of the accusations that have been made, I must put in a defence for them.
Teachers are either well-informed naturalists or only superficially acquainted
with animals and plants. In the former case, I-have found that, being well
acquainted with the rarer forms, they have been the very first to take special
pains to preserve them from destruction; in fact, they are the people I look
to for assistance in any reforms we may suggest. In the latter case, I know,
we have unfortunate offenders, but there are many reasons why the damage
done is not so great as many would have us believe. For example, such teachers
seldom pass beyond the most frequented lanes, and very little precious stuff
grows in such places; again, their very limited knowledge restricts them to the
commonest plants; no wideawake teacher will invite difficulties by attracting
the attention of his scholars to a plant he knows nothing about. Examine the
collections of children, and you almost invariably find that they consist of
common plants. Classes of children have been seen in Sutton Park, each
child of which had a whole specimen of the butterwort, with the result that
the area visited was quite cleared of this plant. This is an unfortunate
instance only too true, but I venture to suggest it is not a common practice.
It so happens that insectivorous plants have a great attraction for those who
draw up school-curricula; we do not wish to prohibit instruction on these plants,
but to do something to prevent their removal.

Another unwelcome character is the professional collector; where money is
a consideration, the instinct to preserve rareties is liable to be suppressed.
But where does the fault lie? Surely with the purchaser. Much as we might
dislike acknowledging it, it is the places of higher learning that are primarily
responsible. As university-teachers we require and buy these precious species,
and so the professional collector makes his money and exterminates them.
Yet I know collectors who are most careful not to remove such species entirely ;
probably also from the business point of view, for it is advisable to keep a
supply! What is the remedy? Why should not the natural history societies
take the matter up? If, as I have suggested, each natural history society
provided itself with a list of the fauna and flora of its district, and undertook
to supply material, the work might be transferred from the ruthless money-
maker to interested societies; at any rate a sufficient check would be placed on
supplies to prevent total extinction.

Of course the difficulties are great, and we must decide whether or not they
are insurmountable. Naturalists are often bad business men, and from my
experience I would say a professor would perhaps be surer of his stock from
the professional collector. Another thing, the professional collector is usually

a member of the local natural history society, and a valuable member too. So
the difficulties increase.

z2

340 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCTENCE.—1913.

Let me touch on the view of those who advise education as the cure. I
confess I do not see much hope there yet. In fact, if it is ‘prevention of
extinction with no risks’ that is aimed at, no education at all would be the
safest course.

It is a very high standard of education that is required to make a person
appreciate the value of rarities in the animal and plant worlds, In our schools,
it is better to omit instruction on uncommon forms; the commonest things in
Nature are sufficient for a general education. It is the university—and college—
student to whom we should appeal to respect rarer forms, and it may be worth
while to make such an appeal; for rare creatures usually have only an academic
interest.

The natural history societies should draw up the fauna and flora lists, and
call the attention of headmasters and nature-study teachers to the desire to
preserve certain species growing in the district; there need be no indication in
the appeal as to where such plants grow.

Many societies already have such lists. Probably no place is more accurately
worked than the North of Ireland, and it would not be a formidable task to
single out examples for presentation to teachers of nature-study.

Much valuable assistance against ignorant destruction of rarer species might
be obtained from the Press. Many of our ‘dailies’ give special columns to
‘Nature,’ and the rarer forms are objects for special description. If we make
an appeal to the Press to emphasise the desirability of cultivating a pride in our
local fauna and flora, such an appeal may be attended with success.

I see no other means of preventing the extinction of local species; it is a
moral claim we have to make, and that is always the most difficult to establish.

My remarks have frequently tended to be in the direction of a plea for the
defendant. I have taken this course deliberately in order that those who ait
prepared to present schemes for the prevention of destruction of local species
may perhaps be in a better position (1) to realise the kind of opposition which
offenders will raise against any measures which tend to limit a continuance of
their practices, and (2) to form Jess hasty judgments on those who are considered
offenders, traditionally, at any rate.

The CHarrman, to show the position of affairs, read the following resolution
from Section D, and the Council’s motion on it :—

‘That the British Association for the Advancement of Science deplores
the rapid destruction of flora and fauna throughout the world, and
regards it as an urgent duty that immediate steps should be taken to
secure the preservation of all species of animals and plants, irrespective of
their economic or sporting value.’

The Council approved the principle of the above resolution, and resolved to
give expression to it in the following terms :—

‘That the British Association for the Advancement of Science deplores
the rapid destruction of fauna and flora throughout the world, and
regards it as an urgent duty that steps should be taken, by the formation
of suitably placed reserves or otherwise, to secure the preservation of
examples of all species of animals and plants, irrespective of their
economic or sporting value, except in cases where it has been clearly
proved that the preservation of particular organisms, even in restricted
numbers or places, is a menace to human welfare.’

Sir Epwarp Brasroox (Balham and District Antiquarian and Natural
History Society) said that this resolution of the Council embodied a resolution
passed by the Conference of Delegates at Dundee and sent up to the Council.

Continuing the discussion on the two papers which had been read, Mr.
W. Marx Wess (Selborne Society) said that his society did not wish to depre-
ciate or supersede the work of any other. The section devoted to plant pro-
tection only looked for help and co-operation in its undertakings. He thought
that the power of the law should be definitely behind those who wished to pre-
serve certain plants on their estates. He gave instances of extermination and
damage in a particular case. He also alluded to the good work which had been
done by nature-study teachers by inculcating respect for living things, and
agreed that common objects were better teaching material than rare ones,
although there was much wilful destruction of common plants.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 341

The Rev. Frepericx Smita (Prehistoric Society of East Anglia) said, in
criticising the ‘ utility’ standpoint of Mr. Whitehouse, that so far from accept-
ing such a position, the fact of the constant encroachment, owing to the exigen-
cies of modern ways, upon the freedom of our native fauna and flora is the very
reason why we, as students and lovers of Nature, should be more and more
earnest and anxious for their defence and protection. We can do much toward
helping to extend the areas of rarer plants by planting seed in likely places.
This was a common practice of the speaker’s friend, the late Dr. Buchanan
White, of Perth. Some now very rare plants were once common in his society’s
area; and now common species may become rafe in their turn. There is some-
thing touching and wise in the Eastern view that it is a sin to destroy any life
that only a God could give. It is assuredly a greater misdeed to allow, if it
can be prevented, the annihilation of a single species of any kind of animal
or plant.

Another delegate thought that Mr. Horwood’s work was not on the right
lines, and could not tolerate Mr. Webb’s suggestion that landowners should be
given power to prosecute for the taking of wild plants. He agreed with the
resolution passed in Section K, that there should be no change in the law of
trespass. He gave instances of German regulations and methods of protection,
which he considered inapplicable to Britain. The artificial dissemination of the
seeds of wild plants, he thought, was against all work on their natural distri-
bution.

Mr. Bryan Corcoran (Croydon Natural History and Scientific Society), while
against the idea of a new Act of Parliament for plant-protection, approved
of much in Mr, Whitehouse’s paper. He thought that Herbert Spencer said
something to the effect that when an Act of Parliament was passed to protect
any special section of the community that very section soon began to suffer.
He believed that an Act as suggested would be very likely to aggravate the
trouble it was passed to prevent. He asked if it would be possible to cultivate
rare species away from their habitat, advertise them in the ‘Selborne Magazine,’
and make it worth while for dealers to sell them from these nurseries ?

Professor J. H. Prisstitey (Leeds Naturalists’ Club and Scientific Associa-
tion) asked delegates to remember that the debate had shown that there was
little agreement as to any line of action more extended than that covered by
the previous resolution of the Council of the Association. That resolution
recognised the urgency and importance of the problem, and recommended con-
structive proposals on the line of Nature reserves. This discussion made it
clear that it was unwise without further consideration to press the matter upon
the attention of the public with a view to legislative action. He therefore
moved : ‘That the previous question be now put.’ This, having been seconded,
Was carried.

In consideration of the motion just passed, Mr. JosepH W1Lson asked leave
to withdraw the amendment which stood in his name. This was agreed to,

The Cuatrman having read Mr. Horwood’s resolution, Sir Danie, Morris
asked what was the present position, and was informed that there was no
resolution to go before the General Committee.

The CHarrMAN drew the attention of the Conference to fresh evidence
which it was desired to gather regarding the working of the Wild Birds Pro-
tection Acts and the damage done by certain birds, such as the wild pigeon.
It was suggested that evidence should be heard before a Departmental Com-
mittee. He proposed the following resolution: ‘That it be referred to the
Correspcnding Societies Committee to arrange for evidence being given before
the Committee which, it is understood, is about to be appointed by the Home
Secretary to consider the amendment of the Wild Birds Protection Acts.’

This having been seconded by Mr. H. D. Acland, Mr. Wess pointed out
that if the Plumage Bill then before Parliament became law only ostrich
feathers and eider down could be imported, and that the additional powers to be
given to the Home Secretary might be intended to check the use of the plumage
of native birds for commercial purposes. '

The resolution, having been put to the meeting, was carried. _

Mr. H. D. Actanp moved the following resolution: ‘ That this Conference
hears with regret that the work of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society has

342 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

been curtailed in consequence of the magnetic observatory of the Society coming
to an end.’

He explained that the observatory at Falmouth had been discontinued in
consequence of the establishment of the observatory at Eskdale Moor and the
withdrawal of the grants from the Royal Society and the British Association.
It was a misfortune that such highly scientific work as had been carried on
continuously by this Society should be discontinued. It was important that
the British Association should know that this Conference regrets the discontinu-.
ance of the work of one of its affiliated societies. To that end the resolution
should be sent to the Council. ®

The Rev. J. O. Bryan seconded the resolution, which was then carried
unanimously.

The following Delegates attended the Conference and signed the attendance
book, their attendance being indicated by the figures 1 and 2, which refer respectively
to the first and second meeting.

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES.

1 2 Andersonian Naturalists’ Society . M. A. B. Gilmour, F.Z.S.
1 Ashmolean Natural History Society of Oxfordshire G. Claridge Druce, M.A.
1 2 Belfast Natural History and Puen Bocialy Dr. Allworthy.
1 2 Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club 3 R. H. Whitehouse, M.Sc.
1 2 Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club ; G. P. Hughes, J.P.
1 Birmingham and Midland Institute "Scientific

Society .

C. J. Woodward, B.Sc.

1 2 Bournemouth Natural Science Society : Sir Daniel Morris, K.C.M.G;
1 2 Brighton and Hove Natural ae and Philo-
~ sophical Society . Alfred W. Oke, F.G.S.
1 Burton-on-Trent Natural ‘History: and Archxo-
logical Society - Dr. Stern.
1 Cardiff Naturalists’ Society Prof. E. P. Perman, D.Sc.
1 2 Cornwall, Royal Institution of ‘ H. D. Acland, F.G.S.
1 2 Cornwall Royal Polytechnic Society H. D. Acland, F.G.S.
1 2 Croydon Natural History and Scientific Society . Bryan Corcoran.
1 Dorset Natural History and Sane Field
Club. Alfred Pope, F.S.A.
1 2 East Anglia, Prehistoric Society of Rey. F. Smith.
1 2 Edinburgh Field Naturalists’ and Microscopical
Society . W. C. Crawford, F.R.S.E.
1 2 Edinburgh Geological Society . R. C. Millar.
1 2 Essex Field Club. Joseph Wilson.
1 Glasgow Royal Philosophical Society Prof. James Muir, D.Sc.
1 2 Hampshire Field Club and Archeological Society W. Dale, F.S.A.
1 Hampstead Scientific Society C. O. Bartrum, B.Sc.
1 2 Hertfordshire Natural History Society and Field
Club. sents Sir George Fordham.
1 2 Holmesdale Natural History Club . Miss M. C. Crosfield.
2 Hull Geological Society . T. Sheppard, F.G.S.
2 Hull Scientific and Field Naturalists’ Club . T. Sheppard, F.G.S.
1 2 Isle of Man Natural os a and 1 Antiquarian
Society . ‘ F W. H. Patterson, M.Sc.
1 Liverpool Geological Society “ J. H. Milton, F.G.S.
1 2 London: Quekett Microscopical Club G. F. Rousselet.
1 2 London: Selborne Society W. Mark Webb, F.L.S,
2 Manchester Geological and Mining Society William Watts, F.G.S.
1 2 Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society Miss A. M. Geldart.
1 North of England Institute of Mining and ‘Mechani-
cal Engineers . Hugh Johnstone.
1 2 North Staffordshire Field Club W. Wells Bladen.
1 Northamptonshire Natural erie Soviety and

Field Club - .

C. A. Markham, F.S.A.

— ee et

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

2 Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle-on-Tyne
Natural History Society

2 Nottingham Naturalists’ Society
2 Rochdale Literary and Scientific Society

2 Sheffield Naturalists’ Club

2 South-Eastern Union of Scientific Soeieties ;
2 Torquay Natural History Society .
2 Vale of Derwent Naturalists’ Field Club

1 Warwickshire
Field Club

Naturalists’

and Archeologists’

1 2 Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club .
2 Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union .

1 2 Balham and District Antiquarian and Natural
1 2 Bradford Natural History and “Microscopical

1 2 Grimsby and District Antiquarian and Natural-

343

R. 8. Bagnall, F.L.S.
Prof. J. W. Carr, M.A.
J. R. Ashworth, D.Sc.
Wm. Parkin, F.R.M.S.
W. Dale, F.S.A.

Mrs. Forbes Julian.

R. 8. Bagnall, F.L.S.

W. Andrews, F.G.S.
Rev. J. O. Bevan, M.A.
T. Sheppard, F.G.S.

ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES.

History Society .

Society .

1 Dunfermline Naturalists’ Society

ists’ Society
1 Hastings and St.
Societ

Leonards Natural History

2 Leeds WNavaraliste’ Club Ae Seenie edhe ees

1 2 Lewisham Antiquarian Society

1 2 School Nature Study Union .
1 South London Entomological and Natural al History

Societ

2 ‘eign Naturalists’ Field Club .
1 Watford Camera Club ,

Sir Edward Brabrook, C.B.

W. West, F.L.S.

Dr. Chalmers Mitchell,
F.R.S.

Dr. O. T. Olsen, F.L.S.

George Willson.

Prof. J. H. Priestley, B.Sc.
Sir Edward Brabrook, C.B
Mrs. White, D.Sc.

Robert Adkin, F.E.S.
John §. Amery.

John Hopkinson, F.G.S.

The representative of the Catford and District Natural History Society,
Mr. E. Dixon, F.G.S., was absent, through a serious accident.

1913;

KE,

4
J

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STATE OF

REPORTS ON THE

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REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

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CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 349

Catalogue of the more important Papers, especially those referring to Local
Scientific Investigations, published by the Corresponding Societies
during the year ending May 31, 1913.

*,* This Catalogue contains only the titles of papers published in the volumes or
parts of the publications of the Corresponding Societies sent to the Secretary of the
Committee in accordance with Rule 2.

Section A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PuysIcaL SCIENCE.

Bracer, Coartes A. The Geodetic Survey of Canada. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc.
of Canada,’ vi. 324-342. 1912.

Cannon, J. B. The Orbit of & Coronas Borealis. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of
Canada,’ vi. 342-349. 1912.

—— The Orbit of = Persei from the H and K Lines. ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc.
of Canada,’ vi. 188-196. 1912.

Carapoc AND SEVERN VALLEY Firnp Crus. Meteorological Notes. ‘ Record of Bare
Facts,’ No. 22, 25-42. 1913.

Cuant, C. A. In the Background of the Stars. ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,
vi. 240-245. 1912.

Conrapy, A. E. Resolution with Dark-ground Illumination. ‘Journal Quekett
Mic. Club,’ x1. 475-480. 1912.

CRESSWELL, ALFRED. Records of Meteorological Observations taken at the Observa-
tory, Edgbaston, 1912. ‘ Birm. and Mid. Inst. Sci. Soc.’ 26 pp. 1913.

DUMFRIESSHIRE AND GaLtLoway NaturaL History anD ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY.
Abstract of Meteorological Observations taken at Crichton Royal Institution,
Dumfries, 1911. ‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’ xxrv. 212-

. 213. 1912.

Esprn, T. E. The Dark Structures in the Milky Way. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc.
of Canada,’ vi. 225-230. 1912. :

The Milky Way, and the Distribution ‘of Stars with Peculiar Spectra. ‘ Journal
Royal Astr. Soe. of Canada,’ vir. 79-87. 1913.

Fox, W. Luoyp, and Epwarp Kirto. Meteorological and Magnetical Tables and
Reports for the year1911, Tables of Sea Temperature, &c. ‘ Report Royal Corn-
wall Poly. Soc.’ 11. (N.s.) 1-28 (App.). _ 1912.

Garrett, Dr. F. C., and R. C. Burton (N. Eng. Inst. Eng.). The Use of X-rays in
the Examination of Coal. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xii. 295-297. 1912.

Gress, THomas. Rainfall Records at Wirksworth, Derbyshire. ‘The Naturalist for
1913,’ 105-108. 1913.

Gray, Ropert C. On the Magnetism of Aluminium Bronze. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Royal
Phil. Soc.’ xx. 104-106. 1912.

Haupane, Dr. J. S., and Dr. T. Lister Luewettyn (S. Staffs. and Warw. Inst.
Eng.). The Effects of Deficiency of Oxygen on the Light of a Safety-lamp. ‘ Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xiv. 267-272. 1912.

Harpy, V. ©. Meteorological Observations at Oundle School, 1911. ‘Journal
Northants. N. H. Soc.’ xvi. 264. 1912.

Harper, W. E. A Long-Period Spectroscopic Binary. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc.
of Canada,’ vr. 179-187. 1912.

—— Further Observations of @ Aquila. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vr.
265-271. 1912.

Hawker, E.L. Meteorological Report for 1912. ‘ Report Hampstead Sci. Soc., 1912,’
27-28. 1912.

Horxinson, Jonn. The Weather of the Year 1910 in Hertfordshire. ‘ Trans. Herts
N. H.S. F.C. xv. 255-270. 1912.

Hovau, 8.8. Presidential Address : Some Recent Improvements in Transit Observ-
ing. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of 8. Africa,’ 1. 419-427. 1912.

Howarp, A. G. The Blizzard of June 9-12,1902. ‘Trans. Royal Soe. of S. Africa,’
mm. 129-134. 1913.

Macr, Lieut. F. W. Harbour Surveying. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxxa.
64-75, 1912.

350 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

MarxuaM, C. A.,and R. H. Prrmavest. Meteorological Report. ‘ Journal Northants
N. H. Soc.’ xvi. 217-220, 260-263, 300-306. 1912, 1913.

Meyrick, E. Summary and Tables of Meteorological Observations. ‘ Report
Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’ No. 60, 97-118. 1912.

Mor, Dr. James. The Spectrum of the Ruby—Part III. ‘ Trans. Royal Soc. of S.
Africa,’ 11. 339-340. 1912.

Moors, A. W. The Climate of the Isle of Man. ‘ Proc. Isle of Man N. H. A. Soc.’
(n.s.) 1. 447-454, 1913.

Morr, Dr. THomas. The Resultant of a Set of Homogeneous Lineo-linear Equa-
tions. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of S. Africa,’ m. 373-380. 1912.

Note on Double Alternants. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of S. Africa,’ m1. 177-185. 1913.

Netson, Rosert (N. Staffs Inst. Eng.). Electricity: A Short Paper addressed to
Colliery Managers. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xty. 156-164. 1913.

Parrerson, T. L. Study of a Falling Chimney. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Royal Phil. Soc.’
xii. 217-231. 1912.

Puaskett, J. §. The Spectroscopic Binary 6? Tauri. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of
Canada,’ vi. 231-239. 1912.

Porr, AuFRED. Some Dew-ponds in Dorset. ‘Proc. Dorset N.H.A.F.C.’ xxxm.
22-33. 1912.

Preston, ArTHUR W. Meteorological Notes, 1911. ‘Trans. Norfolk and Norwich
Nat. Soc,’ rx. 341-348. 1912.

RamsBaut, A.A. Characteristics of the Weather at Oxfordin 1912. ‘Report Ashmo-
lean Nat. Hist. Soc. 1912,’ 41. 1913.

Summary of the Weather during 1912, from Observations at the Radcliffe
Observatory, Oxford. ‘ Report Ashmolean Nat. Hist. Soc. 1912,?42. 1913.

Rew, Duncan J. Critical Ilumination in Visual Work with the Microscope.
* Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ xr. 487-496. 1912.

Rei, F. B. Precise Levelling in Canada. ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vi.
151-178. 1912.

RHEINBERG, JuLIus. On Resolutions obtained with Dark-ground Illumination and
their Relation to the Abbe Theory. ‘ Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ x1. 501-506. 1912.

Ropa@srr, AtEx. M. Abstract of Meteorological Observations, Perth, 1911, and Re-
marks on the Weather. ‘ Proc. Perthshire Soc. Nat. Sci.’ v. clxxxii.-clxxxv. 1912.

Ross, Dr. ALEXANDER D. Some Physical Properties of Alloys of Iron and Copper.
‘ Proc. Glasgow Royal Phil. Soc.’ xtm. 62-66. 1912.

and Joun J. Ross. Ona further Relation between Seismic Frequency and the
Motion of the Earth’s Pole. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Royal Phil. Soc.’ xxuz. 97-103. 1912.

Ross, Dr. MaxwEtt. Meteorological Observations taken at Dumfries, 1909 and 1910.
‘ Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’ xx1v. 301-303. 1912.

Rupes, W. A. Dovatas. Action of Radium Salts on Glass. ‘ Trans. Royal Soc. of
South Africa,’ m. 357-364. 1912.

—— On the Variation in the Value of the Atmospheric Electrical Potential with the
Altitude. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of S. Africa,’ m. 395-404. 1912.

RUTHERFORD, J. Weather and Natural History Notes,1911. ‘Trans. Dumfriesshire
and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’ xxiv. 214-223. 1912.

SoHLestinceR, Franz. The Responsibilities of an Observatory Staff. ‘Journal
Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ v1. 283-289. 1912.

SHEPPARD, T. Early Microscopes. ‘The Naturalist for 1912,’ 229-234. 1912,

Smeson, T. V., and G. W. Bett. A Photographic Method of rapidly Copying out
Pay-notes, in use at Throckley Collieries. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xuiv. 220-227.
1912.

SrrapwortHy, A. Photographing Lightning. ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’
vi. 322-323. 1912.

Stewart, Louis B. President’s Address: The Structure of the Universe. ‘ Journal
Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vi. 1-18. 1913.

Stewart, THomas. The Rainfall on Table Mountain. ‘Trans. Royal Soe. of S.
Africa,’ m1. 41-46. 1913.

StiwEtL, H. Remarks on Rainfall of 1911. ‘ Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’ xxxmt.
147-160. 1912.

Sroxrs, W. B. On Resolutions obtained with Dark-ground Illumination and their
Relation to the Spectrum Theory. ‘ Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ x1. 497-590. 1912.

Surron, Dr. J. R. On some Meteorological Conditions controlling Nocturnal Radia-
tion. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of S. Africa,’ m. 381-393. 1912.

ng I cr,

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 351

Surron, Dr. J.R.,and Exizasetu M.Surron. Some Causesand Effects of Variations in
the Range of Temperature. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of 8. Africa,’ m. 341-356. 1912.

TURNBULL, F'. B. Iceland Spar and the Polariscope. ‘Trans. Edinburgh F. N. Mic.
Soc.’ vr. 439-447. 1912.

Watrorp, Dr. E. Meteorological Observations in the Society’s District, 1910.
* Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xurv. 1-18. 1912.

— The Cardiff Seismograph. ‘ Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc., xzrv. 19-20. 1912.

Wart, AnpREW. Rainfall Records of the Southern Counties for the year 1911.
* Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’ xxtv. 210-212. 1912.

Witson, C. J. (Min. Inst. Scotland). An Investigation into the Effect of Atmospheric
Pressure on the Height of the Gas-cap. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xiv. 67-78. 1913.

Youne, A. Photographing Halley’s Comet with Home-made Apparatus. ‘ Journal
Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ vi. 281-282. 1912.

Youne, ANDREW. ‘Tidal Phenomena at Inland Boreholes near Cradock. ‘ Trans.
Royal Soe. of S. Africa,’ m1. 61-106. 1913.

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.

Armstrone, Prof. H. E. Some Consequences of Graham’s Work: The Nature of
the Elements : The Diffusion of Liquids. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Royal Phil. Soc.’ xi.
67-96. 1912.

Buiackett, W.C. (N. England Inst. Eng.). An Address to Practical Men, being some
further notes on the Combustion of Oxygen and Coal-dust in Mines. ‘ Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xty. 295-308. 1913.

Dxscu, Dr. Cecm H. The Crystallisation of Metals. ‘Proc. Glasgow Royal Phil.
Soc.’ xum. 107-120. 1912.

Exxrorr, T. Lenton. Chemical Constituents of ‘ Moorlog.’ ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’
268-269. 1912.

Frrcuson, Prof. Jounn. Some Early Treatises on Technological Chemistry. Supple-
ment III. ‘Proc. Glasgow Royal Phil. Soc.’ xii. 232-258. 1912.

FuLier, Cuarues J. P. (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.). The Microscopic Structure of
Metals. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xy. 266-267. 1913.

Morr, Dr. James. Valency and Chemical Affinity. ‘Trans. Royal Soe. of 8. Africa.’
mr, 39-40. 1913.

Surron, W. Lincotne. Presidential Address: Enzymes, with Special Reference to
Cyanogenesis. ‘Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc.’ rx. 285-299. 1912.

THompson, BenBy. Peculiarities of Waters and Wells. ‘Journal Northants N. H.
Soc.’ xvi. 247-257. 1912.

Section C.—GEOLOGY.

ArBER, Dr. EK. A. NEwetu. The Fossil Plants of the Forest of Dean Coalfield. ‘ Proc.
Cotteswold Nat. Field Club,’ xvm. 321-332. 1912.

ars F. A. Notes on Hydreionocrinus. ‘ Trans. Edinburgh Geol. Soc.’ x. 61-76,
1912.

Tapering Ends of Crinoid Stems from Roscobie. ‘ Trans. Edinburgh Geol. Soc.’
x. 77-79. 1912.

Bett, Atrrep. On the Zonal Stratification of the Eastern British Pliocenes. ‘ Essex
Naturalist,’ xvr. 289-305. 1912.

se ee The Cleveland Ironstone. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’ 161-168, 185-

-- L913.

Cuatwin, Coartes P. The Cretaceous Lamellibranchia of Yorkshire. ‘ The Naturalist
for 1913,’ 201-204. 1913.

Coates, Henry. Note on the Occurrence of a Beam of Timber under Carse Clay at
Barnhill. ‘ Proc. Perthshire Soc. Nat. Sci.’ v. exliv—cxlv. 1912.

CockritLt, H. W. Instruments in a Land-stratum at Lyng. ‘ Proc. Prehistoric Soc.
of East Anglia,’ 1. 169-170. 1913. “

Craig, R. M. Additions to the Volcanic Geology of East Fife. ‘ Trans, Edinburgh
Geol. Soc.’ x. 83-89. 1912.

——aand Davin Batsinirz. The Carboniferous Rocks and Fossils in the neighbour-
hood of Pitscottie, Fifeshire. ‘Trans. Edinburgh Geol. Soc.’ x. 10-24, 1912.

Datton, ArcniBaLtD C. Quartzite Boulders in the Scunthorpe District. ‘The
Naturalist for 1912,’ 235. 1912.

352 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913. ~

Dawes, Prof. W. Boyp (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.). The South-Eastern Coal-
field, the Associated Rocks, and the Buried Plateau. ‘ ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xiv.
350-375. 1913.

Day, T. CurHBERT. Some Observations on the Long Row and the Dasses, Arthur’s
Seat. ‘Trans. Edinburgh Geol. Soc.’ x. 40-48. 1912.

Dron, R. W. Notes on Bores in Manor-Powis Coalfield, Stirling. ‘Trans. Edin-
burgh Geol. Soc.’ x. 25-29. 1912.

Grsson, Dr. Watcort. (S. Staffs. and Warw. Inst. Min. Eng.). A Boring for Coal at
Claverley, near Bridgnorth, and its bearing on the extension westwards of the
South Staffordshire Coalfield. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xny. 30-38. 1913.

GittigaN, ALBERT. The Millstone Grit of Yorkshire: Some new Evidence as to its
Source of Origin. ‘The Naturalist for 1912,’ 362-363. 1912.

Gray, JosEPH W. The Lower Severn Plain during the Glacial Epoch. ‘ Proc.
Cotteswold Nat. Field Club,’ xv. 365-380. 1912.

Grecory, Dr. J. W. The Polmont Kame, and on the Classification of Scottish Kames.
‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ x1v. 199-218. 1913.

GWINNELL, WintouR F. The Geology of the Folkestone Warren. ‘ South-Eastern
Naturalist for 1912,’ 59-65. 1912.

Hauuissy, T. On the Superficial Deposits of the County of Wexford. ‘Irish Natu-
ralist,’ xxt. 175-179. 1912.

HampstEap Screntiric Socisty. Hampstead Heath: its Geology and Natura
History. 328 pp. 1913.

Hareruaves, J. A. Fossil Footprints near Scarborough. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’
92-95. 1913.

Harker, ALFRED. Lamprophyre Dykes in Long Sleddale, Westmorland. ‘The
Naturalist for 1912,’ 266-267. 1912.

Hawarp, F.N. The Chipping of Flints by Natural Agencies. ‘ Proc. Prehistoric Soc.
of East Anglia,’ 1. 185-193. 1912.

HawkeEswortu, Epwin. A Pre-Glacial Lake-bed near Northallerton. * The Natu-
ralist for 1912,’ 204-205. 1912.

Herron-ALLEeN, Epwarp, and ArTHUR EARLAND. ‘The Foraminifera in their réle as
World-builders: A Review of the Foraminiferous Limestones and other Rocks of the
Eastern and Western Hemispheres. ‘ Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ xm. 1-16. 1915.

Hewitt, W. Presidential Address: The Coast in its Geological Relations. ‘ Proc.
Liverpool Geol. Soc.’ x1. 153-182. 1912.

Hincu, J. DE W. The Shelly Drift of Glenulra and Belderrig, Co. Mayo. ‘ Irish
Naturalist,’ xxi. 1-6. 1913.

HoLtanpd, Prof. Sir Tuos. H. The Origin of Desert Salt Deposits. ‘ Proc. Liverpool
Geol. Soc.’ x1. 227-250. 1912.

Jonus, T. A. Petrographical Studies of Local Erratics. ‘ Proc. Liverpool Geol.
Soc.’ x1. 183-200. 1912.

Krpner, Henry. Notes on the Geology of Western Hertfordshire. ‘Trans. Herts
N. H.S. F. C.’ xiv. 298. 1912.

Lomax, JAmEs (Manchester Geol. Min. Inst.). Natural History of Coal and Coal-dust.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xiiv. 288-301. 1912.

Maceregor, M. The Garriongill Section at Overtown, near Wishaw. ‘ Trans.
Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ x1v. 279-290. 1913.

Mackin, Dr. Wixu1aAM. Further Evidence of Contemporaneous Volcanic Action during
the Period of the Dalradian Schists. * Trans. Edinburgh Geol. Soc.’ x. 80-81. 1912.

—— On some Characters of a Dyke Rock associated with the Foliated Gabbros of
Glen Ernan, Aberdeenshire. ‘ Trans. Edinburgh Geol. Soc.’ x. 82. 1912.

Macnair, Peter, and Harry R. J. ConacuEer. On the Distribution of Posidonomya
corrugata Ether. Jun. in the Carboniferous Limestone of the Glasgow District.
‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ xiv. 309-322. 1913.

Netson, James. Notes on the Geological Survey Memoir—The Geology of the Glas-
gow District. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ xiv. 323-343. 1913.

Orv, Dr. Wirtt1AM T. The Geology of Cheddar Clifis. ‘ Proc. Bournemouth Nat.
Sci. Soc.’ rv. 89-94. 1913. ©

Picton, Harotp. Observations on the Bone Bed at Clacton. ‘ Proc. Prehistoric
Soc. of East Anglia,’ 1. 158-159. 1913.

Preston, Henry. History in Rocks and Stones, with special reference to Cuckmere
Haven. ‘Trans. Hastbourne N. H., Sci., and Lit. Soc.’ (N.s.) 4, 25-35. 1912.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 353

Prineiy, Joun. On the Origin of Bright Laminz in Coal, and a Suggestion arising
out of their Distribution. ‘ Trans. Edinburgh Geol. Soc.’ x. 30-37. 1912.

Reocu, James W. Notes on the Occurrence of Chalcedony, Agate, and Crystalline
Quartz in the Lavas of the Campsie Hills. ‘ Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ x1v. 303-308.
1913.

Rcuarpson, L. Memoir explanatory of a Map of a part of Cheltenham and Neighbour-
hood, showing the Distribution of the Sand, Gravel, and Clay. ‘Proc. Cotteswold
Nat. Field Club,’ xvi. 297-319. 1912.

The Water Supply of the City of Gloucester ; with Historical Note and Appendix,
by Roland Austin. ‘ Proc. Cotteswold Nat. Field Club,’ xv. 345-363. 1912.
—— A ‘Swallow-hole’ in the Inferior Oolite, near Cheltenham. ‘ Proc. Cotteswold

Nat. Field Club,’ xvur. 65. 1913.

and Cuar“es Upton. Some Inferior Oolite Brachiopoda. ‘ Proc. Cotteswold

Nat. Field Club,’ xvm1. 47-58. 1913.

and E. Tansor Paris. On the Stratigraphical and Geographical Distribution
of the Inferior Oolite Echinoids of the West of England: Supplement. ‘ Proc.
Cotteswold Nat. Field Club,’ xvim. 73-82. 1913.

Sawysr, A. R.(N. Staffs. Inst. Eng.). The New Rand Goldfield. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min.
Eng.’ xuiv.4-17. 1912.

SHEPPARD, GEORGE. Some recent Discoveries in the Chalk of the Flamboro’ District.
‘The Naturalist for 1912,’ 337-338. 1912.

SHEPPARD, T. Bibliography. Papers and Records published with respect to the
Geology and Palzontology of the North of England (Yorkshire excepted) during
1910. ‘The Naturalist for 1912,’ 188-190. 1912.

during 1911. ‘The Naturalist for 1912,’ 345-352, 371-372. 1912.

—— Coast Changes at Hornsea. ‘The Naturalist for 1913, 99. 1913.

SMELLIE, WILLIAM R. ‘The Sandstones of the Upper Red Barren Measures to the East
of Glasgow. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ xtv. 258-278. 1913.

Sricur, Rev. C. E. Present Trias Conditions in Australia. ‘ Proc. Liverpool Geol.
Soc.’ x1. 201-209. 1912.

Steuart, D. R. The Occurrence of Petroleum at Broxburn. ‘Trans. Edinburgh
Geol. Soc.’ x. 38-39. 1912.

STRACHAN, JAMES. Beekite or Cycloidal Chalcedony. ‘Proc. Belfast Nat. F. Cv
VI. 536-547. 1912.

Swanton, E. W. The Mollusca of Somerset (conclusion). ‘ Proc. Somersetshire
Arch. N. H. Soc.’ Lym. i-viii, 55-86. 1913.

Swinnerton, Dr. H. H. The Palmistry of the Rocks. ‘Report Nottingham Nat.
Soc. 1911-12, 65-68. 1912.

Tarr, D. Ona large glacially transported Mass of Lower Cretaceous Rock at Leavad
in the County of Caithness. ‘Trans. Edinburgh Geol. Soc.’ x. 1-9. 1912.

Tompson, Percy G. Note on the Occurrence of Stony Beds underlying Harwich
Harbour. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ xv1. 305-309. 1912.

TyRRELL, G. W. The Petrology of the Kilpatrick Hills, Dumbartonshire ; with
Notes on the Scottish Carboniferous Basalts. ‘ ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ xrv.
219-257. 1913.

Variolites from Upper Loch Fyne and Skye. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ x1v.
291-302. 1913.

Upton, CHartes. On the Abundant Occurrence of Involutina liassica (Jones) in the
Lower Lias at Gloucester. ‘ Proc. Cotteswold Nat. Field Club,’ xvur. 72. 1913.
Wang, Dr. Arruur. Glacial Lakes and the Welsh Border Rivers. ‘ Proc. Liverpool

Geol. Soc.’ x1. 210-225. 1912.

Warren, 8S. Hazztepinr. Notes on the Fauna and Flora of the so-called ‘Arctic
Ae ’ of the Valley of the Lea at Ponders End. ‘Essex Naturalist,’ xvur. 36-39.
1912.

Warts, Dr. H. Classification of Igneous Rocks. ‘Proc. Birmingham N. H. Phil.
Soc.’ xm. 1-11. 1913.

Winwoop, Rev. H. H. Well-Sinkings on Lansdown, Bath. ‘ Proc. Cotteswold Nat.
Field Club,’ xvur. 83-87. 1913.

Wiruerrs, Tuomas H. Cirripedes in the Norwich Museum from the Norfolk Chalk,
studied by Darwin. ‘ Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc.’ 1x. 308-315. 1912.

Woop, J. Mackworru. Past and Present History of Colchester Corporation Water
Works with relation to Underground Water. ‘Essex Naturalist,’ xvm1. 21-36.
1912.

1913. AA

354 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

Woopwarp, Dr. A. Smite. On the Snout of a Pachychormid Fish (Protosphyrena
stebbingi) from the Lower Chalk of §. Ferriby, Lincolnshire. ‘ The Naturalist for
1912,’ 329-330. 1912.

WRIcHrT, JAMES, jun. On the Crinoids from the Lower Carboniferous Limestones of
Invertiel, Fife. ‘Trans. Edinburgh Geol. Soc.’ x. 49-60. 1912.

Section D.—Zoouoey.

ARMISTEAD, Winson H. The Development of Modern Fish Culture, with specia
reference to the Salmonide. ‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’
xxiv. 169-176. 1912.

Barrert-Hamiuton, G. E. H. The Weight of Irish Hares. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xx1.
234. 1912

Barrineton, R. M. The Dartford Warbler in Ireland. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xx1.
232-234, 1912. ;

Bayrorp, E. G. Yorkshire Coleoptera in 1912. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’ 100-102.
1913.

BEL, J. Bird-nesting in the Isle of Man. ‘Proc. Isle of Man N. H. A. Soc.’ (N.8.) 1
455-461. 1913.

Beit, AntHony. On the Occurrence of Raia undulata Lacep. on the Sussex Coast.
‘ Hastings and Hast Sussex Naturalist,’ o. 8a.—8b. 1912.

Bennett, W. H. The Coleoptera of the Hastings District. ‘ Hastings and Hast
Sussex Naturalist,’ mo. 21-40. 1912.

BICKERTON, Wit1am. Notes on Birds observed in Hertfordshire during the year
1910. ‘Trans. N. H.S. F. C.’ xtv. 271-286. 1912.

BuatHwayt, Rev. F.L. A Preliminary List of the Lincolnshire Mammalia. ‘ Trans.
Lincolnshire Nat. Union, 1912,’ 60-67. 1913.

BLOOMFIELD, Rev. E. N. ‘Annual Notes on the Local Fauna, Flora, &c., for 1911.
: Hastings and East Sussex Naturalist,’ m. 1-7. 1912.

Bouam, Grorae. Notes on the Natural History of Hornsea Mere. ‘The Naturalist
for 1913,’ 33-71. 1913.

Bootu, H. B. The Bearded Tit. Experiment at Hornsea Mere. ‘The Naturalist for
1912.’ 168-170. 1912.

Nesting of the Common Gull on the Farne Islands. ‘ The Naturalist for 1912,’
237. 1912.

Brown, James Merkie. Freshwater Rhizopoda and Heliozoa from Kinder Scout.
‘The Naturalist for 1912,’ 179-182. 1912.

Bryce, Davip. On Five New Species of Bdelloid Rotifera. ‘ Journal Quekett Mic.
Club,’ x1. 83-94. 1913. ;
CarRapoc AND SEVERN VALLEY Fre~p Crus. Zoological Notes. ‘Record of Bare

Facts,’ No. 22, 15-24. 1913.

Carter, A. E. J. A List of Perthshire Diptera (Family Syrphide). ‘ Trans. Perth-
shire Soc. Nat. Sci.’ v. 129-132. 1912.

CuarKkE, W. J. Planer’s Lamprey near Scarborough. ‘The Naturalist for 1912,’
185. 1912.

CLUTTERBUOK, C. GRANVILLE. Long-tailed Ichneumon Fly (Rhyssa persuasoria, Linn.)
in Gloucestershire. ‘ Proc. Cotteswold Nat. Field Club,’ xvmt. 67-68. 1913.
Conean, NatHanret. Cerianthus Lloydii and Adamsia palliata on the Dublin Coast.

‘Trish Naturalist,’ xxz. 190-192. 1912.

Notes on the Development of Actzonia, ‘Trish Naturalist,’ xxi. 225-231. 1912.

Adalaria proxima, an~ Addition to the Irish Nudibranch Fauna. ‘Trish Natu-
ralist,’ xxm. 33-35. 1913.

CRALLAN, Dr. G. E. J. The Island of Jersey from a Natural Science Point of View.
‘Proc. Bournemouth Nat. Sci. Soc.’ rv. 62-70. 1913.

Curtis, W. Parkinson. On Order and Method in forming Collections, with especial
reference to Insects and Aves. ‘ Proc. Bournemouth Nat. Sci. Soc.’ 1v. 71-88.
1913.

Day, Cyrm Dovenas. The Natural History of Bhompston Pond, near Dorchester.
* Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. C.? xxxmr. 200-231. 1912.

Denvy, Prof. ArtHur. The President’s Address: By-products of Organic Evolu-
tion. ‘Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ xm. 65-82. 1913.

Disney, H. A. P. Notes on Birds in 1911. ‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’ No. 60,
55. 1912.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 355

DonistHorPs, H. St. J. K. Onsome Remarkable Associations between Ants of diffe-
rent Species. ‘Proc. Lancashire and Cheshire Entom. Soc.’ 1912, 38-56, 1912.

Dreyer, Dr. T. F. On the Salivary and Mouth Glands of the Nudibranchiata.
‘Trans. Royal Soc. of S. Africa,’ mi. 139-146. 1913.

Fatconer, Wm. The Spiders of Wicken, Cambridge. ‘The Naturalist for 1912,’

310-324. 1912.
— On the Origin of the Araneidal Fauna of Yorkshire. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’

111-114, 131-138. 1913.
Fortune, R. Notes on the Farne Islands for 1912. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’ 195.

1913.
Fostrr, Nevin H. Notes on Birds observed at Bundoran. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xxr.

218-219. 1912.

Frrenp, Rev. Himprric. Some Norfolk Annelids. ‘Trans. Norfolk and Norwich
Nat. Soc.’ rx. 394-405. 1912.

Trish Oligochats. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xxi. 171-174. 1912; xxu. 7-11. 1913.

_ ——Annelid Hunting in Notts. (Second Paper.) ‘Report Nottingham Nat. Soc.
1911-12,’ 50-64. 1913.

Goren, C. F. Some British Earthmites. ‘The Naturalist for 1912,’ 183-184 ;
236-237. 1912.

—— Ritteria nemorum Koch. ‘The Naturalist for 1913, 109-110. 1913.

— Gamasus ignotus n.sp. in Lincolnshire. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’ 139-140.
1913.

— The Mites known as Rhagadia. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’ 196-197. 1913.

Grmcuaist, Dr. J. D. F. Description of a new Species of Sting Ray (Z'rygon) from
South Africa. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of S. Africa,’ m1. 33-34. 1913.

Guapstonz, Huan §. Addenda and Corrigenda to the ‘ Birds of Dumfriesshire.
‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’ xx1v. 13-38. 1912.

Hatcu-Lumpy, A. Vertebrate Zoology in Yorkshire. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’
149-150. 1913.

Hatitert, H. M. A List of the Hymenoptera aculeata recorded for the County of
Glamorgan. ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xirv. 92-99. 1912.

Hammonp, Joun. An Investigation concerning the Food of certain Birds. ‘ Trans.
Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc.’ rx. 316-327. 1912.

Hewitt, Jonny, and Paut A. Meravzn. Descriptions of some new Batrachia and
Lacertilia from South Africa. ‘ Trans. Royal Soc. of 8. Africa,’ mr. 107-111. 1913.

—and J. H. Pownr. A List of South African Lacertilia, Ophidia, and Batrachia
in the McGregor Museum, Kimberley ; with Field Notes on various Species.
‘Trans. Royal Soc. of S. Africa,’ mr. 147-176. 1913.

Hryron, Martin C. On the Remains of Vertebrate Animals found in the Middens
of Rayleigh Castle, Essex. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ xvm. 16-21. 1912.

Horrett, E. Cuartes. Notes on the Beetles of Scarborough. ‘The Naturalist for
1913, 103-104. 1913.

Hupp, Aurrep E. (Editor.) Somerset Lepidoptera. An Appendix to the County
List printed in the ‘ Victoria County History of Somerset,’ Vol. I. ‘ Proc. Somer
setshire Arch. N. H. Soc.’ nvm. 105-113. 1913.

Jackson, Dr. A. RanprEtt. Notes on Collecting and Preserving Spiders. ‘ Proc.
Isle of Man N. H. A. Soe.’ (n.s.) 1. 503-508. 1913.

— On some new and obscure British Spiders. ‘Report Nottingham Nat. Soc.
1911-12, 20-49. 1913.

Jounson, Rev. W. F. Entomological Notes from Ulster. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xx1.
131-133. 1912.

Lace, Ricuarp. The Biological Station at Port Erin and its Nature Study Classes.
“Proc. Isle of Man N. H. A. Soc.’ (n.s.) 1. 463-467. 1913.

etna T. Note on Solpura ferox. ‘Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ x1. 507-510.

M‘Gowan, Bertram. A List of the Coleoptera of the Solway District; I. To the
on of the Carabidez. ‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’ xxtv.

Mason, G. W. The Lepidoptera of Lincolnshire. ‘Trans. Lincolnshire Nat. Union
1912,’ 59. 1913.

Muyricx, E. Report of the Entomological Section. ‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’
No. 60, 36-44. 1912.

—— Ornithological List. ‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’ No. 60, 45-47. 1912.

AA 2

356 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

Meyrriok, E. Hand List of Lepidoptera of the District. ‘ Report Marlb. Coll. N.
H. Soc.’ No. 60, 63-96. 1912.

Morrat, ©. B. Bees and Flowers. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxm. 65-74. 1913.

Mortey, B. Xanthia aurago in the West Riding of Yorkshire. ‘The Naturalist for
1912,’ 208-209. 1912.

Morty, CLAupE. Ichneumons. ‘ Proc. Lancashire and Cheshire Entom. Soc.’
1912, 26-37. 1912.

Nicuotson, Dr. G. W. Some Additional Records of Irish Beetles, chiefly from Co.
Meath. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxi. 49-50. 1913.

OxpHam, CHARLES. Report on Land and Freshwater Mollusca observed in Hert-
fordshire in 1910. ‘Trans. Herts N. H.S. F. C.’ x1v. 287-290. 1912.

—— Nycteribia pedicularia Latreille (==. .latreillei Leach) in Hertfordshire. ‘ Trans.
Herts N. H.S. F.C.’ xtv. 290. 1912.

On the Occurrence of Chernes godfreyi Kew, and other False Scorpions in Hert-

fordshire. ‘Trans. Herts. N. H. 8. F. C.’ xrv. 299-300. 1912.

Daubenton’s Bat, Myotis daubentoni (Kuhl), in Hertfordshire. ‘Trans. Herts
Neg ES HC eexcnys oO) boila.

Orton, Prof. Kmnnepy. ‘The Birds of Puffin Island. ‘Proc. Llandudno and
District Field Club,’ v. 40-45. 1913.

Pack-BERESFORD, D. R., and Nevin H. Foster. Additions to the Distributional
Records of Woodlice in Ireland till the end of 1912. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxm. 45-
48. 1913.

Patren, Prof. C. J. Wrens on Migration observed at the Tuskar Rock and
Lighthouse. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xx. 125-130. 1912.

—— Grasshopper Warblers on Migration observed at the Tuskar Lighthouse. ‘ Irish
Naturalist,’ xxr. 137-142. 1912.

—— Rock-Pipits on Migration observed at the Tuskar Rock. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’
xx. 164-170. 1912.

—— Spotted Flycatchers on Migration observed at the Tuskar Rock and Lighthouse.
‘Trish Naturalist,’ xxr. 193-200. 1912.

Discovery of the Tree-Pipit on the Tuskar Rock, Co. Wexford. ‘TIvish
Naturalist,’ xxr. 209-213. 1912.

Patrerson, ArtHuR H. Notes on the Whales of Norfolk. ‘Trans. Norfolk and
Norwich Nat. Soe.’ rx. 300-307. 1912.

Natural History Notes from Yarmouth. ‘Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat.
Soc.’ rx. 455-458. 1912.

PrenTLAND, G. H. Notes on the Increase and Decrease of some Mammals, Birds, and
Insects in the County of Louth during the last fifty years. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’
xxt. 145-148. 1912.

PrckaRD-CAMBRIDGE, Rev. O. On New and Rare Arachnids noted and observed in
1911. ‘ Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’ xxxm. 70-95. 1912.

Pitt, Miss F. The Badger: a Creature of the Night. ‘Trans. Caradoc and Severn
Valley F. C.,’ v. 302-313. 1913.

PorrLte, Epwarp. Some Irish Entomostraca. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xx1. 220-221.
1912.

Proaer, T. W., and D. R. Paterson. Ornithological Notes. ‘ Trans. Cardiff Nat.
Soc.’ xntv. 101-105. 1912.

Rare, P. G. Bird Life in the Isle of Man: a Comparison with the Neighbouring
Countries. ‘ Proc. Isle of Man N. H. A. Soc.’ (N.S.) 1. 427-436. 1913.

Sea-bird Life on our South-Western Coast. ‘ Proc. Isle of Man’ (n.s.) 1. 495—
501. 1913.

RicHarpson, Nerson M. Anniversary Address. ‘ Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. CY
xxxnr. 1-21. 1912.

Rozson, Jonn E. A Catalogue of the Lepidoptera of Northumberland, Durham,
and Neweastle-upon-Tyne. Vol. II., Micro-Lepidoptera. ‘Trans. Northumberland,
Durham, and Neweastle-upon-Tyne Nat. Hist. Soc.’ xv. iii—vi. 107-289. 1913,

RovsseLnt, CuartEes F. The Rotifera of Devil’s Lake, with Description of a new
Brachionus. ‘Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ x11. 57-64. 1913.

Scutzscu, H. A. The Distribution of Helix (Acanthinula) lamellata Jefir. ‘The
Naturalist for 1912,’ 340. 1912.

ScourFretp, D. J. Entomostraca from ‘The Warren,’ Folkestone. ‘South-Eastern
Naturalist for 1912,’ 57-58. 1912.

SeLBrz, C. M. Some New Irish Myriapods. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxr. 113-115. 1912.

each.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 357

SuLous, Epmunv. ‘The Nuptial Habits of the Black Cock. ‘ The Naturalist for 1913,’
96-98. 1913.

Sion, AtrRED. Lepidopterous Case-bearers. ‘South-Eastern Naturalist for 1912,’
32-38. 1912.

Suirx, 8. H. Bird Notes from the York District. ‘The Naturalist for 1912,’ 339,
1912.

Stetrox, A.W. ‘The Terrestrial Mollusca of the Great Blasket and Beginish. ‘ Irish
Naturalist,’ xxz. 185-190. 1912.

STEVENS, JoHN. Note on Proales (Notommata) gigantea Glascott,a Rotifer Parasitic
in the Egg of the Water-snail. ‘ Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ x1. 481-486. 1912.

Taytor, Frep. Notes on the Land and Freshwater Mollusca of the Isle of Man.
* Proc. Isle of Man N. H. A. Soe.’ (n.s.) 1. 509-513. 1913.

THEOBALD, Frep. V. The Aphidide of the Hastings District. ‘ Hastings and East
Sussex Naturalist,’ m. 9-20. 1912.

THORNLEY, Rev. A., and W. WauLace. Lincolnshire Coleoptera: Part VI. ‘Trans.
Lincolnshire Nat. Union, 1912,’ 38-58. 1913.

TickHurst, CLraup B. Migration and other Ornithological Notes from Lowestoft
District, June 30, 1910, to June 30, 1911. ‘Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat.
Soc.’ rx. 406-427. 1912.

Tomtitin, J. R. pe B. Report on Coleoptera. ‘ Proc. Lancashire and Cheshire Entom.
Soc. 1912,’ 23-25. 1912.

TurneER, Miss E. L. The Return of the Bittern. ‘ Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat.
Soc.’ rx. 433-436. 1912.

Wattus, G. H. Freshwater Rhizopoda from the North and West Ridings of York-
shire. ‘The Naturalist for 1913, 144-148. 1913.

Waker, J.J. Interim Report on Coleoptera. ‘ Report Ashmolean Nat. Hist. Soc.
1912, 43. 1913.

Watuacn, W. Presidential Address: The Emotions and the Senses of Insects.
‘Trans. Lincolnshire Nat. Union, 1912,’ 9-20. 1913.

Wats, Eustace F. Further Notes on the Lepidoptera of Northamptonshire.
‘Journal Northants N. H. Soc.’ xv1. 297-299. 1913.

WaRkkEN, Ropert. Wild Cats in Ireland. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxm. 94-96. 1913.

WATERSTON, JAMES. Notes on some Ectoparasites in the Museum, Perth. ‘ Trans.
Perthshire Soc. Nat. Sci.’ v. 123-128. 1912.

Waetiens, W. H. Destructive Forest Insects of Dumfriesshire. ‘Trans. Dumfries-
shire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’ xxtv. 260-269. 1912.

Wairaker, Artuur. Notes on the Habits of Bats. ‘The Naturalist for 1912,’ 9-12.
1912.

Waitr, Jonn. The Fauna of Gibraltar. ‘Selborne Mag.’ xxm. 97-101, 139-144.
1912.

WutrenEap, Henry. Some Notes on British Freshwater Rhabdocelida—a Group
of Turbellaria. ‘ Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ xu. 45-56. 1913.

Witson, Atex. The Birdsof Nairn. ‘Trans. Edinburgh F. N. Mic. Soc.’ vr. 400-413.
1912

Winter, W. P. Arachnida at Tebay. ‘The Naturalist for 1912,’ 304-305. 1912.

Witnrrpy, H. F. The Autumn Migration of Swallows at Rosslare Harbour. ‘ Irish
Naturalist,’ xx1. 143-144. 1912.

Woops, F. H. Yorkshire Marine Biology Committee at Robin Hood’s Bay, Oct. 12-
14. ‘The Naturalist for 1912,’ 368-370. 1912.

Wootner, C. G. Malacological Report. ‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’ No. 60,
49-50. 1912.

Wyute, W. A. List of the Macro-Lepidoptera of the Kinfauns District, with a general
fe eon of some of the rarer forms. ‘Trans. Perthshire Soc. Nat. Sci.’ v. 114—

3. 1912.

Wysz, L. H. Bonaparte. Lepidoptera and Coleoptera from Co. Kerry. ‘Irish

Naturalist,’ xxm. 75-76. 1913.

Section H.—GEOGRAPHY.

Brtiamy, C. H. Atlantic to Pacific, across the Canadian Rockies. ‘ Journal Man-
chester Geog. Soc.’ xxvu. 136-140. 1912.

Betiows, Winttam. ‘The Island of Jan Meyen. ‘ Proc. Cotteswold Nat. Field Club,’
Xvir, 333-340. 1912.

$58 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

Farconer, Dr. J. D. Northern Nigeria and its Peoples. ‘Proc. Glasgow Royal
Phil. Soc.’ xnm. 121-138. 1912.

Katisu, RicHarp. China, Past and Present. ‘Journal Manchester Geog. Soc.’
xxvu. 109-135. 1912.
Larpent, G. p—E H. Rhodesia Past and Present. ‘Trans. Liverpool Geog. Soe.
1912,’ 11-17. 1913; ‘ Journal Manchester Geog. Soc.’ xxvui. 30-36. 1913.
Macxenziz, Donatp. A Journey through Nine Moorish Provinces. ‘ Journal
Manchester Geog. Soc.’ xxvu. 101-108. 1912.

QuattroueH, Miss Karz. The Pathways of the Past. ‘ Journal Manchester Geog.
Soc.’ xxvut. 4-24. 1913.

Smirn, Rupert. Notes on a Visit to Egypt. ‘Trans. Edinburgh F. N. Mic. Soc.’
vi. 416-422. 1912.

Section f.—EHKconomic ScIENCE AND STATISTICS.

Bickrerpikz, C. F. International Comparisons of Labour Conditions. ‘ Trans.
Manchester Stat. Soc. 1911-1912,’ 61-83. 1912.

Borren, Davip (Midland Inst. Eng.). The Taxation of Mines in various Countries.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xttv. 560-613. 1913.

Cuart, D. A. The ‘General Strike’ as a Labour Weapon. ‘Journal Stat. Soc.
Treland,’ xm. 559-568. 1912.

Cottins, J. H. Some Historical and other Notices of Mining in the Northern Part
of the Parish of St. Agnes. ‘ Journal Royal Cornwall Poly. Soc.’ (n.s.), 2, 64-74.
1912.

Dawson, CHartes. The Industrial Progress of Belgium: An Object Lesson for
Treland. ‘ Journal Stat. Soc. Ireland,’ xm. 595-608. 1912.

Epwarps, W. Duptny. The National Insurance Act, 1911 (Part I.), as applying to
Treland. ‘ Journal Stat. Soc. Ireland,’ xm. 569-582. 1912.

Finuay, Rev. T. A. Presidential Address: Labour Associations in their relation to
the State. ‘Journal Stat. Soc. Ireland,’ xm. 511-522. 1912.

Fraser, D. Drummond. The Problem of the Gold Reserve. ‘Trans. Manchester
Stat. Soc. 1911-1912,’ 1-23. 1912.

GamMMELL, Sypney J. Scotch Forestry: its Economic Aspect. ‘Proc. Glasgow
Royal Phil. Soc.’ xnm. 46-55. 1912.

GuaAIsTER, Prof. Joun. The Future of the Race: A Study in Present Day Aspects
of Social Binomics. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Royal Phil. Soc.’ xnm. 1-45. 1912.

GREENWELL, GrorGE Haroup (N. Eng. Inst. Eng.). The Jherria Coalfield * (India)
and its future Development. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xty. 88-105. 1913.

Gregory, Prof. J. W. The Employment of White Labour in the Sugar Plantations
of Queensland. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Royal Phil. Soc.’ xm. 182-194. 1912.

Hirst, F. W. The Theory and Finance of Modern Armaments. ‘Trans. Manchester
Stat. Soc.’ 1911-1912, 25-36. 1912.

Paton, J. L. The Adolescence of the Working Lad in Industrial Towns. ‘ Trans.
Manchester Stat. Soc. 1911-1912,’ 85-99. 1912.

Smita, ALexanpreR. Recent Legislation in relation to Lands and Mines, ‘ Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xiv. 722-731. 1913.

STANUELL, CHartes A. The Improvement of Dublin Harbour. ‘Journal Stat. Soc.
Ireland,’ xm. 546-558. 1912.

WELTON, Twos. A. On the Marriage Rate since 1880 in England and Wales. ‘ Trans.
Manchester Stat. Soc.’ 1911-1912, xvii.—xxvi. 1912.

Wiae, T. J. Notes on the Herring Fishery of 1911. ‘ Trans. Norfolk and Norwich
Nat. Soc.’ 428-431. 1912.

Wituiams, R. The Organisation of the Casual Labour Market. ‘ Trans. Manchester
Stat. Soc. 1911-1912,’ 37-60. 1912.

Section G.—ENGINEERING.

ABELL, Prof. W. 8S. The Safety of Ships at Sea. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.
xxx. 88-99. 1913.

Anprrson, W. T. (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.). Colliery Cables, ‘Trans. Inst.
Min. Eng.’ xty. 122-143, 1913.

BarsBer, Wii1i1AM (N. Staff. Inst. Eng.). Rearer Workings at Podmore Hall Collieries,
with special reference to alluvium saturated with water. ‘Trans. Inst. Min.
Eng.’ xy. 373-381. 1913.

EE

—— -_see”—< CS

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 359

Boats, J. M. Linton. Tramway Rails and Rail Wear. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng.
Soe.’ xxxmt. 359-380. 1912.

Bowen, Davin, and WatTir E. Frenca. Safety Devices in connection with Elec-
trical Machinery and Apparatus for Coal Mines. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng,’ xxi.
459-493. 1912.

Brapsuaw, Husert (S. Staffs. and Warvw. Inst. Eng.). Suggestions on the Develop-
ment of New Colliery Districts, with special reference to the Support of the Surface.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtv. 171-181. 1913.

Brieas, Henry (Min. Inst. Scotland). Improvements relating to the Anemometer
and Hygrometer. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xny. 59-64. 1913.

Brown, A. W. Electrically-driven Winding-engines in South Africa. ‘Trans. Inst.
Min, Eng.’ xttv. 186-212. 1912.

Bruce, W. J. Wuuerr. Inaugural Address. [Marine Engineering.] ‘ Trans.
Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxxm. 1-17. 1912.

Capman, Prof. Joun (S. Staffs. and Warw. Inst. Eng.). Mine-rescue Appliances : A
Danger occurring in the use of Apparatus in which an Injector is employed.
‘Trans, Inst. Min. Eng.’ xttv. 463-467. 1915.

CaLpDWELL, GrorGE S. (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.). Experiences on a Chinese Coal
field. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xii. 361-369. 1912.

CHartton, W. (S. Staffs. and Warw. Inst. Eng.). Modern Ventilating Machines.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xii. 338-347. 1912.

Exxiorr, Jonn. Some Recent Developments in Condensing Machinery. ‘ Trans.
Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxxm. 238-260. 1912.

GARFORTH, WILLIAM Epwarp. Presidential Address: The Danger of Coal-dust in
Mines, and the Means of minimising this Danger by Stone-dusting. ‘ Trans. Inst.
Min. Eng.’ xt. 406-425. 1912.

Given, E. C. Anti-Rolling Devices for Ships. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxxin.
109-125. 1912.

Hatwoop, E. A. (N. England Inst. Eng.). The Hailwood Gas Cap Observation
Machine. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xttv. 503-511. 1913.

Harcer, Dr. Jonn (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.). Gob-fires and the Prevention of
Gob-fires in Mines. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xiv. 318-337. 1913.

Fire-damp in Coal Mines. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xiv. 269-278. 1913.

HeprLewnite, W. Hutton (Mid. Counties Inst. Eng.). Presidential Address. ‘ Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xiv. 114-121. 1912.

Herzreitp, Dr. R. (Midland Inst. Eng.). Some Novel Devices in connection with
Electrical Pumping Installation in Mines. ‘ Trans. Inst. Mid. Eng.’ xutv. 615-621.
1913.

Jackson, Dovetas (Min. Inst. Scotland). A Method of Capping Winding-ropes
“Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xumt. 331-333. 1912.

JENKINS, Harowp C. (Midland Inst. Eng.). Some recent Experiments with Internal
Pressures in Pneumatophors. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xiv. 230-241. 1913.
Jonns, W. Humuine. The Brocklebank Dock Improvements on the Mersey Dock

Estate. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxxm. 164-190. 1912.

Kina, J. S. (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.). The Prevention of Misfires and of Accidents
in Blasting Operations. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xiv. 2-10. 1913.

Kyox, Grorae (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.). The Relation between Subsidence and
Packing, with special reference to the Hydraulic Stowing of Goaves. ‘ Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xutv. 527-542. 1913.

—— The Hydraulic Stowing of Goaves. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xny. 13-25. 1913.

Lioyp, W. D. (Midland Inst. Eng.). Some Experiences with Winding-ropes and
Capels. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtrv. 56-71. 1912.

McLoucrts, Joun (Min. Inst. Scotland). The Use of Old Wire Ropes in timbering
Roadways. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtv. 255-258. 1912.

Marcuant, Prof. E. W. The Function of the Laboratory in the Training of an
Engineer, with a short account of some new Laboratory Equipment. ‘Trans.
Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxxmt. 19-37. 1912.

s, FREDERICK P. (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.). A New Mining Dial. ‘Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xnrv. 553-558. 1913.

Mrxine InstrruTE or ScoTnanp, The. Report by the Committee appointed to

test Mr. Henry Briggs’s conclusions in his paper on ‘ Testing for Fire-damp and
{ ee by means of a Safety-lamp.’ ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xiv. 390-392.

360 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

Mowat, Davip M. (Min. Inst. Scotland). Facts and Theories relating to Fans.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xttv. 92-103. 1912.

Newatt, J. M. Communication between the Engine Room and the Bridge of Steam-
ships, and some methods of controlling the same. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’
XXxim. 201-227. 1912.

Pickerine, W. H., and Bastz H. Pickrertve. Why Leave Shaft Pillars? ‘ Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xii. 428-435. 1912.

Rowan, Henry (Min. Inst. Scotland). Underground Fires. ‘Trans. Inst. Min.
Eng.’ xiv. 396-402. 1913.

Sant, T. A. (N. England Inst. Eng.). The Lighting Efficiency of Safety-lamps.
“Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xiv. 327-336. 1913.

Satt, W. G., and A. L. Lovarr (N. Staffs. Inst. Eng.). Notes on Haulage Clips in use
in North Staffordshire. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xiv. 402-417. 1913.

Smrru, J. Renny. Further Notes on Marine Boiler Failures. ‘Trans. Liverpoo
Eng. Soc.’ xxxim. 334-346. 1912.

Sopwitsx S. F. (S. Staffs. and Warw. Inst. Eng.). The Electrification of Cannock Chase
Colliery. Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtv. 350-359. 1913.

Spence, Witrrip L. A Rope-driven Coal-cutter. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xim.
516-527. 1912.

Strrtine, Jonn T., and Prof. Jonn Capmany. The Bellevue Explosions, Alberta,
Canada: An Account of, and subsequent Investigations concerning, three Explo-
sions produced by Sparks from Falls of Roofs. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtty.
740-756. 1913.

Stupss, THomas (Midland Inst. Eng.). Notes on Gob-fires near Ashby-de-la-Zouch,
Leicestershire. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtrv. 440-448. 1913.

THompson, ALFRED (Midland Inst. Eng.). Maltby Main Colliery. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min.
Eng.’ xutv. 33-47. 1912.

THornTON, Prof. W. M. (N. England Inst. Eng.). The Ignition of Coal-gas and
Methane by Momentary Electric Arcs. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xurv. 145-174.
1912.

WALKER, GrorRGE BuakE (Midland Inst. Eng.). The Generation and Use of Com-
pressed Air for Mining. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xiv. 629-689. 1913.

Waker, R. J. The Marine Steam Turbine. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxxmt.
137-155. 1912.

Watson, JoHN (Min. Inst. Scotland). The Testing of Fans: a Plea for Standardised
Test Conditions. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xty. 403-408. 1913.

WINDELER, GrorcEe E. The Diesel Engine. Its Application to Land and Marine
Work. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxxm. 269-292. 1912.

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

Buiter, Artuur, and H. St. Gzoran Gray. Meare Lake Village. ‘ Proc. Somer-
setshire Arch. N. H. Soc.’ tym. 3841. 1913.

Carter, G. 8. On Pottery found near Four Mill Clump on the Marlborough Downs.
‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’ No. 60, 51-52. 1912.

CiuarKE, W. G. Implements of Sub-Crag Man in Norfolk. ‘ Proc. Prehistoric Soc.
of East Anglia,’ 1, 160-168. 1913.

Currué, Miss L., with Additional Notes by L. Péringuey. Notes on Namaqualand
Bushmen. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of S. Africa,’ m. 113-120. 1913.

Keira, Dr. ArtHuR. Description of the Ipswich Skeleton. ‘ Proc. Prehistoric Soc.
of East Anglia,’ 1. 203-209. 1912.

Kerrmopg, P. M. C. The Celtic Tribal System in the Isle of Man. ‘ Proc. Isle of
Man N. H. A. Soe.’ (N.s.) 1. 477-483. 1913.

Lyewt, Dr. Joun H. A Pioneer in Criminology : Notes on the Work of James Bruce
Thomson of Perth. ‘Trans. Perthshire Soc. Nat. Sci.’ v. 103-114. 1912.

Macponatp, Dr. Davrip. Pigmentation of the Hair and Eyes of Children suffering
from the Acute Fevers: its Effect on Susceptibility, Recuperative Power, and
Race Selection. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Royal Phil. Soc.’ xzm1. 56-61. 1912.

Meyrick, E. Anthropometrical Report. ‘ Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’ No. 60
119-145. 1912.

Morr, J. Ret. The Natural Fracture of Flint and its Bearing upon Rudimentary
Flint Implements. ‘ Proc. Prehistoric Soc. of East Anglia,’ 1. 171-184. 1913.
—— The Occurrence of a Human Skeleton in a Glacial Deposit at Ipswich. ‘ Proc.

Prehistoric Soc. of East Anglia,’ 1. 194-202. 1912.

——

howe

”

7

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. S61

Srurazr, Dr. W. Attey. The Patina of Flint Implements. ‘Proc. Prehistoric Soc.
of East Anglia,’ 1. 140-157. 1912.

—— Implements of the later Palwolithic ‘Cave’ Periods in East Anglia. ‘Proc. Pre-
historic Soc. of East Anglia,’ 1. 210-232. 1912.

Toms, Herpert §. Notes on some Surveys of Valley Entrenchments in the
Piddletrenthide District, Central Dorset. ‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F.C.’ xxxm.
34-44, 1912.

UnprErwoop, Lieut.-Col. W. Recent Discoveries in Palethnology and the Works of
Early Man. ‘ Proc. Prehistoric Soc. of East Anglia,’ 1. 135-139. 1913.

Warren, S. Hazzinpine. Paleolithic Remains from Clacton-on-Sea, Essex.
‘Essex Naturalist,’ xvm. 15. 1912.

Section I.—PuystoLoey.

Burcuer, W. Dzuane. Presidential Address: The Anatomical Basis of Education
‘Trans. Ealing Sci. Mic. Soc., 1911-1912, 1-5. 1912.

Jotty, W. A. Positive Electrical Variation in Isolated Nerve. ‘Trans. Royal Soc.
of S. Africa,’ mr. 23-32. 1913.

LiEweEttyn, Dr. T. Lister (S. Staffs. and Warw. Inst. Eng.). Illumination at the
Coal-face, with special reference to the Incidence of Miners’ Nystagmus. ‘ Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xtiv. 273-287. 1912.

Ross, Dr. J. Maxwety. The Weather of 1911 in relation to Health. ‘ Trans.
Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’ xxtv. 201-209. 1912.

Srory, J. B. Medical Inspection of Schools and School Children. ‘ Journal Stat.
Soc. Ireland,’ xm. 523-545. 1912.

Waaer, Horace A. Respiration and Cell Energy. Trans. ‘ Royal Soc. of S. Africa,’
m. 405-418. 1912.

Watxer, J. A short Note on the Occurrence of a Leucocytozoon Infection-Host :
The Ostrich. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of 8. Africa,’ mr. 35-38. 1913.

Section K.—BotTany.

Apams, J. Some New Localities for Marine Algex. ‘ Trish Naturalist,’ xxm. 12-13.
1913.

Arnott, S. Some Local and other Plant Names. ‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and
Galloway N. H. A. Soe.’ xxiv. 223-228. 1912.

Barz, W. M. Notes on some of the Discoid Diatoms. ‘Journal Quekett Mic. Club,
xm. 17-44. 1913.

Barciay, W. The Additions to the List of Perthshire Plants since the publication
of Dr. White’s ‘ Flora.’ ‘ Proc. Perthshire Soc. Nat. Sci.’ v. exlviii—clxv. 1912.

Barrett, W. Bowtss. Contributions to a Flora of Portland, with special reference
to Limonium recurvum, C. E. Salmon. ‘ Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. C.? xxxim.
96-143. 1912.

Beprorp, E. J. Notes on Two Orchids new to East Sussex. ‘Trans. Eastbourne
N. H., Sci., and Lit. Soc.’ (N.s.) m. 50-52. 1912.

Bennett, Artaur. Stelleria Dilleniana in Norfolk. Trans. Norfolk and Norwich
Nat. Soc. rx. 315-316. 1912.

Notes on the Twenty-eight Species of East Anglian Plants that have been passed

in review in the ‘Transactions’ from Vol. VI. to Vol. VIII., 1899-1909. ‘Trans.
Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc.’ rx. 436-454. 1912.

—~ Utricularia ochroleuca Hartm. in Yorkshire. ‘The Naturalist for 1913, 19.
1913.

— Malawis paludosa L. in Cheshire. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’ 127. 1913.

Bmp, Rev. M.C. H. Acorns. ‘Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soe.’ rx. 327-340.
1912.

Bouprer, Em. Sur deux nouvelles espéces de Discomycétes d’Angleterre. * Trans.
British Mycological Soc.’ rv. 62-63. 1913.

Boyp, D. A. Notes on Parasitic Ascomycetes: Part II. ‘Trans. Edinburgh F. N.
Mic. Soc.’ vr. 431-438. 1912.

—— Notes on the Fungus-Flora of the Moray District. ‘ Trans. British Mycologica
Soc.’ tv. 66-73. 1913.

British Mycotoaroat Society. Report of the Worcester Spring Foray, May 24-28,
1912, and complete List of the Fungi and Mycetozoa gathered during the Foray.
‘Trans. British Mycological Soe.’ rv. 11-21. 1913. :

—— Report of the Forres Foray, Sept. 12-19, 1912, and complete List of Fung

.. gathered during the Foray. ‘Trans. British Mycological Soc.’ rv. 22-37. 1913.

362 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

Butter, Prof. A. H. R. Upon the Retention of Vitality by Dried Fruit-bodies of

certain Hymenomycetes, including an account of an Experiment with Liquid Air.
‘ “Trans. British Mycological Soc.’ tv. 106-112. 1913.

Burtt-Davy, JosEpH. Notes on the Genus Ficus (Tourn.), Linn. ‘Trans. Royal
Soc. of S. Africa,’ m. 365-368. 1912.

A New Species of Mesembrianthemum from the Transvaal. ‘Trans. Royal Soc.
of S. Africa,’ m. 369-371. 1912.

CaRADOC AND SEVERN VALLEY FieLp CLuB. Botanical Notes, 1912. ‘ Record of
Bare Facts,’ No. 22, 5-14. 1913.

CLARKE, ALFRED. The Genus Tricoloma. ‘The Naturalist for 1912, 364-365.
1912.

Conean, N. Further Notes on the Burnt-Ground Flora of Killiney Hill. ‘Irish
Naturalist,’ xxm. 85-93. 1913.

Corton, A. D. Colpomenia sinuosa, a New British Seaweed. ‘ Proc. Bournemouth
Nat. Sci. Sos.’ rv. 61-62. 1913.

Crosstanp, C. Pheangela Smithiana Boud. (=Pseudo-Phacidium Smithianwm
Boud.) in Yorkshire. ‘The Naturalist for 1912,’ 206-207. 1912.

—— Mycological Meeting at Sandsend. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’ 21-28. 1913.

—— Recently discovered Fungi in Yorkshire. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’ 173-179.
1913.

Drxon, H. N. Northamptonshire Hepatice. ‘Journal Northants N. H. Soc.’ xvt.
295. 1913.

Druce, G. Ciarmpese. Notes on Irish Plants. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xxr. 235-240.
1912.

—— Northamptonshire Botanologia. ‘ Journal Northants N. H. Soc.’ xvr. 183-214.
1912

—— Northamptonshire Plant Notes for 1911 and 1912. ‘ Journal Northants N. H
Soc.’ xvi. 291-295. 1913.

Dimmer, R. A Revision of the Genus Alepidea Delaroche. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of
S. Africa,’ mr. 1-21. 1913.

Ex.iott, Dr. Jesstz 8. B. Sigmoideomyces clathroides: «1 New Species of Fungus.
‘Trans. British Mycological Soc.’ tv. 121-124. 1913.

Eis, Jonn W. New British Fungi. ‘Trans. British Mycological Soc.’ rv. 124-126.
1913.

Grirrin, W. H. The Alien Flora of Britain. ‘South-Eastern Naturalist for 1912,
24-31. 1912.

Grove, W. B. Irish Fungi. ‘Irish Naturalist, xx. 111-112. 1912.

Haw .ey, Sir H. C. The Pyrenomycetes and some Problems they suggest. ‘The
Naturalist for 1912,’ 341-343. 1912.

Haypon, Water T. Presidential Address: Henry David Thoreau, Poet-
Naturalist. ‘ Proc. Liverpool Bot. Soc. 1910-11,’ 55-85. 1912.

HicuHFIELD, E. G. The Structure of a Garlic Bulb. ‘The Naturalist for 1912,’
331-336. 1912.

Hott, G. A. Additions to Manx Grasses. ‘Proc. Isle of Man N. H. A. Soc.’ (n.s.) 1.
445-446. 1913.

Incuam, Wm. A new British Hepatic (Cephaloziella pulchelia C. Jens.). ‘The
Naturalist for 1912,’ 367. 1912.

Jackson, A. Bruce. The Bearberry on the Southern Pennines. ‘The Naturalist
for 1913,’ 95. 1913.

Jounson, J. W. Haigu. The Composition of Peat and Ecological Methods. ‘The
Naturalist for 1913,’ 169-171. 1913.

Kyieut, H. H. The Distribution of Calluna on the Cotteswolds. ‘Proc. Cottes-
wold Nat. Field Club,’ xvm. 69-71. 1913.

Les, the late P. Fox. Second Supplement to the Flora of Dewsbury and District.
‘ The Naturalist for 1912,’ 238-244, 285-289, 306-309. 1912.

Lert, Rev. Canon W. H. Botanists of the North of Ireland. ‘Irish Naturalist,
xxu. 21-33. 1913.

Linpsay, Jonny. The Elimination of Alge in Lochs and Ponds. ‘Trans. Edin-
burgh F. N. Mic. Soe.’ vr. 422431. 1912.

Lister, Miss Guuirtma, Mycetozoa found during the Fungus Foray in the Forres
District, Sept. 12-20, 1912, with the Description of a New Species. ‘ Trans.
British Mycological Soc.’ tv. 38-44. 1913.

—— Presidential Address : The Past Students of Mycetozoa and their Work. ‘Trans.
British Mycological Soc.’ rv. 44-61. 1913.

__—'-_ —,

‘

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 363

Martoru, Dr. R. Some new or little-known South African Succulents. Part V.
‘Trans. Royal Soc. of S. Africa,’ mr. 121-128. 1913.

Mason, F, A. The Yeast-Fungi in Nature. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’ 13-16. 1913.

MassEr, Grorar. Mycology, New and Old. ‘The Naturalist for 1912,’ 366-367.
1912.

Mawiery, Epwarp. Report on Phenological Phenomena observed in Hertfordshire
during the Year 1910. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. S. F. C.’ xrv. 291-297. 1912.

Mryricx, E. Report of the Botanical Section. ‘ Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’
No. 60, 28-35. 1912.

Nicuotson, Cuartes. The True Oxlip (Primula elatior) and its Allies. ‘Selborne
Mag.’ xxm. 149-154, 164-170. 1912.

Prut, M.N. The Orchids of the Upper Hodder Valley. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’
29-32. 1913.

—— Aliens and Introduced Plants of the Upper Hodder. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’
141-143. 1913.

PRAEGER, R. Luoyp. Notes on the Flora of the Blaskets. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xxr.
157-163. 1912.

Prarn, Sir Davip. Presidential Address: Botanical By-paths. ‘South-Eastern
Naturalist for 1912, 1-15. 1912.

Ramssortom, J. Some Notes on the History of the Classification of the Uredinales.
‘Trans. British Mycological Soc.’ rv. 77-105. 1913.

Recent published Results on the Cytology of Fungus Reproduction. ‘ Trans.
British Mycological Soc.’ rv. 127-164. 1913.

Rea, CaRLeTon. Gilischroderma cinctum Fckl. ‘Trans. British Mycological Soc.’
Iv. 64-65. 1913.

New and Rare British Fungi. ‘Trans. British Mycological Soc.’ rv. 186-198.
1913.

Ricuarpson, Nerson M. Phenological Report on First Appearances of Birds,
Insects, &c., and First Flowering of Plants in Dorset during 1911. ‘ Proc. Dorset
N. H. A. F. C.’ xxxm. 232-242. 1912.

RIDDELSDELL, Rev. H. J. Report (No. 4) on the Progress made in connection with
the Flora of Gloucestershire. ‘ Proc. Cotteswold Nat. Field Club,’ xvu. 381-383.
1912 ; xvi. 90. 1913.

Rosiyson, Miss Maupr. Downland Flowers. ‘Report Brighton and Hove Nat.
Hist. and Phil. Soc.’ 1911-12, 8-13. 1912.

Sauispury, E. J. Botanical Observations in Hertfordshire during the Year 1910.
‘Trans. Herts N. H. S. F. C.’ xtv. 301-302. 1912.

Saxton, W. T. The Leaf-spots of Richardia albo-maculata, Hook. ‘Trans. Royal
Soc. of 8. Africa,’ mz. 135-138. 1913.

Scuarrr, Dr. R. F. The Relation of the present Plant Population of the British
Isles to the Glacial Epoch. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxr. 105-111. 1912.

Scorr-Exxiot, G. F. Scotch Forestry : the Romance and Business Side of it. ‘Trans.
Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’ xxrv. 181-189. 1912.

Scutty, Recrvatp W. Some introduced Plants in Kerry. ‘Irish Naturalist,’
XxI. 214-217. 1912.

SuEenstonse, J. C. The Gardens of Warley Place, Brentwood, Essex. ‘ Essex Natu-
ralist,’ xvm. 40-60. 1912.

Soosmitu, W. B. Diatoms found in the Midsummer Meadow, Bathing Place.
* Journal Northants N. H. Soc.’ xvr. 243-246. 1912.

Smitu, A. Lorrary. Pheangella empetri Boud. (in Litt.) and some forgotten Dis-
comycetes. ‘Trans. British Mycological Soc.’ 1v. 74-76. 1913.

——and J. Ramssorrom. New or Rare Microfungi. ‘Trans. British Mycological
Soc.’ tv. 165-185. 1913.

ale T. A Humber Salt-Marsh. ‘The Naturalist for 1912,’ 225-226.

Tuomas, H. Hamsuaw. ‘The Jurassic Plant Beds of Roseberry Topping. ‘The
Naturalist for 1913,’ 198-200. 1913.

ae Rey. C.H. Some County Down Plants. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xx. 133-134.

Wager, Harotp. The Sexuality of Fungi. ‘The Naturalist for 1912,’ 328. 1912.

WakeriELp, E. M. Notes on British Species of Corticium. ‘Trans. British Myco-
logical Soc.’ rv. 113-120. 1913.

Watton, Gzorcz C. The Flora of Folkestone and its Vicinity. ‘ South-Eastern

.. Naturalist for 1912,’ 16-23... 1912.

™ —

364 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

Watson, W. The Mosses of Somerset. ‘ Proc. Somerset Arch. N. H. Soc.’ Lyi.
114-164. 1913.

Wattam, W. E.L. Buckton Marsh, East Yorks. ‘ The Naturalist for 1912,’ 298-300.
1912.

Witson, ALBERT. On Gathering, Growing, and Preparing Mosses for the Herbarium.
‘The Naturalist for 1913,’ 128-130. 1913.

Witson, Wm. On the Potato. ‘Trans. Edinburgh F. N. Mic. Soc.’ vi. 413-416.
1912.

Woop, J. Mreptey. Addendum to Revised List of the Flora of Natal. ‘Trans. Royal
Soc. of S. Africa,’ mm. 47-60. 1913.

Woopueap, Dr. T. W. Plant Associations of Flamborough Head. ‘The Naturalist
for 1912,’ 219-223. 1912.

— Notes on the Botany of Cautley and Tebay. ‘The Naturalist for 1912,’ 278-281.
1912. :
Section L.—Epucationat SCIENCE.

Harpwick, Prof. F. W. (Midland Inst. Eng.). Presidential Address: Technical
Education in Mining. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xutv. 425-437. 1913.

MacKtiynown, Prof. James. Scholasticism, and the Revival of Classic Culture in
Opposition to it. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Royal Phil. Soc.’ xum. 130-152. 1912.

Ryan, FrepERIcK W. School Attendance in Ireland. ‘Journal Stat. Soc. Ireland,’
xu. 583-594. 1912.

Section M.—AGRICULTURE.

Dupexon, Miss E. ©. Electrical Treatment on Potato Crops, 1911. ‘'Trans. Dum
friesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’ xxiv. 143-145. 1912.

Hottineworts, G. H. The Effect of Grass over the Roots of Young Fruit Trees.
“Proc. Cotteswold Nat. Field Club,’ xvur. 88. 1913.

Newman, L. F. Soils and Agriculture of Norfolk. ‘Trans. Norfolk and Norwich
Nat. Soc.’ rx. 349-393. 1912.

PriestLEy, Prof. J. W. The Application of Electricity to Agriculture. ‘Trans.
Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’ xx1v. 140-143. 1912.

OBITUARY.
Brnson, THomas WALTER. By W.J. Benson. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xiv. 107-110.
1913.

BERKLEY, CurHBERT. By R. W. Berkley. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xiv. 111-112.
1913.

Bornet, Dr. Epovarp. By Prof. R. J. Harvey Gibson. ‘Proc. Liverpool Bot.
Soc. 1910-11,’ 54. 1912.

Bovey, Dr. Henry Taytor. ‘ Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxx. 382. 1912.

Buiirn, Rev. Ropert Asuineton. By Rev. T. BR. R. S[tebbing]. ‘South-Eastern
Naturalist for 1912,’ 1.-li. 1912.

Burton, F.M. By T. S[heppard]. ‘The Naturalist for 1912,’ 186-187. 1912.

CappPER, SAMUEL JAMES. By F.N. Pfierce]. ‘ Proc. Lancashire and Cheshire Entom.
Soc. 1912,’ 18-22. 1912.

CuLrin, Henry. By T. S[heppard]. ‘The Naturalist for 1913,’ 17-19. 1913.

Darwin, Sir GzorgE Howarp. By Alfred T. De Lury. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc.
of Canada,’ vi. 114-119. 1913.

Hout, AurrED. ‘ Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxx. 383-385. 1912.

PAaNKHURST, Epwarp Attoway. ‘Report Brighton and Hove Nat. Hist. and Phil.
Soc. 1911-12,’ 32-34. 1912.

Porncart, Jubes Henri. By Alfred T. De Lury. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of
Canada,’ vi. 309-321. 1912.

REYNOLDS, Dr. OsBorNE. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxxur. 381. 1912.

THompson, J. TatHam. By Dr. D.R. Paterson. ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxiv. 23.
1912.

Watson, Dr. Witt1am. By John Lindsay. ‘Trans. Edinburgh F. N. Mic. Soe.’ vr.
447-452. 1912.

_—

a -

-

—

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

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TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

Section AA—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEecTION.—H. F. Baker, Sc.D., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER lil.
The President delivered the following Address :

The Place of Pure Mathematic: .

Ir is not a very usual thing for the opening Address of this Section to be
entrusted to one whose main energies have been devoted to what is called Pure
Mathematics; but I value the opportunity in order to try to explain what, as I
conceive it, the justification of the Pure Mathematician is. You will understand
that in saying this I am putting myself in a position which belongs to me as little
by vocation as by achievement, since it was my duty through many years to give
instruction in all the subjects usually regarded as Mathematical Physics, and it
is still my duty to be concerned with students in these subjects. But my experi-
ence is that the Pure Mathematician is apt to be regarded by his friends as a
trifler and a visionary, and the consciousness of this becomes in time a paralysing
dead-weight. I think that view is founded on want of knowledge.

Of course, it must be admitted that the mathematician, as such, has no part
in those public endeavours that arise from the position of our Empire in the
world, nor in the efforts that must constantly be made for social adjustment at
home. I wish to make this obvious remark. For surely the scientific man must
give his time and his work in the faith of at least an intellectual harmony in
things; and he must wish to know what to think of all that seems out of gear
in the working of human relations. His own cup of contemplation is often
golden; he marks that around him there is fierce fighting for cups that are
earthen, and largely broken; and many there are that go thirsting. And, again,
the mathematician is as sensitive as others to the marvel of each recurring
springtime, when, year by year, our common mother seems to call us so loudly to
consider how wonderful she is, and how dependent we are, and he is as curious
as to the mysteries of the development of living things. He can draw inspira-
tion for his own work, as he views the spectacle of a starry night, and sees

How the floor of heaven
Is thick inlaid with patines of bright gold.
Each orb, the smallest, in his motion, sings,

but the song, once so full of dread, how much it owes to the highest refinements
of his craft, from at least the time of the Greek devotion to the theory of conic
sections; how much, that is, to the harmony that is in the human soul. Yet the
mathematician bears to the natural observer something of the relation which the
laboratory botanist has come to bear to the field naturalist. Moreover, he is shut
off from inquiries which stir the public imagination; when he looks back the ages
over the history of his own subject the confidence of his friends who study

368 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

heredity and teach eugenics arouses odd feelings in his mind; if he feels the
fascination which comes of the importance of such inquiries, he is also prepared
to hear that the subtlety of Nature grows with our knowledge of her. Doubt-
less, too, he wishes he had some participation in the discovery of the laws of
wireless telegraphy, or had something to say in regard to the improvement of
internal-combustion engines or the stability of aeroplanes; it is little compensa-
tion to remember, though the mathematical physicist is his most tormenting
critic, what those of his friends who have the physical instinct used to say on
the probable development of these things, however well he may recall it.

But it is not logical to believe that they who are called visionary because of
their devotion to creatures of the imagination can be unmoved by these things.
Nor is it at all just to assume that they are less conscious than others of the
practical importance of them, or less anxious that they should be vigorously
prosecuted.

Why is it, then, that their systematic study is given to other things, and not
of necessity, and in the first instance, to the theory of any of these concrete
phenomena? ‘This is the question I try to answer. I can only give my own
impression, and doubtless the validity of an answer varies as the accumulation
of data, made by experimenters and observers, which remains unutilised at any
time.

The reason, then, is very much the same as that which may lead a man to
abstain from piecemeal indiscriminate charity in order to devote his attention and
money to some well-thought-out scheme of reform which seems to have promise
of real amelioration. One turns away from details and examples, because one
thinks that there is promise of fundamental improvement of methods and
principles. This is the argumentum ad hominem. But there is more than that.
The improvement of general principles is arduous, and if undertaken only with
a view to results may be illtimed and disappointing. But as soon as we con-
sciously give ourselves to the study of universal methods for their own sake
another phenomenon appears. The mind responds, the whole outlook is enlarged,
infinite possibilities of intellectual comprehension, of mastery of the relations of
things, hitherto unsuspected, begin to appear on the mental horizon. I am well
enough aware of the retort to which such a statement is open. But, I say, inter-
pret the fact as you will, our intellectual pleasure in life cometh not by might
nor by power—arises, that is, most commonly, not of set purpose—but lies at the
mercy of the response which the mind may make to the opportunities of its
experience. When the response proves to be of permanent interest—and for
how many centuries have mathematical questions been a fascination ?7—we do well
to regard it. Let us compare another case which is, I think, essentially the same.
It may be that early forms of what now is specifically called Art arose with a
view to applications; I do not know. But no one will deny that Art, when once
it has been conceived by us, is a worthy object of pursuit; we know by a long
trial that we do wisely to yield ourselves to a love of beautiful things, and to the
joy of making them. Well, Pure Mathematics, as such, 7s an Art, a creative Art.
If its past triumphs of achievement fill us with wonder, its future scope for
invention is exhaustless and open to all. It is also a Science. For the mind of
man is one; to scale the peaks it spreads before the explorer is to open ever new
prospects of possibility for the formulation of laws of Nature. Its resources
have been tested by the experience of generations; to-day it lives and thrives
and expands and wins the life-service of more workers than ever before.

This, at least, is what I wanted to say, and I have said it with the greatest
brevity I could command. But may I dare attempt to carry you further? If
this seems fanciful, what will you say to the setting in which I would wish to
place this point of view? And yet I feel bound to try to indicate something
more, which may be of wider appeal. I said a word at starting as to the relations
of science to those many to whom the message of our advanced civilisation is the
necessity, above all things, of getting bread. Leaving this aside, I would make
another reference. In our time old outlooks have very greatly changed; old
hopes, disregarded perhaps because undoubted, have very largely lost their
sanction, and given place to earnest questionings. Can anyone who watches
doubt that the courage to live is in some danger of being swallowed up in the
anxiety to acquire? May it not be, then, that it is good for us to realise, and to

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 369

confess, that the pursuit of things that are beautiful, and the achievement of
intellectual things that bring the joy of overcoming, is at least as demonstrably
justifiable as the many other things that fill the lives of men? May it not be
that a wider recognition of this would be of some general advantage at present?
Is it not even possible that to bear witness to this is one of the uses of the
scientific spirit? Moreover, though the pursuit of truth be a noble aim, is it so
new a profession ; are we so sure that the ardour to set down all the facts without
extenuation is, unassisted, so continuing a purpose? May science itself not be
wise to confess to what is its own sustaining force?

Such, ladies and gentlemen, in crude, imperfect phrase, is the apologia. If
it does not differ much from that which workers in other ways would make, it
does, at least, try to represent truly one point of view, and it seems to me
specially applicable to the case of Pure Mathematics. But you may ask: What,
then, is this subject? What can it be about if it is not primarily directed to the
discussion of the laws of natural phenomena? What kind of things are they that
can occupy alone the thoughts of a lifetime? I propose now to attempt to
answer this, most inadequately, by a bare recital of some of the broader issues of
present interest—though this has difficulties, because the nineteenth century was
of unexampled fertility in results and suggestions, and I must be as little
technical as possible.

Precision of Definitions.

First, in regard to two matters which illustrate how we are forced by physical
problems into abstract inquiries. It is a constantly recurring need of science to
reconsider the exact implication of the terms employed; and as numbers and
functions are inevitable in all measurement, the precise meaning of number, of
continuity, of infinity, of limit, and so on, are fundamental questions; those who
will receive the evidence can easily convince themselves that these notions have
many pitfalls. Such an imperishable monument as Euclid’s theory of ratio is a
familiar sign that this has always been felt. The last century has witnessed a
vigorous inquiry into these matters, and many of the results brought forward
appear to be new; nor is the interest of the matter by any means exhausted. 1
may cite, as intelligible to all, such a fact as the construction of a function which
is continuous at all points of a range, yet possesses no definite differential co-
efficient at any point. Are we sure that human nature is the only continuous
variable in the concrete world, assuming it be continuous, which can possess
such a vacillating character? Or I may refer to the more elementary fact that
all the rational fractions, infinite in number, which lie in any given range, can be
enclosed in intervals whose aggregate length is arbitrarily small. Thus we could
take out of our life all the moments at which we can say that our age is a certain
number of years, and days, and fractions of a day, and still have appreciably as
long to live; this would be true, however often, to whatever exactness, we named
our age, provided we were quick enough in naming it. Though the recurrence of
these inquiries is part of a wider consideration of functions of complex variables,
it has been associated also with the theory of those series which Fourier used so
boldly, and so wickedly, for the conduction of heat. Like all discoverers, he took
much for granted. Precisely how much is the problem. This problem has led
to the precision of what is meant by a function of real variables, to the question
of the uniform convergence of an infinite series, as you may see in early papers
of Stokes, to new formulation of the conditions of integration and of the pro-
perties of multiple integrals, and so on. And it remains still incompletely solved

Calculus of Variations.

Another case in which the suggestions of physics have caused grave disquiet
to the mathematicians is the problem of the variation of a definite integral. No
one is likely to underrate the grandeur of the aim of those who would deduce
the whole physical history of the world from the single principle of least action.
Everyone must be interested in the theorem that a potential function, with a
given value at the boundary of a volume, is such as to render a certain integral,
representing, say, the energy, a minimum. But in that proportion one desires to
be sure that the logical processes employed are free from objection. nd, alas!

1913. BB

370 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

to deal only with one of the earliest problems of the subject, though the finally
sufficient conditions for a minimum of a simple integral seemed settled long ago,
and could be applied, for example, to Newton’s celebrated problem of the solid
of least resistance, it has since been shown to be a general fact that such a
problem cannot have any definite solution at all. And, although the principle
of Thomson and Dirichlet, which relates to the potential problem referred to,
was expounded by Gauss, and accepted by Riemann, and remains to-day in our
standard treatise on Natural Philosophy, there can be no doubt that, in the form
in which it was originally stated, it proves just nothing. Thus a new investiga-
tion has been necessary into the foundations of the principle. There is another
problem, closely connected with this subject, to which I would allude: the
stability of the solar system. For those who can make pronouncements in regard
to this I have a feeling of envy; for their methods, as yet, I have a quite other
feeling. The interest of this problem alone is sufficient to justify the craving
of the Pure Mathematician for powerful methods and unexceptionable rigour.

Non-Euclidian Geometry.

But I turn to another matter. It is an old view, I suppose, that geometry
deals with facts about which there can be no two opinions. You are familiar
with the axiom that, given a straight line and a point, one and only one straight
line can be drawn through the point parallel to the given straight line. Accord-
ing to the old view the natural man would say that this is either true or false.
And, indeed, many and long were the attempts made to justify it. At length
there came a step which to many probably will still seem unintelligible. <A
system of geometry was built up in which it is assumed that, given a straight
line and a point, an infinite number of straight lines can be drawn through the
point, in the plane of the given line, no one of which meets the given line. Can
there then, one asks at first, be two systems of geometry, both of which are true,
though they differ in such an important particular? Almost as soon believe
that there can be two systems of Laws of Nature, essentially differing in charac-
ter, both reducing the phenomena we observe to order and system—a monstrous
heresy, of course! I will only say that, after a century of discussion we are
quite sure that many systems of geometry are possible, and true; though not all
may be expedient. And if you reply that a geometry is useful for life only in
proportion as it fits the properties of concrete things, I will answer, first, are the
heavens not then concrete? And have we as yet any geometry that enables us
to form a consistent logical idea of furthermost space? And, second, that the
justification of such speculations is the interest they evoke, and that the in-
vestigations already undertaken have yielded results of the most surprising

interest.
The Theory of Groups.

To-day we characterise a geometry by the help of another general notion, also,
for the most part, elaborated in the last hundred years, by means of its group.
A group is a set of operations which is closed, in the same sense that the per-
formance of any two of these operations in succession is equivalent to another
operation of the set, just as the result of two successive movements of a rigid
body can be achieved by a single movement. One of the earliest conscious
applications of the notion was in the problem of solving algebraic equations by
means of equations of lower order. An equation of the fourth order can be
solved by means of a cubic equation, because there exists a rational function of
the four roots which takes only three values when the roots are exchanged in
all possible ways. Following out this suggestion for an equation of any order,
we are led to consider, taking any particular rational function of its roots, what
is the group of interchanges among them which leaves this function unaltered in
value. This group characterises the function, all other rational functions un-
altered by the same group of interchanges being expressible rationally in terms
of this function. On these lines a complete theory of equations which are
soluble algebraically can be given. Anyone who wishes to form some idea of
the richness of the landscape offered by Pure Mathematics might do worse than
make himself acquainted with this comparatively small district of it. But the
theory of groups has other applications. It may be interesting to refer to the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Sal

circumstance that the group of interchanges among four quantities which leave
unaltered the product of their six differences is exactly similar to the group of
rotations of a regular tetrahedron whose centre is fixed, when its corners are
interchanged among themselves. Then I mention the historical fact that the
problem of ascertaining when that well-known linear differential equation called
the hypergeometric equation has all its solutions expressible in finite terms as
algebraic functions, was first solved in connection with a group of similar kind.
For any linear differential equation it is of primary importance to consider the
group of interchanges of its solutions when the independent variable, starting
from an arbitrary point, makes all possible excursions, returning to its initial
value. And it is in connection with this consideration that one justification arises
for the view that the equation can be solved by expressing both the independent
and dependent variables as single-valued functions of another variable. There
is, however, a theory of groups different from those so far referred to, in which
the variables can change continuously; this alone is most extensive, as may be
judged from one of its lesser applications, the familiar theory of the invariants
of quantics. Moreover, perhaps the most masterly of the analytical discussions
of the theory of geometry has been carried through as a particular application of
the theory of such groups.

The Theory of Algebrace Functions.

If the theory of groups illustrates how a unifying plan works in mathematics
beneath bewildering detail, the next matter I refer to well shows what a wealth,
what a grandeur, of thought may spring from what seem slight beginnings. Our
ordinary integral calculus is well-nigh powerless when the result of integration is
not expressible by algebraic or logarithmic functions. The attempt to extend the
possibilities of integration to the case when the function to be integrated involves
the square root of a polynomial of the fourth order, led first, after many efforts,
among which Legendre’s devotion of forty years was part, to the theory of
doubly-periodic functions. To-day this is much simpler than _ ordinary
trigonometry, and, even apart from its applications, it is quite incredible that it
_ should ever again pass from being among the treasures of civilised man. Then,
at first in uncouth form, but now clothed with delicate beauty, came the theory
of general algebraical integrals, of which the influence is spread far and wide;
and with it all that is systematic in the theory of plane curves, and all that is
associated with the conception of a Riemann surface. After this came the theory
of multiply-periodic functions of any number of variables, which, though still
very far indeed from being complete, has, I have always felt, a majesty of
conception which is unique. Quite recently the ideas evolved in the previous
history have prompted a vast general theory of the classification of algebraical
surfaces according to their essential properties, which is opening endless new
vistas of thought.

Theory of Functions of Complex Variables: Differential Equations.

But the theory has also been prolific in general principles for functions of
complex variables. Of greater theories, the problem of automorphic functions
alone is a vast continent still largely undeveloped, and there is the incidental
problem of the possibilities of geometry of position in any number of dimensions,
so important in so many ways: But, in fact, a large proportion of the more
familiar general principles, taught to-day as theory of functions, have been
elaborated under the stimulus of the foregoing theory. Besides this, however,
all that precision of logical statement of which I spoke at the beginning is of
paramount necessity here. What exactly is meant by a curve of integration,
what character can the limiting points of a region of existence of a function
possess, how even best to define a function of a complex variable, these are but
some obvious cases of difficulties which are very real and pressing to-day. And
then there are the problems of the theory of differential equations. About these
I am at a loss what to say. We give a name to the subject, as if it were one
subject, and I deal with it in the fewest words. But our whole physical
outlook is based on the belief that the problems of Nature are expressible by
differential equations ; and our knowledge of even the possibilities of the solutions

BB 2

372 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

of differential equations consists largely, save for some special types, of that
kind of ignorance which, in the nature of the case, can form no idea of its own
extent. There are subjects whose whole content is an excuse for a desired
solution of a differential equation; there are infinitely laborious methods of
arithmetical computation held in high repute of which the same must be said.
And yet I stand here to-day to plead with you for tolerance of those who feel
that the prosecution of the theoretic studies, which alone can alter this, is a
justifiable aim in life! Our hope and belief is that over this vast domain of
differential equations the theory of functions shall one day rule, as already it
largely does, for example, over linear differential equations.

Theory of Numbers.

In concluding this table of contents, I would also refer, with becoming
brevity, to the modern developments of theory of numbers. Wonderful is the
fascination and the difficulty of these familiar objects of thought—ordinary
numbers. We know how the great Gauss, whose lynx eye was laboriously turned
upon all the physical science of his time, has left it on record that in order to
settle the law of a plus or minus sign in one of the formule of his theory of
numbers he took up the pen every week for four years. In these islands perhaps
our imperial necessities forbid the hope of much development of such a
theoretical subject. But in the land of Kummer and Gauss and Dirichlet the
subject to-day claims the allegiance of many eager minds. And we can reflect
that one of the latest triumphs has been with a problem known by the name of
our English senior wrangler, Waring—the problem of the representation of a
number by sums of powers.

Ladies and gentlemen, I have touched only a few of the matters with which
Pure Mathematics is concerned. Each of those I have named is large enough
for one man’s thought; but they are interwoven and interlaced in indissoluble
fashion and form one mighty whole, so that to be ignorant of one is to be weaker
in all. I am not concerned to depreciate other pursuits, which seem at first
sight more practical; I wish only, indeed, as we all do, it were possible for one
man to cover the whole field of scientific research; and I vigorously resent the
suggestion that those who follow these studies are less careful than others of the
urgent needs of our national life. But Pure Mathematics is not the rival, even
less is it the handmaid, of other branches of science. Properly pursued, it is the
essence and soul of them all. It is not for them; they are for it; and its results
are for all time. No man who has felt its fascination can be content to be
ignorant of any manifestation of regularity and law, or can fail to be stirred by
all the need of adjustment of our actual world.

And if life is short, if the greatest magician, joining with the practical man,
reminds us that, like this vision,

The cloud-capp’d towers, the gorgeous palaces,
The solemn temples, the great globe itself,
Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolve
And... . leave not a rack behind,

we must still believe that it is best for us to try to reach the brightest light.
And all here must believe it; for else—no fact is more firmly established—we
shall not study science to any purpose.

But that is not all I want to say, or at least to indicate. I have dealt so far
only with proximate motives; to me it seems demonstrable that a physical science
that is conscientious requires the cultivation of Pure Mathematics; and the most
mundane of reasons seem to me to prompt the recognition of the esthetic outlook
as a practical necessity, not merely a luxury, in a successful society. Nor do I
want to take a transcendental ground. Every schoolboy, I suppose, knows the
story of the child born so small, if I remember aright, that he could be put into
a quart pot, in a farmhouse on the borders of Lincolnshire—it was the merest
everyday chance. By the most incalculable of luck his brain-stuff was so
arranged, his parts so proportionately tempered, that he became Newton, and
taught us the laws of the planets. 1t was the blindest concurrence of physical
circumstances; and so is all our life. Matter in certain relations to itself,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 373

working by laws we can examine in the chemical laboratory, produces all these
effects, produces even that state of brain which accompanies the desire to speak
of the wonder of it all. And the same laws will inevitably hurl all into con-
fusion and darkness again; and where will all our joys and fears, and all our
scientific satisfaction, be then?

As students of Science, we have no right to shrink from this point of view;
we are pledged to set aside prepossession and dogma, and examine what seems
possible, wherever it may lead. Even life itself may be mechanical, even the
greatest of all things, even personality, may some day be resoluble into the
properties of dead matter, whatever that is. We can all see that its coherence
rises and falls with illness and health, with age and physical conditions. Nor,
as it seems to me, can anything but confusion of thought arise from attempts to
people our material world with those who have ceased to be material.

An argument could perhaps be based on the divergence, as the mathematician
would say, of our comprehension of the properties of matter. For though we
seem able to summarise our past experiences with ever-increasing approxima-
tion by means of fixed laws, our consciousness of ignorance of the future is only
increased thereby. Do we feel more, or Jess, competent to grasp the future
possibilities of things, when we can send a wireless message 4,000 miles, from
Hanover to New Jersey?

Our life is begirt with wonder, and with terror. Reduce it by all means to
ruthless mechanism, if you can; it will be a great achievement. But it can make
no sort of difference to the fact that the things for which we live are spiritual.
The rose is no less sweet because its sweetness is conditioned by the food we
supply to its roots. It is an obvious fact, and I ought to apologise for remarking
it, were it not that so much of our popular science is understood by the hasty to
imply an opposite conclusion. If a chemical analysis of the constituents of sea
water could take away from the glory of a mighty wave breaking in the sun-
light, it would still be true that it was the mind of the chemist which delighted
in finding the analysis. Whatever be its history, whatever its physical correla-
tions, it is an undeniable fact that the mind of man has been evolved; I believe
that is the scientific word. You may speak of a continuous upholding of our
material framework from without; you may ascribe fixed qualities to something
you call matter; or you may refuse to be drawn into any statement. But any-
way, the fact remains that the precious things of life are those we call the
treasures of the mind. Dogmas and philosophies, it would seem, rise and fall.
But gradually accumulating throughout the ages, from the earliest dawn of
history, there is a body of doctrine, a reasoned insight into the relations of exact
ideas, painfully won and often tested. And this remains the main heritage of
man; his little beacon of light amidst the solitudes and darknesses of infinite
space; or, if you prefer, like the shout of children at play together in the culti-
yated valleys, which continues from generation to generation.

Yes, and continues for ever! A universe which has the potentiality of
becoming thus conscious of itself is not without something of which that which
we call memory is but an image. Somewhere, somehow, in ways we dream not
of, when you and I have merged again into the illimitable whole, when all that is
material has ceased, the faculty in which we now have some share, shall surely
endure; the conceptions we now dimly struggle to grasp, the joy we have in
the effort, these are but part of a greater whole. Some may fear, and some may
hope, that they and theirs shall not endure for ever. But he must have studied
Nature in vain who does not see that our spiritual activities are inherent in the
mighty process of which we are part; who can doubt of their persistence.

And, on the intellectual side, of all that is best ascertained, and surest, and
most definite, of these; of all that is oldest and most universal; of all that is
most fundamental and far-reaching, of these activities, Pure Mathematics is the
symbol and the sum.

The following Papers were then read :

1. The Nature of X-Rays. By Professor C. G. Barxua, I’.R.S.

o74 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

2. The Structure of the Atom.
By Professor Sir J. J. Toomson, F'.L.S.

9

3. The Relation between Entropy and Probability.
By Professor H. A. Lorentz.

The important problem of the interpretation of entropy in the terms of molecular
theory may be considered as having been solved by the physicists who developed the
methods of modern statistical mechanics. It is now universally recognised that the
entropy of a body in a certain state is intimately connected with the probability of
that state, the relation between the two being expressd by Boltzmann’s formula

S= x ion
where S is the entropy, P the probability, R the gas constant for a gramme-molecule
and N the number of molecules in a gramme-molecule.

The question is, however, in what way the probability is to be evaluated.

In order to find P, and consequently 8, as a definite function of the energy E and
appropriate geometrical parameters, such as the volume v in the case of a gas or a
liquid, one may proceed as follows. Let ¢,, gq... . qs be the co-ordinates which
determine the position of the particles of the body, p,, p, . . . ps the corresponding
momenta. Conceive a polydimensional space (the ‘extension in phase’) in which
the 2 § quantities g,. . . ps are taken as co-ordinates, so that the state of the body
is represented by a single point. Consider further two surfaces in the space
(q, - - - ps), the first of which is characterised by the condition that at each of its
points the energy has a definite value E, whereas the second corresponds in the same
way to the value E-++ dE. ‘Then the volume of the layer between these surfaces will
be proportional to dE and may therefore be represented by PdE, the factor P being
a function of E and also of the volume », the value of which is to be taken into account
in the calculation. Now, if the quantity P, defined in this way, is substituted in
Boltzmann’s formula, S becomes identical with the thermodynamical entropy. In
the case of a mono-atomic gas, this may be shown by direct calculation and the
proposition may be extended to other bodies by means of a mode of reasoning (based
on a certain assumption) which cannot now be considered.

The above method is closely connected with Gibbs’s microcanonical ensembles, and
it is to be remarked that the introduction of canonical ensembles likewise enables us
to determine a thermodynamical function. As is well known, an ensemble of the
latter kind consists of a very great number of systems or bodies, whose representative
points are distributed throughout the extension in phase with a density given by the
expression

Vv—-E

Ae ®
where A is the total number of systems, © a constant that plays the part of the tem-
perature, and ¥ another constant that proves to be the ‘free energy.’ Now, if do
is an element of the extension in phase, we have

v—E

fe @ an=1

i) -
(because the integral of Ac dQ must give the total number of systems) or

4 E
© ~o
é =/e dn.

By this equation one can calculate the free energy for a given temperature and a
given value of the volume. The result will be connected with the value of the entropy
deduced from Boltzmann’s formula, in the way that is known from thermodynamics.
On account of the enormous number of molecules contained in a body, Boltzmann’s
formula has a very remarkable property, namely that great changes in the value
assigned to the probability P have no appreciable influence on the entropy S.

Me

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 315

Consider, for instance, the case of a mono-atomic gas. If the number of its mole
cules is , one finds

C being a determinate constant factor. Hence, if we omit the corresponding term
in the entropy,

R ce
Ss =n_— 1 B2 x :
mB og (v1)
for which we may write, since ” is a very great number,
8
7 = log (y E2),

an expression which will lead to a number that is neither very small nor very great,
when the mass considered is comparable with a gramme-molecule.

Now, if the value of P is multiplied by the number of molecules n, or even by a
high power of this number, such as n'”, this does not produce any appreciable differ-

ence in the value of S. Indeed, S is increased in these cases by N log n, or 100 N log n,

and this is very small in comparison with the above value, because for large numbers
the logarithm is very much smaller than the number itself. Boltzmann’s formula
is therefore wholly insensible to such factors as m or m' in the value of the
probability.

The way in which, in the case of a gas, P depends on the volume v, may be
understood by a very simple reasoning. If the m molecules are distributed at random

over a volume’, the probability that they shall all lie in one half of it is P’= oa , whereas

P=! if all possible distributions are taken together. The difference between the
two values is enormous. Yet the corresponding difference in the entropy is no

more than n = log 2, an expression really corresponding to the change in the entropy

when the volume is reduced to half its original value.
In virtue of the property of Boltzmann’s formula here pointed out, one is free to a
great extent in the choice of the value of P. The probability, for instance, that

exactly > molecules lie in one half of the volume v and the remaining ones in the

other half—which is the most probable distribution—is given by
n!

— 1 ’
"G!)

praa/?,

n
This is much smaller than unity, showing that the exact realisation of the most
probable distribution is very improbable. Yet it does not make any difference worth
considering in the value of S, whether this small value or the value 1 is substituted in
the formula. This exemplifies that, in order to determine the value of the entropy,
one may as well take for P the probability of the most probable state of things, as the

much higher value that is obtained if all possible states are included.

a

or, with a sufficient approximation

4. The Structure of the Atom. By Professor E. Ruruerrorp, F.R.S.

5. The Electrical Resistance of Thin Metallic Films.
By W. F. G. Swann, A.RB.C.S., D.Sc.

If the specific resistance of a film is plotted against its time of deposit,
the curve shows, as is well known, a sharp bend. The theory usually given

376 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

to account for this phenomenon results in the bend occurring at a thickness
comparable with the mean free path. If the mean free path varies as rapidly
with the temperature as is required by the usual considerations drawn from the
Thomson effect, then, if we plot the specific resistance against the time of’
deposit for the same set of films at ordinary temperatures and at liquid-air
temperature the bend should occur for entirely different times of deposit in the
two cases.

A set of platinum films was deposited on glass in the same vacuum. The
resistances of the films were measured at 100°C., 14°C., and -180°C., and no
appreciable alteration in the position of the bend was found. As in the
experiments of Longden, it was found that the thick films showed a positive
temperature coefficient and the thin films a negative temperature coefficient.
The negative temperature coefficient for the very thin films was very large, and,
moreover, two films were obtained which showed a decrease in resistance on
heating from -180°C. to 14°C., and an increase on heating from 14°C. to
100° C. The explanation of these facts is not contained in the theory referred
to above, and a new theory is put forward, in which it is supposed that the
molecules come down in groups which become more intimately packed as the
time of deposit increases. Only those electrons which have sufficiently high
velocities to enable them to escape from one group to an adjacent group are able
to take part in the conduction between the groups. The formula developed for
this case gives for the specific resistance § the value

ar Vox a0. 1 4a }
a Ee ee

where A is the mean free path, 7 is the average distance across a group, a? is
amu?

written for (w being the velocity which an electron must have perpen-

dicular to the boundary of a group in order to escape to the next group), and
F(a) is written for

e*—(1l+a?)+ 2ate| ec dx
va
The other symbols have the usual significance, e being the base of the Napierian
system of logarithms. This formula contains the explanation of all the above
phenomena found experimentally. A more complete formula is also developed,
showing variations from Ohm’s law which may become appreciable in the films
under certain conditions.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

Discussion on Radiation.

Mr. J. H. Jeans: Any discussion of the nature of radiation is of necessity
inextricably involved in the larger question as to the ultimate form of the laws
which govern the smallest processes of nature. These laws have so far been
believed to be expressible in the form of differential equations, a form implying
continuity and infinite divisibility of time and space. It now appears that these
laws must undergo a very extensive revision.

The problem is seen in its most crucial form in connection with black-body
radiation. Chronologically the black-body problem was the first by which atten-
tion was drawn to the wider problem; logically, the difficulties of the wider
problem are most readily focussed by fixing our attention on the simpler and
more definite problems associated with black-body radiatioa.

Consider a finite volume of any continuous and homogeneous medium—for
simplicity, say, a cube of unit volume. Through this medium waves of different
wave-lengths can be transmitted, and certain wave-lengths will correspond to
natural free vibrations of the unit volume of the medium. It is merely a matter
of geometry to count these vibrations and classify them according to their wave-
length. In the ‘ spectrum’ of wave-lengths so obtained the ‘lines’ will be very

‘alg

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 3

close together, as soon as we come to wave-lengths short in comparison with the
dimensions of the medium under consideration. It is readily shown that the
number of independent free-vibrations having wave-lengths within the small
range between A and A + dAis

4x X-4 dA when the medium is a gas transmitting sound-waves,
8m A-! dX fe ,. free ether transmitting light-waves,
12m A-1 GA ¥ Rr: YE0) xo a elastic-waves.

Suppose that, when the medium is in thermodynamical equilibrium at tem-
perature T, the partition of energy in the medium according to wave-length can
be in some way observed or determined. Then, obviously, we can deduce the
average energy of vibrations of every wave-length.

For instance, let us examine the non-controversial case of a gas. We may
assume that the molecules move with velocities determined by the well-known
law of Maxwell. This random motion of the molecules can be resolved, by
ordinary Fourier analysis, into the motion of regular trains of waves, so that
the heat energy of the gas is resolved into the energy of regular sound-waves or
vibrations. The resulting partition of energy is found to be such that the energy
per unit volume of wave-length between A and A+ dA is 4m RT A~4 da, where
R is the gas constant and T the temperature (abs.). Since the number of
independent vibrations within this range is 4m A-‘da, it follows that the
average energy of each vibration is RT.

In the case of light-waves in the ether, the determination of the partition of
energy according to wave-length is a subject for direct experimental investiga-
tion. The experiments of Lummer and Pringsheim show that the partition of
energy is given with great (and probably perfect) accuracy by the well-known
formula of Planck,

wR Aman x — a Peaks Apogliag he. oh

87 RT Am4d ape RT’ (1)
in which h is Planck’s universal constant, and v is the number of vibrations per
unit time. Knowing that the number of vibrations within the range ¢A of wave-
length is 8rA- ‘da, it follows that the average energy of each vibration of wave
length A must be

Ho
Se a ey cs ay
There is no direct means of determining the partition of heat-energy in a
solid, but the work of Debye has provided a very convincing, although indirect
solution, to the problem. The total heat-energy of a solid can, of course, be
obtained from a knowledge of the specific heats at all temperatures. Debye has
shown ‘that all experimental determinations of the specific heat—extending over
a great range of temperature and a wide variety of substances—are exactly
satisfied by assuming that the total heat-energy of a substance per unit volume

Ps RT x
e

.where the summation extends exactly over all the inde-

pendent free vibrations of the solid, the number of these within a range of wave-
length da being 127A-‘ da. In other words, Debye shows that the heat-energy
of a solid, and its variations with temperature, are exactly accounted for by
assigning a mean energy

x
RX Soa Mpirt beabbens comiae 8 2 PIG)

to each elastic vibration of the solid. The explanation is so simple, and its
agreement with experiment so complete, that few will venture to doubt its truth,
Thanks to the work of Debye, we may say, with more confidence than is possible
in most problems of modern physics, that we know the truth and the whole
truth about the partition of the heat-energy in a solid; the heat-energy is simply
the sum of the contributions of the different elastic solid waves, each having
average energy given by formula (3), while the contributions from the motions
of free electrons and all other sources are negligible.

378 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

We accordingly see that the average energy of a vibration in a gas is RT,
HH

while that in ether or a solid is RT x — It will, of course, be remarked
er

that the latter formula reduces to the former on putting «—0. It may further
be noticed that the values of » involved in the gas problem are very small,
compared with those involved in the other problems, so small, in fact, that x
is negligible, and the formula (3) becomes indistinguishable from RT.

Knowing the average energy of each vibration in a medium, it may or may
not be possible to deduce some information as to the mechanism by which this
partition of energy is produced. In the special case in which the partition of

energy is such that each vibration has energy RT x sy the problem has been

solved with great completeness by Poincaré. The quite definite result is obtained
that, to arrive at this particular law of partition of energy, the exchange of
energy between matter and ether must take place by finite jumps of amount
e, given by e=hv, This is, of course, the hypothesis, spoken of briefly as the
quantum-hypothesis, which was first suggested by Planck, and from which his
radiation formula (1) was first deduced. It now appears from the work of
Poincaré that no other hypothesis could have led to Planck’s formula; thus the
x

result of experiment leads inevitably to the law RT xX
ee

i? and this in turn

leads inevitably to the quantum-hypothesis.

This result is so complete, so definite, and above all so revolutionary, that it
will naturally be most closely scrutinised. We shall probably feel inclined to
trust to the accuracy of Poincaré’s mathematics, and examine the physical
assumptions on which the result is based. They are two in number. First is
the assumption that the average energy of a vibration in matter is the same as
that in ether—in other words, the assumption that formule (2) and (3) are
identical. Poincaré based this assumption on a theoretical proof by Planck, but
since he wrote the more direct evidence of Debye’s work has appeared, and may
be considered to have put the matter beyond doubt. Next comes the assump-
tion that formule (2) and (3) represent a real final state of thermodynamical
equilibrium, and this assumption is perhaps slightly more open to question.
Speaking for myself, I may perhaps be allowed to say that I have devoted
several years of work to an attempt, quite unfruitful as it turned out, to recon-
cile the laws of radiation with the classical mechanics by assuming that formule
(1), (2), and (3) do no¢ represent a real final state. The more one works on this
assumption the more one is forced to realise that all the facts are against it; the
classical mechanics, coupled as they must be with this assumption, really show
no power of explaining the facts of radiation; the new mechanics, based on the
quantum hypothesis, show just that power of explaining and predicting facts
which is to be expected of a new truth in its infancy.

Some of the more conservative of us may feel tempted to challenge the
accuracy of the law (2, 3) on which Poincaré’s result is based, but this possibility
has been foreseen by Poincaré. He proves, in his own words,"

‘L’hypothése des quanta est la seule qui conduise 4 la loi de Planck.’

‘Quelle que soit la loi du rayonnement, si l’on suppose que le rayonnement
total est fini, on sera conduit 4 une fonction présentant des discontinuités
analogues 4 celles que donne ’hypothése des quanta.’

There is no escape, then, by appealing to errors of observation; a discon-
tinuous system of mechanics is in any case thrust upon us, and all that an appeal
to errors of observation could possibly do would be to modify slightly the laws
governing the system of discontinuities.

One special importance of Poincaré’s result is that it divides all possible views
and theories of radiation into two sharp classes. Every view or theory must
logically involve either the belief that Poincaré is wrong, or the belief that he is
right, together with all that this involves. His work has shown that there is no
middle way. For myself I feel logically compelled to accept the quantum-
hypothesis in its entirety.

But logical necessity of this kind is made mentally more palatable if we can

1 Journ. de Phys., January 1912, pp. 37, 39.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 379

discover direct evidence, or phenomena other than those from which it is
derived, to bear witness to its truth. First among such phenomena stands the
photo-electric effect. When light of high frequency falls on a clean metallic
surface electrons are shot off with a measurable velocity. This velocity is found
to depend not on the intensity of the light, but on its frequency, being given by
imw?=hy—c. Here c varies from metal to metal, and is found to be equal to
the work required to set free one electron from an atom of the metal in question.
Thus the total energy yielded up by the radiation to the matter is exactly h.
It is very significant that if the incident light is of frequency so low that
hy <c, no electrons are emitted, no matter how intense the light, whereas even
the feeblest light of a frequency greater than c/ will at once discharge electrons.

Here we have a phenomenon totally unlike anything which can be explained
by the classical mechanics, and one which gives, I think, as direct and as con-
vincing evidence as we can reasonably ask for, of the truth of the quantum
theory.

In this phenomenon, because the transfer of energy is from ether to matter,
the value of e is determined from the frequency y. When the transfer is in the
other direction the value of »y must be determined from e. The energy may
arrange itself as required, for instance, by the conservation of energy, any
energy not required by the matter being shot off as radiation, and the frequency
of the emitted light being determined by the amount of energy available hy=e,
Thus, the wave-length of Rontgen rays may be determined by the energy of
impact, and a dissipation of energy as light passes through matter may result in
a lowering of the frequency of the lght (fluorescence). By following this
principle implicitly Dr. Bohr has arrived at a most ingenious and suggestive,
and I think we must add convincing, explanation of the laws of spectral series.

Dr. Bohr assumes that the atom is formed on the model of electron-satellites
revolving round a positive nucleus as primary. According to the classical
mechanics, a vast number of orbits forming a doubly infinite continuous series
would have been possible for each electron. Dr. Bohr assumes that under the
new mechanics only certain of these orbits are possible—the doubly infinite
continuous series is reduced to a singly infinite discontinuous series by adding to
the restrictions required by the old mechanics the additional restrictions (i.) that
the orbits must be circular, (ii.) that the angular momentum of each electron
must be a multiple of h/2m where h is Planck’s constant. The only justification
at present put forward for these assumptions is the very weighty one of success.

A brief illustration of the type of result obtained will be given by the con-
sideration of a single electron of charge e revolving round a nucleus of charge
+H. When E=e we obtain Dr. Bohr’s conception of the neutral hydrogen
atom; when E=2e we obtain the positively charged helium atom. The orbit
may be any one of the circular orbits possible under the old mechanics, provided
that the angular momentum is an integral multiple of h/2m, say th/2m. It

is easily found that the energy of such orbits must be of the form
2m?me?H?
The

-W=

(where r=1, 2, 3, . . .), the corresponding radius a is given by patie le and
2m?mek ”

: 4m?me?K? :

the angular velocity by o = =a os The most stable configuration (—W a
maximum) is that for which + = 1; this will give the normal hydrogen atom;
on putting += 1 and substituting numerical values, it is found that W, a and
have just about the right values. The passage from a less stable to a more
stable state (say, +, to 7,) is supposed to be accompanied by an emission of
radiation of energy equal to the difference between the energy of the two states.
Assuming the frequency of this radiation to be determined by the amount of
energy available (hy = e), the formula obtained for »v is

in teh
TT,"

22? me? EH?

he

where R stands for . Dr. Bohr shows how this formula includes the

380 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

well known Balmer’s series, the Paschen infra-red series, the Pickering (¢ Puppis)
series, and the series recently discovered by Fowler. There is remarkably close
numerical agreement between the calculated value of the constant R, (Rydberg’s
constant) and its observed value.

The series of results obtained in this way are, I think, far too striking to be
dismissed merely as accidental. At the same time, it would be futile to deny
that there are difficulties, still unsurmounted, which appear to be enormous.
I would mention in particular the difficulties of explaining the Zeeman effect
and interference.

The consideration of this last difficulty introduces us to a wider problem—
namely, the difficulty of reconciling the hypothesis of the quantum theory with
the established facts of the undulatory theory of light. It is hardly too much
to say that the two theories appear to be in active antagonism wherever they
come in contact. Everywhere the undulatory theories demand that radiation
should be capable of spreading and dividing indefinitely; while the quantum
theory demands the reverse, at least when there is interaction between matter
and ether. The conflict is, perhaps, shown at its keenest in the case of X-rays.
These can be reflected and diffracted as though they were subject to the spread-
ing and division required by the undulatory theory, while the same rays have the
capacity of ionisation at a distance of, perhaps, 100 yards, exactly as though
their energy were atomic and concentrated in the way demanded by the quantum
theory. The conflict of the two sets of views appears so definitely and so acutely
in this case that it may, perhaps, be hoped that the resolution of the difficulty
here may go a long way towards solving the wider general problem.

Another problem of a more abstract nature which exhibits the conflict of the
two theories is the following : Consider a very few electrons shut up in a radia-
tion-free and perfectly reflecting enclosure, left to move freely. According to
the classical laws (or any system of continuous laws) the electrons will set up an
electro-magnetic field, and the energy of this field must ultimately be dis-
tributed according to the law of equi-partition 8m RT A-‘da. Would this
really happen? If not, at what exact point do the classical laws break down?
If it does happen, is the resulting energy in the ether identical with ordinary
light, or is it something quite different? If it is the same, how does it happen
that radiation in thermodynamical equilibrium at temperature T can obey the
law 8% RT a-4 dA, and can also obey Planck’s law?

The boldest and simplest attempt at reconciliation between the conflicting
theories lies in abandoning the ether altogether, and relying on some purely
descriptive principle, such as that of relativity. There is probably no adequate
reason why the ultimate interpretation of the universe should be expected to be
dynamical rather than kinetic and descriptive. On the other hand, it is doubtful
whether this very drastic remedy does more than merely shift the difficulty from
one point to another; if there were no ether Debye’s interpretation of heat-
energy would demand quanta of material energy, each one indivisible, and yet
spread over a finite region of space.

Any attempt at a dynamical interpretation demands a consideration of the
meaning of h. The following vague suggestion is put forward very tentatively.

The value of hf is given by

h | (4me)?

a fe .
2a V

where ¢ is a numerical constant, of which the value is very nearly, or perhaps
exactly, equal to unity. Is, then, the new unit A anything more than a reappear-
ance of the old unit (4me)? Is the apparent atomicity of action or energy or
angular momentum anything more than the atomicity of electricity? For con-
sider what is meant by the fact that e is constant throughout the universe. We
are probably no longer content to regard the electrons as ‘ manufactured articles,’
all originally made similar. It is more rational to suppose the electrons to be
formed out of some pervading medium, and to be all similar because the pro-
perties of this medium require that they should be all similar. If we definitely
suppose this medium to be the ether, then the Maxwell equations cannot be the
full and complete equations of the ether, for they do not imply the constancy
of e. We must imagine the full equations to involve ¢ (or fh) as well as the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 381

Maxwell terms. These equations must be of an atomic or discontinuous nature
(e.g. they may be equations of finite differences instead of differential equations),
both in order to satisfy the condition of Poincaré mentioned above, and to
account for the atomicity of e. These equations will form the basis of the new
dynamics. If in forming the equation of wave-propagation the new terms

happen to be eliminated out, then the equation vy? ¢ = act will be true

in the new dynamics as in the old, and there will be no discordance between the
quantum theory and the undulatory theory. But the new terms will presum-
ably stay in when the equations are applied to problems of interaction between
matter and ether, so that A may be expected to play a part in all such phenomena.

Professor Lorentz said tnat he agreed in the main with Mr. Jeans. It
seems indeed that, in order to account for the facts of radiation, we must intro-
duce a discontinuity of one kind or another, and that, at present, no hypothesis
is more suitable than the assumption of definite quanta of energy.

The theory may, however, be presented in different forms, which are best
understood if, in the systems with which we are concerned, we distinguish three
parts, viz., (1) molecules and atoms, between which and the ether there is no
direct interaction, and which, for the sake of convenience, we may call
‘matter’; (2) some kind of ‘ vibrators,’ each having a frequency of its own;
and (3) the ‘ether.’ The vibrators must be considered as carrying electric
charges, in virtue of which they can give rise to electro-magnetic vibrations
Fropagated in the ether, and can, conversely, be set in motion by electro-mag-
netic waves, the simplest type of vibrator being given by a single electron,
moving about its position of equilibrium under the influence of a quasi-elastic
force. On the other hand, the vibrators can exchange energy, by collisions or
otherwise, with the material particles, so that they constitute a link between
matter and ether.

It need hardly be said that the distinction between the particles of matter
and the vibrators is somewhat artificial; it may well be that in some cases the
emission and absorption of heat is not due at all to vibrators having a definite
period. It should also be remarked that, if we use the terms in the above
sense, 2 mono-atomic gas consisting of uncharged molecules must be said to
contain matter only, whereas a crystal composed of charged atoms arranged
in definite positions of equilibrium would be entirely made up of vibrators. If,
however, such a crystal were exposed to the bombardment of gaseous mole-
cules, we should again have to deal with a system formed of the first two parts
of which we have spoken.

As to the third part, we may apply to it the time-honoured name of ‘ ether,’
without discussing the fitness, in the present state of science, of maintaining the
ideas that were originally associated with the word. The principle of rela-
tivity leads us to consider the question whether the ether has so much of
substantiality that one can speak of the motion of a body relatively to it. For
the present purpose this is irrelevant, and ‘ether’ is merely a word, for which
we might as well substitute ‘ vacuum.’

Now it must, I think, be taken for granted, that the quanta can have no
individual and permanent existence in the ether, that they cannot be regarded
as accumulations of energy in certain minute spaces flying about with the speed
of light. This would be in contradiction with many well-known phenomena of
interference and diffraction. It is clear that, if a beam of light consisted of
separate quanta, which, of course, ought to be considered as mutually indepen-
dent ard unconnected, the bright and dark fringes to which it gives rise could
never be sharper than those that would be produced by a single quantum.
Hence, if by the use of a source of approximately monochromatic light, we
succeed in obtaining distinct interference bands with a difference of phase of
a great many, say, some millions, of wave-lengths, we may conclude that each
quantum contains a regular succession of as many waves and that it extends
therefore over a quite appreciable length in the direction of propagation.
Similarly, the superiority of a telescope with wide aperture over a smaller
instrument, in so far as it consists in a greater sharpness of the image, can only
be understood if each individual quantum can fill the whole object-glass.

These considerations show that a quantum ought at all events to have a size

382 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

that cannot be called very small. It may be added that, according to Maxwell’s
equations of the electro-magnetic field, an initial disturbance of equilibrium must
always be propagated over a continually increasing space.

We might now suppose that the exchange of energy between a vibrator and
the ether can only take place by finite jumps, no quantity less than a quantum
being ever transferred to the medium or taken from it. Something may be
said, however, in favour of the opposite hypothesis of a gradual action between
the ether and the vibrator, governed by the ordinary laws of electro-magnetism.
Indeed, it has been shown already, in Planck's first treatment of the subject,
that by simply adhering to these laws, one is led to a relation between the
energy of the vibrator and that of the black radiation, of whose validity we
have no reason to doubt.

The problem solved by Planck admits of a wide generalisation. Instead of
his linear vibrator, we may conceive a body having any number of degrees of
freedom and capable therefore of vibrating in many different fundamental
modes. If such a body carries some distribution of electric charges and is
surrounded by black radiation, it will be set in motion in all its modes, and the
energy of each vibration is found to be

Af

Sr f(A),
where \ is the wave-length and

{{A) da

the energy of the black radiation per unit volume, belonging to rays with wave-
lengths betweenNandA + dA. But, by Planck’s equation, which we may use as
an empirical formula representing the actual distribution of energy,

{(A) =8"RTaA~4, —* 7

where x has the same meaning as in Mr. Jeans’ formule, so that the energy of
the body for each normal vibration becomes

BUTE eee ty

e—]

This result shows the intimate connection between two of the expressions given
by Mr. Jeans, and it justifies Debye’s method for calculating the specific
heat of a solid body. The important point is that it can be obtained without
the introduction of anything beyond the ordinary electro-magnetic equations.

So far, the hypothesis of quanta is found to be unnecessary or even inad-
missible, and perhaps the best course we can take will be to limit it to that part
of the theory in which we consider the equilibrium between the vibrators and
the material particles. It is possible that we shall be able after all to work
out a satisfactory theory on the basis of certain assumptions involving a dis-
continuous transfer of energy between these two parts of the system. Of
course, when we try to do so, it may be very helpful to have before us some
special model of the structure and properties of a vibrator, such as that which
Sir J. J. Thomson brought forward yesterday. Some years ago, Dr. E. A.
Haas, of Vienna, proposed another interesting model, which, however, does not
illustrate an important feature that is explained by Sir J. J. Thomson, viz., the
proportionality between the magnitude of a quantum and the frequency of
vibration.

Following Mr. Jeans, I must finally say some words on the equilibrium
between the radiation and a system of free electrons. Starting from Drude’s
theory of the metallic conduction of electricity, I once calculated both the
absorption and the emission of rays by a thin sheet of metal. By combining the
two results I obtained an expression agreeing with Lord Rayleigh’s radiation
formula, which, as is well known, holds for low frequencies. My calculations
had been expressly limited to these, and I therefore hoped for some time that
it would be possible to deduce Planck’s equation by leaving aside the restric-
tion, going more deeply into the details of the problem. At present we may be

a

ee F pleen oi ee
.

y

ee me ey ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 383

sure that this would be of no use at all, and that, whatever be the motion of the
electrons, we shall always fall back on Lord Rayleigh’s formula, so long as we
apply the old electro-magnetic equations. This is a most serious difficulty, and
we cannot escape from it by saying that perhaps the free electrons contribute
but a small part to the total radiation. It is inadmissible that, in addition
to a mechanism leading to Planck’s formula, there should be another, however
feeble be its influence, that would give us a different law. Moreover, it must
be kept in mind that the explanation of an electric current by the theory of
electrons requires at all events some free mobility of these particles, and that
we come across the same difficulty when we consider an electrolytic substance
partly filling an enclosed space. The motion of the ions would produce a field
of radiation that would certainly be determined by Lord Rayleigh’s formula if
the old theories were true.

It will, therefore, not suffice to introduce the notion of quanta into the
theory of vibrators, but, as Mr. Jeans has suggested, we shall most probably
have to modify Maxwell’s equations for those parts of space where there is an
electric charge.

(Added after the discussion.) Even if we confine ourselves to the equilibrium
between the radiation and a vibrator, there is one problem in which the old
theory encounters a difficulty. It is that of the motion of translation, the
Brownian movement, as we may call it, which the vibrator will take under the
influence of a field of radiation corresponding to a definite temperature. One
would expect its kinetic energy to be equal to that of a gaseous molecule at the
same temperature. Einstein and Hopf have found, however, a much smaller
value.

Professor E. PrinesHemm: It is very satisfactory that Mr. Jeans now has
abandoned his former doubts of the results found by experiment. So this dis-
cussion on radiation seems to have great importance in showing that on the
general question there is an agreement between all physicists who work in this
matter, although opinions may differ in the details. The theoretical difficulties
and the chief points where theory requires improvement have been pointed out
by Messrs. Jeans and Lorentz. I wish to draw attention to the problems which
are to be solved by experiments. First of all, there is still a remarkable dis-
agreement between the different measurements of the universal constants of
radiation, as well of the constant o of Stefan’s law as of the constant h of
Planck’s law. Here new experiments are necessary. Further, the laws of
black radiation must be examined through a larger range of temperature and
wave-length than has been done at present. Finally, the radiation of bodies
other than black must be studied more and more. Here the metals have the
greatest theoretical interest, since Aschkinass has shown how the distribution of
energy in the spectrum of metals can be calculated by means of the laws of black
radiation and Maxwell’s electro-magnetic theory. And as the metals are the
material used in modern types of incandescent lamps this question is also of
great practical importance. The chief difficulty of these experiments consists
in the determination of the true temperature of the radiating metals. Recently
my friend, Professor 0. Lummer, in Breslau, has suggested a method which
seems to solve this problem in a very elegant way.

Professor A. E. H, Love: I am unable to accept the view that, in order to
account for the facts about radiation, existing theories of dynamics and electro-
dynamics need to be supplemented by the theory of quanta. Part of the
evidence in favour of this view has been derived from an application of the
principle of equipartition of energy to a system consisting of ether and matter
in an enclosure bounded by perfectly reflecting walls. Such a system has an
infinite number of degrees of freedom, and the principle of equipartition cannot
be applied without modification to any such system. The ethereal kinetic energy
would be expressed by an infinite series of the form

Uy + Uy + ug +... ad inf.,

in which there is one term answering to each degree of freedom, and the order
of the terms is that of increase of the corresponding frequencies. In order that
an infinite series may represent ethereal kinetic energy, or anything else, it is
necessary that it should be convergent. In order that it may be convergent, it is

384 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

necessary that all the terms which are far advanced in the order or the series
should be very small compared with some of those which precede them. It is
therefore impossible for all the terms to be equal as required by the principle of
equipartition. If, however, the principle of equipartition is limited by the
principle of convergence, it yields some information as to the distribution of
energy in the spectrum of a black body. In so far as it is legitimate to regard
the infinite series, by way of approximation, as the sum of a large, but finite,
number of terms, the principle of equipartition should be applicable, also as an
approximation, and it yields Lord Rayleigh’s experimentally verified formula
for the emissivity answering to long waves. ‘The principle of convergence
shows, on the other hand, that for short waves the curve obtained by plotting
emissivity against wave-length should fall towards the origin, as it is known to
do. But this principle yields no information as to the position in the spectrum
of the longest waves for which Lord Rayleigh’s formula fails to give a valid
approximation.

The arguments on which the theory of quanta was founded cannot be regarded
as satisfactory. Indeed, the most convincing evidence in favour of the theory
would seem to be the agreement with experiment of M. Planck’s formula, accord-
ing to which the emissivity of a black body is given as a function of the wave-
length A and the absolute temperature T, by an expression of the form

Aa~5(eBAT—1)7',

where A and B are properly determined constants. It may, therefore, be per-
tinent to remark that from a mathematical point of view there must be infinitely
many formule which would agree equally well with the experiments. In illus-
tration of this statement, it may be mentioned that a formula proposed recently
by A. Korn, according to which the emissivity of a black body would be given
by an expression of the form

Car energy

where C and D are properly determined constants, when tested arithmetically
over a wide range, yields results showing just about as good an agreement with
the facts as Planck’s. It may be, however, that there is no simple formula, like
those of Planck and Korn, which is applicable to all wave-lengths. However
this may be, there seems to be no sufficient reason for regarding Planck’s
formula as expressing a law of Nature.

In further illustration of the contention that the resources of the ordinary
theories are not exhausted, it may be pointed out that it is possible to extend to
some additional cases the calculation, first carried out by H. A. Lorentz in the
case of long waves, of the emissivity of a thin metal plate. He supposed the
radiation to be generated in collisions between free electrons and atoms, and
calculated the emissivity for waves of periods long compared with the times
occupied in describing free paths. For this calculation he required to evaluate
approximately a certain integral. Such an evaluation can be effected also in the
case of waves which have their periods comparable with the times occupied in
describing free paths, and, for a number of laws of variation of the acceleration
during a collision, in the case of waves which have their periods comparable with
the times occupied by collisions. As the wave-length diminishes the emissivity
of the thin plate at first increases, then reaches a maximum, and finally diminishes
to zero; as the temperature rises the wave-length answering to the maximum
emissivity diminishes, as would be expected. But there is no simple analytical
formula which represents the emissivity of the thin plate over the whole range
of wave-lengths.

Mr, Jeans: I do not think the mathematical question of the convergence of
Professor Love’s infinite series need be considered at all. If the series is
arranged in order of descending wave-lengths we may say roughly that the
equations of the classical dynamics demand that the energy should be transferred
along the terms of the series from left to right, and no steady state can be
attained until the terms are all equal. The time taken for the energy to reach
the more distant terms can be approximately calculated: before we have got
very far along the series it becomes a matter of millions of years. Let us then

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 385

consider, say, only the first 1010! terms: we have a finite series of terms,
and until millions of years have elapsed the physical problem is perfectly well
represented by this finite series, for which questions of convergence have no
meaning.

Professor Lorentz: In reply to Professor Love’s interesting remarks, I should
like to say that it is precisely one of the objects of the physical theory of radiation
to explain why the energy of the black radiation can be represented by a conver-
gent series. The old theories lead to a different result, but this in itself would
not be a physical contradiction or impossibility; it would simply mean that all
energy will in the end be transferred to the ether and that it will continually
take the form of shorter waves, a really final state never being reached. Our
aim must be to account for a true state of equilibrium, in which there is a finite
ratio between the parts of the energy that are found in a ponderable body
enclosed in an envelope and in the surrounding ether. We shall also have to
assign a physical meaning to the universal constant 4 occurring in the formula
by which Planck calculates this ratio.

Sir J. Larmor derived the impression from the trend of the discussion that it
would turn out that in the new low-temperature determinations there was nothing
in direct conflict with the classical dynamical principles. The essential argu-
ment for equipartition among vibrational types of energy is, briefly, that these
types enter similarly into the total energy, and thus, other things being in-
different, there is no reason that can be assigned to the contrary. They enter
similarly merely because the energy is a sum of squares of their ‘momentoids.’
But ‘other things may not be indifferent ; for example, in the kinetics of a rotating
atmosphere the distribution of energy must be modified so as to maintain con-
stancy of the angular momentum as well as of the energy, giving as the result
equipartition relative to the rotation instead of absolutely. Moreover, in an
isolated region of xther there is no way open for any interchange of energy at
all between one type of vibration and another; here also other things are not
indifferent. The exchange must be effected through the mediation of material
molecules. It is true that a single electron, moving erratically between com-
plete reflections from the ideal impervious walls of the chamber, would suffice.
But the structure of an electron, including the mechanisms by which it exchanges
energy with the ether, is totally unknown. Such a fundamental fact as the
pressure of radiation is involved in that structure; we can only establish it
theoretically as pressure on systems of electrons; it must be transmitted by the
ether in some way, but we do not know how, except by speculating, for it is a
second-order phenomenon not involved in the Maxwellian linear scheme of equa-
tions. In the very intense kinetic: phenomena in the mechanism of the electrons
or molecules, by which they serve to transfer energy from one type of ethereal
vibration to other types, the energy must be expressible as a sum of squares of
definite momentoids if the transfer is to lead ultimately to equipartition. This
restriction in its form is unlikely; the transfer may even be of a discontinuous
character, involving release of electrons into freedom. The Planck formula for
the constitution of natural free radiation may be obtained by statistical reason-
ing, strictly on the lines of Boltzmann’s entropy theory for gases, in which atoms
or vibrators are not considered at all, but the pressure of radiation is introduced
instead, as I have tried to show (Proc. Roy. Soc. 1906); the only implication is
that the process of interchange of ethereal energy between different vibrational
types, by the mediation of matter, though unknown, must be such as to provide
a pressure of radiation. If, then, there is no reason to press equipartition as
regards free natural radiation, the atomic vibrations, which are set up by its
agency and must be in equilibrium with it, are also absolved therefrom.

The new knowledge relating to specific heats at very low temperatures has
already suggested most interesting speculations and tentative adjustments, and
will certainly lead to definite expansion of our theoretical schemes; but it can
be held that there is nothing in it that is destructive to the principles of physics
which have led to so rich a harvest of discovery and synthesis in the past.

Mr. Jeans: As the time is so short, I must only touch on a very few of the
many interesting points that have been raised.

With regard to Professor Love’s suggestion that the radiation formula might
be obtained by the old mechanics from an analysis of electron orbits, two remarks

19S, Cc ¢

386 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

may be made. If we proceed on the old mechanics we obtain the law of equipar-
tition (Rayleigh’s Law) as the final result, true for all wave-lengths; unless
we assume also that the observed state is not one of true thermodynamical
equilibrium.! If we make this additional assumption, a definite law can be
obtained, but it is open to two fatal objections. First, since the electron orbits
are different in different substances, the resulting law for black-body radiation
is found to be different for different substances, in opposition to experiment ;
secondly, as a result of numerical calculation, it is found that to account for
the observed law of radiation, the electron orbits and free-paths would have to
be of a size which is quite incompatible with what we know as to molecular
dimensions. ?

With regard to Professor Lorentz’s remarks on the possibility of making a
distinction between ‘matter’ and ‘vibrators,’ surely the work of Debye has
shown quite convincingly that any such distinction is purely fictitious. For it
now appears that the oscillations of the ‘vibrators’ required by the theory of
Planck are simply the elastic vibrations of the mass of matter as a whole.
Whether we regard these as oscillations of vibrators or of matter is for us to
choose, but it seems to be clearly proved that there is only one set of oscilla-
tions, and the bodies which oscillate are Professor Lorentz’s ‘ vibrators’ and

‘matter’ rolled into one.

DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL PHYSICS.

The following Papers were read :—
1. Crystals and X-Rays. By Professor W. H. Braaa, F.R.S.

We know from recent experiment that X rays of wave-length A can be reflected
by a set of parallel crystal planes when the relation nA=2d sin @ is fulfilled.

In this formula d is the distance between the consecutive planes, A is the wave-
length, @ is the angle between the planes and the incident or reflected ray, and n is a
whole number. ‘This principle leads to two distinct lines of research. The first is
based on the original experiment of Laue. A pencil of heterogeneous rays is passed
through a crystal slip and the various crystal planes reflect pencils from the primary
beam, which pencils are allowed to fall upon a photographic plate. Hach pencil
consists of homogeneous rays of wave-length determined by the above relation.
Since the various sets of planes have different values of d, heterogeneous rays are
wanted in order that each set may be able to reflect. A bulb with a Pt anticathode
has been generally used and is very suitable. By examining the distribution of the
energy in the various spots on the photographic plate information can be obtained as
to the position of the reflecting planes and their ‘ richness’ in atoms.

The second method is based on the use of homogeneous rays. If the angle be-
tween the primary pencil and the crystal is gradually increased and the strength of
the reflective pencil is measured by the ionisation it effects in a suitable chamber,
any homogeneous pencil in the primary rays is reflected only at angles given by the
formula. In this way a ‘spectrum’ of the primary rays is mapped out. Platinum
anticathodes emit several lines in addition to the heterogeneous radiation, and are not
so suitable for these experiments as rhodium or palladium ; osmium and indium are
still less suitable. The spectrum of the rhodium has one strong pencil of wave-length
0-607 x 10-%, and a weaker pencil of wave-length 533 x 10-*. Palladium has an exactly
similar spectrum, but the wave-lengths are nearly six per cent. smaller. There is
very little radiation of other wave-lengths from either bulb. When the spectrum of
rhodium or palladium is mapped for various sets of crystal planes of various crystals
we obtain measures of the spacing of the planes and so obtain data which help in the
determination of crystal structure. 4

The diamond may be taken as an example. The spectrum reflected by the three
important sets of planes show that the (100) planes are closest together of the three,

that the (110) planes are more openly spaced, in the proportion of 2 to 1, and the
(111) planes in the proportion 73tol. These latter show a further important feature

1 Phil. Mag. June 1909. 2 Ibid. July 1909.

|

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 387

in the entire absence of a second order spectrum. That is to say, there is no reflection

at an angle @ for which sin 6 = * though it does occur when sin 0 = 3 or a or -
or <9 Fluor-spar shows the same effect, and zinc blende approximates to it. The

2d
interpretation is that the (111) planes are not equally spaced, but there is an alterna-
tion of spaces, one of which is three times the other. The spectra also tell us the actual
values of all the spacings. When all the information is put together we find that the
element of volume of the diamond is a face-centred cube; a cube haying, that is
to say, a carbon atom at each corner and one in the middle of each face. In the
same cube are also four carbon atoms at the centres of four of the eight small cubes
into which the large cube may be divided. ‘The structure may also be described as
consisting of two interpenetrating face-centred cube lattices, one of which can be
derived from the other by translating it in the direction of the diagonal through a
distance equal to one quarter of that diagonal.

In the same way zinc blende is shown to have exactly the same structure as the
diamond, except that one of the two lattices consists entirely of zinc atoms, and the
other of sulphur. In the case of fluor-spar there is a face-centred lattice of calcium
atoms, fluorine atoms being placed at the centres of all the eight small cubes. Iron
pyzites, sulphur, calcium, and other crystals have also been examined by these
methods. Some of them show the most remarkable variations in the strengths of the
spectra of the various orders.

The method of the Laue photograph has also been applied to the examination of
the diamond structure ; the results entirely agree with those of the reflection method.

2. On Lightning and Protection from it. By Sir J. Larmor, F.R.S.

The rationale of electric discharge in a gas is now understood. When a
small region becomes conducting through ionisation by collisions in the electric
field it should spread in the direction in which the field is most intense, which
is along the lines of force. Thus the electric rupture is not a tear along a
surface but a perforation along a line. This is roughly the line of force of the
field: the electro kinetic force induced by the discharge, being parallel to the
current, does not modify this conclusion. A zigzag discharge would thus
consist of independent flashes, the first one upsetting adjacent equilibria by
transference of charge. Successive discharges between the same masses would
tend to follow the same ionised path, which may meantime be displaced by air
currents.

If the line of discharge is thus determined by the previous electric field, the
influence of a lightning-conductor in drawing the discharge must be determined
by the modification of this electric field which its presence produces. For a
field of vertical force, such as an overhead cloud would produce, it may be
shown that the disturbance caused by a thin vertical rod is confined to its own
immediate neighbourhood. Thus while it provides a strong silent discharge
from earth into the air, it does not assist in drawing a disruptive discharge
from above—except in so far as the stream of electrified air rising from it may
provide a path. It is the broader building, to which the rod is attached,
that draws the lightning: the rod affords the means of safely carrying it away,
and thus should be well connected with all metallic channels on the building
as well as with earth. It is the branching top of an isolated tree that attracts
the discharge; a wire pole could not do so to a sensible degree. Separate rods
projecting upwards from the corner of a building do not much affect the field
above it, but if they are connected at their summits by horizontal wires, the
latter, being thus earthed, lift up the electric field from the top of the building
itself to the region above them, and thus take the discharge which they help
in attracting, instead of the building below them. Similarly, when the lines of
force are oblique to a vertical rod, its presence does somewhat modify the field
and protect the lee side; but generally the presence of a rod should not ever be
a source of danger, unless the ionised air rising from it provides an actual path
for discharge.

(Kole?

388 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Ag

DrpaRTMENT OF MATHEMATICS.
The following Papers were read :—

1. The Dynamics of a Globular Stellar System.
By Professor A. 8. Eppineton.

In considering the gravitational attraction of the whole stellar system on a
star, it seems probable that we may neglect the part due to the chance distri-
bution of stars in the immediate neighbourhood, and consider only the smoothed
central force. We have thus to study a new kind of dynamics, which
resembles molecular dynamics in being a statistical subject, but differs from it
in that there is nothing corresponding to the ‘encounters’ of molecules. The
first problem to attack is the determination of the different possible distribu-
tions of velocity which correspond to a steady state. A number of the simpler
cases are worked out in the paper. It is of particular interest to find a system
in which there is strong preferential motion to and from the centre, compared
with the transverse velocities (following Professor Turner’s suggested explana-
tion of the two star-streams). It is a little difficult to reconcile preferential
radial motions with a finite density at the centre of the system; but systems
satisfying both these conditions seem to be possible.

2. The Expression for the Electrical Conductivity of Metals as deduced
from the Electron Theory. By W.F. G. Swany, A.R.C.S., D.Sc.
nerrAv
a
on the assumptions that all the electrons move with the same velocity v, and that
there is no persistence of velocity after coliision. Though more elaborate for-
mul have since been deduced by different methods, the above formula is not without
interest, in that it corresponds to a better ratio for the electrical to the thermal
conductivities than is given by some of the more elaborate formule. The
object of the present paper is, however, to show that the assumptions on which

it is based do not lead to it, but to the formula o= eR which is much less in

Drude’s formula «= for the electrical conductivity « was developed

agreement with the facts.

In the deduction of Drude’s formula it is assumed

(1) that since the velocity given by the field X to an electron while travel-
ling over its mean free path A is a, the average velocity given by the field

to the electrons is Xen
2mv

’

(2) that the average velocity of the electrons parallel to the field is the
average velocity which the field has created in the electrons.

The first assumption is equivalent to the assumption that the electrons to
be found in any element at any instant are on the average in the middle of
their free journey, and that they have consequently at that instant travelled on

the average a distance ; Although this is apparently obvious, it is not true.

The true average distance turns out to be A. Correcting for this we should
: 1e?hv
obtain o = oe
The objections with regard to assumption (2) will perhaps be clear when it is
remarked that if all the electrons to be found per cc. at any point O were
suddenly robbed of the velocity which the field had given them, while their
positions were left unchanged, we should still have a resultant current, for if
the field, for example, urges the electrons from left to right, and if we draw
a plane through O perpendicular to the field, and if, further, we consider the
action of the field in bending the paths of the electrons, we see that the
electrons which have come to O from any element to the right of the plane
started out more nearly parallel to X than the electrons which have come
from the element symmetrically situated to the left of the plane. When due

ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 389

allowance is made for this fact, it becomes necessary to subtract from the

c 2r NI Pir
quantity ne'®e an amount equal to ae” so that the resultant conductivity
ro
4 ne?rAv : , : : F
is o= 5597 It is quite an accident that the two corrections discussed act
a

in opposite directions. If they had been in the same direction the effect would
have been even greater.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
DrParRTMENT oF GENERAL Puysics.

Joint Discussion with Section G on the Investigation of Complex Stress
Distribution

The Construction of Large Polurising Apparatus, &e.
By Professor E. G. Corer.

Large polariscopes for directly viewing objects in plane and circularly
polarised light may be constructed by methods described in a former paper,! but
for quantitative work and for projection on a screen it is more convenient to
adopt an arrangement in which a beam of light from an arc-lamp is rendered
parallel by a iens, and is afterwards polarised by reflection from black glass, or
by refraction through a series of clear glass plates. ‘The analyser may be of the
same construction on a similar scale, and the addition of quarter-wave plates
allows an obiect to be viewed free from the black cross-effect.

In this manner a parallel beam of light can be obtained capable of showing
objects several inches in diameter. The field of view may be still further
increased by producing a diverging polarised beam, and interposing a converging
lens between the object and the analyser.

It is, however, essential that the converging lens shall be quite free from
internal stress to avoid distortion of the optical effect.

An arrangement of two plano-convex lenses, one on each side of the object, has
also been proposed by Mesnager 2 for the purpose of increasing the field of view
with the usual arrangement of Nicol’s prisms.

The following Papers were then read :—

1. A Theory of Luminescence and the Relation belween Luminescence
and Pure Temperature Radiation. By Professor BK. PRincsnem.

With practical certainty we can say : every phenomenon where Kirchhofi’s law is
found to hold is a case of pure temperature radiation, every one where Kirchhoft’s law
is not fulfilled is a phenomenon of luminescence. Now where the laws of black radia-
tion are known we are able to answer with all precision the question whether Kirch-
hoff’s law holds or not ina given case. The experiments of several authors on metallic
vapours glowing in a Bunsen flame have shown that the black temperature is the same
for the different spectral lines observed in the same flame. So it is very probable
that Kirchhoft’s law holds in this case. For an exact proof, however, it needs still to be
demonstrated that the black temperature is identical with the true temperature of the
gas. This proof has been given by two sets of experiments made in the physical
laboratory of Breslau, first by Mr. Gibson for thallium vapour glowing in an evacuated

1 “The Design and Construction of Large Polariscopes,’ by Professors E. G.
Coker and 8. P. Thompson, 7’'he Proceedings of the Optical Convention, 1912.

2 *On the Measurement of Internal Tension in Solid Bodies and their-Appli-
cation,’ by A. Mesnager, International Association for T'esting Materials, Buda-
pest Congress, 1901.

390 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

Quay tube, and quite recently by Miss Hedwig Cohn for metal vapours in flames. So
these processes are of the type of pure temperature radiation. :

In order to bring this result into agreement with former experiments made by
myself and by others, I put forward the hypothesis that in general two processes
must work together for originating the spectral emission of a gas; by the first the
centres of emission (electrons of dispersion) must be created, by the second these
centres must be excited toemission. Hyen when—as it is in the case of pure tempera-
ture radiation—the excitement is due to the collisions of the atoms containing a vibrator
with other molecules or atoms, whose average kinetic energy is a function of tempera-
ture only, the creation of the vibrators may be due in full or partially to processes of
quite another nature; for instance, to chemical or electrical actions.

In the case of luminescence we can follow a method quite analogous to that given by
Planck in his theory of black radiation. In the state of thermodynamical equilibrium
according to Planck the average energy of a resonator of the frequency v at the abso-
lute temperature T is given by

Se A sn toa

where fi and BR are the well-known constants. ‘This average energy in the case of
temperature radiation is given to the resonator by the permanent exchange between its
own energy and the kinetic energy of the molecules. The only term in the formula
connected with the energy of molecules is the term RT, which is proportional to the
average energy of the exciting impulses. In the case of luminescence a stationary
state of equilibrium can also take place in all the phenomena, where the emissivity
E, and the absorption power A, are independent of the density of radiation. (Therefore
our theory cannot be applied to the phenomena of phosphorescence and fluorescence.)
When this state of equilibrium is established, the emission will arise by the interchange
of energy between the exciting impulses and the vibrating resonators. Provided that
all radiating resonators are excited by a similar mechanism following the same law,
the average energy of a resonator will be given by

T= een! hava de Sik Nan

hy

efO—]1

where f (7) is a definite funetion of the intensity 7 of the process by which the lumines-
cence is excited. For a body which follows the equation (1) according to Kirchhofi’s
law we would have :

When in equation (2) we put
f(t) =RT,

it takes the form of equation (1) for the average energy of a resonator in the black
radiation of the temperature T,. In this way it follows that in the state of equilibrium
characterised by equation (2) we must have :

2 =@7T,- . e 5 e ° . e 5 (3).
As A, and E, are presumed to be independent of the established state of radiation, 7
A

must be a quantity characteristic for the given phenomenon of luminescence, given by
the emissivity ear, of a black body of the temperature T,, even when there is no state
of equilibrium in the luminescent body.

So we have to expect very near parallelism between the phenomena of lumines-
cence and of temperature radiation, as is observed in many cases. The difference
between these two classes of phenomena seems to be much smaller than we thought
before.» On the other hand, when we find that in a phenomenon of luminescence the
equation (3) leads to the same temperature T, for different spectral lines, we can con-
clude that the mechanism of emission of different wave-lengths may be the same. sisi

q

:
:

|

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 391

Independently of all hypothesis we may define what I call the ‘ specific tempera-
ture’ of a radiating body for the wave-length A to be the temperature T,, at which the

emissivity ¢,r, of the black body equals the fraction = for the radiating body.

»
(Mr. E. Bauer defined the same quantity and called it ‘ temperature of emission.’) The

fraction ee would give us a scale for the degree of luminescence.

2. Resonance Spectra under High Dispersion.
By Professor R. W. Woop.

3. A Theory of Magnets. By Professor S. B. McLaren.

It is my object to recall some difficulties of magnetic theory and to suggest
how they may be escaped.

The history of magnetic science divides into an ancient and a modern period,
the times before and after Ampére. In the earlier period the fundamental
idea used is that of a magnetic substance; after Ampére this idea disappears.
The magnet is now regarded as a whirl of electric particles or electric fluid.
In modern electro-magnetic theory all substance is electric; with Lorentz, for
example, matter is the electric fluid.

Thus Ampére may claim to have given what previously did not exist, a
theory of magnets. Before him the existence of molecular magnets was the
starting-point; any explanation of magnetic phenomena, as, for example,
Poisson’s account of magnetic induction, has to begin with matter whose
elements are already magnetised. Poisson, I may remind the reader, can only
account for paramagnetism; of diamagnetic phenomena there is no obvious
explanation. I wish to point out that the modern electro-magnetic theory has
its own difficulties. It cannot take over unmodified Poisson’s way of viewing
the phenomena of magnetic induction.

It is true that the magnetic field due to a magnet is the same as that due
to a rotating electric charge; it is true also that the resultant force exerted by
the field on the charge is the same as that which it exerts upon the magnet.
But it by no means follows that this force produces the same results in the two
cases. And one fact sufficiently establishes a difference. A magnetic field does
work upon the magnet in changing the direction of its axis, or the magnet in
that field has potential energy; on the other hand, the same field can do no
work by changing the axis of rotation of the electric charge, because the force
on each element is at right angles to its motion. Take in particular a spherical
distribution of charge rotating about any diameter. Set up a steady magnetic
field, the only effect is to superimpose upon the original rotation about an axis
fixed in the charge another rotation about the magnetic lines of force, with an
angular velocity simply proportional to thaf force. This second motion accounts
for diamagnetism, but there is no tendency for the axis of rotation fixed in the
charge to approach the magnetic lines. The diamagnetic field is independent, as
it ought to be, of the temperature, but no paramagnetic field is created.

The difficulty has been remarked by Lorentz, Voigt, J. J. Thomson, N. Bohr,
and, I doubt not, by others. It is not, however, generally recognised that in
such a theory of magnetic induction as Langevin’s we are back at the ancient
postulate of magnetic substance.

The difficulty may, I think, be evaded by moving still further from the old
point of view as well as by returning to it. We may give up not only magnetic
substance, but electric substance as well.

I assume the electro-magnetic field defined by two vectors E and H. This
field is not all space; it is bounded by closed surfaces within which E and H
do not exist. The space within these is ‘matter,’ without them ‘ther.’ All
formule are to be deduced from the principle of least action. Following Larmor,
suppose that the action, in so far as it involves E and H, is identified with the
expression

(Sm)! fff f (H? — E%) dv dt,

392 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

dv an element of volume of dé of time. It may be shown that the action is
a minimum consistent with the conditions
dik

7 DE == O- ee: nas xh RE)

If we have also

—=-cCulE DwH=0 ony tf meee? reuai ang Rag (2)
(1) and (2) are the electro-magnetic equations. And the necessary conditions
at any boundary of the electro-magnetic field are just those which obtain at a
perfect. reflector.

(1) and (2) possess integrals of two different types. The quantity

{[eas

is a constant where ds is any element of area of a closed surface. Thus the
electric induction over any closed surface is constant, and any portion of matter
therefore carries a constant change which is yet not an electric substance.
Further, suppose the material surface is multiply connected like an anchor ring.
The magnetic induction across the aperture is constant, remembering that at
the material surface the conditions are the same as those at a perfect reflector.
Hence the anchor ring may behave like a permanent magnet of constant
moment. ‘lhe external field produces a tension of amount

L (ew)
tar

in unit area of the surface of matter. This tension accounts for all the
observed magnetic and electric forces. Magnetic induction is now explicable,
because this tension acting upon matter has replaced the force acting upon
electric fluid. The molecular magnetic field is not to be explained as due to
the circulation of electric current sheets. That is merely a mathematical device.

There remains the question what constraints must be applied to the material
surfaces that they may be stable. That problem is not solved in any theory;
it is no more or less soluble in the present theory than in any other.

DrPARTMENT OF CosmicaL PHysics.

1. Radial Motion in Sun-spots. By C. E. Sr. Jon.

This investigation was undertaken in 1910 with the 60-foot Tower telescope
and the 30-foot spectrograph on Mount Wilson. Mr. Evershed’s announcement of
the discovery of displacements of the Fraunhofer lines in the penumbre of spots
was made in 1909 (Bulletin XV., Kodaikanal Observatory), These displacements
were referred by him to movements of the vapours of the reversing layer out-
ward from spots and tangential to the solar surface. His observations were
made by placing the slit of the spectrograph across the spot and coincident with
the radius of the solar disk passing through the centre of the umbra. Under
these conditions many solar lines became curved somewhat like the letter S when
the spot was between a quarter and half-way from the limb to the central
meridian. ‘The measurements were made by determining the angle through which
the observed sections of the lines were tilted and calculating the displacement.
A preliminary investigation at once confirmed Mr. Evershed’s observations, but
it seemed desirable to have a method of measuring the displacements directly.
An occulting arrangement was devised by which the spectra of the outer edges of
the penumbra directed towards the limb and the centre of the disk respectively
were obtained side by side upon the photographic plate. By this arrangement
the displacements to be measured were doubled, and the measurements could be
made directly with a high degree of accuracy. An extended region of the
spectrum was examined, and some 500 lines were observed. When the data were

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 393

assembled three points became at once evident—namely, (1) the displacements
generally indicated an outflow of the solar vapours and were intimately related
to the intensity of the lines; (2) the very strong lines were displaced in the
opposite direction, and then showed a dependence upon intensity the reverse of
that shown by the lines of moderate and low solar intensity; (3) the displace-
ments were distinctly greater for lines in the red than for lines in the violet,
pointing to a close relation between the displacements and wave-length. In fact,
the differences nearly all disappeared when the displacements were reduced to a
common wave-length and the comparison was made between lines of equal
intensity. The residuals disappeared when allowance was made for the greater
depths to which one can see into the sun by light of long wave-length, because
of the lessened scattering of the long waves. This proportionality between dis-
placement and wave-length points to the Doppler effect, and tends to strengthen
greatly the explanation suggested by Evershed.

When the iron lines from intensity 00 to 10 are arranged in the order of
intensity the displacements form a remarkably systematic series, which I have
called the Zron scale. The variation of displacement with intensity is plainly
evident, even without reduction to a common wave-length, and was noticed
before such reduction, and even when only a limited region of the spectrum had
been examined, but it shows with great regularity where the displacements are
reduced to a common wave-length.

The Iron Scale a 5000.

Intensity. . | 00 Gristle aatean bat 5 | 6 ped

| -023 | 0217) 019 | -016 012 | -009 004

|
|
|
|
|

Displacement | -034 | -030 | -028 | -025
Vel. km. /sec. | 2-04 1-80 (1-68 |1:50 (1-38 | 1-26 | 1-14 |0-96 0-72 | 0:54 | 0-24 |

This scale is based upon nearly 200 iron lines, but a simiiar gradation appears
in the case of any element represented by several lines.

In the case of strong lines the march of the phenomenon is equally striking
and suggestive :— :

Strong Lines A 5000.

Element... Si | Al | Na Mg) Hy | Ha

|
|
|
|

Displacement . . -000 | -000 |—-006 —-012'—-033 —-050 —-063
Vel. km/sec. . . 0:00 0-00 |—0-36 —0-72/—1-98 —3-00 —3-78

Intensity. . 12 15-20 | 20-30 20-30, 20 | 40

The negative sign indicates that the displacements are such as to imply an
inflow of these high-level vapours into the spot, and if the assumption be made
that the lines of low intensity have their origin at relatively great depths in the
solar atmosphere, and that, consequently, the displacements are a function of the
depth, we can get the distribution in a vertical section of a spot. The maximum
velocity inward occurs at the highest level, and decreases as the depth increases
until the level of zero velocity is reached; the motion then becomes an outward
one, and the velocity increases with depth. These movements of the vapours
do not form a complete system, as a high velocity inward occurs where the
density is low, and a high velocity outward where the density is relatively great
and the masses involved are unequal and the kinds of matter are unlike. The
type of vortex indicated is that of the terrestrial tornado. There is a whirling
upward rush from the interior of the sun, which spreads out radially with
rapidly decreasing velocity tangential to the solar surface, and entrains with it
the gases of the reversing layer. The actual vortex is deep-seated, the outflow
into the reversing layer being a portion of the upper part of it, the inflow from
the chromosphere being a secondary effect, a superficial indication of the under-
lying vortex in which the magnetic field originates.

For any given element the displacements decrease with increasing line-
intensity, but for lines of equal intensity the absolute displacements differ from

394 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

element to element in general. Comparison has been made in each case with the
iron scale, as shown below, for titanium, lanthanum, and cerium :—

Intensity . | Ti—Fe La—Fe | Ce—Fe
1 | —0-002 +-0-003 | +0-007 Ang.
2 —0-003 -+0-003
3 —0-002 +0-007 +0-007
4 —0-004
5 | 0-004
Weighted Mean . | —0-0026 +-0-0033 --0-007

On the assumption that the displacements may ke used as a criterion of level,
the heavy elements lanthanum and cerium are low-level elements. By comparing
all the elements with iron a distribution of the elements in the solar atmosphere
is found that resembles that in the terrestrial atmosphere. As one penetrates
the solar atmosphere from without the sun he would first encounter ‘that form of
calcium vapour that produces the H and K lines’; to this is successively added
hydrogen and the vapours of magnesium, sodium, iron, &c., each increasing in
absolute density with the depth until in the lowest portion of the reversing layer
occur also the vapours of all the elements whose lines appear in the solar
spectrum. The indicated distribution confirms that shown by Adams’ measures
of the solar rotation, and is in harmony with a wide range of solar observations
that, taken separately, have shown indications of differences of level, such as the
flash spectra, the weakening and strengthening of the lines in spots, the differ-
ences between centre and limb spectra, and the variation of the magnetic field
due to the spot vortex with level. From this point of view the displacements of
the Fraunhofer lines in the penumbre of sun-spots give a means of sounding the
solar atmosphere and of assigning relative levels to the sources of the lines, and
open the way to further solar research.

2. On the Fourier Sequence as a Substitute for the Periodogram.
By Professor H. H. Turner, F.R.S.

1. The use of the periodogram formed the main topic of Professor Schuster’s
Address to the Sub-section of ‘Cosmical Physics in 1902. Hence it is appropriate
that any alternative procedure should be brought before Section A.

2. It is suggested that the Fourier coefficients should be calculated for exact
submultiples of the whole available period of observation, and for these only.
The advantages of this procedure are :—

(a) That it is necessary. Since it is only a portion of the procedure advocated
as necessary by Professor Schuster, this will probably be conceded.

(6) That it is sufficient. It can readily be shown that the coefficients for
any other period can be deduced from these Fourier constituents.

(c) That it is convenient in practice. It directs attention to definitely
specified periods, whereas the method of the periodogram proceeds by trial and
error, or some equivalent.

(d) It is instructive, especially in showing what will remain if any single
periodicity or group of periodicities is eliminated from the observations.

The first fifty-four terms of the series for sun-spots have been calculated
and the calculation of other terms is being undertaken.

3. Photographic and Spectrographic Arrangements of a Reflector.
By J. H. Reynotps.

4. Solar and Terrestrial Magnetic Disturbances. By Rey. A. L. Corti.

Sun-spots are not only indices of the general state of solar activity, but are
also most frequently the centres of disturbed regions covering considerable areas
on the sun’s surface. The zones of sun-spot activity are also closely connected

———=—<—_ =

A phetiel teel! deg, t

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 395

with the equatorial rays of the sun’s corona, which are such a characteristic
feature of the corona at times of maximum solar activity. Regions of sun-spot
activity, with the associated phenomena of facule, Hocculi, and prominences,
not untfrequently persist for several solar rotations. In a recent series of papers
published in the ‘Monthly Notices R.A.S.’ (vol. lxxiii., nos. 1, 3, 6, 7)
several such regions were discussed, which were also associated at each synodical
return relatively to the earth, with series or batches of magnetic storms. Some-
times a set of consecutive magnetic disturbances will occur accompanying the
transit of a region of solar disturbance across the disc, and, after an interval of
two or three days, other isolated storms, corresponding to positions of the solar
disturbance widely different in longitude relatively to the central meridian of
the sun. Such phenomena point to the conclusion that the mode of propagation
of the solar influence, which conditions the occurrence of terrestrial magnetic
disturbances, is not in the form of a single cathodic discharge of particles, but
rather of a divergent pencil of stream lines emanating from a focus of activity.
The corone of the eclipses of 1893, 1898, 1905, and 1908 were characterised by
bunches of divergent equatorial rays, the radiant-points or areas of which were
identified with regions of long-continued sun-spot activity, which were in their
turn associated with synodical series of magnetic storms,

A region of sun-spot disturbance was observed in 1910 from August 3 to
October 24, the spots being confined to a belt between mean longitudes 64° to
48°, and latitude —13° to —16°. Regions of long-continued sun-spot activity
are generally in the form of narrow strips on the sun’s surface. At the third
appearance of this particular group of spots another group broke out just in
advance of it, as so frequently happens, and the two groups together formed a
fine curved stream nearly 20° in length, quite visible to the naked eye. The
life-history of the combined groups can be followed from the Greenwich and
Stonyhurst records, and that of the great area of the accompanying flocculi
from the Tortosa observations. Besides compact flocculi centred on the groups,
there was a region of ditfused flocculi which spread to the north-west of the
sun-spots. When the combined groups were visible on the sun’s disc, Septem-
ber 26 to October 9, the whole disturbed region was covered with calcium
flocculi. ‘The accompanying prominences are discussed by Mr. Slocum in his
paper ‘The Attraction of Sun-spots for Prominences,’? and by Mrs, Evershed
in ‘Some T'ypes of Prominences Associated with Sun-Spots.* ‘he prominences
which were active from August 2 to November 5, extended on October 8 from
+6° to -—37° on the W. limb, and on their reappearance on the E. limb on
October 22, when the spot disturbance was dying out, from + 12° to — 36°.
The heliographic latitude of the earth varied from +6.0 to +5.1 in the period
August 3 to October 24. he first appearance of the group was marked by one
great and two moderate magnetic storms, the second by two moderate, the
third—that of the combined groups—by three great and five moderate, and the
last by one great and three moderate, containing several synodical series of
storms. The accompanying prominences were, according to Mrs. Evershed, in
the form of radiating streaks, which is characteristic of the type associated
with sunspots. If such radiating streaks represent the stream lines of the
solar influence active in magnetic storms, they conform in their structure to the
coronal rays already identified as connected with sun-spot areas and accom-
panying series of magnetic storms. Mr. Slocum also photographed rays dis-
posed radially to the spot centres.

5. A Temperature See-saw between England and Egypt.
By J. T. Cratca.

6. Possible Methods for Measuring the Amount of Atmospheric
Pollution, &c. By Dr. J. S. Owsns.
The following methods were considered :—

1. Filtering a measured volume of air through a cotton or asbestos wool
filter and weighing the filter before and after. This method was used by Mr.

» Astrophysical Journal, xxvi., no. 4.
* Monthly Notices R.A.S., xxiii. 6.

396 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

Russell for the Meteorological Office some years ago, and appeared to give good
results. It requires considerable technical skill and has inherent difficulties,
such as moisture in the wool; it is doubtful if it would give sound results,
except perhaps in very impure air, as during a smoke fog. It also requires
elaborate apparatus. The method is described by G. W. J. Russell in ‘The
Monthly Weather Report,’ 1884 and 1885, by Cohen in ‘J.S.C.I.,’ 1887, and by
F. Clowes in ‘ J.8.C.1.,’ 1903.

2. All rain or other deposit falling on a gauge of known area may be
collected, evaporated, and the residue weighed and analysed. This method was
used in the investigations made by ‘The Lancet’ about two years ago to get
the soot fall of London. It does not, strictly speaking, give the amount of
air impurity, but the amount which falls on a given area (a) in rain, snow, &c. ;
(6) during dry weather; (a) and () are not separated but estimated together.
The apparatus used may be very simple, and it is now adopted by the Com-
mittee for the Investigation of Atmospheric Pollution.

3. Aitken’s Dust Counter. This is an instrument devised by Mr. John
Aitken for counting the number of dust particles in air. It is described in
‘Trans. R.S.E.,’ Vols. XXX. to XXXVI. No attempt is made to obtain the
composition of the dust particles.

4, Glass plates may be exposed to the air for a certain time, then washed
in water and their opacity measured. This method was devised by Professor
Cohen and used in Leeds. It appears to be useful only for catching matter
which will stick to a glass plate, e.g., tarry soot. It would seem also that the
indication given must be affected by the amount of tar present in the smoke
of a city; 7.e. if there is not sufficient tar present to make the deposit stick the
indication will be too low. It aims only at comparative results.

5. A jet of air may be caused to strike a glass plate coated by some sticky
substance, and the opacity measured. This method may be used either :—
(a) By causing the air jet to play on the glass for a fixed time and then
ineasuring the increased opacity by comparison with a calibrated scale; or
(b) the jet may be made to play for such time as will cause a definite opacity
and the time required compared with a calibrated time scale. This method is
suggested for discussion and has not been used.

6. A measured volume of air may be drawn through filter paper and the
degree of discoloration produced on the paper measured or compared with
calibrated papers. This method has been tried in Glasgow with considerable
success, but it would seem to give results which depend somewhat on the colour
of the matter caught as well as its amount.

7. An optical method might be used by which the opacity, to a standard
light, of a column of air of given length is measured. This could probably
be arranged to give the quantitative amount of impurity present by preparing
a scale of opacity from measurements taken on air with known amounts of
suspended matter present.

8. Rain might be caught and its opacity compared with a standard scale
made by adding definite quantities of soot to distilled water. This method,
or a somewhat similar one, was used by Dr. Fritzsch for measuring smoke in
chimneys. (See Donkin in ‘ Engineer,’ May 26, 1899.) The method is open
1o the same objection as No. 2, also its results would depend on the nature of
the impurity as well as the quantity present.

9. Boxes may be exposed having a collecting surface of one square foot and
the contents collected and analysed. Such boxes were devised by Mr. Peter
Fyfe, Chief Sanitary Officer, Glasgow, and exposed in that city in prominent
positions. The method is a simplified form of No. 2.

7. Temperature Frequency Curves.
By E. Goup, M.A., and F. J. Wurppiez, M.A.
8. The Lunar Influence on Terrestrial Magnetism, and its Dependence
on Solar Periodicity. By SypNny Cuapman, D.Sc.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 397

9. The Distribution of Large Earthquakes in Space and Time.
By Rev. H. V. Guu, S.J.

In this paper the author adduced further evidence in favour of the theory he
proposed some years ago: that under certain conditions earthquakes taking place
at a given locality may occasion seismic and other disturbances at other places
symmetrically situated round the earth’s circumference. This theory was
accepted by the late Dr. Milne. The present paper was based on the analysis of
almost a thousand earthquakes which Milne had tabulated with regard to their
occurrence in time and space, and which was only completed last year. The
writer deduced from this catalogue the interesting fact that nearly 20 per cent.
of lange earthquakes takes place in groups of two or more within a few days of
each other, occurring at distant places symmetrically situated. He explained
why, from the principle on which he bases this theory, the number of such groups
is not greater. He finds that these earthquakes may be divided into three general
categories :—

(1) Groups in which thedifferent earthquakes take place within a short interval
of each other in distant places symmetrically situated (18°6 per cent.)*; (2) groups
in which the different disturbances take place within a short interval of each
other in or near the same locality (57:1 per cent.) ; (3) individual earthquakes
having no connection in time or space with other disturbances (24°3 per cent.).
It was pointed out that these three classes of disturbance are to be expected as
the result of the general strain set up in the earth, treated as a rotating body,
owing to the mass-displacements which tend to cause a deflection of the earth’s
axis. The deflection itself may be small, but the effect produced may easily be
sufficiently great to occasion a seismic disturbance which, owing to other causes,
is on the point of manifesting itself.

The accompanying table represents the result of the analysis of the earth-
quakes marked on the British Association chart.

The first column indicates the year. The second gives the total number of
earthquakes which were sufficiently great to be considered world-shaking, and
which were registered at least over a hemisphere. Column I. gives the number
of shocks which were members of groups of two or more occurring at distant
places symmetrically located. Column II. gives the number of those which were
members of groups occurring at or near the same place. Column ITT. gives the
single disturbances unconnected with others, either as regards time or space :—

| Is Il. Iil.
. ‘ liffer eau in s

Year. | Total No. Gra aera S Dae ac a Single shocks.

Aa: Per cent. ib Benuanin ; Per cent.
1899 69 13 18:8 39 56 17 24-6
1900 45 12 26-6 20: 44-4 13 29-0
1901 56 8 14-4 36 64-2 12 21-4
1902 67 18 26:8 42 63-2 7 10
1903 81 21 25-9 40 49-4 20 24-7 |
1904 67 10 15 37 55 20 30 |
1905 79 9 11-4 49 62 21 26-6 |
1906 120 23 19-2 64 53:3 33 27:5
1907 88 14 16 53 60 21 24
1908 89 12 13 | 51 57-4 26 29-2
1909 128 23 18 | 80 62:5 25 19-5
Total 889 163. aap erga Ae
Mean
perann. 80-81 146 18-6 46-4 57:09 19-54 24-2

1 These numbers give the mean values for the whole period of eleven years.
Tt is important to note that there is, on the whole, a very good agreement between
the mean value and the values for the individual years, indicating that the dis-
tribution of earthquakes in time and space is according to some such law.

————-

398 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

10. Notes on the Construction of Seismometers.
By Rev. W. O'Leary, S.J.

Tremor Storms.—The minute and long-continued disturbance of the seismo-
meter called the ‘tremor storm’ is a troublesome and to some extent a per-
plexing phenomenon. Tremors due to high wind have an irregular period that
is unmistakable. The causes of tremor storms of uniform period are not quite
understood. At Limerick such movement often develops during high wind,
frequently attaining its maximum when the wind has fallen, and continuing for
several days after. The period of the vibration varies from about 5°5 seconds
towards the end of winter to 15 or 20 seconds in summer. There is little doubt
that at Limerick many of these ‘tremor storms’ are due to high seas on our
west coasts. It would be interesting if the same cause could be recognised at
other stations.

Convection air currents are probably accountable for a good deal of trouble
in other cases. A simple experiment shows how easily such currents may be
produced. Very light rods of straw or wood are suspended in corked bottles
from silk fibre. If a group of such bottles be placed in a room of even very
uniform temperature, e.g., a cellar, the rods are soon observed to all point in
the same direction. Lighting a jet of gas 10 or 12 feet away will gradually
turn them all towards the gas jet. The effect is evidently due to heat convection
currents. By using large flat dishes instead of the bottles we can choke down
convection effects, and under these conditions the rods show no definite set.
A delicately balanced seismometer should readily respond to such currents if its
mass is small. Hence it would seem advisable to raise the mass of light photo-
graphic recorders.

Photographic registration, though frictionless, is unsatisfactory. High
magnification of the preliminary tremors is essential to analyse the shock and
determine its epicentre. The maximum phase is then generally lost, owing to
the rapid movement of the light spot. On the other hand, a large increase of
mass renders the friction factor in mechanical registration very small; it is
easily calculated, and the record is complete.

Ink Registration.—The ordinary method of mechanical registration by smoked
paper is very sensitive, but has serious defects. The writer uses ink registra-
tion. The mass required is greater, but the perfection of the record out-
balances the objection. Large masses, too, are perhaps easier to work with than
small masses.

The vertical component instrument is essential to a first-class station, but
many have found it mechanically unsatisfactory. Slight temperature changes
alter the elasticity of the balancing spring. To avoid ‘pen wandering’ a tem-
perature compensator on the gridiron principle is generally employed. The
writer suggests prevention rather than cure. The spring, instead of being
placed above the lever arm in the air, might be placed below it in an oil tank
sunk deep in the concrete pier. If, in addition, a layer of non-conducting
substance surrounds the tank, the spring should remain at a practically constant
temperature.

DEPARTMENT oF MATHEMATICS.

1. Direct Derivation of the Complementary Theorem.
By Professor J. C. Freups, F.R.S.

2. Symmetric Linear Substitutions. By Professor H. Himton.

3. On the Divisibility of (2?—2) by p?.
By Ineut.-Colonel ALLAN CunnincHam, R.E.
Up to the present time it has been supposed that 2?—2=0 (mod p*) is impossible.

And it has been affirmed impossible by some writers (notably by M. Pratt). This
had been tested up to p } 1000 by the present writer, and has been confirmed by

Ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 399

several writers. But Herr Waldemar Meissner, of Charlottenburg, has recently
found that it is possible when p=1093, and for no other prime up to p > 2000.

As it has been shown (by Herr Wieferich) that the possibility of Fermat’s Last
Theorem «+ y’=2? required the possibility of 2”—2—0 (mod p’), one difficulty in the
way of Fermat’s Last Theorem has now been removed.

4. An Hlectromagnetic Theory of the Origin of Series Spectra.
By Professor A. W. Conway.

5. On Map-colouring. By Professor A. C. Dixon, F'.R.S.

lf the surface of a globe (or a plane surface) is divided into provinces in any way,
then by the use of four colours only, say, 1, 2, 3, 4, the provinces can be so coloured
that no two which adjoin each other along a line are coloured alike. (This theorem is,
I believe, as yet unproved.)

Let a line in the figure be marked a when it separates two provinces coloured 2 and 3
or 1 and 4, 6 when it separates 31 or 24, ¢ when it separates 12 or 34. Then the
problem of colouring the map is equivalent to that of lettering the lines, so that at
any “ vertex’ where three lines meet the three lines are differently lettered. (It may
be assumed that not more than three lines meet at any vertex.)

Let a vertex be marked + when a rotation in the positive direction about it leads
from the a line to the 6 line and then to the c line, and—when this order is reversed.
Let + 1 and — 1 be called the ‘affixes’ of the vertex in the two cases. Then the
problem of colouring the map is further reduced to that of assigning the signs or
affixes of the respective vertices, and the only conditions to be satisfied are that in
each province the sum of the affixes of the vertices shall be a multiple of three : the
provinces are supposed simply connected.

These conditions are linear congruences to modulus 3. If there are p provinces
and v vertices there are v affixes restricted by p relations of which only p—1 are inde
pendent, since the addition of all the congruences gives an identity.

Hence v—p-+1 of the affixes may be chosen arbitrarily and the rest found linearly
in terms of them so as to satisfy the congruences. It is necessary, however, that no
affix so found should have the value zero, and to prove that this can always be secured
does not appear to be any easier than to prove the original theorem.

The left sides of the congruences satisfy the following conditions :—

(1) Each unknown occurs in exactly three of the congruences, its coefficient being
-+-1 in each case.

(2) The number of unknowns common to any two congruences is two or zero. (This
excludes maps in which the same two provinces have two or more sides common.
Such maps are easily reduced to simple ones.)

Conversely, a set of linear expressions satisfying the conditions (1) (2) correspond

to a certain definite map, drawn on a sphere or on a multiply connected surface or
surfaces as the case may be.

Since the theorem of the four colours is not true for maps on a multiply connected

surface it must be impossible to deduce it from the mere general form of the con-
gruences.

The reduction from the four colours 1, 2, 3, 4, to the three kinds of line a, 6, c, and
thence to the two affixes + 1, is curiously analogous to the process of solving a quartic
equation by means of a cubic, which itself is solved by means of a quadratic.

6. On a certain Division of the Plane.
By Professor A. C. Drxon, F.R.S.

7. A Development of the Theory of Errors with reference to Hconomy
of Times. By M. D. Hersey.
An enumeration of the results to which we are led in studying the problems

of design and of computation is followed by a detailed consideration of the
problems of observation.

In connection with the problem of designing (or adjusting) apparatus sn as

400 “TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

to secure the most favourable result in a limited time, a criterion for ‘best
magnitudes,’ previously proposed,’ is here further considered, and illustrated
by an application to the interferometer.

In regard to computation, the availability of an automatic device for
linear least-square adjustment * makes it now desirable to have some means of
throwing an assumed relation into linear form without disturbing the relative
weights of the observations. A general formula for doing this is here proposed,
and applied to the determination of thermal expansion coefficients.

Finally, the investigation of economy of time in taking the observations
themselves leads to two distinct problems: first, that of the division of time
amongst the components of an indirect measurement; second, that of the best
grouping of observations in determining any one quantity.

The solutioa of the first problem comes out in terms of three data—namely,
the relative precision of, and the‘relative time consumed in, a single observa-
tion on the respective components; together with the derivatives expressing
the sensitiveness of the result with respect to the several components. Of
these data the first two are postulated, while the third is implicitly contained
in the equation which defines the measurement in question. The solution is
independent of the existence of constant errors.

The second problem consists in establishing the most profitable compromise
between the extremes of (1) repeating a large number of readings under the
same conditions (or on the same sample), in order to diminish the effect of
observational errors; or (2) resting content with a lower precision on each
determination, in order to cut down systematic errors by making numerous
independent determinations (or by trying many different samples). The most
economical nuraber of observations to make in any one group before stopping
to change conditions (or to set up a new sample) in preparation for a new
group is directly expressible in terms of two postulated data. There are, first,
the ratio of the average observational error to the average systematic error
anticipated; and, second, the ratio of the time required in preparing for a
new group to the time used in a single observation. This result is independent
of the total time available.

The first problem is illustrated by the division of time in a gravity deter-
mination by Kater’s pendulum; the second, by the determination of the heat of
combustion of coal from a series of samples.

A combination of the two problems may also arise. The solution is equally
straightforward.

Throughout, the object of the paper has been to establish certain general
principles governing the accuracy attainable in physical measurements, inde-
pendently of the particular apparatus or process in question.

8. Some Remarks on Waring’s Problem.
By Professor J. EK. A. SrEGGauu.
9. On a System of Spherical or Hyperspherical Co-ordinates.
By T. C. Lewis.
If any hypersphere be taken, let the co-ordinate of a point with reference to it be
», where p is the radius and § the square of the tangent from the point considered.

In n-space take any system of »-++-2 fundamental spheres such that each one cuts all
the others orthogonally. Their centres are at the vertices and orthocentre of an
orthocentric figure.

Let the co-ordinates of a point be 2, @,..., 2ryo

They are connected by the two relations :—

Miia we et Se
S710 ie Bard ES Dy (ii)

1 Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci., vol. i., 1911, p. 187.
* Tbid., vol. ili., 1913, p. 296.

|
|

'
|

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 401

The equation of any n-hypersphere is homogeneous of the first degree, viz. :—
U FMB, + Oey ves | Ap yo Enzo = O,;

where a, is the cosine of the angle at which this hypersphere intersects the Kth
fundamental hypersphere.
The radius p is given by the formula
Lee
i. Pe
The co-ordinates of the centre are given by

= (P24 Pe),
Pr

ww

Thus

n

2, ‘pe, = (n—2r—1) PrizPny2
represents an »-sphere which intersects every r-face of the figure, whose vertices are
the first n--1 of the fundamental points, in a section whose diameter is the line joining
the orthocentre and centroid of that face. The radius p, is given by

4(r +1) p2= rie p72 -(n — 2r — 1)? p.

.
ut2

ai

The centre, O,, for all values of 1, lies on the line joining O, the circumcentre, to P,
the orthocentre, so that
PO, = PO/r+1.

If 2r=n, the equation becomes symmetrical with respect to all the fundamental
spheres, and gives the complete analogue to the nine-point circle of plane geometry.

The homogeneous equation of the second degree is in general that of a locus
analogous to bicircular quartics, or to cyclides, reducible to analogues of conic sections
or conicoids.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

Joint Meeling with Section .—See p. 553.

DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL PuysiIcs.
The following Papers were read :—-

1. The Electric Arc as a Standard of Iaght. By J. F. Forrest.

»
2. Some Experiments in Contacts between Klectrical Conductors.
By Dr. W. H. Eccuss.

When a current is passed across a ‘loose contact’ the relation between the
applied electromotive force and the current produced is, in general, not a linear
one, and no sufficient explanation of the observed phenomena has hitherto been
offered. The present author investigates whether the behaviour of contacts can
be accounted for by purely thermal actions in the matter near the contact.
The Joule, the Peltier, and the Thomson effects will all play a part, and the
alterations of resistivity with temperature, as well as alterations of the geo-
metrical configuration of the surfaces in contact caused by thermal expansion,
ought all to be taken into account. These thermal effects are, of course, most
noticeable in contacts between bad conductors of electricity and of heat, as,
e.g., the natural crystalline oxides and sulphides.

It is advantageous to separate contacts into two classes: First, those between
like substances; second, those between unlike substances. In the first class there
is in general no thermoelectric action, and the non-linearity of the relation

1913, DD

402 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

between appled e.m.f. and current is mainly due to resistivity changes produced
by Joulean heating. In the second class there is in general some thermoelectric
action imposed on the resistivity-temperature phenomenon; and in the case of
the crystalline substances mentioned the thermoelectric actions may be the
more important.

For the first class, theory yields a cubic equation connecting e.m.f. and
current. Experiments are adduced by the author which show that the thermal
explanation is in many cases sufficient. In the second class, thermeelectric
theory yields a quantic equation. The curve connecting e.m.f. and current takes
very various shapes according to the signs and the relative magnitudes of the
Peltier and Thomson coefficients in the substances forming the contact. The
author has measured these coefficients in some typical substances and has thus
carried out a comparison between the theoretical curves and the experimental
curves of contacts between pairs of these substances. The evidence gathered
in this way tends in the main to support the theory.

3. The Twisting of India-rubber.
By Professor J. H. Poyntine, F.B.S.

4. The Resistance of Air to Halling Spheres.
By G. A. Swaxesprar, D.Sc.

The experiments described fall into two classes :—

(a) The determination of the time of fall of a hollow celluloid sphere of 3-70 cm.
diameter through different distances, for a series of different weights of the sphere ;
the resistance being assumed to be equal to the weight in air of the sphere when the
limiting velocity is attained ; and ;

(b) The relation between the resistances for a series of spheres of different
diameters (from 2-01 to 7:52 cm.) for a velocity of 1,030 cm./sec. In the formula
R = KSYV?, where R = resistance in dynes, S the area of diametric circle of sphere
in square cm., and V the velocity in cm./sec., the value of K ranged from 2:50 to
2-66 x 10-4 grms/cm.® for the sphere of 3-70 cm, diameter when the velocities
ranged from 850 cm./sec. to 1,320 em./sec. For the different spheres at velocity of
1,030 cm./sec., the value of K ranged from 2:85 x 10-4 for that of 7:52 cm. to 2:58 x
10-‘for that of 2:0lem. The value of K diminishes gradually with the diameter
and with the velocity.

5. A New Method of Starting Mercury Vapour Apparatus.*
By J. S. ANDERSON.

In the best types of mercury vapour lamps and rectifiers at present on the
market, the arc is started by tilting the lamp or rectifier, either by hand or
automatically. Now this tilting arrangement is very often inconvenient. This
is found to be especially the case when one is dealing with lamps used for
scientific purposes. For example, in carrying out experiments on the Zeeman
effect a mercury vapour arc lamp is extremely suitable. But the difficulty arises
from the fact that the lamp must be placed between the poles of an electro-
magnet, the distance between the poles being usually so small that any tilting
apparatus that may be employed interferes with the proper mounting of the
lamp.

Mr. G. B. Burnside and the author have overcome this difficulty by con-
structing a lamp which may be fixed in position between the poles of an
electro-magnet, or in any other suitable position, and then started without having
to be tilted. This is brought about by the employment of a heating arrangement
near one of the electrodes, preferably the negative electrode. The lamp tube is
provided with a small vessel near this electrode, the vessel having a re-entrant

1 John 8. Anderson and George B. Burnside, Proc. Roy. Soc. Bdin., XXxill.
(1918), p. 117. ;

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 403

portion or recess in which a heating element is placed. The part of the tube
immediately above this small vessel and its recess is constricted. The heating
element may conveniently consist of a small coil of platinum wire wound round
a suitable support; it may be placed in the recess of the small vessel or removed
at will, without interfering with the vacuum of the lamp. The heating coil of
wire is connected in series or in shunt, in the latter case being provided with
an automatic cut-out. An external resistance is placed in series with the lamp.
Before starting, the small vessel is full of mercury, which forms a continuous
connection inside the tube between the positive and negative electrodes. When
the electrical current is switched on, the heating coil becomes incandescent, and
the heat given off by the wire goes to raising the temperature of the vessel and
its contained mercury, there being no appreciable loss by radiation into the
surrounding air. Very little heat is required, because the first bubble of mercury
vapour formed rises to the constricted portion of the lamp and is there caught,
thus breaking the continuity of the mercury inside the lamp and starting the
arc. Owing to the resistance of the mercury vapour, which is formed once the
arc is started, the current is cut down to the value required for running the
lamp. The platinum wire of the heating element can be made of such a
thickness, and the external resistance can be so adjusted, that the wire does
not emit heat when the lamp is working, but becomes incandescent when the
lamp is started, the action being quite automatic.

6. The Transmission of X-rays through Metals, By H. B. Kuenr.

A photographic examination of secondary Réntgen radiation leads to results
of a different nature from those obtained by the ionisation method. When a
narrow cylindrical pencil of X-rays is made to pass normally through thin rolled
metal sheets, and fall upon a photographic plate placed behind and parallel to
the sheet, some curious patterns are obtained.

These patterns fall into two classes: (a) in which the central spot produced
by the direct beam is surrounded by an irregular halo of smaller spots, and (0)
in which the central spot is surrounded by faint extended patches forming a
perfectly symmetrical pattern. The design varies with the metal.

Class (a) markings are given by metal sheets which have been annealed,
while the symmetrical patterns of class (b) are only obtained with newly rolled
sheets which have not been annealed. It appears that the spots of the former
are due to reflections from the microcrystals within the metal, while the
symmetrical patterns of the latter are produced by the structure imparted to
the metal in passing through the rolls.

These star-like patterns are evidently analogous to those obtained when a
beam of light passes through a crystal which appears streaky to the naked eye,
the striations acting as a diffraction grating. (H. S. Allen, Nature, 91, p. 268. )

7. X, and the Evolution of Helium.
By Sir J. J. Toomson, O.M., F.R.S.

8. A New Elementary Constituent of the Atmosphere.
By F. W. Aston.

Sir J. J. Thomson has recently called attention to some results obtained
with the method of positive rays which imply the probable existence of an
element of atomic weight about 22.

This point has been further investigated, and evidence has now been
cbtained that atmospheric neon is not homogeneous, but consists of a mixture
of two elements of approximate atomic weights, 19°9 and 22-1 respectively.

Partial separation has been effected by fractional diffusion attested by a
change of density, the latter being determined by a new and simple method.

The two elements appear to be identical in all their properties except atomic
weight. No change in the spectrum corresponding to the change of density has
been observed.

DD2

404 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. “ee ne

9. The Minimum Quaxdtity of Light discoverable by means of Selenium.
By Dr. E. E. Fournter p’ ABE.

This paper dealt with the behaviour of selenium under very faint illumina-
tions. The changes in conductivity resemble phenomena of ionisation and recom-
bination, inasmuch as the light-action curve satisfies the equation dK /dt=I—CK’,
where I is the illumination, C the coefficient of recovery on recombination, and
K the additional conductivity imparted to selenium by the action of light. The
initial light-action is a linear function of the time, so that the action observable
in a given time is proportional to the ‘exposure’ if the latter is short. The
final additional conductivity is proportional to the square root of the illumination.
This offers a means of discovering very faint illuminations. A current of the
order of 10° ampere is obtainable-by the unaided illumination produced by
Venus, and it should be possible to discover invisible stars by means of a
sensitive galvanometer without any optical aid. Attempts to do this were de-
‘scribed, and the bearing of the results on the theory of quanta was discussed.

(Some new applications of the properties of selenium were demonstrated at
the University buildings.)

10. Discussion on Professor W. H. Bragg’s Paper on Crystals and
X-Rays.

11. A New Process for Enlarging Pholographs. By A. J. Lorna.

12. A Magnetic Susceptibility Meter. By W. H. F. Murpoct.

The author uses a unipolar method of testing, with the addition of a circular
coil in series with the magnetising solenoid. This coil acts upon the magneto-
meter needle which is lying in a neutral field of force, so that the tangent of the
resulting deflection due to the magnetic material plus coil is strictly propor-
tional to magnetic susceptibility.

A mirror may be used to read the deflections, and in this case susceptibility
= deflection x constant.

It follows that such an instrument with tangent scale and pointer can be
graduated so as to read directly the value of the susceptibility coefficient in
C.G.S. units. To fix the value of H the current is measured and the values
multiplied by a constant.

The theory of the instrument was given, and an example of its use for testing
iron, together with a diagram of connections and curve of results.

The various corrections were also briefly discussed.

13. The Sensitiveness of the Human Skin as a Detector of Low Vollage
Alternating E.M.F.1 By Professor H. Sransrietp, D.Sc.

An alternating difference of potential of 40 volts, with a frequency of
50 cycles per second, between a piece of metal and the human body, is sufficient
to produce a vibration which can be felt when the back of the hand is lightly
rubbed against the metal. If the metal is connected to a live wire, the observer
should be well msulated from the earth.

‘he alternating EK.M.F. acting across the thin badly-conducting surface layer
of the skin produces a rapid variation of the frictional force. If the metal is
allowed to rub against the ear, instead of the hand, the vibration is heard as
a inusical note.

‘The human skin may be imitated for this purpose by gilding a rounded lump
ot jelly with gold leaf and then covering it with a piece of thin silk. The
imitation is not, however, as sensitive as the original,

1 Printed in full in the Hlectrician, September 26, 1913. s

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 405

14. A Method of Increasing the Sensitiveness of cerlain Measuring
Instruments. By G. A. SHakusprar, D.Sc.

Any instrument the indication of which is made by the reflection of a beam
of light from a mirror can be made more sensitive by allowing the mirror to
reflect the image of a powerful source of radiation (e.y., a Nernst filament) on
to the receiving vane of a radiomicrometer or other measurer of radiant energy.
If the primary instrument be a galvanometer the movement of the image through
1 mm. may produce a movement of the beam from the radiomicrometer through
1,000 mm., thus increasing the movement observed 1,000 times. The beam from
the secondary instrument may be allowed to fall on a tertiary one with a further
magnification of a like order. In this way exceedingly minute rotations of the
mirror of the primary instrument can be detected. The name ‘microtropo-
meter’ is suggested for such a combination of instruments.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Report of the Seismological Commuittee.—See Reports, p. 45.

2. Report on the Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere.—See
Reports, p. 130.

3. Report on the Further Tabulation of Bessel and other Functions.—
See Reports, p. 87.

4. Report of the Committee to aid in Hstablishing a Solar Physics
Observulory tm Australia.—See Reporis, p. 132.

5. Reporl of the Committee on Radiolelegraphic Invesligations.—See
Reports, p. 131.
6. Report of the Committee on Hlecirical Standards.—See Reports,
p. 135.

7. Report on the International Tables of Physical and Chemical
Constants.

8. A New Method of Sealing Electrical Conductors through Glass.
By M. J. ANDERSON.
While experimenting with a new method of starting mercury vapour
apparatus? Mr. G. B. Burnside and the author experienced great difficulty at

first in obtaining a satisfactory method of sealing the electrical conductors
through the glass of the lamps with which the experiments were carried out.

1 Proc. Roy. Soc. Hdin., xxxiii. (1913), p. 117.
y ’ Pp

406 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

Mr. Burnside, however, solved the difficulty by devising a simple method ?
whereby platinum wires may be sealed through Jena glass; according to the same
method other conductors, such as copper wires, may be sealed through ordinary
glass.

The method consists essentially in fusing the metal and glass together in the
usual way and then immersing the seal, after it has cooled to about a red heat,
in a bath of oil or fat. Each immersion lasts about two or three seconds. The
seal is immersed a little further in the cooling medium at each successive
immersion until it is completely cooled.

For currents up to 15 ampéres solid conductors may be employed, but for
larger currents it is found advisable to make use of tubular conductors, which
may be quite easily sealed through glass according to Mr. Burnside’s method.

In preliminary experiments copper wires 1.5 mm. in diameter were success-
fully sealed through German glass, and platinum wires of 1 mm. diameter were
sealed through Jena and other glasses. A copper tube, capable of carrying a
current of 100 amperes, was sealed through German glass. Platinum wires were
sealed through Jena glass in mercury vapour lamps, and the seals were found
to be air-tight after a period of over eight months, although they had from
time to time been subjected to the heat of the lamps when burning.

The chief advantages of this method of sealing electrical conductors through
glass are as follows: (1) The process of obtaining seals is much simpler than
any at present in use; (2) for incandescent electric lamps and all kinds of
vacuum tubes, with the exception of mercury vapour apparatus, copper or other
high conductivity metal may be used as the conducting material; (3) in the case
of mercury vapour apparatus a minimum quantity of platinum is used in the
tubular form of conductor for large electrical currents, because the tubular shell
may be filled in with copper, subsequent to the sealing process; (4) conductors
of very much greater cross-section than it has hitherto been possible to employ

may be sealed through glass; (5) the one process is applicable to all kinds of
glasses.

9. Exhibition of a Seismograph. By J. J. Suaw.

10. A Simple Method of determining the Period of Waves at Sea.
By Dr. Vauauan Cornisu.

Hitherto the method of determining the period of waves at sea from a ship
on her course has been to note the interval between the arrival of waves at the
bow or stern of the vessel, and the angle which the direction of their advance
makes with the ship’s course. The speed of the ship being known, the true
period can be calculated.

During a voyage from Southampton to Colon and back in 1912 the author
found that the true period of the waves can be quickly and accurately determined
from the vertical oscillations of patches of spent foam, which are always
numerous upon the surface of the sea except during absolute calm. With the
aid of a stop-watch the interval is taken between the times when a patch of foam
is borne upon the crest of successive waves. By this means it is not difficult
to determine the period of the swell as well as that of the waves which are
driven by the wind which blows at the time of observation. The post of observa-
tion should be as high as possible above the water in order to discriminate more
clearly between the shorter, steeper waves and the longer, flatter swell.

The method is not only quicker than that hitherto in use, but has the
important advantage that it obviates the necessity for observing the direction
of advance of the waves, which is difficult to determine with accuracy.

The following are examples of the measurements made by the author ;—

May 28, 1912, average period of 28 waves, 2:095 secs.,
May 28, 1912, average period of 25 waves, 2°156 secs.,

the two sets being taken one immediately after the other.

2 The Electrician, July 4, 1913.

| ‘TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 407

- May 26, 1913, period of swell, average of 10, on starboard = 10°6 secs.
May 26, 1913, period of swell, average of 10, on port=10.3 secs.
May 22, 1912 (in a steady N.E. trade wind) :
At 11.30 a.m., swell 7°4 secs., waves 3°55 secs.
At 3.30 p.m., swell 7°5 secs., waves 3°25 secs.

11. The Dynamics of Evolution. By A. J. Lorna.

12. Microscopic Crystals, with Epidiascope Tilustrations
By G. Hooxam.

; 13. The Goldschmidt Dynamo. By Professor T. R. Lynn, P.R.S.

408 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION RB.

Section B.—CHEMISTRY,

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION:
Prorrsson W. P. Wynne, D.Sc., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.
The President delivered the following Address :—

Wuen the present position of education in Birmingham is considered, the trans-
formation effected since the ‘seventies is little short of marvellous. Five-and-
thirty years ago, when I became an evening student, classes conducted by the
Midland Institute met the demand for Arts and Science subjects; now a
University—venerable in comparison with all Civic Universities save the
Victoria University of Manchester—exists to provide instruction in every
branch of learning. The spacious building in which we meet—already too
small for the demands made on it—is the lineal descendant of that part of the
Midland Institute which formerly was used for evening class instruction in
science, organised in connection with the Science and Art Department, and
financed largely by the system of payment on results; this large lecture theatre
replaces the small and inconvenient classroom in which the teaching of
Chemistry and Physics under Mr. Woodward was carried on. Payment on
results is obsolete, and the ‘May’ examinations on which it was based have
almost disappeared, assessment by inspection now replacing both; nevertheless,
it is more than doubtful whether any other system—in the circumstances of
the time—could have spread so widely a knowledge of science among the people,
or prepared the way for the Technical Instruction Act, and that appreciation
of the value of scientific training for industrial pursuits which is exemplified
by the provision through municipal agencies of Technical Schools in the
industrial centres of this country. I sometimes think the Science and Art
Department, and those great men, Sir John Donnelly and Professor Huxley,
who did much to shape its attitnde towards science instruction in evening classes
and in the Science Schools at South Kensington,’ have received something
less than their share of credit for pioneering work which finds its fruition
in well-equipped Institutions like this, and in the enhanced position which science
holds to-day in the estimation of our countrymen. In those far-off times,
before the foundation-stone of Mason College was laid, such evening classes in
Birmingham provided the only means by which instruction in science, or
scholarships to South Kensington, could be obtained. It is not unfitting, there-
fore, that I—a product of the system—should acknowledge here the obligation

1 These Schools in 1881 became the Normal School of Science, and in 1900
the Royal College of Science, now incorporated in the Imperial College of
Science and Technology.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 409

under which I stand both to the Midland Institute and to the Science and Art
Department for providing the ladder by which I have risen, however unde-
servedly, to the honourable position of President of this Section.

The historian of our times will not fail to note some of the consequences
which have followed the application of science to industry, possibly also some
of the educational results which have followed the development of science
teaching in schools of all grades. Except from one point of view these need not
concern us now, as they fall, the one in so far as Chemistry is concerned, into the
province of the Society of Chemical Industry, the other mainly within the
purview of Section L. This bringing of Chemistry to the people has aroused a
widespread interest in some aspects of the subject, of which the Press has not
been slow to take note. Not even the heuristic method can hide from the school-
boy the fact that certain fundamental conceptions are accepted which do not
admit of proof, such as the indivisible atom, the non-decomposable element, the
indestructibility of matter. When, therefore, as one of the first-fruits of his
discovery that positive rays furnish the most delicate method of chemical
analysis, Sir J. J. Thomson has obtained from the most diverse solids a new
gas, X,; and by a different procedure, Professor Collie with Mr. Patterson have
discovered that hydrogen, under the influence of electric discharges at low
pressure, becomes replaced by neon, helium, and a third gas which is possibly
identical with X,,° it is not surprising that we should hear much about it in the
newspapers, just as was the case when the disintegration of radium was in process
of being established. Further investigation may fail to substantiate some of
the views which have been expressed about this unexplained disappearance of
hydrogen; the origin of the neon and helium which make their appearance in
the tube as the experiments proceed; the source of the gas X,. Fortunately
X,, unlike neon and helium, has some chemical properties—it disappears, for
example, when violently exploded with a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen—but
we do not yet know whether it is a new element with an atomic weight of about 3,
or a compound of hydrogen with an element yet to be discovered. This much
at least seems certain; it is not the gas which, according to Mendeléef, should
precede fluorine in the halogen series, but whether its discovery, like that of
argon, will necessitate a revision of the Periodic table of the elements we
cannot know until the mystery which at present surrounds it has been dispelled.

It was in 1886, at the last meeting of this Association in Birmingham, that
Sir William Crookes—whose continued activities are a source of pride and
gratification to his brother chemists—gave that famous address in which,
clothing his ideas in language which has something of the magic of word-paint-
ing, he traced the evolution of the elements, as we know them, from the
hypothetical protyle or Urstoff. The common origin of all elementary sub-
stances is now an accepted theory, although the question whether the idea under-
lying the term ‘transmutation ’ is verifiable under available conditions is answered
differently according to the view we take of the disintegration of radium and
kindred phenomena. But no one could have imagined that before another
Birmingham meeting, the Periodic table to which Sir William Crookes devoted
much attention would have been enriched not only by a series of elements devoid
of chemical properties, but by a second series, known only in minute quantities,
and displaying those extraordinary properties of radio-activity which have
revolutionised our ideas in more than one direction.

It is not necessary for me to chronicle even the more striking achievements
in chemistry since 1886; a few examples will show how great the progress has
been. It is on record that Arrhenius was present at that meeting, but his
advocacy of that theory of solution with which his name will always be
asscciated came a little later; phenylhydrazine, which was to play so important a
part in Emil Fischer’s investigation of the sugars, had been discovered by him
only two years previously; the Grignard reagent, which in other directions has
played a no less important part in synthetical organic chemistry, did not become
available until some fourteen years later. Theories then emerging, such as that

2J. N. Collie and H. S. Patterson, 7'rans. Chem. Soc., 1913, 108, 419; Proc.
Chem. Soc., 1913, 29, 217.
3 Sir J, J. Thomson, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1913, 894, 20.

410 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

of geometrical isomerism, have either been discarded or modified by the dis-
covery of new facts, and who shall say that the theory of ionic dissociation
stands where it did, now that ions in solution have incurred the suspicion of
associating with the solvent, and to that extent have come into line with
molecules, for the orthodox behaviour of which Professor Armstrong himself
would no doubt be prepared to vouch?

Residual Valency.

Among the many doctrines which have suffered under the stress of long-
sustained investigation, that of valency is a prominent example. Valency is that
property by which an atom attracts to itself other atoms or radicals, and its
numerical value is deduced from the structural formule of compounds in which
that atom occurs. Claus seems to have been the first to recognise that this
attraction between two atoms is not a constant, but depends on the nature of the
other atoms or radicals in the molecule,‘ and it is of interest to note in connec-
tion with what follows that he used methane and its chloro-derivatives to
illustrate his point of view. Valency may vary, therefore, from compound
to compound ; it is known to alter under the influence of change in temperature,
as, for example, when carbon dioxide or phosphorus pentachloride under-
goes thermal dissociation. But Claus’ view did not meet with ready acceptance:
hence at the Birmingham meeting few chemists, if any, would have questioned
the quadrivalency of carbon, despite the difficulty caused by the existence of
carbon monoxide. Now, carbon is believed to be bivalent in the carbamines,
fulminic acid and other compounds as well as in carbon monoxide, and its
tervalency is coming to be accepted in the light of the latest investigations on
triphenylmethyl and its congeners. What is true of carbon is equally true of all
other elements, except argon and its companions. Hence the doctrine of constant
valency for which Kekulé contended, or that of variable valency in which the
uncombined units varied by even numbers has necessarily given place to one
of less rigid type, although the final form has yet to be determined.

For the purpose of this address it will be sufficient to refer only to one of
these later theories: that in which Werner, as the outcome of his exhaustive
study of inorganic molecular compounds, and especially of the amines, sup-
poses that an atom may have both principal and auxiliary or residual valency.®
There are difficulties in its application to certain problems of organic chemistry—
for example, the structure of the benzene molecule—but the conspicuous success
which has attended Werner’s investigation of the complicated isomerism of the
cobalt and chromium amines is evidence of its value as a guide in stimulating
research in the most unpromising directions. Werner’s view that valency is an
attractive force acting from the centre of the atom. being of equal value at all
points on the surface and independent of units of affinity, has the merit of
meeting the objection long urged to the idea that affinity has fixed direction in
space, but otherwise leaves untouched Van’t Hoff’s brilliant conception of
asymmetry which plays so great a part in the chemistry of to-day.

What licht does this conception of residual valency, dating back to 1885, if
not earlier,” and now embodied in many theories besides Werner’s, throw: on
some of the problems with which the organic chemist is faced? Much every
way. The question of the distribution of valency in the molecules of carbon
compounds is discussed probably more than any other; it arises in connection
with the structure of unsaturated compounds, the properties of fluorescence or
colour which many of them exhibit, and the relation between chemical consti-

* A. Claus, Ber., 1881, 14, 435. It may be noted that Claus concludes his
paper with the statement, ‘ .... die Annahme von Valenzen, als in den
mehrwerthigen Atomen praexistirender ihrer Wirkungsgrésse nach bestimmter
Anziehungseinheiten eine ebenso unbegriindete, wie unnatiirliche Hypothese ist.’

° A. Werner, Newere Anschauungen auf dem Gebiete der anorganischen
Chemie (Friedr. Vieweg u. Sohn, Braunschweig, 1908); English edition. New
Ideas on Inorganic Chemistry. HE. P. Hedley. (Longmans, 1911.)

* A. Werner, Ber., 1911, 44, 2445, 3231.

7 8. U. Pickering, Proc. Chem. Soc., 1885, 1, 122; H. E. Armstrong, Proc.
Roy. Soc., 1886, 40, 285.

—

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 41]

tution and physical properties, to the elucidation of which an increasing amount
of research is being directed. The double linkings in our formule no longer
represent two units of valency in terms of hydrogen, nor are they now used to
indicate polarity of the central atom or distribution of the valency in space;
Werner’s conception of valency accounts, as the phrase goes, for the concen-
tration of re-activity at that part of the molecule where unsaturation exists, and
it is of service when different degrees of unsaturatedness are displayed by
compounds which, on the older view, would be expected to show similarity in
chemical behaviour.* With your permission I propose briefly to review our
knowledge of that type of chemical change known as substitution from the
standpoint of residual valency.

' Substitution in the Paraffin Series.

So far back as 1839 the fact was discovered that replacement of hydro-
gen by chlorine in the acetic acid molecule does not lead to any essential
modification in the properties of the acid. It is not a little remarkable, there-
fore, that although much of the progress in organic chemistry has been achieved
by substitutions of the most diverse types, we are still unable to say that
agreement has been reached with regard to the nature of the processes by which
this replacement of one radical by another in a molecule is brought about.
Never has attention been concentrated more closely than now on the study of
what, for want of a better phrase, is termed the ‘mechanism of chemical
reactions "—the processes which are covered and hidden by the sign of equality
used, inaptly, in chemical equations—but the integrating mind, to the need for
which Professor Frankland alluded on a recent occasion,® has not yet been
evolved to reconcile the uncertain or contradictory answers vouchsafed to much
patient experimenting. Organic chemistry is not singular in this respect: as
much might be said about controversies not yet settled which concern them-
selves with such every-day phenomena as the chemistry of the candle-flame
or of the rusting of iron.

It is a commonplace that Kekulé, to whom theoretical chemistry owes so many
fruitful suggestions, was of the opinion that substitution is not a process in
which what may be called a direct exchange of radicals occurs, but is preceded
by the temporary union of the molecules of carbon compound and addendum,
followed by disruption into two new molecules, the substituted carbon compound
being one of them. It is clear, then, from the standpoint of Kekulé’s hypothesis,
that some degree of unsaturation is to be looked for in all carbon compounds and
in all addenda. Hence, the paraffin hydrocarbons which furnish derivatives
only by substitution, and, under the older, more rigid view of valency pro-
pounded by Kekulé himself, are typically saturated compounds, supply the
exceptions to prove the general validity of the hypothesis that addition precedes
substitution.

Before examining the case of these hydrocarbons, however, some advantage
may be gained if the behaviour of other groups of compounds be examined in
the light of the idea underlying Kekulé’s view. By reference to the literature,
it is evident that since the beginning of this century attention has been con-
centrated on the phenomena of substitution in the important group of carbonyl
compounds, particularly the ketones and acids, which in many cases yield
halogen substitution derivatives of one type. Thus methyl ethyl ketone when
brominated in sunlight yields two bromoketobutanes of the constitution shown in

* As an example of the unsatisfactory character of the doubly linked
formula to which the older meaning was attached, the following may be quoted :
unsym.-Diphenyldichloroethylene, like ethylene, combines molecularly with brom-
ine, but tetraphenylethylene does not ;

CH, 0 (C H,)s C(CoH)s
CH, CCl C(C, Hs).

yet a similar structure has been assigned to each (Biltz, Annalen, 1897, 296, 219).
® Pp. I. Frankland, Proc. Chem. Soc., 1913, 29, 101.

2

412 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

the following formule, and propionic acid with bromine and red phosphorus
under Volhard’s conditions ‘° gives a-bromopropionic acid,

CH,Br‘CO-CH,CH, and CH,-CO-CHBr'CH, ! = CH,-CHBr-CO-OH

the halogen occupying what is termed the a-position with reference to the
carbonyl radical. Why is substitution in the methyl group easier when this
radical is present in acetone or acetic acid than it is in methane, is one question
that may be asked. A second will inquire whether the carbonyl group has a
directing influence, and, if so, by what means is it exercised. a

It has been supposed by Werner that the distribution of valency is disturbed
by the introduction of the oxygen atom of the carbonyl group into the molecule
of the hydrocarbon; that this oxygen atom absorbs much of the valency of the
carbon atom of the carbonyl group, leaving less to bind its neighbour or neigh-
bours, which results in their having free valency, and thereby attaching sub-
stituents to themselves. This explanation, if accepted for the bromination of
ketones and acids, also for the chlorination of ketones, does not account for the
results recorded by Michael and by Montemartini in the case of carboxylic
acids. Michael has found that the f-chloro-, not the a-chloro- acid is the
chief product (60-65 p.c.) when homologues of acetic acid are chlorinated 17;
and Montemartini states that if the radical CH occur in any part of the carbon
chain the exchange of hydrogen for chlorine takes place in that position, how-
ever distant it may be from the carbonyl group of the acid.13

CH;
CH, * CH, * CHCI: CH, CO-OH COL: CHp CH, CO + OH
(Michael) CH,“ (Montemartini)

At present there seems to be no clue to the reason why chlorine and bromine in
these reactions behave alike towards ketones and not towards acids.

An alternative explanation of this reaction, which has come to be widely
accepted, is based on the remarkable property called desmotropy or dynamic
isomerism, which certain of these carbonyl compounds exhibit. A desmotropic
compound may exist in two or more forms, and its peculiar isomerism is known
to depend on the mobility of a hydrogen atom in the complex *CH,’CO° whereby
an equilibrium is set up of the type:

*CH,:CO: — *CH:C(OH):
Ketonic form Enolic form

Of these two forms, the enolic is the more unsaturated, and presumably the more
reactive."* Lapworth, making use of this desmotropic relationship, supposes that
when the ketone reacts with halogen in dilute aqueous solution three changes

*° J. Volhard, Annalen, 1887, 242, 141; Ber., 1888, 21, 1904.

“ L. Van Raymenant, Bull. Acad. roy. Belg., 1900, 724. For the chloro-
ketobutanes, cf. idem; Kling, Compt. rend. 1905, 140, 312; Bull. Soc. chim.,
1905 [iii.], 38, 322.

** A. Michael, Ber., 1901, 34, 4035, 4046.

** C. Montemartini, Gazz. chim. ital., 1897, 27 [ii.], 368; 1898, 28 [ii.], 290.

** It may be of interest to note that the long controversy respecting the com-
position of ordinary ethyl acetoacetate CH,'CO’CH,CO-‘OEt, the first of
these desmotropic compounds to be discovered, has been brought to an end
by the isolation of each desmotropic form at temperatures sufficiently low to
inhibit the desmotropic change. From refractometric observations with mixtures
of the pure isomerides, Knorr concludes that this ester at the ordinary
temperature contains about two per cent. of the enolic form, whereas from
bromination experiments with the ester itself, which may possibly be accom-
panied by a disturbance of the equilibrium, K. H. Meyer infers that the
amount may be as much as seven per cent. (L. Knorr, O. Rothe, and H.
Averbeck, Ber., 1911, 44, 1138; K. H. Meyer, Annalen, 1911, 380, 222; K. H.
Meyer and P. Kappelmeier, Ber., 1911, 44, 2718.)

aay PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 413

occur which, for the case of acetone, may be represented by the following
expressions :—

CH,*CO-CH, -> CH,:C(OH):CH,
CH,;‘C(OH):CH,+ Br, -S> CH,*C(OH)Br-CH,Br
CH,‘C(OH)Br:CH,Br -> CH,:CO-CH Br + HBr

the first being one of slow enolisation, accelerated catalytically by halogen acid,
leading to the production of an unsaturated compound, which then by rapid
addition of bromine and subsequent elimination of hydrogen bromide conforms
with Kekulé’s hypothesis. The intermediate compounds, it is true, have not
been isolated, but a study of the dynamics of the reaction by Lapworth, and
later by Dawson with his collaborators (using iodine instead of bromine), shows
that this explanation is in harmony with the data obtained.’* When the reaction
is applied to carboxylic acids under similar conditions, the view that it takes a
similar course finds support from an investigation of the dynamics of the
bromination of malonic acid in aqueous solution.’®

Whether evidence drawn from reactions found to take place in aqueous
solution is relevant when bromination is effected by heating a carboxylic acid
with bromine and red phosphorus may be doubted. Certainly it seems to
afford no assistance in accounting for the course of chlorination in the acids
examined by Michael and by Montemartini. Nevertheless, Aschan employs the
keto-enolic hypothesis '’ to elucidate the results of a recent inquiry into the
‘mechanism’ of the Volhard reaction ’*; and it may be added that racemisation
has been found to occur when Jevo-valeric acid is brominated by Volhard’s
method '“—a result which must follow if enolisation take place, although
susceptible of another explanation.

So far as I can form a judgment, no case has been made out for the view
that substitution of halogen for hydrogen under Volhard’s conditions differs in
its ‘mechanism’ from substitution in the paraffins. This opinion finds support
in the discovery just announced by Leuchs *° that, while the chief product of the
bromination of dextro-B-carboxybenzyl-a-hydrindone

CH CH,
CoH DOH CHyCyHyC0jH > Ching SoBrCHy'C,H,COH
CO CO

is the racemic compound, no less than 10 p.c. is the dextro-bromo- derivative ;
therefore, the inference is clear that in the formation of the latter compound,
if not of both, substitution was effected by a process in which migration of
the hydrogen atom did not occur.

Attention may now be directed to the question of ‘direct substitution,’
which, in its simplest form, is encountered in the paraffin series. As will be
gathered from the following selection from among the various theories pro-
pounded to account for the mechanism of substitution, alternative explanations
of the intermediate reactions leading up to substitution in these cases involve
either elimination of the hydrogen atom before introduction of the halogen, or
addition of the halogen in virtue of the supposed residual valency of both
molecules, followed by disruption of the complex thus formed into the known
products of the change.

15 A. Lapworth, 7ans. Chem. Soc., 1904, 85, 31; H. M. Dawson with May
S. Leslie, ibid., 1909, 95, 1860; with R. Wheatley, ibid., 1910, 97, 2048; with
F. Powis, ibid., 1912, 101, 1503.

* K. H. Meyer, Rer., 1912, 45, 2867.

©. Aschan, Ber., 1912, 45, 1913; 1913, 46, 2162; K. H. Meyer, Ber., 1912,
45, 2868.

“J. Volhard, Jéc. cit.

% O. Schiitz and W. Marckwald, Ber., 1896, 29, 58,

** H. Leuchs, Ber., 1913, 46, 2435.

414 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

Dealing with these alternatives in the order given, Arrhenius adopts a view
of the process of substitution which, including as it does his explanation of
optical inversion and racemisation, should perhaps be given in his own words :—

‘Every valency linking can be broken; this is true in all cases, since it is a
necessary condition for every chemical reaction, An atom or an atomic complex
is thereby removed from the molecule, and its place taken by another atom or
atomic complex. One must therefore assume, as was first’ pointed out by
Williamson, that the atoms or complexes separate themselves from the molecule
from time to time, even when they do not react with other molecules. Con-
sider now a molecule in which four different atoms, A, B, C, and D, are bound
to one carbon atom. The atoms A and B, which may possess equal charges,
e.g., positive, are therefore separated at times from the molecule, and it may
happen that they are both separated at one and the same time. It is therefore
possible for them to change places on combining with the carbon atom again.
This is synonymous with a transformation of the original molecule into its
optical isomer.’ *?

Nef, making use of ‘the conception of dissociation in its broadest sense,’ is
of opinion that the decomposition of ethane into hydrogen and ethylene at 800°
“proves that an extremely small per cent. of [its] molecules must exist at ordinary
temperature in an active or dissociated condition,

CH;:CH; —> CH,°CH,+ H—’

consequently, when ‘chlorine reacts with ethane to give the monochloro- substitu-
tion product, we have this reagent in the active molecular condition simply
uniting by addition with the dissociated ethane particles,

js filet a lle t | [> HCl + 0,H,C1]

oH;

Finally, he draws the conclusion that ‘ excluding reactions called ionic, a chemical
reaction between two substances always first takes place by their union to form
an additive compound.’

Michael,?* in many published papers, has emphasised the view that in the
substitution of halogen for hydrogen in a saturated hydrocarbon or saturated
acid the principal factors to be taken into account are the mutual chemical
attraction of the two elements, on the one hand and that of the halogen and
carbon, on the other. By applying his ‘positive-negative’ hypothesis to the
directing influence of ‘relatively-positive’ methyl, and ‘relatively-negative’
carboxyl, he draws conclusions about the degree of firmness or looseness with
which particular hydrogen atoms are bound to carbon in the molecule, and is
thereby able to forecast with some success the position or positions in which
replacement of hydrogen by halogen will occur. Flirscheim, in the discussion
of the relation between the strength of acids and bases, and the quantitative
distribution of affinity in the molecule, also makes use of the idea that the
relative degree of firmness or looseness with which a hydrogen atom is held
depends on the nature of the other atoms or radicals associated with the same
carbon atom.** The hydrogen atoms therefore are not to be regarded as retained
in the molecule with the same degree of firmness; in other words, valency is not
a constant to be measured in units.

It will be gathered therefore that Arrhenius and Nef, from different stand-
points, support the idea that separation of hydrogen from the hydrocarbon
precedes entry of the substituent into the molecule; Michael and Fliirscheim are
concerned chiefly with the distribution of valency in the molecule, which deter-
mines whether a particular hydrogen atom shall be displaced by hydrogen or

218. Arrhenius, Theories of Chemistry, edited by T. Slater Price (Longmans,
1907), p. 76.

22 J. U. Nef, ‘The Fundamental Conceptions underlying the Chemistry of
the Carbon Atom,’ J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1904, 26, 1566.

23 A. Michael, Ber., 1901, 84, 4028, covering reference to earlier papers.

24 B. Fliirscheim, 7’rans. Chem. Soc., 1909, 95, 721.

|
:
;

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 415

not; Kekulé’s hypothesis requires addition to precede substitution. Is there any
experimental evidence to indicate where the balance of probability lies? I think
it can be argued that the phenomena of substitution observed with optically
active substances do not lend support to the views of Arrhenius or of Nef, which
imply actual or virtual dissociation, but that they point to the intermediate
formation of an additive product, which undergoes scission as Kekulé supposed.
Such an additive product can be formed only if residual valencies be present in
both carbon compound and addendum.

The argument runs thus: Unless valency has fixed direction in space, a con-
ception now abandoned if modern theories of valency be accepted, the conclusion
seems to be inevitable that dissociation of the optically active compound :—

CWXYZ into CWXY + Z,

must lead to racemisation, the radicals W, X, Y, distributing themselves in two-
dimensional space, thus destroying the asymmetry; whence it follows that
introduction of the substituent, V, into the molecule in place of Z can give
rise only to an optically inactive product. Now, it is a well established fact
that a radical attached directly to the asymmetric carbon atom may be replaced
by another without racemisation following.*® Therefore, preliminary dissocia-
tion being excluded, Kekulé’s additive hypothesis remains. But the prolonged
study of that remarkable reaction known as the ‘ Walden inversion’ by Emil
Fischer, McKenzie, and other investigators has led to results which, if the views
formed independently by Fischer,*® Werner,*’ and Pfeiffer ** may be accepted,
are inexplicable unless a preliminary addition, effected as it is supposed by means
of residual valencies, precedes this replacement of the eliminated radical by the
substituent.

The Walden inversion may be illustrated by a brief statement of some of the
facts discovered in connection with the conversion of optically active chloro-
succinic acid into malic acid

R + CH(OH) *CO,H — R- CHCl: CO.H — R:CH(OH):CO,H.

Walden found that (evo-chlorosuccinic acid, obtained from dextro-malic acid,
furnished either dextro- or Jevo-malic acid, according to the reagent used to
effect of the replacement of the Cl by the OH radical.

se -,-7( + Ag,O )—> I-malic acid

1-chlorosuccinic acid Sait a i ae eee

And as the corresponding inversion was found to occur with dextro-chlorosuccinic
acid under similar conditions, a complete cycle of changes can be brought
about.*° That preservation of optical activity, and not racemisation, should
accompany the replacement of a radical, attached to the asymmetric carbon atom,
by another is a fact of much theoretical interest, as has already been indicated ;
that a change in the sign of rotation should occur when an exchange of the same
radicals is achieved by one reagent and not by another is a mystery, that deepens
rather than diminishes with each addition to the list of inversions, already long,
in which it has been observed.*® In all probability the discovery of the Walden

29 P. Walden, Ber., 1895, 28, 1297; W. A. Tilden and B. M. C. Marshall,
Trans. Chem. Soc., 1895, 67, 494.

26 H. Fischer, Annalen, 1911, 381, 123.

*7 A. Werner, Ber., 1911, 44, 873.

*8 P. Pfeiffer, Annalen, 1911, 883, 123.

2» P. Walden, Ber., 1896, 29, 133; 1897, 80, 3146; 1899, 32, 1833, 1855.

*° Without the aid of a model it is not possible to show that the production

of the'dextro- or Icevo- acid may be accounted for by the hypothesis that an

intermediate additive compound is formed, which undergoes scission in one or
other of two ways. Diagrams of models will be found in Fischer’s paper
(loc. cit. cf. Annual Reports on the Progress of Chemistry (Gurney and Jackson)

>

416 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

inversion, as Professor Frankland has said, ‘may mark an epoch in our views
with regard to the mechanism of the process of substitution in general.’**

The Structure of the Benzene Molecule.

The abandonment of the theory of the fixed valency unit in favour of the
view that the carbon atom has both principal and residual valencies has raised
afresh that perennial topic of controversy—the structure of the benzene
molecule. Probably few will contest the statement that for practical purposes
only three formule have emerged from the long discussion of the problem, viz.
Kekulé’s oscillation formula with fixed valency units, for which much physical
evidence has been pleaded: Thiele’s formula, in which his theory of ‘con-
jugated double linkings’ is applied to the Kekulé formula, with the consequence
that the three double linkings disappear owing to self-neutralisation
of the partial valencies, the benzene molecule thus containing six inactive
double Jinkings ; ** and Armstrong’s ‘ centric’ formula, in which by its residual
valency ‘each individual carbon atom exercises an influence upon each and
every other carbon atom.’ ** The dotted lines indicate the residual valencies.

Kekule. Thiele. Armstrong.

The discovery of cyclooctatetraene has brought a new interest into the
discussion,** for the structural formula assigned to this hydrocarbon shows alter-
nate single and double linkings as in Kekulé’s symbol, and the optical behaviour
(refractivity) corresponds with that of benzene.

CH = CH
2x
CH CH
iH il
cH CH
se oe
CH = CH

But its chemical properties are entirely different from those of benzene; it
forms compounds not by substitution but by addition, and it has the reactivi-
ties of a highly unsaturated compound. If these experimental results be
accepted, then—as Willstatter shows—the peculiar properties of benzene are
not to be explained by Kekule’s or Thiele’s formula, and the verdict is given in
favour of the ‘centric’ symbol—that earliest embodiment of the conception of
residual valency, which Armstrong later turned to such good account in the
quinonoid theory of colour identified with his name.

The reference to the optical behaviour of cyclooctatetraene may perhaps sug-
gest the inquiry: Do not the physical properties of the carbon compounds throw
light on the questions that have been raised? A little consideration will show
that, on the contrary, the answer must be: It is only by chemical evidence
that physical data can be interpreted or corroborated, and in the absence of
such evidence the ‘ additive’ results which accrue from physical observations
have no bearing on questions involving the determination of structure or the
structural transformations which accompany a chemical change. For example,

1911, 8, 67), and to illustrate Werner’s hypothesis, which is more explicit than
Fischer’s, in a paper by W. E. Garner (Proc. Chem. Soc., 1913, 29, 200).

2. Pp. F, Frankland, ‘The Walden Inversion,’ Presidential Address: to the
Chemical Society (Z’rans. Chem. Soc., 1913, 108, 713).

*4 J. Theile, Annalen, 1899, 306, 126.

°° H. E. Armstrong, 7rans. Chem. Soc., 1897, 51, 264 (footnote).

“4 R. Willstatter and E. Waser, Ber., 1911, 44, 3423.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 417

the anomalous results obtained by Brihl and by Sir William Perkin *® in the
investigation of the refractivity and the magnetic rotation of certain un-
saturated compounds, remained without explanation until Thiele in 1899,
by his hypothesis of partial valency, accounted for the comparative inactivity
ot the central pair of carbon atoms in compounds of this type—compounds
which are characterised by containing alternate single and double linkings
in their formuie

-CH:CH:CH:CH: + -:CHBr‘CH: CH: CHBr°

.

This conception of Thiele’s has both focussed attention on the distribution
of valency within the molecule, contributing largely to the wide acceptance of
theories of valency such as Werner’s, and given to the study of physical proper-
ties—especially those ‘constitutive’ properties of refraction, dispersion, and
magnetic rotation—an impetus which has by no means spent its force. Further,
the occurrence of this anomaly, ‘ exaltation’ as it is called, is now relied on as
evidence of the presence of this particular distribution of valency, with results
which in Auwers’ hands have furnished important clues to the structural
formule of terpenes and other compounds.

As additive properties become constitutive, so the value of a knowledge
ot the physical properties of a substance will tend to increase, but there is
little ground for hope that the problem of the constitution of benzene will be
solved from the physical side. The controversy which has arisen between
Hantzsch and Auwers regarding the physical properties of cyclooctatetraene in
relation to its chemical structure is a case in point; *° the absence of optical
exaltation in this hydrocarbon is wholly unexpected, but, on the other hand,
the type of compound is entirely new. With benzene also the distribution of
valency within the molecule differs from that in any known compound; our
knowledge of it, admittedly far from complete, has been gained from the
chemical side, and is summarised in the various structural formule ; but the limita-
tions of the physical method of attack can be traced from Thomsen’s endeavour
to determine its structure from thermochemical data *’ to the more recent inven-
tion of isorropesis. And, despite the evidence obtained from refractivities, we
may not unreasonably demur to the suggestion that derivatives of benzene, which
by their behaviour towards substituting agents show themselves to be wide
apart in chemical properties, such as nitrobenzene and aniline on the one
hand or chlorobenzene and phenol on the other, should respectively be classified
together.** Undoubtedly, most useful information is obtained from a com-
parison of the physical properties of two related substances, the exact con-
stitution of one of which is uncertain, but that of the other known. ‘Therefore,
bearing in mind the great development that has taken place recently in the
correlation of physical properties with chemical constitution by methods based
on refraction and absorption, every chemist will welcome the entry of Dr.
Lowry into that field of research on the relation between magnetic rotation
and structure, which for all time will be associated with Sir William Perkin’s
name.

Substitution in the Benzene Series.

Turning now to a discussion of the problem of substitution in cyclic com-
pounds, one important factor must not be overlooked; the even distribution of
the residual affinity of the benzene molecule is disturbed by the introduction of
a substituent. The study of substitution in benzene derivatives indicates that,
as a consequence of this disturbance, a directing influence comes into play which,
when the substituent is changed, may Vary in the effect it exercises on the course
of substitution.

°5 Cf. J. W. Brihl, Ber., 1907, 40, 878; Sir W. H. Perkin, Zrans. Chem. Soc.,
1907, 91, 806, for references to earlier papers.

** A. Hantzsch, Ber., 1912, 45, 563; K. Auwers, ibid., 971.

"7 Cf. H. E. Armstrong; Phil. Mag., 1887 [v.] 28, 73; J. W. Brihl,
J. prakt. Chem., 1887 [ii.] 85, 181, 209.

“Cf. J. W. Brithl, Zeit. physikal, Chem., 1894, 16, 220; Smiles, Relations
between Chemical Constitution and Physical Properties (Longmans, 1910), p. 299.

19138. EE

418 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

Arising probably from this even distribution of valency, it is characteristic
of benzene to furnish additive compounds in which six atoms of hydrogen or
a halogen, but not two or four, become attached symmetrically to the molecule ;
substitution, however, occurs when a catalyser is present, such as the aluminium-
mercury couple for halogenation, or sulphuric acid for nitration or sulphonation,
leading initially to the production of mono- substituted derivatives. Whether
the catalyser by association with the benzene molecule *’ limits this additive
capacity, or whether its function is to promote the elimination of the halogen
acid or water respectively,’” is still a subject of discussion, but in the absence
of a reaction of additive type it is not easy to account for facts such as the
production of a certain amount of trinitrophenol when benzene is nitrated in the
absence of sulphuric acid.

—H,0 H:OH — HNO, OH"!
SS a
NO, H-NO,
(in presence of (in absence of
sulphuric acid sulphuric acid)

The much-debated questions still remain: Why and by what mechanism,
when a second or third substituent is introduced into the molecule, is the
orientation of the isomeric products determined by the radical or radicals already
present? For disubstitution, the ortho-para- and the meta-laws have been
deduced, and the radicals which respectively promote mainly ortho-para- sub-
stitution on the one hand, and meta- substitution on the other have been
catalogued.*? But these laws take account only of the orientation of the chief
product or products, whereas all three derivatives, ortho, meta, and para, have
been detected in most of the reactions studied, and their relative proportion in
many cases is known to depend on the conditions, being affected by such
influences as variation in temperature or in the medium employed. Nitration
of acetanilide, for example, furnishes a mixture of ortho- and para-nitroacet-
anilide, but of aniline in the presence of much sulphuric acid yields chiefly
meta-nitroaniline.** And, to illustrate the inadequacy of the meta-law, the fact
that sulphonation of benzenesulphonic acid with concentrated sulphurie acid at
230°-240° furnishes an equilibrium mixture of the meta- and para-disulphonic
acids in the proportion of 2:1 may be quoted.**

In the exploration of this field many workers have participated, but the
results, recorded almost as often in patent specifications as in journals, are
seldom quantitative, so great is the difficulty at times in isolating the minor
product or products of the change. Recently, however, by a most ingenious
use of melting-point curves and density determinations, Holleman and his
collaborators have carried out an exhaustive series of substitutions with small
quantities of material and under known conditions;** yet after a survey
of the whole field the conclusions reached are :—

1. That uncertainty cannot be removed until some basis exists for different
reactions to be carried out under comparable conditions.**

2. That even if the relative amounts of the isomerides formed when a

3° B. N. Menschutkin, Abstr. Chem. Soc., 1912, 102, i. 98-100.

4° Cf H. E. Armstrong, Trans. Chem. Soc., 1887, 51, 263.

41 The phenol by nitration forming the trinitro- derivative (picric acid),
Armstrong and Rossiter, also Groves, Proc. Chem. Soc., 1891, 7, 89.

2 Cf. Noelting, Ber., 1876, 9, 1797; Armstrong, 7’rans. Chem. Soc., 1887,
51. 258; Crum Brown and Gibson, ibid., 1892, 61, 367.

* Hubner, Annalen, 1881, 208, 299.

44-J. J. Polak, Ree. trav. chim., 1910, [ii.] 14, 416; R. Behrend and M.
Mertelsmann, Annalen, 1911, 878, 352.

45 A. F. Holleman, Die direkte Hinfiihrung von Substituenten in den
Benzolkern (Veit & Co., Leipzig, 1910), p. 215.

46 Wor example, nitration is effected chiefly at low temperatures, but sulphona-
tion of mono- substituted benzenes at temperatures higher than the ordinary,
which if employed in nitration would lead to mixed products.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 419

radical C is introduced into each of the miono- substitution derivatives C,H, A
and ©,H,'B be known, it is not possible to calculate the proportion in which the
isomerides C,H, ABC will be produced when the radical C is substituted in the
compound C,H,’ AB.

Although the validity of the ortho-para- and of the meta- laws may be im-
peached, they serve as a first approximation, and many theories have been pro-
pounded to account for them Armstrong has suggested that in ortho-para-
substitution the additive compound is formed by association of the addendum
with the carbon atom carrying the radical already substituted in the molecule,*’
whereas in meta- substitution it arises by union of the addendum with this
radical,** transformation to the respective disubstitution derivatives being
effected possibly in step-by-step progression, as conjectured by Lapworth.”
Holleman, who also adopts the additive hypothesis, is of the opinion that the
radical already present in the molecule may promote or retard the association
of the addendum with the pair of carbon atoms, to one of which it is itself
attached. By the operation of the first of the alternatives an ortho- and by con-
jugation a para- derivative will arise; from the second a meta- derivative will
result, when scission of the additive compound ensues. Holleman’s is the only
hypothesis which has been submitted to the test of quantitative investigation,
and although, as already mentioned, the results do not suggest that finality has
been reached, it marks an advance in the study of this obscure problem.*°

No discussion of substitution in the benzene series would be adequate with-
out reference to the remarkable behaviour of amines and phenols. Unlike other
mono- substitution derivatives, which do not differ markedly from benzene in
reactivity, these furnish mono-, di-, and tri-derivatives very readily. With
aniline or acetanilide, substitution occurs first of all in the side chain, being
followed under appropriate conditions by removal of the substituent from the
amino- group and entry into positions relatively ortho-, para-, or both ortho- and
para- to it. The earliest of these changes to be studied was the transformation
of methylaniline into para-toluidine; many of them have been discovered by
Chattaway and his collaborators, and until a critical study of the chlorination of

Bepunee was undertaken by Orton and Jones,*! it was held that they were of
the type :

NHAc CLNHAc NClAc NHAc

6-O=0-¢

From the dynamics of the reaction, which occurs only in the presence of hydro-
chloric acid, it is now known that in the production of acetparachloroaniline
intra-molecular transformation from the side chain to the ring does not take

* Kinetic studies of the chlorination and bromination of toluene, CH aCH.,
however, gave no indication of the production of an intermediate additive com-
pound of the hydrocarbon and addendum (cf. Holleman, Polak, van der Laan,
and EKuwes, Rec. trav. chim., 1908, 27, 435; Bruner and Dluska, Bull. Acad.
Sci., Cracow, 1907, 693; Bancroft, J. Physical Chem., 1908, 12, 417; Cohen,
Dawson, Blockey, and Woodmansey, /'rans. Chem. Soc., 1910, 97, 1623.

*“ H. E. Armstrong, 7'rans. Chem. Soc., 1887, 51, 258.

* A. Lapworth, Z’rans. Chem. Soc., 1898, 98, 454; 1901, '79, 1265.

** It should be mentioned that other views, based on the loosening or
strengthening of the affinity of the hydrogen atoms situated in ortho-, para- or in
meta- positions, brought about by the disturbing influence of the radical already
present in the molecule on the valency of the carbon atom to which it is
attached, and therefore on that of the other five carbon atoms, have been
advanced by Flirscheim (J. prakt. Chem., 1902 [ii.], 66, 321), Tschitschibabin
(tbid., 1912 [ii.], 86, 397), and others.

" K. J. P. Orton and W. J. Jones, British Association Report, 1910, p. 96;
Trans. Chem. Soc., 1909, 95, 1456.

EE 2

42.0 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

place, the agent promoting the substitution being chlorine arising from the
following series of reactions :—

NClAc NHAc NHAc

+H == oO Cee + HCl

Cl

As bromination has been shown to follow the same course, it is evident that no
secure foundation now exists for the view, formerly widely held, that the
reactivity of amines is intimately connected with the variable valency of
nitrogen leading to initial substitution in the side chain.

Even were this view, now discredited, still applicable to the amines, it could
not be extended with the same certainty to the phenols. Hence, in explanation
of the rigid adherence to the ortho-para- law observed among the mono- substitu-
tion derivatives of these two groups of compounds, it is noteworthy that Thiele,”
for the phenols, suggests that the reactivity may be due to these substances
being stable enolic forms of ketodihydrobenzenes, and that Orton,** for the
amines, conjectures that it may arise from the formation of dynamic isomerides
of quinonoid structure :

O NAc
OH . NHAc oe
(\ = | en ‘ee Se he ee

\F wwe \F

How far these suggestions may open up a new field of inquiry into the
‘mechanism’ of substitution remains to be seen; it is at least interesting that
their extension to the naphthalene series shows that not only does the reactivity
of the naphthols and of a-naphthylamine recall that of phenol and aniline, but
the orientation of their mono- substitution derivatives ** in almost every case is
the same as that of one or other of the six naphthaquinones, the existence of
which has been predicted by Willstatter.°°

Symmetric and Asymmetric Syntheses.

It must not be supposed that the ‘mechanism’ of substitution can be ex-
plained by reference only to the examples of this type of reaction which have
been mentioned, or that the summary attempted in the restricted field of the
replacement of hydrogen by halogen is a complete picture of all the different
views advanced to account for this chemical change. Rather, the effort has
been made to indicate in broad outline the difficulties that beset any explora-
tion of that debateable region which lies between the two sides of a chemical
equation. But, as the wonderful story of carbon chemistry shows, the failure
to comprehend the processes operative in substitution does not impede rapid
progress in other directions. The study of the mobility of radicals, desmotropy
being only one of many examples of this phenomenon, continues to present fresh
problems, of which that raised by Thorpe ** in connection with the mobile
hydrogen atom of glutaconic and aconitic acids may be mentioned, as it revives
a question of old standing : Do free units of valency exist in carbon compounds?
The syntheses of caffeine and certain alkaloids, of sugars and peptone-like poly-

52 J. Thiele, Annalen, 1899, 306, 129.

53 British Association Report, 1910, p. 96.

4 Of. W. P. Wynne, art. ‘Naphthalene,’ Thorpe’s Dictionary of Applied
Chemistry, second edition, vol. 3 (Longmans, 1912).

55 R, Willstatter and J. Parnas, Ber., 1907, 40, 1406.

5° N. Bland and J. F. Thorpe, Zrans. Chem. Soc., 1912, 101, 871, 1490.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 421

peptides, of natural terpenes and camphor, of indigo and rubber, are well-known
achievements, while natural processes, in which enzyme action plays a part, are
yielding their closely guarded secrets to the persistent inquiry of Armstrong and
his collaborators, who are probing the relationship between enzyme: and sub-
strate which Emil Fischer pictured as that of lock and key. Further, there
is that large field of work which includes not only the Walden inversion but
new problems of asymmetry, with which the names of Frankland, Pope, Werner,
and others are associated; while Barlow and Pope’s conception of the relation
of valency to atomic volume, by correlating crystalline structure with the com-
position, constitution, and configuration of carbon compounds, has given a new
interest to the study of crystallography.

Nor is progress less rapid in that other important branch of chemistry—the
unravelling of the structure of natural products. The constitution of rubber is
approximately known; most of the alkaloids have been explored with a greater
or less degree of completeness; and now the study of starch,*’ chlorophyll, and
hematin (the non-proteid constituent of hemoglobin) ** has been taken up afresh
during the last three years, with results which, in the case of the two latter,
eclipse in importance and interest all that was previously known. In whatever
direction we may look, there is the same evidence that we can take to pieces
the most complicated structure which nature has devised, and by the aid of
valency conceptions can fit the pieces into a formula which is an epitome of
the chemical activities of the molecule. Again, in many cases the resources
of our laboratories enable us to build up the structure thus displayed, and to
establish the identity of nature’s product and our own. Nevertheless, the fact
remains that all these syntheses leave untouched and unexplained the profound
difference between the conditions we find necessary to achieve our purpose and
those by which the plant or animal carries on its work in presence of water and
at a temperature differing only slightly from the normal. It is, of course, a well-
known fact that an enzyme under the appropriate conditions can bring about the
same chemical transformation of a substrate as is effected by the living cell from
which it can be separated; but our knowledge of these complex, ill-defined,
nitrogenous organic compounds is relatively very meagre; they are difficult to
purify, and their composition—apart from any question of structure—is largely
unknown. Yet because Wohler chanced to discover that urea can be produced
synthetically from an inorganic source the conclusion is not infrequently drawn
that all chemical changes in living substance are brought about by ordinary
chemical forces.*’ Probably everyone present will concur in that view, but the
assent, if given, can hardly arise from a consideration of the facts, of which there
is no great store. Where so little is known accurately, chemistry is not on very
safe ground if she infer the rest. What common basis of comparison exists
between Wohler’s process and the metabolic changes by which urea is produced
in the living body? What evidence have we that because an enzyme and an
inorganic agent under different conditions give rise to the same end product, the
driving force is the same, although the lines along which it is exercised are very
different? JI think it is not the least of the many. services which Professor
Meldola has rendered to chemistry, that he has given us this warning: ‘If we
have gone so far beyond Nature as to make it appear unimportant whether an

57 H. Pringsheim and H. Langshans, Ber. 1912, 45, 2533.

58 For summaries of Willstatter’s and Marchlewski’s researches on chlorophyll,
and of Piloty’s on hematin, cf. Annual Reports on the Progress of Chemistry
(Gurney and Jackson) 1911, 8, 144-52; 1912, 9, 165-72.

59 «Quite similar changes can be produced outside the body (in vitro) by the
employment of methods of a purely physical and chemical nature. It is true
that we are not yet familiar with all the intermediate stages of transformation
of the materials which are taken in by the living body into the materials which
are given out from it. But since the initial processes and the final results are
the same as they would be on the assumption that the changes are brought about
in conformity with the known laws of chemistry and physics, we may fairly
conclude that all changes in living substance are brought about by ordinary
chemical and physical forces.”—-Sir Edward Schafer, President's Address at the
Dundee Meeting, British Association Report, 1912, p. 9.

4929, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

organic compound is producible by vital chemistry or not, we are running the risk
of blockading whole regions of undiscovered modes of chemical action by falling
into the belief that known laboratory methods are the equivalents of unknown
vital methods.’ °°

I turn now to a no less interesting question than that involved in enzyme
reactions, namely, the wide distribution in plants and animals of single
asymmetric substances which if synthesised in the laboratory would be pro-
duced as inactive mixtures of both asymmetric forms. It has been argued
that the occurrence of racemic compounds in nature, although infrequent, is a
proof that in the organism, as in vitro, they are in all cases the initial products
from which, when separated into antipodes, one of the asymmetric compounds
is utilised in the life processes and the other left. But whether this be the
case, or whether only the one asymmetric form result from the synthesis,
Pasteur firmly held the view that the production of single asymmetric com-
pounds or their isolation from the inactive mixture of the two forms is the
prerogative of life. Three methods were devised by Pasteur to effect this isola-
tion, and in only one of them are living organisms—yeasts or moulds—employed ;
but Professor Japp, in his address to this Section at Bristol in 1898, emphasised
the fact, hitherto overlooked, that in the two others, nevertheless, ‘a guiding
power [is exercised by the operator] which is akin in its results to that of the
living organism, and is entirely beyond the reach of the symmetric forces of
inorganic nature.’ Hence, to quote again from his address, ‘only the living
organism with its asymmetric tissues, or the asymmetric products of the living
organism, or the living intelligence with its conception of asymmetry, can [bring
about the isolation of the single asymmetric compound]. Only asymmetry can
beget asymmetry.’ After an exhaustive review of the subject, Japp came
to the conclusion that the failure to synthesise single asymmetric compounds
without the intervention, either direct or indirect, of life is due to a permanent
disability, and although—as was to be expected—this conclusion was challenged,**
the only ‘asymmetric syntheses’ effected since that time have been operations
controlled by the chemical association of an optically active substance with the
compound undergoing the synthetical change.**

Recently the problem has assumed a more hopeful character. Ostromiss-
lensky *° in 1908 made the remarkable discovery that inactive asparagine,
which is not racemic but a mixture of the dewtro- and Jwvo-forms in molecular
proportion, gave a separation of one or other isomeride when its saturated
solution was inoculated by a crystal of glycine—a substance devoid of asym-
metry. Now Erlenmeyer claims to have achieved a true asymmetric synthesis
by boiling an aqueous solution of inactive asparagine for sixteen hours, when by
crystallisation part of the deatro-form separated in an almost pure state.°*. The
theoretical conclusions which led to this investigation are of much interest
because they raise afresh the question whether without displacement of the
individual radicals, and apart from antipodes, more than one compound can exist,
in the molecule of which two carbon atoms are united by a single linking.** As
an illustration, reference may be made to the malic-acid series, in which three
optically active compounds are known, the dextro-acid, the Jcvo-acid, and
Aberson’s acid.®* In the Jevo-series the three isomerides obtainable by rotation

°° R. Meldola, Zhe Chemical Synthesis of Vital Products (Arnold, 1904), p. vii.

“ F. R. Japp, Stereochemistry and Vitalism. Presidential Address to
Section B (Bristol), British Association Report, 1898, p. 826; cf. K. Pearson,
Nature, 1898, 58, 495; G. Errara; F. R. Japp, ibid. 616; Ulpiani and Condelli,
Gazz. chim. ital. 1900, 80[i], 344: Byk, Ber, 1904, 87, 4696; Henle and Haakh,
Ber. 1908, 41, 4261; Byk, Ber. 1909, 42, 141.

2 Of. inter alia, McKenzie, Trans. Chem. Soc., 1905, 8%, 1373.

63 T, von Ostromisslensky, Ber., 1908, 41, 3039.

64 B®. Erlenmeyer, Biochem. Zeitsch. 1913, 52, 439.

°° Of. J. Wislicenus, Ueber die rdéumliche Anordnung der Atome in organ-
ischen Molekulen (Hirkel, Leipzig, 1889), 28; K. Auwers and V. Meyer, Ber.,
1888, 21, 791.

6° J. H. Aberson, Ber., 1898, 831, 1432; P. Walden, Ber., 1899, 82, 2720.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 423

of one of the carbon atoms with its attached radicals relatively to the other
would be

H H H
OH C *CO,H OH C ‘CO,H OH C ‘CO,H
con OH 1-6 -Co,t H-‘'C-H
ene He: Aberson’s Wes 98°

With the inactive asparagine it is supposed by Erlenmeyer that prolonged heating
in aqueous solution produces a rotation of this type, possibly to an unequal extent
or in opposite directions in the dextro- and levo-forms, whereby the products
being no longer antipodes become separable by ordinary laboratory methods. It
is too early yet to say whether, by exclusion of all asymmetric influences, the
riddle has been solved, but it is easy to understand with what interest confirma-
tion of Erlenmeyer’s results is awaited.

Honours Students and Post-Graduate Scholarships.

In bringing this address to a conclusion, it will not be an innovation if I
refer—it shall be only briefly—to the training of those who will carry on and
amplify the work which we in this generation have attempted to do. This
section stands for the advancement of chemistry, which includes, so closely are
pure and applied chemistry intertwined, the advancement of chemistry as applied
to industry. Once again the cry has been raised in the press®’ that chemists
trained in our Universities are of little value in industrial pursuits; they are
too academic; they are not worth their wage—little as that often is, whether
judged by a labourer’s hire or the cost of a university training. It may be so.
On the other hand, it is possible the employer obtains all that he pays for, and
by paying more would receive in return much more by the inducement offered to
more highly trained men to enter the field. Three years’ training for the
ordinary degree cannot carry a student very far in chemistry, and this pre-
liminary training—for it is little more—is insufficient to equip the young
graduate for more than routine work. With the Honours student it is otherwise.
He must either enter on his three years’ residence at a University with a
knowledge which does not fall below the requirements of the Intermediate
Examination, and devote the greater part of his time to his Honours subject,
or he must be prepared to spend a fourth year to reach the necessary standard.
More highly equipped in the academic sense than a man who has worked only
for the ordinary degree, he undoubtedly is, yet there is seldom time to begin his

_ training in research methods or in methods of commercial analysis where rapidity

rather than extreme accuracy is the object in view.

Two reforms, I venture to think, are needed: the first would avoid early
specialisation, which is apt to be disastrous, the second would encourage
post-graduate training in directions where the student’s inclinations or
aptitude may be stimulated and developed. If the Civic Universities, estab-
lished in virtue of charters drafted mainly on similar lines and inspired by
similar aims, could come to some agreement requiring three years’ residence, sub-
sequent to the Intermediate, for an Honours degree in chemistry, the first reform
would be effected—it is a measure for which a strong case can be made out. Tf,
further, they could see their way to standardise their Ordinances and Regula-
tions for the M.Sc. degree, cease to confer it on Honours graduates of one or more
years’ seniority in return for payment of a fee, and confine it to graduates—
not necessarily Honours graduates—who have carried out an approved piece of
research during not less than one academic year, Selection Committees, Boards
of Directors, or individual employers would have some clue to the type of man
before them. I would go further and suggest that the interchange of Honours
graduates between the Civic Universities, or between them and other Universi-
ties or Colleges, if it could be arranged, would be of much benefit to the student
himself. No University in this country is wealthy enough to attract to its service
teachers who are pre-eminent in each branch of chemistry. How great, then,

*7 Cf. The Times, Engineering Suppl., 1913, May 7, 21, 28, June 4, 11, 18.

424 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. >

would be the gain to an Honours graduate working for the M.Sc. degree, if,
instead of being associated with the same teacher during the whole of his
academic career, he could migrate from the place which had trained him to spend
part, or the whole, of his time in the laboratory of an Armstrong. a Donnan, a
Perkin, or a Ramsay, during that most critical period when he is sorting out his
own ideas and learning how to use his fingers and his wits. But whether
enforcement of the longer training for the Honours degree be possible; whether
a research degree as a step to the Doctorate be desirable or practicable, there
can be no doubt that the urgent need of the present time is the provision of
scholarships and exhibitions, sufficient in value to secure at least a bare liveli-
hood, for post-graduate work. He who is able to convert Education Committees
and private donors to the view that a far better return for the money could
be assured if part of the large expenditure on scholarships for matriculated
or non-matriculated students were diverted to post-graduate purposes, will have
done a service to science and the State the value of which, in my opinion,
cannot be overestimated.

The following Papers and Reports were then read :—

1. The Progressive Bromination of Toluene.
By Juuius B. Coney, F.R.S., and P. K. Durt,

A. K. Miller 1 studied the action of bromine on ortho- and para-bromotoluene
separately and identified the dibromotoluenes formed in each case by oxidising
the products to the corresponding benzoic acids and fractionally crystallising
the barium salts. His results may be summarised as follows : Ortho-bromotoluene
gave the 2 :5 dibromo- compound as the principal product together with a
smaller quantity of the 2:4 derivative; para-bromotoluene gave, as the main
product, 3: 4 derivative and a smaller quantity of the 2: 4 compound.

In comparing these results with those of chlorination of ortho- and para-
chlorotoluenes* considerable discrepancies appear. In the case of chlorination
of ortho-chlorotoluene the main products were the 2 : 4 and 2 : 3, and a similar
quantity of 2:6 derivative, whilst the presence of 2:5 compound seemed
probable but not certain. In the case of the para- compound, the 2:4 is the
main product and not 3 : 4, as found by Miller in the case of bromination.

Considering this difference in the orienting effect of the two halogens we
thought it desirable to repeat Miller’s work and extend it along the same lines
as were followed in the case of chlorination.

Incidentally, we examined the mixed monobromo-toluenes—the first product
of the action of bromine on toluene—to detect any trace of the nieta- compound
if formed. We also carried our investigation as far as the tribromo- stage.

In the following table the results of bromination and chlorination are given
side by side, the principal product being placed first in each case and a trace
indicated by brackets :—

| => | Bromination Products | Chlorination Products |

| Toluene. | Ortho-, para- (meta). | Ortho-, para-.
Ortho- compound. 2353224. een Seis PS. 7.6 (i
| Monohalogen | | (2: 5).
| Compounds } Para- 5 2:4; 3:4. 2:4; 3:4.
Meta- 43 Ay ais orayo ke (ey a) Died, sebieas
| Weis} Die OMe oles 2D 4s
2: 4. 22435; (2:4: 6) 2:4:'5; 2:33:43
(2:4: 6).
Dihalogen | 2 easy Plt Wars opel Gigs a3) 223 165° 2 oe a
Compounds (2:3: 6). |
2:6 Ze: Os | 2:3: 6. |
3:4. PARC BENS SHN Gi: Sys) Kiet | Re Ba
3:5. | PFS a) 2:3:5. |

' Trans. Chem. Soc. 1892, 61, 1023
2 Cohen and Dakin, 7'rans, Chem, Soc. 1901, 79, 1111.

3 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 425

_ Attention is directed to the difference produced by chlorination and bromina-
tion of orthohaloid toluenes in the orienting effect, which is most marked in the
case of the monohalogen compound and the 2: 3 and 2: 5 halogen derivatives.

2. The Saturated Acids of Linseed Oil.
By BR. 8S. Morrent, M.A., Ph.D.

A summary of the literature on linseed oil in Czapek’s ‘Biochemie der
Pflanzen,’ 1, 121, and Lewkowitsch’s ‘Oils, Fats, and Waxes’ (fourth edition),
2, 50, shows that in addition to the unsaturated acids, linolenic, linolic, and
oleic, the saturated acids, palmitic and myristic, have been identified in about
equal proportions.

Haller (‘ Compt. rendus,’ 146, 259, 1906), by fractional distillation of the
methyl esters obtained from linseed oil, was able to separate appreciable quan-
tities of palmitic and stearic acids and much smaller quantities of arachidic acid.

The occurrence of stearic acid in linseed oil seemed worthy of further
investigation, not only for its practical importance, but also for its relationship
to the unsaturated acids present. It is well known that when linseed oil is
heated with lead oxide and allowed to cool a solid separates out, whose quantity
is increased by addition of petroleum or turpentine. No record of a systematic
investigation of this deposit has been published. The lead salts obtained from
linseed oil from different sources were freed from unsaturated acids, and yielded
a mixture of acids, melting-point 52-54° C., molecular weight 282-3, and iodine
value 5-8. The acids consisted of stearic acid, with palmitic acid, and a trace of
oleic acid. No myristic or arachidic acids were found. An investigation of the
mixture by the methods recommended for the separation of saturated fatty acids
showed that it consisted of 68 per cent. stearic acid, and the remainder of
palmitic acid, with 4°5 per cent. oleic acid. The most satisfactory results were
given by a combination of the methods devised by Hehner and Mitchell
(‘ Analyst,’ 1896, 321) and Kreis and Hafner (‘ Ber.,’ 36, 2,766, 1913). The
separation of the acids was very tedious, and a much more satisfactory method is
desired. When more than two acids are present the quantitative separation is a
matter of great difficulty.

3. A Series of Mixtures of Nitro-compounds and Amines which are
coloured only in the liquid slate. By C. K. Trvxurr, D.Sc.

Whilst engaged in an investigation as to the cause of the colour of certain
alkyl iodides of cyclic bases in 1908, it was noticed by the author that in some
cases nitro-compounds like these alkyl iodides, when dissolved in fused diphenyl-
amine, gave coloured solutions. In ihe case of the nitro-compounds, however,
the colour often disappears on cooling. The investigation in connection with
nitro-compounds was not pursued very far at that time, but it has recently been
extended.

The most suitable substances for the demonstration of this phenomenon are
mixtures of diphenylamine with one of the following nitro-compounds : 0, m, and
p-chlor-nitrobenzene, m and p-nitrobenzaldehyde, p-bromo-nitrobenzene, tetra-
nitromethane. By enclosing one of these mixtures between two test-tubes placed
one inside the other the phenomenon is well demonstrated. Thus, a mixture of
diphenylamine and para-chlor-nitrobenzene, which is colourless at the ordinary
temperature, acquires a reddish yellow colour when held in the hand, and loses
this colour when the temperature falls.

A mixture of diphenylamine and p-nitro-benzaldehyde shows a deep red
colour at one degree above body temperature, returning to the colourless state
on cooling. A mixture of diphenylamine and tetranitromethane shows a dark
brown, nearly black, colouration, but on cooling in a mixture of ice and salt
this colour entirely disappears. On repeating the last experiment several times,
however, a permanent green colouring is produced, which is probably due to the
decomposition of the nitro-compound. In other cases the mixture undergoes no
change on keeping. Thus, a mixture of diphenylamine and p-chlor-nitrobenzene
prepared five years ago shows the phenomenon as well now as when first prepared.

496 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

Attempts to precipitate the coloured substances from solution give interesting
results. Thus, by treating a concentrated alcoholic solution of a mixture of
diphenylamine and p-nitrobenzaldehyde with water a red, semi-solid mass is
obtained, which, however, on complete solidification, produced by agitation, is
perfectly white.

From analogy with compounds of amines and nitro-compounds, such as tri-
nitrobenzene, picryl chloride, &c., prepared by previous investigators, it would
appear that the colour of these mixtures under consideration is probably due to
the combination of nitro-compound and amine in the liquid state only, and hence
various physico-chemical investigations of the fused mixtures were undertaken.

The following results were obtained in this connection :—

1. No evidence was obtained of the separation of a compound in the solid state
by cooling a fused mixture.

2. No break was observed in the curve, densities : composition, either in the
case of a mixture showing the phenomenon, or in the case of a mixture of
trinitrobenzene and diphenylamine where a compound exists in the solid state.

3. A very slight rise of temperature was observed when the fused constituents
were mixed.

4. No direct evidence of the formation of a compound was obtained by the
determination of the viscosity : composition curve for one of the mixtures
showing the phenomenon.

4. The Influence of Chemical Constitution on the Thermal Properties
of Binary Miatures. By Ernest VANSTONE.

Binary mixtures of compounds of the type Ph a £ Ph have been investigated
by the method of thermal analysis. Thermal diagrams have been obtained for
mixtures of benzoin with each of the following substances :—Benzylaniline,
benzylidene aniline, dibenzyl, azobenzene, benzil, hydrazobenzene, benzanilide,
and also for mixtures of benzil with each of the following: Dibenzyl,
azobenzene, stilbene, hydrobenzoin, benzanilide. The diagram for benzylidene
aniline—benzanilide—has also been obtained. In all cases the thermal diagram
has a V form, containihg one eutectic point. In no case was there any evidence
of compound formation, but solid solutions are formed to a limited extent in
all cases. For benzoin entectics both the temperature and concentration of the
eutectic mixture is a function of the melting-point of the other constituent.
This is seen from the table below :—

Benzoin Lutectics.

Eutectic | Concentration.
Substance | M.P. Temp. Per cent. Benzoin
| |
ess | 2
Deg. C. Deg. C. |
Benzylanilines:. J mer) ieee ice me 34-2 32:4 3
Benzylidene aniline cy Se 49°8 470 3
DIbGAZy le juad mew.) eubewe pach met 51:2 50-2 | 35
AzZobenzenos asuh i, jeoigp tenuis 66-2 | 63-3 6-0
Benzil . eo wieSimotiw ee: Mak 94-2 840 17:8
Hydrazobenzene . . . . 130°5 98-4 | 42
iBenzanilide; 7.) |. ee) ee 160:8. | 116-6 / 64

The molecular volumes of the various substances have been determined. It
was found that at the temperature of the melting-point the unsaturated substance
has often a greater molecular volume than the saturated substance. No relation
could be found between molecular volumes and eutectic points. Binary mixtures
of benzylidene aniline, benzyl aniline, stilbene and dibenzyl with these substances
were also discussed.

*

=—_

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 427

5. The Influence of the Presence of Gas on the Inflammability of Coal
Dust in Air. By Professor W. M. Tuornton, D.Sc.

6. Decomposition Products of Indigo in the Val. By H. Enruarpr.

7. Report on the Study of Hydro-aromatic Substances,
See Reports, p. 135.

8. Report on the Transformation of Aromatic Nitroamines.
See Reports, p. 136.

9. Report on Dynamic Isomerism.—See Reports, p. 141.

10. Report on the Study of Plant Enzymes.—See Reports, p. 143.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
MerauuurcicaLn Drvision.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Amorphous Phase in Metals. By Dr. W. Rosennaty, F.R.S.

2. The Volatility of Metals. By Professor T. Turner, M.&c..

Considerable attention has been devoted during the past few years to the
volatility of metals, especially in vacuo or under reduced pressure, and there
are considerable possibilities of practical applications in this direction in future.
The boiling-points of metals under various conditions as to pressure and
atmosphere have been determined by Greenwood and by Kraft, while Berry,
Groves, Nair, and the author have investigated the behaviour of metals and of
alloys in vacuo. Distillation in vacuo is specially suitable for volatile and easily
oxidisable metals such as sodium, potassium, cadmium, and zinc; lead and
bismuth can also be dealt with by similar means. When alloys are heated to
suitable temperatures in vacuo, in certain cases quantitative separation can be
readily effected as with the zinc-copper, zinc-iron, and tin-lead series. In other
cases, as with the copper-nickel, copper-tin, and copper-iron series, neither metal
appreciably volatilises. In some instances definite chemical compounds are
obtained. The rate of volatilisation is very markedly affected by the pressure,
and to some extent also by the nature of the atmosphere employed. A certain
definite or critical temperature is required in order to obtain appreciable vola-
tilisation, and this temperature is raised by gaseous pressure. When this
critical temperature has been reached the rate is independent of the initial
pressure or the nature of the gas, but varies directly as the increase of tempera-
ture. In other words, if the initial rate be R and the rate at any higher tem-
perature be R’, then R/=R + at. There is an abrupt change in the direction of
the temperature curve for equal rates of volatilisation when the pressure reaches
50 mm. of mercury; and at above 80 mm. the curve becomes a straight line. On
exhausting it is found that the removal of 1 mm. at from say 2 to 1 mm.
pressure produces approximately seventy times the effect of the removal of
1 mm. when starting from any pressure above 50 mm.

428 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

3. The Structural Changes brought about in certain Alloys by
Annealing. By O. F. Hupson, M.Sc., A.R.C.S.

A Jarge number of the useful alloys, particularly those which are rolled, drawn,
or otherwise worked, consist of crystals of one kind only—viz. a solid solution.
When alloys of this class are annealed, the structural changes that may be
observed are :

1. The cored structure usually characteristic of the alloy in the cast state
gradually disappears, and the crystals become quite uniform in composition
throughout. Structurally the alloy does not now differ from a pure metal, and
other structural changes due to annealing are similar in both cases.

2. If the alloy has been worked before it is annealed pronounced crystal
growth is observed when the annealing takes place above a certain temperature,
which varies with the alloy. In most cases also numerous twinned crystals are
seen. In effect the alloy is recrystallised. If the temperature of annealing is
raised the crystal growth becomes more pronounced, particularly from certain
centres, and a very coarsely crystalline (overheated) metal or alloy may result.
It is, however, to be noted that if the annealing is carried out at a suitable
temperature a finer structure than the original is obtained.

The recrystallisation of the strained alloy and the disappearance of the
‘cores’ go on side by side until uniformity of composition is reached.

In the case of alloys consisting of crystals of two or more kinds, those which
are malleable are usually composed of crystals of two solid solutions. Generally
the chief effect of annealing these alloys is to promote equilibrium between the
two phases present. Crystal growth also takes place partly on lines similar to
those indicated above and partly by the absorption of the smaller crystals in
larger ones of the same kind. In some cases the annealing operation may result
in a true recrystallisation. Complete phase and structural equilibrium in some
alloys of this class are only attained after very prolonged annealing, and in
many instances the alloys as used are in a meta-stable condition.

The decrease in hardness and the lowering of the elastic limit due to the
annealing of cold worked metals and alloys are almost complete before crystal
growth becomes noticeable, and are apparently unaccompanied by structural
chariges which can be observed by microscopical examination.

4, Diffusion in Solid Solutions.
By Cec H. Descu, D.Sc., Ph.D.

Since the author’s report to the Dundee Meeting of the Association, Bruni
and Meneghini have succeeded in demonstrating the occurrence of diffusion in
a clear, crystalline solid in the case of sodium and potassium chlorides. <A
mixture of these two salts, heated at 500° or 600°, yields a homogeneous solid
solution, the formation of which is recognised by determining the heat of solu-
tion in water, which differs from that of a mechanical mixture.

The author’s further experiments with metallic alloys show that a sharp
boundary is characteristic of diffusion in solids when a chemical compound is
formed. An abrupt discontinuity of composition is also observed when one
component is removed by solution, as in the dezincification of alloys of copper
and zinc.

5. Some Phenomena in the Formation of Eutectics.
By F. E, E. Lameiovex and J. T. Scorr.

6. The Electrical Conductivities of Sodium Amalgams.
By Ernest Vanstone, M.Sc.
Continuing the physico-chemical investigation of sodium amalgams, the author

has determined their electrical conductivities when in the solid state. The
amalgams were melted and drawn up into a capillary spiral 1 mm. diameter,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 499

and about a metre in length when unwound. Platinum termjnals were sealed in
at each end of the spiral.

The liquid amalgam in the spiral was allowed to cool slowly and to solidify
in the capillary tube, care being taken to preserve the continuity and uniformity
of the thread.

The resistance was measured by a potentiometer method. About twenty
amalgams have been examined, the composition varying from 0 to 45 atoms per
cent. of mercury.

The resistances varied from 0°05 to 0'4 ohm, and the specific conductivities from
18 x 10-4 to 19. xX 10-4, The resistances were measured at a temperature of
15° C. The curve obtained by plotting specific conductivities as ordinates and
atomic percentages as abscissee shows two discontinuities and a minimum point.
The breaks occur at 85°5 and 779 atoms per cent. of sodium, and the minimum
point at 65 per cent. sodium. ‘The thermal diagram has breaks at 85°2, 71°7, and
63°3 per cent, sodium.

7. Discussion on the Significance of Optical Properties.

(1) Optical Rotatory Powers and Dispersions of the Members of some
new Homologous Series. By R. H. Pickarp and J. Kenyon.

The authors have synthesised the optically active forms of over 100 compounds
belonging to the following ten series: (1) Methyl alkyl carbinols, Me.CHOH.R,
(2) esters of methyl ethyl carbinol and normal fatty acids, MeEt.CH.O.COR,
(3) esters of methyl n-butyl carbinol Me(C,H,)CH.O.COR, (4) esters of methyl
n-amyl carbinol Me(C,H,,)CH.O.COR, (5) esters of methyl n-hexyl carbinol
Me(C,H,,)CH.O.COR, (6) esters of methyl n-nonyl carbinol Me(C,H,,)
CH.O.COR, (7) acetates of methyl n-alkyl carbinols Me.R.CH.O.COCH,,
(8) n-dodecoates of the same Me.R.CH.O.COC,,H,,, (9) ethyl alkyl carbinols
Et.CHOH.R, (10) isopropyl alkyl carbinols Me,CHOH.R. (In each series
the ‘ growing chain’ is normal and not branched.)

All these compounds possess simple and closely related constitutions, but no
numerical relationship between their rotatory powers has as yet been detected.
The optical rotatory and dispersive powers of the compounds show well-marked
regularities, which are more or less common to all the series. The most pro-
nounced of these is that due to the special stereochemical configuration of that
member of an homologous series in which the growing chain (R or-COR in the
above formule) contains five carbon atoms,

(ii) Rotatory Dispersion. By T. Martin Lowry, D.Sc.

Attention was directed to the importance of making measurements of optical
rotation over a range of wave-lengths, instead of merely with light of one
colour. ‘This is specially necessary in the case of substances, such as derivatives
of tartaric acid, in which anomalous rotatory dispersion is known or may be
suspected to exist.

After experiments extending over a period of seven years, the methods of
measuring rotatory dispersion have been so simplified that they are now within
the range of the ordinary advanced student, and should soon become a regular
part of the ordinary routine of the laboratory. For many purposes it is
sufficient to take readings with the green and violet mercury lines, but sodium
and lithium may also be used in order to see whether the curve of rotatory
dispersion has the normal form. A still more valuable check is provided by
readings taken with the red and green cadmium lines, but these require more
complex apparatus and cannot yet be regarded as generally available.

The examination of the optical and magnetic rotatory dispersion of some
fifty organic liquids has shown that the curve of rotatory dispersion has an
extremely simple form. It can be expressed by the equation

k

24S OO
a — A?

430 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

where & is the ‘rotation constant’ and A,? the ‘dispersion constant’ for the
substance. If a is plotted against A,? the curve is a simple rectangular hyper-
bola, tending to a limiting value a = 0 when A?= @ and to a = @ when A?= A,”.

If 1 is plotted against a? the curve becomes a straight line. In the
a

case of substances, such as ethyl tartrate, which show anomalous rotatory dis-
persion, two of these terms must be employed, thus :—

k, Ig
NASA ln A

a=

This is in accordance with Biot’s view that anomalous rotatory dispersion is
produced by the admixture of two substances differing in rotatory dispersive
power as well as in the sign of their optical rotations.

(iii) On Anomalous Rotatory Dispersion. By i. TscHuGAEFF.

1. There are three different types of anomalous rotatory dispersion. The
anomaly in question may be due: (a) To the superposition of two (or more)
different kinds of normally dispersing molecules, differing in rotatory dispersive
power as well as in the sign of their rotation. This type of anomalous disper-
sion was first established by Biot. (Ex. mixture of /-menthone and iso-menthone.)
(b) To the existence of absorption bands in the spectrum of the active substance,
as it has been pointed out by Cotton, Drude, and others. (Cotton’s phenomenon.)
(Ex. the xanthates and thiourethanes of menthol, borneol, and fenchol.) (c) To
the intramolecular superposition of partial rotations corresponding to several
centres of activity of one and the same molecule, as it has been shown first by
the author. Experimental evidence in favour of this classification was given.

2. It has been established that the shape of the dispersion curve is largely
influenced by constitutive factors, and in the first place by the relative position
of the centres of activity and of the chromophor groups within the active
molecule, the whole dispersion curve resulting from the superposition of several
‘partial’ curves. These results were discussed from the point of view of the
electronic theory.

3. The influence of the temperature and the nature of the solvent on the
rotatory dispersion of the optically active xanthates resembles closely the influ-
ence exerted by the same factors on the dispersion of tartaric acid and of its
ethereal salts as studied by Winther and others. There must therefore be an
intimate analogy in the origin of the anomaly in both cases.

(iv) Remarks on the Walden Inversion.
By Professor P. F. Franxuann, F.R.S.

(v) The Rotation of Active Compounds as modified by Temperature,
Colour of Light, and Solution in Indifferent Liquids. By T. 8.
Parrerson, D.Sc., Ph.D.

Before it can be possible to offer a real explanation of the phenomena of
optical activity, attention must be devoted to the lowlier task of trying to under-
stand clearly the main features of the phenomena in question; to study carefully,
in fact, what may be termed the morphology of the subject. The variation of
rotation with change in the colour of light, with change of solvent, with change
of temperature, and perhaps even with change of pressure, must be thoroughly
examined.

As regards the last little can be said, but the other three—colour of light
used, the nature of the solvent, and the temperature—are of the utmost import-
ance. Even the data available at present seem sufficient to give some idea of the
general behaviour of optically active compounds with changes of condition,
and this may be summed up into one scheme, as follows :—

Tt has been found that the rotation of certain active compounds reaches a
maximum value at a certain definite temperature. Further, points of inflection

et @ Gerla >

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B, 431

often occur in temperature-rotation curves, sometimes in such as show also a
maximum, and by piecing together the evidence collected from an examination
of a fair number of optically active substances it seems probable that the varia-
tion of the rotation of an active substance with change of temperature may be,
and very probably is, a periodic phenomenon, doubtless irregularly periodic—
such that several maxima and minima may be expected to occur in the curve
representing it. Owing to experimental difficulties, however, it is not possible
to trace these curves through any very wide range of temperature.

Now it seems legitimate to assume that a point of maximum rotation
indicates that condition of the substance in which one of the groups attached to
the asymmetric atom attains to a maximum influence—a singular condition of the
substance. When such singular points are found in the curves of condition for
a number of fairly closely related compounds if seems reasonable to suppose that
the maxima represent the rotations of these different compounds in, at least,
fairly similar conditions. The great merit of a maximum rotation is its recog-
nisability and the possibility it affords of tracing some particular state of the
compound as the external conditions are varied. Maxima are found at different
temperatures for the various members of an homologous series, but the discussion
of this field, since it involves the relationship between the rotation and the con-
stitution of a series of active compounds, may be passed over until the variation
of rotation of a single active compound with change of external conditions is
more fully understood.

Here the first matter to which attention may be directed is that the maximum,
in certain cases at any rate, occurs at a different temperature for light of
various refrangibilities, whence it would appear that the irregularly periodic
temperature-rotation curves are probably retarded on each other; and since
the curve for violet light has the greatest amplitude, it follows that these curves
cut one another throughout a certain region, and in this region the rotation-
dispersion of the substance must necessarily be anomalous. Hence we arrive at
once, not, it is true, at an explanation of anomalous rotation-dispersion, but at
a reason why anomalous rotation-dispersion should exist at all.

It is doubtful whether any substance will really show normal rotation-
dispersion, but if such a substance be found then it seems probable that the
temperature-rotation curves for the dilterent colours of light will intersect at a
single point, the rotation-dispersion being positive on one side of this point and
negative on the other.

Rotation in Solution.—A study of such data as are available appears to show
that when such a compound as shows a maximum rotation—for example, ethyl
tartrate—is dissolved in some indifferent liquid, this maximum rotation is
displaced towards a lower or a higher temperature, as the case may be, with a
corresponding alteration in value, solvents differing very much in regard to the
displacement which they bring about. Now it is also found that the region in
which abnormal rotation-dispersion takes place is shifted, on solution, in a very
similar way to that in which the maximum rotation is displaced, and therefore
it seems clear that the effect. of solution is to displace the whole temperature-
rotation curve. It then appears at once why some substances which show
abnormal rotation-dispersion at a certain temperature for the homogeneous
compound show a normal rotation-dispersion when dissolved in some solvent
which considerably alters the rotation. The solvent has the effect of shifting
the family of temperature-rotation curves in such a manner as to bring the parts
of the curves in the neighbourhood of the maximum into view, and in this
neighbourhood the rotation-dispersion appears to be normal.

(vi) A Partially Corrected Fluor-Quartz Lens System for Spectrum
Photography. By Lieut-Colonel W. Grirrorp.

(vil) Crystalline-Liquid Substances. By Dr. J. Huimy,

452 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.

Discussion on the Proper Utilisation of Coal and Fuels derived
therefrom,

The discussion was organised with the object of drawing public attention
firstly to the many ways in which coal is at present being wasted, and secondly
to illustrate what economies have been effected by the co-operation of the
chemist.

The discussion was opened by Professor H. EH. Armstrona, F.R.S.*

Fuel Economy and Low Temperature Carbonisalion.
By Dr. G. T. Betsy, F.R.S.

The industrial applications of destructive distillation are most naturally
classed under three principal divisions according to the primary product which
it is desired to obtain. In the first of these divisions hard coke is the primary
product; in the second, illuminating gas; and in the third, paraffin wax
and oils. In each case secondary products result from the distillation.
In the gas industry, coke, tar, and ammonia have assumed an importance not
much inferior to that of the primary product. Jn coke-making, tar, ammonia,
and gas have also assumed an important place, while in the paraffin industry
ammonia is of almost equal importance with the primary oil products. But in
spite of the increasing importance of the secondary products, the fact remains
that in each division of the industry the primary product must continue to be of
the first importance. It follows from this that not only in the selection of the
raw material to be distilled, but also in the choice of suitable conditions of
distillation, the primary product must still receive the chief consideration. In
his selection of raw materials the gas-maker has probably the greatest freedom
of choice, for illuminating gas can be made from almost any variety of coal or
shale. The choice of the coke-maker is more restricted, for he can only use
coking coals which will yield a hard and compact form of coke. The choice of
the oil-maker is even more restricted; for him the oil shales of Mid and West
Lothian supply the only suitable material. In each of these divisions of industry
the primary product is being produced to supply the demands of markets which
already exist.

This is a truism which is apt to be overlooked by enthusiasts who make
revolutionary proposals for the handling of the fuel supplies of the nation.
These markets at present absorb the illuminating gas from about seventeen
million tons of coal per annum, the hard coke from about sixteen million tons,
and the paraflin products from three million tons of shale. In addition, the
secondary products from all three divisions find their way into perfectly definite
markets. It is clear that if an important revolution in any division of the
industry is contemplated, its effect on these existing markets must be carefully
considered. If the products are likely to be so altered that new markets will
have to be developed for their absorption, this necessity alone may he sufficient
to delay the revolutionary change to a very serious extent; at any rate, this
possibility must receive serious consideration. The three divisions of the
distillation industry are highly organised, self-contained systems, properly
adjusted for the supply of certain definite markets, each being sufficiently elastic
to respond to any normal development in the demand for its products.

It is now open to us to consider whether the last word has thus been said on
the application of the methods of distillation to the raw coal which is used in
the United Kingdom. Out of a total home consumption which is in the neighbour-
hood of 180 million tons, probably not more than about 35 million tons is sub-
jected to distillation in retorts, ovens, and gas producers. Is there any further

‘ See Journal of Gas Lighting and the Gas World, September 23, 1913; the
Chemical World, November 1913,

eS OT ea TSC

era,”

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 433

proportion of this huge total which in the light of the best knowledge of to-day
ought to be subjected to the preliminary treatment by distillation before it is
used for heating purposes ?

One of the largest items of the national consumption is the 35 million tons
used for domestic heating. As this is the item which in use produces town
smoke in its more unmanageable form, we naturally turn to it as one of the most
important fields for reform. Let us first inquire what is actually being done in
this direction.

In March of the present year Mr. F. W. Goodenough, in his Cantor Lectures
on ‘Coal Gas as a Fuel for Domestic Purposes,’ gave a most encouraging account
of splendid work which is being done by the Gas Light and Coke and the other
London gas companies in the introduction of gas for domestic cooking and heating.
From these and similar statistics supplied by other cities, we are entitled to
conclude that the increasing quantity of coal which is being distilled by the gas
companies is going towards the replacement of raw coal by gas and coke, and we
are confirmed in the belief that the treatment of coal by distillation is one of
the most hopeful directions in which to seek for increased economy and efficiency.
This raises again the previous question: are we to rest satisfied that in these
admirable achievements of the gas engineer the last word has been spoken from
the fuel reformer’s point of view?

It is now about eight years since Mr. Parker brought forward a scheme for
the production of ‘ Coalite,’ a smokeless domestic fuel made by the distillation
of coal at a temperature of 400° to 450° C., in contrast to the gas-retort method
of distillation at 900° to 1,000°. Professor Vivian B. Lewes, in supporting this
scheme, showed the immense significance of the changes in the proportions as
well as in the qualities of the products of distillation which would result from
this radical change in the conditions of distillation. The keynote of the scheme
from the chemist’s point of view was the conservation of the saturated and allied
hydrocarbons in the liquid and gaseous distillate, in contrast to the modern
gas-works practice in which these hydrocarbons are sacrificed to the production
of a large volume of poor gas. This policy of conservation had already found
its fullest expression in the shale-oil industry, in which the chief aim had
always been to preserve the maximum quantity of paraffin wax in the distillate ;
but from the gas engineer’s point of view Mr. Parker’s proposal was regarded
as revolutionary and hardly worth serious consideration.

A fairly extensive experience of low-temperature distillation as applied to
coal as well as to oil shale led me from the outset to question whether the
proposal to distil bituminous coal in long vertical tubes of small diameter would
be industrially successful. With the assistance of Mr. H. N. Beilby, and later
also of Mr. G. Weller, an experimental inquiry into the possibilities of other
methods of distilling coal at a low temperature was carried on in the works of
the Cassel Cyanide Company in Glasgow.

By freely exposing small cubes of coal to radiant heat at a temperature of
450° C., it was found that the gases were driven off in about an hour. It seemed
reasonable, therefore, to conclude that under practical conditions the time of
exposure to heat need not exceed one and a half to two hours. It had been
stated in published reports that the time of exposure to heat in the small vertical
tubes of Mr. Parker’s apparatus was four hours, and at a later stage it was
suggested that even this time was not long enough to complete the distillation
in the centre of the mass. The object we now set before us was to devise a
form of apparatus in which the coal could be exposed to the action of heat in
thin layers. The first practical apparatus consisted of a column heated externally
in a gas-fired oven, and fitted internally with a series of sloping shelves.
Mechanical arrangements were made for feeding the small coal in to the top of
the column and for mechanically jolting the shelves so that the coal passed
over the whole series from top to bottom in a sheet two to two and a half inches in
thickness. The coke was mechanically withdrawn from the bottom of the
column. The volatile products of distillation were removed by an exit pipe to
suitable condensers and receivers. The performance of this apparatus fully
justified our expectations as to the rate at which coal could be exhausted of its
gases at 400° to 450°. The time required did not exceed the one and a half
hours of our estimate. ; Z

The further evolution of the apparatus passed through various stages till a

1913, FF

434 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

unit with a capacity of fifteen tons per day was reached. The mechanical
difficulties to be overcome as the scale of operations was increased were serious,
and even in its present form we are not perfectly satisfied with the apparatus.
We are now preparing designs for a further step in which we hope to profit
by the experience of the past four years. We are, however, satisfied that the prin-
ciple of exposing coal to heat in thin layers is sound. We are also satisfied that
the production of a mechanically perfect apparatus into which small coal is auto-
matically fed, passed through the distilling zone, and finally passed out through
a cooling chamber, only requires a little more patient step-by-step development.
It is obvious that an apparatus which could be built in units with a capacity of
fifteen to twenty tons per day, which would work automatically, and no part of
which need be exposed to a higher temperature than 450° to 500°, ought to pro-
vide an exceedingly economical means for the distillation of coal. But I must
not omit to tell you the weaknesses as well as the strength of this type of
apparatus. It will, in its present form, only work smoothly with non-caking coal.
If the coal, on heating, passes through a fusible stage it is apt to stick to the
shelves and to accumulate on them. The working then becomes irregular, and
eventually stops. Further, the fact that the coal is frequently turned over and
dropped from shelf to shelf tends to break it down into small stuff, a good deal
of which is no larger than coke breeze. These are both serious, but not fatal,
disadvantages.

The greater part of the coke from this unit plant has been used in water-gas
producers into which it could be passed while it was still warm and dry. It had
thus an initial advantage over the gas-works coke, which usually contains ten to
fifteen per cent. of water. The use of the low-temperature coke for water gas-
making proved quite satisfactory. Its light nature made it necessary to reduce
the pressure of the air blast in the producer, but its freedom from water and its
ready inflammability fully compensated for the loss of capacity due to this
reduction in the air blast.

A good deal of the low-temperature coke has also been converted into
briquettes for domestic fuel. These are easily kindled and kept alight in an
ordinary grate, and burn almost without smoke. The experience of numerous
householders in Glasgow in the use of this fuel has been most encouraging, and
my colleagues are quite satisfied that a steady outlet for a moderately large
output could at once be obtained.

The hydrocarbon gases from the unit apparatus have hitherto been passed
into the general fuel gas system of the works, but regular laboratory tests have
been made of the thermal value, petrol contents, &c. The thermal value of the
gas reached the high figure of 850 B.T.U. per cubic foot. The liquid tar has
been regularly collected and examined, and the results generally confirm those of
other observers.

Our attention has, however, been mainly concentrated on the mechanical
development of this method of distillation, and on the production of a domestic
or an industrial fuel from the coke. These, in my opinion, are the really funda-
mental points in the low-temperature scheme. If these are not right then even
fancy prices and an unlimited outlet for fuel oil and motor spirit will not save
the scheme from failure.

I must repeat that the really significant points are covered by the economic
and engineering questions : can an outlet be found for the low-temperature coke?
and can a satisfactory apparatus be devised ?

The apparatus must be in fairly large units, and it must be automatic, and
must work with the smoothness and regularity of the best types of automatic
stoking machinery and with the minimum of manual labour or of detailed super-
vision. The gases and vapours from the distillation must be carefully preserved
from loss or damage in the apparatus either through leakage of gas outwards or
of air inwards. The necessary heat must be so applied as to cause no deteriora-
tion of the material of which the apparatus is constructed, and the heating must,
of course, be economical.

Dr. H. G. Cotman gave a general account of how far the gas industry was
really helping towards the economic use of fuel.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 435

Recent Progress in Gas-Fire Science, By H. James Yarns, I'.C.S
M.I.Mech.E.

Utility being the first motive, the earliest gas fire, being intended to do the
work of a coal fire, under conditions of greater convenience, was an imitation
of the coal fire. It either occupied the firespace in the ordinary coal grate, or
(more frequently) was placed within a similar cavity in a separate stove which
was set in front of the discarded coal grate. In either case it consisted of a
series of Bunsen burners, arranged along the front bottom bar, the flames of
which played or impinged irregularly upon iron frets, wisps of asbestos filaments,
or, more generally, perforated balls of refractory material which were intended
to suggest the resemblance of a coal fire; these various refractory bodies were
heated to low incandescence by immersion in the flames, after the gas had been
lit for some time. This contrivance, whatever its convenience, resembled its
prototype, the coal fire, in losing much of its heat up the flue, and in yielding
only an irregular and inadequate return in the form of radiant heat from the
fuel consumed. he improper way in which the flame impinged upon the
refractory material also greatly impaired the completeness of combustion, a
fact which not only involved waste of fuel, but was liable to occasion an escape
of harmful combustion-products into the room, especially when the chimney
draught was poor, or the flue outlet of the gas fire badly constructed.

The gas-fire idea having been embodied in these early crude forms, it was
gradually realised that on such a basis gas was no match for coal in point of
cost, and the question of economising devices came to the front. The manifestly
great flue losses led to the heat-economising efforts being all directed towards
delaying the escape of the combustion products until they should have communi-
cated as large a proportion as possible of their sensible heat to the body of the
stove, to be afterwards transmitted into the apartment in the form of hot-air
currents from the stove body. In other words, these early efforts in gas-fire
economy aimed at concentrating on convected heat.

A shape which these convection devices usually took was the forming of
chambers in extended flues within the stove body. The hot combustion products,
on passing through these chambers or flues, imparted most of their sensible
heat, by conduction through the walls, to currents of cold air from the room,
which thus became warmed by passing over the outside of the walls of these
chambers, and which issued therefrom as hot-air convection currents into the
room through perforations provided for the purpose. But the heat economy
thus realised was accompanied by a bad physiological effect, inasmuch as the
convection currents leaving the stove were so hot that the dew point of the air
of the apartment was unduly raised, and its degree of saturation lowered; the
skin and the mucous membranes of the throat and nasal passages of the occu-
pants offering ready sources of moisture, ‘dry’ sensations, prickling of the
skin, and other disagreeable symptoms were complained of. Anyone entering a
room so heated could generally ‘smell the gas fire,’ as it was expressed, partly
owing to the cause already mentioned, but perhaps more to the escape of

products of combustion into the room, through faulty construction of the stove,
and to the burning of dust by contact with the overheated ‘ convecting
chambers of the stove. Further, owing to the air of the room being hotter than
the walls, persons sitting near these, while feeling discomfort owing to the
overheated air, might yet experience chilling sensations owing to radiation from
their bodies to the cold walls.. These drawbacks engendered a widespread
prejudice among the public and the medical profession against gas fires.

It was the personal discomfort which such stoves occasioned to myself that led
me to take up the matter, and endeavour to devise a new type of gas fire, free
from these defects, and in so doing I realised that the only way to remove the
popular prejudice was to remove its cause. First of all it was clear that the
temperature of the convection currents ought to be reduced, so as to effect a cor-
responding reduction in the moisture-absorbing capacity of the air of the room.
It then occurred to me that the old idea of enhaticing the total heating efficiency
of the fire by increasing the ‘ convected’ heat effect, in the manner described,
Was a mischievous one, and the source of much of the trouble; and that the true
remedy must be sought for in increasing the ‘ radiant efficiency ’ of the fire to the

FF2

|

436 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

maximum possible, with consequent decrease in the amount of ‘ convected’
heat.

The known advantage of radiant heat being that it warms the walls, the
furniture, and the occupants of the room rather than its atmosphere, the
problem was how to increase efficiency in the direction of radiation so as to
compensate, both in heating power and in economy, for the reduction in the
temperature of the convection currents. The gas fire, which hitherto had been
a haphazard evolution from the coal fire, now became the subject of a reasoned
and drastic revolution. The convection chambers were dispensed with. The
deep fire-chambers became a shallow space in the front of the apparatus, its
depth only that of one piece of refractory material. The erratic arrangement
of fireclay lumps was superseded by placing two or three such pieces one above
the other exactly over the flame so as to form an envelope for it. A little later
a more marked step in the evolution of the new radiating fire consisted in
joining the two or three fireclay pieces into one, and thus making the firefront
consist of a series of hollow fireclay columns (now known as radiants) per-
forated in a design expressly contrived to promote uniform heating of the
column throughout, and with each flame rising into the cavity of its radiant.
Care was taken to prevent any impingement on the inner cone of the flame; by
this means, and also by using a correctly designed burner, and by making due
provision for the proportionment of the gas and air supplies, perfect combustion
was ensured. A further important improvement was the dispensing with the
cast-iron front bars hitherto used to retain the loose fireclay lumps, and the
replacing of these bars by one slight horizontal rod. This arrangement not only
left no obstruction in the path of the radiation, but vastly improved the appear-
ance of the fire. The effect of these radical changes has been that the greater
proportion of the energy developed by the combustion of the gas around and in
contact with the radiants is transmitted into the apartment as radiant heat.
This radiant heat quickly makes its warming effect felt by the occupants; yet,
inasmuch as it passes through the air without sensibly warming it, the discom-
forts formerly occasioned by the now discarded ‘convection’ methods are at an
end. The walls and the objects in the room, becoming warmed by absorbed
radiant heat, no longer abstract heat from the occupants, and further they
gradually warm the air to a moderate degree by convection currents which, being
necessarily at a low temperature, do not reproduce the former excessive moisture-
absorbing condition in the air.

This gradual warming of the air by contact with the objects in the room
naturally cannot begin for some little time after the fire has been lighted—not
indeed until the radiant heat of the fire has warmed the walls and furniture.
From the outset, however, there is a certain proportion of convected heat from
the stove (but at a low temperature, owing to the absence of the old special
heating chambers), and this primary or direct low-temperature convection at
once begins to gently raise the temperature of the air, thus anticipating—and
later on co-operating with—the secondary low-temperature convection from the
walls and furniture, in suitably warming—but not overheating—the air. It
will thus be seen that although the earlier types of gas fire may have made
their heating effect more quickly apparent, yet in the gas fires of to-day the
primary convection is also doing its work from the first, though in a less conspi-
cuous and more healthful way. In this way radiation has taken the place of con-
vection as the mode of heat-transference principally aimed at in gas-fire design.

Having thus traced the evolution of the modern gas fire, I come next to that
on which the modern gas fire so largely depends—viz., radiation—to the problem
of increasing which much research has been devoted. Progress towards higher
radiant efficiency in a fire can be measured only when a reliable method of
estimating the latter is available. The present accepted method is that adopted
by the Joint Committee appointed in 1907 by the Institution of Gas Engineers
and the University of Leeds, for the Investigation of Gas Fires; this method,
which was originally suggested to the Committee by Professors W. A. Bone
and William Stroud, is essentially a radiometer-cwm-thermopile method. Part
of the radiant energy is directly determined (in kilogram centigrade units) by
using a radiation calorimeter (or radiometer), and the remainder by means of
a thermopile and galvanometer, standardised against the radiometer for each
experiment.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 437

Various other methods, both electrical and calorimetrical, have been sug-
gested, but so far as J am aware no authoritative vindication of their reliability
has as yet appeared. The most recent suggestion—viz. that of a calorimeter to
absorb all the radiation from a fire—fails for one or other of two reasons. In
the one case if it be larger than the fire then the water capacity becomes very
great, and difficulties occur in ensuring perfect circulation; also heat is lost from
the outer surface by convection and radiation. Alternatively, if the instrument
be so small as to necessitate its being placed very close to the fire the free access
of air to the fire is interfered with, thus upsetting the natural action of the air
currents and setting up abnormal conditions.

The testing of gas fires is a much more difficult matter than might be
imagined. Considerable experience in heat measurement is called for, and until
recently this has not been available in commercial testing laboratories, and even
now the number of trained workers who have turned their attention to this
branch of research in connection with gas fires is very small. In the absence of
such special experience results obtained even by otherwise careful and competent
workers are of doubtful value, owing to unsuspected errors in judgment, or to
inherent defects in the methods employed.

Ten years ago even the best deep fires did not afford more than 30 to 33 per
cent. of the net heat of combustion of the gas in the form of radiant energy.
In the effort to secure increased radiation (by which I mean a higher percentage
of the heat developed by the combustion of a given amount of gas, delivered
as radiant energy) it has been found, as was to be anticipated, that to advance
from these low figures to 45 per cent. is much more easy than to make a
further increase above 45 per cent. The adoption of the shallow-fire principle,
and the dispensing with the front bars, to which I have already referred, was
responsible for an increase from 30 per cent. to somewhere about 42 per cent.
From this point, by attention to the perfecting of the design and proportion
cof the burners and backbricks, and—most important of all—that of the
radiants, we have been successful in further raising this figure to 48 to 50 per
cent., and indeed in some instances to as high as 55 per cent.

Irom the first gas fires had been made considerably smaller in width than
the average coal fire, and when the new shallow-fronted radiation gas fire had
been evolved there still remained a general tendency to keep these fires down to
a similar narrow width, the impression probably being that inasmuch as gas
fires give a more concentrated heat, a smaller firespace was adequate. I became
convinced, however, that if gas fires were to take the place of coal fires for
heating the largest domestic apartments equally well as the smallest, it would be
necessary that gas fires should be made available having a firespace as wide as
that of the coal fire. Although this development was simple in appearance, it
involved constructional problems which were only solved after considerable
experiment ; the result has been that gas fires of the new type are now made
as wide as 21 inches, fires of that size being capable of heating rooms up to a
cubical content of at least 4,000 cubic feet.

The problem of total heating efficiency is, however, not the only one which
makers of gas fires have to solve; the equally important question of ventilating
effect must also be considered, for a properly constructed gas fire should effec-
tively ventilate as well as heat an apartment. It is obvious that no fire could
be considered as hygienically perfect which, when connected with a chimney
flue in the ordinary way, and subjected to a moderate chimney draught, allows
any products of combustion to escape into the room; bat provided that this
elementary hygienic requirement is fulfilled, the question of ‘ hygienic efficiency ’
resolves itself into the amount of excess air, over and above that required for
combustion, which can be drawn up the flue, per cubic foot of gas burned, when
the fire is so connected. There is obviously no object served in testing or dis-
cussing ‘hygienic efficiency’ or ‘ventilating effect’ except in relation to con-
ditions of ordinary chimney draught, because no gas fire ought ever to be used
except it be connected with a chimney or flue leading into the outside atmo-
sphere.

; It is not difficult to design and proportion the flue vent and the canopy of a
gas fire so as to ensure the drawing up the flue of a large volume of air, thus
producing good ventilation. The real difficulty is to avoid drawing this large
excess of air over the upper portion of the radiants, thus cooling them and

438 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

unnecessarily diminishing the radiant efficiency of the fire. In other words,
whereas it is comparatively easy to achieve ‘ventilation’ at the expense of
‘radiant efficiency,’ a really .scientifically constructed fire should ensure an
equally good ‘ ventilation’ without sacrifice of radiant efficiency, which, although
not so easy, is by no means an impossible matter.

In this connection my own researches have convinced me of the importance
of preserving a certain adequate vertical distance between the top of the
radiants and the bottom of the canopy of a gas fire, so as to avoid drawing the
induced ‘ventilating’ air over the upper portion of the radiants; experiment
has proved that such a constructional feature, combined with an adequate flue
vent, ensures a much higher radiant efficiency than another type (in point of
fact older, but which it has been recently sought to revive), in which the
canopy is brought down to overlap (or nearly so) the top of the radiants. As
the relative merits of these two types of construction have recently been under
discussion, it may be of interest if I append the results of an investigation of
the matter in my own laboratory, which seem to prove conclusively the marked
superiority of the first-named type ef construction.

To ascertain the total heating efficiency, each type of construction was tested
by determining the radiant efficiency, using the Leeds University method, and
at the same time determining the amount of heat lost through the chimney
flue. The total of these two, deducted from the heat developed by the com-
bustion of the gas, gives the amount of convected heat. It is obviously impossible
to estimate directly the convected heat, since the radiant energy also eventually
makes itself sensible in this form. ;

The fires were tested under a series of parallel conditions. In the first case
the flue outlets were blocked up; this neutralised any possible cooling action of
the flue draught on the radiants. The second test was one with the flue
outlets open. In the third the two stoves were connected to a chimney. It
ought to be remarked that changes in the meteorological conditions sometimes
influence the amount of air withdrawn from the room by a given chimney to a
surprising degree,

1t will be seen from the figures that the lowering of the canopy, as had been
anticipated, resulted in a lowered radiant efficiency and a lowered total heating
efficiency, due to the cooling effect exercised on the radiants by the air drawn
over them.

Fic. 1. Canopy well above Radiants. Fig. 2. Canopy brought down to top
of Radiants.

439

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TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

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440 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION RB.

The Uses of Gas. By Professor Wini1am A. Bone, D.Sc., F.R.S.

1. Gas Fires.

Mr. Yates, in his account of the scientific development of the modern gas
fire, has referred to the work carried out in my laboratories at Leeds University,
under the auspices of the Joint Committee appointed by the University and the
Institution of Gas Engineers in 1998, and I may, perhaps, be allowed to add a
few supplementary notes to his statements. The work chiefly consisted in the
determination of heat balances of gas fires, during the course of which the
method for the determination of ‘ radiant efficiencies’ was devised.

The fires were investigated in a room of about 1,000 cubic feet capacity,
specially constructed for the purpose, and the flue draught was controlled by
means of an electrically driven fan. In view of the prejudice which still exists
in the public mind against gas fires, I think it only right to say that very careful
tests made on modern fires, of the type described by Mr. Yates, and of different
firms’ manufacture, gave no positive indication of the presence of any carbonic
oxide in the flue products; in one or two of the tests there were suspicions
(but no certain proof) of either carbon monoxide or possibly formaldehyde in
the flue gases, but in no case did any ever escape from under the canopy into
the room. There is no doubt but that the Leeds investigations greatly
stimulated the scientific development of the gas fire by the manufacturers them-
selves; in this Mr. Yates has taken a leading part, and other manufacturers are
following his lead in the matter.

In my opinion, no gas fire should ever be used in a living room except it
be connected with as effective a chimney draught as would be required by a
coal fire, but provided that this condition is fulfilled, the gas fire is both per-
fectly hygienic and has a comparatively high radiant efficiency.

With regard to what Mr. Yates has said about gas fires and ventilation I
entirely agree. If used with an efficient chimney draught, a gas fire will draw
up the chimney a considerable amount of excess air over and above that required
for the complete combustion of the gas; thus the percentage of carbon dioxide
in the flue products of a gas fire operating with an efficient draught need not be
more than about 0°8 to 1°3 per cent., whereas without any ‘excess air’ the pro-
portion would be about 11 per cent. This ventilating effect can be got without
material sacrifice of radiant efficiency provided that the design of the fire avoids
the obvious cooling effect of drawing the ‘excess air’ over the top of the
radiants; unless this precaution is taken, however, ventilating effect is only
produced at a needless sacrifice of radiant efficiency.

With what Mr. Yates has said about the necessity of preserving an adequate
distance between the bottom of the canopy and the top of the radiant I also
entirely agree, and I can confirm the figures which he has given at the end of
his paper by the results of my own independent tests. The conclusions which
he has drawn from them concerning the connection between proper design and
ventilation are, I think, grounded upon a firm experimental basis, and, although
they have been recently controverted in the technical press, they are, I think,
unshakable.

2. Industrial Applications of Coal Gas.

Turning now to the industrial applications of gaseous fuels it is obvious that
the cost of ordinary town’s gas must limit its use to comparatively small scale
operations, which, however, in the aggregate constitute a large and ever expand-
ing field. In this matter Birmingham with its splendid system of high-pressure
gas distribution throughout its industrial areas is showing a lead which other
cities might with advantage follow. Gas is supplied through special mains at a
pressure of 12 lb. per square inch, and at a price ranging between 1s. and
1s. 4d. per 1,000 cubic feet, according to the amount consumed per quarter.! By

* The prices are :—
For more than 4 million cubic feet per quarter ls. per 1,000

», between 3 and 4 ,, - a lissld: &.
>» between 2 and 3 ,, = 5 ls. 2d. ,, less 5 per cent.
>, between 1 and 2 ,, 4 35 [sd0.. 5 tgs
s, less than 1 i 53 5 ls. 4d. ,

The quantity of gas sold for manufacturing purposes and motive power during

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 44]

using, in furnace work, specially designed burners on the injector principle
sufficient air can be drawn in with the gas for perfect combustion, with resulting
marked economies as compared with the older low-pressure burners. The gas is
being used for aluminium and brass melting in crucible furnaces, for the firing
of ‘glory holes’ in glass-works, for annealing furnaces, and other similar pur-
poses. But with the utmost that can be expected from the developments of
high-pressure distribution in industrial areas, the uses of town’s gas at even 1s.
per 1,000 cubic feet would still be limited to comparatively small scale
operations.

3. Water Gas.

For all large scale operations, industrial establishments must rely upon
cheap gaseous fuel generated from raw coal or coke on the spot, or in proximity
to the works, such as coke-oven gas, blast-furnace gas, producer gas, or water
gas. For operations demanding a gas of high calorific intensity, such as steel
welding, where regenerative appliances cannot well be adopted, ordinary blue-
water gas is admirably suited. With coke at 12s. per ton, the cost of making
blue-water gas of about 290 B.Th.U.s per cubic foot would be about 4d. per
1,000 cubic feet (inclusive of fuel, wages, interest, and depreciation), or, say,
equivalent to coal gas at 8d. per 1,000. With the recent higher price of coke,
the cost would probably be nearer 5d. per 1,000 cubie feet, or equivalent to coal
gas at 10d. per 1,000. A modern water-gas plant will yield about 35 cubic
feet of gas at N.T.P. per lb. of carbon charged into the generators, and about
60 per cent. of this carbon will appear in the gas. The ratio of the net calorific
value of the gas to that of the coke charged is about 0°70. It should be noted
that, despite its much Jower ‘ calorific value,’ water gas has a higher ‘ calorific
intensity’ than coal gas, and this fact, combined with its lower cost, has
established its position in regard to steel welding and the like; the construction
of the burners used in such operations is generally faulty and much gas is
wasted in consequence.

4. ‘ Producer Gas.’

Where a cheap gaseous fuel has to be specially generated in situ, the com-
plete gasification of solid fuels by means of a mixed air-steam blast, with or
without ‘ammonia recovery,’ is usually the method adopted. The gas obtained
contains some 35 to 45 per cent. of total combustible constituents, and its com-
position (assuming an ordinary bituminous coal to be the raw fuel) varies
between the following wide limits, according to the relative proportions of steam
and air in the blast :—*

Steam saturation, temp.C.° . . . . . . 50° .. 85°
Per cent. CO, : é ; : : : eT a2io") 3 : 16.0

of { Co 0 : A : : 5 : «00D. a 12-0
composition 4 H, eee meee Saree A SOE ee Lr eee tS Z6-0
of the | Crmeh aware, MEE Ik. coal A MASE ISO ke ics ck

dry gas. \N, Se Unsseateee Gd et 24Na Wie sol Tit adiows (43-0
Per cent. of total combustibles. Ned ; et te 408i: . 41:0

Net cal. value B.Th.U.s per cubic feet at N.T.P. . . 169 : : 145

Approximate yield of gas, cubic feet at N.T.P. per
ton of coal Mee AS yy th. eee ee te TasO0On x1 2 145,000

So high a steam-saturation temperature as 85° permits of a large recovery of
the nitrogen of the coal as ammonium sulphate (90 lbs. per ton of coal gasified),
but the initial cost of an ammonia recovery plant is still a serious consideration,
and the gas is not nearly so well adapted for such operations as steel or glass

the year ending March 31, 1913, was 1,900 million cubic feet at an average price
of 1s. 34d. per 1,000 cubic feet.

* For full information on the chemistry of the gasification and the influence
of varying proportions of air and steam in the blast upon chemical composition
of the gas and the general efficiency of the process, vide Bone and Wheeler,
Journ. Iron and Steel Institute, 1907, I., 126, and 1908, II., 206, f

442 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

melting (owing to its larger hydrogen and lower carbon monoxide content) as
that produced with a steam-saturation temperature of 50° C. Thus a plant
capable of gasifying 250 tons of coal per week would cost about £20,000, but
the profit on the ammonium sulphate produced (reckoned as selling at £13 10s.
per ton) would be about 4s, per ton of coal gasified, after providing for labour,
acid, stores, and repairs, cost of handling sulphate, and interest and depreciation
at 125 per cent. per annum.

In generating a gas specially for open-hearth steel furnaces, or for glass-
melting furnaces, a blast steam-saturation temperature of 50° to 55° C. is
undoubtedly the best,* but under such conditions the amount of ammonia
recoverable would be very small. Probably the best steam-saturation tem-
perature, if ammonia recovery be considered in conjunction with suitability of
the gas for furnace purposes, would be somewhere about 65° O., which would
permit of a recovery of about 45 lbs. of sulphate per ton of coal gasified ; more-
over, in the ammonia recovery process, the plant for which might be simplified,
the gas would be cleaned before delivery to the furnace, an advantage which,
7 the author’s opinion, outweighs the loss of sensible heat involved in cooling
the gas.

The design of gas producers has been considerably improved in recent years
by the successful introduction of mechanical contrivances for the automatic
and continuous remoyal of ash, such as revolving grates. Claims have been
made that the substitution of a revolving for a fixed grate favourably affects
the chemical composition of the gas generated, but this is doubtful; the chief
advantage derived from the use of such contrivances, apart from labour saving,
probably lies ‘in the constant movement imparted to the fuel bed which
diminishes the tendency to clinker and facilitates the proper settling down of
the charge. Whether the increased capital outlay demanded by the installation
of these mechanical devices would be justified by the saving of labour and
improved working conditions undoubtedly effected will in each case depend upon
the type of fuel used, the amount and composition of the ash, and other local
circumstances.

The cost of generating ‘ammonia recovery-producer gas of net calorific
value 145 B.Th.U.s per cubic foot from coal at 15s. per ton would probably be
about 1d. per 1,000 cubic feet, or equivalent to coal gas at 4d. per 1,000. Mr.
H. A. Humphrey, in a recent paper upon the ‘ Generation and Distribution of
Producer-Gas in South Staffordshire’ (the South Staffordshire Mond Gas Co.),
said that the average price at which Mond gas, generated at the central station
at Dudley Port, Tiplin, and distributed in mains over an area of 123 square
miles, is sold to consumers is 13d. per 1,000 cubic feet, or equivalent to town’s
gas at 7d. per 1,000, a figure which promises well for the future of such schemes
in areas of similar industrial concentration.

5. The Utilisation of Blast-Furnace and Coke-Oven Guses in Steelworks.

Among recent developments in large scale fuel economics perhaps the newest,
and by no means the least important, is the utilisation of blast-furnace and coke-
oven gases in iron- and steel-works, both in this country and on the Continent.
The long discussion which followed a paper on the subject by Mr. E. Houbaer
at the recent meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute at Brussels revealed how
much is being done, under scientific guidance, to wipe out the reproach of
wastefulness of fuel in this branch of industry. I have had the privilege of
long association with the Skinningrove Iron Company, in the Cleveland district,
where, under the direction of my relative, Mr. T. C. Hutchinson, much pioneer-
ing work has been done in recent years to achieve the utmost fuel economy, and
T am indebted to him, as well as to Mr. Houbaer’s paper, for most of the infor-
mation which I propose to bring before you.

In times past—and not so long ago—when the blast-furnace plant was isolated
from the coke-ovens on the one hand and the steelworks on the other, coke was
manufactured at the pit-head, in the old wasteful bee-hive ovens, and then
transported by rail to the blast-furnaces. The pig iron was subsequently con-
verted into steel, and the latter rolled into girders, plates, rails, &c., at a

* Wor a full discussion on this point vide a lecture on ‘ Producer Gas with
Special Reference to Steelworks Requirements,’ by the Author, in Journal of
West of Scotland Iron and Steel Institute, 1911, 18, pp. 144-173.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 443

further expenditure of fuel, and for this purpose raw coal was gasified in
producers at the steelworks, and a further quantity sometimes burned under
boilers to provide steam power for the rolling mills. Now, for every ton of
pig iron produced at the blast furnace, about 1:35 tons of coal had to be coked
at. the colliery, and a further 0'4 ton of coal had to be gasified in producers
during the conversion of the iron into steel in open-hearth furnaces; thus,
approximately, 1°75 tons of coal were used per ton of steel ingots produced, not
te speak of any further fuel required to drive the rolling mills.

Nowadays, with the concentration of by-product coke-ovens, blast-furnaces,
steel furnaces, and rolling mills in one plant, it has become possible to carry
through the whole process for the smelting of the iron ore to the finished girder,
rail, or plate with the expenditure of no more coal than must be coked for the
blast-furnace. And the credit of having achieved this revolution—an industrial
romance if ever there was one—must be ascribed to British and Continental
metallurgists in equal shares. The following figures will explain how this has
come about.

The blast-furnace produces not only iron but, as a valuable by-product, com-
bustible gas, some 168,000 cubic feet (at 15° C. and 760 mm. pressure) per ton of
iron. A furnace making 1,000 tons of iron per week (quite a moderate output)
will produce every hour approximately a million cubic feet of gas, containing
nearly 30 per cent. of carbon monoxide, its chief combustible constituent. Its
net calorific value is nearly 100 B.Th.U-s per cubic foot. Some 60 per cent. of the
gas is absorbed in generating and heating the blast for the furnace and in
leakages, leaving a surplus of 40 per cent. available for purposes outside the
blast-furnace plant. In times past, and even to-day in cases where the blast-
furnace plant is isolated from the steelworks, this surplus was largely wasted.
But where steelworks are adjacent to the smelting plant, as in all the newest
installations, this surplus gas, which leaves the furnace at a temperature of
about 300° C. and heavily charged with dust, is cooled and cleaned for gas-engine
purposes. The power which could thus be generated is more than sufficient to
provide for all the mechanical work required both on the steel plant and for the
electrically driven rolling mills; the surplus gas not so required may (admixed
with coke-oven gas) be used instead of producer-gas for firing the steel furnaces,
svaking pits, &c. And even after all these requirements have been fulfilled
there may remain a final surplus, convertible into electrical energy for outside
uses,

At the Seraing Works of the ‘Cockerill Company, who were the first to build
large gas-engines for blast-furnace gas, there are to-day seven blast-furnaces
producing some 7,000 tons of pig iron per week; if the whole of the surplus gas
were utilised in gas-engines driving electric generators, no less than 28,500
E.H.P. could be generated continuously day and night. This is probably more
power than would be required for the steelworks and rolling mills. Accordingly,
only 18,500 E.H.P. are being generated, with a thermodynamical efficiency of
23 per cent., the surplus gas being used for heating purposes. So much, then,
for the potentialities of blast-furnace gas.

But to provide the coke required at the blast-furnace per ton of pig iron
produced, about 1°35 tons of coal must be carbonised in the coke-ovens, and
with the most modern by-product ovens of the ‘ regenerative’ type this means
a possible recovery of about 30 lb. of ammonium sulphate, benzol, tar, together
with an available surplus of 6,000 cubic feet of gas of an average net calorific
value of 500 B.Th.U.s per cubic foot. Such a gas is admirably adapted for the
enrichment of blast-furnace gas, for the firing of soaking pits, open-hearth fur-
naces, and the like, thereby displacing altogether the specially generated ‘ pro-
ducer-gas’ now almost universally employed.

The total thermal value of the combined surpluses of blast-furnace and
coke-oven gases per ton of pig iron produced, which may be nowadays
considered as available for the steelworks and rolling mills, is somewhat as

follows :—
B.Th.U.s
6,000 cubic feet of coke-oven gas = 6,000 500=3 millions
65,000 5 blast-furnace gas =65,000 x 100=63 ___,,

Total = 9-5 millions

444 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

This is equivalent to the heat of combustion of about one-third of a ton of coal,
which can thus be saved, per ton of pig iron produced.

From figures kindly supplied by Mr. Ernest Bury, M.Sc., manager of the
blast-furnaces and coke-ovens, I am in a position to make the following state-
ment about results recently obtained at the Skinningrove Ironworks.

Since October 1911, when the first battery of Otto-Hilgenstock coke-ovens
was completed, blast-furnace gas enriched with coke-oven gas up to 130 B.Th.U.s
per cubic foot of the mixture, has been regularly supplied to boilers, power
house, and soaking pits, and from that time onwards the whole of the steel
output of a 275-ton Talbot furnace has been converted into finished steel
sections without the employment of any outside fuel. The results for the first
half of 1913 were as follows :—

Pig iron made . . ‘ . 78,902 tons

Coal carbonised in coke ovens 4 FE P - - . 74,659 ,,
Steel ingots made * - . : 5 ‘ . - 19;520°7).5
Steel ingots rolled into rails and sections. . " - 21,500 ,,

In addition: to the above, successful experiments have been made with
running the Talbot furnace on an enriched gas of 180 B.Th.U.s per cubic foot,
with excellent results, showing a coal saving of 25 to 3 cwts. per ton of steel.
As soon as the new additional battery of coke-ovens is in operation, it will be
possible to heat and roll off 2,000 tons of steel per week, and in addition to
contribute an amount of coke-oven gas to the Talbot furnace equal fo 100 tons
of coal per week. Arrangements are in progress whereby it would shortly be
possible to supply any furnace, soaking pit, or power station on the works with
either a rich coke-oven gas or a poor blast-furnace gas, or any desired mixture
of the two; when these are completed the prophecy made by Mr. T. C. Hutchin-
son, in his Presidential Address to the Cleveland Institute of Engineers three
years ago, ‘that the time would come when we shall be taking in ironstone at
one end of the works and turning out steel at the other, using only such coal
as is required for the coke-ovens,’ will be fulfilled.

Dr. R. V. Wheeler dealt with the composition of coal, in particular the
volatile constituents.*

Dr. R. Lessing spoke on the economics of the smoke nuisance question.

Mr. W. H. Patterson discussed the improvement of combustion and the
blending of coals.

A general discussion followed.

The following Paper was then read :—

The Action of an Alkaline Natural Wuter on Lead.
By J. F. Iaverseece and A. W. Knappr.

The water supply of Birmingham is gathered chiefly in Wales. The water
is slightly alkaline: it does not appreciably dissolve lead (absence of ‘ plumbo-
solvency ’), but unless treated it corrodes or ‘erodes’ bright sheet lead. To
prevent any danger from this action, a small proportion of powdered chalk is
added to the water in Wales. This treated water flows to Birmingham through
an aqueduct seventy-three miles long.

Lead Pipes.—For these experiments a series of lead pipes was connected
with the supply and analyses of the water made over a period of five years.
Hundreds of samples were also taken from consumers’ pipes and from lengths
of lead pipes closed with corks. For short periods the total lead dissolved
from the pipes increased with time, but different lengths of the same pipe
showed considerable variation. As a rule a pipe becomes with age less sensi-
tive to the action of the water, but the rate of this change varies greatly with
different pipes. Treatment of new pipes with a dilute solution of potassium

* See Journal of the Chemical Society, T'rans., 1903, 103, 1704-1722.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 445

permanganate gave them a considerable power of resistance to the action of the
water.

Sheet Lead.—Many experiments were made on the sheet lead ‘ erosion’ test,
and for practical purposes a duration of one day is preferred to the seven or
fourteen days suggested by Dr. Houston. We find that erosion is due to the
action of oxygen in the presence of water. The amount of lead eroded is
affected by the distance from the lead to the water surface, is generally pro-
portional to the area of the surface of the lead exposed, and does not depend
on the volume of the water.

With untreated water carbon dioxide up to one per cent. by volume pro-
duced little effect on the amount of erosion; when two or more per cent. of
carbon dioxide is present erosion no longer occurs, for the liquid remains clear,
but Jead is dissolved, in amount much less than that removed by erosion. Given
sufficient oxygen, the alkalinity of the water is the principal factor determining
the amount of erosion. The use of (a) lime to prevent erosion was not found
satisfactory, the presence of three to nine parts per 100,000 of water reduced
the erosion, but smaller or larger quantities were of little, if any, use. Four
parts per 100,000 of (b) calcium carbonate gave protection, and as little as two
parts per 100,000 of (c) calcium bicarbonate were sufficient to practically prevent
erosion. Filtration through sand had little effect on the action of the water
on lead. No evidence was found of a seasonal variation in the action of the
water on lead, though the colour and amount of organic matter varied
considerably.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
Discussion on Radio-active Elements and the Periodic Law.

(i) The Radio-Elements and ihe Periodic Law.
By Freperick Soppy, M.A., F.R.S.

During the present year, 1913, the general law governing the passage through
the periodic table of the elements in process of radio-active change has been
discovered. As the result it is possible to write the three disintegration series
of uranium, thorium, and actinium across the periodic table, so that each mem-
ber falls into its proper place in the case of the twenty-seven members the
chemistry of which is known. For the six members the period of average life
of which is too short for the chemical nature to be determinable, and for the
five inactive end-products, the chemical nature can be without uncertainty pre-
dicted. The general law is that in an a-ray change, when a helium atom carrying
two atomic charges of positive electricity is expelled, the element changes its
place in the periodic table in the direction of diminishing mass and diminishing
group number by two places. In a f-ray change, when a single atomic charge of
negative electricity is expelled from the atom as a f-particle, and also in the two
changes for which the expulsion of rays has not yet been detected, the element
changes its position in the table in the opposite direction by one place.

The generalisation as regards the a-rays was put forward in 1911,' but at that
time the chemistry of the B-rays giving members, which are mostly short-lived,
was not known well enough for anything definite to be said. Fleck in 1911 com-
menced to make a systematic investigation of the chemically indefinite members,
from the point of view adopted in the book referred to, of the existence of
chemically identical and non-separable groups of elements. This work occupied
two years. Some of the results were communicated to this Section at the Dundee
Meeting last year, and they have since been published in the ‘ Journal of the
Chemical Society.’? It is important to note that this work was purely experi-
mental, and was done deliberately without any attempt to find the theoretical
law, in order that the results might be free from all bias in favour of any par.

' Soddy, Chemistry of the Radio-Elements, p. 29.
* Proc., 1913, 29, 7 and 172; T'rans., 1913, 103, 381, and 1052.

446 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

ticular view. It would have been easier to speculate first and then to test the
speculations, but the opposite course was purposely adopted.

Fleck, in addition to confirming the chemical nature of several of the chemi-
cally better known members by careful fractionation methods, had by the
beginning of this year succeeded in determining the chemical nature of nine
members which had not previously been elucidated. All except two of these

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POLONIUM

BISMUTH
- RAY (OR RAYLESS)
CHANGE

6

3 RELATIVE ne OF NEGATIVE ELECTRONS

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THALLIUM

SSVW OIWOLY JO SLINN
Cu

were in the series subsequent to the zero or emanation group, of which members
only the two longest lived—polonium and_radio-lead—had previously been
chemically characterised. At this time A. 8S. Russell,? who knew of Fleck’s
results, put forward the view that in the B-ray change the position of the element
in the periodic table changes by one place, and he was the first to publish a com-

3 Chem. News, January 31, 1913, 107, 49.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 447

plete scheme showing the passage of the radio-elements through the periodic table.
His scheme was in certain respects imperfect, and it was followed almost imme-
diately by another by K. Fajans,* who put forward the complete law in its present
form, and made important and accurate deductions as to the positions occupied by
the still unplaced members. Soddy independently arrived at a complete scheme
similar to that of Fajans,° but which in one respect possibly went somewhat
further in regard to the generalisation that all elements falling into the same
place in the periodic table are not merely similar in chemical properties, but are
chemically identical, non-separable by chemical methods, and probably spectro-
scopically indistinguishable. From this the definite prediction was made that
radium-C,, thorium-D', and actinium-) would prove’to be non-separable from
thallium, and radium A from polonium, which Fleck has since established,
whilst all the end-products would be non-separable from lead. The scheme,
altered slightly to bring it up to date (July 1913), is shown in the accompanying
plate.

In all three schemes a new member was indicated in the V A family, as the
product of uranium X. This has since been discovered by Fajans and Beer,®
and confirmed by Fleck.” It proves to be a very short-lived substance of period
of average life 1°7 minutes, and is called Uranium X,. Its parent, Uranium X,,
with period 35°5 days, gives only the soft (8) rays, whereas the hard f-rays of
Uranium X come from this new product.

This missing member being short-lived disproves the suggestion (Soddy) that
it might be a very long-lived and therefore well-defined element (Eka-tantalum),
disintegrating dually and producing, in addition to Uranium II. by a f-ray
change, actinium by a still undetected a-ray change. This being disproved, the
only other possibility to consider as to the still unknown source of actinium is
that it is produced in a f-ray or rayless change from radium. On account of the
uncertainty of the origin of actinium, and therefore of the atomic weight both
of itself and of all its products, the actinium series is shown separately beneath
the others in the plate.

The chemical analysis of matter is thus not an ultimate one. It has appeared
ultimate hitherto, on account of the impossibility of distinguishing between ele-
ments which are chemically identical and non-separable unless these are in the
process of change the one into the other. But in that part of the Periodic Table in
which the evolution of the elements is still proceeding, each place is seen to be
occupied not by one element, but on the average, for the places occupied at all, by
no less than four, the atomic weights of which vary over as much as eight units.
It is impossible to believe that the same may not be true for the rest of the table,
and that each known element may be a group of non-separable elements occupy-
ing the same place, the atomic weight not being a real constant, but a mean
value, of much less fundamental interest than has been hitherto supposed.
Although these advances show that matter is even more complex than chemical
analysis alone has been able to reveal, they indicate at the same time that the
problem of atomic constitution may be more simple than has been supposed
from the lack of simple numerical relations between the atomic weights.

(i) The Chemistry of the Radio-Klements.
By Avexanver FirEcK, B.Sc.

Since last year’s meeting at Dundee, when the chemistry of three short-lived
radio-elements was described, the study has been continued, and the chemical
nature of eleven additional radio-elements has been worked out experimentally.
In each of these cases, with the one exception of Uranium-X,, the chemistry of
the substance may be summed up by saying that it has properties identical in
all respects with those of some already known element. In general the experi-
mental methods were divided into two parts: First, determining what element
the short-lived radio-element most resembled, and, second, determining, usually

“ Phys. Zett., February 15, 1913, 14, 131 and 136.
° Chem. News, February 28, 1913, 107, 97.
* Naturwissenschaften, April 4, 1913. ’ Phil. Mag.

448 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

by fractional methods, whether the radio-element was separable from the ordinary
element. As in most cases the already known element was a common one, the
non-separability of the two could be shown by using a f-ray electroscope for the
relative measurement of the radio-elements, whilst the ordinary element was
estimated by some gravimetric process.

In one or two cases, as in that of radium-A and polonium and mesothorium-2
and actinium, where both elements were radio-active and present in unweighable
quantities, special electroscopic methods of measurement were devised.

The results of the work show that :—

1. Uranium-X and radio-actinium are chemically identical with thorium.
. Mesothorium-2 is chemically identical with actinium.
. Radium-A is chemically identical with polonium.
. Radium-(, thorium-C, actinium-C’, and radium-¥ are chemically identical
with bismuth.
5. Radium-B, thorium-B, and actinium-B are chemically identical with lead.
6. Thorium-D and actinium-) are chemically identical with thallium.

Bm coh

In the cases in which the inseparable elements are common elements these
latter have all atomic weights above 200, and occupy one or other of the last
twelve places of the periodic table.

(i) Radio-Elements as Indicators in Chemistry and Physics.
By G. von Hevesy, Ph.D.

By means of an a-ray electroscope of ordinary sensitiveness it is possible to
measure accurately as small a quantity as 10-!7grm. of a radioactive substance
having a half-value period of one hour. The extraordinary simplicity and at the
same time sensitiveness with which it is possible to measure these extremely
small quantities of radioactive bodies makes them of the greatest use not only
in studying substances in great dilution but also as indicators of physical and
chemical processes.

Radioactive indicators may be conveniently divided into two principal groups.
To the first group belong those whose use as indicators depends only on their
physical properties, and not on their chemical properties. Some examples of the
use of radioactive indicators of this kind are the following :—

It is only necessary to know that the radio-elements composing the active
deposits are metals in order to test the formula of Arrhenius connecting the
variation of velocity of solution of metals in acids with the temperature. This
has been lately carried out by Miss Ramstedt.

It is known from the kinetic theory that the concentration of a solution
varies with time, and this problem, which could not be attacked by ordinary
methods, has been made experimentally feasible by the use of radioactive bodies
as indicators. (Svedberg, Smoluchowskzi.)

The existence of colloidal solutions of radio-elements has been lately established
by Paneth and Godlewski, and experiments have been undertaken on the forma-
tion and precipitation of these colloids using radioactive indicators.

The emanations, the only gaseous radio-elements, have been employed to
establish the validity of the gas laws, especially that of Henry’s law for
extremely small partial pressures. (Bruhat, Boyle.)

Fick’s Diffusion Law has also been shown to hold accurately for bodies in
infinitely small concentration by making use of radioactive substances.

It is often a question of practical interest to the chemist to know how often
it is necessary to wash out a pipette or a beaker in order to remove the last
trace of the solution it had contained. This problem can be investigated with
extreme ease when radioactive indicators are used.

The fact, however, that most radio-elements are throughout in all chemical
properties exactly similar to some of the common elements (for instance, radium
D and thorium B are non-separable from lead, thorium C and radium E from
bismuth, &c.) allows these bodies to be used chemically as indicators of the
bodies from which they are known to be non-separable. Radium E can be used
as an indicator for bismuth, radium D for lead, &c.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 449

If one mg. of lead is mixed with a quantity of radium D which gives 10,000
units of activity in an electroscope, one-millionth part of this mixture is easily
detectable by the radioactivity of radium D. In this way 10-® mg. lead is
quantitatively determinable,

By this method also the solubility of the difficultly soluble salts of lead such
as the chromate and the sulphide has been determined. Further, the amount of
lead chloride entrained by a precipitate of silver chloride after washing the
latter thoroughly with water is measurable.

Experiments on the electrochemical behaviour of small quantities of lead and
bismuth have been begun. By means of these indicators a study may be made
of the electrochemical behaviour of these metals for electrode potentials lying
below the decomposition voltage, a problem which could not be investigated by
any other means.

Of especial use are the indicators for investigating the diffusion and mobility
of ions in extremely small concentration, from which results we obtain informa-
tion concerning the behaviour and the hydration of ions in very dilute
concentration. Datas are already available on the diffusion rate of lead salts
down to a normality of 10-",

The following Papers were then read :—

Puysican Division.

1. (a) Neutral Salt Action. (b) Solubility and Distribution.
By Dr. B. pe SzyszkowskI.
2. Some Suggestions regarding the Nomenclature of Oplical Activity.
By Dr. T. S. Parrerson.

3. The Hydrogen Ion Concentration of the Sea and the Alkali Carbon
Dioxide Equilibrium. By Dr. Pripeavx.

METALLURGICAL DrvyisIon.

4. The System Copper-Oxygen. By F. D. Farrow.

_This paper presented in a concise form the results of the work on the melting-
points and dissociation pressures of the system copper-oxygen, obtained by
Heyn, Wohler, and by Slade and Farrow. Heyn has obtained melting-points
of mixtures containing up to 1 per cent. of oxygen. He finds a eutectic point
with an oxygen content of 0°39 per cent. at 1065° C., while the mixture con-
taining 1 per cent. of oxygen melts at 1167° C.

Slade and Farrow have shown that mixtures containing between about 2°3
and 10°3 per cent. of oxygen when heated above 1195° C. melt and form two
liquid layers, the upper of which is richer in oxygen than the lower. The
composition of these layers is for all temperatures investigated about 2°3 per
cent. of oxygen for the lower and about 10-3 per cent. for the upper. The
compositions do not appear to approach each other with rising temperature.
By extrapolating over a short distance the authors place the melting-point of
cuprous oxide (11°26 per cent. of O) at 1210° C.

The same authors have investigated systems whose composition lies between
those of cuprous and of cupric oxide. They find two melting-point curves which
intersect at about 1060° C. The eutectic mixture corresponding to this has a
composition of 14:8 per cent. of oxygen. The melting-point of cupric oxide is
found not to have been attained at a temperature of 1148° C., at which tempera-
ture the dissociation pressure of the oxide exceeds 24 atmospheres.

1913. aa

450 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

Wohler has determined the dissociation pressures of cupric oxide when
heated. He has shown that solid solutions of cuprous oxide in cupric oxide
are formed. His values therefore are somewhat lower than the highest disso-
ciation pressures obtainable.

Slade and Farrow have determined the dissociation pressures of cuprous
oxide at temperatures and under conditions at which the mixture of two liquid
phases mentioned above must necessarily have been present. These pressures
are given in the subjoined table as points on the experimental curve ¢ g.

From the sources mentioned the data have been collected and used to con-
struct a temperature-composition and a temperature-pressure diagram which
are attached to the paper.

Table of numerical values of the data represented by the chief points on the diagrams.

Tempera- | Composition
Name ture Centi-|=oxygen con-| Pressure Explanation
grade /tent per cent.
Points
a 1084 0:0 — | M.P. of pure Cu
b 1065 0°39 -— Cu, Cu,O eutectic
e 1195 2:26 — Invariant point. Phases
present: Solid Cu,0,
| liquidI. LiquidII. Gas.
d 1210 11°16 -= M.P. of pure Cu,0
e | ec. 1060 c. 14°8 c. 460 mm. | CuO, CuO eutectic
f 2c, 1240 20°10 ?20atm. | M.P. pure CuO
Curves |
960 — 50 mm. either
Bee | 1050 vk Biden. | As et curve of CuO
[| 1070 is 458 mm. | | ssociation pressure
| }
|
| 1205 —— 4mm.) Slade v. Farrow’s curve of
pes (| 1240 _ 10mm. | dissociation pressure of |
hae 1260 = 12 mm. the two liquid phases of
| 1324 -- 25 mm. the Cu,0, Cu mixture.

5. Equilibria of Reduction of Oxides by Carbon.
By R. E. Suave and G. I. Hieson.

The equilibrium pressures obtained when certain oxides are reduced by
carbon have been determined.
The reaction which takes place is of the type

MO+C.>CO4+M

where M denotes two equivalents of one of the following substances: V, Ta,
Cr, B, Mn, Sn.

In some cases a carbide is formed. This reaction is represented by the
equation—

2MO + 30 .>* M,C + 2C0.

In the experimental method employed there was always an excess of the free
metal present. In either case there are three components, M, C, and O, and
four phases, CO, M, MO, and either C or M,C. Therefore, there is one degree
“ om of the system. At each temperature there is a definite pressure
of CO. ;

The substance M was heated in an unglazed porcelain boat in vacuo, in the

i Oi ti

~~

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B, 451

furnace already described by one of us.’ CO was admitted and reacted with the
substance until the pressure had fallen to that of equilibrium. Some CO was
then pumped out and the equilibrium attained from the other side.

The upper limit of temperature in some cases was determined by the
volatility of the metal, the lower limit of temperature is 800°-900° when the
reaction

2CO = CO, + C

begins to take place to some extent.
Summary- of experimental results :—

Temperature Pressure

Vanadium . 5 : : : . 1340° 1-5 mm,
Tantalum . = c : : ; 3 La10e <0'l mm.
ULOTTILAI ie Nee TSE os. ate cl (oa! Lao 6°2 mm.
: - “ 1339° 9:2 mm.

Tin Pre ce OEE ool so) ete epee OU >760 mm.
fimo presence OLIO; se tes LOG” 670 mm.

The values of the equilibrium pressures have also been calculated on the basis
of the Nernst heat theorem, and the heats of reaction calculated from the
equilibrium pressures when the heats of reaction were not previously known.

6. The Dissociation Pressures of some Nitrides.
By R. E. Suave and G. I. Hiason.

The dissociation pressures of the nitrides of vanadium, tantalum, and boron
have been investigated.

The substance was heated in an unglazed porcelain boat in vacuo, in the
furnace previously described by one of us.* Nitrogen was admitted and was
absorbed by the substance to form nitride until the dissociation pressure was
attained. Some nitrogen was then pumped off and the equilibrium attained from
the other side.

Summary of experimental results :—

‘Temperature Pressure
Wanadiumi.5, cei). ia\s> tex 203° Not greater than 0-2 mm.
ye is 1271° Not greater than 1°5 mm.
Tantalum. . . : ~ ee LLTOS 0-4 mm.
IB OEOM em, sl. set tee ele ey bat Leeae Not greater than 9-4 mm.

The results were discussed from the point of view of the Nernst heat theorem.
7. The Solution of Gases in Metals. By Dr. A. Hour.

8. A Study of the Degradation or Enhancement of Quality of Com-
mercial Copper by the Presence of Impurities. By FrEpmrRick
Jounson, M.Sc.

In this paper the author surveyed the facts and theories which have been
brought to light of late years by modern scientific investigation of the influence
of traces of impurities upon the chemical, physical, and mechanical properties
of copper. Much of the mystery formerly attaching to defects during manu-
facture and failures in service has been cleared up, to the benefit alike of the
manufacturer and the user. Ancient and modern prejudice against the
presence of impurities such as oxygen and arsenic has been shown to have no
foundation in fact when certain uses of the copper are considered.

1 Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1912, vol. 87, A, p. 519.
aa2

452 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

The knowledge of metallurgical testing and analysis was shown to be
indispensable when the varying composition of commercial brands of crude
copper and the multitudinous uses to which refined copper is put are taken into
consideration.

Manufacturers should never lose sight of such fundamental considerations as
the following :—

1. To what degree the various impurities may be eliminated during refining
operations.

2. To what specifications (however imperfect such specifications may be) the
resulting changes may have to conform.

3. To what extent impurities may mutually react to the improvement or
detriment of the resulting material.

The author has given special attention to the influences of oxygen and
arsenic, whilst bismuth, lead, nickel, antimony, silicon, iron, phosphorus,
manganese, &c., are all dealt with in turn.

The evidence of the microscope was called largely into requisition and the
importance of various kinds of testing was emphasised.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 453

Section C.—GHOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION.—PrRoressor HE. J. Garwoop, M.A.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.
The President delivered the following Address :—

On the last occasion when members of the British Association met in Birming-
ham, in 1886, this Section was under the able presidency of my friend Professor
T. G. Bonney, who at that time occupied the chair of Geology in University
College, London. Fifteen years iater I succeeded him on his retirement from
that post, and to-day I succeed him as President of this Section, at the fifth
meeting of the Association at Birmingham; once more I feel the same diffidence
in following him in Birmingham as I did in London.

In his Address in 1886 Professor Bonney discussed the ‘ Application of
Microscopic Analysis to Discovering the Physical Geography of Bygone Ages.’

Strangely enough, this title might apply almost equally well to the subject
of my Address to-day ; but whereas Professor Bonney employed for his purpose
the evidence obtained from observations on mechanical sediments, I propose
to deal with certain organically formed deposits with the same object.

More than twenty years ago, whilst engaged in the study of the Lower
Carboniferous rocks of Westmorland, I noticed the occurrence of certain small
concretionary nodules of very compact texture, in the dolomites near the base
of the succession in the neighbourhood of Shap.

Shortly afterwards, when examining the Bernician rocks of Northumberland,
I again met with similar compact nodular structures. It was obvious, however,
even at that time, that the Northumberland specimens occurred here at a much
higher horizon than those which I had observed in Westmorland.

More recently, whilst studying the lithological characters of the Lower
Carboniferous rocks of the North of England and the Border country, I have
been still further impressed by the abundance of these nodular structures at
several horizons, and the large tracts of country over which they extend. An
examination of these nodules in thin sections showed their obvious organic
character, and I was at first inclined to refer them to the Stromatoporoids.
Dr. G. J. Hinde, who was kind enough to examine my specimens from the Shap
district, reported, however, that they were probably not Stromatoporoids, but
Caleareous Alge, and referred me to the descriptions of Solenopora published
by the late Professor Nicholson and Dr. Brown.

Since then I have examined a large number of nodules collected from
different horizons in the Lower Carboniferous rocks of Britain and Belgium;
and the examination has convinced me that the remains of Calcareous Algze
play a very much more important part in the formation of these rocks than has
hitherto been generally realised.

The majority of geologists in this country have been slow to recognise the

454 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

importance of these interesting organisms and, with the notable exception of
Sir Archibald Geikie’s text-book, we find but scant allusion in English geological
works of reference to the important part played by Calcareous Alge in the
formation of limestone deposits.*

From the more strictly botanical standpoint, however, we are indebted to
Professor Seward for an admirable account of the forms recognised as belonging
to this group up to the date of the publication of his text-book on Fossil Plants
in 1898; while in an article in Science Progress in 1894, he has also dealt with
their importance from a geological point of view.

Since these publications, not only have several new and important genera
been discovered in this country and abroad, but the forms previously known
have also been found to have a very much wider geological and geographical
range than was formerly suspected; and I venture to hope that a summary of
our knowledge of the part which they play as rock builders more especially in
British Paleozoic deposits, will serve to stimulate an interest in these somewhat
neglected organisms among geological workers in this country.

Previous to 1894, in which year Dr. Brown first referred Solenopora to the
Nullipores, we meet with little, if any, reference to the occurrence of fossil
Calcareous Alge in British deposits. ;

Indeed, in this country the subject has attracted but few workers, and they
can almost be counted on the fingers of one hand. When we have mentioned
the late Professor H. A. Nicholson and Mr. Etheridge, jun., Mr. E. Wethered,
Dr. Brown, Dr. Hinde, and Professor Seward, we have practically exhausted
the list of those who have contributed to our knowledge of the subject. To
these we may add the name of Mrs. Robert Gray, whose magnificent collection
of fossils from the Ordovician rocks of the Girvan district has always been
freely placed at the disposal of geological workers, and has furnished numerous
examples of these organisms to Professor Nicholson and the officers of the
Geological Survey.

It was Nicholson and Wethered who first recognised the important part
played in the formation of limestones, by certain organisms, which, though
referred at the time to the animal kingdom, are now generally considered to
represent the remains of Calcareous Alge.

The presence of these organisms in a fossil state, especially in the older
geological formations, has only been recognised in comparatively recent years;
though it was suggested as long ago as 1844 by Forchhammer ? that fucoids, by
abstracting lime from sea water, probably contributed to the formation of
Paleozoic deposits. When we remember that it was not until the researches
of Phillipi were published in 1837 that certain calcareous deposits were dis-
covered to be directly due to the growth of living forms of lime-secreting alge,
it is not surprising that, only in comparatively recent years, has the importance
of the fossil forms as rock-builders in past geological formations been recognised.

The original genera established by Phillipi—namely, Lithothamnion and
Lithophyllum—are now known to have a wide distribution in the present seas,
and it is therefore natural that it should be examples of these genera which were
the first to be recognised in a fossil state in Tertiary and, subsequently in Upper
Cretaceous rocks.

Thus in 1858, Professor Unger of Vienna showed the important part played
by Lithothamnion in the constitution of the Leithakalk of the Vienna Basin,
while seven years later, Rosanoff contributed further to our knowledge of Ter-
tiary forms. In 1871 Gimbel published his monograph on the ‘so-called
Nullipores found in limestone rocks,’ with special reference to the Litho-
amnion deposits of the Danian or Maestricht beds. Since then Zithothamnion
has also been reported from Jurassic rocks, and even from beds of Triassic age,
though in the latter case, at all events, the reference to this genus appears to
require confirmation. In this country the recognition of fossil Calcareous Algz
dates from a considerably later period. It will be best first to review the chief
genera which appear to be referable to the Calcareous Alge, and afterwards to
discuss the part they play as rock-builders in the different geological formations.

1 Geikie, T'eaxt-book of Geology, 4th ed., vol. i., pp. 605 and 611. 1903.
2 British Association Report, 1844, p. 155.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 455

Two important genera are usually recognised at the present day as occurring
in the British Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks—namely, Solenopora and Girvanella
—and to these I propose to add Wethered’s genus, Mitcheldeania, together with
certain new forms from the Carboniferous rocks of the North of England, which
appear also to be referable to this group.

Solenopora.

This genus was first created by Dybowski in 1877 for the reception of an
obscure organism, from the Ordovician rocks of Esthonia, which he described
under the name Solenopora spongicides and regarded as referable to the
Monticuliporoids.

Nicholson and Etheridge * in 1885 showed that the form described by Billings
in 1861 as Stromatopora compacta, from the Black River limestones of North
America, was in reality Dybowski’s genus Solenopora, and in all probability was
specifically identical with the form from Esthonia. Moreover, they considered
that the organism they themselves had described under the name of J'etradium
Peachii in 1877, from the Ordovician rocks of Girvan, was also referable to
Billings’s species, though perhaps a varietal form. Thus Solenopora compacta
was shown to have a very wide distribution in Ordovician times.

- Nicholson in 1888 defined the genus as including ‘ Calcareous organisms
which present themselves in masses of varying form and irregular shape, com-
posed wholly of radiating capillary tubes arranged in concentric strata. The
tubes are in direct contact, and no coenenchyma or interstitial tissue is present.
The tubes are thin-walled, irregular in form, often with undulated or wrinkled
walls, without mural pores, and furnished with more or fewer transverse
partitions or tabule.’ *

At that time Nicholson still considered Solenopora as representing a curious
extinct hydrozoan, though already, in 1885, Nicholson and Etheridge had
discussed its possible relationship to the Calcareous Alge. They did not,
however, consider that there was sufficient evidence for concluding that the
true structure of Solenopora was cellular, but added: ‘If evidence can be
obtained proving decisively the existence of a cellular structure in Solenopora,
then the reference of the genus to the Calcareous Algz would follow as a matter
of course.’ *

In 1894 Dr. A. Brown ‘ investigated more fully the material which had been
placed in his hands by Professor Nicholson, and gave an account of all the
forms referable to Solenopora known at that date.

To those already recorded, he added descriptions of four new species from
the Ordovician rocks—namely, S. lithothamnioides, S. fusiformis, S. nigra, and
S. dendriformis, the two latter being from the Ordovician rocks of Esthonia.

In the same paper also he published for the first time a description of a
new species of Solenopora from the Jurassic rocks of Britain, to which
Nicholson, in manuscript, had already assigned the name of S. jurassica,
though, as will be pointed out later, it is probable that two distinct forms
were included by Brown under this name.

This record of Solenopora from the lower Oolites of Britain extended the
known range of this genus, for the first time, well into the Jurassic period.
In this paper Brown first brought forward good evidence for removing
Solenopora from the animal kingdom, and placing it among the Coralline Alge,
and Professor Seward, in Volume I. of his work on Fossil Plants, considers that
there are good reasons for accepting this conclusion.

At the time of the publication of Dr. Brown’s paper, and for some years
afterwards, the only formations in which Solenopora was known to occur were
the Upper Ordovician and the lower Oolites. The diversity of forms, however,
met with in the Ordovician rocks, and their widespread distribution, pointed
to the probability of the existence of an ancestral form in the older rocks,
while it also appeared incredible that no specimens of intervening forms should

8 Geol. Mag., 1885, Dec. III., vol. II., p. 529.

4 Geol. Mag., 1888, Dec. III., vol. V., p. 19.

5 Op. cit. (8).

® Geol.*Mag., 1894, Dec. IV., vol. I., p. 145 et seq.

456 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION c.

have been preserved in the rocks representing the great time-gap between the
Ordovician and Jurassic formations.

In this connection Professor Seward remarks’ : ‘It is reasonable to prophesy
that further researches into the structure of ancient limestones will considerably
extend our knowledge of the geological and botanical history of the Coralli-
nacee.’ This prophecy has been amply fulfilled, especially as regards this
particular genus, and recent discoveries go far towards filling the previously
existing gaps in our knowledge of the vertical distribution of this interesting
genus.

Thus the recent detection in the lowest Cambrian rocks of the Antarctic
Continent of a form which appears to be referable to this genus enables us to
trace the ancestry of Solenopora back almost to the earliest rocks in which
fossils have yet been discovered, while the gap in the succession which pre-
viously existed between the Ordovician and Jurassic forms was decreased by the
description in 1908 by Professor Rothpletz of a new species Solenopora got-
landica, from the Silurian rocks of Farée Islands in Gotland.* A large number
of deposits, however, still remained, between the Gotlandian and lower Jurassic
beds, from which no example of Solenopora had so far been recorded.

The identification, therefore, a few years ago, by Dr. G. J. Hinde, of examples
of this genus from among the nodules I had collected from the Shap dolomites,
is of considerable interest, as the presence of Solenopora in the lower Car-
boniferous rocks of this country materially decreases the gap in our knowledge
of the succession of forms belonging to this genus, which had previously
existed.

Girvanella.

This organism, which is now known to be widely distributed in the
Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks of this country, was originally described in
1878 by Nicholson and Etheridge, jun., from the Ordovician rocks of the Girvan
district. The genus was established to include certain small nodular structures
composed of a felted mass of interlacing tubes, having a width of 10 and 18 yn,
the cells being typically simple, imperforate tubes without visible internal
partitions. The geno-type, G. problematica, was, however, at that time referred
to the Rhizopods and regarded as related to the arenaceous foraminifera.® In
1888 Nicholson, in redescribing this genus in the Geological Magazine, compares
Girvanclla with the recent form Syringammina fragillissima of Brady.

More recently Mr. Wethered has shown that an intimate association
frequently exists between Girvanella tubes and oolitic structure, and he has
described several new species of Girvanella, from the Paleozoic rocks and also
from certain Jurassic limestones.

The reference of Girvanella to the Calcareous Algw, though not yet sup-
ported by incontestable evidence, has been advocated by several writers in
recent years. Even as long ago as 1887, Bornemann, in describing examples
of Siphonema (Girvanella Nich.), which he had discovered in the Cambrian
rocks of the Island of Sardinia, suggested that this organism might belong
to the Calcareous Alge.

In 1891 Rothpletz ’° noticed that some of the specimens of Girvanella which
he had examined were characterised by dichotomous branching of the tubes;
on this account he removed the genus from the Rhizopods to the Calcareous
Alge, placing it provisionally among the Codiacew. Three years later Dr. A.
Brown, in summing up the evidence in favour of the inclusion of Solenopora
among the Nullipores, expressed the opinion that Girvanclla might ultimately
come to be regarded as referable to the Siphonee Verticillate.

In 1898, however, this genus was still only doubtfully placed with the
Calcareous Algz, for Seward, in his work on fossil plants,’* remarks : ‘ The nature
of Girvanella, and still more its exact position in the organic world, is quite
uncertain. . . . We must be content for the present to leave its precise nature

7 Fossil Plants, vol. I., p. 190, 1898.

8 Kungl. Svenska. Vets. akad. Handl. Bd. 43, No. 5, 1908, p. 14, pl. iv., pp. 1-5.
9 Silurian Fossils in the Girvan District, 1878, p. 23.

10 Zeitsch. d. D. Geol. Gesell., 1891. 1 Op. cit. (7), p. 125.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 457

still swb judice and, while regarding it as probably an alga, we may venture
to consider it more fittingly discussed among the Schizophyta than elsewhere.’
In 1908, however, Rothpletz, in discussing the relationship of Spherocodium
and Girvanella, reaffirms his opinion that the latter must be referred to the
Codiaceze.'?
Mitcheldeania.

This genus was first described by Mr. Edward Wethered from the Lower
Carboniferous beds of the Forest of Dean’* under the name of Mitcheldeania
Nicholsoni; it was referred by him to the Hydractinide, and considered to be
allied to the Stromatoporoids. The figure accompanying this paper unfor-
tunately fails to show any of the characters of the organism, but a better
figure of the same species was subsequently published in the Proceedings of
the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field Club."

In 1888 Prof. H. A. Nicholson ** published in the Geological Magazine figures
and descriptions of a new species of this genus (J. gregaria), and redefined
the genus as having ‘the form of small, rounded or oval calcareous masses
made up of capillary tubes of an oval or circular shape, which radiate from
a central point or points, and are intermixed with an interstitial tissue of
very much more minute branching tubuli.’ He compares the larger tubes to
zooidal tubes, and states that they ‘communicate with one another by means
of large, irregularly-placed foramina resembling ‘‘the mural pores” of the
Favositide, and they occasionally exhibit a few irregular transverse partitions
or tubule.’

With regard to the systematic position of this genus, Nicholson remarks :
“In spite of the extreme minuteness of its tissues, the genus Witcheldcania
may, I think, be referred with tolerable certainty to the Celenterata .. . its
closest affinities seem to be with the Hydrocorallines . . . on the other hand
all the known hydrocorallines possess zooidal tubes which are enormously larger
than those of Mitcheldeania; and there are other morphological features in
the latter genus which would preclude its being actually placed, with our
present knowledge, in the group of the Hydrocoralline.’

Since this description by Prof. Nicholson, no further account of this organism,
so far as I am aware, has been published, and its reference to the Hydrozoa
rests on Prof. Nicholson’s description.

During the past few years I have collected a large amount of material
from beth of the type localities from which Mr. Wethered and Prof. Nicholson
obtained their specimens, and an examination of this material has impressed
me strongly with the resemblance of Mitcheldcania to forms such as Solenopora
and Girvanella, now usually classed among the Calcareous Algw. In the rocks
in which it occurs Mitcheldeania appears as rounded and lobulate nodules,
breaking with porcellanous fracture and showing concentric structure on
weathered surfaces, very similar to nodules of Solenopora; while under the
microscope the branching character of the tubules and their comparatively
minute size appear to separate them from the Monticuliporoids. Prof. Nicholson
appears to rely on the presence of pores, which he thought he observed in the
walls of both the larger and finer tubes, for the inclusion of this genus with
the Hydrocorallines, though he appeared to be doubtful about their occurrence
in the interstitial tubuli. An examination of a large number of slides has
failed to convince me of the presence of pores, even in the larger ‘ zooidal
tubes.’ The large ‘oval or circular’ apertures noticed by Nicholson appear
to be either elbows in the undulating tubes cut across where these bend away
from the plane of the section, or places where a branch is given off from a
tube at an angle to the plane of the section. If this view be accepted, there
appears to be no sufficient reason why Mitcheldeania should not be ranged with
Solenopora and other similar forms, and included among the Calcareous Algw—
a position which its mode of occurrence and general structure has led me, for
some time, to assign to this organism.

In addition to the three chief forms described above from British rocks, a

12 Op. cit. (8).

13 Geol. Mag., Dec. III., Vol. IIT., p. 585, 1886.
M Vol. IX., p. 77, pl. v., 1886.

19 Op. cit. (4), p. 16.

458 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

study of numerous thin sections from the Lower Carboniferous rocks of the

north-west of England has revealed the presence of several distinct organisms,

nee will, I think, eventually be found to be referable to the Calcareous
ge.

This meagre list appears to exhaust the genera known at the present time
from the Lower Carboniferous rocks of Britain; and the only lime secreting
plant so far recorded from the Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks of this country (if
we except Rothpletz’s sub-genus Solenoporella) is Chara from the Wealden
beds of Sussex, the uppermost Jurassic of the Isle of Wight and Swanage,
and the Oligocene of the Isle of Wight.

Outside of this country the literature on fossil Calcareous Alge is much
more extensive. The interest originally aroused on the Continent by the
writings of Phillipi, of Unger of Vienna, Cohn, Rosanoff, Giimbel, Saporta, and
Munier-Chalmas has been further maintained in our own time by Bornemann,
Steinmann, Frith, Solms-Laubach,*® Rothpletz, Walther, Kiaer, and others;
while the more favourable conditions which obtained for the growth of these
organisms, especially during Silurian, Triassic, and Tertiary times, has afforded
a much wider field for their observation.

Thus, in addition to the forms recorded from this country, an important
part has been played by members of the family of the Dasycladacee, together
with such genera as Spherocodium, Lithothamnion, and Lithophyllum.

It is now time to consider the part played by these organisms in the formation
of the sedimentary rocks through the successive geological periods.

ARCH HAN,

In the Archean rocks no undoubted remains of algz# have yet, so far as 1
am aware, been recorded, but Sederholm considers that certain small nodules
in the Archean schists of Finland may represent vegetable remains. I may
also perhaps here refer to some curious oolitic structures which I met with in
Spitsbergen in 1896 when examining the rocks of Hornsund Bay. These
oolites occur on the south side of the Bay, and are closely connected with
massive siliceous rocks which may represent old quartzites. The whole series
is much altered, and detailed structure cannot now be made out. The rocks
occur apparently stratigraphically below the massif of the Hornsund Tinde, and
may belong either to the Archean or the base of the Heckla Hook series. As,
however, similar rocks have not been recorded from the type district of Heckla
Hook, they may be referred provisionally to the Algonkian, and may represent
the quartzites and earthy limestone of the Jotnian series of Scandinavia.
They are mentioned here in connection with Mr. Wethered’s view that oolites
are essentially associated with the growth of Girvanella.

CAMBRIAN.

Passing on to the Palwozoic rocks, we find in the Cambrian deposits very
few indications that Calcareous Algz played any considerable part in their
formation.

This is no doubt due, to some extent, to the conditions under which these
deposits accumulated in the classical localities where true calcareous deposits are
typically absent. In the Durness limestone, however, where considerable
masses of dolomites occur, the conditions would appear at first sight to have
been more suitable for the growth of these organisms; but even here the slow
rate of accumulation and the large amount of contemporaneous solution may
have militated against their preservation. At the same time, it is possible
that a systematic search in the calcareous facies of the Cambrian rocks in the
north of Europe and America may result in the discovery of the remains of
some members of this group. That there is ground for this suggestion is
shown by recent work in the Antarctic Continent. i

Professor Edgworth David and Mr. Priestly have discovered among the
rocks on the north-west side of the Beardmore Glacier dark grey and
pinkish grey limestone containing the remains of Archzeocyathine, Trilobites,
and sponge spicules, together with abundant remains of a small Calcareous

16 Fossil Botany, Oxford, 1891.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 459

Alga referred provisionally to Solenopora. From the photographs exhibited by
Professor David on the occasion of his address to the Geological Society
I have little doubt that this reference is correct.

A further occurrence of Solenopora is also reported from fragments of a lime-
stone'breccia collected by the Southern party from the western lateral moraine
of the same glacier. Speaking of the fauna discovered in this limestone, Prof.
David remarks : ‘ The whole assemblage is so closely analogous with that found
in the Lower Cambrian of South Australia as to leave no doubt as to the

~~»~-geological age of-the limestones from which these fragments are derived.'7 This
discovery, therefore, extends the vertical range of this widely distributed genus
down to the oldest Paleozoic rocks. It is interesting to note that the rocks in
which the Solenopora occurs on the Antarctic Continent contain a development of
pisolite and oolite, and that this is also the case in the Australian equivalents.
In 1887 and again in 1891 Bornemann described and figured species of Siphonema
and Confervites ** from the Archaocyathus limestones of Sardinia. As regards
the former genus, it was shown by Dr. Hinde’® to be congeneric with Girvanella
(Nich and Eth). It is of interest, however, to note that Bornemann describes
this form as a Calcareous Alga, and compares it with existing sub-aerial alge
growing on the surface of limestone rocks in Switzerland. The latter is stated
by Seward to be possibly ‘a Cambrian alga, but the figures and descriptions
do not afford by any means convincing evidence.’

More recently, in 1904, Dr. T. Lorenz *° has described remains of Siphoneee
from the Cambrian rocks of 'Tschang-duang in Northern China, for which
he erects two new genera, Ascosoma and Mitscherlichia, placing them in a
new family, the Ascosomacew. These alge build important beds of limestone,
the individuals often attaining a length of 4 cm. and a thickness of 15 cm.
In 1907 Bailey reported Girvanella associated with oolites in the lowest Cambrian
Man-t’o beds in China. It is probable, therefore, that as our knowledge of
these rocks is extended, Calcareous Alge will be found to play an important part
in the Cambrian limestones of the Asiatic Continent and Australia.”*

ORDOVICIAN.

In the Ordovician rocks, the remains of Calcareous Algze are much more
abundant; they are very widely distributed and for the first time they become
important rock-builders. In Britain, the chief genera met with are Girvanella
and Solenopora. These two organisms occur abundantly in the Scottish
Ordovician rocks of the Girvan area, where they appear to have contributed
largely to the limestones of the Barr Series in Llandeilo-Caradoc times.

As already mentioned, the genotype of Girvanella—G. problematica—was
originally described by the late Professor Nicholson and Mr. Etheridge, jun.,
from the Craighead limestone, where it occurs in great numbers at Tramitchell.
The officers of the Geological Survey also report it from the Stinchar limestone of
Benan Hill.”

It occurs in the form of small rounded or irregular nodules, varying in
diameter from less than a millimetre to more than a centimetre—many of the
nodulés showing marked concentric structure. During a recent visit to Girvan
I was much struck by the important part played by this organism in the forma-
tion of these upper ‘ compact’ limestones. In Benan Burn, where these beds
are admirably exposed, the Girvanella nodules appear conspicuously on the
weathered surfaces, being so abundant as to constitute thick layers of limestone.

Solenopora compacta var. Peachii, which, likewise, forms important masses
of limestone, is found, like Girvanella problematica, most abundantly in the
Girvan area, but at a somewhat lower horizon, namely, in the ‘nodular limestone’
and shales forming the lower sub-division of the Stinchar Limestone. It was

11 Eleventh International Geol. Congress Report, 1910, p. 77%.

18 Nova Acta Ces. Leop. Car. 1887 and 1891.

19 Hinde, Geol. Mag., 1887, Dec. III., vol. IV., p. 226.

20 Centralb. Min., 1904, p. 193.

*t Chapman, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., 1911, p. 308.

2 Mem. Geol. Surv. United Kingdom. The Silurian Rocks of Britain vol. I.,
Scotland, pp. 487, 494, 496, 500.

460 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION ©.

originally described by Nicholson and Etheridge, jun., under the name 7'etradium
Peachit, from pebbles of the Old Red Conglomerate of Habbie’s Howe, and was
afterwards discovered to occur plentifully in the Ordovician limestone at
Tramitchell and Craighead. It was subsequently found by Nicholson to be
synonymous with the form Solenopora (Stromatopora) compacta (Bill). At
Craighead it occurs in the shales as spheroidal and botryoidal nodules up to
4 cm. in diameter, while in the limestone itself the nodules may have a diameter
of 75cm. On freshly fractured surfaces it appears as buff-coloured on brownish
spots, having a compact porcellaneous texture, while weathered surfaces often
show a concentric structure. Under the microscope the tubes of this species
vary in diameter from 50-804.

In the Geological Survey Memoir it is recorded, under the original name
of Tetradium Peachii, from the Stinchar Limestone of Benan Burn, Millenderdale,
and Bougang, where it is accompanied by two other species, 8. filiformis and
S. fusiformis,”= which contribute conspicuously to the deposit, often forming
large masses of limestone. The horizon of the Stinchar Limestone is correlated
by Professor Lapworth with the Craighead Limestone, and considered to repre-
sent the summit of the Llandeilo or the base of the Caradoc rocks of the Shrop-
shire district. It is of interest to note that Solenopora is here accompanied at
times by well-marked oolitic structure, and that the same is true of the pebbles
with which it is associated in the conglomerate at Habbie’s Howe.

Although the marked development of Solenopora found in the Stinchar Lime-
stone ceases with the advent of the Benan conglomerate, the genus appears to
have survived in the Girvan district into Upper Caradoc times, for Dr. Brown
describes a new species (S. lithothamnioides) from Nicholson’s collection from the
Ordovician (? Silurian) beds at Shalloch Mill, where it is said to occur in conical
masses the size of a walnut. The only beds in which we might expect alge to
occur in this locality are the nodular limestones or Dionide beds of the White-
house Group of Professor Lapworth’s classification, but there is no mention of
T'etradium or Solenopora from this locality in the fossil lists cited from Mrs.
Gray’s collection in the Survey Memoir.

As this point is of some interest, I have consulted Mrs. Gray, who very
kindJy sent me some small nodules which she had collected from the Whitehouse
beds of Shalloch Mill. On slicing one of these I find that it is undoubtedly
a Solenopora, and probably the species figured by Dr. Brown as S. lithotham-
nioides. A tangential section cut from this specimen shows clearly how the
original specimen of Solenopora from Craighead was originally confused with
Tetradium by Nicholson and Etheridge, jun.

South of the Scottish Border there is, so far as I am aware, only one
locality from which Calcareous Algz have been recorded in rocks of Ordovician
age, namely, Hoar Edge in Shropshire. Here large examples of Solenopora
compacta were obtained in 1888 by Professor Lapworth from the calcareous
layers near the base of the Hoar Edge Sandstone. The specimens were handed
to Professor Nicholson, who records the circumstance in his description of
S. compacta in 1888.24 The form occurs here at the base of the Caradoc beds,
and therefore at an horizon which corresponds closely to that of the Craighead
Limestone of Girvan.

Professor Lapworth also informs me that he has obtained specimens of
Solenopora from a limestone in south-west Radnorshire. As the upper portion
of the limestone in which it is found contains a Silurian fauna, it is possible
that it is here present at a higher horizon, though the constancy with which
it occurs elsewhere, in beds of Llandeilo-Caradoc age, would seem to point to
the possibility that beds of Upper Ordovician age are also present in. this area.
In any case, its occurrence here is of considerable interest.

Foreign Ordovician.

Outside of Britain, the most important development of Calcareous Alge in
rocks of Ordovician age occurs in the Baltic Provinces.

As already stated Solenopora was first recorded from Herrkill in Esthonia,
by) Dybowski under the name of Solenopora spongioides. It occurs here in

23 Brown, op. cit. (*), pp. 195-197. 24 Op. cit. (4), p. 22.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 461

the Upper Caradoc or Borckholm beds of Schmidt’s classification—where it
makes up thick beds of limestone—and it is noteworthy that this horizon is
practically identical with that at which 8. lithothamnioides (Brown) occurs at
Shalloch Mill.

Other specimens of Svlenopora were collected by Professor Nicholson in
Saak, south of Reval, from the underlying Jewe beds, an horizon which must
correspond very closely to that of the Craighead Limestone of Girvan. Speaking
of these beds, Nicholson and Etheridge remark: ‘At this locality 8S. compacta
not only occurs as detached specimens of all sizes, but it also makes up almost
entire beds of limestone, indeed, some of the bands of limestone at Saak look
like amygdaloidal lavas, while others have a cellulac appearance from the
dissolution out of them of the little pea-like skeletons of this fossil.’

In Professor Nicholson’s collection from these beds Dr. Brown” afterwards
distinguished two new species—namely, S. nigra and S. dendriformis. Thus
in the Ordovician rocks of Esthonia, Solenopora plays quite as important a
part (as a rock-forming organism) as it does in the Girvan district in Ayrshire.

In Norway again, in the Mjésen district to the north of Christiania, Soleno-

pora occurs plentifully in Stage 5 of Kiaer’s°’ Ordovician series. Here it is very
abundant and often builds entire beds, while, further east, at Furnberg, Kiaer
again records the occurrence of abundant nodules uf Solenopora compacta, var.
Peachii,
In addition to Solenopora, however, examples of another important group
of Calcareous Algz, the Siphonez, occur in great abundance in the Ordovician
rocks of the Baltic region, where they play a part in the formation of cal-
careous rocks, scarcely less important than that played by Gyroporella and
Diplopora in the rocks of the Alpine Trias.

The chief forms belong to the family of the Dasycladacee, which is repre-
sented in our present seas by the recent genus Neomeris; they include the genera
Paleoporella, Dasyporella, Rhabdoporella, Vermiporella, Cyclocrinus, and
Apidium. These algal limestones represent the horizons from the Jewe Lime-
stone to the Borckholm beds inclusive. They were originally investigated by
Dr. EK. Stolley,** who described their occurrence in the numerous boulders which
are strewn over the North German plain in Schleswig-Holstein, Pomerania,
Mecklenburg, and Mark-Brandenberg. Many of these boulders can be identified
by their lithological character and fossil contents as belonging to the Jewe
beds of the Baltic Ordovician formations. Others have been derived from
the overlying Wesenberg limestones, while yet others occur which resemble
the Lyckholm beds of the Baltic succession. This assemblage proves that the
boulders did not originate on the Swedish continent, but from the more easterly-
lying districts, probably from a part of the Baltic between Oeland and Estland,
now covered by the sea. Similar boulders are also known at Lund in Scheenen,
on Bornholm, and near Wisby in the North of Gotland.

These facts appear to show that during the deposition of the Jewe and the
overlying Wesenberg and Lyckholm limestones an algal facies obtained which
extended from Oeland to Estland and as far north as the Gulf of Bothnia.

But even this area does not represent the full extent of this algal limestone
facies in the North of Europe in Upper Ordovician times. In Norway, Kiaer **
has shown by his detailed work in the Upper Ordovician rocks, Stage 5 of the
Christiania district, the important part played by the Dasycladacee in this area.
Here the Gastropod limestone in places forms a ‘ phytozoan limestone,’ made up
of Rhabdoporella, Vermiporella, and Apidium associated with a considerable
development of oolite.

Again at Kuven and Valle, in the Bergen district, Reusch *° and Kolderup *!
have described knolls of crystalline limestone containing abundant remains of

2 Op. cit. (*), p. 534. 28 Op. cit. (6).

27 Faunistische Uebersicht d. Et. 5. Vid.-Selsk. Skr. 1877, No. 3.

8 Schr. d. naturw. Ver. f. Schleswig Holstein Bd. XI. 1897, and references there given.

9 Etage 5%. Asker. Norges Geol. Undersogeles Aarbog, 1902, No. i.

30 Silurfossiler og pressede Konglomerater 1882 and Bommelgen og Karn. ben. Med.
omgivelser 1888.

51 Ht orienterende niveau Bergensskiferne. Rhabdoporellenkalk von Kuven und
Valle. Bergens Museums Aarbog, 1897.

462 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION O.

Rhabdoporella (formerly described as Syringophyllum) associated with a
gastropod and coral fauna. This horizon, they have unhesitatingly referred to
zone 5a of Kiaer’s Christiania sequence and state that it may be found stretch-
ing from Geitero in the §8.S.W. by Kuven, Valle, and Trengereid to Skarfen on
Osterg while Reusch has traced it further south to Stordg, near Dyviken and
Vikenes. We have, therefore, in Upper Ordovician times, in the north of
Europe, one of the most remarkable developments of algal limestones met with
throughout the geological succession.

In North America Calcareous Alge are represented in Ordovician times by
Solenopora compacta, which occurs in the Trenton and Black River limestone
groups, whence it was originally described by Billings under the name of
Stromatapora compacta. It therefore occurs in America at about the same
horizon as in Saak and Britain.

We may also note the occurrence of Girvanella in the underlying Chazy
limestone. It was originally described by the late Professor H. M. Seeley **
under the name of Strephochetus ocellatus, but is now generally admitted to be
a species of Girvanella.**

Other forms referred to this genus have also been reported by Schuchert
from rocks of undoubted Ordovician age on the east coast of the Behring
Straits.**

SILURIAN.

In Britain the only horizon of Silurian age at which Calcareous Alge play an
important part is the Wenlock Limestone. Mr. Wethered some years ago from
the beds of this age described the occurrence of Girvanella tubes at May Hill,
Purley, near Malvern, and Ledbury.*® Of these beds Mr. Wethered remarks :
‘The most interesting result of the microscopic study of these rocks was the
discovery of new and interesting forms of Girvanella and the fact that this
organism has taken so important a part in building up the limestone.’ It may
here be mentioned that it was whilst studying these forms in the Wenlock
Limestone that Mr. Wethered first began to favour the suggestion of Rothpletz,
published two years previously, that Girvanella might belong to the Calcareous
Algee, for he remarks : ‘TI certainly think that the forms which I have discovered
in the Wenlock Limestone seem more favourable to the vegetable theory of the
origin of this fossil than those described in my former paper, and possibly it
may be allied to the Calcareous Alge.’

So far as I can ascertain, this is all that has been published up to the
present time with regard to the occurrence of Calcareous Alege in British
Silurian rocks; but I have every confidence that a more thorough microscopic
examination of these rocks will reveal the presence of other examples of this
interesting group of organisms.

Foreign Silurian.

Outside of Britain we find at this period, however, a marked algal development,
and this again occurs in the Baltic area, where, especially in the island of
Gotland, algal growths contribute largely to several of the limestones and
marls. It is an interesting fact that very shortly after the disappearance of
the various members of the Dasycladacece which were so much in evidence in
Ordovician times, we should have the remarkable development of another group
of the Siphonee, which, quickly reaching a maximum, built up in their turn
abundant calcareous deposits. Nodules from these limestones have long been
known from Gotland under the name of ‘Girvanella Rock,’ and have been
recorded by Stolley ** in boulders scattered over the North German plain. In
1908, however, Professor Rothpletz showed, in his interesting work on these
Gotland deposits,*’ that the forms hitherto alluded to under the term ‘ Gir-
vanella’ were in reality referable to two different genera. One of these he
showed to be a new species of Solenopora, to which he gave the name S. got-

8 Am. Journ. Sci., vol. XXX., 1885, p. 355.

83 Op. cil. (19) *4 See Haug. vol. II., pt. 1, p. 643.
8 Q.J.G.8., vol. xlix., p. 236, 1893. 36 Op. cit. (8). 87 Op, cit. (8).

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 463

landica (distinguished from S. compacta by the comparatively small dimensions
of the tubes, which are only about one quarter of the diameter of the latter
species) ; the other he referred to his genus Spherocodium, which he had created
in 1890 for certain forms from the Alpine Trias.** The presence here of Soleno-
pora in beds of undoubted Silurian age is an interesting fact and would lead
us to expect that it may also some day be met with in rocks of a corresponding
age in Britain.

Of the different forms of alge which occur in these Gotlandian deposits,
perhaps the most interesting is Spha@rocodium, which occurs at several horizons
in the succession. It first makes its appearance in the marl immediately over-
lying the Dayia flags—approximately of Lower Ludlow age—where it occurs in
considerable masses. Through the kindness of Dr. Munthe,®? who has made a
special study of these beds in southern Gotland, I have been able to examine
specimens of this interesting genus. In external appearance they resemble very
closely nodules of Ortonella from the Lower Carboniferous rocks of the N.W. of
England ; some of the nodules appear to have reached a diameter of 4 cms. The
marl is overlain by sandstone and oolite, which are succeeded by an argillaceous
limestone rich in nodules of Sphawrocodium gotlandicum and well exposed at
Grotlingbo, where it is closely associated with oolite. Among the fossils of this
limestone Spheerocodium itself plays the most important réle.

In the overlying ‘Iliona Limestone,’ Spherocodium is decidedly rare and its
place is taken by Spongiostroma. It is, however, found not infrequently forming
_a thin crust on the surface of the nodules of Spongiostroma. In appearance,
Spongiostroma resembles very closely the nodules of Spherocodium, showing the
same concentric arrangement round coral fragments and a total absence of the
radial structure which is so characteristic of Solenopora.

The actual systematic position of this organism, if organism it be, is still
undecided. In his original description of this genus from the Carboniferous
rocks of Belgium, Giirich *°® refers it provisionally to the Protozoa, while Roth-
pletz,* who has described two species S. balticum and S. Holmi from the Got-
landian of Gotland, although admitting the difficulties of assigning it to any
group of the animal kingdom, decides in favour of its hydrozoan affinities.

As will be pointed out later, there appears to be no good reason why
Spongiostroma may not be indirectly due to the presence of algal growths; but
whatever may be the final position assigned to it, there can be no doubt as to its
importance as a rock-building form in the Iliona limestone of Gotland. The wide
extent of this algal horizon in the Upper Silurian of the Baltic area is shown
by the abundance of boulders of these rocks scattered over Schleswig-Holstein,
and it is probable that a careful examination will show the presence of this
facies in the Silurian of the eastern Baltic Provinces.

We may conclude, therefore, that the development of the Spherocodium
beds of Gotland probably originally occupied nearly as wide an extension in the
Baltic area as did the Rhabdoporella Limestones during the Ordovician Period.

With regard to other occurrences of Calcareous Alge in Silurian rocks, it will
be sufficient to note that of Girvanedla in the Silurian limestones of Queensland,
recorded by Mr. G. W. Card in 1900,*° and more recently by Mr. Chapman
from Victoria.**

Quite recently Mr. R. Etheridge, jun., of Sydney,** has described ‘an
organism allied to Mitcheldeania from the Upper Silurian rocks of New South
Wales’; the figures given, however, and the description are not convincing
that his identification can be accepted. The size of the tubes, which are from
five to six times as large as those of I. gregaria, would alone appear to remove
this organism from Mr. Wethered’s genus and also possibly from the Calcareous
Alge.

88 Bot. Cent., vol. LIL., p. 9, 1890.

89 Geol. Foren. Férhandl. Stockholm, 1910, Bd. 32, H. 5, p. 1397.
40 Mem. du Musée Roy. d Hist. Nat. de Belgique, tome III., 1906.
4l Op. cit. (°).

“2 Bull. Geol. Surv. Queensland, No. 12, pp. 25-32, pl. III. 1900,

43 Rep. Austr. Assn. Adv. Sci., 1907-1908.

44 Rec. Geol. Surv. N. 8S. Wales, vol. 8, pt. 4, 1909, p. 308, pl. 47.

464 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

DEVONIAN.

So far as I am aware, there is only one recorded occurrence of Calcareous
Algze from the Devonian rocks of Britain—namely, the Hope’s Nose limestone
of Devonshire, from which Mr. Wethered *° has described aggregations of tubules
resembling Gurvanella, but ina very poor state of preservation. It is hoped that
this meagre record will be increased in the near future.

Foreign Devonian.

On the Continent the reported occurrences are, so far, equally poor. At the
same time, the cursory examination which I was able to make of the thin sections
of the Devonian limestones exhibited in the Brussels Museum leads me to expect
that a careful investigation of the Belgian Devonian limestones will yield other
examples besides Spongiostroma.

CARBONIFEROUS.,.

We now reach the period in Paleozoic times when Calcareous Algve attained
their maximum development in England, a development rivalling that which
obtained in the Ordovician rocks of Scotland and the Gotlandian of the Baltic
area. The genera represented include Girvanella, Solenopora, and Mitcheldeania,
while in addition to these there occur several lime-secreting organisms which,
though still undescribed, will, I think, ultimately come to be included among
the Calcareous Alge. The most interesting of these organisms I have recently
figured from the Lower Carboniferous rocks of Westmorland, where it forms a
definite zonal horizon or ‘band.’ *® For this form, on account of its strati-
graphical importance and for facility of reference, I propose the generic name
of Ortonella.”’

Again, at the same horizon in the North-West Province I have frequently
noticed concretionary deposits of limestone which occur as finely laminated
masses, the lamin often lying parallel to the general direction of the bedding
planes, which, on microscopic examination, show no definite or regular structure,
but have every appearance of being of organic origin. Many of these puzzling
forms resemble very closely the somewhat obscure structures found in the Visean
limestones of the Namur basin in Belgium, of which beautiful thin sections
are displayed in the Natural History Museum at Brussels,*® and which Girich
has described and figured under various names—Spongiostroma, Malacostroma,
&c., and which he has included under a new family, the Spongiostromide,** and
a new order, the Spongiostromacee. He gives the following definition of the
family : ‘ Organismes marins, incrustants, coloniaux, a structure stratifiée. La
structure de la colonie est indiquée, a l’état fossile, par la disposition de petits
grains opaques (granulations), entre lesquels il y a des interstices, tantot plus
étroits, tantot plus larges—canaux du tissu et canaux coloniaux—donnant
Naissance & un tissu spongieux. Dans plusieurs formes, on a observé des
Stercomes,’ and suggests that they may possibly have been encrusting
foraminifera.

I must confess that neither in the original sections nor in the beautiful
iliustrations which accompany his work, can I see any grounds for referring
these structures to the Protozoa.

As regards the British specimens, I have long regarded them as due, directly
or indirectly, to the work of Calcareous Alge, partly on account of their intimate
association with well-developed examples of these organisms, and also on
account of the entire absence of foraminifera and other detrital organisms
wherever this structure occurs. As, however, I have little doubt that they
are closely connected in their mode of origin with the Belgian specimens, we
tnay conveniently speak of them under the general term Spongiostroma.

Some of the best examples known to me occur associated with Ortonella in

# Q.J.G.S., 1892, vol. XLVIII., p. 377, pl. ix., fig. 3.

46 Q.J.G.S., 1912, vol. LXVIII., pl. LXVIL., fig. 2.

47 From Orton, a village between Shap and Ravenstonedale, where this organism
occurs in great abundance.

48 One of these is also exhibited at the Jermyn Street Museum.

49 Op. cit. (2).

LS ——<=<x<—

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 465

the ‘ Productus globosus band’ near the summit of the ‘ Athyris glabristria zone’
in the Shap district. They occur here in considerable masses, often many
inches in thickness, and form undulating layers parallel to the bedding, and
somewhat resembling huge ripple-marks. Thin sections show little definite
structure, but consist of what appears to be an irregular flocculent precipitate
of carbonate of lime, the interstices being filled with secondary calcite. Some
of the layers resemble almost exactly, both in hand specimens and microscopic
structure, the figures of Malacostroma concentricum given by Girich in plates
XVII. and XX.°° Others approach closely to the same author’s figures of
Spongiostroma, Aphrostroma, etc. In all cases they appear to be due to the
precipitation of carbonate of lime in the neighbourhood of algal growths. I
have also met with similar deposits, not only at other horizons in the Lower
Carboniferous rocks of the North of England, but also in the Forest of Dean and
in the rocks of the Avon Gorge; while quite recently Mr. C. H. Cunnington
has sent me examples from several horizons in the Carboniferous Limestones of
South Wales.

Girvanella.

This organism appears to play a considerable part in the formation of
calcareous deposits in the Lower Carboniferous rocks of Britain. Its presence
in these rocks was first suggested by the late Proiessor Nicholson,*! in his paper
where he remarks: ‘I have found some of the Carboniferous Limestone of the
North of England to contain largely an ill-preserved organism which will, I think,
prove to be referable to Girvanella.’ This prophecy has turned out to be fully
justified not only as regards the North of England, but also in the case of the
Lower Carboniferous beds of other districts. In 1890 Mr. E. Wethered
described °° two new forms of this genus from the Lower Carboniferous rocks of
the Avon Gorge and Tortworth, viz. : G. incrustans, with ‘ubes having a diameter
of O11 mm., and G. Ducii with a diameter of ‘(02 mm. Mr. Wethered appears to
rely chiefly on the size of the tubes for the differentiation of these species, but
as this distinction was made at the time when Girvanella was still considered to
belong to the Rhizopods, and as the size of the tubes frequently varies in the
same specimen, it is doubtful whether these species can be maintained. Mr.
Wethered’s specimens were obtained from the limestone near where the Bridge
Valley Road joins the river bank, apparently at the base of Dr. Vaughan’s Upper
Dibunophyllum Zone. The position of this limestone is of interest, as it appears
to correspond very closely with the horizon of the ‘ Girvanella Nodular Bed,’
which forms a well-marked band at the base of the Upper Dibunophyllum Zone
throughout the whole of the North and North-West of England. Indeed, I have
traced this band at intervals from the neighbourhood of Ford, near the Scottish
Border, southwards through Northumberland and the Pennine area to Penygent,
and from the west coast at Humphrey Head through Arnside and Shap to the east
coast, near Dunstanburgh. These organisms must, therefore, have flourished
over an area of at least 3,000 square miles in the North of England alone.

The Girvanella tubes found associated with these nodules usually occur in
two distinct sizes having diameters of ‘03 and ‘01 mm. respectively. | The
two forms are closely associated, but the finer tubes occur in greater abund-
ance, and are much more closely interlaced. They resemble Mr. Wethered’s
description of the two species from Gloucestershire, and the figures he
gives in illustration of these might serve very well to represent our northern
forms.

The best exposure showing the important development of these Girvanella
nodules is to be found on the dip slopes forming the eastern shore of Humphrey
Head in Morecambe Bay, where the base of the Upper Dibunophyllum zone
is exposed over a considerable area.

Solenopora.
The discovery of this genus in the Lower Carboniferous rocks of Westmor-
land is of considerable interest, as its occurrence here gives us some insight into

°0 Op. cit. (2). 51 Op. cit. (4), p. 24.
” Q.J.G.S., 1890, vol. 46, p. 280, pl. XI., figs. 1 and 2.
1913, HH

466 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C._

the history of its wanderings between the time when we last recorded it in
the Gotlandian rocks of the Baltic Area, and its subsequent reappearance
in the Lower Oolite of Gloucestershire. Whether it lived in the Baltic area
during the Devonian and Carboniferous periods is, however, still unknown.
The fact of its occurrence in the Caradoc, Carboniferous and Jurassic rocks
of the British Isles would appear to point to its existence not far off during
the intervening periods, and I have hopes that before long it may be found
in the Silurian, and possibly also in the Devonian rocks of this country.

In Westmorland and Lancashire Solenopora occurs in considerable abundance
near the local base of the Lower Carboniterous rocks, and contributes largely
to the formation of limestone deposits. It is present wherever the lowest beds
of the succession are exposed, as at Shap, Ravenstonedale, and Meathop, and
must formerly have flourished over a considerable area.

Though bearing a general resemblance, both in hand specimens and in micro-
scopic structure to the Ordovician and Jurassic forms, it has recently been
shown by Dr. G. J. Hinde to be specifically distinct.** It occurs as small,
spheroidal nodules up to an inch in diameter, having a markedly lobulate
outline embedded in compact and usually dolomitic limestones, and it is
occasionally associated with oolitic structure. When fractured, it exhibits
the compact porcellanous texture and pale brownish tint, characteristic of
specimens of the genus found at other horizons, while weathered surfaces
frequently show a concentric and occasionally a radially fibrous structure. It
is noteworthy that the thallus of this organism shows no trace of dolomitisation,
even when embedded in limestone containing over 30 per cent. of MgCo,. The
profusion of this form in Westmorland would lead one to expect its occurrence
in other districts where the lowest Carboniferous zones are developed; but
so far as I am aware, no such occurrence has yet been recorded. It may
be of interest, therefore, to mention here that a few years ago my friend,
Mr. P. de G. Benson, brought me a specimen of rock from near the base of the
succession in the Avon Gorge, which on cutting I found to contain several
examples of Solenopora identical with the Westmorland form. It is probable,
therefore, that a careful microscopic examination of the lower horizons of the
Carboniferous rocks of the §.W. Province will lead to the discovery of other
examples of this interesting genus.

Mitcheldeania.

The specimens of Muitcheldeania Nicholsoni originally described by Mr.
Wethered were obtained from Wadley’s Quarry, near Drybrook, Mitchel-
dean, from the lower limestone shales near the base of the succession. Pro-
fessor Sibly, who has recently made a careful study of the lower Carboni-
ferous succession in the Forest of Dean,°* has traced this algal layer over a
considerable area, and considers it to represent a horizon near the top of K 2
of the Bristol sequence. He has also noted examples of Mitcheldeania at a
higher level—namely, in the Whitehead limestone, an horizon corresponding
probably to the base of O 2. During a recent visit to the Mitcheldean district
I collected specimens from the lower shales, and also from the White-
head Limestone, and, thanks to Professor Sibly’s kind directions, I was able
to see numerous sections in which he has found this algal development. There
can be no doubt that Mitcheldeania is here an important rock-forming organism,
at least at two horizons in this district, and that it occurs over a considerable
area. In the case of the upper horizon it frequently contributes largely to the
rock, forming in places almost entire layers in the Whitehead Limestone. With
regard to the forms met with at these two horizons, the upper one, found in the
Whitehead Limestone, agrees exactly in general characters and mode of occur-
rence, and also in its detailed microscopic structure, with Nicholson’s species,
M. gregaria, from Kershope Foot; the character of the two sets of tubes,
their size and mode of arrangement is identical and it is impossible to dis-
tinguish between sections of well-preserved specimens from the two localities.
Unfortunately, the specimens from the lower shales at Mitcheldean are very
badly preserved, but if Nicholson’s distinction between the two species holds,

53 Geol. Mag. 1913, Dec. V., vol. X., p. 289, pl. X.
54 Geol. Mag., 1912, Dec. V., vol. IX., p. 417.

_- oes

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 467

we shall have to speak of the form from the lower horizon at Mitcheldean as
M. Nicholsoni, and that from the Whitehead Limestone as J. gregaria.
Frequently associated with the latter is a curious festoon-like growth, while in
the lower horizon a Spongiostroma-like structure is often found in the matrix of
the rock between the larger tubes of M. Nicholsoni. Some years ago Mr.
Wethered ** also recorded a similar form of Mitcheldeania from the base of the
middle limestones of the Avon Gorge, while I have myself collected nodules con-
taining specimens apparently referable to M. Nicholsoni from the Modiola Shales
near the base of the Bristol succession. Interesting as the development of
Mitcheldeania in the Forest of Dean undoubtedly is, its real home in Britain is in
north Cumberland and the Scottish Border, where it flourished to a remarkable
extent in the shallow water lagoons which spread over so large an area in the
north of England during early Carboniferous times. Over the greater part of
north Cumberland and the east of Roxburgh we find a remarkable develop-
ment of algal limestones in the formation of which Mitcheldeania plays a
very important part. It is met with especially at two horizons, an upper
one, lying immediately below the Fell Sandstone, and a lower one in the middle
of the underlying series of limestone and shales. The lower horizon is
especially interesting on account of the thick masses of limestone composed
almost entirely of algal remains. Though Mitcheldeania forms the basis of this
reef-like development, it is accompanied by other algal forms, especially
bundles of the minute tubules of Girvanella, together with coarser tubes remind-
ing one of the Spherocodium deposits of Gotland. In places again the marked
concentric coatings resemble certain forms of Spongiostroma. The substance of
the reef has frequently formed round the remains of Orthoceratites—indeed, the
chief layer is usually associated with remains of these Cephalopoda. With other
layers occur tubes of Serpule and remains of Ostracoda. In addition to the
limestone of this massive reef, abundant nodules of Mitcheldeania lie scattered
through the calcareous shales both above and below.

The upper layer, from which Nicholson obtained his type specimen of
M. gregaria at Kershope Foot, forms a compact limestone several inches thick.
It is made up of small spheroidal nodules about half-an-inch in diameter, and
occurs a short distance below the Fell Sandstone. It can be traced over the whole
of north Cumberland and north-west Northumberland from near Rothbury on the
east to the Scottish Border at Kershope Foot, and from the head waters of the
Rede in the north to the Shopford district in the south. This layer must there-
fore have been originally deposited over an area of at least 1,000 square
miles. The horizon of the upper band is almost certainly that of the C. zone
of the Bristol sequence.**, ’ It is quite possible, therefore, that it is contem-
poraneous with the Whitehead limestone of Mitcheldean. This supposition
receives support from two other pieces of evidence. In the beds underlying
the Mitcheldeania gregaria band in north Cumberland occur calcareous nodules
largely made up of tubes of Serpula—an organism which is completely absent
from the Westmorland succession, but which is reported by Prof. Sibly from
the lower limestone shales containing Mitcheldeania in the Forest of Dean
district. Again, this upper algal layer in Northumberland and Cumberland is
almost immediately overlain by the Fell Sandstone series, while the Whitehead
limestone at Mitcheldean passes immediately upwards into a sandstone, the
Drybrook Sandstone of Prof. Sibly, which was originally correlated with the
Millstone Grit, but was shown by Dr. Vaughan in 1905 to belong to the Lower
Carboniferous series. It would be interesting if further researches should prove
the existence of a former gulf at the end of Tournaisian times, running from the
Forest of Dean to the east of North Wales, through North Cumberland to
the southern slopes of the Cheviot Isle, with a branch given off eastward into
Westmorland.

In any case, it is a remarkable fact that we have a great development of
algal deposits at this period in Gloucestershire, Westmorland, Lancashire, north
Cumberland, and Northumberland.

°5> Brit. Assn. Rep., 1898, p. 862.
°8 Geology in the Field, 1910, pt. 4, p. 683.
7 Q.J.G.8., vol. LXVIII., 1912, p. 547.

HH 2

468 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

Ortonella.

This form, as already mentioned, occurs in great abundance in the algal
band in the ‘ Athyris glabristria zone’ of the North-West Province. It is
found in spherical nodules up to the size of a small orange. In miscroscopic
sections it resembles Mitcheldeania in so far as it consists of a series of tubes
growing out radially from a centre. It differs, however, from this genus in
many important respects. All the tubes are approximately of the same size,
and there is no evidence of alternating coarse and fine tufts arranged con-
centrically, as in the case of Mitcheldeania. Further, the tubes are not undu-
lating as in that genus, and therefore in thin slices lie for a long distance in
the plane of the section. They are much more widely spaced and show
marked dichotomous branching, the bifurcations making a nearly constant angle
of about 40°, and there is a strong tendency for the branching to take place
in several tubes at about the same distance from the centre of growth, pro-
ducing a general concentric effect in the nodule.

The diameter of the tubes is decidedly less than those in Mitcheldeania,
being usually little more than half the size of the larger tubes of M. gregaria.
The nodules of this genus occur in great profusion, contributing largely to the
formation of the shaley dolomite at the base of the ‘P. globosus band’ through-
out the Shap, Ravenstondale, and Arnside districts in Westmorland and
Lancashire.

In addition to these genera there occur also two other encrusting calcareous
growths which require mention. The first of these appears in thin sections in
the form of a ‘festoon-like ’ growth, surrounding fragments of Calcareous Alge,
especially Mitcheldeania and Ortonella. I have met with it abundantly in the
‘Algal band’ in the North-West of England, but it also occurs not infrequently
associated with Mitcheldeania in the Whitehead Limestone in the Forest of
Dean, while a similar structure occurs associated with Mitcheldeania gregaria
in north Cumberland.

Although the exact nature of this growth is still undecided, I mention it
here on account of its invariable association with undoubted Calcareous Alge.

The other deposit is the form already alluded to under the term Sphero-
codium, which I have found forming considerable masses of rock in many
districts where the Lower Carboniferous beds are exposed; not only in Westmor-
land and North Cumberland, but also in the Bristol district, the Forest of Dean,
and South Wales.

Foreign Carboniferous.

From its general similarity to the British deposits we might expect to find
examples of an algal development in some portion of the Belgian Lower Car-
boniferous succession. As already mentioned, large masses of encrusting cal-
careous deposits have been described by Gitrich** from the Visean limestones
of the Namur basin as Spongiostroma, &c., which, though referred by him to the
Rhizopoda, may very well be calcareous precipitates deposited by algal influence.
Many of these deposits are similar to those mentioned above from British rocks.

No undoubted remains of Calcareous Alge have, however, yet been recorded
from these Belgian rocks. It may be of interest, therefore, to mention the
recent discovery by Professor Kaisin, of Louvain, of undoubted algal remains in
the beds overlying the Psammites-de-Condroz at Feluy on the Samme. The
form found here resembles Ortonella of the Westmorland rocks, but the tubes
are much finer, and it may turn out to represent a species of Micheldeania.
During a recent visit to Belgium I had the pleasure of visiting the Comblain au
Pont beds, in the Feluy section, with Professor Kaisin, and, although these beds
have been previously classed as Devonian, I agree with him that they probably
belong to the base of the Carboniferous and correspond approximately to K of
the Bristol sequence. In the company of Professor Dorlodot and Dr. Salée, I
also visited the chief sections of the Visean, and we succeeded in discovering at
least three horizons at which nodular concretionary structures, probably referable
to algal growths, occurred. It is pretty certain, therefore, that careful micro-
scopic investigation of the Belgian rocks will show the presence of Calcareous
Algze at more than one horizon.

Again Schubert *? has recently described two new rock-forming genera—

58 Op. cit. (4°) 59 Jahrb. d. i.-k. geol. Reichsanstalt, 1908, p. 382.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 469

Mizzia and Stolleyella—from a dolomite in the Upper Carboniferous of northern
Dalmatia, while a species of Girvanella (@. sinensis) has been described by
Yabe *° from the (?) Carboniferous rocks of San-yu-tung and other localities in
China.

PERMIAN AND TRIAS.

In Britain I have met with no reference to the occurrence of Calcareous Algw
in rocks of this period, but quite recently Mr. Cunnington, of H.M. Geological
Survey, sent me a few nodules from the base of the ‘ Permian’ near Maxstoke;
in thin sections they resemble very closely fragments of Spongiostroma from
the Carboniferous Limestone, and may be derived from that formation.

Abroad, masses of limestone, composed almost entirely of remains of Diplo-
pora and Gyroporella, have long been known from the Muschelkalk and lower
Keuper beds of the Eastern Alps, notably the Mendola Dolomite, the Wetten
limestone of Bavaria, and the Tyrolian Alps—from the Zugspitz to Berchtes-
gaden, also from the Hauptdolomit and the Fassa Dolomite of the North lime-
stone Alps and the stratified Schlern dolomite of the Southern Tyrol. In the
Lombard Alps the same facies reappears, and Diplopora annulata occurs abun-
dantly in the well-known Esino limestone above Varenna.

In 1891 Rothpletz °** showed that certain spherical bodies in the Triassic beds
of St. Cassian, formerly regarded as oolitic structures, were in reality algal
growths, and referred them to a new genus, Spherocodium, on account of their
apparent resemblance to the living form Codium. He describes them as encrust-
ing organisms forming nodules up to several centimetres in diameter. They
confribute substantially to the rocks in which they occur, and are found
especially in the Raiblkalk, the Kossenerkalk, and the Plattenkalk.

JURASSIC.

The Mesozoic rocks of Britain contain but few examples of marine algal
limestones, and important occurrences are confined to the Jurassic Rocks. The
forms met with are limited to two genera, Girvanella and Solenopora.

Tubes of Girvanella occur fairly abundantly in the British Oolites, especially
in the well-known Leckhampton Pisolites, and Mr. Wethered, who has made
a special study of oolitic structures, appears inclined to refer all oolitic structures
to organic agency of this nature.

The examples of Solenopora met with in the Great Oolite*? and Coral Rag
are of special interest. In both cases they attain very much larger dimensions
than any species yet discovered in the Paleozoic rocks.

At Chedworth, near Cirencester, I have collected masses of Solenopora
jurassica, measuring up to a foot across, in which the original pink tint is still
so conspicuous on freshly-fractured surfaces as to give rise to the local appel-
lation of ‘Beetroot Stone,’ and the colour also reminds one of the red alge
growing in great profusion at the present day in the Gulf of Naples.

It is also recorded from the same horizon from near Malton in Yorkshire by
Dr. Brown,® and also, on the authority of the late Mr. Fox Strangways, by
Professor Rothpletz.**

In Yorkshire, however, one form undoubtedly occurs at a higher horizon—
namely, in the Coral Rag of the Scarborough district, where it is well known
to local collectors. Specimens which I have collected from this horizon at
Yedmandale and Seamer also attain a considerable size—up to six inches in their
longest dimension.

The name Solenopora jurassica was given by Professor Nicholson in manu-
script to specimens from Chedworth, and was adopted by Dr. Brown in his
description of the specimens from both Chedworth and Malton in Nicholson’s
collection.

Professor Rothpletz points out that specimens examined by him from

60 H. Yabe, Science Reports of the Téhoku Imp. Univ., Japan, 1912.

61 Zeitsch. d. deut. Geol. Ges., 1891, vol. XLIII., pp. 295-322, pls. XV.—XVII., 189].
® Proc. Cot. Nat. Club. 1890, vol. X., p. 89.

83 Op. cit. (®), p. 150. & Op. cit. (°).

470 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

Yorkshire differ from the genotype in the fact that the cells are typically
rounded in cross section and by the absence of perforations in the cell-walls,
and he therefore proposes to separate it as a new genus Solenoporella. It
seems probable that some confusion has arisen between the specimens to which
Nicholson originally gave the name of S. jurassica from the Great Oolite of
Chedworth and other specimens from Malton from a higher horizon °*—the Coral
Rag-—examined by Dr. Brown and Professor Rothpletz.

The former author indeed figures a longitudinal section from Chedworth
(Glos.) and a tangential section from Malton (Yorkshire), as the same species.

I have collected specimens from both horizons and consider that the Ched-
worth specimens, to which the name of Solenopora jurassica was originally given,
represent a species of true Solenopora, showing closely packed cells with
polygonal outline in tangential section, the form from the Coral Rag of York-
shire, with distinct circular outline to the tubes in tangential section, is
specifically, if not generically distinct, and is that described by Rothpletz as
Solenoporella.

If this view be correct we should continue to speak of the specimens from
the Great Oolite at Chedworth as Solenopora jurassica, while those from the
Coral Rag of Yorkshire must be known as Solenoporella sp. Rothpletz.

Foreign Jurassic.

In foreign Jurassic rocks the recorded occurrences of Calcareous Alge are
surprisingly few.

Quite recently, however, Mr. H. Yabe°® has described a new species of
Solenopora, under the title Metasolenopora Rothpletzi, from the Torinosu lime-
stone of Japan. This discovery is of interest, as it carries the known occurrence
of Solenopora up to the base of the Cretaceous, in which formation Titho-
thamnion appears and thenceforward becomes the chief representative of the
rock-building Coralline Algz.

CRETACEOUS.

We here reach the period when ZLithothamnion and its allies begin to make
their appearance. They have not yet been recognised in British rocks, but are
widely distributed in continental deposits. They occur in the Cenomanian of
France, in the Sarthe and the Var, but especially in the Danian of Petersburg,
near Maestricht.

Other forms which may be mentioned are Diplopora and Triploporella. The
former is met with abundantly in the lower Schrattenkalk in certain districts,
especially Wildkirchli, where it plays a considerable part in the formation of the
deposit.*”

TERTIARY.

In Britain no example of marine Calcareous Alge have, so far as J am aware,
yet been reported, but considerable deposits of freshwater limestone, rich in
remains of the lime-secreting Thallophyte Chara, have for long been known from
the Oligocene of the Isle of Wight.

Foreign Tertiary.

On the Continent, however, thick deposits rich in Lithothamnion and
Lithophyllum have been known for many years. _ Of these, I may mention
especially the well-known Leithakalk of the Vienna Basin and Moravia, which it
will be remembered formed the subject of Unger’s important monograph in 1858.°*

CONCLUSIONS.

The facts given above regarding the geological distribution and mode of
occurrence of these organisms lead us to several interesting conclusions. In the

6 See Fox Strangways, Geol. Mag., 1894, Dec. IV., vol. I., p. 236.

6 Op. cit. (©), p. 2.

67 Arbenz, Vierteljahrschr. Naturf. Ges.-Ziirich, 1908, vol. LIIL., pp. 387-392.
68 Denksch. k. Akad. Wiss. Miinchen, 1858, vol. XIV., p. 13.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 471

first place, there can be no doubt from the examples described above that they
play a very striking part as rock-builders at many different horizons in the
geological series. At the same time, it is evident that not only are certain forms
restricted to definite geological periods, but that they had also a wide
geographical range, and on this account these organisms will often be found
valuable as zonal indices either alone or in conjunction with various other
organisms. As an example of this wide distribution we may cite Solenopora
compacta, which flourished so abundantly during Llandeilo-Caradoc times not
only in the Baltic area and Scotland, but also in England, Wales, and Canada;
again, the wonderfully persistent development of the Rhabdoporella facies over
the whole of the Baltic area at the close of Ordovician times was of so marked a
character that boulders of these rocks scattered over the North German plain
can be made use of in tracing the direction of flow of the ice-sheet during glacial
times.

To take examples nearer home, the ‘ Ortonella band,’ found throughout
Westmorland and north Lancashire near the summit of the Tournaisian, occurs
so constantly at the same horizon as to constitute one of the most valuable zonal
indices in the succession in the North-West Province, and can be used with the
greatest confidence not only for correlating widely separated exposures, but it
has also afforded valuable evidence of tectonic disturbances. Other examples
are supplied by the ‘ Girvanella Nodular band’ at the base of the Upper Dibuno-
phyllum Zone, and the Mitcheldeania gregaria beds in the north of England and
in the Forest of Dean. ;

Again the presence of these organisms at a particular horizon furnish us
with interesting evidence as to the conditions which obtained during the
accumulation of these deposits.

At the present day Calcareous Alge flourish best in clear but shallow water
in bays and sheltered lagoons. As a good example we may take the algal
banks in the Bay of Naples, described by Prof. Walther,**;7° where Litho-
thamnion and Lithophyllum flourish to a depth of from 50-70 metres. There is
seldom any muddy sediment on these banks, though detrital limestone fragments
are widely distributed. Another interesting point is the constant association
of fossil Calcareous Algz with oolitic structure and also with dolomite.

Thus oolites oceur in connection with Solenopora in the lower Cambrian of
the Antarctic, in the Craighead Limestone at Tramitchell, in the Ordovician
rocks of Christiania, in the Silurian of Gotland and in the Lower Carboni-
ferous Limestone of Shap; while in the Jurassic rocks of Gloucestershire and
Yorkshire it occurs in the heart of the most typical oolitic development to be
met with in the whole geological succession. Though Mr. Wethered has made
vut a good case for the constant association of Girvanella tubes with oolitic
grains there are many cases in which their association cannot be traced.
M. Cayeux” in writing of a mass of Girvanella from the ferruginous oolites
of the Silurian rocks of La Ferriére-aux-Etangs expresses his opinion that
Girvanella encrusts the oolite grains but does not form them, and that it is
really a perforating alga of a parasitic nature.

The presence of dolomites in connection with algal deposits at different
geological horizons appears to have taken place under definite physiographical
conditions similar to those which obtain to-day in the neighbourhood of coral
reefs. Such lagoon con:litions would come into existence either during a period
of subsidence or during a period of elevation, and this is just what we find when
we examine the periods at which these reefs are most persistent.

Thus the Girvan Ordovician reef occurred during an elevation which
culminated with the deposition of the Benan Conglomerate; the Lower Car-
boniferous ‘ Algal band’ in Westmorland was laid down during the subsidence
which followed the Old Red Sandstone continental period ; the Upper Girvanella
Nodular band occurred when the Marine period of the Lower Carboniferous was
drawing to a close and a general elevation was taking place. Similar conclusions
could be drawn from other periods recorded above did time permit.

© Zeitsch. d. deut. Geol. Ges. 1885, p. 229.

1 Abh. d. Konigl. Preuss. Akad. der Wiss. 1910; see also M. A. Howe, Science,
N.S. vol. xxxv. No. 909, p. 837 et sqq.

1 Comptes Rendus, Acad. de Sci. 1910, p. 359.

472 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

In concluding this Address, I wish to express the hope that however
incomplete the account I have given of the succession of forms may be, it will
nevertheless help to stimulate an interest in these rock-building alge and will
encourage geological workers in this country to turn their attention to a hitherto
neglected group of forms of great stratigraphical importance.

The following Papers were then read :—

1. The Geology of the Country round Birmingham.
By Professor C. Lapwortu, F.R.S.

2. Notes on the Iqneous Rocks of the Birmingham District.
By Professor W. W. Warts, I’.R.S.

8. On the Spirorbis Iimestones of North Warwickshire.
By Groran Barrow.

The typical Spirorbis limestone is a rather compact rock, usually grey and
generally containing the small fossil Spirorbis carbonartus. The number of
these varies greatly; at times several specimens may be seen in one fragment;
often it is difficult to find any, and, so far as experience has gone at present,
they are never abundant in this area. Though the dominant colour is grey,
the rock is often buff and occasionally almost white.

The purest form of Spirorbis limestone occurs in masses of very variable
size. The largest and most persistent bed is the Index limestone, which occurs
roughly about 100 feet down in the Halesowen or Newcastle Group. This has
often been confused with another and less persistent bed, lying about 100 feet
further up and close to the base of the Keele Group. Other and less persistent
bands haye been met within the Keele Group, notably by Mr. Cantrill. In
addition to these distinct beds, which can often be traced for some distance at
the outcrop, if the ground be free of drift, there are lenticles varying in length
from a few yards to a few inches, and at times only scattered nodules. These
smaller patches were found during the great drought, when the old marl pits
in the Halesowen Group were completely dried up. Advantage was taken of
this to clean the pits out, laying the rock sides bare, when these minor
occurrences of the limestone were exposed.

The limestones seem to have been built up of a series of films or layers,
resulting from the evaporation of shallow sheets of lime-bearing water. When
dried the film appears to have been cracked and more or less broken up, but
re-cemented by later deposits of identical material; this in turn became broken
up and re-cemented. ‘The process was repeated till a bed several feet thick was
at last accumulated. The whole rock thus comes to have a clean sharp fracture,
though its fragmental character is easily seen on a freshly fractured face. In
this form, best shown by the Index limestone, there is a minimum of material
other than lime brought into the deposit. A rough test of the brecciated
original fragments shows the limestone to be nearly pure and containing about
95 per cent. of carbonate of lime.

From this we pass to the type containing small fragments of other material,
such as marl, and the cementing matrix is not merely calcite, a considerable
proportion of mud and sand being present. In this the lmestone fragments
are somewhat rounded, having been transported for short distances. At times
the fragments are locally heaped up and the bed attains a quite abnormal thick-
ness. The band at or near the base of the Keele Group shows this character in
the cutting in the mineral railway above Kingsbury; the fragments have been
heaped up till it has locally attained a thickness of ten feet.

The extreme type is really a cornstone, or a sandstone more or less crowded
with rolled fragments of Spirorbis limestone. It is doubtful in this case if any
of the rounded fragments are formed in siiw: the whole rock seems to have

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 475

vw

been the result of flood action tearing up a deposit cracked by drying and
transporting the fragments for some distance.

There is strong evidence to support the view that two at least of these
limestones were formed over a large area; the Index has rarely been removed
completely by this process; the one next above often has. How far the less
persistent beds have been locally removed by subsequent erosion is at present
an open question.

This mode of origin of the more impure, possibly of all the limestones, is
supported by the character of the sandstones. These at their base often con-
tain abundant pellets of marl, which from their form appear to have been sun-
dried and so rendered sufficiently coherent to be capable of transportation for
short distances without losing their cuboidal form. The phenomena suggest

formation in shallow water, during a dry epoch, subject to sudden or periodical
floods.

4. On the Stream-Courses of the Black-Country Plateau.
By Henry Kay, F.G.S. -

The Black-Country plateau is roughly outlined by the 400-feet contour line
between Stafford, Worcester, Stratford, and Burton, and is identical with the
anticline of the South Staffordshire coalfield, plus the north-western parts of
Cannock Chase and the Warley-Barr area eastward. On its eastern and western
sides are synclinal valleys opening to the Trent and Severn.

It is surrounded by a marginal hill barrier, and has large hill masses at
Cannock Chase and the Clent region; while it is crossed by hill ranges from
Bushbury to Barr Beacon, from Wolverhampton to the Lickeys, and from
Quinton to Birmingham. The surface is thus divided into four interior basins,
forming separate drainage areas. Save for the exits from these basins, the
margin is broken in two places only. The chief physical feature is the possession
of the crucial portion of the Midland watershed, which runs across the plateau
from Wolverhampton to the Lickeys, and thence eastward along the southern
margin.

Arterial drainage is supplied by the Trent and Severn, the former draining
five-sixths of the plateau, and the latter receiving only the southward marginal
drainage and that of the Stour basin.

The eastern syncline is occupied by the River Blythe-Tame flowing north.
The watershed at the southern end of this valley has retreated northwards for
four miles in post-glacial time.

The western syncline was formerly drained towards the Dee, and the head-
waters of the Severn were originally around Kidderminster, the Clent range
being united with the Enville hills further west. The principal outlet towards
the Dee was by the Church Eaton Water, and the outlet into the Trent below
Stafford not then in existence. This syncline is now drained northward by the
Penk into the Sow and Tame, and southward by the Smestow-Stour into the
Severn. Stream piracy is manifest near Wolverhampton.

Marginal streams are characterised by excessive activity, especially south-
ward, notable examples being the Arrow and the Alne. The Arrow, however,
represents the captured headwaters of an ancient river flowing through the
Moreton Gap into the Evenlode, the pirate stream being the Warwickshire Avon,
a strike river originally confined to the country west of Evesham. The water-
shed then ran southward from the Lickeys to the Cotswolds, keing now repre-
sented by a long, narrow promontory reaching into Evesham and by Bredon Hill
southward. Internal drainage is confined to the four basins. The Cannock
Basin has now no trunk stream, its waters uniting near the exit below Cannock
to form the Saredon Brook. Glacial modification is much in evidence, the south-
eastern portion having formed a lakelet with gorge-like overflow through Walsall.
The margin of this basin has twice been broached by marginal streams. The
Tame Basin is triangular in shape, and formed by the union of two basins reach-
ing back to pre-Triassic ages, a large buried stream-course existing at Moxley,
whilst a very great valley is traceable upwards through Smethwick, Oldbury,
and Blackheath. At this point two buried stream-courses are found, each filled
with material transported from the Clent Hills. The inference is that this

474 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

marked the original source of the Trent, as the Upper Trent Valley appears to
be of more recent date.

The Stour basin is likewise a combination. Streams descend south-west from
Dudley to Stourbridge, and north-eastward from Clent to Halesowen. They
are united by a succession of gorges four miles in length. This basin is a
remarkable instance of extreme post-glacial denudation to a depth of 300 feet.
The Halesowen streams represent the original headwaters of the river once
flowing through Blackheath, Oldbury, and Smethwick.

The Rea basin possesses three eastward-flowing streams successively diverted
N.N.E. through Birminyham by a stream working back along the Rea fault.
Two of these were captured in pre-glacial time, the third in consequence of
glacial lakelet overflow. The present thrice-notched ridge at King’s Heath
represents the pre-glacial land surface. The Middle Cole Valley is wholly post-
glacial. The Lickey anticline has undergone elevation since the initiation of
the Rea streams—i.ec., in post-Tertiary time. It is crossed by three waterworn
gaps excavated pari passu with this uprise. The southernmost of these now
drains into the River Arrow.

The Warley Barr area is a region of Tertiary uplift, across which rivers
occupying the old pre-Triassic valleys have excavated deep channels. All other
streams in this area are very youthful.

Conclusions.—The Trent drainage area has been subjected to excessive piracy
and has steadily suffered loss. Its sole gain is that of the Penk at the expense
of the Dee. The northern drainage is consequent on the formation of the South
Staffordshire anticline, regarding the age of which it bears notable evidence.
Speculations as to the former north-west extension of the Thames drainage must
therefore be abandoned on reaching the area under consideration.

5. On the Formation of Rostro-Carinate Flints.
See Appendix, p. 788.

6. On the Structure of the Lias Ironstone of South Warwickshire and
Oxfordshire. By Epwin A. Waurorp, F.G.S.

The ironstone of South Warwickshire and North Oxfordshire is got wholly
from the Middle Lias. The Northamptonshire ironstone of the Inferior Oolite
may be traced in the Burton Dassett hills, where it passes into a useless
sandstone.

Beds of the Middle Lias stone are seen in the quarries packed with curved
and interlacing stems something like masses of annelid tubes. They lie upon
the bedding plane. Other beds of the fine pentangular and smaller ossicles of
the crinoidiz range between. More rarely the round columnar stems of forms
like Apiocrinus are found,

The author infers that the sea floor of the Middle Lias was a tangle of
crinoid growth, stage above stage. The crinoid sea appears to have spread
through the Midlands into Yorkshire. Occasionally are phases of invasion or
dominance of shells of parasitic brachiopoda. Beds of Rhynchonella tetrahedra
and Jerebratule are interspersed in the 25 feet of the ferro-crinoid rock-bed.

The quarries and sections in the neighbourhood of Banbury show the several
phases described.

In the Nodule Bed at the base of the ironstone series (zone of Spirifer
oxygona) crinoidal conditions appear in segments and stem casts, mingled with
large mollusca. Microscopic sections present plates and segments of crinoidiz
mingled with ferruginous oolitic grains of large size and fox-brown colour.

The superimposed bed, the Best Rag, has in sections smaller oolitic grains of
olive-green iron carbonate with ovoid calicular plates of crinoids.

The Top Rag, a grey-green compact stone, is a tangle of crinoidal and other
remains more or less broken into and converted into oolitic iron granules.

The Road Stone, the higher beds, shows its organic structure mainly
destroyed and converted into the ordinary red oxide.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 0. 475

In 1896 I placed a short study on the making of the Middle Lias Ironstone
of the Midlands before the Iron and Steel Institute, which appeared in their
‘ Proceedings.’

7. Estheria in the Bunter of South Staffordshire.
By T. C. Cantrinn, B.Sc., F.G.S,

Records of fossils in the British Bunter are few in number, and some are open
to doubt in respect either of their organic character or of the stratigraphical
position of the beds that yielded them. Omitting those cases where the horizon
formerly supposed to be Bunter has been corrected later and is now accepted as
settled, the following appears to be a complete list, in chronological order of
their discovery :—

1. Dictyopyge catoptera (Ag.), a small fish, from Rhone Hill, three miles
8.E. of Dungannon, Co. Tyrone. Upper Bunter (f*). With this was associated
Estheria portlocki.

2. ‘Annelid tracks’ at Hilbre Point, Wirrall, Cheshire. Lower part of the
Bunter Pebble Bed (£*).

3. Plant-remains, referred to Schizoneura paradoxa, Schimper and Mougeot,
at Sneinton Vale, near Nottingham. Uppermost bed of the Bunter Pebble
Bed (f?).

To these three older records can now be added the following new discovery* :—

4. Lstheria cf. minuta (Alberti), from Ogley Hay, near Walsall, South Staf-
fordshire. Bunter Pebble Bed (f?).

These fossils were discovered in May 1911, when Mr. C. H. Cunnington and I
were mapping the Triassic rocks bordering the eastern side of the coalfield. I
suggested to my colleague that if fossils could be found anywhere in the Bunter
they would most likely be discovered in the thin marl-bands occasionally inter-
bedded in the predominant sandstones and conglomerates; and Mr. Cunnington’s
hammer was the first to reveal the specimens.

We obtained them from two thin bands of red marl in a disused sand-quarry
at Ogley Hay, five miles N.E. of Walsall. The quarry forms a conspicuous
excavation in the northern face of a sandstone hill, along the foot of which passes
the Anglesey branch of the Wyrley and Essington Canal. The hamlet of New
Town, on the Watling Street, lies 150 yards to the north of the quarry, while
Ogley Hay Chemical Works stand 200 yards away to the south-east. Below a
little drift gravel are exposed 22 feet of dull-red medium-grained soft sand-rock,
in places false-bedded. Toward the bottom are two bands of red marl, about
1 foot 8 inches apart, the lower one being about 2 feet above the bottom. They
nowhere exceed 9 inches in thickness. Both marl-bands yielded poorly preserved
remains, determined by Mr, H. A. Allen as Hstheria cf. minuta (Alberti).

The ground is coloured on the old series one-inch map (62 N.E.) as Upper
Bunter (f°); but the sandstones are coarser and duller in colour than the typical
Upper Bunter of other Midland districts, and would more suitably be included

_in the outcrop of the Pebble Beds (f*). The Triassic series dips at 3° to 5°

toward E.N.E., in which direction the Pebble Bed sub-division appears to pass
laterally into, and partly beneath, finer-grained and brighter-coloured sandstones
that may be regarded as Upper Bunter. Above these follows the Lower Keuper
Sandstone (f°). There is thus no question as to the beds in the quarry being
Bunter, and every ground for referring them to the Pebble Bed sub-division.

8. Notes on the Flora and Fauna of the Upper Keuper Sandstones of
Warwickshire and Worcestershire. By L. J. Wiuus, M.A., F.G.S.,
and W. CampsBett Smiru, M.A., F.G.S.

A group of sandstones associated with green shales have been shown by Dr.

\A./C. Matley to form a more or less continuous belt in the Keuper Marls in

Warwickshire, and to lie about 120-160 feet below the Rhetic. At the same
horizon similar beds form an almost unbroken outcrop through Ripple, Longdon,

* Communicated by permission of the Director of the Geological Survey.

476 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION ©.

Pendock, and LEldersfield in South-West Worcestershire, and were probably
once continuous with the sandstones of Inkberrow and Callow Hill, near
Redditch.

Of the constituents, the thin-bedded sandstones are fine-grained, ripple-
marked, and characterised by the presence of much calcareous matter and abun-
dant rhombs of dolomite. The thicker-bedded sandstones consist mainly of
grains of quartz, with felspar and the usual assemblage of heavy minerals in
well-rounded grains; of these garnet is the most conspicuous. Close to the base
of the group there is frequently a conglomeratic bed (‘bone-bed’), composed of
fragments of green marl, plants, bones, and teeth. Shales and steinmergel may
occur with the sandstones.

We are able to describe for the first time from the English Trias examples of
the foliage and scales of the female cone of a Volézia, closely resembling
V. heterophylla, of the Bunter of the Vosges, and to record new occurrences of
Voltzia, Schizoneura, Carpolithus, and, possibly, Yuccites.

The plants are associated With indeterminable teeth and bones of Labyrintho-
donts, and with fish remains, which are abundant in the ‘bone-bed’ and very
rare at higher horizons.

Fish-teeth, hitherto described as Acrodus? keuperinus, are widely distributed,
and prove, on microscopic examination of their internal structure, to be referable
to Polyacrodus (Jaekel). Dorsal-fin spines and cephalic spines associated with
these teeth probably belong to the same genus.

Phebodus brodiei has been found frequently at Knowle. It, Semionotus,
and Ceratodus have all been described before from these beds.

Cestraciont remains allied to Polyacrodus keuperinus are especially abundant
in ‘bone-beds’ at the base of the Lettenkohle in Germany, and its presence
may be regarded as evidence of estuarine conditions. Ceratodus, on the other
hand, occurs frequently in the Rhetic, a deposit usually accepted as marine,
but its only living ally inhabits some rivers in Queensland.

We have found Vhracia? brodiei at Shelfield. This lamellibranch was
described by Mr. R. B. Newton as a truly marine form, but it is only repre-
sented by rather obscure casts.

Estheria minuta, a form that is probably never truly marine, is practically
ubiquitous, and occurs in both shales and sandstones.

The fauna and flora is thus seen to be a restricted one, though many
specimens have been found, and their testimony on the origin and age of the
deposit is inconclusive.

If we may judge from the lithology, the conditions which governed the
formation of the ‘ skerry-belts’ of Nottinghamshire and Leicestershire—namely,
the arrival of floods of fresh water—probably acted more persistently in the area
under consideration, as a result of its greater proximity to land. For not only
are the beds very similar to the ‘ Skerries,’ but in the ‘bone-bed’ or marl con-
glomerate we have positive evidence of littoral conditions.

Thus we are not dealing with a pre-Rhetic incursion of the sea, but with a>

littoral facies of the Keuper Marls, formed where the water was at times
sufficiently fresh to support a small fish-fauna and in sufficient motion to move
coarse sediments.

9. Nodules from the Basal Ordovician Conglomerate at Bryn Glas,
Ffestiniog. By Professor W. G. FEARNSIDES.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. The Development of the Midland Coalfields.
By Frep. G. Mracuem, M.E., F.G.S.

Great advances have been made in mining since the first meeting of this
Association in Birmingham in the year 1839. Women were then employed in
the mines, also children under ten years of age, and all worked twelve hours

Ss

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 477

or more in the pit. To-day women are not allowed to work in a mine, and
no youth under fourteen years, and the hours of labour are restricted by Act of
Parliament to eight per day. Nearly all the mines worked in 1836 were shallow
ones, and the output not more than 200 to 300 tons per week. The area of the
coalfields was about as shown below, as against the present known and concealed
areas of coal.

Year S. Staffs Leicester Warwick Salop Total square miles
1836... eee 70 20 10 20 120
1913S... wes 360 88 222 96 766

This last calculation includes the concealed coalfield between Chasetown,
Aldridge, and West Bromwich on the west, and the Warwickshire and Leices-
tershire coalfields on the east, and also the concealed coalfield between Cannock,
Essington, and Stourbridge on the east of the Coalbrookdale and Forest of
Wyre coalfields on the west.

The output since figures are available is as follows :—

Year S. Staffs Leicester Warwick Salop Total in million tons
1865... Cos 10 1} = 13 Rss
LSI eaiaee ass Ue oe 43 2 155

This shows a great advance in industrial conditions and in economic geology,
but the question of output does not show so great an increase; this I think is
due not to fear that the concealed coalfields would not be profitable, but to
the fact that some of the deeper mines have not proved remunerative. This
is partly due to local conditions in the mines and also to the fact that the
deeper coal costs more to get than the shallow coal, as regards actual working
cost and the greatly increased capital needed, whilst the coal from both mines
is sold in the same market, so that the shallow mine rules the selling price.
As a few years pass by, and probably before the next meeting of this Associa-
tion, the shallow mines will be exhausted, and the prices will be ruled by the
deeper mines, with the usual economic results of increased ‘prices in proportion
to increased costs to get.

In the figures above, areas are included which were not thought of in 1836,
but, as is fully shown by the report of the last Royal Coal Commission, 1905,
coal will undoubtedly be found in the areas above named. The area between
the South Staffordshire coalfield and the Leicestershire and Warwickshire
coalfield will be found to be one continuous coalfield, with its deepest part at
Lichfield, Sutton Coldfield, and Coleshill, but the basin rising to the south as
a whole, the thick coal of Sandwell and Hamstead will split up into two or
three seams, and under these conditions will be worked Longwall, with better
commercial results. The area between the Staffordshire coalfield and Shrop-
shire has been most vigorously investigated, and the proofs at Colwich,
Huntingdon, Essington, Four Ashes and Baggerridge show that this area is
going to be rich in coals of good quality and laid down under conditions that
will allow of remunerative working.

On the Shropshire side very little has been done to extend that coalfield to
the west of either the Coalbrookdaie or the Forest of Wyre Coalfields, the
edges of the Old Red Sandstone preclude any hope of extension, but in the
Highley and Kinlet and Billingsley area it is most probable that future deeper
sinkings will prove deeper coals than the two seams at present working, whilst
the area to the east is full of promise. As soon as the Severn Valley fault,
which is some 300 to 400 yards downthrow east, is crossed a new coalfield will
be found, and I think the area between here and the old coalfield will be
divided into two basins, with a Silurian anticline between them as proved by
the Claverley boring.

2. On the Fossil Floras of the South Staffordshire Coalfield.
By i. A. Newert Arser, M.A., Sc.D., F.G.S.

The rich series of floras of the South Staffordshire coalfield has suffered much
unfortunate neglect in the past. Several collections have, it is true, been made
from time to time, but with very few exceptions they have never been described,
and some of them are without proper records of locality and horizon. For such

478 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

trustworthy records as exist we are chiefly indebted to Dr. Kidston and to his
memoir published as far back as 1888. The number of species, the exact
locality and horizon of which are recorded, is at present as follows :—Keele
Series 16, Halesowen Sandstone Series 0, ? Brick Clay Series (Old Hill Marls)
8, Productive Measures 27.

For some time past I have been endeavouring to extend our knowledge of
the fossil floras of this coalfield, and I have been fortunate in receiving the
active co-operation of several geologists resident in Birmingham and the neigh-
bourhood, who have most kindly formed collections from particular areas, and
forwarded the specimens to me for examination and description. In this way.
the material which I have myself been able to collect has been greatly extended.
My thanks are in particular due to Mr. H. Kay, F.G.S., Mr. W. H. Foxall,
F.R.G.S., Mr. W. H. Hardaker, M.Sc., and Mr. L. Jackson for their enthusiastic
co-operation.

Attention has been chiefly concentrated so far on the floras of the Brick
Clays, and of the lowest beds of the Productive Measures on or about the horizon
of the Bottom Coal. A considerable number of species have been obtained from
both horizons, of which some are new records both to the coalfield and to
Britain. This work is still in progress. Information has also been obtained as
to the horizon and localities in which the petrified specimens, long known
from this coalfield, occur, such information having been lost for many years past.

In addition the first fossil plants from the Halesowen Sandstone Series have
been unearthed by Mr. Kay, and here again both petrifactions and impressions
occur.

It is hoped that in course of time it will be possible to trace the floras
systematically from the lowest to the highest beds of the coal measures of
this coalfield. The material, however, has to be obtained as opportunity offers,
and this preliminary note is intended merely to indicate the present progress of
the work.

3. On the Correlation of the Leicestershire Coalfield.
By Rosert Dovatass Vernon, B.A., B.Sc., F.G.S.

The following is a preliminary account of a study in the correlation of the
coalfields of the eastern portion of the great Midland coal basin. The area
in question includes the Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire coalfield in the north,
the Warwickshire coalfield in the south-west, and the Leicestershire coalfield
which lies midway between the two. It is with the latter that we are here
chiefly concerned. The Carboniferous rocks of Leicestershire include
Carboniferous Limestone, Limestone Shales, Grits and Sandstones that have
been referred on lithological evidence to the Millstone Grits, and, lastly, the
Coal Measures. Such a sequence at once suggests a correlation with the
Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire type, but the presence of unusually thick
seams of coal which split towards the north favours a comparison of the
Middle Coal Measures of Leicestershire with those of Warwickshire. Finally,
in the complete absence of the Transition Series and Upper Coal Measures and
the presence of a complex fault system, the Leicestershire coalfield stands quite
apart from either of its neighbours.

For the detailed correlation of the Upper Carboniferous of these tectonic
basins we have several independent criteria, both physical and paleontological,
but strong theoretical objections may be urged against the use of physical
criteria alone, and in practice it was found to be impossible to use either the
important sandstones or the seams of coal in the correlation even of the eastern
and western portions of the Leicestershire coalfield itself.

The problem was then attacked from the paleontological side. Fossil plants
proved of relatively little value in the sub-division of the Leicestershire
sequence, because the lowest and the highest plant-bearing horizons both appear
to fall within the Middle Coal Measures. The freshwater lamellibranchiata
(Carbonicola and its allies) were equally unsatisfactory, so that the work finally
resolved itself into a search for Marine Beds and an attempt to lay down their
outcrops on the six-inch maps.

Of the three more or less distinct districts into which the Leicestershire

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION OC. 479

coalfield may be divided, the Central or Ashby area of so-called unproductive
measures yielded no fossils, either plant or animal, and the age of the beds,
whether Lower or Middle Coal Measures, remains an open question. The
Eastern or Cole Orton area presents serious difficulties to the collector, being
for the most part a concealed coalfield worked under a thick Triassic cover, and
the results obtained were merely of local interest. Attention was finally concen-
trated on the western or Moira area, where the sequence is more complete than
in the rest of the coalfield, and exposures are much more numerous. Many
fossiliferous horizons were discovered, which yielded a rich flora, several rare
Crustacea, some fragmentary fish-remains, numerous freshwater lamellibranchiata,
and above all an abundant marine fauna from several different horizons and
many localities. Unfortunately, no indication of the well-known Ganister
Coal Marine Bed (Alton Coal of Nottinghamshire) has yet been found in
Leicestershire.

The thickest Marine Bed, which also fas the richest fauna, occurs in the
higher portion of the Middle Coal Measures about 260 yards above the Moira
Main Coal; it crops out at many places in the Moira, Swadlincote, Church-
Gresley, and Woodville district, and the outcrop has been laid down on the
6-inch scale.

Such mapping is of value since for want of an index bed it has hitherto been
impossible to map any seam of coal above the Main Coal owing to the variable
character of the beds in the higher portion of the Coal Measures, and the
structure of this part of the coalfield was, therefore, imperfectly understood.
Using this Marine Bed as an index bed, we can now fix the position in the
sequence of the Moira Sandstones and Grits and of the valuable series of pot,
pipe, and fireclays on which the prosperity of this district so largely depends.

The main interest of this Marine Bed is that in stratigraphical position and in
faunal contents it is comparable with the Gin Mine Marine Bed of the North
Staffordshire coalfield, with the Mansfield Marine Bed of the Yorkshire and
Nottinghamshire coalfield, and with the Pennystone Ironstone Marine Bed of
Coalbrookdale.

The following is a correlation of the Productive Coal Measures of the East
Midland coalfields, based upon the chief marine transgressions :—

Yorkshire and Nottinghamshire West Leicestershire Warwickshire
Coalfield Coalfield Coalfield
‘Mansfield Marine Bed | Pottery Clay Marine | Doubtful
Bed
Strata, 930 feet Strata, 750 feet Strata, :
thickness | Middle

Middle and | varine Bed 300 feet

Marine Bed above

unknown \Coal

Marine Bed / Measures.
reve Coal) below the Top Hard the Main Coal above the
easures.
coal Seven-foot
Strata, 1,600 feet Strata, thickness un- Coal
known
Marine Bed above the Doubtful Absent
Alton (Ganister)
coal

In conclusion, it was shown that in colour, mode of weathering, and other

characteristics these Marine Beds are in every way comparable with modern
‘Blue Muds.’

4. On Systems of Folding in the Paleozoic and Newer Rocks.
By Grorce Barrow.
In a paper published by the Geologists’ Association the author has given a

brief outline of the nature of the crystalline area of the Highlands and shown
that it consists of three great lenticular masses of thermally altered rocks. It

480 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

is further shown that the outer and uncrystalline margins of these masses all
trend roughly north-east and south-west. The best known is that forming the
south-eastern margin of the crystalline area, which the author has followed,
where present at the surface, almost the whole distance from Stonehaven, on the
east coast of Scotland, to Omagh in the north of Ireland. Recent work suggests
that this margin is also present on the west coast of Ireland.

This outer margin of crystallisation is not confined to Scotland; it is also
present in Anglesea, where the margin of the crystalline massif is seen along
a portion of the Menai Straits. It also occurs in the Isle of Man, where the
old rocks are identical with those of the lower aureoles of thermometamorphism
in the southern Highlands. In both cases the trend of this outer margin is the
same—north-east and south-west. Wherever this margin can be examined it
has been found to be a great line of resistance, and the folding in the adjacent
palzozoic, and, at times, even newer rocks, is found to be parallel to it; it is in
fact the cause of the strike of the folding; under carth-stresses the softer rocks
have buckled up against a great resisting crystalline mass.

Thus, strictly speaking, there is no such thing as a Caledonian Movement;
there are a series of resisting masses with parallel margins; the folding in
North Wales is determined by the Anglesea Archean Rocks; Caledonia has
nothing whatever to do with it. :

If, now, we turn to the area in the south of Britain, we find another system
of folding; this, too, the author believes to be due to a similar cause. The
outer margin of the old crystalline rocks in Cornwall seems to be roughly east
and west; it certainly is not north-east and south-west. It now remains to do
in the north-west of France what the author has done in North Britain—i.e., to
trace out the outer margins of crystallisation and prove that the so-called
Hercynian system means simply that the boundaries of the resisting crystalline
masses, against which the newer rocks buckle up, now trend east and west. If
these facts are once grasped we have an explanation of the local departure of
the strike of the folding in the north of England; the lines of resistance locally
depart from their usual trend and the subsequent folding does the same.

5. The Division between the Lower and Upper Avonian.
By Dr. A. Vauacuan.

6. The Harlow Boulder Clay* and its Place in the Glacial Sequence of
Kastern England. By A. Irvine, D.Sc., B.A., and P. A.
Irvine, B.A.

(1) In the light of Professor Bonney’s Presidential Address at Sheffield
(1910) and the known intersection of the East Anglian chalk range by the pre-
glacial Stort-Cam Valley (well-sections at Elsenham and Quendon), it is sub-
mitted that the facts recorded last year point legitimately to the conclusion that
the (roughly) East and West line of high country about two miles south of
Harlow (Essex) represents the terminal moraine of the southernmost prolonga-
tion (through the Elsenham Gap) of the ‘inland-ice.’ Its till-like character,
the contained fossils and erratics (with the failure to detect any rock-fragments
of Scandinavian origin), suggest that the Mercian ice-sheet was the confluent
mass of two contributing sheets, one on either side of the Pennine mountain-
chain, with smaller contributory glaciers from that region, sweeping the Mid-
lands of débris from such districts as Charnwood, during the early Pleisto-
cene maximum (alpine) elevation of the more northerly portions of the British
area. Such considerations further suggest synchrony between the deposits (so
similar in character) at Harlow, Cromer, and Saffron Walden; antedating
the ‘Chalky Boulder Clay’ of East Anglia by the interglacial period of the
glacial shingle (with remains of Hippopotamus, Hlephas antiquus, Bos primi-

1 B.A. Reports, Dundee Meeting (1912), pp. 132 ff.; Nature, June 20 and
August 22, 1912.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 481

genius, Uquus, Cervus megaceros, and Chellean (?) implements), which now fills
the preglacial channel in the chalk to a proved depth of 170 feet.2

(2) The Chalky Boulder Clay of the plateau (as distinguished from its
‘rubble-drift derivatives) is well defined on either side of the upper valley of
the Stort at altitudes of 240 feet to 270 feet (o.p.), maintaining a pretty con-
stant character in numerous grave-sections, well-sections, and open excavations.
Its general facies and composition differentiate it from the Harlow Till, and
from that which occurs at lower level in the valley, 220 feet to 230 feet (o.D.).

(3) The Valley Boulder Clay consists at Thorley of a compact silty
deposit, devoid of chalk detritus, elongated erratics often standing erect in it,
presumably dropped from stranded ice-rafts. In the Thorley gravel-pit good
sections (transverse to the valley) have shown some seven feet of such a boulder
clay intercalated with contorted gravels, including ‘ gravel-boulders’ (Bonney),
originally deposited as frozen masses, and showing evident causal connection
with the contortions. The whole deposit overlies the sandy interglacial
current-bedded gravel (12 feet), with included erratics, seen in greater force
in the more extensive gravel-pit on the other side of the valley, forming an
interglacial series younger than the plateau Chalky Boulder Clay but older than
the contorted gravel series (with intercalated Boulder Clay) of the valley. (See
section with altitudes determined by ‘levelling,’ fig. 1 of circular of the
Geologists’ Association for excursion on June 21, 1913.)

(4) In some recent deep well-sections (piercing the chalk) a distinction can
be drawn between the Chalky Boulder Clay and the Blue Boulder Clay (=Harlow
Till) with a zone of ‘rubble’ between them. Horizon of the Latton and
Hockerill gravels.

From the above data the following tentative correlation is put forward for
the consideration of geologists :—

Peaty Alluvium (post-glacial) of the Stort and the Lea, &c.: finer ‘rubble-
drift’ of lower valley-flanks.

(iv) Valley Boulder Clays and Contorted Gravels: coarser ‘rubble-drift’
of higher valley-flanks: YH. primigenius and Hquus, paleoliths [Hessle Boulder
Clay ?] (= ‘Wurm ’* or ‘ Mecklenburgian ’ *).

[Sands and gravels (in part) of Anker’s and Rippon’s pits, near Peter-
borough. ] °

Third Interglacial : current-bedded fine gravel and sand with erratics.

[Sand and shingle, with Mammoth, &c., and erratics filling old river-channel
at Fletton.] °

(ili) Chalky Boulder Clay of Hast Anglia: Stortford and Thorley plateau
{= ‘Riss’ 4 or ‘ Polandian ’®).

Second Interglacial: glacial shingle filling the older Stort Valley, with
extinct Pleistocene mammalian remains and very early paleoliths; sand and
shingle of the Latton pits to the S. of Harlow.’

[Interglacial sands of the Gipping Valley.]

we Harlow Till (=‘ Mindel’4 or Saxonian*); Saffron Walden and Cromer
tills.

First Interglacial : (‘Norfolkian’*) not delimitable from (i).

() Herts Plateau-Drift (= ‘Ginz’* or ‘ Scanian’*) of the Stortford Water-
works.°®

The ‘Great Ice Age’ would be represented by (ii) and (iii) in the above
scheme; its gradual incoming by (i), and its gradual outgoing by (iv).

B.A. Reports, Portsmouth Meeting (1911), pp. 521-2.

Photographs (slides) by Mr. H. G. Featherby, of Bishop’s Stortford.
Penck and Brickner.

Professor J. Geikie.

See paper read in Section C last year; printed in extenso in the Geol. Mag.
for September 1913.

7 These underlie the Chalky Boulder Clay in the pit-face for some 200 yards,
and contain many rolled and weathered erratics from the Harlow Till; the
‘Schotter’ is mainly composed of such material. The extra weathering and
rounding differentiate them as a series from those found in the Till itself.

8 See Mem. Geol. Surv. vol. iv., p. 449.

1913. . II

on fF Ob

482 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

7. The (Lower?) Carboniferous Grits of Lye, in South Staffordshire.
By W. Wicxuam Kina, F.G.S., and W. J. Lewis, B.Sc.

In the ‘Geological Magazine,’ Dec. 4, Vol. ix. (1912), p. 437, we announced
(inter alia) that purple beds of Lower Old Red Age existed at Saltwells. Since
then we have ascertained that two miles to the south, at Lusbridge Brook, Lye,
below the Thick Coal, Carboniferous Beds are exposed for a thickness of nearly
400 feet as against about 200 feet at Saltwells. These basal beds are difficult to
interpret.

The succession below the Thick Coal in Lusbridge Brook is thus : (a2) Various
Clays and Coals 280 feet; (4) Conglomerate 27 feet; (c) Red Clays (Plants)
and White and Yellow Clays, in which are embedded many pieces of quite unworn
pink calcareous Grits, and at base Limestone Grits and a Conglomerate, thickness
40 feet; (d) White, Red and Yellow Clays. (d) is only exposed for about 30 feet.
Total below Thick Coal 377 feet. Mr. F. G. Meachem has kindly given to us
data proving that the beds down to the base of (b) are the same thickness in the
Freehold Pit, Lye, and that there, below (b), they pierced Red Marls for 150
feet.

The interesting zones are those in which the Limestone and pink Grits occur.
Broken fossils occur in the Limestone Grit, which is made up largely of angular
pieces of Limestone. In the Conglomerate (6) a pebble 18 inches in diameter of
highly calcareous grit containing Calamites varians has been found, which is
probably another type of this Limestone Grit. A precisely similar calcareous
grit was found in situ at or below (6) in the Freehold Pit, and above (c) a nearly
similar type occurs in the form of gigantic slabs 25 feet thick in the Lye
Cemetery.

Encrinite débris only can be identified in the pink Grits. We found in the
Clays (c) a minute fragment of a Brachiopoda with a straight hinge-line.

Lithologically the Lye Grits are identical with the so-called millstone Grits of
Titterstone Clee Hill (sixteen miles to S.W.), in which Lower Carboniferous
plants occur; but until further evidence is found, Mr. Dixon suggests these
Clee Grits be given a non-committal designation. At a later stage it was
suggested to us that the Lye Grits may be the base of the Middle Carboniferous.

In the Conglomerates there is distinct evidence of Inter-Carboniferous denuda-
tion which removed in places, as at Saltwells, Coal Measure Ironstone (Newrop-
teris), Coal Seams, Grey Limestones (Productus sp.?), and Limestone and Pink
Grits.

In ‘Q.J.G.S.,’ Vol. 55 (1899), p. 123, Mr. King showed that all the pebbles
in the Permian Conglomerates of the Severn Basin are referable to a local
source, except only those of Lower Carboniferous Age. The last-mentioned
pebbles contain Syringopora and Caninia of probably D?-$ and Pendleside types.
Some of the pebbles are identical lithologically with the Limestone and Pink
Grits now found at Lye.

In Permian times the Lower Carboniferous Rocks provided, from original
and derivative local sources, much of the material in the Permian Calcareous
Conglomerates.

8. On some of the Basement Beds of the Great Oolite and the Crinoid
Beds. By Epwin A. Watrorp, F.G.S.

Sowerby, in Vol. 1 ‘Mineral Conchology,’ describes a brachiopod now known
as Rhynchonella concinna. It is figured on T. lxxxiii. 6 from Aynhoe in North-
amptonshire. A note of a quarry in the Great oolite made by the writer in 1883
fixes probably the source of Sowerby’s shell—

Aynhoe Allotments Quarry.

Ft. In.

1. Humus : ape Pe)

2.-Whitish Marl 5 : : : 5 aa ee
3. Marl crowded with Rhynchonella concinna, Ostrea

Sowerbyi, Natica, Modiola, Pholadomya . - oR ae

4. Shelly Limestone, false bedded . ? - i593

5. Grey Marl . : : F > Aut

6. Limestone, whitish : top course . . . a Mee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION OC. 483

The Geological Survey found its stratum to be a convenient line of demarca-
tion, as it rested upon a base of limestone graduating into the Stonesfield series.

The discovery of other strata on the borders of Hast Oxfordshire and West
Oxfordshire necessitates the division of the Great Oolite and the separation of
the new beds proposed to be classed as Sub-Bathonian. The old survey lines are
thus sustained. The sequence suggested is as follows :—

Urrrr Great Ooxire.—l. Terebratula mazillata beds. 2. Calcaire a
Echinodermes. ‘

Lower Great Oouire.—l. Striped Limestones. 2. Rhynchonella concinna
beds. 3. Stonesfield Slate.

Sus-Barnontan.—l. Striped Limestone and Crinoid beds. 2. Nezran series.
3. Striped Crinoid Marls. 4. Chipping Norton Limestones.

The new railway (Aynhoe and Ashendon) is cut along the divide between the
Cherwell and Ouse rivers. The missing Sub-Bathonian series of the West lands
were brought to view. Prominent there were White Calciferous Limestones and
Striped Marls and Limestones. The author found the chalk-like limestone to be
crowded with the decayed heads of large crinoids of which it was made. Above
it passed into a blue crystalline limestone, here and there; a packed mass of
the brachial joints of the crinoids. At the base of all was the stratum of black
vertical stripes (the striped beds), the place of crinoid column and rootlets filled
with carbonaceous granules from dark beds above. The beds are now known
to be marine, not estuarine, as previously described. Sections of the chalk-like
limestone showed a pavement of discs of the crinoid (Apiocrinus) calyx.

9. The Value of a Knowledge of the Rock Soil Distribution of Plants in
Tracing Geological Boundaries. By A. R. Horwoop.

During the last ten years the new science, Ecology, has made great strides,
and one branch of it—that which deals with the distribution of plants upon
different soils—has become recognised as a sure means of determining the type
of vegetation which characterises each soil. Conversely, the type of vegetation is
an indication of the soil.

Whilst the geological formations, with the sub-divisions, are numerous, the
soils may be roughly divided into six classes, and the influence of lime in the
soil upon plant distribution is especially marked.

These facts now systematically studied have an important bearing upon
geology, more especially in the delineation of zones and sub-zones.

It is well known that certain formations, such as the coal measures, Keuper,
Rheetics, Lias, &c., have intermittent thin bands of limestone, &c., which are
not always to be seen in the field, in section or otherwise, and difficulty arises
in tracing them across country for this reason.

In a similar way the existence of irregular beds of sand in glacial deposits
is often obscured by vegetation or other causes, and their existence is frequently
a matter of conjecture. As these details of mapping are of importance, especially
to the builder, agriculturist, and horticulturist, and economic geology is to-day
a great factor in survey work, any accessory aids that can be rendered by the
ecologist are worthy of the consideration of geologists.

Moreover, ecology has advanced so far already that surveys of several
regions have been made and exact vegetation maps published, so that it is
expected that this science, which is of such importance from the economic, as
well as the stratigraphic, standpoint, will have shortly to be established upon
a national basis, and ecological surveys carried out by the State. This neces-
sity arises primarily from the purely ecological value of the work, and since
ecology and geology are interdependent, there is additional reason for urging
that the former be recognised as fully as the latter as of national importance.

It is therefore suggested that till this is accomplished geological survey work
should be carried out in conjunction with ecological surveys, or, at any rate, that
those at work in each district upon ecological surveys be asked to co-operate,
where required, with geological surveyors, especially in those areas where this
co-operation would be of great assistance in tracing boundaries of local beds.

Further, it is suggested that a definite effort should be made to accomplish

I12

484. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

the appointment of Government ecological surveys by those already officially
in charge of geological work, in view of the assistance each science can render
the other. Whilst emphasis is here laid on the value of ecology to the geologist,
equal value is rendered by the geologist to ecology. The author illustrates these
principles by examples from an ecological survey of Leicestershire, where he
has found that a knowledge of rock soils and plant distribution has supplemented
the evidence of geological data. It is thought that geologists generally may
not be fully aware of what is being done in a different field, and the significance
of rock-soil work to them may have been overlooked.

10. Report on the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles.
See Reports, p. 145.

11. Report on the Investigation of the Igneous and Associated Rocks
of the Glensaul and Lough Nafooey Areas, Co. Galway.—See
Reports, p. 150.

12. Interim Report on the Prepeeaiee of a List of Characteristic

Fossils. —See Reports, p. 150.

13. Preliminary Report on the further Exploration of the Upper Old
Red Sandstone of Dura Den.—See Reports, p. 150.

SSS =

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
The following Papers and Reports were read :— >

1. The Geology of the District between Abereiddy and Pencaer, Pem-
brokeshire. By A. Husert Cox, M.Sc., Ph.D., F.G.S., and
Professor O. T. Jones, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S.

In an introductory paragraph the authors referred to the work of previous
observers, namely, Hicks, Reed, Elles, and Elsden, and to the visit of the
Geologists’ Association during Easter, 1910, when results were obtained which
suggested that this area required re-investigation. Examination by the authors
has proved that the apparent sequence is extremely complicated by strike-
faulting, and instead of Llandeilo and Bala rocks, as previously supposed,
Arenig and even Cambrian rocks form large areas of the coast.

Part I. Abereiddy Bay to Pwll Strodyr (ASH C.):

The ground is occupied by the under-mentioned beds, the stratigraphical
order of which is, so far as known, as follows :—

Bala . . . . Limestone of Eastern Quarry, Abereiddy=Mydrim Limestone
of Carmarthenshire.

Llandeilo . . . Lower Dicranograptus Shales=Hendre Shales of Carmar-
thenshire.

{ Didymograptus Murchisoni Shales.

Tia ee Didymograptus Murchisoni Voleanics (including the
. . | Abereiddy Ash, and Llanrian lavas).

Didymograptus bifidus Shales.

[ Tetragraptus Beds—dark slates.

Porth Gain Beds—egrits and slates with Orthis calligramma,
| var. proava.

Abbevouarle Beds—sandy mudstones with Ogygia selwyni, &c.

? gap.

Areni¢ .

Doubtful Age

Lingula Flags
? Menevian .

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

{ Castell Coch Beds—cleaved blue-black mudstones.
Ynys Castell Beds—siliceous mudstones and cherts.

| Ynys Castell grit and breccia,
? break.

Flags and laminated quartzites with Lingulella davisii.
Slates near Abercastle with Agnostus sp.

The ‘ Middle Llandeilo’ of Hicks’ classification has been found to include

the Lower Dicranograptus Shales and the succeeding limestone; that is, actually
more than the Llandeilo formation as now defined. The ‘ Upper Llandeilo’
includes various Lower Llanvirn and Arenig beds; the affinities of the other
rock-groups are briefly discussed in the paper. Lingula flags occupy much of
the adjoining inland district.

References were made to certain ‘intrusive rocks and their relation to the
adjoining sediments.’ The detailed mapping of the area is now in progress.

Part II. Pwll Strodyr to Pencaer (O. T. J.).

The following rock-groups are represented in probable descending order :—

Lower or Middle
Arenig
? Lower Arenig

Pwll Deri Slates

Aberbach Quartzite group,
probably equivalent to the

Cleaved dark slates with ex-
tensiform graptolites.

Quartzites with thin dark
shales.

quartzites of Trwyn Llwyd
and possibly of Pwll Strodyr
Mynydd Morfa group
Pwll Crochan group

Lingula Flags

Doubtful Age Dark slates with obscure
fossils, probably Menevian.
or Upper Lingula Flags.

Quartzites, green and purple
sandstones ; obscure fossils,

? Solva Llech Dafad group

The age and relationships of the various groups were briefly discussed, and
reference was made to certain intrusive rocks which occur among the lower
groups. ;

In view of the great thickness of some of the groups and of the bearing of
their age upon the igneous rocks of Pencaer and Strumble Head it is proposed
to map the area in detail.

2. The Relation of the Rhiwlas and Bala Limestones at Bala,
North Wales. By Dr. Gerrrupe L. Ess.

The difficulties in the interpretation of the succession in the Bala district
appear to be due largely to the impersistent nature of the limestones and their
inconstancy as to horizon.

The succession is as follows:

Hirnant Series . Hirnant Flags and Mudstones.
Rhiwlas Limestone (impersistent).
Bala Limestone (impersistent).
Caleareous Ash.

Mudstones.

Coarse Ash.

Mudstones and flags with thin impersistent Limestones.
Ash

{ian Limestone (impersistent).

Bala Limestone Series .

Sandy flags, with occasional impersistent Limestones.
Ash (in N. part of area only).
Sandy flags becoming shaly towards base.

The Rhiwlas Limestone is an impersistent limestone at the base of the
Hirnant Series, and is found typically only in the northern part of the area. The
Bala Limestone is not developed as a calcareous bed in the northern part of the

486 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

area, but is somewhat more persistent as a definite band in the southern and
eastern portions of the district. The true relation of these horizons to each
other is seen in the type section at Gelli Grin, where the Bala Limestone
at its maximum thickness is overlain by light-coloured, pasty mudstones
containing a typical Rhiwlas Limestone fauna. The fauna is not nearly so rich
in individuals as that of the Rhiwlas Limestone itself, but all the more
important genera and species seem to be represented. Confirmatory sections are
also seen east of the fault near Gelli Grin farm, and also on Bryn Cut.

3. Plant Petrifactions in Chert and their bearing on the Origin of Fresh-
water Cherts. By Manin C. Storgs, D.Sc., Ph.D.

The author described, and illustrated with photos, petrifactions of plants in
the fresh-water cherts of Lulworth (Purbeck) and Asia Minor (Tertiary). The
author drew special attention to the Asia Minor cherts, which are remarkably
interesting and contain well-preserved plant debris. These were described by
Mr. Haydon in his Presidential Address to the Liverpool Biological Society, but
his work seems not to have reached most geologists and paleobotanists. The
cherts contain beautifully preserved pollen grains, fungi, stem debris, &c.;
and the existence of these delicate soft tissues so well preserved suggests that
Sollas’ view of flint formation can only be applied with caution to these fresh-
water cherts.

The author drew attention to the recent ‘Sapropel’ observed by Potonié,
and the likeness it has to the debris in the Asia Minor chert; concluding that
the chert may be taken as practically pure petrified ‘Sapropel,’ a phenomenon
which must interest those who are concerned with the methods of plant
petrifactions.

4. Critical Sections of the Cambrian Area called The Cwms in the
Caradoc-Comley Region of Shropshire. By KH. 8. Cosson, F.G.S.

The work of excavation of critical sections in the Cambrian rocks of Shrop-
shire has been continued by the writer at intervals during the past year, and
has furnished palzontological proofs of the prolongation of the Lower and
Middle Cambrian rocks of Comley into the Cwms area to the south. The
sections opened up confirm and amplify those excavated in previous years.

Excavation No. 53 supplies details of the upper portion of the Wrekin
Quartzite and the lowest part of the Lower Comley Sandstone, near the base
of which three fossiliferous bands are found, yielding species provisionally
referred to Kutorgina, Hyolithus, Hyolithellus, and Archcocyathus.

Excavation No. 54 exhibits a section of the junction of the Middle and
Lower Cambrian beds, which is very closely comparable with those of the
Quarry Ridge at Comley.

The beds in descending order are as follows :—

e. Shale with Grit Bands=The Quarry Ridge Shale, top not seen 4 feet
d. Hard, ringing, glauconitic Grit=The Quarry Ridge Grit . : lial
c. Conglomerate=The Quarry Ridge Grit, conglomeratic portion re
b. Dark Grey, Purplish and Red Limestones=The Black, Grey,

and Olenellus Limestones of Comley . ; 2 P . about 4 ,,
a. Green, Micaceous Sandstones, with Spotted Bands=The Lower

10a.

The conglomerate ¢ is plentifully charged with fragments of the Black and
other Lower Cambrian Limestones, and it is now proved for the first time that
the Black Limestone must be grouped with the Lower Cambrian.

The surface of the solid Black Limestone is coated with a phosphatic (?) skin,
and a similar deposit in the Comley Quarry has within the last two or three
years yielded recognisable fragments of Paradoxides sp. and Dorypyge Lakei
Cobbold. The black skin must, therefore, be regarded as the lowest deposit of
the Middle Cambrian age that is known in the district.

Comley Sandstone; base not seen

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 487

Among the numerous fossil fragments that occur in the Lower Cambrian
Limestones of this excavation the following have been identified :—

Anomocare (?) pustulatum Cobbold, Callavia Callavei Lapworth (?) Micro-
discus Attleborensis 8. and F. sp., Protolenus sp., Kutorgina sp., Linnars-
sonia (?) sp.

Excavation No. 55 exhibits a faulted junction between the Middle and Lower
Cambrian, the hard, ringing Grit (beds d above) being brought into contact
with the Green, Micaceous Sandstone (beds a above).

Excavation No. 56 proved the existence of both the Quartzite and the lower
part of the Lower Comley Sandstone at another point in the area.

A section constructed embodying the results of these excavations provides
evidence that the Lower Comley Sandstone has a thickness of about 480 feet.

The paper was accompanied by a sketch-plan showing the exact positions
of the excavations, and a section through the Comley and Cwms areas indicating
the general relations of the deposits to one another and to the superincumbent
younger rocks.

5. Flint and its Genesis. By A. Irvine, D.Sc., B.A.

A. Inthology of Flint.

1. Flint, intrinsically a member of the family of minerals’ having the com-
mon characteristic (as compact minerals) of consisting essentially of silica (SiO,)
with slight traces of accessory ingredients (commonly iron and carbonaceous
matter, more rarely potash, alumina, and lime), has closer affinities with
chalcedony, opal, menilite (retinite), holding a certain amount of water in
combination, as distinct from mechanically contained water. (Fuchs, Bischoff,
Rammelsberg, Wislicenus referred to.)

2. Iron staining referred to well-known chemical sequence? of (i) dissolved
protosalts of iron penetrating the flint differentially according to molecular
structure; (ii) the peroxidation of the iron base with the breaking up of the acid
constituent of the salt on the access of free oxygen, more fully discussed by the
writer elsewhere. Reference to the excessive iron-staining of the Sussex flints
(Piltdown) as a demonstration of this in Nature’s laboratory.

3. Patination of fracture-surfaces considered as an incipient stage of devitri-
fication, involving the metatropic change from the vitreous to the stony or
porcellanous molecular structure of the mineral.’ :

Evidence forthcoming of the action of heat and sunlight under desert con-
ditions in promoting devitrification (quad crystallisation) ; ‘Réaumur’s porcelain’
referred to again; also the lithological change observed in flaked flints brought
from the Egyptian desert.* Accessory minerals in the flint important factors
of devitrification. Work of Stas> on the action of acids upon different kinds of
glass; action of humus-acids on glass buried for a Jong time in the soil; forma-
tion of crystalline masses (richer in lime and magnesia‘) in glass during the
incipient stage of congelation—all throw light on this occult question. Refer-
ence to ‘ Report on Diffusion in Solids’ by Dr. C. H. Desch (in the last Report
of the British Association, Dundee Meeting, 1912), ‘diffusion in glasses and
devitrification.” Any attempt to classify flints according to age by mere ‘ patina-
tion’ or iron-staining, regardless of (a) the variations in secondary character
of the flints, (6) the physical conditions to which they may have been exposed
at different periods of their history, appears to be in the highest degree empirical.

4. Htching is referred to unequal responsiveness to the action of natural

* Kalkowsky, Hlemente der Lithologie (xviii., Familie der Kieselgesteine).

2 A. Irving, (a) Brit. Assoc. Reports, Southport Meeting (1883), Sect. C;
(6) Proc. Geol. Assoc. vol. xii. pp. 227 ff.— Organic Matter as a Geological
Agent.’

* A. Irving, Chem. and Phys. Studies in Metamorphism (Longmans, 1889),
§ iii., and App. i.

* Presented to the writer at the time by Captain H. G. Lyons, R.E., F.R.S.

5 Percy, Metallurgy (vol. i.) quoted by the writer (op. cit.).

* Percy, op. cit.

"ev

488 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

solvents, resulting from the allotropic modifications of the silica, with the pre-
sence or absence of accessory bases such as iron and lime. ‘ Azo-humus-salts,’
resulting from the arrested oxidation of nitrogenous organic matter, the most
common natural solvents for silica.?_ (Examples of such corrosive action sub-
mitted.) Free humus-acids (from decay of non-nitrogenous organic matter) pro-
bably act only upon such constituents of the flint as contain traces of bases. ‘The
author’s demonstration of such action years ago referred to.* Flints embodied in
pumiceous volcanic tuff etched by the direct differential action of alkaline solu-
tions upon the allotropic modifications of the silica.

5. Natural agencies concerned in the fracture of flint discussed : (a) differen-
tial movement of the chalk strata, (b) percussion, (c) frost-fracture. Any
empirical deductions from fracture experiments on flint must take into account
the variations in lithological character, requiring laborious use of the chemicai
balance. Reference to the recent work of Mr. F. N. Haward and Mr. Hazzel-
dine Warren, and to the fracture effect in differential earth-movements of
heavily-weighted gravel, schotter, scree, talus, &c.; tough quartzite pebbles
undergoing ‘scarring’ instead of fracture, as seen in the Bunter pebble-beds of
Budleigh Salterton and Sutton Coldfield. :

6. Disruption of hollow flint-nodules into multiform fragments by the expan-
sive force of freezing water, compared with the actual case of the disruption of a
bomb-shell (walls 13 inch thick) at Wellington College (1881) by the same agency.°
A striking instance of this submitted exhibiting strain-cracks crossing the nodule,
from which a considerable portion had been split off in its disruption; the cortex
having become opalescent, without iron-staining, owing to the absence of organic
solvents, although the flint was obtained at a depth of 11 feet from an exceed-
ingly ferruginous post-glacial deposit.*° ‘Flaking’ (as a phase of disruption)
may result from expansion due to heat alternating with rapid cooling owing
to powerful radiation under desert conditions,

7. Normal flint being about as hard as quartz (—7), its fracture-surfaces may
be scratched by grains of zircon (7.5), tourmaline (7.5), topaz (8), corundum (9),
&c.,"* caught between two differentially moving flint-surfaces in a landslip or a
glacier ;'” and the increased force of impact in sand-blast due to the high specific
gravity and greater size of these minerals may account for definite hair-like
striations concomitant with polishing. ‘Ice-action’ has been too freely invoked
in such cases. ‘Satiny lustre’ (due to hydration) is a different phenomenon from
polishing.

B. The Genesis of Flint.

Assuming, as we may, the presence of dissolved alkaline silicates, furnished
by the decomposition of felspars within the drainage-basin, in which spongoid
and other low forms of life lived and died in the Cretaceous sea, it would appear
that we may look for the supply of free silica in the genesis of flint to the
reaction upon those silicates of organic acids, furnished in the decomposition of
the dead sarcodic material, which (when living) formed the basis of the ameebi-
form constituents of the living sponges, &c., the siliceous spiculés of sponges,
Radiolaria, &c., being found often enclosed in the flint ; and CO, (product of com-
plete oxidation of organic matter) is known to readily displace SiO; from silicates
of the alkalies in solution. Analyses of flints (Rammelsberg’’) give various slight
percentages of accessory potash, lime, water, and carbon, the last being probably
the carbonised decomposition product of the postulated dead organic matter.
The concretionary building-up of silica’4 in the form of flint nodples under the
hydrostatic pressure of still water (often simulating in outline the form of the

7 “Organic Matter,’ &c. (supra cit.).

8 Chem. and Phys. Studies, &c. }

° In the severe frost of January 1881.

10 Tn an excavation on the upper flank of the Stort Valley (1912).

1 Bristow, Glossary of Mineralogy (Longmans); Dick, Nature, vol. xxxvi.
Toy MG

12 Nature, September 26, 1912.

13 Mineralchemie (II., pp. 163, 164).

1 Cf. Kalkowsky, Elemente der Lithologie, p. 274—‘ Héchst wahrscheinlich
ist die organische Herstammung fur diese Kieselgesteine, a.s.w.’ 1 Bei

‘

wy

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 489

original sponge) is readily understood ; where, on the other hand, a slight lateral
flow of the water occurred, a tabular form, with its slightly laminated structure
(determining often the mode of fracture), would naturally occur. Vertical walls
of flint in fissures in the extensively abraded Upper Chalk seem to tell of decom-
position of the alkaline silicates during the deposition of ‘the Lower London
Tertiaries,’ in which some of the liberated SiO, has often taken up Fe and K to
form glauconite. In such cases decomposing Algwe, &c., may have furnished the
acids required ; or CO, furnished from the chalk itself might replace the Si0O,.

In areas where the alkaline silicates were wanting we should have the skeleton
of the siliceous sponge preserved without any flinty investiture;'* or even cal-
careous fossil sponges, as in the well-known ‘ Faringdon Sponge Beds.’ Silici-
fication of calcareous fossils, Foraminifera,’* Echinoderms, &c., can be under-
stood as a ‘mass-reaction’ of the alkaline silicates in the presence of a large
excess of water, the alkaline base going for the CO, of the calcareous fossil, while
the CaO became hydrated, leaving the SiO, to take the place of the original
CaCO,.

Thus :—

n H,O +- CaCO, + K,Si0, = K,CO, -+ Ca(OH), -+ SiO, + (» — 1)H,0
(dissolved) (dissolved) (precipitated)

(where x = an indefinitely large number) ;

or (in some cases ?)
CaCO,-+-K,Si0, = K,CO, + CaSiO,.
(dissolved) (Wollastonite).

The theory here propounded for the genesis of flint is the same as that sug-
gested years ago to account for the formation of the ‘ woody opal’ of the silicified
trees of the lower Nile Valley, the sequence of chemical changes being similar in
both cases (see paper by Capt. H. G. Lyons, R.E., F.R.S., in ‘Q.J.G.8.,’ Vol. 1,
November 1894, and the discussion thereon).

6. How the Relation between the Horizontal and Vertical Movement
of the Water in Tides and Waves causes them to drive Sand for-
wards. By Vaucuan Cornisu, D.Sc., F.R.G.S., F.G.S., F.C.S.

The author dealt with the conditions of the transport of detritus superficially
and in suspension. He pointed out that the rate of subsidence is the constant
which best defines the behaviour of a granular material with respect to trans-
portation by currents. He showed how detritus may be classified in three
groups according to the value of this constant, these groups being familiar as
shingle, sand, and mud, in the case of water-borne material, and gravel, sand,
and dust in the case of wind-borne detritus.

It was pointed out that the change of direction of the vertical currents in sea-
waves does not occur simultaneously with the change of direction of the hori-
zontal currents, and it was shown that the result of the sequence of the changes
is to endow waves with a shoreward action upon shingle and the coarser kinds of
sand independently of any motion of translation in the water.

In tides also rise does not commence simultaneously with flow, nor fall with
ebb, and the author showed that the sequence of these changes is such as to
make the flood tide more effective than the ebb as an agent of littoral drift,
apart from any greater speed of current.

Examples wére given of the different positions in which deposits of detritus
accumulate according to the rate of subsidence of the particles.

An explanation was given of the effect of a change in the inclination of
current to the horizontal in sorting heterogeneous detritus, and examples were
given for wind-borne material.

15 See Rupert Jones’ edition of Dixon’s Geology of Sussea.
16 Sollas, Age of the Harth, chap. vi., pp. 150 ff., fig. 43.

490 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

7. Interim Report on the Geology of Ramsay Island, Pembrokeshire.
See Reports, p. 151.

8. Report on the Old Red Sandstone Rocks of Kiltorcan, Ireland.
See Reports, p. 152.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Shelly and Graptolitic Faunas of the British Ordovician.
By Dr. Gertrupe L. ELwes.
There are two main types of ‘shelly’ faunas of Ordovician age in the British
Isles, and each of these can be further subdivided into a number of sub-

faunas which can be correlated by reference to associated graptolite-bearing
beds.

Ordovician Faunas.

Graptolitic | Shelly
Graptolite Zones A B
| z. 5 72 iia we |
Zone of Cephalog. acuminatus Riciroocmhatac peiacor

Zone of Dicellog. anceps fauna | Exotic fauna. 4 |

|
| Zone of Dicellog. complanatus Calitenes planer

marginata fauna

with sub-faunas
. a . | (a) Chasmeps ;

Zone of Dicranog. clingani | (6) Asaphus

| Powisi

in ee

Exoticfauna . 3

| Zone of Pleurog. linearis

Zone of Climacog. Wilsoni

Zone of Climacog. peltifer Exoticfauna . 2

|

| Ogygia Buchi
fauna. with
Asaphus tyran-
nus sub-fauna

Zone of Nemag. gracilis

Zone of Glyptog. teretiusculus | Exotic fauna .1

Zone of Didymog. Murchisoni |
-——_____—_—__________——| Placoparia fauna |
| Zone of Didymog. bifidus | |

| Zone of Didymog. hirundo |
[= Ogygia Selwyni
| fauna

| Zone of Dichograptus |

Zone of Didymog. extensus

The main shelly types may be described as :

A. Asaphid-Trinucleid-Calymenid fauna,
B. Cheirurid-Lichad-Encrinurid fauna.

Evidence suggests that fauna B is an exotic fauna, possibly southern in
origin, which migrated into the British area. Becoming early established in
South Scotland, it soon spread west into Ireland, but did not dominate the whole
British area till Ashgillian times.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Q. 491

2. A First Revision of the British Ordovician Brachiopoda.
By Cuara HE. Sunvester, M.Sc.

The author gave a summary of the present stage of her researches among
the British Ordovician brachiopoda, and presented a table of the known species,
with their range and geological and geographical distribution. The species in
each genus were grouped around well known forms selected as types.

3. New Discoveries in the American Eocene.
By W. D. Marruew, Ph.D.

The American Museum of Natural History since 1903 has carried on
systematic exploration of the Eocene formations of the West. Mr. Walter
Granger, Associate Curator of Fossil Mammals, and his assistants have
thoroughly explored the Bridger, Washakie, Wind River, and Big Horn Basins
in Wyoming, and the San Juan Basin in New Mexico, the stratigraphy of each
basin has been studied, and the exact level of every specimen recorded. By
improved technique of collecting and preparation a great number of delicate and
fragile specimens have been preserved, and the collections are more extensive than
all those hitherto made, representing more than 4,000 catalogued individuals.
The Eocene formations are not lake deposits (excepting the Green River and
the Florissant) but have been deposited in flood plains and blocked river basins.
The material is chiefly of volcanic origin, derived from the early Tertiary vol-
canoes of the Rocky Mountains, and distributed by streams, &c., and sometimes
by the wind, in the mountain basins and on the plains. The ten successive faunze
now recognised are:

(10. Upper Uinta . : . Diplacodon Zone.
Upper Eocene . { 9. Tee Washakie . . Hobasileus Zone.
- 8. Upper Bridger . . UOvtntatherium Zone.
wiridic/Hocerio < { ts Tae Brdaer - . Orohippus Zone.
6. Lost Cabin’ . . . Lambdotherium Zone.
Lower Eocene... 5. Lysite anthers Mir
4. Gray Bull - . . Systemodon Zone.
f 3. Clark’s Fork ~
Paleocene . . j 2. Torrejon . ; . . Pantolambda Zone.
| 1, Puerco . . . . Polymastodon Zone.’

The Paleocene fauna does not contain the ancestors of the mid-Tertiary and
later mammals; it is diminished in the Lower Eocene and dies out in the Lower
Oligocene. The phyla which survived into the Oligocene or later Tertiary first
appear in the Lower or Middle Eocene, for the most part suddenly, as if
through immigration, The Clark’s Fork fauna is in the uppermost levels of the
Fort Union formation of the Big Horn Basin, Wyoming, and underlies the
Lower Eocene (‘ Wasatch’). It contains none of the types which come in in the
Lower Eocene (Perissodactyls, &c.), while its Paleocene types are in advanced
stages.

rose progress has resulted in the study of the phylogeny and relationships

of many groups, especially of the Creodonts, or primitive Carnivora, of the
Fissipedia or modernised Carnivora, of the tenrecs, moles, hedgehogs, tree
shrews, lemurs, of the horses, tapirs, titanotheres, rhinoceroses, chalicotheres,
and of the early Artiodactyls, of the rodents, American Edentates, opossums, and
other groups. The common ordinal characters of Placental Mammals are clearly
defined in the Lower Eocene and the differentiation of the orders must have
taken place during the Paleocene and late Cretaceous. The differentiation of
the families of Placentals took place during the Eocene and later Tertiary.
The modern genera date back to the Miocene or later.

The differentiation of Marsupials and Placentals must have occurred much
earlier than the Tertiary, possibly during the Jurassic or early Cretaceous,

492 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

4. Some furlher Notes on Paleoxyris and other allied Fossils, with
Special Reference to some New Features found in Vetacapsula.
By Li. Moysry, M.B., B.C., F.G.S.

Since the publication of a paper on Paleoxyris and other allied organisms
in 1910 * so many fresh specimens have come to hand, and, as was only natural,
several previously unrecorded examples have been described, notably some from
the Lancashire coal measures by Mr. J. Wilfred Jackson,* that it seems desirable
to record any new features that have been found in the new material, and also
any new facts that may lead to the elucidation of the nature of these still very
enigmatical organisms.

Taking in the first instance the genus Paleoxyris. The species Palaoxyris
helicteroides (Morris) has been lately found in very large quantities in the Notts
and Derbyshire coalfield. In this area they seem to be restricted to an horizon
extending from the roof of the Top Hard coal downwards to above the Ell coal;
a careful search in the measures below, wherever these are exposed, has not
resulted in the discovery of any trace of this fossil. They were, some years ago,*
discovered in great numbers in the open working of the Barnsley thick coal at
Worsborough, near Barnsley, where some 300 odd specimens were collected by
Mr. W. Gelder from a space six or seven yards in circumference, together with
some specimens of P. prendeli (Lesq) and P. carbonaria (Schimper).

A hurried search in other claypits at horizons above and below this coal
during the Sheffield Meeting of the British Association in 1910 produced enough
specimens to make it probable that, if looked for, they may prove to be similarly
quite common fossils in the great coalfield of which the Notts and Derbyshire
area is merely an extension.

In fact, it seems probable that the habit of collectors to look for fossils only
in the coal-measure shales, to the neglect of the ironstone nodules, may account
for the paucity of specimens found in other coalfields.

The other species, Palceoxyris carbonaria (Schimper) and Palwoxyris prendeli
(Lesq), seem, on the contrary, to be extremely rare in this area, and, when
found, they are usually associated with quantities of P. helicteroides.

Vetacapsula coopert (Machie and Crocker) * must still lay claim to being an
extremely rare fossil. This genus is not restricted to a definite horizon in
Derbyshire and Notts coalfields, but has been found to range from between the
Waterloo and Ell coals at Newthorpe Claypit, downwards to the Kilburn coal
at Loscoe Colliery. Three new specimens have been obtained—two from the silk-
stone coal, and one from the Kilburn coal. One of these, a specimen from the
silkstone coal of the Calow Colliery, Chesterfield, shows a feature of great
interest. When first found the fossil presented the appearance of a very much
crushed example; but careful development revealed the fact that the fossil was,
in reality, a perfectly normal flattened specimen, and the feature that gave rise
to the apparent deformity was the presence of a medial, longitudinal flange,
or fin-like structure, which extends along the ‘median raphe,’ emphasised by
the original describer of the genus, dismissed in my former paper as possibly
due to crumpling, and again brought into prominence by Mr. J. Wilfred Jack-
son. It seems now that this ‘median raphe,’ which appears to be a constant
feature in every specimen recorded, may be caused in the ordinary specimens
by this flange being torn off, and being left embedded in the matrix of the
counterpart. It is also instructive to compare this new-found flange with that
described by Mr. Bashford Dean on the egg-case of Chimera collet.

From the examination of the four specimens in the author’s collection and
others elsewhere it is becoming more apparent that there are two distinct species
included under the name of Vetacapsula cooperi. Owing, however, to the
present uncertainty as to their affinities, and to the rarity of their occurrence,
it seems best still to. keep them under one trivial name, and separate them by

1L. Moysey, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. lxvi., 1910, pp. 329-345, and
plates xxiv.-xxvii. 4

2 J. Wilfred Jackson, Lancashire Naturalist, Jan. 1911.

3 R. Kidston, Naturalist, 1897.

4B. J. Machie, Geol. and Nat. Hist. Repertory, vol. i. (1865-67), pp. 79-80.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 493

applying the designation ‘forma a’ to those specimens in which the pedicle
expands suddenly into the body, forming a distinct shoulder in the lower third
of the body and giving rise to a ‘deformity’ or crumpling in that region; and
the designation ‘forma 8’ to those in which the pedicle expands more gradually
into the body, giving to the specimen an ovate contour, with the ‘deformity ’
or crumpling in the centre.

A curious and interesting feature is seen on the outer edge of all specimens
conforming to ‘forma 8.’ Just before the body contracts to form the beak there
is found, by examination with the ordinary lens, a minute crenulation or
crimping of the edge of the fossil, which may be compared with the markedly
rugose lateral webs seen on the egg-cases of Chimera collei, Rhinochimera, and
other chimeroids.

One fresh specimen of Vetacapsula johnsoni (Kidston) has come under notice
from the Worsborough open works near Barnsley. It is in too crushed and
imperfect condition to show any new features.

A new species of Vetacapsula has been recently described by Mr. Good,* from
Pembrokeshire. It is very similar to Vetacapsula johnsoni, but is extremely
small, measuring only five millimetres across, whereas Vetacapsula johnsoni
measures twenty millimetres.

A new specimen of Fayolia crenulata (Moysey) has been discovered lately
from a small heap of nodules still remaining from the Shipley claypit. The
former example from Shipley consisted of the middle portion of the organism
aleven centimetres long; another specimen, doubtfully referred to Fayolia
sterzliana (Weiss), from the same locality, was evidently nearing its proximal or
pedicular termination. The new specimen is of interest mainly because it
shows the apex or distal termination, which appears to have been dome-shaped.
The chief feature is the marked exaggeration of the crenulate ‘collerette’
which arises from the junction of the two spiral valves, and which forms a sort
of spiral ‘corona’ round the apex of the fossil, strongly reminiscent of the corona
at the summit of the egg-case of Cestraceon philippi.

5. On the Occurrence of a Wind-Worn Rock Surface at Lilleshall Hill,
Salop, and of Wind-Worn Stones there and elsewhere. By FRANK
Raw, B.Sc., F.G.S.

Lilleshall Hill, lying some five miles E.N.E. of Wellington, and extending
N.E. and S8.W., is a ‘hogsback’ of Uriconian, and is largely bare rock. The
exposed rock of its S.H. side consists towards the N.K. of very hard halleflintas,
interstratified with somewhat softer tuff, and to the S.W. of this and opposite
the Monument of still harder felsite conglomerate and grit.

Practically the whole of this rock surface has been ground smooth and,
where hardest, has been highly polished, the smooth surface being traceable
everywhere except where it has obviously been removed by weathering or
quarrying. ‘I'he surfaces of projecting masses of the conglomerate are
perfectly fresh, being ground smooth, deeply fluted, and polished as by wind-
blown sand, the radiating flutings showing the paths of escape of the prevalent
wind. To the N.E. the rock surfaces have been much more even, perhaps
based on a previously glaciated surface, and the flutings are parallel and in
that direction less and less highly inclined, till at the N.E. end they lie at
an inclination of 15° to 20° up to the North in North and South planes.

From the §.W. end of the wind-worn surfaces already described similar
polishing can be traced across the hill to the N.W. on the steep rock surfaces
of quartz-veined halleflintas which bound on the §8.W. the highest part of the
hill.

South-west of this the crest of the hill is fairly flat and covered with grass.
Here two reservoirs have been constructed for the Lilleshall water supply,
and several of the stones thrown out were found to be beautifully wind-worn
and polished. Two trial excavations made near by yielded a considerable
proportion of wind-worn stones embedded in fine soft red sand.

®* R. H. Good, Quart. Journ, Geol. Soc., vol. Ixix., 1913, p. 266, pl. xxx.,
fig. 3.

494 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C,

In one of the excavations carried to a depth of 29 inches there also occurred
immediately beneath the turf a definite layer of white even-sized wind-worn

sand, the grains measuring about 3, inch in diameter, above the fine red sand
with wind-worn stones.

The occurrence of wind-worn stones is also recorded from other localities
in the Midlands, and specimens in illustration were exhibited.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17,
The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. On the Classification of Igneous Rocks. By H. Warn, D.Sc.

The classification I have suggested is based entirely on the chemical compo-
sition of the rocks in molecular proportions. On the strength of averages
obtained from one thousand selected rocks sixfold repeated dichotomous division
yielded sixty-four groups of intimately related rocks. By means of the factors
obtained any other rock may be assigned to its respective group. A diagram
demonstrates the relations of the groups to each other, and, moreover, a tetra-
gonal projection shows the limits within which all possible combinations of acid
and basic rock constituents are confined.

As similarly composed rocks generally form similar minerals, the majority
of the rocks of each group are also mineralogically alike. It cannot be stated too
strongly that the customary division of igneous rocks into acid, intermediate,
basic, &c., is clearly also a chemical classification. The subsequent grouping into
families and species is based upon mineralogical differences.

The method now proposed carries the classification on a chemical basis very
much further, and accordingly brings the rocks in each of the sixty-four groups
so much closer together.

Should it in time be found expedient to establish on similar principles a com-
plete quantitative classification on exclusively mineralogical basis the two systems

would most appropriately mutually supplement each other, notwithstanding
a certain amount of overlapping.

2. On the Presence of Copper in the Sandstones of Exmouth.
By Crom, Carus-Wiuson, F.R.S.E., F.G.S,

The cliff section along the shore to the east of Exmouth golf links shows the
red marls, with intercalated sandstones, and these were examined last winter
to a point just beyond the High Lands of Orcombe. The sandstone was found
to contain copper-carbonate. This is widely distributed, and shows itself as
bright green patches upon the rock. Its presence is due to copper pyrites,
which occurs as one of the mineral constituents of the sandstone, and which is
undergoing decomposition. The sandstone is chiefly made up of rounded quartz
and carnelian grains, bound together by a cement composed of the carbonates of
lime and magnesia. There is also much manganese present. The grains of
quartz give evidence of having been rounded by wind-action, and subsequently
smoothed and polished by fine material suspended in water. They possess the
conditions which, when accumulated on the beach, and sifted by wind and
wave-action, are favourable to the production of musical sands, and several
patches were found. Owing to the large percentage of lime and magnesia
present in the springs issuing from the cliffs, and the precipitation of this on
the evaporation of the water, much of the beach material footing the cliffs in
places has been, and is now being, consolidated into masses of recent sandstone
and conglomerate.

The presence of copper, carnelian, manganese, &c., indicates chemical and
mineralogical conditions similar to those prevailing during the deposition of
the German Rothliegendes.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION CO. 495

8. On various Occurrences of Pillow Lavas in North and South Wales.
By A. Huperr Cox, M.Sc., Ph.D., F.G.S., and Professor O, T.
Jones, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S.

Pillow lavas were described from four localities, viz. :—

(a) Strumble Head, in Pembrokeshire.

(6) Cader Idris, in Merionethshire.

(c) Sarn Mellteyrn, near Pwllheli, Carnarvonshire.

(d) Careg, two miles N.N.W. of Aberdaron, Carnarvonshire.

(a) Strumble Head (A. H. C.).—References were made particularly to the
work of Reed and Klsden. The rocks were formerly regarded as intrusive, and
were described as of composite characters and possibly of later date than the
main folding.

Variolitic rocks were described by Reed, who referred to the ‘pillow struc-
ture’ as ‘spheroidal jointing.’ The whole mass appears to consist largely of
highly vesicular, basic flows, some with well-developed pillow structure, others
showing transitions to non-pillowy types. Abundant chert occurs in association
with the lavas, particularly those showing pronounced pillow structure. The
most perfect pillows vary from a foot to eighteen inches in diameter, and consist
of typical spilites, with thin, rod-like felspars of refractive index about 1°542,
corresponding to oligoclase—the rocks are considerably decomposed, especially to
calcite, chlorite, and epidote.

Among. the above rocks are ophitic diabases, showing marked columnar
jointing, which may in part represent sills.

(6) Cader Idris (A. H. C.).—A thick band of pillow lavas forms the highest
point of the Cader Idris range, and thence strikes west-south-west. Its dis-
tribution was described in detail, and reference was made to the work of Ramsay
and Geikie. A comparison of these rocks with those of Strumble Head discloses
certain differences, especially in their uniformly less vesicular character and
smaller amount of associated chert. Under the microscope the rock shows the
character of a typical spilite; both rod- and lath-shaped felspars occur, the
former being oligoclase, the latter somewhat richer in soda (refractive index
below 1°541). The rock is considered to resemble most closely that of Mullion
Island. In close association with it is the ‘Hurite’ (soda-granophyre) of Cole
and Jennings. These lavas appear to occupy a stratigraphically higher horizon
than the beds which yielded Didymograptus bifidus and D. murchisoni to Lake
and Reynolds. The detailed examination of the area is still incomplete.

(c) Sarn Mellteyrn (O. T. J.).—References were made to the work of various
authors, viz.: Ramsay, Harker, Raisin, Elsden, Matley.

The rocks are exposed by the roadside three-eighths of a mile south-west of
Mellteyrn Church, where ten to twelve feet of typical pillow lavas overlain by a
similar thickness mainly of non-pillowy rocks of allied characters are followed
by flinty mudstones and micaceous shales. The spaces between the pillows are
occupied by closely jointed dark-grey chert. The sediments dip to the east at
a moderate angle, and probably pertain to the lower part of the Arenig. The
pillow lava is finely vesicular and considerably decomposed; the felspar is
oligoclase and forms lath-shaped microlites. From its structure and mineralo-
gical character the rock is referred to the spilitic suite.

(d) Careg, near Aberdaron (O. T. J.).—These rocks have been described in
detail by Raisin, and the pillow structure noted as ‘spheroidal structure.’ The
present notes are intended to supplement that description in certain respects.

The pillow structure is seen near Careg quarries and near the coast; individual
pillows have a length of about two feet, and are composed of a fine-grained rock
with small vesicles. The felspars have the extinction-angle and refractive
index of oligoclase-albite, and are highly charged with decomposition products.
These rocks are undoubted spilites, and were claimed as such by Dewey and
Flett; they are associated with ‘limestones’ of a peculiar character, together
with beds and strings of jasper, which in places wraps round the pillows in the
same manner as the chert near Sarn. The association of that rock with a pillow
lava may perhaps be regarded as confirming Greenly’s suggestion that the jaspers
of Anglesey were originally cherts. The associated rocks at Careg have an
extraordinarily complicated structure, and probably belong to the pre-Cambrian.

496 - TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C,

4. Note on the Igneous Rocks of Ordovician Age.
By Artuur Husert Cox, M.Sc., Ph.D., F.G.S.

The sedimentary rocks of Ordovician age consist principally of a great thick-
ness of shales and mudstones, implying that the sediments were deposited over
an area which, on the whole, was undergoing a slow but prolonged subsidence.
Hence it is to be expected that the associated volcanic rocks should approximate
to the keratophyre-spilite series. This appears to be the case with the igneous
rocxs of most, if not all, the Ordovician areas.

Spilites themselves have now been recorded from the Ordovician of Ayr-
shire,” the Lleyn peninsula,’ Merionethshire,* Pembrokeshire,* Cornwall,* and
Co. Mayo.°

In a larger number of Ordovician volcanic areas typical spilites are absent,
but in all cases the igneous rocks are found to bear close affinity to the rocks of
the spilitic suite of Messrs. Dewey and Flett.*

These authors have pointed out that ‘albitisation,’ though not confined to
igneous rocks of the suite, is especially met with among such rocks. Now the
British Ordovician lavas ‘are very commonly albitised, and often very completely
so. Thus they nearly all approximate to the keratophyres; some of them—
namely, the ‘soda rhyolites "—being very acid, are quartz-keratophyres, accord-
ing to Rosenbusch’s nomenclature; others, the ‘andesites,’ of intermediate to
almost basic character, are the keratophyres proper; while the ‘acid andesites’
and ‘ albite-trachytes ** would also be denoted as keratophyres on the Continent.
In many areas every transition exists between the acid and intermediate rocks,
while less commonly the more basic representatives of this series, the spilites
proper, are to be found.

Although the Ordovician igneous rocks mostly have a high soda percentage,
soda-amphiboles and soda-pyroxenes seem almost entirely absent. Riebeckite
occurs in the Mynydd Mawr rock,’ and perhaps in a few of the rhyolites,* while
the peculiar pleochroism of certain hornblendes occurring as accessory con-
stituents in some of the diabases probably points to the presence of soda in the
molecule. There are, however, very few such cases recorded, considering the
large number of rocks described, even if due allowance is made for many of the
descriptions being by no means recent. Felspathoid minerals are also entirely
absent from these Ordovician rocks. ‘

This absence of felspathoid minerals and of soda-hornblendes and soda-augites
constitutes an important difference between these rocks and those commonly
described as alkaline or Atlantic in type. It may be neted that Rosenbusch®
first placed the keratophyres among his alkaline division, but later, taking
into consideration the associated types, classed them with the calcalkaime
rocks.

A point worth notice in the Ordovician igneous rock is the frequent presence
of a rhombic pyroxene. Rosenbusch has pointed out that, whereas in calc-
alkaline (Pacific) rocks olivine makes its appearance at an early stage as the
rocks become basic, in the alkaline (Atlantic) rocks there is a marked tendency
for the réle of olivine to be taken by hornblende and biotite, even in some cases
where the magma was ultrabasic.

In the keratophyres rhombic pyroxenes are of very common occurrence, and

1H. Dewey and J. 8. Flett, Geol. Mag., 1911, p. 202.

2 The Silurian Rocks of Britain, vol. i., Scotland, Mem, Geol. Surv., 1899,
p. 85.

3 A. H. Cox and O. T. Jones, this report.

4 H. Fox and J. J. H. Teall, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. 49 (1893), p. 85;
and Mem. Geol. Surv., ‘The Geology of the Lizard,’ 1912, p. 165.

5G, J. Gardiner and §. H. Reynolds, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. 65
(1909), p. 136; and vol. 68 (1912), p. 75.

* H. H. Thomas, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. 67 (1911), p. 193.

1 A, Harker, Bala Volcanic Series, 1889, p. 50.

8 W. G. Fearnsides, Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. 22 (1912), p. 206.

® Mikroskopische Physiegraphie der Massigen Gesteine, vol. 2, pt. 2 (1908) ,
p. 1493.

Ve ————

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 497

are sometimes the only dark minerals present. In the spilites and many related
basalts a mineral of closely related composition, ‘magnesium-diopoide,’ plays an
important part. The same mineral, also described as ‘ enstatite-augite,’ *°
‘sahlite,’ &c., and often regarded as an intergrowth of rhombic and monoclinic
pyroxenes,’! is very common among the diabases found in association with
spilites and keratophyres, and the diabases may often be quite basic without
containing any olivine.’

Thus in rocks of this suite rhombic pyroxenes (in some cases intergrown with
monoclinic pyroxenes) would appear to take in some degree the place of olivine in
the corresponding Pacific rocks, and of hornblende (and biotite) in corresponding
Atlantic types.

A striking feature in the various volcanic series of Ordovician age is the
importance of the pyroclastic rocks. It is not uncommon to find tuffs of
various kinds build up the whole, or nearly so, of a thick volcanic series. This
is in marked contrast to all the volcanic series of later date in the British area,
and is not entirely explained by the fact that the eruptions were submarine, and
that therefore the elastic products were more likely to be preserved. The further
explanation is probably to be looked for in the viscosity of the magmas. This
high viscosity has been noted in the spilites and some other rocks,’* and is
apparent from the field relations in most cases. It is just such highly viscous
lavas that one would expect to furnish a large amount of pyroclastic material.“
In this connection it may be pointed out that, whereas the more basic rocks of
the keratophyre-spilite series are almost invariably highly vesicular, the acid
and acid-intermediate members of the series (quartz-keratophyres, &c.) are as
frequently non-vesicular.

It has been shown by Messrs. Dewey and Flett ** that rocks of the spilitic
suite are found in areas which have undergone a slow but prolonged subsidence ;
hence such rocks will be typically produced in areas in which a geosyncline is
in process of formation. Now from the theory of isostasy we may expect such
areas to be soon affected by a movement of compression resulting in mountain-
building, with accompanying folding, cleavage, and thrusting. This type of
movement will very likely be closely associated with the production of rocks of a
calcalkaline (Pacific) type.

In short, areas in which spilitic rocks are found will usually be strongly
affected by cleavage, and will often be complicated by the occurrence of igneous
rocks of a later and (apparently) quite different cycle.

In Britain good examples of this sequence of events are seen in the relation
of (i.) the post-Silurian calcalkaline igneous rocks of Scotland and Ireland to the
spilitic lavas of Ordovician ** age, and (ii.) the igneous rocks connected with the
uprise of the Armorican chain to the spilitic rocks of Middle and Upper
Devonian age in Devon and Cornwall. The occurrence of spilitic rocks in areas
which have been subjected to overfolding was noted by Steinman.”

The Ordovician igneous rocks would appear to afford a favourable ground for
ascertaining whether the connection between rock-types and types of earth-
movement holds good to a greater extent than has been hitherto suggested. The
great succession of Ordovician shales and mudstones is locally interrupted by
coarser deposits, or even by small unconformities implying a certain amount of
uplift, or, at any rate, a checking in the rate of subsidence. Further, the sub-
sidence continued in certain areas into Silurian time, while in other localities
there is a more or less strong unconformity between the two systems.

10 Wahl, Tscherm, Min. und Petr, Mitth, n. s., vol. 26 (1907), pp. 21 and 26.

1 J. V. Elsden, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. 64 (1908), p. 287, with
references.

12 Harker, Bala Volcanic Series (1889), p. 77.

13 H. H. Thomas, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. 64 (1911), p. 195.

14 See Dakyns and Greenly, ‘The Felsitic Slates of Snowdon,’ Geol. Mag.,
1905, p. 541.

% Op. supra cit.

16 The few examples of contemporaneous igneous rocks in the Silurian appear
to be keratophyres and spilites (excluding the Downtonian lavas of Kincardine-
shire).

1” Ber, Nat. Gesell. Freiburg i. B., 16 (1905), p. 44.

1913. K K

498 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

In view of these facts, we may perhaps expect that further research will show
some constant difference between the facies of the igneous rocks in areas where
subsidence was continuous and the facies in areas where subsidence was inter-
rupted by uplift. The greater the extent of the uplift the more clearly may it
be expected to express itself in the composition of the contemporaneous igneous
rocks; so that in areas where phases of uplift played an important part the rocks

may be expected to belong to types transitional between typical spilitic and
typical calcalkaline rocks.

5. Recent Discoveries in the Stockingford Shales near Nuneaton.
By V. C. Intine, B.A., F.G.S.

During recent mapping of the sub-divisions of the Stockingford shales
between Nuneaton and Merevale, fossils have been found at various horizons
which indicate that the Cambrian succession in this area is almost, if not quite,
complete.

Among these fossil-bearing horizons are the following :—

1. Lower Purley Shales.—Shales from a surface working 200 yards south of
Worthington Farm, near Hartshill, contain fragments of Olenellus. The fossili-
ferous beds are forty feet above the base of Purley shales.

Mr. Pringle, of the Geological Survey, has found Olenellus in nodules at the
base of the Purley shales in Jee’s Sett Quarry (Summary of Progress, 1913).

2. Lower Oldbury Shales.—(a) Excavations in Hartshill Hayes have proved
that the basal ninety feet of the Oldbury shales are of Menevian age. They con-
tain the zones of Paradoxides Davidis and P. Hicksii in their upper and middle
beds, while the lower beds contain Agnostus atavus, and correspond with Tull-
berg’s Ag. atavus zone, and with part at least of the Lower Menevian of Sweden.
The V'rilobite fauna includes the genera Paradozides, Anopolenus, Conocoryphe,
Holocephalina, Iiostracus, Microdiscus, and Agnostus, no less than fifteen species
of the last genus having been found. At the top of the series there occurs a
calcareous conglomerate, containing fragments of the underlying type of shale
and indicating a probable unconformity.

(6) In a new cutting near Oldbury Reservoir Olenus truncatus and Ag.
pisiformis var. obesus occur, proving that these beds are of Upper Maentwrog
age.

Between the Maentwrog and Dolgelly horizons a series of curly bedded flag-
stones have been detected. These are very similar to the Ffestiniog flags, and
their position would seem to indicate that they are of Ffestiniog age. The beds
are badly exposed and have yielded no fossils up to the present.

Thus the Oldbury shales represent a large proportion of the Cambrian succes-
sion, and in view of this fact, and also of their extreme thickness (2,000 feet),
I propose a further sub-division of this group, the classification of the whole
succession being as follows :—

Merevale Shales Lower Tremadoc.

Monks Park Shales. . . Dolgelly.
Oldbury Shales Fr Moor Wood Flags and Shales Ffestiniog.
ey : G Outwoods Shales. . Maentwrog.

1. Abbey Shales . . . . Menevian.
| UEper ;

Purley Shales . Menevian ?

| Camp Hill Grit.
Hartshill Quartzite . . ) Tuttle Hill Quartzite
Park Hill Quartzite

* | Taconian.

1 roeee cali ;

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 499

6. Notes on certain Trilobites found in the Stockingford Shales.
By V. C. Inne, B.A., F.G.S.

Among the fossils found at Hartshill Hayes in the Abbey shale sub-division
of the Stockingford shales, numerous forms occur, representing young stages in
the development of certain 7’rilobite genera. Among these are the following :

1. Liostracus sp.—The development is similar to that of Liostracus as
described by G. F, Matthew.

2. Holocephalina sp.—The early stages of this genus possess a well-marked
glabella, widening anteriorly. This becomes less convex in later stages, its
anterior margin disappears, and finally the glabella is only rep-esented by two
short posterior grooves.

3. Paradoxides Hicksii.The development is similar to that of Paradoxides
as described by G. F. Matthew.

4. Certain new forms of Agnostus.—The anterior portion of the glabella
becomes obliterated in the later stages, while the axis of the tail becomes
relatively larger with increased development.

7. The Carboniferous Limestone at the Head of the Vale of Neath,
South Wales. By C. H. Cunninaton.

8. On a New Form of Rock-cutling Machine.
By Professor W. S. Bouuron, D.Sc.

9. Interim Report of the Geological Photographs Committee.

10. Interim Report on the Microscopical and Chemical Composition
of the Charnwood Rocks.

500 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

Section D.—ZOOLOGY.

PRESIDENT oF THE SEcTION.—H. F. Gapow, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 11,
The President delivered the following Address :—

“ADDRESS your audience about what you yourself happen to be most interested
in, speak from the fullness of your heart and make a clean breast of your
troubles.’ That seemed good advice, and I shall endeavour to follow it, taking
for my text old and new aims and methods of morphology, with special refer-
ence to resemblances in function and structure on the part of organs and their
owners in the animal kingdom. First, however, allow me to tell you what has
brought me to such a well-worn theme. Amongst the many impressions which
it has been my good luck to gather during my travels in that enchanting country
Mexico are the two following :—

First, the poisonous Coral snakes, Hlaps, in their beautiful black, red, and
yellow garb; it varies in detail in the various species of Hlaps, and this garb,
with most of the variations too, occurs also in an astonishing number of genera
and families of semi-poisonous and quite harmless Mexican snakes, some of
which inhabit the same districts. A somewhat exhaustive study of these
beauties has shown incontestably that these often astoundingly close resem-
blances are not cases of mimicry, but due to some other co-operations.

Secondly, in the wilds of the State of Michoacan, at two places, about
20 and 70 miles from the Pacific Coast, I myself collected specimens of 7'yphlops
which Dr. Boulenger without hesitation has determined as 7'yphlops braminus.
Now, whilst this genus of wormlike, blind little snakes has a wide circum-
tropical distribution, 7’. braminus had hitherto been known only from the
islands and countries of the Indian Ocean basin, never from America, nor
from any of the Pacific Islands which possess other kinds of 7'yphlops. Acci-
dental introduction is out of the question. Although the genus is, to judge
from its characters, an especially old one, we cannot possibly assume that the
species braminus, if the little thing had made its way from Asia to Mexico by a
natural mode of spreading, has remained unaltered even to the slightest detail
since that geological epoch during which such a journey could have taken place.
There remains the assumption that amongst the of course countless generations
of Typhlops in Mexico some have hit off exactly the same kind of permutation
and combination of those characters which we have hitherto considered as
specific of braminus, just as a pack of cards may in a long series of deals be
dealt out more than once in the same sequence.

The two cases are impressive. They reminded me vividly that many
examples of very discontinuous distribution—which anyone who has worked at
zoogeography will call to mind—are exhibited by genera, families, and even
orders, without our knowing whether the groups in which we class them are
natural or artificial. The ultimate appeal lies with anatomy.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 501

Introduced to Zoology when Haeckel and Gegenbaur were both at their
zenith, I have been long enough a worker and teacher to feel elated by its
progress and depressed by its shortcomings and failures. Perhaps we have gone
too fast, carried along by methods which have yielded so much and therefore
have made us expect too much from them.

Gegenbaur founded the modern comparative anatomy by basing it upon the
theory of descent. The leading idea in all his great works is to show that
Transformation, ‘ continuous adjustment’ (Spencer), has taken place; he stated
the problem of comparative anatomy as the reduction of the differences in the
organisation of the various animals to a common condition; and as homologous
organs he defined those which are of such a common, single origin. His first
work in this new line is his classical treatise on the Carpus and Tarsus (1864).

It followed from this point of view that the degree of resemblance in struc-
ture between homologous organs and the number of such kindred organs
present is a measure for the affinity of their owners. So was ushered in the
era of pedigrees of organs, of functions, of the animals themselves. The tracing
of the divergence of homogenous parts became all-important, whilst those organs
or features which revealed themselves as of different origin, and therefore as
analogous only, were discarded as misleading in the all-important search for
pedigrees. Functional correspondence was dismissed as ‘mere analogy, and
even the systematist has learnt to scorn these so-called physiological or adaptive
characters as good enough only for artificial keys. A curious view of things,
just as if it was not one and the same process which has produced and abolished
both sets of characters, the so-called fundamental or ‘reliable’ as well as the
analogous.

As A. Willey has put it happily, there was more rejoicing over the discovery
of the homology of some unimportant little organ than over the finding of the
most appalling unrelated resemblance. Morphology had become somewhat in-
tolerant in the application of its canons, especially since it was aided by the
phenomenal growth of Embryology. You must not compare ectodermal with
endodermal products. You must not make a likeness out of another germinal
layer or anything that appertains to it, because if you do that would be a
horror, a heresy, a homoplasy.

Haeckel went so far as to distinguish between a true Homology, or Homo-
phyly, which depends upon the same origin, and a false Homology, which applies
to all those organic resemblances which derive from an equivalent adaptation to
similar developmental conditions. And he stated that the whole art of the
morphologist consists in the successful distinction between these two categories.
If we were able to draw this distinction in every case, possibly some day the
grand tree of each great phylum, maybe of the whole kingdom, might be recon-
structed. That would indeed be a tree of knowledge, and, paradoxically enough,
it would be the deathblow to classification, since in this, the one and only true
natural system, every degree of consanguinity and relationship throughout all
animated nature, past and present, would be accounted for; and to that system
no classification would be applicable, since each horizon would require its own
grouping. There could be definable neither classes, orders, families, nor species,
since each of these conceptions would be boundless in an upward or downward
direction.

Never mind the ensuing chaos; we should at least have the pedigree of all
our fellow creatures, and of ourselves among them. Not absolute proof, but the
nearest possible demonstration that transformation has taken place. Empirically
we know this already, since, wherever sufficient material has been studied, be it
organs, species or larger groups, we find first that these units had ancestors and
secondly that the ancestors were at least a little different. Evolution is a fact
of experience proved by circumstantial evidence. Nevertheless we are not
satisfied with the conviction that life is subject to an unceasing change, not
even with the knowledge of the particular adjustments. We now want to under-
stand the motive cause. First What, then How, and now Why?

It is the active search for an answer to this question (Why?) which is
characteristic of our time. More and more the organisms and their organs are
considered as living, functional things. The mainspring of our science, perhaps
of all science, is not its utility, not the desire to do good, but, as an eminently
matter-of-fact man, the father of Frederick the Great, told his Royal Acade-

502 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

micians (who, of course, were asking for monetary help) in the following shock-
ingly homely words: ‘Der Grund ist derer Leute ihre verfluchte Curieusitat.’
This blamed curiosity, the beginnings of which can be traced very far back in
the lower animals, is most acutely centred in our desire to find out who we are,
whence we have come, and whither we shall go. And even if Zoology, con-
sidering the first and last of these three questions as settled, should some day
solve the problem: Whence have we come? there would remain outside Zoology
the greater Why?

Generalisations, conclusions, can be arrived at only through comparison.
Comparison leads no further where the objects are alike. If, for instance, we
restrict ourselves to the search for true homologies, dealing with homogenes
only, all we find is that once upon a time some organism has produced, invented,
a certain arrangement of Anlage out of which that organ arose, the various
features of which we have compared in the descendants. Result: we have
arrived at an accomplished fact. These things, in spite of all their variety in
structure and function, being homogenes, tell us nothing, because according to
our mode of procedure we cannot compare that monophyletic Anlage with any-
thing else, since we have reduced all the homogenous modifications to one.
Logically it is true that there can have been only one, but in the living world
of nature there are no such ironbound categories and absolute distinctions.
For instance, if we compare the organs of one and the same individual, we at
once observe repetition, e.g., that of serial homology, which implies many diffi-
culties, with very different interpretations. Even in such an apparently simple
case as the relation between shoulder girdle and pelvis we are at a loss, since the
decision depends upon our view as to the origin of the paired limbs, whether
both are modified visceral arches, and in this case serially repeated homogenes,
or whether they are the derivatives from one lateral fin, which is itself a serial
compound, from which, however, the proximal elements, the girdles, are supposed
to have arisen independently. What is metamerism? Is it the outcome of a
process of successive repetitions so that the units are homogenes, or did the
division take place at one time all along the line, or is it due to a combination
of the two procedures?

The same vagueness finds its parallel when dealing with the corresponding
organs of different animals, since these afford the absolute chance that organs
of the same structure and function may not be reducible to one germ, but may
be shown to have arisen independently in time as well as with reference to the
space they occupy in their owners. As heterogenes they can be compared as to
their causes. In the study of the evolution of homogenes the problem is to
account for their divergencies, whilst the likeness, the agreements, so to speak
their greatest common measure, is eo ipso taken to be due to inheritance. When,
on the contrary, dealing with heterogenes we are attracted by their resemblances,
which since they cannot be due to inheritance must have a common cause
outside themselves. Now, since a leading feature of the evolution of homogenes
is divergence, whilst that of heterogenes implies convergence from different
starting-points, it follows that the more distant are these respective starting-
points (either in time or in the material) the better is our chance of extracting
the greatest common measure out of the unknown number of causes which com-
bine in the production of even the apparently simplest organ.

These resemblances are a very promising field and the balance of importance
will more and more incline towards the investigation of Function, a study which,
however, does not mean mere physiology with its present-day aims in the now
tacitly accepted sense, but that broad study of life and death which is to yield
the answer to the question Why?

Meantime, comparative anatomy will not be shelved; it will always retain
the casting-vote as to the degree of affinity among resemblances, but emphatically
its whole work is not to be restricted to this occupation. It will increasingly
have to reckon with the functions, indeed never without them. The animal
refuses to yield its secrets unless it be considered as a living individual. It is
true that Gegenbaur himself was most emphatic in asserting that an organ is the
result of its function. Often he held up to scorn the embryographer’s method of
muddling cause and effect, or he mercilessly showed that in the reconstruction
of the evolution of an organ certain features cannot have been phases unless
they imply physiological continuity. And yet how moderately is function dealt

a

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 503

with in his monumental text-book and how little is there in others, even in text-
books of Zoology !

Habt alle die Theile in der Hand,
Fehlt leider nur das geistige Band—Life!

We have become accustomed to the fact that like begets like with small
differences, and from the accepted standpoint of evolution versus creation we no
longer wonder that descendants slowly change and diverge. But we are rightly
impressed when unlike comes to produce like, since this phenomenon seems to
indicate a tendency, a set purpose, a beau idéal, which line of thought or rather
imperfect way of expression leads dangerously near to the crassest teleology.

But, teleology apart, we can postulate a perfect agreement in function and
structure between creatures which have no community of descent. The notion
that such agreement must be due to blood-relationship involved, among other
difficulties, the dangerous conclusion that the hypothetical ancestor of a given
genuine group possessed in potentiality the Anlagen of all the characters exhibited
by one or other of the component members of the said group.

The same line of thought explained the majority of human abnormalities as
atavistic, a procedure which would turn the revered ancestor of our species into
a perfect museum of antiquities, stocked with tools for every possible emergency.

The more elaborate certain resemblances are the more they seem to bear the
hall-mark of near affinity of their owners. When occurring in far-related groups
they are taken at least as indications of the homology of the organs. ‘There is,
for instance, a remarkable resemblance between the bulla of the whale’s ear and
that of the Pythonomorph Plioplatycarpus. If you homologise the mammalian
tympanic with the quadrate the resemblance loses much of its perplexity, and
certain Chelonians make it easier to understand how the modification may have
been brought about. But, although we can arrange the Chelonian, Pythono-
morph, and Cetacean conditions in a progressive line, this need not represent
the pedigree of this bulla. Nor is it necessarily referable to the same Anlage.
Lastly if, as many anatomists believe, the reptilian quadrate appears in the
mammals as the incus, then all homology and homogeny of these bulle is
excluded. In either case we stand before the problem of the formation of a
bulla as such. The significant point is this, that although we dismiss the bulla
of whale and reptile as obvious homoplasy, such resemblances, if they occur in
two orders of reptiles, we take as indicative of relationship until positive
evidence to the contrary is produced. That this is an unsound method is
brought home to us by an ever-increasing number of cases which tend to throw
suspicion on many of our reconstructions. Not a few zoologists look upon
such cases as a nuisance and the underlying principle as a bugbear. So far
from that being the case such study promises much beyond the pruning of our
standard trees—by relieving them of what reveal themselves as grafts instead of
genuine growth—namely, the revelation of one or other of the many agencies in
their growth and structure.

Since there are all sorts and conditions of resemblances we require technical
terms. Of these there is abundance, and it is with reluctance that I propose
adding to them. I do so because unfortunately some terms are undefined,
perhaps not definable; others have not ‘ caught on,’ or they suffer from that
mischievous law of priority in nomenclature.

The terms concerning morphological homologies date from Owen; Gegentsaur
and Haeckel re-arranged them slightly. Lankester, in 1870, introduced the
terms homogenous, meaning alike born, and homoplastic or alike moulded.
Mivart rightly found fault with the detailed definition and the subdivisions of
Homoplasy, and very logically invented dozens of new terms, few of which, if
any, have survived. It is not necessary to survey the ensuing literature. For
expressing the same phenomenon we have now the choice between Homoplasy,
Homomorphy, Isomorphy, Heterophyletic convergence, Parallelism, &c. After
various papers by Osborn, who has gone very fully into these questions, and
Willey’s ‘ Parallelism,’ Abel, in his fascinating ‘Grundziige der Palaeobiologie,’
has striven to show by numerous examples that the resemblances or ‘adaptive
formations’ are cases of parallelism if they depend upon the same function of
homologous organs, and convergences if brought about by the same function
of non-homologous organs.

504 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

I suggest an elastic terminology for the various resemblances indicative of
the degree of homology of the respective organs, the degree of affinity of their
“owners, and lastly the degree of the structural likeness attained.

Homogeny.—The structural feature is invented once and is transmitted, with-
out a break, to the descendants, in which it remains unaltered, or it changes by
mutation or by divergence, neither of which changes can bring the ultimate
results nearer to each other. Nor can their owners become more like each other,
since the respective character made its first appearance either in one individual,
or, more probably, in many of one and the same homogenous community.

Homoplasy.—The feature or character is invented more than once, and
independently. This phenomenon excludes absolute identity; it implies some
unlikeness due to some difference in the material, and there is further the
chance of the two or more inventions, and therefore also of their owners,
becoming more like each other than they were before.

CATEGORIES OF HOMOPLASY.

Tsotely.—l{ the character, feature, or organ has been evolved out of
homologous parts or material, as is most likely the case in closely related groups,
and if the subsequent modifications proceed by similar stages and means, there
is a fair probability or chance of very close resemblance. Jso-tely: the same
mark has been hit.

Homeotely.—Although the feature has been evolved from homologous parts
or material, the subsequent modifications may proceed by different stages and
means, and the ultimate resemblance will be less close, and deficient in detail.
Such cases are most likely to happen between groups of less close affinity,
whether separated by distance or by time. Hom«o-tely: the same end has
been fairly well attained. The target has been hit, but not the mark.

Parately.—The feature has been evolved from parts and material so different
that there is scarcely any or no relationship. The resulting resemblance will
at best be more or less superficial ; sometimes a sham, although appealing to our
fancy. Para-tely: the neighbouring target has been hit,

EXAMPLES,

Isotely: Bill of the Ardeidce Baleeniceps (Africa) and Cancroma (Tropical
America).

Zygodactyle foot of Cuckoos, Parrots, Woodpeckers (73).

Patterns and coloration of Ylaps and other snakes.

Parachute of Petawrus (marsupial) ; Pteromys (rodent) and Galcopithecus.

Perissodactylism of Zitopterna and Hippoids.

Bulla auris of Plioplatycarpus (Pythonomorph) and certain Whales; if
tympanic — quadrate.

Grasping instruments or nippers in Arthropods: pedipalps of Phryne; chele
of Squill; first pair of Mantis’ legs.

General appearance of Moles and WNotoryctes, if both considered as

mammals; of Gulls and Petrels, if considered as birds.

Homeotely : Heterodactyle foot of Trogons Ga) ,

Jumping foot of AMacropus, Dipus, Tarsius.

Intertarsal and cruro-tarsal joint.

Fusion and elongation of the three middle metarsals of Dipus and Rhea.

Paddles of Ichthyosaurs. Turtles, Whales, Penguins.

‘Wings’ of Pterosaurs and Bats.

Long flexible bill of Apterya and Snipes.

Proteroglyph dentition of Cobras and Solenoglyph dentition of Vipers.

Loss of the shell of Limaz and Aplysia.

Complex molar pattern of Horse and Cow.

Parately : Bivalve shell of Brachiopods and Lamellibranchs.

Stretcher-sesamoid bone of Pterodactyls (radial carpal); of Flying Squirrels
(on pisiform) ; of Anomalurus (on olecranon).

Bulla auris of Pythonomorph (quadrate) and Whale (tympanic); is incus=
quadrate. ; :

‘Wings’ of Pterosaurs, or Bats, and Birds.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 5O5

The distinction between these three categories must be vague because that
between homology and analogy is also arbitrary, depending upon the standpoint
of comparison. As lateral outgrowths of vertebre all ribs are homogenes, but
if there are at least hemal and pleural ribs then those organs are not homo-
logous even within the class of fishes. If we trace a common origin far enough
back we arrive near bedrock with the germinal layers. So there are specific,
generic, ordinal, &c., homoplasies. The potentiality of resemblance increases
with the kinship of the material.

Bateson, in his study of Homeosis, has rightly made the solemn quotation :
‘There is the flesh of fishes... birds... beasts, &c.’ Their flesh will not
and cannot react in exactly the same way under otherwise precisely the same
conditions, since each kind of flesh is already biased, encumbered by inheri-
tances. If a certain resemblance between a reptile and mammal dates from
Permian times, it may be homogenous, like the pentadactyle limb which as such
has persisted; but if that resemblance has first appeared in the Cretaceous
period it is Homoplastic, because it was brought about long after the class
division. To cases within the same order we give the benefit of the doubt more
readily than if the resemblance concerned members of two orders, and between
the phyla we rightly seek no connection. However, so strongly is our mode of
thinking influenced by the principle of descent that, if the same feature happen
to crop up in more than two orders, we are biased against Homoplasy.

The readiness with which certain Homoplasies appear in related groups seems
to be responsible for the confounding of the potentiality of convergent adapta-
tion with a latent disposition, as if such cases of Homoplasy were a kind of
temporarily deferred repetition, i.e., after all due to inheritance. This view
instances certain recurring tooth patterns, which, developing in the embryonic
teeth, are said not to be due to active adaptation or acquisition but to selection
of accomplished variations, because it is held inconceivable that use, food, &c.,
should act upon a finished tooth. It is not so very difficult to approach the
solution of this apparently contradictory problem. Teeth, like feathers, can be
- influenced long before they are ready by the life experiences of their predecessors.
A very potent factor in the evolution of Homoplasies is correlation, which is
sympathy, just as inheritance is reminiscence. The introduction of a single
new feature may affect the whole organism profoundly, and one serious case of
Isotely may arouse unsuspected correlations and thus bring ever so many more
homoplasies in its wake.

Function is always present in living matter; it is life. It is function which
not only shapes, but creates the organ or suppresses it, being indeed at bottom a
kind of reaction upon some stimulus, which stimuli are ultimately all funda-
mental, elementary forces, therefore few in number. That is a reason why
Nature seems to have but few resources for meeting given ‘ requirements "—to use
an everyday expression which really puts the cart before the horse. This
paucity of resources shows itself in the repetition of the same organs in the most
different phyla. The eye has been invented dozens of times. Light, a part of
the environment, has been the first stimulus. The principle remains the same
in the various eyes; where light found a suitably reacting material a particular
evolution was set going, often round about, or topsy-turvy, implying amend-
ments; still, the result was an eye. In advanced cases a scientifically con-
structed dark chamber with lens, screen, shutters, and other adjustments. The
detail may be unimportant, since in the various eyes different contrivances are
resorted to.

Provided the material is suitable, plastic, amenable to prevailing environ-
mental or constitutional forces, it makes no difference what part of an organism
is utilised to supply the requirements of function. You cannot make a silk
purse out of a sow’s ear, but you can make a purse, and that is the important
point. The first and most obvious cause is function, which itself may arise as an
incidental action due to the nature of the material. The oxydising of the blood
is such a case, and respiratory organs have been made out of whatever parts
invite osmotic contact of the blood with air or water. It does not matter
whether respiration is carried on by ecto- or by endodermal epithelium. Thus
are developed internal gills, or lungs, both of which may be considered as
referable to pharyngeal pouches; but where the outer skin has become suitably

506 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

osmotic, ‘as in the naked Amphibia, it may evolve external gills. Nay, the whole .

surface of the body may become so osmotic that both lungs and gills are sup-
pressed, and the oreature breathes in a most pseudo-primitive fashion. This
arrangement, more or less advanced, occurs in many Urodeles, both American
and European, belonging to several sub-families, but not in every species of the
various genera. It is therefore a case of apparently recent Isotely.

There is no prejudice in the making of a new organ except in so far that
every organism is conservative, clinging to what it or its ancestors have learnt or
acquired, which it therefore seeks to recapitulate. Thus in the vertebrata the
customary place for respiratory organs is the pharyngeal region. Every organism,
of course, has an enormous back history; it may have had to use every part in
every conceivable way, and it may thereby have been trained to such an
extent as to yield almost at once, like a bridle-wise horse to some new stimulus,
and thus initiate an organ straight to the point.

Considering that organs put to the same use are so very often the result of
analogous adaptation, homoplasts with or without affinity of descent, are we not
justified in accusing morphology of having made rather too much of the organs
as units, as if they were concrete instead of inducted abstract notions? An
organ which changes its function may become a unit so different as to require a
new definition. And two originally different organs may come to resemble each
other so much in function and structure that they acquire the same definition as
one new unit. To avoid this dilemma the morphologist has, of course, intro-
duced the differential of descent, whether homologous or analogous, into his
diagnoses of organs.

The same principles must apply to the classification of the animals. To group
the various representative owners of cases of isotely together under one name,
simply because they have lost those characters which distinguished their
ancestors, would be subversive of phyletic research. It is of the utmost signifi-
cance that such ‘ convergences’ (rather ‘mergers,’ to use an administrative term)
do take place, but that is another question. If it could be shown that elephants
in a restricted sense have been evolved independently from two stems of family
rank, the convergent terminals must not be named Hlephantine, nor can the
representatives of successive stages or horizons of a monophyletic family be
designated and lumped together as subfamilies. And yet something like this
practice has been adopted from Cope by experienced zoologists with a complete
disregard of history, which is an inalienable and important element in our
science.

This procedure is no sounder than would be the sorting of our Cartwrights,
Smiths, and Bakers of sorts into as many natural families. It would be sub-
versive of classification, the aim of which is the sorting of a chaos into order.
We must not upset the well-defined relative meaning of the classificatory terms
which have become well-established conceptions; but what such an assembly as
the terminal elephants should be called is a new question, the urgency of which
will soon become acute. It applies at least to assemblies of specific, generic,
and family rank, for each of which grades a new term, implying the principle of
convergence, will have to be invented. In some cases geographical terms may be
an additional criterion. Such terms will be not only most convenient, but they
will at once act as a warning not to use the component species for certain pur-
poses. There is, for instance, the case of 7'yphlops braminus, mentioned at the
beginning of this address. Another case is the dog species, called Canis
familiaris, about which it is now the opinion of the best authorities that the
American dogs of sorts are the descendants of the Coyote, while some Indian
dogs are descendants of a jackal, and others again are traceable to some wolf.
The ‘dog,’ a definable conception, has been invented many times, and in different
countries and out of different material. It is an association of converged
heterogeneous units. We have but a smile for those who class whales with fishes,
or the blind-worm with the snakes; not to confound the Amphibian Cecilians
with Reptilian Amphisbeenas requires some training; but what are we to do
with creatures who have lost or assimilated all those differential characters
which we have got used to rely upon?

In a homogeneous crowd of people we are attracted by their little differences,
taking their really important agreements for granted; in a compound crowd we

a ato

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 507

at once sort the people according to their really unimportant resemblances.
That is human nature.

The terms ‘ convergence’ and ‘ parallelism’ are convenient if taken with a gene-
rous pinch of salt. Some authors hold that these terms are but imperfect similes,
because two originally different organs can never converge into ‘one identical
point, still less can their owners whose acquired resemblance depresses the balance
of all their other characters. For instance, no lizard can become a snake, in
spite of ever so many additional snake-like acquisitions, each of which finds a
parallel, an analogy in the snakes, Some zoologists therefore prefer contrasting
only parallelism and divergence. A few examples may illustrate the justifica-
tion of the three terms. If out of ten very similar black-haired people only two
become white by the usual process, whilst the others retain their colour, then
these two diverge from the rest; but they do not, by the acquisition of the same
new feature, become more alike each other than they were before. Only with
reference to the rest do they seem to liken as they pass from black through grey
to white, our mental process being biased by the more and more emphasised
difference from the majority.

10 Ax Bx Cx DE F

9
8
ws
6
5
4
3
2 Ax Bx
n 1A BCODEF

Supposing A and B both acquire the character x and this continues
through the next ten generations, while in the descendants of C the same
character is invented in the tenth generation, and whilst the descendants of D,
E F still remain unaltered. Then we should be strongly inclined, not only to

key together Cs with AG and Be but take this case for one of con-

vergence, although it is really one of parallelism. If it did not sound so con-
tradictory it might be called parallel divergence. The inventors diverge from
the majority in the same direction: Isotely.

Third case.—Ten people, contemporaries, are alike but for the black or red
hair. Black A turns white and Red E turns white, not through exactly identi-
cal stages, since E will pass through a reddish grey tinge. But the result is
that A and E become actually more like each other than they were before.
They converge, although they have gone in for exactly the same divergence with
reference to the majority.

In all three cases the variations begin by divergence from the majority, but
we can well imagine that all the members of an homogenous lot change ortho-
genetically (this term has been translated into the far less expressive ‘ recti-
grade’) in one direction, and if there be no lagging behind, they all reach
precisely the same end. This would be a case of transmutation (true mutations
in Waagen’s and Scott’s sense), producing new species without thereby increasing
their number, whilst divergence always implies, at least potentially, increase of
species, genera, families, &c.

If for argument’s sake the mutations pass through the colours of the spectrum
and if each colour be deemed sufficient to designate a species, then, if all the tenth
generations have changed from green to yellow and those of the twentieth
generation from yellow to red, the final number of species would be the same.
And even if some lagged behind, or remained stationary, these epistatic species
(Eimer) are produced by a process which is not the same as that of divergence
or variation in the usual sense.

The two primary factors of evolution are Environment and Heredity.
Environment is absolutely inseparable from any existing organism, which there-
fore must react (Adaptation) and at least some of these results gain enough
momentum to be carried into the next generation (Heredity).

508 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

The life of an organism, with all its experiments and doings, is its Ontogeny,
which may therefore be called the subject of Evolution, but not a factor. Nor is
Selection a primary and necessary factor, since, being destructive, it invents
nothing. It accounts, for instance, for the composition of the present fauna, but
has not made its components. A subtle scholastic insinuation lurks in the plain
statement that by ruthless elimination a black flock of pigeons can be produced,
even that thereby the individuals have been made black. (But of course the
breeder has thereby not invented the black pigment.)

There can be no evolution, progress, without response to stimulus, be this
environmental or constitutional, i.e., depending upon the composition and the
correlated working of the various parts within the organism. Natural selection
has but to favour this plasticity, by cutting out the non-yielding material, and
through inheritance the adaptive material will be brought to such a state of plas-
ticity that it is ready to yield to the spur of the moment, and the foundation
of the same new organs will thereby be laid, whenever the same necessity calls
for them. Here is a dilemma. On the one hand the organism benefits from the
ancestral experience, on the other there applies to it de Rosa’s law of the
reduction of variability, which narrows the chances of change into fewer direc-
tions. But in these few the changes will proceed all the quicker and farther.
Thus progress is assured, even Hypertely, which may be rendered by ‘ over-doing
a good thing.’

Progress really proceeds by mutations, spoken of before, orthogenesis, and it
would take place without selection and without necessarily benefiting the
organism. It would be mere presumption that the seven-gilled shark is worse
off than its six- or five-gilled relations; or to imagine that the newt with double
trunk-veins suffers from this arrangement, which morphologically is undoubtedly
inferior to the unpaired, azygous, &c., modifications. The fact that newts exist
is proof that they are efficient in their way. Such orthogenetic changes are as
predictable in their results as the river which tends to shorten its course to the
direct line from its head waters to the sea. That is the river’s entelechy and no
more due to purpose or design than is the series of improvements from the many
gill-bearing partitions of a shark to the fewer, and more highly finished comb-
shaped gills of a Teleostean fish.

The success of adaptation, as measured by the morphological grade of per-
fection reached by an organ, seems to depend upon the phyletic age of the
animal when it was first subjected to these ‘temptations.’ The younger the
group, the higher is likely to be the perfection of an organic system, organ, or
detail. This is not a platitude. The perfection attained does not depend
merely upon the length of time available for the evolution of an organ. A
recent Teleostean has had an infinitely longer time as a fish than a reptile, and
this had a longer time than a mammal, and yet the same problem is solved in a
neater, we might say in a more scientifically correct, way by a mammal than by
a reptile, and the reptile in turn shows an advance in every detail in comparison
with an amphibian, and so forth.

A few examples will suffice :—

The claws of reptiles and those of mammals; there are none in the amphi-
bians, although some seem to want them badly, like the African frog Gampsos-
teonyx, but its cat-like claws, instead of being horny sheaths, are made out of
the sharpened phalangeal bones which perforate the skin.

The simple contrivance of the rhinocerotic horn, introduced in Oligocene
times, compared with the antlers of Miocene Cervicornia and these with the
response made by the latest of Ruminants, the hollow-horned antelopes and
cattle. The heel-joint; unless still generalised, it tends to become intertarsal
(attempted in some Lizards, pronounced in some Dinosaurs and in the Birds)
by fusion of the bones of the tarsus with those above and below, so that the
tarsals act like epiphysial pads. Only in mammals epiphyses are universal.
Tibia and fibula having their own, the pronounced joint is cruro-tarsal and all
the tarsals could be used for a very compact, yet non-rigid arrangement. The
advantage of a cap, not merely the introduction of a separate pad, is well
recognised in engineering.

Why is it that mammalian material can produce what is denied to the lower
classes? In other words, why are there still lower and middle classes? Why

ee ae a ae

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 509

have they not all by this time reached the same grade of perfection? Why not
indeed, unless because every new group is less hampered by tradition, much
of which must be discarded with the new departure; and some of its energy is
set free to follow up this new course, straight, with ever-growing results, until

in its turn this becomes an old rut out of which a new jolt leads once more into
’ fresh fields.

The following Papers and Reports were then read :—

1. The Hebridean Diazona. By Professor W. A. Herpman, F.R.S.

Professor Herdman exhibited with remarks some specimens of the rare
compound Ascidian Diazona violacea, which he had dredged recently in the
Hebrides from his yacht Runa. When alive the colony is bright green, but when
preserved in alcohol it becomes violet in colour. Specimens preserved in a
solution of formol remain, however, unchanged in the green condition; and the
two colours were shown to the Section side by side—the green (known formerly
as ‘Syntethys hebridica’ of Forbes and Goodsir) and the violet (Diazona
violacea Savigny), the form usually supplied to museums by the Zoological
Station at Naples. The Hebridean and the Mediterranean forms are un-
doubtedly the same animal, and are exactly alike in minute structure. Pro-
fessor Herdman was able to show that Hebridean specimens dredged from deep
water when kept alive in sunlight changed their colour and gradually became
darker and bluer, and finally acquired a slightly violet tint, although still in
the living condition. The green colour is not due to chlorophyll, but to an allied
pigment which has been described as ‘ Syntethein.’ The chemistry of the change
of colour to violet has not yet been explained.

2. On the Bionomics of Amphidinium operculatum Clap. and Lach.
By R. Douauas Laurig, M.A.

A. operculatum occurs as brownish green patches on the sand just below high-
water mark. These patches are sometimes clearly visible a hundred yards away,
and yet a few hours later they may have so completely vanished, to about an
eighth of an inch beneath the surface of the sand, that one would not suspect
its presence on the shore at all. It was first recorded for the British Islands
by Professor Herdman, who found it at Port Erin, Isle of Man, in 1911.

I found it on the Cheshire coast at Hoylake on February 9, 1913, and have
made daily observations of its movements since and find that they show three
periodicities.

(a) A daily periodicity. Very striking during the spring. For instance,
during the latter half of February the patches were very evident on the
surface of the sand on most days until 10 a.m., then they went gradually just
below the surface, becoming entirely hidden from view at about 11 a.m., and
so remaining until shortly after noon, when they once more gradually appeared,
reaching a maximum about 2.0 p.m. which they retained until about 4.0 p.m.
and then again disappeared. Two possible explanations of this daily periodicity
suggest themselves: (i) expression of habit; (ii) a new direct response of the
organism each day to daily recurring environmental stimuli. Experiments have
been made which lead to the conclusion that the latter is the correct view,
altered experimental conditions leading at once to correspondingly altered move-
ments. The stimuli more immediately concerned are those of light and tide.
Maximum light is by no means the optimum for Amphidinium, the optimum is
a dull light. The reaction of the organisms is strongly negative to strong light,
that is light which takes less than, say, ten seconds to colour the silver paper
exposed in a Watkins ‘Bee’ photographic exposure meter; on the other hand,
their reaction appears not negative but merely neutral to darkness. The con-
clusions based on experiment were confirmed by finding later in the year, as the
days become longer, that the periodicity gradually changed, the morning
maximum becoming earlier and the afternoon maximum later, so that in the
latter half of May the brown patches were found to appear about 4.30 p.m. and
in the latter half of June at about 7.0 p.m. The other important factor with
which its daily movements are correlated is the tide, and the addition of this

510 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

factor explains certain apparent irregularities in the daily rhythm not described
above, more particularly the behaviour of the organism during the night, upon
which observations have also been made. Temperature does not appear im-
portant in the present connection.

(b) A lunar periodicity. Amphidinium lives not far below the high-water
mark of spring tides, so that the neap tides do not reach it. A periodic
alternation of ‘spring’ periods of activity and ‘neap’ periods of comparative
inactivity is associated with the amount of water in the sand.

(c) An annual periodicity. There has been a considerable change in the
appearance of the Amphidinium area as the year has advanced, apart from the
changes recorded above. There was a strongly marked maximum from
February to end of April, at which latter time the area reached its greatest
size, being 40 yards across and extending along 220 yards of coast line, the whole
composed of practically continuous smaller patches, appearing as a brown-green
carpet on the shore, and very clearly visible a hundred yards away; during
May the number began to decrease, the decrease became very marked during
June, and they have not been seen on the surface of the sand since the first
week in July, though up to the end of July a few are still to be found in samples
of sand examined under the microscope. It is interesting to note that during
the latter half of June numerous dead examples were found in the sand, which
in dry warm weather had not been covered by the tide for several days.

Large elongated form. On July 6 a small patch about 6 inches square of
a more yellowish tinge was noticed on the lower and damper margin of the
area. It was composed of the larger, more elongated form found at Port
Erin last autumn, another small patch appeared 30 yards away two days
later, and two days later again numerous small patches were to be seen con-
tinuing up to the present time, gradually spreading seaward so as to cover a
larger area which, however, is still small as compared with that occupied earlier
in the year by the more rounded form. At present it appears each day at about
6.0 p.m. The whole area is well above the high-water mark of neap tides.
This larger form replaced the smaller at Port Erin in autumn 1912, also two
forms, which may be the two under consideration, were, I understand, found
at Cullercoats by Meek this summer, and as Daniel and Hamilton have just
found both forms on the West Coast of Ireland and Herdman on the Island of
Iona it appears quite possible that they may be phases of the life cycle of the
same organism. There is as yet no direct evidence of this. I am inclined to
believe that the balance of what evidence there is points to their being different
species.

The methods of migration of A. operculatum are elusive. It has not been
found in any of the large numbers of tow-nettings taken by Professor Herdman,
appearing to be essentially a sand dwelling form. I have kept cultures for a
month in water without sand and found the water full of freely swimming
organisms throughout this period, so that migration across seas is evidently
quite feasible, and it is not necessary to its existence that it should live always
between the tide marks.

The optimum light intensity for Amphidinium is not the same as for Con-
voluta, or for certain diatoms which I have observed at Hoylake and Port
Erin, or as for euglinoids which I have watched at Port Erin, so that the
periodic movements of these various organisms on the shore differ from each
other in characteristic ways.

The bulk of the observations have been made at Hoylake, but I examined
the rounded form at Port Erin during the first three weeks in April for pur-
poses of comparison. At Port Erin Amphidinium lives a little lower on the
shore than at Hoylake, so that it is covered even by neap tides. This is likely
to involve well defined differences between its scheme of periodic movements
and that of the Hoylake race.

N.B.—The colour of A. operculatum is due, as in crude chlorophyll, to two
pigment groups. On shaking in an alcoholic extract with benzine these separate ;
one of them, more soluble in the benzine, is green and gives an absorption
spectrum which falls within the limits of variation of the spectrum of the
blue-green element in chlorophyll, while the other, which remains in the alcohol,
has in an exaggerated condition the broad absorption band of the Xanthophyll
type at the blue end of the spectrum.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 511

3. Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at
Naples.—See Reports, p. 153.

4, Interim Report on the Biological Problems incidental to the
Belmullet Whaling Station.—See Reports, p. 154.

5. Report on the Nomenclator Animalium Generum et Subgenerum.
See Reports, p. 153.

6. Report on Zoology Organisation.—See Reports, p. 154.

7. Sizith Report on Experiments in Inheritance.—See Reports, p. 155.

8. Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Marine Laboratory,
Plymouth.—See Reports, p. 158.

9. Fifth Report on the Feeding Habits of British Birds.

10. Report on the Formulation of a Definite System on which Collectors
should record their Captures.

11. Report on the Natural History Survey of the Isle of Man.

12. The Larva of the Pin-cushion Starfish (Porania pulvillus (O.F.M.).
By Dr. James F. Gemmiuu.

The period of ripeness in the Firth of Clyde is from about the middle of
April till about the end of May. The eggs are small, and development is
indirect, the general larval history resembling that of Asterias rubens. The
late larva is a brachiolaria with a well-marked sucker and numerous small
papille on and between the brachia. This stage was reached in a culture
eight weeks old which was made at the Millport Station and kept without
change of water in a small aquarium holding about three-quarters of a gallon,
under ‘convection current’ circulation at Glasgow University. Features of
much interest are (1) the presence in early larvee of possible rudiments of a
posterior enteroccelic outgrowth; (2) the occurrence among the later larve of
several specimens with double hydroccele formation, and (8) the presence alike
in normal and in double-hydroceele larve of a ‘madreporic’ vesicle the floor of
which contracts rhythmically during life.

13. Mr. W. A. Lamborn’s Observation on Marriage by Capture by a
West African Wasp. A possible Explanation of the great Variability
of certain Secondary Sexual Characters in Males. By Professor
E. B. Poutton, F.R.S.

A letter recently received from Mr. W. A. Lamborn, Entomologist to the
Agricultural Department of Southern Nigeria, records the following interesting
observation made near Ibadan :—

“On July 10, 1913, a large clay nest was found attached to the under side
of a Kola leaf. On the nest was a large wasp which had enormously developed

512 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

mandibles, and flying to and fro close by were two other wasps. These last
attempted to alight on the nest, but as soon as they did so the wasp in
possession opened its jaws, buzzed angrily, and made a rush at them, whereon
they beat a hurried retreat. This happened many times. Closér examination
showed that the wasp was guarding a small hole at one side of the nest, at
which I could see the head of a newly-emerged imago at work gradually en-
larging the opening. ... The confined imago made a sudden exit and fell,
Lut the wasp on guard was so fully on the alert that it secured the falling
insect with its legs and both came to the ground together. I am of opinion
that it attempted to effect coitus, but in my anxiety to view satisfactorily the
proceedings I approached too near, with the result that it took the alarm and
flew up. I secured it, but the newly emerged wasp, the supposed female,
escaped me. Meanwhile four more wasps were buzzing near the nest, and of
these I managed to get two. I believe that these are males also, and I notice
an astonishing difference in the degrees of mandibular development. The male
with the largest pair obviously terrorised the others by virtue of possessing
them, and, but for my interference, would have owed his success to this, for
the case was definitely one of marriage by capture. The nest still contains three
cells, and so I am hoping, if a female comes out, to be able to test for the
assembling of males.’

It is impossible to imagine an observation that would have interested Charles
Darwin more deeply than that recorded above by Mr. Lamborn.

There can be no doubt that the species of wasp is Synagris cornuta Linn.,
the very name of which obviously refers to the enormous horn-like outgrowth
trom the base of the mandible in some of the males. There is the same immense
difference between the degrees of development spoken of by Mr. Lamborn, the
outgrowth being of various sizes and sometimes only represented by a small
tubercle. The females are very rare compared with the males—only one to
about twenty in the British Museum of Natural History. Curiously enough, I
had, only a few weeks ago, suggested observations on the part played in court-
ship by the mandibles of these very males to another friend who had brought
specimens home with him from Sierra Leone, and was returning later in the
year. But Mr. Lamborn, with his wonderful powers of observation, does not
let much escape him.

It is suggested as a probable hypothesis that these immense horn-like out-
growths sticking straight out in front of the face are a disadvantage in
obtaining food and perhaps in other ways in the struggle for life, and that the
emergence of the females covers a period long enough for this struggle to tell,
so that the males with small or rudimentary horns have the advantage in the
end through the operation of natural selection, while the others have the
advantage at the beginning through sexual selection, in the form of battles
between the males.

I have written to Mr. Lamborn asking if he will carry out a series of
observations in order to test this hypothesis.

A remark of the late Edward Saunders, F.R.S., the great Hymenopterist,
will indicate the impression made by these extraordinary male characters which
might be taken for ‘monstrosities’ did we not know that they are normally
present in many males. We were glancing through the boxes of his father’s
collection in the Hope Department, at Oxford, when we came upon a male
S. cornuta—a specimen from Fernando Po. ‘ Why,’ said Edward Saunders,
‘it is a biological education to look at that insect!’

14. Note on the Habits and Building Organ of the Tubicolous Poly-
chete Worm Pectinaria (Lagis) Koreni, Mgr. By Arnoup T.
Watson, F.L.8S.

The Amphictenide, of which family Pectinaria Koreni is a member, are
admittedly the most skilful of marine tube-building worms. Their well-known
tapering conical tubes, open at both ends, constructed generally of fine sand-
grains, are examples of most exquisite and painstaking masonry. The worms
are plentiful between half and extreme low tide marks on many sandy shores,
through which they travel as was shown by the writer some nineteen years ago,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. : 513

the small end protruding from and the wide end buried beneath the sand, the
animal vigorously digging its way by means of the beautiful gold-coloured
combs with which its head is endowed. In a memoir written in 1903 it was
shown by Fauvel that the water necessary for respiration, and also for the pur-
pose of stirring up the sand-grains beneath the surface, is, by a kind of peristaltic
action of the animal, drawn or pumped through the tube, entering through the
fine pointed end exposed above the surface, and often escaping to the surface
of the sand through the fissures formed in the digging process. It was also
observed by Fauvel that the worm has the power to reverse the direction of this
current at will. It-has hitherto been thought that the object of this reversed
current was mainly to eject from the tube the sand which has passed through
the animal’s body, vigorous discharges from the small end of the tube being
frequently noticed in the aquarium and attributed by the writer and others
to this cause. Recent observations, however, have shown that this explanation
is very far from complete, and that the discharge is an indication of a process
going on underground, of the greatest importance to the operations and well-
being of the worm.

The tube of Pectinaria is constantly growing by additions to its edge of
grains of sand, most carefully fitted into place by the worm underground. In
the marked state of commotion produced by the digging process, it would
clearly be quite impossible for the worm to make the careful selection and
adjustment of grains suitable to the requirements of each position, which is so
manifest and marvellous in the finished tube.

For this purpose quiet and ample working space are needful. These require-
ments are secured at will by the worm, which ceases its digging operations
at intervals, and obtains the needful working space in a way hitherto unsus-
pected. To this end, the sand underground surrounding the edge of the wide
mouth of the tube must be got rid of. This is effected by a means similar to
that adopted by dredgers for removing the sand from harbours—namely, by
suction, After the ground has been broken up by the combs of the worm, and
the neighbouring sand has been brought within reach and examined by the
tentacles, the particles not required to be conveyed to the mouth for food are
carried away by means of a very strong upward current, created within the
tube by the peristaltic action already mentioned. This causes the sand to
travel rapidly through the tube, passing between its wall and the dorsal surface
of the worm, and to be ejected through the small end of the tube, thus forming
the mounds on the surface of the sand which are generally visible in the
neighbourhood.

Tn connection with the underground chamber thus formed, there is usually
a shaft from the surface a short distance from the tube, and in the aquarium
the opening of this shaft is frequently visible.

Hitherto the building organ of the worm appears to have escaped the notice
of naturalists, but the writer has been more fortunate. It is centrally situated
slightly below the ventral edge of the peristomium, and consists in its upper
part of a pair of papillated downwardly directed lobes, which act in connection
with a lower ‘lip’ formed by the delicate tissues just above the first ventral
shield. In a specimen suitably prepared a cement-gland, liberally supplied
with blood-vessels, and somewhat rosette-like in form (about 2 mm. in diameter),
connected directly with the building organ, is visible by transparency.

In the light of methods observed and described by the writer with regard
to other marine tubicolous worms, the above observations have, in his opinion,
rendered the building operations of Pectinaria (which at one time seemed a
hopeless problem) easily intelligible.

: aenetge the act of building has never been seen, the process is doubtless as
ollows :—

A working space having been cleared by the method already described, a
supply of sand is carried by the tentacles to the head of the worm. One portion
of this sand, to be used for food, is swallowed, and passes through the body of
the worm; a second portion is carried by the papillz, which form a track, from
the ventral edge of the peristomium to the building organ, just below. On
reaching this organ each grain, which is accepted for building purposes, is
received and held in the hollow between the two lobes. These lobes act as a pair
of hands in combination with the ‘lip,’ and apply the sand-grain to the free edge

1913, LL

514 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

of the tube, where, having ascertained by an exquisite sense of touch the inoment
when an exact fit has been obtained, it is fixed by the cement which is poured
out by the underlying cement-gland.

15. The Influence of Osmotic Pressure on the Regeneration of Gunda
ulve. By Miss Dororuy Jorpan Luoyp, B.Sc.

This work was carried out in the laboratory of the Marine Biological
Association at Plymouth during the summers of 1912 and 1913.

G. ulvew is a small triclad found in great numbers at Plymouth. It lives
between the tide marks and near the borders of a small stream. The worms
used in the experiments were all of the same size (5°55 mms. approx.). They
were cut transversely into two equal halves. Only posterior regeneration is
considered in this paper. The artificial waters used were made up by mixing
known volumes of sea-water and distilled water, or, for the higher values, by
mixing known volumes of sea-water and of a 23 molecular solution of sodium
chloride. The osmotic pressure for any given salinity of sea-water was taken
from Krummel’s ‘ Handbuch der Ozeanographie.’

The following points were noticed :—

1. Whole worms can live indefinitely in water having an osmotic pressure
between 2 and 33 atmospheres.

2. Regulation of an anterior half resulting in the production of a complete
worm takes 50 days (at 15° C.) in water having an osmotic pressure between
15 and 22°5 atmospheres. (Osmotic pressure of sea-water=22°5 atmospheres).

3. Lowering the osmotic pressure below 15 atmospheres retards the rate of
regulation proportionately. Below five atmospheres pressure no regulation occurs.

4, Raising the osmotic pressure above 22'5 atmospheres retards the rate of
regulation. Above 30 atmospheres no regulation occurs.

5. The new posterior region is formed by the migration of large numbers of
parenchyma cells to the region of the wound, where they aggregate and build up
the new organs. Inhibition of regulation seems due to some factor which checks
the migration of the parenchyma cells.

6. In the worms showing retarded regulation irregularities in the mitotic
divisions of the parenchyma cells have been noticed.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Classification of the Pierines. By Sir G. Kenricx.

2. The Heredity of Melanism in Lepidoptera. By W. Bowater, B.D.S.

Apparently the term melanism as applied to lepidoptera should be restricted
to the substitution or increase of black on the wings or body, or both, at the
expense of some other colour, but any darkening of the ground colour, although
not black, has been included in a general way, although strictly the term
melanochroism should be applied to the latter.

The list of species in which melanic specimens have been recorded is quite
formidable, but many are merely cases of melanochroism.

The exemplary and very extensive experiments made on the London (dark)
and French (light) forms of Acidalia virgularia by Messrs. Prout and Bacot *
proved that these varieties are not Mendelian forms of the species, but Mr.
W. B. Alexander demonstrated that the speckling of virgularia is dominant to
non-speckling. :

Experiments by Mr. Buckley on Acidalia contiguaria show that the dark form
is dominant.

Messrs. Prout and Bacot found in another moth, Triphana (Agrostis) comes,

1 Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. 1909.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 515

which has a melanic form, that segregation occurs, and that apparently melanism
is a Mendelian dominant.

In the well-known case of the common Peppered Moth, Amphidasys
Betularia, where the melanic form, unknown till about fifty years ago, has in
this period multiplied and spread all over England and is now far commoner
than the type, it seems without doubt due to the facts that melanism in this
species is a dominant characteristic, and that it carries with it a real but not yet
fully explained advantage in the struggle for existence.

Observations by various entomologists and a breeding experiment by the
author also seem to point to Mendelian dominance, but the numerous inter-
mediate forms obscure the issue, and at present complete experimental proof is
not forthcoming.

Observations on breeding the melanic forms of Aplecta nebulosa and Boarmia
repandata by Mr. Mansbridge seem to show that melanism follows Mendelian
lines in these species, but the evidence is not yet conclusive.

With regard to the black form (Varleyata) of Abraxas Grossulariata,
apparently the experiments have not been very extensive or prolonged, but it
seems that in this species melanism follows Mendelian lines but is recessive.

In a paper entitled ‘Melanism in Yorkshire Lepidoptera,’ read by Mr. G. T.
Porritt to this Section in 1906, he makes observations on the breeding of Odont-
optera bidentata and its melanic form, and the author is convinced from his own
experiment that the results can all be reconciled with the Mendelian Law of
Heredity.

The author made the following experiment on Odontoptera bidentata :—

In November 1909 pupz of both the type and melanic forms were obtained,
and in the following April the imagines emerged and pairings were obtained of
the pure strains and the resultant ova carried to maturity April 1911 (103
specimens).

From these, various pairings and cross-pairings were made, and 13 families
raised (403 specimens), 1912.

From these imagines further pairings and cross-pairings were made and
34 families were raised, comprising 1,000 specimens, with the offspring of which
the experiment is now being continued.

Distinct segregation occurs, for although within both the type and the
melanic forms there is a little variation in colour, there is no difficulty what-
ever in distinguishing between them at a glance. No specimens occurred which
could be called intermediate.

The homozygous and heterozygous melanic forms are apparently indis-
tinguishable to our eyes.

It was also shown that extracted types breed as true homozygotes, and there
are eight families to show that two heterozygous blacks, if paired, give 75 per
cent. black and 25 per cent. type.

All possible varieties of pairings have been made, and if

MM=melanic (homozygous),
Mm=nielanic (heterozygous),
and mm=type

the result in all the 50 families can be explained by the well-known Mendelian
formule :—

MMxMM=MM

MMxMm=MM+Mm

MM xmm=Mm

Mm x Mm=MM+Mm+mM+mm

Mm xmm=Mm+mm

mmXmm=mm

All the actual specimens (1,800 in number), which were bred in the ex-
periments are exhibited.

The author submitted with confidence that this experiment proves that
melanism in this species is a simple Mendelian dominant.

In the other species the evidence is not extensive, as the experiments which
have been made have seldom been carried beyond the second or, at any rate, the

third, filial generation.
LL2

516 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

However, the weight of evidence seems to show that melanism in lepidoptera
frequently follows the Mendelian law of heredity and in most cases is dominant,
but in some few species seems to ibe recessive.

3. The Correlation of Pattern and Structure in the Ruraline Group of
Butterflies. By G. T. Beruune-Baxer, F.L.S., F.Z.S.

An exhibition was made showing changes in pattern, colour and structure
in nearly allied genera in the Plebinz, Strymonine, and Ruraline, also showing
similar changes among species in the genera Plebeus and Ruralis. A further
exhibit was also made of a few species of the genus Acrea, showing specimens
that are very different superficially in colour, but their structure is very close ;
also showing other specimens where the pattern is very close, but the structure is
very different. It must be borne in mind that as there are both generic and
specific resemblances, so there are generic and specific differences, but they do
not necessarily pass along parallel lines. Apparently small changes in pattern
may be accompanied by a marked difference in structure, whilst a marked
divergence in colour may be accompanied by a very slight change in structure.
The latter, however, would probably be a specific rather than a generic differ-
ence. In the Ruraline the tegumen of the male armature is of dominant generic
value, as also would be a great divergence of the aedoeagus or the harpagines:
but small mutation in the two latter organs might merely indicate specific rather
than generic difference.

So far as this special group of butterflies is concerned, there is no question
on the point that change of structure is accompanied by change of pattern, or
change of structure accompanies change of pattern. Reviewing all the data,
the latter is probably correct, for colour and pattern seem more sensitive to
mutability than structure. This shows itself particularly in the genera Ruralis
and Heodes. In the former there are species that are brown, orange colour, blue,
and metallic lustrous green, whilst the undersides follow two special lines of
pattern. But it is scarcely possible to divide the genus, as the neuration and
male armature prevent this being done. In the genus Heodes there are species
of brilliant lustrous golden copper colour, and also of lustrous purplish. Here,
again, however, the neuration is the same; but the male armature is evidently
undergoing a certain phase of evolution. So that, though it may not be possible
to divide the genus to-day, it is probable that ere long that will have to be done.

Other genera of butterflies that I have examined also bear out my contention.
We have both the great genera Papilio and Charaxes, that naturally group them-
selves into sections, so far as their colour and pattern are concerned, this group-
ing being also followed considerably in their structural details. I am therefore
led to believe that pattern is very generally correlated with structure in butter-
flies.

4. The Enemies of ‘ Protected’ Insects; with Special Reference to
Acrea zetes. By Dr. G. D. H. Carpenter.

Supporters of the theory of mimicry believe that certain insects escape being
eaten by vertebrates generally on account of distastefulness, the possession of a
sting, spines, &c. Such are said to be protected insects. This is not meant to
iraply protection against every enemy, or even against every vertebrate enemy.
Such a state of affairs would soon bring itself to an end by the unlimited increase
of such an insect. There is evidence that bee-eaters, for instance, prey especially
upon such a typically protected insect as the honey-bee; that cuckoos prey
especially upon hairy caterpillars shunned by other birds. But the enemies of
protected insects that are of much importance are predaceous insects and
parasites. I have seen in Uganda insects belonging to typically protected
groups (Hymenoptera, Hemiptera, &c.) being preyed upon by predaceous insects.

Since of all the offspring on the average only two individuals will survive to
carry on the race, insects which escape vertebrate enemies must be all the more
destroyed by parasitic or predaceous insects. In the case of Acrwa zetes—a
typically ‘protected ’ butterfly—out of seventy full-fed larve and pup obtained
in Uganda, only sixteen, or 23 per cent., became butterflies, 77 per cent. being

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 517

destroyed by parasitic insects. Since all these had been collected when full-
grown (i.e., they had escaped the dangers of infancy), the destruction at all
stages, including ova, is probably greater. So that less than 23 per cent. is all
that is left for destruction by both predaceous insects and vertebrates.

The matter may be expressed as a formula. If X is the total number of
offspring, then X-2= number destroyed by all influences. Putting P for those
destroyed by predaceous insects, p for those succumbing to parasites, and V for
those destroyed by vertebrates, then

V=(x—2)—(P+p)

V may thus be taken to indicate the degree of edibility to vertebrates, since
the number destroyed by parasites, &c., must bear an inverse relation to the
number destroyed by vertebrates. Could P (destruction by predaceous insects)
be accurately estimated, a figure could be given for V, which might be called
the edibility index; it would probably be found to be high for unprotected
insects and the reverse for protected insects.

On the other hand an eminently edible insect may escape vertebrate foes
through the perfection of its procryptic resemblance to its surroundings, or,
according to the Batesian theory, of its mimetic resemblance. In this case V
would be low, not because the insect was distasteful, but because it escaped
attack; so that in the case of an insect known to be edible, V would be the
index, not of edibility, but of success in disguise. Such insects would also be
highly parasitised. In the case of the larve of the mother-of-pearl moth I
believe V to represent the index of agility in escaping vertebrates. The larva
is highly edible. Some years ago I collected large numbers as food for green
lizards, which eagerly devoured them. But I found a very large proportion
indeed were parasitised. The larva lives in a tube of nettle-leaf and is
extremely adroit at escaping through one end of the tube directly the other end
is investigated, and it seems likely that it must escape birds in this way.

5. Pseudacreas and their Acreine Models on Bugalla Island, Sesse,
Lake Victoria. By Dr. G. D. H. CarpEnter.

In Uganda are four forms of the Nymphaline genus Pseudacrea, which I
have shown by breeding to be of one species—namely, Pseudacrea curytus,
Linneus, as was suggested by Dr. Karl Jordan. This species occurs in other
forms in West and Kast Africa and in Natal; but everywhere closely mimetic
of a Planema in that locality, being either sexually dimorphic or polymorphic,
as the Planema is also dimorphic or polymorphic. The four Uganda forms are :

Hobleyi, mimicking Planema macarista (dimorphic).
Terra, mimicking Planema tellus (monomorphic).
Obscura, mimicking Planema epwa paragea (monomorphic).

There is also a female form of hobleyi, with almost the colouring of the male,
which mimics Planema poggei, in which both sexes are alike. This Planema is
also mimicked by another Pseudacrea—namely, Ps. kiinowi. A collection of all
these butterflies made without selection during 1912 and January-February 1913
on Bugalla Island, Lake Victoria, showed that the models were extremely scarce,
the mimics of the species’ eurytus extremely abundant and very variable, so
that intermediates between the several types of hobleyi, terra, and obscura were
very plentiful, thus :—

Model Mimic
1 Planema poggt . . 2 Pseudacrea kiimowt. . «© + «+ + 9
Ps. eurytus, form hobleyi, 9 with ¢
colouring Aa oe tice grate 2
2 Planema macarista . 17 Ps. ewrytus, form hobleyi PEIGA, cody et 68
Intermediates between hobleyi terra : : 75
3 Planema telus . . 33 Ps. ewrytus,form terra. wwe 103
Intermediates between terraandobscura . 37
4 Planemaepeaparagea 75 Ps. eurytus, form obscura 3 26

Intermediates between obscura and hobleyi 45

518 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

In the case of Planema epea paragea the model is more abundant than the
mimic—due to the fact that I found a particularly good place for catching them
when they were collected together. Generally they were very scarce.

In a very large collection of these same forms made by Mr. C. A. Wiggins at
Entebbe, on the mainland twenty-five miles north-east of Bugalla, models are
very abundant, as well as the mimics. The mimics, however, vary hardly at all.
The suggested explanation is that on the mainland the models are sufficiently
numerous for resemblance to them to have a definite selection value to the mimic,
so that natural selection keeps them true to the type of the model.

On the island models are too scarce for it to be of any value to a mimic to
resemble them; so that varieties persist which on the mainland are at a dis-
advantage, and are quickly destroyed by enemies. Stronger proof of the reality
of mimicry and of the power of natural selection to maintain the mimetic
likeness could hardly be desired.

6. The Geographical Relations of Mimicry. By Dr. F. A. Dixsy, F.B.S.

It is well known that certain definite schemes of colour and pattern in the
wings of butterflies are characteristic of certain definite geographical regions.
This is true not only of the region as a whole, but also, in many cases, of the
smaller districts into which the given region may be divided, the colour and
pattern undergoing a similar modification in all the members of the associated
assemblage as one such district gives place to another.

Illustrations of this phenomenon are afforded by a well-known combination of
red, black, and yellow Ithomiine, Heliconiine, Danaine, Nymphaline, and Pierine
butterflies in Central and South America, and by a similar parallelism existing
between local forms of the African genera Mylothris and Phrissura. The con-
stituent members of these assemblages are often of very diverse affinities.

It is natural to seek for an explanation of these facts in the direction of a
common influence exercised by the geographical environment. But in the special
cases cited, to which many others might be added, this explanation is attended
by such extreme difficulty as to be practically put out of court. The inter-
pretation that at present holds the field is that which attributes these
resemblances, with their correlated geographical modifications, to the action
of mimicry, whether of the Batesian or Millerian kind. This interpretation
rationalises the geographical facts without resorting to the exceedingly difficult
hypothesis of a direct influence by the geographical conditions.

If the interpretation under the theories of mimicry be accepted there still
remain some anomalies to be accounted for. A few of these may be set down as
mere coincidences, such as might be expected where the array of facts is so
extensive; others are probably due to migration on the part of the insects them-
selves or of their enemies; while there is a residuum which no doubt points to
the fact that somewhat similar schemes of colour and pattern may take indepen-
dent origin in entirely distinct regions of the earth’s surface, and may in each

such situation become the common property of a Batesian or Miillerian mimetic
assemblage.

7. Discussion on Mimicry.

(i) Mimicry. By Professor E. B. Pounron, F.R.S.

Special attention was drawn to the relationship between birds and butter-

flies and to the examples of injuries actually seen to be inflicted by wild birds,
and, in comparison, examples of injuries very commonly found in butterflies.
Stress is to be laid on ‘disabling injuries,’ such as the loss of the whole of a
wing, indicating that the insect had not escaped, but was abandoned after
being mutilated. There is evidence to show that these injuries are especially
characteristic of the great groups which supply the models for mimicry. The
author pointed to the negative evidence derived from the examination of birds’
stomachs, and exhibited pellets thrown up by birds after a meal of butterflies,
showing how completely the nature of the food has been disguised. The author

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 519

showed illustrations and specimens of a few cases of mimicry in temperate North
American butterflies, and pointed out what he believed to have been the evolu-
tionary history. If this history be correct, then it is impossible to explain the
resemblance as due to the influence of environment, because recent invaders from
the Old World into this region have caused the mimetic modification of in-
digenous species. According to theory of environment the invaders ought to
have been modified instead of the residents.

ii) Mimicry between the Genera of certain African Nymphaline Butter-
y el ymp
flies. By Professor E. B. Pouuron, F.H.S.

Although the models for butterfly mimicry in the Old World commonly
belong to the great distasteful sub-families, the Danaine and Acreine, they
are also to be found among the groups in which we are accustomed to look for
mimics rather than models. This is certainly true of the Nymphaline, in which
the mimicry on both under and upper surface of the blue species of Crenis by
Crenidomimas is as remarkable as any known example of such resemblances.
The largest number of such instances, however, have been very little spoken
of in works on mimicry, although recognised by Aurivillius. I refer to the
mimicry of the species of Catuna, with both sexes alike, by the females of
species of the allied genera Huryphene, Diestogyna, and Cynandra. The resem-
blance has another characteristic of mimicry in general, viz., the development
of secondary resemblances between the mimics. ‘Thus the likeness between the
females of Cynandra opis and a Diestogyna, collected by Mr. S. A. Neave in
Uganda, is positively startling. I have always hesitated to draw attention to
these examples of mimicry until I knew more about the habits of models and
mimics, but within quite recent years Mr. W. A. Lamborn, to whom I owe so
much, has observed in the Lagos District that the mimics actually fly in the
company of their models.° Examples of models and mimics taken in one sweep
of the net by Mr. Lamborn and others on which special observations have been
made by him are exhibited to the Section.

8. The Term Mutation. By Professor E. B. Pouuron, F.R.S.

1. The word ‘Mutation’ was originally introduced by Waagen! to express a
simultaneous and probably gradual change in a relatively large proportion of the
individuals of the species, if not the whole species. ‘ Mutation’ expresses the change
itself, not the process by which it has been produced. Waagen nowhere states that
his ‘ Mutations’ are discontinuous variations or ‘ Saltations.’ Waagen’s material was
exclusively paleontological, and his ‘Mutations’ are variations in time. He was
inclined to believe that they were produced by a developmenta) force resident in the
organism.

". ‘Mutation’ was re-introduced by de Vries as equivalent to ‘ Saltation,’? and
applied to Darwin’s ‘large’ or ‘single’ variations as opposed to his ‘ individual
differences.’ The latter de Vries called ‘ Fluctuations.’ According to de Vries as well
as Darwin both forms of variation are hereditary. De Vries distinguished between
them by supposing that a ‘Mutation’ leaps at once to a new position of genetic
stability—it is what Galton previously called ‘transilient.? De Vries’ ‘ Fluctua-
tions,’ on the other hand, are subject to Galton’s ‘regression to mediocrity,’ and
there is a limit to the advance which can be achieved by selection.? It must be
added that de Vries is disposed to explain ‘ Fluctuations ’ as due to the action of the

“Die Formenreihe des Ammonites subradiatus, &c.’ Geogn.-palacont. Beitrage ii,
Heft 2, b (1869), p. 186.

* The Mutation Theory, Engl. Transl., Vol. i, London (1910), p. viii. ‘These
saltations, or mutations. .. .’

® Ibid. p. 123 :—‘ Continued selection [of fluctuations] by no means fixes the
character chosen, but, by separating the race further from the type from which it
sprang, continually adds to the risk of regression.’ This is precisely Galton’s con-
clusion, just as ‘ Regression’ in this sense is Galton’s term. Darwin also ‘fully
recognised the limits which may be set to the results achieved by the artificial selection
in one direction of individual variations,’ and ‘he admitted the necessity of waiting
for a fresh “start in the same line,”’ (Darwin and the Origin, Poulton, Londop
(1909), pp. 48, 49).

520 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

environment, and, so far as they are concerned, to accept the ‘ hereditary transmission
of acquired characters.’ The majority of biologists will prefer to conclude that de Vries’
“ Fluctuations’ are of two very different kinds, some of them being (a) Germinal
characters that are hereditary, and subject to Galton’s ‘ Regression’; and others (b)
Somatic characters that are not hereditary. De Vries uses the term ‘ Mutation’
to express (1) a single ‘Saltation’ and (2) the theory that evolution progresses dis
continuously by means of ‘Saltations.’ He states, however, that his ‘ Mutations’
may be small.4

3. Bateson, Punnett, Shipley and others have erroneously stated in recent years
that de Vries ‘ pointed out the clear distinction between the impermanent and non-
transmissible variations which he speaks of as fluctuations, and the permanent and
transmissible variations which he calls mutations.”

In this third use of “ Mutation ’—Batesonian, not de Vriesian—the word is applied
to any and every hereditary character and becomes the same as Weismann’s ‘ Blasto-
genic Variation.’ ‘ Fluctuation’ similarly in this second use, restricted to (b) as
explained above, becomes the same as Weismann’s ‘ Somatogenic Variation.’

This mistaken reading of de Vries has unfortunately been widely followed, so
that the Dutch botanist is now generally credited in this country with the bestowal
of Waagen’s term ‘Mutation’ upon a form of variation previously announced by
Weismann, instead of upon one (‘ Transilient’) previously announced by Galton.

The existing hopeless confusion can only be set right by restoring the term ‘ Muta-
tion ’ to its rightful owner Waagen—a measure of justice for which geologists have been
contending for several years.®

For the two other uses of ‘ Mutation’ and for the two kinds of ‘ Fluctuation’ the
following changes are suggested :—

For ‘ Mutation’ II. (de Vries), both large and small, substitute Galton’s ‘ Tran-
silient,’ used as a substantive. The old associations of ‘ Saltation’ are always with
large variations, and the term should never be applied to small ‘ Transilients.’ The
term ‘ Magnigrade’ to be used as substantive or adjective, may be conveniently
applied to a ‘ Saltation’ or ‘ Large Transilient,’ ‘ Parvigrade,’ similarly to a ‘ Small
Transilient.’ ‘ Magnigrade Evolution’ is ‘ Discontinuous,’ ‘ Parvigrade Evolution ’
“ Continuous.’

For ‘ Mutation’ III. (Bateson nec de Vries) substitute ‘ Blastogen,’ the sub-
stantive form of Weismann’s ‘ Blastogenic.’ Other synonyms are ‘ Constitutional,’
‘Congenital,’ ‘Genetic,’ ‘Inborn, ‘ Innate,’ ‘Inherent’ and ‘Centrifugal.’ The
term ‘ Variation ’ has also been used in this restricted sense.

For ‘ Fluctuation’ I(a) (de Vries) substitute Galton’s ‘ Regressive,’ used as a
substantive.

For ‘ Fluctuation’ II. (Bateson) = I(b).(de Vries) substitute ‘Somatogen,’ the
substantive form of Weismann’s ‘Somatogenic.’ Other terms are ‘ Acquired’
(going back to Erasmus Darwin, 1794, and Lamarck, 1809) antithetical to ‘ Inherent,’
‘ Centripetal ’ to ‘ Centrifugal,’ and ‘ Modification ’ to ‘ Variation.’

The relationships are shown below :—

II. Non-hereditary characters acquired
by the body

I. Hereditary characters originating in the
germ

|
|
A. Blastogens B. Somatogens

1. Transilients 2. Regressives

a Magnigrades 6b Parvigrades.

4 Tbid., p. 4.—‘* Of course every peculiarity of an organism arises from a previously
existing one; not however by ordinary variation, but by a sudden though minute
change,..... The name I propose to give to this ‘* species-forming ” variability is
Mutability. . . . The changes brought about by it, the Mutations, ... .

So also on p. 55 :—‘. . . many mutations are smaller than the differences between
extreme variants ’ [here used as equivalent to ‘ Fluctuations.’]

° Mendel’s Principles of Heredity, Bateson, Cambridge (1909), p. 287.

6 F, A. Bather in J. E. Marr’s Presidential Address to the Geological Society of
London, 1905, Proceedings, pp. Ixxii, Ixxiii. In drawing up the present abstract
I have received much kind help from my friend, Dr. Bather,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 521

9. A Case of Unilateral Development of Secondary Male Characters in
a Pheasant; with Remarks on the Influence of Hormones in the
Production of Secondary Sex Characters. By C. I. Bonn.

Description of Specimen.

The specimen shown is the skin of the White Ringed Formosan variety of
the Chinese Pheasant.

The plumage on the left side is roughly that of the adult male. The left leg
shows a well-marked spur. This is absent in the right leg.

The white-ringed neck feathers occur in a unilateral half-circle on the left
side only.

The wing primaries and coverts are female in character with the exception
of a few male feathers on the left side.

The tail coverts are of the male type.

The tail feathers (rectrices) show a unilateral assumption of the male
pigmentary pattern on the uncovered side of each feather, there being no
limitation of male plumage to the left side of the tail as a whole.

Examination of the Internal Organs.

A well-developed oviduct is present on the left side, and a sex organ occupies
the usual situation of the left ovary.

Microscopic sections of different areas of this gland show that it is an ovi-
testis. It consists of ovarian elements undergoing pigmentary degeneration and
of testicular elements which show active growth.

This case presents a difficulty if we accept the ordinary or hormonic explana-
tion of the origin of secondary sex characters.

Consideration of the following facts :—

(a) That the gradual destruction of ovarian tissue by disease or new growth
in young individuals of the human species and birds is more frequently
associated with the assumption of secondary male characters than the removal
of the ovaries by castration.

(6) That islands of actively growing male elements can frequently be found
in the degenerating ovaries of female individual birds which have assumed male
characters.

(c) That secondary (male) sex characters can be arranged in groups which
vary in the extent to which they are dependent on the internal secretion of the
corresponding sex gland.

(d) The occurrence of hermaphrodite individuals in which the (somatic)
secondary sex characters correspond with the constitution of the primary sex
gland on the same side of the body.

All these facts suggest that two factors at least are concerned in the origin
and development of secondary sex characters: one, a gametic factor—the
primary sex gland, and the other a somatic factor. These two factors may
vary independently of each other under certain conditions of abnormal here-
ditary transmission.

Analogy between the ‘hormonic’ theory of the origin of secondary sex
characters, and the ‘ gametic factor’ theory of the origin of ‘unit’ characters
in the zygote.

10. Experiments on the Metamorphosis of the Azolotl.
By E. G. BoutEncer.

11. The Morphology of the Mammalian Tonsil.
By Miss M. L. Herr, B.Sc.
Tonsils are normally present in most of the mammalian orders, and do not

atrophy till extreme old age, except in man. Though the physiological import-
ance of the tonsil is at present undetermined, it has every appearance of a healthy

522 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

and functional organ. It is wanting in many rodents, some insectivores, and
most bats.

Hammar derives the mammalian palatine tonsil from the dorsal diverticulum
of the second gill-pouch. This would appear to hold good for Eutharia at all
events, though Griinwald derives the human tonsil from the ventral diverticulum.
Hammar divides tonsils into (a) primary and (b) secondary, according as to
whether lymphoid tissue is laid down in the tuberculum tonsillare or not, placing
man and the artiodactyla in the second division, and most other mammals in
the first. This classification is at best somewhat arbitrary and presents several
difficulties, e.g. :—

1. It is difficult to classify all tonsils on these lines, as there are numerous
intermediate forms.

2. It is difficult to interpret the tonsils of primates other than man on this
basis.
3. Although in man lymphoid tissue in the plica triangularis (=the tuber-
culum tonsillare) is secondary, yet the hypertrophy follows definitely anatomical
lines, so that such tonsils may be classified under several distinct types.

Investigation of a large number of mammalian tonsils shows that the gross
anatomy is very distinctive in each group, being always characteristic of the
order, and frequently also of the family, or even, in some cases, of the genus.
It is not easy to show an actual correlation between structure and habit in the
case of this organ, but it is worthy of note that the carnivorous Marsupials have
tonsils which bear a remarkable resemblance to those of Eutherian Carnivores.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Pseudo-hermaphrodite Examples of Daphnia pulex.
By Dr. J. H. Asuworru.

2. Evolution of the Caudal Fin of Fishes.
By R. H. Wurrenovuse, M.Sc.

The diphycercal caudal fin of fishes may be primitively or secondarily sym-
metrical; the former is the protocercal type, and the latter the gephyrocercal.
The diphycercal palzozoic fishes are usually considered gephyrocercal, but it is
possible that they are survivors of the original protocercal form.

In the heterocercal form—e.g. Heterodontus—the anterior dorsal caudal
radials are well removed from the neural arches, but they gradually approximate,
and finally fuse together as the posterior end is approached. The same con-
dition of things once occurred ventrally, but with the greater development of the
ventral lobe, and the consequent necessity for a firmer support for the fin rays;
the fusion took place further forward, and the gradual approach of radials to
hemal arches is not shown. Still, evidences of such fusion are frequently seen,
and the hypurals of the fin are shown to be the result of a fusion of radial and
hzemal arch.

Such evidences as these are interesting in connection with problems concern-
ing the morphology of the various elements in the homocercal fin, which is
nothing more than a specialised heterocercal form.

The urostyle, which is a fusion of a number of vertebre, may be present as a
slender rodlike bone, or it may be entirely suppressed. Owing to the over-
crowding due to the excessive upturning of the caudal extremity, the epaxial
arches of the urostyle are usually altogether suppressed; on the other hand,
ventrally they remain and become greatly developed, owing to increased oppor-
tunities resulting from the upturning.

In the great majority of homocercal caudal fins dorsal fin-rays are supported
by radials; this is interesting, as it shows that radials are more persistent than
arches when subjected to adverse conditions, such as overcrowding.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 523

There is abundant evidence to prove that the hypural elements in caudal fins
are the result of fusion of hemal arches with radials; perhaps the best examples
illustrating this are members of the Gadidz, where various conditions are seen,
from free radials to fused hemal arches and radials. Hzmal arches alone are
unsuitable for the support of rays, and there seems no reason to suppose that
elimination of suitable supports (radials) occurred in favour of arches in a
position which offered every facility for greater development when we recall that,
under adverse conditions dorsally, they persisted. :

Differentiation of the median fins occurred before heterocercy was established,
and in the specialised homocercal type the original caudal appears to have been
suppressed and its place taken by the posterior anal fin brought relatively
further back by the upturning of the caudal extremity.

Gephyrocercy is understood to refer to perfect external and internal symi-
metry secondarily acquired; Fierasfer is a good type. The whole of the original
caudal has been lost, and the dorsal and anal fins have met round the abbreviated
extremity and share equally the function of a caudal fin. Most probably the
living Dipnoi are also gephyrocercal.,

3. The Homology of the Gills in the Light of Experimental Investiga-
tions. By Professor H. Braus.

The gills develop at a spot where ectoderm and entoderm meet. There have
been many controversies on the question: which of the two germinal layers pro-
vides the material for the formation of the gills, or whether they both do so?
But the fact that they are concerned in the formation of the gills does not tell
us in which, if in either of them, lies the determining factor for gill-formation.
Thus, for example, many authors have expressed the opinion that the mesoderm
(vascular system) contains the primary formative factor. It would follow that
the covering of the gills with epithelium is a passive process which could be
performed in one case by the ectoderm, in another by the entoderm, according
to the topographical circumstances.

The experimental method now gives us unequivocal mformation as to the
material necessary for gill-formation and as to the potencies of this material. I
refer to the results of a number of embryonic transplantations on the larve of
anura (Bombinator, Rana, Hyla) performed in my laboratory by Dr. Ekman, of
Helsingfors.

The gill-ectoderm was detached before the gills had formed, and was then
transplanted to other parts of the organism. Gill-filaments afterwards developed
_ from it, but no gill-clefts. Circulation of the blood was also wanting. The fila-

ments soon perished, and in some species never became large. If the gill-ectoderm
was lifted, turned round 180°, and replanted in that position at the same spot,
gill-filaments were formed with circulation and gill-clefts. The latter were all
twisted 180° from the normal position. This is very clearly seen in the oper-
culum, which does not begin in front and grow backwards as usual, but in these
cases begins behind and grows forwards. We may therefore conclude with
certainty that the ectoderm alone is able to produce gills, and alone determines
the position and form of these organs. The further development of the gills is
dependent on the ingrowth of mesoderm (vascular system). A layer of entoderm
beneath the ectoderm is sometimes present in the species examined, but not neces-
sarily. Foreign ectoderm—i.e., such as in ordinary circumstances does not develop
gills—behaves differently, according to the part of the organism from which it
is taken. If ectoderm is taken from the trunk or from the dorsal part of the
head and planted in the position of the gill-ectoderm, no gills are formed, but a
small opercular space appears for the anterior extremity. This is a consequence
of the formative influence of the rudimentary limbs. If ectoderm is taken from
the region above the embryonic heart and transplanted to the position of the gill-
ectoderm, gill-filaments, gill-clefts, and an operculum are formed, as in the
normal animal. The same effect is obtained from the regenerated ectoderm,
which results when the ectoderm of the gill-region is extirpated and left to
itself. It is not yet certain what factors induce this foreign ectoderm to assume
the functions of ordinary gill-ectoderm, but a similar process has already been

524 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

observed by experiment on other rudimentary organs (lens-formation, bone-
development). I have called it ‘imitation,’ and I regard it as of fundamental
importance in relation to theories of homology.

4, Discussion on Convergence in the Mammalia.
(i) Opening Remarks by Dr. H. Gapow.

(ii) Un nouveau cas de Convergence chez les Mammiféres: Balena et
Neobalena. Par le Professeur Louis Dotuo, Sc.D., C.M.Z.S.

Contrairement aux opinions regues, Neobalena n’est pas une vraie Baleine.

Elle n’est pas, non plus, intermédiaire entre les Baleines et les Balénoptéres.

Mais c’est une véritable Balénoptére, simplement adaptée 4 la maniére de
vivre des Baleines.

Done, un nouveau cas de Convergence, chez les Mammiféres.

Les preuves 4 l’appui de cette assertion paraitront dans les Proceedings de
la Société Zoologique de Londres pour 1913.

(il) Convergence in Mammals. By Professor Van BEMMELEN.

Convergence is generally understood to mean the similarity between organisms
not nearly related to each other—for instance, Cetacea and fishes, bats and birds,
and soon. But there may—or, rather, there must—exist a far greater similarity,
based on convergence, between near relatives. And it must be exceedingly difti-
cult to distinguish this kind of convergence from the homologies caused by
heredity ; that is to say, by the influence of a common ancestor.

Yet it is clear that when,:under equal influences of the environment and
similar exigencies of the struggle for existence, organisms very different in
original build are enabled to develop one and the same kind of new adaptations,
the same must be the case in a far higher degree when nearly related organisms
are subjected to those identical circumstances. To cite an example : our European
mole is related to the shrew; the golden mole of the Cape, on the contrary, is a
specialised offspring of the Centetidw. Both have adapted themselves in a
similar way to the subterranean mode of life. Is it then not probable that
different species of shrews at various points of the earth, influenced by those
similar life-conditions, might have been changed into different species or at least
races of moles?

These possibilities must always be kept in view in all our speculations about
evolution of new forms. Monophyletic origin, taken in its strictest sense, would
always involve the highly improbable hypothesis of one single pair of individuals
as the ancestors of each new species. As soon as we incline to the opposite
opinion—the whole bulk of the individuals of a certain species all changing in the
same way under the influence of changed external conditions of life into a new
local race, variety, sub-species, and, finally, into a new species—we have
admitted the existence of parallel evolution among near relatives.

Therefore I am convinced that all studies on convergence must start with the

careful comparative investigation of those nearest relatives. To cite an example:
Some years ago I took up the question of the relationship between the hare and
the rabbit. Is the first an offspring of the second, or vice versa, or have both
derived from a common ancestral form, more generalised and more like the rest
of the Duplicidentata (and also more like the Simplicidentata)? With many
restrictions, I believe the second assumption to be the most probable; but what
interests us here is the conclusion I arrived at in comparing not only the
European hare to our rabbit, but more generally the different sub-genera of
the genus Zepus to each other. I found myself obliged to assume that the
adaptation of a free-living hare-like Duplicidentate to a fossorial subterranean
mode of life had taken place several times in different parts of the world, and

i,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 525

in different geological epochs, so that all rabbit-like members of the family did
not form one well-circumscribed group as opposed to the hare-like ones, but, on
the contrary, they represented a number of independent side branches emerging
on different levels from a central stem, that itself leads from primitive hares
like the Sumatran short-eared hare called Nesolagus netscheri, to the highest
developed species, as Lepus europeus. Thus the hispid hare of Bengal, living
on the southern slopes of the Himalayas, known as Caprolagus hispidus, accord-
ing to my views, is to be considered as a rabbit-like offspring of primitive short-
eared hares still represented by Nesolagus.

Another group of mammals about which I may presume to pronounce personal
judgment are the Monotremes. Ornithorhynchus and Echidna are both highly
specialised forms, whose more generalised ancestors have all disappeared from
the globe, and their similarities in many points are the consequence of con-
vergence instead of homology. So it is by general consent with the loss of their
teeth, but, according to my view, the same is the case with the retrogression of
their internal nares and the corresponding elongation of their bony mouth-roof.
Ornithorhynchus acquired these features on account of its amphibian habits, as
was the case with the crocodiles or the Cetacea. Echidna, on the contrary,
developed them under the influence of its ant-diet, as did the South American
ant-eaters and the aardvark of the Cape. Yet the arrangement of the bones
in these osseous roofs of the mouth-cavity shows a similarity of primitive
character, which, without doubt, depends on common ancestry, and therefore
may be used in phylogenetic speculations. The same is true of many other
features; for instance, the annular tympanic bone, the large malleus, the unper-
forated stapes, the possession of marsupial bones, the number, position, and
anatomical structure of the milk glands, and so on. In my opinion, the pheno-
mena of convergence, even in nearly related organisms, will never prove to be
a serious obstacle to the disentangling of phylogeny.

(iv) Convergence and Allied Phenomena in the Mammalia.
By W. K. Greaory, Ph.D.

In his monograph on the Shoulder-girdle of the Vertebrata the late W. K.
Parker spoke scornfully of the study of Adaptation. A teleological explana-
tion, he said, is an impertinence in a morphological work; and again: ‘Tele-
ology is a pretty golden ball that diverts the racer from his course.’ But at
present it is coming to be realised that studies on Adaptation (of which Con-
vergence is a special case) must be thoroughly synthetised with morphology,
general phyletic relations, and taxonomy.

The frequency of homoplastic resemblances and the discovery that certain
systematic groups are unnatural should lead to no pessimistic views regarding
classification and phylogeny in general, but rather to encouragement. For, at
least in every case which I have thoroughly studied, Convergence never leads
to a complete agreement in underlying ordinal or subordinal characters between
convergent forms of widely different ancestry. By close study of the skeleton
and soft parts the many little things that reveal the true phylogenetic positions
of the convergent forms become apparent.

Specimens of the skulls of the Marsupial Wolf Thylacinus and of the ordinary
wolf were exhibited, and it was argued that, notwithstanding the marked
“ cenotelic’ resemblances, the ‘ palwotelic’ differences showed conclusively that
one was a Marsupial, the other a Placental. Similarly the ‘cznotelic ’ charac-
ters of Notoryctes give it a marked general resemblance to Chrysochloris, but
the palzotelic characters of the two forms show that one is a specialised Poly-
protodont Marsupial, the other a specialised Zalambdodont Insectivore.

The totality of the czenotelic or recent adaptive characters of an animal
may be called its habitus; the totality of its paleotelic characters may be
referred to as its heritage. The habitus tends to conceal remote phylogenetic
relationships, the heritage to reveal them. Thus, the diverse habitus of
Thylacinus, Notoryctes, and Phaseolomys concealed their remarkably uniform
underlying heritage. é

In many cases of Convergence there is a likeness of material or a general
homology to begin with, as in the evolution of the Carnassial teeth in the

526 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

Hyznodontide and Canidz, where, although the evolution had taken place in
different teeth (the fourth upper premolar in the Canide, the second upper
molar in the Hyznodontidz), yet the tissues involved were the same in the
converging groups; but sometimes convergence took place between structures
formed from quite different tissues, as in the dentition of Thylocoleo and the
not dissimilar piercing and shearing structures of Dinichthys; in the former
case true teeth, in the latter only sharpened edges of bone were involved.

Professor Anthony, of Paris, in his excellent work on arboreal adaptation
in vertebrates suggests that many of our orders, sub-orders, and families may be
‘groupings by Convergence’; but in the classification of the Mammalia great
strides have already been made in the detection of cases of Convergence, as,
for example, in the case of the extinct Patagonian Sparassodonts.

5. Recent Investigations on Parasitic and other Eelworms.
By Gizert E. Jounson, M.Sc.

Nothing is yet known of the mode of nutrition of the free-living species
of the Anguillulidw, save of those which are found feeding saprozoically on
substances putrefying in the soil or in water, or which develop in enormous
numbers on artificial food-media allowed to decay on samples of soil. These
species, the majority of which belong to the genus Rhabditis, and are well
suited to artificial cultivation, find their nourishment among the swarms of
bacteria which develop in such media and multiply rapidly under these con-
ditions, though whether they feed on the bacteria themselves or on the products
of their action is not yet known. The nonsaprophytic free-living species,
though incapable of being maintained under cultural conditions, may derive
their nourishment from similar sources but in smaller quantities.

Those few species of the Anguillulide which have been described as
parasitic in animals, and of which Rhabditis pellio is the best example, are
probably not parasites in the strictest sense. 2h. pellio inhabits the common
earthworm, Lumbricus terrestris, being found in the nephridia in an active,
and in the celomic cavity in an encysted, larval condition. In this state the
larve remain without growth or change until the death and decay of the
earthworm, when they grow rapidly, mature, and reproduce. Rh. pellio,
though nominally a parasite, is thus comparable in its mode of life with
the saprozoic species living free in the soil, for it derives the nourishment for
its growth from decaying organic matter and uses the living earthworm only
as a shelter during that period when growth is at a standstill.

The species parasitic in plants (Z'ylenchus, Aphelenchus, and Heterodera),
pierce the cellular tissue of the plant by means of the hollow stylet protrusible from
the mouth-cavity and absorb the cell-sap. There are, however, in addition to
the parasites a large number of ‘ semi-parasitic’ species, which occur in constant
association with the perfectly healthy plant. They are found chiefly round the
roots, but, in the case of seedlings of cereal and other grasses, occur also
between the leaf-sheaths and within the grain from which the seedling is
growing. Almost all plants appear to have these semi-parasites round their
roots, attracted from the surrounding soil, which is relatively poor in nema-
todes. The problem : On what do these semi-parasites feed? remains unsolved.
Not on the living cells of the root, for most of the semi-parasitic forms are
unarmed, and the roots are undamaged. Do they feed on bacteria collected
round the roots? If they feed on bacteria useful to plant growth, they may
fill a réle similar to that of the Protozoa of the soil, whose harmful activity can
be checked by the expedient of ‘ partial sterilisation.’

6. Some Aspects of the Sleeping Sickness Problem.
By Professor E. A. Mincury, F.B.S.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 527

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Living Cultures of the Embryonic Heart shown by the Micro-
Kinematograph. By Professor H. Braus.

Harrison’s discovery that individual cells and whole organs of the embryo
may be isolated and cultivated in a cover-glass—i.e., made to grow outside the
organism—is now well known. It may, however, be of some interest to see the
phenomena of growth and movement demonstrated, if not in the actual living
cultures which I have shown elsewhere,’ at least in the kinematograph.
Micro-biographs were taken in order to exhibit delicate phenomena of move-
ment that were too rapid or too slow to be appreciated by simple inspection.

The beating heart exhibited is that of a frog larva (Hana esculenta) six milli-
metres long. At this stage the heart is only just perceivable as a tiny dot upon
a black background ; its pulsation can be recognised only by magnifying it. In
form it is an S-shaped tube. In the cultures the shape and also the diameter
of this tube gradually change.

When the photographs were taken this preparation was seven days old, yet
the regular rhythm of pulsation is the same as on the first day—viz., about
eighty beats per minute. 4

The movement is peristaltic. Pulsation of the sinus, atrium, ventricle and
bulbus can be clearly distinguished. Under the influence of chemical rays dis-
turbances (suspension and irregularity) are caused during the exhibit. There
are also typical ‘refractory ’ periods in certain cases.

To prove that the preparation is really growing I have photographed some of
its pigment cells on a larger scale. The micro-biographs were taken at intervals
of ten minutes, on the average, during a period of ten hours. It takes only a
few minutes to show them on the screen, so that the movements (increase in
thickness, amceboid movement of the processes, shifting of the cells in toto) seem
to take place rapidly.

The heart has no ganglion cells either at the beginning or at the end of the
experiment. It consists of two epithelial membranes: the endocardium and an
exterior layer, the visceral mesoderm. Every cell can be thoroughly inspected
in control-preparations, and \by a series of sections of hardened cultures. As the
cells lie in a compact layer, ganglion cells are certainly not present. Nerves
proper are still a long way off. The vagus has only a short, stumpy Ramus
intestinalis, which follows the intestine only slightly, but cannot be removed
with the heart. The sympathicus is at this stage represented by mere traces near
the aorta, and therefore not present in the preparation. Experiments with glass-
culture of nerves, however, show that real nerves do not originate, except by
growth from the central neuroblasts.

Nor can it be the muscles that conduct the stimulus, for the heart cultivated
in vitro possesses at first no cross-striping and no muscle cells that are micro-
scopically distinguishable. Yet there is conveyance of stimulus beyond doubt,
as seen in the disturbances of co-ordination—e.g., in a ‘refractory’ period. The
plasmoderms, therefore, the protoplasmatic links between the cells, must be the
conductors of the stimulus.

2. The Scottish Zoological Park. By Dr. W. S. Brucs, F.R.S.E.
3. Joint Meeting with Sections I and K.
Synthesis of Organic Matter by Sunlight in Presence of Inorganic
Colloids, and its Relationship to the Origin of Life. By Professor
Bensamin Moors, F'.R.S., and ARTHUR WEBSTER.

The whole world of living plants and animals depends for its present con-
tinuance upon the synthesis of organic compounds from inorganic by the green

* Naturwiss. Mediz. Verein, Heidelberg, July 11, 1911 (Miinchener Mediz.
Wochenschrift).

528 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

colouring matter of the plant acting as a transformer of light energy into
chemical energy.

A little reflection shows that this present state of affairs must have evolved
in complexity from something more simple existing at the commencement.
For chlorophyll, which now acts as the transformer, is itself one of the most
complex of known organic substances, and could not have been the first organic
substance to evolve from inorganic matter.

In considering the origin of life, the start must be made in a purely
inorganic world without a trace of organic matter, either plant or animal.

As Schafer has pointed out, any other supposition merely removes the seat
of origin to some conveniently remote planet, and pushes the origin back
farther in time, but brings us no nearer to a real solution.

The earlier theories and views as to spontaneous generation all possess
the error of attempting to start life amidst organic nutritive material which
could not be there until life had already appeared.

The complex organic substances, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and
all the many other organic cell constituents, are late products along the line
of evolution of life, and the beginning lies at a level much below that of the
bacterium or diatom.

As a result of about eighteen months of experimental work, we have, we
believe, obtained evidence of the first organic step in the evolution.

When dilute solutions of colloidal: ferric hydroxide, or the corresponding
uranium compound, are exposed to strong sunlight, or the light of a mercury
arc, there are synthesised the same organic compounds which are at present
formed as the first stage in the process of organic synthesis by the green
plant, namely, formaldehyde and formic acid.

If now we consider a planet exposed to the proper conditions of tempera-
- ture and sunlight, that chain of events can be followed, which not only can
but must occur. At first, as the planet cools down, only elements would be
present, at a lower temperature binary compounds form, next simple crystal-
loidal salts arise. Then, by the union of single molecules into groups of
fifty or sixty, colloidal aggregates appear. As these colloidal aggregates
Increase in complexity, they also become more delicately balanced in structure,
and are meta-stable or labile, that is, they are easily destroyed by sudden
changes in environment, but, within certain limits, are peculiarly sensitive to
energy changes, and can take up energy in one form and transform it into
another.

This is the stage at which we take the matter up in our work. These
labile colloids take up water and carbon dioxide, and, utilising the sunlight
streaming upon the plant, produce the simplest organic structures.

Next these simpler organic structures, reacting with themselves, and with
nitrogenous inorganic matter, continue the process and build up more and
more complex, and also more labile, organic colloids, until finally these acquire
the property of transforming light energy into chemical energy.

The problem of the origin of life hence acquires, as stated by one of us
at the Dundee meeting of the Association, the aspect of an experimental
inquiry with vast opportunities for obtaining more exact knowledge.

From this first step in the organic synthesis advance must be made to
study how more and more complex organic compounds can be evolved.

But it is clear that by the continued action of this ‘law of molecular com-
plexity’ life must originate, that forms of life are now originating, that the
origin of life was no fortuitous accident, and that the same processes are guiding
life onwards to higher evolution in a progressive creation.

4. On the Phylogeny of the Carapace and on the Affinities of the
Leathery Turtle, Dermochelys Coriacea. By Professor J. VErsuuys.
See Appendix, p. 791.

TRANSACTIONS OF SEOTION D. 529

5. On the Oviposition of Urophora solstitialis, Linn.
By J. T. Wapsworru.

The Trypetid fly Urophora solstitialis, Linn., whose larve induce galls in
the flower-heads of Centaurea nigra, Linn. and allied Composites, possesses a
very eflicient piercing ovipositor. Piercing ovipositors are comparatively rare
in Diptera. The ovipositor of U. solstitialis exhibits three well-marked seg-
ments: a fixed outer segment, and an inner portion, capable of extension and
retraction, composed of the other two segments. The first segment serves as a
sheath for the other two segments when they are retracted; it also contains
the lower free portion of the oviduct, the retractor muscles of the ovipositor, and
muscles which probably assist in the process of extension. The second segment
is flexible and capable of being protruded and retracted like a glove-finger.
The third and last segment is the actual piercing portion; it is a chitinous tube,
and bears the terminal portion of the oviduct, which opens to the exterior
within a short distance of the tip. The extended ovipositor is retracted by
special muscles, which are inserted at the junction of the flexible middle segment
with the chitinous terminal portion.

The complete ovipositor, when extended, is nearly twice the length of the fly.

During oviposition the abdomen is pushed down between the bases of the
lowest and outermost bracts of the flower-heads, and, whilst in this position, the
piercing portion is forced into the tissue of the receptacle. The ovipositor
passes downwards and inwards towards the axis of the flower-head, and then
gradually bends upwards until the tip of the ovipositor is finally in the space
between the top of the young florets and the overlying bracts. The ova are
usually placed in this space; occasionally, however, they may be found between
the young florets. The larva after hatching bores a hole in the corolla of a
young floret and travels downward to the ovary. It enters the ovary, feeds
on the developing ovule and surrounding tissues, and its activities in this
position lead to the growth of the ‘ gall.’

6. Exhibition of a Fossil Skeleton of Notharctus rostratus, an American
Eocene Lemur, with remarks on the Phylogeny of the Primates. By
W. K. Grecory, Ph.D.

Owing to the scarcity of the material, the relationship of Notharctus and
allied Eocene genera to modern Lemurs was long in doubt. The discovery of
several partial skeletons in the Bridges Basin of Wyoming by the American
Museum of Natural History affords a fairly complete knowledge of the skull,
dentition, limbs, and vertebra. The material shows that Notharctus is a
primitive Lemur, more primitive than any now living, and possibly ancestral to
the Indrisine Lemurs. The correspondence of the details of the limbs, &c.,
between Notharctus and modern Lemuride is remarkably close. The front
teeth are more primitive, and have not yet assumed the lemurid characters ;
the molars are in pattern ancestral to those of Propithecus.

The supposed systematic and phylogenetic relationships are summarised in
the following classification of the Primates :—

A. Lemuroidea :— B. Pseudolemuroidea :— C. Anthropoidea :—
I. Prolemures : IV. Tarsii : VI. Platyrhini :
Notharctide. Anaptomoriphidiz. Hapalide.
Adapide. Omomyine. Cebide.

II. Lemures : | Anaptomorphine, VII. Catarhini ;
Lemuride. Necrolemurinz. Parapithecide.
Indriside. Tarsiide. Cereopithecide.
Archeolemuride. V? Mixodectini: Simiide.
Chiromyide. Mixodectide. Horninide.

III. Nycticebi :

Nycticebidee.

The Prolemurs are the lowest and more generalised of

all Primates, and

contain the ancestors of the Adapide, Lemuride, Indriside.

1913.

MM

530 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

The Lemurs include the highly varied Malagasy forms, which all have pro-
cumbent lower incisors, incisiform canines, and more or less caniniform
premolars. The tympanic annulus is typically a mere ring completely within
the bulla, the molar touches the lacrymal, the pes is essentially as in Lemur.

Nesopithecus and other ape-like lemurs, with enlarged brain-case, are closely
allied to the Indriside, and their resemblances to the Anthropoidea are demon-
strably convergent, not genetic. Chiromys is rather nearly related to Archao-
lemur. Its enlarged lower front teeth are probably canines, not incisors.
Paleopropithecus is not an Indrisid, but is related to Megaladapis. The
Nycticebi are sharply separated from the Malagasy Lemurs, especially in the
basicranial region, which is more specialised than in typical Lemurs.

T'arsius, together with Anaptomorphus, Omomys, Necrolemur, and their
allies, is probably intermediate between the Lemurs and Anthropoids as held by
Wortman, Schlosser, and others. The Omomyinze may have given rise to the
South American Primates as suggested by Wortman. The oldest known
Platyrhine Homunculus of the Patagonian Santa Cruz formation is definitely
a Cebid. The oldest Anthropoidea are the primitive genera described by
Schlosser from the Upper Eocene of Egypt. They show no special approach to
the Platyrhines. In the pattern of the premolars and molars, as well as in the
number and kinds of teeth, they are foreshadowed by the Mixodectide of
doubtful affinity, but these have specialised incisors. The Hominide are
securely linked with the Simiide, not only by the abundant evidence of anatomy,
physiology, &c., but also by recent paleontological discovery.

7. On a Mammal-like Dental Succession in a Cynodont Reptile.
By R. Broom, D.Sc.

The author exhibited specimens of the upper and lower jaws of a small species
of Diademodon. The specimen is not quite adult, as may be seen in the fact
that the last molar is not yet through to the surface. After death and before
fossilisation considerable maceration has evidently taken place, resulting in
most of the teeth having fallen out. All the functional teeth of the upper jaw
and most of the anterior teeth of the lower are lost. But in the sockets of the
two upper and two lower canines of one upper incisor and one lower premolar
are seen the crowns of replacing teeth. There is no evidence of any replacing
teeth in the sockets of the true molars above. ;

From the evidence we may conclude that the Cynodonts had deciduous
incisors, deciduous canines, and four deciduous premolars, exactly as in
mammals. As there is no evidence in any specimen of a dental succession after
maturity is reached, we may further conclude that the two sets of teeth
correspond to the mammalian milk set and permanent set.

8. Thaumastotherium osborni, a New Genus of Perissodactyles present-
ing some Unusual Features. By C. Forster Cooper.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
The following Papers were read :—
1. The Organisms of Brine Cultures. By T. J. Evans.

Experiments were made to re-examine the variation of Artemia salina in
graded strengths of salt-solution from 4 to 25 per cent. Solutions of Tidman’s
sea-salt were employed and placed in a good light. Contrary to Calman’s results
(1911), it was found that the Artemia in 8 and 10 per cent. attained maturity
without the introduction of extraneous food. The food supply was Chlamydo-
monas (sp.?) in various stages of its life-cycle. Further, the nauplius stages
of Artemia die unless the brine contains a supply of free-swimming monads; but
the adult animal lives on the resting palmella and encysted stages which occur

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 531

on the sides of the vessel and among the bacteria in the surface film. The
surface film food-source is so prolific that the Artemia spends much of its time
feeding on it, and it is probable that the habit of swimming on its back adopted
by Artemia is an adaptation for feeding in the surface film.

In the lower strengths, 4 and 5, and in the higher, 20 and 25, either the eggs
did not hatch or the young nauplii died as soon as the shell burst. Adults
transferred from the optimum solutions 8 and 10 lived in the lower and higher
strengths, and the eggs laid in these solutions by them lived and grew. This
suggests that the cause of death in these extreme strengths in the first case was
the sudden change in the osmotic pressure, since eggs will hatch in any solution
in which they have been formed.

No variation in the order described by Schmankiwitch was found in the
second and third generations; the tail lobes were of uniform size in all strengths
and possessed 8 spines on either side. It is probable therefore that variation
is reduced to a minimum when the conditions and the relative percentages of
the salt constituents in the solutions are constant, the variation in the total
salt content of the water playing little part in the production of variations in
structure.

2. A Chalceid Parasitic on Thrips (Thysanoptera).
By Ricuarp §. Baaenatn, F.L.S.

. For some time now Thrips have been regarded as insects of considerable
economic importance, and on that account have formed the subject of consider-
able research. Yet it was only in 1911 that a parasite of any importance was
discovered, when Mr. H. M. Russell reared a Hymenopterous insect belonging
to the Chalcide from the prepupa of Heliothrips fasciatus Pergande, which Mr
J. C. Crawford has described as a new genus and species, 7'Aripoctenus russelli.

Mr. Russell last year published the results of numerous experiments carried
out on this parasite, showing that it reproduces parthenogenetically and would
oviposit in the larve of several species of Thrips belonging to the sub-order
Terebrantia, such as Thrips tabaci, Vrankliniella tritici, but would not attempt
oviposition in the larve of a species belonging to the sub-order Tubulifera, and
also refused to oviposit in the young of a bug and of Aphides.

In the same year (1911) G. del Guercio reported upon a Chalcid parasite of a
species of Tubulifera, the Olive Thrips (Phlcothrips ole Costa); which in a
later paper he named Tetrastichus gentilii, stating that both sexes occurred.

With these exceptions only one other Thrips parasite has been named, when,
in 1860, Mrs. Charlotte Taylor described one from Thrips on wheat, under the
name of Pezomachus thripites, a small, wingless creature, with multi-articulate
antenne and two thoracic nodes. This has not since been recognised.

For some time I have observed a minute black and white Chalcid parasite
which I have always regarded as having some connection with Terebrantian
Thysanoptera. In August of this year (1913) I found many specimens of this
Chalcid in the flowers of the toad-flax (Zinaria) at Hele Bay, near Ilfracombe,
which were obviously interested in Thrips larve (Z’eniothrips primule chiefly,
and Physothrips atratus), and the following morning, by a curious coincidence,
I received a long-promised tube of 7hripoctenus russelli from Mr. Russell. An
examination of my captures showed that they belonged to the genus 7'iripoctenus,
and almost certainly to the American species, russelli, though I propose sub-
mitting it to the describer, Mr. Crawford.

British distribution of Thripoctenus russelli: August 1913, with Tniothrips
primule and Physothrips atratus in toad-flax (Linaria), Hele Bay, near Ilfra-
combe; with Oxythrips parviceps and Physothrips erice in heather on the Tors,
near Ilfracombe, and with Thrips tabaci, Frankliniella intonsa and Thrips
palustris in the louse-wort (Pedicularia palustris) at Hogley Bog, Cowley, near
Oxford.

3. On the Systematic Position of the Order Protura.
By Ricuarp §. Baenauy, F.L.S.
The Order Protura, diagnosed by Silvestri in 1907 and monographed by

Berlese two years later, on account of its anomalous nature and curious morpho-
M M 2

532 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

logical features, has formed the subject of many discourses as to its position
in the Arthropod classification.

The important and essential characteristics were reviewed and the views
of various authors discussed as to its relationship with the Myriapoda and
Insecta. The reader deplored the use of the term Myriapoda to represent what
was not a class but a convenient assemblage of ‘ many-legged’ arthropods, and
restricted his remarks to the one so-called Myriapod Order, Chilopoda, or Centi-
pedes, highly organised Arthropods coming near to the Znsecta. He considered
that whilst the Protura had affinities with the Chilopoda, especially Lithobius,
in the larger number of body-segments and the position of the genital opening,
the weight of evidence lay in favour of modifying the classification of the insect,
dividing it into two sub-classes, the one to include Protura, and the other to
include all other Orders of insects.

4. The Early Evolution of the Amphibia. By D. M. S. Watson.

In the Lower Carboniferous and Productive Coal Measures of England all
the known large Amphibia agree in the following features : The main articulation
of the skull with the vertebral column is by a single large concave basioccipital
condyle, the pterygoids articulate with small ventrally directed basipterygoid pro-
cesses of the basisphenoid, the parasphenoid is small, and the interpterygoid
vacuities practically absent. The vertebral column is throughout embolomerous.
In two types the exoccipitals articulate with the vertebral column, in one case by
very small separate facets, in the other by combining with the much larger basi-
occipital to form a tripartite condyle. Inthe large Permian Amphibia the articu-
lation of the skull is by two large exoccipital condyles, but the basioccipital is still
still of reasonable size, and may perhaps in some cases articulate with the atlas.
The pterygoids articulate with much exaggerated and in the main laterally
directed basipterygoid processes formed by the otherwise much-reduced
basiphenoid, which is supported by the enlarged parasphenoid. The inter-
pterygoid vacuities are much enlarged. The vertebral column is rachitomous—
a condition which is derived from the embolomerous by the squeezing out of the
lower part of the pleurocentra and the upper part of the hypocentra; the
hypocentra pleuralia represent the remnants of the suppressed upper part of the
bone.

Further change in the same direction leads to the structure found in the
Triassic types, where the basioccipital and basisphenoid are extremely reduced,
and the pterygoids are supported by the huge parasphenoid with which they are
sometimes united by suture. The interpterygoid varieties are very large.
In the vertebral column the intercentra seem to have been enlarged at the
expense of the pleurocentra forming the so-called centrum of the stereospondylus
vertebra, but much further work is necessary on this point.

In conclusion, taken as a whole the rachitomous Amphibia are intermediate
in their structure, as they are in time, between the embolomerous and the
stereospondylous types, and it seems that each of the three groups is to be
regarded as ancestral to that which follows it.

The almost absolute identity of the skulls of Pferoplax, an embolomerous
amphibian of Carboniferous type, and Seymouvia, which has the most primitive
skull of any known reptile, seems to show definitely that the reptiles did arrive
from that group of Amphibia, presumably in early Carboniferous or Upper
Devonian time.

The suggestion may be made that the development of the bicondylar articula-
tion of the skull of Amphibia is to be correlated with increasing depression of
the skull, and is a characteristic amphibian feature.

5. Note on the Skull and Teeth of Tursiops.
By Professor R. J. Anperson, M.D., F.L.S.

The teeth present some characters which are not usually found in Cetacea.
The number of teeth amounted to 90, but several were absent, owing to injury
of the lower jaw. Of the teeth now under observation, three are but little worn
—each is 3'5 cms. in length—and were perhaps about 4 cms. when unworn. The

—

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 533

fangs are rough and truncated, the crowns of two worn down at the sides for some
distance ; this looks as if the teeth were used for crushing. These teeth are not
perfectly straight; two are slightly S-shaped. The smallest teeth are 2 cm. in
length. In the lot I examined there are six; of these, four have small diameters,
and two are wide and short, with thick fangs and a tendency to form two or three
roots in one case. A small hole is present in the crown of the broadest and
shortest tooth, but in the other short ones it does not appear. In another select
group 2'2 em. is the height. The crowns are not worn down enough to show the
cavity ; one of the teeth is bulged out at the lower part of the fang, as if a new
root were attempted. One of the next group shows the central foramen in the
crown distinctly, and two others imperfectly. The lengths are 13cm. Another
group, six in number, have a length of 2°5 cms.; none are perforate above. The
sockets for the individual teeth appear at the bottom of the groove; the
partitions do not reach the upper edge of the jaw. The lower jaw is 45 cms.
long, with a height of 11 cms. behind condyle. The condyle is 4 cms. from lower
border, and 5 cms. from upper edge. There are 25 sockets on each side in upper
jaw, and 20 on each side in lower jaw. The antero-posterior of the left nasal
is more than half the corresponding diameter of the right. The length of the
skull is 21 inches, breadth 10 inches, and height 21 cms. The right premaxilla
41 cms., left 385 cms. The lower border of nares to the tip of the rostrum
36 cms. The skull is less symmetrical than that of Delphinapterus, and the
shape is intermediate between that of Delphis Delphinapterus and Grampus.
Professor Anthony has found stones in the second stomach of Phocena. The
green stuff sometimes found in the stomach of Tursiops may be accidentally
swallowed with shore fish.

TaBie.—Length of Teeth.

6teeth . a ‘ 2 2- omss—. 3 3 . 1 tooth 2-4 cms.
3teeth . 3 < . 22cms. . i ‘i . 3 teeth 2-5 cms.
6teeth . fA 7 . 23cms. . 5 : . 1 tooth 3-4 cms.!
ltooth . 3 ‘ . 2:35 cms. . F c . 1 tooth 3-5 cms.?

1 tooth 4-1 cms.?

Two of the short teeth are broad; one of these has a broad fang imperfectly
divided.

6. Some Notes on the Skeletal Elements of the Mammalian Limb.
By Professor R. J. ANpERSoN, M.D., F.L.S.

The condition of the elements of the mammalian limb is commonly associated
with that of other vertebrate groups that have a manus and pes developed. It
is easier to explain the structure of the fish limbs by referring to the archetype
skeleton than to explain the structure of other vertebrate types in this way.
The wings of birds may be referred, however, to a modified variety of the
archetype skeleton. Whatever views we adopt, it can scarcely be advisable to
undervalue the main factors in the production of the foci of relative rest and in
the maintenance of periodic activity. These are as much in evidence in fishes
and more easily understood than in the higher vertebrates. If specimens of
wood are cut so as to form long, thin, and moderately wide bars, and if
Lycopodium spores be shaken over the surfaces of these boards, tapping can be
made to produce vibrations that will throw the powder into nodes and internodes
not unlike the skeletal parts of the vertebrate limb. Muscle thrills associated
with movement and neuro-muscular actions become consciously or unconsciously
associated with aspirations of the central or other neurones. It seems clear that
the limbs of selachians, sea lizards, and cetacea give us favourable illustrations
of the results of the primitive attempts of movement by limbs and fins. Birds
are somewhat removed from the accomplishments of these groups, but the
feathers represent facts that accomplish for the wings and tail similar results in
a medium where local vortices are made to help in the locomotion. Mammals

* Cut down at side for 0.6 cm. 2? Cut down at side for 1 cm.
* Bevelled at crown.

534 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

seem at first to have adopted a simpler plan, that comes somewhat within the
domain of the working physicist. The adoption of different means of movement
has led to complication. The use of the third and fourth toe in progressing, of
the fourth especially in such forms as galago and other lemurs, and the special
changes in the wrist and ankle bones have led to changes in the form, length, and
strength of bones. The weight of the animal has often been a potent factor in
modifying bone and limb. The relative thickness of the humerus and femur at
the narrowest parts in mammals shows how much the weight of the animal or its
parts and the activity of muscles avail in accomplishing work. The same holds
with reference to certain other heavy headed varieties of ungulates. Thus the
humerus of the elephant is of greater girth than that of the femur. It has less
girth in the horse, and the girth is about equal in some breeds of domestic cattle.
The forearm and the leg bones follow the same rule.

The smallest circumference of the humerus and femur are for the following
animals measured :—

ro 1s, Cervus Equus Equus Camelus
aoe Capreolus Caballus Asinus Dromedarius
Humerus . 14 4:0 cm. 13°3 8-6 17:0 cm.
Femur 14:5 4:5 cm. 6°7 10:0 14°5 cm.
_ Elephant- Rhinoceros Trish Elk Hippo- Bos
potamus
Humerus 23°5 25-2 175 20 11-2 ems.
Femur, 22:0 25:2 16°5 21 11:2 cms.

It becomes a question also with reference to the modulus of elasticity of the
bone, and the modulus of firmness in each case, and also with reference to the
size of the medullary canal.

The circumference of the humerus exceeds the least circumference of the
femur in two buffaloes in the Museum d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris.

7. The Solutré Type of Horse (E. robustus) in Prehistoric Britain,
By A. Irvine, D.Sc., B.A.

A.—Evidence from Teeth.

1. In the excavation of a watermain trench (33 to 4 feet deep) across the Stort
Valley in 19127 four teeth of the cheek-dentition have been found identified by
their shape and by the antero-posterior lengths of their crowns and internal
pillars respectively) with p.m. 2, p.m. 3, p.m. 4, and m. 3 of the series figured
by Prof. J. C. Ewart, F.R.S., as of the Solutré type of horse (#7. robustus) in
his monograph on ‘ The Restoration of an Ancient British Race of Horses.’ ”
To these may be added a p.m. 4 (Pleistocene) in the Sedgwick Museum (Cam-
bridge), and the p.m. 4 from Piltdown,* recorded by Woodward and Dawson.
Others have been identified in the museums of Saffron Walden and Maidstone.

2. A broken premaxilla retaining four large incisors corresponding by
measurements with that of a ‘forest’ horse from Walthamstow in the British
Museum (Nat. Hist.).

3. A p.m. 3 (identified by Prof. Ewart as of ZH. robustus*) found some
years ago under 12 feet of Pleistocene gravel at Stanstead Abbots in the Lea
Valley.

Of the above (1) and (2) were all found at the bottom of the ‘rubble-drift ’
on the old Jand-surface of interglacial sands and Woolwich and Reading Beds,
which were cut into in the trench.

1 See Herts and Essex Observer (Mardon, Bishop’s Stortford), for Feb. 8,
1913.

2 Proc. R. Soc. Edin., Session 1909-10 (fig. 23).

3 Q.J.G.S., vol. 69, p. 143; identified later.

* Now in the St. Albans Museum.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 535

B.—Evidence from Limb-bones.

Metacarpals.—Prof. Ewart remarks in his paper ‘On the Origin of Clydes-
dales, &c.’* : ‘ Many of the horses which inhabited central Europe in Pleistocene
times had short broad cannon-bones. In the case of the 12- to 13-hands horses
so abundant during the Solutréan Age to the north of Lyons the length of the
metacarpal was as a rule about six times the width.’

A metacarpal from beneath the rubble-drift on the valley-flank (watermain
trench) gives index=6; another from a similar position near the river gives
index=5'83 ; a third found at a depth of 13 feet in the G.E.R. ballast-pits ai
Ponder’s End gives index=6. Four others (Pleistocene) in the Sedgwick
Museum give approximately the same index, agreeing (as a series) with five
metacarpals in the Paris Museum (Ewart).

Other limb-bones found under the rubble-drift in the watermain trench :—

1. Two fragments of radius (wrist-end); greatest width 93 mm., as against
85 mm. in the Stortford Skeleton.

2. Two distal portions of humerus; greatest width 92 mm., as against
8L mm. of the Skeleton.

3. A fragment of humerus; greatest width 91 mm., as against 87 mm. of
the Skeleton at the ‘ external tubercle’ (McFadyean).

(Specimens and lantern-slides at the Sectional Meeting).

The above facts, it is submitted, lead fairly to the conclusion that in later
Pleistocene times horses of the Solutré type (as figured by the cavemen)
roamed as far north as Southern Britain. Reference to-a paper communicated
to Section H at this Meeting, on later finds of the remains of horse of the
Stortford-Grimaldi type.”

Remains of Bos, Cervus elaphus, Ovis, and Sus have also been found under
similar conditions.

8. The Migration of Birds over Birmingham and the Midland District.
By F. Cosurn.

1 Trans. Highland and Agri. Soc. of Scotland (1911).
? See also B. A. Reports, Portsmouth Meeting (1911), p. 251.

536 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION FE,

Section .—GEOGRAPHY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.—PRoFEssor H. N. Dickson, D.Sc.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.

The President delivered the following Address :—

Stycz the last meeting of this Section the tragic fate of Captain Scott’s party,
after its successful journey to the South Pole, has become known; and our hopes
of welcoming a great leader, after great achievement, have been disappointed.
There is no need to repeat here the narrative of events, or to dwell upon the
lessons afforded by the skill, and resource, and heroic persistence, which endured
to the end. All these have been, or will be, placed upon permanent record.
But it is right that we should add our word of appreciation, and proffer our
sympathy to those who have suffered loss. It is for us also to take note that
this latest of the great Antarctic expeditions has not merely reached the Pole, as
another has done, but has added, to an extent that few successful exploratory
undertakings have ever been able to do, to the sum of scientific geographical
knowledge. As the materials secured are worked out it will, I believe, become
more and more apparent that few of the physical and biological sciences have not
received contributions, and important contributions, of new facts; and also that
problems concerning the distribution of the different groups of phenomena and
their action and reaction upon one another—the problems which are specially
within the domain of the geographer—have not merely been extended in their
scope but have been helped to their solution.

The reaching of the two Poles of the earth brings to a close a long and
brilliant chapter in the story of geographical exploration. There is still before
us a vista of arduous research in geography, bewildering almost in its extent, in
such a degree indeed that ‘the scope of geography’ is in itself a subject of
perennial interest. But the days of great pioneer discoveries in topography are
definitely drawn to their close. We know the size and shape of the earth, at
least to a first approximation, and as the map fills up we know that there can be
no new continents and no new oceans to discover, although all are still, in a
sense, to conquer. Looking back, we find that the qualities of human enterprise
and endurance have shown no change; we need no list of names to prove that
they were alike in the days of the earliest explorations, of the discovery of the
New World or of the sea route to India, of the ‘ Principall Navigations,’ or of
this final attainment of the Poles. The love of adventure and the gifts of
courage and endurance have remained the same : the order of discovery has been
determined rather by the play of imagination upon accumulated knowledge,
suggesting new methods and developing appropriate inventions. Men have
dared to do risky things with inadequate appliances, and in doing so have shown
how the appliances may be improved and how new enterprises may become pos-
sible as well as old ones easier and safer. As we come to the end of these ‘ great
explorations,’ and are restricted more and more to investigations of a less
striking sort, it is well to remember that in geography, as in all other sciences,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 537

1

research continues to make as great demands as ever upon those same qualities,
and that the same recognition is due to those who continue in patient labour.

When we look into the future of geographical study, it appears that for some
time to come we shall still be largely dependent upon work similar to
that of the pioneer type to which I have referred, the work of perfecting the
geographer’s principal weapon, the map. There are many parts of the world
about which we can say little except that we know they exist; even the topo-
graphical map, or the material for making it, is wanting; and of only a few
regions are there really adequate distributional maps of any kind. These
matters have been brought before this Section and discussed very fully in recent
years, so I need say no more about them, except perhaps to express the hope and
belief that the production of topographical maps of difficult regions may soon be
greatly facilitated and accelerated with the help of the new art of flying.

I wish to-day rather to ask your attention for a short time to a phase of
pioneer exploration which has excited an increasing amount of interest in recent
years. Civilised man is, or ought to be, beginning to realise that in reducing
more and more of the available surface of the earth to what he considers a
habitable condition he is making so much progress, and making it so rapidly,
that the problem of finding suitable accommodation for his increasing numbers
must become urgent in a few generations. We are getting into the position of
the merchant whose trade is constantly expanding and who foresees that his
. premises will shortly be too small for him. In our case removal to more com-

modious premises elsewhere seems impossible—we are not likely to find a means
of migrating to another planet—so we are driven to consider means of re-
building on the old site, and so making the best of what we have, that our
business may not suffer.

In the type of civilisation with which we are most familiar there are two
fundamental elements—supplies of food energy, and supplies of mechanical
energy. Since at present, partly because of geographical conditions, these do
not necessarily (or even in general) occur together, there is a third essential
factor, the line of transport. It may be of interest to glance, in the cursory
manner which is possible upon such occasions, at some geographical points con-
cerning each of these factors, and to hazard some speculations as to the probable
course of events in the future.

In his Presidential Address to the British Association at its meeting at
Bristol in 1898, Sir William Crookes gave some valuable estimates of the world’s
supply of wheat, which, as he pointed out, is ‘the most sustaining food-grain
of the great Caucasian race.’ Founding upon these estimates, he made a fore-
east of the relations between the probable rates of increase of supply and
demand, and concluded that ‘Should all the wheat-growing countries add to
their (producing) area to the utmost capacity, on the most careful calculation the
yield would give us only an addition of some 100,000,000 acres, supplying, at the
average world-yield of 12°7 bushels to the acre, 1,270,000,000 bushels, just enough
to supply the increase of population among bread-eaters till the year 1931.’ The
President then added, ‘ Thirty years is but a day in the life of a nation. Those
present who may attend the meetirfg of the British Association thirty years hence
will judge how far my forecasts are justified.’

Half the allotted span has now elapsed, and it may be useful to inquire how
things are going. Fortunately this can be easily done, up to a certain point at
any rate, by reference to a paper published recently by Dr. J. F. Unstead,?
in which comparisons are given for the decades 1881-90, 1891-1900, and 1901-10.
Dr. Unstead shows that the total wheat harvest for the world may be estimated
at 2,258 million bushels for the first of these periods, 2,575 million for the
second, and 3,233 million for the third, increases of 14 per cent. and 25 per cent.
respectively. He points out that the increases were due ‘ mainly to an increased
acreage, the areas being 192, 211, and 242 million acres, but also ‘to some
extent (about 8 per cent.) to an increased average yield per acre, for while in
the first two periods this was 12 bushels, in the third period it rose to 13 bushels
per acre.’

If we take the period 1891-1900, as nearly corresponding to Sir William
Crookes’ initial date, we find that the succeeding period shows an increase of

1 Geographical Journal, August 1913.

538 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

658 million bushels, or about half the estimated increase required by 1931, and
that attained chiefly by ‘increased acreage:

But signs are not wanting that increase in this way will not go on indefinitely.
We note (also from Dr. Unstead’s paper) that in the two later periods the per-
centage of total wheat produced which was exported from the United States
fell from 32 to 19, the yield per acre showing an increase meanwhile to
14 bushels. In the Russian Empire the percentage fell from 26 to 23, and only
in the youngest of the new countries—Canada, Australia, the Argentine—do we
find large proportional increases. Again, it is significant that in the United
Kingdom, which is, and always has been, the most sensitive of all wheat-
producing countries to variations in the floating supply, the rate of falling-off
of home production shows marked if irregular diminution.

Looking at it in another way, we find (still from Dr. Unstead’s figures) that
the total amount sent out by the great exporting countries averaged, in 1881-90
295 million bushels, 1891-1900 402 millions, 1901-10 532 millions. These
quantities represent respectively 13-0, 15-6, and 1671 per cent. of the total pro-
duction, and it would appear that the percentage available for export from these
regions is, for the time at least, approaching its limit; i.e. that only about one-
sixth of the wheat produced is available from surpluses in the regions of pro-
duction for making good deficiencies elsewhere.

There is, on the other hand, abundant evidence that improved agriculture
is beginning to raise the yield per acre over a large part of the producing area.
Between the periods 1881-90 and 1901-10 the average in the United States rose
from 12 to 14 bushels; in Russia from 8 to 10; in Australia from 8 to 10. It
is likely that, in these last two cases at least, a part of the increase is due
merely to more active occupation of fresh lands as well as to use of more suitable
varieties of seed, and the effect of improvements in methods of cultivation alone
is more apparent in the older countries. During the same period the average
yield increased in the United Kingdom from 28 to 32 bushels, in France from
17 to 20, Holland 27 to 33, Belgium 30 to 35, and it is most marked in the
German Empire, for which the figures are 19 and 29.

In another important paper’ Dr. Unstead has shown that the production
of wheat in North America may still, in all likelihood, be very largely in-
creased by merely increasing the area under cultivation, and the reasoning by
which he justifies this conclusion certainly holds good over large districts
elsewhere. It is of course impossible, in the present crude state of our know-
ledge of our own planet, to form any accurate estimate of the area which may, by
the use of suitable seeds or otherwise, become available for extensive cultiva-
tion. But I think it is clear that the available proportion of the total supply
from ‘extensive’ sources has reached, or almost reached, its maximum, and
that we must depend more and more upon intensive farming, with its greater
demands for labour.

The average total area under wheat is estimated by Dr. Unstead as 192
million acres for 1881-90, 211 million acres for 1891-1900, and 242 million acres
for 1901-10. Making the guess, for we can make nothing better, that this area
may be increased to 300 million acres, and that under ordinary agriculture
the average yield may eventually be increased to 20 bushels over the whole,
we get an average harvest of 6,000 million bushels of wheat. The average
wheat-eater consumes, according to Sir William Crookes’ figures, about four and
a-half bushels per annum; but the amount tends to increase. It is as much
(according to Dr. Unstead) as six bushels in the United Kingdom and eight
bushels in France. Let us take the British figure, and it appears that on a
liberal estimate the earth may in the end be able to feed permanently 1,000
million wheat-eaters. If prophecies based on population statistics are trust-
worthy the crisis will be upon us before the end of this century. After that we
must either depend upon some substitute to reduce the consumption per head of
the staple foodstuff, or we must take to intensive farming of the most strenuous
sort, absorbing enormous quantities of labour and introducing, sooner or later,
serious difficulties connected with plant-food. We leave the possibility of
diminishing the rate of increase in the number of bread-eaters out of account
for the moment.

* Geographical Journal, April and May 1912.

a

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 539

We gather, then, that the estimates formed in 1898 are in the main correct,
and the wheat problem must become one of urgency at no distant date,
although actual shortage of food is a long way oif. What is of more imme-
diate significance to the geographer is the element of change, of return to
earlier conditions, which is emerging even at the present time. If we admit,
as I think we must do, that the days of increase of extensive farming on new
land are drawing to a close, then we admit that the assignment of special
areas for the production of the food-supply of other distant areas is also
coming to its end. The opening up of such areas, in which a sparse popula-
tion produces food in quantities largely in excess of its own needs, has been
the characteristic of our time, but it must give place to a more uniform dis-
tribution of things, tending always to the condition of a moderately dense
population, more uniformly distributed over large areas, capable of providing
the increased labour necessary for the higher type of cultivation, and self-
supporting in respect of grain-food at least. We observe in passing that the
colonial system of our time only became possible on the large scale with the
invention of the steam-locomotive, and that the introduction of railway systems
in the appropriate regions, and the first tapping of nearly all such regions on
the globe, has taken less than a century.

Concentration in special areas of settlement, formerly chiefly effected for
military reasons, has in modern times been determined more and more by the
distribution of supplies of energy. The position of the manufacturing district
is primarily determined by the supply of coal. Other forms of energy are, no
doubt, available, but, as Sir William Ramsay showed in his Presidential
Address at the Portsmouth meeting in 1911, we must in all probability look to
coal as being the chief permanent source.

In the early days of manufacturing industries the main difficulties arose
from defective land transport. The first growth of the industrial system,
therefore, took place where sea transport was relatively easy; raw material
produced in a region near a coast was carried to a coalfield also near a coast,
just as in the times when military power was chiefly a matter of ‘natural
defences,’ the centre of power and the food-producing colony had to be
mutually accessible. Hence the Atlantic took the place of the Mediterranean,
Great Britain eventually succeeded Rome, and eastern North America became
the counterpart of Northern Africa. It is to this, perhaps more than to any-
thing else, that we owe our tremendous start amongst the industrial nations,
and we observe that we used it to provide less favoured nations with the
means of improving their system of land transport, as well as actually to
manufacture imported raw material and redistribute the products.

But there is, of course, this difference between the supply of foodstuff (or
even military power) and mechanica] energy, that in the case of coal at least
it is necessary to live entirely upon capital; the storing up of energy in new
coalfields goes on so slowly in comparison with our rate of expenditure that it
may be altogether neglected. Now in this country we began to use coal on a
large scale a little more than a century ago. Our present yearly consumption is
of the order of 300 millions of tons, and it is computed’ that at the present
rate of increase ‘the whole of our available supply will be exhausted in 170
years.’ With regard to the rest of the world we cannot, from lack of data,
make even the broad assumptions that were possible in the case of wheat
supply, and for that and other reasons it is therefore impossible even to guess
at the time which must elapse before a universai dearth of coal becomes im-
minent; it is perhaps sufficient to observe that to the best of our knowledge
and belief one of the world’s largest groups of coalfields (our own) is not likely
to last three centuries in all.

Here again the present interest lies rather in the phases of change which
are actually with us. During the first stages of the manufacturing period
energy in any form was exceedingly difficult to transport, and this led to
intense concentration. Coal was taken from the most accessible coalfield and
used, as far as possible, on the spot. It was chiefly converted into mechanical
energy by means of the steam-engine, an extremely wasteful apparatus in small
units, and hence still further concentration; thus the steam-engine is respon-

1 General Report of the Royal Commission on Coal Supplies, 1906.

540 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION RE.

sible in part for the factory system in its worst aspect. The less accessible
coalfields were neglected. Also, the only other really available source of energy
—water-power—remained unused, because the difficulties in the way of utilising
movements of large quantities of water through small vertical distances (as in
tidal movements) are enormous; the only easily applied source occurs where
comparatively small quantities of water fall through considerable vertical dis-
tances, as in the case of waterfalls. But, arising from the geographical con-
ditions, waterfalls (with rare exceptions such as Niagara) occur in the ‘torren-
tial’ part of the typical river-course, perhaps far from the sea, almost certainly
in a region too broken in surface to allow of easy communication or even of
industrial settlement of any kind.

However accessible a coalfield may be to begin with, it sooner or later
becomes inaccessible in another way, as the .coal near the surface is exhausted
and the workings get deeper. No doubt the evil day is postponed for a time
by improvements in methods of mining—a sort of intensive cultivation—but as
we can put nothing back the end must be the same, and successful competition
with more remote but more superficial deposits becomes impossible. And every
improvement in land transport favours the geographically less accessible coal-
field.

From this point of view if is impossible to overestimate the importance of
what is to all intents and purposes a new departure of the same order of
magnitude as the discovery of the art of smelting iron with coal, or the inven-
tion of the steam-engine, or of the steam-locomotive. I mean the conversion
of energy into electricity, and its transmission in that form (at small cost and
with small loss) through great distances. First we have the immediately
increased availability of the great sources of cheap power in waterfalls. The
energy may be transmitted through comparatively small distances and converted
into heat in the electric furnace, making it possible to smelt economically the
most refractory ores, as those of aluminium, and converting such unlikely
places as the coast of Norway or the West Highlands of Scotland into manu-
facturing districts. Or it may be transmitted through greater distances to
regions producing quantities of raw’ materials, distributed there widespread to
manutacturing centres, and re-converted into mechanical energy. The Plain
of Lombardy produces raw materials in abundance, but Italy has no coal
supply. The waterfalls of the Alps yield much energy, and this transmitted
in the form of electricity, in some cases for great distances, is converting
Northern Italy into one of the world’s great industrial regions. Chisholm
gives an estimate of a possible supply of power amounting to 3,000,000 horse-
power, and says that of this about one-tenth was already being utilised in the
year 1900.

But assuming again, with Sir William Ramsay, that coal must continue to
be the chief source of energy, it is clear that the question of accessibility now
wears an entirely different aspect. It is not altogether beyond reason to
imagine that the necessity for mining, as such, might entirely disappear, the
coal being burnt in situ and energy converted directly into electricity. In
this way some coalfields might conceivably be exhausted to their last pound
without serious increase in the cost of getting. But for the present it is enough
to note that, however inaccessible any coalfield may be from supplies of raw
material, it is only necessary to establish generating stations at the pit’s mouth
and transport the energy to where it can be used. One may imagine, for
example, vast manufactures carried on in what are now the immense agricultural
Hee of China, worked by power supplied from the great coal deposits of

han-si.

There is, however, another peculiarity of electrical power which will exercise
increasing influence upon the geographical distribution of industries. The
small electric motor is.a much more efficient apparatus than the small steam-
engine. We are, accordingly, already becoming familiar with the great factory
in which, instead of all tools being huddled together to save loss through
shafting and belting, and all kept running all the time, whether busy or not
(because the main engine must be run), each tool stands by itself and is
worked by its own motor, and that only when it is wanted. Another of the
causes of concentration of manufacturing industry is therefore reduced in im-
portance. We may expect to see the effects of this becoming more and more

—

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 541

marked as time goes on, and other forces working towards uniform distribu-
tion make themselves more felt.

The points to be emphasised so far, then, are, first, that the time when the
available areas whence food supply as represented by wheat is derived are
likely to be taxed to their full capacity within a period of about the same
length as that during which the modern colonial system has been developing
in the past; secondly, that cheap supplies of energy may continue for a longer
time, although eventually they must greatly diminish; and, thirdly, there must
begin in the near future a great equalisation in the distribution of population.
This equalisation must arise from a number of causes. More intensive cultiva-
tion will increase the amount of labour required in agriculture, and there will
be less difference in the cost of production and yield due to differences of soil
and climate. Manufacturing industries will be more uniformly distributed,
because energy, obtained from a larger number of sources in the less accessible
places, will be distributed over an increased number of centres. The dis-
tinction between agricultural and industrial regions will tend to become less
and less clearly marked, and will eventually almost disappear in many parts
of the world.

The effect of this upon the third element is of first-rate importance. It is
clear that as the process of equalisation goes on the relative amount of long-
distance transport will diminish, for each district will tend more and more to
produce its own supply of staple food and carry on its own principal manufac.
tures. This result will naturally be most marked in what we may call the
‘east-and-west ’ transport, for as climatic controls primarily follow the parallels
of latitude, the great quantitative trade, the flow of foodstuffs and manu-
factured articles to and fro between peoples of like habits and modes of life,
runs primarily east and west. Thus the transcontinental functions of the
great North American and Eurasian railways, the east-and-west systems of the
inland waterways of the two continents, and the connecting-links furnished
by the great ocean ferries, must become of relatively less importance.

The various stages may be represented, perhaps, in some such manner as
this. If I is the cost of producing a thing locally at a place A by intensive
cultivation or what corresponds to it, if E is the cost of producing the same
thing at a distant place B, and T the cost of transporting it to A, then at
A we may at some point of time have a more or less close approximation to

I=E-+T.

We have seen that in this country, for example, I has been greater than
E + T for wheat ever since, say, the introduction of railways in North America,
that the excess tends steadily to diminish, and that, however much it may be
possible to reduce T either by devising cheaper modes of transport or by
shortening the distance through which wheat is transported, E+T must
become greater than I, and it will pay us to grow all or most of our own
wheat. Conversely, in the seventies of last century I was greater than
E+T in North America and Germany for such things as steel rails and rolling-
stock, which we in this country were cultivating ‘extensively’ at the time
on more accessible coalfields, with more skilled labour and better organisation
than could be found elsewhere. In many cases the positions are now, as we
know, reversed, but geographically I must win all round in the long run.

In the case of transport between points in different latitudes the conditions
are, of course, altogether dissimilar, for in this case commodities consist of
foodstuffs, or raw materials, or manufactured articles, which may be termed
luxuries, in the sense that their use is scarcely known until cheap transport
makes them easily accessible, when they rapidly become ‘necessaries of life.’
Of these the most familiar examples are tea, coffee, cocoa and bananas, india-
rubber, and manufactured cotton goods. There is here, of course, always the
possibility that wheat as a staple might be replaced by a foodstuff produced
in the tropics, and it would be extremely interesting to study the geographical
consequences of such an event as one-half of the surface of the earth suddenly
coming to help in feeding the two quarters on either side; but for many
reasons, which I need not go into here, such a consummation is exceedingly
unlikely. What seems more probable is that the trade between different

542 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

latitudes will continue to be characterised specially by its variety, the variety
doubtless increasing, and the quantity increasing in still larger measure. The
chief modification in the future may perhaps be looked for in the occasional
transference of manufactures of raw materials produced in the tropics to
places within the tropics, especially when the manufactured article is itself
largely consumed near regions of production. ‘The necessary condition here
is a region, such as (e.g.) the monsoon region, in which there is sufficient
variation in the seasons to make the native population laborious; for then, and
apparently only then, is it possible to secure sufficient industry and skill by
training, and therefore to be able to yield to the ever-growing pressure in more
temperate latitudes due to increased cost of labour. The best examples of this
to-day are probably the familiar ones of cotton and jute manufacture in
India. With certain limitations, manufacturing trade of this kind is, however,
likely to continue between temperate and strictly tropical regions, where the
climate is so uniform throughout the year that the native has no incentive to
work. There the collection of the raw material is as much as, or even more than
can be looked for—as in the case of mahogany or wild rubber. Where raw
material has to be cultivated—as cotton, cultivated rubber, &c.—the raw
material has to be produced in regions more of the monsoon type, but it will
probably—perhaps as much for economic as geographical reasons—be manu-
factured at some centre in the temperate zones, and the finished product
transported thence, when necessary, to the point of consumption in the tropics.

We are here, however, specially liable to grave disturbances of distribution
arising from invention of new machinery or new chemical methods; one need
only mention the production of sugar or indigo. Another aspect of this which
is not without importance may perhaps be referred to here, althowgh it means
the transference of certain industries to more accessible regions merely, rather
than a definite change of such an element as latitude. J have in mind the
sudden conversion of an industry in which much labour is expended on a small
amount of raw material into one where much raw material is consumed, and
by the application of power-driven machinery the labour required is greatly
diminished. One remembers when a fifty-shilling Swiss watch, although then
still by tradition regarded as sufficiently valuable to deserve enclosure in a
case constructed of a precious metal, was considered a marvel of cheapness.
American machine-made watches, produced by the ton, are now encased in the
baser metals and sold at some five shillings each, and the watch-making in-
dustry has ceased to be specially suited to mountainous districts.

In considering the differences which seem likely to arise in what we may
call the regional pressures of one kind and another, pressures which are re-
lieved or adjusted by and along certain lines of transport, I have made a
primary distinction between ‘east-and-west’ and ‘north-and-south’ types,
because both in matters of food-supply and in the modes of life which control
the nature of the demand for manufactured articles climate is eventually the
dominant factor; and, as I have said, climate varies primarily with latitude.
This is true specially of atmospheric temperature; but temperature varies also
with altitude, or height above the level of the sea. To a less extent rainfall,
the other great element of climate, varies with latitude, but the variation is
much more irregular. More important in this case is the influence of the dis-
tribution of land and sea, and more especially the configuration of the land
surface, the tendency here being sometimes to strengthen the latitude effect
where a continuous ridge is interposed, as in Asia, practically cutting off ‘ north-
and-south’ communication altogether along a certain line, emphasising the
parallel-strip arrangement running east and west to the north of the line, and
inducing the quite special conditions of the monsoon region to the south of it.
We may contrast this with the effect of a ‘north-and-south’ structure, which
(in temperate latitudes especially) tends to swing what we may call the regional
lines round till they cross the parallels of latitude obliquely. This is typically
illustrated in North America, where the angle is locally sometimes nearly a
right angle. It follows, therefore, that the contrast of ‘east-and-west’ and
‘north-and-south’ lines, which I have here used for purposes of illustration, is
necessarily extremely crude, and one of the most pressing duties of geographers
at the present moment is to elaborate a more satisfactory method of classifica-
tion. Jam very glad that we are to have a discussion on ‘ Natural Regions’ at

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 543

one of our sederunts. Perhaps I may be permitted to express the hope that we
shall concern ourselves with the types of region we want, their structure or
‘grain,’ and their relative positions, rather than with the precise delimitation
of their boundaries, to which I think we have sometimes been inclined, for
educational purposes, to give a little too much attention.

Before leaving this I should like to add, speaking still in terms of ‘east-
and-west ’ and ‘north-and-south,’ one word more about the essential east-and-
west structure of the Old World. I have already referred to the great central
axis of Asia. This axis is prolonged westward through Europe, but it is cut
through and broken to such an extent that we may include the Mediterranean
region with the area lying further north, to which indeed it geographically
belongs in any discussion of this sort. But the Mediterranean region is bounded
on the other side by the Sahara, and none of our modern inventions facilitating
transport has made any impression upon the dry desert; nor does it seem likely
that such a desert will ever become a less formidable barrier than a great moun-
tain mass or range. We may conclude, then, that in so far as the Old World is
concerned the ‘ north-and-south’ transport can never be carried on as freely as
it may in the New, but only through certain weak points, or ‘ round the ends,’
z.e. by sea. It may be further pointed out that the land areas in the southern
hemisphere are so narrow that they will scarcely enter into the ‘ east-and-west’
category at all—the transcontinental railway as understood in the northern
hemisphere cannot exist; it is scarcely a pioneer system, but rather comes inte
existence as a later by-product of local east-and-west lines, as in Africa.

These geographical facts must exercise a profound influence upon the future
of the British Isles. Trade south of the great dividing line must always be to
a large extent of the ‘north-and-south’ type, and the British Isles stand prac-
tically at the western end of the great natural barrier. From their position the
British Isles will always be a centre of immense importance in entrepét trade,
importing commodities from ‘south’ and distributing ‘east and west,’ and
similarly in the reverse direction. This movement will be permanent, and will
increase in volume long after the present type of purely ‘east-and-west’ trade
has become relatively less important than it is now, and long after the British
Isles have ceased to have any of the special advantages for manufacturing
industries which are due to their own resources either in the way of energy or of
raw material. We can well imagine, however, that this permanent advantage of
position will react favourably, if indirectly, upon certain types of our manu-
factures, at least for a very long time to come.

Reverting briefly to the equalisation of the distribution of population in the
wheat-producing areas and the causes which are now at work in this direction, it
is interesting to inquire how geographical conditions are likely to influence this
on the smaller scale. We may suppose that the production of staple foodstuffs
must always be more uniformly distributed than the manufacture of raw
materials, or the production of the raw materials themselves, for the most
important raw materials of vegetable origin (as cotton, rubber, &c.) demand
special climatic conditions, and, apart from the distribution of energy, manu-
facturing industries are strongly influenced by the distribution of mineral
deposits, providing metals for machinery, and so on. It may, however, be re-
marked that the useful metals, such as iron, are widely distributed in or near
regions which are not as a rule unfavourable to agriculture. Nevertheless, the
fact remains that while a more uniform distribution is necessary and inevitable
in the case of agriculture, many of the conditions of industrial and social
life are in favour of concentration; the electrical transmission of energy
removes, in whole or in part, only one or two of the centripetal forces. The
general result might be an approximation to the conditions occurring in many
parts of the monsoon areas—a number of fairly large towns pretty evenly dis-
tributed over a given agricultural area, and each drawing its main food supplies
from the region surrounding it. The positions of such towns would be deter-
mined much more by industrial conditions, and less by military conditions,
than in the past (military power being in these days mobile, and not fixed) ;
but the result would on a larger scale be of the same type as was developed
in the central counties of England, which, as Mackinder has pointed out, are
of almost equal size and take the name of the county town. Concentration
within the towns would, of course, be less severe than in the early days of

544 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

manufacturing industry. Each town would require a very elaborate and highly
organised system of local transport, touching all points of its agricultural
area, in addition to lines of communication with other towns and with the great
‘north-and-south’ lines of world-wide commerce, but these outside lines would
be relatively of less importance than they are now. We note that the more
perfect the system of local transport the less the need for points of intermediate
exchange. The village and the local market-town will be ‘sleepy’ or decadent
as they are now, but for a different reason; the symptoms are at present visible
mainly because the country round about such local centres is overwhelmed by the
great lines of transport which pass through them; they will survive for a time
through inertia and the ease of foreign investment of capital. The effect of
this influence is already apparent since the advent of the ‘commercial motor,’
but up to the present it has been more in the direction of distributing from
the towns than collecting to them, producing a kind of ‘suburbanisation’ which
throws things still further out of balance. The importance of the road motor
in relation to the future development of the food-producing area is incalculable.
It has long been clear that the railway of the type required for the great
through lines of fast transport is ill-adapted for the detailed work of a small
district, and the ‘light’ railway solves little and introduces many complications.
The problem of determining the direction and capacity of a system of roads
adequate to any particular region is at this stage one of extraordinary difficulty ;
experiments are exceedingly costly, and we have as yet little experience of a
satisfactory kind to guide us. The geographer, if he will, can here be of con-
siderable service to the engineer.

In the same connection, the development of the agricultural area supplying
an industrial centre offers many difficult problems in relation to what may be
called accessory products, more especially those of a perishable nature, such as
meat and milk. In the case of meat the present position is that much land
which may eventually become available for grain crops is used for grazing, or
cattle are fed on some grain, like maize, which is difficult to transport or is not
satisfactory for bread-making. The meat is then temporarily deprived of its
perishable property by refrigeration, and does not suffer in transport. Modern
refrigerating machinery is elaborate and complicated, and more suited to use on
board ship than on any kind of land transport. Hence the most convenient
regions for producing meat for export are those near the sea-coast, such as occur
in the Argentine or the Canterbury plains of New Zealand. The case is similar
to that of the ‘accessible’ coalfield. Possibly the preserving processes may be
simplified and cheapened, making overland transport easier, but the fact that it
usually takes a good deal of land to produce a comparatively small quantity of
meat will make the difficulty greater as land becomes more valuable. Cow’s
milk, which in modern times has become a ‘necessary of life’ in most parts of
the civilised world, is in much the same category as meat, except that difficulties
of preservation, and therefore of transport, are even greater. That the, problem
has not become acute is largely due to the growth of the long-transport system
available for wheat, which has enabled land round the great centres of popula-
tion to be devoted to dairy produce. If we are right in supposing that this
state of things cannot be permanent the difficulty of milk supply must increase,
although relieved somewhat by the less intense concentration in the towns;
unless, as seems not unlikely, a wholly successful method of permanent pre-
servation is devised.

In determining the positions of the main centres, or rather, in subdividing
the larger areas for the distribution of towns with their supporting and
dependent districts, water supply must be one of the chief factors in the future,
as it has been in the past; and in the case of industrial centres the quality as
well as the quantity of water has to be considered. A fundamental division
here would probably be into districts having a natural local supply, probably of
hard water, and districts in which the supply must be obtained from a distance.
In the latter case engineering works of great magnitude must often be involved,
and the question of total resources available in one district for the supply of
another must be much more fully investigated than it has been. In many cases,
as in this country, the protection of such resources pending investigation is
already much needed. It is worth noting that the question may often be closely
related to the development and transmission of electrical energy from waterfalls,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 545

and the two problems might in such cases be dealt with together. Much may be
learned about the relation of water supply to distribution of population from a
study of history, and a more active prosecution of combined historical and
geographical research would, I believe, furnish useful material in this con-
nection, besides throwing interesting light on many historical questions.

Continued exchange of the ‘ north-and-south’ type and at least a part of
that described as ‘east-and-west’ gives permanence to a certain number of
points where, so far as can be seen, there must always be a change in the mode
of transport. It is not likely that we shall have heavy freight-carrying monsters
in the air for a long time to come, and until we have the aerial ‘tramp’
transport must be effected on the surfaces of land and sea. However
much we may improve and cheapen land transport it cannot in the nature of
things become as cheap as transport by sea. For on land the essential idea is
always that of a prepared road of some kind, and, as Chisholm has pointed out,
no road can carry more than a certain amount; traffic beyond a certain quantity
constantly requires the construction of new roads. It follows, then, that no
device is likely to provide transport indifferently over land and sea, and the sea-
port has in consequence inherent elements of permanence. Improved and
cheapened land transport increases the economy arising from the employment of
large ships rather than small ones, for not only does transport inland become
relatively more important, but distribution along a coast from one large seaport
becomes as easy as from a number of small coastal towns. Hence the conditions
are in favour of the growth of a comparatively small number of immense seaport
cities like London and New York, in which there must be great concentration
not merely of work directly connected with shipping, but of commercial and
financial interests of all sorts. The seaport is, in fact, the type of great city
which seems likely to increase continually in size, and provision for its needs
cannot in general be made from the region immediately surrounding it, as in the
case of towns of other kinds. In special cases there is also, no doubt, per-
manent need of large inland centres of the type of the ‘railway creation,’ but
under severe geographic control these must depend very much on the nature and
efficiency of the systems of land transport. It is not too much to say (for we
possess some evidence of it already) that the number of distinct geographical
causes which give rise to the establishment and maintenance of individual great
cities is steadily diminishing, but that the large seaport is a permanent and
increasing necessity. It follows that aggregations of the type of London and
Liverpool, Glasgow and Belfast will always be amongst the chief things to be
reckoned with in these islands, irrespective of local coal supply or accessory
manufacturing industries, which may decay through exhaustion.

I have attempted in what precedes to draw attention once more to certain
matters for which it seems strangely difficult to get a hearing. What it amounts
to is this, that as far as our information goes the development of the steamship
and the railway, and the universal introduction of machinery which has arisen
from it, have so increased the demand made by man upon the earth’s resources
that in less than a century they will have become fully taxed. When colonisa-
tion and settlement in a new country proceeded slowly and laboriously, extending
centrifugally from one or two favourable spots on the coast, it took a matter of
four centuries to open up a region the size of England. Now we do as much for
a continent like North America in about as many decades. In the first case it
was not worth troubling about the exhaustion of resources, for they were scarcely
more than touched, and even if they were exhausted there were other whole
continents to conquer. But now, so far as our information goes, we are already
making serious inroads upon the resources of the whole earth. One has no
desire to sound an unduly alarmist note, or to suggest that we are in imminent
danger of starvation, but surely it would be well, even on the suspicion, to see if
our information is adequate and reliable and if our conclusions are correct; and
not merely to drift in ‘a manner which was justifiable enough in Saxon times, but
which, at the rate things are going now, may land us unexpectedly in difficulties
of appalling magnitude.

What is wanted is that we should seriously address ourselves to a stock-
taking of our resources. A beginning has been made with a great map on the
scale of one to a million, but that is not sufficient; we should vigorously pro-
ceed with the collection and discussion of geographical data of all kinds, so that

1913. NN

546. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

dae CF

the major natural distributions shall be adequately known, and not merely those
parts which commend themselves, for one reason or another, to special national
or private enterprises. The method of Government survey employed in most
civilised countries for the construction of maps, the examination of geological
structure or the observation of weather and climate, is satisfactory as far as it
goes, but it should go further, and be made to include such things as vegetation,
water supply, supplies of energy of all kinds, and, what is quite as important,
the bearings of one element upon others under different conditions.. Much, if not
most, of the work of collecting data would naturally be done as it is now by
experts in the special branches of knowledge, but it is essential that there
should be a definite plan of a geographical survey as a whole, in order that the
regional or distributional aspect should never be lost sight of. I may venture to
suggest that a committee formed jointly by the great national geographical
societies, or by the International Geographical Congress, might be entrusted with
the work of formulating some such uniform plan and suggesting practicable
methods of carrying it out. It should not be impossible to secure international
co-operation, for there is no need to investigate too closely the secrets of
anyone’s particular private vineyard—it is merely a question of doing thoroughly
and systematically what is already done in some regions, sometimes thoroughly,
but not systematically. We should thus arrive eventually at uniform methods
of stock-taking, and the actual operations could be carried on as opportunity
offered and indifference or opposition was overcome by the increasing need for
information. Eventually we shall find that ‘country-planning’ will become as
important as town-planning, but it will be a more complex business, and it will
not be possible to get the facts together in a hurry. And in the meanwhile
increased geographical knowledge will yield scientific results of much signifi-
cance about such matters as distribution of populations and industries, and the
degree of adjustment to new conditions which occurs or is possible in different
regions and amongst different peoples. Primary surveys on the large scale are
specially important in new regions, but the best methods of developing such areas
and of adjusting distributions in old areas to new economic conditions are to be
discovered by extending the detailed surveys of small districts. An example of
how this may be done has been given by Dr. Mill in his ‘ Fragment of the
Geography of Sussex.’ Dr. Mill’s methods have been successfully applied by
individual investigators to other districts, but a definitely organised system,
marked out on a carefully matured uniform plan, is necessary if the results are
to be fully comparable. The schools of geography in this country have already
done a good deal of local geography of this type, and could give much valuable
assistance if the work were organised beforehand on an adequate scale.

But in whatever way and on whatever scale the work is done, it must be
clearly understood that no partial study from the physical, or biological, or
historical, or economic point of view will ever suffice. The urgent matters are
questions of distribution upon the surface of the earth, and their elucidation is
not the special business of the physicist, or the biologist, or the historian, or the
economist, but of the geographer.

The following Papers and Reports were then read :—

1. Completion of the Map of Prince Charles Foreland, Spitsbergen.
By W. 8. Bruce, LL.D., F.R.S.E.

Dr. Bruce gave a further account of the charting of Prince Charles Foreland,
Spitsbergen. He was able to report not only the completion of the survey, but
also the publication of the map. ;

The work was conducted by Dr. Bruce and Mr. John Mathieson, F.R.S.G.S.,
of the Ordnance Survey (Scotland), assisted by Mr. J. V. Burn Murdoch, Dr.
R. N. Rudmose Brown, Mr. E. A. Miller, Mr. Stewart Ross, the late Mr. Angus
Peach, Mr. Alastair Geddes, Mr. Gilbert Kerr, Captain Napier, and Mr. Sword.

The field work was carried on during the summers of 1906, 1907, and 1909, and
the office work in the intermediate periods and since 1909.

The chart was actually completed and sent to Paris in 1911, and has been
published during the last few weeks.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 547

The whole of the office work was carried out by Dr. Bruce and Mr. Mathieson,
who accompanied Dr. Bruce in the field during the summer of 1909, while com-
pleting the survey of the southern extremity of the Foreland.

Mr. Mathieson was able to cross his work with that of Dr. Bruce, and the
result has been highly satisfactory, in that the observations of the one surveyor
have been checked by those of the other.

Besides the topographical survey of the Foreland, Dr. Bruce was able to
take a number of soundings in Foreland Sound.

Owing to the inaccessibility of most of the mountain peaks the method adopted
for the survey was to measure two base lines—one at the north end 12,000 feet,
and another across the flat land at the south end 20,146 feet. These were
measured by a Chesterman steel tape, and from their extremities a network of
triangles was spread over the whole island. More than eighty summits were
observed.

The coast line was surveyed by a measured traverse, which was connected
with the triangulation at every available point. Fjords at the south end pre-
sented difficulties, where measurements had to be taken by the subtense method,
and also along the 20 miles of crevassed glaciers on the east side, where trigono-
metrical points were fixed at suitable intervals, as actual measurements were
out of the question.

Additional observations were also made from the mainland at three important
stations in order to bring the Foreland into satisfactory relationship with the
mainland.

The heights and horizontal angles were observed by 6-inch theodolites, and
nearly all the altitudes were observed from at least two independent points.
The Devil’s Thumb was observed from more than fifteen points, and heights
obtained varying from 2,590 feet to 2,610 feet, giving a mean of 2,602 feet.
Similarly, Saddle Mount was observed from over twenty stations, and the heights
obtained varied from 1,400 feet to 1,410 feet, giving a mean of 1,406 feet. This
mountain was stated by early explorers to be 600 feet, but later it rose to
800 feet, then to 1,000 feet, and, latterly, to 1,200 feet.

The magnetic variation was 14° 40’ in 1909, and the dip 73° 23’. The latitude
was observed in five different places, many observations being taken at most of
the places.

The area of the island is about two hundred and fifty square miles, half of
which is below the 100-feet contour, and one-fifth of which is covered by glaciers.
The remainder consists of high mountain peaks and huge moraines.

2. Gaping Ghyll, Yorkshire: Its Exploration and Survey.
By ©. A. Hi, M.A., M.B.

Gaping Ghyli, the best known of the Yorkshire pot-holes, is situated on the
south-eastern flank of Ingleborough, the opening being about 1,350 feet
above O.D. It consists of a vertical shaft in the limestone, 360 feet in depth,
ending in a huge chamber from which passages extend for a distance of upwards
of a mile. A stream, the Fell Beck, is engulfed in this chasm and reappears
at Beck Head at a slightly lower level than the entrance to the famous Clapham
Cave.

The first mention of Gaping Ghyll is found in Defoe’s ‘Tour of England,’ *
where it is called Gaper Gill. <A partial descent of the hole was made in 1872
by Mr. Birkbeck, of Settle, who then ascertained its true depth. The first
complete descent was achieved by M. Martel, of Paris, in August 1895, by means
of rope ladders.”

In May 1896 the members of the Yorkshire Ramblers’ Club made the second
descent by means of a boatswain’s chair lowered from a windlass. About a
quarter of a mile of passages was surveyed on this occasion, and a plan and
section afterwards published in the Club Journal.®

? Seventh edition. 1769, vol. iii., p. 293,
* Martel, Zrlande et Cavernes Anglaises, 1897, chap. xxiv.
* Y.R.C. Journal, No. 2, Jan. 1900.

NN 2

548 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

In 1903 the systematic exploration and survey were taken in hand and
descents have since been made annually by the ‘windlass’ method. The total
length of passages now known and surveyed amounts to about 2,050 yards.

A plan of the survey up to date will be found in the ‘ Yorkshire Ramblers’
Club Journal,’ No. 7, 1906-7, and a completed one is now in course of preparation
and will shortly be published.

In addition to the work underground much valuable information has been
obtained concerning the different channels by which the water of Fell Beck
enters the Shaft and the Great Chamber. These channels have been studied
by means of fluorescein and by actual exploration, and the completed plan is
in course of publication.

By plotting out the underground survey on the moor above an interesting
discovery was made in 1909 by the members of the Yorkshire Speleological
Association, who were able by opening out a ‘shake-hole’ blocked by glacial
drift to make their way finally into one of the underground passages of Gaping
Ghyll otherwise than down the main shaft.?

3. Across Southern Jubaland from the Coast to Mount Kenia.
By I. N. Dracopor,

The immediate object of this journey was to elucidate the hydrographical
problems presented by the disappearance of the river Uaso Nyiro into the
Lorian Swamp, and to map as much as possible of the unknown country lying
between the latter place and the sea, which had not been previously visited
by a white man.

A start was made from Kismayu, an Arab port situated some nine miles south
of the mouth of the Juba River. Behind Kismayu, and parallel to the coast, lies
a low range of sandhills covered with dense bush, above which stand out
numerous conifers (Juniperus procera). The general slope of the land is from
the north-west towards the south-east. The country consists of a series of
broad, shallow valleys almost imperceptible to the eye, for the most part over-
grown with dense bush and forest, and running in the same general direction.
Down the centre of these valleys there are dry river-beds, mostly sandy and
densely covered with jungle. As they draw near the sea these valleys and low,
rounded ridges disappear, giving place in the north to a level arid plain, which
is bounded on the east by the above-mentioned sandhills. In the south-east
the country consists of a densely wooded plateau of slight elevation, drained by
the rivers Durnford and Arnolé. Near the coast in the Biskayia district are
several mangrove swamps infested with the tsetse fly. The main watershed in
Southern Jubaland is that which divides the valley of the Lak Dera from that
of the Guranlagga. The latter stream rises in the district of Kurde and flows
almost due east, a very different course from that marked on existing maps.
There is an important swamp containing a large amount of water in the district
of Gulola. The country in the interior alternates between impenetrable acacia
scrub and open park-like glades, which afford admirable pasturage for cattle,
goats, and sheep, but the districts of Rama Gudi and Arroga are arid in the
extreme. :

Southern Jubaland is inhabited by the Ogaden section of the Darod Somali,
and by a fast-diminishing tribe called the Waboni, who live in a state of semi-
slavery. The Galla, who originally inhabited the country, have been driven
southwards and westwards by the victorious Somali. Of the latter, the most
important sub-tribes are the Mohammed Zubheir, the Abd Wak, the Aulehan,
the Abdulla, and the Maghabul, of which the latter are the only ones to profess
friendship for the white man. Near the coast are found some Herti Somali.
The wealth of the Somali consists of vast herds of camels, cattle, goats, and
sheep, while they depend for food chiefly on milk and ghee. They are strict
Mohammedans of the Shujai sect.

The Lorian district differs in many essential points from Southern Jubaland.
The Uaso Nyiro River, which rises in the high tableland to the N.W. of
Mount Kenia, attains its greatest development near the remarkable volcanic

Y.R.C. Journal, No. 10, 1910.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION R. 549

plateau called Marti by the natives. It then gradually diminishes in volume,
flowing slowly through gently sloping alluvial plains until, on entering
tne main Lorian swamp, it is scarcely thirty feet broad and two deep. This
swamp is roughly oval in shape, with its long axis N.W. and S.E., and it is very
roughly fifty miles in circumference. Much water is here lost by evaporation
and percolation. The river, however, emerges in a still further attenuated
form, and flows between high banks for five miles before entering a second and
smaller swamp. On emerging once again, it gradually dwindles until permanent
water ceases in a series of pools known to the natives as Madolé. There is,
however, a distinct stream bed that runs in a shallow valley towards the east
until Afmadu is reached, when it turns southwards, finally joining the Juba
River by means of the Deshek Wama. In an exceptionally wet season the
overflow from the Lorian Swamp runs down this stream bed, which is known
as the Lak Dera, and into the sea, by way of the Juba River. The alluvial
plains of the Lorian district are remarkably fertile, and are eminently suited
for agriculture.

4. Report on Geographical Teaching in Scotland.
See Reports, p. 161.

5. Report on the Choice and Style of Atlas, Textual, and Wall Maps
for School and University Use.—See Reports, p. 156.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Upper Basin of the Warwick Avon. By Miss C. A. Smvpson.

The Avon basin is part of the great valley crossing the Midlands from S.W.
to N.E. at the foot of the Oolitic escarpment.

The Avon as a whole is a longitudinal river, but very few streams in its
basin, above Warwick, are actually strike streams, though there is a line of
detached valleys at the foot of the escarpment. The main streams flow obliquely
across parallel outcrops of rock, ranging from Inferior Oolites in the S.E.,
through bands of Lias and Triassic marls, to an inlier of Permian sandstone,
which is bounded on the N.E. by the Nuneaton coal-field.

The northern and western boundary of the Upper Avon basin crosses the
uplands of this formation; and on the south the boundary follows the Oolitic
escarpment. On the north-east is a very narrow water-parting between the
Avon and the Welland-—at a comparatively low level. Within the Avon basin,
the two almost equally important valleys of the Upper Avon, and of the Leam
continued by Rainsbrook Valley, have defined the plateau on which Rugby
stands, and so have further dissected the Great Midland valley. Profiles of
these two valleys, and of that of the Sowe-Avon, show complications of the
drainage system, and suggest problems. Distribution of glacial drift and its
possible influence on the streams. Its effect on the scenery. The soil is more
dependent on distribution of drift than on the underlying rock. Positions of
springs. The general character of the vegetation is very uniform throughout
the district. Most arable land is near the Avon and Leam valleys between
Rugby and Warwick, but meadows border the immediate banks of the streams,
and pasture-land occurs almost exclusively on the borders of Leicestershire and
Northamptonshire. Comparative scarcity of population in the Avon valley
above Rugby. The density of population per 1,000 acres in each parish in the
years 1801, 1841, 1881 and 1911 shows a general increase up to 1881; but on
the whole, and especially during the later part of the period, the larger towns
have increased, and the country districts have decreased, in population. Tllus-
trated by the percentage of increase and decrease in each parish during the

550 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

periods 1801-1911 and 1881-1911. Different periods of greatest growth in
Coventry, Leamington, and Rugby.

The Upper Avon basin is crossed by several important lines of communication,
mainly from S.E, to N. or N.W. The Watling Street and the Fosse Way are
no longer used as main roads, but, in addition to these, certain main roads
cross the district. They run mainly across uplands, in contrast to-the railways
and canals, which often follow valleys.

2. Notes on the Geography of Shropshire.
By Professor W. W. Warts, F.B.S.

3. The Midland Plateau and its Influence on the English Settlement
of Britain. By P. EB. Martineau.

The Midland Plateau lies between the Severn, Avon, and Trent. It is of
oval form, and measures 46 miles from N.N.W. to 8.S.E. by 34 from E.N.E.
to W.S.W. It is nearly 130 miles in circuit and its area is almost exactly 1,000
square miles.

It is part of the Triassic plain of Middle England, and owes toa rim of hard
rocks by which it is enclosed its resistance to denudation, and its consequent
elevation above the general level of the plain. This rim has also the effect
of making the plateau’s frontier a steep escarpment, easily distinguishable on
the map and in the field.

The river Tame on the north and the Stour and Alne-Arrow on the south
have cut wide and deep valleys through weak parts of the rim, without
destroying the continuity of the plateau. The Tame drains more than half the
plateau, and to it the ground slopes gently inwards from all parts of the rim.
The other streams named are marginal. Erosion by them has been rapid and
the sides of their valleys are steep.

The outward escarpment is marked on the map by the 300-ft. and 400-ft.
contour lines, which are close together. The 500-ft. line is generally close by,
and the high ground of the plateau is disposed round its edge. This is
especially the case on the southern side, where are found two points over
1,000 ft. and many of 900 and 800. Water-level in the Severn is 100 ft. at
Bridgnorth Bridge, and the 100-ft. contour line comes up the Avon to within
four miles of Stratford. The south edge of the plateau is thus not only steep
but of considerable height, and is a serious obstacle to travel, as is shown
by the Midland Railway’s Blackwell bank of 1 in 37.5 and the Great Western’s
Old Hill bank of 1 in 50.

During the fifth and sixth centuries the English (or Anglo-Saxon) settlement
of Britain was gradually completed, and the southern edge of the plateau
marks the meeting of the two main waves of colonists, who may be described
for convenience of reference as the Humber (or English) and the Southampton
(or Saxon).

To some extent modern county boundaries follow the crest of the escarpment
and preserve the ancient line of division, but they are often misleading and
the older diocese frontier is a better guide. Best of all are parish and manorial
boundaries, which not only mark the main tribal frontier, but also show separate
outposts and defensible positions. Such outposts are Tardebigge, Clent, and
Forshaw to the south, and Oldbury and Dudley to the north of the frontier line.
Wherever there is a divergence from the rule that the crest of the escarpment
is the frontier, geographical reason for that divergence can be adduced.

4. The Growth of Birmingham. By W. H. Foxatu.

The early history of Birmingham is somewhat scantily recorded. Situated”
on the outskirts of Arden Forest, the hamlet lay considerably off the main
Roman roads, but a connecting-link between the Watling Street and the southern
part of the Fosse Way was in close proximity.

The determination of the town’s position was due wholly to geographical

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 551

conditions, for peninsulas of high ground lay between the valleys of the Tame,
the Rea, and the Cole, and in each valley there existed extensive and almost
impassable marsh-land, which could only be crossed at certain. well-defined
points, and here ran the ancient ways which connected the towns of the north
and west with those of the south and east.

The existence of Birmingham is recorded in Domesday Book, but it is seldom
mentioned in the historical records of the country previous to the time of the
Stuarts; yet during that period the place was growing in size and importance.

From the surrounding centres of population already established trackways
converged upon this locality, which thus became a centre—a meeting-place for
individuals and a market for the exchange of commodities. In the reign of
Henry II. the lord of the manor secured rights to establish a market. Small
as this was, compared with our present-day idea of a market, it was sufficient
to give the place an advantage over other localities; for the possession of a
favoured and established market not only attracted traders, but also necessitated
the provision of accommodation for those traders and their wares. It was from
such small beginnings that the trade, and, later, the local manufactures of the
town developed. Practically every writer on old Birmingham refers to the town
in this twofold aspect.

With the development of the coal and iron industry in South Staffordshire
the business of Birmingham increased, for, from being the market town, it
became also the distributing centre; so that the one expanded in proportion
as the development of the other progressed.

The construction of canals which radiated from Birmingham, the improve-
ments to the steam engine, followed later by the introduction of railways, gave
an impetus to the town’s manufactures and to the industries of the Black
Country, and further established Birmingham as a trading and distributing
centre.

The passing of Acts for the improvement of roads, buildings, markets, &c.,
in the early part of the nineteenth century marks the beginning of the trans-
formation of Birmingham from an overgrown market-town into the chief
Midland commercial centre.

Its later progress is due to the industrial skill and inventive genius of its
inhabitants, and to that commercial enterprise which has recognised and utilised
the advantages that depend on geographical situation.

5. The Black Country and its Borderland. By H. Kay.

Five county boroughs and a score of smaller towns crowd the small area
known as the Black Country, whilst Birmingham and its suburbs stand at its
south-eastern corner. The population approaches 1,750,000, and is perhaps
denser than that of any area of equal size outside London. The presence of so
many people is due to the abundance of valuable minerals near the surface and
to the industries which have arisen in consequence. Birmingham had initial
advantages of situation, as, by reason of the swamp-bound rivers Tame and
Rea, she stood at the natural meeting-place of all lines of communication
between north-west and south-east. Her market. therefore, was the most
accessible in the Midlands. Manufactures arose owing to the proximity of the
Black Country, for whose productions Birmingham became the chief distributing
centre. The city still retains the dual character thus impressed upon her.

The mineral wealth of the Black Country consisted of unrivalled stores of
coal and of ironstone, together with limestone, fire-clay, and brick-clay. One
seam of coal is ten yards thick. The mines of the central portion are now
largely exhausted, or flooded by water, and fresh supplies are being developed
east and west. Limestone is got from underground workings at Dudley, the
Wren’s Nest, and Walsall, and magnificent caverns have been excavated at these
places. Fire-clay is obtained from the Stour Valley, and brick-clay is abundant
everywhere.

Local place-names are chiefly of Saxon origin, and Saxon architecture is
visible at St. Kenelm’s Church near Clent. Dudley Castle possesses historical
associations ranging from Saxon times to the Hanoverian period, and its ruins
are most interesting. Norman architecture may be seen at Wolverhampton, in

552 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

the ruins of the twelfth-century Cluniac priory at Dudley, and in those of
Halesowen Abbey (thirteenth century).

The Borderlands present a combination of rich and varied scenery with
interesting historical, legendary, and literary associations. As typical instances
may be mentioned the following : Tong, with rock dwellings, legends of Hengist,
and memories of Charles Dickens’ Little Nell; Boscobel and the Royal Oak;
Holbeache and the Gunpowder Plot; Kinver with rock dwellings, legends, and
charming scenery; Hagley, the Poets’ Retreat beloved of Pope, Shenstone, and
Thomson; Clent with its legends (sung by Chaucer and Milton) of St. Kenelm,
the boy king of Mercia; Shakespeare’s Country and the Forest of Arden;
Kenilworth; Coventry; Tamworth; Lichfield; Sutton Coldfield and Barr
Beacon; Wall (the Roman Ztocetum); Cannock Chase; the Wrekin and
Uriconium; and the incomparable Severn Valley.

——

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Expansion of the Fjord Peoples and its Geographical Conditions.
By C. B. Fawcett, B.Litt., B.Sc.

The Fjordlands considered are Norway, the North-West Coast of North
America, and Magallanes.

Each of these is a narrow and fragmentary strip of coast backed by barren
highland, with only small and scattered patches of lowland. Their climates
are all of the same type, wet, cool and equable, unfavourable to agriculture,
but with open sea at all seasons. The peoples depend mainly on the sea for
their food and means of communication, and therefore their expansion has
been along the waterways.

Each fjord coast is on the mountainous western edge of a continent in high
latitudes, but in other respects their positions are very different. Magallanes
_is at an end of the inhabited earth, with desert coasts to the north and a wide
ocean on all other sides. The N.W. Coast is exposed to Asiatic and Polynesian
influences, and is less completely shut off from its hinderland than the other
fjordlands. The South of Norway borders the ‘ Narrow Seas,’ and thence had
communication with Europe and the Mediterranean.

In each of these lands there has been a mingling of races, but in each the
uniformity of the local conditions and the separation from other peoples has
made the inhabitants one people in their modes of life. Their relative social
development has been mainly influenced by their skill in navigation. This
directly determined the range and security of their food supply, and the growth
of population and organisation, and therefore the power of expansion. The
development of navigation was local, and limited, in Magallanes. On the
N.W. Coast only dug-out vessels were employed. The Norse ships were
influenced by those of Europe and the Mediterranean, and here navigation very
early reached a high stage of development.

The expansion of the N.W. Amerinds was limited to the region bounded by
the mountains and the ocean east and west and the desert and Arctic coasts
south and north. The only practicable route was up the rivers; and that
demanded a complete change in their mode of life. The limits to expansion
from Magallanes were similar, but even narrower.

The Norsemen were not checked by any such barriers and they spread along
three chief routes: (1) N.E. to Finmark and the White Sea, (2) westward to
Iceland and Greenland, and (3) S.W. to the British Isles. The fourth route,
to the S.E., was blocked by the Danes and Swedes. The form of the expansion
in each case was determined by the social condition of the people visited, and the
causes of the early success and later rapid decline of the Viking Power are
to be found in the state of affairs in Norway and Western Europe at the time
and the limited resources of Norway.

~

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. vie

2. The Physical Geography of the Entrance to Inverness Firth.
By A. G. Oatnyvi.

3. Spitsbergen Economically Considered.
By Dr. W. S. Brucs, F.R.S.E.

4. On Australia. By Professor J. W. Grecory, F.R.S.

Australia, the great island continent, owes its chief characteristics to its
antiquity and its long isolation. It is essentially built of a series of plateaus,
which form the Highlands of Eastern Australia and the great western plateau.
They are united by wide lowland plains, which cross the continent from north to
south. The western plateau has an even surface due to peneplanation in middle
Kainozoic times, aided by wind action. The Eastern Highlands are more
complex, as the plateau has been broken up by many sunklands and dissected by
deep river gorges. The mountain system is independent of recent folding, and
there are no fold mountains. The ‘ Cordillera’ are dissected highlands, and are
not comparable in structure to the chains of the Andes. The Eastern High-
lands are bounded to the east by the fractures which lowered the former con-
tinuation of the land below the Pacific.

Owing to its continental size Australia has great diversity in character, and
ranges from tropical to temperate. Its political geography is dominated by the
contrast of the arid interior and the well watered coastlands.

Resources.—The development was first pastoral; its mineral wealth depends
mainly on gold and coal, with some copper, lead, silver, tin, &c. Its main
wealth now comes from its pastoral and agricultural industries and the indus-
trial development dependent on them.

The aboriginal inhabitants are more akin to Caucasians than to Negroes or
Mongols, Their numbers were always small, and they are of no serious political
Bye creances they present no difficulty to the attainment of the ideal of a White
Australia,

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

Joint Meeting with Section A,
The following Papers were read :—

(i) The Accuracy of the Principal Triangulation.
By Captain WInNTERBOTHAM,

The Principal Triangulation of the United Kingdom was begun in 1783.
Mean date of execution, 1825. Instruments used, 3-ft., 2-ft., and 18-inch Theo-
dolites. Mean length of side, 35°4 miles. Probable error of an angle 1/23

2
2 x 6745);

The whole figure adjusted in 21 parts, of which 4 were independent.

Horizontal distances depend on a ‘ Mean Base,’ got by applying corrections
to the measured lengths of the two bases, Lough Foyle and Salisbury Plain,
proportional to the square root of the lengths, in such a manner that the calcu-
lated length of each from the other agrees with the corrected measured length.

The mean probable error of an angle for all other national systems reported
in the 1892 report of the International Geodetic Association (by General Ferrero)
is 0/8,

Two factors omitted in General Ferrero’s formula are the strength of the
various figures and the mean lengths of the sides.

Judged purely by the probable error of an angle calculated from Ferrero’s

(General Ferrero’s formula

554 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

formula, the Principal Triangulation of the United Kingdom appeared to be
inferior in accuracy to the Continental systems. Various proposals for the
remeasurement of the principal ares were made, e.g., at the 1906 and 1908
meetings of the British Association for the Advancement of Science at York and
Dublin. In 1908 it was decided to remeasure a smail portion of the Principal
Triangulation remote from the bases in order to ascertain what linear errors
had accumulated, and whether a whole remeasurement was advisable. This
partial remeasurement was carried out in the years 1909-12, and included the
measurement of a new base at Lossiemouth on the Moray Firth, and a small
network of triangulation to connect this base to three of the original stations
of the Principal Triangulation.

The result of this operation shows an error in the published values of the
lengths of the sides of about one inch in one mile (1/60,000) in Morayshire.

We have now, therefore, four tests on the linear accuracy of the Principal
Triangulation.

1. The three independently measured base lines at Lough Foyle, Salisbury
Plain, and Lossiemouth.

2. The side Cassel-Les Harlettes of the French Meridional Arc, connected to
the Principal Triangulation of the United Kingdom in 1861-62, and depend-
ing on the Paris Base (remeasured 1890).

The following table shows the comparison between the measured lengths of
these bases and the same lengths as calculated through the Principal Triangula-
tion from any other of the bases :—

Tasre 1.

The accordance of the bases as shown through the triangulation. (A + sign
indicates that the calculated lengths of the bases in column 1 are greater than
the measured.) Resulting differences are shown for each case both in units of
the seventh place of logarithms and as a fraction.

Salisbury Plain | Lough Foyle | Lossiemouth Paris
Bases ,a8 a8 Las .fe
“ Log. | 2 = = | Log. | 23:5 Log. | 2 5 Log. | 2 3
Dif. | $838 | Diff. | 68s]. Diff. |SSs| Diff. | 68s
o Be O Fe C ar O Fe
lisb Plai 46°5 = 95°8 sith 8-7 sani0
Salisbury Plain eo Bas weed 93000 |— 45000 | ;
1 a 1 _——s
Lough Foyle . | + 46°5 93000 | vr |— 49°38) ge 009 | + 55°2 ici
1 : 1 ae
Lossiemouth . | + 95:8 5000 +49°3 88000 «-» |+104:5) 42000
2 1 1 1
Paris . . —87 505000 — 55:2 79000 — 104°5 42000

If bases are regarded as errorless relatively to triangulation connecting
them, the discrepancies between the measured lengths of bases and those same
lengths calculated from adjacent bases will afford a method of comparing the
telative precision of different systems.

‘Throughout a system homogeneous in size and shape of figure, and in pre-
cision of angular measurement, the linear errors generated would vary as the
square root of the distance from the base. If, therefore, we refer to lists of
the discrepancies between the measured and calculated lengths of bases in other

National Triangulations and multiply each discrepancy by the factor WS =

(where d is the distance in miles between the bases), we get a table which
will serve to give a rough idea of the relative precisions of the various systems,
and of what errors we should expect to find generated in them at a distance
of 100 miles from the original base.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 555

TABLE 2.7
Table showing the discrepancy between bases, assuming that this discrepancy
varies as the square root of the distance, and reducing the length of 100 miles
in each case.

Discrepancy
National No. of in the 7th eee
Surveys of Comparisons Place of RUSH Dae,
Logarithms
Europe ... 36 52 Report of the International Geo-
detic Association, 1893, p. 540
et seq., omitting 5 bad connec-
tions in Russia (since re-

1
tesiaatl measured)
2

SOT ane 8 Account of the Operations of the

Great Trig]. Survey of India,
[ 1 ] Vols. 2, 6 and 12
197000

2
South Africa . 13 47 Reports of the Geodetic Survey of
South Africa, Vols. 4 and 5, in-
cluding two cases of a junction
[ ] ] from a base to a side of pre-
92000 viously adjusted Triangulation

United States of 20 36 Report of the United States Coast
America : and Geodetic Survey for 1900
and 1904. Professional papers
[ 1 | of the Corps of Engineers, U.S.
121000

Army, No. 24
Mean ; : 1
Total Ele te es ad 44 Corresponding to 99000
® “ : 1
ted Kingd 6 28: C foye ss
Uni ingdom 85 orresponding 152000

The very close agreement between the Salisbury Plain and Paris bases
is responsible for the high place taken in this table by the Principal Triangula-
tion. If we neglect this connection the remaining five give the figure 131000 - 00°

This table shows that the linear errors of the Principal Triangulation of
the United Kingdom are in the same terms as those to be expected in Modern
Triangulation carried out in chains over similar distances, and that, if the 700
miles of meridivnal arc between the Straits of Dover and Saxavord in the
Shetland Islands were remeasured, it is not likely that the new measurement
would differ from the old by more than 25 yards.

(ii) The Precise Definition of Terms used in Higher Surveying.
By Captain H. G. Lyons, F.B.S.

(iii) Longitude Work in Egypt. By E. B. H. Wave.

In the last two years several longitudes have been measured in Egypt by
exchange of telegraphic signals with Helwan Observatory. Mr. Knox Shaw
determined local time at Helwan, using the Brunner transit instrument, and
Mr. Wade employed the method of equal altitudes in the field. All star
observations and telegraphic signals were chronographically registered, and

1 Table 2 makes no claim to be exhaustive.

556 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION RF.

personal equation was measured at the end of each expedition. Each station
was occupied on at least two nights. The stations referred to in the paper were
el Daba‘a, Mersa Matruh, Baqbag, Siwa Oasis, and Khartum. The probable
error arrived at for an adopted longitude (two nights) was discussed and found
to be + 0°05. Values of personal equation and of adopted longitudes were given
in the paper. Stress was laid on the utility of the method of equal altitudes in
field work.

Local attraction in the prime vertical has been observed by Mr. Wade at the
two ends. of an east and west line from Helwan to Daqshur, 15 kilometres
distant. Local attraction was first detected by mutual azimuth observations.
The value found was confirmed by longitude determinations carried out just in
the way described in the previous paragraph, except that an acetylene signal-
ling lamp with occulting shutter communicating with a chronograph replaced the
electric telegraph. To obtain further confirmation Messrs. Curry and Wade
established a chain of seven stations along the line (produced somewhat each
way) and determined intervals of longitude by a method of differential observa-
tion, for details of which reference must be made to the full paper. The
easterly local attraction at Daqshur (relative to Helwan) was found to be:

By first method—8/''8,
By second method—6/'9,
By third method—7/-7,

Intermediate stations gave for the most part intermediate values.

Messrs. Wade and Curry made a similar set further south at Biba. As a
result of increased experience the accuracy attained was considerable. On
- several occasions the probable error of a longitude interval (one night) was as
low as + 0°02. The local attraction on the Biba line was extremely small—a
result which is in accordance with azimuth observations.

The differential method used should prove valuable in the detailed study of
local attraction.

(iv) The Precision of Field Observations for Latitude.
By B. F. HE. Keetina, M.A.

This paper gave the results of observations made with the purpose of
evaluating the real precision of the field latitudes of the Geodetic Survey of
Egypt. The field programme consists of four pairs of stars, observed on at
least three nights, the instrument used being a 10-inch Repsold theodolite.

At an early stage in the survey it was found that the probable error on a
single night was in an average case about one-tenth of a second, but that
unfortunately the agreement between the nightly means was not so close as was
to be expected from such probable errors. Further investigation was thus
evidently necessary, and accordingly the latitude of the survey point in the
grounds of the Helwan Observatory was observed at approximately monthly
intervals for the space of a year, using a procedure identical with that followed
in the field. In all eleven series of observations were made.

The results showed very strikingly that the mean monthly latitudes were
much less concordant than we have a right to expect from the individual
probable errors. The monthly residuals ranged from minus nine-tenths to plus
nine-tenths of a second, and five out of eleven were greater than four-tenths of
a second. The probable error of a single month’s observations, as computed
from the eleven series, was five-tenths of a second, and this appears to be about
the proper probable error to assign to the field latitudes of the Egyptian
Geodetic Survey.

Attention was called to an analogous case at Kimberley in the South African
Survey, where two series of latitudes, determined at an interval of six weeks,
differed by nearly eight-tenths of a second.

In the concluding part of the paper the question was discussed whether
the above results should be followed by a change of procedure in the Egyptian
Survey.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 557

The following Recommendation was passed :—

‘That the terms First Order, Second Order, Third Order, and Fourth Order
of Triangulation, as connoting definite degrees of precision, be used to describe
triangulation, even though the terms now in use (e.g. Major, Minor, &c.), which
have only a local significance, are also employed.’

The following Paper was then read :-—

New Rainfall Maps of China. By W. G. KenpREw.

Discussion on Natural Regions of the World.
Opened by Professor A. J. HERBERTSON.

The idea of Natural Regions i§ not a new one. It has been used, consciously
or unconsciously, by every traveller and geographical student with insight.
What we are attempting now, is (i.) to divide the World into its Natural
Regions, taking into account all the elements composing them, (il.) to recognise
and group Natural Regions into different classes and orders, and (iil.) to trace
the consequences of the recognition of Natural Regions as entities.

(i) The Natural Region.

It is unnecessary to review the attempts to divide the Earth’s surface into
zones or regions each possessing some special property—land, water, igneous
rocks, little or no rainfall, forests, a round-headed population, &c., &c. In
this raw material the geographer finds certain relations between different
elements, certain laws of combination. The elements and the combinations are
far more complex than those of organic chemistry, but this complexity is no
reason for not applying scientific methods to their investigation, nor for doubting
that substantial results can be gained by their use. It is a reason for not
consigning the study of Geography to the least experienced, but for giving it
to the man who knows most. The only apology the geographer has to make
is not for his subject, but for his ignorances.

The Natural Region is a vital unit as well as a physical one, a symbiosis
on a vast scale. It is more than an association of plants, or of animals, or of
men. It is a symbiotic association of all these, indissolubly bound up with
certain structures and forms of the land, possessing a definite water circulation,
and subjected to a seasonal climatic rhythm. As each element in a region has
its own history, and as each varies in its rate of change, so the evolution of thé
region is highly complex.

(ii) Types and Orders of Natural Regions.

The advantage of classifying Natural Regions into types is obvious. Some
of the larger ones with common morphological or climatic characters have long
been recognised, e.g. Mountainous Lands, Plains, Monsoon Lands, Deserts,
the Mediterranean Type of Region, &c. The systematic analysis and classifica-
tion of all types are more recent efforts of geographers, who encounter two
difficulties at the outset. One of these is to fix the limit of a natural region :
Where does the Sahara begin and the Sudan end? The other is to distinguish
properly between different orders or classes of natural regions: Are there to
be two, or three, or four, or more? For instance, is it sufficient to divide the
Monsoon Lands of Asia into great river basins, and each of them again into
their minor basins, and these again into valleys and plains? Are the classes
the same in rainy and rainless lands, in mountains and plains? Can we arrive
at any grouping of order of natural regions as little objectionable as the
biologist’s organism, organ, tissue, cell?

Let us consider some of the simpler natural regions. In the Upper Thames
Plain there are belts of (a) flowing water bordered by (b) meadow flood plains,
(c) land rising above the flood level. Such belts are also found in the valleys

558 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

of the adjacent Cotswolds; but here all three are more complex—(a) the
flowing water is not confined to the surface but permeates (c), which rises
in steep banks above the irregular (6) flood-plains and forms a gently undulating
and sloping surface very different from that of (c) in the Plain. Further,
while the varieties of (c) in the Plain are mainly 7. clay and i. gravel-capped
clay, the varieties of (c) in the Cotswolds are (a) the relatively flat land,
i. very fertile cornbrash, ii. less fertile belts of Oolitic limestone, wii. cappings
of gravel, iv. cappings of clay and (8) the steep slopes 7. of the valleys, and
vi. of the escarpment. There are also considerable differences in climate
differentiating the Plain from the Scarped Ridges, and the climatic conditions
within the natural region itself vary much more in the hilly region than they
do in the plain. The Upper Thames Vale is, then, clearly a different natural
region from the Cotswold Scarped Ridge. There are, however, vales and vales,
scarped ridges and scarped ridges. The Upper Thames Vale is a much simpler
variety of the same species of natural region than the Vale of Aylesbury, and
the chalk-scarped ridges are a variety of the species differing from the oolitic
limestone variety.

This grouping according to orographical conditions has its advantages, but
others suggest themselves—more particularly the division into regions with a
common drainage, e.g. the basins of Cherwell, Evenlode, Windrush, &c.
Probably it is best to combine the two and see in the Cotswolds each incised
river-valley as a sub-division of the natural region and the relatively flat land
between as another sub-division. In plains the land between the rivers becomes
by far the largest and most important sub-division.

We might look on the geological structure as the tissue of a region; but this
geological structure does not suffice for a complete natural region. The water
circulation must also be taken into account and the surface forms it has carved.
In a mountainous area the valleys seem the natural units, divided by crests; in
the plains the land between the rivers is the dominant element, and the rivers
divide the natural regions. There are many intermediate forms between these
extremes of mountain and plain, of which the Cotswolds are a good example.

Individual valleys, plateaus, and plains form simple “geographical units.?
Groups of different varieties of one or more of these constitute a new and more
complex geographical order. These in their turn may be combined to form
something more complex, such as the English Scarplands, the Welsh Highlands,
&c. Yet more complex are associations of different natural regions such as
form the British Isles or Iberia or Scandinavia.

There are therefore various orders of natural region, which we may roughly
compare with the species, genera, orders, &c., of the biologist. For these we
may have no definite names. Tentatively we may speak of species, genera,
orders, classes of natural regions, even though this suggests biological analogies
which may mislead the beginner. From this point of view valley, plain, and
plateau are chorographical species each with many varieties. These them-
selves may be grouped into different genera of mountainous-, platean-, and
plain-lands, and these again into different orders of country, compounded of
different combinations of these, which finally grouped together compose the
continents.

This morphological or topographical classification is not enough. Climate
must be taken into account in the larger divisions. The need for this is most
easily recognised in the vast plains, where vegetation affords an index of climatic
and edaphic influence. The botanist’s classification into plant societies,
associations and formations suggests new groupings, which have to be considered
in making natural regions.

Beginning with the continents we might recognise major natural regions, each
with its own climatic rhythm, and this acting on different genera of land forms.
These topographical genera enable us to determine the geographical genera,
which may themselves be sub-divided into different geographical species, each
of which may have a number of varieties.

I venture to suggest as a convenient nomenclature for the geographical

* One other class—the cone, usually volcanic—may be mentioned. Only
rainy régions are considered for the moment.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 559

natural regions that we should consider each continent as composed of countries
containing different regions divisible into districts each with its various localities
or neighbourhoods. This would not interfere with such political terms as empire,
state, province, county and parish.

Some of the attempts to divide the world into natural regions will be reviewed,
if time permits.

Hitherto nothing has been said about Man. The different natural regions
exist whether he is part of them or not. Even in the most complex class,
the continent, he may not live at all, e.g. in Antarctica. In some natural
regions he counts for no more than other animals. In others he has so pro-
foundly altered the surface that it is necessary to consider him and his works in
any classification. This is not merely the case in such districts as the Fens or
the Lancashire coalfield, but even in such complex countries as China or those
which border the Norland Seas of Europe, where much of the original forest
has been converted into cultivated land. The concentration of man in cities
obviously alters a locality.

We must also differentiate between two natural regions originally of the
same type, in one of which man has settled in farms, villages, and towns and
added a new characteristic to it; and we must also distinguish between a
natural region in its present condition from the same region in an earlier state,
when man did not play the part in it that he does at present, e.g. Egypt or
Mesopotamia, for we have also to consider reversion.

Men in the natural region may be compared with nerve-cells in an animal.
Some have a highly developed, others a very simple undifferentiated nervous
(social) system.

(iii) Zhe Significance of Natural Regions.

There are many important consequences which cannot be examined in detail
now. It is, however, desirable to point out that while it is possible to study
men in families, races, &c., without taking into account that they form but
a part of a more comprehensive entity, to do so is to deal with less than the
whole problem. It does not suffice to give once and for all a brief description
of the physical conditions of a country as a prelude to the account of the
history of its inhabitants. The history is incomplete which does not consider
both together at all stages. Neither is passive, neither remains unchanged
when man becomes important enough to have a recorded history. The changes
are not usually sharp and dramatic as in the American Prairies or in South
_ Wales, but slow and subtle as in most countries of Europe. We are accustomed
to think of the changes in the men; we rarely consider the changes in the region,
which are also of vital significance.

The entity higher than the individual is not the family, nor the race, nor
any association of men alone, but the more complex association of the Natural
Region. This has always been so, and until we recognise the fact neither the
history of man, nor his relation to the universe, nor even his very pressing
present problems, economic or political, can be properly understood. This is
much too vast a subject to examine in detail on the present occasion; but I
should like to add a note of warning to those who imagine that any such
conclusions do more than show that the problems of the universe are somewhat
more complex than is commonly supposed. It is not meant that the geographer
can solve them; only that they cannot be solved without taking these geographical
considerations into account.

560 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION PF.

Section F.—KCONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION.—Rey. Puitiep H. WicksTEep, M.A.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.

The President delivered the following Address :—

The Scope and Method of Political Economy in the Light of the
“ Marginal’ Theory of Distribution.?

Tue subiect on which I désire to address you this morning is the bearing of
what is known as the ‘marginal theory of distribution’ upon the scope and
method of economic study.

I address myself primarily to those who already accept this theory, inviting
their attention to the modifications it is already introducing into current
conceptions of Political Economy and its relation to other studies, and urging
tne necessity of accepting the change more frankly and pressing it further.

But at the same time I think we shall find that the best approach to our
proper subject is through a summary exposition, if not a defence, of the theory
itself.

To begin with, then, the marginal theory of distribution rests upon a theory
of exchange value. This latter theory is very easily stated in mathematical
language; for it simply regards value in exchange as the first derived or
‘ differential ’ function of value in use; which is only as much as to say, in
ordinary language, that what a man will give for anything sooner than go
without it is determined by a comparison of the difference which he conceives
its possession will make to him, compared with the difference that anything he
gives for it or could have had instead of it will or would make; and, further,
that we are generally considering in our private budgets, and almost always in
our general speculations, not the significance of a total supply of any com-
modity—coals, bread, or clothes, for instance—but the significance of the
difference between, say, a good and a bad wheat harvest to the public, or the
difference between ten and eleven loaves of bread per week to our own family,
or perhaps between ten days and a fortnight spent at the seaside. In short,
when we are considering whether we will contract or enlarge our expenditure
upon this or that object, we are normally engaged in considering the difference
to our satisfaction which differences in our several supplies will make. We
are normally engaged, then, not in the consideration of totals, either of supplies
cr of satisfactions, but of differences of satisfaction dependent upon differences
of supplies.

According to this theory, then, what 1 am willing to give for an increase
in my supply of anything is determined by the difference it will make to my
satisfaction, but what I shall have to give for it is determined by the difference
it would make to the satisfaction of certain other people, for if there is anyone
to whom it will make more difference than it will to me, he will be ready

2 This Address in a revised form, and with diagrams illustrative of the theory
of the market, will appear in the Hconomic Journal for March 1914.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 561

to give more for it, and he will get it, while I go without. But again, since
the more he has the less difference will a still further increase make to him,
and the less I have the more difference will a still further decrease make to me,
we shall ultimately arrive at an equilibrium; what I am willing to give and
what I am compelled to give will coincide, and the difference that a little more
or a little less of any commodity which I habitually consume makes to my
estimated satisfaction will be identical with the similar estimated difference to
avy other habitual consumer.

Now it is obvious (though it is by no means always observed) that this
identical or equilibrated ‘difference of estimated satisfaction’ must be under-
stood and measured objectively, not subjectively. 1f two men estimate the
difierence that a given addition or subtraction of supply would make to them
at the same money value, it shows that this increment or decrement occupies
the same place on their respective scales of preference relatively to all other
things or services that could be obtained for the money. This much it tells,
but no more. The actual experiences of the two men cannot indeed be compared,
but an increment of supply that stands on a poor man’s relative scale of prefer-
ences exactly where it does on a rich man’s, may, and ‘in our circumstance and
course of thought’ often must, depart indefinitely from it in its vital significance.

Such, then, is the theory of exchange, which I should like to call the ‘ diffe-
rential theory,’ that underlies the theory of distribution we are presently to
examine. It has been objected to it that since it only asserts that a man will
never give more for a thing than he thinks it is worth, and can never get it
for less than the man who has it believes he could get from someone else or
thinks it worth to himself, it comes down to the simple assertion that value
in exchange—is value in exchange. I am quite willing to accept this reproach,
only I must be allowed to add something to it and to say, ‘The differential
theory of value in exchange asserts that value in exchange is value in exchange.
All other theories assert that it is not.’

Chief amongst these other theories in historical and polemical dignity, and
in tenacity of lite, is the ‘cost of production’ theory; which, in its crudest
form, asserts that the true measure of exchange value is to be found not in the
estimated worth of a thing, but in the amount of labour that has gone to its
production. This theory, I think it is safe to say, is now discredited and
hardly dares to announce itself openly. The actual nature of the connection
between ‘cost of production’ and market price, or exchange value, and the true
analysis of the tendency to coincidence between them are now clearly understood.
When the production of two different commodities involves the same cost, and
one of them has a higher market price, because it has a higher differential
significance to the purchasers, then enterprise will naturally be directed to the
production of the one rather than of the other; and as this goes on, and the
supply increases, the differential significance, and so the exchange value, of the
_favoured product will decline, until equilibrium is reached. Thus the idea that
cost of production already incurred determines exchange value turns out to be
a reversal of the true relation. It is the anticipated value in exchange that
determines what cost of production the producer will be willing to encounter,
and if a relatively low cost of production ultimately brings down prices it is
only because it determines an increased supply.

‘All this is well understood; but nevertheless the cost-of-production fallacy
assumes subtle disguises; and theories of distribution based upon it, or at least
tainted by it, are perpetually reappearing. I shall not stay to examine it
further; but one of the chief reasons for reconsidering the current methods of
economic exposition is, to my mind, the need of a more complete and drastic
cleansing of economic doctrine from the baneful sequele of this disease of its
youth.

The ground is now clear for a step forward along the main line of our
advance. The differential theory of exchange values carries with it a corre-
sponding theory of distribution, whether we use this term in its technical sense
of the division of a product amongst the factors that combine for its production,
or whether we employ it as equivalent to ‘administration,’ and are thinking
of the administration of our personal resources ; that is to say, their distribution
amongst the various objects that appeal to us; or again, the distribution, under

1913, (ome)

562 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

economic pressures, of the sum of the industrial resources of a society amongst
the objects that appeal to its members.

A brief exposition will suffice. We have pointed out that to any individual
the differential significance of a unit of supply of any commodity or service
declines as the supply increases. In our own expenditure we find that current
prices (our individual reaction on the market being insensible) fix the terms
on which the various alternatives offered by the whole range of commodities
and services in the circle of exchange are open to us. Obviously, if the
differential satisfaction anticipated from one purchase exceeds that which the
same money would procure from another, we shall take the preferable
alternative, and shall so regulate our expanding or contracting supplies that the
differential satisfactions gained or lost from a given small increase or
decrease of expenditure upon any one of our different objects of interest will
be identical. Into the practical difficulties that prevent our ever actually
reaching this ideal equilibrium of expenditure I will not here enter; but I
must call attention to the identity in principle of this analysis of the internal
economy of our own choice between alternatives, tending to a_ subjective
equilibrium between the differential significances of different supplies to the
same person, and the corresponding analysis, given on a previous page, of the
process by which an objective equilibrium is approached between the differential
significances of the same supply to different persons.

And this observation introduces another of extreme importance. In our
private administration of resources we are concerned both with things that are
and with things that are not in the circle of exchange, and the principle of
distribution of resources is identical in both cases. The independent student
who is apportioning his time and energy between pursuing his own line of
research and keeping abreast of the literature of his subject is forming estimates
of differential significances and is equating them to each other just as directly
as the housewife who is hesitating between two stalls in the market; and, more
generally, the inner core of our life problems and the gratification of all our
ultimate desires (which are indeed inextricably interlaced with our command of
exchangeable things, but are the ends to which the others are but means) obey
the same all-permeating iaw. Virtue, wisdom, sagacity, prudence, success,
imply different schemes of values, but they all submit to the law formulated by
Aristotle with reference to virtue, and analysed by modern writers with
reference to business, for they all consist in combining factors kar’ dp0by Adyor,
in the right proportion, as fixed by that distribution of resources which estab-
lishes the equilibrium of their differential significances in securing the object con-
templated, whether that object be tranquillity of mind, the indulgence of an
cvermastering passion or affection, the command of things and services in the
circle of exchange, or a combination of all these, or of any other conceivable
tactors of life.

Now this dominating and universal principle of the distribution of
resources, aS we have seen, tends, by the instrumentality of the market, to
secure an identity in the relative positions of increments of all exchangeable
things upon the scales of all the members of the community amongst whom
they are distributed. For if, amongst the things he possesses, A. finds one
a given decrement in which would make less difference to him, as measured
in increments of other exchangeable things, than the corresponding increment
would make to B. (who is assumed to have a certain command of exchangeable
things in general), obviously there is a natural gain in B. giving for the increment
in question what is less than worth it to him but more than worth it to A.
There is equilibrium therefore only when a decrement in any man’s stock of any
exchangeable thing would make more difference to him, as measured in other
exchangeable things, than the corresponding increment (measured in the same
terms) would make to anyone else. Hence all those who possess anything must,
in equilibrium, value it more, differentially or incrementally, than anyone who
does not possess it, provided that this latter does possess something, and pro-
vided that ‘ value’ is measured in exchangeable things.

But this last qualification is all-important. The market tends to establish
an identity of the place of the differential value of any commodity amongst all
exchangeable things on everybody’s scale of preferences, and further to secure
that it is higher on the scale of everyone that has it than on the scale of anyone

’

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 563

who has it not; so that to that extent it must always tend to go and to stay
where it is most significant. But then exchangeable things are never really the
ultimately significant things at all. They are means. The ends, which are
always subjective experiences of some kind, whether of the senses or the will
or the emotions, are not in any direct way exchangeable; and there is no
machinery to secure that increments and decrements of exchangeable things
shall in industrial equilibrium take the same place and have the same differential
significance on the scales of any two men when measured not in terms of
other means, but in terms of ends. If two men habitually spend a portion of
their resources on food and on books, there is a presumption that to both of
them the differential significance of a shilling’s-worth of food and of a volume
of Everyman’s or the Home University Library is equivalent. But there is
no presumption whatever that the vital significance of either one or the other is
identical to the two men as measured, not each in terms of the other, but each
in the degree to which it ministers to the ultimate purposes of its possessor or
consumer ; in the pain that its absence or the pleasure that its presence would
give him; or in its ultimate significance upon his life. Granted that « makes
just as much difference, both to you and to me, as y does, it does not follow that
either x or y makes the same difference to you that it does to me.

Our next step will reveal some of the bearings of this distinction; for we
are now to consider ‘distribution’ in its technical sense of the principle of
sharing of a commercial product amongst the factors of production. Now a
commercial product is something exchangeable, and what is actually shared
amongst the factors is not the product itself, but the command of exchangeable
things in general that it secures in the market. We are therefore now engaged
upon a strictly economic problem, whereas we have hitherto been dealing with
the wider problem of distribution of resources in general, whether material or
immaterial, economic or non-economic; and it is instructive to note that we skall
not have to introduce any new principle or formulate any new law whatever
when we pass on to the specifically economic problem. For economics have no
laws of their own, though they furnish a vaguely defined but clearly characterised
field for the application of certain general laws.

Before illustrating this truth by applying the general law of distribution
to the special problem of economic or industrial distribution, let us attempt
to determine more closely the characteristic of the economic field of investiga-
tion itself. Naturally there is no sharp line that marks off the economic life,
and we must not expect to find a rigid definition of it; but I take it that if 1
am doing a thing because I want it done for its own sake (not necessarily my
own sake, in any restricted sense, for it may primarily concern someone else in
whom I am interested out of pure good will) or am making a thing that I require
for the supply of my own desires or the accomplishment of my own purposes; if,
in fact, I am engaged in the direct pursuit of my own purposes, or expression
of my own impulses, my action is not economic. But if I am making or doing
anything not because I have any direct interest in it, but because someone else
wants it, and that other person will either do what I want done or put me in
command of it, then I am furthering his purposes as a means of furthering my
own. I am indirectly forwarding my purposes by directly forwarding his.
This is the nature of the economic relation, and the mechanism or articulation
of the whole complex of such economic relations is the proper subject of economic
investigation. Thus, if a peasant adorns his ox-yoke with carving because he
likes doing it and likes it when done, or if he carves a stool for his friend
because he loves him and likes doing it for him and believes he will like it when
done, the action is not economic; but if he gets a reputation for carving and
other peasants want his work, he may become a professional carver and may
carve a yoke or a stool because other people want them and he finds that supply-
ing their wants is the easiest way for him to get food and clothes and leisure
for his own art, and all things else that he desires. His artistic work now puts
him into an economic relation with his fellows; but this example serves to
remind us that there may be an indefinite area of coincidence between the
economic and non-economic aspects of a man’s occupations and relations. That
man is happy indeed who finds that in expressing some part of his nature he is
providing for all his nature’s wants, or that in rendering services to friends in
which he delights.he is putting himself in command of all the services he him-

Onore

564 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

self needs for the accomplishment of his own purposes. A perfect coincidence
of this nature is the dream of modern Utopias; but my present subject is only
the economic side of the shield.

The economic organism, then, of an industrial society represents the in-
strumentality by which every man by doing what he can for some of his
fellows gets what he wants from others. It is true. of course, that those for
whom he makes or does something may be the same as those from whom he gets
the particular things he wants. But this is not usual. In such a society as ours
the persons whom a man serves are usually incapable of serving him in the
way he desires, but they can put him in command of the services he requires,
though they cannot render them. This is accomplished by the instrumentality
of money, which is a generalised command of the services and commodities in
the circle of exchange; ‘money’ being at once a standard in which all market
prices (or objective places of differential significances amongst themselves) are
expressed, and a universal commodity which everyone who wishes to exchange
what he has for what he wants will accept as a medium, or middle term, by
which to effect the transformation. Thus in most commercial transactions one
party furthers a specific purpose of the other, and receives in exchange a
command, defined in amount but not in kind, of services and commodities in
general; the scale of equivalence being a publicly recognised thing announced in
current market prices. Every member of the community who stands in
economic relations with others alternately generalises his special resources and
then specialises his general resources, first directly furthering someone else’s
purposes and then picking out the persons who can directly further his. Thus
each of us puts in what he has at one point of the circle of exchange and takes
out what he wants at another. Being out of work is being unable to find
anyone who values our special service enough to relinquish in our favour a
command of services in general which we will consent to accept in return.
It is the failure to find anyone who will specialise his general command, into
our particular service, on terms that suit us.

We return now to the problem of economic distribution. Land, manifold
apparatus, various specialised faculties of hand, eye, and brain, are essential,
let us say. to the production of some commodity valued by someone, it does not
matter who, for some purpose, it does not matter what. None of these
heterogeneous factors can be dispensed with, and therefore the product in its
totality is dependent upon the co-operation of each one severally. But there
is room for wide variety in the proportions in which they are combined, and
whatever the existine proportion may be each factor has a differential signifi-
cance, and all these differential significances can be expressed in a common unit ;
that is to say, all can be expressed in terms of each other, by noting the
increment or decrement of any one that would be the equivalent of a given
decrement or increment of any other; equivalence being measured by the
neutralising of the effect upon the product, or rather, not upon the material
product itself, but the command of generalised resources in the circle of exchanze
for the sake of which it is produced. The manager of a business is constantly
engaged in considering, for instance, how much labour such-and-such a machine
would save; how much raw material a man of such-and-such character would
save; what equivalent an expansion of his premises would yield in ease and
smoothness in the conduct of business; how much economy in the shop would
be effected by a given addition to the staff in the office, and so on. This is
censidering differential significances and their equivalences as they affect his
business. And all the time he is also considering the prices at which he can
obtain these several factors, dependent upon their differential significances to
other people in other businesses. His skill consists, like that of the housewife
in the market, in expanding and contracting his expenditure on the several
factors of production so as to bring their differential significances to himself into
coincidence with their market prices. And note that the same principle can be
applied without any difficulty to such immaterial factors of efficiency as ‘ good
will,’ or notoriety; but it would delay us too long to work this out or to antici-
pate possible objections. A hint must suffice.

Here, then, we have a firm theoretical basis for the study of distribution,
independent of the particular form of organisation of a business. Whether
those in command of the several factors of production meet and discuss the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 565

principles upon which the actual proceeds of the business shall be divided,
when they are realised; or whether some one person takes, on his own behalf or
on behalf of a group of others, the risks, and discounts the estimated significance
of the several factors, buying up their several interests in the product, in the
form of wages and salaries, interest, rent, payment for machinery and raw
material, and so forth; or whatever other mechanism may be adopted, the under-
lying principle is the same. The differential equivalence of the factors of
production reduces them to a common measure, and when they are all expressed
in the same unit the problem of the division of the product amongst them is
solved in principle.

The exposition I have now given of the underlying principle of what are
usually called ‘marginal, but what I should prefer to call ‘differential ’
economics, has been planned not with a view to meeting objections (except
incidentally), but with a view to leading up to the changes it involves in our
conception of the scope and the method of economic study. And, as almost
all that I want to say is already implied or held in solution in this exposition,
I hope that you will not grudge the time spent upon it.

In a word, then, the differential method in economics must, I conceive,
tend to enlarge and to harmonise our conception of the scope of the study, and
to keep it in constant touch with the wider ethical, social, and sociological
problems and aspirations from which it must always draw its inspiration and
derive its interest. And at the same time it must indefinitely simplify its
narrower and more technical branches, and must purge them of all kinds of
distinctions and discussions which, whatever practical or technological value
some of them may have, can only confuse a theoretical economic inquiry.

{ will begin by considering the expansion of scope and the knitting up of
economics with all the vital sciences. If we really understand and accept the
principle of differential significances we shall realise, as already pointed out,
that Aristotle’s system of ethics and our reconstructed system of economics are
twin applications of one identical principle or law, and that our conduct in
business is but a phase or part of our conduct in life, both being determined
by our sense, such as it is, of differential significances and their changing
weights as the integrals of which they are the differences expand or contract.
Cesar, ‘that day he overcame the Nervii,’ being surprised by the enemy,
contracted his exhortation to the troops, but did not omit it. In his distribu-
tion of the time at his disposal the ditferential significance of prompt movement
was higher than usual in relation to the differential significance of stirring words
from their beloved and trusted commander addressed to the soldiers as they
entered upon action. An ardent lover may decline a business interview in
order to keep an appointment with his lady-love, but there will be a point at
which its estimated bearing upon his prospects of an early settlement will make
him break his appointment with the lady in favour of the business interview.
A man of leisure with a taste for literature and a taste for gardening will have
to apportion time, money, and attention between them, and consciously or
unconsciously will balance the differential significances involved against each
other. All these, therefore, are making selections and choosing between
alternatives on precisely the same principle and under precisely the same law
as those which dominate the transactions of the housewife in the market, or the
management of a great factory or ironworks, or the business of a bill-broker.

A full realisation of this will produce two effects. In the first place it will
put an end to all attempts to find ‘laws’ proper to our conduct in economic
relations. ‘There are none. Hitherto economists for the most part have been
vaguely conscious that the ultimate laws of economic conduct must be psycho-
logical, and, feeling the necessity of determining some defining boundaries of
their study, have sought to make a selection of the motives and aims that are to
be recognised by it. Hence the simplified psychology of the ‘economic man’
now generally abandoned—but abandoned grudgingly, by piecemeal, under
pressure, and with constant attempts to patch up what ought to be cast away.
There is no occasion to define the economic motive, or the psychology of the
economic man, for economics study a type of relation, not a type of motive, and
the psychological law that dominates economics dominates life. We may either
ignore all motives or admit all to our consideration, as occasion demands, but
there is no rhyme or reason in selecting certain motives that shall and certain
others that shall not be recognised by the economist.

566 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

In the second place, when taken off the wrong track we shall be able to
find the right one, and shall understand that the proper field of economic
study is, in the first instance, the type of relationship into which men
spontaneously enter, when they find that they can best further their own
purposes by approaching them indirectly. There is seldom a direct line by
which a man can make his faculties and his specialised possessions minister
continuously to all his purposes, or even to the greater part or the most
importunate part of them. He must find someone else to whose purposes he
can directly devote his powers or lend his resources in order that he may
generalise his specific capacity or possession, and then again specialise this
generalised command in the direction his tastes or needs dictate. The industrial
world is a spontaneous organisation for transmuting what every man has into
what he desires, wholly irrespective of what his desires may be.

And, in the third place, this truer conception of the economic field of investi-
gation, coupled with the sense of the unity of fundamental law and fundamental
motive that sway our economic and our non-economic action, will throw a
constantly increasing emphasis upon the fact that our economic life is not and
cannot be isolated, but is at every point combined with the direct expression
of character and indulgence of taste, while the human relations into which it
brings us are constantly waking in us a direct interest (whether of attraction or
repulsion) in those purposes of others which we are directly furthering as an
indirect means of furthering our own, purposes which we have indeed adopted,
but beyond which we look whenever we reflect. There is no reason why means
should not, to an undefined extent, be from the beginning, or become in course
of time, ends in themselves, while still continuing to be means; nor, alas! is
there any guarantee that they will not be, or will not become, negative and
repellent as ends, either through physical weariness or moral repulsion. Perhaps
most men’s ‘ occupations’ combine both characteristics.

Again, the realisation of the exact nature of the economic organisation as a
machinery for combining in mutual helpfulness persons whose ends are diverse,
will drive it home to our consciousness that one man’s want is another man’s
opportunity, and that it may serve a man’s turn to create a want or a passion
in another in order that he may find his opportunity in it. All along the line,
from a certain type of ingenious advertiser to the financier (if he really exists)
who engineers a war in order that he may arrange a war loan, we may study
the creation of wants and passions, destructive of general welfare, for the sake
of securing wealth to individuals. And we may realise the deeply significant
truth that to any individual the full discharge of his industrial function—that
is to say, the complete satisfaction or disappearance, by whatever means, of the
want which he is there to satisfy—must be, if he contemplates it, a nightmare;
for it would mean that he would be ‘ out of work,’ that because no one wants
what he can give no one wants him, and neither will anyone give him what he
wants.

Yet again, in our industrial relations the thing we are doing is indeed an
end, but it is someone else’s end, not ours; and, as far as the relation is really
economic, the significance to us of what we are doing is measured not by its
importance to the man for whom it is done, but by the degree to which it
furthers our own ends. There can, therefore, be no presumption of any
coincidence between the social significance of our work and the return we receive
for it. We cannot say ‘What men most care for they will pay most for,
therefore what is most highly paid is most cared for,’ for (sometimes to our
positive knowledge, and generally ‘for all we know’) it is different men who
express their eagerness for the different things we are comparing, by offering
such-and-such prices, and those who offer little money for a thing may do so
not because what they demand signifies so little, but because what they would
have to give, or to forgo, for it signifies so much. They may offer little for a
thing not because its possession matters so little, but because their possession
of anything, including this particular thing, matters so much.

These and other such considerations will not directly affect our exposition of
the mechanism of the market, the central phenomenon of the industrial world,
but they will profoundly affect the spirit in which we approach, and in which we
conduct, our investigation of it. For we shall not only know but shall always

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 567

feel that the economic machine is constructed and moved by individuals for
individual ends, and that its social effect is incidental. It is a means, and its
whole value consists in the nature of the ends it subserves and its efficacy in
subserving them. The collective wealth of a community ceases to be a matter
of much direct significance to us, for if one man has a million pounds, and a
hundred others have ten pounds each, the collective wealth is the same as if the
hundred and one men had a thousand each. What are we to expect from a
survey made from a point of view from which these two things are indistin-
guishable? The market does not tell us in any fruitful sense what are the
‘national,’ ‘social,’ or ‘collective’ wants, or means of satisfaction, of a
community, for it can only give us swms, and the significance of a sum varies
indefinitely, according to its distribution.

Tf we reflect on these things—and the study of differential significances forces
us to reflect upon them—we shall never for a moment, in our economic inves-
tigations, be able to escape from the pressure of the consciousness that they
derive their whole significance from their social and vital bearings, and that the
categories under which we usually discuss them conceal rather than reveal
their meaning. We shall understand that this ultimate significance is determined
by ethical considerations; that the sanity of men’s desires matters more than
the abundance of their means of accomplishing them; that the chief dangers
of poverty and wealth alike are to be found in degeneracy of desire, and that
the final goal of education and of legislation alike must be to thwart corrupt
and degrading ends, to stimulate worthy desires, to infect the mind with a whole-
some scheme of values, and to direct means into the channels where they are
likeliest to conduce to worthy ends.

To sum up this branch of our examination, the differential theory of
economics will never allow us to forget that organised ‘production,’ which is
the proper economic field, is a means only, and derives its whole significance
from its relation to ‘ consumption’ or ‘fruition,’ which is the vital field, and
covers all the ends to which production is a means; and, moreover, the
economic laws must not be sought and cannot be found on the properly economic
field. It is on the vital field, then, that the laws of economics must be discovered
and studied, and the data of economics interpreted. To recognise this will be to
humanise economics.

The merit of our present organisation of industry is to be found in the
extent to which it is spontaneous, and lays every man, whatever his ends,
under the necessity of seeking some other man whom he can serve in order to
accomplish them. So far it is social, for it compels the individual to relate
himself to others. But the more we analyse the life of society the less can we
rest upon the ‘economic harmonies’; and the better we understand the true
function of the ‘market,’ in its widest sense, the more fully shall we realise
that it never has been left to itself, and the more deeply shall we feel that it
never must be. Economics must be the handmaid of sociology.

It is of good augury that so large a part of the economic work now being
done is being done by sociologists and social and administrative reformers, in
the full consciousness of this relationship. It is perhaps of still better augury
that the last considerable work of a leading economist is devoted to a searching
study of the relation of Wealth to Welfare.

I now turn to the other set of considerations suggested by the recognition of
the differential theory of economics; and I would again remind you that I am
addressing myself to those who accept this theory in its full scope and without
reserve or qualification. I am not here to defend it, but, assuming its truth,
to point out some of the main consequences of its acceptance.

At the root of all lies a profound modification of our conception of the nature
and function of the ‘market’ itself. The differential theory when applied to
exchangeable things tells us that there is equilibrium only when an exchangeable
commodity is so distributed that everyone who possesses it assigns the same
place to its differential value, amongst those of other commodities of which he
has a supply; and that this place is a higher one than it occupies on the relative
scale of anyone who does not possess it. What this place is—that is to say, the
differential equivalence of the commodity in terms of other commodities, when
equilibrium is established—is fixed absolutely by two determinants. These are ;

568 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

(1) The tastes, desires, and resources of the individuals constituting the society.
When objectively measured and expressed these individual desires for any one
commodity can be represented by curves capable of being summed; and the
resultant curve, objectively homogeneous but covering undefined differences of
vital or subjective significance, is usually called, so far as it is understood and
realised, the ‘curve of demand.’ ‘This is one of the determinants we are
examining, and it represents a series of hypothetically co-existing relations
between given hypothetical supplies and corresponding differential significances.
It is a functional curve. (2) The amount of the actual supply existing in the
community. ‘This is not a curve at all, but an actual quantity. It is not a
series of co-existing relations, but one single fact, and it determines which of
the series of hypothetical or potential relations represented by the curve shall
be actually realised.

But what about the ‘supply curve’ that usually figures as a determinant
of price co-ordinate with the demand curve? I say it boldly and_baldly :
There is no such thing. What usually figures as such is merely a disguised
and therefore unrecognised portion of the ‘demand curve ’; for it is the register
of a series of hypothetical relations between supply and differential significance,
and therefore it is included in its entirety in our (1).

But neither our (1) nor our (2) is, generally speaking, accurately known by
anyone when the market opens, and the ‘higgling of the market,’ though not
theoretically a force that determines, is a machinery that discovers the character
of the relevant portion of the curve and the exact point of it that the supply
determines.

Diagrams of intersecting curves (and corresponding tables) of demand prices
and supply prices are therefore profoundly misleading. ‘They concentrate the
attention of the student upon distinctions which have no theoretical relevancy ;
they co-ordinate as two determinants what are really only two arbitrarily and
irrelevantly separated portions of one; and they conceal altogether the existence
and functions of what really is the second determinant. For it will be found
on a careful analysis that the construction ot a diagram of intersecting demand
and supply curves always involves, but never reveals, a definite assumption as
to the amount of the total supply possessed by the supposed buyers and the
supposed sellers taken together as a single homogeneous body, and that if this
total is changed the emerging price changes too; whereas a change in its dis-
tribution (if the preferences of the parties concerned remain the same, so that
the collective curve is unaffected, while the component or intersecting curves
change) will affect the extent of the transfer consequent on the opening of the
market, but not the market, or equilibrating price itself, which will come out
exactly the same. Naturally, for neither the one curve nor the one quantity
which determine the price has been changed."

The curve of supply prices, then, is an impostor. It is a fraudulent alias
of a portion of the demand curve. But so far we have only dealt with the
market in the narrower sense. Our investigations throw sufficient light on the
distribution of the hay harvest, for instance, or on the ‘catch’ of a fishing
fleet. But where the production is continuous, as in mining and in ironworks,
will the same theory still suffice to guide us? Here again we encounter the
attempt to establish two co-ordinate principles, diagrammatically represented
by two intersecting curves. Though the ‘cost of production’ theory of value
is generally repudiated, we are still too often taught to look for the forces that
determine the stream of supply along two lines, the value of the product,
regulated by the law of the market, and the cost of production. But what
is cost of production? In the market of commodities I am ready to give as
much as the article is worth to me, and I cannot get it unless I give as much
as it is worth to others. In the same way, if I employ land or labour or tools
to produce something, I shall be ready to give as much as they are worth to
me and I shall have to give as much as they are worth to others—always, of
course, differentially. Their worth to me is determined by their differential
effect upon my product, their worth to others by the like effect upon their

* See my ‘Common Sense of Political Economy,’ Book II., ch. iv.,
Macmillan. 1910. . 1p, ie Wb p. Seca hen ee

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 569

products (or direct fruitions, if they do not apply them industrially). Again
we have an alias merely. Cost of production is merely the form in which the
desiredness a thing possesses for someone else presenta itself to me. When we
take the collective curve of demand for any factor of production we see again
that it is entirely composed of demands, and my adjustment of my own
demands to the conditions imposed by the demands of others is of exactly the
same nature whether I am buying cabbages or factors for the production of
steel plates. I have to adjust my desire for a thing to the desires of others for
the same thing, not to find some principle other than that of desiredness, and
co-ordinate with it as a second determinant of market price. The second
determinant, here as everywhere, is the supply. It is not until we have per-
fectly grasped the truth that costs of production of one thing are nothing
whatever but an alias of efficiencies in production of other things that we shall
be finally emancipated from the ancient fallacy we have so often thrust out at the
door, while always leaving the window open for its return.

I now turn to some of the most obvious consequences of the differential
theory of distribution. They are all included in the one statement that when
fully grasped this theory must destroy the very conception of separate laws of
distribution, such as the law of rent, the law of interest, or the law of wages.
It is by determining the differential equivalence of all the factors of production,
however heterogeneous, that we reduce them to a common measure and establish
the theory of distribution; just as it is by determining the differential equiva-
lence of all our pursuits and possessions that we attempt to place a shilling or
an hour or an effort of the mind where it will tell best, and so distribute our
money or time or mental energy well. There can no more be a law of rent
than there can be a law of the price of shoes distinct from the general law of
the market. The way in which the several factors render this service to pro-
duction differs, but the differential service they render is in every case identical,
and it is on this identity or equivalence of service that the possibility of
co-ordinated distribution rests. So the economist, though he may begin by
giving precision to the student’s idea of how ‘waiting,’ for example, or
tools, or mere command of ‘ extension’ in space, or manual skill, or experience,
or honesty, may affect the value of the product, must end by showing him
that their distributive share of the product depends not upon the way in which
they affect the product (wherein they are all heterogeneous), but on the differ-
ential amount of their effect (wherein they are all alike). The law of distribu-
tion, then, is one, and is governed not by the differences of nature in the
factors, but by the identity of their differential effect. With this searchlight we
must scrutinise the body of current economic teaching, and must cast out the
mischievous survivals that deform it.

I will conclude, then, with a few illustrations of the course which I con-
ceive this process must follow. But first I must turn aside to utter a warning
and emphasise a distinction.

I have throughout spoken of differential, rather than marginal significances ;
for there is a fatal ambiguity in the use of the word ‘marginal.’ And yet,
after all, I have felt like the man who ‘did flee from a lion and a bear met
him; or went into the house and leaned his hand on the wall, and a serpent
bit him,’ for by a singular perversity of fate or fashion a closely similar
ambiguity besets the word ‘differential’ itself, and yet another the equally
appropriate term ‘incremental.’ All these words have been preoccupied; and
curiously enough it is speculations on the nature of rent or projects concerning
land that have done the mischief in every case. ‘Increment,’ instead of sug-
gesting a small homogeneous addition to any magnitude whatever, at once
suggests to the reader of economic literature the ‘unearned increment of land,’
so that the ‘incremental value,’ ‘efficacy’ or ‘significance’ of anything cannot
conveniently carry its proper meaning of the value attached to a small incre-
ment or decrement of anything, varying with the expansion or contraction of
the supply. This is the conception I have indicated by the term ‘ differential.”
But here again we are forestalled. Differential payment, for instance, would
generally be understood by readers of economic literature to mean payment
made for some articles in excess of that made for others in consideration of
their superiority. Thus, if I were to say that ‘rent is a differential charge,”

570 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

I should be supposed to mean that what you pay for a certain piece of land
as rent represents the superiority of that piece of land to another that you can
get for nothing. In this use of the word everything depends upon the different
quality of the things compared. But what I want is a word which shall always
carry the underlying assumption that we are considering the expansion and
contraction of a homogeneous supply, the ‘differential’ value of that supply
being a function of its breadth or magnitude.

Again, the same theory of rent which regards it as a differential charge, in
the sense of a charge due to an inherent difference of quality in the things
charged for, assumes that there is some land which bears no rent at all. This
is the land on the ‘margin’ of cultivation. Hence ‘marginal’ has come to be
used in economic literature to signify the lowest grade or quality of any com-
modity, or service, or the least favourable set of conditions, that just hold their
footing in any industry. Thus the marginal land would mean the worst land
under cultivation, the marginal workman the least efficient man in actual
employment, the marginal conditions of an industry the least advantageous
conditions under which it is actually conducted, and, I suppose, the marginal
grade of potatoes or wheat the worst quality actually in the market; or to
the hungry individual the marginal mouthful of beef would be the one just
not rejected and left on the plate because too largely composed of ‘ veins’ to
be eaten, even if no more of any kind were to be had.

Now attempts have been made to erect a theory of distribution upon the
consideration of ‘margins’ in this sense. The ‘ marginal’ man, working on the
‘marginal’ land, under the ‘marginal’ conditions, and with the ‘ marginal ’
appliances, is taken as the ultimate basis of the pile, and wages, rent and
interest are explained as ‘ differential’ in their nature; that is to say, as due
to the superiority in quality, position, or point of application, of such-and-
such work, land, or apparatus, over the ‘marginal’ specimens.

I do not stay to examine this theory on its merits; but it is necessary to
insist on the almost incredible fact that there is constant confusion between
it and what I have tried to expound as the ‘differential’ theory of distribu-
tion, simply because they can both be described as ‘ marginal,’ and the term
‘differential,’ though in quite divergent senses, may be introduced in the
exposition of either.

Once again, then, if I speak of the differential or marginal significance of
my supply of bread and milk, and say that it depends, ceteris paribus, upon how
many loaves of bread and how many pints of milk I take, I am supposing all
the bread and milk to be of the same quality. And if I speak of the differen-
tial or marginal significance of labour in a particular industry, I am either
speaking of a uniform grade of labour or of different grades reduced to some
common measure and expressed in one and the same unit, and I mean the
significance which such a unit has when it is one out of so many others like
itself. Thus, in my use of the word, there is no earmarked marginal unit,
which is such in virtue of its special quality. Any one of 100 units has
exactly the same marginal value; but as soon as one unit is withdrawn, all
the remaining 99 have a higher marginal value; and when one is added, all
the 101 a lower.

The only word I can think of free from misleading associations would be
“quotal’; for guotus means (amongst other things) ‘ one out of how many,’ and
so quotal significance might mean the significance which a unit has when
associated with such-and-such a number of others homogeneous with itself.

And now let us turn again to the further consideration of the changes of
method and the purgings which seem inevitably to follow upon the full recog-
nition of the differential principle in economics. Severe selection and limitation
is, of course, necessary, and I think we cannot do better than take up a few of
the current phrases or conceptions and diagrammatic illustrations connected
with the phenomenon of rent. Antecedently we must expect that as there
is no theoretical difference between the part played by land and that played
by other factors of production (or more direct ministrants to enjoyment), so
there can be no general assertion about rent and land which is at once true
and distinctive; for if true it must be based on that aspect of land which
expresses its function in a unit common, say, to capital, and which brings its

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 571

differential significance, upon which all depends, under the same law; and therg-
fore it cannot be distinctive of land.

Let us test the truth of these anticipations. We will begin with Ricardo’s
celebrated law of rent. Granted that land of a certain quality can be had for
nothing, and is worth cultivating, land of a better quality will bear a rent
equivalent to its superior yield to the same labour and capital. But this is
only to say that the superior article fetches the higher price. If we substitute
‘clothes’ for ‘land’ and say ‘granted that clothes of a certain quality are to
be had for nothing and are worth wearing, clothes of a better quality will bear
a price equivalent to the superior satisfaction or service they would yield under
the same circumstances,’ we shall gain a certain point of vantage from which
to examine the nature of the Ricardian hypothesis and the validity of the
conclusions drawn from it; but we shall not have modified it in any way as a
theory. If it is true theoretically and hypothetically of land it is true
theoretically and hypothetically of everything; and even if it should turn out
in any sense to have a superior degree of truth ‘materially’ when applied to
land, it is only the more fatally misleading and confusing to announce it as
‘formally ’ proper to it. And again, even to those most inclined to resent or
at least to challenge this line of argument, it must at once be obvious that the
Ricardian law of rent takes no account whatever of the distinction between
inherent properties of the land and what it owes to the capital sunk in it, or
the incidental advantages rising from the proximity of an industrial popula-
tion. All these superiorities will tell in the rent demanded exactly on the
Ricardian principle, so that the difference between economic ‘land’ and capital
or advantages of situation is completely merged without in any way affecting
the statement of the supposed ‘law of rent.’

A diagram may easily be constructed in which different qualities of land
may be represented along the axis of X and their supposed relative fertilities to
a fixed application of labour and capital along the axis of Y. ‘The ‘ marginal’
land will occupy the extreme place to the right. A line parallel to the axis
of X at the height of the ‘marginal’ yield will mark off in the area above it
the total rent. This is not a functional curve; for the height of Y does not
depend upon the length of X, but the units are expressly so placed on OX as
to produce a declining Y. Any confusion on this subject would be equivalent
to measuring off the altitude of the highest peak of the Himalayas on the axis
of Y and then, above successive points on the axis of X, measuring the lesser
heights, in declining order, of successive peaks till we came to Primrose Hill,
and subsequently reading the diagram as a functional curve showing, say, some
such relation as that between the height of mountains and their angular distance
from the equator. There is a difference, then, between a descriptive and a
functional curve, and what I have just described is a descriptive curve. It is
applicable to land or to anything else of which typical units can be arranged in
ascending or descending order of efficiency.

But the same figure has been used as a functional curve in connection with
the theory of rent. Take a given fixed area of land of a certain quality and
consider what would be its yield if it were ‘dosed’ with a certain quantity
of labour and capital represented by a unit on the axis of X, and represent this
yield by a rectangle upon this basis. Then add successive increments on the
axis of X, and after a time you will have to represent the corresponding incre-
ments in the yield as declining. Go on till a further increment of labour and
capital would not produce as large an increment in the yield of this land as
it would if applied to some other piece of land of the same or different quality,
or if turned to some non-agricultural business. The last increment actually
applied is the ‘marginal’ increment; the increment it produces in the yield is
by hypothesis adequate to induce its application, and therefore it measures the
distributive share of a unit of it in the product. Draw at its altitude a line
parallel to OX, and the rectangle represents the share of labour and capital,
whereas the curvilinear surplus or residue represents rent.

I cannot stay to show that such a curve ought really to be made to pass
through the origin, for though very essential to sound theory in general, this
fact does not affect our present investigation. But, on the other hand, it is
essential to dwell upon several other considerations. In passing I note again

572 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Fy

that the whole argument is quite independent of the carefully drawn distinc-
tion between economic and commercial rent, or between Jand and capital sunk
in land. But we must go on to still more important matters. 1t will be
noticed that when we now speak of the ‘marginal’ increment, we are using the
word in the sense of a ‘ differential,’ as employed throughout our own investiga-
tion. It is not any peculiarity of the ‘marginal’ increment that makes it
yield less than the others. It does not. They all have exactly the same
differential effect on the yield, as to which none is after or afore the other.
The height of this differential or marginal yield is dependent not upon the
nature of each several dose, but upon their common ‘ quotality.’ What we have
here, then, is not a law or theory of rent at all, but the tacit assumption that
the differential theory of distribution is true of every factor of production
except land, and that rent is what is left after everything that is not rent is
taken away. For observe, land-and-labour is treated as a homogeneous quantity,
so that the reduction of heterogeneous factors to a common unit is assumed, and
how is this to be done except by comparing their several efficiencies on the
product, and so combining them as to keep those efficiencies in differential
equivalence to their market prices, i.e., their efficiencies on other land or in
other industries? And thus the principle of marginal or differential efficiency
as determining distributive share in the product has long been quite definitely,
though naively and unconsciously, asserted in saying that the ‘ marginal ’—in
the sense of ‘ quotal’—efficiency of this compound factor of production, in the
specified industry and out of it, will find the same level and will determine its
remuneration.

This so-called statement of the law of rent, then, assumes our differential
laws of exchange value and distribution, with all their implications, as ruling
everywhere except in land and rent. As to rent it is, as we have observed, what
is left when everything except rent is taken away. This can hardly be called
a ‘law,’ but, such as it is, it is again common to all factors of production.
Wages are all that is left when everything that is not wages is taken out.
ae this is actually the statement of Walker’s ‘law of wages.’ And so with
the rest.

But this is not all. In the treatment of rent that we are examining the
differential theory of distribution is avowed with respect to every factor except
land; but it is implied with respect to land also. This can be rigidly proved
mathematically, as is now beginning to be acknowledged; and even the non-
mathematical student can easily perceive that the forms of the figures repre-
senting the shares of ‘land’ and ‘labour-and-capital’ respectively are deter-
mined not by any peculiarity of land, but by the fact that land is supposed to
remain constant, while labour-and-capital vary. But three pounds sterling
applied to one acre is the same thing as a third of an acre coming under one
pound’s worth of culture, and five pounds per acre is a fifth of an acre per
pound. Instead of taking an acre, therefore, and considering the difference of
yield as two, three, four, five pounds are expended upon it, let us take one pound
and consider the differences of yield as one-fifth, one-fourth, one-third, one-half
of an acre come under it, or, in other words, as it spreads itself over these
different areas. You will then find that you have a figure in which the
same identical data are presented and the same identical results obtained, but
the return to land is represented as a rectangle cut off by a line parallel to
OX, and the return to labour-and-capital by a curvilinear ‘surplus’ or residuum.
So that the supposed law of rent again turns out, in so far as it is true of land,
to be true of all the other factors of production; but the unhappy confusion
between the geometric properties of an arbitrarily selected constant factor in
a diagram and the economic properties of land has brought dire confusion into
economic thought and economic terminology. The Augean stables must be
cleansed. We must understand that when the differential distribution is effected
there is no surplus or residuum at all; and that any diagram of distribution
that represents the shares of the different factors under different geometrical
forms is sure to be misleading, and is likely to be particularly mischievous in
its misdirection of social imagination and aspiration.

My last illustration shall be drawn from the dictum that rent does not enter
into the cost of production. The value of all factors of production is derivative

———

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 573

from the value of the product. Neither rent, wages, nor interest properly
enter into exchange value, for they all come out of it. Cost of production, as
we have seen, means estimated productivity of agents in other industries; and
to say that rent does not enter into the cost of production is to say that land
cannot be employed and is not desired for any purpose except the one we are
considering. Nay, on closer examination we shall find that it further implies
that land has no incremental or differential significance at all, z7.e., that no one
would cultivate more than he does if he could get it rent free.

Again, the fallacious argument, such as it is, will apply equally well to any
other factor of production. If rent does not enter into the cost of production
because wheat grown on land that bears a high rent, in consideration of its
fertility, sells at the same price as that grown on land that bears a low rent,
inasmuch as it is barren, then wages do not enter into the cost of production
either, for wheat raised by labour that is well paid because it is efficient sells
at the same price as wheat raised by labour that is ill paid because it is
inefficient.

The whole conception depends upon the cost-of-production theory of value,
and the ‘marginal’ theory of distribution, in the sense of the term which I
have rejected. I am not attempting, at the moment, to refute either of those
theories, but I am trying to show that if we reject them we must give up
speaking as if we still held them.

These are but feeble, almost random, indications of some of the directions
in which I think that convinced apostles of the differential economics should
revise the methods of economic exposition. For myself I cannot but believe
that if this were accomplished all serious opposition would cease, there would
once again be a body of accepted economic doctrine, Jevons’ dream would
be accomplished, and economic science would be re-established ‘on a sensible
basis.’

It is impossible to exaggerate the importance of such a consummation.
Social reformers and legislators will never be economists, and they will always
work on economic theory of one kind or another. They will quote and apply
such dicta as they can assimilate and such acknowledged principles as seem
to serve their turn. Let us suppose there were a recognised body of economic
doctrine the truth and relevancy of which perpetually revealed itself to all who
looked below the surface, which taught men what to expect and how to analyse
their experience; which insisted at every turn on the illuminating relation
between our conduct in life and our conduct in business; which drove the
analysis of our daily administration of our individual resources deeper, and
thereby dissipated the mist that hangs about our economic relations, and con-
centrated attention upon the uniting and all-penetrating principles of our study.
Economics might even then be no more than a feeble barrier against passion
and might afford but a feeble light to guide honest enthusiasm, but it would
exert a steady and a cumulative pressure, making for the truth. While the
experts worked on severer methods than ever, popularisers would be found to
drive homely illustrations and analogies into the general consciousness; and the
roughly understood dicta bandied about in the name of Political Economy
would at any rate stand in some relation to truth and to experiénce, instead
of being, as they too often are at present, a mere armoury of consecrated
paradoxes that cannot be understood because they are not true, that everyone
uses as weapons while no one grasps as principles.

The following Papers were then read :—

1. Trade Unions and Copartnership. By Dr. CHARLES CARPENTER.

2. Trade Unions and Copartnership. By Joun B. C. Kersuaw.

The author in this paper discussed the statistics of the copartnership
movement in the light of the facts and figures given in the latest Government
report on profit-sharing and labour copartnership in the United Kingdom,?

1 Cd. 6496, 1912.

574 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

and then dealt with the causes of past failures, more especially with the objec-
tions of the trades unions and their leaders to all extensions of the movement
beyond its present limited field of application. The author’s proposals for over-
coming trades-union hostility were :—

1. Perfect freedom for all workers to join their respective unions if so
inclined. ;

2. Recognition of trades-union rates of pay as basis of the copartnership
scheme.

3. Election of selected labour leaders in each industry and locality as directors
of large firms or companies.

The objections that might be raised to these proposals—by critics from both
sides—were discussed in some detail, and the author expressed the opinion that
the wave of unrest which is still troubling the industrial world in all countries
will only be calmed and give place to more harmonious co-operation between
capital and labour when the manual workers are given a larger share of the
profits of industry and a greater stake than they now possess in the welfare and
prosperity of their country.

Copartnership, in the author’s opinion, is the most simple and effective means
for bringing about this change in the organisation of our industries, and at the
same time preserving that efficiency of financial and technical control, without
which no industry can succeed in these modern days. Past failures in the
attempts to run industries entirely by working-men for the workers’ own
benefit have proved the need for a closer co-operation between Capital, Brains,
and Labour. There are three essentials required for the successful conduct of
modern manufacturing industries: (1) A plentiful and cheap supply of capital;
(2) a plentiful supply of skilled and contented labour;, (3) skilled technical and
business management which can take instant advantage of all opportunities
offered for improving the manufacture and of extending the market for the
finished goods.

The copartnership principle is the one which offers the best chance of attain-
ing these three conditions of success, and if trades-union hostility to the
principle could be disarmed the movement would extend with amazing rapidity.

3. The Scientific Study of Business Organisation,
By Professor C. H. OupHam.

Faculties of Commerce in our universities are designed to provide university
education mainly for the Employer Class, the persons who are to control and
direct business enterprises. In their programmes of studies an important place
should be allotted to the scientific study of modern Business Organisation.
Apart from this purely educational value, the study has great practical import-
ance from wider standpoints, viz.: (i) the profitable development of large-scale
business in British industry and commerce, and (ii) the application of economic
science to the changing structure of business under modern conditions.

The paper pointed out how this branch of study suffers in these countries from
a lack of authentic material in the form of analysed examples of actual business
organisation based on British practice and experience. At present we have to
look to American business men and to American universities for guidance in this
study. This position is unsatisfactory : for American business organisation and
practice differ in some important respects from British organisation and practice,
and the interpretation of this difference is itself a curiously interesting economic
problem. The writer advocated concerted action to procure the required
materials from the actual working organisations of typical British businesses.

Modern Business Organisation, as a subject for study, includes the following
five branches, viz. : (a) Forms of the Business Authority, classified into types by
noting the way legal responsibility is fixed, with the merits and limitations of
each type. The controlling authority undergoes transformation into new forms
as the scale of the business grows larger. (b) The internal Industrial Organisa-
tion of the individual business. The proper Location, Lay-out, and Equipment
of the plant. This establishes a departmental organisation and inter-relation for
each step in the movement of a producf through the factory from raw material up

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 575

to finished units of output. (c) The internal Staff Organisation of the individual
business. There is not merely a division of labour, but a division of function
and a sub-division of authority. This sets up a departmental organisation and
inter-relation from the head management right down to the last man who is to be
possessed of authority. (d) Forms of Combinations between many individual
firms, in order to regulate or to restrict competition : the descriptive side of what
is loosely called the ‘Trust Movement’ in industry. (e) Modern institutions
organised for handling questions in dispute between Employer and Employed :
such as Trade Unions, Employers’ Federations, Conciliation Boards, &c.

Of course, Business Organisation stands to Business Policy very much as
Anatomy stands to Physiology: the one is structure, the other function. The
study of both, in their general principles, is essential to the Higher Commercial
Education. But this paper is concerned with the former only.

The central problems of Business Organisation have to do with Staff Organisa-
tion and the sub-division into departments. The scientific clue to departmental
division lies in the practical fact that different stages in the making or the
marketing of goods require widely diverse experiences in the authorities that
control those stages. In any properly organised business it is possible to exhibit
by a chart on paper the departmental divisions in such a way as to show how
the authorities governing different departments are related to the industrial body
as a whole; in other words, to show exactly where each authority is related to
the others, and how far each authority may extend in the business.

Now, we can find in American text-books the Organisation Charts of many
different types of business; for examples, an American railroad company, a large
meat-packers’ business, a shipbuilding yard, a typewriter (or motor-car) manu-
facturing company, &c. One learns from them that, while all factories are not
alike, the principles of the accounting system used by one are applicable to
another: the details may vary, but not the principles. Any business man, by
following a similar analysis, can put down on paper the actual, or ideal, Organisa-
tion Chart for his own special business. This chart will express all the mutual
relations governing the organisation of his business; it will show clearly the
very foundation upon which all the authorities, the accounting system, and the
business operations are based and conducted. But the grand impediment to the
study of Business Organisation in this country is the complete absence from
our text-books of Organisation Charts stating the actual facts of the working
organisation of representative British businesses of various types and dimensions.
It is well known that large-scale production ceases to be profitable when its
organisation becomes unmanageable : the limit to the size of the business-unit is
fixed by the ability for administration. But this ability can be greatly extended
by the scientific study of Business Organisation.

The paper was illustrated by lantern slides showing the Organisation Charts
of various types of businesses, and the method of analysing such charts when
problems of business administration raise fresh issues in Business Organisation.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
Discussion on Inland Waterways.

(i) The Improvement and Unification of English Waterways.
By Lord SuaurrLewortu.

The author recalled the circumstances under which a Royal Commission was
appointed in 1906 to inquire into the inland waterways question in the United
Kingdom. After four years’ labours, they reported on English Waterways,
contrasting their disunited and unimproved condition with the results of unifica-
tion and improvement of this system of transport in foreign countries, and
recommending the appointment of a Central Waterway Board to deal with
Waterways, much as the Road Board deals with roads, without undertaking the
business of carrying.

The Commission had done its part, and it now rested with the traders and

576 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

their organisations to press the recommendations on Parliament and the Govern-
ment, in the form of step-by-step improvement—first, the formation of the
Waterway Board; secondly, unification; and, thirdly, the first instalment of
improvement of one or two of the main routes of waterways. To answer
doubts, he pointed to the present obsolete condition of our canals, and the un-
developed state of our rivers, as well as the fact that we have a fine network
of connected waterways in England, but remaining unimproved since 1830, in
contrast with those in Northern France and Southern Belgium, where the results
of unification and improvement, during recent years, should be visited and
studied, as well as the statistics of increase of waterway traffic, accompanied by
simultaneous increase of railway traffic also. In England, not only would the
railway traffic be similarly increased by the development of the output of
inland factories, thanks to a cheaper transport of raw materials, &c., but the
transfer of industries to the coast and subsequent loss of railway rates would
be arrested.

After quoting from the anticipations of the Commission of indirect return
on the probable cost of unification and improvement, in the shape of benefit to
trade, he pointed out that the perseverance of France, Belgium and Germany
year by year in the policy of waterway improvement proved that experience
had convinced foreign Governments of the benefit to trade resulting from
waterway reform and extension.

(u) Some Reasons why the State should improve the Canals and
Waterways of the United Kingdom. By Sir Joun Purser
GrirFitH, M.Inst.C.H.

The object of this paper was to encourage discussion on some of the
economic reasons which appeared to the writer to warrant State interference for
the purpose of improving the canals and waterways of this country. The
writer, as an engineering member of the Royal Commission on Canals and
Waterways, signed the majority report without reservation, because from an
engineering point of view he was satisfied that the proposals were reasonable
and practicable, and also because on economic grounds the proposals appeared to
him sound. He thought it would scarcely be reasonable for him to take up time
by entering into detailed descriptions of the engineering difficulties to be over-
come, but he wished to say that many of the objections which have appeared in
print to the proposals to develop the waterways of Great Britain were difficulties
conjured up by the writers, and have no foundation in the proposals of the Royal
Commission.

While aiming at the formation of trunk waterways of the 100 tons and 300
tons standard, the aim was ever present in the minds of the Commissioners that
the existing type of canal boat and barge must be provided for, and that the
new locks and lifts should be designed so as to allow the passage of trains of
these boats and barges, and permit of the economic introduction of mechanical
haulage. ‘There would be no scrapping of canal plant,’ to use the expressive
words of the explanatory pamphlet issued by the Waterways Association.

The writer has been impressed with the future possibilities of our water-
ways, because an extensive system of inland navigation exists in the country,
represented in Great Britain and Ireland by 4,670 miles of canals and naviga-
tions, which were constructed as independent concerns without any idea of
forming a united scheme or system of inland navigation, and which generally
speaking are in no better condition than they were eighty years ago; yet in the
face of such hindrances many of these waterways are still worked with advantage
to certain districts and trades.

The principal opposition to the revival of inland navigation by the aid of
public funds comes from those who profess to speak in the interests of the
railway companies, or from economists who believe that public money should
not be used in aid of waterways in competition with railways constructed by
private enterprise. '

There exists, however, a class of railway proprietors who believe that rail-
ways would be benefited by a transfer of a large volume of low-class traftic
from rails to water, and that the present inflated railway capital might be used

: TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, ie ONT

to better advantage for higher-class traffic. An examination of the Railway
Traffic Returns issued by the Board of Trade would seem to support this view.

When speaking of the State ownership of waterways, it should be borne in
mind that one of the recommendations of the Royal Commission was, that,
although owners of the waterways, the State should not become carriers on
these waterways. These water highways would be open to all carriers, whether
private individuals or public companies, and it is reasonable to believe that the
railway companies, who are amongst the most efficiently organised carriers,
would be amongst the first to take advantage of the improved waterways.

The question of State ownership of canals and waterways, or of financial aid
by the State towards their revival, is one on which great difference of opinion
still exists. The passing of the Development and Road Improvement Funds
Act shows, however, that a great change is coming over public opinion on such
matters, The improvement of communication by road is becoming year by year
of increasing public concern, and in like manner it appears probable that
interest in inland navigation will develop as the need for increased transport
facilities is felt. The advances in motor traction or haulage ashore and afloat
will hasten progress.

The Manchester Ship Canal furnishes an example of waterway construction
started as a private enterprise which probably would not have been completed
but for the public spirit of the Manchester Corporation in raising 5,000,000/. in
aid of the work on the credit of the rates of the city. No one can now deny
the advantage this work has been to Lancashire, and yet the financial loss to the
original shareholders has probably done much to stop the improvement of canals
and waterways by private enterprise.

(ui) The Waterways of France, Belgium, and Germany.
By Frank R. Duruam, A.M.Inst.C.h.

This paper dealt in a short, cursory manner with the following points of
interest, quoting freely from the Final Report of the Royal Commission of
Canals and Waterways, and Sir William Lindley’s report on the Foreign Inquiry
to the said Commission :—

(a) The reasons for the development of the waterway system due to economic
development of the resources of the countries.

(6) Distribution and standardisation of the waterways.

(c) Ownership of the traffic conditions and facilities in the three countries.
Ownership of the inland harbours.

(d) Administration of the waterways.

(ce) Organisation of the towage and the tendency towards State administration.

({) Expenditure on waterways and networks.

(7) Means of raising capital, methods adopted in the three countries, and
the principle of local contributions, or contributions from interested persons.

(4) Traffic. Development of traftic since the modernised development of the
waterway systems.

(1) Comparison. A short comparison with England, quoted from the Final
Report of the Royal Commission on Canals and Waterways.

(iv) Inland Waterways in England. By R. B. Dunwoopy.

(v) A Forward Canal Policy: Its Economic Justification.
By W. M. Acworrtu, M.A.

The object of this paper was to show that canals as a means of transport
are necessarily and inherently inferior to railways; that canals cannot carry
cheaper than railways if the total cost of carriage is taken into consideration ;
that canals can only compete with railways if, as in France and in Germany,
the competition is subsidised and a large part of the cost of canal carriage
laid on the shoulders of the taxpayer, and that therefore a forward canal policy
has no economic justification.

The writer pointed out that in England, where canals and railways have

1913, P P

578 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

been left to compete on equal terms, the canals have been definitely beaten;
that in America the bulk of the canals have been abandoned, and even the Erie
Canal, though maintained as a free highway at public expense, has lost all its
old importance; that in France, not only are the canals free highways main-
tained at public expense, but the railways are forbidden to reduce their rates
to the canal level, and still the average total ton mile cost is higher on the
canals than on the railways.

From Germany figures of the important Dortmund-Ems Canal were given to
show that its construction has resulted in an economic loss to the State, and
only a small gain to the individual trader.

It was pointed out that canals are necessarily inferior to railways as a
means of transport, because (a) their capital cost is higher, (b) their carrying
capacity is smaller, (c) they only cater for low-class goods, in bulk, and (d)
they can only reach the ultimate point of production or consumption by the
supplementary use of waggons or railway trucks.

It was also pointed out that the traders and localities for whom canals are
potentially available naturally have an interest in promoting their construction
at the public expense, as thereby they, paying only a proportion of the total
cost of carriage, throw the remainder of that cost on the public at large,
and so not only reduce their expenses, but obtain a differential advantage over
competitors to whom the railway only is accessible.

The writer concluded that the adoption of a forward policy cannot be
justified as in the interest of the community at large, and that therefore it
lies upon those who urge the adoption of such a policy in any individual case
to prove their right to secure for themselves a differential advantage at the cost
of the whole community.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.

Discussion on Prices and the Cost of Living.

(i) The Relation between the Changes of Wholesale and Retail Prices
of Food. By Dr. A. L. Bow .ey.

Between wholesale and retail prices come the expenses and profits of
merchants and brokers, of transport, of manufacture, of taxes, of interest and
of retail dealing. It.is not known in general whether these expenses tend to
vary with the movement of wholesale prices or remain stationary. If the
former, retail prices would vary proportionately with wholesale; if the latter,
retail prices would move less per cent. than wholesale. The question is
examined by comparing the prices of grain, flour, and bread month by month
during 1906-1913. Two measurements are proper to make: (1) The coefficient
ot correlation, which shows how closely the two prices are casually connected ;
(2) the standard deviations, which show how far the prices diverge from their
average. If the cost of distribution and manufacture remained unchanged,
the ratio of the standard deviations of wholesale and retail prices would equal
the ratio of the retail price to the wholesale price of the same unit. This is
found to be the case with bread and flour, so that hs Jolla

4 Bat ae Price of flour per cwt.—lls. _
The price of a quartern loaf = 2:27d. + 3°33d. + Number of loaves made from owt.
where 3°33d. is the cost of the flour, and 2-27d. the cost and profit of baking.

The same process is applied to the wholesale prices in 1896-1910 of bread,
flour, beef, mutton, bacon, butter, potatoes, sugar, tea, eggs, and cheese,, as
compared with the London retail prices stated in the publications of the Board
of Trade. The commodities are weighted in the proportion in which they
occur in a town workman’s expenditure, and together they account for over
two-thirds of the expenditure on food. No uniform relation is found, but
when all are grouped together the following equation is satisfied :—

Cost of budget = Wholesale price of goods (10s.) + Cost of distribution (5s.)
+ 1:11 of excess of wholesale price over 10s.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 579

This relation corresponds to a percentage movement of retail prices equal to
three-quarters of the percentage movement of wholesale prices. Column A in the
following table shows the movements of the wholesale prices of the goods
selected ; Column B the movement of retail prices from this equation; Column C
the movement on the hypothesis that cost of distribution remains unchanged ;
Column D the weighted average of the Board of Trade’s index-numbers for the
same commodities, the numbers in brackets showing the effect of subtracting the
tea and sugar duties from retail prices. Column EK gives the Board of Trade’s
number for London including all food.

— Price Movements on Various Hypotheses. Quinquennial Averages.

ee B C D E
ae 132 193) |. . 121 a as
1, 112 108° =|" 107 ae did
1888-92 . . 104 102 | ~=102 dies =
or o7 . 93 ga) ||) 9g 914 (93) 914
1898-1902... 97 Spee MEE ogg 97 (974) 964
oer |) 100 100 | 100 100 (100) 100
mango. 111 107 107 107} (1072) 1063
oy hia 113 109 108 fas esi

It is suggested that retail measurements are in some cases so uncertain that it
is necessary to explain and harmonise such differences as are shown between
Golumns C and D before either can be used as minutely correct, and that it is
not improbable that the figure even in Column C for 1893-7 is too low.

(ii) The Construction of Index Numbers to Show Changes in the Cost
of the Principal Articles of Food for the Working Classes. By
Mrs. Frances Woop, B.Sc.

At present the only food index numbers published annually are those given
for London by the Board of Trade in their ‘ Abstract of Labour Statistics,’ but
as no information is given as to the data, methods, &c., used in their construc-
tion, it is impossible to judge whether they are trustworthy. In spite of this
they are almost universally quoted as applying not only to London but even to
the United Kingdom as a whole!

Weekly or monthly records of the prices charged by retailers for the prin-
cipal articles of food are very much to be preferred to records of the prices paid
by consumers, i.e., family budgets, as data upon which to base food index
numbers, and, if the results are to be taken as applying especially to the
working classes, the records should be obtained, if possible, from working-class
firms. Family budgets must, however, be obtained to give the articles com-
mouly consumed by the working classes as well as the relative importance of
the different articles.

Series of index numbers for bread, prepared by the author from the returns
of seven large London firms, show that the prices charged even by those firms
which deal with the same class of customer do not show similar variations from
year to year, and point to the conclusion that reliable index numbers for a
eg town can only be obtained from the combined returns of a number of

rins. ;

The kind of the commodity studied can and must be kept constant during the
course of an investigation, e.g., Australian mutton one year must not be com-
pared with English mutton the next year. But the quality of Australian mutton,
for example, may vary from year to year, so that the actual quality of the article
studied will not necessarily be kept constant. Since, however, the investigation
is concerned with changes in the cost of living, it is doubtful whether the index
numbers need be modified on account of such changes in quality only. In the
case of commodities such as butter and eggs, especially among working-class
firms, no practical attempt is made to differentiate between the different kinds.
It is accordingly impossible to follow changes in the price of any individual

PPR2

580 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION TF.

kind, but the change in the price of either all the kinds sold or possibly of the
cheapest kind sold may be taken as a criterion.

Commodities such as meat and bacon present special difficulties, as here the
consumer can purchase a variety of cuts. In this case the most reliable index
numbers will probably be obtained by studying the change in the price of all
joints or cuts.

Finally, the index numbers of the various commodities must be combined to
form general index numbers, the different commodities being weighted according
to the extent to which they enter into the consumption of the average working-
class family, as shown by the investigation of a number of family budgets.

(ili) The Industrial Credit System and Imprisonment for Debt.
By W. H. Wuirteocr.

This paper dealt with the following matters :—

The various systems on which goods are sold on credit to the working classes
by industrial traders in Birmingham—provision dealers, general merchants,
Scotch drapers, furniture dealers. The hire-purchase system and the various
articles supplied under it. The public misconception about moneylenders. The
various classes in this trade. The terms on which working men can borrow in
Birmingham, and the extent of their transactions. The proportion of cases in
each class of trade which cannot be collected without the assistance of the court.
Court procedure. The difficulties in the way of effecting service of process.
The investigation of defendant’s means at the hearing, and the principle of the
instalment order. The methods of enforcing payment—(1) Execution against
goods, and its disadvantages; (2) Debtors Act, and the suspended commitment
order. The causes of working-class insolvency, and the relief given by the
administration order. Its distinction from the ordinary bankruptcy. The
results as far as creditors are concerned. The Committee on Imprisonment for
Debt and its recommendations—their injustice and impracticability. * The
objection to the abolition of imprisonment. The real grievance of the Debtors
Act, and its remedy by improved methods of administration. The system
adopted in Birmingham to this end, and its results as compared with other

districts.

(iv) The Economic Value of Foodstuffs.
By Professor Lronarp Hin, M.B., F.R.S,.

(v) What an International Conference on the High Cost of Living
would do. By Professor Invina FisHEr.

A movement for an International Conference on the High Cost of Living has
been active for the last two years. It has received the support of the President
and ex-President of the United States, the President of France, and many high
officials of other countries, such as England, Canada, Germany, Austria,
Italy, &c.

if such a Conference is called it will discuss and formulate the problems
which need solution and refer them to committees appointed for the purpose
of investigating them and reporting later to the Conference. These problems
fall under five heads: problems of fact, of causes, of past evils, of future
prospects, of remedies.

Under the first head (facts) will come a study of the most suitable form of
index numbers and the most suitable list of commodities to be included in these
index numbers. Such an investigation should enable us to know with con-
siderable precision the rise of prices in different countries and possibly also the
relative height of the present price levels of those countries.

Statistics of price levels are equivalent to statistics of the purchasing power
of monetary units. But the studies of the Conference should include, besides
the purchasing power of monetary units, the number of monetary units in our

incomes—particularly in wages. "
The second branch of our problem (causes) takes us into a more difficult

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 581

field. According to the writer’s understanding of this problem the question of
the causes of rising prices is a question of the rate of increase of the means for
purchasing commodities as compared with the increase in the volume of trade in
these commodities. This study resolves itself into a study of five principal
factors, namely, the amount of money in circulation, the velocity of its citcula-
tion, the amount of deposits subject to check, their velocity (or activity of
turnover), and the volume of trade. Some actual statistics for these five
magnitudes are available in the United States, but none for other countries.
There are, however, some indications which show the relative rate at which
these various magnitudes are increasing in the world as a whole.

The great conflict of opinion at the Conference will doubtless be as to whether
the rise of prices means an inflation of money and credit or a scarcity of goods.
Lf the result of its investigations should indicate that the rise of prices is chiefly
a monetary phenomenon, this would indicate the importance of a monetary
remedy, such as some plan for ‘ standardising ? monetary units, 7.¢e., ‘stabilising ’
the general level of prices. But whether or not any such far-reaching remedy
ean be applied or even recommended, there are other and less ambitious remedies
in the way of saving waste which ought to be carefully considered. Such, for
instance, are the conservation of natural resources, the elimination of unneces-
sary middlemen, the introduction of co-operation where economies can thereby
be ‘effected, the improvement of banking systems, the removal of high tariff
walls, &c.

The outlook seems to many of us to indicate that the rise in world prices is
permanent and likely to be aggravated in future years. Under these circum-
stances, even though we cannot immediately apply remedies for lack of sufficient
agreement, the sooner we can secure the necessary data to lead to such an
agreement the better.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
The following Papers were read :—

1. The Economic Order. By Professor J. H. Murrueap.

I. Economics is probably alone among the sciences recognised at the British
Association, in having not only its particular conclusions, but the whole field
and method of its work, questioned at the present time. This suspicion is not
confined to the refined Anarchism of Tolstoi. It is shared by current Socialism
and nearly the whole body of intelligent working-men who * have no need of the
economist.’ It is reflected in a certain ‘loss of nerve’ among economists them-
selves, many of whom claim no more than ‘historic’ value for their conclusions.

To combat this suspicion effectually and establish the legitimate authority
of economic science it is not sufficient to appeal from mechanical to biological
conceptions, from ‘individual’ to ‘crowd psychology’ (art. ‘Economics’ in
‘Ency. Brit.,’ 1910). This can only introduce new confusion. Nor is it
sufficient to refer generally to the ‘ abstractness* of the conclusions of the earlier
economics. We want to know definitely what they are abstractions from, and
what remains when we have allowed for the abstractions. This we can only do
in the light of a truer philosophy of the individual and society.

II. This is not the place for a sketch of such a philosophy. But the central
point can be made clear. The whole question turns on the nature of selfhood or
individuality. Individuality depends not, as in the old philosophy, on the
exclusiveness of persons, but on the possession and adequate performance of a
social function. To have a self or a soul is to have a ‘place’ in the whole. To
be a self is to give oneself to a whole. But to admit this seems to traverse the
economist’s assumption of forces essentially self-centred (if not selfish), and of a
permanent order, founded on their dominance in the aggregate. Hence the
‘antinomy’ making the present problem. The principle on which the solution
of it must be sought is that an element which in itself has no independent value
may survive as an essential factor in a whole, as a line or a colour meaningless

582 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

in itself survives in a picture. The exclusiveness of the self, though it has no
finality, is yet an indispensable phase of its life.

(a) A world of commensurable values necessarily springs up as the result of
man’s ‘ necessities’ as a finite being, the value of each individual being primarily
measurable by his contribution to this world of values—by ‘what he is.’ To
deny is again to abstract.

(6) In this world division of labour and exchange of products are necessary
economies—the revolt against this in itself (e.g., in H. G. Wells) is reactionary—
and this involves competition between buyer and seller—the one guided by
need of the product, the other by need of ‘remuneration’ (ultimately his con-
tinued efficiency as a producer).

(c) At any given stage markets and ‘places’ are definitely limited—the
possible applicants are indefinite; giving rise again to competition between the
sellers of the same article—goods or powers.

The new philosophy comes not to destroy, but to fulfil; but the justifica-
tion is not to be sought in the ‘rights of the individual,’ but in social well-being,
which requires :—

(i.) That everyone shall make himself of economic value.
(ii.) That needs shall be supplied in the most economical way.
(iii.) That the right man shall have the right place.

The social problem is not therefore to be solved by ignoring or superseding
this order, but by subordinating it to the wider ends of life, e.g., by the care of
the industrially weak or unfit; the abolition of monopolies other than those
which, like talents, represent intrinsic power of contributing to social values;
protection against other forms of exploitation. For the rest there is no
antagonism between the effects of competition and social organisation and indi-
vidual well-being. The acquisition by personal effort on the part of the
individual of industrial skill is the condition of acceptance by a protective
organisation, e.g., a trade union; the most important condition of the happiness
of a society of finite beings is that each should have the place suited to his

owers.

III. The general conclusion as to the work of economics: while it has nothing
to do with ultimate ends, and cannot therefore prescribe laws for human life
as a whole, or claim a place for its ideals where the ‘economic’ order is of
necessity superseded by deeper organic relations, as in those of husband and wife,
yet the more the importance of the material basis of civilisation and of men’s
occupations in contributing to it comes to be recognised, the more value will
be set on its researches. More particularly in the present time of the re-organi-
sation of industry, with a view to the vindication of a truer individuality, do we
want to know how the special changes advocated in their name—the minimum
wage, the lengthening of the school period, modified forms of protection, the
strengthening of the economic position of woman, industrial training, &c.—will
affect the economic order as above described.

2. Qualifications of Diminishing Utility.
By W. R. Scorr, M.A., D.Phil., Tatt.D,

A principle of increasing utility can be established from (1) the general
experience of the race; (2) from actual instances; (3) deductively from the
nature of desire.

As a result of these inquiries it becomes possible to escape from the atomistic
treatment of motives, considering a system of desire or scheme of consumption
rather than the postulate of a separate want for each distinct commodity. The
extent to which this synthesis should be extended. Applications of the new
theory to taxation should be made cautiously. It has advantages for the
general theory of political economy, in extending its symmetry, in removing its
pessimism, and in bringing a reconciliation with poetry, philosophy, and art.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 583

3. How far are Mathematical Methods really of Use in Economic
Science? By A. J. Kenny, M.A.

The object of this paper was to consider the methods and principles involved
in the numerous applications of mathematics which have been made to economic
science. A distinction was made between the algebraic method, with extension to
calculus, as used by Cournot and others, and methods which are not wholly of
a mathematical nature, but in which mathematics are used to support some
particular doctrine, as, for example, that of marginal utility. In the latter
group the question arises whether these abstract conceptions are adequately
represented by the mathematical symbols used, and consequently whether the
conclusions drawn are valid.

It can be shown that on account of the restrictions imposed on the mathe-
matical method, and the consequent lack of variety in the methods employed,
many points are unnecessarily obscured. For instance, the principle of maximum
and minimum is sometimes applied in the theory of demand and the conclusion
arrived at that the price is in the ratio of the marginal utilities of the com-
modity and money. This determines the quantity purchased, if the marginal
utility of money be known, as is usually assumed. A general method, however,
leads to the conclusion that the marginal utility of money depends essentially
on its distribution in the purchase of all the commodities desired, so that the
application of mathematics, subject to the hypothesis that the utility of money
is known, leads to a result which is only true in a limited sense.

Again, in support of the assertion that the problem of economic equilibrium
is determinate, equations are found which are equal in number to the unknown
quantities. As the equations so found are not in general of the first degree, there
may be a large number of possible solutions. This shows the necessity of recog-
nising conditions which are not capable of being expressed as relations between
variables.

The conclusion was that mathematical methods are capable of throwing light
on economic problems in a manner impossible by any other means. But in order
that valid results may be obtained it is necessary that the methods used should
be of such a general character as to admit of the possibility of discussing various
hypotheses.

4. Some Effects of Compulsion on the Economics of Sickness
Insurance. By Samuren F. Wiuson.

The Insurance Act of 1911 has introduced many new and important elements
into the economics of the State, the employer, and the wage-earner. The
limited part of the general subject dealt with in this brief paper was the effects
of compulsion on that part of the scheme—about one-third of the total contri-
butions—which is devoted to the payment of sickness benefits.

Regarded from an economic point of view, this part differs from the other
portions of the scheme, inasmuch as a flat rate of contributions is fixed to
meet contingent and gradually increasing benefits, thus necessitating large
reserves of capital, and periodical valuations of the present values of contribu-
tions and benefits. Into this part of the scheme, but more especially under
compulsion, the great variety of human nature, as well as of circumstances,
enter in many ways.

Hitherto these valuations have affected voluntary members only, so that
secession has always opened a safety valve for dissatisfaction. Under com-
pulsion this valve is closed, and deficiencies when disclosed, as they certainly
will be, will have a much more disastrous effect.

It is submitted that a part of the task of unravelling the new and complex
conditions affecting solvency might very well be undertaken by this Section of
the British Association. In time the conditions imposed by compulsion become
the normal field for voluntary effort, and it is highly desirable that such
conditions should be thoroughly investigated. A strong critical element outside
the Government actuarial office, and altogether apart from the make-believe of

eae and political writers, gives promise of the best and most enduring
results.

584 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION FT.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. Some of the Economic Effects of the Panama Canal.
By Professor A. W. Kirxaupy.

In estimating the probable economic effects of the opening of the Panama
Canal there must be noted :—A. Local effects; B. the effects on world trade.

From the industrial point of view three questions arise :—(i) who shall
supply certain markets: (ii) who shall perform the service of transport :
(ili) what routes shall the shipping take?

The following are among the principal factors on the balance of advantages
of which the above questions will be decided :—1. distance; 2. tolls on the
route; 3. freights, and the possibility of continuous freight-earning; 4. fuel
stations; 5. insurance rates; 6. the political factor; 7. rates of exchange;
8. investments of capital and banking facilities; 9. the human factor—manu-
facturing and commercial ability, experience of trade and markets, present
possession.

A. Local Effects —The Canal will add enormously to the commercial
facilities between the various regions of the American continent and the ad-
jacent islands, hence important developments may be expected. The West
India Islands will enter upon a new period of prosperity, especially when the
internal-combustion engine takes the place of steam, and oil replaces coal.
English business and fiscal methods will have a great effect on making the West
Indies important to shipping, and thus assist the development of local indus-
tries, especially the export of raw material. The comparatively unprogressive
States of Central and South America will undergo remarkable developments
owing to increased immigration of Europeans and increased trade. These local
benefits will be the chief, and ample, justification for the construction of the
Canal.

B. The Effect on World Trade.—1. America realises the importance of the
coal trade to the United Kingdom; there will be a strenuous attempt to displace
British coal throughout the world in order to give American shipping the
advantages at present enjoyed by British. If successful this will deal a mortal
blow at our Mercantile Marine. Thus the British coal industry must realise
the situation, and both the capital and labour interested resolve to hold the
markets at all costs until the fuel question—coal or oil—is finally settled.

2. The published scheme of tolls which frees American coasting ships raises an
international question. If the Canal be worked on business principles, higher
tolls will be exacted from other shipping; this will either cause a grievance, or
decrease the tonnage using the Canal. The question might be made domestic
instead of international if America charged equal tolls to all, and gave
bounties to such shipping as it wishes to favour.

Hactors.—1. Distance.—Kffects on Australasian and Far Eastern markets
will be considerable. The mileage run by a steamer is a serious factor in cost
of service. In this shipping offers a contrast to railways, for when trucks are
loaded, length of haul has but little effect on cost of service.

Taking London and New York as the typical European and American ports,
the markets of the world fall into three classes :—(1) Countries in close
proximity to the Canal: here the effect will be greatest and, in many cases,
the use of the Canal a necessity. (2) Australasia and the Far East. At present
there is a choice of routes to these markets; Panama will offer another alterna-
tive. (3) Ports not directly affected. ’

Class 2 is receiving most attention from those estimating the effects on world
trade. ‘There is a parallel equidistant from London via Suez, and from New
York via Panama. On the South Coast of Australia this is Port Lincoln,
Adelaide being the nearest great port. All Asiatic ports west of Japan will
continue to be nearer to London; e.g., Manila will be 2,000 miles nearer. But
all Japanese and New Zealand ports and all Australian ports east of Adelaide
will be nearer New York. If it costs 2s. to transport one ton of goods 1,000
miles, distance saved will give American manufacturers an advantage of from

Oe a

~
k

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 585

2s. to 7s. 6d. per ton on all goods supplied to ports between Melbourne and
Wellington, N.Z.

2, Volls.—Panama differs from Suez here. Suez had an immediate monopoly ;
with Panama there is in many instances a choice of routes, and high tolls will
deflect tonnage.

3. Freights.—To benefit American shipping freight must be available
both out and home. To benefit American manufacturers freights must be low.
At present Europ2 supplies Australasia with manufactured goods, and the
shipping goes via Suez. This route gives a maximum of trading possibilities
and great facilities for coaling. The Cape route, too, offers to fully loaded
steamers the advantage of cheap bunker-coal. For the homeward voyage from
Australasia a partly loaded steamer goes via the Horn to pick up cargo at ports
like Monte Video. The Canal would not attract these ships. When Panama
is open will all-round-the-world services be organised? Great Britain is in a
better position to do this than any other country. The rumours current recently
that an existing shipping combine was trying to arrange an amalgamation with
one of the oldest Far Eastern shipping companies were probably due to the hope
of being able to commence such a service, having some of the chief trades of
the world as tributaries, from the moment that Panama is available. America
hopes to open up new markets, e.g., wool. This now concentrates at London,
but there is a tendency towards decentralisation, and if America develops the
woollen industry, she will get a wool market without necessarily constructing a
Panama Canal.

4. Fuel Stations.—This will be one of the decisive factors, and lead to the
keenest commercial rivalry. The American Government are planning to supply
good coal at either end of the Canal at 19s. per ton. The English coal on the
Suez route is at present much dearer; to maintain the Suez route in its
integrity the supply of cheaper coal is a necessity. When oil replaces coal the
British Empire resources will be ample to maintain our commercial position, but
this must not in the meantime be piaced in jeopardy, or disaster may ensue.

5. Insurance Rates—will probably be the same on both routes.

6. The Political Factor.—The working of the Imperial ideal in Great Britain,
America, and Germany should be noted.

Preferences granted by the Dominions have materially assisted British trade.
The possession of the Philippines has displaced Spain from the position of chief
trader there in favour of America. The importance of this factor can be traced
in the case of Japan, and China, when settled government comes, will be another
notable instance.

7. Rates of Exchange.—The Far.East has a silver, Europe and America a
gold, standard. Rates of exchange affect trading relations. The whole question
should be carefully studied. About seven years ago, when a Chinese merchant
could get exchange on the west coast of America at the rate of 119 taels for
$100 gold, it paid him to import thence timber and flour; but at present rates,
namely, 160 taels for $100 gold, this ceases to be profitable business, and he can
trade to greater advantage locally. This factor works independently of trade
routes.

8. Investments and Banking.—Gveat Britain is a great creditor nation. Her
advances have been really made in goods, and though the interest has to be
paid in gold, it comes in goods covered by bills in terms of sterling, so that
investors get their interest in gold. The British, too, have banking estab-
lishments all over the world. London is the great settling-place for international
trade. All this gives England a very great advantage. Germany has followed
England in this. Finally, the Englishman is, roughly speaking, the man in
possession, and though at one time he seemed somnolescent, at present he is
very wide awake. He has many advantages: (i) for the transport services;
cheap, economically worked ships, carefully organised trading facilities through-
out the world, and the knowledge and experience which enable him to retain
old trades and be the first to enter new ones. (ii) So far as retaining the
markets for manufactured goods is concerned he has an unrivalled labour force
endowed with hereditary skill, he can get the pick of the raw material, thanks
to his knowledge of markets, and a fiscal policy which favours England as a
buyer of raw and semi-manufactured materials; finally, British goods are

586 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

known all over the world for their quality. Honest goods and honourable
dealing on the part of the seller are their own market.

In conclusion, the economic effects of the route can be easily exaggerated.
So far as the outside world is concerned, the greatest effect of the opening of
the Canal will probably be to get commerce and trade out of a groove, and cause
an all-round modernisation of business methods. The old will have to be
scrapped, friction among the factors of production will have to be eliminated,
gout and labour in competing countries will have to learn to work harmoniously
together.

Socially and economically this will effect a very great result. Is it what
America dreamed of when she entered upon this stupendous undertaking?

2. Einglish Town Development in the Nineteenth Century.
By F. Truuyarp.

During the century the main social problem changes from a rural to an urban
problem. Is there a single or a dual movement in the urban centres? View of
the ‘majority commissioners.’ When did the separation of upper and lower work-
ing-class begin? The physical separation is based on desire for healthier
physical surroundings.

1809-1830 period.—Sanitation of the period; legislation by Private Acts
of Parliament examined for various towns; administration (especially in
regard to the drink traffic) and its moral effects.

1830-1870 period.—Enormous growth of urban population ; housing policy
of the period; back-to-back houses; no general improvement in death-rate ;
the change in licensing policy and ante-1869 beerhouses ; evidence of present-
day survivals from this period; the Private and General Adoptive Acts of
the period; minor legislation and administrative successes.

1870-1900 period.—The legislation of the seventies opens a new chapter ;
its importance for the future and its failure in existing districts; difference
between ‘slum’ and ‘industrial suburb,’ mainly pre-1872 and post-1872;
this legislation at work in three types of towns exemplified by Birmingham,
Leicester, and Middlesbrough.

Is special legislation needed for the pre-1872 districts? Should the general
standard of sanitary legislation be raised ?

3. Human Geography and Industry Planning.
By C. R. Enocg, F.R.G.S.

The author submitted that the economic problems before the world at the
present time call for the establishment and exercise of a comprehensive and
constructive science, whose aim would be to evolve and teach the principles
under which economic equilibrium in the life of communities may be attained.
It was argued that the real science of living on the earth, or ‘human geography,’
the adaptation of natural resources and national potentialities to the life of the
community, has never been formulated. The congestion of the population in
towns, the desertion of the countryside, the high cost of living, low wages,
unemployment, and so forth, are related phenomena, intimately connected with
the conservation and development of natural resources. The axiom was advanced
that the world is capable of supporting all its inhabitants in sufficiency, and its
failure to do so is due to the non-emergence so far of an organising science,
whose deliberations would be aloof from egoistic or partisan influences. It was
affirmed that the teaching and operations of such a science is necessary if
social security is to be maintained and civilisation advanced; and it was sug-
gested that to give effect thereto an institution should be established which
would bear the same relation to the science of living as their corresponding
institutions do to physical, geographical, medical, or other sciences.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.—-PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 587

Section G.mWmENGINEERING.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION.—Proressor GisperT Kapp, M.8c.,
D.Eng.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.
The President delivered the following Address :—

ENGINEERING, the subject with which Section G-is concerned, covers so wide a
field that it has been found convenient to introduce a rough sub-division into the
three branches of civil, mechanical, and electrical engineering. By applying
any such term to a particular piece of engineering work we do not necessarily
exclude the others; we merely characterise a predominant feature. There is
often a considerable amount of overlapping between the three branches, and that
is especially the case with mechanical and electrical engineering. Sometimes the
boundary-line even becomes indistinct, and then it is difficult to say which branch
of our science is the predominant feature. Is the equipment of a works with
electric-power mechanical or electrical engineering? It is both, but not neces-
sarily to the same degree. The mere replacement of a steam engine by an electric
motor to drive the main shafting of a works can hardly be called a piece of
electrical engineering ; but if special electric appliances are introduced to perform
duties which cannot be done, or not done as well, by purely mechanical
machinery, then we have electrical engineering in the true sense of the term.
Electricity has invaded almost every branch of our industrial activity, some-
times as a rival to older methods, but often also as a helpmate, stimulating pro-
gress all round. Electricity is a ‘ great source of power in nature,’ and the ‘art of
directing it for the use and convenience of man’ belongs to our generation. Yet,
like all new things, it has had to fight its way in the face of strenuous opposition
—generally an absolutely honest opposition, not in any way traceable to self-
interest, but’ simply to inability to see things in the right perspective. Let me
illustrate my meaning by an example. Shortly after Charles Brown had estab-
lished the first electric-power transmission between Kriegstetten and Solothurn
I happened to visit a well-known mechanical engineer in Zurich, who had in his
time been professionally (not financially) interested in so-called teledynamic
transmission of power by wire-rope, first introduced into Alsatia by the celebrated
Professor Hirn, of thermodynamic fame, about the middle of last century, and
then also imported into Switzerland. To my old friend these transmission
systems appeared to be the acme of perfection; and on my pointing out that
the range was necessarily very limited, he replied that transmission to longer
distances would be useless, since there would be no market for the power. My
friend was not able to look at the subject in the right perspective; he failed com-
pletely in appreciating the fundamental conditions of the problem, and although
it is easy for us now, fortified as we are by experience, to appreciate electric
transmission of power correctly and feel contempt for the old gentleman’s narrow-
mindedness, yet we should be careful not to fall into the same error about elec-
trical developments which are new to us, as the transmission of power was new
to my Swiss friend. It is not so very long ago that mechanical engineers

588 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

thought there was no advantage in electrifying textile mills; and I do not feel
quite certain whether a good many and very capable engineers are not still of
the same opinion. A commission has been investigating this subject, and its
first report was by no means encouraging to the electrical engineer. Yet at the
very time when that report was issued hundreds of motors were being installed
in Continental mills. The spinners there had found out that by using a motor
with very delicate speed regulation they could speed up their frames and increase
the output considerably. In the long run a good thing must win through, and
the electrification of English textile mills is no exception to this economic law ;
but in some cases it would almost seem that the way is made longer by the
narrowness of the mental horizon of opposing experts. This process of gradually
overcoming the opposing expert had to be gone through in all applications of
electricity, but, the opposition being generally honest, once it is overcome, the
very men who opposed become strong friends. There is no question now that
electricity can do some things better than could be done formerly. The separa-
tion of magnetic from nonmagnetic material; the lifting of hot pigs, ingots,
plates, and scrap by electromagnets; the production of high-grade steel in the
electric furnace; the sinking of shafts by electrically driven pumps; in mines
the use underground of electromotors instead of steam engines, in shipyards the
use of magnetically-fixed and electrically-driven tools; the electric driving of
rolling mills, and the use of electric traction on tube and other underground
railways are familiar examples of the application of electricity in which unanimity
as to its advantages has been reached between the electrical engineer and what,
without any intention of being disrespectful, we may call the old school of
mechanical engineers. There are, however, other applications of electricity
where the old and new school of engineers have either not at all, or only partially,
reached unanimity of opinion, and it is with one of these applications—namely,
the electrification of railways—that I propose to deal in this Address. As
regards urban and suburban lines, not only the possibility of electric traction,
but its immense superiority over steam traction, is fairly generally admitted.
Where we get on debatable ground is when we begin to discuss main-line traffic.
Here the process of overcoming opposition, of which I spoke a moment ago in
connection with other applications of electricity now generally approved, has only
just begun. Will it lead to the same result, or will the electrician have to confess
himself beaten by the steam locomotive? The answer each one of us would give
to this question must necessarily be biased by our early training. Most
engineers love their profession, and are enthusiasts; being enthusiasts, they are
necessarily biased. This applies as well to the electrical engineer as to the
mechanical engineer—perhaps to the electrical engineer most. In many cases he
is so biased that he will not admit any virtue in any other but his own pet
scheme of electric traction. A modern steam locomotive is a beautiful and
efficient engine, and one can well understand its designer looking at. it with the
pride of a father whose son has turned out a good man. One can also under-
stand that this engineer will not readily admit the superiority of an electric
locomotive. The mental horizon of each of us must necessarily be narrowed by
previous training and professional enthusiasm; let us, then, try to forget for a
moment that we are engineers, and let us put out of our minds all questions of
mechanical or electrical detail, focussing our thoughts merely on what we see
going on all around us as regards electrification of railways. We see year by
year more lines being electrified. Some are failures; but the very fact that in
spite of these failures the process of electrification is going on, shows that the
failures are remediable. In some cases it is easy to understand why a line
should be electrified. If fuel is dear, if the trains must be heavy and frequent,
if there are steep grades and long tunnels, then obviously steam is at a dis-
advantage and electricity can beat it easily. But the electrification is not limited
to cases where there are such obvious advantages. We see a military State like
Prussia electrifying a fairly long line where the traffic is not extremely heavy,
where there are very gentle grades, and only few and short tunnels. Moreover,
one of the stock arguinents against electrification is that in case of war the whole
system may be broken down by the enemy cutting the wires; yet this considera-
tion, if it has any weight—a matter on which I cannot pronounce an opinion—
does not deter a military State from at least experimenting with electric traction

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 589

on a large scale. We see suburban lines growing longer and longer, until they
might almost be classed, as short main lines, and we see the Swiss Government
buying up water-powers with the object of utilising these powers in the electri-
fication of its most important main lines. We see in America the electri-
fication of large systems taking place, not only for passenger service, but also
for the goods service, comprising trains of 2,000 and more tons weight, and of
goods yards, to the complete exclusion of steam. One need not be an engineer
to appreciate the significance of such a general development. No Government
department, and certainly no board of railway directors, will spend money merely
for the sake of an interesting scientific experiment, and, although it is conceiy-
able that in an isolated case such an experiment may be undertaken under a
miscalculation as to its possible success, it is not conceivable that such a mis-
calculation should be the general rule. When we see that in all countries a vast
amount of labour is devoted to, and capital is spent on, the electrification of
main lines, we cannot but come to the conclusion that this new application of
electricity is bound to progress, and that the persons who tell you that electric
traction is all right for tramways and urban railways, but will never be able to
compete against steam traction on main lines, are very much in the position of
my old Swiss friend, whose conception of power transmission was entirely limited
to the use of ropes and pulleys.

It is just thirty years since the first electric railway was opened for public
use. That was a small line in Jreland, known as the Portrush-Bushmills
Railway. In those days only the continuous-current motor was available, and
that only at a very moderate pressure and power. These restrictions were from
the first felt to be a serious drawback, and inventors tried to overcome them in
various ways. Of these, two may be here noted, in passing. Ward Leonard
in 1891 made the suggestion of carrying on the train a converting station. He
argued, quite correctly, that for the transmission of power to long distances the
alternating current was eminently suitable, and that, consequently, the power
should be sent to the train in the shape of high-pressure alternating current. On
the other hand, such a current was, in those days, quite unsuitable for motors;
hence the necessity of its conversion into continuous current, with which the
then available motors could alone deal. Ward Leonard suggested to put on the
first vehicle of the train a synchronous motor, which drives an exciter and con-
tinuous-current generator. The current obtained from this generator was to be
used to drive the train-motors, which might be distributed in a number of motor
coaches. The regulation of speed and tractive force was to be effected entirely
by suitable adjustment of excitation, and therefore without rheostatic loss. It
will be admitted that this proposal has some attractive features. It is essentially
a long-distance system, and at the same time it offers the possibility of great
and uniform acceleration, a matter of great importance in urban traffic, so that
it is equally suitable for both kinds of service. Moreover, the current can be
taken with unity-power factor. Unfortunately the extra weight which has to
be carried in the shape of converting machinery is a serious drawback; and for
this reason the Ward Leonard system (excellent as it has proved in other applica-
tions of electric power) has in the domain of traction never got beyond the
experimental stage.

The experiment has been made on a fairly large scale, but with this differ-
ence, that the traction-motors were placed not into motor coaches, but on the
first vehicle itself, which thus became an electromotive; also, in order to save
the weight and cost of starting and synchronising gear, the asynchronous type of
single-phase motor was adopted, thus sacrificing the advantage of unity-power
factor. The electromotive developed at the hour-rating 200 horse-power, and
weighed forty-six tons. This is not a very brilliant achievement, and it was
beaten by a sister engine of the same power, but using alternating-current motors.
This electromotive weighed only forty tons.

It is probable that a better weight efficiency could be obtained nowadays
with this system if carried out on a larger scale, and if the motor-generator were
replaced by a converter, in which case the step-down transformer would have
tappings on its secondary side for starting and regulation. It is, however,
doubtful whether even then it could compete with elect¥omotives using the
alternating current in the motors directly. Motors of this type have recently

590 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

been so much improved that the margin of weight that could be saved by the use
of continuous-current motors is probably less than the excess weight of the
converting machine.

The other attempt to combine high trolley-voltage with low motor-voltage
has shared the same fate. This consisted in the application of the three-wire
principle of continuous current supply to electric traction. It is in successful
operation at a moderate voltage on a London tube railway, but as far as main-
line working is concerned it has not got beyond an application on two small
lines in Bohemia. The principle adopted is to make the trolley wire of the up-
line the positive and that of the down-line the negative side of the system,
whilst the rails take the place of the zero wire. Each electromotive is fitted
with four motors, of which at least two are in series, taking 1,500 volts. Thus,
whilst the voltage of one motor is kept within the customary limit of 750 volts,
the pressure of the whole system is 3,000 volts. The objection to this arrange-
ment is that its fundamental supposition of a fairly close balance between the
two halves of the three-wire system must in actual railway working be rather
the exception than the rule, and that the obvious remedy of combining both
halves of the system in one and the same train would involve the use of two
overhead trolley wires, and thus introduce the very feature which the advocates
of the continuous-current system find so objectionable in three-phase traction.
Moreover, the recent improvements made in continuous-current motors has
reduced the importance of the three-wire principle. Continental makers are
prepared to build motors for 1,200 volts, and one English maker is actually
building motors for 1,750 volts, so that with two motors in series a trolley-
pressure of 2,400 and 3,500 volts respectively can be used.

The present tendency in electric traction is in the direction of simplicity, in
the sense that mixing up of different types of current and dependence of one
train on another is avoided. Only three types of current are used—namely, con-
tinuous, three-phase, and single-phase. The two first-named are used direct;
the last through the intervention of a transformer. In a large measure the
different systems have already become standardised. As regards the C.C.
system, up to 750 volts the process of standardisation has been completed long
ago. It is almost generally adopted for urban and suburban lines of moderate
length, unless there are local difficulties as regards the third rail, or it is desired
to work the suburban and the main-line service on the same system. The three-
phase system has also been fairly well standardised, but the single-phase system
is still in a process of development—a development which, however, takes place
on a fairly large scale. In France the Compagnie du Midi is electrifying on the
single-phase system nearly 400 miles of track; the German Government have
already electrified the Dessau-Bitterfeld of the Leipzig-Magdeburg line, and are
electrifying the line Lauban-Koenigszelt in Silesia, to say nothing of some
smaller private lines in the South of Germany, which have been in operation for
some years. In Switzerland the Berne-Loetschberg-Simplon Railway, already in
operation, and the Rhetian Alp Railway, nearing completion, also employ single-
phase electromotives. Both in France and Germany the type of electromotive to
be finally adopted has not yet been settled, but half-a-dozen different types,
supplied by as many different makers, are being tried, and it is in this respect
that one may look on single-phase traction as still in the process of development.
As regards the Loetschberg the period of trial is over. Three years ago the
railway company ordered a 2,000 horse-power electromotive, and have had it at
work ever since with such satisfactory results that they have decided to adopt
this type definitely, and have ordered thirteen more engines, but of the slightly
larger power of 2,500 horse-power on the 14-hour rating. Of these I shall have
to say something more presently ; but before entering into the details of single-
phase traction it is expedient to glance briefly at the present position of the
rival system of three-phase traction.

The first application of this method of working dates back to the end of last
century, and took place on a small Swiss line; then followed the well-known
Valtellin line, and, later still, when the Italian Government took over the rail-
ways, the Government engineers decided to extend the application of three-phase
traction to some other lines—a decision which practical experience has shown to
have been perfectly justified. The total power represented by three-phase
electromotives either at work or on ‘order in Italy to-day exceeds 200,000 horse-

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 591

power (95,000 eon ei in service, and 120,000 horse-power building). Ten
years ago the three-phase system was the only possible one for main-line working,
but later on there came on the scene the single-phase, and, later still, the high-
pressure continuous-current systems, and I need hardly mention that between
the advocates of the three systems there has been waged a fierce battle, each
claiming that his is the best and the others very inferior. I am afraid that battle
is still raging; but it is a futile war, for there is no such thing as a best system
generally. One system is the best for one set of conditions and another for
another set. Thus the German railway engineers found that the single-phase
system would serve them best, and they adopted it. There is in this matter no
question of personal feeling or national prejudice. I have no intention to enter
the lists as an advocate for any one of the three possible systems for main-line
traction; each has its special features and special merits, and all I can do is to
place before you some of these. As the three-phase system is the oldest, it will
be convenient to take it first.

It is curious to note that the three most obvious objections which have been
raised against three-phase electromotives by theorists have been found to have
but little weight in practical work. These objections were: the complication
of a double overhead wire, the danger that the motors would not share the load
fairly, and the inability to run without rheostatic waste at intermediate speeds,
or to run at a higher than synchronous speed to make up for lost time.

That an overhead wire is inconvenient must be readily admitted, but the
inconvenience applies to all methods of main-line working, for the so-called third
rail is not applicable to high pressure, and even if it were, the consideration of
the safety of the platelayer would preclude its use. The question then is: are
two wires twice as objectionable as one? Possibly, but the most objectionable
feature is not the wire itself, but the posts or gantries on which it is carried, and
the number of posts is the same, whether we use three-phase, single-phase, or
continuous current. There is a little more complication at the cross-over points
and at the switches; but this is not a serious matter, if one may judge from the
perfectly smooth working of so extended a yard as that at Busalla, where there
are five miles of track, connected by thirty-seven switches and crossings. The
cther objection—as to the motors not sharing the load equally—is theoretically
sound. The torque developed by the motor is proportional to the slip, and in
order that the two motors on an electromotive shall share the load equally their
slips, and consequently also their speeds, must be the same. Now, it is conceiv-
able that, owing to a slight difference in the size of the drivers, that motor
which is geared to the larger drivers will, by reason of its lower speed and con-
sequently greater slip, take more than its fair share of the load. In practice
this difficulty does, however, not arise. With reasonably good workmanship
there should be no sensible difference in the size of the wheels; but even if we
admit the possibility of there being a difference of a half per cent. in the diameter
of the wheels, this would, with the usual slip of three per cent., only mean that
the motor geared to the larger wheels develops eight per cent. more, and the other
eight per cent. less, than its normal power. The larger wheels will develop
sixteen per cent. more tractive effort than the smaller wheels, and having thus
a greater wear, the difference originally existing will diminish in service. For
the same reason, any tendency to wear unequally, say, in consequence of unequal
material, is counteracted by the slip-adjustment of the motors. This point has
been tested practically by the makers of the Simplon three-phase electromotives.
It was found that if originally a slight difference in diameter of the drivers had
been permitted to exist, after a short time this had vanished. That is as regards
the condition on one electromotive; but if we come to the case of a train being
hauled by two engines, then a sensible difference in the size of their wheels may
exist. In this case it is necessary to artificially adjust the slip so as to make
each motor take half the load. This problem has been solved by Mr. v. Kando
in the electromotives which he designed for the Italian State railways. In these
engines only liquid resistances are used in the rotor circuit for starting and speed
regulation. The liquid is raised or lowered in the rheostat chambers so as to
cover more or less of the contact plates, and the level of the liquid is controlled
by a solenoid under the influence of the working current. ‘The working current,
and therefore also the tractive effort exerted by each motor, is thereby auto-

592 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

matically kept constant, notwithstanding any difference that may exist in the
size of the drivers on the two electromotives. Incidentally, it may be mentioned
that this method of liquid rheostat control has also the advantage of a perfectly
constant acceleration during the starting period—a point which makes for
comfort of travel in a three-phase train.

The third objection advanced by theorists against three-phase traction is
against the waste of energy consequent on rheostatic speed control and the in-
ability to run at more than synchronous speed so as to make up for lost time.
The obvious remedy for the last-named difficulty is to fix the time-table so
that the synchronous speed should be high enough for making up lost time and
to employ motors which can run economically at less than synchronous speed.
As a matter of practical experience three-phase trains are not more unpunctual
than any other kind, steam not excluded. A train pulled by a series motor
(C.C. or A.C.) runs slower on an up-grade or if abnormally heavy ; this is one of
the characteristics of the series motor, and it is valuable, because it limits the
excess load thrown on to the source of power; but it is clearly not a condition
making for good time-keeping. With a series motor time lost cannot be recovered
on an up-grade, whilst with a three-phase motor the speed on an up-grade may be
kept practically the same as on the level or on down-grades, so that the process of
gaining time is not restricted to the easy parts of the line.

The problem of speed control without rheostatic waste has been solved in
various ways. One of the simplest and generally adopted solutions is that of
cascade and single working. If the two motors are put into cascade connection
the speed is halved. ‘The cascade is used in starting and on heavy grades (unless
time has to be made up), and on the easy grades or on down-grades the motors
work singly—that is to say, in simple parallel connections. Intermediate speeds
may be obtained by some pole-changing device. Ordinarily, such devices have
to be applied to stator and rotor, but in some of the Simplon electromotives only
the stator is arranged for pole-changing, the rotor being a squirrel cage. In this
arrangement the advantage of cascade-working has to be given up, but the system
has the merit of great simplicity. The number of poles may be changed from
twelve at starting to eight, six, and four at top speed. Thus, four different
speeds, all without rheostatic waste, are possible. The single bars in the squirrel.
cage rotor are connected at their ends by resistance-connectors made of an alloy
having a high temperature co-efficient. At starting the rotor current is large
and heats up these strips, thus automatically providing what is technically
termed a starting-resistance. When the motor is running the current is less,
and by reason of the fanning action of the connecting-strips these get cooled so as
to bring their resistance down to a permissible amount. Thus the efficiency of
the motor when running under load is only a few per cent. less than that of a
motor with a wound rotor. A valuable feature of the three-phase system is the
automatic recuperation of current whenever the speed exceeds synchronous speed
by a few per cent.; and connected with this property is the further advantage
that it is impossible for a train to race on a down-grade. Obviously recuperation
can only take place if power is given to the motor. This is provided partly by
the electromotive itself and partly by the train pushing it on a down-grade.
This means that the train is braked in front.only, and railway engineers have
raised the objections that such a method is contrary to the accepted rules for
safe working, which requires that even on a down-grade all the couplings should
remain in tension, which means that each coach must be independently braked.
Here we have again a case where the theorists’ objections have been proved to
be without foundation in actual practice. It is no doubt objectionable to brake
a train in front only, if the braking action is jerky; but with the automatically
controlled liquid rheostat the braking comes in quite gradually, and is through-
out so even that it has been found possible to permit a higher down-grade speed
with recuperation than with ordinary braking. On the Italian State Railways
the regulation permits on heavy down-grades a speed of thirty kilometres per
hour for steam trains, but the electric goods trains are permitted to run at
forty-five kilometres per hour. This concession is not extended to passenger
trains. Nevertheless tht economic effect is considerable. Recuperation saves
17 per cent. on the coal bill, and this amount is sufficient to provide for interest
and sinking fund on the electrical plant at the generating station.

One advantage of three-phase traction over steam traction is the lessened

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 593

weight of the locomotive in comparison with its tractive force and power, As
an example, we may take the Giovi line in Italy, where steam trains, consisting
of 310 tons of rolling-stock and 202 tons of locomotive (one in front and the other
at the back), have been replaced by three-phase trains, consisting of 380 tons of
rolling-stock and two electromotives, each weighing 60 tons (also placed front
and rear). Thus there has been a saving in total weight of 12 tons, and at the
same time an increase in useful weight hauled of 70 tons. The average grade
of this line, over which passes the whole traftic between the Port of Genoa and
the Piain of Lombardy, is 27 per mille, and the maximum is 35 per mille.
This traffic is now worked with forty electromotives, each of 60 tons weight.
These engines have five driving-wheels connected to two eight-pole motors by
gearwheels and rods. The pressure on each driving-axle is 12 tons. Mach
electromotive develops 2,000 horse-power at the hour-rating; thus 1 horse-power
is obtained for each 30 kilogramme weight of engine.

The number of patented designs for single-phase traction motors is very
large; but, notwithstanding considerable difference in matters of detail, all
motors which have been successfully applied in practice may be ranged under
three great groups—namely, the so-called repulsion type, the repulsion type with
additional excitation of the rotor, and the straightforward series motor. The
present tendency is rather in favour of the series motor, and the practical results
obtained with it are certainly very promising. The latest design made by Dr.
Behn-Eschenburg shows a remarkable weight efficiency. His 2,500 horse-power
electromotives (the power being at a one and a half hour-rating) weigh only
108 tons, so that at this rating 1 horse-power is obtained with a total weight of
43 kilogrammes. ‘This compares favourably with the high-pressure C.C. system,
where 50 to 70 kilogrammes per horse-power may be taken as normal values.

The so-called ‘repulsion motor’ invented by Professor Elihu Thomson has
been applied to railway work in the slightly modified form due to Mr. Deri,
where, instead of there being only two brushes per pair of poles, double the
number is provided, and the adjustment for speed and torque is made more
accurate, whilst at the same time the commutation, being split up into two
steps, becomes easier. In the matter of simplicity, an electromotive fitted with
Deri motors cannot be surpassed by any other arrangement. There are no
rheostats, contactors, control switches, or other gear; all the regulation is
effected by mechanical transmission of the movement of a hand wheel placed in
the driver’s cab to the brushes of the motors. At one time it was hoped that
this system would win its way to a general application; but, unfortunately, the
motor must run somewhere near synchronous speed, and becomes therefore rather
heavy with the low frequencies alone possible in traction. | Moreover, as the
power-factor obtainable is only about 0-80, that is, considerably below the value
obtainable with other motors, there does not seem to be any great future for
this system for heavy work, although its great simplicity may still turn the
balance in its favour on lines with a light traffic. Vor heavy lines the choice
at present lies between the induction-motor with direct rotor excitation and the
straightforward conduction-motor, where rotor and stator are traversed in series
by the same current. The former type of motor—also called the Latour-Winter-
Eichberg motor—depends for its working current in the rotor on electro-magnetic
induction, which produces the working current in the rotor much in the same
way as the current in the secondary circuit of a transformer is produced by
induction. Since the motor has in part the character of a transformer its
weight would, as is the case with any transformer, be unduly augmented by
too great a reduction in the frequency. Experience has shown that a frequency
of twenty-five periods per second is high enough to render the transformer
action effective, and at the same time not so high as to introduce serious
difficulties as regards e.m.f. of self-induction and commutation. This frequency
has been adopted in most cases where electrification of main lines has been
carried out by motors of this class. One valuable feature of this motor is that
at a speed slightly exceeding synchronism the power-factor may be brought up
to unity. At this speed the commutation takes place under conditions which
may be described as theoretically perfect. A fair number of Continental lines
have been electrified by using these motors, and they have also been adopted,
with very satisfactory results, in the electrification of the London, Brighton and
South Coast lines between Victoria and London Bridge and to some distance

1913. QQ

,-

D94 | +. ‘TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. : a

a

south of London. On this line no locomotives are used, but only motor
coaches. It is therefore not possible to make a direct comparison as to weight
efficiency with a locomotive. The latter has only to carry the propelling
machinery, whilst the former has to provide accommodation for passengerg as
well. ‘The 600 horse-power motor coaches on the Brighton line weigh 50 tons,
or at the rate of 83 kilogrammes per horse-power. A 1,000 horse-power C.C.
electromotive taking current at 1,200 volts weighs 74 tons.’ By making a suitable
reduction for the extra weight of the passenger accommodation in the A.C.
coach, its weight per horse-power comes out at something like 60 kilogrammes,
against 62 kilogrammes in the C.C. engine.

Series motors are employed on the electrified lines of the Midland Company
between Heysham, Morecambe, and Lancaster. Also in this case motor coaches,
and not electromotives, are used. At the hour-rating a motor coach develops
420 horse-power, and as its total weight is about 35 tons, we have here the same
weight-efficiency as on the Brighton lnes—namely, 83 kilogrammes per horse-
power for the whole coach. .

Of high-pressure continuous-current lines there are many examples, both in
Europe and America. The term high-pressure does, of course, not imply the
same order of magnitude as in single-phase A.C. lines. There high-pressure may
mean anything up to 15,000 volts, the pressure which is likely to become a
standard in future electrifications; but in C.C. work one must class anything
over 1,000 volts or 1,500 volts as high-pressure. The general rule is to employ
motor coaches, and not electromotives; but there is a private line belonging to
a steel-works in Lorraine, where two electromotives, each of 600 horse-power
(four C.C. motors of 150 horse-power) are working the mineral trains under a
pressure of 2,000 volts. The Southern Pacific Railway also employs C.C. electro-
motives of 1,000 horse-power each. Each engine weighs 74 tons, and hauls a
train of 270 tons on grades of 40 per mille. This is a remarkable performance,
rendered possible by the fact that with the even torque exerted by the electric
motor a much larger co-efficient of friction than is possible in steam traction may
safely be permitted. Hlectrical engineers generally base their calculation of the
possible tractive effort on a co-efficient of 0°17, without sand, and as high as
0°25, or even 0°28 if sand is used. The voltage in the case of the Southern Pacific
engines is only 1,200 volts, taken by two motors in series, and there is provision
made to change over from the overhead wire to third rail, with 600 volts, when
the motors are all in parallel. On European C.C. lines the voltage is higher—
generally 2,000 volts, as on the Chur-Arosa and some other Swiss lines—and the
tendency is still in the direction of higher pressures. Continental makers are now
prepared to go as far as 1,200 volts per motor, so that with the usual system of
series-parallel control a line-pressure of 2,400 volts becomes possible. The
greatest step in advance in this direction has, however, been made in England,
where Messrs. Dick Kerr, Ltd., have adopted a line-pressure of 3,500 volts as
their standard, involving the use of motors constructed for 1,750 volts. After
laying experimented with this high-pressure system for two years, they have
undertaken the electrification of a short section of the Lancashire and Yorkshire
Railway with continuous current at 3,500 volts. I am indebted to the firm for
the following particulars : The current is collected by pantograph from an over-
head wire with catenary suspension. The train consists of a motor coach and
two trailers. The motor coach is equipped with four 300 horse-power motors,
and weighs 62 tons; the trailers weigh each 26 tons. From these figures it
will be seen that the weight of the motor coach per horse-power is only 52 kilo-
grammes, and thus considerably below what the weight of an equivalent single-
phase motor coach would be. It is especially the saving in weight and the avoid-
ance of any telephonic disturbances which renders the C.C. system so attractive
that, in spite of a natural reluctance against the use of high-pressure on a com-
mutator, designers are giving increased attention to the use of continuous current
for electric traction. The difficulties which some engineers anticipate with
commutator and brushes seem, however, rather imaginary than real, if we may
judge from the experience with the 3,500-volt motor coach. The makers inform
me that they estimate the mileage for a set of carbon brushes at 50,000 miles.

* See Gratzemueller’s paper read at the Paris meeting of the I.E.E. and
S. Intern. des Electr. (Paris, May 1913).

se

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 595

The motors drive the car-axles by single reduction gear, and are controlled by
contactors operated from a master controller. The current for operating the
contactors, driving the air-pump motor, and for the general service of lighting
and heating is obtained from a small motor-generator, fed on the primary side at
3,500 volts, and delivering C.C. at 210 volts. All motors have commutating
poles—a practice which has become universal in O.C. traction work.

From the figures quoted above it will be seen that where motor coaches are
employed the C.C. system has an advantage in point of weight over the single-
phase A.C. system. But main-line traction, including goods trains, is not going
to be done by motor coaches, and if we come to large electromotives of some 2,000
to 3,000 horse-power then this advantage is likely to vanish. No high-pressure
C.C. electromotive has as yet, been built for so large a power, and it is therefore
not possible to make a direct comparison ; but, if we may judge from the largest
engines yet built for moderate-pressure C.C., there is little probability that the
C.C. system for high-pressure can beat the single-phase system, and none what-
ever that it can beat the three-phase system.

In the early days of single-phase traction some trouble has been experienced
in the matter of telephonic disturbance. A systematic investigation carried on
for over a year on the Seebach-Wettingen line, chiefly by means of the oscillo-
graph, showed that this trouble was due, not as had originally been suspected,
to the commutator, but to the employment of open slots in the rotor, and the
trouble nearly ceased when new rotors with semi-closed and spiralled slots were
used. To further improve the telephonic service the usual remedy of metallic
return and drilling the telephone lines was employed. Although by these means
it is possible to render telephonic speech over a line alongside a single-phase
railway nearly, and perhaps quite, as clear as it is along a C.C. railway, there
still remains the danger that the telephone lines may, by electrostatic induction,
acquire a very high potential. The remedy against this danger, first applied
on some Swedish experimental lines, is to short-circuit the two wires of each
circuit by a choking coil of very high inductance, the centre of which is earthed.
The static charge is thus carried off to earth, whilst the telephonic currents are
only inappreciably weakened.

One of the advantages possessed by the alternating over the continuous current
is the simplicity of regulation. There are no contactors and no rheostats used,
the power and speed of the motors being adjusted by the use of tappings on the
secondary side of the transformers. As transformers are necessary in any case
in order to work with a high voltage on the trolley, the introduction of tappings
does not materially increase the weight, whilst at the same time it affects a great
reduction in the primary starting current. The only difficulty that still remains
is that of sparkless commutation, and inventors have evolved many, and some-
times very complicated, arrangements for overcoming it. As so often happens
with engineering problems, the most simple solution is, after all, found to be the
best in practice; and of all the ingenious inventions patented during the last ten
years very little use is made by the designer of traction motors. Broadly speak-
ing, only two methods are in use; the one is the method first made known by
Messrs. Winter & Eichberg, where the working field is produced by direct
excitation of the rotor and the transformer e.m.f. in the coils short-circuited by
the main brushes is balanced by an e.m.f. of rotation due to a transverse field ;
and the other method applicable to the straightforward series motor, where a
non-inductive shunt is connected to the terminals of the compensating or com-
mutating winding. The effect of a non-inductive shunt is to make the armature
field slightly leading over the field produced by the compensating winding. The
resultant of these two fields is in position coincident with the brush axis, but
has in point of time a phase difference of a quarter period over the working
current, thus balancing the e.m.f. of self-induction, which lags by a quarter
period. Obviously this balancing effect can only take place when the motor is
running, since it depends on the balance between an e.m.f. of self-induction
which is independent of speed and an e.m.f. of rotation which is proportional to
speed. At starting, when there is no speed, there is no compensation. Thus
there would appear to be a new difficulty in the way of the use of single-phase
current; but also this has been overcome in quite a simple manner. Experience
has shown that a potential difference of seven volts between heel and toe of brush,

QQ 2

596 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

and a current density of 15 A. per sq. cm., is permissible. If, then, we use
narrow brushes, covering at any time not more than three segments, use coils of
only one turn to each segment, and work at a reasonably low frequency, and not
too high a total flux, it is possible to keep the transformer voltage and current
density well within the above limits. This is not a severe limitation, for it enables
the designer to use a flux out of one pole of 2'4 megalines if the frequency is 25,
and 3°6 megalines if it is 15. The number of poles has then to be selected in
accordance with the power desired. Obviously the lower periodicity is to be pre-
ferred, because the motor may be built with a lesser number of poles, and will then
occupy less room—a matter of considerable importance, considering the limited
space which is available in an electromotive. The frequency of 15 has also some
other advantages over that of 25. The e.m.f. of self-induction is proportionately
less, and, in consequence, the power-factor is about five per cent. better. The
skin effect in the rails is much reduced, and also disturbances on neighbouring
circuits which may be due to inductive or capacity effects. On the other hand,
the generators become a little more expensive and the transformers on the
electromotives a little heavier. But, notwithstanding these drawbacks, the
balance of advantage is with the lower frequency, and that is the reason why the
Commission of Experts called together in 1904 by the Swiss Government to
establish standards for the electrification of the Swiss railways has decided that
15 shall be the standard frequency, with a tolerance down to 14, and up to 162.
Since then other States have fallen into line, so that 15 is now the standard
frequency nearly all over the continent of Europe. The standard pressure is
likely to be 15,000 volts. For three-phase traction the standard pressure is 3,000
to 3,300 volts.

The subject of electric main-line traction is so vast that in the limited time
at my disposal [ have only been able to mention a few of the important features
of this interesting problem. A detailed account of all that has been done in
electrification would take far more time than we can spare; but, by way of
example, I give below two tables referring to the Italian State Railways. I
am indebted for the information to Mr. v. Kando, who may justly be described
as the father of three-phase traction,

In Service | In Construction
a vot. . : ob
ee Sl iy Ahs oy lesb toe fin |
Loeation of Line ES oe 2S \ me | 3
of] 28a | SQe |) 8 ; a
e855) 28a | ess | Be) 28 | Sas
SSes| 883 | 288 | gos | 88 | 688
IHOnO |] OFM | BHe | nwo Ha Snm |
| Length, in kilometres 107 19). 1,58 - ol, 446 38 28.5 tl
| Heaviest Grade per mille 22 35. | 30 || 25 12 ivierare!
| Number of Transforming | 10 4 7 | 4 4 2H
Stations | |
| Transmission Voltage . 20,000 | 13,000 | 59,000 | 62,000 | 25,000 | 57,000 |
| Trolley Voltage . . 3,000 3,000 3,300 | 3,300 3,300 3,000
, Frequency (cycles per — UD ln $Date Ws 162 | 16% | 15
| second) |
Source of Power . . Water | Steam | Water | Water | Water | Water
| | | (Steam (Steam | (Steam
| Reserve) Reserve) Reserve)
| Number of Electro- 14 200 et © 15. | 61 for the three lines
| motives |
| Number of Motor yy = _— >
| Coaches | | |
Weight of } minimum . 150 190 — | 5
| Trains J maximum . 370 380 220 it nae

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

Three-phase Electromotives on the Italian State Railways.

eae 034 036 038 050 030
| Testi y ing-
Makers + + -+| £4Ganz Ganz Ganz | eee: hye fatan
Number in Service 2 3 4 40 _
Number Building . — — — | 45 16
Total Weight, tons. 45 62 62 | 60 66
Weight on Drivers | 45 43°5 43°35 | 60 48
Number of Driving | 4 3 3 | 5 3
Axles |
Total Number of Axles . | 4 by) 5 5 5
Weight on Drivers,tons | 11°83 14°5 14°5 12 16
Diam of Drivers, m.m. . | 1,396 1,600 1,600 1,070 1,630
Frequency (cycles per | 15 15 15 15 162
second) |
Method of transmitting | Quill and
torque of motor to flexible Cranks and Connecting Rods
driving axles Coupling
_ Speed, in kilométres per | 30 32—64 22 —45—63) 22°5—49 | 37'9—50—
hour | | | 75—100
‘ | ( Cascade
alee of Speed fe | — / Cascade Cascade | Cascade | and pole-
ation ° meee |
(changing |

The most recent example of single-phase electrification is that of the Loetsch-
berg line establishing direct communication between Berne and the Simplon line.
1 am indebted to Dr. Behn-Eschenburg, the designer of the electromotives, for
the following information. The power at the one-and-a-half-hour rating is
2,500 horse-power, and the total weight of the engine is 108 tons, of which
85 tons is taken by the five driving axles. At the normal speed of 50 kilo-
métres per hour the tractive effort is 10 tons. This can be increased at starting
to 18 tons. On the heaviest grade (27 per mille) the tractive effort is 13°5 tons,
which suffices for a train of 310 tons. The maximum speed is 75 kilometres per
hour. There are two 1,250 horse-power motors on each engine. Each has its own
transformer and controller, the principle of duplication being carried out in all
the details, so that in the event of a defect to any one part the other remains
serviceable. The potential difference between tappings is 45 volts, and the last
step gives with 15,000 voits on the trolley 520 volts. This is in excess of what
is required by the motor, and thus provides for the event that the trolley-
voltage should for some reason fall below the standard pressure. The normal
voltage of the motors is 420, and the full-load current 2,700 A. At starting on
the level the line-current is about one-third of the full load-current, and the
power ten per cent. of the full power. When starting on an up-grade of 27 per
mille with a train of 310 tons the current taken from the trolley is forty per cent.
of the normal full-power value, and the acceleration ‘05 metres per second per
second. ‘he current is taken from the overhead trolley by two pantographs, the
pressure being 15,000 volts, and the frequency 15. The controller drums are
each worked by an electromotor and rocking pawls under the electric control of a
master controller, so that the driver is relieved of any physical exertion in attend-
ing to the regulation of the motors. These have 16 poles, a compensating wind-
ing to increase the power-factor, and commutating poles shunted by a non-
inductive resistance to insure sparkless collection. The power-factor is about
0.95 over a wide range of load. The motor is geared by double helical wheels
(ratio 1 : 2°23) to a blind axle, from which the turning moment is transmitted
to the drivers by cranks and connecting-rods. The weights are as follows:
Motor, 11°8 tons; gear, 2 tons; transformer, 75 tons; and controller, 1 ton;
total, 22°3 tons; or at the rate of 17'8 kilogrammes per horse-power on the one-
and-a-half-hour rating. The total weight of the electromotive is at the rate of
43 kilogrammes at the same rating. This is a remarkably high weight-etticiency,

598 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

which has up to the present not been reached by any continuous-current electro-
motive, and has only been surpassed by the three-phase 2,000 horse-power electro-
motives (taken at the one-hour rating) of the Italian State Railways, which works
out at 30 kilogrammes per horse-powev.

In conclusion, let us briefly glance at what is being done in the electrification
of the Gothard line, that main link of commerce between Germany and Italy.
I am indebted for the following notes on the subject to Mr. Huber-Stocker, the
scientific adviser to the Swiss Government in the matter of Railway Electrifica-
tion: The part to be electrified first is that between Erstfeld and Bellinzona, a
total length of 110 kilométres, of which about 29 per cent. is in tunnel. This
part also contains the longest and heaviest grades, so that the limitations of steam
as compared with electric traction are here most prominent and a relief most
urgent. On this section the average daily train movement, taking both directions
together, was, in 1911, not less than 1,680,000 kilométre-tons, and the maximum
on any day 2,282,000 kilométre-tons. It is estimated that in 1918 the average
train movement will have increased by 35 per cent. over 1911, and in 1928 by a
further 30 per cent. In the 45 kilometres on the north side of the tunnel the
train climbs 569 métres, and in the 65 kilométres on the south it descends to
Bellinzona 900 métres, with a steepest grade of 27 per mille. The section
Erstfeld-Airolo is to be opened for electric traction in four years from now, and
the southern section one year later. The present arrangements are made with
the intention of extending the electric service on the north to Lucerne (60 kilo-
métres), and on the south to Chiasso (55 kilométres) at some future date not yet
fixed. There will be two large power-stations, one at Amsteg, where at first
32,000 horse-power will be available on the turbine shafts, and 56,000 to 60,000
when the station is completed ; and the other at Piotta, where at first 40,000, and
finally 50,000 horse-power will be available. The head of water in the northern
power-house is 267 métres down to the Reuss, and an accumulation of a million
cubic métres is provided for to compensate for diurnal variations. In the
southern power-house the head of water is 900 métres, and there the Ritom
Lake offers a natural reservoir, with 19 million cubic métres, to compensate for
annual variation in the water-supply. The power-current will be sent along the
line by two independent cables, each capable of carrying the full power at
twice 30,000 volts, with earthed neutral. The current will be transformed down
to 7,500 volts at first, and 15,000 volts later on, if the experience gained with
the lower pressure should warrant the increase to double pressure. This will
not involve any additional plant, since the secondary winding of transformers
both along the line and on the locomotives can from the first be arranged with this
alteration in view. It is also contemplated to establish sub-stations in Biasca,
Goeschenen, Lavorgo, and Bellinzona. ‘he trolley wires will be suspended from
gantries, each wire independently insulated. The section varies according to the
gradient from 100 to 160 square millimétres. The feeders are separate for the
up and down line, and are 100 square millimétres in section. At all railway
stations there are change-over switches for trolley wire and feeders. In the
tunnels the wires are carried by brackets fastened to the crown of the tunnel.
The rails will be bonded, and, in addition, there will be a bare return conductor
either laid in the ground or placed between the trolley wires. A variation in the
supply of voltage of from plus 10 to minus 15 per cent. is allowed for. There
will be no motor coaches used, only electromotives. It is intended to haul
express trains weighing 420 tons with a speed of 50 kilométres per hour on grades
of 26 per mille, for which service the electromotive will have to develop
3,000 horse-power on the rails. Goods trains weighing up to 670 tons will run with
a speed of from 27 to 28 kilométres per hour, and have two electromotives, one in
front and one in the rear, each rated at 2,800 horse-power. Passenger trains will
be heated by steam, the boiler being carried in a special heating coach. Except
for the stipulation that the traction must be single-phase at 15 frequency and a
voltage of 7,500, which may eventually be raised to 15,000, no definite type of
electromotive has as yet been selected, but there can be no doubt that several of
the already existing types of mono-phase electromotive can be adapted to the
special requirements of the Gothard line.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 599

The following Report and Papers were then read :—

1. Interim Report on Gaseous Explosions.—See Reports, p. 166.

2. On the Effect of Compression Ratio on the Efficiency of a Gas
Engine. By Professors G. Asakawa and J. E. Peravet.

The experiments were carried out on a 25-h.p. National gas engine working
at normal speed. The load, speed, and number of missed explosions were kept
constant, while the ratio of compression was varied by altering the length of
the connecting rod.

Coal-gas was used, its calorific value being determined both by analysis
and by direct measurement. The heat carried away by the jacket water and
by the exhaust gases was carefully measured and a heat balance established.

The results may be summarised as follows :—

The brake horse-power at full power increases in the same proportion as the
theoretical air efficiency, so that the ratio of the two or the relative efficiency
remains constant at about 55 per cent. Under light loads the increase of
frictional losses with high-compression ratios nearly counterbalances the gain
in thermodynamic efficiency, and_hence while the absolute efficiency remains
constant the relative efficiency falls.

At all loads the mechanical efficiency is higher for low-compression ratios.
At full loads it fell from 79 per cent. to 74 per cent. ; as the compression ratio
rose 3°7 to 5°6 at one quarter load it fell from 54 per cent. to 50 per cent. for the
same change of compression ratio.

The indicated power at full load increases at a higher rate than that given
by calculations based on the air standard and at light loads at the same rate;
hence the relative indicated efficiency increases at full loads and remains con-
stant at light loads.

Using gases of a lower calorific value of 520 B.T.U. per cubic foot at 32° F.,
the consumption at full power was 22 cubic feet per B.H.F. per hour with
the lowest compression, and 18 with the highest.

Full numerical data together with a discussion of the results will shortly
be published. ;

3. Liquid, Solid, and Gaseous Fuels for Power Production.
By Professor F. W. Burstanu, M.A.—See Appendix, p. 808.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Internal Combustion Engine applied to Railway Locomotion.
By F. W. LANCHESTER.

In this paper it was pointed out that the steam locomotive, after having
survived for nearly a century with all its essential features practically un-
changed, appears to show signs that it is about to yield supremacy to other
methods of traction. A brief review of the various tentative directions in
which effort is being expended shows that the position of the steam locomotive
is being assailed on the one hand by schemes of electrification, and on the
other by the development of the internal combustion engine, and more particu-
larly by self-propelled independent units—otherwise known as motor-coaches.
It is the modern development of the motor-coach that formed the subject of
the paper.

Various systems by which the internal combustion engine was applied to
railway traction were discussed, and by process of elimination the author
deduced that for the conditions of British railways, at least, the most promising
solution is found in a straightforward piece of engineering, in which all the

600 TRANSACTIONS OF SRCTION G.

main elements, the petrol-motor, the gear-box, the jointed transmission-shaft,
and the right-angle drive, also the auxiliary electrical equipment are taken
mutatis mutandis from motor-car practice. It was pointed out that though the
component parts of the railway coach thus constituted and the motor-car are
analogous, there are certain functional differences, or differences in the object
aimed at, which render considerable variations of method and proportion
necessary.

The paper described in detail a recent development of the self-propelled
railway coach in the form of a vehicle built by the Metropolitan Waggon Com-
pany and equipped with its power installation by the Daimler Company. The
general lines of the coach—a 60-foot bogie—were described, and the installation
was given as being furnished in duplicate, each power unit comprising a six-
cylinder sleeve-valve Daimler engine of six-inch bore and six-inch stroke, a
triple-tandem six-speed epicyclic gear-box, in which the speeds are grouped as
three low-gear ratios, whose function is mainly in starting and giving high
acceleration, and three high-gear ratios, which are exclusively used for running
at speed. The whole of the gears are actuated by clutches of the magnetic
type. The right-angle transmission is fitted to a prolongation to one of the
bogie axles, and consists of a bevel drive, in which the pinion on the tail shaft
gears simultaneously into two crown-wheels on the axle, an alternative dog-
clutch being arranged to bring one or the other into positive connection. By
this means the reversal of the car is effected.

The two units are disposed symmetrically on opposite sides of the vehicle,
and drive on to opposite ends, so that the job is entirely symmetrical. The
vehicle can be controlled from either end, drivers’ cabins and duplicate con-
troliers being fitted. ‘The electric equipment consists of dynamos coupled direct
to the tail ends of the respective engine crank-shafts and an accumulator battery,
and serves both for starting the engines and for lighting purposes and driving
an electric air-compressor to operate the air-brake. Calculations were wiven as
to the resistance and fuel consumption, &c., the paper being illustrated by
diagrams and lantern slides.

2. A New Type of Hydraulic Weighing Machine.
By H. 8. Hern-Suaw, LO.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.h.

The object of this paper was to describe a new type of hydraulic weighing
machine and to give a short account of the results obtained with it. In the
first place it was pointed out that weighing machines are of two main types,
VIZ. :—

(1) Suspended, or Crane Weighing Machines.
(2) Table, or Platform Weighing Machines.

The chief difficulties with hydraulic machines common to both the above
types are two in number :—

The first and most serious results from the use of packing for the hydraulic
pistons, or the employment of diaphragms.

The second is in connection with the recording gauge, or other contrivance,
the indication of which is necessary to measure the weight being recorded; and
beyond these two difticulties there is yet a third which is peculiar to the machine
of the platform type, viz., the necessity of dealing with the number (generally
four) of different pressures at different points of the table or platform.

The means by which in the new machine the first difficulty is overcome is by
taking advantage of the modern development of grinding, by which accurately
fitting cylindrical parts can be obtained at comparatively small cost, so that
when oil is used as a fluid, cylinders and plungers can be employed to work
together under very great pressures with comparatively small leakage, and with
no appreciable friction.

It may be said at once that if the condition of the fit of the plunger and
cylinder are such as to ensure a layer of oil between them, and thereby to avoid
the friction which would otherwise occur between solid bodies in contact, there
must inevitably be some slight leakage of the working fluid, and the chief feature

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION QQ. 601

of the new machine is a device for dealing with this leakage. This device allows
a certain period of time during which weighing can take place, and when the
limit of this period is reached it is merely necessary to take off the weight,
and pick it up again in order to restore the oil which has leaked away, and thus
bring the machine to its normal condition. There are two cylinders which take
the form of caps, and which work respectively on two plungers joined co-
axially together. The two cylinders are slightly different in diameter, and
consequently the co-axial plungers form one stepped plunger, which is really
made in one piece, and resembles in effect the inner or solid portion of an
ordinary stepped gauge.

The amount of the load is recorded by a pipe communicating with the gauge
or its equivalent from the larger cylinder. The object of the small cylinder is
as follows :—

The load is applied in such a way as to force the two cap cylinders together,
and it is obvious that there must be a greater pressure per square inch in the
cylinder of smaller diameter. If there were a direct connection between the
two cylinders through the stepped plunger itself it is clear that the small
cylinder would be forced at once against the end of the stepped plunger adjacent
to it, all the oil passing into the larger cylinder. If, however, the communica-
tion between the two is cut off when a certain desired position is obtained, it is
clear that the large cylinder will be kept relatively in that position to the end
of the plunger adjacent to it until the oil is exhausted from the smallercylinder—
that is to say, the leakage between the end of the larger cylinder and the portion
of the plunger working in it will be made up by the flow from the smaller
cylinder.

Sooner or later, according to the design, the supply is exhausted into a
common reservoir from both cylinders, and the recording portion ceases to act.
The normal condition of the machine is then regained by the following con-
trivance :—

There is a spring between the cap of the smaller piston and the adjacent end
of the stepped plunger. There is also a small inlet valve communicating from
the waste reservoir to the smaller cylinder. When the limit of weighing is
reached the load is removed, and immediately the above spring forces out the
smaller cap piston, filling it with oil. Upon the load being again applied, the
pressure of oil in the small cylinder at once causes the plunger to travel to its
limiting position in the large cylinder, thereby restoring the normal position of
the contrivance. It will be noted that the spring in the smaller plunger does
not in any way come into the problem of the total amount of fluid pressure, and
therefore does not in any way affect the accuracy of the machine, and merely
operates to restore normal conditions.

With regard to the indicating portion of the machine, the hydraulic weigh-
ing machine lends itself to the employment if desired of a steelyard method
of giving the results, though the indicator springs that can be used are now
made of very great accuracy, and their reading can be relied upon, especially
in cases such as the present one, where the temperatures are normal. It may
further be pointed out that the use of oil has the great advantage of keeping
the working pistons always in suitable conditions, and preventing any corrosion
of the working parts.

The machine further can by a very simple process be put out of action when
weighing is not required.

From observations already made with both the suspended and platform types
of machines it is clear that very accurate movements of a passing load can be
recorded, since the inertia of the system is very small, and shocks appear to
have no injurious effect on the machine. As the plungers and pistons are
submerged in oil, these parts can be made of cast iron and the whole machine
produced at a very low cost.

3. Aerial Propulsion of Barges on Canals. By T.. B. Drspimps.

602 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

4. Catastrophic Instability in Aeroplanes.
By F. W. Lancuester.

Attention was called to a form of instability of a kind not previously
investigated. The author bases his investigation (which is of a preliminary
character) mainly on observations made in the course of his previous experi-
mental work and mentioned in his ‘ Aerial Flight,’ reading these in the light
of some modern experiments on the pressure reaction of aerofoils, more
particularly tests made in the National Physical Laboratory. The author
takes as his starting point the ballasted plane, it being shown that this type
of glider (in common with some other types) has a certain ambiguity in its
flight path, its whole peripteral pressure system being liable to reversal as the
results of aerial disturbances of quite minor degree. It was pointed out that
types of gliding model having this property are unsuited to the purposes of
aerial navigation, since in the event of a ‘reversal’ taking place an immediate
and accelerated descent results of a character that can scarcely fail to bring
disaster.

The conclusions formulated are that, although in absence of knowledge the
design of a machine might easily be such that this form of instability would
show itself, the avoidance of any danger is not difficult; briefly, the following
points require to have due consideration :—

(a) The tail should be a directive rather than a weight-carrying organ, the
construction of existing machines being criticised in this respect;

(b) The aspect ratio of the tail-plane should be high;

(c) The influence of the ‘ wash’ as affecting the angle and behaviour of the
tail-plane to receive proper consideration.

It was further pointed out that amy model or machine that, with a single
setting of its directive organs, is capable of flying either way up is liable to
exhibit catastrophic instability, and must be considered dangerous.

In conclusion a few remarks were added on the subject of the flexibility
of the sustaining and directive organs as bearing on the main subject of the
paper.

5. Domestic Electric Cooking, Heating, and Lighting. Results of One
Year’s Working. By Professor J. T. Morris.

6. Note on Frictional Losses in Steam Pipes.
By Crciu H. Lanper, M.Sc., Assoc.M.Inst.C.H.

The loss of pressure in a steam pipe is usually estimated by an expression of the
form
Wig ibeafleh
i Ny as 2 gd
in which different values of the constant f are used for different diameters of pipes.
More accurate determinations referring to the flow of fluids carried out under more
general conditions have shown that the exponent of the velocity is less than 2 and
in the neighbourhood of 1°8.
The formula obtained from the theory of dimensions and deduced by Osborne
Reynolds is
dp = Kqd"-3 pon p” -1,2% dl

where dp is the drop of pressure along an element di of the pipe, d the diameter,
u the viscosity, p the density and v the velocity. From this the following formula
may be derived

pie — pit — BEE (: = om)

(d*”) Qw
where A = actual weight of steam condensed per sec. per lin. foot of pipe -

w = weight of mixture flowing through pipe in unit time.
S = Constant.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 603

In any given set of experiments A will be the condensation corresponding to the
heat loss per lin. foot when the flow is zero, and will decrease as the velocity increases
until the frictional heat is equal to that lost through the walls when A will be zero.
For velocities greater than this the steam initially dry will be superheated down the
pipe and a modification of the above expression becomes necessary.

]
In the case of a covered pipe aa is always small, and can be neglected without

serious error.

A series of experiments have been carried out on a pipe } ins. internal diameter and
75 feet long ; the pressure drop, the heat lost through the walls, the velocity of flow,
etc., were measured. The velocities were varied from 30 to 200 feet per sec., and the
initial pressures from 9 to 215-lbs. absolute.

The results can be represented with considerable accuracy by

py! — pal = 794 whs?

for the particular steel tube used, the pressures being in lbs. per square inch, and w
being the weight flow in lbs. per minute.

The experimental work is still in progress, and the effect of diameter is being
investigated.

7. Bank Note Engraving. By A. KE. Bawrres, F.R.P.S.

It is universally admitted that geometrical engraving is ideal for bank-note
work, since its regularity increases the difficulty of counterfeiting, unless the
forger has in his possession suitable machinery.

The machinery in general use reached its present form nearly half a century
ago, with the result that the forger has equipped himself as well as the bank-
note engraver.

Intaglio plate printing has defied accurate reproduction till the year 1912,
when a process was exhibited at the Royal Photographic Society which renders
this class of work the easiest of all kinds of printing to copy in facsimile.
This process calls for neither skill on the part of the operator, nor costly nor
elaborate appliances.

Various systems of elaborate colour-ground have been tried upon bank-notes.
Though these have in some cases successfully defied direct photographie repro-
duction, they have all failed, either because the forger knows all about the
engraving machinery, or because the nature of all such grounds producible by
the machinery hitherto available has necessarily exposed them to reproduction by
a process in which the repeated sections are photographed separately and a paste-
up of the complete design produced from these components by photo-lithography.

Figure studies, views, and other pictorial work possess no security, since their
line structure is only obvious to an expert, and the forger can reproduce the tone
values by ordinary photo-mechanical processes in common use.

It is therefore essential that security printing must be geometrical in charac-
ter; it must be free from the characteristic repetition of sections produced by
the pentagraph and transfer engraving process; the character of the engraved
work must be unmistakably and completely different to that in which time and
text-books have made the forger himself expert.

The new system of engraving, which has now been adopted by the Newfound-
land Government, as well as some of the most prominent bankers for notes, and
financiers for bonds, &c., is the only system that fulfils the above conditions.
It also embodies numerous features of security which could not be incorporated
in older methods of engraving, e.g. :—

1. While ordinary engravers’ stock of sections is repeatedly used, sometimes
upon photographically protected work, and at others for ornamental purposes,
where the forger can easily photograph it, in the new system security and
ornamental stock are kept apart.

2. Bond coupons cannot be adequately protected through the limitations of
existing machinery, while the new system specially lends itself to the engraving
of these awkward little notes.

604 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

3. A hidden design can be incorporated in the work and ouly rendered visible
by means of a screen through which the banker can inspect it.

4. The new system produces incomparably more beautiful geometrical engrav-
ing than any of the older methods can accomplish.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.

Joint Discussion with Section A on the Investigation of Complea Stress
Distribution.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Construction of Large Polarising Apparalus for Use in Lantern
Projection Work. By Professor EK. G. Coxer, D.Sc.—See p. 389.

2. The Stress Distributions in Thick Cylinders and Rings,
By Professor E. G. Coker, D.Sc.

The difficulty of measuring experimentally the state of stress in thick
cylinders and rings is well known, and it is important that the means employed
shall give measurements at a point of a material.

An optical method of investigation with a transparent material affords a
comparatively simple and accurate method of experiment for determining the
directions and magnitudes of the principal stresses at any point of a ring
constructed from a thick plate. The directions of principal stress at any point
are determined from the lines of equal inclination obtained with plane polarised
light, and the difference, p—q, of the principal stresses at the same point is
obtained from observations of the double refraction effects produced when a
beam of circularly-polarised light traverses the stressed object. The sum, p+q,
of the principal stresses is also determined by measurements of the change in
the thickness of the_ stressed object, using a delicate extensometer capable of
detecting a change of half-a-millionth of an inch. These latter measurements
are compared with the changes produced in the thickness of a simple tension or
compression member of the same material as the object, and in this way the sum
of the principal stresses is determined without further reference to the physical
constants of the material.

These measurements of (a) the sum, () the difference, and (c) the directions
ot the principal stresses at a point taken as averages over the thickness of the
plate afford a complete experimental solution of the distribution analogous to
those obtained mathematically in problems of generalised plane stress.

The experimental methods are applicable to very complicated cases, and are
described with reference to the stress distributions in thick cylinders and rings
of various forms, with and without discontinuities. Special apparatus for
applying and measuring loads and fluid pressures applied to rings and cylinders
are also described and illustrated.

3. The Stream-Line Flow of Solids. By Tuomas Ret.

The geometrical laws that govern the deformation of plastic materials are
mainly based on assumptions made in connection with the experimental
researches of the late M. Tresca. In his experiment on the formation of a jet
by the plastic flow of lead from an orifice in the end of a cylindrical die-block
from which the lead, in the form of a cylinder of superposed discs, was forced
out by means of a piston subjected to pressure in a hydraulic press, the lead
flows radially towards the axis of the cylinder, displacing a core, which forms
the jet by the concentric contraction of the cylinder. The author pointed
out that, although the lead under the particular conditions of the experiment

—

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. OD

referred to must flow in that manner, because the cleavage planes between the
discs produce discontinuity in the material in the direction of the axis of the
cylinder, and thus prevent flow taking place in that direction, if does not
follow that the flow of a solid cylinder of lead must be the same.

With the object of determining the nature of the flow of solids, the author
carried out a series of experiments, which he believes prove that the flow in
every case below a certain critical velocity consists of molecular irrotational
and rotational motion, the direction of the flow being stream-line, and that the
flow is steady, straight-line motion until the stream changes its course in con-
verging towards the orifice, and in the case of the extrusion of solid lead from
an orifice there is no radial flow or concentric contraction as has been assumed
until the stream-lines begin to converge towards the orifice. In fact, the solid
material behaves exactly as a noncomprehensible viscous fluid. When the
motion is very slow the flow is perfectly stable, and when above a certain
eritical velocity eddies tend to form, and turbulent motion results, and the
temperature of the material undergoing extrusion rises.

The method of carrying out the experiments was as follows: The various
die-blocks were made in two halves, definitely registered, and strongly bolted
together, and fitted with pistons, the sections of the die-blocks being parallel
to the direction of flow. The lead cylinders for the experiments were similarly
formed in two halves, which were compressed in the die-blocks by the pistons,
with the orifice plugged so as to render the lead perfectly homogeneous and
free from the possibility of local motion. The face of one of each pair of semi-
cylindrical blocks thus formed was then grooved at regular distances apart by
grooves parallel to their axes. Tin wires were then placed in the grooves, and
the pairs of semi-cylinders again compressed in the die-block with the orifice
plugged, which had the effect of fixing the wires securely in the grooves by
compressing the lead round them, after which the plug was removed from the
orifice, and the extrusion of the lead cylinder carried out. The compression and
extrusion of the lead cylinders was done under the compression heads of a
fifty-ton testing machine, which allowed stress-flow curves to be taken at various
speeds of extrusion.

The tin wires retain their position in the lead blocks, and show clearly the
direction and general conditions of flow.

The flow of lead in a cylinder with sudden concentric enlargement in the
direction of flow, also the flow past a solid of revolution, was investigated, and
in both cases the motion was found to be of stream-line order, as in the case of
extrusion from an orifice. The effect of punching a solid block with and without
shearing out the wad was also investigated, and the stream-line flow determined.

The behaviour of other metals under suitable conditions was investigated,
and the same results were found as with the lead.

4. Note on the Slrength of Free-ended Struts.
By Anprew Ropertson, M.Sc,

This paper gave an account of experiments made on mild steel struts to
ascertain the law of variation of strength with length when special precautions
were taken to secure (a) axial loading, (6) straightness, (¢c) freedom of the ends
from constraint.

The conclusions are :—

1. That Euler’s law is followed down to the length for which the load per
square inch given by this law is equal to the stress at yield.

2. That below this limit collapse occurs when the load per square inch is equal
to the yield stress.

3. That for round struts of length less than five diameters there is no definite
ultimate load. The transition from the elastic to the plastic state is marked
not by collapse of the strut, but merely by a sudden deformation of appreciable
magnitude.

Tn all the cases in which the collapsing load per square inch was equal to the
yield stress the specimens were bent, and on relieving the load and again testing
them they failed under a load smaller than the first collapsing load. This is

606 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

probably due to the existence in compression, as in tension, of a condition
immediately after yield in which the stress that the material will sustain is
less than that required to initiate the yield.

The effects of eccentricity of loading and initial curvature were investigated,
and a number of tests of struts of ordinary commercial section compared with
the theoretical results.

5. Metals for Structures. By A. T. Waumisuny, M.Inst.C.E.

Birmingham from an early date has been recognised as one of the chief seats
of industries in metals, and hence a paper which presents an opportunity to
elicit a discussion upon some of the latest developments of various alloys used
as constructive materials appears suitable for a meeting of the Engineering
Section. Such alloys are not mere mechanical mixtures, but homogeneous com-
binations, secured by fusion, possessing distinguishing qualities for special
purposes.

Copper possesses the element of conductivity. It is always economical to use
the purest copper obtainable commercially, especially for electrical purposes.
In contact with iron it is inimical to the iron. Hence roofs are boarded. A
layer of felt will serve as a separator, care being taken in the attachment of
bolts to allow no immediate contact between iron and copper.

Zinc is applied for coverings. Galvanised sheets can be tested with sulphate
of copper, which will adhere to any exposed surface of the iron not coated with
zinc. The durability of zinc depends mainly on the spelter from which it is made.
A covering of zine is better adapted to resist the attacks of a vitiated atmo-
sphere than galvanised iron, which provides simply an exterior coating.

Lead has no elasticity, but is useful for girder seatings, where the weight is
sufficient to crush the lead so as to produce uniformity of pressure upon the
bearing. It is also serviceable for roof coverings and for flashings.

Brass, consisting of copper and zinc, is employed for lubricators and pumps,
while Muntz’s metal—also an alloy of copper and zinc—has superseded copper
for sheathing vessels.

Manganese bronze, an alloy of copper and ferro-manganese, is serviceable
for propeller blades, on account of its toughness; and ordinary bronze—-an alloy
of copper and tin—is found to possess sufficient fluidity for satisfactory melting,
combined with slightness of contraction on solidifying.

Phosphor bronze, by the addition of phosphorus, excels ordinary bronze iu
hardness, density, and tensile strength, and is used for friction bearings,
especially when liable to shock; also for sliding surfaces in the case of steel
shafts, as a steel or wrought-iron shaft would be liable to grip a cast iron bearing.

Gunmetal, another alloy of copper and tin, takes its name from its employ-
ment as the metal from which large guns were formerly made, while bell-metal
and delta-metal also possess characteristics described in the paper.

When one metal less oxidisable than another comes in contact galvanic action
may be set up. In the case of mild steel and wrought iron in metallic contact
the steel may oxidise at the expense of the iron. Iron rivets have been found
to become slack in steel plates without any special wasting in the steel plates,
while the iron has wasted somewhat.

The durability of materials is one of the leading questions of the day.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Notes on an Engineering Theory of the Gyrostal.
By J. W. Gorpvon.

2. Hxposure Tests of Copper, Commercial Aluminium, and Duralumin.
By Professor Ernest Winson.

These are a continuation of tests upon the influence of exposure in London
on the electrical conductivity of light aluminium alloys, reports of which have

ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 607

been made from time to time to the British Association. Each specimen is in
the form of wire 0:126 inch diameter and 70 feet long; and the figures obtained
after two years’ exposure are :—
Percentage increase of
electrical resistance taken on
value in 1911 at 15° C.

Hich conductivity copper . 9 . . . . . 2:0
Commercial aluminium . : Napanee : : . 44
Duralumin ahaa ; ; 4 ; : ; 3 (Ore

Duralumin is a copper-manganese-magnesium alloy of high tensile strength,
and exposure has apparently made it more brittle.

3. The Nature of the Electromagnetic Waves employed in Radiolele-
graphy and the Mode of their Propagation. By Professor
G. W. O. Howe, M.Sc.

A very clear conception of the nature of the electro-magnetic waves employed
in radiotelegraphy can be obtained by considering those electro-magnetic waves
which exist in the space between the two conductors of a single-phase trans-
mission line. If the conductors are flat, parallel strips, close together, and
connected at the sending end to the terminals of an alternator, there is a certain
yalue of the non-inductive load at the receiving end which will absorb the arriving
energy without any reflection. Under these conditions the current and voltage
are in phase all along the line, and the same is true if the line is assumed to be
of infinite length. Line resistance and leakage are assumed to be negligible. It
follows from this that the electric and magnetic fields at any point have their
maximum values at the same moment. Instead of two parallel strips transmitting
energy in one direction, two parallel discs of infinite extent can be imagined
with the alternating P.D. applied between their centres. Energy would then be
transmitted radially in all directions in the plane between the discs. The earth
could take the place of the lower disc, while the upper one could be represented
by a conducting horizontal plane some distance above the earth. The waves
produced would be truly cylindrical, whereas those employed in radio-telegraphy
are spherical. If, now, the upper disc is replaced by an inverted conducting
cone of infinite extent, with its apex almost in contact with the earth, the alter-
nating P.D. being applied between the apex and the earth, the electro-magnetic
waves will be almost identical with those employed in radiotelegraphy and will
vary in the same way with the distance from the sending station. This imaginary
multi-directional transmission line, consisting of a lower plane (the earth) and an
inverted cone, lends itself to simple calculation, because, like an ordinary trans-
mission line, and unlike the two parallel discs, it has a constant inductance and
capacity per mile. It can be shown that if the angle between the cone and the
earth is 35 degrees, the relations between the magnetic and electric fields near the
earth’s surface and the total energy radiated are identical with those existing in
the ordinary radio-telegraphic wave. As in the transmission line already con-

‘sidered, the current and P.D, will be in phase at every point, and therefore,

contrary to the usually accepted view, the horizontal magnetic field and_ the
vertical electric field due to a sending antenna are not 90 degrees out of phase
but are approximately in phase, except in the immediate neighbourhood of the
antenna. This also follows from the fundamental equations of a progressive, as
distinct from a stationary, electro-magnetic wave.

4. Atmospheric Refraction and Absorption as affecting Transmission in
Wireless Telegraphy. By Dr. W. H. Ecci&s.

5. Effect of Atmospheric Conditions on ihe Strength of Signals received
at Liverpool from Paris and some other places, together with an
Account of the Diurnal Variation in the Energy received, By
Professor E. W. Marcuant, D.Sc.

Measurements have been made over a considerable period of time, but those
described herein deal mainly with observations during the month of July. The

608 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

most accurate observations have been obtained with signals sent out by the
observatory at the Hiffel Tower at 10.45 a.m. and 11.45 p.m. ‘The method adopted
in the earlier tests was to use a ‘ Perikon’ detector in series with galvanometer
and telephones, the measurement of strength being made by the cumulative
deflection due to a series of known signals. ‘This method was not found satis-
factory with the Paris signals for which the antenna current used was known,
and in the later tests an Einthoven string galvanometer has been employed by
which the strength of signal for each individual spark at Paris could be observed
to within + 5 per cent. The results obtained show that there is a maximum
variation from 0°6 to 1°3 in the strength of the signals received on different days
in the same month; the average strength of signal being assumed to be 11, and
that the current received on a fine, clear night is about 1°7 times as strong as
that received in the day-time.

Although no certain relationship can yet be regarded as established between
the strength of a signal and the weather conditions at the sending and receiving
stations, so far, observation has shown that rain in Paris always corresponds
with a diminution in strength of received signal. In one case, with a wind of
six metres per second velocity, blowing in a N.W. direction, the signal-strength
fell to half its normal value. The most favourable condition for signalling
appears to be a cloudy sky at both sending and receiving stations, the signals
being weaker when the sky is clear or covered with light clouds. Rain at the
receiving station appears to have a comparatively small influence on the strength
of the received signals.

The result of a set of special signals sent from the Eiffel Tower on the even-
ing of Saturday, July 26, 1913 (by the courteous arrangement of Comm. Ferric),
at intervals of 30 minutes, between 7 and 10 p.m. (which includes the time of
sunset), shows that the increase in strength of night signals occurs about three-
quarters of an hour after sunset, there being a sudden increase in strength of
about 70 per cent. This change is quite sudden, there being comparatively little
alteration in signal-strength until darkness has set in, and no_ perceptible
increase in strength afterwards. There appears to be some evidence that signals
are slightly stronger just after sunset than during normal night conditions.

6. Short Heat Tests of Klectrical Machines.
By W. BR. Cooprr, M.A., B.Sc.

Tests of dynamo-electric machinery are generally carried out extending over
six hours in order to determine the maximum temperature rise. Suggestions
have been made that such tests might be considerably shortened by assuming
that the curve of temperature rise is a logarithmic curve. The author gives a
brief account of the methods that have been proposed, and points out that the
‘thermal time constant,’ on which the behaviour of a body in heating and cooling
largely depends, should be found most easily, and under less complex conditions,
from the cooling curve. In order to test the applicability of the various
methods, tests were made upon a 5 kw. motor-driven dynamo. The curves of
temperature rise were found to be fairly logarithmic. The usual method of
running a machine on test is to run on constant output with constant voltage,
which necessitates increasing the input to the field coils as their resistance
vises. A truly logarithmic curve can only be expected if the input of heat
is at a constant rate, so that a better result would be expected if a machine
were tested with constant input to the field coils, the output of the machine
being constant but at varying voltage. Actually this method of testing was
not found to give an improved result. Graphical methods appear to give
better results than formule, as the latter are very sensitive to small errors in
the data. In any case only certain portions of the temperature-rise curve should
be used, and any formule depending on the initial rate of temperature-rise
should be avoided, as this is difficult of exact determination. The curve of
cooling has certain advantages; but only a small portion of it seems suitable for
graphically determining the thermal time constant, and this quantity can be
derived much more readily from the time taken for a certain percentage drop of
temperature-rise. In the results given there is better agreement between the
values found for the thermal time constant than for the maximum temperature-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 609

vise. It is suggested that a fair approximation to the maximum temperature-
rise can often be obtained by testing for a time equal to, say, 1) times tie
thermal time constant, deducing the value of this constant from the cooling
curve, and thence the maximum temperature-rise from the heating curve.

WEDNESDAY, SHPTEMBER 17.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On Landslides accompanied by Upheaval in the Culebra Culling of
the Panama Canal. By Vauauan Cornisu, D.Sc., F.R.G.S.

The author visited the Panama Canal works in 1907, 1908, 1910, and 1912.

Throughout a distance of about three miles between Empire and Culebra, in
the Culebra Cut, the bottom rock has for four years past bulged up in many
places to a height of 20 feet and more. The bulging is accompanied or
followed by subsidence of the bank behind. Both the convex hump below and
the concave subsidence above are crevassed, but the surface of the ground
between sometimes remains unbroken. It was unanimously decided by the
American and European members of the Board of Consulting Engineers
appointed in 1905 that the sides of the Cut should be given a slope of three
vertical on two horizontal, and be cut in terraces, and it was considered that they
would be stable with a depth of excavation of 245 feet at the position of
“mile 36,’ which is in the section above referred to, where the worst bulgings
have occurred. At this point the French excavated to a depth of 45 feet on the
centre line between 1883 and 1889. In the years which followed, the slopes
suffered little from superficial weathering. The American Commission com-
menced excavation in 1904, and carried it to a total depth of 65 feet by June 1909,
by which time upheaval commenced on a small scale. During the twelve months
ending June 30, 1910, the bottom was lowered a further 35 feet to a total depth
of 100 feet, and the terraces were cut away, a continuous slope being substituted.
Bulging of the bottom and collapse of the sides occurred on a great scale through-
out this year. During the next year, ending June 30, 1911, the slopes were much
flattened, and were again cut into terraces, and the blasting charges were reduced.
Towards the end of the twelve months the upheavals were few and small, but it
must be observed that the lowering during the year amounted to only 15 feet.
The next year, ending June 30, 1912, was that of the author’s latest inspection of
the Cut. During this time the smaller blasting charges were used, the terraced
form of side was maintained, and the work was favoured by dry weather, and the
general slope had been reduced to about one vertical on three horizontal. The
lowering of the bottom by a further 33 feet to a total depth of 148 feet was,
however, accompanied by a renewal of upheavals on a large scale. The evidence
is that they occur owing to the crushing and dry flow of thin strata, or seams,
of weak rock—c.g., lignite—underlying the bottom. The question is: Why was
not this foreseen either by engineers or geologists, although numerous borings
had been made and the country geologically surveyed? The author is of opinion
that the mistake was mainly due to disregard of chemical considerations. The
cutting here is through horizontally bedded rocks composed of fragments ejected
from a volcano and deposited in a shallow sea in Tertiary times. Some of the
strata, or seams, disintegrate rapidly under the physical, and, more particularly,
the chemical action of rainwater; to which they are now for the first time
exposed. With such disintegration going on a collapse of the banks would
necessarily occur, but the frequent occurrence of large upheavals of the bottom
is due, in the author’s opinion, to stratification.

The process occurs even under natural conditions. Rocks occur in beds which
are very thin in proportion to their extent, and are therefore easily deformed if
unequally supported. When the material of a lower stratum has any degree of
fluidity, and the pressure upon it is different at different places, there is a flow
from the place of greater to that of less pressure, and the superincumbent rock
is let down in the former and bulged up in the latter place.

1913, RR

610 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

2. Birmingham Snow Hill Station Alterations. By F. Guravow,
M.Inst.C.H., and C. EH. Suackuz, Assoc.M.JInst.C.k.

The railway station buildings and platforms recently removed from this site
were erected in 1870 on the site of a still older station. The two principal plat-
forms were originally in direct connection with the streets on either side. The
platforms and railway lines between the buildings on either side were covered
with an iron roof, with crescent-shaped girders of about 92 feet span. The site
of the new station, as well as that of the old, is bounded on the south by Colmore
Row, on the east by Snow Hill, and on the west by Livery Street. The building
adjoining Colmore Row, formerly an hotel, is now converted into offices, restau-
rant, etc., and an entrance has been made through it for foot-passengers, leading
to the high level booking-hall. Entrances and exits for carriages are provided
on the Livery Street and Snow Hill sides. From the above mentioned booking-
hall corridors terminating in stairways lead down to the two main platforms,
and lifts are provided for dealing with passengers’ luggage.

The roof over the main entrance and circulating area consists of steel arched
ribs of about 94 feet span, with glazed screens at the east and west sides. Over
the main platforms and buildings thereon, the roof is of the ‘ ridge and furrow’
type, carried on steel girders, and resting on steel columns, these being cased,
for appearance’ sake, with cast iron. Beyond this length of platform, where the
width of platform becomes much less, the type of roof is again changed to one
generally known as the ‘umbrella’ type, on account of its being supported by
single steel columns, anchored below platform-level into concrete blocks.

The buildings have been freely treated from an architectural point of view,
the material used being principally glazed red bricks, with buff-coloured terra-
cotta dressings externally, and Carrara-ware dressings internally.

The steelwork in the roof is designed to withstand a wind-pressure of 40 lb.
over the whole surface, and any individual portion of it to withstand a local gust
of 56 lb. to the square foot. Under no conditions can any of the steelwork be
stressed to over six tons to the square inch in tension, or five tons in compression.
The pressure upon the base of any foundation does not exceed three and three-
quarter tons. The whole of the steelwork has been made by an open-hearth
process.

3. Harbour Projections and their Effect upon the Travel of Sand and
Shingle. By Ernest R. Marruews, F.R.S.H., A.M.Inst.C.E.

The author pointed out that any seaward projection on a coast, whether it be
in the form of a groyne extending merely to LWOT or LWOST, a breakwater,
a harbour-arm projection 1,000 feet or more, or a promontory such as Flam-
borough Head or Spurn, extending seaward some miles, has the effect of arresting
more or less, according to the magnitude of the projection, the travel of the sand
and shingle on such coast. In the case of harbour projections run out at right
angles to the coast-line this obstruction, especially on a sandy coast, impounds
the travelling material on one side of the harbour, and often causes alarming
erosion on the other. He gave excellent examples of this in the case of the
Yarmouth, Shoreham, Lowestoft, and Madras harbours, at each of which
millions of tons of sand (except in the case of Shoreham, where it is shingle),
representing acres in area, are being held up by the harbour piers. The sea-
front at Yarmouth may be said to have extended seaward during the past half-
century an average of 300 feet, due almost entirely to the construction of the
harbour; while at Madras 650 million cubic feet of sand has accreted on the south
side of the harbour within a distance of three miles of the harbour, and 450
million cubic feet of land has been eroded on the north side within a similar dis-
tance, and the authorities there are now contemplating an extension of the har-
bour seaward at a huge cost. They consider it is necessary to do this in order to
reduce the extent of the silting up of the harbour. The author referred to the
Newhaven, Bridlington, and Whitby harbours, and that at Hastings, which is only
partially constructed, and described their effect upon the coast. He also described
the effect upon the coast of headlands which run out at approximately right
angles with the coast, and those which form an obtuse angle with the coast.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 611

He suggested that the question will naturally be asked : What is the remedy
or partial remedy for this trapping of the travelling sand and corresponding
erosion on the leeward side of a harbour? and explained that previously the
only method of escaping from the impounded material seems to have been to
periodically extend the arm of the harbour further seaward, as proposed for
Madras. This meant a tremendous cost, and the results were often not satisfac-
tory, for as the pier was advanced the shore also advanced. It had been sug-
gested that instead of doing this openings should be left through the shore ends
of the harbour arms for the sand to pass through; but this suggestion was not
practicable, for immediately the travelling material passed through the opening
the wave behind it did not possess sufficient force to move the material through,
especially where the width of the harbour was considerable.

The author suggested that in order to modify this trapping of the sand the
ground plan of the harbour, instead of showing the piers to run out at right
angles to the coast, or approximately so, should show that on the side facing the
direction of the travelling material to project from the coast at an angle of 45°,
the additional area thereby enclosed by the harbour piers could be utilised,
among other purposes, for that of wharfage. The travelling material would, he
stated, pass around the harbour projection if the plan of the harbour was on
these lines, and would supply the coast on the lee side of the harbour with a
natural protection of sand and shingle.

He illustrated the various points referred to by numerous diagrams and
photos, and stated that in arriving at his conclusions he carried out various
experiments, which he described in the paper. He made the suggestion that
where it can be proved that erosion has occurred, and is still taking place, owing
to the projection of harbour piers, or the lengthening of such piers, or the con-
struction of a spur breakwater from such piers, the harbour authorities should
be called upon to contribute towards the cost of the protection of such a coast as
far as the affected area is concerned. He also suggested that in the granting of
powers by Parliament for the construction of new harbours, it should be made
compulsory that contributions shall be made towards the cost of the prevention
of erosion, where it can be proved later that protection works are necessary in
consequence of such harbour projections.

4. The Transport and Settlement of Sand in Water, and a Method of
Exploring Sand Bars. By Dr. Jonn 8. Owens, A.M.Inst.C.E.,
GS.

This paper, illustrated by experiments, dealt with certain phenomena accom-
panying the movement of sand in water. Sand ripples were shown travelling
under the influence of a current. The grains being swept by the current from
the back of the ripple and deposited on its face, the ripple-form thus moved
forward with the current by a process of erosion of its back and accretion of
its face. This was demonstrated by means of a trough with semi-circular ends
and a longitudinal partition in the middle, thus forming two channels. The
water was made to circulate up one channel and down the other, and the move-
ments of the ripples were seen on the sand forming the bottom.

The formation of quicksands was illustrated by means of a tank containing
ordinary sea-sand, and it was shown that when water was caused to flow
upwards through the sand the latter acquired all the properties of a quicksand
and swallowed heavy bodies placed thereon.

The effect of obstacles lying on a sandy bed in the path of a current was
demonstrated by means of a model. Stones and models of piles were placed on
sand in the path of a current in a small tank, and localised erosion around the
obstacles resulted in each case. This was shown to be due to the deflection and
increased local velocity of the current.

The curious effect of suspended matter on the specific gravity of water was
illustrated by means of a glass cylinder containing water in which sand was
shaken up; it was shown that, while the sand was suspended, the specific gravity
measured by a floating hydrometer was raised above that of water. The
influence of such a rise in specific gravity in increasing the intensity of impact
of the water and consequently its erosive power was indicated.

RR2

612 ; TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

A tall glass tube filled with water was exhibited; in this bodies of different
shape were allowed to sink; in every case, whether discs, rectangular plates or
rods, the bodies settled in the position offering the greatest resistance to move-
ment. It was shown that this property might result in more rapid settlement
in running than in still water, and also account for a cleavage in sedimentary
rocks,

A model of an instrument for exploring sand-bars and river-beds was shown.
It consisted of two tubes arranged concentrically, connected at the top, but
separated at the bottom. A cock-and-hose attachment was fixed on the upper
end of the inner tube, and a second cock, with a spout, communicated with the
top of an annular space between the two tubes. At the bottom the inner tube
ended a short distance above the end of the outer tube. Water, if forced down
the inner tube, must pass out at the bottom when the cock to the annular space
is closed; in this case the instrument sinks if placed on a sandy bottom. When
at any desired depth the cock to the annular space is opened the water returns
up the outer tube, carrying a sample of the sand with it, and delivering the
sample from the spout. By means of this instrument the depth and nature of
bars and shoals may he easily ascertained.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.— PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 613

Secrion H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION.—Srm RicHarp Trempur, Barr., C.1.E.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.
The President delivered the following Address :—

Administrative Value of Anthropology.

Tue title of the body of which those present at this meeting form a section
is, as all my hearers will know, the British Association for the Advancement
of Science, and it seems to me therefore that the primary duty of a Sectional
President is to do what in him lies, for the time being, to forward the work of
his Section. This may be done in more than one way: by a survey of the work
done up to date and an appreciation of its existing position and future prospects,
by an address directly forwarding it in some particular point or aspect, by
considering its applicability to what is called the practical side of human life.
The choice of method seems to me to depend on the circumstances of each
meeting, and I am about to choose the last of those above mentioned, and to
confine my address to a consideration of the administrative value of anthro-
pology, because the locality in which we are met together and the spirit of the
present moment seem to indicate that I shall best serve the interests of the
Anthropological Section of the British Association by a dissertation on the
importance of this particular science to those who are or may hereafter be
called upon to administer the public affairs of the lands in which they may
reside.

I have to approach the practical aspect of the general subject of anthropology
under the difficulty of finding myself once more riding an old hobby, and being
consequently confronted with views and remarks already expressed in much
detail. But I am not greatly disturbed by this fact, as experience teaches that
the most effective way of impressing ideas, in which one believes, on one’s
fellow man is to miss no opportunity of putting them forward, even at the risk
of repeating what may not yet have been forgotten. And as I am convinced
that the teachings of anthropologists are of practical value to those engaged in
guiding the administration of their own or another country, I am prepared to
take that risk. }

Anthropology is, of course, in its baldest sense the study of mankind in all its
possible ramifications, a subject far too wide for any one science to cover, and
therefore the real point for consideration on such an occasion as this is not so
much what the students of mankind and its environments might study if they
chose, but what the scope of their studies now actually is, and whither it is
tending. I propose, therefore, to discuss the subject in this limited sense.

What then is the anthropology of to-day, that claims to be of practical value
to the administrator? In what directions has it developed ?

Perhaps the best answer to these questions is to be procured from our own
volume of ‘Notes and Queries on Anthropology,’ a volume published under an

614 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

arrangement with the Royal Anthropological Institute for the British Association.
This volume of ‘ Notes and Queries ’ has been before the public for about forty
years, and is now in the fourth edition, which shows a great advance on its
predecessors and conforms to the stage of development which the science has
reached up to the present time.

The object of the ‘ Notes and Queries’ is stated to be ‘to promote accurate
anthropological observation on the part of travellers (including all local
observers) and to enable those who are not anthropologists themselves to supply
information which is wanted for the scientific study of anthropology at home.’
So, in the heads under which the subject is considered in this book, we have
exhibited to us the entire scope of the science as it now exists. These heads are
(1) Physical Anthropology, (2) Technology, (3) Sociology, (4) Arts and Sciences.
It is usual, however, nowadays to divide the subject into two main divisions—
physical and cultural anthropology.

Physical Anthropology aims at obtaining ‘as exact a record as possible of
the structure and functions of the human body, with a view to determining how
far these are dependent on inherited and racial factors, and how far they vary
with environment.’ This record is based on two separate classes of physical
observation : firstly on descriptive characters, such as types of hair, colour of
the eyes and skin, and so on, and actual measurement; and secondly on attitudes,
movements, and customary actions. By the combined study of observations on
these points physical heredity is ascertained, and a fair attribution of the race
or races to which individuals or groups belong can be arrived at.

But anthropology, as now studied, goes very much further than inquiry into
the physical structure of the human races. Man, ‘unlike other animals,
habitually reinforces and enhances his natural qualities and force by artificial
* means.’ He does, or gets done for him, all sorts of things to his body to
improve its capacities or appearance, or to protect it. He thus supplies himself
with sanitary appliances and surroundings, with bodily ornamentation and
ornaments, with protective clothing, with habitations and furniture, with
protection against climate and enemies, with works for the supply of water and
fire, with food and drink, drugs and medicine. And for these purposes he
hunts, fishes, domesticates animals, and tills the soil, and provides himself with
implements for all these, and also for defence and offence, and for the transport
of goods, involving working in wood, earth, stones, bones, shells, metals and
other hard materials, and in leather, strings, nets, basketry, matting and weaving,
leading him to what are known as textile industries. Some of this work has
brought him to mine and quarry, and to employ mechanical aids in the shape of
machinery, however rude and simple. The transport of himself and his
belongings by land and water has led him to a separate set of industries and
habits: to the use of paths, roads, bridges, and halting places, of trailers,
sledges, and wheeled vehicles; to the use of rafts, floats, canoes, coracles, boats,
and ships, and the means of propelling them, poles, paddles, oars, sails, and
rigging. The whole of these subjects is grouped by anthropologists under the
term Technology, which thus becomes a very wide subject, covering all the
means by which a people supplies itself with the necessaries of its mode of
livelihood.

In order to successfully carry on what may be termed the necessary industries
or even to be in a position to cope with them, bodies of men have to act in
concert, and this forces mankind to be gregarious, a condition of life that
involves the creation of social relations. To understand, therefore, any group of
mankind, it is essential to study Sociology side by side with Technology. The
subjects for inquiry here are the observances at crucial points in the life history
of the individual—birth, puberty, marriage, death, daily life, nomenclature, and
so on; the social organisation and the relationship of individuals. On_ these
follow the economics of the social group, pastoral, agricultural, industrial, and
commercial, together with conceptions as to property and inheritance (including
slavery), as to government, law and order, politics and morals; and finally the
ideas as to war and the external relations between communities.

We are still, however, very far from being able to understand in all their
fulness of development even the crudest of human communities, without a
further inquiry into the products of their purely mental activities, which in the
‘Notes and Queries’ are grouped under the term ‘Arts and Sciences.’ Under

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 615

this head are to be examined, in the first place, the expression of the emotions to
the eye by physical movements and conditions, and téen by gestures, signs and
signals, before we vome to language, which is primarily expressed by the voice
to the ear, and secondarily to the eye in a more elaborate form by the graphic
arts—pictures, marks and writing. Man further tries to express his emotions
by what are known as the Fine Arts; that is by modifying the material articles
which he contrives for his livelihood in a manner that makes them represent to
him something beyond their economic use—makes them pleasant, representative
or symbolical—leading him on to draw, paint, enamel, engrave, carve, and mould,
In purely mental efforts this striving to satisfy the artistic or ssthetic sense
takes the form of stories, proverbs, riddles, songs, and music. Dancing, drama,
games, tricks and amusements are other manifestations of the same effort,
combining in these cases the movements of the body with those of the mind in
expressing the emotions.

The mental processes necessary for the expression of his emotions have
induced man to extend his powers of mind in directions now included in the
term ‘ Abstract Reasoning.’ This has led him to express the results of his
reasoning by such terms as reckoning and measurement, and to fix standards for
comparison in such immaterial but all essential matters as enumeration, distance,
surface, capacity, weight, time, value and exchange. These last enable him to
reach the idea of money, which is the measurement of value by means of tokens,
and represents perhaps the highest economic development of the reasoning
powers common to nearly all mankind.

The mental capacities of man have so far been considered only in relation to
the expression of the emotions and of the results of abstract reasoning; but they
have served him also to develop other results and expressions equally important,
which have arisen out of observation of his surroundings, and have given birth
to the Natural Sciences: astronomy, meteorology, geography, topography and
natural history. And further they have enabled him to memorise all these
things by means of records, which in their highest form have brought about what
is known to all of us as history, the bugbear of impulsive and shallow thinkers,
but the very backbone of all solid opinion.

The last and most complex development of the mental processes, dependent
upon all the others according to the degree to which they themselves have been
developed in any given variety of mankind, is, and has always been, present in
every race or group on record from the remotest to the most recent time in some
form or other and in a high degree. Groups of men observe the phenomena
exhibited by themselves or their environment, and account for them according
to their mental capacity as modified by their heredity. Man’s bare abstract
reasoning, following on his observation of such phenomena, is his philosophy,
but his inherited emotions influence his reasoning to an almost controlling extent
and induce his religion, which is thus his philosophy or explanation of natural
phenomena as effected by his hereditary emotions, producing that most
wonderful of all human phenomena, his belief. In the conditions, belief, faith,
and religion must and do vary with race, period and environment.

Consequent on the belief, present or past, of any given variety of mankind,
there follow religious practices (customs as they are usually called) based thereon,
and described commonly in terms that are familiar to all, but are nevertheless by
no means even yet clearly defined: theology, heathenism, fetishism, animism,
totemism, magic, superstition, with soul, ghost, and spirit, and so on, as regards
mental concepts; worship, ritual, prayer, sanctity, sacrifice, taboo, etc., as
regards custom and practice.

Thus have the anthropologists, as I understand them, shown that they desire
to answer the question as to what their science is, and to explain the main
points in the subject of which they strive to obtain and impart accurate know-
ledge based on scientific inquiry: that is, on an inquiry methodically conducted
on lines which experience has shown them will lead to the minimum of error in
observation and record.

I trust I have been clear in my explanation of the anthropologists’ case,
though in the time at my disposal I have been unable to do more than indicate
the subjects they study, and have been obliged to exercise restraint and to
employ condensation of statement to the utmost extent that even a long
experience in exposition enables one to achieve. Briefly, the science of anthro-

616 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

pology aims at such a presentation and explanation of the physical and mental
facts about any given species or even group of mankind as may correctly instruct
those to whom the acquisition of such knowledge may be of use. In this
instance, as in the case of the other sciences, the man of science endeavours to
acquire and pass on abstract knowledge, which the man of affairs can confidently
apply in the daily business of practical life.

It will have been observed that an accurate presentation of the physical and
mental characteristics of any species of mankind which it is desired to study is
wholly dependent on accurate inquiry and report. Let no one suppose that such
inquiry is a matter of instinct or intuition, or that it can be usefully conducted
empirically or without due reference to the experiences of others; in other words
without sufficient preliminary study. So likely indeed are the uneducated in
such matters to observe and record facts about human beings inaccurately, or
even wrongly, that about a fourth part of the ‘ Notes and Queries’ is taken up
with showing the inquirer how to proceed, and in exposing the pitfalls into
which he may unconsciously fall. The mainspring of error in anthropological
observation is that the inquirer is himself the product of heredity and environ-
ment. ‘This induces him to read himself, his own unconscious prejudices and
inherited outlook on life, into the statements made to him by those who view
life from perhaps a totally different and incompatible standpoint. To the extent
that the inquirer does this, to that extent are his observations and report likely
to be inaccurate and misleading. To avoid error in this respect, previous
training and study are essential, and so the ‘ Notes and Queries on Anthro-
pology’, a guide compiled in co-operation by persons long familiar with the
subject, is as strong and explicit on the point of how to inquire as on that of
what to inguire about.

Let me explain that these statements are not intended to be taken as made
ex cathedrd, but rather as the outcome of actual experience of mistakes
made in the past. ‘l'ime does not permit me to go far into this point, and I must
limit myself to the subject of Sociology for my illustration. If a man under-
takes to inquire into the social life of a people or tribe as a subject apart, he
is committing an error, and his report will almost certainly be misleading.
Such an investigator will find that religion and technology are inextricably
mixed up with the sociology of any given tribe, that religion intervenes at every
point not only of sociology but also of language and technology. In fact, just
as in the case of all other scientific research, the phenomena observable by the
anthropologist are not the result of development along any single line alone,
but of a progression in a main general direction, as influenced, and it may be
even deflected, by contact and environment.

If, again, ‘the inquirer neglects the simple but essential practice of taking
notes, not only fully, but also immediately or as nearly so as practicable, he
will find that his memory of facts, even after a short time, has become vague,
inexact, and incomplete, which means that reports made from memory are more
likely to be useless than to be of any scientific value. If voluntary information or
indirect and accidental corroboration are ignored, if questions are asked and
answers accepted without discretion, if exceptions are mistaken for rules, then the
records of an inquiry may well mislead and thus become worse than useless.
Tf leading or direct questions are put without due caution, and if the answers
are recorded without reference to the natives’ and not the inquirer’s mode of
classifying things, crucial errors may easily arise. Thus, in many parts of the
world, the term ‘ mother’ includes ‘all female relatives of the past or passing
generation, and the term ‘brother’ the entire brotherhood. Such expressions
as ‘brother’ and ‘sister’ may and do constantly connote relationships which
are not recognised at all amongst us. The word ‘marriage’ may include
‘ irrevocable betrothal,’ and so on; and it is very easy to fall into the trap
of the mistranslation of terms of essential import, especially in the use of words
expressing religious conceptions. The conception of godhead has for so long
been our inheritance that it may be classed almost as instinctive. It is
nevertheless still foreign to the instincts of a large portion of mankind.

Tf also, when working among the uncultured, the inquirer attempts to
ascertain abstract ideas, except through concrete instances, he will not succeed
in his purpose for want of representative terms. And lastly, if he fails to
project himself sufficiently into the minds of the subjects of inquiry, or to

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 617

respect their prejudices, or to regard seriously what they hold to be sacred,
or to keep his countenance while practices are being described which to him
may be disgusting or ridiculous—if indeed he fails in any way in communicating
to his informants, who are often super-sensitively suspicious in such matters,
the fact that his sympathy is not feigned—he will also fail in obtaining the
anthropological knowledge he is seeking. In the words of the ‘Notes and
Queries’ on this point, ‘ Nothing is easier than to do anthropological work of
a certain sort, but to get to the bottom of native customs and modes of thought,
and to record the results of inquiry in such a manner that they carry conviction,
is work which can be only carried out properly by careful attention.’

The foregoing considerations explain the scope of our studies and the require-
ments of the preliminary inquiries necessary to give those studies value. The
further question is the use to which the results can be put. The point that at
once arises here for the immediate purpose is that of the conditions under which
the British Empire is administered. We are here met together to talk
scientifically, that is, as precisely as we can: and so it is necessary to give a
definition to the expression ‘Imperial Administration,’ especially as it is
constantly used for the government of an empire, whereas in reality it is the
government that directs the administration. In this address I use the term
“administration ’ as the disinterested management of the details of public affairs.
This excludes politics from our purview, defining that term as the conduct of the
government of a country according to the opinions or in the interests of a
particular group or party.

Now in this matter of administration the position of the inhabitants of the
British Isles is unique. It falls to their lot to govern, directly or indirectly,
the lives of members of nearly every variety of the human race. Themselves
Europeans by descent and intimate connection, they have a large direct interest
in every other general geographical division of the world and its inhabitants.
lt is worth while to pause here for a moment to think, and to try and realise,
however dimly, something of the task before the people of this country in the
government and control of what are known as the subject races.

For this purpose it is necessary to throw our glance over the physical extent
of the British Empire. In the first place, there are the ten self-governing com-
ponents of the Dominion of Canada and that of Newfoundland in North
America, the six Colonial States in the Commonwealth of Australia, with the
Dominion of New Zealand in Australasia, and the four divisions of the Union
of South Africa. All these may be looked upon as indirectly administered
portions of the British Kmpire. Then there is the mediatised government of
Kgypt, with its appanage, the directly British administered Sudan, which alone
covers about a million square miles of territory in thirteen provinces, in
Northern Africa. ‘lhese two areas occupy, as it were, a position between the
self-governing and the directly-governed areas. Of these, there are in Europe
Malta and Gibraltar, Cyprus being officially included in Asia. In Asia itself
is the mighty Indian Empire, which includes Aden and the Arabian Coast on
the West and Burma on the East, and many islands in the intervening seas,
with its fifteen provinces and some twenty categories of Native States ‘in
subordinate alliance,’ that is, under general Imperial control. To these are
added Ceylon, the Straits Settlements, and the Malay States, federated or
other, North Borneo and Sarawak, and in the China Seas Hongkong and
Wei-hai-wei. In South Africa we find Basutoland, Bechuanaland, and
Rhodesia; in British West Africa, Gambia, the Gold Coast, Sierra Leone, and
Nigeria; in Hastern and Central Africa, Somaliland, the East Africa Protec-
torate, Uganda, Zanzibar, and Nyassaland; while attached to Africa are the
Mauritius, Seychelles, Ascension and St. Helena. In Central and South America
are Honduras and British Guiana, and attached to that continent the Falkland
Tslands, and also Bermuda and the six colonies of British West Indies. In the
Pacific Ocean are Fiji, Papua and many of the Pacific Islands.

I am afraid that once more during the course of this exposition I have been
obliged to resort to a concentration of statement that is almost bewildering.
But let that be. If one is to grapple successfully with a large and complex
subject, it is necessary to try and keep before the mind, so far as possible, not
only its magnitude, but the extent of its complexity. This is the reason for
bringing before you, however briefly and generally, the main geographical

618 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

details of the British Empire. The first point to realise on such a survey is
that the mere extent of such an Empire makes the subject of its administration
an immensely important one for the British people.

The next point for consideration and realisation is that an empire situated
in so many widely separated parts of the world must contain within its
boundaries groups of every variety of mankind, in such numerical strength as
to render it necessary to control them as individual entities. They do not
consist of small bodies lost in a general population, and therefore negligible from
the administrator’s point of view, but of whole races and tribes or of large
detachments thereof.

These tribes of mankind profess every variety of religion known. There are
Christians, Jews, Mahommedans, Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, Animists, and to
use a very modern expression, Animatists, adherents of main religions followed
by an immense variety of sects, governed, however loosely, by every species of
philosophy that is or has been in fashion among groups of mankind, and current
in every stage of development, from the simplest and most primitive to the
most historical and complex. One has to bear in mind that we have within our
borders the Andamanese, the Papuan, and the Polynesian, as well as the highly
civilised Hindu and Chinese, and that not one of these, nor indeed of many other
peoples, has any tradition of philosophy or religion in common with our own;
their very instincts of faith and belief following other lines than ours, the
prejudices with which their minds are saturated being altogether alien to those
with which we ourselves are deeply imbued.

The subjects of the British King-Emperor speak between them most of the
languages of the world, and certainly every structural variety of human speech
has its example somewhere in the British Empire. A number of these languages
is still only in the process of becoming understood by our officials and other
residents among their speakers, and let there be no mistake as to the magnitude
of the question involved in the point of language alone in British Imperial
regions. A man may be what is called a linguist. He may have a working
knowledge of the main European languages and of the great Oriental tongues,
Arabic, Persian, and Hindustani, which will carry him very far indeed among
the people—in a sense, in fact, from London to Calcutta—and then, without
leaving that compact portion of the British Possessions known as the Indian
Empire, with all its immense variety of often incompatible subordinate
languages and dialects, he has only to step across the border into Burma and
the Further East to find himself in a totally different atmosphere of speech,
where not one of the sounds, not one of the forms, not one of the methods, with
which he has become familiarised is of any service to him whatever. The same
observation will again be forced on him if he transfers himself thence to
Southern Africa or to the Pacific Ocean. Let him wander amongst the North
American Indians, and he will find the linguistic climate once more altogether
. changed.

Greater Britain may be said to exhibit all the many varieties of internal
social relations that have been set up by tribes and groups of mankind—all the
different forms of family and general social organisation, of reckoning kinship,
of inheritance and control of the possession of property, of dealing with the
birth of children and their education and training, physical, mental, moral, and
professional, in many eases by methods entirely foreign to British ideas and
habits. For instance, infanticide as a custom has many different sources of
origin.

Da fellow subjects of the King follow, somewhere or other, all the different
notions and habits that have been formed by mankind as to the relations
between the sexes, both permanent and temporary, as to marriage and to what
have been aptly termed supplementary unions. And finally, their methods of
dealing with death and bringing it about, of disposing of the dead and
worshipping them, give expression to ideas, which it requires study for an
inhabitant of Great Britain to appreciate or understand. I may quote here as
an example, that of all the forms of human head-hunting and other ceremonial
murder that have come within my cognisance, either as an administrator or
investigator, not one has originated in callousness or cruelty of character. Indeed,
from the point of view of the perpetrators, they are invariably resorted to for

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 619

the temporal or spiritual benefit of themselves or their tribe. In making this
remark, I must not be understood as proposing that they should not be put
down, wherever that is practicable. I am merely trying now to give an
anthropological explanation of human phenomena.

In very many parts of the British Empire, the routine of daily life and the
notions that govern it often find no counterparts of any kind in those of the
British Isles, in such matters as personal habits and etiquette on occasions of
social intercourse. And yet, perhaps, nothing estranges the administrator from
his people more than mistakes on these points. It is small matters—such as
the mode of salutation, forms of address and politeness, as rules of precedence,
hospitality, and decency, as recognition of superstitions, however apparently
unreasonable—which largely govern social relations, which no stranger can
afford to ignore, and which at the same time cannot be ascertained and observed
correctly without due study.

The considerations so far urged to-day have carried us through the points
of the nature and scope of the science of anthropology, the mental equipment
necessary for the useful pursuit of it, the methods by which it can be success-
fully studied, the extent and nature of the British Empire, the kind of
knowledge of the alien populations within its boundaries required by persons of
British origin who would administer the Empire with benefit to the people
dwelling in it, and the importance to such persons of acquiring that knowledge.

1 now turn to the present situation as to this last point and its possible
improvement, though in doing so I have to cover ground that some of those
present may think I have already trodden bare. The main proposition here is
simple enough. The Empire is governed from the British Isles, and therefore
year by year a large number of young men is sent out to its various component
parts, and to them must inevitably be entrusted in due course the administrative,
commercial, and social control over many alien races. If their relations with
the foreign peoples with whom they come in contact are to be successful, they
must acquire a working knowledge of the habits, customs, and ideas that govern
the conduct of those peoples, and of the conditions in which they pass their
lives. All those who succeed find these things out for themselves, and discern
that success in administration and commerce is intimately affected by success in
social relations, and that that in its turn is dependent on the knowledge they
may attain of those with whom they have to deal. They set about learning
what they can, but of necessity empirically, trusting to keenness of observation,
because such self-tuition is, as it were, a side issue in the immediate and
imperative business of their lives. But, as I have already said elsewhere, the
man who is obliged to obtain the requisite knowledge empirically, and without
any previous training in observation, is heavily handicapped indeed in com-
parison with him who has already acquired the habit of right observation, and,
what is of much more importance, has been put in the way of correctly
interpreting his observations in his youth.

To put the proposition in its briefest form : in order to succeed in administra-
tion a man must use tact. Tact is the social expression of discernment and
insight, qualities born of intuitive anthropological knowledge, and that is what
it is necessary to induce in those sent abroad to become eventually the controllers
of other kinds of men. What is required, therefore, is that in youth they
should have imbibed the anthropological habit, so that as a result of having
been taught how to study mankind, they may learn what it is necessary to
know of those about them correctly, and in the shortest practicable time. The
years of active life now unavoidably wasted in securing this knowledge, often
inadequately and incorrectly even in the case of the ablest, can thus be saved,
to the incalculable benefit of both the governors and the governed.

The situation has, for some years past, been appreciated by those who have
occupied themselves with the science we are assembled here to promote, and
several efforts have been made by the Royal Anthropological Institute and the
Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and London, at any rate to bring the
public benefits accruing from the establishment of anthropological schools before
the Government and the people of this country.

In 1902 the Royal Anthropological Institute sent a deputation to the
Government with a view to the establishment of an official Anthropometric

620 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

Survey of the United Kingdom, in order to test the foundation for fears, then
widely expressed, as to the physical deterioration of the population. In 1909
the Institute sent a second deputation to the present Government, to urge the
need for the official training in anthropology of candidates for the Consular
Service and of the Indian and Colonial Civil Services. There is happily every
reason to hope that the Public Services Commission may act on the recommenda-
tions then made. This year (1913) the Institute returned to the charge and
approached the Secretary of State for India, with a view to making anthropology
an integral feature of the studies of the Oriental Research Institute, to the
establishment of which the Government of India had officially proposed to give
specia] attention. The Institute has also lately arranged to deal with all ques-
tions of scientific import that may come before the newly constituted Bureau of
Ethnology at the Royal Colonial Institute, in the hope with its co-operation of
eventually establishing a great desideratum—an Imperial Bureau of Ethnology.
It has further had in hand a scheme for the systematic and thorough distribu-
tion of local correspondents throughout the world.

At Oxford, anthropology as a serious study was recognised by the appoint-
ment, in 1884, of a Reader, who was afterwards given the status of a Professor.
In 1885, it was admitted as a special subject in the Final Honours School of
Natural Science. In 1904, a memorandum was drawn up by those interested in
the study at the University, advocating a method of systematic training in it,
which resulted in the formation of the Committee of Anthropology in the
following year. ‘his Committee has established a series of lectures and
examinations for a diploma, which can be taken as part of the degree course,
but is open to all officers of the public services as well. By these means a
School of Anthropology has been created at Oxford, which has already
registered many students, among whom officers engaged in the administration
of the British Colonies in Africa and members of the Indian Civil Service have
been included. The whole question has been systematically taken up in all its
aspects, the instruction, formal and informal, comprising physical anthropology,
psychology, geographical distribution, prehistoric archeology, technology,
sociology, and philology.

At Cambridge, in 1893, there was a recognised Lecturer in Physical
Anthropology, an informal office now represented by a Lecturer in Physical
Anthropology and a Reader in Ethnology, regularly appointed by the University.
In 1904, as a result of an expedition to Torres Straits, a Board of Anthropo-
logical Studies was formed, and a Diploma in Anthropology instituted, to be
granted, not for success in examinations, but in recognition of meritorious
personal research. At the same time, in order to help students, among whom
were included officials in the African and Indian Civil Services, the Board
established lectures on the same subjects as those taught at Oxford. This year,
1913, the University has instituted an Anthropological Tripos for its Degrees
on lines similar to the others. The distinguishing feature of the Cambridge
system is the prominence given to field work, and this is attracting foreign
students of all sorts.

In 1909, joint representations were made by a deputation from the Univer-
sities of Oxford and Cambridge to both the India and Colonial Offices,
advocating the training of Civil Service candidates and probationers in ethnology
and primitive religion.

In 1904, the generosity of a private individual established a Lectureship
in Ethnology in connection with the University of London, which has since
developed into a Professorship of Ethnology with a Lectureship in Physical
Anthropology. In the same year the same benefactor instituted a Chair of
Sociology. In 1909 the University established a Board of Anthropology, and
the subject is now included in the curricula for the Degrees of the University.
In and after 1914, Anthropology will be a branch of the Science Honours
Degree. The Degree course of the future covers both physical and cultural
anthropology in regard to zoology, paleontology, physiology, psychology,
archeology, technology, sociology, linguistics and ethnology. There will also be
courses in ethnology with special attention to field work for officials and mission-
aries, and it is interesting to note that students of Egyptology are already taking
a course of lectures in ethnology and physical anthropology.

ey i

oo

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 621

Though the Universities have thus been definite enough in their action where
the authority is vested in them, it is needless to say that their representations
to Governments have met with varying success, and so far they have not
produced much practical result. But it is as well to note here that a precedent
for the preliminary anthropological training of probationers in the Colonial
Civil Service has been already set up, as the Government of the Sudan has
directed that every candidate for its services shall go through a course of
anthropology at Oxford or Cambridge. In addition to this, the Sudan Govern-
ment has given a grant to enable a competent anthropologist from London to
run a small scientific survey of the peoples under its administration. The Assam
Government has arranged its ethnographical monographs on the lines of the
British Association’s ‘ Notes and Queries’ with much benefit to itself, and it is
believed that the Burma Government will do likewise.

Speaking in this place to such an audience as that before me, and encouraged
by what has already been done elsewhere, I cannot think that Il can be mistaken
in venturing to recommend the encouragement of the study of anthropology
to the University of such a city as Birmingham, which has almost unlimited
interests throughout the British Empire. For it should be remembered that
anthropological knowledge is as useful to merchants in partibus in dealing with
aliens as to administrators so situated. Should this suggestion bear fruit, and
should it be thought advisable some day to establish a School of Anthropology
in Birmingham, 1 would also venture to point out that there are two require-
ments preliminary to the successful formation of almost any school of study.
These are a library and a museum ad hoc. At Oxford there is a well known
and well conducted anthropological museum in the Pitt-Rivers Collection, and
the Museum of Archeology and Ethnology at Cambridge contains collections
of the greatest service to the anthropologist. Liverpool is also interesting itself
in such matters. The Royal Anthropological Institute is forming a special
library, and both that Institute and the University of London have the benefit
ot the splendid collections of the British Museum and of the Horniman Museum
readily accessible. ‘lhe libraries at Oxford and Cambridge are, I need hardly
say, of world-wide fame. At all these places of learning, then, these requisites
for this department of knowledge are forthcoming.

It were almost superfluous to state why they are requisites. Every student
requires, not only competent teachers to guide him in his particular branch of
study, but also a library and a museum close at hand, where he can find the
information he wants and the illustration of it. Where these exist, thither it
will be found that students will flock. Birmingham possesses peculiar facilities
for the formation of both, as the city has all over the Empire its commercial
representatives, who can collect the required museum specimens on the spot.
The financial labours also of those who distribute these men over Greater Britain,
and indeed all over the world, produce the means to create the library and the
school, and their universal interests provide the incentive for securing for those
in their employ the best method of acquiring a knowledge of men that can be
turned to useful commercial purpose. Beyond these suggestions I will not
pursue this point now, except to express a hope that this discourse may lead to
a discussion thereon before this meeting breaks up.

Before I quit my subject I would like to be somewhat insistent on the fact
that, though I have been dwelling so far exclusively on the business side, as it
were, of the study of anthropology, it has a personal side as well. I would like
to impress once more on the student, as I have often had occasion to do already,
that whether he is studying of his own free will or at the behest of circum-
stances, there is hardly any better hobby in existence than this, or one that
can be ridden with greater pleasure. It cannot, of course, be mastered in a day.
At first the lessons will be a grind. ‘Then, until they are well learnt, they are
irksome, but when fullness of knowledge and maturity of judgment are
attained, there is, perhaps, no keener sense of satisfaction which human beings
can experience than that which is afforded by this study. Its range is so
wide, its phases so very many, the interests involved in it so various, that it
cannot fail to pleasantly occupy the leisure hours from youth to full manhood,
and to be a solace, in some aspect or other, in advanced life and old age.

The processes of discovery in the course of this study are of such interest

622 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

in themselves that I should wish to give many instances, but I must confine
myself now to one or two. The student will find on investigation, for instance,
that however childish the reasoning of savages may appear to be on abstract
subjects, and however silly some of their customs may seem, they are neither
childish nor silly in reality. They are almost always the result of ‘ correct
argument from a false premiss’—a mental process not unknown to eivilised
races. The student will also surely find that savages are not fools where their
concrete interests are concerned, as they conceive those interests to be. For
example, in commerce, beads do not appeal to savages merely because they are
pretty things, except for purposes of adornment. They will only part with
articles they value for particular sorts of beads which are to them money, in
that they can procure in exchange for them, in their own country, something
they much desire. They have no other reason for accepting any kind of bead in
payment for goods. On few anthropological points can mistakes be made more
readily than on this, and when they are made by merchants, financial disaster
can well follow, so that what I have already said elsewhere as io this may bear
repetition in part here. Savages in their bargains with civilised man
never make one that does not, for reasons of their own, satisfy themselves.
Each side, in such a case, views the bargain according to its own interest. On
his side, the trader buys something of great value to him, when he has taken
it elsewhere, with something of little value to him, which he has brought from
elsewhere, and then, and only then, can he make what is to him a magnificent
bargain. On the other hand the savage is more than satisfied, because with
what he has got from the trader he can procure from among his own people
something he very much covets, which the article he parted with could not
have procured for him. Both sides profit by the bargain from their respective
points of view, and traders cannot, as a matter of fact, take undue advantage
of savages, who, as a body, part with products of little or no value to themselves
for others of vital importance, though these last may be of little or none to the
civilised trader. The more one dives into recorded bargains, the more clearly
one sees the truth of this view.

I have always advocated personal inquiry into the native currency and
money, even of pre-British days, of the people amongst whom a Britisher’s
lot is cast, for the reason that the study of the mental processes that lead
up to commercial relations, internal and external, the customs concerned with
daily buying and selling, take one more deeply into aliens’ habits of mind and
their outlook on practical life than any other branch of research. The student
will find himself involuntarily acquiring a knowledge of the whole life of a
people, even of superstitions and local politics, matters that commercial men,
as well as administrators, cannot, if they only knew it, ever afford to ignore.
The study has also a great intellectual interest, and neither the man of commerce
nor the man of affairs should disregard this side of it if he would attain
success in every sense of that term.

Just let me give one instance from personal experisnce. A few years back
a number of ingots of tin, in the form of birds and animals and imitations
thereof, hollow tokens of tin ingots, together with a number of rough notes
taken on the spot, were handed over to me for investigation and report. They
came from the Federated Malay States, and were variously said to have been
used as toys and as money in some form. A long and careful investigation
unearthed the whole story. They turned out to be surviving specimens of an
obsolete and forgotten Malay currency. Bit by bit, by researches into
travellers’ stories and old records, European and vernacular, it was ascertained
that some of the specimens were currency and some money, and that they
belonged to two separate series. Their relations to each other were ascertained,
and also to the currencies of the European and Oriental nations with whom
the Malays of the Peninsula had come in contact. The mint profit in some
instances, and in other instances the actual profit European governments and
mercantile authorities, and even native traders, had made in recorded transac-
tions of the past, was found out. The origin of the British, Dutch, and
Portuguese money, evolved for trading with the Malays, was disclosed, and
several interesting historical discoveries were made; as, for instance, the
explanation of the coins still remaining in museums and issued in 1510 by the

——_—

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i

great Portuguese conqueror, Albuquerque, for the then new Malay possessioris
of his country, and the meaning of the numismatic plates of the great French
traveller Tavernier in the next century. Perhaps the most interesting, and
anthropologically the most important, discovery was the relation of the ideas
that led up to the animal currency of the Malays to similar ideas in India,
Central Asia, China, and Europe itself throughout all historical times. One
wonders how many people in these isles grasp the fact that our own monetary
scale of 960 farthings to the sovereign, and the native Malay scale of 1,280 casn
to the dollar, are representatives of one and the same universal scale, with more
than probably one and the same origin out of a simple method of counting
seeds, peas, beans, shells, or other small natural constant weights. But the
point for the present purpose is that not only will the student find that long
practice in anthropological inquiry, and the learning resulting therefrom, will
enable him to make similar discoveries, but also that the process of discovery is
intensely interesting. Such discoveries, too, are of practical value. In this
instance they have taught us much of native habits of thought and views of
life in newly acquired possessions which no administrator there, mercantile or
governmental, can set aside with safety.

I must not dwell too long on this aspect of my subject, and will only add
the following remark. lf any of my hearers will go to the Pitt-Rivers Museum
at Oxford he will find many small collections recording the historical evolution
of various common objects. Among them is a series showing the history of the
tobacco pipe, commonly known to literary students in this country as the
nargileh and to Orientalists as the hukka. At one end of the series will be
found a hollow coconut with an artificial hole in it, and then every step in
evolution between that and an elaborate hukka with its long, flexible, drawing-
tube at the other end. I give this instance as I contributed the series, and I
well remember the eagerness of the hunt in the Indian bazaars and the satisfac-
tion on proving every step in the evolution.

There is one aspect of life where the anthropological instinct would be more
than useful, but to which, alas, it cannot be extended in practice. Politics,
government, and administration are so interdependent throughout the world
that it has always seemed to me to be a pity that the value to himself of
following the principles of anthropology cannot be impressed on the average
politician of any nationality. I fear it is hopeless to expect it. Were it only
possible the extent of the consequent benefit to mankind is at present beyond
human forecast, as then the politician could approack his work without that
arrogance of ignorance of his fellow countrymen on all points except their
credulity that is the bane of the ordinary types of his kind wherever found,
with which they have always poisoned and are still poisoning their minds,
mistaking the satisfaction of the immediate temporary interests and prejudices
of themselves and comrades for the permanent advantage of the whole people,
whom, in consequence, they incontinently misgovern whenever and for so long
as their country is so undiscerning as to place them in power.

Permit me, in conclusion, to enforce the main argument of this address by
a personal note. It was my fortune to have been partly trained in youth at a
University College, where the tendency was to produce men of affairs rather
than men of the schools, and only the other day it was my privilege to hear the
present master of the College, my own contemporary and fellow-undergraduate,
expound the system of training still carried out there. ‘In the government of
young men,’ he said, ‘intellect is all very well, but sympathy counts for very
much more.” Here we have the root principle of Applied Anthropology. Here
we have in a nutshell the full import of its teaching. ‘ke sound administration
of the affairs of men can only be based on cultured sympathy, that sympathy
on sure knowledge, that knowledge on competent study, that study on accurate
inquiry, that inquiry on right method, and that method on continuous
experience.

A Joint Discussion with Section L on the Educational Use of Museums
followed.—See p. 743.

624 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.
The following Papers were then read :—

1. On the Relative Age of the Tribes with Patrilineal and Matrilineal
Descent in South-East Australia. By Prof. W. J. Souuas, F.R.S.

If, as appears probable, Tasmania was peopled by immigration from Aus-
tralia, and Australia by immigration from New Guinea, we should expect to
find traces of the more primitive people, if they survive anywhere, in the south
rather than in the north of the continent. An examination of the available
evidence seems to show that this expectation is satisfied by the facts. In
material culture there is not much which is distinctive of the south, yet it is
important to note that the canoes of the south-east are made in a more primi-
tive manner than those in the north, the bark of which they are formed being
merely bent into shape and not sawn; in the south-west canoes are unknown,
rafts taking their place. On the intellectual and religious side greater differ-
ences are manifest. ‘Totemism, which flourishes so luxuriantly over the rest of
Australia, falls almost into abeyance in the extreme south, and though this may
be partly explained by disuse, yet there is nothing to show that totemism had
ever attained so great a hold upon the people of Victoria and the adjacent
part of South Australia as it has elsewhere.*

The distribution of the rite of circumcision throws very little light on this
question; it is limited to a wide median band which extends from the northern
to the southern coast; it seems to have invaded the country from the north,
and to have spread by a kind of missionary propaganda.

Among the Kurnai of Gippsland the initiatory ceremonies are simpler than
elsewhere, and the knocking out of teeth forms no part of them. In contrast
to the Dieri, these people have no gesture language, and their message sticks
are the most primitive yet met with.

More important evidence, however, is afforded by language, and Father
Schmidt has shown that the language of the Kurnai and the other languages
of Victoria allied to it show a closer approach to Tasmanian than is made by
any other Australian tongue.

Equally strong evidence in the same direction may be obtained from a
study of bodily characters. Platycephaly, a character generally regarded as
primitive, increases as we proceed from north to south; thus, in Queensland
only 3 per cent. of the skulls examined are platycephalic; in New South
Wales, 33 per cent.; in Victoria, 46 per cent.; and in the south of South
Australia, no less than 76 per cent.; in Tasmania the proportion is 75 per cent.

Howitt remarks that ‘in a district like Gippsland, cut off by . . . physical
features . . . from facile intercourse with the remainder of Australia, we
should naturally expect to find the social condition of the people “ old-
fashioned,” ’ and then proceeds to assert that this is by no means the case; basing
this statement on the absence of the class system and the existence, not of
matrilineal, but patrilineal descent. This, of course, involves the assumption
that the class system and matrilineal descent are the more primitive. As a
universal rule I do not think this will hold, nor do I think it holds for the
Kurnai. The primitive character of this people is established by a consider-
able body of evidence, which is, on the whole, of a more positive character
than that which is afforded by their social organisation. Among the East
Kulin people, also characterised by patrilineal descent and local exogamy, we
have, further, a local separation into Kagle-hawks and Crows, distinguished by
different dialects and different bodily characters—a fact suggestive of the
origin of the class system in the alliance of different races. It would seem
that the Arunta are among the least primitive of the Australian races.

* In Tasmania the only evidence for the existence of totemism rests on the
statement that some natives would eat only the male wallaby, others only the
female.

ss

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 625

2. The Historical Value of the Traditions of the Baganda.
By HE. Srpney Harruanp.

The recent tendency among ethnological inquirers to accept the oral traditions
of peoples in the lower culture at their face value as historical evidence is
contrary to true critical principles. The influence of imagination in recon-
stituting the past, the measures taken by various African peoples to preserve
the memory of past events, and the special dangers attendant on such measures.
The length of time to which genuine historical memory extends may be illus-
trated by the pedigrees of the Thonga chiefs. A summary examination of the
traditions of the Baganda as recorded by the Rev. J. Roscoe and Sir Harry
Johnston. Their historical value has been greatly over estimated.

3. A Gypsy Pedigree and its Lessons.
By Rey. Grorce Haut and W. H. R. Rivers, M.D., F.R.S.

The pedigree of a well-known family, extending over six generations, has been
analysed with the object of ascertaining how far the collection of gypsy pedi-
grees is likely to furnish data of sociological and biological interest.

One result has been to show a great increase in the proportion of marriages
outside the gypsy community in the later as compared with the earlier genera-
tions of the family. The pedigree also shows a large proportion of marriages
between relatives. In the earlier generations there is one case of marriage
with a half-sister, and two between uncle and niece. Marriages between cousins
of various kinds occur throughout, but less frequently in proportion to the total
number in the later generations. In the cases of the marriage of first cousins
the children of two brothers have married more frequently than the children
of brother and sister or of two sisters.

Several cases of polygamy are recorded, and an examination of the marriages
of widows and widowers show no trace of the Levirate, and only one case of
marriage with the deceased wife’s sister.

The chief points of biological interest to be learnt from the pedigree are that
there is no evidence of any diminution in the size of the family, and that, as
among other peoples, there is an excess of male births, while the first-born
child is more often male than female. There is also evidence that the con-
sanguineous marriages have been as fertile as those between persons unrelated to
one another.

The analysis is only intended as an example of the method by which the
social and biological characters of the gypsies may be studied when more of
their pedigrees have been recorded.

4. Gypsy Taboos and Funeral Rites. By 'T. W. Tuompson, M.A.

This paper, which contained a selection from a large mass of material,
collected from all available sources, dealt especially with the British gypsies,
with some two or three thousand of whom the author is personally acquainted,
and with the German gypsies, who are more closely akin to our own than any
other, whose taboos and funeral rites have just been completely revealed to us
in the writings of one of their number, Englebert Wittich, and of whom the
author has some first-hand knowledge.

A woman’s dress must not be allowed to touch any article of food, or any
vessel in which food is prepared or from which it is eaten, otherwise the food
or vessel in question becomes mokhadi (ceremonially contaminated), and must
be destroyed. There are many other similar prohibitions based on the belief
that the same contaminating influence emanates from anything used in the
washing of apparel or of the person, and anything connected with the toilet or
with the bed; also from any sick person. These prohibitions are multiplied and
intensified on the occasion of child-birth.

But it is not only dirt and disease that cling to and are conveyed in clothing ;
amongst other things may be mentioned spells and bad luck. This seems to
throw some light on the custom of burning, or otherwise destroying, the effects

1913. ss

626 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

of a dead person, which is the main feature of gypsy funeral rites. The destruc-
tion, it would appear, is carried out, not to benefit the deceased in his future
life, but from fear that his belongings should afford a lurking ground for his
ghost. This reason is sometimes alleged by the gypsies themselves. It is fear
of his ghost that doubtless underlies such taboos as the prohibition on the use
of the name of the dead person, and on the indulgence in his favourite food or
drink or form of amusement. In all probability it also accounts for the now
extinct customs of burying the body in an isolated place or in a ditch, and of
planting thorns over the grave. There are several other interesting funeral
rites, but they have a more restricted currency.

Dread of contamination is perhaps responsible for the fact that offences
against chastity, which very rarely occur, used, until quite recently, to be
punished by death, or by branding and expulsion from the band; and there is
some slight evidence to prove that this same dread underlies their one-time
aversion from marriage in churches.

Variety and instability are the characteristics of their marriage rites, and
this contrasts markedly with the unity and persistence of their funeral rites.
It suggests that they originally had none at all, but acquired such as they have
practised from time to time by borrowing from European peoples, just as, since
their arrival in England, they have picked up (and possibly helped to dis-
seminate) some of our native tunes, songs, and dances, medical recipes, charms
and omens. Parallels to most of their marriage rites can be found in European
folk-lore. Not so their taboos and funeral rites, for, whatever their origin, it
is quite safe to say that the gypsies brought them with them into Western
Europe. They are intensely, typically, but not exclusively, gypsy.

5. Social Organisation amongst the Primitive Tribes of Northern Nigeria.
By Mrs. Cuarues TEMPLE.

The President's remarks in his opening address emphasise the use of the
study of native customs (applied ethnology) in administration. This study
has received particular attention from the Government in Northern Nigeria,
where, in certain cases, native customs have been perpetuated by embodiment
in local statutes. It is proposed, however, to confine this paper to a review of
the customs of those tribes which, to differentiate them from Moslems and
Christians, are commonly called Pagan—a somewhat misleading title, as in most
cases their religion comprises a belief in an all-powerful God, as well as in
animism and ancestor worship.

Divided into two parts, the first section of the paper describes generally the
principal native institutions, and the second part supplements the first by con-
crete examples.

The basic principle of all the institutions of these tribes was to place the
interests of the community first and those of the individual second, as must be
the case with peoples whose right to exist has been challenged for generations
by their neighbours, and amongst whom lack of cohesion meant extinction.

The system of land tenure has the first place of importance. Rude necessity
compelled them to realise that it was essential that each individual should have
the right to occupy sufficient land for his needs and for that of his family, and
that, as a corollary, it was harmful to the community that land should be
monopolised by an individual, or group of individuals.

Unoccupied lands also are jealously claimed and protected, and cannot even
be temporarily alienated without the consent of the community. Land cannot
be bought, sold, or mortgaged, for the living individual has a right of occupancy
only—a right which, however, passes to his heirs so long as he and they make
use of the land and observe the tribal laws. Thus land, the first necessity of
life, is preserved for the use of the community for all time, the usufruct only
going to the individual.

The entire machinery of government is directed towards the preservation of
the tribe as a whole. Every able-bodied male is expected to turn out for common
defence, much importance being attached to physical fitness; there is, however,
no purely military caste amongst the tribes of Northern Nigeria. This same

-—"" ©

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 627

principle applies to domestic organisation also. Thus a man with his wife and
children does not live to himself for his own aggrandisement or theirs, but as a
unit of a larger family, owing allegiance to the senior, or patriarch, who is, as
a rule, the oldest male member of a generation, granting his physical fitness for
the post, which bears with it clearly defined and often onerous duties. There
is, however, no ‘socialism’ or ‘collectivism,’ in that the rights of the individual
to the fruits of his personal labour are strictly respected by other members of
his tribe. Besides blood-relations the family consists of dependants and slaves,
who all owe allegiance to the Family Head. In many tribes these patriarchs
formed a Council of Elders and together directed the affairs of the community,
under the chairmanship of one of their number, who, in this limited sense,
became Village-Chief. Those tribes, however, who had united for purposes of
defence and expansion, recognised one Tribal Chief who was supreme over all,
and he would often appoint sub-chiefs with jurisdiction over certain clearly
defined areas. ;

Whichever form of constitution is adopted, the executive and judicial func-
tions of Government are not separated. Sometimes the Chiefs also performed
the duties of High Priest; sometimes, however, others were appointed to this
office, and it occasionally occurred that they snatched the power of the Chiefs
and reduced them to servility; but in a firmly established and prosperous tribe
we never find the two authorities in conflict. Punishment for crimes inflicted
by the communal authority very generally takes the form of compelling the
criminal to compensate the injured party, though amongst certain communities
habitual malefactors are sold out of or banished from their tribe. In cases
where guilt or innocence is believed to exist but is hard to prove, the judicial
executive shelter themselves behind ordeal, when, to take a common instance,
the accused is invited to establish his innocence by drinking water poisoned with
sasswood, the Elders having already decided the effect it is to have. Death by
ordeal is therefore a mode of execution like any other.

This is a good example of a perfectly reasonable custom, which, however, at
the first glance appears senseless and barbarous to our ideas.

The second section of the paper gave examples illustrating the customs
outlined above, which can only be briefly epitomised here.

Ingara tribe: history available since fifteenth century: origin and develop-
ment : administrative organisation : succession of Chief : taxation : land system :
mode of administering justice by family heads, travelling judges, chief justice,
with appeal to Chief.

Gamawa tribe : mode of administering justice.

Batta tribe: alternative succession to Chiefdom: sub-chiefs: taxation: land
system: settlement of disputes by family heads: punishments: ordeals.

Verre tribe: office of Chief and High Priest combined: ordeals, by poison
and hunting dangerous game.

Mumye tribe: no distinct Chief: government by family heads, physical
fitness essential. Aggrieved parties permitted to extract compensation from
aggressor on fixed scale.

Angass tribe: cannibalism: Chief elected by council of four elders: fune
tions of Chief, administrative and religious.

Jukum tribe: historical note from eleventh century : Chieftainship, absolute
power coupled with brief tenure.

Munshi tribe : organisation, conglomeration of families: signalling : sasswood
ordeal, mode of discriminating by Chief.

Bassa tribe: intermixture with other tribes: emigrations: land system:
administration of justice: ordeal: punishments: domestic slavery.

6. Some Notes on Hausa Magic.
By Major A. J. N. Tremearne, M.A.

The Hausa resorts to magic not only for success in love, in agriculture, in
hunting, and in war, but also to part married couples, to destroy a rival’s pro-
perty, and to promote trade. The charms are prepared by mallams (Moham-
medan priests) or bokas (medicine men), while the more important members of

ss 2

628 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

the hori (spirit) sect may divine and prescribe remedies for illnesses. Charms
are sought even from Europeans.

Love-charms consist of decoctions which must be eaten by the person desired,
and there is usually some spittle of the amorous swain contained in them.
Wives can deceive their husbands with complacence by using the earth from a
erave, or better still, the hand of a corpse, for these produce a soporific effect.
The evil-eye and the evil-mouth are greatly feared, so many charms and amulets
are used against them, the most common being the hand or ‘five’ (fingers). If
a shred of the clothing or some other article intimately connected with the evil
wisher can be obtained the influence can be neutralised. The remains of a
dog’s food are a very powerful charm.

The Mohammedan Hausas (and Arabs) worship Allah so long as all goes well,
but if he fails them they have recourse to the magic of the pagans. In Tunis
if the Arab prayers fail to have any effect upon a drought, the Hausas go in
procession to a shrine on a hill near the city, and there offer a sacrifice, summon
the bori, and perform the takai dance. While the sacrificial animal is being
roasted pieces of the meat are stolen by some of the youths, others pursuing
them, this being supposed to drive away evil influences. There are also charms
for preventing rain.

Agriculture plays an important part in the life of the people in their own
country. Sacrifices are offered to Uwar-Gwona (Farm-Mother) when the corn
begins to appear, and she increases the crops of her worshippers. Magiro is
another corn-spirit, but he demands a human victim.

Hunters and warriors can make talismans which confer invisibility, and if a
young girl with her first teeth helps, the wearer will be protected against all;
but boys with their first teeth can wound persons protected only by ordinary
charms. The kind of death struggles of a victim can be determined by sym-
pathetic actions during the preparation of the poison.

Wrestling was once a religious rite. By a proper initiation and by regular
sacrifices a youth could become invincible, for whenever he wrestled a red cock
would appear upon his head, a white hen at his feet, and the sight of these
would render his opponents powerless.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
The following Papers were read :-—

1. Recent Archeological Discoveries in the Channel Islands.1
By R. R. Marett, M.A., D.Se.

1. The cave known as La Cotte de St. Brelade, on the south coast of Jersey,
was excavated—to the extent of about one-third—by the Société Jersiaise in 1910
and 1911, and provided a rich spoil of relics, including human remains, belonging
to the Mousterian Period (see Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1911, 1912). As members of the
British Association party will remember who visited the site after the Ports-
mouth meeting, this cave occurs at the north-east corner of a deep ravine in the
granite cliff, the sides of the ravine rising vertically some 40 feet apart, while the
wall to the rear is masked by a steep and heavy talus. In August and Septem-
ber 1912 the proprietor, Mr. G. F. B. de Gruchy, and the present writer carried
on excavations beneath the talus at the south-east corner, and were successful in
unearthing the entrance of a second cave—or, possibly, of a cave running right
round the back of the ravine, and hence continuous with La Cotte. Here, after
some 250 tons of rock-rubbish had been removed, a Mousterian floor with
characteristic implements was reached at a depth of 27 feet. There seemed
good prospect of finding bone in decent condition, as the soil was dry—far
drier than that of La Cotte. Unfortunately at this point operations were cut
short by the dangerous state of the overhanging talus, no funds being available for
its systematic demolition. An application will be made to the British Association

’ To be published in Archaologia.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 629

for a grant to carry to a finish an investigation that has already contributed
something to the advancement of science. It is estimated that 100/. would
nearly suftice for the complete excavation of La Cotte, while the uncovering of the
whole back of the ravine might cost another 100/., or perhaps rather more. It
would be advisable to attack La Cotte first, as it is more certain to yield solid
results, and, indeed, can hardly fail to prove a gold-mine.

2. Exploration of a dolmen, containing interments, pottery, &c., at Les Monts
Grantez, at St. Ouen’s, Jersey, in September 1912.

3. Discovery and examination of a cist or dolmen of a type novel to the
island, with surrounding stone circles and graves, at L’Islet, St. Sampson’s,
Guernsey, in October and November 1912.

4. Other recent finds, ranging from alleged eoliths (Jersey) and paleoliths
(Guernsey) to a stone object resembling a mould, found in the Lower Peat—
i.e., at the neolithic level—but more probably belonging to a later period (Jersey).

2. Flint Implements found in the County of Hampshire.
By W. Dats, F.S.A.

A series of flint implements was exhibited of the kind usually called ‘celts,’
all from the county of Hants. Being found in the surface soil, or never at a
greater depth than two feet, these would have been called a few years back
Neolithic. Some leading archeologists, however, have lately made a special
study of the forms of the implements abroad belonging to the later ages of the
Paleolithic period and have compared with them implements found on well-
known British sites, such as Grimes’s Graves and Cissbury, with the result that
they consider many of the chipped celts found at the places named and else-
where should be considered late Paleolithic rather than Neolithic. They also
maintain that the great gap or ‘hiatus’ which was supposed to separate the
Paleolithic from the Neolithic age does not exist, but that the ages were
continuous. Also it is advanced by some that the art of rubbing or polishing
stone was also known in Jate Paleolithic times.

It was in illustration of these views that this series was shown. It contained
a number of both carefully chipped and rough celts, many of the well-known
Cissbury type. Celts of Cissbury form slightly rubbed were also shown, and the
series ended with specimens of the perfectly polished celts. Some of the celts
are covered with iron stains, which abroad is taken as a proof of antiquity.

3. Excavations on the Site of the Roman Town of Viroconium at
Wrozeter, Salop.1 By J. P. Busus-Fox.

These excavations, undertaken by the Society of Antiquaries in conjunction
with the Shropshire Archeological Society, are now in their second season.

The ancient name of the town was Uriconium or Viroconium. The area
within the walls amounted to about 170 acres—about one-third larger than
Silchester. It is situated some six miles south-east of Shrewsbury.

The site appears to have been inhabited from the earliest days of the Roman
conquest. Its first occupation must have been a military one, as tombstones of
soldiers of the Fourteenth Legion have been found in the cemetery. This legion
left Britain for good in the year a.p. 70. The site, lying as it does on the east
side of the Severn, and thus protected from the mountainous district on the
west, would have formed an admirable base against the turbulent tribes of
Wales, which gave the Romans so much trouble in the first century of our era.

After the cessation of hostilities, the town, situated at the junction of two
of the main Roman roads, appears to have grown into one of the largest Romano-
British centres. Although there were larger towns in Britain, Wroxeter is the
largest which can be almost entirely excavated, as it lies in the open country,
without any large modern town built over it.

During 1912 about two acres were excavated near the centre of the town, and
revealed four large houses facing on to a street. This street appeared to be one
of the main roads of the town, and a direct continuation of the Watling Street,

* To be published in Archcologia.

630 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

which entered the town on the north-east. Another Roman road, running from
Caerleon in South Wales, and passing through Kenchester and Church Stretton,
entered the town on the south-west.

Although all the buildings found differed considerably, yet their general
arrangement was similar. They appeared to have been large shops, with
dwelling rooms at the back, and wooden or stone verandas or porticoes in front,
under which ran a continuous pathway parallel to the street. The buildings had
undergone many alterations during the period of the Roman occupation, which
lasted for upwards of 350 years. One house showed as many as five distinct
constructions, which had been superimposed one on the other. In connection
with the houses were five wells, all of them stone-lined, and with an average
depth of about 12 feet. One well was complete, with coping stones and stone
trough, and appeared as it did when in use in Roman times.

A large number of small objects were found; they included engraved gems
from rings, brooches of different metals—one set with stones and others
enamelled—portions of two small statuettes of Venus and one of Juno Lucina;
also a small pewter statuette of Victory. One of the most interesting was a
pewter circular bronze disc with a device, in different coloured enamels, of an
eagle holding a fish. Nothing similar to it of the Roman period in Britain
appears to have been found before.

Pottery of every description came to light. There were specimens from most
of the principal Roman potteries on the Continent, much decorated Samian ware
(Yerra sigillata), and over 300 pieces bearing potters’ names. The coins
numbered between 200 and 300, and ranged from Claudius to Gratian (a.D. 41
to A.D. 383).

This year a temple has been uncovered. It consisted of a podium measuring
25 feet by 31 feet, the walls of which were formed of large blocks of red sand-
stone. The space within these walls was packed with stones and clay to form a
support for the raised cella above. Enclosing walls surrounded the podium,
having a space or ambulatory at the back and sides and a spacious courtyard in
front. The entrance into the latter was from the main street under a portico of
six columns. The whole structure measured 94 feet deép by 55 feet wide.

Many carved architectural fragments, portions of several statues, and the head
of a horse were discovered in clearing the site. The top of a well-finished altar
was also found, but unfortunately the part bearing the inscription was missing,
and there is no evidence to show to whom the temple was dedicated.

Areas to the north and west of the temple buildings are now being excavated.
Three hypocausts, several rooms with opus signinum floors, and one with a rough
mosaic pavement have already been uncovered. One well containing first-
century pottery has been cleared out.

The small finds are numerous and interesting, and there is a large amount of
pottery. About 120 potters’ stamps on Samian ware have already been recorded.

The coins number over 200, and date from the Republican period to
Theodosius I.

4. Discussion on the Practical Application of Anthropoligical Teaching
in Universities, in which Sir RichHarp C. Tempus, Bart., C.I.E.,
Su E. F. 1m Tuurn, K.C.M.G., Lieut.-Col. P. R. Gurpon, Dr.
A. OC. Happon, Dr. R. R. Marerr, and Prof. P. Tuompson took
part,+

5. The Via Appia. By T. Asupy, M.A., D.Litt.

The Via Appia, the queen of Roman roads, as Statius calls it, played a very
important part in the advance of the Roman power into South Italy, for the
Romans thoroughly understood the military necessity of good communication with
their base. Constructed originally by the censor Appius Claudius Cecus as far
as Capua in 312 B.c., it was prolonged successively to Beneventum, Venusia (where
a colony of 20,000 men was placed to hold the territory already won), Tarentum,
and Brundusium (Brindisi), which it probably reached in 245 8.c., the date of

1 Published in full in Man, 1913, No. 102.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 631

the foundation of the Roman colony there. After the Punic wars it became the
chief route to the East, Brundusium being the usual port of embarkation. As
far as Beneventum its course is certain, and considerable remains of it exist;
but beyond this town there is considerable doubt about its course, and a careful
examination on the spot of the possible routes was not sufficient to give cer-
tainty. From a point shortly before Venusia its line is once more fairly clear,
but almost all traces of it have been obliterated by one of the great sheep
tracks, known as ¢ratturi, which traverse this portion of Italy. There is also
considerable doubt about the route taken by Horace between Beneventum and
Canusium; beyond the latter town, if not before, it coincided with the later
Via Traiana, constructed by the emperor whose name it bears. There are hardly
any traces of it left, however, except in the mountainous region between
Beneventum and Aece (mod. Troia), and in the valleys of two rivers south of
Foggia, where considerable remains of its bridges exist.

In the neighbourhood of Bari, in the territory traversed by the Via Traiana,
are the only dolmens and menhirs to be found in Italy, except the group in
the Terra d’Otranto, the extremity of the heel, and a somewhat unexpected
discovery was that of a group of four hitherto unknown menhirs close to the road.

6. The Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. By T. Asusy, M.A., D.Litt.

The principal supplies of water for ancient Rome were derived from the upper
valley of the Anio. The second of the aqueducts in point of date, constructed
in 272-269 B.c., drew its water and its name (Anio. Vetus, the old Anio) from the
river itself ; while the third, the Aqua Marcia, built in 144-140 B.c., made use of
some very considerable springs on the right bank of the river, which gushed
forth from beneath the limestone rock. During the following century use was
made of various springs in the more immediate neighbourhood of the city, of
which the Aqua Virgo was the most important; but Caligula’s engineers
returned to the Anio Valley, and the Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus, both com-
pleted by Claudius in a.p. 52, drew their water respectively from the springs
which the Marcia had already tapped, and from the river. The remains of these
four aqueducts are very considerable, and comparatively little known; and by
careful research on the spot it has been possible to determine their course with
fair accuracy from the springs to the city, even in the portion where they ran
underground through the lower slopes of the Alban Hills: for here their
presence is betrayed by the remains of the shafts which were used for ventilation
and for cleaning, and by the fragments of calcareous deposit which were removed
from their channels. Inasmuch, however, as they travel close together it would
be very desirable that the remains should be accurately levelled; a certain
amount of excavation would be necessary, and the enterprise may, it is to be
hoped, one day be undertaken by the Italian authorities.

7. Excavations at the Hill Fort in Parc-y-Meirch Wood, Kinmel Park,
Abergele. By WirLouaHpy GARDNER.—See Report on Excavations
on Roman Sites in Britain, p. 231.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
The following Papers were read :—

1. The Orientation of the Dead in Indonesia.t By W. J. Perry, B.A.

The table which is printed below shows at once the aim of the practice of
orientation. It will be seen that in all the cases quoted—which are all that

* To be published in Journ, 2, Anthrop. Inst.

632 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Ha:

I have as yet been able to collect—the dead are made to face in the direction of
the Land of the Dead. This Land of the Dead is again in the direction of the
land from which the folk in question believe themselves to have come.

Direction of | Direction of | Direction of Home|
Ey Orientation | Land of Dead | of Forefathers |
Kachar) oscil keen 8. | Not known 8. or E,
Khasi se a i, ee E. | Not known E.
Kiuki Kom oe. fee Ss. | S. | 8.
Karo-Batak . . . W. W. | Not known
Bacon, Poeee Sietielani S. | S. | S.
Tenggerese . . . Orientation towards holy mountain |
Mamba cage: uiusseahap tus W.E. | Not known W.
Olo Ngadjoe . . . Orient towards the land of the dead
cif) ANG Ut i ra oe W. | W. | Not known
Halmahera . . . W. | E.W. W.
LASCETT G -th M eitcint h le a N. N. N.
Timorlaut 5 eee Pe W.E. | W. | W.
Babar A ee oy Ee eS W. W. | W.
Leti, Moa, Lakor . - E. E. E.
Tettum . . . . Orient towards the land of the dead
SNe UntOr eter ic E. | Not known E.
| Savoe BLA iec fag le Wael W. W. W.

i

2. The Stability of Tribal and Caste Groups in India.
By W. Crooxg, B.A,

In this paper the following statement by the late Sir H. Risley was dis-
cussed : That ‘nowhere else in the world do we find the population of a large
continent broken up into an infinite number of mutually exclusive aggregates,
the members of which are forbidden by an inexorable social law to marry outside
of the group to which they themselves belong. . . . In this respect India presents
a contrast to most other parts of the world, where anthropometry has to confess
itself hindered, if not baffled, by the inter-mixture of types obscuring and con-
fusing the data ascertained by measurements.’

In opposition to this doctrine, an attempt was made to show that, in spite of
the formal rules regulating endogamy and exogamy, there is much less stability
in the tribal and caste groups than Risley supposed to exist. In particular, many
of the larger groups were shown to be distinctly heterogeneous; the tendencies
promoting miscegenation were discussed; and the effect of these conclusions on
the validity of the anthropometric evidence considered.

3. Souling, Clementing, and Catlerning: Three November Customs of
the Western Midlands.2, By Miss C. S. Burne.

Early calendar festivals were at once religious, social, and economic. The
Celtic and, maybe, the Teutonic year also, began and ended in November. It
was a season of social enjoyment and also a Feast of the Dead. The Ist of
November, ‘ Hallowmas,’ or the Feast of All Saints (followed by that of All
Souls), besides being a high ecclesiastical festival and the occasion of special
ceremonies and amusements, is still in some parts of Great Britain the date for
entering on and terminating annual tenancies and business contracts. In
Cheshire, North Shropshire, and North Staffordshire, children observe it by
begging for cakes, ale, and apples. This they call ‘Souling.’ But in South
Staffordshire the dole of ale and apples is solicited on St. Clement’s Day,

? To be published in Journ. R. Anthrop. Inst. or Man.
? To be published in -Folkiore.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 633

November 23: in North Worcestershire on St. Katharine’s, November 25. The
name varies accordingly. The areas of ‘Clementing’ and ‘Catterning’ seem
to be determined by the customs of the local trades and the cults of patron
saints. The dole probably belongs to the economic side of the festival, and was
a sequel to the annual settlement of accounts.

The observances as practised to-day show traces of early agricultural custom,
of successive importations of foreign culture, and of the growth and decay of
early economic institutions.

4. Evidence for the Custom of Killing the King in Ancient Egypt.
By Miss M. A. Murray.

Dr. Frazer deduced the general practice of killing the King: from literary
sources, from legend, and from ceremonial survivals; a theory not at first
received by all, but triumphantly confirmed in the end by Dr. Seligmann’s
discoveries among the Shilluks of the Nile Valley. In the same way we follow
‘the converging lines of evidence’ in ancient Egypt.

The evidence for human sacrifice in ancient Egypt is conclusive, in spite
of what Herodotus says. As regards the cult of Osiris, with which this paper
mainly dealt, the theory of the vegetation spirit (the theory so despised by
Plutarch) is the only one which so far covers all the facts in Egypt, as Dr.
Frazer has shown it to cover the facts in other countries.

The subject is divisible into five parts: (1) the parallels in neighbouring
countries; (2) the meaning of the name Osiris (the identification of the King
with Osiris being already established); (3) the literary evidence—from the
Pyramid Texts, from the Book of the Dead, and from legends both Egyptian
and Arab; (4) the representations in Art, i.e., the Sed-festival and the Drowned
Men of Dendur; (5) the modern survivals. A summary of the work which has
been done bearing on this subject by Frazer, Sethe, Mdéller, Petrie, Seligmann,
and Moret showed what was old and what was new in this paper, and made it
possible to offer a few suggestions as to the lines on which further research
might be pursued.

5. Hook-swinging in India.2 By J. Tl. Powe.

Hook-swinging, a rite in which the devotee is suspended by means of hooks
passed through his back, has in certain parts of India been more or less common,
but is now disappearing.

The ceremony is still practised in certain villages of Chota Nagpur. Two
hooks with several yards of rope attached to each are inserted in either side of
the victim’s back. He is then conducted to a raised platform or staging upon
which he is bound to a long cross-pole pivoted on a tall upright post in such a
way as to admit of his being first raised to the necessary height and then
rotated. The whole of the man’s weight is borne by as much of the fleshy part
of his back as is taken up by the hooks, and he is tied close up to the cross-pole
without the ropes being passed round his body.

Hook-swinging is frequently recorded from the sixteenth century onwards,
and a careful examination of these records goes to show that it is a Dravidian or
aboriginal, and not a Hindu rite.

No satisfactory account of its origin and significance appears yet to have
been given, the one suggested by Dr. J. G. Frazer in a note on ‘Swinging as a
Magical Rite’ appended to ‘The Dying God’ being apparently based on the
assumption that hook-swinging is synonymous with swinging on hooks, whereas
this is not the case. Suspension and rotation are the essential features of the
ceremony.

There are grounds for supposing hook-swinging to be a commutated form of
human sacrifice. Not only is it found in the area in which we might expect to
meet with such a rudimentary form, but the circumstances in which it is

* To be published in Man.
? To be published in Folklore.

634 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

practised and the occasions upon which it takes place lend support to this
hypothesis. Further, if we examine the well-known Meriah sacrifice of the
Khands, we shall find that rotation of the victim was in certain places a very
common feature of the ritual, and it is probable that from such form of
human sacrifice hook-swinging has descended.

6. Sun Cult and Megaliths in Oceania.
By W. . BR. Rivers, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.

The infanticide and libertinage for which the Areois of Eastern Polynesia
are best known are probably but late accretions to a cult which had a definitely
religious purpose. Moerenhout tells us’ that in the Marquesas the celebrations
of the Areois jhad a seasonal character, and that their purpose was to represent
the annual movements of the sun by the death and coming to life again of the
god Hahui.

The Areois of Polynesia closely resemble the secret societies of Melanesia,
and the celebrations of some of these have also a seasonal character. Under-
lying the extortions and licence of the Dukduk of New Britain, there are ideas
according to which the rites celebrate the annual death and coming to life
again of the Dukduk.? We have no direct evidence that the Dukduk, whose
birth, life, and death are thus celebrated, represent the sun, but the existence
of a definite cult of the sun in the neighbourhood of the region where the Dukduk
are active makes this highly probable.*

The celebrations of the Matambala of the Solomon Islands also had a seasonal
character, and here there is definite evidence that the sun was included among
the ritual objects of the societies.*

In the Tamate or ghost societies of southern Melanesia any evidence of a
seasonal character is wanting, but the Tamate are said to be born and to die;
and in the ritual of the Tamate Liwoa, or chief society of Mota in the Banks
Islands, there are several features which point to a representation of the sun,
while the legend which records the origin of the society has several features
suggesting that the founder represented the sun.

The representation of the annual movements of the sun by means of the
anthropomorphic processes of birth and death is very unlikely to have arisen
near the Equator, where these movements are relatively so small. If one purpose
of the secret societies of Oceania be the representation of the annual movements
of the sun, we should have important confirmation of a conclusion, reached on
quite other grounds, that the societies were founded by immigrants into Oceania
and that their ritual embodies beliefs and practices brought from elsewhere.
The representation of the movements of the sun by such a simile as that of birth
and death suggests that the immigrants came from some northern latitude.

There is a striking correspondence in the distribution of the secret societies
of Oceania and the presence of structures constructed of large stones. In
Tahiti and the Marquesas there are pyramids and platforms made of large
stones so worked as to fit closely to one another and form durable structures
without cement. The islands in which Oceanic stone-work has reached its
highest development are the Carolines, and both here and in the neighbouring
Marianne Islands there were societies whose name and functions show them to
have been closely akin to the Areois of Eastern Polynesia. Further, there are
striking similarities in the narratives recording the foundation of the Areois
of Tahiti and the building of the cyclopean structures of Ponape in the Carolines.

In Melanesia, again, the distribution of ancient stone-work corresponds
closely with that of secret societies. Structures made of worked stone have
been found in only three places, the Banks and Torres Islands and Ysabel in
the Solomons. The Banks and Torres Islands are strongholds of the secret cults,
and there is a definite tradition that the Matambala of the Solomons came
originally from Ysabel.

1 Voyage aux iles du grand Océan, Paris, 1837, i., 500.
? R. H. Rickard, Proc. Ass. Soc. Victoria, 1891, iii., 70,
* Meier, Anthropos, 1912, viii., 706.

* Codrington, Melanesians, 1891, p. 95,

oo

~—"

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 635

If there should be established the presence of a sun cult as the main under-
lying purpose of the secret societies of Oceania, the correspondence of their
distribution with that of megalithic structures would provide evidence of great
value in relation to the unity of the megalithic culture. It must be noted, how-
ever, that we have no evidence of any cult of the sun in Tonga, the megalithic
structures of which resemble most closely those of other parts of the world.

7. The Bori Cult in Tunis and Tripoli.
By Major A. J. N. TRemearne, M.A.

There are several kinds of bori. Each Hausa has a familiar of the same
sex always with him and another of the opposite sex from puberty until
marriage; but there is another kind, not so intimately connected with human
beings, and more or less hostile to them. These bori (pl. boruruka, but rarely
used) are also known as aljannu (jinns), iblisai (devils), or iskoki (winds).
They are everywhere, and though not necessarily evil spirits, a human being
has to be exceedingly careful lest he offend any of them. There are two
principal divisions—those of the city and those of the forest—the former being
mostly Mohammedan marabuts and Arab jinns, the others pagan nature-gods
and ghosts of ancestors, all being regarded nowadays as disease-demons. Allah
is above all, and the bori resemble the courtiers around a Mohammedan throne,
since it is better to bribe them first than to address a direct request to the
Sovereign.

The Hausa idea of the bori is very vague, but, generally speaking, the spirits
have human forms with cloven hoofs, though they can assume any form at will,
one (Uwal Yara) being supposed to fly about with the body of a fowl and a
human head. Amongst the pagan Hausas, Kuri is the chief bori after Magiro,
but since the jinns have been incorporated into the cult many of the Moham-
medan spirits rank above the old nature-gods. Magiro, a corn-spirit, is the
grandfather of all the bori, however, and after him comes the Leper, usually
known as Chief of the Gate (of Jan Gari), or Master of the Horse, so that he
may not feel hurt by any reference to his deformities. All bori move like the
wind.

The bori live in Jan Gari, the Red City, which is alleged to be situated
between Asbero and Aghat. No living person has ever seen the city close,
though all travellers across the Sahara are said to know of its whereabouts.
Should anyone enter it he will never be heard of more. ‘Often when in that
district in the early morning travellers have heard the crowing of cocks and
other sounds of a city awaking, but on rising they have seen nothing.’

Soothsaying is one of the functions of the masu-bori, though, except as
regards sickness, it seems to be dying out. Each member of the sect specialises
in certain spirits, and it would be very dangerous for him (or her) to try to get
any other bori to ‘ride’ him. The male performers are known as ‘horses,’
the female as ‘ mares’ of the bori.

Each temple in Tunis and Tripoli is a long, narrow room in an Arab house,
in which are hung the trappings of the dancers and offerings to the bori, those
for the young spirits (which give their victims skin complaints and sore eyes)
consisting of toys and sweets. Kuri’s private apartment is screened off, and
must not be entered except by the Arifa, the chief priestess, being a veritable
holy of holies. When a new temple is dedicated it is prepared by incense, and
fowls are sacrificed. Then the trappings are moved in, and the bori are con-
sidered to have taken up their abode.

At the dances an altar is erected and a he-goat (after having been censed
and specially fed) and a cock are sacrificed in front of it. Then the bori ride
the mounts, and the dances begin, each performer making some characteristic
movements (usually indicating the symptoms of the disease), and then sneezing
and expelling the spirit.

636 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

8. A Discussion on a new System of Decipherment of the Hittite
Hieroglyphs lately published by the Society of Antiquaries. By
R. CampsBett THompson, M.A.

Last November the Society of Antiquaries courteously offered a hearing to
my decipherment of the Hittite hieroglyphs, which they are now about to publish

in vol. Ixiv. of Archwologia. Briefly the steps employed in my decipherment
are as follows :—

There have been five previous decipherments, which are practically all
different (Sayce, Conder, Jensen, Gleye, and Rusch), and I have, in turn,
ventured to differ almost entirely from these. But I must at once acknowledge
my indebtedness to Professor Sayce’s system for the signs of ‘country,’ ‘god,’
‘king’ (or ‘ lord’), the god Tesup, the nominative s and a few ideograms, and
his brilliant identification of the place-name Tyana, which, by a slight alteration
of his values, has provided us with d(t)a, a, n(a). These are the chief points
of our agreement, which I have amplified in a note to my article; beyond
these our coincidences are rare, particularly in the translations, wherein I can
hardly agree at all with him. To Jensen is due the value ‘lord’ for the ‘ three
strokes’ sign, but his system appears to me to be impossible; and the same
may be said of the other three. To Peiser is due the division-mark.

My system, briefly, depends, first, on the application of the names of Hittite
and other chiefs of the ninth century to the hieroglyphs: and then, with the
syllabic values thus obtained, the comparison of the grammar known to us
from Hittite cuneiform tablets from Boghaz Keui. By the kindness of the
Trustees of the British Museum I was allowed to quote freely from the 1911
inscriptions from Carchemish, particularly one long text of about 600 characters.
An elaborate sign occurring twice in one line of a Carchemish inscription led
me to give it a provisional value gar, on the supposition that it formed part
of the names Sangar (a chief of Carchemish) and Gargamis. This apparently
gave good results, and thus yielded the values san, n, gar, g, and incidentally
proved Professor Sayce’s s. Application of this g and s to another place-name
gave a hypothetical Ka-r-g-mi-s, which values were again apparently successful
when applied elsewhere. The Hamath inscriptions, by a similar process, yielded
Ir-khu-li-na, the well-known contemporary of Sangar; and thus, step by step,
using the same values, the Hittite inscriptions yielded the following names,
which now show that it was a frequent custom to indicate proper names either
by a detached stroke or a tang added to a component character :—

(1) The inscriptions of North Syria and north of this district : The chiefs
Tesup-*-r (=Adad-id(?)-r, Adad-idri, Benhadad) : Irkhulina: Mutal, Muttallu :
‘Aram, chief of Kask’ (=Kashkai: i.e. Arame of Bit-Agusi) : Guam
(=Giammu): Khunu (=Akhunu): ‘the Kauaut of Katte’ (=the tribe Kauai
of Katé): K’ra (=Kirri, who succeeded Katé): Ninnas (=Ninni): Sangqar :
Kak (=Kaki) : probably Zalli or Lali (=Lalli) : and a name, probably Shalma-
neser, described variantly as san Asra, san Asir, and san Ninwis, ‘King of
Assyria’ and ‘King of Nineveh.’ Added to these are Panammi (=Panammu
of Sinjirli) and Garali (=Karal, his father) : the places Amd(t)a (=Hamath) :
Gugum (=Gurguin): Kargmis, Gargms (=Gargamis) : Mizir (=Muazri), and
probably Ams (=Homs): 7(a)-bal(?) (=Tabal): M(W)tr (=Pitru): Aninna
(=Adinnu) : Umk (=Amk): Katnaut (=the Katnai tribe).

(2) The inscriptions of Cappadocia: the King of Tyana, Araras
(=Ariarathes). ”

(3) Uhe inscription of Fraktin: ‘ Ma(?)-d(t)a-n-r, Jord of chiefs’ (=Muwtallu
=the Egyptian form Mautener’). .

(4) A seal, provenance unknown: Targu-s-n(a)-a-li (=Targashnalli of the
Boghaz Keui texts).

These syllabic values provide equivalences between the hieroglyphs and
Hittite cuneiform in the verbal terminations and augment, the suffixed pronouns,
the pronominal base kat, the prepositions aba, ea, ta, -kan, -nda, -zi, and the
nom. -s, accus. -m, and genit, s of the noun.

The roots da ‘ to give,’ g ‘to go, come,’ san ‘to make’: the verbal augment
a: and the grammatical terminations: seem to point to an Indogermanic origin
for the Hittite language.

ae

Oe

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 637

The majority of the published inscriptions contain invitations to or records
of alliances between the chiefs of the Hittite states, which coincides with what
is known from Assyrian, Hebrew, and Aramaic history.

Sus-Section oF Puystcan ANTHROPOLOGY.
The following Papers were read :—
1. The Evolution of Man from the Ape.

(i) On the Differentiation of Man from the Anthropoids.
By Professor CarverH Reap.

All the prominent characters, functional and structural, that distinguish man
from the anthropoids (except his relative nakedness) may be understood as
consequences of his having shown a special liking for animal-food. Many
primates eat various sorts of animal, but only man can be called carnivorous.

If we suppose that our anthropoid ancestor was adapted to a frugivorous
forest life, like the extant anthropoids; that some (or even one) of his species
had a liking for animal-food strong enough to lead them persistently to seek it;
that this habit was useful by increasing the supply of food, and that it was
inherited by their descendants; then differentiation would set in and gradually
have the following results :

1. Life on the ground and beyond the limits of the forest.

2. The erect gait as the normal mode of progression with all the changes of
bone, joint, and muscle that make this possible.

3. The lengthening of the legs and specialisation of the feet.

4, The shortening of the arms and development of the hands.

5. The use of wrought weapons and snares.

6. Reduction of the size and weight of the jaws and teeth.

7. Shortening of the alimentary canal.

8. Association and co-operation for the purpose of hunting, especially the
hunting of big game.

9. The beginnings of articulate speech as a means to such co-operation.

10. Great increase of knowledge and intelligence as required by the change
of life.

11. Reduction of thickness of skull and increase of its capacity.

12. Discovery of the way to produce fire during the making of weapons of
flint or of wood.

13. Loss of seasonal marriage through greater regularity of the supply of
food.

14. The great variability of man from race to race and from individual to
individual, in stature, colour, size of brain, shape of skull, &c.

Beyond these considerations lie many others concerning the moral and
political development of society. Early art, magic, and religion owe much to
the savage’s intense interest in animals. But to treat of these matters we
need many premisses besides the fact that we are beasts of prey. Every advance
in culture makes society more complex, and obscures the influence of any one
cause.

(ii) The Factors which have determined Man’s Evolution from the Ape.
By Harry Campsetn, M.D.

Man’s evolution from the ape has essentially been a mental evolution. Brain
and mind have evolved pari passu by the continued selection of favourable
hereditable variations. Mental, like morphological, evolution proceeds just so
far as, but no further than, is needful for adaptive service.

In order that an advance in intelligence may enhance the chance of survival,
the individual- manifesting the advance must be endowed with the means of
turning it to practical account. Only a being possessed of prehensile hands,
capable of giving effect to the dictates of mind, could evolve into man; an

638 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

oyster endowed with the mind of a Newton would in no way be advantaged in
the struggle for existence.

It was the abandcnment of an arboreal for a terrestrial life, in the search
after animal food, which determined man’s evolution from the ape. While the
carnivorous mammal is a perfect butchering machine, endowed with the
necessary instinct for scenting and stalking its prey, and the necessary equip-
ment of muscle, tooth, and claw for seizing and destroying it, the pre-human
ape, lacking these endowments, but gifted with hands and no small degree of
intelligence, was obliged to rely wpon these in hunting his prey; for blind
instinct he had to substitute strategy; for natural weapons, weapons made by
hand. Intelligence thus began to count in the life struggle as it had never
counted before, and mental evolution was correspondingly accelerated. The
first employment of crude weapons by the few created a new standard of mental
fitness, and (by the elimination of those incapable of attaining to it) compelled
a levelling up of the entire species to that standard. And so in regard to every
advance in mechanical and strategic skill. Thus began a struggle in which
it was inevitable that a higher and higher intelligence should continue to tell
until man became supreme in hunting skill, until he reached a grade little
inferior, perhaps, to that of the primitive Australian.

Other contributory factors in furthering man’s mental evolution were:
(1) Polygamy ; (2) Inter-tribal warfare; (3) Factors influencing the evolution of
the feelings.

1. The evolving man, like his ape ancestor, was polygamous. While in
early homo-simian times success in securing wives rested essentially upon brute
force and courage, in process of time mental excellence began to play its part;
it was the man combining a good physique with high mental endowment who
became the tribal leader and secured the largest number of offspring to inherit
his excellence.

2. By the time man had become a skilled hunter of large game tribal life
kad begun, and inter-tribal warfare introduced the most terrible fighting the
world had yet seen—as a fighter man stands supreme in the animal world—
and this led to the ceaseless destruction of the least brainy by the more brainy
tribes. From the standpoint of evolution the effect was the very opposite of
modern warfare, which tends to eliminate the fittest, physically at least, on
either side indifferently.

One fact stands out glaringly from the foregoing considerations : man’s
intellectual evolution has taken place essentially through bloodshed—indirectly
by the slaughter of inferior animals, directly by the slaughter of his own kind.
In his onward course he has left behind him one [ong trail of blood.

3. Among the factors which have influenced the evolution of mind on the
moral side have been: (a) The restrictions and obligations of communal life,
which have led to a stringent elimination of those least able to conform to
them; and (b) motherhood, to which the evolution of the altruistic disposition
is traceable.

Regarding man’s ultimate psychic destiny, intellectual evolution has ceased,
not because it has reached its possible limit—the evolution of superman (in-
tellectually considered) is biologically possible—but because super-normal
intelligence no longer enhances the chance of survival. On the other hand,
moral evolution is proceeding by the survival of superior moral types. Man,
in short, will tend to become better, if not cleverer.

(iii) The Relations of the Lower Jaw to Articulate Speech.
By Dr. L. Rosinson.

2. Ethnography of Wales and the Border.
By Professor H. J. Furure, D.Sc., and T. C. Jamss.

Previous reports have been presented to Section H in 1907 and 1910. The
method employed avoids averages as far as possible, and deals with individuals.
Twenty characters and measurements, as well as details of ancestry, are recorded
on a card for each individual. These cards can then be studied for correlations
and distributions. For this purpose a scheme of registration marks has been

_—

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 639

adopted. A, variously written, indicates adult men of various grades of pigmenta-
tion with cephalic index under 73; B similarly indicates those with indices
73-74, and so on. These letters can be underlined, overlined, enclosed, &e., to
indicate other characters.

About 2,300 individuals have been examined.

The letters are placed on maps in the district to which the individual observed
belongs by descent, but those with ancestry in several districts are not entered
on the maps.

Maps thus prepared enable us to discriminate local types and distributions.
Chief types :—

(1) An ancient type (pre-Mediterranean?) with large, very long head,
index 71, prognathous, strong eyebrows, receding forehead, dark colouring.

(2) and (3) Mediterranean types with characters recalling Mongoloid
and Negroid types respectively. :

(4) The average Mediterranean type—long head, index 72-79 (average
75), strong occipital protuberance, nose straight, slightly prognathous,
slightly under average stature, dark colouring.

(5) Smooth-contoured Mediterranean type, otherwise like No. 4.

(6) Supposed diluted Mediterranean types—often have grey eyes, less
occipital protuberance, no prognathism.

(7) Tall, fair, light-eyed, long- or medium-headed men, without pro-
gnathism, may be considered Nordic.

(8) Tall, fair, light-eyed, broad-headed, short-faced, and frequently
aquiline-nosed types, may be considered Alpine-Nordic.

(9) Dark, bullet-headed, short, thick-set men, usually considered Alpine.

(10) Powerfully built, intensely dark, broad-headed, and broad-faced men.

(11) Tall, powerfully built men, with broad head, high forehead, strong
eyebrows; usually medium-brown haired, light eyes, rufous beard.

In addition to the above types, there are distinctly red-haired individuals,
Tregaron, in Cardiganshire, being a marked centre for this character. Women
fall into approximately the same types, though No. 8 is very rare among them;
they are distinctly darker than the men, and types 4-6 are specially predominant.

Mediterranean types are the fundamental element, and are specially pre-
dominant in the valleys among the great moorland areas which presumably have
been open country from early times, and which possess earthworks, trackways,
tumuli, megaliths, and other traces of early man. The Teifi dales, near Llandyssul
(Cardiganshire), the Denbighshire valleys off the great moorland, the north
Glamorgan valleys, deep slots cut in a moorland, are good instances. Five men
of type 1 have been traced back to the Plynlymon moorland. Mediterranean
types are found on the Welsh border, chiefly in the old Chase and Forest areas,
but they seem to be spreading quickly in industrial centres.

Abercromby supposes the Bronze Age invaders of Britain to have fused with
the earlier population, and to have given it a leavening of broad heads; these
latter form a considerable part of the population of Eastern Britain. The
massiveness and roughness of the type, however, would appear to have gone.

In most parts of Wales, even those strongly influenced by the lower moorlands
discussed above, we find a few broad-headed people; but they are numerous and
important in some deep valleys between craggy mountains or along great through-
lines. The great cleft from Bala to Dolgelly and Towyn possesses many of
these men, mostly of type (8) above, the aquiline nose being highly charac-
teristic. Whether they are to be identified with the type of the Bronze Age
invaders or not is an open question.

In the valleys leading down to Dee and Severn from the extensive and high
inland plateau of North Montgomeryshire there are numbers of short, dark men,
with very broad heads and stocky build. They are fairly typical Alpines, but
their place in the race-history of the country ‘is quite uncertain; it would be
interesting to look for them in the upper ends of valleys in Shropshire and
elsewhere. In the lowlands of Severn and Dee these people give way to a fair
type, which is often tall and rather broad-headed near the Dee.

On the coast from Portmadoc to Barmouth the Mediterranean type forms only
a very moderate part of the population, and is clustered mainly about a small
plateau region behind Harlech and Llanbedr. There is here a strong infusion

640 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

of dark, tall, strongly built, Broad-Heads (type 10), and they are also found on
other stretches of open coast with bays, &c.—e.g., Newquay, in Cardiganshire.
The estuaries of the South-west have a much smaller infusion of this element,
but they show numbers of typical Nordics—tall and fair, with narrow or medium
heads. In the case of the Teifi, there are few of these near the mouth, where
the moorland comes near to the river on either side. A little further up, how-
ever, the river has practically isolated a small hill-area in the centre of the
valley, and Newcastle Emlyn has been built on it. Here there is a marked
patch of: Nordics, and the type is generally known in Wales as being charac-
teristic of that region. Our map records only a small number, because in
several cases the ancestry was somewhat mixed. Milford Haven and other
inlets have the same types, and they are fairly generally distributed on the coast
of South Wales.

The fact that there are at least two very distinct coast populations, found
usually in different habitats, is interesting. The Welsh chronicles talk of
Dark Sea Rovers and Fair Sea Rovers. Type 11 is very generally found with
type 10, and its characters often suggest a cross between types 7 and 10, though
that is only a guess.

It may be mentioned that the valleyward movement of population, which is
such an important consideration as regards the views here advanced, is evidenced
in many ways by names of administrative divisions, old-established county boun-
daries, location of old churches, and so on. It would seem that long ago the
bulk of the population in Wales lived above the 600-foot contour, which is now
under altered circumstances, approximately the upper limit of anything like
dense population.

Collateral lines of inquiry are study of pedigrees for physical character, but
this is slow and difficult, and study of the growth features of individuals of
various types. This latter inquiry may prove of some interest in adjusting
medical and other reports, for these are sometimes very adverse when probably
the relevant fact is merely the predominance of the Mediterranean type, with its
smaller measurements.

Copies of maps, tabular statements, and cards of ideal examples of various
types have been circulated to assist the discussion.

3. Karly Egyptian Skeletons.*
By Professor W. M. Fuinpers Perris, LL.D., D.C.L., F.RS,

Measurements have been published of 892 skeletons before the Twelfth
Dynasty, accurately dated, and of 807 more vaguely dated. The cemetery of
Tarkhan is the largest group of accurately dated skeletons yet found in Egypt,
600 being all within about one century; and it is of the most important age,
that of the settlement of the dynastic people in Egypt. The long bones show
details of distribution of variation much more clearly than the skulls.

The casual errors are eliminated by counting in groups of 10 mm. together ;
and by doing this at every mm. the real variations are more clearly shown.

In the First Dynasty at Tarkhan the female humerus, radius, and clavicle
only show the normal distribution curve of a single variable. The similar male
curves all show two superposed variables. The bigger one is proportional to
the female; the smaller type has no distinct female parallel.

The female and male curves superposed show the male minority clearly, and
this is extracted and shown as a separate curve of the excess over the normal
curve.

Leg bones apart do not show a distinct grouping, but have a marked grouping
when added together. The knee-joint growth is therefore a single unit, the
apportionment of which to either bone is indifferent. Besides the clear male
minority of four or five per cent., there is a suggestion of a high and a low group
of both male and female of about two per cent. of the whole people.

In the whole series of early skeletons the whole leg, humerus, radius, and
clavicle follow the same course of changes. From the early prehistoric they
diminish down to the smallest type, that of the invading minority race of the

‘To be published in the Annual of the British School of Archaeology in
Lyy pe.

—

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 641

First Dynasty, a diminution of eight per cent. Then they increase again about
six per cent. up to the Sixth Dynasty.

These changes are not due to gradual evolution, but to racial mixture, as
shown by the sudden appearance of a much smaller type superposed on the others
in the First Dynasty. The later invasions of Hyksos and Arabs show historic-
ally how such changes occur; a gradual infiltration goes on for many centuries—
probably impelled by drought elsewhere—until at last a small, compact tribe of
invaders enters by force and conquers the already mixed population.

This minority of invaders was about one-ninth of the males in the capital.
In the first generation each had three native females, and in the next generation
two, in excess of the normal female numbers.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
The following Papers were read :—

1. The Ideas of the Kiwai Papuans regarding the Soul.
By Dr. G. Lanprman.

The Kiwai Papuans use the same word for ‘soul,’ ‘shadow,’ ‘ reflection in
the water,’ and ‘picture’; of these the shadow in particular is associated with
the soul. A man can steal the soul of somebody else by catching his shadow at
night in a piece of bamboo open at one end which he afterwards plugs, and if he
wants to kill the other man he burns the bamboo in the fire. Soul and body are
to a considerable extent independent of each other; the soul is situated in the head,
eye, stomach, or back, or fills up the whole body; different accounts are also
given as to the way by which it leaves or enters the body. During a swoon it
either withdraws from the body or takes refuge in one of the limbs.

The soul when separated from the body appears, sometimes at any rate, as
rather a corporeal being, which can be seen and touched, and in the legends a
ghost is often mistaken for a living person. Some malevolent spirits are accom-
panied by a bad smell, and can be chased away by physical means, and it has
even happened that the ghost of a murdered man has been killed a second time.
Spirits are, on the other hand, endowed with faculties of their own; they can
disappear whenever they choose and suddenly transfer themselves from one
locality to another.

The soul can leave the body, which in certain circumstances may for a
time live on to outward appearance as if there had been no change. Dreams,
which are attributed to the soul wandering about and seeing various things, are
implicitly believed in and play a very important part in the life of the natives,
as spirits of the dead and other supernatural beings often impart their advice
and directions to mortals in this way. Even presents and ‘medicines’ are at
times handed over by the dream-givers to the dreamers. In many cases spirits
have passed into men, who have thus become temporarily possessed.

The souls of sick people in particular are in a danger of being removed by
malevolent spirits or otherwise, for which reason the sick are watched over by
their friends, and certain rules have to be observed for their protection. In a
case of a very severe illness the spirit of the sick person is thought to wander
about, and several means exist for bringing it back. The soul of a woman in
child-bed is often seen to move about of its own accord and may cause mischief
to her husband. While a woman is confined her husband may not as a rule go
out hunting or fishing, and if he does go he must at any rate first take special
measures to prevent the spirit of his wife from following him. In the excite-
ment of a fight the soul of a man may jump out of his body, as shown by the
fury of those fighting, and it has in certain cases to be brought back. For the
same reason the soul of a murderer comes out of his body and is thought to follow
the ghost of his victim at night. People who have the faculty of seeing spirits
watch the two apparitions and are sometimes even able to recognise the features
of the murderer. His soul can be shot on the spot, which will cause the man’s
death without any possibility of detecting how it has taken place. People who

1913. xp

642 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

have been killed by a crocodile or snake, and also suicides, try to allure their
friends into a death similar to their own by first carrying away their souls.

The appearance of the soul of a living man constitutes an omen, and there-
fore the old men watch in the night before a fight, carefully noting anything
they hear and see. If they recognise some warrior’s soul, which may sometimes
in the dark emit rays of light like blood, that man must not take part in the
forthcoming fight or he will be killed. The soul of a man does not necessarily
leave the body at the moment when he is being killed, but some time previously
in a sort of presentiment. A man may sometimes see his own soul, which fore-
bodes his death; and it happens that the roaming soul of a man, who is about to
lose his life on a hunting or fishing expedition, causes mischief to the man
himself.

Pigs and dogs have souls, and at all events in some cases when killed go to
Adiri, the land of the dead; but there are extremely vague indications only as to
any further extension of the belief in souls.

2. The Influence of Environment upon the Religious Ideas and Practices
of the Aborigines of Northern Asia. By Miss M. A. Czapuicka.

The term ‘environment’ must be understood to cover not only strictly
physical conditions, but also the botanical and zoological features of a given
locality. Environment in this sense is bound to play a large part in determining
the nature of the mentality of the inhabitants and in moulding the form of their
religious institutions.

This principle may be exemplified by a study of the shamanism of Northern
Asia. In Northern Asia or Siberia there are two main types of geographical
environment, with corresponding variations in the forms of shamanism observed
there.

1. Along the whole northern section a boundless lowland zone, consisting of
tundra—a stretch of dreary wastes, exposed to the full fury of Arctic gales,
icebound and dark for nine months in the year—presents a typical ‘ Arctic’
landscape. Fishing and hunting can be carried on in summer only, and reindeer-
breeding is scarcely possible, owing to the deficient vegetation. The people live
for nine months of the year in underground or half-underground houses.

2. Farther south the land rises to the Siberian highlands, whence flow the
Ob, Yenisei, and Lena. Here the inhabitants of the steppes lead an open-air,
nomadic, pastoral, or hunting life. The climate is ‘ Continental.’

Two main racial groups inhabit these areas: (a) The unclassified Chukchees,
Koryaks, Yukaghirs, Kamchadals, Giliaks, &c. (who may be termed Palzo-
Siberians) ; (6) the Finnish, Turk, and Mongol tribes (who may be termed Neo-
Siberians).

All over Siberian territory there exists the same shamanistic cult, which, as
a whole, differs psychologically and sociologically from other animistic and pre-
animistic cults.‘ This shamanism is, however, differentiated by the influence of
environment into two subordinate types, which may be termed northern and
southern.

I. In the north we see the influence of darkness, cold, and scarcity of food on
the religious ideas of the people. There is a religious dualism, but the worship
of ‘black’ spirits prevails. Thus even at sacrifices offered to the ‘ white’ (good)
spirits the black receive their share. The mental powers are directed towards
introspective thinking; hence the prevalence of Arctic hysteria, of revelation,
divination, and of sexual perversions. Family shamanism is more important
than professional shamanism, which is but slightly developed, since the environ-
ment does not encourage social aggregation. Want of light and of suitable
materials results in a poor shamanistic apparatus and a poor form of myth-ritual,
mostly sexual in content. Arctic hysteria is venerated in so far as it is met with
among shamans. The animals on which the people’s livelihood depends (whale
and other sea animals among maritime tribes; reindeer among reindeer-breeding
tribes; bear, wolf, and fox common to both) are the objects of cult, inanimate
objects of worship being generally symbols of them. There is no clear idea of

* Banzaroff, Klemenz, Khangaloff, Jochelson.

ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 643

an anthropomorphic god; gods and spirits are mostly half-animals; the distinc-
tion between men and animals disappears in myths and in representations of
superior beings. Ceremonials are almost exclusively seasonal and are con-
nected with the food supply and with the expulsion of the bad spirits. Incanta-
tions form the main substance of the religious practices. The animism of the
Palzo-Siberians is marked by the conception of a soul belonging to every part of
an animal or thing—the soul of the head, the soul of the breast, &c. In con-
nection with the featureless landscape, the ideal division of the universe is

vertical (into upper and lower worlds) rather than horizontal.

If. In the south we find a religious dualism in which the ‘ white’ element
prevails. Among the Buriats there are fifty-five ‘western’ (good) Tengris, and
only forty-four ‘eastern’ (bad) Tengris. Among the Wotiaks the ‘ white’ gods
decidedly prevail. In some tribes, the Yakuts and the Altaians, for instance,
there is a monotheistic tendency; among the Buriats there is polytheism. Life
amid varied scenery, consisting of open country and mountains, has led to
worship of the sky and heavenly bodies. Animals, such as the horse, eagie,
hedgehog, swan, and snake, are respected, but not worshipped. In the mytho-
logy, which is very rich in forms and hyperboles, it is the man, not the animal,
that plays an heroic part. Animism is characterised by the idea of a compound
soul, usually involving three parts. Comparative abundance of food permits
certain spontaneous ceremonial expressions of religious feeling not necessarily
connected with the food supply. Imagination is developed and gives rise to
fantastic myths. The shaman is a professional; his dress is rich and symbolical.
Bloody sacrifices, which in Northern Siberia occur only in a few reindeer-breed-
ing tribes, predominate in the south. The ongon is not merely a fetish, as
among the Paleo-Siberians, but the image of a god.

Note: The Yakuts, who have migrated from south to north, and the Giliaks,
who have migrated from north to south (in Sakhalin), show curious mixtures
of the northern and southern types of the shamanistic cult.

3. The People of Keftiu and the Isles from the Egyptian Monuments.
By G. A. Warywricat.

Long ago it was suggested by Brugsch that the Egyptian Keftiu=the Hebrew
Caphtor and that both=Crete. This supposition was strengthened by the fact
that in the paintings of Rekhmara, from which these people are chiefly known,
the picture is entitled ‘ Chiefs of Keftiu ’ [and] the Isles in the midst of the Sea.’
Unfortunately Egyptian phraseology does not specify whether the two words thus
joined are in apposition or co-ordinate. Up to the present these two have
been read in apposition. The unnamed paintings in another tomb—Senmut—
were recognised as representing Cretans of the sixteenth century 8.c., and some
points in the Rekhmara paintings were recognised as being similar to the
Cretan civilisation, and the whole was lumped together as Keftiuan=Cretan.

But on analysis the greater part of the Keftiuan civilisation is not Cretan
but Syrian. Besides being shown once with People of the Isles, the Keftiuans
are shown twice with Syrians; in the geographical lists the neighbours of
Keftiu are grouped about E. Cilicia; the Hymn of Victory groups Keftiu with
Asy (at the mouth of the Orontes); in the Canopus Decree Pheenicia is trans-
lated by Keftet; a late text calls the Keftiuan language Asiatic; and in a list
of Keftiuan names is found one Akashou, which may be the same as the two
Philistine names Ikausu of Ekron and Achish of Gath. The Philistines being
Caphtorim we are referred to Caphtor once more. But Caphtor is not known to
be Crete. The Philistine confederacy consisted of a group of allied tribes, the
name of one of which (Cherethites) is translated in the LXX as Cretans. The
Caphtorim are translated as Cappadocians. Hence Caphtor is probably Asia
Minor, and in Rameses III.’s sculptures of the Pulosatu or Philistines they are
shown with an Asia Minor dress and equipment. Therefore the identification
of both Keftiu and Caphtor with Crete has come about owing to the presence
of Cretans with each of them; these being the People of the Isles with the
Keftinans, and the Cherethites with the Caphtorim or Philistines proper.
Keftiu then appears to be Cilicia.

For a view of her civilisation it is necessary to isolate it. To do this a

ee

644 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

corpus of that of each extreme—Syria and the Isles—is taken. Out of the
87 Keftiuan objects available for study 60 are found to be of Syrianising types,
while 27 are peculiar to Keftiu.

Of the Syrianising types may be mentioned the scale pattern; handles in the
form of heraldic animals, an idea stretching from Assyria to Mycene; fillers;
protomai found in Egyptian paintings to be fairly common in Syria; tusks;
lazuli; copper ingots; silver in rings, as from Syria, but also in blocks.

In the native types the goat’s head seems to be a favourite motif. The vase-
handles either rise above the rim in the Avgean style, or are joined flat with it
in the Syrian style; they also end either in the ANgean spiral or Syrian flower.
The inlaid bull figure is allied to the Mesopotamian types. The Vaphio cup at
present must be considered an import, as to-day this type is only known from
the Aigean.

The dress of the Keftiuans consists of a pointed ornamented kilt, and some-
times boots. The hair is worn in locks, and twisted into curls on the head, and
the beard is generally shaved.

4. A Contribution to the Archeology of Cyprus.
By Professor J. L. Myres, M.A.

Professor J. L. Myres described some contributions to the archeology of
Cyprus which have resulted from recent re-examination of the Cesnola collec-
tion of Cypriote antiquities in the Metropolitan Museum of New York. The
most important of these are the extension of the upward limit of time for
the great series of votive statues, which show a period in which the Assyrian
influence which characterises the early half of the seventh century is not yet
fully developed, and Syro-Cappadocian affinities are seen; and the discovery
that Minoan types of costume, both for men and for women, introduced in the
later Bronze Age, remained in ceremonial use, and probably also in daily life,
far into the historic period. The Cypriote script now begins to show forms link-
ing it with the Minoan, and Minoan numerals are shown on a Cypriote tablet
which seems to be a tribute-list. And among the New York fragments of
engraved bowls of Oriental design is one which repeats the subject of the well-
known ‘ Hunting Bowl’ found at Palestrina near Rome, and is probably from
the same hand and workshop, thus showing the wide distribution of these
works of art, and the probability that they are the output of a few closely
related centres of industry. One of these centres may very likely have been in
Cyprus itself.

5. Ancient Assyrian Medicine. By R. Camppety THompson, M.A.

The principal sources of our knowledge of ancient Assyrian medicine are, of
course, the cuneiform tablets of the seventh century from Assurbanipal’s palace
in Nineveh, now in the British Museum; there are, however, a few references
to surgeons in Hammurabi’s Code of Laws, written about four thousand years
ago, and several incantations for the benefit of sick people dating from the Late
Babylonian period. Professor Sayce was one of the earliest to comment on
the medical texts proper, and his work was followed many years later by Prof.
Kiichler’s publication on three tablets dealing chiefly with stomachic disorders,
which, as is natural in a progressive study, marked a great advance in our
knowledge. Since then I have published two small papers on ailments of the
head and rheumatism; Drs. Von Oefele and Fonahn have discussed many points
on this subject; and Dr. Harri Holma has lately been at pains to collect all the
known names of the parts of the body in cuneiform.

There still remain about 500 tablets or fragments of tablets unpublished in
the British Museum, which I have been courteously permitted to copy, and hope
to bring out shortly, and it is with these chiefly that this paper deals. They
relate to diseases of the head, hair, eyes, nose, ears, mouth, teeth, stomach, and
other organs; the treatment of pregnancy and difficult travail; poultices, potions,
and enemas; and the assuaging of snake-bites or scorpion-stings. The drugs in
use can be numbered by the score (there are considerably more than a hundred
of them, animal, vegetable, and mineral), but it is obviously often difficult to

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 645

identify them with their modern equivalents. This is particularly so in the case
of names of plants, for the Assyrian doctors were not content to use each simply,
but made compounds of many; and hence arises as great a problem in separating
the significance of the components as would apply in future ages to some
archzologist in a similar position trying to ascertain the different plants named
in the composition of chlorodyne. Nevertheless, several have already long been
satisfactorily identified, as, for instance, liquorice, the cassia (probably), and
many garden herbs, and the Assyrian word meaning ‘ hound’s-tongue’ is shown
by Kichler to be the Plantago major. I believe that I have been able to identify
two narcotics, one, the ‘ Heart-plant,’ as one of the Hyoscyami, some years
previously ; the other as the mandrake, to be used in allaying headache by
continuous application to the head and neck.

In the tablets relating to eye-diseases, the lish-a-bar is a drug of fairly
common occurrence, and from its connection with the mineral a-bar (probably
antimony) I see in it the well-known stibium used by Orientals. Another
mineral in use for eye troubles is copper dust, in which we may see the fore-
runner of the more modern sulphate of copper.

This large collection of medical formule is distinct from the incantation-
texts; the greater number of the sections consists of simple descriptions of the
disease followed by a brief receipt for the proper drugs and their use. But
even here we find curious lapses into pure magic, such as prescriptions for the
use of white and black wool, &c., with appropriate incantations.

6. The Female Magician in Semitic Magic.
By Professor T. Wirron Daviss, D.D.

7. Recent Discoveries of the British School in Eqypt.?
By Professor W. M. Fuinpers Perriz, LL.D., D.C.L., F.RS.

In the previous year a great cemetery of the First Dynasty (5500 B.c.) had
been partly explored at Tarkhan, about forty miles south of Cairo. This year a
valley was cleared and found to contain some 800 more graves closely grouped
on each side of an axial road. These were carefully cleared, all the bones
measured, the skulls removed whenever possible, plans drawn of each grave and
of the whole cemetery, and the form of every vase of stone or of pottery exactly
registered. This forms the most complete record yet made of any cemetery.

“The conquering tribe of the dynastic people had advanced northward from

Abydos, subduing the Nile Valley, until Mena founded the new capital of United
Egypt at Memphis. Here at Tarkhan was a great settlement, beginning one or
two generations before Memphis, and dying away shortly after the new capital
was established. What has been uncovered is but a part—probably the smaller
part—of the cemetery, which is now mainly under water. Thousands of well-to-
do people were buried here within two or three generations, and we must regard
this as the pre-Memphite capital of Egypt. This site is therefore the most
important centre for studying the critical point of the earliest historical race of
Egypt mixing with the prehistoric peoples.

The preservation of the tombs in the cemetery of Tarkhan is remarkable. The
earliest stage of the mastaba and tomb chapel can here be seen in perfection.
The brick wall which retained the pile of sand above the graves, the little slits
in it for the soul to come forth to the offerings, the enclosure for the offerings,
and the stacks of pottery brought to the grave by the relatives and friends with
food and drink for the dead—all were uncovered exactly as they had been left
over 7,000 years ago. In the graves were large numbers of alabaster vases, slate
palettes, and pottery vases, all of which have been drawn; the types of these,
when compared with those of the royal tombs, serve to date the graves to the
various reigns shortly before and after Mena. Several blue glazed vases were

1 Printed in full in the Hxpositor, January 1914.
2? To be published in the Annual of the British School in Egypt. See also
“The Earliest Perfect Tombs,’ Man, 1913, No. 85.

646 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H;

found, showing that such glazing was commonly in use. As a whole, we get a
view of the population, apart from the wealth of the King and Court, and see
that they had good furniture, fine vases, and plenty of ornament, and were
apparently in quite as civilised a condition as the Egyptians of later ages. The
physical character and origin of these people are dealt with in a separate paper
(see p. 640).

Another site, at Gerzeh, a few miles further south, has given good results of
the Twelfth and Eighteenth Dynasties. Large cemeteries were cleared and some
immense stone tombs with chambers as large as those of pyramids. One large
tomb had been attacked anciently ; the plunderer had crawled in by a small hole,
and had begun to remove the ornaments, when the roof fell and crushed him.
Thus was saved for our days a gold pectoral inlaid with coloured stones, like the
pectorals of the celebrated jewellery of Dahshur, in the Cairo Museum, the only
specimen of this splendid work of the Twelfth Dynasty that has been seen in
England. With it was part of a similar jewel of Senusert II. and a gold shell of
Senusert ITT.

At Memphis more statuary and sculptures of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth
Dynasties have been found, in clearing another acre and a half of the great
Temple of Ptah; we further learn that Shishak decorated the temple with a
cornice. Gradually the great clearance of this historic site is extended year by
year; and it is hoped that the new law, by which the Government claims every-
thing found in private land, will not be exercised to check this work. In the
city some workshops have yielded all the various stages of the manufacture of
stone vases, from the rough block to the vase spoiled in finishing; other shops
contained a great variety of coloured stones brought from the Eastern Desert and
from abroad, including the beautiful bright green felspar in granite, not known
before. A remarkable standard measure was found, of Ptolemaic age, parallel
lines over a foot long being engraved on a slab rather over two feet in length.
The accuracy of the scale is finer than a hundredth of an inch; the standard
is a cubit of 26-8 inches, known in Egypt under the Eighteenth Dynasty, and
used in Asia Minor, classical Germany, and medieval England.

8. The Evolution of the Dolmen.
By Professor G. Exuiot Smirn, M.A., M.D., F.B.S.

Of all the varieties of the ‘rude stone monuments’ that are scattered far
and wide throughout the world as witnesses to a past and forgotten stage of
prehistoric culture, the dolmen is perhaps the commonest, and certainly the
crudest, and the type that hitherto has appeared most hopelessly inexplicable.

The aim of this demonstration is to prove that the dolmen represents a.
degraded form of the typical Egyptian tomb (mastaba) of the Pyramid Age.
The essential parts of such a tomb in its fully developed form were a deep
shaft leading to the subterranean rock-cut burial chamber; a mound of rubble,
surrounding the upper opening of the shaft, enclosed within four stone retain-
ing walls, forming an oblong superstructure—the mastaba; a chapel of offer-
ings on the side of the mastaba facing the River Nile (and as it became the
fashion in the Pyramid Age, when the Sun-god, Ra, gained an ascendency in
the estimation of the Egyptians, to build these tombs on the west bank the
temple thus, as a rule, faced east); in the chapel, let into the eastern wall of
the mastaba, was a false door or stela (symbolic of the means of communication
with the dead), before which offerings of food were made to the deceased ;
and hidden in the mastaba, somewhere between the chapel and the’ shaft
leading to the burial chamber, was a chamber—the serdab—surrounded and
roofed with great slabs of stone, in which a statue of the deceased was placed.
The serdab was often put into communication with the chapel by means of a
narrow, slit-like opening, so that the statue, which ‘served as a body for the
disembodied dead’ (Breasted)—the actual mummy being far away at the
bottom of the deep shaft, secure against the desecration of tomb plunderers—
might be able to receive the offerings presented in the chapel.

This idea of the dead man’s spirit dwelling in the serdab appealed strongly
to the imagination of a superstitious race, and the conception of the serdab

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 647

became magnified into the belief in the necessity of providing a house strong
enough to endure and prevent the possibility of a houseless spirit wandering at
large and making itself a nuisance to the living. ;

Thus, when the mastaba type of grave was made, for example, to bury
an Egyptian dying in a foreign land, where skilled craftsmen to carve statues
and cut burial shafts deep in the rock were unobtainable, the serdab was not
only still retained, although there was no statue to put in it, but it even
increased in size and importance.

It became a chamber built, in many instances, of huge masses of stone, so
as to ensure the permanency necessary to keep the spirit ‘at home.’ The stela
likewise persisted, and became the ‘holed stone’ of the dolmen—the hole being
the representative of the slit of communication between the chapel and the
serdab in the mastaba. Sometimes in contemporary subterranean rock-cut
tombs imitating the dolmen rough bas-relief were carved upon the inner wall
of the serdab chamber to represent the status of the old Egyptian tomb; but
more often such crude pictures were made on the walls in the chapel (or
portico) corresponding to the portraits of the deceased (in the Egyptian tomb)
receiving offerings of food, which in the dolmen were often represented
symbolically by ‘ cup-markings.’

The mound of earth and the retaining wall (i.e. the mastaba proper) were
sometimes retained in association with the dolmen, but were not infrequently
omitted (or are absent now).

In the Sardinian ‘Giants’ Tombs’ there are represented the mastaba, with
its retaining wall, the tumulus, the serdab, a carved stela, and a chapel. In
the allée couverte, so typically seen in France, are-represented the chapel, often
with very crude portraits of the deceased in bas-relief, the ste/a (holed stone),
and the serdab, but without the twmulus and its retaining wall in many cases.
The simplest form of dolmen represents a glorified serdab—the home of the
disembodied spirit, hovering above the remains of the body in the grave—
without a stela, but with usually the eastern side open, to represent the door
through which offerings of food can be made to the deceased.

9. Les derniéres Découvertes d’Giuvres d’Art paléolithiques dans les
Cavernes de la Gaule. Par le Professeur Dr. Caprran.

On sait que depuis un grand nombre d’années on connaissait quelques trés
jolies sculptures et gravures paléolithiques exécutées sur os, corne ou ivoire et
découvertes dans des foyers de l’Age du renne. Depuis treize ans on a signalé en
France et en Espagne toute une série de grottes 4 parois ornées de gravures ou
de peintures remontant a l’époque quaternaire.

Depuis quelques mois nos découvertes en Dordogne avec Peyrony et
Bouyssonie ont montré qu’il existait une autre variété d’ceuvres d’art quaternaires.
Ce sont des gravures exécutées sur des dalles ou des blocs de pierre irréguliers
de 20 cm. 4 70 cm. de largeur rencontrés au milieu des foyers de l’époque
magdalénienne 4 La Madeleine et 4 Limeuil (Dordogne). Ces trés belles gravures
non encore publiées sont d’un art tres remarquable. Elles représentent surtout
des rennes, des chevaux, des bouquetins. Quelques trés belles sculptures en
ivoire de petite dimension accompagnaient ces piéces.

a —

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Stone-boiling in the British Isles.
By T. C. Oantrrivt, B.Sc., F.G.S.

The process of boiling water by plunging into it a succession of red-hot stones
was in use among most of the northern tribes of North America when that
continent first became known to European voyagers, and it survived among the
Assinneboins and other primitive peoples down to the early nineteenth century.

648 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

The boiling-vessel was a cauldron-shaped hole in the ground, lined with a raw
hide; or a hide suspended like a hammock ; or a large wooden box, trough, tub, or
bowl; or a closely-woven basket of vegetable fibre. Captain Cook found the
process in use among the Polynesian islanders, and other travellers have wit-
nessed it, e.g., among the New Zealanders in 1816; among the Esquimaux in
1826; in Australia in 1856; and also in Kamtschatka and South America. A
summary account of these extra-European methods was published in 1865 by
E. B. Tylor, who pointed out that several limited applications of the principle
in comparatively modern times had been recorded in Europe also, viz. in the
Hebrides by George Buchanan in 1528; in Ireland in 1600; in East Bothland
by Linné in 1732; and in Carinthia by Morlot.

Throughout the British Isles few ancient sites have been explored that have
not yielded occasional burnt stones, which have no doubt rightly been regarded
as pot-boilers, or as heaters employed in some form of oven. But large heaps of
burnt, cracked, and broken stones, mingled with charcoal-dust, although fre-
quent near springs and streams in districts devoid of other evidences of ancient
occupation, such as camps, villages, or hut-circles, have seldom been recorded,
and, if noted, have not always been understood. To the Irish archeologists
belongs the credit of being the first to recognise the origin and meaning of these
heaps, though from the Irish records it is probable that there the clue was fur-
nished by tradition. As early as 1815 Horatio Townsend found heaps of burnt
stones in co. Cork and regarded them as primitive cooking-places; and since that
date similar heaps have been discovered near springs and streams in many parts
of Ireland, and in several instances have proved to contain a wooden or clay
trough in which the boiling was performed.

In Great Britain a growing volume of evidence supports the view that the
practice of stone-boiling once ranged from the Shetlands to the English
Channel. In 1865-6 James Hunt and Arthur Mitchell described certain ‘ tumuli’
in Shetland, of wholly abnormal character, which were composed of small,
broken, and burnt angular stones and black earth. No interments were found
in them, but fragments of burnt pottery were seen, and near—but not within—
several of the mounds were found small stone cists. Dr. Mitchell remarked as a
peculiarity that most of the Shetland ‘tumuli’ have one side flattened and
depressed. Jn the particulars recorded of these Shetland remains it is now easy
to recognise some of the characteristic features of the Irish cooking-places, and I
have no doubt that the supposed tumuli were heaps of pot-boilers, and the cists
the boiling-troughs of ancient cooking-places. Traces of stone-boiling have been
detected also in Sutherland, in Berwickshire, and in East Lothian.

In the Isle of Man several ‘tumuli’ of burnt stones have been recorded, but
without any suggestion as to their origin. A dug-out oaken trough associated
with one of these masses of burnt stones has been described as a canoe; but it is
perhaps more likely to have been a boiling-trough, or else a derelict canoe turned
to account for cooking-purposes.

The Dartmoor Exploration Committee have detected traces of stone-boiling
among the hut-sites of Grimspound and elsewhere; and although no heaps of
pot-boilers are recorded in the Reports of the Barrow Committee of the Devon
Association, the descriptions of certain cairns of unusual character but showing
signs of fire are strongly suggestive of the stone-heaps associated with the Irish
cooking-places. In Eastern Devon, the late P. O. Hutchinson in 1862 recorded a
case where an accumulation of burnt flints at Blackbury Castle, a camp near
Colyton, was removed in 1827 and supplied seventy cart-loads of material. In
Hampshire, also, similar deposits have been reported from the Forest of Bere;
and Mr. Clement Reid, lately my colleague on the Geological Survey, informs me
that while quartered in the New Forest he found numerous heaps of burnt flints
between Ringwood and Brockenhurst, though he had accounted for them as the
relics of prehistoric turf-fires, the stones that were entangled in the fuel having
given rise in time to a heap of burnt flints.

In Central and South Wales,! with the assistance of several of my colleagues,
I have located and described over 270 cooking-places, several of which have
yielded worked flints. The mounds range from six to sixty feet in diameter,

1 T. C. Cantrill and O. T. Jones, in Archeologia Cambrensts, 1906, pp. 17-34;
1911, pp. 253-286,

ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 649

but seldom exceed three feet in height. As no certain traces of wooden troughs
have been found, it is probable that the boiling-vessel was a hide-lined hole in
the ground, or a hide slung like a hammock.

In Anglesey, Mr. E. Neil Baynes has recently found that some of the cooking
places contain a paved hearth.

In South Staffordshire and North Warwickshire, during the past three years
we have found fifteen examples near Rugeley, Pelsall, Aldridge, and Middleton,
all within reach of Birmingham, the remains consisting of the usual heap of
burnt, reddened, and broken pebbles (here quartzites from the Bunter), having
much the appearance of road-metal mingled with charcoal-dust, and situated
generally near running water.

From the examples quoted above it is clear that stone-boiling was extensively
practised in the British Isles in prehistoric times, and doubtless further search
will result in similar discoveries in other parts of the kingdom, and may perhaps
decide the nature of the cooking-vessel and the period to which the practice
should be attributed. It is evident from previous records in the archeological
publications that in some cases these heaps of pot-boilers have been mistaken for
burial-mounds and for primitive smelting-places. The boiling-troughs, where of
wood, have been supposed to be canoes; and where of stone, have been assumed
to be sepulchral cists. Sometimes the hearth or floor of the cooking-place was
roughly paved with stone slabs and fenced with a low stone wall, and these
features have been mistaken for ‘stone circles,’ or for the lower courses of bee-
hive huts. In fine, there is little doubt that certain obscure accumulations of
calcined stones disclosed by some of the earlier excavations are explicable as
traces of stone-boiling.

2. Hxcavations in the Kinkell Cave, St. Andrews.
By Dr. T. J. JEnv and A. J. B. Wace; M.A.

The Kinkell Cave lies on the cliffs to the east of St. Andrews. The beds of
calciferous sandstone exposed in the cliffs here dip to the east at an angle of
33 degrees, and the cave has been made by invasion of the sea along the bedding
planes. Excavations were carried on here with a grant from the University of
St. Andrews between May 26 and June 12, 1913. The cave was found to have
been eroded by the sea prior to the emergence of land, evinced by the 25 feet
raised beach, on the lower margin of which it lies. This raised beach records
an uplift of land after the appearance of Neolithic man. The cave had been
inhabited in Roman and early Christian times. A roughly-laid floor of sand-
stone slabs was found, and above this a thick deposit from the refuse of human
habitation. The central date of this deposit is given by a sherd of ferra sigillata
(Samian ware), found half-way down it. Quantities of shells and animal bones
were discovered, all the remains of food. The former are those of limpets,
whelks, and periwinkles, common on the shore below. The animal bones are
principally those of oxen, sheep, and pigs. The oxen were probably Celtic
shorthorns (Bos longifrons), and the sheep of the type called Ovis aries palustris,
and akin to the Soay race. The pig bones include many boar-tusks—interesting
in view of the historical traditions as to the prevalence of wild boars in Fife-
shire. On the top of this stratum a slab of red sandstone, with incised crosses,
was discovered, which probably belongs to the early Christian period.

3. The Early Bronze Age in the Lower Rhone Valley.
By H. J. EH. Peake.

A survey of the implements found in the lower valley of the Rhone shows
that the inhabitants of this part of France were only slightly acquainted with
the use of metal during the earlier phases of the Bronze Age. A map showing
the distribution of flat celts throughout this area seems to indicate that during
the first Bronze Period the people were in a neolithic state of culture, though a
few bronze implements had reached the edge of the area either from Switzerland
or from ‘the north-west. A comparison between the numbers found here and
those found in equal areas of Great Britain or Germany is very striking. The

650 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

distribution of flanged celts shows that though metal was then known in this
region, its use was confined to certain areas. More than one line seem to
radiate from the pass of Mont Genévre, the most conspicuous of these passing
to the south-west in the direction of Narbonne. This seems to indicate a line
of trade between the Po Valley and the copper mines of Spain.

4. Trade between Britain and France in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages.
By O. G. §. Crawrorp, M.A.

The evidence for trade between two peoples rests upon the discovery in the
country of objects of either foreign type or foreign material. The discovery of
green-stone axes in a county like Hampshire (where no such rock occurs) is an
instance. When the axe resembles in shape those made in, e.g. Brittany, where
the stone occurs naturally, we may infer intercourse, probably commercial,
between Brittany and England. The evidence for bronze axes rests mainly upon
the type; but this is very clearly marked. Since the publication of ‘ Ancient
Bronze Implements’ in 1881 numerous additions have been made to the number
of axes of French type found in Britain. This paper was an attempt to give
a complete list up to date and to point out certain features in their distribu-
tion which are interesting geographically. The question was raised : How far is
St. Catherine a medieval successor of an earlier patron deity of travellers?

5. Paleolithic ‘ Guillotine’ Trap-stones. By Rev. F. Smiru.

In the course of nearly fifty years’ investigations of relics of prehistoric man,
several distinct and, as I believe, incontrovertible phases of such relics have
come to hand. These may be classified as ‘orthodox’ and abnormal weapons ;
knives, flayers, choppers, grinding or rubbing stones, piercers, disc-stones, clubs,
javelin-heads, &c. Among those assumed to be relics none are more conspicuous
in my collection than a series which I have described as ‘ guillotine ’ trap-stones.
They are a type of weapon which is still in use in various parts of the world
in the form of a suspended block of wood in the lower end of which a knife is
affixed. This is intended to fall upon a passing animal.

If prehistoric man were a strategic hunter, we may naturally assume that
very early in his career he learned to throw down his missile upon a passing
quarry or enemy, which became in time a heavy pointed stick; and finally,
with greatly enhanced effect, a pointed stone. In any case we can imagine that
an early pointed stone weapon was sooner or later hurled down from a tree with
effect. For at least thirty years I have been puzzled by the abnormal size of
what appeared to me as elaborations in stone, sometimes of recognised palzolithic
type forms, sometimes of no recognisable form, but with an obvious artificially
sharpened point at one end. Several are over forty pounds in weight. They
are too large to have been used in the hand, but they all suggest in a variety ot
ways their intended purpose of being slung. Some are deliberately winged at
the top, or left purposely widened. Often a portion is hammered away literally
so as to give a hold to a cord or (probably) strips of skin.

6. Prehistoric Horse Remains in the Stort Valley, etc.
By A. Irvine, D.Sc., B.A.

The present communication is a sequel to that made to Section H at the
Portsmouth Meeting, 1911.1. Teeth and limb bones have since come to hand
which fall into two series: (1) those of a horse of the Stortford-Grimaldi-
Starnberg type; (2) those which answer to the ‘Solutrean’ (Hquus robustus)
type of Prof. J. C. Ewart.* They have been found for the most part in and
under the bottom of the ‘Rubble-Drift’ of the valley, as that has been laid

' B. A. Report (1911), pp. 521, 522.
2 J. C. Ewart, F.R.S., on the ‘ Restoration of an Ancient British Race of
Horses’ (Proc. PR. Soe. Hdin. vol, xxx., Part 4, pp. 304, 305, fig. 23).

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 651

Open in a continuous trench (3 ft. 9 in, to 4 ft. in depth) across the valley of
the Stort nearly a mile and a half long for the purpose of laying down a new
water-main.* Others have been found in the excavation, which was carried
down to 4 feet below the present bed of the River Stort into the solid peat,
for the foundation of a pier-wall in widening the bridge at the side of the old
Town Mill.* These are supplemented by remains from Braintree collected by
the Rey. J. W. Kenworthy.

Remains which tally with those of the Stortford Skeleton.

1. Molars of the Cheek Dentition (18 specimens).

(2) From the output of the M. A. pond-excavation in which the skeleton
was unearthed, p.m. 2, p.m. 3 (extremely decayed by the action of bog-solvents).

(6) From the Watermain Trench, p.m. 3, p.m. 4, m. 1 (two).

(c) From the site of the ‘ bronze-hoard ’ at Matching,® p.m. 2, p.m. 3.

(d) From Braintree, p.m. 2, p.m. 3 (three), p.m. 4, m. 1 (two), m. 2 (two),
m. 3.

2. Metacarpals.—One from London Road Sewer Trench-—index 6.50; one
from Braintree—index 6.43.

3. Metatarsals—One from Bridge Excavation—index 8.00; one from the
same (a foal)—index 8.55.

Fragments of other bones (angle of mandibular ramus, ‘condyle’ of ramus,
and humerus) from beneath the ‘rubble-drift’ tally (in size and otherwise)
with the corresponding bones of the skeleton. ‘T'he evidence here formulated
gives (it is submitted) support to the conclusion. drawn from the evidence to
hand two years ago, that in the Stortford skeleton we have an example of ‘an
ancient British variety of a race of Horse, which in prehistoric times was widely
distributed over Europe.’

Bones and teeth of Bos are more numerous than those of Hquus; remains
of Cervus elaphus, Sus and Ovis have been found. A skull of Lupus or large
dog (with fourteen teeth in place) was found in the excavation below the river-
bed.

The remains of Hquus robustus type are dealt with in a separate note to
Section D.

* See Herts and Hssex Observer (Feb. 8, 1913).
* Tbid (June 14, 1913).
° Found about twenty years ago; now in the Colchester Museum.

652 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION TI.

Section I.—PHYSIOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION.—F. GowLANp Hopkins,
M.A., D.Se., F.B.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.

The President delivered the following Address :—

The Dynamic Side of Biochemistry.

In the year 1837 Justus Liebig, whom we may rightly name the father of
modern animal chemistry, presented a Report to the Chemical Section of the
British Association, then assembled at Liverpool. The technical side of this
report dealt with the products of the decomposition of uric acid, with which I
am not at the moment concerned, but ib concluded with remarks which, to judge
from other contemporary writings of Liebig, would have been more emphatic
had the nature of his brief communication permitted. Liebig had a profound
belief that in the then new science of Organic Chemistry, Biology was to find its
greatest aid to progress, and his enthusiastic mind was fretted by the cooler
attitude of others. In the report I have mentioned he called upon the chemists
of this country to take note of what was in the wind, and while complimenting
British physiologists and biologists upon their own work, urged upon them the
immediate need of combining with the chemists. Ten years later, Liebig had
still to write with reference to chemical studies: ‘Der Mann welcher in der
Thierphysiologie wie Saussure in der Pflanzenphysiologie die ersten und wich-
tigsten Fragen zur Aufgabe seines Lebens macht, fehlt noch in dieser Wissen-
schaft.’! Much later still, he was still making the same complaint. As a matter
of fact, the combination of chemistry with biology, in the full and abundant
sense that Liebig’s earlier enthusiasm had pictured as so desirable, never hap-
pened in any country within the limits of his own century, while in this country,
up to the end of that century, it can hardly be said to have happened at all.
But the regrettable divorce between these two aspects of science has been so
often dwelt upon that you will feel no wish to hear it treated historically, and
perhaps even any emphasis given to it now may seem out of place, since on the
Continent, and notably in America, the subject of Biochemistry (with its new
and not very attractive name) has come with great suddenness into its kingdom.
Even in this country, the recent successful formation of a Biochemical Society
gives sure evidence of a greatly increased interest in this borderland of science.
Yet I am going to ask you to listen to some remarks which are a reiteration
of Liebig’s appeal, as heard by this Association three quarters of a century ago.

For one can, I think, honestly say that it is yet a rare thing in this country
to meet a professed biologist, even among those unburdened either with years or
traditions, who has taken the trouble so to equip himself in organic chemistry
as to understand fully an important fact of metabolism stated in terms of
structural formule. The newer science of Physical Chemistry has made a more

1 Ann. Chem. Pharm. 1xii., 257, 1847.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 653

direct appeal to the biological mind. Its results are expressed in more general
terms and the bearing of its applications are perhaps more obvious, especially
at the present moment. This fact increases the danger of a further neglect in
biology of the organic structural side of chemistry, upon which, nevertheless,
the whole modern science of intermediary metabolism depends. On the other
hand, I think one may say that there are only a few among the present leaders
of chemical thought in our midst who have set themselves to appraise with
sympathy the drift of biological processes or the nature of the problems that
biologists have before them. Anyone wishing to see the number of biochemical
workers increased might therefore with equal justice appeal to the teachers of
biology or to the teachers of chemistry for greater sympathy with the border-
land. It is a moot point indeed as to which is the better side for that borderland
to recruit its workers from.

But on the whole it is easier for the intelligent adult mind to grasp new
problems than to learn a new technique. It is better that youth should be spent
in acquiring the latter. That is why, though I admit that it would have been
more obviously to the point if made some ten years ago, I feel justified in
repeating to-day the appeal of Liebig to the leading chemists of this country, in
the hope that they may see their way to direct the steps of more of their able
students into the path of Biochemistry. I have been specially tempted to do
this, rather than to speak upon some of many subjects which would have
interested this section more, for a very practical reason. I have been in a
position to review the current demand of various institutions, home and colonial,
for the services of trained biochemists, and can say, I think with authority, that
the demand will rapidly prove to be in excess of the supply. It will be a pity
if the generation of trained chemists now growing up in this country should not
share in the restoration of this balance. You certainly have the right to tell me
that I ought, under the circumstances, to be addressing another section; but it
may be long before any member of my cloth will have the opportunity of appeal-
ing to that section from the position of advantage that I occupy here. I believe
you will forgive the particular trajectory of my remarks, because I am sure
you will sympathise with their aim. Moreover, I have some hope that the
considerations upon which I shall chiefly base my appeal will have some interest
for members of this section as well as for the chemist. My main thesis will be
that in the study of the intermediate processes of metabolism we have to deal,
not with complex substances which elude ordinary chemical methods, but with
simple substances undergoing comprehensible reactions. By simple substances 1
mean such as are of easily ascertainable structure and of a molecular weight
within a range to which the organic chemist is well accustomed. JI intend also
to emphasise the fact that it is not alone with the separation and identification
of products from the animal that our present studies deal; but with their
reactions in the body; with the dynamic side of biochemical phenomena.

I have made it my business during the last year or two to learn, by means of
indirect and most diplomatic inquiries, the views held by a number of our lead-
ing organic chemists with respect to the claims of animal chemistry. I do not
find any more the rather pitying patronage for an inferior discipline, and cer-
tainly not that actual antagonism, which fretted my own youth; but I do find
still very widely spread a distrust of the present methods of the Biochemist, a
belief that much of the work done by him is amateurish and inexact. What is
much more important, and what one should be much more concerned to deny
(though but a very small modicum of truth is, or ever was, in the above indict-
ment), is the view that such faults are due to something inherent in the subject.

My desire is to point out that continuous progress, yielding facts which, by
whomsoever appraised, belong to exact science, has gone on in the domain of
animal chemistry from the days of Liebig until now, and that if this progress
was till recently slow, it was, in the main, due to a continuance of the circum-
stance which so troubled Liebig himself—the shortage of workers.

But we must also remember that the small band of investigators who con-
cerned themselves with the chemistry of the animal in the latter half of the
nineteenth century suffered very obviously from the fact that the channels in
which chemistry as a whole was fated to progress left high and dry certain
regions of the utmost importance to their subject. In three regions particularly
the needs of Biochemistry were insistent. The colloid state of matter dominates

‘

654 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

the milieu in which vital processes progress, but, notwithstanding the stimulat-
ing work of Graham, the pure chemist of the last century consistently left
colloids on one side with a shudder of distaste. Again, we have come to
recognise that the insidious influence of catalysts is responsible for all chemical
change as it occurs in living matter, but for many years after Berzelius the
organic chemist gave to the subject of catalysis very cursory attention, funda-
mental though it be. Lastly, every physiological chemist has to realise that
among his basal needs is that of accurate methods for the estimation of organic
substances when they are present in complex mixtures. But the organic chemist
of the nineteenth century did not develop the art of analysis on these lines. Of
the myriad substances, natural or artificial, known to him at the most a few
score could be separated quantitatively from mixtures, or estimated with any
accuracy. It was a professional or commercial call rather than scientific need
which evolved such processes as were available, so that this side of chemical
activity developed only on limited and special lines.

All these circumstances were, of course, inevitable. Organic chemistry in
Liebig’s Jater years was concerned with laying its own foundations as a pure
science, and for the rest of the century with building a giant, self-contained
edifice upon them. The great business of developing the concepts of molecular
structure and the wonderful art of synthesis were so absorbing as to leave
neither leisure nor inclination for extraneous labours. But it is easy to recog-
nise that, near the beginning of the present century, a sense of satiety had
arisen in connection with synthetic studies carried out for their own sake.
Workers came to feel that, so far as the fundamental theoretical aspects of
chemistry were concerned, that particular side of organic work had played its
part. In numerous centres, instead of only in a few, quite other aspects of the
science were taken up: in particular, the study of the dynamic side of its
phenomena. The historian will come to recognise that a considerable revolution
in the chemical mind coincided roughly with the beginning of this century.
Among the branches which are fated to benefit by this revolution—it is to be
hoped in this country as well as others—is the chemistry of the animal.

But I would like to say that I do not find, on reading the contributions to
science of those who, as professed physiological chemists, ploughed lonely
furrows in the last century, any justification for the belief that the work done
by them was amateurish or inexact; no suggestion that anything inherent in
the subject is prone to Jead to faults of the kind. Truly these workers had to
share ignorance which was universal, and sometimes, compelled by the urgency
of certain problems, had perforce to do their best in regions that were dark.
But they knew their limitations here as well as their critics did, and relied for
their justification upon the application of their results, which was often not
understood at all by their critics.

There is little doubt, for instance, that it was the earlier attempts of various
workers to fractionate complex colloid mixtures that led to the cynical state-
ment that ‘ Thierchemie is Schmierchemie.’ But the work thus done, even such
work as Kihne’s upon the albumoses and peptones, had important bearings, and
led indirectly to the acquirement of facts of great importance to physiology and
pathology.

In connection with enzyme catalysis the work done at this time by physio-
logical chemists was in the main of a pioneer character, but it was urgently
called for and had most useful applications. By the end of the century, indeed,
it had become of great importance. I recall an incident which illustrates the
need of suspended iudgment before work done in new regions is assumed to be
inexact. In 1885 E. Schiitz published a study of the hydrolysis of protein by
pepsin which showed that the rate of action of the ferment is proportionate to
the square root of its concentration. When this paper was dealt with in
Maly’s ‘ Jahresbericht’ the abstractor (who from internal evidence I believe was
Richard Maly himself) believed so little in such an apparent departure from the
laws of mass action that he saw fit to deal with the paper in a ribald spirit and
to add, as a footnote to his abstract, the lines :

‘Musst mir meine Erde
Doch lassen steh’n
Und meine Hiitte die du nicht gebaut!’

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 655

Yet it is now known that the relation brought to light by Schtitz does hold for
certain relative concentrations of ferment and substrate. That it had limitations
was shown by Schiitz himself. The fact, however, involves no such shaking of
the foundations as the abstractor thought. We quite understand now how such
relations may obtain in enzyme-substrate systems.

As for analytical work involving a separation of complex organic mixtures
the biochemist of the last century was in this ahead of the pure organic chemist,
as the development of urinary analysis if considered alone will show.

In countless directions the ‘acquirement of exact knowledge concerning
animal chemistry has been, as I have already claimed, continuous from Liebig’s
days till now. I would like in a brief way to illustrate this, and if I choose
for the purpose one aspect of things rather than another, it is because it will
help me in a later discussion. J propose to remind you of certain of the steps
by which we acquired knowledge concerning the synthetic powers of the animal
body, apologising for the great familiarity of many of the facts which I shall put
before you.

It seems that the well-known Glasgow chemist and physician, Andrew Ure,
was the first actually to prove, from observations made upon a patient, that
an increased excretion of hippuric acid follows upon the administration of
benzoic acid. Wohler had earlier fed a dog upon the latter substance, and
decided at the time that it was excreted unchanged; but when, later, Liebig had
made clear the distinction between the two acids, Wohler recalled the properties
of the substance excreted by his dog, and decided that it must have been
hippuric acid and not benzoic acid itself. Excited by the novel idea that a
substance thus extraneously introduced might be caught up in the machinery
of metabolism, Wohler, immediately after the publication of Dr. Ure’s state-
ment, initiated fresh experiments in his laboratory at Gottingen, where Keller,
by observations made upon himself, showed unequivocally that benzoic acid is,
and can be on a large scale, converted into hippuric acid in the body. Thus was
established a fact which is now among the most familiar, but which at that time
stirred the imagination of chemists and physiologists not a little. The dis-
covery immediately led to a large number of observations dealing with various
conditions which affect the synthesis, but we may pass to the acute observations
of Bertagnini. This investigator wished to earmark, as it were, the benzoic
acid administered to the animal, in order to make sure that it was the same
molecule which reappeared in combination. He so marked it with a nitro-
group, giving nitro-benzoic acid and observing the excretion of nitro-hippuric
acid. Later on he continued this interesting line of research by giving other
substituted benzoic acids, and showed that in each case a corresponding substi-
tuted hippuric acid was formed. Even so far back as the earlier ’fifties a clear
understanding was thus established that the body was possessed of a special
mechanism capable of bringing a particular class of substances into contact with
the amino-acid glycine, and of converting them, by means of a synthetical
condensation (which had not then been induced by any laboratory method), into
conjugates which, as later experiments have shown, are invariably less noxious
for the tissues than the substances introduced. Great is the number of com- -
pounds which are now known to suffer this fate. To the story begun by Ure
and Wohler, chapter after chapter has been added continuously up to the
present day. In 1876 came the classical experiments of Bunge and Schmiede-
berg. After laborious but successful efforts to obtain a good method for the
estimation of hippuric acid in animal fluids, these authors proved, by a method
of exclusion, that, in the dog at least, the kidney is the seat of the hippuric
synthesis. When, in their carefully controlled experiments, blood containing
benzoic acid and glycine was circulated through that organ, after its isolation
from the body, the production of hippuric acid followed. Schmiedeberg, a
little later, convinced himself that the reaction in the kidney was a balanced
one; the organ can not only synthesise hippuric acid, it can also hydrolise it.
As with reactions elsewhere, so in the kidney cell, the equilibrium of the
reaction depends on the relative concentration of the products concerned.
Schmiedeberg then separated from the tissues of the kidney what he believed to
be an enzyme capable of inducing the hydrolysis. Mutch, with improved
methods, has recently shown that a preparation from the kidney, wholly free
from intact cells, can, beyond all doubt, hydrolise hippuric acid under rigidly

656 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

aseptic conditions, the reaction being one which comes to an equilibrium point
when some 97 per cent. of the substance is broken down. The occurrence of this
equilibrium, and the form of the reaction-velocity curve as obtained by Mutch,
suggested that synthesis under the influence of the enzyme was to be expected,
and, on submitting the mixture of benzoic acid and glycine to its influence, Mutch
obtained a product which, though too small in amount for analysis, was almost
certainly hippuric acid. I have myself obtained evidence which shows that the
synthesis does certainly occur under these conditions.

The significance of this earliest known synthesis in the body is no limited
one. The amide linkage established by it is one with which the body deals
widely, and is, of course, of the type which is dominant in tissue complexes,
since it is one which unites the amino-acids in the protein molecule.

Seeing, from the nature of the material supplied for the synthesis by the body
itself, that the foreign substances administered must intrude themselves into
the machinery of protein metabolism, it is not surprising that many have turned
their minds to consider how far a detailed study of the phenomena might throw
light upon this machinery. How far can the body extend its supply of glycine
when stimulated by increasing doses of benzoic acid? What effects follow when
administration is pushed to its limits? How is the fate in metabolism of the
whole molecule of protein affected when one particular amino-acid is inhar-
moniously removed? Can the amino-acid be itself synthesised de novo in
response to the call for it? These and similar questions clearly arise. I can
only stop to remind you that there is evidence that, in connection with this
particular chemical synthesis, the carnivore reacts differently to the herbivore.
If the body of the former be flooded with benzoic acid, only a proportion under-
goes condensation. Only so much glycine is supplied as would correspond,
roughly, at any rate, with that rendered available by the normal contemporary
breakdown of protein, whereas, in the herbivorous animal, pushing the adminis- ~
tration of benzoic acid may lead to the excretion of so much conjugated glycine
that it may contain more than half of the whole nitrogen excreted. This is, of
course, much more than could come from the protein of the body, and it would
seem that the amino-acid is prepared de novo for an express purpose, a signifi-
cant thing. But I must not stop to consider questions which are still in course
of study. Before the hippuric synthesis was first observed synthetic powers
were thought to be absent from the animal. Since then we have been con-
tinuously learning of fresh instances of synthesis in the body, not only in
connection with its treatment of foreign substances, with which I am just
now concerned, but in connection with all its normal processes.

Another most interesting group of syntheses in which substances are so
dealt with in the body as to reappear in conjugation with protein derivatives
are those in which the sulphur group plays its part. In 1876 Baumann first
introduced us to the ethereal sulphates of the urine. and, from much subsequent
work, we know how great a group of substances, chiefly those of phenolic
character, are, after administration, excreted linked to sulphuric acid. We
have evidence to show that, in all probability, the original condensation is not
with sulphuric acid itself, but that oxidation of a previously formed sulphur
containing conjugate has preceded excretion, and we know that another group
of substances leave the body combined with unoxidised sulphur. Certain
cyanides—the aliphatic nitriles, for example—reappear as sulpho-cyanides; but
above all in interest is the case described by Baumann, in which the intact
cystein complex of protein, after suffering acetylation of its amino group, 1s
excreted as a conjugate. The administration of halogen-benzene compounds is
followed by the appearance of the so-called mercapturic acids in which the
cystein is linked by its sulphur atom to the ring of chlor-, bromo-, or iodi-
benzene. That large amounts of these conjugates can be formed during the
twenty-four hours is certain, but it would be interesting to know what limit is
set to this loss of cystin from the body.

I will now recall to you syntheses in which the substance supplied by the
body is derived, not from protein, but from carbohydrate. The study of the
fate of camphor in the body, carried out by Schmiedeberg and Hans Meyer in
1878, if it stood by itself, would abundantly illustrate the significance of this
type of experiment. As you are aware, these workers proved that, after the
administration of camphor, the urine contains a conjugate formed between

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 657

an oxidation product of the camphor and an oxidation product of glucose.
Both substances were then new to chemistry, and the latter—glycuronic acid—
has since proved itself of great physiological interest. After Schmiedeberg’s
and Hans Meyer’s experiments it was realised for the first time that the
sugar molecule might play a part in metabolism quite distinct from its function
as fuel, a fact that has much of cogency at the present time. We have good
reason to believe that though, as a matter of fact, glycuronic acid is a normal
metabolite, the actual synthesis concerns sugar itself, the oxidation of the
glucose molecule occurring later. The compound formed is of the glucoside
type, and the analogy with the formation of glucosides in the plant is un-
mistakable. Already the number of substances known to suffer this particular
synthesis is legion. Almost every organic group yields an example.

' Lastly, in illustration of a quite different type of synthesis (I can only deal
with a few of the many known cases) we may recall the methylation which
certain compounds undergo. The mechanism of this process, as it occurs in
the body, is obscure, and its explanation would be of the greatest chemical
interest. I must mention only one particular instance investigated by Acker-
mann. When nicotinic acid is fed to animals, it is excreted as trigonellin, a
known vegetable base. This conversion involves methylation, and is of striking
character as an instance of the artificially induced production of a plant
alkaloid in the animal bedy.

The full significance of all such happenings will not be understood unless
it be remembered that a nice adjustment of molecular structure is in many
cases necessary to prepare the foreign substance for synthesis. Preliminary
regulated oxidations or reductions may occur so as to secure, for example,
the production of an alcoholic or phenolic hydroxyl group, which then gives the
opportunity for condensation which was otherwise absent.

I have touched only on the fringes of this domain. The body of knowledge
available concerning it has not been won systematically, and the fate of a
multitude of other types of organic substances remains for investigation. The
known facts have, one feels, an academic character in the view of the physio-
logist, and even in that of the pharmacologist, to whom we owe most of our
knowledge about them. But, in my opinion, the chemical response of the
tissues to the chemical stimulus of foreign substances of simple constitution
is of profound biological significance. Apart from its biological bearings as the
simplest type of immunity reaction, it throws vivid light, and its further study
must throw fresh light, on the potentialities of the tissue laboratories.

In a brilliant address delivered befcre the Faculty of Medicine of the
University of Leeds, Lord Moulton likened the process of recovery in the tissues
after bacterial invasion to the generation of forces which establish what is
known to the naval architect as the ‘righting couple.’ This grows greater the
greater the displacement of a ship, and finally may become sufficient to over-
power the forces tending to make her heel over. It is surely striking to realise
that the establishment of the ‘righting couple’ which brings the tissue cell back
to equilibrium after the disturbances due to the intrusion of simple molecules
calls for such a complex of chemical events, events which ultimately result in
the modification of the disturbing substance and its extrusion from the tissues
concerned in a form less noxious to the body as a whole.

Oxidation, reduction, desaturation, alkylation, acylation, condensation; any
or all of these processes may be brought de novo into play as the result of the
intrusion of a new molecule into reactions which were in dynamic equilibrium.
It is clear that chemical systems capable of so responding to what may be
termed specific chemical stimuli must not be neglected by any student of
chemical dynamics. The physiologist has for many years been engaged upon
careful analyses of the mechanical and electric responses to stimulation. In
the phenomena before us we find ‘responses’ which are equally fundamental.
If we do not study them exhaustively we shall miss an important opportunity
for throwing light upon the nature of animal tissues as chemical systems.

One reason which has led the organic chemist to avert his mind from the
problems of Biochemistry is the obsession that the really significant happenings
in the animal body are concerned in the main with substances of such high
molecular weight and consequent vagueness of molecular structure as to make
their reactions impossible of study by his available and accurate methods. There

1913, UU

658- TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 1.

remains, I find, pretty widely spread, the feeling—due to earlier biological teaching
—that, apart from substances which are obviously excreta, all the simpler products
which can be found in cells or tissues are as a class mere dejecta, already too remote
from the fundamental biochemical events to have much significance. So far
from this being the case, recent progress points in the clearest way to the fact
that the molecules with which a most important and significant part of the
chemical dynamics of living tissues is concerned are of a comparatively simple
character. The synthetic reactions which we have already considered surely
prepare us for this view; but it may be felt that, however important, they
represent abnormal events, while the study of them has been largely confined
to determining the end-products of change. Let me now turn to normal
metabolic processes and to intermediary reactions.

We know first of all that the raw material of metabolism is so prepared as
to secure that it shall be in the form of substances of small molecular weight;
that the chief significance of digestion, indeed, lies in the fact that it protects
the body from complexes foreign to itself. Abderhalden has ably summarised
the evidence for this and has shown us also that, so far as the known con-
stituents of our dietaries are concerned, the body is able to maintain itself when
these are supplied to it wholly broken down into simple Bausteine, any one of
which could be artificially synthesised with the aid of our present knowledge.
Dealing especially with the proteins, we have good reason to believe that the
individual constituent amino-acids, and not elaborate complexes of these, leave
the digestive tract, while Folin, Van Slyke, and Abel have recently supplied
us with suggestive evidence for the fact that the individual amino-acids reach
the tissues as such and there undergo change. But still more important, when
things are viewed from my present standpoint, is the fact that recent work
gives clear promise that we shall ultimately be able to follow, on definite
chemical Jines, the fate in metabolism of each amino-acid individually; to trace
each phase in the series of reactions which are concerned in the gradual break-
down and oxidation of its molecule. Apart from the success to which it has
already attained, the mere fact that the effort to do this has been made is
significant. To those at least who are familiar with the average physiological
thought of thirty years ago, it will appear significant enough. So long as there
were any remains of the instinctive belief that the carbonic acid and urea
which leave the body originate from oxidations occurring wholly in the
vague complex of protoplasm, or at least that any intermediate products
between the complex and the final excreta could only be looked for in the
few substances that accumulate in considerable amount in the _ tissues
(for instance, the creatin of muscle), the idea of seriously trying to trace within
the body a series of processes which begin with such simple substances
as tryosin or leucin was as foreign to thought as was any conception that
such processes could be of fundamental importance in metabolism. How-
ever vaguely held, such beliefs lasted long after there was justification for
them; their belated survival was due, it seems to me, to a _ certain
laziness exhibited by physiological thought when it trenched on matters
chemical; they disappeared only when those accustomed to think in terms of
molecular structure turned their attention to the subject. But it should be
clearly understood that the progress made in these matters could only have come
through the work and thought of those who combined with chemical knowledge
trained instinct and feeling for biological possibilities. Our present knowledge
of the fate of amino-acids, as of that of other substances in the body, has only
been arrived at by the combination of many ingenious methods of study. It is
easy in the animal, as in the laboratory, to determine the end-products of
change; but, when the end result is reached in stages, it is by no means easy to
determine what are the stages, since the intermediate products may elude us.
And yet the whole significance of the processes concerned is to be sought in the
succession of these stages. In animal experiments directed to the end under
consideration, investigators have relied first of all upon the fact that the body,
though the seat of a myriad reactions and capable perhaps of learning, to a
limited extent and under stress of circumstances, new chemical accomplishments,
is in general able to deal only with what is customary to it. This circumstance
has yielded two methods of determining the nature of intermediate products in
metabolism. Considerations of molecular structure will, for instance, suggest

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 659

several possible lines along which a given physiological substance may be
expected to undergo change. We may test these possibilities by administering
various derivatives of the substance in question. Only those which prove on
experiment to be fully metabolised, or to yield derivatives in the body identical
with those yielded by the parent substance, can be the normal intermediate
products of its metabolism. All others may be rejected as not physiological.
In a second method dependent upon this eclecticism of the body, substances are
administered which so far differ from the normal that, instead of suffering a
complete breakdown, they yield some residual derivative which can be identified
in the excreta, and the nature of which will throw light upon the chemical
mechanism which has produced it. For instance, a substance with a resistant
(because abnormal) ring structure, but possessing a normal side chain, may be
used to demonstrate how the side chain breaks down. Again, we may sometimes
obtain useful information by administering a normal substance in excessive
amounts, when certain intermediate products may appear in the excreta.
Another most profitable method of experiment is that in which the substance to
be studied is submitted to the influence of isolated organs instead of to that of
the whole animal. Under these conditions, a series of normal reactions may go
on, but with altered relative velocities, so that intermediate products accumu-
late; or again when, as may happen, the successive changes wrought upon a
substance by metabolism occur in different organs of the body, this use of
isolated organs enables us to dissect, as it were, the chain of events. Extra-
ordinarily profitable have been the observations made upon individuals suffering
from those errors of metabolism which Dr. Garrod calls ‘metabolic sports, the
chemical analogues of structural malformations.’ .In these individuals, Nature
has taken the first essential step in an experiment by omitting from their
chemical structure a special catalyst which at one point in the procession of
metabolic chemical events is essential to its continuance. At this point there
is arrest, and intermediate products come to light.

As you know, most ingenious use of this ready-made experimental material
has added greatly to our knowledge of intermediate metabolism. Admirable use,
too, has been made of the somewhat similar conditions presented by diabetes,
clinical and experimental. Every day our knowledge of the dynamics of the
body grows upon these lines.

I know that the history of all these efforts is familiar to you, but I am
concerned to advertise the fact that our problems call for ingenuity of a special
sort, and to point out that an equipment in chemical technique alone would not
have sufficed for the successful attack which has been made upon them. But
i am even more concerned to point out that the direct method of attack has been
too much neglected, or has been in the hands of too few; I mean the endeavour
to separate from the tissues further examples of the simpler products of metabolic
change, no matter how small the amount in which they may be present; an
endeavour which ought not to stop at the separation and identification of such
substances, but to continue till it has related each one of them to the dynamic
series of reactions in which each one is surely playing a part. The earliest
attempts at tracing the intermediate processes of metabolism looked for informa-
tion to the products which accumulate in the tissues, but it seemed to be always
tacitly assumed that only those few which are quantitatively prominent could
be of importance to the main issues of metabolism. It is obvious, however, upon
consideration, that the degree to which a substance accumulates is by itself no
measure of ifs metabolic importance; no proof as to whether it is on some
main line of change, or a stage in a quantitatively unimportant chemical by-
path. For, if one substance be changing into another through a series of inter-
mediate products, then, as soon as dynamical equilibrium has been established
in the series, and to such equilibrium tissue processes always tend, the rate
of production of any one intermediate product must be equal to the rate at
which it changes into the next, and so throughout the series. Else individual
intermediate products would accumulate or disappear, and the equilibrium be
upset. Now the rate of chemical change in a substance is the product of its
efficient concentration and the velocity constant of the particular reaction it is
undergoing. Thus the relative concentration of each intermediate substance
sharing in the dynamic equilibrium, or, in other words, the amount in which
we shall find it at any moment in the tissue, will be inversely proportional to

UU 2

660 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

the velocity of the reaction which alters it. But the successive velocity con-
stants in a series of reactions may vary greatly, and the relative accumulation
of the different intermediate products must vary in the same degree. It is
certain that in the tissues very few of such products accumulate in any save
very small amount, but the amount of a product found is only really of
significance if we are concerned with any function? which it may possibly
possess. It is of no significance as a measure of the quantitative importance
of the dynamical events which give rise to it.

To take an instance. The substance creatin has always asserted itself in
our conceptions concerning nitrogenous metabolism because of the large amount
in which it is found in the muscle. It may be of importance per se, and
abnormalities in its fate are certainly important as an indication of abnormali-
ties in metabolism, but we must remember that the work of Gulewitsch,
Krimberg, Kutscher, and others has shown us that a great number of nitro-
genous basic bodies exist in muscle in minute amounts. Maybe we shall need
to know about each of these all that we now know, or are laboriously trying
to know, about creatin, before the dynamics of basic nitrogen in muscle
become clear. Fortunately for the experimenter, most of the raw materials
required for tissue analysis are easily obtainable; there is no reason save that
of the labour involved why we should not work upon a ton of muscle or a
ton of gland tissue.

I am certain that the search for tissue products of simple constitution has
important rewards awaiting it in the future, so long as physiologists are alive
to the dynamical significance of all of them. Such work is laborious and calls
for special instincts in the choice of analytical method, but, as I mentioned in
an earlier part of this address, I am sure that high qualifications as an analyst
should be part of the equipment of a biological chemist.

I should like now tw say a few words concerning the actual results of this
modern work upon intermediate metabolism, and will return to the amino-acids.
It is clear that what I can say must be very brief.

We know that the first change suffered by an a-amino-acid when it enters
the metabolic laboratories is the loss of its amino group, and, thanks to the
labours of Knoop, Neubauer, Embden, Dakin, and others, we have substantial
information concerning the mechanism of this change. The process involved in
the removal of the amino group is not a simple reduction, which would yield
a fatty acid, or substituted fatty acid, nor a hydrolytic removal which would
leave an a-hydroxy-acid ; but the much less to be expected process of an oxidative
removal, which results in the production of a keto-acid.3 If the direct evidence’
for this chemically most interesting primary change were to be held insufficient
(thoagh there is no insufficiency about it), its physiological reality is strongly
supported by the proof given us by Knoop and Embden that the liver can
resynthesise the original amino-acid from ammonia and the corresponding keto-
acid. This profoundly significant observation is part of the evidence which is
continually accumulating to show that all normal chemical processes of the body
can suffer reversal. The next step in the breakdown involves the oxidation of
the keto-acid, with the production of a fatty acid containing one carbon less
than the original amino-acid. This in turn is oxidised to its final products along
the lines of the £-oxidation of Knoop, two carbon atoms being removed at each
stage of the breakdown. All this is true of the aliphatic a-amino-acids, and,
with limitations, of the side chains of their aromatic congeners. In the case of
certain amino-acids the course of breakdown passes through the stage of aceto-
acetic acid. This happens to those of which the molecule contains the benzene
ring, and Dakin has enabled us to picture clearly the path of change which
involves the opening of the ring. This particular stage does not seem to occur
in the breakdown of the aliphatic amino-acids, save in the case of leucin; the

* A product of metabolism can only be said to have a ‘function’ in a cell or
in the body when, being the end-product of one reaction, it initiates or modifies
reactions in another milieu.

3 Dakin’s recent work is giving us an insight into the mechanism of the keto-
acid formation. Amino-acids in aqueous solution dissociate into ammonia and
the corresponding keto-aldehyde. The oxidation involved is therefore concerned
with the conversion of the aldehyde into the acid.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 661

rule and the exception here being alike easy of explanation by considerations of
molecular structure.

But direct breakdown on the lines mentioned is far from being the only fate
of individual amino-acids in the body. The work of Lusk, completed by that
of Dakin, has shown us that of seventeen amino-acids derived from protein no
less than nine may individually yield glucose in the diabetic organism, and there
are excellent grounds for believing (indeed, there is no doubt) that they do
the same to a duly regulated extent in the normal organism. The remaining
seven have been shown not to yield sugar, and there is therefore a most interest-
ing contrast in the fate of two groups of the protein Bausteine. Those which
yield sugar do not yield aceto-acetic-acid, and those which yield the latter are
not glycogenic. One set, after undergoing significant preliminary changes,
seems to join the carbohydrate path of metabolism, the other set ultimately joins
a penultimate stage in the path which is traversed by fats.

I will here venture to leave for one moment the firm ground of facts experi-
mentally ascertained. Unexplored experimentally, but quite certain so far as
their existence is concerned, are yet other metabolic paths of prime importance,
along which individual amino-acids must travel and suffer change. We know
now from the results of prolonged feeding experiments upon young growing
animals, which I myself, as well as many others, have carried out, that all the
nitrogenous tissue complexes, as well as the tissue proteins, can be duly con-
structed when the diet contains no other source of nitrogen besides the amino-
acids of protein. The purin and pyrimidin bases, for instance, present in the
nuclear material of cells certainly take origin from particular amino-acids, though
we have no right to assume that groups derived from carbohydrates or fats play
no part in the necessary syntheses. While recent years have given us a wonder-
fully clear picture as to how the nucleic acids and the purin bases contained in
them break down during metabolism, we have as yet no knowledge of stages in
their synthesis. But it is clear that to discover these is a task fully open to
modern experimental methods, and though a difficult problem, it is one ready
to hand. Again, in specialised organs substances are made which are of great
importance, not to the structure, but to the dynamics of the body. These have
become familiar to us under the name of Hormones. We know the constitution
of one of these only, adrenaline. The molecule of this exemplar has a simple
structure of a kind which makes it almost certain to be derived from one of
the aromatic amino-acids. It is clearly open to us to discover on what lines
it takes origin. Facts of this kind, we may be sure, will form a special chapter
of biochemistry in the future. I would like to make a point here quite important
to my main contention that metabolism deals with simple molecules. As a pure
assumption it is often taught, explicitly or implicitly, that although the bowel
prepares free amino-acids for metabolism, only those which are individually in
excess of the contemporary needs of the body for protein are directly diverted
to specialised paths of metabolism, and these to the paths of destructive change.
All others—all those which are to play a part in the intimacies of metabolism—
are supposed to be first reconstructed into protein, and must therefore again be
liberated from a complex before entering upon their special paths of change.
But there is much more reason (and some experimental grounds) for the belief
that the special paths (of which only one leads to the repair or formation of
tissue protein) may be entered upon straightway. Mrs. Stanley Gardiner (then
Miss Willcock) carried out some feeding experiments a few years ago, and in
discussing these I pointed out that they offered evidence of the direct employ-
ment. for special purposes of individual amino-acids derived as such from the
bowel. It seemed at the time that the argument was misunderstood or felt to
carry little weight, but later Professor Kossell4 quoted my remarks with
approval and expressed agreement with the view that the Bausteine of the food
protein must, in certain cases, be used individually and directly.

I wish I had time to illustrate my theme by some of the abundant facts
available from quite other departments of metabolism; but I must pass on.

The chief thing to realise is that as a result of modern research the concep-
tion of metabolism in block is, as Garrod puts it, giving place to that of

4 Johns Hopkins Hospital Bulletin, March 1912.

662 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

metabolism in compartments. It is from the behaviour of simple molecules we
are learning our most significant lessons.

Now interest in the chemical events such as those we have been dealing with
may still be damped by the feeling that, after all, when we go to the centre
of things, to the bioplasm, where these processes are initiated and controlled,
we shall find a milieu so complex that the happenings there, although they
comprise the most significant links in the chain of events, must be wholly obscure,
when viewed from the standpoint of structural organic chemistry. I would
like you to consider how far this is necessarily the case.

The highly complex substances which form the most obvious part of the
material of the living cell are relatively stable. Their special characters, and in
particular the colloidal condition in which they exist, determine, of course,
many of the most fundamental characteristics of the cell: its definite yet mobile
structure, its mechanical qualities, including the contractility of the protoplasm,
and those other colloidal characters which the modern physical chemist is studying
so closely. For the dynamic chemical events which happen within the cell, these
colloid complexes yield a special milieu, providing, as it were, special apparatus,
and an organised laboratory. But in the cell itself, I believe, simple molecules
undergo reactions of the kind we have been considering. These reactions, being
catalysed by colloidal enzymes, do not occur in a strictly homogeneous medium,
but they occur, 1 would argue, in the aqueous fluids of the cell under just such
conditions of solution as obtain when they progress under the influence of
enzymes in vitro.

There is, I know, a view which, if old, is in one modification or another still
current in many quarters. This conceives of the unit of living matter as a
definite, if very large and very labile molecule, and conceives of a mass of living
matter as consisting of a congregation of such molecules in that definite sense
in which a mass of, say, sugar is a congregation of molecules, all like to one
another. In my opinion, such a view is as inhibitory to productive thought as
it is lacking in basis. It matters little whether in this connection we speak of
a ‘molecule’ or, in order to avoid the fairly obvious misuse of a word, we use
the term ‘biogen,’ or any similar expression with the same connotation.
Especially, I believe, is such a view unfortunate when, as sometimes, it is made
to carry the corollary that simple molecules, such as those provided by food-
stuffs, only suffer change after they have become in a vague sense a part of
such a giant molecule or biogen. Such assumptions became unnecessary as soon
as we learnt that a stable substance may exhibit instability after it enters the
living cell, not because it loses its chemical identity, and the chemical pro-
perties inherent in its own molecular structure, by being built into an unstable
complex, but because in the cell it meets with agents (the intracellular
enzymes) which catalyse certain reactions of which its molecule is normally
capable.

Exactly what sort of material might, in the course of cosmic evolution, have
first come to exhibit the elementary characters of living stuff, a question raised
in the Presidential Address which so stirred us last year, we do not, of course,
know. But it is clear that the living cell as we now know it is not a mass of
matter composed of a congregation of like molecules, but a highly differentiated
system ; the cell, in the modern phraseology of physical chemistry, is a system of
co-existing phases of different constitutions.° Corresponding to the difference in
their constitution, different chemical events may go on contemporaneously in the
different phases, though every change in any phase affects the chemical and
physico-chemical equilibrium of the whole system. Among these phases are
to be reckoned not only the differentiated parts of the bioplasm strictly defined
(if we can define it strictly) the macro- and micro-nuclei, nerve fibres, muscle
fibres, &c., but the material which supports the cell structure, and what have
been termed the ‘metaplasmic’ constituents of the cell. These last comprise
not only the fat droplets, glycogen, starch grains, aleurone grains, and the like,
but other deposits not to be demonstrated histologically. They must be
held, too—a point which has not been sufficiently insisted upon—to comprise
the diverse substances of smaller molecular weight and greater solubility,

° See in this connection the very able exposition of the views developed by
Zwaardemaker and others, by Botazzi in Winterstein’s Handbuch, vol. i.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 663

which are present in the more fluid phases of the system—namely, in the
cell juices. It is important to remember that changes in any one of these
constituent phases, including the metaplasmic phases, must affect the equili-
brium of the whole cell system, and because of this necessary equilibrium-
relation it is difficult to say that any one of the constituent phases,
such as we find permanently present in a living cell, even a metaplasmic phase,
is less essential than any other to the ‘life’ of the cell, at least when we view
it from the standpoint of metabolism. It is extremely difficult and probably
impossible by any treatment of the animal to completely deprive the liver of its
glycogen deposits, so long as the liver cells remain alive. Even an extreme
variation in the quantity is in the present connection without significance because,
as we know, the equilibrium of a polyphasic system is independent of the mass
of any one of the phases; but I am inclined to the bold statement that the
integrity of metabolic life of a liver cell is as much dependent on the co-existence
of metaplasmic glycogen, however small in amount, as upon the co-existence
of the nuclear material itself; so in other cells, if not upon glycogen, at least
upon other metaplasmic constituents. ;

Now we should refuse to speak of the membrane of a cell, or of its glycogen
store, as living material. We should not apply the term to the substances
dissolved in the cell juice, and, indeed, would hardly apply it to the highly
differentiated parts of the bioplasm if we thought of each detail separately.
We are probably no more justified in applying it, when we consider it by itself,
to what, as the result of microscopic studies, we recognise as ‘ undifferentiated ’
bioplasm. On ultimate analysis we can hardly speak at all of living matter in
the cell; at any rate, we cannot, without gross misuse of terms, speak of the
cell life as being associated with any one particular type of molecule. Its life
is the expression of a particular dynamic equilibrium which obtains in a poly-
phasic system. Certain of the phases may be separated, mechanically or other-
wise, as when we squeeze out the cell juices, and find that chemical processes
still go on in them; but ‘life,’ as we instinctively define it, is a property. of
the cell as a whole, because it depends upon the organisation of processes, upon
the equilibrium displayed by the totality of the co-existing phases.

I return to my main point. The view I wish to impress upon you is that
some of the most important phenomena in the cell, those involving simple
reactions of the type which we have been discussing, occur in ordinary crystal-
Icid solution. We are entitled to distinguish fluid (or more fluid) phases in the
cell. I always think it helpful in this connection to think of the least differen-
tiated of animal cells—to consider, for instance, the ameba. In this creature a
fluid phase comes definitely into view with the appearance of the food vacuole.
In this vacuole digestion goes on, and there can be no doubt, from the sugges-
tive experimental evidence available, that a digestive enzyme, and possibly
two successive enzymes (a pepsin followed by a trypsin) appear in it. It is now
generally admitted that digestion in the ameba, though intracellular, is meta-
plasmic. The digestion products appear first of all in simple aqueous solution.
Is it not unjustifiable to assume that the next step is a total ‘ assimilation’ of
the products, a direct building up of all that is produced in the vacuole into the
complexes of the cell? If there be any basis for our views concerning the speci-
ficity of, say, the tissue proteins, they must apply to the amceba no less than
to the higher animal, and we must picture the building-up of its specific com-
plexes as a selective process. The mixture of amino-acids derived from the pro-
teins of the bacteria or other food eaten by it may be inharmonious with their
balance in the ameeba. Some have to be more directly dealt with, by oxidation
or otherwise. If the digestive hydrolysis occur outside the complexes, we may
most justifiably assume that other preparative processes also occur outside them.
We need not think of a visible vacuole as the only seat of such changes. Similar
fluid phases in the cell may elude the microscope, and the phenomena would be
just as significant if reactions occur in the water imbibed by the colloids of the
cell or present in the intra-micellar spaces of the bioplasm. It is always impor-
tant to remember that 75 per cent. of the cell substance consists of water.

All of these considerations we may apply to the tissue cells of the higher
animal. To my mind, at least, the following considerations appeal. It is note-
worthy that all the known complexes of the cell—the proteins, the phosphorous
complexes, the nucleic acids, &c.—are susceptible to hydrolysis by catalytic

664 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

agents, which are always present, or potentially present. If the available
experimental evidence be honestly appraised, it points to the conclusion that
only to hydrolytic processes are the complexes unstable. Under the conditions
of the body they are, while intact, resistant to other types of change, their
hydrolytic products being much more susceptible. Since hydroclastic agents
are present in the cell we must suppose that there is, at any moment,
equilibrium between the complexes and their water-soluble hydrolytic pro-
ducts, though the amount of the latter present at any moment may be very
small. Now, I think we are entitled to look upon assimilation and dissimiia-
tion, when very strictly defined, as being dependent upon changes in this
equilibrium alone. They are processes of condensation and hydrolysis
respectively. Substances which are foreign’ to the normal constitution of
the complexes—and these comprise not only strictly extraneous substances,
but material for assimilation not yet ready for direct condensation, or
metabolites which are no longer simple hydrolytic products—do not enter or
re-enter the complexes. They suffer change within the cell, but not as part of
the complexes. When, for instance, a supply of amino-acids transferred from
the gut reaches the tissue cell, they may be in excess of the contemporary limits
of assimilation; or, once more, individual acids may not be present in the
harmonious proportion required to form the specific proteins in the cell. Are
we to suppose that all nevertheless become an integral part of the complexes
before the harmony is by some mysterious means adjusted? I think rather that
the normality of the cell proteins is maintained by processes which precede
actual condensation or assimilation. Conversely, when the cell balance sets
towards dissimilation, the amino-acids liberated by hydrolysis suffer further
change outside the complexes. So when a foreign substance, say benzoic acid,
enters the cell, we have no evidence, experimental or other, to suggest that. such
a body ever becomes an integral part of the complexes. Rather does it suffer
its conjugation with glycine in the fluids of the cell. So also with cases of
specific chemical manufacture in organs. When, for instance, adrenaline—a
simple, definite crystalline body—appears in the cells of the gland which
prepares it, are we to suppose that its molecule emerges in some way ready-
made from the protein complexes of the gland, rather than that a precursor
derived from a normal hydrolytic product of these proteins or from the food
supply is converted into adrenaline by reactions of a comprehensible kind,
occurring in aqueous solution, and involving simple molecules throughout?
While referring to adrenaline, I may comment upon the fact that the extra-
ordinarily wide influence now attributed to that substance is a striking
illustration of the importance of simple molecules in the dynamics of the body.

It should be, of course, understood, though the consideration does not affect
the essential significance of the views I am advancing, that the isolation of
reactions in particular phases of the cell is only relative. I have before empha-
sised the point that the equilibrium of the whole system must, to a greater or
less degree, be affected by a change in any one phase. A happening of any kind
in the fluid phases must affect the chemical equilibrium and, no less, the physico-
chemical equilibrium, between them and the complexes or less fluid phases. A
drug may have an ‘action’ on a cell, even though it remain in solution, and it
may have a specific action because its molecular constitution leads it to intrude
into, and modify the course of, some one, rather than any other, of the
numerous simple chemical reactions proceeding in the cells of different tissues.

But I must now turn from consideration of the reactions themselves to
that of their direction and control. It is clear that a special feature of the
living cell is the organisation of chemical events within it. So long as we are
content to conceive of all happenings as occurring within a biogen or living mole-
cule all directive power can be attributed in some vague sense to its quite
special properties.

But the last fifteen years have seen grow up a doctrine of a quite different
sort which, while it has difficulties of its own, has the supreme merit of
possessing an experimental basis and of encouraging by its very nature further
experimental work. I mean the conception that each chemical reaction within
the cell is directed and controlled by a specific catalyst. I have already more
than once implicitly assumed the existence of intracellular.enzymes. I must now
consider them more fully.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 665

Considering the preparation made for it by the early teaching of individual
biologists, prominent among whom was Moritz Traube, it is remarkable that
belief in the endo-enzyme as a universal agent of the cell was so slow to
establish itself, though in the absence of abundant experimental proof
scepticism was doubtless justified. So long as the ferments demonstrated as
being normally attached to the cell were only those with hydroclastic properties,
such as were already familiar in the case of secreted digestive ferments, the
imagination was not stirred. Only with Buchner’s discovery of zymase and
cell-free alcoholic fermentation did the faith begin to grow. Yet, a quarter
of a century before, Hoppe-Seyler had written (when discussing the then vexed
question of nomenclature, as between organised and unorganised ‘ ferments’) :
“The only question to be determined is whether that hypothesis is too bold
which assumes that in the organism of yeasts there is a substance [the italics

are mine] that decomposes sugar into alcohol and CO, ... I hold the hypo-
thesis to be necessary because fermentations are chemical events and must
have chemical causes...’ If in the last sentence of this quotation we

substitute for the word ‘fermentations’ the words ‘the molecular reactions
which occur within the cell’ Hoppe-Seyler would, I think, have been equally
justified.

Remembering, however, the great multiplicity of the reactions which occur
in the animal body, and remembering the narrow specificity in the range of
action of an individual enzyme, we may be tempted to pause on contemplating
the myriad nature of the army of enzymes that seems called for. But before
judging upon the matter the mind should be prepared by a full perusal of the
experimental evidence. We must call to mind the phenomena of autolysis and
all the details into which they have been followed; the specificity of the
proteolytic ferments concerned, and especially the evidence obtained by
Abderhalden and others, that tissues contain numerous enzymes, of which
some act upon only one type of polypeptide, and some specifically on other
polypeptides. We must remember the intracellular enzymes that split the
phosphorous complexes of the cell; the lipases, the amylases, and the highly
specific invert ferments, each adjusted to the hydrolysis of a particular sugar.
We have also to think of a large group of enzymes acting specifically upon
other substances of simple constitution, such as the arginase of Kossel and
Dakin, the enzyme recently described by Dakin which acts with great potency
in converting pyruvic. aldehyde into lactic acid, and many others. Nothing
could produce a firmer belief in the reality and importance of the specialised
enzymes of the tissues than a personal repetition of the experiments of Walter
Jones, Schittenhelm, Wiechowski, and others, upon the agents involved in
the breakdown of nucleic acids; each step in the elaborate process involves
a separate catalyst. In this region of metabolism alone a small army of
independent enzymes is known to play a part, each individual being of proven
specificity. The final stages of the process involve oxidations which stop short
at the stage of uric acid in man, but proceed to that of allantoin in most
animals. It is very instructive to observe the clean, complete oxidation of uric
acid to allantoin, which can be induced in vitro under the influence of
Wiechowski’s preparations of the uric acid oxidase, especially if one recalls at
the same time, in proof of its physiological significance, that this oxidase,
though always present in the tissues of animals, which excrete allantoin, is
absent from those of man, who does not.

I will not trouble you with further examples. We have arrived, indeed, at
a stage when, with a huge array of examples before us, it is logical to conclude
that all metabolic tissue reactions are catalysed by enzymes, and, knowing the
general properties of these, we have every right to conclude that all reactions
may be so catalysed in the synthetic as well as in the opposite sense. If we
are astonished at the vast array of specific catalysts which must be present in
the tissues, there are other facts which increase the complexity of things.
Evidence continues to accumulate from the biological side to show that, as a
matter of fact, the living cell can acquire de novo as the result of special
stimulation new catalytic agents previously foreign to its organisation.

It is certain, from very numerous studies made upon the lower organisms,
and especially upon bacteria, that the cell may acquire new chemical powers
when made to depend upon an unaccustomed nutritive medium. I must be

666 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

content to quote a single instance out of many. Twort has shown that certain
bacteria of the Coli-typhosus group can be trained to split sugars and alcohols
which originally they could not split at all. A strain of B. typhosus which after
being grown upon a medium containing dulcite had acquired the power of
splitting this substance, retained it permanently, even after passage through
the body of the guinea-pig, and cultivation upon a dulcite-free medium. Similar
observations have been made upon the Continent by Massini and Burri; the
latter showed by ingenious experiments that all the individuals of a race which
acquires such a new property have the same potency for acquiring it. No one,
at the present time, will deny that the appearance of a new enzyme is involved
in this adjustment of the ceil to a new nutritive medium.

We have not, it is true, so much evidence for similar phenomena in the case
of the higher animals. The milk-sugar splitting ferment may be absent from
the gut epithelium before birth, and in some animals may disappear again after
the period of suckling, but here we probably have to do with some simple
alternation of latency and activisation. But among the ‘ protective’ ferments
studied by Abderholden we have, perhaps, cases in which specific individuals
appear de novo as the result of injecting foreign proteins, &c., into the circula-
tien. Consider, moreover, the case of the reactions called out by simpler
substances. We have seen that an enzyme separable from the kidney tissue
can catalyse the synthesis no less than the breakdown of hippuric acid. Now
the cells of the mammalian kidney have always had to deal with benzoic acid
or chemical precursors of benzoic acid, and the presence of a specific enzyme
related to it is not surprising. But living cells are not likely to have ever been
in contact with, say, bromo-benzol, until the substance was administered to
animals experimentally. Yet a definite reaction at once proceeds when that
substance is introduced into the body. It is linked up, as we have seen, with
cystein. Now, this reaction is not one which would proceed in the body un-
catalysed; if it be catalysed by an enzyme, all that we know about the
specificity of such agents would suggest that a new one must appear for the
purpose. I have allowed myself to go beyond ascertained facts in dealing with
this last point. But once we have granted that specific enzymes are real agents
in the cell, controlling a great number of reactions, I can see no logical reason
for supposing that a different class of mechanism can be concerned with any
particular reaction.

If we are entitled to conceive of so large a part of the chemical dynamics
of the cell as comprising simple metaplasmic reactions catalysed by independent
specific enzymes, it is certain that our pure chemical studies of the happenings
in tissue extracts, expressed cell juices, and the like, gain enormously in
meaning and significance. We make a real step forward when we escape
from the vagueness which attaches to the ‘bioplasmic molecule’ con-
sidered as the seat of all change. But I am not so foolish as to urge that the
step is one towards obvious simplicity in our views concerning the cell. For
what indeed are we to think of a chemical system in which so great an arrav
of distinct catalysing agents is present or potentially present; a system, I
would add, which when disturbed by the entry of a foreign substance regains
its equilibrium through the agency of new-born catalysts adjusted to entirely
new reactions? Here seems justification enough for the vitalistic view that
events in the living cell are determined by final as well as by proximate causes,
that its constitution has reference to the future as well as the past. But how
can we conceive that any event called forth in any system by the entry of a
simple molecule, an event related qualitatively to the structure of that mole-
cule, can be of other than a chemical nature? The very complexity, therefore,
which is apparent in the catalytic phenomena of the cell to my mind indicates
that we must have here a case of what Henri Poincaré has called Ja simplicité
cachée. Underlying the extreme complexity we may discover a simplicity
which now escapes us. If so, I have of course no idea along what lines we
are to reach the discovery ot that simplicity, but I am sure the subject should
attract the contemplative chemist, and especially him who is interested and
versed in the dynamical side of his subiect. If he can arrive at any hypothesis
sufficiently general to direct research he will have opened a new chapter ot
organic chemistry—almost will he have created a new chemistry.

Tt must not be supposed that I am blind to the fact that the phenomena

abe

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 667

of the cell present a side to which the considerations I have put before you
do not apply. Paul Ehrlich, in his recent illuminating address to the Inter-
national Congress of Medicine, remarked that if, in chemistry, it be true that
Corpora non agunt nisi liquida, then, in chemiotherapy, it is no less true that
Corpora non agunt nisi fixata. Whatever precisely may be involved in the
important principle of ‘fixation’ as applied to drug actions, it remains, I
think, true that the older adage applies to the dynamic reactions which occur
in the living cell. But there are doubtless dynamic phenomena in which the
eell complexes play a prominent part. ‘he whole of our doctrine concerning
the reaction of the body to the toxins of disease is based upon the fact that
when the cell is invaded by complexes other than those normal to it, its own
complexes become involved. I must not attempt to deal with these phenomena,
but rather proceed to my closing remarks. I would like, however, just to
express the hope that the chemist will recognise their theoretical importance.
He wiil not, indeed, be surprised at the oligo-dynamic aspects of the phe-
nomena, startling as they are. When physico-chemical factors enter into +
phenomenon the influence of an infinitely small amount of material may always
be expected. It is a fact, for instance, as Dr. W. H. Mills reminds me, that
when a substance crystallises in more than one form it may be quite impossible
to obtain the less stable forms of its crystals in any laboratory which has been
‘infected’ with the more stable form, even though this infection has been
produced by quite ordinary inanipulations dealing with the latter. Here,
certainly, is a case in which the influence of the infinitesimal is before us. But
what I feel should arrest the interest of the chemist is the remarkable mingling
of the general with the particular which phenomena like those of immunity
display. In the relations which obtain between toxin and anti-toxin, for
example, we find that physico-chemical factors predominate, and yet they are
associated to a high degree with the character of specificity. The colloid state
of matter, as such, and the properties of surface determine many of the
characteristics of such reactions, yet the chemical aspect is always to the front.
Combinations are observed which do not seem to be chemical compounds, but
rather associations by adsorption; yet the mutual relations between the inter-
acting complexes are in the highest degree discriminative and specific. The
chemical factor in adsorption phenomena has, of course, been recognised else-
where; but in biology it is particularly striking. Theoretical chemistry must
hasten to take account of it. The modern developments in the study of valency
probably constitute a step in this direction.

It is clear to everyone that the physical chemist is playing, and will continue
to play, a most important part in the investigation of biological phenomena. We
need, I think, have no doubt that in this country he will turn to our problems,
for the kind of work he has to do seems to suit our national tastes and talents,
and the biologist just now is much alive to the value of his results. But I
rather feel that the organic chemist needs more wooing and gets less, though I
am sure that his aid is equally necessary. In connection with most biological
problems, physical and organic chemists have clearly defined tasks. To take
one instance. In muscle phenomena it is becoming every day clearer that
the mechanico-motor properties of the tissue, its changes of tension, its con-
traction and relaxation, depend upon physico-chemical phenomena associated
with its colloidal complexes and its intimate structure. Changes in hydrogen-
ion concentration and in the concentration of electrolytes generally, by acting
upon surfaces or by upsetting osmotic equilibria, seem to be the determining
causes of muscular movement. Yet the energy of the muscle is continuously
supplied by the progress of organic reactions, and for a full understanding of
events we need to know every detail of their course. Here then, as everywhere
else, is the need for the organic chemist.

But I would urge upon any young chemist who thinks of occupying himself
with biological problems, the necessity for submitting for a year or two to a
second discipline. If he merely migrate to a biological institute, prepared to
determine the constitution of new products from the animal and study their
reactions in vitro, he will be a very useful and acceptable person, but he will
not become a bio-chemist. We want to learn how reactions run in the organism,
and there is abundant evidence to show how little a mere knowledge of the
constitution of substances, and a consideration of laboratory possibilities, can
help on such knowledge. The animal body usually does the unexpected.

668 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I,

But if the organic chemist will get into touch with the animal, it is sure
that the possession of his special knowledge will serve him well. Difficulties
and peculiarities in connection with technique may lead the professor of pure
chemistry to call his work amateurish, and certainly his results, unlike those
of the physical chemist, will not straightway lend themselves to mathematical
treatment. He may himself, too, meet from time to time the spectre of
Vitalism, and be led quite unjustifiably to wonder whether all his work may
not be wide of the mark. But if he will first obtain for us a further supply
of valuable qualitative facts concerning the reactions in the body, we may then
say to him, as Tranio said to his master :

“The mathematics and the metaphysics
Fall to them as you find your stomach serves you.’

All of us who are engaged in applying chemistry and physics to the study
of living phenomena are apt to be posed with questions as to our goal, although
we have but just set out on our journey. It seems to me that we should be
content to believe that we shall ultimately be able at least to describe the living
animal in the sense that the morphologist has described the dead; if such
descriptions do not amount to final explanations, it is not our fault. If in
‘life’ there be some final residuum fated always to elude our methods, there is
always the comforting truth to which Robert Louis Stevenson gave perhaps
the finest expression, when he wrote :

‘To travel hopefully is better than to arrive,
And the true success is labour.’

The following Reports were then read :—
1. Fifth Interim Report on Anesthetics.—See Reports, p. 237.

2. Report on Colour Vision and Colour Blindness.—See Reports, p. 258.
3. Report on the Duciless Giane eed Reports, p. 259.
4. Report on Electromotive Phenomena in Plants.
See Reports, p. 244.
5. Report on the Structure pew of the Mammalian Heart.

See Reports, p. 258.

6. Report on the Dissociation of Oxy-Hemoglobin at High Altitudes.
See Reports, p. 260.

7. Report onthe Effect of Low Temperature on Cold-blooded Animals.
See Reports, p. 261.

8. Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at
Naples.—See Reports, p. 153.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
Joint Meeting with the Sub-Section of Psychology.—See p. 678.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 669

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.

Joint Meeting with Section M.
The following Papers were read :—

1. The Measurement and the Significance of the Hydrogen Ion
Concentration in Biological Processes. By Professor S. P. L.
SORENSEN.

2. Discussion on the Physiology of Reproduction.

(i) The Application of Generative Physiology to Animal Husbandry.
By K. J. J. Macxenzin, M.A.

In the regrettable absence of Dr. F. H. A. Marshall, it is proposed to open
the discussion from the point of view of the practising agriculturist. The breed-
ing of live stock on the farm has, it is contended, been carried on for many gene-
rations without any very great measure of assistance from the man of science.

That the practical breeder’s efforts have, on the whole, been successful is not
in any way denied—on the contrary, the skill of the practitioner cannot fail to fill
the observer with admiration—but it is hoped that this discussion may bring to
the notice of physiologists and zoologists some points which demand further
scientific investigation. To illustrate this statement some work already done by
Dr. F. H. A. Marshall, in association with the speaker, may be instanced as
showing that scientific investigation can throw light on the practical difficulties
of the breeder and manufacturer. The bacon-curer at the present moment incurs
great loss owing to the prevalence of a considerable number of carcases which,
on examination immediately after slaughter, are found to have a very valuable
‘cut’ or joint spoilt by discoloration. One firm of bacon manufacturers esti-
mate their Joss from this cause to be several thousand pounds sterling per
annum. The popular belief among breeders and manufacturers is that dis-
coloration is due to cestrous changes. It was suggested that ovariotomy pre-
vented this discoloration from appearing. On investigation, the discoloration
has been found to be a matter of pigmentation, and that though ‘spaying ’—as
ovariotomy is called by the farmer—may be useful in other ways, it has little,
if any, effect in reducing the evil complained of. Having this knowledge, the
problem can now be attacked with greater chance of success. Incidentally, whilst
working on this problem, Dr. Marshall’s investigations into the estrous cycle in
the sow have thrown light on a practical matter in connection with the breeding
of swine. A scientific reason has been found, upholding the opinion held by some
few only of the very experienced breeders that male and female pigs should be
mated at a particular time. In this case science should be of value to the
farmer, for up to now the opinion formed on empirical observation has not been
strong enough to guide his practice in a direction which involved slightly more
trouble.

The frequent occurrence of impotency among sires is a matter in which a long
experience of farm animals, and a very inconvenient incident of recent date,
force one to the conclusion that scientific research might be usefully employed
on behalf of the agriculturist.

Impotence in the male may be temporary or permanent. It is often of in-
calculable value to the farmer to know which of these two states exists. Yet it
would seem that scientific knowledge is such that only too often the farmer is
left to let time decide. Work done with a view to seeing if it be possible to
give the agriculturist advice about a doubtful sire before it reaches the slaughter-
house seems to be demanded. Temporary sterility may, it seems reasonable to
believe, be caused by over-service, bad management, mal-nutrition, or other
causes. It appears desirable to investigate all conditions governing this state, in
the hopes of becoming competent to advise an agriculturist, who often would

670 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

derive great pecuniary benefit from the existence of knowledge which would put
us in a position to guide him in such difficulties.

Sexual Characteristics.—Almost every text-book on animal husbandry which
has appeared in the last hundred years tells the reader that he should choose a
sire showing ‘male character,’ and that such character denotes fecundity, &c. ;
but the information as to how such character may be recognised is very scanty.
It seems necessary to attract the attention of the trained zoologist to such a
question to make further progress in our knowledge. For if external indications
of these faculties exist, it must be worth while defining and describing their
appearance; if they do not exist, frequent mention of them in text-books only
adds to the already difficult task of learning to judge stock.

Periodicity.—The practical man has many views upon this point. As many
of the views held and expressed are often contradictory to one another, and as
the matter is of great commercial importance, it would seem worthy of further
investigation.

The Correlation of Fecundity and Productivity.—it is often held by those
having charge of milch cows that conception will not take place until any
abnormal flow of milk has ceased. The writer’s own experience among poultry
at one time led him to believe that hens laying a very great number of eggs
often failed, through the eggs being ‘clear.’ to reproduce themselves in great
numbers. Both these points seem worthy of further investigation. Even such
points as the relative profitableness of a crop of twin lambs, compared with a
fall of ‘singles,’ or the advantage of large and small litters of pigs, ought not
to be left severely alone as they have been in the past.

It seems to the writer important for this meeting to discuss the part played by
environment, as well as by individuality, in these and all other matters of the
kind, for only too often in the past even the scanty data available have been
obtained from foreign breeds of live stock living in countries and under con-
ditions other than our own.

(u) The Effect of Reproductive Cycle on Glycogen and Fat Metabolism in
Crustacea. By GEorFREY SMITH.

In all animals reproductive and growth cycles are probably correlated with
metabolic changes in various internal organs. In a large Crustacean, such as
Carcinus meenas, it is possible to show that the ‘liver,’ which corresponds to
almost the entire digestive and metabolic apparatus of the higher animals, varies
greatly in its composition, according to the condition of the crab in respect to
two functions—moulting and reproduction. The composition of the blood also
varies in the same way.

If we take crabs with soft shells which have quite recently moulted and
determine the percentage of fat and glycogen in the liver, we find a compara-
tively small amount—from 0°4 to 05 per cent. glycogen, and 5 to 10 per cent. fat.?
The blood is colourless, and yields a small percentage of fat—-about 0°05 per cent.

If we take large male crabs with hard shells which are in an intermediate
period between two moults, we &nd a higher percentage of glycogen—one to two
per cent.—in the liver, and a larger quantity of this substance under the skin,
especially as the crab approaches the period of a fresh moult. The amount of fat
in the liver is variable, with an average of about 10 per cent. The blood is
generally coloured pink, due to the presence of tetronerythrin which is deposited
-in the skin. The percentage of fatty material in the blood is about 0°08 per cent.
If we take female crabs which are maturing their ovaries preparatory to breed-
ing, we find the liver is richly supplied with fat (13 per cent.), and has a fair
quantity of glycogen (1 per cent.), but the most striking feature is that the
blood is bright yellow, owing to the presence of Intein, the yellow substance of
the yolk which is being formed in the liver and transferred across the blood to
the ovary. Analysis of the yellow blood of females shows a very high percent-
age of fatty material—about 0:2 per cent.. or more. After the eggs have been
shed the blood becomes colourless again. These internal changes, which differ so

* Determinations of fat by Leathes’s method, of glycogen by Pfluger’s.

Cay

4‘
ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 671

much in male and female, have two very obvious external effects: (1) The
external colour of the male is redder than the female; (2) the male attains a
larger size than the female. These two characters of the male are associated
with the formation of tetronerythrin in excess of lutein, and of glycogen in
excess of fat.

In crabs of both sexes infected with Sacculina we do not find any of these
cyclical changes taking place, because such crabs neither grow, moult, nor repro-
duce. In them we find a remarkably constant internal condition, viz., low
percentage of glycogen (about 0°5 per cent.) and a constantly high percentage of
fat (13 per cent.). The high percentage ot fat is associated with the fact that
the Sacculina roots absorb large quantities of fat from the crab, which meets
the demand by an extra supply. The internal condition of Sacculinised crabs
resembles, on the whole, that of female crabs with mature ovaries, except that
there is little or no Jutein in the blood. The livers of Sacculinised crabs are,
however, always yellow with lutein, showing that this substance is formed in
large quantities, and perhaps it is seized on by the Sacculina roots so rapidly
that it does not appear in the blood.

(iii) The Physiology of Sex Determination. By Dr. L. Doncaster.

Mr. Geoffrey Smith has shown that the metabolism of fat and other sub-
stances is recognisably different in male and female crabs, and that male crabs
infected with Sacculina tend to have a type of metabolism resembling that of
the normal female. Such parasitised males assume more or less completely the
female sexual secondary characters, and may go so far as to produce ova in
their testes. Somewhat similar phenomena with regard to metabolism have been
shown by ‘Steche to exist in Lepidoptera (‘ Zeitschr. f. indukt. Abstamm.’ 8, 1912.
p- 284). In the species which he studied the female has green blood, the male
yellow, owing to the fact that chlorophyll, or an immediate derivative of it, is
present in the blood of the female. The blood of the female differs also in
other respects from that of the male, so that he says that there is more difference
in the metabolism of the two sexes of the same species than in that of the same
sex of different species. i

Now breeding experiments with insects and vertebrates have shown appar-
ently conclusively that the determination of sex is due to an inherited factor
which is present in one sex and absent in the other; that is to say, that one sex
is homozygous in respect of this factor, the other sex heterozygous. But a
difficulty arises from the fact that in some groups the female appears to be
heterozygous, in others the male. It has been suggested that since in crabs the
male may assume the female sex-characters under the influence of Sacculina, in
this case it is the male which is heterozygous for sex. I wish to put forward
a somewhat different suggestion, which would also help to get over the difficulty
that although it seems certain that sex is normally determined by an inherited
factor, yet there is a good deal of evidence that it may be altered by environ-
mental influences in the embryo, or even in later life, as in the case of the infected
crab. I suggest that all individuals, both of animals and plants, contain
potentially the factors for the characters of both sexes—that all are, in fact,
potential hermaphrodites—but that in addition each individual either receives
or does not receive a sex-determining factor, a factor which determines which set
of sexual characters shall appear. This determining factor, which is very
probably borne in a particular chromosome, does not introduce into the zygote
the characters associated with a particular sex—say the female—for these by
hypothesis are present in every zygote, but it causes them, rather than the male
characters, to develop. The characters of the corresponding sex are ‘ ausgelést,’
as the Germans would say, rather than introduced by the sex-determiner. And
the way it does this, on my hypothesis, is by determining a particular form of
metabolism. The presence of this factor causes a particular metabolism, and
this metabolism causes the female characters to appear; in its absence the meta-
bolism would have been different and the male characters would have appeared.
I suggest, in fact, that the type of metabolism determines tne sex, and not the
sex the type of metabolism. If, then, in a male crab the Sacculina induces the
type of metabolism characteristic of the female, it is not surprising that female
characters appear, even though the crab may have received no inherited female

672 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

sex-determiner. The factors for the female characters are present in all indi-
viduals, but only appear when ‘ ausgelést’ by a certain type of metabolism. In
the normal female this metabolism is caused by an inherited factor; in the
parasitised male the same metabolism is induced by the Sacculina, and so the
female characters are caused to develop.

3. Report on Calorimetric Ovservations on Man.—See Reports, p. 262.

4. Radium Rays in the Treatment of Hypersecretion of the Thyroid
Gland. By Dr. Dawson TURNER.

Many favourable reports as to the action of the X-rays in disease due to
hypersecretion of the thyroid gland have been published. The method of treat-
ment has, in fact, become orthodox. Dr. George R. Murray, in his address in
Medicine to the British Medical Association Meeting at Brighton, referred to
the use of the X-rays as follows :—

‘ The application of suitable doses of X-rays to the enlarged thyroid gland has
in some of my cases proved to be of great value. The gland gradually diminishes
in size, and the other symptoms subside. Atrophic changes in the secretory
epithelium and both interstitial and extracapsular fibrosis appear to be induced
by the action of the rays. In two of my cases in which X-ray treatment was
not successful, the lobe of the gland was excised. Microscopical examination
showed no fresh change in one, but a distinct increase in the interalveolar con-
nective tissue of the other. These changes are slow in development, so that the
full effect of the treatment is not obtained until some months have elapsed. In
favourable cases some fifteen to twenty weekly doses of the rays have been suffi-
cient to bring about great improvement or practical recovery, but in others only
slight improvement has followed a similar course of treatment. It is worth
while to persevere with X-ray treatment for so long as a year if slow but satis-
factory progress is being made. We have, however, still much to learn as to
the most appropriate doses and mode of application of this valuable method of
treatment.’

In the author’s opinion, which is based not only theoretically upon the
similarity of physical radiations but also practically upon an experience of four
clinical cases, these laudatory remarks as to the action of X-rays could quite
as justly be applied to the action of radium. But in addition radium has two
iistinct clinical advantages over the X-rays: (1) a perfectly definite dose of it
can be given and repeated as often as may be desired; (2) the radium can be
applied without noise or excitement while the patient is in bed. That this is an
important advantage in the treatment of this disease every physician will allow.
Tt was for the latter reason that the author was led to replace the X-rays by
radium rays in the treatment of such cases. The clinical results were dis-
tinctly favourable, for the tachycardia, breathlessness, and exophthalmos were
diminished. Direct histological evidence as to the action of radium on the
thyroid gland in the author's cases is wanting, but there is plenty of other
evidence available regarding its action on normal and pathological tissues.
Thus in nevi the effect is to obliterate the small blood-vessels, and in malignant
growths to induce a fibrosis. Professor Oscar Hertwig, of Berlin, in a paper
contributed to the recent International Congress, said that radio-active bodies
had a powerful influence on vital processes in plants and animals. Many
experiments with radium on different tissues showed that while full-grown and
differentiated cells and tissues were comparatively little affected, on the con-
trary, embryonic cells, and others which in adults lingered in an undifferentiated
state, especially generative cells, young nerve cells, leucocytes and tumour cells in
a state of growth were especially sensitive. Blood and lymph of man, and the
hematopoietic organs connected with them, were especially altered by radio-
active bodies. Microscopically a great diminution in the white corpuscles was
observed, caused on the one hand by wholesale disintegration, and on the other
by diminution in replenishment.

In some experiments on the nervous tissue by Sir Victor Horsley and

Nae q

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 673

Dr. Finzi it was shown that the action of Jaxge doses of filtered radium rays
was to infiltrate the meninges with blood, the blood-vessels showing such pro-
liferation of their endothelium that in some cases they were occluded. There
was also a considerable formation of fibrous tissue; further, there occurred
wedge-shaped thrombotic areas in the cortex. It appears, then, that the most
constant histological changes found in nervous tissue after the application of
sufficient doses of radium are vascular ones. It is probable, then, that the
effect of radium rays on the thyroid gland is to diminish the vascularity of the
gland, to cause a diminution in the leucocytes, and an overgrowth in the con-
nective tissues. By these processes the functional activity is lessened, the hyper-
secretion checked, and the morbid phenomena consequent thereon diminished.

5. The Katathermometer. By Professor Lronarp Hin, M.B., F.R.S.

6. The Pulse and Resonance of the Tissues.
By Professor Lronarp Hitu, M.B., F.R.S.

7. The Structure of the Post-pericardial Body of the Skate.
By Professor E. W. Caruizr, M.D.

8. The Relation of the Weight of the Kidneys to the Total Weight of
Cats. By Dr. H. E. Roar.

In some metabolism experiments on cats, the body weights and the weights
of the kidneys were determined. In order to find out the relation of the
weight of the kidneys to the body weight, the following method was used, The
weights of the kidneys were divided by various powers of the total weights, and
the ratios obtained were correlated with the total body weights. The power
of the body weight which gives a correlation nearest to zero expresses the rela-
tion that the weights of the kidneys have to the body weights.

As the result of forty-eight determinations, the 15 power gives a slight
positive correlation, and the square of the body weight gives a negative
correlation. Some value between these two would give a zero correlation.

Therefore the weight of the kidney increases more rapidly, in proportion, than
does the body weight, and that the rate of increase is proportional to some value
between the 1:5 power and the square of the body weight. This is remarkable,
as most tissues increase in proportion to the body weight or to some power of the
same less than unity. The skin and kidneys are interrelated, and it is well
known that as the weight increases the skin becomes relatively less. The kidney
weight may increase more rapidly in order to compensate for the relative
diminution of the skin surface.

9. A New Substance in Nerve Cells.
By Professor A. B. Macatuum, F.R.S., and Dr. J. B. Cotxop.

When sections made from perfectly fresh and normal ganglia with CO,
freezing method are put immediately in a solution of silver nitrate and allowed
to remain there exposed to light for an hour, there develops in the cell substance
a dark or black reaction which has been found to be characteristic of nerve cells,
The substance responsible for this reaction is not diffused throughout the cell,

1913, pip

674 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

but is condensed as small granules or in masses in the cytoplasm, and it is
wholly absent from the cell nucleus. It occurs also in the polar processes of
the cell, but, except in certain sympathetic nerve cells, it does not extend into
the axon. The reaction is not due to chlorides or phosphates, and the substance
responsible for it is extracted quickly from the cell by water and alcohol.
It is most abundant in the cells of the sympathetic nervous system, and it occurs
in great abundance in the cells of the nerve ganglia of the leech. It has been
found also that the cells of the medulla of the suprarenal glands give the reaction
in a marked degree, a point that is of interest since the cells of the medulla of
the suprarenals are regarded as altered nerve cells whose function is the secretion
of the hormone, adrenalin.

It is suggested that the substance responsible for the reaction belongs to
the oxy-phenyl class of compounds, as these readily reduce nitrate of silver in
the light, and that it is allied to adrenalin, which is also an oxy-phenyl com-
pound, and which may be prepared from it by the medullary cells of the supra-
renal gland. Its occurrence in nerve cells is, apparently, an indication that the
nerve cell is, potentially, if not actually, a secreting structure.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

The following Paper was read :—

The Biochemistry of the Neurone. By Dr. F. W. Mort, F.R.S.

Joint Meeting with Sections D and K.—See p. 527.

The following Papers were then read :—

1. Considerations bearing on the Study of the Blood and Vascular
System. By Professor GrorcEs Dreyer and Dr. E. W. AINnLEY
WALKER.

1. In association with Dr. W. Ray, the-authors have already shown that in a
series of mammals, both wild and tame, the volume of the blood is proportional
to the body surface of the individual throughout any given species. It can be
calculated from the formula B = a where W is the weight of the animal, n is ap-
proximately 0°72, and & is a constant to be ascertained for each particular species.

2. Further experiments carried out in association with Dr. H. K. Fry show
that in birds the same relation holds, and that the blood volume of fowls,

pigeons, sparrows, and ducks follows the formula B = we

I~

, having the value

0°70-0°72, and the constant % possessing a value which changes with the species.
This formula also accurately represents the area of the body surface in these
birds, as was shown by actual measurement in a large number of cases.

3. That this relation is peculiar to warm-blooded animals and is associated
with their homoiothermic character appears to follow from unpublished experi-
ments carried out on cold-blooded animals (lizards and frogs) by Dr. Fry. His
observations show that in these animals the blood volume is neither proportional
to the body surface, nor to the body weight. But it varies as a power (greater
than unity) of the body weight. Thus in the cold-blooded animals the percent-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 675

age blood volume actually increases as the animal grows heavier, while in the
warm-blooded animals it undergoes a steady diminution.

4. Other experiments, also carried out in association with Dr. Ray, have
shown. that in mammals and birds a similar proportional relation to the body
surface holds throughout each species examined both for the sectional area of the
aorta where it leaves the heart and for that of the trachea just above its bifurca-
tion. It has also been found that in passing from species to species the ratio of
the weight of the heart muscle to the total oxygen capacity of the circulating
blood is approximately constant in a number of different species of warm-
blooded animals.

5. As regards sex, it is found that the sectional area of the aorta is somewhat
smaller, and the blood volume is smaller (about three per cent.) in the female than
in the male animal of the same weight. During pregnancy, however, and in the
puerperal state the blood volume of the female is considerably increased.

6. Under normal conditions the blood volume of mammals is very delicately
adjusted. If the blood volume be altered artificially by bleeding or by trans-
fusion the process of adjustment begins so promptly that its effect is already
recognisable in an alteration of the hemoglobin percentage when only a very
small percentage of fluid has been removed or introduced, as the case may be.
This fact has escaped consideration in many experiments; but it has an important
bearing on conclusions drawn from observations upon hemorrhage and trans-
fusion.

7. The presence of excess of carbon dioxide in the air breathed quickly affects
the volume of the blood, causing dilution of the plasma and an increase up to
ten per cent. or more in the blood volume. This factor may be an important
source of error in the interpretation of experiments carried out by respiratory
methods. Amyl nitrite, which produces vascular dilatation, similarly leads to an
immediate dilution of the plasma.

8. The administration of chloral hydrate in quantities sufficient to produce
anesthesia causes a rapid concentration of the plasma up to ten or fifteen per
cent., and may thus lead to erroneous conclusions in experiments on the blood and
respiration ; but ether anesthesia leaves the volume of the blood unaltered.

2. A Contribution to the Study of the Effect of Altitude on the Blood.
By Professor Georces Dreyer and Dr. HE. W. ArnuEY WALKER.

1. In animals placed under novel conditions as regards altitude changes occur
in the volume of the blood. These changes are of a regular character and follow
a definite law. An analysis of the admirable series of observations on the blood
volume of rabbits recorded by Abderhalden shows that the change of volume
which occurs with a particular change of barometric pressure is proportional to
the area of the body surface in different individuals of the given species. The
blood volume of rabbits taken up from Basle (266 métres above sea-level) and
kept at St. Moritz (1,856 metres above sea-level) still conforms to our formula

0-72
B= ay But & is now increased. That is to say, their blood volume is
diminished by an amount exactly proportional to their body surface.

2. At the altitude of St. Moritz the hemoglobin percentage shows an increase,
and the number of red corpuscles per c.mm. undergoes a parallel increase. This
change is at first entirely due to a rapidly occurring concentration of the blood.
But later on it is also due in part to an increased formation of hemoglobin (and
red corpuscles), raising the total oxygen capacity of the circulating blood.

Abderhalden stated that there was no marked increase in the total hemo-
globin. But he was probably misled by his method of calculation, since the in-
crease can be shown quite clearly from his figures. This agrees with the conclu-
sions of Zuntz, Loewy, Miiller, and Caspari. In their recent work Douglas,
Haldane, Henderson, and Schneider state that at first the increase is due in part
to concentration of the blood, but that the later increase is due entirely to the
new formation of hemoglobin, and that the volume of the blood also becomes in-
creased. This latter statement, that the blood volume is increased in man at high

pie ga

676 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

altitudes, is in disagreement with the results obtained by calculation from
Abderhalden’s extensive series of observations on rabbits. It is improbable that
in this respect man differs so remarkably from lower animals. But the disagree-
ment may be readily explained as due to the fallacies introduced in the experi-
ments on man by the use of the CO method, which we have criticised elsewhere.
As soon as active new formation of blood begins in the bone-marrow the errors
of this method of estimating the blood volume are greatly increased.

3. After their descent from Pike’s Peak, Douglas, Haldane, Henderson, and
Schneider found in man at first an increase of blood volume above the normal
level, followed later by a return to the normal. But our calculations from the
figures found by Abderhalden for the blood volume of rabbits which were taken
back from St. Moritz to Basle, show that the blood volume returned to the normal
within three or four days, and was never increased, though the percentage of
intravascular hemoglobin did not fall to its original level until the expiration of
three weeks or more. This further divergence between the results obtained on
man and animals is again more probably to be attributed to the use of the CO
method in the former case than to the existence of any fundamental difference
between animals and man.

3. Natural Arrest of Hemorrhage froma Wound. By Dr. Joun Tarr.

4. Simplified Mammalian Heart Perfusion.
By Miss M. Macnaueuton and Dr. J. Tarr.

5. Contraction of Non-oxygenated Mammalian Muscle at Temperatures
ranging between 0° and 40° Centigrade. By R. J. S. McDowau
and Dr. J. Tarr.

SUB-SECTION OF PSYCHOLOGY.

CHAIRMAN.—PRrRoFEssor J. H. Murrunap.

THURSDAY, SHPTEMBERF il.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Theory of Psycho-phystological Parallelism: its Absurdity and
Stultification as an Hypothesis. By H. Wipon Carr, D.Litt.

Absurdity means that, carried to its conclusion, the theory involves the
logical contradiction that the part is the whole, quod absurdum est.

Stultification means that adopted as an hypothesis it does not, as is supposed,
leave the mind neutral in regard to all the alternatives, but by implicitly deny-
ing the possibility of unconscious psychical states it obscures the reality it
seeks to elucidate.

TRANSACTIONS OF SUB-SECTION TI. 677

Parallelism is a metaphysical theory of the relation of mind to body which
goes beyond the facts of experience. ‘There are three series of events : (a) The
actions and reactions of physical things which by their influences bring about,
(5) movements and processes in the cerebral cortex, and (c) consciousness or
awareness of (a). The theory is that (b) alone and of itself contains the key
to the interpretation of (c), and vice versa that (c) is always correlated with one
and only one state of (b). Inasmuch then as (6) is a distinct and separable
part of a whole of physical reality, and (c) is consciousness not of that part
but of the whole from which it is separated (a), it follows that the part (6) is
equivalent to the whole, which is absurd.

The theory rests on the presupposition that conscious experience is the whole
of psychical existence, and that the unconscious has purely negative significance.
But to assume that there can be no continuity of conscious experience by and
through unconscious psychical states is unwarranted, and to suppose conscious-
ness to be correlated with physiological activity in the cortex is to ignore the
function of neural process which is simply sensori-motor, and the function of
consciousness which is to throw light on eventual action.

Parallelism is not the only alternative to interaction. The relation may
be a solidarity of function in which two independent realities are united. The
cerebral cortex may perform the function of delaying the response of reaction
to stimulus, and consciousness may be the condition of psychical experience when
action. is in progress. Their coincidence would then be the condition of intelli-
gent or free action.

2. A New Theory of Laughter.By W. McDovuaatt, M.A., M.B.,
FR.S.

3. Some Main Principles of Integration. By H. J. Wart, Ph.D.

4. The Conditions of Belief in Immature Minds (Children and
‘ Savages’). By Professor CarvetH Reap.

The conditions of belief are the same for all minds; except that (1) the
relative influence of these conditions varies at different stages of development ;
and that (2) it is only for some minds, amongst civilised peoples, that there
exists a Logic or systematic test of truth.

The ground of all belief is perception (though fallible). Further grounds or
causes of belief may be distinguished into (1) the evidentiary, raising some
degree of probability, such as memory, testimony; and (2) the non-evidentiary,
having no logical value, such as the agreeableness of a belief, its favourableness
to our desires, its connection with voluntary actions (rites or habits), or with
social influences other than testimony (sympathy and antipathy, imitation and
suggestion).

It is characteristic of immature minds, that the influence of illogical infer-
ences, or imaginations, and of non-evidentiary causes of belief is relatively
greater than amongst average civilised men. Imaginative beliefs, enforced by
traditions, rites, ceremonies, formule, are in fact customs.

The possibility of forming such customary beliefs of almost purely imagina-
tive character depends upon (1) the intensity and vividness of imaginations in
immature minds, more like perceptions than ours are. (2) The absence, outside
of the practical repetitive life, of any exact memories or knowledge to provide
a standard with which imaginations may be compared. (3) Inability to make
comparisons : (a) because, under the influence of desires and anxieties, the
beliefs of an immature mind form relatively isolated systems; and (6) because,

678 TRANSACTIONS OF SUB-SECTION I.

either by imperfect development of the cortex or defect of education in thinking,
such a mind is in a state of inco-ordination, which hinders comparison of ideas
in the same way as disco-ordination does in hypnosis and in insane delusions.

Analysis of the reasoning implied in Magic and Animism exposes its purely
imaginative character.

If action is the test of belief, it may seem at first that the beliefs of Magic
and Animism are as profound as those that are based upon perception. But in
our own case play-belief varies in intensity from a momentary attitude to com-
plete absorption in dramatic illusion; and we must consider what the result
will be where, as amongst savages, there is nothing to destroy the illusion. And,
further, we find that that result is not really to put their superstitions upon the
same footing as the necessary beliefs of practical life. For they are often
mingled with deception, and involve incompatible elements; they break down
under pressure of economy, social fatigue, &c.; they need the support of emo-
tional excitement; they are often expressed by games, dances, shows, and
degenerate at last into drama, epic, and fiction.

The universal prevalence of such beliefs embodied in rites and ceremonies
implies some great utility; and this may be found (1) in the giving of hope
and allaying of anxiety; (2) the encouragement of social co-operation; and
(3) the providing of serious organised pastimes which preserve tribal tradition
and develop the xsthetic aptitudes.

But scientific ideas are not to be traced to these imaginative constructions ;
they are derived from practical enterprises, war, dustry, and commerce.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

Joint Meeting with Section I (Physiology).
The following Papers were read :—

1. Some Experimental Data concerning the Localisation of Visual
Images. By Professor R. M. Oapen.

The conditions and possibilities of projecting visual images in space have
been recently indicated by the experimental results of Perky,’ Martin,? and
Koftka,* and the theoretical views of G. E. Miller. The experiments which
form the basis of this report were performed after the publication of Mrs.
Perky’s paper, and were largely suggested by her work. They antedate the
appearance of the other three publications.

The primary aim of the experiments was to secure visual images suggested
by a series of fifty words exposed in a card-changer. Above the word was
pasted a round disk of ‘granite’ paper, two centimetres in diameter, which
the observer was instructed to fixate. As soon as an image appeared the subject
reacted, and then described the nature of the image which had occurred.

There were six observers; two of them, however, performed but half the
series. Thus there were 250 experiments in all, which produced 251 images.

» «An Experimental Study of Imagination.’ Amer. J. of Psychol., 1910,
xxi., 422-452.

2 “Die Projektionsmethode und die Lokalisation visueller und anderer
Vorstellungsbilder.’ Ztsch. is Psychol., 1912, 1xi., 321-546.

* Zur Analyse der Vorstellungen und ihrer Gesetze. Leipzig, 1912.

“ ‘Ueber die Lokalisation der visuellen Vorstellungsbilder.’ Arch. f. d. ges.
Psychol., 1912, xxiv., 73-76.

a

TRANSACTIONS OF SUB-SECTION I. 679

At times no image was reported, and at times two or three occurred in one
experiment. Of the 251 images, 138 were reported as memory, 75 as imaginary,
while 38 were equivocal. The images were all projected except in five instances
for one observer, who described these as being ‘in his head.’ One observer
placed all images upon the fixated disk. Another placed none there. The other
four placed their images both on and off the disk.

The nature of the method employed made it necessary to judge the localisa-
tion of the image with reference to the disk. Thus there were four classes
of localisation: (1) On the disk, (2) off the disk, but in the surrounding
space, (3) at a distance, usually in the object’s proper environment, and (4) in
an indefinite localisation.

The correlation of the localisation with the nature of the image as memory
or imaginary furnished some interesting results. The images of memory tended
to be located at their proper place and distance, and the images of imagination
tended strongly to be placed upon the disk. Those observers who placed few
or no images upon the disk tended to locate images of imagination in the near-by
space. For all who located their images variously there was a marked tendency
to project the images of memory into the distance, and the images of imagination
at or near the disk.

In many instances there occurred a strong tendency to locate the image upon
the disk irrespective of its nature as a memory or imaginary product. In such
cases a marked inertia of the image was manifest. This applied to both classes
of image; both resisted attempts to move them from their original location.
This was especially marked in the attempts to remove memory images from a
distant location to the disk.

2. Hxperiments on Sound Localisation. By CuHartes 8S. Myers,
M.A., M.D.

The object of these experiments, which are still in progress, is to analyse
the factors determining our (notoriously uncertain) localisation of sounds
situated in the median (sagittal) line of the head. A sound-proof room was
used, in which the subject and the experimenter sat; six subjects, giving
twenty-five sittings, were investigated. The sounds were for the most part
generated outside the room, to which they were led by means of a large
trumpet and a tube. In most of the experiments the sound consisted of (1) a
fundamental tone of (about) 200 vibrations per second, accompanied by its
first three overtones (400, 600, 800 vibrations per second); these four tones
were separately emitted from four wind-instruments operated by an assistant.
In other experiments a buzzer was used as the source of sound, situated either
(2) (as before) outside, or (3) within, the sound-proof room; in a few experi-
ments, (4) an electric bell was sounded within the room. A noiselessly-moving
instrument carrying either a funnel (or, when the sound was produced within
the room, the buzzer or bell), served as a perimeter to vary the position of the
sound in the room. Three positions of the sound were given—directly in front
of (=0°), directly above (=90°), and directly behind (=180°) the subject. The
subject, sitting blindfold, determined the apparent direction of the sound. The
position of the subject in the room was variously changed.

The subjects observed that their judgments were based on the timbre and
loudness of the sounds (e.g., 0° is ‘the fullest, most open sound ’—90° is ‘a
hoarse sound’) and on spatial experience, including medial incidence (e.g. 0°
‘hits me full in the face ’—90° ‘has a vertical feeling’) and laterality (e.¢.,
“TI localise the front sounds by their being to the right ’—‘ The back sounds
affect only the left ear’). Of these, laterality was due to the sound not being
given exactly in the median line of the subject’s head; it was early seized on
by the subjects as a criterion, but sooner or later it was of course necessarily
abandoned. Medial incidence was also found to be an insecure basis. In the
end, timbre and loudness proved the only reliable criteria.

Experiments were later made with the sound (1), in which the loudness of
the overtones was increased or diminished, thus varying the timbre of the whole
‘sound. Experiments were also made with sounds (1) and (2), in which the

680 TRANSACTIONS OF SUB-SECTION I.

loudness of the whole sound was altered. In each case, especially by the latter
procedure, the number of erroneous localisations became distinctly greater. The
resulting confusion was just what would be expected if timbre and loudness are
the base of sound localisation in the median plane. i

The importance of timbre and loudness and the unimportance of spatial
(? tactual) experience were further indicated by an experiment in which a
subject, after having learnt to distinguish the positions of 0° and 90°, inserted
two short rubber tubes, one in each ear. The result was to alter so markedly
the timbre and loudness of the sounds that he had to learn afresh their correct
localisation.

These experiments suggest that the tactual impressions felt by the subject
on their face and head are illusory, and that they are really of auditory origin.
Just as when a sound stimulates one ear more strongly than the other it
appears to hit that ear, or to be heard only in that ear, so when’a medial sound
stimulates the two ears equally, it appears to hit the head or to be placed
somewhere in the middle line. In each case, the spatial experience is a cue
leading to head movement whereby the sound is more correctly localised. It is
only with the growth of experience that median sounds are given a front, top,
or back position; and even then the judgments are extremely inaccurate,
especially when all auxiliary information is excluded.

3. A Preliminary Note on Habit-formation in Guinea Pigs.
By Miss E. M. Smrru.

The observations on which this paper was based were carried out, under the
direction of Dr. Myers, at the Cambridge Psychological Laboratory, during the
present year. They form part of a larger scheme designed to test the
inheritability in guinea-pigs of such characters as rapidity of learning, ability
to profit by practice, accuracy of performance, retentiveness, &c. With this
end in view, and in the hope of discovering well-marked individual differences
of behaviour, the animals were subjected to certain tests. The tests used
were :—(a) the labyrinth test, and (6) a new form of sensory discrimination test,
in which photic and auditory stimuli were combined. Despite the fact that this
preliminary investigation was, owing to its scope, necessarily somewhat general
in character, it has nevertheless brought to light several hitherto unrecorded
points of interest concerning guinea-pig behaviour.

4. The Relative Fertility and Morbidity of Defective and Normal Stocks.

By F. C. Surussaty, M.D.

Observations have been made on the family history of children presenting
some degree of educable mental deficiency and also of children who have gained
scholarships. The chief points noted were the size of the fraternity, the order in
the fraternity of the child under observation, and the number of members of the
fraternity who had died by the time the individual round whom the record
centred had reached the age of nine.

Correlation between order in fraternity and size of fraternity :—

Normal . -| 1,000 2°87

| T | No. Order in | Size of e

| ype Observed | Fraternity Present B
‘Defective. .| 1,000 | 435 3:24 | 6-32 3:27 | 814-06

| 216 | 4:79 2°55 65 + -008

—|

en

TRANSACTIONS OF SUB-SECTION I. 681

The chief deterrent factors are that no records of childless families are
possible, and that the smaller families were not perhaps complete, although in
over 80 per cent. of cases this was the case.

Correlation between the size of the fraternity and the number of members
who had died :—

No. Size of Number
Type Observed eet A Dead $ -
Defective. .| 1,000 646 | 3:35 1:91 2-15 ‘74-01
Normal . ./| 3,000 4:59 | 2°48 0-48 0:89 +5 + 009

This gives an average net family of 4°55 for the defective and 4°11 for the
normal, but by the time the central child has reached adult age the disparity
would probably have disappeared.

From a study of 700 families it appeared that on an average 1°43 children
were mentally defective in a fraternity of the average size of 6°05. The known
number of defective members in each family was, however, much higher, being :—

No. a No. of Families No. Affected No. of Families
6 10
2 148 a 6
3 719 8 5
4 49 9 2
5 32 10 Li
11 1

The fact of mental deficiency was found to have been noted :—

In infancy in aoe ee ee GL per cent. of cases
By the age of four Se Fiat cs outs tes 2 ay ds er Cent: Olreases
By the age of five - «ss. » .« .2°5 per cent, of cases

On going to school - .« . « « 28°5 per cent. of cases

5). The Relation between Habit and Memory.
By Miss May Smiru.

This paper dealt with

1. Bergson’s two forms of memory which he considers to be fundamentally
distinct.

2. Experiments illustrative of (a) pure memory; (b) habit interpreted by
memory. If the two forms are distinct, then tests belonging to each
group should show high correlation with the others of the same group,
but low correlation with those of the other group.

3. The results of the experiments worked out according to the method of
correlation.

4. General considerations.

6. On Changes in the Spatial Threshold during a Sitting, and on the
Nature of Thresholds in General, By Gopvrrey H. THomson.

The writer has previously’ suggested that during a sitting of one hundred
judgments the spatial threshold is frequently higher at the beginning than in

Brit. Journ. Psychol, 1912, v. 233.

682 TRANSACTIONS OF SUB-SECTION I.

the middle, and that later it rises again. Experiments have been carried out
to test this with the following results :—

Tasie I.

Average Changes in the Spatial Threshold on Right Forearm during the
Progress of a Sitting.

Subject No. 6 Subject No. 7 Bublect ee Wetenied
ems. | ems. | ems. | ems. | ems. | ems. | ems. cms. cms.
i| 2-98 | 2-15 | 3-25 | 3-30 | 3-28 | 3:99 | 4-50 3:50 | 3°38
i ii] 2-66 | 1:95 | 3-11 | 2-95 | 2-28 | 3-29 | 4-57 3:20 3:05
=| iii} 2-40 | 1-85 | 3-08 | 3-25 | 2-68 | 3:34 | 4-42 2-60 2:97 |
s iv| 2-16 | 2-19 | 2-58 | 3:05 | 3-28 | 2:99 | 4-17 | 2-45 2-83
el v/ 1:84 | 1:59 | 3-16 | 3-40 | 3-28 | 2-84 4:80 2-85 2-95
3 vi| 2-01 | 1-72 | 2-29 | 2-95 | 3:08 | 3:09 | 3-97 | 2-95 2-74
~ | vii} 1-95 | 2-05 | 2-61 | 3:35 | 3-68 | 3-59 | 4-95 | 3-20 3:14
© | vili| 2:06 | 2:05 | 3:06 | 2:45 | 3-88 | 3-34 412 | 3-05 2-94
S | ix] 2-52 | 1-92 | 2-68 | 3-05 | 3-68 | 3-44 3°75 3:15 2-98
a | x 2:06 | 1:85 | 2-15 | 2-65 3-28 | 3-44 4-45 3:05 2-84 |

Each of these columns is based on ten sittings, each of 100 judgments and
lasting about twelve minutes, except column 5 based on five sittings only. Each
sitting is divided into ten periods, shown by Roman numerals. The first figure,
for example, 2.98 cms., is calculated from 100 judgments—namely, the first ten
judgments at each of ten sittings. For subject 6 only, the sitting proper was
preceded by a preliminary group of ten judgments. With this subject the
Method of Non-Consecutive Groups” was used, and the results were calculated
by Urban’s formula.* The method used in the other cases would be defined, in
the nomenclature suggested by the writer,* as the Method of Right and Wrong
Cases with catches, using the direct Limiting Process of calculation.

The results suggest that often the threshold falls sharply during the first
twenty judgments and then slowly up to about forty judgments, after which it
becomes erratic, but often falls again at the very end of the sitting. The
practical advice would be to give preliminary judgments and not to prolong
the sitting. Space does not permit a discussion of whether these results are
‘significant ’ or due to chance sampling, but this will be done elsewhere.

Each of the numbers given above is itself an average, and the variation is
much greater than they indicate. Whether we look upon this variation as due
to experimental error, or as a true variation® depends upon our point of view.
There is no essential difference.

Taste IT.

Spatial Threshold on Right Forearm. Subject No. 6. Method of
Non-consecutive Groups.

Stimulus value in Gms. | 0 0-5| 1 | 15} 2 25 3 /35| 4 j45| 5 |
| No. of answers two 52 | 6 | 8 | 21 | 56 | 84 | 105 | 125/141 | 144 | 148
| |
| Total No. of Judgments | 1500 150] 150] 150 | 150) 150) 150) 150] 150) 150] 150

An average threshold is a matter of mathematical definition, not of psycholo-
gical experience. It has been defined as the point where 50 per cent. of correct

? Thomson, Brit. Journ. Psychol. 1912, v. 204, 214.

° Archiv. f. d. ges. Psychol. 1909, xv. 291, 307.

* Op. cit. 204, 210, 240.

Cf. Brown, Mental Measurement, Camb, 1911, 20 footnote (references
to Miller, Fechner, Bruns) and 84.

5

Prcew is'

TRANSACTIONS OF SUB-SECTION TI. 688

answers are given; and again as the 80 per cent. point; and 20 per cent., or any
per cent. might be chosen. Especially is it misleading to say that stimuli below
the average threshold cannot be distinguished from one another. On any one
occasion anything may happen, but when a number of judgments are made the
result as in Table 2 indicaces differences between all the stimulus values used.
Similar records exist for many thresholds, in particular for the difference
threshold for lifted weights. Those therefore who, like Poincaré,’ say that
weights which differ by less than the ‘difference threshold’ produce identical
sensations, are wrong, and the arguments based on this statement are incorrect.

7. A Simple Method of demonstrating Weber’s Law and its Limitations.
By Suepuerp Dawson, M.A., B.Sc.

The main facts of Weber’s Law with its limitations can be demonstrated easily
and quickly in the following manner :—

Along a radius of a disc of white paper pierce a number of circular holes of
equal diameter. Punch equal and similarly placed holes in other discs of grey
paper of various intensities. Rotate one of these discs in front of a box lined
with black velvet, and a series of dark rings will be formed on the disc which
differ progressively in brightness, the innermost being the darkest. The size
of the holes should be such that the smallest ring can be easily seen while the
largest is indistinguishable: holes from three to four millimétres in diameter
and about 1°5 cms. apart on a disc 13 cms. in diameter give satisfactory results.

If no light be reflected through the holes in the disc, then the ratios of the
intensities of the rings to the intensity of the disc depend only on the diameter
of the holes and the distances from the centre. Hence, if all the discs be
similarly cut and Weber’s Law be true for brightnesses, the same number of
rings should be distinguishable on each disc. To demonstrate the law we have,
therefore, only to rotate the disc and count the number of rings that can be
seen.

As the intensities of the grey papers can be found by matching them with
mixtures of black and a standard white, and as the ratio of the intensity of each
ring to the intensity of the background can be found by measuring the diameter
of the hole and its distance from the centre, it is possible to state the results
numerically in terms of thresholds of discrimination and to show to what extent
Weber’s Law is valid.

8. Some Experiments on Recovery from Fatigue.
By Miss May Smiru.

1. The aim of this set of experiments.
2. Description of the apparatus and details of the experiments.
3. Results :—

(a) Average errors for each week and consideration of the kinds of
errors.
(d) Pas slack of fatigue induced by three nights with very little
_ sleep.
(c) The return to normal.
(d) A comparison of subjective and objective records.

4. Some general conclusions from these experiments.

9. A Comparative Investigation of Fatigue Tests. By J. H. Wivns.

* vy. Urban, op. cit., and especially Fernberger, Psychol. Monographs, 1913,
xiv. (4), 54, 64, where much smaller steps are used.
7 Science and Hypothesis, Scott, 1905, 22.

684 TRANSACTIONS OF SUB-SECTION T.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
Joint Meeting with Section L.—See p. 744.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Application of the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale to Normal Children
im Scotland. By J. L. McIntyre, D.Sc., and Acnes L. Roaers,
M.A.

This paper gave the results of a series of experiments in the demonstration
school attached to the training centre in Aberdeen. The general aim was to
study the application of the scale, its value in the discrimination of backward
from normal children, and its suitability, in the case of Scottish children, for
determining the degree of backwardness or ability in the individual child.
The 1908 scale was used, but account was also taken of the modifications intro-
duced by the 1911 scale, and our data were correlated with those of Goddard
in America and others.

The general result supports the now familiar criticism that the tests are
too easy for the earlier and too hard for the later years. Fairly satisfactory
for five, eight, nine, and ten, they are quite unsuitable, for various reasons, at
four, twelve, and thirteen, and poor at the other ages. Some of the tests
would require, for our conditions, to be set back or advanced from one to three
and even four years.

The tests in which the northern children conspicuously failed, at the required
age, are in the main those which may be said to appeal to ‘natural intelligence,’
alertness, adaptability, &c., while those in which they show precocity are
mainly those which ying into play habit, training, and memory. This un-
expected result requires further investigation. In general, the distribution of
abilities—average, exceptionally low and exceptionally high—is similar to that
found for American, French, and English children. The gifted are 11 per
cent., the backward 18 per cent. of the whole, and there are more exceptional
(gifted or backward) boys than girls. In comparing our ranking of the children
by these tests with that of the teachers, great diversity was found in some
classes, close agreement in others; the indices of correlation range from 0°85
to 0.16, the majority being about 0.5.

2. Tests of Reasoning and their relation to General Mental Ability.
By Roserr C. Moors, M.Sc.

The object of the research was to demonstrate the close relation between
intelligence and the results of tests involving processes of reasoning or its
essential elements. An earlier research, carried out at Liverpool and reported to
this Association, had given indications of the closeness of this relationship. But,
as was inevitable in a preliminary research, the data were admittedly inadequate
and furnished suggestions rather than proofs.

The present research differed from the former in several important respects.
A few tests involving relatively simple processes, such as Bisection of Lines,
Cutaneous Discrimination, were retained, but a far larger number of more com-
plex tests were added. Many of these, such as Irregular Dotting, Card Deal-
ing, did not involve reasoning. Others involved mental processes essential to
reasoning. These, as far as possible, were so chosen as to be representative of
different orders of complexity. Thus, the Opposites test involved the compre-
hension of a definite kind of logical relation between terms; the Analogies or
Mixed Relations involved the comprehension of relations between relations; the
Correction of Reasons (modified from Bonser) involved judgment about a
definite kind of relation; the Completion of Syllogisms (modified from Burt)
involved the inference of one judgment from other judgments; the Completion

a

TRANSACTIONS OF SUB-SECTION I. 685

of an Argument (modified from Ebbinghaus) involved the comprehension of a
series of inferences.

Further tests were added, dealing with non-reasoning elements in the reason-
ing tests, such as reading, writing, and free association.

In all twenty-five tests were used for the main group and were marked vari-
ously for speed, accuracy, and amount. Introspections were obtained from
children and trained adults to determine how far the tests actually involved the
mental processes they were designed to represent; and the conclusions were
further checked by experimental variations in the procedure and material.

A larger number of children were tested than in the former investigation,
viz., in the main group, sixty-five boys and thirty-one girls. The children
belonged to the same form, and the age range was one year instead of two.
The calculations for the boys and girls were kept apart. With the help of other
investigators the more important tests were further applied to groups of
different social status and of various ages.

The results obtained from the various groups are consistent. In the main
research the reliability coefficients, with few exceptions, range from -70 to -88.
The correlations with intelligence for the better attested tests of reasoning
(Opposites, Analogies, Syllogisms, Argument) provide the highest correlations,
ranging from ‘47 to ‘74. Considering the number and size of the groups and
the reliability of the tests and of masters’ estimates of intelligence, these
correlations seem to be as satisfactory as any yet obtained.

On drawing up hierarchies and employing the method of multiple correlation
and other criteria it seems clear that the correlations are determined chiefly by
the presence of elements essential to reasoning. On eliminating the influence of
reading and writing by means of the appropriate formule, the correlations with
intelligence remain, in the case of the more complex reasoning tests, but little
changed. On correlating the size of the intelligence coefficients for the several
tests with the degree to which (according to the children’s own introspections)
reasoning entered into the performances, the coefficient is found to be ‘89.

3. Additional Reasoning Tests suitable for the Mental Diagnosis of
School Children. By W. H. Wincu, M.A.

The following set of tests is offered as additional to those presented to the
British Psychological Society on May 6, 1911 :—

I.—Value and Uses of the Tests.
They are believed to be of service, because,—

(1) They help us to measure what are usually called the ‘higher mental
functions.’

(2) Psychological tests of these functions are at present very few in number,
and have not been ‘ standardised’ by usage.

(3) They, with other similar tests, help Psychology to meet the complaint
of the educationist that our science measures only the trivial units of mental
work involved in elementary sensory and motor functions.

(4) They are completely extra-scolaire, that is, are not taught in schools, and
are therefore a good measure of the natural ability of the pupil as distinguished
from the pedagogical proficiency of the school.

(5) Whilst they are too difficult to adequately measure ‘ Mental Deficiency,’
they serve excellently well to indicate ‘Subnormality,’ or what is usually known
as ‘ Backwardness.’

(6) They will help teachers to grade their pupils on a basis of natural
ability.

(7) With other similar tests, they will enable us to measure the ‘transfer’
effects (if any) of so-called rational studies, like Euclid (Demonstrative Geome-
try), Grammar, and Problematic Arithmetic.

(8) They may enable us to discover the mental differences (if any) between
boys and girls of school age in an important mental function.

(9) They will help us to select ‘Scholarship Children’ without our selection

686 TRANSACTIONS OF SUB-SECTION I.

being prejudiced by the pedagogical proficiency of the school which the pupil
attends.

(10) They help us to distinguish the different levels of mental ability of
pupils to be found in schools of different ‘social class.’

II.—The Tests and Method of Administration.

The tests, one at a time, are presented in writing to the children, are read
twice, without undue emphasis, by a person whose voice and accent are familiar
to the children, and are then answered in writing, one at a time. They are of
service between the ages of eight and fifteen. One set of tests, distinguished
as Set 5, follows :—

(1) Mary sowed some seeds in some flower-pots, and every few days she
watered them. Johnny said that he did not see that putting water on the seeds
did any good. Do you think that Mary could prove to him that watering them
made them come up quicker, or do you not? If you think she could, say how
you think she could do it. If you think she could not, say why not.

(2) Do you think a shilling is larger than a halfpenny, or smaller than a
halfpenny, or the same size? Suppose you had a halfpenny and a shilling and
nothing else to measure with, how could you find out?

(3) Harry and Tom live in a long road a long way away from each other.
Harry starts from his house to go to meet Tom, and Tom starts from his house
to go to meet Harry. They both start at exactly the same time, but Tom
walks faster than Harry. Do you think they will meet nearer Tom’s house or
nearer Harry’s house, or exactly in the middle? You must give a reason for
your answer.

(4) If more than half the boys im a class get all their sums right, and more
than half the boys in the same class get no mistakes in dictation, do you think
there were any boys who got all their sums right and also no mistakes in
dictation, or do you think there were no boys who got all their sums right and
also no mistakes in dictation, or can’t you tell? You must say why.

III.—The Marking of the Tests.

They are marked simply ‘right’ or ‘wrong,’ not on any @ priori scheme;
for the method of marking emerges quite simply from a consideration of the
papers worked by the children. Illustrative papers will be read from boys and
girls of various ages, of various grades of mental proficiency, and of various
‘types’ of school.

The first problem, based on the logical method of difference, is not marked
correct unless this method is appealed to.

The second problem is based on the Geometrical Method of Superposition,
and is marked correct if the examinee states that he would place one on or
over the other. The examinee is not marked wrong if he says the shilling is
larger. The first part of the question only introduces the real problem.

The third problem depends on the Dynamical Principle that, in equal times,
the boy moving faster goes further. The answer is correct which places the
meeting of Tom and Harry nearer Harry’s house than Tom’s, and gives the
reason.

The fourth problem is based on the Overlapping of Classes within a Whole,
reminiscent of Euler’s diagrams in Logic. The examinee, to be marked correct,
must perceive that the classes overlap, and give a reason.

IV.—The Results of the Tests.
Iigures were given to show :—
(1) That the results of the tests correlate fairly well with age.
(2) That the results correlate much more closely with mental proficiency as
indicated by school ‘standards’ or ‘ grades’ than with age.
(3) ‘hat there is a considerable difference in ‘reasoning ability’ in schools

attended by children of different ‘social classes.’
(4) That the difference between boys and girls in non-numerical reasoning

TRANSACTIONS OF SUB-SECTION I. 687

appears small and doubtful, the balance of advantage inclining towards the
boys.
(5) That the pedagogical proficiency of the schools has but slight and indirect
bearing upon the results of tests like these.

4. Analysis of the Mental Processes involved in Spelling.
By Miss 8. §. Farruurst.

‘Spelling’ means two things; (a) The fact that a certain word is ‘correctly’
and usually represented by certain letters, the dictionary spelling. This fact is
objective to any given speller. (b) The actual psychical processes involved in
reacting to a certain stimulus by reproducing the constituent letters of a
word-whole in speech or writing. Spelling in this sense is largely a matter of
acquired habit.

Imaginal type and spelling efficency.—There is no direct relation between
these two characteristics. The determinant of efficiency is some factor working
within imaginal type.

Visual and speech factors.—It is probable that the relative importance of
these cannot be determined quantitatively, because of the difficulty of isolation.
Presentation of material by sight or articulation alone does not isolate, because
of the presence of supplementary imagery. Verbal imagery tends more to
heterogeneity than concrete. The difficulty of control, of suppression of any
particular form at will, is very great. Not only do observers find difficulty in
suppressing their own preferred type of imagery, but observers generally find
greater trouble in suppressing vocalisation than visualisation—the tendency to
articulate on seeing a word is irresistible, and appears to be essential to the
apprehension of the visual form. The unit of spelling is usually the syllable,
which finds direct expression as such, and is treated as a whole. Syllabic
grouping of letters is primarily a matter of articulation—the syllable is a speech-
whole. Grouping extends frequently to the visual form—‘ the letters seem to
be in blocks.’ There is also visual synthesis apart from syllabic grouping.

‘Imageless’ spelling.—This may occur in two ways: (a) In which the word
is so familiar as to be spelt immediately and almost unconsciously. (b) In
which it is a case of ‘imageless’ knowledge of the facts of spelling. There
is the distinction between knowledge of the facts of spelling, and mere
reference to imagery, both in learning and in recall. With the imageless
observer the process is one of acquiring and referring to knowledge of facts
about the spelling, whether directly or by mnemonics. Whatever the general
term ‘imageless’ may ultimately turn out to be under more delicate analysis,
the distinction is a real one; and the problem of the imageless thinker, hitherto
neglected as regards the spelling memory, exists here as elsewhere.

The writing-motor element.—In the total word-complex, this element appears
to have a value different from and less important (for adults) than that of the
speech-movement. There is never a tendency to write a word on hearing it,
comparable in intensity to the impulse to pronounce it on seeing it. If the
impulse is present it is always completely controllable. In learning by writing,
the articulatory element is pressed into service also as a rule. The actual value
of the writing-motor element is obscured by the adventitious aids to attention,
to the visual memory, and to the fusion of visual and auditory elements that it
affords. In the recall of a word, observers can rarely detect any qualitative
difference due to whether the word was written or not in learning. If such
qualification occurs, it is usually incidental merely—the writing-motor element
pure and simple has not been found to act as the conscious medium of memory,
as the articulatory elements may act. It is more subordinate to the visual
memory than the latter.

5. The Conditions which arouse Mental Imagery in Thought.
By Cuarues Fox, M.A.

Certain selected propositions of varying orders of difficulty were dictated to
fifteen adult subjects, who were instructed to give a full account of what they
could observe in their consciousness during the process of realisation of the
meaning of the propositions. The instructions were directed mainly to the

688 TRANSACTIONS OF SUB-SECTION TI.

investigation of the contents of consciousness is imageless thought. The pro-
positions were concerned with mathematical, grammatical, historical, and other
conceptions, and the subjects were given sufficient time to make a full record.
The results of their introspection, concerned with 178 acts of thinking, were sub-
sequently analysed and classified, and were found to yield quite clearly the chief
conditions which favour or hinder the development of mental images in the
higher thought processes.

It seems probable from these results that, under ordinary conditions of
thinking, mental images would be absent in about 50 per cent. of all cases.

Vivid mental imagery may hinder or aid the act of thinking, depending on
whether the image itself or its meaning occupies the focus of consciousness.
When the meaning of a proposition is readily understood or when it is quite
familiar, there seems to be no tendency to embody the thought in an image.
Thought is carried on in these cases entirely by meanings. In many cases the
consciousness of meaning precedes the full utterance of the statement—the
initial words carry the whole meaning in themselves.

The conditions for producing images are easily seen from the following case
of introspection. Two of the propositions given were (a) if unequals are added
to unequals the wholes are unequal; (8) if equals are added to equals the
wholes are equal. These were dictated in the order given, with an interval
between. With reference to the former one of the subjects said ‘ Doesn’t
sound probable somehow. Rather a wrench necessary to enable me to realise
that you have two sets of things to work with. Then I saw that it is a lie
(sic), as a picture of heaps of plain wooden bricks arose, thus: ’

With reference to the second statement he said ‘ Sounds much more reason-
able. Of course it’s true. No need to fetch the bricks out to prove that one.’
And indeed he had no mental image. This striking case is but a clear instance
of what seems to be general.

For the experiments show that any kind of struggle or delay in consciousness
is a favourable condition for arousing a mental image. Conflict or disagreement,
any attempt to overcome a difficulty of understanding, suspension of judgment,
doubt, emphasis, all tended to produce mental images in abundance. And all
of these are instances of struggle or delay.

The experiments also showed that the contrary set of conditions are un-
favourable to the production of images. Thorough or immediate understanding,
an easily grasped conception, ready assent, straightforward or unimpeded
reasoning, were all cases in which images, as a rule, played no part. Whatever
promotes the easy or unimpeded flow of thought is unfavourable to the produc-
tion of mental imagery and vice versd. Just as an electric current has to
meet a high resistance before it produces light, so thought has to encounter an

obstacle in order to evoke an image.

6. The Psychological Foundation of Economics.
By Rev. P. H. Wicxstrrp, M.A.

7. Psycho-analysis. By Witt1am Brown, D.Sc.

In the course of this paper the following topics were discussed :—

1. Freud’s fundamental views on the nature of consciousness, the precon-
scious and the unconscious, as set out in the final chapter of the ‘ Traumdeutung.’

TRANSACTIONS OF SUB-SECTION i. 689

2. The technique of psycho-analysis and its relation to hypnotism as means
of overcoming repressions.

3. A comparison of the views of Pierre Janet, Sigmund Freud, and C. G.
Jung on the nature of the psycho-neuroses. ;

4. Brief report of a case of an extensive amnesia of long standing cured by
psycho-analysis and hypnotism.

8. The Analysis of some Personal Dreams, with reference to Current
Theories of Dream-Interpretation. By T. H. Pear, B.Sc,

This Paper dealt with the following matters :—

Freud’s theory of the dream mechanism.

The censorship of consciousness, mental conflicts, repression, the uncon-
scious.

The ‘manifest content’ and the ‘latent content’ of dreams.

The dream-work. The processes of distortion and disguise. Condensation,
symbolism, dramatisation, displacement of interest and emotion, superficial
association, the play on words.

The ‘wish theory’ of dreams. The relation between the conscious and the
unconscious wishes. Objections to the theory. Alternative explanations of the
dream, and their relation to Freud’s theory.

An account of some personal dreams. The dream matter traced back to the
memories which formed its raw material. LIlustrations, in these dreams, of the
above processes of the dream-work. The ‘meaning’ of these dreams. Is
Freud’s theory adequate for their explanation? Other possible explanations of
them. j

The process of psycho-analysis applied to the dreams. Criticisms of this
method. Objections to the method of ‘free association.’ The determination
of the course of association. The investigation of dreams by the dreamer
himself, and by others.

9. The Relation of the Emotions to Motor Discharge.
By Professor G. J. Sroxes, M.A.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 1’.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Colour Perception and Preferences of an Infant at Three Months.
By C. W. Vatentine, M.A.

Previous investigators have tested the colour preference of infants by noting
- the colours which they most frequently seize. By this method, however, one
cannot test a child before it is about six months old. A series of experiments,
spread over about four weeks, was carried out with an infant, commencing at
the age of three months, by a new and simple method, viz.. measuring the
times during which the child looked at either of two coloured wools held before
him for two minutes at a time. Nine colours were used; each colour was
presented with each of the others, and the scores of each were added together.
Very decided preferences were discovered, the order of preference being as
follows, starting with the most pleasing :

Yellow { White, Red { Brown { Green, Violet
Pink Black | Blue

The brightest colours were obviously liked best, but neither brightness nor
novelty can explain the order of preference among Red, Green, Blue, and
Violet, which were equally bright. It is suggested that colours are preferred at
this early age, according to their power of stimulating the organism; cf. the
results of Féré, who found that muscular strength was stimulated most by
colours at the warm end of the spectrum and least by colours at the cold end.

1913. Y Y

690 TRANSACTIONS OF SUB-SECTION I.

That different colours were actually perceived is inferred from the striking
difference between the scores for Red and Green (or Blue), and between the
scores for Green (or Blue) and Violet, though these were equally bright.

2. Modern Experimental Investigation of Testimony.
By T. H. Pear, B.Sc.

Previous experimental investigations.
Two points which have not yet been settled, and about which great differences
of opinion exist in current psychological and legal literature :—

(1) Is the unreliability of the testimony of normal children as great as pre-
vious writers have believed? If so, what factors affect this circumstance?

(2) How great is the reliability of the testimony of the mentally defective
child? Does it differ qualitatively as well as quantitatively from that of the
normal child?

Legal significance of these questions.

The ‘event’ test and the ‘picture’ test; their relative advantages.

Description of the present experiments. Combination of the advantages of
hoth the above tests. The same test applied to both normal and mentally
defective children of the same ages (11 to 14 years), and of both sexes. Rela-
tively large number of subjects; 65 normal and 78 mental defectives.

The pre-arranged event. Reasons for selection of interval between event and
first testimony (20 hours), and second testimony (seven weeks).

The ‘narrative’ (Bericht), and the ‘interrogatory’ (Verhér), Their effect
on the reports given.

Points of special psychological interest in connection with the reports,
e.g., testimony for colours, estimation of time, size, distribution of interest,
effect of past experience. Suggestibility of the two classes of children qualita-
tively and quantitatively indicated.

Reconstruction of the event from the majority of replies given in each school.
The relation of this ‘reconstructed event’ to the actual occurrence.

Estimation of the value of the evidence of the normal and of the mentally
defective. Individual differences in both classes. Comparison of the classes.

The question of sex differences.

Correlation between the capacity to give reliable testimony and general
intelligence.

Correlation between total number of items reported by any individual and
their reliability.

3. The Testimony of Normal and Mentally Defective Children.
By Stantey Wyatt.

A. ‘ Narrative.’

1. Range and Accuracy.

The number of items correct and incorrect was determined for each of
the groups tested. A remarkably high degree of accuracy was found to exist
in every case, hence in this respect the children’s evidence is exceedingly
reliable. The length of the descriptions given by the mentally defective
children was appreciably less than that of the normal children. Individual
differences were well marked throughout.

2. Classification into Categories.

The results were arranged in categories of colours, shapes, sizes, positions,
actions, sequence, and items (these included ‘personal items’ such as articles of
dress and personal features, in addition to items not directly associated with
the lady and-gentleman who carried out the event). Such a classification dis-
closed a very unequal distribution of interest in the various components of the
event. The Narrative chiefly consisted of a description of actions, items, and
positions; the accounts of the other categories were relatively insignificant.

TRANSACTIONS OF SUB-SECTION I. 691

B. ‘Interrogatory.’
1. Number of Correct and Incorrect Replies.

Over one-third of the replies of the normal children and over one-half of
those of the defective children are incorrect. A repetition of the questions
after an interval of seven weeks causes a slight decrease in the accuracy of the

Interrogatory.

2. Classification into Categories.

The questions which refer to the categories of actions and items are answered
most frequently. The evidence in connection with colours and the sequence of
events is very unreliable. Whenever there is any uncertainty about the existence
of an object, the uncertainty is accentuated in the responses to the questions
about its colour. In all the categories the replies of the defective children are
much less accurate than those of the normal children.

3. Suggestibility of the Children.

Generally, the children are suggestible; the defective children to a much
greater extent than the normal children. The suggestibility increases as the
interval between the event and recall becomes greater. Knowledge of past
experiences of similar situations has a considerable influence upon the replie«
given. Components of the event which are vaguely perceived, or not perceived
at all, are often interpreted or supplied according to the manner in which they
are most usually experienced.

There appears to be no correlation between general intelligence and suscep-
tibility to suggestion, but the older children are less suggestible than the younger.
The relative suggestive force of the questions is approximately the same for
each of the groups tested.

The most suggestive questions are those which refer to the less important or
obscure features of the event, and especially to those suggested components
which might be expected to exist. On the other hand, those questions are
least suggestive which refer to the most prominent, uncommon, or irrelevant
components of the event.

4. Estimation of Sizes and Time.

The normal children are usually fairly accurate in their estimations of the
dimensions of objects; the defective children fail completely in this respect.

In every case, the duration of the event was over-estimated by the normal
children, and there appears to be a definite connection between the number of
details observed by any child and the amount of his over-estimation.

The defective children have no conception of the length of such a time

interval.
C. General Conclusions.

1. Normal children, when allowed to volunteer their evidence under favour-
able conditions, and when uninfluenced by factors such as cross-examination, the
personality of the questioner, &c., can give testimony of a high degree of accu-

racy, but of small range.
2. The testimony of the normal children is distinctly superior, both quan-
titatively and qualitatively, to that of the mentally defective children.

4. Contrast as a Faclor in Psychological Hxplanation.
By Dr. W. G. Smrru.

¥y2

692 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

Section K.—BOTANY.

PRESIDENT oF THE SEcTION.—Miss Eruen Saraant, F.L.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.

The President delivered the following Address :—

We were welcomed to Birmingham last night, and now—made free of the city—
we assemble this morning to justify our position as its guests. But, before
entering on the work of the Section your President is authorised, and even
required by custom, to glance at the events of the past year in the botanical
world.

My predecessor in this chair had a great loss to record in the death of
Sir Joseph Hooker, the doyen of British botanists, and a familiar figure at so
many meetings of this Association, where we were proud to feel that he belonged
to our Section. This year we have no peculiar grief, but we join with the
whole Association in lamenting the death of Lord Avebury. We have some
right to offer a special tribute to his memory, since several of his published
works were on botanical subjects. His book on the ‘Fertilisation of Flowers’
in the ‘ Nature Series’ opened a new world to many non-botanical readers, and
there are probably others here besides myself who have reason to be grateful
to him for that charming introduction to field botany, and for the companion
volume on ‘ Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves.’ The great mass of first-hand informa-
tion on the external characters of seedlings, contained in two massive volumes
under the modest title of ‘A Contribution to our Knowledge of Seedlings,’ was
collected under his direction and put together by himself. It is not only a
book of reference to students of vegetable embryology, but no doubt played its
part in reviving interest in that important subject. The work which he pub-
lished was, however, the least part of Lord Avebury’s contribution to Natural
History. He represented a small but most distinguished class of naturalists,
amateurs in the best sense of the word, since they work for pure love of the
subject. Whether they happen to be men of affairs in great positions, like Lord
Avebury, or artisans devoting their Saturday afternoons to original research in
Natural History, they are the salt of the subject, preserving it from the worst
effects of a purely professional and academic standard.

There is one more event of the past year to be mentioned before entering
on the professional portion of this Address. Section K has made a great innova-
tion in choosing a woman for its President this year, and I will not refrain
from thanking you in the name of my sex because I happen to be the woman
chosen. And, though I must and do feel very keenly the honour you have done
me as a botanist in electing me to this position, yet that feeling is less prominent
than gratitude for the generosity shown to all women in that choice. Speaking
in their name, I may venture to say that the highest form of generosity is that
which dares to do an act of justice in the face of custom and prejudice.

The main subject of my Address this morning 1s the Development of Botanical
Embryology since 1870.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 693

Botanists, as well as zoologists, have used the term Embryology in two senses.
Balfour’s remarks apply to both sciences :—

‘Strictly interpreted according to the meaning of the word, it ought to deat
with the growth and structure of organisms during their development within
the egg-membranes, before they are capable of leading an. independent existence.
Modern investigators have, however, shown that such a limitation of the science
would have a purely artificial character, and the term Embryology is now
employed to cover the anatomy and physiology of the organism during the whole
period included between its first coming into being and its attainment of the
adult state.’

The older botanists used the term in the narrower sense. They included
the study of the embryo-sac and the structures contained in it before the forma-
tion of the unfertilised egg-cell, as well as the fertilisation of the latter and its
subsequent divisions. But they did not proceed beyond the resting-stage of the
embryo within the ripe seed. Here, as in zoology, this division is arbitrary
and inconvenient. Accordingly, in the following remarks on the Embryology
of Angiosperms, I include every stage in the development of the plant, from
the first division of the fertilised egg-cell to maturity.

Systematists, from Caesalpino onwards, have paid much attention to the
structure of the seed, and their observations are the earliest we possess on
botanical embryology. They were, indeed, forced to study the embryo because
its characters are often of systematic importance. The number of cotyledons,
for instance, is the most constant character which separates the two great classes
of Angiosperms. Again, the endosperm is not part of the embryo, but its
presence or absence in the ripe seed—so important systematically—determines
the function of the cotyledons after germination, and thus influences their
structure profoundly. In this way botanists became familiar with the structure
of the embryo in the ripe seed before they had traced its origin from the
fertilised egg-cell or followed its development after germination.

The early history of the embryo was a sealed book to observers without the
help of the compound microscope. Accordingly we find that work on the external
morphology of seedlings preceded that on the formation of the embryo. For
the description of seedlings we must go back to the middle of last century.
The greatest name in this school is that of Thilo Irmisch (1815-79). His work,
like that of earlier observers in the same field, was neglected by the succeeding
generation owing to the rapid development of microscopic botany. For a time
the study of anatomy eclipsed that of external morphology.

The earliest observers to study the embryo-sac of Angiosperms with the help
of the compound microscope were naturally attracted by the history of the ovum
and the process of fertilisation. Little progress was made in this direction,
however, owing to the imperfect technique of the day. The divisions of the
fertilised egg-cell are more easily followed, as Hanstein showed in 1870. His
classical paper is the foundation of botanical embryology in the narrower sense—
that is, of the study of the embryo from origin to germination.

This period in the plant’s history would seem, indeed, very well defined.
It begins with the first division of the fertilised egg-cell—undoubtedly a natural
epoch, for a new generation dates from it. It ends with the formation of the
ripe seed, which is a true physiological epoch, since it corresponds with a com-
plete change in the conditions of life. We have seen also that the morphologists
who have dealt with the immature plant have fallen naturally into two groups,
one ending and the other beginning their work at this very point.

Experience, however, has shown here, as in zoology, that embryologists lose
more than they gain by this division of their subject. It is, indeed, neither so
simple nor so natural as it appears at first sight.

It is not simple because the embryo is not always completely dormant during
the interval between the formation of the ripe seed and the first steps in germina-
tion. On the contrary, in a large proportion of Monocotyledons, and in a
smaller but still considerable proportion of Dicotyledons, the embryo is an
almost undifferentiated mass of meristem when the seed first ripens. It becomes
differentiated internally and externally by degrees during the long interval
before germination. This is sometimes called the maturation of the seed, and

694 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

it is quite distinct from its ripening. Maturation is a process characteristic of
the seeds of geophilous plants, which commonly lie in the ground for a year
at least before germination.

In such cases the period of rest occurs immediately after the seed is ripe,
and while the embryo is still undifferentiated. But the embryo is not comparable
morphologically to that in the seed of an annual, for example, which may have
ripened at the same time. ‘The embryo of an annual has root, stem, and leaves,
besides its cotyledons, and is ready to germinate immediately on the return of
spring.

z ‘the morphologist, then, must continue the study of his geophilous embryo
throughout the period of maturation if he is to compare it with that of the
annual. Even then he will find it less advanced than the annual embryo, though
both be examined as they break cut of the seed. For the geophyte may perhaps
be four or five years before it flowers, while the annual has to complete its whole
life-cycle in a single season.

Nor is the division of the subject into two parts, the first ending with the
embryo in the ripe seed, a natural one, even if the time of maturation be
included in that first period. The structure of the embryo cannot be completely
grasped by reference to its past only. The observer must expect adaptive
characters of three kinds : first, those imposed upon the embryo in the past by
its development within the embryo-sac while it is still parasitic on the parent
plant; secondly, certain adaptations to the process of germination itself; and,
finally, characters which will be useful after germination. Before the utility
of the characters included in this third class can be fully understood, the
development of the seedling must be followed for some time. In short, the
structure of the embryo is dependent on its future, as well as on its past; and
a division of the subject which excludes that future is, as Balfour says, purely
artificial. Thus the work done of late years on the anatomy of the seedling has
not only completed Irmisch’s work on its external morphology, but has also
thrown light on the problems of early embryology attacked by Hanstein and
his immediate followers.

These problems are of two kinds, relating to the internal anatomy or the
external morphology of the embryo. Hanstein himself was chiefly interested
in the former. It is curious to realise when reading his paper that up to the
date of its publication botanists were prepared to find an apical cell in the
embryo of Angiosperms. They acknowledged, indeed, that no such cell existed
in the growing-points of the mature plant.‘ There each new portion of tissue
was formed by the activity of a group of similar and equivalent cells. But it
still seemed possible that the embryo might possess an apical cell in the earlier
stages of its growth—a reminiscence of its Cryptogamic ancestors. Hanstein’s
work disposed once for all of this possibility. It was conclusive even against
the great authority of Hofmeister, who had described an apical cell in the embryo
of orchids.

One general result of the work on the embryo since Hanstein’s time has been
to discredit phylogenetic theories based on its early history. Indeed, it was
hardly to be expected that a small mass of meristem, developing within a
confined space and feeding parasitically on the tissues of the mother-plant,
should preserve ancestral features, and one is surprised to find a morphologist
with the experience and the wide grasp of Hanstein attaching so much import-
ance to the succession of divisions within such a body. The conscientious
student finds it a laborious task to follow the work done in plant embryology
during the period which succeeded the publication of Hanstein’s great paper.
No wonder that when the end is seen to discredit rather than crown much of
that work, when he realises how little has been gained as a result of so much
patient toil, he is apt to renounce the whole subject in disgust. Yet in Science
we dare not rule out the unexpected, perhaps even Jess in morphology than
elsewhere. Hanstein and his successors did good service when they described
the growth of the pro-embryo from the fertilised egg-cell, its division into

1 Korschelt in 1884 revived the hypothesis that the growing points of some
Angiosperms at any rate increased by means of an apical cell. He worked
chiefly on aquatic plants. His views have not been accepted.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 695

suspensor and embryo, the general development of both, and the appearance
of external and internal differentiation in the embryo before germination.

Some of Hanstein’s general conclusions as to internal anatomy. have become
the common property of text-books; for instance, the early differentiation of
dermatogen in the embryo, and its subsequent development into the epidermal
system. He was less successful in demonstrating the initial independence of
plerome and periblem and their relation to the vascular cylinder of the mature

stem.

The early differentiation of plerome and periblem from the internal tissues
of the embryonic axis, and their continued formation at the growing points of
stem and root respectively, are processes which demand the most careful investi-
gation, on account of their bearing on the stelar hypothesis.

Dr. Schoute’s work on the exact relationship of plerome and periblem at the
growing-point to the central cylinder and cortex as differentiated in the older
regions of the same axes, whether stem or root, is very important. He accepts
Professor Van Tieghem’s definition of the stele as the solid cylinder of root
or stem enclosed within the endodermis. The endodermis itself, of course, is
considered as belonging to the cortex, because in the root its cells are opposite
the radial files of the inner cortex, and, indeed, form the inmost rank of those
files. This is assumed to indicate a common origin by repeated tangential
division. The cells of the pericycle—the outermost layer of the stele—alternate
with those of the endodermis. As a rule there is no corresponding radial
arrangement in the cortical tissue of the stem, but where such exists—as in the
stem of Hippuris—the endodermis is again included in it and terminates it.

Using the microtome as an instrument of precision, Dr. Schoute in 1903
published the most careful observations on the growing-points of roots. His
aim was to determine whether the limit between plerome and periblem (Hanstein)
corresponded with that between stele and cortex (Van Tieghem). For this
purpose Dr. Schoute was, of course, obliged to choose roots in which the plerome
is clearly distinguished from the periblem at the growing-point. In the end he
obtained precise results in three species: Hyacinthus orientalis, Helianthus
annuus, and Linum usitatissimum. In each of these the periblem passed into
the cortex, its inner layer becoming the endodermis, and the plerome gave rise
to the stele only.

Owing to difficulties of observation, arising chiefly from the insertion of
leaves close up to the growing-point and displacements in the original stem-
structure consequent on this habit, Dr. Schoute was not equally successful in
his work on stems. Hippuris vulgaris was the only species to give definite
results. In this species he found that the plerome gave rise not only to the
stele, but also to the endodermis, and to the two or three layers of cortex
immediately beyond it. If these results are well founded the limit between
plerome and periblem does not correspond with that between stele and cortex
in the stem of Hippuris. Moreover, doubt is thrown on the assumption made
by all previous observers that rows of cortical cells arranged in radial files must
be of common origin.

Observations on a single species, however well attested, form a slender basis
for conclusions regarding stems in general. Nor have Dr. Schoute’s observations
escaped criticism. Dr. Kniep has since examined the growing-point of Hippuris,
and believes that he can identify plerome with central cylinder, and periblem
with cortex, even in this test case. However this may be, no one denies the
obscurity of stem anatomy in this respect compared to that of the root, nor the
cause of that obscurity. The continuity of the stem stele is perpetually inter-
rupted by the insertion of the leaf-traces, just as the symmetry of the stem
growing-point is destroyed by the formation of leaf rudiments close up to its
apex.

The stelar hypothesis is essentially an assertion of the real homology between
the vascular systems of stem and root throughout all vascular plants. This was
pointed out to me more than twenty years ago by Dr. D. H. Scott, and it has
been the sheet anchor to which I have since clung through much stress of morpho-
logical weather. No difficulty arises so long as we are dealing with roots only,
or with the stems of those Vascular Cryptogams in which the vascular system

696 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

is a closed cylinder, without gaps at the insertion of the leaf-traces. In such
plants the vascular cylinder is as well defined as in all roots, and can be described
in the same terms. But the case is quite different in the stems of Phanerogams,
where to all appearance the primary vascular cylinder is a system built up of
leaf-traces, embedded in a parenchymatous matrix. And the early anatomists
were faced at once by this problem in its crudest form. Beginning with the
anatomy of Phanerogams they first became acquainted with the primary structure
of the Dicotyledonous stem. That of the root was not clearly understood until
many years later; perhaps because anatomists attempted to interpret it by
reference to the skeleton of the stem, and in the same terms. But there is
nothing in the vascular anatomy of the root to correspond with the leaf-trace,
and the leaf-trace is the vascular unit of stem-structure in all Phanerogams.
Here, as elsewhere, confusion of nomenclature went hand in hand with confusion
of thought, and it is difficult to say which was cause and which effect.

Even when the facts of root-structure were accurately known, the conception
of the leaf-trace bundle as the structural unit continued to be a stumbling-
block. In 1877 De Bary published his monumental work on Plant Anatomy,
and, though it still keeps its place as the great book of reference on that
subject, his descriptions of root anatomy appear to the modern botanist to be
written in a dead language. When he calls the vascular axis of the root a
‘radial bundle’ it is quite clear that he regards this as a purely formal term,
not implying any true homology between the leaf-trace bundle of the stem and

-the axial core of the root. He does not, indeed, consider a bundle as a unit:
he defines it as a compound structure ‘formed of tracheids and sieve-tubes
definitely grouped.’? But the word ‘bundle’ was already impressed with
another superscription. However defined originally, it had connoted the unit
of stem-structure to a generation of botanists. With that connotation, De Bary’s
use of the term is in hopeless conflict. Moreover, the conception underlying
that use was already out of date in 1877. Modern anatomy dates from 1871,
when Professor Van Tieghem published the first of his great series of memoirs
on the subject. In these the axial core of the root was treated as equivalent
to the whole system of leaf-trace bundles in the stem, though the word ‘stele’
was not yet invented. This conception gained ground from the first; it was
popularised by the happy choice of a name in 1886. From that date the stelar
hypothesis has replaced all other schemes of vascular anatomy. The advance
then made on all previous generalisations has been shown by the new impulse
given to research, and the comparative simplicity introduced into text-book
anatomy.

We cannot claim equal simplicity, I fear, for the technical language of
research in this subject, and this alone should inspire caution, for obscurity of
language rarely persists where there is no corresponding obscurity of thought.

No one now doubts that the central cylinder of the root in Phanerogams is
far more closely comparable to the leaf-trace cylinder of the stem than to any
one of the traces within it. Yet when the comparison becomes detailed
difficulties are constantly arising. Where, for example, there is a medulla in
the root it certainly forms part of the stele, which is a solid cylinder sharply
defined by the specialised endodermis surrounding it. But the leaf-traces in
the young stem surround a massive cylinder of parenchyma, precisely resembling
the parenchyma of the cortex, with which it is in apparent connection through
the gaps between the leaf-traces. Even the secondary formations do not com-
pletely divide one system from the other. When a specialised endodermis is
present it is not so clearly defined as in the root : in many cases it is not present—
in other words, there is no cell-layer outside the leaf-trace cylinder which is
differentiated in any way from the surrounding tissues. In a few instances—
most baffling of all—an endodermis surrounds each lJeaf-trace.

The stele in the stem of Phanerogams is not of necessity a morphological
fiction because in many stems its precise limits cannot be determined. If,
indeed, the word be used as a descriptive term its value is seriously impaired
by every instance in which it fails to describe stem-structure with precision.

. Sia ibe Anatomy of Phanerogams and Ferns. 1st Eng. ed., 1884,
p. 400. 24 ts : ;

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 697

But morphology is not merely descriptive. If we suppose that the stem-stele
in remote ancestors of the Phanerogams was as well defined as that of the root
and clearly comparable to it, we may attach a real morphological meaning to
the term when applied to modern Phanerogams, provided we can show cause
to believe that what we call the stele in their stems represents the ancestral
stele. Its tissues will then have a history distinct from those of the cortex,
though not clearly separated from them. The burden of proof, however,
certainly lies with those who assert that an apparently continuous and uniform
tissue can be separated into two parts of distinct origin.

The evidence advanced is of two kinds—one founded on the comparative
anatomy of stems, and the other on the history of the tissues in the individual
plant. Dr. Schoute has argued the case with great skill from the first point
of view in his ‘Stelartheorie. Depending to a large extent on his own
researches, he has collected a great body of evidence to show that in the stems
of Angiosperms a specialised layer is commonly distinguished from adjacent
tissues either by the peculiar thickening characteristic of the endodermis in
the root, or by the presence of starch in its cells. He shows that such a sheath
surrounds the vascular cylinder in a very large proportion of the Dicotyledons
examined, and in a majority of the Monocotyledons. Among Gymnosperms it
occurs but rarely. Observing that the Angiosperms in which this bundle-sheath
is obscure or wanting are commonly closely related to species in which it is per-
fectly well defined, Dr. Schoute concludes that its absence in such cases must
be attributed to reduction.

Allowing that such a layer is as general among Angiosperms as Dr. Schoute
believes, grave doubts may still exist as to its homology with the endodermis of
the root. The latter is defined not only by its thickened walls, but also by the
position of its cells. They form the inmost rank of the series of radial files
which distinguish the inner cortex, and the morphological endodermis—the
phleoterma, as Strasburger calls it—can usually be distinguished by this purely
morphological character, even when its walls are unthickened. In the stem,
however, the cells of the inner cortex are not radially arranged, except in rare
cases, such as Hippuris. Thus, there is no morphological criterion to distinguish
the phleoterma, or inmost cortical layer of the stem, from adjacent tissues. The
bundle-sheaths distinguished by their thickened walls or by the presence of
starch in their cells are physiologically similar; they play a definite part in the
economy of the stem, but the presence of either character must depend mainly on
the demands of the conducting or assimilating system, and need not imply the
morphological identity of such layers with each other, or with the layer per-
forming a similar function in the root.

Turning now to the second class of evidence—that drawn from the history of
the tissues in the individual plant—we have already seen that the differentiation
of plerome from periblem is far less definite at the growing-point of the stem
than at the root. Doubts have even been thrown on the identity of plerome and
periblem with stele and cortex respectively. But we have not yet followed the
development of the tissues of the embryo into those of the seedling.

The normal seedling* of all Phanerogams consists at first of cotyledons,
hypocotyl, and root, the plumular bud being still rudimentary. The primary
root lies as a rule in a straight line with the primary stem, or hypocotyl. The
hypocotyl is commonly the first part of the embryo to lengthen, and then its
xylem is lignified a little earlier than that of the root or even that of the coty-
ledon. But when—as in many Monocotyledons—the base of the cotyledon
lengthens first, lignification begins in that region and advances through the
hypocotyl to the primary root.

The anatomy of the seedling at this epoch has lately been investigated by
many independent observers. They constitute, indeed, the third school of
embryology to which I have referred as completing the work of two earlier
schools—namely, morphologists of the type of Irmisch and students of early
embryology like Hansiein and his school, But though the subject is limited to a
short period in the history of the plant, and to one in which its vascular structure

* By this qualification I mean to exclude cases in which the young seedling
is very greatly reduced, ; ;

698 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

is comparatively simple, yet it has been attacked from different sides, and the
attempt to give a concise account of the results attained is beset with difficulties.
For the present, however, I propose to consider only their bearing on the stelar
hypothesis.

Indeed, seedling anatomy becomes extremely important when the vascular
system of the root is compared with that of the stem. For in the seedling we
have a complete and simple vascular skeleton, which at one end belongs to the
primary root of the plant, and at the other to its primary stem. There must be
an intermediate region in which stem-structure passes into root-structure, and
the method of transition should at least suggest, if it does not precisely deter-
mine, the relation in which they stand to each other. For this reason great
value has been attached by anatomists to the transitional region of the main
axis. It was not completely investigated, however, until the microtome was
introduced into botanical practice, for the change of structure is often very
abrupt, and cannot be studied in detail unless all possible sections are present in
their proper order.

In this, as in other branches of modern anatomy, Professor Van Tieghem was
first in the field. In his memoir of 1872, ‘Sur les Canaux Secréteurs des Plantes,’
he described the course of the bundles in the hypocotyl of T'agetes patula, an
example of the second type of transition given in his text-book (1886). The
three types were, indeed, already identified in 1872, for the first and third are
defined in a footnote appended to the description of Tagetes.

Tagetes patula was, of course, examined in 1872 with the aid of hand-sections
only. Two traces enter the hypocotyl from either cotyledon, and form in the
end a diarch root. The plane passing through its xylem poles is the median
plane of the cotyledons. In the upper part of the hypocotyl this plane bisects
the space which separates the two bundles entering each cotyledon. So far the
description of J’agetes given in 1872 is identical with the generalised account of
type 2 in the text-book (1886). But a detail of some importance is mentioned in
the description of Tagetes which does not reappear in the definition of type 2.
In each of the spaces just mentioned—called, for convenience, xylem spaces,
because they lie above the xylem poles of the root—lies an isolated xylem
element, the direct continuation of the most external element in one of the root
poles, and this element comes to an abrupt end higher up.

Thus Professor Van Tieghem has tacitly assumed that 7'agetes is exceptional
in this respect, and this view was also adopted by Professor Gérard in his
laborious and accurate paper of 1881. He describes the transitional phenomena
of a number of Dicotyledons, among them Z'agetes erecta. Not only is the
transition in this species exactly the same as that in 7’. patula, but the author
records a similar isolation of primitive xylem elements in Raphanus niger,
Ipomea versicolor, and Datura Stramonium, still treating the arrangement as
exceptional.

These details are important, because if certain protoxylem elements belonging
to the root are not continued upwards in regular succession into the cotyledonary
or plumular bundles, but end abruptly in hypocotyl or base of cotyledon, there
is not that complete correspondence between stem- and root-structure which is
assumed in Van Tieghem’s three types. In all of them the xylem and phloem
bundles of the root are continued into the cotyledons or plumule. On their way
through the hypocotyl they may divide or be displaced, and the xylem bundles
‘rotate ’—that is, they turn on their own axes until the protoxylem is internal.
But all the elements present in the root are continued upwards in regular
succession, and are simply rearranged in the upper part of the seedling. This
is one of the main arguments advanced by Professor Van Tieghem to support his
view that the steles of root and stem are identical.

According to most later observers, however, such temporary prolongation of
the root-poles upwards as that described by Professors Van Tieghem and Gérard
in a few instances, and considered by them as exceptional, is really of general
occurrence. The protoxylem elements, indeed, are not commonly isolated from
the main xylem of the cotyledonary traces as in 7’agetes, but are in more or less
complete contact with them on either side. Such contact is approached in
Raphanus niger, where it is very clearly suggested in Professor Gérard’s figures,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 699

There is then a real difference of opinion on a question of fact between Pro-
fessor Van ‘l'ieghem and his school, on the one hana, and certain modern embryo-
logists on the ucher. ‘L’hree distinct views are now held as to the interpretation
o1 the isolated xylem elements in the hypocotyl of Z'agetes. 1 shall try to state
tnem as fairly and concisely as possible.

Protessors Van ‘Lieghem and Gerard treat Z'agetes and the genera which
resemble 1t as exceptional, because part of the external xylem of the root is con-
tinued upwards between tne cotyleaonary traces, and dies out in the base of the
cotyledon. ‘Iney consider that the remainder of the external xylem turns on
itselt and becomes internal in the usual way.

Professor Gravis and his pupils think that a similar prolongation of the
xylem poles of the root into the nypocoty! or cotyledon is the rule, and that they
terminate there abruptly. but in most cases this vestigial root-xylem is not
isolated ; it is in contact on either side with the early xylem of the cotyledonary
traces, and is theretore apt to be contused with it. ‘ne characteristic shape of
so many cotyledonary traces arises in this way. ‘They are often called double
bundles, but according to Professor Gravis they are more than double, for each
really consists of two traces in close contact with the last vestige of root-xylem.
‘he latter always disappears higher up in the cotyledon, and the two traces may
then unite into a midrib, with or without lateral branches. As a consequence
ot this view, Professor Gravis considers that there is no morphological con-
tinuity in the hypocotyl between the vascular systems of root, stem, and leaf.*
‘heir traces are merely in contact sutiiciently intumate for physiological purposes.
‘1nere can, therefore, be no true homology between the central cylinder of the
stem and that of the root.

‘he third view is that of M. Chauveaud, who has been engaged for upwards
of twenty years in following the development of the vascular elements in the
hypocotyiar region and its neighbourhood. He agrees with Professor Gravis
tnat the presence of external xyiem is the rule in tue hypocotyl and in the base
ot the cotyledon. But he considers that this external xylem belongs to the
primitive structure of hypocotyl and cotyledon as well as to that of the root.
we have already said that the vascular system of seedlings is first difterentiated
in the hypocotyl, base otf cotyledon, and base ot primary root. In all these
regions iM. Chauveaud thinks the primitive stele to be root-like—in his own
phrase it belongs to the ‘disposition alterne.’ ‘the xylem alternates with the
phioem, and its development 1s centripetal. This primitive tormation, however,
+8 permanent only in the root, and commonly in the lower part of the hypocoty1
also. in the upper part of the hypocotyl and in the base of the cotyledons the
nrst xylem elements are fugitive. ‘lhey disappear so early that as a rule they
are missed completely by the anatomist, who 1s apt to preter well-ditferentiated
tissues, and therefore to choose seedlings which are past their first youth.

in considering the theory of stelar evolution in which M. Cnauveaud has
correlated his own long series of observations with the results of other embryo-
logists, 1 shall confine myself strictly to the question now under discussiou—
namely, the extent to which the stele of the young stem in Phanerogams can
be considered to represent that of the root. Protessor Van Tieghem, as we
have seen, considers them completely homologous, while Professor Gravis denies
that they are homologous at all.

M. Chauveaud occupies a middle position. If I understand his views rightly,
he considers that there is an early phase in the development of the seedling m
which the stele of the hypocotyl—at that time the only representative of the
stem—is developing on exactly the same lines as the stele ot the primary root,
and is, in fact, continuous with it. At that epoch each cotyledonary trace is
also developing on the same plan. It belongs to the same phase of evolution,
and in many species of Dicotyledons the insertion of the cotyledons is the

* A. Gravis, Recherches . . . sur le ‘ Tradescantia virginica, Mém. de l’Acad.
royal . . . Tome lvii., Bruxelles, 1898. See account of hypocotyl (pp. 28-32),
including insertion of cotyledon (pp. 31-32). Also memoir by same author on

Urtica dioica (1885), footnote on p. 117. Cf. also Mr. R. H. Compton’s paper
in New Phytologist, xi., p. 13, 1912.

700 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

simplest imaginable. The original stele of the hypocotyl divides below the
cotyledonary node, and one-half goes to each cotyledon.°

In species where this formation is clearly developed there cannot be said to
be any transition between stem- and root-structure. Stem-stele and root-stele
are continuous: their steles are developing in the same way. Even the leaf
traces of the first two leaves are on similar lines, and their insertion, therefore,
does not modify the structure of the stele.

How, then, does the structure we associate with the stem of Phanerogams
appear? ‘In the transitional region of the hypocotyl the first xylem elements—
perhaps only two or three at each pole—alternate with the phloem groups. The
elements next differentiated lie within them, for development is still centripetal,
but in two diverging groups. The xylem-ray is then shaped like an inverted V.
Kach arm of the V approaches the adjacent phl6em group as it travels inwards,
until the last-formed elements lie on the same radius as the centre of the phléem
group, but well within it. The next elements are differentiated on that radius,
but are directed towards the phléem: development has become centrifugal.
These successive xylem formations are called by M. Chauveaud the alternate,
the intermediate, and the superposed. They are distinguished in the diagram

by dotted lines for the alternate elements, thin lines for the intermediate, and
thick lines for the superposed.

The alternate elements are fugitive in this transitional region: they com-
monly disappear as the superposed elements become conspicuous. The inter-
mediate xylem persists. But higher up in the hypocotyl the intermediate
elements, too, disappear as the seedling grows older. They vanish in the traces
of the cotyledons also, and in the cotyledons themselves. Thus in seedlings of
a certain age we have endarch bundles at the top of the hypocotyl, forming a
stele of the stem type, and an exarch stele lower down, which passes unchanged
into the root. The connection between the two is maintained by the inter-
mediate xylem of the transitional region.

Although M. Chauveaud has been publishing his researches since 1891, yet
he has only lately (1911) put his results into a connected form, and they are
therefore less familiar than might otherwise be expected to anatomists who are
not also embryologists. They clearly have a direct bearing on the theory of the
stele. Before, however, entering on this subject, I ought to say something on
the question of fact. In my opinion M. Chauveaud’s figures and descriptions
represent the vascular development in the hypocotyl and cotyledons of Angio-
sperms more accurately than any others with which I am acquainted. He has
dealt more fully with Dicotyledons than Monocotyledons, but I have been able
to verify his account of the latter to some extent by reference to my own pre-
parations, which include a number of species closely allied to those which, he has
cut. Among Dicotyledons I have had the great advantage of consulting the

5 Chauveaud, L’Appareil Conducteur des Plantes vasculaires, 1911. See
description of Mercurialis annua on pp. 216, 217, and figs. 62, 63.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 701

preparations of Miss Thomas and of Mr. R. H. Compton. Neither of these
botanists made their preparations to illustrate M. Chauveaud’s theory; indeed,
they attacked the subject, as I did, with aims distinct from his. There has,
therefore, been nothing like complete verification in any single species, but so
remarkable a correspondence with his figures in similar stages of the material,
that I am satisfied of M. Chauveaud’s fidelity.

Assuming, then, that his account of the vascular development in a young
seedling is substantially correct, what are we to conclude as to the homology of
the central cylinder of the stem with that of the root?

M. Chauveaud himself believes the stem cylinder in the upper hypocotyl of
a fairly old seedling to be a true stele, but one belonging to a later phase of
evolution than that of the root, and not, therefore, strictly homologous with it
in the sense in which the earliest vascular formations in cotyledon and hypocotyl
respectively were homologous with each other. He considers the successive
vascular formations which we have just followed in these regions—formations
marked by the appearance of alternate, intermediate, and superposed xylem in
turn—to represent three successive phases of stelar development. The root-stele
corresponds to the first of these phases only.

But questions of phylogeny are strictly historical, and the only precise mean-
ing that can be attached to the expression ‘successive phases of stelar develop-
ment * in the seedling of an Angiosperm is that at some past period a group of
plants in the direct line of descent of Angiosperms possessed a stele resembling
that which is now a mere stage in the life of the individual. Thus the alternate
formation found throughout the very young seedling implies an ancestral group
with an exarch stele in stem as well as root, and a leaf-trace of corresponding
structure.

There is nothing at all improbable in this hypothesis, since groups with
exarch steles in stem as well as root are found among living and extinct plants.
But if adopted several important consequences follow. The seedling while it
consists of cotyledons, hypocotyl, and primary root only—the plumule present
as a mere bud—must represent a past period in race-history when its ancestors
possessed an exarch stele in stem and root alike; when the stem-stele belonged to
the stem only, and the insertion of leaf-traces hardly modified its structure;
when it entered the root without change, and therefore no transitional region
occupied and puzzled the anatomist of the period.

This early stage in the development of the seedling is succeeded by that in
which the epicotyl begins to grow, and as a rule the epicotyl is quite undoubtedly
modern.* Its vascular skeleton is built: up of leaf-traces, which are endarch from
the first. At the cotyledonary node they are inserted on the vascular cylinder
of the hypocotyl, which has become endarch at the top. This transition has been
etfected lower down in the hypocotyl, as described already, by the formation
first of intermediate, and then of superposed xylem, together with the gradual
disappearance of the original alternate xylem.

Thus the cotyledonary node may be considered to mark the interval between
two acts in the drama of evolution—an interval the length of which cannot yet
be estimated, but is clearly to be reckoned in geological epochs.

The race-history of the Phanerogamic stem-cylinder is at present unknown.
How did the ancestral stele lose its exarch character, and what intermediate
stages led up to its present construction from endarch leaf-traces? Possibly the
development of the hypocotyl may give a clue as suggested by M. Chauveaud,
and the change have been effected by the development of intermediate xylem.
Or Professor Jeffrey may be right in deriving the leaf-traces from a siphonostele
which has been gradually more and more broken up by the appearance of foliar

“ The epicotyl in the Vicieee has been described as containing centripetal
xylem. The facts are given by Mlle. Goldschmid (1876), Prof. Gérard (1881),
M. Chauveaud (1911), and Mr. Compton (1912). The theoretical interpretation
is discussed by M. Chauveaud (/.c., p. 348) and Mr. Compton (i.c., pp. 93-95).
There seems every reason to think, as Mr. Compton suggests, that the character
is adaptive, depending on the twining habit. He points out that Vicia Pada,
which does not twine, has a normal epicotyl.

702 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

gaps. This process is said to be exhibited in the young epicotyl.’ Until this
point is cleared up the exact relationship of the vascular cylinder of the stem
to that of the root will remain obscure. As a matter of convenience the stem-
cylinder will, no doubt, be called a stele, even though anatomists should acknow-
ledge that it cannot be considered as strictly homologous with the stele of the
root. Much confusion of thought would, however, be avoided if the two
structures were not treated as strictly comparable.

There can be very little doubt that the insertion of leaves has brought about
the change, and I might suggest here that the insertion of leaves on an exarch
stem-stele would be an interesting subject for research. The literature of the
subject is scattered, and its treatment seems to me very incomplete. An exarch
axis bearing leaves is, of course, exceptional, but more common among extinct
plants than among recent species. So far as my very cursory examination of the
literature has gone, it seems a general rule that the leaf-traces are inserted on the
xylem poles of the stele.®

Hitherto I have considered modern embryology in relation to a single problem
of internal anatomy—namely, the comparison of the vascular system of the stem
to that of the root. But the evidence of embryology is also of great weight in
questions of internal morphology and phylogeny.

Several questions of this kind are discussed by Hanstein, from whose classical
paper I continue to date. For example, his account of the embryo of Mono-
cotyledons suggests two distinct problems. One belongs to formal morphology—
namely, the question whether a terminal member can be considered as a leaf.
The other is a question of phylogeny : whether Dicotyledons are derived from a
monocotylous ancestor or Monocotyledons from a dicotylous form. Both these
questions I have discussed elsewhere, and only refer to them now as examples
of the way in which seedling anatomy has proved complementary to that of the
older embryologists.

The most obvious interpretation of Hanstein’s observations is that the single
cotyledon of Monocotyledons is equivalent to the pair found in Dicotyledons.
This would imply that Dicotyledons were derived from an ancestor with one
cotyledon, apparently terminal, which gave rise to the existing pair by a process
of fission. But other interpretations were always possible, and the terminal
hypothesis received a shock when Count Sohms-Laubach discovered that in
certain Monocotyledons the single cotyledon is lateral from the first.

The comparative antiquity of Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons has been
one of the first questions raised by the study of seedling anatomy. It is remark-
able that both the hypotheses founded on work of this kind assert the greater
antiquity of the dicotylous form. But if the cotyledonary member of Mono-
cotyledons is derived from one or both cotyledons of an ancestral pair, it cannot
be considered as terminal. Thus the evidence of seedling anatomy bids fair to
settle both these problems, as I think it will settle others of the same kind
mentioned by Hanstein.

The descriptive work of Irmisch and the school he represents has been carried
on of late years by an American naturalist, Mr. Theo. Holm, with all the
technical advantages given by modern instruments of research. His papers are
commonly written with systematic intention, but the external characters of the
species he describes are correlated with their internal anatomy, and the structure
of the adult form is traced from its origin in the seedling. His monograph on
Podophyllum peltatum is an example of this method, and illustrates its advan-
tages in a very striking way. But it is becoming much more usual to compare
the seedling with the adult form, as may be seen in two monumental works now
being published in parts : ‘Das Pflanzenreich,’ edited by Engler, and ‘ Lebens-

" Jeffrey, The Morphology of the Central Cylinder in the Angiosperms.
Trans. Canadian Inst., vi., 1900.

* D. H. Scott, Studies in Fossil Botany, 1908, p. 97 (Sphenophyllum); C. E.
Bertrand, Remarques sur le ‘ Lepidodendron Harcourtii,’ 1891, p. 109; M. Hove-
lacque, Recherches sur le ‘Lepidodendron selaginoides,’ 1892, p. 150; F. O.
Bower, Origin of a Land Flora, p. 334 (Selaginella), 1908; C. E. Jones, Trans.
Linn. Soc., ser. 2, vii., 1905, p. 19 (Lycopodium).

* K. Sargant, Ann. of Bot. xvii., p. 1, 1903, and id. xxii., pp. 150-2, 1908.

*
“the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 703

geschichte der Blitenpflanzen Mitteleuropas,’ edited by Kirchner, Loew, and
Schroter.

In a very useful paper on modern developments of seedling anatomy Mr.
Compton has pointed out that the subject has been attacked from several
divergent points of view. I have already referred to the work of M. Chauveaud
and Professor Gravis, and have now come to that of a number of English
botanists, whose aim—as Mr. Compton observes—is mainly phylogenetic. ‘They
are even more clearly distinguished by their methods, which are those of com-
parative anatomy. Instead of following the development of the seedling of a
single species from germination to the age at which its cotyledons begin to decay,
as M. Chauveaud has done in a number of carefully selected instances, they
have compared the seedlings of different species and different genera at about the
same age, generally choosing the epoch at which the tissues of cotyledon,
hypocotyl, and primary root are most completely differentiated. There is
nothing new in this treatment of the subject. It was employed in 1872 by
Professor Van Tieghem** in his paper on the anatomy of Grass seedlings, in
which he compares them with other Monocotyledons of the same age. Much
greater precision is possible, however, now that the microtome has come into
general use.

The literature of this subject has increased rapidly of late years. The list
of references in the footnote}! appended to this paragraph is, I fear, far from
complete. But it is no part of my plan to review this work critically. The
time is, perhaps, not ripe for such a review, and certainly the time at my
disposal to-day is quite insufficient for it. Perhaps I may be allowed to offer
some general remarks, first on the method itself, and then on the criticisms it
has encountered.

** Prof. Van Tieghem, Ann. Sec. Nat., ser. 5, xv., p. 236, 1872.
** The following references are arranged alphabetically :—

Arber, A., The Cactacee and the Study of Seedlings. New Phyt., 1X., p. 333,
1910.

Compton, R. H., An Investigation of the Seedling Structure in Leguminose.
Iinn. Soc. Journ. Bot., xli., p. 1, 1912.

de Fraine, Ethel. The Seedling Structure of certain Cactacee. Ann. Bot., XXIv.,
p. 125, 1910.

Hill, A. W. The Morphology and Seedling Structure of Peperomia. Ann. Bot.,
XXI., p. 395, 1906.

Hill, T. G. On the Seedling Structure of certain Piperales. Ann. Bot., xx., p- 160,
1906.

Hill, T. G., and de Fraine, Ethel. On the Seedling Structure of certain Centrosperme.
Ann. Bot., Xxv1., p. 175, 1912.

Hill, T. G., and de Fraine, Ethel. On the Influence of the Structure of the Adult Plant
upon the Seedling. New Phyt., xr., p- 319, 1912. :

Hill, T. G., and de Fraine, Ethel. A Consideration of the Facts relating to the Struc-
ture of Seedlings. Ann. Bot., Xxvtt., p. 258, 1913.

Lee, E. Observations on the Seedling Anatomy of certain Sympetale. Ann. Bot.,
XXVI., p. 727, 1912.

Sargant, E. A New Type of Transition from Stem to Root in the Vascular System of
Seedlings. Ann. Bot., xtv., p- 633, 1900.

eed E. The Origin of the Seed Leaf in Monocotyledons. New Phyt.,., p. 107,

Sargant, E. A Theory of the Origin of Monocotyledons, founded on the Structure of
their Seedlings. Ann. Bot., xvu., p. 1, 1903.

Sargant, E. The Evolution of Monocotyledons. Bot. Gaz., XXXVII., p: 325, 1904.

Smith, Winifred. The Anatomy of some Sapotaceous Seedlings. Trans. Linn.
Soc., series 2. Bot. vu, p. 189, 1909.

Tansley, A. G., and Thomas, E. N. Root Structure in the Central Cylinder of the
Hypocotyl. New Phyt., m1., p. 104, 1904.

Tansley, A. G.,and Thomas, E. N. The Phylogenetic Value of the Vascular Structure

ah of Se ae che bat Report, 1906.
omas, E. N. eory of the Double Leaf Trace, founde i
New Phyt., vi, p. 77, 1907. Pah esses Siepetnrs.
The references given above refer to Angiosperms only, but so much work of a

704 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

To compare the structure of organisms with each other is, of course, the
recognised method of comparative anatomy, of systematic botany, and, in fact,
of all branches of morphology. The great difficulty in all such work is to
distinguish between adaptive characters of comparatively recent origin and the
characters inherited from remote ancestors. The history of systematic botany
is very instructive in this respect. Systematists discovered by degrees, and by
means of repeated failures, that characters could not be picked out as important
for purposes of classification on @ priori grounds. No character is of uniform
importance throughout vascular plants, for example. On the contrary, it may
be of great value in the classification of one group and worthless in another,
though closely allied. Generations of botanists have laboured to build up the
Natural System in its present form, and it is constructed from the ruins of
abandoned systems. We all agree now that the guiding principle in all mor-
phology is that our classification should represent relationships founded on
descent only. But the Natural System was complete in its main features before
that principle was understood. It represented the feeling for real affinity
developed in botanists by the study of plant form, independently of any theory
as to the cause of such affinity.

This, of course, is the commonplace of botanical history, but we do not
always realise that all morphological work is done under similar conditions.
The only valid appeal from criticism is to the future : a new method is approved
by its results. Therefore, to embark on a new branch of morphology is a real
adventure. The morphologist risks much time and much labour. He knows
that the evidence which he proposes to gather painfully, to test critically, to
present logically, may, after all, prove of little consequence, and he has to
depend on his own instinct to lead him in the right course. In his degree he
resembles Columbus, to whom a few sea-borne seeds and nuts meant a new
continent.

Hence the difficulty of criticising recent work. When once a conclusion of
some importance has been formulated it may be tested by evidence drawn from
other branches of research. Until that time criticism from outside is of little
value. Those who are working at the subject must, of course, form their own
opinion on its possibilities, for each has to decide for himself whether he shall
continue on those lines.

The subject of seedling anatomy is no longer very new. It is too late now to
debate on the a priori probability of ancestral characters surviving in the young
seedling. No one doubts that a vascular stump sometimes persists after the
organ it originally supplied has disappeared.’* Therefore there is no glaring
improbability in the suggestion that the vascular skeleton of the young seedling
may afford a clue to the structure of a remote ancestor. But this is only saying
in other words that botanists are justified in giving the subject a fair trial. That
trial is now proceeding. Some general conclusions have been formulated already,
but they have not yet stood the test of time. In all probability the final judg-
ment on this subject will be given by a future generation of botanists on evidence
not as yet before us. In the meantime we shall all form our own opinion as to

similar nature has been done lately on Gymnospermous seedlings that I add a list of

the principal papers :—

Dorety, Helen A. Vascular Anatomy of the Seedling of Microcycas calocoma. Bot.
Gaz., Xtvu., p. 139, 1909.

Hill, T. G., and de Fraine, Ethel. The Seedling Structure of Gymnosperms. I., Ann.
Bot., Xxu., p. 689, 1908. II., id. xxmz., p. 189, 1909. III., cd. xxm., p. 433, 1909.
IV., id. Xxtv., p. 319, 1910.

Matte, H. L’appareil libéroligneux des Cycadies. Caen, 1904.

Shaw, F. J. F. The Seedling Structure of Araucaria Bidwillii. Ann. Bot., Xxut.,
p- 321, 1909.

Sykes, M. A. The Anatomy of Welwitschia mirabilis. . ... Trans. Linn. Soc., 2.
Bot. vii., p. 327, 1910.

Thiessen, Reinhardt. The Vascular Anatomy of the Seedling of Dioon edule. Bot.
Gaz., XLVI., p. 357, 1908.

12 Cf. the discussion of the homology of the Orchis-flower in Ch. Darwin’s

Fertilisation of Orchids, chap. xiii., p. 235 in second ed., 1888.

4 ghotgan dk

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 705

the prospects of the method. Speaking for myself, I think that it has already
thrown much light on embryological problems, and is likely to throw more.

At the end of this very short and imperfect sketch of the progress of botanical
embryology in recent years, it is natural to look back and attempt to estimate the
importance of the whole subject and its relation to other branches of botanical
science. J have treated it from the morphological side only, but clearly every
department of botany must deal with the immature plant as well as with the
adult form. For example, the struggle for existence between two species in any
particular locality must be profoundly affected by the characters of their seed-
lings. If one species should gain a decided advantage over the other early in
life, the vanquished species may never live to form seed, and may thus disappear
from that neighbourhood in the first generation. This is an extreme case to show
the importance of considering seedling structure in problems of ecology and
distribution.

The internal structure of seedlings is certainly a department of vegetable
anatomy, just as their adaptation to the conditions of life is a department of
vegetable physiology. That the connection between embryology and systematic
botany must be equally close seems at first sight to be beyond dispute, but the
exact nature of that connection is as yet undetermined. In systematic botany
we have the net result of an enormous mass of experience. Generations of
botanists have examined and described the external characters of plants; they
have arranged and rearranged them in groups until at last the instinct for
affinity has been satisfied. In this continual sifting of characters some have been
separated out as generally of systematic importance—the floral characters, for
example, and those of the seed. Certain features of the embryo are included
among those characters, as already mentioned, but, on the whole, systematists
have dealt exclusively with the adult plant. The embryo itself has been treated
rather as a portion of the seed than as an individual.

It would be rash to assume that seedling characters have been disregarded
by systematists because they were too busy with the fully-developed plant to
pay proper attention to the young forms. In all probability some of the earlier
botanists examined the external characters of seedlings and rejected them
when they proved of little systematic value. But embryology, like the other
branches of botany, entered on a new phase when the compound microscope
came into general use. It was commonly denied that the anatomical characters
of mature plants had systematic value until the test case of fossil botany was
decided in favour of anatomy. We need not be surprised that conclusions
drawn from the new embryology—that is, the embryology which includes internal
characters as well as external—sometimes appear to conflict with the results of
systematic botany, and it does not necessarily follow that embryological evidence
is of no systematic value. The fault may lie with the embryologists, who, being
Tuman, do occasionally misinterpret their facts, or possibly the natural system
may need some modification in the light of new knowledge. When both explana-
tions have failed to account for the discrepancy in a number of cases we may
be forced to give up looking for phylogenetic results from embryology.

And so in the end the appeal is again to Time, who—as Milton says—devours

“No more than what is false and vain,
And merely mortal dross.
So little is-our loss,
So little is thy gain.’

. The following Papers were then read :—

1. On the Nature of Life. By Professor J. Retnxe, Ph.D.

The more, after the united endeavours of zoologists and botanists, the essen-
tial concordance of animal and vegetable life has come to light, the more the
fundamental problem of science has come to the fore: What is the nature of life
and how is it to be explained?

Often people have tried to solve this problem more in accordance with pre-

1913. Zoe,

706 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

conceived opinions than with the methods of exact science, that simply asks and
inquires, unconcerned for the answer.

In the period preceding ours the dogma prevailed that the phenomena of
life ought to be interpreted merely mechanically. A plant and an animal ought
to be mechanisms, machines, nothing else, but of so complicated a construction
that analysis is even yet unable to explain this merely mechanical machinery.
In still older times people believed a vis vitalis to be active in the organism
that did not accord with any other power in nature and that caused life. But
this vis vitalis came more and more into contradiction with the principles of
science until at last the contrary doctrine arose, that life was only a complicated
example of the processes predominant in lifeless nature. This opinion was
fcunded on the knowledge that plants and animals are composed of chemical
combinations known also outside the organisms; that these combinations
influence one another according to the universal chemical laws; that everywhere
in the living body physical powers are active. In this manner physiology
becomes the chemistry and physics of organisms.

But the greater the progress in experimental physiology, the better we learn
to use our knowledge of non-living matter for the explanation of the processes
of life, the more we understand that a complete physico-chemical analysis is
impossible for any important process of life. Behind all the physico-chemical
facts found out by our physiological studies an unknown factor is hiding, an x
not to be solved by levers and screws and chemical reagents. For my part I
refuse both the exclusive vital and the exclusive mechanical dogma, but I do
not wish to subordinate the living to the lifeless matter and to draw from
the dominion of lifeless nature only parallels for the explanation of life.

I am sure that the laws of energy are valid in the organism as well as in
unorganised nature, and that the change of matter and of power in animals and
plants depends only on them. Life is based upon such transformations of
energy—I call them ‘ Elementarprozesse’—and these elementary processes are
bound to elementary mechanisms in the cells of animals and plants. These
elementary processes and elementary mechanisms are not thrown together with-
out order in the living body: they are united by an invisible string or chain
and this invisible chain or force that maintains the order among the elementary
processes represents the true difference between life and any event in lifeless
nature. I call it the ‘ Lebensprinzip.’ The single elementary processes are
accessible to physiological analysis; not so the ‘ Lebensprinzip.’ Therefore the
elementary processes form only one part of the living creature: the ‘ Lebens-
prinzip’ forms the other part. By the latter the former are united to a living
unity, an individual; and it can continue the individual in its offspring. In the
ontogeny each stage of development from the egg-cell to the adult state is
united by the ‘ Lebensprinzip.’

Each elementary process in animals and plants can be imagined by itself; not
so the ‘Lebensprinzip.’ It shows only the relations among the elementary pro-
cesses or mechanisms, therefore it is a law, that like all laws is invisible and
impalpable. The ‘Lebensprinzip’ is the ordered connection of the elementary
mechanisms within the living body; its ordered efficacy excludes an accidental
aggregation of the elementary mechanisms in the body of plants and animals.
Therefore life has its own laws as well as light, heat, chemistry : which does
not exclude the fact that the physico-chemical laws reign in the elementary pro-
cesses of a living body. Thus any mystical interpretation of the ‘ Lebens-
prinzip’ is excluded, as it was applicable to the old vis vitalis. The ‘Lebens-
prinzip’ is no force or power: it is a principle of succession, of order, of
regulation, of harmony. ‘

2. Ammonium Humate as a Source of Nitrogen for Plants.
By Professor W. B. Borromury, M.A.

In a communication to this Section last year attention was called to the
effect of soluble humates on plant growth. Further investigations show that
ammonium humate can supply the nitrogen need of plants if soluble phosphates
and potassium salts are present in the culture solution.

Pure ammonium humate was obtained by extracting bacteria-treated peat
with distilled water, precipitating humic acid from this extract by hydro-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 707

chloric acid, and after repeated washing of the humic acid adding just sufficient
ammonium hydrate to dissolve it. This was then diluted with distilled water
in the proportion of 1 humate to 200 water.

Maize seedlings, obtained by germinating maize seeds in moist sand and
when the roots were a few inches long cutting off the seed, were used for four
series of culture experiments, two plants in each series. After six weeks’
growth the following results were observed :—

Series 1.—Distilled water. Plants died.

Series 2.—Ammonium humate alone. Plants grew well in this at first; later
showed signs of starvation. Root development very strong, equal to roots
in normal culture solution 15 to 25 cms. long.

Series 3.—Ammonium humate with phosphates and potassium. Plants
showed stronger growth than those in normal culture solution, being taller and
having stouter stems and larger leaves: The root development was remarkable.
The majority of the roots were 30 cms. long and five roots measured to 45 cms.
each.

Series 4.—Normal culture solution (Detmer). Plants made healthy normal
growth. Roots 15 to 20 cms. long.

This effect, of ammonium humate on the development of the root system and
the general growth of plants has been further demonstrated by a series of
experiments on pelargoniums, salvias, carnations, begonias, and balsams at the
Royal Gardens, Kew; and on wheat, barley, oats, radish, turnips and tomatoes
at Chelsea Physic Gardens. ;

3. Juvenile Flowering in Eucalyptus globulus.
By Professor F. EB. Werss, D.Sc.

Cases of juvenile flowering are known for quite a large rumber of plants,
some of the most striking instances recorded being in the genus Rosa, in which
seedlings still in possession of their seed-leaves bear a terminal flower on a stem
not more than a few centimétres in height. Cockayne has recently drawn
attention to numerous cases of juvenile flowering met with among New Zealand
plants; and Diels, in his interesting book on ‘ Jugendformen und Bliithenreife,’
gives instances of a number of plants, largely belonging to the Australian Flora,
in which he has observed similar occurrences. In several cases Eucalypti,
which usually show a marked difference between the foliage of the immature
plant and the mature foliage, have been found in nature flowering on small
shrublike plants still possessing leaves of the immature type. Thus the plant
from Southern Tasmania, described by J. D. Hooker, under the name of
Eucalyptus Risdoni, was regarded by von Miller, in his ‘ Eucalyptographia,’ as
only a form of HZucalyptus amygdalina, differing from the latter only in the
possession of broad sessile leaves of immature type. It has been suggested that
the cooler climate of Tasmania prevents this species of Eucalyptus from growing
to proper vegetative maturity.

In a similar way Yucalyptus pulverulenta and Eucalyptus melanophloia seem
to be juvenile flowering forms of Hucalyptus Stuartiana and Hucalyptus crebra
respectively.

I have so far not seen recorded the occurrence of the same phenomenon in
Bucalyptus globulus, but during the past year a case has occurred in my green-
house. A young plant of this species, growing in a six-inch pot, was cut down
after its first year’s growth to the height of about two feet. One of the
lateral buds then grew out and became the leader, developing in the autumn
a number of flower buds in the axils of five pairs of leaves of the type usual
to young plants—namely, broad and rounded at the base, bilaterally symme-
trical and covered with bloom. During the winter the buds grew normally to full
size, and the flowers of normal size opened during the month of June, when the
plant was little more than two years old. Several of them were fertilised and
have set seed. It is of interest to note that in the same greenhouse a plant
which has been grown freely for many years has produced neither flower buds
nor mature foliage. On the other hand, a plant two years of age, of which the
main stem was cut back this spring to the dormant axillary buds of the cotyle-
dons, threw up two shoots from these buds, one of which beeame a leader, and

ZZ2

708 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

this has developed a few flower buds which will, I hope, open next spring or
summer. It is clear, therefore, that, as in the case of other species of this
genus, Yucalyptus globulus is also able, under certain conditions, to produce
flowers on juvenile plants.

4. Histology of the Leptoids in Polytrichum. By Marcarer Hur.

The leptoids in Polytrichum do not deserve the name of sieve-tubes in any
ordinary sense of the word. Their contents differ from those of tlie other living
cells in never including starch grains or large drops of oil, but each leptoid
has a nucleus. They are rich in connecting threads, which are especially thickly
aggregated in the terminal walls, and are also abundantly present in the lateral
walls, towards the ends of the cells. The threads occasionally show an arrange-
ment into definite areas as in the sieve-plate, but are more frequently quite
diffusely scattered. Where such plate-like areas occur there is no change in the
thickness of the cell-wall. The area of the terminal wall is enormously increased
by its bag-like shape, so that the end of one cell depends into the lumen of
the next.

The connecting threads do not differ in structure from those found in the
cortical cells, and they do not appear to undergo any progressive change into
slime-strings, with accompanying alteration of the surrounding cellulose into
callus.

Histological arguments in favour of the conduction of organised food
materials by the leptoids must be based upon the elongated shape of the cells,
the great area of their terminal walls, and the wealth of connecting threads,
especially aggregated towards the ends of the cells.

Irom direct experiment, the conducting function of the leptoids seems, more
probably, to be confined to albuminous materials, and not to be concerned with
carbohydrates. The latter are possibly conveyed in the hydroids which, it
seems likely, have not a purely water-conducting function.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Fossil Plants showing Structure from the Base of the Lower Car-
boniferous of Kentucky. By Professor E. C. Jurrrey and
Dr DME. Scorr) ForSec. Res.

‘he specimens were collected by Prof. C. R. Eastman, near Junction City,
Boyle County, Kentucky; they come from the nodule-bearing layer at the
bottom of the Waverley shale, at the base of the Lower Carboniferous, and are
among the oldest known land-plants with their structure preserved.

The following specimens have been investigated :—

1. Calamopitys americana, sp. nov.

A stem allied to C. annularis (Unger): remarkable for the mixed pith,
containing tracheides, and for the paired leaf-trace bundles in the wood. The
leaf-base has the structure of Kalymma.

2. Kalymma petioles, no doubt belonging to Calamopitys americana or allied
species.

3. Calamopteris Hippocrepis, sp. nov., a petiole of the Kalymma group, but
with the bundles arranged in a horse-shoe form, and largely fused.

The above-mentioned fossils are clearly members of the transitional group,
Cycadofilices or Pteridospermee.

4. Archeopitys Hastmanii, gen. et sp. nov.

A stem with dense secondary wood and numerous small mesarch strands of
xylem scattered in the pith. Probably one of the Cordaitales, allied to Pitys.

5. Periastron perforatum, sp. nov.

A curious petiole with a median row of separate vascular bundles and large

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 709

lacunz in the ground tissue. Clearly allied to the P. reticulatum of Unger.
Whether a Pteridosperm or a Fern cannot be determined.

6. Stereopteris annularis, gen. et sp. nov.

A petiole, with a single large vascular bundle, somewhat resembling that of
Clepsydropsis or Asterochlana in form, but with solid wood, and external
protoxylem. Cortex differentiated into several distinct zones,

Probably a Fern, with some affinity to the Zygopterider.

7. Lepidostrobus Fischeri, sp. nov.

One of the oldest known fructifications with structure. The axis is of an
ordinary Lepidostrobus type, the sporangia have the usual columnar wall, and the
spores are in tetrads.

A full account of these fossils will shortly be submitted to the Royal Society.

2. On a New Type of Ginkgoalian Leaf.
By H. Hamsuaw Tuomas, M.A.

In the Jurassic plant-bed of Cayton Bay, near Scarborough, a number of
beautifully preserved leaves occur which belong to a new type. They are linear
or oblanceolate in shape, with rounded or slightly bifurcated apices, short
petioles, and dichotomising venation. The leaves are usually found in a
mummified state; they can be readily detached from the rock, and yield
beautiful cuticular preparations. The form of the stomata and subsidiary
cells is very similar to that of other Ginkgoalian leaves, while they possessed
the secretory. tracts between the veins as seen in the modern form. The
epidermal cells possess very characteristic papille.

These leaves form the type of a new genus Hretmophyllum with two species,
a second form having been found at Whitby. The specimens provide a further
illustration of the importance of the Ginkgoales in the Mesozoic vegetation,
while they are an example of the interesting preservation of some Yorkshire
plants and of the importance of the study of cuticular structure.

3. A New Species of Medullosa from the Lower Coal Measures.
By EH. ve Fraine, D.Sc.

The specimen consisted of a short length of stem surrounded by adherent
leaf-bases, and occurred in a coal-ball obtained from the Lower Coal Measures
of Lancashire.

The stem was of small size, the diameters of the transverse section being
only 5 cms. X15 em., including the leaf-bases.

The vascular system of the stem consisted in the upper sections of three
irregularly shaped outer steles, roughly triangular in outline; one of these steles
branched during the length of stem available so that the lower sections of the
series show a ring of four steles. The outer ring of steles encircles a small
central strand or ‘ star ring,’ which undergoes no change during the series, and
forms the characteristic feature of the fossil. A narrow zone of periderm en-
closed the vascular tissues of the stem.

The numerous leaf-traces passed out from the peripheral parts of the outer
steles. The leaf-bases showed a typical Myeloxylon structure with numerous
exarch collateral bundles and abundant gum canals, and the hypoderma was of
the Myeloxylon Landriotii type. In the general structure of the steles and
of the leaf-bases and in its histological details the stem shows a very close
resemblance to Medullosa anglica.

4. The Pinna-Trace in the Filicales.
By BR. C. Davin, M.A., B.Sc.

There are two main types of vascular supply to the pinne in the Filicales.
The ‘marginal’ type occurs generally from leaf-traces which have no hooks
at their ends; the ‘extramarginal’ appears regularly in connection with leaf-
traces possessing incurved hooks. The ‘marginal’ type is found, however, in

710 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

Aneimia and in some species of Dicksonia, in which the leaf-traces have more
or less hooked ends.

Variations of the usual methods of pinna-supply appear in Loxsoma
Cunninghami R. Br., Onoclea sensibilis, L., Hymenophyllum demissum (Forst.),
Sw., and Nothochlena affinis (Mett.) Moore, suggesting intermediate stages
between the marginal and extramarginal types. In some species of Pteris and
Hypolepis and in some of the Cyatheacee there is a combination of marginal and
extramarginal types.

The supply to the ultimate pinne is always marginal, and the supply to the
pinne in the earliest leaves is also marginal.

5. The Centripetal and Centrifugal Xylem in the Petiole of Cycads.
By M. J. LeGoc, B.A., Ph.D.

The cycads possess a number of characters which may be considered as sign-
posts pointing out the path followed by some of the higher plants in the course
of their evolution from more primitive forms. A noteworthy example is the
peculiar structure of the foliar bundle with its double xylem arrangement, one
portion centripetal (cpx.), the other centrifugal (cfx.).

Two main interpretations of this structure have been given by different
investigators.

(1) The foliar bundle is mesarch, agreeing closely with the Lyginopteris
type.

(2) The bundle is mesarch only in appearance. In reality it is normal, and
is the result of the xylem curving backwards into an inverted omega-like
structure.

Observations.—My observations bear mainly on the transition from the cfx.
into the cpx. at the base of the petiole.

In an adult petiole, though the bundles at the very base assume different
forms, they possess, however, a common and constant character, i.e. the xylem
is strictly and exclusively centrifugal ; it is like the continuation of the stelar
bundle. But this character is gradually lost as one passes higher up in the
petiole; some of the rows of xylem are lateral, while here and there appear
lignified cells decidedly centripetal. With the constant increase of the cpx.
there is a corresponding decrease of the cfx., which becomes very much reduced
and consists only of a few cells scattered in a matrix of parenchyma. In a
young petiole the amount of lignified cfx. is small at the base, while disappear-
ing altogether a short distance higher up, where the lignification of the cpx. has
begun. Wounds produced in a young petiole have induced interesting structures.
Large bundles made of transfusion cells have been formed in order to bring the
severed bundles of the upper part into communication with the lower part of
the petiole. In addition a considerable number of the neighbouring bundles
have been influenced by the wound; the activity of the cambium has been
increased, the cfx. and cpx. are joined laterally, and secondary xylem has
been produced: all round the bundles, which consequently have a concentric
appearance.

Interpretation.—The arrangement of the xylem, cambium, and phloem
elements in regular rows, separated by medullary rays at the base of petiole, has
led some writers to suppose that the cfx. is of secondary origin. But this alone
is no sufficient proof, because such structures are met with in primary tissues.
If, however, we have constantly found the number of lignified cells in an adult
bundle to exceed the number of cells included between the cambium and the
first cpx. cell in a young petiole, we are necessarily led to the conclusion that
secondary growth occurs at its base.

On the other hand, the cpx. is primary wherever it occurs; there is no trace
of cambium in the vicinity, and the cells are well defined before undergoing
the process of lignification.

But it is evident that a primary growth cannot be the continuation of a
secondary structure, and therefore we are led to think that the cfx. and cpx.
are two different structures, morphologically independent, though physiologi-
cally connected for performing their conductive functions. This independence

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 711

is visible to the eye in many instances where the two xylems are seen to run
quite apart from one another for » great distance.

Wound structures are usually said to be primitive; if so, they are very
instructive, for we have seen that the bundles thus influenced assume a con-
centric appearance and repeat the stages met with in the base of the petiole.
We could then trace along either of these lines the history of the evolution of
the foliar vascular tissue. Unfortunately the assumption is not yet proved
as a general principle, and we are perhaps better inspired in explaining these
abnormal structures as an attempt made by the plant to meet a physiological
need.

As far as evidence from traumatic structures is concerned, the problem
stands where we left it. Our final conclusions are therefore :—

The cfx. at the base is in great part a secondary growth, the cpx. is a
primary structure; both are consequently independent morphologically. The
two xylems overlap at their ends, are connected for a physiological function,
and their reducéd extremities point to a time when possibly they ran parallel
throughout their whole course.

6. Variation of Structure and Colour of Flowers under Insolation.
By Colonel H. E. Rawson, C.B., R.E.

This paper was a continuation of one communicated to Section K in 1908,
entitled ‘ Colour Changes in Flowers produced by Controlling Insolation.” The
same method has been followed throughout of shading off with a perfectly
opaque screen all direct rays of the sun for certain selected intervals of daylight,
while admitting all the diffuse light possible. In the conservatories the condi-
tions have been those of ordinary domestication, an uralite roof to the lantern,
with the shelves and framing being sufficient, together with the aspect of the
buildings, to modify the sunlight as required. In the open garden vertical
screens, in combination with others at a height and not necessarily overhead, but
capable of being raised or lowered, sliding upon a fixed bar, and set horizontally
or at any desired angle, have been adopted.

The garden nasturtium (Z'ropwolum majus) has continued to be used for the
experiments, the history of each individual being carefully kept from the
beginning in April 1905, but plants grown from English seed have been added
for comparison with those from the seeds brought from South Africa. The same
care has been taken as previously to keep all the conditions but those of ex-
posure to direct sunlight the same, all the plants being looked after by one
person and no fertilisers of any kind employed.

The new mauve variety obtained in Pretoria by the method of screening,
whose seed was brought to England in 1907 and came true, now flowers and
seeds freely in any aspect and amongst any other varieties. Three plants left
behind with a friend and not screened at the selected intervals gave less and
ae seed each year until no seed matured, and in 1911 the variety became extinct
there.

Sterility.—When any material change has been made in the colouring-
pigments of the petals the flowers always show a marked tendency to be sterile.
In one case only two seeds were obtained from forty-three flowers. Nothing
abnormal may appear in the gyneceum, but the ovary does not develop and soon
atrophies. Seeds of the mauve variety are now frequently of a purple colour,
and the syncarpous gyneceum may consist of as many as five coherent carpels.
On the other hand, the gynzeceum is sometimes considerably modified, and in
one case was apocarpous, four carpels being symmetrically arranged round a fifth
in the centre, which pushed out a succession of ovaries until the whole was
10 mm. long. This plant was one of three which under somewhat similar con-
ditions grew a secondary flower directly out of the seed of the first and developed
a second seed therefrom. One of the latter seeds put out a small stalked leaf
from a seam at the top, the blade of which was apparently designed to protect
the base of the pistil from the full sun to which it was being exposed. On
observing this the whole seed was enclosed in a calico bag, and it was the only
one of the three to mature. In all three cases additional whorls of leaves
appeared in the gyneceum so as to surround and cover the reproductive organs,

712 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

suggesting the development of a variety with double flowers for the first time
from these plants.

Stem.—-Strong evidence has been obtained of the existence during the colour-
changes of a coupling between the colour of the stem and that of the subsequent
flowers. In no case has a plant which has been grown from seed borne flowers
of the mauve variety if any trace of red pigment has previously appeared in the
stem, cotyledons, or foliage-leaves. Fasciation which did not occur in the
earlier years is not infrequent now. The normal racemose inflorescence of the
elongated main axis and of the branches has been much modified, the stalked
leaves being suppressed altogether, or appearing in a very much reduced form
upon the axis of the flower itself. The latter is now common in the case of the
branches, and when the leaves are entirely suppressed it resembles a cymose
inflorescence, in which each relatively main axis bears one lateral branch. On
the main axis of the plant two stalked leaves and two axillary flowers will arise
at the same node.

Plants of dwarf habit have appeared, though there were none originally.
This character has been much studied. It has never been transmitted by the
seed unless careful attention has been paid to the screening and a maximum
amount of low sun afforded. Screened seedlings have now continued the habit
for three generations, while unscreened from the same parent have reverted to
climbers.

No difficulty has been experienced in keeping these annuals alive a second
and third year, however much the colouring-pigments may have been changed.
One plant is now in its fourth year. This recalls the fact that perennial varieties
of the species are established and recognised.

Flowers.—A method has been devised by which the changes that the
colouring-pigments undergo are recorded and reproduced by colour photography
(lantern slides). This has enabled the effect of screening the same variety at
different hours to be observed and the results to be classified. Markings on
petals have been removed altogether, or, in other cases, intensified and enlarged
so as to suffuse the whole face. Honey-guides have been removed.

Nothing has been done to prevent the mauve variety from fertilising or
being fertilised by the other varieties, and it is probable that all now contain,
though in a masked form, the colouring-pigments which go to make up the mauve
colour. The latter is now to be seen in a large variety of shades. To produce
modifications in any colouring-pigment it is not now necessary to screen the
whole plant from the time the seedling appears. Each branch may be screened
differently and slight but distinct colour-variations are obtained in the flowers.
In one case where a plant was treated in this way, in an isolated bed, two new
varieties were obtained in the following year from its self-sown seed. One of
these bore simultaneously flowers varying from primrose to suffused rosy-fawn,
many being cream splashed with rose. It was identified as a climbing variety
of Aurora which is mentioned in Nicholson’s Supplement, 1900, to ‘ Illustrated
Dictionary of Gardening’ as a recent introduction. A large number of plants is
now annually obtained which are variable as to colour, and this variation is
being transmitted through the seed. A salmon-pink with mauve patches has
appeared, recalling a variety of Antirrhinum majus which sports in the same
way. Four new varieties have appeared in 1913.

Structural Changes.—Besides those changes which have already been referred
to, flowers with a short blunt spur (a recognised variety), or with none at all,
or with two and three spurs, have become common, and are transmitted through
the seed. Such flowers modify the petals. as many as six sessile petals or four
sessile and two unguiculate arising instead of the normal two sessile and three
unguiculate.

Sun’s Altitude.—The experiments which have now extended over eight years
definitely point to a connection between the variations of colour and structure
and the sun’s altitude, both seasonal and diurnal. Since January 1911 they have
been followed with the microscope and the modifications noted, not only of the
colouring-pigments contained in the cells, but of the forms of the epidermal
papillary cells themselves.

There seems little room for doubt that by this method of screening, which
departs but slightly from the conditions to be found in nature, metabolism has

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 113

been affected, and changes of colour and structure produced which can be
reproduced in other individuals.

It is suggested that an explanation is to be found in the fact that solar rays
of different refrangibility are transmitted through the atmosphere at different
altitudes. Many instances have occurred of low sun modifying crimson colouring-
pigments so that the yellow predominated, and of the highest sun available in
these islands promoting the purple and violet pigments. Some red pigments,
but not all, can be intensified by intermediate sun. Should these results be
confirmed by independent investigators, they would afford a clue to many obscure
problems of which correlated variation and variation under domestication may
be specially mentioned.

7. Some Investigations in Anlhocyan Formation.
By W. Netson Jones, M.A.

A series of papers dealing with the problems of pigmentation in plants have
recently been published: the present paper is concerned with some points of
special interest that have arisen in this work.

1. Coloured petals of stocks, &c., soaked in 95 per cent. alcohol become
colourless; transferred to water they regain their original colour.

It is believed that a pigment-producing mechanism and also a reducing body
are present in the petals. The amount of water in the cells determines which
way the pigment reaction shall go: in strong alcohol (95 per cent.) reduction
occurs and the petals become colourless; in weak alcohol or water oxidation
takes place, resulting in the production of pigment. It appears, further, that
considerable quantities of reserve ‘raw material’ occur in some coloured
flowers (e.g., stock) from which pigment can be produced. The darkening of
many flowers on fading is explicable on this hypothesis as being due to this
‘raw material’ coming into action. %

2. Benzidine gives a blue colour with a solution of oxidase prepared from
bran (bran+water+H,0.). JMJethyl quinol gives no reaction with this oxidase
solution alone, but on the addition of a trace of benzidine becomes oxidised
to a red colour. Methyl quinol thus behaves towards benzidine as an epistatic
member of a colour series (e.g., in Primula sinensis) to a hypostatic—that is,
it is able to manifest itself only if the hypostatic member is present. (In this
reaction the benzidine probably plays the part of a carrier of oxygen to the
methyl quinol.)

Although it is dangerous to argue from analogy, in default of other evidence
it would seem likely that the colours of an epistatic series were due to different
substances behaving as methyl quinol above, rather than to the action of
specific oxidases.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Development of the Apothecium in the Lichen Peltigera.
By O. V. DarBisHirE.

Pycnidospores, or spermatia, are very rare indeed in this genus, and their
occurrence seems to be confined to a few species, and is even here very rare.
Yet we find that in certain species apothecia are formed in great numbers.
Fuenfstueck and Baur have examined Peltigera, and without going into nuclear
details the latter described it as a case of apogamy.

The following additional details have been made out. Growth of the vegeta-
tive thallus is mainly marginal, though new hyphe may be intercalated be-
tweeu the old upright hyphe of the cortex. It is amongst the young marginal
hyphe that we find the beginning of the fruit. Certain cells of the medullary

1 ¥. Keeble, E. Frankland Armstrong, W. Neilson Jones. The Formation of
Anthocyan Pigments in Plants, Parts iv, and vi,

714 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

hyphez, which may be followed out some distance back into the older parts of
the thallus, swell up and stain more deeply than the others. They are at first
uninuclear, but soon become multinuclear as they increase in size. Fusions
with neighbouring cells are common, but no transference of nuclei has been
observed. Soon we get a mass of closely interwoven cells full of cytoplasm and
containing numerous nuclei. No coiled carpogonia can be made out, but taken
as a whole these darkly stained cells can be seen to form part of a connected
system of branched hyphze coming from the medulla further back, and passing
into the cortical margin. The multinuclear condition seems to be due to simul-
taneous nuclear divisions in the cells, and not to any passage of nuclei from
cell to cell. When nuclear division is still active, long unbranched but multi-
cellular hyphe can be seen to grow out towards the cortex, forcing their way
through the latter generally at an oblique angle. These are from structure and
appearance functionless trichogynes. They gradually disappear. Certain of
the large cells—the ‘ascogonia ’—now grow out, and the nuclei formed by simul-
taneous division—that is to say, female nuclei—pass into the ascogenous hyphe,
thus formed, in pairs. From these the asci appear to derive their first nucleus
in the usual way.

2. The Structure and Life-history of Verrucaria margaracea, an
Aquatic Lichen. By Miss EB. M. Poutton, M.Sc.

The thallus is a small, more or less circular disc, attached to pebbles at the
bottom of streams. It is very thin, and its morphological characters change
with advancing age. It was found that the ascospores were unseptate, unisep-
tate, biseptate, or triseptate, depending upon their maturity. They could,
however, germinate in any of these states. They invariably germinated en masse
while within the perithecium, the tuft of entangled hyphe thus produced being
expelled through the ostiole and forming an admirable device for catching the
Algal cells floating in the water.

3. The Biology of the Apple Canker Fungus, Nectria ditissima, Tul.
By 8. P. Witrsnire. ‘

Nectria ditissima is a genuine wound parasite. The normal reaction of the
cortex to injury is the formation of a phellogen layer over the exposed area, and
so inoculations can only be successful when the injury is deep enough for the
fungus to reach the wood; otherwise the diseased portion is surrounded by the
phellogen, the tree thus healing itself of the disease.

The fungus travels across the cortex through the intercellular spaces, across
the phloem and cambium by mechanically breaking through the cell walls (dis-
integration of the tissue soon following), and then traverses the woody elements
and pith through the pits in the walls. The medullary rays do not form a special
means of entrance to the wood.

The reactions of the host against the disease are the formation of

(1) Phellogen, at the limits of the infected region in the cortex;

(2) Abnormal wood of cells very similar to those of the medullary rays, and
containing ‘gum sacs’ ;

(3) Wound gum in the wood vessels—which substance, however, ca
penetrated by the hyphe.

The mycelium may possibly be able to travel about the stem and break tout
to form a fresh canker, but such is probably abnormal, the extent of the hyphe
usually remaining quite local. No trace of an invisible hibernating mycelium
has been found in apparently healthy shoots.

The chief means of inoculation in nature are injuries made by (1) frost;
(2) Schizoneura lanigera—the woolly aphis. In both cases the bark is burst by
the swelling of various tissues.

The relatively immune varieties of apple readily infect if inoculated through
suitable injuries. Investigations into the thickness of the bark, the rate of
reaction to injury, and the growing power of the fungus in the sap have given
negative results, suggesting that the determining factor is physiological.

be

~

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 715

4. Conditions necessary for the Germination of the Spores of Coprinus
sterquilinus, Fr. By M. L. Baven.

Many workers have experienced a difficulty in germinating the spores of
various species of coprophilous Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes, in some cases
it being found impossible to germinate them at all in nutrient solutions. The
same difficulty had to be contended with in the case of Coprinus sterquilinus
Fr., growing on horse-dung. Attempts were made to germinate the spores in
various solutions of different strengths, acidity, &c., for several weeks without
success. Eventually vigorous germination occurred in one particular solution,
but it was found, on staining, that numerous bacteria were present. Hanging-
drop cultures of the spores in media with and without the bacteria were there-
fore made, and in every case it was found that the spores germinated at once
in the cultures with bacteria, but never at all in those without. This led to
the conclusion that in some way the bacteria are necessary for the germination
of the spores of Coprinus sterquilinus Fr. The connection between the bacteria
and the spores seems to continue for some time after the commencement of
germination, since the bacteria completely cover the mycelium at certain points,
particularly where branching occurs. In exactly what way the bacteria are of
benefit to the spores it is not possible to say, but the following suggestions are
made. The bacteria may produce certain substances which react on the spores
in such a way as to soften the wall and thereby make germination possible.
Schmidt found that certain chemical reagents were necessary for germination
at temperatures above 40° C. It is not unlikely that the bacteria produce the
same effect as the reagents, which may even be a product of the bacteria them-
selves. On the other. hand, the bacteria may remove any by-products which
happen to be produced by the fungus, germination being impossible while such
are present. Since various bacteria are always present in the alimentary canal
of animals, it is quite feasible that there should be some connection between
them and the spores, and that the two should aid one another.

5. The Organisation of the Hymenium in the Genus Coprinus,
By Professor A. H. Recinatp BuLirr.

1. Most species of Coprinus have four sports on each basidium, but in
Coprinus bisporiga Buller (as yet undescribed) the basidia usually have two
spores each, and but rarely one. No three- or four-spored basidia have been
observed in this species. In (. narcoticus most of the basidia are normally
trisporigous, but a few occasional ones are quadrisporigous. Coprinus
narcoticus is the only trisporigous Hymenomycete known to the author.

2. In Coprinus (neglecting the cystidia which are present in some species
and absent in others), the hymenium consists of fertile basidia and sterile
paraphyses. The latter are useful as spacial agents, in thaf they prevent the
spores on adjacent simultaneously maturing basidia from touching one another.

3. In most species of Coprinus the basidia are dimorphic. Long, obviously
protuberant, basidia and short, practically non-protuberant, basidia are inter-
spersed among one another, so as to form a mosaic-work which is of such a
kind that the spores of the long basidia are further from the surface of the
hymenium than the spores of the short basidia, and so that they frequently
overlap the latter without touching them. The dimorphism of the basidia permits
of a closer packing of the basidia on the hymenium than would otherwise be
possible. Hymenial space is thus economised for spore production. In the
zone of spore discharge, which proceeds upwards on each gill, the long basidia
discharge their spores a short time before the immediately adjacent short
basidia. The spores of the short basidia, at the time when they are shot out
into the interlamellar spaces, are thus prevented from colliding with the spores
of the longer basidia. In Coprinus micaceus the basidia are quadrimorphic.

4. The dimorphism of the basidia in the genus Coprinus was discovered by
the author after the publication of his ‘ Researches on Fungi’ in 1909. A short
account of the phenomenon was given in the Transactions of the British Myco-

716 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

logical Society in 1911, but without illustrations. The present paper was accom-
panied with a full set of illustrations, which the author hopes to publish in
1914 in an additional volume of his ‘Researches on Fungi.’

6. The Structure, Life-history, and Systematic Position of the Genus
Microspora. By Professor G. 8. Wrst, M.A., D.Sc.

Although various species of Microspora are amongst the commonest of Green
Alge, their structure and life-histories have been very imperfectly known, a
state of affairs which has resulted in much controversy regarding the systematic
position of the genus. The published accounts of the cytology of the genus
are in general very defective. In M/. twmidula and one or two others the cell-
wall becomes disarticulated into H-pieces on the liberation of the zoogonidia or
on the death and decay of the filament. In M, stagnorum and others the cell-
wall never breaks in this manner. The chloroplast is a reticulum of variable
character, but with the exception of M. stagnorum is fairly constant for each
species. Pyrenoids do not occur.

The zoogonidia were biciliated in all the cases observed, and arose singly
from the vegetative cells. In M. twmidula they are liberated by the dissociation
of the entire filament into H-pieces, but in M. stagnorum their liberation is
brought about by the rapid conversion into mucilage of the lateral walls.
Various conditions intermediate between these two types of zoospore-liberation
are found in other species.

Aplanospores and akinetes are formed in most species, the akinetes of
M. floccosa being the most frequently met with. If kept in water these
akinetes were found to undergo no change for a period of two years, but if dried
for a few weeks and then placed in water they very soon germinated, growing
directly into a new Microspora-filament.

No gametes were observed in any of the species.

A careful consideration of the characters of the various species indicates that
Microspora is best placed in a separate family, the Microsporacee, of the
Ulotrichales.

7. Zygnema ericetorum and its Position in the Zygnemacee.
By Professor G. 8. West, M.A., D.Sc., and Miss C. B. Starkey, M.Sc.

A careful cytological examination of specimens of this Alga from various
localities reveals the fact that the chromatophores have been incorrectly
described. There is only one chloroplast in each cell, remarkable for its com-
paratively entire margin. It is deeply constricted in the middle, and the
nucleus reposes in the constriction. One conspicuous pyrenoid is present in
each half of the chloroplast, which may sometimes be twisted through 180° at
the point of constriction, Cells with two chloroplasts are unusual and generally
abnormal.

A cytological examination of Zygnema pachydermum, described in 1894 from
the West Indies, shows that vegetatively this Alga is identical with Z. erice-
torum, and moreover its conjugation is quite normal as in other species of
Zygnema. Hence, it appears highly probable that the genus Zygogonium as
upheld by De Bary (1858), Wille (1909), and others, is based upon an error,
since the conjugated specimens of ‘Zygogonium didymum’ (= Zygnema erice-
torum) figured by De Bary are very likely monstrous forms.

8. Evidence which shows that Mutation and Mendelian Splitting are
Different Processes. By Dr. R. Ruaates Gates.

Definite evidence has been obtained showing that some at least of the muta-
tions of CEnothera are not due to recombinations of Mendelian characters, as
various writers have assumed, but to irregularities in meiosis, which lead to
changes in nuclear structure. The cases of @. lata and @. semilata only will
be referred to in this paper, because they offer a means of differentiating be-
tween characters which are inherited from the parents and those which arise as

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. raw;

a result of unequal or irregular chromosome distribution during meiosis. Miss
Lutz and myself have independently shown that the mutant lata possesses 15
chromosomes instead of 14, and with the valuable help of Miss Nesta Thomas
I have recently shown that the same is true of semilata. We have since found
that all individuals possessing the foliage and habit of lata or semilata contain
15 chromosomes, even when these characters are associated with others derived
by inheritance from their parental forms.

Thus, in a mutating race of @. biennis from Madrid, one mutant was @.
lata biennis, having lata foliage and biennis flowers. This plant has 15 chromo-
somes, and must have originated through a meiotic irregularity. Again in the
F, of @. rubricalyx x G. grandiflora two individuals appeared in one family,
having data foliage and habit combined with rubricalyx pigmentation. This
lata rubricalyx type also has 15 chromosomes, showing that in addition to the
characters derived by inheritance from the cross, the lata foliage appears when-
ever the fertilised egg contains 15 chromosomes.

Such instances show definitely that mutation is a process which is independent
of the recombinations of characters such as occur in hybrids.

The source of the 15 chromosomes was shown several years ago to lie in
occasional irregularities in the distribution of the chromosomes during reduction.
In such cases, two pollen grains of a pollen tetrad receive eight chromosomes,
and the other two receive six. When an egg having seven chromosomes is fer-
tilised by a male cell from a pollen grain with eight, the resulting individual
will have 15 chromosomes and the foliage of lata or semilata.

The extra chromosome, which is a triplicate of a pair already present, is
thus associated with the development of certain foliage characters in (inothera
in the same way that the accessory chromosome, when present in duplicate is,
in certain insects, associated with the development of female sex characters.
This is apparently the first case in plants in which a definite relation has been
shown to exist between a chromosome and particular external characters.

The extra chromosome in CEnothera sometimes changes its behaviour in
meiosis, dividing in the first instead of the second meiotic division. The same
thing sometimes happens to one of the ordinary chromosomes.

9. Epiphyllous Vegetation. By Professor W. H. Lane, F.R.S.

10. The Preservation of the British Flora. By A. R. Horwoop.

So urgent has this matter become that it is important that the Botanical
Section of this Association should discuss the question with a view to the
possibility of taking some preventive steps. A committee of the Association
was appointed for this purpose, and reported in 1886 and subsequently on the
subject. The question then turned upon the prevalence of hawking and collect-
ing, and the results. The raison d’étre of the present communication is entirely
different, the facts upon which it is based, derived from all parts of the British
Isles, being then unknown. Whilst this factor is even greater to-day, there
are indeed other causes at work on a widespread scale, which demand the atten-
tion of all botanists, as they seriously affect that new and increasingly important
branch of botany, ecology. At the same time, any causes affecting the status
of species will be viewed with apprehension by those who study systematic
botany.

Briefly there are certain natural or artificial factors that are difficult to
control except in special ways, and it is to solve these, and to elicit some infor-
mation as to the extent of their effect, that this subject is introduced.

It is established that drought now recurs in cycles. During 1911 several
instances of the extermination of plants were communicated to the author, and
others were personally noted. If they are to be expected every few years some
steps should be taken to prevent their effect being disastrous. Montane and
ericetal species are particularly susceptible. Bog-pools are also liable to be
completely dried up.

Drainage is a great factor in disturbing the natural vegetation of the
country. A single instance, the Fens, suffices to show how great such an effect

718 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K,

can be. Fortunately some parts of it remain to show the special type of vegeta-
tion, but these are disappearing. Peat-cutting in Ireland has an effect of much
the same nature, and thereby bogs are turned into tussocky pasture of Juncetum
communis type.

Cultivation following tree-felling and drainage has produced the prevalent
mesophytic vegetation of the Midlands and elsewhere. Tree-felling has been
influential in converting the country entirely from natural woodland to arti-
ficial meadows and pasture. Forestry has been much neglected in the past, and
apart from the effect on the moisture of a district, the neglect to plant trees
where they are cut, except where afforestation associations exist, destroys the
natural ground flora.

Golf links are extremely detrimental to those plants that only grow on sand-
dunes and contiguous tracts along the coast, limited in area, and also inland
heaths, now few in number.

It is suggested that in every case where such causes (only a few have been
mentioned) are at work, an endeavour should be made to obtain in the case of
an association of plants, a reservation, and in that of a single station for a rare
plant, some adequate means of protection. The author, as Recorder of the Plant
Protection Section of the Selborne Society, will be glad to receive information
and advice thereupon.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. Notes on Stellaria graminea,

By A. S. Horne, B.Sc., F.G.S.

These notes related to variability in the flower of Stellaria graminea collected
in Surrey and by the kindness of Dr. Moss in the Fen near Abbot’s Repton.

The diameter of the corolla in flowers belonging to individual plants, in
S. graminea, may measure 4 mm., 15 mm., or intermediate lengths; whereas it
exceeds 20 mm. in 8S. palustris.

The width of the petal-segments may reach ‘5 mm., 2 mm., or intermediate
measurements in S. graminea, but exceeds 2 mm., and may reach 4 mm., in
S. palustris.

The stamens may be all very short (less than 4 sepals) and sterile, or all
long (exceeding the sepals) and fertile, or of several intermediate types in
S. graminea.

The correlation between the above-mentioned characters was explained by
means of a table.

With the assistance of Mr. E. C. Titschmarsh, of the R.H.S. School of
Horticulture, certain plants were treated experimentally (transplanted, propa-
gated vegetatively, and seedlings raised).

In one experiment, the flowers of a plant called B, 145 mm.-15 mm. cor.
diam., 1 mm.-1°2 mm. cor. lobe, and stamens longest type, in several cultures,
after nineteen days changed to 6'4 mm. cor. diam., “7 mm. cor. lobe, with stamens
correspondingly reduced in size; whilst another form, A, 9 mm. cor. diam.,
1 mm. cor. lobe, and stamens of an intermediate type (3 sepals), remained un
changed. The experimentally produced flowers of the B plant approximate
closely to those of very small flowered plants in Nature, such as 4 mm. cor.
diam., ‘7 mm. cor. lobe, with stamens 4 sepals, and male sterile plants, such as
65 cor. diam., °8 cor. lobe (stamens less than 4 sepals).

2. A Botanical Survey of the Maritime Plant-formations at Holme,
Norfolk. By P. H. Auumn, B.A.
Last June, at the suggestion of Mr. C. E. Moss, a small party was

organised at the Cambridge University Botany School to commence a detailed
botanical survey of the maritime vegetation at Holme. in the north-west of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. tis

Norfolk. The area chosen for the survey has been visited by parties from the
Cambridge Botany School on many occasions during the last six years. It lies
on the south-eastern shore of the Wash.

The principal feature of the area is a sandy salt marsh, with considerable
quantities of Statice Limonium, *S, bineurosum, *S. bellidifolium, *Salicornia
perennis var. radicans, S. disarticulata, Armeria maritima, Atriplex portula-
coides, and other halophytes. Fixed dunes with Ammophila arenaria limit the
salt marsh on three sides; and embryonic dunes with Agropyron juncewm and
Elymus arenarius occur. Along the seaward side of the area is a system of
shingle banks, with well-developed lateral banks and apposition banks. The
lateral banks are characterised by *Suada fruticosa and *#'rankenia levis. The
species here preceded by an asterisk are Mediterranean plants which in this
locality reach their northern limit. A considerable extent of bare sand alsu
occurs, and this is locally beginning to show signs of being colonised by Suceda
maritima. The sea enters the salt marsh through a small break in the shingle
bank, At ordinary high tides most of the bare sands are covered, but in the
salt marsh itself only the channels are filled.

The members of the party numbered six. In June they were able to spend
a few days at Holme, and they commenced work on a fairly large scale, and
the intention is to carry on the work later in the year and in succeeding years.

The mapping out of the area was begun by chaining out a base-line from
ene end to the other. It was seven furlongs in length. At each furlong
offsets were chained out, on the landward side to the edge of the cultivated
land and on the seaward side to the low-water line. The filling in of the
detail in the areas between the offsets was commenced with the plain table on
a scale of eighty inches to the mile (1: 792). On this scale, neglecting the bare
sand towards the even tide-line, the map commenced consists of fourteen sheets,
each about ten inches square. On these sheets, of which only one is as yet
completed, the different plant associations and societies are shown in different
columns. In addition to the mapping, levels were taken at most of the furlong
points on the base-line, the level being brought in from a beach bank in Holme.
HKlevations have also been plotted along two of the offset lines from the edge of
cultivation to the low-water mark.

In order to complete the map and the series of elevations across both ends
of the area, across at each furlong stake and along the base-line, arrangements
were made for a party to go to Holme during the present month (September).
Work on the analysis of the soil and soil-water were then to be commenced.
It is hoped that by these means light may be thrown on some of the problems of
plant distribution which are presented by the salt marsh, the sand dunes, and
the shingle banks. Looking still further ahead, a detailed record of the
succession of changes occurring over the area will also be obtained.

3. On the Distribution of Suseda fruticosa and its réle in the Stabilising
of Active Shingle. By Professor F. W. Otiver, F.R.S.

Shingle beaches exposed to the sea are liable to landward travel when very
high tides are accompanied by onshore gales. To some extent all shingle
plants retard or modify this movement, but Suceda fruticosa, from its shrubby
habit of growth and high capacity of rejuvenescence, is the most effective
stabiliser of all British shingle plants.

The present communication dealt with the conditions of establishment of
this plant, and with the manner in which it promotes the fixation of active
shingle.

4. The Influence of River Development on Plant Distribution.
By A. R. Horwoop.

Little attention has been drawn to the influence of rivers on plant dispersal.

Primarily plants depend upon soil, altitude, and climate for their distribu-
tion or occurrence in natural plant formations.

Now, in an area where the ‘solid’ rocks are entirely or largely covered by

720 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

glacial boulder clay, this development is of great importance, for if the streams
had not cut their way down to the solid rocks below, and deposited alluvium,
&c., in their course, the fora would have been much more uniform.

In Leicestershire, for instance, the consequents or dip-streams flow from
the north-west to the south-east, with the dip (originally entirely). They give
rise to a series of parallel valleys, with intervening hills, developing lower lias
each side of their course, on each side of patches of alluvium. The later strike
stream or subsequent of the River Soar (in the first part of its course) was
developed along a line of outcrop, and captured the streams to the east, so
causing them to flow to the west, and cut back their bed towards the divide
formed by the high escarpment of the Middle Lias and Oolites of East Leicester-
shire. River development thus depends largely on the junction of soft and hard
strata, and this again leads to diversity in the natural habitats for plants.
Streams also have a radial arrangement subsidiary to this, thus complicating the
outcrop conformation. Moreover, the little obsequents with laterals cut back like
strike streams are like the multifid lobes and saddles of the suture of an Ammon-
ite, and it would be extremely difficult to map the plants found on such irregular
formations except by choosing the actual geological formations on which they
occur as a basis. But as altitude also enters to some extent into the effect of
river development (since some valleys are very deep), and there is the influence
on the soil by the action of the river on the area of each soil, there is some-
thing to be said for the retention, for floristic purposes, of the old hydro-
graphical districts adopted in some floras, for they serve as (i) an indication
of the effect of some one stream or river in the district in developing the soil
and controlling plant dispersal, and (ii) as a ready means of referring to the
area, by a process of subdivision, for the station of a plant, but it is admitted
that this is an entirely artificial advantage.

For ecological purposes these divisions are of no use, as a description of the
district should be by the natural plant formations. The contour formed by the
outcrop of each formation can readily be defined in the valleys cut through by
streams, except where denudation has obscured them.

The flora of the boulder clay is composite, and though certain differences
can be noted between the different types it includes, it is, as a whole, common-
place. That of such a formation as the Lower Lias can be distinguished, and
even made use of, to determine the junction between the outcrops of the two.

The slope, aspect, and relative moisture, &c., imposed on a valley by river
development have also all an effect on plant distribution.

5. Some Features of the Sand-dunes in the S.W. Corner of Anglesey.
By W. H. WortHam.

The sand-dunes in the S.W. corner of Anglesey form a spit of about five
miles in area, bounded to N.W. and to S.E. by river estuary and strait respec-
tively, and to the S.W. by open sea; the sand is aggregated about a high spit of
schistose rock, often over 100 feet high, which forms a backbone running from
S.W. to N.E.; parts of it are uncovered by sand. The fixed dune association,
where the sand forms a thin covering over the summits of the schistose rocks,
is a Caricetum arenarie, which forms a close sward.

The region to the N.W. of this ridge, owing to the frequent rebound of wind-
driven sand from the ridge, is occupied entirely by white dunes, of which the
only colonist is marram grass, alternating with embryonic stages of Salix repens
marsh. These dunes are increasing in extent.

The dunes to the S.E. of the ridge are stationary in extent, and wind-
destruction is marked. The marram of the white dunes here shows associates,
of which Huphorbia paralias is the first. Salix dunes are here extensive, and
have a twofold origin : (1) The inundation of a dune-marsh with sand, a process
which results in the extinction of all but the Salix repens, which grows up
through the sand, forming low dunes; (2) the invasion of a stretch of white, or
even grey, dune by salix seedlings, often from a distance, which grow up, collect
blown sand round them, and form dunes in exactly the same way as marram.
Wind-action is destroying these salix dunes in many places, and blow-outs,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 720

exposing over 16 feet of vertically growing roots, may be found. Salix marsh
is well developed on the S.E. side.

The ultimate associations are, for the Salix repens marsh Calluna heath, for
the dune associations grass heath with Agrostis vulgaris dominant; the Caricetum
arenarice of the summits is probably a facies of the latter association.

6. Report on the Structure of Fossil Plants.

7. Report on the Investigation of the Jurassic Flora of Yorkshire.
See Reports, p. 264.

8. Interim Report on the Investigation of the Flora of the Peat of the
Kennet Valley.—See Reports, p. 265.

9. Interim Report on the Investigation of the Vegetation of Dilcham
Park, Hampshire.—See Reports, p. 266.

10. Report on the Registration of Negatives of Botanical Photographs.
See Reports, p. 267.

Joint Meeting with Sections D and I.—See p. 527.

1913. Ben

722 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

Section L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcCTION.—PriNcIPAL EK. H. GrirritHs,
Se.D., LL.D., F.B.S:

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.

The President delivered the following Address :—

Some two thousand years ago an aged philosopher said that there were only
three things he regretted ; the first was that he had wasted a day of his life, the
second that he had travelled by sea when he might have gone by land, and the
third that he had told a secret to his wife. My own regrets are of a very
different nature, for, as regards the first of those advanced by Cato, one day
would count for little in my wastage, and with the second and third complaints
I have no sympathy. I have, however, a regret greater than any of these—
namely, that I accepted the honour of being the President of this Section,
inasmuch as that acceptance has involved the necessity of a Presidential Address.

When I glance at the list of distinguished men who have been my predecessors
in this chair, I appreciate more fully both the difficulty of the task and the
deficiencies of the operator. These difficulties are not diminished by the reflec-
tion that in speaking on Education one is not addressing a comparatively small
audience of those interested in some definite branch of Science, but that the
speaker has to deal with a subject on which almost every adult inhabitant of this
kingdom regards himself as an authority.

I may illustrate the popular attitude by relating a conversation overheard
in a tramcar in one of our cities at the time of the passing of the Education
Act of 1902. One of the passengers remarked that many men, who on the
School Board had interested themselves in educational matters, would now
cease to be members of the Education Authority, and he asked: ‘ Who is
there on the City Council who has real knowledge of the subject?’ ‘ Oh,’
replied his companion, ‘ that’s all right. Councillor X. has been reading up
the subject for the last month!’

I am also aware that he who ventures to express publicly his real feelings on
educational matters is deliberately sailing into troubled waters, for, with the
Scylla of sectarianism on the one side and the Charybdis of political partisanship
on the other, it is difficult to steer a safe course.

I would ask you, unpleasant though the effort may be, to recall the days when
the Bill of 1902 was discussed in the House of Commons. In those days and
weeks of dreary discussion it would not be easy for an anxious inquirer to find
any debate on a topic really educational. The feelings of the general public
were, it seems to me, admirably summarised by Mr. Godley in verses from which
I cannot resist the temptation of giving a quotation :—

‘Essence of boredom! stupefying theme!
Whereon with eloquence less deep than full,
Still maundering on with slow continuous stream,
All can expatiate and all be dull.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. lige

Bane of the mind and topic of debate,

That drugs the reader fo a restless doze,

Thou that with soul-annihilating weight

Crushest the bard and hypnotises those

Who plod the placid path of plain pedestrian prose.’

To me the concluding verse appeals with special force :—

‘From scenes like these my Muse would fain withdraw;
To Taff’s still valley be my footsteps led,

Where happy Unions neath the shield of Law

Heave bricks bisected at the blackleg’s head ;

In those calm shades my desultory oat

Of taxed land values shall contented trill

Of man ennobled by a single vote;

In short, I’ll sing of anything you will,

Except of thee alone, oh! Education Bill.’

Nevertheless, it is my duty to-day to address you on educational matters, and
my object is not so much to put before you views of my own, which would come
with slight authority and carry little weight, but to venture to present the
opinions of others and to inquire how far such general impressions are justified.
I should add that I limit the inquiry to the area affected by the Education Act
of 1902, that is, to England and Wales.

We have now had forty years’ experience of compulsory education, and
more than ten years’ experience of the working of the Education Act of
1902. We are spending at the present time out of the rates and taxes about
thirty-four millions per annum upon education. It seems reasonable, as a nation
of shopkeepers, that we should ask if we are getting value for our money, and
the reply will, of course, depend on what we mean by value, for the man in the
counting-house, the man in the street, and the man in the schoolroom all have
different standards of valuation.

Some of us are old enough to contrast the position of to-day with that of
forty years ago. Do we observe any definite advance in knowledge, intelligence,
character, or manners, as compared with the pre-compulsory days? We must all
be aware of the tendency to magnify the past at the expense of the present, but,
after making due allowance for the fact that ‘the past seems best, things present
ever worst,’ it appears difficult to find distinct evidence of improvement in any
way commensurate with the sacrifices which have been made.

I have taken every opportunity of ascertaining the views of men of varied
occupations and differing social positions upon this matter, and I confess that
the impression received is one of universal discontent. The complaints are not
only of want of knowledge, but also, which is far more serious, of want of
intelligence. Consider a trivial example drawn from my own experience. I
am a motorist in a small way. My ambition has been restricted in the matter
of chauffeurs to lads fresh from our elementary schools, whom I have employed
for what I may summarise as washing and greasing purposes. Some six or
seven of such lads have passed through my hands during the past nine years,
and all of them have been at a primary school for some seven or eight years.
They came with good characters, and all had passed up to the fifth or sixth
standard. None of them could spell correctly, keep simple accounts, or appear
to derive any enjoyment from reading. Nevertheless, two of them, at all
events, gave evidence of a real liking for mechanics, and within a year or
so could be trusted to take the engines to pieces, clean them, and replace them
with but little supervision. It might be argued that although they had im-
perfectly acquired the rudiments of ‘the three R’s,’ the aptitude of these lads
was the result of their training. Of this, however, I could find no evidence.
It is difficult to understand how these boys could have profited so little by
their many years of school life. If such an example is in any way typical, it
is time to consider what the country is obtaining in return for the thirty
millions annually expended on elementary education alone.

It may be thought that I have been unfortunate in my experience. I do not,

3AQZ

724 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

however, believe that my case is singular. In the Contemporary Review for
July 1909 Professor Stanley Jevons contributed an article on ‘The Causes of
Unemployment.’ He referred therein to the opportunities afforded him by
University Settlement Boys’ Clubs in London and Cardiff of forming a judg-
ment concerning the products of our primary schools. He described the follow-
ing experiment :—

‘I arranged to test a few members of the Boys’ Club. They were gathered
in a room with pens and paper and were asked to write down the following short
sentence, which was spoken to them distinctly twice, as an example of the kind of
message which they might be expected to have to write occasionally for an
employer : ‘I have not been able to find the book which you sent me to fetch.”
The test was one both of memory and spelling, and most of the boys failed in one
or both respects.’

Professor Jevons gave facsimiles of the results, which I am unable to repro-
duce; but I can indicate the nature of the spelling. It will be noticed that
there are no words of two syllables. The following is the best of the batch :—

Boy aged nearly sixteen: ‘I cannot (fetch) find the book which you sent me
to fetch.’
The following are from boys aged fourteen and fifteen respectively :—

‘T have not been abele to find the boock whi witch I sent you (for) to fitch.
“IT have Not bend able to find the book With I sent you to fath.’

All these boys have been through one of our large primary schools.

Professor Jevons added: ‘In contemplating the question of unemployment
one is at once led to the conclusion to which so many other economic problems
ultimately lead—that the only certain means of abating the evil is the improve-
ment of the individual.’

Passing from such limited experiences to the views of those who are brought
into contact with the products in bulk, a sense of dissatisfaction and uneasiness
is no less evident. Consider the following extracts from the Presidential
Address of Mr. Walter Dixon, M.I.M.E., to the West of Scotland Iron and
Steel Institute in October last :—

‘I have, over a somewhat extended period and a wide area, made inquiries
amongst those who have the control of about 200,000 men in our own allied
industries, with the following results :—

‘It is the unanimous opinion that any book-learning outside the rudiments
of “the three R’s” is considered a matter outside the requirements of the educa-
tion of more than 90 per cent. of the usual manual workers. In other words,
the work that these men are called upon to do, the labour which they have to
perform in their daily avocation, would be as efficient, as successful, and as
expeditiously performed if the men had no school education whatever outside
“the three R’s.”’

If there is any truth in this severe indictment there is small cause for wonder
if a general sense of uneasiness exists amongst those who consider that the
future prosperity and safety of this country are dependent on the manner in
which we train the rising generation.

In justice to Mr. Dixon I must give a further extract from his Address :—

‘During the recent meeting of the British Association in Dundee I spent
some time amongst Educational Authorities, not only those belonging to our own
country, but delegates from other nations, and I find that they themselves are
beginning to see the futility of the present methods and to realise that they are
ploughing the sands. Amongst other matters, it was of interest to note that they
are at present promulgating a scheme for what they call vocational education.
In other words, I gather that they are now attempting in a modified way to
replace the old ‘prentice system by teaching trades in their schools, so that
ehildren may enter the trades as skilled workers—a system which, to my mind,
would render the present confusion more confounded. ... We must recognise
that the mechanical developments of the last half-century have done away in a
large measure with the possibility of the interest which a man could once take

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 725

in his daily work, inasmuch that few men now make anything, but only a small
portion of something. A statement was made at Dundee that 135 different
persons were employed in the making of a boot. It is not to be expected that
any of these 135 workers can get enthusiastic about their particular bit. We
must recognise that as long as we live under the reign of industrial competition
the hours of labour are likely to be hours of stress, and that when a man has
finished his labour it is only right, it is only human, that he should have hours
of reasonable recreation. It is with a view of making these hours of recreation
worthy of the nation to which we belong that I feel that our educational methods
might, and ultimately will, be altered and rendered valuable.’

If I may venture to summarise Mr. Dixon’s Address as a whole, it appears

to me that the argument is somewhat as follows: It is admitted that ‘the three
_ R’s’ are necessary for all workers, of whatever grade, almost as necessary for the
mental as are sight and hearing for the physical equipment. A large majority
of manual labourers, however, are not rendered any more efficient in the
discharge of their tasks by further instruction of an academic character, and
therefore we should aim at providing them with some form of education which
would so quicken their intelligence as to enable them to find an interest in
matters external to their employment and thus lead them to utilise their hours
of recreation in a sane and healthy manner. It should be our object not so
much to train all our soldiers as it they were to be generals, as to give them
that education which would make them good soldiers, and to spare no expendi-
ture of time or money in the further education and development of the small
percentage who have shown those qualities which lead, under proper guidance,
to high achievement.

The assumption that all children are fitted to profit by more than the
rudiments of academic education is, I believe, responsible for many of our
present difficulties. In physical matters we seem to be wiser. ‘We take
account of bodily disabilities; we do not train lame men for racing, or enter
carthorses for the Derby; we do not accept the short-sighted or the colour-
blind as sailors; but those who talk of compulsory further education appear to
think that all men are on an equality as regards mental equipment. Democracy
in its control of education counts noses rather than brains. I observe, for
example, that the Education Committees, on which I have, or have had, the
honour of serving, are unwilling to continue those higher technical classes in
science in which the numbers are necessarily small. A class of four in higher
mathematics will probably be discontinued, whereas a class of one hundred in
shorthand will be regarded as a highly successful achievement.

Such Education Committees, however, are only carrying out what is
apparently the policy of those sitting in the seats of authority. A nation
which expends but four millions for the encouragement of higher education
and research and thirty millions on the rudiments cannot be said to lend
that recognition, assistance, and encouragement to the best brains of the
country which is the one form of educational outlay which is certain to
bring, as Mr. Wells has truly indicated, not only the best return industrially,
but also an immunity from invasion otherwise unobtainable.

It is possible that the views taken by Mr. Dixon and the employers and
business men whose opinions I have attempted to gather are unduly pessimistic.
I have, therefore, turned naturally to the teachers, with many of whom I am
brought into contact.

T find, on the whole, much the same spirit of pessimism prevailing. J can
only recollect one gentleman—a teacher of long experience and high standing—
who takes a brighter view of the position. According to him, the children
leave our schools better instructed, more intelligent, and better mannered than
was the case some twenty years ago.

It is true that teachers as a body agree that there has been one real advance—
viz. the abolition of the system of payment by results—but many of them admit
that during the past ten years progress, if any, has been slight. They plead in
extenuation that the large size of the classes is in itself a barrier to real efficiency,
and that the teacher is so fettered by regulations, so bothered by the fads of
individual Inspectors, that we ought to be gratified, rather than disappointed,
by the results achieved. It is a significant fact that the supply of teachers for
our primary schools is diminishing, and that, as a necessary consequence, the

726 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

proportion of fully trained and qualified teachers, although increasing, is unduly
small. The attractions of the profession are undéubtedly insufficient. When
we consider the meagre salaries, the slow, very slow, promotion, the few prizes
and the slight social recognition, it is a surprising fact that so many able men
and women are prepared to accept the lot of teachers in our primary schools.

The teaching profession, if profession it can rightly be called, compares
unfavourably with the so-called learned professions. It is noticeable that but
few of our primary school teachers are prominent in civic affairs. Their repre-
sentation on Education Committees, for example, is quite inadequate; during
the discharge of their duties they are unable to mix with their fellow-citizens,
and thus gain experience in the same manner as the clergyman, the doctor, or
the solicitor. The regulations practically forbid participation in public life, and
the teachers’ activities are regarded as bounded by the walls of the schoolroom.

If the results of our educational system are disappointing, it is not for us
to throw the blame on the teachers. Until we learn that satisfactory results can
be obtained only when the life and emoluments of the schoolmaster are such as
to offer avenues to distinction comparable with those of the learned professions,
we cannot hope to attract into what should be, after all, the most important of
all professions, the best brains and energies of the community.’

Undoubtedly, however, we have made advances within the last generation.
Our outlook is different, but we are expecting higher achievement without
affording that inducement which entitles us to demand it. Our industrial
needs have impressed upon us the necessity of a wider view of the meaning of
the word ‘education.’ We are slowly learning that we should aim at the
awakening of the intelligence, rather than at the mere imparting of knowledge
by what I might term force-pump methods. Forcible feeding is not proving
a success either physically or mentally.

Some fifty years ago a leading name in the educational world was that of
Todhunter—a name which I admit was regarded with terror rather than affection
by many of us in our school days. As a correction to pessimism I venture to
inflict upon you the following extract from Todhunter’s ‘Conflict of Studies,’
published in 1873 :—

“It may be said that the fact makes a stronger impression on the boy through
the medium of his sight, that he believes it more confidently. I say that this
ought not to be the case. If he does not believe the statement of his teacher—
probably a clergyman of mature knowledge, recognised ability, and blameless
character—his suspicion is irrational and manifests a want of the power of appre-
ciating evidence, a want fatal to his success in that branch of science he is
supposed to be cultivating.’

I take a singular pleasure in this extract. In times of depression it serves
as a tonic and drives one to the conclusion that, after all, our progress, however
slow, is real, although I have an impression that the Todhunter school is not
entirely extinct.

So far, the only result of my inquiries had been the discovery, if discovery
it was, that dissatisfaction with our present system was the prevailing sentiment.
I decided, therefore, to take the somewhat bold step of endeavouring to ascertain
the attitude of those who have most to do with the administration thereof. I
ventured to send to all the Directors of Education in England and Wales a series
of questions, the answers to which I hoped might throw light on the matter.
In order to elicit, if possible, free expression of opinion I stated that their
replies would in general be used only for statistical purposes, and in no case
would indication be given of the Authority with which the writer was concerned.

I take this opportunity of most sincerely thanking the many Directors who
have been so good as to assist me in this inquiry. No fewer than 121 of these
gentlemen have undertaken the task of returning replies, and when I reflect upon
the extent to which their energies are employed in compiling returns for their
various Authorities and for the Board of Education I realise my temerity in
thus adding to their labours.

In analysing the replies it has been necessary to divide them into the

_ + It appears that our average expenditure per child per working week (includ-
ing interest on buildings, &c.) is about 1s. 8d. Perhaps we are getting in return
a3 much as we deserve at the price.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 727

following classes, viz. : (1) Counties, (2) county boroughs, and (3) boroughs and
urban districts, as the conditions in these areas, under the Act of 1902, differ
considerably.

We must remember that as the Directors of Education have to work the
machinery, they are perhaps in a better position than any others to form a
judgment as to excellences and defects. ‘rue, they look on the matter through
official spectacles, which are always more or less tinted, and they may, like many
owners of motor-cars, have a tendency to hide imperfections.

In Class 1 (counties) I received replies from thirty-six Directors; in
Class 2 (county boroughs) from forty; and in Class 3 (boroughs and urban
districts) from forty-five.

The Authorities concerned are fairly representative of all portions of England
and Wales, and both of rural and urban districts. In order to render com-
parisons possible, I express the nature of the replies in percentages of the whole
of the class.2 I believe, however, that the effect of reading out, in circumstances
of this kind, a large number of tables containing numerical data would be to
occupy a considerable portion of your time, and yet leave but little definite
impression. I have, therefore, given these tables as an Appendix to this
Addvess, and will now only trouble you with a reference to the results and
some examples of the interesting remarks included in the replies.

My first question was :—

QUESTION I.

‘Do you consider that the centralisation of authority in the hands of County
Councils has caused any decay of interest in education in your district?’

References to Table 1 will show that while in large areas the effect of the
Act has been to stimulate interest in educational matters, in small boroughs and
urban districts the reverse has been the case. It is difficult, however, to
classify strictly many of the replies, as will be seen from the following
examples :—

From the Counties :—

1. ‘Some decay in local administrative work; local Managers like dealing
with local finance and controlling employees; amongst those most competent to
deal with matters of education there has been a considerable increase in interest.’

2. ‘ Less local interest ; Managers do not care to visit and see children being
taught what they themselves never learnt and do not understand—e.g., such
subjects as light woodwork and clay modelling, and even geography as taught on
modern methods.’

3. ‘On the whole a stimulating of interest, but in a few places where active
School Boards existed the feeling of resentment against loss of power is not yet
exhausted.’

4. ‘Such interest in Secondary Education as now exists is directly the result
of the Act.’

5. “The interest of the past could often be translated patronage.’

6. ‘The surest way of creating interest in education is to provide the schools
of the country with the best teaching talent; legislation and administration
per se have very little to do with it.’

County Boroughs :—

1. ‘The members of the old School Boards were in constant touch with the
schools; the members of the Education Committees who are Councillors have
too many other public interests.’

2. ‘So far as I know, the centralisation of authority in the hands of County
Councils does cause a decay of interest in the local districts.’

3. ‘Yes, I think it has, to some extent. The cost of education is now brought
more prominently before the ratepayers, and education, rightly or wrongly, gets
the blame for any increase in the rates.’

4. “No. The centralisation in reference to Bodies of School Managers has
been accompanied by decentralisation in reference to the work of the Board of
Education, and local activities have been stimulated.’

* For Tables see Appendix,

728 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

Boroughs :—

1. ‘The centralisation has taken away any local interest, which acted as a
stimulus, and has checked educational progress by vetoing schemes of instruction
adapted to the locality.’

2. ‘Most decidedly, diminished. The County Councils are composed largely
of rural members, who try to uplift the community by lowering the education
rate.’

‘Counties having control tends to lack of local interest; a county like that
in which we are placed is too big a unit; all local interest is gradually being
killed in higher education, although our local people are keen educationists.’

‘Yes. It came into the hands of a body unaccustomed to any problem
of education except the rate. ... The initiation of movements was thus left
to the Board of Education. Thus the Board’s power has grown through the
weakening of Local, Authorities.’

“County areas too large; the ideal system would be for each corporate
town, with the villages that gravitate to it, to be the educational area.’

6. ‘I am certain that local interest would be increased considerably if all
forms of education were in the hands of the Borough Council. I am firmly
convinced that efficient co-ordination of elementary and higher education cannot
be obtained unless one Authority is made responsible for the whole.’

As a natural sequence to this interrogation I made the following inquiry,
namely :—

Question II.

‘ Would you prefer the Educational Authority to be one elected ad hoc, as in
the days of the School Boards, rather than the system as at present established ? ’

As might be expected, those Directors who considered that the present system
has caused a decay in local interest are, with some few exceptions, in favour of
a return to an Authority elected ad hoc. Replies in the affirmative form a large
proportion of the whole, no less than seventy-two per cent. of the boroughs and
urban districts being in favour of a return to the old system. In considering
the answers to both these questions it should be remembered that previous to the
Act of 1902 counties, as such, had no experience as regards primary education.

Remarks.
oe —
‘We should get rid, by an ad hoc Body, of the present disadvantage of
having anybody controlling finance without knowledge of requirements.’

‘An ad hoc L.E.A. would enable educational reform to be carried out
more apeer but it is more than doubtful whether such a body would not suffer
ae repeated changes in policy.’

‘Yes; education work requires a different kind of training and aaidity
Ti County Council work.’
4. ‘Not in the Counties, but I think it would be an advantage in the
Boroughs.’
“No; I regard the association of education with other departments of civic
activity as a very valuable reform, and advantageous to education.’
6. ‘No; the present system preserves sanity and a sense of proportion.’
“Certainly not; ad hoc election would put control in the hands of
(i.) persons elected with a view to keeping down the education rate;
(ii.) faddists.’
8. ‘Election ad hoc would too often be fought solely on expenditure.’
9. ‘Prefer the present, better opportunity to co-opt those who will not stand
the racket of an election.’

County Boroughs :—

1. ‘Yes, as you obtain members deeply interested in educational work and
not regarding it as a burden.’

2. ‘Yes, because educational questions would not thus be confused with
and sometimes subordinated to other local questions—e.g.. whether a Technical
Institute or a Town Hall should be built first.’

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 729

3. ‘Yes, on account of the gradual but certain deterioration in the type of
members of Councils.’
4, ‘Certainly ; County Borough Councils are simply swamped with work.’

Boroughs :—

1. ‘Yes. If the 1902 Act had been passed in 1870, we should have been
a long way behind our present position.’ :

2. ‘Yes. The duties of a Town Council are so numerous that the members
cannot devote the time necessary to cope with the demands made to carry out
the Education Act’s regulations and demands. Hence the work of many members
is simply attending Committee meetings.’

3. ‘In districts of a reasonable size, with a population of at least 20,000, I
am thoroughly convinced, after many years’ experience of both systems, that an
Authority elected ad hoc is far preferable to the present system. Although an
official, I must confess that the control of education at present seems to be
largely in the hands of the Education Officers.’

4, ‘The present system makes education too much a matter of rates.’

5. ‘Yes, with power for the Local Authority to appoint representatives on
such Authority to temper their educational enthusiasm to the financial position
of the Authority.’

6. ‘Most certainly, but of course not in the small areas as in the School
Board days, but in areas as at present constituted. I don’t at all believe in
centralising the County Authority, but to decentralise to districts of fair size.’

7. ‘Yes, prefer ad hoc. It has the weakness of allowing people to be run for
their religious views, but although a Nonconformist, I am distinctly of opinion
that a Churchman keen on education, and possibly on that alone, is a better
person than a Nonconformist who is elected to look after streets, trams, &c.’

8. ‘No. Generally speaking, the better the class of work put on to the Local
Authorities the better type of representative elected.’

9. ‘The present system is decidedly superior, as the School Board elections
were more or less a farce.’

The Act of 1902 gave to the County Councils, as regards the constitution of
their Education Committees, considerable powers of co-option. I was anxious
to find to what extent this power had been utilised, and, therefore, my third
question was :—

_ Question ITT.

“To what extent has co-option of members of the Education Committee been
adopted in your area—i.e., what proportion do the co-opted members bear to the
whole Committee, and what is the proportion of co-opted women members?’

The average percentage of co-opted members is curiously equal in all three
classes—viz., thirty-one, thirty-three, thirty. The highest percentage is forty-
eight, and the lowest three. It is noticeable that the percentage of co-opted
members is less in Wales than in England. A reference to the tables will show
that a considerable number of Directors are desirous that the principle of
co-option should be extended.

The following are samples of the replies to the question: ‘Would you wish
to see the principle of co-option extended?’ :—

Counties :—

1. ‘Yes; several useful men with experience of Secondary and Agricultural
education have little chance of securing election to the County Council owing to
their views not being in accord with those of the majority of the electors in the
district where they happen to reside.’

2. ‘Unnecessary; the majority of our County Councillors are University
men.’

3. ‘In an ad hoc authority I would abolish it. Under the present Act I
would raise the number of women.’

County Boroughs :—

‘Diminished, because then the Education Committee would be more nearly
on a footing with other Council Committees and their proceedings viewed less
as the proceedings of an unknown body.’

730 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

My fourth question was :—
Question IV.
‘Have your Local Committees, or Bodies of School Managers, the right of
appointing (a2) Head Teachers, (6) Assistant Teachers?’

I find that, as regards Head Teachers, more than one-half of the Counties,
one-third of the Boroughs, but only a small proportion of the County Boroughs,
have delegated all powers; the right of appointing Assistant Teachers being
delegated to a slightly greater extent.®

Remarks.

1. In one case, where the answer is in the affirmative, it is added: ‘The
exercise of these powers is not wholly satisfactory.’

2. Where the answer is in the negative: ‘Managers used to appoint Head
Teachers, but this power has, with very great advantage, been taken back by
the Education Committee.’

3. ‘At one time Assistants were appointed by local Managers, but it was
found that elections were determined too much by local uneducational considera-
tions.’

The general result of the replies indicates that the power of appointment is
unsatisfactorily exercised by local Bodies of Managers.

Question V.

‘Has your Authority established a College for the training of Elementary
Teachers, under its own management, or in conjunction with others?’

I find that as large a proportion as one-seventh of the Authorities (Counties
and County Boroughs) whose Directors have returned replies have established
Training Colleges. It does not appear, therefore, as if the present dearth of
teachers was due to lack of training facilities.

Question VI.
I was anxious to ascertain if the effect of such local Training Colleges was to
restrict the freedom of choice of Teachers, and the sixth question was as
follows :—

‘Ts the general effect of the present system to restrict the freedom of choice
of Teachers to those from your own locality?’

In about half the Counties the answer is in the affirmative, and in the County
Boroughs about four-fifths.

Coane Remarks.

1. ‘Yes, unfortunately we are arriving at the state that only local Teachers
are employed in local schools—a deplorable condition of things.’

2. ‘Yes, an outsider, however good, has very little chance.’

3. ‘No, except in Group Schools.’

4. ‘No, Assistants are so scarce that an applicant from Timbuctoo would
have a good chance of appointment.’

County Boroughs :—

1, ‘Our Teachers are home-grown.’

2. ‘The tendency in this town has for all time been to provide vacancies for
students leaving College who are natives of the town.’

3. ‘Yes, in my opinion to the detriment of the teaching given in the schools.’

4, ‘Yes, the evil is growing.’

It would appear that, on the whole, the opinion of Directors is that the
effect of the establishment of local Training Colleges has been to encourage
the evil of what I may term ‘ inbreeding.’

Question VII.

‘Do you consider the curricula of (a) Primary, (b) Secondary Schools under
your Authority as overerowded? If so, can you indicate the directions in which
you consider there could be a reduction?’

3 As regards Non-Provided Schools, in all cases (by 'the Act) the power of
appointing Head Teachers is in the hands of the Managers.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 731

(a) Primary Schools.
Remarks.

1. ‘Yes, the remedy is a longer school life.’

2. ‘Yes; it is folly to occupy a whole class for several hours, for example, in
making a clay model illustrating the story of Alfred and the cakes.’

3. ‘Yes, many children are simply wasting their last six months of: school
life waiting to be legally exempt from school before taking up manual work.’

4, ‘Yes, the remedy not in the reduction of curricula, but in the extension of
the ‘child’s school life.’

5. ‘Yes, teachers fail to look on education as one thing, and put the various
phases of it in watertight compartments; this is the tyranny of the time-table;
one would like to say : Teach what you like, when you like, and how you like.’

6. ‘Yes, due to the habit of treating each subject, even preliminary subjects,
as though it were absolutely distinct from others.’

7. ‘No, but the mistake, I think, lies in expecting each child to take the
same quantity of every subject, in other words to develop equally all round.
The ‘‘ broad general education ”’ ideal is responsible for much over-pressure.’

8. ‘No; I fear many teachers do not take advantage of the Board of Educa-
tion regulations, because they do not wish to run against the wishes of the local
H.M.I.’

9. ‘No, but simplification wanted.’

Rather more than half of the Authorities consulted considered that the
curricula of the Elementary Schools are overcrowded, and rather more than a
third are of the same opinion as regards the curricula of the Secondary Schools.

(b) Secondary Schools.
Remarks.
1. ‘Yes, undoubtedly a tendency to attempt too much and to accomplish too
little.’
2. ‘Yes, a tendency to widen knowledge at the expense of depth.’
3. ‘Yes, owing to an undue pressure on the part of the Inspectors.’
4. ‘What is wanted is a sense of proportion.’
5. ‘No, if Inspectors do not force particular subjects.’

Question VIII.
“Are you in favour of an increase in the number of vocational schools? Or
do you consider that the effect of such increase would be detrimental to the
standard of general education throughout the country?’

One-third of the County Directors consulted, and almost half of those of the
County Boroughs and Boroughs, answer in the affirmative, whereas rather over
one-fifth state their inability to arrive at a conclusion. A number of those who
answer in the affirmative qualify their replies by stating: ‘For children over
fourteen,’ or ‘General education must be first considered,’ ‘Provided general
education is continued.’

As indicating the different views, the following are typical examples :—

1. ‘Yes, in the case of Agriculture.’

2. “No, not in a rural county.’

3. ‘Yes, for children who have passed Standard VI. I think the standard
in Secondary Schools would then be higher, as it would keep away from them
those children who would not stay for the whole course.’

4. ‘Yes. Every boy is born with some aptitude, and education can only
proceed as it makes this aptitude central.’

5. ‘Strongly of opinion that a child’s natural delight in manual skill could
be made the means of his training for citizenship, but I object to the schools
being used to train the child for a particular trade.’

6. ‘ Any increase which would bring the British system closer to the American
one as regards vocational education would be detrimental.’

7. “I think them a mistake, as very few boys have any fixed idea of what
they will do after leaving school.’

8. ‘The result might be lamentable; it might end in everybody being what
his father was.’ ;

9. “A. goes to a Trade School, B. goes to a good General School. At fourteen

732 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

A. is in advance of B.; at fifteen they are equal; at sixteen B. is ahead. I am
sure of this.’

As a whole the weight of opinion is strongly against any increase in vocational
schools for children who have not completed their primary education.

Question IX.
‘ What is the average size of the classes in your Primary Schools?’

I find that the average size of the classes in the Counties is thirty-four, and
in the Boroughs forty-two, and they vary from over sixty-three down to ten.
The smaller average in the Counties is evidently due to the large proportion of
rural schools.

Remarks.

1. ‘I find that from whatever side one approaches reform one is brought up
against this nightmare of large classes.’

2. ‘Classes are smaller in the Non-Provided Schools.’

QUESTION X.

My next question concerned the Counties only. I was anxious to ascertain
the effect of the Clause of the Act which places on the locality the task of finding
the greater portion of the money for additional buildings, viz. :—

‘Do you consider Par. 18, 1 (a), (c), (d) of the 1902 Act to work harshly or
to the disadvantage of educational progress?’

It appears that some 40 per cent. of the Directors are of opinion that the
effect of the Clause is unsatisfactory. It must be remembered that it is not
probable that the officials of County Councils would regard this matter from an
impartial point of view, for, no doubt, the existing conditions lighten the burden
of the County rates. It is somewhat surprising that in such circumstances the
percentage of those answering in the affirmative is so large.

Remarks.

1. ‘Makes the Education Rate very unequal in the County and tends to
hinder the provision of new buildings.’

2. ‘I think it would be better to have the total capital charge made a County
one.”

3. ‘It must be admitted that the charge on the locality of three-fourths of
the capital expenditure often causes serious local opposition.’

4. ‘All the charges for education within the area should fall on the County
rate; there is no other logical and defensible plan.’

5. ‘There is too much tendency to spend on bricks and mortar; the local
opposition, therefore, is not wholly bad.’

6. ‘Educational benefits cannot be restricted within the limits of certain
parishes.’

7. ‘The result is strong local opposition to the provision of desirable local
accommodation.’

8. ‘ Thoroughly bad in theory and works very harshly in practice.’

9. ‘At first sight seems detrimental to progress; but real progress can only
be made by carrying the general public with us in our work, and to go too fast
only implies a set-back in the near future.’

QuesTIOon XI.
‘Has your Council delegated to your Education Committee all the powers
permitted by the Act? If not, are you in favour of such delegation? ’

I find that while over 90 per cent. of the County Authorities have delegated
all powers, less than one-half of the County Boroughs and three-fifths of the
Boroughs and Urban Districts have adopted the same course. An overwhelming
majority (85 per cent.) of the Directors of all classes are in favour of full
delegation.

Remarks.

1. ‘Yes, thank goodness.’
_ 2. “Yes; we should be saved infinite trouble. Some Town Councillors have
little sympathy with education.’

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Gao

3. ‘Would prefer total delegation.’
4. ‘Most Education Committees are far more progressive than the County
Councils appointing them.’
‘Strongly in favour of delegation; it would do away with a great deal of
delay in administration.’
6. ‘An educational point of view of matters would be more frequently con-
sidered.’
7. ‘Before we had it the Education Committee was, in fact, a plaything of
the Council.’
‘Such delegation would lead probably to friction in practice.’
9. ‘Delegation of such powers is better in all respects for education.’

Question XII.

‘Please add any special criticisms of, or suggestions for, improvements in
the Act.’

It was very evident that most of my correspondents were anxious to avoid an
expression of their views in this matter. The nature of many of the replies may
be indicated by that of one of the Directors—namely : ‘No, thank you.’ On
the other hand, several have been so good as to write me short treatises on the
subject, containing very valuable expressions of opinion. It is difficult, how-
ever, to quote from many of these without betraying the condition on which I
invited confidence—namely, that I would give no indication as to the localities
concerned. On one matter all who have expressed their opinions are in accord—
viz.: ‘The greatest difficulty of the Act is the dual control for Non-Provided
Schools, more especially with regard to staffing.’

It is stated that ‘the transfer and promotion of teachers is almost impossible
under the present system.’ I feel, however, that the less I touch on this aspect
of the matter the better for the peace of mind of this Section. Again, all
Directors urge the necessity of relieving the increasing burden of the rates.
One states that the proportion of Treasury Grants has dropped from 66 per cent.
in 1906 to 48 per cent. in the past year, while the local rate has been nearly
trebled. Again: ‘Some means should be obtained to enable Authorities with
large number of rural schools to provide adequate education without increasing
the overwhelming burden now imposed upon them.’

The following are typical examples of the replies received :—

‘The greatest difficulty of the Act is the dual control over Non- Provided
Schocls, more especially with regard to staffing.’

2. ‘The whole of the Grant System should be overhauled and put on an
entirely new basis. The Authority should be aided, not on the basis of each
school, but on the basis of its general efficiency throughout the area.’

3. ‘Attendance should not be the only basis on which grants are paid.’

‘The L.E.A. should have statutory rights to consult H.M.I. and to
publish his opinions.’

5. ‘The exclusion of children under the order of the School Medical Officer
should not diminish the grants from taxes.’

6. ‘After-care and choice of employment to be statutory duties of L.H.A.,
and money to be specially allocated.’

7. ‘The relative duties of the Board of Education and the L.E.A. in regard
to the training of teachers should be clearly defined.’

_ 8. ‘The method of dealing with endowments whereby money left for education
is ag used to relieve local rates should be radically altered.’
9. ‘There should be no limit to the Higher Education Rate.’

10. ‘ The choice of all teachers should be left to the L.E.A.’

11. ‘The L.H.A. should have more power and liberty.’

12. ‘At present they (L.E.A.) are automatic machines, turning out identical
articles till the veneer goes off. Best of all, leave us alone for a few years.’

13. ‘The present statutory distinction between Elementary and Higher Edu-
eation, which hinders efficiency, should be done away with, and all Authorities
should be for education generally.’

14. ‘Districts, not counties, nor boroughs, should be the educational area.’

15. ‘The admission age should be made higher.’

734 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L,

16. ‘I doubt if any other civilised country enforces admission at the age of
five.’

17. ‘The qualification of the Inspecting Staff and of the chief officials of the
L.E.A. should be defined by statute.’

18. ‘The abolition of autonomous areas. County Authorities would then be
masters in their own house, and would be able to co-ordinate different grades
of education. Some of these are parochial in the extreme.’

19. ‘The provision of share of cost of erection and enlargement of schools
should be by the Imperial Exchequer.’

20. ‘Small authorities should be grouped, and the number of L.E.A.s would
then be reduced; the level of both elected and paid administrators would then
be higher.’

21. The necessity for smaller classes is insisted upon by nearly every writer.

22. The last reply which I shall quote is an exceptional one: ‘ Kducationally
the Act is a success.’

I may sum up as follows the impression left on my mind by the study of all
the replies, of which I have given only a few examples.

1. The Act appears to give greater satisfaction in the Counties than in the
County Boroughs and Boroughs and Urban Districts, although even in the
Counties the position of the smaller rural schools is a cause of dissatisfaction.

2. That in the Boroughs there is, on the whole, a preponderance of opinion in
favour either of an Authority elected ad hoc, or a more liberal exercise of the

‘ power of co-option.

3. That there is a preponderance of opinion that the appointments of the
school teachers should in all cases rest in the hands of the L.E.A.

4. That there is a tendency under the present system, except in centres of
large population, to restrict the choice of teachers to those who have received
their education locally, and that the effect of such restriction is detrimental.

5. That greater freedom in educational matters is advisable. The effect of
the present system is to produce a dull uniformity, although it is doubtful
whether the Head Teachers themselves or the Board of Education are most to
blame.

6. That an increase in the number of vocational schools is not desirable,
unless great care is taken that only those scholars are admitted who have
received a sound general education.

7. That one of the greatest hindrances to progress is the large size of the
classes.

8. That there should be greater delegation of powers to the Education Com-
mittees, and that the L.E.A. should have complete control over all forms of
education within its own area.

9. That a Redistribution Bill in the matter of areas is desirable, especially
in the relation of urban areas to the rural districts connected with them.

10. That the dearth of fully qualified teachers cannot be remedied until the
profession is made sufficiently attractive by increased emoluments and more
rapid promotion. Mere increase in the number of Training Colleges is no
remedy.

11. And, lastly, there is a consensus of opinion that a greater proportion of
the cost of education should be borne by the Treasury, and that the danger to
education arising from the rapid rate of increase in the Education Rate is a very
real one. If education in this country is to be successful it must be made
popular. This is impossible when every step in advance means an addition to the
local burdens.

I am afraid that the tenor of this correspondence does little to modify the
pessimistic views to which I have previously called attention. Regarded in bulk
it conveys the idea that the writers are endeavouring to make the best of a bad
case, although, as shown by the last reply quoted (swpra), the race of Mark
Tapleys does not appear to be entirely extinct.

I wish it had been possible to obtain the confidential opinions of H.M.I.s,
but I, at all events, am not one who would dare to question the gods, the dis-
tinguishing characteristic of those admirable officials being a cold infallibility
which renders approach inadvisable. It must be remembered, however, that

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 735

veiled hints of the need of drastic reforms have emanated from the highest
quarters, and one of the most hopeful signs of the situation is that such informa-
tion as has been vouchsafed to us appears to indicate that those who are moving
in the matter actually acknowledge that there is an educational as well as a
sectarian and a political aspect of the question. Nevertheless, so far as I am
personally concerned I still find my chief consolation in the quotation from
Todhunter which I have already inflicted upon you.

T am now going to take a bold step—namely, to express my own opinion on
this matter of Primary Education. I consider that we are proceeding in the
wrong order, in that we give greater prominence to the acquisition of knowledge
than to the development of character.

There is truth in Emerson’s dictum that ‘the best education is that which
remains when everything learnt at school is forgotten.’ We appear to think that
the learning of ‘the three R’s’ is education. We must remember that in impart-
ing these we are only supplying the child with the means of education, and that
even when he has acquired them the mere addition of further knowledge is
again not education. If we impart the desire for knowledge and train the
necessary mental appetite, the knowledge which will come by the bucketful in
after life will be absorbed and utilised.

It is, I know, easy to talk platitudes of this kind. We have, in justice to
the teacher, to remember that character depends on home life, as well as on
school life; but, nevertheless, if we could educate public opinion on this matter
progress might be possible. We want to introduce the spirit of our much-
abused public schools into all schools, namely, a sense of responsibility—and, as
a necessary sequence, a sense of discipline—a standard of truthfulness and con-
sideration. In this connection I have been greatly impressed by a report issued
by the Warwickshire County Council on the effect of the establishment of the
Prefect System in the Elementary Schools of that county, and I wish it was
possible to place this Report in the hands of every teacher in the country. It
is stated in the introduction that ‘the fundamental idea of the Prefect System
is the formation and development of character and the utilising for this purpose
of the efforts and activities of our pupils themselves.’

The pamphlet contains a description of the system as established, and the
different methods adopted in the schools of the county in carrying it into effect.

A summary of the Head Teachers’ Remarks, compiled by the Director of
Education, is given as an Appendix, and I cannot resist the temptation to quote
largely from his Report :—

‘In the autumn of 1911 a Conference of Head Teachers was held on Prefect
Systems in Elementary Schools. It was then decided that all the Head Teachers
present should try the system for a year, each one on his or her own lines, and
then report as to its working.

“Nearly all have now made reports, one only having failed without good
cause. Reports have come in from six large or middling boys’ schools, three
large girls’ schools, two large mixed schools, eleven middling and small schools,
mostly in villages, and one infants’ school—twenty-three in all, embracing
schools of practically every type.

‘The record, with one exception, is a story of success, in most cases of extra-
ordinary success, s0 much so as to put the possibility and value of the system
beyond a doubt. Whether in developing the prefect’s own character, or in
creating a sense of school honour among the other children, or in smoothing the
whole working of the school, the result is equally striking. And the more
ambitious the scheme of a school, the more it approximates to the Public School
tradition, the bigger the faith in boy and girl nature, the greater has been the
success. The few evidences of comparative disappointment come from schools
where the system has been tried haltingly and with distrust. Where there has
been courageous faith in the children they have risen to it to a degree that must
surprise even those who were readiest to believe in school self-government. Nor
is the success confined to large schools or boys’ schools. Boys’ and girls’ and
mixed schools, town schools and village schools, all have the same tale to tell.
A supply teacher who has served in seven schools since the Conference has found

736 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

that “from all classes of children, town and country, a ready response is made
to an appeal for added responsibility and trust on their part.” ....

‘The prefect, being in authority himself, comes to see the necessity and value
of discipline. He is as keen as is his Head for the school’s honour; he worries
the unpunctual, he takes charge of the playground. He is proud at being asked
and able to help in matters of school routine, most of all when the teacher is
called out of the class-room and he is himself responsible for order. And woe

‘Tt is a moot point whether a written constitution helps or not. Some
teachers deprecate rules, as limiting a prefect’s sense of responsibility and his
freedom to follow out his own ideas. That rules, however, meet some want
seems to be proved by the fact that at a school where the Head Master had
purposely made none the boys themselves drew up their code, and, the Head
Master adds: ‘‘I could not have got out any better rules.”’

The origin of the movement whose results are thus described is due to the
man whom I regard as the greatest educator of our time—namely, Sir Robert
Baden-Powell. I believe that the Boy Scout movement is rendering greater
service than our complicated State machinery in preparing those who are brought
within its influence for the struggles of life. It is a matter for regret that so
small a fraction of the children in our schools is able to share its benefits. I
only wish it were possible for our political system to admit the appointment of
Baden-Powell as Minister of Education, with plenary powers, for the next ten

ears !
“ He states that when visiting a great Agricultural School in Australia he
asked the Principal to inform him briefly what was the general trend of his
training. The reply was: ‘Character first; then Agriculture.’

If this, suitably modified, could be adopted as the motto for all our schools
the present attitude of the man in the street towards education would soon
undergo modification.

There is truth in Dr. Moxon’s statement that ‘A man has to be better than
his knowledge, or he cannot make use of it,’ and our efforts should be mainly
directed to making the character and the intelligence of the child so much
better than his knowledge that increase in knowledge will follow as a matter of
course. Let us devise some kind of universal Junior Scout system which may
so brighten the intelligence that the boy will want to know. Let him also
discover that the paths to knowledge are Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic;
he will then gladly follow his guides and gather more by the way than when
he is pushed along those paths in a perambulator.

So long as we attach greater importance to the results of examination than
to the judgment of the teacher our system stands self-condemned, for it places
knowledge above character.

It is natural that the discontented amongst us should try to cast the blame
on those in authority, and I confess that at times I feel as if I could join the
militant section and.relieve my feelings by throwing stones through the windows
of the Board of Education; but in recent years I have been privileged to pass
to the other side of those windows, and I have, to some extent, been led to
realise how able and how devoted are the men to whom the guidance of our
educational system is entrusted. All who are brought in contact with them
must acknowledge their earnestness and their zeal in the cause in which they
are enlisted, and it is remarkable how, in the discussion of educational questions,
they can, in moments of partial abandon, cease to be strictly official and become
almost human. It is evident, however, that the aim of such men must ever be
the smooth working of the machine as a whole. The comforting words ‘co-
ordination,’ ‘ uniformity,’ ‘ efficiency,’ are ever in their minds. A system planned
on one great design and perfected in all its details is the ideal for which they
are bound, consciously or unconsciously, to strive. The pity of it is that the
more successful their efforts, the worse it is for education in this country.

Evolutionary progress is only possible where variety exists, and variety

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. (357

is necessarily abhorrent to the official mind. Freedom for Local Authorities
to adopt their own methods, to experiment—and often to fail—is the system, if
system it can be called, by which alone advance is possible. The curse of
uniformity, perhaps the greatest curse of all, is a necessary consequence of
over-centralised control.

I have trespassed so greatly upon your forbearance in discussing matters
connected with Primary Education that I must give but brief expression to
any views concerning the Secondary and Higher branches.

As I have previously indicated, State aid should be restricted to those who
are able to profit thereby. The 25 per cent. free-place regulation has, it is
generally admitted, brought into the Secondary Schools many really able students.
On the other hand, there is no doubt that a certain proportion thereof would be
more profitably employed in serving their apprenticeship in the business in which
they are to earn their bread-and-butter. It is, of course, understood that those
whose parents can afford to pay for the further education of their children and
who are ready to do so are not here referred to, but, careful selection assured,
generous assistance to those in need of help suggests itself as the best policy.

Another subject for consideration is the disproportion between the assistance
given by the State to the training of Primary and of Secondary Teachers.
I understand that to the latter object, so far as England and Wales are con-
cerned, the not impressive sum of 5,000]. is delegated. After making due
allowance for the difference in numbers under the respective headings, it is
difficult to understand how it is necessary to expend a sum approaching 700,000/.*
on the training of Primary Teachers, and only 1/140th of that amount on train-
ing those who are to guide our most able students in the pursuit of knowledge.

Had time permitted I should have liked to dwell on the evil effects of
what I may term our conspiracy of silence regarding sexual instruction. If
the proverbial visitor from Mars was engaged in a tour of inspection in our
country, I think nothing would strike him as more extraordinary than that a
subject which so closely concerns the progress of the race and the welfare of the
individual should be entirely ignored in our system of education. By our action
(or rather want of action) we tacitly admit that knowledge is harmful, and that
we deliberately prefer such knowledge, which must necessarily be attained in one
way or another, to arrive by subterranean channels and by agencies which will
present facts of vital importance in their worst possible aspect.

We cannot be said to be really educating our children so long as we withhold
from them all guidance in one of the most difficult problems which will be
presented to them in later life, and when one reflects on the misery and wreckage
consequent on our silence, it is difficult to speak with due moderation. I will
therefore content myself with suggesting to those interested in this matter a
study of the procedure adopted in the schools of Finland, in which systematic
instruction is given by carefully selected teachers; it is stated with the happiest
results.

I have referred, when speaking of Primary Education, to the curse of
uniformity as one of the greatest evils of our educational system. So far, at
all events, our provincial Universities have escaped, although not entirely un-

1 Note I.—Grants for 1911-12 :—
1. Grants from Board of Education :—
(a) Maintenance grants to Training Colleges and Hostels £470,910

(Oywbodiney ereantsm Fo este ney sang TP ATS eM, 93,496

——— £564,406
2. Grants from L.E.A.’s :—
(a) To Training Colleges . . 5 eas Meek aie 21,682
(b) To Hostels . . A ; : : . : ; 787
(c) Scholarships (not possible to ascertain total) . . ?

— 22,469
ROCHE eee es aso ene BY £586,875

Note II.—To the above must be added the grants in aid of bursars and pupil
teachers, which amount to £101,802.
1913: 3B

738 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

scathed, from the cramping effects of departmental control. The situation,
however, is not free from danger. It is necessary that these Universities should
be State-aided. It is also evident that, if we are to hold our own in competition
with other nations, State assistance must be increased. ‘There is danger, there-
fore, that the blight of uniformity and official control may descend upon them.
The danger is not immediate, but it is nevertheless real. To some of us an
ominous sign was the transference of the dispensation of the University grants
from the Treasury to the Board of Education. It is true that we have evidence
that no desire for undue control is manifest at the present time, and it is an
encouraging sign that the Minister of Education, in a recent dispute connected
with one of our youngest Universities, intimated that he considered it beyond his
province to interfere with its proceedings. :

In this connection Mr. Austen Chamberlain has given me permission to read
the following extract from a letter which I recently received from him :—

‘I am in complete agreement with you as to the importance of preserving to
the Universities the greatest possible freedom and liberty. For this very reason I
was at first strongly opposed to transferring the administration of the Treasury
Grants to the Board of Education; but I found that, for one reason and
another, a considerable portion of their receipts were already received from the
latter Board, and it was represented to me that this involved unnecessary com-
plication and overlapping, and that the Universities were likely to receive more
generous consideration if the whole of the Grants were placed in the hands of
a single Authority. At the same time I was assured that the Board of Educa-
tion had no desire to claim a control different in character or extent from that
which the Treasury had previously exercised. On receiving these assurances I
withdrew my opposition to the transfer and sent word to the Chancellor of the
Exchequer that I no longer held him bound by an undertaking which he had
given me in the House of Commons that the transfer should not take place.’

Another encouraging sign is the personnel of the Advisory Committee which
the Board has established to guide it in matters connected with the University
Grants. We cannot, however, be certain that such wise views will always
prevail, and I have already dwelt on the inevitable tendency of any department
of State to influence and control the policy of all Bodies receiving assistance
from the Treasury

The freedom of the Universities is one of the highest educational assets of
this country, and it is to the advantage of the community as a whole that each
University should be left unfettered to develop its energies, promote research and
advance learning in the manner best suited to its environment. It is conceivable
that it might be better for our Universities to struggle on in comparative poverty
rather than yield to the temptation of affluence coupled with State control.

The State is at present devoting some 180,000/. to the support of University
education in England and Wales. If, in addition, we include such institutions
as the National Physical Laboratory and the grant of 4,000/. to the Royal
Society, we may say that this country is expending about 200,000/. per annum
on the highest education and the promotion of research, a total but slightly
exceeding that devoted to one of the Universities of Germany. Comment
appears needless.

When we reflect on the magnitude of the results which would inevitably
follow an adequate encouragement of research, the irony of the position becomes
more evident. It was stated on authority that Pasteur during his lifetime
saved for his country the whole cost of the Franco-Prussian War. It is com-
puted that nearly one and three-quarter millions of our population are to-day
dependent for their living upon industries connected with the mechanical
generation of electricity—a population which may be said, without undue use
of imagery, to be living on the brain of Faraday. We possess mathematicians
who, granted encouragement, opportunity, and time, could establish the laws of
stability of aeroplanes. Suppose we spent some millions in discovering the man
and enabling him to complete his task; the result might be an addition to our
security greater than that of a fleet of super-Dreadnoughts. Unfortunately,
there are no votes to be gained by the advocacy of opportunities for research !

Associations such as ours should spare no effort to bring home to the minds
of the people the truth of the statement that the prosperity of this kingdom is
dependent on its industries, and that those industries are founded on Applied
Science.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 739

Some years ago the Petit Journal invited its readers to answer the question
“Who were the twenty greatest Frenchmen of the Nineteenth Century?’ No
less than fifteen million votes were recorded. The resulting list included the
names of nine scientific men, and Pasteur led by 100,000 votes over Victor Hugo,
who came second, Napoleon securing the fourth place. It is obvious that a pofl
of such magnitude must have been representative of all classes. I ask you to
reflect on the probable result, mutatis mutandis, if such a poll was taken in this
country. I am afraid we should find the names of football and cricket heroes
included, but I doubt if the name of a single man of science would appear
amongst the immortals.

It should be our mission to make evident to the working-man his indebtedness
to the pioneers of science. Demonstrate to him the close connection between the
price of his meat and the use of refrigerating processes founded on the investiga-
tions of Joule and Thomson; between the purity of his beer and the labours of
Pasteur. Show the collier that his safety is to no small extent due to Humphry
Davy; the driver of the electric tramcar that his wages were coined by Faraday.
Make the worker in steel realise his obligation to Bessemer and Nasmyth; the
telegraphist his indebtedness to Volta and Wheatstone, and the man at the
‘wireless’ station that his employment is due to Hertz. Tell the soldier that
the successful extraction of the bullet he received during the South African
War was accomplished by the aid of Roéntgen. Convince the sailor that his
good ‘landfall’ was achieved by the help of mathematicians and astronomers ;
that Tyndall had much to do with the brilliancy of the lights which warn him
of danger, and that to Kelvin he owes the perfection of his compass and
scunding line. Impress upon all wage-earners the probability that had it not
been for the researches of Lister they, or some member of their family, would
not be living to enjoy the fruits of their labours. If we can but bring some five
per cent. of our voters to believe that their security, their comfort, their health,
are the fruits of scientific investigation, then—but not until then—shall we see
the attitude of those in authority towards this great question of the encourage-
ment of Research change from indifference to enthusiasm and from opposition
to support.

When we have educated the man in the street it is possible that we may
succeed in the hardest task of all, that of educating our legislators.

APPENDIX.

SUMMARY OF THE REPLIES RECEIVED FROM THE DIRECTORS
oF EDUCATION.
Total number of forms returned: 121.

Qusstion I.

“Do you consider that the centralisation of authority in the hands of County
Councils has caused any decay of interest in education in your district ?’

Tasue I.
No change,
Authority. Yes No or
indecisive
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
Counties. . : ait ae 5 ; P 4 9 82 9
County Boroughs . — ess. Daly 27 28 45
Boroughs and Urban Districts. 5. 53 26 21

If, disregarding the classification, we take the country as a whole, we get :—
31 per cent. 44 per cent. 25 per cent.

Question II.
‘Would you prefer the educational authority to be one elected ad hoc, as in the
days of the School Board, rather than the system as at present established ? ’
3B 2

740 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

TaBe II.
Uncertain
Authority Yes No or
indifferent
Per cent Per cent. | Per cent.
Counties. . SAS an Ee ng ‘ 19 7A 10
County Boroughs . lant x 5 aa) 55 21 24
Boroughs and Urban Districts 72 23 5
Country as a whole 51 36 | 13

Question IIL
‘(a) To what extent has co-optation of members of the Education Committee
been adopted in your area, 7.e. what proportion do the co-opted members bear to the
whole Committee, and what is the proportion of co-opted women members ?
(b) Would you wish to see the principle of co-optation extended or diminished ?

TaBex III. (a)
Percentage of Co-opted Members.

| Average | Average
“ 'Percentage| Highest Lowest | Percentage |,,.
Authority of Co-opted | Percentage| Percentage | of Women Highest /Lowest
| Members Co-opted
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
Counties . : 31 44 13 7 ll 3a3,|
County Boroughs . 33 48 6 8 13 3 |
| Boroughs and Ur- |
ban Districts | 30 48 3 9 18 3
TaBLeE III. (6)
| Satistied
Authority Extended Diminished ot
| conditions
c< =. te. 7 Za |
Per cent. | Percent. | Per cent.
Counties... 25 3 |
County Boroughs _ : 21 21 58
Boroughs and Urban Districts . 45 12 43

Question IV.
‘ Have your Local Committees, or Bodies of School Managers, the right of appoint-
ing, subject to ratification by the Education Committee, (a) Head ‘Teachers ;

(b) Assistant Teachers ?’
TABLE IV. (a)

Delegation of Powers.
Head Teachers.

| Delegated | at
Authority Delegated: subject to
| ratification delegated
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
Counties. . : 55 24 21
County Boroughs . on ae - | 14 Ae 82
Boroughs and Urban Districts . a 32 | 6 | 62

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 741

TaBLE IV. (5)
Assistant Teachers.

Delegated
Authority Delegated | subject to
ratification

Not
delegated

Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.

Counties. . eee A ee 61 27 12
County Bor oughs . ; aebiah Gab: 17 5 78

Boroughs and Urban Districts » 5. 36 1 53

QuESTION VY.

‘Has your Authority established a College for the training of Elementary Teachers,
under its own management, or in conjunction with others? If so, has the effect been
to restrict the area from which you draw your teachers ? ’

TaBie V.
Authority Percentage having established
Training Colleges
| Per cent.
Counties. . ee tee oh ee 14
County Boroughs . |

10

Question VI.

‘Is the general effect of the present system to restrict the freedom of choice of
teachers to those from your own locality ?’

TaBLe VI.
Authority | Yes No Uncertain
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. |
OVUUADHTES! Go orig oe ee fa Ce 47 37 16
Marne boroushar.t) 195k = ous ere | 80 18 2

Question VII.

‘Do you consider the curricula of (a) Primary; (b) Secondary Schools under
your Authority as overcrowded ?

“Tf so, can you indicate the directions in which you consider there could be a
reduction ?’

TaBLe VII.

Authority Yes | No | Uncertain

(a) ELlementary Schools.

Per cent. | Per cent, | Per cent.

OTTERS TG Se) ee i te a nr 50 46 4

County Boroughs. . Ck a Ma 45 | 52 | 3

Boroughs and Urban Districts aed a7 62 35 5
(b) Secondary Schools.

Ey CVG ee LS ee a 42 50 8

County Boroughs. . 30 | 65 5

1 Note.—The number of replies from Boroughs and Urban Districts was insufficient
to warrant a table of percentages.

742 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

Qusstion VIII.
Are you in favour of an increase in the number of vocational schools? Or do
you consider that the effect of such increase would be detrimental to the standard
of general education throughout the country ?’”

TaBLE VIII.
Authority | Yes | No Uncertain
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
Counties. . 30) Desde tut ta cons 33 45 22
County Boroughs . é BY peg eos ES 47 26 27
Boroughs and Urban Districts 9. 45 30 25

A considerable proportion of those who say ‘ Yes’ modify their replies by stating, |
‘For children over fourteen,’ or, ‘Concurrently with general education.’

Qurstion IX.
‘ What is the average size of the classes in your Primary Schools ? ’

TaBLE IX.
Average 2
4 . Highest Lowest
Authorit size of 5:
: Classes No. No.
Counties . 3 : : - A 3 : ‘i 34 60 10
County Boroughs;: (2705 5.) 6 Sas 43 63 10
Boroughs See est tas? os ie eres 42 | 60 10

QUESTION X.

‘Do you consider Par. 18, 1 (a), (c), (d), of the 1902 Act to work harshly, or to the
disadvantage of educational progress ?’

TABLE X.
| Authority Yes No ~°| Doubtful
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
Counties . : ; : 3 . ‘ ° : 39 | 48 13

Question XI.

‘Has your Council delegated to your Education Committee the powers under
the latter portion of Clause 17 (2) of Part IV. of the Act? If not, would you be in
favour of such delegation ?”

TaBLe XI. (a)

Authority Yes No Partly
Per cent. | Percent. | Per cent.
Counties . (Se ee Fh IO 91 3 6
County Boroughs : lps ve see are 44 41 15
Boroughs and Urban Pate oe Sf, 58 34 8

TaBLE XI. (6)

Authority In favour of delegation
Per cent.
Counties. . Sete Te) eet Bao Xe 89
County Boroughs . AS Ger ee 93
Boroughs and Urban Distiots se 4 a 74

Mean . : 6 : s 6 : ; 85

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Lg 743

Joint Discussion with Section H on the Educational Use of Museums.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Educational Use of Museums.
By Josrru A. Cuuss, D.Sc.

The public museums of this country are siowly taking their proper position
as educational institutions. Just as the departmental museums of universities
are the indispensable instruments of scientific teaching and research, so public
museums should become the recognised and necessary instruments of popular
education. With the ever-widening field of human knowledge, the multiplicity
of the collections and departments in our museums is a source rather of bewilder-
ment than of instruction to the average visitor, and perhaps the chief reason
why so much of educational value is lost is because there is no comprehensive
scheme which will link up and demonstrate intelligently the inter-relation of the
various departments both of science and art. In Liverpool we are at present
engaged on a scheme which it is hoped will to some extent secure this object.
The scheme is described in detail elsewhere, so I propose only to outline it
here. A collection is being formed in the main (entrance) hall of the Free
Public Museum which is intended to present a connected view of the world in
which we live, by suggesting. the sequence of its history in a series of cases
illustrating (by models, diagrams or specimens) (a) the earth in relation with
the solar system; (b) the surface of the earth (physical and geographical) ;
(c) the crust of the earth (geological); (d) the life of the earth (biological) ;
(c) physical man and (f) social man. These cases will therefore form consecutive
chapters in an epitome of the world’s history, and by placing conspicuously in
the respective cases references to the various sections and departments con-
tained in the museum they will also serve as an index to, as well as suggesting
the inter-relation of, these various sections.

That museums should play an important part in elementary and secondary
education will, I think, be recognised, but up to the present little has been done
in this country to give it effect. Museum lessons to school children are not
unknown, but usually they are not carried out systematically as part of our
educational methods, but are intended often rather for amusement than for
serious instruction. Various museums have school loan collections, and provide
special facilities to encourage visits of school classes under the charge of teachers,
and instances are known where some of the more enterprising masters have
drawn up courses of lessons in consultation with the curator of the museum.
But what has been done is entirely voluntary effort on the part of the teachers,
and what is wanted is proper recognition by the Education Authorities that
museums are important factors in both elementary and secondary education,
together with formal co-operation with museum curators. The faculty which
is least trained under our present system of education is that of observation,
and yet none is of greater value and none is deserving of more careful cultiva-
tion, and the place of all others for such training is a museum. I do not think
the formation of ‘Children’s Museums’ is at all necessary. What will educate
the ordinary visitor will educate the child, under proper tuition.

The appointment of suitable guides for the purpose of giving demonstrations
in museum galleries is full of potentialities for increasing the educational value
of museums. Museum curators and other members of the staff have done
considerable work of this character in the past, but I am of opinion that it will
be LS rewets to appoint guides who can devote the whole of their time to this
work.

2. The School and the Museum. By A. R. Horwoop.

The recognition by the State of the principle of facilitating the procedure
of elementary school children of merit to the university affords an opportunity
for emphasising the unity of all educational institutions.

The school and the university have usually been regarded as the only educa-
tional media. But technical schools, agricultural colleges, schools of art are

* The Museums Journal, vol. xi., 1912.

744 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

equally branches of an ideal educational system, integral parts of a whole. And
to these and other accessory parts of such a scheme must be added museums and
art galleries.

The rise of nature study demands the utilisation of museums for teaching
purposes. Already some museums have recognised this, and in many cases for
a number of years. But the recognition is not general. Moreover, the inter-
connection has not, as it ought to have done, come from the schools, which, as a
whole, are ignorant of the obvious facilities afforded. State recognition of nature
study will improve museums and those who attend and teach in the schools.

The rapprochement between museums and schools may be facilitated by the
following means: Exhibits may be planned upon an educational basis, as part of
a students’ section, to suit local needs, illustrating general principles. The
existence of such facilities and their application to nature study should be
made known. Where there is no other instruction, and there is a demand for
it, museum officials may deliver lectures on the subject in connection with the
educational exhibits. Lectures to children and demonstrations may also be
undertaken by the museum staff. In all cases a definite plan arranged between
school and museum authorities should be followed.

The large classes, which hinder effective work in public exhibition rooms,
may profitably be allowed to use a room set apart for the purpose of school work.
The use of the museum should be regular and on a systematic plan.

Current life—i.e., exhibits of wild flowers, and living animals in aquaria ov
vivaria—should be encouraged.

This communication draws attention to the unity of all educational establish-
ments, in particular that between schools and museums, and the need for a more
general use of the latter by the former.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

Discussion on the Function of the Modern University in the State.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
Joint Meeting with Sub-section I (Psychology).

The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Report on the Influence of School-books upon Eyesight.
See Reports, p. 269.

2. An Indian National Alphabet. By Rev. J. Know tes.

The necessity for an Indian national alphabet arises from the fact that though
India has some two hundred languages and dialects, and, say, fifty different
scripts, there is no Indian alphabet, properly so called (except for English).
The Indian scripts are really syllabaries, each requiring from 500 to 1,000 com-
plicated types to print. All the characters of a vernacular must be mastered
before any reading is possible, and learning to read is as difficult as mastering
a system of shorthand.

There are only fifty-three typical elementary sounds in the whole of the
Indian languages put together, but there are twenty thousand elaborate symbols
used to express them. Many of the characters are extremely trying to the
eyesight, and difficult to read, to write, and to print.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 745

These numerous complicated syllabaries are the chief cause of Indian
illiteracy, which is so great that 90 per cent. of the males and 99 per cent. of
the females are unable to read and write. Out of a total population of over
315,000,000 there -are nearly 295,000,000 illiterates. Out of 106,655,443 Hindu
females the Census returned 105,847,870 as illiterate, and there were only
137,807 readers among 31,883,812 Mahomedan women and girls. é :

The simple remedy suggested for this lamentable illiteracy is an Indian
national alphabet based upon the Roman letters supplemented by the phonotypes
of Sir Isaac Pitman and Dr. A. J. Ellis, with some Romanic letters for special
Indian sounds. This alphabet would provide for an accurate transliteration of
all Indian languages, or for a practical phonetic writing of the same. Tn all
fifty-three types are suggested, but, on an average, only thirty-seven are required
for a vernacular. The letters are easy to read, facile to write, and suitable for
printing, and with them an illiterate may be taught to read his mother tongue
in ten simple lessons.

It is suggested that Government should appoint a Linguistic Commission to
go thoroughly into the whole question of Indian illiteracy and recommend a
code of Roman or Romanic letters, which should be allowed optional use in the
schools and public courts. If this is done, then the great educational, inter-
national, economic, and other advantages would soon bring about their general
adoption.

In view of the fact that the Indian Government contemplate a wide extension
of elementary education the present time seems to present a good opportunity
for such an inquiry, and it is suggested that the British Association should take
the lead in promoting a memorial to the Secretary of State for India on the
subject.

Post-cards giving a complete scheme of Romanic letters for all Indian
languages, and illustrating their application to Indian vernaculars (and also to
phonetic English as suggested by Sir Isaac Pitman and Dr. Ellis), will be sent
to anyone interested on receipt of stamped and addressed envelope. The cards
give the printing forms of the letters, the script character, the pronunciation,
and the corresponding Sanskrit or Arabic characters. They also show the origin
of the present indigenous scripts and give statistical and other information.

Illustrations of Indian scripts and the suggested Romanic letters with
specimens of their application to Indian vernaculars and to phonetic English
were distributed at the meeting.

3. Educational Research. By OC. W. Kimmiys, M.A., D.Sc.

The attitude towards educational research has undergone a remarkable
change in recent years. The psychologist is bending his energies more and more
towards the solution of important questions of practical education, and the
practical teacher is recognising to a far greater extent than previously the
great assistance psychology can render in the solution of the problems of the
schoolroom. The change of attitude is well exemplified by two books by the
same author (Professor Hugo Munsterberg, of Harvard)—‘ Psychology and
Life,’ published in 1899, and ‘ Psychology and the Teacher,’ published in 1910.

Whether there is a true science of education or whether such a science is
in course of development is not a matter of concern at the moment. What is of
more importance is that of recent years scientific methods of investigation have
been extensively employed in the solution of educational problems, that univer-
sities have regarded such investigations as being worthy of the award of the
highest degrees they can offer, and that increased facilities have been given for
students of psychology and of the theory and practice of education to take these
subjects to a high university standard in their degree courses in Arts and
Science (see the recent alterations in the Degree Courses of Study in the
University of London).

The so-called ‘ Downfall of the Theory of Formal Training’ is a matter of
first-rate importance in its relation not only to methods of teaching, but also to
the allocation of time to many subjects in the school curriculum. Dr. /Sleight’s
thesis on ‘Memory and Formal Training,’ for which he was awarded the

746 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

Doctorate in Literature at the University of London, has an all-important
bearing on questions relating to the cultivation of memory.

For a considerable time problematical arithmetic has, by common consent,
been given a place early in morning school. A careful research recently pub-
lished, however, gives an account of experiments which show that better
results can be obtained by taking this subject at a later hour in the morning,
except in the cases of poor children who do work before coming to school.
Many such investigations could be quoted to show the great importance of
bringing scientific methods of investigation to the questions of school organisa-
tion. Such an investigation as that carried out by Mr. Ballard on ‘ What
London children like to draw,’ published in the ‘Journal of Experimental
Pedagogy’ for March 1912, is an excellent example of a stimulative and
suggestive piece of work.

From a long list of important questions, which need careful scientific
investigation, may be mentioned :—

The age at which a child should commence to read and write.
The best method of teaching reading.
The number of hours a child can profitably spend in school at a given age
The most suitable length of lessons for children at different ages.
The most satisfactory tests of intelligence.
. The effect of handwork on other branches of instruction and on general
mental efficiency.
7. The varying attitude of children towards certain subjects at different ages.
8. The advisability of intensive work at certain stages.
9. The extent to which clever children mature late.
10. The degree to-which the curricula of girls’ should differ from those of
boys’ schools.
11. The relative amounts of fatigue experienced in learning certain subjects
at different ages.

Saye He COUNTS

It would be a great advantage if experimental work in the psychological
laboratory could be brought into closer relation with that of the classroom.
The results obtained in the classroom should be verified in the laboratory and
vice versd. In the classroom the conditions are exceedingly complex and
difficult to control, whereas in the laboratory the conditions are simplified as
much as possible and may become somewhat artificial. Important results
obtained in the laboratory should receive more attention in the school.
Similarly, important experiments carried on in the schcolroom should receive
the attention of the practical psychologist. It is this forward and backward
movement from practice to theory and from theory to practice that will con-
tribute most effectively to genuine advance in education.

A paper read at the Conference of Teachers in London in January 1913,
by Mr. Pear of Manchester, on ‘Recent Researches on the subject of Attention,’
affords remarkable evidence of the practical bearing of laboratory research in
psychology on the problems of the schoolroom.

The mass of valuable information which can be obtained from the papers
written in connection with the examination of children of various ages in all
large centres of population forms an admirable field for work from many
points of view, but the statistics must be collected and their significance
explained by experienced observers. In America much valuable material has
been obtained from the evidence afforded by examination papers of children
of different ages.

The number of university students taking educational research for their
thesis in higher examinations is increasing rapidly, but it is still in no way
commensurate with the importance of this department of knowledge as compared
with the amount of research carried on in other departments. The whole
matter requires careful organisation, and increased facilities are needed for
research. Research Fellowships in education would, in this connection, be of
the greatest value to the community and a great stimulus to the science of
education. :

With advanced work of this kind the difficulties with regard to organisation
are not serious, as the students carry on research under university professors
in well-equipped institutions, but in more elementary work, for which there

net

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 747

is a large field for workers in many departments, the organisation is more
difficult, especially where the correlation of laboratory work and schoolroom work
is desirable.

Probably the most effective form of organisation would be the establishment
of a board or advisory committee, consisting of professors of education,
psychologists and practical teachers, in large centres of population, either
under the control of the university or the local education authority, which
would be largely responsible for expert guidance and sanction, where necessary,
in connection with the conduct of important experiments. In this way teachers
wishing to take part in experiments could obtain advice, be warned against the
more common errors into which they are likely to fall, and, where they desire
it, obtain that necessary training which would qualify them to take part in
important investigations in various capacities.

4. Report on the Mental and Physical Factors involved in Education.
See Reports, p. 302.

5. Psychological Analysis and Educational Method in Teaching.
By Miss S. Farruurst.—See Reports, p. 302.

6. An Investigation into Spelling at the Fielden Demonstration School.
By Miss I. Supparps.—See Reports, p. 304.

7. Spelling Reform. By Professor Rippman.

8. Experiments on the Methods of Teaching Reading.
By Dr. C. W. VALENTINE.

Two classes of students and five classes of Elementary School children,
varying in age from six to nine years, were each divided into two sections of
approximately equal average intelligence. One section of each class was then
taught to read English words written in Greek script, by the Phonic method, the
other section of each class being taught to read the same passages by the ‘ Look-
and-Say’ (or Word-Whole) method. The same length of time was spent over
the lessons given by the respective methods to each class. Subsequently reading
tests were given with both seen and unseen words, and the scores of the various
sections were compared. On the whole, the Phonic method proved much superior,
even with the infant class, and especially in the unseen tests. There was some
evidence, however, that for very dull children the ‘ Look-and-Say’ method may
be preferable. :

9. The Excessive Use of Suggestion in Education.
By Mrs. C. M. Merepity. ~

I. The term suggestion is here used to mean the process of accepting an
idea or proposition with conviction, but without adequate logical grounds. The
process thus depends (a) on the manner of presentation, e.g., the prestige or
authority of the ‘person making the suggestion; (b) on the state of mind of
_ the recipient, e.g., absence of contrarient ideas, inadequate knowledge. Children
consequently are, as a rule, specially suggestible. They accept ‘suggested ’
ideas (1) without opposition; indeed, in the case of indirect suggestion
they regard the idea as their own; (2) with a tenacity which they cannot justify ;
(3) with an emotional tinge which is effective in leading to action.—Ideas due
to suggestion contrast with those due to reason.

TI. It is at present uncertain how far suggestion is effective in forming
children’s characters and interests, and at what stage in education suggestion
is most influential. In regard to the first point we need to determine how far

748 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

a child’s interests and convictions are due to native tastes and how far to
suggestion. Probably more importance is attached to the former than is
justifiable, because the suggested idea, when once accepted, often leads to an
habitual interest which appears to subsequent observers as a native taste. In
regard to the second point, we need to determine the relative importance of
suggestions given in early childhood and those given at adolescence. Educational
tradition attaches a possibly exaggerated importance to the former.

III. The more influential we admit suggestion to be, the more cautiously
should it be used. (a) Its use tends to discourage criticism and reasoning.
Much of the adolescent period is wasted in painfully discarding by a critical
process the convictions impressed upon us by suggestion during childhood.
Unless civilisation is stationary, this is sometimes inevitable. Suggestive
methods of education in morals, religion, art, and politics, increase a waste
which ought to be minimised. In other cases the critical stage is never reached,
and prejudice, or at worst fanaticism, results. (0b) Its use in teaching and
ordinary intercourse to suggest pursuits and arouse interests and to avoid the
friction of direct command tends to make the child dependent instead of self-
reliant. The more skilful the methods of suggestion, the more is this apt to be
the’ case, because the teacher is himself often unconscious of the extent of his
influence. He believes the child to be ‘thinking’ when in fact he is ‘ sug-
gesting ’ each step himself.

IV. The excessive use of suggestion is due to (a) bad conditions of teaching
and confused criteria of ‘good’ teaching; (b) distrust of reason and the critical
faculties. The child cannot in most cases reason adequately, but he should he
prepared to reason in the future, instead of being trained to accept unreasoned
convictions without criticism.

10. Experiments on Practice in Immediate Memory.
By J. L. McIntyre.

Preliminary tests were made in several primary and higher grade schools
in Scotland, with meaningless syllables as material; their object was to give a
standard of unpractised memory, and to determine the influence of different
times of exposure and interval, number of repetitions, age, sex, social status,
&e. They showed the ordinary gradual increase with age, fluctuations of rise
and fall practically alternating for boys and girls, with greater spread of varia-
tion for earlier ages, superiority throughout for girls over boys, and for town
over country children, the advantage of girls over boys being greater at the
lower ages, and greater also for country as compared with town children. Very
slight differences were found in results for different rates of exposure (one and
a half, two, and three seconds), the quicker reproduction in the first compensat-
ing for the longer fixation in the third, but it was found that different methods
of memorising were also adopted in the different cases. Visual is throughout
more effective than oral presentation, the superiority of the former being greater
for older children, and for town as compared with country children. Correlation
of the ranking by these tests with the teacher’s ranking, in one school, showed
extraordinary divergencies in some classes and closeness in others.

The three practice series were carried out in a town school, an oral series
(thirty days), a visual (twenty-one days), and a further visual series (sixty
days). The improvement was relatively greatest for the oral series (nearly
100 per cent.) and for one as compared with two readings; in the longer visual
series, a comparison of the first and last weeks gave an average rise of 50 per
cent. Individuals showed well-marked differences of type in the form of the
practice curve, and it was found that in most cases the weakest section of the
syllable-group was instinctively strengthened as practice continued, becoming in
some individuals the strongest by the end of the practice-period. The junior
pupils, beginning at a much lower level, made more rapid and greater improve-
ment than the senior pupils, although the difference of age was slight.

An attempt was also made to study the value of such mechanical memory-
work as ‘formal training’; the results support the view that a considerable
amount of the improvement of ability gained by memorising syllables is available
for ordinary school-work.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 749

11. Analysis and Synthesis in Learning Processes:
By Dr. E. O. Lewis.

This paper gave an account of a few initial experiments of a somewhat
extensive investigation into the respective réles of analysis and synthesis in
learning processes. Most of these experiments were performed with subjects
aged eight to fourteen. In almost all cases the subjects were tested individually,
but a few ‘mass’ experiments were performed to verify some of the chief results.

The first series was designed for the purpose of finding the relative ease
and efficiency with which problems are solved or material learnt when subjects
proceed (1) from the whole to parts (W method), or (2) from the parts to the
whole (P method).

(a) Subjects learned to spell strange words which were exposed letter by
letter (P method), and another series of words which were apprehended as
wholes (W method), the whole word being exposed for the same period as it
took to expose a corresponding word letter by letter—usually from ten to fifteen
seconds. The data obtained showed conclusively the superiority of the W
method, but this superiority was more marked in the complete learning of the
matter than in obtaining first impressions. The P method compared more
favourably in the learning of Welsh words, e.g. ‘ynghwydd,’ than in learning
words constituted of familiar English syllables, e.g. ‘stimrectwomrud.’

(6) In this set of experiments words were exposed in syllables, each con-
sisting of three to six letters (P method), and the results compared with those
obtained by learning similar words by the W method. The syllabic presentation
was the better both as regards the first impressions and complete learning; but
this superiority of the P method was not so marked or consistent as that of the
W method in series (a) experiments.

(c) Drawings of familiar (e.g. ship) and unfamiliar (e.g. irregular designs)
objects were observed and the subjects were asked to draw from memory what
they could remember. One set of drawings was observed as wholes, whilst
another set was observed in parts. The drawings in the part series were
constructed by drawing the object in broad outline first and filling in the details
in the succeeding drawings. The reproductions were assessed from the point
of view of accuracy and completeness of observation. The results proved the
superiority of the W method in a striking manner, especially the reproductions
of the familiar objects.

(zd) Common regular geometrical figures (e.g. oblongs, circles) were cut in
cardboard into four, five, or six irregular parts. The subjects, mostly adults,
were asked to reconstruct the whole by setting the parts together (P method) ;
and to do the converse with another set, by indicating on paper how a given
regular figure could be divided into a number of parts which were shown to
the subject (W method). The times required to solve the problems were
obtained by means of a stop-watch. In all cases the W method proved much
the easier procedure.

The contrast between the results of series (6) and (c) suggested that the
superiority of the analytic procedure lies chiefly in mastering organic wholes,
whereas the synthetic procedure would prove the better with mechanical wholes.
A poem would form an organic whole as compared with a list of nonsense
syllables which really only form a mechanical whole. This suggested the
following experiment :—

(e) A list of associated words, e.g. sun, warm, cold, was learnt by the entire
method, and a similar list by the sectional method; and likewise with two lists
of nonsense syllables. The entire method proved the more economical with both
sets of material, but more so with the associated words. The results suggest
that to attribute the superiority of the entire method to the saving of unnecessary
associations, as is usually done, cannot be regarded as a satisfactory explanation,
if indeed it does not overlook the most important factor.

A result of some interest was obtained incidentally from one of the ‘mass’
experiments. A class of pupils was set the task of making as many sense words
as possible in five minutes’ time out of the letters of some common word, e.g.
treasure. The results obtained were correlated with the order of intelligence
of the pupils as placed by the class-teacher. The coefficient of correlation was

750 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

19—much lower than was expected. The pupils were given a week’s practice
in this work, and again tested. The coefficient of correlation proved to be °54.
After still another week’s practice the coefficient rose to ‘69. Such results
prompt us to ask whether tests of intelligence should not give prominence to
proficiency in the acquirement of a habit rather than to ability manifested in
giving immediate answers to a questionnaire.

12. The Mental Differences between the Sexes. By Cyriu Burr.

Problems.—Attempts to summarise secondary sex-differences commonly reduce
them to terms of a single principle—e.g. natural and sexual selection during the
evolution of the race (Darwin), abridgment or prolongation of immaturity during
the development of the individual (Spencer), environmental influences accumulat-
ing through inheritance (Lombroso), environmental influences reimposed but not
inherited (Mill), or a fundamental antithesis in physiological constitution
(Geddes and Thomson). The implications of such theories suggest the follow-
ing problems as crucial issues between them: Are the inborn differences between
the sexes as large as the acquired? Are the mental differences as large as the
physical? Are the differences on the higher levels of mental life as large as
those on the lower?

Methods.—These problems require for their solution familiar devices of
experimental and statistical procedure.

In collecting data it is necessary to separate inborn mental differences from
those that are acquired. In the earlier of the experiments here reported,’ there-
fore, the subjects chosen were children of the same age, school, and class, and
the tests employed were tasks which depended upon previous knowledge or train-
ing to a measurable or negligible extent; in later experiments the groups tested
represented various ages from five to twenty-five, and differed in social status
and school-training; and the experiments included tests of acquired knowledge
and interests.

In calculating results it is necessary to measure the sex-differences in the
various tests in the same terms. They are, therefore, expressed in terms of the
amount by which the percentage of males exceeding the central measure of the
females deviates from 50 per cent. A positive sign indicates that the central
measure of the females is surpassed by a majority of the males; a negative sign
indicates an analogous superiority on the part of the females.

Results.—It is found that where the two sexes have been taught in different
schools, departments, or classes, the differences are much larger than when they
have been taught in mixed classes. In the latter case the differences revealed
persist throughout the various ages and social classes measured with but little
increase or diminution. In the former case they tend to be larger in the case
of older subjects and to vary considerably in different social strata.

None of the inborn mental differences are as large as the physical (stature,
weight, height, + 47 to + 50 per cent.). The largest inborn differences are
found on the lowest levels, in simple processes of sense-perception and movement
(e.g. skin discrimination, — 43 per cent.; tapping, + 38 per cent.). Instincts
and emotions show differences which appear to be somewhat smaller, but are
far-reaching in their consequences. On higher levels the differences become
progressively still smaller (e.g., memory — 37 per cent., reading — 22 per cent.,
writing — 20 per cent., addition + 16 per cent., multiplication + 13 per cent.).
On the highest levels of all, those concerned with reasoning, these sex-differences
are insignificant (e.g., finding opposites — 8 per cent., argument + 7 per cent.,
syllogisms + 5 per cent.). In general, the higher the process tested and the
more complex the capacity involved, the smaller the innate sex-differences tend
to become.

Conclusions.—With three of the above principles of explanation (develop-
mental, transmissionist, constitutional), taken singly and alone, these results
seem incompatible. _ The distribution of the differences suggests a composite
hypothesis. The larger and more obvious differences seem to be acquired under

1 A fuller account of the earlier experiments has been published in The Journal
of Experimental Pedagogy, 1911, 1912.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. Toi.

the influence of the social environment, operating, however, under a_ bias
imparted by congenital differences, and enhanced by peculiarities of physiological
development and metabolism. The congenital differences seem adequately ex-
plained by natural and social selection, supplemented by alternative inheritance.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Report on the Curricula and Educational Organisation of Industrial
and Poor Law Schools.—See Reports, p. 301.

2. The Registration of Schools. By Bishop Wetupon, D.D. ;

In regard to the compulsory registration of schools it is necessary to state
two leading principles. One is that in education, as in other professions, the
age of private adventure is past. The other is that it is desirable to ensure as
far as possible the unity of every great profession. From these two principles
it follows that all schools, private and public, should stand in some definite
relation to the State and to each other. A recent writer in the ‘ Educational
Supplement of The Times’ has well said that ‘ no occupation deserves to be called
a “profession” until those who pursue it are constituted in some corporate bond,
which enables them to speak with the authority of a united voice, not merely as
servants of the community, but as honoured and trusted servants, discharging
their office, whether public or private, with a fair measure of freedom and
independence.’ Hence the value of the Registration Council lately established
as representative of the whole teaching profession.

But registration implies both inspection of schools and examination of
teachers in the schools. Insanitary conditions, noisy, overcrowded classrooms,
deficiencies of light, warmth, and space have in time past existed in the greatest
and richest schools, like Etcn and Harrow, as much as in elementary schools.
Nor can it be doubtful, if attention is paid not merely to the few famous public
schools but to the multitude and variety of schools all over the country, that
every teacher ought to possess, and to be certified as possessing, some definite
qualifications for his or her office.

It is well to let in the light upon all schools. If mines and factories cannot
safely be left without supervision, neither can schools. Wherever a repugnance
to inspection or examination is found, it is probably a sign that something is
wrong. Even in schools attached to religious institutions, such as monasteries
or convents, a demand for immunity from public control cannot but excite a
certain suspicion.

In public schools I have always looked with disfavour and distrust upon
masters who did not wish their schools or their forms to be tested by external
authority. Confidence between schools and the Board of Education will always
be a guarantee of efficiency, or, at least, a safeguard against inefficiency.

But if the registration of schools, with inspection and examination as its
concomitants, is to be the rule, why should it not apply to the schools of the
Church of England as much as to other schools? I would plead against the
educational policy which aims, whether by direct or indirect means, at suppress-
ing denominational schools. But nobody who cares for education as an end in
itself, and not as something subordinate to a religious end, can help wishing that
denominationalism should not be made a pretext for lowering the standard of
material or intellectual excellence in all schools. The Church makes a mistake
if she does not seek to set herself in the van of every movement which tends to the
elevation of the people. No doubt it is much to be wished that inspectors and
examiners, whether they are appointed by the Board of Education or by the
Universities, should be wise and moderate in judgment, cautious in procedure,
and impartial in their treatment of different schools. But it is only when all
schools are related to a central authority that the experience of each school can

752 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

be made available, so far as is necessary, for the amelioration of other schools,
and that no school will be permitted to sink below the level which enlightened
‘oublic opinion regards as essential to the welfare of the young, and therefore,
as the young will soon be the citizens of the State, to the safety and progress of
the nation. The only or the chief danger lying in the control of a central
authority is that it may tend to a stereotyped uniformity with little or no
provision for experiments : but the educational organisation of a country ought
to allow the utmost possible elasticity.

3. The Registration of Private Schools.
By Sopuie Bryant, D.Sc.

The first question under consideration is whether private schools should be
brought into line with public schools, as part of the national provision for
secondary education. This would involve their recognition by the State as
efficient for the education of young persons up to the age of sixteen or eighteen.
Such recognition could only be given after inspection, and continued subject to
inspection, as in Germany. Schools which satisfied the inspectors would be
placed on a list of ‘ Private schools recognised as eflicient,’ analogous to the
Board of Education’s existing list of efficient public schools. These two lists
might be used by county authorities, to make complete local lists of efficient
secondary schools, for their own information and for the use of parents seeking
schools. Thus the school supply in each neighbourhood might be better organised
and made more useful.

It is a further question whether this process of inspection followed by
recognition (or registration), should be compulsory or voluntary on the part of
the school. A beginning was made on voluntary lines in connection with the
registration of teachers—service in a recognised school being one of the qualifica-
tions required—but the attempt ceased when the register was broken up in 1906.
It may be revived in some form under the new register. The Colony of Victoria
has by this means within the past decade organised all its private schools—its
chief secondary school supply—under the State. If a compulsory system is
finally established in this country, a preliminary period of voluntary registration
has much to be said for it.

Compulsion implies that all educational institutions of a secondary character
shall be subject to inspection, and liable to suppression if they are judged to be
unfit. The unfit school would no doubt have several warnings before it was
condemned. Many struggling schools, conscious of their weakness, would take
advice and bring themselves to an end in time. Others would develop reserves
of strength and live; others still would save themselves by co-operation and
financial partnership. ‘The private schools most likely to survive would be those
with high fees and some speciality for which there is a limited but certain
demand. The entrepreneur who runs cheap schools, chiefly by the labour of
others, and is not an educationist, would be faced by the usual alternative
when the expenses of a business increase—low profits or high prices with con-
sequent reduction of demand. The schools of the religious orders, on the other
hand, would find some way of meeting increased expense, would gain in prestige
as in Germany, and derive special advantage from contact with the outer life.

The strong private schools of the more personal type which survive would
gain also in prestige, stimulus, and efficiency. Parents would be saved many
mistakes and unwise experiments in choice of schools. And children would reap
the good result in a continuous education from beginning to end on sound
principles and at a high level of efficiency.

4. The Registration of Roman Catholic Schools. By Bishop McIntyre.

The State seems to have a right to protect its subjects from being defrauded,
as in other matters, so also in the matter of education. It may, therefore,
ensure that any educational institution professing to cater for the general public
should be really efficient for its professed purpose. The exercise of this right

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. (a

seems to be demanded in the interest, not only of the commonalty, the parent,
and the child, but also of those institutions that are doing efficient work.

Since prevention is better than cure, why should not the State prevent the
opening of incompetent institutions? Therefore, why not insist upon registra-
tion of schools and teachers?

As Catholics, we have no wish to evade reasonable safeguards taken in this
matter by the State. We do not desire to brand ourselves as backward in zeal
for education, or as incapable of reaching a common standard of educational
efficiency.

On the other side, it may be argued that education is better if left to the
action of free competition; that in case of fraud in this matter there is a legal
remedy, as in other kinds of fraud; that State control is dangerous as likely
either to stiffen into a rigid system which will prevent the expansion of a living
education, or to degenerate into that worst kind of tyranny, the tyranny of a
bureaucracy.

To strike a balance between these conflicting views, I would concede two
points: first, effective supervision over the hygienic conditions of educational
institutions, and next, insistence upon the fitness of teachers to teach. Beyond
that I am unwilling to go. Education ought to be left as free as possible.
Teachers with zeal and education will do their own work best in their own way.

The grounds on which State interference ought to be kept within the specified
limits are mainly two: (1) Because private schools represent parental authority,
and it belongs to the parent to provide, either by himself or by teachers of his
own choice, for the education of his children. The State has no right to inter-
fere, except in case of default through neglect or inability. (2) There is grave
danger, of which signs are not wanting, that the State may impose a system
of education based on a secular psychology which Catholics cannot accept.

5. Discussion on the Registration of all Schools.

6. The Need for Hxperimental Evidence of the Value of Handwork.
By P. B. Batuarp, M.A.

While theories respecting the value of handwork as ‘an educational pursuit
are abundant, the extent to which these theories have been demonstrated and
verified by experiment is comparatively small. In this paper four of the
alleged effects of manual training are considered in the light of a few statistics
and experiments, insufficient in themselves to constitute proof, but sufficient to
indicate tendencies, and to suggest the kind of testimony required.

1. Handwork develops Intelligence.—This is a tremendous claim, and diffi-
cult to establish; for psychologists have not arrived at clear and universally
accepted views as to the precise nature of intelligence and the extent to which
it is cultivable. The clue to the solution of the problem is probably to be found
in the doctrine of correlation. On calculating the amount of correlation
between handwork and intelligence in two large elementary schools, I found
that the coefficient was always positive, and reached as high as ‘6 in the lowest
classes. It, however, got gradually less for the older children, and sank to °3 at
the top of the school. The interpretation in these results awaits the solution of
certain general problems of the correlation of abilities.

2. A Reasonable Time given to Handwork raises the Level of Attainments
in the other Branches of Instruction.—This is*a matter more readily capable
of proof, or disproof. No reliable statistical data are, however, available. I
have used the mark-sheets of the London County Council Junior County Scholar-
ship Examinations, held in February 1909 and in November 1912, in order to
discover the upward or downward tendency in five elementary schools where
much handwork has recently been introduced. In School A there was a loss of
4 per cent., in School B a loss of 24 per cent., in School C a gain of 50 per cent.,
in School D a gain of 26 per cent., and in School E a gain of 12 per cent. Each
of these departments did better at the 1912 examination than the corresponding

1913. 3 ¢

754 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. A

departments of the opposite sex. The actual percentages of advantage were
25, 1, 65, 30, and 4, respectively.

A quite unexpected effect of handwork is improvement in English composition.

3. Certain of the more Academic Branches of Study are best taught prac-
tically.—An experiment was carried out with two classes of children of the same
age, all the brighter children being placed in Class A, and the duller in Class B.
Class A was taught fractions by means of a piece of apparatus manipulated by
the teacher, and Class B by individual work in measuring and cutting paper.
When, at the end of six months, the children were tested, Class B did con-
siderably better than Class A.

4. T'he Introduction of Handwork into a School tends to reduce the Neces-
sity for Corporal Punishment.—The punishment books of the five schools referred
to above have been examined, and the statistics obtained indicate that when
handwork is adopted the number of punishments diminishes—e.g., in ‘School D
(a large school) the record is as follows :—

Year . . *% 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 (1st half)
Number of cases 1,406 1,070 746 745 521 280

During 1909 there was a change of headmaster, and at the beginning of 1912
handwork was introduced.

Handwork seems to reconcile the rebellious pupil to his school. It is not
unlikely that much of what in the past has been ascribed to a direct transfer of
training from manual work to mental work is really due to an indirect influence.
The service of the hand reaches the head through the heart.

Of these four alleged effects of handwork I regard the first as possibly true,
the second probably true, and the third and fourth certainly true.

7. Manual Work in Education. By Wm. Fortunr Fowter.

The ideals which have been so conspicuous a feature of educational reform
during recent years are responsible for a series of problems which have yet to be
solved in practice :—

How far can the individual child be allowed to educate himself?

To what extent can such heuristic methods be carried in schools where
children outnumber teachers by at least forty to one?

In what ways can teachers overcome the difficulty suggested by such
outnumbering ?

What effect will such methods have upon the child, and how must the
curriculum of the school be changed so as to provide suitable exercises?

The author gave an account of an attempt to solve these problems. The
children concerned were those of parents belonging to the lower ranks of skilled
workers, and may with fairness be regarded as ‘average’ for the south-east of
London.

In the first place a beginning was made with a class of children having an
average age of ten and a half to eleven years, and, guided by the needs and diffi-
culties to which these pupils of middle school age confessed, a new experiment
with children of eight to nine, nine to ten, and ten to eleven years was con-
ducted.

Both experiments began with handwork as a subject, but the later one quickly
developed into a combination of handwork per se and handwork as a means of
discovery and expression in as many of the school lessons as possible.

The use of plastic materials in the early stages allowed the work to be entirely
individual in its character. It was found advisable to introduce gradually a
few simple rules, in order to ensure that the modelling was due to control of
material. While allowing scope for the imagination by avoiding the rigid limits
of always modelling from the object, it was found possible to direct the choice
of subject in such a way that certain forms, presenting difficulties capable of
classification, were attempted by the whole class.

Ultimately the work was narrowed in scope until the difficulty of the past
expression exercises became the basis of a lesson in which the teacher gave con-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 755

siderable guidance. Once taught, the child was encouraged to make this success
the nucleus of further experimental work, which later was focussed, as before,
upon some failure more or less general throughout the class.

Dealing later with a group of children who had spent some years upon expres-
sion work in the infant school, he led more abruptly to those difficulties which
fell into an easy classification of forms, capable of being mastered by experi-
ment on the part of the pupil with a little help from the teacher. The interest
in the work was greatly stimulated by the confidence which the children gained
through successful control of material, and they showed considerable initiative
in choosing other work which embodied features thus learnt.

When dealing with more rigid materials the method adopted was somewhat
similar, the main difference being that a course of paper-folding was used as the
starting-point. The exercises were chosen with a twofold object :—

(a) They were such as were capable of extension by the individual pupils
in a great number of ways.

(6) They were models presenting constructional difficulties which would
later be met in non-folding materials.

The success of this portion of the work was remarkable from both points of
view.

From this point the children were independent of the teacher, except in con-
nection with the modelling of three forms—the cylinder, the pyramid, and the
cone. The teaching of these proceeded along the same lines as the early clay
work, models of vehicles leading to the cylindrical wheel, those of steeples and
tower roofs to the cone and pyramid.

The work of the children abounded in evidence that new problems were
solved, somewhat after the manner of Euclid, by reference to previously esta-
blished methods. Subjects like geography and arithmetic were found to be
capable of being taught on similar lines. The curriculum in these cases had to
be rearranged here and there. The curtailment of unnecessary and unsuitable
matter was found to be far exceeded by the additions which handwork methods
made possible.

8. Manual Training in the Secondary School.
By T. 8. Usnerwoop, B.Sc.

1. What Manual Training includes.—Not mere carpentry, since much of the
best modern school work in science and mathematics and practically all art
work is involved.

Its value.—Direct and indirect—i.e., as ensuring physical training with
parallel mental development, as well as correlating other subjects and offering
suggestions for research—no matter whether pursued for purely educational or
for ultimately economic reasons.

Tits slow development and growth in secondary schoois.—Partly due to the
overcrowded curriculum and partly due to misconception : the perfunctory con-
sideration it receives, in spite of increasing realisation of its importance.

2. What is being done.—Description of a manual training-school; its aim
end work.

3. Criticism.—The status of manual training and its apparent line of
development.

(a) The attitude of teachers of other school subjects; the lack of apprecia-
tion of the work, its aims and possibilities; the consequent dissociation of the
curriculum.

(6) The prevalence and influence of stereotyped schemes; the tendency to
encourage ‘tooling’ at the expense of construction and investigation.

(c) The lack of teachers capable of extracting all that is educationally most
valuable from the work.

4. Suggestions for improvement and development.

(a) Fuller and wider recognition, with extended treatment for younger boys—
even at the risk of postponing to a later date subjects now regarded as in-
dispensable: the subject to be placed on an equal footing with others, and

3c 2

756 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

regarded as forming an integral part of the curriculum : the necessity for correla-
tion to prevent overlapping and waste of effort.

(6) The importance of elasticity and freedom: attention to be paid to the
‘culture’ aspect of the training. Recognition of the value of group and research
work. Versatility and resourcefulness more important than technique.

(c) Consideration of the types of teachers available : the importance of equality
of status and treatment.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 17.

The following Report and Paper were read :-—

1. Report on the Distribution and Value of Scholarships, &c., held by
University Students.—See Reports, p. 306.

2. The Working of the Education Act, 1902.
By Sir Hersert GeorcEe ForDHAM.

This paper gave the author’s conclusions more particularly derived from
his experience of the working of the Act gained as Chairman of the Cambridge-
shire County Council and of the County Education Committee. With regard to
the administrative machinery set up under Section 19 of the Act, it may be
considered a satisfactory experiment in local government, and has probably been
most effective under those schemes which maintain the preponderance in Educa-
tion Committees of members representing County and Borough Councils, with
an adequate, but not excessive, proportion of selected educationalists from
outside those bodies. As to executive machinery, the author considers
that the Clerk of the County Council should have general supervision. He
should be the legal and technical adviser, and arrange the Committee’s proceed-
ings, minutes, and correspondence; while the head of the Education Office
should have a quasi-independence in all matters which are essentially educational
in their character, including, of course, everything touching schools and their
inspection, and the teaching staff, having the assistance of the County Architect
and the County Medical Officers, in addition to his own special staff. The con-
centration of the supervision of school attendance and kindred matters on a
few thoroughly efficient and active officers is important. Under such a system
the County of Cambridge has held the first position among the counties of
England and Wales in the matter of attendance in elementary schools for three
successive years. Second only to the constructive work in respect of the new
machinery came the difficult task of examining the position and abilities of the
whole teaching staff found in the schools taken over on the ‘appointed day,’
and the grading of these and all future appointments on settled scales of pay,
with complete schemes for increments, advancement, transfers, and special
qualifications. Training colleges have yet to be dealt with on some systematic
basis, but facilities for training of teachers at all periods of their career in
special subjects have been largely provided, and are of great value from various
points of view. The author attaches great importance to the Committee itself,
or a special sub-committee, directly considering all cases of remuneration,
change of status, and of schools and departments which at all depart from the
ordinary routine. It is desirable that all reports of H.M. Inspectors should
be laid before a sub-committee, if only that close touch may be kept both with
the schools and the views of the inspectorate, and that these reports should be
controlled by following reports from the County or Borough Inspector. After
the study of the teaching staff, that of the fabric and surroundings of each school
was a very laborious proceeding, and one which is by no means yet terminated.
Lighting, heating, sanitation generally, and the general repair and improve-
ment of the buildings, outbuildings, and playgrounds are always subjects of
much concern. A great deal has been achieved in remedying the most serious
defect, but there is much to do. Defective heating has been found a very
serious evil. The question of small schools and their maintenance in thinly

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. T57

populated areas, with the alternative of conveying children to school in suitable
vehicles, is important. The review of the furniture and apparatus in rural
schools has shown that a large proportion is very unsuitable, having regard to
modern standards. It is believed that much of the worst of this furniture has
now been replaced by modern seating and fittings. School books have been
generally considered, and the report of the Committee on this subject is noticed
as being of great value. Much progress has been made in introducing in rural
schools practical subjects, including particularly woodwork, gardening, and
cookery. Medical inspection and its effect on public health, and the standard
of health and cleanliness in the home and family are referred to. Important
progress has been realised in most districts in this respect, and also in endeavour-
ing to associate parents with a personal interest in school work.

These results are mainly applicable to elementary education. The secondary
school system which has been built up under the Act is now fairly complete,
and is in itself, and in connection with university training to some extent, a
vast constructive result. Scholarships and assistance in various forms now
given to children enable the specially talented from all classes to obtain the
benefits of the best education of every kind. The advance obtained under the
Act and the result of ten years’ administration are both very important and
generally successful, and justify the labours of the local authorities and of the
Board of Education. Among matters remaining for consideration (legislative or
departmental) are the co-ordination of university and secondary, and even
elementary, education; the institutional training of teachers; the introduction of
medical inspection and sanitary supervision in secondary schools, and the
structural improvement of all defective elementary schools.

758 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

Section M.—AGRICULTURE.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—PROFEsSOR T. B. Woop, M.A.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 11,

The President delivered the following Address :—

I prorose to follow the example of my predecessor of last year, in that the
remarks I wish to make to-day have to deal with the history of Agriculture.
Unlike Mr. Middleton, however, whose survey of the subject went back almost
to prehistoric times, I propose to confine myself to the last quarter of a century—
a period which covers what I may perhaps be permitted to call the revival of
Agricultural Science.

Twenty-five years ago institutions concerned with the teaching of agriculture
or the investigation of agricultural problems were few and far between. I do
not propose to waste time in giving an exhaustive list, nor would such a list help
me in developing the argument I wish to lay before the Section. It will serve
my purpose to mention that organised instruction in agriculture and the allied
sciences was already at that date being given at the University of Edinburgh
and at the Royal Agricultural College, whilst, in addition, one or more old
endowments at other Universities provided courses of lectures from time to time
on subjects related to rural economy. Agricultural research had been in progress
for fifty years at the Rothamsted Experimental Station, where the work of Lawes
and Gilbert had settled for all time the fundamental principles of crop pro-
duction. Investigations of a more practical nature had also been commenced by
the leading agricultural societies and by more than one private landowner.

In these few sentences I have endeavoured to give a rough, but for my
purpose sufficient, outline of the facilities for the study of Agricultural Science
twenty-five years ago, at the time when the County Councils were created. Their
creation was followed almost immediately by what can only be called a stroke of
luck for agriculture. The Chancellor of the Exchequer found himself with a
considerable sum of money at his disposal, and this was voted by Parliament to
the newly created County Councils for the provision of technical instruction in
agriculture and other industries.

Farmers were at that time straggling with the bad times following the wet
seasons and low prices of the ‘seventies and ’eighties, and some of the technical
instruction grant was devoted to their assistance by the County Councils, who
provided technical instruction in agriculture. Thus, for the first time con-
siderable sums provided by the Government were available for the furtherance
of agricultural science; and, although at first there was no general plan of work-
ing and every county was a law unto itself, the result has been a great increase
of facilities for agricultural education and research.

Almost every county has taken some part. The larger and richer counties
have founded agricultural institutions of their own. In some cases groups of
counties have joined together and federated themselves with established teaching

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 759

institutions. For my purpose it suffices to state, without going into detail, that
in practically every county, in one way or other, attempts have been made to
carry out investigations of problems related to agriculture.

Twenty years after the voting of the technical instruction grant to the
County Councils, Parliament has again subsidised agriculture, in the shape of
the Development Fund, by means of which large sums of money have been
devoted to what may be broadly called Agricultural Science. It seems to me
that the advent of this second subsidy is an occasion when this Section may
well pause to take stock of the results which have been achieved by the expendi-
ture of the technical education grant. I do not propose to discuss the results
achieved in the way of education, although most of the technical instruction

. grant has been spent in that direction. It will be more to the point in addressing
the Agricultural Section to discuss the results obtained by research.

The subject, then, of my Address is the result of the last twenty years of
agricultural research, and I propose to discuss both successes and failures, in
the hope of arriving at conclusions which may be of use in the future.

Agricultural Science embraces a variety of subjects. I propose to consider
first the results which have been obtained by the numerous practical field experi-
ments which have been carried out in almost every county. I suppose that the
most striking result of these during the last twenty years is the demonstration
that in certain cases phosphates are capable of making a very great increase in
the crop of hay, and a still greater increase in the feeding value of pastures. This
increase is not yielded in all cases, but the subject has been widely investigated,
and the advisory staffs of the colleges are in a position to give inquirers reliable
information as to the probability of success in almost any case which may be
submitted to them. This is a satisfactory state of things, and the question
naturally arises : How has it come about?

On looking through the figures of the numerous reports which have been
published on this subject, it appears at once that in many cases the increase in
live-weight of sheep fed on plots manured with a suitable dressing of phosphate
has been twice as great as the increase in weight of similar animals fed on plots
to which phosphate has not been applied. Now about a difference of this
magnitude between two plots there can be no mistake. It has been shown by
more than one experimenter that two plots treated similarly in every way are as
likely as not to differ in production from their mean by five per cent. of their
produce, and this may be taken as the probable error of a single plot. Where,
as in the case of many of the phosphate experiments, a difference of 100 per cent.
is recorded, a difference of twenty times the probable error, the chrnces amount
to a certainty that the difference is not an accidental variation, but a real effect
of the different treatment of the two plots. The single-plot method of conduct-
ing field trials, which is the one most commonly used, is evidently a satisfactory
method of measuring the effects of manures which are capable of producing
100 per cent. increases. It was good enough to demonstrate with certainty the
effects of phosphatic manuring on many kinds of grass land, and it is to this fact
that we owe one of the most notable achievements of agricultural science in
recent years.

Another notable achievement is the discovery that in the case of most of the
large-cropping varieties of potatoes the use of seed from certain districts in
Scotland or the northern counties of Ireland is profitable. This is another
instance of an increase large enough to be measured accurately by the single-plot
method. Reports on the subject show that seed brought recently from Scotland
or Ireland gives increased yields of from thirty to fifty per cent. over the yields
produced by seed grown locaily for three or more years.

That the single-plot method fails to give definite results in many cases where
it has been used for manurial trials is a matter of common knowledge. Half the
reports of such trials consist of explanations of the discrepancies between the
results obtained and the resnlts which ought to have been obtained. The moral
is obvious. The single-plot method, which suffices to demonstrate results as
striking as those given by phosphates on some kinds of pasture land, signally
fails when the subject of investigation is concerned with differences of ten per
cent. or thereabouts.

Before suggesting a remedy for this state of things it will be well to consider

760 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

the allied subject of variety testing, which has been brought into great pro-
minence recently by the introduction of new varieties of many kinds of farm crops.
In testing a new variety it is necessary to measure two properties—its quality
and its yielding capacity—for money-return per acre is obviously determined by
the product of yielding capacity and quality as expressed by market price.
I propose here to deal only with the determination of yielding capacity. The
determination of quality is not allied to manurial trials.

In attempting to determine yielding capacity there has always been a strong
_ temptation to rely on the measurement of obvious structural characters. For
instance, in the case of cereals many farmers like large ears, no doubt with the
idea that they are an indication of high yielding capacity. Many very elaborate
series of selections have been carried out, on the assumption that large grains,
or large ears, or many ears per plant implied high yield.

We may take it as definitely settled that none of these characters is
reliable, and that the determination of yielding capacity resolves itself into the
measurement of the yield given by a definite area. The actual measurement,
therefore, is the same as that made in manurial trials, and is, of course, subject
to the same probable error of about five per cent.

It follows, therefore, that it is subject to the same limitations. Variety
trials on single plots, and that is the method commonly used, will serve to
measure variations in yielding capacity of thirty per cent., or more, but are
totally inadequate to distinguish between varieties whose yielding capacities are
within ten per cent. of each other.

Numbers of such single-plot trials have been carried out, with the result that
many varieties with yielding capacities much below normal have almost dis-
appeared from cultivation, and those commonly grown do not differ greatly from
one another—probably not more than ten per cent.

Ten per cent. in yielding capacity, however, in cereals means a return of
something like 15s. to 20s. per acre—a sum which may make the difference
between profit and loss; and if progress is to be made in manuring and variety
testing some method must be adopted which is capable of measuring accurately
differences in yield per unit area of the order of ten per cent.

The only way of decreasing the probable error is to increase the number of
plots, and to arrange them so that plots between which direct comparison is
necessary are placed side by side, so as to reduce as much as possible variations
due to differences in soil. Thus it has been shown that with ten plots in five
pairs the probable error on the average can be reduced to about one per cent., in
which case a difference of from five to ten per cent. can be measured with
considerable certainty.

Such a method involves, of course, a great deal of trouble; but agricultural
science has now reached that stage of development at which the obvious facts
which can be demonstrated without considerable effort have been demonstrated,
and further knowledge can only be acquired by the expenditure of continually
increasing effort. In fact, the law of diminishing return holds here, as else-
where.

It appears, then, that for questions involving measurements of yield per
unit area, such, for instance, as manurial or variety trials, further advance is
not likely to be made without the expenditure of much more care than has been
given to such work in the past. The question naturally arises: Is it worth
while? I think the following instance shows that it is:

Some years ago an extensive series of variety trials was carried out in Nor-
folk, in which several of the more popular varieties of barley were grown side
by side at several stations for several seasons. In all, the trial was repeated
eleven times. As a final result it was found that Archer’s stiff-straw barley gave
ten per cent. greater yield than any other variety included in the trials, and by
repetition of the experiment the probable error was reduced to one and a half
per cent. The greater yield of ten per cent., being over six times the probable
error of the experiment, indicates practical certainty that Archer barley may
be relied on to give a larger crop than any of the other varieties with which it
was compared. One difficulty still remained. It was almost impossible to
obtain anything like a pure strain of Archer barley. Samples of Archer sold for
seed commonly contained twenty-five per cent. of other varieties. This difficulty

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 761

was removed by Mr. Beaven, who selected, again with enormous trouble, a pure
high-yielding strain of Archer barley. Since this strain was introduced into the
Eastern Counties the demand for it has always exceeded the supply which could
-be grown at Cambridge and at the Norfolk Agricultural Station, and it is
regarded by farmers generally as a very great success.

The conclusion, therefore, is that a ten per cent. difference is well worth
measuring, that it cannot be measured with certainty by the single-plot method,
and that it behoves those of us who are concerned with field trials to look to
our methods, and to avoid printing figures for single-plot experiments which may
very well be misleading. Almost everyone thinks himself competent to criticise
the farmer, who is commonly described as too self-satisfied to acquaint himself
with new discoveries, and too conservative to try them when they are brought
to his notice. Let us examine the real facts of the case. Does the farmer ignore
new discoveries? The largely increasing practice of consulting the staffs of the
agricultural colleges, which has arisen among farmers during the last few years,
conclusively shows that he does not; that he is, in fact, perfectly ready to avail
himself of sound advice whenever he can. Is he too conservative to try new
discoveries when brought to his notice? The extraordinary demand for seed of
the new Archer barley quoted above, and for seed of new varieties generally,
the continuous advance in the prices of phosphatic manures, as the result of
increased demand by farmers, the trade in Scotch and Irish seed potatoes, all
show how ready the farmer is to try new things. ‘The chief danger seems to
be that he tries new things simply because they are new, and he may be dis-
appointed if those who are responsible for the new things in question have not
taken pains to ascertain with certainty that they are not only new but good.
Farmers are nowadays in what may be called a very receptive condition.
Witness the avidity with which they paid extravagant prices for single tubers of
so-called new, but inadequately tested, varieties of potatoes some years ago, and
in a less degree the extraordinary demand for seed of the much-boomed French
wheats, and the excitement about nitragin for soil or seed inoculation. Witness,
too, the almost universal failure of the new potatoes and French wheats intro-
duced during the boom, and the few cases in which nitragin gave any appreci-
able result. The farmer who was disappointed with his ten-guinea tuber, his
expensive French wheat, or his culture of nitragin cannot but be disillusioned.
Once bitten, twice shy. He does not readily take advice again.

Let us, therefore, recognise that the farmers of the country are ready to
listen to us, and to try our recommendations, and let that very fact bring home
to us a sense of our responsibility. All that is new is not, therefore, necessarily
good. Before we recommend a new thing let us take pains to assure ourselves
of its goodness. To do so we must find not only that the new thing produces a
greater return per acre, but that the increased return is worth more than it costs
to produce, and we must also define the area or the type of soil to which this
result is applicable. This implies in practice that each field trial should confine

itself to the investigation of only one, or, at most, two, definite points, since
five pairs of plots will be required to settle each point; that the experimental
results should be reviewed in the light of a thorough knowledge of farm book-
keeping, and that accurate notes should be taken of the type of the soil, and the
area to which it extends, and of the various meteorological factors which make
up the local climate. At present we are not in possession of a sufficient know-
ledge of farm accountancy, but there is hope that this deficiency will be removed
by the work of the Institute for Research in Agricultural Economics, which has
recently been founded at Oxford by the Board of Agriculture and the Develop-
ment Commission. The excellent example set by Hall and Russell in their
‘Survey of the Soils and Acriculture of the South-Eastern Counties,’ an example
which is being followed in Cambridge and elsewhere, seems likely to result in the
near future in a complete survey of the soils of England which will make a
sound scientific basis for delimiting the areas over which the results of manurial
or variety trials are applicable.

Reviewing this branch of agricultural science, the outlook is distinctly hope-
ful. New fertilisers are coming into the market, as, for instance, the various
products made from atmospheric nitrogen. New varieties of farm crops are
being produced by the Plant-breeding Institute at Cambridge, and elsewhere.

762 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

It is to be hoped that the work of the Agricultural Economics Institute at Oxford
will throw new light on the interpretation of experimental results from the
accountancy standpoint. Finally, the soil surveys on which the colleges have
seriously embarked will assist in defining the areas over which such results are
applicable. It only remains for those of us who are responsible for the conduct
of field trials to increase the accuracy of our results, and the steady accumula-
tion of a mass of systematic and scientific knowledge is assured. It will be the
business of the advisory staffs with which the colleges have recently been
equipped by the Board of Agriculture and the Development Commission to
disseminate this knowledge in practicable form to the farmers of this
country.

One more point, and I have finished this section of my Address. I have
perhaps inveighed rather strongly against the publication of the results of single-
plot trials. I quite recognise that the publication of such results was to a great
extent forced upon those experimenters who were financed by annually renewed
grants of public money. Nowadays, however, agricultural science is in a
stronger position, and I venture to hope that most public authorities which
subsidise such work are sufficiently alive to the evils attendant on the publica-
tion of inconclusive results to agree to continue their grants for such periods as
may suffice for the complete working out of the problem under investigation, and
to allow the final conclusions to be published in some properly accredited agri-
cultural journal, where they would be readily and permanently available to all
concerned. This would in no wise prevent their subsequent incorporation in
bulletins specially written for the use of the practical farmer.

So far I have confined my remarks to subjects of which I presume that
every member of the Section has practical experience, subjects which depend
on the measurement of the yield per unit area. These subjects, however,
although they have received far more general attention than anything else, by
no means comprise the whole of agricultural science. Certain scientific workers
have confined their efforts to the thorough solution of specific and circumscribed
problems. I propose now to ask the Section to direct its attention to some
typical results which have been thus achieved during the last twenty years.

The first of these is the development of what I may call soil science. Twenty
years ago the bacteriology of nitrification had just been worked out by Waring-
ton and by Winogradski. The phenomena of ammoniacal fermentation of
organic matter in the soil were also fairly well established. The fixation of
atmospheric nitrogen by organisms symbiotic on the Leguminose had been
definitely demonstrated. Fixation of nitrogen by free-living organisms had been
suggested, but was still strenuously denied by most soil investigators. No
suggestion had yet been made of the presence in normal soils of any factor which
inhibited crop-production. The last twenty years have seen a wonderful advance
in soil science. Our knowledge of nitrification and ammoniacal fermentation has
been much extended. The part played by the nodule organisms of the Legumi-
nose has been well worked out, has seen a newspaper boom, and a subsequent .
collapse, from which it has not yet recovered. But the greatest advance has
been the discovery of the part played by protozoa in the inhibition of fertility.

The suggestion that ordinary soils contained a factor which limited their
fertility emanated in the first instance from the American Bureau of Soils.
The factor was at first thought to be chemical, and its presence was tentatively
attributed to root excretion. Certain organic substances, presumably having
this origin, have been isolated from sterile soils, and found to retard plant
growth in water culture. It is claimed, too, that the retardation they cause is
prevented by the presence of many ordinary manurial salts with which they are
supposed to form some kind of combination.

Contributions to the subject have come from several quarters, but whilst the
suggested presence of an inhibitory factor has been generally confirmed, its
origin as a root-excretion and its prevention by manurial salts has not received
general confirmation outside American official circles. The matter has been
strikingly cleared up by the work of Russell and Hutchinson at Rothamsted,
who observed that the fertility of certain soils which had become sterile was at
once restored by partial sterilisation, either by heating to a temperature below
100° C., or by the use of volatile antiseptics such as toluene. This observation

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 763

suggested that the factor causing sterility in these cases was biological in nature,
that it consisted, in fact, of some kind of organism inimical to the useful fer-
mentation bacteria, and more easily killed than they by heat or antiseptics.
After a long series of admirable scientific investigations these workers and their
colleagues have shown that soils contain many species of protozoa, which prey
upon the soil bacteria, whose numbers they keep within definite limits. Under
certain circumstances, such, for instance, as those existing in the soil of sewage
farms, and in the artificial soils used for the cultivation of cucumbers, tomatoes,
&c., under glass, the protozoa increase so that the bacteria are reduced below
the numbers requisite to decompose the organic matter in the soil into substances
suitable for absorption by the roots of the crop. Practical trials of heating such
soils, or subjecting them to the action of toluene, or other volatile antiseptics,
have shown that their lost efficiency can thus be easily restored, and the method
is now rapidly spreading among the market gardeners of the Lea Valley.

I have attempted to sketch the chief points of this subject with some detail
in order to show that strictly scientific work, quite outside the scope of what some
people still regard as ‘practical,’ may result in discoveries which, apart from
their great academic interest, may at once be turned to account by the cultivator.
The constant renewal of expensively prepared soil which becomes ‘sick’ in the
course of a year or so is a serious item in the cost of growing cucumbers and
tomatoes. It can now be restored to fertility by partial sterilisation at a fraction
of the cost of renewal, and considerable sums are thus saved by the Lea Valloy
growers.

For my second instance of scientific work which has given results of direct
value to farmers, I must ask to be allowed to give a short outline of the wheat-
breeding investigations of my colleague Professor Biffen. Even as late as
fifteen years ago plant-breeding was in the purely empirical haphazard stage.
Then came the rediscovery of Mendel’s Laws of Heredity, which put in the
hands of breeders an entirely new weapon. About the same time the Millers’
Association created the Home-grown Wheat Committee, of which Biffen was a
member. Through this Committee he was able to define his problem as far as
the improvement of English wheat was concerned. There appeared to be two
desiderata: (1) The production of a wheat which would crop as well as the
best standard home-grown varieties, at the same time yielding strong grain,
i.e., grain of good milling and baking quality; and (2) the production of varieties
of wheat resistant to yellow rust, a disease which has been computed to decrease
the wheat crop of the world by about one-third.

The problem having been defined, samples of wheat were collected from every
part of the world and sown on small plots. From the first year’s crop single ears
were picked out and grown on again. Thus several hundred pure strains were
obtained. Many were obviously worthless. A few possessed one or more valu-
able characteristics : strong grain, freedom from rust, sturdy straw, and so on.
These were used as parents for crossing, and from the progeny two new varieties
have been grown on, thoroughly tested, and finally put on the market. Both
have succeeded, but both have their limitations. Burgoyne’s Fife, which came
from a cross between strains isolated respectively from Canadian Red Fife and
Rough Chaff, was distributed by the Millers’ Association after a series of about
forty tests, in which it gave an average crop of forty bushels per acre of grain,
which milled and baked practically as well as the best imported Canadian wheat
It is an early-ripening variety which may even be sown as a spring wheat. It
has repeatedly been awarded prizes for the best sample of wheat at shows, but
it only succeeds in certain districts. It is widely and successfully grown in Bed
fordshire and Dorset, but has not done well in Norfolk. The other variety,
Little Joss, succeeds much more generally. In a series of twenty-nine trials scat-
tered between Norfolk and Shropshire, Kent and Scotland, it gave an average of
forty-four bushels per acre, as compared with forty bushels given by adjoining
plots of Square Head’s Master. It originated from a cross between Square
Head’s Master and a strain isolated from a Russian graded wheat known as
Glinka. Its grain is the quality of ordinary English wheat. It tillers excep-
tionally well in the spring, and is practically rust-proof. Its one drawback ‘s
its slow growth during the winter if sown at all late. It has met with its
greatest success in the Fen districts, where rust is more than usually virulent.

764 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

The importance of this work is not to be measured only by the readiness with
which the seed of the new varieties has been tried by farmers and the extent to
which it has succeeded. The demonstration of the inheritance of immunity to
the disease known as yellow rust, the first really accurate contribution to the
inheritance of resistance to any kind of disease, inspires hope that a new method
has appeared for the prevention of diseases in general. i

Biffen’s work too shows the enormous value of co-operation between the in-
vestigator and the buyer in defining problems-connected with the improvement of
agricultural produce. It is open to doubt if a committee of farmers would have
been able to define the problems of English wheat production as was done by the
Millers’ Committee, and in the solution of any problem its exact definition is half
the battle. Mackenzie and Marshall in their work on the ‘ Pigmentation of
Bacon Fat’ and on the spaying of sows for fattening, have found the great value
of consultation with the staffs of several large bacon factories. There seems to
be in this a general lesson that before taking up any problem one should get into
touch not only with the producers but with the buyers, from whom much useful
information can be obtained.

I feel that Bifien’s work has borne fruit in still another direction, for which
perhaps he is not alone responsible. Twenty years ago Agricultural Botany took
a very subsidiary position in such agricultural examinations as then existed. In
some of the agricultural teaching institutions there was no botanist, in others the
botanist was only a junior assistant. It is largely due to the work of Biffen and
the botanists at other agricultural centres that botany is now regarded as perhaps
the most important science allied to agriculture.

I must here repeat that I am not attempting to make a complete survey of all
the results obtained in the last twenty years. My object is only to pick out
some of the typical successes and failures and to endeavour to draw from their
consideration useful lessons for the future. So far I have not referred to the
work which has been done in the nutrition of animals, and I now propose to
couclude with a short discussion of that subject. The work on that subject
which has been carried out in Great Britain during the last twenty years has
been almost entirely confined to practical feeding trials of various foods or
mixtures of foods, trials which have been for the most part inconclusive.

It has been shown recently that if a number of animals in store condition are
put on a fattening diet, at the end of a feeding period of twelve to twenty weeks
about half of them will show live-weight increases differing by about fourteen per
cent. from the average live-weight increase of the whole lot. In other words, the
probable error of the live-weight increase of a single fattening ox or sheep is
fourteen per cent. of the live-weight increase. This being so, it is obvious that
very large numbers of animals must be employed in any feeding experiment
which is designed to compare the feeding value of two rations with reasonable
accuracy. For instance, to measure a difference of ten per cent. it is necessary
to reduce the probable error to three per cent. in order that the ten per cent.
difference may have a certainty of thirty to one. To achieve this, twenty-five
animals must be fed on each ration. Those conversant with the numerous -
reports of feeding trials which have been published in the last twenty years will
agree that in very few cases have such numbers been used. We must admit then
that many of the feeding trials which have been carried out can lay no claim to
accuracy. Nevertheless, they have served a very useful purpose. From time to
time new articles of food come on the market, and are viewed with suspicion by
the farmers. These have been included in feeding trials and found to be
safe or otherwise, a piece of most useful information. Thus, for instance,
Bombay cotton cake, when first put on the market, was thought to be dangerous
on account of its woolly appearance. It was tried, however, by several of the
agricultural colleges and found to be quite harmless to cattle. Its composition
is practically the same as that of Egyptian cotton cake, and it now makes on
the market practically the same price.

Soya-bean cake is another instance of a new food which has been similarly
tested, and found to be safe for cattle if used in rather small quantities
and mixed with cotton cake. The price is now rapidly rising to that indicated
by its analysis. Work of this kind is, and always will be, most useful. Trials
with few animals, whilst they cannot measure accurately the feeding value

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 765

of a new food, are quite good enough to demonstrate its general properties,
and its price will then gradually settle itself as the food gets known. :

Turning to the more strictly scientific aspects of animal nutrition, entirely
new ideas have arisen during the last twerty years. I propose to discuss these
shortly, beginning with the proteins. Twenty years ago the generally
accepted view of the role of proteins in nutrition was that the proteins ingested
were transformed in the stomach and gut into peptones, and absorbed as such
without further change. Splitting into crystalline products, such as leucin
and tyrosin, was thought only to take place when the supply of ingested
protein exceeded the demand, and peptones remained in the gut for some time
unabsorbed. It is now generally agreed that ingested protein is normally
split into crystalline products which are separately absorbed from the gut,
and built up again into the various proteins required by the animal. If the
ingested protein does not yield a mixture of crystalline products in the right
proportions to build up the proteins required, those crystalline products which
are in excess are further changed and excreted. If the mixture contains none
of one of the products required by the animal, then life cannot be maintained.
This has been actually demonstrated in the case of zein, one of the proteins
of maize, which contains no tryptophane. The addition of a trace of trypto-
phane to a diet, in which zein was the only protein, markedly increased the.
survival period of mice.

The adoption of this view emphasises the importance of a knowledge of
the composition of the proteins, and especially of a quantitative knowledge of
their splitting products, and much work is being directed to this subject
in Germany, in America, and more recently in Cambridge as a result of the
creation there of an Institute for Research in Animal Nutrition by the Board
of Agriculture and the Development Commission. This work ‘is expected
ultimately to provide a scientific basis for the compounding of rations, the
idea being to combine foods whose proteins are, so to speak, complementary
to each other, one giving on digestion much of the products of which the
other gives little. Meantime, it is desirable that information should be collected
as to mixtures of foods which are particularly successful or the reverse.

Here the question arises, for what purpose does the animal require a pecu-
liarly complicated substance like tryptophane? The natural suggestion seems to
be that the tryptophane grouping is required for the building up of animal
proteins. It has also been suggested that such substances are required for
the formation of hormones, the active principles of the internal secretions
whose importance in the animal economy has received such ample demonstra-
tion in recent years. The importance of even mere traces of various sub-
stances in the animal economy is another quite recent conception. Thus it
has been shown, both in Cambridge and in America, that young animals fail
to grow on a diet of carefully purified casein, starch, fat, and ash, although
they will remain alive for long periods. In animals on such a diet, however,
normal growth is at once started by the addition of a few drops of milk or
meat juice, or a trace of yeast, or other fresh animal or vegetable matter.
The amount added is far too small to affect the actual nutritive value of the
diet. Its effect can only be due to the presence of a trace of some substance
which acts, so to speak, as the hormone of growth. The search for such a
substance is now being actively prosecuted. Its discovery will be of the
greatest scientific and practical interest.

Evidently new ideas are not lacking amongst those who are engaged in
investigating the réle of the proteins and their splitting products in the animal
economy. But of more immediate practical interest is the question of the
amount of protein required by animals under various conditions. It is obviously
impossible to fix this amount with any great accuracy, since proteins differ so
widely in composition, but from many experiments. in which a nitrogen balance
between the ingesta and the excreta was made, it appears that oxen remain
in nitrogenous equilibrium on a ration containing about one pound of protein
per 1,000 pounds live-weight per day. All the British exveriments of a more
practical nature have been recalculated on a systematic basis by Ingle. and
tabulated in the ‘Journal of the Highland and Agricultural Society.” From
them it appears that increase of protein in the ration, beyond somewhere
between one and a half and two’ pounds per 1,000 pounds live-weight per day

766 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

of digestible protein, ceases to have any direct influence on increase in live-
weight.

We may fairly conclude, then, that about two pounds of protein per
1,000 pounds live-weight per day is sufficient for a fattening ox. This amount
is repeatedly exceeded in most of the districts where beef production is a
staple industry, the idea being te produce farmyard manure rich in nitrogen.
The economy of this method of augmenting the fertility of the land is very
doubtful. The question is one of those for the solution of which a combina-
tion of accurate experiment and modern accountancy is required. Protein
is the most expensive constituent of an animal’s dietary. If the scientific
investigator, from a study of the quantitative composition of the proteins of
the common farm foods, and the economist, from careful dissection of farm
accounts, can fix an authoritative standard for the amounts of protein required
per 1,000 pounds live-weight per day for various types of animals, a great step
will have been made towards making mutton and beef production profitable
apart from corn-growing.

For many years it has been recognised that an animal requires not only
so much protein per day, but a certain quota of energy, and many attempts
have been made to express this fact in intelligibie terms. Most of them
have taken as basis the expression of the value of all the constituents of the
diet in terms of starch, the sum of all the values being called the starch
equivalent. This term is used by various writers in so many different senses
that confusion has often arisen, and this has militated against its general
acceptance. Perhaps the most usual sense in which the term is used is that
in which it means the sum of the digestible protein multiplied by a factor
(usually 1.94) plus the digestible fat multiplied by a factor (usually 2.3),
plus the digestible carbohydrates. This, however, gives misleading values
which are too high in concentrated foods and too low in bulky foods, the
discrepancy being due to the larger proportion of the energy of the bulky
foods which is used up in the much greater work of digestion which they
require. Kellner and his school have devised a method which measures the
starch equivalent by experiment, a much more satisfactory and practical
method than any system which depends purely on calculation.

An animal or a number of animals are kept on a maintenance diet so that
their weight remains constant. To this diet is added a known weight of
starch, and the increase in weight observed. The animal or animals are then
placed again on the same maintenance diet for some time, and then a known
weight of the food to be tested is added, and the increase in weight again
observed. The data thus obtained indicate that so many pounds of starch
produce as much increase in live-weight as so many pounds of the food under
experiment, from which it is easy to calculate how many pounds of starch
are actually required to produce as much increase in live-weight as 100 pounds
of the food under experiment. The starch equivalent thus found expresses
an experimentally determined fact which is of immediate practical value in
arranging a dietary, its value, however, depending on the accuracy with
which it has been determined. Kellner and his colleagues have thus deter-
mined the starch equivalents of all the commonly used foods. Their values
for concentrated foods, and other foods commonly used in Germany, have been
determined with considerable accuracy, and with the method which has also
been devised for defining the relation between the experimentally determined
equivalent and the equivalent calculated from the analysis by means of a
formula, they form by far the most reliable basis for arranging a feeding
ration including such kinds of foods.

But roots, which form the staple of the diet of fattening animals in Great
Britain, are not used on the same scale in Germany, and Kellner’s starch
equivalents for roots have not been determined with sufficient accuracy or
under suitable conditions to warrant their use for arranging diets under our
conditions.

This, and the fact that the term starch equivalent is so widely misunderstood,
is no doubt the reason why the Kellner equivalent has not been more generally
accepted in Great Britain. An advance will be made in the practice of feeding
as soon as the starch equivalent of roots has been accurately determined under
our conditions, when the Kellner equivalents will no doubt come into general use.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 767

I have now reached the end of my survey. I recognise that it is very
incomplete, and that I have been compelled to neglect whole subjects in which
important work has been done. I venture to hope, however, that my words
have not been altogether unprofitable. It is somewhat difficult to summarise
what is in itself really nothing but a summary. Perhaps, however, I may
be allowed to point out once more what appears to me to be the moral of the
last twenty years of work in agricultural science.

The many practical fields and feeding tests carried out all over the country
have demonstrated several very striking results; but, if they are to be con-
tinued with profit, more trouble must be taken to insure accuracy. Farmers
are ready to listen. It behoves us more than ever to found what we tell them
on accurate results.

Besides such practical trials, however, much has been done in the way of
individual scientific work. The results thus obtained, as, for instance, Russell
and Hutchinson’s partial sterilisation of soils, Biffen’s new wheats, and Beaven’s
pure Archer barley, are of practical value to the farmer as immediate as the
most practical field trial, and of far wider application.

The following Papers were read :—

1. German Forestry Methods. By Professor Fraser Story.

2. Further Observations on the Fungicidal Action of Bordeaux Mixture.
By Professor B. T. P. Barker, M.A., and C. T. Gruincuam, FJ.C.

In a previous paper the authors concluded that probably the most important,
although not necessarily the only, cause of the fungicidal action of Bordeaux
mixture is the solvent action which fungus cells under certain conditions are
capable of exerting on the insoluble copper compounds of the spray fluid.

In continuation of the earlier work, it has been shown that germinating
spores and the thin-walled cells of fungus hyphe when in contact with or
within a limited radius of particles of the copper compounds exercise solvent
action and are killed by absorption of the dissolved copper. Similar results
occur in the case of roothairs and the thin-walled external layers of cells of the
roots of germinating seedlings. The extent of the action depends on the
character of the cell-wall, apparently according to the degree of permeability.

In the case of apple leaves, the cuticle of the upper epidermis during spring
and summer seems to be practically impermeable, and as a result no injury
fellows spraying so long as the cuticle constitutes a continuous uninjured
covering to the leaf. If any injury causes a break in it or if a change in its
character leading to greater permeability occurs—as appears to be the case in
autumnal foliage—scorching due to injury of the thin-walled internal tissues
follows owing to direct solvent action of exuded substances on the fungicide.
While absorbed copper causes death of individual cells or local groups of cells
in such cases, appreciable amounts of copper may be translocated from the
affected areas to other parts of the plant without causing injury in transit.
There is also evidence that copper slowly absorbed through comparatively
difficultly permeable external walls may be diffused through the plant without
visible injury to any cells.

As to the nature of the substances exercising solvent action, in the case of
germinating seeds and the roots of young plants carbon dioxide is an active
agent, but in addition other substances not at present examined in detail play
an important part.

The physiological effect of the absorbed copper on the treated plant is under
myestigation.

3. A Peculiar Disease of Cereals and Roots and the Action of Sulphur
and Lime. By Wauter E, Counce.

The disease, which is locally known as ‘ maysick,’ is most evident on wheat,
and is probably due to bacteria that interfere with the nutrition of the plant.

768 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

This was described in some detail, together with experiments that had been
made with a view to curing the disease. In this respect flowers of sulphur and
unslaked lime have been found to be successful.

4. The Growing of Linseed as a Farm Crop.
By Duncan Davinson.

The growing of flax for fibre has been a feature of Irish and, to a less
extent, of British agriculture for many years, but linseed as a farm crop is
unknown to most farmers in this country. Experiments in the growing of
linseed have been carried out on a limited scale in England and Wales during
the last three years, and this year more extended trials are being conducted.

‘he main purport of this paper is to put forward some arguments in favour
of linseed-growing; to describe the cultural requirements of the crop; and to
consider the cost of production, probable yield, and money value of the crop on
suitable land, as far as the limited experience and paucity of data at our
disposal will admit.

The special value of linseed as a cream substitute for calves, its superiority
as a fattening and ‘finishing’ food for older cattle, its ability to secure good

‘condition’ in horses, its unrivalled effect as a tonic for ailing stock, not to
mention its excellence for sheep, 1s universally admitted by farmers, The in-
creasing demand for linseed oil and the decreasing export of linseed have
advanced the price of linseed and linseed cake during the last few years to a
level which almost prohibits their use as stock foods, and the present fall in Pog
can only be regarded as temporary.

Linseed is practically indispensable as a stock food, and its production at a
reasonable cost becomes a pertinent problem. Can the British farmer grow
linseed profitably? Experiments so far go to prove that 10 to 15 cwt. of linseed
can be grown at the cost of about 6/. per acre on medium land, while we pay
as much as 10/. for half a ton of linseed meal containing up to 10 per cent. of
cheaper meal. Moreover, as a stock food the home-grown material is superior
to the imported linseed, and it can be used instead of expensive linseed cake,
and is a certain source of genuine linseed meal. ‘I'he increasing demand for
linseed oil, and the preference by the trade for oil from home-grown linseed,
point to the possibility of growing linseed on a commercial scale in the near
future.

For the linseed crop the texture, depth, and water supply of the soil, and
the capacity of the subsoil to store water are of the greatest importance; and
while clay, sandy and peaty soils have so far proved unfavourable, good crops
may be grown on widely different types of soil.

‘The climate of England and Wales is quite suitable for the growth of lin-
seed, as experiments in the North, West, and South-East of the country testify ;
and the influence of weather conditions on the crop may be ascertained by a
comparison of the effect of the seasons in the last three or four years. The
place of linseed in the rotation is practically optional, provided the crop does
not appear too frequently on the same land. The flax crop is not grown on the
same land oftener than once in seven years at least. In the U.S.A. and Canada
linseed is chiefly grown as a first crop on virgin land, and in the other linseed-
producing countries, except Russia, no fixed rotation is followed. Linseed is an
excellent covering crop for ‘seeds,’ a useful substitute for spring corn, and an
alternative crop for wheat, and may be followed by catch crops, and may itself
be grown as a catch crop.

In preparing the land for linseed, special attention must be given to early
tillage, the destruction of weeds, and the fineness and compactness of the soil.
The most suitable manures for the crop have yet to be determined, as the
results obtained in the case of flax crops are inconclusive. From ancient times
fiax has been regarded as an exhaustive crop, and it is traditional that flax
‘draws the land,’ but a comparison of the plant food materials required by the
flax crop and those removed by other farm crops does not support this view.
Flax is pulled and the soil is deprived of the stubble, whereas the linseed crop
is cut, except when very short, and the stubble remains in the soil; and, more-
over, the grain fed to stock on the farm enriches the manure heap. The most
serious drawback to linseed-growing is the scarcity of good seed. Most of the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. 769

ordinary commercial linseed is quite unsuitable, owing to its mixed origin,
impure condition, and low vitality. For linseed 14 to 2 bushels of seed—a good
sample has a bushel weight of 56 lb.—according to the variety, is sufficient, as
it is desirable to encourage the branching of the plants; while for flax more
seed is sown to secure plants with stems free from branches. It is not yet
certain whether an early-sown crop gives a better yield. For the present the
period from the middle of April to the middle of May is recommended as the
best time to sow linseed. ‘lhe seed may be broadcasted or drilled, preferably
on a rolled surface, and should be lightly covered in. The breeding and selec-
tion of suitable strains of linseed—that is, those rich in oil and of good yielding
capacity—is an urgent necessity, and the question of change of seed and the
treatment of the seed as a safeguard against diseases must be gone into. Weeds
must be rigorously excluded, especially dodder and charlock, by sowing pure
seed on clean land and by weeding, as owing to the limited range of the foliage
of the crop they develop more rapidly than in the case of other crops. The ad-
vantage of growing linseed after a ‘ root’ crop is quickly realised on ‘foul’ land.

Linseed is unusually free from insect attacks, but the wireworm may do
much damage to the young plants. Birds are often troublesome. The diseases
known as ‘ yellowing’ and ‘ wilt,’ ascribed to various causes but most probably
due to fungi, may do serious injury to the linseed crop, particularly the ‘ wilt,’
which is supposed to give rise to ‘flax-sick’ soil. The contention that linseed
has a detrimental effect on crops which succeed it is as yet not borne out in
practice.

The ripening of linseed is indicated by the decaying of the leaves, the
yellowing of the straw and capsules, and the gradual change in the colour of
the seed, which should be bright, brown, and plump when ready for cutting.
When ‘ dead’ ripe the crop is almost leafless, and has a dull dark brown appear-
ance, while the seed is a glossy deep-brown colour and rattles in the capsules
when the plant is shaken. The crop must be cut before the latter stage is
reached, or much loss of seed occurs in harvesting. ‘The mode of cutting (if
very short it may be best to pull the crop) depends on the length of straw,
and whether the crop has ‘lodged’ or not. For small areas a hook or scythe
may be used, but when the acreage of linseed is extensive the reaper will be
employed. The crop must be thoroughly dried before being carried, as damp-
ness is fatal to the quality of the linseed.

The flail may be used for threshing small quantities of linseed, although a
little seed is unavoidably left in the straw. The ordinary threshing machine is
not efficient, and a special machine worked by a farm gas, oil, or petrol engine
is to be tried this year. When clean, straight, undamaged linseed straw is
required, the capsules may be removed by rippling, and crushed to extract the
seed. The usual winnowing machine, provided with special screens, will free the
linseed from refuse, and the clean seed must be stored in a cool dry place.
Special care must be taken to secure dryness during storage, as linseed is
damaged very easily by moisture. The linseed chaff may be fed to dairy cows
and breeding ewes, but it is unsuitable for young stock.

The disposal of the straw is the chief difficulty, but recent improvements
in machinery have resulted in its use as a source of fibre for industrial pur-
poses. It is a valuable packing and thatchiny material, and is useful as a
bottom layer for stacks and covered stock-yards.

The cost of production on a well-managed farm of medium land should not
exceed 6/. to 7/. per acre, and a yield of 20 to 30 bushels of grain and 25 to
35 cwt. of straw may be expected when a suitable variety is sown, which, having
regard to the high price of linseed, linseed meal, and linseed cake, is a paying
crop.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
The following Papers were read :—

1. The Value conferred on Dung by Cake Feeding.
By A. D. Hatz, F.B.S.

1913. 3D

770 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

2. The Artificial Incubating Establishments of the Egyptians.
By W. H. Capmany, B.Sc., F.C.S.

The art of hatching fowls’ eggs by artificial heat originated in Egypt in very
remote times and was introduced into Europe from Egypt as a result of
observations made by some of the scientific members of Napoleon’s expedition.

The Egyptians have long been famous for this practice and still successfully
carry it out throughout the country on a large scale. The profession is
traditionally transmitted from father to son, and is consequently confined to
particular families. The secrets of the process are generally guarded with a
religious zeal, and solemn oaths are taken not to divulge them. This largely
accounts for the very imperfect descriptions of Egyptian incubators published
up to date, and the entire absence of all details of working. The author has
resided for the last eight years in close proximity to several of these establish-
ments, and has been able to examine both the buildings and the details of
working. The building is large, and usually contains several rooms in which
the attendants live, in addition to the egg-ovens; it is generally rectangular
in shape and constructed of sun-dried Nile mud bricks. The walls are ot
double thickness with layers of sand between. A vaulted passage divides the
two parallel rows of ovens. Each egg-oven has a capacity of about 30 cubic
metres, and consists of two cells or compartments, one above the other, com-
municating by an opening in the middle of the lower roof. There is also a
dome-shaped opening in the upper roof for the escape of smoke. Each cell
can be entered from the passage by an opening just large enough for a man
to pass through. The buildings vary in size, usually containing from eight to
twenty ovens each.

The incubators are worked for four or five months of the year only, in
winter and in spring.

Method of Working.—The ovens are heated a few days before putting in
the eggs by means of burning fuel on the floors and in the passage. Chopped
bean-straw or dried cakes of cattle-dung serve as the fuel. After removing the
ashes and smoke from the lower cells, the floors of these are covered with straw
mats sprinkled with bran, and the eggs are piled on these mats; each oven
takes about 7,000 eggs.

The proper temperature is maintained by adding glowing fuel to the troughs
in the upper cells. The eggs are pushed by hand round the floor twice daily so as
to be heated from above in rotation. This device of heating from above is
presumably adopted in imitation of the processes that occur with the sitting
hen. At the end of seven days the eggs are tested with olive-oil lamps and
clear (i.e., unfertile) ones removed. After eleven days all fire is removed, and
the upper cel] is cleaned, and for the last seven days half the eggs are trans-
ferred to the upper cells and placed on mats. During the last ten days the
temperature is maintained by the heat given out by the chicks themselves as
they develop within the egg. The temperature and aeration are regulated by
attending to the roof openings and fuel supply. Thermometers are never used.
Long experience enables the superintendent to tell the exact temperature
necessary by placing the egg against the sensitive skin of his eyelid. The
variation in temperature during the hatching period is very slight as shown
op the temperature chart obtained by a self-registering thermometer. The
period of hatching is twenty-one days, the same as required for natural
incubation.

The chicks, as soon as hatched, are removed to the passage to dry and
disposed of on the following day, no food being required.

The hen hatches without additional moisture and equally so the egg-ovens
of Egypt. The relative humidity has been taken daily to show the hygro-
metric state of the air in the cells during incubation.

Chemical analyses of the gaseous products resulting from the fuel combus-
tion have been made by the author, and the effects of these products in the
egg-cells were discussed with reference to Dr. Bay’s remarkable theory recently
communicated to the ‘Institut Egyptien,’ viz., that the presence of carbon
dioxide is necessary during the incubation period and indispensable to the
evolution of fatal life.

On September 14, 1911, there were 512 native chicken incubators in the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. Mere.

whole of Egypt, hatching about 120 million of chicks annually. The non-sitting
instinct of Egyptian poultry is doubtless due to this old practice of artificial
incubation. A large installation of American hot-air incubators run on modern
lines at Alexandria has recently attempted to compete commercially with the
native incubators, but has proved a complete failure.

The total quantity of eggs imported into the United Kingdom from all
foreign and colonial countries now exceeds eighteen million great hundreds*
per annum, valued at more than seven million pounds sterling. About nine
hundred million eggs per year are consumed in London alone. The above facts
emphasise the importance of developing the utility poultry industry by
introducing hatching operations of a much larger magnitude than is possible
with small modern incubators.

The possibility of utilising the simple Egyptian system, somewhat elaborated
upon and refined, for commercial purposes in this country is suggested.

3. The Utilisation of Sewage in Agriculture.
By Dr. J. GRossMann,

Some of the greatest industries of the present time owe their existence to
the utilisation of by-products which at some time were considered a nuisance ;
and sewage, which is the largest by-product, may in like manner become a valu-
able commodity. The total value of the nitrogenous matter, phosphates, and
potash compounds contained in its liquid part is equal to twenty million pounds
per annum. The value of its solid matter, termed sewage sludge, is about two
million pounds per annum, and the author has succeeded in designing a practi-
cable method by which this amount can be made available. At present, the
process only deals with the sewage of Oldham, a town of 150,000 inhabitants.
It is based on the reasoning that the highly unsatisfactory results which up to
the present have been obtained with sewage sludge in farming are attributable
to the fact that it contains fatty matter due chiefly to soap and kitchen
refuse, and that if these fatty matters, which render the soil impervious to
water and air, and which by enveloping the active chemical ingredients prevent
them from being dissolved, were removed, a residue of manurial value would
remain. By the author’s process the dried sludge is mixed with a small per-
centage of acid and subjected to the action of superheated steam, which carries
off the fatty matters (which are condensed in water) and leaves an inodorous,
brown powder, completely sterilised, which contains, on an average, 1.5 per
cent. of nitrogen, 3 per cent. of phosphate of lime, and °5 per cent. of potash,
distributed in almost molecular state over from 30 to 40 per cent. of organic
matter similar to humus, and mixed with a certain amount of carbon in an
extremely fine state of division. The results obtained from the residue mixed
with phosphates and potash compounds are beyond what might be expected
from calculations based on the units of the active principles. The process does
not add to the cost of sludge disposal, is automatic, and works day and night
without a break and with only such labour as is required in attending to the
fires under the drying machines and boilers, and to mechanical movements.
There is no smell from any part of the apparatus, and the men do not handle
the sludge from beginning to end, as everything is carried on in closed vessels.

The solution of the problem of sewage sludge disposal should place the much
larger problem of the application of liquid sewage to farming within closer reach
of solution. Up to the present, the tendency in sewage treatment has been to
reduce the amount of sludge, as in practically every place it has been a source
of great expense and nuisance. It is now possible, and even advisable, to pro-
duce more sludge, and by doing so to obtain better effluents with reduced
purification plants. ‘So far, the great drawback in sewage farming has been that
the sewage has had to be used whether the land required it or not. With a
system of removing the solid matter (including the fatty compounds) from
sewage without extra cost, the efficiency of the sewage purification plant would
be greatly improved, and arrangements could be made by which the sewage
could be, at any time, either sent on the land or dealt with in the purification

1 One great hundred =120 eggs.
3D2

172 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

plant, and as the soil could take up more liquid matter without becoming water-
logged, larger quantities of sewage could be used on a given area. The enormous
strides which have been made in the last seventy years in engineering, chemis-
try, and agricultural science, the use of oil and gas engines, improvements in
pumping machinery, the distribution of electricity, the improvements in motor
traction, all seem to point to the fact that within a measurable distance we should
be able to utilise, if not all, at any rate a considerable part of the sewage which is
now wasted, by having, in connection with municipal sewage works, a system
of irrigation which would enable farmers to draw upon the effluent when they
can profitably use it on their land and that the time has arrived when experi-
ments on a fairly large scale in that direction should be carried out; such
experiments should be made at the cost of the Government, as neither corpora-
tions nor individuals can be expected to undertake such work, and it is to be
hoped that when the recommendations of the Royal Commission on Sewage are
acted upon, and a Central Authority appointed to deal with the sewage question,
they will give their attention to this matter.

Joint Meeling with Section K on Problems in Barley Production.

(i) Selection of Barley for Productivity. By KE. 8. BEaven.

With any cereal crop the produce of dry grain on unit area is the sum of the
following factors: (a) number of plants surviving on the area at harvest:
(5) average dry weight per plant, which is the sum of (61) average number of
stems per plant, and (52) average weight per stem; (c) the ratio of the dry
matter of the seed to the dry matter of the plant. A series of cultivations were
described as a number of ‘ pure lines’ of barley and also of the F 2 to F 6 genera-
tions of some hybrids which have been carried out at Warminster during the
years 1900 to 1912. The objects have been: 1. To discriminate between genetic
differences and those due to extrinsic conditions; 2. Reduction of the ‘ probable
error ’ of differences in magnitude of the above factors, as between different races
in order to obtain valid comparisons of productivity. The method adopted is
an elaboration of the Hays centgener system. 3. Correlation of the several
factors in successive generations. 4. Correlations of the several factors inter se.

Some provisional conclusions were arrived at with reference to the relative
importance of the factors and especially with reference to the ‘migration factor.’
The application of the results obtained, more especially to methods of selection
for productivity from the progeny obtained by the cross-fertilisation of different
races, was discussed.

(ii) Irish Barley Experiments, 1901-1907. By Joun H. Brennerv.

First efforts to improve Irish barley were commenced in 1899 by Mr. H. C.
Sheringham, on behalf of the Irish Organisation Society, by means of quarter-
acre plots for different varieties and different proportions of artificial manures.
Mr. Sheringham continued to work under the Irish Department of Agriculture,
constituted in 1900, and in 1901 the size of the plots was increased to two acres
each, in order to provide for the subsequent separate malting and brewing by
Messrs. Guinness of the produce,

Archer, Goldthorpe and Standwell barley were grown at four centres in
1901, at six centres in 1902, and at eight centres in 1903, also two-acre plots to
test full artificial manuring versus none.

Archer proved best, Goldthorpe second, Standwell third, and the malting
results confirmed this order. Artificial manures increased the yield without
impairing brewing quality.

In 1904 Mr. Hunter succeeded Mr. Sheringham. Scotch Chevallier and
Old Irish Barley were added and the two-acre experiments were grown on ten
farms in five counties. The quarter-acre series was discontinued. The raising
of pure seed of the different varieties was commenced.

In 1905 there were eleven centres in six counties occupying 150 acres, while
Hallett’s Chevallier was added at every centre.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. 7173

In 1806 Danish Prentice Barley (proved best in Denmark and since found to
be identical with Archer) was introduced. Hallett’s was dropped owing to
weak straw. There were twelve centres in seven counties. Wanish Archer
proved best, Irish Archer, Goldthorpe, and Scotch Chevallier following in the
order named. ‘I'he superiority of Archer barley aiter fitty-one tests during six
years—its value per acre being 12s. above the next best, Goldthorpe—appeared
manifest.

in 1907 the scheme of field plots was made to test Irish Archer barley further
against Danish Archer, and also the possible deterioration of either by con-
tinuous growing in Ireland. Irish Archer raised from ears selected by hand in
1904 was compared with Danish Archer grown in Ireland in 1906 and witn
freshly imported Danish and English Archer. Both Danish Archers proved
equal. lrisn Archer showed improvement by selection, beng very little below
Danish. Knglish Archer showed impurity, and was lower in yield than the
others. Subsequent Irish experiments have confirmed the conclusions that pro-
ductivity is improved by selection and that quality and yield are not affected
by continuous growing in the same climate.

During these eight years both good and bad seasons were experienced, but
the detinite and consistent results obtained, causing the introduction of Archer
barley for general use in Ireland, have brought about remarkable benefits. The
quality of the barley has been improved in every way, a much larger proportion
is available for malting and the yield per acre has also been increased.

(iii) Barley-growing in Ireland.~ By H. Hunrer.

A description of the earlier experiments in barley-growing in Ireland and
their results having been dealt with by Mr. Bennett, this paper was intended
to describe the character and general results of selection and other later investi-
gations.

It has been shown that Archer and Goldthorpe are more desirable varieties for
cultivation in Ireland than those in general use prior to 1901. There are strong
indications that while Archer is a more profitable barley on light land when
judged over a series of years, Goldthorpe is best suited to heavier soils. Further,
Goldthorpe is an earlier, and consequently on heavy soils and in most, but
especially late seasons, a safer variety to cultivate.

In point of quality Archer and Goldthorpe proved superior to the barleys in
cultivation, and an attempt was made to show how the standard of quality has
been improved concomitantly with that of yield.

Before the introduction of Danish Archer into Ireland in 1906 the stock of
Archer under experiment was the heaviest yielding variety of any of those that
had been tested; the former barley, however, not only proved more prolific
than the strain of Archer in use, but exhibited a more even growth and
ripening in the field, and greater evenness in size and quality of grain.

Primarily, as a result of the difficulty in obtaining pure seed for field trials
and the consequent unevenness of the crop when growing, selection experiments
were commenced in 1904, and seed raised from ‘group’ selected seed and from
single ears. The effect of these selections on the character of corn crops is dealt
with, as also is the influence on the quality of the grain.

A characteristic of Archer of some disadvantage is its habit of late ripening.
Attempts have been made to select a strain which is earlier ripening, and an
account of these is given.

The field plots on which the earlier variety trials were conducted were two
acres each in extent, sufficiently large to provide material for the malting trials
conducted by Messrs. Guinness. In 1908 they were reduced to one acre, and
have been continued at that figure ever since.

The rapid multiplication of distinct pure lines and hybrids necessitates an
easier and less expensive method of initial quantitative testing. A system of
small scale variety testing, in which each plot is one square yard, and repeated
a large number of times, has been in operation at Ballinacurra for the past two
years. These small scale plots not only yield general results of an extremely
interesting character, but considerable data relative to some of the probable
factors of yield have also been obtained and were discussed.

774 ie TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION \M.

(iv) The Precision of the Irish Barley Experiments.
By Dr. F. E. Hacxert.

(v) The Burbage Breeding Experiments. By Major C. C. Hurst.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
Joint Meeting with Section I.—See p. 669.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Partial Sterilisation of the Soil by means of Caustic Lime.
By H. B. Hutcuinson, Ph.D., and K. MacLennan, B.Sc.

The main line of work has been to determine the efficiency of caustic lime
as a partial sterilisation agent for field conditions, but from the results obtained
it would appear probable that a closer inquiry into the effects of lime and of
chalk on field soils and of the general practice of liming would repay further
investigation.

Various types of soils have been submitted to periodical chemical and
bacteriological analysis and show great differences in their behaviour on treat-
ment with caustic lime in different proportions and with chalk. The factor
limiting bacterial activity and the proportion of ammonia and nitrate may be
successfully removed by applications of caustic lime, but the possibility of a
profitable adoption of the method in practice—with the exception of market-
garden conditions—can only be decided after reference to special conditions,
such as type of soil, intensity of cultivation, type of crop and prevailing prices.
The action of lime may be regarded as being intermediate in character between
that exercised by heat and mild antiseptics. The micro-flora and fauna of the
soil are not affected to such an extent as by heat, but the amount of chemical
oe is much greater than that caused by antiseptics as carbon bisulphide and
toluene.

After a certain incubation period, the length of which depends on the char-
acter of the soil and the amount of lime applied, soil bacteria begin to multiply
rapidly and lead to large increases in the amount of available nitrogen. Below
the partial sterilisation limit the production of food would appear to be due to
initial chemical action of the lime in breaking down some of the more complex
soil constituents, so that the total ammonia and nitrate are in some cases in
proportion to the amount of lime applied. Above the partial sterilisation point
this relation no longer holds.

The value of an addition of chalk depends largely on the amount of carbonate
initially present in the soil and the character of the reserves of soil nitrogen.
In some cases its action is considerable, whilst in others it is negligible.

Table showing the Effect of Caustic Lime and of Chalk on the Production of Ammonta
and Nitrate in various Soils. (Parts per million of Dry Soil.)

| dy | Chalk
oe Caustic Lime (per cent.) | (per cant)
0 | 01 | o2 | o8 | o4 | 05 | 10 1:0
| | |
Rothamsted. .| 8 | 21 | 40 | 44 | 46 | 54 | 69 |] 8
Chelsea. . .| 3841 36 41 49 | 57 | .59 75 |) 33
Wobury (acid) .| 12 | 29 | 45 48 64 | 60 | 35 49
Craibstone . . | 23 | 18 | 27 36 | 44 | 49 | 90 33
|

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. 775

Pot culture experiments with barley have been carried out, and show that
with many soils large increases of crop may be obtained by the use of moderate
applications of caustic lime. With some soils (garden soils, rich in carbonate)
plant growth is adversely affected by larger doses, but the authors are not pre-
pared at present to advance an explanation of the phenomenon.

Pot Cultures with Barley in Limed Soils.
Yields of Dry Matter (Untreated Crop 100).

Caustic Lime applied (per cent.) Meas, )

Soil ‘
GeO | 02 | 03 | o4 | 8 | 10 | = 10
Rothamsted . | 100 | 209 | 224 | 300 | 276'| 199 | 14 101
Chelsea. . ./| 100 | 99 | 115 112 | 111 | 105 | 94 96
Craibstone . . | 100 | 96 | 110 | 116 | 132 | 135 | 160 | 118
Millbrook . . | 100 | 184 | 230 | 271 | — | 8% | 15 | 14

2. Investigations on the Protozoa of Soil. By T. Goovry.

This paper dealt with two pieces of work carried out to ascertain the part
played by protozoa in the soil, and is the outcome of the theory advanced by
Russell and Hutchinson, viz., that the protozoa in the soil act directly as a
factor limiting bacterial activity, and therefore affect indirectly soil fertility.

The first investigation consisted of an attempt to get out from the soil, by a
rapid method, the first protozoa to appear in a hay-infusion culture of soil.
It was inferred that these would, in all probability, be the forms leading an
active existence in the soil, if such were present. A method was finally devised
by means of which the ciliated protozoa appearing first in such a culture were
obtained quite quickly. These forms were chiefly Colpoda, and in no case did
they appear until an hour and a half to two hours after inoculation. This
period of time is practically the same as that taken for the excystation of
Colpoda from its resting-cysts. Moreover, the protoplasm of these earliest-
occurring forms contained no food vacuoles and resembled very closely in
appearance that of recently excysted Colpoda. This suggested that they had ©
come out from cysts on the addition of the soil to the hay-infusion. The con-
clusion drawn from these results was that the ciliated protozoa are only present
in the soil in an encysted condition and cannot therefore function as the factor
limiting bacterial activity.

The second investigation dealt with the effects of partial sterilisation on two
old soils which had been stored in bottles for many years at Rothamsted, one
since 1846 and the other since 1870. The former yielded no protozoa under
cultural conditions, whilst the latter only gave ameba and flagellates as its
protozoan fauna. A set of four bottles of each of these soils was put up and
partially sterilised by means of volatile antiseptics, one bottle of each set being
left untreated. Counts of bacteria were made over a period of about 240 days.
It was found that the 1846 soil showed no phenomena which accompany a normal
soil when partially sterilised. The bacteria in the untreated soil did not remain
low in numbers, but on the contrary reached and maintained a higher figure
than the bacteria of the treated soils.

The 1870 soil on the other hand showed the usual phenomena accompanying
partial sterilisation. The untreated soil kept low in bacterial numbers whilst
the treated soils showed high bacterial numbers. In the treated soils also the

rotozoa were killed off. The conclusion drawn from these experiments is that
in the 1846 soil there is no factor limiting bacterial activity, whilst in the 1870
soil containing ameeba and flagellates the limiting factor is present.

776 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

3. The Weeds of Arable Land.
By Wryirrep E. Brencuuey, D.Sc., F.L.S.

The distinction between weed and crop is very sharp!y marked where arable
land is concerned. Weeds may be defined as ‘ plants other than those intended
to be sown, which grow up naturally with the crop, and if unchecked prove
exceedingly detrimental to the crop.” The weeds may spring either from seeds
already in the soil or from seeds accidentally introduced with those of the crop.

Weeds are able to do damage to the crop in various ways :—

(1) They utilise much of the raw food material and water of the soil, so
lessening the supply available for the crop.

(2) They steal light, as when they grow luxuriantly they overshadow the
crop plants, and so hinder carbon assimilation.

(3) The weed seeds render the crop seeds impure, and so entail much expense
in the special processes of cleaning and separating thus rendered necessary.

- (4) Weeds provide harbourage for various insect and fungus pests which
would either be entirely absent or at least far more easily dealt with if the
ground were clear of alien plants.

An examination of the relations existing between the weeds, crops, and soils,
carried on in various parts of England, shows that arable land forms a definite
plant habitat, and carries a distinct weed flora which varies somewhat according
to local conditions. In dealing with such a problem as this, the utmost care is
needed in the interpretation of results, as so many factors come into play.
Differences in climatic conditions, methods and times of cultivation, systems of
manuring, &c., all play their part in influencing both the composition of the
weed flora and the balance of its component species.

On clay soils the weed flora is less rich in species than is the lighter loam,
and though several plants have a decided preference for heavy land, yet no
species can be said to be ‘symptomatic’ of clay, occurring on such soil and
nowhere else.

Sandy soils possess a much more characteristic weed flora, as they are
colonised by a great diversity of plants, a good many species being definitely
associated with light soils. Such plants as spurrey, corn marigold, sheep’s
sorrel, and knawel appear to be characteristic of sandy soils which are deficient
in chalk, ‘sour’ soils.

Chalk provides quite a peculiar habitat for weeds, partly because of its texture
and partly because of its chemical composition, as so much calcium carbonate is
present. The weed flora of the chalk is relatively very rich in species, some of
which are markedly characteristic of such soil.

; It is now evident that a definite association exists between the species of weed
plants and the soil on which they grow. This association may be either

(a) Local, when a weed is symptomatic of a certain soil in one district, but
is not so exclusively associated with it in another. :

(6) General, when a certain species is symptomatic or characteristic of the
same type of soil in different districts.

The nature of the crop also plays its part in determining the weed flora.
This influence is partly due to the different habit of growth of such crops as
cereals, roots and leguminous plants, but it is probably more largely the result
of the varying methods of cultivation applied to the crops—e.q., root crops are
so thoroughly cultivated throughout their season of growth that comparatively
few species of weeds can hold their own, whereas leguminous plants cannot be
hoed during growth, so that many weeds have an opportunity to flourish if they
can withstand the competition of the crop.

It is evident that the problem of the weeds of arable land must be approached
with a perfectly open mind, recognising that a relation obtained in one place
does not necessarily hold good in another. Yet when all the factors influencing
the flora come to light it seems probable that the apparent contradictions will

find a satisfactory explanation and prove to be different expressions of a well-
defined order.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. 777

4, Nitrification in some Pasture Soils. By C. T. Grunonam, FIC.

The author gave an account of some observations on the processes of ammoni-
fication and nitrification in some pasture soils containing a high percentage of
organic matter and very little carbonate. It is known that nitrification is
reduced to a minimum in a pasture soil rendered acid by the continued use of
ammonium salts as manure; and an investigation has been made of the behaviour
in this respect of soils naturally acid or in process of becoming acid. The soil
chosen for most of these experiments was one apparently intermediate between
a true ‘moor’ and a true ‘fen’ soil. It is very dark in colour, contains between
30 per cent. and 40 per cent. organic matter, and only traces of carbonate, but
the soil water is neutral in reaction. It behaves as an acid soil in that, when
seeded into a culture solution containing glucose, with ammonium chloride as
the only source of nitrogen, a growth of moulds appears and the culture becomes
distinctly acid. On the other hand, the soil itself is capable of bringing about
rapid nitrification. The plan adopted was to follow the fate of the nitrogen
in peptone added to the soil beyond the ammonia stage and to determine also
the nitrates formed. It was found that nitrification sets in almost at once and
proceeds very rapidly. Ammonium sulphate is also quickly nitrified, though
the soil very soon takes on a faintly acid reaction.

Figures were given of a series of determinations of ammonia and nitrates
over a considerable period in portions of soil to which peptone was added;
these were compared with similar figures obtained from normal soils and from
soils naturally acid. Other details of the behaviour of these soils were given.

A note on the use of ‘nitron’ for the determination of nitrates in aoil
extracts was appended.

5. The Effect of Soluble Humates on Nitrogen Fixation and Plant
Growth. By Professor W. B. Borromuny, M.A.

The observations of Heinze, Krzemieniewski, and others on the influence of
soluble humates on nitrogen-fixing bacteria suggested the possibility of using
a material rich in soluble humates as a medium for introducing cultures of
nitrogen-fixing bacteria into the soil. It was thought that such a medium might
also benefit the nitrogen-fixing organisms already present in the soil.

It has been found that the insoluble humic acid which is present in large
quantities in peat can be readily converted into soluble humate by the action
of certain aerobic soil bacteria. Peat after treatment with these organisms is
sterilised and then inoculated with a culture of nitrogen-fixing organisms. This
prepared peat can then be used for soil inoculation, either by direct application
to the soil, or preparing from it a culture solution.

A mixture of 9 oz. of poor garden soil and 1 oz. of prepared peat after
seventeen days’ incubation at 26° C. gave the following results :—

Soil+sterilised prepared peat ...... (a) "717 grm. N per 100 grms. soil.
(5) “709 2” ”» > 9
Soil+active prepared peat ......... a (a) e'792he x5 nf:
(5) “789 ” ” ”» ”

An average gain of 77 mgrms. of N per 100 grms. soil.

A culture solution was obtained by mixing 2 grms. of the prepared peat and
‘5 orm. of sugar in 100 c.c. of distilled water, and incubating at 26° C. for
twenty-four hours. A mixture of 12 oz. of soil and 75 cc. of this culture
solution, after seventeen days’ incubation at 26° C., analysed as follows :—

Soil+sterilised culture ............ (a) *241 grm. N per 100 grms. soil.
(d) 251 9 ” 9? »”>
Soil+living culture ............... (a) 348 —,, > 55 *
(b) 338 bed ”) ”) 2?

An average gain of 97 mgrms. of N per 100 grms. soil.

Pot experiments in the greenhouse and plot experiments in the open showed
that the prepared peat, in addition to its effect on nitrogen fixation, has a direct
influence on promoting plant growth. This is probably due in part to the

778 IYRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M,

presence of ammonium humate, which, in addition to being a direct source of
nitrogen for plants, stimulates their root development in a remarkable manner.

At Chelsea Physic Garden a plot of radishes watered once with an extract
of prepared peat gave an increase of 54 per cent. over the untreated plot.
At Eton School Gardens plots with prepared peat, compared with plots with
farmyard manure, gave the following increases :—Lettuce, 27 per cent. ; turnips,
23 per cent.; potatoes, 41 per cent. Pot experiments at Chelsea on wheat
barley, and oats showed that the prepared peat promotes tillering. :

6. The Life History of Eriophyes ribis Nab.
By Miss A. M. Taytor.

_Comparison was made in this paper of the life-history of Zriophyes ribis on
Ribes nigrum and Ribes Grossularia respectively as host plants.

With Ribes nigrum as host plant.

The embryonic true leaves of the bud are attacked by the mite, and the
es Seong into a ‘big-bud.’ No injury is caused, however, to the foliage of

e tree.

The migration of mites from infested buds to new plant-food is carried out
mainly by the agency of the wind.

Observations show that Hriophyes ribis respond to the stimulus of tempera-
ture by raising themselves to an erect position. When this position is taken,
successful distribution by wind occurs.

With Ribes Grossularia as host plant,

The scale leaves of the bud only are attacked, and no ‘ big-bud ’ is formed.
It is suggested that the structure of the buds of Ribes Grossularia is such
that the mites cannot penetrate into the true leaves of the bud. The injury
caused by the mite to Ribes Grossularia is confined to the foliage of the affected
tree.
Distribution by wind is not of general occurrence, migration being mainly
carried out by the mites crawling from the infested bud to the expanding leaves.
: It is probable that infection from Ribes Grossularia to Ribes nigrum takes
place.

7. Partnership in Agriculture between Landlord and Tenant.
By Sir Ricuarp Pacer, Bart.

Agriculture in England at the present time, save in quite exceptional cases,
is conducted on uncommercial lines. The ordinary landlord and tenant agree-
ment secures no community of interests between the parties, no division of profits,
and no opening for outside capital. Farming as a profession is consequently
limited to the relatively small class of farmers who have sufficient capital of
their own.

If agriculture wants more capital, in order that it may be carried on in its
most profitable manner, it must be brought within the pale of the industries,
and must offer to capital a fair share of the profits.

Farming on a share of produce in lieu of rent—such as the métayer system
on the Continent, or ‘farming on shares’ in Canada, the U.S.A., and Australia
—certainly gives an opening for capital and enables a farmer to operate without
capital of his own, but it has the objection that the landlord is only interested
in the yield of the crop (of which he gets a half, a third, or other agreed pro-
portion), not in the cost of producing it, since the cost of labour falls on the
tenant. The interests of the parties are not identical and the system does not
tend to encourage the most intensive culture.

The ideal system would appear to be a business partnership wherein the land-
lord invests the land, the tenant invests what capital he can, and the balance
necessary for the most efficient cultivation is invested by the landlord, or it
might be borrowed by the partnership on the security of its assets and the
guarantees of the partners.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. 779

The landlord is credited, for the purpose of division of profits, with the
agricultural value of the land, and the tenant is credited with a nominal capital
representing the capitalised value of his skill and services.

In estimating the amount of tenant’s capitalised value, it is assumed that, if
the partners each provide half the cash capital, the tenant’s share of profits in
return for his services should be equal to the landlord’s in return for his Jand
and for such services as he may be able to render to the partnership.

If, therefore, the land is valued at, say, 4,500/., the tenant would also be
credited with 4,500/. as representing the capitalised value of his services.

If the capital required were 1,500/., and, in the first instance, the whole of
it were supplied by the landlord, the landlord would be credited with 4,500/.
plus 1,500/., equals 6,000/., as against the tenant’s 4,500/., and would, therefore,
receive four-sevenths as against three-sevenths of the divisible profits.

In estimating profits, all expenses for repairs, tithes, taxes, and insurance,
&c., are charged to the partnership.

The tenant is given the right to invest from time to time up to the total
amount of the cash capital, thus buying out the landlord’s capital interest,
other than his interest in the land. The landlord would then receive three-
sevenths of the profits, and his money back, while the tenant would receive the
remaining four-sevenths of the profits.

Where the landlord was willing to sell the freehold, he might be bought
out altogether.

A form of partnership agreement to carry out these proposals has been pre-
pared by Mr. T. G. Spyers, barrister-at-law, of Lincoln’s Inn.

To secure to both parties the benefits of landlord and tenant legislation, and
to meet the difficulties of ‘ limited ownership’ in the case of tenants for life, it
is provided that the landlord first grants the tenant an ordinary agricultural
lease—either for a long term or from year to year—and that the parties then
enter into partnership, bringing in their respective interests in the lease as
partnership assets. The fixed rent secured in the lease is remitted by agree-
ment during the partnership.

On the death of either partner, the partnership is dissolved and the assets
divided, but the lease is only determined by the death of the tenant.

In the case of a long lease, the tenant may be under obligation to give an
option to the landlord’s successor (on the death of the landlord) to enter into
partnership on the same terms.

Comparing the proposed partnership tenancy with the present system of
tenure, the partnership system should tend as follows :—

(1). To make agriculture an industry comparable with other industries.

(2). To encourage commercial methods, the keeping of proper accounts, and
more scientific methods.

(3). To give to agriculture the advantage of better credit and cheaper money,
by the association of the landlord’s credit with that of the farmer.

(4). To encourage landlords or other capitalists to invest in agriculture.

(5). To enable properly trained farmers to start farming without capital of
their own, and to give them an opportunity to invest their savings in their
farms.

(6). To facilitate systematic profit-sharing with labourers on farms.

(7). To give landlords a business interest in their farms and so place them
_ in the position to secure co-operation between farmers, to obtain information and
technical advice, and generally to use their intelligence and influence for the
good of the industry.

APPENDIX.
Tuts INDENTURE is made the day of 1913, between
of in the County of (hereinafter called the Landlord) of the
one part and of in the County of (Farmer)

(hereinafter called the Tenant) of the other part wHeREAS this Indenture is
supplemental to an Indenture of Lease (hereinafter referred to as the Lease)
of even date with and made between the same parties and in the same order as
the parties to this Indenture aND wHeEREAS the Landlord is desirous of assisting
the Tenant to cultivate the farm and premises (hereinafter referred to as the
Farm) comprised in and demised by the lease in the best and most efficient

780 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

manner now THIS INDENTURE WITNESSETH that in consideration of the premises
the Landlord and the Tenant hereby mutually covenant and agree as follows :—

1. The Landlord and the Tenant will become and remain partners in the
business of cultivating the farm from the day of the date hereof under the
style or firm of subject nevertheless to determination as hereinafter
provided.

2. Either partner may determine the partnership hereby constituted at any
time on giving not less than calendar months’ previous notice in writing to
the other partner of his intention in that behalf and at the expiration of such
notice the partnership shall determine accordingly.

3. The business of the partnership shall be carried on at the Farm.

4. The capital of the partnership shall consist of such sum or sums of money
as shall from time to time be required for cultivating the Farm to the best
advantage and shall be contributed by the partners in equal shares or in such
other shares as may from time to time be agreed on between them.

5. The stock and plant belonging to the farm at the commencement of the
partnership the particulars whereof are specified in the Schedule hereto shall
be valued by a competent valuer and shall become the property of the partner-
ship, and the value of the stock and plant mentioned in the first part of the
said Schedule shall be credited to the Landlord in the books of the partnership
as part of the capital brought in by him and the value of the stock and plant
mentioned in the second part of the said Schedule shall be credited to the
Tenant in the said books as part of the capital brought in by him.

6. The Tenant his executors or administrators shall if and when required so
to do by the Landlord and at the cost of the firm duly assign the farm and
premises to the Landlord and the Tenant as joint tenants as part of their
partnership estate for all the residue then unexpired of the term of one year
irom the day of °- and so on from year to year granted by
the lease subject thenceforth to the payment of the rent thereby reserved and
the performance and observance of the covenants by the lessee and conditions
therein contained and in the meantime and until such assignment as aforesaid
shall have been made and executed shall hold the farm and premises in trust
for the Landlord and the Tenant in joint tenancy as part of their partnership
estate and so that if the partnership shall be determined otherwise than by
reason of the death of the Landlord it shall be lawful for the Landlord to
appoint a new trustee in his place.

7. The Landlord will at all times during the partnership so long as he shall
be solely entitled to receive the rent reserved by the lease remit the same and
if the right to receive the same shall at any time during the partnership become
vested in any other person or persons whether jointly with the Landlord or
otherwise will at all times thereafter during the partnership keep the partner-
ship fully and effectually indemnified against the same.

8. The Bankers of the partnership shall be Messrs. or such other
bankers as the partners shall from time to time determine and all monies and
securities belonging to the partnership except such monies as are required for
current expenses shall be paid into and deposited with the said Bank.

9. The Landlord shall not be required to attend to the management or
cultivation of the farm and shall not sign the name of the firm. But the
Tenant shall at all times during the partnership devote the whole of his time
and attention to the farm and diligently and faithfully employ himself therein
and carry on the same for the greatest advantage of the partnership and in
accordance with the covenants on the part of the lessee and conditions con-
tained in the lease. And the tenant shall at all times during the partnership
unless expressly authorised in writing by the Landlord not to do so reside at
the farmhouse on the farm in accordance with the covenant in that behalf con-
tained in the lease but free of the rent thereby reserved and covenanted to be
paid and free also from the rates taxes assessments and expenses of insurance and
other outgoings hereinafter covenanted and agreed to be paid out of the
receipts and earnings of the farm.

10. At all times during the partnership each partner shall be entitled to
he supplied with such portion of the produce of the farm as shall be reasonably
uecessary for his personal use and consumption at the current wholesale price

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. 78]

of such produce and he shall be debited with such price accordingly in the
books of the partnership as if the same were a drawing in anticipation of his
share of the nett profits of the farm.

11. The expenses of repairs alterations and improvements and insurances
against loss or damage by fire or otherwise of or to the said farmhouse and any
buildings from time to time belonging to or used for the purposes of the farm
and any crops cattle or stock so belonging or used and all rates taxes tithes
assessments and other outgoings for or in respect of the farm and the salaries
wages and shares of profits for the time being payable in respect of services
to all persons employed on or in connection with the farm and all expenses
losses and damages which shall be incurred in carrying on the farm or anywise
relating thereto shall be paid out of the receipts and earnings of the farm and
in case of deficiency thereof then by the said partners in equal shares or in such
other shares as may from time to time be agreed upon between them.

12. The partners shall be entitled to the nett profits of the farm after making
the payments last aforesaid in the same shares and proportions as_ their
respective shares in the capital of the partnership for the time being and such
nett profits shall be divided between them as soon after the end of each year
of the partnership as the general annual account shall have been taken and
settled as hereinafter provided, and for the purposes of this clause each partner
shall be credited in the partnership books with the nominal sum of
as part of the capital contributed by him in addition to the value of the stock
and plant to be credited to him as mentioned in clause 5 hereof and in
addition to any sum or sums of money which shall from time to time
have been actually contributed by him for cultivating or otherwise for the
purposes of the farm but it shall be lawful for the Tenant on or at
any time within one calendar month after the day hereinafter fixed for taking
the said general account in every year of the partnership to pay to the Land-
lord all or any part of the moneys which shall for the time being have been
actually contributed by the Landlord for cultivating or otherwise for the
purposes of the farm (but so that not less than be so paid at any
one time) and the Landlord shall accept such payment and thereupon the share
of the Tenant in the said partnership shall be proportionately increased and the
share of the Landlord therein shall be proportionately reduced.

13. At any time after the day of in every year
during the partnership the Landlord shall be at liberty to draw and to be paid
in anticipation of his share of nett profits and to be accounted for at the next
yearly division of profits such a sum as shall be equivalent to half a year’s
interest at the rate of four per cent. per annum on his share in the capital
of the partnership for the time being and the Tenant shall be at liberty by
monthly drawings or otherwise to draw in anticipation of his share of nett
profits and to be accounted for at the next yearly division of profits sums not
exceeding : during such year but in case in any year the amount
so drawn out by either partner shall on taking the general account be found
to be in excess of his share of the nett profits then immediately after such
account shall have been taken and settled the excess so drawn out shall be
refunded without interest.

14. On the day of and on every subsequent
day a general account shall be taken of the assets and liabilities
of the partnership and of all dealings and transactions of the partnership
during the then preceding year or in the case of the first of such accounts
since the commencement of the partnership and of all matters and things
properly comprehended in farm accounts and in taking such account a
just valuation shall be made of all items requiring valuation. Such general
account shall be entered in a book which shall be signed by both the Tenant
and the Landlord or his Agent duly authorised in that behalf and when so
signed shall be binding on both the partners, save that if any manifest error
shall be found therein and signified by either partner to the other within six
calendar months’ after such signature the same shall be rectified.

15. Upon the determination of the partnership a full and general account of
the assets liabilities and transactions of the partnership shall be taken and the
assets and property of the partnership shall belong to the partners in the shares
in which they are respectively entitled to the profits of the partnership subject

782 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

first to the discharge of the partnership debts and liabilities and secondly to the
repayment to each of the partners (but without interest) of any sum or sums of
money from time to time contributed by them respectively to the capital of the
partnership.

16. If during the continuance of the partnership or at any time afterwards
any dispute difference or question shall arise between the said partners or
their representatives touching the partnership or the accounts or transactions
thereof or the dissolution or winding up thereof or the construction meaning or
effect of these presents or anything herein contained or the rights or liabilities
of the partners or their representatives under these presents or otherwise in
relation to the premises then every such dispute difference or question shall
be referred to two arbitrators one to be appointed by each partner or their
umpire pursuant to the Arbitration Act 1889 or any statutory modification or
re-enactment thereof for the time being in force.

EVENING DISCOURSES.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

Explosions in Coal Mines and the Means of Preventing them. By
Sir Henry Cunyneuame, K.C.B., Chairman of the late Royal Com-
mission on Mining Accidents and of the Eskmeals Dust Explosions
Committee.

The object of the lecture was briefly to outline the nature of the experiments
carried on at the Government testing station at Eskmeals, in Cumberland.

It has been proved that coal-mine explosions were generally due, not to gas,
but to clouds of the fine coal-dust which, when raised into the air, made it
explosive.

Methane, or fire-damp, the gas usually found in mines, when exploded with
air gives rise chiefly to carbonic acid and steam.

But coal-dust, when exploded with air, produces in addition a large quantity
of carbon-monoxide.

This gas is very poisonous. Hence coal-dust explosions are usually followed
by the spread of a poisonous gas throughout the galleries of the mine. As a
result, when a large explosion occurs, it is found that almost all the men have
been killed, not by explosive violence but by the painless poison of carbon-
monoxide.

It has been observed that coal-dust explosions usually stop short at
places where, in addition to the coal-dust present, there was also a considerable
quantity of rock-dust.

What appeared to be the case was, that when the explosion stirred up the
coal-dust, it raised into the air the stone-dust also.

This, however, had a marked effect in preventing the coal-dust from
exploding.

Works on a large scale exist at Eskmeals in which experiments were made to
test how the stone-dust was necessary to make any given quantity of coal-
dust inexplosive.

It has been found that this quantity is about 50 per cent. of the total dust
present, whence it may be concluded that if that quantity is present in the
dust of any mine, that is to say, if the roadways contain as much powdered
inert dust as they do fine coal, it is almost impossible, or at least very unlikely,
that an explosion can occur.

Experiments were shown illustrating the explosive character of coal-dust,
and the effect of stone-dust mixed with it in reducing the inflammability of
coal-dust.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

Missing Links among Extinct Animals.
By Dr. A. SurrH Woopwarp, F.R.S.

Although the world of life, as it exists to-day, bears many marks of the
~ changes it has undergone during its past history, most of these are so difficult
of exact interpretation that it is still necessary to depend upon fossils for a
real knowledge of the facts. Most of the links in the chain or network
of life died out long ages ago, and the few of importance which survive are so

784 EVENING DISCOURSES,

much changed from their original condition that they sometimes suggest false
conclusions. Although the geological record is so imperfect, it is therefore
the most hopeful source of information concerning the origin and relationships
of the various forms of life around us.

The first important discovery which drew general attention to fossils in
this connection was that of the long-tailed bird, Archwopteryx, in the Upper
Jurassic Lithographic Stone of Bavaria. «at the present day there are no links
between birds and the reptiles from which they appear to have been derived; but
Archeopteryxz forms a distinct link, and it dates back to the period when we
may suppose that birds were just coming into existence.

The next remarkable step which attracted wide notice was Prof. O. C.
Marsh’s discovery of the genealogy of the horse in the Tertiary rocks of North
America. He and Prof, Huxley showed how the modern one-toed horse,
adapted for rapid motion over hard ground and for feeding on dry vegetation,
could be traced back gradually to small four-toed ancestors which lived in
marshes on succulent food. Later discoveries showed that camels, cattle, pigs,
elephants, and, in fact, most of our familiar larger animals, might be traced
back to small marsh-dwellers which could only be regarded as common ancestors.

These genealogies seemed fairly simple, but, as studies proceeded and dis-
coveries multiplied, the subject proved to be much more complex than was
at first suspected. The remains of rhinoceroses, for instance, of several suc-
cessive geological ages, have been found both all over the Old World and in
equal abundance over North America. They can be traced back to the usual
common group of little marsh-dwelling ancestors; but, as shown by the re-
searches of Osborn and Abel, there are obviously so many separate lines of
descent, both in the Old World and in North America, that it seems almost
impossible to unravel them. In the Old World the successive links in each of
these lines gradually acquired the characteristic horns, and the rhinoceroses
have continued to flourish exceedingly, at least in the warmer regions. In
North America, on the other hand, for some curious undiscovered reason,
they all died out when the growth of their horns was only just beginning.

Among links more recently discovered, none are more interesting than those
between the lung-breathing sea-animals and their land-ancestors. For many
reasons, there can be no doubt that the whales and porpoises originated at the
beginning of the Tertiary period from mammals which at that time lived on
the land. Recent discoveries in the lower Tertiary rocks of Egypt actually
show that the whales of that date had a skull and teeth almost identical with
those of some of the contemporaneous land-dwelling flesh-eaters; and when the ©
rest of the skeleton is found it will almost certainly prove to be much less
completely adapted for sea-life than that of the whales and porpoises of to-day.

This passage of land animals to a life in the sea has occurred several
times. In Triassic rocks we are now beginning to find the semi-aquatic ances-
tors of the Ichthyosaurs and Plesiosaurs, which lived in all seas during the
age of reptiles. We shall soon be equally successful with the ancestry of the
sea-crocodiles, Mosasaurs and Champsosaurs, in successive later periods of the
same great age. ;

The repeated evolution of animals of the same general shape and habit
from a successive series of distinct ancestors is a very remarkable and signifi-
cant phenomenon. In fact, the more links in the chain of life we find among
fossils, the more evident does it become that there are some very definite laws
or principles underlying the changes we observe, and that they have remained
the same through all geological time. There is good reason to believe that
races of animals have a natural term of life just as individuals are limited,
and that if circumstances allow them to follow their complete career they
exhibit stages. which may be appropriately named youth, maturity, decline,
and old age. The case of the chambered shells, known as ammonites and their
allies, may be cited. We have reason to infer that they began in early Paleozoic
times as straight shells; then they became curved and loosely coiled; next closely
coiled ; next repeating these processes in reverse order, and finally many of them
ending as straight shells. The same progress from youth to second childhood is
seen when the Dipnoan mud-fishes are traced through geological time : the latest
survivors of the race are eel-shaped, just as their earliest members are supposed
to have been. The existing true eels are another example of fishes in their

EVENING DISCOURSES. 785

dotage, and we do not begin to find their normally fish-shaped ancestors until we
go so far back as the Chalk.

It is also curious to note how close is the parallelism in some cases between
the history of a race in geological time and the individual life-history of one
of its latest members. The deer, for instance, had no horns or antlers before
the Lower Miocene period; but since that time the successive species have
gradually acquired antlers of increasing size and complexity, and those of
some of the Pleistocene and later deer were so immense that they probably
helped in the extinction of these animals. Exactly similar stages are passed
through in the individual life-history of the common stag at the present day :
when born it has no antlers, in the second year they are a pair of simple
prongs, while in each succeeding year they become increasingly large and
complex.

In fact, when any particular part of an animal begins to grow to a larger
size, this growth tends to continue long after it appears to attain its special
usefulness. Sometimes this leads to fundamental changes which turn the
overgrowth from a burden to a decided advantage. For example, as soon as
warm-blooded quadrupeds (mammals) appeared, the brain in these animals
tended to grow large and complex. So long as there were no higher back-
boned animals than reptiles the brain always remained insignificant in size.
Among mammals this enlargement was obviously of some importance, because
whenever members of this group grew large or showed special adaptations to
a peculiar mode of life without a corresponding development of the brain they
soon died out. Thus, our horses, cattle, lions, dogs, and so forth have only
survived because the changes in the efficiency of their brain have kept pace
with the special changes in the rest of their body. At the same time, during
the whole of the Tertiary period, while these correlated changes in brain and
body were taking place in the majority of mammals, one group remained as
forest-dwellers. In them the skeleton, and presumably most of the soft parts,
underwent practically no change, while the brain alone developed in size and
efficiency. The little lemur-like animals of Hocene times thus passed gradually
into the comparatively large apes of the Pliocene. Compared with the rest
of the body, the brain tended to be overgrown, and it seems reasonable to
suppose that this overgrowth eventually led to the complete domination of
the brain which is the special characteristic of man. As soon as an animal
could feed and defend itself by craft, its teeth and other primitive weapons
would degenerate.

We have long been looking for the links that are missing in this hypothe-
tical chain connecting man with the early forest animals, because, apart from
adaptation to an upright gait, his skeleton is practically identical with theirs.
We have looked for creatures with an overgrown brain and ape-like face, but
hitherto without real success. The scientific world has therefore welcomed
with great interest Mr. Charles Dawson’s recent discovery of the skull and
mandible of Hoanthropus dawsoni, the most primitive human being ever
seen. The gravel in which it was found at Piltdown, in Sussex, dates back
to the geological period when we might expect the earliest men to be just
appearing; and the circumstances of its discovery leave no doubt that it
was contemporaneous with the very rude flint implements which were lying
in the same deposit near it.

When I first planned this lecture, I intended to speak at greater length
and with fuller illustrations of the interesting general principles to which I have
alluded, and then apply them to discuss the meaning of this latest missing
link among extinct animals. The very conclusion as to its being a missing
link, however, has been so much disputed lately in the newspapers that I
am compelled to spend some time in a digression to assure you first of the
facts. In my original description and interpretation of Mr. Dawson’s dis-
covery I stated that the skull of Hoanthropus, though typically human, was
as low in brain-capacity as that of the lowest existing savages, while Prof.
Elliot Smith asserted that the brain itself, as shown by the cast of the cavity,
was of a more primitive kind than any human brain he had previously seen.
I also concluded that, as the lower jaw exhibited so many ape-like characters,
it must have been furnished in front with ape-like teeth, including enlarged

1913. 35

786 EVENING DISCOURSES.

interlocking canines. Prof. Arthur Keith, on the other hand, has now made
a new restoration of the skull to show that its brain capacity must have been
larger than that of the average existing civilised man. He has also recon-
structed the lower jaw to prove that its teeth were in all respects human,
without any enlargement or interlocking of the canines. The results of the
paleontologist are thus totally at variance with those of the human anatomist,
and Hoanthropus cannot be discussed until the facts are settled.

Fortunately, Mr. Dawson has continued his diggings during the past
summer, and, on August 30, Father P. Teilhard, who was working with
him, picked up the canine tooth which obviously belongs to the half of the
mandible originally discovered. In shape it corresponds exactly with that of
an ape, and its worn face shows that it worked upon the upper canine in the
true ape-fashion. It only differs from the canine of my published restoration
in being slightly smaller, more pointed, and a little more upright in the
mouth. Hence, we have now definite proof that the front teeth of Hoanthropus
resembled those of an ape, and my original determination is justified.

It may next be questioned whether the ape-like mandible belongs to the
skull. We can only state that its molar teeth are typically human, its muscle-
markings are such as might be expected, and it was found in the gravel near
to the skull. The probabilities are therefore in favour of its natural associa-
tion. If so, it is reasonable to suppose that the skull will prove to be that
of a very lowly kind, not that of a highly civilised man. I have accordingly -
made a new study of the specimen with the special help of my colleague,
Mr. W. P. Pycraft, and I find that the only alteration necessary in our
original model is a very slight displacement of the occipital and right parietal
bones which Prof. Elliot Smith pointed out to us when he made his first
studies of the brain. Both behind and in front I correctly identified the
internal groove for the upper longitudinal blood-sinus which marks the middle
line of the roof of the skull; and the reason why my adjustment of the occiput
was not exact at first is, that on the hinder part of the parietal region of the
skull-roof I noticed a longitudinal ridge which I supposed to be truly median,
while the extraordinarily unsymmetrical development of the brain seemed to
have pushed the longitudinal sinus at that part slightly out of its normal
place. The change, however, only opens the top part of the skull behind to
an extent of three-quarters of an inch, and there are compensations elsewhere
through the necessary readjustments, so the total brain-capacity remains nearly
the same as that I originally stated, well within the range of the smallest
human brains of the present day. I have submitted our new brain-cast to
Prof. Elliot Smith, who will shortly describe it in a memoir for the Royal
Society, and he permits me to add that he finds it, in all essential respects,
correct.

Hoanthropus may therefore be regarded as one of the links in the chain
of the human race which has hitherto been missing, and we may proceed to
consider what it means. A single isolated specimen cannot be said to prove
much, but at any rate it admits several interesting suggestions. :

In the first place, it must be remarked that Mr. Dawson’s careful researches
have conclusively proved the minimum geological age of the fossil. It is
certainly the oldest typically human skull ever found, for it cannot be of later
date than the early part of the Pleistocene period. It therefore seems to show
that Prof, Boyd Dawkins and Prof. Gaudry were right when they said, many
years ago, that our knowledge of the evolution of the Tertiary mammalia
prevented our expecting to find fully-developed man in any geological forma-
tion earlier than the Pleistocene. In Hoanthropus we have a human being
with a distinct remnant of ape-like ancestors in his jaws; and in the human
mandible, probably of the same period, found near Heidelberg, we have a
slightly more advanced stage with teeth which are distinctly human. When
the Pliocene forerunners of these species are found, they will probably fall
rather into the category of apes than of man.

Next in connection with the remarks I have made about the evolution
of the brain in mammals, it is interesting to notice that the brain of Hoan-
thropus makes a much nearer approach to that of modern man than his face.
It therefore appears that the excessive development of the brain preceded the

EVENING DISCOURSES. 787

loss by the mouth of its function as a weapon. Increase of intelligence removed
the necessity for so much brute force, and the face then became reduced in
size, while the familiar weakness of the jaws of man was the result. ;

Finally, Hoanthropus may be considered from another point of view to
which I have directed attention—the frequent parallelism between the life-
history of a modern individual animal and the geological history of the race to
which it belongs. If we compare the Piltdown skull with that of the next
oldest fossil man—the Neanderthal or Mousterian type—the most striking
difference in the brain-case is the presence in this later man of strong, bony
brow-ridges like those of existing apes. It will also be noticed that the brain-
case is much larger and the jaws are now human, though the face remains
relatively well-developed. The differences in the brain-case between the earlier
Piltdown and the later Neanderthal skulls thus correspond with those observ-
able between the skull of a very young modern ape and that of the full-grown
individual of the same species. The brow-ridges are, in fact, bony excrescences
acquired during life. Now, on the principle of parallelism I have just men-
tioned, the ancestral Middle Tertiary apes (which we have not yet found) may
be supposed to have had gently-rounded ovoid skulls without brow-ridges. In
that case the Piltdown skull is much nearer in shape to that of its ancestor
than the later Neanderthal skull. Hence, the Neanderthal race must be
regarded as a degenerate offshoot of early man which has become extinct, and
Piltdown man, or some close relative, may be on the direct line of descent of
ourselves.

We see, therefore, from the study of the links in the chain of life found
among extinct animals, that man, so far as his physical structure is concerned,
is the natural outcome of the course of evolution we observe. It was not
until the last phase in the geological history of the backboned animals that
efficiency of the brain became of any real importance. The reptiles for long
ages occupied every sphere of life and grew to astonishing proportions with
only the most insignificant nervous centres. As soon as the warm-blooded
mammals appeared, increase of brain-power became the essential factor in
success in the struggle for existence. In most cases it merely kept pace with
other changes in the body and aided in the general efficiency. In some cases,
where these animals of the highest grade continued to live in the forest (which
we have every reason to believe was the original home of all), the development
of the brain was the only real change that occurred in their structure. In one
forest-dwelling race the momentum of this development resulted in such over-
growth that the brain eventually dominated the body, and the inevitable
outcome was the primitive human frame.

3E2

788 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

APPENDIX.

The Formation of *‘ Rostro-carinate’ Flints.
By Professor W. J. Souras, F.R.S.

[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.}

THE so-called ‘ rostro-carinate ’ flints discovered by Mr. Reid Moir at
the base of the Red Crag and described by him? and Sir E. Ray
Lankester ? are known to have passed through an eventful history since
they were first liberated from the parent chalk. They were exposed
to the influence of the weather, possibly to torrent action, almost cer-
tainly to the impact of sea waves and as well, perhaps, to the pounding
of coast ice on a beach. It would therefore seem reasonable to inquire
whether they may not owe their peculiar forms to one or other of these
natural agents.

If we examine the flints of a shingle beach such as that which
fringes the foot of the cliffs in Alum Bay, Isle of Wight, we shall find
many which present a rude resemblance to ‘ rostro-carinates,’ but differ-
ing too much in detail to be of great value as evidence. Thisis only what
we might expect, since the momentum of a wave falling on loose shingle
is dissipated for the greater part in producing a general movement of
the material. How difficult it is to break a stone lying on loose pebbles
is well known to every geologist who has made the experiment with a
hammer. ‘The case is altered, however, when we pass, as at Selsey
Bill, to thinly scattered flints lying on a sheet of firm clay. Here the
blow of one stone driven upon another by the force of an advancing
wave is capable of producing fractures on a larger scale. It was a
consideration of this case that led me to visit Selsey, and I now propose
to give a short account of the facts which fell under my observation at
that place; but before doing so I should like to express my thanks to
Mr. Heron-Allen, who guided me over the ground, and not only afforded
me full access to his remarkable collection of flints from the foreshore
of Selsey Bill, but gave me permission to help myself to any of the
specimens which might prove of interest in this question. Mr. Heron-
Allen has discovered many rostro-carinate forms among the Selsey flints,
and one of them has been described by Sir E. Ray Lankester.*®

The flints in question are exposed at Selsey Bill just above the mean
level of the tide: they occur in scattered patches rather thinly strewn

1 J. Reid Moir, ‘The Flint Implements of Sub-Crag Man,’ Proc. Prehistoric
Soc. of East Anglia, 1911, vol. 1, p. 17.

2 KE. Ray Lankester, ‘On the Discovery of a Novel Type of Flint Imple-
ments,’ Phil, Trans. Roy. Soc., B, vol. 202, p. 283.

5 Toc. cit. p. 332.

ON THE FORMATION OF ‘ ROSTRO-CARINATE’ FLINTS. 789

over the surface of the Bracklesham Clay, and closely associated with
them are the well-known erratics of the southern drift. The former
action of floating ice on these erratics, which has driven them forcibly
into the underlying clay and sometimes crushed them to fragments,
has been pointed out by Mr. Clement Reid.‘ Flints and erratics form
together the base of the Pleistocene series as it exists at Selsey, and
their exposure by the removal of this series under marine erosion is
of very recent date.

All the flints of these patches present one or more fractured surfaces
and some of them bear glacial strie; the fractures, as shown by their
patination, are of very different ages, but there is nothing to show that
they have been produced by actions of more than one category. The
deposit does not suggest a paleolithic or eolithic floor; it has all the
characters of a geological formation.

The rostro-carinate form is very simple and may be produced by
chance blows. It arises whenever an elongated mass of flint—a nodule
or a fragment already blocked out by joints—is traversed by two sur-
faces of fracture which are inclined in opposite directions and converge
so as to intersect along a line (carina).

Fragments fulfilling one or other or all of these conditions are to
be met with on the Selsey beach, and they present a variety which is
suggestive of chance rather than design. When the rostro-carinate
form is attained it sometimes exhibits a ‘ ventral’ flaking, but this, as
in the examples from the Red Crag, is an inconstant character.

Among the most interesting flints at Selsey are some large irregular
nodules with elongated rounded processes running out from them.
These processes have been battered by the waves and have yielded in
the same way as the simple nodules which have been converted into the
rostro-carinate form. They are broken along surfaces which sometimes
do and sometimes do not intersect; when they do a rostro-carinate
form is produced, and this projects from the side of the ill-shaped
nodule in a manner as difficult to associate with design as it is easy to
interpret by the action of known natural causes.

From these nodules it is but a step to the ‘ paramoudras’ of the
Norfolk coast, which present similar processes similarly battered, but
attain such dimensions that no single man unaided could lift one from
its bed.

The flaking of the Selsey ‘ rostro-carinates ’ is as interesting as their
form. Some are bounded by flaked surfaces having all the same kind
- of patination and therefore produced during one and the same
geological epoch, but there are others in which these surfaces are
distinguished by widely differing patinas, so that their existing form is
the result of blows struck at widely separated periods, some during the
Pleistocene and some during the recent epoch. . The Abbé Breuil
considers that some of the facets on the sub-Crag examples have been
produced at different times.

Some of the most ancient of the uniformly patinated examples show

* Clement Reid, ‘ The Pleistocene Deposits of the Sussex Coast,’ Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc., 1892, vol. xlviii., pp. 344-64, in particular p. 3650.

790 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

by the characters of their edges and their lateral facets that they were
battered by chance blows.

It may be pointed out that the force of the waves is exerted in one
general direction—i.e., from sea to shore—and consequently that a nodule
embedded in a clay beach may be expected to bear signs of directed
blows. An excellent illustration of this is afforded by a nodule which
I observed firmly seated in the Bracklesham Clay of Selsey beach. Its
pyramidal extremity projected vertically upwards into the air, the ‘ ven-
tral ’ side was turned seawards, the two others towards the land, and
the ventral edges exposed to blows from the sea were ‘ unilaterally ’
flaked, the long axes of the flakes running perpendicularly to the edge.
So far as the evidence afforded by the Selsey flints is clear it is
uniformly suggestive of the action of natural causes and affords little
support for explanations based on the intervention of man; it is thus
consistent with the evidence drawn from other sources,® such, for
example, as the wide geological range of the ‘ rostro-carinate’ form
(from Upper Miocene to Pleistocene or even recent) and its apparent
purposelessness, for it belongs to the same class of so-called imple-
ments as the eolithic scrapers which will not scrape, the borers which
will not bore, and the planes which will not plane. ~

5 See also F. N. Haward, ‘The Chipping of Flints by Natural Agencies,’
Proc. Prehistoric Soc. of East Anglia, 1912, vol. 1, p. 185; W. H. Sutcliffe, “A
Criticism of some Modern Tendencies in Prehistoric Anthropology,’ Mem. and
Proc. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc., 1913, vol. 57, No. 7.

ON THE PHYLOGENY OF THE CARAPACE ETO. 791

On the Phylogeny of the Carapace, and on the Affinities of the
Leathery Turtle, Dermochelys coriacea. By Dr. J. VERSLUYS,
Assistant Professor of Zoology (Zoological Institute of the
University of Giessen).

[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.]

Tue Leathery Turtle or Leatherback, Dermochelys cortacea, is of
special interest, as its shell is absolutely different from that of all
other living turtles and tortoises. It is either the representative of a

oe
eee

(Py yt

He “
Wyo pve at
rec sere
nine
{iad I
f ni
cae ae
‘ oF
, I it
iiiee@ , a
tena
bos ee.
4 a Ben
“GY,

Fig. 1. Carapace of Dermochelys, dorsal view; about ;4, natural size. The mosaic
of small plates and the marginal keel are indicated on the left half of the carapace
only.

ck, costal keel ; mk, marginal keel; nk, neural keel ; smk, supramarginal keel.

very primitive offshoot of the Testudinate stem, or its shell represents
a very remarkable modification of the common type.

The normal Testudinata possess a carapace formed by a relatively
small number of bony plates: the costals, the neurals, the marginals,
a nuchal, and often one or two suprapygals; the neurals and costals

792 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

are solidly united to the vertebree and the ribs. In the Leatherback
the carapace (fig. 1) is composed of a very large number of small, thin
bony plates, fitting together with their jagged edges, forming a mosaic;
and this carapace is separated from the vertebre and the ribs by a
very strong layer of connective tissue, the much thickened cutis. Of
the whole normal carapace we recognise only one element in Dermo-
chelys, the nuchal; it is separated from the overlying mosaic shell
by the cutis.

The ventral side of the trunk is covered in typical Testudinata by
an armour of bony plates, mostly nine, of the same type as the plates
of the carapace, and forming the plastron. These elements are very
old, having developed from the membrane bones of the shoulder-girdle
and from the abdominal ribs (Gastralia), perhaps strengthened by a
layer of dermal bone.t On the ventral side of the trunk of the Leather-
back we find a very thick cutis, and imbedded on its inner side the
elements of the normal plastron reduced to slender bars of bone. In
Psephophorus, an extinct tertiary ally of the Leatherback, we find a
complete ventral armour of small dermal ossicles at the sides of the
animal, continuous with the dorsal mosaic of the carapace. This ventral
armour is represented in the Leatherback by a small number of
irregular ossicles lying in a median (partly paired) and two paired
very incomplete lateral rows, five rows in all.? This remarkable
difference in the dermal skeleton of Dermochelys and a few fossil
allies on one side, and all the other turtles and the tortoises on the
other, is the more curious, as the shell of the latter shows, on the
whole, very little variation, the plates being fixed in number within
very narrow limits, and eventual variation is mostly in the direction
of reduction and gives us but little help in the interpretation of the
aberrant shell of Dermochelys.

The problem of the phylogeny of the shell of Dermochelys would
seem less puzzling if the Leatherback could be shown to represent a
very primitive side-branch of the Testudinate-stem—viz. a suborder
Atheca, all the other members of the order being united in the suborder
Thecophora. This would allow the interpretation of the shell of
Dermochelys as a primitive one, as a forerunner of the typical theco-
phorous shell.

This view, however, though adhered to by several competent
authorities, seems untenable. It was refuted by Baur, Case, Dollo,
van Bemmelen, and Wieland, who brought evidence that the Atheca
are Cryptodirous Testudinata, rather closely related to the other
marine turtles, and cannot represent a primitive offshoot, a primary
division (sub-order) of the Testudinata. This conclusion is confirmed
by Nick, Volker, and Menger, who have studied the Leatherback and
the ontogeny of the shell in the Testudinata under the direction of
Professor Spengel and myself in the Zoological Institute of the
University of Giessen. The mosaic shell of the Atheca must, then,

1 Cf. Menger. 2 Volker, 1913, pl. 30, fig. 2.

8 This paper is largely a summary of the more extensive original papers by Nick
(1912), Volker (1913), and Menger (not yet published); for all details I must refer
to these papers. I am also greatly indebted to Professor Spengel for many useful
suggestions.

ON THE PHYLOGENY OF THE CARAPACE, ETC. 793

be either a new formation or a modification of the thecophorous shell ;
it must have developed in a relatively short time, and the problem of
its origin grows more puzzling and more interesting. We must first
consider the evidence that the Leatherback belongs to the Cryptodirous
Testudinata and is allied to the other marine turtles, Chelonia and
Thalassochelys (Cheloniide), and related fossil forms (e.g. Tozrochely-
ide and Protostegide). We must do so carefully, as the body of
evidence considered convincing by Baur and others was judged in-
sufficient by such competent authorities as Hay, Gadow (1901), and
Boulenger.

It is well known that nearly all Testudinata can retract their head
and neck within the shell, and that they do so in two different ways.
In one group, the Pleurodira, the neck is bent sideways; in another,
the Cryptodira, in a vertical plane, in a somewhat S-shaped curve. If
we now compare the mode of articulation of the centra of the eight
cervical vertebree we find, somewhat masked by a number of aberrant
cases, that there is a differentiation of these vertebre into two groups,
an anterior one with opisthoccelous, and a posterior with proccelous
centra; the connecting vertebra is biconvex. In the Cryptodira it is
typically thus:

1(2(3(4)5)6)7)8)

It is obvious that this differentiation is an adaptation acquired in
connection with the sharp bending of the neck when retracted; this is
confirmed by its absence in those Plewrodira, which do not bend their
neck in a double curve.

The typical marine turtles, the Cheloniide, also show this differen-
tiation of the cervical vertebre in two groups, and details prove that
the cervical vertebral column is of the cryptodirous type. This cannot
surprise us, aS anatomy and paleontology prove that they are
descendants from Cryptodira. The neck is shortened, and they can no
longer retract their head, or even the neck, into the shell, but this
is easily understood as a consequence of marine life.

The neck of the Leatherback is still shorter than in Chelonia,* and
the centra of its vertebre are united by thick cartilaginous pads,
strengthened by strong fibrous tissue. Obviously the Leatherback
cannot bend its neck in a strong curve. And yet we find the same
differentiation of the cervical vertebre into two groups as in the
Cryptodira and in some Pleurodira. Certainly this complication cannot
have been recently evolved in the Leatherback, with the obviously
reduced articulations of its cervical centra; it can only be understood
if we assume that these articulations were well developed in the
ancestors of the Leatherback, and that these animals could bend their
neck in a very strong curve. That this bending of the neck was
performed in a vertical plane, as in the Cryptodira, and not sideways,
as in the Pleurodira, is shown by the great resemblance in detail of
the cervical vertebre of the Leatherback with those of the Cheloniide,
whilst no traces of the adaptations peculiar to the Pleurodira are
found. We must conclude that the ancestors of the Leatherback could

4 Volker, 1913, p. 493.

794 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

retract their neck in the same special way as the Cryptodira and
belonged to this division of the Testudinata.

As the Cryptodira possess a typical thecophorous shell, inherited
from the Amphichelydia, this shell must also have been present in the
ancestors of the Leatherback. This conclusion is confirmed by the fact
that parts of this shell, in a reduced state, are still found in the latter
animal: the nuchal and the plastron. These elements represent a
deeper layer of dermal ossifications, a thecal layer, whilst the mosaic
shell represents a more superficial, epithecal * layer.

However astonishing in the light of the utterly different type of
shell the assertion of Baur ** may seem, that Dermochelys is closely
allied to the Cheloniide, the conclusion just reached, that the Leather-
back belongs to the Cryptodira, like the Chelontide, makes this view
less improbable.

There certainly is in many respects a considerable resemblance in
the skeleton of the Leatherback and the Cheloniide ; but as both these
types are modified in adaptation to marine life, a large amount of
parallel modification and of convergence seems possible; the modifica-
tion of the legs into paddles, a short, not retractile, neck, and a reduced
plastron can certainly not be considered as proof of relationship. And,
apart from the entirely different construction of the shell, there are
other important differences, pointing rather to a more distant relation-
ship—for instance, the strongly developed first rib and the absence of
descending plates of the parietals to the pterygoids in Dermochelys,*®
and the different type of the sphenoid rostrum.’ Yet the investigations
of Baur, Nick, and Volker show several resemblances in structure,
where convergence seems more or less improbable, and which cannot
either be interpreted as very primitive characters, that might have been
inherited independently from Prochelonia.

The most important points of common structure in Dermochelys,
the Cheloniide and related turtles, are the following:

1. The cervical vertebral column is not only of the cryptodirous
type, but it shows the same modification in two details. The articular
surface uniting the centra of the sixth and seventh vertebre is plane,
and the strong spinous process of the eighth cervical forms a jointed
articulation with the nuchal. Both these modifications lessen the
flexibility of the hinder part of the neck, probably adaptations con-
nected with the swimming life of marine turtles; but they are of such
a special nature that it does not seem probable that this adaptation
was acquired independently.

2. The pelvis shows a cartilaginous ischio-pubic bridge; the ischia
are very small, the pubica large. The resemblance in the pelvis of
Dermochelys and the common turtles is not very striking, and might
be due simply to parallel adaptation connected with the use of the
hind legs as paddles. There exists, however, a striking resemblance

5 These layers are called subdermal and dermal respectively by Hay (1898;
1908, p. 17); as the deeper layer, however, is also formed in the cutis and is not sub-
dermal in position, the terms thecal and epithecal are proposed (Volker, 1913, p. 475 ;
especially Menger) ; compare Wieland, 1912, p. 299.

5 1889 a, p. 180-191; 1889 6 ; 1890, p. 533.

& Boulenger, 1888. 7 Versluys, 1909.

ON THE PHYLOGENY OF THE CARAPACE, ETC. 795

CBR the pelvis of the Protostegide and that of the Leatherback
g. 2).

3. There is only one central in the carpus.’ The different arrange-

Fig. 2. A, Pelvis of Dermochelys, not yet fully adult, about } nat. size (after Volker
1913, pl. 33, fig. 19), and B, Pelvis of Archelon, diagrammatic, about ys nat. size
with the probable extent of cartilage in a young individual for comparison with
fig. 2 A (based on figure of Wieland, 1900, p. 247, text fig. 6). Both ventral views,
cartilage dotted.

Ac, acetabulum; Hpipu, Epipubis; F.p.i, ischiopubic foramen; JI, ileum .

Isch, ischium ; *, cartilaginous symphysis.

ment and proportions of the carpalsin the Cheloniide and Dermochelys
make convergence improbable in this case.
4, The inner nares are bordered by the palatines and the vomer

8 Compare Wieland, 1900, p. 246.
® Volker (1913, p. 460) found a rudiment of the second, radial, central in the young
Dermochelys.

796 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

only, not by the maxillaries and intermaxillaries. This is easily
understood in the Cheloniide and allied turtles (Toxochelyid@) as the
consequence of the formation of a secondary palate by the palatines
(fig. 8, B). But in the Leatherback (fig. 3, A) there is no secondary
palate, and the internal nares lie far forward in what seems to be a
primitive position. The forward process of the palatines, that excludes
the maxillaries and intermaxillaries from the border of the internal

Fig. 3. A, Bones bordering the inner nares of Dermochelys and B of Toxochelys procax
Hay. Fig. A about } nat. size, after Nick, 1912, pl. 1, figs. 1 and 3; Fig. B
about 3 nat. size, after Hay, 1908, p. 176, fig. 225.

1.V, lateral processes of the vomer in Dermochelys, excluding the premaxillaries
from the border of the inner nares; Maz, maxillaries; Pal, palatines; Pal.Pr,
forward process of the palatines in Dermochelys; Pal.R, ridge on the palatines in
Dermochelys, perhaps representing Pal.sec, the secondary palate formed by the
palatines in T'oxochelys ; Pm, premaxillaries ; Vo, vomer.

nares in Dermochelys, is also present (not reaching the vomer, how-
ever) in several primitive Testudinata, and Hay *° denies on this ground
its value as a token of relationship of the Leatherback with the
Cheloniida. However, the process in the Leatherback. is longer and
reaches farther forward than in primitive Testudinata, is rather

10 1905, p. 157.

ON THE PHYLOGENY OF THE CARAPACE, ETC. 797

variable and very slender at the anterior end, often not quite reaching
the vomer, and, to judge from its form and relations, seems to be
undergoing a process of reduction.1! From Hay’s point of view, it
remains quite obscure why the palatine should send such a slender
process forwards in the Leatherback; the development of this process
is best explained by Dollo’s hypothesis,’? that Dermochelys descends
from a form with a secondary palate of the chelonoid type (for instance
like Toxochelys).

5. The nasal cavities are built upon the same specialised type,’
being divided by partition-walls into several independent chambers and
showing several other minor details common to both forms. This is
an important indication of relationship of Dermochelys and the Chelonii-
de, as the nasal cavity of the Leatherback is exceedingly short and its
proportions are therefore quite different from those in the Cheloniide ;
these differences in proportions are best understood on the assumption
that the nasal cavity was secondarily shortened in Dermochelys, and
this points to a secondary forward movement of the internal nasal
opening, as assumed by Dollo (here referred to under 4).

6. There is an intertrabecula in the skull of the ripe embryo.'*
The intertrabecula is a short median bar of cartilage, lying between
the trabeculz, reaching from the dorsum selle behind to the inter-
orbital septum in front. It is not known in other Testudinata, and
can only be interpreted as a special character of marine turtles, not
as a primitive character inherited from the Prochelonia. That its
presence in the Cheloniide and Dermochelys is the result of con-
vergence is very improbable, as its later development in both forms is
absolutely different, and there is no evidence for connecting it with
marine life. Consequently the intertrabecula strongly favours near
relationship of the Leatherback with other marine turtles. Nick
gives 1* numerous examples of other less important points of common
structure in the skull of the Leatherback and Chelonia.

7. The cesophagus is covered with long, pointed, horncapped
papille, directed towards the stomach.’” Such papille are not known—
at least not in the same completeness—in other Testudinata.1®

Though one or other of these special resemblances may, in the
light of more complete knowledge, lose its value as a proof of the
relationship of Dermochelys with the Cheloniide, taken altogether
they leave, to my mind, no other possibility than to accept a rather
close relationship of these forms. Even the important differences in
the shell, in the skull, &c. (compare p. 794), cannot make this con-
clusion invalid. But these differences are important, as they prove that
Dermochelys is not a direct descendant of typical Cheloniide, as Baur

1 Nick, 1912, p. 62-65.

P Dollo, 1903, p. 30; compare v. Bemmelen, 1896 ; Nick, 1912, p. 63.

13 Nick, 1912, p. 180-145 and p. 191-195.

14 Nick, 1912, p. 106-114.

15 Compare also Nick, 1912, p. 197.

16 p. 169.

17 Hoffmann, 1890, p. 243 ; Burne, 1905, p. 315. ;

18 According to Oppel, Lehrbuch vergl. mikrosk. Anat. d. Wirbeltiere, vol. 2, 1897,
p. 82, Nuhn (Lehrbuch vergl. Anat., Heidelberg, 1878) found dispersed pointed papille
in some fresh-water tortoises.

7

798 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

once maintained, but that both types of marine turtles have evolved
independently during a not inconsiderable time.'® The common
cryptodirous ancestor was probably a littoral form, as the special type
of the cervical vertebral column and of the nasal cavities seems to be
an adaptation to marine life acquired before the lines of development
separated.?°

Now, with this view of the phylogeny of Dermochelys, how
are we to interprete the shell of this animal? How can we solve the
problem that in one group of the Testudinata, in the marine turtles,
the Leatherback and its few allies could acquire so aberrant a shell?

Dollo (1901) maintained that this shell is an entirely new forma-
tion, the old shell being nearly lost during life in the open sea, and
then the new mosaic shell being developed under the influence of a
temporary littoral life. This hypothesis concurs well with the
relationship of Dermochelys with the Chelontide. Vélker (1913),
however, has brought forward a somewhat different hypothesis,?? that
seems to have some advantage over that of Dollo. Vd6lker sees in the
shell of the Leatherback, not an entirely new formation, but the result
of a secondary proliferation of old dermal ossifications present in its
thecophorous ancestors, especially of the marginals. This view is based
largely on facts and reflections published by Hay. Hay ** contended
that the primitive Testudinata possessed a double shell, the typical
thecophorous shell having been covered by a more superficial layer of
bones, forming seven longitudinal zones on the carapace and five on
the plastron. The vast majority of turtles he assumed to have lost
the superficial (epithecal) layer, Dermochelys only retaining it and
losing nearly the entire thecophorous shell, the deeper or thecal layer.**
To support this view Hay brought forward evidence that epithecal
elements, representing the shell of the Leatherback, were present in
primitive Testudinata. This last contention is confirmed by the investi-
gations of Newman (1906), Wieland,** Vélker, and Menger. The
evidence may be summarised as follows :—

1. In Tozxochelys bauri, a primitive marine turtle from the Upper
Cretaceous, there are lying on the typical neurals in a discontinuous
median series three (or four) small independent epithecal ossicles
(fig. 4), called epineurals by Wieland **; epineurals were also present
in other species of Toxochelys.?® Corresponding epithecal elements
have been found by Newman?’ under the keels of the second, third,
fourth and fifth neural horny shields in the living tortoise Graptemys
geographica, and less well developed in Gr. pseudogeographica, in
exactly the same position as the epineurals of Tozochelys.

2. In Archelon ischyros, a marine turtle (fam. Protostegid@) from

19 Van Bemmelen, Case, Wieland, Nick, Volker.

20 Compare Nick, p. 207-208, and Volker, p. 511; probably the ancestors of
Dermochelys took early to life in the open sea, whilst those of the Cheloniide clung
more to a littoral life.

21 Compare also Nick, p. 209-211.

22 1898; 1905, p. 163; 1908, p. 17; compare also Wieland, 1912.

28 Compare p. 794. 24 1905, p. 332; 1909. 25 1905, p. 325.

26 Hay, 1908, p. 164; Case, 1898, p. 382. 27 1906, p. 104.

ON THE PHYLOGENY OF THE CARAPACE, ETC. 799

the Upper Cretaceous, Wieland ?* found a complete series of eleven
epineural elements (fig. 5, Hp) covering the much reduced real neurals
and probably continuous in front over the nuchal. These elements
correspond with the larger of bony scutes in the neural keel in the
Leatherback (fig. 1).

Fig. 4. Diagram of the Carapace of Toxochelys bauri Wieland, lateral view ; about
4 nat. size. After Wieland, 1905, p. 330, text fig. 3, from Menger. Epithecal
elements black, thecal elements dotted.

Ep, epineurals; Mg, marginals; Nu, nuchal; S.py, suprapygals.

3. In Archelon ischyros again Wieland?*® discovered two more
anomalous elements, obviously also epithecal. One element is free,
the other united by its jagged edge with a typical marginal element,
indicating the presence of a supramarginal row of epithecal elements
(fig. 5, Smg); the jagged border of the marginals also points to the
presence of such a series of elements.

Fig. 5. Diagram of the Carapace of Archelon ischyros Wieland, dorsal view ; about
7s nat. size. After Wieland, 1909, p. 114, fig. 7, from Menger, somewhat modified.
Epithecal elements black, thecal elements dotted.

Ep, epineurals ; mg, marginals ; Nu, nuchal; Smg, supramarginal.

4. The same turtle is obviously in the possession of typical mar-
ginal bony plates. Now, since these marginals are of the same
character as the one supramarginal discovered in this animal, obviously
lying in the same layer and possessing the same jagged edges (fig. 5,

28 1909, p. 115. 29 1909, p. 120.

800 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

mg), it is highly probable that the marginals of the thecophorous
shell are also epithecal.*°

5. The same conclusion must be drawn from the discovery by
Volker, that marginals may be recognised in the epithecal shell of
Dermochelys. The lateral row of larger elements in that shell (fig. 1,
mk) takes the same position in relation to the ends of the ribs as the
typical marginals and, though more numerous, they are much like the
marginals of Archelon. I find n6 valid reason why these elements in
the Leatherback should not be true marginals, especially in the light of
the relation of the marginals and supramarginals of Archelon.

If the marginals are epithecal elements, it is proven that such
elements were present in the most primitive Testudinata.

6. In this connection it is of some importance that Menger found
how, in the living tortoise Emyda, the marginals *! develop in the
middle layers of the cutis, whilst the ‘ thecal ’ elements (costal plates,
neural plates, &c.) begin their development in the deepest layers of

Fig. 6. Carapace of Proganochelys Quenstedtii Baur, dorsal view, diagrammatic ;
about ;1, nat. size. After Fraas, 1899, p. 409, text fig. 1, from Menger (1914).
Epithecal elements black ; thecal elements dotted.

Mg, marginals ; Smg, supramarginals.

the cutis and only gradually reach the more superficial ones. In
Chelonia and Chelodina the position of the developing marginals in
the cutis was found to be less clear, although they certainly do not
begin in the innermost layers of the cutis as do the thecal elements.
This concurs with our conclusion that the marginals belong to another
more superficial layer of dermal ossifications than the costal plates and
the other thecal elements.*?

30 Vélker, 1913, p. 521; Hay, however, assumed that the marginals belong to
the thecal layer.

31 IT see no reason to doubt that these elements of Hmyda are true marginals,
though there is a possibility that they are secondary ; compare Boulenger, 1889,

. 237-238.

Peo That the marginals differ from the rest of the shell was already pointed out by
Goette (1899, p. 431-432) and Jaekel (1906, p. 62-67; 1914). Goette (and 1914 also
Jaekel) sees in the marginal elements homologues with the mosaic-shell of Dermochelys.

ON THE PHYLOGENY OF THE CARAPACE, ETC. 801

7. In the primitive upper Triassic tortoise Proganochelys there was
present a series of supramarginal bony plates (fig. 6), discontinuous in
the middle but well developed anteriorly and posteriorly.** In the
very interesting Upper Triassic form Stegochelys, Jaekel (1914) found
a continuous series of eleven supramarginals on each side of the
shell. If we compare these forms with the Leatherback and Archelon,
: becomes probable that these elements also belong to the epithecal
ayer.

8. It is well known that the horny scales of reptiles often corre-
spond with bony scutes. Hay and Newman, believing that horny
scales develop in reptiles over bony scutes only,** concluded that the
well-known horny shields of the Testudinata must also originally have
developed upon the surface of bony scutes. As the shields are arranged
differently from the bony plates of the thecophorous shell, they must
have developed upon other ossifications, which can only have been
“epithecal.’ Of course, we need not assume that these epithecal bony
plates were as large as the horny shields are now, as the latter may
have enlarged far beyond the border of the corresponding bony scutes.
It is true that the bony marginals in Testudinata, though here supposed
to belong to the epithecal layer, do not correspond to the marginal
horny shields, but break joints with them.** Yet there seems to be
some connection—e.g., in case of abnormalities of the marginals the
marginal horny shields always are abnormal too, and the reverse is
also always true, whilst no such relation is found between the thecal
elements and the overlying shields.*® It is probable that in the very
primitive Proganochelys and Stegochelys the bony marginals and
supramarginals corresponded exactly with the overlying horny shields.*”
We cannot directly control the correspondence of bony and horny scutes
in the Leatherback, as it has lost its shields in the adult and has not
yet formed the osseous mosaic shell in the new-born specimens, whilst
the intermediate ages are unknown; however, the young Dermochelys,
as it leaves the egg, is covered with very small numerous horny shields,
showing the same arrangement, with the typical rows of larger elements
on the keels, as is found in the bony epithecal scutes of the adult.

The supramarginal horny shields of Macroclemmys, and of the
extinct Boremys (Amphichelydia) are in this light also an indication
of the former presence of bony supramarginals; and the inframarginal
horny shields that are so widely distributed in the Testudinata point
to the former development of an inframarginal series of bony elements.

The interpretation of Volker and Menger is in this important matter identical with
the older view of Goette. But it differs essentially in that the costal and neural
plates are considered parts of the inner skeleton by both Goette and Jaekel, whilst
Menger has found what seems to me conclusive evidence, that they also are dermal
ossifications, belonging to the same deeper layer as the nuchal and suprapygals.
Compare Gegenbaur, 1898, p. 175-176.

83 Jaekel, 1906, p. 66, who calls these elements submarginalia.

84 This does not seem to be a hard and fast rule, as there is important evidence
of the formation of horny scales independent of dermal ossifications in Lacertilia
(Schmidt, 1910, p. 640; 1912, p. 86).

85 This difficulty did not present itself to Hay and Newman, as they considered
the marginals as belonging to the thecal layer.

86 Newman, 1906, p. 96. 87 Jaekel, 1906, p. 66; 1914.

1913. 3 F

802 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

Summarising, we find that there is a considerable amount of
evidence pointing to the presence in primitive Testudinata of epithecal
elements, lying on the thecal shell and completing it on the sides of
the trunk. These elements were obviously arranged in a number of

Fig. 7. Diagrammatic transverse section through the shell of a hypothetical Prochelonian.
Elements of thecal layer dotted, of epithecal layer black.

Cost, cost ; cost.Pl, costal bony plates ; cost.R, costal row of epithecal elements ;
Epn, epineurals; im.R, inframarginal row ; mpl.R, median plastral row ; mrg.h,
marginal row; nc.R, neurocostal row; Pl, plastron; pl.R, plastral row; sm.R,
supramarginal row ; Sk, outer layers of skin.

longitudinal rows (fig. 7). In Dermochelys there are seven dorsal and
five ventral rows of larger dermal ossifications, the dorsal ones being
part of the mosaic shell and forming longitudinal keels on the back

‘ q 1 \ = Yn Sh
\

i pl Sh
PL

1
th. Sh

Fig. 8. Diagrammatic transverse section through the shell of a normal thecophorous
tortoise. Elements of thecal layer dotted, of epithecal layer (the marginals)
shaded ; horny shields (probable representatives of epithecal elements of fig. 7)
black,

Cost, cost ; cost.Pl, costal bony plate; c.Sh, costal horny shield ; «h.Sh, inter-
humeral shield (representing the median plastral row in fig. 7) ; im.Sh, inframarginal
shield; mrg.Pl, marginal bony plate; m.Sh, marginal horny shield; n.Pl, neural
plate ; ».Sh, neural shield; P/, plastral bony plate; pl.Sh, plastral shield; sm.Sh,
supramarginal shield.

(fig. 1). We have evidence of corresponding rows of epithecal elements
in the thecophorous Testudinata (compare fig. 1 with figs. 7 and 8),
the median dorsal row being represented by the epineurals and neural

ON THE PHYLOGENY OF THE CARAPAOE, ETC. 803

shields, the lateral row by the marginals and marginal shields, the
supramarginal row being present in Archelon, Proganochelys, and
Stegochelys, and indicated by the supramarginal shields of Macro-
clemmys and Boremys. There is no direct evidence of a costal row
corresponding to the costal keel of the Leatherback, but the costal
shields may be taken as evidence of its former presence. On the
plastron the median row of Dermochelys may be represented by the
intergular and interhumeral shields present in some forms; the two
paired rows of plastral ossifications in Dermochelys, probably
developed as rows of larger horny scales in the young, may be repre-
sented by the plastral and inframarginal rows of shields in the
Theocophora.

In this connection it is important that the keels of the shell of the
Leatherback are found also in other Testudinata, being rather common in
very young specimens. We can recognise them on the tail trunk of
the snapping turtle, Chelydra, as rows of horny scales, partly com-
bined with small dermal ossifications ; there is one keel more here than
in the Leatherback, a neurocostal keel lying between the neural- and
costal-keels, but this row seems to be present also on the neck of the
young Dermochelys as a row of larger yellow horny scutes like the
rows that represent the other keels.** Though the keels in the adult
Dermochelys appear to be rather an adaptation to the swimming habit
of the animal, they yet are obviously connected with the keels in other
Testudinata, and cannot well be interpreted as an entirely new
acquisition, developed after the primitive thecophorous shell and horny
shields had disappeared.

We conclude that Hay’s hypothesis of the presence of superficial
dermal ossifications, arranged in longitudinal rows in the Prochelonia,
is supported by important evidence. However, we must take into
account that, on the whole, traces of these epithecal elements, if we
except the marginals, are very rare in fossil forms, even in the older
ones, and this makes it improbable that these elements were strongly
developed, forming continuous zones in the primitive Testudinata.
There can only have been present small ossifications, loosely attached
to the underlying thecal elements of the real shell. It seems possible
that even the epineurals of Toxochelys, Graptemys, and Archelon are
not really primitive epithecal elements, but newly formed ones; their
very isolated appearance seems to point rather in this direction.

I am, on the base of this evidence, inclined to assume that in the
immediate ancestors of the Testudinata, in the Prochelonia, there
was present a thecal shell, composed of neurals, costals, the nuchal
and suprapygals*® dorsally and the plastron ventrally, and rows of
epithecal dermal ossifications, covered with corresponding horny scutes,
beginning on the neck and continued over the thecal shelf and the
tail (fig. 9). These epithecal elements were, however, only feebly
developed and loosely attached to the thecal shell, with the exception
of one row (perhaps two or three rows) on each side of the trunk,

88 Compare Newman, 1906, p. 103, and Volker, 1913, p. 527.
89 Compare Menger, whose paper brings a discussion of the nature of the nuchal
and the suprapygals; and Gadow, 1899, p. 219.
3 F2

804 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

where the thecal shell was incomplete (compare fig. 9). This lateral
row soon reached a strong development, connecting the costals with the
plastron, and thus completing the thecal shell by a row of epithecal
elements, the marginals.*° The other epithecal elements disappeared
in the living thecophorous Testudinata (perhaps a few have been
retained in Graptemys). In the ancestors of the Leatherback, how-

Fig. 9. Hypothetical Prochelonian, dorsal view, to show the primitive state of the testudi-
nate shell. Thecal ossifications are dotted, epithecal elements black; only the
larger epithecal ossifications have been indicated ; between them were probably
present numerous very small, irregularly distributed epithecal elements, perhaps
represented by horny scutes only; the lateral epithecal ossifications (of the
marginal and supramarginal row) are strongly developed, as they cover the
space between the dorsal thecal ossifications and the plastron. For the identifi-
cation of the rows of epithecal elements compare fig. 8 ;_ the rows are represented
as continuous on the neck (as in the just born Dermochelys) and on the tail (as
in Chelydra).

ever, these epithecal elements, instead of being more and more
reduced, formed a new epithecal shell. We may assume that these
ancestors reducing their heavy thecal shell and horny scutes in adapta-
tion to a swimming life in the open sea, at the same time in some

40 Sometimes the marginals are less firmly united with the costals, as these with
tre lige The same interpretation of the marginals is brought forward by Jaekel
A

ON THE PHYLOGENY OF THE CARAPACE, ETC. 805

respects replaced them by the new mosaic shell, formed by a prolifera-
tion of the marginals and such other epithecal elements as were
present “4: epineurals and probably elements in the other keels too.
{t must for the present be left undecided whether these ‘ other epithecal
elements ’ were really primitive, connected without interruption with
the epithecal elements of the Procheloni@, or whether these elements
had been newly acquired, had reappeared, in the immediate, theco-
phorous, ancestors of the Atheca (in connection with a strong develop-
ment of keels in the adult), showing the primitive arrangement that
was prescribed by the position of the horny shields in these Thecophora.
The new mosaic shell has obviously the advantage of being lighter,
more elastic, and more superficial, thus protecting the surface of the
thick cutis; it seems that a reduced thecal shell could not do this, as
it would be limited to the deepest layers of the cutis, where it first
forms in the embryo, and so, with its reduction the skin would have
been insufficiently protected, especially if the horny scutes had
been lost very soon too.

Archelon seems to have already acquired a complete epithecal shell,
like Dermochelys,*? but it certainly is much more primitive in several
respects: neural and costal plates have not yet disappeared, the mar-
ginals are like those of other turtles, and the plastron is much less
reduced. Archelon, with its largely completed mosaic shell, is an
interesting intermediate form, connecting the mosaic shell of the
Leatherback with the thecophorous shell of other turtles. How far
the shell of the Leatherback is directly connected with that of Archelon
is difficult to decide, but Archelon shows at least that a transformation
of the shell as here assumed for Dermochelys was possible, as it was
largely completed in Archelon.

It need not be emphasised that the phylogeny of the shell of the
Leatherback here assumed is hypothetical, and that only new dis-
coveries and investigations can show whether it or Dollo’s view, that
the shell of Dermochelys is quite unconnected with the thecophorous
shell of its ancestors, comes nearest the truth. But I may be permitted
to point out what seem to me the advantages of the new hypothesis
over that of Dollo: (1) The view that the marginals take part in the
formation of the new shell concurs with what is shown by Archelon,
where they do form part of the mosaic shell. (2) The presence of
keels in Dermochelys corresponding to the keels in Thecophora points
to a connection existing between the shells of both types. (8) The
formation of the new shell by a proliferation of elements already
present in the thecophorous ancestors seems a less complicated process
than an entirely new formation. We conclude that:

(a) The shell of tortoises and turtles is formed by a combination
of two layers of dermal ossifications, a thecal layer and a more super-
ficial epithecal layer, the latter generally represented by the marginals
only.

41 Jaekel (1914) gives an interpretation of the shell of Dermochelys that has much
in common with the views of Volker and Menger.
42 Wieland, 1909, p. 120.

806 | ©" REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913.

ec. ae. ae

(b) The Leatherback is a member of the Cryptodira, and allied to
the other marine turtles.

(c) The problem of the origin of the aberrant shell of the Leather-
back seems to find its solution in the hypothesis that it is a secondary
proliferation of the marginals and such other ‘ epithecal ’’ elements as
were present in its thecophorous ancestors.

LITERATURE.

Baur, G. (1889 a). Die systematische Stellung von Dermochelys Blainv. in ‘ Anat.
Anzeiger,’ vol. 9 (1889-90), p. 149-153, 180-191.

—— (18896). Nachtragliche Bemerkungen iiber die systematische Stellung von
Dermochelys Blainv., in * Biol. Centralblatt,’ vol. 9 (1889-1890), p. 618-619.

—— (1890). On the classification of the Testudinata, in ‘ American Naturalist,’
vol. 24, p. 530-536.

Van Bemmelen, J. F. (1896). Bemerkungen iiber den Schidelbau von Dermochelys
coriacea, in ‘ Festschrift Gegenbaur,’ vol. 2, Leipzig, 1896, p. 279-286.

Boulenger, G. A. (1888). Remarks on a note by Dr. G. Baur on the Pleurodiran
Chelonians, in ‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ (6), vol. 2, p. 352-354.

—— (1889), Catalogue of the Chelonians, Rhynchocephalians and Crocodiles in the
British Museum, London.

Burne, R. H. (1905), Notes on the muscular and visceral anatomy of the Leathery
Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), in ‘ Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ London, p. 291-324.

Case, E. C. (1897). On the osteology and relationships of Protostega, in ‘ Journ.
Morphol.,’ vol. 14, 1898, p. 21-58.

—— (1898), T'oxochelys, in ‘ University Geol. Survey of Kansas,’ vol. 4, Paleont.,
Part I., p. 370-385.

Dollo, L. (1901). Sur Vorigine de la Tortue Luth (Dermochelys coriacea), in ‘ Bull.
Soc. Sc. méd. nat.,’ Bruxelles, p. 1-26.

—— (1903). ochelone brabantica, Tortue marine nouvelle du Bruxellien (Eocéne
moyen) de la Belgique (Sur l’évolution des Chéloniens marins), in ‘ Bulletin Acad.
Belg.,’ 1903, No. 8, p. 792-850.

Fraas, E. (1899). Proganochelys Quenstedtii Baur (Psammochelys Keuperiana Qu.),
in ‘ Jahreshefte Ver. vaterl. Naturk.,’ Wiirttemberg, 1899, p. 401.

—— (1913). Proterochersis, eine Pleurodire Schildkréte aus dem Keuper, ibid.,
1913, p. 13-30.

Gadow, H. (1899). Orthogenetic Variation in the Shells of Chelonia, in ‘Willey’s
Zoological Results,’ p. 207-222.

(1901). Amphibia and Reptiles; Cambridge Natural History, vol. 8. London.

Gegenbaur, C. (1898). Vergl. Anatomie d. Wirbelthiere, vol. 1. Leipzig.

Hay, O. P. (1898). On Protostega, the systematic position of Dermochelys, and the
morphogeny of the Chelonian carapace and plastron, in ‘ Amer. Natural.,’ vol. 32,
p. 929-948.

—— (1905). On the Group of Fossil Turtles, known as the Amphichelydia, in ‘ Bull.
Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.,’ vol. 21, p. 137-175.

—— (1908). The Fossil Turtles of North America (Carnegie Institute, Public. No. 75),
Washington.

Hoffmann, C. K. (1890). Schildkréten, in Bronn’s ‘ Klassen und Ordnungen Thier-
reich.,’ vol. 6, Abt. 3, 1.

Jaekel, O. (1906). Placochelys placodonta aus der Obertrias des Bakony, in ‘ Result.
wiss. Erforschung Balatonsee,’ vol. 1, Teil 1, palaont. Anhang, p. 1-91.

—— (1914). Stegochelys, in ‘ Palaeontologische Zeitschrift,’ Organ der Palaeont.
Gesellsch., herausgegeb. von Jaekel, vol. 1.

Menger, W. (1914). Ueber die Ontogenie des Schildkrétenpanzers, in ‘ Zoolog.
Jahrb., Anat.’ (not yet in print).

Newman, H. H. (1906). The significance of scute and plate abnormalities in Chelonta,
in ‘ Biolog. Bull.,’ vol. 10, p. 69-114.

Nick, L. (1912). Das Kopfskelet von Dermochelys coriacea L., in ‘ Zool. Jahrb.,’
vol. 33, Anat., p. 1-238.

Schmidt, W. J. (1910). Das Integument von Voeltzkowia mira Bttgr., in ‘ Z. wiss.
Zool.,’ vol. 94, p. 605-720.

ON THE PHYLOGENY OF THE CARAPACE, ETO. 807

Schmidt, W. J. (1912). Studien am Integument der Reptilien, III. Die Haut der
Gerrhosauriden, in ‘ Zool. Jahrb.,’ vol. 35, Anat., p. 75-104.

Versluys, J. (1909). Ein grosses Parasphenoid bei Dermochelys cortacea Linn., in
‘ Zool. Jahrb.,’ vol. 28, Anat., p. 279-294.

Volker, H. (1913). Ueber dasStamm-, Gliedmassen- und Hautskelet von Dermochelys
coriacea L., in * Zool. Jahrb.,’ vol. 33, Anat., p. 431-552.

Wieland, G. R. (1900). The Skull, Pelvis, and probable relationships of the Huge
Turtles of the genus Archelon from the Fort Pierre Cretaceous, in ‘ Amer. Journ.
Sci.,’ vol. 9 (ser. 4), p. 237-251.

—— (1905). On Marine Turtles, ibid. vol. 20 (ser. 4), p. 325-343.

—— (1909). Revision of the Protostegidae, ibid. vol. 27 (ser. 4), p. 101-130.

—— (1912). On the Dinosaur-Turtle Analogy, in ‘Memorie Accad. Sci. Bologna,
Cl. Sci. Fis., Sez. Sci. Nat.,’ vol. 9 (ser. 6), p. 297-300. Published also in
‘Science,’ vol. 36, N. Ser., p. 287-288.

808 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913,

Liquid, Solid, and Gaseous Fuels for Power Production.
By Professor F. W. Burstauu, M.A.

[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.]

Tue general problem of power production is one of the most fascinating
subjects to all engineers, and the author proposes to consider some of
the means in which carbonaceous substances may be treated to render
them suitable for the production of power. 3

The fuel of the world consists of two forms, liquid and solid, both
of which are closely related, inasmuch as they consist of compounds of
carbon and hydrogen together with small percentages of other sub-
stances such as nitrogen.

To most engineers coal is looked upon purely from the point of
view of a fuel to use in a furnace for the production of heat. It is,
however, a complicated substance from which can be extracted a wide
range of valuable products in addition to its value as a means for the
production of heat.

It is often assumed that the oil-engine in one of many forms is
likely to be the heat-engine of the future, and at first sight there is
much to be said for this contention. For the heat-engine as a
thermodynamic machine oil is immensely superior to either solid or
gaseous fuels because of its high heating value and from the ease in
which it can be introduced into the working fluid. Putting on one
side steam for the present, the problem is to heat up a mass of air
confined in a cylinder. It was soon found by Stirling and many others
in the early part of the nineteenth century that it was extremely
difficult to rapidly heat up a mass of air by conduction through a metal
plate, the only feasible method being to mix the fuel with air and
ignite inside the cylinder.

In order to ensure complete and rapid heating up of the air the
mixture must be as intimate as possible, which is, of course, readily
and simply obtained with a gaseous fuel, but there are points
in the use of gaseous fuel which lead to serious difficul-
ties. In order to secure efficiency the main mass of the air must be
heated by compression before the principal heat supply is added; the
combustible gas may be added before compression begins, as in the
well-known Otto cycle; but this introduces a possibility of the charge
igniting before the correct time: it also requires that the gas should
be free from any liquid or solid substances, a state of affairs not easy
to obtain on a large scale. If the gas be compressed in a separate
pump there is a certain loss of heat due to necessary cooling of the
pump. These inherent defects of the gas-engine will probably prevent
it ever being made in sizes which approach the steam-turbine. With
a liquid fuel there is no difficulty in forcing the small amount of oil

LIQUID, SOLID, AND GASEOUS FUELS FOR POWER PRODUCTION. 809

required into the pre-heated air, and the oil is readily freed from foreign
matter; also there does not appear to be any inherent reason why the
oil-engine should not be made in the largest sizes beyond those of
weight and cost, where it must always be inferior to the rotary
machine,

There remains now to consider the question of the gas-turbine. It
can be readily shown that the velocities which have to be dealt with
are no greater than those encountered in the steam-engine, and where
then come the difficulties which, in spite of innumerable efforts, have
so far proved insurmountable.

The greatest defect is that so far it has not been found feasible to
compress the air and gas in the turbine itself. Separate compression
considerably increases the losses, so that in place of the negative work
being one-third of the gross work, it would probably be at least one-half,
and perhaps more. The cooling of the rotating disc and blades offers
difficulties, and also so far no material has been found that will
withstand the erosive effect of the burning gases. It seems very
doubtful if the gas-turbine can be constructed to compete with the
reciprocator on the present state of knowledge.

It is important to consider the amount of various fuels which are
raised in various parts of the world. At present about twelve hundred
million tons of coal of various kinds are brought to the surface every
year. Crude oil amounts to about fifty million tons per year, and it
is doubtful if there are any large oilfields yet to discover; it therefore
follows that the supply of oil is totally inadequate in amount to replace
coal for power production on a scale equal to the present steam-power
production.

The artificial production of oil is one that at present is being con-
sidered seriously by engineers, and there is very little doubt that much
yet remains to be discovered in this field. Every engineer is familiar
with the fact that when coal is heated in a closed retort gas and tar
are given off, and also that the higher the temperature at which
gasification takes place the greater is the yield of gas and less tar
is formed. Tar when distilled gives a number of valuable substances,
but only a small fraction of light oils; the middle oils contain some
cresylic acid which is suitable for the Diesel motor.

Up to the present coal has been gasified with the object of making
the highest yield of gas, but it is quite possible to alter the conditions
of carbonisation so as to obtain a high yield of fuel oils and other
compounds of value. As a side issue, but an important one, is the
production of sulphate of ammonia, the use of which as a manure is
steadily increasing in all countries of the world.

Sulphate of ammonia is the most valuable manure where nitrogen
is needed, and the author considers it is one of the greatest defects
of the crude burning of coal that such enormous amounts of nitrogen
are not only wasted, but turned into nitric acid in the atmosphere.
Of course the nitric acid is returned to the soil by the agency of rain,
but not necessarily where required by the cultivator.

Tt will now be necessary to consider the methods by which fuels
may be utilised for the production of power. Oil has been shown to

810 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1913,

apply only partially ; the steam generation of power is familiar to all,
80 the various forms of gas production need only be touched upon.
Gas power can be obtained in the following ways:

1. Town gas, made in closed retorts.

2. Producer gas, made by blowing air and steam into incandescent
fuel.

3. Gas from coke ovens, where the production of hard coke is the
primary end.

From one ton of coal gasified in a modern gasworks are obtained
11,500 to 12,506 cubic feet of gas having a calorific value of about
550 B.T.U. per cubic foot, about ten gallons of tar, and 25 to 30 lb.
of sulphate of ammonia. The gas has to be purified for domestic
purposes. Also a gasworks has to be near a great town, where the
working expenses are not so low as in a more rural part. For these
reasons it is doubtful if town gas can be supplied under present
conditions for much under tenpence per thousand cubic feet.

A good gas-engine and dynamo will give one kilowatt hour for
20 cubic feet of gas—that is, at a fuel cost of 0.2d. per kilowatt hour,
which, of course, is too high for large-sized units.

Despite these facts the author is of opinion, after mature con-
sideration, that the whole problem of fuel treatment will lie in the
direction of heating the coal, peat, or lignite in a closed retort—not of
necessity under the conditions which are at present forced on to the
gasworks, where the primary object is to produce the largest yield of
gas on a certain standard laid down by Parliament.

If it be granted that the quantity, quality, and purity of the gas
produced are a secondary matter, the problem of fuel treatment becomes
one of the most fascinating problems which the engineer can encounter.

It has long been known that the quantity and quality of the tar are
largely influenced by the temperature at which the fuel is carbonised:
the lower the temperature the better are the tars in both yield and
composition. The amount of sulphate of ammonia recovered from the
gas is only some 25-30 lb. per ton of coal, whereas the amount of
nitrogen present in the coal would give about 120 lb. of sulphate of
ammonia. In the ordinary process of carbonisation some three-quarters
of the nitrogen is left behind in the coke. Under present conditions
this cannot be avoided, but improvements in this direction are possible.

If the gas and tars are withdrawn from the heat directly they are
evolved from the coal a set of products will be obtained of a different
composition from those usually found in gasworks tar. Many of these
oils can, after distillation, be employed as fuel oils for power produc-
tion, both the light oils, such as benzole, pentane and hexane, and
middle oils, such as cresylic acid, while the heavy oils of the anthra-
cene series appear to be of value for lubricating purposes.

The author trusts that an engineering audience will pardon him
for outlining a scheme of fuel treatment which is at present wholly
beyond the region of practical realisation. The first step is to obtain a
coalfield of wide extent yielding a coking coal. It need not be within
a short distance of towns, as that will merely modify the means of

LIQUID, SOLID, AND GASEOUS FUELS FOR POWER PRODUCTION. 811

transmission, the essential point being to obtain a sufficient supply
of coal to enable the capital charges being repaid in a series of years,
probably thirty.

The works would have to be on a large scale to enable the economy
of working that always results from wholesale production, but the
carbonisation plant would be placed near the pithead so that the tubs
could discharge direct into the bunkers 6f the retort-charging machines.
A convenient size for each plant would be about two thousand tons
per day, and there would be some five to six pits operating over quite
a large area. There would be no gain from any point of view in not
shipping direct from the pithead the coke and sulphate of ammonia,
as these would be ready for market without further treatment.

Tar and gas would be taken by pipe-lines to suitable points for
their future treatment, depending upon geographical considerations.
The tar from the whole of the works would be passed through con-
tinuous automatic stills, where the various fractions would be obtained
with the least expense. The fractions, after washing with acid and
soda, would pass to a second set of automatic stills, this process being
continued until the pure products ready for market were obtained with-
out the necessity for storage and in the least possible space of time.

As to how far the treatment of residuals should be carried no
definite answer can be given, as it depends on the current prices, but
on the scale considered—120,000 to 140,000 gallons of tar per day—it
would certainly be advantageous to treat the products to a finish.
That portion of the gas not required for firing the automatic stills and
for colliery purposes generally would be led to a different point perhaps
many miles from the pithead. This offers no difficulty as regards
the power required, the great obstacle being the cost of the pipe-line.
This may to a large extent be reduced by gasholders at the delivery
end so as to improve the load factor on the pipe-line. The gas would
be free from tar, but would contain the sulphur compounds, and would
be employed in gas-engines for the generation of electricity, which
would be sent at high voltages not only to the towns, but for the
railways which are supposed to be entirely electrified.

No doubt electrical engineers will look askance at gas-engines, not
only from the many failures that have occurred with large engines,
but also at the fact that at present some 2,000 h.p. is the largest
size that can be built, whereas a steam turbine can be constructed to
give an output of 20,000 k.w. at a low first cost. The gas-engine
can only compete with the steam-turbine when its fuel gas is delivered
to it at a price which will, when helped by its high thermal efficiency,
enable it to get over its large capital outlay. Perfect as is the steam-
‘turbine as a mechanical machine, its thermal efficiency is half that of
its rival; the cost of the steam delivered to it cannot be reduced, as
the boiler has but a small margin of improvement possible. There
are no by-products, as the whole of those contained in the coal are used
to pollute the atmosphere.

For these reasons it is quite possible for the gas-engine to produce
current more cheaply than the turbine. The price of gas of a calorific
value of 500 B.T.U. per cubic foot would have to be about fourpence

812 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SOIENCE.—1913.

per thousand cubic feet. If coal be taken as twenty shillings per ton,
this will give for each fuel about 125,000 B.T.U. per penny. Taking
the gas-engine as two and a half times as efficient as the turbine, this
ace leave enough margin to compensate for the increased capital
outlay.

The exhaust gases would be washed so as to extract the sulphuric
acid, which would be returned to the pithead for the manufacture of
sulphate and the washing of the tars, so that all the external material
to be purchased is the soda ash used to neutralise the excess acid.
In this manner the whole of the products of the coal would be recovered
in a form ready for the market, and if the coke were used as a
domestic fuel a smoke-laden atmosphere would be impossible.

Producer-gas for power and heating purposes has a large field in
front of it, particularly when the factory is widely distant from the
coalfield, and also where there is steady load of large amount, such
as electrolytic production.

In producer-gas the whole of the fuel is converted into gas and tar
so that a large quantity of gas (120,000 to 140,000 cubic feet) can be
obtained per ton of coal; the ammonia yield is very high, being from
80 to 90 Ib. of sulphate per ton; the calorific value of the gas is low,
about 140 B.T.U. per cubic foot; and the tar is small in quantity
and poor in quality, as it is nearly all pitch.

The low galorific value and the difficulty of cleaning the gas are
serious drawbacks to the transmission over long distances. In South
Staffordshire producer-gas has been piped over a wide area for several
years, and the undertaking now appears to be on sound financial ground.
The suction producer working on coke or anthracite coal has a very
definite position for small plants in remote districts, where it forms a
cheap and reliable source of power.

The propulsion of ships by internal-combustion engines is one of
the most important problems of the near future; the gas-engine itself
offers no special difficulty, but to instal a producer plant of large size
does not appear to the author to be possible for the following reasons:
The space taken by the producers alone is large, and in addition there
is the cleaning plant. Again, when the percentage of the poisonous
carbon-monoxide is high, 15 per cent. to 20 per cent., the plant should
be entirely in the open air to prevent the risk of gassing. These
conditions are most difficult to fulfil, and now that the Diesel motor
has proved itself to be suitable for marine propulsion the more cumber-
some and dangerous producer will be discarded.

Taking the question of producer-gas as a whole it would seem as
if it will always have a definite use but only a limited application,
more especially in a country like Great Britain, where in time it will
be possible in almost every part to obtain electricity cheaply in bulk.
When this is the case no other source of power need be considered.

The case of coke ovens really falls into the same class as the
retorted gas, the only difference being that to obtain a coke capable
of carrying the weight of the iron in the blast furnace the temperature
of carbonisation must be high (1,200° C.) and the period long—twenty-
four to thirty hours. Thus the tars are poorer from being more split up,

LIQUID, SOLID, AND GASEOUS FUELS FOR POWER PRODUCTION. 813

and the cost of repairs to the ovens considerably higher than on a
gasworks retort.

As hard coke must be made, the place for it is in conjunction with
the ordinary plant so that the by-products may be readily worked up.

The author wishes to point out to an audience which contains many
electrical engineers that there is no real rivalry between gas and
electricity when they are viewed from a broad standpoint. Both take
their origin from coal, and each is capable of doing things that the
other cannot. The work of the engineer is to consider them both and
to see if he cannot, by marrying the two together, obtain from the coal
more products useful to man than by shutting his eyes to merits in
any subject outside his own studies and experiences.

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INDEX.

References to reports and papers printed in extenso are given in Italics.

An asterisk * indicates that the title only of the communication is given.

The mark + indicates the same, but that a reference is given to the Journal
or Newspaper where the paper is published in extenso.

FFICERS and Council, 1913-1914, iii. |

Rules of the Association, v.
Trustees, General Officers, &c., xxi.
Sectional Presidents and Secretaries
(1901-13), xxii.

Chairmen and Secretaries of Conferences
of Delegates (1901-13), xxix.

Evening Discourses (1901-13), xxix.

Lectures to the Operative Classes (1901-
13), xxxi.

Public Lectures, xxxi.

Attendances and Receipts at Annual
Meetings, xxxii.

Analysis of Attendances, xxxiv.

Grants of Money for Scientific Purposes
(1901-12), xxxvi.

Report of the Council, 1912-13, xli.

General Treasurer’s Account, xlvi.

Birmingham Meeting, 1913 :—
General Meetings, xlviii.
Sectional Officers, xlviii.
Officers of Conference of Delegates, 1.
Committee of Recommendations, 1.
Research Committees, li.
Communications ordered to be printed

in extenso, \xii.

Resolutions referred to the Council, xii.
Synopsis of Grants of Money, lxiv.
Annual Meetings, 1914 and 1915, lxvi.

Address by the President, Sir Oliver J.
Lodge, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., 3.

Abereiddy and Pencaer, Pembrokeshire,
the geology of the district between, by
Dr. A. H. Cox and Prof. O. T. Jones,
484,

Aborigines of Northern Asia, the influence
of environment upon the religious
ideas and practices of the, by Miss
M. A. Czaplicka, 642,

AcwortH (W. M.), a forward canal
policy : its economic justification, 577.

Apams (Prof. John) on the mental and
physical factors involved in education,
302

Apams (Prof. W. G.) on practical electrical
standards, 133.

Apamson (R. 8.) on the vegetation of
Ditcham Park, Hampshire, 266.

*Aerial propulsion of barges on canals, by
L. B. Desbleds, 601.

Aeroplanes, catastrophic instability in,
by F. W. Lanchester, 602.

Age of stone circles, report on explorations
to ascertain the, 227.

Agricultural Section, Address by Prof.
T. B. Wood to the, 758.

ArreEY (J. R.) on the further tabulation of
Bessel and other functions, 87.

ALLEN (H. L.) on the preparation of a
list of characteristic fossils, 150.

ALLEN (P. H.), a botanical survey of the
maritime plant formations at Holme
Norfolk, 718.

American eocene, new discoveries in the,
by Dr. W. D. Matthew, 491.

Ammonium humate as a source of
nitrogen for plants, by Prof. W. B.
Bottomley, 706.

*Amorphous phase in metals, the, by
Dr. W. Rosenhain, 427.

Amphibia, the early evolution of the
by D. M. 8S. Watson, 532.

Amphidinium operculatum Clap. and
Lach., the binomics of, R. D. Laurie
on, 509.

Anesthetics, fifth interim report of the
Committee for acquiring further know-
ledge concerning, 237.

Analysis and synthesis in learning pro-
cesses, by Dr. E. O. Lewis, 749.

816

AnpDERSON (J. S.), a new method of
starting mercury vapour apparatus,402.
Anprrson (M. J.), a new method of

sealing electrical conductors through |

glass, 405.

AwnpErson (Prof. R. J.) on the skull and
teeth of tursiops, 532.

— on the skeletal elements of the
mammalian limb, 533.

Animal husbandry, the application of |

generative physiology to, by K. J. J.
Mackenzie, 669.

tions in, by W. Neilson Jones, 713.
Anthropological Section, Address

Sir Richard Temple to the, 613.
+Anthropological teaching in universities,

by |

the practical application of, discussion |

on, 630.

Anthropometric investigation in the British |
Isles, the organisation of, report on, 230. |

Apple canker fungus, Nectria ditissima
Tul., the biology of the, by 8S. P.
Wiltshire, 714.

Aqueducts of ancient Rome, the, by
Dr. T. Ashby, 631.

ARBER (Dr. E. A. Newell) on the fossil
floras of the South Staffordshire coal-
field, 477.

Archeological discoveries, recent, in the
Channel Islands, by Dr. R. R. Marett,
628.

Archeology of Cyprus, the, by Prof. |

J. L. Myres, 644.

Arcuer (Prof. R. L.) on atlas, textual,
and wall maps for school and university
use, 156.

ARCHIBALD (D.) on the investigation of
the wpper atmosphere, 130.

Armstrone (Dr. E. F.) on the study of
plant enzymes, 143.

Armstrona (Prof. H. E.) on dynamic |

isomerism, 141.

+—— on the proper utilisation of coal
and fuels derived therefrom, 432.

Aromatic nitroamines and allied sub- |

stances, the transformation of, and its
relation to substitution in benzene de-
rivatives, report on, 136.

*Articulate speech, the relations of the
lower jaw to, by Dr. L. Robinson, 638.

Artificial island, a supposed, near Loch
Ranza, Arran, Hugh Munro on, 230.

Artificial islands in the lochs of the High-
lands of Scotland, the distribution of,
third report on, 228.

Asaxawa (Prof. G.) and Prof. J. E.
PETAVEL on the effect of compression
ratio on the efficiency of a gas engine,
599.

Asuey (Dr. T.) on excavations on Roman
sites in Britain, 231.

on the study of plant enzymes, 143.

INDEX.

Asupy (Dr. T.), the Via Appia, 630.

the aqueducts of ancient Rome, 631.

*ASHWORTH (Dr. J. H.), pseudo-herma-
phrodite examples of Daphnia pulex,
522.

Assyrian medicine, ancient, by R. C.
Thompson, 644.

Aston (F. W.), a new elementary con-
stituent of the atmosphere, 403.

Atlas, textual, and wall maps for school
and university use, report on, 156.

| Atmosphere, a new elementary con-
Anthocyan formation, some investiga- |

stituent of the, by F. W. Aston, 403.

the upper, the investigation of,
twelfth report on, 130.

Atmospheric pollution, possible methods
for measuring the amount of, by Dr.
J. S. Owens, 395.

*Atmospheric refraction and absorption
as affecting transmission in wireless
telegraphy, by Dr. W. H. Eccles, 607.

*Atom, the structure of the, by Prof.
Sir J. J. Thomson, 374.

* by Prof. E. Rutherford, 375.

AupEN (Dr. G. A.) on the age of stone
circles, 227.

on the organisation of anthropometric

investigation in the British Isles, 230.

on the influence of school-books wpon

eyesight, 268.

on the mental and physical factors
involved in education, 302.

Australia, Prof. J. W. Gregory on, 553.

| Avon, the Warwick, the upper basin of,

by Miss C. A. Simpson, 549.
*Avonian, the lower and upper, the
division between, by Dr. A. Vaughan,
480.
¥Axolotl, the metamorphosis of the, ex-
periments on, by E. G. Boulenger, 521.

Bapen (M. L.), conditions necessary
for the germination of the spores of
Coprinus sterquilinus, Fr., 715.

Baganda, the historical value of the
traditions of the, by E. 8. Hartland,
625.

Baanatu (Richard 8.), a chalcid parasitic
on thrips (Thysanoptera), 531.

on the systematic position of the
order protura, 531.

Baker (Dr. H. F.), Address to the Mathe-
matical and Physical Section, 367.

Barour (H.) on the lake villages in the
neighbourhood of Glastonbury, 224.

on the age of stone circles, 227.

BatwarD (P. B.), the need for experi-
mental evidence of the value of hand-
work, 753.

Bank-note engraving, by A. E. Bawtree,
603.

Barcrort (J.) on the dissociation of oxy-
hemoglobin at high altitudes, 260.

INDEX.

Barker (Prof. B. T. P.) and C. T.
GmunGHAM on the fungicidal action
of Bordeaux mixture, 767.

*BarRKLA (Prof. C. G.), the nature of
X-rays, 373.

Barley experiments, Irish,
by J. H. Bennett, 772.
the precision of, by Dr. F. E.

Hackett, 774.

Barley arowing in Ireland, by H. Hunter,

773.

1901-1907,

*,

Barley production, problems in, 772.

Barley, selection of, for productivity,
by E. 8. Beaven, 772.

Barr (Prof. A.) on stress distributions in
engineering materials, 168.

Barrineton (R. M.) on the biological
problems incidental to the Belmullet
whaling station, 154.

Barrow (George) on the spirorbis lime-
stones of North Warwickshire, 472.
on systems of folding in the paleo-

zoic and newer rocks, 479.

Barton (Rev. J. W.) on atlas, textual,
and wall maps for school and university
use, 156.

Basement beds of the great oolite and
the crinoid beds, some of the, E. A.
Walford on, 482.

BawtrRee (A. E.), bank-note engraving,
603.

Braven (E. S.), selection of barley for
productivity, 772.

Britsy (Dr. G. T.), fuel economy and |

low temperature carbonisation, 432.
Belief, the conditions of, in immature
minds (children and ‘ savages’), by
Prof. Carveth Read, 677.
Belmullet whaling station, the biological
problems incidental to the, report on, 154.
Bremmetin (Prof. van), convergence in
mammals, 524.

Bennett (John H.), Irish barley experi-
ments, 1901-1907, 772.
Bessel and other functions,

tabulation of, report on, 87.
Brtuune-Baker (G. T.), the correlation
of pattern and structure in the Ruraline
group of butterflies, 516.
Bevan (Rev. J. 0.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 324.
Bipper (G. P.) on the occupation of a

the further

table at the zoological station at Naples, |

"NSS.

P |
Binary mixtures, the influence of chemical |

constitution on the thermal properties |

of, by Ernest Vanstone, 426.
Binet-Simon intelligence scale, applica-
tion of the, to normal children in
Scotland, by Dr. J. L. McIntyre and |
Agnes L. Rogers, 684.
*Birmingham, the country round, the
geology of, by Prof. C. Lapworth, 472.
1913.

/ Black-Country plateau,

817

Birmingham, the growth of, by W. H.
Foxall, 550.

*Birmingham district, the igneous rocks
of the, Prof. W. W. Watts on, 472.
Birmingham Snow Hill station altera-
tions, by F. Gleadow and C. E. Shackle,

610.

Bishop's Stortford, a prehistoric site at,
report on the excavation on, 236.

Black Country, the, and its borderland,
by H. Kay, 551.

the stream-
courses of the, H. Kay on, 473.

Blood, the, the effect of altitude on,
by Prof. Georges Dreyer and Dr.
E. W. A. Walker, 675.

Blood and vascular system, the study of
the, by Prof. Georges Dreyer and Dr.
E. W. A. Walker, 674.

BLUMFELD (Dr.) on anesthetics, 237.

BLUNDELL (Dom F. Odo) on the distri-
bution of artificial islands in the lochs
of the Highlands of Scotland, 228.

| Botton (H.) on the upper old red sandstone

of Dura Den, 150.

Bonp (C. I.), a case of unilateral develop-
ment of secondary male characters in
a pheasant, and on the influence of
hormones in the production of second-
ary sex characters, 521.

| Bonz (Prof. W. A.) on gaseous explosions,

166.

—— the uses of gas, 440.

Bonney (Dr. T. G.) on the erratic blocks
of the British Isles, 145.

Bordeaux mixture, the fungicidal action
of, by Prof. B. T. P. Barker and C. T.
Gimingham, 767.

Bori cult, the, in Tunis and Tripoli, by
Major A. J. N. Tremearne, 636.

Bosanquet (Prof. R. C.) on excavations
on Roman sites in Britain, 231.

Botanical photographs, the registration of,
report on, 267.

Botanical Section, Address by Miss
Ethel Sargant to the, 692.

Botuamiey (C. H.) on the influence of
school-books upon eyesight, 268.

Borromtey (Dr. J. T.) on practical
electrical standards, 133.

Borromiry (Prof. W. B.), ammonium
humate as a source of nitrogen for
plants, 706.

the effect of soluble humates on
nitrogen fixation and plant growth, 777.

*BouLENGER (E. C.), experiments on the
metamorphosis of the axolotl, 521.

Bouton (Prof. W. 8.) on the preparation
of a list of characteristic fossils, 150.

on a new form of rock-cutting
machine, 499.

Bournz (Prof. G. C.) on zoology organisa-
tion, 154

3G

*

818

Bowater (W.), the hereditary of melan-
ism in lepidoptera, 514.

Bowtey (Dr. A. L.), the relation between
the changes of wholesale and retail
prices of food, 578.

Boys (C. Vernon) on seismological in-
vestigations, 45. :

BraBRook (Sir E.) on the mental and
physical factors involved in education,
302.

on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 324.

Braae (Prof. W. H.), crystals and X-rays,
386,

Braus (Prof. H.), the homology of the
gills in the light of experimental
investigation, 523.

living cultures of the embryonic
heart shown by the micro-kinemato-
graph, 527.

BRENCHLEY (Dr. Winifred E.), the weeds
of arable land, 776.

Brine cultures, the organisms of, by
T. J. Evans, 530.

*British birds, the feeding habits of, fifth
report on, 511.

British flora, the preservation of the,
by A. R. Horwood, 717.

British ordovician, the shelly and
graptolitic faunas of the, by Dr.
Gertrude L. Elles, 490.

British ordovician brachiopoda, a first
revision of the, by Clara E. Silvester,
491.

British School in Egypt, recent dis-
coveries of the, by Prof. W. M. Flinders
Petrie, 645.

Bromination of toluene, the progressive,
by J. B. Cohen and P. K. Dutt, 424.
Broom (Dr. R.) on a mammal-like
dental succession in a cynodont

reptile, 530.

Brown (Dr. R. N. RB.) on atlas, textual,
and wall maps for school and university
use, 156.
on geographical teaching in Scotland,

61

Brown (Sidney G.) on radtotelegraphic
investigations, 131.

Brown (Dr. William) on the mental and
physical factors involved in education,302.

psycho-analysis, 688.

Brvoz (Dr. W. 8.) on geographical teach-
tng in Scotland, 161.

~ the Scottish zoological park, 527.

completion of the map of Prince

Charles Foreland, Spitsbergen, 546.

Spitsbergen economically consi-
dered, 553.

Bryant (Dr. Sophie), the registration of
private schools, 752.

BuckmasTsER (Dr. G. A.) on anesthetics,
237.

*.

INDEX.

BULLEID (A.) on the lake villages in the
neighbourhood of Glastonbury, 224.

BuuueEr (Prof. A. H. R.), the organisation
of the hymenium in the genus Coprinus,
715.

*Burbage breeding experiments, the, by
Major C. C. Hurst, 774.

Burne (Miss C. 8.), souling, clementing,
and catterning, 632.

BurstTauu (Prof. F. W.) on gaseous ex-
plosions, 166.

liquid, solid, and gaseous fuels for
power production, 808.

Burr (Cyril), the mental differences
between the sexes, 750.

BusuHeE-Fox (J. P.), excavations on the
site of the Roman town of Viroconium
at Wroxeter, Salop, 629.

Business: organisation, the scientific
study of, by Prof. C. H. Oldham, 574.

Butterflies, the Ruraline group of, the
correlation of pattern and structure
in, by G. T. Bethune-Baker, 516.

CaDELL (H. M.) on geographical teaching
tn Scotland, 161.

CapMaAn (W. H.), the artificial incubating
establishments of the Egyptians, 770.

CaLLENDAR (Prof. H. L.) on practical
electrical standards, 133.

on gaseous explosions, 166.

Calorimetric observations on man, report
on, 262.

Cambrian area called the Cwms in the
Caradoc-Comley region of Shropshire,
critical sections of the, by E. S.
Cobbold, 486.

CamEROn (A. T.) on the effect of low tem-
peratures on cold-blooded animals, 261.

CaMPBELL (Dr. Harry), the factors
which have determined man’s evolu-
tion from the ape, 637.

Canal policy, a forward; its economic
justification, by W. M. Acworth, 577.

Canals and waterways of the United
Kingdom, the, reasons why the State
should improve, by Sir J. P. Griffith,
576.

CantTRILL (T. C.), estheria in the Bunter
of South Staffordshire, 475.

stone-boiling in the British Isles,

7

647.

Capitan (Prof. Dr.), les derniéres décou-
vertes d’ceuvres d’art paléolithiques
dans les Cavernes de la Gaule, 647.

Carapace, the phylogeny of the, Dr. J.
Versluys on, 791.

*Carboniferous limestone, the, at the
head of the Vale of Neath, by C. H .
Cunnington, 499.

*C..RLIER (Prof. E. W.), the structure of

the post-pericardial body of the skate,

6

INDEX,

*CaRPENTER (Dr. Charles), trade unions
and co-partnership, 573.

CARPENTER (Dr. G. H. D.), the enemies
of ‘ protected’ insects; with special
reference to Acrea zetes, 516.

Pseudacreas and their acreine
models on Bugalla Island, Sesse,
Lake Victoria, 517.

Carr (Dr. H. Wildon), the theory of
psycho-physiological parallelism, 676.

CARRUTHERS (R. G.) on the igneous and
associated rocks of the Glensaul and
Lough Nafooey areas, cos. Mayo and
Galway, 150.

Carter (W. Lower) on the erratic blocks
of the British Isles, 145.

on the preparation of a list of charac-
teristic fossils, 150.

Carus-Witson (Cecil) on the presence
of copper in the sandstones of Ex-
mouth, 494.

Catastrophic instability in aeroplanes,
by F. W. Lanchester, 602.

Cats, the relation of the weight of the
kidneys to the total weight of, by
Dr. H. E. Roaf, 673.

Caudal fin of fishes, evolution of the, by
R. H. Whitehouse, 522.

Cave (C. J. P.) on the investigation of the
upper atmosphere, 130.

Cavernes de la Gaule, les derniéres
découvertes d’cuvres d’art paléo-
lithiques dans les, par le Prof. Dr.
Capitan, 647.

Cereals and roots, a peculiar disease of,
and the action of sulphur and lime,
by Walter E. Collinge, 767.

Chalcid parasitic, a, on thrips (Thy- |

sanoptera), by R. S. Bagnall, 531.

Channel Islands, recent archeological
discoveries in the, by Dr. R. R. Marett,
628.

Cuapman (D. L.) on gaseous explosions,
166.

*CHapMAN (Dr. Sydney), the lunar
influence on terrestrial magnetism, and
its dependence on solar periodicity,
396.

Characteristic fossils, the preparation of a
list of, interim report on, 150.

*Charnwood rocks, the microscopical and
chemical composition of the, interim
report on, 499.

Chemical Section, Address
W. P. Wynne to the, 408.

Chert, plant petrifactions in, and their

by Prof.

bearing on the origin of fresh-water |

cherts, by Dr. Marie C. Stopes, 486.
*China, new rainfall maps of, by W. G.
Kendrew, 557.
CuisHotm (G. G.) on atlas, textual, and
wall maps for school and university
use, 156,

| *Complementary theorem,

819

CuIsHoLM (G. G.) on geographical teaching
in Scotland, 161.

CuREB (Dr. C.) on stress distributions
im engineering materials, 168.

| CLARKE (Miss L. J.) on scholarships, &c.,

held by university students, and on
funds available jor their augmentations,
306.

CimrK (Dr. Dugald) on gaseous explo-
sions, 166.

Cuosx (Col. C. F.) on atlas, textual, and
wall maps for school and university use,
156.

Ciuss (Dr. Joseph A.), the educational
use of museums, 743.

Coal and fuels derived therefrom, the
proper utilisation of, discussion on, 432.

if Prof. H. E. Armstrong on, 432.

*Coal dust in air, the influence of the
presence of gas on the inflammability
of, by Prof. W. M. Thornton, 427,

CoxsBo.p (E. §.), critical sections of the
Cambrian area called the Cwms in the
Caradoc-Comley region of Shropshire,
486.

*CopuRN (F.), the migration of birds
over Birmingham and the Midland
district, 535.

Cocaine, poisoning by, an account of three
fatal cases, by Sir F. Hewitt, 238.

CouEN (J. B.) and P. K. Durr, the pro-
gressive bromination of toluene, 424.

CoKER (Prof. E. G.) on gaseous explosions,
166.

on stress distributions in engineering

materials, 168.

the construction of large polarising

apparatus, 389.

the stress distributions in thick
cylinders and rings, 604.

Cold-blooded animals, the effect of low
temperatures on, report on, 261.

Coz (Prof. Grenville) on the preparation
of alist of characteristic fossils, 150.
on the old red sandstone rocks of

Kiliorcan, Ireland, 152.

CoLiinaz (Walter E.), a peculiar disease
of cereals and roots and the action of
sulphur and lime, 767.

Couttor (Dr. J. B.) and Prof. A. B.
MacaLLum, a new substance in nerve
cells, 673.

Colour perception and preferences of an
infant at three months, by C. W.
Valentine, 689.

Colour vision and colour blindness, report

. on, 258.

direct de-
rivation of the, by Prof. J. C. Fields,
398.

Compression ratio, the effect of, on the
efficiency of a gas engine, by Profs.
G. Asakawa and J. E. Petavel, 599.

3a 2

OO

520

Contacts between electrical conductors,
some experiments in, by Dr. W. H.
Eccles, 401.

*Contrast as. a factor in psychological
explanation, by Dr, W. G. Smith, 691.

Convergence in the mammalia, discussion
on, 524.

z= Dr. Gadow on, 524.

—— Prof. L. Dollo on, 524.

—— Prof. van Bemmelin on, 524.

Dr. W. K. Gregory on, 525.

*Conway (Prof. A. W.), an_ electro-
magnetic theory of the origin of series
spectra, 399.

Cook (Gilbert) on stress distributions in
engineering materials, 168.

—— The resistance of tubes to collapse,
213.

*Coorer (C. Forster), Z'hawmastotherium
osborni, a new genus of perissodactyles
presenting some unusual features, 530.

Cooper (W. R.), short heat tests of
electrical machines, 608.

*Co-partnership and trade unions, by
Dr. C. Carpenter, 573.

by J. B. C. Kershaw, 573.

Copper, commercial, the degradation or
enhancement of the quality of, by the
presence of impurities, by F. Johnson,
451.

Copper in the sandstones of Exmouth,
C. Carus-Wilson on the presence of,
494.

Coprinus, the genus, the organisation of
the hymenium in, by Prof. A. H. R.
Buller, 715.

Coprinus sterquilinus, Fr., conditions
necessary for the germination of the
spores of, by M. L. Baden, 715.

Cornisu (Dr. Vaughan), a simple method
of determining the period of waves at
sea, 406.

how the relation between the

horizontal and vertical movement of

the water in tides and waves causes

them to drive sand forwards, 489.

on landslides accompanied by up-
heaval in the Culebra cutting of the
Panama Canal, 609.

Corresponding Societies Committee :—

Report, 324.

Conference at Birmingham, 325.

List of Corresponding Societies, 344.

Papers published by Corresponding
Societies, 349.

Corti (Rev. A. L.) on establishing a solar
observatory in Australia, 132.

solar and terrestrial magnetic dis-
turbances, 394.

CossaR (J.) on geographical teaching in
Scotland, 161.

Cost of living, prices and the, discussion
on, 578.

INDEX,

Cox (Dr. A. Hubert) on the igneous rocks
of ordovician age, 496.

and Prof. O. T. Jonzs, the geology

of the district between Abereiddy and

Pencair, Pembrokeshire, 484.

on various occurrences of
pillow lavas in North and South
Wales, 495.

*Craia (J. T.), a temperature see-saw
between England and Egypt, 395.

CRAWFORD (O. G. 8S.) on acquiring and
arranging collections illustrating the
natural history, &c., of the Isle of Wight,
155.

—— trade between Britain and France
in the neolithic and bronze ages,
650.

Critical sections of the Cambrian area
called the Cwms in the Caradoc-
Comley region of Shropshire, by
K. 8. Cobbold, 486.

CROOKE (W.) on the production of certified
copies of Hausa manuscripts, 228.

the stability of tribal and caste
groups in India, 632.

CrossLEy (Prof. A. W.) on the study of
hydro-aromatic substances, 135.

*Crystalline-liquid substances, by Dr. J.
Hulme, 431.

*Crystals, microscopic, with epidiascope
illustrations, by G. Hookham, 407.
Crystals and X-rays, paper by Prof.

W. H. Bragg, 386.

* - discussion on, 404.

CULVERWELL (Prof. E. P.) on the mental
and physical factors involved in educa-
tion, 302.

CuNNINGHAM (Lt.-Col. A.) on the divisi-
bility of (2” — 2) by p*, 398.

*CunnINGTON (C. H.), the carboniferous
limestone at the head of the Vale of
Neath, 499.

CunyNGHAME (Sir Henry), explosions
in coal mines and the means of pre-
venting them, 783.

Curricula and educational organisation
of industrial and poor-law schools, re-
port on the, 301.

Cycads, the centripetal and centrifugal
xylem in the petiole of, by Dr. M. J.
LeGoc, 710.

Cyprus, the archeology of, by Prof.
J. L. Myres, 644.

CzaPLicka (Miss M. A.), the influence of
environment upon the religious ideas
and practices of the aborigines of
Northern Asia, 642.

Datsy (Prof. W. E.) on gaseous explosions,
166.

on stress distributions in engineering

materials, 168.

INDEX.

DALE (W.) on acquiring and arranging
collections illustrating the natural his-
tory, &c., of the Isle of Wight, 155.

flint implements found in Hamp-
shire, 629.

DantreLtt (G. F.) on atlas, textual, and
wall maps for school and university use,
156.

on the influence of school-books
upon eyesight, 268.

—— on the mental and physical factors
involved in education, 302.

*Daphnia pulex, pseudo-hermaphrodite,
examples of, by Dr. J. H. Ashworth,522.

DaRBISHIRE (O. V.), the development of
the apothecium in the lichen peltigera,
713.

Darwin (H.) on seismological investiga-
tions, 45.

Davipson (Duncan), the growing of
linseed as a farm crop, 768.

Daviz (R. C.), the pinna-trace in the
filicales, 709.

+Daviss (Prof. T. Witton), the female
magician in Semitic magic, 645.

Dawkins (Prof. W. Boyd) on the lake
villages in the neighbourhood of Glaston-
bury, 224.

—— on the age of stone circles, 227.

on the distribution of artificial islands

in the lochs of the Highlands of Scotland,

228.

on the excavation on a prehistoric

site at Bishop's Stortford, 236.

on paleolithic sites in the West of
England, 237.

Dawson (Shepherd), a simple method of
demonstrating Weber’s Law and its
limitations, 683.

* Definite system on which collectors should
record their captures, report on the
formulation of a, 511.

Denpy (Prof. A.) on the occupation of a
table at the marine laboratory, Plymouth,
155.

*DEsBLEDS (L. B.), aerial propulsion of
barges on canals, 601.

Descu (Dr. C. H.) on dynamic isomerism,
141.

diffusion in solid solutions, 428.

Diazona, the Hebridean, by Prof. W. A.
Herdman, 509.

Dickson (Prof. H. N.) on atlas, textual,
and wall maps for school and university
use, 156.
on geographical teaching in Scotland,

61

Address to the Geographical Sec-
tion, 536.

Diffusion in solid solutions,
C. H. Desch, 428.

Diminishing utility, qualifications of,
by Dr. W. R. Scott, 582.

by Dr.

821

Dings (W. H.) on the investigation of the
upper atmosphere, 130.
Discussions :—
On radiation, 376.
On complete stress distribution, 389.
*On Prof. W. H. Bragg’s paper on
crystals and X-rays, 404.
On the significance of optical pro-
perties, 429.
On the proper utilisation of coal and
fuels derived therefrom, 432.
On radio-active elements and the
periodic law, 445
On mimicry, 518.
On convergence in the mammalia, 524.
On natural regions of the world, 557.
On inland waterways, 575.
On prices and the cost of living, 578.
{On the practical application of anthro-
pological teaching in universities, 630.
On the physiology of reproduction,
669.
On the educational use of museums,
743.
*On the function of the modern uni-
versity in the State, 744.
*On the registration of all schools, 753.
Dissociation of oxy-hemoglobin at high
altitudes, report on the, 260.
Dissociation pressures, the, of some
nitrides, by R. E. Slade and G. I.
Higson, 451.
Ditcham Park, Hampshire, the vegetation
of, interim report on, 266.
Divisibility of (2”—2) by p*, Lt.-Col. A.
Cunningham on the, 398.
Dixry (Dr. F. A.), the geographical
relations of mimicry, 518.
Drxon (Prof. A. C.) on map-colouring,
399.

*

on a certain division of the plane,
399.

Drxon (E. E. L.) on the geology of Ramsey
Island, Pembrokeshire, 151.

Drxon (Prof. H. B.) on gaseous explosions,
166.

Dossiz (Dr. J. J.) on dynamic isomerism,
141.

Dotto (Prof. Louis), un nouveau cas
de convergence chez les mammiféres :
Balena et Neobleena, 524.

Dolmen, the evolution of the, by Prof.
G. Elliot Smith, 646,

Don (A. W. R.) on the wpper old red
sandstone of Dura Den, 150.

DoncasteR (Dr. L.), the physiology of
sex determination, 671.

Dracoport (I. N.), across Southern
Jubaland from the coast to Mount
Kenia, 548,

DREYER (Prof. Georges) and Dr. FE. W.
A. WALKER on the study of the blood
and vascular system, 674.

822

Dreyer (Prof. Georges) and Dr. E. W.
‘A. WALKER on the effect of altitude
on the blood, 675.

DuckwortH (Dr. W. H. L.) on the
organisation of anthropometric investi-
gation in the British Isles, 230.

on the excavation on a prehistoric

site at Bishop’s Stortford, 236.

on paleolithtc sites in the West of
England, 237.

Ductless glands, report on the, 259.

DurFiELD (Dr. F. A.) on calorimetric
observations on man, 262.

Durrretp (Dr. W. G.) on establishing a
solar observatory in Australia, 132.
*Dung, the value conferred on, by cake

feeding, by A. D. Hall, 769.

*Dunwoopy (R. B.), inland waterways

in England, 577.

Dura Den, the upper old red sandstone |

of, preliminary report on, 150.
DourxHam (Frank R.), the waterways of

France, Belgium, and Germany, 577. |

Dott (P. K.) and J. B. ConEn, the pro-
gressive bromination of toluene, 424.
DweErRRyvHOvSE (Dr. A. R.) on the erratic
blocks of the British Isles, 145.

on the preparation of a list of
characteristic fossils, 150.

Dynamic isomerism, report on, 141.

Dynamics of a globular stellar system, |

the, by Prof. A. 8. Eddington, 388.
Dyson (F. W.) on seismological investiga-
tions, 45.

Early bronze age, the, in the lower
Rhone valley, by H. J. E. Peake, 649.

Earthquakes, large, the distribution of,
in space and time, by Rev. H. V. Gill,
397.

Ecouzs (Dr. W. H.) on radtotelegraphic
investigations, 131.

tween electrical conductors, 401.

* atmospheric refraction and ab-

sorption as affecting transmission in |

wireless telegraphy, 607.

Economic order, the, by Prof. J. H.
Muirhead, 581.

Economic Science and Statistics, Address
to the Section of, by Rev. P. H. Wick-
steed, 560.

*Kconomic value of foodstuffs, the, by
Prof. L. Hill, 580.

*Economics, the psychological founda-
tion of, by Rev. P. H. Wicksteed,
688.

Epprveron (Prof. A. S.), the dynamics of
a globular stellar system, 388.

Eprivaz-Green (Dr. F. W.) on colour
vision and colour blindness, 258.

Education, the mental and phystcal factora
involved in, report on, 302.

some experiments in contacts be- |
| Electromagnetic

|

INDEX.

Education Act, 1902, the working of the,

ts by Sir H. G. Fordham, 756.

Educational research, by Dr. C. W.
Kimmins, 745. :

Educational Section, Address by Princi-
pal E. H. Griffiths to the, 722.

Educational use of museums, the, dis-
cussion, 743.

by Dr. J. A. Clubb, 743.

Eelworms, parasitic and other, G. E.
Johnson on, 526.

Eaaar (W. D.) on the influence of school-
books upon eyesight, 268.

on the curricula and educational
organisation of industrial and poor-law
schools, 301.

Egyptian skeletons, early,
W. M. Flinders Petrie, 640.

*HHRHARDT (H.), decomposition products
of indigo in the vat, 427.

*Electric arc, the, as a standard of light,
by J. F. Forrest, 401.

*Electric cooking, heating, and lighting,
domestic, by Prof. J. T. Morris, 602.
Electrical conductivities of sodium amal-

gams, the, by E. Vanstone, 428.

Electrical conductivity of metals, the
expression for the, as deduced from
the electron theory, by Dr. W. F. G.
Swann, 388.

Electrical conductors through glass, a
new method of sealing, by M. J.
Anderson, 405.

contacts between, some experi-
ments in, by Dr. W. H. Eccles, 401.

Electrical measurements, experimcnts for
improving the construction of practical
standards for use in, report on, 133.

Electrical resistance of thin metallic
films, Dr. W. F. G. Swann on the, 375.

*Electromagnetic theory of the origin
of series spectra, an, by Prof. A. W.
Conway, 399.

by Prof.

waves employed in
radiotelegraphy, the, and the mode of
their propagation, by Prof. G. W. O.
Howe, 607.

Hlectromotive phenomena in plants, report
on, 241.

Etxzs (Dr. Gertrude L.), the relation of
the Rhiwlas and Bala limestones at
Bala, North Wales, 485.

the shelly and graptolitic faunas
of the British ordovician, 490.

Extison (Dr. F. O’B.) on electromotive
phenomena in plants, 241.

Embryonic heart, living cultures of the,
shown by the micro-kinematograph,
by Prof. H. Braus, 527.

*E motions, the relation of the, to motor
discharge, by Prof. G. J Stokes, 689.

Engineering Section, Address by Prof.
Gisbert Kapp to the, 587.

INDEX,

English settlement of Britain, the in-
fluence of the Midland plateau on, by
P. E. Martineau, 550,

Enylish town development in the nine-
teenth century, by F. Tillyard, 586.
English waterways, the improvement
and unification of, by Lord Shuttle-

worth, 575;

Enock (C. R.), human geography and
industry planning, 586.

Entropy and probability, the relation
between, by Prof. H. A. Lorentz, 374.

*Hpiphyllous vegetation, by Prof. W. H.
Lang, 717.

Equilibria of reduction of oxides by
carbon, by R. E. Slade and G. I.
Higson, 450.

Eriophyes ribis Nab., the life history of,
by Miss A. M. Taylor, 778.

Erratic blocks of the British Isles, report
on the, 145.

Estheria in the Bunter of South Stafiord-
shire, by T. C. Cantrill, 475.

Ethnography of Wales and the border,
the, by Prof. H. J. Fleure and T. C.
James, 638.

Eucalyptus globulus, juvenile flowering
in, by Prof. F. E. Weiss, 707.

*Eutectics, some phenomena in the
formation of, by F. E. E. Lamplough
and J. T. Scott, 428.

Evans (Sir A. J.) on the lake villages in
the neighbourhood of Glastonbury, 224.

on the age of stone circles, 227.

Evans (Dr. J. W.) on the geology of
Ramsey Island, Pembrokeshire, 151.

on the old red sandstone rocks of
Kiltorcan, Ireland, 152.

Evans (T. J.), the organisms of brine
cultures, 530.

*Evolution, the dynamics of, by A. J.
Lotka, 407.

Ewart (Prof. J. Cossar) on zoology
organisation, 154.

Ewrne (Sir J. A.) on stress distributions
{n engineering materials, 168.

Explosions in coal mines and the means
of preventing them, by Sir Henry
Cunynghame, 783.

Exposure tests of copper, commercial
aluminium, and duralumin, by Prof.
E. Wilson, 606.

Extinction of local species, the best
means of preventing, by R. H. White-
house, 338.

Hyesight, the influence of school-books
upon, report on, 268.

Farruvurst (Miss 8. §8.), psychological
analysis and educational method in
spelling, 302.

—— analysis of the mental processes
involved in spelling, 687,

823

Falmouth magnetic observatory, resolu-
tion regarding, 341.

Farmer (Prof. J. B.) on electromotive
phenomena in plants, 241.

Farrow (F. D.), the system copper-
oxygen, 449.

Fatigue, recovery from, some experi-
ments on, by Miss May Smith, 683.
*Fatigue tests, a comparative investiga-

tion of, by J. H. Wimms, 683.

Fawcett (C. B.), the expansion of the
Fjord peoples and its geographical
conditions, 552.

*FEARNSIDES (Prof. W. G.), nodules
from the basal ordovician conglomerate
at Bryn Glas, Ffestiniog, 476.

*Feeding habits of British birds, fifth
report on the, 511.

{Female magician, the, in Semitic magic,
by Prof. T. W. Davies, 645.

Fertility and morbidity of defective and
normal stocks, the relative, by Dr.
F. C. Shrubsall, 680.

Field observations for latitude, the pre-
cision of, by B. F. E. Keeling, 556.
*Wimtps (Prof. J. C.), direct deriva-
tion of the complementary theorem,

398.

Filicales, the pinna-trace in the, by
R. C. Davie, 709.

Finon (Dr. L. N. G.) on the further tabula-
tion of Bessel and other functions, 87.
on stress distributions in engineering

materials, 168.

Finpuay (Prof. J. J.) on the menial and
physical factors involved tn education,
302.

Fisner (Prof. Irving), what an inter-
national conference on the high cost
of living would do, 580.

Fitzpatrick (Rev. T. C.) on practical
electrical standards, 133.

Fjord peoples, the expansion of the,
and its geographical conditions, by
C. B. Fawcett, 552.

Fieox (Alexander), the chemistry of the
radio-elements, 447,

Fremine (Prof. J. A.) on radiotelegraphic
investigations, 131.

on practical electrical standards, 133.

Frert (Dr. J. S.) on the upper old red
sandstone of Dura Den, 150.

Frirevre (Prof. J. H.) and T. C. Jamzs,
ethnography of Wales and the border,
638

Flint and its genesis, by Rey. Dr. A.
Irving, 487.

Flint implements found in Hampshire,
W. Dale on, 629.

Flora and fauna of the upper keuper
sandstones of Warwickshire and
Worcestershire, L. J. Wills and W. C,
Smith on the, 475,

824

Flora of the peat of the Kennet Valley,
interim report on the, 265.

Flowers under insolation, variation of
structure and colour of, by Col. H. E.
Rawson, 711.

*Fluor-quartz lens system for spectrum
photography, a partially corrected, by
Lt.-Col. W. Gifford, 431.

Folding, systems of, in the paleozoic
and newer rocks, G. Barrow on, 479.
Food, the relation between the changes
of wholesale and retail prices of, by

Dr. A. L. Bowley, 578.

Food for the working classes, changes
in the cost of the principal articles of,
the construction of index numbers to
show, by Mrs. F. Wood, 579.

*Foodstufis, the economic value of, by
Prof. L. Hill, 580.

Forpuam (Sir H. G.), the working of
the Education Act, 1902, 756.

*Forrest (J. F.), the electric arc as a
standard of light, 401.

Forster (Dr. M. O.) on the study of
hydro-aromatic substances, 135.

on dynamic isomerism, 141.

Forward canal policy, a; its economic
justification, by W. M. Acworth, 577.

Fossil floras of the South Staffordshire
coalfield, Dr. E. A. Newell Arber on
the, 477.

*Fossil plants, the structure of, report on,
721.

Fossil plants showing structure from the
base of the lower carboniferous of
Kentucky, by Prof. E. C. Jeffrey and
Dr. D. H. Scott, 708.

Foster (Dr. G. Carey) on practical
electrical standards, 133.

Fourier sequence, the, as a substitute
for the periodogram, Prof. H. H.
Turner on, 394.

Fournier p’AtBe (Dr. E. E.), the
minimum quantity of light discoverable
by means of selenium, 404.

Fow er (Wm. Fortune), manual work in
education, 754.

Fox (Charles), the conditions which
arouse mental imagery in thought,
687.

Foxatn (W. H.), the growth of Bir-
mingham, 550.

Foxtry (Miss B.) on the mental and
physical factors involved in education,
302.

on scholarships, &c., held by uni-
versity students, and on funds available
for their augmentation, 306.

Fratne (Dr. Ethel de), a new species of
medullosa from the lower coal measures,
709.

*FRANKLAND (Prof. P. F.) on the Walden
inversion, 430.

INDEX,

Free-ended_ struts, the strength of,
Andrew Robertson on, 605.

Frictional losses in steam pipes, by
C. H. Lander, 602.

Fuel economy and low temperature
carbonisation, by Dr. G. T. Beilby,
432.

Futon (A. R.) on stress distributions in
engineering materials, 168.

Gapow (Dr. H. F.), Address to the
Zoological Section, 500.

+ on convergence in the mammalia,

524.

Gaping Ghyll, Yorkshire, by C. A. Hill,
547.

GARDINER (C. I.) on the igneous and
associated rocks of the Glensaul and
Lough Nafooey areas, cos. Mayo and
Galway, 150.

GARDINER (Prof. J. Stanley) on the
biological problems incidental to the
Belmullet whaling station, 154.

GARDNER (J. A.) on anesthetics, 237.

GARDNER (Willoughby) on excavations
on Roman sites in Britain, 231.

further excavations in the ancient
hill fort in Parc-y-Meirch Wood,
Kinmel Park, Abergele, 232.

Garson (Dr. J. G.) on the age of stone
circles, 227.

on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 324.

Garwoop (Prof. E. J.), Address to the
Geological Section, 453.

Gas, the uses of, by Prof. W. A. Bone,
440.

Gaseous explosions, interim report on, 166.

*Gases in metals, the solution of, by
Dr. A. Holt, 451.

Gas-fire science, recent progress in, by
H. J. Yates, 435.

Gatss (Dr. R. Ruggles), evidence which
shows that mutation and Mendelian
splitting are different processes, 716.

GEppEs (Prof. P.) on geographical teach-
ing in Scotland, 161.

Gemmitt (Dr. J. F.), the larva of the
pin-cushion starfish (Porania pul-
villus, O.F.M.), 511. :

Generative physiology, the application
of, to animal husbandry, by K. J. J.
Mackenzie, 669.

Geographical Section, Address by Prof.
H. N. Dickson to the, 536.

Geographical teaching in Scotland, report
on, 161.

Geological boundaries, the value of a
knowledge of the rock soil distribution
of plants in tracing, by A. R. Horwood,
483.

*Geological photographs, interim report of
the Committee on, 499.

INDEX.

Geological Section, Address by Prof. |
E. J. Garwood to the, 453.

*Geology of the country round Bir-
mingham, the, by Prof. C. Lapworth,
472.

Geology of the district between Aber- |

eiddy and Pencaer, Pembrokeshire, |

the, by Dr. A. H. Cox and Prof. O. T.
Jones, 484.

*German forestry methods, by Prof.

Fraser Story, 767.
*GirrorD (Lt.-Col. W.), a partially cor-

rected fluor-quartz lens system for |

spectrum photography, 431.

Git (Sir David) on establishing a solar
observatory in Australia, 132.

Git (Rev. H. V.), the distribution of
large earthquakes in space and time,
397.

Gills, the homology of the, in the light
of experimental investigation, by
Prof. H. Braus, 523.

Gmoaneuam (C. T.), nitrification in some
pasture soils, 777.

and Prof. B. T. P. Barker on the
fungicidal action of Bordeaux mixture,
767.

Ginkgoalian leaf, a new type of, H. H.
Thomas on, 709.

Glastonbury, the lake villages in the neigh-
bourhood of, report on, 224.

GLAZEBROOK (Dr. R. T.) on seismological
investigations, 45.

on the investigation of the wpper

atmosphere, 130.

on practical electrical standards, 133.

on gaseous explosions, 166.

GuEapow (F.) and C. E. S#ackxez,
Birmingham Snow Hill station altera-
tions, 610.

Globular stellar system, the dynamics of
a, by Prof. A. 8. Eddington, 388.

Gop (E.) on the investigation of the upper
atmosphere, 130.

and F. J. WuiprLz, temperature
frequency curves, 396.

*Goldschmidt dynamo, the, by Prof.
T. R. Lyle, 407.

Goopry (T.) on the protozoa of soil,
775,

*

Goopricu (E. 8.) on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at Naples, |
153.

on the biological problems incidental

to the Belmullet whaling station, 154.

on the occupation of a table at the
marine laboratory, Plymouth, 155.

*Gorpon (J. W.) on an engineering
theory of the gyrostal, 606.

Gorton (Prof. F.) on the structure and |

function of the mammatian heart, 258. |
Gray (H. St. G.) on the lake villages in |
the neighbourhood of Glastonbury, 224.

825

xRAY (M. H.) on seismological investi-
gations, 45.

Gray (R. K.) on seismological investiga-
tions, 45.

_Green (Prof. J. A.) on the mental and

physical factors involved in education,
302.

GREEN (J. F. N.) on the geology of Ramsey
Island, Pembrokeshire, 151.

GREEN (Rev. W. 8.) on the biological
problems incidental to the Belmullet-
whaling station, 154.

GREENHILL (Sir George) on the further
tabulation of Bessel and other functions,
87.

Gregory (Prof. J. W.) on the preparation
of a list of characteristic fossils, 150.

on Australia, 553.

Gregory (Prof. R. A.) on the influence of
school-books upon eyesight, 268.

——on the curricula and educational
organisation of industrial and fpoor-
law schools, 301.

-—— on the mental and physical factors
involved in education, 302.

Grecory (Dr. W. K.), convergence and
allied phenomena in the mammalia,
525.

exhibition of a fossil skeleton of
Notharctus rostratus, an American
eocene Jemur, with remarks on the
phylogeny of the primates, 529.

GrirritH (Sir J. P.), reasons why the
State should improve the canals and
waterways of the United Kingdom, 576.

GRIFFITHS (Principal E. H.) on practical
electrical standards, 133.

on the work of the Corresponding

Societies Committee, 324.

on sclolarships, d&c., held by uni-

versity stidents, and on funds available

for their augmentation, 306.

Address to the Educational Section,
722.

GRossMANN (Dr. J.), the utilisation of
sewage in agriculture, 771.

Gurst (J. J.) on stress distributions in
engineering materials, 168.

Guinea-pigs, habit-formation in, Miss
E. M. Smith on, 680.

Gunda ulve, the regeneration of, the
influence of osmotic pressure on, by
Miss D. J. Lloyd, 514.

Gypsy pedigree, a, and its lessons, by
Rey. G. Hall and Dr. W. H. R. Rivers,
625.

Gypsy taboos and funeral rites, by T. W.
Thompson, 625

| *Gyrostal, an engineering theory of the,

J. W. Gordon on, 606.

Habit and memory, the relation between,
by Miss May Smith, 681.

826

Habit-formation in guinea-pigs, Miss
E. M. Smith on, 680.

*Hackett (Dr. F. E.), the precision of
the Irish barley experiments, 774.

Happon (Dr. A. C.) on the excavation
on a prehistoric site at Bishop's Stort-
ford, 236. .

on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 324.

*Hemorrhage from a wound, natural
arrest of, by Dr. J. Tait, 676.

Hatt (A. D.) on the study of plant enzymes,
143.

*

the value conferred on dung by
cake-feeding, 769.

Hatt (Rev. George) and Dr. W. H. R.
RIVERS, a gypsy pedigree and its
lessons, 625.

Handwork, the need for experimental
evidence of the value of, by P. B.
Ballard, 753.

Harbour projections and their effect
upon the travel of sand and shingle,
by E. R. Matthews, 610.

Harpy (Dr. W. B.) on the occupation of
a table at the zoological station at
Naples, 153.

on the dissociation of oxy-hemo-
globin at high altitudes, 260.

Harker (Dr.) on gaseous explosions, 166.

Harlow boulder clay, the, and its place
in the glacial sequence of Hastern
England, by Rev. Dr. A. and P. A.
Irving, 480.

Harman (Dr. N. B.) on the influence of
school-books upon eyesight, 268.

Harmer (F. W.) on the erratic blocks of
the British Isles, 145.

Harmer (Dr.'S. F.) on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at Naples,
153.

Harrison (Rev. 8. N.) on the erratic
blocks of the British Isles, 145.

HartLanp (E. 8.) on the production of
certified copies of Hausa manuscripts,
228

the historical value of the traditions
of the Baganda, 625.

Hartoe (Prof. Marcus) on zoology or-
ganisation, 154.

on scholarships, &c., held by uni-
versity students, and on funds available
for their augmentation, 306.

Hausa magic, Major A. J. N. Tremearne
on, 627.

Hausa manuscripts, the production of
certified copies of, report on, 228.

Hetz-Suaw (Dr. H. 8.), a new type of
hydraulic weighing machine, 600.

HENDERSON (Prof. J. B.) on stress dis-
tributions in engineering materials, 168.

HERBERTSON (Prof. A. J.) on geographicat
teaching in Scotland, 161.

INDEX.

HERBERTSON (Prof. A.i J.) on natural
regions of the world, 557.

Herpman (Prof. W. A.) on zoology
organisation, 154.

on the biological problems incidental

to the Belmullet whaling station, 154.

on experiments in inheritance, 155.

on the work of the Corresponding

Societies Commtttee, 324.

the Hebridean Diazona, 509.

Hersety (M. D.), a development of the
theory of errors with reference to
economy of times, 399.

Hett (Miss M. L.), the morphology of
the mammalian tonsil, 521.

Heversy (Dr. G. von), radio-elements in
chemistry and physics, 448.

Hewitt (Sir F.) on anesthetics, 237

an account of three fatal cases of
potsoning by cocaine, 238.

Hewitt (Dr. J. T.) on the transformation
of aromatic nitroamines and allied sub-
stances, and its relation to substitution
in benzene derivatives, 136.

Hickson (Prof. 8. J.) on the occupation
of a table at the zoological station at
Naples, 153.

on zoology organtsation, 154.

High cost of living, the, what an inter-
national conference thereon would do,
by Prof. Irving Fisher, 580.

*Higher surveying, the precise definition
of terms used in, by Capt. H. G.
Lyons, 555.

Hieson (G. I.) and R. E. Stabe, equili-
bria of reduction of oxides by carbon,
450.

the dissociation pressures of
some nitrides, 451.

Hitt (C. A.), Gaping Ghyll, Yorkshire,
547.

Hitt (Prof. Leonard) on colour viston
and colour blindness, 258.

* the economic value of foodstufis,
580.

* the katathermometer, 673.

*

the pulse and resonance of the
tissues, 673. :

Hit (M. D.) on zoology organisation,
154.

Hint (Prof. M. J. M.) on the further
tabulation of Bessel and other functions,
87.

Hitt (Wm.) on the erratic blocks of the
British Isles, 145.

*Hinton (Prof. H.), symmetric linear
substitutions, 398.

Hittite hieroglyphs, a new system of
decipherment of the, lately published
by the Society of Antiquaries, R. C.
Thompson on, 636.

HoupeEn (Lieut.-Col.) on gaseous explo-
stons, 166,

INDEX.

Hornanp™(J. L.) on the tnfluence of
school-books wpon eyesight, 268.

— on the curricula and educational
organisation of industrial and poor-law
schools, 301.

Hoxtzanp (Prof. Sir T. H.) on the pre-
paration of a list of characteristic
fossils, 150.

Hotmes (T. V.) on the work of the Cor-
responding Societies Committee, 324.
*Hoxt (Dr. A.), the solution of gases in

metals, 451.

*Hooxuam (G.), microscopic crystals,
with epidiascope illustrations, 407.

Hook-swinging in India, by J. H. Powell,
633.

Hoprxins (Dr. F. Gowland), Address to
the Physiological Section, 652.

Hopxrinson (Prof. B.) on gaseous explo-
sions, 166.

Horxinson (J.) on the work of the Cor-
responding Societies Commitice, 324.
Horizontal and vertical movement of

‘the water in tides and waves, how the
relation between the, causes them to
drive sand forwards, by Dr. Vaughan

.Cornish, 489.

Hormones, the influence of, in the de-
velopment of secondary sex characters,
by C. I. Bond, 521.

Horne (A. 8.) on Stellaria graminea, 718.

Horne (Dr. J.) on the erratic blocks of the
British Isles, 145.

on the upper old red sandstone of
Dura Den, 150.

7 on geographical teaching in Scotland,
161.

Horse remains, prehistoric, in the Stort
eae &e., by Rev. Dr. A. Irving,

Pvood (A. R.), scientific societies
and the control of plant extermina-
tion, 335.

the value of a knowledge of the

rock soil distribution of plants in

tracing geological boundaries, 483.

the preservation of the British

flora, 717.

the influence of river development

on plant distribution, 719.

the school and the museum, 743.

Howarta (0. J. R.) on atlas, textual, and
wall maps for school and university use,

© 156.

Hows (Prof. G. W. 0.) on radiotelegraphic
investigations, 131.

the nature of the electro-magnetic

waves employed in radiotelegraphy |

and the mode of their propagation,
607.

Hopson (0. F.), the structural changes
brought about in certain alloys by
annealing, 428.

827

*Houtme (Dr. J.), erystalline-liqnid sub-
stances, 431.

Human geography and industry planning,
by C. R. Enock, 586.

Human skin, the sensitiveness of the,
as a detector of low voltage alternating
E.M.F., by Prof. H. Stansfield, 404.

Humates, soluble, the effect of, on nitro-
gen fixation, and plant growth, by
Prof. W. B. Bottomley, 777.

Homer (Margaret), histology of the
leptoids in Polytrichum, 708.

Hunter (H.), barley-growing in Ireland,
773.

*Hurst (Major C. C.), the Burbage
breeding experiments, 774.

Hurcuinson (Dr. H. B.) and K.
MacLennan, the partial sterilisation
of the soil by means of caustic lime,
774,

Hydraulic weighing machine, a new
type of, by Dr. H. 8. Hele-Shaw, 600.

Hydro-aromatic substances, the study of,
report on, 135.

*Hydrogen ion concentration in bio-
logical processes, the measurement
and the significance of the, by Prof.
S. P. L. Sérensen, 669.

*Hydrogen ion concentration of the sea,
the, and the alkali carbon dioxide
equilibrium, by Dr. Prideaux, 449.

Hypersecretion of the thyroid gland,
radium rays in the treatment of, by
Dr. Dawson Turner, 672.

Igneous and assoctated rocks of the Glensaul
and Lough Nafooey areas, cos. Mayo
and Galway, report on the, 150.

Igneous rocks, the classification of, by
Dr. H. Warth, 494.

Igneous rocks of ordovician age, Dr.
A. H. Cox on the, 496.

*Toneous rocks of the Birmingham dis-
trict, Prof. W. W. Watts on the, 472.

Inurne (V. C.), recent discoveries in the
Stockingford shales near Nuneaton,
498.

on certain trilobites found in the
Stockingford shales, 499.

Immediate memory, experiments
practice in, by J. L. McIntyre, 748.

Imprisonment for debt, the industrial
credit system and, by W. H. White-
lock, 580.

Incubating establishments, the arti-
ficial, of the Egyptians, by W. H.
Cadman, 770.

Index numbers to show changes in the
cost of the principal articles of food
for the working classes, the construc-
tion of, by Mrs. F. Wood, 579.

*India- aan the twisting ‘of, by Prof.
J. H. Poynting, 402.

on

828

Indian national alphabet, an, by Rey.
J. Knowles, 744.

*Indigo in the vat, decomposition
products of, by H. Ehrhardt, 427.

Industrial and oor-law schools, the
curricula, and educational organisation
of, report on, 301.

Industrial credit system, the, and im-
prisonment for debt, by W. H. White-
lock, 580.

Industry planning and human geography,
by C. R. Enock, 586.

Inheritance, experiments in, sixth report
on, 155.

Inland waterways, discussion on, 575.

= in England, by R. B. Dunwoody,

577.

*Integration, some main principles of,
by Dr. H. J. Watt, 677.

Internal combustion engine, the, as
applied to railway locomotion, by
F. W. Lanchester, 599.

International conference on the high
cost of living, what it would do, by
Prof. Irving Fisher, 580.

*International tables of physical
chemical constants, report on, 405.

*Inverness Firth, the physical geography
of the entrance to, by A. G. Ogilvie,
553.

Trish barley experiments,
by J. H. Bennett, 772.
Irish barley experiments, the precision
of the, by Dr. F. E. Hackett, 774.
Irvine (Rev. Dr. A.), flint and its genesis,

487.

the Solutré type of horse (#. robus-

tus) in prehistoric Britain, 534.

prehistoric horse remains in the

Stort Valley, &c., 650.

and P. A. Irvine, the Harlow
boulder clay and its place in the
glacial sequence of Eastern England,
480.

Irvine (P. A.) and Rev. Dr. A. Irvine,
the Harlow boulder clay and its place
in the glacial sequence of Eastern
England, 480.

*Isle of Man, the natural history survey
of the, report on, 511.

Isle of Wight, the natural history, geo-
graphy, and antiquities of, report on
acquiring and arranging collections
illustrating, 155.

and

1901-1907,

James (T. C.) and Prof. H. J. Fueurz,
pbooep ey, of Wales and the border,
638.

JEANS (J. H.) on radiation, 376, 384, 385.

JEFFREY (Prof. E. C.) and Dr. D. H.
Scorr, fossil plants showing structure
from the base of the lower carbonifer-
ous of Kentucky, 708.

INDEX,

Jzunu (Dr. T. J.) on the upper old red
sandstone of Dura Den, 150.

and A. J. B. Wacsn, excavations
in the Kinkell Cave, St. Andrews, 649.

Jouns (Cosmo) on the preparation of a
list of characteristic fossils, 150.

Jounson (F.) on the degradation or
enhancement of quality of commercial
copper by the presence of impurities,
451.

| Jounson (Gilbert E.) on parasitic and

other eelworms, 526.

JouNSON (Prof. T.) on the old red sand-

stone rocks of Kiltorcan, Ireland, 152.

Jounston (Col. Sir D. A.) on atlas,
textual, and wall maps for school and
university use, 156.

Jones (Prof. O. T.) on the geology of
Ramsey Island, Pembrokeshire, 151.
and Dr. A. H. Cox, the geology of
the district between Abereiddy and

Pencaer, Pembrokeshire, 484.

on various occurrences of
pillow lavas in North and South
Wales, 495.

Jonzs (W. Neilson), some investigations
in anthocyan formation, 713.

Jubaland, Southern, across, from the
coast to Mount Kenia, by I. N.
Dracopoli, 548.

Jupp (Prof. J. W.) on seismological in-
vestigations, 45.

Jurassic flora of Yorkshire, report on the
investigation of the, 264.

Kapp (Prof. Gisbert), Address to the
Engineering Section, 587.

*Katathermometer, the, by Prof. Leonard
Hill, 673.

Kay (Henry) on the stream-courses of the
Black-Country plateau, 473.

the Black Country and its border-
land, 551.

Keesxe (Prof. F.) on the study of plant
enzymes, 143.

on the flora of the peat of the Kennet
Valley, 265.

Keertine (B. F. E.), the precision of
field observations for latitude, 556.

Keene (H. B.), the transmission of
X-rays through metals, 403.

Keftiu and the Isles, the people of,
from the Egyptian monuments, by
G. A. Wainwright, 643.

Kerra (Prof. A.) on the organisation of
anthropometric investigation in the
British Isles, 230.

on paleolithic sites in the West of
England, 237.

Keir (Dr. J. Scott) on geographical
teaching in Scotland, 161.

KeEnpDatt (Prof. P. F.) on the preparation
of a list of characteristic fossils, 150.

INDEX.

*KmNDREW (W. G.), new rainfall maps
of China, 557.

Kennet Valley, the flora of the peat of the,
interim report on, 265.

Kenny (A. J.), how far are mathe-
matical methods really of use in
economic science ? 583.

*Kenrick (Sir G.), the classification of |

the pierines, 514.

Kent (Prof. Stanley) on the structure |

and function of the mammalian heart,
258.

Kenyon (J.) and R. H. Pickarp,
optical rotatory powers and disper-
sions of the members of some new
homologous series, 429.

Kerr (Prof. J. G.) on zoology organisa-
tion, 154.

KersHaw (John B. C.), trade unions and
co-partnership, 573.

Kipston (Dr. R.) on the old red sandstone
rocks of Kiltorcan, Ireland, 152.

Killing the king in ancient Egypt,
evidence for the custom of, by Miss
M. A. Murray, 633.

Kiltorcan, Ireland, the old red sandstone
rocks of, report on, 152.

Kimnins (Dr. C. W.) on the curricula
and educational organisation of in-
dustrial and poor-law schools, 301.

—— on the mental and physical factors
involved in education, 302.

educational research, 745.

Kine (W. Wickham) and W. J. Lewis,
the lower (?) carboniferous grits of
Lye, in South Staffordshire, 482.

Kinkell Cave, St. Andrews, excavations
in the, by Dr. T. J. Jehu and A. J. B.
Wace, 649.

Kirrrne (Prof. F. 8.) on the transforma-
tion of aromatic nitroamines and allied
substances, and its relation to substitu-
tion in benzene derivatives, 136.

Kirxaupy (Prof. A. W.), some of the
economic effects of the Panama Canal,
584.

Kiwai Papuans, the ideas of the, regard-
ing the soul, by Dr. G. Landtman, 641.

Kwarp (A. W.) and J. F. Liverseren,
the action of an alkaline natural
water on lead, 444.

Knorr (Prof. C. G.) on seismological
investigations, 45.

Kyowtszs (Rey. J.), an Indian national
alphabet, 744.

Lake villages in the neighbourhood of
Glastonbury, report on the, 224.

Lamborn, Mr. W. A., his fobservation
on marriage by capture by a West
African wasp, Prof. E. B. Poulton on,
511.

829

*LampLoucH (F. E. E.) and J. 'T. Scorr,
some phenomena in the formation of
eutectics, 428.

LancuEster (F. W.), the internal com-
bustion engine applied to railway
locomotion, 599.

catastrophic instability in aero-
planes, 602.

LanpeEr (Cecil H.) on frictional losses
in steam pipes, 602.

Lanprman (Dr. G.), the ideas of the
Kiwai Papuans regarding the soul,
641.

*Lana (Prof. W. H.), epiphyllous vegeta-
tion, 717.

Lankester (Sir E. Ray) on the occwpa-
tion of a table at the zoological station
at Naples, 153.

on zoology organisation, 154.

on the occupation of a table at the
marine laboratory, Plymouth, 155.

*Lapwortu (Prof. C.), the geology of
the country round Birmingham, 472.

Larmor (Sir J.) on the investigation of
the wpper atmosphere, 130.

on-radiation, 385.

on lightning and protection from
it, 387.

*Laughter, a new theory of, by W.
McDougall, 677.

Laurie (Dr. M.) on the nomenclator
animalium generum et sub-generum,
153.

Laurie (R. Douglas) on experiments in
inheritance, 155.

on the binomics of Amphidinium
operculatum Clap. and Lach., 509.

Lead, the action of an alkaline natural
water on, by J. F. Liverseege and
A. W. Knapp, 444.

Leathery turtle, Dermochelys coriacea,
the affinities of the, Dr. J. Versluys on,
791.

Lepour (Prof. G. A.) on the preparation
of a list of characteristic fossils, 150.

Leger (J. G.) on the curricula and edu-
cational organisation of industrial and
poor-law schools, 301.

LxGoc (Dr. M. J.), the centripetal and
centrifugal xylem in the petiole of
cycads, 710.

Leicestershire coalfield, the correlation
of the, R. D. Vernon on, 478.

Le Svuxur (Dr. H. R.) on the study of
hydro-aromatic substances, 135.

Lewis (A. L.) on the age of stone circles,
227.

on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 324.

Lewis (Dr. E. O.), analysis and synthesis
in learning processes, 749.

Lewis (T.£C.) on a system of spherical
or hyperspherical co-ordinates, 400.

830

Lewis (W. J.) and W. W. Kine, the
lower (?) carboniferous grits of Lye,
in South Staffordshire, 482.

Lias ironstone of South Warwickshire
and Oxfordshire, the structure of the,
by E. A. Walford, 474.

Lichen peltigera, the development of the
apothecium in the, by O. V. Darbi-
shire, 713.

Life, the nature of, by Prof. J. Reinke,
705.

Light discoverable by means of selenium,
the minimum quantity of, by Dr.
EK. E. Fournier d’Albe, 404.

Lightning and protection from it, Sir |

J. Larmor on, 387.

Linseed as a farm crop, the growing of,
by Duncan Davidson, 768.

Linseed oil, the saturated acids of, by
Dr. R. 8. Morrell, 425.

Lnquid, solid, and gaseous fuels for power
production, by Prof. F. W. Burstall, 808.

LiveRsEEGE (J. F.) and A. W. Knapp,
the action of an alkaline natural water
on lead, 444.

Luoyp (Miss D. J.), the influence of
osmotic pressure on the regeneration
of Gunda ulve, 514.

Lockyer (Dr. W. J. 8.) on establishing a
solar observatory in Australia, 132.

Lopas (Prof. A.) on the further tabulation |

of Bessel and other functions, 87.

Lopez (Sir Oliver J.), Presidential
Address, 3.

on radiotelegraphic investigations,
131

on practical electrical standards, 133.

Longitude work in Egypt, by E. B. H
Wade, 555.

Lorentz (Prof. H. A.), the relation be-
tween entropy and probability, 374.

on radiation, 381, 385.

*LorKa (A. J.), a new process for enlarg-
ing photographs, 404.

* the dynamics of evolution, 407.
Love (Prof. A. E. H.) on stress distri-
butions in engineering materials, 168.

on radiation, 383.

Lower (?) carboniferous grits of Lye,
in South Staffordshire, the, by W. W.
King and W. J. Lewis, 482.

Lowry (Dr. T. M.) on dynamic isomerism,
141.

rotatory dispersion, 429.

Lucas (Dr. Keith) on calorimetric observa-
tions on man, 262.

Luminescence, a theory of, and the
relation between luminescence and

ure temperature radiation, by Prof.
by Pringsheim, 389.

*Lunar influence on terrestrial magnet-
ism, the, and its dependence on solar
periodicity, by Dr. 8. Chapman, 396.

INDEX.

Lye, in South Staffordshire, the lower (?)
carboniferous grits of, by W. W. King
and W. J. Lewis, 482.

*LyLE (Prof. T. R.), the Goldschmidt
dynamo, 407.

*Lyons (Capt. H. G.), the precise
definition of terms used in higher
surveying, 555.

Macatium (Prof. A. B.) on the ductless
glands, 259.

—— and Dr. J. B. CoLLop, a new sub-
stance in nerve cells, 673.

McCiEAn (F.) on establishing a solar
observatory in Australia, 132.

Macponautp (Prof. H. M.) on radio-
telegraphic investigations, 131.

Macponatp (Prof. J. 8.) on calorimetric
observations on man, 262.

McDovaatt (Prof. W.) on the mental and
physical factors involved in education,
302.

* a new theory of laughter,|677.

*McDowatt (R. J. 8.) and Dr. J. Tart,
contraction of non-oxygenated mam-
malian muscle at temperatures ranging
between 0° and 40° centigrade, 676.

McFaruane (J.) on geographical teaching
in Scotland, 161.

McIntosu (Prof. W. C.) on the occupation
of a table at the zoological station at
Naples, 153.

McIntyre (Bishop), the registration of
Roman Catholic schools, 752.

MoIntyre (Dr. J. L.), experiments on
practice in immediate memory, 748.

and Aenzes L. Rogsrs, application
of the Binet-Simon intelligence scale
to normal children in Scotland, 684.

McKenziz (Dr. A.) on the study of
hydro-aromatic substances, 135.

MacKenziz (K. J. J.), the application of
generative physiology to animal hus-
bandry, 669.

McLaren (Prof. 8. B.), a theory of
magnets, 391.

MacLennan (K.) and Dr. H. B. Huroutn-
son, the partial sterilisation of the
soil by means of caustic lime, 774.

MacManon (Major P. A.) on the work of
the Corresponding Societies Committee,
324.

*MACNAUGHTON (Miss M.)and Dr. J. Tarr,
simplified mammalian heart perfusion,
676.

Magnetic disturbances, solar and ter-
restrial, by Rev. A. L. Cortie, 394.

Magnetic susceptibility meter, a, by
W. H. F. Murdoch, 404.

Magnets, a theory of, by Prof. S. B.
McLaren, 391.

Ma.ioon (J.) on geographical teaching

in Scotland, 161. ew cod 1S Ebi cB

INDEX.

Mammalian heart, the structure and
function of the, report on, 258.

*Vammalian heart perfusion, simplified,
by Miss M. Macnaughton and Dr.
J. Tait, 676.

Mammalian limb, the skeletal elements
of the, Prof. R. J. Anderson on, 533.
*Mammalian muscle, non-oxygenated,
» contraction of, at temperatures ranging

between 0° and 40° centigrade, by

™ R. J. S. McDowall and Dr. J. Tait, 676.

Mammalian tonsil, the morphology of the,
by Miss M. L. Hett, 521.

Mammal-like dental succession in a
cynodont reptile, Dr. R. Broom on a,
530.

Man, the differentiation of, from the
anthropoids, Prof. Carveth Read on,
637.

Man’s evolution from the ape, the
factors which have determined, by
Dr. Harry Campbell, 637.

Manual training in the secondary school,
by T. S. Usherwood, 755.

Manual work in education, by W. F.
Fowler, 754.

Map-colouring, Prof. A. C. Dixon on, 399.

Maps, atlas, textual, and wall, for school
and university use, report on, 156.

Maronant (Prof. E. W.), effect of
atmospheric conditions on the strength
of signals, and an account of the
diurnal variation in the energy re-
ceived, 607.

Maretr (Dr. R. R.), recent archzo-
logical discoveries in the Channel
Islands, 628.

Maritime plant-formations at Holme,
Norfolk, a botanical survey of the,
by P. H. Allen, 718.

Marr (Dr. J. E.) on the preparation of
a list of characteristic fossils, 150.

Marriage by capture by a West African
wasp, Mr. W. A. Lamborn’s observa-
tion on, by Prof. E. B. Poulton, 511.

Martineau (P. E.), the Midland plateau
and its influence on the English settle-
ment of Britain, 550.

Mason (W.) on stress distributions in
engineering materials, 168.

— on alternating stress, 183.

Mathematical and Physical Section,
Address by Dr. H. F. Baker to the, 367.

Mathematical methods, how far are they
really of use in economic science ?
by A. J. Kenny, 583.

Maruer (Prof. T.) on practical electrical
standards, 133.

Marttuew (Dr. W. D.), new discoveries |

in the American eocene, 491.

Marruews (Ernest R.), harbour pro-
jections and their effect upon the
travel of sand and shingle, 610.

831

Mzacuam (F. G.), the development of
the Midland coalfields, 476.

Measuring instruments, a method of
increasing the sensitiveness of, by
Dr. G. A. Shakespear, 405.

Medullosa, a new species of, from the
lower coal measures, by Dr. Ethel de
Fraine, 709

Melanism in lepidoptera, the heredity
of, by W. Bowater, 514.

Mexpoua (Prof. R.) on seismological in-
vestigations, 45.

Memory and habit, the relation between,
by Miss May Smith, 681.

Mental and physical factors involved in
education, report on the, 302.

Mental differences between the sexes,
the, by Cyril Burt, 750.

Mental imagery in thought, the con-
ditions which arouse, by C. Fox, 687.

Mental processes involved in spelling,
analysis of the, by Miss 8.8. Fairhurst,
687.

Mercury vapour apparatus, a new
method of starting, by J. 8. Anderson,
402.

MerepiruH (Mrs. C. M.), the excessive
use of suggestion in education, 747.
*Metals, the amorphous phase in, by

Dr. W. Rosenhain, 427.

the volatility of, by Prof. T. Turner,
427.

Metals for structures, by A. T. Wal-
mnisley, 606.

Microspora, the genus, the structure,
life-history, and systematic position of,
by Prof. G. S. West, 716.

Midland coalfields, the development of
the, by F. G. Meacham, 476.

Midland plateau, the, and its influence
on the English settlement of Britain,
by P. E. Martineau, 550.

Miers (Sir Henry) on scholarships, &c.,
held by university students, and on funds
available for their augmentation, 306.

*Migration of birds over Birmingham
and the Midland district, the, by
F. Coburn, 535.

Minne (Dr. J.) on seismological investiga-
tions, 45.

Mitton (J. H.) on the erratic blocks of the
British Isles, 145.

Mimicry, discussion on, 518.

by Prof. E. B. Poulton, 518.

the geographical relations of, by

Dr. F. A. Dixey, 518.

between the genera of certain
African nymphaline butterflies, by
Prof. E. B. Poulton, 519.

Mincuin (Prof. E. A.) on zoology organisa-
tion, 154,

some aspects of the sleeping

sickness problem, 526,

*

832

Missing links among extinct animals,
by Dr. A. Smith Woodward, 783.

MironeLL (Dr. P. Chalmers) on the
nomenclator animalium generum et
subgenerum, 153.

on zoology organisation, 154.

utility and selection, 325.

*Modern university, the, its function in
the State, discussion on, 744.

Moors (Prof. Benjamin) and A. WEBSTER,
synthesis of organic matter by sunlight
in presence of inorganic colloids, and
its relationship to the origin of life, 527.

Moore (Robert C.), tests of reasoning
and their relation to general mental
ability, 684.

Moree. (Dr. R. 8.), the saturated acids
of linseed oil, 425.

*Morris (Prof. J. T.), domestic electric
cooking, heating, and lighting, 602.
Moss (Dr. C. E.) on the vegetation of

Ditcham Park, Hampshire, 266.

*Mort (Dr. F. W.), the biochemistry of
the neurone, 674.

Moysry (L.) on paleoxyris and other
allied fossils, with special reference to
new features in vetacapsula, 492.

Muir (T. 8.) on geographical teaching
in Scotland, 161.

MurruHeap (Dr. A.) on practical electrical
standards, 133.

MoureHeaD (Prof. J. H.), the economic
order, 581.

Munro (Hugh) on a supposed artificial
island near Loch Ranza, Arran, 230.
Monro (Dr. R.) on the lake villages in the

neighbourhood of Glastonbury, 224.

on the age of stone circles, 227.

on the distribution of artificial
islands in the lochs of the Highlands of
Scotland, 228.

Murpocu (W. H. F.), a magnetic sus-
ceptility meter, 404.

Murray (Dr. Erskine) on radiotelegraphic
investigations, 131.

Murray (Miss M. A.), evidence for the
custom of killing the king in ancient
Egypt, 633.

Museum, the, and the school, by A. R.
Horwood, 743.

Museums, the educational use of, dis-
cussion on, 743.

by Dr. J. A. Clubb, 743.

Mutation, the term, by Prof. E. B.
Poulton, 519.

Mutation and Mendelian splitting, evi-
dence which shows that they are
different processes, by Dr. R. R.
Gates, 716.

Myers (Dr. C.8.) on the mental and physi-
cal factors involved in education, 302.
experiments on sound localisation,

679.

INDEX.

Myres (Prof. J. L.) on acquiring and
arranging collections illustrating the
natural history, &c., of the Isle of Wight,
155.

on atlas, textual, and wall maps for

school and university use, 156.

on the production of certified copies

of Hausa manuscripts, 228.

on the distribution of artificial islands

in the lochs of the Highlands of Scotland,

228.

on excavations on Roman sites in

Britain, 231.

on the archeology of Cyprus, 644.

*Natural history survey of the Isle of
Man, report on the, 511.

Natural regions of the world, discussion
on, 557.

Prof. A. J. Herbertson on, 557.

Nerve cells, a new substance in, by Prof.
A. B. Macallum and Dr. J. B. Collop,
673.

*Neurone, the biochemistry of the, by
Dr. F. W. Mott, 674.

*Neutral salt action, by Dr. B. de
Szyszkowski, 449.

Newsicin (Dr. M.) on
teaching in Scotland, 161.

NicHotson (Dr. J. W.) on the further
tabulation of Bessel and other functions,
87.

Nitrification in some pasture soils, by
C. T. Gimingham, 777.

Nitro-compounds and amines, a series
of mixtures of, which are coloured
only in the liquid state, by Dr. C. K.
Tinkler, 425.

Nose (Sir Andrew) on stress distribu-
tions in engineering materials, 168.

*Nodules from the basal ordovician
conglomerate at Bryn Glas, Ffestiniog,
by Prof. W. G. Fearnsides, 476.

Nomenclator animalium generum et sub-
generum, report on the, 153.

Northern Nigeria, the primitive tribes of,
social organisation amongst, by Mrs.
Charles Temple, 626.

Notharctus rostratus, exhibition of a
fossil skeleton of, with remarks on
the phylogeny of the primates, by Dr.
W. K. Gregory, 529.

Nunn (Dr. T. P.) on the mental and
physical factors involved in education,
302.

geographical

Oceania, sun cult and megaliths in, by
Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, 634.

OapEN (Prof. R. M.), some experimental
data concerning the localisation of
visual images, 678.

*Oq@ILvIE (A. G.), the physical geography
of the entrance to Inverness Firth, 553.

INDEX.

Old red sandstone rocks of Kiltorcan,
Ireland, report on the, 152.
OxtpHAm (Prof. C. H.), the scientific
study of business organisation, 574.
OxpuAM (R. D.) on seismological investi-
gations, 45.

O’Lrary (Rev. W.) on the construction
of seismometers, 398.

Oxtver (Prof. F. W.) on the flora of the
peat of the Kennet Valley, 265.

on the registration of botanical
photographs, 267.
on the distribution of Sueda

fruticosa and its réle in the stabilising
of active shingle, 719.

*Optical activity, the nomenclature of,
Dr. T. S. Patterson on, 449.

Optical properties, the significance of,
discussion on, 429.

Optical rotatory powers and dispersions
of the members of some new homo-
logous series, by R. H. Pickard and
J. Kenyon, 429.

Orientation of the dead in Indonesia,
the, by W. J. Perry, 631.

Orton (Prof. K. J. P.) on the transforma-
tion of aromatic nitroamines and allied
substances, and its relation to substitu-
tion in benzene derivatives, 136.

Owens (Dr. John 8.), possible methods |

for measuring the amount of atmo-

spheric pollution, &c., 395.

the transport and settlement of
sand in water, and a method of ex-
ploring sand bars, 611.

Oxides, the reduction of, by carbon,
equilibria of, by R. E. Slade and G. I.
Higson, 450.

Oxy-hemoglobin, the dissociation of, at
high altitudes, report on, 260.

Paget (Sir Richard),
agriculture between
tenant, 778.

Palzolithic ‘ guillotine’ trap-stones, by
Rey. F. Smith, 650.

Paleolithic sites in the West of England,
report on, 237.

Paleoxyris and other allied fossils,
L. Moysey on, with special reference

. to new features in vetacapsula, 492.

Panama Canal, some of the economic
effects of the, by Prof. A. W. Kirkaldy,
584.

—— the Culebra cutting of the, on
landslides accompanied by upheaval
in, by Dr. Vaughan Cornish, 609.

Parc-y-Meirch Wood, Kinmel Park,
Abergele, further excavations in the
ancient hill fort in, by Willoughby
Gardner, 232.

1918.

partnership in
landlord and

833

Partnership in agriculture between land
lord and tenant, by Sir Richard Paget,
778.

*Parrprson (Dr. T. 8.), the rotation of
active compounds as modified by tem-
perature, &c., 430.

on the nomenclature of optical
activity, 449.

Pracu (Dr. B. N.) on the wpper old red
sandstone of Dura Den, 150.

Peake (H. J. E.), the early bronze age
in the lower Rhone valley, 649.

Prar (T. H.), the analysis of some
personal dreams with reference to
current theories of dream-interpreta-
tion, 689.

modern experimental investigation
of testimony, 690.

Pearson (Prof. Karl) on stress distri-
butions in engineering materials, 168.
Pectinaria (Lagis) Koreni, Mgr., the
tubicolous polychete worm, the habits
and building organ of, A. T. Watson

on, 512.

Periodogram, the Fourier sequence as a
substitute for the, by Prof. H. H.
Turner, 394.

Perkin (Prof. W. H.) on the study of
hydro-aromatic substances, 135.

Perry (Prof. J.) on seismological investi-
gations, 45.

on practical electrical standards, 133.

on stress distributions in engineering

materials, 168.

on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 324.

Perry (W. J.), the orientation of the
dead in Indonesia, 631.

Personal dreams, the analysis of some,
with reference to current theories of
dream-interpretation, by T. H. Pear,
689.

PrraveEt (Prof. J. E.) on the investigation
of the upper atmosphere, 130.

on gaseous explosions, 166.

on stress distributions in engineering

materials, 168.

and Prof. G. Asakawa on the effect
of compression ratio on the efficiency
of a gas engine, 599.

Prrrig (Prof. W. M. Flinders), early
Egyptian skeletons, 640.

recent discoveries of the British
School in Egypt, 645.

*Photographs, a new process for enlarg-
ing, by A. J. Lotka, 404.

*Physical and chemical constants, tha
international tables of, report on, 405.
Physical and Mathematical Section,
Address by Dr. H. F. Baker to the,

367,

Physiological Section, Address by Dr.
F. Gowland Hopkins to the, 652.

3H

*

834

Pickarp (R. H.) and J. Kenyon,
optical rotatory powers and dis-
persions of the members of some new
homologous series, 429.

*Pierines, the classification of the, by
Sir G. Kenrick, 514.

Pillow lavas in North and South Wales,
various occurrences of, Dr. A. H. Cox
and Prof. O. T. Jones on, 495.

Pin-cushion starfish (Porania pulvillus,
O.F.M.), the larva of the, by Dr.
J. F. Gemmill, 511.

Pinna-trace in the filicales, the, by R. C.
Davie, 709.

*Plane, a certain division of the, Prof.
A. C. Dixon on, 399.

Plant distribution, the influence of river
development on, by A. R. Horwood,
719.

Plant enzymes, the study of, particularly
with relation to oxidation, second report
on, 143.

Plant extermination, the control of,
scientific societies and, by A. R.
Horwood, 335.

Plant petrifactions in chert and their
bearing on the origin of fresh-water
cherts, by Dr. Marie C. Slopes, 486.

Prummer (W. E.) on seismological in-
vestigations, 45.

Plymouth marine laboratory, report on the
occupation of a table at the, 155.

Polarising apparatus, large, the con-
struction of, by Prof. E.G. Coker, 389.

Polytrichum, the leptoids in, the histology
of, by Margaret Hume, 708.

Porter (Prof. A. W.) on colour vision
and colour blindness, 258.

Povu.ton (Prof. E. B.) on zoology organi-
sation, 154.

on acquiring and arranging collections

illustrating the natural history, &c., of

the Isle of Wight, 155.

on Mr. W. A. Lamborn’s observation

on marriage by capture by a West

African wasp, 511.

mimicry, 518.

mimicry between the genera of

certain African nymphaline butterflies,

519.

the term mutation, 519.

Povtton (Miss E. M.), the structure and
life-history of Verrucaria margaracea,
an aquatic lichen, 714.

Powe tt (J. H.), hook-swinging in India,
633.

*PoynTING (Prof. J. H.), the twisting of
India-rubber, 402.

PREECE (Sir W. H.) on practical electrical
standards, 133.

on gaseous explosions, 166.

Prehistoric horse remains in the Stort
Valley, &c., by Rev. Dr. A. Irving, 650.

INDEX,

Prehistoric site at Bishop's Stortford, a,
report on the excavation on, 236.

Prices and the cost of living, discussion
on, 578.

*PRIDEAUX (Dr.), the hydrogen ion
concentration of the sea and the
alkali carbon dioxide equilibrium, 449.

Primates, the phylogeny of the, by
Dr. W. K. Gregory, 529.

Prince Charles Foreland, Spitsbergen,
completion of the map of, by Dr.
W.S. Bruce, 546.

Principal triangulation, the accuracy of
the, by Capt. Winterbotham, 553.

PRINGSHEIM (Prof. E.) on radiation, 383.

a theory of luminescence and the
relation between luminescence and
pure temperature radiation, 389.

Probability and entropy, the relation
between, by Prof. H. A. Lorentz, 374.

‘Protected’ insects, the enemies of,
with special reference to Acrea zetes,
by Dr. G. D. H. Carpenter, 516.

Protozoa of soil, the, 'T. Goodey on, 775.

Protura, the order, the systematic
position of, R. 8. Bagnall on, 531.

Pseudacreas and their acrzine models
on Bugalla Island, Sesse, Lake Victoria,
by Dr. G. D. H. Carpenter, 517.

Psycho-analysis, by Dr. W. Brown, 688.

Psychological analysis and educational
method in spelling, by Miss 8. 8.
Fairhurst, 302.

*Psychological foundation of economics,
the, by Rev. P. H. Wicksteed, 688. 4

Psycho-physiological parallelism, the
theory of, by Dr. H. Wildon Carr, 676.

Punnett (Prof. R. C.) on experiments in
inheritance, 155.

Radial motion in sun-spots, by C. E. St.
John, 392.

Radiation, discussion on, 376.

J. H. Jeans on, 376, 384, 385.

Prof. Lorentz on, 381, 385.

Prof. E. Pringsheim on, 383.

Prof. A. E. H. Love on, 383.

Sir J. Larmor on, 385.

Radio-active elements and the periodic
law, discussion on, 445.

Radio-elements, the, and the periodic
law, by F. Soddy, 445.

the chemistry of, by Alex. Fleck,

447.

as indicators in chemistry and
physics, by Dr. G. von Hevesy, 448.

Radiotelegraphic investigations, report on,
131.

Radiotelegraphy, the nature of the
electro-magnetic waves employed in,
and the mode of their propagation, by
Prof. G. W. O. Howe, 607.

INDEX.

835

Radium rays in the treatment of hyper- | Reproductive cycle, the effect of, on

secretion of the thyroid gland, by
Dr. Dawson Turner, 672.

*Rainfall maps of China, new, by W. G.
Kendrew, 557.

Ramsey Island, Pembrokeshire, the geology
of, interim report on, 151.

Raw (Frank) on the occurrence of a
wind-worn rock surface at Lilleshall
Hill, Salop, and of wind-worn stones
there and elsewhere, 493.

Rawson (Col. H. E.), variation of
structure and colour of flowers under
insolation, 711.

RayiereH (Lord) on practical electrical
standards, 133.

Rayner (Miss M. ©.) on the flora of the
peat of the Kennet Valley, 265.

Reap (Sir C. H.) on the lake villages in the
neighbourhood of Glastonbury, 224.

on the age of stone circles, 227.

Rwap (Prof. Carveth) on the differentia-
tion of man from the anthropoids,
637.

the conditions of belief in immature
minds (children and ‘ savages’), 677.

Reading, experiments on the methods of
teaching, by Dr. C. W. Valentine, 747.

Reasoning, tests of, and their relation
to general mental ability, by R. C.
Moore, 684.

Reasoning tests, additional, suitable for
the mental diagnosis of school children,
by W. H. Winch, 685.

Renves (E. A.) on atlas, textual, and
wall maps for school and university use,
156.

*Reflector, photographic and_ spectro-
graphic arrangements of a, by J. H.
Reynolds, 394.

*Registration of all schools, discussion
on, 753.

Registration of private schools, the, by
Dr. Sophie Bryant, 752.

Registration of Roman Catholic schools,
the, by Bishop McIntyre, 752.

Registration of schools, the, by Bishop
Welldon, 751.

Ret (Clement) on acquiring and arranging
collections illustrating the natural history,
a&c., of the Isle of Wight, 155.

Rew (Thomas), the stream-line flow of
solids, 604.

“Reinke (Prof. J.) on the nature of life,
705.

RENDLE (Dr. A. B.) on acquiring and
arranging collections illustrating the
natural history, &c., of the Isle of Wight,
155.

RENNIE (J.) on practical electrical stan-
dards, 133.

Reproduction, the physiology of, dis-
cussion on, 669,

glycogen and fat metabolism in
crustacea, by Geofirey Smith, 670.

Resistance of air to falling spheres, the,
by Dr. G. A. Shakespear, 402.

*Resonance spectra under high dis-
persion, by Prof. R. W. Wood, 391.

*Reynoitps (J. H.), photographic and
spectrographic arrangements of a
reflector, 394.

REYNOLDS (Prof. S. H.) on the igneous
and associated rocks of the Glensaul
and Lough Nafooey areas, cos. Mayo
and Galway, 150.

on the preparation of a list of
characteristic fossils, 150.

Rhiwlas and Bala limestones at Bala,
North Wales, the relation of the, by
Dr. Gertrude L. Elles, 485.

RipGEway (Prof. W.) on the lake villages
in the neighbourhood of Glastonbury,
224.

on the age of stone circles, 227.

on the distribution of artificial

islands in the lochs of the Highlands of

Scotland, 228.

on excavations on Roman sites in

Britain, 231.

on the excavation on a prehistoric site
at Bishop’s Stortford, 236.

*RippmaNn (Prof.), spelling reform, 747.

Rivers (Dr. W. H. R.) on the mental and
physical factors involved in education,
302.

— sun cult and megaliths in Oceania,

and Rev. G. HALL, a gypsy pedigree
and its lessons, 625.

Roar (Dr. H. E.), the relation of the
weight of the kidneys to the total
weight of cats, 673.

Rosertson (Andrew) on the strength of
free-ended struts, 605.

*Rosinson (Dr. L.), the relations of the
lower jaw to articulate speech, 638.
*Rock-cutting machine, a new form of,

Prof. W. S. Boulton on, 499.

Rock soil distribution of plants, the
value of a knowledge of, in tracing
geological boundaries, by A.
Horwood, 483.

Rogers (Agnes L.) and Dr. J.-L.
McIntyR4, application of the Binet-
Simon intelligence scale to normal
children in Scotland, 684.

Rocrrs (F.) on stress distributions in
engineering materials, 168.

Roman sites in Britain, report on ex-
cavations on, 231.

*RosENHAIN (Dr. W.), the amorphous
phase in metals, 427.

‘ Rostro-carinate’ flints, the formation of,
by Prof. W. J. Sollas, 788.

3H 2

856

Rotation of active compounds, the, as

modified by temperature, &c., by Dr. |

T. 8. Patterson, 430.

Rotatory dispersion,
Lowry, 429. :

anomalous, L. Tschugaeff on, 430.

Ricker (Sir Arthur W.) on practical
electrical standards, 133.

RunEMANN (Dr. 8.) on the transformation
of aromatic nitroamines and allied sub-
stances, and its relation to substitution in
benzene derivatives, 136.

Russet (Dr. E. J.) on the study of plant
enzymes, 143.

*RUTHERFORD (Prof. E.), the structure
of the atom, 375.

Ruraline group of butterflies, the corre-
lation, of pattern and structure in the,
by G. T. Bethune-Baker, 516.

by Dr. T. M.

Sr. Joun (C. E.), radial motion in sun-
spots, 392.

Sampson (Prof. R. A.) on seismological
investigations, 45.

Sand bars, a method of exploring, by
Dr. J. S. Owens, 611.

Sand-dunes in the 8.W. corner of Angle-

sey, some features of the, by W. H. |

Wortham, 720.
Sand in water, the transport and settle-
ment of, by Dr. J. 8. Owens, 611.

Sandstones of Exmouth, the presence of |
copper in the, C. Carus-Wilson on, 494. |

Sankey (Capt. H. R.) on radiotelegraphic
investigations, 131.
on gaseous explosions, 166.

SarGant (Miss Ethel), Address to the |
| *Suaw (J. J.), exhibition of a seismo-

Botanical Section, 692.

Scuirer (Sir E. A.) on the ductless |

glands, 259.

on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 324.

Scholarships, d&c., held by ‘wuniversity
students, report on, and on funds avail-
able for their augmentation, 306.

School, the, and the museum, by A. R.
Horwood, 743.

School-books, the influence of, wpon eye-
sight, report on, 268.

ScuusterR (Prof. A.) on seismological in-
vestigations, 45.

on the investigation of the upper

atmosphere, 130.

on establishing a solar observatory in

Australia, 132.

on practical electrical standards, 133.

Scientific societies and the control of

INDEX.

Scorry (Dr: D: H;) -and.s Broth ec:
JEFFREY, fossil plants showing struc-
ture from the base of the lower
carboniferous of Kentucky, 708.

*Scort (J. T.) and F. E. E. Lampiovuen,
some phenomena in the formation of
eutectics, 428.

Scorr (Dr. W. R.), qualifications of
diminishing utility, 582.

*Scottish zoological park, the, by Dr.
W. S. Bruce, 527.

Secondary male characters in a pheasant,
a case of unilateral development of,
and on the influence of hormones in
the production of secondary sex
characters, by C. I. Bond, 521.

*Seismograph, exhibition of a, by J. J.
Shaw, 406.

Seismological investigations, eighteenth re-
port on, 45.

Seismometers, the construction of, Rev.
W. O'Leary on, 398.

tSemitic magic, the female magician in,
by Prof. T. W. Davies, 645.

Sewage, the utilisation of, in agriculture,
by Dr. J. Grossmann, 771.

SpwarpD (Prof. A. C.) on the Jurassic
flora of Yorkshire, 264.

Sex determination, the physiology of,
by Dr. L. Doncaster, 671.

SHACKLE (C. E.) and F. GrEeapow,
Birmingham Snow Hill station altera-
tions, 610.

SHAKESPEAR (Dr. G. A.), the resistance
of air to falling spheres, 402.

a method of increasing the sensitive-

ness of certain measuring instruments,

405.

graph, 406.

Suaw (Dr. W. N.) on the investigation of
the upper atmosphere, 130.

on practical electrical standards, 133.

Saw (Mrs. W. N.) on the curricula and
educational organisation of industrial
and poor-law schools, 301.

Shelly and graptolitic faunas of the
British ordovician, the, by Dr. Ger-
trude L. Elles, 490.

SureLey (Dr. A. E.) on zoology organisa-
tion, 154.

on the biological problems incidental

to the Belmullet whaling station, 154.

| Spore (Dr. L.E.) on the ductless glands,259.

plant extermination, by A. R. Hor- |

wood, 335.

Scosie (W. A.) on stress distributions in |

engineering materials, 168.
on combined stress, 168.

Short heat tests of electrical machines,
by W. R. Cooper, 608.

*Shropshire, the geography of, Prof.
W. W. Watts on, 550.

SHRUBSALL (Dr. F. C.) on the organisation
of anthropometric investigation in the
British Isles, 230.

on the mental and physical factors

involved in education, 302.

INDEX.

SHRUBSALL (Dr. F. C.), the relative
fertility and morbidity of defective
and normal stocks, 680.

Suurrtewortu (Lord), the improve-
ment and unification of English water-
ways, 579.

Sickness insurance, some effects of com-
pulsion on the economics of, by 8. F.
Wilson, 583.

Sitvester (Clara E.), a first revision of
the British ordovician brachiopoda,
491.

Smurson (Miss C. A.), the upper basin of
the Warwick Avon, 549.

*Skate, the, the structure of the post-
pericardial body of, by Prof. E. W.
Carlier, 673.

Skeletal elements of the mammalian
limb, Prof. R. J. Anderson on the, 533.

Stave (R. E.) and G. I. Hiason, equili-
bria of reduction of oxides by carbon,
450.

the dissociation pressures of
some nitrides, 451.

*Sleeping sickness problem, some aspects
of the, by Prof. E. A. Minchin, 526.
Smite (Miss E. M.) on habit-formation

in guinea pigs, 680.

SmirH (Rev. F.), paleolithic
tine’ trap-stones, 650.

SmitH (F. E.) on practical electrical
standards, 133.

Smiru (Prof. G. Elliot) on the organisation
of anthropometric investigation in the
British Isles, 230.

the evolution of the dolmen, 646.

SmitH (Geoffrey), the effect of repro-
ductive cycle on glycogen and fat
metabolism in crustacea, 670.

Smitn (Prof. H. Bompas) on the mental
and physical factors involved in educa-
tion, 302.

* cuillo-

versity students, and on funds available
for their augmentation, 306.

Smirn (Miss May), the relation between |

habit and memory, 681.

some experiments on recovery from

_ fatigue, 683.

Smrru (Prof. Priestley) on the influence of
school-books wpon eyesight, 268.

on scholarships, &c., held by uni- |

Sire (W. Campbell) and L. J. Wits, |

the flora and fauna of the upper |

keuper sandstones of Warwickshire
and Worcestershire, 475.

Smiru (Dr. W. G.) on the registration of
botanical photographs, 267.

contrast as a factor in psycho-
logical explanation, 691.

SmiTHELLs (Prof. A.) on gaseous explo-
sions, 166.

Soppy (F.), the radio-elements and the
periodic law, 445.

*

837

Sodium amalgams, the electrical con-
ductivities of, by E. Vanstone, 428.
Solar observatory in Australia, a, report on

establishing, 132.

Solid solutions, diffusion in, by Dr. C. H.
Desch, 428.

Soxzas (Prof. W. J.) on the erratic blocks
of the British Isles, 145.

on the relative age of the tribes with

patrilineal and matrilineal descent in

South-East Australia, 624.

the formation of * rostro-carinate’
flints, 788.

*Solubility and distribution, by Dr. B.
de Szyszkowski, 449.

Solutré type of horse (HL. robustus), the,
in prehistoric Britain, by Dr. A. Irving,
534.

*SORENSEN (Prof. 8. P. L.), the measure-
ment and the significance of the
hydrogen ion concentration in bio-
logical processes, 669.

Souling, clementing, and catterning, by
Miss C. 8. Burne, 632.

Sound localisation, experiments on, by
Dr. C. 8. Myers, 679.

South Staffordshire coalfield, the fossil
floras of the, Dr. E. A. Newell Arber on,
477.

Spatial threshold, changes in the, during
a sitting, G. H. Thomson on, 681.

SPEARMAN (Prof. C.) on the mental and
physical factors involved in education,
302.

Spelling, an investigation into, at the
Fielden demonstration school, by Miss
Ida Suddards, 304.

psychological analysis and educa-

tional method in, by Miss S. S. Fatr-

hurst, 302.

the mental processes involved in,
analysis of, by Miss 8. 8. Fairhurst,
687.

*Spelling reform, by Prof. Rippman,
747.

Spherical or hyperspherical co-ordinates,
a system of, T. C. Lewis on, 400.

Spirorbis limestones of North Warwick-
shire, G. Barrow on, the, 472.

*Spitsbergen economically considered,
by Dr. W. 8. Bruce, 553.

STANSFIELD (Prof. H.), the sensitiveness
of the human skin as a detector of
low voltage alternating E.M.F., 404.

Sranton (Dr. T. E.) on stress distribu-
tions in engineering materials, 168.

Starkey (Miss C. B.) and Prof. G. 8.
West, zygnema ericetorum and its
position in the zygnemacezx, 716,

Sraruine (Prof. E. H.) on colour vision
and colour blindness, 258.

—— on the dissociation of oxy-hcemoglobin
at high altitudes, 260.

858

Stataer (J. W.) on the erratic blocks of
the British Isles, 145.

Statistics and Economic Science, Address
to the Section of, by Rey. P. H.
Wicksteed, 560.

STEBBING (Rev. T. R. R.) on the nomen-
clator animalium generum et sub-
generum, 153.

on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 324.

Sressine (W. P. D.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 324.

*Stea@aLu (Prof. J. E. A.) on Waring’s
problem, 400.

Stellaria graminea, A. S. Horne on, 718.

Sterilisation of the soil, the partial, by
means of caustic lime, by Dr. H. B.
Hutchinson and K. MacLennan, 774.

Stockingford shales, the, near Nuneaton,
recent discoveries in, by V. C. Illing,
498.

certain trilobites found in, V. C.
Illing on, 499.

*Stoxss (Prof. G. J.), the relation of the
emotions to motor discharge, 689.

Stone-boiling in the British Isles, by
T. C. Cantrill, 647.

Stone circles, the age of, report on ex-
plorations to ascertain, 227,

Stoprss (Dr. Marie C.) on the preparation
of a list of characteristic fossils, 150.
plant petrifactions in chert and
their bearing on the origin of fresh-

water cherts, 486.

*Story (Prof. Fraser), German forestry
methods, 767.

Srrawan (Dr. A.) on the geology of
Ramsey Island, Pembrokeshire, 151.
Stream-courses of the Black-Country

plateau, H. Kay on the, 473.

Stream-line flow of solids, the, by Thomas
Reid, 604.

Strength of signals, effect of atmospheric
conditions on the, and an account of
the diurnal variation in the energy
received, by Prof. E. W. Marchant, 607.

Stress, alternating, reporton, by W. Mason,
with notes by Dr. F. Rogers and BE. M.
Eden, 183.

combined, report on, by W. A.
Scoble, 168.

Stress distributions in engineering mate-
rials, the more complex, report on, 168.

—— discussion on, 389.

Stress distributions in thick cylinders

and rings, the, by Prof. E. G. Coker, |

604.

Structural changes, the, brought about in |

certain alloys by annealing, by O. F.
Hudson, 428.

Sueda fruticosa, the distribution of,

and its réle in the stabilising of active |

shingle, by Prof. F. W. Oliver, 719.

INDEX.

SuppARDS¥(Miss Ida), an investigation

into spelling at the Fielden demonstra-
tion school, 304.

Suggestion in education, the excessive
use of, by Mrs. C. M. Meredith, 747.

Sun cult and megaliths in Oceania, by
Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, 634.

Sun-spots, radial motion in, by C. E. St.
John, 392.

Swann (Dr. W. F. G.), the electrical
resistance of thin metallic films, 375.
the expression for the electrical
conductivity of metals as deduced

from the electron theory, 388.

*Symmetric linear substitutions, by
Prof. H. Hilton, 398.

Synthesis of organic matter by sunlight
in presence of inorganic colloids, and
its relationship to the origin of life,

& by Prof. B. Moore and A. Webster, 527.

System copper-oxygen, the, by F. D.
Farrow, 449.

*SzySZKOWSEI (Dr. B. de), neutral salt
action, 449.

solubility and distribution, 449.

*

*Tarr (Dr. John), natural arrest of
hemorrhage from a wound, 676.

and R. J. 8S. McDowat1, con-

traction of non-oxygenated mam-

malian muscle at temperatures ranging

between 0° and 40° centigrade, 676.

and Miss M. Macnaveuton, simpli-
fied mammalian heart perfusion, 676.

TANSLEY (A. G.) on the vegetation of
Ditcham Park, Hampshire, 266.

on the registration of botanical
photographs, 267.

Taytor (Miss A. M.), the life history of
Eriophyes ribis Nab., 778.

*Temperature frequency curves, by
EK. Gold and F. J. Whipple, 396.

Temperature radiation, pure, the re-
lation between luminescence and, by
Prof. E. Pringsheim, 389.

*Temperature see-saw, a, between Eng-
land and Egypt, by J. T. Craig, 395.

TEMPLE (Mrs. Charles), social organisa-
tion amongst the primitive tribes of
Northern Nigeria, 626.

TEMPLE (Sir Richard), Address to the
Anthropological Section, 613.

*Terrestrial magnetism, the lunar in-
fluence on, and its dependence on solar
periodicity, by Dr. S. Chapman, 396.

Testimony, modern experimental in-
vestigation of, by T. H. Pear, 690.

Testimony of normal and mentally defec-
tive children, the, by Stanley Wyatt,
690.

Tests of reasoning and their relation to
general mental ability, by R. C.
Moore, 684.

*

*

INDEX.

*Thaumastotherium osborni, a new genus
. of perissodactyles presenting some un-

usual features, by C. Forster Cooper, |

530.

Theory of errors, a development of the,
with reference to economy of times, by
M. D. Hersey, 399.

Thomas (H. Hamshaw) on the geology
of Ramsey Island, Pembrokeshire, 151.

onthe Jurassic flora of Yorkshire, 264.

on a new type of ginkgoalian leaf,
709.

THomeson (R. Campbell) on a new
system of decipherment of the Hittite
hieroglyphs lately published by the
Society of Antiquaries, 636.

ancient Assyrian medicine, 644.

THompeson (Prof. S. P.) on radiotele-
graphic investigations, 131.

on practical electrical standards, 133.

Tompson (T. W.), gypsy taboos and
funeral rites, 625.

THomeson (Mrs. W. H.) on the duciless
glands, 259.

THomson (Prof. A.) on the organisation
of anthropometric investigation in the
British Isles, 230.

THomson (Godfrey H.) on changes in the
spatial threshold during a sitting,
and on the nature of thresholds in
general, 681.

THomson (Prof. Sir J. J.) on practical
electrical standards, 133.

* the structure of the atom, 374.

* X, and the evolution of helium,

403.

THomson (Dr. J. 8.) on the occupation
of the table at the zoological station at
Naples, 153.

*THORNTON (Prof. W. M.), the influence
of the presence of gas on the inflamma-
bility of coal-dust in air, 427.

Thresholds, the nature of, G. H. Thom-
son on, 681.

Thrips (Thysanoptera), a chalcid parasitic
on, by R..S. Bagnall, 531.

TrppEMAN (R. H.) on the erratic blocks of
the British Isles, 145.

TrntyarD (F.), English town develop-
ment in the nineteenth century, 586.

[ims (Dr. H. W. M.) on the nomenclator
animalium generum et subgenerum, 153.

on the biological problems incidental

to the Belmullet whaling station, 154.

on experiments in inheritance, 155.

on the excavation on a prehistoric
site at Bishop’s Stortford, 236.

TinKLerR (Dr. C. K.), a series of mixtures
of nitro-compounds and amines which
are coloured only in the liquid state,
425,

*Tissues, the pulse and resonance of the,
by Prof. Leonard Hill, 673.

839

Toluene, the progressive bromination of,
by J. B. Cohen and P. K. Dutt, 424.
Town development, English, in the
nineteenth century, by F. Tillyard,

586.

Trade between Britain and France in the
neolithic and bronze ages, by O. G. S.
Crawford, 650.

*Trade unions and co-partnership, by
Dr. C. Carpenter, 573.

by J. B. C. Kershaw, 573.

Traquair (Dr. R. H.) on the upper old
red sandstone of Dura Den, 150.

.TREMEARNE (Major A. J. N.) on the

production of certified copies of Hausa
manuscripts, 228.

on Hausa magic, 627.

—— the bori cult in Tunis and Tripoli,

Triangulation, the terms used in, recom-
mendation regarding, 557.

Tribal and caste groups in India, the
stability of, by W. Crooke, 632.

Tribes with patrilineal and matrilineal
descent in South-East Australia, the
relative age of, Prof. W. J. Sollas on,
624.

Trilobites, certain, found in the Stocking-
ford shales, V. C. Illing on, 499.

TscHUGAEFF (L.) on anomalous rotatory
dispersion, 430.

Turner (Dr. Dawson), radium rays in
the treatment of hypersecretion of the
thyroid gland, 672.

TuRNER (Prof. H. H.) on seismological
investigations, 45.

on establishing a solar observatory

in Australia, 132.

on the Fourier sequence as a sub-
stitute for the periodogram, 394.

TurNnER (Prof. T.), the volatility of
metals, 427.

Tursiops, the skull and teeth of, Prof.
R. J. Anderson on, 532.

TwEnTYMAN (A. E.) on the mental and
physical factors involved in education,
302.

Upper atmosphere, the investigation of the,
twelfth report on, 130.

Upper keuper sandstones of Warwick-
shire and Worcestershire, the flora
and fauna of the, by L. J. Wills and
W. C. Smith, 475.

Upper old red sandstone of Dura Den,
preliminary report on the, 150.

Urophora solstitialis Linn., the oviposi-
tion of, J. T. Wadsworth on, 529.

Usnerwoop (T. S.), manual training in
the secondary school, 755.

Utility and selection, by Dr. P. Chalmers
Mitchell, 325.

840

*Vale of Neath, the carboniferous lime-
stone at the head of the, by C. H.
Cunnington, 499.

VALENTINE (C. W.), colour perception
and preferences of an infant at three
months, 689.

experiments on the methods of
teaching reading, 747.

VANSTONE (Ernest), the influence of
chemical constitution on the thermal
properties of binary mixtures, 426.

—— the electrical conductivities of
sodium amalgams, 428.

VauGuHAN (Dr. A.) on the preparation of
a list of characteristic fossils, 150.

the division between the lower
and upper Avonian, 480.

VeE.EY (Prof.) on electromotive phenomena
in plants, 241.

Vernon (R. D.) on;the correlation of
the Leicestershire coalfield, 478.

Verrucaria margaracea, an aquatic lichen,
the structure and life-history of, by
Miss E. M. Poulton, 714.

Verstuys (Dr. J.) on the phylogeny of
the carapace, and on the affinities of the
leathery turtle, Dermochelys coriacea,
791.

Vetacapsula, some new features in, by
L. Moysey, 492.

Via Appia, the, by Dr. T. Ashby, 630.

Vincent (Prof. Swale) on the ductless
glands, 259.

on the effect of low temperatures on
cold-blooded animals, 261.

Vines (Prof. 8S. H.) on the occupation
of a table at the marine laboratory,
Plymouth, 155.

Viroconium, the Roman town of, at
Wroxeter, Salop, excavations on the
site of, by J. P. Bushe-Fox, 629.

Visual images, some experimental data
concerning the localisation of, by
Prof. R. M. Ogden, 678.

Volatility of metals, the, by Prof. T.
Turner, 427.

*

Wace (A. J. B.) on the distribution of
artificial islands in the lochs of the
Highlands of Scotland, 228.

and Dr. J. T. Jenu, excavations
in the Kinkell Cave, St. Andrews, 649.

Wave (E. B. H.), longitude work in
Egypt, 555.

Wanpsworth (J. T.) on the oviposition of
Urophora solstitialis Linn., 529.

Wacer (Harold) on the Jurassic flora of
Yorkshire, 264.

Wainweicut (G. A.), the people of
Keftiu and the Isles from the Egyptian
monuments, 643.

*Walden inversion, Prof. P. F. Frank-
land on the, 430.

INDEX.

Wales and the border, the ethnography
of, by Prof. H. J. Fleure and T. C.
James, 638.

WaurorpD (Edward A.) on the structure
of the lias ironstone of South Warwick-
shire and Oxfordshire, 474.

on some of the basement beds of
the great oolite and the crinoid beds,
482.

Waker (Dr. E. W. A.) and Prof.
GrorcEes DREYER on the study of the
blood and vascular system, 674.

on the effect of altitude on
the blood, 675.

WALLER (Prof. A. D.) on the occupation
of a table at the zoological station at
Naples, 153.

on anesthetics, 237.

on electromotive phenomena in plants,

241.

on colour vision and colour blindness,
258.

WALLER (Mrs.) on electromotive pheno-
mena in plants, 241.

Watmistey (A. T.), metals for struc-
tures, 606.

Watsu (W. T. H.) on the influence of
school-books upon eyesight, 268.

*Waring’s problem, Prof. J. E. A.
Steggall on, 400.

WaRNER (Dr. F.) on the mental and
physical factors involved in education,
302.

Warts (Dr. H.) on the classification of
igneous rocks, 494.

Waterways, the, of France, Belgium, and
Germany, by F. R. Durham, 577.

English, the improvement and uni-

fication of, by Lord Shuttleworth, 575.

inland, discussion on, 575.

in England, by
Dunwoody, 577.

Waterways and canals of the United
Kingdom, the, reasons why the State
should improve, by Sir J. P. Griffith,
576.

Watson (Arnold T.) on the habits and
building organ of the tubicolous
polychete worm Pectinaria (Lagis)
Koreni, Mgr., 512.

Warson (D. M. S.), the early evolution
of the amphibia, 532.

Watson (Dr. W.) on the investigation
of the wpper atmosphere, 130.

on gascous explosions, 166.

*Wartt (Dr. H. J.), some main principles
of integration, 677.

Watts (Prof. W. W.) on the igneous and
associated rocks of the Glensaul and
Lough Nafooey areas, cos. Mayo and
Galway, 150.

on the preparation of a list of

characteristic fossils, 150.

*

R. B.

INDEX.

*Wartrs (Prof. W. W.) on the igneous |

rocks of the Birmingham district, 472.

x on the geography of Shropshire,

550.

Waves at sea, a simple method of deter- |
mining the period of, by Dr. Vaughan |

Cornish, 406.

Wess (W. M.) on the work of the Cor- |

responding Societies Committee, 324.
Weber’s law and its limitations, a

simple method of demonstrating, by |

Shepherd Dawson, 683.

Weesster (Prof. A. G.) on the further
tabulation of Bessel and other tunctions,
87.

Wesster (Arthur) and Prof. B. Moorz,
synthesis of organic matter by sun-
light in presence of inorganic colloids,
and its relationship to the origin of
life, 527.

Weeds of arable land, the, by Dr. Wini-
fred E. Brenchley, 776.

Weiss (Prof. F. E.) on the Jurassic flora
of Yorkshire, 264.

on the flora of the peat of the Kennet

Valley, 265.

on the registration of botanical

photographs, 267.

juvenile flowering in LHucalyptus
globulus, 707.

WELLDoN (Bishop), the registration of
schools, 751.

West (Prof. G. 8.), the structure, life-
history, and systematic position of the
genus microspora, 716.

and Miss C. B. STARKEY, zygnema
ericetorum and its position in the
zygnemacee, 716.

*WuHIPPLeE (F. J.) and E. Gotp, tempera-
ture frequency curves, 396.

WHITAKER (W.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee,
324.

WuitEnovss (R. H.), the best means of
preventing the extinction of local
species, 338.

evolution of the caudal fin of fishes,
522.

Wuitetock (W. H.), the industrial
credit system and imprisonment for
debt, 580.

Wholesale and retail prices of food, the
relation between the changes of, by

_ Dr. A. L. Bowley, 578.

WIcKSTEED (Rev. P. H.), Address to the
Section of Economic Science and
Statistics, 560.

the psychological foundation of
economics, 688.

Wits (L. J.) and W. C. Smrru, the flora
and fauna of the upper keuper sand-
stones of Warwickshire and Worcester-
shire, 475.

*

841

Witson (Prof. Ernest), exposure tests
of copper, commercial aluminium,
and duralumin, 606.

Wison (J. 8.) on stress distributions in
engineering materials, 168.

Witson (Samuel F.), some effects of
compulsion on the economics of
sickness insurance, 583.

WittsHirE (8S. P.), the biology of the
apple canker fungus Nectria ditissima
Tul., 714.

*Winns (J. H.), a comparative investi-
gation, of fatigue tests, 683.

Wimperis (H. E.) on gaseous explosions,
166.

Wincu (W. H.), additional reasoning
tests suitable for the mental diagnosis
of school children, 685.

Wind-worn rock surface, the occurrence
of a, at Lilleshall Hill, Salop, and of
wind-worn stones there and elsewhere,
Frank Raw on, 493.

WINTERBOTHAM (Capt.), the accuracy
of the principal triangulation, 553.

*Wireless telegraphy, atmospheric re-
fraction and absorption as affecting
transmission in, by Dr. W. H. Eccles,
607.

Woop (Mrs. Frances), the construction
of index numbers to show changes
in the cost of the principal articles
of food for the working classes,
579.

*Woop (Prof. R. W.), resonance spectra
under high dispersion, 391.

Woop (Prof. T. B.), Address to the
Agricultural Section, 758.

WoopuHeEap (Dr. T. W.) on the registra-
tion of botanical photographs, 267.

Woops (H.) on the preparation of a list
of characteristic fossils, 150.

Woopwarp (Dr. A. Smith) on the pre-
paration of a list of characteristic
fossils, 150.

on the upper old red sandstone of

Dura Den, 150.

on the old red sandstone rocks of

Kiltorcan, Ireland, 152.

on the nomenclator animalium gene-

rum et subgenerum, 153.

missing links among extinct animals,
783.

WortuamM (W. H.), some features of the
sand-dunes in the S.W. corner of
Anglesey, 720.

Wyatt (Stanley), the testimony of
normal and mentally defective children,
690.

Wynne (Prof. W. P.), Address to the
Chemical Section, 408.

*X-rays, the nature of, by Prof. C. G.
Barkla, 373.

842

X-rays, the transmission of, through
metals, by H. B. Keene, 403.

Bragg, 386.

“s discussion on, 404.

*X, and the evolution of helium, by Sir
J. J. Thomson, 403.

Yaprr (Prof. R. H.) on the vegetation of
Ditcham Park, Hampshire, 266.

on the registration of botanical

photographs, 267.

Yates (H. J.), recent progress in gas- |

fire science, 435.

INDEX.

| Yorkshire, the Jurassic flora of, report

on the investigation of, 264.

and crystals, paper by Prof. W. H. | Youna (Prof. Sydney) on dynamic iso-

merism, 141.

Zoological Section, Address by Dr. H. F.
Gadow to the, 500.
Zoological station at Naples, report on the
occupation of a table at the, 153.
Zoology organisation, report on, 154.
| Zygnema ericetorum and its position in
the zygnemacee, by Prof. G. S. West
and Miss C. B. Starkey, 716.

84:3

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Report on the Excavation of Critical Sections in the Paleozoic Rocks of Wales
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844

Report on the Igneous and Associated Rocks of the Glensaul and Lough
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Report on the Compilation of an Index Animalium :

Report on the Biological Problems incidental to the Belmullet Whaling ainnon

Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples .

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Fourth Report on the Feeding Habits of British Birds .

Twenty-second Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands . -

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Report on the Influence of School-books upon Eyesight

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Report on Diffusion in Solids. By Dr. C. H. Desch

The Road Problem. e the ae Hon. Sir J. H. A. Macdansld: KC. B.
F.RS. . . = :

The Transactions of Mis Sections
Evening Discourses :
Radiations Old and New. By Professor W. H. Brage, F.R.S. . . .

Modern Problems relating to the Antiquity of Man. By Arthur Keith,
MD; LEDS use, Se pues hes oes

338
348

373
387

750

753

845
PAGE
Appendix I.—Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee . . . 761
Report of the Conference of ee of Corresponding Societies

held at Dundee... 3} do.p hin “haere oibe
Appendix II.—A Report on Solubility. Part If. By J. Vargas Eyre, M.A.,

PDD. eee ae 2 ARP Tee! onlliawed SL aos
Wndex 5s . ee Ee Ree ee ee BY ene ik Tn retard OF BESTE
List of Publications Ry Ba ae ete es ee ena Seg

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848

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(cloth), 2s.

1 6JUN.1914

BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

1913

LIST OF MEMBERS

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL

AND

INSTITUTIONS RECEIVING THE REPORT

CORRECTED TO JANUARY 1, 1914

LONDON: |
BURLINGTON HOUSE, PICCADILLY, W.

: tay
Low Pe f Yi

j Hyer,
th De:

" ‘ ;

ti i 28
¥G eee 0) t t

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1913-1914.

PATRON.
HIS MAJESTY THE KING,

PRESIDENT.
Sim OLIVER J. LODGE, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

The Right Hon. the Lord Mayor of Birmingham
(Lieut.-Col. E, MAntTINEAU, M.A., V.D.).

The Right Hon. the Bart or CRAVEN, Lord-
Lieutenant of Warwickshire.

The Worshipful the High Sheriff of Warwickshire
(Sir I, BE. WALLER, Bart.).

The Right Hon. the Earn or Coventry, Lord-
Lieutenant of Worcestershire,

The Right Hon. the Harn or
Lord-Lientenant of Staffordshire.

The Right Rey. the Lonp BisHop or BIRMINGHAM
(Dr. H. R. WAKEFIELD).

DARTMOUTH,

|

The Right Hon. JosrpH CHAMBERLAIN, D.C.L.,

M.P., Chancellor of the University of Birmingham.

GILBERT BARLING, M.B., F.R.C.8., Vice-Chancellor
of the University of Birmingham.

The Right Hon. Jussr CoLiines, M.P., Hon. Presi-
dent of the Birmingham Chamber of Commerce.

Alderman the Right Hon, WILLIAM KENRICK.

Alderman W. H. Bowater, Deputy Mayor of
Birmingham,

Professor CHARLES LAPwortH, LL.D., F.R.S.

Professor J. H. POYNTING, Se.D., F.R.S.

PRESIDENT ELECT.
Professor WILLIAM BATESON, M.A., F.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.

His Excellency the Governor-General of the Com-
monwealth of Australia.

Their Excellencies the Governors of New South
Wales, Victoria, Queensland, Sonth Australia,
Western Australia, Tasmania.

The Honourable the Prime Minister of the Com-
monwealth.

The Honourable the Premiers of New South Wales,
Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western
Australia, Tasmania.

The Right Honourable the Lord Mayors of Sydney
and Melbourne,

The Right Worshipful the Mayors of Brisbane,
Adelaiée, Perth, Hobart.

The Chancellors of the Universities of Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, Tasmania, Queensland, Western
Australia,

GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor JOHN Perry, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

GENERAL SECRETARIES,

Professor W. A. HERDMAN, D.Sc., F.R.S.

| Professor H. H. TuRNER, D.Sc., D.C,L., F.R.S.

ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
0. J. R, Howarre, M.A., Burlington House, London, W.

CHIEF CLERK AND ASSISTANT TREASURER.
H. O. StEwarpson, Burlington House, London, W.

GENERAL ORGANISING SECRETARY FOR THE AUSTRALIAN MEETING,
A, 0. D. Rrvett, B.A., D.Se., University of Melbourne, Victoria,

4 OFFICERS AND COUNCIL.

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

ARMSTRONG, Professor H. E., F.R.S. HAtL, A. D., F.R.S.

BRABROOK, Sir EDWARD, O.B. HALLIBURTON, Professor W. D., F.R.S.
Braae, Professor W. H., F.R.S. IM THURN, Sir E. F., K.0.M.G.
O.LERK, Dr. DUGALD, F.RS, Lop@E, ALFRED, M.A.

ORAIGIE, Major P. G., O.B. Lyons, Captain H. G., F.R.S.

Crookg, W., B.A. Marr, Dr. J. E., F.R.S.

Denpy, Professor A., F.R.S. MELDOLA, Professor R., F.R.S.

Dixey, Dr. F. A., F.R.S. MyreEs, Professor J. L., M.A.

| PAIN, Sir DAVID, O.1.E., F.R.S.
‘S. | SHERRINGTON, Professor O.8., F.R.S.
RS. | TEALL, Dr. J. J. H., F.R.S.
‘THOMPSON, Dr; SILVAN us P., F.R.S.

TROUTON, Baaieator F. 0, F.R.S.

Drxon, Professor H. B., F.R.
FARMER, Professor J. B. ae
GRIFFITHS, Principal E. H.,
Happov, Dr. A. O., F.R.S.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

Tie Trustees, past Presidents of the Association, the President and Vice-Presidents for the year, the

President and Vice-Presidents Elect, past and present General Treasurers and General Secretaries, past

Assistant General Secretaries, and the Local Treasurers and Local Secretaries for the ensuing Annual
Meeting.

TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

The Right Hon. Lord RAYLEIGH, O.M., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Sir ARTHUR W. Ricker, M.A.,, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.
Major P. A. MacManon, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

PAST PRESIDENTS OF THE ASSOCIATION.

Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., F.R.S. | Sir James Dewar, LL.D., F.R.S. | Sir J. J. Thomson, 0,M., F. R.S.
Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S. | Sir Norman Lockyer, K.O.B.,F.R.S. | Prof. T. G. Bonney, Se.D., F.R.S.
Sir A. Geikie, 0. M. . K.OB.,F.R.S. Arthur J. Balfour, D.C.L., E.RS. | Sir W. Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S.
Sir W. Orookes, 0.M., Pres. R.S. | Sir E.Ray Lankester,K.O. B. ,F.R.S. Sir BE, A. Schiifer, LL.D., F.R.S.
Sir W. Turner, K.O.B., F.R.S. | Sir David Gill, K.C.B., F.R. 3. |

Sir A. W. Riicker, D.Sc., F.R.S. | Sir Francis Darwin, ERS. |

PAST GENERAL OFFIOERS OF THE ASSOOIATION.

Prof. T. G. Bonney, Sc.D., F.R.S. | Sir HE. A. Schiffer, LL.D., F.R.S, Dr. J. G. Garson.
A, Vernon Harcourt, D.O.L., F.R.S. | Dr. D. H. Scott, M.A., F.R.S. Major P. A, MacMahon, I'.R.S.
Sir A. W. Riicker, D.Sc., F.R.S. Dr. G. Carey Foster, F.R.S.

AUDITORS.
Sir Edward Brabrook, O.B. | Professor H. McLeod, LL.D., F.R.S.

LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.

1913.

* indicates Life Members entitled to the Annual Report.
§ indicates Annual Subscribers entitled to the Annual Report.
} indicates Subscribers not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names without any mark before them are Life Members, elected
before 1845, not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names of Members of the GENERAL COMMITTEE are printed in
SMALL CAPITALS.
Names of Members whose addresses are incomplete or not known
are in italics.
Notice of changes of residence should be sent to the Assistant Secretary,
Burlington House, London, W.

Year of

Election.

1905. *a-Ababrelton, Robert, F.R.G.S., F.S.S. P.O. Box 322, Pieter-
maritzburg, Natal. Care of Royal Colonial Institute, North-
umberland-avenue, W.C.

i887. *Appn, Professor CLEVELAND. Local Office, U.S.A. Weather
Bureau, Washington, U.S.A.

1881. *Abbott, R. T. G. Whitley House, Malton.

1885. ae The Earl of, G.C.M.G., LL.D. Haddo House, Aber-

een.

1885. tAberdeen, The Countess of. Haddo House, Aberdeen.

1873. *ABNEY, Captain Sir W. pr W., K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
(Pres. A, 1889; Pres. L, 1903; Council, 1884-89, 1902-05,

; 1906-12.) Measham Hall, Leicestershire.

1905. §Aburrow, Charles. P.O. Box 534, Johannesburg.

1913. §Ackland, T. G., F.I.A. 5-6 Clement’s Inn, Strand, W.C.’

1869. {Acland, Sir C. T. Dyke, Bart., M.A. Killerton, Exeter.

1877. bisa Captain Francis E. Dyke, R.A. Walwood, Banstead,

urrey.

1894. *AcLAND, Te Dyxz, F.G.S. Chy-an-Mor, Gyllyngvase, Fal-
mout.

1877. *Acland, Theodore Dyke, M.D. 19 Bryanston-square, W.

6

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1904.
1898.
1901.
1887.

1901.

1904.
1869.

1908.
1913.

1890.
1913.

1913.
1899.
1908.
1912.

1908.

1902.
1906.
1871.
1909.
1911.
1895.
1891.
1871.
1901.
1884.
1886.
1905.
1913.
1900.
1896.

1905.
1888,
1910.

1891.
1883.
1883.
1901.
1904.
1879.
1898.
1891.
1907.
1912.

tActon, T. A. 41 Regent-street, Wrexham.

{Acworrtu, W. M., M.A. (Pres. F, 1908.) The Albany, W.

tAdam, J. Miller. 15 Walmer-crescent, Glasgow. :

tApami, J. G., M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathology in
McGill University, Montreal, Canada.

§Apams, Joun, M.A., B.Sc., LL.D. (Pres. L, 1912), Professor of
Hducation in the University of London. 23 Tanza-road,
Hampstead, N.W.

tAdams, W. G. S., M.A. Department of Agriculture, Upper
Merrion-street, Dublin.

*Apams, Witt1aM Grytis, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.P.S.
(Pres. A, 1880 ; Council, 1878-85.) Heathfield, Broadstone,
Dorset.

*Adamson, R. Stephen. The University, Manchester.

§Addison, W. H. F. Medical School, The University of Penn-
sylvania.

tApmnry, W. E., D.Sc., F.C.S. Burnham, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.

§Adeney, Rev. Professor W. F., M.A., D.D. Lancashire College,
Whalley Range, Manchester.

§Adeney, Mrs. Lancashire College, Whalley Range, Manchester.

*Adie, R. H., M.A., B.Sc. 136 Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

§Adkin, Robert. 4 Lingard’s-road, Lewisham, 8.E.

§Afanassieff, Apollo. Physical Institute, Imperial University,
St. Petersburg.

*Agar, W. E., M.A. Natural History Department, The University,
Glasgow.

tAgnew, Samuel, M.D. Bengal-place, Lurgan.

§Aikman, J. A. 6 Glencairn-crescent, Edinburgh.

*Ainsworth, John Stirling. Harecroft, Gosforth, Cumberland.

*Arrp, JonN. Canadian Bank of Commerce, Toronto, Canada.

§Airey, John R., M.A., B.Sc. 73 Claremont-road, Forest Gate, E.

*Airy, Hubert, M.D. Stoke House, Woodbridge, Suffolk.

*Aisbitt, M. W. Mountstuart-square, Cardiff.

§ArTKEN, Joun, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Ardenlea, Falkirk, N.B.

tAitken, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E. County Buildings, Cupar-Fife.

*Alabaster, H. Milton, Grange-road, Sutton, Surrey.

*Albright, G.S. Broomsberrow Place, Ledbury.

tAlbright, Miss. Finstal Farm, Finstal, Bromsgrove, Worcestershire.

§Albright, W. A. 29 Frederick-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Aldren, Francis J.,M.A. The Lizans, Malvern Link.

§Aldridge, J. G. W., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 39 Victoria-street, West-
minster, S.W.

*Alexander, J. Abercromby. 24 Lawn-crescent, Kew.

*Alexander, Patrick Y. 3 Whitehall-court, S.W.

*Alexander, W. B., B.A. Western Australian Museum, Perth,
West Australia.

*Alford, Charles J., F.G.S. Hotel Victoria, Rome.

tAlger, W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South Devon.

tAlger, Mrs. W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South Devon.

*Allan, James A. 21 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.

*Alleock, William Burt.. Emmanuel College, Cambridge.

*Allen, Rev. A. J.C. 34 Lensfield-road, Cambridge.

§AtiEN, Dr. E. J. The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth.

{Allen, H. A., F.G.8. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

*Allorge, M. M., L. és Se., F.G.S8. University Museum, Oxford.

*Allworthy, S. W., M.A., M.D. The Manor House, Antrim-road,
Belfast.

Year of
Election

1882.
1887.

1883.
1909,
1884.

1910.
1905.
1912.
1908.
1885.

1901.
1892.
1899.
1888.
1887.

1901.
1908

1911.
i907.
1909.
1895.
1909.
1880.
1886.
1877.
1912.
1886.
1901.
1900.
1904.

1913.
1913.

1894.
1884.
1909.
1909.

1883.
1908.

1903.

“TT

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913.

*Alverstone, The Right Hon. Lord, G.C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.§.
Winterfold, Cranleigh, Surrey.

tAlward, G. L. Enfield Villa, Waltham, Grimsby, York-
shire.

§Amery, John Sparke. Druid, Ashburton, Devon.

tAmi, H.M.,M.D. Ottawa, Canada.

tAmy, Henry, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. Geological Survey, Ottawa,
Canada.

{Anderson, Alexander. Tower House, Dore, near Sheffield.

*Anderson, C. L. P.O. Box 2162, Johannesburg.

tAnderson, EK. M. 43 Ladysmith-road, Edinburgh.

tAnderson, Edgar. Glenavon, Merrion-road, Dublin.

*AnpERSON, Hucu Kerr, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. Caius College,
Cambridge.

*Anderson, James. 10 Albion-crescent, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

tAnderson, Joseph, LL.D. 8 Great King-street, Edinburgh.

*Anderson, Miss Mary Kerr. 13 Napier-road, Edinburgh.

*Anderson, R. Bruce. 5 Westminster-chambers, S8.W.

{tAnpeRson, Professor R. J., M.D., F.L.S. University College,
and Atlantic Lodge, Salthill, Galway.

*Anderson, Dr. W. Carrick. 7 Scott-street, Garnethill, Glasgow.

fAnderson, William. Glenavon, Merrion-road, Dublin.

tAndrade, E. N. da C. University College, Gower Street, W.C.

Andrews, A. W. Adela-avenue, West Barnes-lane, New Malden,

Surrey.

tAndrews, Alfred J. Care of Messrs. Andrews, Andrews, & Co.,
Winnipeg, Canada.

tAnDREWws, CHartes W., B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. British Museum
(Natural History), S.W.

tAndrews, G. W. 433 Main-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Andrews, Thornton, M.Inst.C.E. Cefn Eithen, Swansea.

§Andrews, William, F.G.S. Steeple Croft, Coventry.

§ANGELL, JoHN, F.CS., F.LC. 6 Beacons-field, Derby-road,
Withington, Manchester.

§Angus, Miss Mary. 354 Blackness-road, Dundee.

fAnsell, Joseph. 27 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.

tArakawa, Minozi. Japanese Consulate, 84 Bishopsgate-street
Within, E.C.

*ArBeR, E. A. Newert, M.A., F.L.S. 52 Huntingdon-road,
Cambridge.

*ArBER, Mrs. E. A. Newent, D.Sc.,: F.LS. 52 Huntingdon-
road, Cambridge.

§ Archer, J. Hillside, Crowcombe, West Somerset. :

*Archer, R. L., M.A., Professor of Education in University College,
Bangor. Plas Menai, Bangor.

fArchibald, A. Holmer, Court-road, Tunbridge Wells.

*Archibald, E. Douglas, Constitutional Club, W.C.

§Archibald, Professor E. H. Bowne Hall of Chemistry, Syracuse
University, Syracuse, New York, U.S.A.

‘Archibald, H. Care of Messrs. Machray, Sharpe, & Dennistoun,

Bank of Ottawa Chambers, Winnipeg, Canada.
*Armistead, William. Hillerest, Oaken, Wolverhampton.
fArmetraag, E. C. R., M.R.LA., F.R.G.S. Cyprus, Eglinton-road,
ublin.
*ARMSTRONG, HE. FRANKLAND, D.Sc., Ph.D. 27 Eastern-avenue,
Reading.

8

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1873.

1909.
1905.
1905,
1893.

1904.
1870.
1903.
1909.
1907.

1903.
1890.
1875.
1896.
1905.
1908.

1898.
1894.

1906.
1881.
1907.
1881.

1906.

1907.
1903.
1912.
1909.

1883.
1863.
1883.
1887.
1903.
1907.

1908.

1905.
1883.
1883.

1887.
1905,
1914.

*Armstrona, Henry E., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1885,
1909; Pres. L, 1902; Council, 1899-1905, 1909- -) 55
Granville-park, Lewisham, §.E.

tArmstrong, Hon. Hugh. Parliament Buildings, Kennedy-street,
Winnipeg, Canada.

fArmstrong, John. Kamfersdam Mine, near Kimberley, Cape

Colony.

§ARNOLD, J. O., F.R.S., Professor of Metallurgy in the University
of Sheffield.

*ARNOLD-BEMROSE, H. H., Sc.D., F.G.S. Ash Tree House,
Osmaston-road, Derby.

tArunachalam, P. Ceylon Civil Service, Colombo, Ceylon.

*Ash, Dr. T. Linnington. Penroses, Holsworthy, North Devon.

*AsHspy, THomas, M.A., D.Litt. The British School, Rome.

{Ashdown, J. H. 337 Broadway, Winnipeg, Canada.

ftAsuury, W. J., M.A. (Pres. F, 1907), Professor of Commerce in the
University of Birmingham. 3 Yateley-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

Ashworth, Henry. Turton, near Bolton.

*Ashworth, J. H., D.Sc. 4 Cluny-terrace, Edinburgh.

tAshworth, J. Reginald, D.Sc. 105 Freehold-street, Rochdale.

*Aspland, W. Gaskell. 50 Park Hill-road, N.W.

*Assheton, Richard, M.A., F.L.S. Grantchester, Cambridge.

tAssheton, Mrs. Grantchester, Cambridge.

SAstLEY, Rev. H. J. Duxryriecp, M.A., Litt.D. East Rudham
Vicarage, King’s Lynn.

*Atkinson, E. Cuthbert. 5 Pembroke-vale, Clifton, Bristol.

*Atkinson, Harold W., M.A. West View, Eastbury-avenue, North-
wood, Middlesex.

tAtkinson, J. J. Cosgrove Priory, Stony Stratford.

{Atkinson, J. T. The Quay, Selby, Yorkshire.

tAtkinson, Robert E. Morland-avenue, Knighton, Leicester.

jArrzmson, Ropert Witt, F.C.S., F.1.C. (Local Sec. 1891.)
44 Stuart-street, Cardiff.

§AupeEn, G. A., M.A., M.D. The Education Office, Edmund-street,
Birmingham.

§Auden, H. A., D.Sc. 13 Broughton-drive, Grassendale, Liverpool.

{Austin, CHaRtes E. 37 Cambridge-road, Southport.

§Austin, P. C. 101 Norwood-road, Herne Hill, 8.E.

tAxtell, S. W. Stobart Block, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Bach-Gladstone, Madame Henri. 147 Rue de Grenelle, Paris.

tBackhouse, T. W. West Hendon House, Sunderland.

*Backhouse, W. A. St. John’s, Wolsingham, R.S.0., Durham.

*Bacon, Thomas Walter. Ramsden Hall, Billericay, Essex.

{Baden-Powell, Major B. 32 Prince’s-gate, S.W.

§Badgley, Colonel W. F., Assoc.Inst.C.E., F.R.G.S. Verecroft,
Devizes.

*Bagnall, Richard Siddoway. Hope Department of Zoology,
University Museum, Oxford.

{tBaikie, Robert. P.O. Box 36, Pretoria, South Africa.

{Baildon, Dr. 42 Hoghton-street, Southport.

*Bailey, Charles, M.Sc., F.L.S. Haymesgarth, Cleeve Hill S.O.,
Gloucestershire.

*Bailey, G. H., D.Sc., Ph.D. Edenmor, Kinlochleven, Argyll, N.B.

*Bailey, Harry Percy. Montrose, Northdown, Margate.

§Bailey, P.G. 4 Richmond-road, Cambridge.

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 9

of

Election.

1905.
1894.
1878.

tBailey, Right Hon. W. F., C.B. Land Commission, Dublin.
*Baity, Francis Greson, M.A. Newbury, Colinton, Midlothian.
{Bary, Wattser. 4 Roslyn-hill, Hampstead, N.W.

1905. *Baker, Sir Augustine. 56 Merrion-square, Dublin.

1913.

1910

*Baker, Bevan B., B.Sc. Frontenac, Donnington-road, Harlesden,

. §BaKER, H. F., So.D., F-R.S. (Pres. A., 1913), Lowndean Professor
of Astronomy and Geometry in the University of Cam-
bridge. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1886. §Baker, Harry, F.I.C. Epworth House, Moughland-lane, Runcorn.

1911.

1913

§Baker, Miss Lilian, M.Sc. Queen’s-avenue, Tunstall, Staffordshire.
. §Baker, Ralph Homfeld. Cambridge.

1907. {Baldwin, Walter. 5 St. Alban’s-street, Rochdale.

1904.

1894.

1905.
1875.

1883.
1905.
1905.
1905.
1878.

1913.
1908.
1883.
1905.
1869.

1890.
1909.
1912.
1905.
1898.
1909.
1910.
1890.
1861.
1860.
1887.
1913.
1902.
1902.
1911.
1904.
1906.
1899.

1882.
1910.

1913.

{BatFrour, The Right Hon. A. J., D.C.L., LL.D., M.P., F.RS.,
Chancellor of the University of Edinburgh. (PRESIDENT,
1904.) Whittingehame, Prestonkirk, N.B.

{Batrour, Henry, M.A. (Pres. H, 1904.) Langley Lodge,
Headington Hill, Oxford.

{Balfour, Mrs. H. Langley Lodge, Headington Hill, Oxford.

t{Batrour, Isaac Baytey, M.A., D.Sc., M.D., E.R.S., F.R.S.E.,
F.L.S. (Pres. D, 1894; K, 1901), Professor of Botany in the
University of Edinburgh. Inverleith House, Edinburgh.

+Balfour, Mrs. I. Bayley. Inverleith House, Edinburgh.

{Balfour, Mrs. J. Dawyck, Stobo, N.B.

tBalfour, Lewis. 11 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

tBalfour, Miss Vera B. Dawyck, Stobo, N.B.

*Ball, Sir Charles Bent, Bart., M.D., Regius Professor of Surgery in
the University of Dublin. 24 Merrion-square, Dublin.

*Ball, Sidney, M.A. St. John’s College, Oxford.

{Ball, T. Elrington. 6 Wilton-place, Dublin.

*Ball, W. W. Rouse, M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

{ Ballantine, Rev. T. R. Ttrmochree, Bloomfield, Belfast.

+Bamber, Henry K., F.C.S._ 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-
street, Westminster, S.W.

{Bamford, Professor Harry, M.Sc. 30 Falkland-mansions, Glasgow.

tBampfield, Mrs. E. 309 Donald-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Bancroft, Miss Nellie, B.Sc., F.L.S. 260 Normanton-road, Derby.

+Banks, Miss Margaret Pierrepont. 10 Regent-terrace, Edinburgh.

{Bannerman, W. Bruce, F.S.A. 4 The Waldrons, Croydon.

{Baragar, Charles A. University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada,

§Barber, Miss Mary. 13 Temple Fortune Court, Hendon, N.W.

*Barber-Starkey, W. J.S. Aldenham Park, Bridgnorth, Salop.

*Barbour, George. Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall, Chester.

*Barclay, Robert. High Leigh, Hoddesden, Herts.

*Barclay, Robert. Sedgley New Hall, Prestwich, Manchester.

§Barclay, Sir Thomas. The Uplands, Blackwell, Bromsgrove.

{Barcroft, H., D.L. The Glen, Newry, Co. Down.

{Barcrort, Joszpu, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S. King’s College, Cambridge.

{Barger, George, M.A., D.Sc. 107 Tyrwhitt-road, St. John’s, 8.E.

§Barker, B. T. P., M.A. Fenswood, Long Ashton, Bristol.

*Barker, Geoffrey Palgrave. Henstead Hall, Wrentham, Suffolk.

§Barker, John H., M.Inst.C.E. Adderley Park Rolling Mills,
Birmingham.

*Barker, Miss J. M. Sunny Bank, Scalby, Scarborough.

Meare oan Inglis Palgrave. Henstead Hall, Wrentham,

uffolk.

§Bartina, Dr. Ginpert. Blythe Court, Norfolk-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

10

Year of
Election

1909.
1889.
1885.
1905.

1902.
1881.
1904.
1907.

1909.
1913.

1881.

1902.
1904.
1872.

1874.
1874.

1893.
1913.
1913.
1913.
1908.
1884.
1890.
1890.
1892.

1858.

1909.
1909.
1893.

1908.
1904.
1888.
1891.
1866.
1911.
1889.

1871.

1912.

1883.
1905,

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

tBarlow, Lieut.-Colonel G. N. H. Care of Messrs. Cox & Co,, 16
Charing Cross, 8. W.

{Barlow, H. W. L., M.A., M.B., F.C.S. The Park Hospital, Hither
Green, 8.E.

*Bartow, WituaAM, F.R.S., F.G.S. The Red House, Great
Stanmore. "3

*Barnard, Miss Annie T., M.D., B.Sc. Care of W. Barnard, Esq.,
38 New-court, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.

§Barnard, J. KE. Park View, Brondesbury Park, N.W.

*Barnard, William, LL.B. 3 New-court, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.

{Barnes, Rev. E. W.,M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.

§Barnes, Professor H. T., Sc.D., F.R.S. McGill University,
Montreal, Canada.

*Barnett, Miss Edith A. Holm Leas, Worthing.

§Barnett, Thomas G. The Hollies, Upper Clifton-road, Sutton
Coldfield,

{Barr, ARcHIBALD, D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1912.) Caxton-
street, Anniesland, Glasgow.

*Barr, Mark. Gloucester-mansions, Harrington-gardens, 8.W.

{Barrett, Arthur. 6 Mortimer-road, Cambridge.

*BarretT, Sir W. F., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.R.I.A. 6 De Vesci-
terrace, Kingstown, Co. Dublin.

*Barrineton, R. M., M.A., LL.B., F.L.S. Fassaroe, Bray, Co.
Wicklow.

*Barrington-Ward, Rev. Mark J., M.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. The
Rectory, Duloe §.0., Cornwall.

*Barrow, GEORGE, F.G.S. 202 Brecknock-road, Tufnell Park, N.

§Barrow, Harrison. 57 Wellington-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Barrow, Louis. 155 Middleton Hall-road, King’s Norton.

§Barrow, Walter. 13 Ampton-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

tBarry, Gerald H. Wiglin Glebe, Carlow, Ireland.

*Barstow, Miss Frances A. Garrow Hill, near York. sy

*Barstow, J. J. Jackson. The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare. | Fj ©

*Barstow, Mrs. The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare. fs rs

{Bartholomew, John George, F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. Newingto
House, Edinburgh.

*Bartholomew, William Hamond, M.Inst.C.E. Ridgeway House,
Cumberland-road, Hyde Park, Leeds.

{Bartleet, Arthur M. 138 Hagley-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

{Bartlett, C. Bank of Hamilton-building, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Barton, Edwin H., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Experimental
Physics in University College, Nottingham.

tBarton, Rev. Walter John, M.A., F.R.G.S. The College, Winchester.

*Bartrum, C. O., B.Sc. 32 Willoughby-road, Hampstead, N.W.

*Basset, A. B.,M.A., F.R.S. Fledborough Hall, Holyport, Berkshire.

tBassett, A. B. Cheverell, Llandaff.

*BassETT, HenRY. 26 Belitha-villas, Barnsbury, N.

*BassErT, HENRY, jun., D.Sc., Ph.D. University College, Reading.

{BastaBLE, Professor C. F., M.A., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1894.) 52
Brighton-road, Rathgar, Co. Dublin.

{tBastian, H. Cuaruton, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Emeritus Pro-
fessor of the Principles and Practice of Medicine in University
College, London. Fairfield, Chesham Bois, Bucks.

{Bastian, Staff-Surgeon William, R.N. Chesham Bois, Bucking-
hamshire.

{BaTEmay, Sir A. E., K.C.M.G. Woodhouse, Wimbledon Park, S.W.

*Bateman, Mrs. F. D. . Kilmorie, Ilsham-drive, Torquay, Devon,

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 11

Year of
Election.

1907.

1884.
1914.

1881.

1906.
1904.
1909.
1913.

1912.
1912.

1876.
1887.
1883.

1909.
1889.

1905.
1904.
1905.

1900.
1885.

1913.
1887.
1904.
1885.

TOLLE.
1904.
1891.
1878.

1901.

1905.
1891.
1909,

1894.
1900.
1870.

1883.
1888.
1914.
1908.

1904,

*BareMAN, Harry. The University, Manchester.

{Baruson, Professor Wriwram, M.A., F.R.S. (Presrpent ELECT ;
Pres. D, 1904.) The Manor House, Merton, Surrey.

§Bateson, Mrs. The Manor House, Merton, Surrey.

*BaTuer, Francis Arraur, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S., F.G.8. British
Museum (Natural History), S.W.

§Batty, Mrs. Braithwaite. Ye Gabled House, The Parks, Oxford.

tBaugh, J. H. Agar. 92 Hatton-garden, E.C.

§Bawlf, Nicholas. Assiniboine-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

§Bawtree, A. E., F.R.P.S. Lynton, Manor Park-road, Sutton,
Surrey.

* Baxter, Mins Evelyn V. Roselea, Kirkton of Largo, Fife.

*Bayliss, W. M., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S., Professor of General Physi-
ology in University College, London, W.C.

*Baynus, Ropert E., M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.

*Baynes, Mrs. R. E. 2 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

*Bazley, Gardner S. Hatherop Castle, Fairford, Gloucestershire.

Bazley, Sir Thomas Sebastian, Bart., M.A. Kilmorie, lisham-
drive, Torquay, Devon.

*BEADNELL, H. J. LLEWELLYN, F.G.S. Hafod, Llandinam, Mont-
gomeryshire.

§Brarx, Professor T. Hupson, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. The
University, Edinburgh.

{Beare, Mrs. T. Hudson. 10 Regent-terrace, Edinburgh.

tBeasley, H.C. 25a Prince Alfred-road, Wavertree, Liverpool.

tBeattie, Professor J. C., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. South African College,
Cape Town.

+Beaumont, Professor Roberts, M.I.Mech.E. The University, Leeds.

*Braumont, W. W., M.Inst.C.E. Outer Temple, 222 Strand,
W.C

§Beaven, E. 8. Eastway, Warminster.

*Broxert, JoHN Hamppen. Corbar Hall, Buxton, Derbyshire.

§Beckit, H.O. Cheney Cottage, Headington, Oxford.

t{BeppagD, Frank E., M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., Prosector of the
Zoological Society of London, Regent’s Park, N.W.

{Beddow, Fred, D.Sc., Ph.D. 2 Pier-mansions, Southsea.

*Bedford, T. G., M.A. 13 Warkworth-street, Cambridge.

{Bedlington, Richard. Gadlys House, Aberdare.

+Bepson, P. Puriurs, D.Sc., F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1889), Professor of
Chemistry in the College of Physical Science, Newcastle-upon-

Tyne.
*Brmpy, G. T., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1905.) 11 University.
gardens, Glasgow.
tBeilby, Hubert. 11 University-gardens, Glasgow.
*Belinfante, L. L., M.Sc., Assist. Sec. G.S. Burlington House, W.
jBretx, C. N., (Local Sec. 1909.) 121 Carlton-street, Winnipeg,
Canada.
{Bext, F. Jurrrey, M.A., F.Z.S. British Museum, S.W.
*Bell, Henry Wilkinson. Beech Cottage, Rawdon, near Leeds.
*But, J. Carter, A.R.S.M. The Cliff, Higher Broughton, Man-
chester.
*Bell, John Henry. 102 Leyland-road, Southport.
*Bell, Walter George, M.A. Trinity Hall, Cambridge,
§Bell, William Reid, M.Inst.C.E. Burnie, Tasmania.
eee oa Arthur, M.A., F.R.A.S. University Observatory,
ord.
{Bellars, A. E. Magdalene College, Cambridge.

12

Year of

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Election,

1913.

1883.
1901.
1909.
1909.
1903.
1901.

1887.
1898.
1904,

1905.
1908.
1896.

1894.

1905.
1906.
1898.

1894.
1908.
1908.
1904.

1905.
1862.

1913.
1880.

1913.
1906.
1884.
1913.
1903.
1870.

1888.
1910.
1882.
1911.

1898.
1901.
1908.
1887.
1884.
1881.

1910.
1887.

*Belliss, John, M.I.M.E. Darlinghurst, Carpenter-road, Edgbas-
ton, Birmingham.

*Bennett, Laurence Henry. The Elms, Paignton, South Devon.

{Bennett, Professor Peter. 207 Bath-street, Glasgow.

*Bennett, R. B., K.C. Calgary, Alberta, Canada.

{Benson, Miss C. C. Terralta, Port Hope, Ontario, Canada.

§Benson, D. E. Queenwood, 12 Irton-road, Southport.

*Brenson, Miss Marcarer J., D.Sc. Royal Holloway College,
Englefield Green.

*Benson, Mrs. W. J. 5 Wellington-court, Knightsbridge, S8,W.

*Bent, Mrs. Theodore. 13 Great Cumberland-place, W.

{Bentiey, B. H., M.A., Professor of Botany in the University of
Sheffield.

*Bentley, Wilfred. The Dene, Kirkheaton, Huddersfield.

{tBenton, Mrs. Evelyn M. Kingswear, Hale, Altrincham, Cheshire.

*Bergin, William, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Uni-
versity College, Cork.

§BERKELEY, The Earl of, F.R.S., F.C.S. (Council, 1909-10.)
Foxcombe, Boarshill, near Abingdon.

*Brrnaccut, L. C., F.R.G.S. 54 Inverness-terrace, W.

*Bernays, Albert Evan. 3 Priory-road, Kew, Surrey.

§Berridge, Miss C. E. 48 Stratford-road, Marloes-road, Kensing-
ton, W.

§BreRRiIDGE, Dovatas, M.A., F.C.S. The College, Malvern.

*Berridge, Miss Emily M. Dunton Lodge, The Knoll, Beckenham.

*Berry, Arthur J. 14 Regent-street, Cambridge.

§Berry, R. A., Ph.D., West of Scotland Agricultural College,
6 Blythswood-square, Glasgow.

{Bertrand, Captain Alfred. Champel, Geneva.

{Brsant, WiLL1AM Henry, M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S. St. John’s College,

Cambridge.

§Bethune-Baker, G. T. 19 Clarendon-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.

*Brvan, Rev. JAMES Ouiver, M.A., F.S.A., F.G.S. Chillenden

Rectory, Canterbury.

§Bevan, Mrs. Hillside, Egham.

{Bevan-Lewis, W., M.D. West Riding Asylum, Wakefield.

*Beverley, Michael, M.D. 54 Prince of Wales-road, Norwich.

§Bewlay, Hubert. The Lindens, Moseley, Birmingham.

{Bickerdike, C. F. 1 Boverney-road, Honor Oak Park, 8.E.

{Bicketon, Professor A. W. 18 Pembridge-mansions, Moscow-
road, W.

*Bidder, George Parker. Savile Club, Piccadilly, W.

{Biddlecombe, A. 50 Grainger-sireet, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

tBiggs, C. H. W., F.C.S. Glebe Lodge, Champion-hill, S.E.

§Briuzs, Sir Jonn H., LL.D., D.Sc. (Pres. G., 1911), Professor of
Naval Architecture in the University of Glasgow. 10 Uni-
versity-gardens, Glasgow.

{Billington, Charles. Heimath, Longport, Staffordshire.

*Bilsland, Sir William, Bart., J.P. 28 Park-circus, Glasgow.

*Bilton, Edward Barnard. Graylands, Wimbledon Common, S.W.

*Bindloss, James B. Elm Bank, Buxton.

*Bingham, Colonel Sir John E., Bart. West Lea, Ranmoor, Sheffield.

{Bunnig, Sir ALEXANDER R., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. (Pres. G, 1900.)
77 Ladbroke-grove, W.

*Birchenough, C., M.A. 8 Severn-road, Sheffield.

*Birley, H. K. Penrhyn, Irlams o’ th’ Height, Manchester.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 13

Year of
Election.

1913.

mes
1883.

§Birtwistle, G. Pembroke College, Cambridge.

. tBishop, A. W. Edwinstowe, Chaucer-road, Cambridge.

. *Bishop, Major C. F.,R.A. TheCastle, Tynemouth, Northumberland.
. §Bishop, J. L. Yarrow Lodge, Waldegrave-road, Teddington.

. {Bisset, John. Thornhill, Insch, Aberdeenshire.

. *Bixby, General W. H. 735 Southern-building, Washington, U.S.A.
. tBlack, W. J., Principal of Manitoba Agricultural College, Winnipeg,

Canada.

. §Black, W. P. M. 136 Wellington-street, Glasgow.
. *Brackman, F.F.,M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. K, 1908.) St. John’s

College, Cambridge.

. §BLAcKMAN, Professor V. H., M.A.,Sc.D., F.R.S. Imperial College

of Science and Technology, 8.W.

. §Blackwell, Miss Elsie M., M.Sc. 18 Stanley-avenue, Birkdale,

Southport.

. §Bladen, W. Wells. Stone, Staffordshire.
. {Blaikie, Leonard, M.A. Civil Service Commission, Burlington-

gardens, W.
{Blair, R., M.A. London County Council, Spring-gardens, S.W, ~

. Blake, Robert F., F.I.C. Queen’s College, Belfast.
. *Blamires, Joseph. Bradley Lodge, Huddersfield.
. {Blamires, Mrs. Bradley Lodge, Hudderstield. zi

{Blanc, Dr. Gian Alberto. Istituto Fisico, Rome.

. *Blandy, William Charles, M.A. 1 Friar-street, Reading. —
. *Bles, Edward J., M.A., D.Sc. Hlterholm, Madingley-road, Cam-

bridge.

. *Blish, William G. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.

. §Blofield, Rev. 8., B.A. Saltley College, Birmingham.

. {Blount, Bertram, F.I.C. 76 & 78 York-street, Westminster, S.W.
. {Bloxsom, Martin, B.A., M.Inst.C.E. 4 Lansdowne-road, Crump-

sall Green, Manchester.

. §Blumfield, Joseph, M.D. 35 Harley-street, W.

Blyth, B. Hall. 135 George-street, Edinburgh.

. *Boddington, Henry. Pownall Hall, Wilmslow, Manchester.

. §BoEDDICKER, Otro, Ph.D. Birr Castle Observatory, Birr, Ireland.
. *Boissevain, Gideon Maria. 4 Tesselschade-straat, Amsterdam.

. §Bolland, B. G. C. Department of Agriculture, Cairo, Egypt.

. §Borton, H., F.R.S.E. The Museum, Queen’s-road, Bristol.

. §Borton, JonN, F.R.G.S. Brooklyn, 87 Widmore Road, Bromley,

Kent.

. *Bonar, James, M.A., LL.D. (Pres. F, 1898 ; Council, 1899-1905.)

The Mint, Ottawa, Canada.
{Bonar, Thomson, M.D. 114 Via Babuino, Piazza di Spagna,
Rome.

. *Bond, C. I., F.R.C.S. Springfield-road, Leicester.
. {Bond, J. H. R.,M.B. 167 Donald-street, Winnipeg, Canada.
. tBons, Professor W. A., D.So., F.R.S. Imperial Collegeof Science

and Technology, S.W.

. §Bonnar, W., LL.B., Ph.D. Cecil Hotel, Strand, W.C.
. *Bonnry, Rev. THomas Gxzorae, Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S., H.S.A.,

F.G.S. (Prusripent, 1910; Secrerary, 1881-85; Pres. C,
1886.) 9 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.

. {Bonny, W. Naval Store office, The Dockyard, Portsmouth.
. {Boon, William. Coventry.
. Boot, Sir Jesse. Carlyle House, 18 Burns-street, Nottingham.

*Booru, Right Hon. Cuaruzs, So.D., F.R.S., F.S.S. 28 Campden
House Court, Kensington, W.
{Booth, James. Hazelhurst, Turton.

14

BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

Year of

Election.

1910. §Booth, John, M.C.E., B.Sc. The Gables, Berkeley-street, Haw-
thorn, Melbourne. Australia.

1883. {Boothroyd, Benjamin. Weston-super-Mare.

1901. *Boothroyd, Herbert H., M.A., B.Sc. Sidney Sussex College, Oam-
bridge.

1912. {Borgmann, Professor J. J., D.Ph., LL.D. Physical Institute,
The University, St. Petersburg.

1882. §Borns, Henry, Ph.D. 5 Sutton Court-road, Chiswick, W.

1901. {Borradaile, L. A., M.A. Selwyn College, Cambridge.

1903.

1896.
1881.

1871.

1884.
1892.
1909.
1905.
1905.
1903.

1911.
1883.

1914.
1893.

1904.
1913.

1913.
1881.
1898.
1908.
1898.
1880.

1887.
1899.

1899.
1887.
1901.
1892.

1872,

*BosanquET, Roper C., M.A., Professor of Classical Archeology
in the University of Liverpool. Institute of Archeology,
40 Bedford-street, Liverpool.

t{Bose, Professor J. C., C.I.E., M.A., D.Sc. Calcutta, India.

§BoTHAMLEY, CuHaRLEs H., M.Sc., F.LC., F.C.8., Education
Secretary, Somerset mee d Council, Weston-super-Mare.

*BoTTOMLEY, JAMES THomsowN, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.,
F.C.8. 13 University-gardens, Glasgow.

*Bottomley, Mrs. 13 University-gardens, Glasgow.

*BoTtoMLey, W. B.,M.A., Professorof Botanyin King’s College, W.C.

§Boulenger, C. L., M.A., D.Sc. The University, Birmingham.

§BouLEnGcER, G. A., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1905.) 8 Courtfield-road, S.W.

§Boulenger, Mrs. 8 Courtfield-road, S.W.

§Boutton, W. 8., D.Sc., F.G.8., Professor of Geology in the Uni-
versity of Birmingham.

¢Bourdillon, R. Balliol College, Oxford.

{Bourne, Sir A. G., K.C.LE., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.L.S. Old College,
Nungumbakam, Madras.

§Bourne, Lady. Old College, Nungumbakam, Madras.

*Bournge, G. C., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. D, 1910 ; Council,
1903-09 ; Local Sec. 1894), Linacre Professor of Comparative
Anatomy in the University of Oxford. Savile House, Mans-
field-road, Oxford.

*Bousfield, E. G. P. St. Swithin’s, Hendon, N.W.

§Bowater, W. H. Elm House, Arthur-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

§Bowater, William. 20 Russell-road, Moseley, Birmingham.

*Bower, F. O., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1898;
Council, 1900-06), Regius Professor of Botany in the Univer-
sity of Glasgow.

*Bowker, Arthur Frank, F.R.G.S., F.G.S. Whitehill, Wrotham,
Kent.

§Bowles, E. Augustus, M.A., F.L.S. Myddelton House, Waltham
Cross, Herts.

{Bowtey, A. L., M.A. (Pres. F, 1906; Council, 1906-11.) North-
court-avenue, Reading.

tBowly, Christopher. Cirencester.

{tBowly, Mrs. Christopher. Cirencester.

*Bowman, HeErspert Lister, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S., Professor of
Mineralogy in the University of Oxford. Magdalen College,
Oxford.

*Bowman, John Herbert. Greenham Common, Newbury.

§Box, Alfred Marshall. 14 Magrath Avenue, Cambridge.

{Boyd, David T. Rhinsdale, Ballieston, Lanark.

tBoys, CoarRLes VERNON, F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1903; Council, 1893-99,
1905-08.) 66 Victoria-street, S.W.

*BRABROOK, Sir Epwarp, ©.B., F.8.A. (Pres. H, 1898; Pres. F,
1903; Council, 1903-10, 1911- ). 178 Bedford-hill,
Balham, S.W.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. > ++ 15

Year of

Election,

1894. *Braby, Ivon.% Heleria, Alan-road, Wimbledon, 8.W. nh aa
1893. §Bradley, F. L. Ingleside, Malvern Wells. : ee Pipese

1904. *Bradley, Gustav. Council Offices, Goole. ere cent Oe Ee a ped
1903. *Bradley, O. Charnock, D.Sc., M.D., F.RB.S.E. Royal Veterinary

1892.
1863.

1911.

1905.
1906.
1885.
1905
1909.
1905.
1905.

1913.

1902.

1909.
1905.
1908.
1907.
1912.

1913.
1913.
1904.

1909.

1908.
1893.

1904.
1905.
1898.

1879.
1905.

1905.
1907.
1896.
1901.

1883.

1903.

1913.
1904.
1906.
1911.

1906.
1883.

College, Edinburgh.
{Bradshaw, W. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Nottingham.
{Brapy, Grorcz §., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. Park Hurst, Endcliffe,

Sheffield.

§Braca, W. H., M.A., F.R.S. (Council, 1913- ), Professor of

Physics in the University of Leeds.

§Brakhan, A. Clare Bank, The Common, Sevenoaks.

{Branfield, Wilfrid. 4 Victoria-villas, Upperthorpe, Sheffield.

*Bratby, William, J.P. Alton Lodge, Lancaster Park, Harrogate.

{Brausewetter, Miss. Roedean School, near Brighton.

§ Bremner, Alexander. 38 New Broad-street, E.C.

TBremner, R. 8. Westminster-chambers, Dale-street, Liverpool.

{Bremner, Stanley. Westminster-chambers. Dale-street, Liverpool.

§Brenchley, Miss Winifred E., D.Sc., F.L.S. Rothamsted Ex-
perimental Station, Harpenden, Herts.

*Brereton, Cloudesley. Briningham House, Briningham, §.0.,

Norfolk.

*Breton, Miss Adela C. Care of Wilts and Dorset Bank, Bath.
§Brewis, E. 27 Winchelsea-road, Tottenham, N.

§Brickwood, Sir John. Branksmere, Southsea.

*Bridge, Henry Hamilton. Fairfield House, Droxford, Hants.
{Bridgman, F. J., F.L.S. Zoological Department, University

College, W.C.

§Brierley, Leonard H. 11 Ampton-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Briggs, W. Lowther House, Hale, Cheshire.

*Briggs, William, M.A., LL.D., F.R.A.S. Burlington House, Cam-
bridge.

*Briggs, Mrs. William. Owlbrigg, Cambridge.

{Brindley, H. H. 4 Devana-terrace, Cambridge.

{Briscoe, Albert E., B.Sc., A.R.C.Sc. The Hoppet, Little Baddow,

Chelmsford. ,

{Briscoe, J. J. Bourn Hall, Bourn, Cambridge.
§Briscoe, Miss. Bourn Hall, Bourn, Cambridge.
{Bristot, The Right Rev. G. F. Brownz, D.D., Lord Bishop of.

17 The Avenue, Clifton, Bristol.

*Brirrain, W. H., J.P., F.R.G.S. Storth Oaks, Sheffield.
*Broadwood, Brigadier-General R. G. The Deodars, Bloemfontein,

South Africa.

{Brock, Dr. B. G. P.O. Box 216, Germiston, Transvaal.
{Brockington, W. A., M.A. Birstall, Leicester.

*Brocklehurst, 8. Olinda, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

{Brodie, T. G., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in the

University of Toronto. TheUniversity, Toronto, Canada.
*Brodie-Hall, Miss W. L. Havetiwood, Peaslake, Gomshall, Surrey.
{Bropricg, Haron, M.A., F.G.S. (Local Sec. 1903.) 7 Aughton-

road, Birkdale, Southport.

§Brodrick, Mrs. Harold. 7 Aughton-road, Birkdale, Southport.
{Bromwich, T. J. 7A.,M.A., F.B.S. 1 Selwyn-gardens, Cambridge.
{Brook, Stanley. 18 St. George’s-place, York.

§Brooke, Colonel Charles, K., F.R.G.S. Army and Navy Club, Pall

Mall, S.W. }

*Brooks, F. T. 31 Tenison-avenue, Cambridge.
*Brough, Mrs, Charles 8. 4 Spencer-road, Southsea.} _

sm

16

Year of
Election

1886.
1913.

1905.
1863.

1883.
1905.

1903.
1870.

1881,
1895.

1882.
1898.
1901.
1913.
1908.
1905.
1910.
1912.
1884.
1908.
1912.
1906.
1900.

2908.
1895.

ae

1379.
1905.
1883.

1912.
1905.

1905.
1893.
1902.
1900.
1896,
1868,

1897.
1886.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

tBrough, Joseph, LL.D., Professor of Logic and Philosophy in Uni-
versity College, Aberystwyth.

§Brown, Professor A. J., M.Sc., F.R.S. West Heath House, North-
field, Birmingham.

{Brown, A. R. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*BrRown, ALEXANDER Crum, M.D., LL.D. F.RS., F.B.S.E.,
V.P.C.S. (Pres. B, 1874; Local Sec. 1871.) 8 Belgrave-
crescent, Edinburgh.

{Brown, oe Ellen F, Campbell. 27 Abercromby-square, Liver-

= pool.

§Brown, Professor Ernest William, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Yale Uni-

= versity, New Haven, Conn., U.S.A.

{Brown, F. W. 6 Rawlinson-road, Southport.

§Brown, Horace T., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. B, 1899 ; Council,
1904-11.) 52 Nevern-square, S.W.

*Brown, John, M.D. Rosebank, Cape of Good Hope.

*Brown, John Charles, 39 Burlington-road, Sherwood, Notting-
ham,

*Brown, Mrs. Mary. Rosebank, Cape of Good Hope.

§Brown, Nicol, F.G.8. 4 The Grove, Highgate, N.

;Brown, Professor R. N. Rudmose, D.Sc. The University, Sheffield.

§Brown, Robert. 4 Whitehouse-terrace, Edinburgh.

§Brown, Sripnry G. 52 Kensington Park-road, W.

§Brown, Mrs. Sidney G. 52 Kensington Park-road, W.

*Brown, Sidney J. R, 52 Kensington Park-road,W.

{Brown, T. Graham. The University, Liverpool.

{Brown, W. G. University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, U.S.A.

{Brown, William, B.Sc. 48 Dartmouth-square, Dublin.

{Brown, Dr. William. ‘Thornfield, Horley, Surrey.

{Browne, Charles E., B.Sc. Christ’s Hospital, West Horsham.

*BROWNE, FRANK Batrour, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.Z.S8. 26 Barton-
road, Cambridge.

{Browne, Rey. Henry, M.A. University College, Dublin.

*Browne, H. T. Doughty. 6 Kensington House, Kensington-
court, W.

{BRownzg, Sir J. Cricuton, M.D., LL.D., F.B.S.,F.R.S.E. 41 Hans-
place, S.W.

*Browne, James Stark, F.R.A.S. Hillcrest, Castlebar-hill, Ealing,
W

{Browning, Oscar, M.A. King’s College, Cambridge.

§Browning, T. B., M.A. 19 Aldermary-road, Bromley, Kent.

§Brucer, Colonel Sir Davin, C.B., F.R.S., A.M.S. (Pres. I, 1905).
Royal Society Commission, Kasu Hill (near Mvera), Central
Angoniland, Nyasaland Protectorate, British Central Africa.

{Bruce, Lady. 3p Artillery-mansions, Victoria-street, S.W.

{Brucr, Wim §., LL.D., F.R.S.E. Scottish Oceanographical
Laboratory, Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh.

tBruce-Kingsmill, Major J., F.C.S. 4 St. Ann’s-square, Man-
chester.

*Brumm, Charles. Lismara, Grosvenor-road, Birkdale, Southport.

*Brunner, Right Hon. Sir J. T., Bart. Silverlands, Chertsey.

{Brounton, Sir T. Lauper, Bart., M.D., Sc.D., F.R.S. (Council,
1908-12.) 10 Stratford-place, Cavendish-square, W.

*Brush, Charles F. Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A.

*Bryan, G. H., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in University
College, Bangor.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 17

Year of
Election.

1894,
1884.

1909.

1902.
1890.
1902.
1905.
1871.

1909.
1913.
1884.

1904.
1893.
1913.
1913.

1909.
1905.
1905.
1907.
1881.

1905.
1913.

1913.
1894.
1884.

1899.
1904.
1909.
1908.

1905.
1909.

1910.
1894,
1909.
Ute es
1892.

1904.
1906.
1909.

1887.
1899.
1895.
1908.
1910.
19

{Bryan, Mrs. R. P. Plas Gwyn, Bangor.

*Brycr, Rev. Professor Groraz, D.D., LL.D. Kilmadock, Winni-
peg, Canada.

{Bryce, Thomas H., M.D., Professor of Anatomy in the University
of Glasgow. 2 The College, Glasgow.

*Bubb, Miss E. Maude. Ullenwood, near Cheltenham.

§Bubb, Henry. Ullenwood, near Cheltenham.

*BucHANAN, Miss Frorence, D.Sc. University Museum, Oxford.

§Buchanan, Hon. Sir John. Clareinch, Claremont, Cape Town.

t{Bucuanan, JoHN Youne, M.A., F.RS., F.RS.E., F.RB.GS.,
F.C.S. 26 Norfolk-street, Park-lane, W.

{Buchanan, W. W. P.O. Box 1658, Winnipeg, Canada.

§Buckland, H. T, 21 Yateley-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Buckmaster, Charles Alexander, M.A., F.C.S. 16 Heathfield-road,
Mill Hill Park, W.

{Buckwell, J.C. North Gate House, Pavilion, Brighton.

§BuLtEID, ArTrHuR, F.8.4. Dymboro, Midsomer Norton, Bath.

*Bulleid, C. H. University College, Nottingham.

*Buller, A. H. Reginald, Professor of Botany in the University
of Manitoba, Winnipeg.

{Butyua, The Hon. G. H. V. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.

{Burbury, Mrs. A. A. 15 Melbury-road, W.

{Burbury, Miss A. D. 15 Melbury road, W.

{Burch, George J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. 28 Norham-road, Oxford.

{Burdett-Coutts, William Lehmann, M.P. 1 Stratton-street, Picca-

illy, W

dilly, W.

gegenn, Bi R., M.A. Ikenhilde, Royston, Herts.

§Burfield, Stanley Thomas. 137 Woodchurch-road, Prenton,
Birkenhead.

*Burgess, J. Howard. Shide, Newport, Isle of Wight.

{Burke, Joun B. B. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Burland, Lieut.-Colonel Jeffrey H. 342 Sherbrooke-street West,
Montreal, Canada.

{Burls, H. T., F.G.S. 2 Verulam-buildings, Gray’s Inn, W.C.

Burn, R. H. 21 Stanley-crescent, Notting-hill, W.

{Burns, F. D. 203 Morley-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

{Burnside, W. Snow, D.Sc., Professor of Mathematics in the Uni-
versity of Dublin. 35 Raglan-road, Dublin.

{Burroughes, James S., F.R.G.S. The Homestead, Seaford, Sussex.

{Burrows, Theodore Arthur. 187 Kennedy-street, Winnipeg,
Canada.

{Burt, Cyril. The University, Liverpool.

{Burton, C. V. Boar’s Hill, Oxford.

{Burton, E. F. 129 Howland-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

§Burton, J. H. County Education Office, Weston-super-Mare.

{Burton-Brown, Colonel A., F.G.S. Royal Societies Club, St.
James’s-street, S.W.

{Burtt, Arthur H., D.Sc. 4 South View, Holgate, York.

{Burtt, Philip. Swarthmore, St. George’s-place, York.

{Burwash, E. M., M.A. New Westminster, British Columbia,
Canada.

*Bury, Henry. Mayfield House, Farnham, Surrey.

tBush, Anthony. 43 Portland-road, Nottingham.

{Bushe, Colonel C. K., F.G.S. 19 Cromwell-road, 8.W.

*Bushell, W. F. Rossall School, Fleetwood.

nes Miss. 25 Harl’s Court-square, S.W.

3. B

18

Year of
Election.

1884.
1913.
1884.

1887.
1899.

1913.
1913.
1892.
1908.
1913.

1913.
1913.
1912.
1861.
1901.
1907.
1908.

1897.

1911.
1911.
1857.
1909.
1896.
1909.
1901.

1897.
1909,

1909,

1902.
1912,

1890.

1905.
1897.
1904.
1911.
1905.
1894.

. 1887.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

*Butcher, William Deane, M.R.C.S.Eng. Holyrood, 5 Cleveland-
road, Ealing, W.

*Butler, W. Waters. Southfield, Norfolk-road, Edgbaston, Bir-

, mingham. ;

t Pale e W. Carisbrooke, Rhin-road, Colwyn Bay, North
Wales.

*Buxton, J. H. Clumber Cottage, Montague-road, Felixstowe.

{Byles, Arthur R. ‘ Bradford Observer,’ Bradford, Yorkshire.

§Cadbury, Edward. Westholme, Selly Oak, Birmingham.

§Cadbury, W. A. Wast Hills, King’s Norton.

{Cadell, H. M., B.Sc., F.R.S.E. Grange, Linlithgow.

{Cadic, Edouard, D.Litt. Mon Caprice, Pembroke Park, Dublin.

§Cadman, John, D.Sc., Professor of Mining in the University of
Birmingham. 61 Wellington-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Cadman, W. H., B.Sc. Matarieh, Cairo, Egypt.

§Cahill, J. R. 49 Hanover Gate-mansions, Regent’s Park, N.W.

§Caine, Nathaniel. Spital, Cheshire.

*CargD, Sir JAMES Key, Bart., LL.D. 8 Magdalen Yard-road,
Dundee.

{Caldwell, Hugh. Blackwood, Newport, Monmouthshire.

{Caldwell, K. 8. St. Bartholomew's Hospital, S.E.

§Caldwell, Colonel R. T., M.A., LL.M., LL.D., Master of Corpus
Christi College, Cambridge.

{CattenpaR, Hues L., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1912;
Council, 1900-06), Professor of Physics in the Imperial
College of Science and Technology, S.W.

Calman, W. 'T., D.Sc. British Museum (Natural History), Crom-
well-road, 8. W.

§Cameron, Alexander T. Physiological Department, University of
Manitoba, Winnipeg.

{Cameron, Sir Cuagues A.,C.B.,M.D. 51 Pembroke-road, Dublin.

tCameron, D.C, 65 Roslyn-road, Winnipeg, Canada.

§Cameron, Irving H., LL.D., Professor of Surgery in the University
of Toronto. 307 Sherbourne-street, Toronto, Canada.

{Cameron, Hon. Mr, Justice J. D, Judges’ Chambers, Winnipeg,

Canada.

§Campbell, Archibald. Park Lodge, Albert-drive, Pollokshields,
Glasgow.

{Campbell, Colonel J.C. L. Achalader, Blairgowrie, N.B.

*Campbell, R. J. Rideau Hall, 85 Kennedy-street, Winnipeg,
Canada.

{Campbell, Mrs. R. J. Rideau Hall, 85 Kennedy-street, Winnipeg,
Canada.

{Campbell, Robert. 21 Great Victoria-street, Belfast.

tCampbell, Dr. Robert. Geological Department, The University,
Edinburgh.

{tCannan, Professor Epwiy, M.A., LL.D., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1902.)
11 Chadlington-road, Oxford.

{Cannan, Gilbert. King’s College, Cambridge.

§Cannon, Herbert. Alconbury, Bexley Heath, Kent.

tCapell, Rev. G. M. Passenham Rectory, Stony Stratford.

§Capon, R. S. 49a Rodney-street, Liverpool.

*Caporn, Dr. A. W. Muizenberg, South Africa,

{Cappsr, D. S., M.A., Professor of Mechanical Engineering in King’s
College, W.C.

{Capstick, J. W. Trinity College, Cambridge.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 19

Year of
Election,

1896.
1913.

1913.
1913.

1902.

1906.
1905.

1912.
1910.
1893.

1906.
1889.
1911.

1867.
1886.
1899.

1911.
1900.

1896.

1878.
1870.

1862.
1894.
1913.

1901.
1899.

1897.
1873.
1908.
1910.
1905.
1905.
1910.
1913.
1913.
1913.
1901,

1905.

1881.
1908.
1888.

*Carden, H. Vandeleur. Fir Lodge, Broomfield, Chelmsford.

§Carlier, E. Wace, M.Sc., M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiolog
in the University of Birmingham. The University, Edmund-
street, Birmingham.

§Carpenter, C. 157 Victoria-street, S.W

*Carpenter, G. D. H., M.B. 19 Bardwell-road, Oxford.

tCarpenter, G. H., B.Sc., Professor of Zoology in the Royal College
of Science, Dublin.

*Carpenter, H.C. H. 11 Oak-road, Withington, Manchester.

§Carpmael, Edward, F.R.A.S., M.Inst.C.E. 24 Southampton-
buildings, Chancery-lane, W.C.

*Carr, H. Wildon, D.Litt. More’s Garden, Cheyne-walk, S.W.

§Carr, Henry F. Broadparks, Pinhoe, near Exeter.

{Carr, J. Westzy, M.A., F.LS., F.G.S., Professor of Biology in
University College, Nottingham.

*Carr, Richard EK. Sylvan Mount, Sylvan-road, Upper Norwood, S.E.

{Carr-Ellison, John Ralph. Hedgeley, Alnwick.

{Carruthers, R. G., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 33 George-
square, Edinburgh.

{CarrurTuers, Wriiam, F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.8. (Pres. D, 1886.)
44 Central-hill, Norwood, S.E.

{Carstake, J. Barnam. (Local Sec. 1886.) 30 Westfield-road,
Birmingham.

{Carslaw, H. 8., D.Sc., Professor of Mathematics in the University
of Sydney, N.S.W.

{Carter, Godfrey, M.B. 4 Lawson-road, Broomhill, Sheffield.

*CartER, W. Lowmr, M.A., F.G.S. Bolbec, Grange Road,
Watford.

{Cartwright, Miss Edith G. 21 York Street-chambers, Bryanston-
square, W.

*Cartwright, Ernest H., M.A., M.D. Myskyns, Ticehurst, Sussex.

§Cartwright, Joshua, M.Inst.C.E., F.S.1. 21 Parsons-lane, Bury,
Lancashire.

tCarulla. F. J. R. 84 Rosehill-street, Derby.

{Carus, Dr. Paul. La Salle, Illinois, U.S.A.

§Carus-Wilson, Cecil, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 16 Waldegrave-park,
Strawberry Hill, Twickenham.

{Carver, Thomas A. B., D.Sc., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 9 Springfield-
road, Dalmarnock, Glasgow.

*Case, J. Monckton. Department of Lands (Water Branch),
Victoria, British Columbia.

*Case, Willard E. Auburn, New York, U.S.A.

*Cash, William, F.G.S. 26 Mayfield-terrace South, Halifax.

*Cave, Charles J. P., M.A. Ditcham Park, Petersfield.

§Chadburn, A. W. Brincliffe Rise, Sheffield.

*Challenor, Bromley, M.A. The Firs, Abingdon,

*Challenor, Miss E.M. The Firs, Abingdon.

§Chalmers, Stephen D. 25 Cornwall-road, Stroud Green, N.

§Chalmers, Mrs. 8. D. 25 Cornwall-road, Stroud Green, N.

§CHAMBERLAIN, NEVILLE. Westbourne, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

§Chambers, Miss Beatrice Anne. Glyn-y-mél, Fishguard.

§Chamen, W. A. South Wales LKlectrical Power Distribution
Company, Royal-chambers, Queen-street, Cardiff,

tChampion, G. A. Haraldene, Chelmsford-road, Durban, Natal.

*Champney, John E. 27 Hans-place, S.W. ;

tChance, Sir Arthur, M.D. 90 Merrion-square, Dublin.

tChandler, 8. Whitty, B.A. St. George’s, Cecil-road, Boscombe.

B 2

20

Year of
Election

1907.
1902.
1910.
1899.

1912.

1910.
1905.
1904.

1886.

1904.
1913.
1900.
1874.

1908.
1910.
1879.
1911.
1908.
1883.
1894.

1899.
1899.
1904.
1882.
1909.
1893.

1913.
1900.
1875.
1870.

1903.
1901.

1905.
1907.
1877.
1902.
1908.
1881.

1909.

1908.
1901.
1907.
1902.

1889. _

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

*Chapman, Alfred Chaston, F.I.C. 8 Duke-street, Aldgate, E.C.

*Chapman, D. L., F.R.S. Jesus College, Oxford.

{Chapman, J. E. Kinross.

§CHapMAN, Professor SypNEY Joun, M.A., M.Com. (Pres. F,
1909.) Burnage Lodge, Levenshulme, Manchester.

*Chapman, Sydney, D.Sc., B.A., F.R.A.S. Royal Observatory,
Greenwich, 8.E.

{Chappell, Cyril. 73 Neill-road, Sheffield.

{Chassigneux, E. 12 Tavistock-road, Westbourne-park, W.

*Chattaway, F.D., M.A., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S. 151 Woodstock-road,
Oxford.

*OgaTtrock, A. P., D.Sc. Heathfield Cottage, Crowcombe,
Somerset.

*Chaundy, Theodore William, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.

§Cheesman, Miss Gertrude Mary. The Crescent, Selby.

*Cheesman, W. Norwood, J.P., F.L.S. The Crescent, Selby.

*Chermside, Lieut.-General Sir Herbert, R.E., G.C.M.G.,C.B. New-
stead Abbey, Nottingham.

{Cherry, Right Hon. Lord Justice. 92 St. Stephen’s Green, Dublin.

+Chesney, Miss Lilian M., M.B. 381 Glossop-road, Sheffield.

*Chesterman, W. Belmayne, Sheffield.

*Chick, Miss H., D.Sc. Chestergate, Park-hill, Ealing, W.

{Chill, Edwin, M.D. Westleigh, Mattock-road, Ealing, W.

{Chinery, Edward F., J.P. Lymington.

tCnisnorm, G. G., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1907.) 12
Hallhead-road, Edinburgh.

§Chitty, Edward. Sonnenberg, Castle-avenue, Dover.

+Chitty, Mrs. Edward. Sonnenberg, Castle-avenue, Dover.

§Chivers, John, J.P. Wychfield, Cambridge.

{Chorley, George. Midhurst, Sussex.

;Chow, H. H., M.D, 263 Broadway, Winnipeg, Canada.

Coren, CuaRuEs, D.Sc., F.R.S. Kew Observatory, Richmond,

Surrey.

§Christie, Dr. M. G. Post Office House, Leeds.

*Christie, R. J. Duke-street, Toronto, Canada.

*Christopher, George, F.C.S. Thorncroft, Chislehurst.

§Cuurcn, Sir ArtHuR, K.C.V.O., M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A. Shelsley,
Ennerdale-road, Kew.

{Clapham, J. H., M.A. King’s College, Cambridge.

§Clark, Archibald B., M.A., Professor of Political Economy in the
University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Clark, Cumberland, F.R.G.S. 22 Kensington Park-gardens, W.

*Clark, Mrs. Cumberland. 22 Kensington Park-gardens, W.

*Clark, F. J., J.P., F.L.S. Netherleigh, Street, Somerset.

+Clark, G. M. South African Museum, Cape Town.

{Clark, James, B.Se., Ph.D. Newtown School, Waterford, Ireland.

*Clark, J. Edmund, B.A., B.Sc. Asgarth, Riddlesdown-road,
Purley, Surrey.

§Clark, J. M., M.A., K.C. The Kent Building, 156 Yonge-street,
Toronto, Canada.

§Clark, John R. W. Brothock Bank House, Arbroath, Scotland.

*Clark, Robert M., B.Sc., F.L.S. 27 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

*Clarke, E. Russell. 11 King’s Bench-walk, Temple, E.C.

*CLARKE, Miss Linian J., B.Sc., F.L.S. Chartfield Cottage, Brasted
Chart, Kent.

*CLaypen, A. W., M.A., F.G.S. 5 The Crescent, Mount Radford,
Exeter.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 21

Year of
Election.

1908.
1909.
1909.

1861.

1905.
1905.
1902.
1904.

1909.
1861.

1906.
1883.

1914.
1912.
1891.
1884.
1911.
1908.
1908.

1901.

1883.
1913.
1861.

1908,
1898.
1881.
1896.
1901.
1906.

1895.
1893.

1913.
1903.
1910.
1897.

1899.
1892.
1912.
1887.

1913.
1861.
1876.
1910,

*Clayton, Miss Edith M. Brackendene, Horsell, Surrey,

§Cleeves, Frederick, F.Z.8. 23 Lime-street, H.C.

{Cleeves, W. B. Public Works Department, Government-buildings,
Pretoria.

{Cuenanp, Joun, M.D., D.Se., F.R.S. Drumclog, Crewkerne,
Somerset.

§Cleland, Mrs. Drumclog, Crewkerne, Somerset.

§Cleland, Lieutenant J. R. Drumclog, Crewkerne, Somerset.

tClements, Olaf P. Tana, St. Bernard’s-road, Olton, Warwick.

§CierK, Dr. Ducatp, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1908 ; Council
1912— .) 57 and 58 Lincoln’s Inn Fields, W.C.

{Cleve, Miss E. K. P. 74 Kensington Gardens-square, W.

*Ciirton, R. Beiuamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Experi-
mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. 3 Bardwell-
road, Banbury-road, Oxford.

§CLosg, Colonel C. F., R.E., C.M.G., F.R.G.S. (Pres. H, 1911;
Council, 1908-12.) Army and Navy Club, Pall Mall, 8. W.

*CLtowzs, Frank, D.Sc., F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1893.) The Grange,
College-road, Dulwich, S.E.

§Clowes, Mrs. The Grange, College-road, Dulwich, 8.E.

§Clubb, Joseph A., D.Sc. Free Public Museum, Liverpool.

*Coates, Henry, F.R.S.E. Balure, Perth.

tCobb, John. Fitzharris, Abingdon.

§Cobbold, E. §., F.G.8. Church Stretton, Shropshire.

*Cochrane, Miss Constance. The Downs, St. Neots.

tCochrane, Robert, I.8.0., LL.D., F.S.A. 17 Highfield-road,
Dublin.

tCockburn, Sir John, K.C.M.G., M.D. 10 Gatestone-road, Upper
Norwood, S.E.

tCockshott, J. J. 24 Queen’s-road, Southport.

§Codd, J. Alfred. 7 Tettenhall-road, Wolverhampton.

*Coe, Rev. Charles C., F.R.G.S. Whinsbridge, Grosvenor-road,
Bournemouth.

{Coffey, Denis J., M.B. 2 Arkendale-road, Glenageary, Co. Dublin.

tCoffey, George. 5 Harcourt-terrace, Dublin.

*Corrin, WALTER Harris, F.C.S. National Liberal Club, S.W.

*Coghill, Percy de G. Sunnyside House, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

*Cohen, R. Waley, B.A. 11 Sussex-square, W.

*Coker, Professor Ernest George, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. City and
Guilds of London Technical College, Finsbury, E.C.

*Colby, William Henry. Carregwen, Aberystwyth.

§CoLz, GRENVILLE A. J., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.

§Cotz, Professor F. J. University College, Reading.

{Cole, Otto B. 551 Boylston-street, Boston, U.S.A.

§Cole, Thomas Skelton. Westbury, Endcliffe-crescent, Sheffield.

§Cotzman, Professor A. P., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S. (Pres. C, 1910.)
476 Huron-street, Toronto, Canada.

tCollard, George. The Gables, Canterbury.

tCollet, Miss Clara E. 7 Coleridge-road, N.

{Collett, J. M., J.P. Kimsbury House, Gloucester.

{Cotuim, J. Norman, Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Organic Chemistry
in the University of London. 16 Campden-grove, W.

§Collinge, Walter E., M.Sc. 8 Newhall-street, Birmingham.

*Collingwood, J. Frederick, F.G.8. 8 Oakley-road, Canonbury, N.

tCotuins, J. H., F.G.S. Crinnis House, Par Station, Cornwall.

*Collins, 8, Hoare. 9 Cavendish-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

22

Year of

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Election.

1902.
1914.

1892.
1910.
1905.

1910.

1912.
1871.
1902.
1903.

1898.
1913.

1876.
1911.
1888.
1899.

1903.
1901.
1911.
1912.
1907.
1904.

1909.
1904.
1909.

1887.
1894.
1901.

1893.

1889.
1884.
1900.
1905.

1909.
1910.
1911.
1908.

1874.
1908.
1908.
1896.

1911.

tCollins, T. R. Belfast Royal Academy, Belfast.

§Collum, Mrs. Anna Maria. 18 Northbrook-road, Leeson Park,
Dublin.

{Colman, Dr. Harold G. 1 Arundel-street, Strand, W.C.

*Colver, Robert, jun. Graham-road, Ranmoor, Sheffield.

*Combs, Rev. Cyril W., M.A. Elverton, Castle-road, Newport,
Isle of Wight.

*Compton, Robert Harold, B.A. Gonville and Caius College, Cam-
bridge.

§Conner, Dr. William. Glynfield, Havant, Hants.

*Connor, Charles C. 10 College-gardens, Belfast.

{Conway, A. W. 100 Leinster-road, Rathmines, Dublin.

{Conway, R. Seymour, Litt.D., Professor of Latin in Owens College,
Manchester.

§Cook, Ernest H., D.Sc. 27 Berkeley-square, Clifton, Bristol.

§Cook, Gilbert, M.Sc., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Engineering Depart-
ment, The University, Manchester.

*CooKE, Conrad W. The Pines, Langland-gardens, Hampstead, N.W.

{tCooke, J. H. 101 Victoria-road North, Southsea.

tCooley, George Parkin. Constitutional Club, Nottingham.

*Coomaraswamy, A. K., D.Sc., F.L.S., F.G.S. Broad Campden,
Gloucestershire.

§Cooper, Miss A. J. 22 St. John-street, Oxford.

*Cooper, C. Forster, B.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

§Cooper, W. E. Henwick Lodge, Worcester.

tCooper, W. F. The Laboratory, Rickmansworth-road, Watford.

{Cooper, William. Education Offices, Becket-street, Derby.

*CopEMAN, S. Monoxton, M.D., F.R.S. Local Government Board,
Whitehall, S.W.

§Copland, Mrs. A. J. Gleniffer, 50 Woodberry Down, N.

*Copland, Miss Louisa. 10 Wynnstay-gardens, Kensington, W.

§Corbett, W. A. 207 Bank of Nova Scotia-building, Winnipeg,
Canada.

*Corcoran, Bryan. 23 Croham Park-avenue, South Croydon.

§Corcoran, Miss Jessie R. Rotherfield Cottage, Bexhill-on-Sea.

*Cormack, J. D., D.Sc., Professor of Civil Engineering and Mechanics
in the University of Glasgow.

*Corner, Samuel, B.A., B.Sc. Abbotsford House, Waverley-
street, Nottingham.

{tCornisu, VaucHan, D.Sc., F.R.G.S. Woodville, Camberley.

*Cornwallis, F. S. W., F.L.S. Linton Park, Maidstone.

§CortiE, Rev. A. L., 8.J., F.R.A.S. Stonyhurst College, Blackburn.

{Cory, Professor G. E., M.A. Rhodes University College, Grahams-
town, Cape Colony.

*Cossar, G. C., M.A., F.G.S. Southview, Murrayfield, Edinburgh.

§Cossar, James. 53 Belford-road, Edinburgh.

{Cossey, Miss, M.A. High School for Girls, Kent-road, Southsea.

*Costello, John Francis, B.A. The Rectory, Ballymackey, Nenagh,
Treland.

*CoTTERILL, J. H., M.A., F.R.S. Hillcrest, Parkstone, Dorset.

tCotton, Alderman W. F., D.L., J.P., M.P. Hollywood, Co. Dublin.

tCourtenay, Colonel Arthur H., C.B., D.L. United Service Club,

Dublin.

{Countnny, Right Hon. Lord. (Pres. F, 1896.) 15 Cheyne-walk,
Chelsea, S.W.

{Couzens, SirG. E,K.L.H. Glenthorne, Kingston-crescent, Ports-

mouth,

LIST OF MEMBERS: 19138. 23

Year of
Election.

1908.
1872.

1903.
1900.
1895.

1899.

1913.
1909.
1906.

1905.
1912.

1908.
1911.
1884.

1906.
1908.

1906.
1905.
1906.

1905.
1910.
1905.

1871.
1905.

1890.
1883.
1885.

1876.

1887.
1911.
1904.
1880.

1908.
1905.
1890.
1878.

1913.
1903.
1901.

1887.

+Cowan, P. C., B.Sc., M-Inst.C.E. 33 Ailesbury-road, Dublin.

*Cowan, Thomas William, F.L.S., F.G.S. Upcott House, Taunton,
Somersetshire. :

t{Coward, H. Knowle Board School, Bristol.

§Cowburn, Henry. Dingle Head, Leigh, Lancashire.

*CowELn, Pure H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. 62 Shooters Hill-road,
Blackheath, 8.5.

{Cowper-Coles, Sherard. 1 and 2 Old Pye-street, Westminster,
S.W.

§Cox, A. Hubert. King’s College, Strand, W.C.

{Cox, F. J.C. Anderson-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

tCox, S. Herbert, Professor of Mining in the Imperial College of
Science and Technology, S.W.

tCox, W. H. Royal Observatory, Cape Town.

{Craig, D. D., M.A., B.Sc., M.B. The University, St. Andrews,
N.B

tCraig, James, M.D. 18 Merrion-square North, Dublin.

§Craig, J. I. Homelands, Park-avenue, Worthing.

§Crarciz, Major P. G., C.B., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1900; Council,
1908- .) Bronté House, Lympstone, Devon.

tCraik, Sir Henry, K.C.B., LL.D., M.P. 5a Dean’s-yard, West-
minster, S.W.

*Cramer, W., Ph.D., D.Sc. Physiological Department, The
University, Edinburgh.

tCramp, William. Redthorn, Whalley-road, Manchester.

*Cranswick, W. F. P.O. Box 65, Bulawayo, Rhodesia.

{Cravun, Henry. (Local Sec. 1906.) Greenbank, West Lawn,
Sunderland.

tCrawford, Mrs. A. M. Marchmont, Rosebank, near Cape Town.

*Crawford, O. G.S. The Grove, East Woodhay, Newbury.

tCrawford, Professor Lawrence, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S.E. South
African College, Cape Town.

*Orawford, William Caldwell, M.A. 1 Leckharton-gardens, Colin-
ton-road, Edinburgh.

tCrawford, W. C., jun. 1 Lockharton-gardens, Colinton-road,
Edinburgh.

§Crawshaw, Charles B. Rufford Lodge, Dewsbury.

*Crawshaw, Edward, F.R.G.S. 25 Tollington-park, N.

§Creak, Captain E. W., C.B., R.N., F.R.S. (Pres. E, 190 ; Council,
1896-1903.) 9 Hervey-road, Blackheath, S.E.

Pena Rev. Canon George. Whitstead, Barton-road, Cam-

ridge.

*Crewdson, Theodore. Spurs, Styall, Handforth, Manchester.

tCrick, George C., F.G.S. British Museum (Natural History), S.W.

{Crilly, David. 7 Well-street, Paisley.

*Crisp, Sir Frank, Bart., B.A., LL.B., F.LS., F.G.S. 5 Lansdowne-
road, Notting Hill, W.

§Crocker, J. Meadmore. Albion House, Bingley, Yorkshire.

§Croft, Miss Mary. Quedley, Shottermill.

*Croft, W. B., M.A. Winchester College, Hampshire.

*Croke, John O’Byrne, M.A. Clouncagh, Ballingarry-Lacy, Co.
Limerick.

§Crombie, J. E. Parkhill House, Dyce, Aberdeenshire.

*Crompton, Holland. Oaklyn, Cross Oak-road, Berkhamsted.

+tCrompton, Colonel R. E.,C.B., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1901.)
Kensington-court, W.

tCroox, Henry T., M.Inst.C.E Lancaster-avenue, Manchester.

24

Year of

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Election.

1898.
1865.

1879.
1897.
1909.
1905.
1894.
1904.

1890.
1905.
1904.

1908.
1897.
1890.
1910.
1910.
1911.

1883.

1883.
1911.

1911.
1898.
1861.
1861.
1905.
1882.
1905.
1911.
1885.
1869.
1883,
1892.
1900.
1912.

1913.
1908.

1892.
1905.

§Crooke, WILLIAM, B,A. (Pres. H, 1910; Council, 1910- .) Lang-
ton House, Charlton Kings, Cheltenham.

§Crookss, Sir Wrtt1am, O.M., D.Sc., Pres.R.S., V.P.C.S. (Prust-
DENT, 1898 ; Pres. B, 1886 ; Council, 1885-91.) 7 Kensington
Park-gardens, W.

tCrookes, Lady. 7 Kensington Park-gardens, W.

*CROOKSHANK, E. M., M.B. Saint Hill, East Grinstead, Sussex.

{Crosby, Rev. E. H. Lewis, B.D. 36 Rutland-square, Dublin.

tCrosfield, Hugh T. Walden, Coombe-road, Croydon.

*Crosfield, Miss Margaret C. Undercroft, Reigate.

§Cross, Professor Charles R. Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Boston, U.S.A.

tCross, E. Richard, LL.B. Harwood House, New Parks-crescent,
Scarborough.

§Cross, Robert. 13 Moray-place, Edinburgh.

*CrossLEY, A. W., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry
to the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. 10 Crediton-
road, West Hampstead, N.W.

{Crossley, F. W. 30 Molesworth-street, Dublin.

*Crosweller, Mrs. W. T. Kent Lodge, Sidcup, Kent.

*Crowley, Ralph Henry, M.D. Sollershott W., Letchworth.

§Crowther, Dr. C., M.A. The University, Leeds.

*Crowther, James Arnold. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

§Crush, 8. T. Care of Messrs. Yarrow & Co., Lid., Scotstoun West,
Glasgow.

*CULVERWELL, EDWARD P., M.A., Professor of Education in Trinity
College, Dublin.

{Culverwell, T. J. H. Litfield House, Clifton, Bristol.

§Cumming, Alexander Charles, D.Sc. Chemistry Department,
University of Edinburgh.

§Coummins, Major H. A., M.D., C.M.G., Professor of Botany in
University College, Cork.

+Cundall, J. Tudor. 1 Dean Park-crescent, Edinburgh.

*Cunliffe, Edward Thomas. The Parsonage, Handforth, Manchester.

*Cunliffe, Peter Gibson. Dunedin, Handforth, Manchester.

{Cunningham, Miss A. 2 St. Paul’s-road, Cambridge.

*CUNNINGHAM, Lieut.-Colonel Attan, R.E., A.I.C.E. 20 Essex-
villas, Kensington, W.

{Cunningham, Andrew. LEarlsferry, Campground-road, Mowbray,
South Africa.

{Cunningham, E. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

t{Cunnincuam, J. T., B.A. Biological Laboratory, Plymouth.

{CunnineHaM, Roperr O., M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Natural
History in Queen’s College, Belfast.

*CunnincHaM, Ven. W., D.D., D.Sc. (Pres. F, 1891, 1905.) Trinity
College, Cambridge.

{tCunningham-Oraig, EH. H., B.A., F.G.S. 144 Dublin-sireet,
Edinburgh.

*Cunnington, William A., M.A., Ph.D., F.Z.S. 25 Orlando-road,
Clapham Common, 8.W.

§CunyncHAmE, Sir Henry H., K.C.B. (Pres. F, 1912.) 15 The
Leas, Folkestone.

§Currall, A. E. Streetsbrook-road, Solihull, Birmingham.

tCurrelly, C. T., M.A., F.R.G.S. United Empire Club, 117 Picca-
dilly, W.

*Currie, James, M.A., F.R.S.E. Larkfield, Wardie-road, Edinburgh.

{Currie, Dr. O. J. Manor House, Mowbray, Cape Town.

,

a

a”

LIST OF MEMBERS : 1913. 25

Year of
Election.

1905.
1902.
1912.
1907.

1913.
1913.

1910.
1914.
1898.

1889.
1906.

1907.

1904.
1862.
1905.
1901.
1896.
1897.
1903.
1905.
1904.
1899.
1882.

1878.
1894,

1882.
1910.
1908.
1880.
1884.
1904.

1913.
1913.

{Currie, W. P. P.O. Box 2010, Johannesburg.

tCurry, Professor M., M.Inst.C.E. 5 King’s-gardens, Hove.

§Curtis, Charles. Field House, Cainscross, Stroud, Gloucestershire.

{Cusuyy, Arruur R., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pharmacology in
University College, Gower-street, W.C.

§Cutler, A. E. 5 Charlotte-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Czaplicka, Miss M. A. Somerford College, Oxford.

§Dakin, Dr. W. J., Professor of Biology in the University of Western
Australia, Perth, Western Australia.

§Dakin, Mrs. University of Western Australia, Perth, Western
Australia.

*Dasy. W. E., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1910),
Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering in the City and
Guilds of London Institute, Exhibition-road, 8.W.

*Dale, Miss Elizabeth. Garth Cottage, Oxford-road, Cambridge.

§Dale, William, F.S.A., F.G.S. The Lawn, Archer’s-road, South-
ampton.

{DatariesH, RicwarD, J.P., D.L. Ashfordby Place, near Melton
Mowbray.

*Datron, J. H.C.,M.D. The Plot, Adams-road, Cambridge.

{Dansy, T. W., M.A., F.G.S. The Crouch, Seaford, Sussex.

{Daniel, Miss A. M. 3 St. John’s-terrace, Weston-super-Mare.

*Danrect, G. F., B.Sc. Woodberry, Oakleigh Park, N.

§Danson, F. C. Tower-buildings, Water-street, Liverpool.

{Darbishire, F. V., B.A., Ph.D. Dorotheenstrasse 12, Dresden 20.

§DARBISHIRE, Dr. Orro V. The University, Bristol.

t{Darwin, Lady. Newnham Grange, Cambridge.

*Darwin, Charles Galton. Newnham Grange, Cambridge.

*Darwin, Erasmus. The Orchard, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

*Darwiy, Sir Francis, M.A., M.B., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.LS.
(PRESIDENT, 1908; Pres. D, 1891; Pres. K, 1904; Council,
1882-84, 1897-1901.) 10 Madingley-road, Cambridge.

*Darwin, Horace, M.A., F.R.S. The Orchard, Huntingdon-road,
Cambridge.

*Darwin, Major Leonarp, F.R.G.8. (Pres. E, 1896; Council,
1899-1905.) 12 Egerton-place, South Kensington, S.W.

{Darwin, W. E., B.A., F.G.S. 11 Egerton-place, S.W.

{Dauncey, Mrs. Thursby. Lady Stewert, Heath-road, Weybridge.

{Davey, H. 15 Victoria-road, Brighton.

*Davey, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. Conaways, Ewell, Surrey.

{David, A. J., B.A., LL.B. 4 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, E.C.

{Davidge, H. T., B.Sc., Professor of Electricity in the Ordnance
College, Woolwich.

§Davidge, W. R., A.M.Inst.C.E. Bank House, Lewisham, S.E.

§Davidge, Mrs. Rank House, Lewisham, 8.E.

909. tDavidson, A. R. 250 Stradbrooke-place, Winnipeg, Canada.

1909.
1912.
1912.

1902.
1910.
1887.
1904,
1906.
1893.

{Davidson, Rev. J. ‘Yhe Manse, Douglas, Isle of Man.

{Davidson, John, M.A., D.Ph. Training College, Small’s Wynd,
Dundee.

*Davidson, 8. C. Sea/:ourt, Bangor, Co. Down.

*Davie, Robert C., M/A., B.Sc. Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh.

*Davies, H. Rees. “Ireborth, Bangor, North Wales.

§Davies, Henry N., F.G.S. St. Chad’s, Weston-super-Mare.

{Davies, 5. H. Ryecroft, New Earswick, York.

*Davies, Rev. T. Witton, B.A., Ph.D., D.D., Professor of Semitic
Languages in University College, Bangor, North Wales.

26

Year of
Election

1896.
1870.
1873.
1896.
1910.
1905.
1885.
1905.

1912.
1864.

1885.

1901.
1905.
1912.
1906.
1859.
1900.
1909.

1901.
1884.
1866.

1893.

1911.
1878.
1908.
1907.
1896.
1902.

1913.

1908.
1889.

1909.
1874,

1907.
1908.

1894.
1868.

1881.
1884.
1908.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

*Davies, Thomas Wilberforce, F.G.S. 41 Park-place, Cardiff.

*Davis, A.S. St. George’s School, Roundhay, near Leeds.

*Davis, Alfred. 37 Ladbroke-grove, W.

*Davis, John Henry Grant. Dolobran, Wood Green, Wednesbury.

{Davis, John King. 2 Brockenhurst Green-street, Jersey.

§Davis, Luther. P.O. Box 898, Johannesburg.

*Davis, Rev. Rudolf. Mornington, Elmbridge-road. Gloucester.

{Davy, JosrrH Burtt, F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Care of Messrs. Dulau
& Co., 37 Soho-square, W.

§Dawkins, Miss Ella Boyd. Fallowfield House, Fallowfield, Man-
chester.

{Dawesrns, W. Boyp, D.S8c., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1888 ;
Council, 1882-88.) Fallowfield House, Fallowfield, Man-
chester.

*Dawson, Lieut.-Colonel H. P., R.A.’ Hartlington Hall, Burnsall,
Skipton-in-Craven.

*Dawson, P. The Acre, Maryhill, Glasgow.

tDawson, Mrs. The Acre. Maryhill, Glasgow.

*Dawson, Shepherd, M.A., B.Sc. Drumchapel, near Glasgow.

§Dawson, William Clarke. Whitefriargate, Hull.

*Dawson, Captain W. G. Abbots Morton, near Worcester.

{Deacon, M. Whittington House, near Chesterfield.

§Dean, George, F.R.G.S. 5 Wordsworth-mansions, Queen’s Club-
gardens, W.

*Deasy, Captain H. H. P. Cavalry Club, 127 Piccadilly, W.

*Debenham, Frank, F.S.8. 1 Fitzjohn’s-avenue, N.W.

{Dssvus, Henvrtcu, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1869 ; Council,
1870-75.) 4 Schlangenweg, Cassel, Hessen.

*Deeley, R. M., M.Inst.C.H., F.G.8. Abbeyfield, Salisbury-avenue,
Harpenden, Herts.

{Delahunt, C.G. The Municipal College, Portsmouth.

{Drany, Very Rev. Witu1am, LL.D. University College, Dublin.

*Delf, Miss E. M. Westfield College, Hampstead, N.W.

{De Lisle, Mrs. Edwin. Charnwood Lodge, Coalville, Leicestershire.

{Dempster, John. Tynron, Noctorum, Birkenhead.

*Denpy, ArtHur, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Council, 1912- ), Pro-
fessor of Zoology in King’s College, London, W.C.

*Denman, Thomas Hercy. 17 Churchgate, Retford, Nottingham-
shire.

{tDennehy, W. F. 23 Leeson-park, Dublin.

§Denny, Atrrep, M.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Biology in the Univer-
sity of Sheffield.

§Dent, Edward, M.A. 2 Carlos-place, W.

*Derham, Walter, M.A., LL.M., F.G.S. Junior Carlton Club,
Pall Mall, S.W.

*Desch, Cecil H., D.Sc., Ph.D. 3 Kelvinside-terrace North, Glasgow.

{Despard, Miss Kathleen M. 6 Sutton Court-mansions, Grove Park-
terrace, Chiswick, W.

*Deverell, F. H. 7 Grote’s-place, Blackheath, 8.E.

*Dewak, Sir Jamus, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., V.P.C.S.,
Fullerian Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Institution,
London, and Jacksonian Professor of Natural and Experi-
mental Philosophy in the University of Cambridge. (Prxst-
DENT, 1902; Pres. B, 1879 ; Council, 1883-88.) 1 Scroope-
terrace, Cambridge.

tDewar, Lady. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.

*Dewar, William, M.A. Horton House, Rugby.

§Dicks, Henry. Haslecourt, Horsell, Woking.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 27

Year of

Election.

1904. {Dickson, Right Hon. Charles Scott, K.C., LL.D., M.P. Carlton
Club, Pall Mall, S.W.

1881. {Dickson, Edmund, M.A., F.G.S. Claughton House, Garstang,
R.S.0., Lancashire.

1887. §Dicxson, H. N., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1913), Pro-
fessor of Geography in University College, Reading. 160
Castle-hill, Reading.

1902. §Dickson, James D. Hamilton, M.A., F.R.S.E. 6 Cranmer-road,
Cambridge.

1913. *Dickson, T. W. 60 Jeffrey’s-road, Clapham, S.W.

1877.
1908.
1901.
1905.

1899.
1874.
1900.

1905.
1908.
1888.
1908.
1900.

1879.

1914.
1902.
1913.

1908.
1907.
1902.
1896.
1890.

1885.
1860.

1902.
1908.
1876.
1912.
1912.
1912.

1904.
1896.
1901,

1905,

{Dillon, James, M.Inst.C.E. 36 Dawson-street, Dublin.

{Dines, J. S. Pyrton Hill, Watlington.

§Dines, W. H., B.A., F.R.S. Pyrton Hill, Watlington.

§Dixey, F. A., M.A., M.D., F.R.S. (Council, 1913- .) Wadham
College, Oxford.

*Drxon, A. C., D.Se., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in Queen’s
University, Belfast. Hurstwood, Malone Park, Belfast.
*Drxon, A. E., M.D., Professor of Chemistry in University College,
Cork.
{Dixon, A. Francis, Sc.D., Professor of Anatomy in the University

of Dublin.

{Dixon, Miss E. K. Fern Bank, St. Bees, Cumberland.

{Dixon, Edward K., M.E., M.Inst.C.E. Castlebar, Co. Mayo.

{Dixon, Edward T. Racketts, Hythe, Hampshire.

*Dixon, Ernzst, B.Sc., F.G.S. The Museum, Jermyn-street, S.W.

*Dixon, Lieut.-Colonel George, M.A. Fern Bank, St. Bees, Cumber-
land.

*Dixon, Harotp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1894; Council
1913- ), Professor of Chemistry in the Victoria University,
Manchester.

§Dixon, Mrs. H. B., Beechey House, Wilbraham-road, Fallowfield,
Manchester.

{Drxon, Henry H., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Botany in the
University of Dublin. Clevedon, Temple-road, Dublin.

§Dixon, 8. M., M.A., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Civil Engineering in
the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London,
S.W

*Dixon, Walter, F.R.M.S. Derwent, 30 Kelvinside-gardens, Glasgow.

*Drxon, Professor Watrrer E., F.R.S. The Museums, Cambridge.

{Dizon, W. V. Scotch Quarter, Carrickfergus.

§Dixon-Nuttall, F. R. Ingleholme, Eccleston Park, Prescot.

tDobbie, James J., D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S., Principal of the Govern-
ment Laboratories, 13 Clement’s Inn-passage, W.C.

§Dobbin, Leonard, Ph.D. The University, Edinburgh.

*Dobbs, Archibald Edward, M.A., J.P., D.L. Castle Dobbs,
Carrickfergus, Co. Antrim.

{Dobbs, F. W., M.A. Eton College, Windsor.

{Dopp, Hon. Mr. Justice. 26 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.

tDodds, J. M. St. Peter’s College, Cambridge.

§Don, A. W. R. The Lodge, Broughty Ferry, Forfarshire.

{Don, Alexander, M.A., F.R.C.S. Park House, Nethergate, Dundee.

{Don, Robert Bogle, M.A. The Lodge, Broughty Ferry, Forfar-
shire.

t{Doncaster, Leonard, M.A. Museum of Zoology, Cambridge.

{Donnan, F. E. Ardenmore-terrace, Holywood, Ireland.

{Donnan, F. G., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in
University College, Gower-street, W.C.

{Donner, Arthur, Helsingfors, Finland,

28

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1905.

1863.
1909.
1909.
1912.
1903.
1884.
1865.
1881.

1913.

1892.
1912.
1905.

1906.
1906.
1908.
1893.

1909.
1907.
1892.
1856.

1870.
1900.
1895.
1912.

1904.
1890.
1899.

1911.
1909.
1891.
1913.
1910.
1876.
1884.

1893.
1891.
1885.

TOU.
1913.
1905.
1910.

1895.

§Dornan, Rev. 8. 8. P.O. Box 510, Bulawayo, South Rhodesia,
South Africa.

*Doughty, Charles Montagu. 26 Grange-road, Eastbourne.

{Douglas, A. J.. M.D. City Health Department, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Douglas, James. 99 John-street, New York, U.S.A.

tDoune, Lord. Kinfauns Castle, Perth.

{Dow, Miss Agnes R. 81 Park-mansions, Knightsbridge, S.W.

*Dowling, D. J. Sycamore, Clive-avenue, Hastings.

*Dowson, E. Theodore, F.R.M.S. Geldeston, near Beccles, Suffolk.

*Dowson, J. Emerson, M.Inst.C.E. Landhurst Wood, Hartfield,
Sussex.

§Dracopoli, J. N. Pollard’s Wood Grange, Chalfont St. Giles,
Buckinghamshire.

*Dreghorn, David, J.P. Greenwood, Pollokshields, Glasgow.

§Drever, James, M.A., B.Sc. 32 Lomond-road, Trinity, Edinburgh.

tDrew, H. W., M.B., M.R.C.S. Mocollup Castle, Ballyduff, S.0.,
Co. Waterford.

*Drew, Joseph Webster, M.A., LL.M. Hatherley Court, Cheltenham.

*Drew, Mrs. Hatherley Court, Cheltenham.

tDroop, J. P. 11 Cleveland-gardens, Hyde Park, W.

§Drucz, G. Crariper, M.A., F.L.S. (Local Sec. 1894.) Yardley
Lodge, 9 Crick-road, Oxford.

*Drugman, Julien, Ph.D., M.Sc. 117 Rue Gachard, Brussels.

§Drysdale, Charles V., D.Sc. Queen Anne’s-chambers, 8.W.

tDu Bois, Professor Dr. H. Herwarthstrasse 4, Berlin, N.W.

*Duciz, The Right Hon. Henry Jonn Reynoips Morzvon, Earl
of, G.C.V.O., F.R.S., F.G.S. 16 Portman-square, W.

t{Duckworth, Henry, F.L.S., F.G.8. 7 Grey Friars, Chester.

*Duckworth, W. L. H., M.D., Sc.D. Jesus College, Cambridge.

*Duddell, William, F.R.S. 47 Hans-place, S.W.

§Duffield, Francis A., M.B. Holmleigh, Manor-road, Sutton
Coldfield.

*Duffield, Professor W. Geofirey, D.Sc. University College, Reading.

{Dufton, 8. F. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Dugdale-Bradley, J. W., M.Inst.C.E. Westminster City Hall,
Charing Cross-road, W.C.

t{Dummer, John. 85 Cottage-grove, Southsea.

{Duncan, D. M., M.A. 83 Spence-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Duncan, Sir John, J.P. ‘South Wales Daily News’ Office, Cardiff.

§Dunlop, Dr. Andrew. Belgrave House, St. Helier, Jersey.

{Dunn, Rev. J. Road Hill Vicarage, Bath.

{Dunnachie, James. 48 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

§Dunnington, Professor F. P. University of Virginia, Charlottes-
ville, Virginia, U.S.A.

*Dunstan, M. J. R., Principal of the South-Eastern Agricultural
College, Wye, Kent.

{Dunstan, Mrs. South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye, Kent.

*Dunstan, WynpHAM R., C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.
(Pres. B, 1906; Council, 1905-08), Director of the Imperial
Institute, 8.W.

{tDupree, Colonel Sir W. T. Craneswater, Southsea.

§Durie, William. Sunnyside, Beechwood-avenue, Finchley, N.

§Dutton, C. L. O’Brien. High Commissioner’s Office, Pretoria.

§Dutton, F. V., B.Sc. County Agricultural Laboratories, Rich-
mond-road, Exeter.

*DWERRYHOUSE, ARTHUR R., D.Sc., F.G.S. Deraness, Deramore
Park, Belfast,

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 29

Year of
Election.

1911.
1885.

1895.
1905.

1910.

1912.
1899.

1909.

1893.
1906.
1909.
1903.
1908.

1870.
1858.
1911.
1911.
1884.
1887.

1870.
1883.
1888.
1901.

1899.

1913.
1903.

1903.
1903.

1901.
1909.
1909.
1907.
1890.
1913.

1901.
1904.

1904

1905.
1883.

tDye, Charles. Woodcrofts, London-road, Portsmouth.

*Dyer, Henry, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D. 8 Highburgh-terrace, Dowanhill,
Glasgow.

§Dymond, Thomas §., F.C.S. Savile Club, Piccadilly, W.

*Dyson, F. W., M.A., F.R.S. (Council, 1905-11), Astronomer Royal,
Royal Observatory, Greenwich, S.E.

{Dyson, W. H. Maltby Colliery, near Rotherham, Yorkshire.

{Harland, Arthur, F.R.M.S. 34 Granville-road, Watford.

tEast, W. H. Municipal School of Art, Science, and Technology,
Dover.

*Easterbrook, C. C., M.A., M.D. Crichton Royal Institution,
Dumfries.

*Ebbs, Alfred B. Northumberland-alley, Fenchurch-street, E.C.

*Ebbs, Mrs. A. B. Tuborg, Plaistow-lane, Bromley, Kent,

tKecles, J. R. Gresham’s School, Holt, Norfolk.

*Kooies, W. H., D.Sc. 26, Ridgmount-gardens Gower-street, W.C.

*Hddington, A. S., M.A., M.Se., Plumian Professor of Astronomy
and Experimental Philosophy in the University of Cam-
bridge. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Eddison, John Edwin, M.D., M.R.C.S. The Lodge, Adel, Leeds.

*Eddy, James Ray, F.G.S. The Grange, Carleton, Skipton.

*Kdge, 8. F. 14 New Burlington-street, W.

*Edgell, Miss Beatrice. Bedford College, Baker-street, W.

*Edgell, Rev. R. Arnold, M.A. Beckley Rectory, East Sussex.

§EpaEeworts, F. Y., M.A., D.C.L., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1889 ; Council,
1879-86, 1891-98), Professor of Political Economy in the
University of Oxford. All Souls College, Oxford.

*Kdmonds, F. B. 6 Clement’s Inn, W.C.

tEdmonds, William. Wiscombe Park, Colyton, Devon.

*Edmunds, Henry. Antron, 71 Upper Tulse-hill, S.W.

*KDRIDGE-GREEN, F’, W., M.D., F.R.C.S. 99 Walm-lane, Willesden
Green, N.W.

§Edwards, E. J., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 24 West Side, Wandsworth
Common, 8.W.

§Edwards, E. J. University College, Cardiff.

tEdwards, Mrs. Emily. Norley Grange, 73 Leyland-road, South-

ort.

ideas, Francis. Norley Grange, 73 Leyland-road, Southport.

tEdwards, Miss Marion K. Norley Grange, 73 Leyland-road,
Southport.

tEggar, W. D. Eton College, Windsor.

tEggertson, Arni. 120 Emily-street, Winnipeg, Canada,

§Ehrenborg, G. B. 63 Fairfield-building, Vancouver, B.C., Canada.

*Elderton, W. Palin. 74 Mount Nod-road, Streatham, S.W.

{Elford, Perey. 115 Woodstock-road, Oxford.

§Elkington, Herbert F. Clunes, Wentworth-road, Sutton Cold-
field.

*Elles, Miss Gertrude L., D.Sc. Newnham College, Cambridge.

JElliot, Miss Agnes I. M. Newnham College, Cambridge.

tElliot, R. H. Clifton Park, Kelso, N.B.

tElliott, C. C., M.D. Church-square, Cape Town.

*Eiuiorr, Epwiy Barry, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Waynflete
Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University of Oxford.
4 Bardwell-road, Oxford.

Elliott, John Fogg. Elvet Hill, Durham.

30

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1912.
1906.
1875.
1906.
1913.

1880.
1891.
1906.
1910.
> 1911.
1884.
1905.
1894.

1862.

1887.
1887.

1911.
1897.
1889.
1905.
1870.
1908.

1887.
1883.

1913.
1910.

1885.
1905.
1905.

1910.

1865.

1909,

1903.
1902.
1883.
1881.

1874.
1913.

1913.
1876.

§Elliott, Dr. W. F., F.Z.S. 21 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.

*Ellis, David, D.Sc., Ph.D. Royal Technical College, Glasgow.

*Ellis, H. D. 12 Gloucester-terrace, Hyde Park, W.

§Eiuis, Herserr. 120 Regent-road, Leicester.

§Ellis, Herbert Willoughby, A.M.Inst.C.E. Holly Hill, Berkswell,
Warwickshire.

*Hllis, John Henry. (Local Sec. 1883.) 10 The Crescent, Plymouth.

§Ellis, Miss M. A. 14 Wellington-square, Oxford.

{Etuarrst, Caartes E. (Local Sec. 1906.) 29 Mount-vale, York.

§Elmhirst, Richard. Marine Biological Station, Millport.

{Elwes, H. J., F.R.S. Colesborne Park, near Cheltenham.

tEmery, Albert H. Stamford, Connecticut, U.S.A.

tEpps, Mrs. Dunhurst, Petersfield, Hampshire.

tErskine-Murray, J., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 4 Great Winchester-street,
E.C.

*Esson, WiniiaM, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Savilian Professor of
Geometry in the University of Oxford. 13 Bradmore-road,

Oxford.
*Estcourt, Charles, F.I.C. 5 Seymour-grove, Old Trafford, Man-
chester.
*Estcourt, P. A., F.C.S., F.I.C. 5 Seymour-grove, Old Trafford,
Manchester.
{Eruerton, G. Hammonp. (Local Sec. 1911.) Town Hall, Ports-
mouth.

*Evans, Lady. Care of Union of London and Smith’s Bank,
Berkhamsted, Herts.

*Evans, A. H., M.A. 9 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

jEvans, Mrs. A.H. 9 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

*Evans, Sir ArrHuR Jon, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A. (Pres. H,
1896.) Youlbury, Abingdon.

{Evans, Rev. Henry, D.D., Commissioner of National Education,
Treland. Blackrock, Co. Dublin.

*Evans, Mrs. Isabel. Hoghton Hall, Hoghton, near Preston.

*Evans, Mrs. James C. Casewell Lodge, Llanwrtyd Wells, South
Wales.

§Evans, J. Jameson. 85 Edmund-street, Birmingham.

*Hivans, Joun W., D.Se., LL.B., F.G.S. 75 Craven Park-road,
Harlesden, N.W.

*Evans, Percy Bagnall. The Spring, Kenilworth.

tEvans, R. O. Ll. Broom Hall, Chwilog, R.8.0., Carnarvonshire.

t{Evans, T. H. 9 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

{Evans, T. J. The University, Sheffield.

*Evans, William. The Spring, Kenilworth.

tEvans, W. SanrorpD, M.A. (Local Sec. 1909.) 43 Edmonton-
street, Winnipeg.

{Evatt, H. J., M.B. 8 Kyveilog-street, Cardiff.

*Everett, Percy W. Oaklands, Elstree, Hertfordshire.

{Eves, Miss Florence. Uxbridge.

tEwart, J. Cossar, M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1901), Professor of
Natural History in the University of Edinburgh.

tEwakrrt, Sir W. Quartus, Bart. (Local Sec. 1874.) Glenmachan,
Belfast.

*Rwen, J. T. 104 King’s-gate, Aberdeen.

*Ewen, Mrs. J. T. 104 King’s-gate, Aberdeen.

*Ewine, Sir James Atrrep, K.C.B., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.,
M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1906), Director of Naval Education,
Admiralty, S.W. Froghole, Edenbridge, Kent.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. el

Year of

Election.

1903. §Ewing, Peter, F.L.S. The Frond, Uddingston, Glasgow.

1884. *Eyerman, John, F.Z.S. Oakhurst, Easton, Pennsylvania,

U.S.A.

1912. §Eyrz, J. Varaas. South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye,

1906.
1901.
1865.
1910.
1908.
1896.
1902.

1907.
1902.
1892.
1897.

1904.

Kent.
Eyton, Charles. Hendred House, Abingdon.

*Faber, George D. 14 Grosvenor-square, W.

*Fairgrieve, M. McCallum. 37 Queen’s-crescent, Edinburgh.

*Farrtey, Tuomas, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 8 Newton-grove, Leeds.

tFalconer, J. D. The Limes, Little Berkhamsted, Hertford.

{Falconer, Robert A., M.A. 44 Merrion-square, Dublin.

§Falk, Herman John, M.A. Thorshill, West Kirby, Cheshire.

§Fallaize, E. N., B.A. Vinchelez, Chase Court-gardens, Windmill-
hill, Enfield.

*Rantham, H. B., D.Sc., B.A. 100 Mawson-road, Cambridge.

+Faren, William. 11 Mount Charles, Belfast.

*FarMuER, J. BRETLAND, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1907;
Council, 1912- .) South Park, Gerrards Cross.

*Farnworth, Mrs. Ernest. Broadlands, Goldthorn Hill, Wolver-
hampton.

{Farnworth, Miss Olive. Broadlands, Goldthorn Hill, Wolver-
hampton.

1885. *Farquharson, Mrs. R. F. O. Tillydrine, Kincardine O'Neil, N.B.

1905.
1913.
1903.

1913.
1890.
1906.
1900.

1902.
1911.
1909.

1906.
1901.

1910.

{Farrar, Edward. P.O. Box 1242, Johannesburg,

§Farrow, F. D. The University, Liverpool.

§Faulkner, Joseph M. 17 Great Ducie-street, Strangeways, Man-
chester.

§Faweett, C. B. Hartley University, Southampton.

*Fawcett, F. B. 1 Rockleaze-avenue, Sneyd Park, Bristol.

§Fawcett, Henry Hargreave. Thorncombe, near Chard, Somerset.

tFawcert, J. E., J.P. (Local Sec. 1900.) Low Royd, Apperley
Bridge, Bradford.

*Fawsitt, C. E., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University of
Sydney, New South Wales.

*Fay, Mrs. A. Q. Chedworth, Rustat-road, Cambridge.

*Fay, Charles Ryle, M.A. Christ’s College, Cambridge.

*Fearnsides, Edwin G., M.A., M.B., B.Sc., London Hospital, E.

*FrarnsipEs, W. G., M.A., F.G.S. Sorby Professor of Geology
in the University of Sheffield. 10 Silver Birch-avenue,
Fulwood, Sheffield.

*Fearnsides, Mrs. 10 Silver Birch-avenue, Fulwood, Sheftield.

1905. §Feilden, Colonel H. W., C.B., F.R.G.S8., F.G.S. Burwash, Sussex.

1900.
1904.
1871.

1901.
1863.

*Fennell, William John. Deramore Drive, Belfast.

{Fenton, H. J. H., M.A., F.R.S. 19 Brookside, Cambridge.

*Frrcuson, Joun, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.S.A., F.C.S., Professor
of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow.

{Ferguson, R. W. 16 Linden-road, Bournville, near Birmingham.

*Fernie, John. Box No. 2, Hutchinson, Kansas, U.S.A.

1910. *Ferranti, 8. Z. de, M.Inst.C.E. Grindleford, near Sheffield.
1905. rine H. T., M.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey of Egypt, Giza,
gypt.
1873. {Ferrmr, Sir Davin, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 34 Cavendish-
3 square, W.
1909. iFetherstonhaugh, Professor Edward P,, B.Sc, 119 Betourney-

street, Winnipeg, Canada,

32

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Flection.

1882.

1913.
1897.

1907.
1906.
1905.
1905.
1904.

1912.
1902.

1902.
1909.
1869.

1875.
1887.

1871.
1885.

1894.

1888.

1904.
1904.
1913.

1892.
1888.

1908.
1901.

1906.

1905.
1913.
1889.
1890.

1877.
1903.

1911.
1906.
1873.

§Fewings, James, B.A., B.Sc. King Edward VI. Grammar School,
Southampton.

§Field, Miss E. E. Hollywood, Egham Hill, Surrey.

{Field, George Wilton, Ph.D. Room 158, State House, Boston,
Massachusetts, U.S.A.

*Fields, Professor J. C., F.R.S. The University, Toronto, Canada.

§Finon, L. N. G., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mathematics
in the University of London. Lynton, Haling Park-road,
Croydon.

tFincham, G. H. Hopewell, Invami, Cape Colony.

§Findlay, Alexander, M.A., Ph.D., D.Sc., Professor of Chemistry
in University College, Aberystwyth.

*Findlay, J. J., Ph.D., Professor of Education in the Victoria
University, Manchester. Ruperra, Victoria Park, Manchester.

§Finlayson, Daniel, F.L.S. Seed Testing Laboratory, Wood Green, N.

{Finnegan, J., M.A., B.Sc. Kelvin House, Botanic-avenue,
Belfast.

{Fisher, J. R. Cranfield, Fortwilliam Park, Belfast.

{Fisher, James, K.C. 216 Portage-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada,

{Fisuer, Rev. Osmonp, M.A., F.G.S. Harlton Rectory, near
Cambridge. ,

*Fisher, W. W., M.A., F.C.S. 5 St. Margaret’s-road, Oxford.

*Fison, Alfred H., D.Sc. 47 Dartmouth-road, Willesden Green,
N.W.

*Kison, Sir FrepEeriIcKk W., Bart., M.A., F.C.S. Boarzell, Hurst
Green, Sussex.

*HITZGERALD, Professor Mauricr, B.A. (Local Sec. 1902.) Fair-
holme, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.

iFrrzmavricz, Sir Mavrics, C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E. London County

Council, Spring-gardens, S.W. ‘
*FirzpatRick, Rev. THomas C., President of Queens’ College,
Cambridge.

{Flather, J. H., M.A. Camden House, 90 Hills-road, Cambridge.

{Fleming, James. 25 Kelvinside-terrace South, Glasgow.

§Fleming, Professor J. A., F.R.S. University College, Gower-
street, W.C.

{Fletcher, George, F.G.S. 53 Pembroke-road, Dublin.

*FLETCHER, Lazarus, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.S. (Pres. C,
1894), Director of the Natural History Museum, Cromwell-
road, 8.W. 35 Woodville-gardens, Ealing, W.

*Fletcher, W. H. B. Aldwick Manor, Bognor, Sussex.

{Flett, J. S., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Geological Survey
Office, 33 George-square, Edinburgh.

*Fleure, H. J., D.Sc., Professor of Zoology and Geology in Uni-
versity College, Aberystwyth.

*Flint, Rev. W., D.D. Houses of Parliament, Cape Town.

*Florence, P. Sargant, B.A. Caius College, Cambridge.

{Flower, Lady. 26 Stanhope-gardens, 8.W.

*Fiux, A. W., M.A. Board of Trade, Gwydyr House, White-
hall, S.W.

{Foale, William. The Croft, Madeira Park, Tunbridge Wells.

}Foord-Kelcey, W., Professor of Mathematics in the Royal Military
Academy, Woolwich. The Shrubbery, Shooter’s Hill, S.E.

{Foran, Charles. 72 Elm-grove, Southsea.

§Forbes, Charles Mansfeldt. 14 New-street, York.

*FKorBES, GEorRGE, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 11 Little
College-street, Westminster, 8.W.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 33

Year of
Election.

1883.
1905.

1875.
1909.
1887.

1902.
1883.

1911.
1857.

1908.
1901.

1911.
1911.
1903.
1905.
1909.
1912.

1906.
1883.
1883.

1904.

1904.
1905.
1883.
1847.
1900.
1909.
1908.
1881.

1907.
1887.
1910.
1911,
OE

1895.
1885.

1871.

1911.

{Forses, Henry O., LL.D., F.Z.S., Redcliffe, Beaconsfield,
Bucks.

{Forses, Major W. Lacutan. Army and Navy Club, Pall Mall,
S.W.

*ForpHAM, Sir Gzor@Ee. Odsey, Ashwell, Baldock, Herts.

{Forcrr, The Hon. A. E. Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada.

tForrest, The Right Hon. Sir Joun, G.C.M.G., F.R.G.S., F.G.S.
Perth, Western Australia,

*Forster, M. O., Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. 84 Cornwall-gardens,
S.W.

{¥orsyru, Professor A. R., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1897, 1905 ;
Council, 1907-09.) The Manor House, Marylebone, N.W.

tPoster, F. G. Ivydale, London-road, Portsmouth,

*Fosrer, Grorce Carry, B.A., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S. (GENERAL
TREASURER, 1898-1904; Pres. A, 1877; Council, 1871-76,
1877-82). Ladywalk, Rickmansworth.

*Foster, John Arnold. 11 Hills-place, Oxford Circus, W.

§Foster, T. Gregory, Ph.D., Provost of University College, London.
University College, Gower-street, W.C.

{Fosrmr, Sir T. Scorr, J.P. Town Hall, Portsmouth.

{Foster, Lady Scott. Braemar, St. Helen’s-parade, Southsea.

tFourcade, H. G. P.O., Storms River, Humansdorp, Cape Colony.

§Fowlds, Hiram. 65 Devonshire-street, Keighley, Yorkshire.

§Fowlds, Mrs. 65 Devonshire-street, Keighley, Yorkshire.

{Fowler, A., F.R.S., Assistant Professor of Physics in the Imperial
College of Science and Technology, 8.W. 19 Rusthall-avenue,
Bedford Park, W. .

§Fowler, Oliver H., M.R.C.S. Ashcroft House, Cirencester.

*Fox, Charles. ‘The Pynes, Warlingham-on-the-Hill, Surrey.

{Fox, Sir Caartes Doveras, M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1896.) Cross
Keys House, 56 Moorgate-street, E.C.

*Wox, Charles J. J., B.Sc., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the
Presidency College of Science, Poona, India.

§Fox, F. Douglas, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. 19 The Square, Kensington, W.

{Fox, Mrs. F. Douglas. 19 The Square, Kensington, W.

{Fox, Howard, F.G.S. Rosehill, Falmouth.

*Fox, Joseph Hoyland. The Clive, Wellington, Somerset.

*Fox, Thomas. Old Way House, Wellington, Somerset.

*Fox, Wilson Lloyd. Carmino, Falmouth.

§Foxley, Miss Barbara, M.A. 5 Norton Way North, Letchworth.

*FoxweEL., Herperr §., M.A., F.S.S. (Council, 1894-97), Professor
of Political Economy in University College, London. St.
John’s College, Cambridge.

*Fraine, Miss Ethel de, D.Sc., F.L.S. 27 Bargery-road, Catford, S.E.

*FRANKLAND, Prrcy F., Ph.D., B.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1901), Pro-
fessor of Chemistry in the University of Birmingham,

*FRANELIN, GEORGE, Litt.D. Tapton Hall, Sheffield.

j Fraser, Dr. A.Mrarns. (Local Sec.1911.) Town Hall, Portsmouth.

{Fraser, Mrs. A. Mearns. Cheyne Lodge, St. Ronan’s-road, Ports-
mouth.

{Fraser, Alexander. 63 Church-street, Inverness.

{Fraszr, Aneus, M.A., M.D., F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1885.) 232 Union-
street, Aberdeen.

{Fraser, Sir Taomas R., M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Materia Medica and Clinical Medicine in the University of
Edinburgh. 13 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.

§Freeman, Oliver, B.Sc. The Municipal College, Portsmouth.

1913. Oo

34

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1884.
1906.
1909,
1912.

1905.
1886.

1887.
1906.
1912.

1892.
1882.
1911.
1887,
1898,

1908.
1905.
1898.
1872.
1912.
1913.

1910.

1863.
1906.

1885.
1875.
1887.
1905.
1913.
1888.
1911.

1899.
1898.

1911.
1912.
1905.
1900.
1887.
1882.

1912.

*FREMANTLE, The Hon. Sir C. W., K.C.B. (Pres. F, 1892 ; Council,
1897-1903.) 4 Lower Sloane-street, S.W.

§French, Fleet-Surgeon A. M. Langley, Beaufort-road, Kingston-
on-Thames.

{French, Mrs. Harriet A. Suite E, Gline’s-block, Portage-avenue,
Winnipeg, Canada.

§French, Mrs. Harvey. Hambledon Lodge, Childe Okeford,
Blandford.

t{French, Sir Somerset R., K.C.M.G. 100 Victoria-street, S.W.

{FrusaFieLpD, Doveras W., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1904.) 1 Airlie-
gardens, Campden Hill, W.

*Fries, Harold H., Ph.D. 92 Reade-street, New York, U.S.A.

{Frirsce, Dr. F. E. 77 Chatsworth-road, Brondesbury, N.W.

§Frodsham, Miss Margaret, B.Sc. The College School, 34 Cathe-
dral-road, Cardiff.

*Frost, Edmund, M.D. Chesterfield-road, Eastbourne.

§Frost, Edward P., J.P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire.

tFrost, M. E. P. H.M. Dockyard, Portsmouth.

*Frost, Robert, B.Sc. 55 Kensington-court, W. .

{Fry, The Right Hon. Sir Epwarp, G.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.B.S.,
F.S.A. Failand House, Failand, near Bristol.

tFry, M. W. J., M.A. 39 Trinity College, Dublin.

*Fry, William, J.P., F.R.G.S. Wilton House, Merrion-road, Dublin.

tFryer, Alfred C., Ph.D. 13 Eaton-crescent, Clifton, Bristol.

*Fuller, Rev. A. 7 Sydenham-hill, Sydenham, 8.E.

§Fulton, Angus R., B.Sc. University College, Dundee.

*Fyson, Philip Furley, B.A., F.L.S. Elmley Lovett, Droitwich.

{Gapow, H. F., Ph.D., F.R.S. (Pres. D., 1913). Zoological Labora-
tory, Cambridge.

*Gainsford, W. D. Skendleby Hall, Spilsby.

{Gajjar, Professor T. K., M.A., B.Sc. Techno-Chemical Laboratory,
near Girgaum Tram Terminus, Bombay.

*Gallaway, Alexander. Dirgarve, Aberfeldy, N.B.

tGatLtoway, W. Cardiff.

*Galloway, W. J. The Cottage, Seymour-grove, Old Trafford,
Manchester.

{Galpin, Ernest E. Bank of Africa, Queenstown, Cape of Good Hope.

§GamBLy, F. W., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Local Sec., 1913), Professor of
Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in the University of
Birmingham. 38 Frederick-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*GaMBLE, J. Sykes, C.LE., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. Highfield, East
Liss, Hants.

{Garbett, Rev. C. F., M.A. The Vicarage, Fratton-road, Ports-
mouth.

*Garcke, E. Ditton House, near Maidenhead.

{Garde, Rev. C. L. Skenfrith Vicarage, near Monmouth.

{Gardiner, C. I., M.A., F.G.S. 6 Paragon-parade, Cheltenham.

§Gardiner, F. A., F.L.S. Inversnaid, West Heath-avenue, N.W.

{Gardiner, J. H. 59 Wroughton-road, Balham, 8.W.

{Garpiver, J. Srantey, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology and
Comparative Anatomy in the University of Cambridge.
Zoological Laboratory, Cambridge.

tGarpiner, Watrer, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. St. Awdreys, Hills-
road, Cambridge.

*Gardner, H. Dent, F.R.G.S. Fairmead, 46 The Goffs, East-
bourne,

§Gardner, Willoughby, F.L.S. Y Berlfa, Deganwy, North Wales.

— aes

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 35

Year of
Election.

1912.
1913.
1905.

1887.

1882.
1883.

1903.
1903.

1894,
1874.
1889.
1905.

1905.
1896.

1906.
1913.
1911.
1912.

1905

1885.
1867.

1871.

1913.
1898.
1882.

1905.
1912,

1902.
1899.
1913.

1884.
1909.

1905

§Garfitt, G. A. Cartledge Hall, Holmesfield, near Sheffield.

*Garnett, J. C. Maxwell. Westfield, Victoria Park, Manchester.

{tGarnett, Mrs. Maxwell, F.Z.S. Westfield, Victoria Park, Man-
chester.

*Garnett, Jeremiah. The Grange, Bromley Cross, near Bolton,
Lancashire.

tGarnett, William, D.C.L. London County Council, Victoria Em-
bankment, W.C.

tGarson, J. G., M.D. (Assist. Gen. Szo. 1902-04.) Moorcote,
Eversley, Winchfield.

{Garstang, A. H. 82 Forest-road, Southport.

*Garstang, T. James, M.A. Bedales School, Petersfield, Hamp-
shire.

*Garstana, Wa.tTER, M.A., D.Sc., F.Z.S., Professor of Zoology
in the University of Leeds.

*Garstin, John Ribton, M.A., LL.B., M.R.I.A., F.S.A. Bragans-
town, Castlebellingham, Ireland.

tGarwoop, E. J., M.A., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1913), Professor of Geology
in the University of London. University College, Gower-
street, W.C.

{Gaskell, Miss C. J. The Uplands, Great Shelford, Cambridge.

{Gaskell, Miss M. A. The Uplands, Great Shelford, Cambridge.

*GASKELL, WALTER Hotsrook, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I,
1896 ; Council, 1898-1901.) The Uplands, Great Shelford,
Cambridge.

{Gaster, Leon. 32 Victoria-street, S.W.

§GarEs, R. R., Ph.D., F.L.S. 14 Well-walk, Hampstead, N.W.

{Gates, W. ‘ Evening News’ Office, Portsmouth.

§Gavin, W., B.A. Hatfield Wick, Hatfield Peverel, Essex.

*Gearon, MissSusan. 55 Buckleigh-road, Streatham Common,

{Guppzs, Professor Parrick. 14 Ramsay-gardens, Edinburgh.

{Grrerz, Sir Arcursacp, O.M., K.C.B., LL.D., D.Sc., E.RS.,
FE.R.S.E., F.G.S. (Presipent, 1892; Pres. C, 1867, 1871,
1899; Council, 1888-1891.) Shepherd’s Down, Haslemere,
Surrey.

{Gzr«re, Jamus, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. (Pres. C,
1889; Pres. E, 1892), Murchison Professor of Geology and
Mineralogy in the University of Edinburgh. Kilmorie, Colin-
ton-road, Edinburgh.

§Geldart, Miss Alice M. 2 Cotman-road, Norwich.

*GrmMiL, James F., M.A.,M.D. 12 Anne-street, Hillhead, Glasgow.

*GrnesE, R. W., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University
College, Aberystwyth.

tGentleman, Miss A. A. 9 Abercromby-place, Stirling.

*George, H. Trevelyan, M.A., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. 33 Ampthill-
square, N.W.

*Gepp, Antony, M.A., F.L.S. British Museum (Natural History),
Cromwell-road, 8.W.

*Gepp, ies A. British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-road,

§Gerich, Miss Emma A. P. Care of The Manager, Bank of
Australasia, Sydney, Australia.

*Gerrans, Henry T., M.A. 20 St. John-street, Oxford.

{Grepons, W, M., M.A. (Local Sec. 1910.) The University, Shef-

field.
le Miss Lilian S., F.L.S. 22 South-street, Thurloe-square,

o 2

36

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1912.

1912.
1901.
1876.

1904.

1912.
1896.

1889.
1893.
1898.
1883.
1884,
1895.

1896.
1871.
1911.
1902.
1908.
1913.

1913.
1892.

tGibson, A. H., D.Sc., Professor of Engineering in University
College, Dundee.

{Gibson, G. E., Ph.D., B.Sc. 16 Woodhall-terrace, Juniper Green.

{Gibson, Professor George A., M.A. 10 The University, Glasgow.

*Gibson, George Alexander, M.D., D.8c., LL.D., F.R.S.E. 3 Drums-
heugh-gardens, Edinburgh.

*Gibson, Mrs. Margaret D., LL.D. Castle Brae, Chesterton-lane,
Cambridge.

*Gibson, Miss Mary H., M.A., Ph.D. 75 Colum-road, Cardiff.

{Grsson, R. J. Harvey, M.A., F.R.S.E., Professor of Botany in the
University of Liverpool.

*Gibson, T. G. Lesbury House, Lesbury, R.S.O., Northumberland.

{Gibson, Walcot, F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

*Gifford, J. William. Oaklands, Chard.

§Gilbert, Lady. Park View, Englefield Green, Surrey.

*Gilbert, Philip H. 63 Tupper-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Grucaarst, J. D. F., M.A., Ph.D., B.Sc., F.L.S. Marine Biologist’s
Office, Department of Agriculture, Cape Town.

*QinonRist, Percy C., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Reform Club, Pall
Mall, S.W.

*GitL, Sir Davip, K.C.B., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Hon.F.R.S.E.
(PREsipENT, 1907.) 34 De Vere-gardens, Kensington, W.

{Gill, Rev. H. V.,S.J. Milltown Park, Clonskea, Co. Dublin.

{Gill, James F. 72 Strand-road, Bootle, Liverpool.

{Gill, T. P. Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction
for Ireland, Dublin.

*Gillett, Joseph A., B.A. Woodgreen, Banbury.

§Gillmor, R. E. 57 Victoria-street, S.W.

*Gilmour, Matthew A. B., F.Z.S. Saffronhall House, Windmill-

| road, Hamilton, N.B.

1907.
1908.
1913.
1913.
1893.
1904.

1884.
1886.

1883.
1871.

1880.
1881.
1881.

1878.
1880.

1879.

1878.
1908.

at ees

tGilmour, 8. C. 25 Cumberland-road, Acton, W.

Gilmour, T. L. 1 St. John’s Wood Park, N.W.

§Gilson, R. Cary, M.A. King Edward’s School, Birmingham.

§Gimingham, C. T., F.I.C. Research Station, Long Ashton, Bristol.

*Gimingham, Edward. Croyland, Clapton Common, N.

{Gon, 8. R., D.L. (Local Sec. 1904.) Brookfield, Trumpington-
road, Cambridge.

{Girdwood, G. P., M.D. 615 University-street, Montreal, Canada.

*Gisborne, Hartley, M.Can.8.C.E. Yoxall, Ladysmith, Vancouver
Island, Canada.

*Gladstone, Miss. 19 Chepstow-villas, Bayswater, W.

*QLAISHER, J. W. L., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (Pres. A, 1890 ;
Council, 1878-86.) Trinity College, Cambridge.

*GLANTAWE, Right Hon. Lord. The Grange, Swansea.

*GLAZEBROOK, R. T., C.B., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1893;
Council 1890-94, 1905-11), Director of the National Physical
Laboratory. Bushy House, Teddington, Middlesex.

*Gleadow, Frederic. 38 Ladbroke-grove, W.

Glover, Thomas. 124 Manchester-road, Southport.

*Godlee, J. Lister. Wakes Colne Place, Essex.

tGopman, F. Du Cane, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.8. 45 Pont-
street, S.W.

tGopwin-AustTEN, Lieut.-Colonel H. H., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S.
(Pres. E, 1883.) Nore, Godalming.

{Gorr, James. (Local Sec. 1878.) 29 Lower Leeson-street, Dublin.

*GoLp, Ernest, M.A. 8 Hurst Close, Bigwood-road, Hampstead
Garden Suburb, N.W. ; ve

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913, 37

Year of

Election.

1906. 1Gerous Right Hon. Sir Gzoras D. T., K.C.M.G., D.C.L., F.R.S.
(Pres. E, 1906 ; Council, 1906-07.) 44 Rutland- -gate, "S.W.

1910. §Golding, John, F.LC. University College, Reading.

1913, §Golding, Mrs. University College, Reading.

1899. tGomme, Sir G. L., F.\S.A. 24 Dorset-square, N.W.

1890. ¥GoNNER, E. C. EK; M.A. (Pres. F, 1897), Professor of Political
Economy i in the University of Liverpool.

1909. {Goodair, Thomas. 303 Kennedy-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

1912. §Goodman, Sydney C. M., B.A. 4 Paper-buildings, Temple, H.C.

1907.
1908.
1884.

1884,

1909.
1909.
1909.

19h.
1871.

1893.
1910.
1912.
1901.

1881.
1901.
1876.
1883.
1873.

1908.
1886.
1909.
1909.
1902.
1875,

1904.
1896.

1908.
1890.

1864.
1881.
1903.
- 1904.
1892.

1887.

1887.
1886.
1901.
1873.

§Goopricy, H. §., M.A., ER. S., F.L.S. Merton College, Oxford.

{Goodrich, Mrs. "Merton College, Oxford.

*Goodridge, Richard E. W. P.O. Box 36, Coleraine, Minnesota,
U.S.A.

tGoodwin, Professor W. L. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario,
Canada.

§Gordon, Rev. Charles W. 567 Broadway, Winnipeg, Canada,

t{Gordon, J. T. 147 Hargrave-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

{Gordon, Mrs. J. T. 147 Hargrave-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Gordon, J. W. 113 Broadhurst-gardens, Hampstead, N.W.

*Gordon, Joseph Gordon, F.C.S. Queen Anne’s-mansions, West-
minster, S.W.

tGordon, Mrs. M. M. Ogilvie, D.Sc. 1 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.

*Gordon, Vivian. Avonside Engine Works, Fishponds, Bristol.

§Gordon, W. T. 1 Suffolk-road, Edinburgh.

tGorst, Right Hon. Sir Jonn E., M.A., K. G., M.P., F.R.S. (Pres. L,
1901.) 84 Campden Hill Court, W.

tGough, Rev. Thomas, B.Sc. King Edward’s School, Retford,

{tGourtay, RoBert. Glasgow.

tGow, Robert. Cairndowan, Dowanhill-gardens, Glasgow.

tGow, Mrs. Cairndowan, Dowanhill-gardens, Glasgow.

{tGoyder, Dr. D. Marley House, 88 Great Potiortived, Bradford,
Yorkshire.

*GRABHAM, G. W., M.A., F.G.S. P.O. Box 178, Khartoum, ag

{tGrabham, Michael Cr M.D. Madeira.

tGrace, J. H., M.A., ERS. Peterhouse, Cambridge.

tGraham, Herbert W. 329 Kennedy-street, Winnipeg, Canada,

*Graham, William, M.D. Purdysburn House, Belfast.

{tGraname, JAMES. (Local Sec. 1876.) Care of Messrs. Grahame,
Crums, & Connal, 34 West George-street, Glasgow.

§Gramont, Comte Arnaud de, D.Sc. 179 rue de l’Université,
Paris.

Grant, Sir James, K.C.M.G. Ottawa, Canada.

*Grant, Professor W. L. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario.

{Gray, Anprew, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow.

*Gray, Rev. Canon Charles. West Retford Rectory, Retford.

tGray, Edwin, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.

§Gray, Ernest, M.A. 99 Grosvenor-road, S.W.

{Gray, Rev. H. B., D.D. (Pres. L, 1909). 13 St. George’s-road, S.W.

fee mae Hunter, M.A., B.Sc. 3 Crown Office-row, Temple,

tGray, Joseph W., F.G.S. 6 Richmond Park-crescent, Bourne-
mouth.

tGray, M. H., F.G.S. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.

*Gray, Robert Kaye. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.

tGray, R. Whytlaw. University College, W.C.

tGray, William, M.R.I.A. Glenburn Park, Belfast.

38

Year of
Election

1866.
1910.
1904.

1904.
1906.

1888.

1903.
1908.

1909.
1882.
1905.
1913.
1898.

1875.
1906.
1894.

1896.

1904.
1914.
1894.

1908.
1884.

ae |

1884.
1903.
1888.

1911.
1894.

1894.

1909.
1896.
1913.
1869.

1913.
1897.
1910.
1913.
1887

1905.
1909.
1909.

. BRITISH > ASSOCIATION.

*Gray, Colonel Wrtu1aM. Farley Hall, near Reading.

§Greaves, Charles Augustus, M.B., LL.B. 84 Friar-gate, Derby.

{Greaves, R. H., B.Sc. 12 St. John’s-crescent, Cardiff.

*Green, Professor A. G., M.Sc. The Old Gardens, Cardigan-road,
Headingley, Leeds.

§Green, F. W. 5 Wordsworth-grove, Cambridge.

§Green, J. A., M.A., Professor of Education in the University of
Sheffield.

§Green, J. Ruynotps, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1902.)
Downing College, Cambridge.

tGreen, W. J. 76 Alexandra-road, N.W.

tGreen, Rev. William Spotswood, C.B., F.R.G.S. 5 Cowper-villas,
Cowper-road, Dublin.

tGreenfield, Joseph. P.O. Box 2935, Winnipeg, Canada.

{GREENHILL, Sir A. G., M.A., F.R.S. 1 Staple Inn, W.C,

{tGreenhill, William. 64 George-street, Edinburgh.

*Greenland, Miss Lucy Maud. St. Hilda’s, Hornsea, Kast Yorkshire.

*GREENLY, Epwarp, F.G.S. Achnashean, near Bangor, North
Wales.

{Greenwood, Dr. Frederick. Brampton, Chesterfield.

tGreenwood, Hamar. National Liberal Club, Whitehall-place, S.W.

*GREGORY, J. WALTER, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1907), Pro-
fessor of Geology in the University of Glasgow.

*Grecory, Professor R. A., F.R.A.S. Walcot, Blyth-road, Bromley,
Kent.

*Grecory, R. P., M.A. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

§Grew, Mrs. 30 Cheyne-row, S.W.

*Griffith, C. L. T., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Civil Engineering
in the College of Engineering, Madras.

§Griffth, Sir John P., M.Inst.C.K. Rathmines Castle, Rathmines,

Dublin.

{Grirrirus, E. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1906; Pres. L,
1913; Council, 1911- ), Principal of University College,
Cardiff.

tGriffiths, Mrs. University College, Cardiff.

tGriffiths, Thomas, J.P. 101 Manchester-road, Southport.

*Grimshaw, James Walter, M.Inst.C.E. St. Stephen’s Club, West-
minster, S.W.

{Grogan, Ewart 8S. Camp Hill, near Newcastle, Stafis.

{Groom, Professor P., M.A., F.L.S. North Park, Gerrard’s Cross,
Bucks.

tGroom, T. T., M.A., D.Sc., F.G.8., Professor of Geology in the
University of Birmingham.

*Grossman, Edward L., M.D. Steilacoom, Washington, U.S.A.

tGrossmann, Dr. Karl. 70 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

§Grove, W. B., M.A. 45 Duchess-road, Edgaston, Birmingham.

tGrups, Sir Howarp, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Aberfoyle, Rathgar,
Dublin.

§Gruchy, G. F. B.de. 184 St. James’s-court, Buckingham-gate, S.W.

{Grimbaum, A. §8., M.A., M.D. School of Medicine, Leeds.

§Grundy, James. Ruislip, Teignmouth-road, Cricklewood, N.W.

§Guest, James J. 11 St. Mark’s-road, Leamingham.

{Guittemarp, F. H.H.,M.A.,M.D. The Mill House, Trumpington,
Cambridge.

*Gunn, Donald. Royal Societies Club, St. James’s-street, S.W.

tGunne, J. R., M.D. Kenora, Ontario, Canada,

{Gunne, W. J., M.D. Kenora, Ontario, Canada.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 39

Election,

1866,

1894.
1880.
1904.

1902

1904.
1895.
1906.
1905.

1908.
1881.

1914.
1911.
1888.

1913.
1905.

1911.

1906.
1894.

1909.

UAE

1899.

1914.
1909.

1903.
1879.
1913.

1883.
1854.

1899.
1884.

1908.

1891.
1873.
1888.

1905.
1904,
1908.

{Ginrner, Atprrt C. L. G., M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.RB.8., F.L.S.,
F.Z.8. (Pres. D, 1880.) 22 Lichfield-road, Kew, Surrey.

tGiinther, R. T. Magdalen College, Oxford. P

§Guppy, John J. Ivy-place, High-street, Swansea.

§Gurney, Sir Eustace. Sprowston Hall, Norwich.

*Gurney, Robert. Ingham Old Hall, Stalham, Norfolk.

{Guttmann, Professor Leo F., Ph.D. Queen’s University, Kingston,
Canada.

*GwyNNE-VAUGHAN, D. T., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Queen’s
University, Belfast.

*GwYNNE-VAUGHAN, Mrs. HELEN C. I., D.Sc., F.L.S. Department of
Botany, Birkbeck College ; and 27 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, W.C.

tHacker, Rev. W. J. Idutywa, Transkei, South Africa.

*Hackett, Felix E. Royal College of Science, Dublin.

*Happon, ALFRED Cort, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.Z.S. (Pres. H, 1902,
1905; Council, 1902-08, 1910- .) 3 Cranmer-road, Cam-
bridge.

§Haddon, Mrs. 3 Cranmer-road, Cambridge.

*Haddon, Miss Kathleen. 3 Cranmer-road, Cambridge.

*Hadfield, Sir Robert, D.Met., D.Sc., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 22
Carlton House-terrace, 8. W.

§Hadley, H. E., B.Sc. School of Science, Kidderminster.

tHahn, Professor P. H., M.A., Ph.D. York House, Gardens, Cape
Town.

tHaigh, B. P., B.Sc. James Watt Engineering Laboratory, The
University, Glasgow.

tHake, George W. Oxford, Ohio, U.S.A.

{Hatpans, Joun Scort, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1908), Reader
in Physiology in the University of Oxford. Cherwell, Oxford.

§Hale, W. H., Ph.D. 40 First-place, Brooklyn, New York, U.S.A.

§Halket, Miss A.C. Waverley House, 135 East India-road, E.

tHatt, A. D., M.A., F.R.S. (Council, 1908- .) Development

Commission, 64 Dean’s-yard, 8.W. j

§Hall, Mrs. A. D. 6a Dean’s-yard, 8.W.

§Hall, Archibald A., M.Sc., Ph.D. Armstrong College, Newcastle-
on-Tyne.

tHatt, E. Marsnatr, K.C. 75 Cambridge-terrace, W.

*Hall, Ebenezer. Abbeydale Park, near Sheffield.

§Hall-Edwards, J. The Elms, 112 Gough-road, Edgaston, Bir-

mingham.

*Hall, Miss Emily. 63 Belmont-street, Southport.

oa, Hvueu Ferrer, F.G.S. Cissbury Court, West Worthing,

ussex.

tHall, John, M.D. National Bank of Scotland, Nicholas-lane, E.C.

§Hall, Thomas Proctor, M.D. 1301 Davie-street, Vancouver, B.C.,
Canada.

*Hall, Wilfred, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 9 Prior’s-terrace, Tynemouth,
Northumberland.

*Hallett, George. Cranford, Victoria-square, Penarth.

*Hatuert, T. G. P., M.A. Claverton Lodge, Bath.

§Hatiipurton, W. D., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1902 ; Council,
1897-1903, 1911- __), Professor of Physiology in King’s College,
London. Church Cottage, 17 Marylebone-road, N.W.

tHalliburton, Mrs. Church Cottage, 17 Marylebone-road, N.W.

*Hallidie, A. H.S. Avondale, Chesterfield-road, Eastbourne.

*Hamel, Egbert Alexander de. Middleton Hall, Tamworth.

40 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1883. *Hamel, Egbert D. de. Middleton Hall, Tamworth.

1904. *Hamel de Manin, Anna Countess de. 35 Circus-road, N.W.

- 1906. {Hamill, John Molyneux, M.A., M.B. 14 South-parade, Chiswick.

1906. tHamilton, Charles I. 88 Twyford-avenue, Acton.

1909. {Hamilton, F.C. Bank of Hamilton-chambers, Winnipeg, Canada.

1902. {Hamitton, Rev. T., D.D. Queen’s College, Belfast.

1909. {Hamilton, T. Glen, M.D. 264 Renton-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

1881, *Hammonp, RoBERT, M.Inst.C.E. 64 Victoria-street, Westminster,
S.W

1899. *Hanbury, Daniel. Lenqua da Ca, Alassio, Italy.

1878. {Hance, E. M. Care of J. Hope Smith, Esq., 3 Leman-street, E.C.

1909. wy br B. Manitoba Government Telephones, Winnipeg,

anada,

1905. *Hancock, Strangman. Kennel Holt, Cranbrook, Kent.

1912. t{Hankin, G. T. 150 Whitehall-court, S.W.

1911. {Hann, H. F. 139 Victoria-road North, Southsea.

1906. § Hanson, David. Salterlee, Halifax, Yorkshire.

1904. §Hanson, E. K. 2a The Parade, High-street, Watford ; and Wood-
thorpe, Royston Park-road, Hatch End, Middlesex.

1859. *Harcourt, A. G. Vernon, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.,
V.P.C.S. (Gey. Sro. 1883-97; Pres. B, 1875; Council,
1881-83.) St. Clare, Ryde, Isle of Wight.

1909. §Harcourt, George. Department of Agriculture, Edmonton, Alberta,
Canada.

1886. *Hardcastle, Colonel Basil W., F.S.S. 12 Gainsborough-gardens,
Hampstead, N.W.

1902. *HarpcastLE, Miss Francrs. 3 Osborne-terrace, Newcastle-on-
Tyne.

1903. *Hardcastle, J. Alfred. The Dial House, Crowthorne, Berkshire.

1892. *Harpen, Artuur, Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. Lister Institute of
Preventive Medicine, Chelsea-gardens, Grosvenor-road, S.W.

1905. {Hardie, Miss Mabel, M.B. High-lane, via Stockport.

1877. {Harding, Stephen. Bower Ashton, Clifton, Bristol.

1894. tHardman, 8. C. 120 Lord-street, Southport.

1913. §Hardy, George Francis. 30 Edwardes-square, Kensington, W.

1909. §Harpy, W. B., M.A., F.R.S. Gonville and Caius College, Cam-

bridge.

1881. {Hargrove, William Wallace. St. Mary’s, Bootham, York.

1890. *Harxer, ALtFrep, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1911.) St. John’s
College, Cambridge.

1896. {Harker, John Allen, D.Sc., F.R.S. National Physical Laboratory,
Bushy House, Teddington.

1875. *Harland, Rev. Albert Augustus, M.A., F.G.S., F.LS., F.S.A. The
Vicarage, Harefield, Middlesex.

1877. *Harland, Henry Seaton. 8 Arundel-terrace, Brighton.

1883. *Harley, Miss Clara. Rastrick, Cricketfield-road, Torquay.

1899. {Harman, Dr. N. Bishop, F.R.C.S. 108 Harley street, W.

1913. §Harmar, Mrs. 102 Hagley-road, Birmingham.

1868. *Harmer, F. W., F.G.S. Oakland House, Cringleford, Norwich.

1881. *Harmer, Smpney F., M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1908),
Keeper of. the Department of Zoology, British Museum
(Natural History), Cromwell-road, S.W.

1912. *Harper, Alan G., B.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.

1906. {Harper, J. B. 16 St. George’s-place, York.

1913. §Harris, F. W. 132 and 134 Hurst-street, Birmingham.

1842. *Harris, G. W. Millicent, South Australia.

1909. .¢ Harris, J. W. Civic Offices, Winnipeg.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1918. 41

Year of
Election.

1903. tHarris, Robert, M.B. Queen’s-road, Southport.

1904. *Harrison, Frank L., B.A., B.Sc. Brook-street, Soham, Cam-
bridgeshire.

1904. {Harrison, H. SPENCER. The Horniman Museum, Forest Hill, 8.E.

1892. tHarrison, JOHN. (Local Sec. 1892.) Rockville, Napier-road,
Edinburgh.

1892. tHarrison, Rev. S. N. Ramsey, Isle of Man.

1901. *Harrison, W. E. 17 Soho-road, Handsworth, Staffordshire.

1911. {Harrison-Smith, F.,C.B. H.M. Dockyard, Portsmouth.

1885. {Harr, ColonelC. J. (Local Sec. 1886.) Highfield Gate, Edgbaston.
Birmingham.

1909. t{Hart, John A. 120 Emily-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

1876. *Hart, Thomas. Brooklands, Blackburn.

1903. *Hart, Thomas Clifford. Brooklands, Blackburn.

1907. §Hart, W. E. Kilderry, near Londonderry.

1911. {Hart-Synnot, Ronald V.O. University College, Reading.

1893. *Harrianp, EH. Srpney, F.S.A. (Pres. H, 1906 ; Council, 1906-13).
Highgarth, Gloucester.

1905. t{Hartland, Miss. Highgarth, Gloucester.

1886. *Harroa, Professor M. M., D.Sc. University College, Cork.

1887. t{Harroa, P. J., B.Sc. University of London, South Kensington,
8. W.

1885. {Harvie-Brown, J. A., LL.D. Dunipace, Larbert, N.B.

1862. *Harwood, John. Woodside Mills, Bolton-le-Moors.

1893. §Haslam, Lewis. 8 Wilton-crescent, S.W.

1911. *Hassé, H. R. The University, Manchester.

1903. *Hastie, Miss J. A. Care of Messrs. Street & Co., 30 Cornhill, E.C.

1904. t{Hastines, G. 23 Oak-lane, Bradford, Yorkshire.

1875. *Hastinas, G. W. (Pres. F, 1880.) Chapel House, Chipping
Norton.

1903. t{Hastings, W.G. W. 2 Halsey-street, Cadogan-gardens, S. W.

1889. tHatcu, F. H., Ph.D., F.G.S. Southacre, Trumpington-road,
Cambridge.

1903. tHathaway, Herbert G. 45 High-street, Bridgnorth, Salop.

1904. *Haughton, W. T. H. The Highlands, Great Barford, St. Neots.

1908. §Havelock, T. H., M.A., D.Sc. Rockliffe, Gosforth, Newcastle-on-
Tyne.

1904. tHavilland, Hugh de. Eton College, Windsor.

1887. *Hawkins, William. Earlston House, Broughton Park, Manchester.

1872. *Hawkshaw, Henry Paul. 58 Jermyn-street, St. James’s, S.W.

1864. *HawxsHaw, Joun Crarge, M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. (Council,
1881-87.) 22 Down-street, W.

1897. §Hawkstey, CuaRcezs, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. (Pres. G, 1903 ; Council,
1902-09.) Caxton House (West Block), Westminster, S.W.

1887. *Haworth, Jesse. Woodside, Bowdon, Cheshire.

1913. §Haworth, John F. Withens, Barker-road, Sutton Coldfield.

1913. §Haworth, Mrs. Withens, Barker-road, Sutton Coldfield.

1885. *Hayorart, JoHN Berry, M.D., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Physiology in University College, Cardiff.

1900. §Hayden, H. H., B.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey, Calcutta, India.

1903. *Haydock, Arthur. 114 Revidge-road, Blackburn.

1913. §$Hayward, Miss. 7 Abbotsford-road, Galashiels, N.B.

1903. {Hayward, Joseph William, M.Sc. Keldon, St. Marychurch,
Torquay.

1896. *Haywood, Colonel A. G. Rearsby, Merrilocks-road, Blundelllsands.

1883. {Heape, Joseph R. Glebe House, Rochdale.

1882. *Heape, Walter, M.A., F.R.S. 10 King’s Bench-walk, Temple, E.C.

42

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.
1909. §Heard, Mrs. Sophie, M.B., Ch.B. Carisbrooke, Fareham, Hants.

1908.

1902.
1898.

1909.
1883.
1913.
1892.

1889.
1888.

1888.
1887.

1912.
1881.

1901.

1911.
1911.

1887.

1908.
1899.
1905.
1995.
1891.

1905.
1907.

1906.
1909.
1880.
1911.
1904.
1910.
1910.
1873.

1910.

1906

1909.
1892.

1904
1892

§Heath, J. St. George, B.A. Woodbrooke Settlement, Selly Oak,
near Birmingham.

tHeath, J. W. Royal Institution, Albemarle-street, W.

tHxaru, R. 8., M.A., D.Sc., Vice-Principal and Professor of Mathe-
matics in the University of Birmingham.

tHeathcote, F.C. C. Broadway, Winnipeg, Canada.

{Heaton, Charles. Marlborough House, Hesketh Park, Southport.

§Heaton, Howarp. (Local Sec., 1913.) Wayside, Lode-lane,
Solihull, Birmingham.

*Heaton, Witttam H., M.A. (Local Sec., 1893), Principal and
Professor of Physics in University College, Nottingham.

*Heaviside, Arthur West, 1.8.0. 12 Tring-avenue, Ealing, W.

*HEAwWOOD, Epwarp, M.A. Briarfield, Church-hill, Merstham,
Surrey.

*Heawood, Percy J., Professor of Mathematics in Durham Univer-
sity. High Close, Hollinside-lane, Durham.

*Hepees, KitytinewortuH, M.Inst.C.E. 10 Cranley-place, South
Kensington, 8.W.

§Hedley, Charles. Australian Museum, Sydney.

*Hee-Suaw, H.S8., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.H. 64 Victoria-
street, S.W.

* HELLER, W. M., B.Sc. 59 Upper Mount-street, Dublin.

}Hellyer, Francis EK. Farlington House, Havant, Hants.

{Hellyer, George E. Farlington House, Havant, Hants.

tHembry. Frederick William, F.R.M.S. City-chambers, 2 St.
Nicholas-street, Bristol.

tHemmy, Professor A. 8. Government College, Lahore.

tHemsalech. G. A., D.Se. The Owens College, Manchester.

*Henderson, Andrew. 17 Belhaven-terrace, Glasgow.

*Henderson, Miss Catharine. 17 Belhaven-terrace, Glasgow.

*Henperson, G. G., D.Se., M.A., F.I.C., Professor of Chemistry
in the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College,
Glasgow.

§Henderson, Mrs. 7 Marlborough-drive, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

§Henderson, H. F. Felday, Morland-avenue, Leicester.

{Henderson, J. B., D.Sc., Professor of Applied Mechanics in the
Royal Naval College, Greenwich, S.E.

Vrunes Veylien E. Medical Building, The University, Toronto,

anada.

*Henderson, Admiral W. H., R.N. 3 Onslow Houses, S.W.

§Henderson, William Dawson. The University, Bristol.

*Hendrick, James. Marischal College, Aberdeen.

tHeney, T. W. Sydney, New South Wales.

*HENRICI, Captain E. O., R.E., A.Inst.C.E. Ordnance Survey Office,
Southampton.

*Hewnicr. Oraus M. F. E., Ph.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1883 ; Council,
1883-89.) Hiltingbury Lodge, Chandler’s Ford, Hants.

tHenry, Hubert, M.D. 304 Glossop-road, Sheffield.

tHenry, Dr. T. A. Imperial Institute, S.W.

*Henshall, Robert. Sunnyside, Latchford, Warrington.

{Heprsorn, Davin, M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Anatomy in Univer-
sity College, Cardiff.

tHepworth, Commander M. W. C., C.B., R.N.R. Meteorological
Office, South Kensington, S.W.

*Herpertson, A. J., M.A., Ph.D. (Pres. E, 1910), Professor of Geo-
graphy in the University of Oxford. 9 Fyfield-road, Oxford.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 43

Year of
Election.

1909. tHerbinson, William. 376 Ellice-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

1902. t{Herdman, G. W., B.Sc., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Irrigation and Water
Supply Department, Pretoria. ;

1912. *Herdman, George Andrew. Croxteth Lodge, Sefton Park, Liver-
ool.

1887. wepee weane Wituram A., D.Sc., F.B.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. (GenzRan
SecreTary, 1903- ; Pres. D, 1895; Council, 1894-1900 ;
Local Sec. 1896), Professor of Natural History in the University
of Liverpool. Croxteth Lodge, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

1893. *Herdman, Mrs. Croxteth Lodge, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

1909. tHerdt, Professor L. A. McGill University, Montreal, Canada.

1875. t{HeREForp, The Right Rev. Jonn Percrivat, D.D., LL.D., Lord
Bishop of. (Pres. L, 1904.) The Palace, Hereford.

1912. t{Heron, David, D.Sc. Galton Eugenics Laboratory, University
College, W.C.

1912. §Heron-Allen, Edward, F.L.S., F.G.S. 33 Hamilton-terrace, N.W.

1908. *Herring, Percy T., M.D. The University, St. Andrews, N.B.

1874. §HERscHEL, Colonel Jonny, R.E., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Observatory
House, Slough, Bucks.

1900. *Herschel, Rev. J. C. W. Fircroft, Wellington College Station,
Berkshire.

1913. §Hersey, Mayo Dyer, A.M. Bureau of Standards, Washington,
USA

1905. tHervey, Miss Mary F.S. 22 Morpeth-mansions, S.W.

1903. *Hesxetu, CHaRLtEs H. FrEEtwoop, M.A. Stocken Hall, Stretton,
Oakham.

1895. §Hesketh, James. 65 Scarisbrick Avenue, Southport.

1913. §$Hett, Miss May L. 53 Fordwych-road, West Hampstead, N.W.

1894. {Hrewertson, G. H. (Local Sec. 1896.) 39 Henley-road, Ipswich.

1894. tHewins, W. A. S., M.A., FSS. 15 Chartfield-avenue, Putney

Hill, S.W.

1908, jHewitt, Dr. C. Gordon. Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa.

1896. §Hewitt, David Basil, M.D. Oakleigh, Northwich, Cheshire.

1903. tHewitt, E.G. W. 87 Princess-road, Moss Side, Manchester.

1909. §Hewitt, Sir Frederic, M.V.O., M.D. 14 Queen Anne-street, W.

1903. tHewitt, John Theodore,-M.A., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S. Clifford
House, Staines-road, Bedfont, Middlesex.

1904. tHewitt, W., B.Sc. 16 Clarence-road, Birkenhead.

1882. *Heycock, Cuartes T., M.A., F.R.S. 3 St. Peter’s-terrace, Cam-
bridge.

1883. tHeyes, Rev. John Frederick, M.A. F.R.G.S. St. Barnabas
Vicarage, Bolton.

1866. *Heymann, Albert. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire.

1901. *Heys, Z. John. Stonehouse, Barrhead, N.B.

1912. §Heywood, H. B., D.Sc. Pinner, Middlesex.

1912. §Hickling, George. The University, Manchester.

1877. §Hicxs, W. M., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1895), Professor of
Physics in the University of Sheffield. Leamhurst, Ivy
Park-road, Sheffield.

1886. tHicks, Mrs. W. M. Leambhurst, Ivy Park-road, Sheffield.

1887. *Hickson, SypnEy J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1903), Pro-
fessor of Zoology in Victoria University, Manchester.

1864. *Hiern, W. P., M.A., F.R.S. The Castle, Barnstaple.

1891. tHiacs, Henry, C.B., LL.B., F.S.8. (Pres. F, 1899; Council,
1904-06.) H.M. Treasury, Whitehall, S.W.

1909. {Higman, Ormond. Electrical Standards Laboratory, Ottawa.

1913. *Higson, G. I, M.Sc. 11 Westbourne-road, Birkdale, Lancashire.

44

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1907.
1911.
1885.

1903.
1906.
1881.
1908.

1911.

1912.
1886.

1898.
1888.
1907.

1911.
1903.
1903.
1870.

1910.
1883.

1898.
1911.

1903.

1911.
1899.
1887.

1904,

1907,
1877.
1913.
1887.

1880.

1912.
1905.
1909.

1898.
1904.
1907.
1904.

1908.

tHitxy, E. V. (Local Sec. 1907.) Town Hall, Birmingham.

*Hiley, Wilfrid E. Ebbor, Wells, Somerset.

*Hit, Atexanper, M.A., M.D. Hartley University College,
Southampton.

*Hitt, Artuur W., M.A., F.LS. Royal Gardens, Kew.

§Hill, Charles A.. M.A., M.B. 13 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

*Hitt, Rev. Epwin, M.A. The Rectory, Cockfield, Bury St. Edmunds.

*Hinz, James P., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology in University
College, Gower-street, W.C.

§Hitt, Leonard, M.B., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1912.) Osborne House,
Loughton, Essex.

§Hill, M. D. Angelo’s, Eton College, Windsor.

tH, M. J. M., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Pure Mathematics
in University College, W.C.

*Hill, Thomas Sidney. Langford House, Langford, near Bristol.

THill, William, F.G.S. The Maples, Hitchin, Herts.

*Hitts, Major E. H., C.M.G., R.E., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E,
1908.) 32 Prince’s-gardens, S.W.

*Hills, William Frederick Waller. 32 Prince’s-gardens, S.W.

*Hilton, Harold. 108 Alexandra-road, South Hampstead, N.W.

*Hinp, WHEELTON, M.D., F.G.S. Roxeth House, Stoke-on-Trent.

tHrxpz, G. J., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Ivythorn, Avondale-road,
South Croydon, Surrev

§Hindle, Edward, B.A., Ph.D., F.L.S. Quick Laboratories, Cam-
bridge.

*Hindle, James Henry. 8 Cobham-street, Accrington.

§Hinds, Henry. 57 Queen-street, Ramsgate.

{Hinks, Arthur R., M.A., F.R.S., Assist. Sec. R.G.S. Royal
Geographical Society, Kensington Gore, S.W.

*Hinmers, Edward. Glentwood, South Downs-drive, Hale,
Cheshire.

{Hitchcock, Miss A. M., M.A. 40 St. Andrew’s-road, Southsea.

tHobday, Henry. Hazelwood, Crabble Hill, Dover.

*Hosson, BernarD, M.Sc., F.G.S. Thornton, Hallamgate-road,
Sheffield.

{Hogson, Ernust WIxL1aM, Sc.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1910), Sadlerian
Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University of Cambridge.
The Gables, Mount Pleasant, Cambridge.

{Hobson, Mrs. Mary. 6 Hopefield-avenue, Belfast.

tHodge, Rev. John Mackey, M.A. 38 Tavistock-place, Plymouth.

$Hodges, Ven. Archdeacon George, M.A. Ely.

*Hodgkinson, Alexander, M.B., B.Sc., Lecturer on Laryngology
in the Victoria University, Manchester. 18 St. John-street,
Manchester.

t{Hodgkinson, W. R. Eaton, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of
Chemistry and Physics in the Royal Artillery College, Wool-
wich. 18 Glenluce-road, Blackheath, S.E.

{Hodgson, Benjamin. The University, Bristol.

tHodgson, Ven. Archdeacon R. The Rectory, Wolverhampton.

tHodgson, R. T., M.A. Collegiate Institute, Brandon, Manitoba,
Canada.

tHodgson, T. V. Municipal Museum and Art Gallery, Plymouth.

*Hodson, F., Ph.D. Bablake School, Coventry.

{Hodson, Mrs. Bablake School, Coventry.

{Hocarrn, D. G., M.A. (Pres. H, 1907 ; Council, 1907-10.) 20 St.

Giles’s, Oxford. E ,
tHogg, Right Hon. Jonathan. Stratford, Rathgar, Co. Dublin.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 45

Year of

Election. ‘

1911. tHolbrook, Colonel A. R. Warleigh, Grove-road South, Southsea.

1907. {Holden, Colonel H. C. L., C.B., R.A., F.R.S. Gifford House,
Blackheath, S.E.

1883. {Holden, John J. 73 Albert-road, Southport.

1887. *Holder, Henry William, M.A. Beechmount, Arnside.

1913.
1900.

1887.
1904.
1903.
1896.
1898.

1889,
1906.
1883.
1866.
1882.
1912.
1903.
1875.
1904.
1908.
1865.
1877.

1904.
1905.
1913.
1901.

1884.

1882.
1871.

1905.
1898.
1910.
1885.

1903.
1902.
~ 1905.

1887.
1893.

1908.
1884,
1899.
1906.

§Holder, Sir John C., Bart. Pitmaston, Moor Green, Birmingham.

tHo.pics, Colonel Sir Tuomas H., R.E., K.C.B., K.C.L.E., F.R.G.S.
(Pres. E, 1902.) 41 Courtfield-road, S.W.

*Holdsworth, C. J., J.P. Fernhill, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

§Holland, Charles E. 9 Downing-place, Cambridge.

§Holland, J. L., B.A. 3 Primrose-hill, Northampton.

tHolland, Mrs. Lowfields House, Hooton, Cheshire.

{Hotuanp, Sir Tuomas H., K.C.I.E., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of
Geology in the Victoria University, Manchester.

tHollander, Bernard, M.D. 35a Welbeck-street, W.

*Hollingworth, Miss. Leithen, Newnham-road, Bedford.

*Holmes, Mrs. Basil. 23 Corfton-road, Ealing, Middlesex, W.

*Holmes, Charles. Makeney, Compton-road, Winchmore Hill, N.

*HoutmEs, THomas VINCENT, F'.G.S. 28 Croom’s-hiil, Greenwich, S.E.

{Holmes-Smith, Edward, B.Sc. Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh.

*Hotr, AtrreD, M.A., D.Sc. Dowsefield, Allerton, Liverpool.

*Hood, John. Chesterton, Cirencester.

§Hooke, Rev. D. Burford, D.D. Somerset Lodge, Barnet.

*Hooper, Frank Henry. Deepdene, Streatham Common, S8.W.

*Hooper, John P. Deepdene, Streatham Common, S.W.

*Hooper, Rev. Samuel F., M.A. Lydlinch Rectory, Sturminster
Newton, Dorset.

tHopewell-Smith, A., M.R.C.S. 37 Park-street, Grosvenor-square,
S.W.

*Hopkins, Charles Hadley. Junior Constitutional Club, 101 Picca-
Yo

§Hopxins, F. GowLanD, M.A., D.Sc., M.B., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1913).
Trinity College, and Saxmeadham, Grange-road, Cambridge.

*HopKINSON, Bertram, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Mechanism and Applied Mechanics in the University of
Cambridge. 10 Adams-road, Cambridge.

*Hopxkrinson, CHARLES. (Local Sec. 1887.) The Limes, Didsbury,
near Manchester.

*Hopkinson, Edward, M.A., D.Sc. Ferns, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

*Hoprxinson, Joun, Assoc.Inst.C.E., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.B.Met.Soc.
Weetwood, Watford.

{Hopkinson, Mrs. John. Labrande, Adams-road, Cambridge.

*Hornby, R., M.A. Haileybury College, Hertford.

§Horne, Arthur 8. Kerlegh, Cobham, Surrey.

fHorng, Joun, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1901.)
12 Keith-crescent, Blackhall, Midlothian.

tHorne, William, F.G.S. Leyburn, Yorkshire.

{tHorner, John. Chelsea, Antrim-road, Belfast.

*Horsburgh, E. M., M.A., B.Sc., Lecturer in Technical Mathematics
in the University of Edinburgh,

tHorsfall, T. C. Swanscoe Park, near Macclesfield.

*Horstey, Sir Vicror A. H., LL.D., BSc. F.R.S., F.R.CS.
(Council, 1893-98.) 25 Cavendish-square, W.

tHorton, F. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

*Hotblack, G.S. Brundall, Norwich.

tHotblack, J. T., F.G.S. 45 Newmarket-road, Norwich.

*Hough, Miss Ethel M. Codsall Wood, near Wolverhampton.

46

Year of
Election

1859.
1896.

1905.
1886.
1908.
1893.

1904.

1887.
1901.
1903.
1907.

1911.

1905.
1863.

1887.

1903.
1913.
1898.
1867.

1913.
1871.
1868.

1912.
1867.

1903.
1905.
1911.
1904.

1913.

1907.
1877.
1891.
1881.
1889.
1909.
1901.
1903.
1861,

1913.
1914.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

tHough, Joseph, M.A., F.R.A.S. Codsall Wood, Wolverhampton.

*Hough, 8. 8., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., His Majesty’s Astronomer at
the Cape of Good Hope. Royal Observatory, Cape Town.

§Houghting, A.G. L. Glenelg, Musgrave-road, Durban, Natal.

tHoughton, F. T. 8., M.A., F.G.S. 188 Hagley-road, Birmingham.

tHouston, David, F.L.S. Royal College of Science, Dublin.

tHoward, F. T., M.A., F.G.S. West Mount, Waverton, near
Chester.

*Howard, Mrs. G. L. C. Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa,
Bengal, India.

*Howard, 8. S. 54 Albemarle-road, Beckenham, Kent.

§Howarth, E., F.R.A.S. Public Museum, Weston Park, Sheffield.

*Howarth, James H., F.G.S. Holly Bank, Halifax.

{Howarts, O. J. R., M.A. (Assistant Secretary.) 24 Lans-
downe-crescent, W.

*Howe, Professor G. W. O., M.Sc. City and Guilds Engineering
Coliege, Exhibition-road, 8.W.

t{Howick, Dr. W. P.O. Box 503, Johannesburg.

tHoworrs, Sir H. H., K.C.LE., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.S.A. 30 Colling-
ham-plac>, Cromwell-road, 8.W.

§Hoyiz, Wituiam E., M.A., D.Sc. (Pres. D, 1907.) National
Museum of Wales, City Hall, Cardiff.

{Hiibner, Julius. Ash Villa, Cheadle Hulme, Cheshire.

§Huddart, Mrs. J. A. 2 Chatsworth-gardens, Eastbourne.

tHudson, Mrs. Sunny Bank, Egerton, Huddersfield.

*Hupson, Professor Witt1am H. H., M.A., LL.M. 34 Birdhurst-
road, Croydon.

SHughes, Professor Alfred. 29 George-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.

*Hughes, George Pringle, J.P., F.R.G.S. Middleton Hall, Wooler,
Northumberland.

tHvucuss, T. M‘K., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Council, 1879-86), Wood-
wardian Professor of Geology in the University of Cambridge.
Ravensworth, Brooklands-avenue, Cambridge.

§Hukling, George. The University, Manchester.

tHutt, Epwarp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1874.)
14 Stanley-gardens, Notting Hill, W.

tHulton, Campbell G. Palace Hotel, Southport.

§Hume, D. G. W. 55 Gladstone-street, Dundee, Natal.

*Hume, Dr. W. F. Helwan, Egypt.
*Humphreys, Alexander C., Sc.D., LL.D., President of the Stevens
Institute of Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey, U.S.A.
§Humpureys, Joun, F.G.8. (Local Sec. 1913.) 26 Clarendon.
road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Humphries, Albert E. Coxe’s Lock Mills, Weybridge.

*Hount, ArtHur Roopg, M.A., F.G.S. Southwood, Torquay.

*Hunt, Cecil Arthur, Southwood, Torquay.

{Hunter, F.W. 16 Old Elvet, Durham.

{Hunter, Mrs. F. W. 16 Old Elvet, Durham.

{Hunter, W. J. H. 31 Lynedoch-street, Glasgow.

*Hunter, William. Evirallan, Stirling.

tHurst, Charles C., F.L.S. Burbage, Hinckley.

*Hurst, William John. Drumaness, Ballynahinch, Co. Down,
Treland.

§Hutchins, Miss B. L. The Glade, Branch Hill, Hampstead Heath,
N.W

gHutchins, D. E. Medo House, Cobham, Kent.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 44

Year of

Election.

1894. *Hurcutnson, A., M.A., Ph.D. (Local Sec. 1904.) Pembroke
College, Cambridge.

1912. §Hutchinson, Dr. H. B. Rothamsted Experimental Station,
Harpenden, Herts.

1903. §Hutchinson, Rev. H. N. 17 St. John’s Wood Park, Finchley-
road, N.W.

1864, *Hutton, Darnton. 14 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.

1887. *Hutton, J. Arthur. The Woodlands, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

1901.
1871.

1900.

1908.
1883.

1884.
1906.
1913.

1885.

1907.
1901.
1905.
1901.

1913.

1912.
1882.

1908.

1876.
1909.

1883.

1903.
1874,

1883.
1883.
1899.
1913.

1906. °

1898.
1887,

1905.
1874,

1906.
1891.
1891.
1904,

*Hutton, R. S8., D.Sc. West-street, Sheffield.

*Hyett, Francis A. Painswick House, Painswick, Stroud, Glouces-
tershire.

*Hyndman, H. H. Francis. 5 Warwick-road, Earl’s Court, S.W.

fIdle, George. 43 Dawson-street, Dublin.

tIdris, T. H. W. 110 Pratt-street, Camden Town, N.W.

*Tles, George. 5 Brunswick-street, Montreal, Canada.

tIliffe, J. W. Oak Tower, Upperthorpe, Sheffield.

§Illing, Vincent Charles, B.A., F.G.S. The Chestnuts, Hartshill,
Atherstone, Warwickshire.

§m THuRN, Sir Everarp F., C.B., K.C.M.G. (Council 1913- ).
39 Lexham-gardens, W.

§Ingham, Charles B. Moira House, Eastbourne.

finaeuis, Jonn, LL.D. 4 Prince’s-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

§Innes, R. T. A., F.R.A.S. Union Observatory, Johannesburg.

*Tonides, Stephen A. 929 Foster-building, Denver, Colorado.

§Irvine, James, F.R.G.S. Richmond-buildings, Chapel-stieet, Liver-

1

ol.

Sieving Peofessar J.C. The University, St. Andrews.

§Invine, Rev. A., B.A., D.Sc. Hockerill Vicarage, Bishop’s Stort-
ford, Herts.

tIrwin, Alderman John. 33 Rutland-square, Dublin.

*Jack, Witt1aM, LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in the University
of Glasgow. 10 The University, Glasgow.

tJacks, Professor L. P. 28 Holywell, Oxford.

*Jackson, Professor A. H., B.Sc. 349 Collins-street, Melbourne,
Australia.

jJackson, C.S. Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, S.E.

*Jackson, Frederick Arthur. Belmont, Somenos, Vancouver Island,
B.C., Canada.

*Jackson, F. J. 35 Leyland-road, Southport.

tJackson, Mrs. F. J. 35 Leyland-road, Southport.

tJackson, Geoffrey A. 31 Harrington-gardens, Kensington, S.W.

*Jackson, H. Gordon, M.Sc. Mason College, Birmingham.

*Jackson, James Thomas, M.A. Engineering School, Trinity
College, Dublin.

*Jackson, Sir John. 51 Victoria-street, S.W.

§Jacobson, Nathaniel, J.P. Olive Mount, Cheetham Hill-road,

Manchester.

*Jafié, Arthur, M.A. 3 King’s Bench-walk, Temple, E.C.

*Jafié, John. Villa Jaffé, 38 Promenade des Anglais, Nice,
France.

tJalland, W. H. Museum-street, York.

*James, Charles Henry, J.P. 64 Park-place, Cardiff.

*James, Charles Russell. The Bungalow, Redhill, Surrey.

tJames, Thomas Campbell. University College, Aberystwyth.

48

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of

Election.

1896. *Jameson, H. Lyster, M.A., Ph.D. Borderdale, Sunningdale, Berks.

1889. *Japp, F. R., M.A., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1898), Professor
of Chemistry in the University of Aberdeen.

1910. *Japp, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. Care of Messrs. 8. Pearson & Son,
507 Fifth Avenue, New York, U.S.A.

1896. *Jarmay, Gustav. Hartford Lodge, Hartford, Cheshire.

1913. §Jarrard, W. J. The University, Sheffield.

1903. tJaRRatT, J. Ernest (Local Sec. 1903). 10 Cambridge-road,
Southport.

1904. *Jeans, J. H., M.A., F.R.S. 8 Ormonde-gate, Chelsea, S.W.

1897. tJeffrey, E. C., B.A. The University, Toronto, Canada.

1912. §Jehu, T. J., M.A., M.D., Professor of Geology in the University of
St. Andrews. ‘

1908. *Jenkin, Arthur Pearse, F.R.Met.Soc. Trewirgie, Redruth.

1909. *Jenkins, Miss Emily Vaughan. 31 Antrim-mansions, South

Hampstead, N.W.

1903. {Jenkinson, J. W. The Museum, Oxford.

1904. tJenkinson, W. W. 6 Moorgate-street, E.C.

1893. tJennings, G. E. 60 Fosse-road South, Leicester.

1905. iJennings, Sydney. P.O. Box 149, Johannesburg.

Jessop, William. Overton Hall, Ashover, Chesterfield.

1900. *Jevons, H. Stanley, M.A., B.Sc. 3 Pembroke-terrace, Cardiff.

1907. *Jevons, Miss H.W. Enderley, Little Kingshill, Great Missenden,
Bucks.

1905. §Jeyes, Miss Gertrude, B.A. Berrymead, 6 Lichfield-road, Kew
Gardens.

1909, *Johns, Cosmo, ¥F.G.S., M.I.M.E. Burngrove, Pitsmoor-road,
Sheffield.

1909. {Johnson, C. Kelsall, F.R.G.S. The Glen, Sidmouth, Devon.

1913. §Johnson, Dr. 8. J. Department of Biology, The University,
Sydney, N.S.W.

1890. *Jounson, THomas, D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.

1902. *Johnson, Rev. W., B.A., B.Sc. Archbishop Holgate’s Grammar
School, York.

1898. *Johnson, W. Claude, M.Inst.C.E, Broadstone, Coleman’s Hatch,
Sussex.

1899. {Jounston, Colonel Sir Duncan A., K.C.M.G., C.B., R.E., Hon.
Sec. R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1909.) Branksome, Down View-road,
West Worthing.

1883. tJounsron, Sir H. H., G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.G.S. St. John’s

: Priory, Poling, near Arundel.

1913. §Johnston, James. Oak Bank-avenue, Manchester.

1909. *Johnston, J. Weir, M.A. 20 Ely-place, Dublin.

1908. {Johnston, Swift Paine. 1 Hume-street, Dublin.

1884. *Johnston, W. H. County Offices, Preston, Lancashire. -

1885. {Jonnsron-Lavis, H. J., M.D., F.G.S. Beaulieu, Alpes-Maritimes,
France.

1909. §Jolly, Professor W. A., M.B., D.Sc. South African College, Cape
Town.

1888. jJoxy, Joun, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1908), Professor
of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of Dublin.
Geological Department, Trinity College, Dublin.

1887. jJones, D. E., B.Sc. Eryl Dag, Radyr, Cardiff.

1913. *Jones, Daniel, M.A., Lecturer on Phonetics at University College,
London, W.C.

1904. {Jones, Miss E. E. Constance. Girton College, Cambridge.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 49

Year of
Election.

1890.

1896.
1903.
1907.
1887.

1891.
1883.

1912.
1913.

1905.

1901.
1902.
1908.
1912.
1875.
1913.
1883.
1886,
1905.
1870.

1894.
1905.

1913.
1888.

1913.
1913.
1904.
1892.

1913.
1908.

1913,
1911.

1884.
1908.
1908.
1911.
1902.
1885.

§Jonzs, Rev. Epwarp, F.G.S. Primrose Cottage, Embsay,
Skipton.

tJones, E. Taylor, D.Sc. University College, Bangor.

§Jones, Evan. Ty-Mawr, Aberdare. 5

*Jones, Mrs. Evan. 39 Hyde Park-gate, S.W.

jJones, Francis, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Beaufort House, Alexandra
Park, Manchester.

*Jonzs, Rev. G. HartwEL1, D.D. Nutfield Rectory, Redhill, Surrey.

*Jones, George Oliver, M.A. Inchyra House, 21 Cambridge-road,
Waterloo, Liverpool.

jJones, J. H. The University, Glasgow.

§Jones, O. T., M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S.. Professor of Geology in the
University College of Wales. Fenton, Caradoc-road,
Aberystwyth.

tJones, Miss Parnell. The Rectory, Llanddewi Skyrrid, Aberga-
venny, Monmouthshire.

tJones, R, E., J.P. Oakley Grange, Shrewsbury.

{Jones, R. M., M.A. Royal Academical Institution, Belfast.

tJones, R. Pugh, M.A. County School, Holyhead, Anglesey.

§Jones, W. Neilson. University College, Reading.

*Jose, J. E. Ethersall, Tarbock-road, Huyton, Lancashire.

§Jourdain, Miss Eleanor F. St. Hugh’s College, Oxford.

tJoyce, Rev. A. G., B.A. St. John’s Croft, Winchester.

tJoyce, Hon. Mrs. St. John’s Croft, Winchester.

tJudd, Miss Hilda M., B.Sc. Berrymead, 6 Lichfield-road, Kew.

jJupp, Joun WEsLEY, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1885 ;
Council, 1886-92.) Orford Lodge, 30 Cumberland-road,
Kew.

§Julian, Mrs. Forbes. Redholme, Braddon’s Hill-road, Torquay.

§Juritz, Charles F., M.A., D.Sc., F.1-C., Chief of the Division of
Chemistry, Union of South Africa. Department of Agri-
culture, Cape Town.

§Kannreuther, E. H. Richmond Hill House, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

{Kapp, GisBert, M.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.E.E. (Pres. G, 1913),
Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of
Birmingham. Pen-y-Coed, Pritchatts-road, Birmingham.

§Kay, Henry, F.G.S. 16 Wretham-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.

§Kaye, G. W. C. Culver, St. James’-avenue, Hampton Hill.

{Kayser, Professor H. The University, Bonn, Germany.

{Keane, Cuarites A., Ph.D. Sir John Cass Technical Institute,

Jewry-street, Aldgate, E.C.

§Kebby, Charles H. 75 Sterndale-road, West Kensington Park, W.

§KeEBLE, FrepERIcK, M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S. (Pres. K, 1912), Pro-
fessor of Botany in University College, Reading.

*Keeling, B. F. E. Survey Department, Giza Branch, Egypt.

*Keith, Arthur, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.S. Royal College of
Surgeons, Lincoln’s Inn-fields, W.C.

tKelloge, J. H., M.D. Battle Creek, Michigan, U.S.A.

{Kelly, Sir Malachy. Ard Brugh, Dalkey, Co. Dublin.

{Kelly, Captain Vincent Joseph. Montrose, Donnybrook, Co. Dublin.

{Kelly, Miss. Montrose, Merton-road, Southsea.

*Kelly, William J., J.P. 25 Oxford-street, Belfast.

§Keutiz, J. Scorr, LL.D., Sec. R.G.S., F.S.8. (Pres. E, 1897;
Council, 1898-1904.) Royal Geographical Society, Ken-
sington Gore, S.W.

1913. D

50

BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

Year of
Election.

1877.
1887.

1898.
1884.
1891.

1875.
1897.

1906.
1908.
1905.
1913.

1913.
1893.

1901.
1913.
1857.
1881.
1913.
1909.
1892.

1889.
1910.

1869.

1869.

1903.
1883.
1902.
1906.
1886.

1901,
1885.
1896,

1890.

1875.

*Kelvin, Lady. Netherhall, Largs, Ayrshire ; and 15 EKaton-place,
SW y yt

tKemp, Harry. 55 Wilbraham-road, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Man-
chester.

*Kemp, John T., M.A. 4 Cotham-grove, Bristol.

tKemper, Andrew C., A.M., M.D. 101 Broadway, Cincinnati, U.S.A.

[KenpDALL, Percy F., M. Se., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the
University of Leeds.

{Kennepy, Sir AtexanpER B. W., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.
(Pres. G, 1894.) 1 Queen ‘Anne- street, ‘Cavendish-square, W.

. §Kennedy, George, M.A., LL.D., K.C. Crown Lands Department,

Toronto, Canada.

tKennedy, Robert Sinclair. Glengall Ironworks, Millwall, E.

{Kennedy, William. 40 Trinity College, Dublin.

*Kennerley, W. R. P.O. Box 158, Pretoria.

§Kennick, Sir G. H. Whetstone, Somerset-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

§Kenrick, W. Byne. (Local Sec. 1913.) Metchley House,
Somerset-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Kent, A. F. Stanzey, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., Professor of Physiology
in the University of Bristol.

tKent, G. 16 Premier-road, Nottingham.

*Kenyon, Joseph, B.8c., F.I.C. 51 Irving-place, Blackburn.

*Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland.

{Kermopex, P. M.C. Claghbene, Ramsey, Isle of Man.

§Kerr, George L. 39 Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow.

jKerr, Hugh L. 68 Admiral-road, Toronto, Canada.

tKerr, J. Granam, M.A., F.R.S., Regius Professor of Zoology
in the University of Glasgow.

tKerry, W. H. R. The Sycamores, Windermere.

§Kershaw, J. B. C. West Lancashire Laboratory, Waterloo, Liver-
pool.

*Kesselmeyer, Charles Augustus. Roseville, Vale-road, Bowdon,
Cheshire.

*Kesselmeyer, William Johannes. Edelweiss Villa, Albert-road,
Hale, Cheshire.

tKewley, James. Balek Papan, Koltei, Dutch Borneo.

*Keynes, J. N., M.A., D.Sc., F.S.8. 6 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

{ Kidd, George. Greenhaven, Malone Park, Belfast.

{Kidner, Henry, F.G.S. 25 Upper Rock-gardens, Brighton.

§Kipston, Rosert, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 12 Clarendon-
place, Stirling.

*Kiep, J. N. 137 West George-street, Glasgow.

*Kilgour, Alexander. Loirston House, Cove, near Aberdeen.

*Killey, George Deane, J.P. Bentuther, 11 Victoria-road, Waterloo,
Liverpool.

{Kimmis, C. W., M.A., D.Sc. Canon’s House, St. Thomas-
street, Southwark, 8.E.

*Kincu, Epwarp, FI. C., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal
Agricultural College, Cirencester.

*1875. King, FB Ambrose. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.

1871.

1883.
1883.
1908.

1860.

*King, Rev. Herbert Poole. The Rectory, Stourton, Bath.

*King, John Godwin. Stonelands, East Grinstead.

*King, Joseph, M.P. Sandhouse, Witley, Godalming.

§King, Professor L. A. L., M.A. St. Mungo’s College Medical
School, Glasgow.

*King, Mervyn Kersteman. Merchants’ Hall, Bristol.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 51

Year of
Election.

1875.
1912.

1912.

1870.
1913.

1909.
1903.

*King, Perey L. 15 The Avenue, Clifton, Bristol.

*King, W. B. R., B.A., F.G.S. g Geological Survey, Jermyn-street,
S.W.

tKing, W. J. Harding. 25 York House, Kensington, W.

tKing, William, M.Inst.C.E. 5 Beach-lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool,

*King, William Wickham, F.G.S. Winds Point, Hagley, near
Stourbridge.

tKingdon, A. 197 Yale-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

tKingsford, H. 8., M.A. 8 Elsworthy-terrace, N.W.

. TKiepmye, Professor F. Stanuey, D.Se., Ph.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B,

1908.) University College, Nottingham.

. *Kirby, Miss C. F. 8 Windsor-court. Moscow-road, W.
. §Kirkaldy, Professor A. W., M.Com. The University, Edmund

street, Birmingham.

. §Kitto, Edward. 2 Great Headland-terrace, ~ Preston, Paignton,

South Devon.

. tKnight, Captain J. M., F.G.S. Bushwood, Wanstead, Essex.
. §Knipe, Henry R., F.L.S., F.G.8. 9 Linden-park, Tunbridge Wells.
. TKyorr, Professor Carry G., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 42 Upper Gray-

street, Edinburgh.

. *Knott, Herbert, J.P. Sunnybank, Wilmslow, Cheshire.
. *Knott, John F. Edgemoor, Burbage, Derbyshire.
. *Knowles, Arthur J., B.A., W.Inst.C.E. Turf Club, Cairo, Egypt.

Knowles, William James. Flixton-place, Ballymena, Co. Antrim.

. {Knox, R. Kyzz, LL.D. 1 College-gardens, Belfast.

. *Knubley. Rev. E. P., M.A. Steeple Ashton Vicarage, Trowbridge.
. {Knubley, Mrs. Steeple Ashton Vicarage, Trowbridge.

. *Krauss, John Samuel, B.A. Stonycroft, Knutsford-road, Wilms-

low, Cheshire.
*Kunz, G. F., M.A., Ph.D. Care of Messrs. Tiffany & Co., 11 Union-
square, New York City, U.S.A.

. *Lafontaine, Rev. H. C.de. 52 Albert-court, Kensigion Gore, S.W.

tLaird, Hon. David. Indian Commission, Ottawa, Canada.
{Lake, Philip. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

. [Lamb, C.G. Ely Villa, Glisson-road, Cambridge.
. *Lamb, Edmund, M.A. Borden Wood, Liphook, Hants.
. {Lams, Horace, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1904), Pro-

fessor of Mathematics in the Victoria University, Manchester.
6 Wilbraham-road, Fallowfield, Manchester.

. [Lambert, Joseph. 9 Westmoreland-road, Southport.
. *Lamptuas, G. W., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1906.) 13 Beaconsfield-

road, St. Albans.

. “Lane, Witur1am H., F.R.S. 2 Heaton-road, Withington, Man-

chester.

. *Lanetey, J. N., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1899; Council,

1904-07), Professor of Physiology in the University of Cam-
bridge. Trinity College, Cambridge.

. {Lanxester, Sir E. Ray, K.C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.

(Present, 1906; Pres. D, 1883 ; Council, 1889-90, 1894-95,
1900-02.) 331 Upper Richmond-road, Putney, S.W.

. *LANSDELL, Rev. Henry, D.D., F.R.AS., F.R.G.S. Dimsdale,

4 Pond-road, Blackheath Park, London, S.E.

. }Lanza, Professor G. Massachusetts Institute of Technology,

Boston, U.S.A.

. tLapthorn, Miss. St, Bernard’s, Grove-road South, Southsea.

D2

52

Year of

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Election.

1885.
1909.

1887.
1881.

1883.
1870.

1911.
1900.

1911.
1913.
1892.

1907.

1870.
1905.
1911.

1908.
1908.
1888.
1913.
1883.
1894.

1905.
1901.
1904.
1884.

1872.
1910.

1912.
1895.
1907.
1910.
1896.
1909.

1909.
1894.
1909.
1905.

1892.

tLapwortH, Caries, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1892.)
38 Calthorpe-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Larard, C. E., Assoc.M.Inst. C.E. 106 Cranley-gardens, Muswell
Hill, N.

{Larmor, Alexander. Craglands, Helen’s Bay, Co. Down.

{Larmor, Sir Josep, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1900), Lucasian
Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambridge.
St. John’s College, Cambridge.

{Lascelles, B. P., M.A. Headland, Mount Park, Harrow.

*LaTHAM, Batpwin, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Parliament-mansions,
Westminster, S.W.

§Lattey, R. T. Royal Naval College, Dartmouth.

tLauder, Alexander, Lecturer in Agricultural Chemistry in the
Edinburgh and East of Scotland College of Agriculture,
Edinburgh.

§Laurie, Miss C. L. 1 Vittoria-walk, Cheltenham.

*Laurie, Mrs. E. B. 11 Marine-parade, Hoylake.

{Lavagiz, Matcou, B.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. School of Medicine, Sur-
geons’ Hall, Edinburgh.

*Laurie, Robert Douglas. Department of Zoology, The University,
Liverpool.

*Law, Channell. Ilsham Dene, Torquay.

{Lawrence, Miss M. Roedean School, near Brighton.

*Lawson, A. Anstruther, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. The University,
Sydney, N.S.W.

{Lawson, H. S., B.A. Buxton College, Derbyshire.

{Lawson, William, LL.D. 27 Upper Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin.

{Layard, Miss NinaF., F.L.S. Rookwood, Fonnereau-road, Ipswich.

§Lea, F. C., D.Sc. 36 Mayfield-road, Moseley, Birmingham.

*Leach, Charles Catterall. Seghill, Northumberland.

*Leany, A. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Sheffield. 92 Ashdell-road, Sheffield.

tLeake, E.O. 5 Harrison-street, Johannesburg.

*Lean, George, B.Sc. 15 Park-terrace, Glasgow.

*Leathem, J. G. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

*Leavitt, Erasmus Darwin. 2 Central-square, Cambridgeport,
Massachusetts, U.S.A.

{Lzzovur, G. A., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Geology in the Armstrong
College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

§Lebour, Miss M. V.,M.Se. Zoological Department, The University,
Leeds

§Lechmere, A. Eckley, M.Sc. Townhope, Hereford.

*Ledger, Rev. Edmund. Protea, Doods-road, Reigate.

{Lee, Mrs. Barton. 126 Mile End-lane, Stockport.

*Lee, Ernest. Birkbeck College, Chancery-lane, E.C.

§Lee, Rev. H. J. Barton. 126 Mile End-lane, Stockport.

§Lee, I. L. Care of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, Broad-
street Station, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

tLee, Rev. J. W., D.D. 5068 Washington-avenue, St. Louis,
Missouri, U.S.A.

*Lee, Mrs. W. The Nook, Forest Row, Sussex.

tLeeming, J. H., M.D. 406 Devon-court, Winnipeg, Canada.

tLees, Mrs. A. P. Care of Dr. Norris Wolfenden, 76 Wimpole-
street, W.

*Luzs, Cuartes H., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the
East London College, Mile End. Greenacres, Woodside-road,
Woodford Green, Essex.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1918. 53

Year of
Election.

1912.
1886.
1906.
1889.

1906.
1912.
1912.
1910.
1891.
1903.

1906.

1905.
1913.

1903.
1908.
1887.
1901.
1913.
1912.
1890.
1904.

1900.
1896.

1913.

1887.
1893.

1904.
1870.

1891.
1913.
1899.
1910.

1904.
1910.
1911.

1906.

1913.
1908.
1904.
1898.
1913.

1888.

tLees, John. Pitscottie, Cupar, Fife.

*Lees, Lawrence W. Old Ivy House, Tettenhall, Woiverhampton.

tLees, Robert. Victoria-street, Fraserburgh.

*Leeson, John Rudd, M.D., O.M., F.LS., F.G.8. Clifden House,
Twickenham, Middlesex.

tLeetham, Sidney. Elm Bank, York.

tLeacat, W. G. Bank of Scotland, Dundee.

§Legge, James G., Municipal Buildings, Liverpool.

§Leigh, H.S. Brentwood, Worsley, near Manchester.

tLeigh, W. W. Glyn Bargoed, Treharris, R.S.O., Glamorganshire.

{Leighton, G. R., M.D., F.R.S.E. Local Government Board,
Edinburgh.

{Leiper, Robert T., M.B., F.Z.S. London School of Tropical
Medicine, Royal Albert Dock, E.

tLeitch, Donald. P.O. Box 1703, Johannesburg.

§Leith, Professor R. F.C. Pathological Laboratory, The University,
Birmingham.

*Lempfert, R. G. K., M.A. 66 Sydney-street, S.W.

tLentaigne, John. 42 Merrion-square, Dublin.

*Leon, John T., M.D., B.Sc. 23 Grove-road, Southsea.

§LEONARD, J. H., B.Sc. 31 Gunterstone-road, West Kensington, W. .

§Lessing, R., Ph.D. 317 High Holborn, W.C.

*Lessner, C. B., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., F.C.S. Carril, Spain.

*Lester, Joseph Henry. 5 Grange-drive, Monton Green, Manchester.

*Le Sueur, H. R., D.Sc. Chemical Laboratory, St. Thomas’s
Hospital, 8.E.

{Letts, Professor E. A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Queen’s University, Belfast.

tLever, Sir W. H., Bart. Thornton Manor, Thornton Hough,

Cheshire.
§Levick, John. Livingstone House, Livingstone-road, Handsworth,
Birmingham.

*Levinstein, Ivan. Hawkesmoor, Fallowfield, Manchester.
*Luwens, Vivian B., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal
Naval College, Greenwich, 8.E.
Vsgs ae Agnes S., LL.D. Castle Brae, Chesterton-lane, Cam-
ridge.
{Lewis, Atrrep Lionet. 35 Beddington-gardens, Wallington,
Surrey.
{Lewis, Professor D. Morgan, M.A. University College, Aberystwyth.
§Lewis, E. O. Gwynfa, Alma-street, Brynmawr.
tLewis, Professor E. P. University of California, Berkeley, U.S.A.
{Lewis, Francis J., D.Sc., F.L.S. Department of Biology, Uni-
versity of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
tLewis, Hugh. Glanafrau, Newtown, Montgomeryshire.
*Lewis, T. C. West Home, West-road, Cambridge.
§Lewis, W. C. McC., M.A., D.Se. Professor of Physical Chemistry
in the University of Liverpool.
tLiddiard, James Edward, F.R.G.S. Rodborough Grange, Bourne-
mouth.
*Lillie, D. G. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
{Lilly, W. E., M.A., Sc.D. 39 Trinity College, Dublin.
{Link, Charles W. 14 Chichester-road, Croydon.
{Lippincott, R. C. Cann. Over Court, near Bristol.
*Lishman, G. P., D.Se., F.1.C. Chemical Laboratory, Lambton
Coke Works, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.
{Lisrzr, J. J.. M.A., F.R.S. (Pres. D. 1906.) St. John’s College,
Cambridge.

54
Year of
Election

1861.
1876.

1902.
1912.

1909,

1903.
1892.
1905.
1904.
1863.

1902.
1900.
1886.

1875.

1894.
1899.
1902.

1903.
1905.
1883.
1910.
1904.

1898.
1901.

1875.
1872.

1881.
1899.
1903.
1897.

1883.
1896.

1887.

1886.
1904.
1876.
1908.
1909.

1912.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

*Liverna, G. D., M.A., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1882 ; Council 1888-95;
Local Sec. 1862.) Newnham, Cambridge.

*LIVERSIDGE, ARCHIBALD, M.A., F.RB.S., F.C.S., F.G.8, F.R.G.S.
Fieldhead, George-road, Kingston Hill, Surrey.

§Llewellyn, Evan. Working Men’s Institute and Hall, Blaenavon.

§Lloyd, Miss Dorothy Jordan. 16 Ampton-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

§Lloyd, George C., Secretary of the Iron and Steel Institute. 28
Victoria-street, S.W.

tLloyd, Godfrey I. H. The University of Toronto, Canada.

tLoca, C. S., D.C.L. Denison House, Vauxhall Bridge-road, 8.W.

tLochrans, Miss 'T. 8 Prince’s-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow

fLock, Rev. J. B. Herschel House, Cambridge.

tLockyer, Sir J. Norman, K.C.B., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (PRESIDENT,
1903 ; Council, 1871-76, 1901-02.) 16 Penywern-road, S.W.

*Lockyer, Lady. 16 Penywern-road, S.W.

§Lockyer, W. J.S., Ph.D. 16 Penywern-road, §.W.

*LopGr, ALFRED, M.A. (Council, 1913- .) The Croft, Peper-
harow-road, Godalming.

*LopDGE, Sir OLIVER J., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. (PrestpENT; Pres.
A, 1891; Council, 1891-97, 1899-1903, 1912-13), Principal
of the University of Birmingham.

*Lodge, Oliver W. F. Mariemont, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Loncq, Emile. 6 Rue de la Plaine, Laon, Aisne, France.

tLonponpERRY, The Marquess of, K.G. Londonderry House,
Park-lane, W.

tLong, Frederick. The Close, Norwich.

tLong, W. F. City Engineer’s Office, Cape Town.

*Long, William. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.

*Londgen, G. A. Stanton-by-Dale, Nottingham.

*Longden, J. A., M.Inst.C.E. Chislehurst, Marlborough-road,
Bournemouth.

*Longfield, Miss Gertrude. Belmont, High Halstow, Rochester.

*Longstaff, Captain Frederick V., F.R.G.S. No. 1252 Post Office,
Victoria, B.C., Canada.

*Longstaff, George Blundell, M.A., M.D., F.C.S., F.S.8. Highlands,
Putney Heath, 8.W.

*Longstaff, Lieut.-Colonel Llewellyn Wood, F.R.G.S. Ridgelands,
Wimbledon, S.W.

*Longstaff, Mrs. Ll. W. Ridgelands. Wimbledon, S.W.

*Longstaff, Tom G., M.A., M.D. Picket Hill, Ringwood.

tLoton, John, M.A. 23 Hawkshead-street, Southport.

{Loupon, Jamezs, LI..D., President of the University of Toronto,
Canada.

*Louis, D. A., F.G.S., F.C. 123 Pall Mall, S.W.

tLouis, Henry, D.Sc., Professor of Mining in the Armstrong College
of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Lovg, A. E. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1907), Professor
of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford. 34 St.
Margaret’s-road, Oxford.

*Love, E. F. J.. M.A., D.Sc. The University, Meibourne, Australia.

*Love, J. B., LL.D. Outlands, Devonport.

*Love, James, I’.R.AS., F.G.S., F.Z.S. 33 Clanricarde-gardens, W.

§Low, Alexander, M.A., M.D. The University, Aberdeen.

tLow, David, M.D, 1927 Scarth-street, Regina, Saskatchewan,
Canada.

tLow, William. Baimakewan, Seaview, Monifieth.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 55

Year of
Election,

1885.
1891.
1885.
1886.
1894.
1903.
1913.

1913.
1901.
i89l.
1906.

1866.
1883.
1874.

1898.
1903.
1871.

1884

1912.
1907.
1908.
1908.

1905.
1868.

1878.

1904.
1908.

1896.

1879.
1883.
1909.
1896.

1904.
1896.

1902.
1912.
1912.
1886.

1908.

1909.
1884,

§Lowdell, Sydney Poole. Baldwin’s Hill, East Grinstead, Sussex.

§Lowdon, John. St. Hilda’s, Barry, Glamorgan,

*Lowe, Arthur C. W. Gosfield Hall, Halstead, Essex.

*Lowe, John Landor, B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. Spondon, Derbyshire.

t{Lowenthal, Miss Nellie. Woodside, Egerton, Huddersfield.

*Lowry, Dr. T. Martin. 130 Horseferry-road, S.W.

§Lucas, Sir Charles P., K.C.B., K.C.M.G. 65 St. George’s-square,
S.W.

§Lucas, Harry. Hilver, St. Agnes-road, Moseley, Birmingham.

*Lucas, Keith, F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Lucovich, Count A. Tyn-y-parc, Whitchurch, near Cardiff.

§Ludlam, Ernest Bowman. College Gate, 32 College-road, Clifton,
Bristol.

*Lund, Charles. Ilkley, Yorkshire.

*Lupton, Arnold, M.P., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 7 Victoria-street, S.W.

*Lupron, Sypnry, M.A. (Local Sec. 1890.) 102 Park-street.
Grosvenor-square, W.

{Luxmoore, Dr. C. M., F.I.C., 19 Disraeli-gardens, Putney, 8.W,

{Lyddon, Ernest H. Lisvane, near Cardiff.

tLyell, Sir Leonard, Bart., F.G.S. Kennordy, Kirriemuir.

tLyman, H. H. 384 St. Paul-street, Montreal, Canada.

*Lynch, Arthur, M.A., M.P. 80 Antrim-mansions, Haverstock
Hill, N.W.

*Lyons, Captain Henry Grorar, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Council, 1912- .)
5 Heathview-gardens, Roehampton, S.W.

{Lyster, George H. 34 Dawson-street, Dublin.

tLyster, Thomas W., M.A. National Library of Ireland, Kildare-
street, Dublin.

tMaberly, Dr. John. Shirley House, Woodstock, Cape Colony.

tMacatistER, AtmxanpER, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. H, 1892;
Council, 1901-06), Professor of Anatomy in the University of
Cambridge. Torrisdale, Cambridge.

tMacAuster, Sir Donatp, K.C.B., M.A., M.D., LL.D., B.Sc.,
Principal of the University of Glasgow.

{Macalister, Miss M. A. M. Torrisdale, Cambridge.

{Macallan, J., F.LC., F.R.S.E. 3 Rutland-terrace, Clontarf, Co.
Dublin

tMacatioum, Professor A. B., Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1910;
Local Sec. 1897.) 59 St. George-street, Toronto, Canada.
§MacAndrew, James J., F.L.S. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon.
{tMacAndrew, Mrs, J.J. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon.
{MacArthur, J. A., M.D. Canada Life Building, Winnipeg, Canada.
mary: F. 8., M.A. The Chesters, Vicarage-road, East Sheen,
. W.

*Macaulay, W. H. King’s College, Cambridge.

{MacBripg, EH, W., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology in the
Imperial College of Science and Technology, 8.W.

*Maccall, W. T., M.Sc. Technical College, Sunderland.

§McCallum, George Fisher. 142 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

§McCallum, Mrs. Lizzie. 142 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

{MacCarthy, Rey. E. F. M., M.A. 50 Harborne-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham,

Mocarihy. Edward Valentine, J.P. Ardmanagh House, Glenbrook,

o. Cork.
tMcCarthy, J. H. Public Library, Winnipeg, Canada,
*McCarthy, J. J..M.D. 11 Wellington-road, Dublin.

56

Year of
Election

1887.
1904.
1902.

1906.
1878.
1908.
1901.
1901.
1912.

1905.
1904.
1909.
1904.

1905.
1900.
1905.

1884.
1909.
1909.
1912.

1908.
1906.
1885.

1901.
1909.
1888.
1908.

1908.
1906.
1902.
1867.

1909.
1909.
1912.

1909.
1884.

1913.
1885.

1912.
1908.
1909.
1873.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

*McCarthy, James. 1Sydney-place, Bath.
§McClean, Frank Kennedy. Rusthall House, Tunbridge Wells.
tMcClelland, J. A., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in University
College, Dublin.
{McClure, Rev. E. 80 Eccleston-square, S.W.
*M‘Comas, Henry. 12 Hlgin-road, Dublin.
§McCombie, Hamilton, M.A., Ph.D. The University, Birmingham.
*MacConkey, Alfred. Lister Lodge, Elstree, Herts.
tMcCrae, John, Ph.D. 7 Kirklee-gardens, Glasgow.
t{MacCulloch, Rey. Canon J. A., D.D. The Rectory, Bridge of
Allan.
§McCulloch, Principal J. D. Free College, Edinburgh.
{McCulloch, Major T., R.A. 68 Victoria-street, S.W.
{MacDonald, Miss Eleanor. Fort Qu’ Appelle, Saskatchewan, Canada.
tMacponatp. H. M., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the
University of Aberdeen.
tMcDonald, J. G. P.O. Box 67, Bulawayo.
tMacDonald, J. Ramsay, M.P. 3 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, W.C.
§MacponaLD, J. S., B.A. (Pres. I, 1911), Professor of Physiology in
the University of Sheffield.
*Macdonald, Sir W.C. 449Sherbrooke-street West, Montreal,Canada.
tMacDonell, John, M.D. Portage-avenue, Winnipeg. Canada,
*MacDougall, R. Stewart. The University, Edinburgh.
§McDougall, Dr. W., F.R.S. Woodsend, Foxcombe Hill, near
Oxford.
{McEwen, Walter, J.P. Flowerbank, Newton Stewart, Scotland.
§McFarlane, John,M.A. 30 Parsonage-road, Withington, Manchester.
tMacfarlane, J. M., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Biology in the
University of Pennsylvania, Lansdowne, Delaware Co., Penn-
sylvania, U.S.A.
tMacfee, John. 5 Greenlaw-terrace, Paisley.
{tMacgachen, A. F. D. 281 River-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.
tMacGeorge, James. 8 Matheson-road, Kensington, W.
tMcGrartu, Sir Joszpu, LL.D. (Local Sec. 1908.) Royal University
of Ireland, Dublin.
§McGregor, Charles. Training Centre, Charlotte-street, Aberdeen.
tMacerecor, D. H., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
tMcllroy, Archibald. Glenvale, Drumbo, Lisburn, Ireland.
*McIntosa, W. C., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. (Pres. D,
_ 1885), Professor of Natural History in the University of
St. Andrews. 2 Abbotsford-crescent, St. Andrews, N.B.
tMcIntyre, Alexander. 142 Maryland-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.
tMcIntyre, Daniel. School Board Offices, Winnipeg, Canada.
§McIntyre, J. Lewis, M.A., D.Sc. Abbotsville, Cults, Aberdeen-
shire.
tMcIntyre, W. A. 339 Kennedy-street, Winnipeg, Canada.
§MacKay, A. H., B.Sc., LL.D., Superintendent of Education.
Education Office, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.
*Mackay, John. 85 Bay-street, Toronto, Canada.
tMaogay, Joun Youn, M.D., LL.D., Principal of and Professor of
Anatomy in University College, Dundee.
§Mackay, R. J. 27 Arkwright-road, Hampstead, N.W.
t{McKay, William, J.P. Clifford-chambers, York.
§McKee, Dr. E.S. Grand and Nassau-streets, Cincinnati, U.S.A.
tMcKenprick, Joun G., M.D, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (Pres. I,
“| 1901; Council, 1903-09), Emeritus Professor of Physiology
_ in the‘University of Glasgow. Maxieburn, Stonehaven, N.B.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 57

Year of
Blection.

1909.
1907.

1905.

1897.
1910,
1909.
1901.
1912.
1872.
1901.
1887.

1911.
1893.

1901.

1913.
1901.
1901.
1892.

1912.
1908.

1868.

1909.
1883.

1909.

1902.
1878.
1905.
1909.
1907.
1906.
1908.
1908.
1902.
1910.
1908.
1905.
1909.
1875.

1908.

t{McKenty, D. E. 104 Colony-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

t{McKenziz, Avexanper, M.A., D.Sc., Ph.D. Birkbeck College,
Chancery-lane, W.C.

{Mackenzie, Hector. Standard Bank of South Africa, Cape
Town.

tMcKenzie, John J. 61 Madison-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

tMackenzie, K. J. J., M.A. 10 Richmond-road, Cambridge.

§MacKenzie, Kenneth. Royal Alexandra Hotel, Winnipeg, Canada,

*Mackenzie, Thomas Brown. Netherby, Manse-road, Motherwell, N.B.

§Mackenzie, William, J.P. 22 Meadowside, Dundee.

*Mackey, J. A. United University Club, Pall Mall East, S.W.

tMackie, William, M.D. 13 North-street, Elgin.

Macxrinper, H. J., M.A., M.P., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1895 ; Council,

1904-1905.) 25 Cadogan-gardens, S.W.

tMackinnon, Miss D. L. University College, Dundee.

*McLaren, Mrs. E. L. Colby, M.B., Ch.B. 137 Tettenhall-road,
Wolverhampton.

tMaclaren, J. Malcolm. Royal Colonial Institute, Northumber-
land Avenue, W.C.

§McLaren, 8. B. University College, Reading.

tMaclay, William. Thornwood, Langside, Glasgow.

t{McLean. Angus, B.Se. Harvale, Meikleriges, Paisley.

*Mactean, Maenvs, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. (Local Sec. 1901), Pro-
fessor of Electrical Engineering, Technical College, Glasgow.

§McLean, R. C., B.Sc. 36 Avenue-road, Highgate, N.

§McLennan, J. C., Professor of Physics in the University of
Toronto, Canada.

§McLEop, Hersert, LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1892; ~ Council,
1885-90.) 37 Montague-road, Richmond, Surrey.

{MacLeod, M. H. O.N.R. Depot, Winnipeg, Canada.

++

tMacManon, Major Percy A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. (TRustEn,
1913- ; Genera. SEcRETARY, 1902-13; Pres. A, 1901;
Council, 1898-1902.) 27 Evelyn-mansions,¥~ Carlisle-place,
S.W j

tMcMirtan, The Hon. Sir Dantzen H., K.C.M.G. Government
House, Winnipeg, Canada.

t{McMordie, Robert J. Cabin Hill, Knock, Co. Down.

tMacnie, George. 59 Bolton-street, Dublin.

§Macphail, Dr. S. Rutherford. Rowditch, Derby.

MacPhail, W. M. P.O. Box 88, Winnipeg, Canada.

{Macrosty, Henry W. 29 Hervey-road, Blackheath, S.E

tMacturk, G. W. B. 15 Bowlalley-lane, Hull.

{McVittie, R. B., M.D. 62 Fitzwilliam-square North, Dublin.

tMcWalter, J. C., M.D., M.A. 19 North Earl-street, Dublin.

tMcWeeney, Professor E.J., M.D. 84 St. Stephen’s-green, Dublin.

tMcWilliam, Dr. Andrew. Kalimate, B.N.R., near Calcutta.

tMappen, Rt. Hon. Mr. Justice. Nutley, Booterstown, Dublin.

tMagenis, Lady Louisa. 34 Lennox-gardens, S.W.

{Magnus, Laurie, M.A. 12 Westbourne-terrace, W.

*Maenvs, Sir Purr, B.Sc., B.A., M.P. (Pres. L, 1907). 16 Giouces-
ter-terrace, Hyde Park, W.

*Magson, Egbert H. Westminster College, Horseferry-road, S.W.

1907. *Mair, David. Civil Service Commission, Burlington-gardens, W.

1902
1913

. *Mairet, Mrs. Ethel M. The Thatched House, Shottery, Stratford-
on-Avon.

. §Maitland, T. Gwynne, M.D. The University, Edmund-street,
Birmingham.

58

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1908.
1914.
1912.
1905.
1897.
1903.
1894.
1887.

1902.
1912.
1898.
1911.
1900.
1864.

1905.
1905.
1881.
1903.

1892.
1883.

1887.
1889.

1912.
1904,
1905.
1901.
1907.
1899.
1911.
1884.
1889.
1912.

1911.

1913
1913

1907.
1905.

1913

1893.

1913
1891

*Makower, W. The University, Manchester.

§Malinowski, B. London School of Economics, Clare Market, W.C.

{Malloch, James, M.A., F.8.A. (Scot.) Training College, Dundee.

{Maltby, Lieutenant G. R., R.N. 54 St. George’s-square, S.W

tMancg, Sir H.C. Old Woodbury, Sandy, Bedfordshire.

{Manifold, C. C. 16 St. James’s-square, S.W.

tManning, Percy, M.A., F.S.A. Watford, Herts.

*March, Henry Colley, M.D., F.S.A. Portesham, Dorchester,
Dorsetshire.

*Marcuant, Dr. E. W. The University, Liverpool.

§Marchant, Rey. James, F.R.S.E. 42 Great Russell-street, W.C.

*Mardon, Heber. 2 Litfield-place, Clifton, Bristol.

*Marett, R. R.. Exeter College, Oxford.

tMargerison, Samuel. Calverley Lodge, near Leeds.

{Marxuam, Sir CLements R., K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.S.A.
(Pres. E, 1879; Council, 1893-96.) 21 Eccieston-square, S.W.

§Marks, Samuel. P.O. Box 379, Pretoria.

{MartortH, R.,M.A., Ph.D. P.O. Box 359, Cape Town.

*Marr, J. E., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1896 ; Council,
1896-1902, 1910- .) St..John’s College, Cambridge.

{Marriott, William. Royal Meteorological Society, 70 Victoria-
street, S.W.

*Marsden-Smedley, J. B. Lea Green, Cromford, Derbyshire.

*Marsh, Henry Carpenter. 3 Lower James-street, Golden-
square, W.

tMarsh, J. E., M.A., F.R.S. University Museum, Oxford.

*MARSHALL, ALFRED, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc. (Pres. F, 1890.) Balliol
Croft, Madingley-road, Cambridge.

{Marshall, Professor C. R., M.A., M.D. The Medical School,
Dundee.

tMarshall, F. H. A. University of Edinburgh.

tMarshali, G. A. K. 6 Chester-place, Hyde Park-square, W.

{Marshall, Robert. 97 Wellington-street, Glasgow.

{Marston, Robert. 14 Ashleigh-road, Leicester.

§Martin, Miss A. M. Park View, 32 Bayham-road, Sevenoaks.

§Martin, Professor CHARLES JAMES, M.B., D.Sc., F.R.S., Director
of the Lister Institute, Chelsea-gardens, S.W.

§Martin, N. H., J.P., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. Ravenswood, Low Fell,
Gateshead.

*Martin, Thomas Henry, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Windermere, Mount
Pleasant-road, Hastings.

{Martin, W. H. Bryru, (Local Sec. 1912.) City Chambers,
Dundee.

§Martindell, E. W., M.A. Royal Anthropological Institute, 50 Great
Russell-street, W.C.

§MaRtiInEAU, Lieut.-Colonel Ernust, V.D. Ellerslie, Augustus-
road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Martineau, P. E. The White House, Wake Green-road, Moseley,
Birmingham.

tMasefield, J. R. B., M.A. Rosehill, Cheadle, Staffordshire.

*Mason, Justice A. W. Supreme Court, Pretoria.

*Mason, Edmund W., B.A. 2 York-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

*Mason, Thomas. Enderleigh, Alexandra Park, Nottingham.

§Mason, William. Engineering Laboratory, The University,
Liverpool. .

*Massey, William H., M.Inst.C.E. Twyford, R.8.0., Berkshire.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 59

Year of
IMection.

1885.

1910.
1905.
Lyvi.
1910.

1887.

1909.
1908.

1894.
1902.

1904.
1899,

1893.
1894.

1905.
1905.
1878.
1904.
1912.

1913.
1879.
1905.
1881.

1908.

1883.
1879.
1866.
1881.
1905.

1913.
1909.
1905.
‘1879.
1899.

1899.
1884.

1889.
1905.

tMasson, David Orme, D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Melbourne.

Masson, Irvine, M.Sc. 11 Chester-street, Edinburgh.

§Massy, Miss Mary. 2 Duke-street, Bath.

*Mather, G. R, Boxlea, Wellingborough.

*Mather, Thomas, F.R.S., Professor of Electrical Engineering in the
City and Guilds of London Institute, Exhibition-road, 8.W.

*Mather, Right Hon. Sir William, M.Inst.C.E. Salford Iron Works,
Manchester.

{Mathers, Mr. Justice. 16 Edmonton-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

tMatheson, Sir R. E., LL.D. Charlemont House, Rutland-square,
Dublin.

tMartHews, G. B., M.A., F.R.S. 10 Menai View, Bangor, North
Wales.

tMarttzy, C. A., D.Sc. Military Accounts Department, Naina Tal,
U.P., India.

{Matthews, D. J. The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth.

*Maufe, Herbert B., B.A., F.G.S. P.O. Box 168, Bulawayo,
Rhodesia.

tMavor, Professor James. University of Toronto, Canada.

§Maxim, Sir Hiram §8., Thurlow Park, Norwood-road, West
Norwood, S.E.

§Maylard, A. Ernest. 12 Blythswood-square, Glasgow.

{tMaylard, Mrs. 12 Blythswood-square, Glasgow.

*Mayne, Thomas. 19 Lord Edward-street, Dublin.

{Mayo, Rev. J., LL.D. 6 Warkworth-terrace, Cambridge.

{MzexK, ALEXANDER, M.Sc., Professor of Zoology in the Armstrong
College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

§Megson, A. L. The Elms, Vale-road, Bowdon.

§Meiklejohn, John W.S., M.D. 105 Holland-road, W.

tMein, W. W. P.O. Box 1145, Johannesburg.

*MELDOLA, RAPHAEL, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.LC., F.R.A.S.,
F.E.S., Officier de lInstr. Publ. France (Pres. B, 1895;
Council, 1892-99, 1911- ), Professor of Chemistry in the
Finsbury Technical College, City and Guilds of London
Institute. 6 Brunswick-square, W.C.

tMeldrum, A. N., D.Sc. Chemical Department, The University,
Manchester.

¢Mellis, Rev. James. 23 Part-street. Southport.

*Mellish, Henry. Hodsock Priory, Worksop.

{tMetto, Rev. J. M., M.A., F.G.S. Cliff Hill, Warwick.

§Melrose, James. Clifton Croft, York.

*Melvill, E. H. V., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. P.O. Val, Standerton District,
Transvaal.

*Mentz-Tolley, Richard. Moseley Court, near Wolverhampton.

tMenzies, Rev. James, M.D. Hwaichingfu, Honan, China.

{Meredith, H. O., M.A., Professor of Economics in Queen’s University,
Belfast. 55 Bryansburn-road, Bangor, Co. Down.

{Merrivacez, Joun Herman, M.A. (Local Sec. 1889.) Togston Hall,

Acklington.

*Merrett, William H., F.I.C. Hatherley, Grosvenor-road. Walling-
ton, Surrey.

tMerryweather, J.C. 4 Whitehall-court, S.W.

*Merthyr, The Right Hon. Lord, K.C.V.0. The Mardy,
Aberdare.

*Merz, John Theodore. The Quarries, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Methven, Cathcart W. Club Arcade, Smith-street, Durban.

60

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of

Election.

1896.
1869.

1903.

1912.
1881.

1904.
1894,

1885.

1905.
1912.
1889.
1909.
1897.

1895.
1904.
1905.
1908.
1868.

1908.
1908.

1908.
1902.
1907.
1910.
1910.

1903.
1898.
1908.

1907.
1912.
1914.
1880.
1901.
1913.
1901.

1909.
1885.

1908.

University, Syracuse, New York, U.S.A.

{Miatt, Louis C., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. (Pres. D, 1897;
Pres. L, 1908; Local Sec. 1890.) Norton Way North, Letch-
worth.

*Micklethwait, Miss Frances M. G. 15 St. Mary’s-square, Padding-
ton, W.

§Middlemore, Thomas, B.A. Melsetter, Orkney.

*Middlesbrough, The Right Rev. Richard Lacy, D.D., Bishop of.
Bishop’s House, Middlesbrough.

{Mippueron, T. H., C.B., M.A. (Pres. M, 1912.) Board of Agri-
culture and Iisheries, 4 Whitehall-place, S.W.

*Mrers, Sir H. A., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1905; Pres.
L, 1910), Principal of the University of London. 23 Wetherby-
gardens, 8.W.

{Mitx, Hues Roser, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E,
1901.) 62 Camden-square, N.W.

TMill, Mrs. H. R. 62 Camden-square, N.W.

{Mirxar, Dr. A. H. (Local Sec. 1912.) Albert Institute, Dundee.

*MittaR, ROBERT CooKBURN. 30 York-place, Edinburgh.

§Miller, A. P. Quibell, Ontario, Canada.

*Miller, G. Willet, Provincial Geologist. Provincial Geologist’s
Office, Toronto, Canada.

{Miller, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E. 9 Thoroughfare, Ipswich.

{Millis, C. T. Hollydene, Wimbledon Park-road, Wimbledon.

§Mills, Mrs. A. A. Ceylon Villa, Blinco-grove, Cambridge.

{Mills, Miss E. A. Nurney, Glenagarey, Co. Dublin.

*Mitts, Epmunp J., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S. 64 Twyford-avenue,
West Acton, W.

§Mills, Miss Gertrude Isabel. Nurney, Glenagarey, Co. Dublin.

§Mills, John Arthur, M.B. Durham County Asylum, Winterton,
Ferryhill.

§Mills, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Nurney, Glenagarey, Co. Dublin.

{Mills, W. Sloan, M.A. Vine Cottage, Donaghmore, Newry.

{Milne, A., M.A. University School, Hastings.

§Milne, J. B. Cross Grove House, Totley, near Sheffield.

*Milne, James Robert, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 11 Melville-crescent, Edin-
burgh.

*Milne, R M. Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, South Devon.

*Mitner, S. Rostineton, D.Sc. The University, Sheffield.

§Milroy, T. H., M.D., Dunville Professor of Physiology in Queen’s
University, Belfast.

§Mitron, J. H., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., 8 College-avenue, Crosby,
Liverpool.

§Minchin, EK. A., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Protozoology in the
University of London. 53 Cheyne-court, Chelsea, 8S. W.

§Minchin, Mrs., 53 Cheyne-court, Chelsea, S.W.

tMincuin, G. M., M.A., F.R.S. 149 Banbury-road, Oxford.

*Mitchell, Andrew Acworth. 7 Huntly-gardens, Glasgow.

*Mitchell, Francis W. V. 25 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.

*Mitchell, G. A. 5 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

{Mitchell, J. F. 211 Rupert-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

{Mrrow=E.i, P. Cuatmers, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Sec.Z.S. (Pres. D,
1912; Council, 1906-13.) Zoological Society, Regent’s
Park, N.W.

tMitchell, W. M. 2.St. Stephen’s Green, Dublin.

§Metzler, W. H., Ph.D., Professor of Mathematics in Syracuse

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 61

Year of
Election.

1905.
1895.
1908.
1905.
1905.
1883.
1900.

1905.

1905.
1891.

1909.
1909.
1912.

1911.

1908.
1894.
1908.
1901.
1905.
1892.
1912.
1896.
1901.
1905.
1895.

1902.

1902.
1901.
1883.

1906.
1896.
1892.

1896.
1880.
1907.

1899.

1909.
- 1886.
1896.

1913.
1913.
1908.
1912.
1876.

*Mitchell, W. E.C. Box 129, Johannesburg.

*Moat, William, M.A. Johnson Hall, Eccleshall, Staffordshire.

tMoffat, C. B. 36 Hardwicke-street, Dublin.

{Moir, James, D.Sc. Mines Department, Johannesburg.

§Molengraaff, Professor G. A. F. Voorstreat 60, Delft, The Hague.

tMollison, W. L., M.A. Clare College, Cambridge.

*Moncxton, H. W., Treas. L.S., F.G.S. 3 Harcourt-buildings,
Temple, H.C. ~

*MonorieFr, Colonel Sir C. Scott, G.C.S.I., K.C.M.G., R.E. (Pres.
G, 1905.) 11 Cheyne-walk, S.W.

tMoncrieff, Lady Scott. 11 Cheyne-walk, S.W.

*Mond, Robert Ludwig, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 20 Avenue-road,
Regent’s Park, N.W.

tMoody, A. W., M.D, 4324 Main-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Moopy, G. T., D.Sc. Lorne House, Dulwich, 8.E.

§Moor#, Brnsamin, D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Bio-Chemistry in the
University of Liverpool. 84 Shrewsbury-road, Birkenhead.

§Moore, EH. §., Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the School
of Mines, Pennsylvania State College, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

*Moors, Sir F. W. Royal Botanic Gardens, Glasnevin, Dublin.

tMoore, Harold E. Oaklands, The Avenue, Beckenham, Kent.

{Moore, Sir John W., M.D. 40 Fitzwilliam-square West, Dublin

*Moore, Robert T. 142 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

t{Moore, T. H. Thornhill Villa, Marsh, Huddersfield.

{Moray, The Right Hon. the Earl of, F.G.S. Kinfauns Castle, Perth.

{Moray, The Countess of. Kinfauns Castle, Perth.

*MorprEy, W.M. 82 Victoria-street, S.W.

*Moreno, Francisco P. Parana 915, Buenos Aires.

*Morgan, Miss Annie. Friedrichstrasse No. 2, Vienna.

{Moreay, C. Luoyp, F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Psychology in the
University of Bristol.

t{Moraan, GiBErt T., D.Sc., F.1.C., Professor of Chemistry in the
Royal College of Science, Dublin.

*Morgan, Septimus Vaughan. 37 Harrington-gardens, S.W.

*Morison, James. Perth.

*Mor.ey, Henry Forster, M.A., D.Sc., F.C.S. 5 Lyndhurst-road,
Hampstead, N.W.

tMorrell, H. R. Scarcroft-road, York.

*Morrell, Dr. R.S. Tor Lodge, Tettenhall Wood, Wolverhampton.

{Moraris, Sir Dante, K.C.M.G., D.Sc., F.L.S. 14 Crabton-close,
Boscombe, Hants.

*Morris, J. T. 36 Cumberland-mansions, Seymour-place, W.

§Morris, James. 23 Brynymor Cresent, Swansea.

tMorris, Colonel Sir W. G., K.C.M.G. Care of Messrs. Cox & Co.,
16 Charing Cross, W.C.

*Morrow, Joun, M.Sc., D.Eng. Armstrong College, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.

{Morse, Morton F. Wellington-crescent,' Winnipeg, Canada.

*Morton, P. F. 15 Ashley-place, Westminster, S.W.

*Morton, WiLLtaM B., M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in
Queen’s University, Belfast.

*Moseley, Henry Gwyn-Jeffreys. 48 Woodstock-road, Oxford.

§Mosely, Alfred. West Lodge, Barnet.

tMoss, Dr. C. E. Botany School, Cambridge.

§Moss, Mrs. 154 Chesterton-road, Cambridge.

§Moss, Ricnarp Jackson, F.I.C., M.R.L.A. Royal Dublin Society,
and St. Aubyn’s, Ballybrack, Co. Dublin.

62 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1892. *Mostyn, S. G., M.A., M.B., Health Office, Houndgate, Darlington.

1913. §Mott, Dr. F. W., F.R.S. 25 Nottingham-place, W.

1913. §Mottram, V.H. 256 Lordship-lane, East Dulwich, S.E.

1912. *Moulton, J. C. Sarawak Museum, Sarawak.

1878. *Moutton, The Right Hon. Lord Justice, M.A., K.C., F.R.S.
57 Onslow-square, 8.W.

1899 §Mowll, Martyn. Chaldercot, Leyburne-road, Dover.

1905. {Moylan, Miss V. C. 3 Canning-place, Palace Gate, W.

1905. *Moysey, Miss E. L. Piteroft, Guildford, Surrey.

1911. *Moysey, Lewis, B.A., M.B. St. Moritz, Ilkeston-road, Nottingham.

1912. {Mudie, Robert Francis. 6 Fintry-place, Broughty Ferry.

1902. §Muir, Arthur H. 7 Donegall-square West, Belfast.

1907. *Muir, Professor James. 31 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow.

1874. t{More. M. M. Parrison, M.A. Hillcrest, Farnham, Surrey.

1909. {Muir, Robert R. Grain Exchange-building, Winnipeg, Canada,

1912. §Muir, Thomas Scott. 19 Seton-place, Edinburgh.

1904. §Muir, William, 1.8.0. Rowallan, Newton Stewart, N.B.

1872. *MurrHEAD, ALEXANDER, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S. 12 Carteret-street,
Queen Anne’s Gate, Westminster, S.W.

1913. §Muirhead, Professor J. H. The Rowans, Balsall Common, near
Coventry.

1905. *Muirhead, James M. P., F.R.S.E. Royal Automobile Club,
Pall Mall, S.W.

1876. *Muirhead, Robert Franklin, B.A., D.Sc. 64 Great George-street,
Hillhead, Glasgow.

1902. {Mullan, James. Castlerock, Co. Derry.

1884. *Miziier, Hueao, Ph.D., F.RS., F.C.S. 13 Park-square East,
Regent’s Park, N.W.

1908. {Mutuean, Jonn. (Local Sec. 1908.) Greinan, Adelaide-road,
Kingstown, Co. Dublin.

1904. {Mullinger, J. Bass, M.A. 1 Bene’t-place, Cambridge.

1911. {Mumby, Dr. B. H. Borough Asylum, Milton, Portsmouth.

1898. t{Mumford, C. E. Cross Roads House, Bouverie-road, Folkestone.

1901. *Munby, Alan E. 44 Downshire-hill, Hampstead, N.W.

1906. {Munby, Frederick J. Whixley, York.

1904. {Munro, A. Queen’s College, Cambridge.

1909. {Munro, George. 188 Roslyn-road, Winnipeg, Canada.

1883. *Munro, Ropert, M.A., M.D., LL.D. (Pres. H, 1893.) Elmbank,
Largs, Ayrshire, N.B.

1909. {Munson, J. H., K.C. Wellington-crescent, Winnipeg, Canada.

1911. { Murdoch, W. H. F., B.Sc. 14 Howitt-road, Hampstead, N.W.

1909. peep J. Vanguard Manufacturing Co., Dorrington-street,
Leeds.

1908. {Murphy, Leonard. 156 Richmond-road, Dublin.

1908. {MurpHy, WittiaM M., J.P. Dartry, Dublin.

1905. tMurray, Charles F. K., M.D. Kenilworth House, Kenilworth,
Cape Colony.

1905. §Murray, Sir James, LL.D., Litt.D. Sunnyside, Oxford.

1905. §Murray, Lady. Sunnyside, Oxford. :

1884. {Murray, Sir Jony, K.C.B., LL.D., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.
(Pres. E, 1899.) Challenger Lodge, Wardie, Edinburgh.

1903. §Murray, Colonel J. D. Rowbottom-square, Wigan.

1892. {Murray, T. 8., D.Sc. 27 Shamrock-street, Dundee.

1909. {Murray, W. C. University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Sas-
katchewan, Canada.

1906. {Musgrove, Mrs. Edith M. 8., D.Sc. The Woodlands, Silverdale,
Lancashire.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 63

Year of
Election.

1912.

1870.
1906.

1913.

1902.
1902.
1909.
1906.
1890,

1886.
1892.
1890.
1908.
1872.

1909.
1883.
1898.
1866.

1889.
1889.

1912.
1901.
1901.
1913.
1889.
1912.
1892.

1908.
1908.

1908.
1887.
1884.

1911.
1908.

1863.

1863.
1888.

*Musgrove, James, M.D., Professor of Anatomy in the University
of St. Andrews.

*Muspratt, Edward Knowles. Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool.

tMyddelton-Gavey, E. H., J.P., F.R.G.S. Stanton Prior, Meads,
Eastbourne.

§Myddelton-Gavey, Miss Violet. Stanton Prior, Meads, EKast-
bourne.

tMyddleton, Alfred. 62 Duncairn-street, Belfast.

*Myers, Charles 8., M.A., M.D. Great Shelford, Cambridge.

*Myers, Henry. The Long House, Leatherhead.

{Myers, Jesse A. Glengarth, Walker-road, Harrogate.

*Myres, Joun L., M.A., F.S.A. (Pres. H, 1909 ; Council, 1909- ),
Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of
Oxford. 101 Banbury-road, Oxford.

tNagezt, D. H., M.A. (Local Sec. 1894.) Trinity College, Oxford.

*Nairn, Sir Michael B., Bart. Kirkcaldy, N.B.

tNalder, Francis Henry. 34 Queen-street, E.C.

{Nally, T. H. Temple Hill, Terenure, Co. Dublin.

tNarzs, Admiral Sir G. 8., K.C.B., R.N., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 7 The
Crescent, Surbiton.

{Neild, Frederic, M.D, Mount Pleasant House, Tunbridge Wells,

*Neild, Theodore, M.A. Grange Court, Leominster.

*Nevill, Rev. J. H. N., M.A. The Vicarage, Stoke Gabriel, South
Devon.

*Nevill, The Right Rev. Samuel Tarratt, D.D., F.L.S., Bishop of
Dunedin, New Zealand.

{Neviite, F. H., M.A., F.R.S. Sidney College, Cambridge.

*Newa.., H. Frank, M.A.,F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Astrophysics
in the University of Cambridge. Madingley Rise, Cambridge.

§Newberry, Percy E., M.A., Professor of Egyptology in the Uni-

versity of Liverpool. Oldbury Place, Ightham, Kent.

{Newbigin, Miss Marion, D.Sc. Royal Scottish Geographical Society,
Edinburgh.

tNewman, F. H. Tullie House, Carlisle.

§ Newman, L. F. 2 Warkworth-street, Cambridge.

tNewstead, A. H. L., B.A. 38 Green-street, Bethnal Green, N.E.

*Newton, Arthur U. University College, W.C.

{Newron, E. T., F.R.S., F.G.S. Florence House, Willow Bridge-
road, Canonbury, N.

tNicholls, W. A. 11 Vernham-road, Plumstead, Kent.

tNichols, eee Russell. 30 Grosvenor-square, Rathmines, Co.
Dublin.

§Nicholson, J. W., M.A., D.Sc. Highcliffe, Redcar, Yorkshire.

{Nicholson, John Carr, J.P. Moortield House, Headingley, Leeds.

{NicHotson, Josery §8., M.A., D.Sc. (Pres. F, 1893), Professor of
Political Economy in the University of Edinburgh.

{Nicol, J. C., M.A. The Grammar School, Portsmouth.

{Nrxon, The Right Hon. Sir Caristoruer, Bart., M.D., LL.D., D.L.
2 Merrion-square, Dublin.

*Nos.e, Sir ANDReEw, Bart., K.C.B., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.AS., F.C.S.
(Pres. G, 1890 ; Council, 1903-06 ; Local Sec. 1863.) Elswick
Works, and Jesmond Dene House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

§Norm4Nn, Rev. Canon AtrrED Muruiz, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.B.S., F.L.S. The Red House, Berkhamsted.

tNorman, George. 12 Brock-street, Bath.

64

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1913.
1912.

1913.
1894.

1909
1910.

1913.
1912.

1908.
1898.
1908.
1913.
1883.

1910.
1858.

1911.

1908.
1902.
1913.
1876.

1885.

1912.
1905.

1905.
1908.

1892.

1893.
1912.
1863.
1887.
1889,
1882.

1880.

1908.

1902.

§Norman, Sir Henry, M.P. The Corner House, Cowley-street, S.W.

{Norrie, Robert. University College, Dundee.

§Norris, F. Edward. Seismograph Station, Hill View, Woodbridge
Hill, Guildford.

§Norourtt, 8S. A., LL.M., B.A., B.Sc. (Local Sec. 1895.) Constitu-
tion-hill, Ipswich.

t{Nugent, F.S. 81 Notre Dame-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

§Nunn, T. Percy, M.A., D.Sc. London Day Training College,
Southampton-row, W.C.

§Nuttall, T. E., M.D. Middleton, Huncoat, Accrington.

{Nuttall, W. H. Cooper Laboratory for Economic Research,
Rickmansworth-road, Watford.

{Nutting, Sir John, Bart. St. Helen’s, Co. Dublin.

*Q’Brien, Neville Forth. Fryth, Pyrford, Surrey.

tO’Carroll, Joseph, M.D. 43 Merrion-square East, Dublin.

§Ockenden, Maurice A., F.G.S. Oil Well Supply Company, Dash-
wood House, New Broad-street, E.C.

tOdgers, William Blake, M.A., LL.D., K.C. 15 Old-square,
Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.

*Odling, Marmaduke, B.A., F.G.S. 15 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

*OpLina, WILLIAM, M.B., F.R.S., V.P.C.S. (Pres. B, 1864 ; Council,
1865-70.) 15 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

*Q’DonocuuE, Cuartes H., D.Sc. University College, Gower-
street, W.C.

§O’Farrell, Thomas A., J.P. 30 Lansdowne-road, Dublin.

tOgden, James Neal. Claremont, Heaton Chapel, Stockport.

§Ogilvie, A. G. 15 Evelyn-gardens, 8.W.

{Ogilvie, Campbeli P: Lawford-place, Manningtree.

tOcitvin, F. Grant, C.B., M.A., B.Sc. F.R.S.E. (Local Sec.
1892.) Board of Education, 8.W.

§Ogilvy, J. W. 18 Bloomsbury-square, W.C.

*Oke, Alfred William, B.A., LL.M., F.G.8., F.L.S. 32 Denmark-
villas, Hove, Brighton.

§Okell, Samuel, F.R.A.'S. Overley, Langham-road, Bowdon,
Cheshire.

§Oldham, Charles Hubert, B.A., B.L., Professor of Commerce in
the National University of Ireland. 5 Victoria-terrace, Rath-
gar, Dublin.

{OLpuam, H. Yous, M.A., F.R.G.S., Lecturer in Geography in the
University of Cambridge. King’s College, Cambridge.
*OLDHAM, R. D., F.B.S., F.G.S. 8 North-street, Horsham, Sussex.

§O’Leary, Rev. William, S.J. Mungret College, Limerick.

fOurver, Danrer, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Emeritus Professor of
Botany in University College, London. 10 Kew Gardens-
road, Kew, Surrey.

tOniver, F. W., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1906), Professor
of Botany in University College, London, W.C.

tOliver, Professor Sir Thomas, M.D. 7 Ellison-place, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.

§OxsEn, O. T., D.Sc., F.L.S., F.R.AS., F.R.G.S. 116 St. Andrew’s-
terrace, Grimsby.

*Ommanney, Rev. E.A. St. Michael’s and All Angels, Portsea, Hants.

tO’ Neill, ets G., M.A. University College, St. Stephen’s Green,
Dublin.

tO’Neill, Henry, M.D. 6 College-square East, Belfast.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 6

Year of

Election.

1913. §Orange, J. A. General Electric Company, Schenectady, New
York, U.S.A.

1905. {O’Reilly, Patrick Joseph. 7 North Earl-street, Dublin.

1884. *Orpen, Rev. T. H., M.A. Mark Ash, Abinger Common, Dorking.

1901. tOrr, Alexander Stewart. 10 Medows-street, Bombay, India.

1909. {Orr, John B. Crossacres, Woolton, Liverpool.

1908. *Orr, William. Dungarvan, Co. Waterford.

1904. *Orton, K. J. P., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in University
College, Bangor.

1910. *OsBorn, T. G. B., M.Sc., Professor of Botany in the University of
Adelaide, South Australia. é

1901. Osborne, W. A., D.Sc. University College, W.C.

1908. {O’Shaughnessy, T. L. 64 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.

1887. {O’Shea, L. T., B.Sc. University College, Sheffield.

1884. {Osimr, Sir WittiaM, Bart., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Regius Professor
of Medicine in the University of Oxford. 13 Norham-
gardens, Oxford.

1881. *Ottewell, Alfred D. 14 Mill Hill-road, Derby.

1906. tOwen, Rev. E. C. St. Peter’s School, York.

1903. *Owen, Edwin, M.A. ‘Terra Nova School, Birkdale, Lancashire.

1911. §Owens, J. 8., M.D., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 47 Victoria-street, S.W.

1910. *Oxley, A. E. Rose Hill View, Kimberworth-road, Rotherham.

1909
1908.

1906.
1903.
1883.
1913.
1ST.
1912.
1911.
1870.

1896.
1878.

1866.
1880.

1904.
1909.

1891.

1905.
1899.
- 1905.
1906.

1879.
1911.
1913.
1903.
1908.

{Pace, F. W. 388 Wellington-crescent, Winnipeg, Canada.

{Pack-Beresford, Denis, M.R.I.A. Fenagh House, Bagenalstown,
Treland.

§Page, Carl D. Wyoming House, Aylesbury, Bucks.

*Page, Miss Ellen Iva. Turret House, Felpham, Sussex.

tPage, G. W. Bank House, Fakenham.

§Paget, Sir Richard. Old Fallings Hall, Wolverhampton.

§Paget, Stephen, M.A., F.R.C.S. 21 Ladbroke-square, W.

tPahic, Paul. 52 Albert Court, Kensington Gore, S.W.

§Paine, H. Howard. 50 Stow-hill, Newport, Monmouthshire.

*PaLarRAve, Sir Ropert Harry Ivers, F.R.S., F.S.8. (Pres. F,
1883.) Henstead Hall, Wrentham, Suffolk.

{Pallis, Alexander. Tatoi, Aigburth-drive, Liverpool.

*Palmer, Joseph Edward. Royal Socicties Club, St. James’s-street,

§Palmer, William. Waverley House, Waverley-street, Nottingham.

*Parke, George Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. Care of W. T. Cooper, Esq.,
Aysgarth, The Mall, Southgate, N

tParkcer, E. H., M.A. Thorneycreek, Herschel-road, Cambridge.

§ParkerR, M. A., B.Sc., F.C.8. (Local Sec. 1909), Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada,

{Parcer, Witt1am Newron, Ph.D., F.Z.S., Professor of Biology in
University College, Cardiff.

*Parkes, Tom H. P.O. Box 4580, Johannesburg.

*Parkin, John. Blaithwaite, Carlisle.

*Parkin, Thomas. Blaithwaite, Carlisle.

§Parkin, Thomas, M.A., F.LS., F.Z.S., F.R.G.S. Fairseat, High
Wickham, Hastings.

*Parkin, William. The Mount, Sheffield.

tParks, Dr. G. J. 18 Cavendish-road, Southsea.

§Parry, Edward, M.Inst.C.E. Rossmore, Leamington.

§Parry, Joseph, M.Inst.C.E. Woodbury, Waterloo, near Liverpool.

tParry, W. K., M.Inst.C.E. 6 Charlemont-terrace, Kingstown,
Dublin.

1913. :E

66

Year of
Election

1878.

1904.
1905.

1898.
1887.

1908.
1909.
1897.

1883.
1884.
1913.
1908.

1874.
19138.

1913.
1913.

1879.
1883.
1887.
1912.

1887.
1881.
1888.
1876.

1906.
1885.

1911.
1913.
1886.
1883.
1893.
1898.
1905.
1883.
1906.
1904.
1909.
1855.
1888.

1885.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

{Parsons, Hon. Sir C. A., K.C.B., M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.
(Pres. G, 1904.) Holeyn Hall, Wylam-on-Tyne.
{Parsons, Professor F. G. St. Thomas’s Hospital, 8.E.
*Parsons, Hon. Geoffrey L. Adderstone House, Jesmond, New-
castle-on-Tyne.
*Partridge, Miss Josephine M. 15 Grosvenor-crescent, S.W.
tParerson, A. M., M.D., Professor of Anatomy in the University
of Liverpool.
}Paterson, M., LL.D. 7 Halton-place, Edinburgh.
tPaterson, William. Ottawa, Canada.
tPaton, D. Noél, M.D. Physiological Laboratory, The University,
Glasgow.
*Paton, rien Henry, M.A. Airtnoch, 184 Mayfield-road, Edinburgh.
*Paton, Hugh. Box 2400, Montreal, Canada.
§Patrick, Joseph A. North Cliff, King’s Heath, Birmingham.
§Parren, C. J., M.A., M.D., Sc.D., Professor of Anatomy in the
University of Sheffield.
{Patterson, W. H., M.R.I.A. 26 High-street, Belfast.
§Patterson, W. Hamilton, M.Sc. The Monksferry Laboratory,
Birkenhead.
*Pattin, Harry Cooper, M.A., M.D. King-street House, Norwich.
§Pattison, Mrs. Emma L. Care of Dr. W. Barnard, 3 New-court,
Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.
*Patzer, I’. R. Clayton Lodge, Newcastle, Staffordshire.
{Paul, George. 32 Harlow Moor-drive, Harrogate.
*Paxman, James. Standard Iron Works, Colchester.
*Payne, Miss Edith. Care of Mrs. Roberts, Lothair, St. Mary-
church, Torquay.
*Payne, Miss Edith Annie. Hatchlands, Cuckfield, Hayward’s Heath.
{Payne, Mrs. 4 Ulsterville-avenue, Belfast.
*Paynter, J. B. Hendford Manor, Yeovil.
{Peace, G. H., M.Inst.C.E. Monton Grange, Eccles, near Man-
chester.
tPeace, Miss Gertrude. 39 Westbourne-road, Sheffield.
*Pzacn, B. N., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.8. (Pres. C, 1912.)
Geological Survey Office, George-square, Edinburgh.
§Peake, Harold J. E. Westbrook House, Newbury.
§Pear, T. H. Dunwood House, Withington, Manchester.
*Pearce, Mrs. Horace. Collingwood, Manby-road, West Malvern.
{Pearson, Arthur A., C.M.G. Hillsborough, Heath-road, Petersfield,
Hampshire.
*Pearson, Charles E? Hillcrest, Lowdham, Nottinghamshire.
{Pearson, George. Bank-chambers, Baldwin-street, Bristol.
§PraRsoNn, Professor H. H. W., M.A., F.L.S. South African College,
Cape Town.
tPearson, Miss Helen E. Oakhurst, Birkdale, Southport.
tPearson, Dr. Joseph. The Museum, Colombo, Ceylon.
tPearson, Karl, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Kugenics in the University
of London. 7 Well-road, Hampstead, N.W.
tPearson, William. Wellington-crescent, Winnipeg, Canada.
Peckitt, Henry. Carlton Husthwaite, Thirsk, Yorkshire.
*Prckxover, Lord, LL.D., F.S.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Bank House,
Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.
{Peckover, Miss Alexandrina. Bank House, Wisbech, Cambridge-
shire.
tPeddie, William, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy
in University College, Dundee.

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 67

of

Election.

1884

. {Peebles, W. E. 9 North Frederick-street, Dublin.

1878, *Peek, William. Villa des Jonquilles, Rue des Roses, Monte Carlo.

1901

- *Peel, Right Hon. Viscount. 13 King’s Bench-walk, Temple, F.C.

1905. §Peirson, J. Waldie. P.O. Box 561, Johannesburg.

1905

1887.

1894,
1896.
1898.
1908.
1905.

1894,
1902.

. [Pemberton, Gustavus M. P.O. Box 93, Johannesburg.

{PENDLEBURY, Wittiam H., M.A., F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1899.
Woodford House, Mountfields, Shrewsbury.

tPengelly, Miss. Lamorna, Torquay.

tPennant, P. P. Nantlys, St. Asaph.

tPercival, Francis W., M.A., F.B.G.S. 1 Chesham-street, S.W.

tPercival, Professor John, M.A. University College, Reading.

{Péringuey, L., D.Sc., F.Z.S. South African Museum, Cape
Town.

{Psrum, A. G., F.R.S., F.RS.E., F.CS., FIC. 8 Montpelier-
terrace, Hyde Park, Leeds.

*Perkin, F. Mollwo, Ph.D. 199 Piccadilly, W.

1884, {PrrKin, Witt14m Henry, LL.D. Ph:D., F.B.S., F.R.S.E. (Pres.

1864.
1898.
1909.

1874,

1913.
1904.

B. 1900 ; Council, 1901-07), Waynflete Professor of Chemistry
in the University of Oxford. The Museums, Oxford,
*Perkins, V. R. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire,
*Perman, E. P., D.Sc. University College, Cardiff.
{Perry, Rev. Professor E. Guthrie. 246 Kennedy-street, Winnipeg,
Canada.
*Prrry, Professor Joun, M.E., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. (GENERAL
TREASURER, 1904- ; Pres. G, 1902: Council, 1901-04.).
144 Campden Hill Court, W.
§Perry, W. J. Care of W. J. Roberts, The Mount, Church Stretton.
*Pertz, Miss D. F. M. 2 Cranmer-road, Cambridge.

1900. *Prravet, J. E., M.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Engineering in the

1901.
1910.

1895.
1871.

University of Manchester.

{Pethybridge, G. H., Ph.D. Royal College of Science, Dublin.

*Petrescu, Captain Dimitrie, R.A., M.Eng. Scoala Superiora de
Messern, Bucharest, Rumania.

}Pxzrrin, W. M. Furupers, D.C.L., F.B.S. (Pres. H, 1895), Professor
of Egyptology in University College, W.C.

*Peyton, John EH. H., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Vale House, St. Helier’s,
Jersey.

1886. {Phelps, Lieut.-General A. 23 Augustus-road, Kdgbaston, Bir-

1911.

mingham.
{Philip, Alexander. Union Bank Buildings, Brechin.

1903. {Philip, James C. 20 Westfield-terrace, Aberdeen.

1853.
1877.

*Philips, Rev. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire.
§Philips, T. Wishart. Elizabeth Lodge, Crescent-road, South
Woodford, Essex.

1863. {Philipson, Sir G. H., D.C.L. 7 Eldon-square, Neweastle-on-Tyne.
1905. {Phillimore, Miss C. M. Shiplake House, Henley-on-Thames.
1899. *Phillips, Charles E. S., F.R.S.E. Castle House, Shooter's Hill,

. 1910.

Kent.
*Phillips, P. P., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the Thomason
Engineering College, Rurki, United Provinces, India.

1890. {Pui~iies, R. W., M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Uni-

1909
1883
1901

1885.

1884.

versity College, Bangor. 2 Snowdon-villas, Bangor.
. *Phillips, Richard. 15 Dogpole, Shrewsbury.
. *Pickard, Joseph William. Oatlands, Lancaster.
. §Pickard, Robert H., D.Sc. Billinge View, Blackburn.
*PICKERING, SPENCER P. U., M.A., F.R.S. Harpenden, Herts.
. *Pickett, Thomas E.,M.D, Maysville, Mason Co., Kentucky, U.S.A
R2

68

Year of

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Election.

1907.
1888.

1865

1911

1911.
1911.
1908.
1908.

1909.
1893.
1900.
1911.
1898.

1908.

1908.
1907.

1900.

1913.
1908.

1906.
1891.
1911.
1907.
1900.
1892.
1901.
1905.
1905.
1883.

1906.
1907.
1908.

1886.

1905.
1898.

1896.
1905.
1896.
1905.

+Pickles, A. R., M.A. Todmorden-road, Burnley.

*Pidgeon, W. R. Lynsted Lodge, St. Edmund’s-terrace, Regent’s
Park, N.W.

{Prxr, L. Owen. 10 Chester-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.

*Pilkington, A.C. Rocklands, Rainhill, Lancashire.

{Pilling, Arnold. Royal Observatory, Cape Town.

*Pilling, William. Rosario, Heene-road, West Worthing.

{Pim, Miss Gertrude. Charleville, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.

{Pink, H.R. The Mount, Fareham, Hants.

{Pink, Mrs. H. R. The Mount, Fareham, Hants.

{Pink, Mrs. J. E. The Homestead, Eastern-parade, Southsea.

*Pio, Professor D. A. 14 Leverton-street, Kentish Town, N.W.

{Pirrie, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.D., M.Inst.C.E. -Downshire House,
Belgrave-square, 8. W. :

{Pitblado, Isaac, K.C. 91 Balmoral-place, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Prpr, WALTER, M.Inst.C.E. 3 Lansdown-grove, Bath.

*Platts, Walter. Morningside, Scarborough.

*Plimmer, R. H. A. 3 Hall-road, N.W.

{Plummer, W. E., M.A., F.R.A.S. The Observatory, Bidston,

Birkenhead.
tPlunkett, Count G. N. National Museum of Science and Art,
Dublin.

tPlunkett, Colonel G. T.,C.B. Belvedere Lodge, Wimbledon, S.W.

*PLuNKETT, Right Hon. Sir Horace, K.C.V.0O., M.A., F.R.S.
Kilteragh, Foxrock, Co. Dublin.

*Pocklington, H. Cabourn, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. 11 Regent Park-
terrace, Leeds.

§Pocock, R. J. St. Aidan’s, 170 Eglinton-road, Woolwich, 8.E.

{Pollok, James H., D.Sc. 6 St. James’s-terrace, Clonshea,
Dublin.

*Pontifex, Miss Catherine E. 7 Hurlingham-court, Fulham, 8.W.

{Pontypridd, Lord. Pen-y-lan, Cardiff.

tPoore, Major-General F. H. 1 St. Helen’s-parade, Southsea.

§Pope, Alfred, F.S.A. South Court, Dorchester.

*Popr, W. J., M.A., LL.D,, F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Cambridge.

tPopplewell, W. C., M.Sc., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Bowden-lane,
Marple, Cheshire.

§PorTER, ALFRED W., B.Sc., F.R.S. 87 Parliament Hill-mansions,
Lissenden-gardens, N.W.

§PortER, J. B., D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Mining in the
McGill University, Montreal, Canada.

{Porter, Mrs. McGill University, Montreal, Canada.

fPorrmr, M. C., M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Arm-
strong College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 13 Highbury, New-
castle-upon-T'yne.

tPotter-Kirby, Alderman George. Clifton Lawn, York.

tPotts, F. A. University Museum of Zoology, Cambridge.

*Potts, George, Ph.D., M.Sc. Grey University College, Bloem-
fontein, South Africa.

*PouLron, Epwarp B., M.A., F.B.S., F.LS., F.G.S., F.Z.8. (Pres. D,
1896 ; Council, 1895-1901, 1905-12), Professor of Zoology in
ee University of Oxford. Wykeham House, Banbury-road,
Oxford.

tPoulton, Mrs. Wykeham House, Banbury-road, Oxford.

*Poulton, Edward Palmer, M.A. .Wykeham House, Banbury-road,
Oxford.

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 69

ot

Election.

1913. §Poulton, Miss. Wykeham House, Banbury-road, Oxford.

1894.

1887
1883

1913
1908
1907

1884.
1913.
1888.
1904,
1892.
1906.
1889.

1903.
1888.

1875.
1913.

1897.
1908,

1909.
1889.

1876.
1881.
1884.

1879.
1872.
1883.
1913.
1903.
1904,

1885.

1881.

1913,
1913.
1884,
1911.
1912.

1898.
1883.
1883.

*Powell, Sir Richard Douglas, Bart., M.D. 62 Wimpole-street,
Cavendish-square, W.

. §Pownall, George H. 20 Birchin-lane, E.C.

. tPoynrine, J. H., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1899), Professor of
Physics in the University of Birmingham. 10 Ampton-road,
Edgbaston, Birmingham.

. §Poynting, Mrs. J. H. 10 Ampton-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

. {Pranaer, R. Lioyp, B.A., M.R.LA. Lisnamae, Rathgar, Dublin.

. *Pratn, Lieut.-Col. Sir Davin, C.1.E., C.M.G., M.B., F.R.S. (Pres.

K, 1909 ; Council, 1907- .) Royal Gardens, Kew.

*Prankerd, A. A., D.C.L. 66 Banbury-road, Oxford.

*Prankerd, Mrs. Theodora Lisle. 25 Hornsey Lane-gardens, N.

*Preece, W. Llewellyn, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Queen Anne’s-gate, S.W.

§Prentice, Mrs. Manning. Thelema, Undercliff-road, Felixstowe.

tPrentice, Thomas. Willow Park, Greenock.

{Pressly, D. L. Coney-street, York.

{Preston, Alfred Eley, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 14 The Exchange,

Bradford, Yorkshire.
§Price, Edward E. Oaklands, Oaklands-road, Bromley, Kent.
tPricn, L. L. F. R., M.A., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1895 ; Council, 1898-
1904.) Oriel College, Oxford.

*Price, Rees. 163 Bath-street, Glasgow.

§Price, T. Slater. Municipal Technical School, Sufiolk-street,
Birmingham.

*Pricz, W. A., M.A. 135 Sandyford-road, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

§PrimstLey, J. H., B.Sc., Professor of Botany in the University of

Leeds. ‘

*Prince, Professor E. E., LL.D., Dominion Commissioner of Fisheries.
206 O’Connor-street, Ottawa, Canada.

*Pritchard, Eric Law, M.D., M.R.C.S. 70 Fairhazel-gardens, South

Hampstead, N.W.

*PRITCHARD, URBAN, M.D., F.R.C.S. 26 Wimpole-street, W.

§Procter, John William. Ashcroft, York.

*Proudfoot, Alexander, M.D. Care of E. C. S. Scholefield, Esq.,

Provincial Librarian, Victoria, B.C., Canada.

*Prouse, Oswald Milton, F.G.8. Alvington, Ilfracombe.

*Pryor, M. Robert. Weston Park, Stevenage, Herts.

*Pullar, Rufus D., F.C.S. Brahan, Perth.

§Pullar, W. B. Coniston, Bridge of Allan, N.B.

{Pullen-Burry, Miss. Lyceum Club, 128 Piccadilly, W.

Punnett, R. C., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Biology in the Uni-

versity of Cambridge. Caius College, Cambridge.
{Purpiz, THomas, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., Emeritus Professor of
Chemistry in the University of St. Andrews. 14 South-street,
St. Andrews, N.B.

{Purey-Cust, Very Rev. Arthur Percival, M.A., Dean of York. The
Deanery, York.

§Purser, G. Leslie. Gwynfa, Selly Oak, Birmingham.

§Purser, John, M.Sc. The University, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Purves, W. Laidlaw. 20 Stratford-place, Oxford-street, W.

{Purvis, J. E. Corpus Christi College, Oxford.

tPycraft, Dr. W. P. British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-

road, 8.W.

*Pye, Miss E. St. Mary’s Hall, Rochester.

§Pye-Smith, Arnold. 32 Queen Victoria-street, E.C.

{Pye-Smith, Mrs. 32 Queen Victoria-street, E.C.

70 BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

Election

1868. {Pyz-Smiru, P. H., M.D., F.R.S. 48 Brook-street, W.
1879. {Pye-Smith, R. J. 450 Glossop-road, Sheffield.

1911. {Pye-Smith, Mrs. R. J. 450 Glossop-road, Sheffield.

1893. {Quick, James. 22 Bouverie-road West, Folkestone.
1906. *Quiggin, Mrs. A. Hingston. 88 Hartington-grove, Cambridge.

1879. {Radford, R. Heber. 15 St. James’s-row, Sheffield.

1912. tRadok, F. 12 Central-hill, Upper Norwood, S.E.

1911. §Rae, John T. National Temperance League, Paternoster House,
Paternoster-row, E.C.

1887. *Ragdale, John Rowland. The Beeches, Stand, near Manchester.

1913. §Railing, Dr. A. H., B.Sc. The General Electric Co., Ltd., Witton,
Birmingham.

1898. *Raisin, Miss Catherine A., D.Sc., Bedford College, York-place,
Baker-street, W.

1896. *Ramaacr, Huan, M.A. The Technical Institute, Norwich.

1394, *RamBaut, Arruur A., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., M.R.1.A.
Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford.

1908. {Rambaut, Mrs.‘ Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford.

1912, {Ramsay, Colonel R. G. Wardlaw. Whitehill, Rosewell, Mid-
lothian.

1876, *Ramsay, Sir Wittiam, K.C.B., Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (PRESIDENT,
1911; Pres. B, 1897; Council 1891-98). 19 Chester-terrace,

' Regent’s Park, N.W.

1883. tRamsay, Lady. 19 Chester-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.

1913. §Ramsden, William. Blacker-road, Huddersfield.

1869. *Rance, H. W. Henniker, LL.D. 10 Castletown-road, W.

1907. {Rankine, A. O. 18 Loveday-road, Ealing, W.

1868. *Ransom, Edwin, F.R.G.S. 24 Ashburnham-road, Bedford.

1861. {[RansomE, ArrHur, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. (Local Sec. 1861.)

Sunnyhurst, Dean Park, Bournemouth.

1903. {Rastall, R. H. Christ’s College, Cambridge.

1914. §Rathbone, Herbert R. 15 Lord-street, Liverpool.

1892. *Rathbone, Miss May. Backwood, Neston, Cheshire.

1913. §Raw, Frank, B.Se., F.G.S. The University, Edmund-street,
Birmingham.

1908. *Raworth, Alexander. St. John’s Manor, Jersey.

1905. {Rawson, Colonel Herbert E., C.B., R.E., F.R.G.S. Home Close,
Heronsgate, Herts.

1868. *RayLeicH, The Right Hon. Lord, O.M., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D.,
FE:R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. (Presrpent, 1884; TrustEez,
1883— ; Pres. A, 1882; Council, 1878-83), Professor of
Natural Philosophy in the Royal Institution, London. Terling
Place, Witham, Essex.

1883. *Rayne, Charles A., M.D., M.R.C.S. St. Mary’s Gate, Lancaster.

1912. §Rayner, Miss M. C. University College, Reading.

1897. *Rayner, Edwin Hartree, M.A. 40 Gloucester-road, Teddington,
Middlesex.

1907. {Rea, Carleton, B.C.L. 34 Foregate-street, Worcester.

1913, §Read, Carveth, M.A. 73 Kensington Gardens-square, W.

1896. *Reap, Sir Coartus H., LL.D., F.S.A. (Pres. H, 1899.) British
Museum, W.C.

1913. §$Reade, Charles C. 3 Gray’s Inn-place, Gray’s Inn, W.C.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. at

Year of
Election.

1902.
1884.
1890.

1908.

1905.
1891.
1894.
1903.
1911.

1906.

1910.
1901.
1904.
1881.
1883.

1903.
1892.

1908.

1901.
1901.
1909.
1904.
1912.
1897.
1892.
1887.
1912.
1875.

1894,
1891.

1903.

1889.
1906.

1905.
1912.
1904.
1912.

1905.
1883.

1913.
1871.

1900.

tReade, R. H. Wilmount, Dunmurry.

§Readman, J. B., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Belmont, Hereford.

*Redwood, Sir Boverton, Bart., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.C.S. The
Cloisters, 18 Avenue-road, Regent’s Park, N.W.

fReed, Sir Andrew, K.C.B., C.V.0., LL.D. 23 Fitzwilliam-square,
Dublin.

§Reed, J. Howard, F.R.G.S. 16 St. Mary’s Parsonage, Manchester.

*Reed, Thomas A. Bute Docks, Cardiff.

*Rees, Edmund 8. G. Dunscar, Oaken, near Wolverhampton.

§Reeves, E. A., F.R.G.S. Hillside, Reigate-road, Reigate.

§RrEves, Hon. W. Pamper. (Pres. F. 1911.) London School of
Economies, Clare Market, W.C.

*Reichel, Sir H. R., LL.D., Principal of University College, Bangor.
Penrallt, Bangor, North Wales.

*Reid, Alfred, M.B., MU.R.C.S. Taiping, Perak, F.M.S.

*Reid, Andrew T. 10 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.

tReid, Arthur H. 30 Welbeck-street, W.

§Reid, Arthur 8., M.A., F.G.S. Trinity College, Glenalmond, N.P.

*REID, CLEMENT, F.R.S., F.L.S.,°F.G.S. One Acre, Milford-on-
Sea, Hants.

*Reid, Mrs. KE. M., B.Sc. One Acre, Milford-on-Sea, Hants.

tRep, E. Waymouts, B.A., M.B., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology
in University College, Dundee.

{Rem, Grore@e ARCHDALL, M.B., C.M., F.R.S.E. 9 Victoria-road
South, Southsea.

*Reid, Hugh. Belmont, Springburn, Glasgow.

tReid, John. 7 Park-terrace, Glasgow.

{Reid, John Young. 329 Wellington-crescent, Winnipeg, Canada.

{Reid, P. J. Marton Moor End, Nunthorpe, R.S.O., Yorkshire.

§Reid, Professor R. W.. M.D. 37 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

tReid, T. Whitehead, M.D. St. George’s House, Canterbury.

{Reid, Thomas. Municipal Technical School, Birmingham.

*Reid, Walter Francis. Fieldside, Addlestone, Surrey.

§Reinheimer, Hermann. 43 King Charles-road, Surbiton.

tRerotp, A. W., C.B., M.A., F.R.S. (Council, 1890-95). 9 Van-
brugh Park-road, Blackheath, S.E.

{Rendall, Rev. G. H., M.A., Litt.D, Charterhouse, Godalming.

*Rendell, Rev. James Robson, B.A. Whinside, Whalley-road,
Accrington.

*Renpiz, Dr. A. B., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. 28 Holmbush-road,
Putney, S.W.

*Rennie, George B. 20 Lowndes-street, S.W.

{Rennie, John, D.Sc. Natural History Department, University of
Aberdeen.

*Renton, James Hall. Rowfold Grange, Billingshurst, Sussex.

{Rettie, Theodore. 10 Doune-terrace, Edinburgh.

{Reunert, THEoporsg, M.Inst.C.E. P.O. Box 92, Johannesburg.

tRew, R. H., C.B. Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, 3 St.
James’s-square, S.W.

§Reyersbach, Louis. Care of Messrs. Wernher, Beit, & Co.,
1 London Wall-buildings, E.C. :

*Reynolds, A. H. 271 Lord-street, Southport.

§Reynolds, J. H. Low Weod, Harborne, Birmingham.

tReynotps, James Emerson, M.D., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.CS.,
M.R.I.A. (Pres. B. 1893; Council, 1893-99.) 3 Inverness-
gardens, W. :

*Reynolds, Miss K. M. 8 Darnley-road, Notting Hill, W.

72

Year of
Election

1906.

1907.
1899.

1877.
1905.
1906.
1869.
1912.
1889.
1884.
1896.
1901.
1883.

1911.
1902.

1913.
1894,
1881.
1883.
1892.
1912.
1910.
1903.
1913.
1908.

1898.
i914.

1902.
1887.
1896.
1913.
1897.
1897.
1912.
1901.

1913.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

tReynolds, S. H., M.A., Professor of Geology and Zoology in
the University of Bristol.

§Reynolds, W. Birstall Holt, near Leicester.

*Ruys, The Right Hon. Professor Sir Joun, D.Sc. (Pres. H, 1900.)
Jesus College, Oxford.

*Riccardi, Dr. Paul, Secretary of the Society of Naturalists. Riva
Muro 14, Modena, Italy.

§Rich, Miss Florence, M.A. Granville School, Granville-road,
Leicester.

{Kichards, Rev. A.W. 12 Bootham-terrace, York.

*Richardson, Charles. 3 Cholmley-villas, Long Ditton, Surrey.

tRichardson, Harry, M.Inst.K.E. Electricity Supply Department,
Dudhope Crescent-road, Dundee.

{Richardson, Hugh, M.A. 18 Boctham-crescent, York.

*Richardson, J. Clarke. Derwen Fawr, Swansea.

*Richardson, Nelson Moore, B.A., F.E.S. Montevideo, Chickerell,
near Weymouth.

*Richardson, Owen Willans, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S., Wheatstone
Professor of Physics in King’s College, London, W.C.

*RIDEAL, SAMUEL, D.Sc., F.C.S. 28 Victoria-street, S.W.

§Ridgeway, Miss A. R. 83 The Broadway, Watford.

§Ripceway, Wiruiam, M.A., D.Litt., F.B.A. (Pres. H, 1908),
Professor of Archzology in the University of Cambridge.
Flendyshe, Fen Ditton, Cambridge.

§Ridler, Miss C.C. Coniston, Hunsdon-road, Torquay.

tRipviey, E. P., F.G.S. (Local Sec. 1895.) Burwood, Westerfield-

road, Ipswich.

*Rigg, Arthur. 150 Blomfield-terrace, W.

*Riae, Epwarp, C.B., 1.8.0., M.A. Royal Mint, E.

tRintoul, D., M.A. Clifton College, Bristol.

§Rintoul, Miss L. J. Lahill, Largo, Fife.

{Ripper, William, Professor of Engineering in the University of
Sheffield.

*Rivers, W. H. R., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. H, 1911.) St. John’s
College, Cambridge.

§Rivert, A.C. D., B.A., Ph.D. (GenERAL OrGanising SECRETARY,
1914.) The University of Melbourne, Victoria.

*Roaf, Herbert E., M.D., D.Se. 44 Rotherwick-road, Hendon,
N.W.

*Robb, Alfred A., M.A., Ph.D. Lisnabreeny House, Belfast.
§Robb, James Jenkins, M.D. Harlow, 19 Linden-road, Bournville,
Birmingham.
*Roberts, Bruno. 30 St. George’s-square, Regent’s Park, N.W.
*Roberts, Evan. 27 Crescent-grove, Clapham Common, 8.W.
{Roberts, Thomas J. Ingleside, Park-road, Huyton, near Liverpool.
§Robertson, Andrew. Engineering Laboratories, Victoria Uni-
versity, Manchester.
§RopErtson, Sir Groree S., K.C.S.1., M.P. (Pres. E, 1900.)
2 Mitre Court-buildings, Temple, E.C.
Robertson, Professor J. W., C.M.G., LL.D. The Macdonald
College, St. Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, Canada.
$Robertson, R. A., M.A., B.Se., F.R.S.E., Lecturer on Botany in
the University of St. Andrews.
*Robertson, Robert, B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. Carnbooth, Carmunnock,
Lanarkshire.
*Rebins, Edward,*M.Inst.0.E., F.R.G.8, Lobito, Angola, Portu-
guese South-West Africa.

[3 ¥s)

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. }

Year of

Election.

1913. §Robinson, A. H., M.D. St. Mary’s Infirmary, Highgate Hill, N.
1886. *Robinson, Charles Reece. 176 Gerrard-street, Aston, Birmingham.
1909. {Robinson, EH. M. 381 Main-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

1910. §Robinson, Lady E. Maude. The Manor, Worksop.

1903. tRobinson, G. H. 1 Weld-road, Southport. -

1902.

IGHI:

1902.

1912.
1888.
1908.
1910.

1895.
1899.

1875.
1908.
1904,
1909.
1909.
1904.
1870.

1912.
1872.
1896.
1885.
1905.
1908.

1898.
1913.
1913.

1907.
1890.

1906.
1909.
1884.
1876.
1855.
1906.
1883.
1894.

1905.
1905.

Robinson, Herbert C. Holmfield, Aigburth, Liverpool.
{Robinson, J. J. ‘ West Sussex Gazette’ Office, Arundel.
TRobinson, James, M.A., F.R.G.S. Dulwich College, Dulwich, 8.E.
§Robinson, James. North-terrace, Seghill, Northumberland.
tRobinson, John, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Vicarage-terrace, Kendal.
*Robinson, John Gorges, B.A. Cragdale, Settle, Yorkshire.
tRobinson, John Hargreaves. Cable Ship ‘ Norseman,’ Western
Telegraph Co., Caixa no Correu No. 117, Pernambuco, Brazil.
*Robinson, Joseph Johnson. 8 Trafalgar-road, Birkdale, South-

port.
*Robinson, Mark, M.Inst.C.E. Parliament-chambers, Westminster,

*abinsan, Robert, M.Inst.C.l. Beechwood, Dariington.
tRobinson, Robert. Field House, Chesterfield.

tRobinson, Theodore R. 25 Campden Hill-gardens, W.

{Robinson, Captain W. 264 Roslyn-road, Winnipeg, Canada,
tRobinson, Mrs. W. 264 Roslyn-road, Winnipeg, Canada.
tRobinson, W. H. Kendrick House, Victoria-road, Penarth.
*Robson, E. R. Palace Chambers, 9 Bridge-street, Westminster,

S.W.

tRobson, W. G. 50 Farrington-street, Dundee.

*Robson, William. 12 Albert-terrace, Edinburgh.

tRodger, A. M. Natural History Museum, Perth.

*Rodger, Edward. 1 Clairmont-gardens, Glasgow.

tRoebuck, William Denison, F.L.S. 259 Hyde Park-road, Leeds

§Rogers, A.G. L. Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, 8 Whitehall-
place, S.W.

tRocrrs, Berrram, M.D. (Local Sec. 1898.) 11 York-place,
Cliften, Bristol.

§Rogers, F., D.Eng., B.A., M.Sc. Rowardennan, Chelsea-road,
Sheffield.

§Rogers, Sir Hallewell; Greville Lodge, Sir Harry’s-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

tRogers, John D. 85 St. George’s-square, S.W.

*Rogers, L. J., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Leeds. 15 Regent Park-avenue, Leeds.

tRogers, Reginald A. P. Trinity College, Dublin.

tRogers, Hon. Robert. Roslyn-road, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Rogers, Walter. Lamorva, Falmouth.

fRoxur, Sir A. K., LL.D., D.C.L., Litt. D. St. Anne’s Hall, near
Chertsey-on-Thames, Surrey.

*Roscor, The Right Hon. Sir Henry Enriep, B.A., Ph.D., LL.D.,
D.C.L., F.R.S. (PRestpEntT, 1887; Pres. B, 1870, 1884;
Council, 1874-81 ; Local Sec. 1861.) 10 Bramham-gardens, S.W.

tRose, Miss G. Mabel. Ashley Lodge, Oxford.

is J. Holland, Litt.D. Walsingham, Millington-road, Cam-

ridge.

*Rosg, T. K., D.Sc., Chemist and Assayer to the Royal Mint.
6 Royal Mint, E.

*Rosedale, Rev. H. G., D.D., F.S.A. 7 Gloucester-street, S.W.

*Rosedale, Rev. W. E., D.D. St. Mary Bolton’s Vicarage, South
Kensington, 8.W.

74

Year of
Election

1900.

1909.
1859.
1908.

1912.
1902.
1901.

1891.
1911.

1991.

1899.
1909.

1884.
1905.
1901.
1903.
1890.
1881.
1910.
1875.

1869.
1901.

1905.

1905.
1904.
1909
1896.
1911.
1912.
1904.

1875.

1883.
1852.
1908.
1908.
1886.
1909.

1907.
1909.

1908.
1905.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

{Rosennain, Watrer, B.A., F.R.S. Warrawee. Coombe-lane,
Kingston Hill, Surrey.

tRoss, D. A. 116 Wellington-crescent, Winnipeg, Canada,

*Ross, Rev. James Coulman. Wadworth Hall, Doncaster.

{Ross, Sir John, of Bladensburg, K.C.B. Rostrevor House,
Rostrevor, Co. Down.

tRoss, Miss Joan M. Hazelwood, Warlingham, Surrey.

tRoss, John Callender. 46 Holland-street, Campden-hill, W.

{Ross, Colonel Sir Ronatp, K.C.B., F.R.S., Professor of Tropical
Sanitation in the University of Liverpool. The University,
Liverpool.

*Roth, H. Ling. Briarfield, Shibden, Halifax, Yorkshire.

*Rothschild, Hon. L. Walter, M.P., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S. Tring Park,
Tring.

*Rottenburg, Paul, LL.D. Care of Messrs. Leister, Bock, & Co.,
Glasgow.

*Round, J. C., M.R.C.S. 19 Crescent-road, Sydenham Hill, 8.E.

{Rounthwaite, C. H. E. Engineer’s Office, Grand Trunk Pacific
Railway of Canada, Winnipeg.

*Rouse, M. L., B.A. 47 Berlin-road, Catford, S.E.

§Rousselet, Charles F. Fir Island, Bittacy Hill, Mili Hill, N.W.

{Rowallan, the Right Hon. Lord. Thornliebank House, Glasgow.

*Rowe, Arthur W., M.B., F.G.S. Shottendane, Margate.

tRowley, Walter, M.Inst.C.E., F.S.A. Alderhill, Meanwood, Leeds.

*Rowntree, Joseph. 38 St. Mary’s, York.

§Rowse, Arthur A., B.A., B.Sc. Engineering Laboratory, Cambridge.

*Rtcker, Sir ArtHur W., M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. (PREst-
DENT, 1901; TRusrER, 1898— ; GENERAL TREASURER,
1891-98; Pres. A, 1894; Council, 1888-91.) Everington
House, Newbury, Berkshire.

§Rupier, F. W., 1.S.0., F.G.8. Ethel Villa, Tatsfield, Westerham.

*Rudorf, C. C. G., Pa.D., B.Sc. Ivor, Cranley-gardens, Muswell
Hill, N.

*Ruffer, Marc Armand, C.M.G., M.A., M.D., B.Sc. Quarantine
International Board, Alexandria.

{Ruffer, Mrs. Alexandria.

{Ruhemann, Dr. §. 3 Selwyn-gardens, Cambridge.

{Rumball, Rev. M. C., B.A. Morden, Manitoba, Canada.

*Rundell, T. W., F.R.Met.Soc. 3 Fenwick-street, Liverpool.

{Rundle, Henry, F.R.C.S. 13 Clarence-parade, Southsea.

*Rusk, Robert R., M.A., Ph.D. 4 Barns-crescent, Ayr.

{Russell, E. J., D.Sc. Rothamsted Experimental Station, Har-
penden, Herts.

*Russell, The Hon. F. A. R. Steep, Petersfield.

Russell, John. 39 Mountjoy-square, Dublin.

*Russell, J. W. 28 Staverton-road, Oxford.

*Russell, Norman Scott. Arts Club, Dover-street, W.

{Russell, Robert. Arduagremia, Haddon-road, Dublin.

{RussEx1, Right Hon. T. W., M.P. Olney, Terenure, Co. Dublin.

tRust, Arthur. Eversleigh, Leicester.

*Rutherford, Hon. Alexander Cameron. Strathcona, Alberta,
Canada.

§RUTHERFORD, Sir Ernest, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1909),
Professor of Physics in the University of Manchester.

{Ruttan, Colonel H. N. Armstrong’s Point, Winnipeg, Canada.

{Ryan, Hugh, D.Sc. Omdurman, Orwell Park, Rathgar, Dublin.

{tRyan, Pierce. Rosebank House, Rosebank, Cape Town.

~]

or

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913.

Year of

Election.

1909,
1906.

1903.

1883.
1871.
1903.
1873.
1904.
IQEY.

1901.
1907.

1896.
1896.
1903.

1886.
1905.
1896.

1907.
1813.
1903.
1901.
1887.

1906.
1883.
1903.
1903.
1879.

1888.

1914.
1914.
1880.
1905.

1908.
1873.

1883.
1905.
1913.
1881.

1878.

{Ryan, Thomas. Assiniboine-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.
*RymsEr, Sir JosepnH Sykes. The Mount, York.

tSapuur, M. E., C.B., LL.D. (Pres. L, 1906), Vice-Chancellor of the
University of Leeds. 41 Headingley-lane, Leeds.

{Sadler, Robert. 7 Lulworth-road, Birkdale, Southport.

tSadler, Samuel Champernowne. Church House, Westminster, S.W.

tSagar, J. The Poplars, Savile Park, Halifax.

*Salomons, Sir David, Bart., F.G.S. Broomhill, Tunbridge Wells.

{Sarrmr, A. E., D.Sc., F.G.S. 5 Clifton-place, Brighton.

§Sampson, R. A., M.A., I'.R.S., Astronomer Royal for Scotland.
Royal Observatory, Edinburgh.

{Samuel, John S., J.P., F.R.S.E. City Chambers, Glasgow.

*Sand, Dr. Henry J. 8. University College, Nottingham.

Sandes, Thomas, A.B. Sallow Glin, Tarbert, Co. Kerry.

§Saner, John Arthur, M.inst.C.E. Toolerstone, Sandiway, Cheshire.

{Saner, Mrs. Toolerstone, Sandiway, Cheshire.

{Sankey, Captain H. R., R.E., MInst.C.E. Palace-chambers,
9 Bridge-street, S.W.

{Sankey, Percy EK. 44 Russell-square, W.C.

tSargant, H. B. Quarry Hill, Reigate.

*SarGANT, Miss Erpen, F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1913.) The Old Rectory,
Girton, Cambs.

{Sargent, H.C. Ambergate, near Derby.

§Saundby, Robert, M.D. Great Charles-street, Birmingham.

*SAUNDERS, Miss E. R. Newnham College, Cambridge.

tSawers, W. D. 1 Athole Gardens-place, Glasgow.

§Sayor, Rev. A. H., M.A., D.D. (Pres. H, 1887), Professor of
Assyriology in the University of Oxford. Queen’s College,
Oxford.

{Sayer, Dr. Ettie. 35 Upper Brook-street, W.

*Scarborough, George. Whinney Field, Halifax, Yorkshire.

§SCARISBRICK, Sir Cuarus, J.P. Scarisbrick Lodge, Southport.

{Scarisbrick, Lady. Scarisbrick Lodge, Southport.

*ScHarer, Sir EK. A., LL.D., D.Sc., M.D., F.R.S. (PRESIDENT,
1912; GENERAL SEcRETARY, 1895-1900; Pres. I, 1894;
Council, 1887-93), Professor of Physiology in the University
of Edinburgh.

*Scuarrr, Ropurr F., Ph.D., B.Sc., Keeper of the Natural History
Department, National Museum, Dublin. Knockranny,
Bray, Co. Wicklow.

§Scharfi, Mrs. Knockranny, Bray, Co. Wicklow.

§Scharfi, J. W. Knockranny, Bray, Co. Wicklow.

*Schemmann, Louis Carl. Neueberg 12, Hamburg.

{Scuonnanp, §., Ph.D. Albany Museum, Grahamstown, Cape
Colony.

§Schrédter, Dr. E. 27 Breite-strasse, Diisseldorf, Gamany

*ScHusTER, ARTHUR, Ph.D., Sec. R.S., F.R.A.S. (Pres. A, 1892 ;
Council, 1887-93.) Yeldall, Twyford, Berks.

*Sciater, W. Luriey, M.A., F.Z.S. Odiham Priory, Winchfield,

tSclater, Mrs. W. L. Odiham Priory, Winchfield.

§Scoble, Walter A., B.Sc., A.M.Inst.C.E. City and Guilds Technical
College, Leonard-street, H.C.

*Scorr, ALExanprER, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S., F.C.S8. 34 Upper
Hamilton-terrace, N.W.

*Scott, Arthur William, M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Natural
Science in St. David’s College, Lampeter.

76

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of

Election.

1889. *Scorr, D. H., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Pres.L.S. (GENERAL SEORE-
taRY, 1900-03 ; Pres. K, 1896.) East Oakley House, Oakley,
Hants ; and Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall, S.W.

1857. *Scorr, Roprrt H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.Met.S. 6 Elm Park-
gardens, S.W.

1902. {Scott, William R., M.A. Litt.D. St. Regulus, St. Andrews,
Scotland.

1895. {Scott-Elliot, Professor G. F., M.A., B.Se., F.L.S. Newton, Dum-
fries.

i883. iScrivener, Mrs. Haglis House, Wendover.

1909. {Scudamore, Colonel F. W. Chelsworth Hall, Suffolk.

1895. {Seull, Miss E. M. L. St. Edmund’s, 10 Worsley-road, Hamp-
stead, N.W.

1890. *Searle, G. F. C., Se.D., F.R.S. Wyncote, Hills-road, Cambridge.

1906. *See, T. J. J., AM., Ph.D., F.R.A.S., Professor of Mathematics,
U.S. Navy. Naval Observatory, Mare Island, California.

1907. §Seligmann, Dr. C. G. 36 Finchley-road, N.W.

1911. *Seligmann, Mrs. C. G. 36 Finchley-road, N.W.

1913.
1904.
1909.
1888.

1888.
1870.
1910.

1895.
1892.

1913.
1899.
1891.
1905.
1904.
1902.
1913.
1901.

1906.
1878.

1904.
1910.

1889
1883

1883.
1904.
1908.

§Seligmann, Miss Emma A. 61 Kirklee-road, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

tSell, W. J. 19 Lensfield-road, Cambridge.

tSellars, H. Lee. 225 Wifth-avenue, New York, U.S.A.

*Smnter, Atrrup, M.D., Ph.D., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1912), ‘Pro-

fessor of Chemistry in University College, Galway.

*SENNETT, ALFRED R., A.M.Inst.C.K. Duffield, near Derby.

*Sephton, Rev. J. 90 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.

{Seton, R. 8., B.Sc. The University, Leeds.

*Seton-Karr, H. W. 8 St. Paul’s-mansions, Hammersmith, W.

*Smwarp, A. C., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. K, 1903 ; Council,
1901-07; Local Sec. 1904), Professor of Botany in the Univer-
sity of Cambridge. Westfield, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

§Seward, Mrs. Westfield, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

§Seymour, Henry J., B.A., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the
National University of Ireland. arlsfort-terrace, Dublin.

{Shackell, EK. W. 191 Newport-road, Cardiff.

*Shackleford, W. C. Burnt Green, Worcestershire.

tShackleton, Lieutenant Sir Ernest H., M.V.O., F.R.G.S. 9
Regent-street, 8. W.

{Ssarrespury, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.P., K.C.V.O.
Belfast Castle, Belfast.

§Shakespear, G.A., D.Sc., M.A. 21 Woodland-road, Northfield,
Worcestershire.

*Shakespear, Mrs. G. A. 21 Wocdland-road, Northfield, Worcester-
shire.

tShann, Frederick. 6 St. Leonard’s, York.

tSHarp, Davin, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. Lawnside, Brocken-
hurst, Hants.

{Sharples, George. 181 Great Cheetham-street West, Higher
Broughton, Manchester.

§Shaw, J. J. Sunnyside, Birmingham-road, West Bromwich.

*Shaw, Mrs. M.8., B.Sc. Brookhayes, Exmouth.

*Suaw, W.N., M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1908 ; Council, 1895-
1900, 1904-07.) Meteorological Office, Exhibition-road,
South Kensington, 8.W.

{Shaw, Mrs. W. N. 10 Moreton-gardens, South Kensington, 8.W.

tShaw-Phillips, Miss. 70 Westbourne-terrace, Hyde Park, W.

{Shaw-Phillips, T., J.P. The Times Library Club, 380 Oxford-
street, W.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1915.

~]
=I

Year of
Election.

1912. iShearer, C. Clare College, Cambridge.

1905. {Shenstone, Miss A. Sutton Hall, Barcombe, Lewes.

1905. {Shenstone, Mrs. A. E. G. Sutton Hall, Barcombe, Lewes.

. 1865. tShenstone, Frederick S. Sutton Hall, Barcombe, Lewes.

1900. §SHEPPpARD, Tuomas, F.G.S. The Municipal Museum, Hull.

1908. §Sheppard, W. F., Sc.D., LL.M. Board of Education, White-
hall, S.W.

1883. tSherlock, David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin.

1883. {Sherlock, Mrs. David. Rahan Lodge. Tullamore, Dublin.

1896. {SHeRRNeTON, C.8., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1904; Council,
1907- ), Professor of Physiology in the University of Oxford.

1888. *Shickle, Rev. G. W., M.A., F.S.A. St. John’s Hospital, Bath.

1908. *Shickle, Miss Mabel G. M. 9 Cavendish-crescent, Bath.

1902. *Shillington, T. Foulkes, J.P. Dromart, Antrim-road, Belfast.

1883. *Shillitoe, Buxton, F.R.C.S. Ardvernis, 3 Richmond-gardens,
Bournemouth.

1887. *SureLey, ArrHur E., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1909;
Council, 1904-11), Master of Christ’s College, Cambridge.

1897. {SHorz, Dr. Lewis E. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1882. {SHorz, T. W., M.D., B.Sc., Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy at
St. Bartholomew’s HospitaJ]. 6 Kingswood-road, Upper Nor-
wood, S.E.

1901. {Short, Peter M., B.Sc. 1 Deronda-road, Herne Hill, S.E.

1908. §Shorter, Lewis R., B.Sc. 29 Albion-street, W.

1904. *Shrubsall, F. C., M.A., M.D. 34 Lime-grove, Uxbridge-road, W.

1910. {Shuttleworth, T. E. 5 Park-avenue, Riverdale-road, Sheffield.

1889. {Sibley, Walter K., M.A., M.D. 6 Cavendish-place, W.

1902. tSiddons, A. W., M.A. Harrow-on-the-Hill, Middlesex.

1883. *Sidebotham, Edward John. Erlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.

1877. *Sidebotham, Joseph Watson. Merlewood, Bowdon, Cheshire.

1913. *Sidgwick, N. V. Lincoln College, Oxford.

1873. *Sremens, ALEXANDER, M.Inst.C.E. Caxton House, Westminster,
8. W.

1905. {Siemens, Mrs. A. Caxton House, Westminster, S.W.

1903. *Silberrad, Dr. Oswald. Buckhurst Hill, Essex.

1871. *Sompson, Sir ALEXANDER R., M.D., Emeritus Professor of Mid-
wifery in the University of Edinburgh. 62 Queen-street,
Edinburgh.

1913. *Simpson, J. A.,M.A.,D.Se. 62 Academy-street, Elgin.

1863. {Simpson, J. B., F.G.S. Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne.

1909. {Simpson, Professor J.C. McGill University, Montreal, Canada.

1908. {Simpson, J. J., M.A., B.Sc. Zoological Department, Marischal
College, Aberdeen.

1901. *Simpson, Professor J. Y., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 25 Chester-street,
Edinburgh.

1907. {Simpson, Lieut.-Colonel R. J. S., C.M.G. 66 Shooters Hill-road,
Blackheath, S.E.

1909. *Simpson, Samuel, B.Sc. Entebbe, Uganda.

1909. {Simpson, Sutherland, M.D. Cornell University Medical College.
Ithaca, New York, U.S.A.

1896. *Suupson, W., F.G.S. Catteral Hall, Settle, Yorkshire.

1884, *Simpson, Professor W. J. R., C.M.G., M.D. 31 York-terrace,
Regent’s Park, N.W.

1909. {Sinclair, J. D. 77 Spence-street, Winnipeg.

1912. §Sinclair, Sir John R.G., Bart.,D.S.0. Barrock House, Wick, N.B.

1874. peter: : Right Hon. THomas. (Local Sec. 1874.) Dunedin,

elfast. :

78

Year of

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Election.

1907.
1905.

1902.
1906.
1883.
1910.
1898.

1905.
1913.

1913.

1887.
1903.
1889.

1902.
1911.

1911.
1892.

1908
1897.

1901.

18753.
1889.

1910.
1900.
1913.
1908.
1886.
1901.

1866.
1911.

1912.
1897.

1915
1903.
1910.
1889.

1860.
1876.
1902.

1903.
1911.

*Sircar, Dr. Amrita Lal, L.M.S., F.C.S. 51 Sankaritola, Calcutta.

*Sy0aREN, Professor H. Natural History Museum, Stockholm,
Sweden.

{Skeffington, J. B., M.A., LL.D. Waterford.

{Skerry, H. A. St. Paul’s-square, York.

{Skillicorne, W. N. 9 Queen’s-parade, Cheltenham.

{Skinner, J. C. 76 Ivy Park-road, Sheffield.

{Szmvwer, Sipnny, M.A. (Local Sec. 1904.) South-Western
Polytechnic, Manresa-road, Chelsea, S.W.

*Skyrme, C. G. Baltimore, 6 Grange-road, Upper Norwood, 8.E.

§Skyrme, Mrs. C. G. Baltimore, 6 Grange-road, Upper Norwood,
S.E

*StaprE, R. E., D.Sc. Muspratt Laboratory, The University,

; Liverpool.

{Small, Evan W., M.A., B.Sc., F.G.S. 48 Kedleston-road, Derby.

*Smallman, Raleigh 8. Eliot Lodge, Albemarle-road, Beckenham.

*Smart, Professor Wit~1am, LL.D. (Pres. F, 1904.) Nunholme,
Dowanhill, Glasgow.

tSmedley, Miss Ida. 36 Russell-square, W.C.

{Smiles, Samuel. The Quarry, Sanderstead-road, Sanderstead,
Surrey.

§Smith, A. Malins, M.A. St. Audrey’s Mill House, Thetford, Norfolk

{Smith, Alexander, B.Sc.,Ph.D., F.R.S.E. Department of Chemistry,
Columbia University, New York, U.S.A.

{Smith, Alfred. 30 Merrion-square, Dublin.

{Smith, Andrew, Principal of the Veterinary College, Toronto,
Canada.

*Smira, Miss AnniE Lorrary. 20 Talgarth-road, West Kensing-
ton, W.

{Smith, C. Sidney-Sussex College, Cambridge.

*Smith, Professor C. Michie, C.I.E., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. The
Observatory, Kodaikanal, South India.

{Smith, Charles. 11 Winter-street, Sheffield.

§Smith, E.J. Grange House, Westgate Hill, Bradford.

*Smith, Miss E. M. 40 Owlstone-road, Newnham, Cambridge.

{Smith, E. Shrapnell. 7 Rosebery-avenue, E.C.

*Smith, Mrs. Emma. Hencotes House, Hexham.

§Smith, F. B. Care of A. Croxton Smith, Esq., Burlington House,
Wandle-road, Upper Tooting, S.W.

*Smith, F.C. Bank, Nottingham.

§Smith, F. E. National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Mid-
dlesex.

§Smith, Rev. Frederick. The Parsonage, South Queensferry.

{Smrra, G. Exriot, M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. H, 1912), Professor of
Anatomy in the University of Manchester.

{Smith, Geoffrey W., M.A., F.L.S. New College, Oxford.

*Smirn, Professor H. B. Lens, M.A., M.P. The University, Bristol.

§Smith, H. Bompas, M.A. Victoria University, Manchester.

*§uiru, Sir H. Lunwettyn, K.C.B., M.A., B.Sc., F.S.S. (Pres. F,
1910.) Board of Trade, S.W.

*Smith, Heywood, M.A., M.D. 40 Portland-court, W.

*Smith, J. Guthrie. 5 Kirklee-gardens, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

{Smith, J. Lorrain, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathology in the
Victoria University, Manchester.

*Smith, James. . Pinewood, Crathes, Aberdeen.

§Smith, Priestley, F.R.C.S., Professor of Ophthalmology in the
University of Birmingham. 95 Cornwall-street, Birmingham.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 79

Year of
Election.

1910.
1894.

1910.
1896.
1911.
1913.

1885.
1909.
1883.

1906.

1905.
1909.
1857.

1908.
1888.

1913.
1905.
1905.
1879.

1900.

1910.
1903.

1903.
1865.
1883.

1913.
1909.
1893.
1910.
1912.
1914.
1910.
1864,

1894.
1864.
1864,

1909,
1854.

1888.
1903.

§Smith, Samuel. Central Library, Sheffield.

§Smith, T. Walrond. Care of Frank Henderson, Esq., 19 Manor-
road, Sideup, Kent.

{Smith, W. G., B.Se., Ph.D. College of Agriculture, Edinburgh.

*Smith, Rev. W. Hodson. 104-122 City-road, E.C.

tSmith, W. Parnell. The Grammar School, Portsmouth.

§Smith, Walter Campbell. British Museum (Natural History),
Cromwell-road, $8. W.

*Smith, Watson. 34 Upper Park-road, Haverstock Hill, N.W.

{Smith, William, 218 Sherbrooke-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

{SmirueExts, ArrHorR, B.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1907 ; Local Sec. 1890), .
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Leeds.

§Smurthwaite, Thomas E., F.R.A.I. 134 Mortimer-road, Kensal
Rise, N. W.

{Smuts, C. P.O. Box 1088, Johannesburg.

§Smylie, Hugh. 13 Donegall-square North, Belfast.

*Smytu, Jonn, M.A., F.C.S., F.R.M.S., MInst.C.E.I. Milltown,
Banbridge, Ireland.

§Smythe, J. A., Ph.D., D.Sc. 10 Queen’s-gardens, Benton, New-
castle-on-Tyne.

*Snapr, H. Luoyp, D.Se., Ph.D. Balholm, Lathom-road, South-

port.

*Snell, J. F. C., M.Inst.C.E. 8 Queen Anne’s-gate, S.W.

tSoppy, F., M.A., F.R.S. The University, Glasgow.

{Sollas, Miss I. B. J., B.Sc. Newnham College, Cambridge.

*Sotias, W. J., M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. (Pres. C,
1900 ; Council, 1900-03), Professor of Geology in the Univer-
sity of Oxford. 173 Woodstock-road, Oxford.

*SoMuRVILLE, W., D.Sc., F.L.S., Sibthorpian Professor of Rural
Economy in the University of Oxford. 121 Banbury-road,
Oxford.

*Sommerville, Duncan M. Y. 70 Argyle-street, St. Andrews, N.B.

tSoulby, R. M. Sea Holm, Westbourne-road, Birkdale, Lanca-
shire.

tSouthall, Henry T. The Graig, Ross, Herefordshire.

*Southall, John Tertius. Parkfields, Ross, Herefordshire.

{Spanton, William Dunnett, F.R.C.S. Chatterley House, Hanley,
Staffordshire.

§Sparke, Thomas Sparrow. 33 Birkby-crescent, Huddersfield.

{Sparling, Rev. J. W.,D.D. 159 Kennedy-street, Winnipeg, Canada,

*Speak, John. Kirton Grange, Kirton, near Boston.

{Spearman, C. Birnam, Guernsey.

§Speers, Adam, B.Sc., J.P. Holywood, Belfast.

§Spence, Mrs. C. J. The Old Hall, Cheadle, Cheshire.

{Spicer, Rev. E. C. The Rectory, Waterstock, Oxford.

*Spicer, aay B.A., F.LS., F.G.S. 14 Aberdeen-park, High-
b

tiplara, AL H. Gresham’s School, Holt, Norfolk.

*SPILLER, JOHN, F'.C.S. 2 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, N.

igen W. Hugh, F.C.S. 6 Middle New-street, Fetter-

. ane, E.C.

{Sprague, D. E. 76 Edmonton-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Spraaue, THomas Bonp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. 29 Buckingham-
terrace, Edinburgh.

*Stacy, J. Sargeant. 164 Shoreditch, E.

tStalhoorthy, Rev. George B. The Manse, Hindhead, Haslemere,
Surrey.

80)

Year

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

of

Election,

1883.

1894

1909.
1900.
1913.

1911.
1899.

1898.

1907.
1910.
1900.

188].
1892.

"1896.
1911.
1908.

1912.
1911.

1909.
1884.

1902.
1910.
1911.
1909.
1908.

1906.
1900.

1880.
1905.
1909.
1875.
1901.

1901.
1911.

1913.
1876.

1904.
1906.

*Stanford, Edward, F.R.G.S. 12-14 Long-acre, W.C.

. “STANSFIELD, ALFRED, D.Sc. McGill University, Montreal, Canada.

{Stansfield, Edgar. Mines Branch, Department of Mines, Ottawa,
Canada.

*STANSFIELD, Professor H., D.Sc. Hartley University College,
Southampton.

§Stanton, T. E., D.Se. National Physical Laboratory, Teddington,
Middlesex.

§Srapr, Dr. Orzo, F.R.S. Royal Gardens, Kew.

{Staruine, E. H., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1909), Professor of
Physiology in University College, London, W.C.

{Stather, J. W., F.G.S. Brookside, Newland Park, Hull.

Staveley, T. K. Ripon, Yorkshire.

§Staynes, Frank. 36-38 Silver-street, Leicester.

{Stead, F. B. 80 St. Mary’s-mansions, Paddington, W.

*STEeaD, J. H., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1910.) Laboratory and Assay Office,
Middlesbrough.

{Stead, W. H. Beech-road, Reigate.

*STEBBING, Rev. THomas R. R., M.A., F.R.S. Ephraim Lodge,
The Common, Tunbridge Wells.

*STEBBING, W. P. D., F.G.S. 784 Lexham-gardens, W.

{Steele, L. J.. M.I.E.E. H.M. Dockyard, Portsmouth.

tSteele, Lawrence Edward, M.A., M.R.I.A.. 18 Crosthwaite-park
East, Kingstown, Co. Dublin.

§Steggall, J. EH. A., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University
College, Dundee. Woodend, Perth-road, Dundee.

{Stein, Sir Mare Aurel, K.C.1.E., D.Sc., D.Litt. Merton College,
Oxford. 5

{Steinkopj, Max, 667 Main-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Stephens, W. Hudson. Low-Ville, Lewis County, New York,
U.S.A

{Stephenson, G. Grianan, Glasnevin, Dublin.

*SrepHENson, H. K. Banner Cross Hall, Sheffield.

{Stern, Moritz. 241 Bristol-road, Birmingham.

tStethern, G. A. Fort Frances, Ontario, Canada.

*Steven, Alfred Ingram, M.A., B.Sc. 50 Onslow-road, Fairfield,
Liverpool.

+Stevens, Miss C. O. ‘The Plain, foxcombe Hill, Oxford.

{Srnvens, Freperick. (Local Sec. 1900.) Town Clerk’s Office,
Bradford.

*Stevens, J. Edward, LL.B. Le Mayals, Blackpill, R.S.0.

§Stewart, A. F. 127 Isahbella-street, Toronto, Canada.

{Stewart, David A., M.D. 407 Pritchard-avenue, Winnipeg,
Canada.

*Stewart, James, B.A., F.R.C.P.Ed. Junior Constitutional Club,
Piccadilly, W.

*Stewart, John Joseph, M.A., B.Sc. 2 Stow Park-crescent, New-
port, Monmouthshire.

*Stewart, Thomas. St. George’s-chambers, Cape Town.

{Stibbs, H. A. Portsea Island Gas Company, Commercial-road,
Portsmouth.

*Stitus, Waurer. The University, Leeds.

{Srrriine, Witttray, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology
in the Victoria University, Manchester.

tStobbs, J. T. Dunelm, Basford Park, Stoke-on-Trent.

ledges Mrs. Annie. Somerset House, Garelochhead, Dumbarton-
shire, N.B.

i i tii il

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1918. ro |

Year of
Election.

1901.

1883.
1898.

1899.
1874.

1905.
1895.

1908.
1878.

1883.
1903.

1910.
1887.
1888.
1905.
1881.

1905.
1908.
1906.
1883.
1898.
1887.

1887.

1876.
1872.
1885.
1909.
1879.
1891.

1902.
1898.
1911.
1887.

1908.
. 1913.
1ONI:
1911.
1903.
1881.

1905.
1911.
1897.
1913.
19

*Stobo, Thomas. Somerset House, Garelochhead, Dumbartonshire,
N.B

*Srooxrer, W. N., M.A. Brasenose College, Oxford.

*Stokes, Professor George J.. M.A. 5 Fernhurst-villas, College-
road, Cork.

*Stone, Rev. F. J. Radley College, Abingdon.

{Stone, J. Harris, M.A., F.L.S., F.C.8. 3 Dr. Johnson’s-buildings,
Temple, E.C.

{Stoneman, Miss Bertha, D.Sc. Huguenot College, Wellington, Cape
Province.

*Stoney, Miss Edith A. 20 Reynolds-close, Hampstead Way,
N.W.

*Stoney, Miss Florence A., M.D. 4 Nottingham-place, W.

*Stoney, G. Gerald, F.R.S. Oakley, Heaton-road, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

{Stopes, Mrs. 7 Denning-road, Hampstead. N.W.

*Stopres, Marie C., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.L.S. 14 Well-walk, Hampstead,
N.W.

§Storey, Gilbert. Department of Agriculture, Cairo.

*Storey, H. L. Bailrigg, Lancaster.

*Stothert, Perey K. Woolley Grange, Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts.

*Stott, Clement H., F.G.S. P.O. Box 7, Pietermaritzburg, Natal.

$STRAHAN, AUBREY, M.A., Se.D., E.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1904.)
Geological Museum, "“Jermyn- street, 'S.W.

tStrange, Harold F. P.O. Box 2527, Johannesburg.

*Stratton, F. J. M., M.A. Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.

*Stromeyer, C. E. 9 Mount-street, Albert-square, Manchester.

§Strong, Henry J., M.D. Colonnade House, The Steyne, Worthing.

*Strong, W. M., MD. 3 Champion-park, Denmark Hill, 8.E.

*Stroud, -H., M. A., D.Se., Professor of Physics in the Armstrong
College, Newcastle- -upon-T'yne.

se Witt1am, D.Sc., Professor of Physics in the University

f Leeds. Care of Messrs. Barr & Stroud, Anniesland,

Staseow.

*Stuart, Charles Maddock, M.A. St. Dunstan’s College, Catford, S.E.

*Stuart, Rev. Canon Edward A.,M.A. ‘The Precincts, Canterbury.

{Stump, Edward C. Malmesbury, Polefield, Blackley, Manchester.

{Stupart, R. F. Meteorological Service, Toronto, Canada.

*Styring, Robert. Brinkcliffe Tower, Sheftield.

*Sudborough, Professor J. J., Ph.D., D.Sc. University College of
Wales, Aberystwyth.

§Sully, H. T. Scottish Widows-buildings, Bristol.

§Sully, T. N. Avalon House, Queen’s-road, Weston-super-Mare.

tSummers, A. H., M.A. 16 St. Andrew’s- road, Southsea.

*Sumpner, W. E., D.Sc. Technical School, Suffolk-street, Bir-
mingham.

{Sutherland, Alexander. School House, Gersa, Watten, Caithness.

§Sutton, A.M. Bucklebury-place, Woolhampton, Berkshire.

§Sutton, Leonard, F.L.S. Hillside, Reading.

{Sutton, W. L., F.1.C. Hillcroft, Eaton, Norwich.

tSwallow, Rev. R. D., M.A. Chigwell School, Essex.

§Swan, Sir JosrpH Witson, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. Overhill,
Warlingham, Surrey.

tSwan, Miss Mary E. Overhill, Warlingham, Surrey.

*Swann, Dr. W. F.G. The University, Sheffield.

{Swanston, William, F.G.S. Mount Collyer Factory, Belfast.

§Swift, Richard H. 4839 St. Lawrence-avenue, Chicago.
13.

F

82

Year of

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Election.

1887.

1870.
1913.
1902.
1887.

1913.
1896.
1902.

1906

1903.
1885.

1908.

1910.
1912.
1904.
1913.
1903.
1890.

1892.
1908.
1861.

1902.
1915.
1908.

1887.
1881.
1906.
1884.
1882.
1913.
1860.
1906.
1884,
1894.
1901.
1858.

1885.
1906.
1910.
1879.
1913.
1892.

1883.
1883.

§SwINBURNE, JAMES, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 82 Victoria-street,
S.W.

*Swinburne, Sir John, Bart. Capheaton Hall, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

§Swinnerton, H. H. 441 Mansfield-road, Nottingham.

*Sykes, Miss Ella C. Elcombs, Lyndhurst, Hampshire.

*Sykes, George H., M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.S.A. Glencoe, 64 Elm-
bourne-road, Tooting Common, 8.W.

§Sykes, Godfrey G. Desert Laboratory, Tucson, Arizona, U.S.A.

*Sykes, Mark L., F.R.M.S. 10 Headingley-avenue, Leeds.

*Sykes, Major P. Molesworth, C.M.G. Elcombs, Lyndhurst,
Hampshire.

tSykes, T. P., M.A. 4 Gathorne-street, Great Horton, Bradford.

§Symington, Howard W. Brooklands, Market Harborough.

{Symineton, Jounson, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (Pres. H, 1903),
Professor of Anatomy in Queen’s University, Belfast.

{Synnott, Nicholas J. Furness, Naas, Co. Kildare

*Tait, John, M.D., D.Se. 44 Viewforth-terrace, Edinburgh.

iT albot, P. Amaury. Abbotsmorton, Inkberrow, Worcestershire.

§Tallack, H. T. Clovelly, Birdhurst-road, South Croydon.

§Tangye, William. Westmere, Edgbaston Park-road, Birmingham.

*Tanner, Miss Ellen G. Parkside, Corsham, Wilts.

{Tanner, H. W. Lioyp, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Local Sec. 1891.) University
College, Cardiff.

*TANSLEY, ARTHUR G., M.A., F.L.S. Grantchester, near Cambridge.

{TarLetTon, Francis A., LL.D. 24 Upper Leeson-street, Dublin.

*Tarratt, Henry W. 2c Oxford and Cambridge-mansions, Hyde
Park, W.

tTate, Miss. Rantalard, Whitehouse, Belfast.

§Tattersall, W. M. The Museum, The University, Manchester.

{Taylor, Rev. Campbell, M.A. United Free Church Manse,
Wigtown, Scotland.

{tTaylor, G. H. Holly House, 235 Eccles New-road, Salford.

*Taylor, H. A. 12 Melbury-road, Kensington, W.

t{Taylor, H. Dennis. Stancliffe, Mount-villas, York.

*Taytor, H. M., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Taylor, Herbert Owen, M.D. Oxford-street, Nottingham.

§Taylor, J. 8. The Corinthians, Warwick-road, Acock’s Green.

*Taylor, John, M.Inst.C.E. 6 Queen Street-place, E.C.

§Taylor, Miss M. R. Newstead, Blundellsands.

*Taylor, Miss 8. Oak House, Shaw, near Oldham.

*Taylor, W. W., M.A. 66 St. John’s-road, Oxford.

*Teacher, John H., M.B. 32 Kingsborough-gardens, Glasgow.

{TEzaLe, THomas Priparn, M.A., F.R.S. 38 Cookridge-street,
Leeds.

{Trat., J. J. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1893 ; Council,
1894-1900, 1909- ). Athenzum Club, S.W.

*Teape, Rev. W. M., M.A. South Hylton Vicarage, Sunderland.

tTebb, W. Scott, M.A., M.D. 15 Finsbury-circus, E.C.

{Temple, Lieutenant G. T., R.N., F.R.G.S. Solheim, Cumberland
Park, Acton, W.

§Tremp.eE, Sir R. C., Bart., C.LE. (Pres. H, 1913.) The Nash,
Worcester.

*Tesla, Nikola. 45 West 27th-street, New York, U.S.A.

{Tetley, C.F, The Brewery, Leeds.

{Tetley, Mrs. C. F. The Brewery, Leeds.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 83

Year of
Election.

1882.
1871,

*Toane, Georar Dancer, LL.D., Professor of Anatomy in Uni-
versity College, London, W.C.

{Tuisetton-DyzEr, Sir W. T., K.C.M.G., C.LE., M.A., B.Sc.,
Ph.D., LL.D. F.R.S., F.LS. (Pres. D, 1888; Pres. K,
1895 ; Council, 1885-89, 1895-1900.) The Ferns, Witcombe,
Gloucester.

. *THopAy, D. The University, Manchester.
. *Thoday, Mrs. M.G. 5 Lyme-park, Chinley, Stockport.
. Thom, Colonel Robert Wilson, J.P. Brooklands, Lord-street

West, Southport.

. *Thomas, Miss Clara. Pencerrig, Builth. ‘
. *Taomas, Miss Ernen N., B.Sc. 3 Downe-mansions, Gondar-

gardens, West Hampstead, N.W.

. §Thomas, H. H., M.A., B.Sc., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

. *Thomas, H. Hamshaw. Botany School, Cambridge.

. *Thomas, Joseph William, F.C.S. Overdale, Shortlands, Kent.

. *Thomas, Mrs. J. W. Overdale, Shortlands, Kent.

. *Thomas, Miss M. Beatrice. Girton College, Cambridge.

. Thomas, Thomas H. 45 The Walk, Cardiff.

. *Thomas, William, F.R.G.S. Bryn-heulog, Merthyr Tydfil

. *Thompson, Beeby, F.C.S., F.G.S. 67 Victoria-road, Northampton.
. *Thompson, Claude M., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Chemistry in

University College, Cardiff. 38 Park-place, Cardiff.

. {Taompson, D’Arcy W., C.B., B.A. (Pres. D, 1911; Local Sec.,

1912), Professor of Zoology in University College, Dundee.

. *Thompson, Edward P. Paulsmoss, Whitchurch, Salop.

. *Thompson, Edwin. 25 Sefton-drive, Liverpool.

. *Thompson, Francis. Eversley, Haling Park-road, Croydon.

. *Thompson, G. R., B.Sc., Privcipal of and_ Professor of ,Mining

in the South African School of Mines, Johannesburg.

. *Thompson, Rev. H. Perey. Kippington Vicarage, Sevenoaks.
. *Thompson, Harry J., M.Inst.C.E. Tregarthen, Garland’s-road,

Leatherhead.

. *Thompson, Henry G., M.D. 7 Heathfield-road, Croydon.

. *Thompson, Mrs. Lilian Gilchrist. Kippington Vicarage, Sevenoaks.
. §Thompson, Peter. 14 Rotten Park road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
. *Thompson, Richard. Dringcote, The Mount, York.

. *Thompson, Sidney Gilchrist. Kippington Vicarage, Sevenoaks.

. t{THompson, Sitvanus Puitues, B.A., D.Sc. F.R.S., F.R.AS.

(Pres. G, 1907 ; Council, 1897-99, 1910- ), Principal of and
Professor of Physics in the City and Guilds of London Tech-
nical College, Leonard-street, Finsbury, EC.

. *Thompson, T. H. Oldfield Lodge, Gray-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.
. *THompson, W. H., M.D., D.Sc. (Local Sec. 1908), King’s Professor

of Institutes of Medicine (Physiology) in Trinity College,
Dublin. 14 Hatch-street, Dublin.

. {Thompson, Mrs. W. H. 328 Assiniboine-avenue, Winnipeg.

. {Thompson, William Bruce. Thornbank, Dundee.

. §Thoms, Alexander. 7 Playfair-terrace, St. Andrews.

. {Taomson, Arruur, M.A., M.D., Professor of Human Anatomy _in

the University of Oxford. Exeter College, Oxford.

. §Thomson, Arthur W., D.Sc. 23 Craven Hill-cardens, W.

. §Thomson, D. C. ‘Courier’ Buildings, Dundee. :

. *Thomson, E. 22 Monument-avenue, Swampscott, Mass., U.S.A. &
. §Thomson, F. Ross, F.G.S. Hensill, Hawkhurst, Kent.

. *Taomson, Professor J. Artuur, M.A., F.R.S.E.*~ Castleton House,

Old Aberdeen,

F 2

84

Year of
Election

1883.

1901.
1889.

1902.
1891.

1871.

1874.

1880.
1906.

1905.
1898.

1902.

1903.
1881.
1881.
1898.
1898.
1871.

1899.
1896.

1907.
1889.
1873.
1905.
1874.

1913.
1899.

1902.
1905.

1911.
1900.

1912.
1907.
1889.
1875.

1909,

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

{Tuomson, Sir J. J.. O.M., M.A., Se.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (PRESIDENT,
1909; Pres. A, 1896; Council, 1893-95), Professor of Ex-
perimental Physics in the University of Cambridge. Trinity
College, Cambridge.

{Thomson, Dr. J. T. Kilpatrick. 148 Norfolk-street, Glasgow.

*Thomson, James, M.A. 22 Wentworth-place, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

Thome, James Stuart. 29 Ladysmith-road, Edinburgh.

tThomson, John. Westover, Mount Ephraim-road, Streatham,
S.W.

*THomson, JOHN Mitiar, LL.D., F.R.S. (Council, 1895-1901),
Professor of Chemistry in King’s College, London. 18 Lans-
downe-road, Holland Park, W.

§THomson, Witu1aM, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Royal Institution, Man-
chester.

§Thomson, William J. Ghyllbank, St. Helens.

tThornely, Miss A. M. M. Oaklands, Langham-road, Bowdon,
Cheshire.

*Thornely, Miss L. R. Nunclose, Grassendale, Liverpool.

*THornton, W. M., D.Sc., Professor of Electrical Engineering in
the Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{Thornycroft, Sir John I., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Eyot Villa, Chis-
wick Mall, W.

{Thorp, Edward. 87 Southbank-road, Southport.

tThorp, Fielden. Blossom-street, York.

*Thorp, Josiah. 24 Manville-road, New Brighton, Cheshire.

§Thorp, Thomas. Moss Bank, Whitefield, Manchester.

{THorreE, Jocetyn Fievp, Ph.D., F.R.S. Sheffield University.

tTxHorpr, Sir T. E., C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S.
(Pres. B, 1890; Council, 1886-92.) Whinfield, Salcombe,
South Devon.

§THRELFALL, Ricnarp, M.A., F.R.S. Oakhurst, Church-road,
Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Tarirt, Wittiam Epwarp, M.A. (Local Sec. 1908), Professor of
Natural and Experimental Philosophy in the University of
Dublin. 80 Grosvenor-square, Rathmines, Dublin.

{Thwattes, Rk. H. 28 West-street, Leicester.

{tThys, Colonel Albert. 9 Rue Briderode, Brussels.

*TIDDEMAN, R. H., M.A., F.G.S. 298 Woodstock-road, Oxford.

}Tietz, Heinrich, B.A., Ph.D. South African College, Cape Town.

{Titpren, Sir Wittiam A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1888;
Council, 1898-1904.) The Oaks, Northwood, Middlesex.

§Tilley, J. W. Field House, Harborne, Park-road, Birmingham.

tTims, H. W. Marett, M.A., M.D., F.L.8. 7 Sussex-gardens,
Hyde Park, W.

{Tipper, Charles J. R., B.Sc. 21 Greenside, Kendal.

{Tippett, A. M., M.Inst.cC.E. Cape Government Railways, Cape
T

own.

§Tizard, Henry T. Oriel College, Oxford.

*Tocher, J. F., D.Sc., F.C. Crown-mansions, 414 Union-street,
Aberdeen.

§Todd, John A. The Nook, Alexandra Park, Nottingham.

{Todd, Professor J. L. MacDonald College, Quebec, Canada.

§Toll, John M. 49 Newsham-drive, Liverpool.

tTorr, Charles Hawley. 35 Burlington-road, Sherwood, Not-
tingham.

{Tory, H.M. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 85

Election.

1912.
1901,

1876.
~ 1883.
1870.

1902.
1884.
1908.
1908.
1910.
1911.
1887.

1903.
1908.
1905.
1871.
1902.
1884,
1887.
1898.
1913.
1885.
1847.
1905.

1912.
1901.

1893.
1913.
1894.

1905.
1886.

1863,

1910.
1890.
1907.

1886.
1899.

{Tosh, Elmslie. 11 Reform-street, Dundee.

{Townsend, J. S., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the
University of Oxford. New College, Oxford.

*Tram, J. W. H., M.A., M.D., F.B.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1910),
Regius Professor of Botany in the University of Aberdeen.

{Tram A., M.D., LL.D., Provost of Trinity College, Dublin,
Ballylough, Bushmills, Ireland.

{Tram Wiit1am A, Giant’s Causeway Electric Tramway,
Portrush, Ireland.

{Travers, Ernest J. Dunmurry, Co. Antrim.

{Trechmann, Charles O., Ph.D., F.G.S. Hartlepool.

§Treen, Rev. Henry M., B.Sc. Wicken, Soham, Cambridge.

{Tremain, Miss Caroline P., B.A. Alexandra College, Dublin.

§Tremearne, Major A. J. N., B.A. 105 Blackheath Park, 8.E.

§Tremearne, Mrs., LL.A. 105 Blackheath Park, S.E.

*Trench-Gascoigne, Mrs. F. R. Lotherton Hall, Parlington, Aber-
ford, Leeds.

{Trenchard, Hugh. The Firs, Clay Hill, Enfield.

{Tresilian, R. S. Cumnor, Eglington-road, Dublin.

{TrEvor-Barrys, A., M.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Stoner Hill, Peters-
field, Hants.

jTrmen, Roxanp, M.A., F.R.S., F.LS., F.Z.S. Fawley, Onslow-
crescent, Woking.

tTristram, Rev. J. F., M.A., B.Sc. 20 Chandos-road, Chorlton-
cum-Hardy, Manchester. ‘

*Trotter, Alexander Pelham. 8 Richmond-terrace, Whitehall,
S.W.

*Trouton, Freprrick T., M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S. (Council, 1911- ),
Professor of Physics in University College, W.C.

*Trow, ALBERT Howarp, D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Uni-
versity College, Cardiff.

§Tschugaefi, Professor L. The University, St. Petersburg.

*Tubby, A. H., M.S., F.R.C.S. 68 Harley-street, W.

*Tuckett, Francis Fox. Frenchay, Bristoi.

§Turmeau, Charles. Claremont, Victoria Park, Wavertree, Liver-
pool.

{Turnbull, John. City Chambers, Dundee.

§Turnbull, Robert, B.Sc. Department of Agriculture and Technical
Instruction, Dublin.

{Turner, Dawson, M.D., F.R.S.E, 37 George-square, Edinburgh.

§Turner, G. M. Kenilworth.

*TuURNER, H. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (GENERAL SECRE-
TARY, 1913- ; Pres. A, 1911), Professor of Astronomy in
the University of Oxford. The Observatory, Oxford.

{Turner, Rev. Thomas. St. Saviour’s Vicarage, 50 Fitzroy-street, W.

*TurNneR, Toomas, M.Sc., A.R.S.M., F.1.C., Professor of Metallurgy
in the University of Birmingham. Springfields, Upland-road,
Selly Hill, Birmingham.

*TornerR, Sir Wituiam, K.C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.
(PresipEntT, 1900; Pres. H, 1889, 1897), Principal of the
University of Edinburgh. 6 Eton-terrace, Edinburgh.

§Turner, W. E.S. The University, Sheffield.

*Turpin, G. S., M.A., D.Sc. High School, Nottingham.

§Turton, A. E. H., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. (Council, 1908-12.)
Duart, Yelverton, South Devon.

*Twigg, G.H. 1 & 2 Ludgate-hill, Birmingham.

{Twisden, John R., M.A. 14 Gray’s Inn-square, W.C.

F 3

86

Year of

BRITISH ASSOCIA'TION.

Election.

1907.
1865.

1911.
1883.

1912.

1884.
1903.
1908.

1883.
1876.

1909.
1880.
1905.

1887.
1912.

1908.

1865.

1907.

1903.
1909.

1907.

1905.
1913.
1881.

1883.
1904.
1896.

1896.
1890.

1906.
1899.

1883.

1902.
1888.
1904.

1904.
1902.
1909,
1888.

§Twyman, F. 754 Camden-road, N.W.

tTytor, Sir Epwarp Burnett, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. H.,
1884 ; Council, 1896-1902.) Linden, Wellington, Somerset.

*TynDALL, A. M., M.Sc. The University, Bristol.

tTyrer, Thomas, F.C.S. Stirling Chemical Works, Abbey-lane,
Stratford, EB.

{Tyrrell, G. W. Geological Department, The University, Glasgow.

*Underhill, G. E., M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.

Underwood, Captain J.C. 60 Scarisbrick New-road, Southport.

§Unwin, Ernest Ewart, M.Sc. Grove House, Leighton Park School,
Reading.

§Unwin, John. Eastcliffe Lodge, Southport.

*Unwin, W.C., F.R.S., Pres.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1892; Council,
1892-99.) 7 Palace Gate-mansions, Kensington, W.

{Urquhart, C. 239 Smith-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

tUssuer, W. A. E., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-strest, 8. W.

{Uttley, E. A., Electrical Inspector to the Rhodesian Government,
Bulawayo.

*Valentine, Miss Anne. The Elms, Hale, near Altrincham.

§Valentine, C. W. 103 Magdalen-green, Dundee.

tValera, Edward de. University College, Blackrock, Dublin.

*VaRLEY, 8. Atrrep. Arrow Works, Jackson-road, Holloway, N.

§VaRLEY, W. Manserci, M.A., D.Sc., Ph.D. Morningside, Katon-
crescent, Swansea.

{Varwell, H. B. Sittaford, West-avenue, Exeter.

*Vassall, H., M.A. The Priory, Repton, Burton-on-Trent,

§Vaughan, Arthur, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S., Lecturer in Geology at
the University of Oxford. The Museums, Oxford.

tVaughan, E. L. Eton College, Windsor.

§Vaughton, T. A. Livery-street, Birmingham.

tVeLzy, V. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. 8 Marlborough-place, St.
John’s Wood, N.W.

*Verney, Lady. Plis Rhoscolyn, Holyhead.

*Vernon, H. M., M.A., M.D. 5 Park Town, Oxford.

*Vernon, Thomas T. Shotwick Park, Chester.

*Vernon, William. Shotwick Park, Chester.

*Villamil, Lieut.-Colonel R. de, R.E. Carlisle Lodge, Rickmans-
worth.

*VinoEent, J. H.,M.A., D.Sc. L.C.C. Paddington Technical Institute,
Saltram-crescent, W.

*Vincent, Swan, M.D., D.Sc. (Local Sec. 1909), Professor of
Physiology in the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg,
Canada.

*Vinzes, SypNEY Howagzp, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.8. (Pres. K,
1900 ; Council, 1894-97), Professor of Botany in the University
of Oxford. Headington Hill, Oxford.

tVinycomb, T. B. Sinn Fein, Shooters Hill, $.H.

*Vogt, Mrs. 478 Uxbridge-road, W.

§Volterra, Professor Vito. Regia Universita, Rome.

§Wace, A. J. B. Pembroke College, Cambridge.

{Waddell, Rev. C. H. The Vicarage, Grey Abbey, Co. Down.
{Wadge, Herbert W., M.D. 754 Logan-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada
{Wadworth, H. A. Breinton Court, near Hereford.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 87

Year of
Election.

1890.

1900.
1902.
1906.
1905.
1894.
1882.

1893,
1890.
1901.
1897.

1904.
1911.
1905.
1891.
* 1894,

1897.

1913.
1906.
1894,
1910.

1906.
1909.
1907.
1909.

1908.
1888.
1896.
1910.
1883.
1911.

1905.
1901.
1887.

1905.
1913.
1913.
1913.
1889.
1895.

1894,

1891.
1903.

1895.

§Waaemr, Haroxp W. T., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1905.) Hendre,
Horsforth-lane, Far Headingley, Leeds.

{Wagstaff, C. J. L., B.A. Haberdashers’ School, Cricklewood, N.W.

tWainwright, Joel. Finchwood, Marple Bridge, Stockport.

t{Wakefield, Charles. Heslington House, York.

§Wakefield, Captain E. W. Stricklandgate House, Kendal.

tWa.rorD, Epwin A., F.G.S. 21 West Bar, Banbury.

*Walkden, Samuel, F.R.Met.S. Care of George Lloyd, Esq., 7
Coper’s Cope-road, Beckenham, Kent.

{Walker, Alfred O., F.L.S. Ulcombe-place, Maidstone, Kent

tWalker, A. Tannett. The Elms, Weetwood, Leeds.

*Walker, Archibald, M.A., F.I.C. Newark Castle, Ayr, N.B.

*WaLkeER, Sir Epmunp, C.V.O., D.C.L., F.G.S. (Local Sec. 1897.)
Canadian Bank of Commerce, ‘Toronto, Canada.

§Walker, E. R. Nightingales, Adlington, Lancashire.

*Watker, KE. W. Atnuey, M.A. University College, Oxford.

{Walker, Mrs. Ainley. 31 Holywell, Oxford.

tWalker, Frederick W. Tannett. Carr Manor, Meanwood, Seeds.

*WaLKER, G. T., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Red Roof,
Simla, India.

tWalker, George Blake, M.Inst.C.E. Tankersley Grange, near
Barnsley.

§Walker, George W., F.R.S. 63 Lensfield-road, Cambridge.

{Walker, J. F. E. Gelson, B.A. 45 Bootham, York.

*WaLKER, JaMES, M.A. 30 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

*WaLKER, JAMES, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1911), Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. 5 Wester Coates-
road, Edinburgh.

§Walker, Dr. Jamieson. 37 Charnwood-street, Derby.

{Walker, Lewie D. Lieberose, Monteith-road, Cathcart, Glasgow.

t{Walker, Philip F., F.R.G.S. 36 Prince’s-gardens, S.W.

§Walker, Mrs. R. 3 Riviera-terrace, Rushbrooke, Queenstown, Co.
Cork.

*Walker, Robert. Ormidale, Combe Down, Bath.

tWalker, Sydney F. 1 Bloomfield-crescent, Bath.

§Walker, Colonel William Hall, M.P. Gateacre, Liverpool.

{Wall, G. P., F.G.S. 32 Collegiate-crescent, Sheffield.

tWall, Henry. 14 Park-road, Southport.

§Watt, THomas F., D.Se., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. The University,
Birmingham.

{tWallace, R. W. 2 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, E.C.

tWallace, William, M.A., M.D. 25 Newton-place, Glasgow.

*Watter, Avausrus D., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1907.) 32 Grove
End-road, N.W.

§Waller, Mrs. 32 Grove End-road, N.W.

*Waller, J. C., B.A. 32 Grove End-road, N.W.

*Waller, Miss M. D., B.Sc., 32 Grove End-road, N.W.

*Waller, W. W., B.A., 32 Grove End-road, N.W.

*Wallis, Arnold J., M.A., Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.

tWatuis, E. Warn, F.S.8S. Royal Sanitary Institute and Parkes
Museum, 90 Buckingham Palace-road, 8, W.

*Watmistey, A. T., M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-street, Westminster,
S.W.

§Walmsley, R. M., D.Sc. Northampton Institute, Clerkenwell, E.C.

tWalsh, W. T. H. Kent Education Committee, Caxton House,
Westminster, 8.W. ,

yWatsineuaw, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.D., F.R.S. Merton Hall,
Thetford.

88

Year ot

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Election.

1902.
1904.
1887.
1911.
1881.
1905.
1884.
1887.

1913.

1913.
1875.
1905.

1900.
1909.
1884.
1901.

1886.
1909.

1906.
1909.

1892.
1885.

1906.
1913.
1894.

1879.
1901.

1913.
1875.
1873.

1883.

1870.
1911.
1905. °
1907.
1910.
1909.
1908.

1903.
1890.

*Walter, Miss L. Edna. 38 Woodberry-grove, Finsbury Park, N.

*Walters, William, jun. Albert House, Newmarket.

{Warp, Sir A. W., M.A., Litt.D., Master of Peterhouse, Cambridge.

{Ward, A. W. Town Hall, Portsmouth.

§Ward, George, F.C.S. Buckingham-terrace, Headingley, Leeds.

tWarlow, Dr. G. P. 15 Hamilton-square, Birkenhead.

*Warner, James D. 199 Baltic-street, Brooklyn, U.S.A.

{Wareen, General Sir Coartus, R.E., K.C.B., G.C.M.G., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S. (Pres E, 1887.) Athenzum Club, 8.W.

§Warren, William Henry, LL.D., M.Sc., M-Inst.C.E., Challis Pro-
fessor of Engineering in the University of Sydney, New
South Wales, Australia.

§Warton, Lieut.-Colonel R. G. St. Helier’s, Jersey.

*WateERHsouSE, Major-General J. Hurstmead, Eltham, Kent.

{Watermeyer, F. S., Government Land Surveyor. P.O. Box 973,
Pretoria, Roath Africa.

{Waterston, David, M.D., F.R.S.E. King’s College, Strand, W.C.

§Watkinson, Professor W. H. The University, Liverpool.

{Watson, A. G., D.C.L. Uplands, Wadhurst, Sussex.

*Watson, ARNOLD Tuomas, F.L.S. Southwold, Tapton Crescent-
road, Sheffield.

*Watson, C. J. Alton Cottage, Botteville-road, Acock’s Green,
Birmingham.

§Watson, Colonel Sir C. M., K.C.M.G., C.B., R.E., M.A. (Pres.
E, 1912.) 16 Wilton-crescent, 8.W.

tWatson, D. M.S. University College, London, W.C.

{Watson, Ernest Ansley, B.Sc. Alton Cottage, Botteville-road,
Acock’s Green, Birmingham.

{Watson, G., M.inst.C.E. 5 Ruskin-close, Hampstead-way, N.W.

tWatson, Deputy Surgeon-General G. A. Hendre, Overton Park,
Cheltenham.

*Watson, Henry Angus. 3 Museum-street, York.

§Watson, John D., M.Inst.C EK. Tyburn, Birmingham.

*Wartson, Professor W., D.Sc., F.R.S. 7 Upper Cheyne-row,
S.W.

*Watson, Witt1am Henry, F.C.S., F.G.S. Braystones House,
Beckermet, Cumberland.

tWatt, Harry Anderson, M.P. Ardenslate House, Hunter’s Quay,
Argyllshire.

*Watt, James. 28 Charlotte-square, Edinburgh.

*Watts, JOHN, B.A., D.Sc. Merton College, Oxford.

*Watts, W. Marsuatu, D.Sc. Shirley, Venner-road, Sydenham,

E

S.E.

*Warts, W. W., M.A., M.Sc, F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1903 ;
Council, 1902-09), Professor of Geology in the Imperial
College ‘of Science and Technology, London, S.W.

§Watts, William, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Kenmore, Wilmslow, Cheshire.

§Waxweiler, Professor E. Solvay Institute, Brussels.

tWay, W. A., M.A. The College, Graaf Reinet, South Africa.

{Webb, Wilfred Mark, F.L.S. Odstock, Hanwell, W.

tWebster, Professor Arthur G. Worcester, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

{Webster, William, M.D. 1252 Portage-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada,

§Wedderburn, Ernest Maclagan, F.R.S.E. 7 Dean Park-crescent,
Edinburgh.

tWeekes, R. W., A.M.Inst.C.E. 65 Hayes-road, Bromley, Kent.

*Wriss, F. ERNEST, D.Se., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1911), Professor of
Botany i in the Victoria University, Manchester.

LIS! OF MEMBERS : 1913. 89

Year of
Election.

1905.
1902,
1894.
1880.
1908.
1881.
TOE.

1908.

1881.
TOT.

1864.

1886.

1910.
1900.

1903.
1882.
1900.

1909,

1878.
1893.
1888.
1912.
1915.
1912.

1898.
1859.

1884,
1897.
1886.

1908.

1911.
1913.

1904.
1885.
1910.
1912.
1877.
1904.
1913.
1905.

1893.

{Welby, Miss F. A. Hamilton House, Hall-road, N.W.

{Welch, R. J. 49 Lonsdale-street, Belfast.

tWeld, Miss. 119 Iffley-road, Oxford.

*Weldon, Mrs. Merton Lea, Oxford.

tWelland, Rev. C. N. Wood Park, Kingstown, Co. Dublin.

§Wellcome, Henry S. Snow Hill-buildings, B.C.

{WeELLDON, Right Rev. J. E. C., D.D. (Pres. L, 1911.) The Deanery,
Manchester.

{Wellisch, H. M. 17 Park-street, Cambridge.

+Wells, Rev. Edward, M.A. West Dean Rectory, Salisbury.

*WHELSFORD, Miss E. J. Imperial College of Science, 8.W.

Wentworth, Frederick W. T. Vernon. Wentworth Castle, near

Barnsley, Yorkshire.

*Were, Anthony Berwick. The Limes, Walland’s Park, Lewes.

*Wertheimer, Julius, D.Sc., B.A., F.LC., Dean of the Faculty of
Engineering in the University of Bristol.

§West, G. S., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Botany in the University of
Birmingham.

§Wust, Wituam, F.LS. 26 Woodville-terrace, Horton-lane
Bradford.

§Westaway, F. W. 1 Pemberley-crescent, Bedford.

*Westlake, Ernest, F.G.S. Fordingbridge, Salisbury.

tWethey, E. R., M.A., F.R.G.S. 4 Cunliffe-villas, Manningham,
Bradford.

{Wheeler, A. O., F.R.G.S. The Alpine Club of Canada, Sidney,
B.G., Canada.

*Wheeler, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. 4 Hope-park, Bromley, Kent.

*WuetuamM, W. C. D., M.A., F.R.S. Upwater Lodge, Cambridge.

+Whidborne, Miss Alice Maria. Charanté, Torquay.

§Whiddington, R., M.A., D.Sc. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

§Whipp, E. M. 14 St. George’s-road, St. Anne’s-on-Sea.

*Whipple, F. J., M.A. Meteorological Office, South Kensington,
8.V

*WuireeLe, Roserr S. Scientific Instrument Company, Cam-
bridge.

*WHITAKER, WiLL1AM, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1895 ; Council,
1890-96.) 3 Campden-road, Croydon.

{Whitcher, Arthur Henry. Dominion Lands Office, Winnipeg,Canada.

{Whitcombe, George. The Wotton Elms, Wotton, Gloucester.

tWarre, A. oe Clarendon Lodge, St. John’s-gardens, Holland
Park, W. i?

{White, Mrs. A. Silva. Clarendon Lodge, St. John’s-gardens,
Holland Park, W.

{White, Miss E. L., M.A. Day Training College, Portsmouth.

§White, Mrs. E. W. Anelgate, Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

t{White, H. Lawrence, B.A. 33 Rossington-road, Sheffield.

*White, J. Martin. Balruddery, Dundee.

*White, Mrs. Jessie, D.Sc., B.A. 49 Gordon-mansions, W.C.

gWhite, R. G., M.Sc. University College, Bangor, North Wales.

*White; William. 20 Hillersdon-avenue, Church-road, Barnes, S.W.

{Wuirenxad, J. E. L., M.A. (Local Sec. 1904.) Guildhall, Cambridge.

§Whitehouse, Richard H., M.Se. Queen’s University, Belfast.

{Whiteley, Miss M. A., D.Sc. Imperial College of Science and
Technology, 8.W.

§Whiteley, R. Lloyd, F.C.S., F.LC. Municipal Science and Tech-
nical School, West Bromwich.

90

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of

Election.

1907. *Whitley, E. 13 Linton-road, Oxford.

1905. *Whitmee, H. B. P.O. Box 470, Durban, Natal. —

1891. {Whitmell, Charies T., M.A., B.Sc. Invermay, Hyde Park,

1897.

1901.
1905.

1913.
1912.
1889.
1887.

1910.
1905.
1904.
1900.
1886.
1913.

1903.
1904,
1905.
1883.
1861.
1875.

1891.

1883,

1888.

1901.
1891.
1883.
1877.
1906.
1857.

1894,
1910.

1913.
1895.
1895.
1896.
1913.
1899.

1899.

1913.
1911.

Leeds.

tWuirrakyr, E. T., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in
the University of Hdinburgh.

{Whitton, James. City Chambers, Glasgow.

§Wibberley, C., M.V.O. Solheim, Branstone-road, Kew Gardens,
Surrey.

§WIcKsTEED, Rev. Puiu H., M.A. (Pres. F, 1913.) Childrey,
Wantage, Berkshire.

§Wight, Dr. J. Sherman. 30 Schermerhorn-street, Brooklyn,
ULS.A.

*Witeerrorce, L. R., M.A., Professor of Physics in the University
of Liverpool. :

*Witpz, Henry, D.Sc., D.C.L., F.R.S. The Hurst, Alderley Edge,
Cheshire.

§Wilkins, C. F. Lower Division, Eastern Jumna Canal, Delhi.

Wilkins, R. F. Thatched House Club, St. James’s-strect, S.W.

§Wilkinson, Hon. Mrs. Dringhouses Manor, York.

§Wilkinson, J. B. Holme-lane, Dudley Hill, Bradford.

*Wilkinson, J. H. Ashfurlong Hall, Sutton Coldfield.

§Willcox, J. Edward, M.Inst.C.E. 27 Calthorpe-road, Edgbaston,
Birm ngham.

fWillett, John HK. 3 Park-road, Southport.

*Williams, Miss Antonia. 6 Sloane-gardens, S.W.

§Williams, Gardner F. 2201 R-street, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

{Williams, Rev. H. Alban, M.A. Sheering Rectory, Harlow, Essex.

*Williams, Harry Samuel, M.A., F.R.A.S. 6 Heathfield, Swansea.

*Williams, Rev. Herbert Addams. Liangibby Rectory, near New-
port, Monmouthshire.

§Williams, J. A. B., M.Inst.C.E. Bloomfield, Branksome Park,
Bournemouth.

*Williams, Mrs. J. Davies. 5 Chepstow-mansions, Bayswater, W.

*Williams, Miss Katharine T. Llandaff House, Pembroke-vale,
Clifton, Bristol.

*Williams, Miss Mary. 6 Sloane-gardens, S.W.

Williams, Morgan. 5 Park-place, Cardiff.

{Williams, T. H. 27 Water-street, Liverpool.

*Witiiams, W. Carrxton, F.C.8. Broomgrove, Goring-on-Thames.

tWilliams, W. F. Lobb. 32 Lowndes-sireet, S.W.

{Wituamson, Bensamin, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. Trinity College,
Dublin.

*Williamson, Mrs. Janora. 18 Rosebery-gardens, Crouch End, N.

{Williamson, K. B., Central Provinces, India. Care of Messrs.
Grindlay & Co., 54 Parliament-street, S.W.

§Willink, H. G. Hillfields, Burghfield, Mortimer, Berkshire.

{Wituiwe, W. (Local Sec. 1896.) 14 Castle-street, Liverpool.

tWius, Joun C., M.A., F.L.8. Jardin Botanico, Rio de Janeiro.

tWuuison, J. S. (Local Sec. 1897.) Toronto, Canada.

*Wills, L. J., M.A., F.G.8. The University, Birmingham.

§Willson, George. Lendarac, Sedlescombe-road, St. Leonards-on-
Sea

§ Willson, Mrs. George. Lendarav, Sedlescombe-road, St. Leonards-
on-Sea.

§Wilmore, Albert, D.Sc., F.G.8. Fernbank, Colne.

*Wilmott, A. J., B.A. Natural History Museum, S.W.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 91

Year of
Election.

1911.

1911.
1908.
1901.
1878.

1905.
1907.
1903.
1894.

1904.
1912.
1904.
1912.
1900.
1895.
1901.

1902.
1879.
1910.
1913.

1908.

1879.
1901.
1908.

1909.
1847.
1883.
1892.

1861.
1887.
1909,
1910.
1907.

1910.
1886.

1863.
1905.
19153.
1875.

1905.
1863.

§Wilsmore, Professor N. T. M. ‘The University, Perth, Western
Australia.

§Wilsmore, Mrs. ‘The University, Perth, Western Australia.

§Wilson, Miss. Glenfield, Deighton, Huddersfield.

{Wilson, A. Belvoir Park, Newtownbreda, Co. Down.

{Wilson, Professor Alexander S., M.A., B.Sc. United Free Church
Manse, North Queensferry.

{Wilson, A. W. P.O. Box 24, Langlaagte, South Africa.

§Wilson, A. W. Low Slack, Queen’s-road, Kendal.

tWilson, C. T. R., M.A., F.R.S. Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge.

*Wilson, Charles J., F.1L.C., F.C.S. 14 Suffolk-street, Pall Mall,
S.W.

§Wilson, Charles John, F.R.G.S. Deanfield, Hawick, Scotland.

§Wilson, David, M.A., D.Sc. Carbeth, Killearn, N.B.

§Wilson, David, M.D. Glenfield, Deighton, Huddersfield.

*Wilson, David Alec. 1 Broomfield-road, Ayr.

*Wilson, Duncan R. 44 Whitehall-court, 5.W.

{Wilson, Dr. Gregg. Queen’s University, Belfast.

{Wilson, Harold A., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in
the Rice Institute, Houston, Texas.

*Wilson, Harry, F.I.C. 32 Westwood-road, Southampton.

tWilson, Henry J., M.P. Osgathorpe Hills, Sheffield.

*Wilson, J. 8. 29 Denbigh-street, 8.W.

§Wilson, Professor J. T., F.R.S. University of Sydney, Sydney,
N.S. W.

§Wilson, Professor James, M.A., B.Sc. 40 St. Kevin’s-park, Dartry-
road, Dublin.

tWilson, John Wycliffe. Easthill, East Bank-road, Sheffield.

*Wilson, Joseph. Hillside, Avon-road, Walthamstow, N.E.

*Wilson, Malcolm, D.Sc., F.L.S., Lecturer in Mycology and Bac-
teriology in the University of Edinburgh. Royal Botanic
Gardens, Edinburgh.

§Wilson, R. A. Hinton, Londonderry.

*Wilson, Rev. Sumner. Preston Candover Vicarage, Basingstoke.

tWilson, T. Rivers Lodge, Harpenden, Hertfordshire.

{Wilson, T. Stacey, M.D. 27 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham,

{Wilson, Thomas Bright. Ghyllside, Wells-road, Ilkley, Yorkshire.

§Wilson, W. Battlehillock, Kildrummy, Mossat,*Aberdeenshire.

{Wilson, W. Murray. 29 South Drive, Harrogate.

§Wilton, T. R., M.A., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 18 Westminster-chambers,
Crosshall-street, Liverpool.

§Wimperis, H. E., M.A. 16 Reynolds-close, Hampstead-way,
N.W

{Winder, B. W. Ceylon House, Sheffield.

{WinbLz, Sir Bertram C. A., M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., President
of University College, Cork.

*Winwoop, Rev. H. H., M.A., F.G.S. (Local Sec. 1864.) 11 Caven-
dish-crescent, Bath.

§Wiseman, J. G., F.R.C.S., F.R.G.S. Stranraer, St. Peter’s-road,
St. Margaret’s-on-Thames.

§Wohlgmuth, Dr. A. 44 Church-crescent, Muswell Hill, N.

tWotrs-Barry, Sir Jonny, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G,
1898; Council, 1899-1903, 1909-10.) Delahay House,
15 Chelsea Embankment, S.W.

tWood, A., jun. Emmanuel College, Cambridge.

*Wood, Collingwood L. Freeland, Forgandenny, N.B.

92

Year of
Election

1875.
1878,

1908.
1883.
1912.
1904.

1899.
1901.
1899.

186.

1911.
1912.
1906.

1904.
1904.

1887.

1869.
1912.

1886.
1866.

1870.
1894,

1909.
1908.
1890.

1883.
1912.
1908.
1863.
1901.
1904.
1908.

1906.
1910.
1906.
1883.
1909.
1905,
1874.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

*Wood, George William Rayner. Singleton Lodge, Manchester.

{Woop, Sir H. Truman, M.A. Royal Society of Arts, John-
street, Adelphi, W.C.; and Prince Edward’s-mansions,
Bayswater, W.

{Wood, Sir Henry J. 4 Elsworthy-road, N.W.

*Wood, J. H. 21 Westbourne-road, Birkdale, Lancashire.

§Wood, John K. 304 Blackness-road, Dundee.

*Woop, T. B., M.A. (Pres. M, 1913), Professor of Agriculture in
the University of Cambridge. Caius College, Cambridge.

*Wood, W. Hoffman. Ben Rhydding, Yorkshire.

*Wood, William James, F.S.A.(Scot.). 266 George-street, Glasgow.

*Woodcock, Mrs. A. Care of Messrs. Stilwell & Harley, 4 St.
James’-street, Dover.

*WoopHEAD, Professor G. Srms, M.D. Pathological Laboratory,
Cambridge.

§Woodhead, T. W., Ph.D., F.L.8. Technical College, Huddersfield.

*Wood-Jones, F., D.Sc. New Selma, Epsom, Surrey.

*Woodland, Dr. W. N. F. Zoological Department, The Muir
Central College, Allahabad, United Provinces, India.

§Woodrow, John. Berryknowe, Meikleriggs, Paisley.

{Woods, Henry, M.A. Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge.

Woops, SamMuzEL. 1 Drapers’-gardens, Throgmorton-street, E.C.

*WooDWARD, ArtTHuR Smite, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C,
1909; Council, 1903-10), Keeper of the Department of
Geology, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-
road, 8S.W.

*Woopwapzp, C. J., B.Sc., F.G.S. The Lindens, St. Mary’s-road,
Harborne, Birmingham.

§Woodward, Mrs. C. J. The Lindens, St. Mary’s-road, Harborne,
Birmingham.

{Woodward, Harry Page, F.G.S. 129 Beaufort-street, 8. W.

tWoopwarp, Henry, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1887;
Council, 1887-94.) 13 Arundel-gardens, Notting Hill, W.

{Woopwarp, Horace B., F.RS., F.G.8. 85 Coombe-road,
Croydon.

*Woodward, John Harold. 8 Queen Anne’s-gate, Westminster

S.W.

*Woodward, Robert 8. Carnegie Institution, Washington, U.S.A.

§Wootacort, Davin, D.Sc., F.G.S. 8 The Oaks West, Sunderland.

*Woollcombe, Robert Lloyd, M.A., LL.D., F.I.Inst., F.R.C.Inst.,
FE.R.G.S., F.R.E.S., F.S.S., M.R.1.A. 14 Waterloo-road,
Dublin.

*Woolley, George Stephen. Victoria Bridge, Manchester.

*Wordie, James M., B.A. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

{Worsdell, W. C. 2 Woodside, Bathjord, Bath.

*Worsley, Philip J. Rodney Lodge, Clifton, Bristol.

+Worth, J. T. Oakenrod Mount, Rochdale.

{Worruineton, A. M., C.B., F.R.S. 5 Louisa-terrace, Exmouth.

*Worthington, James H., M.A., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. The Observa-
tory, Four-Marks, Alton.

tWracasz, R. H. Vernon. York.

{Wrench, E. G. Park Lodge, Baslow, Derbyshire.

{Wright, Sir A. E., M.D., D.Se., F.R.S. 6 Park-crescent, W.

*Wright, Rev. Arthur, D.D. Queens’ College, Cambridge.

{Wright, C.8., B.A, Caius College, Cambridge.

*Wright, FitzHerbert. The Hayes, Alfreton.

tWright, Joseph, 7.G.S. 4 Alfred-street, Belfast.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1913. 95

Year of
Election.

1884.

1904.
1911.
1903.
1871.

1902.
1901.
1902.
1911.
1899.

1901.

tWricur, Professor R. Ramsay, M.A., B.Sc. Red Gables, Head-
ington Hill, Oxford.

tWright, R. T. Goldieslie, Trumpington, Cambridge.

tWright, W. B., B.A., F.G.S. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.

tWright, William. The University, Birmingham.

tWricutson, Sir Tuomas, Bart., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Neasham
Hall, Darlington.

{Wyatt, G. H. 1 Maurice-road, St. Andrew’s Park, Bristol.

tWylie, Alexander. Kirkfield, Johnstone, N.B.

tWylie, John. 2 Mafeking-villas, Whitehead, Belfast.

tWyllie, W. L., R.A. Tower House, Tower-street, Portsmouth.

tWynne, W. P., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1913), Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Sheffield. 17 Taptonville-
road, Sheffield.

*Yapp, R. H., M.A., Professor of Botany in University College,
Aberystwyth.

. *Yarborough, George Cook. Camp’s Mount, Doncaster.

1894,
1913.

1905.
1909.
1904,
1891.
1905.

1909.
1913.
1894.

1909.
1901.
1885.
1909.
1901.
1883.

1887.
1911.
1907.

1903.

*Yarrow, A. F. Campsie Dene, Blanefield, Stirlingshire.

*Yates, H. James, I.C.S., M.I.Mech.E. Redcroft, Four Oaks,
Warwickshire.

{Yerbury, Colonel. Army and Navy Club, Pall Mall, S.W.

§Young, Professor A. H. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada.

tYoung, Alfred. Selwyn College, Cambridge.

§Youna, Atrrep C., 1.0.8. 17 Vicar’s-hill, Lewisham, S.E.

tYoung, Professor Andrew, M.A., B.Sc. South African College,
Cape Town.

tYoung, F. A. 615 Notre Dame-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Young, Francis Chisholm. La Nonette de la Forét, Geneva.

*Younc, Grorcn, Ph.D. 46 Church-crescent, Church End,
Finchley, N.

§Young, Herbert, M.A., B.C.L., F.R.G.S. Arnprior, Ealing, W.

*Young, John. 2 Montague-terrace, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

{tYoune, R. Bruor, M.A., M.B. 8 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill,

Glasgow.
fYoung, R. G. University of North Dakota, North Chautauqua,
North Dakota, U.S.A.

{Young, Robert M., B.A. Rathvarna, Belfast.

*Youne, Sypney, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1904), Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Dublin. 12 Raglan-road,
Dublin.

tYoung, Sydney. 29 Mark-lane, E.C.

§Young, T. J. College of Agriculture, Holmes Chapel, Cheshire.

*Youna, Witit1am Henry, M.A., Sc.D., Hon. Dr. és Se.Math.,
F.R.S., Professor of the Philosophy and History of Mathe-
matics in the University of Liverpool. La Nonette de la
Forét, Geneva, Switzerland.

}Yoxall, Sir J. H., M.P. 67 Russell-square, W.C.

94.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1887,
1892.

1913.
1913.
1897.
1887.

1913.
1890.
1893.

1894.

1897,
1887.
19153.

1894.
1901.
1894.
1913.
1387.

1913.
1873.
1889.

1872.
1901.
1913.
1876.
1894,
1592.
1901.
1913.
1913.
1901.
1874.
1913.

1886.
1894,

Professor Cleveland Abbe. Local Office, U.S.A. Weather Bureau,
Washington, U.S.A.

Professor Svante Arrhenius. The University, Stockholm, (Bergs-
gatan 18.)

Dr. O. Backlund. Pulkowa, Russia.

Professor C. Barrois. Université, Lille, France.

Professor Carl Barus. Brown University, Providence, R.I., U.S.A.

Hofrath Professor A. Bernthsen, Ph.D. Anilenfrabrik, Ludwigshafen,

Germany.

Professor K. Birkeland. Universitet, Christiania.

Professor Dr. L. Brentano. Friedrichstrasse 11, Miinchen.

Professor Dr. W. C. Brégger. Universitets Mineralogske Institute,
Christiania, Norway.

Professor D. H. Campbell. Stanford University, Palo Alto, Cali-
fornia, U.S.A.

M. C. de Candolle. 3 Cour de St. Pierre, Geneva, Switzerland.

Professor G. Capellini. 65 Via Zamboni, Bologna, Italy.

Professor H. 8. Carhart. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, U.S.A.

Emile Cartailhac. 5 rue de la Chaine, Toulouse, France.

Professor T. C. Chamberlin. Chicago, U.S.A.

Dr. A. Chauveau. 7 rue Cuvier, Paris.

Professor R. Chodat. Université, Geneva.

F. W. Clarke. Care of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
DiC owe

Professor H. Conwentz. Elssholzst. 13, Berlin W. 57.

Professor Guido Cora. Via Nazionale 181, Rome.

W. H. Dail, Sc.D. United States Geological Survey, Washington,
D.C., U.S.A.

Dr. Yves Delage. Faculté des Sciences, La Sorbonne, Paris.

Professor G. Dewalque. 17 rue de la Paix, Liége, Belgium.

Professor Carl Diener. Universitit, Vienna.

Professor Alberto Eccher. Florence.

Professor Dr. W. Einthoven. Leiden, Nethenlands.

Professor F. Elfving. Helsingfors, Finland.

Professor J. Elster. Wolfenbiittel, Germany.

Professor A. Engler. Universitat, Berlin. :

Professor Guilio Fano. Istituto di Fisiologia, Florence.

Professor W. G. Fariow. Harvard, U.S.A.

Dr. W. Feddersen. Carolinenstrasse 9, Leipzig.

Professor Chas. Féry. Ecole Municipale de Physique et de Chimie
Industrielles, 42 rue Lhomond, Paris.

Dr. Otto Finsch. Altewiekring, No. 19b, Braunschweig, Germany.

Professor Wilhelm Foerster, D.C.L. Encke Platz 34, Berlin, S.W. 48.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS: 1913. 95

Year of
Election.

1872.
1901.
1s94.
1913.
1887.
1892.
1881.
1901.
1889.
1913.
1889,
1884.

1913.
1892.

1913.
1876.
1881.
1913.
1913.
1893.
1894,
1893.

1897.
1913.
1913.
1881.

1887.
1884.

1876,
1881.

1887.
1876.
1913.
1913.
1913.

1884.
1873.
1894,
1894.
1913.
- 1913.
1894,
1877.

1913.
1887.

1872.
1901.

W. de Fonvielle. 50 rue des Abbesses, Paris.

Professor A. P. N. Franchimont. Leiden, Netherlands,

Professor Léon Fredericq. 20 rue do Pitteurs, Lidge, Belgium.

Professor M. von Frey. Universitit, Wiirzburg.

Professor Dr. Anton Fritsch. 66 Wenzelsplatz, Prague, Bohemia.

Professor Dr. Gustay Fritsch. Berlinerstrasse 30, Berlin.

Professor C. M. Gariel. 6 rue Edouard Détaille, Paris.

Professor Dr. H. Geitel. Wolfenbiittel, Germany.

Professor Gustave Gilson. |’Université, Louvain, Belgium.

Professor E. Gley. 14 rue Monsieur le Prince, Paris.

A. Gobert. 222 Chaussée de Charleroi, Brussels.

General A. W. Greely, LL.D. War Department, Washington,
U.S.A.

Professor P. H. von Groth. Universitat, Munich.

Dr. C. E. Guillaume. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures,
Pavillon de Breteuil, Sevres.

Yves Guyot. 95 rue de Seine, Paris.

Professor Ernst Haecke!. Jena.

Dr. Edwin H. Hall. 30 Langdon-street, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.

Professor A. Haller. 10 rue Vauquelin, Paris.

Professor H. J. Hamburger. Physiological Institute, Groningen.

Professor Pau! Heger. 23 rue de Drapiers, Brussels. ;

Professor Ludimar Hermann. Universitat, Kénigsberg, Prussia.

Professor Richard Hertwig. Zoologisches Institut, Alte Akademie,
Munich.

Dr. G. W. Hill. West Nyack, New York, U.S.A.

Dr. P. P.C. Hoek, Universiteit, Haarlem.

Professor A. I’. Holleman. Universiteit, Amsterdam.

Professor A. A. W. Hubrecht, LL.D., D.Sc., C.M.Z.S. The
University, Utrecht, Netherlands.

Dr. Oliver W. Huntington. Cloyne House, Newport, R.I., U.S.A.

Professor C. Loring Jackson. 6 Boylston Hall, Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts, U.S.A.

Dr. W. J. Janssen. Soldino, Lugano, Switzerland.

W. Woolsey Johnson, Professor of Mathematics in the United States,
Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, U.S.A.

Professor C. Julin. 159 rue de Fragnée, Lidge.

Dr. Giuseppe Jung. Bastions Vittoria 41, Milan.

Professor Hector Jungersen. Universitet, Copenhagen.

Professor J. C. Kapteyn. Universiteit, Groningen.

Professor A. E. Kennelly. Harvard Universit y, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, U.S.A.

Baron Dairoku Kikuchi, M.A. Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan.

Professor Dr. Felix Klein. Wilhelm-Weberstrasse 3, Gottingen.

Professor Dr. L. Kny. Kaiser-Allee 186-7, Wilmersdorf, bei Berlin.

Professor J. Kollmann. St. Johann 88, Basel, Switzerland.

Professor D. J. Korteweg. Universiteit, Amsterdam.

Professor A. Kossel. Physiologisches Institut, Heidelberg.

Maxime Kovalevsky. 13 Avenue de l Observatoire, Paris, France.

Dr. Hugo Kronecker, Professor of Physiology. Universitit, Born,
Switzerland,

Ch. Lallemand, Directeur-Général des Mines. 58 Boulevard
Emile-Augier, Paris.

Professor J. W. Langley. 2037 Geddes-avenue, Ann Arbor, Michi-
gan, U.S.A.

M. Georges Lemoine. 76 rue Notre Dame des Champs, Paris.

Professor Philipp Lenard. Schlossstrasse 7, Heidelberg.

96

Year of
Election

1887.
1883.
1887.
1913.
1894.
1887.

1913.
1887.
1884.
1887.
1894.
1897.
1913.
1897.

1887.
1913.
1889.
1894.
1913.
1887.
1894.
1890.
1890.
1895.
1887.
1901.
1890.
1894.
1886.

1887.
1868.

1913.
1895.

1915.
1897.
1896.
1892.
1913.
1913.
1895.

1901.

1913.
1874.
1897.
1887.
1887.
1888.

1881.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Professor A. Lieben. Molkerbastei 5, Vienna.

Dr. F. Lindemann, Franz-Josefstrasse 12/I, Munich.

Professor Dr. Georg Lunge. Rdamistrasse 56, Zurich, V.

Professor F. von Luschan. Universitat, Berlin.

Professor Dr. Otto Maas. Universitat, Munich.

Henry C. McCook, D.D., Sc.D., LL.D. 3700 Chestnut-street,
Philadelphia, U.S.A.

Professor E. Mahaim. Université de Liége, Belgium.

Dr. C. A. von Martius. Voss-strasse 8, Berlin, W.

Professor Albert A. Michelson. The University, Chicago, U.S.A.

Dr. Charles Sedgwick Minot. Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

Professor G. Mittag-Leffler. Djursholm, Stockholm.

Professor Oskar Montelius. St. Paulsgatan 11, Stockholm, Sweden.

Professor E. H. Moore. University of Chicago, U.S.A.

Professor E. W. Morley, LL.D. West Hartford, Connecticut,
U.S.A.

E. 8. Morse. Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass., U.S.A.

Professor F, R. Moulton. University of Chicago, U.S.A.

Dr. F. Nansen. Lysaker, Norway.

Professor R. Nasini. Istituto Chimico, Via 8. Maria, Pisa, Italy.

Professor E. Naville. Université, Geneva.

Professor Emilio Noelting. Mihlhausen, Elsass, Germany.

Professor H. F. Osborn. Columbia College, New York, U.S.A.

Professor W. Ostwald. Linnéstrasse 2, Leipzig.

Maffeo Pantaleoni. 13 Cola di Rienzo, Rome.

Professor F. Paschen. Universitat, Tiibingen.

Dr. Pauli. Feldbergstrasse 49, Frankfurt a/Main, Germany.

Hofrath Professor A. Penck. Georgenstrasse 34-36, Berlin, N.W. 7.

Professor Otto Pettersson. Stockholms Hogskola, Stockholm.

Professor W. Pfeffer, D.C.L. Linnéstrasse 11, Leipzig.

Professor F. W. Putnam. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, U.S.A.

Professor Georg Quincke. Bergstrasse 41, Heidelberg.

L. Radlkofer, Professor of Botany in the University of Munich.
Sonnenstrasse 7.

Professor Reinke. Universitat, Kiel.

Professor Ira Remsen. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore,
U.S.A.

Dr. Hans Reusch. Universitet, Christiania.

Professor Dr. C. Richet. 15 rue de |’ Université, Paris, France.

Dr. van Rijckevorsel. Parklaan 3, Rotterdam, Netherlands.

Professor Rosenthal, M.D. Erlangen, Bavaria.

Professor A. Rothpletz. Universitat, Munich.

Professor H. Rubens. Universitit, Berlin.

Professor Carl Runge. Wilhelm Weberstrasse 21, Géttingen,
Germany.

Gen.-Major Rykatchew. Perspective Sredny 34, Wass. Ostr.,
St. Petersburg.

Dr. C. Schoute. De Biet, Holland.

Dr. G. Schweinfurth. Kaiser Friedrichstrasse 8, Berlin.

Professor W. B. Scott. Princeton, N.J., U.S.A.

Professor H. Graf Solms. Botanischer Garten, Strassburg.

Ernest Solvay. 25 rue du Prince Albert, Brussels.

Dr. Alfred Springer. 312 East 2nd-street, Cincinnati, Ohio,
U.S.A.

Dr. Cyparissos Stephanos. ‘The University, Athens.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS: 1913. 97

Year of
Election.

1887. Professor John Trowbridge. Harvard University, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, U.S.A.

1889. Wladimir Vernadsky. Imperial Academy of Sciences, St. Peters-
burg.

1913. Professor M. Verworn. Universitit, Bonn.

1886. Professor Jules Vuylsteke. 21 rue Belliard, Brussels, Belgium.

1887. Professor Dr. Leonhard Weber. Moltkestrasse 60, Kiel.

1913. Professor Max Weber. Universiteit, Amsterdam.

1887. Professor August Weismann. Freiburg-im-Breisgau, Baden.

1887. Dr. H. C. White. Athens, Georgia, U.S.A.

1881. Professor H. M. Whitney. Branford, Conn., U.S.A.

1887. Professor E. Wiedemann. Erlangen.

1887. Professor Dr. R. Wiedersheim. Hansastrasse 3, Freiburg-im-
Breisgau, Baden. .

1887. Dr. Otto N. Witt. Ebereschen-Allée 10, Westend bei Berlin.

1913. eee R. W. Wood. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore,
U.S.A.

1896. Professor E. Zacharias. Botanischer Garten, Hamburg.

1913. Professor P. Zeeman. Universiteit, Amsterdam.

98 BRITISH

ASSOCIATION.

LIST OF SOCIETIES AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS

TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

Belfast, Queen’s University.
Birmingham, Midland Institute.
Bradford Philosophical Society.
Brighton Public Library.

Bristol Naturalists’ Society.

——. The Museum.

Cambridge Philosophical Society.
Cardiff, University College.
Chatham, Roya! Engineers’ Institute.
Cornwall, Royal Geological Society

of.
Dublin, Geological Survey of Ireland.
——, Royal College of Surgeons in
Treland.
——, Royal Irish Academy.
——, Royal Society.
——., National Library of Ireland.
Dundee, University College.
Edinburgh. Royal Society of.
——, Royal Medical Society of.
——, Scottish Society of Arts.
Exeter, Royal Albert Memorial
College Museum.

_ London, IntelligenceOffice, Central De-

Glasgow, Royal Philosophical Society ©
of.

——, Institution of Engineers and
Shipbuilders in Scotland.
Leeds, Institute of Science.

_ Newcastle-upon-Tyne,

——, Philosophical and Literary

Society of.
Liverpool, Free Public Library.
——, Royal Institution.
——, The University.
London, Admiralty, Library of the.
, Board of Agriculture and
Fisheries.
——, Chemical Society.
—_—-; Civil Engineers, Institution of.
——, Geological Society.
——, Geology, Museum of Practical.
——, Greenwich Royal Observatory.
——, Guildhall Library.

partment of Political Information,

, King’s College.

——, Linnean Society.

——, London Institution.

——, Meteorological Office.

——, Physical Society.

——., RoyalAnthropological Institute,

——, Royal Asiatic Society.

——, Royal Astronomical Society.

——, Royal College of Physicians.

——, Royal College of Surgeons.

——, Royal Geographical Society.

——, Royal Institution.

——, Royal Meteorological Society.

——, Royal Sanitary Institute.

——, Royal Society.

——; Royal Society of Arts.

——, Royal Statistical Society.

——, United Service Institution.

——, University College.

——, War Office, Library.

——, Zoological Society.

Manchester Literary and Philosophi-
cal Society.

——, Municipal School of Technology.

Literary and
Philosophical Scciety.

——, Public Library.

Norwich, The Free Library.

| Nottingham, The Free Library.

——, Institution of Electrical
Engineers. |

——, Institution of Mechanical
Engineers.

Oxford, Ashmolean Natural History
Society.

——, Radcliffe Observatory..

Plymouth Institution.

——, Marine Biological Association.

Salford, Royal Museum and Library.

Sheffield. University College.

Southampton, Hartley Institution.

Stonyhurst College’ Observatory.

Surrey, Royal Gardens, Kew.

, Kew Observatory, Richmond.

Swansea, Royal Institution of South
Wales.

Yorkshire Philosophical Society.

| The Corresponding Societies.

SOCIETIES, ETC., RECEIVING REPORT: 1913 99
EUROPE.

Berlin ...<... Die Kaiserliche Aka- | Munich....... University Library.
demie der Wissen- | Naples....... Royal Academy of
schaften. | Sciences.

Bonn )..c..<:.. University Library, | —— ....... Zoological Station.

Brussels ..Royal Academy of Paris......... Association Frangaise
Sciences. . pour l Avancement

Charkow .. University Library. des Sciences.

Coimbra ..... Meteorological Ob- —— ........ Geographical Society.
servatory. eg eee Geological Society.

Copenhagen...Royal Society of —— ........ Royal Academy of
Sciences. Sciences.

Dorpat, Russia University Library, © —— ......., School of Mines.

Dresden ....Royal Public Library. Pultova...... Imperial Observatory,

Frankfort ...Natural History So- | Rome ....... Accademia dei Lincei.
ciety. fh miata coi ets telus Collegio Romano.

Geneva....... Natural History So- —— ........ Italian Geographical
ciety. | Society.

Gottingen ....University Library, = —— ........ Italian Society of

Oo Sa Naturwissenschaft - | Sciences.
licher Verein. | Roumania ..Roumanian Association

US a Leopoldinisch - Caro - | for the Advance-
linische Akademie. | ment of Science.

Harlem ...... Société Hollandaise St. Petersburg. University Library.
des Sciences. —— see eee Imperial Observatory.

Heidelberg... . University Library. SPAR creieveicre sis Asociasion para el

Helsingfors ...University Library. Progreso de las

SUCTiBae ie chere » 6si0 University Library. | Ciencias.

Kazan, Russia University Library. Stockholm ...Royal Academy.

US a Royal Observatory. | Turin........ Royal Academy of

US Ghee University Library. | Sciences.

Lausanne ....The University. (| Wpsala-. sims. Royal Society of

Leiden ....... University Library. | Science.

Ji) University Library. Utrecht ...... University Library.

Lisbon ....... Academia Real des | Vienna ...... The Imperial Library.
Sciences. OP esate cto Central Anstalt fur

Milan ........ The Institute. Meteorologie und

Modena ...... Royal Academy. Erdmagnetismus.

Moscow ...... Society of Naturalists | Zurich........ Naturforschende Ge-

==> aasae University Library. sellschaft.

ASIA.

0 Oe The College. Calcutta ..... Medical College.

Bombay ..... Elphinstone Institu-' —— ....... Presidency College.
tion. Weylonetiirs.clerx)s The Museum, Co-

———1 ooCanae Grant Medical Col- | lombo.
lege. | Madras .<.... The Observatory.

Calcutta ..... Asiatic Society. CO University Library.

————) Sr Hooghly College. POKYO! 3... « Imperial University.

AFRICA
Cape Town ....The Royal Observatory.’

Ce a ee ay

South African Association for the

Advancement of Science.

South African Public Library.

Grahamstown .. Rhodes University College.

Kimberley

....Public Library.

100

BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

AMERICA. :
Albany ...... The Institute. New York ...American Society of
Ambherst...... The Observatory. Civil Engineers.
Baltimore ....Johns Hopkins Uni- |—— _ ...,...Academy of Sciences.
versity. Ottawa....... Geological Survey of
Boston’ itera American Academy of Canada.
Arts and Sciences. | Philadelphia ..American Philosophi-
ch ece cece Boston Society of cal Society.
Natural History. —— see eee Franklin Institute.
California..... The University. a eee oo University of Penn-
—— ss seveee Lick Observatory. sylvania. .
aan ..Academy of Sciences. Toronto ..... The Observatory. :
Cambridge . ...Harvard University _—— ....... The Canadian Tape 5
Library. tute. BP
Chicago ...... American Medical [ema pins ate The Universit; Pe
Association. Uruguay...... General Statistical
——=_ tenes -Field Museum of BureauandLibrary,
Natural History. Montevideo. th
Kingston ..... Queen’s University. Washington... Board of Agriculture. Tae
Manitoba ....Historical and Scien- |/—— ....... Bureau of Ethnology. pet
tific Society. —— ss neeeeee Bureau of Standards,
piacere eae The University. DepartmentofCom-
Massachusetts -Marine Biological merce and Labour. —
Laboratory, Woods | —— ..Coast and Geodetic
Holl. Survey.
Mexico ...... Sociedad Cientifica |_—— ....... Library YF Congress.
* Antonio Alzate.’ —— keene Naval Observatory. |
Missouri ..... Botanical Garden. ~—— kaa Smithsonian Institu-
Montreal ..... Council of Arts and tion,
Manufactures. —— keene United States Geolo-—
Montreal ..... McGill University. gical Survey of the ;
Territories. *
AUSTRALIA.
Adolaide ~. scans acts Public Library of South Anubeka: }
wid shavers ater Royal Geographical Society.
Brisbane .......... Queensland Museum.
mmr sh liwla gece Bb ere Queensland Public Library.
Melbourne ........ Public Library. x
Sydneysc canter seme Public Works Department. AES
eo See Se Australian Museum. <A od
ed ew Phas te STS Library, Department of Mines. RR
Tasmania .........- Royal Society. my
WiGGOri i: ia sot) teas The Colonial Government. Br
NEW ZEALAND 9
Canterbury ........ The Museum.
Wellington ........ New Zealand Institute

(Dominion Museum),

46 JUN.1914

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