we Py oy BRITISH ASSOCIATION ; FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE REPORT OF THE NINETIETH MEETING HULL—1922 SEPTEMBER 6-13 he LONDON JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET OFFICE OF THE ASSOCIATION BURLINGTON HOUSE, LONDON, W.1 1923 il CONTENTS. PAGE RETOMRS SAND) COUNCIL, 1922-23 vv. oc, osc whe bie sielay! oa chsrp.eyalerelevesendte Gye os v MOGATOOMBIGERSs, Eni 1922 Smee Steely, 20, Ives ae. vii SECTIONS AND SECTIONAL OFFICERS, HuLL, 1922 ................ viii ANNUAL MEETINGS : PLACES AND DATES, PRESIDENTS, ATTENDANCES, RECEIPTS, SUMS PAID ON ACCOUNT OF GRANTS FOR SCIENTIFIC EGRPOSHSA(LSOL—1922)\ . cuca se, vageeee eres cee cers © euch bit els x REPORT OF THE COUNCIL TO THE GENERAL COMMITTEE (1921-22) .. xiv British ASSOCIATION EXHIBITIONS .........0..e cece sense eececees xix GHYERAL MEmrinegs Am HOLIy ois aie ei seracis,) vere visio elatel blalele od 028 otek’ xx IBHEIIC MUMCTURES AT. HULL oes os opacities aa RKGEEAOLMUANSE ob xx WeEEDREN S HCTURES AT HULU. fe... cae cc tes cee et ce cccs seulch XX GENERAL TREASURER’S AccouNT (1921-22) ...........0...0.......0. Xxi RESEARCH COMMITTEES (1922-23) 2... ccc ec cece cece eee ences xXxvi SPRAIN ws % 053 sranp yore eacsd dpe Oa sce Bates b AK) LOT A OMIA ROY Xxxi RESOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS (HULL MEETING) .......... XXX THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS : Some Aspects of Animal Mechanism. By Sir CHarLes SHERRING- BIGIN Gg Gs Ess Big ELES: iSsi-0:e, oa hie aGtee Geren sis au ate oc Hae ] SECTIONAL PRESIDENTS’ ADDRESSES : A.—The Theory of Numbers. By Prof. G. H. Harpy, F.R.S..... 16 B.—The Organisation of Research, and Problems in the Carbo- hydrates. By Principal J. C. Invinz, C.B.E., F.R.S. .... 25 C.—The Physiography of the Coal Swamps. By Prof. P. F. ] SO oy IR ioe a Ps Ce a Clot kash vaca 49 D.—The Progression of Lifein the Sea. By Dr. E.J. AttEn, F.R.S. 79 E.—Human Geography: First Principles and Some Applications. By Dr. Marion I. NEWBIGIN ...........cceecceeecccees 94 F.—Equal Pay to Men and Women for Equal Work. By Prof. PPV ERE DGEWORTE. ... . . > 0’ taeele ues, | eat tees cre < 106 G.—Railway Problems of Australia. By Prof. T. Hupson Brarr 133 AQ lv CONTENTS. PAGE H.—The Study of Man. By H. J. E. Peake ................ 150 I. —The Efficiency of Man and the Factors which Influence it. By Prot-vH. “Bs CATHCART: HRS. peeemrero sts «corte. oo cece 164 J. —The Influence of the late W. H. R. Rivers on the Development of Psychology in Great Britain. By Dr. C.S. Myvzrs, F.R.S. 179 K.—The Transport of Organic Substances in Plants. By Prof. 13 Pal sb lDsp-Coyniy Uplate nal. BESS eer CAE ea apinerc wos iic < 193 L.—Educational and School Science. By Sir R. GREGorRY ...... 204 M.—The Proper Position of the Landowner in relation to the Agricultural Industry. By Rt. Hon. Lorp BLEpIsiosz, IS Baie Vita shoieiitward aa v 05 ae atta De oR ee ee 219 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, &C. ww ee ee cee eee eee 253 TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS) ..ccscccccce cess ccccctcccceceus 351 REFERENCES TO PUBLICATION OF COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS... 408 SECTIONAL COMMUNICATIONS in extenso : Prof. P. WzIss’ Remarks in Discussion on the Origin of Magnetism 411 Discussion on the Nitrogen Industry ......................000. 415 Imperial Citizenship. By Rt. Hon. Lorp Meston ............ 423 CoRRESPONDING SOCIETIES COMMITTEE’S REPORT .............-.--- 432 CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES .......... 433 List or Papers, 1921, on Zoontoagy, Borany, AND PREHISTORIC ARCHZOLOGY OF THE BritisH Isues, by T. SHEPPARD .......... 436 ENDS |< TESS, SAE VER OE ERR LES ee ee ee 501 Mritish Association for the Adbancement of Screncee, OFFICERS & COUNCIL, 1922-23. PATRON. HIS MAJESTY THE KING. PRESIDENT. Professor Sir C. 8. SHerrincton, G.B.E., M.D., Sc.D., LL.D., Pres.R.S. PRESIDENT ELECT. Professor Sir Ernest Ruruerrorp, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. VICE-PRESIDENTS FOR THE HULL MEETING. The Right Hon. the Lorp Mayor or | Col. W. G. R. Cuicnester-CoNnsTabLe, Hott (Councillor G. F. Wokes, J.P.). Die des The Right Hon. Logp NunBURNHOLME, | JAMES Downs, O.B.E., J.P. C.B., D.S.O., Lord-Lieutenant of the | Major A. J. ATKINSON, O.B.E., J.P. East Riding of Yorkshire. | Alderman F. Askew, J.P. The Right Hon. T. R. Frrens, P.C., | C. H. Gors, M.A., Headmaster of High Steward. Hymers College. The Worshipful the SHerirr (Coun- | J. E. Forty, M.A., Headmaster of cillor T. McLeod). Hull Grammar School. Sir James Recxirr, Bart., D.L. Dr. E. Turron. The Right Rev. Francis GURDON, Bishop of Hull. VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT FOR THE LIVERPOOL MEETING. The Rt. Hon. the Lorp Mayor or ; J. G. Anpamt, C.B.E., M.D., Sc.D., Liverroot (FRanK C. Witsoy). | HEED? ERS, The Rt. Hon. the Eart or Dersy. | Hucu RATHBONE. KeG., GC. V.0:, P.C. Sir Witt1AmM Herpman, C.B.E., D.Sc., The Rt. Hon. the Eart or SeErFrTon, LL.D., F.R.S. D.L THomAs Romer. The Rt. Rev. the Lorp Brisuor or | The Rt. Hon. the Marevutis or Satis- LIVERPOOL. Bury, K.G., G.C.V.O. The Rt. Hon. Lord Leveruvutme, | The Rt. Hon. the Eart or Laruom. LL.D. vi OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, GENERAL TREASURER. E. H. Grirrirus, Se.D., D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S. GENERAL SECRETARIES. Professor J. L. Myres, O0.B.E., M.A., | F. E. Surrn, O.B.E., F.R.S. D.Sc., AY SECRETARY. O. J. R. Howartu, O.B.E., M.A., Burlington House, London, W. 1. LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT LIVERPOOL. CHARLES Booru. LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT LIVERPOOL. AtrreD Hott, D.Sc. | Epwin TxHompson. ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. Dr. E. F. Armstronec, F.R.S. Sir J. Scorr Kenrie. Dr. F. W. Astron, F.B.S. Professor A. W. KirKALDy. J. Barcrort, F.R.S. Dr. P. Cuatmers Mitcuety, C.B.E., Rt. Hon. Loro Buiepistor, K.B.E. F.R.S. E. N. Facpaize. Dr. C. S. Myers, F.R.S8. Professor H. J. FLEuRE. Sir J. E. Peravet, K.B.E., F.R.S. Professor A. Fowxer, F.R.S. Sir W. J. Pops, F.R.S. Sir R. A. Grecory. Professor A. W. Porter, F.R.S. Sir Dantet Hatt, K.C.B., F.R.S. Professor A. C. Sewarp, 'F.R.S. Sir 8. F. Harmer, K.B.E., F.R.S. Prof. A. Smiruetts, C.M.G., F.R.S. Dr. W. EB. Hovyte. Sir AusBREy StTrRAHAN, F.R.S. J. H. Jeans, F.R.S. A. G. Tanstey, F.R.S. Sir A. Kerrn, F.R.S. W. Wuiraker, F.R.S. EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. The Trustees, past Presidents of the Association, the President and Vice- Presidents for the year, the President and Vice-Presidents Elect, past and present General Treasurers and General Secretaries, past Assistant General Secretaries, and the Local Treasurers and Local Secretaries for the ensuing Annual Meeting. TRUSTEES (PERMANENT). Major P. A. MacManon, D.Sc., | Sir ArrHur Evans, M.A., LL.D., LL.D., F.R.S. F.R.S., F.S.A. Hon. Sir Cartes A. Parsons, K.C.B., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. OFFICERS AND COUNCIL. vii PAST PRESIDENTS OF THE ASSOCIATION. Sir A. Germ, K.C.B., O.M., F.R.S. Sir James Dewar, F.B.S. Rt. Hon. the Earl of Batrour, O.M., F.R.S. Sir E. Ray Lanxester, K.C.B., F.R.S. Sir Francts Darwin, F.R.S. Sir J. J. THompson, O.M., F.R.S. Professor T. G. Bonney, F'.R.S. Sir E. SHarpry Scuarer, F.R.S. Sir Orrver Lopes, F.R.S. Professor W. Barsson, F.R.S. Sir ArtHuR ScuusterR, F.R.S. Sir ArrHur Evans, F.K.S. Hon. Sir C. A. Parsons, K.C.B., F.R.S. Sir Wiu1am A. Herpman, C.B.E., Sir T. Epwarp Tuorps, C.B., F.R.S. PAST GENERAL OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION. Professor T. G. Bonney, F.R.S. Sir E. SHarpey Scuarer, F.R.S. Dr. D. H. Scorr, F.R.S. Dr. J. G. Garson. Major P. A. MacManon, F.R.S. Sir W. A. Herpman, C.B.E., F.R.S. Professor H. H. Turner, F.R.S. HON. AUDITORS. Professor A. BowLeEy. | Professor A. W. K1rKaspy. LOCAL OFFICERS: HULL, 1922. CHAIRMAN OF GENERAL AND EXECUTIVE COMMITTEES. The Right Hon. the Lorp Mayor (Councillor G. F. Woxes, J.P.). LOCAL TREASURER. T. G. Miner, F.S.A.A., City Treasurer and Accountant, Guildhall, Hull. LOCAL SECRETARIES. H. A. Lesroyp, M.A., LL.B., Town lerk. T. SHeppaRD, M.Sc., Museums Curator, Guildhall, Hull. vill eee TION: & SECTIONAL OFFICERS, 1922. A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE. President.—Prof. G. H. Harpy, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. 5. R. Mitner, F.R.S. ; Prof Dr. G. C. Simpson, F.R.S. ; ; Prof. R. Wuippincton. Recorder.—Prot. A. O. RaNKINE. Secretaries.—M, A. GisteTt; Prof. H. R. Hass&; J. Jackson; Prof. A. M. TYNDALL. Local Secretary.—H. G. Forper. . A. W. Porter, F.R.S. ; B.—CHEMISTRY. President.—Principal J. C. Irvine, C.B.E., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. G. T. Morean, O.B.E., F.R.S.; Prof. A. Sm1rHELLs, C.M.G., F.R.S.; Prof. W. P. Wynne, F.R:5. Recorder.—Prof. C. H. Descu. Secretaries.—Dr. H. McCompig; Dr. E. H. ‘Irrep. Local Secretury.—A. R. Tanxarp, I.I.C. C.—GEOLOGY. President.—Prof. P. F. Kenpatu. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. A. P. Cotrman, F.R.S.; Dr. J. S.. Fuerr, O.B.E., F.R.S.; G. W. Lamptucu, F.R.S.; Prof. A. C. Szwarp, F.R.S.; Prof. W. J. Sottas, F.R.S.; J. W. SrarHer. Recorder. — Dr, A. R. Dwerryyowuss, ‘I’. D. Secretaries.—Prof. W. T. Gorpon; Prof. G. Hicxrnc. Local Secretary.—A. CHARLESWORTH. D.—ZOOLOGY. President.—Dr. EK. J. Auten, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. W. Garstanc; Prof. E. S. Goopricu, F.R.S.; Dr. C. G. Jou. Perersen; C. Tatr Recan, F.R.S.; Dr. J. Scumipr; Dr. J STEPHENSON ; Prof. J. ArrHuUR THOMSON. Recorder.—Prof. R. D. Lauri. Secretaries.—F. Batrour Browne; J)r. W. T. Carman, F.K.S. Local Secretary.—C. F. Procter, E.—GEOGRAPHY. President.—Dr. Marion I. NEwBIGIN. Vice-Presidents.—G. G. CuisHotm; Dr. VauGcHAan CornisH; Dr. D. G. HogartH, C.M.G.; Prof. L. W Councillor J. McLrop; Miss E. C. SEMPLE. Recorder.—Dr. R. N. Rupmosre Brown. Secretaries—_W. H. Barker; F. Dresennam, O.B.E. Local Secretary.—H. VicRass, . LypE; ¥.—ECONOMICS. President.—Prof. F. Y. Epceworrn, D.C.L. Vice-Presidents.—Prof, E. Cannan; Prof. A. W J.P.; E. Rosson; Sir H. Samman, Bart. Recorder.—Prof. H. M. Hatuswortn, Secretary.—A. RapDForD. Local Secretary.—J. E. Forry. . Kirkxatpy; B. E, Maxstep, G.—ENGINEERING. President.—Prof. T. Hupson BrarE. - Vice-Presidents.—Prof. A. H. Gipson; Prof. Sir J. B. Henperson ; Hips; Sir J. NrcHotson. Recorder.—Prof. G. W. O. Howe. Secretaries.—Prof. F. Bacon; Prof. F. C. Lea. Local Secretary.—C. Downs. SOW oS: OFFICERS OF SECTIONS, 1922. 1x H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. President.—H. J. E. Peake. Vice-Presidents.—T. A. Joyce, O.B.E.; Prof. S. Grant MacCurpy; P. EF. Newsrrry, O.B.E.; Prof. F. G. Parsons; M. le Comte de St. P&rirr. Recorder.—K. N. Favwatze. Secretarics.—Miss R. M. Furmine; Dr. F. C. SHRrussauu. Local Secretary.—Dr. Luesuie JEFFcoarT. I.—PHYSIOLOGY. President.—Prof. E. P. Carxucart, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Sir Walter M. Frercuer, K.B.E., F.R.S.; Prof. P. T. Herring; Prof. A. V. Hi, F.R.S.; Dr. J. Wricnr Mason; Prof. W. A. OsporneE; Prof. H. 8. Raper. Recorder.—Prof. P. T. Herrtne (acting, vice Prof. C. Lovarr Evans). Secretary.—Dr. J. H. Burn. Local Secretary.—Dr. J. FRASER. J.—PSYCHOLOGY. President.—Dr. C. S. Myers, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Erof. H. Witpon Carr; Dr. J. Drever; Dr. C. W. Kimeins ; Prof. T. H. Pear; Dr. Srewarr Peyton. Recorder.—C. Burt. Secretary.—Dr. Li. WyNnN Jones Local Secretary.—Miss C. T. CUMBERBIRCH. K.—BOTANY. President.—Prot. H. H. Dixon, F.R.8. Vice-Presidents.—Dyr. F. F. Buacxman, F.R.S.; Rt. Hon. Lord Lovar, K.T. ; Dr. D. H. Scorr, F.R.S.; Dr. H. W. T. Wacer, F.R.S. Recorder.—F. T. Brooks. Secretary.—Prof. J. McLean THompson. Local Secretary.—J. F. Rosrnson. L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. President.—Prof. Sir R. A. GREGORY. Vice-Presidents.—Alderman F. Askew, J.P.; C. Hapow, C.B.E.; Prof. ‘I. P. Nunn. Recorder.—D. BrrRipGE. Secretaries.—C. E. Browne; Dr. Linian J. CLARKE. Local Secretary.—UDr. J. T. Rixey. H. Gore; Sir Henry M.—AGRICULTURE. President.—Rt. Hon. Lord Buepistor, K.B.E. Vice-Presidents.—Sir Daniex Hart, K.C.B., F.R.8.; C. S. Orwin; CuristopHer H. Turnor; Rt. Hon. Lord YaRBorowGH. Recorder.—C. G. T. Morison. Secretary.—G. Scorr RoBERTsoN. Local Secretary.—J. STRACHAN. CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. President.—W. Wuitaker, F.R.S. ANNUAL MEETINGS. TABLE OF | | a . Date of Meeting Where held Presidents ned ee 1831, Sept. 97. py York .| Viscount Milton, D.O.L., F.R.S. ...... — = | 1832, June 19......) Oxford ..... ..| The Rev. W. Buckland, F.R.S. .., 1 = — 1833, June 25 ...,.., Cambridge .| The Rev. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S. — — 1834, Sept. 8 ....... Edinburgh ... Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.O.L., F.R.S. ...| — — | 1835, Aug. 10...... Dublin ..... ... The Rev. Provost Lloyd,LL.D., F. R. s. — — | 1836, Aug. 22......| Bristol ..... ..| The Marquis of Lansdowne, F.R.S....| = = | 1837, Sept. 11. Liverpool .. ..| The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S.......... =) ar | 1838, Aug. 10......, Newcastle-on-Tyne...) The Duke of Northumberland, F.R.S. _ —_— 1839, Aug. 26 ...... Birmingham ......... The Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt, F B.S. = = 1840, Sept. 17...... Glasgow.......... ...| The Marquis of Breadalbane, F -R.S. = _— 1841, July 20 ...... Plymouth ... The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S. 169 65 1842, June 23...... | Manchester .| The Lord Francis Egerton, F.G. se 303 169 1843, Aug. 17...... 0: as ..| The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. .. ............ 109 28 1844, Sept. 26 ...... 1 eonksthee 4 ..| The Rey. G. Peacock, D.D., F.RB.S. ... 226 150 1845, June 19...... | Cambridge ..| Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart., F.R.S. 313 36 1846, Sept. 10..,.... Southampton ..| Sir Roderick I.Murchison,Bart.,F.R.S. 241 10 1847, June 23. | Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart., F.R.S. ... 314 18 1848, Aug. 9 ... TheMarquis ofNorthampton,Pres.R.S. 149 3 1849, Sept. 12... .| The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D., F.R.S. 227 12 1850, July 21 . ...| Sir David Brewster, K.H., F.R.S....... 235 9 1851, July 2... . | G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal, F.R.S.: 172 8 1852, Sept.1 ...... ..| Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S. ... 164 10 1853, Sept. 3 ..| William Hopkins, F. "Bg eee 141 13 1854, Sept. 20 ...... .... The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S. 238 23 1855, Sept. 12....... Glasgow..... ...| The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. . 194 33 1856, Aug.6 ...... ...| Prof. 0. G. B. Daubeny, M.D., ER. Ss. 182 14 1857, Aug. 26 ...... Dublin ..... ...| The Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., F.R.S. 236 15 1858, Sept. 22 ...... _..| Richard Owen, M.D., D.O.L., F.RBS.... 222 42 1859, Sept.14...... _..| H.R.H. The Prince Consort ............ 184 27 1860, June 27 ....... Oxford ..... .| The Lord Wrottesley, M.A., F.R.S. ... 286 21 1861, Sept. 4 .| William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S....... 321 113 1862,Oct.1 ..,.... Cambridge ............ The Rey. Professor Willis, M.A., F.RB.S. 239 15 1863, Aug. 26 |.....| Newcastle-on-Tyne...| SirWilliam G. Armstrong.0.B., F.R.S| 203 36 1864, Sept. 13... (Bath wat ee: Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A., F.R.S. 287 40 1865, Sept.6 ......) Birmingham..,.........| Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D. . F.R.S, 292 44 1866, Aug. 22..,...| Nottingham. ...| William R. Grove, Q. 0. F.R.S. 207 31 1867, Sept.4 ......| Dundee ....... .... The Duke of Buccleuch, K.0. B. F. RS. 167 25 1868, Aug. 19... ...| Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S. ......... 196 18 1869, Aug. 18... ...| Prof. G.G. Stokes, D.O.L., F.B.S....... 204 21 1870, Sept. 14... "| Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D., F.B.S. ... 314 39 1871, Aug.2 ... | Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D., F.R.S. 246 28 1872, Aug. 14...... :,.| DI W. bj Oarpenter I6RS, |... cc: 245 36 1873, Sept. 17 ...... ... Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S. a 212 27 1874, Aug. 19 3 .... Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. : 162 13 1875, Aug. 25 ...... . Sir John Hawkshaw, F.R.S. Fl 239 36 1876, Sept.6 ...... .... Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S. at 221 35 1877, Aug. 15...... "Prof. A. Thomson. M.D., F.R. ae 173 19 1878, Aug. 14 ...| W. Spottiswoode, M.A., F.R. ae 201 18 1879, Aug. ...| Prof. G. J. Allman, M.D., F.R. ined 184 16 1880, Aug. . A. O, Ramsay, LL. D. Dy oERS. wae 144 ll ' 1881, Aug. dl Works ceases. | Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F j 272 28 1882, Aug. | Southampton .| Dr. O. W. Siemens, F.R.S. 4 178 17 1883, Sept. .| Southport .... ‘| Prof. A. Oayley, D.O.L., F.E 3 203 60 1884, Aug. 27 ....... Montreal . . Prof. Lord Rayleigh, F.R. d 235 20 885, Sept.9 ...... Aberdeen ....., _.. Sir Lyon Playfair, K.O.B. ; 225 18 | 1886, Sept.1 ...... Birmingham . Sir J. W. Dawson, O.M.G. i 314 25 1887, Aug. 31 ......| Manchester ............ Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.O.L. * 5 428 86 | 1888, Sept. 5 Bath. }.crzsccasssseseetes Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R. the a 266 36 | 1889, Sept. 11....... Newcastle-on-Tyne... Prof. W. H. Flower, C.B., a] 277 20 | 1890, Sept. 3 ‘Deeds ee ee Sir F. A. Abel, O.B., F.R.S. ua 259 21 | 1891, Aug. . Cardiff .. ..... Dr. W. Huggins, F. RS. at 189 24 1892, Aug. Edinburgh . Sir A. Geikie, LL.D., F. RS, | 280 14 | 1893, Sept. . Nottingham . Prof. J. S. Burdon Sanderson, F.RS.| 201 17 1894, Aug. .| Oxford ... . The Marquis of Salisbury,K.G..F.R.S.! 327 21 1895, Sept. ..| Ipswich ... ... Sir Douglas Galton, K.C.B., F.R.S. 214 13 1895, Sept. ..| Liverpool . Sir Joseph Lister, ae Pres. RS. . 330 31 | 1897, Aug. ..| Toronto... .. Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.R.S. . 120 8 | 1898, Sept. .| Bristol . Sir W. Crookes, oom aS Neat eee tee 281 19 1899, Sept. 32 DOOR wvsteve-seerececess-< Sir Michael Foster, K. C: B., Sec.R.S 296 20 * Ladies were not admitted by purchased tickets until 1843. } Tickets of Admission to Sections only. [ Continued on p. xii. ANNUAL MEETINGS. xl ANNUAL MEETINGS. | Sums paid | | Old | Mew |)” Aaso- | | aay on aceartat | Annual Annual | Gi eae Ladies Foreigners Total papel of Grants Year |Members Members | | Ticket for Belensifis ) J ae | fee Purposes — a - — = 353 = a 1831 | = — — = — = —_ _ 1832 = — => as — 900 | _ 1833 (= 17 = == ~ 1298 | _ £20 0 0 1834 | — — = — — | — 167 0 0 1835 = _ — = — 1350 _— 435 0 0 1836 — — - = — 1840 _— $22 12 6 1837 | — _— _ 1100* — 2400 — 932 2 2 1838 | = — _ = 34 1438 | —_— 1595 11 0 1839 _— —_ — _ 40 1353 | — 1546 16 4 1840 46 317 — 60* — 891 | —_ 1235 10 11 1841 | 75 376 33t 331* 28 1315 _— 1449 17 8 1842 | 71 185 — 160 — — — 1565 10 2 1843 45 190 9+ 260 — = = 98112 8 1844 94 22 407 172 35 1079 — 831 9 9 1845 65 39°C 270 196 36 857 — 685 16 0 1846 197 40 | 495 203 53 1320 — 208 5 4 1847 54 25 376 197 15 819 £707 0 0 B76 ol 48 1848 | 93 | 33 447 237 22 1071 963 0 0 159 19 € 1843 128 42 510 273 44 1241 | 108 0 0 345 18 0 1850 61 47 244 141 37 | 710 620 0 0 391 9.7 1851 63 60 510 292 9 1108 1085 0 0 304 6 7 1852 56 57 | 367 236 6 876 | 903 0 0 205 0 0 1853 121 121 765 524 10 1802 1882 0 0 380 19 7 1854 142 101 1094 543 26 2133 2311 0 0 480 16 4 1855 | 104 48 412 346 9 1115 1098 0 0 73413 9 1856 156 120 900 569 26 jy °2022 12015 O» 0 507 15 4 1857 111 91 710 509 13 |. 1698 | 1931 0 0 61818 2 1858 125 179 1206 821 22 | 2564 2782 0 0 684 11 1 1859 177 59 636 463 47 1689 1604 0 0 766 19 6 1860 184 125 1589 791 15 3138 3944 0 0O/| 1111 510 1861 150 57 433 242 25 1161 1089 0 O | 129316 6 1862 154 209 1704 1004 25 3335 3640 0 0 | 1608 3 10 1863 182 } 103 1119 1058 13 2802 2965 0 0 | 128915 8 1864 215 | 149 766 508 | 23 | 1997 2227" 0’ ‘O'7 158) 7 10 1865 218 105 960 (ke | 11 2303 «=| 2469 0 0| 175013 4 1866 193 } 118 1163 771 7 2444 2613 0 0 | 1739 4 0 1867 226 117 720 682 45t | 2004 2042 0 0); 1940 0 0 1868 229 107 678 600 17 1856 1931 0 O/| 1622 0 0 1869 303 } 195 1103 910 14 2878 , 3096 0 0 1572 0 0 1870 311 127 976 754 21 2463 | 2575 0 0O| 1472 2 6 1871 280 80 937 912 43 2533 «| 2649 0 0 | 1285 0 0 1872 237 99 796 601 11 1983 | 2120 0 0, 1685 0 0 1873 232 85 i a 630 12 1951 | 1979 0 O| 115116 0 1874 307 93° | 884 | 672 17 2248 | 2397 0 0| 960 0 0 1875 331 185 | 1265 | 712 25 2774 3023 0 0/1092 4 2 1876 238 59 446 | 283 ll 1229 | 1268 0 0/1128 9 7 1877 290 | 93 | 1285 674 | 17 2578 | 2615 0 0 725 16 6 1878 g39, | 74 529 349 13 1404 |: 1425 0 O 1080 11 11 1879 171 41 389 147 12 915 899 0 0 | Walt: 7 1880 313 | 176 1230 =| 514 24 2557 2689 0 0; 476 8 1 1881 253 79 516 | 189 21 1253 1286 0 0} 1126 1131 1882 330 323 952 841 5 2714 3369 0 0 | 1083 3 3 1883 317 219 | 826 74 26&60H.§| 1777 1855 0 0/1173 4 0 1884 332 122 | 1053 447 6 2203 2256 0 0 | 1385 0 0 1885 428 179 1067 429 11 2453 =| 2532 0 0 995 0 6 1886 510 | 244 | 1985 493 92 | 3838 | 4336 0 0 | 118618 0 1887 399 100 639 509 12 | 1984 | 2107 0 0} 1511 0 5 1888 412 113 | 1024 579 21 2437 2441 0 0 1417 O11 1889 368 | goer 680 | 334 12 1775 1776 0 O 789 16 8 1890 341 152 672 107 35 | 1497 1664 0 Vv 102910 0 1891 413 | 14] 733 439 50 2070 2007 0 0} 86410 0 1892 328 | 57 773 268 17 | 1661 1653 0 0 907 15 6 1893 | 435 69 | 941 | 451 77 2321 2175 0 0 583 15 6 1894 290 3) 493 | 261 22 1324 1236 0 0} 97715 5 1895 383 139 | 1384 87s | 41 3181 3228 0 0 1104 6 1 1896 286 125 682 100 4) 1362 1398 0 0 | 1059 10 8 1897 327 96 1051 | 639 33 2446 2399 0 0/1212 0 0 1898 324 68 548 120 | 27 | 1403 1328 0 O | 143014 2; 1899 —_————_ —— 3 —. t Including Ladies. § Fellows of the Amer‘can Association were admitted as Hon, Members for this Meeting [ Continued on p. xiii, Xl tes Date of Meeting 1900, Beg | ee ee 1901, Sept. 11..... 1902, Ss 10 1903, Sept. 9 ...... 1904, ANG LT 03 1905, Aug. 15.,..... 1906, Aug.1 ...... 1907, July 31 ..,.. 1908, Sept. 2 ....., 1909, Aug. 25...... 1910, Aug. 31..... 1911, Aug. 30...... 1912, Sept. 4 ...... 1913, Sept. 10 .. 1914, July-Sept.... 1915, Sept. 7 ...... 1916, Sept. 5 1917 1918 1919, Sept. 9 1920, Aug. 24...... 1921, Sept.7 ..... 1922, Sept. 6 .| Birmingham ANNUAL MEETINGS, Where held Bradford Glasgow... Belfast .., Southport Cambridge... South Africa Winnipeg Sheffield..... Portsmouth Dundee ...... Australia Manchester .,.........:. Newcastle-on-Tyne.,. (No Meeting) (No Meeting) .. Bournemouth ......... Cardiff ....., Edinburgh Hull "| Prof. J. Dewar, LL.D., ERS. | Sir David Gill, K.O.B., F.R.S, _.| Prof. Sir J. J. Thomson, FBS. .| Prof. Sir W. Ramsay, K.C.B,, F.R.S. | ‘| Sir Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S. ‘| Hon. Sir O, Parsons, K.0.B.,F.R.S.... .| Prof. W. A. Herdman, C.B.E., F.R.S. | Sir CG. 8. Presidents | sir William Turner, D.O.L.. F.R.S. . | Prof. A. W. Riicker, D.Sc., Sec.R.S. . Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F. ns Rt. Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.P., F.R.S. .| Prof. G. H. Darwin, LL.D., F.R.S. ... Prof. E. Ray Lankester, LL.D. »F.R.S Dr. Francis Darwin, ER. S. Rey. Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S. ; Prof. E. A. Schafer, F.R.S.............08: Prof. W. Bateson, F.R.S. .. Prof, A. Schuster, F.R.S. Sir Arthur Evans, F.R.S. ... ..... Sir T, E. Thorpe, O.B, ERS. . Sherrington, GB. E., Pres. B.S. 4 Including 848 Members of the South African Association, { Grants from the Caird Fund are not included in this and subsequent sums. Ola Life | Members gress i Table of New Life 267 310 243 250 419 115 322 276 294 117 293 284 288 376 172 242 164 288 336 228 11 13 ANNUAL MEETINGS. Xi Annual Meetings —(continued). | ; Sums paid Old New Asso } a ese | on account Annual Annual aiaten Ladies |Foreigners Total | tae of Grants Year Members | Members . Tickets |f0r Scientific | slg Purposes 297 45 801 482 9 1915 | £1801 0 /£1072 10 0 1900 374 131 794 246 20 1912 2046 0 | 920 911 1901 314 86 647 305 6 1620 1644 0 | 947 0 O 1902 319 90 688 365 21 1754 1762 0 | 845 13 2 1903 449 113 1338 317 121 2789 2650 0 | 887 18 11 1904 9379 411 430 181 16 | 2130 2422 0/| 928 2 2 1905 356 93 817 352 22 | 1972 1811 0| 882 0 9 | 1906 339 61 659 251 42 1647 1561 0 | 7571210 | 1907 465 112 1166 222 14 2297 | 2317 0 {115718 8 1908 290** 162 789 90 7 1468 1623 0 |1014 9 9 1909 379 57 563 123 8 1449 | 1439 0/| 96317 0 1910 } 349 61 414 81 31 1241 1176 0} 922 0 0 1911 368 95 1292 | 359 88 2504 2349 0 | 845 7 6 1912 480 149 |. 1287 291 20 2643 | 2756 0 978 17 lft} 1913 139 4160], | 539]| = 21 5044|| | 4873 0 \1086 16 4 1914 287 116 } §28* 141 8 1441 | 1406 0 |1159 2 8 1915 250 76 | 251* 73 =e 826 821 0 | 715 18 10 1916 _— _— — — _ — _ 42717 2 1917 = _ — — _ _ _ 220 13 3 1918 254 102 | 688 * 153 | 3 1482 1736 0/160 0 0 | 1919 | Annual Members | Ola pares Annual rele |Students’ poetiar Meeting Meeting Tickets | Tickets | Report only | | 136 | 199 571 42 120 | 20 | isso | 1972 10 | 95913 9 1920 133 410 1394 121 343 | 22 | 2768 2599 15 | 418 1 10 1921 | 90 | 294 | 757 g9 | o35¢ | 24 1730 | 1669 5 | 257 0 7 1922 ** Including 137 Members of the American Association, || Special arrangements were made for Members and Associates joining locally in Australia, see Report, 1914, p. 686. The numbers include 80 Members who joined in order to attend the Meeting of L’ Association Francaise at Le Havre. * Including Students’ Tickets, 10s. t Including Exhibitioners granted tickets without charge. XIV REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1921-22. I. Professor Sir Ernest Rutherford, F.R.S., has been unanimously nominated by the Council to fill the office of President of the Associa- tion for the year 1923-24 (Liverpool Meeting). Il. The Council have to record their deep sense of the great generosity of the Hon. Sir Charles Parsons, K.C.B., F.R.S.,» ex- President, who has placed at their disposal a gift of £10,000 War Stock, for the general purposes of the Association. Sir Charles Parsons also generously undertook to bear the cost of producing and publishing The British Association: A Retrospect, 1831-1921, which, at his suggestion, has been compiled by Mr. O. J. R. Howarth. A copy of this work has been graciously accepted by His Majesty the King, Patron of the Association. The thanks of the Council have beefi conveyed to Mrs. Sidney Brown, for her gift of £75 as ‘ the John Perry’s Guest Fund’ for use by the General Treasurer in case of emergency connected with guests of the Association, any remainder to be at the disposal of the Council after five vears (December 1926). III. Resolutions referred by the General Committee, at the Edin- burgh Meeting, to the Council for consideration and, if desirable, for action, were dealt with as follows :— ‘(a) The Council welcomed the General Committee’s approval of their action in encouraging joint discussions between Sections. (b) The Council made a standing order under which research com- mittees are required to present their reports in duplicate fair copy by a date to be determined by the General Officers; one copy is retained for consideration by the General Officers, and the other forwarded on receipt to the Recorder of the Section concerned, who is desired, after consultation with the President of his Section, to inform the Secretary of the Association whether it is recommended to the General Officers that the report be set up in type in advance of the meeting. (Resolu- tion of Section B.) (c) The Council ascertained that the special powers conferred by them upon the Fuel Economy Committee were no longer required, and the Committee therefore assumed the ordinary position and powers of research committees. (Resolution of Section B.) (d) The Council obtained from the Board of Education a statement relating to Revised Regulations for Secondary Schools, England, 1921, as follows :— (1) The effect of Article 7 is to make it necessary that the course of work should be so arranged as to secure that every pupil who remains in the school till the age of 16 shall during his school life have passed through an adequate course of graduated instruction in each one of the subjects named in the Article. (2) In a Circuiar issued in 1919 it was stated that Geography ‘ necessarily holds, as an essential part of all proper study of history, an important place in all courses belonging to Group B and Group C; and that the definition of Group C embodied in the current Regulations affords special opportunity for REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1921-22. XV increased attention to Geography in connection with the work in history.’ ‘his view is also applicable to the new Group D courses allowed under the recent Regulations. (5) Geography is not accepted as a main subject in Group A (Science and Mathematics). The groups B, C, D, referred to in (2) above refer to main subjects of study in advanced courses, and, as defined in the Regulations, consist respectively of *(B) Classics, viz., the civilisation of the ancient world as embodied in the language, literature, and history of Greece and Rome; (C) Modern Studies, viz., the language, literature and history of the countries of Western Europe in modern and medieval times; (D) the civilisation (1) of Greece or Rome, and (ii) of England or another country of Western Europe in modern times, as embodied in their language, literature, and history.’ The correspondence embodying the above statement was published in the Press by order of the Council with the consent of the Board. (Resolution of Sections E and L. The Council, after further correspondence with the Board, were gratified to learn from the Draft Regulations for Secondary Schools, 1922, that the position of Geography in the curriculum was to be mate- rially strengthened, and that it was to be included as a principal subject in Advanced Courses (Group E). (e) The Council conveyed to the Census authorities of the United Kingdom a recommendation that the final census report should include the population not merely of municipal and other administrative areas, but also of urban aggregates. The recommendation was acknowledged by the Registrar-General. (Resolution of Section E.) (f) The Council caused inquiry to be made as to the use of -Mercator’s projection for the international series of aeronautical maps. (Resolution of Section E.) Further discussion is anticipated in Sec- tion E at the Hull Meeting. (9) The Council addressed universities, colleges, and a number of societies, chambers of commerce, etc., on the subject of the teaching of anthropology. A conference was then convened at Burlington House on May 23, 1922, and was attended by representatives of most of the bodies addressed, and a committee was nominated, and subsequently appointed by the Council, to confer with the Royal Anthropological Institute as to the possibility of its acting as a central institution for the encouragement of more general interest in anthropological studies, &c. (Resolution of Section H.) Further consideration was delayed owing to the death of Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, President of the Institute, whom the Council deeply deplore both as a valued colleague and as President-designate of Section J for the Hull Meeting. (h) The Council, on inquiry, found it unnecessary to proceed in the matter of a resolution of Section L on the position of music in the curriculum of secondary schools. (7) The Council referred to the President of the Royal Society and, in his discretion, the Conjoint Board of Scientific Societies, the sub- stance of resolutions by Section L and the Conference of Delegates on the high cost of postage of societies’ publications. IV. The Council took no action upon a resolution received from the Organising Committee of Section K (Botany) proposing that forestry ‘should be regarded as included in the work of that Section, and a Xvi REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1921-22. resolution from the Organising Committee of Section M (Agriculture) | in opposition to this proposal. V. Conference of Delegates and Corresponding Societies Committee.—The Council approved the following report and memorandum :— CORRESPONDING SociETInS COMMITTEE. The Secretary of the Committee reported :— I brought your letter of March 9 before a meeting of the Corresponding Societies Committes (at which there were present Mr. Sheppard (in the chair), Mr. Ashton, Dr. Bather, Sir George Fordham, Dr. Garson, Mr. Whitaker, the General Secretaries of the Association, and the Secretary of. the Committee), | and I have to report as follows :— (1) That Mr. Ashton and I asked leave to withdraw our names as nominees | for the Secretaryship and Presidency respectively of the Conference of Delegates at Hull, which was granted. (2) That it was decided (a) that the suggestion with regard to payment by Corresponding Societies should be circulated in general terms among them all, so that it might be discussed_at Hull, and (b) that the Council should he informed of this action. (Proposed by Professor Myres and seconded by Dr. Garson.) (3) ‘That all matters as to the Conference of Delegates at Hull should be left to the Council, and that the Committee would endeavour to carry out any suggestions that the Council might be pleased to make. (Proposed from the Chair and carried unanimously.) (4) That Mr. Sheppard announced that an Exhibition on the lines suggested at the Conference of Delegates at Edinburgh would be arranged at Hull, and it was left to the Council to determine whether this should come under the heading of the Conference or otherwise. (Signed) Witrrep Mark WEsR. MEMORANDUM BY THE GENERAL OFFICERS. The matters referred to the Corresponding Societies Committee by Council were considered by the Committee at a meeting on March 17 (as reported above). After correspondence with the Chairman of the Committee, and with his entire concurrence, the General Officers submit the following suggestions :— 1. That the Conference at Hull should consider, in the first place, what steps should be taken, in accordance with the recommendation of the Committee in 1883, to induce local societies to group themselves round local (i.e. district) sub-centres for the interchange of information and for the more economical publication of the results of research. Such groups have been formed already in some districts (e.g. the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union, the Lincolnshire Union, and the South Eastern Union; and it is understood that a similar union is projected for the Scottish societies). 2. That at Hull the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union should be invited to explain its own procedure; and that in subsequent years it should be an instruction to the Conference to elicit similar co-operation within the district where the meeting is held. In this way all principal regions of the country will be dealt with in time. 3. Thai in future, to ensure such action by the Conference, there should be a local chairman and a local committee to assist in preparing the programme ; and that the Corresponding Societies Committee should consist of a compara- tively small standing nucleus of members appointed by the Council and em- powered to co-opt the local chairman and committee for the time being. 4. That at Hull the President of the Conference should be a well-known naturalist (not necessarily local) especially interested in efficient co-operation between local societies. The names of Sir Sidney Harmer and Mr. W. Whitaker, the outgoing Chairman of the Corresponding Societies Committee, have been suggested. It would not seem to be necessary on this occasion to expect from the President a foimal address. 5. ‘That the routine work of the Committee should be conducted in future by the Office under the direction of the General Officers: and the local secretarial REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1921-22. XVll work of each conference by a local secretary appointed by the Council on the recommendation of the Local Committee. 6. That it be an instruction to the Corresponding Societies Committee to prepare a general survey of local scientific societies, including information as to existing federations and local unions, and as to the organisation of the Congress of Societies in union with the Society of Antiquaries, since many of these societies undertake work in physical and biological science also. 7. That the Committee and the Hull Conference be asked to consider whether the delegates sent to the Conference might be authorised to act as the loca) representatives of the British Association in their respective districts. 8. That the suggestion made by the Corresponding Societies Committee as to a levy or subscription from the Societies be postponed until the Council has received a report from the Conference and considered in what respects the advantages derived by the Societies from their connection with the Association may be increased, or better understood, as for example in regard to improved facilities for publication, and to obtaining lecturers of recognised scientific standing. 9. That in addition to its work for the local societies, the Corresponding Societies Committee be asked to enter into correspondence with the principal societies concerned with special depariments of science, so as to ensure that the British Association is in full touch with the more general needs of scientific workers throughout the country and in the Dominions. Some of the principal societies in the Dominions are already enrolled in this way, and have sent delegates from time to time to the Conferences. Mr. W. Whitaker has been nominated as President of the Con- ference at the Hull Meeting. The Corresponding Societies Committee has’ been nominated as follows: The President of the Association (Chairman ex-officio), Mr. T. Sheppard (Vice-Chairman), the General Secretaries, the General Trea- surer, Dr. F. A. Bather, Mr. O. G. S. Crawford, Prof. P. F. Kendall, Mr. Mark Li. Sykes, Dr. C. Tierney, Prof. W. W. Watts, Mr. W. Whitaker; with authority to co-opt representatives of the Scientific Societies of Liverpool and District. VI. The Council have received reports from the General Treasurer throughout the year. His accounts have been audited, and are pre- sented to the General Committee. The Council made the following grants to research committees from the Caird Fund, additional to those approved by the General Committee at the Edinburgh Meeting :— Annual Tables of Constants ... se «ob, AO) Inheritance of Colour in Lepidoptera ... «40h o : Naples Zoological Station ee ve ~igp sO) The Council amended the condition attached to the grant to £30 to the Stone Circles Committee, by resolving that the grant should be available if the excavations at Avebury were filled up under the direction of the Committee not later than May 15, 1922. The second grant of £250 from the Caird Gift for research in radio-activity (for the year ending March 24, 1923) has been made io Sir Ernest Rutherford. The Council decided to establish a series of ‘ British Association Exhibitions’ for attendance at the Hull Meeting, offered to students, not above the standing of B.Sc., nominated by the senate of each of twenty universities and university colleges, and covering the railway fares of such students and their membership if not already regular 1922 B XVill REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1921-22. members. The Local Executive Committee at Hull kindly supple- mented the above proposal by an offer of financial support and hospitality for nominees. The Council resolved that life compositions received on and after January 1, 1922, shall be treated as capital and invested; subject that on the death of any member whose life composition has been thus placed to capital account, the amount of that composition shall be brought into the income account of the year. The Council have undertaken, under a suitable agreement, to pay the major proportion of the premiums for an endowment policy on the life of Mr. O. J. R. Howarth, in order to provide him with a capital sum by way of pension at age sixty-five, or his dependants with the same in the event of his earlier death, so long as he remains in the service of the Association. VII. The thanks of the Council have been conveyed to Miss A. Ashley, Miss L. Grier, and Mr. A. H. Gibson for their work in drawing up and preparing for publication reports on British Finance and British Labour (edited by Prof. A. W. Kirkaldy, and published by Messrs. Pitman). The Council have instituted a new series of British Association reprints of selected communications, in standard paper covers. The Council have decided to admit advertisements into the publica- tions of the Association, and arrangements have been made with an advertising agency to this end. VIII. The retiring Ordinary Members of the Council are :— By seniority: Prof. W. A. Bone, Dr. A. Smith Woodward, Prof. W. R. Scott. By least attendance: Sir R. Hadfield, Prof. J. Stanley Gardiner. The Council nominated the following new members :— Rt. Hon. Lord Bledisloe, Dr. W. E. Hoyle, Mr. A. G. Tansley, leaving two vacancies to be filled by the General Committee without nomination by the Council. A further vacancy is created by the lamented death of Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, to which reference has already been made. The full list of nominations of Ordinary Members is as follows :— Dr. E. F. Armstrong. Sir A. Keith. Dr. F. W. Aston. Sir J. Scott Keltie. ; Mr. J. Barcroft. Professor A. W. Kirkaldy. Rt. Hon. Lord Bledisloe. | Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell. Professor H. J. Fleure. Sir J. E. Petavel. Professor A. Fowler. Sir W. J. Pope. Sir R. A. Gregory. Professor A. W. Porter. Sir Daniel Hall. Professor A. C. Seward. Sir 8. F. Harmer. Sir Aubrey Strahan. Dr. W. E. Hoyle. Mr. A. G.. Tansley. Mr. J. H. Jeans. Mr. W. Whitaker. IX. The General Officers have been nominated by the Council as follows :— General Treasurer, Dr. E. H. Griffiths. General Secretaries, Prof. J. lL. Myres and Mr. F. E. Smith. REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1921-22. xix The Council received with great regret Prof. H. H. Turner’s intima- tion that he would not be able to attend a Meeting in Canada in 1924. Prof. Turner himself pointed out that it was desirable, on various grounds, that his successor should have experience of the working of an Annual Meeting at home before taking part in one overseas, and he therefore placed his office at the disposal of the General Committee as from the Hull Meeting. The Council are fortunate in securing the consent of Mr. F. E. Smith, Director of Scientific Research at the Admiralty, to nomination as Prof. Turner’s successor. The Council and the Association owe a deep debt of gratitude to Prof. Turner for his unremitting care for the interests of the Association as General Secretary since 1913, and therefore during a time of exceptional difficulty, includ- ing as it has the Australian Meeting, the War, the revival of the annual meetings since the War, and the period when on the death of the late General Treasurer and Assistant Treasurer in 1920 he acted for some months as Treasurer in addition to his other work. X. Dr. E. H. Griffiths and Prof. J. L. Myres have continued to act as representatives of the Association on the Conjoint Board of Scientific Societies. XI. The following have been admitted as members of the General Committee :— Dr. R. N. Rudmose Brown. Dr. A. Lauder. Dr. J. B. Firth. Prof. P. Marshall. Mr. C. T. Gimingham. Prof. W. H. Pearsall. Mr. Wilfred Hall. Prof. H. C Plummer. Dr. J. W. Heslop-Harrison. Mr. F. E. Smith. Dr. H. S. Holden. Dr. T. W. Woodhead. XII. The Council have authorised Mr. O. J. R. Howarth to use the title of Secretary of the Association, in lieu of Assistant Secretary, as pertaining to his office; and they recommend the amendment of the Rules accordingly wherever the latter title occurs (Chh. II., 2: fee PV); Vi. oO; VILE, 2;1X., 5p XL, 253). BRITISH ASSOCIATION EXHIBITIONS. The British Association Exhibitions, referred to in § VI. of the above report, were awarded to eighteen students nominated by the same number of universities and colleges, whose travelling expenses (railway fares) were met by the Association, which also issued complimentary students’ tickets of membership to them; they were entertained in Hull by the Local Executive Committee. Six of the universities or colleges allowed travelling expenses for eight additional exhibitioners, who also yeceived the other facilities indicated above. The exhibitioners were enabled to meet the President and general officers. One of their number (Mr. D. C. Ellis, of Loughborough College) was elected secretary for the purpose of communication by the exhibitioners as a body with the general officers and the Press. B2 xx GENERAL MEETINGS AT HULL. INAUGURAL GENERAL MEETING. On Wednesday, September 6, at 8.30 p.m., in the City Hall, Sir T. Edward Thorpe, C.B., F.R.S., resigned the office of President of the Association to Professor Sir C. S. Sherrington, G.B.E., Pres. R.S., who delivered an address on ‘Some Aspects of Animal Mechanism ’ (for which see p. 1). Eventnc Discourses. On Friday, September 8, at 8.380 p.w., in the City Hall, Professor W. Garstang delivered a discourse on‘ Fishing: Old Ways and New.’ On ‘Tuesday, September 12, at 8.30 p.m., in the City Hall, Dr. F. W. Aston, F.R.S., delivered a discourse on ‘ The Atoms of Matter: their Size, Number, and Construction.’ ConcLupinc GENERAL MEETING. The concluding General Meeting was held in the Queen’s Hall on Wednesday, September 13, at 12 noon, when, on the motion of the President, it was resolved by acclamation :— ‘That the British Association do thank the City of Hull.’ PUBLIC. LECTURES. AT HULE, Public or Citizens’ Lectures were delivered as follows :— Tuesday, September 5, at 8 p.m., in the City Hall: Dr. BE. H. Griffiths, F.R.S., on ‘ The Conservation and Dissipation of Energy.’ Thursday, September 7, at 8 p.m., in the Reyal Institution: Pro- fessor A. P. Coleman, F.R.S., on ‘ Labrador.’ Saturday. September 9, at 8 p.w., in the City Hall: Rev. A. L. Cortie, S.J., on “ The Earth’s Magnetism. ’ Monday, September 11, at 8 p.m., in the City Hall: Sir Westcott Abell, K.B.E., on ‘ The Story of the Ship.’ Tuesday, September 12, at 8 p.m., in the Royal Institution: Dr. A. Smith Woodward, F.R.S., on ‘The Ancestry of Man.’ (The accommodation available proved insufficient for the numbers who desired to hear this lecture, and many of the public, who were unable to obtain entrance, were admitted to Dr. Aston’s evening discourse, which was being given on the same evening at the City Hall.) Dr. Smith Woodward repeated his lecture to the citizens of Scar- borough on Wednesday, September 13. CHILDREN’S LECTURES AT HULL. Special lectures for children were given in the Majestic Hall, George Street (through the courtesy of the Management), upon the following dates, at 10.30 a.m. :— ; or ae September 7: Prof..J. Arthur Thomsen, on ‘ Creatures of the Sea. ’ Friday, September 8: Mr. F. Debenham, O.B.E., on ‘The Antarctic.’ Tuesday, September 12: Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S., on ‘ The Telescope and what it tells us.’ XN1 GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. JuLY 1, 1921, to JunE 30, 1922. THE General Treasurer is able to present a more satisfactory report than was possible last year. This is chiefly due to :— (1) The great generosity of Six Charles Parsons. (2) The legacy of £450 from Mr. T. W. Backhouse. (3) The success of the Edinburgh Mecting. (4) The economies effected. The appreciation in the capital value of our investments is also a matter for congratulation. ~ We cannot, however, count on a recurrence of such favourable events. It should be borne in mind that our administrative, print- ing, and other expenses are certain to increase as the activities of he Association are extended. I trust, therefore, that the favourable report now presented will not banish from the minds of our members the need for economy. EK. H. GRIFFITHS, General Treasurer. xxii GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT Balance Sheet, To LIABILITIES. Sundry Creditors 2 0 0 a Capital Account— General Fund per contra = é x LOS%S Caird Fund do 9,582 Sir F. Bramwell’s Gift for inquiry into Prime Movers, 1931— £50 Consols accumulated to June 30, 1922, as percontra . > : 53 14 Caird Fund Income and Expenditure Account— Balance at July 1, 1921 . 968 11 Less Transferred to € eneral Account in accordance with Councii Minutes dated September 7, 1921 : 4 257 0 Less Excess of Expenditure over Income for Year to June 30, 1922. 137 19 7 1 1 Caird_ Gift— Radio-Activity Investigation, Balance at July 1, 1921 4 1,008 8 Add Dividends on Treasury Bonds . 38 10 Sir Charles Parsons’ Gift 4 4 4 Jobn Perry Guest Fund— Tor cases of emergency connected we Guests of the Association . Life Compositions from January 1, 1922 Legacy, T. W. Backhouse . j E . Income and Expenditure Account— Balance at July 1, 1921 2,054 19 Add Excess ot Income ov er Expendi- ture for the year 5 : 567 0 8 to £> seed 24615 1 20,212 5 11 573 12 0 | 1,046 18 8 10.000 0 75 0 0 45 0 0 450 0 0 2,621 19 38 £35,271 10 11 £)' 8..d3 Corresponding Figures, 1921. 82 3° 7 20,208 6 5 968 11 8 1,008 8 8 2,054 19 2 £24,522 9 6 I have examined the foregoing Account with the Books and Vouchers, and certify the Approved, ARTHUR L. BOWLEY } A. W. KIRKALDY Auditors. July 20, 1922. GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. XXiil June une 30, 1922, ASSETS. Py Sundry Debtors . 5 = Tnvestments on Capital Accounts— £4,651 10s. 5d. Consolidated 24 per cent. Stock at cost . : £3,600 India 3 per cent. “Stock at cost; £879 14s. 9d. £43 Great tae Peninsula *B” Annuity at cos £810 10s. 3d. £52 ‘2s, 7d. War ‘Stock, 1929/47 at cost £1,400 War oo 5 per cent. 1929/47, * atcost . 3 . : £6,794 8s. 4d. Value at date, £7,634 18s. 2d. ,, Caird Fund— £2, seat 0s. 10d. India 34 per cent. Stock at £2, ora London and North Western Rly. Consolidated 4 per cent. Preference Stock at cost. £2,500 Canada 3% per cent. 1930/50 e “ss ds & 2a. d. Sie (aa Ge Corresponding Figures, 1921. Pil WO xe 259 2 & oo bo ~1 _ on ey OD OW 10,575 15 2 | 10,575 15 2 Registered Stock at cost Zoot) 2. 6 £2,500 London and South Western Rly. Consolidated 4 per cent. eet ae | Stock at cost < Se ; 2,594 17 3 93582,.16 3 9,582 16 3 £5,889 18s. 2d. Value at date,£7,359 16s. 4d. | » Sir F. Bramwell’s Gift— £50 24 per cent Self-Cumulating Con- solidated Stock as per last Balance Sheet - 103 13 3 49 15 0 Add accumulations to June 30, 192 4 : 7:17 10 3.19 6 53 14 6 49 15 0 a G5 Fr a Or Wa ‘By Caird Gift— j £1,000 Registered Treasury Bi naas vaine at date, £1,105 . : 1,000 0 0 1,000 0 O S,, oir peers Parsons’ Gift— £10,0 5 per cent. War HOaT, walue at y oe £10,025 . - : 10,000 0 0 ,, John Perry Guest Fund— ; £96 National Savings Certificates at cost 74 8 0 _,, Investments out of Income— £2,098 1s. 9d. Consolidated 24 per cent. t Stock at cost . 1,200 0 0 £1,500 Registered Treasury Bonds at cost, ; value at date, £2,857 10s. . 2 1,482 0 ’ 2.682 0 0 900 0 0 »,, Cash— , On Deposit c - c - 657 18 1 : At Bank e ; - F : 619 7 0 In hand 411 8 —— 1,281 16 9»| 2,155 0 8 Viz. :— Caird Fund = Sip. La 10 Caird Gift 4618 8 ’ John Perry Guest Fund 9 (Balance) 012 O f Life Compositions : 45° 0) 20 os Legacy, T. W. Backs, i" house. 450 0 0 e General Purposes A 165 14 1 £35,271 10 11 |£24,522 9 6 I same to be correct. I have also verified the balances at the Bankers and the Investments W. B. KEEN, Chartered Accountant XXIV GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT, Income and FOR THE YEAR ENDED EXPENDITURE. | £ Suds £ Ss. a, Se Sie Corresponding Period, June 30, 1921. To Heat and Lighting HOLE .3 y Ae eat ,, stationery 27Aze 9 43 13 11 s, Advertising 4 5 : “21 13 3 » Rent 2 : 0 ; i 8 5 0 Sr 6 ,, Hlectric Light Installation; . #5 bo) .O€) 96 9 6 ;, Postages Ce tit” a8 DS, Loe ;s, Refund re Australian Meeting, 1914 Y5e Oro , Gift to Miss Stewardson 100 0 O ., Travelling Expenses . 50 6 = 85(2) 28. 5 LF ,, Recorders and Secretaries’ Travelling Expenses and Postages : : 331 4 7(?) Ehsigay 2 ;, General Expenses = : 124.17 3 TR 5 2 mUOL19 9 », salaries 5 - - 998 13 4 972 10 Oo ,. Pension Fund : é ia. O20) ,. Printing, Binding, ete. 1,974 13 8(°) B 1,475 10 11 ., Miss Stewardson, as per contra 3 0 0 ., Grants to Research Committees, ete.— Stress Committee a oto Bronze Implements Committee 30} 0" 66 Citizenship Committee . 10 0 0 Parthenogenesis Committee . > AOS Colloid Chemistry Committee Sindy +O Mathematical Tables Committee 517 6 Conjoint Board . GO) 4G Zoology Organisation Committee Lh) Land Corresponding Societies Committee £0 60) 0 Credit Currency, etc., Committee 25 0 0 | Stone Circles Committee 30 0 0 Kiltorcan Committee 15 0 0 | Malta Committee . 25 On«0 Fuel Economy Committee > aie Mi *() International Language Committee OPO) Oenothera Committee 416 6 Gilbert White Memorial Committee Sa ONO ; 257° 10.07 418 110 ;, Balance being excess of Income over Expendi- ture for the year 5 5 4 567' 10 1 £4,658) 7 (5 | £8,518 2 4 (1) The electric lighting installation is complete, and the item will not recur. (2) The greater distance of Edinburgh than of Cardiff from the homes of most of the Beectanies accounts for the increase. (3) The increase is accounted for by the larger issue of the Annual Report consequent upon the larger attendance of members at Edinburgh, by the increased circulation of the ‘ Advance- ment of Science,’ and by the printing of the new series To Grants paid— Marine Biological Association Seismology Committee Table of Constants Committee Naples Table Committee 3 Bronze Implements Committee (additional grant) “ 5 Lepidoptera Committee # ,, Balance being excess of Income over Lxpenditure of * British Association Reprints.’ | Caird £ Sande £ s. d. oo) aeSrmtte 200 0.90 TOGO: 10 AOY 0 0 100 0 0 Oe ee 10) ae | Pe 8 = ass SID) One 1 0 GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT, XXV ‘d a Expenditure Account JuNE 30, 1922. ——_—_ _ ese ene st . = ‘ INCOME. £ 8. ad. £ Saetee ads Corresponding Period, 4 ‘ the June 30, 1921, By Life Compositions to December 31, 1921 225. 0 0 150 0 ,, Annual Members’ Subscriptions, Regular . 323 0 0 367 0 O (Including £75 in advance, 1922/23 and £2 ee 1923/24) » Annual Members’ Subscriptions, Temporary . T3680 O 613 0 0 (Including £64 in advance, 1922/23 and £1 re 1923/24) ;, Annual Members’ Subscript ons, with Report 544 10 0 271 10 O (Including £60 in advance, 1922/23) » Transferable Tickets é 2 J 3 154) 0), 10 47 10 O (Including £3 15s. in advance, 1922/23) », Students’ Tickets 5 5 2 5 “ EASTON 10 60 0 0 », life Members’ Additional Subscriptions F 17; 2 O(4) 2824.2 0 » Refund of Travelling Expenses re Australian } Meeting, 1914 G ; ; Hay yi 0 » Donations . c a 4 . A By Olen 148 13 5 aS bs (Miss Stewardson), as per contra Toe GMeo + Interest on Deposits . = é ¢ ‘ 738 14° 4(5) 103 11 7 » Sales of Publications (including £100 Royalties) 734 6 0(6) 466 11 8 » Transfer from Caird Fund to meet grants as per contra : : 3 t ; $ 15 (een Sia ( ;, Unexpended Balance of grants returned 98°12 7 222 19 3 _,, Income Tax recovered ci : : Te 4 95 11 O _,, Dividends :—- 4 Consols x e ' ; Gl wA 0 Si 8 @O India 3 per cent. . <, a 4 “oO 12 0 ve 12 G Great Indian Peninsula ‘“‘ BB’ Annuity . 20. 13. 3 oa 9) TD War Stock . E 5 : 3 93 18 0 ee ie) 93 » (Sir Charles Parsons’ Gift) 250) 0, 70 Treasury Bonds . c : F 50 12 6 6. ah = 9) ———— 575 3 9 » Legacy - 5 ‘ 5 : - 154 4 0 » By Balance being excess of Expenditure over Income . : : ‘ 4 3 80:2 9 £4,658 7.5 |£3,518 2 4 a es _ (4) This figure represents the (probably) final response to the late General Treasurer's appeal to Old Life Members in 1919-20, ; (5) On the reduction of the Bank Rate and of interest upon deposits, the sums held on deposit have been reduced in favour of investment. By Dividends on Investments :— ee Sa? Se ea es ners (a India 34 per cent. : é 64° «7 «4 Canada 34 per cent. (including extra 4+ per cent.) : ; 3 heeatt Ve SRT oe | London & South Western Railway Con- solidated 4 per cent. Preference Stock . TO 10%" 0 London & North Western Railway Con- ay solidated 4 per cent. Preference Stock 48) 16.40, ’ 268 gh 7 263 3 4 », Income Tax recovered . § a “ Sy 1291S. 4, 112 15 8 » Balance being excess of Expenditure over Income for the year F 7 7 137,19..:2 £515 0 O £375 19 O XXvi RESEARCH COMMITTEES, Etc. APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE, MEETING IN HULL: SEPTEMBER, 1922. Grants of money, if any, from the Association for expenses connected with researches are indicated in heavy type. For Committees concerned with the Nucleus Catalogue for the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust, see end of this last. SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. Seismological Investigations.—Prof. H. H. Turner (Chairman), Mr. J. J. Shaw (Secretary), Mr. C. Vernon Boys, Dr. J. E. Crombie, Sir H. Darwin, Dr. C. Davison, Sir F. W. Dyson, Sir R. T. Glazebrook, Prof. C. G. Knott, Prof. H. Lamb, Sir J. Larmor, Prof. A. E. H. Love, Prof. H. M. Macdonald, Prof. H. C. Plummer, Mr. W. E. Plummer, Prof. R. A. Sampson, Sir A. Schuster, Sir Napier Shaw, Dr. G. T. Walker. £100 (Caird Fund grant). To assist work on the Tides.—Prof. H. Lamb (Chairman), Dr. A. T. Doodson (Secretary), Colonel Sir C. F. Close, Dr. P. H. Cowell, Sir H. Darwin, Dr. G. H. Fowler, Admiral F. CG. Learmonth, Prof. J. Proudman, Major G. I. Taylor, Prof. D’Arey W. Thompson, Sir J. J. Thomson, Prof. H. H. Turner. £25 (for printing). Annual Tables of Constants and Numerical Data, chemical, physical, and technological. —Sir E. Rutherford (Chairman), Prof. A. W. Porter (Secretary), Mr. A. E. G. Egerton. £40 from Caird Fund, to be applied for from Council. Calculation of Mathematical Tables.—Prof. J. W. Nicholson (Chairman), Dr. J. R. Airey (Secretary), Mr. T. W. Chaundy, Prof. L. N. G. Filon, Prof. E. W. Hobson, Mr. G. Kennedy, and Profs. Alfred Lodge, A. E. H. Love. H. M. Macdonald, G. B. Mathews, G. N. Watson, and A. G. Webster. £20 (for printing). Determination of Gravity at Sea.—Prof. A. E. H. Love (Chairman), Dr. W. G. Duffield (Secretary), Mr. T. W. Chaundy, Sir H. Darwin, Prof. A. 8. Eddington, Major E. O. Henrici, Sir A. Schuster, Prof. H. H. Turner. Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere.—Sir Napier Shaw (Chairman), Mr. C. J. P. Cave (Secretary), Prof. S. Chapman, Mr. J. S. Dines, Mr. W. H. Dines, Sir R. T. Glazebrook, Col. E. Gold, Dr. H. Jeffreys, Sir J. Larmor, Mr. R. G. K. Lemp- fert, Prof. F. A. Lindemann, Dr. W. Makower, Sir J. E. Petavel, Sir A. Schuster, Dr. G. C. Simpson, Mr. F. J. W. Whipple, Prof. H. H. Turner. To aid the work of Establishing a Solar Observatory in Australia.—Prof. H. H. Turner (Chairman), Dr. W. G. Duffield (Secretary), Rev. A. L. Cortie, Dr. W. J. 8. Lockyer, Mr. F. McClean, Sir A. Schuster. SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY. Colloid Chemistry and its Industrial Applications.—Prof. F. G. Donnan (Chairman), Dr. W. Clayton (Secretary), Mr. E. Ardern, Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Prof. Sir W. M. Bayliss, Prof. C. H. Desch, Dr. A. E. Dunstan, Mr. H. W. Greenwood, Mr. W. Harrison, Mr. E. Hatschek, Mr. G. King, Prof. W. C. McC. Lewis, Prof. J. W. McBain, Dr. R. S. Morell, Profs. H. R. Proctor and W. Ramsden, Sir E. J. Russell, Mr. A. B. Searle, Dr. S. A. Shorter, Dr. R. E. Slade, Mr. Sproxton, Dr. H. P. Stevens, Mr. H. B. Stocks, Mr. R. Whymper. £5. Absorption Spectra and Chemical Constitution of Organic Compounds.—Prof. I. M. Heilbron (Chairman), Prof. E. E. C. Baly (Secretary), Prof. A. W. Stewart. £10. —_— os een 4 RESEARCH COMMITTEES, XXVI1L SECTION C.—GEOLOGY. The Old Red Sandstone Rocks of Kiltorcan, Ireland.—Prof. Grenville Cole (Chair- man), Prof. T. Johnson (Secretary), Dr. J. W. Evans, Dr. R. Kidston, Dr. A. Smith Woodward. £15. To excavate Critical Sections in the Paleozoic Rocks of England and Wales.—Prof. W. W. Watts (Chairman), Prof. W. G. Fearnsides (Secretary), Prof. W. 8. Boulton, Mr. E. 8. Cobbold, Prof. E. J. Garwood, Mr. V. C. Illing, Dr. J. E. Marr, Dr. W. K. Spencer. The Coliection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of Photographs of Geo- logical Interest.—Prof. E. J. Garwood (Chairman), Prof. S. H. Reynolds (Secretary), Mr. G. Bingley, Dr. T. G. Bonney, Messrs. C. V. Crook, R. Kidston, and A. 8S. Reid, Sir J. J. H. Teall, Prof. W.W. Watts, and Messrs. R. Welch and W. Whitaker. To consider the preparation of a List of Characteristic Fossils.—Prof. P, F. Kendall (Chairman), Mr. H. C. Versey (Secretary), Prof. W. S. Boulton, Dr. A. R. Dwerry- house, Profs. J. W. Gregory, Sir T. H. Holland, and S. H. Reynolds, Dr. Marie C. Stopes, Dr. J. E. Marr, Prof. W. W. Watts, Mr. H. Woods, and Dr. A. Smith Woodward. £5. To investigate the Flora of Lower Carboniferous times as exemplified at a newly discovered locality at Gullane, Haddingtonshire.—Dr. R. Kidston (Chairman), Prof. W. T. Gordon (Secretary), Dr. J. S. Flett, Prof. E. J. Garwood, Dr. J. Horne, and Dr. B. N. Peach. To investigate the Stratigraphical Sequence and Paleontology of the Old Red Sand- stone of the Bristol district.—Dr. H. Bolton (Chairman), Mr. F. 8. Wallis (Secretary), Miss Edith Bolton, Mr. D. E. I. Innes, Prof. C. Lloyd Morgan, Prof. 8S. H. Reynolds. £15. SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY To aid competent Investigators selected by the Committee to carry on definite pieces of work at the Zoological Station at Naples.—Prof. E. 8. Goodrich (Chairman), Prof. J. H. Ashworth (Secretary), Dr. G. P. Bidder, Prof. F. O. Bower, Dr. W. B. Hardy, Sir 8. F. Harmer, Prof. 8. J. Hickson, Sir E. Ray Lankester, Prof. W. C. McIntosh. £100 from Caird Fund, subject to approval of Council. To summon meetings in London or elsewhere for the consideration of matters affecting the interests of Zoology, and to obtain by correspondence the opinion of Zoologists on matters of a similar kind, with power to raise by subscription from each Zoologist a sum of money for defraying current expenses of the organisation.— Prof. 8. J. Hickson (Chairman), Mr. R. A. Wardle (Secretary), Profs. G. C. Bourne, A. Dendy, J. Stanley Gardiner, W. Garstang, Marcus Hartog, Sir W. A. Herdman, J. Graham Kerr, R. D. Laurie, KF. W. MacBride, A. Meek, Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell, Prof. E. B. Poulton, Prof. W. M. Tattersall. Zoological Bibliography and Publication.—Prof. E. B. Poulton (Chairman), Dr. F. A. Bather (Secretary), Mr. IX. Heron-Allen, Dr. W. E. Hoyle, Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell. £1. Parthenogenesis.—Prof. A. Meek (Chairman), Mr. A. D. Peacock (Secretary), Mr. R. 8. Bagnall, Dr. J. W. Heslop-Harrison. £5. To nominate competent Naturalists to perform definite pieces of work at the Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.—Prof. A. Dendy (Chairman and Secretary), Prof. E. 8. Goodrich, Prof. J. P. Hill, Prof. 8. J. Hickson, Sir E. Ray Lankester. Experiments in Inheritance in Silkworms.—Prof. W. Bateson (Chairman), Mrs. Merritt Hawkes (Secretary), Dr. F. A. Dixey, Prof. E. B. Poulton, Prof. R. C, Punnett. Experiments in Inheritance of Colour in Lepidoptera.—Prof. W. Bateson (Chairman and Secretary), Dr. F. A. Dixey, Prof. E. B. Poulton. £2 17s. SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY. To consider the advisability of making a provisional Population Map of the British Isles, and to make recommendations as to the method of construction and reproduction.—Mr. H. O. Beckit (Chairman), Mr. F. Debenham (Secretary), Mr. J. Bartholomew, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Mr. R. H. Kinvig, Mr. A. G. Ogilvie, Mr. O. H. T. Rishbeth, Prof. P. M. Roxby. XXViil RESEARCH COMMITTEES, SECTIONS E, L.—GEOGRAPHY, EDUCATION. To formulate suggestions for a syllabus for the teaching of Geography both to Matrica- lation Standard and in Advanced Courses ; to report upon the present position of the geographical training of teachers, and to make recommendations thereon ; and to report, as occasion arises, to Council through the Organising Committee of Section E, upon the practical working of Regulations issued by the Board of Education affecting the position of Geography in Training Colleges and Secondary Schools.—Prof. T. P. Nunn (Chairman), Mr. W. H. Barker (Secretary), Mr. L. Brooks, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Mr. O. J. R. Howarth, Sir H. J. Mackinder, Prof. J. L. Myres, and Prof. J. F. Unstead (from Section ) ; Mr. Adlam, Mr. D. Berridge, Mr. C. E. Browne, Sir R. Gregory, Mr. E. Sharwood Smith, Mr. E. R. Thomas, Miss O. Wright (from Section L). £10. SECTION G.—ENGINEERING. To report on certain of the more complex Stress Distributions in Engineering Materiais. —Prof. E. G. Coker (Chairman), Prof. L. N. G. Filon and Prof. A. Robertson (Secretaries), Prof. A. Barr, Dr. Gilbert Cook, Prof. W. E. Dalby, Sir J. A. Ewing, Messrs. A. ‘R. Fulton and J. J. Guest. Dr. B. P. Haigh, Profs. Sir J. B. Henderson, C. E. Inglis, F. C. Lea, A. E. H. Love, and W. Mason, Sir J. E. Petavel, Dr. F. Rogers, Dr. W. A. Scoble, Mr. R. V. Southwell, Dr. T. E. Stanton, Mr. C. E. Stromeyer, Mr. J. S. Wilson. £25. SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. To report on the Distribution of Brcnze Age Implements.—Prof. J. L. Myres (Chair- man), Mr. H. Peake (Secretary), Dr. E. C. R. Armstrong, Mr. Leslie Armstrong, Dr. G. A. Auden, Mr. H. Balfour, Mr. L. H. D. Buxton, Mr. O. G. 8. Crawford, Sir W. Boyd Dawkins, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Mr. G. A. Garfitt, Prof. Sir W. Ridgeway. £100 (£20 from general funds; £80 from Caird Fund to be applied for from Council.) To conduct Archeological Investigations in Malta.—Prof. J. L. Myres (Chairman) , Sir A. Keith (Secretary), Dr. T. Ashby, Mr. H. Balfour, Dr. R. R. Marett, Mr. H. Peake. £25. To conduct Explorations with the object of ascertaining the Age of Stone Circles.— Sir C. H. Read (Chairman), Mr. H. Balfour (Secretary), Dr. G. A. Auden, Prof. Sir W. Ridgeway, Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir Arthur Evans, Sir W. Boyd Dawkins, Prof. J. L. Myres, Mr. H. J. E. Peake. To excavate Early Sites in Macedonia.—Prof. Sir W. Ridgeway (Chairman), Mr 8. Casson (Secretary), Prof. R C. Bosanquet, Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth, Prof. J. L. Myres. ; To report on the Classification and Distribution of Rude Stone Monuments.—Dr R. R. Marett (Chairman), Prof. H. J. Fleure (Secretary); Mr. O. G. 8. Crawford, Miss R. M. Fleming, Mr. G. Marshall, Prof. J. L. Myres, Mr. H. J. E. Peake. £5. The Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of Photographs of Anthro- pological Interest.—Sir C. H. Read (Chairman), Mr. E. N. Fallaize (Secretary), Dr. G. A. Auden, Dr. H. O. Forbes, Mr. E. Heawood, Prof. J. L. Myres, Mr. E. Torday. : To conduct Archeological and Ethnological Researches in Crete.—Dr. D. G. Hogarth (Chairman), Prof. J. L. Myres (Secretary), Prof. R. C. Bosanquet, Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth, Sir A. Evans, Prof. Sir W. Ridgeway, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall. To co-operate with Local Committees in excavation on Roman Sites in Britain.— Prof. Sir W. Ridgeway (Chairman), Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Secretary), Dr. T. Ashby, Mr. Willoughby Gardner, Prof. J. L. Myres. To report on the present state of knowledge of the Ethnography and Anthropology of the Near and Middle East.—Dr. A. C. Haddon (Chairman), Mr. E. N. Fallaize (Secretary), Mr. 8. Casson (Secretary), Prof. H. J. Fleure, Mr. H. J. E. Peake. £10. RESEARCH COMMITTEES. XXIX To report on the present state of knowledge of the relation of early Paleolithic Implements to Glacial Deposits.—Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chairman), Mr. E. N. Fallaize (Secretary), Mr. H. Balfour, Mr. M. Burkitt. To investigate the Lake Villages in the neighbourhood of Glastonbury in connection with a Committee of the Somerset Archeological and Natural History Society..— Sir W. Boyd Dawkins (Chairman), Mr. Willoughby Gardner (Secretary), Mr. H. Balfour, Mr. A. Bulleid, Mr. F. 8. Palmer, Mr. H. J. BE. Peske. To co-operate with a Committee of the Roya! Anthropological Institute in the explor- ation of Caves in the Derbyshire district. —Sir W. Boyd Dawkins (Chairman), Mr. G. A. Garfitt (Secretary), Mr. Leslie Armstrong, Mr. E. N. Fallaize, Dr. R. R. Marett, Mr. H. J. E. Peake, Prof. W. M. Tattersall. £25. To investigate processes of Growth in Children, with a view to discovering Differences due to Race and Sex, and further to study Racial Differences in Women.—Sir A. Keith (Chairman), Prof. H. J. Fleure (Secretary), Dr. A. Low, Prof. F. G. Parsons, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall. £20. (A proportion not exceeding one-half of this grant may be expended on railway fares incurred in course of the investigation. ) To conduct Excavations and prepare a Survey of the Coldrum Megalithic Monument.— Sir A. Keith (Chairman), Prof. H. J. Fleure (Secretary), Mr. O. G. S. Crawford, Mr. H. J. E. Peake. £20. To report on the existence and distribution of Megalithic Monuments in the Isle of Man.—Prof. H. J. Fleure (Chairman), Dr. Cyril Fox (Secretary), Mr. O. G. 8S. Crawford, Sir W. Herdman, Mr. P. M. C. Kermode, Rev. Canon Quine. To report on proposals for an Anthropological and Archxological Bibliography, with power to co-operate with other bodies.—Dr. A. C. Haddon (Chairman), Mr. E. N. Fallaize (Secretary), Dr. T. Ashby, Mr. W. H. Barker, Mr. O. G. S. Crawford, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Prof. J. L. Myres, Mr. H. J. E. Peake, Dr. D. Randall-MaclIver, Mr. T. Sheppard. To report on the best means of publishing a monograph by Dr. Fox on the Archeology of the Cambridge Region.—Dr. A. C. Haddon (Chairman), Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Secretary), Prof. H. J. Fleure, Prof. J. L. Myres. To report on the progress of Anthropological Teaching in the present century— Dr. A. C. Haddon (Chairman), Prot. J. L. Myres (Secretary), Prof. H. J. Fleure, Dr, R. R. Marett, Prof. C. G. Seligman. SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY. Efficiency of Movement in Men equipped with Artificial Limbs.—Prof. E. P. Cathcart (Chairman), Prof. A. V. Hill (Secretary), Dr. Hort. £20. Muscular Stiffness in relation to Respiration.—Prof. A. V. Hill (Chairman), Dr. Ff. Roberts (Secretary), Mr. J. Barcroit. £415. SECTION J.—PSYCHOLOGY. The Place of Psychology in the Medical Curriculum.—Prof. G. Robertson (Chairman), Dr. W. Brown (Secretary), Dr. J. Drever, Dr. R. G. Gordon, Dr. C. 8S. Myers, Prof. T. H. Pear, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall. Vocational Tests.—Dr. C. 8. Myers (Chairman), Dr. G. H. Miles (Secretary), Mr. C. Burt, Prof. T. H. Pear, Mr. F. Watts, Dr. L. Wynn-Jones. SECTION K.—BOTANY. To continue Breeding Experiments on Qenothera and other Genera.—Dr. A. B. Rendle (Chairman‘, Dr. R. R. Gates (Secretary), Prot. W. Bateson, Mr. W. Brierley, Prof. O. V. Darbishire, Dr. M. C. Rayner. £2. 8s. 6d. Primary Botanical Survey in Wales.—Dr. E. N. Miles Thomas (Chairman), Prof. O. Y. Darbishire (Secretary), Miss A. J. Davey, Prof. McLean, Prof. F. W. Oliver, Prof. Stapledon, Mr. A. G. Tansley, Miss E. Vachell, Miss Wortham. £10. (A proportion not exceeding three-quarters of this grant may be expended on railway fares incurred in course of the investigation.) XXX RESEARCH COMMITTEES. SECTION L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. Training in Citizenship.—Rt. Rev. J. E. C. Welldon (Chairman), Lady Shaw (Secretary), Mr. C. H. Blakiston, Mr. G. D. Dunkerlev, Mr. W. D. Eggar, Mr. J. C. Maxwell Garnett, Sir R. A. Gregory, Mr. Spurley Hey, Miss E. P. Hughes, Sir T. Morison. £50. To inquire into the Practicability of an International Auxiliary Language.—Dr. H. Foster Morley (Chairman), Dr. E. H. Tripp (Secretary), Mr. E. Bullough, Prof. J. J. Findlay, Sir Richard Gregory, Mr. W. B. Hardy, Dr. C. W. Kimmins, Sir E. Cooper Perry, Mr. Nowell Smith, Mr. A. E. Twentyman. CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. Corresponding Societies Committee.—The President of the Association (Chairman ex-officio), Mr. T. Sheppard (Vice-Chairman), the General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, Dr. F. A. Bather, Mr. O. G. S. Crawford, Prof. P. F. Kendall, Mr. Mark L. Sykes, Dr. C. Tierney, Prof. W. W. Watts, Mr. W. Whitaker; with authority to co-opt representatives of the Scientific Societies of Liverpool and District. £40 for preparation of bibliography and report. LIST OF COMMITTEES Appointed by the General Committee to co-operate with the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust in preparing the Scientific Sections of a Nucleus Catalogue of Books for the use of Rural Libraries. Section B (Cuemistry).—Prof. C. H. Desch (Chairman), Dr. A. Holt (Secretary), Dr. C. H. Keane. Srction C (Gronocy).—Dr. J. 8. Flett (Chairman), Mr. W. Whitaker (Secretary), Dr. J. W. Evans. Srection D (Zootocy).—Sir S. F. Harmer (Chairman), Dr. W. T. Calman (Secretary), Prof. J. H. Ashworth, Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell. Section E (Ggocrapuy).—Dr. H. R. Mill (Chairman), Dr. R. N. Rudmose Brown (Secretary), Mr. G. G. Chisholm, Mr. O. J. R. Howarth, Dr. Marion Newbigin. fection F (Economics).—Prof. E. Cannan (Convener), Prof. H. M. Hallsworth, Miss Jebb. Section H (AnrHRopoLoGy).—Dr. E. 8. Hartland (Chairman), Mr. E. N. Fallaize (Secretary), Mr. W. Crooke, Prof. H. J. Fleure. Section I (Puystotocy).—Prof. H. E. Roaf (Chairman), Dr. C. Lovatt Evans (Secretary). Srection J /Psycuorocy).—Dr. J. Drever (Chairman), Miss Bickersteth (Secretary), Dr. H. J. Watt. Section K (Botrany).—Dr. H. W. T. Wager (Chairman), Mr. F. T. Brooks (Secretary), Prof. W. Neilson Jones. Prof. F. E. Weiss. Srection LL (Epucation).—Dr. A. Darroch (Chairman), Prof. T. P. Nunn. XXxi THE CAIRD FUND. An unconditional gift of £10,000 was made to the Association at the Dundee Meeting, 1912, by Mr. (afterwards Sir) J. K. Caird, LL.D., of Dundee. The Council, in its report to the General Committee at the Birming- ham Meeting, made certain recommendations as to the administration of this Fund. These recommendations were adopted, with the Report, by the General Committee at its meeting on September 10, 1913. The following allocations have been made from the Fund by the Council to September 1922. Naples Zoological Station Committee (p. xxvii)—£50 (1912-13); £100 (1913-14); £100 annually in future, subject to the adoption of the Committee’s report (reduced to £50 during war ; suspended, 1920-21, pending approval by Council of Committee’s report on future control of the Station, ete.). Seismology Committee (p. xxvi).—£100 (1913-14) ; £100 annually in future, subject to the adoption of the Committee’s report. Radiotelegraphic Committee (p. 273).—£500 (1913-14). Magnetic Re-survey of the British Isles (in collaboration with the Royal Society).—£250. Committee on Determination of Gravity at Sea (p. xxvi).—£100 (1914-15). Annual Tables of Constants (p. xxvi).—£40. Mr. F. Sargent, Bristol Unwersity, i connection with his Astronomical Work.—£10 (1914). Organising Committee of Section F (Economics), towards expenses of an Inquiry into Outlets for Labour after the War.—£100 (1915). Rev. T. EH. R. Phillips, for aid in transplanting his private observatory.— £20 (1915). Committee on Fuel Economy (p. 277).—£25 (1915-16), £10 (1919-20). Committee on Training in Citizenship (p. xxx).—£10 (1919-20). Geophysical Committee of Royal Astronomical Society.—£10 (1920). Conjoint Board of Scientific Societies.—£10 (1920) ; £10 (1921). Marine Biological Association, Plymouth.—£200 (1921). In and since 1921, the Council have authorised expenditure from accumulated income of the fund upon grants to Research Committees approved by the General Committee by way of supplementing sums available from the general funds of the Association, and in addition to grants ordinarily made by, or applied for from, the Council. Sir J. K. Caird, on September 10, 1913, made a further gift of £1,000 to the Association, to be devoted to the study of Radio-activity. In 1920 the Council decided to devote the principal and interest of this gift at the rate of £250 per annum for five years to purposes of the research intended. The grants for the year ending March 24, 1922 and 1923 were made to Sir BE. Rutherford, F.R.S. XXX1 RESOLUTIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS. The following Resolutions and Recommendations were referred to the Council (unless otherwise stated) by the General Committee at Hull for consideration and, if desirable, for action :— From Section D. That the Council be asked to support Dr. Potts in an application to the Committee on Sea Action of the Institution of Civil Engineers, for a grant in aid of his investigation upon the life-history of Z'eredo. From Section E. The Committee of Section E draws the attention of Council to the new Regulations for Secondary Schools issued by the Board of Education, and asks the Council to express to the Board its gratification at the inclusion of Group E (Advanced Courses) which allows Geography to be taken as an advanced study in combination with two other approved subjects. (The General Committee instructed the General Secretaries to take imme- diate action on the above resolution.) From Section G. Although making no definite suggestion to the Council as to the method of procedure, the Committee of Section G would view with favour a scheme for raising a fund for the relief of distinguished aged scientists who are in need as the result of the present conditions on the Continent of Europe. From Section L. That Section L is cordially in favour of continuing the lectures for children, but hopes that in future such lectures may be arranged for the afternoons rather than the mornings in order that they may not clash with the meetings of the Sections. (The General Committee considered it unnecessary to refer the above resolu- tion to the Council, on receiving the General Officers’ assurance that the matter would be borne in mind.) From the Committee of Recommendations. (a) That the Council be requested to consider the following resolution from the Museums Association :—That in the opinion of the Museums Association the time has arrived when it is desirable in the interest of the country to appoint a Royal Commission to investigate and report upon the work of the Museums of the United Kingdom in relation to industries and general culture. (0) That if, in any application for a grant from the funds of the Association, any payment of travelling expenses (fares only) is contemplated, the amount to be so allocated must be stated in the application, and the payment of such expenses expressly sanctioned by the Committee of Recommendations and the General Committee, or, in the event of subsequent emergency, by the Council, nell RESOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS, XXXIll From the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies. (a) To invite the scientific societies of Liverpool and District, on the occasion of the British Association’s visit in 1923, to consider what further provision, if any, is desirable for co-operation between them in the advancement of Science, as, for example, for scientific research, for the discussion of regional problems, and for the publication of results. (6) To invite the Delegates sent to the Conference by the Corresponding Societies to render any assistance in their power in making known, in their respective districts, the objects and methods of the British Association, and to communicate to the Secretary of the Association the names and addresses of scientific workers and others to whom the preliminary programme of the next meeting should be sent. (c) To call the attention of the Council to the inadequacy, discontinuity, and occasional overlap of scientific bibliographies already ‘issued, and _ to request the Council to consider what steps may be taken, by the Association itself or otherwise, to make more systematic provision for the bibliography of the departments of science represented in the Sections of the Association. (d) To request the Council to make known to the principal Government Departments, in any way which may seem desirable, the assistance which may be obtained by them through the local societies in scientific inquiries involving regional distributions. (e) To call the attention of Scientific Societies to the necessity of retaining in all offprints from their publications the original numbering of the pages, and of providing full reference to the date, place, and title of the publication from which they are extracted. (f) To call the attention of the Council to the value of the Regional Exhibit arranged for the Hull Meeting by the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union, and to suggest that it is desirable that such an exhibit should, if possible, be included regularly in the programme of the Annual Meeting. (g) To inform the Conference of Delegates that the present practice of the Association is to present a copy of the Annual Report to each Society sending a Delegate to the Conference, recognising the practice by which one Delegate sometimes represents more than one Society, and to recommend that in future no Delegate be entitled to more than one copy, however many Societies he may represent; but that if any Society desires a copy of the Report it may be supplied at the reduced price of ten shillings. The General Committee also formulated the following resolution :— That in view of the material hardship imposed upon members attending the meetings of the British Association through the continuance of the undu:y high railway charges, it is expedient that the Council should be requested to investigate the possibility of joint action being taken with other kindred associations with a view to obtaining a restoration of the customary travelling facilities and concessions allowed to such organisaticns before the war. COMMUNICATIONS RECOMMENDED FOR PRINTING IN EXTENDED FORM. Section A.—Extended abstract of Prof. P. Weiss’s remarks in the Discussion _on the Origin of Magnetism. (See p. 411.) Section B.—Rerort of Discussion on the Nitrogen Industry. (See p. 415.) Secrion L.—Lord Meston’s Address on Imperial Citizenship. (See p. 423.) 1922 c Ag tetas aaa =o ‘ey cn Pain ety LO meme See ‘<7 Wet F i ue ‘gms : 5 ap igre chiro. Paik Ba Me ay i+ o =o PEOATAAKE ere hh BKOKCUNORI Ty Sie: paste cin lee Ya a piel 1o angie Th (okie oth? uo ohh part Po ge Fin pied ort, saglit Saas shoe a ot rts 0 x asreet Ao se aarnesi seta 4k It wld” tog ¢ gare ldivasy inmengas To goigaLoeh 4 di tot ul vita, 3 fei tor ~ ‘ailanon 4 evra: ye % aves npseriol) ohh Bihan ta.) ily OF Saoe aotigalotl “gclieot —tleatd ak arta piitant. ct soy we i sonata es. Cae) aa hue .woitalatiewh) Aaisiendds “Ww ebocdigna haw eioettion eu wm eonne this Ayia capian asts..ss0 Ul Ds omde ods to BrBteents epaan- wie jo -smmeetaneyocny, ear orsag ats axon Os avedao! Bins ' nee ” “pisninah : inbienabiab fd od Lien ahs fo antioodte alt a us bine, | tere “dbase: ani: ityermoltdid aniinsina Bo qabeore oO qotitindeak mitt ed iiestes oY RANE BESTE, ‘ate whisdap of le ae Yes alquiggol td id alt ToL raed neg aitenrstaye enone ooh Od | nnitaigoad,’ ait to “analieed OHt at baimobosites, able” ; daarkiyr rnd, Frglowio ae su reais shen i terrane? - ene Nosity? oowesaiene Bits aldeieoh puoed yon done case Yaa sth, -y sovidleas aoe beet SH Ieee ppusione laaol adt dyucult cents 4 : ee eras Se ‘pein 92 tw noligetia odd Hear hg aroitantdaer aah sof be coin, cikd Oe wanton J AM es Yo eiteanvee wee Tk b Saye gd to pes Pies ‘saad wonteotthany ache be LA ifiehivty 3 Fonwjpoll wilh hes Se Rey is 5 eh Baie evokes Ds ehasbas tee ‘ pits a yet) By biess hivizi< ask shel ienty Pree nit) aisha Ms. oie dacts oid -gartyole | ; 4 add Yo pot dB doenay ai dels: fh por ese aud watib iowa rs tote” are oF rng lh, Tatu. ont he yoo 2 beromgrtey afewalet] etd fuidw yd Sobbekad. siiicgiceimooes eso siretat asf dul hpetiontécet of bar ans 2 ae gl te aJu _ Eno wal abide vec howls teont: “eVqpogi ne AA. PAT od iy Bas Mure di tion eis “To 1404 oe teal yiaige?. yom Ye Sone bon ie fir net to doLBt. , PE Ds Scag btitiabe dif wie! bake: feotbfgcerwl bes ons enue) oh ot qotherrin epselenaic rijqar Heinen Quitband Jaiveteutt ent sy an wulieb ed? TO soumennetien oth, A wert nigifnironeds Meira orkty OM _ 6) Tieteoper ad bloods fired odd: ss im ) ak St eon veel ; of 3 barty rita “otto oatye creat pie wd ME, hieli Yahi ee, yO Movant incite, 3t ta. Holt daotaet ay rie sow Set at iy Hens! 1 GE Ae, ie oe ee ee BYP cai OT UO A 7 MOF, Hoiewapasth old wis Hyper, t ‘nett. Jt 3 : fail Pat oO): jain ago ti Bi dabesadli ug Ge Eine nee %. he) Sintra ed ps bahia i es cs ; THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. SOME ASPECTS OF ANIMAL MECHANISM. BY PROFESSOR SiR C. 8S. SHERRINGTON, G.B.E., Se.D., D.Sce., LL.D., Pres.RB.5., PRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION. Iv is sometimes said that Science lives too much to itself. Once a year it tries to remove that reproach. The British Association meeting is that annual occasion, with its opportunity of talking in wider gather- ings about scientific questions and findings. Often the answers are tentative. Commonly questions most difficult are those that can be quite briefly put. Thus, ‘Is the living organism a machine?’ ‘Is life the running of a mechanism?’ ‘The answer cannot certainly be as short as the question. But let us, in the hour before us, examine some of the points it raises. Of course for us the problem is not the why of the living organism but the how of its working. If we put before ourselves some aspects of this working we may judge for ourselves some at least of the contents of the question. It might be thought that the problem is presented at its simplest in the simplest forms of life. Yet it is in certain aspects more seizable in complex animals than it is in simpler forms. And so let us turn thither. Our own body is full of exquisite mechanism. Many exemplifica- tions could be chosen. There is the mechanism by which the general complex internal medium, the blood, is kept relatively constant in its chemical reaction, despite the variety of the food replenishing it and the fluctuating draft from and input into it from various organs and tissues. In this mechanism the kidney cells and the lung cells form _ two of the main sub-mechanisms. And one part of the latter is the delicate mechanism linking the condition of the air at the bottom of the lungs with that particular part of the nervous system which manages the ventilation of the lungs. On that ventilation depends the proper _ respiratory condition of the blood. The nervous centre which manages the rhythmic breathing of the chest is so responsive to the respiratory c 2 2 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. state of the blood supplied to itself that, as shown by Drs. Haldane and Priestley some years ago, the very slightest increase in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide at the bottom of the lungs at once suitably increases the ventilation of the chest. And dovetailed in with this mechanism is a further one working for adjustment in the same direction. As the lung is stretched by each inbreath the respiratory condition of the nervous centre, already attuned to the respiratory quality of the air in the lungs, sets the degree to which inspiration shall fill them ere there ensue the opposite movement of outbreath. All this regulation, although the nervous system takes part in it, is a mechanism outside our consciousness. Part of it is operated chemi- cally; part of it is reflex reaction to a stimulus of mechanical kind, though.as such unperceived. The example taken has been nervous mechanism. If in the short time at disposal we confine our examples to the nervous system, to do so will have the advantage that in one respect that system presents our problem possibly at its fullest. To turn, therefore, to another instance, mainly nervous. Muscles execufe our movements ; they also maintain our postures. This postural action of muscles is produced by nerve-centres which form a system more or less their own. One posture of great importance thus main- tained is that of standing, the erect posture. This involves due co- operation of many separate muscles in many parts. Even in absence of those portions of the brain to which consciousness is adjunct the lower nerve-centres successfully bring about and maintain all this co-operation of muscles which results in the erect posture. For instance, the animal in this condition, if set on its feet, stands. It stands reflexly. More than that, it adjusts its standing posture to required conditions. If the pose of one of the limbs be shifted that shift induces a compensatory shift in the other limbs, so that stability is retained. A turn of the creature’s neck sidewise and the body and limbs of themselves take up a fresh attitude appropriate to the side- turned head. Each particular pose of the neck telegraphs off to the limbs and body a particular posture required from them, and that posture is then maintained so long as the neck posture is maintained. Stoop the creature’s neck and the forelimbs bend down as if to seek something on the floor. Tilt the muzzle upward and the forelimbs straighten and the hind liinbs crouch as if to look up at a shelf. Purely reflex mechanism provides most kinds of ordinary postures. Mere reflex action provides these harmonies of posture. The nerve- centres evoke for this purpose in the required muscles a mild, steady contraction, with tension largely independent of the muscle length and little susceptible to fatigue. Nerve-fibres run from muscle to nerve- centre. By these each change in tension or length of the muscle is reported to the activating nerve-centre. They say ‘ Tension rising, you THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 3 must slacken,’ or conversely. ‘There also play a part organs whose stimulation changes with change of their relation to the line of gravity. Thus, a pair of tiny water-filled bags set one in each side of the skull. In each of these a patch of cells endowed with a special nerve. Attached to hairlets of these cells a tiny crystalline stone whose pressure acts as a stimulus through them to the nerve. The nerve of each gravity-bag connects, through chains of nerve-centres, with the muscles of all the limbs and of one side of the neck. In the ordinary erect posture of the head the stimulation by the two bags right and left is equal, because the two gravity-stones then le symmetrically. The result, then, is a symmetrical muscular effect on the two sides of the body, namely, the normal erect posture. But the right and left bags are mirror pictures of each other. If the head incline to one side the resulting slip, microscopic though it be, of the two stones on their nerve-patches makes the stimulation unequal. And from that slip there results exactly the right unsymmetrical action of the muscles to give the unsymmetrical pose of limbs and neck required for stability. That is the mechanism dealing with limbs and trunk and neck. An additional one postures the head itself on the neck; a second pair of tiny gravity-bags, in which the stones hang rather than press. These, when any cause inclining the head has passed, bring the head back at once to the normal symmetry of the erect posture. And these same bags manage the posturing of the eyes. The eye contributes to our orientation in space; for instance, to perception of the vertical. And for this the eyeball, that is the retina, has to be postured normally. The pair of little gravity-bags in the skull, which act to restore the head posture, act also on the eyeball muscles. Whichever way the head turns, slopes, or is tilted, these adjust the eyeball’s posture compensatingly, so that the retina still looks out upon its world from an approximately normal posture, retaining its old verticals and horizontals. As the head twists to the right the eyeball’s visual axis untwists from the right. These reactions of head and eyes and body unconsciously take place when a bird wheels or slants in flight or 2 pilot stalls or banks his aeroplane. And all this works itself involuntarily as a pure mechanism, whose analysis we owe mainly to Prof. Magnus and Dr. de Kleijn, of Utrecht. True, in such a glimpse of mechanism what we see mainly is how the machinery starts and what finally comes out of it; the intermediate elements of the process we know less of. Each insight into mechanism reveals more mechanism still to know. Thus, hardly was the animal’s energy balance in its bearing upon food intake shown comfortably to conform with thermodynamics than came evidence of the so-called ‘vitamines.’ Unsuspected influence on nutrition by elements of diet taken in quantities so small as to make their mere calorie value quite negligible; thus, for 4 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. the growing rat, to quote Professor Harden, a quantity of vitamin A of the order of =4, milligram a day. Again, as regards sex determination, the valued discovery of a visible distinction between the nuclear threads of male and female brings the further complexity that in such cases sex extends throughout the whole body to every dividing cell. Again, the association of hereditary unit-factors, such as body colour or shape of wing, to visible details in the segmenting nucleus seemed to simplify by epitomising. But further insight tends to trace the inherited unit character not to the chromosome itself, but to balance of action between the chromosome group. As with the atom in this heroic age of physicists, the elementary unit assumed simple proves, under further analysis, to be itself complex. Analysis opens a vista of further analysis required. Knowledge of muscle contraction has, from the work of Fletcher and Hopkins on to Hill, Hartree, Meyerhof, and others, advanced recently more than in many decades heretofore. The engineer would find it difficult to make a motive machine out of white of egg, some dissolved salts, and thin membrane. Yet this practically is what Nature has done in muscle, and obtained a machine of high mechanical efficiency. Perhaps human ingenuity can learn from it. One feature in the device is alternate development and removal of acidity. The cycle of contraction and relaxation les traced to the production of lactic acid from glycogen and its neutralisation chiefly by alkaline proteins; and physically to an admirably direct transition from chemical to mecnanical effect. What new steps of mechanism all this now opens! ‘To arrive at one goal is to start for others. But knowledge, while making for complexity, makes also for simplification. There seems promise of simplification as to the mechanism of reflex action. Reflex action with surprising nicety calls into play just the appropriate muscles, and adjusts them in time and in the suitable grading of their strength of pull. The moderating as well as the driving of muscles is involved. Also the muscles have to pass from the behest of one stimulus to that of another, even though the former stimulus still persist. For these gradings, coadjustments, restraints, and shifts various separate kinds of mechanism were assumed to exist in the nerve-centres, although of the nature of such mechanisms little could be said. Their processes were regarded as peculiar to the nerve- centres and different from anything that the simple fibres of nerve- trunks outside the centres can produce. We owe to Lucas and Adrian the demonstration that without any nerve-centre whatever an excised nerve-trunk with its muscle attached can be brought to yield, besides conduction of nerve impulses, the extinction or attenuation or augmenta- tion of them. That is remarkable, because the impulse is not gradable by grading the strength of the stimulus. Any stimulus of strength sufficient to excite the nerve-fibre at all, excites in it an impulse which ; i . a q ¢ THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 5 is the fullest which the nerve-fibre can at the time give. The energy of the impulse comes not from the stimulus, but from the fibre itself. Lucas and Adrian have shown it gradable in another way. Though the nerve impulse is a quite brief affair—it lasts about -,1,, second at any one point of the nerve—it leaves behind it in the nerve-fibre a short phase during which the fibre cannot develop a second impulse. Then follows rapid but gradual recovery of the strength of impulse obtainable from the fibre. That recovery may swing past normal to super-normal before final return to the old resting state. Hence, by appropriately timing the arrival of a second impulse after a first, that second impulse may be extinguished or reduced or increased or transmitted without alteration. This property of grading impulses promises a complete key to reflex action if taken along with one other. The nervous system, including its centres, consists of nothing but chains of cells and fibres. In these chains the junctions of the links appear to be points across which a large impulse can pass, though a weak one will fail. At these points the grading of impulses by the interference process just outlined can lead, therefore, to narrow- ing or widening of their further distribution, much as in a railway system the traffic can be blocked or forwarded, condensed or scattered. Thus the distribution and quantity of the muscular effect can be regu- lated and shifted not only from one muscle to another, but in one and the same muscle can be graded by adding to or subtracting from the number of fibres activated within that muscle. As pointed out by Prof. Alexander Forbes, it may be, therefore, that the nerve impulse is the one and only reaction throughout the whole nervous system, central and peripheral, trains of impulses simply interfering, colliding and over-running as they travel along the inter-connected branches of the conductive network. In this may lhe the secret of the co-ordination of reflexes. The nerve-centre seems nothing more than a meeting- place of nerve-fibres, its properties but those of impulses in combina- tion. Fuller knowledge of the mechanism of the nervous impulse, many of whose physical properties are now known, a reaction open to study in the simplest units of the nervous system, thus leads to a view of nervous function throughout that system much simpler than formerly obtained. Yet for some aspects of nervous mechanism the nerve impulse offers little or no clue. ‘The fibres of nerve-trunks are perhaps of all nerve- | . structures those that are best known. They constitute, for instance, _ the motor nerves of muscle and the sensory nerves of the skin. When they are broken the muscle or skin is paralysed. They establish their ties with muscle and skin during embryonic life. These ties they then maintain practically unaltered throughout the individual’s existence, and show no further growth. If severed, say, by a wound, they die 6 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. for their whole length between the point of severance and the muscle or skin they go to. And then at once the cut ends of the nerve-fibres start re-growing from the point of severance, although for years they have given no sign of growth. The fibre, so to say, tries to grow out to reach to its old far-distant muscle. There are difficulties in its way. A multitude of non-nervous repair cells growing in the wound spin scar tissue across the new fibre’s path. Between these alien cells the new nerve-fibre threads a tortuous way, avoiding and never joining any of them. This obstruction it may take many days to traverse. Then it reaches a region where the sheath-cells of the old dead nerve-fibres lie altered beyond ordinary recognition. But the growing fibre recognises them. Tunnelling through endless chains of them, it arrives finally, after weeks or months, at the wasted muscle-fibres which seem to have been its goal, for it connects with them at once. It pierces their covering membranes and re-forms with their substance junctions of characteristic pattern resembling the original that had died weeks or months before. Then its growth ceases, abruptly, as it began, and the wasted muscle recovers and the lost function is restored. Can we trace the causes of this beneficent yet so unaccountable reaction? How is it that severance can start the nerve re-growing? How does the nerve-fibre find its lost muscle microscopically miles away? What is the mechanism that drives and guides it? Is it a chemotaxis like that of the antherozooid in the botanical experiment drawn towards the focus of the dissolved malic acid? If so, there must be a marvellously arranged play of intricate sequences of chemi- cally attractive and repellent substances dissolved suitably point to point along the tissue. It has recently been reported that the nerve- fibre growing from a nerve-cell in a nutrient field of graded electrical potential grows strictly by the axis of the gradient. Some argue for the existence of such potential gradients in the growing organism. Certainly nerve regeneration seems a return to the original phase of growth, and pieces of adult tissue removed from the body to artificial nutrient media in the laboratory take on vigorous growth. Professor Champy describes how epithelium that in the body is not growing when thus removed starts growing. If freed from all fibrous tissue its cells not only germinate, but, as they do so, lose their adult specialisation. In nerve regeneration the nerve-sheath cells, and to some extent the muscle-cells which have lost their nerve-fibre, lose likewise their specialised form, and regain it only after touch with the nerve-cell has been re-established. So similarly epithelium and its connective tissue cultivated outside the body together both grow and both retain their specialisation. All seems to argue that the mutual touch between the several cells of the body is decisive of much in their individual shaping and destiny. The severance of a nerve-fibre is an instance of the disloca- THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 7 tion of such a touch. It recalls well-known experiments on the segment- ing egg. Destruction of one of the two halves produced by the first segmentation of the egg results in a whole embryo from the remaining half-egg. But if the two blastomeres, though ligated, be left side by side, each then produces a half-embryo. Each half-egg can yield a whole embryo, but is restrained by the presence of the twin cell to yielding but a half one. The nerve severance seems to break a mutual connection which restrained cell growth and maintained cell differentiation. It may be said that the nerve-sheath cells degrade because absence of transmission of nerve impulses leaves their fibre functionless. But they do not degrade in the central nerve-piece, although impulses no longer pass along its afferent fibres. This mechanism of reconstruction seems strangely detached from any direct performance of function. The sprouting nerve-fibres of a motor nerve with impulses for muscular con- traction can by misadventure take their way to denervated skin instead of muscle. They find the skin-cells whose nerve-fibres have been lost, and on these they bud out twigs, as true sensory fibres would do. Then, seemingly satisfied by so doing, they desist from further growth. The sense-cells, too, after this misunion, regain their normal features. But this joining of motor nerve-fibre with sense-cell is functionless, and must be so because the directions of functional conduction of the two are incompatible. So, similarly, a regenerating skin-nerve led down to muscle makes its union with muscle instead of skin, though the union is a functional misfit, and cannot subserve function. Marvellous though nerve re- generation be, its mechanism seems blind. Its vehemence is just as great after amputation, when the parts lost can of course never be re- reached. Its blindness is sadly evident in the suffering caused by the useless nerve-sprouts entangled in the scar of a healing or healed limb- stump. But there is a great difference between the growth of such regenera- tion and the growth impulse in pieces of tissue isolated from the body and grown in media outside. With pure cultures of these latter Professor Champy says the growth recalls in several features that of malignant tumours—multiplication of cells unaccompanied by forma- tion of a specialised adult tissue. A piece of kidney cultivated outside the body de-differentiates, to use his term, into a growing mass un- organised for renal function. But with connective-tissue cells added even breast-cancer epithelium will in cultivation grow in glandular form. New ground is being broken in the experimental control of tissue growth. The report of the Imperial Cancer Research Fund mentions that in cultivation outside the body malignant cells present a difficulty that normal cells do not. To the malignant cells the nutrient soil has to be more frequently renewed, because they seem rapidly to 8 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, make the soil in which they grow poisonous to themselves, though not to normal cells. The following of all clues of difference between the mechanism of malignant growth and of normal is fraught with import- ance which may be practical as well as theoretical. The regenerating nerve rebuilds to a plan that spells for future function. But throughout all its steps prior to the actual reaching the muscle or skin no actual performance of nerve-function can take place. What is constructed is functionally useless until the whole is complete. So, similarly, with much of the construction of the embryo in the womb for purposes of a different life after emergence from the womb; with the construction of the butterfly’s wing within the chrysalis for future flight ; of the lung for air-breathing after birth; of the reflex contraction in the foetal child of the eyelids to protect the eye long before the two eyelids have been separated, let alone ere hurt or even light can reach it. The nervous system in its repair, as in its original growth, shows us a mechanism working through phases of non-functioning preparation in order to forestall and meet a future function. It is a mechanism against whose seeming prescience is to be set its fallibility and its limitations. The how of its working is at present chiefly traceable to us in the steps of its results rather than in comprehension of its intimate reactions ; as to its mechanism, perhaps the point of chief import for us here is that those who are closest students of it still regard it as a mechanism. But if to know be to know the causes we must confess to want of knowledge of how its mechanism is contrived. And if we knew the whole how of the production of the body from egg to adult, and if we admit that every item of its organic machinery runs on physical and chemical rules as completely as do inorganic systems, will the living animal present no other problematical aspect? The dog, our household friend—do we exhaust its aspects if in assessing its sum-total we omit its mind? A merely reflex pet would please little even the fondest of us. True, our acquaintance with other mind than our own can only be by inference. We may even hold that mind as an object of study does not come under the rubric of Natural Science at all. But this Association has its Section of Psychology, and my theme of to-night was partly chosen at the instance of a late member of it, Dr. Rivers, the loss of whom we all deplore. As a biologist he viewed mind as a biological factor. The keeping of mind and body apart for certain analytic purposes must not allow us to forget their being set together when we assess as a whole even a single animal life. Taking as manifestations of mind those ordinarily received as such, mind does not seem to attach to life, however complex, where there is no nervous system, nor even where that system, though present, is quite scantily developed. Mind becomes more recognisable the more developed the nerve-system. Hence the difficulty of the twilit emer- THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 9 gence of mind from no mind, which is repeated even in the individual life history. In the nervous system there is what is termed localisa- tion of function, relegation of different work to the system’s different parts. This localisation shows mentality, in the usual acceptation of that term, not distributed broadcast throughout the nervous system, but restricted to certain portions of it—thus, among vertebrates to what is called the forebrain, and in higher vertebrates to the relatively newer parts of that forebrain. Its chief, perhaps its sole, seat is a compara- tively modern nervous structure superposed on the non-mental and more ancient other nervous parts. The so-to-say mental portion of the system is placed so that its commerce with the body and the external world occurs only through the archaic non-mental rest of the system. Simple nerve impulses, their summations and interferences, seem the one uniform office of the nerve-system in its non-mental aspect. To pass from a nerve impulse to a psychical event, a sense-impression, percept, or emotion is, as it were, to step from one world to another and incom- mensurable one. We might expect, then, that at the places of transi- tion from its non-mental to its mental regions the brain would exhibit some striking change of structure. But no; in the mental parts of the brain still nothing but the same old structural elements, set end to end, suggesting the one function of the transmission and collision of nerve impulses. The structural inter-connections are richer, but that is a merely quantitative change. I do not want, and do not need, to stress our inability at present to deal with mental actions in terms of nervous actions, or vice versa. But facing the relation borne in upon us as existent between them, may we nof gain some further appreciation of it by reminding ourselves even briefly of certain points of contact between the two? Familiar as such are, I will merely mention rather than dwell upon them. ' One is the so-called expression of the emotions. The mental re- action of an emotion is accompanied by a nervous discharge which is more or less characteristic for each several type of emotion, so that the emotion can be read from its bodily expression. ‘This nervous dis- charge is involuntary, and can affect organs, such as the heart, which the will cannot reach. ‘Then there is the circumstance that the peculiar ways and tricks of the nervous machinery as revealed to us in the study of pure reflex reactions repeat themselves obviously in the working of the machinery to which mental actions are adjunct. The phenomenon of fatigue is common to both, and imposes similar disabilities on both. Nervous exhaustion and mental exhaustion mingle. Then, as offset against this disability, there exists in both the amenability to habit formation, mere repetition within limits rendering a reaction easier and readier. Then, and akin to this, is the oft-remarked trend in both for a reaction to leave behind itself a trace, an engram, a memory, the reflex engram, and the mental memory. 10 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. How should inertia and momentum affect non-material reactions ? Quick though nervous reactions are, there is always easily observed delay between delivery of stimulus and appearance of the nervous end effect; and there is always the character that a reaction once set in motion does not cease very promptly. Just the same order of lag and overrun, of want of dead-beat character, is met in sense-reactions. The sensa- tion outlives the light which evoked it and for longer the stronger the reaction. Just so the reflex after-discharge persists after the stimulus is withdrawn, and subsides more slowly the stronger the reaction. The times in both are of the same order. Again, a reflex act which contracts one muscle commonly relaxes another. Even so along with rise of sensation in one part of the visual field commonly occurs lapse of sensation in another. And the stoppage is in both by inhibition, that is to say, active. Then, again, two lights of opposite colour falling simultaneously and correspondingly on the two retin will, according to their balance, fuse to an intermediate tint or see-saw back and forth between the one tint and the other. Just similarly a muscle impelled by two reflexes, one tending to contract it, the other to relax it, will according to the balance of these respond steadily with an intensity, a compromise between the two, or see-saw rhythmically from extreme to extreme of the two opposite influences. Reflex acts commonly predispose to their opposites. So, similarly, the visual impression of one colour predisposes to that of its opposite. Again, the position of the stimulated sensual point acts on the mind— hence the lignt seen or the pain felt is referred to some locus in the mind’s space-system. Just similarly the reflex machinery directs, for instance, the limb it moves towards the particular spot stimulated. And such spots in the two processes, mental and non-mental, correspond. Characteristic of the nervous machinery is its arrangement in what Hughlings Jackson called ‘levels,’ the higher levels standing to the lower not only as drivers but also as restrainers. Hence in disease underaction of one sort is accompanied by overaction of another. Thus in the arm affected by a cerebral stroke, besides loss of willed—that is higher level—power in the finger muscles, there is in other muscles involuntary overaction owing to escape of lower centres from control by the higher which have been destroyed. So, similarly, with the sensory effects. Of skin sensations some are painful and some not, for instance touch. The seat of the latter is of higher level, cortical; of the former lower, sub-cortical. When cerebral disease breaks the path between the higher and the underlying level a result is impairment of touch sensation but heightening of pain sensation in the affected part. The sensation of touch, as Dr. Head says, restrains that of pain. Thus features of nervous working resemble over and over again mental. Is it mere metaphor when we speak of mental attitudes as THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Bi well as bodily? Is it mere analogy to liken the warped attitude of the mind in a psychoneurotic sufferer to the warped attitude of the body constrained by an internal potential pain? Again, some mental events seem spontaneous ; in the nervous system some impulses seem generated automatically from within. It may be said of all these similarities of time-relation and the rest between the ways of the nervous system and such simpler ways of mind as I here venture on, that they exist because the operations of the mental part of the nervous system communicate with the exterior only through the non-mental part as gateway—that there, then, the features of the nerve-machinery are impressed on the mind’s working. But that suggestion forgets that the higher and more complex the mental process, the longer the time-lag, the more incident the fatigue, the more striking the memory character, and so on. Yet all this similarity does but render more succinct the old enigma as to the nexus between nerve impulse and mental event. In the proof that the working of the animal mechanism conforms with the first law of thermodynamics can one say that psychical events are evaluated in the balance sheet drawn up? And, on the other hand, Mr. Barcroft and his fellow-observers in their recent physiological explora- tion of life on the Andes at 14,200 ft. noted that, as well as were their muscles, their arithmetic there was at a disadvantage. The low oxygen pressure militated against both. Indeed we all know that in any of us a few minutes without oxygen, or a few more with chloroform, and the psychical and the nervous events will lapse together. The nexus between the two sets of events is strict. But for comprehension of its nature we still require, it seems, comprehension of the unsolved mystery _ of the how of life itself. A shadowy bridge between them may lie _ perhaps in the reflection that for the observer himself the physical _ phenomena he observes are in the last resort psychical. The practical man has to accept nervous function as a condition for mental function without breaking his heart over ignorance of their connection. The doctor, the lawyer, and we all, accept it. We know that with structural derangement or destruction of certain parts of the brain goes mental derangement or defect, while derangement or destruction of other parts of the nervous system is not so accompanied. Decade by decade the connection becomes more ascertained between _ certain mental performances and certain cerebral regions. Certain impairments of ideation as shown by forms of incomprehension of language or of familiar objects can help to diagnose for the surgeon as to what part of the brain a tumour is compressing; and the tumour gone the mental disabilities pass. So, similarly, those who, as Professor Elliott Smith and Sir Arthur Keith, recast the shape of the cerebrum from the cranial remains of prehistoric man can outline for us something 12 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. of his mentality from examination of the relative development of the several brain regions, using a true and scientific phrenology. Could we look quite naively at the question of a seat for the mind within the body we might perhaps suppose it diffused there, not localised in any one particular part at all. That it is localised and that its locali- sation is in the nervous system—can we attach meaning to that fact? The nervous system is that bodily system whose special office from its earliest appearance onward throughout evolutionary history has been more and more to weld together the body’s component parts into one consolidated mechanism reacting as a unity to the changeful world about it. It more than any other system has constructed out of a collection of organs an individual of unified act and experience. It represents the acme of accomplishment of the integration of the animal organism. That it is in this system that mind, as we know it, has had its begin- ning, and with the progressive development of the system has step for step developed, is surely significant. So is it that in this system the portion to which mind transcendently attaches is exactly that where are carried to their highest pitch the nerve-actions which manage the indi- vidual as a whole, especially in his reactions to the external world. There, in the brain, the integrating nervous centres are themselves further compounded, inter-connected, and re-combined for unitary func- tions. The cortex of the forebrain is the main seat of mind. That cortex with its twin halves corresponding to the two side-halves of the body is really a single organ knitting those halves together by a still further knit- ting together of the nervous system itself. The animal’s great integrat- ing system is there still further integrated. And this supreme integrator is the seat of all that is most clearly inferable as the animal’s mind. As such it has spelt biological success to its possessors. From small begin- nings it has become steadily a larger and larger feature of the nervous system, until in adult man the whole rest of the system is relatively dwarfed by it. Not without significance, perhaps, is that in man this organ, the brain cortex, bifid as it is, shows unmistakable asymmetry. Man is a tool-using animal, and tools demand asymmetrical, though attentive and therefore unified, acts. A nervous focus unifying such motor function will, in regard to a laterally bipartite organ, tend more to one half or the other. In man’s cerebrum the preponderance of one-half—namely, the left—over the other may be a sign of unifying function. It is to the psychologist that we must turn to learn in full the con- tribution made to the integration of the animal individual by mind. But each of us can, without being a professed psychologist, yet recog- nise one achievement in that direction which mental endowment has produced. Made up of myriads of microscopic cell-lives, individually born, feeding and breathing individually within the body, each one THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 13 of us nevertheless appears to himself a single entity, a unity experiencing and acting as one individual. In a way the more far- reaching and many-sided the reactions of which a mind is capable the more need, as well as the more scope, for their consolidation to one. ‘True, each one of us is in some sense not one self, but a multiple system of selves. Yet how closely those selves are united and integrated to one personality. Even in those extremes of so-called double per- sonality one of their mystifying features is that the individual seems to himself at any one time wholly either this personality or that, never the two commingled. The view that regards hysteria as a mental dissociation illustrates the integrative trend of the total healthy mind. Circumstances can stress in the individual some perhaps lower instinc- tive tendency that conflicts with what may be termed his normal per- sonality. This latter, to master the conflicting trend, can judge it in relation to his main self’s general ethical ideals and duties to self and the community. Thus intellectualising it, he can destroy it or con- sciously subordinate it to some aim in harmony with the rest of his personality. By so doing there is gain in power of will and in personal coherence of the individual. But if the morbid situation be too strong or the mental self too weak, instead of thus assimilating the contentious element the mind may shun and, so to say, endeavour to ignore it. That way lies danger. The discordant factor escaped from the sway of the conscious mind produces stress and strain of the conscious self; hence, to use customary terminology, dissociation of the self sets in, bringing in -its train those disabilities, mental or nervous or both, which characterise the sufferer from hysteria. The normal action of the mind is to make up from its components one unified personality. When we remember the manifold complexity of composition of the human individual, can we observe a greater instance of solidarity of working of an organism than that presented by the human individual intent and concentrated, as the phrase goes, upon some higher act of strenuous will? Physiologically the supreme development of the brain, psychologically the mental powers attaching thereto, seem to represent from the biological standpoint the very culmination of the integration of the animal organism. The mental attributes of the nervous system would be, then, the coping-stone of the construction of the individual. Surveyed in their broad biological aspect, we see them carrying integration even further still. They do not stop at the individual; they proceed beyond the individual ; they integrate from individuals communities. When we re- view, as far as we can judge it, the distribution of mind within the range of animal forms, we meet two peaks of its development—one in insect life, the other in the vertebrate, with its acme finally in man. True, in the insect the type of mind is not rational but instinctive, whereas 14 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. at the height of its vertebrate development reason is there as well as instinct. Yet in both one outcome seems to be the welding of individuals into societies on a scale of organisation otherwise unattained. The greatest social animal is man ; the powers that make him so are mental— language, tradition, instinct for the preservation of the community, as well as for the preservation of the individual; reason actuated by emotion and sentiment and controlling and welding egoistic and altruistic instincts into one broadly harmonious, instinctive-rational behaviour. Just as the organisation of the cell-colony into an animal individual receives its highest contribution from the nervous system, so the further combining of animal individuals into a multi-individual organism, a social community, merging the interests of the individual in the interests of the group, is due to the nervous system’s crowning attributes, the mental. That this integration is still in process, still developing, is obvious from the whole course of human pre-history and history. The biological study of it is essentially psychological ; it is the scope and ambit of social psychology. Not the least important form of social psychology is that relatively new one, of which the President of the Psychology Section at this meeting is a foremost authority and exponent, namely, that dealing with the stresses and demands that organised industry makes upon the individual as a unit in the com- munity of our day, and with the readjustments it asks from that community. To resume, then, we may, I think, conclude that in some of its aspects animal life presents to us mechanism the how of which, despite many gaps in our knowledge, is fairly explicable. Of not a few of the processes of the living body, such as muscular contraction, the circulation of the blood, the respiratory intake and output by the lungs, the nervous impulse and its journeyings, we may fairly feel from what we know of them already that further application of physics and chemistry will furnish a competent key. We may suppose that in the same sense as we can claim to-day that the principles of working of a gas-engine or an electro-motor are comprehensible to us, so will the bodily working in such mechanisms be understood by us, and indeed are largely so already. It may well be possible to understand the principle of a mechanism which we have not the means or skill ourselves to construct. We cannot construct the atoms of a gas-engine. But, turning to other aspects of animal mechanism, such as the shaping of the animal body, the conspiring of its structural units to compass later functional ends, the predetermination of specific growth from egg to adult, the predetermined natural term of existence, these, and their intimate mechanism, we are, it seems to me, despite many brilliant inquiries and inquirers, still at a loss to understand. The steps of the results are known, but the springs THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 15 of action still lie hidden. Then, again, the iow of the mind’s connection with its bodily place seems still utterly an enigma. Similarity or identity in time-relations and in certain other ways between mental and nervous processes does not enlighten us as to the actual nature of the connection existent between the two. Advance in biological science does but serve to stress further the strictness of the nexus between the two. Great differences of difficulty therefore confront our understanding of different aspects of animal life. Yet the living creature is funda- mentally a unity. In trying to make the how of an animal existence intelligible to our imperfect knowledge we have for purposes of study to separate its whole into part-aspects and part-mechanisms, but that separation is artificial. It is as a whole, a single entity, that the animal, or for that matter the plant, has finally and essentially to be envisaged. We cannot really understand its one part without its other. Can we suppose a unified entity which is part mechanism and part not? One privilege open to the human intellect is to attempt to comprehend, not leaving out of account any of its properties, the how of the living ] “4 i! creature as a whole. The problem is ambitious, but its importance and its reward are all the greater if we seize and we attempt the full width of its scope. In the biological synthesis of the individual it regards mind. It includes examination of man himself as acting under a biological trend and process which is combining individuals into a multi-individual organisation, a social organism surely new in the history of the planet. For this biological trend and process is constructing a social organism whose cohesion depends mainly on a property developed so specifically in man as to be, broadly speaking, his alone— namely, a mind actuated by instincts but instrumented with reason. Man, often Nature’s rebel, as Sir Ray Lankester has luminously said, can, viewing this great supra-individual process, shape even as individual his course conformably with it, feeling that in this instance to rebel _ would be to sink lower rather than to continue his own evolution ~ upward. 1922 D SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. ADDRESS TO SECTION A (MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS) BY Proressor G. H. HARDY, M.A., F.R.S., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. I rinp myself to-day in the same embarrassing position in which a predecessor of mine at Oxford found himself at Bradford in 1875, the President of a Section which is probably the largest and most heterogeneous in the Association, and which is absorbed by a multitude of divergent professional interests, none of which agree with his or mine. There are two courses possible in such circumstances. One is to take refuge, as Professor Henry Smith, with visible reluctance, did then, in a series of general propositions to which mathematicians, physicists, and astronomers may all be expected to return a polite assent. The importance of science and scientific method, the need for better organisa- tion of scientific education and research, are all topics on which I could no doubt say something without undue strain either on my own honesty or on your credulity. ‘That there is no finer education and discipline than natural science; that it is, as Dr. Campbell has said, ‘ the noblest of the arts’; that the crowning achievements of science lie in those directions with which this Section is professionally concerned: all this I could say with complete sincerity, and, if I were the head of a deputa- tion approaching a Government Department, I suppose that I would not shirk even so unprofitable a task. It is unfortunate that these essential and edifying truths, important as it is that they should be repeated as loudly as possible from time to time, are, to the man whose interest in life lies in scientific work and not in propaganda, unexciting, and in fact quite intolerably dull. 1 could, if I chose, say all these things, but, even if I wanted to, I should hardly increase your respect for mathematics and mathematicians by repeating to you what you have said yourselves, or read in the news- papers, a hundred times already. I shall say them all some day; the time will come when we shall none of us have anything more interesting to say. We need not anticipate our inevitable end. I propose therefore to adopt the alternative course suggested by my predecessor, and to try to say something to you about something about which I have something to say. There is only one subject about which I have anything to say, and that is pure mathematics. It happens, by a fortunate accident, that the particular subject which I love the most, and which presents most of the problems which cccupy my own re- searches, is by no means overwhelmingly recondite or obscure, and indeed is sharply distinguished from almost every other branch of pure mathematics, in that it makes a direct, popular, and almost irresistible appeal to the heart of the ordinary man. A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 17 5 There is, however, one preliminary remark which I cannot resist _ the temptation of making. The present is a particularly happy moment for a pure mathematician, since it has been marked by one of the greatest recorded triumphs of pure mathematics. This triumph is the work, as it happens, of a man who would probably not describe himself as a mathematician, but who has done more than any mathematician - to vindicate the dignity of mathematics, and to put that obscure and perplexing construction, commonly described as ‘ physical reality,’ in its proper place. There is probably less difference between the methods of a physicist and a mathematician than is generally supposed. The most striking among them seems to me to be this, that the mathematician is in much _ more direct contact with reality. This may perhaps seem to you a paradox, since it is the physicist who deals with the subject-matter to which the epithet ‘real’ is commonly applied. But a very little _ reflexion will show that the ‘ reality’ of the physicist, whatever it may be (and it is extraordinarily difficult to say), has few or none of the attributes which common-sense instinctively marks as real. A chair may be a collection of whirling atoms, or an idea in the mind of God. It is not my business to suggest that one account of it is obviously more plausible than the other. Whatever the merits of either of them 4 may be, neither draws its inspiration from the suggestions of common- p sense. Neither the philosophers nor the physicists themselves have ever put forward any very convincing account of what physical reality is, or of how the physicist passes, from the confused mass of fact or sensation from which he starts, to the construction of the objects which he classifies as real. We cannot be said, therefore, to know what the subject-matter of physics is; but this need not prevent us from under- standing the task which a physicist is trying to perform. That, clearly, is to correlate the incoherent body of facts confronting him with some definite and orderly scheme of abstract relations, the kind of scheme, in short, which he can only borrow from mathematics. A mathematician, on the other hand, fortunately for him, is not concerned with this physical reality at all. It is impossible to prove, by mathematical reasoning, any proposition whatsoever concerning the _ physical world, and only a mathematical crank would be likely now to imagine it his function to do so. There is plainly one way only of ascertaining the facts of experience, and that is by observation. It is _ not the business of a mathematician to suggest one view of the universe or another, but merely to supply the physicists with a collection of abstract schemes, which it is for them to select from, and to adopt or Wiizcard at their pleasure. ___ The most obvious example is to be found in the science of geometry. Dikathematicians have constructed a very large number of different _ systems of geometry, Euclidean or non-Euclidean, of one, two, three, or ‘any number of dimensions. All these systems are of complete and _ equal validity. They embody the results of mathematicians’ observa- tions of their reality, a reality far more intense and far more rigid than _ the dubious and elusive reality of physics. The old-fashioned geometry of Euclid, the entertaining seven-point geometry of Veblen, the space- D2 18 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. times of Minkowski and Einstein, are all absolutely and equally real. When a mathematician has constructed, or, to be more accurate, when he has observed them, his professional interest in the matter ends. It may be the seven-point geometry that fits the facts the best, for anything that mathematicians have to say. ‘There may be three dimen- sions in this room and five next door. As a professional mathematician, I have no idea; I can only ask the Secretary, or some other competent physicist, to instruct me in the facts. The function of a mathematician, then, is simply to observe the facts about his own hard and intricate system of reality, that astonish- ingly beautiful complex of logical relations which forms the subject- matter of his science, as if he were an explorer looking at a distant range of mountains, and to record the results of his observations in a series of maps, each of which is a branch of pure mathematics. Many of these maps have been completed, while in others, and these, naturally, the most interesting, there are vast uncharted regions. Some, it seems, have some relevance to the structure of the physical world, while others have no such tangible application. Among them there is perhaps none quite so fascinating, with quite the same astonishing contrasts of sharp outline and mysterious shade, as that which constitutes the theory of numbers. The number system of arithmetic is, as we know too well, not with- out its applications to the sensible world. The currency systems of Europe, for example, conform to it approximately ; west of the Vistula, two and two make something approaching four. The practical appli- cations of arithmetic, however, are tedious beyond words. One must probe a little deeper into the subject if one wishes to interest the ordinary man, whose taste in such matters is astonishingly correct, and who turns with joy from the routine of common life to anything strange and odd, like the fourth dimension, or imaginary time, or the theory of the representation of integers by sums of squares or cubes. It is impossible for me to give you, in the time at my command, any general account of the problems of the theory of numbers, or of the progress that has been made towards their solution even during the last twenty years. JI must adopt a much simpler method. I will merely state to you, with a few words of comment, three or four isolated questions, selected in a quite haphazard way. They are seemingly simple questions, and it is not necessary to be anything of a mathe- matician to understand them; and I have chosen them for no better reason than that I happen to be interested in them myself. There is no one of them to which I know the answer, nor, so far as I know, does any mathematician in the world; and there is no one of them, with one exception which I have included deliberately, the answer to which any one of us would not make almost any sacrifice to know. 1. When is a number the sum of two cubes, and what is the number of its representations? This is my first question, and first of all I will elucidate it by some examples. The numbers 2=1°+ 1° and 9=2°+4 15 are sums of two cubes, while 3 and 4 are not: it is exceptional for a number to be of this particular form. The number of cubes up to 1000000 is 100, and the number of numbers, up to this limit and of the form required, cannot exceed 10000, one-hundredth of A.—_MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. ity, the whole. The density of the distribution of such numbers tends to zero as the number tends to infinity. Is there, I am asking, any simple criterion by which such numbers can be distinguished ? Again, 2 and 9 are sums of two cubes, and can be expressed in this form in one way only. ‘There are numbers so expressible in a variety of different ways. The least such number is 1729, which is 123+ 1° and also 10*+9%. It is more difficult to find a number with three representations ; the least such number is 175959000 = 560° + 70° = 552° + 198° = 525° + 315". One number at any rate is known with four representations, viz. 19 X 363510° (a number of 18 digits), but I am not prepared to assert that it is the least. No number has been calculated, so far as I know, with more than four, but theory, running ahead of computation, shows that numbers exist with five representations, or six, or any number. A distinguished physicist has argued that the possible number of isotopes of an element is probably limited because, among the ninety or so elements at present under observation, there is none which has more isotopes than six. I dare not criticise a physicist in his own field; but the figures I have quoted may suggest to you that an arithmetical generalisation, based on a corresponding volume of evidence, would be more than a little rash. There are similar questions, of course, for squares, but the answers to these were found long ago by Euler and by Gauss, and belong to the classical mathematics. Suppose, for simplicity of statement, that the number in question is prime. Then, if it is of the form 4m+1, it is a sum of squares, and in one way only, while if it is of the form 4m+3 it is not so expressible; and this simple rule may readily be . generalised so as to apply to numbers of any form. But there is no similar solution for our actual problem, nor, [ need hardly say, for the analogous problems for fourth, fifth, or higher powers. The smallest number known to be expressible in two ways by two biquadrates is 635318657 = 158* + 59° = 134° + 133°; and I do not believe that any number is known expressible in three. Nor, to my knowledge, has the bare existence of such a number yet been proved. When we come to fifth powers, nothing is known at all. The field for future research is unlimited and_ practically : untrodden. 2. I pass to another question, again about cubes, but of a somewhat different kind. Is every large number (every number, that is to say, from a definite point onwards) the sum of five cubes? ‘This is another exceptionaliy difficult problem. It is known that every number, with- out exception, is the sum of nine cubes; two numbers, 23 (which is 2.98 47.1%) and 239, actually require so many. It seems that there “are just fifteen numbers, the largest being 454, which need eight, and 121 numbers, the largest being 8042, which need seven; and the evidence ‘suggests forcibly that the six-cube numbers also ultimately disappear. “In a lecture which I delivered on this subject at Oxford I stated, on the authority of Dr. Ruckle, that there were two numbers, in the " i 20 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. immediate neighbourhood of 1000600, which could not be resolved into fewer cubes than six; but Dr. A. Hi. Western has refuted this assertion by resolving each of them into five, and is of opinion, I believe, that the six-cube numbers have disappeared entirely considerably before this point. It is conceivable that the five-cube numbers also disappear, but this, if it be so, is in depths where computation is helpless. The four- cube numbers must certainly persist for ever, for it is impossible that a number 9n+4 or 9n+5 should be the sum of three. I need hardly add that there is a similar problem for every higher power. For fourth powers the critical number is 16. There is no case, except the simple case of squares, in which the solution is in any sense complete. About the squares there is no mystery ; every number is the sum of four, and there are infinitely many which cannot be expressed by fewer. 3. I will next raise the question whether the number 2337 —1 is prime. Isaid that I would include one question which did not interest me particularly, and I should lke to explain to you the kind of reasons which damp down my interest in this one. I do not know the answer, and I do not care greatly what it is. The problem belongs to the theory of the so-called ‘ perfect ’ numbers, which has exercised mathematicians since the times of the Greeks. A number is perfect if, like 6 or 28, it is the sum of all its divisors, unity included. Euclid proved that the number "ie te (on 1) is perfect if the second factor is prime; and Euler, 2,000 years later, that all even perfect numbers are of Kuclid’s form. It is still unknown whether a perfect number can be odd. It would obviously be most interesting to know generally in what circumstances a number 2”—1 is prime. It is plain that this can only be so if n itself is prime, as otherwise the number has obvious factors ; and the 137 of my question happens to be the least value of n for which the answer is still in doubt. | You may perhaps be surprised that a question apparently so fascinating should fail to arouse me more. It was asserted by Mersenne in 1644 that the only values of n, up to 257, for which 2”—1 is prime are 2.3.5, 7,13, 17,19) 31, 67, 127, 257: and an enormous amount of labour has been expended on attempts to verify this assertion. There are no simple general tests by which the primality of a number chosen at random can be determined, and the amount of computation required in any particular case may be quite appalling. It has, however, been imagined that Mersenne perhaps knew something which later mathematicians have failed to rediscover. ‘The idea is a little fantastic, but there is no doubt that, so long as the possibility remained, arithmeticians were justified in their determination to ascertain the facts at all costs. ‘The riddle as to how Mersenne’s numbers were discovered remains unsolved,’ wrote Mr. Rouse Ball in 1891. Mersenne, he observes, was a good mathemati- cian, but not an Euler or a Gauss, and he inclines to attribute the discovery to the exceptional genius of Fermat, the. only mathematician — iat ~ A._MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS, 21 of the age whom anyone could suspect of being hundreds of years ahead of his time. These speculations appear extremely fanciful, for the bubble has at last been pricked. lt seems now that Mersenne’s assertion, so far from hiding unplumbed depths of, mathematical profundity, was a conjecture based on inadequate empirical evidence, and a_ rather unhappy one at that. It is now known that there are at least four numbers about which Mersenne is definitely wrong; he should have included at any rate 61, 89, and 107, and he should have left out 67. The mistake as regards 61 and 67 was discovered as long ago as 1886, but could be explained with some plausibility, so long as it stood alone, as a merely clerical error.. But when Mr. R. E. Powers, in 1911 and 1914, proved that Mersenne was also wrong about 89 and 107, this line of defence collapsed, and it ceased to be possible to take Mersenne’s assertion seriously. The facts may be summed up as follows. Mersenne makes fifty-five assertions, for the fifty-five primes from 2 to 257. Of these assertions forty are true, four false, and eleven still doubtful. Not a bad result, you may think; but there is more to be said. Of the forty correct assertions many, half at least, are trivial, either because the numbers in question are comparatively small, or because they possess quite small and easily detected divisors. The test cases are those in which Mersenne asserts the numbers in question to be prime; there are only four of these cases which are difficult and in which the truth is known ; and in these Mersenne is wrong in every case but one. It seems to me, then, that we must regard Mersenne’s assertion as exploded; and for my part it interests me no longer. If he is wrong about 89 and 107, I do not care greatly whether he is wrong about 137 as well or not, and I should regard the computations necessary to decide as very largely wasted. There are so many much more profitable calculations which a computer could undertake. I hope that you will not infer that I regard the problem of perfect numbers as uninteresting in itself; that would be very far from the truth. There are at least two intensely interesting problems. The first is the old problem, which so many mathematicians have failed to solve, whether a perfect number can be odd. The second is whether the number of perfect numbers is infinite or not. If we assume that all perfect numbers are infinite, we can state this problem in a still more arresting form. Are there infinitely many primes of the form 2" — L? T find it hard’ to imagine a problem more fascinating or more terribly difficult than that. It is plain, though, that this is a question which computation can never decide, and it is very unlikely that it can ever give us any data of serious value. And the problem itself really belongs to a different chapter of the theory, to which I should like next to direct your attention. 4. Are there infinitely many primes of the form n?+12 Let me first remind you of some well-known facts in regard to the distribution of primes. There are infinitely many primes; their density decreases as the numbers increase, and tends to zero when the numbers tend to infinity. 22 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. More accurately, the number of primes less than « is, to a first approximation, log « The chance that a large number n, selected at random, should be prime is, we may say, about i ! Still more precisely, the ‘ logarithm- ) s integral ’ Li a | At) , log t gives a very good approximation to the number of primes. This number differs from Li x by a function of z which oscillates continually, as Mr. Littlewood, in defiance of all empirical evidence to the contrary, has shown, between positive and negative values, and is sometimes large, of the order of magnitude »/z or thereabouts, but always small in comparison with the logarithm-integral itself. Except for one lacuna, which I must pass over in silence now, this problem of the general distribution of primes, the first and central problem of the theory, is in all essentials solved. But a variety of most exciting problems remain as to the distribution of primes among numbers of special forms. The first and simplest of these is that of the arith- metical progressions: How are the primes distributed among all possible arithmetical progressions an+b? We may leave out of account the case in which a and b have a common factor ; this case is trivial, since an+b is then obviously not prime. The first step towards a solution was made by Dirichlet, who proved for the first time, in 1837, that any such arithmetical progression contains an infinity of primes. It has since been shown that the primes are, to a first approximation at any rate, distributed evenly among all the arithmetical progressions. When we pursue the analysis further differences appear; there are on the average, for example, more primes 4n+3 than primes 4n+1, though it is not true, as the evidence of statistics has led some mathematicians to conclude too hastily, that there is always an excess to whatever point the enumeration is carried. The problem of the arithmetical progressions, then, may also be regarded as solved; and the same is true of the problem of the primes of a given quadratic form, say am?+2bmn-+cn?, homogeneous in the two variables m and n. To take, for instance, the simplest and most striking case, there is the natural and obvious number of primes m*>+n?. A prime is of this form, as I have mentioned already, if and only if it is of the form 4k +1. The quadratic problem reduces here to a particular case of the problem of the arithmetical progression. When we pass to cubic forms, or forms of higher degree, we come to the region of the unknown. This, however, is not the field of inquiry which I wish now to commend to your attention. The quadratic forms of which I have spoken are forms in two independent variables m and n; the form n*+1 of my question is a non-homogeneous form in a single variable n, the simplest case of the general form an?+2bn+c. It is clear that one may ask the same question for forms of any degree: oh ttle ee a ee A.—_MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 23 Are there, for example, infinitely many primes n’+2 or n'+1? I do not choose n*+1, naturally, because of the obvious factor n+1. This problem is one in which computation can still play an im- portant part. You will remember that I stated the same problem for perfect numbers. There a computer is helpless. For the numbers 2"—1, which dominate the theory, increase with quite unmanageable rapidity, and the data collected by the computers appear, so far as one can judge, to be almost devoid of value. Here the data are ample, and, though the question is still unanswered, there is really strong statistical evidence for supposing a particular answer to be true. It seems that the answer is affirmative, and that there is a definite approximate formula for the number of primes in question. This formula is gUin/ex (1+ 5)Q—5)+7)+ a) =L x = =e : ae, pie aS ghia/e x (1+3)( FGA oer where the product extends over all primes p, and the positive sign is chosen when p is of the form 4n+3. Dr. A. E. Western has submitted this formula to a most exhaustive numerical check. It so happens that Colonel Cunningham some years ago computed a table of primes n?+1 up to the value 15,000 of n, a limit altogether beyond the range of the standard factor tables, and Cunningham’s table has made practicable an unusually comprehensive test. The actual number of primes is 1199, while the number predicted is 1219. The error, less than 1 in 50, is much less than one could reasonably expect. The formula stands its test triumphantly, but I should be deluding you if I pretended to see any immediate prospect of an accurate proof. 5. The last problem I shall state to you is this: Are there infinitely many prime-pairs p, p+2? One may put the problem more generally: Does any group of primes, with assigned and possible differences, recur indefinitely, and what is the iaw of its recurrence ? - I must first explain what I mean by a ‘ possible’ group of primes. It is possible that p and p +2 should both be prime, like 3, 5, or 101, 103. It is not possible (unless p is’ 3) that p, p+2 and p+4 should all be prime, for one of them must be a multiple of 3: but p, p+2, p+6 or p, p+4, p+6 are possible triplets of primes. Similarly p, p+2, p+6, p+8, p+12 can all be prime, so far as any elementary test of divisibility shows, and in fact 5, 7, 11, 13 and 17 satisfy the conditions. It is easy to define precisely what we understand by a‘ possible’ group. We mean a group whose differences, like 0, 2, 6, have at least one missing residue to every possible modulus. The ‘impossible’ group 0, 2, 4 does not satisfy the condition, for the remainders after division by 8 are 0, 2, 1, a complete set of residues to modulus 3. There is no difficulty in specifying possible groups of any length we please. We define in this manner, then, a * possible’ group of primes, and we put the questions: Do all possible groups of primes actually occur, do they recur indefinitely often, and how often on the average do they recur? And here again it would seem that the answers are affirmative, that all possible groups occur, and continue to occur for ever, and with a frequency whose law can be assigned. The order of magnitude 24 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. of the number of prime-pairs, p, p+2, or p, p+4, or p, p+6, both of whose members are less than a large number 2, is, it appears, Lota (log x)” The order of magnitude of the corresponding number of triplets, of any possible type, is athe he (log x)” and so on generally. . Further, we can assign the relative frequencies of pairs or triplets of different types; there are, for example, about twice as many pairs whose difference is 6 as pairs whose difference is 2. All these results have been tested by actual enumeration from the factor tables of the first million numbers; and a physicist would probably regard them as proved, though we of course know very well that they are not. There is a great deal of mathematics the purport of which is quite impossible for any amateur to grasp, and which, however beautiful and important it may be, must always remain the possession of a narrow circle of experts. It is the peculiarity of the theory of numbers that much of it could be published broadcast, and would win new readers for the Daily Mail. The positive integers do not lie, like the logical foun- dations of mathematics, in the hardly visible distance, nor in the un- comfortably tangled foreground, like the immediate data of the physical world, but at a decent middle distance, where the outlines are clear and yet some element of mystery remains. There is no one so blind that he does not see them, and no one so sharp-sighted that his vision does not fail; they stand there a continual and inevitable challenge to the curiosity of every healthy mind. I have merely directed your attention for a moment to a few of the less immediately conspicuous features of the landscape, in the hope that I might sharpen your curiosity a little, and that some of you perhaps might feel tempted to walk a little nearer and take a rather closer view. THE ORGANISATION OF RESEARCH. ADDRESS (PART I) TO SECTION B (CHEMISTRY) BY Principan J. C. IRVINE, C.B.E., D.Se., LL.D., F.B.S., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. I am deeply sensible of the honour done to me in electing me to this chair, and am well aware of my own unworthiness to occupy the position. Nevertheless, I feel that there is something appropriate in the choice which brings once more into close relationship the University of St. Andrews and the British Association. You will forgive me if, for the moment, my thoughts are focussed not so much on the subject assigned to our Section as on the origin and nature of this annual gathering of scientists. The British Association was the product of an age rather than the inspiration of any one man, yet of those who first gave practical effect to the movement which has spread scientific learning and has bound its devotees in a goodly fellowship there was no more eager spirit than Sir David Brewster. It is not an exaggerated claim that it was he who founded the British Association. One may trace his enlightened action to a desire to combat the apathy and distrust shown by the Government of his day towards scientific work and even scientific men. Only in the historical sense can I claim any relationship with Brewster. It is my privilege to occupy the Principalship he once held, and i cannot escape from the thought that the daily tasks now mine were once his. It is thus inevitable that to-day a name often in my mind should spring once more into recollection, especially as my distinguished predecessor was present at the first Hull meeting in 1853, when he contributed two papers to Section A. Chemists should be among the first to pay grateful tribute to Brewster’s efforts on behalf of science, and I propose, therefore, to include in my address a review of the position scientific chemistry has won since his day in public and official estimation. Moreover, at the express suggestion of some of our members whose opinions cannot be disregarded, I am induced to add the consideration of the new responsibilities chemists have incurred now that so many of Brewster’s hopes have been realised. These were recently submitted by me to another audience and, through the medium of an article in ‘ Nature,’ are possibly known to you already, but I agree with my advisers that their importance warrants further elabora- tion and wider discussion. It would be idle to recall the lowly position of chemistry as an educative force in this country, or to reconstruct the difficulties with which the scientific chemist was confronted during the first thirty years 26 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. of the nineteenth century. Present difficulties are serious enough, and press for all our attention, without dwelling unduly on troubles of the past. But we must at least remember that in the early days of the British Association * schools’ of chemistry were in their infancy, and that systematic instruction in the science was difficult to obtain. Another point of fundamental importance which has to be borne in mind is that the masters of the subject were then for the most part solitary workers. It is difficult for us, looking back through the years, to realise what it must have meant to search for truth under conditions which were discouraging, if not actually hostile. Yet, although his labours were often thankless and unrewarded, the chemist of the time was probably a riper philosopher and a finer enthusiast than his successor of to-day. He pursued his inquiries amidst fewer distractions, and in many ways his lot must have been happy, save when tormented by the thought that a subject so potent as chemistry in developing the intellectual and material welfare of the community should remain neglected to an extent which to us seems incredible. Public sympathy was lacking, Government support was negligible or grudgingly bestowed, and there was little or no co-operation between scientific chemistry and industry. As an unaided enthusiast the chemist was left to pursue his way without the stimulus, now happily ours, which comes from the feeling that work is supported by educated and enlightened appreciation. Let me quote from one of Faraday’s letters now in my possession and, so far as I can trace, unpublished. Writing to a friend imme- diately before the foundation of the British Association, he relates that a manufacturer had adopted a process developed in the course of an investigation carried out in the Royal Institution. The letter con- tinues: ‘ He’ (the manufacturer) ‘ writes me word that, having repeated our experiments, he finds the product very good, and as our information was given openly to the world he, as a matter of compliment, has presented me with some pairs of razors to give away.’ If ever there was a compliment which could be described as empty, surely this was one; yet the letter gives the impression that Faraday himself was quite content with his reward. It is perhaps unfair to quote Faraday as a type, for few men are blessed with his transparent simplicity of character, but there is obviously a great gulf fixed between the present day and a time when a debt of honour could be cancelled in such a manner. A little reflec- tion will show that the British Association has played a useful part in discrediting the idea that because so much scientific discovery is given ‘ openly to the world,’ those who profit by such discoveries should be absolved from their reasonable obligations. Even where scientific workers do not expect or desire personal reward, the institutions which provide them with their facilities are often sorely in need. The recogni- tion, not yet complete, but more adequate than once was the case, that the labourer is worthy of his hire represents only one minor change which the years have brought. An even greater contrast, embodying more important principles, is B.—CHEMISTRY. 27 found in the changed attitude of the State towards scientific education and discovery. Remember Brewster’s fond hope that, by means of our Association, the whole status of science would be raised, and that a greater measure of support and encouragement would be received from the Government. How eagerly the venerable physicist must have listened to the Presidential Address delivered at the twenty-third meeting of the Association assembled in Hull for the first time! It dealt with many problems familiar to him. No doubt he followed with keen interest the account of the observations on Nebule made with Lord Rosse’s telescope, and appreciated the references to the -vork of Joule and Thomson. The address was a masterly synopsis of scientific pro- gress, but from time to time a new note steals in. There is a signifi- cant reference to a consultation with the Chancellor of the Exchequer, another to a conversation with Mr. Gladstone, and a third to a working arrangement concluded with the Admiralty. These would fall sweetly on Brewster’s ear, and he would cordially approve of the report of our Parliamentary Committee which had established sympathetic contact with the House of Commons. He could not fail to be impressed with the changes a few years had brought. Let us bridge the further gap of sixty-nine years which separates us from that day. The contrast is amazing, and once more we can trace the steady, persistent influence of the British Association in bringing about what is practically a revolution in public and official opinion. We have learned many lessons. The change has come suddenly, but it was not spontaneous. Many years had to be spent in disseminating the idea that research is a vital necessity, and toward this end Presidents of our Association have not hesitated, year after year, to add the weight of their influence and eloquence. It was courageous of. them to do so. I would refer you particularly to the forcible appeals made by Sir James Dewar at Belfast and Sir Norman Lockyer at Southport, when the plea for more research was laid before the Association, and thus found its way by the most direct channel to the Press and to the public. No doubt many other factors have played a part in creating a research atmosphere in this country, but the steady pressure exerted by the British Association is not the least important of these influences. | The principles of science are to-day widely spread; systematic scientific training has found an honourable place in the schools and in the colleges; above all, there is the realisation that much of human _ progress is based on scientific inquiry, and at last this is fostered, and, in part, financed as a definite unit of national educational policy. Public funds are devoted to provide facilities for those who are competent to pursue scientific investigations, and in this way the State, acting through _ the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, has assumed the double responsibility of providing for the advancement of knowledge and for the application of scientific methods to industry. Scientists haye been given the opportunities they desired, and it remains for us to justify all that has been done. We have this morning glanced briefly at the painful toil and long years of preparation; now it falls to us to sow the first crop and reap the first harvest. 28 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES, Thanks to the wisdom and foresight of others, it has been possible to frame the Government policy in the light of the experience gained with pre-existing research organisations. The pioneer scheme of the kind is that administered by the Commissioners of the 1851 Exhibition, who since 1890 have awarded research scholarships to selected graduates. When in 1901 Mr. Carnegie’s benefaction was applied to the Scottish Universities the trustees wisely determined to devote part of the revenues to the provision of research awards which take the form of Scholarships, Fellowships, and Research Lectureships. These have proved an im-. mense boon to Scottish graduates, and the success of the venture is sufficiently testified by the fact that the Government Research scheme was largely modelled on that of the Carnegie Trust. In each of these organisations chemistry bulks largely, and the future of our subject is intimately connected with their success or failure. The issue lies largely in our hands. We must not forget that we are only at the beginning of a great movement, and that fresh duties now devolve upon us. It was my privilege for some years to direct the work of a Chemistry Institute, where research was organised on lines which the operation of the Government scheme will make general. If, from the very nature of things, my experience cannot be lengthy it is at least intimate, and I may perhaps be allowed to lay before you ‘my impressions of the problems we have to face. Two main objectives le before us: the expansion of useful learning and the diffusion of research experience among a selected class. This class in itself will form a new unit in the scientific community, and from it will emerge the ‘ exceptional man’ to whom, quoting Sir James Dewar, ‘ we owe our reputation and no small part of our prosperity.’ When these words were uttered in 1902 it was a true saying that ‘ for such men we have to wait upon the will of Heaven.’ It is still true, but there is no longer the same risk that the exceptional man will fall by the way through lack of means. Many types of the exceptional man will be forthcoming, and you must not imagine that I am regarding him merely as one who will occupy a University Chair. He will be found more frequently in industry, where his function will be to hand on the ideas inspired by his genius to the ordinary investigator. T have no intention of wearying you by elaborating my views on the training required to produce these different types. My task is greatly simplified if you will agree that the first step must be systematic experience in pure and disinterested research, without any reference to the more complicated problems of applied science. ‘This is necessary, for if our technical research is to progress on sound lines the founda- tions must be truly laid. I have no doubt as to the prosperity of scientific industries in this country so long as we avoid hasty and prema- ture specialisation in those who control them. We may take it that in the future the great majority of expert chemists will pass through a stage in which they make their first acquaintance with the methods of research under supervision and guidance. The movement is already in progress. The Government grants are awarded generously and widely. The conditions attached are moderate and reasonable, and there is a rush to chemical research in our colleges. Here, then, I B.—CHEMISTRY. 29 issue my first note of warning, and it is to the professors. It is an easy matter to nominate a research student; a research laboratory com- fortably filled with workers is an inspiring sight, but there are few more harassing duties than those which involve the direction of young research chemists. No matter how great their enthusiasm and abilities, these pupils have to be trained, guided, inspired, and this help can come only from the man of mature years and experience. I am well aware that scorn has been poured on the idea that research requires training. No doubt the word is an expression of intellectual freedom, but I have seen too many good investigators spoiled and discouraged through lack of this help to hold any other opinion than that training is necessary. J remember, too, years when I wandered more or less aim- _lessly down the by-paths of pointless inquiries, and I then learned to realise the necessity of economising the time and effort of others. The duties of such a supervisor cannot be light. He must possess versatility; for although a ‘ research school’ will doubtless preserve one particular type of problem as its main feature, there must be a sufficient variety of topics if narrow specialisation is to be avoided. Remember, also, that there can be no formal course of instruction suitable for groups of students, no common course applicable to all pupils and all inquiries. Individual attention is the first necessity, and the educative value of early researches is largely derived from the daily consultations at the laboratory bench or in the library. The responsi- bility of becoming a research supervisor is great, and, even with the best of good will, many find it difficult to enter sympathetically into the mental position of the beginner. An unexpected result is obtained, an analysis fails to agree, and the supervisor, out of his long experience, can explain the anomaly at once, and generally does so. If the pupil is to derive any real benefit from his difficulties, his adviser must for the moment place himself in the position of one equally puzzled, and must lead his collaborator to sum up the evidence and arrive at the correct conclusion for himself. The policy thus outlined is, I believe, ‘sound, but it makes severe demands on patience, sympathy, aus sane all, time. Research supervision, if conscientiously given, involves the com- plete absorption of the director’s energy and leisure. There is a rich reward in seeing pupils develop as independent thinkers and workers, but the supervisor has to pay the price of seeing his own research output fade away. He will have more conjoint papers, but fewer ‘individual publications, and limitations will be placed on the nature of his work by the restricted technique of his pupils. I have defined a high standard, almost an ideal, but there is, of ‘course, the easy alternative to use the technical skill of the graduate to carry out the more laborious and mechanical parts of one’s own researches, to regard these young workers as so many extra pairs of hands. I need not elaborate the outcome of such a policy. There is another temptation, and that, in an institution of university rank, is for the professor to leave research training in the hands of his lecturers, selecting as his collaborators only those workers who have passed the apprenticeship stage. This, I am convinced, is a 30 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. mistake. Nothing consolidates a research school more firmly than the feeling that all who labour in its interests are recognised by having assigned to them collaborators of real ability. I am not yet done with the professor and his staff, for they will have other matters to attend to if research schools are to justify their existence and to do more than add to the bulk of our journals. In many cases it will be found that the most gifted of the young workers under their care lack what, for want of a better expression, is known as ‘ general culture.’ Remember, these graduates have just emerged from a period of intensive study in which chemistry and the allied sciences have absorbed most of their attention. For their own sake and in the interests of our subject, they must be protected from the criticism that a scientific education is limited in outlook and leads to a narrow specialism The research years are plastic years, and many oppor- tunities may be found in the course of the daily consultations ‘ to impress upon the student that there is literature other than the records of scientific papers, and music beyond the range of student songs.’ I mention only two of the many things which may be added to elevate and refine the research student’s life. Others will at once occur to you, but I turn to an entirely different feature of research training, for which I make a special plea: I refer to the inculcation of business-like methods. You will not accuse me, I hope, of departing from the spirit of scholarship or of descending into petty detail, but my experi- ence has been that research students require firm handling. Emancipated as they are from the restrictions of undergraduate study, the idea seems to prevail that these workers ought to be excused the rules which usually govern a teaching laboratory, and may therefore work in any manner they choose. It requires, in fact, the force of a personal example to demonstrate to them that research work can be carried out with all the neatness and care demanded by quantitative analysis. Again, in the exercise of their new freedom young col- laborators are inclined to neglect recording their results in a manner which secures a permanent record and is of use to the senior collaborator. As a rule, the compilation of results for publication is not done by the experimenter, and a somewhat elaborate system of records has to be devised. It should be possible, twenty years after the work has been done, to quote the reasons which led to the initiation of each experiment, and to trace the source and history of each specimen analysed, or upon which standard physical constants have been deter- mined. I need not enter into detail in this connection beyond stating that, although a system which secures these objects has for many years been adopted in St. Andrews, constant effort is required to maintain the standard. One of the greatest anxieties of the research supervisor is, however, the avoidance of extravagance and waste. The student is sometimes inclined to assume a lordly attitude and to regard such matters as the systematic recovery of solvents beneath his notice. My view is that, as a matter of discipline as much as in the interests of economy, extravagant working should not be tolerated. There is naturally an economic limit where the time spent in such economies exceeds in B.—CHEMISTRY, 31 value the materials saved, and a correct balance must be adjusted. It is often instructive to lay before a research worker an estimate of the cost of an investigation in which these factors of time and material are taken into account. As a general rule it will be found that the saving of material is of greater moment than the loss of time. The point may not be vitally important in the academic laboratory, but in the factory, to which most of these workers eventually migrate, they will soon have the lesson thrust upon them that their time and salary bear a small proportion to costs of production. You will see I have changed my warning from the professor to the student. A student generation is short. In a few years, when almost as a matter of course the best of young chemists will qualify for the Doctor of Philosophy degree, it will be forgotten that these facilities have come to us, not as a right, but as a privilege. Those who reap the advantages of these privileges must prove that the efforts made on their behalf have been worth while. Looking at the position broadly, if one may criticise the research schemes of to-day, it is in the sense that the main bulk of support is afforded to the research apprentice, and the situation has become infinitely harder for the supervisor in that new and onerous tasks are imposed upon him. To expect him to undertake his normal duties and, as a voluntary act, the additional burden of research training is to force him into the devastation of late hours and overwork. The question is at once raised—Are we using our mature research material to the best advantage, and is our policy sufficiently focussed on the require- ments of the experienced investigator? I think it will generally be agreed that members of the professor or lecturer class who join in the movement must be relieved in great measure of teaching and administrative work. I am decidedly of the opinion that the research supervisor must be a teacher, and must mingle freely with under- graduates, so as to recognise at the earliest possible stage the potential investigators of the future and guide their studies. To meet this necessity universities and colleges must realise that their curriculum has been extended and that staffs must be enlarged accordingly. There could then be definite periods of freedom from official duties for those who undertake research training as an added task. Opportunities must also be given to these ‘ exceptional men ’ to travel occasionally to other centres and refresh themselves in the company of kindred workers. Tt is evident that our universities are called upon to share the financial burden inyolved in a National Research scheme to a much greater extent than possibly they know. I may perhaps summarise some of the conclusions I have reached in thinking over these questions. ‘The first and most important is that in each institution there should be a Board or Standing Committee entrusted with the supervision of research. The functions of such a body would be widely varied and would include :— 1. The allocation of money voted specifically from university or college funds for research expenses. 2. The power to recommend additions to the Teaching Staff in departments actively engaged in research. 1922 E 32 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 3. The recommendation of promotions on the basis of research achievement. 4, The supervision of regulations governing higher degrees. Among the more specific problems which confront this Board are the following :— 1. The creation of Research Libraries where reference works can be consulted immediately. 2. The provision of publication grants, so that where no periodical literature is available the work will not remain buried or obscure. 3. The allocation of travelling grants to enable workers to visit libraries, to inspect manufacturing processes, and to attend meetings of the scientific societies. I have dealt merely with the fringe of the question, but would add that there is one thing which a Research Board should avoid. It is, I am convinced, a mistake for a governing body to call for an annual list of publications from research laboratories. Nothing could be more injurious to the true atmosphere of research than the feeling of pressure that papers must be published or the Department will be discredited. What I have said so far may seem largely a recital of new difficulties, but they are not insurmountable, and to overcome them adds a zest to life. It would have taken too long to go more fully into details and I have tried to avoid making my address a research syllabus, merely giving in general terms the impressions gained during the twenty years in which the St. Andrews Research Laboratories have been in existence. Save for the fact that I realise my audience is not confined to university teachers I would have liked to speak on some such points as these: The choice of a research student, the selection of a research subject, the writing of scientific papers. Each would demand a lengthy discussion, as would also the painful situation created when a research topic fails or a research worker proves disappointing. T have confined myself to the first stage in the research development of the chemist. His future path may lead him either to the factory or to the lecture-room, and in the end the exceptional man will be found in the director’s laboratory or in the professor’s chair. | However difficult these roads may prove, I feel that with the financial aid now available, supported by the self-sacrificing labours of those who devote themselves to furthering this work, he has the opportunity to reach the goal. It is the beginning of a new scientific age, and we may look forward confidently to the time when there will be no lack of trained scientific intellects to lead our policy and direct our efforts in all that concerns the welfare of the country. SOME RESEARCH PROBLEMS IN THE CARBOHYDRATES. : ADDRESS (PART Il) TO SECTION B (CHEMISTRY) BY Principat J. C. IRVINE, C.B.E., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. CELLULOSE, STARCH, AND INULIN. In submitting at this stage an account of the researches upon which my co-workers are at present engaged, I am impressed by the recollec- tion that the first paper on the alkylation of sugars was read to Section B twenty years ago. The communication! dealt merely with the progres- sive methylation of methylglucoside and with the trimethyl and tetra- methyl glucoses to which the products give rise. Even at that time it was recognised that the study of methylated sugars opened up a new method of attacking the constitutional problems of the carbohydrates, _and the further progress reported to the Association in the following _ year showed how the process could be applied to determine, in part, the structure of sucrose and maltose.?_ The principle underlying these studies may be very briefly stated. Adopting for the moment the accepted formula for glucose it will be seen that a hexose sugar contains five hydroxyl groups :— LF Up or utiota on aa ir Aspnes (ollie 5 a) | CHOH . ) 3 — CH a) (ge iod Looe eS 5 | CHOH . CH OSs. 6c1 vai ait an6: It is to be noted that one of these groups differs from the remaining four in that, although it may be replaced by a methyl group, this is easily removed by acid hydrolysis. On the other hand, when methyl _ groups are introduced into the remaining positions (numbered 2, 3, _5, and 6 in the formula), they are exceedingly resistent to hydrolytis action. It follows, therefore, that a fully methylated glucoside {II.) when heated with acid will be converted into a tetramethyl glucose (ITT.). TI. IIT. —CHOCH, —CHOH | | | CHOCH, CHOCH, : @ | Gia ‘ | CHOCH, CHOCH, ; | | P —CH. —CH 1 | 7 CHOCH, CHOCH, > | L. CH,OCH, CH,OCH, ; BY 34 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. Similar reactions are impossible with acetyl or benzoyl derivatives of sugars owing to the ease with which the substituting groups are eliminated. In “order to illustrate the utility of methylation in deter- mining structure, we may ascribe to any sugar derivative the general formula S—G, where $ is a sugar residue and G the group with which it is condensed. Complete methylation may be effected, according to the solubilities involved, by silver oxide and methyl iodide or, alterna- tively, by methyl sulphate and alkali. The compound obtained will yield, on hydrolysis, at least two products, one of which is a methylated sugar. Determination of the number and distribution of the methyl groups in each of the cleavage products gives the structure of the parent compound, as the mode of attachment of the constituents is thereby known. In the special case where the group G is also a sugar residue the general formula of the complex may be written S—S,. The compound would thus be a disaccharide, and precisely the same structural study can be applied to it. The method is equally applicable to trisaccharides, S--S,—S,, and finally to polysaccharidesS ....... s. The development of this line of research has demanded the prepara- tion of a large variety of methylated sugars, which play the part of reference compounds in that the position. of the alkyl groups in them | is known. As I wish to deal particularly with the constitutional problems of polysaccharides, I shall make no attempt to summarise the results which have been obtained in the study of the simple sugars, the glucosides, or the disaccharides, but turn at once to the case presented by cellulose. Cellulose. (With Dr. W. S. Dennam and Dr. E. L. Hirst.) The extensive literature which has grown up on the constitution of cellulose affords little satisfaction to the organic chemist. Despite the complications involved and the many liabilities to error, it seems impossible for workers on cellulose to resist the temptation to ascribe a molecular formula to the compound. The difficulties which stand in the way are too numerous to mention, but the marked stability of cellulose under some conditions and its curious reactivity under others, coupled with its limited solubility and lack of volatility, are outstanding obstacles. As a result, many divergent and even conflicting suggestions have been put forward to represent the polysaccharide structurally, and the views of chemists both within and without the large circle of workers in this field are chaotic. The confusion is increased by the fact that many formule for the compound are published in haste to be corrected at leisure, and this unhappy state of affairs was never more pronounced than to-day. I would refer you to an article by Hans Pringsheim,*® in which he classifies the mentality of investigators and puts “forward a plea that, if sure progress is to be made, the “chemistry of polysaccharides must be pursued slowly step by step. Impetuous and hasty theorising does infinite harm. The first essential in arriving at a satisfactory formule for cellulose B.— CHEMISTRY, 35 is to ascertain if the aggregate (CsHO;), 18 composed entirely of glucose units, as even this fundamental point has been disputed. To obtain the necessary evidence is not so simple as might appear, and many of the ‘ proofs’ which have been offered do not carry conviction to those familiar with the detailed chemistry of the simple sugars. By converting cellulose into the triacetate and thereafter decomposing this product so as to give methylglucoside, we have recently obtained data which leave no doubt that glucose alone is the basis of cellulose. The yield of pure crystalline methylglucoside thus isolated amounts to more than 95 per cent. of the theoretical yield calculated on the basis of the equation :— (CsH10;). + « H,O ——> x C,H,.0,. This result applies only to cotton cellulose, and further discussion is therefore restricted to this particular variety. Disregarding struc- tures which are not based upon glucose, the numerous formule pro- posed for cellulose may be approximately divided into two classes :— 1. Constitutions modelled on that of the glucosides, involving the addition of numerous glucose residues by mutual condensation. According to this view, cellulose consists of large molecules. 2. The unit of cellulose may be regarded as a simple anhydro- glucose, C,H, O;, highly polymerised. As pointed out, the situation alters almost from day to day, but for the moment a compromise between the above classes is supported, and some authorities prefer to regard cellulose as a simple anhydro-n- saccharide (where n is a small multiple) polymerised in unknown numbers. Twelve years ago, after developing the methylation process into a trustworthy method for determining the linkages of sugar complexes, we turned our attention to the constitution of cellulose. The work was undertaken by Dr. W. S. Denham,’ who, using methyl sulphate and sodium hydroxide as the alkylating reagents, obtained a methylated cellulose in which the methoxyl content was 25 per cent. This value is lower than that required for a dimethyl cellulose (32.6 per cent.), and it followed that, on hydrolysing the product, a mixture of methyl- ated glucoses resulted. From the mixture one definite sugar was isolated, and this Denham® proved to be 2,3,6-trimethyl glucose (IV.), which was then isolated for the first time. 36 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. Denham’s work thus gave the first clear evidence as to the linkage of part of the cellulose molecule, and is one of the most important contributions made to the structural study of complex carbohydrates. Cellulose must contain the unit CH | CH,OH O——_Y but as an incompletely methylated cellulose was employed in the hydrolysis the research left unexplained the nature of the residues X and Y. 4 The investigation was therefore continued with the object of com- pleting the methylation of cellulose and providing answers to the follow- ing questions :— (a) Does trimethyl cellulose give, on hydrolysis, a mixture of methylated glucoses in which the average methoxyl con- tent is three groups per C, unit? Or alternatively, (b) If trimethyl cellulose gives trimethyl glucose alone, is this sugar a single individual or a mixture of isomerides ? The War interfered with the progress of the work, but other authors have not hesitated to propose formule for cellulose based on Denham’s results before he had an opportunity to complete his researches and provide answers to the fundamental questions raised above. In consultation with Dr. Denham we have repeated his experiments, and amplified them, so that we are now in a position to propose a structure for the cellulose unit which is based’on secure evidence. We find that the exhaustive methylation of the polysaccharide, when re- peated twenty times, gives a product containing 43.0 per cent. of meth- — oxyl in place of the 45.6 per cent. required for a trimethyl derivative. The carbon and hydrogen values also agree with the formula (Cs5H,0.(OMe),) 2nd as the material preserved a fibrous structure there seems little likelihood that profound molecular alteration had taken place. The trimethyl cellulose was heated with a large excess of methyl alcohol containing 1 per cent. of hydrogen chloride for fifty hours at 125-130°. This treatment effected depolymerisation, hydro- lysis, and conversion of the scission products into the corresponding methylglucosides. These were distilled in a high vacuum, the total yield obtained being 90 per cent. of the theoretical amount. The following fractions were collected :— B.--CHEMISTRY. 37 A. Trimethyl methylgiucoside. B. Trimethyl methylglucoside. C. Trimethyl methylglucoside containing a small proportion of dimethyl methylglucoside. _ All the fractions were analysed, and in this way it was shown that the small quantity of dimethyl methylglucoside in fraction C agreed exactly with the deficiency of 2.6 per cent. in the methoxyl content of the trimethyl cellulose used. No trace of tetramethyl methylglucoside was present. Moreover, the physical constants of the trimethyl methyl- glucoside agreed exactly with those recently established for this com- pound by Irvine and Hirst.’? On hydrolysis of fractions A and B an 89 per cent. yield of crystalline 2,3,6-trimethyl glucose was obtained. The identity of this product was confirmed by analysis, by mixed melting-point with an authentic specimen, and by the mutarotation in aqueous solution [a], +108°—-—> + 67.0°. No isomeric trimethyl glucose was present ; higher and lower methyl- ated glucoses were absent. We thus reach the conclusion that tri- methyl cellulose gives 2,3,6-trimethyl glucose as the only product. The reactions involved in the research are shown below, and, consider- ing the nature of the operations involved, the yields may be claimed to be quantitative, Cellulose Trimethyl cellulose , Yield 90°’ 2,3,6-Trimethyl methylglucoside | Yield 89%, a y 2,3,6-Trimethyl glucose The scheme affords a proof that all the glucose residues in «-cellulose are identical in structure, and the simplest possible formula which will satisfy this condition is that of a 1,5-anhydro-glucose. | eu CH -CHOH -: CHOH -CH- CH -CH,OH Vi. —— It is necessary, however, to include at least one additional glucose unit to account for the formation of cellobiose,* and this is fulfilled by the formula CH= Lhe ) HOH Vil. CH——O——CH : CHOH : CHOH -CH-CH-CH,OH | CH,OH 5 OR 38 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. In terms of the above structure, 100 parts of cellulose should give 105.5 parts of cellobiose, and here the difficulty is encountered that the yields of this disaccharide are extremeiy variable, and rarely exceed 35 per cent. The highest claimed is of the order 50-60 per cent., and in the meantime it is prudent to select a formula for cellulose which will give a result only slightly higher than this figure. We therefore propose the symmetrical tri-1,5-anhydro-glucose (VIII.) for the unit of cellulose, on the ground that this structure would give a 70 per cent. yield of cellobiose as the theoretical maximum. CH,OH | o— ! —CH — 0 — CH - CH- CHOH - CHOH - CH | | CHOH oO | CHOH i) Vol. | —CH | | CH—_O——CH - CHOH - CHOH - CH - CH - CH,OH | fy) | CH,OH There is, however, an alternative method of coupling the glucose residues, and this gives the structure shown in Formula IX. BR ver et —CH— 0—CH-CHOH-CHOH -CH-: | H-CH,OH | CHOH Oo O | CHOH Tk: | Leet | CH — 0—CH-CHOH -CHOH- CH - CH - CH,0H | | CH,OH o— Taking into account the fact that it can yield only one disaccharide, we prefer Formula VIII. to the above structure. The essential properties of cellulose, so far as they are displayed in chemical reactions, are accounted for by both formule. Further, the structures are not incon- sistent with the production of bromomethyl furfuraldehyde ? from cellu- lose, and indicate that the normal yield of this derivative involves the reaction of one-third of the total unit. The various formule which, in the past, have been proposed for cellulose have been summarised by Hibbert.’ With the exception of a structure suggested by this author, and in supporting which he pre- maturely assumed that only one form of trimethyl glucose could be obtained from cellulose, the structures he tabulates do not in any case agree with the evidence we now produce. ‘Typical examples are quoted :— B.—CHEMISTRY., 39 Green’s formula ** :— r cHOH.——‘cH_—___CH, ui Pie : CHOH CH CHOH would give a trimethyl cellulose which on hydrolysis would lose one methyl group and be converted into 3,4-dimethyl glucose of the amylene- oxide type. Vignon’s formula ** :— CHOH——CH CH, | | on 0 X1, / Neily CHOH——CHOH-——CH x is equally unsatisfactory in that the final product should then be 2,3,4-trimethyl glucose of the amylene-oxide type. The formule proposed by Tollens,'* Cross and Bevan,'* Bartelemy,*° and Pictet !® may be deleted for similar reasons. It is also possible to dispose of Karrer’s’7 formula, which is that of an anhydro-cellobiose (termed * cellosan ’). —CH Sete sles ) | CHOH Ory XIL | CHOH | —CH | daisig = CH -CHOH:-CHOH.CH- CHOH: CH, | ] CH,OH — Oo ———— A compound possessing this structure would yield, on methylation and hydrolysis, 1 molecule of 2,3,5-trimethyl glucose and 1 molecule of 2,3,6-trimethyl glucose. _ Our experimental evidence is completely opposed to this view. An entirely different type of cellulose formula may now be tested. Hess proposes '* a glucosidic structure which bears a general resemblance to Fischer’s constitution for tannins. Space does not 40 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. permit of these formule being given in full, but the general form will be evident from the simplest example :— ee QO- — | —CH—O—CH-CHOH- CHOH - CH - CHOH -CH,0H SS —— ()— a4 | CH—O—CH -CHOH -CHOH-CH-CHOH-CH,OH O _ | ae Sus -CHOH -CHOH-CH - CHOH -CH,OH XIII. Lom aes O- | UH—O—CH - CHOH - CHOH - CH -CHOH - CH,OH | CH.—O—CH -CHOH -CHOH - CH -CHOH-CH,OH Variations are introduced by lengthening the sugar chains until finally a molecule is obtained with eighteen glucose residues (C,H Oo). The feature common to all these. elucosidic formule is that the hydroxyl groups are not symmetrically distributed i in the glucose residues. The simplest structure suggested by Hess would give by our processes five molecules of 2,3,5,6-tetramethyl glucose and one molecule of glucose, while his more elaborate molecules Soul also result in these compounds together with trimethyl glucose. The reactions of trimethyl cellulose exclude all formule of this nature. Starch, [With Mr. Jonn Macponatp, M.A., B.Sc.] Turning to the problem of the constitution of starch, we encounter very much the same difficulties as have already been referred to under the heading of cellulose. The importance of the compound, its mani- fold technical applications, and the special appeal its study makes to the biologist have alike combined to produce a voluminous and some- what scattered literature. If, however, we eliminate unsupported or contradictory results the following evidence as to structure emerges Starch, when purified from constituents containing nitrogen and phos- phorus, possesses the formula (C,H,,O;),, 2nd the molecule consists entirely of glucose units. Further, three hydroxyl groups are present for every six carbon atoms, but, as in the case of cellulose, this does not necessarily imply that each glucose residue contains three unsub- stituted hydroxyl groups, or that their distribution is symmetrical. The primary reaction of starch, which must be accommodated by a structural formula, is the production of maltose by the action of diastase. The first essential is the identification of the unit of which the starch molecule is composed, and here, as in the case of other polysaccharides, molecular weight determinations give results of doubtful value. At the present time there is little tendency to regard starch as a highly complex glucoside in which a large number of hexose residues are mutually con- densed together, and the view prevails that the polysaccharide is derived from a comparatively simple anhydro-sugar by profound polymerisation. Attention may be focussed on three formule based on such ideas. B.— CHEMISTRY, 41 The unit of starch has been claimed to be :— 1. B-glucosan . ; . (Pictet)"” 2. Anhydro-maltose . . (Karrer)” 3. Triamylose . . . (Pringsheim)” It is possible to test these views by the methylation method. The first successful methylation of starch was effected by Denham and Woodhouse,”” and the reaction was afterwards adopted by Karrer.?* He was, however, unable to complete the alkylation, the substitution being arrested, as we ascertained many years ago, when the methoxyl content was of the order 35 per cent. This value is slightly higher than that demanded for a dimethyl starch, but is considerably lower than that calculated for a trimethyl derivative. It is significant that Prings- heim encountered similar difficulty in methylating the amyloses, diamyl- _ ose giving a tetramethyl compound, whilst «-tetramylose was converted into the corresponding octamethyl derivative. Pringsheim’s combined results lead him to the conclusion that the molecule of starch is built up of not more than 4-6 glucose residues, and, on the whole, he is disposed to retain triamylose as the basis of the polysaccharide. On the other hand, Karrer’s view that starch is a polymerised anhydro-maltose rests upon very insecure evidence. The claim that the action of acetyl bromide on the amyloses gives practically quantita- tive yields of heptacetyl bromo-maltose has been adequately repudiated by Pringsheim. It is, moreover, possible to dispose completely of Karrer’s formula for starch by the results now submitted. When the polysaccharide is methylated repeatedly by the methyl sulphate method, the reaction ceases when the methoxyl content is 37 per cent. It is to be noted that this maximum is not reached when the silver oxide and methyl iodide reaction is employed, as the substitu- tion then stops definitely at the dimethyl stage. Now, the higher value for methoxyl corresponds exactly with the theoretical amount calcu- lated on the basis that one hexose residue has acquired three methyl groups, while four are shared by two glucose residues. Ultimate analysis is also in agreement with this view. Hydrolysis of the methyl- ated starch has shown that this is not a fortuitous coincidence, and we thus obtain a direct clue to the magnitude of the unit which goes to form the starch molecule. When digested with methyl alcohol con- taining hydrogen chloride the methylated polysaccharide was converted into trimethyl methylglucoside and dimethyl methylglucoside. These were purified by distillation in a high vacuum, and thereafter hydrolysed to give the parent sugars. A totally unexpected result was encountered in that the trimethyl glucose actually isolated proved to be the crystalline form in which the methyl groups occupy the 2,3,6-positions. This sugar has been shown to have the constitution given in Formula XIV., and the linkage of one glucose unit in the starch molecule is thus established (Formula XV.). It is to be noted that this particular type of structure is not present in maltose, but is characteristic of cellobiose and lactose. 42 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. XIV. XV. ._CHOH —CH——O.... X | | CHOCH, | CHOH oO | oF | CHOCH, | CHOH | | Riles —CH | CHOH CH——O Y | CH,OCH, CH,OH In order to accommodate the formation of maltose from starch either one or two additional glucose residues must be present at X and Y in the unit. Before developing a formula which will fulfil the above conditions an outline of the reactions involved may be given :— STARCH y Methylated Starch (OMe = 36-4 %) (13 grams) [a]p + 186°3° Tate! Se, A ae 4 ¥ van Trimethyl methylglucoside Dimethyl methylglucoside Depolymerised Methylated Starch (OMe = 37 %) [a]> + 80° u 4 (4 grams) 2,3,6-Trimethyl glucose Dimethyl glucose (3 grams) (6 grams) LET ~ <7 beast 2,3,5,6-Tetramethyl glucose It will be seen that the removal of trimethyl glucose and dimethyl glucose in the molecular ratio of 1:2 is effected without alteration in the composition of any methylated starch which survives hydrolysis. The result is striking confirmation of the view that starch is based on an anhydro-trisaccharide in which two hexose residues are linked in a different fashion from the third. One of these is constituted as in Formula XV., and the remaining two must be added in such a way that at least one pair displays the essential structure of maltose.?¢ Four different structures may be built up to accommodate these factors :— O- | —CH——_O—_CH, : CHOH - CH - CHOH - CHOH - CH | CHOH Oo | | CHOH 10) XVI. {uey —CH | CH——O——CH - CHOH - CHOH - CH - CHOH - CH, | CH,OH 0 B.—CHEMISTRY. 43 | in | —CH——O——GH - CHOH - CHOH - CH - CHOH - CH, Renee CHOH ) XVII. | —CH | | SH. | O——CH, - CHOH - CH - CHOH - CHOH-: GH | CH,OH err aceet = <= O —— | | ah - CHOH - CHOH - CH - CHOH - CH, CHOH HOH O XVIII. H,OH | -O a 0) | | —CH——0——CH, - CHOH - CH - CHOH - CHOH - CH | buon | CHOH ) XIX. bn bacon, - CHOH - CH - CHOH - CHOH - CH H,0H |____.0 (Letters in block type designate the potential reducing groups.) The methylation process cannot discriminate between these possibili- ties, and with the data at our disposal it is inadvisable to make a definite claim in favour of any one of them. Each formula postulates that starch is derived entirely from the butylene-oxide form of glucose, and this we have shown to be the case. The formule are all consistent with the steric hindrance encountered in completing the methylation of starch, previous experience having shown that the alkylation of position 5 is difficult when position 6 of the glucose chain is already substituted. The formule differ in one important respect, as maltose may be obtained from form XVI. in two ways, and in only one way from each of XVII., XVIII., XTX. Pending the completion of further work on this subject we prefer formula XVI., but recognise that our results apply only to a purified rice starch. 44 x SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. One objection may, however, be discussed. In the formation of maltose no more than one molecule of this disaccharide could be obtained from one such unit. The maximum yield of the sugar would there- fore be of the order 70 per cent. (74 per cent. calculated as maltose hydrate). Yields higher than this figure are quoted in the literature, but it may be remarked that most specimens of maltose do not behave as identical homogeneous chemical individuals in bacteriological tests. Further, von Euler and Svanberg,?° who conducted the diastatic hydrolysis of starch under conditions in which the optimum hydrogen ion concentration was present, report that the yield of maltose formed is then 75 per cent. The small margin unexplained by our formule may be due to the synthetic action of the enzyme on the molecule of glucose liberated during hydrolysis. This suggestion is in agreement with von Huler’s observation that the end point of his reaction was reached with extreme slowness. Another objection to the new structure is that the acetolysis of starch might result in molecular rupture in such a manner that cellobiose would be produced. So far, this disaccharide has not been encountered in the degradation products of starch, a result which is not surprising in view of the uncertainty attending the formation of cellobiose. It may also be mentioned that if starch is composed uniformly of the above anhydro-trisaccharide residues it is difficult to explain the existence of polyamyloses other than those to which the general formula (C,H,,O;), can be applied. Taking into consideration the yield of di- and tetra-amylcses obtained from starch, it is evident that they may possibly be accounted for in the fraction of the starch molecule which has not yet been converted into recognisable glucosides, but the alternative is also open that the polyamyloses may not all be structurally related to starch. It is perhaps advisable to point out that the experimental results now presented demand the rejection of various formule for starch proposed from time to time by Karrer. His structures are based on a diamylose (anhydro-maltose), two formule for which have been put forward differing in the position of the anhydro-ring. The evidence he adduces in favour of these views is not convincing. The first unit he gives is :— | arte: Aa oO _ = ee al CH,OH - CHOH - CH - CHOH - CHOH - CH | . oO De, | Dip . 4 CH - CHOH - CHOH: CH - CH: CH, bade tg A formula of this type is open to many criticisms, and would demand the direct production of 2,3,5,6-tetramethyl glucose from a methylated starch. It is needless to state further objections, as B.—CHEMISTRY. 45 Karrer rapidly changed his views in favour of an alternative which is equally incorrect. The unit he prefers at present is :— XXI. O——CH - CHOH - CHOH - CH - CHOH - CH, | | —O It is clear that the only trimethyl glucose to which such a structurs could give rise is the 2,3,5-form described by Irvine and Oldham.?¢ No trace of this compound was detected by us, and, moreover, the 2,3,6-variety of trimethyl glucose actually obtained cannot possibly be accommodated by Karrer’s formula. For similar reasons it can no longer be maintained that starch is an aggregate of §-glucosan residues. Irvine and Oldham have proved that glucosan is convertible into 2,3,5-trimethyl glucose, and the same sugar should be formed on hydrolysing methylated starch if there is any structural relationship between glucosan and the polysaccharide. The result obtained is cbviously opposed to such a view. Our work has also thrown light on various other problems connected with the chemistry of starch, including the attachment of nitrogen and phosphorus to the molecule. These elements do not appear to be constituents of extraneous compounds, but form part of the polymerised aggregate. This is shown very clearly by the behaviour of nitrogenous starch, which was methylated in the first instance by the use of methyl sulphate and alkali. Thereafter the product was treated with silver oxide and methyl iodide, but contrary to expectation the whole of the material became converted into an insoluble additive compound with silver iodide. This behaviour does not extend to a purified starch, and finds an exact parallel in the case of glucosamine derivatives which, under identical conditions, form insoluble complexes with silver halides.27_ Obviously if nitrogen were present merely as part of an adventitious impurity only this component would be removed in the course of the silver oxide alkylation, and the fact that the total material was precipitated is a proof that the fragment containing nitrogen is _ definitely polymerised to the starch unit. Similar considerations apply to the case of glycogen and have served to complicate our work on the alkylation of this compound. It has been established, however, that, as in the case of starch, the methylation of glycogen shows a tendency | to be arrested when the methoxyl content is under 40 per cent. The separation of the methylated glucoses is not yet sufficiently far advanced to permit of their identification, but a publication on the exact relation- ship of glycogen to starch will not be Jong delayed. 46 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. Synthetic Dextrins. [With Mr. J. W. H. OupHam, B.A.! With the courteous permission of Professor Pictet we have applied the methylation process to the synthetic dextrins recently prepared by him.*8 These compounds are formed by the polymerisation of B-glucosan and, in properties and composition, they closely resemble the natural dextrins. It is, however, abundantly evident that the synthetic compounds differ structurally from starch as, although methylation was extremely tedious, complete alkylation was effected with the production of trimethyl derivatives. Contrary to expectation, hydrolysis of these compounds did not lead to the formation of 2,3,5- trimethyl glucose, although this sugar has already been obtained from 8-glucosan by similar treatment. On the other hand, large quantities of 2,3,5,6-tetramethyl glucose were invariably formed, together with lower methylated glucoses in which the position of the alkyl groups is unknown. I% follows from these results that the synthetic dextrins are complex polyglucose-glucosides, and it is interesting to note that they thus conform to the structural type suggested for cellulose by Hess. Although starch is convertible into glucosan and this, in turn, into the synthetic dextrins, it is evident that profound structural alterations must accompany each change. Inulin. [With Dr. Erriz S. STEELE, Mr. G. McOwan, M.A., B.Sc., and Miss M. I. SHannon, B.Sc.] The statement has been made that, of all the polysaccharides, inulin is the representative of which the structure has been most definitely established. The opinion is gratifying, but not altogether accurate. Inulin is derived from fructose, and, until recently, there was no reason to doubt that the parent hexose was the well-known levo-rotatory form of the ketose. This view is no longer tenable as, although inulin itself yields the normal form of fructose on hydrolysis, trimethyl inulin is converted into a dextro-rotatory trimethyl fructose.*® In similar manner, dimethyl inulin gives a dextro-rotatory dimethyl fructose. Fach of these alkylated ketoses was proved to be a derivative of the ‘“y fructose,’ which is a constituent of sucrose. This result places inulin in a position which is quite unique, and the evidence is conclusive that the polysaccharide is entirely composed of y-fructose residues, each of which retains three hydroxyl groups. The many problems involved in the constitution of inulin have been discussed by us at some length in recent papers, and attention may now be restricted to the additional evidence we have secured. One important point left unsettled was whether the trimethyl y-fructose — obtained from trimethyl inulin is a single chemical substance or a mixture of isomerides. The question is fundamental, as only in the event of the methylated fructose proving to be a single individual are — we justified in claiming that the hydroxyl groups in inulin are symmetrically disposed. The experimental difficulties in the way are “Te B.—CHEMISTRY. 47 formidable, as methylated fructoses of the y-type are liquids and give no crystalline derivatives. By the following method, however, it has been possible to obtain the necessary information, and it is now established that only one form of trimethyl fructose is produced from inulin. A large quantity of trimethyl inulin was digested with methyl alcohol containing hydrogen chloride under conditions which effected :— (a) Depolymerisation, (b) hydrolysis, (c) condensation to give trimethyl methylfructoside. The product was distilled in a high vacuum, and fractions were abstracted at frequent intervals while the boiling-point remained constant. All the fractions showed the same refractive index and specific rotation. Moreover, the speed of hydrolysis of the fructoside, as indicated by polarimetic observations, was in each case the same, and in each experiment the trimethyl fructose then formed showed identical physical constants. Of greater importance is the fact that all the specimens of trimethyl methyl-fructoside reacted in the same way when dissolved in acetone containing hydrogen chloride. Under these conditions trimethyl fructose monoacetone was formed, and here again the speed of the reaction measured polarimetrically showed no difference in any of the specimens. There can be no doubt, therefore, that inulin is an aggregate of anhydro y-fructose residues and that each of the units is identical. As the exact structure of the methylated fructoses of the y-type is not yet determined with certainty, it is needless to speculate here on the manner in which these residues are united. The subject has been engaging our attention for a considerable time, but is complicated by the readiness with which the methylated inulins undergo both _ polymerisation and depolymerisation. Tt is not unlikely, bearing in mind the structure assigned to cellulose and starch, that inulin is based on a tri-anhydro-y -fructose. The structural discussion which I have had the honour to lay before you on 6ne of the most important groups of natural compounds is admittedly incomplete, and no claim is made that the formule now submitted are final. But they at least indicate a new development in the chemistry of polysaccharides, and lines of further research are _ opened out which promise in time to reveal the intimate constitution of these substances. Much reliance has been placed on the validity of the methylation process as a means of determining structure, but it has to be remembered that most speculation of the kind on carbohydrates is now based on results obtained by this one particular method. The structure of glucosides, the nature of y-sugars, the constitution of sucrose, maltose, and cellobiose, are all involved in current discussions on this subject, and all are based on the properties of the simple alkylated sugars. Numerous details, such as the specific reactions of the individual hydroxyl groups in carbohydrate units, have still to be settled before the further problem of the polymerisation of polysaccharides can be 1922 F 48 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. adequately dealt with, but many features, for the most part unexpected, have been revealed. The polysaccharides, like many other research fields, are, after all, not so complicated as they appeared when viewed from afar, and the close relationship now established between cellulose and starch, starch and lactose, inulin and sucrose, will, it is hoped, play a part in bringing within the range of exact experiment the structural study of all types of natural compounds related to the simple sugars. BIBLIOGRAPHY. . Purdie and Irvine, Reports, 1902. . Purdie and Irvine, Reports, 1903. . Pringsheim, Zeitsch. angew. Chem., 1922, 58, 345, . Irvine and Soutar, J.C.S., 1920, 117, 1489. Irvine and Hirst, J.C.S., 1922, 121. . Denham and Woodhouse, J.C.S., 1913, 103, 1735; tbid. 1914, 105, 2357. Denham, J.C.S., 1921, 119, 77. . Denham and Woodhouse, J.C.S. 1917, 111, 244. Irvine and Hirst, J.C.S., 1922, 121, 1213. . Irvine and Soutar, loc. cit. Haworth and Hirst, J.C.S., 1921, 119, 193. 9. Fenton and Gostling, J.C.S., 1899, 75, 423; 1901, 79, 361. 10. Hibbert, J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 1921, 18, 256. 1l. Green, Zeit. Farb. Text. Ind., 1904, 3, 97; 309. 12. Vignon, Bull. Soc. Chim., 1899, 21 (3), 599. 13. Tollens, Kurzes Handbuch der Kohlenhydrate, 1914. 14. Cross and Bevan, J.C.S., 1901, 79, 366. 15. Bartelemy, ‘ Caoutchouc and Gutta Percha,’ 1917, 9274; 9328. 16. Pictet and Sarasin, Helv. Chim. Acta, 1918, 1, 187, and subsequent papers. 17. Karrer and Smirnov, Helv. Chim. Acta, 1921, 5, 187. 18. Hess, Zettsch. Elektrochem., 1920, 26, Nr. 11. 19. Pictet, loc. cit. 20. Karrer, Natur. wiss., 1921, 9, 399. Karrer and Smirnov, loc. cit. 21. Pringsheim, loc. cit. 22. Denham and Woodhouse, loc. cit. 23. Karrer, Helv. Chim. Acta, 1920, 3, 620; ibid. 1921, 4, 185; 678. 24, Purdie and Irvine, J.C.S., 1905, 87, 1022. Irvine and Dick, J.C.S., 1919, 115, 593. Haworth and Leitch, ibid., 809. 25. Von Euler and Svanberg, Zeitsch. physiolog. Chem., 1921, 112, 207. ~ 26. Irvine and Oldham, J.C.S., 1921, 119, 1744. 27. Irvine and Hynd, J.C.S., 1912, 101, 1128. 28. Pictet, Helv. Chim. Acta., 1918, 1, 226, and subsequent papers. 29. Irvine and Steele, J.C.S., 1920, 117, 1474. Irvine, Steele and Shannon, J.C.S., 1922, 121, 1060. for) Or He OOD le oe | Wie pao ee ee ee THE PHYSIOGRAPHY FOF THE COAL SWAMPS. ADDRESS TO SECTION CG (GEOLOGY) BY Proressor PERCY FRY KENDALL, M.Sc., F.G.S. PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. _ THis enterprising and progressive city in which we are assembled is one of the three ports of shipment for the products of our most important coalfield and for the entry of many of the commodities which we receive in exchange. It seems not unfitting, therefore, that I should address you upon geological problems relating to Coal, more especially as the development of the portion of the Coalfield concealed under newer rocks is approaching nearer and nearer to Hull. The subject of Coal Measures Geology has been discussed piece- meal in innumerable papers and memoirs, so that an inquirer may well be appalled at the mass of facts and of often conflicting deductions with which he is confronted. Indeed, it is surprising to discover how fundamental are some differences of opinion which exist. A cause that has largely contributed to this confusion has been that the geological specialist has commonly worked too exclusively on the outside of the earth, and the miner, who has viewed things below, has seldom attempted any broad generalisations, his experience being limited usually to a small number of collieries or of coal-seams. In my treatment of the subject I shall be frankly and freely specula- tive, for I hold that the Geology of Coal has now reached a stage when the mass of accumulated data calls for an attempt at a general review and synthesis. A Scottish Divine, addressing members of the British Association at Edinburgh last year, said: ‘An ounce of theory is worth a ton of fact.’ With some qualifying adjectives this embodies a pro- found truth. A carefully considered and weighed theory is worth a _ great mass of uncoordinated facts, and when I ‘survey the vast un- digested, though not indigestible, mass of facts in the body of coaly _ literature—without taking into account the 250 million tons of solid black facts raised by the British collieries in an average year—I am emboldened to cast into the opposite scale an ounce or so of theory _ compounded from the ideas of my illustrious fellow-workers and perhaps an odd grain or two of my own. Growth in Place, or Drift. Among the questions in the answer to which doctors have differed there is, I imagine, none more fundamental than this: Were coal-seams simple aggregations of plant remains swept together by the action of water—a process of accumulation which the learned F 2 “ 50 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. call allochthony ; more simply by drift; or were they formed, like peat, by the growth of vegetable material in its place—the process of autochthony ? I do not intend to labour the answer to this question. Categorical arguments in favour of the growth in place origin of the coal-forming vegetation. are on record, and they have never been as categorically answered. Many arguments in favour of the Drift Theory seem to me clearly to have arisen from confusion between cannel and true coal. This distinction is again fundamental. True coal-seams are charac- terised by :— (1) Wide extent. (2) Uniformity of thickness and character over extensive areas. (3) Freedom from intermingled detrital mineral matter. (4) Constant presence of a seat-earth or rootlet bed. (5) Entire absence of remains of aquatic animals within the seam. Substitute affirmatives for negatives, and negatives for affirmatives, and the characteristics of cannel are as truly set forth. The whole subject has been exhaustively reviewed with all the resources of wide study and great field experience in Professor J. J. Stevenson’s memoirs or monographs entitled respectively The Formation of Coal Beds and Inter-relation of Fossil Fuels, volumes which are treasure-houses of facts. Without a familiar knowledge of these two masterpieces of scientific induction, no geologist is fully equipped for an inquiry into the Geology of Coal. Not the least arresting chapters are those in which the author demonstrates the inadequacy of river-drift to provide materials for the formation of a coal-seam. He shows that even when in high flood the gross amount of timber, drift-wood and general raffle of plant detritus carried along and available for the purpose of coal- seam formation is quite insignificant. He gives many citations from reports of geologists and others, as well as from his own experience, to show that when a flooded river sweeps through a forest it scarcely, if at all, disturbs the humus. Haigh-Moor or Deltaic Swamp. Granted, therefore, that coal-seams were, in the main, formed by the growth, death, and accumulation on the spot of plant tissues after the general manner of beds of peat, our next inquiry must be into the further and consequent question: What type of modern peat-growth most nearly represents the conditions of the old peat areas? Were they upland or lowland peats; were they wet or dry? If in search of an answer to this question we examine a section of Coal Measures strata in which coal-seams are included, we find a series of well- stratified layers of sandstones, shales, and the like, exhibiting general regularity of bedding, fine lamination of the layers, and the frequent occurrence of beds charged with the remains of aquatic animals, some marine and some of fresh-water habitat. We cannot fail to recognise in this the inexpugnable evidence of a lowland area undergoing inter- mittent depression, such as would bring in, at one time, the muds and sands of an area of alluvial drainage, and, at another time, even the sea, We are presented, then, with a clear initial conception of a vast | C.— GEOLOGY. 51 lowland peat-bog coextensive with, not merely the coal-seam as it now exists, but with its much greater developraent before denudation had clipped its edges or cut it into several detached areas. This must be our starting-point and principal postulate. In obedience to the wholesome admonition that the geologist should interpret the past by the present, I have sought in descriptions of the great alluvial areas of the world for some tract that shall exhibit to us conditions closely paralleling—after allowance for biological differences —those of Coal Measure times, especially as regards the extent of the areas of peat formation. In the great Dismal Swamp of Virginia some resemblance may be found, but the area is far too small. The Amazon alluvium is comparable in area, but we have no knowledge of the peats. The deltas of the Nile and the Indus equally fail us. The Ganges delta comes much nearer. But after long flights of inquiry in many parts of the earth I find that one of the best illustrations les very literally at our doors. At some period subsequent to the Pleistocene Ice Age the whole of the British Isles appears to have stood—relatively to the sea—at the least 80 ft. above its present level, and this uplifted position similarly affected Holland, Belgium, and much of France. The North Sea, in its southern half, appears to have been brought by the net effect of glacial erosion and deposition to the condition of a vast plain so nearly at the then sea-level that it became a morass. Round its margins were forests of oak, pine, and-birch, while the greater part of the area furnished the conditions for a great peat-swamp. Under favourable conditions of tide, peat-beds, with or without the frayed and torn stumps of trees in position of growth, may be seen below high-water mark, and in this city of Hull the Forest Beds are exposed when deep cuttings are made or they are encountered in borings. In Holland the peat-beds are similarly present, and in the excavations for docks at Antwerp a peat-bed was found, overlain by a deposit with estuarine shells. This evidence alone would do no more than prove a fringe of swamps surrounding the North Sea, but the trawlers who rake every square mile of the North Sea floor find their operations impeded in places by masses of peat (Moorlog). Clement Reid, to whom we owe much of our knowledge of Post-glacial con- ditions, expressed his interpretation of the physiography of the North Sea area at this stage in a map which showed the portion of the North Sea south of a line joining Flamborough Head to the northern point of Denmark as a plain intersected by the multiple tributaries and mouths of the Rhine, the Weser, the Elbe, and other rivers. If we assume that the peat-beds found on the margins and at many stations upon this sea-floor were once approximately continuous, the area would furnish the nearest modern parallel in respect of size to the ancient peat-morasses which the coalfields must once have presented. Beyond this the parallelism fails us. The Coal Measures of England are preponderantly of fresh-water origin, as the recurrent beds of Carbonicola and its allies demonstrate, while the Holocene peats of the Dogger Bank and Holland are associated chiefly with marine or estuarine deposits. The coals of the Lower Carboniferous of the North of England and of the Scottish Lowlands, on the other hand, present 52 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. frequent intercalations of marine strata—generally of limestone—which is again unlike the North Sea peat-fields. In the Yorkshire Coalfield—I hope I may be forgiven for styling the coalfield extending from Leeds to Nottingham by the short title ‘The Yorkshire Coalfield ’—in the Yorkshire Coalfield, then, marine intercalations are represented by beds of shale of extremely fine, blue, unctuous, almost textureless character. These are never more than 20 ft. in thickness, though it would not, perhaps, be quite fair to judge by this relatively small thickness that the marine incursions, though not infrequent, were of proportionately short duration. The Coal Measures, The succession of strata in a coalfield exhibits a considerable diversity. Shales—the laminated muds of the old lagoons and swamps— are the predominant elements. These vary much in texture from coarse sandy and micaceous deposits, scarcely separable from actual sandstones, through finer and finer materials to the ‘ marine bands’ already referred to. The sand—now sandstone—beds are second in bulk only to the shales, and it is interesting to observe that two principal stratigraphic forms are presented. There are, first, the broad sheets extending over hundreds or even thousands of square miles—for example, the Elland Flags are recognisable by their position in the sequence throughout the coalfield from Leeds to Nottingham; their equivalent — has been identified in Lancashire and with much probability in North Staffordshire. | Whether it reappears in North Wales is doubt- ful, but its total area must certainly extend to several thousands of square miles. No signs of marine life accompany it anywhere, but in the northern part of its range it is surrounded, either directly or more commonly with an interval of twenty or thirty yards, by a coal-seam— the Better Bed, renowned for its purity and for the very valuable fire- clay that accompanies it. Within or directly upon the top of the rock was found the magnificent stigmarian root now in the Manchester Museum. The evidence, positive and negative, proves the Elland Flags to be of the delta flat type. No decisive indication of the direction of the stream has been sought, though the analogy of the great sandstones of the Millstone Grit series tempts me to conjecture that it was from N. or N.E., and this surmise is strengthened by the occurrence of the coal-seam in that direction and not to S. or S.W., and we may picture a great sandy delta growing by its edge southward and west- ward with a peat-swamp establishing itself on the higher parts. Lesser sandstones of the same general types are of frequent occur- rence and bear the same general interpretation. In the other principal stratigraphic form the sandstones are of more limited extension, especially in what I take to be the width of the bed. This type is often called lenticular, but the adjective is a bad one, for such a bed is in fact shaped more like the bean-pod than the bean. Beds of this character I interpret as the infilling of channels cut in the deltaic flats. Two lithological types peculiar to strata of the Coal Measure facies A te. . C—GEOLOGY. 53 are the underclays and gannisters—‘ seat-earths ’ to use their common denominator. ‘These are the clayey or sandy beds which underlie coal- seams, or have stood in the relation of soil to vegetation insufficient in amount to form coal. There are many more of these old soils than there are coal-seams. Both underclays and gannisters possess physical and chemical characteristics which separate them from all other deposits. Physically they are destitute of signs of lamination, and they are traversed by carbonaceous markings often to be identified with certainty as the roots, rootlets, and rhizomes of plants, usually lycopodiaceous. These have pierced through and through the material, obliterating any traces of bedding which may once have been there. The chemical peculiarities of the old soils are the absence of alkalies, the rarity of calcium com- pounds, and the low percentage of iron. These features also can be ascribed to abstraction of mineral substances by plant activity, and perhaps in part to leaching by passage of water charged with organic compounds arising from the decay of vegetable tissues. In some beds—but never in the seat-earths—molluscan remains occur. They are of two contrasted groups. Shells of Carbonicola, Anthracomya, and Naiadites are commonly found in packed masses in which, as is commonly the case in fresh-water muds of our day, the lack of variety is compensated for by a great abundance of individual specimens. Beds containing these fossils are usually argillaceous, but they sometimes constitute important beds of ironstone. The marine bands offer the remains of a much more varied fauna—not usually with the same superabundance of individuals. The fossils include Pterinopecten, Pseudamusium, Lingula, Orthoceras, goniatites, and many other genera—obviously a marine assemblage. Sometimes the fine blue shales thus characterised are accompanied by hard limestone. In the bright-coloured measures belonging to the Staffordian division limestones of peculiar texture and contents are found—commonly called Spirorbis Limestones. Their texture is usually smooth and fine ; occa- sionally they enclose angular fragments of a similar limestone, as though a deposit had been shattered in situ by some agency, and deposi- tion of like material had then been renewed. To all these add coal-seams and the series is complete. The Constituents of Coal-seams. We must now turn to a more minute examination of the coal itself. Any seam of ordinary house coal—such, for example, as the Silkstone seam—will present us, if we look closely, with three substances, agreeing in a carbonaceous character and in a modicum of combustibility, but otherwise very different. The first constituent is a black, lustrous, dense material—the typical coal. This is disposed in apparent bedding with some appearance of regularity, though an individual layer can rarely be traced as much as three or four feet, and is never continued for many more. It presents in great perfection a close and regular cleavage perpendicular to the bedding. This cleavage is the cleat, of which I shall have more to say presently. The second constituent, which is rarely altogether absent though 54 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. more abundant in some seams than in others, is dull in aspect with a brownish tinge, sometimes even being of a deep coffee colour. It is of rougher texture, breaking with a rather hackly fracture. The third material, commonly known as ‘mother of coal ’—a name innocent of misleading implications, for which the French name ‘ fusain’ is often substituted—is disposed in thin layers between the other constituents. The fusain layers are of weak texture, so that the coal when struck almost invariably splits along one of these. Upon the cleft surface a soft charcoal-like substance is seen, made up apparently of broken fragments. It is this which makes coal dirty to handle.! What is the meaning of these three types of substance constituting the seam? Even with the unaided eye we may gain a clear reply to cur question, but the microscope gives a better answer, and discloses many interesting details. The highly lustrous coal was long ago recog- nised by Dawson as being produced from the bark of trees, and it is common experience that isolated shells of bark with the characteristic external leaf-scars and internal marks of leaf-traces are usually of bright coal. This, however, is probably not quite the whole of the explanation of the bright coal, for I have in my possession specimens in which a larger fraction of the original radius of a trunk than can be ascribed to bark in the most elastic sense of the term is represented by coal of extraordinary brilliance. Again, where coal has undergone great disturbance prior to its ‘ mineralisation’ it is usual to find a large development of bright coal. However, it is a great aid to the interpretation of a seam to know that the long bright streaks do usually represent in some shape the trunks or branches of trees. The dull coal may be a felt of the finer elements of plants, or, in Lomax’s phrase, mixed humic debris, but few, if any, of the seams in the’ Yorkshire Coalfield fail to include layers of which the main constituents are the spores of lycopods—both megaspores and microspores. With a glass of even low magnifying power we may recognise in hand specimens of coal the small dises which represent the flattened spores, each with a triradiate mark indicating its contact with the other three members of the tetrad. In thin section for the microscope they appear as yellow discs, or sacs, sometimes in horizontal sections showing the three- rayed ridge. The methods by which these plant-spores have been accumulated may have differed. The spores may have been wafted from distant jungles of Sigillaria or kindred trees, though their large size is rather opposed to the view of wind carriage from a considerable distance, and it seems the more probable supposition that they accumu- lated on the ground or on the carpet of vegetation in the water beneath 1 Dr. Stopes has proposed (Proc. F#.S., Ser. B., xe., p. 470) a classification of constituents of coal-seams into four types: 1, Fusain, the familiar ‘ mother of coal’; 2, Durain, which includes the spore coals (generally these belong to the ‘hards’ in a seam); 3, Clarain, which apparently includes the humic coal of Lomax; and 4, Vitrain, a very brilliant coal forming thin bands and showing a complete absence of structure in typical specimens. Mr. Sinnatt (rans. Inst. Min. Ling., vol. \xiii., p. 307) adopts these names and proposes a system of con- ventional shading by means of which they may be distinguished in drawings. He also attempts an analysis of the proportions of each type in certain coal- seams in Lancashire. C.—GEOLOGY. 55 the parent trees. ‘That they were drifted into place and distributed with the thinness and regularity which we see the layers to possess is quite inconceivable. For sometimes a layer of spore coal an inch in thickness may ‘be traced at a specific level in a seam over an area of scores of square miles. In the Haigh Moor seam there is a layer of this kind half or three-quarters of an inch in thickness, which can be traced through several collieries in the neighbourhood of Castleford. The constituents of fusain, or ‘ mother of coal,’ are even more easily recognised than those of spore coal. Upon a bedding plane fusain is seen to be composed of fragments of plant-tissue, commonly showing a fibrous or cellular structure, and in many instances of rectangular form suggesting scraps of wood. In the seams most commonly used as house-coal in Yorkshire recognisable fragments of Calamite stems are yery common—usually in single internodes or lesser fragments, though occasional examples of three or four internodes in apposition are found. Some fusain, according to White, is composed of fern leaves. The charcoal-like aspect is in agreement with the results of chemical analysis, which show a very high carbon content. Fusain layers are much less defined in the spore coal than in soft coal, a fact which may have some bearing upon the mode of origin of the two materials. In bright coal the fusain layers exhibit consider- able regularity and continuity. There has been much speculation regarding the origin of fusain layers, some authors ascribing them to the wood and smaller plant rubbish which appear to have undergone rapid aerial decay at or near the water surface of the swamp in which most of the debris was submerged. This explanation appears to me the most in accord with the facts as I have observed them, but the regularity of the layer seems too great and the fusainisation too indiscriminate and too complete to accord with any supposition that these layers represent the ordinary crop of decay- ing materials. It would be worth a detailed and systematic study to ascertain whether they represent the raffle of dead twigs, leaves, and other stuff brought down by periodic flood-waters. This supposition gains a little support in my experience of the abundance of calamitean stems, for although Calamites is provided with a stout woody axis, the cortex has very large air-spaces that would impart great buoyance to the fragments. I have collected the drift along the flood-line of two English lakes, Bassenthwaite and Semmer Water, and in both eases fragments of Hquisetuwm were preponderant elements. Periodic flooding is not inconsistent with what is known about the conditions of coal-formation, or of the régime of great rivers. The great swamps of the world are in the flat portions of the course of great rivers or in their actual delta. The North Sea, for instance, we have chosen for example, was a great deltaic flat. That the Coal Measures were a similar deltaic flat is evident. The idea that fusain is the imperfectly burnt residue of a forest fire is opposed by so great an array of facts that it is difficult to understand its frequent restatement. The fusain layers are as even and regular 56 SECTIONAL, ADDRESSES. as any of the layers, and may recur several times in an inch of coal. It would be difficult to imagine reafforestation so frequent and so necessarily extensive. These varying types of material recurrent in the thickness of the coal-seams leave us, it is true, some unsolved problems, but they present us with a sufficient basis of fact to enable imagination to call up the general conditions of coal-formation. Let us now imagine a great expanse of newly formed or forming mud or sand flats. Over this area semi-aquatic plants creep out and establish themselves, their dead remains and windfalls gradually accumulating into a bed of decaying vegetable debris upon which other plants—not necessarily of the same type—follow. With varying and perhaps recurrent conditions of drainage and moisture one flora succeeds another. Some day it should be possible to map out the ecology of the coalfields at the time of the formation of the coal-seams in some- what the same way that Dr. W. G. Smith has portrayed the dis- tribution of plant associations on the surface of Yorkshire to-day, and we may be able to trace the chronological plant-sequence, as has been done for modern peat-bogs. This result will be achieved through the study with the microscope of thin sections of coal—especially serial sections extending from base to summit of a particular seam. Such a method of study was first attempted by Wethered, but it was not until mechanical methods of section-making were brought to perfection by Mr. James Lomax that complete success was attained. There are now available for study—thanks to the interest taken in these inquiries by coal-owners in the Yorkshire Coalfield—six complete series of sections taken from our great Barnsley Bed at geographical intervals of about four or five miles. When the whole coalfield is spanned by a suite of such series a great addition will be made to our knowledge of the swamp-forests of the Coal Measures. Lomax declares that there is a general succession of constituents recognisable in many seams, which must be related to the predilections of the plants concerned in the matter of drainage and other factors. He says: ‘Usually the lower part of a seam consists of a bed of very fine humus or mixture of leaf-like matter, with here and there portions of stems, fructiferous organs, &c., probably derived from the remains of small, more or less delicate, plants, and forming soft bright-looking beds of coal. Ascending upwards in the seam other plant remains are to be found, some belonging to the Gymnosperms. ‘ Other remains are the Lycopods (Club-mosses), which as time went on increased both in size and vigour, ultimately crowding out almost every other kind of vegetation, and becoming the predominant plants of their time. ‘The various changes, progress, and deterioration can be traced until ultimately the plant life represented in the top of the seam is found to be practically identical with that at the bottom.’ Some such sequence is, of course, to be expected. | When a bed of mud, sand, or limestone emerges from below water-level to be a land surface it could not be expected that every type of plant-life could = ¥ (.—GEOLOGY. 57 grow upon it without preparation. And Lomax remarks: ‘ In order to prepare a humus for the higher plants humic material must have accumulated by the growth of lower orders.’ The general result of Lomax’s studies—in which result my experi- ence enables me to concur—is that the base of a seam is a rather soft coal, exhibiting upon a vertical face a dull ground mass with fine spindle- shaped streaks of bright, lustrous coal, apparently composed of small scraps of a variety of plants of what the modern gardener would term - the herbaceous type. Following this we have the appearance of a bright coal with sections of compressed stems or branches of trees inter- mingled with ‘ humic’ material and spores. In the upper part of the seam in general hard coals often occur, consisting mainly, or even exclusively, of megaspores and microspores, with an occasional sporangium, or even a complete fruit. This is the simple succession. There may, however, be a recurrence of any of these phases. At first inspection the sequence seems to fortify Lomax’s inference that the giant Lycopods demanded a soil of humic materials upon which to grow, but this inference must admit of many exceptions to meet the innumerable cases of fossil-trees stand- ing rooted in sandstone (gannister), or other purely mineral deposit, with no trace of humic soil. I have also seen a two-inch seam with its underclay resting upon a coralliferous limestone into which the stigmarian roots had penetrated. The nature of the last crop on the ground is not infrequently indi- cated by the plant-remains in the roof. In the coalfield nearest us the most common occurrence is to find in the shales of the roof prostrate stems of Sigillaria, very often in great numbers. Not infrequently the mud-filled stumps forming the dreaded ‘ pot-holes ’ stand in attitude of growth in the roof shales; their roots, too, may sometimes be detected ramifying in the seam or on its surface. The great Barnsley Bed is sometimes in this condition, but occasionally the last crop of this seam when overwhelmed and drowned in muddy water was a profuse growth of the fern-like Pteridosperms, such as Neuropteris heterophyllus. At South Kirkby colliery a whitish efflorescence from the shale with the black carbonaceous plant-remains gives the aspect of a sheet out of a botanist’s hortus siccus. Cannel. I have already mentioned that, in all those characteristics which prove the growth in place origin of true coal, cannel seams present the exact reverse, so that here all authorities are agreed that drifting in some form must be invoked, but there are other forms in which the material occurs to which the general theory can be applied only with some qualification. The structure and composition of cannel have an important bearing upon all questions of its origin. It is sometimes described as consisting of spores, but in fact all the more exact descriptions speak of a dense amorphous ground mass in which the recognisable structures are usually spores. My observations show that they constitute only a small fraction of the whole. Other plant-remains are rare; indeed, I can recall very few examples, of which the most notable was a calamitean stem of 58 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. three or four internodes. But if recognisable plant-remains are scarce, it is far otherwise with remains of animals. Scales, teeth, and bones of fishes are almost invariably present, and it is from cannel that our largest collections of Coal Measure vertebrates have been obtained. Amphibian remains are more rare; Ostracods, such as Beyrichia arcuata, are crowded in some planes, and lastly, fresh-water shells such as Carboni- cola are represented commonly not by the shells themselves, but by the flattened wrinkled epidermis, the calcareous shell having evidently been dissolved by the acids generated by decomposing vegetable matter. The texture of cannel is usually smooth and the fracture conchoidal in the purest specimens, but in most cases it graduates into a black carbonaceous shale. The ash content is always high, rising to 40 per cent. before reaching the point at which it would be regarded as shale. Chemically it is distinguished by the high yield of hydrocarbons, obtained on distillation either as mineral oil or as gas. For this reason, in days before the invention of the incandescent mantle, cannel for enrichment of gas of low illuminating power was in great demand, and commanded so high a price that I have seen our most famous fish-bed worked when it was only seven inches in thickness. All these characteristics of cannel are consistent with the view that it originated from a mass of vegetation macerated in pools of water somewhat after the manner of the ‘retting ’ of flax. Sometimes the cannel is in unconformable relation to the underlying beds, as at the Abram Colliery, Wigan, where it rests in one district upon true coal, and, in the course of about a mile, encroaches first upon the coal, then upon its underclay, and, finally, where seven feet in thickness, it rests upon a bed of shale underlying the underclay. Green suggests that cannel consists of vegetable matter which was drifted down into ponds or lakes and lay soaking until it became reduced to pulp. Some modes of occurrence of cannel are of particular interest for the light they throw upon Coal Measure conditions. Some beds are of wide extent, having been traced over an area of several hundreds of square miles; on the other hand, strips and patches of a fraction of an acre occur, such as that at the foot of a fault in the Barrow Colliery, which I interpret to indicate a depression in the coal-swamp which was connected with some movement of the fault. An interesting relation is often found to subsist between the total thickness of a coal-seam and the presence of a local patch of cannel. It commonly happens that the presence of a patch of cannel as a constituent of a coal-seam is accompanied by an increased thickness, even out of proportion to the magnitude of the cannel, and this irrespective of whether the cannel is above, within, or below the true coal. It may be explained by the fact that the process of fermentation by which the cannel was produced reduced its volume more rapidly than the ordinary decay did that of the adjacent peat, and so maintained a depression in which more plant debris could accumulate; but the ultimate effect of this fermentation was a less complete loss of hydrocarbons, and consequently, both because its contemporaneous loss was greater and its subsequent loss was less, the presence of a cannel component increases the thickness of a seam. eth e? pies Ae Sagi ~~ C.—GEOLOGY. 59 It may be pointed out that well-decomposed peat forms a buttery mass almost, or perhaps quite, as impervious to water as a bed of clay would be. This may explain why at Teversall Colliery there is a thin bed of poor cannel at the base of the Top Hard (or Barnsley Bed) coal and a second bed of better quality at the top. Where the lower bed is thick the upper one is thin, and vice versd. Coal-Balls and their Significance. The bodies known, besides several aliases, as coal-balls are masses of mixed vegetation ‘ petrified ’ by being so completely permeated by mineral substances, such as dolomite or calcite, that even the most delicate and tender tissues have been preserved with every cell in its proper position. Coal-balls occur in coal-seams as isolated masses, varying in size from mere pellets up to masses of a ton or two in weight. Sometimes they form clusters closely crowded together and at others sporadically. Apart from their enormous value to paleobotany, they present to the general practitioner in Coal-Measure Geology a number of attractive problems, the solution of which cannot fail to throw a vivid beam of light upon the question of the physiography of the coal- swamps. Their limitation to seams carrying marine roof-measures at once suggests a source for the petrifying substance and a reason why they are of such restricted occurrence that they are wholly unknown in the great majority of coalfields. The notable memoir by Stopes and Watson? is so important a compendium of the significant facts that I shall forbear to cite the writings of others, including myself, who contributed to the discussion. I would further say that I find myself in almost complete agreement with the authors. Their argument in brief is that the seams in question grew in salt or brackish swamps and that a mass of debris of the plants accumulated under water. Sea- water has a remarkable preservative effect upon plant-tissues, experi- ments by one of the authors showing that fronds of ferns, and even the more delicate structures of liverworts, could be preserved for at least three years without signs of decay or even loss of their green colour. They then proceed to argue that the partial decay of some vegetable materials would liberate carbon dioxide which, reacting with sulphates and sulphides with which the sea-water would have impregnated the mass, produced these isolated concretions which represent a true sample of a bed of peat accumulated on the spot where the plants grew. One instance is cited of two seams separated by a sandstone seat-earth (gannister) in which coal-balls are scattered through both seams. Assuming, as the text implies, that the general character of the concretions is the same throughout the sequence, the inference seems to be justified that the formation of coal-balls was continuing during the whole period of accumulation of the seam. At the same time, it is not clear why the petrifaction should be so local, and it is perhaps worth while to examine any evidence which might decide whether, as happens with some other rocks, the sporadic character may not be due to local escape from decalcification rather than to local petrifaction. 2 Phil, Trans., Ser. B., vol, 200, 60 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. This view of the origin of the seams of coal that enclose these bodies is quite in accord with opinions long held by paleobotanists, that the structure of the plants found in them is compatible with their growth in brackish water, and corroboration is found in the fact that ‘ roof-balls ’ are found in the overlying shales that contain well-preserved remains of a flora very significantly different from that of the seams. Boulders in Coal-seams. The occurrence of well-rounded masses up to several hundred- weights of foreign rocks is well attested by many writers, and it is no uncommon occurrence to see small specimens upon the mantelshelf in a colliery office. The subject is, as usual, thoroughly and almost ex- haustively summarised by Stevenson,*® to whose pages any who desire to study the subject further must be referred. These erratics have been found in coal-seams in many parts of the world. They occur in every part of the seams from roof to floor, and even penetrating the floor. Two forms of transport of these masses have been suggested. The first ascribes it to floating ice, an hypothesis that fails to take account of the smooth, rounded and water-worn appearance of the stones, no less than the incompatibility of ice action on an ade- quate scale with the climatic conditions indicated, in the judgment of palzobotanists, by the character of the vegetation. The other explanation, which ascribes the transport to floating trees, is not without difficulty when the size, and particularly the shape, of the baulders is considered. | Stevenson comments upon the difficulty of imagining a tree of sufficient magnitude carrying such a load with the tenacious grip which would be required to maintain it from the source of the boulder to its place of deposition. It is clear that thoroughly rounded boulders of intensely hard quartzite could have been shaped only by either a long journey in a mountain torrent or by prolonged pounding on a beach. In either case a tree so burdened would need a considerable depth of water for its flotation, and it is inconceivable that it could steer its way through a forest, unless one deeply submerged. I am disposed to think that such were indeed the conditions—that either during a temporary flood or in the final submergence of the coal-swamp some stray gymnospermous tree whose roots were adapted, as those of Stigmaria clearly are not, to wrap round a smooth boulder, drifted over or among the tree tops, and either came to a final anchorage or simply dropped its burden. This explanation is not inconsistent with the presence of boulders at all or any levels in the seam, for it will appear, on reflection, that a mass of rock would readily sink into peat, the rate of its descent being determined by the impetus of its fall, the tenacity of the peat, the shape of the stone, and other factors. Some might bring up against an embedded tree trunk, while others might sink completely through the seam. That some stones have sunk in this manner seems to be indicated by the fact that one of the large stones preserved in the Manchester Museum occupied a vertical attitude in the coal when discovered. 2 Op. rit., pp. 391 and 426-433. “i — .* a hy Boe e e4 ie 3 { ‘ e x C.— GEOLOGY. 61 Surprise is sometimes expressed that these stones should be found in the seams of coal and not in the Coal Measure sandstones and shales that are quarried or wrought in brick-yards. The reason is partly statistical. The weight, and still more the bulk, of these materials extracted year by year is far less than the 250 to 300 millions of tons - of coal raised; but a yet more important reason is that no stone in the - coal as large as a man’s head could escape detection by the collier, and arousing the interest of the officials, whereas in a quarry it would probably, if observed, be cast aside without notice as merely a blemish in the stone of no more interest than any ordinary concretion. The locus of the parent rock of these stray boulders is wholly conjectural, but the great preponderance both in Britain and in America of quartzites _ should furnish a clue, and the petrologist who will undertake the investigation may certainly rely upon the sympathetic interest of Coal Measure geologists and colliery managers. The Aberrations of Coal-seams. Having got our coal-swamp clothed with vegetation, and the coal- forming materials accumulating, let us next consider the various inter- ruptions of continuity and the aberrations to which it is liable. These interferences may be either contemporaneous with the accumulation of the materials, or, as one may say, posthumous. These categories, at first sight, seem capable of easy and definite recognition, but, as we shall see presently, it is not so easy as it looks. Faults, overthrusts, and unconformities may as a rule be classed among what I have called the posthumous type of interference, though in many cases true faults appear to have achieved a portion of their total movement contemporaneously with the deposition of the seams, or during the interval between seam and seam. An illustration of a con- temporaneous fault is found at the Barrow Colliery, near Barnsley, where, on the down-thrown side of the fault and parallel with it, the Thorncliffe Thin Coat swells up from 3 feet to 5 feet 6 inches, and carries a strip of cannel absent elsewhere in the mine. Of a fault moving between seam and seam an example is furnished at Whitwood, where a lower seam is thrown to the extent of 60 feet while an over- lying one is unbroken. The case of a fault affecting an upper and not a lower seam is noticed at Aldwarke Colliery. Among the contem- porary interferences with the coal-seams are to be accounted uncon- formities, which, no doubt, occur on various scales of magnitude. Some may be interpreted—as Mr. Clarke suggested for the great ‘ Symon _ Fault’ of the Forest of Dean—as the denudation of a folded series ; other examples would, as I shall presently show, be better explained, as Prestwich explains the Symon Fault, as the erosion of a channel. Prominent in this category of contemporary interferences must be put the phenomena of split seams. A split seam is the intercalation into the midst of the coal of a wedge of sandstone, shale, or the like, in such wise that the seam becomes subdivided by intervening strata into two or more seams. This phenomenon is of special practical importance 4 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. lvii., p. 86. 62 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. because it may mean that a thick seam may in the divided condition become incapable of being worked at a profit. The great coalfield that I have so often cited furnishes examples of every known type, and interesting as they are to the geologist, they are an abomination to the colliery-owner or manager, and often a source of severe disappointment and loss. The most notable split seam in Britain is not, however, in Yorkshire but in the famous Staffordshire Thick Coal. Jukes showed that this magnificent seam, 40 feet thick at its maximum, is split up into a number of minor seams by wedges of sedimentary strata which aggregate, in a distance of 44 miles, a thickness of 500 feet. Whether these intercalations again thin out, or not, is unknown to me; but whether so, or not, the explanation offered by that sagacious student of coal, Bowman of Manchester, might find here a typical application. Bowman supposed that a local sag occurred in the floor of the coal swamp, resulting in the drowning of the vegeta- tion (in his illustration bearing a suspicious resemblance to a coconut palm) and interrupting the formation of peat until the hollow was silted up and a new swamp flora re-established. This explanation remained for many years unchallenged, but in 1875, in the great memoir on The Yorkshire Coalfield, Green advanced a new reason for the splitting of seams, which is a very common phenomenon here, scarcely any, if any, seam being exempt. Green pointed out that as the Silkstone seam is traced northward - from the locality near Barnsley with which its name is associated, it begins to exhibit partings of ‘ dirt,’ which thicken to a belt of country where no collieries afforded information as to the behaviour of the seam. On the far side of this gap a seam is found on the same horizon, but if it represents the Silkstone seam it is very much attenuated and divided. He attributed these features to the development, contem- poraneously with the accumulation of the measures, of a ridge of land, whence mud was washed into the coal-swamp on either hand. Later in the same volume exactly the same problem is presented by the Barnsley Bed, which deteriorates in just the same manner in an almost identical geographical position. This was hailed by Green as a further example of the same process. So long as the problem was of merely academic interest I was content with a silent demurrer, but having to consider the probable resources of the debatable ground for the purpose of colliery development I sought criteria with which to decide whether Green’s growing anticline or ~ Bowman’s developing syncline was the correct explanation. This was the more necessary as I found that the tendency to split affected seams still higher than those named. Nov, it will be obvious upon reflection that an anticline undergoing intermittent elevation and denudation should cause a convergence of the strata representing the stationary phases as they approach the axis, while a deepening trough should produce a corresponding divergence of the strata Market Weighton and Cleveland axes respectively. A careful plotting of intervals showed that, selecting the two seams that were most gener- ally worked, isopachytes of the strata separating them could be drawn, and Bowman’s sag demonstrated, C.—GEOLOGY. 68 Care has to be taken in such an inquiry to eliminate a source of error ‘not hitherto taken into account, namely, the relative compressibility of different sedimentary materials. Freshly deposited mud may contain 90 per cent. by volume of water, and even when reduced by time and pressure to the condition of shale may still have 20 per cent. of inter- space ; a bed of fairly consistent clayey mud might be reduced to one- half its thickness. Sand, however, suffers scarcely any loss of bulk once it has got past the condition of a quicksand. ‘This source of error is eliminated in the calculations relating to the split of the Silkstone and Barnsley seams, and it is seen that the increase of thickness in the sagged area far exceeds the total thickness of the sandstone present, so that the sag is a real one and not the effect of the relative compressibility of the measures. There may be cases in which there is no further shore to the sag, and the seam once lost is lost for good and all. Such might be the margin of a deltaic flat undergoing intermittent depression. __ It has occurred to me to consider whether, the sediments with which the Staffordshire Thick Coal is subdivided need necessarily have de- manded an earth movement to an extent corresponding to their aggregate thickness ; in other words, whether the aggregate thickness of the sedi- ments plus the seams that they now separate were, in the uncompressed original condition, materially different in thickness from the great un- divided seam. I have not the data upon which to found an opinion, but we are promised a full discussion of this seam, when I hope the problem will receive attention. The idea I had in mind has apparently been current for some time, for I find Mr. Walton Brown expressed the opinion many years ago that the Coal Measures might be regarded actually as a single coal-seam, with the necessary implication that the sedimentary measures are in the nature of local interruptions. Some measure of the reduction of thickness which the original substance has undergone and some consequences will be considered later. I now turn to a form of split seam of extraordinary interest, which has received comparatively little attention from geologists though mining engineers must surely have a special comminatory formula to express their sentiments thereon. The first example that came under my notice was encountered in the eastern workings of the Middleton Main Seam, at Whitwood Colliery, near Wakefield. Thin intercalations of shale and other sedimentary materials, appearing at different horizons in the seam, were found to thicken gradually to the east concurrently with the gradual dwindling of the lower part of the seam. An explora- tion was then carried out. The bottom coal was followed, but it was found that though the underclay continued the coal disappeared, and was wholly lost for a short distance when it reappeared. The top coal ose over a steadily thickening shale parting, and disappeared into the ‘roof of the workings, but boreholes proved that it was present above a) parting which was, at the maximum, 29 feet thick. At the farther end of the heading the top coal came down and the integrity of the “seam was restored. ‘T'wo other transverse explorations have proved the eons general arrangement on the same scale of magnitude and one or both margins have been traced for a long distance, enabling the 1922 G 64 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. interruption to be mapped continuously for about 8 or 9 miles and intermittently much further. My first impression was that this was just a simple case of Bowman’s ‘sag,’ until I observed that in every traverse the upper element of the seam was arched while the floor was flat. Several analogous cases came under my notice before an explanation of this anomalous arching was reached. ‘The explanation was found to lie essentially in the differential shrinkage undergone by peat-stuff in the process of forming coal, and, on the other hand, by any sand or mud which may have been deposited so as to replace a part of the peat. Let us imagine a stream being diverted at flood time across a bed of peat and scooping out for itself a hollow channel, which channel subsequently becomes filled with sediments, after which the formation of peat continues, the peat plants creep out, and presently envelop the whole mass of sediments. When the beds consolidate there will obviously be very different contraction between the sands, muds, and the coal-stuff. The sands, as I have said, will hardly contract at all, the muds will contract a good deal, the coal-stuff will contract very greatly. Various estimates—or guesses—have been made of the amount of reduction in bulk which attends the conversion of peat into coal. Lomax shows that where coal-balls—which are really masses of com- paratively uncrushed coal-forming material that has been preserved by minerals infiltering the tissues and the interspaces—occurred abundantly, the seam, including the coal, became thicker according to the quantity of coal-balls present. Where a large number were massed together the seam became more than 6 feet thick, while on every side the coal was not more than a foot thick. Again, he says ‘a large mass of petrifac- tions was found, and which, although more or less crushed by superin- cumbent weight, retained a héight of 7 feet 3 inches, while the corre- sponding layer of coal was only 10 inches thick.’ He estimated the loss by flattening out at one-third ‘so that it might be estimated that 11 or 12 feet of vegetable matter had been deposited to form one foot of coal.’ * T have found that dry peat can be compressed in a testing machine to one-fifth of its original thickness, and making allowance for the loss in drying, and for the great reduction of bulk attendant upon the change from peat to coal, I am disposed to set a still higher value than Lomax on the reduction. It should be borne in mind that wood has an average of about 50 per cent. of carbon and 50 per cent. of hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, while the carbon in an average house-coal ranges from 80 to 5 Dr. Stopes and Professor D. M. S. Watson adopt a much lower ratio for the — compression. They figure a huge coal-ball which ‘has entirely replaced the coal- seam where it occurs, leaving but a film of coal at the top and bottom’ and it is ‘nearly 4 feet thick, while the coal on either side is under 1 foot’ (PAil. l'rans., B. 200, p. 174). The evidence of this great ball is not at all complete, as not only is there a film of coal of unstated dimensions above and below, but ‘ streaks of coaly matter run irregularly through it.’ Against this may be cited Renault and Zeiller, quoted by Drs. Stopes and R. V. Wheeler. They measured the tracheids in coal and ‘ other portions preserved uncrushed as a mineralised petrifact.... They concluded that the specimen of wood (of Arthropitus — bistriata) in the coal occupied only one-twelfth of the volume it had in life.’ C.—GEOLOGY 65 “8 per cent.; but this does not merely imply the loss of 75 or 80 per — cent. of the other elements, for the oxygen and hydrogen have gone off largely in combination with carbon. What the gross amount may be I do not venture to say, but my opinion is that the reduction in passing from the state of wet undisturbed peat will not be much less than 15 or 20 to 1.° Let us now, with these facts in mind, return to the consideration of the plano-convex lens of ‘dirt’ occupying a position between the upper and lower elements of the split seam at Whitwood. On the sag explanation it should be convex downward, yet in-this as in all other cases I have investigated, it is convex upward. The explanation is simple. Let us make our mental picture of the infilled channel in the peat a little more specific in detail. Let us suppose that the peat was 40 feet in thickness when the river commenced to cut its course across it ; the channel we will say was, like most channels, deeper in the middle than at the sides, and in the middle actually cut through to the seat- earth. Then the channel silted up completely, so that a cast of its meandering course in sands or mud reaching 40 feet in thickness at the maximum, but much thinner at the margins, was formed, then the upper _ bed of peat formed to a further depth of 40 feet. The conversion of the _ peat into coal would reduce it to two beds, each, let us say, 2 feet in _ thickness at the; maximum, enclosing the sediment with a proportionately smaller thickness in the eroded peat on either margin of the channel. The sedimentary mass would have the transverse section of a plano- convex lens, the convexity being downward, but when the peat under the edges of the sediment is condensed to one-twentieth of its original bulk the base becomes almost flat, and the unconsolidated mass of sedi- ments adjusts itself thereto. Thus the curve, originally at the base of the mass, reproduces itself in the top of the mass, which was originally quite flat and now is curved. The lens of infilling has reversed its curvature. In the Castle Comer Coalfield, County Kilkenny, I have been able to examine underground an almost exactly similar case of a portion of a horseshoe-shaped meander exhibiting the same reversal of the lens, ] _ © I take this opportunity to expose a fallacy of very wide acceptance. It appears to be a general belief that, as in Coal Measure rocks pebbles of coal occur which are closely embraced by the matrix, and similarly that the shell of coal surrounding a standing tree-trunk is in contact with the matrix both within ess than the duration of Coal Measure times. The evidence points to the proba- bility that the accomplishment of the greater part of the change from plant to coal took place while the measures were still unconsolidated, and were able to adjust themselves to the shrinkage of the contained masses of coal-stuff. When I come to speak of the cleavage of coal a further argument will emerge n favour of the consolidation of the ‘measures’ being subsequent to that of he coal. G2 66 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. but in this instance there are additional features of extraordinary interest and significance. The channel is filled mainly with two beds of anthra- citic coal, one below and the other above a lens of black shale. The fact that this anthracite is devoid of underclay and that it yields remains of fishes and amphibia at once declares it to have originated as cannel, which I have found to be a usual component of these lenses. Just outside the channel the section at the pit bottom shows 4 inches of coal resting upon an underclay and overlain by coarse sandstone, showing that this is a relic of the original seam, but it must have been largely destroyed by a later incursion of the stream which laid down the sandstone. The split in the Middleton Main Coal must be regarded as a silted channel of a river that traversed the swamp after the formation of the lower part of the seam, and, as might be expected, evidence is abundant of similar stream action in other phases of the Coal Measure deposition. In the shales intervening between the seams belts of strongly current- bedded sandstone with the transverse section of an infilled trough are often to be found. Small examples are now to be seen in the railway cutting just east of Leeds on the line to Hull; and in Altofts Colliery, Fox Pit, a similar trough has been traced in the roof of the Middleton Main seam for a distance of about half a mile. In this instance it is probable that the direction in which the water was flowing is indicated by the fact that.in the N.E. workings the floor of the trough is wholly above the seam, while in the 8.W. it is cut into the seam to a depth of about a foot. When a seam is more deeply eroded the only too familiar phenomenon of a ‘ wash-out,’ in the miner’s sense, not in that of the modern colloquialism, is formed. We should expect such a deltaic area to afford evidence of the actual meanderings of the main stream, or of its more or less transient tributaries or distributaries. These are most easily recognised by the channels which they cut in the new-formed deposits. Extensive beds of gravel or conglomerate are of very exceptional occurrence, the source of the materials being in general so remote and the grade of the rivers so low that such deposits would hardly be expected unless the tearing up of the new strata could furnish them— as we shall see that in some cases they did. The lesser ‘ wash-outs’ may be the effects of transient streams which swept across the shallow mud-floored lagoons, cutting out a channel and later silting it up. Such rivers, contemporary and sub-contemporary with the formation of the coal, show the ordinary complications inseparable from river erosion. They meander on a large scale; the bows are frequently found to be subjected to ‘ cut-offs,’ and in such cases the ‘ oxbows’ frequently contain beds of cannel, speaking of their existence as a stag- nant bayou in which vegetable mud accumulated. They exhibit the phenomena of ‘cut within cut,’ consequent upon rejuvenescence or the scour of flood waters, and the margins are often affected by the falling in of the banks. These are quite ordinary phenomena connota- tive of the action of moving water. A typical ‘ wash-out ” occurs in the Parkgate seam at Aldwarke and Rotherham Main Collieries Here a mass of sandstone cuts out , C.—GEOLOGY, 67 the coal over an area of some hundreds of acres. The sandstone is a strongly current-bedded rock 60 to 80 feet in thickness. Bands of conglomerate, including at times masses of 2 or 3 feet in length, occur. The smaller stones consist of clay ironstone concretions, sometimes with their original form but little modified by attrition. |The larger blocks are mostly of sandy shale. Ripple markings are frequent, and large limbs or trunks of trees are encountered. The whole aspect presents a very close resemblance to sections of the old bed of the River Irwell exposed in the cuttings for the Manchester Ship Canal. This channel must evidently have been that of a river of considerable size which commenced to erode on a plane far above that of the Park- gate seam. ‘This is indicated, not merely by the thickness of the mass, and by the evidence afforded by the pebbles and larger blocks of the erosion of Coal Measure materials, but also it will be noted that the pebbles are chiefly of clay ironstone, betokening a lapse of time sufficient, not only for the deposition of shales, but for the formation of ironstone concretions. This need not, however, have been a very protracted period. The Pleistocene Leda clays of Ottawa contain concretions quite comparable with those now under consideration. The form of this river channel cannot, at Aldwarke and Rotherham Main, be defined, for the interposition of a few yards of shale would remove it from the ken of the miner except where shafts, or cross- measure drifts to traverse faults, explored the rocks more thoroughly, but it is evident from the records of neighbouring collieries that the Parkgate Rock is not one of the widely extended sandstones of which examples occur in this coalfield, and we may therefore regard the channel which it fills as of limited breadth. Another instance of the same kind in a seam about 650 feet higher in the Coal Measure series is furnished by the Haigh Moor Rock, which in some places encroaches upon the Haigh Moor Coal seam. It rests upon a conglomerate composed of clay ironstone nodules which, in this instance, can be traced with much probability to their source, for at Robin Hood, about midway between Leeds and Wakefield—where the whole series of strata adjacent to the Haigh Moor seam is exposed in a great excavation, affording one of the best sections of Coal Measures in Yorkshire—the seam is surmounted by a varied suite of rocks com- prising coal-seams with their underclays, thin beds of sandstone, and shales containing great numbers of clay ironstone nodules. Such a suite would yield the constituents of the Haigh Moor Rock. Though it is not practicable to define the course of this rock-filled channel in the way that has been done for the great Warrensburg channel of the Missouri Coalfield, there is yet a convincing proof that - it is not an example of folding and denudation, for, if that were the case, the strata would show a diminution as measured from seam to seam as the area is approached, but the area occupied by the rock is just that where the great thickening takes place alluded to d propos the splitting of the Barnsley Bed. An inference of some moment can be drawn from these two eroded channels—general subsidence of the Coal Measure area must have been interrupted at least twice by actual elevation or we should not find 68 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES, channels cut to the depth of 90 feet in a deposit which must at the time of its deposition have approximated to sea level. So far we have been examining irregularities of the seam which are clearly connected with the erosive effects of running water. But the majority of the irregularities have not this simple character, and are of a nature quite distinct from the consequences of erosion. The most common abnormality is the occurrence of belts or patches of ‘proud coal’ in which the seam swells up to twice or thrice its normal thickness—sometimes, though not always, by repetition of the whole seam or of the upper part, either by shearing or by overfolding. Hull long ago proposed to explain ‘ proud coal’ as the effect of the stony infillimg of the wash acting as a wedge of incompressible material forcing out the coal-substance from beneath its margins. I have observed effects attributable to the apposition of coal to sandstone, but they were not of the kind in question. I have examined, underground, wash-outs in eight different seams, some in only one colliery, others in eight or ten. In many instances the seam which has been interrupted lies between two seams that have by extensive workings been proved to be entirely unaffected by such dis- turbances. I have on several occasions passed entirely across the site of a ‘ wash-out ’ in the workings of seams lying either above or below, thus demonstrating that the phenomena are confined to a single seam and the strata immediately adjacent to it; usually the seat-earth itself is unmoved. It has been suggested that all the violent displacement and over- ridings are brought about by tectonic agency, and that they are thrust- planes. The localisation to a single stratigraphical plane should suffice to discredit this explanation, but it is still more definitely refuted by the fact that, in reply to questions put to every colliery manager I[ en- counter, I have heard of only three examples of faults of the reversed or overlap type in the whole coalfield, two of which accomplished a dis- placement of only 3 or 4 feet. An amplification of the same explanation ascribes the displacements to a thrust with a movement from §$.E. to N.W. and a common cause to the cleat or cleavage of the coal which is normally directed to the N.W. It suffices to refute this to remark that the wash-outs I have explored in this coalfield are aligned in four principal directions, so that if superposed they would give what may be called the Union Jack pattern, i.e. N.E.—S.W., N.W.—S.E., N.—S., and H.—W. Moreover, if these so-called ‘ wash-outs’ are not due to the erosive effects of contemporaneous or sub-contemporaneous streams, but to flat hading faults, any coal displaced should be presently found again without any loss whatever. That swellings and duplications of the seam occur we have already noticed, and such phenomena have been pointed to as evidence that there is ‘ no loss’ of coal in connection with the so-cailed wash-outs. But losses and the gains by duplication do not, in fact, balance. A simple and convincing case is a wash-out in a thin seam of coal only 1 ft. 9 in. in thickness at Mirfield, in which, by taking measurements of the thickness of coal present and the breadth of the barren area, I have been able to show that a gap with no coal { a C.—GEOLOGY. 69 for 210 feet is compensated for by only 35 feet of excess on the margin. Seismic Phenomena in the Seams, While the displacements and duplications are totally unlike those produced by faults, there are cases in which the seam appears to have been subjected to a stretching tension and to have broken under the strain. Along the zone of such a stretch great confusion is commonly found. Masses of sedimentary materials of the coal seam, and slabs and seams of cannel commonly occur, besides a curious argillaceous substance unlike any natural reck with which I am acquainted. In its unstratified structurelessness it suggests a kind of consolidated sludge such as might be produced by violently stirring or shaking a quantity of not too liquid mud. Where the seam abuts against this stuff it presents usually a nearly vertical ragged edge, its bright and dull layers preserving their characteristics quite up to the contact. Masses of the seam enclose streaks of sandstone or muddy material along the bedding planes, and plates of sandstone descend in tortuous folds in the body of the seam. Sometimes ‘eyes’ of sandstone are seen embedded in the coal without any visible feeders, though in most cases the feeders, even almost hair streaks, can be discerned. ° In many instances the sandstones in a wash-out of this type are found to be in great boat-bottom rolls, and even the whole sedimentary contents of the wash-out may lie in recumbent folds. The degree in which these disturbances are developed varies extremely ; for example, at Shirebrook and Steetley Collieries there is 110 complication of any description either in the seam—the Top Hard or Barnsley Bed—or on the margins of the infilling of the ‘wash-out.’ At Manton, probably on the same wash-out, not more than two miles away, though there is only a small amount of swelling of the seam on the margin and a little injected sandstone in the coal, the filling of the wash-out was for some distance in perfectly horizontal recumbent folds of more than the full height of the workings. In this case it is interesting to observe that there were many tree-trunks represented by bright coal of great bril- liance, and I observed one large Calamite standing in the position of growth in the undisturbed material of the filling. I would illustrate by a concrete example—the great ‘ wash-out ’ represented by the Haigh Moor Rock is accompanied by a disturbance of the seam of portentous magnitude. In a range of four coterminous collieries the seam exhibits dislocations and over-riding repetitions and other anomalies along a general S.W.-N.E. line, coinciding roughly with the course of a normal steep hading fault of considerable magnitude. In many places the disturbance just along its edge culminates in over- ridings and repetitions whereby the thickness of the seam is increased from the normal 4 feet 6 inches up to 15 and 16 feet in some places, but this excess of coal is restricted to a narrow belt, while the default extends to scores or even to hundreds of yards. That there is a connection between wash-outs and tectonic features I have long believed, and I pointed out some seventeen years ago’ that 7 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. 1xi., p. 344. 70 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. the connection between great normal faults and the oecurrence of wash- outs was too close to be merely fortuitous. But what the cause might be I was quite unable to suggest, and it was not until many years had elapsed that enlightenment came from a wholly unexpected quarter. In brief, the explanation I have offered in a communication to the Geological Society of London, in a paper that has not yet been placed in full before that body, is that all these disturbances which complicate the already complex features of wash-outs are the effect of the lurching of the soft alluvial materials by earthquake agency. The present is not the occasion for amplifying the preliminary account of my evidence and argument published in the Proceedings of the Geological Society (No. 1,031, Jan. 17, 1919), but I may say this, that every predicable subterranean consequence of earthquake action upon unconsolidated alluvial deposits, such as the Coal Measures were, can be seen in the Yorkshire Coalfields. The lurchings, the rolling and heaving of sand- beds, the shaking to pulp of the muddy deposits, the rending and heaving of the peat, cracks in the peat, and cracks infilled with extraneous material passing through the strata; and lastly, though actually the first clue to the explanation, masses of sandstone in the form of inverted cones (‘ dog’s-teeth,’ “ paps,’ or ‘ drops ’), descending on to coal-seams, which I interpret as the deep-seated expression of the sand-blows that are the invariable accompaniments of earthquakes in alluvial tracts. Let us imagine an earthquake sweeping across an alluvial plain beneath which lay a thick bed of water-charged peat overlain by laminated clay, and that in turn by sand and an upper layer of mud or clay, the impulse would throw the peat and its watery contents into a state of severe compression which would result in the bursting of the immediate ‘cover of clay and the injection of water into the sand, and probably a large quantity of gas, converting it thus into quicksand. This in turn under the stress of the earthquake would eject water in the form of fountains through the upper muddy or silty stratum, producing sand-blows and craters on the surface. When the disturbance subsided sand would run back down the orifice into the funnel above the peat. These are the ‘ drops.” They are commonly flanged down the sides, showing that they were formed upon a line of crack. An earthquake not infrequently gives rise to permanent deformations of soft deposits either by the lurching of the surface and the production of permanent wrinkles, or by subterranean migration of quicksand so as to produce, here a sag or hollow, there a ridge or bbmbement. Mr. Myron Fuller’s admirable account of the effects of the New Madrid earthquake of 1816 as observed one hundred years after the event is full of the most interesting and suggestive observations, not the least so those upon the sand-blows and . sand-filled fissures containing lignite—the sand having come up from a bed lying at a depth of not less than 80 feet—the elevated tracts and the new lakes produced by subsidence. His photographic illustration of Reelfoot Lake with its broken and hollowed trunks of drowned trees must appeal to the imagination of every Coal Measure geologist. Displacements or undulations of the surface of the Coal Swamps are readily traceable in many, perhaps in most, of the seams in this coalfield, but it is not always possible to prove their contemporaneity, C.—GEOLOGY. 71 and especially is this the case with the rising folds. The depressions, however, are different. Our colliers apply the term ‘ swilly,’ or some- times ‘ swamp,’ to shallow, trough-like inflections of a seam. These vary in depth from 2 or 3 feet up to as much as 50 or 60 feet; they vary greatly in breadth, but, so far as I have seen them, they are all steep-sided, perhaps 20° to 40°. Their linear extension ranges within wide limits; there is one at Rockingham which is known to extend for more than a mile. It has a breadth of 6 chains (132 yards) and a depth of 26 feet. A yet larger one traverses the whole extent of a colliery in Nottinghamshire. The evidence that these depressions were produced contemporaneously is in many cases decisive. Not only is the coal conspicuously thicker in a swilly than the normal, but the infilling is frequently of a different character from the normal roof material. In some cases it carries a patch of cannel; in others, while the normal roof passes over the swilly without bending, between coal and roof, a muddy deposit levels up the hollow Swillies are peculiar to a given seam, and I have learned of only one case in which more than one seam is affected by the same fold; but here it is also noted that, as in all wash-outs, the swillies are anterior to, and are thrown by, the faulting. It seems probable that the isolated patches of cannel by which some coal-seams are surmounted may, in other cases than those of swillies, lie in hollows produced by earthquake deformation ; and Fuller’s picture of Reelfoot Lake tempts the reflection that upon its floor the maceration of peat into cannel substance may now be proceeding. If it were not so distant I would fain test it with a few probings. The ‘Cleat’ or ‘Slynes’ of Coal. One feature of coal-seams I must discuss before I conclude, though it will not at first appear clear that it can be brought within the title of this address—I allude to the cleavage or cleat or slynes of coal. If we look at a piece of coal this cleavage is very conspicuous, for, lying at right angles with the bedding, it gives the straight sides to the fragment. It is obviously not, like the cleavage of slate, a texture, but it is a series of well-developed joints varying in their individual vertical extension, some being restricted to a single layer of bright coal, and here and there one traversing bright and dull and fusain alike. ~ 63 14 4 Total receipts . F : 2 - £230 2 4 The expenditure has been mainly on draughtsmen :— £ 8 d. (eared C. H. Howell, salary . : : se 153 0 “0 C. O. Waterhouse, at piece rates . 4 - 713 0 a le C. H. Howell, expenses : : : c 19 18 6 E. C. Middleton, do. . 3 , ‘ 3 018 O —— 2016 6 Boxes and cards - : : 513 0 Cheque-book and bank “charges . = : 011 8 £187 14 2 SumMMaRY. £ 3 d. Total receipts 5 F F : . 230 2 4 Total expenditure . 3 : : . 18714 2 Balance, June 30, 1922 - : | SAD See ! ON LAKE VILLAGES NEAR GLASTONBURY. 335 Lake Villages near Glastonbury.— Report of Committee (Sir W. Boyp Dawstns, Chairman; Mr. A. Buturip, Secretary; Mr. H. Batrour, Mr. WiiLtoucuspy Garpner, Mr. F. S. Paumer, Mr. H. J. BH. Peake) appointed to investigate the Lake Villages in the neighbourhood of Glastonbury in connection with a Committee of the Somerset Archeological and Natural History Society. Tue Committee for exploring the Lake Villages in Somerset beg to report that after a lapse of seven years the excavations at Meare were reopened on Monday, August 29, 1921; under the direction of Messrs. A. Bulleid and H. St. George Gray, and were continued for three weeks. The Meare Lake Village consists of two distinct groups of mounds extend- ing over portions of six pasture fields. Up to the time when war broke out the excavations had been restricted to the mounds in one of the fields of the western group, and some twenty dwellings had been explored, together with the ground around and between them. Last year work was carried on in the easternmost field of the west groun. and also a small portion of ground on which the directors’ shed stood in the old excavation field part of Mound IX. The field in which the excavations are now being carried on belongs to the Somerset County Council, who have given every facility for the work, and the Committee wish to express their heartiest thanks for the help they have received from that body. Portions of the following dwelling mounds were examined : i.e. Mounds IX, XXI, XXIIT, XXIV, and XXXVIII. The usual structural arrangement of timber for the foundation underlying the clay floors was met with, but so far no additional information was obtained regarding the size, shape and construction of the dwellings. As yet no palisad- ing has beer discovered surrounding the village, nor a causeway leading to the high land. Among the smaller objects of interest discovered the following may be mentioned. Bronze.—Miniature chopping-axe with socket-hole, an amulet or toy (the first of the kind found in the Lake Villages). Two miniature axes with handles (all of bronze) were found by General Pitt-Rivers in Bokerley Dyke. Others have been found at Silchester. Fibula of La Téne TIT type; and another of the first half of Ist century, A.D. Two bars, or rods, of a kind not found previously. Cnild’s finger-ring of one-and-a-half coils: and a full-sized spiral finger-ring. Several rivet-heads, similar to those which ornament the bronze bowl found at the Glastonbury Lake Village. Tin.—Wheel-shaped ornament, or amulet, precisely similar to one found in the same dwelling (No. IX) in 1914. Two lumps of tin ore. ; Tron.—¥Fragments apparently of two spear-heads, small cold-chisel, &c. Also a long bar, with one end considerably expanded and flat, length 26! inches. We know of no similar objects except the five undescribed specimens found at Hunsbury (Assoc. Architect. Socs., XVIII, Pl. vii, figs. 3, 4). Crucibles.—Parts of three, including the greater part of the largest crucible found in the village. Glass.—Several globular beads and ring-beads; mostly of opaque yellow paste. One specimen is of dull purple glass. Others are of clear glass with streakings of lemon and orange colours. Kimmeridge Shale.—A large number of ‘ finds’ of shale were made, including half an armlet (Halstatt type), ornamented, a plain armlet (in halves), and parts of two armlets with rivet-holes for repair at both ends. Antler.—Amongst the many worked pieces of antler are the following : Four weaving-combs, two of them in excellent condition ; cheek-pieces (mostly broken) ; knife-handles; a heavy pin, much worn; a pin with an expanded end, for personal decoration (perhaps used as a hair-pin); a number of short strips or lengths of antler, shaped by means of a knife (precise use unknown). 1922 AA 336 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. Bone.—A ‘toggle,’ or dress-fastener ; two polishing-bones; modelling-tool ; two tibie, with perforations and sawn notches; a highly polished length of bone of quadrangular cross-section. Perforated boar’s tusk. Large number of animal remains. Pottery.—In some quantity, including a large number of parts of pots finely ornamented ; two pieces of pot covers ; fragments with perforated bases ; and the pedestalled base of a vase. Baked Clay.—Triangular loom-weight ; fragment in the form of the end of a model boat, with two perforations. Spindlewhorls.—Several of stone, pottery, baked clay, and bone, including an ornamented specimen (very few ornamented examples found previously). Flint.—A barbed and tanged arrowhead, several scrapers, and small pieces of worked flint. Querns.—Stones of saddle querns. Derbyshire Caves.— Report of Committee (Sir W. Boyp Dawxrys, Chairman; Mr. G. A. Garritt, Secretary; Mr. Lusur ARMSTRONG, Mr. HE. N. Fauuaize, Dr. R. R. Marerr, Mr. H. Peaxs, Prof. W. M. Tarrersatu) appointed to co-operate with a Committee of the Royai Anthropological Institute in the Exploration of Caves in the Derbyshire district. Durine the season 1921-22, members of the Committee have conducted or supervised explorations in Derbyshire caves at Cresswell Crags, Gressbrook Dale (especially at Ravencliffe Cave), Longcliffe Crags (Harborough Cave), near Brassington, four caves in Hartle Dale, near Castleton, and the ‘ Demon’s Dale’ in the Taddington area. Arrangements have been made for further excavation of this cave, where only the upper layers have been examined hitherto. For a preliminary report by Mr. Storrs Fox see Proc. Soc. Ant. Lond., IZ, xxii, 129 (1908). A chance discovery of human and animal remains at Castleton led to the examination of a collapsed cave by Messrs. L. Armstrong and R. V. Favell. A fuiler report of this year’s work will be published in Man. Experimental Studies in the Physiology of Heredity.— Final Report of Committee (Dr. F. F. Buackman, Chairman; Miss E. R. Saunpers, Secretary; Professor W. Barrson, Professor Sir F. Kersre). Dourine the past year the work on the surface anatomy of the higher plants which was begun in 1921, and briefly reported at the Edinburgh meeting of the Association, has been continued and extended. Examination of the seedlings of various species employed in certain breeding experiments and of other material has yielded evidence supporting the view put forward originally by Hofmeister and Naegeli that the stem must be regarded as consisting of an axial core sur- rounded by a foliar skin. A full account of the observations and the deduc- tions therefrom appears in the April issue of the Annals of Botany. Further breeding experiments have been carried out on Matthiola with the object of ascertaining whether other linkages, in addition to those already described, exist between the several factors which have now been identified, but these results are not yet complete. It is proposed to continue the work, and it is hoped that sufficient financial assistance from another source will be available in the coming year to enable this to be done. The Committee do not therefore seek reappointment, 1 “id feu acta ee ON TRAINING IN CITIZENSHIP. 337 Training in Citizenship.— Third Report of Committee (Right Rev. Bishop Weuupon, D.D., Chairman; Lady Suaw, Secretary; Lieut.-Gen. Sir Ropert BapEen-Powe.u, K.C.V.O., K.C.B., Mr. C. H. Buaxiston, Mr. G. D. DunxertBy, Mr. W. D. Eaaar, Mr. J. C. Maxwett Garnett, C.B.E., Sir Ricuarp Grecory, Mr. Spurtey Hey, Miss E. P. Huaues, LL.D., Sir TuHropors Morison). Report. Tue work of the Committee during the current year has been divided into three parts :— 1. The printing and distribution of the reports Bregented in 1920 at Cardiff and in 1921 at Edinburgh. 2. Compilation of a Bibliography of Civics. 3. A survey of the training methods adopted in the schools of the Empire for the formation of character. The Committee desire to thank the Association for the additional number of 500 of the Cardiff and 250 of the Edinburgh reports. and for the permission te use the type of the reports to obtain any further copies that might be deeme« desirable. In September 1921, with some help from friends, 2,000 copies of the Cardiff report were obtained, and in December 1921 the Committee purchased 4,000 copies of the Cardiff and 250 copies of the Edinburgh report. Copies have been supplied to all the Education Authorities, and, through the Board of Education, the Scottish Education Department, and the Irish National Board of Education, to all the Inspectors of schools in the United Kingdom; 4,965 of the Cardiff reports and the whole of the Edinburgh reports have been circulated, the greater number by sales to the Education Authorities and persons engaged in, or interested in, education. A remarkable and active interest has been evinced in the subject, and a large number of books have passed through the press. The demand for trustworthy text-books which reached the Committee from teachers has led to the compilation of the Bibliography that forms the Appendix to this report. The Bibliography was in the first place drafted at the London School of Economics under the superintendence of the Librarian, Mr. Headicar, to whom the Committee’s cordial thanks are due. To include in the list all books bearing on the subject was felt to be not only impossible but undesirable. Teachers for the most part have ready access to books on history, literature, philosophy, &c.; but civics is not yet recognised as a school subject. What is required is a knowledge of where the facts of civics as they exist at the present day can be found. A knowledge of civics, the forms of central and local government, and of the laws under which we are governed and the provision made for the mainten- ance of the citizen in health, peace and freedom, is only a part of the training in citizenship. The good citizen will certainly seek for knowledge of such subjects; but such knowledge alone will not make a good citizen. It is a valuable part of his training, but only a help to the formation of his character. In the course of inquiry the Committee have received a good deal of infor- mation upon the steps taken in various countries to supplement what may be called the secular side of civics by training the young of both sexes in the duties and virtues of good citizenship. ‘There was published some time ago in New Zealand a remarkable Broad Sheet containing a great number of opinions offered by influential teachers and writers in many parts of the Empire uvon the value of the Bible in the formation of character. The Committee, while they do not wish to raise the religious question by quoting any expressions from this Broad Sheet, vet feel justified in quoting three remarkable passages from the report of the Devartmental Committee, over which Sir Henry Newbolt presided. upon the position of English in the educational system of England. 1. ‘Where foreign writers cannot be studied in their works as they wrote them the motto of the student should be ‘‘ not text-books but translations,’’ AA 2 338 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. or ‘‘not text-books until after translations have been read.’’ Especially the greatest translation in English, perhaps in any language, should be universally read, far more read than it is at present both in universities and schools. We refer, of course, to the Authorised Version of the Bible, which is among the greatest of English classics, and has been the most influential of them all as well on English literature as on English life.’ (End of par. 199.) 2. ‘We have three plain facts before us. First, the Authorised Version, though a translation from an Eastern original, is a true part of English litera- ture—has, indeed, been fitly described as ‘‘the most majestic thing in our literature and the most spiritually living thing we inherit.” Second, it is historically true that for five centuries and more no other English book has been so widely read in this island, or so closely connected with our national life, or has left so strong a mark upon the mass of our literature. Third, at the present time the Bible is probably less widely read and less directly influential in our life and literature than it has been at any time since the Reformation. On such premises as these it might seem easy to base a recommendation.’ (End of par. 310.) 3. ‘The power of the Bible upon our language, our literature, our national life and thought, has been lost sight of because the possibility has not hitherto been imagined that a liberal education may be, and should be, not only a gift within the reach of every chiid, but the very gift purposed by the State in undertaking the elementary training of its citizens. From the moment when this is admitted it will seem to be no longer possible to deprive our schools of the free and impartial study of the Bible. If we set aside, as we do with any other classic, all consideration of its bearing upon dogmatic religion, there can be no division of opinion as to its historical position and effect in this country.’ (Par. 311.) The Committee wish to express their hearty agreement with the conclusion so stated, but it does not lie within their province to indicate the means by which effect should be given to the conclusion, whether in secondary or in elementary schools. Appendix. THE BIBLIOGRAPHY. A Select List of References on Citizenship (Civics) : mainly from English and American sources. In including any book in the Bibliography the Committee must not be under- stood as adopting the views of the author. Books, Apams, E. W. Community Civics. Scribner. 1920. Pp. 385. $1.32. A text- book in loyal citizenship. Acnus, O. True Patriot’s Book. Pitman. 1915. Pp. 168. 1s. 3d. Auten, W. H. Universal Training for Citizenship and Public Service. Illus- trated. Macmillan. 1917. Pp. 281. AMERICAN CiTIzENsHIp Society. Citizenship Training through the Ballot. Grand Rapids, Michigan, U.S.A. ARNOLD-Forster, H. O. Citizen-reader. New ed. Revised. Cassell & Co: 1918. 2s. 6d. net. AsupeE, C. R. Where the Great City Stands: A Study in the New Civics. Batsford. Pp. 177. 21s. net. Asuury, W. J. Economic History. Longmans. Vol. i. Part 1. Middle Ages. 1919. Tenth imp. 7s. 6d. net. Vol. i. Part 2. End of Middle Ages. 1920. Ninth imp. 14s. net. Aston, W. D. Elements of the Duties and Rights of Citizenship. Univ.. Tutorial Press. 1921. Pp. 119. 3s. 6d. Barnard, J. L., and Evans, J. C. Citizenship in Philadelphia. Winston, Philadelphia. 1921. Pp. 376. $1.35. Revised in accordance with the provisions of the new Charter, ine able ae own = Lp = al ee i Sa ~ ON TRAINING IN CITIZENSHIP. 339 Bavin, W. D. Good Citizenship: a Scheme of Correlating Civics with Reli- gious Instruction. Pilgrim Press, Chicago. 1912. Pp. 188. Bibtio- graphy, pp. 179-80. Bearp, C. A. and M. R. American Citizenship. Macmillan. 1914. Pp. 177. 8s. 6d. net. A text-book for secondary schools. Beck, H. M._ Alien’s Text-book on Citizenship. McKay, Philadelphia. Pp. 100. 50c. Laws of Naturalisation of the United States. Becpiz, H. Proud Citizens. Hodder & Stoughton. Second ed. Pp. 248. 1s. 3d. net. BICcKERSTETH, 8. Citizens All. Morehouse Publishing Co., Wisconsin. 1919. Pp. 269. $2.50. Civil service the Churchman’s duty. Buaxiston, C. H. Elementary Civics. Arnold. 1920. Pp. 120. 2s. 6d. net. Suitable for the upper classes in the Public Schools. Boarpman, J. H. Government and Citizenship. Normal Press, London. 1912. Pp. 132. 1s. 6d. Bourne, H. E. The Teaching of History and Civics in the Elementary and Secondary School. Longmans, Green & Co. 1902. Pp. 385. Bibliography at head of chapters. Boy Scours anp CITIZENSHIP. 1920. Pearson. Pp. 127. 1s. net. Handbook of the great International Jamboree, Olympia, July 30 to August 7, 1920. Cazor, K., and others. Course in Citizenship and Patriotism. Rey. ed. With an Introduction by W. H. Taft. Houghton, 4 Park Street, Boston, Mass. 1918. Pp. 386. $1.50. Contains bibliographies. Carroutt, D. D. Studies in Citizenship for Women. Univ. of N. Carolina. 1919. 25c. Civic Epucarion Association. New Citizen’s Handbook. Buffalo. 1917. Pp. 36. A manual of information for Buffalo immigrants who wish to become American citizens. Civics CaTEcHIsM ON THE RicHuTs anpD Duries or AmMERiIcAN Citizens. National Catholic Welfare Council, New York. 1920. Cuarks, J. J., and Prart, J. E. Outlines of Industrial and Social Economics. Pitman. 1919. 1s. 6d. CuaRKE, J. J., and Pratt, J. E. The Evolution of the Citizen: a Study in Industrial and Social Economics. Pitman. 5s. net. Cray, H. Economics. An introduction for the general reader. Macmillan. 1920. 4s. 6d. net. Craic, Sir H. The State in its Relation to Education. Macmillan. 4s. net. Cressy, E. An Outline of Industrial History. Macmillan. 4s. net. Cromwetr, E.G. Citizenship : a Manual for Voters. Illustrated. The Author, 627 State Street, Frankfort, Kentucky. 1920. Pp. 68. 85c. Cunnineton, S. Home and State. An introduction to the study of economics and civics. Methuen. 1910. Pp. 212. 2s. 6d. Curtis, L. The Commonwealth of Nations: an Inquiry into the Nature of Citizenship in the British Empire and into the Mutual Relations of the Several Communities Thereof. Macmillan. 1917. Pp. 748. Part 1, 12s. 6d. net. Part 2, Problem of the Commonwealth, 2s. net. Dunn, A. W., and Harris, H. Citizenship in School and out. 1919, Pp. 144. 4s. 6d. Deals with the first six years of school life. Bibliography of children’s literature, pp. 141-144. Heath, 50 Beacon Street, Boston, U.S.A. Dunn, A. W. Community Civics for City Schools. Heath, 50 Beacon Street, Boston, U.S.A. 1921. $1.48. Ettwoop, C. A. The Social Problem. Macmillan. 1918. 9s. net. Fayir, C. E. ‘The New Patriotism. Harrison & Sons. 1914. Pp. 90. 1s. net. A study in social obligations in connection with militarism. Fietp, J., and Scorr, Nearinc. Community Civics. Illustrated. Macmillan. 1916. Pp. 270. 5s. net. Fincu, C. E. Everyday Civics. American Book Co., 150 5th Avenue, New York. 1921. $1.20. Fieurr, H. J. A Conference on Regional Survey. Geographical Association. Out of print. Forrster, Fr. W. Art of Living. Dent. 1910. Pp. 228. Qs. 6d. net. Sources and illustrations for moral lessons. 340 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC GARNETT, J. C. Maxwentn. Education and World Citizenship. Cambridge University Press. 1921. Pp. 525. 36s. net. An essay towards a science of education. GerpDpEs, P. Cities in Evolution: an Introduction to the Study of Civics. Williams & Norgate. 1915. Pp. 424. 8s. 6d. net. Town Planning Move- ment and the Study of Civics. Geppres, P., and Branrorp, V. The Coming Polity. Williams & Norgate. 1919. 6s. 6d. net. Geppes, P., and Branrorp, V. Our Social Inheritance. Williams & Norgate. 1919. 68. net. GraHam, E. K. Education and Citizenship. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 2-6 West 45th Street, New York. 1919. Pp. 253. $1.50. GraHam, J. W. Evolution and Empire. Headley Bros. 1s. Green, G. H. I Serve. Black. 1915. Pp. 144. 1s. 4d. Gitt, C., and VaLenTINE, C. W. Government and People. An introduction to the study of citizenship. Methuen. 1921. Pp. 424. 7s. 6d. net. Deals with the study of government in citizenship training rather than with its other aspect, community life. Gommg, Sir L. The Village Community. Walter Scott Publishing Co. 1890. 5s. net. Goutp, F. J. Our Empire. Longmans, Green & Co. Pp. 83. Is. Goutp, F. J. Brave Citizens. Watts & Co. 1911. Pp. 146. 3s. 6d. net. GouLD, F. J. Love and Service of Country. Watts & Co. 3d. Notes for lessons. Goutp, F. J. History, the ‘Teacher. Methuen. 1921. Pp. 144. 5s. net. Civics in a broad sense. Haceporn, H. You are the Hope of the World: An Appeal to the Girls and Boys of America. New and rev. ed. Macmillan. Pp. 108. 80c. Hatt, G. §. Civic Education in Educational Problems. Vol. ii. D. Appleton & Co., 29-35th West 32nd Street, New York. 1911. Pp. 667-82. Haut, H. F. The Way of Peace. Hurst & Blackett. Out of print. Ch. ii. deals with village life in Burma. Hatz, R. J. Civics : An Introduction to South African Social Problems. Harrison, F. The Meaning of History. Macmillan. 6s. net. HeErzertson, A. J., and others. Oxford Survey of the British Empire. Oxford University Press. 1914. 6 vols. 3/. net. Separate vols. 15s. each. Hitt, H. L. Handbook on Citizenship. Revell, 158 5th Avenue, New York. 1920. Hosen, A. Church School of Citizenship. University of Chicago Press. 1918. Pp. 177. 80c. Hopes, C., and Dawson, J. Civic Biology. Illustrated. Ginn & Co., Boston and New York. 1918. Pp. 361. A text-book of problems, local and national, that can only be solved by civic co-operation. Hotiister, H. A. Woman Citizen. A problem in education. Appleton & Co., 29-35th West 32nd Street, New York. 1919. 7s. Gd. net. Hovsgstry, K. E. An Introductory Reader in Civics for Continuation, Central, and Secondary Schools and the Senior Class of Elementary Schools. Harrap. 1921. Pp. 205. 2s. 3d. net. Howett, R. Privileges and Immunities of State Citizenship. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. 1918. Pp. 120. $1.25. Citizenship rights in U.S.A. Hoxiz, C. D. Civics for New York State. Illustrated. American Book Co., 100 Washington Square, New York. 1920. Pp. 409. $1.20. Hucues, M. L. V_ Citizens to be: a Social Study of Health, Wisdom, and Goodness, with special reference to Elementary Schools. Constable. 1917. Pp. 350. 5s. net. Ingert, Sir C. Parliament. Williams & Norgate. 2s. 6d. net. Said to be interesting. Jowa Strate Teacuers’ Association Epucationan Counciz. Teaching of Civics and the Training for Citizenship. 1918. Pp. 62. Gratis to members. JENKINS, 8. R. Canadian Civics. Third edition. Copp, Clark & Co. 1915. Toronto. Jenxs, E. ‘The State and the Nation. Dent. 1919. Pp. 303. 6s. net. Suit- able for teachers only. ON TRAINING IN CITIZENSHIP, 341 Jexxs, J. W. Training for Citizenship. Holt & Co., New York. — 1906. Pp. 264. Bien cs, J. G. Select Passages on Duty to the State. Oxford University Press. 1913. 2s. 6d. Jones, Sir H. Principles of Citizenship. Maemillan. 1919. Pp. 183. 3s. 6d. net. KerscHensterner, Georc. Education for Citizenship. Harrap. 1915. Pp. 190. 2s. Introduction by M. E. Sadler. Lanapate, J. W. Citizenship and Moral Reform. Abingdon Press, 150 5th Avenue, New York. 1920. Pp. 157. $1.26. Lay, E. J. S. Citizenship. Everyday social problems for the nation’s youth. Macmillan. 1921. Pp. 280. 38. net. Lien, ARNOLD Jounson. Privileges and Immunities of Citizens of the United States. Columbia University. 1913. 75c. MacCunn, Joun. Ethics of Citizenship. Maclehose, Glasgow. Newed. 1911. Pp. 148. 3s. 6d. To connect some leading aspects of democratic citizenship with ethical facts and beliets. Macrver, R. M. Community. Macmillan. 1920. 165s. net. Mackayz, Percy. ‘he New Citizenship. Macmillan. 1915. 2s. net. Mackinper, Sir Hatrorp JouNn. Modern British State: an Introduction to the Study of Civics. George Philip & Son. 1914. Pp. 278. 2s. 6d. McPueters, G. A., and CLEAvELAND, G. J. A. Citizenship Dramatised. Holt, 19 West 44th Street, New York. 1921. $1.50. McWatrer, F. C. Civics; being a Study in Applied Ethics. Ponsonby, Dublin. 1916. Pp. 39. 3d. net. Mapetzy, H. M. History as a School of Citizenship. Milford. 1920. Pp. 106. 4s. 6d. net. Elementary. For teachers. Marys, G. P. U.S. Citizenship. Abingdon Press, 150 5th Avenue, New York. 1921. -Manpen, H. E. The Rights and Duties of a Citizen. Methuen. 1914. Pp. 218. 1s. 6d. Marueson, M. C. Citizenship; an Introductory Haudbook. Student Christian Movement. 1917. Pp. 136. 1s. 9d. net. Metcatre, A. E. Woman, a Citizen. Allen & Unwin. 1918. Pp. 108. 2s. 6d. net. Preface by Mrs. Sidney Webb. For the assistance of women voters. Mus, L. S. Citizenship and Government in the United States. Hinds, New York. 1920. Pp. 204. $1.20. Motry, R. Lessons in American Citizenship for Men and Women preparing for Naturalisation. Citizen’s Bureau. Cleveland. 1919. Pp. 60. Illustrated. Gratis. Mosessoun, M. Guide to American Citizenship. Gill, Oregon. 1917. Pp. 89. 75c, Especially adapted for use in the States of Oregon and Washington. Murrurap, J. H. ‘Che Service of the State. Murray. 1908. Pp. 136. 3s. 6d. net. Nature of the State and its relation to the individual. Four lectures on the political teaching of T. H. Green. Newman, Sir G. The Health of the State. Headley Bros. 1s. net. Nips, W. L. City, State, and Nation. Macmillan, New York. 1917. Pp. 381. 3s. 6d. net. A text-book on constructive citizenship for elementary schools and junior high schools. : O’Donnett, M. I. Manual of American Citizenship. Day’s Work Publishing Co., Detroit. .1919. Pp. 48. Authorised by the Detroit Board of Com- merce and the Detroit Board of Education. Patmer, W. W., Earl of Selborne. The State and the Citizen. Warne. 1913. Pp. 214. 1s. net. Constitutions, legislatures, parliamentary government in all countries. For the general reader. Praker, F. British Citizenship, its Rights and Duties. Preface by Sir John Lawson Walton. Ralph, Holland & Co. 1910. Pp. 160. 2s. Penstonz, M. M. Town Study. National Society's Depository. Suitable for pupils. Illustrated. 1910. Pp. 468. 5s. net. Pirie, R. L’Ecole du Citoyen. Histoire et morale. D. Nutt (A. G. Berry). London. 1922. Pp. 536. 3s. 6d. j 342 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. Pererson, H. J. ‘Teaching of Citizenship. Iowa State Teachers’ College. 1920. Iowa City, U.S.A. Puiunxer, I. L. Citizens of the Empire. Oxford Elementary School Books. Frowde. 1915. Pp. 168. 1s. 6d. ‘ Porncart, R. Ce que demande la cité. Hachette. Paris. 1913. Explanation of the State and its organisations. For young people. With illustrations. Quin, Maucotm. ‘lhe Politics of the Proletariat : a Contribution to the Science of Citizenship, based chiefly on the Sociology of Auguste Comte. Allen & Unwin. 1919. 'Pp. 160. 5s. net. Reep, T. H. Loyal Citizenship. World Book Co. Yonkers, New York. 1922. $1.40. RicHrs or CrrizensHir : A Survey of Safeguards for the People. By various writers. Warne. 1912. Pp. 256. 3s. 6d. net. Rosinson, H. Preparing Women for Citizenship. Macmillan. 1918. Pp. 130. 8s. net. Root, Exruvu. Addresses I.-[V. on Government and Citizenship. Oxford University Press. 1916. Pp. 552. 12s. 6d. Rowtanp, D. Good Citizenship the First Aim and Object of Education. Jackson, Mississippi, U.S.A. 1920. 50c. Sargent, E. B. The Meaning of British Citizenship. Longmans. 1912. 2s. 6d. Short statements of the views of two authorities. Sryzott, R. F. Colonial Citizen of New York City. University of Wisconsin. 1918. Pp. 40. 50c. A comparative study of certain aspects of citizenship practice in fourteenth-century England and Colonial New York. SHetpon, W. L. Citizenship and the Duties of a Citizen. W. M. Welch Co., Chicago. 1904. Suuster, E. D. Selections on American Citizenship. University of Texas. Austin, Texas. 1921. 25c. Smitu, F. E. International Law. Temple Primers. 1s. Sparkes, L. J. Civics. Headley Bros. 1912. Pp. 80. 1s. net. Srracuey, J. Sr. Loz. The Citizen and the State. Macmillan. 1913. Pp. 239. 1s. 6d. Deals with industrial and social life and the Empire. Swann, FReDERIc. Primer of London Citieznship. P. 8. King & Son. 1915. Pp. 235. dc. Swann, [’Repertc. A Primer of English Citizenship. Tiongmans. 1919. Pp. 268. 3s. 6d. Swann, Frepertc. Primer of London Citizenship. P. 8. King & Son. 1915. Pp. 126. 2s. Being a short sketch of the government of the Empire’s capital. For students in evening institutes. With a Preface by Sir Laurence Gomme. THEORY OF THE Strate. Bedford College Lectures. Oxford University Press. 1916. 3s. 6d. net. THorN, F., and Riec, E. Civics for Australia and New Zealand. Milford. 1917. Pp. 122.28. TicknerR, F. W. Social and Industrial History of England. Arnold. 7s. 6d. Saas Gives a good general idea, and is useful as a reference-book for pupils. Urwick, E. J. A Philosophy of Social Progress. Methuen. Second edition. 7s. 6d. net. Wauprcrave, A. J. Lessons in Citizenship. Nelson. 1913. Pp. 153. Qs. Watson, Sir CHartes. Eugenics, Civics, and Ethics. Cambridge University Press. 1919. Pp. 56. 4s. net. Warts, F. Education for Self-realisation and Social Service. 1920. New Humanist Series. Pp. 275. 7s. 6d. net. ‘ Wesster, H. H. Americanisation and Citizenship. Houghton, 4 Park Street, Boston. 1919. Pp. 138. 56c. Lessons in community and national ideas for new Americans. Illustrated. We ts, H. C. Ideal Citizen and Syndicalism or Citizenship. Social forces in England and America. Harpers, Franklin Square, New York. 1914. $2. Wuirz, E. M. The Philosophy of Citizenship. An introduction to civics for aduits. Allen & Unwin. 1921. Pp. 128. 4s. 6d. net. A simply written nandbook on fundamentals. : —— ONs TRAINING IN CITIZENSHIP. 343 Witson, R. The Complete Citizen: An Introduction to the Study of Civics. Dent. 1920. Pp. 288. 2s. 6d. net. Suitable for children’s reading, and gives hints as to subjects to the teacher. Woop, L. Military Obligation of Citizenship. Milford. 1916. Pp. 76. 3s. 6d. net. Worts, W. R. Citizenship: its Meaning, Privileges, and Duties. Hodder & Stoughton. 1919. Pp. 288. 4s. 6d. net. For the young student. Yate University, New Haven, Connecricur. Lectures on the Responsibilities of Citizenship, including :— Baupwin, S. E. The Relations of Education to Citizenship. 1912. Pp. 178. $1.15. Brewer, D. J. American Citizenship. Pp. 131. $1.15. Bryce, James, Viscount. The Hindrances to Good Citizenship. 1909. 6s. McAneny, G. Municipal Citizenship. $1.15. McCatt, 8. W. The Liberty of Citizenship. 1895. Pp. 134. $1.15. The law and maintenance of individual freedom. Roor, E. The Citizen’s Part in Government. Pp. 123. $1.25. Tart, W. H. Four Aspects of Civic Duty. Pp. 111. $1.15. Pamphlets, Brairawaire, W. C. Foundations of National Greatness. National Adult School Union. 3d. Branrorp, V. V. A Citizen Soldier : his Education for Peace and War. Headley Bros. 1919. 9d. net. Being a Memoir of Alastair Geddes, BritisH ASSOCIATION FoR THE ADVANCEMENT OF Screncz, Section L. Committee on Training in Citizenship. First report, presented at Cardiff. 1920. 1s. Second report, presented at Edinburgh. 1921. Gd. Burlington House, London. Crement, Ina. Teaching Citizenship via the Movies. Reprint from New York Municipal Reference Library Notes, June 26, 1918. Pp. 19. 10c. Ciement, Ina. Visualising Citizenship. New York Municipal Reference Library. 1920. Pp. 30. 15c. Cram, F. D. Case Civics. Republic Printing Co. 1918. Pp. 94. 25c. Illustrated. Crawrorp, Mrs. V. M. Civic Administration and Local Government. Ed. Mrs. Philip Gibbs. 1913. Dearmer, Percy. ‘he Church and Social Questions. | Churchman’s Penny Library. Mowbray, London. 1910. Pp. 40. ° Fryer, J. Our Town and Civic Duty. Illustrated. Winston, 1006-1016 Arch Street, Philadelphia. 1918. Pp. 212. 60c. Geppus, P. Civics as Applied Sociology. [1904.] [Pp. 15.] Articles by this author, suitable for teachers only. Gepprs, P. A Suggested Plan for a Civic Museum. Outlook Tower, Edin- burgh. 1906. Geppzs, P. Two Steps in Civics. Outlook Tower, Edinburgh. Pamphlet de- scribing the Cities and Town Planning Exhibition at Ghent. 1913. Goutp, F. J. Love and Service of Country. Notes for lessons. Watts & Co. 3d. Grier, L. The Uniiversities and the Teaching of Civics, Politics, and Social Economics. Bell & Sons. Harpy, E. U. Manual of American Citizenship. American Tract Co. 1919. Pp. 129. 50c. Things every American should know. Hucuss, E. P. The Education of a Nation. Black. 1919. Pp. 64. 8d. net. Hucues, E. P. The Education of the Majority. Carmarthen. Pp. 32. Inpiana University. Universal Service for Citizenship. 1914. Pp. 24. Gratis. InnEs, CuHaRues E. Citizen’s Charter. National Labour Press, London. Pp. 31. 3d. net. Jones, 8S. Primer of Citizenship. Welshman Co., 123 Lammas Street, Car- marthen. 1917. Pp. 125. Kincstey, M. E., and Patmer, F. H. Pupils’ Outlines in-Elementary Com- munity Civics. Palmer & Co., Boston. 1917. Pp. 32. 25c. 344 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. Mapvetey, Heten M. The Citizen’s Handbook. School exercise book : questions and blanks for answers. Blackwell, Oxford. Pp. 32. 6d. Minnesota University. Bureau for Research in Government Problems in Citizenship. 1920. Pp. 32. 15c. Monracu, L. H. Newspaper and Citizenship Classes and How to Hold Them. With specimen lessons. Women’s Industrial Council, London. 1909. Pp. 20. 1d. Nationa CatHotic War Councit, WasHINGTON. Fundamentals of Citizenship. 1919. Pp. 92. Nationat CatHoric War Councit. Programme for Citizenship. 1919. Pp. 14, NartionaL Councit or Aputt ScHoon Unions. Outlines for Talks on Citizenship. National Adult ‘School Union, Central Buildings, London. 1913. Pp. 14. New Yorx (State) League or Women Vorers. Independent Citizenship for Women. The teague, 303 Fifth Avenue, New York. 1921. New York (STATE) Woman Surrrace Party. Citizenship and the Vote. 1920. l5c. Norru Carorina University. Bureau of Extension : Studies in Citizenship for Women. 1919. 25c. QUINLAN, GREGORY. Our Social Needs. Reprinted from ‘ Downside Review,’ November 21, 1908. Pp. 19. ScHwarrz, C. P. Lessons in Citizenship for Naturalisation. Hull House, Chicago. Pp. 31. 5c. Spence, C. H. The Teaching cf Civics in Public Schools (with a syllabus and list of books). Simpkin & Co. 1909. 1s. net. Stapues, L. C. Training for Citizenship. Woman’s Press, New York. 1918. 20c. ‘'HucypipEs. Ideal of Citizenship. Lee Warner. 1916. Pp. 30. 1s. Trans- lated by A. E. Zimmern. Victoria LEAGUE PAMPHLETS ON THE BritTisH Empire: New Zeatanp. Condliffe, J. B., Australia. Vaughan, C., Victoria League, London. 6d. each. Useful bibliography at end of each pamphlet. WELLDoN, JAMES EDWARD CoweELL, Bishop. The Early Training of Boys in Citizenship. Parents’ National Education Union, 26 Victoria Street, London, S.W. 1. 1919. Pp. 8. Wuirr, E. M. An Experiment in Praotical Civics. (Enlarged and reprinted from ‘ Journal of Education and School World,’ 1919.) Civic Education League. 1919. Pp. 8. 2d. Wuirr, EK. M. Civics Syllabuses. Stage I., for ages 14-16. Stage II., for continuation schools and the higher forms of secondary schools. Stage III., for adults. Civic Education League. 1d. each copy. Official Publications. AMERICAN CITIZENSHIP IN EpucatTionaL Surveys. U.S. Bureau of Education, Washington. Report. 1914. CitizeNsHip TRAINING. Iowa Public Instruction Department. 1918. Pp. 32. Civic Epucation. U.S. Bureau of Education bulletin. 1917, No. 46, and 1918, No. 15. Civic EDucATION IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS AS ILLUSTRATED IN INDIANAPOLIS. U.S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin No. 5. 1915. CouRsE IN AMERICAN CITIZENSHIP IN THE GRADES FOR THE PuBLICc SCHOOLS OF Iowa, Iowa Department of Public Instruction. 1921. Gratis to members. FrperaL CirizensHie Trext-Boox. U.S. Department of Labour. Bureau of Naturalisation Washington. 1921. Pp. 15. Goop CirizensHip. K. O. Mee. Philippine Islands. Bureau of Education. Manila. 1917. Pp. 60. How to TracH Civics ro ScHonars. U.S. Bureau of Education, Washington. 1898-99 report. INSTRUCTION AND PRACTICE IN THE DuTIEs or CITIZENSHIP. Massachusetts Board of Education. 1918. Pp. 40. Lessons In Community anp Nartionan Lire. ‘Series A, B, C. 3 vols. U.S. Bureau of Education. 1918. OvrLIne oF CouURSE IN CITIZENSHIP TO_BE USED IN Pvupstic ScnHoors. U.S. Naturalisation Bureau. 1916. Pp. 28. ON TRAINING] IN CITIZENSHIP. 345 Pustic ScHoot System or Mempuis, TENNESSEE. Part 3. Civic Education. U.S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin No. 50. Washington. 1919. SoctaL Srupies 1n SeconpaRy Epucation. A. W. Dunn. U.S. Bureau of Education bulletin. Washington. 1916. Pp. 1-63. 20c. SuGGesTions ro InstRuCcTORS oN A CouURSE IN CITIZENSHIP AND LANGUAGE. Chicago Board of Education. 1921. Pp. 50. TEACHING oF Civics iv AMERICAN ScHooLs. H. Thistelton Mark. Board of Education, Whitehall, London. Special reports on educational subjects. Vol. x., Part I. 1902. Pp. 128-42. Printed for H.M.S.0. by Wyman & Sons, London. TEACHING oF CIVICS IN SWITZERLAND, FRANCE AND ENGLAND. Translations of text-books, etc., in U.S. Bureau of Education Report, vol. i. 1897. Pp. 233-266. Washington. TEACHING or ComMuNITY Civics. (Barnard, J. L., and others, National Educa- tion Association, etc.) U.S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin 23. Washing- ton. 1915. 10c. Tuirty Lessons IN NatURALISATION AND OCrTIzENSHIP. Massachusetts Education Department. 1921. 20c. TRAINING FoR CirizeNsHip. U.S. Bureau of Education bulletin. 1913. TRAINING IN THE DuTIgs or CirizensHIp. Massachusetts Board of Education. 1917. TrenD or Civic Epucation. A. W. Dunn. U.S. Bureau of Education report. 1914. Pp. 401-416. University TRAINING ror Pustic Service. Report of meeting of Association of Urban Universities, November 15-17, 1915. U.S. Bureau of Education bulletin 30. 1916. Pp. 94. War CirizeNsHip LESSONS FOR THE ELEMENTARY ScHoots. California State Board of Education. 1918. Bulletin No. 25. WINSTON-SALEM PuaN or TRAINING FoR CitizensHip. U.S. 63rd Congress. State document 188. 1913. Articles in Periodicals, Assorr, G. After Suffrage—Citizenship. Survey. Vol. 44. September 1920. ‘Auten, W. H. Teaching Civics by Giving Pupils Civic Work to do. American City. February 1916. AnpDREws, F. F. New Citizenship. National Education Association Proceed- ings and Addresses. 1915. ARMeENTRONT, D. Project in Elementary School Citizenship. Elementary School Journal. October 1921. New York. Aspinwatt, W. B. Making Citizenship Training Effective. Education. Vol. 38. June 1918. Boston, U.S.A. Batt, W. R. Federal and Public School Co-operation in Citizenship Training. National Education Association Proceedings. 1919. Bauuiet, T. M. Teaching of Citizenship in High Schools. National Education Association Proceedings. 1919. Barnarp, J. L. Teaching of Civics in Elementary and Secondary Schools. National Education Association Proceedings. 1913. Barnard, J. L. Training in the Schools for Civic Efficiency. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. September 1916. Barnes, J. H. Teaching Current Events as Training for Citizenship. Review of Reviews. October 1921. Bracu, W. G. College of Citizenship. School and Society. Lancaster, U.S.A. October 1919. Bearry, W. W. Training for Citizenship. School and Society. November 1920. Beck, A. Promotion of Citizenship. Catholic World, 120 West 60th Street, New York. September 1919. Becx, C. Superior Citizenship. American City. February 1913. Benezet, L. P. How are we to Teach Citizenship in our Schools? National Education Association Proceedings. 1920. Bennion, M. Direct Instruction in Citizenship in the High School, with Discussion. National Education Association Proceedings. 1918. 346 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. Benton, G. P. What the War has Contributed towards Teaching Citizenship. National Education Association Proceedings. 1920. Buasurietp, H. W. ‘Training for Christian Citizenship in our Church Schools. Religious Education. Vol. 15. December 1920. Chicago. Bonn, B. W., Jr. Technical Education and Citizenship. School and Society. Lancaster, U.S.A. March 1920. BRANDFORD, SYBELLA. Citizenship and the Civic Association. Sociological Review. Leplay House, Belgrave Road, London. Vol. 13. October 1921. British CrrizENsHie. United Empire. London. December 1911, January, February, March 1912. Brown, H. G. Part of Normal Schools in the Training of the New Citizenship. Education. Boston, U.S.A. June 1918. Bryan, W. J. Citizenship in a Republic. School and Society. Lancaster, U.S.A. July 1916. Burvertz, R. J. Precinct System of Instruction in Citizenship. American City. August 1914. Bureau, Pavn. la réforme de l’esprit public. La Réforme Sociale. June 1917. Paris. Caster, C. Citizenship of Corporations. American Law Review. January 1922. St. Louis. CaRTERM, HuntTLEy. 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Citizenship and Public Service Operations. Survey. January 1914. Fontatnz, ANDRE. De la Formation du Citoyen. Revue Pédagogique. February, March 1916. Paris. Frost, Eveanor. ‘leaching of Citizenship in the Parents’ Union School. Parents’ Review. August 1915. Gannon, F. A. Foundations of our Citizenship. American City. January 1920. GroGRAPHY AND Civics. Sociological Review. Vol. xiii. October 1921. Gever, O. R. Civic Classes as Sanitary Inspectors. Illustrated World. August 1917. Git, T. P. Citizenship and Education. Journal of Department of Agriculture and Technical Education for Ireland. Vol. xiii. July 4, 1913. Gu, W. L. Children’s Civie Activities. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. March 1916. Gu, W.L. Engineering versus Evolution in Moral and Civic Uplift of Nations. United States Congressional Record. February 7, 1917. Gittetr, H. O. Brief Reviews of Elementary School Text-books in Civics and Community Life Published in the last Four Years. 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February 1916. Hart, A. B. Lesson of the Obligation of Citizenship. Education. June 1918. Harrman, H. H. Deficiency in our Public School Curriculums. Educational Review. June 1918. New York. Harvey, G. Citizens or Subjects? State or Crown? North American Review. January 1916. Harnaway, W. H. Course in Socialised High School Civics. School Review. December 1917. New York. Hit, E. E. Dynamic Civics: How the Child in our Schools may be Taught Power in Citizenship. Survey. December 9, 1916. New York. Hm, H. C. Recent Literature on Civics and other Social Studies. School - Review. November 1918. New York. Hin, M. Junior Citizenship in the Home. Home Progress. February 1913. History an Aip ro Crvic Epucation. Survey. May 1919. ® Hopcss, L. Winston-Salem Plan of Training Boys for Citizenship. American City. June 1913. 348 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. Hoxrzorneg, I. B. 8S. Art and Citizenship. Art World. October 1917, March 1918. Horn, E. 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SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE. Thursday, September 7. (For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the following list of transactions, see p. 408.) 1. Discussion on The Origin of Magnetism. Opener, Prof. P. WEIss (see p. 411). 2. Prof. Sir J. Larmor, F.R.S.—On the Structural Significance of Opticai Rotatory Quality. It is known that there are crystals, such as quartz, which exhibit high optical rotation, whereas the same substance in amorphous (fused) condition is devoid of it. It must then be due to chirality (right and left handedness) in the crystalline forms which is not present optically in the constituent molecule. A molecule may thus be chiral in geometrical form without being chiral in optical structure. The manner in which crystalline form alone can thus be effective for optical rotation has been analysed (Roy. Soc. Proc. 99A, Jan. 1921, pp. 7-11) on the hypothesis that the crystalline unit is the charged ion, not the bipolar molecule. This view of erystal structure was origin- ated and confirmed over a wide range by X-ray ultra-optical analysis in the hands of _W. H. and W. L. Bragg and others. The point now made is that it suffices to account for the optical rotation of substances such as quartz, which otherwise it would seem hardly possible to understand. It is explained (loc. cit. p. 7) that owing to the screw structure as regards the ionic erystal elements, an impressed electric field produces a slight magnetisation which is a linear function of its time-gradient : and that is the efficient cause of the optical rotation. For isotropic screw quality the two vectors would be proportional, say A =k.dP/dt: and then the optical rotation per unit depth for radiation of period 2n/p would be tp’k. The optical rotation is, however, dispersive : therefore the ionic twist constituting the’ magnetisation A involves inertia as well as structural elastic reaction, and thus it has a period of free oscillation. The relation A=k.dP/dt is thus to be replaced, to include variety of periods of the light, by PA dP —- + 6A = — “ap dt” The previous form therefore still holds if Wk a = b= — apt b d#? ‘instead of & being constant. The rotatory power thus assumes the form — oat i which is equivalent to f(A? —q), the free period of crystalline ionic twist being Vg. For aeolotropy there may be more than one such period, up to three : the d discussion may follow concisely the lines of ‘ A‘ther and Matter,’ p. 356. In the Bakerian Lecture for 1921, Prof. T. M. Lowry has adduced evidence that for various substances one such term adequately represents the course of the dispersion. _ This considers only optical rotation of crystalline origin. But in most substances part of the rotation persists in the amorphous state and in solution ; therefore the molecule is itself chiral in its ionic structure, and this essential property also contri- yutes its part. The free periods of chiral twist may or may not be included among the prominent free radiative periods of the molecule. The dispersion would require more than one term completely to represent it. _ Ina recent important summary (Comptes Rendus, July, 1922, p. 174) L. Lang- ¢ehambon reports that, for various organic substances when strictly purified, while the _ 1922 BB 352 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. rotation per molecule has different values in the solid, liquid and gaseous states, yet the ratios of these rotations for three widely separated homogeneous radiations remain thesame. Such a result could arise from the condensation, which reduces the effective electric force P of the formula in the ratio 3/ (u?+-2) where u. is the refractive index, and the molecular rotation in the same ratio. If this does not wholly account for the difference we seem to be driven to the conclusion that for these substances, the formula, whatever it be, which represents the rotatory dispersion, contains only one term, as Lowry found in other cases; and that, moreover, in these latter cases that term is preponderantly of molecular type, and not due to any ionic crystalline structure. 3. Prof. A. W. Porter, F.R.S., and Mr. J. J. Hepees.—The Law of Distribution of Particles in a Colloid Suspension. 4, Prof. R. Wuropreton.—The Ultramicrometer in Minute Physical Measurements. 5. Joint Discussion (Cosmical Physics Sub-section) with Sec- : tions F and M on Weather Cycles in Relation to Agriculture and to Industrial Fluctuations. Opener: Sir W. Beverinas, K.C.B. 6. Prof. Sir Wruutam Braaa, F.R.S.—Lecture on The Significance of Crystal Analysis. Friday, September 8. 7. Presidential Address by Prof. G. H. Harpy, F.R.S., on The Theory of Numbers. (See p. 16.) 8. Prof. J. C. McLennan, F.R.S.—X-Rays from Light Atoms. 9. M. le Duc de Broaurz.—X-Rays and Beta Rays. There is a close connection between electrons and light, and this relation reveals itself still more plainly in the consideration of corpuscles of high velocity and vibrations of great frequency. The equation which appears to govern the interactions between the two phenomena is the quantum equation in the form due to Planck and Einstein, that is to say, we have as between the energy of the corpuscles and the frequency ot the vibrations a relation of the form : W=hb». I shall only say a word concerning the excitation of X-rays by the impact of cathode rays on the anticathode of a tube; to-day it is well known that the continuous background of the spectrum emitted by an anticathode bombarded hy electrons of definite energy W begins on the short wave-length side at Maximum frequency vy, which is precisely equal to This is a result which Webster has made prominent, and it is completed by the following proposition when the point in question is the excitation o characteristic rays; all the fluorescent rays of a certain series appear simul taneously in a tube when the energy of the cathode rays reaches a value whic exceeds the quantum hy of the discontinuity of absorption relative to this series. The beautiful experiments of Whiddington formerly gave a firs! approximation to this law by showing that the emission of Barkla’s secondar rays was closely connected with critical values of the velocity of the cathod rays. "The converse phenomenon is now beginning to be well known; here it is a question of the rapidly moving electrons liberated by matter when illuminate by a beam of X-rays. This phenomenon obeys the general law of the photo- electric effects, namely, that the individual energy of the corpuscles expelled only depends upon the frequency and not upon the intensity of the exciting radiation ; it is even more remarkably bound up with the levels of energy which the theory of Bohr has pictured in the structure of atoms. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. 353 The electrons in number N, which surround the nucleus of an atom of atomic number N, are distributed in a certain number of regions, each characterised by the work which it is necessary to expend in order to remove an electron from the region under consideration and bring it to the exterior of the atom; if the levels of these regions are designated by the letters K, L, M,... we can attribute to them energies of extraction having the values Wx, Wi, Wu... What appears to happen is that if light of frequency yv strikes one of these electrons, situated for example in the region K, it communicates energy equal to hv in order to extract the electron from the atom; it is clear that the cor- puscle, once removed from the atomic edifice, will possess a resultant energy equal to hy — Wx. This, if we wish, we may regard as a form of the equation formerly pro- posed by Einstein in the case of photo-electric phenomena; Sir Ernest Ruther- ford, some time ago, used considerations of this nature for the purpose of specifying a possible connection between the natural B and y rays of radio- active substances. Certain experimental] results obtained by Barkla have led him to believe that all the 8 rays excited by a beam of mono-chromatic X-rays have the same energy, but other conclusions due to Lewis Simons would point, on the contrary, to the réle of the levels of energy. The method of the magnetic spectra of B-ray velocities enables us to analyse the complex bundle of corpuscles emitted by a certain radiator under X-ray illumination ; experience shows that one finds there precisely all those groups of electrons which can be anticipated as a consequence of the preceding considera- tions; each line of the spectrum of the incident X-rays re-echoes on each level of the illuminated atom in such a way that we obtain at once an analysis both of the spectral lines of the illuminating beam and of the Bohr levels of the illuminated atom. This analysis is made without the intervention of a crystal, that is to say. without encountering the limitation which results from its use in the case of diffraction spectra. It furnishes by means of the measurement of the curva- ture of a ray and of a magnetic field a method of checking the crystal spacings which have been used in the beautiful work of Sir William Bragg and his son as the basis for the evaluation of the wave-lengths of X-rays. Mr. Ellis has been able to show that the relation found for X-rays extends also to y-rays, and makes available for the study of these rays a new device already full of rich promise. 10, Prof. R. Wurpprnaton.—X-Ray Electrons. 11. Si Narrer Shaw, F.R.S.—Convection in the Atmosphere. 12, Prof. J. Proupman.—Lecture on Tides, with special reference to the North Sea. Monday, September 11. 13. Joint Discussion with Section I on Physical Instruments for Biological Purposes. Opener: Prof. A. V. Hitu, F.R.S. 14, Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S.—Report of Seismology Commitiec. (See p. 253.) 15. Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S. described the proposed new 54-ft Interferometer for Mount Wilson Observatory. 16. Exhibition of Physical Apparatus for Biological Purposes. (a) By Major W. S. Tucker. i. Apparatus for Testing Hearing. This apparatus consists of two essential parts : (1) the source of sound, called : the transmitter, (2) the receiver, BB 2 354 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. (1) The source of sound consists of a telephone diaphragm set in vibration by an oscillatory current, generated in a tuned circuit by means of a ther- mionic valve. The circuit is so designed as to give an exceedingly pure sound, its most efficient note being 500 vibrations per second. The note can be varied in pitch by alteration of the capacity in the circuit. (2) '[he receiver consists of a high-resistance Wheatstone bridge circuit, into which the oscillating current is supplied by a silent mercury key. The telephone used for imparting the signal to the ear is placed across the bridge, and the strength of the signal is varied by throwing the bridge out of balance by a measured amount. A device for measuring ‘ paracusis ’ is included in the receiver. A disturbing sound of constant intensity, capable of reproduction in successive tests, is superimposed on the telephone diaphragm, and the strength of the signal is adjusted as before, until the latter is just audible. Suitable acuity scales are given by the bridge readings. il. Standard Source of Sound. This instrument was designed by Captain Paris to give a sound whose intensity can be measured in C.G.S. units. It consists of a Helmholtz resonator, the base of which is formed by a telephone diaphragm. The diaphragm is excited by an acoustic oscillator, and is of such pitch as to set the resonator in resonant vibration. The sound emerging from the open orifice of the resonator produces a measurable effect on a hot-wire microphone mounted in the neck. Within limits, ohmic change in the hot wire is proportional to the intensity of the sound. A knowledge of the constants of the hot wire, derived from separate experiments, enables one to measure the intensity of the sound. ii. Amplifier for Magnifying Sounds such as Heart Beats. This is a 4-valve resistance amplifier, in which only one transformer is em- ployed, and is designed to reproduce the lower-pitch microphone currents with as little distortion as possible. It is applicable to the examination of heart sounds. (b) By Mr. F. E. Surrn, F.R.S.—Apparatus for Testing Audition. The current ir a triode valve circuit is caused to oscillate at an audible frequency, the value of the alternating current being directly measured by an ammeter in the main oscillatory circuit. The frequency of the oscillation is varied by varying the inductance, or capacity, or both, ana the intensity of the current is controlled by varying the filament current. Included in the plate oscillatory circuit is the primary coil of an air transformer, the secondary of which is connected with a telephone, thermophone, or other receiver. By varying the intensity of the oscillatory current, or by varying the mutual in- ductance between the coils of the transformer, or by varying both, the note from the receiver can be rendered inaudible. If the mutual inductance is known, apparatus of this kind can be used as a standard of reference for measurements of acuity. If the amplitude of vibration of, or the total energy emitted from, the receiving mechanism is known, the apparatus can be used for absolute measurement of acuity. To determine the amplitude of vibration a thermophone method can be used, or a piezo-electric crystal can be employed. (c) By Dr. G. Wiuxtnson.—Working Model illustrating the pre- sumed Resonating Mechanism of the Cochlea. The model consists of a brass box in two chambers (scala vestibule with ductus cochlearis and scala tympani). A window closed by a rubber membrane opens into each. To one of the membranes is attached a small wooden plunger, the ‘stapes.’ The chambers are divided by a ‘ basilar membrane’ formed of strands of fine phosphor-bronze flat wire stretched transversely, and plastered over with fine paper saturated with formalised gelatine. The tension on the threads has been regulated by suspending from them a series of weights, graduated according to the formula Rou =1V 5 SECTIONAL, TRANSACTIONS.—A. 355 where d=—the sum of the distances of each wire from the round and oval windows, and b=the breadth of the wire. This formula is an adaptation of the formula nal Das aa to strings immersed and oriented as in the cochlea. The whole is completely filled with water. It is set into localised resonant action in the calculated posi- tions by applying tuning forks to the ‘ stapes.’ Its compass is four octaves. (d) By Tue CamBripacr anp Pav Screntiric INsTRUMENT Com- PANY. 1. Instrument for Measuring the Percentage of Carbon- dioxide in Alveolar Air, To physiologists working on respiration and the respiratory functions of the blood it is important to be able to measure the carbon-dioxide in alveolar air. In diabetes, for example, a lowering of the carbon-dioxide is an indication of danger, and the percentage figure is therefore a valuable guide to prognosis and treatment. The instrument shown, suggested by Professor A. V. Hill, provides a convenient and accurate way of measuring this percentage. The patient breathes out in the ordinary way, and then, by an effort, expels through a katharometer of the Shakespear type the residue of the gas in the lungs which has been in actual contact with the blood system. The percentage of CQz in this residue is then read on the indicator scale, which is calibrated 0 — 10 per cent. COz. The whole outfit is contained in a portable case. i. Salomonson String Galvanometer. This is a simple form of Einthoven galvanometer. It has two copper fibres, 0.01 in. diameter. The magnification is about 40 at a working distance of 80cms. The galvanometer can be used in conjunction with a larger Hinthoven galvanometer (fitted with a silvered glass fibre), the optical work in the small instrument forming the eye-piece of the large one. An electro-cardiogram, a phono-cardiogram, and a pulse-tracing can thus be taken simultaneously on the same plate. ii. Hydrogen Ion Apparatus. The E.M.F. is measured by a potentiometer, in which the slide wire, con- tacts, and resistances are totally enclosed, thus being protected from corrosion and other deteriorating effects. The instrument reads directly to 0.2 milli- volts. It is connected to a moving coil galvanometer, the movement of the coil being observed by a lamp and scale. ‘The potentiometer circuit is stan- dardised by a Weston normal cell. The electrodes are of the Clark pattern, and comprise two hydrogen electrodes, a connecting vessel, and calomel electrode, suitably mounted with rocker and motor. For blood work a special set of electrodes is supplied. For electrometric titration work a direct-reading potentiometer is supplied, the instrument consisting of a moving coil galvanometer of the pivoted type, adjustable rheostat, battery, and electrode reversing switch. The E.M.F. of the electrodes is read directly on the scale of the instrument, which is calibrated in millivolts, the standard ranges being 0—600 and 0—1,200 millivolts. iv. MacGregor-Morris Anemometer. This is an electrical anemometer designed for measuring the velocity of slow- moving air currents. ‘lhe instrument consists of a form of Wheatstone bridge, in which two of the arms are made of fine nickel wire. These wires are heated by the passage of an electric current of constant strength, the wire attaining a steady temperature in a few seconds. The heat is then taken away from one of the wires by the motion of the air passing over it, the second wire being protected from the moving air. The heat carried away from the exposed wire by the air current is proportional to the square root of the velocity of the wind. The amount the bridge is out of balance is shown by a direct-deflection galvanometer, the scale of which is calibrated to read directly in air velocities. The method is a sensitive and accurate one, over a range of velocity from 200 to 2,000 cm. per second. 356 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. Tuesday, September 12. 17. Mr. H. W. Ricumonn, F.R.S.—The Problem of Expressing any Rational Number as a Sum of Powers of such Numbers. 18. Mr. M. A. Gisterr.—Some Recent Developments in Synoptic Meteorology. (With reference to the Meteorological Kxhibit in the Guildhall, Hull, arranged by the Air Ministry durmg the meeting. ) 19. Mr. J. Jacxson.—Double Stars. 20. Mr. E. A. Mitne.—The Escape of Molecules from an Atmo- sphere, with special reference to the Boundary of a Star. 21. Mr. J. E. P. Waasrarr.—The Determination of Dielectric Con- stants and Susceptibilities by Valve Methods. 22, Mr. J. Ewius.—Kathode Luminescence and its Relation to States of Molecular Aggregation. The experiments were begun with the object of determining whether the luminescence excited by cathode rays appeared only when the rays possessed a minimum speed, i.e., whether a definite quantum of energy was required to excite the kathode luminescence. ‘The source of high potential was a Mercedes electrostatic machine, and the voltage applied to the tube controlled by the pressure and measured by a Kelvin and White electrostatic voltmeter. Many metallic oxides and other substances were investigated. It was found that each substance requires a definite speed of cathode rays to excite fluorescence. The speed is characteristic of the substance, but depends also on the manner in which it is prepared. Evidence is put forward to show that the method of preparation affects the characteristic speed by determining the state of molecular aggregation. It is suggested that kathode luminescence is a manifestation of the energy change involved when a substance changes from one state of aggregation to another. To test this hypothesis substances were taken which are known to undergo such a change at a certain temperature. It has been found in every case that above the temperature of transformation the kathode luminescence disappears. A striking confirmation was provided by powdered quartz in another way— a change of refractive index corresponding to the formation of a certain amount of tridymite accompanying the fluorescence. Assuming that the least energy of the cathode rays which excites fluorescence represents the amount of energy required to break up a molecular aggregate, and assuming equipartition of energy among the constituent molecules of the aggregate, it is possible from a knowledge of the molecular heat of transformation to calculate the number of molecules per aggregate. It is shown that the theory of kathode luminescence here put forward offers a reasonable explanation not only of the above results but of those of other workers on this and other types of luminescence. Moreover, remembering that fluorescent spectra are always banded, it is hoped, later, to link up this work with the molecular rotation theory of band spectra of emission and absorption. 23. Joint Discussion (Cosmical Physics Sub-section) with Sec- tion E on Monsoons. Opener: Dr. G. C. Smpson, C.B.E., F.R.S. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. 857 SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY. 4 ate : aapdiie . (For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the following list of transactions, see p. 408.) Thursday, September 7. 1. Presidential Address by Principal J. C. Irvine, F-.R.S. (See p. 25.) 2. Dr. Heten 8. Giucurist.—The Preparation and Constitution of Synthetic Fats containing a Carbohydrate Chain. The products obtained when a carbohydrate chain is coupled with the unsaturated groups characteristic of natural fats have been studied with the object of establishing the constitution of the synthetic fats thus obtained. As shown by Lapworth and Pearson, a-methylglucoside and mannitol both combine, on heating in the presence of sodium ethoxide, with the oleyl residues of olive oil, thereby liberating glycerol. The present research has proved that in the first case a mono-oleate is initially formed, whilst in the second two oleyl groups enter the hexitol chain. This condensation is immediately followed by internal dehydration, the carbohydrate chain, in each case, losing one molecule of water, the fatty residues remaining intact. Anhydro-methylelucoside mono-oleate and mannitan di-oleates are definite chemical individuals. On methylation they yield monomethyl derivatives, which, however, are unstable even in the high vacuum of the Gaede pump. On being heated with acid alcohol these methylated compounds each give methyl oleate, together with an alkylated sugar derivative. In both cases the anhydro- ring in the molecule persists during hydrolysis, and thus a passage is opened into the series of anhydro-sugar derivatives and alcohols. Examination of the above cleavage products confirms the views already held regarding the mechanism of the reactions discussed, and complete structural formule are assigned to the original ‘methy!glucoside’ and ‘mannitol fats.’ 3. Mr. Joun Prype.—A New Type of Nitrogenous Sugar Derivative. In extending his studies on the action of sodium hypochlorite on amides of a-hydroxy acids Weerman applied his reaction to the amides of simple hexonic acids, and so devised what has proved to be the best practical method of degrading hexoses to pentoses. In the present communication the results of applying this degradation method to a fully methylated hexose were given. The investigation was originally under- taken in the hope that a propylene-oxide form of a methylated arabinose would be obtained in place of the normal butylene-oxide type, or alternatively that the intermediate compounds would be isolated and thus elucidate the course of the reaction as applied to ihe sugar group. Tetramethylglucose was oxidised to tetramethylgluconic acid, which was isolated as its internal lactone. The lactone, dissolved in absolute alcohol, was treated with dry ammonia and the amide was isolated in a crystalline condition. Evidence is available to show that this compound does not possess the structure of a true acid amide, but exists in the form of an amino-lactone. On subjecting the amide to the action of cold alkaline hypochlorite a crystalline body of the composition of the intermediate isocyanate was obtained, and from its behaviour the constitution of an internal urethane has been assigned to it. The reaction proceeds as follows :— NH, / | SOH | | CHOMe NH o4 cnows CHOMe CHOMe he Oo | IN as TR). QHOMe? 4 = CHOMe ae rath ae CH CHOH nh eae 358 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. The formation of this intermediate urethane affords striking evidence of the stabilising effect of methyl groups in the sugar chain. It is also interesting in showing the conversion of a carbohydrate into a derivative in which nitrogen is present in a stable cyclic substituent. 4. Dr. E. Li. Hirst.—Vhe Composition of Esparto Cellulose. Esparto grass, after removal of waxes, lignins, &c., in the ordinary course of paper-making, gives a material which is homogeneous and is similar to cotton cellulose in appearance, but differs markedly in that it gives on distillation with 12 per cent. aqueous hydrochloric acid an amount of furfural corresponding to the presence of 18 to 20 per cent. of a pentosan. Acetylation of this esparto cellulose cannot be effected so readily as in the case of cotton cellulose, but by slight modification of Barnett’s method, in which sulphuryl chloride is used as a catalyst, almost quantitative yields of acetates have been obtained without appreciable loss of the pentose residue as shown by furfural estimations. This acetate mixture has been subjected to the action of acid methyl alcohol in sealed tubes at 130° C., when it is found that after prolonged digestion practically the whole of the material dissolves and the solution then contains methylglucoside along with a proportion of a methyl pentoside. The pentose has been identified as xylose, and confirmation of this has been obtained by the isolation from esnarto cellulose of a pentosan which on hydrolysis is converted irto a reducing sugar identical with ordinary xylose. In the course of quantitative experiments esparto cellulose has thus been converted into methylglucoside and methylxyloside in such a manner that 90 per cent. of the whcle material can be accounted for. On the assumption that no other hexose or pentose is present, the analytical results indicate that the overall yield of methylglucoside is 95 per cent. and that of methylxyloside 68.5 per cent. of the theoretical amount. The loss in yield, as indicated by the results of control experiments, is due to the destruction of pentose owing to furfural formation during the digestion in the sealed tubes. The evidence therefore points to esparto cellulose being, to the extent of 90 per cent. at least, a definite chemical substance composed of glucose residues and xylose residues present together in the proportions of 80 per cent. and 20 per cent. respectively. 5. Prof. Sir Winu1am H. Braae, F.R.S.—The Crystalline Structure — of Organic Compounds. 6. Joint Discussion with Section K on Photo-Synthesis. (See p. 895.) Friday, September 8. 7. Discussion on Valency and Polarity in Organic Compounds. (2) Opener: Prof. R. Ropinson, F.R.S. (b) Dr. J. Kenner.—The Significance of Induced Polarity. It is pointed out that Lapworth’s derivation of the principle of induced alternate polarities (Trans. Chem. Soc., 1922, 121, 416) is a further develop- ment of the views of Werner and Fliirscheim, with tHe aid of postulates which, subject to apparently reasonable assumptions, conform to the thermodynamic condition for the attainment of stable equilibrium. Fry’s electronic theory of valency is based on the fallacy that two atoms in direct combination are neces- sarily of opposite polarities, and would seem to lead to mutually irreconcilable conclusions when applied to the consideration of certain closely related com- pounds. The observed results are explicable in terms of the view expressed by Lapworth, and also by Kermack and Robinson (ibid., 427), that polarity is consequent upon constraint of the molecule (resulting, in the cases referred to, from formation of molecular compounds), and on the further assumption that of two alternative reactions that one will predominate in which the free energy gradient is the greater. The important reservation, therefore, seems necessary’ that before the outcome of a reaction caw be predicted by the theory of alternate Ee “Sy, 1 ae —E——E—eeeeee SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. 359 polarities the point of constraint must be known. This may be determined by steric considerations, and also possibly by the nature of the reacting compounds. It would appear to follow that (1) the current practice of labelling certain atoms negative or positive is only correct in so far as it indicates the condition they tend to assume; (2) the key atom of a molecule is the point at which constraint originates, and hence that one which, in the initial stages of a reaction with a second molecule, is first associated with this. Conceivably, therefore, it may vary from case to case. Attention is drawn to the incomplete nature of explanations which simply refer these to the polarity of a given group. ‘The course of Lapworth’s argument explains why considerations of reactions based on Werner and Fitirscheim’s views have led to correct prognostications. Never- theless, it would seem in some respects inconsistent with more purely electronic conceptions. In connection with these, it is pointed out that physicists are by no means in agreement as to the details of atomic structure, and that hence it seems premature to associate a discussion of the valency. of organic compounds with any one theory. Rather it seems advisable at present to limit discussion to the valency electrons. It is further suggested that a more com- plete conception of chemical reactions may be gained by considerations of the lines of force associated with electrons. Exception is taken to the mode of derivation of the property of induced polarity employed by Kermack and Robinson, and an alternative is suggested. It is emphasised that the intermediate production of induced alternate polarities only represents one course by which stable equilibrium is attained. Other factors may contribute to this end, and for this reason a reaction may take a course which would hardly be anticipated from the ordinary way of applying the plus-minus notation. 8. Mr. E. D. Witu1amson.—The Determination of Compressibilities up to High Pressures and Applications to High-Pressure Chemistry. A number of compressibilities have been determined at the Geophysical Laboratory, Washington, in recent years. The method previously used, how- ever, is not sufficiently accurate at the lower end of the pressure range, and so, especially in the case of liquids, some supplementary method is required. A new form of pyknometer has recently been developed and has proved satisfactory in filling the gap. A feature of the instrument is that continuous readings by means of a movable electrical contact may be taken without removal from the pressure chamber. ‘ In the study of the chemical effects of pressure on systems of more than one component it is necessary to know the compressibility of each solution in order to compute the volume changes on which these effects depend. The volume changes can be readily calculated from the slopes of the density-composition curves. Even in the case of a simple system, such as a salt and water, it is necessary to make a number of other measurements in addition to those of compressibility. For instance, good density-composition data must be obtained _ at atmospheric pressure. Also, some form of equilibrium determinations, such as those of vapour pressure or E.M.F., must be made in order to calculate the initial differences in ‘ free energy’ (used in the same sense as by G. N. Lewis) between the solid salt and salt in solution. For the case of H,0—NaCl almost all the necessary data for the complete elucidation of the system under pressure have been obtained, and a beginning has been made with some others. 9. Dr. E. F. Armsrrone, F.R.S.—The Hydrogenation of Fats. (See below, No. 11.) 10. Prof. A. F. Horteman.—The Rule of the Conservation of Sub- stitution-Type of the Benzene Nucleus. 1. The rule can only be applied without restrictions to introduction of a second substituent in C,H,;X. 2. Pure p-o-substitutions as well as pure m-substitutions must be regarded as limits; all substitutions really observed are more or less mixed. 3. The two types of substitution are not so sharply different as is generally believed. 360 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. 4. The substitution-type is considered to have remained unchanged as long as there is formed more than 60 per cent. of p-o-compounds for the p-o-type and more than 40 per cent. of the m-compound for the m-type. 5. Exceptions seem to be the introduction of ethyl into chlorobenzene by the Friedel-Crafts reaction, where 65 per cent. of m-ethylchlorobenzene 1s obtained, and the mercuration-reactions of Dimroth. These exceptions are only apparent. 6. When there are two substituents, X and Y, already present in the benzene nucleus the validity cf the rule can be judged only if the ratios in which the jsomerides are formed by the introduction of a second group into CeH;X and into C,H;sY are known. 7. In the case of the presence of more than two substituents the application of the rule becomes more difficult. Monday, September 11. 11. Discussion on The Hydrogenation of Fats. Mr. EK. R. Bouron.—Technical Aspects of Hydrogenation. The unfortunate state of patent law in connection with chemical processes, as exemplified by hydrogenation, was briefly touched upon. Factory conditions were then dealt with, commencing with the problem of hydrogen and its preparation (i) electrolytically, (ii) by coke methods, (ili) as a by-product, and (iv) by hydrogen carriers. The relative merits of these methods of production were discussed, passing to the necessary condition of the oil for the most economic and efficient treatment, and dealing with catalyst poisons and substances affecting the life of the catalyst. The catalyst itself, it was pointed out, will always be the item of greatest importance, and the processes whereby so much catalyst per ton is regularly lost will rapidly die, to be replaced by those in which the catalyst is considered as a capital charge—in fact, a part of the plant. Emphasis was laid upon the necessity of an efficient and skilled scientific staff for the control and preparation of the catalyst and the examina- tion of the raw materials used. Physical factors were then discussed briefly, including the engineering side and comprising problems of contact, solubility of hydrogen in oil, and, finally, types of plant, in which connection it was pointed cut that it is only the continuous plant which is likely to find favour in the future. Attention was drawn to the connection of all these issues with the cost of hydrogenation. The different types of product required in the various industries, such as the edible oil, soap, and candle industries, were dealt with, and, finally, sugges- tions were put forward for further research and an indication of probable developments made. 12. Dr. R. Wuyrtaw Gray.—Gaseous Dispersoids. 13. Prof. J. W. McBaty.—The Study of Soap Solutions. In view of the large number of current theories which are irreconcilable with the conclusions to which the study of soap solutions has led it is necessary very carefully to prove the evidence for the existence of the ionic micelle and the theories arising therefrom. 1. The following methods agree in showing that hydroxyl ion is only a minor constituent of soap solutions, being only about 0.001N :— (a) Electromotive force with hydrogen electrode. (b) Catalysis. (c) Conductivity. (d) Ultra-filtration with direct analysis of the filtrate. 2. The osmotic activity is about half that of a salt. ‘Il'rustworthy measure- ments have been obtained by :— : (a) Freezing-point. (6) Dew-point. (c) Minimum pressure required for ultra-filtration. (d) Vapour pressure. ; —E—E——————— Os | : SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B, C. 861 3. The conductivity is that of a salt, illustrated by hundreds of concordant measurements with many kinds of soap. 4. Half the conductivity must be ascribed to a constituent of very high equivalent conductivity but of negligible osmotic pressure, the ionic micelle. Its conductivity is several-fold that of all the fatty ions contained in it. 5. By ultra-filtration the ionic micelle is found to be colloidal, and, in addi- tion, the undissociated neutral colloid, consisting of still larger particles, may be separated from the ionic micelle. Sodium and potassium electrodes confirm the concentrations of sodium and potassium ions assumed. Migration determina- tions are also in agreement. Hydrolysis is impossible in the case of cetyl sulphonic acid, whose behaviour is closely similar. 6. An important result is the theory of gel structure. The only differences between a transparent jelly and a sol are mechanical—elasticity and rigidity. The colloidal particles in both are identical in nature and amount, but in the gel they are arranged in ultra-microscopic filaments or aggregates. The equilibria and the resistance to the passage of the electric current are unaltered on gelatinisation. 7. ‘ Electrical endosmosis’ and ‘ cataphoresis’ in a transparent soap jelly are suppneuvely identical with electrolytic migration in the corresponding soap sol. 8. The theoretical conclusions are of general applicability to very large groups of organic and inorganic solutions in aqueous and non-aqueous solution. Tuesday, September 12. 14. Discussion on The Nitrogen Industry. (See p. 415.) 15. Dr. J. S. Owens.—Almospheric Dust. 16. Report of the Fuel Economy Committee. (See p. 277.) SECTION C.—GEOLOGY. (For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the following list of tramsactions, see p. 408.) Thursday, September 7. 1, Discussion on The Geological History of the North Sea Basin. (a) Opener: Prof. P. F. Kenpatu. The North Sea is situated upon an area of very ancient and persistent depression, dating probably trom Permian times. Coal-measure rocks dip into the Basin in Belgium and Holland, north of the anticline of Brabant; probably in Lincolnshire ; and certainly in Durham and Northumberland : they re-emerge at Ibbenbiiren. The Permian rocks of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire increase steadily in thick- ness from west to east. The Triassic rocks show no significant change. Members of the Jurassic and Cretaceous series attain their maximum develop- ment in Britain in the area bordering the North Sea, and the Lower Cretaceous beds exhibit a deep-water phase absent elsewhere in Britain. The chalk thickens north and east of London partly by preservation of higher zones, and partly by general expansion. In Yorkshire zone for zone it reaches its maximum development, but in a deposit of this type this may not indicate contemporaneous movement. The renewal of the Armorican movement in the South of England, Northern France and Belgium appears to have begun after the deposition of the London Clay and Woolwich Beds, and after some interruptions to have resumed its activity at or about the beginning of Pliocene (Diestian) time. This may be regarded as the first appearance of a North Sea as we know it. Harmer has suggested a coast-line connecting the Lenham and other outliers spanning the Straits of Dover, joining up with the main Diestian outcrops of Belgium. This view is accepted by the Belgian geologists and accords generally with my own judgment, though not without some reservations. This may be 362 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. the stage represented by Barrow’s High Level (Pliocene) Gravel of the London Basin, which seems to belong to a period prior, as he believes, to the great denudation. This, then, would be the western embayment of the North Sea. A movement en bascule seems to have ensued, resulting in a general but intermittent uplift on the English side and along the axis of Artois, with a complementary slow depression of Northern Belgium and Holland. Great denudation of the British Diestian, and probably some Miocene, ensued, and the Coralline Crag, probably an offshore shoal in 20 or 30 fathoms of maximum depth, was accumulated upon an eroded surface of Lower Eocene; but its gravelly base obtained the coarse scourings of London Clay, (7?) Miocene, and fossiliferous concretions of a sandstone near to the Diestian in age. On the Belgian side depression seems to have been almost continuous. The Coralline Crag was uplifted and subjected to severe sub-aérial and marine- erosion, and the Red Crag overlapped it on the English and Belgian sides. With the earliest Red Crag, that of Walton-on-the-Naze, the record becomes practically continuous. Steady uplift was taking place in the south, throwing the ccast-line farther and farther north. Harmer recognises three stages, but many more could be distinguished by the progressive changes in the fauna— the elimination of Southern types and the incoming of Northern. The Norwich Crag comes in north of a ridge of Coralline Crag at Aldeburgh and appears to represent a very slightly more modern phase than the Red Crag flanking the ridge on the south. Chillesford Sand and Clay surmount the Red and Norwich Crag from Essex upward. Harmer regards them as the deposits of a winding estuary of the Rhine. A renewal of the ‘Crag’ type of deposition, the Weybourn Crag, with V'ellina balthica, was succeeded by a definite estuarine series, the Cromer Forest Bed. It begins with the Freshwater Bed, in which a flora comparable to that of Norfolk to-day is found. ‘This is followed by a marine deposit with Arctic shells, and above that a second freshwater bed with an Arctic flora. This series may rest directly on the Chalk, an effect of the continued upward tendency on the English side of the sea. In Holland the whole Pliocene series is probably present, and the great thickness of comparatively shallow-water deposits prevailing down to 1,100 feet at Utrecht bespeaks a continual downward tendency of the Low Countries. The evidences of Pliocene conditions further north are extremely scanty, in fact only near Hartlepool, where Trechmann has found a pre-Glacial plant bed, is there any relic of Pliocene deposits in their native position. At Sheringham Mr. Stather has found a block, doubtless from the Drift, of Red Crag of about Newbournian date of a type unknown elsewhere. In Holderness the Drift has yielded remanié fish remains evidently derived from the Red Crag, and in Aberdeenshire in the Slains Gravels Jamieson found a large suite of rather fragmentary shells of mainly early Red Crag facies, mingled with some undoubted Pleistocene forms. The Cromer Forest Bed stage is the latest pre-Glacial stage recognised in East Anglia, but in Yorkshire a well-defined cliff-line bounding a broad plain of marine erosion is traceable, which appears to be, in part at least, of later date. The cliff begins at Sewerby between Bridlington and Flamboro Head, and has been traced by Mr. Crofts and myself round to Hessle, near Hull. The corresponding beach has been seen at each end. Borings have enabled the old sea-floor in front to be charted and contoured. The next phase was a retreat of the sea and formation of sand dunes along the foot of the cliffs. The geological date is indicated by the occurrence of Hlephas antiquus, Rhinoceros leptorhinus and Hippopotamus in the deposits. This fauna accompanies implements of Chellean type in the South of England. The next episode was the arrival of a great ice-sheet having its radiant point in the neighbourhood of the Gulf of Bothnia. This appears to have displaced the water from the whole of the North Sea as far south as tne coast of Essex, if no further. Several retreats and readvances took place, and the final retreat can be traced with great detail and precision by the drainage phenomena developed along SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 363 the margin of the ice up to its last contact with the British shores on the Ord of Caithness. Oscillations of level accompanied the retreat and raised beaches were left, especially north of the ‘l'weed, but on the completion of the withdrawal the land stood about 80 feet higher relatively to the sea than at present. The southern portion of the North Sea became a marshy plain, over which great rivers such as the Rhine, Thames and Weser took a meandering course. Peat bogs occupied much of the area, and forests clothed the margins. A depression to the present level then ensued and the great shallow bay of the North Sea south of the Dogger Bank was formed. Only in a few places does its depth exceed 25 fathoms. The sea ran up the estuaries, and thus the Humber itself and its branch the Hull came into being. A true scale of the breadth and depth of the North Sea in this latitude can be obtained by taking a piece of No. 40 sewing cotton 13 ft. 8 in. in length. Knots tied in the cotton would represent Heligoland and any of the ‘ pits.’ (b) Mr. J. O. BortEy.—The Floor Deposits of the North Sea. 2. Mr. Tuomas Suepparp.—Lecture on The Geology of the Hull District. 3. Mr. C. THompson.—The Erosion of the Holderness Coast. An attempt has been made to indicate the strip of land lost by erosion from the coast of Holderness during the past seventy years. A reliable average loss per year has also been sought for. The plan adopted was to take the Ordnance Survey map (6-inch scale) of the coast, to measure various welij-defined lines on that map, and to measure the remnants of those lines in the field. These measurements have beén plotted on the 1852 map and the present coast- line drawn approximately, so that the actual loss may be readily visualised. The averages for the seventy years are somewhat less than the usually accepted rate. Friday, September 8. 4, Professor A. P. Courman.—Pleistoceneand Recent Ice Conditions in North-Eastern Labrador. The Labrador ice sheet of the Pleistocene left uncevered some thousands of square miles of North-eastern Labrador, in what has been called the Torngat Mountains, the lofty edge of the Archean Shield.. There were, however, large valley glaciers carving up the edge of the Shield with deep valleys and ficids, giving the wildest and most mountainous region of Eastern North America. At present there are about fourteen small cirque glaciers on or near the coast. On the interior plateau there are numerous small stagnant ice sheets which are doing no geological work. The present climate, though severe, with less than two months of summer, is semi-arid, providing little moisture for precipitation as snow. Duving the Ice Age the snowfall must have been much heavier, implying much moister conditions. 5. Mr. J. W. Srarner.—A New Section in the Oolites and Glacial Deposits at South Cave. The old railway cutting in the Millepore Oolite, west of South Cave Station, has recently been quarried back and exhibits some unexpected features. The most important of these is the occurrence of an irregular band of flinty and ' chalky rubbly drift, above which is a mass of displaced Millepore Limestone, partly shattered, but in places maintaining its original bedding, almost giving the impression of being in situ. The presence of the Millepore Limestone above the chalky rubble can only be explained by supposing the limestone to have been carried over the newer deposits by some transporting agency, presumably glacial, as there is no place in the immediate neighbourhood from which the Millepore Limestone could have slipped by gravity into its present position. 6. Presidential Address by Prof. P. F. Kenpatn, on The Physio- graphy of the Coal Swamps. (See p. 49.) 364 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 7, Prof. A. Gituigan.—Sandstone Dykes or Rock-Riders in the Cumberland Coalfield. Those more particularly described were met with in the workings of the Bannock Band and Main Band seams at Ladysmith Pit, Whitehaven. The dykes certainly pass through the Bannock Band and Main Band seams and the intervening measures, which are about 54 feet thick; but their full vertical extent has not been determined. Their horizontal extent is variable; the longest has been traced for more than a mile. | They all run practically parallel to one another in a direction N.N.W. and §S.8.E., which is the direction of the main system of faults affecting the associated measures. The average width of the dykes is from two to four inches and the coal in sharp contact with them is unaffected. The dykes do not pass up into the overlying Whitehaven sandstone. The author argues for the pene-contemporaneous formation of these dykes and the associated measures. Monday, September 11. 8. Discussion on Wegener’s Hypothesis of Continental Drift. (a) Opener: Dr. J. W. Evans, F.B.S. The occurrence of allied forms of life on continents separated by great eceans has given rise to speculations as to former connections between them. There is in some cases also considerable similarity in the geological features on the opposite sides of the cceans, especially in the case of the Palzxozoic rocks of the two sides of the Atlantic and of the Pefmo-Carboniferous formations of India, Australia, South Africa, the Falklands and South America. It was, however, primarily to solve the distribution of life forms thate Dr. Wegener formulated his hypothesis of the dispersion of the continental masses. He supposes these to have been aggregated together as Jate as the Tertiary period, and North America to have been in close proximity to Europe even in the Pleistocene. The continents are, he thinks, slowly drifting from the poles, and from east to west. ‘The former movement is believed by him to be proved by observations at European observatories and at that at Washington, showing a decrease in latitude, but recent observations on the Pacific coast indicate that latitude is there increasing. He is under the impression that America is going west faster than Kurope, and that the longitude of Cambridge, Mass., is increasing while Greenland is moving in the same direction at a still more rapid rate. The continents are composed largely of rocks rich in silica and alumina, ‘Sial,’ while those below the sea are less siliceous and heavier and have been referred to as ‘Sima.’ This extends under the Sial of the continents at a depth which Wegener estimates at 57 miles, which is probably far too great. He believes that the Sial masses drift through the Sima like icebergs through the sea. The Sima is, however, a crystalline solid down to a depth of 15 miles, and is as strong as, if not stronger than, the Sial. By overthrusts and crumpling some areas are brought nearer together, and by fissuring, igneous intrusions and normal faulting others are moving apart. There is some evidence of a slow drift away from Africa and towards the Pacific, but there is nothing to show that this has been as rapid as is assumed by Dr. Wegener. The Atlantic may have come into existence since Carboni- ferous times, but this would not mean a separation equal to its whole width, as part of the submergence would be caused by faulting down towards a region of tension. The Astronomer-Royal of Scotland has shown that determinations of longitude by telegraphy are subject to serious errors. Light is thrown on this by the observations of Hecker and others with horizontal pendulums. In addition to the variations of direction of gravity due to the sun and moon, the earth’s crust is subject to appreciable diurnal tilting as the result cf sclar radiation. Similar seasonal effects must also occur. Variations of the barometer in adjoining areas and of the underground water-level, marine tides and irre- gularities in refraction, are also important. Most of these effects are con- siderably less at some depth below the surface, and it is suggested that the — ‘=— —— — 8 Ne SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 365 instruments employed should be placed in excavations and protected from dis- turbing influences. They should be located in plains with uniform geological structure and surface character. (b) Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S.—The Astronomical Evidence Bearing upon the Hypothesis. The only piece of astronomical evidence supporting Wegener’s hypothesis, and worthy of serious consideration, is the apparent drift of Greenland. The observations in 1870 and 1907 show a change of 1,200 metres, and observations in 1823 lend some support, but it cannot be said that the drift is established beyond doubt, though a good case is made for repeating the observations to-day ; indeed, the matter is so important that this is a duty. All the other evidence is practically against such changes in modern times. (c) Mr. W. B. Wriaut. A critical comparison of the geological formations on the two sides of the North Atlantic shows on the whole a very remarkable correspondence, both stratigraphical and paleontological, from the Pre-Cambrian up to the Creta- ceous, and in particular brings to light certain facts even more strikingly indicative of a former rapprochement between the two continents than any pointed out by Wegener. The recurrence in America, on opposite sides of the old Appalachia, of the two facies of the European Cambrian and early Ordovician, which are here separated by the Caledonian chain, is perhaps the most striking, the lithological and faunal distinctions and the sequences of transgression and recession, different on either side of the chain, being reproduced with remarkable pre cision. Again, the continental and marine facies of the Devonian are separated in both countries by boundaries which become conterminous on the Wegener reconstruction. The equivalent line in the Triassic lies further south both in Europe and America, but, as it passes into the areas of generally defective correspondence in Spain and Central America, is less valuable as a criterion. It should, on the other hand, be noted that in America there are in the middle of the Carboniferous and Cretaceous formations marked unconformities which have not been recorded in Europe. The investigation of these discrepancies, perhaps more apparent than real, might well form a test case for the theory. 9. Dr. Herserr L. Hawxins.—The Relation of the River Thames to the London Basin. (1) The London Basin is an asymmetrical syncline pitching eastwards. The southern rim dips sharply, the northern gently, the axis lying nearer the south. Drainage of such a district would consist normally of a main stream along the axis with tributaries on both sides. This condition is realised in the west by the Kennet and in the east by the Thames below Chertsey. In the inter- vening portion (Theale to Chertsey) the main stream is north of the ‘ ideal’ position, and its southern tributaries cross the axis and flow against the dip At Wargrave the Thames returns into the Chilterns in apparent defiance of all rules and reason. There is evidence that the southern tributaries have postponed junction with the main stream fairly recently, and that the Thames itself has shifted its course southwards. The original drainage of the basin is believed to have passed along the Kennet to Theale, thence to Pangbourne, along the present Thames to Windsor, thence by Rickmansworth and Hertford, and probably down the Lea. (Possibly it reached the sea past Maldon or Colchester.) These broad meanders were reversible with similar amplitude. This line was probably the synclinal axis in Miocene and Pliocene times, its southward displacement being due to the increased plunge of the ‘ North Downs’ dip. Many anomalies in the drainage and river deposits are explicable on this hypothesis, the rivers being incom- pletely adapted to the tectonic change. (ii) The Upper Thames is a tributary of the London Basin drainage. New sections in Goring Gap show that torrent action has deepened the gorge by about fifty feet. Excavations on the hills above Whitchurch afford presumptive evidence of the marginal effects of true glaciation. The nature and arrangement 366 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C, D. of the drift, the numerous lateral channels, and the character of the gorge itself, are such that their occurrence further north would be ascribed generally to glacial action. ; It is postulated that a Welsh-Midland ice-sheet reached the chalk-scarp, but failed to override it save at the lowest parts. One such part was in the angle between the Chilterns and the Berkshire Downs; the final excavation of Goring Gap was achieved by the outflow from a retreating ice-tongue that had pene- trated into the London Basin. The relatively early date of the glaciation and the softness of the bed-rocks account for obscurity of details. 10. Joint Discussion with Sections E and H on The Relation of Early Man to the Phases of the Ice Age in Britain. Opener: Mr. H. J. HE. Praxe. Tuesday, September 12. 11. Mr. W. S. Brsat.—Goniatite Zones in the Middle Carboniferous. Renewed attention paid by members of the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union to this question has shown that all species of the principal goniatite genera are very limited in vertical range, and this fact has rendered it possible to greatly expand the sequence propounded by Wheelton Hind. The zcnes suggest strongly that the Millstone Grit series of North Derby- shire represents only the upper part of the North Yorkshire and Lancashire series, and that the Yoredale Shales of Derbyshire form the equivalent of the Sabden Shales of Lancashire. This brings the Third Grit of Lancashire and Yorkshire approximately on the same horizon as the Kinderscout of Derbyshire. 12. Mr. R. G. Hupson.—A Type Section of the Yoredalan. Skell Gill and Mill Gill, Wensleydale, Yorkshire, show a complete and typical exposure of the Yoredale rocks of the Lower Carboniferous. The paleontological zones established elsewhere for the Lower Carboniferous are confirmed in this section and further subdivision is possible. The conditions of deposition are emphasised by the occurrence of shallow-water faunas and algal horizons. Local unconformities occur, notably between Dy and Dz, where the Hardraw shales rest on the eroded and irregular surface of the Gayle Limestone. The fauna reaches its maximum development in the Main Limestone, where the corals and brachiopods show great specific variation, and are followed by a stunted and impoverished fauna. Many horizons are characterised by faunas that are, as elsewhere, constant throughout the district, notably Girvanella and Orionastrea phillipsi, characteristic of the base of D, and Dyz respectively. 13. Mr. W. S. Brsar.—A New Section in the Oolites at North Ferriby. A well sinking and boring and quarry operations akout nine miles west of Hull, on the edge of the Wolds, gave good sections from the Middle Chalk to the Lias. The junction of the Cretaceous and Oolite series showed Red Chalk and marl resting on pebbly Carstone. The ammonite fauna of the underlying clays was submitted to Dr. Spath for determination. The clays have always been referred to the Kimmeridge, but the ammonite evidence showed that they are undoubtedly Corallian, and belong to the Ampthill phase. This indicates a greater gap between the topmost Oolites and lowest Cretaceous than had been supposed to exist in Yorkshire. SECTION D.— ZOOLOGY. (For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the following list of transactions, see p. 408.) Thursday, September 7. 1, Dr. Jous. Scumipt.—Remarks on the Life-history of the Conger, being a Preliminary Communication from the ‘Dana’ Expedi- tions in the North Atlantic. = ————————— a S—”——C————. SECTIONAL’ TRANSACTIONS.—D. 3867 2. Mr. J. Gray.—The Mechanism of Ciliary Movement. The cilia and the gills of Mytilus are independent of any nervous control. Their rate of beat depends upon the following factors : (i) Temperature ; (ii) de- gree of alkalinity of the cell interior ; (iii) presence of oxygen; (iv) concentration of potassium ions; (v) presence of calcium. The amplitude of the beat depends upon the amount of water in the cell. These and other facts indicate that the actual contraction is due to the uptake of water by the fibrils when an acid is liberated at their surface. Since the amount of oxygen consumed by the cells is controlled by the same factors as those which control the rate of beat, and since the cells are impermeable to anions, it seems likely that the oxygen is used to remove the products formed by the acid when it diffuses away from the fibrils during the period of relaxation. 3. Dr. G. P. Brper.—The Relation of the Form of a Sponge to its Currents. Fixed organisms, of animal physiology, depend for nutrition and respiration on the efficiency of the currents which bring them food and oxygen. The outgoing current forms an angle with the incoming streams, which may be called the angle of supply; between them, unless this be 180 degrees, is a revolving eddy whose diameter may be called the diameter of supply. Through this eddy, in still water, the incoming streams are polluted from the outgoing stream : the proportion of food-bearing and unpolluted water which reaches the organism increases when either the angle or diameter of supply increases. In sponges (excepting Hexactinellida, which live in immutable bottom-currents) all progressive modification of internal canal-system, or external form, demon- strably increases diameter of supply or angle of supply. Determination of velocity in different regions of a canal system shows them proportional to the needs of a perfect hydraulic engine. 4, Dr. AvExanpER Bowman.—The Biological Interchange between the Atlantic and the North Sea. During the course of the investigations being carried out by the Fishery Board for Scotland in their Research vessel in the autumn of 1921, special attention was directed to the abnormal hydrographic conditions prevailing in the northern part of the North Sea adjacent to the coasts of Scotland. As also in 1920, an unusual incursion of Atlantic water into the North Sea had occurred.” That such occurrences should have profound biological significance will be evident. Apart from the changed physical conditions, such as an increased temperature and higher salinity, the invading water masses bring with them a whole series of organisms not usually found in the North Sea, of which the most striking are perhaps the Salpew (and more particularly Salpa fusiformis). Unusual conditions such as these offer a fruitful ground for research into the probable causation of the distribution of various pelagic organisms, more particularly those belonging to the passively carried plankton. It would also appear that there is some evidence in support of the view that the failure of the great herring-fishery in these two years is not unconnected with these phenomena. 5. Reports of Committees. (a) Zoological Station at Naples. (See p. 315.) (b) Marine Laboratory, Plymouth. (c) Zoology Organisation. (d) Zoological Bibliography and Publication. (See p. 316.) (e) Inheritance of Colour in Lepideptera. (See p. 318.) (f) Inheritance in Silkworms. (g) Parthenogenesis. (See p. 317.) (h) Gilbert White Memorial. 1922 Come: 868 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 6. Discussion on The Fauna of the Sea-Bottom. (a) Opener: Dr. C. G. Jon. PETERSEN. I confine myself to discussing methods of investigation. From 1883 I carried out investigations on the Bottom-Fauna of Danish waters by means of the dredge, and charted the occurrence of each single specimen. No good general survey of the animals existed at that time; different groups of animals were treated by different specialists who published in different papers. Later I introduced the bottom sampler for the purpose of investigating the problem as to why the plaice grows faster in some parts of the Limfjord than in others. The conception of the ‘fauna of the level bottom’ and that of the ‘ epifauna’ was introduced, as also that of ‘animal communities’ based upon characteristic animals. The theory of probability must be applied to this line of investigation, the degree of exactitude depending upon the number of stations worked. Seasonal and annual variations. Bearing upon the fisheries (plaice). Knowledge of Metabolism of the Sea, based upon quantitative investiga- tions of the bottom fauna and flora. Dredge rather capricious, mixing com- munities together and confusing level-bottom fauna and epifauna. (b) Mr. '. M. Davis. During the last year work has been carried out in the North Sea with the Petersen Bottom Sampler with a view to finding out the distribution of the non-predatory benthos forming the food of fish. The work has been mostly concentrated on the central area of the Dogger, where 391 stations have been worked, while 145 others have been worked in other areas. The following are the commonest animals found: Spisula subtruncata (maximum 3,280 per square metre), Mactra stultorum (maximum 55), T'ellina fabula (maximum 40), Natica alderi (maximum 40), Nephthys caca (maximum 25), Hchinocardium cordatum (maximum 3). Many other animals—e.g. Venus gallina, Psammobia ferrensis, Syndosmya prismatica, Ophelia limacina, Goniada maculata, and other forms—are widely, though not intensively, distributed, not usually occurring more than 5 per square metre. This appears to coincide approximately with Petersen’s Danish ‘Venus’ and ‘Deep Venus’ communities, but the predominant species are Spisula subtruncata (intensively distributed) and Nephthys cca (extensively distributed). It has been found that Spisula subtruncata and the more intensively distributed animals lie in patches. In a recent voyage a patch of Spisula was intensively sampled, and was found to extend over an area of approximately 38 square miles, with an average intensity of 795 half-grown individuals per square metre (maximum 2,520, minimum 0). (c) Mr. J. O. Bortey. A discussion of the distribution of the sea-bottom fauna in the North Sea on the basis of samples obtained by the dredge. (d) Prof. R. D. Laurim, Miss E. Horsman, and Mr. EH. E. Warkin.—The Fauna of Cardigan Bay, off Aberystwyth. Mechanical analyses of samples of the bed of a trawling ground off Aberyst- wyth give the following as a typical result : coarse sand 4.5 per cent., fine sand 30 per cent., silt 19 per cent., fine silt 20 per cent., clay 11 per cent., soluble matter, ete., 14 per cent. A typical collection of organisms obtained by the Petersen Bottom Sampler in #7; sq. metra is: Amophiura filiformis (21), Turritella communis (7), Synapta inherens (1), S. digitata (1), Pectinaria auicoma (2), Nephthys ceca (2), Sthenelais limicola (2), Hvarne impar (1), Phascoiosoma procerum (1), Montacuta bidentata (1), Syndosmya alba (1), Corbula gibba (1), and other forms less frequently, among them Hchinocardium cordatum. ‘This Amphiura-Turritella ‘community’ does not correspond to any of Petersen's. Among the immature fish trawled on this ground, plaice and skate do not appear to be serious competitors with one another for food; the former having a marked preference for the brittle-star, Amphiura filiformis, whereas the latter avoid it but specially select the Amphipods, Ampelisca typica ven SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 369 and A. levigata; T'urritella communis is avoided by both. A Paludestrina- Cardium-Macoma community in the littoral zone of the Dovey Estuary is also under investigation : plaice caught over this region contained Cardium edule. Curves indicate the period of growth and rate of growth of various forms, and fluctuations in the frequency of their occurrence in successive years. In the cockle the fluctuations are particularly striking, and an attempt is made to throw some light upon them. (e) Dr. JosepH PEarson.—The Growth-rate of Placuna Placenta. The account was based on a considerable mass of data from Ceylon waters, and was a summary of twelve years’ work. Illustrative curves dealing with linear growth and with weight were exhibited. 7. Dr. Josrpu Pearson exhibited diagrams showing a remarkable series of seasonal changes in the salinity of Lake Tamblegam, a large marine area opening by a narrow entrance from the harbour at Trincomalee, Ceylon. 8. INspEcTION oF RrszeaRrcH VrsseLs.—The members of the Section inspected the research vessels visiting Hull during the meeting— namely, the Danish Government vessel. Dana, the Scottish Explorer, the George Bligh of the English Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, the Salpa from the Marine Biological Association at Plymouth, and the Livadne from Cullercoats. Friday, September 8. 9. Presidential Address by Dr. E. J. Auten, F.R.S., on The Progression of Life in the Sea. (See p. 79.) 10. Discussion on The Sea Fisheries. (a) Opener: Mr. J. A. Roserrson, J.P., O.B.E., on Fluctuations in the Fisheries. There have always been apprehensions that the stock of trawl fish was diminishing through over-fishing. Since 1853 a variety of Commissions have investigated the matter, Acts of Parliament have been passed and repealed, but no authoritative finds have been reached. The present paper suggests that rather than there being a progressive diminishing of the stock of fish due to fishing operations, there are upward and downward fluctuations about a mean which are of more importance than are human agencies due to such factors as temperature and food supply. An increase in the intensity of fishing may lower the mean about which the fluctuations occur, but the degree of lowering will not be material. An example is given of what is believed to be a case of a fluctuation due to natural agencies. ‘Hake had not been recorded in any abundance on the Morecambe Bay grounds before 1899, but in that year large hauls were made by a few boats, which secured still greater catches in 1900; but in 1901 very few were caught, and by 1905 they had entirely disappeared and have not reappeared since. In this case there was no question of the gradual depletion of a regularly fished grovnd. Again, the fishing trade had made plans to deal with considerably increased catches in the North Sea, which it was anticipated would follow the rest period of the War. It was calculated that in 1920, when the trawling fleet had got back to its full strength, _ eatches would be double the pre-War maximum, but the quantity landed was actually less than a third of what was anticipated. The main obstacle to the solution of this difficult problem is the lack of reliable statistics. The present method of collecting them is untrustworthy. At Grimsby, for example, erroneous statistics were known to be given to the Ministry’s collectors, so that trade grants might be preserved, and’so in conclusion a strong plea is made for co- operation between the Ministry and the industry for the drawing wp of a new ec2 370 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. scheme making owners responsible legally for supplying correct statistics, for without such it would appear impossible to attain any final conclusion on this roblem of fluctuations, which is of crucial importance to the fishing industry. (6) Mr. H. G. Mavricsr, C.B., supported thé present system of collecting statistics. The Ministry employed whole-time collectors in all the principal ports, whose sole business it was to collect fishing statistics, and he did not think any different results would be obtained were the owners to take the matter in hand. The fishing trade was, he added, always urging the Ministry to investigate, and then when they did so and results were given they were told they were wrong. He might allude to proposals relating to plaice which had recently been made by the Ministry as a result of investigations and which were turned down by the trade (c) Prof. J. Stanuey Garprner, I*.R.S.. suggested that if the Ministry and the industry came together in this matter they would get statistics which were more economical, more accurate, and more such as the industry required. (d) Dr. E. 8. Russern admitted that natural fluctuations occured in all great fisheries, but he could not agree with My. Robertson that the effect of steam trawling was negligible. He brought forward evidence based upon North Sea data to drive home his point. (c) Prof. JamMus JOHNSTONE admitted that some effect might result from intensive fishing, but believed that his investigations in the Irish Sea pointed to the considerably greater importance of natural periodic fluctuations. (f) Mr. B. Sroprow and Mr. A. Rosrys also contributed to the discussion. 11. Discussion on The Sea Fisheries, with Special Reference to the Herring. (a) Opener: Mr. Grorar Haun. (1) Introductory remarks of a general character. (ii) Reference to the universe and the many relative questions crying out for research and solution. (iii) Narrative of the speaker’s connection with the herring industry, in the course of which particulars are given of the nature of the problems which have presented themselves, and to which, hitherto, there has been no satisfactory answer. (iv) Attention directed to the condition of things brought about by our ignorance of the causes of the varying circumstances under which the industry has been operated. (v) Suggestions as to the direction in which the assistance of the industry might prove effective, with particular reference to a system of co-operation between the industry and science in supplying information respecting the following matters: (a) Place of catch, (b) time of catch, (c) state of tide, (d) state of weather, (¢) conditions of water, (f) means of catch, (g) method of catch, (h) description of catch under the headings of—(i) composition, (ii) predominating characteristics, (iii) exceptional characteristics, (iv) measure- ments. , (vi) Favourable results anticipated from complete knowledge of the herring and its haunts. (b) Mr. Davin T. Jonzs, C.B.E. The phases through which the herring fishery has passed are (1) the period when the bounty system was in operation; (2) the introduction of the ‘ Zulu’ type of boat, which possessed excellent seagoing qualities and enabled the fisher- men to use a much larger fleet of nets; and (3) the revolutionising introduction of steam and motor power. Regarding research, an inquiry was made as far back as 1837, following the failure of the estuarine fishery in the Firth of Forth, which led to a distinction being drawn between the sprat and the young herring. Specimens dating from this investication were exhibited. A further investigation carried out by the Board in conjunction: with the Meteorological Society of Scotland in 1873-75 had led to the conclusion, which has been con- firmed by subsequent investigations, that local variation in the temperature of the sea has a very important bearing on the abundance of herring. Recent SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 371 investigations upon herring scales suggest the possibility of predictions as to the abundance or otherwise of the fish in particular years, in the absence of any unforeseen disturbing factors. (c) Prof. Orro Prtrersson.—On the Periodic Character of the Scandinavian Herring-fishery. The essence of my paper is to draw attention to the great secular periodicity in the movements and the circulation of oceanic waters and their influence on the migrations of fishes (the herring) which have occurred in our parts of the sea once in every century during the last thousand years. (d) Mr. B. Srorrow.—Herring Fluctuations. There is a relation between tidal phenomena and the productivity of the herring-fishery of the East Coast of Scotland. Tidal phenomena precede herring catches by four years, and the curves show, alternately, periods tending to parallelism and convergency. Data for catches arranged in a nine-year period show that the fourth year after the greatest tide-generating force exerted by the moon ('Pettersson) is marked by high catches. There is a period of 18-19 years in the catches of winter herrings off the East Coast of Scotland, and probably in the East Anglian fishery. The poor quality of the herrings of 1920 and 1921 and the large numbers of young spawning fish in the shoals were due, probably, to the same factors which determined the liver yield from, and young fish amongst, Norwegian Skrei. It is probable that further work will enable us to foretell some of the good summer fisheries. (e) Dr. Wu. Watiace.—On the Spawning and Early Stages of the Herring in the North Sea (S.W.) and English Channel (E.). From the results so far obtained, it appears that spawning occurs chiefly west of 3° E. long., and at places where the bottom deposit contains an appreciably large proportion of stones and other coarse material. The period of spawning varies with the latitude, thus: Off Northumberland in August and September; on and around the south part of the Dogger and off Whitby in September and October; off the Wash and Norfolk coast in October and November ; in the southern termination of the North Sea and in the eastern part of the English Channel from November to January. The post-larve, as they rise from the bottom and reach a certain size, are drifted towards the shore on both sides of the North Sea. From observations made in the Wash, Thames Estuary and adjacent waters, it appears that it may be possible to distinguish adults of the more northern autumn-spawning herring from those of the southern winter-spawning herring by the size of the area delimited by the first winter ring in their scales. 12. Mr. R. S. Crarx.—Features in the Development of Rays and Skates. The egg-capsules when deposited are buried in sand, and in most cases in shallow water. There they undergo a period of incubation, ranging in the different species from four to fifteen months. They are adapted to the life of the embryo. At first they are filled with a thick plug of albumen, which soon. disappears or is absorbed, and then a constant stream of water passes through the open slits on the horns, the aération being assisted by the rhythmical move- ment of the embryo. ‘Transitory branchial filaments, elongations of the gill lamellez, which are absent in the spiracle, persist to the end of embryonic life and are gradually absorbed with the development of the gill arches. Their function appears highly respiratory, bus they may help in absorption, as may probably happen in the absorption of the albumen. Fertilisation of the egg must be effected in the upper reaches of the oviduct, and the subsequent passage of the complete egg and capsule must be fairly rapid. A single copulation has been found effective after a lapse of four months. The embryo becomes oriented towards the lone horn end of the capsule, through which it passes head first at hatching. The yolk is withdrawn into sn internal yolk sac which opens directly into the spiral valve. A considerable amount of yolk is retained cCc3 3872 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. in this way for the needs of the young fish immediately after hatching. During the initial stages of free existence the young fish feeds chiefly on amphipods and small crangonids. Post-embryonic changes are well defined. The tip of the tail, behind the second dorsal fin, is gradually absorbed and becomes quite short in comparison with the embryonic elongation. Specimens and photographs were exhibited of nine species, eight of which were secured at Plymouth and reared in the laboratory tanks. These inciuded a complete developmental series of embryos, egg capsules, newly hatched young, and young fish up to a few months old. Monday, September 11. 13. Joint Discussion with Section K cn The Present Position of Darwinism. (See p. 399.) 14. Mr. A. M.. Carr-Saunpers.—Problems of Geographical Distribution in Spitsbergen. 15. Prof. A. Menx.—The Fate of the Segmentation Cavity of the Frog’s Eqq. 16. Prof. E. B. Povnron, F.R.S.—Ezperimental Evidence for the Hereditary Transmission of Small Variations such as would be required to initiate a Mimetic Resemblance in Butterflies. The sudden evolution of a complex mimetic pattern, fully formed and complete, is difficelt or even impossible to explain. We are compelled to believe that there has been a development in stages, each represented by a comparatively small variation. Certain authorities on heredity have main- tained that such variations are not transmitted. An investigation designed to test this conclusion has been carried on with the common Currant Moth (Abraxas grossulariata), and it has been shown that the fusion of two black patches on the fore wing into a single bar, present in the female parent, was transmitted to nearly all of her offspring. Next year will probably decide whether the transmission followed Mendelian laws; but, Mendelian or non- Mendelian, the variation was certainly hereditary, and was of just such a kind and magnitude as would furnish one of the steps towards a complex mimetic pattern. 17. Mr. C. Tare Recan, F.R.S.—Some Examples of Adaptative Evolution in Fishes. Three examples were given illustrating a marked adaptative evolution without any other change of structure. (1) Cacobarbus, from a small subterranean lake in the Lower Congo, may be described as a Barbus that has lost its eyes and its pigment and has developed the lateral line system. (2) Upibulus insidiata, of the Indo-Pacific, may be described as a Cheilinus with an extremely pro- tractile mouth; the quadrate bone is long and freely movable. (3) Hchencis is a Percoid with the spinous dorsal fin represented by a suctorial disc on the head, the fin spines being transverse lamine. It may have originated from a pelagic fish with habits like the pilot fish (Nawcrates). 18. A meeting took place at the Town Hall in Grimsby at 7.30 p.m., when Dr. BE. J. Auten, F.R.S., and Prof. J. STanLey GarpDINER, F.R.S., opened a discussion on Scientific Fishery Research and the Fishing Industry. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D, 373 Tuesday, September 12. 19. Dr. W. R. G. Arxins.—The Hydrogen ion Concentration of Soils and Natural Watersin Relation to Animal Distribution. It has been shown that a close connection exists between the distribution of plants and the soil reaction. Observations prove the relation of many animals, especially insects, to specific plants. Their distribution is, therefore, indirectly related to the soil reaction. A direct relation also exists. Certain earthworms are poisoned by the peaty soil of Dartmoor, and O. Arrhenius has shown that earthworms die outside certain limits of reaction. Snails, too, are similarly affected, Helicella caperata and H. virgata have never been found on acid soil. Among Crustacea, Asellus aquaticus lives in slightly acid water and Gammarus pulex in alkaline streams. In captivity G. pulex lives and breeds only if in water alkaline from calcium salts. MacGregor has shown how important the reaction of the water is for mosquito larve. 20. Miss K. Carpenter.—Fresh Water Fauna of Aberystwyth Area im Relation to Lead Pollutian. Faunistic study of the streams of this area reveals a general paucity referable to the scarcity of lime salts, but more remarkable is the almost complete barren- ness of the larger rivers, Rheidol and Ystwyth. Out of a total of sixty Inverte- ' brate species (Protozoa, Rotifera and Nematoda excepted) collected in local streams, only eleven occur in the main stream of the Rheidol and nine in the Ystwyth; further, these waters contain no fish. The Clarach, a smaller stream (length eight miles, Rheidol twenty-five, Ystwyth twenty-six and three-quarters), has nevertheless a fauna of thirty-eight Invertebrate species at one locality, and also contains trout. These last occur in several quite small brooks, many of which have a considerably longer fauna-list than the main rivers. The selective factor is undoubtedly the pollution of the rivers by contamination from mine- waters and refuse-heaps on the sites of old lead-workings in the hill regions; correlation of fauna-lists with chemical analyses of water and sediments establishes this beyond a doubt, but there remains the further question of the actual method of operation of this factor, whether through clogging of delicate organs by galena-grit or through infiltration of dissolved lead-compounds. On the former and generally favoured alternative are based the recommendations of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries for safeguarding river fisheries against lead pollution, yet there is strong evidence of the working of the second factor in this district. The Clarach, like the Rheidol and Ystwyth, has mines near its headwaters, and the percentage of lead solid in river sediment is highest in the Clarach (0.12 per cent. Clarach, 0.085 per cent. Rheidol, 0.01 per cent. Ystwyth, in normal times), so that the comparative wealth of species in the river already noted can only be related to the absence of any appreciable quantity of dissolved lead substance, in contrast to the normal proportions of 0.02 and 0.04 mgr. per litre in Rheidol and Ystwyth respectively. Even if mechanical clogging of the gills occurs in fishes, recent observations definitely point to the solution factor as affecting the Invertebrate food organisms and the supporting flora. Further evidence of similar trend has been derived from observation of the peculiar conditions consequent upon last summer’s drought. 21. Mr. Juuian S. Huxitey.—Time-Relations in Amphibian Meta- morphosis. Metamorphosis represents the point at which one phase changes into a second. The species in metamorphosing organisms is dimorphic, but the dimorphism is consecutive. An interesting parallel can be drawn with sexual dimorphism. In most animals sexual dimorphism is simultaneous, but in protandric and protogynous hermaphrodites it is consecutive. It is also consecutive in the “intersexes’ experimentally produced by Goldschmidt by crossing geographical varieties of Lymantria, and found in other forms by other workers. Consecutive sexual dimorphism is thus accompanied by what may be called a ‘sex meta- morphosis.’ In all examples of consecutive dimorphism, whether the meta- morphosis is from larva to adult or from one sex to the other, the morphological 374 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. change appears to be accompanied by a change in metabolism. This may be due to external factors, but in higher forms, as in Lymantria or Amphibia, depends mainly on internal factors. It can, however, be affected by external factors even in these forms. Examples are given of alterations of the time of metamorphosis by various factors. It is pointed out that by this means we can study the time-relations of developmental processes. For instance, the fact that Urodele larve kept at low temperatures reach a greater size before meta- morphosing than do those kept at optimum temperatures indicates that cold decreases the activity of the processes leading to thyroid differentiation more than it does those leading to general growth of the rest of the larval organism. The failure of Perennibranchiates to metamorphose in spite of possessing active thyroids was discussed, and the idea of a balance between thyroid and the metabolism of other tissues of the larva, a balance which may be altered by changes in either member of the pair, was stressed. 22. Dr. F. A. E. Crew.—Developmental Intersexuality in the Domesticated Mammals. Abnormality of the reproductive system taking the form of an intimate mixture of male and female structures is by no means rare in the domesticated mammals. Many cases in the horse, pig, goat, and cattle have been examined and in all the general condition is the same. It is reasonable, therefore, to conclude that the underlying cause is similar. The history of many such cases - is that an individual, regarded as a female for the first year or so of its life, assumes certain characters of the male. The condition is best explained on the assumption that such individuals are males in which sex-differentiation has been much delayed. The process of differentiation consists of two stages: in the first, the gonads become differentiated; in the second, under the direction of the sex-hormone, the remaining structures of the sex-equipment are modelled to one of two plans, the male or the female. If the first stage is delayed, the sex-hormone is not exhibited, and in the absence of any specific control the Wolffian and Miillerian ducts pursue an equal and parallel development under the common stimulus of nutrition; the urogenital sinus with its genital tubercle becomes a well-grown cleft with a phallus in its ventral commissure. Later, when the gonads become differentiated, only those structures which are not too full- grown can respond to the stimulus of the sex-hormone. It is because the undifferentiated full-grown form is more closely mirrored by the immature female that the individual is regarded as a female. 23. Dr. A. SmitH Woopwarp.—Demonstration of a model of the Rhodesian Skull. 24. Miss A. Dixon.—The Periodicity in the Protozoan Fauna of a Pond. An investigation, by means of weekly collections of pond material, was made in a Manchester pond during thirty-four months. The results show that there is a marked periodicity in the freshwater protozoa, many showing a double rhythm, with the maxima in the autumn and spring months, which is shown by an increase of species, as well as an increase of individuals. Many of the bottom-loving species in the maximum periods spread to the mid and surface layers of the water, where they are found at no other times. There is less evidence of periodicity at the bottom, where many are continuous. Some of the smaller fluctuations in protozoan numbers appear to be due to the changes in the amount of sunshine, which, except for protozoa having chromatophores, has on the whole a depressing influence. The time for least activity in the protozoa fauna is in June, July, and December. 25. Dr. J. W. Munro.—The Natural History of the Large Pine Weevil. The Large Pine Weevil—an important enemy of young forest plantations. General life-history and relation to the forest. (Common control measures used "oe. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D, FE. 375 against it. Recent experimental work in Central Europe and in Britain. Improved control measures based on this work, with some account of progress. 26. Meeting with Full Naturalists, when Prof. W. M. Tarrersany gave An Account of the Work of the Lancashire and Cheshire Fauna Commuttee. The work of this Committee, founded in 1914, is an attempt to enlist the co-operation of the local natural history societies and field clubs in the counties of Lancashire and Cheshire and to co-ordinate their work with a view to a complete faunal survey of the area. The societies are asked to collect material and forward it, with the necessary data, to the headquarters of the Committee at the Manchester Museum. From here it is sent out to referees and experts for identification, returned by them to headquarters, and redistributed to the societies concerned or to the local museums, as desired. The records are card- catalogued and published in the reports of the Committee. The card-catalogue is kept at headquarters and is available for reference to all workers in the area. SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY. (For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the following list of transactions, see p. 409.) Thursday, September 7. 1. Miss E. C. Sempxe.—The Influence of Geographic Conditions upon Ancient Mediterranean Agriculture. 2. Mrs. H. Ormspy.—The Danube as a Waterway. What is meant by a waterway ?—The geographical conditions affecting the use of a river as a means of transport—To what extent these conditions are important in the case of the Danube—The traffic on the Danube before the War: why it was comparatively so insignificant—The future possibilities of the river as (a) a trans-Continental route, (6) for local traffic. 3. Presidential Address by Dr. Marion I. Newsrary on Human Geography: First Principles and some Applications. (See p. 94.) 4, Sir Pure Brockieuvrst, Bart.—Through Wadai. Friday, September 8. 5, Prof. J. F. Unsteav.—The Belt of Political Change in Europe. The ‘New’ States of Europe form a narrow but continuous belt separating Western Europe from the Russian region—This belt is in several respects transitional between West and East, but has certain characteristics peculiar to it—The consequences of its situation between the maritime West, with a complicated geological history, and the Continental East, with a less disturbed geological past, are traced in its present ethnic conditions and, its social and political problems. 6. Mr. Lu. Ropwetu Jonses.—The Port of Hull: a Geographicai Study of Port Development. Geographical factors concerned in the growth of a port are of two kinds, (a) those pertaining to the general hinterland, (b) more local factors—These considerations applied to Hull—The Ouse river system in its relation to Hull— 376 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E. Character of early trade of Hull—Artificial extension of the river system— The Yorkshire, Derbyshire and Notts coalfield of 1830—The trade of the modern port as influenced by its general environment, with special reference to the localisation of fish traffic, oilseeds, and coal export. 7. Mr. C. Miparey.—Holderness: some aspects of Water Supply as a Geographical Factor. ‘wo contrasted regions, chalk and clay—The significance of this in water supply and consequent human values—Different lines of development and economic histories—The reflexion of this in the past and present distribution of population—Local prehistoric settlements and their relation to water supply -—Evidence of Domesday—Distribution of medieval religious houses—Popula- tion at the beginning and end of the nineteenth century—Water supply of Hull. 8. Mr. H. M. Spinx.—Some Geographical Aspects of Recent Developinents of Water-power. General summary of the distribution of potential water-powers—Recent developments in North America; Europe, and Japan—The great importance of tropical Africa as a source of power—Hydro-electric power and the location of industries-—Probable effect upon the distribution of population—Importance of improvements in long-distance transmission—Importance of water-power and steam-power in combination—Schemes in America on these lines—The ‘ Super- Power’ Zone. 9. Mr. A. V. Wrttiamson.—Irrigation in the Indo-Gangetic Alluvinm. The need for irrigation—Geographical factors governing the methods adopted to meet the need—Irrigation works, (a) wells, (b) canals—Efficiency of irrigation —Agricultural aspects. 10. Mr. D. C. T. Mexis.—-The Trend of World Commerce. ‘Trade of early times determined by differences in productions of different climatic zones—This trade was almost entirely north and south, and largely in luxuries—Likewise, trade of Europe during Middle Ages and English trade down to nineteenth century was north-south trade—Change due to industrial revolution—Examination of Russell Smith’s laws of trade: ‘ North-south trade is the trade of the future—at present the great bulk of our commerce is east- west trade.’ Monday, September 11. 11. Dr. T. Asupy.—Early Maps of Malta. Maps of sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries of the whole Island and Valetta. 12, Mr. R. A. Frazer.—Topographical Work in Spitsbergen. Region under investigation (Garwoodland or Biinsowland) : main topographical features of the country north-east of Ice Fojrd—Résumé of previous exploration —Objects of the expedition—Mount Terrier and the Nordenskiéld glacier— Notes on the high interior—Exploration between the Mount Newton and Mount Svanberg areas—Problems still outstanding. 13. Mr. F. Desensam, O.B.E.—Survey in Polar Regions. A description of land surveys in the Polar regions, with special reference to the Antarctic—Types of surveys required for Polar regions—Past methods described and discussed—The problem of a short season and adverse weather conditions as it affects the general methods, and also the types of instruments —Suggestions for future work. SECTIONAL , TRANSACTIONS.—F. 377 14, Mr. A. G. Ociiviz, O0.B.E.—The Mapping of Latin America. 15, Discussion on the Use of Mercator’s Projection for Air-maps. Opener: Col. EH. M. Jacx, C.M.G., D.S.O. 16. Prof. P. M. Roxsy.—Peking: its place in the life of modern China. The role of Peking in the history of China—External features of the city as reflecting old and new forces in the life of China—The social life of modern Peking—Relation of East and West in the city—A meeting-place of cultural influences—The National University and the Chinese renascence— Peking as the national capital—A discussion of the arguments for and against the removal of the central Government from Peking. 17. Joint Discussion with Sections C and H on The Relation of Karly Mun to Phases of the Ice Age in Britain. Opener: Mr. H. J. E. Peake. Tuesday, September 12. 18, Dr. VavucHan Cornisu.—The Isothermal Frontier of Ancient Cities. he northern frontiers of the great empires of ancient history were con- secutive from the North Sea to the Sea of Japan. The author has examined the position of this line of separation between city life and that of forest and prairie people at the beginning of the second century a.pD., not long before the great barbarian irruption, and finds that the present actual mean annual temperature is, with little variation, the same throughout the entire length of about seven thousand miles. The paper contains a table of the recorded temperatures. 19, Mr. R. R. Watrus.—Portuguese Nyasaland: its Geographical Problems. Geological structure and geographical features—Climatic conditions—The Great Rift valley in Portuguese Nyasaland—The drying up of East Africa and its bearing on development—The population problem. 20. Miss H. A. Wincox.—d Scheme for the Preparation of a Map of the Early Woodlands of Britain. Early woodlands in particular of importance for the interpretation of some other distributions—Construction of map: physica] and historical evidence— Illustrations of maps prepared for South-West and South-East England— Uses of the map. 21. Joint Discussion with Section A (Cosmical Physics Sub-section) on Monsoons. Opener: Dr. G. C. Smpson, C.B.E., F.R.S. EXHIBITS DURING THE MEETING: MAPS OF HULL. A collection of maps of Hull and the Humber estuary, formed by Mr. T. SHEPPARD, was on view during the meeting. 378 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—F. SECTION F. ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. (For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the following list of transactions, see p. 409.) Thursday, September 7. 1. Mr. J. L. Couen.—The Future of Unemployment Insurance. (i) The fundamental principles underlying the British scheme of unemploy- ment insurance are sound. The inadequate application of those principles has produced the present discontent. An examination of the errors of the past. Current misleading conceptions relating to ‘employment exchanges,’ ‘doles,’ the ‘ bankruptcy’ of the Unemployment Insurarce Fund. (ii) Shall industries bear the costs of maintaining their own unemployed? The growth of this idea. The rota system of the Cotton Control Board; the Dockers’ Scheme; the Building Guilds; Establishment Funds. Special schemes under the British Act. The case for and against. (iii) Can uremployment insurance be so organised as to reduce the amount of unemployment? The Wisconsin Bill for ‘ Unemployment Compensation and Prevention.’ The proposal examined. (iv) The reed for a committee of inquiry into : (i) The possible elimination of the trade cycle. (ii) The advisability of unemployment insurance organised by trades. (iii) The possibility of a unified centralised system of social insurance. 2. Prof. J. G. Smrra.—Modern Municipal Markets and their Kco- nomic Significance. Market organisations for the handling of perishable produce, municipal and non-municipal, British and foreign, were briefly reviewed, and the conclusion was reached that markets under the direct management of local authorities are to be preferred to the system now general in this country, under which municipal authorities hire out stalls and sites in publicly owned buildings and/or levy tolls on all produce dealt in. Wholesale and retail markets in this respect present the same problems. Hitherto attempts at organisation by producers to obtain better prices, and by consumers to effect reduction in city prices, have met with failure ; and co-operative societies do not succeed in eliminating the middlemen, who intercept so large a part of the price paid by the consumer. Decentralisation, through municipalisation of wholesale marketing, would save much of the expense that is now incurred in unnecessary transportation and prevent, for example, produce grown in the Evesham district, destined, perhaps, for consumption ultimately in Birmingham, from being forwarded to Covent Garden for sale there to Midland buyers. Moreover, such decentralisation would not result in lessened prices for producers. 3. Joint Discussion with Sections A and M on Weather Cycles in Relation to Agriculture and Industrial Fluctuations. Opener: Sir W. Beverrpce, K.C.B. Friday, September 8. 4. Mr. R. B. Forrester.—Vhe Measurement of Productivity. International comparisons of productive efficiency in industry and agricul- ture. Survey of the tests which have been used (a) in comparing British and foreign agriculture by Sir Thomas Middleton, Mr. Ashby, and other writers; (6) in contrasting the position of the cotton industry in different countries by i i i ee ees SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—F. 379 Schulze-Goevernitz Aftalion, Copeland, and later students; (¢) in comparing British and American industry by means of the Census of Manufactures and the Census of Production. Difficulties involved in employing these measures to gauge the relative position of an industry in different countries, or to judge of the varying efficiency of the factors of production in each case. The influence of industrial and agrarian policy, the scale of production, and other causes, upon the relative position of an industry in different countries. 5. Prof. A. L. BowLey.—A Comparison of Wholesale and Retail Prices Since the War. Three pairs of series are taken for the thirty-seven months, April 1919 to April 1922: (a) Retail food-index and the ‘Statist’ wholesale food-index ; (b) retail food-index with four seasonal commodities removed and the wholesale food-index ; (c) cost-of-living index and the ‘ Statist’ general index. A number of methods having been tried for finding a formula connecting retail and whole- sale prices, it is found that in (a) and (6) the connection is closer between retail prices and wholesale three months earlier than with any other time lag, while in (c) a four months’ lag gives the best result. If p is written for the retail price-index in any month, p11 pe. . . for retail price-indices in the two previous months, and Py P_, . . . for wholesale indices similarly, the best equations found are— (a) p= 50.5 + .524P_5 + .213p.. (6.1), (:) p= 38 + .497P_s + .28p-2 (6.9), (c) p= 102.4 + .494P_, (5.9), where the mean differences between the formula and the actual records are given in brackets. If two exceptional periods of four months each are removed a formula for (c) (p=103.6+.476P_,) gives a mean difference for the remaining months of only 3.6 points, or 1.7 per cent., and the coefficient of correlation is .991. In each case the pre-War index is taken as 100. 6. Mr. W. Hamiuron Wuyte.—The War and Stock Markets. Conditions governing stock markets before the War. Different types of transactions described, including system of ‘ carry over.’ Outbreak of hostilities and closing of Stock Exchange. House reopened under special restrictions by which speculative dealings were prohibited. Abolition of carry-over system had three results : (1) Increase of loan accounts with banks against stock pur- chases. (2) Increase of banks’ influence over markets. (3) Less critical view of the influence of the ‘bear’ on stability of markets. Criticism and defence of banks’ policy during the rise and fall. Effects of the War on stockbroking twofold : (1) Changed the structure of the business; (2) diverted capital from fixed-interest-bearing securities into more speculative stocks. This shows a change of policy on the part of the pure investor. A perusal of market values from 1914-20 suggests (1) that there has been a steady fall in price of fixed- interest-bearing securities concurrently with extensive Government borrowings ; (2) the application of such loans to war production gave security to certain classes of speculative stocks which enhanced their market values. This con- dition only temporary. Need for higher standard of business training and greater co-operation between universities and the business world. Monday, September 11. 7. Presidential Address by Prof. F. J. Epceworru on Equal Pay to Men and Women for Equal Work. (See p. 106.) 8 Mr. C. F. Bickerpike.—The Question of the Possibility of Con- trolling Industrial Fluctuations. ‘The paper related to normal circumstances of peace-time. Something has to be said about causes of fluctuations. Weather cycles may affect the dates 380 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—F. when changes occur, but there would be fluctuations regardless of such influences and due to reasons not obviously beyond human control. The important question is whether the working of the monetary system is the principal cause of fluctua- tions. Outline of the views of Irving Fisher and Hawtrey. Criticism of the purely monetary theories. Influence of the durability of capital goods. Monetary theory suggests that there should be a simple solution in better control of Bank rate. Some reasons for questioning whether this can be made effective. Even if we disregard the multiplicity of nations with independent banking systems, it is questioned whethey control of Bank rate for the purpose of stabilising industry could be successful in more than a moderate degree; but though there may not be any quite simple method of control, probably a more complex method could be developed in time. When international co-operation has to be considered success is more problematic. We may look forward, however, to a gradual improvement through a more complete understanding of the working of the monetary system, but some departure from the simple gold standard may be necessary. Merely to aim at long-period stabilisation on the lines of Irving Fisher’s proposals, however, does not go far towards checking ordinary fluctuations of good and bad trade. 9. Miss A. Asutey.—The English and Scottish Poor Law in Rela- lion lo the Able-bodied. Contrast in principle between English and Scottish Poor Law with regard to responsibility for the able-bodied and their families until the Poor Law Emergency Provisions (Scotland) Act, 1921. 'This partly the outcome of different history of the Poor Law in England and Scotland. Difference in actual practice less than in theory, kecause :— (1) The general use of the ‘ workhouse test’ for the able-bodied in England kept many from applying to the Poor Law. (2) The requirement that a1 man must be disabled to be relieved was often laxly interpreted in Scotland, and the argument that if a destitute man is able- bodied he will not, if unrelieved, remain so long sometimes used. The difference in principle involved, however, the absence of all special provision for the able-bodied in Scotland, such as casual wards and special forms of employment for able-bodied inmates of Poor-houses. Underlying assumption of much of the policy of both countries the receipt of help from Poor Law shameful, and the number of legal paupers to be kept low, not only for economy, but for the moral good of the people. The individualistic doctrine underlying this view largely abandoned, but until 1921 with the effect not of removing the stigma from the receipt of Poor relief, but of multiplying separate pieces of machinery to administer forms of public support not held to be shameful (e.g. Old-age Pensions). Result of War and of period of extreme depression after the War : (1) To multiply the cases and emphasise the existence of prolonged unemploy- ment unconnected with personal fault. ; (2) To increase the forms of public support outside the Poor Law (pensions, unemployment donation, special provision for school-children, for infants, &c.). (3) These having proved inadequate, to break down the practice of refusing Poor-Law out-relief to. the able-bodied (and in Scotland to make the relief of the able-bodied legal, when it had already become common under the Act of 1921). (4) To lessen and almost abolish the feeling that help from the Poor Law is more shameful than other forms of relief. Thus the inconvenience and undesirability of a large variety of agencies is being demonstrated, while at the same time the objection to the old single agency for the relief of distress is largely removed. The position may be seen by examining recent developments in sample English and Scottish towns, with details of typical cases. Possible future developments and conclusions. Tuesday, September 12. 10. Joint Discussion with Section M on The Possibility of Increas- ing the Food Supply of the Nation. Opener: Sir JoHN RusseEtu, F.B.S. Ee a ~ 2 are ae > fam SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—F, G. 381 11. Miss H. Reyvyarp.—Human Motive in Industry. The need of an adequate appreciation of the motives underlying our indus- trial organisation. ‘The machinery which served in the past and might still be best adapted to the satisfaction of our material needs will not work if human motive ceases to supply the power. The psychology of the business man. The strength and weakness of his position. ‘'he development of joint-stock enter- prise has surrendered one of the most important positions of capitalistic institu- tions. The psychology of the worker. His attitude towards (a) Payment by result; (0) the making of profits; (c) the control of industry. The necessity for finding a modus vivendi. The two essential questions to which an answer must be found : (1) What is a reasonable profit? (2) What measure of control ought the worker to have? Wednesday, September 13. 12, Mr. J. HE. Atuen.—Report of Committee on Credit, Currency, and Finance. (See p. 319.) SECTION G.—ENGINEERING, (For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the following list of transactions, see p. 409.) Thursday, September 7. 1. Discussion on The Slrength of Railway Bridges. (a) Mr. J. S. Winson.—Introductory Statement. (b) Mr. A. G. Cooxson and Mr. J. 8. Nicnouas.—The Strength of Railway Bridges, with special reference to the proposals of the Ministry of Transport. The Ministry of Transport have concluded, as a result of certain tests carried out by their officers, that on many British railways insufficient provision has been made for the effect of the live load. It is suggested in this paper that their conclusions are not correct interpretations of their observations, and that those tests, as well as many others carried out elsewhere, prove beyond doubt that bridgework in this country is much stronger than is generally believed. The authors confirm their opinion by reference to certain old structures still carrying main-line traffic without restriction; calculations and actual stress measurements are given. Important discrepancies between calculated and observed stresses are pointed out, and the authors emphasise the view that the life and endurance of existing bridges as determined by experienced main- tenance engineers is the only reliable criterion. Rules based on sixty years’ maintenance experience are suggested. (c) Mr. Conrap GrippuE.—Present-day Problems and Tendencies in Railway Bridge Design. Desire for economy through (a) durability, (b) accuracy of design—Difference between bridge problems in Great Britain and abroad, our work being principally maintenance and renewal—Increased use of concrete—Suggested employment of high-tensile alloy steels—Possibility of stainless steel for bridges—‘ Cement-gun ’ protection for steelwork—Problem of secondary stresses—Research work on bridges—Need for information as to (a) ultimate resistance of girders, (b) precise 382 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G. amount of stress per unit load and distribution of stress through structure— Suggested testing to destruction of full-size bridges. fivets.—Need for information as to (a) ultimate strength of rivet, (0) dis- tribution of stress in riveted girders. Bridge Problems arising out of railway amalgamations. (d) Mr. J. S. Wimson and Prof. B. P. Harau.—The Influence of Rivet-holes on the Strength and Endurance of Steel Structures. The numerous rivet-holes that pierce the plates and rolled sections used in bridges and other steel structures reduce the strength and endurance of tension members, particularly under varying loads. The arbitrary allowances which are made for this reduction are discussed in relation to the results of a number of ‘fatigue’ tests carried out by the authors. Small plates with different spacings of rivet-holes, tested in a Haigh fatigue- testing machine adjusted to apply tensile stresses varying from a minimum to a maximum 2,000 times per minute, are shown to crack through the holes in directions perpendicular to the axis of the applied pull—not necessarily across the shortest alternative path between the holes. The results are compared with theoretical deductions from established general principles. The fatigue tests are supplemented with steady-load extensometer tests on plates with different rivet-hole spacings. Tn the afternoon the Canister Works of Messrs. Reckitt & Sons, Litd., were visited. Friday, September 8. 2. Mr. G. V. Maxtep.—The Equipment of a modern Cement Works, with special reference to the work of the Humber Portland Cement Co. The works were visited in the afternoon. 3. Prof. F. C. Lea, O.B.E., and Mr. R. E. Srrapiinc.—The Resistance to Fire of Concrete and Reinforced Concrete. The paper describes a series of experiments carried out in the Department of Civil Engineering of the University of Birmingham, with the object of investigating the effect of high temperature on Portland cement concrete, plain and reinforced. It is shown that concretes as ordinarily used in practice to-day, containing quartz sand as a fine aggregate, lose about 20 per cent. of their strength when heated up to a temperature of 550° C. Above this temperature the loss in strength is very much greater, and at about 700° C. the loss is of the order of 70 per cent. to 80 per cent. It is suggested that this is probably due to the expansion of the quartz at 575° C., when the a-f transformation takes place. Much more fire-resistant concretes can be made by using a fine aggregate made of brick or natural rock (such as basalts or dolerites), which do not contain free quartz in any large quantities. The loss with such a material is only of the order of 30-40 per cent. at 700° C. and even higher (1000° C.). It is pointed out, however, that although these special concretes may carry their load during a fire, yet the after-effects may be sufficient to cause failure, and the reasons for this are discussed. Experiments are also described to obtain data on the linear expansion of Portland cement when exposed to temperatures up to 800° C. The data obtained indicate the probable cause of the spalling off of concrete surrounding steel reinforcement. The suggestion is made that the concrete as normally used in reinforced concrete is not an effective fire-resisting material. It will spall off and expose the steel during the fire, and if the building does not then fail, the moisture from the atmosphere finds access to the dehydrated lime. ‘causing cracking and disintegration of the concrete that has been heated above a certain temperature. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G. 383 4. Presidential Address, by Prof. T. Hupson Brarsz, on Some Australian Railway Problems. (See p. 183.) Saturday, September 9. The Hull Docks were visited to inspect features of special engineer- ing interest. Monday, September 11. 5, Discussion on Hconomic Steam Production, with special reference to Marine Practice. (a) Dr. C. H. Lanper.—Home-produced Oil Fuel. During the past fifteen years a complete sukstitution of coal by oil fuel in the Navy has been effected. In the Mercantile Marine development has taken place at a slower rate, but during the year 1920-21 58 per cent. of the new vessels classed under Lloyd’s Register were fitted for burning oil fuel. The question of home sources of supply has been under consideration since 1912, but since then the urgency of the problem has increased. The natural source of oil fuel of this country is discussed, with especial reference to distillation of oil, and it is shown that the only practicable method is the replacement of coal used in the domestic grate and in industry by some form of manufactured smokeless fuel. Figures of possible oil production are given, based on the experimental work on coal carried out by the Fuel Research Board, and the suitability of this oil for steam-raising is discussed. (b) Engr. Comdr. Fraser Suaw, R.N. Two distinct questions: commercial economy, fuel economy. Commercial economy always wins the argument. With scientific aids the economy of a weil-run installation on land does not leave very much to be desired. Considerable drop in efficiency between well-run and badly run plants. Avoidable losses in latter due to leaky settings and inferior personnel (supervision and stoking). Considerations confined to coal-fired single- and double-ended return tube tank boilers. Marine boiler at a disadvantage compared with land boiler, owing to cramped space and reduced heating surface for given output; but at an advantage owing to being self-contained and not dependent on brick settings. By the use of liquid fuel stokehold personnel may be reduced and its efficiency increased. Distinct improvement possible even in coal-fired ships by introduction of scientific instruments, so far little used at sea. Superheaters in fairly general use at sea. Economisers not used at sea so much as on land. In considerations of economy first place must be assigned to system of control to stop gross waste and work existing appliances and known methods to best advantage. (c) Engr. Comdr. R. Beeman, C.M.G., R.N. The question of economic steam production is dealt with from the naval aspect. Improvement in economy of fuel leads in any specific case to a greater radius of action or, on the same radius of action, to a lesser weight of fuel to be carried, and consequently a higher speed, both important advantages. Economy, however, depends, given equal conditions of running, upon the initial design, which in turn depends in the main upon the weight and space that can be given to the machinery. Any design is thus a compromise between the several leading 384. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G, offensive and defensive characteristics of a war-vessel, and any one of these characteristics, such, for example, as economy in fuel, has on occasion to give way to other more important features. The details of naval practice in respect to the burning of fuel are described, together with some of the results obtained, the types of machinery fitted, and the measures adopted to attain and maintain fuel economy on service. (d) Mr. A. Spyer. The works of the National Radiator Co. were visited. Tuesday, September 12. 6. Mr. J. Ricwarpson.—The Propelling Machinery of the Cargo- Carrier of the Future. 7. Joint Discussion with Section L on The Effect of Reformed Methods in Teaching Mathematics. (See p. 406.) The works of the British Oil and Cake Mills, Ltd., were visited. Wednesday, September 13. 8. Dr. HE. O. Turner.—Hlectrical Ignition Apparatus for Internal Combustion Engines. (1) General_—The requirements to be fulfilled by ignition apparatus were stated; the importance of sparking being continuous with high conductivity secondary branch circuit was pointed out, and the term ‘utility ’ explained. The effect of varying cylinder compression due to varying speed and firing angle was considered, and in order to provide a means of comparing ignition units of different design expressions were suggested as figures of merit for induction coils and magnetos respectively. The use of tungsten and iridio-platinum alloys for contact-breakers was referred to, and the question of the time of duration of contact at high speed and its influence on functioning was examined. (2) Ignition by Induction Coil.—The magnetic circuit, primary and secondary windings, and operation under the conditions obtaining in practice were dis- cussed, and curves showing the results of experiments on induction coils designed for use with automobiles and with high-compression stationary gas-engines were illustrated. (3) Ignition by Magneto.—The magneto was considered in two aspects—as a constant flux alternator on short circuit for the first part of each cycle (until the contacts open), and thereafter as an induction coil breaking the current just established. Expressions for the equivalent magnetic circuit and the ‘spark flux’ were deduced; the latter was shown to be dependent on the short- circuit current and the equivalent permeance of the magneto. Drawbacks of the tungsten steel magnet magneto were pointed out, and the improvements made possible by the substitution of cobalt steel magnets were referred to; typical experimental curves supporting the conclusions arrived at were shown. 9. Mr. C. E. Srromeyver.—-Resolution of Compound Siresses. Stresses are always balanced; the push and pull in a bar are the same at both its ends. Forces, on the other hand, when acting on masses may be con- sidered to be unbalanced. Nevertheless, in spite of this dissimilarity, the process of resolving stresses is based on the law of acceleration of masses. The more straightforward procedure would be to deal with the problem direct. Definition ; A resultant force produces the same acceleration in a piass as is i a ee, eae SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G, H 385 produced by the forces which it replaces. Similarly, resustaat stresses produce the same effects (strains) which are produced by the stresses which they replace. This idea is carried through in the present paper. A series of points in a solid are fixed upon and expressions set up which determine the relative dis- placements of these points if subjected to a number of stresses acting in various directions. These expressions contain terms which depend only on the intensi- ties of the stresses and their directions, and not on the relative position of the selected points. These terms must be fulfilled by the resultant stresses, and thus a number of formule are obtained which determine the intensities and directions of the resultant stresses. Vector co-ordinates are employed. For stresses acting parallel to a single plane the simple rule is evolved that, adopting an arbitrary direction, all the angles which the stresses make with this direc- tion must be doubled, and a polygon of stresses is then constructed with these doubled angles. The end-points of this polygon may be looked upon as being the foci of an ellipse or of a hyperbola, whose major axes are equal to the algebraic sum of the stresses. The direction has to be halved. This result ean, of course, be obtained from the formule evolved with the help of the law of acceleration. The pap2r also deals with the resultants of stresses in space. The paper explains the use which can be made of this method of resolving stresses for measuring the strains in celluloid which are revealed by polarised light. 10, Mr. R. S. Wuipete.—Demonstration of the Collins Micro- Indicator for high-speed Engines. SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. {For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the following list of transactions, see p. 409.) Thursday, September 7. 1. Presidential Address by Mr. H. J. E. Peake on The Study of Man. (See p. 150.) 2. Dr. Cyrin Fox.—The Distribution of Population in the Cambridge Region in Early Times, with special reference to the Bronze Age. The distribution in Britain of constructions attributable to the Neolithic and Early Bronze Ages suggests that the population was then limited to those areas, mainly upland, which must have been, under natural conditions, largely free from forest. A topographical analysis of finds and remains of all culture periods from the Neolithic to the Saxon in a limited area—the Cambridge Region—was under- taken to determine whether this limitation was complete or partial, and when the clearing and occupation of forest areas commenced. The Cambridge Region is very suitable for the inquiry, since it possesses a wide range of soils and has yielded numerous finds of all periods. The maps exhibited suggest (1) that the chalk belt and the eastern shore- line of the Fens were occupied from Neolithic times onwards; (2) that there was a gradual shift of population from N.E. to 8.W., i.e. from the West Suffolk heathland to the fertile lands of the upper Cam and Ouse valleys, as agriculture developed; and (3) that the forest uplands were almost entirely unoccupied until the Roman period. The distribution of population in the Bronze Age is, generally speaking, of a character intermediate between that of the Age which preceded it and that which followed, but it presents features of special interest. 386 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 3. Prof. W. J. Sonuas, F.R.S.—A Method in Comparative Craniometry and its Application to Homo Neanderthalensis. 4, M. we Comte ve St. Pérmr.—The Unio and Anodonta in the Prehistoric Stations. 5, Dr. 'T. Asuspy.—-Recent Archeological Discoveries in Italy. The past year has not produced any sensational discoveries in Rome itself, though considerable excitement has been caused in England by the somewhat indiscreet announcement that the portraits of Peter and Paul in the hypogeum in Viale Manzoni (described at the Edinburgh Meeting) were contemporary. The tomb itself has been the subject of further investigation, and is now generally admitted to be Christian and to belong to the early third century after Christ. In the neighbourhood of Rome, Ostia continues to provide features of interest, and another large house with a large central arcaded courtyard has recently been cleared. An important article on the Capitolium at Lanuvium makes it clear that the famous temple of Juno Sospita has not yet been brought to light, and that the only sanctuary so far found on ‘the Acropolis (in 1914-15) is probably that of the Capitoline Triad. Important discoveries have also been made on the site of Horace’s Sabine farm, where a large villa with fine decorative mosaic pavements (a small fragment of which has been known for over 100 years) has been brought to light. Attention should be called to the initiation of the archxological map of Italy, with a careful survey of the neighbourhood of Terracina. Dr. Ashby and Mr. R. A. L. Fell, student of the British School at Rome, have followed the whole course of the Via Flaminia from Rome to Rimini. This road was the most important land route to North Italy and to the rest of Europe, though the remains of it are not so well known as they deserve to be. A very fine viaduct in particular, in the neighbourhood of Civita Castellana, the ancient Falerii Veteres, is almost entirely unknown. 6. Mr. S. Casson.—Recent Archeological Discoveries in Athens. ‘'hree remarkable bases, one painted, two sculptured, have been discovered, which have furnished information on non-Olympian games not hitherto known. Friday, September 8. 7. Mr. J. Wuarmoveu.—Inscribed Fragments of Stagshorn from North Italy. The accidental find (in November 1912), by a workman, of four pieces of inscribed stagshorn amongst débris which had slipped down into a quarry from the summit of a hill above Magré (near Schio, twenty miles north-west of Vicenza, in one of the valleys leading up to the Brenner Pass), led to excava- tions which revealed evidences of a pre-Roman occupation, with a temple or sanctuary on the hilltop. Nearly a score of other inscribed fragments, also of stagshorn, were discovered, and are now preserved with the first four and the other objects found on the same site in the Museo Nazionale at Este, where I read the inscriptions in March 1922. The character of the other remains serves to date the sanctuary; they are of the same types as those of the fourth Este period. ‘ The alphabet of the inscriptions is almost, though not quite, identical with that of the famous Venetic inscriptions of the Fondo Baratela (Este), and is clearly derived (like the Venetic) from the N. Etruscan alphabet. The language, however, is not Venetic nor Etruscan; it has certain features which suggest that it may be Indo-European. If it is rightly ascribed to ‘ Rhaetic’ (known from inscriptions previously discovered), it would go to show that SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 387 this, too, was perhaps after all Indo-European rather than Etruscan—the speech, that is, of some early west Indo-European people isolated amongst Gauls and Etruscans—another blow to the theory which found the original home of the Etruscan race amongst the Rhaeti. The inscribed horns must be votive offerings, but it is not clear what were the features of the eult. The deity to whom the offerings were made, it has been suggested, was of the Artemis-Diana huntress type. This suggestion would strengthen still further the accumulating evidence of the northern origin of Artemis. 8 Mr. S. Casson.—Recent Haxcavations in Macedonia. 9, Dr. T. Asusy.—Supplementary Excavations at Hal-Tarzien, Malta. The megalithic ruins of Hal-Tarxien, in Malta, have been recently excavated by Professor T. Zammit, and fully described by him in Archwologia.| They consist of a large sanctuary of three different periods, with smaller rooms, probably priests’ dwellings, annexed. Supplementary investigations were carried on under the floors by Dr. Thomas Ashby, at Professor Zammit’s invitation in the spring of 1921, which bore out Professor Zammit’s conclusions as to the relative age of the various portions of the building. In almost every part of the building which belonged to the first or second period an earlier floor was found below that which had previously been cleared, and under both floors a considerable quantity of pottery was found. In one case the removal of the floor (which, as in most cases, was of beaten limestone dust, known locally as torba) led to the discovery of a circular opening in the natural rock, closed by a round slab 2 ft. in diameter. When this was removed a cavity resembling a Benedictine bottle in shape was revealed. It was a little over 5 ft. in height and 3 ft. in diameter, and probably intended for the storage of grain, but only a quarter of an inch of earth was found in it. In the portions of the building belonging to the third period there was, as a rule, no evidence of the existence of any earlier floor. Monday, September 11. 10. Mr. E. K. Trarman.—Ezplorations of Read’s Cavern, near Bur- rington Combe, Somerset. The cave consists of a long rift chamber with offshoots, and lies at the junction of the limestone shales and the ‘Z beds’ of the mountain limestone. The floor consists of a black hearth level 3 in. to 8 in. in depth, and covered, where possible, by « layer of stalagmite 4 in. to 3 in. thick. Below is a layer of clay and boulders, never more than 2 ft. thick, barren of human remains. All the remains, with a few exceptions, have keen found in the hearth level, while the individual hearths are scattered throughout the cave, but one area appears to have been the main occupation area. Human bones are scanty as yet. Animal remains are abundant, and include sheep, pig, ox, horse, dog, and goat, as well as roedeer, wild cat, and wild boar. The artefacts include articles of iron, bronze, bone, and stone and pottery. This last is usually fragmentary, but can be pieced together, and bears the designs typical of the period. The stone implements comprise spind!e whorls and the upper stone of a saddle-backed quern. Needles and weaving imple- ments of bone are found, as well as ‘cheek pieces’ made from antler. The artefacts of bronze include brooches, nave hoops, and rings, while amongst the iron are slave shackles, keys, nails, &c. The only weapons found so far are a spear-head, part of a lance, and, possibly, part of a dagger. Mixvile, L205 Levis coo) eee TO 1922 DD 388 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 11, Mr. J. A. Davirs.—Ezploration of Aveline’s Hole, Burrington Combe, Somerset. The cave is a partially choked rift in the mountain limestone of the Mendips. It was first discovered in 1797, and excavation was carried out by several investigators, but all material discovered was lost. The Speleological Society of the University of Bristol commenced work in the cave in 1919. The floor was removed in layers of 1 ft. and sorted care- fully outside. A depth of 3 ft. has been reached in this manner. The finds include three dolichocephalic human skulls with broad faces, and many other human bones. These are considered to be remains of a modified Cré- Magnon people. The artefacts discovered are many worked flints belonging to a Late Aurig- racian or Karly Tardenoisian industry, several bone implements, and a stag- horn harpoon with six barbs of the period Magdalenian 6 b. (l’Abbé Breuil). Remains of about forty species of animals have been identified up to the present, including reindeer, lemming, brown bear, and lynx. ‘he fauna is typical of the sub-Arctic forest. Below the cave earth containing these animal remains is a deep layer of loess which has yet to be explored. The cave earth and loess apparently represent two phases of the period lying between the Buhl and Geschnitz-Daun glaciations. 12, Miss Nina F. Layvarp.—Prehistoric Cooking-places. The series of permanent prehistoric cooking-places which I am now excavat- ing under the auspices of the Percy Sladen Trust were discovered by me in May 1921 at Buckenham Tofts Park, Norfolk. They consist of thousands of burnt flints reduced to a crackled condition. These flints were apparently used as heaters, for boiling water in vessels that would not stand the fire. They are found a foot or two beneath the sod, and invariably a few yards from a stream. The bones and teeth of animals such as ox or horse, which occur between the heaters and the stream, point to the exact spots where the cooking took place. Hither a wooden trough or a stretched hide would in all probability be the utensil used. This was filled with water, and red-hot flints were then shovelled into the vessel, when the water would soon be brought to the boil. The most important part of the discovery is the presence of numerous flint flakes and definite implements embedded in the burnt flint heaps and strewn around the cooking site. So far these seem to point to the Early Bronze Age. though a few fine specimens of Neolithic implements appear to have been found and used by the later comers. : 13. Rt. Hon. Lord Dunsany.—Worked Flints from the Sahara. 14, Mr. H. W. Seron-Karr.—Some Ancient Implements found in Some Desert Places of North Africa. 15. Joint Discussion with Sections C and E on The Relation of Karly Man to Phases of the Ice Age in Britain. Opener: Mr. H. J. EH. Peaks. Tuesday, September 12. 16. Joint Discussion with Section J on Mental Characters and Race. Opener: Prof. J. L. Myrss. 17, Mr. E. Torpay.—The Mutability of Custom among Congo Tribes. Among the tribes visited in the Belgian Congo remarkable cases of con- servatism have to be recorded, as, for instance, the refusal of some Bushongo SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS. —H. 389 to learn the craft of the potter, or the use of wooden hoes by the Batetela, the neighbours of such famous smiths as the Basonge. On the other hand there is a constant exchange of customs by neighbouring tribes: dress, dwellings, weapons, crafts, laws of inheritance, etc., fall under this heading. A section of the Babunda have abandoned cannibalism, independently from European influence, while the Northern Bambala have recently taken to it. The same people have given up the practice of circumcision. The sporadic appearance of coil baskets among the Baguana, the crossbow (as a toy) among Bambala, and firemaking by the groove method among the Tophoke have to be recorded. In the interest of science, as well as of the reputation of the traveller, it will be necessary to record in the future more carefully than in the past the exact locality of observations. The question arises whether these changes are not contributory to the disintegration of tribes, as among the Bahuana, the Bapende, the Bambala, and others. 18. Dr. W. Mersu Strrona.—Rock Drawings from New Guinea. g Wednesday, September 13. 19. Mr. A. Lesum Armsrronc.—The Maglemose Remains of Holder- ness and their Baltic Counterparts. The occurrence in the Holderness area of East Yorkshire of bone harpoons, and other relics of Maglemose culture, beneath deposits of lacustrine peat, occupying the sites of extinct meres, and associated with an Ancylus fauna, point to the presence there in late Palzolithic times of a people having cultural affinities with the raft-dwellers of Maglemose, in the island of Zeeland and Baltic sites of the Ancylus Lake. No evidence of Maglemose culture has hitherto been forthcoming in Britain, and the Holderness sites appear to repre- sent its most westerly extension. The two harpoons recovered are of excellent workmanship, and preserve in design and detail the Magdalenian tradition more strikingly than is observable in any figured examples from Maglemose. The Baltic counterparts were discussed ; also the theories relative to the racial identity of the Maglemose people. Numerous pit dwellings, assigned by the late Canon Greenwell and by Sir W. Boyd Dawkins to a very early phase of Neolithic culture, have been located in proximity to the sites from which the Maglemose remains have been recovered. Is there any cultural connection between the pit dwellers and the Maglemose people? 20. Mr. W. Cotuincwoop.—Tenth Century Art in the Danelaw. The art of this period and district exists chiefly in stone monuments, of which there are fairly abundant remains. The Danes who invaded Northern and Eastern England had settled down about A.D. 900, adopting much of what they found here. For their monuments they employed such Anglian carvers as survived, and for the first quarter of the century debased traditions of Anglian art were followed. With the establishment of the Viking kingdom of York in connection with Ireland some Celtic motives were brought in, and Danish taste gradually prevailed, creating in the second half of the century the Anglo-Danish style of ornament, seen especially in East Yorkshire. From about 920 Norse from the Irish Sea coasts began to settle Cumberland and to penetrate Lancashire and parts of Yorkshire. They seem to have intro- duced the wheel-head form of cross, with design in their own style, modified by Irish art and suneradded to the Anglian tradition already known in the districts they settled. From this combination of influences many interesting and picturesque works resulted, reaching a high standard in the Gosforth cross and others of the end of the tenth century. 21. Prof. A. Mawer.—Place-Names and Ethnology in the East Riding of Yorkshire. The place-names of the East Riding are almost exclusively English or Scandinavian, and there is very little trace of any Celtic element. In that DD2 390 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H, I. English element we may note the numerous -inghams so characteristic of Eastern England, and the very small number of -wo7rths linking it with Lincolnshire and Norfolk. In this latter it presents a strong contrast with the West Riding, which here shows Southern and Western affinities. This is true also of the leys, but the differences here may in part be due to physical causes. On the Scandinavian side the East Riding stands midway between the other two, but it is difficult to judge the West Riding as a whole. Many of the place-names and certain of their forms show clearly that some common Anglo-Scandinavian speech probably prevailed over the whole area, and right down to the thirteenth century we have evidence of the use of alternative English and Scandinavian forms of the same name. Great care is needed in applying certain of the common tests for the presence of Scandinavian settlers, and certain suffixes present special difficulties—e.g. ing, ham, and thorp. There is a greater proportion of the last-named in the East Riding than anywhere else, except in Lincolnshire and Notts and Leicestershire. Is tliis due to Danish or Anglian influence? These and all problems of the origin and distribution of place-names need to he studied in the light of historical, archeological, and topographical facts, and with the aid of the comparative evidence for at least the whole of England. SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY. (For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the following list of transactions, see p. 409.) Thursday, September 7. 1, De. F. C. Eve.—Life and Energy: an Interpretation. 2. Dr. T. Rircute Ropcer.—The Effect of Loud Noises on the Cocihlea. The results of an investigation undertaken by the author into the deafness of boilermakers are summarised, and these are compared with the findings of German and other observers who have experimented with animals exposed to loud sounds. The contention is that the changes indicated clinically and demonstrated post-mortem support the theory that the cochlea is adapted for the differentiation of sound. 3. Dr. J. EK. Bannen.—The Physiology of the Gastro-Intestinal Tract from the Radiological Aspect. 4. Dr. G. Witxwson.—The Mechanism of the Cochlea, with especial reference to the Inertia of the Contained Fluids. Illustrated by a Demonstration of a Working Model showing the Resonant Vibration of Immersed Strings. 5. Prof. A. V. Hin, F.R.S.—Athletics and Oxygen Supply. Friday, September 8. 6. Presidential Address by Prof. E. P. Carucart, F.R.S., on The Efficiency of Man and the Factors which Influence it. (See p. 164.) 7. Joint Discussion with Section Mon The Vitamins. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—1. 391 (a) Opener: Prof. J. C. DrumMmonp, (b) Capt. Joun Goupina, D.S.0.—An Estimation of the Prac- tical Agricultural Importance of Vitamin A in Feeding Pigs. (c) Dr. A. Semetu.—F urther Studies on the Isolation of the Anti- neuritic Vitamins. By means of a relatively simple process, a stable, semi-solid extract of highly active vitamin has been obtained trom fresh brewer’s yeast. This has been used for fractionation experiments with silver nitrate and ammoniacal silver nitrate as precipitating agents. The distribution of the active vitamin in the several fractions has been followed by means of feeding experiments on pigeons. The activity and general character of the several precipitates have been determined. 8. Prof. W. Storm van Leeuwen.—Hzperimental Studies on Hyper- sensitiveness. The action of drugs on isolated organs in Tyrode Solution is an instance of hypersensitiveness, since the drugs are not infibited by blood constituents. Drug action can be augmented by substances which have no stimulating action per se. These principles suffice to explain hypersensitiveness to drugs in man. (a) Blood of cases of hypersensitiveness to aspirine shows diminished fixation of aspirine. (6) Aspirine, uric acid, oleic acid, and similar substances augment drug action. (c) Aspirine heightens sensitiveness of guinea-pigs to anaphylactic shock. Conclusion :—Hypersensitiveness to drugs is due to (a) lack of fixing power of blood for the drug; (0) augmentor action in allergic reactions. This explains why the symptoms of hypersensitiveness to different drugs show little differentiation. 9. Prof. W. Srorm van LeEuwEen.—A Contribution to the Cause and Treatment of Bronchial Asthma, Hay Fever, and Allied Conditions. In asthma, hay-fever, and allied conditions an allergic disposition exists with following characteristics :— (2) Skin reactions with several proteins; hypersensitiveness to one protein is exceptional (no hypersensitiveness of skin to various sera, casein, peptone, histamine; (b) ‘crise colloidoclasique’; (c) blood extracts contain poison stimulating smooth musculature (relation with uric acid metabolism) ; (ad) hypersensitiveness to tuberculin (relation between a and 4d). Treatment—Specific treatment often impossible. The author’s treatment :— (a) tuberculin in low doses; () regulation of diet. In addition to that, specific treatment peptonetherapy (Auld) vaccine, etc. Author’s results : 52 per cent. cured, 38 per cent. improved, 10 per cent. failures. 10. Mr. J. Barcrorr, F.R.S.—Lecture on The Recent Expedition to the Andes for the Study of the Physiology of High Altitudes. Monday, September 11. 11. Joint Discussion with Section A on Physical Instruments for _ Biological Purposes. (See p. 353.) 12. Dr. F. W. Epripce-Green, C.B.E.—Colour-Vision Theories in Relation to Colour-Blindness. Whilst many colour-vision theories explain equally well the facts of colour- mixing, none of the former theories will explain the facts of colour-blindness. 392 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—1, J. The facts of colour-blindness are totally opposed to any theory which assumed elementary sensations of which the other colour sensations are compounded. A theory of colour vision should explain how 50 per cent. of dangerously colour- blind can pass the wool test, the varying size of the monochromatic divisions in the spectrum with different degrees of colour perception, why the trichromic mark out about half the normal number of monochromatic divisions in the spectrum, designate yellow as red-green, and have an increased simultaneous colour contrast? When there are three definite colour sensations how can colour- blindness be explained? When a colour-blind person is tested by making him match a white with a mixture of red, green, and violet, he may put too much red in the mixture, and then too much green, and also agree with the normal match; he may only agree with the normal match when the comparison white light is increased in some cases and in others diminished in intensity. Cases of shortening of the red end of the spectrum without defective colour discrimina- tion require to be explained. A man may also make an anomalous equation, putting too much green or too much red in the mixture, without any evidence of colour-blindness. 13. Dr. F. W. Eprivce-Green, C.B.E.—The Necessity for a Standard of White. On account of the varying physical character of white light, even of daylight, which varies at different times of the day, and still more with light from artificial sources, any record for physiological purposes should contain a reference to the source of white light, which should be used for purposes of comparison and which can be reproduced by another observer. Very misleading results are obtained by the omission of a comparison light. For instance, the table of complementary colours given by Helmholtz was made without any comparison white light ; his table does not agree with that of other observers. Tuesday, September 12. 14, Dr. P..M. Totmtz.—The Cytology of the Blood and the Source, Development and Function of Some of the Corpuscles. 15. Dr. J. H. Burn.—The Physiology of Sweating. After denervation of the limb of a cat, in which either the whole nerve supply or the sympathetic fibres only are involved, changes taking place in the response of the sweat glands to pilocarpine are accompanied by parallel changes taking place in the dilatation of the limb in response to histamine injected intravenously. The suggestion arising is that the activity of the sweat glands, when stimulated by pilocarpine. depends on the local capillary tone, a tone independent of the arterial tone in the limb, and that the maintenance of this tone is dependent amongst other things on the integrity of the sensory nerves. 16, Prof. W. D. Hauuisurron, F.R.S.—Lecture on Our Bones and Teeth. SECTION J.—PSYCHOLOGY. (For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the following list of transactions, see pp. 409-10.) Thursday, September 7. 1. Dr. C. S. Myers.—Industrial Psychology and the Efficiency Engineer. ——_— - pea ng bl ~~ —— SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—4J. 393 2. Dr. G. H. Mies.—Applications of Psychology to Breakage Problems in Industry. 3. Mr. J. Seesoum Rowntree, Jr.—Practical Applications of Vocational Tests. 4, Mr. Eric Farmer.—The Value of Output Curves as Measures of Fatigue. 5. Dr. C. H. Norrucorr.—tInstincts and Society. This paper was a denial of the stress laid upon instincts as basic in the explanation of social action, and an endeavour to set out the factors involved in the psychology of society. If the problem of sociology is held to be the explanation of collective behaviour, the doctrine of instincts affords grounds for postulating a consider- able degree of uniformity of nature and response. But what other contribution can it make? Treated genetically, collective behaviour is a product of inter-stimulation between beings alike in kind, to whom companionship, toleration, and co-opera- tion are relatively easy and agreeable. Common danger or common opportunity calls forth similar behaviour, which, becoming the subject of agreement, leads to customs and collective decisions. These in their turn e¥ercise social pressure and social control, regulating the exercise of the instinctive reactions of indi- viduals. A fuller psychological analysis robs instincts of their prestige as explanations of collective behaviour, and gives a larger place to customs, habits, institutions, and social organisation. 6. Miss May Couuins.—Ezperiments on Colour-Blindness. 7. Dr. Lu. Wyxn Jones.—The Technique of Group Testing. Friday, September 8. Mr. H. Bryns.—Industry and Education. 9. Joint Discussion with Section L on Psychoanalysis and the School. (See p. 403.) 10. Mr. W. Wuareny-Smiru.—Entia preter Necessitatem. .. . 11. Prof. T. H. Prear.—The Acquisition of Skill in Reference to Training in Industry. 12. Dr. P. Sarceant Fuorence and Dr. A. H. Ryan.—Spoilt Work m Relation to Hours of Labour. Monday, September 11. 13. Dr. G. Aupen and Mr. C. Burr.—Discussion on Moral Imbecility. 14, Dr. Writi1am Brown.—Auto-Suggestion and the Will. B94 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J, K. 15. Presidential Address by Dr. C. S. Myers, F.R.S., on The Influence of the late W. H. R. Rivers on the Development of Psychology in Great Brita. (See p. 179.) 16. Dr. C. W. Kimmins.—The Sense of Visual Humour in Children. McDougall’s new theory of laughter—A comparison of the results obtained by investigations of verbal and visual humour—What sights children laugh at most at different ages—Results of analyses of children’s records—The effect of rapid physical growth on the sense of humour—The difference in the sense of visual humour in boys and girls under varying conditions at the same age— The important part played in visual humour by the feeling of superiority—The theories of laughter of Bergson, Freud, Boris Sidis, Sully, and McDougall. Tuesday, September 12. 17: Joint Discussion with Section H on Mental Characters and Race. Opener: Prof. J. L. Myrss. 18. Dr. F. C. SuHrvussaty.—What is Mental Deficiency ? 19. Dr. G. A. Aupen.—Types of Mental Deficiency. SECTION K.—BOTANY.. (For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the following list of transactions, see p. 410.) Thursday, September 7. 1, Dr. W. H. Pearsauu and Prof. J. H. Prrestitey.—Leaf Growth. Leaf growth is considered from the point of view of form variations in given types of leaves. Since the latter, in any species, appear to be largely due to external factors, a starting point is presented for the consideration of the internal mechanism affecting leaf form. Two main internal factors are recog- nised : (1) hydrostatic pressure, (2) the permeability of the cell walls in the meristematic tissues. Leaf growth ceases, or is much restricted, by negative hydrostatic pressures, and may be increased by positive pressures. Daily and seasonal variations in growth-rate agree with this fact, also the variations in the size and form of leaves produced under experimental conditions. Other modifications of leaf shape under diverse light conditions appear to be due to alterations in permeability cf the walls of the meristematic cells. The supply of nutrient solution to the growing points is affected not only by these two factors, but is also a resultant of the position of the growing points in relation to vascular supply. 2. Dr. I. Soar.—The Structure of the Endodermis in Some Gymno- sperm Leaves. The leaves of some Gymnosperms, and especially those of the Abietinex, show a well-marked endodermis, the cell walls of which are usually thickened. Where modification of the endodermal wall occurs, the radial walls are suberised and pitted, whereas the transverse walls are unpitted. In both cases the suberin is deposited as a surface layer on either side of a lignocellulose core. he nature of the tangential walls varies; they are frequently lignified and a ee ————————————————— LCC Ce SECTIONAL’ TRANSACTIONS.—K. 395 suberised with pits in the suberised membrane. In some cases these walls, especially the inner tangential ones, consist of cellulose. The suberisation and lignification of the radial walls renders the endodermis relatively impervious to the passage of water through the walls alone. Thus the transpiration current must flow largely through the endodermal cell, and it is probable that the protoplasm exerts some control over the rate of flow. 3. Presidential Address by Prof. H. H. Dixon, F.R.S., on The Transport of Organic Substances in Plants. (See p. 193.) 4, Joint Discussion with Section B on Photosynthesis. (2) Dr. F. F. Buackxman, F.R.S.—The Biochemical Problems of Chloroplastic Photosynthesis. 1. The active system of the living cell and its catalytic components. The chlorophyll pigment component : its quantity and surface : Willstatter’s chloro- phyll numbers. The protoplasmic component; its possible enzymatic nature. Cases of lack of co-ordination between the two components. 2. ‘he chemical reactions of reduction and condensation. The spontaneous and catalysed metamorphosis of CO, to substances of high anabolic potential. 3. The energetics of these reactions: the problem of evaluation of energy absorbed by chlorophyll in relation to chemical and physical work done : com- parative efficiency of incident energy of different wave-lengths. 4. Factors controlling the magnitude of photosynthesis ; quantity of incident energy and of incident CO. Relation to accumulation of products and to toxic effects. The temperature coefficient of the reaction. 5. The case of the chemosynthetic micro-organisms carrying out reduction of COz, in absence of ‘ light’-energy, by the oxidation of nitrogen, sulphur, or hydrogen. ‘The energy-balance of these processes. (b) Professor EK. C. C. Baty, C.B.E., F.R.S.—Photosynthesis. In every chemical reaction it is necessary to supply energy to the molecules in order to cause them to react. In some cases this energy change is effected by the solvent, but in other cases the increment of energy required is far too large to be realised in this manner. This latter condition always obtains in highly endothermic reactions, and it is often necessary to supply the energy in the form of light, when the resulting process is called a photochemical one. The most interesting of all reactions is the photochemical conversion of carbonic acid into formaldehyde, since this not only marks the first step in the formation of sugars, starches, and celluloses, but it also plays a fundamental réle in the synthesis of the nitrogen products of plant life. This reaction, indeed, forms the true key industry of all life. ; In order to enable this reaction directly to take place, considerable energy is required so as to bring the carbonic acid molecule into the reactive form, and this is secured when the molecule is exposed to light of very short wave- length. It has been found, however, that in the presence of a coloured sub- stance of basic properties the reaction takes place in visible light. There is little doubt that in the plant the reaction takes place in three stages : 1. Chlorophyll A+H,COs; + light — Chlorophyll B+formaldehyde. 2. Chlorophyll B+ Carotin = Chlorophyll A+ Xanthophyll. 3. Xanthophyll+ light =Carotin+ Oxygen. The formaldehyde when freshly synthesised is endowed with an extra- ordinary. reactivity, which is best expressed by the formula CHOH. In the presence of potassium nitrite, which is known to exist in the growing leaf, combination at once occurs to give formhydroxamic acid. This substance reacts with more of the formaldehyde to give on the one hand a-amino acids, and on the other, nitrogen bases, such as glyoxaline, pyridine, pyrrole, quinoline, and indole. These substances are also produced in highly reactive forms, so that combination at once ensues to give substituted amino acids, which then condense to give proteins. The nitrogen bases which do not condense with the amino acids undergo further condensation to give alkaloids. 396 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. The excess of the photosynthesised formaldehyde beyond that used in these reactions undergoes polymerisation to hexoses, and these in their turn give sucrose, starches, and celluloses. All the complex compounds are the natural and inevitable results of the photosynthesis of formaldehyde in the presence of small quantities of potassium nitrite. (c) Mr. G. E. Briaas.—The Efficiency of the Photosynthetic Mechanism of Green Plants for Different Wave-lengths of Incident Radiation. The desideratum is to know what fraction of the radiant energy absorbed by the photosynthetic pigment or pigments is utilised in the conversion of carbon dioxide into the primary product of photosynthesis, and the relation between this fraction and the wave-length of the incident radiation. The problem resolves itself into deciding, firstly, which of the pigments plays a direct part in the photosynthetic process; secondly, what portion of the radiant energy absorbed by the photosynthetic organ is absorbed by the par- ticular pigment or pigments; and, finally, what portion of the incident energy is used for the conversion of the carbon dioxide. (d) Prof. I. M. Heipron and Dr. C. Houtnms.—Some Specu- lations on the Phyto-synthesis of Plant Products. As hexose sugars have been proved to be the sole products of the photo- synthesis of the nitrogen-free compounds in the green leaf, the formation of the innumerable other substances commonly met with in the plant must neces- sarily be produced at some later stage, which is probably closely connected with respiratory action. An examination of the constitution of plant compounds immediately brings to light the fact that the predominant carbon nuclei in these are simple multiples of a Cs unit. Thus the terpenes are C;x2, the sesquiterpenes C;x3, which multiple also includes the flavone, flavonol, and anthocyan pigments. Phytol, C2oHs,0H, the alcoholic constituent of the chlorophyll molecule, is Cs x 4, while the closely related pigments carotin, CaoHs_. and xanthophyll, CapH5.602, are based on C; x 8. It is suggested as a plausible hypothesis that the C,; unit is formed by oxidation of @-hydroxy methyl furfuraldehyde, which is derived from the primarily synthesised hexose by loss of water. If the possibility of the production of furane derivatives in this way be admitted, then the conversion of these into pyrroles by means of ammonia or methylamine could readily take place by perfectly straightforward reactions. (e) Dr. F. C. Evr.—Photosynthesis from the Energy Aspect. Friday, September 8. 5. Prof. J. McLean Tuompson.—The Meaning and Evolution of Some Floral Characters. The origin, meaning, and modification of systematic characters claim intensive study. The structural expressions of such characters demand developmental inquiry linked with exact knowledge of the chemistry of the cell. In the present communication certain structural aspects of the origin and development of floral characters were discussed. The origin and meaning of the characters themselves are subjects of speculation. The aim in view is to point to the need of study of the changing cell-chemistry from the initiation of a systematic character to its establishment. It is held that by such study a knowledge of evolution may be materially advanced. 6. Mr. J. Watton.—The Physiological Anatomy of the Fossil Genus Rhexoxylon compared with that of some modern Lianes. The genus Rhexoxylon (Bancroft) shows features in the distribution and histology of its xylem analogous to some which appear in modern lianes, in particular to certain members of the Malpighiacee. Rhexoxylon occurs in beds of the Stormberg series of South Africa, -and the name Antarcticoxylon (Seward) of a fossil stem from the Beacon Sandstone, §. Victoria Land, must be regarded [BRITISH ASSOCIATION REPORT, 1922. Addendum, p. 396. The following should be added to the Discussion on Photosynthesis : (f) Prof. M. C. Porrrr.— Photosynthesis: Electric Energy. In addition to the calories set free during the fermentation of sucrose and glucose by yeast, there is also a liberation of E.M.F. of approximately .3 volts to .5 volts... Thus the equations should express this E.M.F. as well as the difference of calories : Cy2H 20}; + H,O = 4C,H;,OH + 4CO,. 1352.7 cal. 4 (325.7) cal. The equation should therefore read : Cy2H 20); + H,0 => 4C,H.OH + 4CO, + 49.9 cal. + Do (E.M.F.), where x is a constant at present undetermined, but .3 volts are obtained during the fermentation. A similar phenomenon necessarily enters into enzyme action : Sucrose Dextrose Laevulcse CioH20y + HO = CgHy.0, + CeHi20g. 1352.7 cal. 673.7 cal. 675.9 cal. During this reaction .03 volts are obtained, and the equation should be expressed : Cy2H 90), + H,0 = CgHy20¢ + CgH20¢ + 3.1 cal. + x (E.M.F.). The amount of electricity has not at present been determined, but it would appear to bear some definite relation to the calories. It may be suggested that as the atom is built up of electrons and protons, so must these also form part of the structure of the molecule. This E.M.F. therefore expresses the difference between the electrons and protons in the various molecules, just as the calories express the difference between their heats of combustion. It may be noted that the action of the enzyme is from a higher potential to a lower one, and that during the reaction energy is liberated. For an enzyme to act synthetically energy must be supplied for the work performed, and hence it is improbable that synthetic enzymes exist. The view is put forward that electrons and protons form an integral part of the carbohydrate, and are required during the synthesis of these bodies (and all intermediate ones), and that they may be found to be a limiting factor in photosynthesis; and further, that there may be endo-electric and ex-electric reactions analogous to the endothermic and exothermic reactions. 1 Proc. Roy. Soc., B, vel. 84, 1911. r ep eM ’ : i ‘ ey nif , t : Na iat ray, F i. 7 poner’ i Cope habarda Labieey pas aaie, TH "? i , oe nel — eure ;, al Baisieny Ade NTA ROS OT bobbe ad rhode ree oil fang’ Ber ynosa Height sear ftid) i te Poe ta z wyvaira msrtigpht YO aiab Amy spied meaner Dis aly Se Deeb, eeoreirips hin pavesseone rf, abe et Ui aeri De PTY acikdaly on De ’ ¥ nile Bo vlataminoriyy to. 7 ode stoldayadily i oale, 4: quent a Wabd ithes Magtiee abe EM AD vid Sia plating lca Ok ened Hy Ba j i) 2 Bae - (Goes ac ois ORG pS . . dacs OSBSE) ak cpt 80 SORT: biowel ‘phan aro barat bfnoda CL PRN) hes Vin One pe OOk. 3 He OD Ch i gt f gitinash houtatdy tel oa tt: Vigil. cLeaeniiens debra Phen veep le hontai if fe) hah Fy vi i, ee “worse garrsivs ory ee een Hohe diag ty 5 af iar? aantn vom west ornare ‘A etd ‘ Ogata! ae Ate AE + a Ohh, + Vaated § Rival 4 ‘bug ITs Jat NOVO 10) hea TRE hes h hae: as wy) out tsiita dostbape ‘oid Etta fe ntnlde o's allay ‘e), ‘aa = CAM) af to Ta 4: ntti) + sy Flgid ea Ovi 2: Wak Glew ti isd” hilniavntioty’ rind Sik: Yh gant” rail eee ae pas 5 a quldaten Gr i vial J pny hire aganivale,. 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Se? ak ee ee i oe cP , via ® ]e-Ai4 Mie | {ities Niece ) ah ‘ Peers Sp OR GOR “Ape y avg elon but al Lon Se EE Le | Ty 4B + wy HRY . ake Pal a, he ad ‘ SEF ee ie Or U8 ae yey BS ite, sung’ NY NR Altre “Cape IRB SE yin ‘ave ea eR gy SECTIONAL 'TRANSACTIONS.—K. 397 as a synonym. This affords evidence for supposing that the Beacon Sandstone is of an Upper Triassic or Rhetic horizon. 7. Dr. H. S. Houpen and Miss Dororuy Brexon.—On the Seedling Structure of Acer pseudoplalanus. The embryo of the sycamore, at the time the fruits are shed, consists entirely of parenchyma, the vascular structures being represented by desmogen strands. It contains abundant food reserves, consisting of : (a) starch, which is uniformly distributed through the tissues, (6) proteins, of which there are at least two, existing in colloidal solution. In spring the protoxylem and first metaxylem elements are differentiated prior to germination. Hach cotyledon is traversed by a midrib, with a stout lateral and a smaller marginal bundle on either side. At the base of the cotyledon the metaxylem of the midrib separates into lateral groups, which anite with the converging laterals and marginals, so that four massive bundles in the diagonal position enter the hypocotyl with isolated protoxylems in the cotyledonary plane. These ultimately give rise to a tetrarch root. The histology of the xylem in the hypocotyl and young epicotyl shows that the component elements exhibit a relatively wide variation in type of pitting and other characters which may provide phyletic data. 8. Miss 'T. L. Prankerp and Miss F. M. O. Waicut.—On the Pre- sentation Time and Latent Time for Reaction to Gravity in -Pleridophytes. The object of the present work is to express quantitatively some of the facts of irritability already described for fern fronds (P.2.S., B., 93, 1922). An attempt has already been made to measure the intensity of gravitational irritability in the fronds of Asplenium bulbiferum by finding the presentation time, which is shown to vary greatly with the age of the frond, the temperature, and possibly with some other factors. At 20° C. the range for presentation time is at least 8 hours—}4 hour, and for the corresponding latent period 16—4 hours, the latter thus bearing an increasing ratio to the former. i Effect of temperature on presentation and latent time. Connection with growth and nutation. Comparison of results with those obtained for other plants. 9. Dr. W. L. Batus.—The Growth Structure of a Cell-Wall. Published observations on the structure of the epidermal seed hairs of the cotton plant have shown that the secondary celluiose of the wall may consist of a number of concentric growth-rings, deposited centripetally, one each day ; further, that through these growth-rings runs a radial structure, or even two such structures, visible to some extent in the natural state, but more clearly defined after appropriate treatment. Thus, each growth-ring consists of a number of spiral fibrils, the direction of the spirals frequently reversing. The primary spiral pattern for any one hair appears to be laid down in the primary wall during growth in length, and thereby to pre-determine the same pattern for all the succeeding growth-rings of the secondary wall. Incidental observations suggest that this kind of structure is not peculiar to cotton. Various points of interest arise with respect to the composition of cellulose, the mechanism of growth, inhibiting factors, the development of form, and a possible geometric structure in the cell. Generally, the observa- _ tions suggest that it may be practicable to attack growth problems from the sub-microscopic side. 10. Prof. A. H. Reainatp Buiter.—The Organisation of the Hymenium of the Common Mushroom and its Allies for the Production and Liberation of Spores. The author, using a new method of investigation, has succeeded in elucidating the time and space relations of the elements making up the hymenium in the common mushroom and its allies. : The gills of Psalliota campestris are finely mottled, and the mottling is of _ the same nature as that of Pancolus campanulatus. The basidia of the darker 398 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. hymenial patches bear pigmented spores, while those of the lighter patches do not. The hymenium of Psalliota campestris consists of basidia and paraphyses. The paraphyses are permanently sterile elements. The basidia on any one small portion of the hymenium can be classified as past-generation basidia, present-generation basidia, coming-generation basidia, and future-generation basidia. 11. Dr. Matcoum Wiuson.—The Cytology and Life-history of Tubur- cinia. The two British species of Z'uburcinia show considerable differences. In 7. primulicola the mycelium, which is perennial in the rootstock, pene- trates the entire plant, and produces conidia on the stamens. These conidia may be distributed, along with the pollen, by insects. They are unicellular and often conjugate in pairs, the united conidia then giving rise to a secondary conidium which may grow out into a germ-tube. Chlamydospores are found between the ovules in flowers which previously produced conidia. The chlamydo- spore masses germinate as soon as free, each spore producing a germ-tube which bears a whorl of 3-5 primary sporidia. These occasionally conjugate in pairs, but generally each produces a secondary sporidium without conjugation. In 7. Trientalis certain infected rhizomes produce shoots which bear stalked conidia on the under surface of the leaves. These conidia may form secondary conidia without conjugation. The plants bearing conidia also produce chlamydospores in the cortex and pith of the stem. These germinate in the late autumn, each spore producing a germ-tube which bears a whorl of 8 primary sporidia. Conjugation takes place regularly between the primary sporidia; secondary sporidia are produced, and these on germination may bring about the infection of the rhizomes. In 7. primulicola the cells of the perennial mycelium are generally uninu- cleate. The conidia are uninucleate, and during conjugation a nucleus passes from one conidium into the other. The secondary conidia are binucleate. These presumably give rise to the mycelia consisting of binucleate cells. There is a nuclear fusion in the young chlamydospore, the mature spore being uninucleate. — The primary sporidia are generally binucleate, occasionally uninucleate. The — secondary sporidia are sometimes binucleate, sometimes uninucleate. In 7. Trientalis the mycelium present in the host plant consists of binucleate cells. It has been impossible yet to determine the nuclear condition of the chlamydospores and sporidia. It may be concluded that in 7’. primulicola the conjugate nuclear condition is brought about during the conjugation of the conidia. In 7’. T'rientalis it is suggested that the conjugate condition is produced at the fusion of the sporidia. 12, Miss K. B. Buacksurn and Dr. H. Harrison.—The Meiotic — Phase in the Salicacee. | The cytological behaviour in the Salicacee is not in any way comparable © with that of the genus Rosa; the majority of the species of both genera show perfect reduction divisions. When, however, this fails, as, for example, in Salix fragilis, the phenomena observed resemble the conditions seen in the hybrid Oporabie. The fundamental chromosome number in both Salix and Populus is 19, although many species of Salix are tetraploid, and at least one is hexaploid. Somewhat unexpectedly, in the homogeneous Capree group the species do not agree as to the haploid number of chromosomes, S. aurita and S. cinerea being characterised by 38 and S. Caprea, in the main, by 19. 4 Compound chromosomes occur both in Salix and Populus, and some evidence - exists of the presence of an unequal chromosome pair in the male plants. A metamorphosans variety of S. Caprea was examined, and displayed the number of chromosomes proper to the species. 13. Mr. W.C. F. Newron.—Somatie Chromosomes. The somatic divisions have been studied in several Spermatophyta, and the pairing of the allelomorphs and the longitudinal fission of the chromosomes differentiated. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 399 Monday, September 11. 14, Joint Discussion with Section D on The Present Position of Darwinism. (a) Dr. J. C. Wiuuis, F.R.S.—The Inadequacy of the Theory of Natural Selection as an Explanation of the Facts of Geographical Distribution and Evolution, Darwin’s immortal service to science consists in the permanent establishment of the doctrine of evolution. This he effected by devising the simple and beautiful mechanism of natural selection of infinitesimal variations—the principle usually known under the name of Darwinism. This doctrine makes several assumpticns : among others, that variation re- sulting in evolution is (1) continuous, (2) hereditary, (3) differentiating, (4) selected, and (5) that the necessary variations appear. For all of these the proof is as yet insufficient. Work carried on during the last thirty years has finally led to the demon- stration that the phenomena both of evolution and of geographical distribution may be represented by hollow curves, which are always of the same type, which are closely parallel in both plants and animals, and which may be found in thousands of cases. Taken in averages of tens of allied forms, area occupied goes with age of species and with size of genera. In other words, size and area show the same phenomena, both increasing with age. Natural selection, a differentiating cause, could not produce such uniformity of expression. Evolution would appear to have unfolded itself with time upon a dominant plan, natural selection simply acting as an agent destroying the unfavourable (and probably many other) variations. (b) Mr. G. Upny Yue, F.R.S.—A Mathematical Conception of Evolution based on the Theory of Age, Size, and Space. If, comparing allied groups, the more widespread species are on the whole the older, and the iarger genera on the whole the most widespread, it follows that the size of the genus must on the whole be an index of its age. This suggests that species may be regarded as thrown by the genus much as offspring are thrown by a stock, and that the number of species originating from a given initial species will increase in geometric ratio with the time. The forms of frequency distribution for numbers of genera with given numbers of species to which this conception leads are shown to be in accordance with the facts, and the possibility is suggested of determining from such distributions the ratio between the rates of increase of genera and species and the age of the family in terms of the doubling period for species. (c) Mr. C. Tate Reaan, F.R.S. (d) Prof. W. JoHannsEN. (e) Mr. J. T. Cunnincuam.—Origin of Species and Origin of Adaptutions. Darwin’s theory of Natural Selection is based on the assumption that the species and its diagnostic characters, either visible or invisible, are adapted to some special habits or conditions peculiar to each species; in other words that the characters, or the successive steps in the evolution of characters, have been selected. Evidence in the vast majority of cases is against this assumption and in favour of the conclusion that diagnostic characters have nothing to do with adaptation. It is now known that many species spontaneously give off mutations, and that those are not due to influence of conditions in experiment or cultiva- tion. They occur in Nature, and some of them may be incapable of survival in Nature, but this does not imply that those which can survive are due to selection. _ So far I am in agreement with Mr. Udny Yule and Dr. Willis. But I do not _ understand what is meant by the statement that the area occupied goes with age _ of species. How are we to know which species is the older? It may be legitimate to infer age from area occupied, but not to assume age except from morphological evidence. Man is cosmopolitan in distribution and is one of the 400 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. newest species (or genera). All these questions have nothing to do with adapta- tion. Adaptation is not the same as utility. There may be characters which are useful in reference to certain conditions of life whose origin was independent of those conditions. But it is more important to consider cases in which structures have been changed to perform new and essential functions in relation to changed conditions, e.g. respiratory organs in embryos, larve and adults, or mammary glauds. In most cases these organs show recapitulation which is not (with a few special exceptions) exhibited by mutations. The modern discoveries con- cerning hormones or internal secretions show how such modifications with recapitulation may have been produced by stimuli and functional exercise. (f) Dr. H. Waaes, F.B.S. 15, Prof. J. H. Priesttey.—The Endodermis: A Study in Causal Anatomy. In the angiosperm root primary, secondary and tertiary stages succeed one another during the development of the endodermis. The development of the primary endodermis behind the root growing-point appears to be causally connected with (1) the fat metabolism of the apical meristem, (2) the changes proceeding in the membranes of the meristematic cells, (3) the diffusion of substances from the differentiating phloem. The appearance of the secondary endodermis in the root is to a certain extent under experimental control. In the angiosperm stem a primary endodermis is usually present in under- ground rhizomes, submerged water-plants, and in etiolated shoots, but it may be replaced by a starch sheath. The relation of the starch sheath to the primary endodermis is considered. The appearance of a secondary endodermis in the stem is not necessarily preceded by any primary stage. The conditions under which the secondary endodermis appears in the stem are reviewed with special reference to Rubus deus, L., and Camellia japonica, L. 16, Dr. W. Ropinson and Mr. H. Watxpen.—Critical Observations on Crown Gall in Chrysanthemum frutescens. The work of Erwin Smith and others regarding Bactertwm tumefaciens as the cause of crown gall is confirmed. Smith assumes, but does not claim to have directly demonstrated, that the bacteria are present in the tumour cells. From the present work it is concluded that B. tumefaciens is always present in large numbers on the external surface, and sometimes on internal surfaces of galls. We have further failed entirely to demonstrate the bacteria within the tumour cells. All the effects are consistent with the action of increasing numbers of B. tumefaciens, at first from the wounded surface, later from the gall surface, from interstices of this or from internal surfaces. Smith’s work on secondary tumours and tumour strands has been critically repeated, galls similar in all respects and similarly distributed to the primary and secondary galls figured by Smith having been obtained. Most, if not all, of the secondary galls and tumour strands can be explained by the expansion during rapid growth of meristematic tissues in the vicinity of the inoculated wound rather than by the intrusive growth of tumour tissue in Smith’s sense. The similarities in this respect between crown gall and malignant tumours are more apparent than real. 17, Prof. R. Ruaaues Garres.—Size-Inheritance in Plants and Animals. It has been customary to interpret size-inheritance in terms of several cumulative Mendelian factors. This method has been loosely used. Increased variability in the F2, compared with the F, has been regarded as sufficient evidence for the view cf multiple size-factors in inheritance. It has recently been shown, however, that in animal hybrids certain non-inherited characters exhibit greater variability in F, than in F;. It may also be necessary to distinguish between general size-inheritance and the size of repeated parts, such as flowers on a plant. In crosses between (nothera rubricalyx with large flowers, and O. biennis (small flowers), the hybrids have been studied for five generations. The Fy SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 401 - was uniform and intermediate. In later generations erratic segregation was obtained, with different sizes of flowers on the same plant. and frequently different iengths of petal in the same fiower. Since the behaviour is not Mendelian it may be due to the distribution of cytoplasmic differences. 18. Professor Dame Henten Gwynne-Vauauan, D.B.E.—Popular Lecture on Moulds. Tuesday, September 12. 19. Rt. Hon. Lord Lovar, K.T.—The Position of British Forestry To-day. (i) Lack of a forestry conscience in Great Britain. Reasons why there is no well-informed public opinion on the subject of forestry :— (a) Absence of State forests. (6) Absence of communal forests. (c) Forestry no part of the life of the nation. (d@) Forestry in the past a private hobby of rich men and enthusiasts. (e) Absence of authoritative data on such subjects as yield tables, commercial returns, costing, &c. Comparison with other European countries in these respects. ' (ii) State forestry—its advantages and disadvantages. The importance of the rdle played by private forestry. Its strong and weak points. (iii) Difficulties which beset the path of progress :— (a) In private afforestation :— 1. Initial cost of establishing plantations. 2. Taxation. 3. Transport. 4. Legislation. 5. Markets. (6) In State forestry :-— 1. The importance of a settled State forestry policy. 2. The review cf the departure from the policy laid down by the Acland Committee in 1917. 3. A summary of difficulties inherent in any new State enterprise. (iv) Why ordered progress must be uncertain until the nation has a better grasp of forestry values, based on more exact knowledge :— (a) Of the requirements of the nation for soft woods in peace and in war. (6) Of the position of supplies of soft woods at home and abroad. (v) An outline of possible future development. 20. Dr. A. W. Bortuwick.—F arm Forestry. The object of this paper was to call attention to the neglect in this country to turn to greater advantages, both direct and indirect, what in the aggregate amounts to a large area of land regarded as waste places, scattered about on farms, even in the most arable districts, such as banks, knolls, precipitous declivities, hollows, marshy places, &c. Trees will grow in such places, and produce fencing material and many other timber requirements of the farm. They wili grow where no other crops will grow. They encourage the growth of other crops on adjacent lands by the shelter they afford. They effect an ameliorating influence on the local climate, and stock of all kinds thrive better on farms with properly located plantations in the form of shelter belts, clumps, and roundels. Attention was also called to the injudicious practice of over- crowding hedgerows and roadsides with timber trees as well as the toleration of single trees in arable fields. 21. Professor A. Henry.—The Cultivation of Poplars. The history of the various species and hybrids of poplars suitable for cultivation on a commercial scale. Their silvicultural peculiarities. Tn the afternoon Skipwith and Riccal Commons were visited. 402 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. Wednesday, September 13. 22, Dr. W. R. G. Arxtns.—Some Physical and Chemical Factors which affect Plant Distribution. In addition to temperature, moisture content, and intensity of illumination, the salt and hydrogen-ion concentrations of the situation appear to be im- portant in determining distribution. This becomes clear when observations are made on the soil supporting the same species in different localities. The soil reaction may have a direct influence on the protoplasm of the roots, or it may act indirectly by altering the flocculation, and consequently the aération, of the soil. It also affects the solubility of phosphates, iron salts, &c., causing certain plants to become chlorotic so that they are crowded out under natural conditions. Titrations of chloride, measurements of density, electrical con- ductivity, freezing-point, and possibly of the critical solution-point with phenol, of natural waters and soil extracts, may serve to map out the salinity of various plant habitats. 23, Prof. J. H. Primsruey and Dr. J. Ewirna.—Htiolation. Plants show different types of growth reaction when grown continuously in darkness. Attention is here restricted to the reaction exemplified by Vicia aba, L., Pisum sativum, L., &e. The structural modifications produced in these plants are consistent with the assumption that the meristem membranes, when the stem is growing in darkness, remain relatively impermeable to the supply of nutrient sap diffusing from the vascular bundles. The relative impermeability of these membranes is also shown to be in accordance with experimental and micro-chemical data. The presence cf a functional primary endodermis in the stems of these etiolated plants in regions where it is missing from the normal stem grown in the light is recorded, and the significance of this emphasised in relation to other structural features characteristic of etiolation. In the upper region of these etiolated stems the primary endodermis is re- placed by a starch sheath, and at the same time the rounded outline of the stem in cross-section changes, and it becomes angular, as in the stem grown in the light. 24, Miss Marcery Knicut.—Nuclear Changes in Relation to Different Methods of Reproduction in the Ectocarpacee. The Ectocarpacee show great variation in the origin and development of motile reproductive cells. At different times and under different conditions one individual plant produces sexual, asexual, and neutral swarm-spores. These ~ bodies show great variety in constitution, size, and behaviour. An inquiry into the nuclear structures accompanying these variations shows that in the life- cycle there is no rigidity of nuclear mechanism. The results of investigation demonstrate the extent to which cytological changes may be influenced by — certain environmental factors. 25. Prof. J. C. Scuours.—The Foliar Origin of the Internal Stelar 4 Structure of the Marattiacee. 26. Miss Vioter M. Gruss.—Notes on the Reproduction of certain members of the Rhodophycee. (a) Porphyra vulgaris, Ag. Material gathered so far offers no decisive evidence of the presence of — asexual spores in this species, as stated by Berthold, but the disputed fact of © sexual reproduction is confirmed. An attempt has been made to determine the fate of the carpospores by germinating them in cultures in order to verify the recent statement by Yendo on the production of micro- and macro-gametes. (0) Rhodymenia palmata, Grev. The only form of reproduction hitherto known has been by tetraspores, and as recently as 1919 Church quoted this species as one in which the sexual phase had been omitted from the life-cycle. a | ee ee wee eee SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K, L 403 The carposporic frond has now been found both in the procarpial stage and with ripe carpospores, and can be distinguished from the tetrasporic frond. The procarps are developed in succession, and each has a long trichogyne. Carpospores are produced in pear-shaped cystocarps with ostioles, similar to those in Rhodymenia palmata, Grev. Although the antheridial fronds have not yet been found, spermatia have been seen attached to the trichogynes. EXHIBITS DURING THE MEETING: BOTANICAL SPECIMENS. Botanical specimens were exhibited in a room near‘ the Section Room, and others were shown by members of the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union in the Education Offices, Albion Street. SECTION L.—EDUCATION. (For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in tke following list of tramsactions, see p. 410.) Thursday, September 7. 1. Presidential Address by Sir Ricuarp Grecory, on Educational and School Science (see p. 204), followed by a discussion. 2. Mr. R. C. Moore.—Advanced Instruction in Elementary Schools. For a number of years various voluntary attempts have been made to provide, to some extent, a rather more advanced education for the older or brighter children in the elementary schools. The Education Act, 1918, however, made it the duty of Local Education Authorities to provide such instruction. Before advanced instruction can be given it is necessary that all the children should have a sound preparatory education. When the children have received this preparatory education, then advanced instruction of various kinds should be given to suit the abilities and needs of the pupils. The advanced instruction should be given, as far as possible, under con- ditions which allow of a proper grading of the pupils. The teachers should be highly qualified, and suitable equipment and provision for practical work should be supplied. The advanced instruction can be given at central schools or classes, or at the schools at which the pupils are already in attendance, or by the partial use of each of these methods. Local conditions will have to be taken into account in deciding which method is to be adopted. It will be necessary to co-ordinate the advanced instruction in the elementary schools with the work of the secondary and technical schools, so as to allow of the passage from one type of school to the other of those pupils who have the necessary ability and attainments and who desire to obtain higher education. Friday, September 8. 3. Report of the Committee wpon Training in Citizenship. (See p. 337.) 4. Report of the Committee upon The Teaching of Geography. 5. Joint Discussion with Section J upon Psychoanalysis and the School. (a) Dr. C. W. Kimuins. The need of assistance in dealing with the problem of the child who does not respond to normal methods of instruction—Children’s dreams—The introvert and the extravert—The freedom of the child; the Montessori influence—The danger of the suppression of strong instinctive tendencies in methods of instruction—The necessity of the psychoanalysis of the teacher—The cultivation of self-discipline in the child—Day dreaming and the flight from reality. 1922 BE 404 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L. (b) Dr. CrtcuTon Miuumr. The term ‘ psycho-analysis’ has been claimed as referring exclusively to the theory and technique laid down by Professor Freud, and it is therefore necessary to use a different term, if we wish to express a view that does not accept all Freud’s conclusions or coincide with his philosophy, however much it may owe to his original discovery. The term ‘ analytical psychology ’ will be used in this aper. i tore discussion raises first the question of the relation between teacher and doctor. Analytical psychology appeared first as a method of treating nervous disorders; this, however, is not its final function. Its real scope and value should be preventative ; its application as universal as the accepted prin- ciples of hygiene; and its propaganda carried on by all who have a stake in the next generation. Hence its importance to teachers; and hence the necessity for teachers to understand and value it in their own experience. The advent of analytical psychology marks a new era in education because it makes a new demand : that the teacher should know, not only his subject ana his pupil, but himself. It follows that the chief function of analytical psy- chology in education is not to enable the teacher to analyse his pupils—a technical task for which he cannot usually have either the time or the training ; nor is :t to provide a new set of pigeon-holes into which he may thrust his own and other people’s problems. Nor can analytical psychology supply purely temperamental defects ; but it can help the teacher to recognise and to remedy failures of character-development in himself: the inherent childishness, the prejudice and self-deception which are the chief obstacles to understanding children and handling them wisely. An attempt is being made at the Tavistock Clinic in London to overcome the practical difficulty of making it possible for the teacher to acquire knowledge of analytical psychology. Analytical psychology has a vital contribution to make to the problem of discipline. It reveals the failure of the two different methods represented by the training ship and the ultra-modern school: the problem cannot be solved by over-emphasising or by ignoring the demands of the herd on the individual, but only by interpreting them as wisely and patiently as possible. If there are still teachers who maintain that analytical psychology is irrelevant to their work, they must be reminded that their failures will come to be judged by analysts later, who have to attempt the re-education of the adult who might have developed into a man, and instead developed into a neurotic. (c) Dr. E. A. Haminton-Pearson. (d) Dr. R. G. Gorpon.—The Difficult and Delinquent Child. The importance of the question—Causes of delinquency—Feeble-mindedness— The psychopathic child—Pathological stealing, lying and truancy—The will to power—Ageressiveness and display—Effects of neglect—Neuroses, drugs, crime— Means of detection—Psychoanalysis, mental exploration. Importance to the individual : Possibilities of cure. Tests and routine examination: (1) Physical; (2) intelligence; (3) mental reactions. Importance to the State : The Ohio Bureau of Juvenile Research. The advantage of investigation—The necessity of qualification to conduct such investigation—The function of such research clinics—Advisory and executive. (e) Prof. T. H. Paar. 6. Address upon Imperial Citizenship by the Rt. Hon. Lord Mrston. (See p. 423.) Monday, September 11. 7. Mr. Iveson S. Macapam.—lInternational Students’ Organisations. 8. Discussion upon English as the Basis of National Education. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L. 405 (a2) Mr. G. N. Pococx.—The Teaching of English in Public Schools. The Report shows that schoolmasters have long been experimenting in the teaching of English, in isolation from one another. The problems they have set themselves to find out is whether English can become the natural and sufficient basis of all education in England. If this is so—and many of us are convinced that it is—it now remains to pool resources and enthusiasm, though without producing a stereotyped scheme. It is essential to break down barriers between schools, and bulkheads between subjects in each school. If English is to be the basis of all education it must be taught scientifically as well as artistically. The basis of the scientific treat- ment is not grammar and analysis, but accurate observation and exact thought. The basis. of the artistic treatment is self-expression, which can be trained through English Literature, by original composition both oral and written, and above all through the drama. ° The object of this paper is to show how all this can be done—and is being one. (b) Prof. Epirn Moritry.—Consideration of the Report of the Departmental Committee. The general excellence of this Report is marred by its comparatively unsatis- factory treatment of the problem as it affects University ‘ Honour Schools of English.’ The Committee have tried to hold the balance between the two branches of the subject, literature and language, but the compromises they propose are unlikely to meet the views of any experienced University teachers. English literature cannot be studied as it should be by Honours candidates, who read it only ‘ from Chaucer onwards,’ for the English outlook on life has remained the same from the beginning, and neither Chaucer nor his successors can be properly understood without first-hand acquaintance with this permanent English point of view as exhibited in early writings. Nor can English prose style be adequately examined by those who are incapable of realising for themselves its continuity. Similarly there is no break in the history of the language which is the medium of English literature. Consequently the recommendation to investigate the difficult problems of fifteenth-century English, or of later idiom, syntax and phonology, cannot be followed by those who are unacquainted with the earlier stages of the language. Still less can they profitably study place-names and family-names, which study, we are told, ‘should form part of a living linguistic course.’ It is not possible for Honour students to begin the study of either language or literature with Chaucer, if they are to pursue their investigations by genuine University methods. The Committee’s arguments that the English Honour School should, for undergraduate students, consist of the two branches of literature and of language, are convincing. They are right, too, in the assumption that in the past too much Germanic philology has been demanded from those whose bent is primarily towards literature, and that this has often unduly curtailed the time available for reading. Changes in the right direction are already being made in most University curricula. Notably there are the alternatives per- mitted under the new Oxford scheme, or in the proposals for the new School of English at Liverpool, which is to supersede the present separate Schools of English Language and English Literature in that University. In some such way, and by means of some such evolutionary developments of the hitherto prevailing system, the just balance will eventually be struck. Progress is not likely to be achieved by means of the revolutionary proposals made by the Committee, which ignore the experience gained from the experiments of the past twenty-five vears. (c) Mr. J. H. Fow er. Tuesday, September 12. 9. Consideration of the movement towards Individual Work in Schools, with special reference to experiments in Hull. EE 2 406 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L. (2) Miss F. Saver.—Group Work in Infants’ Schools. (b) Miss C. T. CumprersrrcH.—The Dalton Plan. 1. The recent tendency towards group and individual work in upper classes in Elementary and Secondary Schools and in Training Colleges (leading on from Miss Sayer’s paper)—seen in many directions and with varying aim—from silent reading to simple research. 2. Its concentration and development in the Self-Teaching Dalton Plan. A terse survey of the Plan, giving its broad aims. 3. The Plan—or modification—in local use. The work in four or five schools and colleges, under conditions varying as to: Specialist teachers; specialist rooms; allocation of free time; nature of assignment, of graph, and of test used. These points to be summarised. 4. Summary of the opinions of the head teachers and teachers on the development of the children and students in different subjects. 5. Discussion raised on several debatable points : The effect of the Plan on esprit de corps; the place and value in all teaching of : the class lesson, the teacher’s personality ; the difficulties met with in: (i) equipment, (ii) varying standards of work in children; (iii) the transition from Montessori to Dalton schemes. 6. Permanent value of the Plan ethically and intellectually. 10. Joint Discussion with Section G on The Effect of Reformed Methods in Teaching Mathematics. (a) Prof. T. P. Nunn.—The Principles of Formal Geometry. The question whether there should be a return to a standard sequence of theorems in elementary geometry is of less importance than the question whether the traditional basis of formal geometry should be retained. Euclid’s system (apart from the preliminary doctrine of points, lines, and planes) rests upon two assumptions about the nature of space: (i) that it admits of congruent figures ; (ii) that it permits one and only one line to be drawn through a given point parallel to a given line. There are strong reasons for,adopting, instead of the latter, the assumption (ii) that space admits of similar figures, leaving the properties of parallel lines to be deduced therefrom instead of deducing the existence and properties of similar figures from the postulate of parallel lines. (b) Mr. R. C. Fawpry.—The Practical Result of the Reform. The reforms in mathematical teaching originated in a revolt against Euclid, followed by the demand from Technical Colleges that the mathematical equip- ment of the ever-increasing body of students should be wider in range and more practical in character. The result was a reconsideration of the purport of mathematics as part of a general education. The slow progress of the majority was due to a course framed in the interests of specialists. The postponement of the more academic portions has allowed the early introduction of trigonometry and mechanics, and has enabled many to acquire a working knowledge of the calculus before leaving school. Less emphasis is now laid upon bookwork; the examples are of a more interesting type and practical work has been introduced. The adoption of the newer methods is still far from universal. The older teachers and some Universities are still conservative, but progress is helped by the attitude of the Board of Education, the Civil Service Commissioners, and the holiday courses for teachers. (c) Prof. M. J. M. Hiu.—Euclid’s Exposition of the Theory of Proportion in the Vth Book. Euclid’s Vth book has fallen into disuse not only in schools but also in Universities ; this is probably due to the inversion of the natural order of ideas, to the omission of all explanation of the manner in which the fifth and seventh definitions were originally obtained, and to the unnecessary use of the properties of unequal ratios to prove properties of equal ratios. Although the book seems to be unsuited for school use, it is probable that if the idea of proportion be introduced from first principles the contents of the book would be of great value to University students commencing the serious study of the calculus. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—M. 407 SECTION M.—AGRICULTURE. (For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the following list of transactions, see p. 410.) Thursday, September 7. 1. Mr. H. V. Taytor.—Commercial Horticulture and Industry. 2. Dr. A. G. Ruston.—Yorkshire Farming as seen through Farm Costs. 3. Prof. B. T. P. Barxer.—The Behaviour of Fruit Trees in Rela- tion to Internat Nutrient Conditions. 4 . Joint Meeting with Sections A and F on Weather Cycles in Relation to Agriculture and Industrial Fluctuations. Opener: Sir’ W. Breveriper, K.C.B. 5. Mr. C. T. Gmuincuam.—Some Notes on the Colorimetric Deter- mination of Hydrogen Ion Concentration in Soils. 6. Miss M. S. G. Brenze.—Degeneration in Anthers of Potato. Friday, September 8. 7. Mr. EH. A. Fisuer.—The Evaporation of Water from Soil. 8. Prof. T. B. Woop, F.R.S., and Dr. J. W. Carsticx, O.B.E.— Influence of Temperature on Basal Metabolism. 9. Joint Meeting with Section I on The Vitamins. (See p. 390.) Saturday, September 9. Farms in the Yorkshire Wolds were visited. Monday, September 11. 10. Presidential Addressby the Rt. Hon. Lord Biepisior, K.B.E., on The Proper Position of the Landowner in Relation to the Agricultural Industry. (See p. 219.) 11. Sir Danret Hatt, K.C.B., F.R.S.—Land Reclamation on the East Coast. 12. Mr. J. A. Hantey.—The Use of Lime in the North of England. 13. Mr. N. M. Comsper.—The Limitations of Laboratory Methods of Lime Requirement Determination. In the afternoon Broomfleet Island, Blacktoft, was visited in order to see Natural and Artificial Warp Land. Tuesday, September 12. 14. Joint Discussion with Section F on The Possibility of Increas- ing the Food Supply of the Nation. Opener: Sir Jonn RussgEuu, F.R.S. 408 REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC, REFERENCES TO PUBLICATION OF COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS AND OTHER REFERENCES SUPPLIED BY AUTHORS. Under each Section, the index-numbers correspond with those of the papers in the sectional programmes (pp. 351-407). References indicated by ‘ cf.’ are to appropriate works quoted by the authors of papers, not to the papers themselves. General reference may be made to the issues of Natwre (weekly) during and sub- sequent to the meeting, in which résumés of the work of the sections are furnished. Section A. 3. Trans. Faraday Soc., 18, parti, Oct. 1922. 6. Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. 9. Cf. Comptes Rendus de lV Acad. des Sciences, 1921, 1922; Journ, de Physique, Sept. 1921; Les Rayons X—Ouvrage édité par le Comité des Conf érences—Rapports, Presses Universitaires, Paris. 11. The Times, Sept. 9, 1922; Engineering, Oct. 6, 1922 (in summary); cf. The Air and its Ways (Cambridge Univ. Press, in course of publication). 15. Observatory, Oct. 1922; Nature. 17. Proc. London Math. Soc., 21. 19. Observatory, Oct. 1922; Monthly Notices, R.A.S., Nov. 1922. 20. Observatory, Oct. 1922; expected also to be published in extended form in Monthly Notices, R.A.S. 22. Expected to be published in Proc. R.S. or Phil. Mag. Section B. 8. To be published in Journ. Chem. Soc. P 10. Recueil des Travaux Chimiques des Pays-Bas, Nov. 1922 (part of communication on recent investigations on the substitution in the Benzene Nucleus). 11. Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 44, No. xviii, 384 R—387 R, Sept. 30, 1922. 13. Engineering, 114, No. 2963, p. 472 ; Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 41, No. 18, p.393 R; Chemical Age, 7, No. 170, p. 383. Cf. 3rd and 4th B.A. Reports on Colloid Chemistry (H.M. Stationery Office); Trans. Chem. Soc., 121, pp. 621, 711, 1101, 1320, 1362, 2161, 2325; Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 41, No. 9, p. 147 T. 15. Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., Oct. 31, 1922. Cf. ‘Measurement of Atmospheric Pollution,’ Q. J. Roy. Meteorological Soc., 44, p. 187 (1918) ; B.A. Report, 1919, p. 429 ; Reports of Advisory Committee on Atmospheric Pollution, 1916-22; ‘Suspended Impurity in City Air, The Engineer, Oct. 14, 1921; ‘Smoke Abatement,’ Journ. Roy. Sanitary Inst., 42, No. 2 (1921); ‘ Pollution of the Air by Smoke and its Preven- tion,’ The Bulletin, Oct. 1921; ‘ Reduction of Atmospheric Pollution resulting from the use of Gaseous Fuels,’ Final Report of Public Works, Roads and Transport Congress (1921) ; ‘ Dust in Expired Air,’ Medical Soc. of London ; ‘ Suspended Impurity in the Air,’ Proc. R.S. 101 A (1922); ‘ Atmospheric Dust,’ Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., Oct. 31 (1922). Section C. 8. Trans. Yorks. Geol. Soc., 20, part i (1923). 5. Trans. Hull Geol. Soc., 6, part iv, p. 244; more fully in Trans. Yorks. Geol. Soc., 19, part vi (1922). 13. Trans. Hull Geol. Soc., 6, part iv, p. 238. Section D. 2. Cf. Proc. R.S., 98 B, pp. 104, 122. 6 (c). To be published in Fishery Investigations, Series II., ‘Sea Fisheries’ (Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries). 6. (d) Aberystwyth Studies, 4, pp. 229-250. 11 (d). Included in ‘ Notes suggestive of Further Work in Herring Investigations,’ Report, Dove Marine Lab., n.s. xi. 15. Expected to be published in Q. J. Microscopical Science. 19. Cf. Nature, Dec. 29, 1921; Salmon and Trout Magazine, Sept. 1922. 20. Cf. Aberystwyth Studies, 4 (1922). ; 24. Cf. Lancs. and Cheshire Naturalist, 12, No. 3 (Sept. 1919), 18, No. 2 (Aug. 920). REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC, 409 Section E. 2. Scott. Geog. Mag., Jan. 1923. 4. Geog. Journ., April 1922. 6. Cf. ‘ Kingston-upon-Hull, a study in Port Development,’ Scott. Geog. Mag., May 1919. 7. ‘Water and Water Engineering’ (Journ. Inst. Water Engineers), Nov. 1922. 8. Scott. Geog. Mag., Jan. 1923. Cf. Electrical Review, 91, No. 2339 (Sept. 22, 1922). 10. Scott. Geog. Mag., Jan. 1923. 11. Catalogue in preparation. 14. Geog. Review, 12, p. 655 (New York, Oct. 1922). 16. Cf. Scott. Geog. Mag., Jan. 1923 ; article expected in Geog. Teacher. 18. To be published in Scott. Geog. Mag. 19. Cf. ‘ Geology of Portuguese Nyasaland,’ Geol. Mag. 59, No. 695, May 1922 ; Portuguese Nyasaland,’ Scott. Geog. Mag. 38, July 1922. Section F. 2. Municipal Journal, 31, p. 653. Cf. Organised Produce Markets, Longmans, Green & Co., London, 1922. 5. Hconomica (London Sch. of Economics). 6. Material to be published in volume on The Stock Exchange. ; Section G. Papers have been published in Engineering, vol. 104 (Sept. 8, 15, 22), as follow : 1 (a), p. 350; 1 (6), p. 293; 1 (c), p. 307; 1 (d), p. 309; 3, p. 341; 5 (a), p. 348; 5 (b), p. 349; 5 (c), p. 346; 5 (d), p. 344; 6, p. 374; 8, p. 375. Section H. 2. Cf. The Archeology of the Cambridge Region, to be published by Camb. Univ. Press. 4. Compte-rendu du Congrés de Assoc. francaise pour ? Av. des Sciences (1922). 5. Cf. Journ. Roy. Inst. Brit. Archit. 29, Nos. 18-19, p. 553, Aug. 1922: Times Lit. Supp., Dec. 15 and 22, 1921, pp. 842, 858, and further report to appear at end of 1922, ibid. 7. To be published in Journ. Roman Studies. 9. Cf. T. Zammit in Archeologia, 67, p. 127; 68, p. 263; 70, p. 179. 10. Cf. Proc. Univ. Bristol Speleological Soc., 1 (‘ The Keltic Cavern ’) ; further material to be published ibid. (1923). 11. Part in Proc. Univ. Bristol Speleological Soc., 1, No. 2; further ibid. No. 3, and Journ. Somerset Archeol. Soc., 1923. 12. Cf. Nature, July 14, 1921, p. 623; Proc. Prehistoric Soc. E. Anglia, Dec, 1922. 21. Cf. Place-Names and History, Liverpool Univ. Press, 1922. Section I. 1. To be published in Atlantic Monthly (1923). 4. Cf. Journ. Laryngology, Dec. 1921, Sept. 1922; Nature, Oct. 21, 1922. 5. Lancet, Sept. 23, 1922, p. 685; popular account to be published in Discovery ; fuller account expected to be published in Q. J. Medicine, Jan. 1923. Cf. Physical Reviews, 2, p. 310 (1922). 7 (b). To be published as ‘ Vitamins in Agriculture,’ Bulletin, Univ. Coll. Reading ; cf. Biochem. Journ., 16, No. 3, p. 394 (1922). 8, 9. Neurotherapie, Dec. 1922; Miéinchener Med. Wochenschrift,, Dec. 1922 ; Zeitschr. f. Immunitdisforschung, 1923; cf. Lancet, Il, 1366 (1921). 12. Cf. Phil. Mag., Nov. 1922. 15. Cf. Journ. Physiology, 56, p. 232 (1922). Srction J. 1. To be published in Anals de I’ Inst. dOrientacio Professional, Barcelona. 8. Journ. Nat. Inst. Industrial Psychology, Apr. 1923. 4. Machinery Market, No. 1148, p. 29, Nov. 3, 1922. 8. Cf. ‘ Education and Industry,’ by H. Binns, Journ. Leeds Univ., Jan. 1923; ‘Comparison of the Judgments of Children and Adults in the Evaluation of Cloths,’ by H. Binns and C. Burt, Journ. Nat. Inst. of Psychology, 1, No. 3 ; ‘An Experimental Enquiry into Schooland Industrial Ability,’ by H. Binns and W. Macpherson, Journ. Experimental Pedagogy, Mar. 1923 ; ‘Industrial Importance of Manual Training in Schools,’ by H. Binns, Wool Record and Textile World, 22, p. 689 ; ‘Human Factor in the Judgment of Yarn and Cloth,’ Journ. Bradford Textile Soc., 1920-21 ; ‘Some Experi- 410 REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC. ments in the Measurement of Native Ability and Acquired Skill,’ Journ. Textile Teta Aol. 10. Psyche, Jan. 1923. 11. Cf. T. H. Pear, Remembering and Forgetting, Chap. xii (Methuen, London, 1922) ; lectures on ‘The Psychological Aspects of Training in Industry: (1) Training the Workers, (2) Training the Management,’ Lecture Conferences held at Oxford and Scarborough, Sept. and Oct. 1920 (York Printing Co.). 16. Cf. volume on the Sense of Humour in Children, to be published shortly. Section K. 1. Expected to be published in Annals of Botany. 2. To be published in New Phytologist. 5. Cf. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb., 49, pt. iii, No. 12 (1913); 58, pt.i, No.1 (1921), No. 13 (1922). 8. Continuation of paper ‘ On the Irritability of the Fronds of Asplenium bulbi- ferum....., Proc. R.S. B, 93 (1922). y. Cf. Development and Properties of Raw Cotton (London, Black, 1915) ; ‘ Exist- ence of Daily Growth Rings in the Cell Wall of Cotton Hairs,’ Proc. R. S., B, 90, 1919 ; ‘ Further Observations on Cell Wall Structure as seen in Cotton Hairs,’ Proc. R. S., B, 93, 1922. . 10. Cf. Buller, Researches on Fungi, vol. 2 (Longmans, 1922). 14 (a). Cf. ‘Is the Theory of Natural Selection Adequate ?’ Nineteenth Century and After, Oct. 1922 ; Age and Area, Camb. Univ. Press, 1922. 14 (e). Cf. J. T. Cunningham, Hormones and Heredity (London, Constable, 1921). 15. Cf. ‘ Physiological Studies in Plant Anatomy; III. The Structure of the Endodermis in Relation to its Function,’ by J. H. Priestley and Edith E. North ; New Phytologist, 21, pp. 113-139, 1922; ‘Physiological Studies in Plant Anatomy; IV. The Water Relations of the Plant Growing Point,’ by J. H. Priestley and R. M. Tupper- Carey, New Phytologist, 21, pp. 210-229, 1922; ‘The Toxic Action of Traces of Coal Gas upon Plants,’ by J. H. Priestley, Annals of Applied Biology, 9, pp. 146-155, 1922. 17. Cf. Journ. Genetics, 6, pp. 237-253 ; papers to be published in Journ. Genetics (* A peculiar type of Variability in Plants’); Proc. 2nd Internat. Congress in Eugenics (‘ A new type of Variability in Plants ’). 22. Cf. Sci. Proc, Roy. Dublin Soc., 16 (n.s.), pp. 369-434, Feb. 1922 ; Notes from the School of Botany, T.C.D., 3, part iii, Mar. 1922. : 23. To be published in New Phytologist as part vi of ‘ Physiological Studies in Plant Anatomy.’ 25. Expected to be published in Recueil des Travaux Botaniques N éerlandais. 26. Cf. * Preliminary note on the Reproduction of Rhodymenia palmata Ag.’ in Annals of Botany, 37, No. cxlv (Jan. 1923). Section L. 7. Reprinted as Youth in the Universities, with preface by H. G. Wells; Nat. Union of Students. 9 (b). Journ. Education, Nov. 1922. 10. (a) Cf. ‘The Sequence of Theorems in School Geometry,’ in Math. Gazette, May 1922. 10. (c) Cf. Contents of the Fifth and Sixth Books of Euclid (2nd ed.), Camb. Univ. Press, 1908 ; Trans. Cambridge Phil. Soc., 1922 ; The Theory of Proportion, Constable, London, 1914. Srction M. 8. Expected to appear in summary in Journ. Bathand West and Southern Counties Soc., and in Ann. Report, Agricultural Research Station, Univ. of Bristol. 5. To be published in Journ. Agric. Sci. 7. To be published in Journ. Agric. Sci. 8. Cf. Journ. Agric. Sci., 12, part iii, pp. 257-268; J. W. Capstick, ‘ A Calori- meter for use with large Animals,’ Journ. Agric. Sci., 11, partiv, p. 408; J. W. Capstick and T. B, Wood, ‘ Progress of Metabolism after Food in Swine,’ Proc. R. S., 94B, p.35 SECTIONAL COMMUNICATIONS ORDERED BY THE GENERAL CoMMITTEE TO BE PRINTED in exlenso. DISCUSSION ON THE ORIGIN OF MAGNETISM. Opening remarks by Prorrssor P. Wertss. I nearer that the absence of Professor Langevin deprives us of hear- ing from him an account of his remarkable work on magnetism. M. Langevin assumes that the rotation of the molecules, each of which has a magnetic moment, is completely free, and, by investigating according to the methods of statistical dynamics the problem of the orientation of these molecules under the combined influence of an external field and their own thermal agitation, he obtains the law of magnetisation of paramagnetic substances in terms of the field and the temperature: In the region of fields experimentally attainable it reduces to the proportionality of magnetisation and field, and to the variation of susceptibility in inverse proportion to the absolute temperature, MN PS ‘ I OT This law was found several years ago by Curie in his experiments on gaseous oxygen. It is only possible to get outside the region of pro- portionality between magnetisation and field when T reaches a very low value. Recently Kammerlingh Onnes, in studying the magnetisa- tion of gadolinium sulphate, has observed, at 1.5° absolute, unmis- takable indications of the approach of saturation. Langevin's theory may perhaps be compared with the kinetic theory, which deals with the compressibility and dilatation of fluids of low density and leads to the laws of Boyle and Gay-Lussac, puv=RT. We know that van der Waals has extended this theory to fluids of great density by adding to the external pressure p an internal pressure which expresses the mutual action of the molecules. I have tried to proceed in an analogous manner with regard to magnetism by adding to the external field a molecular field, H,,=NI, proportional to the intensity of magnetisation, and having the same direction. This molecular field expresses the turning action which the assemblage of magnetic mole- cules constituting a body exerts on any one among them. The consideration of the mutual action of magnetic molecules is not new. We all know with what success Sir J. A. Ewing has made use of it to explain a whole series of phenomena which, before his work, were obscure; the shape of the curve of magnetisation, hysteresis, magnetcstriction, ete. I shall show in the course of this exposition that the forces represented by the molecular field are of an order of magnitude quite different from those invoked in Ewing’s theory, and that they explain other phenomena. Moreover, whilst Ewing’s forces are mutual magnetic actions, the molecular field is only a magnetic notation for forces which are, in reality, non-magnetic. 412 SECTIONAL COMMUNICATIONS. If we examine the properties of a substance which, besides having the structure of Langevin’s paramagnetic body, possesses the molecular field, we find that the stable state, in the absence of an external field, is not the non-magnetic state, but a condition of magnetisation of finite extent which I have called spontaneous magnetisation. And it can be shown that this spontaneous magnetisation has the same numerical value as that of saturation at the temperature under consideration. One must not confuse this saturation with the absolute saturation dealt with by Langevin. The latter corresponds to the complete alignment of the magnetic molecules, whilst the former differs from it by the fact of the thermal agitation of rotation. . In a ferromagnetic substance, apparently unmagnetised, the spontaneous magnetisation has. different directions at different points, and the non-magnetic state is the result of the mutual compensation of these magnetisations. The action of a field upon a bar of iron thus consists, not of producing magnetisation, but of co-ordinat- ing the spontaneous magnetisations of the different parts by rendering them parallel. The molecular field theory has given, for the first time, the law of the variation of magnetic saturation as a function of the temperature, and this law has been verified by new experiments with magnetite. Ferromagnetism disappears at a certain temperature which has been called the Curie Point. Above this temperature the substance is para- magnetic. The molecular field has enabled us to find the law of this paramagnetism ; the reciprocal of the coefficient of magnetisation y is proportional to the excess of the temperature T over that of the Curie Point 0, bor il Tae (Te Oy: This law was capable of immediate verification by means of Curie’s experiments on nickel, carried out previously. It has since received numerous confirmations from accurate experiments on the ferromagnetic metals and many of their alloys. If we assume that the coefficient N of the molecular field has three different values in three directions at right angles, we can find an explanation for the remarkable properties of the crystal of pyrrhotine, with its magnetic plane, and in this plane the rectangular directions of easy and difficult magnetisation. Lastly, two applications of the molecular field in energy considera- — tions. It has long been known that the specific heat of ferromagnetic — substances displays an anomaly at the Curie Point. Some would speak — of a heat of transformation. But the theory of the molecular field has shown, on the contrary, that the phenomenon consists of a discontinuity of the true specific heat, which, at the Curie Point, falls abruptly to a smaller value. The magnitudes of the discontinuity, calculated from magnetic data and measured calorimetrically, have been found to be concordant. The recently discovered magneto-caloric phenomenon consists of a reversible variation of temperature which accompanies magnetisation. It is quite different from hysteresis, which is irreversible and always ON THE ORIGIN OF MAGNETISM. 413 involves a heating. Any substance when magnetised becomes hotter, and when demagnetised, cools. But this phenomenon is produced by _ true variations of magnetisation only, and not as a result of the apparent variations due to the change of orientation of spontaneous magnetisation. It is given by Ape ae ee 2c.d at where N is the coefficient of molecular field already defined, c the specific heat, d the density, and I* the square of the intensity of magnetisation. The phenomenon is only of real importance in the neighbourhood of the Curie Point. Below this point magnetisation is. mainly of the apparent type, and above it the values of 1? quickly become very small. At the Curie Point the effect is far from being negligible; in fact, it reaches for nickel a value of about 1° in fields which are readily attained. The extent of temperature variation calculated by the molecular field theory has been shown to agree with that observed. The general effect of these results is to show that the molecular field theory is firmly supported by experiment, and these various pheno- mena enable us to determine the numerical value of the molecular field. For metals at ordinary temperature it is found to be of the order of magnitude 10’ gauss. Now it is easy to show that in the most favour- able circumstances the magnetic field produced by the magnetic moments of the molecules of a ferromagnetic body cannot be greater than 10° gauss. It is, therefore, impossible for the mutual actions repre- sented by the molecular field to be of a magnetic nature. It is just a notation for forces of a non-magnetic character, with a symbol borrowed from magnetism. I prefer, in place of the primitive definition given earlier, the equivalent definition where U is the intrinsic energy and I the intensity of magnetisation, both reckoned per unit volume. This definition is advantageous in that it does not prejudge the nature of the forces. In relation to the question to-day under discussion we can thus conclude : One of the essential conditions for the production of strong magnetism—or ferromagnetism—is the existence, between the mole- cules possessing magnetic moments, of important mutual actions which are numerically expressed by the molecular field, and are certainly of a non-magnetic nature. It does not appear to be impossible that the forces may be electro. static ; that, however, is at present a pure supposition. I would like now to draw your attention to another condition which governs the display of magnetic phenomena. All the theories of mag- netism due to Weber, Ampére, Lord Kelvin, J. A. Ewing, Langevin, and others have assumed that the molecules or atoms possess magnetic moments. But it is only since we have been in possession of the kinetic theory and the molecular field theory that we have been able easily ALA SECTIONAL COMMUNICATIONS. to deduce from experiments on ferromagnetic and paramagnetic sub- stances the exact numerical values of these atomic moments. According to the type of experiment utilised, these moments | classify themselves among a certain number of groups. In 1909 M. Kammerlingh Onnes and I measured the magnetisation to satura- tion for iron and nickel in the neighbourhood of absolute zero. From these first measurements there immediately appears a result of which ~ we shall later on see the generality. All atomic moments are integral multiples of the same elementary moment, to which I have given the name ‘magneton.’ There are eleven magnetons in the iron atom and three in the nickel atom at very low . temperatures. Other atomic moments emerge from the study of alloys made of ferromagnetic metals, also at low temperatures. These © measurements have given indirectly nine magnetons for cobalt, and have led to the discovery of the alloy Fe,Co, which is interesting because its molecule possesses thirty-six magnetons—a number greater than the sum of those of the constituent metals. This alloy, which at ordinary temperature has an intensity of magnetisation some 10 per cent. in ~ excess of that of iron, has been brought into practical use in the con- struction of the pole-pieces of electromagnets. The study of ferromagnetic substances at temperatures higher than the Curie Point has been a new source of magnetic moments. The magnetic moment of nickel for a temperature interval of about 400° has been determined six times by means of independent series of observa- tions made by different observers. They have found 8.03, 7.99, 8.04, 8.05, 8.03, and 7.98 magnetons respectively—i.e., numbers in the immediate neighbourhood of the integer 8. It is worthy of notice © that above the Curie Point the atomic moment of nickel is different og from its value at low temperatures. This possibilty of the same atom — assuming different magnetic moments is a general property. Investigations with solutions have furnished very many atomic — moments. The important researches of Prof. Cabrera and his pupils — should be mentioned in particular. It turns out that in the case of © the dissolved salts of nickel, for example, there is found the same — atomic moment, whatever the concentration may be. This moment proves with great precision to be equal to sixteen magnetons for nickel in the chloride, the sulphate, and the nitrate. The two series of experi- — ments, one in Madrid and the other by Mlle. Bruins in my laboratory, | were absolutely concordant. In other cases the atomic moment calcu- — lated by means of the paramagnetism of the solution assumes a definite value only at extreme concentrations, whether very weak or very strong. | In the interval the atomic moment apparently varies. This arises from the fact that the moment of the metal in the ion, or in the hydrolised molecule, is not the same as in the undissociated molecule. Thus Fe possesses 27 magnetons in very dilute solutions of FeCl,, and tends towards 29 magnetons in very concentrated solutions of this salt. The study of the magnetisation of paramagnetic salts in the solid state has brought to light magnetic moments characteristic of the type of combination; this also lends support to the theory of the magneton. Finally, Kopp has recently been able, by making use of the difference of the law of thermal variation, to separate, in the case of platinum and palladium, the ferromagnetism from the underlying diamagnetism; and thus to determine the atomic moments of these metals. He has found multiples of the magneton. The appearance of atomic moments as integral multiples of the same elementary moment—the magneton—is thus one of the important aspects of magnetic phenomena. ’ But in order really to explain the existence of this universal moment _ it would be necessary to be able to link it up with the atom of Rutherford and Bohr and the theory of quanta. Now this theory actually does point to a magnetic moment : ON THE NITROGEN INDUSTRY, 415 ‘ ‘ ¢ . > _ ¥ = hh 12) a 47° m’ _ where h is Planck’s constant and e/m is the ratio of charge to mass in “an electron. But when the calculation is made it is found that the moment derived is almost exactly five times as great as the magneton. The Rutherford-Bohr atom and Planck’s theory thus do point to atomic - moments which are integral multiples of the same elementary moment ; but the magnitude of this elementary moment differs from that derived from observation. It may, therefore, become a question of finding what modification to introduce into the structure of the atom in order to _ bring about more complete accordance between theory and experiment. i ae -. _ DISCUSSION ON THE NITROGEN INDUSTRY. Dr. J. A. Harxer.—Post-War Progress in the Fization of Nitrogen (Abstract).—On the statistical side, there is little to add to the Statistical Supplement to the Report of the Nitrogen Products Committe, whilst the rapid fluctuations in the value of the mark make it useless to discuss the cost of production in Germany. The nitrogen ‘problem has assumed great public importance, and some acquaintance with it has even been demanded of schoolboys, although five or six years ago ignorance of the subject was great, even amongst those on whom fell the responsibility for decisions of national importance. The literature on the nitrogen question originates, to a greater extent than is usually the case, from prejudiced sources, so that impartial estimates "of the relative values of different processes are rarely found. ‘Wher in Switzerland recently, I met a chemical engineer from Poland, who asked me many questions about the Report of the Nitrogen Products Committee. On inquiring of him how he heard of the Report, he answered that his attention had been called to it by the managing director of a well-known firm of constructors of chemical plant in Berlin, who told him that in his view it constituted the only presenta- tion hitherto made of the nitrogen problem in its various aspects, in ‘which the different processes were examined impartially and in detail, and their advantages and disadvantages set forth without prejudice by a competent judicial authority. 416 SECTIONAL COMMUNICATIONS. ; 4 The arc process, the oldest method of obtaining fixed nitrogen from the air, consists in burning air by passing it quickly through an intensely © hot electric flame. In the best known type of furnace, the Birkeland- — Eyde, this flame is a powerful arc, spread out by a magnetic field into ~ a sort of Catherine-wheel, several yards in diameter. A small per- — rentage of the nitrogen and oxygen traversing the path of the arc is — caused to combine, and the resulting nitric oxide is ultimately further — oxidised to nitric acid or nitrates. This process was commercially operated in Norway in 1904, and in the hands of the original company it has been uniformly successful, and has reached an enormous develop- ment. Although the power requirements are very large, it affords the cheapest known method for the manufacture of nitric acid. It has not been sufficiently recognised that the are process owes its initiation to — scientific researches carried out mainly by British investigators. During | the War the officials of the Norsk Hydro Company told me that Prof. Birkeland used to recognise frankly that his inspiration was derived — from the famous British Association address of Sir William Crookes, and especially from the quantitative experimental work of the late Lord Rayleigh, whose big flask mounted on a wooden stool at the Royal Institution, and provided with a pair of metal poles and an internal potash fountain, is the lineal ancestor of all the great Norwegian plants © of to-day. These experiments, employing one or two horse-power, in — which Lord Rayleigh carefully measured for the first time the relation between the energy consumed and the amount of nitrogen fixed, pointed | the road to all that has since happened in Norway. At Notodden plant is now installed to utilise about 45,000 kw., and in the two great works at Rjukan I saw furnaces in operation employing i in all over 200,000 kw., or 270,000 continuous horse-power, this energy being generated at what is almost certainly the cheapest hydro-electric plant in the world. At Rjukan IT. a 15,000 kw. steam-operated set has been added to utilise waste steam raised in the boilers employed in the cooling of the process gases, which leave the furnace at about 1,000° C. During the later war period almost the whole output of these enormous works came to England and France for munition purposes. ‘Tt is, however, startling to remember that less than 2 per cent. of the eleaeneal or heat energy expended in the average are furnace is absorbed as chemical energy in the initial oxidation “of the nitrogen. The concentration of nitric oxide in the gases leaving the furnace averages only about 1.2 per cent., and many suggestions have been made for improving the efficiency. About fourteen are plants of various types, mostly of small output, are now distributed throughout the world. Among these I may mention an experimental plant of about 300 kw. capacity which was erected at a munition works at Birmingham on a the Kilburn Scott system. Enriched air has been used on a considerable scale by a company ; operating works in Switzerland and Germany. The oxygen content of the air is increased to 50 per cent., and the whole operation is carried out in a closed circuit. The product is generally removed as liquid nitrogen peroxide by cooling, instead of being absorbed in towers. Although the increase in vield was considerable, certain serious diffi- oo TOF ee ON THE NITROGEN INDUSTRY. 417 culties were encountered, and several explosions have recently occurred in these plants. The nitric acid works on the Birkeland-Eyde system erected during the War in France are now closed, it having been found necessary for the power employed to revert to its original purpose— railway electrification. Turning now to the ammonia process, which has often been described, this was originally worked out by Haber and his colleagues, among whom [ should specially mention Dr. Le Rossignol, an English- man born in Jersey, and the late Dr. H. C. Greenwood, the brilliant young investigator whose death three years ago we all deplore. The process was translated into a technical success by the Badische Com- pany, and is now employed on a huge scale at their original works at Oppau, on the Rhine, and at the much larger works recently completed at Merseburg, in Saxony. But to-day this is by no means the only process for the manufacture of ammonia from its elements. From the table you will see that there are now many other synthetic ammonia processes, distributed over the leading countries of the world. In the original German process the scale is large and the gas velocities are low, the reaction vessels being enormous flanged tubes of steel nearly 40 feet long and over 3 feet external diameter, with walls 6 inches thick. In the process worked out independently during the War, at the research laboratory of the Nitrogen Products Committee at University _ College, much higher gas velocities were employed, giving about twelve times as much ammonia per hour for each litre of space filled with catalyst. In the plant to produce 11,000 tons of nitrogen annually in the form of ammonium nitrate, erected at Sheffield, Alabama, by the American Government from the designs of the General Chemical Company in 1917-18, activated sodamide was used as catalyst. As the activity, at first fairly high, was permanently destroyed even by small quantities of a Fa oe> water vapour, it is not surprising that this plant did not reach the stage of commercial operation. Profiting by the lesson, an American com- pany formed by the General Chemical Company and the Solvay Process Company have erected near New York an improved plant on somewhat simular lines, which has for over a year been producing liquid ammonia =e for the refrigerator industry at the rate of ten tons per day. The pro- cess invented by M. Claude, which operates at the high pressure of about seven tons per square inch, has been recently described in detail. The issuing gas contains about 25 per cent. of ammonia. Multiple stage working replaces circulation, and the dimensions of a full-sized unit plant appear almost absurdly small in comparison with the monu- mental structures employed in the German process. The last time I was at Montereau M. Claude showed me at work his latest catalyst tube, made, I am pleased to say, by a well-known firm of steel-makers at Sheffield, of a new material which stands up extremely well at high temperatures. It is to the preparation of cheap hydrogen from coke- oven gas that M. Claude is at present devoting his attention. In the Casale process, now working at Terni, near Rome, the hydrogen is generated electrolytically by water-power, and some of it is then burnt with air, producing the required mixture of hydrogen and nitrogen. SECTIONAL COMMUNICATIONS, 418 uoryemMomy “Aep rod suoy fF WNOgze FO a[Vos V UO SUTYIO AA UOTZR|MIIID ONT ‘SOLIOS UT sosvys sayy, “Aep ® SUO} G JO B[BOS B UO GUTYAIO AA uoyemMmomy “Aep aed "FN SU0} QT JO oTVOS B UO SuTyIO AA uorye1edo UI MOU JON “AT[ENUUR “NT SUZ EOO'TT 1OF peusisep ‘syIOA\ “yAOH “CQ ep azed suoy Z JO g[vos BV UO SuryI0OM quejd sy10M yeyuoutedxg Ayuo 9[vos jeyueutsedxay ‘Suyeey = OLqoaT@ = oO ‘AjIOOTOA SVS TOYySTY Yon! uoryer1edo ayeos OSB] UI sse00Ig Sulyvoy -o1g ‘uoTyR[NoIIY *AATOOTAA seo MOT ‘sytun sae, Aro, SYAVULOYT S10q.10pa() aTgAor}097 7] Licolauay (ore — _— — D ss IOSNeyg (raz9¥, org AToaqooygy Od = a. 009 OGY | ‘SompE ‘90g) ayeseD ainqzerod m9} “4B ye u0Ty SOO RIB S88 He DOR) GS g ynoqy 000T-006 | * : _ Opnelp esno -eihg “09 sse001g = ow oe 2 = Avapog dio) IN “FV sso001g (eureq OTgATVARD | OF 10 08 “ery. “preuyeus) Sey) doye A | OF Surfoop 8 F-0 WNoqGW OOT 79pun. | “OO =—weyD Uey) wey surly Ta “OD 3 puoy ‘rouunig “pyT = = = = — “qIN pur ‘uury “uAg aposo (sozvroosse -dureq YIM pue poomusars) od wWorgny os TZ 0G-S OST SuorpTUny, FO. “ULI, sso001g I9yeVM UT og dTeqey | uornfog (9) (op eyastp SUH) IOV | “Buypoor (vy) 8-L G-0 94 €-0 006 eq) yosog - 1oqey . BAOULO “f ‘ouog § | *ayq/*yRo “41,/" Sx “SULLY WV wosorpA ry deconrare berteosoc; a aes Oa oINssatq Ss9001 7 ees JO poujyey ‘xorddy ayemmrxorddy surype1dgQ 3 (€16T) AUeUIEY) ayeq pur Aayunoy ‘SSHOOUd VINONWNY OILLHHLNAS AHL HO SNAOW b S i , ON THE NITROGEN INDUSTRY. 419 Several new types of electrolytic cell have been worked out by inventors in this country and in Switzerland, Italy, and America. Under present conditions, with the high price of coke, hydrogen produced in bulix from. cheap hydro-electric power will compete easily with that obtained by other methods. The cyanamide process, stated by many authorities to be obsolete or, at any rate, obsolescent, had at the end of the War an aggregate capacity in tons of nitrogen distinctly greater than that of any other fixation method. It is true that since the Armistice many of the plants have been closed. The largest of these, capable of producing about 200,000 tons annually, was erected during 1918 by the American Government at Muscle Shoals, in Alabama. The American nitrogen programme, including expenditure on unfinished plant, scrapped at the time of the Armistice, cost no less than $140,000,000, Muscle Shoals alone, exclusive of the hydro-electric scheme now being proceeded with, having cost nearly twice as much as Gretna. At present it is still uncertain whether the Government will lease it to Henry Ford or some other private interest, or will keep it and the Sheffield plant in reserve. There has been no new development of outstanding importance in the manufacture of cyanamide itself, although detailed improvements have been made; but even: under the present difficult conditions cyanamide is still almost certainly the cheapest form of combined nitrogen. In Germany, notwithstanding the recent big synthetic amnionia development, plans are on foot to double the capacity of the great cyanamide plants at Piesteritz. Cyanamide is an unsatisfactory fertiliser for many soils. Examining an old sample of cyanamide, I found that the nitrogen had practically changed over to dicyandiamide. Many efforts have been made within the last few years to convert cyanamide cheaply into some other nitrogen compound, but as yet with small success. An American company is now manufacturing from cyanamide a concentrated mixed fertiliser in the form of mono-ammonium phos- phate, sold as ‘‘ ammophos.’’? This would appear to be a promising material, but too costly for many applications. During the last year independent investigators working in Sweden and Switzerland have succeeded in perfecting processes whereby free cyanamide is prepared by the action of carbonic acid on calcium cyanamide, and is subse- quently converted into urea. In the Swiss process, excess of the sulphuric acid employed in the second part of the transformation is used to act on phosphate rock, which is changed to mono-calcium phosphate, the final product being a neutral body known as phosphazote, having its nitrogen content as urea and its phosphorus in the water- soluble form, usually with 11-12 per cent. nitrogen and 11-12 per cent. available P,O,. The cost of manufacture is said to be by no means high, and the substance has no deleterious action on the skin or on the bags in which it is packed. It has been manufactured on a fair scale for about six months, the product going mostly to France for vine culture. These two processes, which are apparently in course of rapid development, may prove to be a means of rehabilitating cyanamide as a product of fixation. 1922 FF 420 SECTIONAL COMMUNICATIONS. After the Oppau explosion mixed salts containing ammonium nitrate will probably be under the ban of many fertiliser dealers, although the substances may be perfectly safe if their possessors are not sufficiently careless or idiotic to attempt to remove them by the stimulus of a big blasting cartridge. T can do no more than refer to the cyanide process, which is by far the oldest fixation method and still attracts many investigators. A British company is continuing its experiments at Birmingham, and in America cyanide is being made on a considerable scale from cyanamide as a source of hydrocyanic acid for plant fumigation. The process depends on a number of complex chemical changes, and further research is required on the fundamental reactions involved. Investigations with this object are being undertaken in the Fixed Nitrogen Research Labora- tory of the American Government. In 1913 Germany consumed about 200,000 tons of nitrogen, of which about 110,000 tons was imported in the form of Chile nitrate. The bulk of this was used in agriculture for intensive cultivation. From May 1921 to April 30 this year the smaller Germany of to-day consumed 290,000 tons, without the demands of her agriculturists being fully met. The whole of this increased total was produced within the country. Though the German Government pleads bankruptcy, the Badische Company appears to have had little difficulty in finding money to repair the enormous damage caused by the great explosion at Oppau, and these works are now on the point of being again ready to produce their full rated output. At the end of the present year Germany wili have at her disposal an internal capacity for the production of about 500,000 tons annually, and will be entirely independent of all importa- tion. In case of war, she will thus be assured of the basic materiais for a gigantic production of munitions, together with enough fertiliser to enable her to grow a very large share of her own food. Mr. J. H. West.—Raw Materials for Synthetic Ammonia: The Manufacture of Hydrogen and Nitrogen.—There are two main sources of commercial hydrogen, coal and water. Hydrogen from water by electrolysis is very pure, but the capital cost of the plant is high, and the consumption of electric energy is so great that unless cheap water- power is available the cost of preduction is prohibitive. Many coals contain about 5 per cent. by weight of hydrogen, equivalent to 21,000 cu. ft. per ton of coal. On distilling coal in retorts or coke ovens about one-quarter of the hydrogen is set free, the other three-quarters remaining in the tar, oils, and ammonia. | Goke-oven gas, where available, is an excellent source of hydrogen, which can be separated from it by M. Claude’s ingenious process of liquefying all the gases present except the hydrogen, after having removed the carbon dioxide by absorption in water under pressure The interaction of steam and hot coke gives water-gas, which con- tains about 50 per cent. hydrogen and 42 per cent. carbon monoxide, the yield being about 55,000 cu. ft. of gas per ton of coke, < | ON THE NITROGEN INDUSTRY, 421 The carbon monoxide in water-gas may be caused to react with steam in presence of a catalyst, producing carbon dioxide and hydrogen, according to the equation CO +H,O0=CO, + H,. The process which has been worked out by Dr. A. Jaques and J. H. West combines the distillation of coal in a retort, the formation of water-gas from the resulting coke, and the conversion of the carbon monoxide produced in these two operations into carbon dioxide and hydrogen by reaction with steam in presence of a catalyst, in one apparatus, thus giving the maximum possible yield of hydrogen from a ton of coal. The hydrogen present in the coal is practically all liberated by passing the crude coal-gas through a hot zone in the producer, so that all tar, oils, and hydrocarbons, such as methane, are cracked or split up into hydrogen and carbon, the carbon reacting with steam to form water-gas. The process is carried out in a modified form of Tully complete gasification plant, and the only products are gas and ashes. Nitrogen can be made in an ordinary liquid-air plant, the separation from oxygen being effected by fractional distillation. Another method is to burn out the oxygen of air with hydrogen. In other words, a measured quantity of air is added to the hydroge: and the mixture is passed over a catalyst, so that combustion takes place quietly, and a mixture of hydrogen and nitrogen in the desired proportions results. In the Haber process water-gas is mixed with air-producer gas, so that sufficient nitrogen remains in the mixture after treatment for conversion of the carbon monoxide, the final adjustment to the exact proportions being made by adding a little pure nitrogen obtained from liquid air. Mr. C. J. Goopwin.—The Hdusser Process of Nitrogen Fixation.— The commercial success of the manufacture of synthetic ammonia in conjunction with the Ostwald process of obtaining nitric oxides and nitric acid by combustion of the ammonia have created the impression that, in the near future, such ammonia will be the principal raw material for nitric-acid manufacture. Colour is lent to this view by the economic failure of the arc process unless under exceptionally favourable con- ditions, and by the price conditions obtaining in the nitrate of soda and sulphuric acid markets. Economically, and on general principles, such an assumption seems unsound provided there is an assured output for all the synthetic ammonia produced, because even if the loss on conversion is small, it is irrational to make ammonia in plant involving high capital costs if nitric acid could be made direct in cheaper plant at the same cost. Recent developments in the Hausser process have brought the com- mercial realisation of this statement within sight. The details and theory of the Hiausser process were briefly discussed, and it was shown that the impending trials with a 1,500-litre bomb are likely to lead to commercial yields. Modern alloys and stainless steel have assisted in overcoming difficulties in wear and corrosion, and the volume of the absorption-tower system: has been reduced to one-sixtieth FF2 422 SECTIONAL COMMUNICATIONS. of the normal by absorption under 3 atmospheres pressure in chromium- nickel-steel towers. Although bombs have proved perfectly satisfactory in operation, there remains the possibility of substituting a gas-engine, or preferably a modified type of Humphrey pump, for the explosion bombs. It is possible that a greater percentage of the calorific value of the gases or liquid fuels used could thus be converted into useful energy. Such plant would necessarily be of a more complicated nature than a bomb installation, and it is doubtful whether there would be any real gain on balance. Finally, the importance of using gases of higher calorific value as giving higher temperatures and yields is emphasised, and methods are indicated by which coke-oven and similar gases can be enriched to meet these conditions. It is suggested that Hausser plants can be usefully developed either as adjuncts to synthetic ammonia plants, at coke-oven plants, or in places where liquid fuel is cheap and the cost of making nitric acid is relatively high Dr. E. B. Maxtep.—Some Aspects of the Relation between Water Power and Nitrogen Fixation.—Nitrogen fixation processes involve two economic factors, power and material, the relative importance of which will determine not only the most suitable site in a given country, but also the practicability of the method under given geographical and mineralogical conditions. For the are process the availability of cheap electrical energy is the determining factor, whilst the ammonia process is comparatively independent of such conditions, cyanamide occupying an intermediate position. In 1914 some 50,000 tons of British anthra- cite were exported to Norway for the manufacture of carbide. Under British conditions, except for the manufacture of nitric acid as such, probably only the cyanamide and the ammonia synthesis processes are practicable. The ammonia process would be almost independent of power but for the fact that the hydrogen may be manufactured electro- lytically as an alternative to the process in which water-gas is prepared from fuel. The Water Power Resources Committee has reported on resources in Great Britain estimated to be capable of producing some 250,000 kw., exclusive of the Severn Estuary scheme. Of the ten Scottish sites reported on favourably only one was estimated to produce over 30,000 kw., and of the five Welsh sites only one over 5,000 kw. Sites producing less than 10,000 kw. are not suitable for cyanamide, whilst the minimum for the synthesis of ammonia has not yet been determined. An average figure for the cost of power at the Scottish sites would be about 30]. on a pre-war basis for each kw. Operating and other costs should not be more than 3 per cent. of the capital cost. Several of the more suitable sites should produce power for about 41.-51. per kw.-year, the cost at certain Norwegian plants being 21.-31. under pre-war con- ditions. A figure of 1s. 7d. per 1,000 cubic feet is obtained for the cost of hydrogen with power at 51. per kw.-year, a figure comparing not unfavourably with the cost from fuel, although nothing has been allowed for the value of the oxygen produced. The electrolytic process, how- ON IMPERIAL CITIZENSHIP. 423 ever, requires a large floor space and a multiplicity of cells, but larger units are now being introduced, and there is room for inyestigation in regard to new uses for oxygen. Assuming a station having 10,000 kw. available, some 5,000-5,500 tons of nitrogen could be fixed per year, either as ammonia or as cyanamide, but the former process would yield some 33,000 cubic feet of oxygen per hour, whereas the cyanamide would require coal and lime to be brought to the site. Against this is the greater simplicity of the cyanamide process, and the necessity of fixing the ammonia by an acid, unless partly converted into nitric acid or used as anhydrous ammonia or aqueous solution. Mr. E. Krzsurn Scorr considered that the are process still had many advantages, and that Scottish plants could produce power at 4]. per kw.-year. The arc process was the only one capable of utilising off-peak power. Calcium nitrate was the most efficient of all fertilisers. IMPERIAL CITIZENSHIP. By The Rt. Hon. LORD MEsTON, K.C.S.J. THERE are two aspects from which it is possible to approach Imperial Citizenship—distinct, but supplementary to each other, and in no sense antagonistic. From one point of view Imperial Citizenship is an emotion and an ideal, the foundation and essence of patriotism. In Patriotism you have the white flame which blazes out in protection of country or empire; in Citizenship you have the steady glow which warms men’s hearts to a pride in their heritage and to a determination to do their share in making it still more worthy of living for or dying for. The ideal is for every member of the community to qualify him- self or herself for true citizenship—that function which Aristotle defined as a partnership in the legislative and judicial power of the State. Thus qualified, the body of citizens would form the perfect State. It is not my purpose to attempt to describe the strides which in our own English-speaking lands are being made towards this ideal, or to touch on the lines along which further advance may develop. _ It is not on this aspect of the question that I propose to dwell further ‘than to express the fervent belief that Imperial Citizenship, wisely taught to our young and prudently guided in our adults, is capable ol becoming a power for the regeneration of the world. The ideal has been temporarily dimmed by. the reactions of the War and the painful readjustment of social conditions which is now in progress over a greater _ part of the world; but if we in this country and in our great self- governing Dominions have any faith in our Imperial calling, we must unite in every effort to establish it as a religion for the future. The other aspect of the question, and that to which I wish par- ticularly to invite your attention, is Imperial Citizenship as a status. From this point of view we are faced by problems which can never be absent from the thoughts of any man who has had to handle the issues of practical administration. It will thus be no small satisfaction to 424 SECTIONAL COMMUNICATIONS. many that the British Association has found itself able to include the subject in its programme, for few questions of its kind are more com- plex, and any light which can be thrown upon it to-day will be valued as a contribution to the work of consolidating and strengthening our Empire State. The complexity of the topic is at once apparent when we search for a definition of the status implied in Imperial Citizenship. ‘ Citizen’ per se has a wider connotation than ‘resident.’ It suggests certain privileges and certain responsibilities, enjoyed and shared in common by all who call themselves citizens. A citizen, as we understand the term, has a right to enter any part of his State, and has when resident the same rights to live, to earn a livelihood, to be protected by the laws, to vote for the Legislature and to sit in the Legislature, on the same con- ditions as his neighbours. He is also required to obey the laws, to pay taxes, and to share in the defence of the country on the same conditions as his neighbours. This, you will probably agree, is a minimum statement of the rights and duties of a citizen in any area in his State, whether he was born in that area or migrated from another part of the same State. It provides, in other words, a working definition of citizenship as a status. Is there anything which can be defined in corresponding language if for ‘ State ’ we substitute ‘ British Empire’? We know that in practice there is not. A Maori or a Punjabi coming to Hull would be admitted, and would acquire the British citizenship enjoyed by all other natural- born subjects of the Crown in this city. But if he went to certain other parts of our Dominions he would not be allowed to acquire the same status as his neighbours; he might even be refused admission. Similarly, a native of Hull, migrating to Toronto or Melbourne, would soon find himself in possession of the same civic rights as the established residents of those cities; but if he went to the Transkei territories of Cape Colony he would have to accept certain special disabilities; and if he went to India he would be ineligible for certain privileges open to Indians. For these various restrictions there are different reasons, and in every case an explanation. But I am not concerned for the moment with their reasonableness or otherwise; I am merely making the point that Imperial Citizenship, as a status of universal and uniform validity throughout the Empire, does not exist. Its sphere is subject to large reservations, geographical and ethnical. In the circumstances, how could it be otherwise? The British Empire has been described as a great slice, like a gigantic geological section, cut through the whole social and racial stratification of the world, the various strata representing different types of civilisation, bewildering in their variety. At one end of the section is our own | Anglo-Saxon type. Adjoining it are the débris of Asiatic cultures, far more ancient than our own, but also more rigid and less progressive. Then comes the theocratic mass of Islam, heterogeneous to a degree, but at one for the Koran and its sword. And so on, until we ultimately traverse the primitive society of the Bantu races in Africa, and reach at the further limit of the section the pure barbarism of the Australian aborigines or the Bushmen of the Cape. ON IMPERIAL CITIZENSHIP, 425 In such a medley any common standard of civic consciousness or rights or duties is clearly unthinkable. And the most distant avenues of approach to a common platform are barred by obstacles which at present appear unsurmountable. There are antipathies of all sorts, some natural and inevitable, others unworthy, which debar two types of civilisation from assisting each other to a common civic status. There is sheer prejudice—the hubris, it may be, of a conquering race, or ignorance and insularity. There is often the natural resentment of a community, weak either in itself or in comparison with the task it has undertaken, for example, in settling a new country—its natural resentment against the competition of another community. Among the higher and older types of culture there is a horror of miscegenation and an instinctive erecting of barriers against it. In a hundred tangible and intangible ways the opportunities of working towards communal standards of life are refused, even if the capacity for achieving them were much greater than in fact it is. But the essential truth to which we must always return is that the uniform and universal status of Imperial citizenship is unattainable so long as there are grave divergencies of civilisation applied to the ordinary observances of life. All this, it may be said, is merely wrapping up in abstract phrases the concrete fact that certain white communities in the Empire will not permit members of other or coloured communities to live alongside them on terms of civic equality. I agree; but its purpose is to emphasise the radical nature of the problem of the extension of Imperial Citizen- ship, and the futility of any ready-made solution. For the contrary view appeal is still made occasionally to the edict of Caracalla, in which, by a stroke of the pen, he conferred the Roman citizenship upon all the free-born inhabitants of the Roman Empire. Historians have, of course, long discounted the value of that theatrical coup, which apparently had for its sole object the replenishment of the Emperor's treasury by making the provincials amenable to taxation from which as subjects they had been free ; Gibbon, with his usual insight, describes it as conferring ‘the vain title and the real obligations of Roman citizens.’ This is clearly not a precedent for us to follow. Nor is there any permanent value in a more modern solution, adopted by our own Imperial Conference in 1917, the principle of reciprocity. It was put forward to meet the grievances of Indians regarding their position in the self-governing Dominions; but, apart from the fact that it breaks down when applied to the Crown Colonies, it is obviously a mere tem- porary palliative, and a dangerous palliative inasmuch as reciprocity may at any time degenerate into retaliation. And yet the problem, I would repeat, is of high importance. It is also of considerable urgency, for claims to civic status are constantly being pressed by or for communities from whom it has been withheld. Such claims are likely to become more insistent as calls are made on those communities for common services or for conformity with common standards. And they have now a permanent basis in the growth of racial consciousness, in what Mr. Lothrop Stoddard calls the rising tide of colour. Urged frequently, it may be, with more appreciation of the rights than of the duties of citizenship, they are meant primarily 426 SECTIONAL COMMUNICATIONS. as a protest against implied racial inferiority, as an assertion of racial self-respect. Unless we can find some means of handling them in that sense, | apprehend that the result will be increasing embarrassment in our task of Imperial unity. It will certainly be a growing lack of spontaneity on the part of the claimants in their response to future Imperial calls upon them. An earlier and a nobler Roman than Caracalla had envisaged a similar problem. When Julius Cesar turned his marvellous genius to the construction of Imperial Rome, to the conversion of the City State into a Mediterranean Empire, he laid his plans on wider and more generous lines than were revealed to any of his successors. His policy, as interpreted by Mommsen, was to secure ‘ unity in those institutions which express the general life of nations—in constitution and adminis- tration, in religion and jurisprudence, in monéy, measures and weights.’ After a lapse of 2,000 years it would not be easy to improve on this catalogue of the essentials of Imperial unity. Some of the items are not of the same importance as in the ancient world; diversity of weights and measures has been rendered innocuous by commercial ingenuity, and diversity of monetary standards has yielded to the agreeable subtle- ties of exchange. But unity of constitution and administration, of religion and jurisprudence, remains the ideal foundation for a common citizenship. Religion, indeed, though some of us are old-fashioned enough to consider it the most important of the four, must for our present purposes be left out of the picture. The official adoption of a new faith presented little difficulty to the world of Julius Cesar’s day, and the Roman pantheon was often opened, by way of settling theclogical controversies, to the adoption of gods from another creed. Religious compromise is not so easy in our days; but in place of absorp- tion we have learned tolerance, and the forcible conversion of subject races has gone out of fashion. In laying out the lines of Imperial Citizenship, therefore, we must assume that Christianity will work independently of the State. We must also aim at a scheme of civic duties which can be fulfilled and civic rights which can be exercised without prejudice to, and without being prejudiced by, the religious practices of the individual citizen. May we take it, then, that the qualifications for full Imperial Citizen- ship are (1) the attainment of a similar type of constitution, (2) sub- mission to a uniform system of administration, and (3) the acceptance of a common code of jurisprudence? [ think it will be found that these underlie and support the whole sphere of civic rights and duties which we have in our mind. For by a common jurisprudence we mean not only obedience to the same set of laws, but a ready support to the authority which enforces them ; we mean equality of all men before the laws, and equal justice in their execution; and we mean a standard of commercial and public morality which the spirit of the law inculcates, though its letter cannot always impose it. Similarly, by a uniform system of administration we imply the acceptance of such regulation of the incidents of everyday life as the general sense of the community demands, particularly in regard to education, industry, sanitation, and public health. And by unity of constitution I conceive that we should : world which is nearest our own in its civilisation, traditions, and philo- sophy ; and India’s commanding position in our commerce and foreign t | ON IMPERIAL CITIZENSHIP, 427 expect a reasonable adherence to the theory and practice of democracy, so far as we have developed them in those parts of our Empire which have made most progress towards political freedom. Tf these are the qualifications for admission to full Imperial Citizen- ship, it is clear that some of the members of our great Imperial federa- tion have a long way to travel before they can possibly acquire them. Some, indeed, cannot hope to reach them within any measurable period ; and, so far as we can foresee, there must remain certain classes of our fellow-subjects whose civic status must be imperfect and limited in any part of the Empire. But there are other and far more numerous and important classes which are nearer the desired standard, and the task to our hand is to help them on towards the goal. I thus come to the particular angle from which I was invited to participate in this discussion as the representative of India. And I make no excuse for taking India as the outstanding type of those higher races to whom the status of Imperial Citizenship is a question of practical politics and immediate interest. It is the stratum of our Imperial section of the policy raises the question of its status into the first rank of importance. The issue, it must be admitted, has only recently become acute. Since India became a part of the British Empire it has enjoyed little time or opportunity for anything outside its own borders. It long accepted the position of tutelage, and left us to look after its international concerns. It was fully occupied with its own domestic affairs, with its recurring sectarian troubles, and its own reachings-out after political liberty. Poverty and ignorance have played their part in checking any wider outlook or aspirations. For the small minority who could rise above those crushing handicaps, the preoccupations of industrial advance and constitutional change left little space for Imperial issues. Unfor- tunately, too, some of the earlier points of contact with those issues originated, so far as India was concerned, in episodes of a secondary and sordid character ; for the first stirrings of an Imperial consciousness were aroused by the grievances of Indians who had emigrated as indentured labourers to our sugar-growing Colonies. Disclosures of the treatment which many of those emigrants received in Fiji were certainly not calculated to encourage a sense of citizenship. They evoked bitter resentment in India against our Colonies, and discredited the whole system of emigration under contract. Then followed the grievance of differential legislation, municipal and otherwise, against Indians in South Africa. This was nothing new, for I remember, as far back as 1906, talking with a group of Sindhi traders in the Pretoria market-place, and being assured by them that they had been better off under the Kruger régime than they were under the British. This feeling grew until the belief became general in India that helotry, and not citizenship, was the status designed for Indians in several of our British Possessions. __ The spreading agitation on the subject was silenced by the War. With it there came a spontaneous outburst of loyalty, a temporary shelving of grievances, and—among all the best elements in India—a ‘ 428 SECTIONAL COMMUNICATIONS. claim to share in our Imperial obligations and dangers. When this claim was acknowledged, when Indian armies and many millions of Indian gold were thrown into our military resources, the whole question necessarily rose to another level. Indian soldiers were placed on an equality in the field with their British and Dominion comrades. Why, asked Indian thinkers, should not the same principle of equality be extended to the relationships of peace? Why, inparticular, should not — India participate in the new world of freedom and justice and emancipa- tion for the weaker nations and self-determination, which we were fighting to establish? These questionings survived and grew louder when war was over. British statesmen answered them by certain formal acts and declarations of recognition of India as a partner in our Imperial federation. She was admitted into the League of Nations; her representatives signed the Treaty of Versailles ; her nominees were included in the Imperial Cabinets and Imperial Conferences which, originating under the stress of war, have been continued as a permanent feature in the unwritten Constitution of our Commonwealth. When Indian politicians, however, came to translate those cere- monial courtesies into the terms of practical citizenship, they found themselves face to face with a totally different interpretation of India’s status in certain of the Dominions and Colonies. The test case was — that of Kenya (British East Africa), where definite disabilities had been imposed on Indian settlers—segregation in the towns, a refusal of the — franchise, and a refusal of proprietary rights in certain areas. This particular case is still, so to speak, swb judice, so that no opinion need — be expressed upon its merits. And from the Indian point of view also — discussion is in a sense suspended, as the wise course has been taken of sending Mr. Sastri, one of the most judicious and brilliant of India’s public men, on a mission round the Empire to urge upon the various Dominion Governments the claims of Indians to citizenship. It may be assumed that the whole position will be brought into its proper per-_ spective when he returns and reports the results of his negotiations. Meanwhile, and without anticipating Mr. Sastri’s conclusions, 1 think we may usefully reflect on certain considerations—considerations, ; it may be, of expediency, but none the less cogent—which make for the earliest possible admission, under proper conditions, of India into — the charmed circle of Imperial Citizenship. At the moment, unhappily, — we must treat her two great communities, the Hindus and the Mahomedans, separately. Think of their respective outlook on the — world beyond India, whether within or without the British Empire. The Hindu theory of life in its extreme form, as preached by Mr. Gandhi and cherished by a large section of the orthodox, is rooted in a philosophy which finds all that is necessary for man in an archaic and — exclusive social system, and lays a complicated embargo on all social relations with the rest of mankind who are not born into that system. Fortunately, men are generally better than their philosophies, and there — is much tolerance and compromise in Hindu practice. But the forces of reaction are never at rest, and there is constant pressure on the Hindu mind to retire within the ancient battlements of Hinduism, and to exclude all traffic with the West or its methods of human organisation. 7 ON IMPERIAL CITIZENSHIP, 429 If this movement should ever prevail, our work in India would be largely undone, and her Imperial value greatly impaired. Against such a calamity there are several lines of insurance, but the extension of Imperial Citizenship is certainly not one of the least promising. Turn next to the Moslems of India. Among them, as among their co-religionists in Egypt, Arabia, and Persia, there is a definite move- ment towards the solidarity of Islam and the weakening of any temporal allegiance to non-Islamic powers. It has taken various forms, and to-day we know it best in India under the guise of the Caliphate agita- tion, the embers of which may flare out again with the recent successes of Turkey in Asia Minor. Anti-Christian bigotry is never wholly absent from it, but so far as India is concerned its underlying motive is, and has always been, a craving for some wider nationality than a country in which Hinduism is in the ascendant both numerical and intellectual. While, therefore, there can be no rest till the Mahomedans of India _ are persuaded that it is their country rather than some vague pan- Islamic paradise, it will ease the situation enormously in the meantime if we can offer them that larger horizon for which they long, not in a visionary world-empire of Islam, but in the real world-empire of which they are already members. The extension of Imperial Citizenship to India is thus more than a step in social progress; it is a paramount political necessity. At this crisis of its fate India needs guidance and inspiration—the guidance of an ideal which will outshine the will-o’-the-wisps now hovering near its path, the inspiration of an emotion nobler and more humane than some of those which now distort its vision. We can provide the ideal and the emotion in the conception on which this paper is based, if we can offer the status in which they are generated. The difficulties are far from negligible, and it would be foolish to underrate them. It cannot be pretended that India as a nation has attained the qualifications, if we enumerated them fairly, which are required for full Imperial Citizenship. A large and growing number of individual Indians are fully qualified, but it is not with them that our Dominions or most of our Colonies are familiar. The emigrants, espe- cially to our tropical and sub-tropical possessions, are largely drawn from lower and less desirable classes, and there are complaints of their inability to conform to sanitary and other standards which the local authorities find it necessary to enforce. Behind these obstacles there generally lie the clash of economic interests and the determination of a sparse white population not to be swamped by coloured settlers. What, then, is to be done? While we recognise valid objections to the indiscriminate extension of the privileges of citizenship to Indians, how are we to bring those objections home and to satisfy India that we are not actuated by selfish prejudice or racial hauteur? While we assert our willingness to open the doors of our citizenship to India at the earliest possible moment, how are we to persuade India of our sincerity and to stay her impatience and her suspicions? These are the pressing questions before you and me to-day; and by way of con- tribution to answering them I suggest (at least, as a basis for discussion) that our course is a threefold one. 430 SECTIONAL COMMUNICATIONS, In the first place, in those parts of the Empire where the question of Indian emigration and settlement is controversial there should be at once a perfectly frank discussion of the issues between India and the © Dominion or Colony concerned, and, if necessary, an inquiry by an | impartial tribunal, such as a Royal Commission. Much good, and comparatively little harm, will come from a full and open examination of both sides of the question, each party being given a chance of appreciating the other’s point of view, and the avenues to understanding and compromise being explored on the spot. I am sure that anything is better than the present long-distance bombardments between the India Office and the Colonial Office, with the uneasy feeling that the British Cabinet could stop the action if it wished. With all the facts and all the sentiments and all the prejudices (if you like) before them, a competent Royal Commission could suggest lines of negotiation, if not a settlement, which would allay the growing acerbities of the situa- tion. It may quite well be that, for emigrants into certain areas, the status of citizenship must be deferred or limited or restricted numerically. Circumstances exist in which such a step would be perfectly reason- able, and if taken with India’s consent would in no sense be derogatory to her self-respect or to steady progress towards full achievement. In the second place, those of us who believe in Imperial Citizenship as a force in the world’s progress will do well to see to it that it is preached among ourselves, not as a doctrine for the white races alone, but as an evangel for all the higher strata of civilisation in our Common- wealth. In this, as in so many other matters which are vital to human harmony, we have always to be at the difficult task of trying to ‘ get into the other man’s skin.” We have to remember, and to convince others, that where the status of our Imperial Citizenship is envied and sought for it is a gift which should be ungrudgingly given if at all, for it will surely bring its own rewards. Of these, an increased loyalty is only one; there are others, more subtle and not less valuable—an upward growth towards our Imperial standards, and a steady elimination of such national weaknesses as are incompatible with our Imperial ideals. These are worth some temporary sacrifice and discomfort on our part. Tn the third place, returning more particularly to India, we have a mighty task of co-operative effort before us in that country. I am not here to talk politics, but you will probably agree with me that, in her new Constitution, and on the peculiar terms in which we have under- taken its development, India has been placed in the perfectly unique position of being invited to choose her own future, and of being assured protection while she is engaged in working it out. There is a section of Indian opinion—to whose reactionary doctrines I have already referred—who profess the belief that India can move, without our aid, towards her own national organisation. There is another section which, if properly supported, will (I believe) in the end prevail. It looks to us for assistance and co-operation in a problem for which its own experience is not yet adequate. That problem is neither more nor less than the fulfilment of those conditions for full Imperial Citizenship which we were considering at the outset—just and uniform laws, a public spirit which actively co-operates in their enforcement, a standard ‘4 ON IMPERIAL CITIZENSHIP, 431 of commercial and public morality which will make India respected among the nations of the world; a steadily rising standard of efficiency in education, public health, and industrial life; a growing acceptance of democratic principle and practice. The edifice should be an imposing one, for the country has all the makings of greatness and the material is vast. ‘The foundations are there, in India’s own best traditions and in our labours of the last two centuries. We have now got to help in the superstructure. The duty is one that calls for a more intelligent knowledge of India, and a closer interest in her affairs, than have always obtained in the past, either in this country or in the Dominions. Stimulated by that knowledge and that interest, we have it in our power to inoculate our own people with a sense of their responsibility for India. It must no longer be the plaything of political parties, or the stalking-horse of cranks. It must be induced to feel that the thinking British public is committed to assist in its advancement towards a real, and not a merely ceremonial partnership in our Imperial federation. In this way I believe we shall keep it steadfast on the road to Imperial Citizenship. In opening my story I proposed to approach our subject from the point of view of status rather than of emotion. In dealing with India, I am conscious of having occasionally confused the two aspects. The truth is that they are inseparable. Without the status, we need not look for the spirit. Give the status, and it is our earnest belief that _ the spirit will abound, for it is the spirit that will make us live. Our. Empire has not been built up on the blood and toil of subject-races ; it does not rest on tribute, and it will grow in greatness only so long as it abides by the mighty principles on which it has been nurtured in the past, only so long as it remains an association of free peoples, working out their own development each in its own way, but united in a form of brotherhood which will transcend differences of colour and creed, and will find its expression, in an ever-increasing measure, in terms of an Imperial Citizenship. CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES COMMITTEE. Report of Committee (Mr, T. SHepparp, Vice-Chairman; Dr. FP. A. Batruer, Mr. O. G. S. CrawForp, Professor P. F. Kenpauu, Mr. Marx L. Syxes, Dr. CLarENcE TieRNEy, Professor W. W. Watts, Mr. W. Warraxer, and the PREsIDENT and GENERAL OFFICERS). Drawn up by the General Secretaries. Tue matters referred to the Committee by the Council of the British Associa- tion and reported to the General Committee at the Hull Meeting were considered by the Hull Conference of Delegates (of which the proceedings are appended) and by the Committee itself at Hull. In accordance with the resolutions adopted by the Council, the Conference of Delegates has invited the scientific societies of Liverpool and district, on the occasion of the British Association’s visit in 1923, to consider what further provision, if any, is desirable for co-operation between them for the advance- ment of science; as, for example, for scientific research, for the discussion of regional problems, and for the publication of results. The Committee, in accordance with the Council’s Memorandum (§ 3), has co-opted the following representatives of the scientific societies of Liverpool and its neighbourhood to assist in preparing the programme of the Liverpool Conference of Delegates :— Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, Liverpool Geological Society. Prof. W. J. Dakin, Liverpool Biological Society. Prof. P. M. Roxby, Liverpool Geographical Society. Dr. H. F. Coward, Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. Prof. F. E. Weiss, Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. Mr. T. W. Sowerbutts, Manchester Geographical Society. Mr. W. H. Barker, Manchester Geographical Society. Mr. J. 8. Broome, Warrington Literary and Philosophical Society. The Association of Science and Arts Societies for Gloucester and District, formed in 1921, has submitted to the Conference of Delegates an account of its own organisation, and made the valuable suggestion that local Societies should be encouraged to make such arrangements with the nearest University or University College as may ensure that full use is made of each Society’s membership, premises, and collections in connection with University Extension courses. The Gloucester Association has already made such arrangements with the University of Bristol. The Committee recommended to the Conference of Delegates at Hull that the Kent’s Cavern Committee should be discharged, and that the contributions received by this Committee towards a fund for the purchase of Kent’s Cavern — be returned to the donors, as there is no immediate prospect of purchase. This recommendation was adopted by the Conference, and the Corresponding Societies Committee was asked to keep itself informed of any further excavation which may be projected by the present owner of the cavern. The Committee submits an application-for a grant of 407. for the prepara- tion of its Report and the usual Bibliography. Proposals for the improvement of this Bibliography in conjunction with other bibliographical projects have been laid before the Committee, and will receive its careful consideration. CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. HULL, 1922. The Conference met in the Council Chamber of the Guildhall on Thursday, September 7, at 2 p.m.—Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., in the chair—to consider matters referred to the Conference by the Council of the British Association, as follows :— (a) To consider what steps should be taken, in accordance with the recommendation of the Committee for Corresponding Societies in 1883, to induce local societies to group themselves round local (i.e. district) sub- centres (i) for the interchange of information, (ii) for the more economical publication of the results of research. The constitution and procedure of the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union was described by Mr. T. Sheppard (Hull) and Mr. T. W. Woodhead (Huddersfield) ; that of the Gloucester Association of Science and Arts Societies in a com- munication from Mr. J. H. Beach (Cheltenham), read in his absence by the Secretary; and that of the South-Eastern Union of Scientific Societies by Dr. C. Tierney (Croydon). Mr. A. W. Oke (Brighton) illustrated the diffi- culties of maintaining serial publications at the present high cost of printing, and asked how this affected the status of ‘ Associated’ Societies. It was explained that regular publication was not required to ensure these Societies’ status under the rules (ch. xi. 2, i.). Mr. O. G. S. Crawford (Society of Antiquaries) urged the pooling of local publications within large regional limits, and the concentration of the Societies’ resources on publication of scientific results and on collaborated bibliographies. Dr. F. A. Bather (Museums Association) desired greater uniformity and precision of date and paging in. reprints of articles from serial publications: Arising out of this discussion, the following motions, proposed by Mr. O. G. S. Crawford (Society of Antiquaries), were referred to the Corresponding Societies Committee for consideration and reference to the second session of the Conference : (1) ‘ That steps be taken to publish a single bibliography, at regular intervals, of articles dealing with the archeology of the British Isles’ ; (2) ‘ That when a district is worked by more than one society there should be only one joint journal published in that district.’ (b) To consider whether the Delegates sent to the Conference might be authorised to act as local representatives of the British Association in their respective districts. Questions were asked as to the services which such local representatives might be expected to render to the Association, and the matter was referred to the Corresponding Societies Committee. (c) To consider in what respects the advantages derived by Corre- sponding Societies from their connection with the British Association may be increased or better understood, as, for example, in regard to (a) improved facilities for publication; () help in obtaining lecturers of recognised scientific standing. This matter also was referred to the Corresponding Societies Committee. (d) To consider the proposal made to the Council by the Corresponding Societies Committee : ‘ That all Corresponding Societies, while retaining the power to appoint any member of the British Association as their delegate, may instead (if they so choose) subscribe 1/7. to the British Association and have the right to send two delegates during the year in which the subscription is received.’ It was explained that the Council had postponed consideration of this proposal until the opinion of the Conference of Delegates had been expressed. Dr. F. A. Bather (John Evelyn Club) explained that the object of the proposal was to make it easier for the smaller societies to take part in the Conference. - 434 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, Mr. W. M. Webb (Selborne Society) added that it might ensure the presence of delegates less likely to be distracted by other parts of the Association’s programme than those who were already attending the Meeting as ordinary members. Other speakers deprecated the practice of representing two or more societies by the same delegate, and supported the proposal. Professor H. H. Turner, F.R.S. (General Secretary), considered that the occasional presence of a second or a special delegate might be desirable, and that provision should be made for this. On the other hand, Dr. C. Tierney (South-Eastern Union) thought it undesir- able to provide for the payment of membership fees for delegates by the societies. Mr. Mark L. Sykes (Manchester Microscopical), Mr. Oke (Brighton), and others thought the proposal unnecessary. The adoption of the proposal was formally moved by Mr. T. Sheppard (Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union), and seconded by Sir Richard Gregory (President, Section L), but was negatived on a division (10 votes to 15). (e) Arising out of the previous discussion, a motion was proposed by Professor J. L. Myres (General Secretary), seconded by Dr. E. H. Griffiths, F.R.S. (General Treasurer), and adopted as follows: ‘To request the Corresponding Societies Committee to inquire as to the practice of the Association in regard to the distribution of the annual volume to Associated Societies, and to make recommendations.’ The Conference adjourned until Tuesday, September 12. At this first session 41 delegates were present, representing 49 societies. The Conference adjourned until Tuesday , September 12. At this first ber 12, at 2 p.m., Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., in the chair; delegates present, 32, representing 45 societies. Resolutions arising out of the business of the previous session were submitted by the Corresponding Societies Committee, and adopted as follows for trans- mission to the Committee of Recommendations :— (a) To invite the scientific societies of Liverpool and District, on the occasion of the British Association’s visit in 1923, to consider what further provision, if any, is desirable for co-operation between them in the advance- — ment of science, as, for example, for scientific research, for the discussion — of regional problems, and for the publication of results. (b) To invite the delegates sent to the Conference by the Corresponding — Societies to render any assistance in their power in making known, in their ~ respective districts, the objects and methods of the British Association, and to communicate to the Secretary of the Association the names and — addresses of scientific workers and others to whom the preliminary pro- gramme of the next meeting should be sent. (c) To call the attention of the Council to the inadequacy, discontinuity, and occasional overlap of scientific bibliographies already issued; and to request the Council to consider what steps may be taken, by the Associa- — tion itself or otherwise, to make more systematic provision for the biblio- — graphy of the departments of science represented in the sections of the — Association. (d) To request the Council to make known, in any way which may seem — desirable, to the principal Governmert Departments the essistance which may be obtained by them through the local societies in scientific inquiries involving regional distributions. (e) To call the attention of scientific societies to the necessity of retaining — in all offprints from their publications the original numbering of the pages, and of providing full reference to the date, place, and title of the publica-— tion from which they are extracted. > (f) To call the attention of the Council to the value of the regional © exhibit arranged for the Hull Meeting by the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union, and to suggest that it is desirable that such an exhibit should, if possible, be included regularly in the programme of the Annual Meeting. (7) To inform the Conference of Delegates that the present practice of the Association is to present a copy of the Annual Report to each Society CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES. 435 sending a delegate to the Conference, recognising the practice by which one delegate sometimes represents more than one Society, and to recommend that in future no delegate be entitled to more than one copy, however many Societies he may represent; but that, if any Society desires a copy of the Report, it may be supplied at the reduced price of 10s. (h) To apply to the Committee of Recommendations for a grant of 401. for the preparation of the Report of the Conference and the annual | Bibliography. (i) To recommend that the Kent’s Cavern Committee be not reappointed. In regard to the last resolution, the President explained that there is at present no prospect of acquiring Kent’s Cavern for the nation, and that certain subscriptions already offered to the Committee will be returned to the donors. Suggestions for more careful record of the results of any excavations which may be made by the present owner of Kent’s Cavern were submitted by Mr. Mark IL. Sykes (Manchester Microscopical), Mrs. ‘Forbes Julian (Torquay), and Miss Nina Layard (East Anglia), and referred to the Corresponding Societies Committee. Suggestions for co-ordinated work by the members of Corresponding . Societies were received from the Committees of Sections of the British Association, as follows :— Section C (Geology) recommends, as a subject for systematic research by ; the Corresponding Societies, the study of ‘Peat Beds and Submerged Forests.’ Section H (Anthropology) commends to the Conference the proposal for an ; ‘International Institute of Archeology in Rome,’ in special regard to its scheme for a bibliography of archeological literature. Section H (Anthropology) recommends that an urgent and useful work for local societies would be to assist the Folklore Society in collecting and organising the material still required to complete the information necessary for the contemplated new edition of Brand and Ellis’ ‘ Vulgar Antiquities,’ which has been long out of date. Section K (Botany) calls the attention of the Conference to its Committee on a ‘Primary Botanical Survey in Wales,’ which desires local help in its researches. A vote of thanks to the President of the Conference was moved by Dr. F. A. Bather, seconded by Dr. J. G. Garson, and carried unanimously. The Con- ference then adjourned. 1922 GG LIST OF PAPERS REARING UPON THE ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, AND PREHISTORIC ARCHASOLOGY OF THE BRITISH ISLES, ISSUED DURING 1921. By T. Suepparp, M.Sc., 7.G.S., The Museum, Hull. Zoology. Anon. Bird Ventriloquists. Animal World. Feb., pp. 20-21. HT | pee Penk MEARE The 477th General Meeting. Ann. Rep. and Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc., pp. 119-120. Conversazione [Exhibits]. Ann. Rep. Belfast Nat. F. Club. Vol. VIII., pt. 1., pp. 119-121. I ‘ Exhibition. Ann. Rep. Gresham’s School Nat. Hist. Soc., 1921, p. 7. Manchester Microscopical Society. Reports on Summer Rambles. Ann. Rep. Manch. Micro. Soc., 1920, p. 86. ; , Report of the Council of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society. Ann. Rep. York Phil. Soc. for 1920, pp. vi-xvui. Donations to Museum and Library, tom. cit., pp. Xxix-xXxxviii. Economic Ornithology. Bird Notes and News. Vol. IX., No. 6, pp. 42-43. Notes, tom. cit., pp. 46-47. A Good Record, tom. cit., p. 48. Notes. Brit. Birds, Feb., pp. 211-212; Mar., pp. 236-238; Oct., pp. 118- 120. Snow-Goose in Essex and Greater Snow-Goose in Scotland, tom. cit., May, p. 282. Buzzards taking from Surface of Water. A Correction, tom. cit. Sept., 2s Notes from the Laboratories. A Stain-producing Mould on Pigskin, Plant Pests, and Grain Pests. Bull. Bureau Bio-Technology. No. 2, pp. 50-52. Notes and Comments, tom. cit., No. 3, pp. 79-82. Micro-Organisms in the Leather Industries, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 87-101. Note and Comments, tom. cit., pp. 108-113. Tragedy of Greed. Country Life. Jan. 22, p. 110. Tawny Owl, tom. cit. Jan. 29, p. 139. Great Grey Seal of the Hebrides, tom. cit. Jan. 29, p. 146. National Trust Properties as Bird Sanctuaries, tom. cit. Feb. 5, pp. 151- 152. Bittern in Devonshire, tom. cit. Feb. 19, p. 229. Nature on the Film, tom. cit. Mar. 12, pp. 299-301. Bird Criminals, tom. cit. Apr. 16, p. 476. Tawny Owl in Daylight, tom. cit. June 11, p. 737. Haunts of the Nightingale, tom. cit. June 4, pp. 665-668. Artistic Beetle [Scolytus], tom. cit. June 4, p. 686. Nightingale in London, tom. cit. June 11, p. 736. Bees in a Hollow Wall, tom. cit. Aug. 13, p. 207. Fidelity of Swallows, tom. cit. Sept. 24, p. 396. Habits of the Little Owl, tom. cit. Nov. 19, p. 667. Tree-top Country, tom. cit. Dec. 10, pp. 775-778. Migration of Woodpigeons, tom. cit. Dec. 24, p. 864. Obituary [George B. Browne], Ent. Jan., p. 24. The South London Entomological and Natural History Society, tom. cit., June, pp. 151-152; Oct., pp. 237-238. Entomological Society of London, tom. cit. Nov., pp. 271-272; Dec., pp. 299-300. Obituary [Louis Compton Miall], Ent. Mo. Mag., Apr., pp. 93-94. Obituary [John Clarke Hawkshaw], tom. cit., p. 94. A Black Variety of Papilio machaon in Norfolk, tom. cit. Sept., p. 209. Entomological Society of London, tom. cit. Sept., pp. 212-213. LIST OF PAPERS, 1921. 437 Anon. London Natural History Society [Report], tom. cit. Nov., pp. 263-264 ; lalete |) 4 PETER TE TTD | PTET EPTTELE EEA EPA Ent., Dec., p. 301. South London Entomological and Natural History Society [Report], tom. cit. Nov., pp. 262-263. Insect Pests in Leeds and Horsforth, tom. cit. Nov., p. 262. Entomological Society of London [Report], tom. cit. Nov., p. 264; Ent. Rec. Dec., pp. 218-219. Current Notes and Short Notices, tom. cit. Mar., p. 57; May, pp. 96- 98; June, p. 118; Oct., pp. 160-162; Nov., pp. 178-179. Lancashire and Cheshire Entomological Society, tom. cit., pp. 57-59; July, pp. 139-140; Nov., pp. 182-183. The Entomological Society of London, tom. cit. Apr., pp. 78-80; June, pp- 118-120; July, pp. 134-138 ; Oct., p. 163; Nov., pp. 179-180. Mosquito Investigation, tom. cit. Nov., pp. 200-201. The South London Entomological and Natural History Society [Reports], Ent. Rec., Feb., pp. 38-40; Mar., pp. 58-59; May, pp. 98-99; July, pp. 188-139 ; Oct., p. 164; Nov., pp. 180-182 ; Dec., pp. 300-301. South London Entomological Society [Report], tom. cit. Nov., p. 203. The Essex Field Club—Reports of Meetings. Hssex Nat. Vol. XIX., pt. Iv., pp. 250-261, pt. v., pp. 307-326. Bittern Shot at Maldon, tom. cit., p. 326. Bird Life at Ranelagh. Field. Jan. 8, p. 49. Fledgling Herons and their Feeding, tom. cit. Jan. 15, p. 65. Wild Cats in Ross-shire, tom. cit. Jan. 22, p. 97. Snow Goose in Essex, tom. cit. Jan. 29, p. 126. Variety of Badger. Field. Feb. 12, p. 213. Accident to a Rook, loc. cit. Singular Accident to a Rook. Field. Feb. 19, p. 248. Pine Marten in Caithness, loc. cit. Wild Cat from Scotland, loc. cit. Kingfisher [? Nuthatch] on Bird Tray, tom. cit Mar. 5, p. 299. Curious Accident to a Woodpigeon, tom. cit. Mar. 26, p. 404. Pine Marten in Sutherland. Field. Apr. 2, p. 439. Arrival of Summer Birds, tom. cit. Apr. 2, p. 438; Apr. 9, p. 468; Apr. 16, p. 498; Apr. 23, p. 511; Apr. 30, p. 538; May 7, p. 585; May 14, p. 599; May 21, p. 657. Wild Cat in Scotland, tom. cit. Apr. 9, p. 469. Migration of Woodcock, tom. cit. Apr. 16, p. 498. Fatal Fight between Eagles, loc. cit. Snow Goose in Kirkcudbrightshire, tom. cit. Apr. 23, p. 511. Waxwing in Warwickshire, loc. cit. Unusual Situation for a Capercaillie, tom. cit. Apr. 30, p. 538. Glossy Ibis in Somerset, tom. cit. May 14, p. 599. Black-veined Brown in Britain, tom. cit. May 28, p. 685. American Robin in Staffordshire, tom. cit. June 4, p. 710. Moorhen Occupying more than one Nest, tom. cit. June 11, p. 749. Grey Shrike and Dartford Warbler in Staffordshire, tom. cit. June 1), p. 749; July 2, p. 33. Greenland Falcon, tom. cit. July 2, p. 33. Little Owl in Captivity, luc. cit. Badgers, tom. cit., p. 206; p. 303. Scarcity of Quail, tom. cit. Aug. 13, p. 232. Nesting Habits of Moorhen, tom. cit. Sept. 3, p. 329. Fate of a Butterfly, tom. cit. Sept. 17, p. 385. Little Owl in Northumberland, tom. cit. Nov. 12, p. 635. Brit. Birds. May 1922, p. 297. Habits of the Nuthatch, tom. cit. Dec. 17, pp. 775-776. Water Rail trapped by Mussel, tom. cit. Dec. 17, p. 776. Dance of Partridges, tom. cit. Dec. 17, p. 766. Snow Goose at Harlow. VFicld. Jan. 29, p. 126. Hssex Nat. Apr., . 824, Be pherry Gall-Fly (Lasioptera rubt). Gard. Chron., Apr. 2, p. 166. GG@z 438 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. Anon. Leaf-rolling Sawfly on Roses, tom. cit. June 4, p. 276. Pear anenaeee treenhouse White Fly, tom. cit. Dec., p. 295. pioceetingé of the [Glasgow Nat. Hist.] Society. Glasgow Nat. Dec., pp. 164-175. Excursions, tom. cit., pp. 176-186. _ Recent Records of Irish Birds. Jrish Nat. Mar., p. 40. Dublin Naturalists’ Field Club, tom. cit. Feb., p. 22; Mar., p. 39; Apr., . 50. Dublin Microscopical Club, tom. cit. Jan., p. 13; Mar., pp. 37-38; June, . 67. Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club, tom. cit. Jan., pp. 14-15; Feb., p. 22; Mar., pp. 38-39; Apr., p. 50; May, pp. 60-61; June, p. 68. Whales and Dolphins stranded on the Irish Coast during 1919 and 1920, tom. cit. June, pp. 71-72. ‘ Royal Zoological Society [additions], tom. cit. Apr., p. 51; May, pp. 58- 60; Sept., p. 112. Dublin Naturalists’ Field Club, tom. cit. Nov., pp. 132-133. Proceedings of the Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Journ. Conch. Jan., pp. 159-161. Annual Report, tom. cit., pp. 161-162. 496th Meeting held at the Manchester Museum, Nov. 10, 1920, tom. cit., pp. 163-164. Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. Report of the Council, 1920. Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc. Sept., pp. 562-567. ‘Isle of Wight ’ Disease of Bees. Journ. Minis. Agric. Apr., pp. 78-81. Lancashire and Cheshire Entomological Society [Report]. anc. and Ches. Nat. Apr., p. 218. Manchester Microscopical Society, tom. cit. May, p. 238. Liverpool Botanical Society [Report of], tom. cit. Sept., pp. 92-96. Theory of Ancestral Heredity [abs.]. Zinn. Soc. Circular. No. 389, pp. 5-6. Fishery Investigations : Series I. : Freshwater Fisheries and Miscellaneous. Vol. 2, No. 1. Methods of Fish-Canning in England. Minis. of Agric. and Visheries, 25 pp. Coccidiosis in Rabbits and Poultry. Minis. Agric. and Fisheries. Leaflet No. 364, pp. 1-7. Beeswax, tom. cit. No. 378, 4 pp. Some new Natural History Books. Nat. Jan., pp. 26-29. Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union Fifty-ninth Annual Report for 1920, tom. cit. Jan., pp. 33-47. In Memoriam. Dr. L. CO: Miall, F.R.S., tom. cit. May, pp. 183-184. Yorkshire Naturalists at South Cave, tom. cit. June, pp, 213-216. British Mammals: Birds as Parents : The Scarcity of Swallows : Barley Pests : Ambleside Birds : Whales, tom. cit. Sept., pp. 289-300. Birds (at Wentworth], tom. cit. Sept., p. 307. Coleoptera [at Wentworth], Joc. cit. Hymenoptera [at Wentworth], loc. cit. Neuroptera [at Wentworth], loc. cit. Trichoptera [at Wentworth], loc. cit. Lepidoptera [at Wentworth], loc. cit. Copper in Crustacea, tom. cit. Oct., p. 325. Toxic Root interference in Plants. Nature. Jan. 20, pp. 666-667. [Effects of the discharge of oil into the Sea], tom. cit. Feb. 3, pp. 737-738. Obituary [Dr. G. B. Longstaff], tom. cit. May 26, p. 401. Obituary [Peter Donald Malloch], tom. cit. June 16, p. 498. The Royal Society Conversazione, tom. cit. May 19, pp. 377-379. Crossbill in County Wicklow. Oologists’ Rec. Dec., p. 103. Studies of Photo-synthesis in Marine Algew.—I. Fixation of Carbon and Nitrogen from Inorganic Sources in Sea Water. II. Increase of Alka- linity of Sea Water as a Measure of Photo-synthesis. Proc. Roy. Soc., Ser. B. Vol, 92, pp. 51-60, : — Ete | LIST OF PAPERS, 1921. 439 Anon. Extant Fauna: Additions to Museum. Records of Bucks. Vol. X1., No. 3, p. 162. ; : Ornithological List. Rep. Marlb. Coll. Nat. Hist. Soc. No. 69, pp. 14-19. Entomological List, tom cit., pp. 23-27. ! Fisheries in the Great War, being the Report on Sea Fisheries for the years 1915, 1916, 1917, and 1918, of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries. Parts 1. and 1. Principal Additions to the Museum Collections 1916-1920. Hep. Warring- ton Museum Comm., 1920, pp. 21-25. ; Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union Fifty-ninth Report for 1920. Reprint from Nat., pp. 33-45. Glossy Ibises in Scotland in 1920. Scot. Nat. Jan., p. 10. Current Literature, tom. cit. Jan., pp. 27-28 Insects and Forestry : Some Effects of the War, tom cit. Mar., pp. 43-47. Extermination of the Old Scottish Fauna, tom. cit. May, pp. 65-66. Protection of Wild Birds, tom. cit. July, pp. 97-98. Melanistic [black-backed] Gull in London. Selborne Mag. No. 334, p. 76. Curious Nesting Places, tom. cit. July, p. 113. Proceedings of the Twenty-fifth Annual Conference of the South-Eastern Union of Scientific Societies, held at Eastbourne, June 2-5, 1920. S./ Nat., 1920, pp. xlvii-lviii. Tusk of Mammoth, dredged up off Worthing. S.#. Union Sci. Soc. Bull. No. XXXIII. Downland Ramble. 7'rans. Hastbourne Nat. Hist. Soc. July, p. 170. Abbot’s Wood, tom. cit. Oct., p. 188. Reedham Heronry. Trans. Norfolk and N. Nat. Soc. Vol. X., pt. v., p. 504. Extract from Minutes. 7'rans. London Nat. Hist. Soc. for 1920, pp. 8-13. Extracts from Minutes of the Ornithological Section for 1920, tom. cit., pp. 27-29. Report on the Birds of Epping Forest for the year 1920, tom. cit., pp. 36-42. John Gardner, F.E.S. [Obituary]. Vase. Oct., pp. 27-29. See Selwyn Image. Assorr, W. J. Lewis. Gold-coloured Teeth of Sheep. Nature. June 9, p. 459. —— Why do Worms Die? tom. cit. June 16, pp. 490-491. ActanD, Cremence M. Goosander and Smew in Surrey. Brit, Birds. June, p- 20. Apams, ArtHuR C. Butterfly Question. Country Life. May 14, p. 595. Apamson, Ricuarp. Report of the Field Meetings of the Natural History Society for 1916. Z'rans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle-on-T'yne. Vol. V., vt. 11., vp. 207-222. AvxIN, Rosert. Margarodes unionalis in Sussex {with note by Editor]. Znt. Herida ef | Mar., p. 76. — Kastbourne Lepidoptera [abs.]. 7Z'rans. Hastbourne Nat. etc. Soc. May, p. 167. —- Migrations of Lepidoptera in regard to the British Islands. S.Z. Nat., 1920, pp. 41-48. AupreRson, J. Some Notes on Rearing Lrebia epiphron. Eat. Mar., pp. 57-63. ALEXANDER, H. G. Migration in January. Brit. Birds. Mar., pp. 233-234. — ‘Territory in Bird Life,’ tom. cit. May, pp. 271-275. —— Relation of Song to Nesting in Birds, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 159-160. — Inland Occurrences of Waders, tom. cit., p. 160. Atkins, W: E. Notes on the Growth and Variations of Unio pictorum (Linné). Journ, Conch. Sept., pp. 228-233. — Some recent records of Mollusca in the Churnet Valley and North-East Staffordshire. Z'rans. North Staffs. F. Club. Vol. LV., pp. 88-105. Auten, E. J. Regeneration and Reproduction of the Syllid Procerastea. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Ser. B. Vol. 211, pp. 131-177. AutMANnD, Dororuy. Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Scientific Record Ann. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology. Apr., pp. 1-47. : 440° CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. Awnperson, JosepH. Paucity of Butterflies in the past summer. Ent. Ree. Nov., p. 200. _— Silex [i-e. Sirex] gigas at Chichester, loc. cit. - Ancus, Hucn P. Report of Field Meetings of the Natural History Society for 1915. Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Northumberland, Durham, and New- castle-on-J'yne. Vol. V., pt. 11., pp. 199-206. \ Artin, B. D’O. House-Sparrows attacking Lesser Spotted Woodpeckers. Brit. Birds. July, p. 44. Lesser Spotted Woodpecker breeding in August, tom. cit. Oct., p. 115. ArmisteaD, Witson H. Food Production in Fresh Water. Trans. Dumfries. and Gall. Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. VII., pp. 67-78. Armstronc, A. Leste. Camberwell Beauty at Rothbury. Trans. Nat, Hist. Soc. Northumberiand, Durham, and Newcastle-on-Tyne. Wal, Vie; pt. m., p. 331, Arnotp, E. C. Immature Spotted Sandpipers. Brit. Birds. Apr., p. 264. > Arrow, Gitpert J. Oviposition of Aphelinus chaonia, Walker. Unt. Mo. Mag. Sept., p. 211. Arrinpate, R. H. Arrival of the Wheatear. Field. Mar. 19, p. 352. Asur, G. H. A ‘trap’ for sap-frequenting beetles. nt. Mo. Mag. Mar., . 64, — Cece in Worcestershire, 1920, tom. cit. Apr., p. 90. AsurorD, W. J. Black Redstart in Dorset. Brit. Birds. Jan., p. 187. — Note on Breeding-habits of Lesser Redpoll in Dorset, tom. cit. Apr., . 257. Aeewoute, Joun H. Chironomid Parasite and its Effects. Nat. Jan., pp. 15-16. Diptera [at York], tom. cit. Nov., p. 378. Astiry, A. Bramblingsin Westmorland. Brit. Birds. Jan., p. 185. Little Auk inland in Westmorland, tom. cit., pp. 189-190. Astitey, Husert D. Experiments on the Rate of Digestion of the Food of the Black-Headed Gull. Country Life. June 4, p. 685. Atkinson, Dents J. Jps (Tomicus) erosus Woll. in Britain, LMnt. Mo. Mag. Nov., pp. 253-255. ATKINSON, JASPER. White Wagtails in Yorkshire. Nat. Nov., p. 360. Aupas, T. The Cliff, the Sea Birds, and the Climbers. Nat. Union Teachers’ Souvenir, pp. 81-86. AuprEn, G. A. Habits of the Hedgehog. Nature. June 16, p. 491. Austen, E. E. The Common Cricket swarming in a Refuse Dump. Hné. May, pp. 127-128. Austin, 8S. See W. E. Glegg. Baccuus, D. Pyramididula rotundata var. alba at Brislington, Somerset, N. Journ. Conch. Jan., p. 155. — Milax gagates in Gloucester, West, tom. cit., p. 157. BackHouss, T. P. Sabine’s Gull in Devon. Brit. Birds. Feb., p. 211. Squacco Heron in Devon, tom. cit. Mar., p. 234. Bacnati, H. H. Otter and Heron. Country Life. Mar. 26, p. 382. BaGnauy, Ricard §. On Physcthrips latus, Bagn., and some allied species. Hnt. Mo. Mag. Mar., pp. 61-64. Campodea wallacei, Bagn., from Lancashire. Lanc. and (. Nat. Mar., . 2-3. — Symphylella jacksoni, Bagn., from Lancashire, tom. cit., p. 3. —— Some new or little-known Lancashire Myriapods, tom. cit., pp. 6-8. —— The Siphonaptera (Fleas) of Northumberland and Durham. Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle, pp. 181-198. —— Contributions towards a Knowledge of the Collembola. 1. Some new or little-known Sminthuredze. Vase. Feb., pp. 13-16. ——- Records of Local Woodlice, tom. cit. May, pp. 60-62: — Kel-worm Galls, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 17-18. —— and Harrison, J. W. Hestor. New British Cecidomyidge. Ent. Rec. Oct., pp. 151-155. —— Midge-Galls of Yorkshire. Nat. Oct., pp. 337-341. ——— BP ERLE EM LIST OF PAPERS, 1921. 441 BaGNALL-OakELEY, H. K., and Simpson, J. B. Horz. Entomological Section [Report]. Ann. Rep. Gresham’s School Nat. Hist. Soc. 1921. 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BenrHamM, Howarp. Goosanders, Black-necked Grebe, and Sheld-ducks in Surrey. Brit. Birds. Sept., pp. 89-90. —— Spread of Little Owl to Sussex Coast, tom. cit. Dec., p. 160. BerripGe, W. S. Concerning Squids. Animal World. Mar., pp. 28-29. —— Perch and its Spawn. Country Life. June 11, p. 787. Best, Mary G. 8. [Fulmar Petrel in Summer at the Farne Islands.] Brit. Birds. Aug., pp. 66-67. [Status of the Arctic Tern in the Farnes], tom. cit., p. 71. Moorhens in St. James’s Park. Country Life. Jan. 1, p. 26. Autumn Migration [birds], tom. cit. Oct. 8, pp. 442-444. Robber Gulls, tom. cit. Aug. 18, p. 208. Out-Bye Country [birds], tom. cit. Oct. 1, pp. 423-425. London Sparrows, tom. cit. Dec. 3, pp. 728-729. Birds. Vasc. Oct., p. 31. ; BETHUNE-Baker, G. T. Aberrations of Lepidoptera. J7'rans. Ent. Soc. Apr.. p. Ixxxvii. BrEVERIDGE, GEORGE. Ravens in North Uist. Scot. Nat. Jan., p. 10. —— Greenland Falcon and Pink-footed Geese on North Uist, tom. cit. p. 158; Brit. Birds. May 1922, p. 297. Bopper], G. P. The Fragrance of Calcinean Sponges and Spermatozoa of Guancha and Sycon. Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc. Sept., p. 559. Syncrypta spongiarum, nova. [Abs.], tom. cit., p. 560. — Notes on the Physiology of Sponges, loc. cit. Brrp, J. F. aie from West Sussex : Lepidoptera in 1920. Wnt. Rec. Mar., pp. 48-54. . paahe Cau meriie quadripunctaria (hera), tom. cit. Dec.. pp. 214-217 IRTWISTLE, W. Biometric Investigations of the Herring. ; 1 iol. Soc. Vol. XXXV., pp. 116 126. eae Brack, James E. Henoticus serratus, etc., at Peebles, Ent. Mo. Mag., Tualy p. 154. - ETL Sept., LIST,OF PAPERS, 1921. 443 Buackiock, B. Notes on a case of Indigenous Infection with P. falciparum. Ann. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology. Apr., pp. 59-72. — and Carter, H. F. Observations on Mosquitoes in the Isle of Man, fom. cit. Apr., pp. 73-90. ) p Buacxman, T. M. Pyrameis atalanta and P. cardui in Lancashire. Ent. Nov., pp. 268-269. —- Third Brood of Selenia tetralunaria (illustraria), tom. cit. Dec., p. 291. — Parasemia plantaginis, var. hospita, tom. cit., p. 292. Buake, B. H. Song Thrush and Snails. Cowntry Life. Aug. 13, p. 207. Buake, Ernest. Musical Phrase in Blackbird’s Song. Country Life. May 7, . 565. scotia W. J. Variety of Magpie. Field. June 4, p. 710. Buatnwayt, F. L. Roseate Terns Breeding in Dorset. rit. Birds. July, p. 46. — Grasshopper-Warbler Nesting in Lincolnshire, tom. cit., Sept., pp. 85-86. —— Breeding of the Great Spotted Woodpecker in Cumberland, tom, cit., p. 87. — Gadwali in Dorsetshire. Field. Feb. 12, p. 213. — Glossy Ibis in Somerset, tom. cit. May 28, p. 685. — Camberwell Beauty in Dorset, tom. cit. Sept. 24, p. 417. — Cries and Calls of Grey Geese, tom. cit. Oct. 22, p. 549. Buayney, O. G. Fidelity of Swallows. Country Life. Sept. 17, p. 361. Boasr, Henry. Scarcity of Swallows. Journ. Minis. Agric. Sept., pp. 526-530. — Common Scoter in Perthshire. Scot. Nat. July, p. 104; see also Brit. Birds. Oct., p. 119. Bozam, Gzorce. Late Stay of Yellow Wagtail. Brit. Birds. Jan., p. 185. —— Rate of Progress of Great Crested Grebe under Water, loc. cit., p. 189. Oxigrapha literana in Northumberland. Znt. July, p. 173. — Pyrausta purpuralis in April, tom. cit., p. 174. Squirrel as a Mycophagist, and other Notes, ZLanc. and C. Nat. July, pp. 19-20; 29-30. —— Small Birds in the Garden. Scot. Nat. May, pp. 71-75. — Zoological Miscellanea. Vasc. Feb., pp. 26-28. — Little Bunting, Umberiza pusilla, Pallas. A new bird for Northumber- land, tom. cit., pp. 31-32. Eagles in Northumberland and on the Borders during Winter of 1920- 1921, tom. cit. Aug., pp. 104-106. Female Birds assimilating the Male in Plumage, tom. cit., pp. 106-107. Fulmaris glacialis. Fulmar, tom. cit. Aug., p. 119. Athene noctua. The Little Owl, loc. cit. Sirex gigas, tom. cit., p. 120. Birds, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 30-31. Boupero, M. Second Brood of Purasemia plantaginis. Ent. Rec. Nov., p. 199. Bonaparte-Wyse, L. H. Obituary: Rev. Canon W. W. Flemyng. Jrish Nat. Dec., p. 148. Bonn, C. J. Pathogenic Organisms in the Pollen of Flowers and Disease in Bees. Nature. July 7, p. 584. Bonp, Mary C. Vanessa antiopa in Dorset. Unt. Oct., pp. 243-244. —— Camberwell Beauty in Dorset. Field. Sept. 10, p. 356. Bonnam, H. T. See T. Leslie Smith. BonnoTe, J. Lewis. Nomenclature of Plumages. Jbis. Apr., p. 348. Boorne, Morris J. Polygonia c-album in Berkshire. Jnt. Oct., p. 243. Boorn, H. A. [Late Stay of Yellow Wagtail.] Brit. Birds. Jan., p. 185. —— Young Thrushes fostered by a Robin. Nat. Aug., p. 282. Boorn, H. B. Siatus of the Arctic Tern in Lancashire and the Farnes. Brit. Birds. July, pp. 47-49. Hen Harrier, Circus cyaneus L., in Upper Wharfedale. Nat. Jan., p. 11. — Vertebrate Zoology Section. West Riding, tom. cit., Daoo —— Nesting-Status of the Black-headed Gull in Yorkshire, tom, cit. May, pp. 159-166. Abs. in Brit. Birds. Aug., p. 70. , —— Vertebrate Zoology [at Dent], tom. cit. Aug., pp. 279-280. — Birds in Duncombe Park, Helmsley, tom. eit. Aug., p. 283. — Yorkshire Bats, tom. cit. Nov., pp. 361-363. — Barbastelle Bats at Helmsley, tom. cit. Dee., p. 400. MT AAA CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. Booru, H. B. Whiskered Bats near Appleby, loc. cit. i Boor, W. F. Fish and Fishing [abs.]. Hep. Brighton and Hove Nat. Hist. and Phil. Soc., 1920, pp. 54-58. BorReR, Cuirrorp. Nestling of the Crested Tit. [With Note by F. C. R. Jourdain.] Brit. Birds. June, p. 18. Boswett, P. G. H. Presidential Address : Sedimentation, Environment, and Evolution in Past Ages. Proc. Liverp. Biol. Soc. Vol. XXXV., . 5-28. Boma Pans A. Freshwater Hydra. Conquest. Apr., pp. 270-271. Box, L. A. On Phenoserphus levifrons Forster (Proctotrypoidea). Ent. Mo. Mag. Apr., p. 92. 4 — Gronotoma nigricornis Kieffer (Cynipsoidea), a British insect, tom. cit. Aug., p. 186. : —— New Species of Myrmecophilous Hymenoptera Proctotrypoidea, nt. Rec. Jan., pp. 15-17. Boycott, A. E. Further Observations on the Occurrence of Manganese in Land and Fresh-water Mollusca. Nat. June, pp. 209-211. —— Hemoglobin in Mollusca. Nature. May 26, p. 395. —— Sinistral Limncea peregra, tom. cit. Nov. 24, p. 403. Boyp, A. W. MHoney-Buzzard in Hampshire. Brit. Birds. Sept., pp. 87-88. — Bittern in Anglesey, tom. cit., p. 88. —— Velvet-Scoter in Cheskire, tom. cit. Dec., p. 158. Boyrs, F. Scarcity of Quail. Wield. Sept. 3, p. 329. — Albino Kittiwake, loc. cit. —— Wasps, loc. cit. — Abundance of Red Admiral Butterflies, tom. cit. Oct. 15, p. 506. BrapDBRook, Witu1aM. Clifton Reynes Parish Account Book. [Vermin, etc.] Rec. of Bucks. Vol. IX., No. 2, pp. 91-102. Bramury, W. G. Great Crested Grebes and Little Owls nesting near Fairburn. Nat. Dec., p. 400. BramMwe.t, F. G. 8. Early Lepidoptera. Hnt. June, p. 147. — Papilio bianor taken at Brighton, tom. cit. Oct., p. 244. Britten, H. Life History of a Flea [abs.]. Zane. and C. Nat. Sept., p. 92. Brock, Sypney EK. Bird-Associations in Scotland. Scot. Nat. Mar., pp. 49-58. — Brooke, H. C. Rare Varieties of Black Rat. Jield. Apr. 9, p. 469; June 4, p. 710. Brown, C. Berney. Humming-Bird Hawk Moth [Hants]. Field. Noy. 5, 0! Brown, Ernest. Young Rooks in November. Field. Nov: 12, p. 635. Brown, Grratp Hucu. Deiopeia pulchella in Sussex. Hnt. Dec., p. 298. Brown, H. A. Sparrowhawk Disabled by Thrush. Field. May 21, p. 657. Brown, James M. Archisotoma besselsi (Pack) Linnan on the South Coast of England. nt. Mo. Mag. Jan., pp. 19-20. —— Some Isle of Wight Collembola, tom. cit. June, p. 143. 7 — Silpha (Xylodrepa) 4-punctata near Sheffield, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 233-234. —— Some Derbyshire Plant-Galls. Nat. Jan., pp. 13-14. —— Hemiptera [at Wentworth], tom. cit. Sept., p. 308. Brown, R. H. Breeding of the Great Spotted Woodpecker in Cumberland. Brit. Birds. Aug., pp. 62-63. —— Abnormal Laying by the Swallow, tom. cit. Sept., p. 86. Browninc, D. M. Senecio aquaticus at Beverley : A correction. Nat. Feb., p. 62. Bruce, Witrrep M. Stoat ina Thrush’s Nest. Field. May 14, p. 599. —— Rooks perching on Sheep, tom. cit. Nov. 12, p. 635. Bryan, B. mbepaty of the North Staffordshire Branch. Journ. Conch. Jan., p. : Buut, G. VERNON. Argrotis segetum in March. Ent. June, p. 148. Burkitt, Haroup J. Report of the Plant Gall Section for 1920. Z'rans. London Nat. Hist. Soc. for 1920, pp. 29-32. —— London Natural History Society [Report]. Ent. Mo. Mag. Dec., p. 279. Burkitt, J. P. The Relation of Song to. Nesting of Birds. Brit, Birds. June, p. 23. Trish Nat. Jan., pp. 1-10, tom. cit., Oct., pp. 113-124, Nov., p. 136. Noticed in Selborne Mag. Apr., p. 105. LIST OF PAPERS, 1921. 445 Burxirr, J. P. Rapid Re-nesting of the Common Whitethroat, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 156-157. ; —— > Migration Season of the Corncrake. Jrish Nat. Jan., p. 16. — The Wren, tom. cit. Feb., p. 26. Burrows, C. R. N. A Note from Mucking, Essex. Hnt. Rec. Nov., p..178. Bury, Linpsay. [Camberwell Beauty in Dorset.] Field. Sept. 24, p. 417. Buyter, E. A. Capsid new to Britain. Hnt. Mo. Mag. Feb., p. 30. — On Nabis lativentris Boh. (Hemiptera-Heteroptera), tom. cit. Apr., . 79-81. — cok Pee Report Marlb. Coll. Nat. Hist. Soc., No. 69, pp. 28-81. — On a Small Collection of Hemiptera from the Isle of Arran, Scotland. ' Scot. Nat. Sept., pp. 159-160. E BurreRFIELD, KE. P. Male Blackcap singing while brooding. Brit. Birds. Nov., pp. 139-140. Fe. Bird Notes from the South Lancashire Dunes, 1920. Zane. anc “’. Nat. Mar., p. 5. — Kestrel’s Nest built in a Barn. Nat. Aug., p. 282. — Spotted Crake near Keighley, loc. cit. — Water Rail Breeding near Wilsden, tom. cit., pp. 283-284. — Two Eggs of Cuckoo in Nest of Linnet [with Note by R. Fortune], tom. cit., . 284. — Thecla rubi in Yorks, tom. cit., p. 285. Early Arrival of the Swift, tom. cit. Sept., p. 317. Early Arrival of the Cuckoo [with Note by R. Fortune], loc. cit. Short-eared Owl and Crossbill in the West Riding, tom. cit. Nov., . 360. Se rumticenn, Rossz. Sapyga clavicornis Linn. and Nomada guttulata Schenck at Hastings. Hnt. Mo. Mag. Nov., p. 261. —— Hymenoptera [Yorkshire]. Nat. Jan., p. 42. Burrerrie,D, W. Rusxiy. Notes on the Local Fauna, Flora, and Meteorology for 1920. Hastings [etc.] Nat. Vol. III., No. 4, pp. 156-173. Buxton, P. A. Continental Jay in Kent. Brit. Birds. Jan., p. 185. Byrne, E. Kingfishers’ Nests. Country Life. May 14, p. 595. CatpERwoop, W. lL. Sex-change in the Native Oyster. Nature. Oct. 27, p. 272. Campripcz, A. W. Pickarp. Early Butterflies. Unt. June, p. 148. Campzett, Bruce. Late Breeding of Red Squirrel. Scot. Nat. Jan., p. 3. Campsett, D. C. The Time of the Singing of Birds. Jrish Nat. July, pp. 75- 77 Campsett, M. R. Remarkable Head [stag, from Jura]. Field. Oct. 22, p. 541. CampsetL-Bayarp, Francis. Report of the Meteorological Committee, 1919. Proc. and Trans, Croydon Nat. Hist. and Sci. Soc. Vol. IX. Pt. 1, pp. 39-52. Carrow, C. J. Glossy Ibis and Avocet in Co. Wexford. Brit. Birds. Jan., . 188. —— Brooding Prior to Laying, tom. cit., p. 192. —— Black-necked Grebe Breeding in Ireland, tom. cit. Feb., pp. 209-210. — Muacentable Record of Long-tailed Duck-breeding in Ireland, tom. cit., p- 215. — Notes for the Seasons 1918-1920 on the Irish Colonies of Sandwich and Roseate Terns discovered in 1917, tom. cit. Apr., pp. 253-256. Carter, A. E. J. Coleoptera on the Sandhills, Monifieth, Firth of Tay. Znt. Mo. Mag. June, pp. 141-142. — Oxycera dives Lw. 9 at Pitlochry, tom. cit. Oct., p. 235. Abs. in Scot. ) Nat. Nov., p. 186. Carter, C. §. Early Mollusca in Lincolnshire. Nat. Feb., p. 81. Carter, Henry F. The Occurrence of Theobaldia arctica, Edw., in England.. , : Ent. Feb., pp. 39-40. — See B. Blacklock. Carter, a ene. New Aberration of Aricia astrarche. Ent. Nov., pp. 249- r [Carus-Witson, C.] [Stalagmite from a cave in the Cheddar district containing the preserved impressions of moths’ wings.] Nature. Mar. 3, p. 21. 446 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. Castie-Russewt, 8. G. Gynandromorph of Pyrameis atalanta. Ent, Rec. Apr., p. 77. Cuampion, G. C. Henoticus germanicus Reitt. and H. serratus Gyll.—synony- © mical note, etc. Hnt. Mo. Mag. Jan., p. 12. Stenus subdepressus Rev, a British Insect, tom. cit. Feb., p. 31. Note on Limnebius picinus Marsham, tom. cit., p. 38. Coleoptera of the Oxford district, Fifth Supplement, by J. J. Walker, | tom. cit. May, p. 113. Note on Cionus longicollis Bris. var. montanus Wingelm, tom. cit., pp. 113-114. ‘ Saprosites (? parallelus Harold) in Britain, tom. cit. Nov., pp. 252-253. Cuance, C. F. Persevering Blackbird. Country Life. May 14, p. 595. Cuance, Epcar. A Third Season’s Observations on a Cuckoo. Brit. Birds. Mar., pp. 218-232. — On the Breeding Distribution of the Cuckoo. Field. Apr. 30, p. 538. — No Longer ‘But a Wandering Voice’: Cuckoo secrets filmed. — ll. London News. Nov. 26, pp. 278-279. See also Brit. Birds. Dec., pp. 158-159. —— [Method by which Cuckoo disposes of its eggs.] Mature. Nov. 24, p. 415. Brit. Birds. Dec., pp. 158-159. —— [Cuckoos’ Eggs.] Cologists’ Rec. Sept., pp. 69-70. New Light on the Habits of the Cuckoo, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 101-102. Cuapman, ABEL. Curlew asa British Bird. Field. Apr. 2,.p. 438. Cuapman, T. A. Further note on Rhadinocerea micans Klug. Hnt. Mo. Mag. Nov., pp. 261-262. —— Full-grown Larva of Lycena euphemus Hb. Trans. nt. Soc. Pts. 3, 4, and 5, pp. 327-330. CuaRLTon, Perer. [Observations on Birds.] Vase. Feb., pp. 46-47. — Rooks and Sparrows. Z'rans. Nat. Hist, Soc., Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle-on-Tyne. Vol. V. Pt. II, pp. 331-332. Cuartres, 8. N. Ourapteryx sambucaria in October. Hnt. Nov., p. 271. CuHawner, E. T. Egg-laying of Sawflies. Unt. Mo. Mag. Jan., p. 19. — Life-history of Selandria serva F., tom. cit. Nov., pp. 256-257. Cueesman, L. E. Home Life of Badgers. Proc. and Trans. Croydon Nat. Hist. and Sci. Soc. Vol. IX. Pt. 1, pp. 29-37. CueetHaM, Curis. A. Boreus hyemalis in Yorkshire. Nat. Jan., p. 16. Diptera [Yorkshire], tom. cit., p. 42. Botanical Section, tom. cit., pp. 43-44. Committee of Suggestions for Research Work, tom. cit., pp. 45-46. Mochlonyx velutinus Ruthé in Yorkshire, tom. cit. Feb., p. 83. Why is Boreus a Winter Insect? tom. cit. May, pp. 167-168. Committee of Suggestions : Insect Associations, tom. cit., pp. 186-187. Diptera [at Dent], tom. cit. Aug., p. 280. Diptera [at Wentworth], tom. cit. Sept., p. 308. Diptera [at Redcar], tom. cit., p. 312. Additions to Yorkshire Diptera List, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 409-412. CuicHesteR, J. Waxwing near Worcester. Vield. Feb. 12, p. 213. CuisteTT, Raupy. Golden Eagle in West Yorkshire. Nat. Feb., pp. 80-81. Curisty, Mituzr. Habits of the Hedgehog. Nature. May 19, pp. 375-376; Oct. 20, p. 242. _—— Superabundant Sea Harvest. Selborne Mag. Feb. and Mar., pp. 87-88. CuapHaM, Richarp. Buzzard. Animal World. Mar., pp. 30-82. Crarz. Kingfisher Feeding on Bird Tray. Field. Feb. 19, p. 248. Cuark, H. H. Gorpon. Dance of Partridges. Field. Dec. 3, p. 724. Crark, Re Wood-Warbler singing whilst Brooding. Brit. Birds. Dec., p. s = Crarkg, A. H. T. Evolution versus Creation : A Reply to Sir E. Ray Lankester. Nineteenth Cent. July, pp. 165-176. CuaRKE, JOHN. Quails turned out in Sussex. Vield. Oct. 8. p. 466. Bi laa LIST OF PAPERS, 1921. 447 Crarke, Wm. Eactr. Iceland Falcon at Skule Skerry. Scot. Nat. Nov., p. 185; Brit. Birds. May, p. 297. —— Great Snow Goose in Solway. Scot. Nat. Mar., p. 48. (Noticed in Field, Mar. 5, p. 299.) Obituary. Robert George Wardlaw-Ramsay. Ibis. July, pp. 538-540 Greater Snow Goose in the Scottish Solway area ; A First Record for Great Britain. Scot. Nat. May, pp. 69-70. and Srennousz, J. H. Eastern Lesser Whitethroat, an addition to the British Avifauna; and the Yellow-legged Herring Gull. A new record for Scotland at Fair Isle. Scot. Nat. Nov., pp. 179-180. Also in Brit. Birds, 1922. June, p. 28. Cuarke, W G. Grime’s Graves Fauna. Proc. Prehis. Soc. E. Anglia. Vol. III. Pt. III., pp. 431-433. — Fauna and Flora of an Essex Common. J'rans. Norfolk and N. Nat. Soc. Vol. X. Pt. V., pp. 448-455. —— and Gurney, Rosert. Notes on the Genus Utricularia and its Distribu- tion in Norfolk, tom. cit. Vol. XI. Pt. II., pp. 128-161. Cranks, W. J. [Fulmar Petrel in Summer in Yorkshire.] Brit. Birds. Aug., p. 66. — large Migration of Wild Geese in Yorkshire, tom. cit. Jan., p. 25. — Migration of Tree Creepers at. Scarborough, tom. cit., p. 32. — Effect of Oil on Marine Life, loc. cit. — Vertebrate Zoology Section, North Riding, tom. cit., pp. 36-37. | Sturgeon at Scarborough. Nat. Feb., p. 72. Skylark Removing its Young, tom. cit. Aug., p. 282. Fulmar Petrels at Scarborough, tom. cit., pp. 282-283. Common Rorqual at Scarborough, tom. cit. Nov., p. 364. Cuay, R. C. Badgers in South Wilts. Wats. Arch. Mag. Dec., p. 429. Cuay, R. C. C. Open nests of Jackdaws in Trees. Brit. Birds. Oct., p. 114. Ciayton, Roy. Great Grey Shrike in Staffordshire. Brit. Birds. Aug., p. 59. — Spotted Flycatcher returning to deserted nest, tom. cit., pp. 59-60. Cuurrersuck, G. Granvittr. Collecting in i918 and 1919 in Gloucestershire, etc. Znt. May, pp. 117-119. — Additional Gloucestershire Lepidoptera. Proc. Cotteswold Nat. F. Club. 1920, pp. 235-237. Cockayne, E. A. White Border of Huvanessa antiopa, L. Hnt. Rec. Dec., pp. 205-210. — Melanic Nolide. Trans. Ent. Soc. Apr., p. 1xxxiv. — and Wittiams, Harotp B. Lepidoptera Section-Report for 1920. 7’rans. London Nat. Hist. Soc. for 1920, pp. 23-24. Cocxrrett, T. D. A. Fossil Arthropods in the British Museum.—VI. Oligo- cene Insects from Gurnet Bay, Isle of Wight. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. June, pp. 453-480. — Ortalid Fly in British Amber. Znt. Feb., pp. 30-31. — Dispersal of Snails by Birds. Nature. Dec. 15, pp. 496-497. — and Haines, F. H. Fossil Tipulide from the Oligocene of the Isle of Wight. “nt. Apr., pp. 81-84. May, pp. 109-112. Cocxs, Atrrep H. Wild Cats and Pine Martens. Vield. Mar. 19, p. 352. Corz, E. W. Mavis. Cock Blackbird feeding young Robins. Nat. July, p. 235. Couzs, R. E. Kestrel taking a Dust-bath. Brit. Birds. Apr., p. 264. Contert, AntrHony. Birds under Altered Conditions of Life. Field. Oct. 8, pp. 465-466. — Warblers at Nesting Time. Nineteenth Cent. May, pp. 834-843. — Smallest European Song Bird, tom. cit. Nov., pp. 839-846. Coutier, F. Brown Owl Nesting in Rabbit Hole. Field. May 28, p. 685. Cottin, J. E. British Species of the Anthomyid Genus Limnophora Desv. (Diptera). Hnt. Mo. Mag. Apr., pp. 94-96; May, pp. 97-100; July, pp. 162-168; Atig., pp. 169-175; Oct., pp. 238-240; Nov., pp. 241-248; Dec., pp. 265-268. 448 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. Coun, J. E. Contribution towards the knowledge of the Anthomyid. genera Hammomyia and Hylephila of Rondani (Diptera). Trans. Ent. Soc. Apr., pp. 305-326. ‘ Cotuince, WatTeR E. Preliminary Study of the Structure and Function of the Cutaneous Glands in the Terrestrial Isopoda. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. _ Mar., pp. 212-222. : Scarcity of Swallows in 1921. Country Life. Sept. 17, p. 361. Food of the Black-headed Gull, tom. cit. May 7, p. 564. Experiments on the Rate of Digestion of the Food of the Black-headed Gull, tom. cit. May 28, p. 655. Wild Birds and Man, tom. cit. June.11, p. 736. Habits of the Little Owl, tom. cit. Oct. 29, p. 558. Moor or Water Hen, tom. cit. Nov. 5, pp. 595-596. Little Owl. Field. Mar. 5, p. 299. Starling : Is it Injurious to Agriculture? Journ. Minis. Agric. Mar., pp. 1114-1121. Effects of Oil from Ships on Certain Seabirds. Nature. Feb. 24, p. 830. Study of Bird-migration by the Marking Method, tom. cit. Oct. 13, . 220. ea of Swallows, tom. cit. July 14, p. 628. Need for a Bird Census. Scot. Nat. Jan., pp. 22-24. Winter Occurrence of the Common Tern in Scotland, tom. cit. Sept., p. 183; Brit. Birds. May 1922, p. 297. Necessity of State Action for the Protection of Wild Birds. [Reprint from Smithsonian Rep. for 1919], pp. 349-353. Cotquuoun, A. J. Camppett. Waxwings in Perthshire. Field. Dec. 3, p. 724, Cotvini, GERALD H. Rooks Nesting on Chimney, tom. cit. Apr. 9, p. 469. Compton, Syuvia. Seals on the West of Scotland. Country Life. Dec. 3, p. 750. Conry, B. A. Scarcity of Butterflies in Gloucester in 1920. Hnt. Mar., p. 78. — Polygonia c-album on the Cotswolds, tom. cit. Aug., p. 195. — EHrebia epiphron in 1921, loc. cit. ConGREVE, W. M. House-sparrows nesting in hole of Lesser Spotted Wood- pecker. Brit. Birds. FRIEDLAENDER, V. H. ‘Comes October’ [Burnham Beeches]. Country Life. Dec. 3, pp. 723-276. Fritscu, F. E. Thalassiophyta and the Algal ancestry of the higher plants. . New Phyt. Nov., pp. 165-178. Frouawk, F. W. Longevity of Wild Plants. Country Life. Oct. 1, p. 429. Gates, R. Ruecurs. Mutations and Evolution. New Phyt. Noy., pp. 213-253. [Gint, E. L.] Report on Museum Work 1915-1916, 1916-7, 1917-8, 1918-9. Nat. Fist. Trans., Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle-on-T'yne. Vol. V., pt i., pp. vi-viii., xxii-xxvi., xxxix-xlii., lvi-Ix. KK2 486 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. . Goprery, M. J. Upipactis leptochila, Godf. Journ. Bot. May, pp. 146-147. side Fertilisation SrOphius ini fal tom. cit. Oct., pp. 285-287. Orchis elodes, Grisebach, tom. cit. Nov., pp. 305-308. Govps, H. Eradicating Gall Mite (Big Bud) from Black Currant Stocks. Journ. Minis. Agric. Aug., pp. 460-462. (oucu, Georce ©. Weeds. Discovery. Feb., pp. 47-48. Plant Hygiene, tom. cit. May, pp. 129-132. ae \ G[ouupinc], R. W. Presidents of the {Lincolnshire Naturalists’ Union. Guy Wilbor Mason. Z'rans. Lincs. Nat. Union for 1920, pp. 183-184. [Gray, H. Sr. Grorce.] Additions to the Museum, Natural History, Animals, Birds, Insects, ete. Proc. Somerset Arch. and Nat. Hist. Soc. for 1920, pp. Ixxxiii-!xxxiv. (Green, —.] October Flowers. rans. and Journ. Lastbourne Nat. Hist., etc., Soc. Jan., pp. 159-160. ; Greer, Tuomas. New station for Cardamine amara in Tyrone. Jrish Nat. May, p. 64. Grecory, E. 8. Violet Notes in 1920. Rep. Bot. Soc. and Exchange Club for 1920, pp. 174-175. See J. KE. Little. ’ [Grerc, A.] Geological Literature [List of Authors and Titles] added to the Geological Society's Library during the year ended December 31, 1920, 123 : Grove, H. we British Species of MJilesina. Journ. Bot. Apr., pp. 109-110. Grove, W. B. Mycological Notes.—V. Journ. Bot. Jan., pp. 13-17, Mycological Notes.—VI., tom. cit. Nov., pp. 311-316. Groves, James. Plant Nomenclature: More Suggestions. Journ. Bot. Oct., pp. 294-296. ¢ — Collecting Aquatic Plants, tom. cit., p. 300. —— Sce Clement Reid. — See J. H. Little. Grunpy, G. B. Place-names of Wiltshire. Wilts Arch. Mag. Dec., pp. 335- 353. Gurney, Rosert. Abnormal Leaf-pattern in the Sycamore and Horse Chestnut. Country Life. May 28, p. 656. —— Summer Excursions, Blakeney Point and Holkham Hall. Z'rans, Norf. and N, Nat. Soc. Vol. XI., pt. 11., pp. 213-214. »—— Abnormal Sycamore and Horse Chestnut, tom. cit., pp. 214-215. See W. G. Clarke. (;uyER, R. Guopr. Cultivation of Medicinal Plants in Scotland—Past and Future [abs.]. Gard. Chron. Apr. 9, p. 175. Happen, Norman G. Mycetozoa at Porlock in October 1920. Vrans. Brit Mycol. Soc. for 1920, pp. 13-16. : Hatzy, W. BaumrortH. Plants of the Scilly Isles. Nat. Oct., p. 328. Hlarnpinc, CHas. Vegetation around London Earlier than in the Provinces. Nature. Apr., p. 269. Tfarris, G. T. Ecological Notes on Wistman’s Wood and Black Tor Copse, Dartmoor. Rep. and Trans. Devon Assoc. Vol. LIII., pp. 232-245. Harrison, J. W. Hestor. Colours of Primroses. Nature. May 19, pp. 359- 360. — The Genus Rosa: Its Hybridology and other Genetical Problems. 7'rans. Nat. Hist. Soc., Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle-on-T'yne. Vol. V., pt. 11., pp. 244-320. Abs. in Nature. Sept. 15, p. 99. — Variation of Primula farinosa L., in County Durham. Vasc. Feb., — pp. 21-25. -— Flowering Plants, tom. cit. Feb., p. 48. — See Kathleen B. Blackburn. ; See R. S. Bagnall. : Harrine, E. M. Rare Plants in Surrey. Country Life. Aug. 20, p. 239. —— Rare Plants in Hampshire, tom. cit. Apr. 16, p. 476: May 21, p. 625. Hatton, C. O. S. See H. Backhouse. Hewnovricx, JAves. Composition of the Rhizomes of Bracken and its Variations. Bull. Misc. Information (Kew), No. 4, pp. 157-166. LIST-OF PAPERS, 1921. AST Hexry, A. [Obituary.] Margaret Greer Flood. Jrish Nat. June, pp. 65-67. Henry, Avcustine. Tallest Yews in Europe. Country Life. July 2, pp. 9-10. Herpman, Witu1am A. Edinburgh and the Rise of Oceanngraphy. Nature. Nov. 3, pp. 308-311, — Presidential Address: Oceanography and the Sea-Fisheries. Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1920, pp. 1-33. Heywoop, H. B. Bees and Scarlet-runner Beans. Nature. Sept. 29, p. 147. Hincn, J. W. ve W. Post-glacial Climatic Optimum in Ireland. Jrish Nat. Aug., pp. 85-96. Hopcerrs, Wituram J. Study of some of the Factors Controlling the Period- icity of Freshwater Algw in Nature. New Phyt. Noy., pp. 150-164; Dec., pp. 195-227. — Notes on Freshwater Algee, tom. cif. Dec., pp. 254-263. Hopeson, J. C. John Lamb Luckley: A forgotten Alnwick Botanist. Proce. Berwickshire Nat. Club. Vol. XXIV., pt. 1, pp. 232-233. Hogsen, Lancetort B. Studies in Synopsis.—III. The Nvelear Organisation of the Germ Cells in Libutitula depressa. Proc. Roy. Soc. Ser. B. Vol. 92, pp. 60-80. Hotpren, H. §., and Daniets, Marcarer E. Observations on the Anatomy of Teratological Seedlings.—IV. Further Studies